UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 AT LOS ANGELES
 
 ENCYCLOPAEDIA AMERICANA. 
 
 / 
 
 A 
 
 POPULAR DICTIONARY 
 
 OF 
 
 ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE, HISTORY, POLITICS AND 
 
 BIOGRAPHY, 
 
 BROUGHT DOWN TO THE PRESENT TIME; 
 
 INCLUDING 
 
 A COPIOUS COLLECTION OF ORIGINAL ARTICLES 
 
 IN 
 
 AMERICAN BIOGRAPHY; 
 
 ON 
 THE BASIS OF THE SEVENTH EDITION OF THE GERMAN 
 
 CONVERSATIONS-LEXICON. 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 FRANCIS LIEBER, 
 
 ASSISTED BY 
 
 E. WIGGLESWORTH. 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 CAREY AND LEA. 
 
 SOLD L\ PHILADELPHIA BY E. L. CAREY AND A. HART-EV NEW YORK 
 BY G. & C. & H. OARVILL IN BOSTON BY 
 CARTER & HENDEE. 
 
 1830.
 
 EASTERN DISTRICT OF PENNSYLVANIA, to wit : 
 
 BE IT REMEMBERED, that on the tenth day of August, in the fifty-fourth year of tho Independence of the 
 of America, A. 1). IdSiJ, Carey, Lea & Carey, of the said district, have deposited in this office 
 the title of a book, the right whereof they claim as proprietors, in the words following, to wit: 
 
 " EncyclopaBdia Americana. A Popnlar Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature, History, Politics and 
 'iiy, brought down to the present Time ; inclnding a copious Collection of Original Articles in American 
 iiiy ; on the Basis of the seventh Edition of tho German Conversations-Lexicon. Edited by Francis Lieber, 
 
 \ E. Wigglesworth. ' 
 
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 D. CALDWELL, 
 Clerk of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania.
 
 ENCYCLOPAEDIA AMERICANA. 
 
 DATTLE-AXE ; a weapon much used in 
 the early part of the middle ages, particu- 
 larly by the people who fought on foot. 
 It was not uncommon, however, among 
 the knights, who used also the mace, a 
 species of iron club or hammer. Both 
 are to be seen in the different collections 
 of old arms in Europe. Both these 
 weapons, and another kind, called, in 
 German, Morgenstern (morning star), con- 
 sisting of a staff, having an iron ball at 
 the end, with cross iron spikes, served to 
 give stunning blows, whose force was 
 felt through the iron armor of the knights. 
 Knights used chiefly the Morgenstern 
 and the mace. The Greeks and Romans 
 did not employ the battle-axe, though it 
 was found among contemporary nations. 
 In fact, the axe is one of the earliest 
 weapons, its use, as an instrument of do- 
 mestic industry, naturally suggesting its 
 application for purposes of offence ; but, 
 at the same time, it will always be aban- 
 doned as soon as the art of fencing, at- 
 tacking and guarding is the least culti- 
 vated ; because the heavier the blow 
 given with this instrument, the more will 
 it expose the fighter. It is a weapon 
 which affords hardly any guard, and it 
 never would have remained so long in 
 use in the middle ages, had it not been 
 for the iron armor, which protected the 
 body from eveiy thing but heavy blows. 
 In England, Ireland and Scotland, the 
 battle-axe was much employed. At the 
 battle of Bannockburn, king Robert Bruce 
 clave an English champion down to the 
 chine with one blow of his axe. A blow 
 of equal force was given by a Suabian 
 knight, in the Levant, in presence of the 
 German emperor. The Lochaber axe 
 remained a formidable implement of de- 
 
 struction in the hands of the Highlanders 
 nearly to the present period, and is still 
 used, by the city-guard of Edinburgh, in 
 quelling riots, &c. 
 
 BATTLE-PIECE ; a painting which rep- 
 resents a battle, exhibiting large masses 
 of men in action. The armor of the an- 
 cients, and the whole array and action of 
 their battles, afford subjects much more 
 favorable to the artist than the straight 
 hues, or condensed columns, and the fire- 
 arms of the moderns. A painter of bat- 
 tle-pieces ought to have an accurate 
 knowledge of the appearance of horses 
 and men, and, if possible, to have seen a 
 battle, as few persons are able to form 
 from hearsay an accurate idea of such a 
 scene. Some of the greatest pieces of 
 this kind are, the battle of Constantino, 
 of which the cartoons were drawn by 
 Raphael, and which was executed by 
 Giulio Romano ; Lebrun's battles of Al- 
 exander, and the battles of the Amazons, 
 by Rubens. From these may be distin- 
 guished the skirmishes, surprises, &c., 
 which are represented with so much 
 skill by Antonio Tempests, John Snel- 
 link, Jos. van der Velde, John Asselyn, 
 Peter Sneyers, Robert von Hoek, Ful- 
 cone, called oracolo delle battaglie, James 
 Courtois, Francis van der Meulen, Philip 
 Wouvermann, Charles Breydel, Henry 
 Verschuuring and George Philip Rugen- 
 das. 
 
 BATTOGES, BATTACKS ; two thin sticks, 
 with which criminals in Russia were 
 formerly beaten upon their naked backs. 
 The criminal was laid upon the ground, 
 and one of the executioners sat upon his 
 head, another upon his feet. By the code 
 of Catherine II, this punishment was 
 abolished. 
 
 421413
 
 BATTUECAS, Las ; two valleys, enclosed 
 by high mountains, in tin- Spanish king- 
 dom of Leon, 50 miles from Salamanca, 
 about a Spanish mile long, and so inac- 
 cessible that the inhabitants are said to 
 have been unknown to the Spaniards for 
 several centuries. However, a convent of 
 Carmelites was built in the Battuecas val- 
 leys as early as 1559. They are situated 
 so low, that, in die longest days, the sun. 
 only shines there for four hours. The com- 
 mon account, that these valleys were dis- 
 covered in the 16th century, by two lovers, 
 who fled there to escape the pursuit of 
 their families, has been declared by father 
 Feyjoo to be unfounded. Madame de 
 Geiih's has founded upon this story her 
 romance Las Battutcas (Paris, 1816, 2 
 vols.); but she labors under a mistake 
 when she asserts that M. de Bourgoing, 
 in his Travels through Spain, has quoted, 
 as a historical fact, what she relates of 
 the Battuecas. 
 
 BAUCIS; a Phrygian woman ; the wife 
 of Philemon. They received Jupiter and 
 Mercury hospitably, after these gods had 
 been denied hospitality in the whole 
 country, while travelling in disguise. A 
 deluge destroyed the remainder of the 
 people, but Philemon and Baucis, with 
 their cottage, were saved. They begged 
 the gods to make their cottage a temple, 
 in which they could officiate as priest and 
 priestess, and that they might die togeth- 
 er; which was granted. Philemon and 
 Baucis are therefore names often used to 
 indicate faithful and attached married 
 people. 
 
 BAUMAN ISLANDS ; a cluster of islands 
 in the South Pacific ocean, discovered, in 
 1722, by Bauman, in his voyage round 
 the world with Roggewein. All the in- 
 habitants, says a writer, are white ; some 
 of them burned by the sun : they are 
 numerous, and armed with bows and ar- 
 rows, but represented as of a gentle and 
 humane disposition, and friendly to stran- 
 gers. The largest island is about 21 or 
 22 miles in circumference, with good an- 
 chorage. Lon. 173 W. ; lat. 12 S. 
 
 BAUMANN'S CAVERN (in German, Bau- 
 mannshohle)] an interesting natural cavern 
 in the Harz, in the principality of Blan- 
 kenburg, on the left bank of "the Bode, 
 about five miles from Blankenburg, in a 
 Limestone mountain, consisting of six 
 principal apartments, besides many small- 
 er ones, every where covered with stalac- 
 tites. The earthy ingredients of these 
 petrifactions are held in solution by the 
 water, which penetrates the rock, and 
 deposits a calcarious stone. The name 
 
 of this cavern is derived from a miner, 
 who entered it, in 1672, with the view of 
 finding ore, but lost his way, and wander- 
 ed about for two days before he could find 
 the entrance. He soon after died. 
 
 BAUMGARTEN, Alexander Gottlieb, born, 
 in 1714, at Berlin, an acute and clear 
 thinker, of the school, of Wolf, studied at 
 Halle, and was, for a time, professor ex- 
 traordinary there. In 1740, he was made 
 professor of philosophy at Frankfort on the 
 Oder, and died there in 1762. He is the 
 founder of aesthetics as a science, and 
 the inventor of this name. He derived 
 the rules of art from the works of art and 
 their effects. Hereby he distinguished 
 himself advantageously from the theorists 
 of his time. (See ^Esthetics.) His ideas of 
 this science he first developed in his aca- 
 demical discussion, De *\onnullis ad Poema 
 pertinentibus ( Halle, 1735, 4to). George Fr. 
 Meier's Principles of all Liberal Sciences 
 (3 vols., Halle, 1748 50) originated from 
 his suggestions. Eight years later, B. 
 published his ^Estlietica (Frankfort on the 
 Oder, 1750 58, 2 vols.), a work which 
 death prevented him from completing. 
 
 BAUSE, John Frederic, a distinguished 
 German engraver, born at Halle, in 1738, 
 died at Weimar, 1814. He resided chief- 
 ly at Leipsic, where he executed many 
 highly esteemed engravings. He was a 
 member of several academies of fine arts. 
 
 BAUTZEN, or BUDESSIN; capital of Up- 
 per Lusatia, in the part belonging to the 
 king of Saxony, upon a height defended 
 on the west side by steep rocks, the foot 
 of which is watered by the Spree. Among 
 the 11,500 inhabitants, who are princi- 
 pally Lutherans, there are a great number 
 of Wendes, or descendants of the Vandals, 
 who worship in a Lutheran and in a 
 Catholic church, in their own language. 
 The German part of the population, both 
 Catholic and Protestant, worship together 
 in the cathedral : the former are in pos- 
 session of the third part of it, including 
 the high altar, sufficiently large for the 
 small Catholic congregation ; the nave 
 serves the Lutheran community as their 
 parish church, and the mutual spirit of 
 toleration in both parties has, in recent 
 times, prevented trouble from such an 
 arrangement. Here was fought, on the 
 20th and 21st of May, 1813, the second 
 great battle in the campaign of the Prus- 
 sians and Russians against the French. 
 The allies had been compelled, after the 
 battle of Liitzcn (May 2, 1813), to retreat 
 to the right bank of the Elbe, and pre- 
 pared themselves, near Bautzen on the 
 Spree, for a new engagement. AlthougU
 
 BAUTZEN BAVARIA. 
 
 the army of Napoleon was fur superior in 
 number, being strengthened by reen- 
 forcements from France, Italy and the 
 troops of the confederation of the Rhine, 
 so as to amount to about 148,000 men, 
 yet the allies determined to risk a battle, 
 that Prussia might gam time for its levies 
 in Silesia, and Napoleon be checked in his 
 advance as much as possible. It was also 
 desirable that the wavering troops of Aus- 
 tria should be convinced that the army was 
 able to make a stand against the enemy, 
 and that the courage of the new Prussian 
 recruits should not be damped by contin- 
 ual retreat, but, on the contrary, their 
 wish for battle gratilied. On the morning 
 of May 20, Napoleon disclosed his plan 
 of attack. In the evening, the French 
 had gained the city of Bautzen. On the 
 21st, the tight continued until 4 o'clock 
 in the afternoon, when the allies resolved 
 on a retreat, which was performed in such 
 order, that Napoleon was not able to gain 
 any immediate advantage from his victo- 
 jy. The field of battle was covered with 
 the dead, and was lighted by 30 burning 
 villages. The French loss was about 
 8000 men killed, and 18,000 wounded; 
 that of the allies, between 8 and 12,000. 
 Napoleon, to encourage his troops, assign- 
 ed 25,000,000 francs for the erection of a 
 monument upon mount Cenis, as a token 
 of his gratitude towards the French and 
 Italian troops. The rear of the allies 
 repulsed two serious attacks, and, contrary 
 to the expectations of Napoleon, they 
 inarched to the intrenched camp of Piil- 
 zen. But Lauriston occupied Bresiau. 
 The position of the allies, threatening the 
 right wing of the French army, the great 
 loss which the French had suffered, and 
 the detached corps, which cut off Napo- 
 leon's communication with Saxony, in- 
 duced him to accede to a suspension of 
 arms on the 4th of June, near the citv of 
 Jauer. (See War 0/1812 1815.) 
 
 BAVARIA. At the time of the general 
 migration of the barbarians, the regions 
 formerly inhabited by the Boii, the Celts 
 of the Danube, were taken possession of 
 1 y some German tribes. This country, 
 iu the time of Csesar, had been a waste, 
 and, in the time of Augustus, a Roman 
 province (Vindelicia and Noricnm). At 
 the end of the fifth century, these tribes 
 the Heruli, the Ruffians, the Turcilingiana 
 and the Skyrcs formed a confederacy, 
 like those of the Franks and the Mar- 
 conmnni, under the name Baioarimis. 
 They spread from NoricMiii westward to 
 the Lech. Kutisbon was their chief seat. 
 This country was then culled 
 1* 
 
 and, according to Mannert, was never 
 subjected to the Ostrogoths. When the 
 Franks took possession of Rhoatia, the 
 Baioarians became subject to them. The 
 people, however, still retained the liberty 
 of choosing their own rulers. After the 
 division of the empire of Charlemagne, 
 this region was disturbed, like the rest of 
 Europe, by the conflicting claims of rival 
 dukes, till the time of Otho the Great, 
 count palatine of Wittelsbach. Otho, the 
 ancestor of the present dynasty, died in 
 1183, His successor, Louis I, enlarged 
 the Bavarian territory, and acquired the 
 palatinate of the Rhine. He Avas mur- 
 dered in 1231, probably at the instigation 
 of Henry, whose rebellion against his 
 father, the emperor Frederic II, the duke 
 had censured. He was succeeded by his 
 son Otho, the Illustrious, palatine of the 
 Rhine. Under his reign, the bishops 
 made themselves independent. His do- 
 minions, however, were considerably in- 
 creased. His attachment to the emperor 
 involved him in the excommunication 
 pronounced against that prince. He died 
 in 1253. His sons, Louis and Henry, 
 reigned for two years in conjunction. In 
 1255, they divided the territories, Louis 
 receiving Upper and Henry Lower Ba- 
 varia. The line of the latter became 
 extinct a few years afterwards. The in- 
 heritance of the unhappy Conradin of 
 Hohenstaufen fell into the hands of these 
 princes. One of the two sons of Louis 
 was raised to the imperial dignity, in 
 1314, under the title of Louis IV (q. v.), 
 called the Bavarian. He entered into an 
 agreement with the sons of his brother 
 (Pavia, 1329) for the division of the do- 
 minions of the family. In consequence 
 of this agreement, king Maximilian Jo^ 
 seph united all the dominions of the 
 Wittelsbach dynasty in 1799. After the 
 extinction of the Lower Bavarian line, 
 the emperor Louis, by the desire of his 
 states, united Lower with Upper Bavaria. 
 The emperor introduced a IICAV code of 
 laws for Upper Bavaria, a new organiza- 
 tion of the courts for Lower Bavaria, con- 
 ferred the privileges of a city on Munich, 
 and reduced to order the internal admin- 
 istration. He died Oct. 11, 1347, leaving 
 six sons by two marriages. His domin- 
 ions included Bavaria, Brandenburg, the 
 provinces of Holland and Zealand, Tyrol, 
 &c. These provinces were soon lost by 
 the divisions and dissensions of the dif- 
 ferent lines. Most of the lines founded 
 by the six brothers early became extinct. 
 In 1506, a diet of the states of Upper and* 
 Lower Bavaria was assembled by duke
 
 BAVARIA. 
 
 Albert II, who, with the consent of his 
 brother Wolfgang, and of the estates, 
 published a pragmatic sanction, intro- 
 ducing the law of primogeniture, and 
 fixing the allowance of the younger sons. 
 Albeit died in 1508. Of his three sons, 
 William IV, Louis and Ernest, William 
 ought, accordingly, to have been his sole 
 heir. The authority was, however, di- 
 vided, after much contest, between Wil- 
 liam IV and Louis, until the death of the 
 latter, in 1534. These princes were both 
 opposed to the reformation. Luther's 
 most violent opponent, John Eck, lived at 
 Ingolstadt, under their protection, which 
 they also extended to the Jesuits. Wil- 
 liam died in 1550 ; his son Albert V, the 
 Generous, succeeded him. He also fa- 
 vored the Jesuits, but was a liberal patron 
 of the arts and sciences. The states re- 
 ceived from him great privileges. He 
 died in 1579. Of three sous, the eldest, 
 ^Villiam V, the Pious, succeeded him, 
 aii'd, in 1596, resigned the government to 
 his eldest son, Maximilian I, and retired 
 to a monastery. Maximilian, a prince of 
 distinguished abilities, was the soul of the 
 league formed against the Protestant 
 union. In the course of the 30 years' 
 war, which had just broken out, Maxi- 
 milian was invested, by the emperor Fer- 
 dinand II (1623), with the dignity of 
 elector palatine. The peace of West- 
 phalia confirmed Maximilian in the elec- 
 toral dignity and the possession of the 
 upper palatinate, in return for the renun- 
 ciation of Upper Austria, which had been 
 pledged to him for 13,000,000 florins, ex- 
 penses of war ; and, on the other hand, 
 a new electorate, the eighth, was estab- 
 lished for the palatinate fine, and its suc- 
 cession to the title and territory of the 
 original electorate was settled, in case of 
 the failure of the line of William. Max- 
 imilian died Sept. 27, 1651, after a reign 
 of 55 years. He was succeeded by his 
 son Ferdinand Maria, who was succeed- 
 ed, in 1679, by his eldest son, Maximilian 
 Emanuel. In the war of the Spanish suc- 
 cession, the elector declared for France. 
 After the unfortunate battle at Blenheim, 
 Bavaria was treated by the emperor 
 as a conquered country. The elector 
 was put under the ban of the empire in 
 1706, and was not reinstated in his gov- 
 ernment till the peace of Baden (1714). 
 After his death, in 1726, Charles Albert 
 succeeded him in the electoral dignity. 
 Although he had signed the pragmatic 
 sanction of the emperor Charles VI, yet, 
 after the death of the emperor, and the 
 beginning of the first Silesiau war, so 
 
 fortunate for the king of Prussia, lid 
 claimed the whole Austrian territory, 
 subjected all Upper Austria, assumed the 
 title of archduke of Austria, after the cap- 
 ture of Prague in the same year received 
 homage as king of Bohemia, and was 
 elected emperor of Germany, at Frank- 
 fort, 1742, under the title of Charles VII. 
 But here his fortune began to decline. 
 As he had received the homage of Aus- 
 tria and Bohemia, so, after the sudden 
 change in the fortune of the war (1743), 
 Maria Theresa obliged the states of Bava- 
 ria, and of the upper palatinate, to swear 
 allegiance to her. Notwithstanding his 
 alliance with the landgrave of Hesse- 
 Cassel and Frederic II (1744), and the 
 progress of the Prussian arms, Charles 
 was compelled, by the superior talent of 
 the Austrian general, Charles of Lorraine, 
 to expose Bavaria. He did not live to 
 see the end of the war, but died Jan. 20, 
 1745. His son and successor, Maximilian 
 Joseph III, who also assumed, at first, 
 the title of archduke of Austria, made 
 peace with Austria soon after, at Fussen 
 (April 22, 1745), became one of the guar- 
 antees of the pragmatic sanction, prom- 
 ised the archduke Francis his vote in the 
 election of emperor, and received, in re- 
 turn, all the Bavarian territories which 
 had been conquered by Austria. Maxi- 
 milian Joseph devoted himself entirely to 
 the good of his country. He encouraged 
 agriculture, manufactures, mining ; regu- 
 lated the judicial establishments, the po- 
 lice, the finances, and institutions for 
 instruction ; the sciences were promoted 
 by the foundation of the academy of sci- 
 ences at Munich, in 1759, and the fine 
 arts found in him a liberal protector. He, 
 himself without children, confirmed all 
 the contracts relating to the inheritance, 
 which had been made with the electoral 
 line of the palatinate since the treaty of 
 Pavia (1329). In compliance with the 
 treaties of the house of Wittelsbach, as 
 well as with the terms of the peace of 
 Westphalia, the right of succession in 
 Bavaria reverted, undeniably, to the elec- 
 tor of the palatinate, since the Wittels- 
 bach-Bavarian line became extinct on 
 the death of Maximilian Joseph, 30th of 
 Dec., 1777. Austria then laid claim to 
 Lower Bavaria, and attempted to support 
 her demands by arms, without any previ- 
 ous declaration of war. Charles Theo- 
 dore, being without children, was per- 
 suaded to sign a treaty (Jan. 3 and 14, 
 1778), formally renouncing the Bavarian 
 succession. But the duke of Deux-Ponts, 
 uncle of the reigning king, the nearest
 
 BAVARIA. 
 
 agnate and presumptive heir, encouraged 
 by Frederic II, refused to acknowledge 
 that renunciation. This was the origin 
 of the war of the Bavarian succession, 
 which was terminated, without bloodshed 
 (owing chiefly to the Russian declaration 
 of war against Austria), by the peace of 
 Teschen, May 13, 1779. The possession 
 of Bavaria, from which Austria obtained 
 only the Innviertel, with Braunau (800 
 square miles), was secured to the elector 
 palatine of Bavaria, according to the fam- 
 ily compacts. By this union of the Ba- 
 varian dominions, the eighth electorate 
 became extinct, according to the terms 
 of the peace of Westphalia. In 1784, 
 however, the possession of Bavaria again 
 became an object of desire at Vienna, 
 and an exchange was proposed, which 
 had been already a subject of negotiation 
 in the beginning of the century. The 
 emperor Joseph II proposed to the elec- 
 tor to exchange Bavaria for the Austrian 
 Netherlands (excluding Luxemburg and 
 Namur), and the sum of 3,000,000 flor- 
 ins for himself and the duke of Deux- 
 Ponts, with the title of king of Burgundy. 
 This project, though favored by Russia, 
 was disappointed by the firmness of the 
 duke of Deux-Ponts, who, encouraged 
 by the protection of Prussia, declared 
 " that he would never consent to barter 
 away the inheritance of his ancestors." 
 The zeal with which Frederic II adopted 
 the cause of Bavaria, induced the cabinet 
 of Vienna to relinquish the plan, and to 
 declare, at the same time, " that there 
 never had been and never would be any 
 intention of a forced exchange." (See 
 League of the Princes.) The reign of 
 Charles Theodore was remarkable for 
 the rise of the llluminati (q. v.) in Bava- 
 ria, for the processes against them, and 
 the revival of Jesuitism. During these 
 troubles, the liberty of the press was con- 
 tinually more and more restrained, and a 
 period of intellectual darkness appeared 
 to be about to commence. In the war 
 ef the French revolution, the elector sent 
 his contingent to the army of the empire. 
 The palatinate suffered much, and, in 
 179(3, Bavaria itself became the theatre 
 of war. At this crisis (Feb. 16, 1799), 
 Charles Theodore died without issue, and 
 the Sulzbach branch of the line of the 
 palatinate became extinct with him. The 
 duke Maximilian Joseph of Deux-Ponts 
 came into possession of all the Bavarian 
 territories. The peace of Luneville (Feb. 
 9, 1801) put an end to the renewed war, 
 and its most important article the cession 
 of the left bank of the Rhine to France 
 
 essentially affected Bavaria. Whilst it 
 lost all its possessions on the left bank of 
 the Rhine, and also the lands of the pa- 
 latinate on the right bank, it obtained, on 
 the other hand, by an imperial edict, an 
 indemnification, by which it gained, in 
 addition to the amount lost, a surplus of 
 2109 square miles, and 216,000 inhabitants. 
 The political importance of Bavaria, with 
 respect to Austria as well as to France, was 
 more fully displayed in the war of 1805. 
 When Austria resumed hostilities against 
 France, she required the elector of Bava- 
 ria to unite his troops with the Austrian 
 army, and refused to allow him to remain 
 neutral, "which (as the emperor Fran- 
 cis wrote to the elector, Sept. 3, 1804) 
 France herself would only suffer as long 
 as she should find it expedient." Bava- 
 ria, however, did not find it accordant 
 with its own interests to place itself en- 
 tirely in the power of Austria. At the 
 beginning of the war, the elector joined 
 the French with about 30,000 troops, and 
 the peace of Presburg annexed to his 
 dominions 10,595 square miles, and 
 1,000,000 inhabitants, and conferred on 
 him the dignity of king ; in return for 
 which, he ceded Wiirzburg, which was 
 erected into an electorate, in the place of 
 Salzburg. The king of Bavaria, like the 
 rulers of Wurtemberg and Baden, now 
 assumed sovereignty over the lands of 
 the nobility of the empire within his bor- 
 ders. The political connexion recently 
 formed with France was confirmed by 
 the marriage of the princess Augusta, 
 daughter of the king, with Eugene Na- 
 poleon, viceroy of Italy, son-in-law of the 
 French emperor. An immediate conse- 
 quence of this alliance was the exchange 
 of Berg, which Bavaria surrendered to 
 Napoleon, for Anspach, which Prussia 
 had given up to France in exchange for 
 Hanover, and finally, what was most im- 
 portant, the signing of the confederation 
 of the Rhine (July 12, 1806), in which 
 Bavaria promised to bring into the field 
 30,000 troops, and to fortify Augsburg 
 and Lindau. Thereupon, the king of 
 Bavaria was obliged to take part in the 
 war against Prussia, in 1806, and in the 
 war against Austria, in 1809, one of the 
 consequences of which was the revolution 
 of Tyrol. After its termination, Bavaria 
 received important additions, partly at the 
 expense of Austria, partly by treaties of 
 exchange with, Wurtemberg and Wiirz- 
 burg. When, in 1812, the war between 
 France and Russia broke out, Bavaria 
 sent anew its whole proportion of troops 
 to the French army. Insignificant re-
 
 8 
 
 BAVARIA. 
 
 mains only of the 30,000 Bavarians re- 
 turned in the spring of 1813. Maximil- 
 ian Joseph, notwithstanding this sacrifice, 
 placed fresh troops under the command 
 of Napoleon as the protector of the con- 
 federation of the Rhine, when the new 
 campaign was opened, near the close of 
 April. This army also suffered great 
 losses, but distinguished itself with its 
 wonted bravery, under the command of 
 marshal Oudinot. It suffered particularly 
 in the battles of Luckau and Grossbeeren 
 (1813). At this time, the whole political 
 system of Bavaria was suddenly changed. 
 Whilst the French army of observation 
 was formed at Wurzburg, under Au- 
 gereau, a Bavarian corps of observation 
 was placed on the Inn, over agair.st a 
 division of the Austrian army. For a 
 long time, both corps remained inactive. 
 The departure of the corps of Augereau, 
 by which Bavaria was exposed in its most 
 vulnerable point, accelerated the resolu- 
 tion of its king. The Bavarian general 
 Wrede concluded an armistice with the 
 Austrian general Frimont, October 8, at 
 Hied, which was followed by a proclama- 
 tion, October 15, by which the king of 
 Bavaria abandoned the confederation of 
 the Rhine, and turned his forces against 
 France. In this convention, his present 
 territories, with full sovereignty, were 
 assured to the king, and a sufficient 
 indemnification for those lands which 
 should be made over to Austria. At the 
 same time, Wrede, as commander-in- 
 chief, united the Austrian corps with his 
 own, and turned the Bavarian arms 
 against the French, in the battle of Ha- 
 nau. In 1815, at the breaking out of the 
 new war, the present king, then crown- 
 prince, took the command of the national 
 army. 3Ieanwhile, the congress of Vi- 
 enna, and, more particularly, the prepara- 
 tion of the statutes of the German diet 
 (as well as the different interests originat- 
 ing from the new European, and espe- 
 cially the new German system of states), 
 had given sufficient opportunity to the 
 Bavarian government for the develope- 
 ment of its system of diplomacy. Bava- 
 ria has jealously maintained its station as 
 an independent sovereign state. Since 
 1825, Bavaria has been under the govern- 
 ment of Louis I, the most liberal of the 
 German princes. He has hitherto acted 
 with much energy. Bavaria was erected 
 into a kingdom in 1805, and is now one 
 of the most considerable of the secondary 
 states of Europe. It is composed of the 
 greater part of the circles of Bavaria and 
 Franconia, part of Suabia, and, on the 
 
 west side of the Rhine, embraces the 
 greater part of that portion of the circle 
 of Upper Rhine included in the late 
 French department of Mont Tonnerre. 
 Exclusive of the part west of the Rhine, 
 it is bounded N. by Hesse-Darmstadt, 
 Hesse-Cassel, and the Saxon principalities 
 of Meiningen, Hildburghausen, Coburg 
 and Reuss, and the kingdom of Saxony ; 
 E. and S. by Austria, and W. by Wiir- 
 temberg, Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt. 
 The kingdom of Bavaria is divided into the 
 8 following circles : Iser, Upper Maine, 
 Lower Maine, Rezat, Regen, Upper Dan- 
 ube, Lower Danube, Rhine. The last is 
 on the west side of the river Rhine. 
 This kingdom contains 32,000 square 
 miles and 3,800,000 inhabitants. Its ar- 
 my is 53,900 strong, of whom 35,800 
 form the seventh corps d'armee of the 
 German confederacy. Its public debt 
 amounted, in Sept., 1824, to 103,157,859 
 florins; the income was, at the same time, 
 29,132,260 florins. The present king, 
 Louis, endeavors, with much zeal, to in- 
 troduce economy into the expenses of 
 the government : he has diminished the 
 standing army, and discharged many offi- 
 cers from the civil government. The 
 various inhabitants of this country differ 
 very much in their character, the Bava- 
 rian, from the highlands near Tyrol, and 
 the Franconian, in the north part of the 
 kingdom, being as unlike as any two Ger- 
 mans probably can be ; and the different 
 parts of this young kingdom have been so 
 recently united, that it is not possible to 
 speak of any character as common to its 
 inhabitants. The native of Upper Bava- 
 ria is hardy, laborious, short in stature. 
 Many portions of the population are dis- 
 tinguished by mechanical talent. The 
 excellence of Frauenhofer's telescopes 
 and Badcr's rail-road is generally known. 
 Munich and Nuremberg have, in recent 
 times, produced more philosophical instru- 
 ments than any other two cities of Ger- 
 many. (See Munich.) The manufactures 
 of Bavaria include linen, woollen and cot- 
 ton cloths, iron, fire-arms, and other arti- 
 cles, designed chiefly for the supply of 
 domestic wants. Glass, paper, clocks and 
 hard ware are also made in several of the 
 principal towns. The common language 
 of Bavaria, of course, is German ; but the 
 dialects vary much, from the strong Fran- 
 conian spoken in Wurzburg to the broad 
 Swiss dialect in Lindau. At the head of 
 each of the circles, into which the kingdom 
 is divided, stands a general commissioner 
 ( General Kreiscommissair), with great pow- 
 er, chiefly of an executive character. All
 
 BAVARIA. 
 
 the lower courts, municipal magistrates, 
 village officers, &c., are under his control. 
 The judiciary consists of a high court of 
 appeal ( Ober Appellations Gericht) at Mu- 
 nich ; also a court of appeal for each 
 circle, and the inferior courts. The Codex 
 juris Bavarici lias been in force since 
 Jan. 1, 1811. The penal code is now 
 under revision. A complete code is also 
 in preparation. (See Feuerbach.) The 
 executive consists of a privy council, 
 called Getieime Ratlt, composed of 4 min- 
 isters of state, the 4 crown-officers, and 
 from 12 to 16 other members, who delib- 
 erate in 3 sections on the affairs of the 
 kingdom. The affairs of the Catholics 
 in the kingdom are regulated by the con- 
 cordat concluded with Pius VII, Jan. 5, 
 1817, which, iii 1821, was promulgated 
 as the law of the land. Those of the 
 Protestants are under the direction of a 
 general consistory. The two sects live 
 without contention. The circumstance 
 that the queen of the late king was a 
 Protestant (as is also the present queen, 
 if Ave are not greatly mistaken) had a 
 most beneficial influence. In the smaller 
 council of the German diet, Bavaria has 
 the third place, and in the plenum has 
 four votes. (See German Confederacy.) 
 Education made much progress under 
 the government of the late Maximilian 
 Joseph, and it is to be expected that the 
 present king, who has manifested liberal 
 views, on many occasions, more openly 
 than any prince of the continent now 
 living, will continue to give it the aid of 
 the government. Many seminaries for 
 the training of instructers have been 
 erected, and the academy of sciences at 
 Munich, with the three universities at 
 Munich, Wurzburg and Erlangen, pro- 
 duce the best results. (See Munich, 
 Jf'iirzburg and Erlangen.) The first of 
 these universities contains nearly 2000 
 students, whilst the medical department 
 of Wurzburg is considered one of the 
 first in Europe. Agriculture and indus- 
 try in general have received, since the 
 reign of Maximilian, much attention. 
 Several institutions for promoting them 
 have been established, including agricul- 
 tural seminaries, in which those young 
 men who prepare themselves for village 
 school-masters learn gardening, &c. A 
 festival was instituted by Maximilian, 
 generally called the October festival, at 
 which prizes are assigned, by order of 
 the king, for the best specimens of agri- 
 cultural produce, the best cattle, &c. 
 There are also races connected with this 
 celebration. The present king, when 
 
 crown-prince, was a liberal patron of the 
 fine arts, and still affords them much 
 encouragement. As Bavaria is entirely 
 an inland country, and has no great river 
 crossing it, its commercial resources could 
 be fully developed only in case of a per- 
 fectly free intercourse between all the 
 German states ; to obtain which, efforts 
 have several times been made, but, un- 
 happily, in vain. A great canal, near 
 Nuremberg, has been sometimes spoken 
 of, to unite, by means of small rivers, the 
 Rhine and Danube, a work begun by 
 Charlemagne : the traces of his work, still 
 remaining, are called fossa Carolina ; 
 but the expense would be great for so 
 small a kingdom, and it is very doubtful 
 whether the commerce carried on hi this 
 way would be considerable, depending, 
 as it would, upon so many governments, 
 from the Turkish to that of the Nether- 
 lands. According to Rudhart, Bavaria 
 contains 1384 noble families. Agriculture 
 is the chief branch of industry. Bavarian 
 beer is excellent. 
 
 Bavaria, constitution of. Like most of 
 the states of the middle ages, Bavaria had 
 its constitution. No other state of Ger- 
 many has so complete a collection of 
 works relating to its ancient form of gov- 
 ernment. The estates consisted, as usual, 
 of the three classes the prelates, among 
 whom the university had the first rank ; 
 the nobility, and the burgesses. Their 
 privileges were great, but early lost by 
 dissension among themselves. The last 
 diet was holden in 1669. A committee 
 of the estates arrogated the privileges be- 
 longing to the whole body ; the seculari- 
 zation of the ecclesiastical establishments, 
 in 1803, made the old constitution still 
 more inefficient, and, in 1808, the sys- 
 tem of the estates was abolished ; but 
 an order was issued, May 1 of the same 
 year, instituting a new constitution. The 
 king of Bavaria was the first among the 
 sovereigns of Germany to fulfil the prom- 
 ise contained in the thirteenth article of 
 the ordinances of the German confedera- 
 tion, which assures the people that they 
 shall receive constitutional forms of gov- 
 ernment. The king promulgated the 
 new representative constitution May 26, 
 1818. The system of the two chambers 
 has been adopted. The chamber of 
 peers, or, as they are called in Bavaria, 
 Reichs Rathe, (counsellors of the realm), 
 consists of the princes, the crown-officers, 
 2 archbishops, the 16 seniors of the fami- 
 lies which were formerly members of the 
 German empire, 1 bishop, appointed by 
 the king, the president of the Protestant
 
 10 
 
 BAVARIA BAXTER. 
 
 consistory, besides 15 hereditary peers, 
 and 12 who hold their stations for life, 
 chosen by the king. The lower cham- 
 ber consists of 14 representatives of 
 the lower nobility, 1 representative of 
 each of the three universities of the king- 
 dom, 9 representatives of the Catholic, and 
 5 of the Protestant clergy, 2 of Munich, 
 1 of Augsburg, 1 of Nuremberg, 24 of all 
 the other cities and market-places, and 
 56 of the land-owners (not noblemen). 
 The elections in the cities are badly con- 
 ducted, as they are in the hands of the 
 city councils, the mayors, &c. Another 
 great fault is, that the amount of property 
 required in a representative is so great, 
 that whole districts are excluded from 
 representation. The rights which the 
 representatives have are not altogether 
 insignificant; yet there are many other 
 things wanted, as, a perfectly free press, 
 and many real guarantees of freedom, be- 
 fore we can speak of it as actually existing 
 in Bavaria. The ministers are responsi- 
 ble, and yet their power is unconstitution- 
 ally great. It would not be very difficult 
 for the Bavarian government to do any 
 thing they pleased, without encountering 
 many constitutional obstacles. The first 
 meeting of the representatives was held 
 Feb. 4, 1819. There is 1 representative 
 for about 35,000 souls. The constitu- 
 tion is a granted one, viz., given by the 
 king, not a compact between two parties, 
 the people and the ruler. It promises 
 liberty and equal rights to all religions, 
 and also freedom of the press, which, 
 however, no American or Englishman 
 would call truly free. Bond-service is 
 abolished. The king appoints the presi- 
 dent of the representatives. 
 / BAVIUS, Marcus, and M.EVIUS ; still no- 
 
 torious as two miserable poets and pre- 
 sumptuous critics, satirized by Virgil. 
 
 BAWDY-HOUSE ; a house of ill fame, to 
 which persons of both sexes resort for 
 sexual intercourse. Such houses, under 
 the name of brothels or stews, are licensed 
 by the laws of some countries. They 
 were formerly licensed hi England, from 
 the reign of Henry II to the last year of 
 Henry VIII, when they were suppressed 
 by sound of trumpet, with as great cere- 
 mony as the religious houses. The laws 
 of most civilized countries prohibit the 
 keeping of bawdy-houses, as tending not 
 only to the corruption of morals and 
 manners, but also to a breach of the peace, 
 by bringing together disorderly and vi- 
 cious people. The keeping of such a 
 house is indictable at the common law, 
 and so is the frequenting of it ; but these 
 
 offences are, most generally, the subjects 
 of positive statutes. In some parts of 
 Europe, such houses are licensed, and 
 under the care of the medical police. 
 
 BAXTER, Andrew; an ingenious philos- 
 opher ai)d metaphysician. He was a na- 
 tive of Aberdeen, and was educated at 
 King's college in that city ; after which 
 he was employed as a private tutor. 
 About 1730, he published an Enquiry into 
 the Nature of the Human Soul ; wherein 
 the Immateriality of the Soul is evinced 
 from the Principles of Reason and Phi- 
 losophy. This work was applauded by 
 Warburton, and obtained for the author a 
 high reputation ; though his arguments, 
 which are founded on the vis inertia of 
 matter, have since been controverted by 
 Hume and Colin Maclaurin. In 1741, he 
 went abroad with one of his pupils, and 
 remained for some years at Utrecht, where 
 he contracted an acquaintance with some 
 of the Dutch literati. He returned to 
 Scotland in 1747, and resided at Whit- 
 tingham, in East Lothian, where he died 
 hi 1750, aged 63. He was the author of 
 a Latin treatise, entitled Matho sive Cos- 
 motheoria puei~ilis Dialogus, which he af- 
 terwards translated into English, and pub- 
 lished in 2 vols. 12mo. 
 
 BAXTER, Richard, the most eminent 
 of the English nonconfonning divines 
 of the 17th century, was born in the vil- 
 lage of Rowton in 1615. The example 
 of his father, who was accused of Puri- 
 tanism, gave him a serious turn very early 
 in life. After receiving his education, he 
 was sent to London, under the patronage 
 of sir Henry Herbert, master of the revels ; 
 but he soon returned into the country 
 with a view to study divinity, and, in 1638, 
 received ordination in the church of Eng- 
 land. The imposition of the oath of uni- 
 versal approbation of the doctrine and 
 discipline of the church of England, usu- 
 ally termed the el catera oath, detached 
 him and many others from the establish- 
 ment. When the civil war broke out, he 
 sided with the parliament, and, after the 
 battle of Naseby, accepted the appointment 
 of chaplain to colonel Whalley's regiment. 
 He is said to have been, the whole of this 
 time, a friend to die establishment, accord- 
 ing to his own notions, and to have re- 
 pressed sectaries as much as he was able. 
 In 1647, he retired, in consequence of ill- 
 health, from his military chaplainship, and, 
 when he recovered, opposed the measures 
 of those in power, and preached urgently 
 against the covenant. He even endeav- 
 ored to persuade the soldiery not to en- 
 counter the Scottish troops who came
 
 BAXTER BAYARD. 
 
 11 
 
 into the kingdom with Charles II, and 
 hesitated not to express an open dislike 
 to the usurpation of Cromwell, whom he 
 told, in a conference veiy characteristic 
 of both parties, that the people of England 
 deemed the ancient monarchy a blessing. 
 The fact is, that B., with many more 
 zealous religious partisans, held civil lib- 
 erty to be of secondary consequence to 
 what he esteemed true religion, and ap- 
 pears, from the tenor of a sermon which 
 lie preached before Cromwell, to have 
 deemed the toleration of separatists and 
 sectaries the grand evil of his government. 
 After the restoration, he was made one 
 of the king's chaplains, and a commis- 
 sioner of the Savoy conference, to draw 
 up the reformed liturgy. The active 
 persecution of the Nonconformists soon 
 followed ; and, upon the passing of the 
 act against conventicles, he retired, and 
 preached more or less openly, as the act 
 was more or less rigidly enforced. After 
 the accession of Jarnes II, in 1685, he 
 was arrested for some passages in his 
 Commentary on the New Testament, sup- 
 posed hostile to Episcopacy, and was 
 tried for sedition. The violence of Jef- 
 feries, who would neither hear the ac- 
 cused nor his counsel, produced a verdict 
 of guilty on the most frivolous grounds. 
 He was sentenced to two years' imprison- 
 ment and a heavy penalty, which, after 
 a short confinement, the king remitted, 
 probably with some degree of compunc- 
 tion for the manner of its infliction. 
 Henceforward, B. lived in a retired 
 manner till his death, in 1691. His wife 
 cheerfully shared all his sufferings on the 
 score of conscience, both in and out of 
 prison. The character of B. was formed 
 by his age ; his failing was subtle and 
 controversial theology ; his excellence, 
 practical piety. In divinity, he sought to 
 establish a resting-place between strict 
 Calvinism and high-church Arminianism, 
 by the admission of election, and the re- 
 jection of reprobation. Christ died for 
 some especially, and for all generally ; 
 that is to say, all possess the means of 
 salvation. A body called Baxtcrians long 
 acknowledged these distinctions, and the 
 nonconformist clergy, after the revolu- 
 tion, were divided between this body, the 
 pure Calvinists, and the high-church pas- 
 sive-obedient Arminians. B. was a vo- 
 luminous writer: his Saints' Everlasting 
 Rest, and the Call to the Unconverted, 
 have been extraordinarily popular. 
 
 BAYADEER, in the East Indies ; young 
 girls, from 10 to 17 years of age, who are 
 instructed in dancing, singing, and acting 
 
 little plays. They are under the care of 
 matrons, who are experienced in all female 
 arts, and particularly in that of pleasing. 
 These select from the lowest classes of 
 the people the most beautiful girls, of 
 seven or eight years of age, secure them, 
 by inoculation, from the disfiguring conse- 
 quences of the small-pox, and instruct 
 them in all the arts of their profession, 
 the object of which is to amuse the rich, 
 and minister to their passions. Their 
 presence is considered necessary, even at 
 the smallest entertainments. If any of the 
 spectators desires to become better ac- 
 quainted with the talents of a bayadeer, 
 only a hint is needed. For a girl of the 
 greatest attractions, the matron to whom 
 she belongs receives a hundred rupees for 
 an evening, and as much for a night, 
 besides a present for the girl. After their 
 17th year, when their first charms have 
 faded, they retire to a pagoda (the temple 
 of their idols), under the protection of the 
 Bramins, but not, like public girls in Eu- 
 rope, to become devotees. They continue 
 to exercise their profession in the temple, 
 and what they gain belongs to the Bra- 
 mins, who give them food and shelter. 
 Their profession is not thought infamous 
 in India. 
 
 BAYAMO, or ST. SALVADOR ; a town of 
 Cuba, on a river which forms a port on 
 the S. E. coast ; 520 miles E. S. E. Ha- 
 vannah; Ion. 76 55' W.; lat. 20 46' N.; 
 population estimated at 12,000. The 
 town is about 20 miles distant from the 
 port. It gives name to a channel situated 
 between the main land of Cuba and the 
 islands called the Queen's Gardens. 
 
 BAYARD, Pierre du Ten-ail, chevalier 
 do, called the knight urithoutfear and with- 
 out reproach, born in 1476, in the castle of 
 Bayard, near Grenoble, was one of the 
 most spotless characters of the middle 
 ages. He was simple and modest ; a true 
 friend and tender lover ; pious, humane 
 and magnanimous. The family of Ter- 
 rail, to which he belonged, was one of the 
 most ancient in Dauphine, and was cele- 
 brated for nobility and valor. Young B., 
 educated under the eyes of his uncle 
 George of Terrail, bishop of Grenoble, 
 early imbibed, in the school of this wor- 
 thy prelate, the virtues which distinguish- 
 ed" him afterwards. At the age of 13, he 
 was received among the pages of the 
 duke of Savoy, the ally of France. 
 Charles VIII, who saw him at Lyons, in 
 the suite of this prince, was struck with 
 the dexterity with which the youth man- 
 aged his horse : he begged him of the 
 duke, and committed him to the care of
 
 12 
 
 BAYARD. 
 
 Paul of Luxemburg, count de Ligny. 
 The tournaments were his first field of 
 glory. At the age of 18, lie accompanied 
 Charles VIII to Italy, and distinguished 
 himself greatly in the battle at Verona, 
 where he took a standard. At the begin- 
 ning of die reign of Louis XII, in a battle 
 near Milan, he pursued the fugitives with 
 such eagerness, that he entered the city 
 with them, and was taken prisoner. Lu- 
 dovico Sforza returned him his arms and 
 his horse, and dismissed him without ran- 
 som. Whilst the French were in Apu- 
 lia, B. defeated a Spanish corps, and 
 made their leader, don Alonzo de Soto- 
 mayor, prisoner. He treated him with 
 generosity. Sotomayor, however, not only 
 violated his parole by flight, but calum- 
 niated B., who, according to the custom 
 of that time, challenged him, and killed 
 him. Afterwards, like Horatius Codes, 
 he defended a bridge over the Garigliano 
 singly against the Spaniards, and saved 
 the French army by checking the advance 
 of the victorious enemy. For this exploit, 
 he received as a coat of arms a porcupine, 
 with the motto Vires agminis unus habet. 
 He distinguished himself equally against 
 the Genoese and the Venetians. When 
 Julius II declared himself against France, 
 B. went to the assistance of the duke of 
 Ferrara. He did not succeed in his plan 
 of taking the pope prisoner ; but he re- 
 fused, with indignation, an offer made to 
 betray him. Being severely wounded at 
 the assault of Brescia, he was carried into 
 the house of a nobleman, who had fled, 
 and left his wife and two daughters ex- 
 posed to the insolence of the soldiers. B. 
 protected the family, refused the reward 
 of 2500 ducats, which they offered to him, 
 and returned, as soon as he was cured, 
 into the camp of Gaston de Foix, before 
 Ravenna. In an engagement, which 
 shortly after ensued, he took two stand- 
 ards from the Spaniards, and pursued the 
 fugitives. Gaston, the hope of France, 
 perished through his neglect of the advice 
 of B. In the retreat from Pavia, B. was 
 again wounded. He was carried to Gre- 
 noble ; his life was in danger. " I grieve 
 not for death," he said, " but to die on my 
 bed, like a woman." In the war com- 
 menced by Ferdinand the Catholic, he 
 displayed beyond the Pyrenees the same 
 talents, the same heroism, which had dis- 
 tinguished him beyond the Alps. The 
 fatal reverses which imbittered the last 
 years of Louis XII only added a brighter 
 splendor to the personal glory of B. 
 Henry VIII of England, in alliance with 
 Ferdinand and Maximilian, threatened 
 
 Picardy in 1513, and besieged Terouane. 
 The French army disgracefully took to 
 flight. B., with his accustomed intrepid- 
 ity, made an ineffectual resistance to the 
 enemy: overpowered by superior num- 
 bers, his troop was on the point of laying 
 down their arms, when B., perceiving an 
 English officer at some distance from 
 him, immediately galloped towards him, 
 presented his sword to his breast, and 
 cried, " Yield, or die !" The Englishman 
 surrendered his sword: B. immediately 
 gave him his own, saying, " I am Bayard, 
 and your captive, as you are mine." The 
 boldness and ingenuity of this action 
 pleased the emperor and the king of Eng- 
 land, who decided that B. needed no ran- 
 som, and that both captives were released 
 from their parole. When Francis I as- 
 cended the throne, he sent B. into Dau- 
 phine, to open for his army a passage over 
 the Alps, and through Piedmont. Pros- 
 per Colonna lay in wait for him on his 
 march, expecting to surprise him, but B. 
 made him prisoner. This brilliant exploit 
 was the prelude to the battle of Marigna- 
 no, in which B., at the side of the king, 
 performed wonders of bravery, and deci- 
 ded the victory. After this glorious day, 
 Francis was knighted with the sword of B. 
 When Charles V invaded Champagne, 
 with a large army, and threatened to pene- 
 trate into the heart of France, B. defended 
 the weakly-fortified town of Mezieres 
 against every assault, until the dissensions 
 of the hostile leaders compelled them to 
 retreat. B. was saluted in Paris as the sav- 
 ior of his country : the king bestowed on 
 him the order of St. Michael, and a compa- 
 ny of 100 men, which he was to command 
 in his own name an honor which, till 
 then, had only been conferred on princes 
 of the blood. Soon afterwards, Genoa 
 revolted from France: B's presence re- 
 duced it to obedience. But, after the sur- 
 render of Lodi, fortune changed, and the 
 French troops were expelled from their 
 conquests. Bonnivet was obliged to re- 
 treat through the valley of Aosta; his rear 
 was beaten, and himself severely wounded, 
 when the safety of the army was com- 
 mitted to B. It was necessary to pass the 
 Sesia in the presence of a superior enemy, 
 and B., always the last in retreat, vigor- 
 ously attacked the Spaniards, when a 
 stone, from a blunderbuss, struck his right 
 side, and shattered his back-bone. The 
 hero fell, exclaiming, " Jesus, my God, I 
 am a dead man !" They hastened towards 
 him. " Place me under yon tree," he said, 
 " that I may see the enemy." For want 
 of a crucifix, he kissed the cross of his
 
 BAYARD. 
 
 13 
 
 sword, confessed to his squire, consoled 
 his servants and his friends, bade farewell 
 to his king and his country, and died, 
 April 30, 1524, surrounded by friends and 
 enemies, who all shed tears of admiration 
 and grief. His body, which remained in 
 the hands of his enemies, was embalmed 
 by them, given to the French, and interred 
 in a church of the Minorites, near Greno- 
 ble. His monument consists of a simple 
 bust, with a Latin inscription. (See Hist. 
 de P. Terrail. dit le Chevalier Bayard sans 
 Peur et sans Reproche, by Gayard de Ber- 
 ville, new edition, Paris, 1824). 
 
 BATARD, James A., an eminent Ameri- 
 can lawyer and politician, was born in 
 Philadelphia, in 1767. His classical edu- 
 cation was completed at Princeton col- 
 lege. In the year 1784, he engaged in the 
 study of the law, and, on his admission 
 to the bar, settled in the state of Delaware, 
 where he soon acquired considerable prac- 
 tice and reputation. A few years after 
 lie reached his majority, he was elected a 
 representative of Delaware in congress. 
 The first occasion, on which he particu- 
 larly distinguished himself, was the im- 
 peachment of William Blount, a senator 
 of the U. States. Mr. B. was chairman of 
 the committee of eleven, who were se- 
 lected, by the house of representatives, to 
 conduct that impeachment. He took the 
 chief and a very brilliant part in the dis- 
 cussion of the constitutional questions 
 which arose out of the successful plea of 
 the accused to the jurisdiction of the senate. 
 At an early period of his political career, 
 president Adams offered him the post of 
 envoy to the French republic, which pru- 
 dential reasons induced him to decline. 
 Mr. B. was one of the leaders of the fed- 
 eral party in congress at the epoch of the 
 election of Mr. Jefferson to the office of 
 president In the memorable contest in 
 the house of representatives, which was 
 produced by the equality of votes for Mr. 
 Jefferson and colonel Burr, he finally 
 prevailed upon his political coadjutors to 
 adopt the mode of proceeding which ena- 
 bled the friends of Mr. Jefferson to tri- 
 umph. Hostile as he was to that states- 
 man, and much as he had reason to 
 expect of personal advantage from a dif- 
 ferent issue, he sacrificed party feeling 
 and ambitious hope, when he perceived 
 that the peace of the country and the 
 stability of the constitution might be en- 
 dangered by continuing the struggle. In 
 no debate of the house did Mr. B. display 
 his genius more than in that which pre- 
 ceded the repeal, in March, 1802, of the 
 judiciary bill. A volume of the speeches 
 
 VOL. n. 2 
 
 which were delivered in this famous con- 
 troversy has been published. It was 
 almost universally conceded that he was 
 the ablest advocate of the system or or- 
 ganization which was destroyed. He 
 continued in the house of representatives 
 after the change of administration, always 
 conspicuous for his sound principles, con- 
 stant acuteness, extensive knowledge, and 
 manly, copious eloquence. Elected to the 
 senate of the U. States by the legislature 
 of Delaware, he displayed, for several 
 years, in that assembly, the same talents 
 and patriotism. In 1812, he strenuously 
 opposed the declaration of war with Great 
 Britain. President Madison selected him 
 as one of the commissioners to treat for 
 peace under the proffered mediation of 
 the emperor Alexander of Russia. He 
 embarked on this important mission, 
 which had not been sought nor expected 
 by himself or his friends for him, from 
 the port of Philadelphia, May 8, 1813, 
 and arrived at St. Petersburg in July of 
 that year. The absence of the emperor 
 prevented the transaction of any business, 
 and, when all hope of advancing the main 
 object seemed idle, Mr. B. proceeded 
 (January, 1814) by land to Holland. 
 There he learned the willingness of the 
 British court to treat directly with the 
 American envoys. Previously to the arri- 
 val of his colleagues, who, in consequence 
 of this annunciation, were despatched by 
 the American government, he visited 
 England. At the proper period, he re- 
 paired to Ghent, which Avas ultimately 
 chosen as the scene of the negotiations 
 which terminated in the treaty that bears 
 the name of that place. His share in the 
 oral discussions and the written corre- 
 spondence with the British plenipotentia- 
 ries was such as might have been expect- 
 ed from his peculiar fitness for the task 
 of negotiation. On the conclusion of this 
 business, he made a journey to Paris, 
 where he remained until he heard of the 
 ratification of the treaty, and of his ap- 
 pointment as envoy to the court of St. 
 Petersburg. This he promptly declined. 
 It was his intention, however, to go to 
 England, in order to co-operate in the 
 formation of a commercial treaty with the 
 British cabinet, as he was included in the 
 commission sent for that purpose ; but an 
 alarming illness put an end to every 
 plan, except that of reaching his home as 
 early as possible. He embarked at Havre 
 in May, 1815, in a state of the most pain- 
 ful debility, suffered unfortunate delays 
 in the voyage, and arrived in the U. States 
 only to die in the arms of his family.
 
 14 
 
 BAYARD BAYLE. 
 
 Mr. B. was a logician of the first order, 
 possessed a rich and ready elocution, and 
 commanded attention as well by his fine 
 countenance and manly person as his 
 cogent reasoning and comprehensive 
 views. He acquired a reputation, both as 
 a lawyer and political orator, scarcely 
 inferior to that of any one of his American 
 contemporaries. 
 
 BAYLE, Pierre, bom at Carlat, in the 
 county of Foix (Languedoc), in 1647, 
 received his first instruction from his 
 father, a Calvinistic preacher. He gave 
 early proofs of an astonishing memory, 
 and of a singular vivacity of mind. At 
 the age of 19 years, he entered the college 
 of Puy-Laurens, to finish his studies. 
 The ardor with which he devoted him- 
 self to them weakened his constitution. 
 All books were eagerly devoured by him ; 
 his taste for logic led him particularly to 
 study religious controversies, but Amyot's 
 Plutarch and Montaigne were his favorite 
 works. The latter encouraged, without 
 doubt, his inclination to scepticism ; per- 
 haps both contributed to give to his style 
 that vivacity, that boldness of expression 
 and antique coloring, so observable in it. 
 In Toulouse, he studied philosophy with 
 the Jesuits. The arguments of his pro- 
 fessor, and, still more, his friendly discus- 
 sions with a Catholic priest, who dwelt 
 near him, confirmed his doubts of the 
 orthodoxy of Protestantism, so that he re- 
 solved to change his religion. His con- 
 version was a triumph to the Catholics. 
 His family, however, tried all means to 
 regain him, and, after 17 months, he re- 
 turned to his old faith. In order to 
 escape from the punishment of perpetual 
 excommunication, which the Catholic 
 church then pronounced against apostates, 
 he went to Geneva, and thence to Copet, 
 where count Dohna intrusted him with 
 tne education of his sons, and where 
 lie studied the philosophy of Des Cartes. 
 But, after some years, he returned to 
 France, and settled ia Rouen, where he 
 was employed in teaching. From thence 
 he went to Paris, Avhere the society of 
 learned men indemnified him for the fa- 
 tigues of an occupation to which he was 
 obliged to submit for a third time. In 
 1675, he obtained the philosophical chair 
 at Sedan, where he taught with distinc- 
 tion until the suppression of this acade- 
 my in 1681. He was afterwards invited 
 to discharge the same duties at Rotter- 
 dam. The appearance of a comet, in 
 1680, which occasioned an almost univer- 
 sal alarm, induced him to publish, in 1682, 
 his Pensees diverses sur la Comete, a work 
 
 full of learning, in which he discussed 
 various subjects of metaphysics, morals, 
 theology, history, and politics. It was 
 followed by his Critique gcnerale de VHis- 
 toire du Calvinisme de Maimbourg. This 
 work, received with equal approbation by 
 the Catholics and Protestants, and es- 
 teemed by Maimbourg himself, excited 
 the jealousy of his colleague, the theolo- 
 gian Jurieu, whose Refutation du P. 
 Maimbourg had not succeeded, and in- 
 volved B. in many disputes. He after- 
 ward undertook a periodical work, JVou- 
 velles de la Republique des Lettres, in 1684. 
 A letter from Rome, published in this 
 work, excited the displeasure of the queen 
 Christina of Sweden, who caused two vi- 
 olent letters to be sent to him. B. apolo- 
 gized, and his excuses so perfectly satisfied 
 die queen, that from that time she kept 
 up a literary correspondence with him. 
 The death of his father and of his two 
 brothers, together with the religious per- 
 secutions in France, induced him to un- 
 dertake his Commentaire phttosophique sur 
 ces Paroles de PEvangile ; Contrains-hs 
 d'entrer ; which, in regard to style and 
 tone, is not worthy of him. B. himself 
 was unwilling to acknowledge it ; but 
 Jurieu, who probably recognised its au- 
 thor by the zeal with which toleration is 
 defended in this work, attacked it with 
 violence. His hatred only waited for a 
 pretence to break out against B. ; he 
 found it in the Avis aux Refugies, a work 
 in which the Protestants are treated with 
 little ceremony. Jurieu not only accused 
 B. of being the author of this work (which 
 certainly is not his), but also of being the 
 soul of a party devoted to France, in op- 
 position to the Protestants and allied 
 powers. B. repelled these charges in two 
 publications ; but the calumny prevailed. 
 In 1693, the magistrates of Rotterdam 
 removed him from his office, and forbade 
 him to give private instruction. He now 
 devoted all his attention to the composi- 
 tion of his Didionnaire historique et cri- 
 tique, which he first published in 1696, 
 in 2 vols. fol. This was the first work 
 which appeared under his name. Jurieu 
 opposed him anew, and caused the con- 
 sistory, hi which he had the greatest in- 
 fluence, to make a severe attack upon 
 him. B. promised to remove every thing 
 which the consistory deemed offensive ; 
 but, finding the public had other views, 
 and preferring rather the satisfaction of his 
 readers than that of his judges, he left the 
 work, with the exception of a few trifles, 
 unaltered. He found two new enemies 
 in Jacquelot and Le Clerc, who both at-
 
 BAYLE BAYLEN. 
 
 tacked his religion : others persecuted 
 him as the enemy of his sect and his new 
 country. These contests increased his 
 bodily infirmities. His lungs became in- 
 flamed ; but he was unwilling to use any 
 medical applications against a disorder 
 which he considered as hereditary and 
 incurable. He died, so to speak, with the 
 pen in his hand, in 1706, at the age of 59 
 years. " Bayle," says Voltaire, " is the 
 first of logicians and sceptics. His great- 
 est enemies must confess that there is not 
 a line in his works which contains an 
 open aspersion of Christianity ; but his 
 warmest apologists must acknowledge, 
 that there is not a page in his controver- 
 sial writings which does not lead the 
 reader to doubt, and often to scepticism." 
 He compares himself to Homer's cloud- 
 compelling Jupiter. " My talent," he says, 
 " consists in raising doubts ; but they are 
 only doubts." The confidence of most 
 theologians induced him to undertake to 
 prove that several points are not so certain 
 and so evident as they imagined. But he 
 gradu ally passed these limits: his pene- 
 tration caused him to doubt even the 
 most universally acknowledged facts. Yet 
 he never attacked the great principles of 
 morality. Though an admirable logician, 
 lie was so little acquainted with physics, 
 that even the discoveries of Newton were 
 unknown to him. His style is natural 
 and clear, but often prolix, careless and 
 incorrect. He himself calls his Didion- 
 naire "?tne compilation informe des pas- 
 sages cousus a la queue les uns des autres." 
 Without assenting implicitly to this mod- 
 est judgment, we must confess that the 
 articles, in themselves, are of little 
 value, and that they serve only as a pre- 
 text for the notes, in which the author 
 displays, at the same time, his learning, 
 and the power of his logic. The charac- 
 ter of B. was gentle, amiable, disinterest- 
 ed, highly modest and peaceable: he de- 
 voted himself entirely to literature. The 
 most esteemed edition of his Dictionnaire 
 historique is that of 1740, in 4 vols. fol. 
 (an edition was also printed at Bale, 
 the same year]. At the Hague appeared 
 the (Euvres diverges de P. Bayle (also 4 
 vols. fol.) An edition of his Did. histor., 
 in 1(5 vols., printed with grout typograph- 
 ical beauty, was published, in 1620, by 
 Desoer, in Paris: it contains notes, and 
 the life of the author. In the Disc, pre- 
 limin., the editor, Beuchot, reviews the 11 
 former editions. Gottsched has translated 
 the Diet, into German (Leipsie, 1741 44, 
 4 vols. fol.) An English translation, with 
 considerable additions, by Th. Birch, 
 
 Lockman and others, was published, 
 1734 41, 10 vols. fol. 
 
 BATLE> T , capitulation of general Dupont 
 at ; an event which, in July, 1808, raised 
 the courage of Spain, and hastened a 
 general insurrection. Joseph Bonaparte 
 had entered Madrid as king ; the prov- 
 inces Leon, Valencia, Valladolid, Zarno- 
 ra and Salamanca had been subdued 
 and disarmed. In the south alone, on the 
 Guadalquivir, in the naturally fortified 
 Andalusia, in Cordova, Grenada, Jaen, 
 the spirit of insurrection still prevailed, 
 and was excited as much as possible by 
 the junta of Seville. Thither general 
 Dupont directed his march, at the end of 
 May, with three divisions. Cordova and 
 Jaen were taken by assault, after the 
 most terrible resistance. The monks 
 promised the joys of heaven, without 
 purgatory, to every one who should kill 
 three Frenchmen. The corps of Casta- 
 nos soon increased to 30,000 men. The 
 able manoeuvres of this general, together 
 with famine and sickness in the French 
 army, augmented by the total want of 
 hospitals, prepared the way for the over- 
 throw of general Dupont. 3000 Span- 
 iards had possession of the Sierra Morena, 
 in the rear of his army. In order to re- 
 establish his communication with the 
 capital, he occupied the cities of 13. and 
 Carolina with detachments, while he 
 himself took a position near Andujar, on 
 the Guadalquivir. But, on the 14th of 
 July, 18,000 men, with some pieces of 
 heavy artillery, marched against the front 
 of the French position near Andujar; 
 while 3000 men came through the defiles 
 of the Sierra Morena upon the rear, and 
 6000 men attacked Dupont's left wing. 
 He defended himself, for three days, with 
 skill and courage ; but the 18th of July 
 decided the contest. The Spanish gen- 
 erals Reding and Compigny attacked B. 
 Pefias and Jones overawed the main body, 
 under Dupont. He was compelled to 
 evacuate Andujar, after B. had been taken 
 by the Spaniards. The action continued 
 nine hours, when Dupont requested a 
 suspension of arms, but was told that he 
 must surrender at discretion. Meanwhile 
 the division of Vedel, not acquainted with 
 the proceedings of Dupont, had attacked 
 the Spaniards anew, and taken the regi- 
 ment of Cordova prisoners, together with 
 two pieces of artillery, but were finally 
 overpowered by superior numbers. On 
 the 23d of July, the whole French army, 
 17,000 men strong, being surrounded, 
 was obliged to capitulate, bavins; lost 
 3000 men on the field of battle. The di-
 
 16 
 
 BAYLEN BAYONET. 
 
 visions of Dnpont and Vedel were made 
 prisoners of war: the latter was to be 
 permitted to embark at Cadiz for Roche- 
 Ibrt : the same terms were afterwards 
 promised to the division of Dupont, but 
 not fulfilled. General Dupont returned, 
 with his staff, to France, and was arrested 
 at Toulon, and subjected to trial. But, 
 before a decision, he was delivered by 
 the capture of Paris, March 30, 1814. 
 He was afterwards appointed, by Louis 
 XVIII, minister of war ; but was super- 
 seded by Soult, in December, 1814. 
 
 BAYLET, Richard, M. D., was bom at 
 Fairfield, Connecticut, in the year 1745. 
 Having completed his medical studies, he 
 went to London, to attend the lectures 
 and hospitals. After little more than a 
 year's residence in that city, he returned 
 to New York, and commenced practice 
 there in 1772. At this period, his atten- 
 tion was first drawn to the then prevalent 
 and fatal croup, which had been treated 
 as the putrid sore throat. Observing how 
 fatal was the use of stimulants and anti- 
 septics, he examined the nature of the 
 disease, and became convinced that it was 
 of an inflammatory character. He ac- 
 cordingly treated it as such, with decided 
 success, and, soon after the publication of 
 his View of the Croup, his opinions and 
 treatment of it were universally adopted. 
 In the autumn of 1775, B. revisited Lon- 
 don, where he spent a winter, and, in the 
 following spring, returned to New York, 
 in the capacity of surgeon in the English 
 army under Howe. He resigned this 
 post in 1777, and, during the rest of his 
 life, continued the practice of his pro- 
 fession hi the same city. In 1787, he 
 lectured on surgery. In 1788, he lost his 
 valuable collection in morbid anatomy, 
 and some delicate preparations, by the 
 violence of the famous "doctors' mob," 
 who broke into Ms house, and carried off 
 and burned his cabinet. In the spring 
 of 1792, he was appointed professor of 
 anatomy in Columbia college, and, in 
 1793, became professor of surgery, which 
 was his favorite subject. His lectures 
 were clear, precise and practical. As an 
 optician, he acquired great celebrity, and 
 also as an experienced and successful li- 
 thotomist. When the yellow fever deso- 
 lated New York, soon after the revolu- 
 tion, doctor B. devoted himself to personal 
 attention to the sick, and became practi- 
 cally familiar with the disease, and its 
 most successful remedies. He likewise 
 investigated its cause, and declared that 
 it was the filth which polluted the docks 
 and some of the streets, affirming, " that 
 
 when a more rigid police prevailed, to 
 free the city from nuisances, no more 
 would be heard of particular diseases." 
 In 1797, he published his work On Yel- 
 low Fever, wherein he proved the malady 
 to be of local origin. So strong was his 
 belief on this point, and so clear his per- 
 ception of the cause of the fever, that he 
 predicted the very spot whore it after- 
 wards appeared, in the year 1799. In the 
 year 1795 or 6, he was appointed health 
 physician for the port of New York, and, 
 in 1798, published Letters from the 
 Health Office, submitted to the New 
 York Common Council, being a series of 
 letters in the years '96-7-8. One letter, 
 dated Dec. 4, 1798, assigns the reasons 
 why the fever in '98 was more exten- 
 sively prevalent than in '95, 6 or 7, which 
 he considers to be the rains flooding large 
 portions of the city, its low levels, new- 
 made ground, and a hot sun. In 1798, a 
 correspondence took place between the 
 cities of New York and Philadelphia, in 
 the course of which a proposition was 
 made by the committee of the latter to that 
 of the former, soliciting their co-operation 
 in a memorial to the general government 
 for a quarantine law. This gave doctor 
 B., who was on the New York commit- 
 tee, an opportunity of impressing upon 
 the general government the propriety of 
 establishing a lazaretto, below and at a 
 distance from the city or port of entry. 
 He was the person to whom the state of 
 New York is, in fact, chiefly indebted for 
 its quarantine laws, although they have 
 since been altered and amended. In Au- 
 gust, 1801, doctor B., in the discharge of 
 his duty as health physician, enjoined the 
 passengers and crew of an Irish emigrant 
 ship, afflicted with the ship fever, to go on 
 shore to the rooms and tents appointed 
 for them, leaving their luggage behind. 
 The next morning, on going to the hospi- 
 tal, he 'found that both crew and passen- 
 gers, well, sick and dying, were huddled 
 together in one apartment, where they 
 had passed the night. He inconsiderately 
 entered into this room before it had been 
 properly ventilated, but remained scarce- 
 ly a moment, being obliged to retire by a 
 most deadly sickness at the stomach, and 
 violent pain in the head, with which he 
 was suddenly seized. He returned home* 
 and retired to his bed, from which he 
 never rose. In the afternoon of the 
 seventh day following, he expired. 
 
 BAYONET. This is the name of the 
 iron blade, formed like a dagger, and 
 placed upon the muzzle of the musket, 
 which is thus transformed into a thrusting
 
 BAYONET BEAR. 
 
 17 
 
 weapon. It was probably invented, about 
 1640, in Bayonne, and was used in the 
 Netherlands, in 1647, but was not univer- 
 sally introduced until after the pike was 
 wholly laid aside, in the beginning of the 
 18th century. Since the general war in Eu- 
 rope, some officers have adopted the idea 
 of former military writers (for instance, 
 Guibert), of increasing the efficiency of 
 the bayonet by a more regular exercise of 
 the infantry in its use. A Saxon captain, 
 von Selmnitz, has the merit of having 
 first developed this idea in a systematic 
 treatise. (See The Art of Fighting with the 
 Bayonet, by E. von Selmnitz, Dresden, 
 1825, with copperplates.) As cavalry are 
 often counted by horses, infantry are 
 sometimes counted by bayonets. 
 
 BATOX>~E ; a well-built, rich, commer- 
 cial city, the largest in the French de- 
 partment of the Lower Pyrenees, formerly 
 capital of the district Labour, hi Gascony 
 (Ion. 1 24' W. ; lat. 43 2^ N.), at the 
 confluence of the Nive and the Adour, 
 about two miles from the bay of Biscay. 
 It has 13,600 inhabitants, 6000 of whom 
 live in the suburbs. The Nive and the 
 Adour (the former of which is navigable 
 about 30, and the latter 70 miles) form a 
 harbor capable of admitting men of war 
 from 40 to 50 guns, but it has a difficult 
 access. These two rivers serve to convey 
 timber, tar and iron from the Pyrenees to 
 B. A citadel, built by Vauban, on the 
 summit of an eminence in the suburb, 
 commands the harbor and the city. The 
 bishop of B. is under the archbishop of 
 Toulouse, and exercises spiritual jurisdic- 
 tion over three departments. The cathe- 
 dral is a beautiful ancient building. B. 
 has considerable commerce with Spam ; 
 French and foreign goods being ex- 
 changed for iron, fruit, gold and silver. 
 B. is much engaged in the cod and whale 
 fishery, in which, before the revolution, 
 30 40 vessels of 250 tons burthen were 
 employed. Masts and other timber for 
 ship-building, from the Pyrenees, are ex- 
 ported to Brest and other ports of France. 
 The hams of B. are famous. Its wine 
 and chocolate are shipped to the north of 
 Europe. Among the lower class, the an- 
 cient Biscayan or Basque language is 
 spoken. Catharine of Medicis had an 
 important interview with the duke of Al- 
 ba in B., June 1565. The meeting of Na- 
 poleon with the king of Spain, Charles 
 IV, and the prince of the Asturias, also 
 took place here in May, 1808, in conse- 
 quence of which the two last signed (5th 
 and 10th May) an agreement, by which 
 the}-, and all the children of the king, 
 2* 
 
 transferred their rights to the Spanish 
 territories, in Europe and India, to the 
 French emperor. Napoleon convened a 
 Spanish general junta at B., June 15th, to 
 draw up a constitution. This constitution 
 was published July 6, and Joseph depart- 
 ed, on the 9th, from B. for Madrid. The 
 convention of B., between the Poles and 
 France, was signed on the 10th May, 
 1808. (See Scholl's Traites de Paix, vol. 
 9, page 28.) The transactions at B. are 
 some of the most important in Napoleon's 
 life, and disclose the wretched character 
 of the royal family of Spain. 
 
 BAZAR, BAZAAR, or BASAR ; a market- 
 place in the East. The word is Arabic, 
 and originally denotes sale or exchange. 
 Some are open, some covered with lofty 
 ceilings, or domes. At the bazars, or in 
 the neighborhood of them, are the coffee- 
 houses, so much frequented in Turkey, 
 Persia, &c. ; and, as the Orientals live al- 
 most entirely out of doors, the bazars of 
 populous cities, besides their mercantile 
 importance, are of consequence as places 
 of social intercourse. The bazar of Ispa- 
 han is one of the finest places in Persia, 
 That of Tauris is the largest known. At 
 Constantinople are two bazars the old 
 and new one. In the Oriental talcs, 
 for instance, in the Arabian Nights, the 
 bazars occupy a veiy conspicuous place. 
 Since the system of credit is almost en- 
 tirely unknown in Eastern trade, and all 
 commercial transactions take place in 
 merchandise and money, the places 
 where this merchandise is brought and 
 changed from one owner to another arc, 
 of course, very much frequented. The 
 word bazar has been used, in recent times, 
 also, in Europe. Thus there is the well- 
 known bazar in Soho square, in London. 
 
 BEACON. (See Signals, and Lighthouse.} 
 
 BEAGLE ; a species of the genus dog, 
 kept entirely for hunting hares. They 
 are small, and much inferior to the hare 
 in swiftness, but have a very delicate 
 scent, and seldom fail of running her 
 down. 
 
 BEAR (ursus, L.) ; a genus of carniv- 
 orous, or, more accurately, frugi-camiv- 
 orous, mammiferous quadrupeds, belong- 
 ing to the family plantigrada, which tread 
 on the entire soles of the [hind] feet. 
 The genus is characterized by a heavy 
 body, covered with a thick, woolly coat, 
 a large head, terminating in a prolonged 
 snout, with very extensible lips. The 
 ears are of moderate size, and rather 
 pointed, and the tongue smooth. The 
 limbs are large and heavy, and all the 
 feet are five-toed, and furnished with
 
 18 
 
 BEAR BEARD. 
 
 very strong, hooked claws, well suited 
 for burrowing. Five species at present 
 belong to this genus. The Linnaean genus 
 comprised the raccoon, badger, &c., now, 
 properly, separated from it. These spe- 
 cies are, the brown bear of Europe (17. 
 arctos) ; the white or polar bear ( U. mar- 
 itimus); the American or black bear (U. 
 Americanus) ; the grisly bear ( U. horrib- 
 ilis), also of America; and the Malay- 
 an or Asiatic bear (U, labiatus). The 
 brown bear is chiefly an inhabitant of 
 cold and elevated situations, and feeds on 
 a great variety of animal and vegetable 
 substances. During winter, this species, 
 like some others, remains torpid in caves, 
 whither it retires, in. the autumn, very fat, 
 and comes out, in the spring, extremely 
 emaciated. The brown bear is remarka- 
 ble for its sagacity, as well as the ferocity 
 of its disposition, and it becomes espe- 
 cially sanguinary as it advances in age. 
 Besides the differences of color and size 
 which distinguish this bear from those 
 belonging to the old continent, it differs 
 from the American bears, by having a 
 convexity of front above the eyes, which 
 renders its physiognomy strikingly dis- 
 similar to theirs. Other distinctions, suffi- 
 ciently obvious, present themselves when 
 the species are compared. The polar, or 
 maritime bear, is only found in high 
 northern latitudes, along the borders of 
 the Icy ocean and northern coasts of 
 America in the vicinity of Hudson's bay. 
 It does not descend to the easteni coast 
 of Siberia nor Kamtschatka ; neither is it 
 found in the islands lying between Sibe- 
 ria and America. It is uniformly white, 
 attains a large size, is very powerful, fe- 
 rocious and daring. It is an excellent 
 diver and swimmer, being apparently as 
 much at home in the ocean as on land. 
 An individual of this species was seen, by 
 the late northern explorers, in the mid- 
 dle of Melville sound, swimming across, 
 where the shores were at least 30 miles 
 apart. The polar bear is the most exclu- 
 sively carnivorous of the genus, though 
 equally capable of living on vegetable 
 food with the rest. He preys upon seals, 
 the cubs of the whale, morse, &c., or the 
 carcasses of whales left by whalers after 
 removing the blubber. Individuals of 
 this species are sometimes, though rarely, 
 seen in caravans of wild animals in the 
 U. States. A large and beautiful one was 
 exhibited in New York, in the spring of 
 1826, and, notwithstanding the coolness 
 of the weather, it appeared to suffer ex- 
 tremely from heat, as it bathed itself 
 frequently in water provided for the pur- 
 
 pose. When ice was placed in the cage, 
 it rolled upon it with great satisfaction, 
 and showed every sign of being gratified. 
 The black bear of America is distin- 
 guished by its color and a peculiarly con-- 
 vex facial outline. It is found very gen- 
 erally in mountainous and forest "land;-, 
 and subsists, in a great degree, on berries 
 and vegetable substances, though it preys 
 upon small animals, and insects, which h 
 searches for industriously, by turning over 
 large logs of decayed timber. It is rarely, 
 if ever, known to attack man, unless in 
 self-defence. It is very fond of young 
 com and honey, which, being an expert 
 climber, like the brown European bear, it 
 obtains by plundering the wild bees. 
 The grisly bear inhabits the country ad- 
 jacent to the Rocky mountains, and is, 
 of all the race, the most dreadful for size, 
 strength and terrible ferocity of nature.* 
 The Malay, Asiatic or long-lipped bear, 
 is a native of the mountainous parts of 
 India, and feeds on white ants, rice, honey, 
 the fruit of the palm, &c. The spe- 
 cies is inoffensive and timid, burrows in 
 the ground, and lives in pairs, together 
 with the young, which, when alarmed, 
 seek safety by mounting on the backs of 
 the parents. 
 
 BEARD ; the hair round the chin, on 
 the cheeks and the upper lip, which is a 
 distinction of the male sex. It difiVrs 
 from the hair on the head by its greater 
 hardness and its form. The beard begins 
 to grow at the time of puberty. The 
 connexion between the beard and puber- 
 ty is evident from this, among other cir- 
 cumstances, that it never grows in the 
 case of eunuchs who have been such 
 from childhood ; but the castration of 
 adults does not cause the loss of the 
 beard. According to Caesar, the Ger- 
 mans thought, and perhaps justly, the 
 late growth of the beard favorable to the 
 developement of all the powers. But there 
 are cases in which this circumstance is an 
 indication of feebleness. It frequently 
 takes place in men of tender constitution, 
 whose pale color indicates little power. 
 The beards of different nations afford an 
 interesting study. Some have hardly 
 any, others a great profusion. The latter 
 generally consider it as a great ornament ; 
 the former pluck it out ; as, for instance, 
 the American Indians. The character 
 of the beard differs with that of the indi- 
 vidual, and, in the case of nations, varies 
 
 * For the detailed history of this and the two 
 preceding species, too extensive to be introduced 
 into this work, see the first volume of the Ameri- 
 can Natural History, by the writer of this article.
 
 BEARD BEATIFICATION. 
 
 19 
 
 with the climate, food, &c. Thus the 
 beard is generally dark, dry, hard and 
 thin in irritable persons of full age : the 
 same is the case with the inhabitants of 
 hot and diy countries, as the Arabians, 
 Ethiopians, East Indians, Italians, Span- 
 iards. But persons of a very mild dis- 
 position have a light-colored, thick and 
 slightly curling beard : the same is the 
 case with inhabitants of cold and humid 
 countries, as Holland, England, Sweden. 
 The difference of circumstances causes 
 all shades of variety. The nature of the 
 nourishment, likewise, causes a great va- 
 riety in the beard. Wholesome, nutri- 
 tious and digestible food makes the beard 
 soft ; but poor, dry and indigestible food 
 renders it hard and bristly. In general, 
 the beard has been considered, with all 
 nations, as an ornament, and often as a 
 mark of the sage and the priest. Moses 
 forbade the Jews to shave their beards. 
 With the ancient Germans, the cutting off 
 another's beard was a high offence ; with 
 the East Indians, it is severely punished. 
 Even now, the beard is regarded as a 
 mark of great dignity among many na- 
 tions in the East, as the Turks. The 
 custom of shaving is said to have come 
 into use during the reigns of Louis XIII 
 and XIV of France, both of whom as- 
 cended the throne without a beard. 
 Courtiers and inhabitants of cities then 
 began to shave, in order to look like the 
 king, and, as France soon took the lead 
 in all matters of fashion on the continent 
 of Europe, shaving became general ; but 
 it is only since the beginning of the last 
 century, that .havii;g oil' the whole 
 beard has become common. Till then, 
 fashion had given divers forms to inus- 
 tachioes and beards. Much could be 
 said, and has been said, in a medical point 
 of view, on shaving the beard. Such a 
 discussion would lead us. however, here 
 too far. It is not to be denied, that the 
 mouth, one of the most expressive parts 
 of the countenance, is shown to much 
 better advantage in consequence of shav- 
 ing: but, at the same time, old age ap- 
 pears to much greater disadvantage, the 
 beard concealing the loss of the" teeth. 
 Moreover, the eye gains much in ex- 
 pression by a full beard. Every one 
 knows the trouble of shaving' ; and who 
 does not remember Byron's computa- 
 tion of the amount of this trouble in 
 Don Juan ? Seume, a German author, 
 says, in his journal, " To-day I threw my 
 powder apparatus out of the window : 
 when will come the blessed day, that I 
 shall send the shaving apparatus after it !" 
 
 Shaving, among many ancient nations, 
 was the mark of mourning ; with others, 
 it was the contrary. Plutarch says that 
 Alexander introduced shaving among the 
 Greeks, by ordering his soldiers to cut 
 off their beards ; but it appears that this 
 custom had prevailed before among the 
 Macedonians. The Romans began to 
 shave about 454 A. U., 296 B. C., when 
 a certain Ticinius Mosnas, a barber from 
 Sicily, introduced this fashion. Scipio 
 Africanus was the first who shaved every 
 day. The day that a young man first 
 shaved was celebrated, and the first hair 
 cut off was sacrificed to a deity. Adrian, 
 in order to cover some large warts on his 
 chin, renewed the fashion of long beards ; 
 but it did not last long. In mourning, 
 the Romans wore a long beard some- 
 times for years. They used scissors, ra- 
 zors, tweezers, &c., to remove the beard. 
 The public barber shops (tonstrince), where 
 the lower classes went, were much re- 
 sorted to ; rich people kept a shaver (ton- 
 sor) among their slaves. 
 
 BEAR.V ; before the revolution, a prov- 
 ince of France, at the foot of the Pyre- 
 nees, with the title of a principality ; 
 about 42 miles long and 36 broad ; bound- 
 ed E. by Bigorre, N. by Armagnac, Tur- 
 san and Chalosse, W. by Dax, a part of 
 Soule, and the Lower Navarre, and S. by 
 the Pyrenees. It belonged, with Navarre, 
 to Henry IV, when he obtained the 
 crown. The plain country is very fertile, 
 and the mountains are covered with fir- 
 trees, while within are mines of copper, 
 lead and iron ; and the little hills are 
 planted with vines, which yield good 
 wine. It is now included in the depart- 
 ment of Lower Pyrenees. Pan was the 
 capital town. Pop. about 220,000. 
 
 BEATIFICATION, in the Roman Catholic 
 church ; an act by which the pope declares 
 a person beatified or blessed after his death, 
 It is the first step to canonization, i. e. 
 the raising one to the honor and dignity 
 of a saint. No person can be beatified 
 till 50 years after his or her death. All 
 certificates or attestations of virtues and 
 miracles, the necessary qualifications for 
 saintship, are examined by the congrega- 
 tion of rites. This examination often 
 continues for several years ; after which 
 his holiness decrees the beatification. 
 The corpse and relics of the future saint 
 are from thenceforth exposed to the ven- 
 eration of all good Christians ; his image 
 is crowned with rays, and a particular 
 office is set apart for him ; but his body 
 and relics are not carried in procession. 
 Indulgences, likewise, and remissions of
 
 20 
 
 BEATIFICATION BEATTIE. 
 
 sins, are granted on the day of his beatifi- 
 cation ; which, though not so pompous as 
 that of canonization, is, however, very 
 splendid. Beatification differs from can- 
 onization in this, that the pope does not 
 act as a judge in determining the state 
 of the beatified, but only grants a privi- 
 lege to certain persons to honor him by a 
 particular religious worship, without in- 
 curring the penalty of superstitious wor- 
 shippers ; but, in canonization, the pope 
 speaks as a judge, and determines, ex ca- 
 thedra, upon the state of the canonized. 
 Beatification was introduced when it was 
 thought proper to delay the canonization 
 of saints, for the greater assurance of the 
 truth of the steps taken in the procedure. 
 Some particular orders of monks have 
 assumed to themselves the power of be- 
 atification. Thus Octavia Melchiorica 
 was beatified by the Dominicans. (See 
 Canonization.) 
 
 BEATON, David, archbishop of St. An- 
 drews, and cardinal, was born in 1494. 
 Pope Paul III raised him to the rank of 
 cardinal in December, 1538 ; and, being 
 employed by James V in negotiating his 
 marriage at the court of France, he was 
 there consecrated bishop of Mirepoix. 
 Soon after his instalment as archbishop, 
 he promoted a furious persecution of the 
 reformers in Scotland ; but the king's 
 death put a stop, for a time, to his arbi- 
 trary proceedings, he being then excluded 
 from affairs of government, and confined. 
 He raised, however, so strong a party, 
 that, upon the coronation of the young 
 queen Mary, he was admitted into the 
 council, made chancellor, and received a 
 commission as legate a latere from Home. 
 He now began to renew his persecution 
 of heretics, and, among the rest, of the 
 famous Protestant preacher George Wis- 
 hart, whose sufferings at the stake he 
 viewed from his window, with apparent 
 exultation. B. was murdered in his 
 chamber, May 29, 1530. He united with 
 great talents equally great vices, and left 
 several children, the fruit of open concu- 
 binage. 
 
 BEATTIE, James, LL. D., a pleasing 
 poet and miscellaneous writer, was bom 
 at Lawrencekirk, in the county of Kin- 
 cardine, in 1735. He lost his father when 
 he was only seven years of age, but was 
 placed early at the only school his birth- 
 place afforded, whence he was removed 
 to Marischal college, Aberdeen. He there 
 studied Greek, under the principal, Thom- 
 as Blackwell, and made a general profi- 
 ciency in every branch of education, 
 except mathematics. In 1753, he ob- 
 
 tained the degree of A. M., and accepted 
 the office of school-master and parieh- 
 clerk to the parish of Fordoun, looking 
 forward to the church of Scotland as his 
 principal prospect, for which reason he 
 still attended, during winter, the divinity 
 lectures at Marischal college. In June, 
 1758, these views were somewhat chang- 
 ed, by the attainment of the situation of 
 one of the masters of the grammar- 
 school of Aberdeen. In 1761, he pub- 
 lished a volume of poems, which were 
 received favorably, but which he subse- 
 quently thought very little of, and en- 
 deavored to buy up. They nevertheless 
 procured him some powerful friends, 
 whose patronage obtained him the ap- 
 pointment of professor of moral philoso- 
 phy and logic at Marischal college. In 
 1765, he published a poem, the Judg- 
 ment of Paris, (4to.), which proved a fail- 
 ure, although it was afterwards added to 
 a new edition of his poems, in 1766. The 
 work which procured him the greatest 
 fame was his Essay on Truth, which 
 first appeared in 1770. It was so popular, 
 that, in four years, five large editions were 
 sold ; and it was translated into several 
 foreign languages. Among other marks 
 of respect, the university of Oxford con- 
 ferred on the author the degree of LL. I). ; 
 and George III honored him, on his visit 
 to London, with a private conference and 
 a pension. He was also solicited to enter 
 the church of England by flattering pro- 
 posals from the archbishop of Yorik and 
 the bishop of London ; which proposals 
 he declined, lest his opponents should 
 attribute the change to self-interest. The 
 popularity of this celebrated essay, which 
 was written in opposition to the prevalent 
 scepticism of Hume and others, was prin- 
 cipally owing to its easiness of style, and 
 to a mode of treating the subject, calcu- 
 lated for the meridian of slight scholar- 
 ship and medium intellect. This is often 
 a great source of immediate celebrity ; 
 but, thus produced, it is usually as transi- 
 tory as spontaneous, which has proved 
 the case in the present instance. A few 
 months after the appearance of the Essay 
 on Truth, B. published the first book of 
 the Minstrel (4to.), and, in 1774, the sec- 
 ond ; which pleasing poem is, indisputa- 
 bly, the work by which he will be the 
 longest remembered. To a splendid edi- 
 tion of his Essay on Truth, published, by 
 subscription, in 1776, he added some mis- 
 cellaneous dissertations on Poetry and 
 Music, Laughter and Ludicrous Compo- 
 sition, &c. In 1783, he published Dis- 
 sertations, Moral and Critical (4to.) ; and
 
 BEATTIE BEAUHARNAIS. 
 
 21 
 
 in 1786, appeared his Evidences of the 
 Christian Religion (2 vols., 12mo.) In 
 1790, he published the first volume of his 
 Elements of Moral Science, the second 
 of which followed in 1793 ; and to the 
 latter was appended a dissertation against 
 the slave-trade. His last publication was 
 an Account of the Life, Character and 
 Writings of his eldest son, James Henry 
 Beattie, an amiable and promising young 
 man, who died at the age of 22, in 1790. 
 This great affliction was followed, in 
 17S.Ki, by the equally premature death of 
 his youngest and only surviving son, in 
 his iBtli year ; which losses, added to the 
 melancholy loss of reason by his wife, 
 wholly subdued his constitution ; and, 
 after two paralytic strokes, he died at 
 Aberdeen, in August, 1803. B. was a 
 religious and an amiable man, but consti- 
 tutionally more calculated for a poet than 
 a philosopher, and for a pleader than a 
 controversialist. He was, however, a re- 
 spectable, if not a strong writer, and 
 might have been thought more of at 
 present, had he been thought less of 
 heretofore. 
 
 BEACCAIRE ; a small, well-built, com- 
 mercial city of France, with 8000 inhab- 
 itants (lon.'4 43' E. ; Int. 43 46' N.), in 
 Lower Longuedoc, now hi the depart- 
 ment of the Gard, on the right bank of 
 the Rhone, opposite Tarascon, with which 
 it communicates by a bridge of boats. It 
 has a commodious harbor for vessels 
 which ascend the river from the Mediter- 
 ranean, 7 leagues distant, and is famous 
 for its great fair (founded in 1217, by 
 Raymond II, count of Toulouse), held 
 yearly, from the 22d July, during 10 days. 
 In former times, this fair was frequented 
 by merchants and manufacturers from 
 most countries of Europe, the Levant, 
 and even from Persia and Armenia, so 
 that many thousand booths were erected 
 for foreigners in the adjoining valley. 
 Before 1632, the fair of B. was exempt 
 from all taxes, and the annual sale 
 amounted to several million dollars. 
 Since that time, B. has gradually declined, 
 and its trade, the articles of which are the 
 productions of the vicinity, was valued, 
 in 1816, at 23,000,000 francs. 
 
 BEAUFORT ; a seaport and post-town 
 in a district of the same name, in South 
 Carolina, on Port Royal island, at the 
 mouth of the Coosawhatchie ; 60 miles 
 N. E. Savannah, 72 S. W. Charleston ; 
 Ion. 80 33' W. ; lat 32 31' N. ; popula- 
 tion about 1000. It is a very pleasant 
 and healthy town, with an excellent har- 
 bor, though but little commerce. It con- 
 
 tains 3 churches and a seminary, which 
 was incorporated as a college, endowed 
 with funds amounting to 60 or $70,000, 
 having a handsome edifice, and a library 
 of 700 volumes, but it has hitherto as- 
 sumed only the form of an academy. 
 
 BEAUFORT, Henry, legitimate brother 
 of Henry IV, king of England, was made 
 bishop of Lincoln, whence he was trans- 
 lated to Winchester. He was also nom- 
 inated chancellor of the kingdom, and 
 sent ambassador to France. In 1426, he 
 received a cardinal's hat, and was ap- 
 pointed legate hi Germany. In 1431, he 
 crowned Henry VI in the great church 
 of Paris. He died at Winchester, 1447. 
 He was a haughty, turbulent prelate, and 
 Shakspeare is considered as giving a true 
 portrait of him, when he describes his 
 last scene. 
 
 BEAUHARNAIS, Alexander, viscount ; 
 born in 1760, in Martinique ; served with 
 distinction, as major, in the French forces 
 under Rochambeau, which aided the U. 
 States in their revolutionary war ; married 
 Josephine Tascher de la Pagerie, who 
 was afterwards the wife of Napoleon. 
 At the breaking out of the French revo- 
 lution, he was chosen a member of the 
 national assembly, of which he was, for 
 some time, president, and which he open- 
 ed, after the king's departure, with the 
 following words : Messieurs, le roi est 
 parti cdte nuit : passons a Vordre du jour. 
 In 1792, he was general of the army of 
 the Rhine, and, in 1793, was appointed 
 minister of war. In consequence of the 
 decree removing men of noble birth from 
 the army, he retired to his country-seat. 
 He was falsely accused of having pro- 
 moted the surrender of Mentz, and was 
 sentenced to death, July 23, 1794, when 
 34 years old. (For information respecting 
 his son Eugene, viceroy of Italy, see 
 Eugene ; respecting his daughter Hor- 
 tense, see Louis Bonaparte ; and respect- 
 ing his elder brother, Francois Beauhar- 
 nais, see the next article.) 
 
 BEAUHARNAIS, Francois, marquis de ; 
 born at La Rochelle, Aug. 12, 1756 ; voted 
 with the right side in the national assem- 
 bly. He violently opposed the motion 
 of his younger brother, the viscount Al- 
 exander, to take from the king die chief 
 command of the army, and would not 
 listen to any of the amendments pro- 
 posed, saying, E n'y a point d'amendement 
 avec Vhonneur. He was called, in conse- 
 quence of this, le feal Beauharnais sans 
 amendement. In 1792, with the count 
 d'Hervilly, the baron de Viomenil and 
 others, he formed the project of a new
 
 BEAUHARNAIS BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER. 
 
 flight of the royal family ; but the arrest 
 of his companion, the baron Chambon, 
 prevented the execution of the plan. He 
 was appointed major-general in the army 
 of the prince of Conde, and wrote, in 
 1792, to the president of the national 
 assembly, protesting against their unlaw- 
 ful treatment of the king, and offering to 
 appear himself among his defenders. 
 When Bonaparte became first consul, the 
 marquis sent him a letter, in which he 
 exhorted him, by the glory which he 
 would gain by such a course, to restore 
 the sceptre to the house of Bourbon. 
 The empress Josephine married her 
 niece, the daughter of the marquis, to 
 the emperor's aid, Lavalette (q. v.), and 
 effected the recall of the marquis. Ap- 
 pointed senator, and ambassador to the 
 court of Spain, he united, in 1 807, with 
 the prince of the Asturias (now Ferdinand 
 VII), against the prince of peace, and fell 
 into disgrace with Napoleon, who ban- 
 ished him. After the restoration, he re- 
 turned to Paris, where he died, Jan. 10, 
 1819. 
 
 BEAUMARCHAIS, Pierre Augustin Caron 
 de ; born at Paris, 1732 ; son of a watch- 
 maker, who destined him for his trade. 
 He early gave striking proofs of his me- 
 chanical and also of his musical talents. 
 He was afterwards the teacher on the 
 harp of the daughters of Louis XV, and 
 was admitted into then* society. By a 
 rich marriage, he laid the foundation of 
 his immense wealth. He now aspired to 
 literary reputation. His Eugenie appear- 
 ed in 1767 ; Les deux Amis in 1770. The 
 first still holds its place on the stage. He 
 showed all his talent in his lawsuit against 
 Goesman and La Blache, when he wrote 
 against the former (who belonged to the 
 parlament Maupeou, so called, which was 
 engaged in a dispute with the ministry) 
 his celebrated Memoires (Paris, 1774), 
 which entertained all France. Had he 
 remained more quiet, he probably would 
 have gamed his process. The fame of 
 his Memoires alarmed even Voltaire, who 
 was jealous of every kind of glory. The 
 Barber of Seville and the Marriage of 
 Figaro have given him a permanent rep- 
 utation. Shortly before the revolution, 
 he was involved in the process against 
 the banker Kornmann. In 1792, he 
 wrote La Mbre coupable, but never re- 
 gained his former fame. He was once 
 more in his true element in his memoir 
 Mes six fipoques. He relates, in that 
 work, the dangers to which he was ex- 
 posed, in a revolution, where a celebrated 
 name, talent and riches, were sufficient 
 
 causes of proscription. He still possess- 
 ed, at the age of more than sixty, all the 
 vigor of his youth, and had lost nothing 
 but his gayety. His contract to supply 
 the U. States with military stores, during 
 their revolutionary war, had increased his 
 fortune, of which he always made a noble 
 use ; but he lost about a million livres by 
 his famous edition of the works of Vol- 
 taire, the very imperfect execution of 
 which was not answerable to the im- 
 mense cost. He lost still more, at the end 
 of 1792, by his attempt to provide the 
 French army with 60,000 muskets. Dis- 
 contented with the present, despairing of 
 the future, wearied with struggling against 
 the revolution and his creditors for the 
 ruins of his wealth, he died, at the age of 
 69 years, without any particular disease, 
 in May, 1799. His biography appeared 
 in 1802 ; and, in 1809, an edition of his 
 works, in 7 vols. B. was a singular in- 
 stance of versatility of talent, being at 
 once an artist, politician, projector, mer- 
 chant and dramatist. He was passion- 
 ately attached to celebrity. His Marriage 
 of .Figaro excited one of those extraor- 
 dinary sensations, for which Paris has 
 always been remarkable. The English 
 modifications and versions of this comedy 
 convey but a slight notion of the mis- 
 chievous subtlety and deep spirit of in- 
 trigue in the original. B. left to his heirs 
 a claim against the U. States of a million 
 of francs for supplies furnished during the 
 war, which has been repeatedly presented 
 to congress, but always rejected on the 
 ground that B. acted only as the agent of 
 the French government, from whom he 
 received funds to that amount. 
 
 BEAUMONT, Francis, and FLETCHER, 
 John ; two dramatic writers. The former 
 was born in 1585, studied at Oxford, and 
 died in 1616 ; the latter was born at Lon- 
 don in 1576, and died there, in 1625, of 
 the plague. Animated by the same in- 
 clination, they both devoted themselves 
 to poetry. Their plays, about 50, ap- 
 peared under their joint names (London, 
 1679, and lately, 1812, in 14 vols.), and it 
 is impossible now to determine their re- 
 spective shares hi these productions. 
 According to the testimony of some of 
 their contemporaries, Fletcher was the 
 inventing genius, while Beaumont, though 
 the younger, was more distinguished for 
 maturity and correctness of judgment. 
 Shakspeare was their model, and, like 
 him, they intermix pathetic and low 
 comic scenes ; but their attempts to sur- 
 pass their model sometimes lead them 
 into extravagances. The desire, also, o4"
 
 BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER BEAVER. 
 
 23 
 
 pleasing the public at times induces them 
 to deviate from a correct standard of 
 taste. They succeed best in comic scenes. 
 Their contemporaries preferred them 
 even to Shakspeare, affirming that the 
 English drama reached its perfection in 
 them. Impartial posterity has reversed 
 this decision, and adjudged the palm to 
 Shakspeare. They are said to have fre- 
 quented taverns and alehouses, to study 
 the human character, and to have been 
 arrested, while disputing in such a place 
 respecting the conclusion of a play. One 
 wished to have the king in the piece 
 assassinated, the other opposed it ; and, 
 being overheard, they were apprehended 
 on suspicion of conspiring the death of 
 their sovereign. 
 
 BEAUMONT, madame Leprince de ; born 
 at Rouen, 1711 ; died at Annecy, in Sa- 
 voy, 1780 ; lived partly in France, partly 
 in England, where she devoted her tal- 
 ents to the instruction of youth. A sim- 
 ple and easy style, a pleasing moral, well 
 chosen historical passages, and a happy 
 imagination, render her writings agreea- 
 ble, although much is too artificial, and 
 the theological views are no longer of 
 value. She has written a great many 
 romances and works for children. Her 
 Magazin des Enfans was formerly the 
 manual of all goveruautes and French 
 boarding-schools. 
 
 BEAUTY. (See Philosophy.) 
 
 BEAVER (castor, L.) ; a genus of clavic- 
 ulated, mammiferous quadrupeds, of the 
 order glires, L., rodentia, C., or gnawers. 
 Having drawn up, with great care, the 
 natural history of this species in another 
 work (American Natural History, vol. ii., 
 p. 21), we shall avail ourselves of some 
 of the most interesting statements, and 
 refer the reader thereto for more ample 
 details, as well as for the fabulous history 
 of the animal. It is only hi a state of 
 nature that the beaver displays any of 
 those singular modes of acting, which 
 have so long rendered the species cele- 
 brated. These may be summed up in a 
 statement of the manner in which they 
 secure a depth of water that cannot be 
 frozen to the bottom, and their mode of 
 constructing the huts in which they pass 
 the winter. They are not particular as to 
 the site which they select for the establish- 
 ment of their dwellings, but if it is in a 
 lake or pond, where a dam is not re- 
 quired, they are careful to build where 
 the water is sufficiently deep. In stand- 
 ing waters, however, they have not the 
 advantage afforded by a current for the 
 transportation of then' supplies of wood, 
 
 which, when they build on a running 
 stream, is always cut higher up than the 
 place of their residence, and floated down. 
 The materials used for the construction 
 of their dams are the trunks and branches 
 of small birch, mulberry, willow and pop- 
 lar trees, &c. They begin to cut down 
 their timber for building early in the 
 summer, but their edifices are not com- 
 menced until about the middle or latter 
 part of August, and are not completed 
 until the beginning of the cold season. 
 The strength of their teeth, and their 
 perseverance in this work, may be fairly 
 estimated by the size of the trees they 
 cut down. Doctor Best informs us, that 
 he has seen a mulberry tree, eight inches 
 in diameter, which had been gnawed 
 down by the beaver. We were shown, 
 while on the banks of the Little Miami 
 river, several stumps of trees, which had 
 evidently been felled by these animals, 
 of at least five or six niches in diameter. 
 The trees are cut in such a way as to fall 
 into the water, and then floated towards 
 the site of the dam or dwellings. Small 
 shrubs, &c., cut at a distance, they drag 
 with their teeth to the stream, and then 
 launch and tow them to the place of de- 
 posit; At a short distance above a beaver 
 dam, the number of trees which have 
 been cut down appears truly surprising, 
 and the regularity of the stumps might 
 lead persons, unacquainted with the habits 
 of the animal, to believe that the clearing 
 was the result of human industry. The 
 figure of the dam varies according to cir- 
 cumstances. Should the current be very 
 gentle, the dam is carried nearly -straight 
 across ; but when the stream is swift, it 
 is uniformly made with a considerable 
 curve, having the convex part opposed to 
 the current. Along with the trunks and 
 branches of trees they intermingle mud 
 and stones, to give greater security ; and, 
 when dams have been long undisturbed 
 and frequently repaired, they acquire 
 great solidity, and their power of resist- 
 ing the pressure of water, ice, &c., is 
 greatly increased by the willow and birch 
 occasionally taking root, and eventually 
 growing up into something like a regular 
 hedge. The materials used in construct- 
 ing the dams are secured solely by the 
 resting of the branches, &c. against the 
 bottom, and the subsequent accumulation 
 of mud and stones by the force of the 
 stream, or by the industry of the beavers. 
 The dwellings of the beavers are form- 
 ed of the same materials as their dams, 
 are very rude, and adapted in size to the 
 number of their inhabitants : seldom more
 
 24 
 
 BEAVER BECCARIA. 
 
 than four old, or six or eight young ones, 
 are found in one of the lodges, though 
 double that number have been sometimes 
 seen. In building their houses, they place 
 most of the wood crosswise, and nearly 
 horizontally, observing no other order than 
 that of leaving a cavity in the middle. 
 Branches projecting inwards are cut off 
 with their teeth, and thrown among the 
 rest. The houses are not of sticks, and 
 then plastered, but of all the materials 
 used in the dams sticks, mud and stones, 
 if the latter can be procured. This com- 
 position is employed from the foundation 
 to the summit. The mud is obtained 
 from the adjacent banks or bottom of the 
 stream or pond near the door of the hut. 
 The beaver always carries mud or stones 
 by holding them between his fore paws 
 and throat. Their work is all perform- 
 ed at night, and with much expedition. 
 When straw or grass is mingled with the 
 mud used in building, it is an accident 
 owing to the nature of the spot whence 
 the mud is obtained. As soon as any 
 portion of the materials is placed, they 
 turn round, and give it a smart blow with 
 the tail. The same sort of blow is struck 
 by them on the surface of the water 
 when they are in the act of diving. The 
 outside of the hut is covered or plastered 
 with mud, late in the autumn, and after 
 frost has begun to appear. By freezing, 
 it soon becomes almost as hard as stone, 
 effectually excluding their great enemy, 
 the wolverene, during the winter. Their 
 habit of walking over the work frequent- 
 ly, has led to the absurd idea of their 
 using the tail as a trowel. The houses 
 are generally from four to six feet thick 
 at the apex of the cone : some have been 
 found as much as eight feet thick at top. 
 The door or entrance is always on the 
 side farthest from land, and is near the 
 foundation, or a considerable depth under 
 water : this is the only opening into the 
 hut. The large houses are sometimes 
 found to have projections of the main 
 building thrown out, for the better sup- 
 port of the roof, and this circumstance 
 has led to all the stories of the different 
 apartments in beaver huts. These larger 
 edifices, so far from having several apart- 
 ments, are double or treble houses, the 
 parts having no communication exqept by 
 water. It is a fact, that the muskrat is 
 sometimes found to have taken lodgings 
 in the huts of the beaver. The otter, 
 also, occasionally intrudes : he, however, 
 is a dangerous guest, for, should provis- 
 ions grow scarce, it is not uncommon for 
 him to devour his host. All the beavers 
 
 of a community do not co-operate in fab- 
 ricating houses for the common use of 
 the whole. The only affair in which 
 they have a joint interest, and upon which 
 they labor in concert, is the dam. Bea- 
 Vers also make excavations in the adjacent 
 banks, at regular distances from each 
 other, which have been called washes. 
 These are so enlarged within, that the 
 beaver can raise his head above water to 
 breathe without being seen, and, when 
 disturbed at their huts, they immediately 
 swim under water to these washes for 
 greater security, where they are easily 
 taken by the hunters. The food of the 
 beaver consists chiefly of the bark of the 
 aspen, willow, birch, poplar, and, occa- 
 sionally, alder : to the pine it rarely re- 
 sorts, unless from severe necessity. They 
 provide a stock of wood from the trees 
 first mentioned, during summer, and 
 place it in the water, opposite the en- 
 trance into their houses. The beaver 
 produces from two to five at a litter. It 
 is a cleanly animal, and always performs 
 its evacuations in the water, at a distance 
 from the hut : hence no accumulation of 
 filth is found near then- dwellings. The 
 beaver is about two feet in length ; its 
 body thick and heavy ; the head com- 
 pressed, and somewhat arched at the 
 front, the upper part rather narrow : the 
 snout much so. The eyes are placed 
 rather high on the head, and the pupils 
 arc rounded ; the ears are short, elliptical, 
 and almost concealed by the fur. The 
 skin is covered by two sorts of hair, of 
 which one is long, rather stiff, elastic, and 
 of a gray color for two thirds of its length 
 next the base, and terminated by shining, 
 reddish-brown points ; the other is short, 
 thick, tufted and soft, being of different 
 shades of silver-gray or light lead color. 
 The hair is shortest on the head and feet. 
 The hind legs are longer than the fore, 
 and are completely webbed. The tail is 
 10 or 11 inches long, and, except the 
 third nearest the body, is covered with 
 hexagonal scales. The third next the 
 body is covered with hair like that on the 
 back. (See Godman's Am. Nat. Hist., 
 vol. ii, p., 19, et seq.) 
 
 BECCARIA, Cesare Bonesana, marchese 
 di, bom at Milan, 1735, was early excited, 
 by Montesquieu's Lettres Persanes, to the 
 cultivation of his philosophical talents, 
 and afterwards favorably known as a phi- 
 losophical writer by his memorable work, 
 full of a noble philanthropy, Dei Delitti e 
 ddle Pene (On Crimes and Punishments), 
 Naples, 1764, and several others. With 
 the eloquence of true feeling, and a lively
 
 BECCARIA BECKET. 
 
 25 
 
 imagination, he opposes capital punish- 
 ments and the torture. This work led to 
 the establishment of more settled and 
 more correct principles of penal law, and 
 contributed to excite a general horror 
 against inhuman punishments. B. was a 
 true friend, a good son, a tender husband 
 and a real philanthropist. He is also 
 known, in Italy, as the author of a philo- 
 sophical grammar and theory of style, 
 Ricerche iittorno alia Natura deUo Stilo 
 (Milan, 1770), and of several good trea- 
 tises on style, on rhetorical ornament, &c., 
 contained in the journal II Caffe, edited 
 by him, in conjunction with his friends 
 Visconti, Verri and others. A fit of apo- 
 plexy put an end to his useful life in No- 
 vember, 1793. 
 
 BECCARIA, Giovanni Battista ; born, 
 1716, at Mondovi ; went to Rome in 1732, 
 where he studied, and afterwards taught 
 grammar and rhetoric ; at the same time, 
 he applied himself with success to math- 
 ematics. He was appointed professor of 
 philosophy at Palermo, and afterwards at 
 Rome. Charles Emanuel, king of Sar- 
 dinia, invited him to Turin, in 1748, to fill 
 the professorship of natural philosophy at 
 the university there. Electricity had, at 
 that time, through the experiments of 
 Franklin and others, become an object of 
 universal interest. He therefore published 
 his DelV Elettricismo naturale ed artifiziale 
 (Turin, 4to). The experiments which 
 this work contains on atmospherical elec- 
 tricity are so numerous and various, that 
 Priestley affirmed, in his Histoiy of Elec- 
 tricity, that Beccaria's labors far surpass 
 all that had been done, before and after 
 him, on this subject. The academies in 
 London and Bologna elected him a mem- 
 ber. He wrote many other valuable 
 works on this subject. The most impor- 
 tant, DtW Eletti-icismo artifiziale (1772), 
 contains all that was then known of elec- 
 tricity. Franklin, who esteemed the 
 works of B., had them translated into 
 English. In 1759, the king employed 
 him to measure a degree of the meridian 
 in Piedmont. He began the measure- 
 ment in 1760, together with the abbot 
 Canonica, and published the result in 
 1774. The doubts expressed by Cassini 
 of the exactness of this measurement, 
 drew from him his Lettere d'un Italiano ad 
 un Pang-mo, in which he showed the in- 
 fluence of the proximity of the Alps on 
 the deviation of the pendulum. As his 
 thoughts were entirely absorbed by his 
 studies, he often neglected the nicer rules 
 of good-breeding, without losing, however, 
 the general esteem. He died April 27, 1781. 
 
 VOL. II. 3 
 
 BECKER, John Joachim ; author of the 
 first theory of chemistry ; born at Spire, in 
 1635. He finished his restless life at Lon- 
 don, in 1685, after having resided in many 
 parts of Germany. He had many ene- 
 mies, and has been accused, not entirely 
 without justice, of charlatanry ; yet his in- 
 fluence on the science of chemistry gives 
 him still a claim to remembrance. He 
 brought it into a nearer connexion with 
 physics, and sought for the causes of all 
 the phenomena of the inorganic universe 
 in these two departments of science. 
 This is the object of his principal work, 
 Physica subten-anea. At the same time, 
 he began to form a theory of chemistry ; 
 and conceived the idea of a primitive acid, 
 of which all the others were only modifi- 
 cations. He also made researches into 
 the process of combustion. He main- 
 tained that every metal consists of a com- 
 mon earthy matter, of a common com- 
 bustible principle, and of a peculiar mer- 
 curial substance. If we heat a metal so 
 that it changes its form, we disengage the 
 mercurial substance, and nothing remains 
 but the metallic calx. This was the first 
 germ of the phlogistic theory, which was 
 further developed by Stahl, and prevailed 
 until the time of Lavoisier. The numer- 
 ous works of B. are, even now, not with- 
 out interest. 
 
 BECK, Christian Daniel ; one of the 
 most active living philologists and histori- 
 ans, born in Leipsic, Jan. 22, 1757. He 
 is professor at the university in that city, 
 and has rendered himself famous by a 
 great number of excellent works. His 
 editions of the classics are in high esteem. 
 Between 1787 and 1806 appeared the 4 
 volumes of his work, Introduction to a 
 Knowledge of the General History of the 
 World and of Nations, until the Discov- 
 ery of America. He also translated Gold- 
 smith's History of Greece, and Ferguson's 
 History of the Roman Republic. Of his 
 theological works, we may mention his 
 Commentarii hwtorici Decretorum Religio- 
 nrs Christiana, et Fornndce Luther (Leipsic, 
 1800). He has also edited a learned pe- 
 riodical work. 
 
 BECKET, Thomas, the most celebrated 
 Roman Catholic prelate in the English an- 
 nals, was born in London, 1119. He was 
 the son of Gilbert, a London merchant. 
 His mother is said to have been a Saracen 
 lady, to whose father Gilbert was prisoner, 
 in Jerusalem, being taken captive in one 
 of the crusades. The lady is said to have 
 fallen hi love with the prisoner, and to 
 have followed him to London, where he 
 married her. After studying at Oxford
 
 26 
 
 BECKET. 
 
 and Paris, B. was sent, by the favor of 
 Theobald, archbishop of Canterbury, to 
 study civil law at Bononia, in Italy, and, 
 on his return, was made archdeacon of 
 Canterbury and provost of Beverley. His 
 claim to the good opinion of Theobald was 
 founded on his skill in negotiation shown 
 in a matter of the highest importance to 
 England the soliciting from the pope the 
 prohibitory letters against the crowning of 
 Eustace, the son of Stephen, by which 
 that design was defeated. This service 
 not only raised Becket in the esteem of 
 the archbishop, but in that of king Henry 
 II, and was the foundation of his high 
 fortune. In 1158, he was appointed high 
 chancellor and preceptor to prince Henry, 
 and at this time was a complete courtier, 
 conforming, in every respect, to the hu- 
 mor of the king. He was, in fact, his 
 prime companion, had the same hours 
 of eating and going to bed, held splendid 
 levees, and courted popular applause. In 
 1159, he made a campaign with the king 
 in Toulouse, having in his own pay 700 
 knights and 1200 horsemen; and it is 
 said he advised'Henry to seize the person 
 of Louis, king .of France, shut up in 
 Toulouse withotit an army. This coun- 
 sel, however, so indicative of the future 
 martyr, being too bold for the lay coun- 
 sellors of one of the boldest monarchs of 
 the age, was declined. In the next year, 
 he visited Paris, to treat of an alliance be- 
 tween the eldest daughter of the king of 
 France and prince Henry, and returned 
 with the young princess to England. He 
 had not enjoyed the chancellorship more 
 than four years, when his patron Theo- 
 bald died, and king Henry was so far mis- 
 taken as to raise his favorite to the pri- 
 macy, on the presumption that he would 
 aid him in those political views, in respect 
 to church power, which all the sovereigns 
 of the Norman line embraced, and which, 
 in fact, caused a continual struggle, until 
 its termination by Henry VIII. It has 
 been asserted, that B. told the king what 
 he was to expect from him ; but, inde- 
 pendent of the appointment itself, there 
 is evidence to prove his eagerness to ob- 
 tain the dignity, and the disgust entertain- 
 ed by Henry at the first symptoms of the 
 real temper of the man whom he had been 
 so anxious to promote. B. was consecra- 
 ted archbishop in 1162, and immediately 
 affected an austerity of character which 
 formed a very natural prelude to the part 
 which he meant to play. Pope Alexan- 
 der III held a general council at Tours, 
 in 1163, at which B. attended, and made 
 a formal complaint of the infringements 
 
 by the laity on the rights and immunities 
 of the church. On his retuni to England, 
 he began to act in the spirit of this repre- 
 sentation, and to prosecute several of the 
 nobility and others, holding church posH 
 sessions, whom he also proceeded to ex- 
 communicate, Henry, an able and politic 
 monarch, was anxious to recall certain 
 privileges of the clergy, which withdrew 
 them from the jurisdiction of the civil 
 courts ; and it was not without a violent 
 struggle, and the mediation of the pope, 
 that B. finally acquiesced. The king 
 soon after summoned a convocation or 
 parliament at Clarendon, to the celebrated 
 constitution of which, although the arch- 
 bishop swore that he would never assent, 
 he at length subscribed it, and, alleging 
 something like force for his excuse, by 
 way of penance, suspended himself from 
 his archiepiscopal functions until the 
 pope's absolution could arrive. Finding 
 himself the object of the king's displeas- 
 ure, he soon alter attempted to escape to 
 France ; but, being intercepted, Henry, in a 
 parliament at Northampton, charged him 
 with a violation of his allegiance, and all 
 his goods were confiscated. A suit was al - 
 so commenced against him for money lent 
 him during his chancellorship, and for the 
 proceeds of the benefices which he had 
 held vacant while in that capacity. In 
 this desperate situation, he, with great 
 difficulty and danger, made his escape to 
 Flanders, and, proceeding to the pope at 
 Sens, humbly resigned his archbishopric, 
 which was, however, restored. He then 
 took up his abode at the abbey of Pon- 
 tigny, in Normandy, whence he issued ex- 
 postulatory letters to the king and bishops 
 of England, in which he excommunicated 
 all violators of the prerogatives of the 
 church, and included in the censure the 
 principal officers of the crown. Henry 
 was so exasperated, that he banished all 
 his relations, and obliged the Cistercians 
 to send him away from the abbey of Pon- 
 tigny ; from 'which he removed, on the 
 recommendation of the king of France, 
 to the abbey of Columbe, and spent four 
 years there in exile. After much nego- 
 tiation, a sort of reconciliation took place 
 in 1170, on the whole to the advantage of 
 Becket, who, being restored to his see, 
 with all its former privileges, behaved, on 
 the occasion, with excessive haughtiness. 
 After a triumphant entry into Canterbury, 
 the young king Henry, crowned during 
 the life-time of his father, transmitted 
 him an order to restore the suspended and 
 excommunicated prelates, which he re- 
 fused to do, on the pretence that the pope
 
 BECKET BEDE. 
 
 alone could grant the favor, although the 
 latter had lodged the instruments of cen- 
 sure in his hands. The prelates immedi- 
 ately appealed to Hemy in Normandy, 
 who, in a state of extreme exasperation, 
 exclaimed, " What an unhappy prince am 
 I, who have not about me one man of 
 spirit enough to rid me of a single inso- 
 lent prelate, the perpetual trouble of my 
 life!" These rash and too significant 
 words induced four attendant barons, 
 Reginald Fitz-Urse, William de Tracy, 
 Hugh de Morville and Richard Breto, to 
 ivsoive TO wipe out the king's reproach. 
 Having laid their plans, they forthwith 
 proceeded to Canterbury, and, having 
 formally required the archbishop to re- 
 ston; the suspended prelates, they return- 
 ed in the evening of the same day (Dec. 
 29, 1170), and, placing soldiers in the 
 court-yard, rushed, with their swords 
 drawn, into the cathedral, where the 
 archbishop was at vespers, and, advan- 
 cing towards him, threatened him with 
 death if he still disobeyed the orders of 
 Henry. B., without the least token of 
 fear, replied, that he was ready to die for 
 the rights of the church ; and magnani- 
 mously added, " I charge you, in the name 
 of tlje Almighty, not to hurt any other 
 person here, for none of them have been 
 concerned in the late transactions." The 
 (you federates then strove to drag him out 
 of the church ; but, not being able to do 
 so, on account of his resolute deportment, 
 they killed him on the spot with repeated 
 wounds, all which he endured without a 
 groan. The conduct of Henry, and the 
 consequences of this assassination, form a 
 part of English history wherein the dis- 
 cerning student will perceive the subtle 
 policy of the court of Rome, which eager- 
 ly availed itself of this opportunity to ad- 
 vance its general object, with a due 
 regard to the power of Henry and his 
 strength of character. The perpetrators 
 of the deed, on taking a voyage to Rome, 
 were admitted to penance, and allowed to 
 expiate their enormity in the Holy Land. 
 Thus perished Thomas B'ecket, in his 
 52d year, a martyr to the cause which he 
 espoused, and a man of unquestionable 
 vigor of intellect. He was canonized 
 two years after his death, and miracles 
 abounded at his tomb. In the reign of 
 Henry III, his body was taken up, and 
 placed in a magnificent shrine, erected 
 by archbishop Stephen Langton ; and of 
 the popularity of the pilgrimages to his 
 tomb, the Canterbury Tales of Chaucer 
 will prove an enduring testimony. 
 
 >\\, John, for almost 45 years 
 
 professor of philosophy, economy, policy, 
 finance and commerce in Gottingen, was 
 born at Hoya in 1739. In 1763, he was ap- 
 pointed, on Biisching's recommendation, 
 professor of the Lutheran gymnasium in 
 St. Petersburg. In 1766, he became pro- 
 fessor in Gottingen, where he lectured 
 with great success. B. died in 1811, be- 
 ing a member of most of the learned so- 
 cieties of the north of Europe. There 
 are a number of text-books, in the differ- 
 ent sciences above-mentioned, by him. 
 Among his other works is a History of 
 Inventions, Leipsic, 1780 1805, Svols. 
 
 BED, in gunnery ; the frame of tim- 
 ber or planks in which cannon, mortars, 
 &c. are placed, to give them a steady and 
 even position, necessary for aiming. 
 BED OF JUSTICE. (See Lit de Justice.) 
 BEDE, or BEDA, an eminent ecclesiastic 
 of the eighth century, usually called the 
 venerable Bede, was born in the year 672 
 or 673, in the neighborhood of Wear- 
 mouth, in the bishopric of Durham. 
 From the age of 7 to that of 19, he pursued 
 his studies in the monastery of 'St. Peter, 
 at Weal-mouth. Being then ordained 
 deacon, lie was employed in the task of 
 educating the youth who resorted to the 
 monastery for instruction, and pursued 
 his own studies with unremitting ardor. 
 In his thirtieth year, he was ordained 
 priest ; and, his fame for zeal and erudi- 
 tion reaching the ears of pope Sergius, he 
 was invited to Rome, but, in consequence 
 of the death of that pontiffj never went 
 there. It is not even certain that he ever 
 left Northumberland, which, of course, 
 reduces the incidents of his life to his lit- 
 erary pursuits and domestic occupations, 
 as he accepted no benefice, and never 
 seems to have interfered in civil transac- 
 tions. His church history was published 
 in 731. His last literary labor was a trans- 
 lation of the Gospel of St. John into Sax- 
 on, which he completed, with difficulty, 
 on the veiy day and hour of his death. 
 The writings of Bede were numerous 
 and important, considering the time in 
 which they were written, and the sub- 
 jects of which they treat, which extended 
 to ecclesiastical affairs, religion and edu- 
 cation only. His English- Ecclesiastical 
 History is the greatest and most popular 
 of his works, and has acquired additional 
 celebrity by the translation of king Alfred. 
 The collections which he made for it 
 were the labor of many years. Besides 
 his own personal investigations, he kept 
 up a correspondence with the monaste- 
 ries throughout the Heptarchv, to obtain 
 archives and records for his purpose ; and
 
 28 
 
 BEDE BEDFORD. 
 
 thus nearly all the knowledge possessed 
 of the early state of Christianity in his 
 country is due to B. There have been 
 several editions of the original Latin, 
 which is easy, although not elegant The 
 latest and best is that of Dr. Smith, Cam- 
 bridge, 1722. There is a translation into 
 English by Thomas Stapylton, D. D., Ant- 
 werp, 1505, besides the Saxon version of 
 Alfred. B. was also the author of many 
 other works, a catalogue of which he sub- 
 joined to his history. Several of these 
 were printed early ; but the first general 
 collection of his works was that of Paris, 
 1554, 3 vols. fol. Some of his treatises 
 have been published by Mr. Wharton, 
 from MSS. in the library at Lambeth pal- 
 ace, London, 4to, 1693. While the num- 
 ber and variety of the writings of B. show 
 the extent of his erudition, his probity, 
 moderation and modesty insured him 
 general respect ; and his disinterestedness 
 is proved by the fact, that he was never 
 any thing but an unbeneficed priest.. A 
 letter of advice, which he wrote, late in 
 life, to Egbert, archbishop of York, proves, 
 at once, the purity of his morals, the lib- 
 erality of his sentiments, and the excel- 
 lence of his discernment ; his wish being 
 to curtail the number of monasteries, and 
 to increase the efficacy and respectability 
 of the secular clergy. Notwithstanding 
 the veneration with which he was regard- 
 ed, not a single miracle is recorded of 
 him ; and, as monks were the great mira- 
 cle mongers, and his views of monastic 
 reform such as we have mentioned, this 
 is not surprising. The manner of the 
 death of this virtuous ecclesiastic was 
 striking and characteristic. He was dic- 
 tating a translation of the gospel of St. 
 John to an amanuensis. The young man 
 who wrote for him said, " There is now, 
 master, but one sentence wanting ;" upon 
 which he bade him write quickly ; and, 
 when the scribe said, " It is now done," 
 the dying sage ejaculated, "It is now 
 done," and a few minutes afterwards ex- 
 pired, in the act of prayer, on the floor of 
 his cell, in the 63d year of his age, in the 
 month of May, A. D. 735. 
 
 BEDDOES, Thomas ; a physician and 
 author ; born, 1760, at Shiffnal in Shrop- 
 shire ; died 1808. He was educated by 
 his grandfather. He made great progress 
 at school, in classical studies, and dis- 
 tinguished himself at Oxford by his 
 knowledge of ancient and modern lan- 
 guages and literature. The great discov- 
 eries in physics, chemistry and physiology, 
 irresistibly attracted him. He continued 
 his studies with success in London and 
 
 Edinburgh. In his 26th year, he took 
 his doctor's degree, afterwards visited 
 Paris, and formed an acquaintance with 
 Lavoisier. On his return, he was appoint- 
 ed professor of chemistry at Oxford. 
 There he published some excellent chem- 
 ical treatises, and Observations on the 
 Calculus, Sea-Scurvy, Consumption, Ca- 
 tarrh and Fever. But, dazzled by the 
 splendid promises of the French revolu- 
 tion, he offended some of his former ad- 
 mirers, and excited such a clamor against 
 him by the publication of his political 
 opinions, that he determined to resign his 
 professorship, and retired to the house of 
 his friend Mr. Reynolds, in Shropshire. 
 There he composed his observations on 
 the nature of demonstrative evidence, in 
 which he endeavors to prove, that mathe- 
 matical reasoning proceeds on the evi- 
 dence of the senses, and that geometry is 
 founded on experiment. He also pub- 
 lished the History of Isaac Jenkins, which 
 was intended to impress useful moral 
 lessons on the laboring classes in an at- 
 tractive manner. Above 40,000 copies of 
 this popular work were sold in a short 
 time. After he had married, in 1794, he 
 formed the plan of a pneumatic institu- 
 tion, for curing diseases, particularly con- 
 sumption, by means of factitious airs or 
 gases. He succeeded, with the assistance 
 of the celebrated Wedgewood, in opening 
 this institution, hi 1798. He engaged, as 
 superintendent of the whole, a young man, 
 Humphrey Davy, the foundation of whose 
 future fame was laid here. The chief 
 purpose of the institution, however, was 
 never realized, and B.'s zeal gradually re- 
 laxed, so that he relinquished it one year 
 before his death, after having published a 
 number of valuable works upon the ap- 
 plication of factitious airs. In the last 
 years of his life, he acquired the reputa- 
 tion of the best medical writer in Great 
 Britain, particularly by his Hygeia, in 3 
 vols., a popular work, which contains 
 passages of extraordinary eloquence. 
 His political pamphlets, from 1795 97, 
 are forgotten. 
 
 BEDFORD, John, duke of; one of the 
 younger sons of Henry IV, king of Eng- 
 land ; famous as a statesman and a war- 
 rior. Shakspeare, who calls him prince 
 John of Lancaster, introduces him, in his 
 plays of Henry IV, as distinguishing him- 
 self by his youthful courage in the battle 
 of Shrewsbury, in 1403, and forming a 
 kind of moral contrast to his more dissi- 
 pated brother, the prince of Wales. Du- 
 ring the reign of Henry V, he participated 
 in the fame acquired by the conquest of
 
 BEDFORD BEDOUINS. 
 
 29 
 
 France ; but his talents were fully dis- 
 played when, after the death of that king, 
 he became regent of France, having been' 
 appointed to this post by Henry, in his 
 will. At Vemeuil, in 1424, he displayed 
 his military talents ; and the difficulties, 
 which, from various causes, he experi- 
 enced in endeavoring to maintain pos- 
 session of the conquered provinces in 
 France, afforded frequent occasi6n for 
 the manifestation of his ability. The 
 greatest blemish in his character is his 
 cruel execution of the maid of Orleans, 
 in 1431. He survived this event about 
 four years, and dying, in 1435, at Rouen, 
 was buried in the cathedral of that city. 
 The duke deserves notice also for his 
 patronage of the arts. A curious monu- 
 ment of his taste still exists the Bedford 
 Missal. Mr. Dibdin, in his Bibliomania, 
 p. 253, gives an account of it. It was 
 made for the duke and duchess, and con- 
 tains 59 large, and more than 1000 small 
 miniature paintings. In 1786, it was 
 purchased, by Mr. Edwards, for 215 guin- 
 eas, from the collection of the duchess 
 of Portland ; and, a few years after, 500 
 guineas were offered for it. In a histori- 
 cal point of view, it is interesting on ac- 
 count of several portraits of eminent per- 
 sons ; some of which have been engraved 
 by Vertue, for his portraits to illustrate 
 the history of England. For the anti- 
 quarian and the student of the fine arts, 
 it is one of the most interesting monu- 
 ments of that age. Gough, the antiqua- 
 rian, published a work in 8vo., describing 
 the Bedford Missal. 
 
 BEDFORD ; a town in England, and 
 capital of the county of Bedford, to which 
 it gives name, situated on the Ouse ; 22 
 miles S. E. of Northampton, 50 N. of 
 London ; Ion. 27' W. ; lat. 52 8' N. ; 
 pop. 4605. It contains 5 churches, 3 on 
 the north and 2 on the south side of the 
 river, 3 independent meeting-houses, and 
 a free grammar school liberally endowed. 
 The principal manufacture is lace. It is 
 a place of considerable trade, which is 
 much assisted by the river, navigable to 
 Lynn, and is the only market-town of 
 the county, on the north side of the Ouse. 
 The soil about it is fertile, particularly in 
 excellent wheat. It sends two repre- 
 sentatives to parliament. It has two 
 markets weekly. 
 
 BEDFORD ; a borough town, and capi- 
 tal of Bedford county, Pennsylvania ; 91 
 miles E. by S. of Pittsburg, "190 W. of 
 Philadelphia: population of the borough, 
 789 ; including the township, 2116. lif is 
 finely situated on a branch of the JuiiU 
 3" 
 
 i, regularly laid out, and built on an em- 
 nce enveloped bv mountain;;. Will's 
 
 atta, _ 
 
 inence enveloped by 
 .mountain, on the west side of the town, 
 is 1300 feet high, and Dunning's moun- 
 tain, on the east side, is 1100 feet high. 
 A mile and a half south of the town, 
 there are mineral springs, which were 
 discovered in 1804, and are much resort- 
 ed to, and found useful in cutaneous 
 complaints, ulcers, rheumatisms, chronic 
 complaints, &c. There are several other 
 towns and counties of the same name in 
 the U. States : as, B. in the state of New 
 York, Westchester county, population 
 nearly 2500 ; B. county in the south of 
 Virginia ; and another in West Tennessee. 
 
 BEDFORD LEVEL ; a large tract of land 
 in England, in the counties of Cambridge, 
 Norfolk, Suffolk, Huntingdon, Northamp- 
 ton and Lincoln, formerly full of fens and 
 marshes, and, in rainy seasons, for the 
 most part under water; but drained, at 
 the expense of 400,000, by the noble 
 family of Russell, earls and dukes of 
 Bedford, and others ; by which means 
 100,000 acres of good land have been 
 brought into use. 
 
 BEDFORD, NEW ; a seaport in Massa- 
 chusetts. (See New Bedford.) 
 
 BEDOUINS, or BEDO WEENS (that is, in- 
 habitants of the desert) ; a numerous Mo- 
 hammedan race, which dwells in the 
 deserts of Arabia, Egypt and Northern 
 Africa. It is still doubtful whether they 
 belong to the same race with the Arabs, 
 or differ from them in their descent, as 
 they do in their manner of living. The 
 Bedouins live at a distance from cities 
 and villages, in families, under sheiks, or 
 in tribes, under emirs. Their dwellings 
 are tents, huts, caverns and ruins. With 
 their herds and beasts of burden, which 
 carry their little property, they wander in 
 quest of fresh water and pasture. They 
 are all good horsemen, and are generally 
 fond of hunting. The peaceful tribes 
 exchange horses (which they raise with 
 great care) and fat cattle, for arms and 
 cloth, with the neighboring nations. 
 Other hordes are such open robbers, that 
 it is dangerous to travel through their 
 country without a guard or a passport, 
 which the different chiefs sell. They not 
 only plunder, but murder, even when the 
 travellers offer no resistance. Notwith- 
 standing this barbarous custom, the Bed- 
 ouins hold the rights of hospitality sa- 
 cred ; and the most defenceless enemy is 
 sure of their protection, if they have once 
 allowed him shelter. But the Bedouin 
 considers every one his enemy who is 
 not his brother, kinsman or ally. Always
 
 30 
 
 BEDOUINS BEE. 
 
 careful of his own safety, he attacks no 
 caravan or camp without being sure of 
 his superiority. To superior numbers, and 
 a bold resistance, he yields, and saves 
 himself by a speedy flight. A terror to 
 the neighboring nations, the rapacious 
 Bedouin lives in a state of continual 
 watchfulness; poor, ignorant, wild and 
 rude, but free, and proud of his liberty. 
 This people is remarkable for temperance 
 in regard to food, amounting almost to 
 abstinence. 
 
 BEE (apis mellifica, L.) ; a species of 
 hymenopterous insect, .belonging to the 
 family apiaria. The honey-bee is uni- 
 versally celebrated for its singular instincts, 
 and highly prized for the valuable prod- 
 ucts of its industry. A vast number of 
 interesting facts have consequently been 
 collected in relation to the economy of 
 the species, for the detail of whose history 
 a volume of considerable size would be 
 required. We shall therefore be able to 
 present nothing more than a sketch of 
 the most striking generalities, obtained 
 from the admirable works of Huber, Gu- 
 vier, fec., and to these authentic sources 
 must refer the reader desirous of more 
 ample information. Three sorts of indi- 
 viduals are found to form a community 
 of honey-bees ; the female, mother, or, as 
 she is commonly called, queen ; the males, 
 or drones; and the working bees, improp- 
 erly termed neuters, as they are actually 
 females, though, in a peculiar respect, 
 imperfect. A hive commonly consists 
 of one mother, or queen, from G to 800 
 males, and from 15 to 20,000 working 
 bees. The last mentioned arc the small- 
 est, have 12 joints to their antenna:, and 
 6 abdominal rings : the first, joint or 
 square portion of the posterior tarsi is 
 enlarged at the posterior angle of its base, 
 and shaped like a pointed auricle, having 
 its internal surface covered with a fine, 
 short, close, silky down. They are pro- 
 vided with stings. The mandibles are 
 spoon-shaped, and not dentated. There is, 
 oji the outside of the hind legs, a smooth 
 hollow, edged with hairs, called the bas- 
 ket : the silky brush of the first joint of 
 the posterior tarsi has 7 or 8 transverse 
 stria;. The mother, or queen, has the 
 same characteristics, but is of larger size, 
 especially in the abdomen : she has a 
 shorter sucker or trunk, and the mandi- 
 bles grooved and velvet-like beneath the 
 tip. The males, or drones, differ from 
 both the preceding by having 13 joints to 
 the antenna ; a rounded head, with larger 
 eyes, elongated and united at the summit ; 
 smaller and more velvety mandibles, and 
 
 shorter anterior feet, the two first of 
 which are arched. They have no auric- 
 ular dilatation nor silky brush on the 
 square part of the posterior tarsi, and are 
 destitute of stings. The genitals consist 
 of two horn-shaped bodies of a reddish- 
 yellow color, with a broad-ended penis. 
 When we examine the internal structure 
 of this insect, we find at the superior base 
 of the rrunjt or sucker, below the labrum, 
 & considerable aperture, shut by a small, 
 triangular piece, which has been called 
 tongue, epipJiarynx, &c. This opening 
 receives the food, which is thence con- 
 veyed by a delicate asophagus, through 
 the corselet, to the anterior stomach, 
 which contains the honey ; the second 
 stomach receives the pollen of flowers, 
 and has, on its internal surface, a number 
 of transverse and annular wrinkles. The 
 abdominal cavity of the queen and work- 
 ing bees also contains the little bag of 
 poison communicating with the sting. In 
 the queen, there are, moreover, two large 
 ovaries, consisting of a great number of 
 small cavities, each containing 16 or 17 
 eggs. These ovaries open near the anus, 
 previous to which they dilate into pouch- 
 es, where the egg is delayed to receive a 
 viscous coating from an adjacent gland. 
 The inferior half-circles, except the first 
 and liist, on the abdomens of working 
 bees, have each on their inner surface 
 two cavities, where the wax is formed in 
 layers, and comes out from between the 
 abdominal rings. Below these cavities 
 is a particular membrane, formed of a 
 very small, hexagonally-meshed network, 
 which is connected with the membrane 
 lining the walls of the abdominal cavity. 
 Wax, of which the combs are formed, 
 is elaborated from honey. The pollen 
 collected from flowers, mixed with a 
 small quantity of wax, constitutes tbe 
 food of bees and their larves ; and this 
 food appears to be modified in its com- 
 position, according to the sort of indi- 
 viduals it is intended for. Another sub- 
 stance collected by bees from the opening 
 buds of poplar and other trees, and used 
 by them for lining their hives, stopping 
 holes, &c., is called propolis. Besides 
 the distinctions remarked in the female, 
 male and working bees, Huber regards 
 the working bees as of two sorts; one 
 devoted to the collection of provisions, 
 and all the materials necessary to the 
 comb, as well as to its construction ; these 
 he calls cirieres. The others are more 
 delicate, small and feeble, and employed 
 exclusively within the hive, in feeding 
 and taking care of the young. The re-
 
 BEE BEECH. 
 
 31 
 
 semblance existing between the working 
 and female bees first led to the idea that 
 they were of the same sex, and the in- 
 genious experiments and accurate obser- 
 vations of Huber enabled him to estab- 
 lish this fact in the most satisfactory 
 manner. Having deprived a hive of the 
 mother or queen, he found that the work- 
 ing bees immediately began to prepare a 
 larve of their own class to occupy this 
 important station. This was effected by 
 enlarging the cell to the dimensions of a 
 maternal or royal chamber, and feeding 
 the selected individual on food exclu- 
 sively destined for the nourishment of 
 the roj-al larves. If merely fed upon this 
 food, without an accompanying enlarge- 
 ment of the cell, the maternal faculties 
 were but imperfectly acquired, as the 
 female did not attain the proper size, and 
 was incapable of laying any eggs but 
 those which produced males. The cells 
 of the comb compose two opposite ranges 
 of horizontal hexagons, with pyramidal 
 bases : each layer of the comb is perpen- 
 dicular, and attached by the .summit, and 
 separated from the rest by a space suffi- 
 cient for the bees to pass in and out. 
 The comb is always built from above 
 downward. The cells, with the excep- 
 tion of those for the female larve and 
 nymph,, are nearly of equal size, some 
 containing the progeny, and others the 
 honey and pollen of flowers. Some 
 honey cells are left open, others are 
 closed for future use by a flat or slightly 
 convex covering of wax. The maternal 
 or regal cells vary from 2 to 40 in num- 
 ber, are greatly superior in size, nearly 
 cylindrical, and somewhat larger at the 
 extremity. They have small cavities on 
 the outside,' and commonly depend from 
 the comb like stalactites, so that the larve 
 has its head downwards. The season of 
 fecundation occurs about the beginning 
 of summer, and the meeting between the 
 females and males tcikes place high in 
 the air, whence the female returns with 
 the sexual parts of the male attached to 
 the extremity of the abdomen. This one 
 fecundation is thought to be sufficient to 
 vivify the eggs which the mother may 
 lay in the course of two years. The lay- 
 ing begins immediately afterwards, and 
 continues until autumn. Reaumur states 
 that the female, in the spring, lays as 
 many as 12,000 eggs in the lapse of 24 
 days. Each sort of egg is deposited in 
 the appropriate cell, unless a sufficient 
 number of cells have not been prepared : 
 in this case, she places several eggs in 
 one, and leaves to the working bees the 
 
 task of subsequently arranging them. 
 The eggs laid at the commencement of 
 fine weather all belong to the working 
 sort, and hatch at the end of 4 days. The 
 larves are regularly fed by the workers 
 for G or 7 days, when they are enclosed 
 in their cell, spin a cocoon, and become 
 nymphs, and in about 12 days acquire 
 their perfect state. The cells are then 
 immediately fitted up for the reception 
 of new eggs. The eggs for producing 
 males are laid two months later, and 
 those for the females immediately after- 
 wards. This succession of generations 
 forms so many particular communities, 
 which, when increased beyond a certain 
 degree, leave the parent hive to found a 
 new colony elsewhere. Three or four 
 swarms sometimes leave a hive in a sea- 
 son. A good swarm is said to weigh at 
 least six or eight pounds. The life of the 
 bee, like that of all the other insects of 
 its class, does not continue long after the 
 great business of providing for the con- 
 tinuance of the species is completed. 
 The history of the bee, as already stated, 
 is too extensive to allow us to attempt 
 more than this brief sketch. But to such 
 as have leisure, and are desirous of in- 
 structive amusement, we know of no 
 study which promises a greater degree 
 of satisfaction ; and there is no book bet- 
 ter adapted for this purpose, than the 
 excellent treatise of Huber, which may 
 almost be regarded as the ne plus ultra of 
 its kind. A beautiful little poem, called 
 The Bees, written by the Florentine Gi- 
 ovanni Rucellai, appeared in 1539. 
 
 BEECH. The beech (fagus sylvatica], 
 one of our handsomest forest-trees, is 
 known by its waved and somewhat oval 
 leaves, and its triangular fruit, consisting 
 of three cells, and enclosed, by pairs, in a 
 husk, which is covered with simple 
 prickles. Beech woods are very com- 
 mon in almost all the New England and 
 Middle States, in the states of Maine, 
 Pennsylvania, Ohio, &c. They are very 
 luxuriant in their growth. These woods, 
 it has been observed, are peculiarly diy, 
 and pleasant to walk in, and, under their 
 shade, afford to the botanist many inter- 
 esting plants, such as the bird's nest 
 (monoiropa), winter-green (pyrola), and 
 some rare orchidece. Beech-trees bear 
 lopping well, and may be trained so as to 
 lor in lofty hedges, which are valuable for 
 shelter, since the leaves, though faded, 
 remain through the winter, and the 
 twisted branches may be formed into a 
 very strong fence. The wood is hard 
 and brittle, and, if exposed to the air, is
 
 32 
 
 BEECH BEER. 
 
 liable soon to decay. It is, however, pe- 
 culiarly useful to cabinet-makers and 
 turners : carpenters' planes, &c. are made 
 of it. When split into thin layers, it is 
 used to make scabbards for swords. 
 Chairs, bedsteads and other furniture are 
 occasionally formed of beech. The fruit 
 of this tree, which has the name of beech- 
 mast, and falls in September, is very pal- 
 atable, but, if eaten in great quantity, 
 it occasions giddiness and headaches ; 
 when, however, it is dried and powdered, 
 it may be made into a wholesome bread. 
 The inhabitants of Scio, one of the Ionian 
 islands, were once enabled to endure a 
 memorable siege by the beech-mast 
 which their island supplied. This fruit 
 has occasionally been roasted, and used 
 as a substitute for coffee. When sub- 
 jected to pressure, it yields a sweet and 
 palatable oil, which is equal in quality to 
 the best olive-oil, and has the advantage 
 of continuing longer than that without 
 becoming rancid. Beech-oil is manufac- 
 tured in several parts of France, and is 
 used by the lower classes of Silesia in- 
 stead of butter. The cakes which remain 
 after the oil is extracted are a wholesome 
 food, and may be also advantageously 
 employed for the fattening of swine, 
 poultry and oxen. In some countries, 
 the leaves of the beech-tree are collected 
 in the autumn, before they have been 
 injured by the frost, and are used instead 
 of feathers, for beds ; and mattresses 
 formed of them are said to be preferable 
 to those either of straw or chaff. 
 
 BEEF-EATERS (a corruption from the 
 French buffetiers, from buffet, sideboard) 
 are yeomen of the guard of the king of 
 Great Britain. They are stationed by the 
 sideboard at great royal dinners. There 
 are now 100 in service and 70 supernu- 
 meraries. They are dressed after the 
 fashion of the time of Henry VIII. 
 
 BEEJAPOOR (Bija-pur, a corruption of 
 Vijaya-puri, the city of victor}-, the orig- 
 inal name of the capital) ; a large prov- 
 ince of Deccan, between the 15th and 
 18th degrees of N. lat. ; bounded N. and 
 E. by Aurungabad and Beder, S. by 
 North Canara and the river Toombudra, 
 and W. by the sea ; about 350 miles long, 
 and 200 broad. It is watered by the 
 Crishna, Toombudra, Beemah and Gat- 
 purba ; and is traversed by the Ghaut 
 mountains. The soil is generally fertile, 
 and provisions plentiful. The chief cities 
 are Beejapoor, Boonah (the capital of the 
 Mahrattas), St. Kuttany and Nubely. 
 Four fifths of the country are subject to 
 the Mahrattas, the rest to the Nizam. 
 
 The population is estimated at 7,000,000 ; 
 one twentieth Mohammedans, the rest 
 Hindoos. The province is divided into 
 15 territorial divisions. In the southern 
 part of Cancan, one of these divisions, 
 Goa ( Gowah, or, more properly, Govay), 
 the capital of the Portuguese settlements 
 in the East, is situated. (See Goa.) The 
 productions of B. are, in general, similar 
 to those of the rest of the Deccan. One 
 part the neighborhood of the Beemah 
 is celebrated for its breed of horses, and 
 supplies the best cavalry in the Mahratta 
 armies. 
 
 Beejapoor; the former capital of the 
 above province. (See Bija-pur.) 
 
 BEEK, David, a portrait-painter of con- 
 siderable merit, was born in 1621, at Arn- 
 heim, in Guelderland ; became a pupil of 
 Vandyck ; resided, for some time, at the 
 court of Sweden, and died in 1656. It is 
 related of him, that, on a journey through 
 Germany, he fell sick, and became, to 
 appearance, dead ; when one of his ser- 
 vants pouring a glass of wine into his 
 throat, to amuse his companions, B. 
 opened his eyes, and, after a while, re- 
 covered his health. 
 
 BEELZEBUB (in Hebrew, the god of 
 flies) ; an idol of the Moabites or Syrians. 
 This term is applied, in the Scriptures, to 
 the chief of the evil spirits. We must 
 remember what a terrible torment insects 
 often are in the East, in order to conceive 
 how this name came to be given to one 
 of the greatest of the imaginary spirits of 
 evil. We find that almost all nations, 
 who believe in evil spirits, represent them 
 as the rulers of disgusting, tonnenting or 
 poisonous animals flies, rats, mice, rep- 
 tiles, &c. The Greeks worshipped sev- 
 eral of their chief deities under the char- 
 acter of protectors against these animals ; 
 for instance, Apollo Xp<V0n>f, the destroyer 
 of rats. Every one knows, that Christ 
 was charged by the Jews with driving 
 out demons by the power of Beelzebub. 
 (Matt. xii. 24) 
 
 BEER. (See Me and Brewing.} We 
 have evidence of the use of this liquor for 
 more than 2000 years. The Grecian poet 
 and satirist Archilochus, who lived about 
 700 B. C., and the Grecian tragedians 
 jEschylus and Sophocles, who lived more 
 than 400 B. C., call it teine of barley. Dio- 
 dorus of Sicily, who lived about the time 
 of Julius Csesar, about 50 B. C., mentions 
 beer in his History (lib. i. chap. 20). Pliny 
 also, about the middle of the first century 
 alter Christ, speaks of this beverage in 
 several places of his Natural History. He 
 says that it is prepared in different ways,
 
 BEER BEET. 
 
 33 
 
 and that there is a species more intoxi- 
 cating than wine. He says, further, that, 
 in Spain, it is called celia and ceria ; but, 
 in Gaul and in other provinces of the 
 Roman empire, cerevisia; that it was in 
 general use among the ancient Germans, 
 who also called it cerevisia (from Ceres, 
 the goddess of grain, and vis, power.) 
 The Egyptians, as the first promoters of 
 agriculture, are said to have invented beer, 
 and to have prepared a kind, in later times, 
 at Pelusium, which was called by die 
 name of that city, and was much cele- 
 brated. Beer was afterwards unknown 
 in Egypt, until the French army intro- 
 duced it anew, since which it is said that 
 beer is still brewed there. We are igno- 
 rant how far the beer of the ancients 
 resembled the modern article. The word 
 beer may most naturally be derived from 
 bibere, to drink. 
 
 BEER, Michael, sometimes called Mi- 
 chael Berr, a learned Jew in Paris, bom at 
 Nancy, in 1784, was the first of his reli- 
 gion who pursued the profession of an 
 advocate in France. His success in this 
 career was brilliant; but he soon gave 
 himself up exclusively to literature, and 
 received the honor, never before confer- 
 red on a Jew, of being admitted into the 
 learned academies of France. He was 
 elected a member of the royal society of 
 antiquaries, of the philotechnic society, 
 of the academies of Nancy, Strasburg, 
 Names and Gottingen. Napoleon in- 
 vited him, in 1807, to the assembly of 
 Jews, who were to advise concerning 
 the amelioration of the condition of that 
 people ; and the general sanhedrim for 
 France and Italy chose him their secre- 
 tary. At the erection of the kingdom of 
 Westphalia, on account of his knowledge 
 of the language of the country, he receiv- 
 ed an appointment in the ministry of the 
 interior, and, afterwards, was appointed to 
 a corresponding office in the French min- 
 istry : he also delivered a course of lec- 
 tures on German literature in the athenae- 
 um of Paris. Among his numerous works 
 is an Eloge de Charles Fitters. 
 
 BEERING, Vitus, captain in the Russian 
 navy, born at Horsens, in Jutland, being a 
 skilful seaman, was employed by Peter 
 the Great in the navy which he had 
 newly established at Cronstadt. His tal- 
 ents, and the undaunted courage display- 
 ed by him in the naval wars against the 
 Swedes, procured him the honor of being 
 chosen to command a voyage of discovery 
 in the sea of Kamtschatka. He set out 
 from Petersburg, Feb. 5, 1725, for Siberia. 
 In the year 1728, he examined the north- 
 
 ern coasts of Kamtschatka as far as lat. 
 67 18' N., and proved that Asia is not 
 united to America. It remained, however, 
 to be determined whether the land oppo- 
 site to Kamtschatka was, in reality, the 
 coast of the American continent, or mere- 
 ly islands lying between Asia and Amer- 
 ica. June 4, 1741, he sailed, with two 
 ships, from Ochotsk, and touched the 
 noith-w r estern coast of America, between 
 lat. 35 and 69 N. Tempests and sick- 
 ness prevented him from pursuing his 
 discoveries : he was cast on a desolate isl- 
 and, covered with snow and ice, where 
 he grew dangerously sick, and died Dec. 
 8, 1741. The straits between Asia and 
 America have received the name of Beer- 
 ing's straits (also called Jlnian), and the 
 island on which he died that of Beering's 
 island. (See Miiller's Voyages et Decauv. 
 faites par les Russes, Amsterdam, 1766). 
 
 BEERING'S ISLAND ; an island in N. Pa- 
 cific ocean, about 90 miles long, and 25 to 
 30 wide ; Ion. 163 12' to 164 12' E.; lat. 
 54 45 / to 56 10 7 N. Neither thunder nor 
 the aurora borealis have ever been observ- 
 ed here. The island has springs of excel- 
 lent water, and beautiful cataracts. No 
 animals are found here but ice-foxes, seals, 
 sea-bears, sea-lions, sea-cows, &c. No 
 wood grows here, but several kinds of 
 plants are seen. The island is uninhab- 
 ited. It was discovered by Vitus Beering 
 (q. v.) in 1741. It is sometimes classed 
 with the Aleutian chain. 
 
 BEERING'S STRAITS ; the narrow sea 
 between the north-west coast of N. Amer- 
 ica and the north-east coast of Asia ; 39 
 miles wide in the narrowest part ; Ion. 
 168 15' to 169 2(X W. ; lat. 65 4& to 65 
 52' N. There is a remarkable similarity 
 in the portions of both continents north 
 of the strait: both are without wood; the 
 coasts are low, but, farther from the sea, 
 they rise and form considerable moun- 
 tains. The depth, in the middle of the 
 straits, is from 29 to 30 fathoms ; towards 
 the land, the water on the Asiatic side is 
 deeper. Captain Vancouver, who visited 
 these shores in 1740, gave this name to 
 the straits hi honor of Vitus Beering 
 (q. v.), because he thinks that he anchored 
 there. Some have also called these straits 
 Cook's straits. 
 
 BEET (beta mtlgaris} is a well-known 
 valuable succulent root, which is culti- 
 vated in our kitchen gardens, and grows 
 wild in several countries of the south of 
 Europe. There are two principal vari- 
 eties of beet, one of which is of a deep 
 red or purple color, and the other is white, 
 crossed with bands of red. Red beet is
 
 BEET BEETHOVEN. 
 
 principally v used at table, in salad, boiled, 
 and cut into slices, as a pickle, and some- 
 times stewed with onions ; but, if eaten in 
 great quantity, it is said to be injurious to 
 the stomach. The beet may be taken out 
 of the ground for use about the end of 
 August, but it does not attain its full size 
 and perfection till the mouth of October. 
 When good, it is large, and of a deep red 
 color, and, -when boiled, is tender, sweet 
 and palatable. It has lately been ascer- 
 tained, that beet roots may be substituted 
 for malt, if deprived of the greater part of 
 their juice by pressure, then dried, and 
 treated in the same manner as the grain 
 intended for brewing. The beer made 
 from the beet has been found perfectly 
 wholesome and palatable, and little infe- 
 rior to that prepared from malt. From 
 the white beet the French, during the 
 late wars in Europe, endeavored to pre- 
 pare sugar, that article, as British colo- 
 nial produce, having been prohibited in 
 France. For this purpose, the roots were 
 boiled as soon as possible after they were 
 taken from the earth. When cold, they 
 were sliced, and afterwards die juice was 
 pressed out, and evaporated to the con- 
 sistence of sirup. The sugar was obtain- 
 ed from this sirup by crystallization. 110 
 pounds weight of the roots yielded 41 
 pounds of juice, which, on further evap- 
 oration, afforded somewhat more than 4 
 pounds of brown sugar ; and these, by a 
 subsequent operation, produced 4 pounds 
 of well-grained white powder sugar. The 
 residuum, together with the sirup or mo- 
 lasses which remained, produced, after 
 distillation, 3 quarts of rectified spirit, 
 somewhat similar to rum. But many 
 subsequent experiments, both in France 
 and in Prussia, have tended to prove, that 
 sugar can never be advantageously man- 
 ufactured from the beet upon a large 
 scale, it yielding, upon a fair average, 
 barely enough to defray the expenses of 
 making. The leaves of the beet, when 
 raised in richly-manured soil, have been 
 found to yield a considerable quantity of 
 pure nitre, proceeding, in all probability, 
 from the decomposition of the animal 
 matter contained in the manure ; but this, 
 like the sugar of the root, will probably 
 never pay the expenses of cultivation, 
 which will also increase rather than 
 diminish ; so that it may be considered 
 valuable, at present, only as an esculent 
 plant. The French, however, and other 
 European nations, still persevere in man- 
 ufacturing beet sugar, and make great 
 quantities of it, although it can never 
 supersede the use of common sugar, unless 
 
 its production be encouraged by bounties 
 and prohibitions. 
 
 BEETHOVEN, Louis von, born in Bonn, 
 1772, was the son of a man who had been 
 a tenor singer in that place (according to 
 another account, in Fayolle's Dictionary 
 of Musicians, a natural son of Frederic 
 William II, king of Prussia). His great 
 talent for music was early cultivated. He 
 astonished, in his eighth year, all who 
 heard him, by his execution on the violin, 
 on which he was in the habit of perform- 
 ing, with great diligence, in a. little garret. 
 In his llth year, he played Bach's Jf'ohl 
 Temperirtes clavier, and, in his 13th, 
 composed some sonatas. These promis- 
 ing appearances of great talent induced 
 the then reigning elector of Cologne to 
 send him, in 1792, in the character of his 
 organist, and at his expense, to Vienna, 
 that he might accomplish himself there 
 in composition, under the instruction of 
 Haydn. Under Haydn and Albrechtsber- 
 ger he made rapid progress, and became, 
 likewise, a great player on the piano forte, 
 astonishing every one by his extempore 
 performances. In 1809, he was invited 
 to the new court of the king of Westpha- 
 lia, at which several men of distinction, 
 and among them his pupil in music the 
 archduke Rodolph, now bishop of Olrmitz, 
 persuaded him to remain, by the promise 
 of a yearly salary. He composed his 
 principal works after 1801. A few years 
 before his death, a cold, which he had 
 caught by composing in the open air, 
 produced a deafness, which became, by 
 degrees, very great. He li ved, afterwards, 
 very much retired, hi the village of Mod- 
 lingen, near Vienna. Instrumental music 
 has received from his compositions a new 
 character. Beethoven united the humor 
 of Haydn with the melancholy of Mozart, 
 and the character of his music most 
 resembles Cherubini's. His boldness is 
 remarkable. Reichhardt, in a comparison 
 of Beethoven with Haydn and Morzart, 
 says, " The Quartett of Haydn was the off- 
 spring of his amiable and original charac- 
 ter. In naivete and good humor he is 
 unrivalled. The more powerful nature 
 and richer imagination of Mozart embra- 
 ced a wider field, and many of his com- 
 positions express the whole height and 
 depth of bis character. He placed more 
 value also on exquisite finish. Beethoven, 
 early acquainted with Mozart's composi- 
 tions, gave a still bolder cast to his ideas." 
 Besides his great symphonies and over- 
 tures, his quintetts, quartette, and trios 
 for stringed instruments, his numerous 
 sonatas, variations, and other pieces for
 
 BEETHOVEN BEGLERBEG. 
 
 35 
 
 the piano forte, in which he shows the 
 great richness of his imagination, he also 
 composed vocal music, but with less suc- 
 cess. To this department belongs his 
 opera Leonore (in its altered state, called 
 Fiddio), some masses, an oratorio (Christ 
 on the Mount of Olives), and songs for 
 the piano forte, among which the compo- 
 sition of Matthison's Adelaide, called, by 
 the English, Rosalie, and some songs of 
 Goethe are celebrated. B. died March 
 20th, 1827, near Vienna, in the greatest 
 poverty. 
 
 BEETLE (scarabceus, L.) ; a tribe of co- 
 leopterous bisects, belonging to the family 
 tamellicornua, C. The beetle tribe com- 
 prises a large number of insects, among 
 which some are very remarkable for pro- 
 jections or horns growing from the head 
 and corselet. The species found in warm 
 climates are generally of large size and 
 formidable appearance, though by no 
 means noxious. They all are winged, fly- 
 iug with much rapidity and force; when 
 on the ground, their movements are slow 
 and heavy. The body of the perfect insect 
 is oval, or nearly so, and the antennas are 
 composed of eight or ten pieces, inserted 
 into a cavity under the border of the head. 
 From the arrangement of the antennce, 
 which is peculiar to this family, its essen- 
 tial or distinctive character is formed. 
 The extremities of the antenna;, are club- 
 shaped, and composed of plates or joints, 
 either disposed like the leaves of a book, or 
 arranged perpendicularly to the axis, like 
 the teeth of a comb. The two first legs 
 of beetles, and even the others, in some 
 instances, are dentated externally, and 
 suited for burrowing. The trachece are all 
 vesicular. The larves or young are soft, 
 flexible, whitish, s 'ini-cyiindric worms, 
 having the body divided into 12 .rings, 
 and having a scaly head, armed with 
 strong jaws. They have nine stigmata, or 
 breathing holes, on each side; and the feet, 
 which are six, are scaly. The body is 
 thicker at the posterior than at the ante- 
 rior extremity, rounded, and almost uni- 
 formly curved downwards, so that the 
 larve moves with difficulty over an even 
 surface, and frequently tumbles down. 
 The period during which the larves 
 remain in the state of destructive worms 
 varies in different species ; those of some 
 kinds becoming nymphs at the end of 
 several months, and of others, not sooner 
 than in three or four years. During this 
 period, they live in the earth, where they 
 feed upon the roots of vegetables, animal 
 matter in a state of decomposition, &c. 
 It is in this stage of their existence that 
 
 various species prove exceedingly injuri- 
 ous to fanners, from their great numbers 
 and voracity. When about to undergo 
 their change of form, they make an egg- 
 shaped cover or cocoon from fragments 
 gnawed off wood, &c., which are stuck 
 together by a peculiar glutinous fluid fur- 
 nished by their bodies. The larves have 
 a cylindric stomach, surrounded by three 
 ranges of minute cceca, a very short, small 
 intestine, an exceedingly large colon, and 
 moderate-sized rectum. In the perfect 
 insect, none of these inequalities exist, as 
 there is but one long intestine, of equal 
 size throughout. All of the beetle tribe 
 are not destructive or injurious in their 
 inceptive state, as many of them breed in 
 the dung-heap, or feed upon the excre- 
 ment of animals, which they serve to 
 prepare more completely as manure. The 
 tumble-bug, which is well known, forms 
 a ball of dung, in the centre of which the 
 egg is deposited, rolls it off to a distance, 
 and buries it in the ground. Great num- 
 bers, uniting in this work, speedily clear 
 away excrementitious matter, that might 
 otherwise soon prove offensive. Among 
 the ancient Egyptians, a species of beetle 
 was held in great veneration, and Euse- 
 bius informs us (De Prcep. Evang.) that it 
 was regarded as the animated image of 
 the sun.. We find it generally embalmed 
 with the Egyptian mummies, placed im- 
 mediately upon the root of the nose. A 
 number of models of these insects, in clay 
 and stone, have been found in the places 
 already explored in the ancient domin- 
 ion of the Pharaohs. Linneeus bestowed 
 the name of scarab&us sacer on this 
 species, which is found in Africa and 
 Europe. 
 
 BEFAXA (Ital. ; from Befania, which sig- 
 nifies Epiphany] is a figure, generally repre- 
 senting an old woman, which is exhibited, 
 in Italy, on the day of Epiphany, by chil- 
 dren, or in shops, fcc., where things for 
 children are sold. In Germany, presents 
 are given to children on Christmas-eve, 
 and in France, on new-year's evening, but 
 in Italy, on the day of Epiphany, and it is 
 said that the befana brings them to good 
 children. Generally, a little bag is hung 
 in the chimney, and, next morning, the 
 children find the presents there. 
 
 BEG (prince, or lord) : the title of certain 
 Turkish officers, several of whom are 
 subject to a beglerbeg. (See Bey.) 
 
 BEGGARY. (See Pauperism.) 
 
 BEGLERBEG (prince of princes, or lord 
 of lords) is the title of a high officer among 
 the Turks, the governor of a province, 
 called a beglerbeglic, who has under him
 
 36 
 
 BEGLERBEG BEHN. 
 
 several sangiacs, begs, agas, &c. The 
 governors of Sophia, Kintaha and Damas- 
 cus, in particular, have this title. 
 
 BEGUARDS, or BEGHARDS. (See Be- 
 guines.) 
 
 BEGUINES (begititce); females who, with- 
 out having taken the monastic vows, or 
 bound themselves to obey the rules of an 
 order, unite for the purpose of devotion 
 and charity, and form societies, living 
 together hi houses called beguinages 
 (which have been frequently enriched 
 by donations), distinguishing themselves, 
 above others, of the laity, by their industry, 
 their retired life, and their attention to the 
 education of children. These societies 
 originated, towards the end of the llth 
 century, in Germany and the Netherlands, 
 and were very flourishing in the 12th and 
 13th centuries. They still exist in con- 
 siderable numbers in the Netherlands. In 
 imitation of them, males formed similar 
 societies, under the name of beghards. 
 These societies, whose names signify sup- 
 pliaiits, or beggars, underwent many per- 
 secutions from the jealousy of the clerical 
 orders, and were sometimes confounded 
 with the Lollards. (See Brotherhoods.) 
 There are, in some places of Germany, be- 
 guinages, which are, however, only elee- 
 mosynary institutions, where unmarried 
 females, of the lower class of people, have 
 a lodging free of expense, and enjoy some 
 other advantages. 
 
 BEHAIM, Martin, born at Nuremberg, 
 about 1430, is distinguished as dne of the 
 most learned mathematicians and astron- 
 omers of his age. He was engaged in 
 commerce, and travelled, for the purpose 
 of carrying on his business, from 1455 
 to 1479 ; but he also devoted himself to 
 the study of the mathematical and nauti- 
 cal sciences, in which Itegiomontauus is 
 said to have been his master. He went 
 from Antwerp to Lisbon, in 1480, where 
 he was received with marks of distinction. 
 He sailed in the fleet of Diego Can, on a 
 voyage of discoveiy, and explored the 
 islands on the coast of Africa as far as the 
 river Zaire. He is also said to have dis- 
 covered, or, at least, to have colonized, the 
 island of Fayal, where he remained for 
 several years, and assisted in the discovery 
 of the other Azores. He was afterwards 
 knighted, and returned to his native coun- 
 try, where he constructed a terrestrial 
 globe, hi 1492, which bears the marks of 
 the imperfect acquaintance of that age 
 with the true dimensions of the earth. B. 
 died, after many voyages, in Lisbon, 1506. 
 Some ancient Spanish historians assert 
 that he made many discoveries, and that 
 
 he gave to his friend Columbus the idea 
 of another hemisphere. Robertson (in his 
 History of America) and others contradict 
 this statement. It is also rejected by 
 Irving. 
 
 BEHEADING ; a capital punishment, 
 wherein the head is severed from the 
 body by the stroke of an axe, sword, or 
 other cutting instrument. Decottatio, or 
 beheading, was a military punishment 
 among the Romans. In early times, it 
 was performed with an axe, and after- 
 wards with a sword. It is worth remark- 
 ing, that, in all countries where beheading 
 and hanging are used as capital punish- 
 ments, the former is always considered 
 less ignominious. Thus, in England, 
 beheading is often the punishment of 
 nobles, when commoners, for the same 
 crime, are hanged. The crime of high 
 treason is there punished with beheading. 
 Commoners, however, are hanged before 
 the head is cut off, and nobles also, unless 
 the king remits that part of the punish- 
 ment. In Prussia, formerly, a nobleman 
 could not be hanged, and, if his crime was 
 such that the law required this punish- 
 ment, he was degraded before the execu- 
 tion. At present, hanging is not used in 
 that country, and, since so many instances 
 have occurred of extreme suffering, on 
 the part of the criminal, caused by the 
 unskilfulness of the executioner in behead- 
 ing with the sword, this mode of execu- 
 tion has been abolished. Beheading, in 
 Prussia, is now always performed with a 
 heavy axe, the sufferer being previ- 
 ously tied to a block. In France, during 
 the revolutionary government, beheading 
 by means of a machine, the guillotine 
 (q. v.), came into use, and still prevails 
 mere, to the exclusion of all other modes 
 of capital punishment. A person who 
 has murdered his father or mother^ how- 
 ever, has his right arm cut off the moment 
 before he is guillotined. In the middle 
 ages, it was, in some states, the duty of 
 the youngest magistrate to perform the 
 executions with the sword. In China, it 
 is well known that beheading is practised, 
 sometimes accompanied with the most 
 studied torments. In the U. States of 
 America, beheading is unknown, the hal- 
 ter being the only instrument of capital 
 punishment. Respecting the bad or good 
 consequences of public beheading, the 
 same remarks may be made, which are 
 applicable to public executions in general. 
 In many European countries, beheading 
 with the sword still prevails. 
 
 BEHN, Apliara, a lady of some celebrity 
 as a writer of plays and novels, was de-
 
 BEHN T BEKKER. 
 
 37 
 
 scended from a good family in Canter- 
 bury, of the name of Johnson, and was 
 born in the reign of Charles I. Her father, 
 through the interest of his relation, lord 
 Willoughby, being appointed lieutenant- 
 general of Surinam, embarked with his 
 family for the West Indies, taking with 
 him Aphara, who was then very young. 
 The father died at sea; but his family 
 arrived safely at Surinam, and remain- 
 ed there some years, during which time 
 Aphara became acquainted with the 
 American prince Oroonoko, whom she 
 made the subject of a novel, subsequently 
 dramatized by Southern. On her return 
 to England, she married Mr. Behn, a mer- 
 chant of London, of Dutch extraction ; 
 but was probably a widow when selected 
 by Charles II as a proper person to ac- 
 quire intelligence on the continent during 
 the Dutch war. She accordingly took up 
 her residence at Antwerp, whero she en- 
 gaged in gallantries for the good of her 
 country ; and it is said that, by means of 
 one of her admirers, she obtained advice 
 of the intention of the Dutch to sail up 
 the Thames, which she transmitted to 
 England. This intelligence, although true, 
 being discredited, she gave up politics, 
 returned to England, and devoted hersdf 
 to intrigue and writing for support; and, 
 as she had a good person and much con- 
 versational talent, she became fashionable 
 among the men of wit and pleasure of 
 the time. She published three volumes 
 of poems, by Rochester, Etherege, Crisp 
 and others, with some poetry of her own ; 
 and wrote 17 plays, the heartless licen- 
 tiousness of which was disgraceful both 
 to her sex and to the age which tolerated 
 the performance of them. She Avas also 
 
 which is about 82 persons to a square 
 mile, or rather less than the average num- 
 ber for the whole kingdom. B. contains 
 7 episcopal cities, and about 230 other 
 towns: the chief one is Coimbra. (q. v.) 
 It is mountainous and well watered. The 
 produce of wine and olives is considera- 
 ble. (See Portugal.) 
 
 BEIRAM. (See Bairam.) 
 
 BEKKER, Elizabeth ; an ornament of 
 Dutch literature in the department of the 
 belles-lettres. Few female authors have 
 united with so great talents so much dig- 
 nity and purity of morals. The influence 
 of her numerous works was much in- 
 creased by her character, and several of 
 them are considered classics in Dutch 
 literature, particularly her romances Wil- 
 lem Leevend, in 8 vols. ; Letters of A. 
 Blankart to C. Wildschut, and the His- 
 tory of Sara Burgerhart. She wrote her 
 most important works in conjunction with 
 her friend Agatha Deken (q. v.), and the 
 share of each in the composition of them 
 is unknown. Elizabeth was born at 
 Flushing, in 1738, and died at the Hague, 
 in 1804. Her inseparable friend in life 
 followed her nine days later in death. 
 
 BEKKER, Immanuel, member of the 
 academy of sciences, and professor in the 
 university of Berlin, is known for his 
 learning in the ancient languages, partic- 
 ularly the Greek, displayed in many val- 
 uable works. He was born at Berlin, in 
 ] 785. He was a pupil of the famous phi- 
 lologer Wolf, at Halle, who declared him 
 the person most capable of continuing 
 his researches in philology. B. was ap- 
 pointed professor in the new academy of 
 Berlin, and set out, May, 1810, for Paris, 
 where he remained until Dec., 1812, and 
 
 the author of a couple of volumes of made use of the manuscripts of the library, 
 
 novels, and of the celebrated love-letters 
 between a nobleman and his sister-in- 
 law (lord Gray and lady Henrietta Berke- 
 ley). Pope, in his character of women, 
 alludes to Mrs. Behn, under her poetical 
 name of4strca: 
 
 The stagv how looselv does Astrea tread, 
 
 \Vlio fairly puts all characters to bed. 
 
 She died in 1689, between 40 and 50 
 years of age, and was buried in the clois- 
 ters of Westminster abbey. 
 
 BEHRING, BEHRING'S STRAITS, BEHR- 
 ING'S ISLAND. (See Bearing.) 
 
 BEIRA : a province of Portugal, bounded 
 chiefly by the river Douro on the north, 
 by Spain on the east, by the Tagns and 
 Portuguese Estremadura on the south, 
 and by the Atlantic on the west. Its 
 extent is computed at 11,000 square miles, 
 and the population at nearly 900,000, 
 
 VOL. II. 4 
 
 421413 
 
 principally collating those of Plato, and 
 some rhetorical and grammatical writers. 
 The academy of sciences of Berlin elected 
 him a member in 1815, and sent him back 
 to Paris to examine the papers of Four- 
 mont, for the sake of a Corpus Inscriptio- 
 num GrKcarum, which they intended to 
 publish. He returned the same year. In 
 1817, he was sent to Italy, to examine, 
 with his colleague Goschen, the Institu- 
 tions of Gaius at Verona, discovered by 
 Niebuhr in a Codex rescriptus, and to pre- 
 pare an edition of Aristotle, which the 
 academy had in view. He spent two 
 winters in Rome, particularly favored in 
 the use of the libraries by means of his 
 friend Niebulir. In 1819, he went through 
 Turin to Paris ; spent the summer of 1820 
 in England, principally in Oxford, Cam- 
 bridge and London ; and returned through
 
 38 
 
 BEKKER BELGRADE. 
 
 Ley den and Heidelberg to Berlin. With 
 what industry and talent he collected lit- 
 erary treasures, in all these places, can be 
 but imperfectly conceived from any thing 
 he has yet published. It is sufficient to 
 cite here the Jlnecdota Grace, 3 vols., of a 
 grammatical character; editions of Apollo- 
 nius Dyseolus De Pronomine (never before 
 printed) and De Syntaxi of Theognis (aug- 
 mented with 150 verses); of Coluthus, 
 Demosthenes, and other Attic orators ; of 
 the Bibliotheca of Photius ; of the Scholia 
 to the Iliad, &c. 
 BEL. (See Baal.} 
 
 BELEM (properly Bethlehem); a quar- 
 ter of Lisbon, formerly a market-town, 
 situated on the spot where, after Vasco 
 da Gama's first return from India, in 1499, 
 king Emanuel built a church in honor of 
 the nativity of Christ, and founded the 
 celebrated monastery belonging to the or- 
 der of St. Jerome, whose walls enclose 
 the magnificent burying- vault of the royal 
 family) adorned with white marble. Af- 
 ter the earthquake of 1755, the burial- 
 church) so called, was rebuilt in the Gothic 
 style. B., at that time, became the resi- 
 dence of the royal family ; but after the 
 palace there had been consumed by fire, 
 they resided hi the castle of Quelus, two 
 leagues distant, in a retired situation, until 
 their departure for Rio Janeiro. The 
 new royal palace in B. is not yet finished. 
 It has a beautiful situation, with a view 
 of the harbor and the sea. Many persons 
 of distinction, and the greater part of the 
 important officers of state, reside at B. 
 Here is also the church of Nossa Senhora 
 da djuda, in the neighborhood of which 
 lies the botanical garden, with a chemical 
 laboratory, and a cabinet of natural curi- 
 osities. The latter contains some curious 
 specimens of native copper from Brazil, 
 and a large piece of elastic sand-stone, 
 interspersed with crystals of calcarious 
 spar. In B., the royal garden (a quinta da 
 raynha), with a menagerie, and many avi- 
 anes for rare birds, must likewise be no- 
 ticed, as well as the great royal park, and, 
 above all, the old tower, Torre de Belem, 
 which rises out of the river Tajo, and is 
 provided with batteries. No ship is per- 
 mitted to pass by it without being vis- 
 ited. 
 
 BELFAST ; a royal borough and seaport 
 in Ireland, in Antrim, at the entrance of 
 the river Lagan into Carrickfergus bay; 
 50 miles E. S. E. Londonderry, 76 N. 
 Dublin. Lon. 5 46' W. ; lat. 54 33 N. 
 Population hi 1821, including the suburbs, 
 35,084 ; houses, 5,754. It is commodi- 
 ously situated for trade, hi a populous and 
 
 well-cultivated country, is connected with 
 Lough Neagh by a canal, and is the prin- 
 cipal seaport in the north of Ireland. The 
 bay is a spacious estuary, affording safe 
 anchorage. Vessels drawing 13 feet of 
 water can come up to the wharves at full 
 tide. It is well built, chiefly of brick ; 
 the streets are broad, straight, well paved 
 and lighted. It contains 13 houses of 
 public worship. Belonging to the port 
 are above 50 vessels, amounting to more 
 than 8,330 tons. The principal exports 
 are linen, butter, beef, pork and oatmeal : 
 total value, in 1810, 2,904,520. The 
 duties have, of late, amounted to 400,000 
 per annum. The manufactures consist, 
 chiefly, of linens and cottons; the former 
 employing 723 looms. It sends one mem- 
 ber to parliament. 
 
 BELFAST ; a seaport and post-town in 
 Waldo county, Maine, 12 miles N. W. 
 Castine, 224 N. E. Boston. Lon. 69 1' 
 W. ; lat. 44 2S 7 N. Population in 1810, 
 1,274; in 1820, 2,026. It is delightfully 
 situated on Belfast bay, at the mouth of a 
 small river of the same name, and at the 
 N. W. part of Penobscot bay. It hag a 
 good harbor and great maritime advan- 
 tages, and is a flourishing town. 
 
 BELGIANS ; a collection of German and 
 Celtic tribes, who inhabited the country 
 extending from the Atlantic ocean to the 
 Rhine, and from the Marne and Seine to 
 the southern mouth of the Rhine, which 
 is united with the Meuse. From time to 
 time, until the period of Cresar, German 
 nations pushed forward beyond the Rhine, 
 partly expelling the Celts from then- seats, 
 partly uniting with them ; and from this 
 union sprung a mixed nation, which, in 
 its language as well as in its manners, re- 
 sembled the Germans more than the 
 Celts. According to the testimony of 
 Cassar, they were the most valiant of the 
 Gauls, particularly that portion which re- 
 sided on the , northern frontiers of Ger- 
 many. 
 
 BELGIUM ; the name of that part of the 
 Netherlands which formerly belonged to 
 Austria, but now makes a part of the 
 kingdom of the Netherlands. Belgium, 
 a part of ancient Gaul, was originally the 
 land of the Bellovaci and Atrebates, who 
 lived in the neighborhood of the city of 
 Amiens, and perhaps of Senlis. 
 
 BELGRADE (the ancient Alba Grazcorum ; 
 in German, Griechisch Weissenburg, which 
 name, however, is seldom used) ; a Turk- 
 ish commercial city and fortress in Ser- 
 via, at the confluence of the Save and the 
 Danube, with 30,000 inhabitants, consist- 
 ing of four parts, the citadel in the centre,
 
 BELGRADE BELISARIUS. 
 
 89 
 
 which commands the Danube, is well 
 fortified, is the residence of the pacha of 
 Servia, and contains the chief mosque. 
 The whole number of mosques in B. is 
 14. Between the citadel and the other 
 3 parts of the city there is an empty 
 space, 400 yards wide. B. is badly 
 built ; the streets are not paved. At the 
 mouth of the Save lies the island of the 
 Gipsies. B., on account of its important 
 situation, plays a conspicuous part in al- 
 most every war between Austria and 
 Turkey. After having been, at different 
 times, in the possession of the Greeks, 
 Hungarians, Bulgarians, Bosnians, Servi- 
 ans and Austrians, it was, in 1442 and 
 1456, besieged by the Turks, and, in 1521, 
 conquered by Solyman II. In 1688, the 
 Austrians reconquered it, but lost it again 
 in 1690. Prince Eugene took it in 1717, 
 and the peace of Passarowitz, in 1718, 
 left it in the hands of Austria, but it was 
 again lost in 1739. The Porte retained it 
 by the terms of the peace of Belgrade, in 
 1739, on condition that the fortifications 
 which Austria had erected should be de- 
 molished a work which required almost 
 nine months. General Laudon took B. 
 in 1789, but it was restored to the Porte 
 at the peace of Szistowe, in 1791. In 
 1806, it was taken by the revolutionary 
 Servians, but, with their suppression, it 
 came again into the hands of the Turks. 
 Formerly, a bishop resided here, but his 
 seat is now in Semendria. 
 
 BELGRA^O, Manuel, was born at Bue- 
 nos Ayres, of wealthy parents, who emi- 
 grated from Italy. After completing his 
 education at the university of Salamanca, 
 he was appointed secretary of the consu- 
 lado at Buenos Ayres, and thus came in 
 contact continually with the mercantile 
 classes, the most enlightened and im- 
 portant portion of the population of 
 that city. His polished and amiable man- 
 ners, and his taste for letters and the fine 
 arts, enabled him to improve the oppor- 
 tunity afforded him by his situation, so as 
 to acquire extensive popularity. When 
 the political troubles in America com- 
 menced, B. was at first disposed to favor 
 the princess Carlota, sister of Ferdinand, 
 and establish an independent monarchy 
 in Buenos Ayres. But he soon adopt- 
 ed the plan of erecting a perfectly 
 free government, and entered with zeal 
 and ability into the measures which pre- 
 pared and followed the deposition of the 
 viceroy Cisneros, in May, 1810. In the 
 new order of things, B. entered on a mili- 
 tary career, and was speedily raised to the 
 rank of general, in which capacity he 
 
 commanded the expedition sent against 
 Paraguay, which, after advancing into the 
 heart of that province, was compelled, 
 by the skill of Yedros and Francia, to re- 
 turn to Buenos Ayres, without an engage- 
 ment, and leave the Paraguayans unmo- 
 lested. B.'s next enterprise was more 
 successful. September 24, 1812, he gain- 
 ed a complete victory over the royalist 
 general D. Pio Tristan, at Tucurnan, and 
 thus defeated the intended expedition of 
 the latter against Buenos Ayres. On the 
 13th of February following, he obtained 
 another signal victory over Tristan at 
 Salta. But these brilliant advantages 
 were soon followed by equally striking 
 reverses. B. imprudently released Tris- 
 tan and his troops upon their parole, 
 which the Spaniards, with that profligate 
 disregard of all conventions and engage- 
 ments, which has characterized their poli- 
 cy in the contest with the South Ameri- 
 cans, dishonorably violated. The conse- 
 quence was, that general Pezuela, with 
 the veiy same troops, added to others col- 
 lected in Peru, attacked and defeated B. 
 at Vilcapugio, Oct. 1, 1813, and again at 
 Ayoma, Nov. 14, of the same year ; and 
 San Martin was appointed to succeed him 
 in command. In 1816, B. was reappoint- 
 ed to the command of the troops in Tu- 
 cuman, and was making the most judi- 
 cious arrangements for acting against the 
 Spaniards in Upper Peru, when the spirit 
 of anarchy seized upon the army, and he 
 was deposed, and the troops dispersed- 
 B. was liberal, upright and disinterested 
 to a degree not exceeded by any of his 
 compatriots, and faithful and exact in the 
 discharge of all his duties. He displayed 
 considerable ardor as an officer, and ap- 
 plied himself closely to the study of tac- 
 tics ; but had neither the experience nor 
 the military capacity necessaiy to consti- 
 tute a great general. Regardless of his 
 occasional reverses of fortune, and of the 
 persecution which he underwent from 
 some of the transitory factions of the day, 
 he continued to labor unremittingly for the 
 welfare of his country until his death, in 
 1820, which was very justly deplored. 
 (See Memoirs of General Miller, in the Ser- 
 vice of the Republic of Peru, London, 1828.) 
 
 BELIAL was, with the Hebrews, what 
 Pluto was with the Greeks the ruler of 
 the infernal regions. The word itself sig- 
 nifies the bad, the destructive. 
 
 BELISARIUS ; one of the greatest gener- 
 als of his time, to whom the emperor 
 Justinian chiefly owed the splendor of his 
 reign. Sprung from an obscure family 
 in Thrace, B. first served in the body-
 
 40 
 
 BELISARIUS BELL. 
 
 guard of the emperor, soon after obtained 
 the chief command of an army of 25,000 
 men, stationed on the Persian frontiers, 
 and, in the year 530, gained a complete 
 victory over a Persian army of not less 
 than 40,000 soldiers. The next year, how- 
 ever, he lost a battle against the same en- 
 fiiiy, who had forced his way into Syria 
 the only battle which he lost during his 
 whole career. He was recalled from the 
 army, and soon became, at home, the sup- 
 port of his master. In the year 532, civil 
 commotions, proceeding from two rival 
 parties, who called themselves the green 
 and the 6Zue, and who caused great disor- 
 ders in Constantinople, brought the life 
 and reign of Justinian in the utmost peril, 
 and Hypatius was already chosen empe- 
 ror, when B., with a small body of faith- 
 ful adherents, restored order. Justinian, 
 with a view of conquering the dominions 
 of Gelimer, king of the Vandals, sent B., 
 with an army of 15,000 men, to Africa. 
 After two victories, he secured the person 
 and treasures of the Vandal king. Geli- 
 mer was led in triumph through the 
 streets of Constantinople, and Justinian 
 ordered a medal to be struck, with the in- 
 scription Belisarius gloria Romanorum, 
 which has descended to our times. By 
 the dissentions existing in the royal fami- 
 ly of the Ostrogoths (see Goths) in Italy, 
 Justinian was induced to attempt to bring 
 Italy and Rome under his sceptre. B. 
 vanquished Vitiges, king of the Goths, 
 made him prisoner at. Ravenna (540), and 
 conducted him, together with many other 
 Goths, to Constantinople. The war in 
 Italy against the Goths continued ; but 
 B., not being sufficiently supplied with 
 money and troops by the emperor, de- 
 manded his recall (548). He afterwards 
 commanded in the war against the Bulga- 
 rians, whom he conquered in the year 559. 
 Upon his return to Constantinople, he 
 was accused of having taken part in a 
 conspiracy. But Justinian was convinced 
 of his innocence, and is said to have re- 
 stored to him his property and dignities, 
 of which he had been deprived. 6. died 
 in the year 565. His history has been 
 much colored by the poets, and particu- 
 larly by Marmontel, in his otherwise ad- 
 mirable politico-philosophical romance. 
 According to his narrative, the emperor 
 caused the eyes of the hero to be struck 
 out, and B. was compelled to beg his 
 bread in the streets of Constantinople. 
 Other writers say, that Justinian had him. 
 thrown into a prison, which is still shown 
 under the appellation of the tower of Bel- 
 isarius. From this tower he is reported 
 
 to have let down a bag fastened to a rope, 
 and to have addressed the passengers in 
 these words: Date Belisario obolum, 
 quern virtus evexit, invidia depressit (Give 
 an obolus to Belisarius, whom virtue ex- 
 alted, and envy has oppressed). Of this, 
 however, no contemporary writer makes 
 any mention. Tzetzes, a slightly-esteemed 
 writer of the 12th century, was the first 
 who related this fable. Certain it is, that, 
 through too great indulgence towards hit) 
 wife Antonina, B. was impelled to many 
 acts of injustice, and that he evinced a 
 servile submissiveness to the detestable 
 Theodora, the wife of Justinian. 
 
 BKLKNAP, Jeremy ; an American cler- 
 gyman and author, of considerable repu- 
 tation. He was born in June, 1744, 
 graduated at Harvard college in 1762, 
 and ordained pastor of the church in Do- 
 ver, New Hampshire, in 1767. Here he 
 spent 20 years in the diligent performance 
 of his clerical duties, and the cultivation 
 of literature. It was during this period 
 that he composed his History of New 
 Hampshire, a work by which he estab- 
 lished himself as an author in the good 
 opinion of his countrymen. In 1787, he 
 took charge of a church in Boston, where 
 he continued to officiate until his death, 
 in 1798. Besides his History, he publish- 
 ed two volumes of his unfinished Ameri- 
 can Biography, and a number of political, 
 religious and literary tracts. Doctor B. 
 wrote with ease and correctness, though 
 not with elegance : he was more remark- 
 able for research and extensive informa- 
 tion, than for brilliancy or originality of 
 talents. The History of New Hampshire 
 and the American Biography, above men- 
 tioned, are often consulted. His sermons, 
 and many dissertations, are but little 
 known. As a public preacher and citi- 
 zen, he enjoyed the highest estimation. 
 He was one of the founders of the Mas- 
 sachusetts historical society, whose Col- 
 lections are important to the public an- 
 nals. 
 
 BELL. Church bells originated in Ita- 
 ly, being formed, by degrees, out of the 
 cymbals, small tinkling bells and hand- 
 bells of the East, used, in religious cere- 
 monies, as a means of honoring the gods, 
 or of summoning them to the feast. The 
 feast of Osiris, particularly, is known to 
 have been announced by bells, and, in 
 Athens, the priests of Cybele made use 
 of them at their sacrifices. Pliny says 
 that bells were invented long before liis 
 time. They were called hntinnabula ; 
 and Suetonius tells us that Augustus 
 caused one to be hung before the temple
 
 BELL BELLA. 
 
 41 
 
 of Jupiter. Among Christians, they were 
 first employed to call together religious 
 congregations, for which purpose runners 
 had been employed before. Afterwards, 
 the people were assembled by the sound 
 of little pieces of board struck together ; 
 hence called sacred boards. To the pres- 
 ent day, the Catholics use such boards in 
 Passion-week and Lent, because the noise 
 of bells seems to them unsuited to the so- 
 lemnity of the season. On the first day of 
 Easter, the bells ring again, and the return 
 of the accustomed sound produces a very 
 cheerful effect. Pauliuus, bishop of Nola, 
 in Campania, is said to have first intro- 
 duced church bells, in the fourth century, 
 and thence the Latin names of the bell, 
 campana and nola, are said to have origi- 
 nated. In the sixth century, bells were 
 used in the convents ; they were suspend- 
 ed on the roof of the church in a frame. 
 Towards the end of this century, bells 
 were placed on some churches at the 
 expense of certain cities. About 550, they 
 were introduced into France. Pope Se- 
 bastian, who died in 605, first ordered that 
 the hours of the day should be announced 
 by striking the bell, that people might 
 better attend to the horce canonical, that is, 
 to the hours for singing and praying. In 
 610, Clothair besieged Sens, when Lupus, 
 bishop of Orleans, ordered the bells of St. 
 Stephen to be rung. The sound so fright- 
 ened Clothair, that he gave up the siege. 
 In the eighth century, the custom of bap- 
 tizing and naming bells began. (See 
 Baptism.) Church bells were probably 
 introduced into England soon after their 
 invention. They are first mentioned by 
 Bede, about the close of the seventh cen- 
 tury. In the East, they came into use in 
 the ninth century ; in Switzerland, in 
 1020 ; at what period they were brought 
 into Germany is uncertain. In the llth 
 century, the cathedral at Augsburg had 
 two bells. The same spirit which induced 
 people to build immense minsters, and to 
 apply their wealth in ornamenting the 
 places of worship, made them vie witli 
 each other in the size of their bells. The 
 great bell of Moscow, cast in 1653, in the 
 reign of the empress Anne, is said, by -Air. 
 Clarke, to be computed to weigh 443,772 
 Ibs. A bell in the church of St. Ivan, in 
 the same city, weighs 127,83(5 Ibs.; anoth- 
 er, 356 cwt. ; and the one cast in 1819 
 weighs 1600 cwt., the clapper alone weigh- 
 ing 18 cwt. On the cathedral of Paris a 
 bell was placed, in 1680, which weighed 
 340 cwt., and measured 25 feet in circum- 
 ference. In Vienna, a bell was cast, in 
 1711, of 354 cwt. In Olmiitz is one of 
 4* 
 
 358 cwt. The famous bell at Erfurt, in 
 Germany, which is considered to be of 
 the finest bell-metal, having the largest 
 proportion of silver in it, and is baptized 
 Susanm, weighs 275 cwt., is more than 
 24 feet in circumference, and has a clap- 
 per of 4 feet, weighing 11 cwt. Great 
 Tom, of Christ church, Oxford, weighs 
 17,000 Ibs.; of Lincoln, 9894 Ibs.; the bell 
 of St. Paul's, London, 8400 Ibs.; a bell at 
 Nankin, in China, is said to weigh 50,000 ' 
 Ibs.; and seven at Pekin, 120,000 Ibs. 
 each. The inscriptions on old bells are 
 curious, and, in some cases, have even 
 historical value ; and, at this time, when 
 curiosities of all kinds are eagerly sought 
 for, a collection of these inscriptions would 
 not be uninteresting. The different uses 
 of bells have given rise to many poems, 
 some of which are inscribed on the bells 
 themselves. One of the most common is 
 the following : 
 
 Funera plango, fulgura frango, sabbata pango 
 Excito lentos, dissijx) ventos,paco cruentos. 
 
 Perhaps the finest poem which has ever 
 been written on bells is Schiller's poem, 
 Die, Glocke (The Bell), in which he de- 
 scribes the casting of the bell, and all its 
 uses, in a highly poetical manner. This 
 has been translated into many lan- 
 guages, and lately into Greek and Latin, 
 by a professor at Liege. (For the metal 
 of which bells are made, called bell- 
 metal, see Copper.) A bell is divided into 
 the body or barrel, the clapper, and the 
 ear or cannon. The word bell is used in 
 many arts and sciences for instruments 
 similar in form to church bells. 
 BELL. (See Lancaster.) 
 BELL-METAL. (See Copper.) 
 BELL-ROCK, sometimes called Inch cape ; 
 a dangerous rock of Scotland, about 12 
 miles from Arbroath, nearly opposite the 
 mouth of the river Tay ; Ion. 2 22' W. ; 
 lat. 56 29^ N. A light-house has been 
 erected on it, finished in 1811, 115 feet 
 high. During high tides, the rock is en- 
 tirely covered. It is said that, in former 
 ages, the monks of Aberbrothock caused 
 a bell to be suspended on this rock, which 
 was rung by the waves, and warned the 
 mariners of this highly dangerous place. 
 The Bell-rock light-house is famous for its 
 construction. 
 
 BELLA, Stefano de la; an engraver, born 
 at Florence, in 1610. He followed, at 
 first, Callot's manner, but soon adopted 
 one of his own. In 1642, he went to 
 Paris, where he was employed by cardi- 
 nal Richelieu. He returned to Florence, 
 and became the teacher, in drawing, of 
 Cosmo, the son of the great duke, and
 
 BELLA BELLE-ISLE. 
 
 died in 1664. It is said that he engraved 
 1400 plates. ' 
 
 BELLAMY, James, a Flemish poet, was 
 born at Flushing, in the year 1757, and 
 died in 1796. He was 25 years old, and 
 following the trade of a baker, when, in 
 the year 1772, the second secular festival, 
 in commemoration of the foundation of 
 the republic, was celebrated throughout 
 Holland. His genius, suddenly inflamed 
 by the love of his native land, rendered 
 him a poet, and his first productions met 
 with success. He studied Latin, made 
 himself better acquainted with his mother 
 tongue, and composed several pieces of 
 merit sufficient to induce the society of arts 
 at the Hague to incorporate them in their 
 collections. He published his patriotic 
 songs under the title Vaderlandse-Gezengen, 
 which secure him a place among the first 
 poets of his nation. B. sung, likewise, the 
 praise of love. The later works of this 
 poet betray a certain melancholy, which 
 renders them still mtire interesting. A 
 biographical account of him has been 
 written by G. Kniper. He may be placed 
 by the side of Bilderdyk, Helmers, Loots, 
 R. Feyth, &c., as one of the restorers of 
 modern Dutch poetry. 
 
 BELLARMIN, Robert, a cardinal, and 
 celebrated controversialist of the Roman 
 church, was born at Monte Pulciano, in 
 Tuscany, in 1542. At the age of 18, he 
 entered into the college of Jesuits, where 
 he soon distinguished himself; and his 
 reputation caused him to be sent into die 
 Low Countries, to oppose the progress of 
 the Reformers. He was ordained a priest, 
 in 1569, by Jansenius, bishop of Ghent, 
 and placed in the theological chair of the 
 university of Louvain. After a residence 
 of seven years, he returned to Italy, and 
 was sent by Sixtus V to France, as com- 
 panion to tho legate. He was made a 
 cardinal, on account of his learning, by 
 Clement VIII, and, in 1602, created arch- 
 bishop of Capua. At the elections of 
 Leo XI and Paul V, he was thought of 
 for the pontificate, and might have been 
 chosen, had he not been a Jesuit. Paul 
 V recalled him to Rome, on which he 
 resigned his archbishopric without retain- 
 ing any pension on it, as he might have 
 done. In 1621, he left his apartments in 
 the Vatican, and returned to a house of 
 his order, where he died the same year, 
 at the age of 71. So impressed were the 
 people with the idea of his sanctity, that 
 it was necessary to place guards to keep 
 off" the crowd, which pressed round to 
 touch his body, or procure some relics of 
 his garments. B. had the double merit, 
 
 with the court of Rome, of supporting her 
 temporal power and spiritual supremacy 
 to the utmost, and of strenuously .opposing 
 the Reformers. The talent lie displayed 
 in the latter controversy called forth 
 all the similar ability on the Protestant 
 side ; and, for a number of years, no em- 
 inent divine among the Reformers failed 
 to make his arguments a particular sub- 
 ject of refutation. The great work which 
 he composed in this warfare is entitled 
 A Body of Controversy, written in Latin, 
 the style of which is perspicuous and pre- 
 cise, without any pretension to purity or 
 elegance. He displays a vast amount of 
 Scriptural learning, and is deeply versed 
 in the doctrine and practice of the church 
 in all ages, as becomes one who deter- 
 mines every point by authority. To his 
 credit, he exhibits none of the lax moral- 
 ity of his order, and, in respect to the 
 doctrines of predestination and efficacious 
 grace, is more a follower of St. Augustine 
 than a Jesuit. His maxims on the right 
 of pontiffs to depose princes caused his 
 work on the temporal power of the popes 
 to be condemned at Paris. On the other 
 hand, it did not satisfy the court of Rome, 
 because it asserted, not a direct, but an 
 indirect, power in the popes in temporal 
 matters; which reservation so offended 
 Sixtus V, that he placed it among the list 
 of prohibited books. These differences 
 among the Catholics necessarily gave 
 strength to the Protestant side, and pro- 
 duced a work from Mayer in exposition 
 of diem. In die rancor of controversy, 
 some malignant calumnies were uttered 
 against the morals of B. ; but it is evident, 
 that he inclined to superstition in faith, 
 and scrupulosity in practice. At his death, 
 he bequeathed one half of his soul to the 
 Virgin, and the other to Jesus Christ. His 
 society thought so highly of his sanctity 
 that proofs were collected to entitle him 
 to canonization; but the fear of giving 
 offence to the sovereigns, whose rights he 
 oppugned, has always prevented a com- 
 pliance with the ardent wishes of the 
 Jesuits. The best edition of his contro- 
 versial works is that of Prague, 1721, 4 
 vols., folio. 
 
 BELLE ALLIANCE. (See Waterloo.} 
 BELLE-ISLE, or BELLE-!SLE-EN-MER 
 (anciently Vindilis] ; an island in the bay 
 of Biscay, 115 miles from the west coast 
 of France, about nine miles long, and 
 from two to four broad, surrounded by 
 sharp rocks, which leave only three 
 fortified passages to the island. The 
 soil is diverse, consisting of rock, salt 
 marsh, and fertile grounds, Palais is th&
 
 BELLE-ISLEBELLES-LETTRES. 
 
 43 
 
 capital. It contains three other small 
 towns, and many villages. Lon. 3 & W. ; 
 lat. 4718'N. Pop., 5,569. 
 
 BELLE-ISLE, or BELLI SLE ; an island 
 N. E. of the gulf of St. Lawrence, about 
 21 miles in circuit; on the north-west side 
 has a small harbor, fit for small craft, 
 called Lark harbor, within a little island 
 which lies close to the shore. At the east 
 point, it has another small harbor or 
 cove, that will only admit fishing shallops ; 
 Iroin whence it is about 16 miles to the 
 coast of Labrador. The narrow channel 
 between Newfoundland and the coast of 
 Labrador is called the straits of Bdlisle ; 
 15 miles N.Newfoundland. Lon. 55 15' 
 W. ; lat. 52 N. 
 
 BELLEGARDE, count, bom atChambeny, 
 in Savoy, in the year 1760, of one of the 
 oldest Savoyard families, early entered 
 the Austrian service, and distinguished 
 himself during the campaigns of 1793 96 
 in such a manner as to become a member 
 of the archduke Charles's counsel of war, 
 and, in 1796, field-marshal lieutenant. In 
 tlu's capacity, he concluded, in 1797, an 
 armistice, at Leoben, with Bonaparte, and, 
 in 1799, commanded the corps that was 
 to maintain the connexion between Su- 
 warofF and the archduke Charles. After 
 the campaign in Italy, in 1800, he was 
 made privy counsellor of the archduke 
 Frederic, who commanded the army of 
 Italy. In July, 1805, the chief command 
 in the territories of Venice was committed 
 to him. In 1806, he was created lield- 
 marshal, and appointed civil and military 
 governor of both the Galicias. In the 
 campaign of 1809, he distinguished him- 
 self at Aspern. B. afterwards became pres- 
 ident of the council of war at Vienna, act- 
 ed in Italy against Murat, was appointed 
 governor of Lombardy, and lives now 
 retired from the service on account of a 
 disorder in his eyes. 
 
 BELLEGARDE, Gabriel du Pac de ; born 
 at the palace of Bellcgarde, in the year 
 1717; one of the most indefatigable com- 
 pilers of history, who has thrown much 
 light on the historical events of the 17th 
 century. 
 
 BELLEISLE (Charles Louis Auguste 
 Fouquet), count de, marshal of France, 
 born at Villefranche, Sept. 22, 1684, dis- 
 tinguished himself during the famous 
 siege of Lille, and became brigadier in 
 the royal forces. After the conclusion of 
 the war of the Spanish succession, he 
 went, with marshal Villars, to Rastadt, 
 where he displayed diplomatic talents. 
 The cession of Lorraine to France, in 
 1736, was principally his work. Cardinal 
 
 Fleury reposed confidence in him ; Louis 
 XV made him governor of Metz and the 
 three bishoprics of Lorraine, which office 
 he held until his death. Before the break- 
 ing out of the war, in 1741, he visited the 
 principal courts of Germany with the 
 design of disposing them, after the death 
 of Charles VI, to choose the elector of 
 Bavaria emperor of Germany ; and he 
 displayed so much address, on this occa- 
 sion, as to excite the admiration of Fred- 
 eric II. After his return, he placed him- 
 self, together with Broglio, at the head of 
 the French forces, to oppose those of 
 Maria Theresa. He took Prague by as- 
 sault ; but, the king of Prussia having made 
 a separate peace, he was compelled to a 
 retreat, which he performed with admi- 
 rable skill. In Dec., 1744, when on a 
 diplomatic journey to Berlin, he was 
 arrested at Elbingerode, a Hanoverian 
 post, and sent to England, where he was 
 exchanged, however, in 1746. In the 
 following year, he forced general Browne, 
 who had entered the south of France 
 from Italy, to raise the siege of Antibes, 
 and to retreat over the Var. In 1748, the 
 king made him a duke and peer of France, 
 and the department of war was committed 
 to his charge. He reformed the army by 
 abolishing many abuses, enlarged the mil- 
 itary academy, and caused an order of 
 merit to be established. The city of Metz 
 is indebted to him for an academy. He 
 died in 1761. 
 
 BELLENDEN, William ; a Scottish writer 
 of the 17th century, distinguished for the 
 elegance of his Latin style. He was edu- 
 cated at Paris, where he was professor 
 of belles-lettres in 1602, and, though he 
 was made master of requests by James I, 
 he still continued to reside in the French 
 metropolis. In 1608, he published a work 
 entitled Cicero Princeps, containing a se- 
 lection from the works of Cicero, consist- 
 ing of passages relating to the duties of a 
 prince, &c. He afterwards republished 
 this work, with some other treatises, in his 
 Bellendenus de Statit. This work was 
 published again, in 1787, by an anony- 
 mous editor, since known to have been 
 doctor Samuel Parr, who added a Latin 
 preface on the politics of that time. 
 BELLEROPHO> T . (See Hipponous.) 
 BELLES-LETTRES (French) signifies the 
 same with polite literature. It is impossi- 
 ble to give a satisfactory explanation of 
 what is or has been called belles-lettres: 
 in fact, the vaguest definition would be 
 the best, as almost every branch of knowl- 
 edge has, at one time, been included in, 
 at another, excluded from, this denomina-
 
 44 
 
 BELLES-LETTRES BELLONA, 
 
 tion. The most correct definition, there- 
 fore, would be, perhaps, such as embraced 
 all knowledge and every science, not 
 merely abstract, nor simply useful. In 
 the division of the departments at the 
 lyceum of arts, established at Paris in 
 1792, the belles-lettres comprehended gen- 
 eral grammar, languages, rhetoric, geog- 
 raphy, history, antiquities and numismat- 
 ics ; whilst philosophy, mathematics, &c., 
 were called, in contradistinction, sciences. 
 If the name of belles-lettres ought to be 
 retained at all, it would seem proper to 
 include under it poetry, rhetoric, and all 
 prose which has pretensions to elegance. 
 A historical work, therefore, would fall 
 within the definition of belles-lettres, only 
 if its style was distinguished for elegance. 
 The same would be the case with books 
 of travels, &c. It is, however, to be hoped 
 that this vague, unnecessary name will 
 soon be abandoned, in imitation of the 
 example of the Germans, who, having 
 investigated the philosophy of the arts and 
 sciences more thoroughly than any other 
 nation, and critically analyzed their prin- 
 ciples, have rejected the term ; so that it 
 is known in Germany only as matter of 
 history. They class poetry with the fine 
 arts, and its history, like the histoiy of 
 any other art, science, nation or thing, 
 with the sciences. Rhetoric, too, is called 
 a fine art. It was formerly said, that the 
 difference of belles-lettres and beaux-arts 
 consisted in the difference of the means 
 employed by each respectively. The for- 
 mer, it was said, used arbitrary signs, by 
 which was meant language ; the latter, 
 natural signs, i. e., sounds and visible 
 forms. It is easy to see how untenable 
 this division is. 
 
 BELLEVUE (Fr. Jine prospect). This 
 name is given to several villas and palaces, 
 but particularly to a beautiful country 
 palace in the neighborhood of Paris, situ- 
 ated on the ridge of those mountains 
 which stretch from St. Cloud towards 
 Meudon. Mad. de Pompadour (q. v.) 
 built it. The building was commenced 
 in July, 1748, and finished in November, 
 1750. After the death of Louis XV, the 
 use of it was granted to the aunts of 
 Louis XVI, mesdames de France. The 
 first French artists of the time, Coustou, 
 Adam, Salu, Pigalle, Gragenard, Laprenue, 
 had exerted all their talents in embellish- 
 ing Bellevue ; so that this palace, at the 
 period when it was built, was considered 
 the most charming in all Europe. After 
 the revolution, the convention decreed 
 that Bellevue should be kept in repair at 
 the expense of the nation, and that it 
 
 should be devoted to public amusements. 
 Nevertheless, it was publicly sold, during 
 the highest pitch of revolutionary excite- 
 ment, and the purchaser, M. Lenchere, 
 a post-master in Paris, had it demolished, 
 quite in the spirit of the Bande noire. 
 (q. v.) Its ruins are frequently visited, on 
 account of the beautiful view of Paris 
 from this spot. 
 
 BELLI??!, James, and his two sons, Gen- 
 tile and Giovanni (who surpassed their 
 father) ; celebrated painters, who made a 
 new epoch in the Venetian school. Of 
 James's works nothing has been left ; but 
 several of Gentile's (e. g., a St. Mark) have 
 reached our times. In the year 1479, 
 Gentile went to Constantinople, Moham- 
 med II having sent to Venice for a skil- 
 ful painter. He is said to have there 
 copied the bass-reliefs of the column of 
 Theodosius, and to have died at Venice, 
 in the year 1501. The most distinguished 
 of the family was Giovanni B., who was 
 born at Venice, about 1424, and died about 
 1516. He studied nature diligently, and 
 his drawing was good. He contributed 
 much to make oil painting popular, and 
 has left many excellent pictures, of which 
 one, the Savior pronouncing his Benedic- 
 tion, is to be found in the gallery of Dres- 
 den. His own reputation was much in- 
 creased by that of his celebrated disciples, 
 namely, Titian and Giorgione. As their 
 instructer, he is sometimes called the 
 founder of the Venetian school. 
 BELLISLE. (See Belle-Isle.) 
 BELLMAKN, Charles Michael, the most 
 original among the Swedish poets, was 
 born at Stockholm, in 1741, and grew up 
 in the quietude of domestic life. The 
 first proofs which he gave of his poetic 
 talents were religious and pious effusions. 
 The dissipated life of young men, at Stock- 
 holm, devoted to pleasure, was afterwards 
 the subject of his poems. By these his 
 name was spread over all Sweden. Even 
 the attention of Gustavus IH was attract- 
 ed to him, and he received from the king 
 an appointment, which enabled him to 
 devote himself almost entirely to poetical 
 pin-suits, in an easy independence, until 
 his death, in 1795. His songs are truly 
 national, principally describing scenes of 
 revelry. 
 
 BELLONA; the goddess of war; daugh- 
 ter of Phorcys and Ceto. She was called 
 by the Greeks Enyo, and is often con- 
 founded with Minerva. She was anciently 
 called Duelliona, and was the sister of 
 Mars, or, according to some, his daugh- 
 ter or his wife. She prepared his chariot 
 when he was going to war, and drove his
 
 BELLONA BELLOY. 
 
 45 
 
 steeds through the tumult of the battle 
 with a bloody scourge, her hair dishevel- 
 led, and a torch in her hand. The Ro- 
 mans paid great adoration to her ; but she 
 was held in the highest veneration by the 
 Cappadocians, chiefly at Comana, where 
 she had above 3000 priests. Her temple 
 at Rome was near the Porta Carmentalis. 
 In it the senators gave audience to foreign 
 ambassadors and to generals returned from 
 war. At the gate was a small column, 
 called the column of war, against which 
 the}' threw a spear, whenever war was 
 declared. The priests of this goddess 
 consecrated themselves by making great 
 incisions in their bodies, and particularly 
 in the thigh, from which they received 
 the blood in their hands to offer as a sac- 
 rifice to the goddess. In their wild en- 
 thusiasm, they often predicted bloodshed 
 and wars, the defeat of enemies, or the 
 besieging of to wns. 
 
 BELLOWS ; a machine so formed as to 
 expire and inspire air by turns, by the 
 enlargement and contraction of the ca- 
 pacity. As soon as men began to make 
 use of fire, the importance of bellows was 
 felt, since the natural bellows, if we may 
 give this name to the lungs, could not be 
 applied to any great extent. The inven- 
 tion of bellows is ascribed to Anacharsis 
 the Scythian. Probably, this invention, 
 like so many others, took place in differ- 
 ent countries, since the want which oc- 
 casioned it is universal. The first devia- 
 tion from the ancient, and still common 
 form of the bellows, was made by the 
 Germans, about 100 years ago, and the 
 forms at present are very various, as many 
 attempts have been made for the improve- 
 ment of this highly important machine, 
 which becomes necessary wherever a 
 powerful flame is required in the arts. 
 As mining is carried on extensively in 
 Germany, and great heat is required in 
 smelting the ores, and working the metals, 
 many new kinds of bellows have been 
 invented in that country, of which we 
 only mention that of Mr. von Baader, in 
 Munich (known as the inventor of a new 
 kind of rail-roads). It consists of an emp- 
 ty box, which moves up and down in 
 another, partially filled with water. Be- 
 tween the bottom of the empty box and 
 surface of the water is a space filled with 
 air, which is driven out by the descent 
 of the enclosed box. Bellows of very 
 great power are generally called blowing- 
 machines. One of the largest is that re- 
 cently erected in England, at the smith- 
 ery in the king's dock-yard, at Woolwich. 
 It is adequate to the supply of air for 40 
 
 forge fires, amongst which are several 
 for the forging of anchors, iron knees, and 
 many other heavy pieces of smithery. 
 The common Chinese bellows consist of 
 a box of wood about two feet long, and 
 one foot square, in which a thick, square 
 piece of board, which exactly fits the 
 internal cavity of the box, is pushed back- 
 wards and forwards. In the bottom of 
 the box, at each end, there is a small coni- 
 cal or plug valve to admit the air, and 
 valves above to discharge it. 
 
 BKLLOY, Pierre Laurent Buirette de, 
 the first French dramatist who success- 
 fully introduced native heroes upon the 
 French stage, instead of those of Greece 
 and Rome, or the great men of other na- 
 tions, was born at St. Flour, in Auvergne, 
 in 1727. He went to Paris when a child, 
 lost his father soon after, and was sup- 
 ported by his uncle, a distinguished ad- 
 vocate in the parliament of Paris, who 
 designed him for the same profession. 
 He applied himself to this profession with 
 reluctance, while he showed much genius 
 for the drama. His uncle opposed this 
 taste, and the young man secretly left 
 his house. He now made his appearance 
 at several northern courts, as an actor, 
 under the name of Dormant de Belloy. 
 Every where his character gained him 
 love and esteem. He spent several years 
 in Petersburg, where the empress Elisa- 
 beth showed him much kindness. In 
 1758, he returned to France, with the in- 
 tention of having his tragedy Titus rep- 
 resented. His uncle obtained a warrant 
 of imprisonment against him, in case he 
 should appear on the stage. B. had 
 hoped to reconcile his family to him by 
 the success of Titus, but this hope was 
 disappointed by the failure of the pieee ;. 
 and the author went once more to Pe- 
 tersburg. Shortly after, his uncle died, 
 and B. returned again to France, where 
 he brought out his tragedy Zelmire, 
 which was acted with the most complete 
 success. In 1765 followed his Siege de 
 Calais, a tragedy which produced a great 
 sensation, and is still esteemed, though it 
 owes the applause bestowed on it rather 
 to its subject than to its poetical merit. 
 He received the medal promised by the 
 king to those poets who should produce 
 three successful pieces, and which has 
 been awarded only on this occasion. On 
 account of the great applause with which 
 the Siege of Calais was received, it was 
 counted as two, it being, in fact, only the 
 second successful piece of B. The city of 
 Calais sent him the freedom of the city, in 
 a gold box, with the inscription Lauream
 
 46 
 
 BELLOY BELZONI. 
 
 tulit, timcam recipit. B. has written sun- 
 dry other dramatic pieces, of which Gas- 
 ton et Bayard procured his reception into 
 tlie Jlcadimie Frangaise. Upon the whole, 
 he was not happy in the expression of 
 tragical pathos. He died in 1775. 
 BELL-ROCK. (See Him-Rock.) 
 BELOOCHISTAN. (See Belujistan.) 
 BELT, the Great and Little ; two straits 
 of Denmark, connecting the Baltic with 
 the Cattegat. The former runs between 
 the islands of Zealand and Funen, and is 
 about 15 miles in width, where it is crossed 
 from Nyborg, in Funen, to Corsoer, in 
 Zealand. The greatest breadth of the 
 strait is 20 miles. The navigation is very 
 dangerous, on account of the many small 
 islands and sand-banks, by which the 
 channel is impeded. Vessels sailing 
 through this strait pay tribute at Ny- 
 borg. The Little Belt is between the 
 island of Funen and the coast of Jutland, 
 and the narrowest part of the strait is not 
 more than a mile in width. At this place 
 stands the fortress Fredericia, where the 
 tolls are paid. The fortress commands 
 completely the entrance from the Catte- 
 gat. The sound between Zealand and 
 the Swedish coast is preferred for all 
 large vessels. 
 
 BELUJISTAN, or BELUCHISTAN ; a coun- 
 try in Asia, situated on the north-west of 
 the peninsula of Hindostan, formerly be- 
 longing to Persia; now connected with 
 Cabulistan. It comprehends, in its most 
 extensive acceptation, all the space be- 
 tween Ion. 58 and 67 E. ; lat. 24 and 
 30 N. It extends from the country of 
 the Afghans on the north to the Indian 
 ocean, and from the provinces of Laristan 
 and Kerman on the west to that of Sind 
 on the east. .It contains six principal di- 
 visions : 1. Jhalawan and Sarawan, with 
 the district of Kelat ; 2. Macran and Les ; 
 3. Kohistan, that is, the mountainous re- 
 gion west of the Desert ; 4. the Desert ; 5. 
 Cach Gandavah and the district of Her- 
 rend Dajel ; 6. the province of Sind. It 
 is very mountainous. Many of the moun- 
 tains are of great height, covered with 
 snow. In the plains, the heat is very 
 great ; in summer, water is generally 
 scarce. The rivers are the Pooralle 
 Muktoo, Dast, Nughor, Sinroo and Sud- 
 gee. The desert of Belujistan is 300 
 miles long, and upwards of 200 broad, 
 consisting of waves of sand extremely 
 difficult to be traversed. The minerals 
 are gold, silver, lead, iron, copper, tin, 
 rock salt, alum, saltpetre and sulphur. 
 The soil produces grain, cotton, indigo, 
 madder and assafcetida. The Belooches, 
 
 or Balojes, consist of three tribes the 
 Beluches, the Brahuis, the Dehwars. 
 They are warlike and semi-barbarous. 
 They live a pastoral life, and are of the 
 Mohammedan religion. Little was known 
 of this country, till Mr. Pottinger, and 
 some other enterprising officers in the 
 East India company's service, explored it 
 in 1809 and 1810. 
 
 BELVEDERE (Ital.^me sight. See Belle- 
 vue.) The name of buildings in Italy des- 
 tined for the enjoyment of prospects. 
 The name is also given to the small cupolas 
 on houses, which are ascended for the 
 sake of fresh air, or of the view which 
 they afford. Many of the buildings in 
 Rome are furnished with such cupolas ; 
 yet the term belvedere is generally applied 
 only to those on the palaces of the rich. 
 In France, the name bettevue is given to 
 small country-seats, in a simple style, 
 or to arched bowers at the end of a gar- 
 den or park, intended for the enjoyment 
 of fresh air, or as places of shelter against 
 the burning sun. This is the name, also, 
 of a part of the Vatican, where the famous 
 statue of Apollo is placed, which, on this 
 account, is called Apollo Belvedere. 
 
 BELZONI, Giambattista, that is, John 
 Baptist ; born at Padua, and educated at 
 Rome. He was destined for the monastic 
 life, but left the city when it was occu- 
 pied by the French armies, and, in 1803, 
 went to England, where he acted the 
 parts of Apollo and Hercules, at Astley's 
 amphitheatre. Here he acquired, besides 
 an acquaintance with the English lan- 
 guage, much knowledge of the science 
 of hydraulics, the study of which had 
 been his chief occupation in Rome, and 
 which afterwards carried him to Egypt. 
 He left England, after a residence of nine 
 years, accompanied by his wife (who 
 faced the Arabs with the courage of an 
 Amazon), and took his way through 
 Portugal, Spain and Malta to Egypt. 
 There he lived, from 1815 to 1819, at 
 first as a dancer, till he won the favor of 
 the pacha, who made use of his services. 
 B., though often alone amidst the rude 
 inhabitants of the country, kept them in 
 awe by his extraordinary stature and 
 strength. He succeeded in opening, not 
 only the pyramid of Ghiza, which had 
 been already opened, hi the 17th century, 
 by Pietro della Valle, and to which the 
 French, during their expedition to Egypt, 
 could not find the entrance, but, also, a 
 second, known by the name of Cephrenes, 
 and several catacombs near Thebes, es- 
 pecially one, in a fine state of preserva- 
 tion, in the valley of Biban el Molook,
 
 BELZONI BEMBO. 
 
 47 
 
 which is considered to be the mausoleum 
 of Psammis (400 B. C). The drawings 
 which he has furnished of these an- 
 tiquities are the most exact which we 
 possess. In the year 1816, his perse- 
 verance and skill succeeded in trans- 
 porting the bust of Jupiter Memnon, to- 
 t ether with a sarcophagus of alabaster, 
 Hind in the catacombs, from Thebes to 
 Alexandria, from whence they came to 
 the British museum. On the 1st of 
 August, 1817, he opened the temple of 
 Ipsambul, near the second cataract of the 
 Nile, which two Frenchmen, Cailliaud and 
 Drovetti (the French consul-general), had 
 discovered the year before, but had not 
 succeeded in opening. B. discovered a 
 subterraneous temple in its ruins, which, 
 until that time, had been unknown. He 
 then visited the coasts of the Red sea, and 
 the city of Berenice, and made an expe- 
 dition into the Oasis of Jupiter Ammon. 
 His journey to Berenice was rewarded by 
 the discovery of the emerald mines of Zu- 
 bara. B. refuted Cailliaud's assertion, that 
 he had found the famous Berenice, the 
 great emporium of Europe and India, by 
 subsequent investigations on the spot, and 
 by the actual discovery of the ruins of 
 that great city, four days journey from the 
 place which Cailliaud had taken for Bere- 
 nice. B.'s Narrative of the Operations 
 and recent Discoveries within the Pyra- 
 mids, Temples, Tombs and Excavations 
 in Egypt and Nubia ; and of a Journey to 
 the Coast of the Red Sea, in Search of 
 Berenice ; also of another to the Oasis of 
 Jupiter Ammon (London, 1820) ; accom- 
 panied by a folio vol. of 44 copper- plates ; 
 was received with general approbation. 
 Padua, his native city, requited his present 
 of two Egyptian statues from Thebes, 
 with a medal by Manfredini. (Concerning 
 the models, which B. placed in Bullock's 
 museum, see Museum.} In the year 1823, 
 this enterprising traveller had made prep- 
 arations for passing from Benin to Hous- 
 sa and Timbuctoo, when he died, at 
 Gato, on his way to Benin, Dec. 3, 1823. 
 He believed the Nile and the Niger to be 
 different streams, and that the Niger emp- 
 ties its waters into the Atlantic ocean. 
 
 BEMBO, Pietro ; one of the most cele- 
 brated of the Italian scholars, that adorned 
 the 16th century ; born at Venice, in 1470. 
 He very early learned the Latin, and af- 
 terwards, at Messina, under the direction 
 of Lascaris, the Greek language ; after 
 which he returned to his native country, 
 and there published a small treatise on 
 mount Etna. In compliance with the 
 will of his father, he entered upon the 
 
 career of public business, but, soon con- 
 ceiving a dislike for it, he devoted him- 
 self to science and the theological pro- 
 fession. At Ferrara, where he completed 
 his philosophical studies, he entered into 
 a connexion with Ercole Strozzi, Tibal- 
 deo, and particularly with Sadoleto. From 
 Ferrara he returned to Venice, where a 
 literary society had been established, hi 
 the house of the printer Aldus Manutius. 
 B. became one of its principal members, 
 and, for some time, took pleasure in cor- 
 recting the beautiful editions which pro- 
 ceeded from this celebrated press. After 
 visiting Rome, he went, in 1506, to the 
 court of Urbino, at that time one of those 
 Italian courts where the sciences stood 
 highest in esteem. He lived there about 
 six years, and gained several powerful 
 friends. In 1512, he went to Rome with 
 Giulio de' Medici, whose brother, pope 
 Leo X. made him his secretary, and gave 
 him his friend Sadoleto for a colleague. 
 About this time, B. became acquainted 
 with the young and beautiful Morosina, 
 with whom he lived, in the most tender 
 union, during 22 years. She presented 
 him with two sons and a daughter, whom 
 he educated with the greatest care. His 
 many labors, arising from his office, as 
 well as his literary pursuits, and, perhaps, 
 too great an indulgence in pleasure, hav- 
 ing impaired his health, he was using the 
 baths of Padua, when he was apprized 
 of the death of Leo X. Being by this 
 time possessed of several church bene- 
 fices, he resolved on withdrawing entirely 
 from business, and on passing his days at 
 Padua, (the air of which he had found 
 very beneficial), occupied only with lit- 
 erature and science, and enjoying the so- 
 ciety of his friends. The learned mem- 
 bers of the famous university of this city 
 eagerly frequented his house, and stran- 
 gers also flocked thither. B. collected a 
 considerable library : he had a cabinet of 
 medals and antiquities, which, at that 
 time, passed for one of the richest in Ita- 
 ly, and a fine botanical garden. He spent 
 the spring and autumn at, a villa called 
 Bozza, which had always belonged to his 
 family. He devoted the leisure of a 
 country life principally to his literary pur- 
 suits. In the year 1529, after the death 
 of Andreas Navagero, the office of histo- 
 riographer of the republic of Venice was 
 offered to him, which he accepted, after 
 some hesitation, and declining the salary 
 connected with it. At the same time, he 
 was nominated librarian of the library of 
 St. Mark. Pope Paul III, having re- 
 solved upon a new pro motion of cardinals,
 
 48 
 
 BEMBO BENARES. 
 
 from the most distinguished men of his 
 time, conferred on him, in 1539, the hat 
 of a cardinal. From that time, B. re- 
 nounced the belles-lettres, and made the 
 fathers and the Holy Scriptures his chief 
 study. Of his former labors, he continued 
 only the History of Venice. Two years 
 later, Paul III bestowed the bishopric of 
 Gubbio on him, and, soon after, the rich 
 bishopric of Bergamo. He died, loaded 
 with honors, 1547, in the 77th year of his 
 age. B. united in his person, his charac- 
 ter and conversation, all that is amiable. 
 He was the restorer of a pure style, as 
 well hi Lathi composition, in which 
 Cicero, Virgil and Julius Caesar were his 
 constant models, as in the Italian, in which 
 he chiefly imitated Petrarca. He was so 
 rigorous with regard to purity of style, 
 that he is said to have had 40 different 
 partitions, through which his writings, as 
 he polished them by degrees, successive- 
 ly passed ; nor did he publish them till 
 they had sustained these 40 examinations. 
 A collection of all his works, which were 
 frequently printed singly, appeared, in 
 1729, at Venice, in 4 folio vols. The 
 most important of them are, History of 
 Venice from 1487 to 1513, in 12 books, 
 which he wrote both in Latin and Italian ; 
 Le Prose, dialogues, in which the rules 
 of the Italian language are laid down ; 
 Gli Jlsolani, dialogues on the nature of 
 love; Le Rime, a collection of beauti- 
 ful sonnets and canzonets; his letters, 
 both hi Latin and Italian : De Virgilii 
 Cvlice et Terentii Fabulis Liber ; Carmi- 
 na, which are ingenious and elegant, but 
 more free than the author's profession 
 would lead us to expect ; besides several 
 others. 
 
 BEN (Hebrew, son) ; a prepositive syl- 
 lable, found hi many Jewish names ; as, 
 Bendavid, Benasser, &c., which, with the 
 Jews in Germany, has been changed into 
 the German Sohn (son), e.g., Mendels- 
 sohn, Jacobssohn, &c. The origin of this 
 manner of naming is to be found hi the 
 ancient custom of the Israelites' having 
 no family names, which is still their usage 
 in many countries. 
 
 BENARES ; a town and district in the 
 province of Allahabad, in Bengal. It 
 has an area of 12,000 square miles, 10,000 
 of which are rich cultivated flats on each 
 side of the Ganges. The heat, in sum- 
 mer, is excessive, but, hi winter, fires are 
 requisite. Garden-stuff, grain of differ- 
 ent kinds, flax for oil (no linens are man- 
 ufactured here), and sugar, are the prin- 
 cipal objects of cultivation. The gross 
 revenue, hi 1813, amounted to 4,562,707 
 
 rupees (570,338). Muslins, silks and 
 gauzes, salt, indigo and opium are made 
 in this district. The principal towns are 
 Benares, Mirza-pur, Chunargarh and 
 Ghazi-pur. The population exceeds 
 3,000,000, and the Hindoos are to the 
 Mussulmans as 10 to 1 hi the town, and 
 as 20 to 1 in the villages. The rajah 
 diet Singh was expelled by Mr. Has- 
 tings in 1781. 
 
 Benares (in Sanscrit, Vara JVasi, from 
 the two streams, Vara and Nasi) stands 
 in lat. 25 30 7 N., and Ion. 83 1' E., on 
 the high bank and northern side of the 
 Ganges. The town rises like an amphi- 
 theatre. The height of the houses and 
 narrowness of the streets give it all the 
 usual inconveniences of an Asiatic town. 
 Its inhabitants are more than 600,000, of 
 whom 8000 are said to be Bramins ; and, 
 at the great Hindoo festivals, the concourse 
 is immense ; for Casi, or Cashi, the splendid, 
 as the Indians commonly call it, is one 
 of the most sacred places of pilgrimage hi 
 all India. To die at B. is the greatest 
 happiness for a Hindoo, because he is 
 then sure of immediate admission into 
 heaven. The number of pious founda- 
 tions and temples is exceedingly great. 
 Several of the Hindoo princes have agents 
 here to offer up sacrifices in their behalf. 
 The principal temple is called Visweswar 
 or Misesar, and is , dedicated to Siva, 
 whose sacred relic it contains. Aurung- 
 zeb built a splendid mosque on the high- 
 est ground in the city, and on the ruins 
 of a temple. At the end of the 17th cen- 
 tury, an observatory was erected hi this 
 city, which still exists ; and a college for 
 the instruction of Hindoos hi their own 
 literature was established by the British 
 government in 1801 ; but it has not yet 
 done much for the revival of learning 
 among the natives, owing to the pride of 
 the Bramins. B. has long been the great 
 mart for diamonds and other gems, 
 brought principally from the Bundel- 
 cund. The merchants and bankers 
 are numerous and wealthy. There are 
 few English inhabitants, except the gov- 
 ernment officers and the members of the 
 circuit court. Casi was ceded to the 
 East India company by the nabob of 
 Aud'h (Oude), in 1775, and, since 1781, 
 has enjoyed uninterrupted tranquillity. 
 The inhabitants are better informed than 
 the natives of the country in general. 
 The reader will find an interesting ac- 
 count of B. in bishop Heber's Narrative 
 of a Journey through the Upper Prov- 
 inces of India, in "l 824 26; London, 
 1828, Philadelphia, 1829, vol. 1.
 
 BENAVIDES BENCOOLEN. 
 
 49 
 
 BENAVIDES ; an outlaw and pirate, 
 who, for several years, proved the scourge 
 of the southern parts of Chile. He was 
 a native of Quirihue, in the province of 
 Concepcion, and entered the patriot army 
 as a common soldier at the commence- 
 ment of the revolution. Having deserted 
 to the Spaniards, and being made pris- 
 oner by the Cliilians, at the battle of 
 Membrilla, in 1814, he was to have been 
 tried for desertion, but effected his es- 
 cape. Being made prisoner again at the 
 battle of Maypu, in 1818, he was sen- 
 tenced to be shot, and was supposed to 
 have been killed; but, although shock- 
 ingly wounded, and left for dead, he re- 
 covered, and, having obtained a com- 
 mission from the Spanish commander 
 Sanchez, he commenced a war upon the 
 southern frontier of Chile, never surpass- 
 ed in savage cruelty. He laid waste the 
 country with fire and sword, murdered 
 his prisoners, and perpetrated the most 
 horrid cruelties upon the unarmed peas- 
 ants, including women and children, who 
 chanced to fall into his power. Notwith- 
 standing repeated engagements with the 
 Chilian forces of the province of Con- 
 cepcion, he sustained himself, for a long 
 time, in this atrocious course. At length 
 he undertook to establish a navy, and, for 
 this purpose, piratically seized upon sev- 
 eral English and American vessels, which 
 unsuspectingly stopped for refreshment 
 not far from the town of Arauco, the 
 centre of his operations. So intolerable 
 had the grievance become, that, in 1821, 
 the Chilians fitted out an expedition 
 against Arauco, and succeeded in break- 
 ing up the robber's strong hold. He at- 
 tempted to escape to Peru in a launch, 
 but, being captured, was condemned to 
 death, and executed Feb. 23, 1822. His- 
 tory of Rev, in Spanish America. 
 
 BENBOW, John ; an English naval 
 character of distinguished merit ; born in 
 Shrewsbury, about 1650, and brought up 
 to the sea in the merchant service ; fought 
 so desperately against a pirate from Sal- 
 lee, in one of his trips to the Mediterra- 
 nean, about the year 1686, as to beat her 
 off, though greatly his superior in men 
 and metal. For this gallant action, he 
 was promoted at once, by James II, to 
 the command of a ship of war. William 
 III employed him in protecting the Eng- 
 lish trade in the channel, which he did 
 with great effect. His valor and activity 
 secured him the confidence of the nation, 
 and he was soon promoted to the rank 
 of rear-admiral, and charged with the 
 blockade of Dunkirk. But the squadron 
 
 VOL. i. 5 
 
 in that port, under the command of Du 
 Bart, managed to slip out of port ; nor 
 could Benbow, though he sailed instantly 
 in pursuit, overtake it. In 1701, he sailed 
 to the West Indies with a small fleet, 
 having accepted a command previously 
 declined by several of his seniors, from 
 the supposed superiority of the enemy's 
 force in that quarter. In August of 
 the following year, he fell ha with the 
 French fleet under Du Casse, and for 
 five days maintained a running fight with 
 them, when he at length succeeded in 
 bringing the enemy's sternmost ship to 
 close quarters. In the heat of the action, 
 a chain-shot carried away one of his legs, 
 and he was taken below ; but the mo- 
 ment the dressing had been applied to 
 the wound, he caused himself to be 
 brought again on deck, and continued 
 the action. At this critical instant, being 
 most disgracefully abandoned by several 
 of the captains under his command, who 
 signed a paper expressing their opinion 
 that "nothing more was to be done," the 
 whole fleet effected its escape. B., on 
 his return to Jamaica, brought the delin- 
 quents to a court-martial, by which two 
 of them were convicted of cowardice and 
 disobedience of orders, and condemned 
 to be shot ; which sentence, on their arri- 
 val in England, was carried into execution 
 at Plymouth. B., who suffered equally 
 in mind and body from this disgraceful 
 business, gradually sunk under his feel- 
 ings, and expired at Jamaica, Nov. 4, 1702. 
 BE^COOLEX, or BESKAHULE ; a seaport 
 of Sumatra, on the S. W. coast ; Ion. 102 
 11' E. ; lat. 3 50' S. The English set- 
 tled here in 1685, and, in 1690, the East 
 India company built a fort here, calling it 
 fort York. A convenient river on its N. 
 W. side brings the pepper out of the in- 
 land countiy ; but there is great incon- 
 venience in shipping it, by reason of a 
 dangerous bar at the river's mouth. The 
 place, which is almost two miles in com- 
 pass, is known at sea by a high, slender 
 mountain, which rises in the country, 20 
 miles beyond it, called the Sugar-Loaf. 
 It is inhabited by a mixed population. 
 The medium heat throughout the year is 
 from 81 to 82. B. is the chief establish- 
 ment of the East India company on the 
 island of Sumatra. The settlement, lat- 
 terly, is of but little importance. Pepper 
 is the only produce of the adjacent coun- 
 try, which is mountainous and wood}'. 
 The air is full of malignant vapors, and 
 the mountains always covered with thick 
 clouds, which burst in storms of thunder, 
 rain, &c.
 
 50 
 
 BENDA BENEDICT. 
 
 BEJUXA, George, director of the chapel 
 at Gotha, horn at Jungbuntzlau, in Bo- 
 hemia, 1721, received from Frederic II 
 the place of the second violinist in the 
 chapel at Berlin, hut, in 1748, entered the 
 service of the duke of Gotha, as chapel- 
 master, where he constantly cultivated 
 his talents for composition, particularly 
 of sacred music. His Ariadne, an opera, 
 was received with enthusiastic applause 
 in Germany, and afterwards in all Europe, 
 being distinguished for originality, sweet- 
 ness and ingenious execution. His com- 
 positions are numerous ; hut his Ariadne 
 is his best work. He died in the neigh- 
 borhood of Gotha, 1795. His absence of 
 mind has given rise to many amusing 
 anecdotes. His elder brother, Francis, 
 was a distinguished violinist. Their fa- 
 ther was a poor linen- weaver. 
 
 BENDER (in the Moldau language, Ti- 
 gino] ; the chief city of a district in the 
 Russian province Bessarabia, on the 
 Dniester ; Ion. 24 46' E. ; fat. 46 51' N. ; 
 population, 10,000. It is built in the 
 shape of a crescent, is well fortified, has 
 12 mosques and 1 Armenian church. 
 The streets are narrow and dark. Its 
 commerce is important, and it carries on 
 some branches of manufacture. Here 
 resided Charles XII. (q. v.) In 1771, the 
 Russians took the place, and killed most of 
 the troops and citizens, amounting to 
 nearly 30,000 persons. The peace of 
 Cainardshi, in 1774, restored it to Turkey. 
 In 1809, it was conquered by the Rus- 
 sians, but again restored to the Turks by 
 the peace of Jassy. Since the peace of 
 Bucharest, in 1812, it has belonged to 
 Russia. 
 
 BENEDICT XIV (Prosper Lambertini), 
 bom at Bologna, in 1675, of a veiy respect- 
 able family, distinguished himself, in his 
 youth, by a rapid progress in all the 
 sciences. His favorite author was St. 
 Thomas. He applied himself with suc- 
 cess to the canon and civil law, and be- 
 came advocate to the consistory at Rome. 
 Afterwards, he was appointed promotor 
 Jidei, and wrote a valuable work on the 
 Ceremonies used in Beatifications (Bolog- 
 na, 1734, 4 vols. fol.) He was passionately 
 fond of learning, of historical researches 
 and monuments of art, and also associated 
 with the distinguished men of his time; 
 among others, with father Montfaucon, 
 who said of him, "Benedict has two 
 souls ; one for science, and the other for 
 society." He also made himself familiar 
 with the best poetical works, whereby 
 his mind became elevated and his style 
 animated. Benedict XIII made him, in 
 
 1727, bishop of Ancona ; in 1728, cardinal, 
 and in 1732, archbishop of Bologna. In 
 every station, he displayed great talents, 
 and fulfilled his duties with the most 
 conscientious zeal. He opposed fanati- 
 cism even at the risk of his own safety, 
 defended the oppressed, and expressed 
 himself with the greatest frankness to 
 Clement XII, without losing his favor. 
 When, after the death of Clement XII, 
 in 1740, the election of a new pope in 
 the conclave was retarded by the in- 
 trigues of cardinal Tencin, and the car- 
 dinals could not agree, Lambertini, with 
 his usual good nature, said to them, " If 
 you want a saint, take Gotti ; if a politi- 
 cian, Aldobrandi ; if a good old man, 
 myself." These words, thrown out in a 
 humorous manner, operated on the con- 
 clave like inspiration, and Lambertini, 
 under the name of Benedict XIV, ascend- 
 ed the papal throne. His choice of the 
 ministers and friends, whom he assembled 
 around him, does the greatest honor to 
 his judgment. The condition of the 
 church, and of the Roman court, had not 
 escaped his penetration. Since the ref- 
 ormation, princes no longer trembled at 
 the thunders of the Vatican. The popes 
 had renounced their pretensions to world- 
 ly authority, and Lambertini knew that 
 respect for the papal authority could be 
 maintained only by a wise moderation. 
 He constantly regulated his measures by 
 this principle, and thus succeeded, even 
 in difficult circumstances, in satisfying, 
 not only the Catholic, but even the Prot- 
 estant princes. The sciences were a 
 special object of his care. He established 
 academies at Rome ; promoted the pros- 
 perity of the academy at Bologna ; caused 
 a degree of the meridian to be measured ; 
 the obelisk to be erected in the Campus 
 Martius ; the church of St. Marcellino to 
 be built after a plan projected by him- 
 self; the beautiful pictures in St. Peter's 
 to be executed in mosaic ; the best Eng- 
 lish and French works to be translated 
 into Italian ; .and commanded a catalogue 
 of the manuscripts contained hi the Vati- 
 can library (the number of which he had 
 enlarged to 3300) to be printed. His gov- 
 ernment of the papal states did equal 
 honor to his wisdom. He enacted severe 
 laws against usury, favored commercial 
 liberty, and diminished the number of 
 holydays. His piety was sincere, yet 
 enlightened and forbearing. He strove 
 to maintain purity of doctrine and of 
 morals, giving, in his own character, the 
 most praiseworthy example. He died, 
 after a painful sickness, during which his
 
 BENEDICT BENEDICTINES. 
 
 51 
 
 cheerfulness and vivacity never deserted 
 him, May 3, 1758. The sole reproach 
 brought against him by the Romans was, 
 that he wrote too much, and governed 
 too little. His works compose, in the 
 Venice edition, 16 vols. fbl. The most 
 important of his works is that on the 
 synods, in which we recognise the great 
 canonist. 
 
 BENEDICT, St. ; the founder of the first 
 religious order in the West ; born at Nor- 
 cia, in Spoleto (in the present Ecclesiasti- 
 cal States), 480. In the 14th year of his 
 age, he retired to a cavern situated in the 
 desert of Subiaco, 40 miles from Rome, 
 and, in 515, drew up a rule for his monks, 
 which was first introduced into the mon- 
 astery on Monte Cassino,inthe neighbor- 
 hood of Naples, founded by him (529) in 
 a grove of Apollo, after the temple had 
 been demolished. This gradually be- 
 came the rule of all the Western monks. 
 The abbots of Monte Cassino afterwards 
 acquired episcopal jurisdiction, and a cer- 
 tain patriarchal authority over the whole 
 order. B., with the intention of banish- 
 ing idleness, prescribed, in addition to the 
 work of God (as he called prayer and the 
 reading of religious writings), the instruc- 
 tion of youth in reading, writing and ci- 
 phering, in the doctrines of Christianity, 
 in manual labors (including mechanic aits 
 of every kind), and in the management 
 of the monastery. With regard to dress 
 and food, the rule was severe, but not 
 extravagant. " B. caused a library to be 
 founded, for which the aged and infirm 
 brethren (or do scriptorius) were obliged to 
 copy manuscripts. By this means he 
 contributed to preserve the literary re- 
 mains of antiquity from ruin ; for, though 
 he had in view only the copying of reli- 
 gious writings, yet the practice was after- 
 wards extended to classical works of 
 every kind ; and the learned world is 
 indebted for the preservation of great 
 literary treasures to the order of St. Bene- 
 dict. (See Benedictines.) 
 
 BENEDICTBEURN ; formerly an abbey, 
 situated in the Bavarian circle of the 
 Iser, about 40 miles distant from the city 
 of Munich, on the descent of the moun- 
 tains towards the Tyrol. The convent 
 was founded as early as 740. In our 
 days, it is only remarkable for the manu- 
 factory of optical instruments belonging 
 to Reichenbach and Liebherr, who have 
 furnished instruments to almost all the 
 observatories of Europe. 
 
 BENEDICTINES. From the Gth to the 10th 
 century, almost all monks, in the West, 
 might be so called, because they followed 
 
 the rule of St. Benedict of Norcia. (See this 
 article, Monastery and Order.) The rules 
 which, at that time, the monasteries, in 
 Spain and France, received from their 
 bishops, as well as the rule of the Irish St. 
 Columba (born 560, died 615), were essen- 
 tially the same as those of St. Benedict ; 
 and, in the progress of his order, the monas- 
 teries in Spain and France, as well as those 
 ofthe order of Columba, united themselves 
 with it. Monte Cassino, the magnificent 
 primitive monastery of the Benedictines, 
 became the model of all others. At that 
 time, the monasteries, having no common 
 superiors, were under the immediate con- 
 trol of the bishops in their respective dio- 
 ceses, and differed from one another in 
 many qualifications of the primitive rule. 
 Not even the color of their dress was the 
 same. The disciples of Columba wore 
 white garments, like the first Benedictine 
 nuns, who originated in France, in the 6th 
 century. After the unions which took place 
 at a later period, all the members of this 
 order wore black, as the founder is said 
 to have done. The decline of monastic 
 discipline, after the 8th century, occasion- 
 ed the reforms of Benedict of Aniana, in 
 France, the renewed inculcation of the 
 old rule, and the adoption of new ordi- 
 nances suited to the times, by the coun- 
 cil of Aix-la-Chapelle (817), as well as the 
 particular rules and fraternities of the cel- 
 ebrated monasteries in France, Germany 
 and England, which, in those barbarous 
 times, became seats of civilization ; and, 
 finally, the institution of the Cluniacs, a 
 new branch of the Benedictines, which 
 proceeded from the convent of Clugny, in 
 Burgundy, founded in the year 910. The 
 Benedictine monasteries, in the middle 
 ages, were often asylums in which sci- 
 ence took refuge, and found protection. 
 In the place ofthe discordant and uncer- 
 tain rules which had hitherto existed, the 
 Cluniacs made fixed regulations concern- 
 ing the hours of worship, the obedience, 
 discipline and common government of all 
 the monasteries belonging to their order, 
 which were soon imitated in all Europe. 
 In the 12th century, their order contained 
 2000 monasteries, whose luxury frequent- 
 ly called for reforms, and finally became 
 the chief cause of their decline. The re- 
 mains of the Cluniacs united themselves, 
 in the 17th century, under the patronage 
 of Richelieu, with the Benedictine frater- 
 nities of St. Vannes and St. Maurus, the 
 latter of which, founded in 1618, had, in 
 the beginning of the 18th century, 180 
 abbeys and priories in France, and ac- 
 quired, by means of Its learned members,
 
 52 
 
 BENEDICTINES BENEFIT OF CLERGY. 
 
 such as Mabillon, Montfaucon, Martene, 
 merited distinction. To this family be- 
 long those new orders, established on the 
 foundation, and observing the rule of St. 
 Benedict, which have originated since the 
 llth century, and are distinguished from 
 the proper Benedictines by their dress, 
 names and particular regulations ; e. g., the 
 Camaldulians, the monks of Vallombrosa, 
 the SylvestrianSjthe Grandimontenses, the 
 Carthusians, the Coelestines, the Cister- 
 cians and Bernarclines, the Trappists, and 
 the monks of Fontevraud. (q. v.) The 
 Benedictine monasteries never constituted 
 one society, constitutionally regulated and 
 governed under an aristocratical or mo- 
 narchical form : on the contrary, a great 
 many monasteries, which descended from 
 the old Benedictines, were compelled, by 
 the council of Trent, to unite them- 
 selves gradually into particular fraterni- 
 ties. Among these, the Benedictines of 
 Monte Cassiuo, of Monte Vergine, and 
 Monte Oliveto(who call themselves Oli- 
 vetanians), in Italy and Sicily, where they 
 have flourished uninterruptedly even to 
 the present time ; those of Valladolid and 
 Montserrat, in Spain, where they are 
 among the wealthiest orders; those of 
 Hirschau and Fulda, together with Burs- 
 feld, which have now ceased to exist, and 
 that of Moelk, in Germany, deserve par- 
 ticular notice, on account of the extent of 
 their possessions, the magnificence, of 
 their churches, and the mildness of their 
 rules. To the fraternity of Moelk, which 
 still exists, but accommodated to the spirit 
 of the times (the government having or- 
 dered its revenues to be applied to the 
 public service), the rest of the Benedictine 
 convents in Austria are joined. Many 
 of the nunneries of this order are reserved 
 for the nobility, because the places in 
 them are equal to the most lucrative bene- 
 fices. The Benedictines in Sicily, who 
 are, for the greater part, the younger sons 
 of distinguished families, live under very 
 lax rules. In Modena, they have settled 
 again, and received a con-vent, with rev- 
 enues for then: support. 
 
 BENEDICTION signifies the act of con- 
 ferring a blessing (q. v.). Benedictio be- 
 atica ; the blessing bestowed on the pen- 
 itent sick. It is also called viaticum. 
 Benedictio sacerdotalis is the nuptial ben- 
 ediction pronounced by the priest on the 
 occasion of a wedding. To give the 
 benediction, is an expression used with 
 regard to the pope, the cardinals, bishops 
 or papal nuncios, when they bestow a 
 blessing, either in the church, or in the 
 street, with the sign of the cross, on the 
 
 people, or some private person. The 
 pope gives a solemn benediction three 
 times every year ; viz. on Maundy-Thurs- 
 day, on Easter, and ou Ascension-day. 
 
 BENEFIT OF CLERGY was a privilege of 
 clergymen, which originated in a pious 
 regard for the church, whereby the clergy 
 of Roman Catholic countries were either 
 partially or wholly exempted from the 
 jurisdiction of the lay tribunals. It ex- 
 tended, in England, only to the case of 
 felony ; and, though it was intended to ap- 
 ply only to clerical felons or clerks, yet, 
 as every one who could read was, by the 
 laws of England, considered to be a clerk, 
 when the rudiments of learning came to 
 be diffused, almost every man in the 
 community became entitled to this privi- 
 lege. Peers were entitled to it, whether 
 they could read or not ; and by the 
 statutes of 3 and 4 William and Man", 
 c. 9, and 4 and 5 William and Mary, c. 
 24, it was extended to women. In the 
 earlier ages of the English Roman Catho- 
 lic church, the clerk, on being convicted 
 of felony, and claiming the benefit of 
 clergy, was handed over to the ecclesias- 
 tical tribunal for a new trial or purgation, 
 the pretty uniform result of which was 
 his acquittal This pretended trial or 
 purgation gave rise to a great deal of 
 abuse and perjury, so that, at length, the 
 secular judges, instead of handing over 
 the culprit to the ecclesiastics for purga- 
 tion, ordered him to, be detained in prison, 
 until he should be pardoned by the king. 
 By the statute of 18 Elizabeth, c. 7, per- 
 sons convicted of felony, and entitled to 
 the benefit of clergy, were to be discharged 
 from prison, being first branded in the 
 thumb, if laymen, it being left to the dis- 
 cretion of the judge to detain them in 
 prison not exceeding one year ; and, by 
 the statute of 5 Anne, c. 6, it was enacted, 
 that it should no longer be requisite that 
 a person should be able to read, in order 
 to be entitled to the benefit of clergy, so 
 that, from the passing of this act, a felon 
 was no more liable to be hanged on ac- 
 count of defect of learning. The English 
 statutes formerly made specific provisions, 
 that, in particular cases, the culprit should 
 not be entitled to benefit of clergy, but 
 the statute of 7 and 8 George IV, c. 28, 
 provides, that "benefit of clergy, with re- 
 spect to persons convicted of felony, shall 
 be abolished." TJiis privilege has been 
 formally abolished in some of the United 
 States, and allowed only in one or two 
 cases in others, while, in others again, it 
 does not appear to have been known at 
 all, By the act of congress of April 30,
 
 BENEFIT OF CLERGY BENEZET. 
 
 53 
 
 1790, it is enacted, " that benefit of clergy 
 shall not' be used or allowed, upon con- 
 viction of any crime, for which, by any 
 statute of the United States, the punish- 
 ment is, or shall be, declared to be 
 death." 
 
 BENEVESTO ; a dukedom in the Nea- 
 politan province Principato Oltra (86 
 square miles, with 20,348 inhabitants), 
 which, including a city and eight villages, 
 belongs to the papal see. In 1806, Napo- 
 leon made a present of it to his minister 
 Talleyrand, who received thence the title 
 of prince of Benevento. In 1815, it was 
 restored to the pope. Cattle, grain, wine, 
 oranges and dead game are exported. 
 The public revenue amounts to 6000 dol- 
 lars. In 1820, the inhabitants revolted. 
 In the most remote times, the state of 
 Benevento belonged to the country of the 
 Samnites. The Lombards, in 571, made 
 it a dukedom, which, long after the ex- 
 tinction of the Lombard kingdom, re- 
 mained independent. At a later period, 
 it fell into the hands of the Saracens and 
 Normans. The city, however, was not 
 conquered by the latter, because Henry 
 III had given it to the pope, Leo IX. The 
 city of B. (Ion. 14 38' E., lat. 40 & N.), 
 on a hill between the rivers Sabato and 
 Galore, has 13,900 inhabitants, 8 churches 
 and 19 convents. Since 969, it has been 
 the see of an archbishop. It has several 
 manufactories. Few cities in Italy de- 
 serve so much attention, on account of 
 the antiquities which they contain, as B. 
 Almost every wall consists of fragments 
 of altars, sepulchres, columns and entab- 
 latures. Among other things, the well- 
 preserved, magnificent triumphal arch 
 of Trajan, built in 114, deserves particu- 
 lar mention. It is now called porta au- 
 rea (the golden gate), and is a gate of the 
 city. The cathedral is a gloomy build- 
 ing, in the old Gothic style. 
 
 BEXEZET, Anthony ; a distinguished 
 philanthropist, born at St. Quentin, in 
 France, January 1713. His parents were 
 opulent, and of noble descent. On the rev- 
 ocation of the edict of Nantes, the family 
 associated themselves with the Hugue- 
 nots ; and, on this account, his father's 
 estate was confiscated, in 1715, who there- 
 upon sought temporary refuge in Holland, 
 ami afterwards in England, where An- 
 thony received his education. Of An- 
 thony's juvenile habits and dispositions, 
 but an imperfect account is preserved: it 
 is only known that he became a member 
 of the society of Friends, about the 14th 
 year of his age. In 1731, four years 
 subsequent, he arrived, along with his 
 5* ' 
 
 parents, in Philadelphia. His first em- 
 ployment was that of an instructer of 
 youth at Germantown a calling which 
 led him to prepare and publish, several 
 elementary books for the use of schools. 
 The leading traits of his character en- 
 thusiastic benevolence and profound pie- 
 ty were developed at this period. About 
 the year 1750, he was particularly struck 
 with the iniquity of the slave trade, and 
 the cruelty which was exercised by too 
 many of those who purchased and em- 
 ployed the negroes. His voice and his 
 pen were now employed in behalf of this 
 oppressed portion of his fellow-beings. 
 Finding the blacks in Philadelphia nu- 
 merous, and miserably ignorant, he estab- 
 lished an evening school for them, and 
 taught them himself, gratuitously. In 
 this office he was signally successful, 
 and accomplished the additional good of 
 removing prejudices against the intellect 
 of the Negro by exhibiting the proficiency 
 of his pupils. His first attempts to rouse 
 the public feeling, on the subject of Negro 
 slavery, consisted in short essays in al- 
 manacs and newspapers, which he was 
 indefatigable in circulating. He soon 
 published a variety of more elaborate and 
 extensive tracts, among which are the 
 following : An Account of that Part of 
 Africa inhabited by the Negroes, 1762 : 
 a Caution and Warning to Great Britain 
 and her Colonies, on the calamitous 
 State of the enslaved Negroes, 1767 : 
 an Historical Account of Guinea, its 
 Situation, Produce, and the general Dis^ 
 position of its Inhabitants ; with an En- 
 quiry into the Rise and Progress of the 
 Slave-Trade, its Nature and calamitous 
 Effects. These works were printed at 
 his own expense, and distributed, without 
 charge, wherever he thought they would 
 make an impression. He addressed them 
 directly, with suitable letters, to most of 
 the crowned heads of Europe ; and to 
 many of the most illustrious divines and 
 philosophers. The fervor of his style, 
 and the force of his facts, obtained for 
 his philanthropic efforts the notice which 
 he sought for the benefit of his cause. 
 Great peusonages, on both sides of the At- 
 lantic, corresponded with him, and it is 
 certain that he gave the original impulse 
 to dispositions and measures which in- 
 duced the abolition of the slave-trade by 
 England and the United States. Clark- 
 son, the British philanthropist, whose la- 
 bors contributed so largely to the accom- 
 plishment of that object, acknowledges, 
 that his understanding was enlightened, 
 and his zeal kindled, by one of B.'s books,
 
 54 
 
 BENEZET-BENGAL, 
 
 when he was about to treat the question 
 submitted to the senior bachelors of arts 
 in the university of Cambridge, Anne, 
 liceat invitos in servitutem darel B. re- 
 garded all mankind as his brethren. 
 About the year 1763, the wrongs inflicted 
 on the aboriginal race of North America 
 excited his susceptible mind, and prompt- 
 ed him to publish a tract, entitled, Some 
 Observations on the Situation, Disposition 
 and Character of the Indian Natives of 
 this Continent. He addressed the British 
 governors and military commanders, on 
 the effect of hostilities against the natives, 
 with characteristic boldness and pathos. 
 His various philanthropical efforts, and 
 his excellent qualities, obtained for him 
 peculiar consideration in the society of 
 Friends. In 1760, he wrote and pub- 
 lished a Short Account of the religious 
 Society of Friends, commonly called 
 Quakers ; and, in 1782, a Dissertation on 
 the Plainness and innocent Simplicity 
 of the Christian Religion. About the 
 same time, he issued several tracts against 
 the use of ardent spirits. *The person of 
 B. was small, and his face far from hand- 
 some, though benignity might be traced 
 in his animated aspect, even by those 
 who knew not how his whole being and 
 small estate had been devoted. His un- 
 derstanding was originally strong, and 
 much improved by reading and observa- 
 tion. His private habits, morals and pur- 
 suits were adapted to endear and dignify 
 his public career. He died at Philadel- 
 phia, May 5, 1784, aged 71 years. When 
 it was announced that he was seriously 
 ill, a multitude of his fellow-citizens pre- 
 sented themselves at his dwelling with 
 anxious inquiries; and he conversed lu- 
 cidly with hundreds after his case was 
 pronounced to be hopeless. There is ex- 
 tant a full and interesting memoir of his 
 life, by Roberts Vaux". 
 
 BENGAL ; an extensive and valuable 
 province of Hindostan, situated between 
 the 21st and 27th degrees of N. lat., and 
 between the 86th and 92d degrees of E. 
 Ion., being in length about 400 miles, and 
 in breadth, 300. On the north and east, 
 it is defended by the mountains of Ne- 
 paul, Assam and Ava ; on the south, by 
 a line of inhospitable and dangerous sea- 
 coast, containing but one harbor capable 
 of admitting ships of any considerable 
 size, and even that one guarded by innu- 
 merable shoals : on the west, it joins Behr 
 and Oude ; and, although rather exposed 
 to invasion on this frontier, it is, neverthe- 
 less, better defended by nature than any 
 province of similar extent on the conti- 
 
 nent of Asia : and should the English be 
 ever driven from all the other parts of In- 
 dia, as long as they shall retain their mari- 
 time pre-eminence, they will find in 
 B. a secure asylum against their ene- 
 mies. Thus guarded from a foreign foe f 
 they are equally safe from any insur- 
 rection of the natives, whose mildness 
 of disposition and aversion to war are 
 such, that nothing short of the most atro- 
 cious cruelty, or religious persecution, 
 could induce them to draw their swords 
 against their present rulers. The fertile 
 soil of B. produces every thing requi- 
 site for the sustenance of life, and in such 
 abundance, that the crops of one year 
 are sufficient for the consumption of its 
 inhabitants for two. It abounds in fruits 
 and animals of many varieties, and yields 
 everj 7 article essential to the comfort, or 
 even luxury, of man. Its ingenious in- 
 habitants are well versed in all the arts 
 of useful industry ; and, whilst their deli- 
 cate and valuable manufactures are ex- 
 ported to every part of the world, they re- 
 quire no assistance from other countries. 
 In short, it has been truly said of this 
 province, that it is the most valuable jewel 
 in the British crown. The revenues 
 of B. consist chiefly of rents paid to 
 the government for land. In the year 
 1811 12, they amounted, including those 
 of Behar and Orissa, to 2,590,000 ster- 
 ling, to which may be added nearly 
 200,000 for the monopolies of salt and 
 opium. The exports of B. are prin- 
 cipally rice, cotton and silk, both raw and 
 manufactured ; indigo, sugar, saltpetre, 
 ivory, tobacco, and drugs of various 
 kinds : hemp and flax are also to be pro- 
 cured in great abundance. Its imports 
 by sea are gold and silver, copper and 
 bar-iron, woollen cloths of every descrip- 
 tion, tea, salt, glass and china ware, wines, 
 and other commodities, for the use of its 
 European inhabitants, and a few Arabian 
 and English horses. The native breed 
 of these animals being diminutive, B. is 
 chiefly supplied with them from the 
 north-west provinces, although the gov- 
 ernment have a stud of their own in 
 Behar, and hold out great encouragement 
 to the zemindars, or landholders, to breed 
 them. The south-east districts produce 
 fine elephants, which are not only in con- 
 siderable demand, among the opulent 
 natives, for state or riding, but also used 
 for carrying the camp equipage of the 
 army. They vary in price from 50 to 
 1000: a good one should be from 8 
 to 10 feet high, and not less than 30 
 years of age. B. is intersected by the
 
 BENGAL. 
 
 55 
 
 Ganges, the Brahmapootra, Dummooda, 
 and several other rivers, so connected by 
 various streams, and the annual inunda- 
 tions, that there is scarcely a town which 
 does not enjoy the benefits of an inland 
 navigation, the boats employed in which 
 are of various sizes and shapes, many of 
 them very handsome, and fitted both for 
 convenience and state. The Delta of the 
 Ganges, the water of which is either salt 
 or brackish, exliibits a labyrinth of unin- 
 habited inland navigation ; and in other 
 parts of the country, during the rainy 
 season, some hundred miles of rice fields 
 may be sailed over. These inundations 
 are, however, frequently the cause of 
 much injury, by carrying away the cattle, 
 stores of grain, and habitations of the poor 
 peasants. The greater proportion of the 
 inhabitants' of B. are Hindoos: they are 
 olive-colored, with black hair and eyes. 
 They are small and delicate in their per- 
 sons, and, although very timid, are litigious ; 
 humble to their superiors, and insolent to 
 their inferiors. In youth, they are quick 
 and inquisitive, and would probably be 
 much improved by their intercourse with 
 Europeans, but for the supreme con- 
 tempt in which they hold other nations, 
 from the notion of their being degraded 
 Hindoos. The indigent wear scarcely 
 any clothing other than a rag round their 
 waist: the rich, when out of doors, dress 
 much like Mohammedans ; within the 
 house, they usually resume their old na- 
 tional costume, which consists merely of 
 different pieces of cloth twisted round the 
 body, and having one end tucked into 
 the folds. No small part of the population 
 are Mohammedans ; they are the descend- 
 ants of the Afghan and Mogul conquer- 
 ors, and Arabian merchants, softened, in 
 the course of time, by an intermixture 
 with Hindoo women, converts, and chil- 
 dren, whom they purchased during a 
 scarcity, and educated in their own re- 
 ligion. There are also a number of the 
 descendants of the Portuguese, and of 
 various other nations; and, in spite of the 
 checks held out by. the English against 
 colonization, it is probable, that, in the 
 course of another century, their descend- 
 ants wiU become so numerous, that it 
 will be necessary to permit them to be- 
 come cultivators of the soil. The ther- 
 mometer, part of the year, in B., is as 
 high as 100 degrees, and the climate is 
 injurious to European constitutions. The 
 year is there divided into three seasons, 
 viz. the hot, the rainy and the cold : the 
 former begins in March, and ends in June ; 
 the rains then commence, and continue 
 
 till October ; after which it becomes cool, 
 and the weather continues pleasant for 
 four months. Of the ancient history of 
 B. we have no authentic information. It 
 is said to have been sometimes an inde- 
 pendent kingdom, and at other times 
 tributary to Magadha (Behar). In the in- 
 stitutes of Akbar, a list of 61 Hindoo 
 kings is given ; but the number of years 
 assigned to many of the reigns does 
 away its credibility. B. was first invaded 
 and conquered by the Afghan Mohamme- 
 dans in A. D. 1203, and continued tribu- 
 tary to the emperor of Delhi till the year 
 1340, when Fakher Addeen, a confiden- 
 tial servant of the governor, murdered his 
 master, and, having seized the reins of 
 government, threw off his allegiance, and 
 took the title of sultan Sekunder. From 
 this period till 1538, B. remained an in- 
 dependent kingdom, when it was con- 
 quered by Shere Shah, who shortly after 
 annexed it to Delhi. From the descend- 
 ants of Shere Shah it was conquered by 
 the emperor Akbar, and continued sub- 
 ject to Delhi, or nominally so, till the 
 year 1757, when it fell into the hands of 
 the English, who have gradually changed 
 its form of government, and introduced a 
 code of regulations, founded on the Hin- 
 doo, Mohammedan and English laws, by 
 which impartial justice is administered to 
 all the inhabitants, and toleration granted 
 to all religions, owing to which the coun- 
 try improves, and the population in- 
 creases. The cities of Gour, Tonda, Ra- 
 jemahil, Dacca and Moorshedabad have 
 each, at various times, been the capital ; 
 but, since the conquest of it by the Eng- 
 lish, Calcutta is become the seat of gov- 
 ernment. The government of this presi- 
 dency is vested in the supreme council, 
 consisting of the governor-general and 
 three counsellors. The former is ap- 
 pointed by the king ; the latter are chosen 
 by the court of directors from the civil 
 servants of at least 12 years' standing. 
 For the administration of justice, there is 
 1 supreme court at Calcutta, 6 courts 
 of appeal and circuit, and 46 inferior ma- 
 gistrates, stationed in as many different 
 towns or districts. The circuit courts are 
 formed by 3 judges, with an assistant and 
 native officers. Criminal cases are tried 
 by the Mohammedan law, in form and 
 name, but so modified as to approach 
 nearly, in fact, to the English ; and capi- 
 tal sentences are confirmed by 'the nizam- 
 at adalat, or supreme court at Calcutta. 
 The district magistrates or judges, as they 
 are often called, have each a registrar and 
 one or more of the junior civil servants,
 
 56 
 
 BENGAL BENGUELA. 
 
 as assistants, with native lawyers, Mussul- 
 man and Hindoo. An appeal lies from 
 their sentence, in almost all cases, to the 
 provincial court. The average size of a 
 district in this presidency is about GOOD 
 square miles. In civil causes, the re- 
 spective codes of the Mohammedans and 
 Hindoos are generally followed. In 1793, 
 regular advocates, educated at the Mo- 
 hammedan and Hindoo colleges at Cal- 
 cutta and Benares, were appointed to 
 plead in these courts. Their fees are 
 regulated by law. Written pleadings are 
 allowed, and written evidence must some- 
 times be admitted, on account of the dis- 
 inclination of the Asiatics to have women 
 appear in public. Domestic slavery is 
 permitted by law, but the slaves are kind- 
 ly treated. The number of these slaves 
 it has been thought unsafe to ascertain. 
 Their marriage is never impeded; but 
 few children are sold, as it is reputed dis- 
 creditable to sell them, and their manu- 
 mission is considered an act of piety. 
 Parents themselves, who are reduced by 
 famine, &c., are usually the persons who 
 supply the slave-market. Inability to 
 provide for their children, not the desire 
 of gain, seems to be the real motive of 
 this horrid custom. Slaves, like freemen, 
 are under the protection of law. The 
 Mohammedans may be estimated at one 
 seventh of the whole population. Vari- 
 ous estimates of the population have been 
 made at different times, but rather from 
 conjecture than from well-authenticated 
 documents. The sum total for Bengal 
 appears to be 25,306,000, and there are 
 strong reasons for believing this number 
 to be short of the real amount. The. 
 number of native troops, called seapoys 
 (sipahis) or soldiers, was, in 1811, 207,579, 
 besides 5875 invalids. The non-commis- 
 sioned officers are natives, those who 
 have commissions are Europeans, and 
 the number of the latter in this presiden- 
 cy, at the time above mentioned, was 
 2024. About 22,000 of the king's troops 
 are also stationed in India, and occasion 
 an expense to the company of about 
 160,000 per annum. Before concluding 
 this article, it may be proper to observe, 
 that the Dutch possess the town of Chin- 
 sura, the French, Chindunagore, and the 
 Danes, Serampore, with a small territory 
 adjoining each. These towns are situ- 
 ated on the Hoogly river, from 15 to 25 
 miles above Calcutta. 
 
 BENGEL, John Albanus, a famous Ger- 
 man theologian, born in 1687, at Winne- 
 den, in Wurtemburg, studied at Stuttgart 
 and Tubingen, and, in 1713, became a 
 
 preacher and professor at Denkendorf! 
 His chief studies were the fathers of the 
 church and the New Testament. He 
 died, after having been appointed to sev- 
 eral offices, in 1752. B. was the first Lu- 
 theran theologian who applied to the 
 criticism of the New Testament a com- 
 prehensive spirit, which embraced the 
 subject in its whole extent, and manifest- 
 ed the power of patient investigation 
 which the study required. His sugges- 
 tions for the correction of the text are 
 particularly valuable. In some of his 
 observations, his judgment has been led 
 astray by his inclination to mysticism. 
 His explanation of the Apocalypse has 
 given him, with some persons, the fame 
 of an inspired prophet ; with most people, 
 that of an enthusiast. He was esteemed 
 for his private virtues. 
 
 BEXGER, Miss Elizabeth Ogilvy, was 
 born in 1778, at Portsmouth, in England. 
 She was the daughter of a purser in the 
 navy, who died in 1796, and left his wife 
 and daughter with a slender provision. 
 In 1802, she removed with her mother 
 to London. She soon attracted attention 
 by her verses, and Miss Sarah Wesley 
 early became her patron. She composed 
 some theatrical pieces, which did not 
 meet with success. Mr. Bowyer, the en- 
 graver, employed her to write a poem on 
 the Slave-Trade, which, with two others, 
 was published in quarto, with engravings, 
 in 1812. She successively published 
 memoirs of Mrs. Elizabeth Hamilton, 
 memoirs of John Tobin, the dramatist, and 
 notices of Klopstock and his friends, pre- 
 fixed to a translation of their letters from 
 the German. These writings were folr 
 lowed by the history of Anne Boleyn, 
 which was translated into French, and 
 the memoirs of Elizabeth, queen of 
 Bohemia. She undertook to compile 
 memoirs of Henry IV of France, but the 
 progress of this work was prevented by 
 her death, January 9, 1827. By all who 
 knew her, among whom the editor has 
 the pleasure of counting himself, she was 
 esteemed as a kind, faithful and candid 
 friend, a most affectionate daughter, lie- 
 loved by all ages and both sexes on ac- 
 count of her fine talents, benevolent dis- 
 position, and pure heart. 
 
 BEXGUELA; a country in Africa, bound- 
 ed N. by Angola, ,E. by the country of 
 Jaga Cassangi, S. by Mataman, and W. by 
 the sea. Cape Negro forms its S. W. 
 extremity, whence mountains run north- 
 ward, in which are contained the springs 
 of many rivers. The productions are 
 similar to those of Angola and Congo j
 
 BENGUELA BENJOWSKY. 
 
 57 
 
 one of the principal is manioc ; divers 
 sorts of palms are found ; dates grow in 
 great abundance ; the vines naturally 
 form alleys and arbors ; cassia and tama- 
 rinds also flourish ; and, from the hu- 
 midity of the soil, there are two fruit 
 seasons in the year. The air of the 
 country is exceedingly unwholesome. 
 The chief towns are Old Benguela, St. 
 Philip or New Benguela, Man-kikondo, 
 and Kaschil. Lon. 30 to 35 E.; lat. 13 
 30' to 15 3(y S. 
 
 BEM.V : a kingdom in the west of Afri- 
 ca, the limits of which are not well ascer- 
 tained ; but the name may be applied to 
 that part of the coast extending from the 
 river Lagos, the eastern limit of the Slave 
 coast, to the Formosa, about 180 miles. 
 The interior limit is unknown. The 
 whole coast presents a succession of estu- 
 aries, some of them veiy broad, and their 
 origin never explored. Between the La- 
 gos and Cross rivers, the number of rivers 
 flowing into the gulf of Guinea is said to 
 exceed 20, some of them very broad and 
 deep. This tract, called the Delta of Be- 
 nin, is about 260 miles in extent. The 
 aspect of the coast, and the great body of 
 water flowing into the gulf, have led to 
 the supposition that the waters of the Ni- 
 ger here find an entrance into the ocean. 
 This region has been but little explored, 
 and is little known. The country is low 
 and flat, the soil on the banks of the riv- 
 ers very fertile, but the climate unhealthy. 
 The inhabitants are of a mild disposition ; 
 polygamy is practised ; almost all labor is 
 performed by females ; the government is 
 despotic. Chief towns, Benin, Agatton, 
 Bododa, Ozebo and Meiberg, which are 
 situated on the Formosa, the principal 
 river. 
 
 Benin ; capital of the above kingdom, 
 on the Formosa ; Ion. 5 & E ; lat. 6 12' 
 N. This town, according to some, is 18 
 miles in circuit, the largest street 3 miles 
 long, and others nearly equal : according 
 to other statements, it is only 4 miles in 
 circuit. The streets are filled with vari- 
 ous articles of merchandise, and present 
 the appearance of a crowded market, 
 though always clean. The houses are 
 large, and, though their walls are of clay, 
 the reeds and leaves, with which they are 
 covered, give them a pleasing appearance. 
 The king's palace consists of a great 
 number of square enclosures. 
 
 BENJOWSKY, Maurice Augustus, count 
 of, a man of indefatigable activity and 
 extraordinary adventures, born in 1741, 
 at Werbowa, in Hungary, where his fa- 
 ther was a general in the Austrian army, 
 
 entered the same service himself, and 
 acted as lieutenant in the seven years* 
 war till 1758. He afterwards studied 
 navigation in Hamburg, Amsterdam and 
 Plymouth. He then went to Poland, 
 joined the confederacy against the Rus- 
 sians, and became colonel, command- 
 er of cavalry and quarter-master general. 
 B. was taken prisoner by the Russians in 
 1769, and sent, the next year, to Kamt- 
 schatka. On the voyage thither, he saved 
 the ship that carried him, when in peril 
 from a storm. This circumstance pro- 
 cured him a favorable reception from 
 governor Niloff, whose children he in- 
 structed in the German and French lan- 
 guages. Aphanasia, NilofF's younger 
 daughter, fell in love with him. B. pre- 
 vailed on her father to set him at liberty, 
 and to betroth her to him. He had, how- 
 ever, already conceived the project of 
 escaping from Kamtschatka, together 
 with several other conspirators. Apha- 
 nasia discovered his design, but did 
 not forsake him. On the contrary, she 
 warned him when it was resolved to se- 
 cure his person. Accompanied by Apha- 
 nasia, who remained invariably faithful 
 to him, though she had now learned that 
 he was married, B., together with 96 
 other persons, left Kamtschatka in May, 
 1771, and sailed to Formosa ; from thence 
 to Macao, where many of his compan- 
 ions died, and among them the faithful 
 Apbanasia. At length he arrived in 
 France, where he was commissioned to 
 found a colony in Madagascar ; an un- 
 dertaking of which he foresaw the diffi- 
 culties, especially as the success depended 
 on the assistance of the officers in the 
 Isle of France, to whom he Avas referred 
 for the greater part of his equipment. In 
 June, 1774, B. arrived in Madagascar, 
 established a settlement at Foul point, 
 and gained the good will of several tribes, 
 who, in 1776, appointed him their am- 
 pansacabe, or king; on which occasion 
 the women also swore allegiance to his 
 wife. Afterwards, he went to Europe, 
 with the design of obtaining for the na- 
 tion a powerful ally and some commer- 
 cial advantages. But, on his arrival in 
 France, he was compelled, by the perse- 
 cutions of the French ministry, to enter 
 into the Austrian service, in which he 
 commanded against the Prussians in the 
 battle of Habelschwerdt, 1778. In 1783, 
 he made an attempt in England to fit out 
 an expedition to Madagascar. He re- 
 ceived assistance from private persons in 
 London, and particularly from a commer- 
 cial house at Baltimore, in America. In
 
 58 
 
 BENJOWSKY BENSERADE. 
 
 October, 1784, he set out, leaving his 
 wife in America, and landed in Madagas- 
 car, 1785. Having there commenced 
 hostilities against the French, the author- 
 ities in the Isle of France sent troops 
 against him. In an action which took 
 place May 23, 1786, he was mortally 
 wounded hi the breast by a ball. B. 
 wrote an account of the events of his life 
 in French. William Nicholson has pub- 
 lished an English translation of it, made 
 from the manuscript. His widow died at 
 her estate Vieska, near Betzko, Dec. 4, 
 1825. Benjowsky's only son is said to have 
 been devoured by rats in Madagascar. 
 
 BEN-LAWERS ; a mountain of Scotland, 
 in the county of Perth, 4015 feet above 
 the level of the sea ; 11 miles S. George- 
 town. 
 
 BEN-LODI ; a mountain of Scotland, in 
 Perthshire, 3009 feet above the sea; 4 
 miles S. W. Callander. 
 
 BEN-LOMOND ; a mountain of Scotland, 
 in Stirlingshire, 3240 feet above the sea ; 
 26 miles W. Stirling. 
 
 BEN-MACDUIE ; a mountain of Scot- 
 land, on the western confines of Aber- 
 deenshire, 4300 feet high. It is the sec- 
 ond highest mountain in Great Britain. 
 
 BEN-MORE ; a mountain of Scotland, 
 hi the island of Mull, 3097 feet above the 
 level of the sea. 
 
 BEN-MORE; a mountain of Scotland, 
 hi Perthshire, 3903 feet above the level of 
 the sea ; 20 miles W. Grief. 
 
 BEN-NEVIS ; a mountain of Scotland, 
 in the county of Dumbarton, the highest 
 hi the island of Great Britain. It rises 
 4370 feet above the level of the sea. A 
 great portion of this mountain consists of 
 porphyry of different shades, and beauti- 
 ful red granite. It also contains a vein 
 of lead ore, richly impregnated with sil- 
 ver. The summit is generally covered 
 with snow. 
 
 BENNINGSEN, Levin Augustus, baron 
 of, Russian commander-in-chief, born at' 
 Bantelu, in Hanover, 1745, early entered 
 into the Russian service, and distinguish- 
 ed himself by great gallantry in the war 
 against Poland, under the empress Cath- 
 arine II. He acted a chief part hi the 
 conspiracy of the palace against the em- 
 peror Paul I. In 1806, he was appointed 
 to command the Russian army which 
 hastened to the assistance of the Prus- 
 sians ; but, before his arrival, the Prussians 
 were defeated at Jena. He afterwards 
 fought the murderous battle of Eylau 
 (next to that of Mojaisk, perhaps, the 
 most bloody in military history), and the 
 battle of Friedland. After the peace of 
 
 Tilsit, he retired to his estates. In 1813, 
 he led a Russian army, called the army of 
 Poland, into Saxony, took part in the 
 battle of Leipsic, and blockaded Ham- 
 burg. After commanding the army in 
 the south of Russia, he finally settled 
 in his native country, and died Oct. 3, 
 1826. He is the author of Thoughts on 
 certain Points requisite for an Officer of 
 Light Cavalry to be acquainted with (Ri- 
 ga, 1794 ; Wilna, 1805). 
 
 BENNINGTON ; a post-town hi a county 
 of the same name, in Vermont, watered 
 by a branch of the Hoosack ; 37 miles 
 N. E. Albany, 68 S. W. Windsor, 115 S. 
 by W. Montpelier, 132 W. N. W. Boston. 
 Lon. 73 W. ; lat. 42 42' N. Population 
 in 1810, 2524 ; hi 1820, 2485. It borders 
 on New York, is situated in a good fann- 
 ing country, and is a place of considera- 
 ble trade and manufactures. The courts 
 for the county are held alternately at Ben- 
 nington and Manchester. On mount An- 
 thony, hi this town, there is a cave con- 
 taining many beautiful petrifactions. 
 Two famous battles were fought here, on 
 the 16th of August, 1777, hi which gen- 
 eral Stark, at the head of 1600 American 
 militia, gained a distinguished victory 
 over the British. 
 
 BENNO, St., of the family of the counts of 
 Woldenberg, born at Hildesheim, in 1010, 
 became (1028) a Benedictine monk, hi the 
 convent of St. Michael there. Henry IV 
 (1066) made him bishop of Misnia, and 
 favored him by repeated donations of 
 estates for his church. Nevertheless, B. 
 took a secret part in the conspiracy of the 
 Saxon nobles against the emperor, for 
 which reason Henry led him away pris- 
 oner, when he passed Misnia, hi 1075, 
 after the battle on the Unstrut. He was 
 afterwards set at liberty, but several times 
 proved faithless to the emperor. He died 
 1107. His bones began by degrees to 
 work miracles ; and pope Adrian VI, after 
 many entreaties from the Saxons, as well 
 as from the emperor Charles V, and hav- 
 ing received large sums of money, placed 
 him among the saints, 1523. It was 
 thought that this canonization would tend 
 to the promotion of the Catholic faith hi 
 Saxony. At present, the bones of St. 
 Benno are in the city of Munich, which 
 has chosen him for its patron. 
 
 BENSERADE, Isaac de, a poet at the 
 court of Louis XIV, born, 1612, at Lyons- 
 la-Foret, a small town hi Normandy, 
 wrote for the stage, and composed a great 
 number of ingenious verses for the king 
 and many distinguished persons at court. 
 In the first half of the reign of Louis XIV,
 
 BENSERADE BENTIVOGLIO. 
 
 the court, and the followers of the court, 
 patronised songs of gallantry, rondeaux, 
 triolets, madrigals and sonnets, containing 
 sallies of wit, conceits and effusions of 
 gallantry, in the affected style then prev- 
 alent. No one succeeded so well in this 
 art as B., who was therefore called, by 
 way of eminence, le poete de la cour. He 
 received many pensions for his perform- 
 ances, and lived at great expense. Wea- 
 ried, at last, with the life which he led at 
 court, he retired to his country-seat, Gen- 
 tilly, and died 1691. 
 
 BENSLEY, Thomas ; a printer in Fleet 
 street, London. He and Bulmer are 
 among the first typographical artists in 
 England. He distinguished himself first 
 by the edition which he printed of the 
 English translation of Lavater's Physiog- 
 nomy, London, 1789, 5 vols., 4to. The 
 most beautiful productions of his press 
 are Macklin's splendid edition of the Eng- 
 lish translation of the Bible (180015, 7 
 vols., folio), and that of Hume's History of 
 England (1806, 10 vols., folio), both adorn- 
 ed with excellent copper-plates. Among 
 his impressions of a smaller size, the edi- 
 tions of Shakspeare (1803, 7 vols.), and 
 Hume (1803, 10 vols.), with masterly en- 
 gravings on wood, are distinguished. He 
 lias also furnished several well-executed 
 impressions on parchment, and first used 
 the printing-press invented by Koenig 
 and Bauer, for Elliotson's English trans- 
 lation of Blumenbach's Physiology (Lon- 
 don, 1818). 
 
 BENTHAM, Jeremy, an English lawyer, 
 born in 1749, never appeared at the bar, 
 nor has he published his chief works him- 
 self. They have been arranged and trans- 
 lated into French by his friend M. Du- 
 mont, and printed partly in Paris and 
 partly in London. Among them are 
 Traites de Legislation, civile et penale, 
 &c. (Paris, 1802, 3 vols.), and Theorie des 
 Peines et des Recompenses (London, 1801, 
 2 vols.). B. is a friend of reform hi par- 
 liament, and of a thorough correction of 
 civil and criminal legislation. His Frag- 
 ments on Government, in opposition to 
 Blackstone, appeared anonymously in 
 1776, and with his name, London, 1823. 
 In France, his literary labors found a 
 better reception than in England or Ger- 
 many. A small pamphlet on the liberty 
 of the press (London, 1821) was addressed 
 by him to the Spanish cortes, during their 
 discussion of this subject; and, in another 
 (Three Tracts relative to the Spanish and 
 Portuguese Affairs, London, 1821), he 
 refuted the idea of the necessity of a 
 house of peers in Spain, as well as Mon- 
 
 tesquieu's proposition, that judicial forms 
 are the defence of innocence. His latest 
 work is the Art of Packing (London, 
 1821 ) ; that is, of arranging juries so as to 
 obtain any verdict desired. His previous 
 work, Essai sur la Tactique des Assem- 
 blees legislatives, edited, from the author's 
 papers, by Etienne Dumont (Geneva, 
 1815), and translated into German, con- 
 tains many useful observations. His In- 
 troduction to the Principles of Morals and 
 Legislation (London, 1823, 2 vols.) treats 
 of the principal objects of government in a 
 profound and comprehensive manner. Za- 
 nobelli has translated Bentham's Theory 
 of Legal Evidence into Italian (Bergamo, 
 1824, 2 vols.). Among the earner works 
 of B. was his Defence of Usury, showing 
 the Impolicy of the present legal Re- 
 straints on the Terms of pecuniary Bar- 
 gains (1787). 
 
 BENTIVOGLIO, Cornelio ; cardinal and 
 poet, bom at Ferrara, 1668, of a family 
 that held the highest offices in the former 
 republic of Bologna. He early distin- 
 guished himself by his progress in the 
 fine aits, literature, philosophy, theology 
 and jurisprudence. While at Ferrara, he 
 patronised the literary institutions there. 
 Pope Clement XI made him his domes- 
 tic prelate and secretary to the apostolic 
 chamber, and sent him, in 1712, as nuncio 
 to Paris, where, during the last years of 
 the reign of Louis XIV, he acted an im- 
 portant part in the affair of the bull Uni- 
 genitus. The duke of Orleans, regent 
 after the death of Louis, was not favora- 
 bly disposed towards him ; the pope, 
 therefore, transferred him to Ferrara, and, 
 in 1719, bestowed on him the hat of a 
 cardinal, and employed him at first in 
 Rome, near his own person, then as legate 
 a latere in Romagna, &c. B. died in 
 Rome, 1732. Poetry had occupied the 
 leisure hours of the learned cardinal. 
 Some sonnets composed by him are to be 
 found in Gobbi's collection, vol. 3, and in 
 other collections of his time. Under the 
 name of Selvaggio Porpora, he translated 
 the Thebais of Statius into Italian. He 
 delivered several addresses before socie- 
 ties for the promotion of the fine arts. 
 His discourse in defence of the utility 
 and moral influence of painting, sculpture 
 and architecture, delivered in the academy 
 of design, at Rome, 1707, was reprinted 
 by the academy of the Arcadians, in the 
 2d vol. of the Prose degli ArcadL 
 
 BENTIVOGLIO, Guy or Guido, celebrated 
 as a cardinal and a historian, was bom at 
 Ferrara, in 1579. He studied at. Padua 
 with great reputation, and afterwards, fix-
 
 60 
 
 BENTIVOGLIO BENTLEY. 
 
 ing liis residence at Rome, acquired gen- 
 eral esteem by his prudence and integrity. 
 He was nuncio in Flanders from 1607 to 
 1616, and afterwards in France till 1621. 
 His character stood so high, that, on the 
 death of Urban VIII, in 1644, he was 
 generally thought to be the most likely 
 person to succeed him ; but, on entering 
 the conclave, in the hottest and most un- 
 healthy season of the year, he was seized 
 with a fever, of which he died, aged 65 
 years. He had lived in a magnificent 
 style, and was much embarrassed at the 
 time of his death a circumstance attrib- 
 uted to his canvass for the papacy. Car- 
 dinal B. was an able politician, and his 
 historical memoirs are such as we should 
 expect from such a man. The most valu- 
 able of these are his History of the Civil 
 Wars in Flanders, written in Italian, and 
 first published at Cologne, 1630, a trans- 
 lation of which, by Henry earl of Mon- 
 mouth, appeared in 1654 (London, folio) ; 
 an Account of Flanders, during his lega- 
 tion, also translated by the earl of Mon- 
 mouth (folio, 1652); his own Memoirs; 
 and a collection of letters, which are reck- 
 oned among the best specimens of epis- 
 tolary writing in the Italian language (an 
 edition of which was published at Cam- 
 bridge, in 1727). All these, except the 
 Memoirs, have been published together at 
 Paris, 16451648, folio, and at Venice, 
 1668, 4to. 
 
 BENTLEY, Richard, a celebrated Eng- 
 lish divine and classical scholar, distin- 
 guished as a polemical writer, in the lat- 
 ter part of the 17th century, was born in 
 1662. His father is said to have been a 
 blacksmith. To his mother, who was a 
 woman of strong natural abilities, he was 
 indebted for the first rudiments of his 
 education. At the age of 14, he entered 
 St. John's college, Cambridge. In 1682, 
 he left the university, and became usher 
 of a school at Spalding ; and tliis situation 
 he relinquished, in the following year, for 
 that of tutor to the son of doctor Stilling- 
 fleet, dean of St. Paul's. He accompanied 
 his pupil to Oxford, where he availed 
 himself of the literary treasures of the 
 Bodleian library, in the prosecution of his 
 studies. In 1684, he took the degree of 
 A.M. at Cambridge, and, in 1689, obtained 
 the same honor at the sister university. 
 His first published work was a Latin 
 epistle to doctor John Mill, in an edition 
 of the Chronicle of John Malela, which 
 appeared in 1691. It contained observa- 
 tions on the writings of that Greek histo- 
 rian, and displayed so much profound 
 learning and critical acumen, as excited 
 
 the sanguine anticipations of classical 
 scholars from the future labors of the 
 author. Doctor Stillingfleet, having been 
 raised to the bishopric of Worcester, made 
 B. his chaplain, and, in 1692, collated him 
 to a prebend in his cathedral. The rec- 
 ommendation of his patron and of bishop 
 Lloyd procured him the honor of being 
 chosen the first preacher of the lecture 
 instituted by the celebrated Robert Boyle 
 for the defence of Christianity. The dis- 
 courses against atheism, which he deliv- 
 ered on this occasion, were published in 
 1694 : they have since been often reprint- 
 ed, and translated into several foreign 
 languages. In 1693, he was appointed 
 keeper of the royal library at St. James's 
 a circumstance which incidentally led 
 to his famous controversy with the lion. 
 Charles Boyle, afterwards earl of Orrery, 
 relative to the genuineness of the Greek 
 Epistles of Phalaris, an edition of which 
 was published by the latter, then a stu- 
 dent at Christ-church, Oxford. In this 
 dispute, Bentley was completely victo- 
 rious, though opposed by the greatest 
 wits and critics of the age, including Pope, 
 Swift, Garth, Atterbury, Aldrich, Dodwell, 
 and Conyers Middleton, who advocated 
 the opinion of Boyle with a degree of 
 warmth and illiberality which appears 
 very extraordinary. But the motives of 
 B.'s assailants were various. Swift, in his 
 Battle of the Books, took up the cudgels 
 against him in defence of his friend sir 
 William Temple ; doctor Garth attacked 
 him probably from mere wantonness, in 
 the well-known couplet in his Dispen- 
 sary 
 
 So diamonds owe a lustre to their foil, 
 And to a Benlley 'tis we owe a Bmjle. 
 Some were actuated by personal consid- 
 erations, among whom was Conyers Mid- 
 dleton, whose pei-severing hostility to B., 
 during a long series of years, seems to 
 have originated from the latter having 
 applied to the former, when a young stu- 
 dent in the university, the contemptuous 
 epithet of fiddling Conyers, because he 
 played on the violin. It does not appear 
 who was the author of a punning carica- 
 ture, which was produced on this occasion, 
 representing B. about to be thrust into the 
 brazen bull of Phalaris, and exclaiming, 
 " I had rather be roasted than Boyled" 
 In 1699, B., who had three years before 
 been created D. D., published his Disser- 
 tation on the Epistles of Phalaris, in 
 which he satisfactorily proved that they 
 were not the compositions of the tyrant of 
 Agrigentum, who lived more than five 
 centuries before the Christian era, but
 
 BENTLEY BENZOIC ACID. 
 
 Gl 
 
 were written by some sophist, under the 
 borrowed name ofPhalaris, in the declin- 
 ing age of Greek literature. Soon after 
 this publication, doctor B. was presented 
 by the crown to the mastership of Trinity 
 college, Cambridge, worth nearly 1000 
 a year. He now resigned the prebend of 
 Worcester, and, in 1701, was collated to 
 the archdeaconry of Ely. His conduct as 
 head of the college gave rise to accu- 
 sations against him from the vice-master 
 and some of the fellows, who, among 
 various offences, charged him with em- 
 bezzling the college money. The con- 
 test was much protracted, and occasioned 
 a lawsuit, which was decided in the doc- 
 tor's favor, about twenty years after. In 
 1711, he published an edition of Horace, 
 at Cambridge, in 4to., which was reprint- 
 ed at Amsterdam ; and, in 1713, appeared 
 his remarks on Collins's Discourse on 
 Free-thinking, under the form of a Letter 
 to F. H. [Francis Hare] D. D., by Phile- 
 leutherus Lipsiensis. He was appointed 
 regius professor of divinity in 1716, and, 
 in the same year, issued proposals for a 
 new edition of the Greek Testament an 
 undertaking for which he was admirably 
 qualified, but which he was prevented from 
 executing, in consequence of the animad- 
 versions of his determined adversary, Mid- 
 dleton. In 1717, George I, visiting the uni- 
 versity, nominated by mandate, as is usual 
 on such occasions, several persons for the 
 doctor's degree in divinity. It was the 
 duty of B., as professor, to perform the 
 ceremony called creation ; previous to 
 which he made a demand of four guineas 
 from each candidate beyond the usual 
 fees, absolutely refusing to create any doc- 
 tor without payment. Some submitted ; 
 but others, among whom was JVIiddleton, 
 withstood the demand, and commenced a 
 prosecution against the professor before 
 the vice-chancellor, who, deciding in favor 
 of the complainants, first suspended B., 
 and subsequently degraded him from his 
 honors, rights and offices in the univer- 
 sity. These proceedings were, after con- 
 siderable litigation, annulled by the court 
 of king's bench ; and the doctor, in 1728, 
 was restored to all his former honors and 
 emoluments. In 1726, he published an 
 edition of Terence and Phsedrus; and 
 his notes on the comedies of the former 
 involved him hi a dispute with bishop 
 Hare, on the metres of Terence, which 
 provoked the sarcastic observation of sir 
 Isaac Newton, that "two dignified clergy- 
 men, instead of minding their duty, had 
 fallen out about a play-book." The last 
 work of doctor B. was an edition of Mil- 
 
 VOL. II. 6 
 
 ton's Paradise Lost, with conjectural 
 emendations, which appeared in 1732. 
 This added nothing to his reputation, and 
 may, in one word, be characterized a fail- 
 ure. He died at the master's lodge at 
 Trinity, July 14, 1742, and was interred 
 in the college chapel. As a scholar and 
 a critic, B. was very distinguished. The 
 best informed of his opponents respected 
 his talents, while they were loading him 
 with classical abuse, which he did not fail 
 to return with interest. Now that the prej- 
 udices, excited apparently by his personal 
 conduct, have subsided, his preeminence 
 in that species of literature which he cul- 
 tivated, is universally acknowledged. The 
 celebrated German philologist J. A. Wolf 
 wrote an excellent biography of B. in the 
 slnalccta, (vol. 1, Berlin.) 
 
 BEXZEL-STERNAU, Charles Christian, 
 count, born at Mentz, 1750, was, in 1812, 
 president of the ministry for the depart- 
 ment of the interior in the former grand- 
 duchy of Frankfort, and now lives in the 
 neighborhood of Hanau. He is one of 
 the most humorous writers of our time, 
 and, in the character of his writings, 
 resembles J. Paul Richter. His fame was 
 established by the Golden Calf (a biogra- 
 phy, 1602 1804, 4 vols. hi the first edi- 
 tion). B. has written much, and all his 
 productions display wit, richness of im- 
 agery, and nice observation of character. 
 
 BE.-VZENBERG, John Frederic, born, 
 May 5, 1777, at Scholler, a village between 
 EJberfeld and Diisseldorf, studied theolo- 
 gy in Marburg, and, in Gottingen, mathe- 
 matics and natural philosophy. He ren- 
 dered much service to the latter science, 
 by his observations on the fall of bodies, 
 and the motion of the earth, which he 
 began by experiments in the steeple of 
 the church of St. Michael, in Hamburg, 
 and continued in the shaft of a mine, in 
 the county of Mark, having a depth of 
 266 feet. He was appointed, hi 1805, 
 professor of astronomy and natural phi- 
 losophy, by the then elector of Bavaria, 
 in Diisseldorf. At a later period, he has 
 written much in favor of the Prussian 
 government ; but the influence of his 
 political pieces has not been so great as 
 that of his scientific observations above- 
 mentioned. B. lives now retired, near 
 Crefeld, in the neighborhood of the 
 Rhine. 
 
 BEWZOIC ACID is obtained by the appli- 
 cation of a moderate heat to the balsam 
 of Peru : it rises in vapor, and condenses 
 in slender prisms, which are white and 
 brilliant. It has a peculiar aromatic odor. 
 When heated on burning fuel, it inflames
 
 G2 
 
 BENZOIC ACID BERBERS. 
 
 and burns with a clear yellow light. It 
 unites with alkalies and earths, forming 
 salts called benzoates, which are unimpor- 
 tant, except the benzoate of iron, which, 
 from its insolubility, affords a conven- 
 ient means of separating iron from its solu- 
 tions, so as to ascertain its quantity, and 
 also of obtaining it free from manganese, 
 which forms with the acid a soluble salt. 
 (See Benzoin.) 
 
 BENZOIN is a solid, fragile, vegetable 
 substance, of a reddish-brown color. In 
 commerce, two varieties are distinguish- 
 ed, viz. the common and the amyg- 
 daloidal ; the latter containing, whitish 
 tears, of an almond shape, diffused 
 through its substance. It is imported 
 from Sumatra, Siam and Java, and is 
 found, also, in South America. Benzoin 
 is obtained from the tree called styrax 
 benzoin, and perhaps from some others. 
 On making incisions . into the bark, it 
 flows out in the form of a balsamic juice, 
 having a pungent taste, and an agreeable 
 odor. The pure balsam consists of two 
 principal substances, viz. a resin, and a 
 peculiar acid termed benzoic (q. v.), which 
 is procured from the mass by sublimation. 
 It is soluble in water. This acid is found, 
 also, as a constituent principle in storax 
 and the balsams of Tolu and Fern : it exists 
 in the urine of cows, camels, and even of 
 young children. It is sometimes found 
 in a crystalline form on the pods of the 
 vanilla. Benzoin is not soluble in water, 
 but is readily dissolved in alcohol, by the 
 aid of a gentle heat. The tincture thus 
 made is used in pharmacy. A small 
 quantity of this tincture, dropped into 
 water, forms a white, milky fluid, which 
 is used in France as a cosmetic, under 
 the name of lait virginal. The gum is a 
 principal ingredient of the common court 
 plaster. The acid, as well as the gum, is 
 employed in medicine : they are stimu- 
 lating," and act more particularly upon 
 die pulmonary system ; whence they are 
 used in asthma and chronic catarrh. 
 
 BERAIS-GER, Pierre, Jean de ; a lyric 
 poet, of that class which, in modern lite- 
 rature, is almost peculiar to the French, 
 called chansonnier ; born Aug. 19, 1780 ; 
 educated by his grandfather, a poor tailor; 
 was destined for the printing business, 
 when his talents for poetry excited atten- 
 tion. Lucien Bonaparte became the pa- 
 tron of the amiable poet, who gave zest 
 to his social songs by allusions to the 
 politics of the day. The imperial censors- 
 spared him ; the royal suppressed his 
 songs, which, for this reason, were read 
 and sung with the greater eagerness. In 
 
 1822, he was condemned to imprisonment 
 for 13 months, and deprived of a small 
 office in the royal university. This pro- 
 cess increased his reputation. The last 
 edition of the Chansons de P. J. de Bf- 
 ranger, (1 vol., Paris, 1829, 24mo.,) con- 
 tains the. happiest specimens of wit, 
 humor, gayety, satire, and flashes of 
 sublime poetry, which place him by the 
 side of the most distinguished chanson- 
 nicrs of France Blot, Colle and Panard. 
 B. ascends with singular ease from the 
 lower sphere of poetry to a high and 
 noble enthusiasm, and the rapidity of the 
 transition produces a striking effect. We 
 would refer the reader to his beautiful 
 verses entitled Mon Jlme. He was never 
 a flatterer of Napoleon when money or 
 titles were to be gained by flattery, and 
 has never reviled him since reviling has 
 been a means of rising. He is a truly 
 national poet, and Benjamin Constant 
 has said of him, Beranger fait des odes 
 sublimes, quand il ne croit faire que de 
 simples chansons (Beranger makes sul>- 
 lime odes, when he thinks he is making 
 simple songs). Dec. 11, 1828, B. was 
 sentenced, by the court of correctional 
 police, to pay 10,000 francs (about IfcOO 
 dollars), and to undergo nine months' im- 
 prisonment, for having attacked the dig- 
 nity of the church and of the Icing in his 
 poems the Guardian Angel, Coronation 
 of Charles the Simple, and Gerontocracy. 
 His songs are at once a storehouse of 
 gayety and satire, and a record of the 
 history of his time ; and happy is that 
 nation which can boast of so excellent 
 and national a poet. He often sings of 
 wine, and we recollect no other great 
 modern, poet who has written a series of 
 songs on this subject, except Gothe, in 
 his Such des Schenken^ one of the 12 
 books of the H'estostlicher Divan. The 
 difference between them is striking. 
 Gothe mixes philosophical reflections 
 and praises of the liquor with a boldness 
 which borders on temerity, while B. is 
 gay almost to extravagance. We doubt 
 whether B.'s poems in translation would 
 ever give a fair idea of the original, be- 
 cause their beauty consists, in a great 
 measure, in the delicacy and pungency 
 of the expression, which could hardly be 
 transferred to another language. 
 
 BERBERS ; the name of a people spread 
 over nearly the whole of Northern Africa. 
 From their name die appellation ofBar- 
 bary is derived. (See Barbary States.) 
 They are considered die most ancient 
 inhabitants of that country. Their dif- 
 ferent tribes are scattered over the whole
 
 BERBERS BERCHTOLD. 
 
 63 
 
 space intervening between the shores of 
 the Atlantic and the confines of Egypt ; 
 but the different branches of mount Atlas 
 are their principal abode ; while to the 
 south they are bounded by the Negro 
 states on the edge of the great Sahara, or 
 Desert For most of what we know of 
 them, we are indebted to Leo Africanus 
 and the Arabian writers, whose state- 
 ments are corroborated by Hornemann 
 (q.v.) and captain Lyon,who have visited 
 them in our own days. Much informa- 
 tion concerning diem is yet wanted. 
 Where they live by themselves, and are 
 not spread among the Arabians and other 
 people of the Barbary states, they man- 
 ifest very little cultivation, warlike nom- 
 ades, without written laws, and ex- 
 hibit the chief traits which characterize 
 nil the African nations. They are ex- 
 tremely abstinent. Their language is a 
 matter of much curiosity for the philolo- 
 gist. It has many points of resemblance 
 with the Teutonic languages. (See Ade- 
 jiing's Mithridates, vol. 3., 5th part, page 
 42 et seq., and the article, in volume 2, 
 new series, p. 438 et seq. of the Trans- 
 actions of the .American Philosophical So- 
 ciety.) We know, from trustworthy ac- 
 counts, that Mr. Hodgson, attached to the 
 American consulate-general at Algiers, 
 has sent to an eminent scholar of the U. 
 States communications concerning the 
 Berber language, which will add much 
 to the knowledge already possessed of 
 that dialect. (For further information re- 
 specting the Berbers, see Lyon's Travels 
 in Northern Africa, Langle's translation 
 of Hornemami's Travels in Africa, and 
 almost all the works which treat of the 
 north of Africa.) It appears from the 
 Berber language, that the tirst inhabitants 
 of the Canary islands were of the Berber 
 race. 
 
 BERBTCE ; a district of Guiana, formerly 
 belonging to die Dutch, but ceded to 
 Great Britain in 1814 ; watered by the 
 river Bcrhice, the Canje, and others. It 
 extends from Abarry creek, on the west, 
 to Courantine river on the east, along the 
 roast, about 150 miles. The towns are 
 Xcw Amsterdam, the capital, and Fort 
 Nassau. The productions are sugar, rum, 
 cotton, coffee, cocoa and tobacco. The 
 coast is marshy and the air damp. Popu- 
 lation, in 1615, 29,959; of whom 550 
 were whites, 240 people of color, and 
 25,109 slaves. 
 
 BERCHTESGADEX ; a market-town in 
 the Salzburg Alps, in the kingdom of Ba- 
 varia, with 3000 inhabitants ; famous for 
 the salt mines in its neighborhood, the salt* 
 
 work Frauenreith, and the aqueducts 
 which conduct the salt water to the works 
 called Reichenhall. The rock-salt does 
 not appear here in large, solid masses, 
 but in small pieces mixed with clay. 
 Fresh water is let into the mines, and, 
 having been saturated with salt, is carried 
 into large reservoirs, from which, at the 
 works of Frauenreith, 130,000 cwt. of salt 
 are annually obtained. A large part of 
 the water is conducted to ReichenhalL 
 At this place a large salt-spring was dis- 
 covered in 1613, and, on account of a 
 deficiency in wood required in the prepa- 
 ration of the salt, the water was conveyed, 
 by means of an aqueduct, to Traunstcin, 
 20 miles distant. Another aqueduct, 35 
 mik'S long, from Reichenhall to Rosen- 
 heim, was completed in 1809, and, in 
 1817, these were again brought into 
 communication with B. in a most admi- 
 rable way. The first machine, which 
 raises the brine coming from B. 50 llvt 
 high, is near this place. From hence, it 
 runs in pipes 3500 feet, with a fall of 17 
 feet only, into the second reservoir. A 
 hydraulic machine, invented by von 
 Reichenbach, here lifts the salt water 
 311 feet high, in iron pipes 934 feet long. 
 The water then runs in pipes 7480 feet, 
 with 37 feet fall, to a valley, over which 
 it is led in iron pipes, 1225 feet long, and, 
 after running 12,073 feet thrther, it falls 
 into the third reservoir. Here is a second 
 hydraulic machine, which lifts the water 
 to a perpendicular height of 1218 feet, in 
 pipes 3500 feet long; and hence it flows, 
 in pipes 73,000 feet long, to Reichenhall. 
 The pipes running from B. to Reichen- 
 hall amount to 104,140 feet. From 
 Reichenhall to Siegsdorf there is but one 
 aqueduct for the salt water intended for 
 Traunstein and Rosenheim, 94,800 feet 
 long. From Siegsdorf to Traunstein the 
 brine flows without an aqueduct. In 
 Trauustein, 140,000 cwt. are annually 
 produced. The other part of the brine 
 flows in pipes, 78,000 feet long, to Ro- 
 heim, which produces annually 180,000 
 cwt. of salt. The water required to work 
 the numerous machines is brought from 
 places many of which are 10 19,000 
 feet distant. 
 
 BERCHTOLD, Leopold, count, born in 
 1758, devoted his life to the relief of the 
 wretched. He spent 13 years in travel- 
 ling through Europe, and 4 in travelling 
 through Asia and Africa, to assuage hu- 
 man misery. The results of his experi- 
 ence are contained in his Essay to direct 
 and extend the Inquiries of patriotic 
 Travellers (London, 1789, 2 vols.) He
 
 BERCHTOLD BERESFORD. 
 
 wrote several pamphlets on the means of 
 reforming the police, which he caused to 
 be printed in different European coun- 
 tries, at his own expense, and to be dis- 
 tributed gratis. His prize-questions gave 
 rise to many pamphlets and treatises on 
 the means of saving the drowned and the 
 seemingly dead. He offered a prize of 
 1000 florins for the best treatise on be- 
 neficent institutions, and was himself the 
 founder of many. From 1795 to 97, he 
 travelled through Asiatic and European 
 Turkey, chiefly for the purpose of coun- 
 teracting die ravages of the plague. At 
 a later period, he was engaged in making 
 vaccination more extensively known. 
 During the famine that raged in the Rie- 
 sengebirge (Giant mountains), from 1805 
 to 1806, he procured corn and other pro- 
 visions from distant regions. He fitted 
 up the palace Buchlowitz on his estate 
 Buchlau in Moravia, as an hospital for 
 the sick and wounded Austrian soldiers. 
 Here this patriot and philanthropist was 
 earned off by a contagious nervous fever, 
 July 26, 1809. 
 
 BERCY ; a village on the Seine, at its con- 
 fluence with the Marne, in the neighbor- 
 hood of Paiis. The Parisian wine-mer- 
 chants have here their stores of wine, 
 wine-vinegar, distilled liquors, &c. ; so 
 that the intercourse between B. and the 
 capital is extremely active. It is increased 
 also by several important tanneries, sugar- 
 refineries and paper-mills. A large pal- 
 ace, Le grand Bercy, was built by Levau 
 at the close of the 17th century. The 
 park which belongs to it, containing 900 
 acres, was planted by Lenotre. M. de 
 Calonne was for some time in possession 
 of it. The present possessor is M. de 
 Nicolai. 
 
 BERENGARIUS, or BERENGER, of Tours, 
 a teacher in the philosophical school in 
 that city, and, in 1040, archdeacon of An- 
 gers, is renowned for his philosophical 
 acuteness as one of the scholastic writers, 
 and also for the boldness with which, in 
 1050, he declared himself against the 
 doctrine of transubstantiation, and for his 
 consequent persecutions. He was several 
 times compelled to recant, but always 
 returned to the same opinion, that the 
 bread in the Lord's supper is merely a 
 symbol of the body of Christ, in which 
 he agreed with the Scotchman John 
 Erigena (called Scotus). The Catholics 
 ranked him among the most dangerous 
 heretics. He was treated with forbear- 
 ance by Gregory VII, but the scholastics 
 belonging to the party of the great Lan- 
 franc, archbishop of Canterbury, were 
 
 irritated against him to such a degree, 
 that he retired to the isle of St. Cosmas, 
 in the neighborhood of Tours, in the year 
 1080, where he closed his life at a great 
 age, in pious exercises (1088). On the 
 history of this controversy, which has 
 been very much misrepresented by the 
 Benedictines, new light has been shed by 
 Lessing, hi his Berengar (1770), and by 
 Stuudlfn, who has likewise published the 
 work of B. against Lanfranc. This B. 
 must not be confounded with Peter Be- 
 renger of Poitiers, wlo wrote a defence 
 of his instructer Abelard. 
 
 BERENHORST, Francis Leopold von ; 
 one of the first of the writers by whom 
 the military art has been founded on clear 
 and certain principles. He was a natural 
 son of prince Leopold of Dessau, and 
 was born in 1733. In 1760, he became 
 the adjutant of Frederic II. After the 
 seven years' war, he lived at Dessau. He 
 died in 1814. 
 
 BEREMCE (Greei, a bringer of victory). 
 1. This was the name of the wife of 
 Mithridates the Great, king of Pontus. 
 Her husband, when vanquished by Lu- 
 cullus, caused her to be put to death 
 (about the year 71 B. C.), lest she should 
 fall into the hands of his enemies. Mo- 
 nima, his other wife, and his two sisters, 
 Roxana and Statira, experienced the same 
 fate. 2. The wife of Herod, brother to 
 the great Agrippa, her father, at whose 
 request Herod was made king of Chalcis, 
 by the emperor Claudius, but soon died. 
 In spite of her dissolute life, she insinu- 
 ated herself into the favor of the emperor 
 Vespasian and his son Titus. The latter 
 was, at one time, on the point of marrying 
 her. 3. The wife of Ptolemy Euergetes, 
 who loved her husband with rare tender- 
 ness, and, when he went to war in Syria, 
 made a vow to devote her beautiful hair 
 to the gods, if he returned safe. Upon 
 his return, B. performed her vow in the 
 temple of Venus. Soon after, the hair 
 was missed, and the astronomer Conon 
 of Samos declared that the gods had 
 transferred it to the skies as a constella- 
 tion. From this circumstance, the seven 
 stars near the tail of the Lion are called 
 coma Berenices (the hair of Berenice). 
 
 BERESFORD, William, baron, duke of 
 Elvas and marquis of Campo Mayor, for 
 the ability tind courage which he dis- 
 played in the war of Portugal against 
 France, is ranked among the distinguish- 
 ed generals of Great Britain. He or- 
 ganized the Portuguese army, and also 
 the militia of the country, in so excellent 
 a manner, that they could vie with the
 
 BERESFORD BERG. 
 
 best soldiers of the combined armies in 
 the wars of the peninsula. In 1810, B. 
 gained a victory over Soult, at Albufera. 
 In 1812, he commanded under Welling- 
 ton, and took an important part in the 
 victories at Vittoria, Bayonne and Tou- 
 louse. He made his entrance into Bor- 
 deaux, March 13, 1814, with the duke of 
 Angouleme. May 0, he was raised to 
 the rank of baron by the king of Eng- 
 land, and, soon after, sent to Brazil, 
 whence he returned to England in 1815. 
 The prince regent of Portugal made him 
 generalissimo of the Portuguese armies. 
 He had scarcely arrived at Lisbon, when 
 lie was sent, by the English government, 
 on an important mission to Rio Janeiro. 
 The rigor with which he punished a con- 
 spiracy of general Freyre against the 
 British army and the regency, in Lisbon 
 (1817), rendered him odious to the Por- 
 tuguese military. He was, therefore, dis- 
 missed by the cortes in 1820. He then 
 went again to Brazil, afterwards to Eng- 
 land, and, in Dec., 1820, appeared anew 
 in Lisbon, at the head of the English 
 forces sent to aid in quelling the rebellion. 
 BEREZI.VA ; a river in the Russian 
 province of Minsk, rendered famous by 
 the passage of the French army under 
 Napoleon, Nov. 26 and 27, 1812. Admi- 
 ral Tschitschakoff, with the Moldavian 
 army, forced his way from the south, to 
 join the main army, which, after Borizoff 
 had been retaken, was to assist the army 
 led by Witgenstein from the Dwina, and, 
 in this manner, cut .off Napoleon from 
 the Vistula. Napoleon was, therefore, 
 obliged to make the greatest efforts, not- 
 withstanding immense difficulties occa- 
 sioned by the nature of the country, the 
 climate, and the critical situation of his 
 troops, to reach Minsk, or, at least, the 
 B., and to pass it earlier than the RU&- 
 sians. To effect this, it was necessary to 
 sacrifice a great part of the baggage and 
 artillery, Nov. 25. After the advanced 
 guard of the Moldavian army had been 
 repelled to BorizofF, by Oudinot, and the 
 bridge there burnt by them, early in the 
 morning of Nov. 20, two bridges were 
 built near Sembin, about two miles above 
 Borizoff, an undertaking the more diffi-r 
 cult, because both banks of the river 
 were bordered by extensive morasses, 
 covered, like the river itself, with ice not 
 sufficiently strong to afford passage to the 
 army, while other passes were already 
 threatened by the Russians. Scarcely 
 had a few corps effected their passage, 
 when the greater part of the army, un- 
 armed and in confusion, rushed ha crowds 
 6* 
 
 upon the bridges. Discipline had long 
 before disappeared. The confusion in- 
 creased with every minute. Those who 
 could not hope to escape over the bridges 
 sought their safety on the floating ice of 
 the Berezina, where most of them per- 
 ished, while many others were crowded 
 into the river by their comrades. In this 
 fatal retreat, the duke of Reggio (Oudi- 
 not) led the advanced guard, with the 
 Poles under Dombrowsky in front ; the 
 reai- guard was formed by the corps of 
 the duke of Belluno. Nov. 27, at noon, 
 the dear-bought end was gained, and the 
 army, leaving the road to 3Iinsk, took 
 that of Wilna to Warsaw, with the hope 
 of providing for their necessities in Wil- 
 na, Besides the multitudes who were 
 obliged to remain beyond the B., the di- 
 vision of Partouneaux, which formed the 
 rear guard, was also lost. It was intrust- 
 ed with the charge of burning the bridges 
 in its rear, but it fell into the hands of the 
 enemy. According to the French bulle^ 
 tins, only a detachment of 2000 men, who 
 missed their way, was taken ; according 
 to the Russian accounts, the whole corps, 
 7500 men and 5 generals. 
 
 BERG ; a duchy of Germany ; bounded 
 on the north by the duchy of -Cleves, on 
 the east by the county of Mark and West- 
 phalia, on the south by the Westerwald, 
 and on the west by the Rhine. It be^ 
 longed, formerly, to the elector of Bava- 
 ria, but has been included, since 1815, in 
 the grand-duchy of the Lower Rhine, 
 which belongs to Prussia. It contains 
 1188 square miles, with 583,000 inhabit- 
 ants. There are mines of iron, copper, 
 lead and quicksilver ; but the principal 
 objects of attention are the manufactures, 
 which render it one of the most populous 
 and flourishing countries in Germany : 
 of these, the principal are iron, steel, 
 linen, woollen, cotton and silk. The ex- 
 tent of the manufactures of B. is, 'in a 
 great measure, owing to the multitude of 
 skilful workmen whom the. fury of the 
 Spaniards, in the war against the Nether-* 
 lands, forced to leave their country. The 
 richest fled to London and Hamburg, die 
 poorer sort, which included a great pro- 
 portion of the manufacturers, to the 
 neighboring Berg. At a later period, 
 when Louis XIV revoked the edict of 
 Nantes, many of the most industrious of 
 the French Protestants fled also to this 
 duchy, which thus became the most man- 
 ufacturing part of Germany. Elberfeld 
 is the most important of the manufactur- 
 ing places of B. Another reason of the 
 great prosperity of this country is, that it
 
 BERG BERGEN. 
 
 has been under the government of rich 
 princes ; and the smallness of its territory 
 has often enabled it to remain a long 
 time neutral, when all the other German 
 states were desolated by war. The duchy 
 of B. continued in the possession of the 
 electors of Bavaria until 1806, when it 
 wtus ceded to France, and bestowed by 
 Napoleon on his brother-in-law Murat, 
 under the title of the grand-duchy of Berg. 
 There was at the same time added to it 
 part of Cleves, the counties of Homburg, 
 Bentheim-Steinfurt, Hortsmar, Nassau- 
 Dietz, Dillenburg, Hadamar, and a num- 
 ber of lordships and scattered bailiwicks 
 and towns. On Murat's receiving the 
 kingdom of Naples, Napoleon named his 
 nephew Napoleon Louis, eldest son of 
 the king of Holland, hereditary grand- 
 duke of Berg, with the condition that 
 the country should be under the immedi- 
 ate management of the French govern- 
 ment until the young prince should be 
 of age. At the same time, the Prussian 
 part of Munster and the county of Mark 
 were annexed to it, and the whole was 
 divided into the departments of the Rhine, 
 the Ems, the Roer and the Sieg, having 
 a population of 878,000 on 6908 square 
 miles. At the congress of Vienna, in 
 1815, the whole was giveri to the king of 
 Prussia. 
 
 BERG, BOOK OF. (See Symbolic Books.) 
 BERGAMO, capital of the district of Ber- 
 gamo (1150 square miles and 306,600 in- 
 habitants), in the Lombardo-Venetian 
 kingdom, is situated on hills between the 
 rivers Brembo and Serio, has a castle 
 within the city, and another, called la ca- 
 pella, without it, besides two suburbs en- 
 circled by walls, and four others that are 
 open, containing together 30,680 inhabit- 
 ants. Amongst many distinguished men 
 born here, is the famous Tiraboschi, the 
 historian of Italian literature. B. export- 
 ed, formerly, more than 1200 bales of silk, 
 which produced, on an average, 150,000 
 sterling yearly. In 1428, the Bergamese 
 put themselves under the republic of 
 Venice. . In 1796, Bonaparte took B., and 
 it was subsequently made the capital of 
 the department of the Serio, in the king- 
 dom of Italy. Lon. 9 3& E. ; lat. 45 
 42' N. The city is the seat of a bishop 
 and of the authorities of the district. It 
 has an academy of painting and sculpture, 
 a museum, an athenaeum, a public libra- 
 ry, several academies, many manufacto- 
 ries, especially of silk. There is, alsoj a 
 small Protestant congregation in this city. 
 The comic characters, Arlechino, or 
 Truffaldino, and Brighella, in the Italian 
 
 masqued comedy, are Bergamese, or affect 
 the dialect of the country people in the 
 neighborhood of this city. 
 
 BERGAMOTS are a variety of citron. 
 It is said to have been produced at first by 
 grafting a citron on the stock of a berga- 
 mot pear-tree. The fruit has a fine taste 
 and smell, and its essential oil is in high 
 esteem as a perfume. 
 
 BERGASSE, Nicholas; a statesman and 
 author, born at Lyons, in 1750, where he 
 was an advocate. He afterwards became 
 advocate to the parliament of Paris. Here 
 lie showed his talents in the famous law- 
 suit of Beaumarchais (q. v.) with the 
 banker Kornmann. Upon the breaking 
 out of the revolution, he was chosen a 
 member of the states-general by the city 
 of Lyons, but abandoned his seat, even 
 earlier than Mounier arid Lally-Tollendal, 
 a step which, both in his case and theirs, 
 was universally condemned. During the 
 reign of terror, his life was saved only 
 by the events of the 9th of Thermidor. 
 Since that time, B. has devoted himself to 
 metaphysical speculations. He is distin- 
 guished among the modern French ideol- 
 ogists by a splendid style and richness of 
 ideas. He is the author of Morale religi- 
 euse, De V Influence de la Volonte et sur V In- 
 telligence, and De la Propriete (1807). B. 
 was also one of "the most zealous adher- 
 ents to the doctrine of Mesmer respecting 
 animal magnetism. During the abode of 
 the Russian emperor in Paris, 1815, this 
 monarch paid him a visit. 
 
 BERGEN ; a bishopric in the kingdom 
 of Norway, that borders on Aggerhuus to 
 the east, Drontheim to the north, Chris- 
 tiausand to the south, and die German 
 ocean to the west ; Ion. 4 4S 7 6 55' E. ; 
 lat. 59 34' 62 W N. It contains about 
 13,900 square miles, 57 parishes, 180 
 churches and chapels, 137,700 inhabit- 
 ants, or nearly 10 to a square mile. Ber- 
 gen, the fortified capital, with a citadel 
 (Bergenhuus), the largest city in Norway, 
 is situated in Ion. 5 21' E., lat. 60 10 7 N., 
 180 miles N. of Stavanger, 270 S. W. of 
 Drontheim, at the Iwttom of the bay of 
 Waag, that stretches far into the country, 
 forming a safe harbor, surrounded by 
 high and steep rocks. The entrance, 
 however, is dangerous. The wall of rocks 
 also makes the access to the city on the 
 land side difficult. The climate is com- 
 paratively mild, on account of the shel- 
 tered situation of the town. It is re- 
 markable for frequent rains. B. is well 
 built, yet several streets are crooked 
 and uneven, on account of the rocks. 
 The city contains 2200 houses, 18,000
 
 BERGEN BERGMANN. 
 
 67 
 
 inhabitants, 1 German and 3 Danish 
 churches : it has a bishop, a classical 
 school, a seminary, founded by bishop 
 Pontoppidan, for 12 students, who are in- 
 structed gratis in the higher branches of 
 literature, a naval academy, an hospital for 
 such as are infected with the scurvy, 
 which is common among the fishermen, 
 arising from their food, principally smoked 
 or salt meat and fish ; besides other use- 
 ful institutions. The inhabitants of the 
 middle coast of Norway bring their 
 boards, masts, laths, fire-wood, tar, train- 
 oil, hides, &c., and particularly dried fish 
 (stock-fish), to B., to exchange them for 
 corn and other necessaries, brought 
 thither by the English, Dutch and Ger- 
 mans. B. thus carries on its commerce 
 with but 100 vessels of its own. In the 
 year 1445, a factory and several ware- 
 houses were established here by the 
 Hanseatic cities of Germany, and the 
 German traders, as they called them- 
 selves, enjoyed, for some time, the pro- 
 tection of the Hanseatic league. The 
 German factory consisted of about 60 
 warehouses. The roads leading into the 
 interior of the country are frequented 
 only in the, winter, when they are passa- 
 ble in sleds. B. is the native place of the 
 poet Holberg. Bergen is also the name 
 of other places ; amongst them is, 1, a town 
 in the Netherlands, a post of some conse- 
 quence in the wars of 1739 and 1814. 2. 
 A town in the electorate of Hesse. A bloody 
 battle was fought here, April 13, 1759, be- 
 tween the French and allies, in the seven 
 years' war, in which the former were vic- 
 torious. It is three miles N. E. Frankfort. 
 3. The capital of the island of Riigen, hi 
 the Baltic, now subject to Prussia. 4. A 
 small island in the Indian ocean, 60 miles 
 W. of Sumatra; lat. 3 20 7 S. 
 
 BERGER, Louis von, was born in Ol- 
 denburg, where he held a high office in 
 the administration. When the Russians 
 approached, in 1813, the citizens of Ol- 
 denburg took up arms. The'French ma- 
 gistrates fled, but not until they had ap- 
 pointed a committee of regency, of which 
 von Berger and Fink were members. 
 This committee was afterwards summon- 
 ed before a court-martial in Bremen, in 
 which general Vandamme presided, and 
 these two excellent men were condemned 
 to death, though their accuser had only 
 proposed their imprisonment. They were 
 shot, April 10, 1813. The clearness, firm- 
 ness and power of language, with which 
 von Berger exposed this mock-trial, is 
 well described in the Murder of Fink 
 and Berger, written by Gildemeister of 
 
 Bremen. The remains of. the two patri- 
 ots are deposited in Oldenburg. 
 
 BERGERAC ; a town of France, in the 
 department of the Dordogne, 48 miles E. 
 of Bordeaux, which gives the name to an 
 agreeable French wine, cultivated on the 
 banks of the Dordogne. There is a white 
 and a red sort. In France, it is some- 
 times also called petit Champagne. 
 
 BERGHEM, Nicholas, born at Harlem, in 
 1G24, received his first instruction hi 
 painting from his father, Peter of Harlem, 
 who was a very indifferent artist. He 
 then continued his studies under van 
 Goyen, and the elder Weenix. It is re- 
 lated, that once, when pursued by his 
 father, he fled into the workshop of van 
 Goyen, who, to protect him, called to his 
 pupils, " Berg hem" (conceal him) : this, it 
 is said, occasioned his new name. Love 
 of his art, and the great demand for his 
 paintings, as likewise the avarice of his 
 wife, prompted him to labor with extreme 
 assiduity. To buy engravings, of which 
 he was very fond, he was often compelled 
 to borrow money from his students, 
 which he, could only refund by deceiving 
 his wife in regard to the price of his 
 paintings. In this manner he obtain- 
 ed a rich collection. B's. landscapes and 
 representations of animals adorn the most 
 celebrated galleries. The distinguishing 
 characters of the pictures of B. are the 
 breadth and just distribution of the lights, 
 the grandeur of his masses of light and 
 shadow, the natural ease and simplicity 
 in the attitudes of his figures, the brillian- 
 cy and harmony as well as transparency 
 of his coloring, the correctness and tnie 
 perspective of his design, and the ele- 
 gance of. his composition. Although he 
 hardly ever left his workshop, yet he had 
 closely observed nature, during a long 
 resilience in the palace of Benthem. He 
 died at Harlem, 1683. Charles Dujardin 
 and Glauber were among his pupils. At 
 the auction of P. de Srneth's collection of 
 'paintings, Amsterdam, 1810, four of B.'s 
 were sold for 800, 1000, 1625, 2500 
 Dutch guilders. 
 
 BERGMANS, Torbern Olof, a natural 
 philosopher and chemist, born at Catha- 
 rineberg, in the Swedish province of 
 West Gothland, March 9, 1735, obtained, 
 after many difficulties, the permission of 
 his family to devote himself entirely to 
 the sciences. At that time, disciples 
 flocked from all quarters to Linnaeus at 
 Upsal. They were joined by B., in 1752, 
 who, by his acuteness and his discoveries, 
 which were facilitated by his attainments 
 in geometry and physics, excited the no-
 
 68 
 
 BERGMANN BERKELEY. 
 
 tice of this great man. In 1758, he be- 
 came doctor of philosophy and professor 
 of physics at Upsal. Upon the resigna- 
 tion of the celebrated Wallerius, B. was a 
 candidate for the professorship of chemis- 
 try and mineralogy. His competitors 
 charged him with ignorance of the sub- 
 ject, because he had never written on it. 
 To refute them, he shut himself up for 
 some time hi a laboratory, and prepared 
 a treatise on the manufacture of alum, 
 which is still considered as a standard 
 work. In 1767, he became professor of 
 chemistry, and devoted himself with ar- 
 dor to this science. He invented the 
 preparation of artificial mineral-waters, 
 and discovered the sulphuretted hydro- 
 gen gas of mineral springs. We are in- 
 debted to him for a knowledge of the 
 characters which distinguish nickel from 
 other metals. On a number of minerals 
 he made chemical experiments, with an 
 accuracy before uncommon. He pub- 
 lished a classification of minerals, hi 
 which the chief divisions are based on 
 their chemical character, and the subdi- 
 visions on their external form. In pre- 
 paring this work, he was much aided by 
 his former discovery 6f the geometrical 
 relations between different crystals of the 
 same substance, which may be deduced 
 from one primitive form, and are pro- 
 duced by the aggregation of similar par- 
 ticles, according to fixed and obvious 
 laws. His theory of the chemical rela- 
 tions is still esteemed, and, if it has re- 
 ceived some new developements from the 
 further researches of Berthollet, it has not 
 been overthrown. The order of Gusta- 
 vus Vasa was bestowed on B. He de- 
 clined the invitation of Frederic the Great 
 to remove to Berlin. He died, exhausted 
 by his exertions, in 1784, in the 49th year 
 of his age. Among his works, the first 
 place is due to Qpusnila Phys. et Chem. 
 (Stockholm, 1779, 3 vols.), and Physical 
 Description of die Globe. 
 
 BERGSTRASSE ( Germ., mountain road) ; 
 a fertile tract of land on the right of the 
 Rhine, lying west of the Odenwald and 
 Melibceus, and forming a beautiful road 
 about 30 miles hi length, planted with 
 walnut and chestnut-trees and vines. It 
 extends from Darmstadt to the convent of 
 Neuburg, about a mile distant from Hei- 
 delberg. All travellers on the Rhine are 
 delighted with this road. 
 
 BERKELEY, doctor George ; bishop of 
 Cloyne, in Ireland; celebrated for his 
 ideal theory. He maintains that the be- 
 lief in the existence of an exterior mate- 
 rial world is false and inconsistent with 
 
 itself; that those things which are called 
 sensible material objects are not external, 
 but exist in the mind, and are merely im- 
 pressions made on our minds by the im- 
 mediate act of God, according to certain 
 rules termed laws of nature, from which 
 he never deviates; and that the steady ad- 
 herence of the Supreme Spirit to these 
 rules is what constitutes the reality of 
 things to his creatures ; and so effectually 
 distinguishes the ideas perceived by sense 
 from such as are the work of the mind 
 itself or of dreams, that there is no more 
 danger of confounding them together on 
 this hypothesis than on that of the ex- 
 istence of matter. He was born at Kil- 
 crin, Ireland, in 1684 ; became fellow of 
 Trinity college, Dublin, hi 1707 ; travelled 
 in Italy as far as Leghorn, in 1713 and 
 1714, and, at a later period, accompanied 
 Mr. Ashe, son of the bishop of Clogher, 
 on a tour through Italy, Sicily and France. 
 In 1721, he was appointed chaplain to the 
 lord lieutenant of Ireland, the duke of 
 Grafton. He appeared with much aj>- 
 plause as an author before he was 20 
 years old. His works on philosophy and 
 mathematics (among which his Theory 
 of Vision, published in 1709, is the most 
 brilliant proof of the author's acuteness) 
 procured him a wide-spread fame. By a 
 legacy of Mrs. Vanhomrigh, the celebrat- 
 ed Vanessa, who has become so generally 
 known through her love to Swift, his 
 fortune was considerably increased. In 
 1724, he was promoted to the deanery of 
 Deny, and resigned his fellowship He 
 now "published his Proposals for the Con- 
 version of the American Savages to Chris- 
 tianity by the Establishment of a College 
 in the Bermuda Islands. The project 
 was very favorably received, and persons 
 of the first rank raised considerable sums 
 by subscription to aid it; and B., having 
 resigned his preferment, set sail for Rhode 
 Island, with several other persons of sim- 
 ilar views, to make arrangements for car- 
 rying on his college. The assistance of par- 
 liament, which had been promised, not be- 
 ing afforded, his undertaking miscarried, 
 after he had spent seven years and a con- 
 siderable part of his fortune in his efforts, 
 to accomplish it. He afterward wrote 
 numerous philosophical, religious and po- 
 litico-economical works. Towards his 
 60th year, he was attacked by a nervous 
 colic, which he attempted to cure by the 
 use of tar- water, whereby he was induced 
 to publish two treatises on the utility of 
 this water. He died suddenly at Oxford, 
 in 1753. B. is said to have been acquaint- 
 ed with almost all branches of human
 
 BERKELEY BERLIN. 
 
 69 
 
 knowledge. His character commanded 
 the respect and love of all who knew him. 
 Pope, his constant friend, describes him as 
 possessed of " every virtue under heaven." 
 His most celebrated philosophical works 
 are, a Treatise on the Principles of Human 
 Knowledge (London, 1710) ; Three Dia- 
 logues bet ween Hy las and Pliilouous( Lon- 
 don, 1713) ; Alciphron, or the Minute Phi- 
 losopher (London, 1732). His Works ap- 
 peared in London, 1784, 2 vols. 4to., pre- 
 ceded by a biography written by Arbutlmot. 
 
 BERLICHI.VGE.V, Gotz, or Godfrey, von, 
 with the iron hand ; born at Jaxthausen, 
 in Suabia ; a bold, restless, warlike and 
 honorable German knight, of the middle 
 ages. He placed himself at the head of 
 the rebellious peasants, in the war which 
 they waged against their oppressors (see 
 Peasant War, in Germany), but was soon 
 made prisoner. Before that time, he had 
 lost his right hand, and therefore wore 
 one made of iron. He died July 23, 
 1562. His biography, written by himself, 
 was printed at Nuremberg, in 1731 and 
 1775, and, for the third time, at Breslau, 
 in 1813. This book contains an excellent 
 picture of the social life and customs of 
 the middle ages, and has furnished 
 Gothe with the subject for his beautiful 
 drama, G. von Berlichingen. 
 
 BERLIN; the capital of the Prussian 
 dominions ; principal residence of the 
 king, and seat of the highest councils of 
 the kingdom ; situated in the province of 
 Brandenburg, on the Spree, 127 feet above 
 the level of the sea; Ion. 13 22' E.; lat. 
 52 31' N. ; one of the largest and hand- 
 somest cities of Europe. It is about 12 
 miles in circumference, and consists of 5 
 towns Berlin Proper, Koln, or Cologne, 
 on the Spree, Friedrichswerder, Neu- or 
 Dorotheenstadt and Friedrichsstadt ; and 
 5 suburbs Louisenstadt, the King's sub- 
 urb, those of Spandau and Stralau, and, 
 outside of the walls, Orauienburg suburb. 
 B. has 22 squares and market-places, 15 
 gates, 27 parish churches, 37 bridges, 
 &c. In the year 1817, there were 7133 
 houses, including the churches, the 
 other public buildings (174), the manu- 
 factories (61), the stables and bams (483). 
 At the close of the year 1825, B. contain- 
 ed (the military included) 220,000 inhab- . 
 itants, among whom were about 3700 
 Jews, 4000 Catholics, and more than 
 10,000 Calvinists. 1. Berlin Proper, con- 
 sisting of 39 streets, was built, in 1163, by 
 margrave Albert the Bear. It received 
 its name from the wildness of the country, 
 and was settled by emigrants from Hol- 
 land. It contains the royal post-office, 
 
 the town-house, the general military acad- 
 emy, the academy for cadets, the royal 
 school of the gray convent, that of Joa- 
 chimsthal, the Lutheran parish church of 
 St. Nicholas (the oldest church in B.), the 
 Frederic orphan asylum (established in 
 1818, for 1009 orphans), with a church, and 
 a royal institution for vaccination (where, 
 since 1802, 25,332 children, beside adults, 
 have been vaccinated gratuitously), the 
 synagogue of the Jews, the- new market, 
 and many other public buildings. The 
 suburbs of B., taking the name in its most 
 limited sense, are, the King's suburb (K6- 
 nigsvorstadt), containing the new theatre, 
 where the famous Mile. Sontag perform- 
 ed before she went to Paris ; the suburb of 
 Spandau, where are the royal palace Mon- 
 bijou, the veterinary college, the great 
 hospital La Charite, with which a clinical 
 institution is connected (numbering, in 
 1816, 5144 patients, among whom were 
 419 with mental disorders), the new royal 
 mint, &c. and, finally, Stralau. Outside 
 of the walls, the Rosenthal-suburb, or 
 Neuvoigtland, is situated. Before the 
 Oranienburg gate are the iron foundery, 
 where cast-iron ware, of every description, 
 is made ; the royal hospital of invalids, 
 which receives upwards of 1000 inmates, 
 officers, soldiers, women and children. 
 
 2. Koln, or Cologne, on the Spree, which 
 received this name when it was built 
 from the Kollnen (piles), on which the 
 Vandals (Wenden), driven out by Albert 
 the Bear, had built their huts in the midst 
 of bogs and morasses, contains 25 streets, 
 enclosed by two branches of the Spree ; 
 a bridge 100 feet long, of stone, resting 
 upon 5 arches, and adorned with a colos- 
 sal equestrian statue of the great elector 
 Frederic William, in bronze, planned by 
 Schluter, and cast by Jacobi; the royal 
 palace, 460 feet in length, 276 in breadth, 
 and lOli in height, containing the gallery 
 of paintings, the cabinet of artificial and 
 natural curiosities, the collection of med- 
 als, &c. ; the museum of art, a most mag- 
 nificent building, newly erected by Schin- 
 kel ; the royal riding academy. A part 
 of Koln is called J\Teu-K6ln, and con- 
 sists of 4 streets, built along the Spree. 
 
 3. Priedrichswerder, including 19 streets, 
 was founded by the elector Frederic 
 William the Great. Here are situated 
 the palace, inhabited by the present 
 king, originally intended for the crown- 
 prince ; the splendid arsenal, in the yard 
 of which the 365 famous heads of dying 
 warriors, in relief, by Schluter, serve as 
 key-stones in the arches of the windows ; 
 the royal foundery ; the new guard-house,
 
 70 
 
 BERLIN. 
 
 built by Schinkel, near which are the 
 statues of Scharnhorst and Bulow, by 
 Rauch, and three pieces of ordnance of 
 the largest caliber, two of which were 
 taken from the French ; opposite to it 
 stands the colossal statue of Blitcber, in 
 bronze, a work of Rauch. 4. .Yen- or 
 Dorotheenstadt, likewise built by the elect- 
 or Frederic William the Great, and named 
 after his second wife, has but 5 regular 
 streets, among which is the stately street 
 " beneath the limes," 2088 feet in length, 
 and 170 in breadth, affording the most 
 beautiful walk in the city, and a part of 
 Frederic-street, which is 4250 paces in 
 length. The principal buildings in this 
 quarter are, the university edifice ; the 
 Catholic church, built on the plan of the 
 Pantheon in Rome ; the fine opera-house ; 
 the royal library, the style of which is bad ; 
 the academy building, destined for a mu- 
 seum, with an observatory whose platform 
 rises 84 feet from the pavement of the 
 street ; the great singing-academy, erected 
 by Schinkel, and devoted only to church 
 music ; the Pains-place, &c. The Bran- 
 denburg gate, which is 195 feet in width, 
 was built, in 1789, by Langhans, in imi- 
 tation of the Propyteum at Athens, but 
 on a much larger scale. Above it is the 
 famous Victoria in a quadriga, which was 
 carried away by the French, in 1807, and, 
 in 1814, brought back from Paris by the 
 Prussians : before it lies the park, 880 
 acres in extent, containing, besides vari- 
 ous walks, the royal palace Bellevue, 
 and several country-seats, belonging to 
 wealthy individuals. 5. Friedrichsstadt, 
 founded, in 1688, by the elector Frederic 
 III (king Frederic I), surpasses the four 
 other divisions of the city in extent, and 
 consists of 23 wide streets, among which 
 the above-mentioned Frederic-street is 
 distinguished. Worthy of notice are, the 
 Gendarmes market ; also William-place, 
 a quadrangle 190 paces in length and 90 in 
 breadth, containing the marble statues of 
 the generals Schwerin, Winterfeld, Seyd- 
 litz, Keith and Ziethen, who, in the gro- 
 tesque taste of the last century, are repre- 
 sented in Roman costume and periwigs ; 
 the Leipsic-place ; the place of Belle-Al- 
 liance ; the Bohemian church ; the Trinity 
 church ; the French and the new church, 
 with two famous steeples ; the royal porce- 
 lain manufactory ; the academy of Freder- 
 ic William, with the Realschide (which be- 
 longs to the class of high schools, and con- 
 tained, in the year 1816, 650 scholars) ; the 
 Collegien or council-house, where the legis- 
 lative committee, the chief court of jus- 
 tice, also the Kammergericht,ai\d council for 
 
 minors,hold their sessions, and the archives 
 of the Brandenburg fiefs are kept; the 
 bank ; the house of the society for foreign 
 commerce ; the theatre, which, in 1817, 
 was consumed by fire, and was afterwards 
 rebuilt under the direction of Schinkel ; 
 several handsome buildings belonging 
 to private persons, &c. Louisenstadt, 
 for the greater part, consists of fie Ids and 
 gardens. Before the Cottbus gate, upon 
 a rising ground covered with wood, called 
 Hasenhaide, was the first spot devoted to 
 the new gymnastic exercises in Germany, 
 invented by doctor Jahn, On the top of 
 the mountain of the cross, formerly Tein- 
 ptlhof mountain, before the Halle gate, is 
 a monument of iron, erected, in 1820, in 
 commemoration of the wars against 
 France. B. contains upwards of 100 
 public and 50 private elementary schools : 
 of burgher or intermediate schools, 10 
 public, 60 private, and 13 special schools 
 (schools in which youth are educated 
 tor particular employments) : 5 gymnasia 
 or classical schools, 7 higher special 
 schools or colleges, and the university: 
 also several academies and literary soci- 
 eties, as the royal academy of science (see 
 Academy] ; the academy of fine arts, me- 
 chanical sciences and architecture, with 
 the schools of art appertaining to this 
 academy ; the society for natural history 
 and natural philosophy ; the medico-chi- 
 rurgical, the pharrnaceutic, the philomath- 
 ic, the physico-medical societies ; the soci- 
 ety for cultivating the German language ; 
 the association of artists. There are also, in 
 this city, a museum of antiquities, estab- 
 lished in 1820; the royal medico-chirur- 
 gical academy, for the military ; two royal 
 medico-chimrgical seminaries, intended 
 to educate surgeons for the army ; the 
 royal veterinaiy school ; two seminaries 
 for the education of town and country 
 school-masters; the seminary for mission- 
 aries, destined to convert the heathens in 
 tire western parts of Africa ; several insti- 
 tutions for the deaf and dumb and the 
 blind ; a free school for Jewish children ; 
 an academy for foresters (an institution in 
 which the knowledge relating to the cul- 
 tivation of woods and forests is acquired) ; 
 a singing academy ; a military swimming- 
 school ; a Bible society ; a society for the 
 advancement of Christianity among the 
 Jews ; an association for the cultivation of 
 gardens ; an institution for preparing arti- 
 ficial mineral waters, &c. There are 
 many charitable institutions in B., the 
 poor, who cannot subsist without help, 
 being about 12,000. Among them, the 
 female charitable association, under 35J
 
 BERLIN BERMUDAS' ISLANDS. 
 
 71 
 
 directresses, provided, December, 1816, 
 for 1200 poor persons, dispersed in 180 
 families. The most benevolent institution 
 is that established, in 1794, by Kranz, 
 counsellor of war, for relieving impover- 
 ished citizens, and which has since num- 
 bered some of its former beneficiaries 
 among its members. B. has a consider- 
 able commerce and some important man- 
 ufactories; a royal bank; a royal society 
 for foreign commerce ; a wool-market ; 
 upwards of 300 machines for spinning 
 wool and cotton, with 29,000 spindles, 
 4 -.'34 looms for weaving cloths, silk, wool- 
 len, cotton and linen, carpets, &c. ; nu- 
 merous manufactories of silk, woollen or 
 cotton ribands, 326 lace-makers, 44 man- 
 ufactories for coloring and printing stuffs, 
 66 dye-houses, 5 sugar refineries, 4 manu- 
 factories of ornamental tin-ware, porcelain 
 and stone- ware factories, the royal bronze 
 manufactories, important manufactories 
 of gold and silver ware, of fine cabinet 
 work, of petinet, straw hats, artificial flow- 
 ers and feathers ; about 25 printing house?, 
 8 powder mills, &c. ; also Mr. Jacobi's 
 valuable collection of works of art. The 
 pavement of B. is extremely bad ; the illu- 
 mination of the streets imperfect. Though 
 some parts of this city are beautiful, yet, 
 on the other hand, its flat and sandy envi- 
 rons are extremely unpleasant. The uni- 
 versity of B. was founded in 1809, when 
 Prussia was groaning beneath the heavy 
 yoke of the French. It proceeded from 
 the noble efforts of those men who, at 
 that time, conducted the public concerns 
 of the kingdom (Stein was one of the 
 most distinguished among them), and 
 were convinced that the only effectual 
 preparation for a future deliverance from 
 the French was a moral regeneration of 
 the people ; at the same time thinking all 
 that diffuses knowledge and intellectual 
 light an excellent means of producing this 
 moral change an idea which was real- 
 ized by the result. Although the univer- 
 sity of B. is so young an establishment, 
 yet it ranks among the first in the world, 
 and is, in one branch of science in philol- 
 ogy the very first. By means of this and 
 many other scientific institutions, a literary 
 spirit has been awakened among the citi- 
 zens, by which they are very advanta- 
 geously distinguished from the inhabitants 
 of other cities ; but, on the other hand, 
 the society of B. has neither the refined 
 manners of a royal residence, nor the easy 
 manners of many other cities. To the 
 university belong the botanical garden 
 without the city, near Schonberg, the 
 anatomical theatre, the anatomical and 
 
 zoological museum, the theological and 
 philological seminary, the cabinet of min- 
 erals, the clinical institution, the lying-in 
 hospital, &c. In the year 1826, there 
 were 1640 students in the university of 
 B., among whom were 400 foreigners. 
 More than 90 professors are employed in 
 the university. In the year 1828, the an- 
 nual meeting of German naturalists, for 
 the promotion of natural science, was held 
 at B., under the direction of Alexander 
 von Humboldt. It furnished a splendid 
 array of talent, and many discourses of 
 great interest were delivered. 
 
 BERMUDAS' ISLANDS, or SOMERS' 
 ISLANDS ; a cluster of small islands in 
 the Atlantic ocean. They are in number 
 about 400, but for the most part so small 
 and so barren, that they have neither in- 
 habitants nor name. They were first dis- 
 covered by Juan Bermudas, a Spaniard, 
 in 1522; in 1609, sir George Somers, an 
 Englishman, was wrecked here, and, 
 after his shipwreck, formed the first set- 
 tlement. The most considerable of these 
 islands are St. George, St. David, Cooper, 
 Ireland, Somerset, Long island, Bird 
 island, and Nonesuch. The first contains 
 a town (St. George's TOWTJ); the two 
 following, some villages ; the others, only 
 farms dispersed. The air is so healthy, 
 that sick people, from the continent of 
 America, frequently go thither for the re- 
 covery of their health. The winter is 
 hardly perceptible ; it may be said to be 
 perpetually spring : the trees never lose 
 their verdure, and the leaves only fall 
 when new ones begin to appear. Birds 
 sing and breed without intermission. 
 But these advantages are counterbalanced 
 by frightful storms, accompanied by for- 
 midable thunder, which are announced 
 by a circle round the moon. Some fertile 
 plains are seen, but, in general, the coun- 
 try is mountainous. The soil is of divers 
 colors, brown, white and red, of which 
 the first is the best ; although light and 
 stony, it is, hi general, rich and fertile. 
 The water is, in general, salt ; there is but 
 little fresh, except rain water, preserved 
 in cisterns. The inhabitants gather two 
 harvests of Indian com in a year, one in 
 July, and the other in December: this 
 forms their principal food. They like- 
 wise cultivate tobacco, legumes, and fruit 
 sufficient for their wants. Their trees are 
 principally the cedar and palmetto. Be- 
 sides these, they have orange-trees, olive, 
 laurel, pear-trees, &c. The red-wood 
 is peculiar to these islands: its colored 
 fruit feeds worms, which become flies, a 
 little larger than the cochineal bug, instead
 
 BERMUDAS' ISLANDS BERN. 
 
 of which they are used. There are no 
 venomous reptiles. Building of vessels is 
 the principal trade of the inhabitants. 
 The.se islands extend from N. E. to S. W., 
 about 45 miles. The whole shore is sur- 
 rounded with rocks, most of which are 
 dry at low water, but covered at flood. 
 They are 230 leagues S. E. cape Fear, in 
 North Carolina. The north point of these 
 islands lies in Ion. 04 2& W. ; lat. 32 22' 
 N. Pop. a few years since, 10,381 ; whites, 
 5,462 ; slaves, 4,919. 
 
 BEEN ; the largest canton of Switzer- 
 land (3667 square miles, 338,000 inhabit- 
 ants, among whom are 40,000 Catholics, 
 and 250,300 Calvinists), with a capital of 
 the same name. Cuno von Bubenberg, 
 in the 12th century, enclosed the small 
 place Bern, in the vicinity of the fortress 
 of Ny deck, with a moat and walls, and 
 the duke of Zahringen, to whom Nydeck 
 belonged, gave the new city laws. Its 
 population was much increased in the 
 13th century. The lower nobility of the 
 adjacent country fled to it for protection 
 against the oppressions of the higher, 
 and were joined by the country people, 
 and particularly by the citizens of Fri- 
 burg and Zurich. The emperor Fred- 
 eric II declared it a free city of the em- 
 pire, in 1218, and confirmed its privileges 
 by a charter, which is still preserved in 
 the archives. In 1288, B. was besieged 
 by Rodolph of Hapsburg, but not taken ; 
 and, in 1291, the citizens of B., under 
 Ulrich von Bubenberg, made war against 
 their own nobility, commanded by Ulrich 
 von Erlach. B. now became an asylum 
 for all those who suffered under the op- 
 pression of the nobles of Austria, and 
 rose to a height of power that excited 
 the envy of other cities, as well as of its 
 own nobility. The latter, therefore, en- 
 tered into an alliance with the hostile 
 cities, for the purpose of destroying it. 
 Then- army, consisting of 18,000 men, 
 headed by 700 of the higher nobility, with 
 1200 knights, was totally vanquished at 
 Laupen, June 21, 1339, by the citizens 
 of B., led by Rodolph von Erlach, though 
 these were only one third of their number. 
 After this victory, the city continued to 
 increase, and, in 1353, entered into the 
 pcipetual league of the Helvetic confed- 
 eracy, in which it held a rank inferior 
 only to Zurich. Until the close of that 
 century, B. enlarged its dominions, partly 
 by purchase, and partly by conquest. In 
 1405, the greater part of the city was de- 
 stroyed by fire, but was afterwards regu- 
 larly rebuilt. The long wars with Austria, 
 Milan, Burgundy and Savoy soon after 
 
 broke out, from all which the confederacy 
 came off victorious, and in which B. con- 
 quered Aargau. In 1528, the citizens of 
 B. embraced the cause of the Reforma- 
 tion. In the subsequent war with the duke 
 of Savoy, they conquered the Pays de 
 Vaud. The countries gained by conquest 
 were governed by bailiffs, who resided in 
 mountain castles. From that time to 
 March 5, 1798, the prosperity and wealth 
 of B. was constantly increasing, as may 
 be clearly perceived from the large sums 
 spent for the public administration. At 
 that time, the canton contained over 5000 
 square miles, and about 380,000 inhabit- 
 ants. Upon the day above-mentioned, 
 30,000 French troops inarched against B. 
 It was again an Erlach who led 18,000 
 citizens of B., together with 8000 auxilia- 
 ry troops of the confederate cantons, into 
 the field ; but the memory of Morgarten, 
 of Laupen and Murten, no longer inspired 
 them to victory : the troops of the con- 
 federates, on their retreat, slew their own 
 commander. B., for the first time, opened 
 its gates to an enemy, and lost about half 
 of its possessions. The northern part was 
 united with the present canton of Aar- 
 gau, and out of the south-western (Pays 
 de Vaud) the present canton of Vaud was 
 formed. By the decrees of the congress 
 at Vienna, however, the greater part of 
 the bishopric of Bale was joined to the 
 canton of B. According to the new aris- 
 tocratic constitution of the canton, the 
 sovereign power is exercised by a bailiff, 
 and the great and lesser councils of the 
 city and republic of B., consisting of 200 
 members chosen from the city of B., and 
 99 from the towns and the country. 
 The former are chosen from the citizens, 
 over 29 years old, by an elective assembly 
 composed of the members of the lesser 
 council, and a committee of the great 
 The 99 members from the towns and 
 country are chosen partly from the towns, 
 by the municipal authorities ; partly from 
 each of the 22 districts, into which the 
 country is divided, by elective assemblies ; 
 and partly by the great council. Two 
 bailiffs preside in turn, each for the space 
 of a year, in the great and lesser councils. 
 The former has the legislative, the latter 
 the executive power. The latter consists 
 of the two bailiffs, 23 members, and 2 
 secretaries, and is chosen by the former 
 from among its own members. The 
 northern part of the canton is hilly, with 
 beautiful plains and valleys, and has a 
 fertile and highly cultivated soil, produc- 
 ing corn, wine and fruits. Here is situated 
 Emmenthal, one of the richest and most
 
 BERN BERNARD. 
 
 73 
 
 fertile valleys in Switzerland, where the 
 finest cattle are raised, and the well-known 
 Emmenthal cheese made. Neat houses, 
 comfortable dresses, and cheerfulness, in- 
 dicate the prosperity of the inhabitants of 
 this valley. The southern part of the 
 canton, the Oberland (Upperland), (to 
 which the valleys of Hash, Grindervald, 
 Lauterbnm, Gander, Frutingen, Adclbo- 
 den, Simmen and Saanen, with numerous 
 smaller valleys, belong), begins at the 
 foot of the high mountain chain towards 
 the Valais, and extendsto its summit. The 
 lower valleys produce good fruits, and 
 are fertile and agreeable : higher up are 
 excellent Alpine pastures ; then succeed 
 bare rocks, extensive glaciers (the source 
 of magnificent water-falls), and the highest 
 mountains of Switzerland, as the Finster- 
 aarhorn, the Schreck-horn and Wetter- 
 horn, the Eiger, the Jungfrau. The in- 
 habitants of the Oberland live, principal- 
 ly, by raising cattle. The chief trade is 
 in linen and woollen manufactures, es- 
 pecially in Emmenthal. The revenues 
 of the state amount to about 600,000 dol- 
 lars. The canton furnishes 5824 men to 
 the army of the confederacy, and con- 
 tributes 104,080 Swiss francs to its sup- 
 port. B. (1062 houses, with 17,620 in- 
 habitants), one of the best built cities in 
 Switzerland, is situated upon the declivity 
 of a hill, on a peninsula, washed on three 
 sides by the Aar. The streets are, for 
 the greater part, straight, wide and well 
 paved, and the houses partly provided with 
 piazzas. Among the public buildings 
 are the great Gothic cathedral, the church 
 of the Holy Spirit, the university buihh- 
 ings, the handsomely built hospital, &c. 
 B. has an academy, and several literary 
 societies. The economical society, in 
 particular, has done much for the im- 
 provement of agriculture, as well as for 
 the better knowledge of the natural his- 
 tory of SAvitzerland. The historical so- 
 ciety of Switzerland, of which the mayor 
 of B., von Mulinen, is president, has pub- 
 lished several chronicles relating to the 
 former times of B., as that of Justinrer 
 (till 1421), 1819, that of Schachtlan, 1820, 
 and that of Anshelm (till 1526), 1825. 
 The gallery for native specimens of natu- 
 ral history, founded in 1802, contains vi- 
 viparous animals, birds, butterflies, insects 
 and plants. The public library possesses 
 great treasures, both of printed" books and 
 manuscripts. Several private persons 
 have museums, which are generally open 
 to strangers. Trade and commerce are 
 li vely : the manufactories furnish woollen 
 cloth, printed linen, silk stuffs, stockings, 
 
 VOL. II. 7 
 
 &c. There are few cities with finer 
 promenades, or where they are kept in 
 better repair. One of the favorite vvaiks, 
 for instance, is near the cathedral, raised 
 at great expense, and planted with four 
 rows of trees. The side towards the Aar 
 is 108 feet above the river, which here 
 forms a beautiful cascade, equalling that 
 of the Rhine at Lauffen, if not in height, 
 at least in breadth. 
 
 BERXADOTTE. (See Charles XIV,) 
 BERNARD, Pierre Joseph ; son of a stat- 
 uary, born at Grenoble, 1710; died at 
 Choisy, near Paris, 1775; studied with 
 the Jesuits in Lyons, and entered as a 
 clerk into the service of a notary in Paris. 
 He was afterwards admitted into the ser- 
 vice of the marshal de Coign y as secreta- 
 ry, arid, by Louis XV, appointed treasurer 
 of the dragoons, and, afterwards, librarian 
 of Choisy. In 1771, he lost his memory 
 by the apoplexy, and remained in this 
 condition till his death. Among the poets 
 who have sung in praise of pleasure, of 
 whom the French nation possesses so 
 many, B. is esteemed. In 1737, he brought 
 the opera Castor and Pollux on the stage, 
 which is a masterpiece of lyric-dramatic 
 poetry. Rameau's music contributed to 
 heighten the general applause with which 
 it was received. UJlrt d 1 Aimer was not 
 published until after his death, but had 
 been before communicated to his friends: 
 it is, in part, an imitation of Ovid. Voltaire 
 called B. le gentil. The whole of his 
 works appeared at Paris, 1796. 
 
 BERNARD, duke of Weimar, general in 
 the thirty years' war, born Aug. 6, 1604, 
 the fourth son of duke John of Saxe- 
 Weimar, entered into the service of Hol- 
 land, at that time the best school for a 
 soldier, where prince Maurice of Nassau 
 (the creator of a better system of tactics)," 
 his brother Frederic Henry, the marquis 
 Spinola, and other great generals, were 
 opposed to one another. B. afterwards 
 entered the Danish army employed in 
 Holstein against the troops of the empe- 
 ror, and commanded by the margrave of 
 Baden-Durlach, and was present at the 
 conference of Lubeck, 1629, for negotia- 
 ting peace. When Gustavus Adolphus 
 entered Germany, B. joined him, and was 
 present at the attack upon Wallenstein'a 
 camp, in the neighborhood of Nuremberg, 
 Aug. 24, 1632. In the battle of Lutzeu, 
 Oct. 6, 1632, he commanded the left wing 
 of the Swedish army, avenged the death 
 of Gustavus Adolphus, and, although him- 
 self severely wounded, put the right wing 
 of the imperial troops to flight. Chan- 
 cellor Oxenstiern, the Swedish director
 
 
 74 
 
 BERNARD. 
 
 of the war in Germany, after the death of 
 die king, committed the command of 
 half the army to him. B., in 1633, took 
 Barnberg, Cronach, Hochstadt and Aidi- 
 stadt ; but his attempt upon Ingolstadt 
 miscarried. He also brought the cities of 
 Ratisbon and Straubing into his power, 
 and frustrated Wallenstein's intentions. 
 The king of Sweden made him duke of 
 Franconia. His impetuosity caused the 
 defeat at Nordlingen (q. v.), Aug. 24, 1634. 
 He himself narrowly escaped being made 
 prisoner. The prudence of Oxenstiern 
 and the valor of B. soon made amends 
 for this fault. France, now entering into 
 a closer alliance with Sweden, concluded 
 a separate treaty with B., who went to 
 Paris, Oct. 16, 1634. B. promised, for 
 4,000,000 livres, to raise an army of 18,000 
 men on the Rhine, to act against Austria. 
 He now earned on the war in the country 
 adjoining to the Rhine, took the fortress 
 of Zabern, in Alsace, spread his army over 
 ^ Lorraine and Burgundy, and vanquished 
 the forces of the emperor in several bat- 
 tles. At the commencement of the year 
 1638, he laid siege to Rheinfelden, not far 
 from Bale. Here he was unexpectedly 
 attacked in his camp, Feb. 18, by an Aus- 
 trian army that had advanced to raise the 
 siege. B. was obliged to retreat before su- 
 perior numbers ; but, having soon collected 
 his forces, he attacked the Austrians by 
 surprise, Feb. 21, and obtained a complete 
 victory. Several Austrian generals were 
 made prisoners, and the fortress of Rhein- 
 felden was obliged to 'surrender, May 13. 
 He then undertook the siege of Brisach, 
 the possession of which was necessary 
 for maintaining himself in Alsace. An 
 imperial army, under the command of 
 general Goetze, that approached with the 
 intention of raising the siege, was defeated 
 with a great loss by B., July 30. B. captur- 
 ed several places of inferior importance, 
 during the siege of Brisach, which, how- 
 ever, did not surrender until he had repeat- 
 edly defeated the Austrians, and then upon 
 very moderate conditions, which B. sign- 
 ed in his own name, without mention- 
 ing France. The possession of Alsace, 
 which be had before ceded to France 
 under certain conditions, was now secur- 
 ed ; but he also demanded Brisach as an 
 appurtenance to Alsace. He garrisoned 
 all the conquered places with German 
 troops, and ordered money to be coined 
 with the Saxon coat of anus and that of 
 Brisach. In vain were the efforts of 
 France to deprive the duke of the posses- 
 sion of Brisach, by proposing to place a 
 French garrison in die fortress : the duke 
 
 declined not only this proposal, but also 
 an invitation to Paris, and the offer of a 
 marriage with the duchess d'Aiguillon, 
 niece of cardinal Richelieu. Instead of 
 that match, he proposed one with the 
 princess of Rohan, to which, however, 
 the French court would not accede, lest 
 the party of the Huguenots should be 
 strengthened. It is probable that Riche- 
 lieu had recourse to secret means, in order 
 to rid France of the duke, who was be- 
 come formidable by his growing power. 
 He was suddenly seized with a disorder, 
 which terminated his life, July 8, 1639. 
 Most of the contemporary writers conjec- 
 tured that Richelieu caused him to be 
 poisoned: the duke himself had no doubt 
 that he had swallowed poison. Immedi- 
 ately after his death, several French com- 
 missioners appeared, who enlisted his 
 troops into the French army: the com- 
 mand of them was committed to marshal 
 Guebriant. With B. fell one of the chief 
 supports of the Protestants. His succes- 
 sors, Baner and Torstensohn (q. v.), pur- 
 sued his victorious course, and France 
 seriously exerted herself, in the war which 
 continued, for the benefit of the Protest- 
 ants. In B. a graceful person, intelligence 
 and valor were united with a magnanim- 
 ity which could not be shaken by adverse 
 events : his only fault was too great im- 
 petuosity. 
 
 BERNARD of Clairvaux ; one of the most 
 influential ecclesiastics of the middle ages, 
 born at Fontaines, in Burgundy, 1091, of 
 a noble family. In 1113, he became a 
 monk at Citeaux ; in 1115, first abbot of 
 Clairvaux, near Langres. An austere 
 manner of living, solitary studies, an in- 
 spiring eloquence, boldness of language, 
 and the reputation of a prophet, rendered 
 him an oracle to all Christian Europe. 
 He was named the honeyed teacher, and 
 his writings were styled a stream from 
 paradise. The doctrine of the immacu- 
 late conception of Mary w r as rejected by 
 him. lie principally promoted the cru- 
 sade in 1146, and quieted the fermenta- 
 tion, caused at that time by a party of 
 monks, against the Jews in Germany. 
 He declined all promotion, and, in the 
 rank of abbot of his beloved Jerusalem (as 
 he used to call Clairvaux), he continued 
 with all humility, but with great boldness, 
 his censures of the clergy and his coun- 
 sels to the popes. Innocent II owed to 
 him the possession of the right of investi- 
 ture in Germany, and Eugenius III his 
 education. He was, at the same time, the 
 umpire of princes and bishops, and his 
 voice in the synods was regarded as
 
 BERNARD BERNARDI. 
 
 75 
 
 divine. By his rigid orthodoxy and his 
 mystical doctrines, which, though at times 
 enthusiastic, were always directed to 
 the promotion of practical Christianity, 
 lie refuted the subtleties and dialectics of 
 the scholastic philosophers, although his 
 severity against Abelard and Gilbert of 
 Poree can by no means be justified. Lu- 
 ther says of him, " If there has ever been 
 a pious monk who feared God, it was St. 
 Bernard ; whom alone I hold in much 
 higher esteem than all other monks and 
 priests throughout the globe." B. died in 
 1153, and was canonized by Alexander 
 III, in 1174. (See Aug. Meander's St. 
 Bernard and his Times, Berlin, 1813.) His 
 works have been translated from the 
 Latin, and published by professor Silbert 
 (Vienna, 1S20). 
 
 BERNARD, Great St.; a mountain be- 
 tween the Valais and the valley of Aosta, 
 11,006 feet high. On its top is the boun- 
 dary between the Valais and Piedmont. 
 The road from the lake of Geneva through 
 the Valais, into the valley of Aosta, passes 
 over it. The Little St. B., 7194 feet high, 
 separates Piedmont from Savoy. Over 
 this Hannibal directed his march. Ber- 
 nard de Menthon, a Savoyard nobleman, 
 who lived from 923 to 1008, built here, 
 in 962, two hospitia, for the benefit of 
 those on a pilgrimage to Rome, one upon 
 mont Joux, where a temple of Jupiter 
 stood, the other on the road that leads 
 over the Grison Alps, at a place called 
 Colonne Jou, from a pillar which was an 
 object of idolatrous worship. Animated 
 by a pious zeal, Bernard destroyed the 
 pillar and temple, and, with their ruins, 
 built the two hospitia on the Great and 
 Little St. Bernard, so called after him. 
 He committed the care of both these 
 establishments to monks of the order of 
 St. Augustine, who, with an almost unex- 
 ampled self-devotion, exercised the most 
 generous hospitality towards travellers, 
 down to the time of Charles Emanuel III 
 of Sardinia. This king, falling into a 
 dispute with the cantons of Switzerland 
 about the nomination of a provost, seques- 
 trated the possessions of the monks, and 
 gave the administration of the hospitia to 
 regular canons of the Augustine order, 
 who, with equal humanity and devotion, 
 discharge the duties of their pious calling. 
 Upon the barren height (7668 feet), where 
 the hospitium of the Great St. Bernard 
 stands, which is considered to be the 
 highest inhabited place in Europe, an 
 almost everlasting winter reigns ; in vain 
 do we look for a tree or bush ; the glitter- 
 ing snow dazzles the eye of the wanderer. 
 
 Assisted by the servants of the convent, 
 the heroic ecclesiastics, provided with 
 wine and bread, devote themselves to the 
 guidance of travellers ; and, in order to 
 defend the poor against the cold, they lend 
 or give them clothes, which are kept for 
 that purpose. Upwards of 9000 persons 
 annually pass over the mountain, who are 
 refreshed in the hospitium. In the midst 
 of tempests and snow-storms, the monks, 
 accompanied by dogs (called marons), set 
 out for the purpose of tracking those who 
 have lost their way. If they find the 
 body of a traveller who has perished, they 
 carry it into the vault of the dead, where 
 it is wrapped in linen, and remains lying 
 on a table till another victim occupies the 
 place. It is then set up against the wall, 
 among the other dead bodies, which, on 
 account of the cold, decay so slowly, that 
 they are often recognised by their friends 
 after the lapse of years. Adjoining this 
 vault is a kind of burying-ground, where 
 the bones are deposited, when they accu- 
 mulate too much in the vault. It is im- 
 possible to buiy them, because there is 
 nothing around the hospitium but naked 
 rocks. In the church is the monument 
 of general Dessaix, who fell in the buttle 
 of Marengo. The first consul ordered 
 him to be embalmed, and assigned him a 
 resting place on the summit of the Alps, 
 The monument of marble represents Des- 
 saix in relief, wounded, and sinking from 
 his horse into the arms of his aid Le 
 Brun. On the stairs of the convent stands 
 liis statue of marble. Opposite to it there 
 is a slab of marble, on which the republic 
 of Valais commemorated Napoleon's 
 passage over the St. B., May 15, 1800, 
 with an inscription in letters of gold. By 
 means of a contribution raised through 
 Europe, a short time ago, the habitations 
 of the 9 or 10 ecclesiastics have been 
 made more comfortable. 
 
 BERNARDI, Augustus Frederic, a Ger- 
 man scholar, born in Berlin, in 1768, died 
 there in 1820. In his youth, his attention 
 was directed to universal language (that 
 is, to language as far as it is common 
 to all rational beings), to the mystery 
 of its construction, the mathematics, as it 
 were, of language. B., considering all 
 different languages as a whole, endeavored 
 to discover a universal grammar common 
 to them all. The result of his researches 
 appears in his works, Reine Sprachlehre 
 (Abstract Grammar), 1801, 2 vols. ; 
 ftngewandte Sprachlehre (Grammar in 
 its Application), 1803 ; and Anfangs- 
 griinde der Sprachwissenschafl (Elements 
 of the Science of Language), in which
 
 76 
 
 BERNARDI BERNINI. 
 
 many philosophical principles of language 
 are laid down. B. was a man of culti- 
 vated mind and extensive knowledge. 
 He was also a professor and director of a 
 classical school in Berlin. 
 
 BERNARD::* DE ST. PIERRE. (See 
 Pierre, St.) 
 
 BERNARDINE MONKS. (See Cister- 
 cians.) 
 
 BERNBURG, Anhalt ; one of the three 
 dukedoms of Anhalt (253 square miles, 
 7 towns, 51 villages, with 38,400 inhabit- 
 ants. The income is valued at 450,000 
 guilders. Its contingent to the army of 
 the German confederation is 370 men. 
 In 1820, the Lutheran and Calvinistic 
 parts of the population were united. The 
 capital of this dukedom is Bern burg, on 
 the Saale, with 4900 inhabitants. The 
 public debt amounts to 1,034,500 guilders. 
 Napoleon made the princes of Bemburg 
 dukes. 
 
 BERBERS, or BARNES, Juliana; an 
 English lady of .the 15th century, of 
 whom little more is known than that she 
 was prioress of the nunnery of Sopewell, 
 near St. Albau's, and has her name pre- 
 fixed, as the writer or compiler, to one of 
 the earliest and most curious productions 
 of the English press. The title of the 
 second edition, printed in the abbey of St. 
 Albau's, in 1480, is, The Boke of Hawkyng 
 and Huntyng, with other Pleasures dy- 
 verse, and also Cootarmuries. The first 
 edition (1481) does not treat of coat-armor 
 or heraldry. This work, under the title of 
 the Book of St. Alban's, became a popu- 
 lar manual of sporting science, and was 
 several times reprinted in the 16th centu- 
 ry. As a typographical curiosity, a small 
 impression of it was published, in 1811, 
 by Mr. Haslewood. 
 
 BERNI, Francesco (also Berna, and 
 Bernia) ; a poet of the Kith century, born 
 at Lamporecchio, in the territory of Tus- 
 cany, towards the close of the 15th cen- 
 tury, of a noble but poor Florentine fami- 
 ly ; went to Florence, and, at the age of 
 19, to Rome, where he lived under the 
 care of his relation, cardinal Bibiena, 
 who, as he himself says, did him neither 
 good nor harm, and he was at length 
 obliged to enter the service of the bishop 
 of Verona, Ghiberti, datary of the papal 
 chancery, as secretary. In the hope of 
 promotion, he took orders ; but, disgusted 
 with the duties of his office, he sought 
 recreation in amusements, which dis- 
 pleased the prelate. A society had been 
 established at Rome, consisting of young 
 ecclesiastics of a jovial tamper, like B., 
 and a poetical vein, who, hi order to de- 
 
 note their love for wine, and their care- 
 less gayety, called themselves i vignajuoli 
 (vine-dressers). Mauro, Casa, Firenzuo- 
 la, Capilupi, &c. were of the number. 
 They laughed at every thing, and made 
 sport, in verse, of the most serious, nay, 
 the most tragic matters. B.'s verses were 
 the most successful, and were written 
 in so peculiar a style, that his name has 
 been given to it (maniera Bernesca, or 
 Bcmiesca). When Rome was sacked by 
 the troops of' the constable Bourbon, 1527, 
 B. lost all that he possessed. He after- 
 wards made several journeys, with his 
 patron Ghiberti, to Verona, Venice and 
 Padua. At length, wearied with serving, 
 and satisfied with a canonship in the 
 cathedral at Florence, in the possession 
 of which he had been for some years, he 
 retired to that place. The favor of the 
 great, however, which he was weak 
 enough to court, brought him into diffi- 
 culties. He was required to commit a 
 crime, and his refusal cost him his life. 
 Alessandro de' Medici, at that time duke 
 of Florence, lived in open enmity with 
 the young cardinal Ippolito de' Medici. 
 B. was so intimate with both, that it is 
 doubtful which first made him the pro- 
 posal to poison the other. Certain it is, 
 that the cardinal died by poison, in 1535. 
 B. died July 26, 1536 ; and if, as is assert- 
 ed, his life was terminated by poison, then 
 the crime must be imputed to duke Ales- 
 sandro. In the burlesque style of poetry, 
 B. is still considered the best model. 
 His satire is often very bitter, and fre- 
 quently unites the good humor of Horace 
 with the causticity of Juvenal. The ex- 
 treme licentiousness of his writings is his 
 greatest fault. It should, however, be con- 
 sidered that he wrote for his friends only, 
 and that his works were not printed until 
 after his death. The admirable ease, for 
 which his writings are distinguished, was 
 the result of great efforts, since he repeat- 
 edly amended and corrected his verses. 
 The same is asserted of Ariosto ; and yet 
 they are the most distinguished, among 
 the Italian poets, for die ease and fluency 
 of their style. B. also wrote Latin 
 verses very correctly, and was well ac- 
 quainted with Greek. His Rime Bur- 
 lesche (Burlesque Verses) have great merit. 
 So has also his Orlando Innamorato, com- 
 posto gi'it dal Sig. Bojardo Conte di Scan- 
 diano, ed or a rifatto tutto di nuovo da .)/. 
 Fr. Berni. Another Benii (count Fran- 
 cesco B., who was born in 1610, and died 
 in 1673) has written 11 dramas, and also 
 several lyric poems. 
 
 BERNINI, Giovanni Lorenzo, called II
 
 BERNINI BERNIS. 
 
 77 
 
 cavaliere Bernini, born in Naples, 1598, 
 is praised by his contemporaries as the 
 Michael Angelo of modern times, on ac- 
 count of his success as a painter, a statua- 
 ry, and an architect ; but he deserves his 
 fame principally in the latter character. 
 Richly endowed by nature, and favored 
 by circumstances, he rose superior to the 
 rules of art, creating for himself an easy 
 manner, the faults of which he knew how 
 to disguise by its brilliancy. From his 
 early youth, he manifested a great power 
 to excel in the arts of design, and, at the 
 age of eight years, executed the head of a 
 child in marble, which was considered a 
 remarkable production. That such rare 
 endowments might be suitably cultivated, 
 his father earned him to Rome. One of 
 B.'s first works was the marble bust of the 
 prelate Montajo ; after which he made the 
 bust of the pope, and of several cardinals ; 
 also sundry figures of the natural size. 
 He was not yet 18, when he produced 
 the Jlpollo and Daphne, in marble, a mas- 
 terpiece of grace and execution. Looking 
 at this group near the close of his life, he 
 declared that he had made very little prog- 
 ress since the time when that was pro- 
 duced. His manner was indeed more 
 chaste and less affected, in the early part 
 of his career, than at a later period. Alter 
 the death of Gregory XV, cardinal Maf- 
 feo Barberini, his successor, employed B. 
 to prepare plans for the embellishment 
 of the Basilica of St Peter, assigning to 
 him a monthly pension of 300 crowns, 
 which was afterwards augmented. With- 
 out forsaking sculpture, B.'s genius em- 
 braced architecture, and he furnished the 
 design for the canopy and the pulpit of 
 St. Peter, as well as for the circular place 
 before the church. Among his numerous 
 works, were the palace Barberini, the bel- 
 fry of St. Peter, the model of the monu- 
 ment of the countess Matilda, and the 
 monument of Urban VIII, his benefac- 
 tor. In the year 1644, cardinal Mazarin, 
 in the name of the king of France, 
 offered him a salary of 12,000 crowns ; 
 but he declined the invitation. Urban 
 had scarcely closed his eyes, and Inno- 
 cent X ascended the papal throne, when 
 the envy engendered by the merits of 
 the artist and the favor bestowed on him 
 broke forth. His enemies triumphed; 
 but he regained the favor of the pope by 
 a model for a fountain. About the same 
 time, he erected the palace of Monte Ci- 
 torio. Alexander VII, the successor of 
 Innocent X, displayed much taste for the 
 arts, and favor to this artist, and required 
 of him a plan for the embellishment of 
 7* 
 
 the piazza di San Pietro. The admirable 
 colonnade, which is so beautifully pro- 
 portioned to the Basilica, was built under 
 the direction of B. We may also men- 
 tion the palace Odescalchi, the rotunda 
 della Riccia, the house for novices, belong- 
 ing to the Jesuits, on Monte Cavallo, &c. 
 Louis XIV having invited him, in the 
 most flattering terms, to Paris, he set out 
 from Rome, in 1665, at the age of 68, ac- 
 companied by one of his sons, and a 
 numerous retinue. Never did an artist 
 travel with so great pomp, and "under such 
 flattering circumstances. The reception 
 which he met with in Paris was highly 
 honorable. He was first occupied in pre- 
 paring plans for the restoration of the 
 Louvre, which, however, were never exe- 
 cuted. But, notwithstanding the esteem 
 which he enjoyed in Paris, some disa- 
 greeable circumstances induced him to 
 return to Rome : he left Paris loaded with 
 presents. Cardinal Rospigliosi having be- 
 come pope, B. was admitted to an inti- 
 mate intercourse with him, and charged 
 with several works ; among othars, with 
 the decoration of the bridge of St. Angelo. 
 In his 70th year, this indefatigable artist 
 executed one of his most beautiful works, 
 the tomb of Alexander VII. He still con- 
 tinued to devote himself to several works 
 of architecture, as well as of statuary, 
 with such ardor, that, exhausted by his 
 labors, he died, Nov. 28, 1680, at the age 
 of 82. He was buried, with great mag- 
 nificence, in the church of St. Maria Mag- 
 giore. To his children he left a fortune 
 amounting to about 3,300,000 francs. B.'s 
 favorite maxim was, Chi non esce talvolta 
 della regola, non passa mai. Thus he was 
 of opinion, that, in order to excel in the 
 arts, one must rise above all rules, and 
 create a manner peculiar to one's self. 
 This B. has accomplished with a rare 
 good fortune, but the influence of his style 
 has been transient. His most eminent 
 disciples are Pietro Bernini, his brother, 
 a statuary, architect and mathematician ; 
 Matthia Rossi, FranQois Duquesnoi, sur- 
 named the Fleming, and Borromini. 
 
 BERNIS (Francois Joachim de Pierres, 
 comte de Lyon) cardinal de, born at 
 St. Marcel de 1'Ardeche, in 1715, was de- 
 scended of an ancient family, but little fa- 
 vored by fortune, for which reason, his 
 parents destined him for the clerical pro- 
 fession. Me. de Pompadour, whom he 
 had known as Me. d'Etioles, presented 
 him to Louis XV, who, being pleased with 
 him, assigned to him an apartment in the 
 Tuileries, with a pension of 1500 livres. 
 His wishes were directed towards raising
 
 78 
 
 BERNIS BERNOUILLI. 
 
 his income to 6000 liVres. Not succeeding 
 however, in attaining this moderate for- 
 tune, he resolved to aim at a larger one. 
 He went as ambassador to Venice, and 
 obtained great respect in this difficult 
 post. After his return, he enjoyed the 
 highest favor at court, and soon became 
 minister of foreign affairs. The political 
 system of Europe was changed at that 
 time. France and Austria, hitherto ene- 
 mies, united in an offensive and defensive 
 alliance, which was succeeded by the sev- 
 en years' war, so unfortunate for France. 
 B. has been designated, by several writers, 
 as the chief author of this alliance. D;i- 
 clos, however, asserts, that it was the in- 
 tention of B. to maintain the old system, 
 which, since die time of Henry IV, and 
 especially since the time of Richelieu, 
 had made France the protectress of the 
 less powerful states of Germany, and the 
 rival of Austri^. Oppressed by the mis- 
 fortunes of his country, which, in part, at 
 least, were ascribed to him, B. surren- 
 dered his post, and was soon after ban- 
 ished from court. His disgrace lasted till 
 the year 1764, when the king appointed 
 him archbishop of Alby, and, five years 
 later, ambassador to Rome. Here he re- 
 mained till his death. In the name of 
 his court, and against his own opinion, 
 he labored to effect the abolition of the 
 order of the Jesuits. When the aunts of 
 Louis XVI left France, in 1791, they fled 
 to him for refuge, and lived in his house. 
 The revolution deprived him of his for- 
 tune, and the means of indulging his 
 generous disposition. He was reduced 
 to a state of poverty, from which he was 
 relieved by a pension from the Spanish 
 court. B. died in Rome, Nov. 2, 1794, 
 nearly 80 years old. The easy poetry of 
 his youth had procured him a place in 
 the French academy. He himself is its 
 severest critic. His verses have been re- 
 proached with affectation, negligence, and 
 an excess of ornament and mythological 
 images. Voltaire called him Babet-la- 
 Bouquetiere, from a fat flower- woman, who 
 sold her nosegays before the opera house. 
 Nevertheless, Voltaire had a great esteem 
 for his talents, his judgment, his criticisms, 
 and his character, as is evident from their 
 correspondence (published, in 1799, by 
 Bourgoing), which, in every respect, is 
 very honorable to B. Another corre- 
 spondence, between B. and Paris du Ver- 
 ney, appeared hi print in 1790. After 
 his death, Azara published his poem 
 La Religion vengee (Religion avenged), 
 which, though it contains many beautiful 
 verses and sublime ideas, is deficient in 
 
 fire and animation. A collection of 
 B.'s works was published in 1797, by 
 Didot. 
 
 BERNOCILLI ; a family which has pro- 
 duced eight distinguished men, who have 
 all cultivated the mathematical sciences 
 with success. The family, emigrating from 
 Antwerp on account of religious persecu- 
 tions, under the administration of the duke 
 of Alva, fled first to Frankfort, and after- 
 wards removed to Bale, where it was 
 elevated to the highest dignities of the 
 republic. 1. James B., born at Bale, 1654, 
 became professor of mathematics there 
 1687, and died 1705. The differential 
 calculus, discovered by Leibnitz and New- 
 ton, was applied by him to the most dif- 
 ficult questions of geometry and mechan- 
 ics: he calculated the loxodromic and 
 catenary curve, the logarithmic spirals, 
 the evolutes of several curved lines, and 
 discovered the numbers of Bernouilli, as 
 they are called. 2. John B., born at 
 Bale, 1667, was one of the greatest mathe- 
 maticians of his time, and the worthy 
 rival of Newton and Leibnitz. He was 
 destined for commerce, but his inclina- 
 tion led him to the sciences, and, from the 
 year 1683, he principally devoted himself 
 to medicine and mathematics. To him, 
 and his brother James, we are indebted 
 for an excellent treatise on the differential 
 calculus. He also developed the method 
 of proceeding from infinitely small num- 
 bers to the finite, of which the former 
 are the elements or differences, and called 
 this method the integral calculus. In 
 1690 92, he made a journey to France, 
 where he instructed the marquis de 
 1'Hopital in mathematics. At this time, 
 he discovered the exponential calculus, 
 before Leibnitz had made any communi- 
 cations respecting it, and made it known 
 in 1697. In 1694, he became doctor of 
 medicine at Bale, and, in 1695, went, as 
 professor of mathematics, to Groningen, 
 where he discovered the mercurial phos- 
 phorus or luminous barometer, for which 
 he received, from king Frederic I of 
 Prussia, a gold medal, and was made a 
 member of the academy in Berlin, after- 
 wards of that in Paris, &c. After the death 
 of his brother, in 1705, he received the 
 professorship of mathematics at Bale, 
 which he held until his death, January 
 1, 1748. 3. Nicholas B., nephew of the 
 former, born at Bale, in 1687, studied law, 
 but more particularly devoted himself to 
 mathematics; in 1705, went to Gronin- 
 gen, to John B. ; returned, however, with 
 him to Bale towards the close of the 
 year, and became there professor of
 
 BERNOUILLI BERRI. 
 
 mathematics. He travelled through Swit- 
 zerland, France, Holland and England, 
 and, in 1713, became a member of the 
 academies of science in London and Ber- 
 lin. On the recommendation of Leibnitz, 
 he went, as professor of mathematics, to 
 Padua, in 1716, but returned to his native 
 city, in 1722, as professor of logic. In 
 1731, he became professor of the Roman 
 and feudal law hi that place, and died in 
 1759. The three following were sons of 
 the above-mentioned John B. 4. Nicho- 
 las B., born at Bale, 1695, became profes- 
 sor of law there in 1723, and died in 
 Petersburg, hi 1726. 5; Daniel B., born 
 at Groningen, Feb. 9, 1700. He studied 
 medicine, in which he took the doctor's 
 degree, and, at the same time, was en- 
 gaged in mathematical studies, in which 
 his father had been his instructer. He 
 visited Bale, Heidelberg, Strasburg, Ven- 
 ice and Padua. At the age of 24, he was 
 offered the presidency of an academy 
 about to be established at Genoa, but, in 
 the following year, accepted an invita- 
 tion to Petersburg. Accompanied by his 
 Ssunger brother, John, he returned to 
 ale in 1733 ; became there professor of 
 anatomy and botany ; in 1750, professor 
 of natural philosophy ; resigned this place, 
 because of his advanced age, to his broth- 
 er's son, the younger Daniel B., in 1777, and 
 died in 1782. He was one of the greatest 
 natural philosophers, as well as mathema- 
 ticians, of his time. At 10 different times, 
 he received a prize from the academy of 
 Paris. In 1734, he shared with his father 
 a double prize, given by this academy, 
 for their joint essay on the causes of the 
 different inclinations of the planetary or- 
 bits. Most of his writings are contained 
 in the transactions of the Petersburg, 
 Paris, Berlin, &c. academies, of which he 
 was a member. 6. John B., born at 
 Bale, in 1710, went to Petersburg in 1732, 
 became professor of rhetoric at Bale in 
 1743, and, in 1748, professor of mathe- 
 matics. He died in 1790. The two fol- 
 lowing were his sons. 7. John B., licen- 
 tiate of law and royal astronomer in 
 Berlin, was born at Bale, in 1744, and 
 died, 1807, hi Berlin, whither he had 
 been invited in the 19th year of his age. 
 He had travelled through all the coun- 
 tries of Europe, and lived, after 1779, in 
 Berlin, where he had become director 
 of the mathematical department of the 
 academy. He is the author of numerous 
 works.8. James B. was born at Bale, in 
 1759 ; went to Petersburg, where he be- 
 came professor of mathematics, married 
 a grand-daughter of Euler, but died in 
 
 1789, in the 30th year of his age, of an 
 apoplexy, while bathing in the Neva. 
 
 BERNSTORFF ; the name of a German 
 noble family, many members of which 
 have been distinguished. The most so 
 was John Hartwig Ernst, count of B., 
 Danish secretary of foreign affairs. He 
 was born in Hanover, May 13, 1713. His 
 father was also secretary of state hi Den- 
 mark. In 1750, he was made member 
 of the council of state, after having served 
 for a long time as foreign minister. He 
 soon became the most influential member 
 of the government, which distinguished 
 itself) under his direction, by a wise neu- 
 trality during the seven years' war, and 
 other political disturbances in Europe ; by 
 liberal measures for improving the condi- 
 tion of the Danish peasantry, who were 
 even then in a state of bondage ; by pro- 
 moting science, and sending an expedi- 
 tion to Asia, which the famous traveller 
 Niebuhr accompanied. He himself set 
 the example of manumitting the peasants, 
 and gave the fourth part of his income to 
 the poor. By his efforts, Denmark ac- 
 quired Holstein. B. is described, by all 
 historians, as a model of wisdom, benevo- 
 lence and intelligence. Frederic V (q. v.), 
 whose government he directed so well, 
 died in 17G6, and he continued in his 
 office, under Christian VII, until 1770, 
 when Struensee (q. v.) contrived to dis- 
 place him. After the fall of Struensee, 
 he was recalled, but died when preparing 
 for his return to Denmark from Hamburg, 
 in 1772, Feb. 19. Christian VII had made 
 him count. Andrew Peter, count of B., 
 his cousin, was also a very distinguished 
 statesman, successor of the preceding, 
 and deserves great praise, among other 
 things, for his endeavors to emancipate 
 the peasantry. He was born Aug. 28, 
 1735, and died June 21, 1797. His son 
 is now Prussian minister of foreign affairs. 
 BERRI, or BERRY, Charles Ferdinand, 
 duke of; second son of the count d'Ar- 
 tois (now Charles X) and Maria Theresa 
 of Savoy, born at Versailles, Jan. 24, 
 1778. Together with the duke of An- 
 gouleme, he received an inadequate edu- 
 cation under the duke of Serent : never- 
 theless, in his early youth, he displayed 
 some talents and a good heart. In 1792, 
 he fled with his father to Turin, served 
 under him and Conde on the Rhine, and 
 early learned the art of winning the love 
 of the soldiers. With his family, he re- 
 paired to Russia, and, in 1801, to Eng- 
 land, where he lived alternately at Lon- 
 don and Hartwell, continually occupied 
 with plans for the restoration of the Bour-
 
 80 
 
 BERRI BERTHIER. 
 
 bons. April 13, 1814, B. landed at Cher- 
 bourg, and passed through the cities of 
 Bajeux, Cae'n, Rouen, &c., gaining over 
 the soldiers and national guards to the 
 cause of the Bourbons, distributing alms, 
 and delivering prisoners. He made his 
 entrance into Paris April 21, where he 
 gained popularity by visiting the mer- 
 chants, manufacturers and artists. May 
 15, he was appointed colonel-general, 
 receiving a civil list of 1,500,000 francs. 
 Aug. 1, he set out on a visit to the de- 
 partment of the North, and the fortified 
 places hi Lorraine, Franche-Comte and 
 Alsace. When Napoleon landed from 
 Elba, the king committed to B. the chief 
 command of all the troops in and round 
 Paris. All his efforts to secure their 
 fidelity proving ineffectual, he was obliged 
 to retreat, on the night of March 19, with 
 the troops of the household, to Ghent, and 
 Alost, where the king then was. The 
 battle of Waterloo enabled him to return 
 to Paris, where he arrived July 8, and 
 surrendered his command over the troops 
 of the household into the hands of the 
 king. In August, he was made president 
 of the electoral college of the department 
 of the North. At the opening of the 
 chambers in Paris, he took the oath to 
 maintain the constitution, and was ap- 
 pointed president of the fourth bureau ; 
 but he soon retired from public life. 
 Louvel (q. v.) had been, fon several years, 
 meditating the extirpation of the house 
 of Bourbon, by the assassination of the 
 duke. Feb. 13, 1820, he attacked him 
 just as he had left the opera-house, and 
 was on the point of stepping into his car- 
 riage, and gave him a mortal blow. The 
 duke showed the greatest firmness and 
 Christian resignation even to the moment 
 of his death (Feb. 14, at 6 o'clock in the 
 morning). He had been carried into the 
 saloon of the opera-house. Here he con- 
 soled his wife, and said, Menagez-vous 
 pour Vtnfant que vous. portez dans votre 
 sein! (Take care of yourself, for the sake 
 of the child in your bosom!) He then 
 caused the children, whom he had in 
 London before his marriage, to be called, 
 and, after recommending them to his 
 wife, prepared himself for death, forgave 
 his murderer, confessed himself, and re- 
 ceived the sacrament. Benevolence, grat- 
 itude and generosity were the best fea- 
 tures in the character of this prince, by 
 whose death all France was plunged into 
 consternation. (See Chateaubriand's Me- 
 moires touchant la Fie el la Mart du Due 
 de Berri, Paris, 1820.) The duke left by 
 his wife, Carolina Ferdinanda Louisa, 
 
 eldest daughter of prince, afterwards king 
 Francis I, ruler of the Two Sicilies, whom 
 he married June 17, 1816, only a daughter, 
 Louisa Maria Theresa of Artois, made- 
 moiselle de France, born Feb. 21, 1819, 
 Great was the joy of the royal family, 
 when the duke's widow was delivered, 
 Sept. 29, of a prince, who bears the name 
 of Henry, duke of Bordeaux (Henri 
 Charles Ferdinand Dieudonne d'Artois, 
 petit-fils de France). (See Chambord.) 
 Although Louvel's deed had no connex- 
 ion with a conspiracy, not the slightest 
 trace of an accomplice being discovered, 
 yet the mutual denunciations to which it 
 gave rise produced much party excite- 
 ment, and occasioned some laws of ex- 
 ception. (See France, and Exception, 
 laws of.) The opera-house, near which 
 the crime was committed, and in which 
 the duke died, was pulled down, and a 
 column erected on the spot. A new 
 opera-house was built in another place. 
 
 BERRI, or BERRY ; before the revolu- 
 tion of France, a province and dukedom 
 of that country, of which Bourges was 
 the capital, almost in the centre of France. 
 (See Department.) 
 
 BERSERKER, a descendant of the eight- 
 handed Starkader and the beautiful Alf- 
 hilde, was, according to the Scandinavian 
 mythology, a famous warrior. He dis- 
 dained the protection of armor, whence 
 he received his name, which signifies, 
 according to Ihre, armorless. He raged 
 like a madman in battle. He killed king 
 Swafurlam, and married his daughter, by 
 whom he had 12 sons, as untameable as 
 himself. They were also called B., and, 
 since their time, the name has been com- 
 monly given to men of headstrong violence. 
 
 BERTHIER, Alexander; prince of Neuf- 
 chatel and Wagram, marshal, vice-consta- 
 ble of France, &c. ; born in Paris, Dec. 
 30, 1753; son of a distinguished officer; 
 was, while yet young, employed in the 
 general staff, served in America, and 
 fought with Lafayette for the liberty of 
 the U. States. In the first years of the 
 revolution, he was appointed major-gen- 
 eral in the national guard of Versailles, 
 and conducted himself in this post with 
 uniform moderation. Dec. 28, 1791, he 
 was appointed chief of the general staff 
 in the army of marshal Luckner, marched 
 against La Vendee in 1793, and joined 
 the army of Italy in 1796, with the rank 
 of general of division, where, as chief of 
 the general staff, he contributed much to 
 the success of the campaign. In Octo- 
 ber, 1797, general Bonaparte sent him to 
 Paris to deli ver to the directory the treaty
 
 BERTIIIER BERTHOLLET. 
 
 81 
 
 of Carapp-Formio. In January, 1798, he 
 received the chief command of the army 
 of Italy, and was ordered by the directoiy 
 to march against the dominions of the 
 pope. In the beginning of February, he 
 made his entrance into Rome, abolished 
 the papal government, and established a 
 consular one. Being much attached to 
 general Bonaparte, he followed him to 
 Egypt as chief of the general staff. After 
 the 18th of Brumaire, Bonaparte appoint- 
 ed him minister of war. He afterwards 
 became general-in-chief of the army of 
 reserve, accompanied Bonaparte to Italy, 
 in 1800, and contributed to the passage 
 of St. Bernard and the victory at Maren- 
 go. He signed the armistice of Alessan- 
 dria, formed the provisional government 
 of Piedmont, and went on an extraordi- 
 nary mission to Spain. He then received 
 again the department of war, which, in the 
 mean time, had been in the hands of 
 Carnot. He accompanied Napoleon to 
 Milan, June, 1805, to be present at his 
 coronation, and, in October, was appoint- 
 ed chief of the general staff of the grand 
 army in Germany. Oct. 19, he signed 
 the capitulation of Ulm, with Mack, and, 
 Dec. 6, the armistice of Austerlitz. Hav- 
 ing, in 1806, accompanied the emperor in 
 his campaign against Prussia, he signed 
 the armistice of Tilsit, June, 1807. He 
 afterwards resigned his post as minister 
 of war, and, having been appointed vice- 
 constable of France, married, in 1808, 
 Maria Elizabeth Amalia, daughter of duke 
 William of Bavaria-Birkenfeld, and con- 
 tinued to be the companion of Napoleon 
 in all his expeditions. In the campaign 
 against Austria, in 1809, he distinguished 
 himself at Wagram, and received the title 
 of prince of H 'agram. In 1810, as proxy 
 of Napoleon, he received the hand of 
 Maria Louisa, daughter of the emperor 
 Francis I, and accompanied her to France. 
 Somewhat later, Napoleon made him 
 colonel-general of .the Swiss troops. In 
 1812, he was with the army in Russia, as 
 chief of the general staff, which post lie 
 also held in 1813. After Napoleon's ab- 
 dication, he lost his principality of Neuf- 
 chatel, but retained his other honors, and 
 possessed the favor and confidence of 
 Louis XVIII, whom, after Napoleon's 
 return, he accompanied to the Nether- 
 lands, whence he repaired to his family 
 at Bumberg, where he arrived May 30. 
 After his arrival at this place, he was 
 observed to be sunk in a profound mel- 
 ancholy ; and when, on the afternoon of 
 June 1, the music of the Russian troops, 
 on their inarch to the French borders, 
 
 was heard at the gates of the city, he put 
 an end to his life by throwing himself 
 from a window of the third stoiy of his 
 palace. (See Mimoires d" 1 Alexandra Ber- 
 thier, Pr. de J\'evfchatd et dc Wagram, 
 Paris, 1826.) He left a son, Alexander 
 (bom in 1810), and two daughters. 
 
 BERTHOLLET, Claude Louis, count ; 
 member of the scientific academies at 
 Paris, London, Turin, Haerlem, &c. ; ono 
 of the most eminent theoretical chemists 
 of our times; born at Talloire, in Savoy, 
 Dec. 9, 1748 ; studied medicine at Turin ; 
 went, in 1772, to Paris, where he became 
 connected with Lavoisier ; was admitted, 
 in 1780, a member of the academy of 
 sciences in that city ; was made, in 1794, 
 professor in the normal school there, and 
 was sent to Italy, in 1790, in order to se- 
 lect the monuments that were to be car- 
 ried to Paris. He followed Bonaparte to 
 Egypt, and returned with him in 1799. 
 After the 18th of Brumaire, he was made 
 a member of the stnat-conservatcur ; after- 
 wards, count and grand officer of the le- 
 gion of honor. In 1804, Napoleon ap- 
 pointed him senator for the district of 
 Montpelher. In 1813, he received the 
 grand cross of the order of the Reunion. 
 April 1, 1814, however, he voted for the 
 establishment of a provisional govern- 
 ment and the dethronement of Napoleon. 
 Louis XVIII made him a peer; but Na- 
 poleon passed him by in 1815. After 
 the restoration of Louis, he took his seat 
 again in the chamber of peers. Among 
 the inventions and new processes with 
 which the sciences and the arts were en- 
 riched by him, the most important aro 
 those for the charring of vessels to pre- 
 serve water in ships, for the stiffening and 
 glazing of linen, &c., but principally that 
 for the bleaching of vegetable substances 
 by means of oxymurialic acid, which, 
 since 1786, has been in general use in 
 France. Besides different essays in tho 
 collections of the academy and the insti- 
 tute, he has written several larger works, 
 among which his Essai de Siatique Chi- 
 mique (1803, 2 vols. ; translated into Eng- 
 lish, German and Italian) must be consid- 
 ered as the most important, and as one of 
 the finest productions of our times. The 
 complicated phenomena of chemistry are 
 reduced, in this work, to the strict and 
 simple laws of mechanics. He had also 
 a large share in the reformation of tho 
 chemical nomenclature, as well as in the 
 publication of the work that appeared on, 
 this subject in Paris, 1787 J\Kthode de 
 Nomenclature Chimique. He died in 
 Paris, Nov. 7, 1822.
 
 82 
 
 BERTHOUD BERVIC. 
 
 BERTHOUD, Ferdinand, celebrated for 
 his marine chronometers, born at Plance- 
 mont, in the county of Neufchatel, in 
 1727, was destined for the church, but, 
 at the age of 16, conceived an irresistible 
 inclination for mechanics. His father 
 caused him to be instructed in the art of 
 watchmaking, and, to afford him an op- 
 portunity of perfecting his knowledge, 
 sent him to Paris. He resided in that 
 city from 1745, and there made his first 
 marine chronometers, which have been 
 used, by French navigators, on so many 
 occasions, for extending and correcting 
 geographical knowledge. He left several 
 works relating to his art. He died in 
 1807. His nephew, Louis B., his pupil, 
 and the heir of his talents, has extended 
 his improvements still further. His chro- 
 nometers are in the hands of almost all 
 navigators, and are even more convenient 
 than those of his uncle. They are fa- 
 mous for accuracy. 
 
 BERTOLI, Giovanni Domenico, count 
 of; born, in 1676, at Moreto, in Friuli ; the 
 patriarch of Aquileia, a place where 
 many antiquities existed, of which nobody 
 had taken notice. The inhabitants had 
 even been in the habit, for a long lime, 
 of building their houses with ruins and 
 remains of art. To prevent further de- 
 struction, B., in conjunction with other 
 men of learning and taste, bought all the 
 ancient marbles which were excavated. 
 Muratori and Apostolo Zeno encouraged 
 him in his antiquarian researches and 
 publications. B. died in 1758. His most 
 important work is Le Antichita di Jlquileja 
 profane e sacre, Venice, 1739, fol. Some 
 of his treatises are to be found in the col- 
 lection of P. Calogera ; others in the me- 
 moirs of the Societa Columbaria at Flor- 
 ence. 
 
 BERTON, Henry Montan ; son of Peter 
 Berton, who, when director of the opera 
 at Paris, induced Gluck and Piccini to 
 come to Paris. B. was born Dec. 17, 
 1767, in Paris, and formed himself under 
 the great masters Gluck, Piccini, Paesi- 
 ello and Sacchini. When 19 years old, 
 he first appeared before the public, as a 
 composer, in the Concert spirituel. When 
 the conservatory was established, he was 
 appointed professor of harmony. In 1807, 
 he was made director of the Italian opera, 
 and afterwards leader of the choir (chef 
 du chant) at the great imperial opera. He 
 was afterwards employed in Russia by the 
 emperor, but soon returned to France. 
 His most famous opera is Mine Reine de 
 Golconde. His Montana and Stephanie, 
 also, are distinguished. 
 
 BERTRAND, Henri Gratien, count ; gen* 
 eral of division, aid-de-camp of Napoleon, 
 grand marshal of the palace, &c. ; famous 
 for his attachment to Napoleon, whom he 
 and his family voluntarily accompanied 
 to St. Helena. He was born of parents 
 in the middle ranks of life, entered the 
 military service, distinguished himself in 
 the corps of engineers, and rose to the 
 post of general of brigade. In the camp 
 at Boulogne, in 1804, Napoleon had oc- 
 casion to become acquainted with his 
 worth. From that time B. was with him 
 in all his campaigns, signalizing himself 
 every where, especially at Austerlitz, 
 where he was one of the emperor's aides- 
 de-camp. In 1806, he took Spandau, a 
 fortress about 6 or 7 miles from Berlin, 
 after an attack of a few days ; and, in 
 1807, contributed to the victory over the 
 Russians at Friedland, and excited the 
 admiration of the enemy by his masterly 
 conduct in building two bridges over the 
 Danube, after the battle at Aspern, in the 
 war of 1809 against Austria. He distin- 
 guished himself equally in the campaigns 
 of 1812 and 1813, particularly at Lutzen 
 and Bautzen. In October, 1813, he de- 
 fended several important posts against 
 superior numbers, and, after the battle of 
 Leipsic, in which he defended Lindenau 
 against Giulay, conducted the retreat in 
 good order. After the battle of Hanau, 
 he covered Mentz till the army had passed 
 the Rhine. He took part in the campaign 
 of 1814, by the side of Napoleon, whom 
 he accompanied to Elba, returned with 
 him, and finally shared his residence in 
 St. Helena. After Napoleon's death (1821), 
 he returned from this island to France. 
 
 BERTJCH, Frederic Justin, born at 
 Weimar, in 1747, since 1785 counsellor 
 of legation in the service of the duke 
 of Weimar, has done much in several 
 branches of literature and the arts, in the 
 study of which he has been engaged from 
 his early youth. He is principally known, 
 in foreign countries, by the Geographical 
 Institute (Geographisches Institut] which 
 he established at Weimar. This society 
 has published numerous maps, and, in 
 connexion with the periodical paper Ge- 
 ographisclie Ephemeriden, conducted by 
 B. and others, has been of much service 
 to geography. B., together with Wieland 
 and Schiitz, also projected the Allgemeine 
 Ltieraturze'ttung, which now appears at 
 Halle on the Saale. In 1817, he began 
 the Oppositionsblatt, which was suppressed 
 by government in 1820. 
 
 BERVIC, Charles Clement, one of the 
 most distinguished engravers of the
 
 BERVIC BERYL. 
 
 83 
 
 JFrench school, born at Paris in 1756, 
 studied his art under George Wille, and 
 may be considered his most eminent 
 pupil. The works of B. are among the 
 best of the French school, but are not 
 numerous. The most celebrated of them 
 is the full length figure of Louis XVI, 
 after a picture of Callot The copies are 
 veiy rare and dear, because the plate was 
 broken to pieces in the revolutionary tu- 
 mults of 1793. The exactness of his 
 drawing, the firmness and brilliancy of 
 his touch, the purity and correctness of 
 his design, and the happiness with which 
 he transferred to his plate the beauties of 
 the original, give a high character to his 
 productions. He died in 1822. 
 
 BERWICK, James Fitz-James, duke of, 
 commanded the armies of England, 
 France and Spain, was a peer of Eng- 
 land and France, as well as a grandee of 
 Spain, and was knighted by the sovereign 
 of each of these countries. He was 
 the natural son of the duke of York, af- 
 terwards king James II, and Arabella 
 Churchill, sister of the duke of Marlbor- 
 ough ; was born in 1670, and first went 
 by the name of Fitz- James. He received 
 his education in France, and served his 
 first campaigns in Hungary, under Charles 
 duke of Lorraine, general of Leopold I. 
 A short time after, the English revolution 
 broke out. B. followed his father in the 
 expedition against Ireland, and was 
 wounded in a battle in 1689. He after- 
 wards served under Luxemburg, in Flan- 
 ders ; in 1702 and 1703, under the duke 
 of Burgundy ; then under marshal Villeroi ; 
 and was naturalized in France. In 1706, 
 he was made marshal of France, and was 
 sent to Spain, where he gained the battle 
 of Almanza, which rendered king Philip 
 V again master of Valencia. . In 1718 
 and 1719, however, he was obliged to 
 serve against Philip V, who, from grati- 
 tude to the marshal, had taken a son 
 of his into his service. On his entrance 
 into the Spanish dominions, he wrote to 
 his son, the duke of Liria, admonishing 
 him to do his duty to his sovereign. At 
 the siege of Philipsburg, in 1734, his life 
 was terminated by a cannon ball. 
 
 BERWICK-UPON-TWEED (anciently Tu- 
 rn's) ; a town of England, on the north 
 or Scotch side of the Tweed, within half 
 a mile of its confluence with the German 
 ocean. It is a county of itself, regularly 
 fortified with walls, bastions and ditches ; 
 54 miles S. E. Edinburgh, 335 N. W. 
 London ; Ion. 2 W. ; lat. 55 47' N. ; pop. 
 7746. It exports corn, pork, eggs and 
 salmon. The town has been, of late, 
 
 much improved, and the streets are well 
 paved. The bridge over the Tweed is 
 1164 feet long, and contains 6 arches. 
 The barracks can accommodate 600 men. 
 B. sends two members to parliament, and 
 has markets on Wednesday and Saturday. 
 It was formerly the chief town in the 
 county of Berwick, and the theatre of 
 many sanguinary conflicts between the 
 English and Scottish armies. Both na- 
 tions considering it a fortress of great im- 
 portance, the town and its neighborhood 
 were a constant scene of bloodshed. Af- 
 ter repeated sieges, it was finally ceded to 
 England in the year 1502 ; and, by a treaty 
 between Edward VI and Mary queen of 
 Scotland, it was declared to be a free 
 town, independent of both states. Upon 
 the death of Elizabeth, in 1603, James VI 
 of Scotland was proclaimed at B. king 
 of England, France and Ireland ; and 
 when that monarch entered into his new 
 dominions, the constituted authorities of 
 the town received him with every dem- 
 onstration of joy and respect. In return, 
 the king confirmed all their ancient char- 
 ters, adding many privileges, which still 
 remain peculiar to the town and its lib- 
 erties. The peculiar privileges of B., and 
 the circumstance that it was once inde- 
 pendent of England and Scotland, are the 
 occasion why it was formerly the custom to 
 extend the provisions of English statutes 
 to B. by name. The statute 20 Geo. II, 
 c. 42, provides, that, where England only 
 is mentioned in an act of parliament, the 
 same shall be deemed to comprehend the 
 dominion of Wales and the town of B. 
 
 BERYL, or EMERALD ; a well-known 
 species in mineralogy, sometimes massive 
 in its structure, though commonly found 
 crystallized in regular, six-sided prisms, 
 often deeply striated longitudinally, and 
 terminated at one or both extremities by 
 a rough, imperfect plane, or, more rarely, 
 by a very flat, six-sided pyramid, of which 
 the summit is replaced. Its crystals are 
 of various dimensions, being from half an 
 inch to upwards of a foot in length, and 
 from a quarter of an inch to 10 inches 
 in diameter. The larger crystals, how- 
 ever, are inferior to the smaller, in regard 
 to those qualities for which this species is 
 esteemed. The lustre of the beryl is 
 vitreous ; its color, green, passing into 
 blue, yellow and white. The brightest of 
 these colors is emerald green, which, as it 
 is rarely known to pass insensibly into 
 the paler hues, has been made the basis 
 of a distinct species in those specimens in 
 which it occurs under the name of emer- 
 ald. This distinction of species is not
 
 84 
 
 BERYL BESSEL. 
 
 considered, at present, as well founded ; 
 and the beryl and emerald are looked 
 upon as identical by most mineralogists. 
 It is translucent or transparent, and its 
 hardness enables it to scratch quartz. Its 
 specific gravity is from 2.6 to 2.7. It is 
 composed of silcx, (i8.35; alumine, 17.60; 
 glucine, 13.13 ; oxyde of iron, .72, with a 
 trace of lime and oxyde of chrome. The 
 beryl is widely diffused. It belongs to the 
 primitive rocks, and is embedded in veins 
 of quartz and feldspar, which traverse 
 granite and mica slate. It is also found in 
 great abundance in a compact ferruginous 
 clay in Daouria, and in fractured crystals 
 and rolled masses in secondary deposits, 
 where it is not supposed to have had its 
 origin. Some of the most remarkable 
 localities of beryl are found in Siberia, 
 Limoges in France, and in Massachusetts, 
 Maine and New Hampshire in the U. 
 States. The deep-green variety, emerald, 
 so much valued as a gem, comes from 
 Peru and Upper Egypt : a few fine crys- 
 tals have also been obtained from granite 
 veins at Topsham in Maine. 
 
 BERZELICS, James ; born at Linkioping, 
 in East Gothland, in 1779. As early as 
 1796, he began the study of medicine and 
 the natural sciences, particularly chemis- 
 try, for the prosecution of which he has 
 since made some scientific journeys. He 
 is, at present, professor of chemistry and 
 pharmacy, secretary of the royal academy 
 of sciences at Stockholm, &c. Charles 
 XIV (Bernadotte) has made him a noble- 
 man. He has done much towards estab- 
 lishing the electro-chemical system, which 
 at present prevails, and according to 
 which no chemical process can take 
 place without the intervention of electri- 
 city. He has enriched chemistry, which, 
 in our times, has become a perfectly new 
 science, by the most important discoveries 
 and profound works. In particular, he 
 has distinguished himself by researches 
 into the laws of definite proportion?, dis- 
 covered by Richter, and has proved him- 
 self one of the best chemical analysts. His 
 system of mineralogy is founded on his 
 chemical principles. Most of his works 
 have been translated into English and 
 French. 
 
 BESANCON (in old German, Bisanz) ; 
 Ion. 6 3' E. ; lat. 47 14' N. ; 48 miles from 
 Paris ; a large, old, well-built city, much 
 fortified by Louis XIV; was transferred, 
 by the peace qf Nimwegen, with Franche- 
 Compte to France ; at present, is the chief 
 place of the sixth military division ; has 
 29,000 inhabitants, and is situated in the 
 department Doubs. There is an arch- 
 
 bishop in B., under whom are the bishops 
 of Autun, Mctz, Nancy, Strasburg and 
 Dijon. The academy of sciences at B. 
 was established in 1752 : there is also here 
 an academy of fine arts, a school tor artil- 
 lery, one for watch-makers, containing 200 
 pupils and a fine library, besides several 
 museums, a botanical garden, an agricul- 
 tural society, &c. B. is a great manufac- 
 turing place. It was called, in ancient 
 times, Visontium, and was a fortified place 
 as early as the time of Ca>sar, who drove 
 from hence the Sequani. Here also he 
 conquered Ariovistus. Several streets 
 have still the old Roman names. The 
 ruins of a triumphal arch are yet to be 
 seen. The river Doubs divides the city 
 into two parts, the upper and lower. B. 
 contains 3300 houses, 8 churches, 8 hos- 
 pitals, a citadel, &c. The former univer- 
 sity was changed, in 1801, into a lyceum. 
 It is the chief place of an arrondissement, 
 which contains 93,211 inhabitants. 
 
 BESSARABIA ; since the peace of Bucha- 
 rest, in 1812, between Turkey and Russia, 
 a Russian province, between 45 and 48 
 N. lat., and 28 and 31 E. Ion. ; containing 
 about 88CO square miles (accordingto some 
 accounts, more than double this amount), 
 with 315,000 inhabitants; situated on the 
 Black sea, between the northern arm of 
 the Danube, the Pruth and the Dniester. 
 B. is a plain country, fertile in grain, but 
 is mostly used for the pasturage of sheep 
 and horses. Most of the inhabitants are 
 Walachians, Gipsies and Tartars. The 
 capital is Chotzym, a fortress. Bender, 
 Ismail, Ackermau and Kilia Nova are also 
 fortresses. Kischenau, the seat of a Greek 
 bishop, has a large nursery of trees. The 
 population has been much increased by 
 colonists from Poland, Germany, France, 
 &c. These amount already to 8300, 
 mostly Lutherans. A considerable num- 
 ber of troops are kept in B. to protect the 
 frontiers. Many mechanics are thus 
 drawn there to supply the wants of the 
 army. 
 
 BESSEL, Frederic William; considered 
 by many the best astronomical observer 
 of the present age; has been professor of 
 astronomy in Konigsberg since 1810; was 
 bom in Minden, July 22, 1784 ; entered, at 
 the age of 15 years, one of the first com- 
 mercial houses in Bremen. The mari- 
 time intercourse of that place with foreign 
 countries excited in him an inclination for 
 geography, and afterwards for the science 
 of navigation, and induced him to attempt 
 the acquisition of mathematical knowl- 
 edge from books. He soon passed to 
 astronomy, and, as his days were other-
 
 BESSEL BETHLEHEM. 
 
 85 
 
 wise occupied, he devoted his nights to 
 these labors. An astronomical work 
 which he wrote procured him the ac- 
 quaintance of Olbers (q. v.), who, from 
 that time, became his adviser. In 1806, 
 he joined Scro'ter at Lilienthal, with rec- 
 ommendations from Olbers, and was em- 
 ployed for four years as inspector of the 
 instruments belonging to the university of 
 Gottingen. From tlience he was invited 
 to Konigsberg, where he built, in 1812 
 13, the observatory, which is a monument 
 of the scientific enterprise of the north of 
 Germany, since it was erected when Prus- 
 sia was almost exhausted by war, and 
 Konigsberg was situated on the great 
 theatre of Napoleon's operations against 
 Russia. The observations, uninterrupted- 
 ly continued at this observatory, are con- 
 tained in 5 vols., folio. The observatory 
 of Konigsberg was, till 1819, provided 
 with English instruments, when the min- 
 istry supplied it with the means of pro- 
 curing new instruments, made by Reich- 
 enbach (q. v.), of the best workmanship. 
 Besides these observations and separate 
 treatises, B. published, in his work on 
 the comet of 1607, a theory of the dis- 
 turbances of these celestial bodies, and 
 Fundanwnta Astronomies pro an. 1755 a 
 work in which he has reduced Bradley's 
 observations, and given their results. He 
 treats also of the various subjects con- 
 nected with these observations, namely, 
 the instruments used and the corrections 
 to be made in them. For the present 
 period, B. has endeavored, by his own 
 observations and a strict criticism of meth- 
 ods and instruments, to attain the necessary 
 certainty. Of his Astronomical Observa- 
 tions at the Observatory of Konigsberg, 
 the 10th No., from Jan. 1 to Dec. 31, 
 1824, appeared at Konigsberg, 1826. 
 
 BETEL is the leaf of a climbing East 
 Indian plant (piper-betel), which belongs 
 to the same tribe as pepper, and, in shape 
 and appearance, is not much unlike ivy, 
 but is more tender, and full of juice. 
 There is an almost incredible consump- 
 tion of betel throughout India, and other 
 parts of the East. The inhabitants chew 
 it almost incessantly, and in such quantity 
 that their lips become quite red, and their 
 teeth black a color greatly preferred by 
 them to the whiteness which the Europe- 
 ans so much affect. They carry it, in lit- 
 tle white boxes, about their persons, and 
 present it to each other, by way of com- 
 pliment and civility, in the same manner 
 as Europeans do snuff. This is done by 
 the women as well as by the men ; and it 
 would be considered an offence, if those 
 
 VOL. II. 8 
 
 to whom it is offered should refuse to ac- 
 cept of and chew it. The leaves are 
 sometimes used alone, but much more 
 commonly when covered with a kind of 
 lime made of sea-shell, and wrapped round 
 slices of the areca nut, the fruit of the 
 areca palm, of the size of a small egg, and 
 resembling a nutmeg deprived of its husk. 
 
 BETHANIA, or BETHANY ; a village at the 
 foot of mount Olivet, on the west side, 
 about two miles east of Jerusalem, where 
 Lazarus dwelt, and was raised from the 
 dead, and where the ascension of Christ 
 is related to have taken place. The 
 house and grave of Lazarus and the 
 house of Mary Magdalene are still shown 
 to curious travellers. The name of B. 
 was sometimes extended to the whole 
 tract from the village itself to Bethphage. 
 
 BETHESDA ; a pool in Judea, the name 
 of which signifies liouse of mercy. In the 
 five halls or porticos near it many patients 
 lay waiting, according to the account of 
 John (ch. v), for the moving of the waters, 
 to bathe in it. According to the opinion 
 of the Jews, an angel descended, at a cer- 
 tain time, into the pool, and troubled the 
 water, and whoever first entered the wa- 
 ter, after this agitation, was cured. This 
 pool seems to have been composed of a 
 red-colored mineral water, which received 
 its healing power from the red earth at 
 the bottom. If the healing fountain, after 
 having been obstructed for a time, began 
 to bubble up anew, and the patient made 
 use of it before the motion ceased, it 
 healed his disease. To lie at the pool of 
 Bethesda,is used proverbially, in Germany, 
 in speaking of the theological candidates 
 who are waiting for a benefice. 
 
 BETHLEHEM ; the birth-place of David 
 and Christ ; a village, formerly a town, in 
 Palestine, a part of Syria, in the pachalic 
 of Damascus, five miles from Jerusalem, 
 at the foot of a hill covered with vines 
 and olive-trees, which, however, is not the 
 mount of Olives mentioned in the Bible. 
 An aqueduct conveys water from the hill 
 to the village. It "has 300 houses, and 
 2400 Greek and Armenian inhabitants, 
 who make wooden rosaries and cruci- 
 fixes, inlaid with mother of pearl, for pil- 
 grims ; also excellent white wine. In a 
 rich grotto, furnished with silver and 
 crystal lamps, under the choir of the 
 church of a convent in this village, a 
 trough of marble is shown, which is said 
 to be the manger in which Jesus was 
 laid after his birth. There are three con- 
 vents there, for Catholics, Greeks and Ar- 
 menians. The greatest ornament of the 
 place is the stately church erected by the
 
 86 
 
 BETHLEHEM BETTERTON. 
 
 empress Helena over the place where 
 Christ is said to have bren born, and 
 bearing her name. It is built in the form 
 of a cross, and the top commands a fine 
 view over the surrounding country. Sev- 
 eral spots mentioned in the Bible are 
 shown there. 
 
 BETHLEHEM. There are many places 
 in the U. States with tlu's name. One of 
 the most important is the borough and 
 post-town in Northampton county, Penn- 
 sylvania, on the Lehigh, 12 miles S. W. 
 Easton, 54 N. N. W. Philadelphia. Pop- 
 ulation in 1810, 1436 ; in 1820, 1860. It 
 is pleasantly situated, regularly laid out, 
 built chiefly of stone, and inhabited whol- 
 ly by Moraviajns, who have a bishop there. 
 B. contains two academies, one for young 
 ladies, and another for boys. 
 
 BETROTHMENT, in law ; a mutual prom- 
 ise or compact between two parties, by 
 which they bind themselves to marry. 
 The word imports giving one's troth, 
 i. e., true faith or promise. Betrothment 
 amounts to the same with what is call- 
 ed, by civilians and canonists, sponsalia 
 or espousals, sometimes desponsation, 
 and, by the French, jiangaittes. Betroth- 
 ment is either solemn (made in the face 
 of the church), or private (made before 
 witnesses out of the church). According 
 to the Roman law, betrothmeut ought to 
 be made by a stipulation, i. e., a contract, 
 in which one binds himself, by an answer 
 to a question put to him, to the fulfilment 
 of a contract. As betrothments are con- 
 tracts, they are subject to the same rules 
 as other contracts ; for instance, that they 
 are valid only between persons whose ca- 
 pacity to contract is recognised by law ; 
 and the use of fraud, violence or intimida- 
 tion vitiates the contract. The consent 
 of both parties, of course, is required. 
 This may be expressed either verbally, or 
 by writing, or by action. In Germany, 
 the consent of the parents is always ne- 
 cessary, if the parties are under age, not 
 yet sui juris. But if the parents withhold 
 their consent unreasonably, the permis- 
 sion of the judge is allowed to sanction 
 the contract. If the opinions of the pa- 
 rents are diverse, the law gives effect to 
 that of the father. Some provincial laws 
 require the consent of the relations, and 
 the presence of witnesses. Betrothments 
 contracted thus, according to law, are 
 called sponsalia publica ; others are called 
 sponsalia dandestina. The latter are, in 
 some places, utterly invalid ; in others, on- 
 ly punishable. By the common German 
 law, however, they are valid in every case 
 in which consummation or consecration 
 
 by the priest has taken place. The pa- 
 rents, in these cases, are not allowed ta 
 apply for a dissolution of the contract, nor 
 can they refuse their consent, except for 
 highly important reasons. Public be- 
 trothment induces the obligation to marry. 
 In case of refusal to complete the contract 
 by marriage, the injured party is allow- 
 ed an action at law to compel its perform- 
 ance ; but, since unhappy marriages are 
 among the greatest misfortunes, the means 
 of compulsion applied by the law are 
 never great, amounting only to a small 
 fine, or a short imprisonment. If circum- 
 stances take place which, if happening 
 before the betrothment, would have neces- 
 sarily prevented it, the party affected by 
 them is allowed to recede from the en- 
 gagement, and the modern laws allow 
 only an action for damages. In Germany, 
 betrothment generally takes place in a 
 small company of relations and friends. 
 In Russia, it was once binding and indis- 
 soluble, like marriage, but is now a mere 
 form accompanying the marriage cere- 
 mony. 
 
 BETTERMENT is a term used, in some 
 of the U. States, to signify the improve- 
 ments made on lands by the occupant, in 
 building, fencing, draining, &c. ; and the 
 statutes of some of the U. States provide, 
 that where a purchaser comes into posses- 
 sion under what he supposes to be a good 
 title, and the land is afterwards recovered 
 against him by virtue of a better title, in 
 case he or those under whom be claims 
 have been in possession of it a certain 
 number of years, he shall be entitled to 
 claim against the owner who so recovers 
 possession of the land, the value of the 
 improvements or betterments. This is a 
 very equitable provision of the laws in 
 states where, as in many parts of the U. 
 States, titles are not fully established and 
 confirmed by a long period of possession, 
 and where, in newly-settled territories, the 
 improvements may, in a few years, 
 amount to more than the original value 
 of the land. 
 
 BETTERTON, Thomas, a celebrated act- 
 or in the reign of Charles II, was born in 
 Westminster, in 1635, and excelled in 
 Shakspeare's characters of Hamlet, Othel- 
 lo, Brutus and Hotspur. In 1635, he 
 opened a new play-house in Lincoln's- 
 inn-fields, but did not succeed. He died 
 in 1710, and was buried in Westminster 
 abbey. He wrote the Woman made a 
 Justice, a comedy; die Amorous Wid- 
 ow, or the Wanton Wife; Diocletian, a 
 dramatic opera, &c. The Unjust Judge, 
 or Appius and Virginia, a tragedy, was
 
 BETTERTON BEZA. 
 
 87 
 
 written originally by Mr. John Webster, 
 and altered by B. 
 
 BETTIJT ELLI, Saverio, an Italian author, 
 born at Mantua, in 1718, studied there and 
 at Bologna, under the Jesuits ; entered, in 
 1736, the novitiate of this order, and 
 taught, from 1739 to 44, belles-lettres at 
 Brescia, where he made himself known 
 by some poems composed for the use of 
 schools. In Bologna, where he studied 
 theology, he continued to cultivate his 
 poetical talents, and wrote for the theatre 
 of the college his tragedy of Jonathan. 
 In 1751, he was intrusted with the direc- 
 tion of the college of nobles at Parma. 
 After having remained there eight years, 
 he travelled in France and Germany, and 
 returned to Verona, where he remained 
 till 1767, engaged in preaching and in- 
 struction. After the suppression of the 
 Jesuits, in 1773, he returned to his native 
 city, where he resumed his literary la- 
 bors with renewed zeal. He published 
 several works, among which some were 
 intended for ladies; as, his Correspond- 
 ence between two Ladies, his Letters to 
 Lesbia on Epigrams, and likewise his 
 Twenty-four Dialogues on Love. He be- 
 gan, in 1799, a complete edition of his 
 works (Venice, 1801, 12 vols. 12mo.) He 
 preserved the cheerfulness and serenity 
 of his spirit to the age of 90 years, and 
 died in 1808, with the composure of a 
 philosopher, and the devotion of a Chris- 
 tian. Besides his works already men- 
 tioned, we cite his Dell' Entusiasmo delle 
 belle Jlrti, Risorgimento negli Studj, nelle 
 Jlrti e ne 1 Costumi dopo il MUle (3 vols.), 
 a superficial work, which is, however, not 
 destitute of new and just views. The 
 Lettcre died di Virgilio agli Arcadi at- 
 tracted great attention. The ideas ex- 
 pressed in this work of the two great 
 names of Italian poetry, particularly of 
 Dante, involved him in many contests. 
 His Poesie (3 vols.) contain 7 poemetti, 16 
 letters in blank verse, sonnets, canzora, 
 &c. Although this collection does not 
 show any great poetical power, yet it is 
 always elegant and ingenious. It is 
 preceded by a treatise on Italian po- 
 etry. 
 
 BEY, among the Turks, signifies a gov- 
 ernor of a town, seaport or small district. 
 The Turks write the word beg. (q. v.) 
 (See also Beglerbeg.) 
 
 BEZA (properly, de Beze), Theodore; next 
 to Calvin, the most distinguished for genius 
 and influence among the preachers of the 
 Calvinistic church in the 16th century. 
 Born of a noble family at Vezelay, in Bur- 
 gundy, June 24, 1519 ; educated in Orleans, 
 
 under Melchior Volmar, a German philolo- 
 ger devoted to the reformation ; and early 
 familiar with the ancient classical literature, 
 he became known, at the age of 20 years, 
 as a Latin poet, by his petulant and witty 
 Juvenilia (a collection of poems of which 
 he was afterwards ashamed). In 1539, he 
 was made a licentiate of law, and, in the 
 same year, invited by his family to Paris. 
 He received from his uncle the reversion 
 of his valuable abbey Froidmond, and 
 lived on the income of two benefices and 
 the property which he had inherited from 
 a brother. His habits, at this time, were 
 dissipated. His handsome figure, his tal- 
 ents, and his connexion with the most 
 distinguished families, opened to him the 
 most splendid prospects. But a clandes- 
 tine marriage, in 1543, recalled him from 
 his excesses, and a dangerous illness con- 
 firmed the intention, which he had formed 
 at Orleans, of devoting himself to the ser- 
 vice of the reformed church ; so that, after 
 his recoveiy, he forsook all the advan- 
 tages of his situation in Paris, and repair- 
 ed, with his wife, to Geneva, in 1547. 
 Soon after, lie accepted a professorship of 
 the Greek language at Lausanne. Dur- 
 ing the 10 years of his continuance in 
 this office, he wrote a tragi-comic drama, 
 in French, the Sacrifice of Abraham,-^ 
 which was received with much approba- 
 tion ; delivered lectures (which were nu- 
 merously attended) on the Epistle to the 
 Romans and the Epistles of Peter (which 
 served as the basis of his Latin transla- 
 tion of the New Testament, of which he 
 afterwards published several editions, al- 
 ways with improvements) ; finished Ma- 
 rot's translation of the Psalms in French 
 verse ; and obtained to such a degree the 
 confidence of the Swiss Calvinists, that 
 he was sent, in 1558, on an embassy to 
 the Protestant princes of Germany, to ob-> 
 tain their intercession at the French court 
 for the release of the Huguenots impris- 
 oned in Paris. In the following year, he 
 went to Geneva as a preacher, and, soon 
 after, became a professor of theology, and 
 the most active assistant of Calvin, to 
 whom he had already recommended him- 
 self by several works (on the punishment 
 of heretics by the magistrate, the vindica^ 
 tion of the burning of Servetus, and some 
 violent controversial writings on the doc- 
 trine of predestination and the commun- 
 ion, against Castalio, Westphal and Hesa- 
 huss). His talents for negotiation were, 
 now often put in requisition by the Cal-r 
 vinists. He was sent to the court of 
 Anthony, king of Navarre, at Nerac, to 
 obtain the toleration of the French Hu-
 
 88 
 
 BEZA BEZOAR. 
 
 guenots, and, at his desire, he appeared, 
 1561, at the religious conference at Pois- 
 sy, where he spoke in behalf of his party 
 with a boldness, presence of mind and 
 energy, wliich gained him the esteem of 
 the French court. He often preached in 
 Paris before the queen of Navarre and 
 the prince of Conde ; also in the suburbs. 
 At the conference of St. Germain, in 1562, 
 he spoke strongly against the worship of 
 images, and, after the commencement of 
 the civil war, accompanied the prince of 
 Conde as chaplain, and, on the capture 
 of the prince, joined the admiral Co- 
 ligny. After the restoration of peace, he 
 returned to Geneva, in 1563, where, be- 
 sides discharging the duties of his offices, 
 he continued to engage in theological 
 controversies in support of the Calvinists ; 
 and, after Calvin's death, in 1564, became 
 his successor, and was considered the first 
 theologian of this church. He presided in 
 the synods of the French Calvinists at La 
 Rochelle (1571) and at Nismes (1572), 
 where he opposed Morel's proposal for 
 the alteration of clerical discipline ; was 
 sent by Conde (1574) to the court of the 
 elector palatine ; and, at the religious con- 
 ference at Montpellier (1586), opposed the 
 theologians of Wurtemberg, particularly 
 James Andreas. At the age of 69 years, 
 he married his second wife (1588), and 
 still continued to repel, with the power 
 of truth and wit, the attacks and calum- 
 nies which his enemies, apostatized Cal- 
 vinists (such as Volsec), Lutherans, and 
 particularly the Jesuits, heaped upon him. 
 They reported, in 1597, that he had died, 
 and returned before his death to the 
 Catholic faith. B., now 78 years old, met 
 his assailants in a poem full of youthful 
 enthusiasm, and resisted, in the same year, 
 the attempts of St. Francis de Sales to 
 convert him, and the alluring offers of the 
 pope. In 1600, he visited Henry IV, in 
 the territory of Geneva, who presented 
 him with 500 ducats. After having en- 
 joyed excellent health during almost his 
 whole life, he died, Oct. 13, 1605, of old 
 age. By a rigorous adherence to the 
 principles of Calvin, in whose spirit he 
 presided over the church of Geneva, he 
 had become the chief of his party, and 
 enjoyed for 40 years the reputation of a 
 patriarch, without whose approbation no 
 important step was taken. In order to 
 preserve the unity and permanency of 
 his church, he sacrificed his own opinions 
 to the established dogmas of Calvin, and 
 rendered the most important services by 
 his various erudition, his constant zeal, 
 Jiis active spirit, his brilliant eloquence, 
 
 and even by the impression of his person- 
 al appearance, which age made still more 
 striking. He defended his doctrines with 
 ability and enthusiasm, and often with 
 merciless severity and obstinacy. Among 
 his many works, his exegetic writings, 
 and an able and correct History of Cal- 
 vinism in France, from 1521 to 63, which is 
 ascribed to him, are still much esteemed. 
 His correspondence with Calvin is to be 
 found in the ducal library at Gotha. A 
 catalogue of his works is given by Antho- 
 ny la Faye, who has written an account 
 of his life. 
 
 BEZANT ; round, flat pieces of pure 
 gold, without any impression, supposed 
 to have been the current coin of Byzan- 
 tium. This coin was probably introduced 
 into coat-armor by the crusaders. Doc- 
 tor Henry, in his History of England, es- 
 timates its value at 9s. 4d sterling. The 
 gold offered by the king of England on 
 the altar, at the feast of the Epiphany and 
 the Purification, is called bezant. 
 
 BEZOAR (Persian, pazar, a goat, or pa- 
 zuchar, against poison) ; a concretion or 
 calculus, of an orbicular or oval form, met 
 with in the bodies of various animals. 
 These substances are found in the stom- 
 ach, gall-bladder, salivary ducts, and 
 pineal gland, but especially in the intes- 
 tines of certain animals of the order rumi- 
 nantia. They were formerly celebrated 
 for their- supposed medicinal virtues, and 
 distinguished by the name of the coun- 
 tries from which they came, or the ani- 
 mals in which they were found. They 
 were considered as highly alexipharmic ; 
 so much so, that other medicines, suppos- 
 ed to possess the same virtues, obtained 
 the name of bezoardics. So efficacious 
 were these once thought, that they were 
 eagerly bought for 10 times their weight 
 in gold. Besides being taken internally, 
 they were worn around the neck, as pre- 
 servatives from contagion. For this pur- 
 pose, it is said, that in Portugal it was 
 customary to lure them at the price of 
 about 10 shillings per day. On analysis, 
 these substances are found to contain, for 
 the most part, bile and resin. It is almost 
 needless to add, that the accounts of their 
 extraordinary virtues must now be con- 
 sidered as totally fabulous. A strange ori- 
 gin was assigned to the bezoar by some 
 of the old naturalists. The Oriental stags, 
 when oppressed with age and infirmity, 
 were said to feed upon serpents, which 
 restored their youthful vigor. To coun- 
 teract the poison which by this means 
 was absorbed into their system, they 
 plunged into some running stream, le&v-
 
 BEZOAR BIAS. 
 
 89 
 
 Ing their heads only above water. In 
 this situation, a viscous fluid distilled 
 from their eyes, which was indurated by 
 the heat of the sun, and formed the be- 
 zoar. The great value of the bezoar at 
 one time gave birth to many imitations 
 of it, and various tests have been proposed 
 to detect the artificial stones. The fol- 
 lowing cruel and absurd one is given by 
 Clusius : Thread a needle, and draw the 
 thread through a leaf plucked from a yew- 
 tree ; then pass the needle through a dog's 
 foot, and leave the thread in the wound ; 
 when the dog becomes convulsed, and 
 appears dying, mix some scrapings of be- 
 zoar with water, and moisten the animal's 
 mouth with it ; if he recover, the stone is 
 genuine. Simpler methods, perhaps, are, 
 immersion in warm water, which neither 
 loses its own color, nor diminishes the 
 weight of the bezoar : or rubbing it over 
 paper smeared with chalk or quick-lime ; 
 the genuine stone leaves a yellow hue on 
 the first, a green one on the last. 
 
 BIA ; a name given by the Siamese to 
 those small shells which are called cow- 
 ries throughout almost all the other parts 
 of the East Indies. (See Cowries.) 
 
 BIAGIOLI, Josaphat ; a learned Italian 
 linguist at Paris. Before the invasion of 
 Italy, by the joint forces of Austria 
 and Russia, in 1798, he was professor of 
 Greek and Latin literature at the univer- 
 sity of Urbino. As B. had shown him- 
 self a friend to the cause of liberty, he 
 took refuge in Paris, and was appointed 
 professor of Italian literature at a pryta- 
 neum, and delivered lectures before a 
 splendid audience. He is the editor of 
 the Lettere del Card. Bentivoglio (Paris, 
 1808 12), and author of a Grammaire 
 raisonnce de la Langue Italienne a V Usage 
 des Francois, suivie (Tun Traite de la Po- 
 esie Italienne (Paris, 1809), which obtained 
 the approbation of the French institute, 
 and has passed through four editions. He 
 has also prepared a Grammatica ragionata 
 della lAngua Francese air Uso degV Ilali- 
 uni (1812). His edition of the^ Divina 
 Commedia del Dante jttighim (Paris, 1818, 
 3 vols.), for the correctness of the text 
 and the excellence of the commentary, is 
 held in great esteem ; but it has also con- 
 tributed to the propagation of many new 
 errors relating to Dante, partly from the 
 editor's violent spirit of opposition to 
 Lombardi. It obtained the honor of be- 
 ing reprinted in Italy (Milan, 1820, 16m o.) 
 B. has published, at Paris, Petrarca, and 
 the poems of Michael Angelo Buonarotti, 
 with a commentary similar to that of 
 Dante, and is now occupied with the 
 8* 
 
 composition of an Italian-French and 
 French-Italian dictionary. 
 
 BIANCHINI, Francesco, born at Verona, 
 1662, studied mathematics, physics, anat- 
 omy and botany, at first under the Jesuits, 
 afterwards (1680) at Padua. He was in- 
 tended for the clerical profession, repair- 
 ed to Rome, and there applied himself to 
 jurisprudence, but continued at the same 
 time the study of experimental physics, 
 jistronomy, &c., as well as of Greek, He- 
 brew, &c. Antiquities also became one 
 of his favorite studies. He passed whole 
 days amidst ancient monuments, was 
 present at all the excavations in search of 
 them, visited all the museums, and made 
 drawings of the remains of antiquity with 
 as much taste as skill. At the death of 
 Innocent XI, cardinal Ottoboni ascend- 
 ed the papal throne under the name 
 of Alexander Fill, and bestowed on B. a 
 rich benefice, with the appointment of tu- 
 tor and librarian to his nephew, the cardi- 
 nal Pietro Ottoboni. Pope Clement XI 
 also patronised him, and appointed him 
 secretary to the commission employed in 
 the correction of the calendar. B. was 
 commissioned to draw a meridian in the 
 church of St. Maria degli Jlngeli, and to 
 erect a sun-dial. He successfully accom- 
 plished this difficult undertaking, with the 
 assistance of Maraldi. Being on a tour 
 through France, Holland and England, 
 he formed the idea of drawing a meridian 
 in Italy from one sea to the other, in imi- 
 tation of that which Cassini had drawn 
 through France. He was occupied eight 
 years at his own expense in that work ; 
 but other employments withdrew his at- 
 tention from it, and it remained unfinished. 
 He concluded his career with two impor- 
 tant works (1727), on the planet Venus and 
 on the sepulchre of Augustus. He died in 
 1729. A monument was erected to his 
 memory in the cathedral at Verona, He 
 united the most extensive learning with, 
 modesty and the most amiable manners. 
 
 BIAS ; son of Teutamtis ; bom at Priene, 
 one of the principal cities of Ionia, about 
 570 B. C. He was a practical philoso- 
 pher, studied the laws of his country, and 
 employed his knowledge in the service 
 of his friends ; defending them in the 
 courts of justice, or settling their disputes, 
 He made a noble use of his wealth. His 
 advice, that the lonians should fly before 
 the victorious Cyrus to Sardinia, was not 
 followed, and the victory of the army of 
 Cyrus confirmed the correctness of hia 
 opinion. The inhabitants of Priene, when 
 besieged by Mazares, resolved to abandon 
 the city with their property. On tliis oc-
 
 90 
 
 BIAS BIBLE. 
 
 casion, B. replied to one of his fellow- 
 citizens, who expressed his astonishment 
 that he made no preparations for his de- 
 parture, " I carry every thing witli me." 
 B. remained in his native country, where 
 he died at a very advanced age. His coun- 
 trymen buried him with splendor, and hon- 
 ored his memory. Some of his sayings and 
 precepts are yet preserved. He was num- 
 bered among the seven sages of Greece. 
 
 BIBBIENA, Fernando ; a painter and 
 architect. His father, Giovanni Maria 
 Galli (a less distinguished painter and 
 architect), named his son B. from his na- 
 tive town in Tuscany. The son was bom 
 at Bologna, 1657. Carlo Cignani (q. v.) 
 directed his studies. B. was afterwards 
 invited to Barcelona. The duke of Par- 
 ma subsequently made him director of his 
 theatres. Charles VI afterwards invited 
 him to Vienna. Several beautiful build- 
 ings were erected in Austria from his 
 plans. In his theatrical paintings, he has 
 continued the vicious style of Borromini 
 and others. His writings display extent 
 and accuracy of knowledge. When con- 
 siderably advanced in life, his weak sight 
 prevented him from painting, and he 
 occupied himself with the revision of his 
 works, which he published anew at Bo- 
 logna, 1725 and 1731, in 2 vols. ; the first, 
 under the title Direzioni a' giovani Stu- 
 dcnti nel Disegno dell Jlrchitettura civile : 
 in the second, he treats of perspective. 
 He finally became blind, and died 1743. 
 His three sons extended their father's art 
 through all Italy and Germany. Antonio 
 succeeded to his father's place at the court 
 of the emperor Charles VI. Giuseppe 
 died at Berlin, and Alessandro in the ser- 
 vice of the elector palatine. A collection 
 of B.'s decorations has been published at 
 Augsburg. 
 
 BIBLE ; a book, from the Greek frjSAoy, 
 which signifies the soft bark of a tree, on 
 which the ancients wrote. The collection 
 of the Sacred Writings, or Holy Scriptures 
 of the Christians, is called the Bible, or 
 the Book, by way of excellence. Some 
 of these writings, which are also received 
 by the Jews as the records of their faith, 
 are called the Old Testament, or writings 
 of the old covenant, because the Jewish 
 religion was represented as a compact or 
 covenant between God and the Jews, and 
 the Greek word for covenant (SiaO/jK^) signi- 
 fies also last mil, or testament. The same 
 figure was applied to the Christian religion, 
 which was considered as an extension of 
 the old covenant, or a covenant between 
 God and the whole human race. The 
 sacred writings peculiar to the Christians 
 
 are, therefore, called the Scriptures of the 
 New Testament. (See Testament.) The 
 order of the books of the Old Testament, 
 as they are arranged in the editions of the 
 Latin version, called the Vulgate (q. v.), 
 according to the decree of the council of 
 Trent (sess. 4), is as follows: Genesis, 
 Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuterono- 
 my, Joshua, Judges and Ruth ; I Samuel, 
 or I Kings ; II Samuel, or II Kings ; I 
 Kings, otherwise called III Kings; II 
 Kings, otherwise called IV Kings ; I Es- 
 dras (as it is called in the Septuagint (q. v.) 
 and Vulgate), or Ezra; II Esdras, or (as 
 we call it) Nehemiah; *Tobit, *Judith, 
 Esther, Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesi- 
 astes, Song of Solomon, *The Book of 
 Wisdom, *Ecclesiasticus, Isaiah, Jeremi- 
 ah and *Baruch ; Ezekiel, Daniel, Hosea, 
 Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Nahum (which, in 
 our editions, is placed after Micah and 
 before Habakkuk), Jonah (which we place 
 after Obadiah), Micah, Habakkuk, Zeph- 
 aniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, *I 
 Maccabees and *II Maccabees. (Those 
 to which an asterisk is prefixed are, by 
 Protestants, considered apocryphal, q. v.) 
 The books received by the Jews were 
 divided by Ezra' into three classes : 1. 
 The Law, contained in the Pentateuch, 
 (q. v.) or five books of Moses. 2. The 
 Prophets, comprising Joshua, Judges and 
 Ruth, I and II Samuel, I and II Kings, I 
 and II Chronicles, Isaiah, Jeremiah and 
 Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel, the 12 mi- 
 nor prophets, Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther. 
 3. The Cetubim, or Hagiographa, that is, 
 holy ivritings, containing the Psalms, the 
 Proverbs, Ecelesiastes and the Song of 
 Solomon. These books were written in 
 the Hebrew language (q. v.), while those 
 which are rejected from the canon as 
 apocryphal, by the Protestants, are found 
 only in Greek or Latin. The books of 
 Moses were deposited, according to the 
 Bible, after his death, in the tabernacle, 
 near the ark : the other sacred writings, it 
 is further said, were successively deposit- 
 ed in the same place, as they were written. 
 After the building of the temple, they 
 were removed by Solomon to that edifice : 
 on the capture of Jerusalem by Nebu- 
 chadnezzar, the autographs probably per- 
 ished, but numerous copies were preserv- 
 ed, as is inferred from allusions in writers 
 subsequent to the Babylonish captivity. 
 It is generally admitted, that the canon of 
 the Old Testament was settled soon after 
 the return from Babylon, and the reestab- 
 hshment of the Jewish religion. This 
 work was accomplished, according to the 
 traditions of the Jews, by Ezra, with the
 
 BIBLE. 
 
 91 
 
 assistance of the great synagogue, who 
 collected and compared as many copies 
 as could be found. From this collation a 
 correct edition of the whole was prepared, 
 with the exception of the writings of Ezra, 
 Malachi and Nchemiah, which were add- 
 ed by Simon the Just. When Judas 
 Maccabaeus repaired the temple, which 
 had been destroyed by Antiochus Epipha- 
 nes, he placed in it a correct copy of the 
 Hebrew Scriptures, whether the autograph 
 of Ezra or not is not known. This copy 
 was carried to Rome by Titus. The 
 division into chapters and verses is of 
 modern origin. Cardinal Hugo de Sancto 
 Caro, who flourished in the 13th century, 
 having divided the Vulgate into chap- 
 ters, for convenience of reference, simi- 
 lar divisions were made in the Hebrew 
 text by rabbi Mordecai Nathan, in the 
 15th century. The present division into 
 verses was made by Athias, a Jew of 
 Amsterdam, in his edition of 1661. The 
 punctuation is also the work of modern 
 scholars. Biblical critics divide the Scrip- 
 tures of the Old Testament into the Pen- 
 tateuch, or five books of Moses ; the his- 
 torical books, from Joshua to Esther 
 inclusive ; the doctrinal or poetical books 
 of Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and 
 the Song of Solomon ; the prophetical 
 books. The most esteemed manuscripts 
 of the Hebrew Bible are those of the 
 Spanish Jews. The most ancient are not 
 more than seven or eight centuries old : 
 the famous manuscript of the Samaritan 
 Pentateuch, in the possession of the Sa- 
 maritans of Sichem, is only 500 years old : 
 a manuscript in the Bodleian library is 
 thought to be 700 years old : one in the 
 Vatican is supposed to have been written 
 hi 973. In some manuscripts, the Masora 
 (q. v.) is added. The printed editions of 
 the Hebrew Bible are very numerous. 
 The earliest were printed in Italy. The 
 first edition of the entire Hebrew Bible 
 was printed at Soncino, in 1488. The 
 Brescian edition of 1494 was used by 
 Luther, in making his German transla- 
 tion. The editions of Athias, a Jew of 
 Amsterdam, 1661 and 1667, are much 
 esteemed for their beauty and correctness. 
 Van der Hooght followed the latter. Doc- 
 tor Kennicott did more than any one of 
 his predecessors to settle the Hebrew text. 
 His Hebrew Bible appeared at Oxford, in 
 17761780, 2 vols., folio. The text is 
 from that of Van der Hooght, with which 
 630 MSS. were collated. De Rossi, who 
 published a supplement to Kennicott's 
 edition (Parma, 1784^99, 5 vols., 4to.), 
 collated 958 MSS. The German Orien- 
 
 talists, Gesenius, De Wette, &c., in recent 
 times, have done very much towards cor- 
 recting the Hebrew text. The earliest 
 and most famous version of the Old Tes- 
 tament is the Septuagint, or Greek trans- 
 lation. The Syriac version, called the 
 Peschito, was made early in the second 
 century. It is celebrated for its fidelity. 
 The Coptic version was made from the 
 Septuagint, some time before the seventh 
 century. The Gothic version, by Ulphi- 
 las, was also made from the Septuagint, 
 in the fourth century. The most impor- 
 tant Latin version is the Vulgate. (For an 
 account of the principal polyglots, see 
 Polyglot.} The books of the New Tes- 
 tament were all written in Greek, unless 
 it be true, as some critics suppose, that 
 th Gospel of St. Matthew was originally 
 written in Hebrew. Most of these wri- 
 tings have always been received as canon- 
 ical ; but the Epistle to the Hebrews, by 
 an uncertain author, that of St. Jude, the 
 second of Peter, the second and third of 
 John, and the Apocalypse (q. v.) have 
 been doubted. Eusebius distinguishes 
 three sorts of books connected with the 
 New Testament: 1. those which have , 
 always been unanimously received, name- 
 ly, the four Gospels, the Acts of the Apos- 
 tles, 13 Epistles of Paul, the first Epistle 
 of Peter, and the first of John : 2. those 
 which were not received, at first, by all 
 the churches; of these, some which have 
 been already mentioned, though at first 
 rejected by some churches, have been 
 since universally received ; others, such as 
 the Books of the Shepherd, the Letter of 
 St. Barnabas, the two Epistles of St. 
 Clement, have not been generally acknowl- 
 edged as canonical : 3. books forged by 
 heretics, to maintain their doctrines ; such 
 are the Gospels of St. Thomas, St. Peter, 
 &c. The division of the text of the New 
 Testament into chapters and verses was 
 introduced earlier than that of the Old 
 Testament ; but it is not precisely known 
 when, or by whom. (For the numerous 
 translations of the Bible, in modern times, 
 see the article Bible Societies, and the annual 
 reports of these societies, particularly of the 
 British and foreign Bible society.) In Bib- 
 lical criticism, the Germans have, without 
 doubt, done more than any other nation ; 
 and we should far exceed our limits, if 
 we were to attempt an enumeration of 
 their works in this department. (See 
 Wdte, Griesbach, Gesenius, Scldeiermacher, 
 Michadis, &c.) The whole Bible was 
 translated into Saxon by Bede, in the 
 beginning of the eighth century. The 
 first English translation, by an unknown
 
 92 
 
 BIBLE BIBLE SOCIETIES. 
 
 hand, is supposed to have been made 
 near the end of the 13th century. Wick- 
 Jiffe's translation of the entire Bible from 
 the Vulgate, 1380, was first printed 1731. 
 The first printed edition of any part of the 
 Scriptures in English was a translation of 
 the New Testament from the original 
 Greek, published by Tindal, 1526. The 
 Avhole impression was bought up and 
 burnt by the bishop of London. The 
 authorized version now hi use, in England 
 and America, was made by the command 
 of James I, and is commonly called king 
 James's Bible. Forty-seven distinguished 
 scholars were appointed for this purpose, 
 and divided into six classes. Ten at West- 
 minster were to translate to the end of 
 II Kings; eight at Cambridge were to 
 finish the remaining historical books and 
 the Hagiographa : at Oxford, seven were 
 engaged on the Prophets : the four Gos- 
 pels, Acts of the Apostles and Apocalypse 
 were assigned to another company of 
 eight at Oxford ; and the Epistles were 
 allotted to a company of seven at West- 
 minster: the apocryphal books were to be 
 translated by a company at Cambridge. 
 Each individual translated all the books 
 allotted to his class. The whole class 
 then compared all the translations, and 
 adopted the readings agreed on by the 
 majority. The book, thus finished, was 
 sent to each of the other classes. This 
 translation occupied three years. Copies 
 were then sent to London, one from each 
 of the above-named places. Here a com- 
 mittee of six, one from each class, review- 
 ed the whole, which was last of all revised 
 by doctor Smith and doctor Bilson, bishop 
 of Winchester. It was printed in 1611. 
 The latest and most complete revision 
 was made by doctor Blayney, Oxford, 
 1769. (For an account of the German 
 translation, see bather, and Reformation. 
 As a general book of reference, relating to 
 the literature of the Bible, Home's Intro- 
 duction to the Study of the Scriptures 
 may be consulted. See also Harris's 
 Natural History of the Bible.) 
 
 Bible, Geography of, describes Palestine, 
 and gives an account of the Asiatic coun- 
 tries bordering "on Palestine, and of the 
 provinces of die Roman empire into which 
 Christianity was introduced, during the 
 age of the apostles. The sources of this 
 science are the Scriptures, the writings of 
 Josephus, the geographical authors of 
 antiquity, Strabo, Ptolemy and Pompo- 
 nius Mela, and the Onomasticon Urbium 
 et Locorum Scriptura Sacra:, written by 
 Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea, in the fourth 
 century, in Greek, and translated by Je- 
 
 rome into Latin. Among the learned 
 moderns who have cultivated this science, 
 so important for the interpreter of the 
 Holy Scriptures, are Bachiene, Wells, and 
 the Dutchman Ysbrand of Hamelsfeld. 
 (See Geography.) 
 
 BIBLE SOCIETIES. A clergyman of 
 Wales, whom the want of a Welsh Bible 
 led to London, occasioned the establish- 
 ment of the British and foreign Bible 
 society, which was founded in London, 
 March 7,1804. It was called the Bible 
 society, because its object was the distri- 
 bution of the Bible ; British, because its 
 operations were first directed towards the 
 poor of Great Britain ; and foreign, be- 
 cause it proposed, as far as its means would 
 permit, to send Bibles, in all languages, to 
 all parts of the world. The Bibles dis- 
 tributed by the society were to be without 
 additions and explanations, in order to 
 give them a more universal circulation. 
 In the same year, the first general meet- 
 ing was held in London, which unani- 
 mously adopted the proposed plan. Lord 
 Teignmouth was chosen president, and 
 many bishops, lords and members of par- 
 liament accepted the office of vice-presi- 
 dent. In 1815, 484 similar institutions 
 had been formed in all parts of Great 
 Britain, and connected with the former as 
 a parent society, to support it with pe- 
 cuniary contributions, and to receive, in 
 return, a supply of Bibles. There are, 
 besides, several Bible societies among the 
 lower class of people, the members of 
 which pay, weekly, a penny or a .half- 
 penny to provide themselves, their chil- 
 dren or other poor persons with Bibles. 
 In Germany, Switzerland, Holland, Rus- 
 sia, Sweden, Denmark, America, similar 
 Bible societies have been formed, and are 
 connected with the British. The 24th 
 annual report of the British and foreign 
 Bible society in London, 1828, gives a list 
 of editions of the whole or parts of the 
 Scriptures, printed for the society, in the 
 following languages : English, Welsh, 
 Gaelic, Irish, Manks, French, Basque, 
 Breton, Flemish, Spanish, Portuguese, 
 Italian, Dutch, Danish, Hebrew, Swedish, 
 German, Polish, Greek (ancient and mod- 
 ern), Armenian (ancient and modern), 
 Arabic, Coptic, Indo-Portuguese, Syriac, 
 Carshun, Esquimaux, Mohawk, Ethiopic, 
 Malay, Turkish, Hindostanee, Greenland- 
 ish, Amharic, Persian, Bohemian, Latin, 
 Albanian. The same report gives the 
 following summary of languages and di- 
 alects, in which the distribution, printing 
 or translation of the Scriptures, in whole 
 or in part, has been promoted by the so-
 
 BIBLE SOCIETIES. 
 
 93 
 
 ciety, directly or indirectly : Reprints, 
 42 ; retranslations, 5 ; languages and di- 
 alects in which the Scriptures had never 
 been printed before the institution of the 
 society, 58 ; new translations commenced 
 or completed, 38 ; total, 143. The soci- 
 ety provides many translations of single 
 books of the Bible, or of the New Testa- 
 ment, in numerous languages and dialects 
 of the nations of Middle and Eastern Asia, 
 at Calcutta and Madras ; as well as in the 
 languages of the Levant, North Africa, 
 &c. (e. g., the Arabic, Tartar, Syriac, and 
 two dialects of the Ethiopic), at Smyrna, 
 Malta, and other depots of the Mediterra- 
 nean ; and aids all the Bible societies of 
 the continent of 'Europe. It has agents 
 in almost all parts of the inhabited globe, 
 who travel at its expense, to discover the 
 best means of diffusing the Bible, and to 
 procure able translators and manuscripts 
 of ancient translations for the use of the 
 society. Pinkerton found, in Paris, trans- 
 lations of the Bible in the dialects of 
 Northern Asia and Thibet, with the char- 
 acters belonging to them, which had been 
 brought to France, under Napoleon, from 
 the archives of the propaganda at Rome. 
 The most difficult translation was that 
 into the Esquimaux language. Accord- 
 ing to the 24th report above-mentioned, 
 published in 1828, there were issued in 
 England, during the 24th year from the es- 
 tablishment of the society, Bibles, 137,102 ; 
 Testaments, 199,108 ; purchased and is- 
 sued for the society, in foreign parts, du- 
 ring the same period, Bibles, 212,024 ; 
 Testaments, 818,834 : total issued on ac- 
 count of the society, from its establish- 
 ment, Bibles, 2,248,182 ; Testaments, 
 3,422,341 ; grand total, 5,670,523. In 
 addition to this, the society has granted 
 about 53,800 for distributing, in various 
 parts of the European continent, French, 
 German, Swedish and Danish Bibles and 
 Testaments. The number of Bible so- 
 cieties throughout the world, given in the 
 same report, is as follows : In Great 
 Britain and Ireland, connected with the 
 British and foreign Bible society, 2G2 
 auxiliaries, 350 branches, and 1493 asso- 
 ciations ; in Ireland, connected with the 
 Hibernian Bible society, 70 auxiliaries, 38 
 branches, and 18 associations ; on the 
 European continent and in the Ionian 
 islands, 854 societies; in Asia, 13; iii 
 Africa, 4 ; in America, 549 (there are, in 
 fact, 631 societies in America, in the 
 present year, 1829); total, 4291. In Ger- 
 many, the following were the chief Bible 
 societies in 1817 : 1 at Hanover, where 
 an edition of the Bible, of 10,000 copies, 
 
 has been completed ; 1 at Berlin ; 1 at 
 Dresden, which, besides a stereotype edi- 
 tion of the German Bible, has also publish- 
 ed an edition, in the Wendish tongue, for 
 Lusatia ; 1 at Frankfort on the Maine. In 
 Bavaria, the distribution of the Bible has 
 been confined to the efforts of individuals. 
 (180,000 copies of the Catholic transla- 
 tions of the New Testament, by Gossner 
 and van Ess, had been distributed in 
 Germany and Switzerland, up to 1821. 
 Many of these reached the Austrian prov- 
 inces, which at present are closed against 
 German Bibles.) The society at Stutt- 
 gart has printed an edition of 10,000 Bi- 
 bles and 2000 Testaments, which have 
 already been taken up. Societies exist at 
 Hamburg, Baden, Weimar, Bremen, Lvi- 
 beck ; at Schleswig-Holstein, Schwerin, 
 Ratzeburg, Eutin, Brunswick, &c. (each 
 of them having auxiliary societies). Prot- 
 estant Switzerland has a Bible society of 
 its own ; so has the kingdom of the 
 Netherlands, which provides its colonies 
 with Bibles. In Paris, such a society was 
 instituted, Dec. 6, 1818, for the Protestants 
 in France. The means of this society 
 were small (in 1820, not more than 58,212 
 francs had been received), and it had 
 principally in view the supplying of 
 schools, hospitals and prisons ; but, as 
 Catholics also have received the Bible, it 
 has met with a strong opposition from 
 the papal-Jesuitical party in France. In 
 Strasburg, an edition of 20,000 Bibles was 
 printed for Alsace. In Sweden, the chief 
 society in Stockholm have distributed a 
 Targe number of Bibles and Testaments. 
 In Norway and Denmark, editions have 
 been published with the same view, and 
 the Danish society has branches in Ice- 
 land and the West Indies. The Russian 
 society in Petersburg has vied with the 
 English, and some years since had print- 
 ed the Bible in 31 languages and dialects 
 spoken in the Russian dominions, among 
 which is one in the modern Russian, 
 since die translation of the church is in 
 the Sclavonic, and unintelligible to lay- 
 men. This new translation has been 
 joyfully received by the country people, 
 and shows them the errors and many su- 
 perstitions which disfigure the ritual of 
 the Greek church. On this account, it 
 will probably give rise to contests, which 
 can hardly be terminated without a grad- 
 ual reformation of the Greek church. 
 Part of the clergy are opposed to the 
 distribution of the Bible, and persecutions 
 against zealous readers of the sacred book 
 have already taken place in the more 
 distant governments. The Gospels in the
 
 94 
 
 BIBLE SOCIETIES. 
 
 Calmuc language and the Persian New 
 Testaments are much' sought for. A 
 translation of the Bible for the Booriaits, 
 Mongol worshippers of the Lama, near 
 lake Baikal, is preparing, with the assist- 
 ance of two young Booriaits of high birth, 
 who embraced Christianity at Petersburg. 
 Auxiliary societies have been formed at 
 Irkutsk, Tobolsk, among the Kirghises, 
 Georgians, and Cossacks of the Don. 
 The word of God is carried from Odessa 
 to the Levant. The bull of Pius VII, 
 June 28, 1816, obtained by the archbishop 
 of Gnesen, did not prevent the Poles from 
 forming a society in Warsaw, under the 
 protection of Alexander. In 1817, the 
 distribution of the Bible by such societies 
 was forbidden in Austria, and those al- 
 ready existing in Hungary were sup- 
 pressed. Italy, Spain and Portugal have 
 had, as yet, no Bible societies; France 
 only one ; but the English have provided 
 them with Bibles in their own tongues. In 
 the U. States of America, the great Amer- 
 ican Bible society, formed in 1816, acts in 
 concert with the auxiliary societies, of 
 which, in 1829, there were 630. The 
 management of the society is intrusted 
 to a board of managers ; stereotype plates 
 have been procured, and Bibles are issued 
 at a low price for the auxiliaries, and for 
 gratuitous distribution among the poor. 
 During the first year, 6,410 copies of Bi- 
 bles and Testaments were distributed. 
 In 1827, the number amounted to 134,000, 
 and, during the first 8 months of 1828, to 
 146,000. The whole number issued since 
 the organization of the society is about 
 700,000. These have been mostly in Eng- 
 lish, Spanish and French, from the society's 
 plates. The managers have occasionally 
 purchased Bibles in Europe, and issued 
 them to applicants, in German, Dutch, 
 Welsh, Gaelic, Portuguese, modern Greek, 
 and some other European languages. 
 They have also furnished money to print 
 translations into pagan languages, by 
 American missionaries. They have in 
 operation 8 power-presses and 20 hand- 
 presses, and copies are prepared at the rate 
 of 300,000 a year. Many of the auxiliary 
 societies have undertaken to discover the 
 number of families in their vicinity desti- 
 tute of the Bible, and to supply them. It 
 is the object of the society to supply every 
 family in the U. States, before devoting 
 much attention to distribution abroad. 
 Yet Spanish America and Ceylon, Greece 
 and the Sandwich islands, have been fur- 
 nished with Bibles by the society. The 
 colonies also exert themselves in this 
 cause. Hayti has offered her assistance, 
 
 and even the Esquimaux already read 
 the Acts of the Apostles in their own 
 language. A similar zeal for the distri- 
 bution of the Bible has been awakened in 
 Southern Africa and in India, where Bi- 
 bles are published in the languages of the 
 country : even the islands on the eastern 
 coast of Asia are not neglected. In the 
 Netherlands, there is a fraternal union of 
 different sects for this purpose, as is also 
 the case in other countries containing 
 various sects. Such associations excite 
 among different sects a feeling of mutual 
 sympathy, by a consideration of their 
 mutual participation in the most impor- 
 tant truths of Christianity. Such a gen- 
 eral diffusion of the Bible is an event of 
 great historical importance. Its transla- 
 tion into languages which have been 
 hitherto destitute of all literature, and 
 even of writing, must contribute greatly 
 to the progress of intellectual cultivation 
 throughout the earth, and must have an 
 especial influence on the advancement 
 of general philology. The Bible societies 
 may be considered as assisting to pave 
 the way for the introduction of European 
 civilization into all the less enlightened 
 regions of the'earth. The societies ad- 
 here to the principle of publishing the 
 Bible without notes, starting from the 
 Protestant principle, that the Bible, and 
 the Bible alone, is the foundation of 
 Christian faith. Undoubtedly, the various 
 sects of Christians, differing so greatly as 
 they do, and always must, respecting cer- 
 tain points of faith and the interpretation 
 of particular passages of the Scriptures, 
 could not be made to co-operate with zeal 
 in the distribution of the Bible, if the text 
 were accompanied with commentaries. 
 But now missionaries and ministers must 
 supply, by verbal explanation, the place 
 of notes, because it is clear to every body 
 that the Bible cannot be understood 
 without the explanation afforded by 
 study. Thus the opinions of individuals, 
 orally delivered, are substituted for the 
 more precise and profound criticism of 
 united commentators. It seems to us, 
 that the friends of Bible societies and 
 their opponents (a part of the Catholic 
 clergy) have both run into extremes ; the 
 former by injudiciously distributing the 
 Scriptures, in some cases, before people 
 were fit to understand them ; and the lat- 
 ter by an unqualified prohibition of the 
 reading of the Bible by the laity. The 
 order of the pope, that only certain edi- 
 tions and versions should be read by the 
 Catholics, originated from views founded 
 on the experience of all ages of Chris^
 
 BIBLE SOCIETIES BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
 
 95 
 
 tianity, that men of pure intentions often 
 fall into dreadful errors and absurdities 
 from want of just direction in the study 
 of the Bible. And it remains a fact not 
 to be disputed by the most ardent defend- 
 er of immediate and supernatural assist- 
 ance to the reader of the Bible, that, 
 being com{>osed of parts extremely vari- 
 ous in their character, written in times 
 and countries very remote from us, often 
 in metaphorical language, and intimately 
 connected with the customs, views, his- 
 tory and language of particular nations, 
 and even individuals, its real meaning is 
 not to be found without an extensive study 
 of many different branches of science, 
 the results of which may be used to assist 
 the less informed reader. History shows 
 us, that the blackest crimes and the most 
 egregious follies have been defended by 
 the misapplication of the text of the Sa- 
 cred Scriptures. It must be left to time 
 to show what will be the ultimate effect 
 of Bible societies. Undoubtedly it will be 
 found, that some portion of their efforts 
 have been made in vain, as was, indeed, 
 to be expected ; and, in many instances, 
 they appear to us to have been made 
 injudiciously. The extension of the 
 habit of reading through so many parts 
 of the world, we imagine, will be 
 one of the greatest and most lasting 
 consequences of the exertions of these 
 societies. 
 
 BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY is the science 
 which describes the political state, man- 
 ners and customs of the Jewish nation, 
 as well as the usages of the early Chris- 
 tian church ; consequently, the antiquities 
 of the Bible. Civil relations, religious 
 ceremonies, holy places, domestic cus- 
 toms and utensils, modes of dress, and 
 other external circumstances, form the 
 subject of this science. The antiquities of 
 the Bible are partly Jewish, partly Chris- 
 tian. The sources of the former are the 
 Old Testament, the works of Josephus 
 and Philo, the Talmud, and the writings 
 of the rabbins. The sources of Chris- 
 tian antiquities are the New Testament 
 and the writings of the fathers, who 
 lived and wrote soon after the age of the 
 apostles. Without the knowledge of the 
 manners and customs of a nation, many 
 passages of their authors, which contain 
 allusions to them, remain unintelligible, 
 and, on this account, the knowledge of 
 the antiquities of the Bible is necessary to 
 the interpreter of the Holy Scriptures. 
 Among the modern authors, who have 
 written on Jewish antiquities, Voland, 
 John Simonis, Ernst Aug. Schulz, George 
 
 Lawrence Bauer, Warnekros de Wette 
 and John Jahn particularly deserve to 
 be mentioned. We may find information 
 concerning Christian antiquities in the 
 commentaries on the New Testament, 
 and in the historians of the church. The 
 Germans have particularly distinguished 
 themselves in this department. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY (from fr/Aiov, a book, 
 and ypa^w, I describe) was originally a 
 branch of archaography, or the art of de- 
 scribing or explaining antiquities, and de- 
 noted skill in the perusing and judging 
 of ancient manuscripts ; but in its modern 
 and more extended sense, it signifies the 
 knowledge of books, in reference to the 
 subjects discussed in them, their different 
 degrees of rarity, curiosity, reputed and 
 real value, the materials of which they 
 are composed, and the rank which they 
 ought to hold in the classification of a 
 library. It is, therefore, divided into two 
 branches, the first of which has, reference 
 to the contents of books, and may be 
 called, for want of a better phrase, intel- 
 lectual bibliography ; the second treats of 
 their external character, the history of 
 particular copies, &c., and may be termed 
 material bibliography. The object of the 
 first kind is to acquaint literary men with 
 the most valuable books in every depart- 
 ment of study, either by means of cata- 
 logues raisonnees simply, or by similar 
 catalogues accompanied with critical re- 
 marks. Bibliography belongs to those 
 sciences, the progress of which is de- 
 pendent, iu a great degree, on external 
 circumstances. It has been and still is 
 cultivated most successfully in France. 
 This is owing not only to the riches of 
 the great and daily increasing public li- 
 braries, liberally thrown open to the use 
 of the public, tlie large number of fine 
 private collections, and the familiarity of 
 its numerous literary men with books 
 of all ages and countries, but, in a great 
 degree, to the practical spirit of the nation 
 which induces their bibliographers to 
 keep constantly in view the supply of 
 existing wants. Brunei's Manuel du IA- 
 braire was the first important work which 
 contained, in an alphabetical form, a list 
 of the most valuable and costly books of 
 all literatures ; Barbier's Dictionnaire des 
 Ouvrages Anonymes, the first systematic 
 and satisfactory treatise on this subject ; 
 Renouard's Catalogue d 1 un Amateur, the 
 first, and, for a long time, the best guide 
 of the French collectors ; the Bibliogra- 
 phic de la France, the first work which 
 showed how the yearly accumulation of 
 literary works can be recorded in the
 
 96 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
 
 most authentic manner. No less valuable 
 are the works of Peignot, Petit Radel, 
 Renouard on the Aldines (see Aldim 
 Editions), and many others. English 
 bibliography can boast of but one of 
 the advantages of the French; that is, of 
 rich public and private collections ; but the 
 use of them is allowed only to a limited 
 degree, and the English bibliographers 
 are far behind the French. The works of 
 doctor Adam Clarke (Bibliographical Dic- 
 tionary, 1820) and of Robert Watt (Bibli- 
 otheca Britannica, 1810) are compilations 
 of little value ; the undigested collections 
 of Beloe (Anecdotes of Literature, 1807), 
 of Brydges (British Bibliographer, 1818 ; 
 Censura Littraria, 1805), of Savage (the 
 Librarian, 1808), and others, are destitute 
 of judicious selection, and often of cor- 
 rectness. Ottley's Inquiry into the Origin 
 and Early History of Engraving (1816), 
 and Singer's Researches into the History 
 of Playing Cards (1816), works which be- 
 long to very important points of bibliogra- 
 phy, are deficient in correct criticism ; and 
 if we are not dazzled by the type, the 
 paper and the engravings of Dibdin's 
 productions (Typographical Antiquities, 
 1810 ; Bibliotheca Spenceriana, 1814 ; Bib- 
 liographical Decameron, 1817; Tour in 
 France and Germany, 1821), we cannot 
 be blind to the superficial acquirements 
 of the author. There is now publishing, 
 in England, the Bibliographer's Manual, 
 an imitation of Brunei's Manuel above- 
 mentioned. It is to be completed in 12 
 parts. The learned Germans, little assist- 
 ed by public, almost entirely destitute of 
 private collections, consulting only the 
 real wants of the science, have actively 
 endeavored to promote it. Ersch is the 
 founder of German bibliography. He 
 gave it a truly scientific character by his 
 extensive work, Jlllge.mt.ines Repertorium 
 der Literatur (Universal Repertory of 
 Literature, 17931807), and by his Hand- 
 buck der Deidschen Isiteratur (Manual of 
 German Literature). German bibliogra- 
 phy is particularly rich in the literature 
 of separate sciences ; and the bibliography 
 of the Greek and Latin literature, as well 
 as the branch which treats of ancient edi- 
 tions, was founded by the Germans. The 
 first attempt, in Germany, to prepare a 
 universal bibliographical work, was made 
 by Ebert (q. v.), who wrote, also, in the 
 10th number of Hermes, a review of the 
 whole modern ' German bibliography. 
 The booksellers' dictionary is a very 
 valuable German bibliographical work. 
 A supplement is published annually. 
 The following are valuable German bib- 
 
 liographical works in particular depart- 
 ments of science and literature : T. A. 
 Nosselt's Jlmveisung zur Kcnntniss der Bes- 
 ten Mlgemeinen Biicher in der Theologie, 
 4th ed. Leipsir, 1800, and the continua- 
 tion of it by Simon, Leipsic, 1813 ; C. F. 
 Burdach's lAtcralur der Heilwissenschaft, 
 Gotha, 1810, 2 vols. ; W. Gf. Ploucquet's 
 Literatura Medico, Tubingen, 1808, 4 vols. 
 4to. ; T..G. Meusel's Bibliotheca Historica, 
 Leipsic, 17821802, 11 vols. in 22 vol- 
 umes, not finished ; his Literatur der 
 Statistik, Leipsic, 1816, 2 vols. ; G. R, 
 Bohmer's Bibliotheca Scriptorum Histories, 
 JVaturalis, Leipsic, 1785 99, 7 vols. : 
 Alb. Haller's Bibliotheca Botanica, Zurich, 
 1771, 2 vols., 4to. ; Jlnatomica, Zurich, 
 1774, 2 vols., 4to. ; Chirurgica, Bern, 1774, 
 2 vols., 4to., and Medicince Practice, Bern, 
 1776 et seq., 4 vols., 4to., &c. Fred. Blume 
 has lately published the first volume of 
 Her Italicum, containing an account of the 
 archives, inscriptions and libraries in the 
 Sardinian and Austrian prpvinces. Italian 
 bibliography is no longer what it Was in 
 the times of Mazzuchelli, AudifFredi and 
 Tiraboschi. A great indifference is al- 
 most universal in regard to the public 
 libraries ; the private collections are be- 
 coming more and more scarce, arid the 
 precious ones of count Cassano Serra 
 and Melzi, in Naples and Milan, have 
 been lately sold to England. The bib- 
 liographical works of Italy treat prin- 
 cipally of the provincial libraries (one of 
 the latest is Moreri's Biblwgrafia detta 
 Toscana, 1805) : Gamba's Serie de' Testi 
 (1812) is a very valuable work. The 
 Dutch, Spaniards and Portuguese have, 
 of late years, done little for this science ; 
 but the > leariied Bentkowsky's Polish 
 Literature (1814) deserves the highest 
 praise. The count Zechc-nyi, a Hunga-' 
 rian, published a catalogue of all Hun- 
 garian works, Pest, 1799 1807, 9 vols., 
 ovo., and 1 vol., 4to. Russia has pro- 
 duced, in the department of bibliography, 
 little more than catalogues. In regard to 
 particular sciences, many useful cata- 
 logues exist, commonly called BiblwthectE. 
 Well arranged and accurate catalogues 
 of -libraries, which are rich in particular 
 departments-, may be used with advan- 
 tage by the bibliographer, as may, also, 
 the annual catalogue of the book-fair at 
 Leipsic (See Books, Catalogues of.) 
 Directions for the study of bibliography 
 are contained in Achard's Cours de Bib- 
 liographic (Marseilles, 1807, 3 vols.), Th. 
 Hartwell Home's Introduction to the 
 Study of Bibliography (London, 1814, 2 
 vols.), and Gabr. Peignot's Didionnaire
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOMANIA. 
 
 97 
 
 raisonne de Bibliologie (Paris, 1802 4, 
 3 vols.) 
 
 Material Bibliography, often called, by 
 way of eminence, bibliography, considers 
 books in regard to their exterior, their his- 
 tory, &-C., and has been principally culti- 
 vated in France and England. The differ- 
 ent branches of material bibliography 
 (see, also, Bibliomania) may here be men- 
 tioned : the knowledge of the ancient 
 editions (incunabula, or, if classical au- 
 thors, editiones principes), some of the 
 best works on which are, G. Wfg. Pan- 
 zer's dnnales Typographici (Nuremberg, 
 1793 1803, 11 vols., 4to.), coming down 
 to 1536 ; the Atndet Typographici, by 
 Maittaire (Hague, 1719 et seq., 11 vols., 
 4to.), which not only contains the titles, 
 but investigates the subjects of works. 
 More exact descriptions of particular an- 
 cient editions are found in Serna Santan- 
 der's Didionn. Bibliogr. der lareme Siecle 
 (Brussels, 1805, 3 vols.) ; Fossius' Cata- 
 logue Codicum, sec. 15, Impressor. Bibli- 
 otheccB Magliabecchiaruz (Florence, 1793, 
 
 3 vols. fol.), and others. The study of 
 rare books, on account of the vague prin- 
 ciples on which it rests, is more difficult 
 than is generally believed, and easily de- 
 generates into superficial and capricious 
 trifling. This has been more injured 
 than promoted by I. Vogt's Catalogue 
 Librorum Rariorum (Frankfort and Leip- 
 sic, 1793), and J. Jac. Bauer's Bibliotkeca 
 Libror. Rarior. Universalis (Nuremberg, 
 1770 91, 12 vols.) We may also men- 
 tion here the catalogues of the books pro- 
 hibited by the Roman church (Indices 
 Librorum Prohibitorum et Expurgatorum). 
 For the discovery of the authors of anon- 
 ymous and pseudonymous works, we may 
 use Barbiers Dictionnaire des Ouvrages 
 anonymes et pseudonymes (Paris 1806 9, 
 
 4 vols.), which is valuable for its accuracy 
 (but it contains only French and Latin 
 works). We need not observe, what an 
 important source of information, in the 
 department of bibliography, are literary 
 journals. (See Bibliomania,) 
 
 BIBLIOMAXCY ; divination performed by 
 means of the Bible ; also called sortes 
 Liblica', or sortes sanctorum. It consisted 
 in taking passages at hazard, and drawing 
 indications thence concerning things fu- 
 ture. It was much used at the consecra- 
 tion of bishops. It was a practice adopted 
 from the heathens, who drew the same 
 kind of prognostication from the works 
 of Homer and Virgil. In 465, the coun- 
 cil of Vannes condemned all who prac- 
 tised this art to be cast out of the com- 
 munion of the church ; as did the councils 
 
 VOL. II. 9 
 
 of Agde and Auxerre. But, in the 12th 
 century, we find it employed as a mode 
 of detecting heretics. In the Gallican 
 church, it was long practised in the elec- 
 tion of bishops ; children being employed, 
 on behalf of each candidate, to draw slips 
 of paper with texts on them, and that 
 which was thought most favorable de- 
 cided the choice. A similar mode was 
 pursued at the installation of abbots, and 
 the reception of canons ; and this custom 
 is said to have continued in the cathedrals 
 of Ypres, St. Omer and Boulogne, as late 
 as the year 1744. In the Greek church, 
 we read of the prevalence of this custom 
 as early as the consecration of Athana- 
 sius, on whose behalf the presiding pre- 
 late, Caracalla, archbishop of Nicomedia, 
 opened the Gospels at the words, "For 
 the devil and his angels." Matt. xxv. 41. 
 The bishop of Nice first saw them, and 
 adroitly turned over the leaf to another 
 verse, which was instantly read aloud: 
 " The birds of the air came and lodged 
 in the branches thereof." Matt. xiii. 32. 
 But, this passage appearing irrelevant to 
 the ceremony, the first became gradually 
 known, and the church of Constantinople 
 was violently agitated by the most fatal 
 divisions during the patriarchate. 
 
 BIBLIOMANIA is a word lately formed 
 from the Greek, and signifies a passion 
 for possessing curious books. The true 
 bibliomanist is determined in the purchase 
 of books, less by the value of their con- 
 tents, than by certain accidental circum- 
 stances attending them. To be valuable 
 in his eyes, they must belong to particular 
 classes, be made of singular materials, 
 or have something remarkable in their 
 history. Some books acquire the char- 
 acter of belonging to particular classes, 
 from treating of a particular subject of 
 interest to the bibliomanist ; others from 
 something peculiar in their mechanical 
 execution, or from the circumstance of 
 having issued from a press of uncommon 
 eminence, or because they once belonged 
 to the library of an eminent man. Some 
 of these collections are of much intrinsic 
 value. Among them are, various editions 
 of the Bible (the most complete is at 
 Stuttgart) ; collections of editions of 
 single classics (e. g., those of Horace and 
 Cicero, in the city library at Leipsic); 
 the editions in usum Delphini and cum 
 notis variorum ; the editions of Italian 
 classics printed by the academy della 
 Crusca ; works printed by the Elzevirs, 
 by Aldus, Comino in Padua, *nd Bodoni 
 (the most complete collection of Bodoni's 
 editions is in the library of the duchess
 
 98 
 
 BIBLIOMANIA. 
 
 d'Abrantes) ; the classics edited by Mait- 
 taire, Foulis, Barbou, Brindley, and oth- 
 ers, and the celebrated Bipont editions ; 
 with others. It was more customary in 
 former times than at present to make 
 collections of books which have some- 
 thing remarkable in their history ; e. g., 
 books which have become very scarce, 
 and such as have been prohibited. Of 
 the first sort, the collections of Erigel and 
 Salthon were formerly among the most 
 considerable. The one at Dresden is 
 among the largest now existing. Books 
 distinguished for remarkable mutilations 
 have also been eagerly sought for. Those 
 which appeared in the infancy of typog- 
 raphy, called incunabula, from the Lat- 
 in cunce, a cradle, principally the first 
 editions (editiones principes) of the an- 
 cient classics, are still in general request. 
 Much of the value of a book, in the eyes of 
 a bibliomanist, depends upon the material 
 of which it is composed. An enormous 
 price is frequently given for splendid proof 
 hnpressions of copperplate engravings, and 
 for colored impressions, for works adorned 
 with miniatures and illuminated initial let- 
 ters ; likewise for such as are printed upon 
 vellum. (The most considerable collec- 
 tion of vellum copies was sold at auction, 
 in 1815, at the sale of McCarthy's books, 
 in Paris. A bibliographical work upon 
 this subject is now preparing by van Praet, 
 in Paris.) Works printed upon paper of 
 uncommon materials (e. g., (Euvres du 
 Marquis de Villdo, Lond. 1786, 16mo.), or 
 various substitutes for paper (e. g., E. 
 Bruckmann's Natural History of Asbestos, 
 upon paper made of asbestos, Brunswick, 
 1727, 4to.), have been much sought after ; 
 likewise those printed upon colored pa- 
 per. In Italy, the color of books of this 
 sort is commonly blue ; in France, rose- 
 color ; in some ancient German books, the 
 color is yellow ; sometimes, though rarely, 
 green. A list of books of this class is to 
 be found in Peignot's Repertoire des Bib- 
 liographies speciales, Paris, 1810. Other 
 books in high esteem among bibliomanists, 
 are those which are printed on large pa- 
 per, with very wide margins. True bib- 
 liomanists often measure the margin by 
 inches and lines. In English advertise- 
 ments of rare Ixjoks, some one is often 
 mentioned as particularly valuable on ac- 
 count of its being " a tall copy." If the 
 leaves happen to be uncut, the value of the 
 copy is much enhanced. Other works, 
 highly valued by bibliomanists, are those 
 which are printed with letters of gold or 
 silver, or ink of singular color ; e. g., 1. 
 Fasti Napolionei, Paris, 1804, 4to., a copy 
 
 on blue vellum paper, with golden letters ; 
 2. Magna Charta, London, Whitaker, 
 1816, folio, three copies upon purple- 
 colored veil inn, with golden letters ; also, 
 books printed from copperplates. Cata- 
 logues of these have been made by Peig- 
 not and others. In France and England, 
 the bibliomania often extends to the bind- 
 ing. In France, the bindings of Derome 
 and Bozcrian are most valued ; in Eng- 
 land, those of Charles Lewis and Roger 
 Payne, several specimens of whose skill 
 are to be seen in the library of lord Spen- 
 cer ; among others, the Glasgow edition 
 of ^Eschylus, 1795, the binding of which 
 cost 16 7s. sterling. Payne is said to 
 have sometimes received from 20 to 30 
 guineas for binding a single volume. 
 This species of luxury is carried to such 
 a height in London, that a copy of Mack- 
 lin's Bible (4 vols. in folio), in red or blue 
 morocco leather, costs 75 guineas, and 
 Boydell's large edition of Shakspeare 
 (9 v6ls. with large engravings) 132 ster- 
 ling. Even the edges of books are often 
 adorned with fine paintings. Many de- 
 vices have been adopted to give a factitious 
 value to bindings. JefTery, a London 
 bookseller, had Fox's History of Kihg 
 James II bound in fox-skin, in allusion to 
 the name of the author ; and the famous 
 English bibliomanist Askew even had a 
 book bound in human skin. In the li- 
 brary of the castle of Konigsberg are 20 
 books bound in silver (commonly called 
 the silver library.} These are richly 
 adorned with large and beautifully en- 
 graved gold plates, in the middle and on 
 the corners. To the exterior decorations 
 of books belongs the bordering of the 
 pages with single or double lines, drawn 
 with the pen (exemplaire regie), commoiv- 
 ly of red color a custom which we find 
 adopted in the early age of printing, in the 
 works printed by Stephens. The custom 
 of coloring engravings has been dropped, 
 except in cases where the subject particu- 
 larly requires it (for instance, in works 
 on natural history, or the costumes of 
 different nations), because the colors con- 
 ceal the delicacy of the engraving. On 
 this account, the colored copies of Durer's 
 wood-cuts are esteemed less than those 
 which are left uncolored. The other 
 means of idle competition being almost 
 all exhausted, the bibliomanists have late- 
 ly hit upon the idea of enriching many 
 works by the addition of engravings, il- 
 lustrative indeed of the text of the book, 
 but not particularly called for, and of pre- 
 paring only single copies. Thus Long- 
 man, in London, offers an illustrated copy
 
 BIBLIOMANIA BIDDLE. 
 
 99 
 
 of the otherwise common Biographical 
 Dictionary of all the Engravers, by John 
 Strutt (London, 1785 86, 2 vols. 4to.), 
 which is increased, in this way, to 37 large 
 vols., in folio, and costs not less than 
 2000 sterling. The library of Dresden 
 has a similar copy of Buddseus's Historical 
 Lexicon, of an earlier date. Among the 
 auctions, where the bibliomania raged 
 with the greatest fury, was that of the 
 library of the duke of Roxburgh (q. v.), in 
 London, 1812. Every work was bought at 
 almost incredible prices. The first edition 
 of Boccaccio, published by Valdarfer, in 
 1471, was sold for 2260 sterling; to the 
 memory of which a bibliomanio-Rox- 
 burgli club was founded in the following 
 year, of which lord Spencer is president. 
 It meets yearly on the 13th of July, the 
 anniversary of the sale of Boccaccio, in 
 the St. Alban's tavern. No further evi- 
 dence is necessary to show that biblioma- 
 nia, which flourished first in Holland (the 
 seat likewise of the tulipomania), towards 
 the end of the 17th century, prevails at 
 present in England to a much greater ex- 
 tent than in France, Italy or Germany. 
 Thomas F. Dibdin's Bibliomania or 
 Book-madness (London, 1811), and his 
 Bibliographical Decameron (London, 
 1817, 3 vols.}, contain many useful direc- 
 tions for the assistance of collectors of 
 books. The modern bibliomania is very 
 different from the spirit which led to the 
 purchase of books, in the middle ages, at 
 prices which appear to us enormous. Ex- 
 ternal decorations, it is true, were then 
 held in high esteem ; but the main reason 
 of the great sums then paid for books 
 was their scarcitj r , and the difficulty of 
 procuring perfect copies before the in- 
 vention of the art of printing. There is 
 sometimes found a rage for possessing 
 books, without reference to the value of 
 their contents, or the other circumstan- 
 ces which have been mentioned as in- 
 fluencing the bibliomanist. A priest in 
 Saxony is said to have murdered three 
 persons, with a view of getting posses- 
 sion of their libraries. These, however, 
 he did not read. 
 
 BICKTRE ; a castle and village in the 
 neighborhood of Paris, situated on a hill, 
 and commanding one of the finest pros- 
 pects of Paris, of the course of the Seine, 
 and of the environs. Louis XIII erected 
 the castle for the residence of invalids. 
 When Louis XIV afterwards erected the 
 great hotel royal des invcdides, B. became 
 a great hospital, for which it is particular- 
 ly adapted by its healthy situation : water 
 only was wanting in its vicinity, to obtain 
 
 which a well was dug in the rock (1733). 
 B. contains also a house of correction 
 (maison de force) for dissolute persons, 
 swindlers, thieves, &c. Since the revo- 
 lution, a prison for criminals condemned 
 to the galleys has been erected here, 
 from which they are transferred to the 
 public ship-yards. In the prison and the 
 house of correction are shops for the 
 grinding of glass, and for other kinds of 
 work, in which the prisoners are usefully 
 employed. In the hospital of B., 2200 
 beds are devoted to the reception of aged 
 patients. No one is admitted under the 
 age of 70 years. They are attended to 
 with the greatest care, and fabricate neat 
 little works of wood and bone, known in 
 France by the name of Bicetre ivork.^. A 
 large hospital for incurable madmen has 
 also been erected since the revolution. 
 
 BIDASSOA, a boundary river between 
 Spain and France, rises in the Spanish 
 territory, becomes a boundary at Vera, 
 and is navigable to Biriatou at high tide. 
 It forms the isle of Pheasants, or the isl- 
 and of Conference, where the peace of 
 the Pyrenees was concluded (1659), and 
 falls into the bay of Biscay, between 
 Andaye and Fontarabia. On the Span- 
 ish side of the river, on the margin of the 
 valley through which it flows, is K!i advan- 
 tageous position, near St. Marcial, which 
 commands the great road to Bavonne, 
 before which (Aug. 31, 1813) 8000 "Span- 
 iards repulsed a French force of double 
 that number, who attempted to force this 
 position in order to relieve St. Sebastian. 
 
 BIDDLE, John, a celebrated Socinian 
 writer, was born in 1615, at Wotton- 
 under-Edge, in Gloucestershire. He en- 
 tered Magdalen college, Oxford, in his 
 19th year. He graduated as A. M. in 
 1641. Being led to doubt of the doctrine 
 of the Trinity, he drew up 12 arguments 
 on the subject ; in consequence of which he 
 was committed to jail by the parliament- 
 ary committee then sitting at Gloucester, 
 but was liberated on security being given 
 for his appearance when called for. About 
 six months afterwards, he was examined 
 before a committee of the parliament, to 
 whom he readily acknowledged his opin- 
 ion against the divinity of the Holy Ghost. 
 His Twelve Arguments were now order- 
 ed to be burnt by the common hang- 
 man. He however persisted in his opin- 
 ion, and, in 1648, published two tracts, 
 containing his Confessions of Faith 
 concerning the Holy Trinity, and The 
 Testimonies of Irenanis, Justin Martyr, 
 and several other early writers on the 
 same subject. These publications in-
 
 BIDDLE BIGAMY. 
 
 duced the assembly of divines to solicit 
 parliament to decree the punishment of 
 death against those who should impugn 
 the established opinions respecting the 
 Trinity and other doctrinal points, as 
 well as to enact severe penalties for mi- 
 nor deviations. The parliament indulged 
 these ministers in their intolerant request, 
 which immediately exposed Biddle, who 
 would neither consent nor recant, to the 
 loss of life ; but difference of opinion in 
 the parliament itself, and the penalties to 
 which this sweeping measure rendered 
 many in the army liable, prevented its 
 execution. He was, some time after, 
 again remanded to prison, by the zeal of 
 president Bradshaw, and remained for 
 some years in confinement, subjected to 
 the greatest privations. A general act of 
 oblivion, in 1651, restored him to liberty, 
 when he immediately disseminated his 
 opinions, both by preaching and by the 
 publication of his Twofold Scripture 
 Catechism. A complaint being made 
 to Cromwell's parliament against this 
 book, he was confined in the gate-house 
 for six months. Cromwell banished him 
 to St. Mary's castle, Scilly, where he as- 
 signed him an annual subsistence of a 
 hundred crowns. Here he remained 
 three years, until the protector liberated 
 liim, in 1658. He then became pastor of 
 an independent congregation, and contin- 
 ued to support his opinions, until fear of 
 the Presbyterian parliament of Richard 
 Cromwell induced him to retire into the 
 country. On the dissolution of that par- 
 liament, he preached as before, until the 
 restoration, which obliged him to confine 
 his exertions to private preaching. He 
 was, however, in June, 1662, apprehend- 
 ed at one of the private assemblies, and, 
 upon process of law, fined 100, and 
 ordered to lie in prison until it was paid. 
 He fell a martyr to this sentence, by catch- 
 ing one of the distempers so common at 
 that time in jails, and died in Sept. of this 
 year, hi the 47th year of his age, a mar- 
 tyr to religious intolerance. The private 
 character of this courageous sectarian, 
 like that of most of those who suffer 
 from principle, was moral, benevolent 
 and exemplary ; and his learning and 
 logical acuteness rendered him very fit 
 to gain proselytes. He did not agree in 
 all points with Socinus, but was apparent- 
 ly unsolicitous to establish a perfect agree- 
 ment. Toulmiri styles him the father of 
 the modern Unitarians. 
 
 BIDPAI. (See Pilpay.) 
 
 BIELEFELD ; a town in the province of 
 Westphalia, near Prussian Minden ; Ion. 
 
 8 27' E. ; lat. 51 53' N. ; population, 
 6000. The best German linens are man- 
 ufactured here, and exported, in large 
 quantities, to South America. 
 
 BIEVRE, marquis de, marshal, born 
 1747, served in the corps of the French 
 musketeers, was a life-guard of the king 
 of France, and acquired much reputation 
 by his puns and repartees. After publish- 
 ing several entertaining works, he com- 
 posed (1783) Le Seducteur, a comedy in 
 verse, for the theatre, which has main- 
 tained its place on the stage, although it 
 is bad both in plan and execution. When 
 he was introduced to Louis XV, the king 
 wished to hear a calembourg (pun) of his. 
 Donnez-moi un sujet, sire, said B. Faitts- 
 en un surmoi. Sire, le wiriest pas un sujet, 
 was the witty answer of B. In 1789, he 
 went to Spa for the benefit of his health, 
 and died there. Me.s amis, he said, dying, 
 je m'en vais de ce pas (de Spa). He has 
 written several works; among others, an 
 Almanac des Calembourgs. There is also 
 a collection of his jests called Bievriana. 
 
 BIGAMY, in the canon law, means being 
 twice married ; in the common acceptation 
 of the word, as a term of municipal law, 
 it means the being married to two wives 
 or husbands at the same time. Though 
 the laws relating to plurality of wives or 
 husbands might, with more strict propri- 
 ety, be treated of under the head of polyg- 
 amy, they are more usually brought under 
 that of bigamy ; and, in compliance with 
 this usage, they will be introduced in this 
 place. The laws of every civilized soci- 
 ety make some provision respecting this 
 subject. By the statute of 4 Edward 
 I, stat. 3, c. 5, the marrying of a second 
 husband or wife, the first being alive, was 
 made felony ; and, by that of 2 James I, 
 c. 11, this crime was made punishable by 
 death. But the same statute provided 
 that, where either party was absent be- 
 vond seas for seven years, whether 
 known or not known to the other party 
 to be alive, or was absent, though not be- 
 yond seas, for .the same period, and not 
 known by the other to be alive, the other 
 party was at liberty to marry again. The 
 determination of bigamy involves the con- 
 sideration of what constitutes a valid mar- 
 riage. If a person be married within the 
 age of consent, which, in England, in the 
 case of the husband, is 14, and in that of 
 the wife 12 years, or was otherwise inca- 
 pable of making such a contract ; or in 
 case the marriage was not celebrated 
 with the forms and ceremonies required 
 by law ; in these cases, a second marriage 
 does not subject the party to the penalty
 
 BIGAMY BIJA-PUR. 
 
 101 
 
 of bigamy. The statute of James I has 
 been adopted in most of the U. States as 
 to the description of the crime, but the 
 American laws generally differ from it as 
 to the penalty, having assigned, hereto- 
 fore, instead of death, as provided by the 
 English statute, the punishment of whip- 
 ping, setting on the gallows, &c., which 
 latter is the punishment in France ; but 
 most, if not all of the U. States, have now 
 dispensed with these corporeal inflictions, 
 some of them prescribing imprisonment 
 and hard labor for a number of years, 
 according to the discretion of the court ; 
 others leaving it to the verdict of the jury 
 to fix the period of imprisonment. 
 
 BIG. (See Barley.) 
 
 BIGXOX, Louis Edward, born 1771, at 
 Meilleraye, department of Lower Seine, 
 studied at Paris, in the college Lisieux. 
 He approved the principles of the revolu- 
 tion in 1789, but was proscribed in 1793, 
 because he opposed all violent measures. 
 He therefore joined the army. In 1797, 
 he entered on the diplomatic career. In 
 Berlin, where the royal family of Prussia 
 bestowed on him many marks of favor, 
 he was, in 1801, secretary of legation, and, 
 in 1802 and 1803, -charge d'affaires. From 
 1803 to 6, he was minister plenipotentiary 
 at the court of Cassel, where, the- day be- 
 fore the battle of Jena, he proposed to the 
 elector a treaty of neutrality, which was 
 declined. After the entry of the French 
 troops into Berlin, he was appointed im- 
 perial commissary to the Prussian states. 
 He was afterwards charged with the gen- 
 eral administration of the domains and 
 finances in the countries taken possession 
 of until the end of 1808. He asserts, that 
 he conducted this difficult business with 
 as much mildness as possible, and that he 
 has since received many proofs of grati- 
 tude from the people among whom he 
 acted. In 1809, he . was minister pleni- 
 potentiary to the grand duke of Baden, 
 when an imperial decree, dated Schon- 
 brunn, appointed him administrator-gen- 
 eral in Austria. He was afterwards in- 
 trusted with an important mission to 
 Warsaw, with secret instructions : here 
 he remained about three years. , At the 
 opening of the campaign in 1812, M. de 
 Pradt succeeded him, and he was appoint- 
 ed imperial commissary at the provisory 
 government in Wilna. After the retreat 
 from Moscow, he took the place of M. de 
 Pradt in the embassy at Warsaw, and, in 
 conjunction with prince Poniatowski, suc- 
 ceeded in delaying for four months the 
 retreat of the Austrian allied army under 
 prince Schwarzenberg, afterwards under 
 9* 
 
 general Frimont, until the scattered Polish 
 corps, of about 7000 men, were collected 
 under Poniatowski in Cracow. This was 
 increased to 20,000 men, and made its re- 
 treat, in May, through Austria into Saxo- 
 ny. B. now repaired to the French head- 
 quarters at Dresden, and remained there, 
 with the other members of the diplomatic 
 corps, during the siege, until the capitula- 
 tion. As he had procured passports from 
 the confederation of the Rhine for several 
 foreign ministers, prince Schwarzenberg 
 caused him to be escorted by one of his 
 aides to the French out-posts at Strasburg. 
 On his arrival in Paris, Dec. 7, 1813, he 
 brought to the emperor the first informa- 
 tion of the defection of Murat. He soon 
 after retired into the country. On the 
 restoration of the Bourbons, he wrote his 
 Exposi comparatif de la Situation de la 
 trance et edit des principales Puissances 
 de I' Europe, in which he showed great 
 penetration, and also proved himself a 
 true Frenchman of the school of Napole- 
 on. During the " hundred days," Napo- 
 leon appointed him under-secretary of 
 state for foreign affairs, and, in 1820, sev- 
 eral departments chose him their deputy. 
 He spoke against the law of exception, 
 and advocated the recall of the exiles, 
 reminding the ministers of certain secret 
 circumstances, on which he did not think 
 proper to explain himself more fully. B. 
 also advocated the law of election. In 
 1820, he wrote Des Proscriptions, in 
 which he paints the struggle for liberty 
 against every kind of tyranny. His latest 
 writings on national disputes have at- 
 tracted much notice ; for instance, Coup 
 d'C&il sur Its Demtles des Corns de Baviere 
 et de Bade (1818), and particularly his 
 work Du Congrcs de Troppau (1821), his 
 Leitre sur les Differends de la Maison 
 d'Jlnhalt avec la Prusse, and his Lea 
 Cabinets et les Peuplcs (Paris, 1824), 
 
 BIJX-PUR, or VIJAYA-PURI ; a city of 
 Ilindostan, formerly capital of the provr 
 ince of Beejapoor (q.v.), called Viziapoor^ 
 by the European travellers of the three 
 last centuries. The city is 306 miles N. 
 Seringapatam, 384 N. W. Madras ; Ion. 
 75 47' E. ; lat. 16 46' N. It is situated 
 in a fertile plain, and is of very great 
 extent, consisting of three towns within 
 each other : the innermost is the citadel, 
 a mile in circuit ; the next a fort, eight 
 miles in compass ; and the exterior is en- 
 vironed Avith walls many miles in circuit. 
 But a great proportion of the space is 
 covered with ruins. It is thinly inhabited, 
 but the population is unknown. The in- 
 habitants affirm, that, according to au-
 
 102 
 
 BIJA-PUR BILE. 
 
 thentic records, it contained, in the time 
 of its prosperity, 984,456 houses, and 1600 
 mosques ; and travellers are of opinion 
 that the latter number is not exaggerated. 
 It was taken by Aurangzeb in 1689, when, 
 it is said, 15,000 cavalry could encamp 
 between the fort and the city wall. It 
 was one of the wealthiest cities of Asia. 
 The fort is protected by high walls, with 
 massive towers, and is surrounded by a 
 ditch. It has seven gates, and contains 
 several cannon of enormous dimensions, 
 particularly one called the sovereign of 
 the plains. 
 
 BILBAO. (See Bilboa.) 
 
 BILBOA, or BILBAO, or VILVAO, a 
 Spanish province in Biscay. The capital, 
 of the same name, is a seaport ori the 
 YbaiQabal, in a plain surrounded with 
 high mountains; Ion. 3 4' W.; lat. 43 
 16 7 N.; population, 15,000. It contains 
 about 1200 houses, part of which are built 
 on piles. The harbor is good, and well 
 frequented. Between 500 and 600 ves- 
 sels visit this port annually ; and the year- 
 ly export of wool is estimated at 50 or 
 60,000 sacks of 2 cwt. each. The air 
 is healthy; the inhabitants are strong, 
 robust, and live long. It is well supplied 
 with water and provisions : fish are very 
 abundant ; and the environs are fertile in 
 legumes and fruits. It contains 5 parish- 
 es and 12 religious houses. Among the 
 laws peculiar to the town is one against 
 ingratitude. Its commerce principally 
 consists in wool and iron. 
 
 BILDERDYK, William, born at Amster- 
 dam, 1750, lives at Leyden, and is now 
 considered one of the greatest lawyers in 
 Holland a man of learning in the fullest 
 extent of the word, and, according to the 
 judgment of the Dutch critics, one of the 
 greatest poets of the present age. He 
 studied the classics at Leyden, chiefly 
 under Ruhnken and Valkenaer. Inil776, 
 he obtained from the learned society of 
 Leyden, whose judgment was always re- 
 spected, the first prize for a poem on the 
 influence of poetry upon government. 
 In the following year, he obtained from 
 the same society two prizes for an ode 
 and a didactic poem, On True Patriotism. 
 Since that period, he has ranked with 
 Feith and madame de Launoy, among the 
 first Dutch poets. The present age is the 
 epoch of the modern Dutch school of 
 poetry, in which, besides B., Feith and 
 Launoy, and particularly Bellamy, Hel- 
 mers, Tollens, Loots, van Hall, Kinker, 
 Klyn and others are distinguished. B. 
 introduced into Dutch poetry iambics and 
 hexameters, rather to show his talent for 
 
 overcoming difficulties of all kinds than 
 from preference to these measures, which, 
 on the contrary, he declared not admissi- 
 ble into Dutch poetry. In 1780, he ob- 
 tained a new prize for a poem, on the 
 connexion of poetry and eloquence with 
 philosophy. He added to this poem, some 
 time afterwards, an important commenta- 
 ry, which showed him to be a man of 
 learning and a philologer. B., besides, 
 devoted himself to law, at the Hague, 
 with great success. On the invasion of 
 the Netherlands by the French, he left 
 his country on account of his adherence 
 to the hereditary stadtholder, and remov- 
 ed to Brunswick, where he studied the 
 German language and poetry, and after- 
 wards to London, where he delivered, in 
 the French language, lectures on litera- 
 ture and poetry, which were numerously 
 attended. After the new order of things 
 was firmly established in Holland, he re- 
 turned, in 1799, and soon afterwards pub- 
 lished some of his principal works. Among 
 these are a didactic poem on astronomy, 
 and the masterly imitations of Delille's 
 J-iHommt des Champs, and Pope's Essay 
 on Man. Louis Bonaparte, on his acces- 
 sion to the throne, appointed him his 
 teacher of Dutch, and one of the first 
 members of the national institute found- 
 ed by him. After the incorporation of 
 Holland into the French empire, B.'s 
 muse was silent ; but she rose the more 
 vigorously after the deliverance of his 
 country. Perhaps there is no poem of 
 our time superior in fire, vigor and enthu- 
 siasm, to Holland's Verlossing, the joint 
 composition of B. and his wife, who is a 
 successful poetess. When Napoleon re- 
 turned from Elba, B. produced a number 
 of war-songs, which are considered among 
 the best in Dutch poetry. He published his 
 Mengelpoezy (Miscellaneous Poems, two 
 small volumes, Rotterdam, 1823, second 
 edition), which contains some ballads and 
 imitations of Ossian. We may also men- 
 tion that he is a bitter enemy of German 
 literature. 
 
 BILDGE. (See Bilge.) 
 
 BILE ; a yellowish-green liquid sub- 
 stance, of a bitter taste. Man and many 
 animals have, on the inferior surface of 
 the liver, a peculiar bladder, in which the 
 bile, formed by the liver from the blood, 
 is preserved. It consists of water and 
 several other substances. The water 
 constitutes the greatest part, and keeps 
 the other parts in a state of solution. 
 The remaining ingredients are a yellow, 
 very bitter, fusible resin, which contributes 
 most to the taste of the bile ; a small por-
 
 BILE BILL OF EXCHANGE. 
 
 103 
 
 tion of natron ; some mineral alkaline 
 salts ; some oxyde of iron ; a small quan- 
 tity of a yellowish substance, which is 
 only partly dissolved in the natron ; and 
 a considerable portion of albumen. The- 
 nard and Berzelius have done much to 
 determine the ingredients of the bile. Its 
 principal use seems to be, to separate the 
 excrement from the chyle, after both have 
 been formed, and to produce the evacua- 
 tion of the excrement from the body. It 
 is probable that these substances would 
 remain mixed together, and they would, 
 perhaps, even be partly absorbed together, 
 were it not for the bile, which seems to 
 combine with the excrement, and, by this 
 combination, to facilitate its separation 
 from the chyle, and thus to prevent its 
 absorption. Fourcroy supposes that the 
 bile, as soon as it is mixed with the con- 
 tents of the intestinal canal, suffers a de- 
 composition ; that its alkali and saline 
 ingredients combine with the chyle, and 
 render it more liquid, while its albumen 
 and resin combine with the excrementi- 
 tious matters, and gradually render them 
 less fluid. From the late experiments of 
 Berzelius on fleces, it cannot be doubted 
 that the constituents of the bile are to be 
 found in the excrementitious matter ; so 
 that the ingenious theory of Fourcroy is 
 so far probable. The bile also stimulates 
 the intestinal canal, and causes it to evac- 
 uate its contents sooner than it otherwise 
 would do ; for when there is a deficiency 
 of bile, the body is constantly costive. 
 Biliary calculi, or gall-stones, are some- 
 times found in the gall-bladders of men 
 and animals. They are more rarely met 
 with in the substance and body of the 
 liver. Those that are found in the human 
 subject consist, principally, of that peculiar 
 substance, called, by Fourcroy, adipocire. 
 They are of a white, grayish-brown, or 
 black color. The calculi found in the 
 gall-bladders of quadrupeds have been 
 thought to consist almost entirely of in- 
 spissated bile ; but, though much less 
 complicated than the corresponding con- 
 cretions in the human subject, they must 
 contain something more than the inspis- 
 sated fluid, since they are insoluble, both 
 in alcohol and water. 
 
 BILEDULGERID (Bheladcd Dshfrid, coun- 
 try of dates) ; a country in Northern Af- 
 rica, south of mount Atlas, bounded on 
 the north by Tunis, on the west by Al- 
 giers and the Sahara, on the east by Tri- 
 poli ; supposed to be about 180 miles 
 square. In the desert are oases (q. v.), 
 which are cultivated and watered like 
 gardens. At the foot of mount Atlas, the 
 
 winds which come from these mountains 
 allay the heat of the climate. The chief 
 products of the oases are barley of an ex- 
 cellent kind, used by the caravans, and 
 dates, which are no where else so excel- 
 lent. Much dew falls in the oases, rain 
 but seldom. All the productions of the 
 tropics, which can ripen without rain, 
 grow here in abundance. The Berbers 
 who live here, as likewise the Negroes and 
 Arabs, carry on trade by means of cara- 
 vans. A large proportion of the young men 
 are destroyed by the change of climate to 
 which they are thus exposed, as also by 
 bad nourishment and epidemic fevers. 
 Certain parts of this country, called Dara, 
 Tasilet and Segelmesse, belong to Mo- 
 rocco ; to Algiers belongs Wadreag, and 
 to Tunis Tozer. Gademes, Welled-Sidi 
 and Mosselemis are independent. Little 
 is known of the customs, laws, &c., of 
 the inhabitants of B. 
 
 BILIN, mineral spring of; a celebrated 
 spring near the town of Bilin,in Bohemia, 
 The water is clear, has a sourish taste, 
 and mantles, particularly if mixed with 
 wine and sugar. The temperature of the 
 spring is 59 Fahrenheit. The water is 
 used with advantage in many complaints. 
 BILIOUS FEVER. (See Fever.) 
 BILL OF EXCHANGE is a written re- 
 quest or order to one person to pay a cer- 
 tain sum of money to another, or to his 
 order, at all events ; that is, without any 
 qualification or condition. The person 
 who makes the bill is called the drawer ; 
 the person to whom it is addressed, the 
 drawee, and the person to whom, or whose 
 order, on the face of the bill, it is payable, 
 the payee. If the drawee accepts the bill, 
 he thereby becomes the acceptor. A prom- 
 issory note differs from a bill of exchange 
 in being merely a promise to pay money 
 by the maker, instead of being a request 
 to another person to pay it, to the payee. 
 The expression promissory note is not 
 strictly confined to negotiable notes, or 
 those payable "to bearer," or to the payee 
 named in it, "or his order," but is more 
 frequently used to denote such instru- 
 ments ; and we shall consider promissory 
 notes in this sense in the present article, 
 since the same rules and principles are, 
 in a great degree, applicable to such notes 
 and to bills of exchange. The maker of 
 the note answers to the acceptor of the 
 bill, since he is the party promising to 
 pay it ; whereas the maker or drawer of 
 a bill of exchange does not directly prom- 
 ise, on the face of the instrument, to pay 
 it, but merely requests the drawee to do 
 so : this is, however, construed to be a
 
 104 
 
 BILL OF EXCHANGE. 
 
 virtual promise that the drawee, on the 
 presentment of the bill for acceptance, 
 and demand of payment according to its 
 tenor, will pay it, and a conditional virtual 
 promise, that he, the drawer, will pay it, 
 in case of the drawee's failing either to 
 accept it on due presentment, or to pay it 
 on due demand. Bank checks are of a 
 character similar to promissory negotiable 
 notes, as to the rules by which the liabili- 
 ties and rights of the parties to them are 
 determined, with this difference in their 
 common form, that promissory notes are 
 usually made payable to the payee or " his 
 order," whereas checks, as also bank-notes, 
 are usually made payable to the "bearer," 
 and the right to demand and receive pay- 
 ment of them is transferred from one per- 
 son to another by mere delivery, without 
 any indorsement or written order by the 
 original payee ; while the transfer or as- 
 signment of a promissory note or bill of 
 exchange is made by the payee in writing, 
 either by indorsement or otherwise. He 
 usually merely writes his name on the 
 back, whereby he becomes the indorser, 
 and the person to whom it is thus indors- 
 ed or assigned, who is called the indorsee, 
 has a right to fill up this blank indorse- 
 ment by writing over it an order to pay 
 the contents to himself or to any other 
 person ; and any bona jide holder of the 
 note or bill has the same right to fill up 
 the indorsement or assignment. Thus a 
 note or bill of exchange, being once in- 
 dorsed in blank, becomes assignable or 
 transferable, like a check ' payable to 
 " bearer," merely by delivery of the instru- 
 ment. It is an essential quality of a ne- 
 gotiable bill, note or check, that it be a 
 promise to pay a certain sum of money, 
 and that the promise be absolute ; for if 
 no definite amount is fixed, or ft be a 
 promise to deliver goods or do any other 
 act than pay money, or if it be conditional, 
 it is not a bill of exchange, or negotiable 
 promissory note, or check. Besides the 
 transfer by indorsement above-mentioned, 
 these instruments are also transferable by 
 assignment, or mere delivery, so as to 
 give the holder all the rights, against the 
 maker or acceptor, that he would have 
 had if he had himself been the payee. 
 Where the transfer is made by mere de- 
 livery, the assignor is- exempt from all 
 liability to the holder on the paper itself; 
 he makes no promise to pay the money, 
 but still he, in effect, warrants that it is 
 the bill, note or check, which it purports 
 to be ; for if it be a forged instrument, if 
 it be not bona Jide the bill, note or check 
 which it purports to be, he will be liable 
 
 to indemnify the person to whom he 
 transferred it. But if the transfer be 
 made by an indorsement in writing, with- 
 out any condition or exception, being an 
 absolute order to pay the money to the 
 indorsee or holder, the indorser in this 
 case becomes in his turn a promisor ; for 
 he thereby virtually promises, that, in case 
 the maker of the note or check, or the 
 drawer or acceptor of the bill, does not 
 pay it on due demand, or in case the 
 drawee does not accept it, if it be a bill, 
 on presentment according to its tenor, 
 then he, the indorser, will pay it. Though 
 the forms of bills of exchange, promisso- 
 ry notes, checks and bank-notes are, re- 
 spectively, pretty uniform, yet no precise 
 form of words is necessary to constitute 
 cither of these instruments. Any words, 
 purporting to be an absolute promise to 
 pay a certain sum of money, or an abso- 
 lute order for its payment to a particular 
 person or his order, or to the bearer, is 
 either a bill of exchange, promissory note, 
 or check. Bills of exchange are, in Eng- 
 land, either inland, that is, payable in the 
 kingdom, or foreign, {hat is, payable out 
 of the kingdom. > A similar distinction is 
 made in, the U. States, where, in most of 
 the states, a bill payable in the state in 
 which it is made is considered to be in- 
 land. The material distinction between 
 foreign and inland bills is, that, oil inland 
 bills, a protest for non-acceptance or non- 
 payment is not usually necessaiy, and that 
 less damages can be claimed in conse- 
 quence of the dishonor of the bill, if, in- 
 deed, any can be claimed. Generally, 
 in fast, if not universally, only the face of 
 the bill can, in such case, be recovered of 
 the drawer or indorser. In one respect, 
 foreign bills most generally, and inland 
 bills and promissory notes in many places, 
 differ in construction from the literal im- 
 port of the terms of the instrument as to 
 the credit or time of payment, being, in 
 fact, payable three days after the time 
 specified ; these three days of additional 
 credit being allowed under the name of 
 grace : but this additional credit is often 
 expressed in the instrument itself, thus, 
 " Pay to A. B. or order, in sixty days and 
 grace" wliich is equivalent to sixty-three 
 days. Another mode of expression for 
 the credit to be allowed on a bill is by 
 the word usance. Thus a bill is drawn 
 payable at one or two usances ; and it is 
 necessary, in order to ascertain the time 
 of payment, to know what period is meant 
 by a usance, and this will vary according 
 to the place at which, and on which, the 
 bill is drawn. Thus a bill drawn in Eng-
 
 BILL OF EXCHANGE. 
 
 105 
 
 land, at one usance, on Amsterdam, Rot- 
 terdam, Altona, or any place in France, is 
 payable in one calendar month from the 
 date ; on Cadiz, Madrid or Bilboa, in two ; 
 on Genoa, Leghorn or Venice, in three 
 months. If, on presentment of a bill of 
 exchange to the drawee, he refuses to ac- 
 cept it according to its tenor, the holder 
 has an immediate cause of action against 
 the drawer and indorsers, and may, on 
 giving them notice of the non-acceptance, 
 forthwith demand the amount of the bill, 
 though it was on a long credit, and, if it 
 had been accepted, he must have waited 
 three or six months for his money. This 
 rule is perfectly equitable, since the draw- 
 er and indorsers impliedly agree that the 
 draft shall be accepted on presentment, 
 and, on its not being so, their promise is 
 violated. But the holder must give no- 
 tice to the drawer, and the other parties to 
 whom he wishes to resort, of the non- 
 acceptance or non-payment of the bill. 
 In case of the dishonor of a bill, the hold- 
 er has generally the right to recover of 
 the parties liable to him, that is, the draw- 
 ter and indorsers, not only the amount 
 expressed on the face of the bill, together 
 with the expenses of protest and interest, 
 but something in addition, on account of 
 his disappointment in not having funds at 
 the place on which the bill is drawn, as 
 he had a right to expect. The rate or 
 amount of this damage must, as is evident, 
 be very various, according to the distance 
 of the places, the credit on which the bill 
 was drawn (in case of protest for non-ac- 
 ceptance), and the rise or fall of exchange 
 on the same place after the purchase of 
 the bill. One rule of estimating the dam- 
 age is the cost of ree'xchange, or of an- 
 other bill on the same place, with the 
 addition of one, two, &c., up to twenty 
 per cent, damages. In other places, no 
 regard is had to refixchange, but the hold- 
 er recovers a certain per cent over the 
 face of the bill, by way of damage, and 
 this rate is the same whether exchange 
 may have risen or fallen from the time of 
 purchasing the bill to that of its being 
 returned dishonored. Exchange appears 
 to have been known anciently at Tyre, 
 Carthage, Athens, Corinth, Syracuse and 
 Alexandria. The first well-ascertained 
 traces of it, in modern times, are found, 
 subsequently to the 12th century, in some 
 of the provinces of France, particularly at 
 the fair of Champagne. It was brought 
 to perfection in Italy. Its great utility 
 and convenience consist in its negotia- 
 bility. Suppose, for instance, a number 
 of persons to have, severally, sums of 
 
 money deposited in various countries. 
 One, whose funds are in South America, 
 wishes to make purchases at St. Peters- 
 burg ; and one, who is entitled to the pro- 
 ceeds of a cargo at St. Petersburg, wishes 
 to make a purchase at Canton ; and an- 
 other, having funds at Canton, desires to 
 make an importation from South Amer- 
 ica. By merely making and delivering a 
 slip of paper, each one will, in effect, 
 transfer his funds quite across the globe. 
 Another advantage of exchange is the fa- 
 cility it affords in adjusting balances. Its 
 effect in this respect may be illustrated by 
 the practice of banks and bankers in some 
 particular cities. In London, for instance, 
 the bankers meet at a certain hour every 
 day, to pay and receive payment of each 
 others' checks ; but the amount actually 
 paid will bear a very small proportion to 
 the whole amount of the checks, since 
 the greater part is settled by merely can- 
 celling the checks they hold against each 
 other. So where all the banks of a city, 
 as is the practice in many commercial 
 towns, take indiscriminately each other's 
 notes, and settle the balances every day, 
 they all make an exchange of the notes 
 which they hold against each other, and 
 only pay over in specie the balances. 
 Thus, by the payment in specie of a com- 
 paratively very small sum, some hundreds 
 of thousands may circulate between these 
 institutions and their respective customers 
 and depositors. In the same manner the 
 balances are adjusted between two com- 
 mercial countries, or all the commercial 
 countries of the world. Among the vari- 
 ous merchants of the United States, for 
 instance, some have sent goods to Eng- 
 land, others to France, and others to Hol- 
 land, and each one may wish to import 
 goods from a country other than that 
 where his funds lie. One, according- 
 ly, sells exchange on Amsterdam, and 
 buys exchange on London, or, which is 
 the same thing in effect, as far as he is 
 concerned, he orders his correspondent at 
 Amsterdam to buy exchange on London, 
 and remit it thither for his (the mer- 
 chant's) account. If the funds which 
 some merchants have in each foreign 
 place are exactly equal to what is wanted 
 by others in the same place, the whole 
 transaction is only a transfer among them- 
 selves of each other's claims, or exchange, 
 and no balance remains ; whereas, with- 
 out this facility, one must order specie 
 home from Amsterdam, which the other 
 would purchase of him to ship it to Lon- 
 don ; a transaction involving much delay, 
 besides the expense of freight and insur-
 
 106 
 
 BILL OF EXCHANGE BILLINGTON. 
 
 ance. But still, all the merchants of the 
 country may wish to invest or pay greater 
 sums abroad than the proceeds of all the 
 exports already made or making from the 
 country amount to, in which case the 
 course of exchange is said to be against 
 the country, and, in this case, as in all 
 others where the quantity of an article 
 wanted is greater than that offered in the 
 market, the price will rise, and foreign 
 exchange will be above par. So, if the 
 quantity of exchange demanded on any 
 particular country is greater than that of- 
 fered, the rate of exchange, in respect to 
 that particular country, is unfavorable, and 
 rises. This has most generally been the 
 case in the U. States, in respect to Eng- 
 land. So, vice versa, if the funds belong- 
 ing to Americans, in any particular for- 
 eign country, are greater than the sum 
 wanted by other Americans to make pay- 
 ments or investments there, the rate of 
 exchange with that particular country is 
 favorable, and the price of it falls. And 
 it is to be observed, that what is called a 
 favorable rate of exchange is, in fact, 
 unfavorable to the person having funds 
 abroad, who wishes to realize them at 
 home ; for he must, in that case, sell, at 
 home, his foreign exchange, for a smaller 
 sum than its nominal amount. It is to be 
 borne in mind, therefore, that an unfavor- 
 able rate of exchange is not necessarily 
 disadvantageous to a country. To follow 
 out the inquiry, and determine in what cir- 
 cumstances it is actually disadvantageous 
 or indifferent, or in fact advantageous, 
 would occupy more space than we can 
 give to the subject. But we perceive 
 from this operation of the system of ex- 
 change, that it is only necessary, at most, 
 to ship abroad, or import from abroad, 
 in specie, the actual balance on the whole 
 aggregate of debts and credits, all the 
 items of which, as far as they offset each 
 other, are adjusted by exchange ; and it 
 is by no means always the case that this 
 aggregate Ijalance is paid in specie ; for 
 the very circumstance of the rise of ex- 
 change on any particular country, may 
 make the trade more favorable, and in- 
 duce shipments, the proceeds of which 
 are drawn for as soon as the shipments 
 are made ; so that, in such a case, the un- 
 favorable balance may be actually advan- 
 tageous, by promoting trade. 
 
 BILL OF LADING; a memorandum sign- 
 ed by masters of ships, acknowledging 
 the receipt of goods intrusted to them 
 for transportation. There are usually tri- 
 plicate copies, one for the party send- 
 ing, another for the party to whom the 
 
 goods are sent, and the third for the cap- 
 tain. 
 
 BILL OF RIGHTS, or DECLARATION OF 
 RIGHTS, is the assertion by a people, or 
 recognition by its rulers, " of that residu- 
 um of natural liberty, which is not re- 
 quired by the laws of society to be sacri- 
 ficed to public convenience ; or else those 
 civil privileges, which society has engcged 
 to provide, in lieu of those natural liber- 
 ties so given up by individuals." The 
 houses of lords and commons delivered to 
 the prince of Orange a list of such rights 
 and privileges, February 13, 1688, at the 
 time of his succession to the British 
 throne, concluding with the words " and 
 they do claim, demand, and insist upon, 
 all and singular the premises, as their un- 
 doubted rights and privileges." The dec- 
 laration is usually called the bill of rights. 
 A similar declaration was made in the 
 act of settlement, whereby the crown was 
 limited to the house of Hanover. Similar 
 bills of rights are prefixed to some of the 
 state constitutions in the United States. 
 But the constitutions of all the states, as 
 well as that of the United States, virtually 
 include" in themselves declarations of 
 rights, since they expressly limit the 
 powers of the government. The same is 
 true of the constitutional charters of those 
 European governments which have adopt- 
 ed constitutions, one of the objects of 
 these being to guaranty certain rights and 
 liberties to the people. 
 
 BILL IN EQUITY, or CHANCERY, is the 
 statement of the plaintiffs case in a court 
 of equity, or chancery, corresponding to 
 the declaration in a court of law, and the 
 libel in an ecclesiastical court. 
 
 BILLIARDS; a very interesting game, 
 contributing also to health by affording 
 the body moderate exercise. It was in- 
 vented in France, and is now played by 
 all European nations and their descend- 
 ants. The rules for the different games 
 of billiards are too numerous to be given 
 here. They are also generally found in 
 billiard rooms. We therefore omit them, 
 although we usually give the rules of 
 games, in order to furnish a means of 
 reference in doubtful Cases. They are 
 to lie found in Hoyle's Games. 
 
 BILLINGTON, Elizabeth ; the most cele- 
 brated English female singer of her day. 
 She was of German origin, but born in 
 England, in 1770, her father, Mr. Weich- 
 sell, being a native of Saxony. At an 
 early age, she studied the piano-forte un- 
 der *Schroter, and attained to an extraor- 
 dinary proficiency. At 14, she made 
 her first 'appearance as a singer at Ox-
 
 BILLINGTON BINNACLE. 
 
 107 
 
 ford, and two years afterwards married 
 Mr. Billington, a performer on the double- 
 l>ass, whom she accompanied to Dublin. 
 She made her debut there in the opera of 
 Orpheus and Euridice. From Ireland 
 she returned to London, where she ap- 
 peared at Co vent- garden, for the first 
 time, as Rosetta, in Arne's Love in a 
 Village, with such success as to secure 
 her an immediate engagement at what 
 was then considered the enormous salary 
 of 1000, for the remainder of the season, 
 besides a benefit; the managers after- 
 wards voluntarily giving her the profits 
 of a second night. While in town, she 
 continued to take lessons of Mortellari, a 
 celebrated Italian master, then in London, 
 and, on the closing of the theatre, repaired 
 to Paris, in order to profit by the instruc- 
 tions of Sacchini. In 1785, she returned 
 to England, and appeared at the concerts 
 of ancient music with madame Mara, 
 whose brilliant performance she, to say 
 the least, fully equalled. From this pe- 
 riod till 1793, no music meeting, opera, or 
 concert, of reputation, was considered 
 complete without her. In the last named 
 year, she visited Italy, and performed, ac- 
 companied by her brother C. Weichsell, 
 at the theatre of St. Carlos at Naples; 
 Francis Bianchi composing expressly for 
 her his celebrated opera Inez de Castro. 
 Her engagement here met with an abrupt 
 and melancholy interruption, her husband 
 dying suddenly of apoplexy, just as she 
 was preparing to set out for the theatre. 
 In 1796, she appeared at Venice, and after- 
 wards at Rome, being every where re- 
 ceived with the loudest expressions of 
 applause. In 1799, she married Mr. Feli- 
 pent, whom she accompanied to Milan. 
 In 1801, her wonderful powers being 
 then in their meridian, she returned to 
 the London stage, appearing alternately at 
 either house, and astonishing the whole 
 musical world by her Mandane a per- 
 formance that has never since been 
 equalled in English opera. Engagements 
 now multiplied upon her, and continued 
 incessantly till her final retirement from 
 public life, which took place in 1809. 
 The last exhibition of her powers was in 
 aid of a charitable institution, at Whitehall 
 chapel, the queen, the prince regent, and 
 most of the branches of the royal family, 
 being present. In 1817, she quitted Eng- 
 land for ever, and died, after a short illness, 
 at her villa of St. Artien, an estate she 
 had purchased in the Venetian terri- 
 tories. 
 
 BINGEN; a town on the left shore of 
 the Rhine, where the Nahe joins this river, 
 
 opposite Rudesheim, famous for its excel- 
 lent wine. Lon. 7 48' E. ; lat. 49 55' N. 
 Population, 3300. Near it the Rhine is 
 compressed into a narrow channel, be- 
 tween rocks, so as to make the navigation 
 difficult. This strait is called Bingen- 
 lach (hole of Bingen). The famous Miui- 
 sethurm, or Tower of Mice, where the 
 avaricious bishop Ilatto is said to have 
 been eaten by mice, as a punishment for 
 usury, exercised in a time of famine, is 
 situated in the vicinity. 
 
 BINGLET.. This Garrick of the Dutch 
 stage was born at Rotterdam, in 1755, of 
 English parents in good circumstances. 
 On leaving school, he Was placed in a 
 counting-house. It was not long, how- 
 ever, before he discovered an invincible 
 inclination for the stage, and, at the age 
 of 18, joined the company under the di- 
 rection of the celebrated Corver, who 
 was his first instructor. In 1779, in the 
 24th year of his age, he made his debut 
 on the stage of Amsterdam. The public 
 odium was then excited against England, 
 on account of its ships having captured 
 vessels under the Dutch flag, without any 
 previous declaration of war, and B. was 
 unfavorably received on account of his 
 English descent. But he soon conquered 
 this prejudice by his performance of 
 Achilles, in the tragedy of the same name ; 
 and from that time he continued to be 
 the favorite of the public. He was, also, 
 so well acquainted with the French lan- 
 guage, as to appear successfully in the 
 French theatres of Amsterdam and the 
 Hague, by the side of the great French 
 actors, who, while on their tours for the 
 sake of improving themselves, used to 
 visit the Netherlands. In' 1796, he was 
 director of a company of actors, who 
 played principally at Rotterdam and the 
 league,, but, also, visited other cities of 
 Holland. Meanwhile, he was always 
 ready to perform at the theatre in Am- 
 sterdam, in such parts as could only be 
 acted by himself. One of his last repre- 
 sentations, in which he was assisted by 
 the great actress Wattier Ziesenis, was 
 the part of Farnese, in Lalain's tragedy 
 Maria, acted, in 1818, before the royal 
 family. In the same year, he died at the 
 Hague. 
 
 BiN.\.vcLE r or BITTACLE ; a case or box, 
 which contains the compass for steering 
 a ship, and lights to show the compass 
 at night. In ships steered by a wheel, it 
 is common to have two binnacles, or a 
 double binnacle, for the convenience of 
 the steersman, on either side of the 
 wheel ; but, in this case, the compasses af-
 
 108 
 
 BINNACLE BIRCH. 
 
 feet each others' direction, and thus ren- 
 der the ship's course uncertain. 
 
 BINOMIAL, in algebra ; a quantity con- 
 sisting of two terms, or members, con- 
 nected by the sign 4- or Binomial 
 coefficients are the numbers that indicate 
 how often a given power of a binomial, 
 for instance, of a -f- 6, contains each of the 
 products of its parts. The binomial the- 
 orem is that celebrated formula, which 
 teaches to find any power of a given bi- 
 nomial a + 6, by means of the two terms 
 a and 6, and of the exponent of the power. 
 This theorem, frequently called the New- 
 tonian theorem, on which the system of 
 analysis is principally founded, was 
 known, as far as relates to integral posi- 
 tive exponents, to several mathematicians 
 before Newton. But Newton was the 
 first who taught its application to frac- 
 tional and negative exponents ; and this 
 discovery, one of the most important of 
 those made by that great man, is en- 
 graved upon his tomb-stone. 
 
 BIOERNSTAEHL, James Jonas, a dis- 
 tinguished traveller, born at Rotarbo, in 
 the Swedish province of Siidermannland, 
 in 1731, studied at Upsal, afterwards en- 
 tered the family of baron Rudbeck, as 
 tutor, and travelled with his son to Eng- 
 land and the continent of Europe. While 
 residing in Paris, he studied the Oriental 
 languages. On the return of his pupil to 
 Sweden, B. was appointed, by Gustavus 
 III, to make the tour of Greece, Syria 
 and Egypt, receiving, at the same time, 
 the title of professor at the university of 
 Lund. He now went, at the king's ex- 
 pense, to Constantinople, in' 1776, where 
 he remained for some time, to leani the 
 Turkish language. He then proceeded on 
 his travels as far as Saloniki, where he 
 died of the plague, 1779. B. had given 
 an account of his travels, in the form of 
 letters to his friend Gioerwell, who, at 
 first, published them separately in a jour- 
 nal, which appeared in Stockholm, but 
 afterwards by themselves (1783). This 
 work contains learned and profound re- 
 searches on medals, manuscripts, rare 
 books ; and a great many anecdotes, of 
 which the most interesting are those re- 
 lating to Voltaire, whom B. had visited at 
 Ferney. His remarks and opinions on 
 morals, manners, religion and literature 
 are often destitute of truth and justice. 
 He was possessed of more learning than 
 taste, of more memory than discernment 
 and judgment His health, naturally 
 strong, and fortified by exercise, enabled 
 him to support constant labor, and to en- 
 dure the greatest hardships. 
 
 BIOLOGY and BIOMETRY. (See Life.) 
 
 BION ; born in Smyrna, or in its neigh- 
 borhood ; a Grecian pastoral poet, of 
 whose life no account is to be found. The 
 elegy, which Moschus, his friend and 
 disciple, composed on the occasion of his 
 death, seems to imply, that he was a con- 
 temporary of Theocritus, and died of 
 poison. He probably lived in Sicily or 
 Magna Grecia. Among the few poems 
 written by him, which have descended to 
 our times, his elegy on Adonis is con- 
 sidered as the best. The poems of B., 
 together with those of Moschus, are gen- 
 erally found as an appendix to the idyls 
 of Theocritus. They have been published 
 separately by Fr. Jacobs, Gotha, 1795 ; 
 Gilbert Wakefield, London, 1795 ; and 
 J. C. F. Maass, Leipsic, 1807. 
 
 BIOT, Jean Baptiste, a natural philoso- 
 pher and astronomer, member of many 
 French, as well as foreign literary socie- 
 ties, and of the legion of honor, born at 
 Paris, in 1774, studied in the college of 
 Louis-le-Grand, then joined the army, 
 and served in the artillery. His love of 
 the sciences soon led him back to Paris, 
 where he continued his studies in the 
 polytechnic school, till he felt himself fit 
 for a professorship at Beauvais. In 1800, 
 he was made professor of physics in the 
 college de France. In 1802, he was ap- 
 pointed a member of the first class of the 
 institute. In 1804, he prevailed on the 
 institute not to vote in favor of Bona- 
 parte's elevation to the throne. In 1806, 
 he was sent with Arago to Spain, to con- 
 tinue the measurement of an arc of the 
 meridian, undertaken to establish the ba- 
 sis for the introduction of a new decimal 
 system (q. v.) in France. Before he de- 
 parted, he was appointed a member of 
 the board of longitude. His mission was 
 successful. He now devoted himself 
 with unremitted zeal to his studies and 
 lectures. In 1816, he was chosen editor 
 of the department of mathematical sci- 
 ence for the Journal des Savans. His 
 principal works are, Traite de Physique 
 experimentale et mathematique (1816); the 
 abridgment of the same, in a popular 
 style ; Precis elementaire de Physique ex- 
 perimentale, and Traite elementaire d'As- 
 tronomie physique. In 1817, he visited 
 the Orkney islands, to correct some dis- 
 puted astronomical observations, for the 
 measurement of a degree. B. still com- 
 municates important articles to the litera- 
 ry journals, &c. 
 
 BIRCH (betida alba) is a forest-tree, easi- 
 ly known by the smooth appearance and 
 silvery color of its bark ; by its leaves be-
 
 BIRCH BIRD-ISLAND. 
 
 109 
 
 ing somewhat triangular, but acute, and 
 small in comparison with those of other 
 timber-trees, and by all the small brandies 
 being slender and flexible. Although the 
 birch is considered by no means a valua- 
 ble timber-tree, yet its wood is used for 
 numerous purposes. Being of wliite 
 color, and firm and tongh in texture, it is 
 variously employed by hoop-benders and 
 wheel- wrights. Turners use it for trench- 
 ers, bowls, ladles, and other wooden 
 ware. Ox-yokes, small screws, women's 
 shoe-heels, pattens, and, in France, wooden 
 shoes, are made of it. The North American 
 Indians use the bark of the birch-tree for 
 canoes, boxes, buckets, baskets, kettles, and 
 dishes, curiously joining it together with 
 threads made of roots of the cedar-tree. 
 Birch-trees are not unfrequently planted 
 along with hazels, for the purpose of pro- 
 curing wood to be converted into char- 
 coal for forges. This charcoal is much 
 esteemed ; and the soot, which is formed 
 on burning the wood, constitutes a good 
 black substance for printers' ink. Nearly 
 all the other parts are applicable to use- 
 ful purposes. The inhabitants of Sweden 
 employ the bark in the tanning of leather, 
 and, alter burning it to a certain degree, 
 use it as a cement for broken china and 
 earthen .Avare. The navigators of the 
 river Volga construct of it portable boats, 
 cradles, &c. It is serviceable in dyeing 
 a yellow color. In Norway, it is dried, 
 ground, mixed with meal, and boiled, 
 with other food, for swine. The houses 
 or huts, in many parts of the north of 
 Europe, are covered with the outward 
 and thicker part of the bark, instead of 
 slates or tiles. It is spun into a coarse 
 kind of ropes, woven into shoes and hats, 
 and, in Kamtschatka, even made into 
 drinking-cups. The Laplanders fasten 
 together large pieces of it to keep off the 
 rain. Abounding in resinous matter, 
 slices of the bark are sometimes tied to- 
 gether, to make torches. During a scar- 
 city of corn, it has, in several instances, 
 been ground with bread corn, and suc- 
 i-cs.-fiillv used as food for men. In most 
 parts of England and America, the twigs 
 of this tree are made into brooms. They 
 are also made into the tops of fishing- 
 rods ; and, when smeared with bird-lime, 
 are used by bird-catchers. The Norwe- 
 gians frequently employ them as fodder 
 for their horses. The leaves afford a 
 yellow dye. 
 
 BIRCH, Thomas; an industrious histo- 
 rian and biographer of the 18th century. 
 He was born in London, in 1705 ; and 
 his father, who was a Quaker, practised 
 
 VOL. II. 10 
 
 the occupation of a coffee-mill maker, to 
 which the son, also, was destined. His 
 early taste for reading induced him to 
 prefer a literary life, which he was per- 
 mitted to choose, on condition of sup- 
 porting himself by his own exertions. 
 He, accordingly, alter some previous tu- 
 ition, became usher in three different 
 schools, and then went to Ireland with 
 dean Srnedley. Having left the Quakers, 
 he took orders in the church, in 1730, 
 and obtained, in 1732, a living in Essex, 
 through the patronage of the attorney- 
 general, afterwards lord Hardvvicke. In 
 1734, he engaged, with some coadjutors, 
 in writing the General Historical and 
 Critical Dictionary, founded on that of 
 Bayle, and completed, in 10 vols. folio, in 
 1741. He subsequently obtained various 
 preferments in the church. In January, 
 1765, he was killed by a fall from his 
 horse, in the road between London and 
 Hampstead. B. had formed very ex- 
 tensive manuscript collections, which, 
 together with his library of printed books, 
 he bequeathed to the British museum, 
 lie produced a large number of historical 
 and biographical works in the course of 
 his laborious life. B. was one of the 
 pioneers of literature. He collected ful- 
 ly and faithfully, but without much 
 discrimination, materials relating to the 
 various subjects of his research, which are 
 calculated to afford important assistance 
 to writers possessed of more taste and 
 judgment. Doctor Johnson was repeat- 
 edly obliged to B. for literary informa- 
 tion : he bestowed on him a Greek epi- 
 gram, and for many years corresponded 
 with him. The literature of his country 
 is much indebted to the activity and dili- 
 gence of B. 
 
 BIRD, Edward (R. A.) ; an English 
 painter, who died at Bristol, in Nov., 1819. 
 He excelled in comic subjects. The 
 marquis of Stafford patronised him. He 
 was appointed historical painter to the 
 princess Charlotte of Wales. 
 
 BIRD ISLAND ; the name of a very large 
 number of islands in almost all the parts 
 of the world, of which we shall mention 
 only the following : B. Islands ; a clus- 
 ter near the N. E. coast of New Holland, 
 so called by captain Cook. They are 
 almost covered with birds. B. I., in the 
 S. Pacific ocean ; Ion. 216 24' E. ; lat. 
 17 48' S. B. L, in the gulf of St. Law- 
 rence ; Ion. 60 45' W. ; lat. 47 5^ N. 
 Another, in the S. Pacific ocean ; Ion. 
 38 22' W.; lat. 54 S. One in the 
 northern part of the same ocean; Ion. 
 198 & E. ; lat. 23 & N. #. Islands ; a
 
 110 
 
 BIRD-ISLAND BIRMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 cluster of islands in the Caribbean sea ; 
 Ion. 66 5(X W. ; lat. 12 N. The name 
 Bird island is as common, and as vague, 
 as that of Blue mountains, &c. 
 
 BIRDS. (See Ornitliology.) 
 
 BIRDS' NEST. The hirundo escidenta, or 
 salangane, a species of swallow, the nests 
 of which are used as an article of luxury 
 among the Chinese, is found in the In- 
 dian seas. They are particularly abun- 
 dant in Sumatra, especially about Croe, 
 near the south end of the island. The 
 nest has the shape of a common swal- 
 low's nest, is about the size of a goose's 
 egg, is found in caves, particularly on the 
 sea-shore, and has the appearance of 
 fibrous, imperfectly concocted isinglass. 
 More or less of this substance is contained 
 in the nests of all swallows of that region. 
 The manner in which this substance is 
 procured is not ascertained. The most 
 probable suppositions are, that it is the 
 spawn of fish gathered by the bird, or a 
 secretion elaborated in the body of the 
 animal. The Chinese collect the nests, 
 and sell them to all parts of the world. 
 Dissolved in broths, &c., they make a de- 
 licious gelly. The finest are those obtained 
 before the nest has been contaminated by 
 the young birds : they are pure white, 
 and are scarce and valuable. The inferior 
 ones are dark, streaked with blood, or 
 mixed with feathers: they are chiefly 
 converted into glue. Some of the cav- 
 erns, in which they are built, are difficult 
 of access, and dangerous to climb, so that 
 none can collect the nests but persons 
 accustomed to the trade from their 
 youth. 
 
 BIREN, Ernst John von, duke of 
 Courland, born in 1687, was, as is assert- 
 ed, the grandson of a groom of James, 
 duke of Courland, and the son of a Cour- 
 landish peasant, by the name of Buhren. 
 He studied at Konigsberg, and endeavored 
 to conceal the meanness of his origin by 
 raising himself in the favor of the great. 
 His agreeable person and cultivated mind, 
 procured him the highest favor of Anna, 
 duchess of Courland, and niece of the 
 emperor of Russia ; but he was unsuc- 
 cessful in his attempt to obtain admission 
 among the Courlandish nobility. When 
 Anna (q. v.) ascended the Russian throne 
 (1730), B., in spite of the conditions to 
 which the empress had consented (one 
 of which was not to bring him with her 
 to Russia), was loaded by her with honors, 
 and introduced at the Russian court. 
 Here he assumed the name and coat of 
 arms of the dukes of Biron in France, 
 and governed under the name of his 
 
 mistress. Fierce and haughty by nature, 
 lie indulged his hatred against the rivals 
 of his ambition. The princes Dolgorucky 
 were his first victims. He caused 11,000 
 persons to be put to death, and double 
 that number to be exiled. It is said, that 
 the empress often threw herself at his 
 feet, to induce him to lay aside his severi- 
 ty, but that neither her entreaties nor her 
 tears were able to move him. The firm- 
 ness of his character, however, introduced 
 vigor and activity into all branches of the 
 administration throughout the great em- 
 pire. In 1737, Anna forced the Cour- 
 landers to choose her favorite (who had, 
 in 1722, married a Courlandish lady of 
 the family of Trotta, by the name of 
 Treyden) for their duke. After having 
 declared prince Ivan her successor, she 
 appointed B., according to his wish, re- 
 gent. Anna died Oct. 28, 1740. The 
 new regent acted with prudence and 
 moderation. But a secret conspiracy 
 was soon formed against him. Field- 
 marshal Munich, with the consent of the 
 young emperor's mother, caused him to 
 be arrested in his bed, during the night 
 of Nov. 19, 1740, by Manstein, and to be 
 confined in the castle of Schliisselburg. 
 He was subjected to a trial ; but, no proofs 
 of the projects, which he was accused of 
 having formed for the advantage of his 
 family, being discovered, the sentence of 
 death was changed into that of imprison- 
 ment for life, and his fortune was declared 
 confiscated. Together with his family, 
 he was transported to Pelim,in Siberia, and 
 thrown into a prison, of which Munich 
 himself had furnished the plan. In the 
 following year, Elisabeth, daughter of 
 Peter the Great, being raised to the Rus- 
 sian throne by a new revolution, B. was 
 recalled, Dec. 20, 1741, and Munich was 
 obliged to occupy his prison. At Kasan, 
 the sledges met ; the travellers recognised 
 each other, and proceeded on their way 
 without interchanging a word. The 
 family of B. afterwards lived in a very re- 
 spectable condition at Jaroslaw. After a 
 subsequent exile of 22 years, the duke, as 
 well as Munich, was recalled, in 1762, by 
 Peter III. When Catharine II ascended 
 the throne, the duchy of Courland was 
 restored to B., in 1763. He governed 
 with wisdom and lenity, transferred jthe 
 government to his eldest son, Peter, 1769, 
 and closed his restless life, Dec. 28, 1772. 
 BIRMAN EMPIRE. The great peninsula 
 east of the bay of Bengal includes Aschern, 
 or Assam, and the Birman empire. The 
 latter extends from 9 to 26 N. lat., is 
 about 1000 miles long and 700 broad ; pop-
 
 BIRMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 Ill 
 
 illation, according to Symes, in 1795, about 
 17,000,000. The natives of the peninsula, 
 a handsomer and more athletic race of 
 men than the Hindoos, though not so 
 neat, are warlike and hospitable, have no 
 mendicants among them, and reverence 
 the aged. The Binnan empire, accord- 
 ing to the reports of missionaries, compre- 
 hends the kingdoms of Ava, Pegu, Arra- 
 can, and the adjacent states on the north. 
 It is bounded on the north by Thibet, As- 
 sam and China ; on the west, it is separat- 
 ed from the British possessions by a chain 
 of high mountains and the river Naaf. 
 In the 16th century, the Birmans in Ava 
 made themselves independent of Pegu ; 
 hut, in 1740, they were subjugated anew 
 by this state. Alompra, one of their 
 leaders, however, with about 100 faithful 
 adherents, almost immediately summoned 
 the people again to arms, and, in 1753, 
 conquered the city of Ava. Defeat and 
 victory succeeded alternately, till Alom- 
 pra, in 1757, conquered the city of Pegu. 
 This celebrated monarch died in 1760, at 
 the age of 50 years. He labored to make 
 his subjects happy by promoting agricul- 
 ture, by restricting the arbitrary exercise 
 of power on the part of his officers, and 
 improving the public morals. Every act 
 of the magistrates, in the Birman empire, 
 was required to be public, and every 
 decree to be made known: even commer- 
 cial treaties, and all relations established 
 with foreign countries, were registered 
 among the laws of the state, and open to 
 the inspection of every one. Namdogee, 
 his eldest son and successor, who died in 
 1764, inheriting his father's spirit, adopted 
 from other nations whatever was of gen- 
 eral utility to his own, and was anxious 
 to do away abuses. Both father and son 
 attended particularly to the administration 
 of the East India company. Shambuan, 
 the emperor's brother, became regent, as 
 guardian for his nephew Mornien ; but he 
 usurped the throne himself, and conquered 
 Siam. In 1771, however, this province 
 recovered its independence, while the 
 principal part of the Birman forces were 
 engaged in a war with China. In this war 
 they were victorious, and compelled the 
 Chinese, whom they took prisoners, to 
 intermarry with the Birman females, and 
 to remain in their territory. Fortune 
 continued to attend this prince ;, and, in 
 1776, he left his empire, much enlarged, 
 to his son Chengenza. This prince lived 
 in the unrestrained indulgence of every 
 appetite, till, in 1782, he was dethroned 
 and put to death. In consequence of the 
 Devolution, Shetnbuan Menderagan, the 
 
 fourth son of Alompra, ascended the 
 throne. He ordered his nephew Mornien, 
 who was a state prisoner, to be drowned, 
 and, in 1783, subdued the kingdom of 
 Arracan. He then engaged in a war with 
 Siam, which continued till 1793, and 
 finally compelled it to submission on cer- 
 tain conditions. About this period, some 
 highway robbers fled from the Binnan, 
 empire, and took refuge in the territory of 
 the East India company. Shembuan de- 
 manded that they should be delivered up. 
 His demands were not immediately coin- 
 plied with, and he marched, with a strong 
 force, into the offending country. At the 
 same time, he carried on a friendly nego- 
 tiation with the government in Calcutta, 
 which resulted in the surrender of the 
 criminals, and the conclusion of a treaty 
 of amity and commerce between the two 
 governments, which agreed to afford each 
 other mutual aid, in case of an invasion 
 from China. It was negotiated by cap- 
 tain Symes. Shembuan was succeeded, 
 in 1819, by his grandson. The last vic- 
 tory of the Birmans was, in 1822, over the 
 northern mountainous province of Assam, 
 at the source of the Burrampooter. The 
 party driven from Assam, together with 
 the Birman rebels, fled to the British ter- 
 ritories, whence they intended to invade 
 Birmah. The British government forth -r 
 with disarmed the insurgents, but refused, 
 to deliver them up or to drive them from 
 the island of Shapuri, which they had 
 occupied. The court at Ummerapoora, 
 therefore, attempted to set the Mahrattas 
 and all Hindostan in arms against the 
 English. At length, the monarch with 
 the golden feet (one of the titles of the 
 sovereign of Birmah) demanded of the 
 government at Calcutta the cession of 
 Northern Bengal, as being a part of Ava; 
 and, in January, 1824, the Birman forces 
 marched into Kadschar, which had depos- 
 ed its rulers, and put itself under British 
 protection. Lord Amlrerst, as governor- 
 general of the British East Indies, now 
 declared war against Birmah, and general 
 Archibald Campbell prosecuted it so suc- 
 cessfully, that, after the victory at Prome 
 (Dec. 13, 1825), he obliged the monarch 
 to conclude a very unequal peace at Par 
 lanagh, Dec. 31, 1825. As the treaty was 
 not ratified, on the part of Boa, the Bir- 
 man emperor, by the time specified (Jan, 
 18, 1826), Campbell renewed the war, on 
 the 19th, and stormed the fortress of Mun- 
 nun. Feb. 24, the peace was ratified, and 
 the war concluded. The king of the 
 white elephants ceded to the company the 
 provinces of Arracan, Merguy, Tavoy and
 
 112 
 
 BIRMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 Yea, and paid them a sum amounting to 
 about $4,300,000. Assam was made once 
 more independent, and rajahs were ap- 
 pointed by the company to govern the 
 northern provinces of Munnipore, Assam, 
 Kadschar and Yeahung. The important 
 city of Rangoon was declared a free port. 
 Thus all the western coast of the Binnaii 
 empire was ceded to the East India com- 
 pany, and the most powerful of the East 
 Indian states was divided and weakened. 
 Before the rains commence, the heat in 
 the valleys of this, in most respects, healthy 
 country is excessive. Though B. is in 
 general fertile, it contains several vast 
 deserts. In the northern part, it is moun- 
 tainous, and abounds in gold, silver, pre- 
 cious stones and marble; also in iron, 
 lead, tin, antimony, arsenic, sulphur and 
 petroleum, which issues from the earth in 
 abundance. In the southern districts, 
 owing to the numerous rivers, the soil is 
 marshy and extremely productive. Here 
 grow rice, sugar-cane, fine tobacco, cot- 
 ton, indigo, and all the tropical fruits. 
 Land is cheap. Timber for ship-building, 
 especially teak or Indian oak, which 
 grows most luxuriantly in a wet soil, on 
 the banks of rivers, is abundant. The price 
 of labor is high. All but the lowest lands 
 produce grain, or serve for pasture. Of 
 manufactured goods, B. exports cotton 
 and silk stuffs, glass, saltpetre, powder, 
 porcelain and marble images of Gaudama, 
 to which the workmen in stone give an 
 exquisite smoothness. The East India 
 company builds vessels even of 1000 
 tons burthen in the Birman docks ; and 
 the shipwrights there (giants in compar- 
 ison with the puny Hindoos) find con- 
 stant employment. The Pegu ships, how- 
 ever, are not so well made as those built 
 by the company, in their own territory. 
 The trade of the Birmans is very lively, 
 especially with China, by means of the 
 river Irrawaddy, which extends 1240 
 miles into the interior, and has populous 
 cities all along its banks. From Barnoo, 
 goods are conveyed through the interior 
 to China, to which the Birmans send 
 many commodities from the eastern ar- 
 chipelago of Asia. The government en- 
 courages the increase of the population 
 by favoring the settlement of foreigners, 
 tolerates the religion of every nation in 
 the ports of Rangoon, Negrais and Mer- 
 guy, and encourages the intermarriage of 
 foreigners with Birman females. Instead 
 of coin, silver and lead in bars are used, 
 and their purity is strictly tested in trade. 
 The forging and stamping of these bars 
 forms a particular branch of business. 
 
 Menderagce removed the royal residence 
 to the new city of Ummerapoora (190 
 leagues east of Calcutta), on a tongue of 
 land which runs up into the lake of Toun- 
 zemahn. Ava, once so magnificent a city, 
 about four or five miles distant, now lies 
 in ruins. The buildings among the Bir- 
 mans are veiy slight, as the government 
 requires them to be chiefly of wood or 
 bamboo. There are well-organized fire- 
 companies, for the protection of these 
 combustible edifices. The Birman nobles 
 are distinguished from the lower classes 
 by their dress, houses and furniture, and 
 are divided into several ranks. The prince 
 is absolute, but custom obliges him to ask 
 the opinion of the nobility in important 
 state matters : he is not bound, however, 
 by their counsel. The Birmans are all 
 fond of painting both their i'aces and 
 hands. They slaughter no tame animals, 
 and live simply : for the most part, on 
 vegetables. No Birman can have more 
 than one wife ; but he may have as many 
 mistresses as he will. The latter live in 
 the same house with the wife, and are 
 her servants. A foreigner and an adult 
 male Birman may, at any time, leave the 
 empire ; but females and children are not 
 allowed this privilege. Females cannot 
 appear before a court of justice. The 
 chief amusement of the Birmans is their 
 theatre, where declamation, dancing and 
 music alternate : the higher classes are 
 fond of dramatic spectacles. The new 
 year is celebrated with all sorts of purifi- 
 cation. At this time, young women ap- 
 pear in public with water, and sprinkle 
 every one they please. It is considered 
 improper, however, to sprinkle females 
 first, or those in a state of pregnancy at 
 all. Among the Birmans, the distinguish- 
 ed dead are bunied ; the poor are interred ; 
 the richest are embalmed, commonly in 
 the ancient simple mode, in honey. Ev- 
 ery Birman learns arithmetic, reading and 
 writing. The common people write on 
 palm-leaves, with an iron style : the rich 
 have libraries, with books the leaves of 
 which are thin pieces of ivory, with gilt 
 edges. The Birmans, in general, are fond 
 of gilding every thing. Their materia 
 medica is confined to herbs, spices and 
 mercury : with vaccination they have long 
 been acquainted. The English mission- 
 aries are tolerated, and serve the East 
 India company as the outposts of their 
 diplomatic system. The literary Birmans 
 translate from the English all important 
 works of science, particularly on astron- 
 omy and law. The religion of the coun- 
 try is that of Buddha, whom the people
 
 BIRMAN EMPIRE BIRMINGHAM. 
 
 113 
 
 call Gaudama. It enjoins no bloody sacri- 
 fices, and is extremely tolerant. The 
 Birmans have no secular clergy, but only 
 a kind of monks dwelling in convents. 
 All the clergy practise celibacy, and eat 
 but once a day. Every carnal indulgence 
 is punished by a disgraceful and public 
 removal from office. The clergy are lit- 
 erary men, and highly esteemed for their 
 piety and knowledge. They are permit- 
 ted, however, to gild and paint. Former- 
 ly, there were priestesses ; but this order 
 has been abolished, because it was found 
 injurious to the increase of population. 
 The government has long been struggling 
 to maintain its independence between 
 the British dominions on the Ganges and 
 the Chinese empire. No part of Eastern 
 Asia seems to apprehend an excess of 
 population, and hence no female in China 
 is suffered to emigrate. The Birmans are 
 skilful weavers, smiths, sculptors, workers 
 in gold and silver, joiners, &c. Of this 
 the citizens of London have had ocular 
 evidence, in the great state carnage, de- 
 voted to the service of the gods, 19 feet 
 high, 14 long, and 7 wide, which was 
 taken by the British troops, in the war of 
 1825. In Birmah there are, no hereditary 
 offices. Its civil and criminal code is very 
 judicious; general principles are first laid 
 down, and then applied to distinct cases. 
 Robbery is punished with death only 
 when the property stolen is very great, 
 or the offence is aggravated by particular 
 circumstances. Capital punishment is 
 commonly inflicted by decapitation, and 
 extends to those who eat opium freely, 
 and to drunkards in general. The magis- 
 trates have a great discretionary power to 
 mitigate the punishments of the law, and 
 few penal laws are executed in all their 
 severity. The standing army is small. 
 Levies are made, in case of war, by way 
 of conscription ; and a specified number of 
 houses is required to furnish a soldier 
 completely equipped, or pay a considera- 
 ble fine. For the crime of insubordina- 
 tion, the conscribed are either punished 
 personally, or their families are made to 
 suffer, however innocent they may be. 
 The principal part of the militia are em- 
 ployed in the war-boats of the crown, 
 which sink about three feet deep, and are 
 provided with ordnance. The revenue 
 is a tenth part of the productions of the 
 soil and of all imported goods. The 
 treasury is rich, and the sovereign regards 
 an active trade among his subjects as the 
 surest basis of national revenue : he calls 
 his great income from customs the tribute 
 of strangers. The empire at present con-. 
 10* 
 
 sists of seven provinces. The capital, 
 Ummerapoora, contains 175,000 inhabit- 
 ants. Rangoon, at the mouth of the 
 Irrawaddy (pop. 30,000), is an important 
 trading city, and many Europeans reside 
 in it. The Voyage du Capit. Hiram Cox, 
 dans I 'Empire des Birmans is better in this 
 French edition, by Chalons d'Ange (Paris, 
 1824, 2 vols.) than in the original English 
 (London, 1821). (See, also, Narrative 
 of the Birmese War, by major Snodgrass 
 London, 1827; and Mrs. Ann H. Jud- 
 son's Relation of the American Baptist Mis* 
 sion to the Birman Empire, Wash., 1823). 
 BIRMINGHAM ; a town in Warwickshire, 
 Eng., on a declivity, on the river Rea, 
 which joins the Tame ; 62 miles N. W, 
 Oxford, 87 N. Bristol, 109 N. N. W. Lon- 
 don ; population, in 1821, 85,753 ; families, 
 18,165 ; houses, 16,653. Of the inhabit- 
 ants, 81,642 consist of families connected 
 with trade and manufactures. B. has long 
 been distinguished for the variety, extent 
 and excellence of its manufactures, par- 
 ticularly in hardware. With perhaps the 
 exception of Manchester, it is the greatest 
 manufacturing town in England. Among 
 the principal manufactures are buttons, in 
 immense variety, buckles and snuff-boxes ; 
 toys, trinkets and jewellery ; polished steel 
 watch-chains, cork-screws, &c.; plated 
 goods for the dining and tea-table ; japan- 
 ned and enamelled articles; brass work 
 of every description; swords and fire-* 
 arms; medals and coins of various kinds; 
 copying machines and pneumatic appara- 
 tuses ; the more ponderous productions of 
 the casting-furnace and rolling-mill ; and, 
 indeed, every hardware commodity that 
 can be considered as curious, useful or 
 ornamental. The manufactories are es* 
 tablished upon the largest scale, and with 
 the most astonishing ingenuity. A coin- 
 ing-mill was erected in 1788, which is 
 now capable of striking between 30 
 end 40,000 pieces of money in an hour. 
 Before the close of the last war, no less 
 than 14,500 stands of arms were delivered 
 per week to the ordnance office. At the 
 pin-works, it is said, 12,000 pins can be 
 cut and pointed, and 50,000 pin-heads 
 can be made from the wire, in an hour.-^ 
 B. is about two miles in length. The 
 lower part of the town consists chiefly of 
 old buildings, is crowded with workshops 
 and warehouses, and is inhabited princi- 
 pally by manufacturers; but the upper 
 part has a superior appearance, consisting 
 of new and regular streets, and containing 
 a number of elegant buildings. It con- 
 tains three churches and five chapels of 
 ease, and many places of worship belong*
 
 114 
 
 BIRMINGHAM BISCAY. 
 
 ing to Dissenters. St. Martin's church 
 has a fine lofty spire, with a peal of 12 
 bells, and a set of chimes. B. is distin- 
 guished for its charitable institutions, and 
 lias various schools, and several libraries, 
 one of which contains 10,000 volumes. 
 The town has the benefit of several canals, 
 which enable it to carry on an easy inter- 
 course with foreign countries. It has three 
 weekly markets, and two annual fail's. 
 The soil about the town is dry, and the 
 climate is considered remarkably healthy. 
 The average mortality of B., for six years, 
 ending 1801, was only 1 to 59; of Man- 
 chester, 1 to 37; and of London, 1 to 31. 
 BIRON, Charles de Gontaut, duke of; 
 son of marshal Armand de Gontaut, baron 
 Biron, born about 1562. Educated as a 
 Calvinist, he had twice changed his reli- 
 gion before he reached the 16th year of 
 his age. In his 14th year, B. was made 
 colonel of the Swiss regiment, and served 
 Henry IV with much zeal and courage. 
 By the king's favor, he was, in 1592, 
 raised to the rank of admiral of France. 
 Though distinguished at court as well as 
 in the field, always feared and praised, 
 he was violent, obstinate and presumptu- 
 ous. At the retaking of Amiens, in 1598, 
 B. served under Henry IV, and, in the 
 same year, was made a peer and duke. 
 He thought himself, however, not suffi- 
 ciently rewarded. The Spanish party, 
 which, after the peace of Vervins, could 
 injure Henry only by secret intrigues, 
 took advantage of the duke's discontent. 
 Henry appointed him his ambassador at 
 the court of Brussels, to receive the oath 
 of the archduke to the peace of Vervins. 
 The Spanish court seized this oppor- 
 tunity to dazzle him with festivals, spec- 
 tacles and honors; the female arts of 
 seduction were put in practice, and the 
 weak B. promised to join the Catholics, 
 whenever they should rise again. In 
 1599, he concluded an agreement with 
 the duke of Savoy and the count of Fuen- 
 tes, by which he pledged himself to take 
 up arms against his benefactor. Mean- 
 while, war being declared against the 
 duke of Savoy (1600), B. saw himself 
 reduced to the necessity of attacking him. 
 For fear that his understanding with the 
 duke should become visible, he possessed 
 himself of almost all the towns in the 
 duchy, which was the easier because 
 Emanuel had expected some forbearance 
 on his part. Fuentes and the duke ven- 
 tured to propose to B., that he should 
 deliver the person of the king into their 
 hands ; but he refused. Their suggestions, 
 however, were not without effect upon 
 
 him, and, while engaged in the siege of 
 the fort St. Catherine, in the vicinity of 
 Genoa, having reason to believe that the 
 king would come to inspect the trenches, 
 he sent word to the governor to dispose 
 harquebussiers so as to fire on him at a 
 certain signal. At the decisive moment, 
 however, he prevented the king from 
 going to the fatal spot. In 1601, peace 
 was made with Savoy. So many nego- 
 tiations had not, however, escaped the eye 
 of the king, nor could he remain ignorant 
 of their object. He therefore interrogated 
 the marshal as to his designs, with prom- 
 ises of pardon. B. made a partial confes- 
 sion, and continued his intrigues as before* 
 Notwithstanding this, Henry sent him, in 
 the same year, to queen Elizabeth of 
 England, to inform her of his marriage 
 with Maria of Medici. In the mean time, 
 B.'s confidant Lafin, having become sus- 
 pected by the count of Fuentes, and begin- 
 ning to fear for himself, discovered the 
 whole plot. A frank confession and 
 repentance would have saved B., since 
 Henry was inclined to forgive him. He, 
 however, persevered in his denial, rejected 
 the offers of pardon, and was, therefore, 
 at the urgent .entreaties of the queen, at 
 last surrendered to the rigor of the laws. 
 Upon leaving the king's room, he was 
 arrested, carried to the Bastile, tried be- 
 fore the parliament, and beheaded, July 
 31, 1602. 
 
 BIRTH. (See Labor.) 
 
 BISCAY ; a province in Spain, bounded 
 N. by the bay of Biscay, E. by France and 
 Navarre, S. by Burgos, including the 
 three following subdivisions or provinces: 
 
 Sq. M. Pop. Capitals. 
 B. Proper, . 1375 112,731 Bilboa. 
 Guipuscoa, . 653 104,479 St. Sebastian. 
 Alava, .... 1138 71,396 Vittoria. 
 3166 288,606 
 
 B. is a mountainous country, containing 
 much wood, and has mines of lead and 
 iron. It abounds in apples, pears, lemons, 
 oranges, figs, nuts and currants, but pro- 
 duces little wine. The air is mild and 
 more temperate than the rest of Spain. 
 The country is well cultivated, and the 
 houses clean and convenient. The in- 
 habitants call themselves Eu$caldunac, 
 boast of their descent from the ancient 
 Cantabri, and preserve strong traces of 
 the character of that high-spirited and in- 
 dependent people. They are robust, brave, 
 active, industrious; at the same time, 
 haughty and irritable ; have open, ani- 
 mated countenances, and handsome per- 
 sons. Their language is supposed to be
 
 BISCAY BISHOP. 
 
 115 
 
 a dialect of the Celtic, and nearly allied 
 to the Armorican. (See Basques.) B. 
 forms a kind of separate state, distinct 
 from the rest of Spain, governed accord- 
 ing to its ancient laws and usages. The 
 king of Spain, who is simply styled lord 
 of Biscay, has no right to impose taxes; 
 and no custom-houses were allowed, till 
 lately, within the province. 
 
 Biscay Proper is bounded N. by the 
 bay of Biscay, E. by Guipuscoa, S. by 
 A lava, and W. by Santander. The coast 
 is inhabited by seafaring people and fish- 
 ermen; in the interior, great quantities 
 of iron are extracted from the ore, and 
 wrought into different articles. The rich- 
 est mines are in the vicinity of Bilboa and 
 Somorrosto. 
 
 Biscay, bay of; that part of the Atlantic 
 which lies N. of the province of Biscay, 
 between the projecting coasts of France 
 and Spain, extending from Ushant to cape 
 Finisterre. 
 
 Biscay, bay of; a large bay on the south 
 coast of Newfoundland, between cape 
 Race and cape Pine ; Ion. 53 6' W. ; lat. 
 4b' 50' N. 
 
 Biscay, J\ikw, or Durango ; a province 
 in Mexico, bounded N. by New Mexico, 
 E. by New Leon, S. by Zacatecas, and 
 W. by Culiacan ; 600 miles long, and 400 
 broad; pop. 159,000. The country is, in 
 general, mountainous, and watered by a 
 great number of rivers and brooks: it has 
 some mines of silver and lead. Durango 
 is the capital. 
 
 BISCHOFSWERDER, John Rudolph von, 
 a Prussian general and minister, born in 
 Saxony, in 1756, entered the university of 
 Halle, was admitted into the Prussian 
 service in 1760, and appointed major in 
 1779. Under Frederic William II, he 
 exercised an unlimited influence at the 
 court of Berlin. The attachment which 
 he had shown Frederic William, while 
 yet crown-prince, procured him the lasting 
 affection of this short-sighted and prodi- 
 gal monarch. As plenipotentiary, he took 
 a great part in the congress at Sistova. 
 He afterwards effected the interview with 
 lord Elgin, at Pilnitz. After the king's 
 death, he was dismissed, and died at his 
 country-seat, in the neighborhood of Ber- 
 lin, 1803. His views, as a statesman and 
 a man, were very limited. His propensity 
 to mysticism had consequences in the 
 highest degree injurious. B. belonged to 
 the society of the Illuminati. 
 
 BISHOP, in the New Testament, is the 
 instructer and spiritual superior of a Chris- 
 tian congregation. The bishops who were 
 installed by the apostles themselves, or, 
 
 according to the apostolic idea of the 
 office, chosen by the congregations, were 
 the assistants and successors of the apos- 
 tles in their labors for the propagation of 
 Christianity. They had the supervision 
 of the whole congregation, and its officers, 
 the presbyters and deacons, but without 
 claiming, in the first century, any preem- 
 inence or rights of diocesans, which they 
 afterwards acquired, as the church-gov- 
 ernment was gradually established. When ' 
 the system of ecclesiastical rule was ma- 
 tured, the almost absolute authority which 
 they exercised over the clergy of their 
 dioceses ; their interference in the secular 
 concerns of governments, to which they 
 soon rendered themselves necessary, by 
 their superior information and their ele- 
 vated rank ; the administration of the 
 church-revenues ; the maintenance of their 
 ecclesiastical prerogatives, arid their ex- 
 tensive ecclesiastical as well as criminal 
 jurisdiction, occupied them too much to 
 leave them any time or inclination for the 
 discharge of their duties as teachers and 
 spiritual fathers. They therefore reserv- 
 ed to themselves only the most important 
 functions of their spiritual office, as the 
 ordination of the clergy, the confirmation 
 of youth, and the preparation of the holy 
 oil. In the middle ages, they attached to 
 themselves particular vicars, called suffra- 
 gans, bishops in partibus, or coadjutors, 
 for the performance even of these func- 
 tions, which they had reserved to them- 
 selves, and for the inspection of all that 
 concerned the church. Bishops who have 
 preached themselves, and attended to the 
 spiritual welfare of then: congregations, 
 have been rare since the seventh century. 
 The episcopal office being such as we 
 have described it, the nobility, and even 
 the sons of princes and kings, strove to 
 obtain a dignity which was as honorable 
 as it was profitable ; and which, moreover, 
 permitted festivals and sensual enjoyments 
 of every description. These applications, 
 which were aided by rich donations made 
 to the churches, and, in the case of the 
 German bishops, by the influence of 
 the emperor, gave to the bishops of 
 Germany, particularly, a high degree of 
 dignity. The German bishops became 
 princes of the empire, and their influence 
 upon all public affairs was important. The 
 reformation, however, lessened their num- 
 ber, and although, in some of the Protest- 
 ant countries of the north of Europe, the 
 higher clergy have retained the title of 
 bishop, yet they have lost the greater part 
 of their former revenues and privileges. 
 The Swedish bishops constitute one of
 
 116 
 
 BISHOP BISMUTH. 
 
 the estates of the kingdom, like the Eng- 
 lish, but have little influence. The Eng- 
 lish church has left to its bishops more 
 authority than the rest, and, for this rea- 
 son, has received the name of the episco- 
 pal. In Protestant Germany, bishoprics 
 were abolished by the reformation, but 
 they have been restored, in Prussia, with- 
 in the last 10 years. The church of 
 Rome early lost many bishoprics by the 
 conquests of the Mohammedans ; hence 
 the great number of titular bishops, whose 
 bishoprics lie in partibus iiifidelium, that 
 is, hi countries in possession of the infi- 
 dels. The Roman see, however, honors 
 with this title only ecclesiastics of a high 
 rank. In consequence of the cession of 
 several German countries to France, 23 
 bishoprics were abolished ; but, by partic- 
 ular agreements with the Roman court, 
 they have been reestablished in several 
 German states. (See Concordat, and Ger- 
 man Church.) The former subjects of the 
 German bishops remember their mild 
 government with gratitude, and the prov- 
 erb " It is good to dwell under the cro- 
 sier" proves that the episcopal power was 
 not prejudicial to the prosperity and hap- 
 piness of those subject to it. (See Clergy, 
 and Church of England.} 
 
 BISHOP'S HOOD. (See Mitre,.} 
 BISHOP'S STAFF. (See Crosier.) 
 BISMARK, Frederic William, count ; 
 general of cavalry in the service of the 
 king of Wurtemberg, and, since July 
 1825, his ambassador in Dresden, Berlin, 
 Hanover; bora at Windheim, in West- 
 phalia, in 1783. He is distinguished as a 
 writer on cavalry, and also as a practical 
 officer. He was esteemed by Napoleon. 
 The reigning king of Wurtemberg, on his 
 accession to the throne, purposing an en- 
 tirely new organization of his army, com- 
 mitted to count B. that of the cavalry. 
 Here he established a new system. It 
 must be confessed that the Wurtemberg 
 cavalry acquired, from his rules, much 
 facility in manoeuvring. The objections 
 which have been made against his system 
 are refuted by the practical demonstration 
 which B. has given of its utility in his 
 regiment. His views on cavalry are ex- 
 plained at large in his Vorlesungen iiber 
 die Taktik der Reiterei (Lectures on Cav- 
 alry Tactics), 1818, which is considered a 
 standard work, and has been translated 
 into French. Of his Felddienstinstruction 
 furSchutzenundReiter( Instruction in the 
 Field-service of Riflemen and Cavalry), 
 four editions have been published within 
 the space of two years. He has published, 
 also, several other military works. 
 
 BISMUTH is a metal called, by artists, 
 tin glass, a name obviously derived from 
 the French etain de glace. It is found 
 both pure and mineralized by sulphur, 
 oxygen and arsenic. Native bismuth oc- 
 curs in the veins of primitive mountains, 
 and is accompanied by ores of lead, sil- 
 ver, and sometimes of cobalt and nickel. 
 It exists in reticulated, lamellar, or amor- 
 phous masses; is soft, and of a white 
 color, occasionally tinged with red. Spe- 
 cific gravity, 9. It is found in many 
 countries, in France, England, Sweden, 
 Bohemia and the U. States, but its chief 
 locality is at Schneeberg, in Saxony, from 
 whence the supply of bismuth, in com- 
 merce, is principally derived. To procure 
 the metal, the ore requires merely to be 
 reduced to convenient fragments, and 
 heated in furnaces, when the bismuth 
 separates from the earthy matter in which 
 it is engaged, and flows out into cast-iron 
 moulds prepared for its reception. Bis- 
 muth, when pure, has a reddish-white 
 color, is harder than lead, and is easily 
 broken under the hammer, by which it 
 may even be reduced to powder. It 
 melts at 470 or 480, and crystallizes, on 
 cooling, with great regularity, in the form 
 of cubes. When kept in a state of fusion, 
 at a moderate heat, it is covered with an 
 oxyde of a greenish-gray or brown color; 
 at a higher temperature, it enters into a 
 feeble combustion, forming a yellow 
 powder, called flowers of bismuth. It 
 combines, by fusion, with a great num- 
 ber of metals, communicating to them 
 brittleness and fusibility. The mixture 
 discovered by Newton, and produced by 
 melting together 8 oz. bismuth, 5 oz. lead 
 and 3 oz. tin, fuses at 202. From it are 
 made toy spoons, which melt on being 
 employed to stir very hot tea. A still 
 more fusible compound was invented by 
 Mr. Dalton, composed of 3 parts tin, 5 
 lead and 10 bismuth, which melts at 
 197. The addition of a little mercury 
 rendei-s it even more fusible, and fits it to 
 be used as a coating to the inside of glass 
 globes. An alloy of equal parts of tin 
 and bismuth melts at 280 ; a less pro- 
 portion of bismuth adds to the hardness 
 of tin, and hence its use in the formation 
 of pewter. Equal parts of tin, bismuth 
 and mercury form the mosaic gold, used 
 for various ornamental purposes. 1 part 
 of bismuth, with 5 of lead and 3 of tin, 
 forms plumbers' solder, a compound of 
 great importance in the arts. Bismuth is 
 also used by letter-founders in their best 
 type-metal, to obtain a sharp and clear 
 face for their letters. Bismuth combines
 
 BISMUTHBISON. 
 
 117 
 
 with sulphur, and forms a bluish-gray 
 sulphuret, having a metallic lustre. The 
 same compound is found native in small 
 quantity, and is called, in mineralogy, 
 bismuth glance. Nitric acid dissolves bis- 
 muth with great readiness. The solution 
 is decomposed on the addition of water, 
 and a white substance, called magcstens 
 of bismuth, is precipitated, which consists 
 of a hydrated oxyde, united to a small 
 proportion of nitric acid. This precipita- 
 tion, by the addition of water, being a 
 peculiarity of bismuth, serves as an excel- 
 lent criterion of this metal. The mages- 
 tens of bismuth, from its whiteness, is 
 sometimes employed to improve the com- 
 plexion, as well as the pearl powder, a 
 similar preparation, differing only by the 
 mixture of a little muriatic acid with the 
 nitric acid in effecting the solution of the 
 bismuth. The liberal use of either, how- 
 ever, is highly prejudicial to the skin. 
 They are, besides, liable to be turned 
 black by the vapors evolved from nearly 
 all putrefying substances. The chloride 
 of bismuth, formerly termed butter of bis- 
 muth, is formed by pouring bismuth, in 
 fine powder, into chlorine gas, or by de- 
 priving the muriate of bismuth of its 
 water of crystallization by heat. 
 
 BISOX (bos Americanus, Gmel.) ; a spe- 
 cies of ox found only in North America, 
 peculiarly distinguished by a great hump 
 or projection over its fore shoulders, and 
 by the length and fineness of its woolly 
 hair. The hump is oblong, diminishing 
 in height posteriorly, and gives a consid- 
 erable obliquity to the outline of the back. 
 The hair over the head, neck and fore 
 part of the body is long and shaggy, form- 
 ing a beard beneath the lower jaw, and 
 descending below the knee (wrist) in a 
 tuft. The hah- on the summit of the 
 head rises in a dense mass nearly to the 
 tips of the horns, and, directly on the 
 front, is curled and matted strongly. The 
 numbers of this species still existing are 
 surprisingly great, when we consider the 
 immense destruction annually occurring 
 since European weapons have been em- 
 ployed against them. They were once 
 extensively diffused over what is now the 
 territory of the U. States, except that part 
 lying east of Hudson's river and lake 
 Cliamplain, and narrow strips of coast on 
 the Atlantic and Pacific. At the present 
 day, their range is very different. They 
 are no longer found except in the remote, 
 unsettled regions of the north and west, 
 being rarely seen east of the Mississippi 
 or south of the St, Lawrence. West of 
 lake Winnipeg, they are found as far 
 
 north as 62 ; west of the Rocky moun- 
 tains, it is probable they do not extend 
 north of the Columbia river. The bison, 
 on his native plains, is of savage and for- 
 midable appearance, uniformly inspiring 
 dread when beheld for the first time. 
 His ponderous head, rendered terrific by 
 its thick, shaggy hair and streaming beard, 
 is supported upon a massive neck and 
 shoulders, whose apparent strength is 
 more imposing from the augmentation 
 produced by the hump and the long fell of 
 hair covering the anterior parts of the 
 body. Nevertheless, the bison is not 
 known to attack man, unless when 
 wounded and at bay. The difference 
 between the summer and winter dress of 
 the bison consists rather in the length 
 than in other qualities of the hair. In 
 summer, from the shoulders backwards, 
 the surface is covered with a very short, 
 fine hair, smooth and soft as velvet. 
 The tail is short, and tufted at the end. 
 Except the long hair on the fore parts, 
 which are, to a certain extent, of a rust 
 color, or yellowish tinge, the color is a 
 uniform dun. Varieties of color are so 
 rare among this species, that the hunters 
 and Indians always regard them as mat- 
 ters of special wonder. The bison bull is 
 poor, and his flesh disagreeable in the 
 months of August and September. They 
 are much more easily approached and 
 killed than the cows, not being so vigilant, 
 though the cows are preferred both on 
 account of their finer skins and more 
 tender flesh. The cow is much less than 
 the bull, and has not so much of the long 
 hair on the shoulders, &c. ; her horns are 
 not so large, nor so much covered by the 
 hair. The sexual season begins towards 
 the end of July, and lasts till near the be- 
 ginning of September ; after this time, 
 the cows separate from the bulls in dis- 
 tinct herds. They calve in April ; the 
 calves seldom leave the mother until a 
 year old ; cows are sometimes seen with 
 calves of three seasons following them. 
 Bison beef is rather coarser grained than 
 that of the domestic ox, but is considered 
 by hunters and travellers as superior in 
 tenderness and flavor. The hump, which 
 is highly celebrated for its richness and 
 delicacy, is said, when properly cooked, 
 to resemble marrow. The Indian method 
 of preparing this delicacy is the follow- 
 ing : The hump is cut off the shoulders, 
 the bones removed, and a piece of skin is 
 sewed over the denuded part. The hair 
 is then singed off, and the whole is now 
 ready for the oven. This is a hole in the 
 earth, in and over which a fire has beea
 
 118 
 
 BISON BITHYNIA. 
 
 burned, and into this heated receptacle 
 the hump is conveyed, and covered, about 
 a foot deep, with earth and ashes. A 
 strong fire is again built over the spot, 
 and, supposing these preparations to be 
 begun on the evening of one day, the 
 hump will be ready for eating by the next 
 day at noon. The tongues and marrow 
 bones are regarded, by the connoisseurs, 
 as next in excellence. Herds, consisting 
 of thousands of these fine animals, still 
 roam over the far western prairies, led by 
 the fiercest and most powerful of the 
 bulls. During the sexual season, the 
 noise of their roaring resembles thunder, 
 and the males often fight desperate battles 
 with each other. While feeding, they are 
 often scattered over a vast surface ; but, 
 when they move forward in mass, they 
 form a dense, impenetrable column, 
 which, once fairly in motion, is scarcely 
 to be turned. They swim large rivers 
 nearly in the same order in which they 
 traverse the plains ; and, when flying from 
 pursuit, it is in vain for those in front to 
 halt suddenly, as the rearward throng 
 dash madly forward, and force their lead- 
 ers on. The Indians sometimes profit by 
 this habit : they lure a herd to the vicin- 
 ity of a precipice, and, setting the whole 
 in rapid motion, they terrify them, by 
 shouting and other artifices, to rush on to 
 their inevitable destruction. Numerous 
 tribes of Indians are almost wholly de- 
 pendent on these animals for food, cloth- 
 ing, tents, utensils, &c. Vast multitudes 
 of bisons are slaughtered annually ; but it 
 is to be deeply regretted, that the white 
 hunters and traders are in the habit of 
 destroying these valuable beasts in the 
 most wanton and unnecessary manner. 
 It is common for such persons to shoot 
 bisons, even when they have abundance 
 of food, for the sake of the tongue or 
 hump alone, or even because the animals 
 come so near as to present a fair aim. It 
 is, therefore, not to be wondered, that, 
 from all causes of diminution, the bison 
 should become less numerous every year, 
 and remove farther and farther from the 
 haunts of men. The preference always 
 given to the cows, which are too often 
 shot while gravid, operates powerfully in 
 thinning the herds. The skins of bisons, 
 especially that of the cow, dressed in the 
 Indian fashion, with the hair on, make 
 admirable defences against the cold, and 
 may be used for blankets, &c. They are 
 called buffalo robes ; the term buffalo being 
 generally, but inaccurately, applied to the 
 bison, the wool of the bison has been 
 manufactured into hats^ and has also been 
 
 employed in making coarse cloth. The 
 time cannot be very far distant, when this 
 species, like the Indian tribes which hover 
 near them, will have passed away, and 
 the places which knoAV them now shall 
 know them no more. 
 
 BISSAGO, or BISSAUX, or BISSAO ; an 
 island in the Atlantic ocean, near the 
 western coast of Africa, and the principal 
 of the cluster called Bissagos, 100 miles 
 in circumference ; Ion. 14 lO' W. ; lat. 
 11 24' N. The ground rises impercepti- 
 bly to the middle of the island. The soil 
 is cultivated and fertile, abounding with 
 several sorts of trees, particularly fine 
 large orange and mangroves near the 
 shore. The inhabitants are Portuguese 
 and Negroes intermixed. The island is 
 divided into 9 provinces, 8 of which are 
 governed by officers appointed by the 
 sovereign, each bearing the title of king. 
 There is another cluster of islands of 
 the same name, Ion. 15 W., lat. 11 30' 
 N., 255 miles south of cape Verd. 
 
 BISSET, Robert; a native of Scotland, 
 educated at Edinburgh, for the clerical 
 profession. He took the degree of LL. D., 
 and became a schoolmaster at Chelsea; 
 but, not succeeding in that occupation, he 
 employed himself in writing for the press. 
 His chief productions are, a History of 
 the Reign of George III, 6 vols. 8vo. ; 
 the Life of Edmund Burke, 2 vols. 8vo. ; 
 and an edition of the Spectator, with 
 lives of the authors, 6 vols. He died in 
 1805, aged 46. 
 
 BITAUBE, Paul Jeremiah ; born in K6- 
 nigsberg, in Prussia, 1732, of French pa- 
 rents. He translated Homer into French. 
 In consequence of this translation, and 
 the recommendation of d'Alembert, he 
 was elected a member of the academy at 
 Berlin. Frederic II, king of Prussia, fa- 
 vored him much, and allowed him to stay 
 a long time in France, to finish several 
 translations from the German into French. 
 Among his translations is one of Gothe's 
 Hermann and Dorothea. Napoleon con- 
 ferred marks of favor on him. He died 
 in 1808. His works appeared in 9 vols., 
 Paris, 1804. 
 
 BITHYNIA ; a country in Asia Minor, 
 lying on the Pontus Euxinus, the Thra- 
 cian Bosphorus and the Propontis, and 
 bounded on the south by Phrygia. In 
 early times, it was called Bebryaa, from 
 the Bebrycians, who inhabited it. Before 
 the time of Croesus, B. was an independ- 
 ent state, under its own princes. After 
 the death of Prusias I, in the war against 
 Croesus, it fell into the power of the Lyd- 
 ians, B. C. 560 ; into that of the Persians,
 
 BITHYNIA BITUMEN". 
 
 119 
 
 B. C. 555 ; and into that of Alexander, B. 
 
 C. 334. The restorer of the Bithynian 
 throne was Bias or Bas, a native prince, 
 at the court of one of whose successors, 
 Prusias II, Hannibal took refuge, and 
 where he ended his life by poison, 183 B. 
 C. Nicomedes, the last king of this race, 
 bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans, 
 75 B. C. The famous cities of Nicome- 
 dia, Nicaea and Heraclea were in B. In 
 the llth century, B. was conquered by 
 the Seljuks. In 1298, a new kingdom 
 was founded there by the Ottoman Turks, 
 of which, hi 1327, Prusa was the capital. 
 
 BITSCH ; a city in the department of 
 the Moselle, with 2500 inhabitants, and a 
 citadel on a hill ; by its situation and the 
 art of Carmontaigne, one of the strongest 
 places in France. 
 
 BITTERN. A name commonly applied 
 to several species of heron ; ardea, L. (See 
 Heron.) 
 
 BITUMEN; the name of a species in 
 mineralogy, the individuals composing 
 which have acquired several distinct 
 names, from their diversity in appearance. 
 This depends chiefly upon their state of 
 aggregation, which forms an uninterrupt- 
 ed series from the perfectly fluid to the 
 solid condition. Naphtha, the most fluid 
 variety,, is nearly colorless, or of a yellow- 
 ish tinge, transparent, and emits a peculiar 
 odor. It swims on water, its specific 
 gravity being from 0.71 to 0.84. It burns 
 with a bluish-white flame and thick 
 smoke, and leaves no residue. It con- 
 sists of carbon, 82.20, and hydrogen, 14.80 ; 
 and, being the only fluid destitute of oxy- 
 gen, it is used to preserve those new 
 metals in, which were discovered by sir 
 H. Davy. It is found in Persia, in the 
 peninsula of Apcheron, upon the western 
 shore of the Caspian sea, where it rises 
 through a marly soil in the form of vapor, 
 and, being made to flow through earthen 
 tubes, is inflamed for the purpose of as- 
 sisting in the preparation of food. It is 
 collected by sinking pits several yards in 
 depth, into which the naphtha flows. It 
 is burned in lamps, by the Persians, in- 
 stead of oil. Near thy village of Amiano, 
 in the state of Parma, there exists a spring 
 which yields this substance in sufficient 
 quantity to illuminate the city of Genoa, 
 for which purpose it is employed. With 
 certain vegetable oils, naphtha is said to 
 form a good varnish. The variety petro- 
 leum is much thicker than naphtha, re- 
 sembling, in consistence, common tar. It 
 has a strong, disagreeable odor, and a 
 blackish or reddish-brown color. During 
 combustion, it emits a thick, black smoke, 
 
 and leaves a little residue in the form of 
 a black coal. It is more abundant than 
 the first mentioned variety, from which it 
 does not appear to differ, except in being 
 more inspissated. It occurs, oozing out 
 of rocks, in the vicinity of beds of coal, or 
 floating upon the surface of springs. In 
 the Birman empire, near Rainanghong, is 
 a hill containing coal, into which 520 pits 
 have been sunk for the collection of pe- 
 troleum ; and the annual product of this 
 mine is 400,000 hogsheads. It is used, 
 by the inhabitants of that countiy, as a 
 lamp-oil, and, when mingled with earth 
 or ashes, as fuel. In the U. States, it is 
 found abundantly in Kentucky, Ohio and 
 New York, where it is known under the 
 name of Seneca or Genesee oil. It is used 
 as a substitute for tar, and as an external 
 application for the remedy of rheumatism 
 and chilblains. Maltha is a bitumen, still 
 less fluid than petroleum, from which it 
 differs in no other respect. Its principal 
 locality is at Puy de la Pege, in France, 
 where it renders the soil so viscous, that 
 it adheres strongly to the foot of the trav- 
 eller. It is also found in Persia and in 
 the Hartz. It is employed, like tar and 
 pitch, on cables and in calking vessels : it 
 is used, as well as the petroleum, to pro- 
 tect iron from rusting, and sometimes 
 forms an ingredient in black sealing-wax. 
 Elastic bitumen yields easily to pressure, 
 is flexible and elastic. It emits a strong, 
 bituminous odor, and is about the weight 
 of water. On exposure to the air, it be- 
 comes hard, and loses its elasticity. It 
 takes up the traces of crayons in the same 
 manner as the caoutchouc, or Indian rub- 
 ber, whence it has obtained the name of 
 the mineral caoutchouc. It has hitherto 
 been found only in the lead mines of 
 Derbyshire. Compact bitumen, or asphal- 
 tum, is of a shining black color, solid and 
 brittle, with a conchoidal fracture. Its 
 specific gravity is from 1 to 1.6. Like 
 the former varieties, it burns freely, and 
 leaves but little residue. It is found in 
 Judea, in the Palatinate, in France, in 
 Switzerland, and in large deposits in 
 sandstone in Albania; but no where so 
 largely as in the island of Trinidad, where 
 it forms a lake three miles in circumfer- 
 ence, -and of a thickness unknown. A 
 gentle heat renders it ductile, and, when 
 mixed with grease or common pitch, it is 
 used for paying the bottoms of ships, and 
 is supposed to protect them from the te- 
 redo of the West Indian seas. The an- 
 cients employed bitumen in the construc- 
 tion of their buildings. The bricks of 
 which the walls of Babylon were built
 
 120 
 
 BITUMEN BLACKBIRD. 
 
 "were, according to historians, cemented 
 with hot bitumen, which imparted to 
 them great solidity. 
 
 BIVOCACK (from the German biwacht) ; 
 the name given to the modern system, by 
 which the soldiers in service lie in the 
 open air, without tents, in opposition to 
 the old system of camps and cantonments. 
 They remain dressed, in order to be ready, 
 at a moment's warning, to take their places 
 in order of battle. Tents being laid aside, 
 on the continent of Europe, tor the sake 
 of diminishing the baggage of an army, 
 large masses of troops are always .obliged 
 to bivouack, even if they are not near the 
 enemy. The soldier, however, is per- 
 mitted to build himself a hut of straw or 
 branches, if circumstances allow it. Fre- 
 quent bivouacking is very injurious to 
 the health, and is also a great disadvan- 
 tage to the countries in which it takes 
 place. 
 
 BLACAS, count ; born at Aulps, in Prov- 
 ence (1770) ; served in La Vendee ; accom- 
 panied Louis XVIII to Russia, and after- 
 wards to England. On the restoration 
 of the Bourbons, he was made minister 
 of the king's household. After the second 
 restoration, he was sent to Naples to ne- 
 gotiate the marriage of the duke de Bern. 
 He was afterwards ambassador to Rome, 
 where he concluded the famous concor- 
 dat of 1815, so unpopular in France, that 
 the government did not venture to pro- 
 pose it to the chambers. On the fall of 
 the ultras and the elevation of Decazes, 
 he retired to Rome, and is said to have 
 been secretly employed at the congress 
 of Laybach. He has since been ambas- 
 sador to Naples, where, as well as at 
 Rome, he has declared himself the pro- 
 tector of the ultramontanists. B. is a thor- 
 ough ultra-royalist. 
 
 BLACK, Joseph, a distinguished chem- 
 ist, born at Bordeaux, of Scottish parents, 
 in 1728, studied medicine at Glasgow. 
 Doctor Cullen, his instructor, inspired him 
 with a taste for chemical studies. In 
 1754, he was made doctor of medicine, at 
 Edinburgh, and delivered an inaugural 
 dissertation, De Humors acido a Cibis orto 
 ti Magnesia alba, wliich exhibits the out- 
 line of Ins discoveries relative to carbonic 
 acid and the alkalies. In 1756, he pub- 
 lished his Experiments on White Mag- 
 nesia, Quicklime, and several other Alka- 
 line Substances, in the 2d volume of the 
 Essays, Physical and Literary, of the Ed- 
 inburgh Society. He demonstrates the 
 existence of an aerial fluid in these sub- 
 stances, which he calls fixed air, the 
 presence of which diminishes the corro- 
 
 sive power of the alkalies and the calca- 
 rious earths. This discovery may be con- 
 sidered as the basis of all those which 
 have immortalized the names of Caven- 
 dish, Priestley, Lavoisier, &c., and given 
 a new form to chemistry. In 1757, 15. 
 enriched this science \vitli his doctrine of 
 latent heat, which has led to such im- 
 portant results. In 1756, he was ap- 
 pointed professor of medicine and lecturer 
 on chemistry in the university at Glasgow, 
 in the place of doctor Cullen, and, in 
 1765, when Cullen left the professor's 
 chair in Edinburgh, he was there, also, 
 succeeded by B. No teacher inspired his 
 disciples with such a zeal for study ; his 
 lectures, therefore, contributed much to 
 make the taste for chemical science gen- 
 eral in England. He died in 1799, at the 
 age of 71. Upon Lavoisier's proposal, 
 the academy of sciences, in Paris, had 
 appointed him one of its eight foreign 
 members. His habits were simple, his 
 character cold and reserved. Though of 
 eminent ability as a chemist, he injured 
 himself by his long opposition to the re- 
 ception of the new chemical theory. At 
 length, however, he was convinced of its 
 superior accuracy, and did justice to its 
 merits. There is a paper of his in the 
 Philosophical Transactions of 1774, and 
 another in the Transactions of the Royal 
 Society of Edinburgh, in 1791. Two of 
 his letters on chemical subjects were 
 published by Crell and Lavoisier, and his 
 Lectures on Chemistry, in 1803, hi 2 vols. 
 by Robison. 
 
 BLACK ART. (See Magic.) 
 
 BLACKBIRD ; a trivial name, applied to 
 birds of different species, and distinct gen- 
 era, but properly belonging to a species 
 of the genus quiscalus, as restricted by 
 prince C. L. Bonaparte, di Musignano, the 
 latest and most accurate writer on orni- 
 thological nomenclature. The true black- 
 birds are either of a rich, glossy black, 
 showing metallic reflections, purple, or 
 ferruginous; being altogether free from 
 maculation. The kinds improperly called 
 blackbird, such as the redieing, cowbird, 
 &c., have bright colors, and are species 
 of icterus or troiipial. All the black- 
 birds are gregarious and migratory, diffus- 
 ing themselves in vast flocks from south 
 to north ; returning thence as the cold 
 season approaches. They build their 
 nests in trees, socially, and lay about five 
 eggs. The young are unlike the adult 
 birds. Three species of blackbird are 
 known in the United States ; among these, 
 the great crow-blackbird ( Q. major, Viel.), 
 is the largest, and, as its name implies,
 
 BLACKBIRD BLACKFISH. 
 
 strongly resembles, in all respects, tlie 
 mischievous plunderer of our cornfields. 
 The male is 16 inches lonjr, having a most 
 glossy black plumage ; the tail is cunei- 
 form, and, when the wings are folded, they 
 extend nearly five inches beyond it. The 
 female is of a light -brown color, whitish 
 beneath,- and twelve and a half inches 
 long. This species is found in the South- 
 ern States, principally along the sea-coast : 
 it also inhabits Mexico, and is said to be 
 common in the West Indies. The rusty 
 trntkle, or blackbird, is nine inches long. 
 its migrations extend from the south, 
 where it winters, to as far north as within 
 the arctic circle, where it breeds. Accord- 
 ing to Pennant, they arrive in the vicinity 
 of Hudson's bay about the beginning of 
 June, when the ground is sufficiently 
 thawed to allow them access to the grubs 
 and worms, upon which they chiefly feed. 
 They sing finely until "they have ceased 
 laying, and when the young are fledged, 
 they again resume their song. Their 
 nests are formed of moss and grass, and 
 placed in trees about eight feet from the 
 ground. They pass through the Middle 
 States, on their northern tour, early in 
 April : in September, they collect in vast 
 flocks, to seek their winter-quarters in the 
 south. The purple grakle, lesser or com- 
 mon crow-blackbird, ( Q. versicolor, Viel.), is 
 the most notorious of these sable plunder- 
 ers. On their first arrival in the Middle 
 States from the south, which is in the 
 latter part of March, they come in scatter- 
 ed flocks, and are most frequent in 
 swamps, meadows, and recently plough- 
 ed ground. At this season, they consume 
 an immense number of destructive in- 
 sects, and, if they continued to feed on 
 such food, they would be among the 
 farmer's chief benefactors. Towards the 
 beginning or middle of April, they begin 
 to build upon the tall pines or cedars 
 nearest to the fields whence they obtain 
 their food. As many as 10 or 15 nests 
 have been found on the same tree. The 
 nests are about five inches in diameter, 
 composed, externally, of long stalks and 
 knotty grass-roots, and are lined with 
 horse-hair, &c. The eggs are of a bluish- 
 olive hue, with large spots, and irregular 
 streaks of dark brown. The period when 
 the green blade of the young Indian corn 
 begins to sprout above the surface of the 
 ground is that in which the common 
 crow-blackbird commences its ravages. 
 Vast flocks, chattering and screaming, as 
 if anticipating the pleasures of the feast, 
 descend upon the soil, and pluck the 
 swelling grain from its recess. In a few 
 
 VOL. II. 11 
 
 hours, the careful husbandman beholds 
 his fair prospect of an ample harvest al- 
 most destroyed, and that, too, with but 
 little chance of his being able to remedy 
 the evil. It is true that the guns are 
 commonly put in requisition, and a few 
 volleys, fired among these insolent thieves, 
 destroy a small part of their numbers. 
 But they only change their place to other 
 parts of the field, and return ere long to 
 renew the assault with increased activity. 
 It is not until the month of November 
 that they begin to collect their forces, 
 now renovated and augmented by their 
 young, to seek the genial climate of the 
 south for the winter. When we consider 
 that a very ample quantity of corn is pro- 
 duced, notwithstanding the depredations 
 of these and other birds, and recollect the 
 vast number of insects they consume be- 
 fore their attacks upon the com begin, 
 we shall be inclined to agree with our 
 great ornithologist, Wilson, that the ser- 
 vice they render the cultivator by devour- 
 ing the insects is quite an adequate com- 
 pensation for the tax they levy upon the 
 grain. If we extend our observation a 
 little further, and remark that these birds 
 destroy the bisects before they have at- 
 tained their perfect or breeding state, and 
 that a single fly or bug is capable of lay- 
 ing thousands of eggs, the magnitude of 
 the benefit they confer upon mankind 
 may be more accurately appreciated. 
 Nevertheless, it is perfectly right, that, 
 during their ravages upon the grain-field, 
 they should be driven off and destroyed. 
 The extermination of the species is as 
 impossible as the wish to effect it would 
 be ridiculous. If such an event could be 
 brought about, we should speedily be 
 convinced, that the supreme Author of 
 nature had devised all things in wisdom, 
 by discovering, that, without the aid of 
 these seemingly useless creatures, the 
 earth would be despoiled of its vegeta- 
 tion, and the habitations of man become 
 loathsome from the multiplication of vo- 
 racious and disgusting worms. 
 
 BLACKFISH ; a species of labrus, caught 
 on various parts of the American coast, 
 especially in the vicinity of Long Island, 
 whence large supplies are obtained for the 
 New York market. For the following par- 
 ticulars concerning this valuable article of 
 food, we are indebted to doctor Mitchell's 
 excellent paper on the fishes of New York, 
 published hi the Transactions of the Lit- 
 erary and Philosophical Society. The 
 specific name given by the learned de- 
 scriber is L. tautog, in which he has pre- 
 served the designation used by the Mohe-
 
 122 
 
 BLACKFISH BLACK FOREST. 
 
 gan Indians for this fish. The common 
 name, blackfish, is bestowed on account of 
 the color of its back and sides, which are 
 of a bluish or crow-black ; the lips, lower 
 jaw, neck and belly, especially in the 
 males, are white. The mouth is rather 
 small, the lips skinny or fleshy, and the 
 teeth are about twelve in number in each 
 jaw, the two front teeth being largest, and 
 the rest of the respective rows gradually 
 decreasing in size. Within the external 
 ranges are the points of smaller teeth, in- 
 serted with rather less regularity : they 
 are sharp, distinct, and covered by the 
 lips. The tongue is white, smooth, lying 
 close, but discoverable by raising ; tail 
 entire, and somewhat convex, the middle 
 rays being somewhat more prominent 
 than the upper and lower ones ; gill cov- 
 ers smooth, neither scaly, serrated nor 
 rough ; extremities of the pectoral fins 
 whitish ; eyes rather small. The black- 
 fish is plump in appearance, and is much 
 esteemed for the table. It varies in size, 
 from 2 or 3 to 10 or 12 pounds. Rocks,, 
 reefs and rough bottoms of the sea, in the 
 neighborhood of the. coasts, are the situa- 
 tions most frequented by the blackfish, 
 which appear to be stationary inhabitants 
 of the salt water, as they do not, like the 
 salmon, herring, &c., desert their haunts 
 to visit the fresh-water rivers. These 
 fish are caught in abundance, along the 
 whole of Long Island sound, Fisher's 
 Island sound, and in Narragansett bay. 
 They are also found in the southern bays 
 of Long Island, and on the ocean banks 
 off Sandy Hook. , They were formerly 
 carried over land from Newport and 
 Providence to Boston market, but are 
 now caught in Massachusetts bay in suf- 
 ficient numbers to render such importa- 
 tion unnecessary. In catching blackfish, 
 the hand line is generally used, though 
 the angle rod may often be advantageous- 
 ly employed : they seize the bait greedily, 
 at proper seasons, and pUll strongly, in 
 proportion to their size and weight. They 
 are occasionally taken in seines. The 
 bait commonly employed is the soft clam 
 (my a), the soldier-crab or fiddler (ocypo- 
 dd], or the large finny worm of the salt- 
 water beaches, called nereis. As the 
 warmth of spring comes on, the blackfish 
 begin to acquire their appetite, which is 
 suspended during the cold of winter, at 
 wliich time a membrane is found to form 
 over and close up the vent. They may 
 be caught, as above stated, until the warm 
 weather becomes well advanced, when 
 such an abundance of food is to be pro- 
 cured as to render the bait of the fisher- 
 
 man no longer a temptation. The flow- 
 ering of the common dog-wood (cornus 
 Jlorida) is considered an indication of the 
 beginning of the fishing season ; and 
 where this tree is not to be seen, the 
 vegetation of the chestnut-tree is regard- 
 ed as a similar indication. These fish 
 are brought to Philadelphia market in 
 wagons, from Long Branch, &c., being 
 packed in ice, and frozen as soon as 
 caught. 
 
 BLACK FOREST (in German, Schwarz- 
 wald) ; a chain of mountains in the grand- 
 duchy of Baden and the kingdom of 
 Wiirtemberg. It runs almost parallel 
 with the Rhine, from south to north, often 
 only from 15 to 20 miles distant from this 
 river ; is about 85 miles long, and, from 
 east to west, in the southern part, about 
 30 miles wide ; in the northern, about 18. 
 The Danube rises in these mountains, as 
 well as many other rivers. Those on the 
 west side run into the Rhine, those on the 
 east side into the Danube. The Black 
 Forest is rather a chain of elevated plains, 
 than of isolated peaks. The highest sum- 
 mit, the Feldberg, measures 4610 German 
 feet. Except from June to September, 
 these mountains are generally covered 
 with snow, and even during this period, 
 are not entirely free from it. Among the 
 many valleys of this chain, the Murgthal 
 is particularly celebrated for its beautiful 
 scenery. The whole chain consists of 
 primitive mountains : its skeleton, through- 
 out, is granite ; its higher points are cov- 
 ered with sand-stone, and other layers of 
 less consequence, and are surrounded by 
 heights composed of floetz rocks. On 
 the western side, at the foot, appears 
 gneiss. Porphyry and clay-slate are 
 found on several heights, as, likewise, sil- 
 ver, lead, copper, iron, cobalt and miner- 
 al waters. The woods are abundant, and 
 consist mostly of pines and similar spe- 
 cies. The raising of cattle is the princi- 
 pal branch of husbandly carried on in this 
 district. The ground is not fertile, and 
 the inhabitants, scattered over the moun- 
 tains, live extremely frugally, but are very 
 industrious. Their manner of living, build- 
 ingtheir houses, and cultivatingtheir lands, 
 is very peculiar. Till the 17th century, 
 there was no spirit of trade or industry 
 among them ; but the wars of that period 
 developed it, and the manufactures of 
 glass, straw hats, wooden clocks, and oth- 
 er wooden ware, are now very important. 
 They make, annually, more than 180,000 
 wooden clocks, the value of which 
 amounts to over half a million of guilders. 
 Neustadt and Furtwangen are the central
 
 BLACK FOREST BLACKLOCK. 
 
 123 
 
 points of tliis singular commerce, which 
 embraces all Europe, and extends even to 
 America. Large numbers of these clocks 
 we sent to Spain and Portugal, from 
 whence they go to South America. From 
 the north of Germany, and from Havre, 
 they are exported to the U. States. Of 
 late, the clocks have been much improved, 
 and the correctness of some of them, 
 made of different woods, in order to 
 counteract the influence of the weather, is 
 surprising. -Two passes of the Black 
 Forest became particularly noted in the 
 time of the French revolution the Knie- 
 bis and the Holle passes. The former, at 
 the foot of the Murg, was taken in 1796 
 and 1797 ; the latter is famous for Mo- 
 rcau'.s skilful retreat through it in 1790. 
 
 BLACKFRIARS' BRIDGE ; one of the six 
 fine bridges of London, over- the Thames, 
 built between 1760 and 1768, after a de- 
 sign of Mr. Robert Mylne, at an expense 
 of 152,840. There are 9 arches, the 
 centre one being 100 feet wide. The 
 whole length is 995 feet. Over each pier 
 is a recess, supported by Ionic pillars. 
 The bridge is situated at about an equal 
 distance from those of Southwark and 
 Waterloo. It commands a very fine 
 view 6f St. Paul's cathedral, as well as of 
 both sides of the river, including the tow- 
 er, the monument, Somerset house, West- 
 minster abbey, and about 30 churches. 
 The constant bustle on this and the Lon- 
 don bridge is enormous, and beyond any 
 thing of the kind to be met with in other 
 cities. 
 
 BLACK LEAD. (See Plumbago.) 
 BLACK ROCK. (See Buffalo.) 
 BLACK SEA ; with the ancients, known 
 by the name of Pontus Euxinus (q. v.); a 
 sea which is situated between Europe 
 and Asia, bounded on the west by Roma- 
 nia and Bulgaria, on the north by the 
 Russian dominions, on the east by Min- 
 jrrelia and Guriel, on the south by Nato- 
 lia, being connected with the Mediter- 
 ranean by the Bosphorus, and> by the 
 Cimmerian Bosphorus, with the sea of 
 Azoph (q. v.), which is, in fact, only a bay 
 of the Black sea. The area of the Black 
 sea and the sea of Azoph amounts to 
 about 297,000 square miles. The water 
 is not so clear as that of the Mediterrane- 
 an, and, on account of the many large 
 rivers which fall into it, the Danube, 
 Dniester, Dnieper, Don and Cuban, being 
 less salt, freezes more readily. The tem- 
 pests on this sea are tremendous, as the 
 land, which confines its agitated waters, . 
 .gives to them a kind of whirling motion, 
 la the winter, it is so boisterous, particular' 
 
 ly near the coast from the Danube to the 
 Crimea, that it is scarcely navigable, even 
 by the most experienced sailors. The 
 chief current runs from the shallow sea 
 of Azoph, from north to south, to the 
 Thracian Bosphorus and the Hellespont. 
 The Black sea contains no islands ; there 
 is one, however, in the Cimmerian Bos- 
 phorus. The fisheries in the sea of 
 Azoph and the Black sea are not unim- 
 portant, various kinds of valuable fish, 
 both large and small, being taken ; among 
 others, several species of sturgeon. Seines 
 are used, in which 60,000 fishes are some- 
 times caught within six hours ; but there 
 are never many large ones among them. 
 Caviare (q. v.) is also made on the coast, 
 as well as fish-glue, fish-oil, and, from the 
 spawn of the sea mullet, botargo ; the 
 latter, however, only in small quantity. 
 The salt and smoked mackerel form an 
 important article of the commerce of the 
 Crimea. Raoul-Rochette has published, 
 in Paris, 1823, a work on the remarkable 
 Grecian antiquities On the northern shore 
 of the Pontus, which has been corrected 
 and completed by the Russian counsellor 
 Peter von Koppen, Vienna, 1823. Quite 
 recently, Mr. von Blaramberg, director of 
 the museum established at Odessa and at 
 Kertch, has discovered many interesting 
 remains in this quarter. (See Crimea.) 
 
 BLACKGUARD. This name was origin- 
 ally given to the scullions and coal-carri- 
 ers in great houses and palaces, who, in 
 the journeys of the families to which they 
 belonged, usually rode in the carts with 
 the pots and kettles. 
 
 BLACKLOCK, Thomas, a poet, remarka- 
 ble for his literary attainments under the 
 misfortune of a deprivation of sight, was 
 born at Annan, in the county of Dum- 
 fries, in 1721. His parents, who were 
 natives of Cumberland, although poor 
 were industrious and well-informed. At 
 the age of six months, he lost his sight by 
 the small-pox : and, as he grew up, his 
 father, with exemplary industry and af- 
 fection, endeavored to lessen his calamity 
 by reading to him such books as instruct- 
 ed or entertained him, when he always 
 appeared to be particularly pleased with 
 the works of Spenser, Milton, Prior, Pope 
 and Addison. Such was the kindness 
 his peculiar situation and gentle temper 
 excited, that he was seldom without some 
 companion, who aided in his singular 
 course of education, until he had even 
 acquired some knowledge of the Latin 
 tongue. At the age of 12, he began to 
 versify, and his performances at length 
 became the subject of discourse in his
 
 124 
 
 BLACKLOCK BLACKSTONE. 
 
 neighborhood. At the age of 20, he lost 
 his father, on which lie was invited by 
 doctor Stephenson, a physician in Edin- 
 burgh, to visit that metropolis, in order to 
 pursue his studies at the university. He 
 soon became a proficient in Latin, as also 
 in French, which he chiefly acquired by 
 conversation with a French lady, the 
 wife of provost Alexander. He also, in 
 the course of nearly 10 years' study at 
 the university, made a considerable prog- 
 ress in the sciences. In 1754, he publish- 
 ed a second edition of his poems, which 
 gained him the patronage of Mr. Spence, 
 who published an aocotmt of his life, 
 character and productions, which brought 
 him into general notice ; and a quarto edi- 
 tion of his poems being soon afterwards 
 published by subscription, a considerable 
 sum was thereby raised for his benefit. 
 He now devoted himself to the study of 
 theology, and, having passed through the 
 usual course, was licensed, in 1759, by 
 the presbytery of Dumfries. In 1762, he 
 married the daughter of Mr. Johnson, sur- 
 geon, of Dumfries ; a connexion which 
 proved to him a source of comfort and 
 felicity for the remainder of his life. He 
 was soon after appointed minister of 
 Kirkcudbright, on the presentation of the 
 earl of Selkirk ; but, being opposed by his 
 parishioners, after two years' contention, 
 he resigned his living, upon a moderate 
 annuity, and retired to Edinburgh, where 
 he adopted the plan of receiving a few 
 students of the university as boarders, 
 and of assisting them in their studies 
 when desirable. In 1766, he was created 
 D. D. ; and, having now taken a respecta- 
 ble station among the literati of Scotland, 
 he maintained it by various publications, 
 until his death, July, 1791, at the age of 
 70. His private character, according to 
 the testimony of Hume and others, was 
 singularly amiable. Letters and conver- 
 sation were his solace, to which he joined 
 the practice of music. His poetry is easy, 
 polished and hannonious ; and he com- 
 posed with considerable rapidity. The 
 number of his images from visual objects 
 will surprise those who are not aware of 
 the uniform strain of imitation in com- 
 mon-place poetry. B. wrote, besides his 
 poems, several prose works. 
 
 BLACKMORE, sir Richard, a physician 
 and poet of notoriety, if not of eminence, 
 was the son of an attorney in the county 
 of VVilts, In 1668, he entered the uni- 
 versity of Oxford. There he remained 
 13 years, and, for some time afterwards, 
 appears to have followed the profession 
 of a schoolmaster. At length he turned 
 
 his attention to physic. In 1697, he had 
 risen to so much eminence in his profes- 
 sion, as to be appointed physician to king 
 William, who knighted him. The pre- 
 ceding year, he had made himself known, 
 as a poet, by the publication of his heroic 
 poem of Prince Arthur, which was soon 
 followed by King Arthur ; and, in 17CO, 
 he published a paraphrase of the book 
 of Job, in folio ; as also a poem entitled a 
 Satire on Wit, being an attempt to retort 
 on the wits by whom he had been very 
 successfully assailed. By the strictness 
 of his whiggish principles, he had incur- 
 red the resentment of the tory junto, 
 composed of Swift, Pope, Arbuthnot and 
 others ; while something solemn in the 
 complexion of his religion and morality, 
 added to the real absurdity of starting 
 epic after epic in quick succession, in- 
 sured the raillery of all those to whom 
 his gravity, perseverance and mediocrity 
 afforded so much subject for ridicule. 
 This worthy man and middling poet be- 
 came the common butt of his day, and 
 for almost two generations, for Pope took 
 up the quarrel which Dry den began. 
 The work which produced him the 
 greatest reputation was the Creation, a 
 poem in seven books, which went through 
 several editions, and was greatly appjaud- 
 ed, but is, generally speaking, very tamely 
 elaborate. In 1721, B. published a New 
 Version of the Psalms of David, which, 
 although recommended by authority, has 
 never been adopted. He died, at an ad- 
 vanced age, in 1729, leaving behind him 
 the character of a pious, well-meaning 
 and' respectable man, of limited genius 
 and little taste. Besides the epics already 
 mentioned, he wrote E,liza, in 10 books ; 
 the Redeemer, in 6 books ; King Alfred, 
 in 12 books, &c. He also composed a 
 History of the Conspiracy against King 
 William JII, and several medical and 
 theological treatises, especially against the 
 Arians, ah 1 of which have quietly reached 
 oblivion. As a physician, he was a stren- 
 uous opposer of the new system of inocu- 
 lation for the small-pox. 
 
 BLACKSTONE, sir William, knight and 
 LL. D., a celebrated English lawyer, and 
 the most popular writer on the laws and 
 constitution of his country, was born in 
 London, in 1723. He was the third son 
 of Mr. Charles Blackstone, a silk-mercer, 
 but, being left an orphan, was brought up 
 by his maternal uncle, Mr. Thomas Bigg, 
 surgeon, from whose kindness he re- 
 ceived an education, which the narrow 
 circumstances of his father could scarcely 
 have supplied. He was educated on the
 
 BLACKSTONE. 
 
 125 
 
 foundation of the charter-house, whence, 
 hi 1738, he was removed to Pembroke 
 college, Oxford. He was much distin- 
 guished, both at school ami at the univer- 
 sity, and at an early age compiled a work 
 for his own use, entitled the Elements 
 of Architecture, which has been much 
 praised. Having chosen the profession 
 of the law, he was in due time entered at 
 the Middle Temple, and on this occasion 
 published the admired verses, called the 
 Lawyer's Farewell to his Muse, which 
 appeared in Dodsley's Miscellany. In 
 1743, he was elected fellow of All Souls' 
 college, Oxon., and, in 1746, was called to 
 the bar, and commenced the practice of 
 law. Being deficient in elocution, and 
 not possessed of the popular talents of an 
 advocate, his progress was slow. Having 
 attended the courts of law at Westminster 
 for seven years, without success, he de- 
 termined to quit the practice of his pro- 
 fession, and retire to his fellowship at 
 Oxford. The system of education in the 
 English universities supplying no provis- 
 ion for teaching the laws and constitution 
 of the country, B. undertook to remedy 
 this defect, by a course of lectures on that 
 important subject ; and the manner in 
 which he executed the task has conferred 
 a lasting distinction on Oxford. His first 
 course was delivered in 1753, and was 
 repeated for a series of years with in- 
 creasing effect and reputation. These 
 lectures doubtless suggested to Mr. Viner 
 the idea of founding, by his will, a liberal 
 establishment in the university of Oxford 
 for the study of the common law ; and B. 
 was, with great propriety, chosen the first 
 Vinerian professor. His engagements at 
 Oxford did not prevent his occasional 
 practice as a provincial barrister, and, in 
 1754, being engaged as counsel in a con- 
 tested election for the county of Oxford, 
 he was led into considerations on the 
 elective franchise, which produced his 
 work entitled Considerations on Copy- 
 holds. In this treatise he denied the 
 right of copyholders to vote as freehold- 
 ers; which led to a declaratory act of 
 parliament in establishment of that nar- 
 row doctrine. In 1759, he published a 
 new edition of the Great Charter and 
 Charter of the Forest, with a historical 
 preface ; and, during the same year, the 
 reputation which he had obtained by his 
 lectures induced him to resume his at- 
 tendance at Westminster hall, when busi- 
 ness and the honors of his profession soon 
 crowded in upon him. In 1761, he was 
 elected M. P. for Hindon, made king's 
 counsel and solicitor-general to the queen, 
 11* 
 
 About this time, he also married, and, 
 thereby losing his fellowship, was ap- 
 pointed principal of New Inn hall ; which 
 office, with the Vinerian professorship, he 
 resigned the next year. In 1765, he also 
 published the first volume of his Com- 
 mentaries on the Laws of England ; a 
 work of greater merit than any which 
 had yet appeared on the subject. In this 
 celebrated production, the author does 
 not confine himself to the humble duty 
 of an expositor, but aspires to the higher 
 character of a philosophical writer on 
 jurisprudence ; and, having been preceded 
 by no authors in the same line, his man- 
 ner of accomplishing his task is entitled 
 to great praise. It must not, however, be 
 regarded as a philosophical investigation 
 into the grounds and merits of the Eng- 
 lish laws and constitution, so much as an 
 elegant exposition and defence of an ex- 
 isting system. Whatever he found insti- 
 tuted, it was his purpose to support and 
 eulogise ; and consequently we are rather 
 made acquainted with the " legal reasons" 
 of what is established, than instructed in 
 the general principles of national legisla- 
 tion. This mode of treating the subject 
 may be, in some degree, useful, by con- 
 veying a due notion of the grounds on 
 which government and usage have pro- 
 ceeded, but, of course, will do little to ad- 
 vance the mind of a nation, and often 
 a great deal to nurture prejudices and 
 impede ameli oration. Notwithstanding 
 some passages against standing armies, 
 and in exposition of the progress of the 
 influence of the crown, B. is uniformly 
 the advocate of prerogative, and veiy 
 confined in his notions of toleration. On 
 the latter ground, he was involved, on the 
 publication of his Commentaries, in a con- 
 troversy with Priestley ; and, some years 
 afterwards, his political principles were 
 assailed, with much acuteness, in a pub- 
 lication entitled a Fragment on Govern- 
 ment, now known to be the work of Mr. 
 Jeremy Bentham. In the debates which 
 took place on the Middlesex election, in 
 relation to the re-eligibility of an expelled 
 member, he was led to language in par- 
 liament, against the tenor of which Mr. 
 James Grenville, with great adroitness, 
 quoted his own book, and he was also 
 warmly attacked for the same inconsis- 
 tency by Juniug. The real merit and 
 talents of B., backed by political tenden- 
 cies, which are generally favorable to ad- 
 vancement, now made him an object of 
 ministerial favor, and he was offered the 
 post of solicitor-general, in 1770, and, de- 
 clining it, was made one of the justices of
 
 126 
 
 BLACKSTONE BLAIR. 
 
 common pleas, which station he held 
 until his death, in February, 1780, in his 
 57th year. The private character of B. 
 was exceedingly mild, benevolent and 
 amiable ; and he was a most active and 
 intelligent man of business, in which, in- 
 deed, he all his life delighted. He left in 
 MS. two volumes of reports, which have 
 been published since his death, and are 
 deemed inadequate to his reputation. 
 
 BLACKSTONE CANAL leads from Provi- 
 dence, in the state of Rhode Island, to 
 Worcester, in Massachusetts. It is 45 
 miles in length, and follows, in the great- 
 est part of its course, the valley of the 
 Blackstone or Pawtucket river, from 
 which it is supplied with water. The - 
 fall from the summit, at Worcester, to 
 tide-water at Providence, is 451^^ feet. 
 There are 48 locks, which are built of 
 hammered stone, laid in water lime, each 
 80 feet long and 10 feet wide. The canal 
 is 34 feet wide at the surface of the water, 
 18 feet at the bottom, and 4 feet deep. It 
 was built by an incorporated company, 
 under charters from the legislatures of 
 Rhode Island and Massachusetts, at a cost 
 of about $600,000. It was finished in 
 the autumn of 1828. 
 
 BLADENSBURG ; a post-town in Prince 
 George's county, Maryland, on the east- 
 ern branch of the Potomac, 6 miles N. E. 
 Washington ; Ion. 76 57' W. ; lat. 38 
 5& N. It contains about 100 houses. A 
 battle was fought here, Aug. 24, 1814, 
 between the English and Americans, in 
 which the latter were defeated. This 
 success of the British led the way to the 
 conquest and burning of Washington. 
 
 BLAIR, Hugh, a pulpit orator and au- 
 thor, a grandson of Robert B., who, under 
 Charles I, boldly defended the rights of 
 the Presbyterian church, was born at Ed- 
 inburgh, in 1718, and prepared himself 
 for the ministry hi the university of that 
 city. His teachers, struck by an essay on 
 the Beautiful, encouraged his inclination 
 for belles-lettres. He was made preacher 
 of the high church of Edinburgh in 1758. 
 The office was regarded as the highest 
 dignity of the Presbyterian church of 
 Scotland. About the same time, his lit- 
 erary reputation also commenced. In 
 1759, he began a course of public lectures 
 on composition, which he delivered with 
 so much reputation, that, in 1762, the 
 king founded a professorship of rhetoric 
 and belles-lettres, which was committed 
 to his charge. We know his theory of 
 rhetoric from his Lectures on Rhetoric 
 and Belles-Letters (1783, 4, 2 vols.), which 
 have been translated into German. The 
 
 credit of Macpherson's Ossian was zeal- 
 ously supported by Blair, in a dissertation 
 which gained him much reputation. His 
 sermons were -considered as models of 
 English pulpit eloquence. Careful and 
 scrupulous as he was in writing them, he 
 only published the best. They are dis- 
 tinguished by a polished style, and a 
 clear, easy and methodical exposition. 
 The first volume of his sermons was not 
 published until his 60th year (1777) ; the 
 10th edition was called for in the follow- 
 ing year. He subsequently published 
 another collection, which was also often 
 rvprinted. B. gave weight to his doc- 
 trines by his own example. He labored 
 for the welfare of his church, and was 
 always ready to give counsel and assist- 
 ance. He was a kind father, an affec- 
 tionate friend and husband, and, by his 
 tranquil and contented temper, as well as 
 by his simple and regular manner of liv- 
 ing, enjoyed the highest degree of human 
 happiness to a great age. He died in 
 1800. 
 
 BLAIR, John ; an eminent chronologist 
 and geographer, a native of Scotland, 
 which country he quitted for London 
 about the middle of the last century. 
 Though he had received a good classical 
 education at Edinburgh, he thought him- 
 self fortunate in obtaining the situation of 
 usher in a school in Hedge lane, London. 
 In 1754, the publication of a work in folio, 
 entitled the Chronology and 'History of 
 the World, from the Creation to A. D. 
 1753, gained him great reputation. In 
 the composition of this book, he is said to 
 have been materially assisted by his rela- 
 tion, doctor Hugh Blair. In it, he illus- 
 trates his subject by 56 tables, 4 of which 
 are introductory, containing the centuries 
 which precede the first Olympiad. He 
 dedicated his work to the lord chancellor 
 Hardwicke, and, in 1757, was appointed 
 chaplain to the princess dowager of Wales, 
 and mathematical tutor to the duke of 
 York, whom he accompanied, hi 1763, on 
 a tour to the continent, having already 
 received several ecclesiastical preferments. 
 On his return to England, he published, 
 in 1768, a new edition of his Chronologi- 
 cal Tables, with 14 maps of ancient and 
 modern geography annexed. He died 
 June 24, 1782, of an attack of influenza. 
 After his death were published his Course 
 of Lectures on the Canon of the Old Tes- 
 tament, and a duodecimo volume, entitled 
 the History of Geography. 
 
 BLAIR, Robert ; a Scottish clergyman 
 and poet, born at Edinburgh, in 1699. 
 He is the author of the Grave, first
 
 BLAIR BLAKE. 
 
 127 
 
 printed at London, in 1743. He died in 
 1746. 
 
 BLAKE, Robert, a celebrated British 
 admiral, was the eldest son of a merchant 
 in the Spanish trade, settled at Bridge- 
 water, where B. was born, in 1599. Af- 
 ter attending the grammar-school of his 
 native place, he was sent to Wadham 
 college, Oxford, where he took the de- 
 gree of B. A. in 1617. On his return to 
 Bridgewater, he lived for some time, in a 
 private manner, on the fortune left him 
 by his father, and was led by the gravity 
 of his own disposition, and by his family 
 connexions, to embrace the principles of 
 the Puritans, by whose interest he was 
 elected member for Bridgewater, in the 
 parliament of 1640. This being soon 
 dissolved, he lost his election for the next, 
 and immediately sought to advance the 
 cause, in a military capacity, in the war 
 which then broke out between the king 
 and parliament. He soon distinguished 
 himself by his activity. In 1649, in the 
 manner of those times, when military 
 men often served on shipboard, he was 
 sent to command the fleet, in conjunction 
 with colonels Deane and Popham, and 
 thus commenced the naval career which 
 lias given him so distinguished a place in 
 British history. He immediately sailed 
 to Kinsale in quest of prince Rupert, 
 whom he attempted to block up in that 
 port. The prince, contriving to get his 
 fleet out, escaped to Lisbon, where B. 
 followed him ; and, being refused per- 
 mission to attack him in the Tagus, by 
 the king of Portugal, he took several rich 
 prizes from the Portuguese (against whom 
 the parliamentdeclared war), and followed 
 Rupert to Malaga, where, without asking 
 permission of Spain, he attacked him, 
 and nearly destroyed the whole of his 
 fleet. On his return to England, he was 
 made warden of the Cinque Ports, and 
 soon after reduced the islands of Scilly 
 and Guernsey. In 1659, on the prospect 
 of a Dutch war, he was made sole admiral, 
 and, on the 19th of May, was attacked in 
 the Downs by van Tromp, with a fleet of 
 45 sail, the force of B. amounting only to 
 23. He, however, fought so bravely, that 
 van Tromp was obliged to retreat. He 
 then continued his cruise, took a number 
 of Dutch merchantmen, and, after several 
 partial actions, drove the enemy into their 
 harbor, and returned to the Downs. May 
 29, he was again attacked by van Tromp, 
 whose fleet was now increased to 80 sail. 
 B., who could not bear the thought of a 
 retreat, engaged this vast force with a 
 very inferior number, and an unfavorable 
 
 wind ; but, after every possible exertion, 
 was obliged to retreat into the Thames, 
 on which van Tromp was so much elat- 
 ed, that he sailed through the channel 
 with a broom at his mast head, to signify 
 that he had swept the sea of British ships. 
 In the February following, B., having 
 with great diligence repaired his fleet, put 
 to sea with 60 sail, and soon after met the 
 Dutch admiral, who had 70 sail, and 300 
 merchantmen under convoy. During 
 three days, a furious running fight up the 
 channel was maintained with obstinate 
 valor on both sides ; the result of which 
 was, the loss of 11 men-of-war and 30 
 merchant-shim by the Dutch, while that 
 of the English was only one man-of-war. 
 It was in April, this year, that Cromwell 
 assumed the sovereignty, on which occa- 
 sion, B. and his brother admirals issued 
 a declaration, that, notwithstanding this 
 change, they resolved to persist in faith- 
 fully pel-forming their duty to the nation. 
 " It is not for us (said B. to his officers) 
 to mind state affaire, but to keep the 
 foreigners from fooling us." June 3, he 
 again engaged van Tromp with dubious 
 success ; but, renewing the action the 
 next day, he forced the Dutch to retire, 
 with a considerable loss in ships and men, 
 into their own harbors. On his return, 
 lie was received by Cromwell with great 
 respect, and returned member in the new 
 parliament for Bridgewater. Aware of 
 his affection for a republican government, 
 the protector was not displeased at hav- 
 ing occasion to send him, with a strong 
 fleet, to enforce a due respect to the Eng- 
 lish flag in the Mediterranean. He sailed 
 first to Algiers, which submitted, and 
 then demolished the castles of Goletta 
 and Porto Ferino, at Tunis, because the 
 dey refused to deliver up the English 
 captives. A squadron of his ships also 
 blocked up Cadiz, and intercepted a 
 Spanish plate fleet. Being now very sick, 
 he resolved to do one more service to his 
 country before his death, and sailed, with 
 '24 ships, to Santa Cruz, in Tenerifte ; and, 
 notwithstanding the strength of the place, 
 burnt the ships of another Spanish plate 
 fleet, which had taken shelter there, and, 
 by a fortunate change of wind, came out 
 without loss. His brother having failed 
 in some part of duty during this service, 
 he immediately removed him from his 
 command. Finding his disorder making 
 rapid progress, he then sailed for Eng- 
 land, and, amidst his frequent inquiries 
 for the sight of the English coast, expired 
 while the fleet was entering Plymouth 
 sound, August 27, 1657. His body was
 
 128 
 
 BLAKE BLANCHARD. 
 
 honored with a magnificent public funer- 
 al, and interred in Henry VII's chapel, 
 whence it was pitifully removed at the 
 restoration, and buried in St. Margaret's 
 church-yard. The foregoing detail suf- 
 ficiently evinces the bravery and talents 
 of this able commander, who first deviat- 
 ed from the old practice of keeping ships 
 and men as much out of danger as possi- 
 ble, and gave the example of bold and 
 spirited achievement. So disinterested 
 was he, that, after all his rich captures and 
 high posts, he scarcely left behind him 
 500 of acquired property, freely sharing 
 all with his friends and seamen, into 
 whom he infused that intrepidity and 
 spirit of enterprise, by which the British 
 navy has been ever since so highly dis- 
 tinguished. 
 
 BLAKELEY, Johnston, a captain in the 
 U. States navy during the late war, was 
 born in Ireland, in October, 1781. Two 
 years after, his father, Mr. John Blakeley, 
 emigrated to the U. States, and settled in 
 Wilmington, North Carolina. Young B. 
 was placed, hi 1796, at the university of 
 North Carolina, being intended for the 
 law. His father died the year after. In 
 the year 1799, circumstances having de- 
 prived B. of the means of support, he left 
 college, and, the next year, obtained a 
 midshipman's warrant In 1813, he was 
 made a master-commandant, and soon 
 after appointed to the command of the 
 Wasp. In this vessel, he fell in with his 
 Britannic majesty's ship Reindeer, in lat. 
 48 3&. This ship he took, after an 
 action of 19 minutes. The loss of the 
 Americans was 21 killed and wounded ; 
 that of the enemy, 67. The Reindeer 
 was cut to pieces in such a manner as to 
 render it impossible to save her ; and she 
 was accordingly set on fire. After this, 
 the Wasp put into L'Orient ; from which 
 port she sailed August 27, and, four days 
 afterwards, falling in with 10 sail of mer- 
 chantmen, under convoy of a ship of the 
 line, she succeeded in cutting off one of 
 the vessels. The evening of the first of 
 September, 1814, she fell in with four 
 sail, two on each bow, but at considerable 
 distances from each other. The first was 
 the brig-of-war Avon, which struck after 
 a severe action ; but captain B. could not 
 take possession, as another enemy was 
 approaching. This enemy, it seems, how- 
 ever, was called off to the assistance of 
 the Avon, which was now sinking. The 
 enemy reported that they had sunk the 
 Wasp" by the first broadside ; but she was 
 afterwards spoken by a vessel off the 
 Western Isles. After this, we hear of 
 
 her no more. In his person, captain B. 
 was rather below the middle stature ; his 
 eyes black and expressive, his manners 
 mild, manly and unassuming. Among 
 his brother officers, he was considered as 
 a man of uncommon intellect, courage, 
 and professional skill. He was married, 
 in December, 1813, to a lady of New 
 York ; and left an only daughter, who 
 received one of the most affecting tributes 
 of public gratitude, which have occurred 
 in the history of the U. States. The legis- 
 lature of North Carolina, December 27, 
 1816, after prescribing the destination of 
 the sword they had voted to captain B., 
 "Resolved, unanimously, that captain 
 Blakeley's child be educated at the expense 
 of this state ; and that Mrs. Blakeley be 
 requested to draw on the treasurer of this 
 state, from time to time, for such sums of 
 money as shall be required for the edu- 
 cation of the said child." 
 
 BLANC, MOJVT. (See Mont Blanc.) 
 BLANCHARD, Francois, one of the first 
 aeronauts, bom at Andelys, in the depart- 
 ment of the Eure, in 1738, was fond of 
 mechanics from his youth, and, in his 16th 
 year, invented a self-moving carriage, 
 in which he rode a distance of 18 miles. 
 This invention) which he unproved in 
 1778, recommended him to the court of 
 Versailles. He displayed equal ingenuity, 
 by the invention of a hydraulic machine, 
 in the 19th year of his age, and, after- 
 wards, in the construction of a flying 
 ship, which, by means of a counterpoise 
 of six pounds, was raised to more than 20 
 feet from the ground. He eagerly availed 
 himself of the discoveries of the brothers 
 Montgolfier, and the improvements of the 
 same by professor Charles and Robert in 
 Paris. After having made his first aeros- 
 tatic voyage, March 4, 1784, he crossed 
 the channel from Dover to Calais, 1785, 
 .with doctor Jeffries, a gentleman of Bos- 
 ton, in the U. States. For this exploit, he 
 was rewarded, by the king of France, with 
 a present of 12,000 francs, and a pension 
 of 1200. In the same year, at London, 
 he first made use of a parachute, invent- 
 ed by him, or, according to others, by 
 Etienne Montgolfier. After having per- 
 formed many aerostatic voyages in for- 
 eign countries also, he was accused of 
 propagating revolutionary principles, and 
 imprisoned, 1793, in the fortress of Kuf- 
 stein, in the Tyrol. Having obtained his 
 liberty, he made his 46th ascent in the 
 city of New York, 1796. In 1798, he 
 ascended, with 16 persons, in a large bal- 
 loon, at Rouen, and descended at a place 
 15 miles distant. In 1807, his aerostatic
 
 BLANCHARD BLASPHEMY. 
 
 129 
 
 voyages amounted to more than 66. He 
 died in 18*09. Madame Blanchard con- 
 tinued to make aerial voyages. In 1811, 
 she ascended in Rome, and, after going a 
 distance of 60 miles, she rose again to 
 proceed to Naples. In June, 1819, hav- 
 ing ascended from Tivoli, in Paris, her 
 balloon took fire, at a considerable height, 
 owing to some fire-works which she car- 
 ried with her. The gondola fell down in 
 the rue de Provence, and the hapless aer- 
 onaut was dashed to pieces. 
 
 BLANCO, Cape (literally, JVfiite cape)] a 
 name given to a great number of capes 
 by the Spaniards, Portuguese and Ital- 
 ians. It corresponds to the French cap 
 Blanc. The name is as common and as 
 unphilosophical as that of White hill, 
 Black river, &c. 
 
 BLANK VERSE, in modern. poetry ; verses 
 without rhyme ; e. g., Milton's Paradise 
 Lost. Only those languages which dis- 
 tinguish long and short syllables can em- 
 ploy it. (See Verse.) 
 
 BLANGINI, Giuseppe Marco Maria Fe- 
 lice, born at Turin, 1781, studied under 
 the abbot Ottani, chapel-master in the 
 cathedral there. In his 12th or 13th year, 
 he accompanied the choir of this church 
 on the organ. At the age of 14 years, he 
 executed a mass, with a complete orches- 
 tra. In 1799, he went to Paris, gave les- 
 sons in singing, and was soon employed 
 as a composer. The completion of the 
 False Duenna, an opera, left unfinished 
 by Delia Maria, was intrusted to him ; 
 find soon after appeared his Zelie and 
 Terville, J\'aphthali, and other operas. His 
 concerts, in which he accompanied his 
 own singing with much taste and expres- 
 sion, were the resort of all musical con- 
 noisseurs and amateurs. Having, in 1805, 
 been invited to Munich, he executed an 
 opera there, in consequence of which the 
 king of Bavaria appointed him his chapel- 
 master. In 1806, the princess Borghcse 
 appointed him her director of music and 
 master of concerts ; and, in 1809, after the 
 departure of Reichardt, the king of West- 
 phalia invited him, in the same capacity, 
 to Cassel. After the expulsion of the 
 Westphalian court, he lived in Munich, 
 where he composed and performed his 
 Trajan in Dacia. Some time after, he went 
 to Paris, where he is still living. Besides 
 many comic and heroic operas, we have 
 a collection of pleasing ballads, notlurnos, 
 Italian airs, and charming duets, composed 
 by him. In Italy, he is called the Ana- 
 creon of music. 
 
 BLASPHEMY is somewhat variously de- 
 fined. According to the more general defi- 
 
 nition, it means the denying the existence 
 of God ; assigning to him false attributes, or 
 denying his true attributes; speaking irrev- 
 erently of the mysteries of religion ; and, 
 formerly, in Catholic countries, it also in- 
 cluded the speaking contemptuously or 
 disrespectfully of the Holy Virgin or the 
 saints. Public blasphemy has been consid- 
 ered, by the church of Rome, as an unpar- 
 donable sin ; and it was, formerly, punish- 
 ed with death by the municipal laws. The 
 77th novel of Justinian assigned this pun- 
 ishment to it ; and the capitularies inflict- 
 ed the same punishment upon such as, 
 knowing of an act of blasphemy, did not 
 denounce the offender. The former laws 
 of France punished this crime with fine, 
 corporeal punishment, the gallow r s and 
 death, according to the degree and aggra- 
 vation of the offence. The records of the 
 parliaments supply numerous instances of 
 condemnation for this crime, and many 
 of punishment by death; others of brand- 
 ing and mutilation. A man was, for this 
 offence, condemned to be hanged, and 
 to have his tongue afterwards cut out, 
 and the sentence was executed at Orleans, 
 as late as 1748. But it is very justly re- 
 marked by a writer in the French En- 
 cyclopedic Moderns, that we should form 
 an eiToneous opinion, from the pres- 
 ent state of society, of the effect of this 
 offence, and the disorders it might intro- 
 duce in former times; for religion was 
 once so intimately blended with the gov- 
 ernment and laws, that to treat the re- 
 ceived articles of faith or religious cere- 
 monies with disrespect, was, in effect, to 
 attack civil institutions. The French code 
 provides no punishment for blasphemy ; 
 but a law lias been enacted, since the res- 
 toration of the Bourbons, which places it 
 again on the list of criminal offences. By 
 the common law of England, blasphemies 
 of God, as denying his being and provi- 
 dence, all contumelious reproaches of 
 Jesus Christ, &c., are punishable by fine, 
 imprisonment, pillorv, &c. ; and, by the 
 statute of 9 and 10 \Villiam III, ch. 32, 
 if any one shall deny either of the Persons 
 of the Trinity to be God, or assert that 
 there are more gods than one, he shall be 
 incapable of holding any office ; and, for 
 a second offence, be disabled from suing 
 any action, or being an executor, and suf- 
 fer three years' imprisonment. By the 
 statute of 53 Geo. HI, ch. 160, the words 
 in Italics were omitted. This law Mas 
 an infringement of the liberty of con- 
 science, and certainly could not now be 
 practically enforced hi England, since 
 some of the doctrines of some sects of
 
 130 
 
 BLASPHEMY BLEMMYES. 
 
 Christians, openly and habitually incul- 
 cated in their public assemblies, would be 
 violations of it. This was, no doubt, the 
 reason of omitting the part of the statute 
 above referred to. The early legislation 
 of the American colonies followed that of 
 the mother country, and, in some of them, 
 the crime of blasphemy was punished 
 with death ; but the penalty was mitigated 
 before the establishment of the indepen- 
 dence of the states, and imprisonment, 
 whipping, setting on the gallows, or in 
 the pillory, having the tongue bored with 
 a red-hot iron, &c. were substituted. The 
 statutory provisions of the different states 
 on this subject are very various. In some 
 of them, the offence of blasphemy is dis- 
 tinguished from that of profane swearing ; 
 in others, blasphemy is not mentioned as 
 a distinct offence. Several penalties 
 against blasphemy are to be found in the 
 laws of some of the New England States ; 
 according to which it is provided that, if 
 any persons shall blaspheme, by denying, 
 cursing, or contumehously reproaching 
 God, his creation, government, or final 
 judging of the world, or by cursing or re- 
 proaching Jesus Christ or the Holy Ghost, 
 or contumeliously reproaching the word of 
 God, consisting of the commonly received 
 books of the Old and New Testament, he 
 is liable to imprisonment for a term not 
 exceeding five years. But the most direct 
 and public violations of these laws are 
 passed over without punishment or pros- 
 ecution. In many, and, we believe, the 
 greater number of the states, the offence 
 of blasphemy, not being a subject of spe- 
 cial statutory provision, is only punishable 
 either as an offence at common law, or a 
 violation of the statute laws against pro- 
 fane swearing. The offence, considered 
 only as a violation of positive statutes, 
 would be liable to a great diversity of 
 punishment in the different states, from a 
 fine of two shillings and six pence, in 
 some, to an imprisonment not exceeding 
 a period of five years in others. Viewing 
 this subject in a philosophical, religious or 
 political view, it would be difficult to lay 
 down any general principles applicable 
 to different states of society ; but the pre- 
 vailing principle on this subject in the U. 
 States, and that to which the laws and 
 opinions of other countries are strongly 
 tending, is, that any one may profess or op- 
 pose any doctrine, provided he inculcates 
 his principles, whether orally or in writing, 
 in such manner as not to commit a flagrant 
 violation of decorum : what acts or words 
 will constitute such an outrage must evi- 
 dently depend upon the state of the society. 
 
 BLASTING ; the technical term for split- 
 ting any object by means of gunpowder, 
 
 BLAZONING, or BLAZONRY, in heraldry; 
 the deciphering of coats of arms, from 
 the German blasen, to blow, because the 
 herald blew a trumpet, and called out the 
 arms of a knight, when he entered die 
 lists at a tournament. (See Heraldry.) 
 
 BLEACHING is the art of whitening lin- 
 en, wool, cotton, silk, wax, also the mate- 
 rials of which paper is made, and other 
 things. It is shown, by experience, that 
 organic bodies, after being deprived of 
 life, and becoming solid and dry, lose 
 their color, and become white by the influ- 
 ence of the air and the sun-beams. Upon 
 this fact, the manner of bleaching, which 
 was formerly in use, is grounded : since, 
 however, the bleaching in the sun com- 
 monly requires a whole summer, Beithol- 
 let, in the year 1786, first proposed the use 
 of chlorine. This, it is known, has so lit- 
 tle corrosive power, that, if diluted, it may 
 be taken inwardly in a considerable quan- 
 tity. This method has since been much 
 improved, principally by Watt. It has 
 been found, however, that linen certainly 
 may suffer, if too much acid is applied. 
 In England, this acid, when used to 
 bleach linen, is mixed with one half of 
 muriate of lime dissolved in water. The 
 quantity of this salt requisite for bleach- 
 ing is very different, according to the dif- 
 ferent quality of linen. Commonly, the 
 12th or 20th part of the weight of the lin- 
 en is employed. In manufactories of lin- 
 en and cotton goods, the yarn or cloth 
 passes through a number of successive 
 processes, the principal of which are the 
 steeping, in which the goods are ferment- 
 ed in an acescent liquid, at a temperature 
 of about 100 degrees Fahr. ; the bucking 
 and boiling, hi which a hot alkaline lie is 
 made to percolate through them for some 
 time ; the souring, performed with diluted 
 sulphuric acid ; the bleaching with chlo- 
 rine, in which the stuff" is exposed to the 
 action of some compound of that sub- 
 stance, usually chloride of lime, called 
 bleaching salt. A 7 arious mechanical ope- 
 rations, washings and repetitions of the 
 processes are commonly practised to com- 
 plete the discharge of the color. The 
 fibres of wool and silk are not bleached 
 by chlorine, but, after being deprived of 
 the saponaceous or gummy matter which 
 adheres to them, are exposed to the fumes 
 of burning sulphur to discharge their color. 
 
 BLEMMYES, or BLEMYES ; a fabulous 
 people of Ethiopia, without heads, their 
 eyes, mouths, &c. being placed in their 
 breasts. A barbarous tribe of this name
 
 BLEMMYES BLENHEIM. 
 
 131 
 
 appeared in the 3d century as the ally of 
 the Egyptians against Diocletian. With 
 a view of opposing to the B. a suitable 
 adversary, Diocletian persuaded the No- 
 batfe, a people of Nubia, to remove from 
 their ancient habitations in the deserts of 
 Libya, and resigned to them an extensive 
 but" unprofitable territory, above Syene 
 and the cataracts of the Nile. 
 
 BLE.VDE. (See Zinc.) 
 
 BLENHEIM, or BLINDHEIM ; a village sit- 
 uated in the circle of the Upper Danube, 
 in Bavaria, on the Danube. Here was 
 fought, Aug. 13, 1704, the famous battle 
 of Blenheim, or, as it is more commonly 
 called on the European continent, the 
 battle of Hochstadt, from another village 
 of this name in the vicinity. Louis XIV, 
 in the war of the Spanish succession, had 
 to contend with Holland, England, Aus- 
 tria, Savoy, Portugal and the German 
 empire; The elector of Bavaria was his 
 only ally ; but, as the territories of this 
 prince were contiguous to Austria, which, 
 on that side, was unprotected, he was the 
 more to be feared, especially as he was 
 an active and warlike prince, who took 
 the field himself, and, in case of success, 
 could open the way to Vienna for the 
 French armies. Sept. 20, 1703, he de- 
 feated, near Hochstadt, a village in the 
 vicinity of Donawert, the imperial 'gen- 
 eral Stynim, and took the fortress of 
 Passau. But his dissensions with the 
 upright and unyielding French marshal 
 Villars prevented him from reaping, in 
 the same year, all the fruits which this 
 victory might otherwise have afforded 
 him. Villars was ordered to cede the 
 chief command to marshal Tallard, who 
 overcame, on the Rhine, near Spire, the 
 margrave Louis of Baden, and rendered 
 the situation of the hereditary states of 
 Austria very dangerous. Marlborough, 
 however, the soul of this whole war, in 
 the field and in the cabinet, formed the 
 plan of deciding the fate of the contest 
 on the Danube. Italy, Flanders and the 
 Lower Rhine were to be defended only ; 
 but the decisive blow was to be struck in 
 the south of Germany, whither the best 
 imperial troops marched, under Eugene, 
 from the Rhine. Marlborough attacked 
 the Bavarian intrenchments, July 2, after 
 a violent combat on the Schellenberg, and 
 made his way over the Danube, in order 
 to be able to occupy the territory of the 
 elector of Bavaria, if circumstances re- 
 quired it. But, for this latter purpose, the 
 gaining of a decisive battle was indis- 
 pensable, since, without it, the invasion of 
 Bavaria would have been a hazardous 
 
 enterprise, and a long delay, after the 
 manner of carrying on war in those 
 times, required well-filled and secure 
 magazines. The French and Bavarian 
 armies were drawn into an engagement, 
 Aug. 13, 1704, under the most unfavora- 
 ble circumstances. Both these armies 
 were posted, under the command of Tal- 
 lard, Marsin, and the elector of Bavaria 
 himself, between the village of B. and 
 that of Kinzingen, behind the Nebelbach, 
 a small stream emptying into the Dan- 
 ube, which was on their right flank. 
 They amounted to 56,000 men, whilst 
 the forces of Marlborough and Eugene 
 were about 52,000. The first had thrown 
 their troops chiefly into the two villages, 
 which they considered as points of sup- 
 port for their wings, though they were at 
 too great a distance in front of their main 
 position. A large proportion of cavalry 
 was in the centre, since each army, the 
 Bavarian as well as the French, had their 
 horse on their wings, and in this way 
 those of two wings must necessarily join 
 each other. Both the commanders would 
 undoubtedly have perceived and correct- 
 ed this mistake, as Tallard had in B. 
 alone, 27 battalions of infantry ; but they 
 expected so little to be attacked, that 
 when the line of the allies began to 
 move, Aug. 13, at 2 o'clock in the morn- 
 ing, they supposed them to be marching 
 off. The greatest part of their cavalry 
 was sent to forage. Even at 7 o'clock, 
 when the heads of the eight columns, 
 with which Eugene and Marlborough 
 advanced towards the Nebelbach, were 
 to be seen, Tallard thought the whole 
 a stratagem intended to cover the re- 
 treat ; but he soon saw his error. The 
 dispersed .troops were recalled in the 
 greatest hurry, and the cannon were 
 drawn up in line. The Frerich and Ba- 
 varians made every exertion to prevent 
 the passage of the enemy over the Nebel- 
 bach, and the capture of the two villages, 
 the conquest of which was considered, by 
 Marlborough and Eugene, as decisive. 
 Their line of attack was uncommonly 
 long, about 4 miles. Marlborough, in 
 order to secure his right wing, attacked 
 B., but without success : he then changed 
 his plan, and threw himself, with his 
 principal forces, into the wide interval 
 between the right wing and the centre of 
 the enemy, leaving only as many troops 
 before B. as were necessary to check the 
 body which occupied this position. At 
 5 o'clock in the afternoon, he succeeded, 
 after great efforts, in passing the Nebel- 
 bach, by which his victory was decided.
 
 132 
 
 BLENHEIM BLIGHT. 
 
 The French, in the centre, were obliged 
 to retreat: their example was followed 
 by the Bavarians on the left wing, who, 
 for a long time, had resisted the impetu- 
 ous attacks of prince Eugene. Marlbor- 
 ough, instead of pursuing the retreating 
 enemy, placed himself between the line 
 of retreat and the position of B., guarded 
 by 18,000 men," who were thus cut off 
 from assistance, and forced to surrender. 
 The cavalry was routed by the fire of the 
 English cannon and musketry ; and a 
 large part of the defeated army remained 
 dead on the field of battle (which was 
 covered with more than 11,000 corpses), 
 or were made prisoners. Tallard him- 
 self was among the prisoners ; his son 
 was killed. The consequences of the 
 battle were decisive. Bavaria, as Marl- 
 borough had anticipated, fell into the 
 power of Austria. Fortune deserted 
 Louis XIV, as it did Napoleon after the 
 battle of Leipsic, and, though he was able 
 to continue the war for almost 10 years 
 longer, it was owing to the dissensions 
 among the allies themselves, who con- 
 tended about the best use of the victory 
 till the opportunity to use it was lost. 
 (See Marlborough.) 
 
 BLESSING, or BENEDICTION. The ex- 
 pression of wishing one well soon gave 
 rise, in early ages, to a solemn act, accom- 
 panied, like other solemnities of those pe- 
 riods, by symbolic signs; this was the 
 blessing or benediction. In the patriarchal 
 times, when the authority of the head of 
 a family included that of the priest and 
 the civil ruler, the blessing of course ap- 
 pertained chiefly to him, on account of 
 his venerable character, and, when the 
 priests began to form a separate class, be- 
 came, in certain cases, a prerogative of 
 theirs. As the authority of the father, in 
 the infancy of every nation, is extremely 
 great, the idea soon sprung up, that his 
 prayers, invoking the favor of the Deity, 
 were more effectual than those of others, 
 and that whatever he blessed would be 
 likely to receive the favor of God. The 
 same importance was soon attributed to 
 blessings conferred by a priest. The 
 heathens, the Jews, and many Chris- 
 tian sects, have cherished this idea. By 
 the Jewish institutions, certain benedic- 
 tions were reserved to the priest : the same 
 is the case hi the Catholic church, in 
 which different benedictions are appro- 
 priated to different degrees of the clergy. 
 We shall mention only a few of them. 
 The Catholic bishops alone can confer 
 those benedictions which are connected 
 with unction, and are called consecrations, 
 
 as, for instance, the consecration of kings 
 and queens, of the cup and patera, the 
 church and altar. To them, also, is con- 
 fined the benediction of abbots and ab- 
 besses, of knights, and the holy oil. For 
 the benediction of the holy vestments, 
 &c., they may employ a substitute. Every 
 Catholic clergyman may confer the bene- 
 diction famgiak (that of betrothment) ; 
 also, the marriage benediction ; may bless 
 the fruits of the earth, and the holy water. 
 The benediction of a bishop is eagerly 
 sought for by a faithful Catholic, as con- 
 tributing peculiarly to his spiritual wel- 
 fare ; and the Catholic clergy, in general, 
 use the benediction as a salutation, or re- 
 ward for a service, &c. When the pope 
 rides or walks out, the Catholics kneel 
 to receive his blessing, which he gives by 
 a motion of his hand. In his antecham- 
 ber are often seen things of different 
 kinds, rosaries, &c., in large quantities, 
 which he blesses in passing by. The 
 Catholic church blesses things animate 
 and inanimate, and this is believed by 
 many to preserve them from sickness, in-* 
 jury, &c. (See Agnes, St.) Among sever- 
 al Protestant sects, the benediction, at the 
 close of the sermon, is in the form given 
 by Moses. This is the case with the Lu- 
 therans. Catholics, in many cases, use 
 the consecrated water in giving the bene- 
 diction. 
 
 " BLIGHT; a general name for various 
 distempers incident to corn and fruit- 
 trees. The term has been used in a very 
 vague and indefinite manner. The origin 
 of the disease has been variously account- 
 ed for. There appear to be at least three 
 distinct species of it. The first originates 
 in cold and frosty winds, in spring, which 
 nip and destroy the tender shoots of the 
 plant, by stopping the current of the 
 juices. The leaves wither and fall ; the 
 juices burst the vessels, and become the 
 food of numerous insects, which are often 
 mistaken for the cause of the disease, 
 while they are really an effect of it. The 
 second species originates in a sultry and 
 pestilential vapor, and happens in sum- 
 mer, when the grain has attained its full 
 growth. The third originates hi fungi, 
 which attack the leaves or stem of herba- 
 ceous and woody plants ; but more gen- 
 erally grasses, and particularly the most 
 useful grains. It generally assumes the 
 appearance of a rusty-looking powder, 
 which soils the finger when touched. 
 There are several sorts of these /ung-t, 
 known to farmers under the names of 
 red rust, red gum, &c. The only means 
 of preventing the effect of blight is proper
 
 BLIGHT BLIND. 
 
 133 
 
 culture. Palliatives are to be found in 
 topical applications. 
 
 BLIND, the ; such as are deprived of 
 their sight. The loss of the noblest 
 sense, by means of which man receives 
 an idea of the world that surrounds him, 
 clothed in light and color, is an event as 
 melancholy as it is frequent. Blindness 
 is different, 1. in its degrees, some per- 
 sons being partially blind, retaining a 
 slight perception of light, with the power 
 of distinguishing very brilliant colors, and 
 the general outlines of bodies; others be- 
 ing entirely deprived of the faculty of 
 seeing; 2. in its causes: some men are 
 blind from their birth; others have be- 
 come blind by local diseases of the eyes, 
 for instance, by inflammation, suppura- 
 tion, cancer of the eye-ball, spots, films, 
 tumors on the cornea (by which its trans- 
 parency is destroyed), also by closure of 
 the pupil, by a turbid state of the hu- 
 mors, by a debility of the optic nerve, or 
 by general diseases of the body, violent 
 fevers, nervous fevers, plethora and ten- 
 dency of the blood to the head, erysipelas 
 in the face, small-pox, scarlet fever, &c., 
 or by excessive exertion of the eyes, by 
 which the optic nerve is enfeebled ; for 
 which reason, some classes of mechanics 
 and artists, as blacksmiths, laborers in 
 glass and smelting-houses, watch-makers, 
 &c. not unfrequently lose their sight, and, 
 in northern countries, which are covered 
 with snow for a long time, and which 
 dazzle the eyes by the reflection of the 
 sunbeams, as well as in the sandy deserts 
 of Africa, blindness is a frequent com- 
 plaint. Old age is sometimes accompa- 
 nied with blindness, occasioned by the 
 drying up of the humors of the eye, or by 
 the opacity of the cornea, the crystalline 
 lens, &c. There are several causes 
 which produce blindness from the birth. 
 Sometimes the eyelids adhere to each 
 other or to the e}e-ball itself, or a mem- 
 brane covers the eyes ; sometimes the 
 pupil of the eye is closed, or adheres to 
 the cornea, or is not situated in the right 
 place, so that the rays of light do hot fall 
 in the middle of the eye ; besides other 
 defects. Those who are bdrn blind have 
 no idea of vision, and are entirely desti- 
 tute of all the ideas derived from the 
 sense of sight. They cannot, therefore, 
 be sensible of their misfortune in the 
 same degree as those who have lost then* 
 sight at a later period. Experience has 
 shown, that those who acquire the power 
 of seeing after being born blind, or having 
 lost their sight in their childhood, fonn 
 very different ideas of visible objects from 
 
 VOL. II. 12 
 
 other persons. A young man, whom 
 Clieselden couched for a cataract, at the 
 moment he received sight, imagined that 
 all the objects which he saw were in 
 contact with his eyes : he could not dis- 
 tinguish objects, although of very differ- 
 ent forms. Those with which he was 
 already familiar, by the touch, he exam- 
 ined with great attention, in order to 
 recognise them another time ; but, having 
 too many things to notice at once, he 
 soon forgot all that he had observed. He 
 wondered that those persons whom lie 
 loved most were not handsomer than 
 others. Before he received his sight, he 
 had expressed a great desire to obtain 
 this sense. The other senses of persons, 
 who have been blind for a long time, be- 
 come more exquisite, perhaps, because 
 they are not subject to the distraction 
 produced by the sight of so many objects. 
 The blind, therefore, are often distin- 
 guished for a remarkable mental activity, 
 and a wonderful developement of the in- 
 tellectual powers. Their touch and hear- 
 ing, particularly, become very acute. 
 Thus it is related of a blind man, who 
 lived at Puisaux, in France, and w 7 as a 
 chemist and musician, that he could ac- 
 curately estimate the proportions of ob- 
 jects, could judge of the distance of fire 
 by the degree of heat, determine the 
 quantity of fluid in vessels by the sound 
 it produced while running from one ves- 
 sel into another, and the proximity of 
 objects by the effect of the air upon his 
 face. He determined very accurately the 
 weights of bodies and the capacities of 
 vessels. The celebrated Saunderson, pro- 
 fessor of mathematics at Cambridge, lost 
 his sight in his early youth. He invented 
 several processes to facilitate his studies 
 in arithmetic and geometry. His sense 
 of touch was so acute, that he distin- 
 guished spurious coins merely by letting 
 them pass through his fingers, though 
 they were so well executed, that even 
 skilful judges were deceived by them. 
 
 BLIND, INSTITUTIONS FOR THE. In the 
 case of persons destitute of sight, it is 
 necessary to have recourse to the other 
 senses to supply the want of the eye. If, 
 for instance, we wish to teach them the 
 arts of reading and writing, letters must 
 be prepared, which will be palpable to 
 the touch, and the hand guided until they 
 are able to copy them. If we wish to 
 communicate to them a knowledge of the 
 surface of the earth, globes and maps 
 must be prepared with the divisions, &c., 
 in relief. Knowledge obtained in this 
 way must, of course, be acquired much
 
 134 
 
 BLIND. 
 
 more slowly than that received by the 
 sight. The senses of touch aud of sight 
 differ in this respect, that the former as- 
 cends by degrees from the perception of 
 parts to the perception of the whole, 
 whilst the latter views the whole at a 
 single glance. It is, therefore, evident, 
 that the blind cannot be instructed in 
 the common schools destined for those 
 who see : in the first place, because the 
 means of instruction by the touch are 
 wanting ; and secondly, because the prog- 
 ress of the other children would be re- 
 tarded by the slow apprehension of the 
 blind pupils. For these reasons, and as 
 the blind form no small part of the popu- 
 lation of every country, particular institu- 
 tions have, in many places, been establish- 
 ed for their instruction. In Prussia, they 
 amount to more than 13,000 souls. Zeune, 
 in his Belisar (1821,. p. 12 et seq.), has 
 laid down, as a general law, deduced from 
 observation, that the proportion of bund 
 persons decreases from the equator to- 
 wards the poles. In Egypt, he says, it is 
 as 1 to 100, while in Norway the proportion 
 is 1 to 1000. The instruction given in 
 the schools for the blind aims, first, at a 
 general cultivation of then- intellectual fac- 
 ulties. They are afterwards taught some 
 art which may enable them to provide 
 for their own subsistence. These arts 
 are of two kinds mechanical employ- 
 ments and music. The instruction of the 
 blind, therefore, embraces three branches 
 1. mechanical labors ; 2. the fine arts ; 
 3. science ; because it is impossible to 
 determine, without trial, the peculiar 
 genius of the pupils, whether, for instance, 
 they should be instructed as mechanics, 
 musicians, or mathematicians. The Ger- 
 man institutions for the blind, as well as 
 those in Paris, have this comprehensive 
 character, whilst the English aim, more 
 exclusively, to impart instruction in me- 
 chanical trades. The first idea of such 
 an institution for blind persons was con- 
 ceived by Valentin Haily, brother of the 
 celebrated mineralogist : it was suggested 
 to him by his acquaintance with a blind 
 German lady, the baroness von Paradis, 
 of Vienna, who visited Paris in 1780, and 
 performed on the organ with general ap- 
 plause. Hafly repeatedly visited this in- 
 genious lady, and was much surprised to 
 find in her apartments several contrivances 
 for the instruction of the blind ; for in- 
 stance, embroidered maps and a pocket 
 printing-apparatus, by means of which 
 she corresponded with von Kempelen, in 
 Vienna (the inventor of the chess-player 
 and speaking automaton), and with a 
 
 learned blind gentleman, named Weissen- 
 burg, at Manheim. Haiiy compared the 
 high cultivation of these two Germans 
 with the degraded state of the blind in 
 France, Where, at the annual fair of St. 
 Ovide, an innkeeper had collected 10 poor 
 blind persons, attired in a ridiculous man- 
 ner, and decorated with asses' ears, pea- 
 cocks' tails, and spectacles without glasses, 
 to perform a burlesque concert. Nor did 
 the great institution for the blind, or the 
 hospital of the 300 (commonly called les 
 quinze-vingt, founded, in 1260, by St. Louis, 
 after his crusade to Egypt, during which 
 so many soldiers became blind by the oph- 
 thalmia, prevailing in that country), pre- 
 sent to the philanthropic Hauy a pleasing 
 picture of intellectual cultivation ; rather 
 a scene of dulness and moral corruption. 
 He, therefore, resolved to do for the 
 blind in France what the abbe de 1'Epee 
 had done for the deaf and dumb. In 
 1784, he opened an institution, in which 
 they were instructed, not only in appro- 
 priate mechanical employments, as spin- 
 ning, knitting, making ropes or fringes, 
 and working in paste-board, but also in 
 music, in reading, writing, ciphering, 
 geography and the sciences. For this 
 purpose, he invented particular means of 
 instruction, resembling those with which 
 he had become acquainted by his inter- 
 course with the two blind Germans 
 Paradis and Weissenburg. For instruc- 
 tion in reading, he procured raised letters 
 of metal, from which, also, impressions 
 may be taken OB paper : for writing, he 
 used particular writing-cases, in which a 
 frame, with wires to separate the lines, 
 could be fastened upon the paper : for 
 ciphering, there were movable figures of 
 metal and ciphering-boards, in which the 
 figures could be fixed : for teaching geog- 
 raphy, maps were prepared, upon which 
 mountains, rivers, cities, and the borders 
 of countries, were embroidered in various 
 ways, &c. In the beginning, the phi- 
 lanthropic society paid the expenses of 
 12 blind persons; afterwards, in 1791, the 
 institution was taken under the protection 
 of the state, and united to that for the 
 deaf and dumb ; but, as this was found 
 inconvenient, it was, in 1795, separated 
 from the latter, and, in 1801, united to 
 the hospital of the quinze-vingt. The 
 mingling of young blind persons here with 
 old soldiers being found very prejudicial 
 to the former, Haily, full of indignation, 
 went to Petersburg, in 1806, in order to 
 establish a similar institution there. After 
 the restoration, in 1815, the establishment 
 was put upon its original footing, and the
 
 BLIND BLINDS. 
 
 135 
 
 physician doctor Guillie appointed its 
 director. Next to France, the first insti- 
 tutions for the blind were established in 
 Great Britain, where, however, they are 
 supported only by the contributions of 
 private individuals. In 1790, an institu- 
 tion of this sort was established at Liver- 
 pool, in which both males and females are 
 instructed in manual labors, in singing 
 hymns, and playing on the organ. In 
 1791, a second one was established in 
 Edinburgh, in which the making of bas- 
 kets and ropes is the principal occupation. 
 Similar institutions have since arisen in 
 other places ; one at London, in 1800 ; also 
 at Dublin, Bristol and Norwich. In Ger- 
 many, the first public institution for the 
 blind was established by the king of Prus- 
 sia at Berlin, in 1806, when Ilaiiy passed 
 through this city. Zeune was appointed 
 director of it. He invented many instru- 
 ments more simple than those which had 
 formerly been used, and which answered 
 the purpose very well. Among other 
 things, he brought to great perfection 
 maps and globes, destined for the use of 
 the blind ; which, in many parts of Eu- 
 rope, are used for the instruction of others 
 also, since they present, by means of 
 elevations and depressions of the sur- 
 face, proportional elevations and pictures, 
 which strike the mind forcibly. In arith- 
 metic, he directed his attention almost 
 exclusively to mental calculations. The 
 first institutions for the blind in Germany, 
 after that in Berlin, were established in 
 Vienna and Prague, both in 1808, and, in 
 the same year, that in Amsterdam, found- 
 ed by free-masons. In 1809, the institu- 
 tion in Dresden sprang up a branch of 
 that in Berlin. In 1810, the institution 
 in Zurich was founded by the auxiliary 
 society. In 1811, a similar establishment 
 was instituted in Copenhagen, after the 
 plan of professor Brorson, by the society 
 of the chain, as it is called, ( Ftrein der 
 Kette). After the great war for liberty, 
 from 1813 to 15, when the Egyptian oph- 
 thalmia raged so dreadfully "among the 
 European armies, several institutions for 
 blind soldiers were established, on Zeune's 
 plan, in Prussia. Their object was to 
 instruct soldiers who had become blind, 
 and unable to exercise their former busi- 
 ness, in useful labors. These schools 
 were, at first, intended to continue only till 
 all the soldiers received in them "had 
 thoroughly learned some trade: two of 
 them, however, those at Breslau and K6- 
 nigsberg, have been put upon a perma- 
 nent footing. The institution for the 
 blind in Petersburg, which was established 
 
 by Haily, but was never in a very pros- 
 perous state, seems to have declined 
 greatly, after its founder's return to 
 France, in 1816. The name of its present 
 director is Martin Pilazki. Whether the 
 institution projected at Barcelona, in 
 1820, has been established, or whether it 
 survived the political storms of that year, 
 or the yellow fever of the succeeding, 
 we do not know. Institutions for the 
 blind are confined almost entirely to Eu- 
 rope, and they appear to be peculiar to 
 Germany, Switzerland, Holland, Den- 
 mark, France, England and Russia. Fa- 
 ther Charlevoix, indeed, says, that, in Ja- 
 pan, the records of the empire are com- 
 mitted to the memory of the blind ; and 
 Golownin estimates their number in the 
 gigantic city of Jeddo, alone, at 36,000 ; 
 but neither of them mentions that there 
 is any institution established for them. 
 The director of the institution in Vienna, 
 F. W. Klein, has published a good Ldir- 
 buch zum Unterrichte der Blinden, &c. 
 um sie zu burgerlicher Brauchbarkeit zu 
 bUden (Elementary Work for the Instruc- 
 tion of the Blind, &c., to render them 
 useful Citizens). The first, and, as yet, 
 the only institution of the kind in Ameri- 
 ca, was commenced in Boston, in the 
 year 1829. In the beginning of that year, 
 an act of incorporation was granted, by 
 the legislature of Massachusetts, to several 
 gentlemen, authorizing them to establish 
 the New England Asylum for the Blind, 
 for the purpose of educating blind per- 
 sons. This institution will go into opera- 
 tion as soon as the necessary funds shall 
 be obtained. 
 
 BLINDS, in operations against fortresses ; 
 the name of all preparations which tend to 
 intercept the view of the enemy. There 
 are several species : 1. A fascine placed 
 across the embrasures, to prevent the 
 enemy from observing what passes near 
 the cannon* 2. Blinds before port-holes 
 are shutters made of strong planks, which 
 are placed before the port-holes, as soon 
 as the guns are discharged, to obstruct the 
 enemy's view. 3. Single and double 
 blinds. The former consist of three strong, 
 perpendicular posts, 5 feet in height, be-, 
 tween which are planks covered with 
 iron plates on the outside, and thus made 
 shot-proof. This screen is furnished with 
 rollers, to enable the laborers in the 
 trenches to push it before them. The latter 
 consist of large wooden chests, on four 
 block-wheels, which are filled with earth, 
 or bags of sand, and serve likewise in the 
 trenches, &c., to cover the soldiers from 
 the fire of the enemy. 4. Another kind
 
 136 
 
 BLINDS BLOCKS. 
 
 of blinds used to protect the workmen in 
 the trenches, are the chandeliers. Two 
 square beams of timber are placed paral- 
 lel, and at a distance of six feet, on the 
 ground, and fastened by two cross beams. 
 Upon the ends, perpendicular posts are 
 erected, and the interval is filled up with 
 fascines, at least to a height of five feet. 
 5. Blind is also the name given to cov- 
 erings placed over the most exposed 
 parts in the saps or the fortress. These 
 are made of beams, over which hurdles 
 or fascines are spread, that finally receive 
 a sufficiently thick layer of earth as a 
 cover. 
 
 BLISTER ; a topical application, which, 
 when applied to the skin, raises the cuti- 
 cle in the form of a vesicle, filled with 
 serous fluid. The powder of the cantha- 
 ris, or Spanish fly, operates with most 
 certainty and expedition, and is now in- 
 variably used for this purpose. Morbid 
 action may often be removed from the 
 system by inducing an action of a differ- 
 ent kind in the same or a neighboring 
 part ; hence the utility of blisters in lo- 
 cal inflammation and spasmodic action. 
 Exciting one pain often relieves another ; 
 hence the use of blisters in tooth-ache, and 
 some other painful affections. Lastly, blis- 
 ters communicate a stimulus to the whole 
 system, and raise the vigor of the circula- 
 tion ; hence, in part, their utility in fevers 
 of the typhoid kind, though, in such cases, 
 they are used with still more advantage 
 to obviate or remove local inflammation. 
 
 BLOCK, Marcus Eliezer; a naturalist 
 of Jewish descent, bom at Anspach, 
 in 1723, of poor parents. In the 19th 
 year of his age, he understood neither Ger- 
 man nor Latin, nor had he, with the ex- 
 ception of some rabbinical writings, read 
 any thing. Nevertheless, he became tu- 
 tor in the house of a Jewish surgeon in 
 Hamburg. Here he learned German 
 and Latin, and, besides, acquired some 
 knowledge of anatomy. His principal 
 work is the Naturgeschichte der Fische 
 (Natural History of Fishes), fol., 1785 
 1799, which is adorned with many col- 
 ored plates. He enjoyed a well-deserved 
 reputation, and died in 1799. 
 
 BLOCKADE is the interception by one 
 belligerent of communication with a place 
 occupied by another. National sovereign- 
 ty confers the right of declaring war, and 
 the right which nations at war have of 
 destroying or capturing each other's sub- 
 jects or goods, imposes on neutral nations 
 the obligation not to interfere with the 
 exercise of this right within the rules and 
 limits prescribed by the law of nations. 
 
 In order to render the communication 
 with a place unlawful to a neutral, a 
 blockading or besieging force must be 
 actually present, investing it, and suf- 
 ficiently powerful to render a communi- 
 cation with it dangerous to a neutral, and 
 expose him to seizure by the blockading 
 or besieging force. A declaration of 
 siege or blockade is an act of sovereign- 
 ty, but does not require, in all cases, a di- 
 rect declaration by the sovereign authori- 
 ty of the besieging belligerent; for its 
 officers may be invested, either expressly, 
 or by implication, with authority to insti- 
 tute such siege or blockade. It must, 
 however, in order to be lawful and obli- 
 gatory on neutrals, be declared, or sanc- 
 tioned, either expressly, or by implication, 
 by the sovereign power. It must also be 
 declared or made public, so that neutrals 
 may have notice of it. If a blockade is 
 instituted by a sufficient authority, and 
 maintained by a sufficient force, a neu- 
 tral is so far affected by it, that, if he at- 
 tempts to trade with the place invested, 
 either by carrying goods to it or bringing 
 them away, the property so attempted to 
 be carried to, or from the place, is liable 
 to be seized by the investing party, and, 
 in case of being seized, is forfeited. 
 
 BLOCKHOUSE, in fortification ; a house 
 made of beams, joined together crosswise, 
 and often doubled, with a covering and 
 loop-holes, large enough for 25 100 men. 
 In addition to this,, it is commonly cover- 
 ed with earth, to render it entirely bomb 
 and fire-proof. It is usually sunk several 
 feet into the ground. Some foils of this 
 kind contain two stories; and they are 
 often fitted up to receive cannon. Block- 
 houses are generally built in the form of 
 a square or a cross. Their use is to afford 
 a feeble garrison of an important place, 
 which is very much exposed, an oppor- 
 tunity of holding out against the cannon- 
 ade and assault of the enemy till they are 
 relieved. They also serve for bomb-proof 
 guard-houses, and places of last resort, in 
 the interior of intrenchments, and in the 
 covered passages of fortresses, where the 
 cannon are stationed. 
 
 BLOCKS are pieces of wood in which 
 sheaves or pulleys are placed, for the pur- 
 pose of forming tackle, purchases, &c., hi 
 various operations in naval tactics and 
 architectural constructions. The me- 
 chanical power is described in the article 
 Pulley, (q. v.) Blocks are single, double, 
 treble, and fourfold, according as the 
 number of sheaves is one, two, three or 
 four. The sheaves are grooved to re- 
 ceive the rope, and have in their centre a
 
 BLOCKS BLOMFIELD. 
 
 137 
 
 brass bush, or triangular piece of brass, to 
 receive the pin on which they revolve. 
 The sides of the block are called cheeks. 
 A running block is attached to the object 
 to be moved ; a standing block is fixed to 
 some permanent support. Blocks also 
 receive different denominations from their 
 shape, purpose and mode of application, 
 which cannot well be explained without 
 the use of figures. No less than 200 dif- 
 ferent sorts and sizes are made at Ports- 
 mouth, England, for the royal navy, be- 
 sides which there are .various sorts used 
 only in the merchant-ships. The ma- 
 chinery for supplying the royal navy with 
 blocks is the invention of Mr. Brunei, an 
 American artist. It enables 4 men, in a 
 given time, to complete the shells of as 
 many blocks as 50 men could do by the 
 old method. 
 
 BLOEMART, sometimes also BLOM, Abra- 
 ham, a Dutch painter, born at Gorcum, 
 in 1565, died at Utrecht, in 1647. His 
 paintings are reproached with various 
 faults, yet he is distinguished by the bril- 
 liancy of his coloring and the richness of 
 his invention. In the representation of 
 the chiaro oscuro, he may be called great, 
 He painted all sorts of objects; but his 
 landscapes are the most esteemed. He 
 had four sons, of whom the youngest, 
 Cornelius, is the most distinguished. He 
 was born at Utrecht, in 1603, and died at 
 Rome, in 1680. He was an engraver, and 
 his engravings are distinguished for puri- 
 ty, elegance and softness. He was the 
 founder of a new school, from which pro- 
 ceeded Baudot, Poilly, Chasteau, Speier, 
 lioullet, &c. 
 
 BLOIS (anciently, Blescs, and Castrum 
 Blesense) ; a city of France, and capital of 
 Loir-and-Cher ; 36 miles S. W. Orleans ; 
 lon.l20'E.; lat. 47 35' N. ; pop., 13,054. 
 Before the revolution, it was a bishop's 
 see, the seat of a lieutenant-general, a 
 grand bailiwick, and capital of the Blai- 
 sois, once the abode of the kings of France. 
 B. has been several times conspicuous in 
 French history. There are several foun-r 
 tains in different parts of the town, sup- 
 plied by an aqueduct, supposed to have 
 been erected by the Romans. 
 
 BLOMFIELD, Charles James ; doctor of 
 philology, born at Bury St. Edmund's, in 
 Suffolk, in 1786. In 1804, he entered 
 Trinity college, Cambridge, where he 
 distinguished himself, not only in the 
 usual examinations, but also in the public 
 disputations. The university, therefore, 
 granted him, in 1806, one of the scholar- 
 ships, founded by lord Craven a high 
 academical honor. In 1808, when he 
 
 received the bachelor's degree, he was 
 declared third wrangler, and obtained the 
 first medal for a prize poem. Not long 
 after, he published a new edition of the 
 Prometheus of ^Eschylus, and, in 1809, 
 was chosen fellow of his college. Hia 
 literary reputation soon spread; and, in 
 1810, lord Bristol conferred on him the 
 living of Quarrington, in Lincolnshire. 
 Lord Spencer, one of the first patrons of 
 literature in England, also voluntarily 
 presented him with another at Dunton. 
 There he remained seven years, during 
 which time he published editions of sev- 
 eral of the plays of ^Eschylus, among 
 them the Prometlieus (which he had 
 printed once before), the Seven before 
 Thebes, the Persaz and Agamemnon ; also 
 a new edition of Callimachus, and, after- 
 wards, in connexion with T. Rennel, the 
 MUSCK Cantabrigienses. In 1812, he edited, 
 with professor Monk, the Posthumous 
 Tracts of Person. He likewise published, 
 in 1814, the Adversaria Porsoni. These 
 works gained him such a reputation, that 
 lord Bristol conferred on him the livings 
 of Great and Little Chesterford, in Essex, 
 on which account, with the permission of 
 his patrons, he exchanged his cure at Dun- 
 ton for that of Tuddenham, in Suffolk, 
 To the fame which his philological and 
 theological studies procured him, he was 
 also indebted, in 1819, for the office of 
 chaplain to the bishop of London a 
 choice which always falls on a man of 
 acknowledged ability, it being his duty to 
 examine the candidates, previously to their 
 ordination in this diocese. Places of this 
 sort generally lead to high promotions in 
 the church, and B. soon after received 
 the living of St. Botolph's. Since that 
 time, he has .lived in London, visits in the 
 first circles, and supports an establishment 
 suitable to his income, which is said to 
 amount to 8000. Among his latest liter- 
 ary labors, the continuation of his edition 
 of JEschylus is the most important. 
 
 BLOMFIELD, Edward Valentine, brother 
 of the former, born in 1788, studied in 
 Caius college, at Cambridge, and excited 
 the highest expectations. Among several 
 prizes which he received, we may men- 
 tion the medal assigned him, in 1809, for 
 his beautiful ode, In Desiderium Porsoni, 
 In 1812, a fellowship in Emmanuel col- 
 lege was conferred on him. In 1813, he 
 visited Germany, where he acquired a 
 good knowledge of the, German language, 
 and became acquainted with Wolf in Ber- 
 lin, and Schneider in Breslau. After his 
 return, he wrote in the Museum criticum, 
 or Cambridge Classical Researches (Pt. 2),
 
 138 
 
 BLOMFIELD BLOOD. 
 
 remarks on German literature, which 
 were received with approbation. The 
 university of Cambridge appointed him 
 one of the preachers at St. Mary's church. 
 He began a translation of Schneider's 
 Griechisch-deutsches Lexicon, but did not 
 live to finish it. Matthias's Griechische 
 Grammatik, however, he translated com- 
 pletely. His translation was published by 
 liis brother, and eveiy where well receiv- 
 ed. He was in Switzerland, in .1816, with 
 his pupil, a young nobleman, and, in his 
 haste to return to Cambridge, on hearing 
 that he was appointed proctor for the fol- 
 lowing year, the fatigue of rapid travelling 
 occasioned a sickness, of which he died 
 in October, 1816. 
 
 BLONDEL ; a confidential servant and in- 
 structer in music of Richard Cceur de Lion 
 of England, about the year 1190. While 
 his master was the prisoner of the duke of 
 Austria, B. went through Palestine, and 
 all parts of Germany, in search of him. 
 He understood, it is said, that a prisoner 
 of rank was confined in Lowenstein cas- 
 tle, and hastened thither. Placing him- 
 self under a grated tower, he began to 
 sing one of die French lays which he 
 had formerly composed for Richard. 
 Scarcely had he finished the first stanza, 
 when a voice from the dungeon of the 
 tower responded. Thus he discovered 
 his king, delivered him, and gained the 
 name of the faithful Blondel. Gretry's 
 fine opera, Richard Cceur de Lion, is 
 founded on this anecdote. 
 
 BLOOD, Thomas (commonly called colo- 
 nel Blood ), was a disbanded officer of Oli- 
 ver Cromwell. He took part in the revolu- 
 tion in various ways, and made an attempt 
 to steal the crown and regalia from the 
 Tower, in which he almost succeeded. 
 Being, however, taken, he confessed his 
 purpose, without showing the least fear 
 of death. Charles II, from idle curiosity, 
 went to see him, and B. persuaded the 
 monarch to pardon him. Charles even 
 bestowed an estate with 500 a year upon 
 him, whilst poor Edwards, the keeper of 
 the jewel-office, who valiantly defended 
 the crown, and was wounded, lived for- 
 gotten. 
 
 BLOOD is the red fluid contained in the 
 blood-vessels (q. v.) of animal bodies. It 
 is found in the mammalia, in birds, in 
 reptiles and in fishes. In the last two 
 classes of animals, the temperature of the 
 blood is much lower than in the former, 
 for which reason they are distinguished 
 by the name cold-blooded, while the others 
 are termed warm-blooded animals. Insects 
 and worms, instead of red blood, have a 
 
 juice of a whitish color, which is called 
 white blood. In the blood, two different 
 substances are contained, which are sepa- 
 rated by coagulation the serum, a fluid 
 like the white of an egg, and a thick mat- 
 ter, to which the red color properly be- 
 longs, which is much heavier than the 
 former, and is called the coagulum. 
 The last may be divided again into two 
 different parts into the cruor, or that 
 part of the blood which is intrinsically 
 red, and coagulable, and lymph orjibrine, to 
 which the coagulation of the blood must 
 be ascribed. The fbrine, in young ani- 
 mals, is much whiter than in older and 
 stronger ones. The blood of the latter 
 contains much more azote than that of 
 the former. If the nourishment of ani- 
 mals is changed, we also find an altera- 
 tion in the constituent parts of their blood. 
 It is also changed by diseases. In ani- 
 mals that are hunted to death,- or killed 
 by lightning, the blood does not coagulate. / 
 The blood of birds is more highly col- 
 ored, and warmer, than that of viviparous 
 animals, and coagulates more easily in the 
 air. That of reptiles and fishes coagulates 
 with difficulty. Aided by magnifying 
 glasses of a strong power, one may ob- 
 serve, in examining the blood of the living 
 animal, or in blood which is newly drawn, 
 that it consists, especially the cruor, of 
 little globular bubbles, the globules of the 
 blood, as they are called, the diameter of 
 which amounts to about the three hun- 
 dredth part of a line. In blood that has 
 been drawn some time, although this time 
 may be very short, they are not to be dis- 
 covered. They are the effect of the life 
 that pervades the blood. The more robust 
 and healthy an animal is, the more glob- 
 ules are perceived. They show, as it 
 were, the transition from the formless 
 liquid to the original form of the first 
 organized matter. The blood is of the 
 greatest importance to the life of an ani- 
 mal, and may be considered as the source 
 of life. As long as the body is living, 
 the blood is in perpetual motion. When 
 it is taken out of the body, a remarkable 
 change soon follows : it begins to coagu- 
 late, and then undergoes, first an acetous, 
 and, after a few days, a putrid fermenta- 
 tion. All the blood takes its origin from 
 the chyle, and deposits, by degrees, the 
 nourishing particles requisite to the pres- 
 ervation and growth of the body, by a 
 multitude of-vessels adapted thereto. This 
 is done while it is driven from the heart 
 into the remotest parts of the body, and 
 from thence back. The circulation of the 
 blood is, as it were, the principle and first
 
 BLOOD BLOOD-VESSELS. 
 
 139 
 
 condition of life. With it, except in cases 
 of fainting, suffocation, &c., life ceases. 
 The heart, the centre of the circulation 
 of the blood, has a two-fold motion, of 
 contraction and dilatation, which constant- 
 ly alternate. With the heart two kinds of 
 vessels are connected the arteries and the 
 veins. (See Blood- Vessels.) The circula- 
 tion of the blood proceeds with an aston- 
 ishing rapidity : did it flow at an equal 
 rate in a straight line, it would run, in the 
 space of one minute, through 149 feet. 
 This swiftness, however, exists only in 
 the larger vessels near the heart ; the far- 
 ther the blood recedes from the heart, the 
 slower its motion becomes. In a grown- 
 up person, in good health, we may reck- 
 on the mass of blood at 24 30 pounds. 
 Blood- Vessels are the tubes or vessels 
 in which the blood circulates. They are 
 divided into two classes, arteries and 
 veins, which have two points of union 
 or connexion the first in the heart, from 
 which they both originate, and the other 
 in the .ninute vessels or net-work, in 
 which they terminate. The arteries arise 
 from the heart, and convey the blood to 
 all parts of the body ; the veins return it 
 to the heart. The arteries distribute 
 throughout the body a pure, red blood, 
 for the purposes of nourishment ; while 
 the veins return to the heart a dark-col- 
 ored blood, more or less loaded with im- 
 purities, and deprived of some of its valu- 
 able properties. But this is not returned 
 again to the body in the same state. For 
 the heart is wisely divided into two por- 
 tions or sides, a right and left, one of 
 which receives the impure blood from 
 the veins, and sends it to the lungs to be 
 defecated and freshly supplied with oxy- 
 gen or vital air, while the other receives 
 the pure red blood from the lungs, and 
 circulates it anew through the arteries. 
 The arteries arise from the left ventricle 
 of the heart by one large trunk, nearly an 
 inch in diameter, which is gradually sub- 
 divided into smaller ones, as it proceeds 
 towards the limbs, till they terminate, at 
 last, in vessels so small as to be almost 
 invisible, and in a fine net-work of cells, 
 extending through the whole body, in 
 which the blood is poured out, and nutri- 
 tion or the increase of the body takes 
 place, and from which the residue is 
 taken up by the small veins, to be re- 
 turned to the heart. The arteries and 
 veins are widely different in their struct- 
 ure, as well as their uses. The former 
 are composed of very strong, firm, elastic 
 coats or membranes, which are four in 
 number. The external covering and the 
 
 internal lining of the arteries, although 
 belonging to different classes of mem- 
 branes, are both very thin and soft. The 
 second coat is very thick, tough and elas- 
 tic, being that which chiefly gives their 
 peculiar appearance to the arteries. The 
 third is formed of fibres, apparently mus- 
 cular, arranged in circular rings around 
 the tube of the vessels. It is well known 
 that the pulse of the heart is felt in the 
 arteries alone, although, in the bleeding 
 of a vein, we sometimes see the blood 
 start as if in unison with the beating of 
 the heart. The pulse is produced by the 
 wave or stream of blood, which is driven 
 by the heart through the arteries, dis- 
 tending and slightly elevating them, after 
 which they instantly contract from their 
 elasticity, and thus force the blood into 
 the smaller vessels. The pulse varies in 
 its character with the general state of the 
 health. (See Pulse.) When arteries are 
 cut or wounded, the firmness of their 
 coats prevents their closing, and hence 
 arises the fatal nature of wounds of large 
 vessels, which will remain open till they 
 are tied up, or till death is produced. 
 The veins commence in small capillary 
 tubes in every part of the body, and, by 
 their gradual union, form large trunks, 
 till they at last terminate in two (one 
 ascending from the lower parts of the 
 body, the other descending from the head 
 and arms), which pour their contents into 
 the heart. Then- structure is much less 
 firm than that of the arteries. They 
 are very thin and soft, consisting of only 
 two thin coats or membranes. The inner, 
 or lining membrane, is frequently doubled 
 into folds, forming valves, which nearly 
 close the passage in the veins, and thus 
 give very material support to the blood 
 as it is moving up in them towards the 
 heart. These valves are not found in the 
 veins of the bowels, the lungs or the 
 head. The number of the veins is much 
 greater than that of the arteries, an artery 
 being often accompanied by two veins. 
 They differ also in this, that, while the 
 arteries are deeply seated in the flesh, to 
 guard them from injury, the veins are 
 very frequently superficial, and covered 
 only by the skin. The veins, it is well 
 known, are the vessels commonly opened 
 in blood-letting, although, in cases which 
 render it necessary, a small artery is 
 sometimes divided. There are two por- 
 tions of the venous system, which do not 
 correspond exactly with our general de- 
 scription ; these are the veins of the bow- 
 els and of the lungs. The former circu- 
 late their blood through the liver before
 
 140 
 
 BLOOD-VESSELSBLOWPIPE. 
 
 it returns to the heart, and the latter, the 
 pulmonary veins, convey red blood from 
 the lungs to the heart. (For an account 
 of the circulation of the blood, see Heart.) 
 It should also be mentioned, that the 
 large vein, which brings back the blood 
 from the lower part of the body, receives 
 from the lymphatic and lacteal vessels 
 the chyle from the bowels, which sup- 
 plies the waste of the blood and nourishes 
 the body, and the serous and other watery 
 fluids which are taken up by the absorb- 
 ents in all parts of the body. 
 
 BLOODHOUND ; a variety of the com- 
 mon dog, called C. sagax by Linnaeus, 
 chien courant by Buffon, remarkable for 
 the perfection of its sense of smell. Ow- 
 ing to this circumstance, these hounds 
 were formerly much employed in pursu- 
 ing criminals escaped from justice, or in 
 tracing out robbers or enemies, whose 
 course was inevitably discovered, when 
 once the bloodhound was placed upon 
 then* trail. In the border country of 
 Scotland, they were formerly much em- 
 ployed for such uses, but at present the 
 race has become almost forgotten. In 
 the countries of South America, the 
 Spaniards employed fierce dogs to aid 
 them in conquering the Indians, but it is 
 not certain that the dogs, trained by them 
 to this cruel business, belonged to the 
 present variety. All the varieties of 
 hound, however, have much sagacity, 
 and most of the larger and stronger 
 breeds have great acuteness of scent, and 
 might, without much difficulty, be trained 
 to act as bloodhounds. 
 
 BLOOMFIELD, Robert, an English poet, 
 bom at Honington, in 1766, the son of a 
 tailor, learned to read at the village 
 school, and, in 1781, was sent to learn 
 the trade of a shoemaker with his brother 
 in London. The visiting of several places 
 of worship, of a debating society, of 
 Covent garden theatre, and the reading 
 of sundry books, called forth his faculties, 
 and he became, almost unconsciously, a 
 poet. Hearing him one day repeat a 
 song which he had composed, his aston- 
 ished brother prevailed on him to offer it 
 to the London Magazine, and it was ac- 
 cepted. The poem was called the Milk 
 Maid. A second, the Sailor's Return, 
 likewise found a place in that journal. 
 Thomson's Seasons, the Paradise Lost, 
 and other works of this kind, now be- 
 came the subjects of his constant study. 
 In the country, where he resided for a 
 short time, in 1786, he first conceived 
 the idea of his poem, the Farmer's Boy, 
 which is characterized by a spirit of rural 
 
 simplicity and innocence. It was written, 
 under the most unfavorable circumstan- 
 ces, by a journeyman shoemaker in a 
 garret. It was first shown to Capel Lofi% 
 in 1798, who was so much pleased with 
 it, that, in conjunction with his friend 
 Hill, he had it printed in 1800. It de- 
 rives its principal value from its strict 
 adherence to truth and nature. The 
 writer, in fact, has drawn his own por- 
 trait in the Farmer's Boy, and described 
 the scenes and events which he actually 
 witnessed. Hence there is a degree of 
 spirit and originality in the poem, which 
 stamps it with the impress of genius, and 
 renders it very pleasing. The versifica- 
 tion is uncommonly smooth and correct. 
 B. also wrote a volume entitled Wild 
 Flowers, containing a collection of poeti- 
 cal tales, which was well received, and 
 was not unworthy of his reputation. His 
 latest production was Hazelwood Hall, a 
 village drama, which appeared shortly 
 before his decease, a work of not much 
 merit. B. was patronised by the duke of 
 Grafton, who bestowed on him a small 
 annuity, and made him an under-sealer 
 in the seal-office. This situation he was 
 forced to resign on account of ill health. 
 He then worked again at his trade, as a 
 shoemaker, and employed himself in con- 
 structing ./Eolian harps. Engaging in the 
 book trade, he became a bankrupt, and, hi 
 the latter part of his life, was afflicted 
 with violent head-aches, and became 
 nearly blind. He was gradually reduced 
 to such a state of nervous irritability, that 
 apprehensions were entertained of his 
 becoming insane. These fears were ter-, 
 minated by his death, which took place 
 in August, 1823. 
 
 BLOWING-MACHINES ; the larger instru- 
 ments or contrivances for producing a 
 stroug and continued current of air, suoh 
 as is necessary in smelting-houses, in large 
 smitheries, &c. (See Bellows.) 
 
 BLOWPIPE is the name applied to an 
 instrument, by means of which the flame 
 of a candle or lamp is made to produce 
 an intense heat, capable of being applied 
 to a variety of useful purposes. Its most 
 simple form is that of a tapering tube, 
 about eight inches in length, and curved 
 nearly at right angles, within two inches 
 of its smaller extremity. At its larger 
 end, it is nearly a quarter of an inch in 
 diameter, and at the smaller, only large 
 enough to admit a common-sized pin. It 
 is made of brass or white iron; In using 
 it, the flame of a lamp or candle is turned 
 aside from its vertical to a horizontal di- 
 rection, by a stream of air impelled upon
 
 BLOWPIPE BLUCHER. 
 
 141 
 
 it, either from the lungs, or from a double 
 bellows. The flame, in its new direction, 
 assumes a conical shape, and consists of 
 two parts, visible by their different colors ; 
 the outer being reddish-brown, and the 
 inner blue. The heat at the apex of the 
 inner cone is the most intense, and is 
 equal to that produced in the best fur- 
 naces. It is employed by the jeweller 
 and goldsmith in the operation of solder- 
 ing, and by other artists who fabricate 
 small objects in metal ; by the glass- 
 blower in making thermometers, barome- 
 ters and other glass instruments ; by the 
 enameller, and, indeed, wherever it is re- 
 quired to subject a small body to a strong 
 heat. The common blowpipe has under- 
 gone a variety of improvements in the 
 hands of the chemist, to whose researches 
 it has proved an excellent auxiliary. 
 These consist, principally, in providing 
 its stem with a bowl, or enlargement, 
 where the moisture of the breath may be 
 condensed and detained ; in fitting the 
 smaller end so as to receive a variety of 
 little caps, or hollow cones, with orifices 
 of different diameters, so as to be changed 
 according as a flame is required more or 
 less strong ; and in rendering the instru- 
 ment more portable, by constructing it of 
 several pieces, capable of being taken 
 apart and packed up in the space of a 
 pencil-case. With a part, or with the 
 whole of these improvements, it is used 
 by the chemist to make an examination 
 of any doubtful mineral substance, artifi- 
 cial alloy, or pharmaceutical preparation. 
 Tliis he is capable of conducting (with 
 the aid of a charcoal support, and, occa- 
 sionally, a little borax) in a moment's 
 time, and with the loss of the smallest 
 imaginable quantity of the substance. To 
 the analytical chemist its use is indis- 
 pensable for enabling him to discover the 
 principal ingredients in a substance, pre- 
 vious to his subsequent operations for as- 
 certaining their relative proportion. (For 
 an account of the blowpipe in which 
 oxygen and hydrogen gases are em- 
 ployed, see Compound Blowpipe.) 
 
 BLUCHER, Lebrecht von, of the family 
 of Grossen-Rensow, in Mecklenburg, 
 prince of Wahlstadt, field-marshal of the 
 king of Prussia, and knight of almost all 
 the distinguished military orders of Eu- 
 rope, was born at Rostock, Dec. 16, 1742. 
 When he was 14 years of age, his father, 
 a captain of horse in the service of Hesse- 
 Cassel, sent him to the island of Ili'igen. 
 Here the sight of some Swedish hussars 
 excited in him the desire of becoming a 
 Boldier.* His parents and relations hi vain 
 
 attempted to dissuade him from this step ; 
 he took service in a Swedish regiment of 
 hussars in the capacity of a cornet. His 
 first campaign was against the Prussians, 
 and he was taken prisoner by the same 
 regiment of hussars, which he afterwards 
 commanded with so much honor. The 
 commander of this regiment, colonel von 
 Belling, induced him to enter into the 
 Prussian service. An exchange was 
 agreed upon with the Swedes, and B. 
 was made lieutenant in Selling's regi- 
 ment. Discontented at the promotion of 
 other officers over his head, he left the 
 army, devoted himself to agriculture, and, 
 by industry and prudence, acquired an 
 estate. After the death of Frederic II, 
 he became a major in his former regi- 
 ment, which he commanded with dis- 
 tinction on the Rhine, in 1793 and 1794. 
 Orchies, Luxemburg, Frankenstein, Op- 
 penheim (Jan. 16, 1794), Kirweiler and 
 Edesheim in the Palatinate, bear witness 
 to his achievements. After the battle of 
 Leystadt, Sept. 18, 1794, which added 
 greatly to his reputation, he was appoint- 
 ed major-general of the army of observa- 
 tion stationed on the Lower Rhine. In 
 1802, in the name of the king of Prussia, 
 he took possession of Erfurt and Muehl- 
 hausen. Oct. 14, 1806, he fought at the 
 battle of Auerstadt. He then, with the 
 greater part of the cavalry, followed the 
 retreat of the prince of Hohenlohe to 
 Pomerania. His squadron, moving on 
 the left of the main army, became sepa- 
 rated from it so far that a junction was 
 possible only by means of forced marches, 
 both in the day time and at night. The 
 latter, B. thought himself not authorized 
 to venture upon, and the prince of Ho- 
 henlohe was forced to surrender at Prenz- 
 lau. B., cut off from Stettin by this ac- 
 cident, threw himself into Mecklenburg, 
 where he joined, at Dambeck, the corps 
 of the duke of Weimar, commanded by 
 prince William of Brunswick-Oels. All 
 the troops, however, were too much fa- 
 tigued to undertake any enterprise. Hav- 
 ing the grand-duke of Berg on his left 
 flank, the prince of Ponte-corvo in his 
 front, and marshal Soult on his right, B. 
 was obliged to take post behind the 
 Trave, in order to draw off the three 
 great divisions of the French forces from 
 the Oder as long as possible. With this 
 view, he entered into the territory of the 
 free city of Liibeck. This city was soon 
 stormed by the overwhelming power of 
 the French. Although B., with some 
 troops, escaped out of the city, yet, being 
 deprived of all means of defending him-
 
 142 
 
 BLUCHER. 
 
 self, or continuing his flight, he was 
 obliged to surrender at Ratkau, on the 
 6th of November. This, however, he 
 would not do, until permission had been 
 granted him to add the following clause 
 to the instrument, that " the capitulation 
 was offered to him by the prince of Ponte- 
 corvo, and that he accepted it only from 
 want of ammunition, provisions and for- 
 age." B. was now a prisoner of war ; but 
 lie was soon exchanged for the French 
 general Victor, and, immediately after his 
 arrival at Konigsberg, placed at the head 
 of a corps, and sent by water to Swedish 
 Pomerania, to share in the defence of 
 Stralsund, and to assist the efforts of the 
 Swedes. After the peace of Tilsit, he 
 labored in the department of war at Ko- 
 nigsberg and Berlin. He then received 
 the chief military command in Pomera- 
 nia, but, at the instigation of Napoleon, 
 was afterwards, with Several other dis- 
 tinguished men, dismissed from the ser- 
 vice. In the campaign of 1812, when 
 the Prussians assisted the French, he 
 took no part ; but no sooner did Prussia 
 rise against her oppressors, than B., al- 
 ready 70 years old, engaged in the cause 
 with all his former activity. He was ap- 
 pointed commander in chief of the Prus- 
 sians and the Russian corps under general 
 Winzingerode, which, at a later period, 
 was separated from him. His heroism in 
 the battle of Liitzen (May 2, 1813) was 
 rewarded by the emperor Alexander with 
 the order of St. George. The battles of 
 Bautzen and Haynau, those on the Katz- 
 bach (see Wahlstadt) and at Leipsic, added 
 to his glory. On the Katzbach, B. de- 
 feated the army of marshal Macdonald, 
 and delivered all Silesia. His army now 
 received the name of the Silesian. Napo- 
 leon himself endeavored in vain to check 
 the old general of hussars, as he called 
 him. Oct 3, B. crossed the Elbe at 
 Wartenburg.' This bold step compelled 
 the great Bohemian army under Schwart- 
 zenberg, and the northern army under 
 the crown-prince of Sweden, to act with 
 more spirit. The great battle of Leipsic 
 approached. Oct. 16, he gained a sig- 
 nal advantage over marshal Marmont, at 
 Mockern-, forcing his way as far as the 
 suburbs of Leipsic. On die 18th, in con- 
 nexion with the crown-prince of Sweden, 
 he contributed greatly to the defeat of 
 the enemy, and, on the 19th, his troops 
 made the first assault upon Leipsic. His 
 promptitude and peculiar manner of at- 
 tacking had already, in the beginning of 
 the campaign, procured him from the 
 Russians the name of marshal Forward, 
 
 From that time it became his name of 
 honor throughout the whole German ter- 
 ritory. Jan. 1, 1814, with the Silesian 
 army, which now consisted of two Prus- 
 sian, two Russian, one Hessian and one 
 mixed corps, he crossed the Rhine at 
 Kaub, took possession of Nancy on the 
 17th, gained, Feb. 1, the battle of La Ro- 
 thiere, and pushed forward towards Paris. 
 His detached corps were, however, check- 
 ed by Napoleon ; yet B., though with a 
 great loss, effected his retreat towards 
 Chalons. He then crossed the Aisne at 
 Soissons, joined the northern army, ob- 
 tained, March 9, a victory over Napoleon 
 at Laon, and, in connexion with Schwart- 
 zenberg, at the close of the month, pressed 
 forward to Paris. The day of Montmar- 
 tre crowned this campaign, and, March 
 31, B. entered the capital of France. His 
 king, in remembrance of the victory 
 which he had gained near Wahlstadt, 
 made him prince of Wahlstadt, with a 
 suitable income. In England, whither 
 he followed the allied monarchs, in June 
 of the same year, he was received by the 
 people with enthusiasm. The university 
 of Oxford conferred on him the degree 
 of doctor of laws. He afterwards lived 
 on his estates in Silesia till 1815, when 
 the chief command was again committed 
 to him, and he led his army into the 
 Netherlands. June 15, Napoleon threw 
 himself upon him, and B., on the 16th, 
 was defeated at Ligny. In this engage- 
 ment, his horse was killed, and he was 
 thrown under his body. After this un- 
 fortunate, yet honorable day, the true 
 greatness of the field-marshal and his 
 army became apparent. In the battle of 
 the 18th, B. arrived, at the most decisive 
 moment, upon the ground, and, taking 
 Napoleon in the rear and flank, gained, 
 in union with Wellington, the great vic- 
 tory of Belle Alliance, or Waterloo, (q. v.) 
 He refused the proffered armistice, and 
 forced Paris to surrender ; opposing, with 
 energy, on this second conquest of the 
 capital, the system of forbearance prac- 
 tised on the former occasion. As he was 
 already a knight of all the military orders 
 of Europe, the king of Prussia, to reward 
 his new services, created a new order 
 expressly for him. After the peace of 
 Paris, the prince retired to his estates. 
 Aug. 26, 1819, the anniversary of the bat- 
 tle on the Katzbach, the hero received at 
 Rostock, his native place, an honor which 
 is seldom bestowed in Germany. The 
 whole body of his countrymen, the in- 
 habitants of Mecklenburg, united to erect 
 a monument commemorating his glory,
 
 BLUCHER BLUEBIRD. 
 
 143 
 
 executed by Schadow hi Berlin. B. died, 
 after a short illness, at his estate of Krib- 
 lowitz, in Silesia, Sept. 12, 1819, aged 
 almost 77 years. J une 18, 1826, a statue 
 of bronze was erected to him, in Berlin, 
 12 feet in height, modelled by Rauch, 
 and cast by Le Quine and Reisinger. 
 B. was not so eminent for military sci- 
 ence as for ability in action. He himself 
 often acknowledged this, when he was 
 praising the merits of Gneisenau, to whose 
 assistance he was greatly indebted. In 
 battle, however, he had the eye of a fal- 
 con. His simplicity, good-nature and 
 bravery endeared him to his soldiers, 
 who loved him like a father. His ad- 
 dresses and proclamations are distin- 
 guished for their brevity, precision and 
 simplicity, forming a striking contrast to 
 the high-sounding French proclamations 
 of the time. (See Bluecher's Lebensbe- 
 schreibung (Blucher's Life), by Vamhagen 
 von Ense, Berlin, 1827.) 
 
 BLUE. (See Color.) 
 
 Blue, Prussian ; a coloring matter, of a 
 pure dark-blue color, a dull fracture, ino- 
 dorous and insipid, insoluble in water, 
 spirits of wine or ether ; it is soluble only 
 by the action of corrosive alkalies. The 
 discovery of this color was accidentally 
 made, in 1704, by Diesbach, a manufac- 
 turer of colors, who, with the intention of 
 precipitating the coloring matter from 
 cochineal, with which alum and vitriol of 
 iron were dissolved, procured some alkali 
 from the laboratory of Dippel. This al- 
 kali, which Dippel had been heating with 
 some animal matter, produced a beautiful 
 blue precipitate. Dippel, discovering that 
 the alkali had acquired this power of 
 forming a blue precipitate of iron on ac- 
 count of its mixture with animal oil, soon 
 learned to prepare it in a more simple 
 way, since all animal substances, and 
 even all vegetables, which contain much 
 azote, will give the same result. It 12, 
 however, necessary, that all the materials 
 fliould be perfectly pure, since the purifi- 
 cation would be too expensive. The ad- 
 dition of alum gives to this blue more 
 body and a brighter color. This blue 
 substance is a prussiate of iron (52 parts 
 red oxyde of iron, and 48 of prussic acid). 
 The alumiue added amounts to from 20 to 
 80 per cent. ; but the greater the quantity, 
 the poorer is the quality of the blue. 
 
 BLUEBIRD (sylvia sialis, Wils. ; saxico- 
 la sicdis, Bonaparte). This beautiful little 
 bird is one of the earliest messengers of 
 spring, and is occasionally seen as early 
 as the month of February, in mild sea- 
 eons. The middle of March is the ordi- 
 
 nary time of mating, when the male blue- 
 bird is observed to be extremely devoted 
 to the female, and shows the ardor of hia 
 attachment by every attention in his pow- 
 er, by the rapturous animation of his song, 
 and the angry jealousy with which he re- 
 pels the approaches of a rival. The nest 
 of the former year is then repaired, and 
 the female begins to lay her eggs, usually 
 five, sometimes six, of a pale-blue color. 
 Two or three broods are raised in a sea- 
 son, the youngest of which are taken care 
 of by the male, while the mother is still 
 attending to the nest. The principal food 
 of this species is insects, especially large 
 beetles, and other hard- wing or coleopte- 
 rous bugs, to be found about dead or rot- 
 ting trees : berries, persimmon, and the 
 seeds of various plants, are also discovered 
 in their stomachs. Large and numerous 
 tape-worms infest their bowels, and they 
 are also exceedingly annoyed by vermin 
 externally. Wilson says, that, in this re- 
 spect, they are more plagued than any 
 other bird, except the woodcock. The 
 spring and summer song of the bluebird 
 is a soft and often-repeated warble : in 
 the month of October, his song changes 
 to a single plaintive note. About the 
 middle of November, the bluebirds disap- 
 pear, though, occasionally, one or two 
 may be seen during the winter, in mild 
 weather. The manners of this species 
 are so gentle, and they render so much 
 service by the destruction of insects, that 
 they are always regarded with favor by 
 the farmer. The male bluebird is six. 
 inches and three quarters long, with very 
 full and broad wings. All the upper 
 parts are of a rich sky-blue, with purple 
 reflections: the bill and legs are black. 
 The female is easily known by the duller 
 cast of the plumage on the back, and by 
 the red on the breast not descending so 
 low as in the male, and being much 
 fainter. The bluebird inhabits the whole 
 of the U. States, also Mexico, Brazil, Gui- 
 ana and the Bahama islands. Wilson 
 states that " nothing is more common, in 
 Pennsylvania, than to see large flocks of 
 these birds, in the spring and fall, passing 
 at considerable heights in the air, from 
 the south in the former, and from the 
 north in the latter season. I have seen, 
 in the month of October, about an hour 
 after sunrise, 10 or 15 of them descend 
 from a great height, and settle on the top 
 of a tall, detached tree, appearing, from 
 their silence and sedateness, to be stran- 
 gers and fatigued. After a pause of a few 
 minutes, they began to dress and arrange 
 their plumage, and continued so employ-
 
 144 
 
 BLUEBIRD BOA. 
 
 ed for 10 or 15 minutes more ; then, on a 
 few warning notes being given, perhaps 
 by the leader of the party, the whole re- 
 mounted to a vast height, steering in a 
 direct line for the south-west." 
 
 BLUE RIDGE ; one of the ranges of the 
 Alleghany or Appalachian mountains, 
 which extends from the river Hudson to 
 Georgia, and intersects the state of Vir- 
 ginia from N. E. to S. W., dividing it into 
 two parts, nearly equal. The great lime- 
 stone valley extends along the N. W. 
 side of this range. The most elevated 
 summits of the Blue Ridge are the 
 peaks of Otter, in Bedford county, Vir- 
 ginia. 
 
 BLUE-STOCKING ; a pedantic female ; 
 one who sacrifices the characteristic ex- 
 cellences of her sex to learning. The 
 origin of this name, in England, is thus 
 given by Boswell, in his Life of Johnson : 
 "About this time (1780), it was much the 
 fashion for several ladies to have evening 
 assemblies, where the fair sex might par- 
 ticipate in conversation with literary and 
 ingenious men, animated with a desire to 
 please. These societies were denomi- 
 nated blue-stocking clubs, the origin of 
 which name was as follows: One of the 
 most eminent members of these societies 
 was Mr. Stillingfleet, who always wore 
 blue stockings. Such was the excellence 
 of his conversation, that his absence was 
 felt as a great loss, and it used to be said, 
 'We can do nothing without the blue 
 stockings ;' and thus, by degrees, the title 
 was established." In Germany, blue- 
 stocking (blau-strumpfe) signifies a traitor, 
 a slanderer, an infamous lover, &c., and 
 the term, in that country, is said to be- de- 
 rived from the blue stockings formerly 
 worn by procurers. 
 
 BLUMAUER, Aloysius, a poet, and famous 
 parodist, born at Steyr, in Austria, above the 
 Ens, in 1755, studied in his native city, en- 
 tered (1772) into the order of the Jesuits in 
 Vienna, lived there privately, after the abo- 
 lition of his order, till he was appointed 
 censor, which place he resigned in 1793, 
 and took the establishment of the booksel- 
 ler Graeffer, in which he had been concern- 
 ed since 1786. He died in 1798. By his 
 jEneid travestied, he distinguished himself 
 as a burlesque poet. It is a poetical farce, 
 rich in burlesque wit and droll contrasts. 
 These qualities are also to be found in 
 several others of his numerous poems. 
 Some of them are full of animation, and 
 are written in a pure, manly style. At 
 times, his wit is vulgar, his language in- 
 correct and prosaic. A collection of his 
 works appeared at Leipsic, 1801 3, 8 vols. 
 
 BLUMENBACH, John Frederic, doctor. 
 This profound naturalist is, at present, 
 one of the first ornaments of the univer- 
 sity at Gottingeh, where he has lectured, 
 for 50 years, with unabated industry, on 
 natural history, physiology, osteology, 
 comparative anatomy, pathology, and the 
 history of medical literature, to very nu- 
 merous audiences. He has written on 
 almost all these sciences with acuteness, 
 method and precision. His works bear 
 the stamp of his peculiar genius, and 
 some of them have been several times 
 published. His masterly, but, at present, 
 somewhat antiquated Handbuch dcr *Ya- 
 turgeschichte (Compendium of Natural 
 History) was published, in 1825, for the 
 llth time. Of his Handbuch der Physio- 
 logic (Compendium of Physiology) there 
 is an English translation, the second edi- 
 tion of which (1818) is also remarkable 
 for being the first book ever printed by 
 mechanical power. B. was born at Go- 
 tha, May 11, 1752 ; studied in Jena and 
 Gottingen, where he received his degree 
 of doctor of medicine, Sept. 19, 1775. In 
 1776, he was appointed director of the 
 cabinet of natural curiosities belonging to 
 the university,- and professor extraordina- 
 ry of medicine, and, in 1778, ordinary 
 professor of the same. In 1783, he un- 
 dertook a literary journey to Switzerland, 
 and, at a later period, one to England, 
 where the attentions of the celebrated sir 
 Joseph Banks were particularly servicea- 
 ble to him. He possesses an excellent 
 collection of books and engravings illus- 
 trating natural history, and numerous spe- 
 cimens of natural curiosities. The collec- 
 tion of skulls is not, perhaps, equalled in 
 the world. On this collection is founded 
 his Collectio Craniorum divers, gent. U- 
 lustr., with engravings, of which six 
 numbers (Gottingen, 17901820) have 
 appeared. Schnader called a newly-dis- 
 covered species of plants after his name, 
 Blumenbachia insignis. The 50th anni- 
 versary of his professorship in the univer- 
 sity of Gottingen was celebrated Feb. 26, 
 1826. 
 
 BOA ; the name of a genus of reptiles 
 belonging to Cuvier's tribe of serpents 
 proper ; having the tympanic bone or 
 pedicle of the lower jaw movable, which 
 is itself almost always suspended to an- 
 other bone analogous to the mastoid, at- 
 tached to the skull by muscles and liga- 
 ments, which contribute to its mobility. 
 The branches of this jaw are not united, 
 and those of the upper jaw are attached 
 to the intermaxillary bone only by liga- 
 ments, so that these animals can dilate
 
 BOA. 
 
 145 
 
 the mouth sufficiently to swallow bodies 
 larger than themselves. Their palatic 
 arches partake of this mobility. In the 
 species of this tribe not possessed of ven- 
 om, the branches of the upper and lower 
 jaw, throughout their entire length, as 
 well as the palate bones, are armed with 
 pointed, recurved, solid and permanent 
 teeth, forming four nearly equal rows 
 above, and two below. The genus boa 
 comprises all those serpents which, in ad- 
 dition to the preceding characters, have 
 the scuta on the under part of the tail sin- 
 gle ; a hook on each side of the vent ; the 
 tail prehensile ; the body compressed and 
 largest in the middle, and with small 
 scales, at least on the posterior part of the 
 head. The species properly belonging 
 to this genus are among the largest of 
 the serpent tribe, some of them, when 
 lull grown, being 30 and even 40 feet 
 long. Though destitute of fangs and ven- 
 em, nature has endowed them with a de- 
 gree of muscular power which renders 
 them terrible. Happily, they are not com- 
 mon in situations much frequented by 
 mankind, but are chiefly found in the 
 vast marshy regions of Guiana, and other 
 hot parts of the American continent. Al- 
 though sufficiently active when fasting 
 or hungry, they become very sluggish 
 and inert after having gorged their prey, 
 at which time they are most easily de- 
 stroyed. In order to obtain their food, the 
 bocK of largest size attach themselves to 
 the trunk or branches of a tree, in a situa- 
 tion likely to be visited by quadrupeds 
 for the sake of pasture or water. There 
 the serpent swings about in the air, as if 
 a branch or pendent of the tree, until 
 some luckless animal approaches ; then, 
 suddenly relinquishing its position, swift 
 as lightning he seizes the victim, and coils 
 his body spirally round its throat and chest, 
 until, after a few ineffectual cries and strug- 
 
 fles, the animal is suffocated, and expires. 
 Q producing this effect, the serpent does 
 not merely wreathe itself around its prey, 
 but places fold over fold, as if desirous of 
 adding as much weight as possible to the 
 muscular effort: these folds are then 
 gradually tightened with enormous force, 
 and speedily induce death. The animals 
 thus destroyed by the larger boas, are deer, 
 dogs, and even bullocks. The prey is 
 then prepared for being swallowed, which 
 the creature accomplishes by pushing the 
 limbs into the most convenient position, 
 and then covering the surface with a glu- 
 tinous saliva. The reptile commences 
 the act of deglutition by taking the muz- 
 zle of the prey into its mouth, which is 
 VOL. n. 13 
 
 capable of vast extension ; and, by a suc- 
 cession of wonderful muscular contrac- 
 tions, the rest of the body is gradually 
 drawn in, Avith a steady and regular 
 motion. As the mass advances in the 
 gullet, the parts through which it has 
 passed resume their former dimensions, 
 though its immediate situation is always 
 betrayed by external protuberance. As 
 already mentioned, the species of boa are 
 peculiar to the hot parts of South Ameri- 
 ca, though nothing is more common than 
 the error of confounding the great ser- 
 pents of India, Africa, &c., with the 
 proper boa. According to the researches 
 of Cuvier, all the boce, at present well de- 
 termined, are natives of the new conti- 
 nent. The great serpents of the old con- 
 tinent belong to the genus python (Daitd.), 
 and will be treated of under that title. It 
 is nevertheless true, that Pliny has spoken 
 of the huge serpents of India, and after- 
 wards of large serpents of Italy, which 
 were called boce, thus named from the cir- 
 cumstance of their being at first fed with 
 cow's milk. Among the most celebrated 
 species is the boa constrictor (L.), distin- 
 guished by a large chain, formed alter- 
 nately of large, blackish, irregular hexag- 
 onal, spots, with pale, oval spots, notch- 
 ed at their two extremities, along the 
 back. This is the largest species, and is 
 usually confounded, by casual observers, 
 with the python Tigris of the old world. 
 The B. cenchris (L.), and the B. scytale, et 
 musina (L.), attain to nearly an equal size 
 with the constrictor (from 20 to 30 feet 
 long), and are all natives of the torrid and 
 marshy regions of America. The other spe- 
 cies are of smaller size, and some do not 
 much exceed that of the largest common 
 snakes. We cannot reflect upon the natural 
 history of these great reptiles, without be- 
 ing struck with their peculiar adaptation to 
 the situations in which they are common- 
 ly most abundant. In regions bordering 
 on great rivers, which, like the Orinoco, 
 &c., annually inundate vast tracts of coun- 
 try, these serpents live securely among 
 the trees with which the soil is covered, 
 and are capable of enduring very pro- 
 tracted hunger without much apparent 
 suffering or diminution of vigor. Nox- 
 ious as such districts are to human life, 
 they teem with a gigantic and luxuriant 
 vegetation, and are the favorite haunts of 
 numerous animals, preyed upon, and, to a 
 certain degree, restricted in their increase, 
 by the boa. As their prey come within 
 their reach, they require no deadly appa- 
 ratus of poison to produce their destruc- 
 tion, since nature has endowed them with
 
 146 
 
 BOA BOCCACCIO. 
 
 muscular strength surpassing that of almost 
 every other creature, in proportion to their 
 size. Once fairly involved in the crushing 
 folds of the constrictor, the strength of the 
 strongest man would not prove of the 
 slightest avail ; indeed, from the ease with 
 which larger and more powerful crea- 
 tures are put to death by these serpents, 
 it is evident that any number of unanned 
 men would act very unwisely to provoke 
 a combat with enemies endowed with 
 ' powers of such dreadful energy. 
 
 BOADICEA ; queen of thelceni, in Brit- 
 ain, during the reign of N6ro. Having 
 been treated in the most ignominious 
 manner by the Romans, she headed a 
 general insurrection of the Britons, at- 
 tacked the Roman settlements, reduced 
 London to ashes, and put to the sword all 
 strangers!, to the number of 70,000. Sue- 
 tonius, the Roman general, defeated her 
 in a decisive battle, and B., rather than 
 fall into the hands of her enemies, put an 
 end to her own life by poison. 
 
 BOAT ; properly, a vessel propelled by 
 oars. In a more extensive sense, the word 
 is applied to other small vessels, which 
 differ in construction and name, according 
 to the services in which they are em- 
 ployed. Thus they are light or strong, 
 sharp or flat-bottomed, open or decked, 
 &c., according as they are intended for 
 swiftness or burden, deep or shallow wa- 
 ter, &c. The barge is a long, light, nar- 
 row boat, employed in harbors, but unfit 
 for sea. The long-boat is the largest boat 
 belonging to a ship, generally furnished 
 with sails, and is employed for cruising 
 short distances, bringing heavy articles ou 
 board, &c. The launch is more flat-bot- 
 tomed than the long-boat, which it has 
 generally superseded. The pinnate re- 
 sembles a barge, but is smaller. The 
 cutters of a ship are broader and deeper 
 than the barge or pinnace, and are em- 
 ployed in carrying light articles, passen- 
 gers, &c. on board. Yawls are used for 
 similar purposes, and are smaller than 
 cutters. A gig is a long, narrow boat, 
 used for expedition, and rowed with six 
 or eight oars. The jolly-boat is smaller 
 than a yawl, and is used for going on 
 shore. A merchant-ship seldom has more 
 than two boats, a long-boat and a yawl. 
 A wherry is a light, sharp boat, used in a 
 river or harbor, for transporting passen- 
 gers. A punt is a flat-bottomed boat, 
 chiefly used for one person to go on shore 
 from small vessels. A skiff" is a small 
 boat, like a yawl, used for passing rivers. 
 A Moses is a flat-bottomed boat, used in 
 the West Indies for carrying hogsheads 
 
 from the shore to ships in the roads. A 
 felucca is a large passage-boat, used in 
 the Mediterranean, with from 10 to 16 
 banks of oars. Scow is an American 
 word, signifying a large, flat-bottomed, 
 heavy boat, about 30 feet long, and 12 
 wide. In some parts of the U. States, it 
 is called a gondola. (See Canoe, Galley, 
 
 BOCCACCIO, Giovanni, whose name 
 alone, as Mazzuchelli justly says, is equiv- 
 alent to a thousand encomiums, was the 
 son of a Florentine merchant. His family 
 came, originally, from Certaldo, a village 
 in Tuscany ; whence he gives himself 
 the appellation da Certaldo. He was the 
 offspring of an illicit connexion which his 
 father formed, while on a visit of busi- 
 ness, at Paris, and was bom in that city, 
 1313. He early removed to Florence, 
 where he began his studies, and, even in 
 childhood, discovered a decided fondness 
 for poetry. In his 10th year, his father 
 put him under the care of a merchant, to 
 be educated in his business. With him 
 he returned to Paris, and remained there 
 six years, without acquiring any fondness 
 for his profession. His residence of eight 
 years at Naples was equally ineffectual 
 to this purpose. Instead of attending to 
 trade, he formed the closest intimacy with 
 several learned men of Florence and 
 Naples, who had been drawn thither by 
 that patron of the arts, lung Robert. There 
 is nothing to prove that he shared in the 
 favor of the prince ; but he enjoyed the 
 particular affection of a natural daughter 
 of his, for whom he composed many pieces 
 in prose and verse, and to whom he often 
 pays homage under the name of Fiam- 
 metta. Placed in fortunate circumstances, 
 with a lively and cheerful disposition, of 
 a soft and pleasing address, the favored 
 lover of a king's daughter, he regarded 
 with more aversion than ever the sta- 
 tion for which he had been intended. 
 The fondness of the princess for poetry ; 
 his own intimacy with scientific and lite- 
 rary men ; the tomb of Virgil, near Naples, 
 which he used to visit in his walks ; the 
 presence of Petrarch, who was received 
 with the highest distinction at the court 
 of Naples, and who went from that city 
 to Rome, to be crowned with the poetic 
 laurel ; the intimacy which had arisen be- 
 tween the two poets ; all operated power- 
 fully on B., to strengthen and fix his 
 natural inclination for poetry and litera- 
 ture. After living two years at Florence 
 with his father, he returned to Naples, 
 where he was very graciously received 
 by the queen Joanna. It is thought that
 
 BOCCACCIO. 
 
 147 
 
 it was no less to gratify the young queen, 
 than his Fiammetta, that he wrote his 
 Decameron, which has raised him to the 
 rank of the first Italian prose-writer. On 
 the death of his father, becoming master 
 of his own inclinations, he settled at 
 Florence, where his first work was a de- 
 scription of the plague, which forms the 
 opening of the Decameron. He after- 
 wards wrote the life of Dante. He was 
 chosen to inform Petrarch, at Padua, of 
 Ins recall from exile, and the restoration 
 of the property belonging to his father, 
 who had died during his absence. The 
 friendship of these two men of genius 
 continued for life. When B., some years 
 after, had exhausted his fortune in the 
 purchase of costly books, and in expen- 
 sive pleasures, he found in Petrarch the 
 most generous assistance : the wise coun- 
 sels of his friend were now as beneficial 
 to his morals as they had been to his 
 writings ; in fact, to him he was indebted 
 for the change which took place in his 
 character. A dying Carthusian had per- 
 suaded him to renounce all the pleas- 
 ures of the world : Petrarch softened his 
 determination, and brought him back to 
 that proper medium which marks the 
 truly wise man. New troubles in Flor- 
 ence induced him to retire to Certaldo, 
 where he owned a small estate. There 
 he prosecuted his labors in tranquillity. 
 He now composed several historical 
 works hi Latin. Among these is the 
 first modern work which contains, in a 
 collected form, the mythological notices, 
 which are scattered in the writings of the 
 ancients. He was well versed in Greek, 
 and had, at his own expense, brought 
 Leontius Pilatus of Thessalonica from 
 Venice to Florence, and maintained him 
 three years at his house, in order to learn 
 Greek of him, and to have his assistance 
 in explaining the poems of Homer, and 
 translating them into Latin. He was the 
 first who procured copies of the Iliad 
 and Odyssey from Greece, at his own 
 expense, and spared neither cost nor 
 trouble to obtain good Greek and Latin 
 manuscripts. At the same time, he used 
 all his influence to excite his contem- 
 poraries to leani the Greek language, 
 and substitute the study of the ancients 
 for that of the scholastic philosophy. 
 The reputation which he had gained 
 twice procured for him important mis- 
 sions to pope Urban V. Having fulfilled 
 these, he returned to Certaldo, and re- 
 sumed his studies. Here he was attacked 
 by a severe and lingering disorder, which 
 finally left him in a state of debility as 
 
 painful as the disease itself. Upon his 
 recovery, he was charged with a difficult, 
 but very flattering trust. Dante had al- 
 ways been the object of his highest ad- 
 miration. The Florentines, who had 
 once persecuted and banished that illus- 
 trious poet, but now did justice to his 
 merits, had resolved, by way of atone- 
 ment to his memory, to establish a public 
 professorship for the illustration of his 
 poems, which were every day becoming 
 more obscure, as the distance of the time 
 when they were written became greater. 
 This new professorship was conferred 
 upon B., who devoted himself to it with 
 so much ardor, that his health could never 
 be firmly reestablished. This received a 
 further shock from* the death of his in- 
 structer and dearest friend Petrarch. He 
 survived him not much more than a year, 
 and died at Certaldo, Dec. 21, 1375. On 
 his tomb was- placed this inscription, com- 
 posed by himself: 
 
 Hac sub mole jacent cineres ac ossa Joannis, 
 Mer.3 sedet ante Deum meritis oruata laborum, 
 Mortalis vitse. Geuitor Bocchaccius illi, 
 Patria Certaldum, stadium fuit alma poesis. 
 
 B. appears, in all his works, to be a poet 
 of the richest invention, the most lively 
 imagination, and the teuderest and warm- 
 est feeling. In prose, he is a perfect 
 master of composition. His Decameron, 
 which contains a collection of a hundred 
 tales, partly borrowed from the Provencal 
 poets, is the work on which his fame 
 chiefly rests. In this he painted, as it 
 were, on one vast canvas, men of all 
 ranks, characters and ages, and incidents 
 of every kind, the most extravagant and 
 comical, as well as the most touching and 
 tragic ; and improved the Italian lan- 
 guage to a degree of excellence never 
 before attained. Of his other works, we 
 will mention only the following: La Te- 
 seide, the first attempt towards an Italian 
 epic, and written in ottava rima, of which 
 B. is considered -the inventor; Amoroso. 
 Fmone, a long poem in terza rima (the 
 initial letters of which form two sonnets 
 and -a canzonet, in praise of the princess 
 Maria, his mistress, whom he here ven- 
 tures to address by her proper name) ; U 
 Filostrato, a romantic poem in ottava riina; 
 JVimfale Fiesolano, in the same measure ; 
 Rime; (most of his sonnets, canzonets, 
 and other amatory poems, he consigned 
 to the flames, after reading tiie Italian 
 poems of Petrarch ; those which remain 
 appear to have been preserved against his 
 will) ; 11 Filocopo, otvero amorosa Fatica, a 
 hunting romance ; LSamorosa Fiammet- 
 ta, a charming tale; L'Urbano (thought
 
 148 
 
 BOCCACCIO BOCHICA. 
 
 by some to be spurious) ; UAiwlo ossia 
 Nimfale d'Jlmeto, a mixed composition, 
 partly in prose, and partly in verse ; 11 
 Corbaccio, ossia Laberinto d'Jlmore, a pun- 
 gent satire against a lady who had of- 
 fended him ; and, finally, Origine, vita e 
 Costumi di Dante Jllighien, a work inter- 
 esting for the characteristic traits which 
 it records ; and his Commento sopra la 
 Commedia di Dante, which, however, is 
 carried no farther than the 17th canto of 
 Dante's Hell. His Latin works are, De 
 Genealogia Deorum, Libri xv; De Mon- 
 tium, Lacuum, Sylvarum,Fluviorum, Stag- 
 norum et Marium Nominibus Liber ; De 
 Casibus Virorum et Feminarum illustrium, 
 Libri iv ; De claris Midieribus ; and Ec- 
 logcR. A new critical edition of the De- 
 cameron, with a historical literary com- 
 mentary, and the life of B., was published 
 at Paris, 1823, in 5 vols. In the ducal 
 library at Florence, among the manu- 
 scripts collected by the celebrated Mag- 
 liabecchi, prof. Ciampi lately discovered 
 a memorandum-book of B., containing a 
 record of his studies, and some curious 
 circumstances relating to himself and a 
 number of his distinguished contempora- 
 ries. It has been published. 
 
 BOCCAGE, Marie Anne du, a celebrated 
 French poetess, member of the acade- 
 mies of Rome, Bologna, Padua, Lyons 
 and Rouen, was bom in Rouen, 1710, 
 died 1802. She was educated in Paris, 
 in a nunnery, where she discovered a 
 love of poetry. She became the wife of 
 a receiver- of taxes in Dieppe, who died 
 Boon after the marriage, leaving her a 
 youthful widow. She concealed her tal- 
 ents, however, till the charms of youth 
 were past, and first published her pro- 
 ductions in 1746. The first was a poem 
 on the mutual influence of the fine arts and 
 sciences. This gained the prize from the 
 academy of Rouen. She next attempted 
 an imitation of Paradise Lost, in six can- 
 tos ; then, of the Death of Abel ; next, a 
 tragedy, the Amazons ; and a poem in 
 10 cantos, called the Columbiad. Maddme 
 du Boccage was praised by her contem- 
 poraries with an extravagance, for which 
 only her sex and the charms of her per- 
 son can account. Forma Venus, arte 
 Minerva, was the motto of her admirers, 
 among whom were Voltaire, Fontenelle, 
 and Clairaut. She was always surrounded 
 by distinguished men, and extolled in a 
 multitude of poems, which, if collected, 
 would fill several volumes. There is a 
 great deal of entertaining matter in the 
 letters which she wrote on her travels in 
 England and Holland, and in which one 
 
 may plainly see the impression she made 
 upon her contemporaries. Her works 
 have been translated into English, Span- 
 ish, German and Italian. 
 
 BOCCHERINI, Luigi, a celebrated com- 
 poser of instrumental music, was born in 
 1740, at Lucca, and received from the 
 abbot Vanucci, music-master of the arch- 
 bishop, his first instruction in music and 
 on the violoncello. He further improved 
 himself in the art at Rome, and afterwards 
 went, with Filippo Manfredi, his friend 
 and countryman, to Spain, where he was 
 loaded with honors and presents by the 
 king, and was appointed by the academy 
 to furnish nine pieces of his composition 
 annually, which he continued to do till 
 his death, in 1805. The king of Prussia, 
 Frederic William II, who was a great 
 lover of the violoncello, and admired B.'s 
 compositions, settled upon him a consid- 
 erable pension, on condition of his send- 
 ing him yearly some of his quartets and 
 quintets. The compositions which B. 
 has published himself consist of sympho- 
 nies, sextets, quintets, quatuors, trios, du- 
 ets and sonatas for the violin, violoncello 
 and piano-forte. He never composed any 
 thing for the theatre, and of church com- 
 positions we find but one, his Slabat Ma- 
 ter. The adagios of B. excited the admi- 
 ration of the connoisseurs, and the despair 
 of the composers of his time. He may 
 be regarded as the precursor of Haydn, as 
 he was the first who wrote instrumental 
 quartets, of which all the parts are obli- 
 gato, and determined the true character 
 of this species of music. His melodies 
 are more highly esteemed hi France and 
 Spain than in Germany. 
 
 BOCCHETTA ; a narrow pass of the Apen- 
 nines, leading from Lombardy to Genoa. 
 It is defended by three fortifications. In, 
 the Austrian war of succession (1746 and 
 1747), and in the French war, towards 
 the end of the 18th century, it was the 
 scene of several important events. 
 
 BOCHICA was the founder of the Indjan 
 empire of Cundinamarca. The inhabit- 
 ants of the valley of Bogota had a tradi- 
 tion, at the period of the Spanish con- 
 quest, that, in remote times, their ancestors, 
 the Muisca Indians, lived without agricul- 
 ture, laws or religion. ' At length there 
 appeared among them a venerable old 
 man, of foreign aspect, dress and manners, 
 who taught them the arts of life, and re- 
 claimed them from their savage condition. 
 He was known by three names Bochi- 
 ca, Nemqueteba and Zuhe. Accompany- 
 ing him was a beautiful female, named 
 Chia, who, unlike the wife of Manco Ca-
 
 BOCHICA BODIN. 
 
 149 
 
 pac, prided herself in thwarting her hus- 
 band's beneficent purposes. Making the 
 river of Bogota, to overflow by magic, she 
 deluged the whole valley, and reduced 
 the inhabitants to the necessity of fleeing 
 to the mountains for safety. Hereupon 
 Bochica expelled the malevolent Chia 
 from the earth, and she became the moon. 
 Then, tearing asunder the rocks of Te- 
 quendama, lie gave the waters an exit by 
 these celebrated falls, and freed the valley 
 of Bogota from inundation. Introducing 
 the worship of the sun, and persuading the 
 inhabitants to cultivate the soil, he laid the 
 foundations of a state, which held the same 
 rank, in this part of America, which Peru 
 did farther to the south. The institutions 
 of this people very strikingly resembled 
 those of the incas, and perhaps had a 
 common origin ; but, at the time of the 
 conquest of South America, they consti- 
 tuted a distinct people, and possessed a dis- 
 tinct religion. (See Bogota, Cundinamarca, 
 Muisca ; Compaguoni, America, xix, 107). 
 BOCKH, Augustus, one of the greatest 
 philologists of our times, was born at 
 Carlsruhe, 1785, studied at Halle, and, in 
 1611, became professor of classical litera- 
 ture at Berlin. Two works will immor- 
 talize the name of B. with the students 
 of ancient literature ; first, his edition of 
 Pindar, which he announced to the pub- 
 lic by his Specimen Emendationum in Pin- 
 dari~Carmina (18W], and by Obsemationes 
 Criticce in Pindari, Prim., Olymp., Carm, 
 (1811; the large Leipsic edition, 1811 
 1821, is in 3 vols., 4to.). A new arrange- 
 ment of the Pindaric measures is here 
 proposed, founded on deep and extensive 
 researches into the music of the Greeks. 
 Even those who entirely reject the hy- 
 potheses of this philologist cannot but 
 acknowledge his erudition, and admire 
 his acuteness. The other work, to which 
 we have alluded, is on the Political Econ- 
 omy of the Athenians (4 books, Berlin, 
 1817, 2 vols.). No work has hitherto 
 appeared in Germany, which throws so 
 much light on the political life and public 
 administration of any ancient people, as 
 this of B. It has furnished new means 
 for illustrating the Attic orators and histo- 
 rians. B. has added to this work 21 in- 
 scriptions. Of late years, he has been 
 busily engaged hi preparing a work under 
 the patronage of the Berlin academy of 
 science, of which he is a member, called 
 Coi-pus Inscriptionum Gracaram, of which 
 the first volume appeared, in 1825, at Ber- 
 lin, in folio. The smaller writings of this 
 author relate chiefly to Plato (of whose 
 works he promised, some time .since, to 
 13* 
 
 give a new edition), and to the Platonic 
 philosophers. 
 
 BODE, John Elert, an astronomer, born 
 at Hamburg, 1747, early discovered an 
 inclination for mathematical science, in 
 which his father, and, afterwards, the 
 famous J. G. Busch, instructed him. He 
 gave the first public proof of his knowl- 
 edge by a short work on the solar eclipse 
 of Aug. 5, 1766. The approbation which 
 this received encouraged him to greater 
 labors, and in 1768 appeared his Intro- 
 duction to the Knowledge of the Starry 
 Heavens (9th ed. 1822) ; a familiar trea- 
 tise on astronomy, which has done much 
 for the extension of correct views upon 
 the subject, and continues to do so, as it 
 has kept pace, in its successive editions, 
 with the progress of the science. In 
 1772, the Berlin academy chose him their 
 jistronomer, and, ten years afterwards, he 
 was made a member of that institution. 
 His best works are his Astronomical Al- 
 manac (commencing 1774) a work indis- 
 pensable to every astronomer ; and his 
 large Celestial Atlas (Himmelsatlas), in 
 20 sheets, in which the industrious editor 
 has given a catalogue of 17,240 stars 
 (12,000 more than in any former charts). 
 ]>. was released in 1825, at his own wish, 
 from his duties in the academy of science, 
 and the observatory in Berlin. His place 
 was filled by professor Encke, formerly 
 astronomer at Gotha. 
 
 BODIN, Jean, a political writer of the 
 16th century, was born in 1530 or 1529, 
 at AngerS ; studied law at Toulouse ; de- 
 livered lectures on jurisprudence there, 
 and afterwards, went to Paris and practis- 
 ed. Being unsuccessful in his profession, 
 he turned his talents to literary labors 5 
 was invited by Henry III to his court ; 
 and afterwards travelled with the king's 
 brother Francis, duke of Alencon and 
 Anjou, to Flanders and England, where 
 he had the gratification of hearing lec- 
 tures, in Cambridge, on his work De la 
 Rtpublique (originally written in French, 
 but afterwards translated, by B. himself, 
 into Latin). When the duke died, he" 
 went to Laon, married there, obtained s, 
 judicial office, and was sent, by the third 
 estate in Verrnandois, 1576, as deputy, to 
 the estates of Blois. Here he defended 
 the rights of the people, and the liberty of 
 conscience. His conduct made him many 
 enemies at court. He also prevailed on 
 the city of Laon to declare itself for the 
 league, in 1589, representing to the people, 
 that the rising of so many towns and par- 
 liaments, in favor of the duke of Guise, 
 was not a rebellion, but rather a powerful
 
 150 
 
 BODIN BODONI. 
 
 political revolution. He afterwards, how- 
 ever, submitted to Henry IV. He died, 
 1596, at Laon, of the plague. His great 
 work is that entitled De la Republique, in 
 which he gave the first complete essay 
 towards a scientific treatise on polit'cs, 
 and, guided by his own experience, sought 
 to strike out a middle course between the 
 advocates of monarchy and democracy. 
 His DenMnomanie, and his Tkeatrum Uni- 
 verses Naturae (Lyons, 1596), show how 
 superstition and learning were united in 
 his character; but the charge of atheism, 
 which is grounded particularly on a work 
 entitled Heptaplomeron, proceeds from the 
 religious indifference which was noticed 
 in him by his contemporaries. 
 
 BODLEIAN LIBRARY. (See Libraries.) 
 BODLEY, sir Thomas ; the founder of 
 the Bodleian library at Oxford. He was 
 born at Exeter, in 1544, and educated 
 partly at Geneva, whither his parents, who 
 were Protestants, had retired in the reign 
 of queen Mary. On the accession of 
 Elizabeth, they returned home, and he 
 completed his studies at Magdalen col- 
 lege, Oxford. He afterwards became a 
 fellow of Merton college, and read lectures 
 on the Greek language and philosophy. 
 He went to the continent in 1576, and 
 spent four years in travelling. He was 
 afterwards employed in various embassies 
 to Denmark, Germany, France and Hol- 
 land. In 1597, he returned home, and 
 dedicated the remainder of his life to the 
 reestablishment and augmentation of the 
 public library at Oxford. This he accom- 
 plished, procuring books and manuscripts 
 himself, both at home and abroad, at a 
 great expense, and, by his influence and 
 persuasions, inducing his friends and ac- 
 quaintance to assist in his undertaking. 
 Sir Robert Cotton, sir Henry Savile, and 
 Thomas Allen, the mathematician, were 
 among the principal contributors on this 
 occasion. The library was so much aug- 
 mented, that sir Thomas B., who was 
 knighted at the accession of James I, was 
 induced to erect an additional structure 
 for the reception of the increasing quan- 
 tity of valuable books and manuscripts. 
 He died in London, 1612, and was interred 
 in die chapel of Merton college, in the 
 university. He bequeathed nearly the 
 whole of his property to the support and 
 augmentation of the library, which has 
 been so much enriched by subsequent 
 benefactions, that it is, at present, one of 
 the most magnificent institutions of the 
 kind in Europe. (See Reliquiae Bodlei- 
 ance, London, 1703.) 
 
 BOOMER, John Jacob; a celebrated Ger- 
 
 man poet and scholar, born at Greifensee, 
 near Zurich, July 19, 1698. Although 
 he produced nothing remarkable of his 
 own in poetry, he helped to open the way 
 for the new German literature in this de- 
 partment. He was the antagonist of Gott- 
 sched, in Leipsic, who aspired to be the 
 literary dictator of the day, and had em- 
 braced the French theory of taste, while 
 B. inclined to the English. He has the 
 honor of having had Klopstock and Wie- 
 larid among his scholars. B. was, for a 
 long time, professor of history in Switzer- 
 land. He was a copious and indefatigable 
 writer, entertained many incorrect views, 
 but was of service, as we have already 
 said, to the German literature, which was 
 then in a low and barbarous state. He 
 died at Zurich, 1783. 
 
 BODO>"I, Giambatista, superintendent of 
 the royal press at Parma, chief printer of 
 his Catholic majesty, member of several 
 academies of Italy, knight of several high 
 orders, was born, 1740, at Saluzzo, in 
 Piedmont, where his father owned a 
 printing establishment. He began, while 
 yet a boy, to employ himself in engraving 
 on wood. His labors meeting with suc- 
 cess, he went, in 1758, to Rome, and was 
 made compositor for the press of the 
 Propaganda,. By the advice of the -su- 
 perintendent, he made himself acquainted 
 with the Oriental languages, in order to 
 qualify himself for the kind of printing 
 required in them. He thereby enabled 
 himself to be of great service to this press 
 by restoring and putting in place the 
 types of several Oriental alphabets, which 
 had fallen into disorder. The infant don 
 Ferdinand, about 1766, had, with a view 
 of diffusing knowledge, established a print- 
 ing-house in Parma, after the model of 
 those in Paris, Madrid and Turin. B. was 
 placed at the head of this establishment, 
 which he made the first of the kind in 
 Europe, and gained the reputation of 
 having far surpassed all the splendid and 
 beautiful productions of his predecessors 
 in the art. The beauty of his type, ink 
 and paper, as well as the whole manage- 
 ment of the technical part of the work, 
 leaves nothing for us to wish ; but the 
 intrinsic value of his editions is seldom 
 equal to their outward splendor. His 
 Homer is a truly admirable and magnifi- 
 cent work ; indeed, his Greek letters are 
 the most perfect imitations that have been 
 attempted, in modern times, of Greek 
 manuscript. His splendid editions of 
 Greek, Latin, Italian and French classics 
 are highly prized. He died at Padua, 
 Nov. 29, 1813.
 
 BOEHME BCEOTIA. 
 
 151 
 
 BOECE. (See Boethius.) 
 
 BOEHME, or BOEHM, Jacob ; one of the 
 most renowned mystics of modern times; 
 born, in 1575, at Altseidenberg, a village 
 in Upper Lusatia, near Gorlitz ; was the 
 son of poor peasants; remained to his 
 10th year without instruction, and era- 
 ployed in tending cattle. The beautiful 
 and sublime objects of nature kindled his 
 imagination, and inspired him with a 
 profound piety. Raised by contempla- 
 tion above his circumstances, and undis- 
 turbed by exterior influences, a strong 
 sense of the spiritual, particularly of the 
 mysterious, was awakened in him, and 
 he saw in all the workings of nature 
 upon his mind a revelation of God, and 
 even imagined himself favored by divine 
 inspirations. The education which he 
 received at school, though very imper- 
 fect, consisting only of writing, spelling 
 and reading the Bible, supplied new food 
 for the excited mind of the boy. He be- 
 came afterwards a shoemaker; and this 
 sedentary life seems to have strengthened 
 his contemplative habits. He was much 
 interested in the disputes which prevailed 
 on the subject of Cryptocalvinism in 
 Saxony ; though he never took a personal 
 part in sectarian controversies, and knew 
 no higher delight than to elevate himself, 
 undisturbed, to the contemplation of the 
 infinite. B. withdrew himself more and 
 more from the world. If AVC take into 
 view his retirement, his piety, his rich 
 and lively imagination, his imperfect ed- 
 ucation, his philosophical desire for truth, 
 together with his abundance of ideas, and 
 his delusion in considering many of those 
 ideas as immediate communications of 
 the Deity, we have the sources of his 
 doctrine and his works. His writings 
 are very unequal, but always display a 
 profound feeling, and must be judged 
 with indulgence for the causes just men- 
 tioned. In 1594, B. became a master 
 shoemaker in Gorlitz, married, and con- 
 tinued a shoemaker during his life. Sev- 
 eral visions and raptures, that is, moments 
 of strong enthusiasm, led him to take the 
 pen. His first work appeared in 1616, 
 and was called Aurora. It contains his 
 revelations on God, man and nature. 
 This gave rise to a prosecution against 
 him ; but he was acquitted, and called 
 upon, from all sides, to continue writing. 
 He did not, however, resume his pen 
 until 1619. One of his most important 
 works is, Description of the three Princi- 
 ples of the Divine Being. His works 
 contain, profound and lofty ideas, min- 
 gled Avith many absurd and confused no- 
 
 tions. He died, after several prosecutions 
 and acquittals, in 1624. Abraham von 
 Frankenberg (who died in 1652), his bi- 
 ographer and admirer, has also published 
 and explained his writings. The first col- 
 lection of them was made in Holland, in 
 1675, by Henry Betke ; a more complete 
 one, in 1662, by Gichtel (10 vols., Amster- 
 dam); from whom the followers of B., a 
 religious sect highly valued for their si- 
 lent, virtuous and benevolent life, have 
 received the name Gichtelians. Another 
 edition appeared in Amsterdam, in 1730, 
 under the title Theologia revdata, 2 vols. 
 4to. ; the most complete, in 6 vols. In 
 England, also, B.'s writings have found 
 many admirers. William Law published 
 an English translation of them, 2 vols., 
 4to. A sect, taking their name from B., 
 was likewise formed in England, and 
 in 1697, Jane Leade, an enthusiastic ad- 
 mirer of his, established a particular soci- 
 ety for the explanation of his writings, 
 under the name of the Philadelphists. It 
 is said that such a society still exists. 
 John Pordage, an English physician, is 
 also well known as a commentator on B. 
 BffioriA ; a country of ancient Greece, 
 bounded N. by Phocis and the country 
 of the Opuntian Locrians ; E. by the 
 Euripus, or strait of Eubcea; S. by Attica 
 and Megaris ; and W. by the Alcyonian 
 sea and Phocis ; but the boundaries were 
 not always the same. In the north, it is 
 mountainous and cold, and the air is 
 pure and healthy, but the soil is less fer- 
 tile than that of the other portion, which, 
 however, is infested by unhealthy vapors. 
 The mountainous part in the north was 
 called, in earlier times, Aonia. Among 
 its mountains are several remarkable in 
 history and mythology : Helicon (now 
 Sagara), the mountain of the Sphinx, the 
 Taumessus, Libethrus and Petrachus. 
 The chief occupation of the inhabitants 
 was agriculture and the raising of cattle. 
 It was first occupied by Pelasgian tribes. 
 In the time of Bceotus (sou of Itonus and 
 grandson of Amphictyon, from whom it 
 is said to have derived its name), these 
 were subject to the Hellenists. It was 
 divided into small states, until Cadmus 
 the Phoenician founded the government 
 of Thebes. In later times, all Greece 
 worshipped the Hercules of Thebes. Af- 
 ter the death of the Theban king Xanthus, 
 most of the cities of B. formed a kind of 
 republic, of which Thebes was the chief 
 city. Epaminondas and Pelopidas raised 
 Thebes, for a short time, to the rank of 
 the most powerful states of Greece. , IB 
 B. are several celebrated ancient battle-f
 
 152 
 
 BCEOTIA BOERHAAVE. 
 
 fields, the former glory of which has been 
 increased by late events, namely, Plataea 
 (now the village Kokla), where Pausanias 
 and Aristides established the liberty of 
 Greece by their victory over the 300,000 
 Persians under Mardonius ; Leuctra (now 
 the village Parapogia), where Epaminon- 
 das checked the ambitious Spartans ; Co- 
 ronea, where the Spartan Agesilaus de- 
 feated the Thebans ; and Chaeronea (now 
 Capranu), where Philip founded the 
 Macedonian greatness on the ruins of 
 Grecian liberty. Near Tanagra, the birth- 
 place of Corinna (q. v.), the best wine 
 was produced; here, also, cocks were 
 bred, of remarkable size, beauty and 
 courage, with which the Grecian cities, 
 passionately fond of cock-fighting, were 
 supplied. Refinement and cultivation of 
 mind never made such progress in B. as 
 in Attica. The Bosotians were vigorous, 
 but slow and heavy. Several Thebans, 
 however, were worthy disciples of Soc- 
 rates, and Epaminondas distinguished 
 himself as much in philosophy as by his 
 military talents. The people were par- 
 ticularly fond of music, and excelled in 
 it They had also some great poets and 
 artists. Hesiod, Pindar, the poetess Co- 
 rinna, and Plutarch, were Boeotians. 
 
 BOERHAAVE, Hermann, one of the most 
 celebrated physicians of the 18th century, 
 was born, Dec. 13< 1668, at.Woorhout, 
 near Leyden, and received from his fa- 
 ther a liberal education. Before he was 
 11 years old, he was well acquainted 
 with Latin and Greek. An obstinate ul- 
 cer on his left thigh, which, for 7 years, 
 resisted all medical remedies, was tire 
 means of directing his thoughts and in- 
 clinations to the study of medicine. In 
 1682, he was sent to Leyden to study 
 theology. Here he gave, at the age of 
 20, the first public proof of his learning 
 and eloquence. He pronounced an aca- 
 demic oration before Gronovius, with 
 whom he studied Greek, Quti probatur, 
 bene inlellectam a Cicerone, et confutatam 
 esse Sententiam Epicuri de summo Bono 
 (Leyden, 1690, 4to.) In this, B. attacked 
 the doctrine of Spinoza with so much 
 talent, that the city rewarded him with a 
 gold medal. In 1689, he received the 
 degree of doctor of philosophy, and main- 
 tained an inaugural dissertation, De Dis- 
 tinctione Mentis a Corpore (Leyden, 1690). 
 He now commenced, at the age of 22, 
 the study of medicine. Drelincourt was 
 his first and only teacher. From him he 
 received only a little instruction ; and it is 
 worthy of notice, that B. learned by his 
 own solitary study a science on which 
 
 he was afterwards to exert so important 
 an influence. He first studied anatomy, 
 but rather in the works then in vogue, of 
 Vesale, Bartholin, &c., than in the dis- 
 secting room. He was present, indeed, 
 at most of the dissections of Nuck, but 
 still the want of a practical study of 
 anatomy is evident in all his writings. 
 The influence which he had in improving 
 anatomy, notwithstanding the defect we 
 have noticed, must be traced to the close 
 connexion of this mechanical science 
 with physiology and medicine. As, in 
 these last, he made use of mechanical 
 illustrations, his example induced the 
 anatomists to apply themselves to an ac- 
 curate study of the forms of the organs, 
 as may be noticed in all the anatomists 
 of that time Santorini> Morgagni, Val- 
 salva, Winslow, Albinus, &c. After this 
 preliminary study, which, in fact, is the 
 groundwork of medical science, B. read 
 all the works, ancient and modern, on 
 medicine, in the order of time, proceed- 
 ing from his contemporaries to Hippocra- 
 tes, with whose superior excellence and 
 correct method he was forcibly struck in 
 this course of reading. He also studied 
 botany and chemistry, and, although still 
 preparing himself for the clerical profes- 
 sion, was made, in 1693, doctor of medi- 
 cine at Harderwick. His dissertation 
 wasZ)e Utilitate explorandorum'Excremen- 
 torum in JEgris, ut Signorum. After his 
 return to Leyden, some doubts being 
 raised as to his orthodoxy, he finally de- 
 termined to follow the profession of med- 
 icine. In 1701, the university of Leyden 
 chose him, on the death of Drelincourt, 
 to deliver lectures on the theory of medi- 
 cine ; on which occasion, he pronounced 
 his dissertation De commtndando Studio 
 Hippocratico. In this, with an enthusi- 
 asm excited by the study of Hippocrates, 
 he demonstrates the correctness of the 
 method pursued by that great man, and 
 establishes its exclusive superiority : it 
 had been well if he himself had never 
 deviated from it. B. now began to devel- 
 ope those great and peculiar excellences, 
 which make him a pattern to all who 
 undertake the office of instruction. Pu- 
 pils crowded from all quarters, to hear 
 him. In 1703, he delivered another dis- 
 sertation, De Usu Ratiocinii mechanici in 
 Medicina, Leydeu, 1703. In this, he be- 
 gan to deviate from the Hippocratic 
 method, and to introduce the first prin- 
 ciples of a defective system, to which his 
 eminent talents gave afterwards exclusive 
 currency. In 1709, the university of 
 Leyden was at length enabled to reward
 
 BOERHAAVE BOETHIUS. 
 
 153 
 
 him for his services, by appointing him 
 professor of medicine and botany in Hot- 
 ton's place. It is remarkable, that, on this 
 occasion, he delivered a dissertation, Qitd 
 repurgatce Medicines facilis asseritur Sim- 
 plicitas, which deserves to be placed by 
 the side of those in which he recom- 
 mends the study of Hippocrates. In this 
 dissertation, he is for carrying back the 
 science to its original simplicity to obser- 
 vation and experience quite contrary to 
 the spirit which guided his own system. 
 The course of instruction, to which B. 
 was now devoted, induced him to pub- 
 lish two works, on which his fame still 
 rests, viz. Institutiones Medicos in Usus 
 annuas Exercitationis domesticos ; and 
 .Iphorismi de cognoscendis et curandis 
 Morbis in Usum Doctrines Medicines. In 
 the former, which is a model of compre- 
 hensive erudition and clear method, he 
 unfolds his system in its full extent : in 
 the latter, he undertakes the classification 
 of diseases, and discourses separately on 
 their causes, nature and treatment. T^ie 
 professorship of botany, which he also 
 filled, contributed no less to his reputa- 
 tion. He rendered essential services to 
 botany by his two catalogues of plants in 
 the garden of Leyden, the number of 
 which he had very much increased. We 
 are indebted to him for the description 
 and delineation of several new plants, 
 and the introduction of some new spe- 
 cies. In 1714, he was made rector of the 
 university, and, at the close of his term of 
 office, delivered an oration, De compa- 
 rando certo in Physicis, one of his best 
 pieces. At the end of this year, he took 
 Bidloo's place in the office of practical 
 instruction, in which he was employed 
 more than 10 years. Anticipating the 
 great advantages of clinical institutions, 
 and wishing to unite practice with theory, 
 he opened an hospital, where he lectured 
 to his pupils twice a week, on the history 
 of the diseases before them, confining 
 himself to the particular phenomena in 
 each case presented to their observation. 
 Busily occupied as he already was, the 
 university conferred on him, at the death 
 of Leniort, the professorship of chemistry, 
 which science he had taught since 1703. 
 On this occasion he delivered his disser- 
 tation De Ckemia suos Errores expur- 
 gante. Although the relations which B. 
 supposes to exist between chemistry and 
 medicine are ill-founded, he deserves 
 credit for rendering the science intelligi- 
 ble and familiar hi his excellent works on 
 this subject. His Elements of Chemistry 
 is, perhaps, liis finest production, and, 
 
 notwithstanding the entire revolution 
 which has taken place in this branch of 
 science, is still highly valuable. His ex- 
 periments are remarkable for their accu- 
 racy. The part which treats of organic 
 bodies is exceedingly good for that pe- 
 riod. So extensive a sphere of action, 
 gained for B. a fame that few learned 
 men have enjoyed. People came from 
 all parts of Europe to ask his advice. 
 His property amounted, at his death, to 
 2,000,000 florins a very extraordinary 
 fortune for a man of his profession in 
 Europe. Peter the Great visited him on 
 his travels, and a Chinese mandarin wrote 
 to him with the address, " To Boerhaave, 
 the celebrated physician in Europe." In 
 1722, an attack of the gout, accompanied 
 with a stroke of the apoplexy, obliged 
 him to remit his active pursuits. New 
 returns of his disorder, in 1727 and 1729, 
 compelled him to resign the professorships 
 of chemistry and botany, which he had 
 held for 20 years. In 1730, he was again 
 appointed rector, and, at the close of his 
 term, delivered a celebrated address, De 
 Honors, Medici Servitute, perhaps the best 
 of all those essays, in which he represents 
 the physician as the servant of nature, 
 whose activity he is to awaken and di- 
 rect. In this he returned, in some meas- 
 ure, to the principles of Hippocrates, 
 from which, indeed, he had never depart- 
 ed far in practice. In 1738, his disorder 
 returned with increased violence, and, 
 after a few months, put an end to his life, 
 at the age of 70. The city erected a 
 monument to him in St. Peter's church, 
 with his favorite motto upon it Simplex 
 sigilluvi veri. 
 
 BOETHIUS, Anicius Manlius Torquatus 
 Severinus, a man celebrated for his vir- 
 tues, services, honors and tragical end, 
 was born about 470 A. D., in Rome or 
 Milan, of a rich, ancient and respectable 
 family ; was educated in Rome, in a man- 
 ner well calculated to develope his ex- 
 traordinary abilities; afterwards went to 
 Athens, which was still the centre of 
 taste and science, and studied philosophy 
 under Proclus and others. Returning to 
 Rome, he was graciously received by 
 Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, then 
 master of Italy, loaded with marks of fa- 
 vor and esteem, and soon raised to the 
 first offices in the empire. He exerted 
 the best influence on the administration 
 of this monarch, so that the dominion of 
 the Goths promoted the welfare and hap- 
 piness of the people who were subject to 
 them. He was long the oracle of his 
 sovereign and the idol of the people.
 
 154 
 
 BOETHIUS BOGOTA. 
 
 The highest honors were thought inade- 
 quate to reward his virtues and services. 
 But Theodoric, as he grew old, became 
 irritable, jealous, and distrustful of those 
 about hiin. The Goths now indulged in 
 all sorts of oppression and extortion, 
 while B. exerted himself in vain to re- 
 strain them. He had already made ma- 
 ny enemies by his strict integrity and 
 vigilant justice. These at last succeeded 
 in prejudicing the king against him, and 
 rendering him suspicious of B. The op- 
 position of B. to their unjust measures 
 was construed into a rebellious temper, 
 and he was even accused of a treasonable 
 correspondence with the court of Con- 
 stantinople. He was arrested, imprisoned 
 and executed, A. D. 524 or 526. While 
 he was at the helm of state, he found rec- 
 reation from his toilsome occupations in 
 the study of the. sciences, and devoted a 
 part of his leisure to the construction of 
 mathematical and musical instruments, 
 some of which he sent to Clothaire, king 
 of France. He was also much given to 
 the study of the old Greek philosophers 
 and mathematicians, and wrote Latin 
 translations of several of them. His most 
 celebrated work is that composed during 
 his imprisonment, On the Consolations of 
 Philosophy. It is written in prose and 
 verse intermixed. The elevation of 
 thought, the nobleness of feeling, the ease 
 and distinctness of style, which it exhib- 
 its, make this composition, short as it is, 
 far superior to any other of the age. 
 (Principal edition, Basil, 1570, folio. A 
 modern one of some value appeared at 
 Glasgow, 1751, 4to.) 
 
 BOETTCHER, John Frederic, the invent- 
 or of the Dresden porcelain, born Feb. 5, 
 1682, at Schleiz, in the Voigtland, hi his 
 15th year went from Magdeburg, where 
 he received his early education, to Berlin, 
 as apprentice of an apothecary. There 
 lie devoted his nights to the art of making 
 gold. His want of sleep rendered him so 
 stupid, during the day, as to draw upon 
 him many reproofs, till, at last, he acquir- 
 ed some consideration by showing little 
 pieces of gold, which he pretended to 
 have made. Oct 1, 1701, he changed, as 
 it is said, in the presence of several wit- 
 nesses, 18 pieces of silver into fine gold. 
 As this was much talked of, the king de- 
 sired to see him, and B., believing he was " 
 to be arrested as an adept (q. v.), fled to 
 Saxony. The king of Saxony gave him 
 large sums of money, which he wasted, still 
 keeping his employer in suspense. His 
 majesty finally became very impatient to 
 see the gold. B., therefore, in 1704, at- 
 
 tempted to escape, but was overtaken, and, 
 with the assistance of one Tschirnhausen, 
 who had discovered a kind of porcelain, in- 
 vented an improved composition of it, with 
 which he hoped to appease the king, who 
 spent immense sums in China ware. In 
 1705, B. invented the Dresden porcelain, 
 which has since become so famous. He 
 made use of a clay found in the vicin- 
 ity of Meissen. The king, upon this, 
 made him a baron of the empire and di- 
 rector of the new manufactory of porce- 
 lain in Meissen, though he was often 
 treated as a prisoner, lest the secret should 
 be betrayed. He was finally removed 
 from his dignity, on account of his im- 
 moral life, and died, March 13, 1719, in 
 the greatest poverty, so that he did not 
 even leave sufficient to pay the expenses 
 of his funeral. 
 
 BOGDANOWITSCH, Hippolyt Federo- 
 witsch, the Russian Anacreon, was born 
 in 1743, at Perewolotschna, in White 
 Russia. His father was a physician. He 
 was designed for an engineer ; went, for 
 the purpose of studying engineering, to 
 Moscow, in 1754, and entered an acad- 
 emy there ; but the sight of a splendid 
 play, and the reading of Lomonossow's 
 poems, turned his inclination to poetry. 
 He wished to become an actor, but the 
 manager of the theatre, Cheraskow, dis- 
 suaded him from his purpose. By his 
 advice, he applied himself to the study 
 of the fine arts, and to learning foreign 
 languages. He gained patrons and friends, 
 and, in 1761, was made inspector in the 
 university of Moscow, and afterwards 
 translator in the department of foreign 
 affairs. In 1762, he travelled with count 
 Beloselsky, as secretary of legation, to 
 Dresden, where he devoted his whole at- 
 tention to the study of the fine arts ana 
 of poetry, till 1768. The beautiful pic- 
 tures in the gallery of that place inspired 
 him to write his Psyche (Duschenka], 
 which appeared in 1775, and fixed Jiis 
 fame on a lasting foundation. After this, 
 he devoted himself to music and poetry, 
 in solitary study at Petersburg, till Cath- 
 arine called him from his retirement 
 He then wrote, on different occasion?, 
 several dramatic and historical pieces. In 
 1788, he was made president of the im- 
 perial archives. In 1795, he took leave 
 of the court, and lived as a private man 
 in Little Russia. Alexander recalled him 
 to Petersburg, where he lived till 1803. 
 He was as remarkable for modesty as for 
 genius, and a man of childlike goodness 
 and vivacity. 
 
 BOGOTA," at the time of the Spanish
 
 BOGOTA BOHEMIA. 
 
 155 
 
 conquest, was the seat of empire of one 
 of the most civilized states of America, 
 that of the Muisca Indians. Owing to 
 the fertility of the great valley of Bogota, 
 which has been thought capable of sus- 
 taining a population of two or three mil- 
 lions, it contained a comparatively dense 
 population of Indians, whose advances in 
 refinement rendered them, in a certain 
 sense, the rivals of the inhabitants of 
 Cuzco. They traced the foundation of 
 their religious and political institutions to 
 Bochica, whose history greatly resembles 
 that of Manco Capac. They were sub- 
 dued by the Spanish general Gonzalo 
 Ximenez di Quesada. (See Bochica^ 
 Cundinamarca, Muisca; Compagnoni, t. 
 xix; Humboldt; Robinson's Bogota.) 
 
 BOGOTA, or SANTA FE DE BOGOTA ; a 
 city of South America, the capital of the 
 republic of Colombia, and formerly the 
 capital of the vice-royalty of New Grena- 
 da. Lon. 74 15> W. ; lat. 4 3& N. The 
 population has of late been variously 
 stated, from less than 30,000 to 60,000. 
 It is situated in a spacious and luxuriant 
 plain, elevated 8721 feet above the level 
 of the sea, and lies to the east of the prin- 
 cipal chain of the Andes. Two small 
 streams flow through the town, which 
 join the river Funza, or Bogota, at a short 
 distance. The city contains a magnifi- 
 cent cathedral, a university, a mint, an hos- 
 pital, and various other public buildings. 
 The streets are wide and well paved. 
 The city, by reason of its elevation, en- 
 joys the temperature of perpetual spring; 
 the mean heat being 57.74, and the ther- 
 mometer having a range of only a few 
 degrees. The plains around Bogota pro- 
 duce two regular harvests in a year. 
 
 BOGOTA or FU.NZA river. (See Tequen- 
 dama, Cataract of.} 
 
 BOHEMIA, B(EHEIM, BOJENHEIM, has its 
 name from the Boii, a Celtic nation, who 
 settled there about 600 B. C., under their 
 leader Segovesus, a nephew of Ambiga- 
 tus, king of the Bituriges, but were after- 
 wards almost all driven out by the 31ar- 
 cornanni. About the middle of the 4th 
 century, B., then inhabited by German 
 nations, enjoyed a settled and quiet gov- 
 ernment under its dukes, who were, as 
 yet, but little known. In the middle of 
 the 6th century, a numerous army of 
 Sclavonians (Czechoice, Tschechen, as the 
 Bohemians still call themselves), who had 
 hitherto inhabited the shores of the Black 
 Sea, invaded B. (as some say, under the 
 command of one Zecko), conquered the 
 country, and put it under cultivation. 
 According to others, Zecko was entirely 
 
 unconnected with the Sclavonians, and 
 his successors were hard pressed by that 
 people, although his descendants were 
 never quite expelled from the land. The 
 first of them who is known to us by 
 name was Przemislas, a peasant, whom 
 the princess Libussa espoused, 63*2, and 
 raised to the throne. Although Charle- 
 magne and some of his successors com- 
 pelled B. to pay tribute, this subjection 
 did not continue long. In 840, B., Si- 
 lesia and Moravia were free from all for- 
 eign dominion, and governed by their 
 own dukes, although still maintaining a 
 sort of confederacy with the German em- 
 pire. In 1061, Henry IV gave the title 
 of king to the duke of B., which was not, 
 however, generally recognised till the 
 time of Wratislaus, in 1086. Afterwards, 
 about 1230, Philip conferred the royal 
 dignity on Przemislas and his successors. 
 It was confirmed by Frederic II, since 
 whose time B. has remained a kingdom. 
 The male descendants of the old kings 
 ceased with Wenzel V, in 1305, on whose 
 death, John of Luxemburg obtained the 
 crown by marriage, in 1310, and left it to 
 his descendants. After this, Charles IV 
 (of the house of Luxemburg, under the 
 name of Charles /, who very much im- 
 proved the kingdom), and his sons, Wen- 
 zeslaus and Sigismund (the latter near- 
 ly lost B. in the religious war with the 
 Hussites), united the crown of B. to that 
 of the German empire. After Sigis- 
 mund's death, 1437, B. came into the pos- 
 session of his son-in-law, Albert of Aus- 
 triaj who died in 1439, and the crown 
 descended to his son Ladislaus, born after 
 his death, 1440 (hence surnamed Posthu- 
 mu-s), who being at the same time king of 
 Hungary, B. was separated again from 
 the German states. After his death, 1457, 
 the people chose George von Podiebrad, 
 who had been regent, for their king, in 
 1458, and, in 1469, when he was excom- 
 municated by the pope, they elected the 
 Polish prince Wladislaus, who, however, 
 did not come into possession of the throne 
 till the death of George, in 1471. He 
 was succeeded, 1516, after a reign of 45 
 years, by his son Louis. These were 
 both also kings of Hungary. Lewis be- 
 ing killed in a battle with the Turks near 
 Mohatz, in 1526, B. fell to the house of 
 Austria. The brother-in-law of Louis, 
 Maximilian's second grandson, the arch- 
 duke Ferdinand, succeeded to the crown. 
 This prince desired the Bohemians to 
 take up arms in the Smalkaldic war 
 against the elector of Saxony ; but, find- 
 ing them averse to his wishes, and threat-
 
 156 
 
 BOHEMIA. 
 
 ening to rebel against him, he conducted 
 towards them with great harshness, after 
 the victory of Charles V, at Muhlberg, 
 and declared B. an absolute monarchy. 
 He was succeeded by his son Maximilian 
 (1564), and he by his sons Rodolph (1576), 
 and Matthias (1612). Towards the close 
 of the reign of the latter prince, in conse- 
 quence of the infringements upon the re- 
 ligious liberty of the Protestants, troubles 
 arose, which threatened the house of 
 Austria with the loss of B. In 1619, the 
 people invited Frederic V, elector of the 
 Palatinate, to the throne, to the exclusion 
 of Ferdinand II, who had been already 
 crowned king during the life-time of his 
 cousin Matthias. .But, when the victoiy 
 at Prague, Nov. 9, 1620, had decided the 
 war in favor of the emperor, those who 
 had joined in the rebellion were most rig- 
 orously dealt with : 27 of them were ex- 
 ecuted, 16 banished or imprisoned for life, 
 and their goods confiscated. The sen- 
 tence of confiscation was also extended 
 to those who had already died, and to 29 
 who had escaped, as well as to 728 
 wealthy lords and knights, who had vol- 
 untarily acknowledged their offence. 
 The Protestant religion, which was held 
 by three fourths of the people, was rooted 
 out ; Rodolph's imperial edict was revok- 
 ed (1627), and B. reduced to an absolute 
 and hereditary monarchy, and the Roman 
 Catholic faith established to the entire 
 exclusion of all others. From this time 
 B. continually declined^ History hardly 
 furnishes a parallel instance of such a 
 complete triumph of mere brute force 
 over the spirit of a pedple. The house of 
 Hapsbnrg has to answer for this violation 
 of human rights. More than 30,000 fam- 
 ilies (185 of which were of the rank of 
 lords and knights), all the Protestant min- 
 isters and teachers, a multitude of artists, 
 tradesmen and mechanics, who refused 
 to become Catholics, emigrated to Saxo- 
 ny, Brandenburg, Holland, Switzerland, 
 &c. In the mountain and forest villages, 
 however, out of the way of the Jesuits 
 and soldiers, many secret Protestants still 
 remained. Since that period, the Bohe- 
 mian language has been disused in public 
 transactions. In the 30 years' war, B. 
 was entirely desolated ; it lost the best 
 of its strength and wealth. When Fer- 
 dinand II died, in 1637, there remain- 
 ed of the 732 towns, 34,700 villages, and 
 3,000,000 of inhabitants, which B. con- 
 tained in 1617, only 130 towns, a little 
 more than 6000 villages, and 780,000 in- 
 habitants! After the death of Charles 
 VI (1740), Charles Albert, elector of Ba- 
 
 varia, laid claim to the crown, and the 
 oatli of allegiance was taken to him in 
 Prague ; but Maria Theresa succeeded in 
 obtaining possession of B., which has 
 remained ever since one of the richest 
 jewels in the Austrian diadem. The 
 kingdom of Bohemia is bounded on the 
 west by Bavaria, on the east by Moravia 
 and Silesia, on the north by Lusatia and 
 Misnia, and on the south by Austria and 
 Bavaria. It contains 20,200 square miles, 
 and over 3,380,000 inhabitants (of whom 
 2,170,000 are Czechs, and more than 
 50,000 Jews), in 286 large towns (stadte), 
 275 market-towns, and 11,924 villages. 
 The prevailing religion is the Roman 
 Catholic ; other sects, however, are toler- 
 ated. The language of the country is 
 Bohemian, a dialect of the Sclavonic : in 
 some districts, and in most of the cities, 
 German is spoken. B. i& surrounded on 
 all sides by mountains, is covered with 
 large forests, and considerable ponds. 
 The number of the latter is reckoned at 
 20,000. Its plains are remarkably fertile. 
 The largest rivers are the Elbe and the 
 Moldau. All sorts of grain, flax, hops 
 (the best in Europe) and fruits are ex- 
 ported. Wine is not abundant, but, in 
 the neighborhood of Melnic, of pretty 
 good quality. The raising of sheep, 
 horses, swine and poultry is carried on to 
 a considerable extent. The mines yield 
 silver (1823, 13,873 marks), copper, excel- 
 lent tin (1800 cwt.), garnets and other pre- 
 cious stones, iron (200,000 cwt.), cobalt, 
 arsenic, uranium and tungsten, antimony, 
 vitriol, alum, calamine, sulphur, and coal 
 in abundance. There are also numerous 
 mineral springs (1 50), but little salt. Man- 
 ufactories of different kinds are establish- 
 ed in all parts of the country. The most 
 important of these are the linen, cambric, 
 lace, thread and veil factories, and others 
 of a similar kind. These, in 1801, yielded 
 goods to the value of more than 20,000,000 
 florins : half of this amount was exported 
 from the country. The woollen manu- 
 factories produced an amount of 10,000,000 
 florins. The woollens have advanced, of 
 late years, both in quantity and quality. 
 The Bohemian glass (there are 78 glass- 
 houses) is the best in Europe, and is car- 
 ried to Spain, America, Russia and the 
 Levant, to the amount of 2,500,000 florins. 
 Besides these, there are 8 mirror factories. 
 At Turnau there are manufactories of 
 composition-stones, porcelain and earthen 
 ware, &c. Of considerable importance, 
 too, is the manufacture of hats of the fin- 
 est sort, of paper, of silk stuffs, polished 
 garnets, musical instruments, and many
 
 BOHEMIA BOHEMIAN BRETHREN. 
 
 157 
 
 other articles. B. contains, besides the 
 city of Prague, 16 circles, governed by 
 officers appointed yearly. The most im- 
 portant places are the cities of Buntzlau, 
 Melnik, Turnau, Reichenberg, Trautenau, 
 Kuttenberg, Budweis, Pilsen, Carlsbad 
 (q. v.), Joachimsthal, Teplitz (q. v.), Eger ; 
 the fortresses of Konigingnitz, Josrph- 
 stadt, Theresienstadt; the manufacturing 
 town of Rumburg; the villages of Ader- 
 bach, Sedlitz, Seidschiitz, Piillna, Konigs- 
 wart, Franzensbrunnen (q. v.), Marien- 
 bad (q. v.), &c. For internal intercourse, 
 there are excellent highways, extending 
 1060 miles ; and, in 1826, a rail-road was 
 laid to connect the Danube with the Mol- 
 dau. The Bohemians of all ranks are 
 distinguished for their public spirit, exert- 
 ing itself in the most noble and useful 
 plans. In 1822, they had 2996 public 
 establishments for education, a university, 
 3 theological academies, 26 gymnasiums, 
 2961 common schools, and a conservatory 
 for music, 6709 teachers, 410,463 pupils ; 
 among diem, 2055 students in the high 
 schools. (See prof. Schnabel's Statistical 
 Account of Bokem ia.) 
 
 BOHEMIAN BRETHREN ; the name of a 
 Christian sect, which arose in Bohemia, 
 about the middle of the 15th century, 
 from the remains of the stricter sort of 
 Hussites, (q. v.) Dissatisfied with the ad- 
 vances towards popery, by which the 
 Calixtines (q. v.) had made themselves 
 the ruling party in Bohemia, they refused 
 to receive the compacts, as they were call- 
 ed, i. e., the articles of agreement between 
 that party and the council at Basil (30th 
 Nov. 1433), and began, about 1457, under 
 the direction of a clergyman, Michael 
 Bradatz, to form themselves into separate 
 parishes, to hold meetings of their own, 
 and to distinguish themselves from the 
 rest of the Hussites by the name of Bro- 
 thers, or Brothers' Union ; but they were 
 often confounded by their opponents with 
 the Waldenses and Picards, and, on ac- 
 count of their seclusion, were called Cav- 
 ern-hunters (Griibenheimer). Amidst the 
 hardships and oppressions which they 
 suffered from the Calixtines and Catho- 
 lics, without making any resistance, their 
 numbers increased so much, through their 
 constancy in their belief and the purity 
 of their morals, that, in 1500, their par- 
 ishes amounted to 200, most of which 
 had chapels belonging to them. The pe- 
 culiarities of their religious belief are seen 
 in their confessions of faith, especially 
 their opinions with regard to the Lord's 
 supper. They rejected the idea of tran- 
 eubstantiatiou, and admitted only a mys- 
 
 VOL. II. 14 
 
 tical spiritual presence of Christ in the 
 eucharist. In other points, they took the 
 Scriptures as the ground of their doctrines 
 throughout, and for this, but more espe- 
 cially for the constitution and discipline 
 of their churches, received the approba- 
 tion of the reformers of the 16th century. 
 This constitution of theirs was framed 
 according to the accounts which remain 
 of the oldest apostolic churches. They 
 aimed to restore the primitive purity of 
 Christianity, by the exclusion of the vi- 
 cious from their communion, and by 
 making three degrees of excommunica- 
 tion, as well as by the careful separation 
 of the sexes, and the distribution of the 
 members of their society into three 
 classes the beginners, the proficients 
 and the perfect. Their strict system 
 of superintendence, extending even to 
 the minute details of domestic life, did 
 much towards promoting this object. To 
 cany on their system, they had a multi- 
 tude of officers, of different degrees : viz. 
 ordaining bishops, seniors and conseniors, 
 presbyters or preachers, deacons, aediles 
 and acolytes, among whom the manage- 
 ment of the ecclesiastical, moral and civil 
 affairs of the community Avas judiciously 
 distributed. Their first bishop received 
 his ordination from a Waldensian bishop, 
 though their churches held no commun- 
 ion with the Waldenses in Bohemia. 
 They were destined, however, to experi- 
 ence a like fate with that oppressed sect. 
 When, in conformity to their principle not 
 to perform military service, they refused 
 to take up arms in the Smalkaldic war 
 against the Protestants, Ferdinand took 
 their churches from them, and, in 1548, 
 1000 of their society retired into Poland 
 and Prussia, where they at first settled in 
 Marienwerder. The agreement which 
 they concluded at Sendomir, 14th April, 
 1570, with the Polish Lutherans and Cal- 
 vinistic churches, and still more the Dis- 
 senters' Peace Act of the Polish conven- 
 tion, 1572, obtained toleration for them in 
 Poland, where they united more closely 
 with the Calvinists under the persecutions 
 of the Swedish Sigismund, and have con- 
 tinued in this connexion to the present 
 day. Their brethren, who remained hi 
 Moravia and Bohemia, recovered a cer- 
 tain degree of liberty under Maximilian 
 II, and had their chief residence at Ful- 
 nek, in Moravia, and hence have been 
 called Moravian Brethren. The issue of 
 the 30 years' war, which terminated so 
 unfortunately for the Protestants, occa- 
 sioned the entire destruction of their 
 churches, and their last bishop, Come-
 
 158 
 
 BOHEMIAN BRETHREN BOHEMIAN LANGUAGE. 
 
 iiius (q. v.), who had rendered important 
 services iii the education of youth, was 
 compelled to fly. From this time, they 
 made frequent emigrations, the most im- 
 portant of which took place in 1722, and 
 occasioned the establishment of the new 
 churches of the Brethren by count Zin- 
 zendorf. (For the history of the old 
 churches of this sect, we refer the reader 
 to Cranzen's History of the Brethren, and 
 to Schulz On the Origin and Constitution 
 of the Evangelical Brethren's Church 
 (Gotha, 1822), a sensible and impartial 
 work.) Although the old Bohemian 
 Brethren must be regarded as now ex- 
 tinct, this society will ever deserve re- 
 membrance, as a quiet guardian of Chris- 
 tian truth and piety, in times just emerging 
 from the barbarity of the middle ages ; as 
 a promoter of pure rnorals, sucli as the 
 reformers of the 16th century were una- 
 ble to establish in their churches ; and as 
 the parent of the esteemed and widely ex- 
 tended association of the United Brethren 
 (q. v.), whose constitution has been mod- 
 elled after theirs. 
 
 BOHEMIAN AND BAVARIAN FOREST. 
 From the Fichtelgebirge, southward, to- 
 wards the confluence of the Hz and the 
 Danube, extends a ridge of mountains, 
 covered with wood, called the Bohemian 
 Forest, in ancient times a part of the Sylva 
 Hercynia, the highest peaks of which are 
 the Arber (4320 feet high), Rachel and 
 others. It separates Bavaria and Bohe- 
 mia. The great abundance of wood has 
 occasioned the establishment of many 
 glass-houses, forges, &c. in this region. 
 The inhabitants have acquired, in their 
 seclusion from the world, many charac- 
 teristic virtues and vices. 
 
 BOHEMIAN LANGUAGE. The Czechish 
 (Bohemian) dialect was the first of the 
 Sclavonic idioms which was cultivated 
 scientifically. This dialect is spoken in 
 Bohemia, Moravia, with slight variations 
 in Austrian Silesia, in half of Hungary, 
 and in Sclavonia. That the Czechish 
 has been widely spread as a dialect of the 
 Sclavonian, is proved, as well by its anti- 
 quity, and its degree of cultivation, as by 
 the size of the countries whose national 
 language it is. We shall consider first 
 the richness of the vocabulary of this lan- 
 guage. This richness consists in the 
 number of inflexions of the syllables 
 at the beginning and end of words. 
 Thus from the single radical word byti 
 (his) there are more than 110 derivatives ; 
 from the radical word dtge se (e read like 
 ea), signifying it happens, there are more 
 than 95, without reckoning the frequent- 
 
 ative verbs, verbal substantives and adjec- 
 tives. By the simple prefixing of the 
 letters s, w, v, z, the verb acquires a dif- 
 ferent signification ; e. g., s-razyti, v-razyti, 
 w-razyti, convey the meanings to beat doum, 
 to beat off, to beat in. Hence this lan- 
 guage has formed, from native roots, all 
 the scientific terms of theology, jurispru- 
 dence and philosophy, and, with every 
 new invention, can be further developed. 
 A proof of its richness is to be found also 
 in the numerous synonymes, as psyce 
 (c read like the Italian ce), kubka, tjsta, the 
 bitch ; hodmost, dustognost, dignity ; hnitg, 
 mrwa, manure ; wes, wesnice, dtdina, the 
 village. If one compares the Bohemian 
 radical words with the analogous terms in 
 other languages, he will be astonished at 
 the number of inflexions and derivations 
 by which the language of the Czech! is 
 distinguished. A great part of the facility 
 with which it receives new forms and ad- 
 ditions rests upon its manifold declensions 
 and its numerous tenses and participles. 
 In this respect, the language of the Bohe- 
 mians excels that of all other modern na- 
 tions, with the exception of the other 
 races of Sclavonic origin. In the variety of 
 declensions, which are terminated almost 
 all with a vowel, are inflected only at the 
 end, and are used without an article (see 
 the Grammar of Negedly, Prague, 1821), 
 the Bohemian equals the precise Latin ; 
 for instance, muzi (viro), zene (femina), (z 
 read like the French ch), &c. The par- 
 ticiples give it a great deal of pliabili ty, as 
 they unite in themselves the advantage 
 of verbs and adjectives, by denoting, as 
 verbal adjectives, at once the quality of 
 the thing and the determination of the 
 time, saving thus the use of the relatives 
 which, who, as, and the prepositions after, 
 since, &c., by which periods become so 
 dragging: hence its conciseness. An- 
 other advantage of the pliability of the 
 Bohemian language is the means which 
 it affords of compounding words ; as, 
 Samowladce, he who rules alone; Hro~ 
 mowladny, the ruler of the thunder, &c. 
 The Bohemian expresses the compound 
 words of the Greeks and Germans some- 
 times by a particular form of the adjec- 
 tive, sometimes by particular substantives ; 
 as, kostnic, the charnel-house ; chmelnice, 
 the hop-yard; duha, the rainbow. An- 
 other peculiarity is the great variety of 
 diminutives, by which not only small, but 
 agreeable and dear objects are designat- 
 ed ; as, panacek, the little gentleman ; mi- 
 lenka, the much beloved ; panenka, the 
 little maid, and many others: also the 
 ways of expressing concisely the frequent
 
 BOHEMIAN LANGUAGE. 
 
 159 
 
 naming of a thing ; for instance, Frantis- 
 kowati se (s read as sch), to use frequently 
 the name Francis ; macechowati se, to use 
 frequently the name step-mother. It pos- 
 sesses also the patronymic nouns ; for in- 
 stance, kraloicec, the king's son. It indi- 
 cates concisely that an action is complet- 
 ed ; as, dopsati, to write to an end. It 
 contains the inceptive verbs ; for example, 
 hrbatjm, I am becoming hunch-backed ; 
 and many others. Secondly, the Bohe- 
 mian language has much expressiveness 
 and energy, as it is not weakened by a 
 number of articles, auxiliary words, con- 
 junctions and words of transition, but is 
 able to represent the objects of imagina- 
 tion, of passion, and all the higher emo- 
 tions of the poet and orator, in a quick, 
 vigorous and lively manner, by its brev- 
 ity, heaping together the most significant 
 Avords, and arranging the connexion of 
 the parts of speech according to the de- 
 gree of feeling to be expressed, so as to 
 give the style spirit and energy, or gentle- 
 ness and equability. The Bohemian des- 
 ignates many objects by the imitation of 
 natural sounds. Thus the names of many 
 animals are taken from their voices ; as, 
 kruta, the turkey ; kachna, the duck. 
 Many plants he names from their effects ; 
 as, bolchlaw] hemlock (from head-ache). 
 The conciseness of the language is in- 
 creased by the absence of auxiliaries in 
 the greater part of the verbs ; as, dam, I 
 shall give. The preterites, in the third 
 person, singular and plural, express a 
 meaning still further condensed, as the 
 variation in the last syllable is made to 
 designate the sex ; for example, psal, 
 psala, psalo, he, she, it has written ; 
 psali, psaly, psala, they have written ; 
 narozen, narozena, narozeno, he, she, it 
 has been born. Thus the absence of the 
 personal pronouns in the verbs, of the ar- 
 ticle in the substantives, and the use of 
 many participles and participial forms, give 
 to this language the expressiveness and 
 j tower of the Latin. In like manner, the 
 Bohemian saves many prepositions and 
 much circumlocution of other kinds, by 
 the use of the instrumental, agreeing 
 Avith the Latin ablative ; for instance, 
 secenjm mece hlawu mu sf al (t read like 
 te), with a blow of the sword he has cut 
 off his head. This language is, therefore, 
 very well fitted for the translation of the 
 Latin classics. By the use of the part, 
 prcet. adivi, the Bohemian can designate, 
 as well as the Greek, who has really per- 
 formed the action contained in the predi- 
 cate of the accessary clause, which the 
 Latin, with his ablative absolute, or 
 
 participle passive, must leaA r e ahvays 
 undefined and dubious ; for instance, 
 
 Htv&apos HafftK^ea aitodtit;as tmrpoTioi/ Kit TUV 
 TTutooj Km TWV yptjfjLUTtov afrrjpEV us V^c\o^ovi'tjcoi' ,' 
 
 Pindarus vstanoiviw Pasikleaza porucnjka 
 syna sweho a geho gmenj, tdhl do Pelopon- 
 nesu ; Pindarus constitute Pasicle turn 
 filii turn bonorum tutore, in Peloponnesum 
 abiit. This contributes to the perspicuity 
 and precision of the Bohemian language. 
 Every notion, moreover, is expressed by a 
 peculiar word ; for example, the verbs zjti, 
 strjhati, krugeti, rezati, denote to cut with 
 the scissors, with the sickle, with the 
 knife, and Avith the sithe ; while most lan- 
 guages use one verb, to cut, in all these 
 cases. In the subtilty of grammatical 
 structure, the Bohemian is like the Greek, 
 and has the advantage over the Latin and 
 other languages. In speaking of two 
 hand.'?, two eyes, &c., the dual number is 
 used ; e. g., ruce, oci, &c. The language 
 is also capable of expressing the idea of 
 duration referring to an indefinite past 
 time, like the Greek aorist ; for instance, 
 kupowal dum, ale nekaupil ho, Avhich we 
 have no means of rendering precisely, for 
 kupowati means to buy, nndkaupiti means 
 also to buy : accordingly the phrase Avould 
 be, literally, he bought the house, and 
 bought it not, Avhich Avould be a contra- 
 diction: he was about to buy the house, 
 but did not buy it, would be also an in- 
 correct expression of this idea, for the 
 action Avas already going on he was al- 
 ready buying. The language affords 
 several preterite tenses, which are dis- 
 tinguished Avith great subtilty ; as, prat, 
 sing. unit, (time which has only past 
 once) kaupil, he has bought once ; plus- 
 quamperf. primum kupowal. he had pur- 
 chased for a long time ; plusquamperf. 
 secundum kupowawal, he had purchased 
 formerly several times ; plusquamperf. 
 tertium kupotcdwdwal, he seldom had 
 purchased in former times ; where, by 
 adding the auxiliary verb byl, a time still 
 longer passed may be expressed, though 
 this is very seldom used ; for instance, 
 byl kupowawal, he had purchased in times 
 long past. Another advantage of the lan- 
 guage consists in the many future tenses 
 by which the Bohemian denotes not only 
 the time, but also the duration, and the 
 more or less frequent repetition of the 
 action ; viz. futurum simplex kaupjm, 
 I shall purchase once ; futurum durativum 
 for instance, budu kupowati, I shall be 
 purchasing for a long time ; fut.frequen- 
 tativurn budu kupoivdivati, I shall pur- 
 chase several times ; and fut. itcrativum 
 budu kupowdwati, I shall be purchasing
 
 160 
 
 BOHEMIAN LANGUAGE BOHEMIAN LITERATURE. 
 
 very often. Not less manifold in sig- 
 nification, and equally subtile in the de- 
 termination of time, are the participles 
 and the participial constructions. The 
 determination of the sex and the number 
 by the final syllable of the participle gives 
 the Czechish language no small prefer- 
 ence above others. The Bohemian can 
 express himself as elegantly and politely, 
 and at the same time as concisely, as the 
 Greek with his optative ; for instance, 
 nechalo toho, she may let it go ; vcinil, let 
 him do it. The small, connective parti- 
 cles of speech, which the Bohemian has, 
 in common with the Greek, must be con- 
 sidered as so many touches and shadings, 
 by which the whole idea and feeling is 
 more distinctly expressed. The Greek 
 AXa iitv, yap, St, re, &c. agree with the 
 Bohemian ele pak, wsak, li, z, f; only the 
 three latter are always affixed to a word. 
 Finally, the free, unrestrained arrange- 
 ment of the words contributes much to 
 perspicuity, as the Bohemian is less fet- 
 tered than any of the other modern lan- 
 guages to a particular construction. By 
 a happy mixture of vowels and conso- 
 nants, and by a combination of the latter 
 favorable for the pronunciation, the lan- 
 guage has also much euphony, though 
 many call it rough on account of the r 
 (read rsh) ; but the sound of entire words, 
 not that of the single letters which com- 
 pose them, determines the roughness or 
 smoothness of their pronunciation ; be- 
 sides, every language, on account of the 
 difference of the feelings which it has to 
 convey, some gentle, others harsh and 
 violent, ought to be able to form some 
 harsh sounds. The terminations of the 
 various declensions and conjugations are 
 mostly vowels, or the smoother conso- 
 nants. In general, the Bohemian has a 
 natural melody, like that of the Greek ; 
 for the tongue stops longer on a syllable 
 containing a long vowel, o, e,y, u, y, than 
 on one containing a short vowel. In the 
 Bohemian alphabet of 42 letters (a num- 
 ber in which it is surpassed only by the 
 Indian, the most copious of known alpha- 
 bets, and the Russian, which comes next 
 to it), there are to be found all the sounds 
 of the other languages. The English 
 sound of ts the Bohemian expresses with 
 c, the English y with g, the sh with ss or 
 s, the Italian ce or ct with c, the French 
 ge and gi with the z, the Italian u with 
 the y, the gn with the n, the English w 
 with the w, particularly at the end of 
 words. Hence his alphabet enables him 
 to write all languages so as to give their 
 .correct pronunciation, and to pronounce 
 
 them easily and well, so as to be consid- 
 ered by Frenchmen, Germans and Ital- 
 ians as their countryman. He never 
 confounds smooth and rough letters ; his 
 singing is easy and graceful, and the Bo- 
 hemian opera pleases, like the Italian, as 
 it suppresses no syllables, but gives a full 
 sound to each word. It is very seldom 
 that combinations of difficult consonants 
 are to be found in the Sclavonic idioms, 
 and these may be softened by the free- 
 dom of construction which the language 
 allows. The euphony of the language is 
 also the reason why the Bohemian takes 
 a rank in music inferior only to that of 
 the Italian. Throughout Europe, Bohe- 
 mian musicians are to be found : the dis- 
 tinguished musicians of Austria are mostly 
 from Bohemia. Taste and feeling for 
 music almost always keep pace with the 
 melody of the language of a nation. 
 
 Bohemian Literature has five periods. 
 The first extends from the mythological 
 times to 1409. It is certain, that, among 
 the Sclavonian tribes, the Czechi were 
 the first who cultivated and fixed their 
 language. (See Sclavonians and Sclavonic 
 Language.} It affords no written docu- 
 ments of remote antiquity, unless we be- 
 lieve the Runic characters to have been 
 in use before the introduction of Chris- 
 tianity. AVe know, however, that the 
 language of that period was similar to the 
 present, from the names of the gods, 
 dukes, rivers, cities, mountains, which 
 have been preserved, such as Perun, 
 Prcemysl, Boriwog, Wltawa, Bila, Praha, 
 Tetin, Krkonuse. The Sclavonian apos- 
 tle Method, and the philosopher Constan- 
 tine, called Cyril, made the Sclavonians 
 in Moravia acquainted with Christianity. 
 From thence it penetrated, under duke 
 Boirwog, to Bohemia, and thus the peo- 
 ple of this country received the Gneco- 
 Sclavonic ritual in the year 845. The 
 same Constantine invented for the sounds 
 of the Sclavonic language the Cyrillic- 
 Sclavonic alphabet Az, Buky, Wiedi, 
 Glagol, Dobro, &c., borrowed mostly from 
 the Greek. In later times, the Glagolitic 
 alphabet sprung up, of which, however, 
 less use was made. When the Latin 
 church supplanted the Greek in Moravia, 
 Bohemia and Pannonia, the Latin alpha- 
 bet came also into use, instead of the 
 Cyrillic. In Bohemia, the Cyrillic char- 
 acter was in use only with the monks of 
 Sazawa, who observed the Sclavonic ritu- 
 al. King Wratislaus, intending to intro- 
 duce it again in other places, and asking 
 the permission of pope Gregory VII, re- 
 ceived a refusal. As the Latins endeav-
 
 BOHEMIAN LITERATURE. 
 
 161 
 
 ored to annihilate all the writings of the 
 old ritual, and the Sclavonic language 
 was, in many cases, obliged to give way 
 to the Latin, Bohemian literature suffered 
 from popery incalculable injury : hence 
 we possess, from the earlier centuries, but 
 a few insignificant remains in the charac- 
 ters above mentioned. In the 10th cen- 
 tury, the Bohemians had a school at Ku- 
 det, in which they learnt Latin. Their 
 most ancient relic is the hymn (Hospodine 
 Pomiluyny) of bishop Adalbert (Wegtech), 
 a native Bohemian, which is sung to the 
 present day, even by the Russians and 
 Poles. Some think it of still greater an- 
 liquity. From the llth century, we have 
 no complete works ; but, in Latin docu- 
 ments, Sclavonic names are frequently 
 found. The 12th and 13th centuries 
 were more fertile. When king Wratislaus 
 issued the summons for the renowned 
 expedition to Milan, all Prague resound- 
 ed with the songs of the valiant young 
 knights ; but none of them has been 
 preserved. Zawis Z. Rozmberka wrote, 
 in 1290, several good poems. The Bo- 
 hemians possess the remains of a collec- 
 tion of lyric-epic national songs, without 
 rhyme, which seem to have been of great 
 merit; but only two sheets of parchment, 
 in duodecimo, and two small strips, have 
 been preserved. Mr. Haiika, keeper of 
 the Bohemian national museum, discov- 
 ered these valuable remaisis in a room in 
 the church at Koniginhof, in a pile of 
 neglected papers. The manuscript ap- 
 pears to have been written in the years 
 1290 and 1310 : some of the poems may 
 be still older : the more is the loss of the 
 greater part of them to be regretted. This 
 whole collection consisted of 3 books, as 
 may be concluded from the inscription of 
 the remaining chapters of the 3d book, 
 which are inscribed 26th, 27th, 28th. 14 
 pocnjs are preserved, which constitute 
 those 3 chapters. (See Rukopi's Kralod- 
 u-orsky wydany od Wctc, Hanky, 1819.) 
 We cannot determine the subject of the 
 first song, Boleslaiv, by the part which 
 lias come down to us ; the second poem, 
 Wihori Dub, calls upon duke Udalrich to 
 drive the Poles from Prague (1003) ; the 
 third, Benes, celebrates the repulse of the 
 Saxons who advanced from Gorlitz ; the 
 fourth relates Jaroslaw Sternberg's victo- 
 ry over the Tartars, near Olmiitz, in 1241 ; 
 and so on. Gothe found these nation- 
 al songs worthy of particular attention. 
 They deserve, perhaps, to be placed by 
 the side of Ossian's poems. A Bohe- 
 mian psalter, and a legend, in rhyme, on 
 the 12 apostles (the latter only a fragment 
 14* 
 
 of 70 verses, at Vienna), have also been 
 preserved ; likewise, the Complaint of a 
 Lover on the Banks of the Muldau (W r el- 
 tawa), in prose ; a fragment of a history 
 of the passion of Jesus, in rhyme ; the 
 hymn Swaty Waclawe ; besides a number 
 of poems, songs, fables and satires, in 
 verses of four feet, also in rhyme. The 
 14th century is more productive. Under 
 the emperor Charles IV, who promoted 
 the cultivation of the Bohemian language, 
 the university of Prague was founded, in 
 1348. In the golden bull, he commanded 
 the sons of the German electors to learn 
 the Bohemian language. Under his son, 
 the emperor Wenceslaus, all decrees were 
 written in Bohemian, which formerly 
 were in Latin. Prague was then not 
 only the most populous city in Germany, 
 but also, on account of its splendid court 
 and the wealth of its citizens, the centre 
 of the arts and sciences. Dalemil Me^ 
 zericky wrote a history of Bohemia in 
 verse ; Ondreg Z. Dube, a collection of 
 Bohemian laws, in 3 vols. ; Warinec Z. 
 Brezowa, a history of the Roman empe- 
 rors, and translated Mandeville's Travels ; 
 Pribik Pulkawa, a Bohemian history ; 
 and Benes Z. Horowic, a history of the 
 empire to the time of Wenzel. This 
 period affords, also, many vocabularies, 
 poems and songs; also a translation of 
 the life of Alexander the Great ; the life 
 of the emperor and king Charles IV ; the 
 description of the heroic feats of Pliehta 
 of Zerotin, and of the battle of Cressy, in 
 1346, and an account of the death of king 
 John, which celebrates his fame and that 
 of the other Bohemian heroes ; a descrip- 
 tion of the tournament in 1315 ; the exT 
 pedition of king John against count Mat^ 
 thias of Trenzcin, &c. With Huss conn 
 ineuced the second period, from 1409 to 
 1500, which elevated the character of the 
 Bohemian language and nation. The 
 assembled fathers at Constance and Bale 
 beheld with astonishment, among the Bo- 
 hemian nobility and citizens, men not 
 only distinguished for their intrepidity, 
 but able, also, to explain with profound 
 learning the word of God. The Bohe- 
 mian nobility of those times not only 
 wielded with a vigorous arm the national 
 weapon of their country in defence of the 
 rights of the nation, but stood, also, in the 
 first rank of scientific cultivation. The 
 prevalence of religious disputes caused 
 the Bible to be generally read and under- 
 stood. ^Eneas Sylvius, then pope, says, 
 Pudeot Italice socerdotes, quos ne semel 
 quidem novam legem constat legisse, apud 
 Taboritas vix mulierculam invenies, qius
 
 162 
 
 BOHEMIAN LITERATURE. 
 
 de J\"ovo Testamento et veteri respondere 
 ncsciat. (Com. in Diet Alph. Reg., sec. 
 ii, 17.) Huss of Hussinetz translated 
 Wickliffe's book Trialogus into the Bo- 
 hemian tongue, and sent it to the laymen 
 as presents. The treatise of the six er- 
 rors he caused to be inscribed, in Bohe- 
 mian, on the walls of the chapel of Beth- 
 lehem. He wrote his- first collection of 
 sermons when at the castle of Kozy 
 (1413), besides an appeal to the pope, a 
 commentary on the ten commandments, 
 an explanation of the twelve articles, two 
 sermons on the Antichrist, the Triple 
 Cord, and several excellent hymns. His 
 letters from the dungeon in Constance to 
 the Bohemians were translated by Lu- 
 ther into Latin, accompanied with a 
 preface, and printed at Wittenberg in 
 1530. He, and Jakobellus and Jerome, 
 improved and distributed the Bohemian 
 Bible, of which several copies have been 
 preserved to our times. How many of 
 his works perished by the hands of the 
 Jesuits is unknown. The cruel execu- 
 tion of the Bohemian martyrs Huss and 
 Jerome, for their faith, was considered 
 by their countrymen as an outrage upon 
 the whole nation, of which they com- 
 plained bitterly ; many satires, also, were 
 written at that time. Of Zisca of Troc- 
 now, one of the greatest generals in his- 
 tory, several letters, and his rules of war, 
 have been preserved. From this period, 
 there have come down to us, also, several 
 war-songs of the Taborites ; as 
 Kdoz gste Bo?) bogotcnjoy a zakona gdio. 
 (Who are 3-011, warriors of God and of his law), &c. 
 Nuz mniskmre poskakvgte, 
 (Well now, ye monks, be chaste), &c. ; 
 
 also some songs of Prague. Martin Lu- 
 pac undertook, with the assistance of 
 some learned men, the labor of translating 
 the whole New Testament, and rendered 
 it, in many places, more correct and 
 plain. The church-service was now 
 performed entirely in the Bohemian lan- 
 guage. The bishop of the Taborites, 
 Nicholas of Pelhrimow, wrote a Bohe- 
 mian and Latin theological tract. Kristan 
 Prachatitzky wrote a book on medicine ; 
 Martin Kabatnik, a Journey to Jerusalem ; 
 P. Prespole, the mining laws of Kutten- 
 l>erg and Iglaw, which have since be- 
 come so famous. Johann Rokycana, H. 
 Litomericky, W. Koranda and others 
 wrote different works on religious sub- 
 jects. P. Chelcicky gave an explanation 
 of the Lessons of the Gospel for every 
 Sunday ; wrote the.Net of Faith (Sit Wjry), 
 a discourse on the 13th chapter of Reve- 
 lation, of the beast and its image ( O Selme 
 
 a Obrazu Gegjm], and an essay on the love 
 of God. The most famous book of his 
 was one in 40 chapters, which he called 
 Kopyla (Last). Many controversial writ- 
 ings of this period might be mentioned. 
 Bohuslaw of Sechtic wrote the work 
 Zrcadlo wscho Krestanstica (Mirror of the 
 whole of Christianity). In this, the differ- 
 ence between the conduct of the apostles 
 and of the Roman bishops is represented 
 by various drawings. Three other draw- 
 ings represent Huss preaching, and at the 
 stake ; besides 16 leaves, upon which the 
 life and the letters of Huss are contained. 
 After two pictures, of which one repre- 
 sents the worship of the Hussites, the 
 other the expedition of the Taborites, 
 comes a satirical letter of Lucifer: an- 
 other plate represents the blind hero Zisca 
 at the head of his army, under which 
 there are quotations from the Taborite 
 war-song, JVeprutel se nelekeyte Na ko- 
 ristech se mzastawiigme (Fear not the 
 foes Stop not for plundering) : besides 
 a dialogue, in which the father tells his 
 son how the cup and the law of God had 
 been introduced into Bohemia. The whole 
 consists of 118 leaves, of which 88 have 
 pictures. Stibor of Cimburg and Towa- 
 cow wrote the very ingenious work on 
 the possessions of the clergy, which he 
 dedicated to king George, "in 1467, and 
 the collection of the rights and privileges 
 of the margraviate of Moravia. Walcow- 
 sky Z. Knezmosta wrote on the vices and 
 hypocrisy of the clergy ; P. Zidek wrote, 
 in 3 vols., the Art of Governing, 1471 
 (Zprawa Kralowska). The first volume 
 treats of the duties of a king with regard 
 to the public welfare ; the second, on his 
 personal behavior ; the third is a general 
 view of history, from the beginning of the 
 world to the time of the author, wherein 
 frequent hints are given, as to what a king 
 should do, and what avoid. William Cor- 
 nelius of Wsehrd wrote nine books on the 
 laws, judiciary offices and the register of 
 lands in Bohemia. King George was the 
 author of an ordinance respecting meas- 
 ures, money, weights, &c. V. Mladieno- 
 wic, who, when notary at Constance, was 
 an eye-witness of the execution of Huss, 
 wrote an account of his life. This used 
 to be read in the Bohemian churches. 
 Procopius continued the rhyming chron- 
 icles of Dalemil. J. Lodkowic related 
 his Journey to the Holy Sepulchre. Sasek 
 of Mezyhor wrote Notes and Travels 
 through Germany, England, France, 
 Spain, Portugal and Italy, of the Bohe- 
 mian baron Loew of Rozmital and Vlatna 
 (whom he accompanied); a contribution
 
 BOHEMIAN LITERATURE. 
 
 163 
 
 to our knowledge of the manners of the 
 loth century, which was published by 
 Jos. Edin. Horky, in a German transla- 
 tion printed at Briinn, 1824. M. Callus, 
 Albjk, Chrislan, Zidek, J. Cerny, J. 
 Blowic and Sindel, wrote on medicine, 
 astrology and agriculture. As early as 
 1447, we have an anonymous work on 
 the grafting of trees. We have also the 
 rhyming legend of the 10,000 knights, a 
 translation of the fables of ^Esop, the 
 council of the beasts and birds, in prose 
 and verse, in 3 vols. (Placj Rada). Each 
 lesson, which flows in rhyme from the 
 mouths of the animals, is preceded by the 
 natural history of the animals and the 
 moral. It was printed three times in the 
 Bohemian language, and published at 
 Cracow in Latin verse, 1521, 4to. There 
 is, likewise, a satire, in 132 verses, on the 
 persecution of the priests of the Tabor- 
 ites ; the Maitraum of Hynek of Podie- 
 brad, the younger son of king George; 
 besides several vocabularies and roman- 
 ces, among which is Tkadlecek, which 
 has been published at Vienna, in a Ger- 
 man translation. Of the Bible, 14 trans- 
 lations have come down to us, besides 10 
 of the New Testament. The oldest, of 
 the year 1400, is in Dresden. The typo- 
 graphic art made a rapid progress in Bo- 
 hemia. The first printed work was the 
 epistle of Huss from Constance, in 1459 ; 
 the second, the Trojan War, in 1468 ; the 
 third, a New Testament, in 1474 ; the 
 whole Bible, in 1488 ; the first almanac, 
 in 1489. The third age, from 1500 to 
 1620, may be called the golden age of 
 the Bohemian language. During those 
 dreadful tumults, in which, not only in 
 this kingdom, but also in the neighboring 
 countries, populous cities became heaps 
 of ashes, and innumerable villages en- 
 tirely disappeared, the peculiar inclination 
 of the nation to investigation, and their 
 predilection for science and art, devel- 
 oped themselves. The cultivation of 
 learning in other countries, with only a 
 few exceptions, the monopoly of the 
 clergy was, in this favoured land, open 
 to the whole nation. All branches of 
 science were elaborated, and brought to 
 an uncommonly high degree of improve- 
 ment for that time. The purpose of this 
 work does not allow us to enumerate all 
 the authors of this age, since, under Ro- 
 dolph II alone, there were more than 150. 
 Gregory Hruby of Geleni translated the 
 work of Petrarch, De Remediis utriusque 
 Fortunes. W. Pisecky translated from the 
 Greek the Exhortation of Isocrates to 
 Demonikos. John Amos Comenius wrote 
 
 54 works, some of which were very ex- 
 cellent. He published liis Janua and ail 
 Orbis Pidus, which were translated, in his 
 lifetime, into 11 languages, have passed 
 through innumerable editions, and are 
 not yet surpassed. In all the north of 
 Europe, Comenius attracted attention by 
 his projects for improving education, 
 which were deliberated upon even by the 
 diet of Sweden and the parliament of Eng- 
 land. The hymns of this and the earlier 
 ages, part of which have been translated 
 by Luther, may serve as standards for all 
 languages. In Prague alone, there were, 
 at this period, 18 printing-presses ; in the 
 country-towns of B. 7, and in Moravia 
 also 7 : many Bohemian books, too, were 
 printed in foreign countries, as in Venice, 
 Nuremberg, Holland, Poland, Dresden, 
 Wittenberg and Leipsic. The fourth pe- 
 riod begins with 1620, and ends with 
 1774. After the battle at the White 
 mountain, the whole Bohemian nation 
 submitted entirely to the conqueror. The 
 population of most of the cities and of 
 whole districts migrated, in order not to 
 be false to their faith. More than 70,000 
 men, and almost the whole of the nobility, 
 all the Protestant clergy, scholars and ar- 
 tists, in general, the most cultivated part 
 of the nation, left then 1 native country. 
 Of these emigrants, the greater part 
 formed the flower of the army of count 
 Mansfeld. Hence the 30 years' war de- 
 populated Bohemia more than any other 
 countiy, since these fugitives endeavored 
 to regain their native country by repeated 
 invasions. Nothing, however, was so dis- 
 advantageous to Bohemian literature as 
 the introduction of monks, who were 
 mostly Italians, Spaniards and Southern 
 Germans, who condemned every Bohe- 
 mian work, as heretical, to the flames, so 
 that individuals boasted of having burnt 
 about 60,000 manuscripts, which they 
 took from the people by force, after 
 searching their houses. Such works as 
 escaped the flames were shut up in 
 monasteries, hi carefully-secured rooms, 
 fastened with iron grates, doors, locks, 
 bolts and chains, and often inscribed with 
 the warning title Hell. Instead of these 
 excellent remains of the classical times 
 of the country, they gave the Bohemians 
 nonsense of all kinds ; accounts of hell 
 and purgatory, the reading of which 
 made many of the populace maniacs ; 
 though even this stuff was, in many 
 cases, burnt, and mostly forbidden. The 
 fugitives established at Amsterdam, Dres- 
 den, Berlin, Breslau and Halle, printing- 
 presses, and sent to their brethren in
 
 164 
 
 BOHEMIAN LITERATURE BOIL. 
 
 Bohemia, Moravia and Hungary, a num- 
 ber of books, mostly new editions. Some 
 Bohemians, who observed the decay of 
 their language, strove to remedy it; as 
 Pesiua Z. Cechorodu ; Joh. Beckowsky, 
 who continued the Bohemian history to 
 1620 ; W. Weseley, who wrote a work 
 on geometry and trigonometry, &c. ; but 
 the decay was too great to admit of being 
 checked ; the nobility had become stran- 
 gers, and the government encouraged 
 only German literature. From this tune, 
 therefore, the Bohemians wrote more in 
 the German language. In the fifth pe- 
 riod, from 1774 to 1826, a new ray of hope 
 shone on Bohemian literature ; when, 
 under the emperor Joseph II, a deputa- 
 tion of secret Bohemian Protestants, trust- 
 ing to his liberal views, made him ac- 
 quainted with the great number of their 
 brethren of the same faith. He perceived 
 the necessity of introducing toleration, 
 and hundreds of thousands of Protestants, 
 in Bohemia and Moravia, came to light : 
 their concealed works were printed anew, 
 their classical language was again ac- 
 knowledged and cultivated. This is done 
 still more under the present government, 
 who perceive the necessity and utility of 
 the Sclavonian language, which, in the 
 Austrian states, is spoken by 14,000,000 
 people, and of which the Bohemian is 
 the written dialect. Under this protec- 
 tion, many men of merit, mindful of 
 the fame of their ancestors, have endeav- 
 ored to cultivate anew all branches of the 
 sciences, and to reach, if possible, their 
 more advanced neighbors. In particular, 
 the members of the Bohemian society of 
 sciences, of the national museum, and of 
 other patriotic societies, above all, count 
 Kollowrath-Liebsteinsky and count Cas- 
 par of Steinberg, deserve to be named 
 with high respect The Bohemian has 
 natural talents for mathematics, as Co- 
 pernicus, Vega, Strnad, Wydra, Littrow, 
 &c., may prove. The corps of Austrian 
 artillery, which are recruited in Bohemia 
 and Moravia, have always contained men 
 distinguished for acquaintance with this 
 science. In philology and music, the 
 Bohemians are likewise eminent. The 
 teacher of Mozart was Kluck, a Bohe- 
 mian. Recently, Adlabert Sedlaczek, 
 canon of a chapter of the Prsemonstra- 
 tenses, has distinguished himself by phys- 
 ical and mathematical compendiums in 
 the Bohemian language. Compare the 
 Vollstandige Bohmische lAteratur of pro- 
 fessor Jungmann (Prague, 1825, 2 
 vols.). 
 BOIARDO, Matteo Maria, count of Scan- 
 
 diano, was born at a seat belonging to his 
 family near Ferrara, in 1434. From 1488 
 to 1494, the period of his death, he was 
 commander of the city and castle of Reg- 
 gio, in the service of his protector, Ercole 
 d'Este, duke of Modena. This accom- 
 plished courtier, scholar and knight was 
 particularly distinguished as a poet. His 
 Orlando Innamorato (Scandiano, 1496} 
 is continued to the 79th canto, but not 
 completed. He immortalized the names 
 of his own peasants, and the charms of the 
 scenery at Scandiano, in the persons of his 
 heroes and his descriptions of the beauties 
 of nature. In language and versification, 
 he has been since surpassed by Ariosto, 
 whom he equalled in invention, grace, and 
 skilful conduct of complicated episodes. 
 Dominichi, Berni and Agostini new 
 modelled and continued the work of B. 
 without improving it. One continuation, 
 only, will never be forgotten the im- 
 mortal Orlando of Ariosto. In some of 
 his works, B. was led, by the spirit of his 
 times, to a close imitation of the ancients; 
 e. g., in his Capitoli ; also, in a comedy 
 borrowed from Lucian's Timon ; and in 
 his Latin eclogues and translations of 
 Herodotus and Apuleius. In his sonnets 
 and canzoni (first printed at Reggio, 1499), 
 he has displayed great talents as a lyric 
 poet. 
 
 BOIL ; to heat a fluid until it bubbles 
 and becomes changed into vapor. If the 
 requisite heat is applied a sufficient time, 
 bubbles continually arise, until the fluid is 
 entirely consumed. A singular circum- 
 stance is to be remarked, that the fluid, 
 in open vessels, when it has once begun 
 to boil, receives no increase of heat, even 
 from the hottest fire. The reason is this, 
 that the additional caloric goes to form 
 steam, and ascends with it into the air. 
 The steam itself, when fonned, may be 
 raised to a much higher degree of temper- 
 ature. During the period of boiling, the 
 surface of the fluid exhibits a violent un- 
 dulating motion, and the stratum of air 
 immediately over it is filled with vapor. 
 The noise which accompanies boiling, 
 arises, without doubt, from the displacing 
 of the steam-bubbles, and varies very 
 much with the nature and situation of 
 the vessel. The vaporization of fluids is, 
 very probably, nothing more than a me- 
 chanical union of caloric with the fluid. 
 The degree of heat at which different 
 fluids boil is very different. Spirits boil 
 at the lowest temperature ; pure water 
 next; at a still higher temperature, the 
 fixed oils. The degree of heat at which 
 a fluid boils is called its boiling point.
 
 BOIL BOIS-LE-DUC. 
 
 1G5 
 
 This is used as one of the fixed points in 
 the graduation of thermometers. This 
 point is uniform only in case of complete 
 boiling, and under a uniform pressure of 
 the atmosphere. The influence of this 
 pressure appears from experiments. In 
 an exhausted receiver, the heat of the 
 human hand is sufficient to make water 
 boil ; while, on the contrary, in Papin's 
 digester, where the confinement prevents 
 evaporation, it may be heated to 300 or 
 400 degrees without boiling. Under the 
 common pressure of the atmosphere, the 
 boiling point of rain-water is 212 Fahren- 
 heit ; that of alcohol, 174 ; that of mer- 
 cury, 660 ; that of ether, 98. From the 
 experiments of prof. Robinson, it appears, 
 that, in a vacuum, all liquids boil about 
 145 lower than in the open air, under a 
 pressure of 30 inches of mercury ; water, 
 therefore, would boil in a vacuum at 67 
 Ether may be made to boil at the com- 
 mon temperature, by merely exhausting 
 the air from the vessel in which it is con- 
 tained. 
 
 BOILEAU, Despreaux Nicholas, born in 
 1636, at Crosne, near Paris, commenced 
 his studies in the college d'Harcourt, and 
 continued them in the college de Beau- 
 vais. Even in his early youth, he read 
 with ardor the great poets of antiquity, 
 and tried his own powers in a tragedy, 
 though with little success. After having 
 completed his academical studies, he en- 
 tered upon the career of the law; but 
 soon left it from disinclination, tried some 
 other pursuits, and resolved, finally, to 
 devote himself entirely to belles-lettres. 
 His first satire, Les adieux a Paris, made 
 known his talents. In 1666, he published 
 seven satires, with an introduction, ad- 
 dressed to the king. They met with ex- 
 traordinary applause ; for no one, be- 
 fore him, had written with such ele- 
 gance of versification. But in this, and 
 in the purity of his language, and the 
 clearness with which he sets forth his 
 luminous principles, consists their chief 
 merit ; novel, profound, original ideas, 
 we should look for in vain, though the 
 pieces are not destitute of graceful touches 
 and delicate strokes. They are unequal 
 in merit. The satires Sur F Equivoque and 
 f>ur rHomme have undeniaule defects. 
 That on Women, which he wrote at a more 
 advanced age, is monotonous, and de- 
 ficient in humor. His epistles, in which 
 he is the successful rival of Horace, are 
 more esteemed at the present day. They 
 display a graceful versification, a natural 
 and sustained style, vigorous and well 
 connected ideas. These 'were followed 
 
 by his Art Poetique, in which he describes, 
 with precision and taste, all the different 
 kinds of poetry (with the exception of the 
 apologue), and lays down rules for them. 
 In regularity of plan, happy transitions, 
 and continual elegance of style, this poem 
 is superior to the Ars Poetica of Horace. 
 It was long regarded, not only in France, 
 but also in foreign countries, as a poetical 
 code, and has every where had a favora- 
 ble influence, as it inculcates purity and 
 regularity, and subjects all the produc- 
 tions of poetical genius to a fixed standard. 
 B.'s censures of Tasso and Quinault, with 
 some other equally unfounded opinions, 
 display a narrowness of spirit. He had 
 many opponents, who accused him of 
 want of fertility, invention and variety. 
 To refute them, he wrote his Luirin, a 
 mock-heroic poem, which is still un- 
 rivalled in the eyes of the French. A 
 music-stand, which had been removed 
 from its place, had occasioned dissensions 
 in a chapter : this is the subject of B.'s 
 poem, in which his art of making petty 
 details interesting deserves as much praise 
 as the other excellences of his poetry al- 
 ready enumerated. In his life, B. was 
 amiable and generous. Louis XIV gave 
 him the place of historiographer, in con- 
 nexion with Racine. As he had attacked 
 the academicians in several of his writ- 
 ings, he was not received into their socie- 
 ty until 1684, and then only by the inter- 
 ference of the king. He died in 1711, 
 of the dropsy. M. de St. Surin has pub- 
 lished (Euvres de Boileau, with a com- 
 mentary, Paris, 1824, 4 vols. The first 
 volume of Daunou's (member of the in- 
 stitute) (Euvres completes de Boileau, with 
 a literary and historical commentary, ap- 
 peared in Paris, 1825. 
 
 BOILER. (See Steam and Steam En- 
 gine.) 
 
 Bois-LE-Duc (the French name for the 
 Dutch Hertogenbosh, also Ln Bosh) ; a 
 fortified city in the province of North 
 Brabant, in the kingdom of the Nether- 
 lands, with 3770 houses and 13,300 in- 
 habitants, at the confhience of the Dom- 
 mel and the Aa, which form, by their 
 junction, the Diest. Lon. 5 iX E. ; lat. 
 51 40 / N. It has many manufactories, 
 and much trade in corn, some salt- 
 works, a lyceum, 10 Catholic churches, 
 4 Calvinistic, 1 Lutheran. Godfrey, duke 
 of Brabant, founded this important mili- 
 tary post in 1184. The fortifications now 
 consist of strong walls and seven bastions, 
 but it owes its security, chiefly, to the fa- 
 cility with which the whole country 
 around can be laid under water (the new
 
 166 
 
 BOIS-LE-DUC BOLEYN. 
 
 canal to Maestricht has 16 sluices). B. is in the university of Paris, in 1809 ; and, 
 defended by several forts and a citadel, in 1812, after the death of Larcher, whom 
 
 The city has four gates, and three en- 
 trances from the water. The cathedral 
 is one of the finest in the Netherlands. 
 
 he succeeded in the institute, principal 
 professor. The king made him a mem- 
 ber of the legion of honor in 1814, and, 
 
 The city suffered much in the religious in 1816, member of the academy of in- 
 
 wars of the 16th century, and fell into the 
 hands of the Dutch in 1629. Sept. 14, 
 1794, the French defeated the English 
 here ; Oct. 9 of the same year, it surren- 
 
 scriptions. Besides valuable contributions 
 to the Journal des Dcbats, to the Jllercure, 
 to the Magazin Encyclopcdique, to the 
 Biographic Universelle, and to the Notices 
 
 ,dered to Pichegru. In January, 1814, it et Extraits (10 vols.), we are indebted to 
 
 Avas taken by the Prussian general Billow. 
 BOISSEREE. A celebrated gallery of 
 pictures is exhibited in Stuttgart, which 
 was collected by the brothers Sulpice 
 and Melchior Boisseree, and John Ber- 
 tram, men who, animated by love of the 
 aits, began, at the time of the destruction 
 of the monasteries, during and after the 
 French revolution, to purchase old pic- 
 tures, and afterwards completed their 
 collection by the addition of many valua- 
 
 him for an edition of the Heroica of Phi- 
 lostratus (1806), and of the Rhetoric of 
 Tiberius (1815). Still more important 
 are his editions of Eunapus' Lives of the 
 Sophists, of Proclus' Commentary on the 
 Cratylus of Plato, never before printed ; 
 of a Greek romance by Nicetas Eugenia- 
 nus, &c. He compiled, also, a French 
 dictionary, on the plan of Johnson's. 
 
 BOJACA, BATTLE OF, so called, from 
 having been fought near the bridge of the 
 
 ble paintings of the old German school, small town of Bojaca, not far from the 
 By this collection, the brothers Boisseree, city of Tunja, between the Spaniards, 
 and Bertram, have happily realized the 
 idea of a historical series of old German 
 paintings. It is to their endeavors that 
 we owe the discovery, that Germany pos- 
 sessed, as early as the 13th century, a 
 
 under Barreyro, and the united forces 
 of Venezuela and New Grenada, com- 
 manded by Bolivar. It occurred August 
 7th, 1819, and was decisive of the inde- 
 pendence of New Grenada. Among^the 
 
 school of painters of much merit, which, republicans, generals Anzuategui, Paez 
 
 1 ;i - . . +1 . ,- T-fnlirt-r* -rtv*r\f*f*c*rlfif\ -AvMYi tVio rlrl on/I >>OTitov rl ot* rliotin miicVio/1 tliomcolxroc " 
 
 like the Italian, proceeded from the old 
 Byzantine school, but became, in the se- 
 
 and Santander distinguished themselves ; 
 and the Spaniards sustained a total de- 
 
 quel, distinguished by excellences of its feat, their general, most of their officers 
 own. We owe to these collectors, also, and men who survived the battle, together 
 
 with all their arms, ammunition and 
 
 the restoration to favor of the forgotten 
 Low German masters, and a just estima- 
 
 equipments, falling into the hands of 
 
 tion of John von Eyck, as the creator of Bolivar. So complete was the destruc- 
 
 the genuine German style of painting. 
 By this collection, the names of von Eyck, 
 Wilhelm von Koln, Hemling, Goes, Mec- 
 kenem, Wohlgemuth, Schoen, Mabuse, 
 Schoorel, and many others, have attained 
 deserved honor. The most distinguished 
 connoisseurs and artists, including Gothe, 
 Cauova, Dannecker and Thorwaldsen, 
 have strongly expressed their admiration 
 of this collection. The proprietors are 
 publishing a work consisting of excellent 
 
 lithographic prints from their pictures, nothing but bole. 
 
 tion of the Spanish army, that the vice- 
 roy instantly fled from Santa Fe, leaving 
 even the public treasure a prey to the 
 conquerors. 
 
 BOLE ; a fossil of a yellow, brown, or red 
 color, often marked with black dendrites ; 
 found in different parts of Bohemia, Si- 
 lesia and Stiria, also in Lemnos, and at 
 Sienna in Italy. It is made into pipes 
 for smoking, and vessels for cooling water 
 in hot weather. The terra sigillata is 
 
 In the autumn of 1820, the publication 
 of the splendid engravings, illustrative of 
 
 BOLEYN, or BOLEN, Anne, second wife 
 of Henry VIII of JEngland^ was the 
 
 the cathedral in Cologne, was resolved youngest child of sir Thomas Boleyn and 
 
 on. The plates surpass, in size and exe- 
 cution, eveiy thing which had appeared 
 in the department of architectural deline- 
 ations, and were partly made in Paris. 
 (See Boisseree's Geschichte und Besckrei- 
 bung des Doms von Koln, Stuttgart, 1823.) 
 BOISSONADE, Jean FranQois, born at 
 Paris, 1774, one of the most distinguished 
 Greek scholars in France, was made as- 
 sistant professor of the Greek language 
 
 a daughter of the duke of Norfolk. She 
 was born, according to some accounts, in 
 1507, but, according to other more prob- 
 able ones, in 1499 or 1500. She attended 
 Mary, sister of Henry, on her marriage 
 with Louis XII, to France, as lady of 
 honor. On the return of that princess, 
 after the king's death, she entered the 
 service of queen Claude, wife of Francis 
 I, and, after her death, that of the duchess
 
 BOLEYN BOLINGBROKE. 
 
 107 
 
 of Alencon, sister of the French king. 
 Young, beautiful, gay and witty, she was 
 an object of great attraction in the gallant 
 court of Francis I. She returned to Eng- 
 land about 1525 or 1527, and became lady 
 of honor to the queen, whom she soon 
 supplanted. The king, passionately enam- 
 ored of her, found an unexpected opposi- 
 tion to his wishes, and Anne firmly de- 
 clared that she could be had on no terms 
 but those of marriage. She knew that 
 the king already meditated a divorce from 
 his wife, Catharine of Aragon ; but she 
 also knew what difficulties the Catholic 
 religion opposed to the execution of this 
 plan. Cranmer offered his services to 
 bring about die accomplishment of the 
 king's wishes, and thus gave the first oc- 
 casion to the separation of England from 
 the Roman church. But the impetuous 
 Hemy did not wait for the ministers of 
 his new religion to confirm his divorce : 
 on the contrary, he privately married 
 Anne, Nov. 14, 1532, having previously 
 created her marchioness of Pembroke. 
 When her pregnancy revealed the secret, 
 Cranmer declared the first marriage void, 
 and the second valid, and Anne was 
 crowned queen at Westminster, with un- 
 paralleled splendor. In 1533, she became 
 the mother of the famous Elizabeth. She 
 could not, however, retain the affections 
 of the king, as inconstant as he was tyran- 
 nical ; and, as she had supplanted her 
 queen, while lady of honor to Catharine, 
 she was now supplanted herself by Jane 
 Seymour, her own lady of honor. Sus- 
 picions of infidelity were added to the 
 disgust of Henry, which seem to be not 
 entirely unfounded, although the judicial 
 process instituted against her was wholly 
 irregular. In 1535, she was imprisoned, 
 accused, and brought before a jury of 
 peers. Smeaton, a musician, who was 
 arrested with others, confessed that he 
 had enjoyed the queen's favors, and, May 
 17, 1536, she was condemned to death by 
 26 judges. Anne in vain affirmed that 
 she had long before been contracted to 
 the duke of Northumberland, and, there- 
 fore, had never been the lawful wife of 
 Henry. Cranmer in vain declared the 
 marriage void. The sentence of death 
 was executed by the command of the in- 
 flexible Henry, who esteemed it a great 
 exercise of clemency to substitute the 
 scaffold for the stake. The last day of 
 the life of this unhappy woman, May 19, 
 1536, presents many interesting moments. 
 She sent for the wife of the lieutenant of 
 the Tower, threw herself upon her knees 
 before her, and said, " Go to the princess 
 
 Mary (daughter of Catharine) in my name, 
 and, in this position, beg her forgiveness 
 for all the sufferings I have drawn upon 
 her and her mother." " She sent her last 
 message to the king," says Hume, " and 
 acknowledged the obligations which she 
 owed him in uniformly continuing his 
 endeavors for her advancement." " From 
 a private gentlewoman, you have made 
 me, first, a marchioness, then a queen; 
 and, as you can raise me no higher in 
 this world, you are now sending me to be 
 a saint in heaven." 
 
 BOLIKGBROKE, Henry St. John, viscount, 
 bom in 1672, at Battersea, near London, 
 of an ancient family, the members of 
 which had distinguished themselves in 
 military and civil offices, received an edu- 
 cation adapted to his rank, and completed 
 his studies at Oxford, where he early ex- 
 hibited uncommon talents, and attracted 
 general attention. On entering the world, 
 he displayed a rare union of brilliant parts 
 and elegance of manners, with beauty of 
 person, dignity and affability, and such 
 fascinating eloquence, that, according to 
 the unanimous testimony of his contem- 
 poraries, nobody could resist him. Unfor- 
 tunately, the passions of his youth oppos- 
 ed the developement of his talents ; and, 
 in his 23d year, he was distinguished prin- 
 cipally as an accomplished libertine. His 
 parents, supposing that marriage would 
 have a salutary influence upon him, pro- 
 posed to him a lady, the heiress of a mil- 
 lion, who united with a charming figure a 
 cultivated mind and noble birth. But the 
 young couple had lived but a short time 
 together, when irreconcilable disputes 
 arose between them, in consequence of 
 which they separated for ever. Another 
 plan was adopted to give a better direction 
 to the impetuous character of B. By the 
 influence of his father, he obtained a seat 
 in the house of commons. Here his elo- 
 quence, his acuteness, and the strength of 
 his judgment, attracted universal attention. 
 His former idleness was changed at once 
 into the most incessant activity. In 1704, 
 he was made secretary of war, and came 
 into immediate connexion with the duke 
 of 3Iarlborough, whose talents he discern- 
 ed, and whose enterprises he supported 
 with all his influence. When, however, 
 the whigs gained the ascendency, B. gave 
 in his resignation. Now followed, as he 
 said himself, the two most active years of 
 his life, in which he devoted himself to 
 study, but by no means neglected public 
 affairs. He continued to maintain a con- 
 stant intercourse with the queen, who 
 preferred him to her other counsellors.
 
 168 
 
 BOLINGBROKE. 
 
 The whig ministry was overthrown, to 
 the astonishment of all Europe ; and B. 
 received the department of foreign affairs, 
 in which post he concluded the peace 
 of Utrecht, of which he was always 
 proud, and which gained him general 
 admiration. In concluding this peace, 
 every tiling was unfavorable to him the 
 whigs, the peers, the bank, the East India 
 society, Maryborough, Eugene, the empe- 
 ror, Holland, the jealousy of all the Euro- 
 pean powers, the weakness of his own 
 queen, the irresolution, imprudence, and 
 even the envy of his colleagues. B. after- 
 wards became a prey to the impetuosity 
 of his passions, and exhibited a versatility 
 of conduct that has rendered his loyalty, 
 his patriotism and his whole character 
 suspected. The collision of the whigs 
 and tories produced such a general excite- 
 ment, that the ministers were attacked, 
 the peace was decried as disastrous, and 
 the Protestant succession was declared in 
 danger. At this moment, a fatal conten- 
 tion broke out between the lord high 
 treasurer (the earl of Oxford) and B., 
 immediately after the conclusion of the 
 peace. Swift, the friend of both, but par- 
 ticularly intimate with the lord high treas- 
 urer, accused B. of having principally 
 contributed to the ruin of their party. Be 
 this as it may, queen Anne, pro voiced to 
 the utmost by Oxford, dismissed him four 
 days before her death, and made B. prime 
 minister. But the death of Anne changed 
 the whole scene. George I of Hanover 
 ascended the throne, and the whigs tri- 
 umphed more completely than ever. B., 
 who could not impose on the Hanoverian 
 court by his plausible pretences, and who 
 was as much envied as he was hated, was 
 dismissed by king George, while yet in 
 Germany, and fled to France, upon learn- 
 ing that the opposite party intended to 
 bring him to the scaffold. James III, the 
 Pretender, as he was called, invited him to 
 Lorraine, and made him his secretary of 
 state. But, when Louis XIV died, B. 
 lost all hope of the success of the Pretend- 
 er, and repented of having entered into so 
 close a connexion with him. Whatever 
 the feelings and plans of B. may have 
 been, his intentions, with regard to James 
 III, were doubtless honest. Nevertheless, 
 the latter deprived him of his dignity, and 
 transferred it to the duke of Ormond. 
 Thus it was the strange fate of B. to be 
 charged with treachery, both by the king 
 and the Pretender. Offers were made to 
 him by king George, on condition of his 
 revealing the secrets of the Pretender. 
 This proposal he at first declined, but 
 
 afterwards yielded so far as to promise a 
 decisive blow against the cause of the 
 Pretender, on condition of the total obliv- 
 ion of what had already passed, and of an 
 entire confidence for the future. AVal- 
 pole, however, was afraid of B.'s influence 
 in parliament, and opposed his recall. B., 
 in order to forget his situation, applied 
 himself to writing philosophical consola- 
 tions after the manner of Seneca, but 
 soon found sweeter ones in his marriage 
 with a rich and amiable lady, niece of 
 madame de Maintenon. In 1723, the par- 
 liament, which had been so hostile to B., 
 was at length dissolved, and he was per- 
 mitted to return to England. His estates, 
 however, were not restored until two 
 years after, by a particular act of parlia- 
 ment. On his return, he lived at first 
 retired in the country, maintaining, how- 
 ever, a correspondence with Swift and 
 Pope. But no sooner was the voice of 
 opposition heard in parliament, than he 
 hastened to London, and, as the restora- 
 tion of his seat hi the house of lords was 
 still denied him, attacked the ministry 
 during eight years, in the journals or in 
 pamphlets, with great success. He drew 
 upon himself powerful enemies, against 
 whom he directed his Treatise on Parties, 
 which is considered as his masterpiece. 
 He then returned to France, with the in- 
 tention, as even Swift supposed, of throw- 
 ing himself into the arms of the Pretend- 
 er's party, against which charge Pope 
 defended* him, and declared that he had 
 himself advised his noble friend to leave 
 an ungrateful country, by which he was 
 suspected and persecuted. In France, B. 
 wrote'; 1735, his Letters upon History, 
 which are admired even at the present 
 day, but in which the individual character 
 of the author appears to the exclusion of 
 general views, and which were blamed, in 
 particular, for attacking revealed religion, 
 which he had once warmly defended. In 
 1729, in the midst of his contest with 
 Walpole, he had suggested to Pope his 
 Essay on Man, assisted him in the com- 
 position, and supplied him with the most 
 important materials. His feelings finally 
 carried him back to his country, where 
 he wrote, 1738, his Idea of a Patriot 
 King, under the eyes of the heir apparent. 
 He died hi 1751, in his 80th year, after a 
 long and dreadful disease, during which 
 he composed Considerations on the State 
 of the Nation. He bequeathed his manu- 
 scripts to the Scotch poet Mallet, who 
 published them in 1753 ; but scarcely had 
 they appeared, when a general cry w r as 
 raised against them, on account of their
 
 BOLIXGBROKE BOLIVAR. 
 
 169 
 
 revolting attacks on Christianity. They 
 were presented by the grand jury of 
 Westminster as subversive of religion, 
 government and morality. B. was capa- 
 ble of inspiring the wannest friendship 
 and the bitterest enmity. He was accus- 
 ed of immoderate ambition, and of a proud, 
 passionate, envious and implacable tem- 
 per. ~ His memoirs are useful, as illustrat- 
 ing English history during the first quar- 
 ter of the 18th century. 
 
 BOLIVAR, Simon, the great military 
 captain of South America, and the most 
 prominent individual yet produced by the 
 revolution in the late Spanish colonies, 
 was born in the city of Caraccas, July 24, 
 1783. His father was don Juan Vicente 
 Bolivar y Ponte, and his mother, dofia. 
 Maria Concepcion Palacios y Sojo, both 
 of noble and distinguished families in 
 Venezuela, After acquiring the first ele- 
 ments of a liberal education at home, B. 
 repaired to Europe, in pursuit of more 
 extended means of gaining knowledge, 
 visiting Havana and Mexico on his way. 
 He completed his studies in Madrid, and 
 then spent some time in travelling, chiefly 
 in the south of Europe. He was particu- 
 larly attracted to the capital of France, 
 where he was an eye-witness of some of 
 the later events of the revolution, and 
 there, probably, conceived the idea of 
 liberating his country from the tyranny 
 of Spain. Returning to Madrid, he mar- 
 ried the daughter of don N. Toro, uncle 
 of the marquis of Toro, in Caraccas, and 
 embarked with her for America, intend- 
 ing to dedicate himself, for a while, to 
 domestic life and the superintendence of 
 his large estate. But the premature and 
 sudden death of his wife, who fell a vic- 
 tim to the yellow fever, dispelled his vis- 
 ions of domestic happiness ; and he again 
 visited Europe as a relief to his sorrow 
 for her loss. On his return home, he 
 passed through the U. States; and the 
 lesson of liberty was not without its fruits ; 
 for, on his arrival in Venezuela, he em- 
 barked in the plans and intrigues of the 
 patriots, and pledged himself to the cause 
 of independence. Being one of the chief 
 promoters of the movement in Caraccas 
 of April 19, 1810, which is considered as 
 the beginning of the revolution, he re- 
 ceived a colonel's commission from the 
 supreme junta then established, and was 
 associated with don Luis Lopez Mendez, 
 for the purpose of communicating intelli- 
 gence of the change of government to 
 Great Britain. He took part in the first 
 military operations of the Venezuelan 
 patriots after the declaration of indepen- 
 
 VOL. H. 15 
 
 dence, July 5, 1811, serving under Mi- 
 randa in an expedition against a body of 
 pei-sons in Valencia, who thus early took 
 a stand opposed to the revolution. After 
 the earthquake of March, 1812, the war was 
 commenced in earnest by the advance of 
 Monteverde with the Spanish troops ; and 
 the command of the important post of 
 Puerto Cabello was intrusted to B. But, 
 unfortunately, the Spanish prisoners in 
 the castle of San Felipe, which com- 
 manded the town, corrupted one of the 
 patriot officers, and obtained possession 
 of the castle ; so that B. was compelled to 
 evacuate the place. This mishap con- 
 tributed greatly to produce the submission 
 of Miranda, which left Venezuela in the 
 full control of Monteverde. Many of 
 those persons, who were deeply commit- 
 ted in the revolution, now sought to leave 
 their country ; and B. succeeded in ob- 
 taining a passport and escaping to Cura- 
 coa. Unable, however, to remain a cold 
 spectator of the events occurring on the 
 continent, he repaired to Carthagena, in 
 September, 1812, and, with other emi- 
 grants from Caraccas, entered into the 
 service of the patriots of New Grenada. 
 They gave him the command in the 
 small town of Baranca, nominally under 
 the orders of Labatut, the republican gov- 
 ernor of Santa Marta ; but B. could not 
 be content with the obscure part which 
 must have fallen to him had he remained 
 at Baranca. Instead of this, he under- 
 took an expedition against Tenerinv, a 
 town higher up on the river Magdalena, 
 occupied by the Spaniards, captured it, 
 and, gathering forces on the wa} r , he- 
 proceeded, on his own responsibility, to 
 Mompox, driving the Spaniards before 
 him from all their posts in the Upper 
 Magdalena, and finally entering the city 
 of OcaHa in triumph, amid the acclama- 
 tions of the inhabitants, whom he deliv- 
 ered. These happy and successful move- 
 ments now turned the public attention 
 tipon him ; and he was invited to march 
 upon Cttcuta, and attempt to expel the 
 Spanish division commanded by Correa. 
 This operation, also, he achieved, without 
 any loss, by the celerity and skill of his 
 movements, and now conceived the 
 great and bold project of invading Vene- 
 zuela with his little army, and delivering 
 it from the powerful forces under 3Ionte- 
 verde. The congress of New Grenada 
 gratified him in this respect, and gave 
 him a commission of brigadier ; but 
 many obstacles were thrown in his way 
 by colonel Manuel Castillo, commandant- 
 general, under the congress, in the prov-
 
 170 
 
 BOLIVAR. 
 
 ince of Pamplona, which led to an irrec- 
 oticilable difference between them. At 
 length, having overcome a multitude of 
 difficulties which retarded his advance, 
 and driven Correa from the valleys of 
 Cucuta, he commenced his march for 
 Venezuela, with a small force of but little 
 more than 500 men, but accompanied by 
 excellent officers, some of whom after- 
 wards acquired great celebrity, such as 
 Rivas, Jirardot, Urdaneta and d'Eluyar. 
 Heedless of the accusations of rashness 
 lavished on his enterprise, B. plunged into 
 the province of Merida. The inhabitants 
 of the provincial capital rose upon the 
 Spaniards on learning the news of his 
 approach. He hastily reestablished the 
 republican authorities there, while his 
 van-guard was proceeding upon Trujillo, 
 under Jirardot. A single engagement 
 took place in Carache, where Jirardot 
 defeated a strong corps of royalists under 
 Cailas, after which the provinces of Me- 
 rida and Trujillo remained wholly free 
 from the Spaniards. B. had detached 
 from his troops a small body under 
 colonel Bricefio for the occupation of 
 Varinas. Briceiio was defeated ; and, 
 falling into the hands of the Spaniards, 
 was shot in cold blood, with 17 of his 
 companions, and many of the patriots of 
 Varinas, by the Spanish commandant 
 Fiscar. Meanwhile, B. obtained authen- 
 tic intelligence of the horrid and shame- 
 less cruelties and oppressions every where 
 perpetrated in Venezuela by Monteverde 
 and his subordinate officers, analogous to 
 the butcheries of Fiscar. Exasperated by 
 the knowledge of these events, he issued 
 the famous decree of guerra a muerte, 
 condemning to death all the Spanish 
 prisoners who might fall into his hands. 
 But he is not of a cruel or sanguinary 
 temper; and this decree seems to have 
 been intended rather to intimidate the 
 royalists than literally to be put in execu- 
 tion. His army increasing daily, he sep- 
 arated it into two divisions, committing 
 one of them to the charge of Rivas, and 
 both rapidly advanced upon Caraccas 
 through the provinces of Trujillo and 
 Varinas. Several engagements ensued, 
 in which the patriots were successful ; 
 and, at length, the decisive victory of 
 Lastoguanes, in which the flower of 
 Monteverde's troops were completely de- 
 feated, left open the road to Caraccas. 
 Mouteverde shut himself up in Puerto 
 Cabello, and B. lost no time in marcliing 
 upon the capital, which was evacuated 
 by the Spaniards without a struggle, and 
 entered in triumph by B., Aug. 4, 1813. 
 
 Meantime, Marino had effected the liber- 
 ation of the eastern provinces of Venezu- 
 ela, of which the patriots had regained 
 entire possession, excepting only the for- 
 tress of Puerto Cabello. At this period, 
 the whole authority in Venezuela centred 
 in B., as the commander of the liberating 
 army, and the oppressions of some of his 
 subordinate officers excited loud com- 
 plaints. Nevertheless, convinced of the 
 necessity of having the resources of the 
 country, at such an emergency, in the 
 hands of a single individual, it was re- 
 solved, in a convention of the principal 
 civil and military officers, assembled at 
 Caraccas, Jan. 2, 1814, to confirm the dic- 
 tatorial powers which circumstances had 
 already thrown upon B. A desperate 
 contest now ensued between the royalist 
 and patriot parties and forces ; and to 
 narrate the part which B. took therein, 
 would be to relate the history of the war. 
 Suffice it to say, that, after various vicis- 
 situdes of fortune, B. was beaten by 
 Boves, in a battle fought in the plains of 
 La Puerta, near Cura, and compelled to 
 embark for Cumana, with the shattered 
 remnant of his forces ; so that Caraccas 
 was retaken by the Spaniards in July, 
 1814, and, before the end of the year, 
 the royalists were again undisputed mas- 
 ters of Venezuela. Once more, therefore, 
 B. appeared in Carthagena as a fugitive, 
 and proceeded to Tunja, where the con- 
 gress of New Grenada was sitting, to give 
 an account of his brilliant, but, in the re- 
 sult, disastrous expedition. Notwithstand- 
 ing his misfortunes, and the efforts of his 
 personal enemies, he was treated with 
 great consideration, and received the ap- 
 plause merited by one who had needed 
 only resources proportionate to his tal- 
 ents to have accomplished the permanent 
 deliverance of his country. When B. 
 arrived at Tunja, the congress was or- 
 ganizing an expedition against the city 
 of Bogota, for the purpose of compelling 
 the province of Cundinamarca to accede 
 to the general union of the provinces of 
 New Grenada, and thus put an end to the 
 collision which divided the means and 
 crippled the exertions of the republicans. 
 Every conciliatory measure having failed 
 to effect a union of the provinces, the 
 government had recourse to arms. B. 
 was intrusted with the delicate task of 
 commanding the forces of the union upon 
 this occasion, and marched against Santa 
 Fe early in December, 1814, at the head 
 of nearly 2000 troops. He invested the 
 city, drove in the outposts, obtained pos- 
 session of the suburbs by storm, and was
 
 BOLIVAR. 
 
 171 
 
 preparing to assault the great square, 
 where the dictator Alvarez and the troops 
 of Cundinarnarca were posted, when the 
 latter capitulated, December 12, and be- 
 came subject, thenceforth, to the general 
 government of New Grenada, which was 
 peaceably transferred to Bogota. The con- 
 gress passed a vote of thanks to B. for 
 the wisdom and courage with which he 
 had directed the campaign, and brought 
 it so speedily to a happy termination; 
 and the inhabitants of the city themselves 
 expressed their approbation of his person- 
 al conduct. Previous to this time, Santa 
 Marta had fallen into the possession of 
 the royalists, in consequence of the inca- 
 pacity of Labatut ; and the general gov- 
 ernment justly appreciated the impor- 
 tance of regaining it. B. was accordingly 
 employed upon this service, and was to 
 receive the necessaiy munitions of w;ir 
 from the citadel of Carthagena ; but the 
 rivalry and jealousy of the military com- 
 mandant Castillo, the origin of which we 
 have already explained, defeated all his 
 plans. Indignant at Castillo's conduct 
 in refusing him the requisite supplies, B., 
 after the season for acting against Santa 
 Malta to advantage had been wasted in 
 ruinous delays, invested Carthagena with 
 his troops, hoping to intimidate Castillo 
 into submission, or, if not, to reduce him 
 to reason by force. But, in the midst of 
 these wretched dissensions, wherein both 
 parties listened too much to resentment, 
 Morillo arrived at the isle of Margarita 
 with an overwhelming force from Spain ; 
 and B., aware that all further views upon 
 Santa Marta were hopeless, threw up his 
 command, and, finding that he could not 
 be usefully employed at Carthagena, em- 
 barked for Jamaica, in May, 1815, to wait 
 for better times. lie remained in Kings- 
 ton most of the year, whilst Morillo was 
 reducing Carthagena, and overrunning 
 New Grenada. During his residence 
 there, a hireling Spaniard made an at- 
 tempt upon his life, and would have as- 
 sassinated him, if it had not happened 
 that another person occupied B.'s bed 
 at the time, who was stabbed to the heart. 
 From Kingston, B. repaired to Aux 
 Cayes, in the island of Hayti, and, assisted 
 by private individuals, and with a small 
 force furnished by Petion, formed an ex- 
 pedition, in conjunction with commodore 
 Brion, to join Arismendi, who liad raised 
 the standard of independence anew in 
 the isle of 3Iargarita. He arrived in safe- 
 ty at Margarita in May, 1816, and, sailing 
 thence, landed on the main land near 
 Cuinana, but, in a few months, was en- 
 
 countered by the Spaniards under Mo- 
 rales at Ocumare, and compelled to re- 
 embark. Nothing disheartened by this 
 failure, he obtained reinforcements at 
 Aux Cayes, and, in December, 1816, land- 
 ed once more in Margarita. There he 
 issued a proclamation convoking the 
 representatives of Venezuela in a general 
 congress ; and from thence passed over 
 to Barcelona, where he organized a pro- 
 visional government, and gathered forces 
 to resist Morillo, who was approaching 
 with a powerful division. They encoun- 
 tered each other on the 16th, 17th and 
 18th of February, in a desperate conflict, 
 which ended in B.'s obtaining the victory. 
 Morillo retreated in disorder, and was 
 met and defeated anew by general Paez, 
 with his irresistible Llaneros. B., being 
 now recognised as supreme chief, pro- 
 ceeded in his career of victory, and, be- 
 fore the close of the year 1817, had fixed 
 his head-quarters at Angostura. The 
 sanguinary battles of this period, in the 
 most important of which he was engaged 
 in person, belong rather to the history of 
 Colombia (q. v.) than to B.'s own life. 
 He found time, however, to preside at 
 the opening of the congress of Angostu- 
 ra, February 15th, 1819, and to submit a 
 long and elaborate exposition of his views 
 of government. He also surrendered his 
 authority into the hands of the congress, 
 which required him to resume it, and to 
 retain it until the independence of his 
 country should be fully achieved. B. 
 soon reorganized his forces, and set out 
 from Angostura, with the purpose of cross- 
 ing the Cordilleras, and effecting a junc- 
 tion with general Santander, who com- 
 manded the republican forces in New 
 Grenada, so that the united arms of the 
 two republics might act with the greater 
 efficiency. He succeeded, in July, 1819, 
 in reaching Tunja, which city he entered 
 after a battle on the neighboring heights, 
 and, on the 7th of August, gained the 
 great and splendid victory of Bojaca, 
 which gave him immediate possession of 
 Santa Fe and all New Grenada. The 
 viceroy Samano fled precipitately before 
 him; and he was enthusiastically wel- 
 comed in Santa Fe as a deliverer, ap- 
 pointed president and captain-general of 
 the republic, and enabled by the new re- 
 sources of men, money and munitions of 
 war, which he found there, to prepare for 
 returning into Venezuela with an army 
 sufficient to ensure the complete expul- 
 sion of the Spaniards. B.'s entry into 
 Angostura, after his glorious campaign in 
 New Grenada, was a peculiarly gratify-
 
 172 
 
 BOLIVAR. 
 
 ing and affecting spectacle. Its whole 
 population hailed him as the liberator and 
 father of his country. He embraced the 
 favorable moment to obtain the funda- 
 mental law of December 17th, 1819, by 
 which the republics of Venezuela and 
 New Grenada were to be thenceforth 
 united hi a single state, under the presi- 
 dency of B., and by the title of the repub- 
 lic of Colombia. Meanwhile, the seat of 
 government was transferred provisional- 
 ly to Rosario de Cucuta ; and B. again 
 took the field, at the head of the most 
 formidable army that had been assembled 
 by the independents. After a series of 
 memorable advantages over the Span- 
 iards, an armistice of six months was ne- 
 gotiated at Trujillo, between B. and Mo- 
 rillo, and subscribed November 25th, 
 
 1820. Morillo soon afterwards returned 
 to Spain, leaving La Torre in command. 
 At the termination of the armistice, B. 
 made a great effort to finish the war by 
 a decisive blow, and attained his object 
 by vanquishing La Torre, in the famous 
 battle of Carabobo, leaving to the Span- 
 iards only the broken fragments of an 
 army, which took refuge in Puerto Ca- 
 bello, and there, after a protracted and 
 obstinate struggle of more than two years, 
 surrendered to general Paez. The battle 
 of Carabobo may be regarded as having 
 put an end to the war in Venezuela. B. 
 entered Caraccas, June 29th, 1820, having 
 now, for the third tune, rescued his na- 
 tive city from its oppressors, and was re- 
 ceived with transports of joy. By the 
 close of the year, the Spaniards were 
 driven from every part of the country, ex- 
 cept Puerto Cabello and Quito ; and the 
 time was deemed auspicious for establish- 
 ing permanent political institutions in 
 Colombia. The present constitution was 
 completed and adopted August 30th, 
 
 1821, and B. was elected the first con- 
 stitutional president, with general San- 
 tander for vice-president. Having thus 
 achieved the independence of his own 
 country, B. placed himself at the head of 
 the liberating army destined to expel the 
 Spaniards from Quito and Peru. The 
 fate of Quito was decided by the battle 
 of Pichincha, fought in June, 1822, and 
 gained by the talents and prowess of 
 Sucre. Aware that the southern prov- 
 inces of Colombia could never be secure 
 while Peru remained subject to Spain, 
 and anxious to extend the blessings of 
 independence to all America, B. resolved 
 to march upon Lima, and assist the Peru- 
 vians. The royalists, not being prepared 
 to meet him, evacuated Lima at his ap- 
 
 proach ; and B., entering the capital amid 
 the acclamations of the people, was in- 
 vested with supreme power as dictator, 
 and authorized to call into action all the 
 resources of the country for its liberation. 
 But, opposed and denounced by some 
 of the factions which distracted Peru, he 
 found himself under the necessity of re- 
 turning to Trujillo, in Northern Peru, leav- 
 ing Lima to be retaken by the Spaniards 
 under Canterac. At length, in June, 1824, 
 the liberating army was completely or- 
 ganized, and soon after, taking the field, 
 routed the vanguard of the enemy. B. 
 was anxious for the opportunity of a 
 decisive engagement, and, in fact, soon 
 obtained a brilliant victory, August G, on 
 the plains of Jim in. Leaving Sucre to 
 follow the royalists in their retreat into 
 Upper Peru, he repaired to Lima, to or- 
 ganize the government ; and, during his 
 absence from the army, Sucre gained 
 the splendid victory of Ayacucho. Noth- 
 ing was now held by the Spaniards in 
 Peru but the castles of Callao ; which 
 Rodil maintained for upwards of a year, 
 B. employing all the resources of the 
 government for their reduction, until Jan- 
 uary, 1826. In June, 1825, B. visited 
 Upper Peru, which detached itself from 
 the government of Buenos Ayres, and 
 was formed into a new republic, named 
 Bolivia, in honor of the liberator. The 
 members of the congress of the new re- 
 public, assembled in August, 1825, seem- 
 ed to vie with one another in extrava- 
 gant resolutions, testifying their gratitude 
 to B. and Sucre. The former was de- 
 clared perpetual protector of the republic, 
 and requested to prepare for it a consti- 
 tution of government. Returning to Lima, 
 he occupied himself in performing tin's 
 task. We touch now upon a period 
 when B. appears in a new aspect. Hith- 
 erto, we have traced his military career, 
 at first uncertain, and abounding in great 
 reverses, but at length splendidly success- 
 ful. His remarkable fertility in resources, 
 his courage, conduct, and preeminent 
 genius for the art of war, are all undenia- 
 ble, and are proved not less by his brilliant 
 success, than by the testimony of all the 
 most competent judges. But he now 
 comes before us in the capacity of a law- 
 giver ; and imputations on the purity of 
 his political views arise contemporaneous- 
 ly with his assuming the delicate task of 
 consolidating the governments which his 
 military prowess had created. In De- 
 cember, 1824, B. issued a decree, convok- 
 ing a constituent congress to assemble hi 
 Lima the ensuing February. This body
 
 BOLIVAR. 
 
 173 
 
 assembled accordingly ; but, in considera- 
 tion of the unsettled state of the country, 
 resolved to continue the dictatorial pow- 
 ers of B. another year, without attempt- 
 ing to settle the government permanently. 
 They also urged on B. a grant of a million 
 of dollars, which he, with the liberality 
 of feeling, and contempt of mercenary 
 motives, which have invariably distin- 
 guished him, rejected. Congress soon 
 adjourned, and B. remained sole and 
 absolute governor of Peru. Residing 
 partly at Lima, and partly at Magdalena, 
 lie directed the acts of the government, 
 and, at this period, proposed the cele- 
 brated congress of Panama, for the pur- 
 pose of establishing a stable alliance 
 between all the independent states of 
 America. Having completed his project 
 of a constitution for Bolivia, he presented 
 it to the congress of that state, with an ad- 
 dress, dated May 25th, 1826, wherein he 
 solemnly recorded his opinions of the 
 form of government required by the new. 
 republics of the south. Of this famous 
 code, an account will be found in the 
 article Bolivia. It is enough to state here, 
 that, among other features which alarmed 
 the friends of liberty, the most exception- 
 able was a provision for lodging the exec- 
 utive authority in the hands of a president 
 for life, without responsibility, and with 
 power to nominate his successor. When 
 the nature of this constitution became 
 generally known in South America, it 
 excited the liveliest apprehensions, es- 
 pecially among the republicans of Bue- 
 nos Ayres and Chile, who feared, or 
 pretended to fear, an invasion from E, ; 
 and not less in Peru, where he began to 
 be accused of a design to unite perma- 
 nently Colombia, Peru and Bolivia, and 
 to make himself perpetual dictator of the 
 same. These imputations received coun-r 
 tenance, at least, from the proceedings of 
 B. himself. The surrender of Callao, by 
 completely freeing Peru from the Span- 
 iards, finished the business for which B., 
 and the Colombian troops, had been 
 called into the country. But he mani- 
 fested no intention of departing, or of rer 
 signing his authority. On the contrary, 
 when the deputies for the constituent 
 congress of 1826 assembled, they saw fit, 
 or were induced, for alleged irregularities 
 in their appointment, and for other causes, 
 to decline acting in their legislative ca- 
 pacity. A majority of the deputies pub- 
 lished an address, in which they urged 
 B. to continue at the helm another year, 
 and, meantime, to consult the provinces 
 individually as to the form of government 
 15 * 
 
 which they might desire, and the person 
 who should be placed at its head. Ac- 
 cordingly, circular letters, written in the 
 name of B. &nd his council of govern- 
 ment, and issued from the bureau of his 
 minister Pando, were addressed to the 
 several prefects of departments, com- 
 manding them to assemble the electoral 
 colleges, and submit, for their sanction, a 
 form of constitution precisely the same 
 with the Bolivian code, only adapted to 
 Peru. This constitution was adopted by 
 the colleges, who also nominated B. 
 president for life under it, with a una- 
 nimity too extraordinary not to have 
 been the result either of intimidation or 
 of management. Before this time, how- 
 ever, events had transpired in Colombia, 
 which demanded the presence of B. in 
 his own country. During his absence, 
 the vice-president, Santander, had ad- 
 ministered the government with ability 
 and uprightness. Colombia had been 
 recognised by other countries as an inde- 
 pendent state ; its territory was divided 
 into departments, and its government 
 regularly organized. But, in April, 18'26, 
 general Paez, who commanded in Ven- 
 ezuela, being accused before the Colom- 
 bian senate of arbitrary conduct in the 
 enrolment of the citizens of Caraccas in 
 the militia, refused obedience to the sum- 
 mons of the senate, and placed himself in 
 open rebellion to the national government 
 and constitution. Taking advantage of 
 this unhappy incident, the disaffected 
 party in the ancient Venezuela, all those 
 opposed to a central form of government, 
 and all those opposed to the existing ad- 
 ministrators of the government, united 
 with Paez ; and thus the northern depart- 
 ments became virtually separated, for the 
 time being, from the rest of the republic. 
 But all professed a readiness to submit 
 their grievances to the decision of B., and 
 anxiously required his return to Colom- 
 bia. While these movements were taking 
 place in Venezuela, professedly with a 
 view to obtain a federal, instead of a cen- 
 tral form of government, various muni- 
 cipalities in the southern departments, 
 formed from what had been the presi- 
 dency of Quito, held public meetings, in 
 which they voted to adopt the Bolivian 
 code, and lodged the authority of dictator 
 in the hands of B. Evidence has been 
 adduced, showing that the latter proceed- 
 ings were in accordance with the wishes 
 of B., and that the meetings were actual- 
 ly summoned by the personal interven- 
 tion of Leocadio Guzman, an emissary 
 of his, who suggested the resolutions they
 
 174 
 
 BOLIVAR. 
 
 should pass ; and suspicions have not 
 been wanting, that Paez was either in- 
 cited, or sustained, by intimations received 
 from the same quarter. On these things 
 it would be premature now to decide. 
 Certain it is, that, to all appearance, the 
 central departments alone, answering to 
 New Grenada, continued faithful to the 
 constitution. These circumstances most 
 imperiously demanded the presence of B., 
 whether as the cause and object of 
 the public distractions, or as the means 
 of composing them. Accordingly, he 
 set out from Lima in September, 1826, 
 committing the government to a council 
 of his own appointment, and responsible 
 to him alone, with general Santa Cruz at 
 its head, and leaving the whole of the 
 Colombian auxiliary army in Peru and 
 Bolivia. B. made all haste to reach Bo- 
 gota, which he entered Nov. 14, 1826, 
 and, assuming the extraordinary powers 
 which, by the constitution, the president 
 is authorized to exercise in case of rebel- 
 lion, he remained only a few days in the 
 capital, and pressed on to stop the effusion 
 of blood in Venezuela. He went, accom- 
 panied merely by a small escort, although 
 forces were in readiness to sustain him if 
 requisite, and all the demonstrations of 
 insurrection vanished at his approach. 
 He reached Puerto Cabello December 
 31st, and immediately issued a decree, 
 dated Jan. 1, 1827, giving assurance of 
 a general amnesty to the insurgents, on 
 their peaceably submitting to his author- 
 ity, and engaging to call a convention for 
 the reform of the constitution. He had a 
 friendly meeting with Paez, and, soon 
 afterwards, entered Caraccas, where he 
 fixed his head quarters, having the north- 
 ern departments under his , immediate 
 personal authority, and separated from 
 the body of the republic, which pro- 
 ceeded in its ordinary routine. B. and 
 Santander had respectively been reflected 
 to the offices of president and vice-presi- 
 dent, and should have been qualified anew 
 as such in January, 1827. But, in Feb- 
 ruary, B. addressed a letter from Carac- 
 cas to the president of the senate, renounc- 
 ing the presidency of the republic, and 
 expressing a determination to repel the 
 imputations of ambition cast upon him, by 
 retiring to seclusion upon his patrimonial 
 estate. Santander, in reply, urged him 
 to resume his station as constitutional 
 president, convinced that the troubles and 
 agitations of the country, if they were not 
 occasioned by the intrigues of B. himself, 
 might at any moment be quieted by his 
 lending the authority of his name, and 
 
 his personal influence, to the cause of the 
 constitution. But distrust, suspicion and 
 jealousy of the conduct and intentions of 
 B. now filled all the friends of republican 
 institutions. He had recorded his confes- 
 sion of political faith, to use his own ex- 
 pression, in the anti-repr.blican Bolivian 
 code, and he was believed to be anxious 
 for its introduction into Colombia. When 
 his renunciation of the presidency was 
 submitted to the consideration of the con- 
 gress, a portion of the members urged 
 that body to accept the renunciation. 
 They publicly accused him of being in 
 concert with Paez ; of having designedly 
 thrown the whole nation into discord and 
 confusion, hi order to create a false im- 
 pression of the necessity of bestowing 
 upon himself the dictatorship. But a 
 majority of the members insisted upon his 
 retaining the presidency, and required his 
 presence at Bogota to take the constitu- 
 tional oaths. Before he came, however, 
 they had passed a decree of general am- 
 nesty ; a decree for assembling a national 
 convention at Ocaila,and a decree for re- 
 establishing constitutional order through- 
 out Colombia. His arrival was hastened 
 by unexpected events, touching him per- 
 sonally, which had occurred in Peru and 
 the southern departments. Not long after 
 his departure from Lima, the returns of 
 the electoral colleges were received by 
 the council of government, by which the 
 Bolivian code was pronounced to be the 
 constitution of Peru, and B. the president 
 for life. The constitution was accord- 
 ingly promulgated officially, and was 
 sworn to, by the public functionaries in 
 Lima, Dec. 9, 1826, the anniversary of the 
 victory of Ayacucho. At this time, the 
 Colombian auxiliary army hi Peru was 
 cantoned in three divisions ; one stationed 
 in Upper Peru, and two hi Lower Peru ; 
 one of these at Arequipa, and one in Lima. 
 This third division consisted of veteran 
 companions of B.'s triumphs, and was 
 commanded by his personal friends, gen- 
 erals Lara and Sands. Notwithstanding 
 the attachment of these troops to B., they 
 had lately been growing distrustful of his 
 designs ; and, although they did not feel 
 disposed, it Would seem, to thwart his 
 views upon Peru, they took fire immedi- 
 ately when they saw cause to believe that 
 he had similar views upon then- own na- 
 tive Colombia. The consequence was, 
 that, in the short space of six weeks after 
 the new constitution was solemnly adopt- 
 ed, they came forward, and revolutionized 
 the government of Peru. So well were 
 their measures taken, that, Jan. 26, 1827,
 
 BOLIVAR. 
 
 175 
 
 they arrested their general officers without 
 any conflict or opposition ; placed them- 
 selves under the command of Bustamante, 
 one of their colonels ; and announced to 
 the inhabitants of Lima, that their sole 
 object was to relieve the Peruvians from 
 oppression, and to return home to protect 
 their own country against the alleged 
 ambitious schemes of B. The Peruvians 
 immediately abjured the Bolivian code, 
 deposed B.'s council of ministers, and 
 proceeded, in perfect freedom, to organ- 
 ize a provisional government for them- 
 selves. Arrangements were speedily 
 made, after this bloodless revolution was 
 effected, to transport the third division to 
 Guayaquil, according to their own desire. 
 They embarked at Callao, March 17, and 
 landed in the southern department of Co- 
 lombia, in April, part of them proceeding 
 for Guayaquil, and part for CuenQa and 
 Quito, uniformly declaring their object to 
 be the restoration of constitutional order, 
 in opposition to any designs upon the 
 republic entertained by B. Intelligence 
 of these events reached B. while he was 
 still in the north of Colombia. Rousing 
 himself instantly from his long-continued 
 inactivity, he made preparations for 
 marching to the other extremity of the 
 republic, and reducing the third division. 
 But these troops, finding the government 
 was in the hands of the regular national 
 executive, had peaceably submitted to 
 general Ovando, who was sent, by the 
 constitutional authorities, for the purpose 
 of taking the command. B. meanwhile 
 signified his consent to be qualified as 
 president, and proceeded, with this intent, 
 to Bogota, where he arrived Sept. 10, 
 took the oaths prescribed by the constitu- 
 tion, and resumed the functions belonging 
 to his official station. To external appear- 
 ance, therefore, Colombia was restored to 
 tranquillity, under the rule of her consti- 
 tutional magistrates. But the nation was 
 divided between two great parties, and 
 agitated to its centre by their opposite views 
 of the political condition of the country. 
 B. had regained the personal confidence 
 of the soldiers and officers of the third 
 division, who expressed the deepest re- 
 pentance for their distrust of his charac- 
 ter, and their entire devotion to his inter- 
 ests. But the republican party, and the 
 friends of the constitution, with Santander 
 at their head, continued to regard his 
 ascendency over the army, and his politi- 
 cal movements, with undisguised and not 
 unfounded apprehension, universally ac- 
 cusing or suspecting him of a desire to 
 emulate the career of Napoleon. They 
 
 looked to the convention of Ocana, which 
 was to assemble in March, 1828, for a 
 decided expression of the will of the na- 
 tion in favor of the existing republican 
 forms. The military, on the other hand, 
 did not conceal their conviction that a 
 stronger and more permanent form of 
 government was necessary for .the public 
 welfare ; that tbe people were unprepared 
 for purely republican institutions, and that 
 B. ought to be intrusted with discretionary 
 power to administer the aftairs of Colom- 
 bia. In 1828, B. assumed the supreme 
 power in Colombia, by a decree, dated 
 Bogota, Aug. 27, which gives him author- 
 ity to maintain peace at home, and to 
 defend the country against foreign inva- 
 sions ; to have the command of the land 
 and sea forces ; to negotiate with foreign 
 powers ; to make peace and declare war ; 
 to make treaties ; to appoint the civil and 
 military officers ; to pass decrees, and ordi- 
 nances of every description ; to regulate 
 the administration of justice, &c. The 
 decree provides, how r ever, that he is to be 
 assisted in the exercise of executive pow- 
 er by the council of ministers. If B. is 
 to be the CaBsar of South America, even 
 his enemies admit that, like Csesar, his 
 purposes are ultimately good. He desires 
 the pure administration of justice, encour- 
 ages the arts and sciences, fosters all the 
 great national interests, and, if he attains 
 absolute power, will probably use it wisely 
 and nobly. But it is premature to denom- 
 inate him the Washington of the South, 
 before it well appears whether the liber- 
 ties of his country are safe from his am- 
 bition. In his person, B. is described as 
 being of ordinary stature; ungraceful in 
 his air and movements; thin and spare, 
 but capable of great endurance ; of an 
 olive complexion, with black, coarse hair, 
 thin in front ; broad, bushy eye-brows over- 
 shadowing an eye somewhat sunken, but 
 full' of fire and expression. His intellect 
 is undoubtedly of the highest order, and 
 his general character of that ardent, lofty 
 cast, which civil commotions are apt to 
 form, and which qualifies its possessor to 
 ride on the tempest. His ordinary state- 
 papers do not bespeak a very pure taste, 
 nor an understanding ever subjected to 
 any well-directed cultivation, and are 
 frequently conceived in language which 
 even the lofty idiom of his vernacular 
 tongue will hardly sanction. Being now 
 only 46 years of age, he may have a long 
 career of varied fortune yet before him, 
 wherein he may do much, either to fill 
 the friends of republican institutions with 
 sorrow, or to build for himself a durable
 
 176 
 
 BOLIVAR BOLIVIA. 
 
 monument of glory. (Restrepo's Colom- 
 bia, vols. 3 6 ; Columbia, vol. 2 ; jJmer. 
 An. Register, vols. 1 and 2.) There has 
 lately appeared a work, entitled Memoirs 
 of Simon Bolivar, and of his principal Gen- 
 erals, with an Introduction, &c., by general 
 H. L. V. Ducoudray Holstein ; Boston, 
 1829. The book is a violent philippic 
 against B., and evidently colored too highly 
 to be a safe authority. It does not be- 
 come the biographer to adopt the views 
 of a political partisan, nor to pronounce 
 a decisive judgment until the career of 
 his subject is closed. 
 
 BOLIVIA; the name of a country in 
 South America. It is bounded N. W. 
 by Peru, N. E. and E. by Brazil, S. by 
 Buenos Ayres or the United Provinces of 
 South America, and W. by the Pacific 
 ocean and Peru. It is elevated and moun- 
 tainous, giving rise to several large tribu- 
 taries, both of the Amazon and La Plata. 
 It includes lake Titicaca. It contains rich 
 silver mines, of which those of Potosi, 
 that were formerly very productive, are 
 the most celebrated. The town of Chu- 
 quisaca, or La Plata, is the capital. Some 
 of the other principal towns are Potosi, 
 Charcas, Oropesa, Oruro, La Paz and Co- 
 chabamba. The population has been re- 
 cently estimated at 1,000,000 or 1,200,000. 
 This republic dates its origin from the 
 battle of Ayacucho, fought Dec. 9, 1824, 
 in which general Antojiio Jose de Sucre, 
 at the head of the Colombian forces, de- 
 feated the viceroy La Senia, and insured 
 the independence of the country. It con- 
 sists of the provinces known under the 
 Spanish government as Upper Peru, and 
 then governed as a dependency of the 
 viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. Olaneta 
 maintained a show of opposition for a 
 short time after the battle of Ayacucho; 
 but Sucre quickly drove him into the 
 province of Salta, where his forces were 
 dispersed by the Buenos Ayrean authori- 
 ties, in April, 1825. No obstacle now re- 
 mained to prevent die organization of an 
 independent government. A congress 
 assembled at Chuquisaca, in August, 1825, 
 and resolved to establish a separate repub- 
 lic, independent both of Lower Peru and 
 of Buenos Ayres, to be named Bolivia, in 
 honor of the liberator Bolivar. Among 
 other testimonials of -their gratitude to- 
 wards him, they requested him to prepare 
 the draft of a constitution for the republic, 
 lodging the authority of president, mean- 
 while, in the hands of Sucre. Bolivar 
 accordingly prepared the project of a con- 
 stitution, which he presented to them 
 May 25, 1826, accompanied by an address, 
 
 containing his general views upon the 
 subject of government. By this code, the 
 powers of government are distributed into 
 four sections the electoral, legislative, 
 executive and judicial. The electoral body 
 is composed of persons chosen, for a peri- 
 od of four years, by the citizens at large, 
 at the rate of one elector for every hundred 
 citizens. The legislative power resides 
 in three chambers, the first of tribunes, 
 the next of senators, and the highest of 
 censors. The tribunes are to be chosen 
 for a period of four years, half of the 
 chamber being renewed every second 
 year; and the senators for eight years, 
 half of their body being renewed every 
 fourth year. Between these two bodies, 
 the ordinary duties of legislation are ap- 
 portioned in a manner peculiarly artificial 
 and inconvenient, together with various 
 other functions of a judicial and executive 
 character. The censors are for life, and 
 their business is to watch over the gov- 
 ernment, to accuse the executive before 
 the senate, to regulate the press, educa- 
 tion, and the arts and sciences, to grant 
 rewards for public services, and to de- 
 nounce the enemies of the state. The 
 executive power resides in a president for 
 life, a vice-president and four secretaries. 
 The president commands all the military 
 and naval forces, and exercises the whole 
 patronage of the government, nominating 
 all the civil and military servants of the 
 state, officers of the army, navy and treas- 
 ury, foreign ministers, and the vice-presi- 
 dent, who is to be his successor: he is, 
 moreover, without any responsibility for 
 the acts of his administration. The judi- 
 cial power is regulated so as to secure the 
 due administration of justice ; and the 
 private rights of individuals are carefully 
 protected by suitable guarantees. Tiiis 
 form of constitution, it is evident, would 
 give the executive such preponderating 
 power, that all the measures of govern- 
 ment would, in fact, be subject to his will, 
 and he would be, to all intents and pur- 
 poses, the elective prince of a monarchy, 
 limited in theory, but absolute in opera- 
 tion. This code was presented to the 
 constituent congress of Bolivia, which 
 assembled at Chuquisaca, in May, 182G, 
 and by that body adopted as the constitu- 
 tion of the republic. The 9th of Decem- 
 ber, the anniversary of the battle of Aya- 
 cucho, being fixed upon as the period 
 when it should be carried into effect, Su- 
 cre resigned his discretionary authority 
 into the. hands of congress, and solicited 
 them to appoint a native of the country 
 to be his successor. But they resolved
 
 BOLIVIA BOLOGNA. 
 
 177 
 
 that he should retain the executive power 
 until the election of a constitutional pres- 
 ident should take place. Sucre consented 
 to continue in office until that time ; re- 
 quiring, however, that the electoral col- 
 leges should present a candidate for the 
 high office of president, previous to the 
 assembling of the constitutional legisla- 
 ture. This resulted in the election of 
 Sucre as president for life under the con- 
 stitution. Whether the choice was en- 
 tirely a free one or not is yet uncertain. 
 A large body of Colombian troops re- 
 mained in Upper Peru, under circum- 
 stances analogous to the situation of other 
 troops of the same nation in Lower Peru, 
 and, of course, affording like reason to pre- 
 sume that military influence may have 
 affected the election. The geographical 
 position of B. being mostly inland, its po- 
 litical condition is less accurately known 
 than that of the neighboring countries, and 
 less an object of general interest. In the 
 natural progress of things, it would seem 
 likely to be reunited to Lower Peru, 
 from which it was arbitrarily severed by 
 the Spanish government. But hitherto 
 the congress of the Rio de la Plata has 
 refiased to recognise its independence, 
 insisting that the limits of their republic 
 shall be coextensive with the ancient 
 boundaries of the viceroyalty of Buenos 
 Ayres, and, of course, claiming the prov- 
 inces of Upper Peru by the same title 
 under which they lay claim to Paraguay 
 and the Banda Oriental. But it is not 
 probable, in any event that can be reason- 
 ably anticipated, that Bolivia will again 
 be joined to Buenos Ayres. (Const, of 
 Bolivia ; Amer. An. Reg. vols. 1 and 2.) 
 
 BOLLANDISTS ; a society of Jesuits in 
 Antwerp, which has published, under the 
 title Ada Sanctorum (q. v.), the well- 
 known collection of the traditions of the 
 saints of the Roman Catholic church. 
 They received this name from John Bol- 
 land, who first undertook to digest the 
 materials already accumulated by Heri- 
 lTt Roswey. 
 
 BOLLMAX, Erich, a man distinguished 
 for knowledge, character and enterprise, 
 boriMn 1770, at Hoya, in Hanover, went, 
 in 1792, to Paris, to practise as a physi- 
 cian. Here he saved count Narbonne 
 from the Jacobins. In 1794, he resolved 
 to free Lafayette from his prison in Ol- 
 mutz. By his efforts, and those of Mr. 
 Huger, a gentleman belonging to the I". 
 States, Lafayette was enabled to quit his 
 dungeon, Nov. 8, but was unfortunately 
 retaken soon after. B. was cast into 
 prison, but after a while set at liberty, and 
 
 banished from the Austrian dominions. 
 He afterwards settled in the U. States, 
 and subsequently went to England. 
 
 BOLOGNA (Bononia Felsinia) ; one of 
 the oldest, largest and richest cities of 
 Italy, with colonnades along the sides of 
 the streets for foot-passengers. It is call- 
 ed la grosser (the fat) ; lies at the foot of 
 the Apennines, between the rivers Reno 
 and Savena, and contains 65,300 inhabit- 
 ants and 8000 houses, with manufactories 
 of cordage, soap, paper, artificial flowers 
 and arms. B. is the capital of the papal 
 delegation of the same name ; the secular 
 concerns of which are administered by a 
 cardinal legate, who resides here ; whilst 
 the archbishop directs in spiritual affaire. 
 A gonfdloniere, chosen every 2 months, 
 with 50 senators and 8 elders from the 
 citizens, form a republican government, 
 which has almost the whole management 
 of the affairs of the city. The people of 
 B. voluntarily submitted to the papal see 
 in 1513, being tired of the party struggles 
 among the nobles, by which the strength 
 of the state was exhausted. B. has an 
 ambassador in Rome, whose duty it is 
 to maintain the limitations of the papal 
 authority, according to the constitution, 
 and who, after every new election of a 
 pope, presents complaints of the en- 
 croachments of his predecessor. The 
 city chooses, also, one of the judges com- 
 posing the high court of appeals at 
 Rome. Her armorial bearings are even 
 now surrounded by the charmed word 
 JLibertas. The pope, by the constitution, 
 can exact no other tax than the excise on 
 wine. During three centuries, the papal 
 government endeavored to introduce in 
 B. the excise on corn (annona), but could 
 not succeed. The rich nobility of the 
 papal states live in B., and are on bad 
 terms with the head of the church. This 
 city is also the residence of the old Bo- 
 lognese patrician families, who have given 
 many popes to the church. The most 
 liberal men in the papal dominions are to 
 be found among the learned of this city. 
 In 1816, the nobility, scholars and citi- 
 /ciis founded a Socratic society for the 
 promotion of social happiness, which was, 
 however, suspected of Carbonarism. B. 
 was long renowned for its university, 
 founded, according to tradition, by Theo- 
 dosius the younger, in 425, which, in the 
 centuries of barbarism, spread the light 
 of knowledge over all Europe. It once 
 had 10,000 students, but the number at 
 present is only 300. Here the famous 
 Irnerius taught the civil law in the llth 
 century ; and men like Bulgerus, Marti-
 
 178 
 
 BOLOGNA BOMB. 
 
 nus, Jacobus and Hugo attracted pupils 
 from every quarter. The university for- 
 merly possessed so much influence, that 
 even the coins of the city bore its motto, 
 Bononia dovet. The law school enjoyed 
 the greatest fame. Its teachers had the 
 reputation of inculcating principles favor- 
 able to despotism, and were consequently 
 rewarded by the favor of the emperors 
 and of the Italian sovereigns. During 
 1400 years, every new discovery in sci- 
 ence and the aits found patrons here, and 
 the scientific journals prove that curiosity 
 on these subjects is still awake in B. A 
 citizen of B., general count Fern. Mar- 
 sigli, founded, in 1709, the institute delle 
 sctenze, and gave it a library of almost 
 200,000 volumes ; to which, in 1825, the 
 abbate Mezzofanti, professor of Oriental 
 languages, was appointed librarian. This 
 learned man speaks a large number of 
 living languages correctly and fluently 
 (for instance, German, in several dialects, 
 Russian, Hungarian, Walachian, the lan- 
 guage of the Gipsies, &c.), without ever 
 having left B. The foreign troops in Italy 
 gave him opportunities for learning them. 
 Count Marsigli founded and endowed, 
 also, an observatory, an anatomical hall, 
 a botanical garden, and accumulated val- 
 uable collections for all branches of sci- 
 ence and art. These are at present con- 
 nected with the accademia Clementina 
 of pope Clement XL In the 16th cen- 
 tury, the famous painters and sculptors 
 Caracci, Guido Reni, Domenichirio and 
 Albano founded a school, to which their 
 works have given great reputation. (See 
 Painting.) There were, even as early as 
 the 12th and 13th centuries, great paint- 
 ers in B. Francesco, called il Franda, 
 was famous in the 15th century. The 
 chief place of the city is adorned by sev- 
 eral venerable buildings : among them are 
 the senate hall (which contains a number 
 of excellent pictures and statues, and the 
 200 folio volumes of the famous natural 
 philosopher Ulysses Aldrovandus, written 
 with his own hand, as materials for future 
 works), the palace of justice of the podes- 
 <, and the cathedral of St. Petronio, with 
 its unfinished front and the meridian of 
 Cassini drawn upon a copper plate in the 
 floor. Among the 73 other churches, the 
 following are distinguished : S. Pietro, S. 
 Salvatore, S. Domeuicho, S. Giovanni in 
 Monte, S. Giacomo maggiore, all pos- 
 sessed of rich treasures of art. The col- 
 lections of works of art are numerous : 
 they are part of rich family fortunes, 
 transmitted in trust, and are continually 
 increased by each generation. The gal- 
 
 leries Sampieri and Zambeccari formerly 
 excelled all others, but are now surpassed 
 by those of Marescalchi and Ercolani. 
 The collection of the academy of painting, 
 endowed, in modem times, by the muni- 
 cipality, principally with the treasures of 
 abolished churches and monasteries, is 
 rich, and full of historical interest. The 
 admired fountain of the market is defi- 
 cient in nothing but water. It is adorned 
 with a Neptune in bronze, by John of 
 Bologna. The towers degli Asinelli and 
 Garisenda were formerly objects of ad- 
 miration ; the former for its slenderness, 
 which gave it the appearance of an Ori- 
 ental minaret; the latter for its inclination 
 from the perpendicular, which amounted 
 to 14 feet. It has since, however, been 
 reduced to one third of its former height, 
 from precaution. B. has always been 
 famous for cheap living, and has been 
 chosen as a residence by many literary 
 men. Gourmands praise it as the native 
 country of excellent maccaroni, sausages, 
 liquors and preserved fruits. The schools 
 for training animals enjoy, likewise, some 
 reputation. The pilgrimage to the Ma- 
 donna di S. Lucca, whose church is situ- 
 ated at the foot of the Apennines, half a 
 league distant from B., and to which an 
 arcade of 640 arches leads, annually at- 
 tracts a great number of people from all 
 parts of Italy. 
 
 BOMB ; a large, hollow, iron ball or 
 shell, formerly often made of cannon- 
 metal, and sometimes of an oval form, 
 with a hole in which a wooden fuse is 
 cemented, and with two little handles. 
 Bombs are thrown from mortars. They 
 are filled with powder and combustible 
 matter (which consists of equal parts of 
 sulphur and nitre, mixed with some 
 mealed powder), and are used for setting 
 fire to houses, blowing up magazines, &c. 
 The charge hi bombs of 74 pounds con-, 
 tains from 5 to 8 pounds of powder, and 
 
 1 pound of the other composition above- 
 mentioned. In bombs of 10 pounds, it 
 amounts to 1 pound of powder and from 
 
 2 to 3 ounces of the mixture. The fuse, 
 which is hollow, and filled with powder 
 and other inflammable ingredients, sets 
 fire to the charge. The length and the 
 composition of the fuse must be calcu- 
 lated in such a way that the bomb shall 
 burst the -moment it arrives at the des- 
 tined place. Bomb-shells are generally 
 cast somewhat thicker at the bottom than 
 above, that they may not fall upon the 
 fuse and extinguish the fire ; yet they are, 
 at present, often cast of an equal thickness 
 in every part, because it has been found
 
 BOMB BOMBAY. 
 
 179 
 
 that the fuse remains at the top, notwith- 
 standing. As early as the 7th century, 
 balls, filled Avith burning matter, were 
 thrown from vessels of clay, then from 
 machines called blydes or manges, or 
 with hand-slings made of a small net of 
 iron wire. In 1238, James I, king of Ar- 
 ragon, used, at the siege of Valencia, a 
 kind of large rockets, made of four parch- 
 ment skins, which burst in falling. After- 
 wards, large iron balls, heated red hot, 
 came into use. In the middle of the 15th 
 century, prince Rimini Sigismund Pan- 
 dulf Malatesta invented mortars and 
 bombs. They consisted, at first, of two 
 hollow hemispheres of metal, filled with 
 powder, and held together by chains. By 
 degrees, they received their present shape. 
 An English engineer, Malthus, whom 
 Louis XIII took into his service, intro- 
 duced them into France, and used them 
 first (1634) at the siege of Lamotte, in 
 Lorraine. The grenades, which are 
 thrown from howitzers, are easily distin- 
 guished from the bombs, which are cast 
 from mortars. The first are used only in 
 the field, the latter in sieges. The Prus- 
 sian general von TempelhofF has in vain 
 attempted to bring 10 pound mortars into 
 the field. In order to make a wall bomb- 
 proof, it should be three feet and a half 
 thick. 
 
 BOMBAST, in composition ; an attempt, 
 by strained description, to raise a low or 
 familiar subject beyond its rank, which, 
 instead of being sublime, becomes ridicu- 
 lous. Its original signification was, a stuff 
 of soft, loose texture, used to swell out 
 garments. 
 
 BOMBAY ; a presidency, island and city 
 in British India ; lat 18 5& N. ; Ion. 72 
 7' E. The island was formerly subdi- 
 vided into several smaller ones, but many 
 thousand acres, once entirely under water, 
 have been recovered, and the two ranges 
 of hills which cross the island have thus 
 been united by a line of fertile valleys. 
 It is of little importance as regards its 
 internal resources, but in a commercial 
 point of view is of great value. Its prox- 
 imity to the main land gives it a facility 
 of communication with all the different 
 points of that long line of coast, as well 
 as with the shores of Persia and Arabia. 
 The island is easily defended, and the 
 rise of the tide is sufficient to allow the 
 construction of docks on a large scale. 
 The surface is either naked rock or low 
 ground exposed to inundation : the quan- 
 tity of grain, which it is capable of pro- 
 ducing, is, therefore, very small. The 
 causeway which connects it with Sal- 
 
 sette, an island lying between B. and the 
 coast of Malabar, aftbrds, however, an easy 
 way of introduciugprovisions. When first 
 known to Europeans, it was considered 
 a very unhealthy place ; but it has been 
 improved by draining and embankments. 
 The population, in 1816, was 161,550, of 
 whom 104,000 were Hindoos, 28,000 Mo- 
 hammedans, 11,000 native Christians, and 
 4300 English. There were also about 
 13,000 Parsees, who here found an asy- 
 lum from the persecutions of the Moham- 
 medans, and are almost the exclusive 
 proprietors of the island. On a narrow 
 neck of land, near the south-eastern ex- 
 tremity of the island, stands the city, 
 which is about a mile in length and a 
 quarter of a mile in breadth. It is sur- 
 rounded by fortifications, which have 
 been gradually improved, in proportion 
 to the growing importance of the place. 
 It is the seat of government for the south- 
 western part of the British possessions in 
 India. In front of the fort is an espla- 
 nade : at the commencement of the hot 
 season, those Europeans, who are obliged 
 to have their principal residences within 
 the fort, erect bungalows on this spot, 
 Avhich are, many of them, elegant build- 
 ings, but unfit to resist the violence of 
 the monsoons. As soon as the rains be- 
 gin, they are taken down, and preserved 
 for another year. There are three gov- 
 ernment residencies in the island. The 
 one within the fort is used principally for 
 holding councils, find for despatching 
 business. It is a spacious, dismal-looking 
 building, like many of the other large 
 houses in B. The European society here 
 is neither so numerous nor so expensive 
 as that in the other presidencies ; but, if 
 not rivals in splendor, they are quite equal 
 in comfort and hospitality to their coun- 
 trymen in Calcutta or Madras. As this 
 place is the emporium of all the north- 
 western coast of the peninsula, and of the 
 Persian and Arabian gulfs, its trade is 
 very considerable. To China it sends a 
 large quantity of cotton. Pepper, sandal- 
 wood, gums, drugs, pearls, ivory, gems, 
 sharks' fins, edible birds' nests, form the 
 remainder of the cargoes for Canton. 
 Hemp, coffee, barilla, manufactured goods 
 from Surat, and other articles, are sent to 
 Europe. The trade to America is incon- 
 siderable. The company's marine estab- 
 lishment consists of 18 cruisers, besides 
 boats: the military and marine corps 
 amount to less than 3000 men. Besides 
 the governor and council, stationed at the 
 city, there are magistrates and commer- 
 cial residents in the chief towns of the
 
 180 
 
 BOMBAY BONAPARTE. 
 
 different provinces subject to their gov- 
 ernment. There is one supreme court 
 of judicature, held under a single judge, 
 called the recorder. Since 1614, B. has 
 been a station of the American board of 
 commissioners for foreign missions, and, 
 in 1828, they had 4 missionaries and a 
 printing press employed here and in the 
 vicinity ; with 16 schools for boys, con- 
 taining 1049 pupils, and 10 for girls, con- 
 taining 577. B. was obtained by the Por- 
 tuguese, in 1530, from an Indian chief at 
 Salsette ; by them it was ceded to Great 
 Britain, in 1661, and, in 1668, it was 
 transferred, by the king, to the East India 
 company. From the commencement of 
 the last century, it has gradually increased 
 in importance, and has now attained a 
 high degree of prosperity. It is difficult 
 to fix, with precision, the extent of the 
 territories included within the presidency 
 of B., as some districts belonging to the 
 native powers are intermingled with 
 them. They may be calculated at about 
 10,000 square miles, with a population of 
 2,500,000. 
 
 BOMBELLES, Louis, marquis de ; born 
 1780, at Ratisbon, where his father was 
 French ambassador at the diet. His 
 mother had been governess in the royal 
 family (des enfans de France], and an in- 
 timate friend of the virtuous Elizabeth, 
 sister of Louis XVI. The son inherited 
 a feeling of devotion for the family of 
 Bourbon. Under the protection of prince 
 Metternich, he was sent, in a diplomatic 
 capacity, to Berlin, and when, in 1813, 
 the king left this city to declare himself 
 against Napoleon, he carried the archives 
 of the Austrian ejnbassy, in the absence 
 of the ambassador, to Silesia. In 1814, 
 at the entry of the allies into Paris, he 
 was appointed, by the emperor of Austria, 
 to carry to the count of Artois the white 
 cockade, and was repeatedly sent to Den- 
 mark. In 1816, he went to Dresden, as 
 Austrian ambassador, and married Ida 
 Brun, the daughter of the poetess of this 
 name. Since 1821, he has been Austrian 
 ambassador in Florence, Modena and 
 Lucca. 
 
 BOMB-KETCH ; a vessel built for the 
 use of mortars at sea, and furnished with 
 all the apparatus necessary for a vigor- 
 ous bombardment. Bomb-ketches are 
 built remarkably strong, to sustain the vi- 
 olent shock produced by the discharge 
 of the mortars. The modern bomb-ves- 
 sels generally carry two 10 inch mortars, 
 four 68 pounders, and six 18 pound car- 
 ronades ; and the mortars may be fired at 
 as low an angle as 20 degrees j their 
 
 principal purpose, at these low angles, 
 being to cover the landing of troops, and 
 protect the coast and harbors. A bomb- 
 ketch is generally from 60 to 70 feet long, 
 from stem to stem, and draws 8 or 9 feet 
 of water, carrying 2 masts, and is usually 
 of 100 to 150 tons burden. The tender is 
 generally a brig, on board of which the 
 party of artillery remain till their services 
 are required on board the bomb- vessels. 
 
 BO>-A (the Jlphrodisium of Ptolemy) ; a 
 seaport of Algiers, 66 miles N. N. E. Con- 
 stantina ; Ion. 7 3& E. ; lat. 36 32' N. 
 Pop. 8000. This town is built above a mile 
 south of the ancient Hippo, or Hippona. 
 The harbor, which is situated to the east 
 of the town, is capacious, and a considera- 
 ble trade is carried on here in corn, wool, 
 hides and wax. The situation is good, be- 
 ing near the mouth of the Seibouse, and, 
 with proper care, it might be made one of 
 the most flourishing towns in Barbary. 
 
 BONA DEA ; a name given to Ops, Ves- 
 ta, Cybele, Rhea, by the Greeks, and by 
 the Latins to Fauna or Fatua. She was 
 so chaste that no man saw her, after her 
 marriage, but her husband ; for which 
 reason, her festivals were celebrated by 
 night, in private houses, and all statues of 
 men were veiled during the ceremony. 
 
 BONALD, Louis Gabriel Ambroise, vis- 
 count de, member of the French cham- 
 ber of deputies, is one of the first speakers 
 of the ultramontanist party. He emigrat- 
 ed in 1791, and wrote, in Heidelberg, af- 
 ter the dissolution of the corps of the 
 emigrants, in which he had served, his 
 well-known Theorie du Pouvoir, politique 
 ct rdigieux (3 vols. 1796). The charac- 
 ter of this, and of his later political writ- 
 ings, is that of metaphysical abstraction, 
 which is by no means popular among the 
 French. After he returned to France, he 
 succeeded in insinuating himself into the 
 favor of Napoleon and of his brothers. 
 The emperor made him a counsellor at 
 the university, with a salary of 10,000 
 francs. Louis proposed to him to under- 
 take the education of his son, then crown- 
 prince of Holland, but B. declined the 
 offer. He was closely connected with 
 Chateaubriand, ami assisted in the editing 
 of the Mercure de France. After the res- 
 toration of the Bourbons, he was chosen, 
 in 1815, member of the chamber of depu- 
 ties. He voted, in this chambre introuva- 
 Ue (q. v.), with the majority. In 1816, 
 he was admitted into the French acade- 
 my. His most important work is the 
 Legislation primitive (3 vols. 1802). 
 
 BONAPARTE is the name of an ancient 
 Italian family, which, Louis Bonaparte
 
 BONAPARTE BONAVENTURA. 
 
 181 
 
 says, in his Documens historiques sur It 
 Gouvernement de la Hollands, was settled 
 \n Treviso as early as 1272, when a Nar- 
 dilius Bonaparte gained renown as podes- 
 ta of Parma and knight of St. Maria or 
 Gaudentius. An author of this name, 
 James Bonaparte, a Tuscan nobleman, 
 who lived about 1527, remarks that his 
 family held important offices in the re- 
 public of San Miniato, in the Tuscan 
 territory, and had been distinguished in 
 the wars of Florence. A branch of it 
 existed at Sarzana, in the Genoese do- 
 minions, and, during the contests of the 
 Guelplis and Ghibellines, settled at Ajac- 
 cio, in Corsica. From this branch sprung 
 the father of Napoleon, Charles Bona- 
 parte, who at first fought with Paoli for 
 the independence of Corsica, and in com- 
 pany with him left the island, but eventu- 
 ally returned, at the invitation of Louis 
 XV. In 1776, Corsica chose him one of 
 the deputies of the nobility who were to 
 be sent to the king of France. Before 
 the French revolution, he wrote his name 
 di Bonaparte. On account of his health, 
 he subsequently retired to Montpellier, 
 where he died in 1785, 40 years old. His 
 wife, the beautiful Maria Letitia, born at 
 Ajaccio, Aug. 24, 1750, was descended 
 from the house of Ramolini, which was 
 of Italian origin. She bore him the fol- 
 lowing children, whose names are cited 
 in the order of birth : Giuseppe, Napo- 
 lione, Luciano, Luigi, Mariana, Carletta, 
 Annunziada and Girolamo. Left a young 
 widow, destitute of property, she sought 
 and obtained friends among the powerful. 
 Her acquaintance with the count of Mar- 
 boeuf was the foundation of the fortune 
 of her family. The Corsicans maintained 
 that they were all nobles, and refused, 
 therefore, to pay taxes. Louis XV, in 
 consequence, commanded the governor 
 to select 400 families, who were alone to 
 be considered as noble. In this list 
 Marbceuf inserted the Bonapartes. When 
 the English conquered Corsica, in 1793, 
 madame Letitia, whose second husband 
 was captain Francis Fesch, of Bale (see 
 Fesch, Joseph, cardinal), fled, with her 
 daughters, to Marseilles. Soon after the 
 l<-'th Brumaire (9th November), 1799, she 
 went to Paris; but not till after Napo- 
 leon's elevation to the imperial dignity, 
 was homage paid to madame Mtre, who, 
 in pronunciation and language, was half 
 Italian, half French. She maintained a 
 separate household, and was appointed, 
 by Napoleon, protectrice generale de ttab- 
 lissemens de charite. Her benevolence, at 
 this period, was much praised. Some 
 
 VOL. JI. 16 
 
 persons, however, deemed her avaricious. 
 She was not dazzled by the greatness 
 which surrounded her. Of her children, 
 she entertained the greatest affection for 
 Louis, the ex-king of Holland. In 
 1814, she went to live at Rome, with her 
 brother-in-law, cardinal Fesch. Napole- 
 on seems to have always had much affec- 
 tion for her. She died at Marseilles in 
 the year 1822. By the treaty of Paris, of 
 Nov. 20, 1815, the whole family of Bona- 
 parte was banished from France ; and, in 
 the edict of amnesty issued by Louis 
 XVIII, Jan. 6, 1816, all Napoleon Bona- 
 parte's relations were excepted. They 
 were to remain in banishment, hold no 
 possessions in France, and dispose of 
 all their property there within six months. 
 The royal ordinance of May 22, 1816, de- 
 creed, that the property and income of 
 the members of the Bonaparte family who 
 had come back on Napoleon's return 
 from Elba, which had been confiscated 
 by the law of Jan. 12, 1816, should be 
 appropriated to the support of meritorious 
 soldiers and such donees as had lost their 
 donations in foreign countries. -For ac- 
 counts of Joseph, JVapoleon, Lucien, Louis 
 and Jerome Bonaparte, see these heads ; 
 for information respecting Mariana, after- 
 wards called Elisa, we refer the reader to 
 the article Bacciochi ; respecting Carletta, 
 afterwards called Marie Pauline, to the 
 article Borghese ; respecting Annunziada, 
 afterwards called Annonciade Caroline, to 
 the article Murat. See, moreover, Fesch, 
 Eugene (whose sister, Hortensia, is men- 
 tioned in the article Louis Bonaparte), 
 and Maria Louisa (Leopoldine Caroline). 
 The members of the family of Napo- 
 leon live retired and much respected, 
 manifesting great taste for the fine arts 
 and the sciences. Almost all have ap- 
 peared as authors, with more or less suc- 
 cess, as will be seen under the different 
 heads. 
 
 BONAVENTURA, John of Fidanza ; one 
 of the most renowned scholastic philoso- 
 phers ; born, 1221, in Tuscany ; became, in 
 1243, a Franciscan monk ; in 1255, teacher 
 of theology at Paris, where he had studied ; 
 in 1256, -general of his order, whicli he 
 ruled with a prudent mixture of gentle- 
 ness and firmness. He died in 1274, at 
 the age of 53. At this time, he was a 
 cardinal and papal legate at the council 
 of Lyons. His death was hastened by 
 his ascetic severities. On account of his 
 blameless conduct from his earliest youth, 
 and of some miracles ascribed to him, he 
 enjoyed, during his life, the greatest ven- 
 eration, and was canonized by pope Six-
 
 BONA VENTURA BONE. 
 
 tus IV. The elevation of thought in his 
 writings, and his dignity as general of the 
 Seraphic order, procured him the name 
 doctor Seraphicus. The Franciscans op- 
 posed him as their hero to the Dominican 
 scholastic Thomas Aquinas. He wrote 
 for the honor and improvement of his 
 order, for the promotion of the worship 
 of the virgin, on celibacy, transubstantia- 
 tion and other doctrines. He is frequent- 
 ly obscure by his attempts to support the 
 creed of the church with arguments 
 drawn from the Aristotelian and new 
 Platonic philosophy, and by his mystical 
 views in treating of the moral and intel- 
 lectual perfection of the human character. 
 Yet he is distinguished from other scho- 
 lastics by perspicuity, avoidance of use- 
 less subtleties, and greater warmth of 
 religious feeling. Among his writings 
 are, Itinerarium Mentis in Deum ; Re- 
 ductio Jlrlhum in Theologiam ; Centiloqui- 
 um, and Breviloquium. The whole was 
 published 158896, at Rome, 7 vols. folio. 
 But many pieces in that collection are not 
 genuine. 
 
 BOND, in law, is a deed whereby the 
 party obliges himself, his executors or 
 administrators (and, if the deed so express 
 it, his heirs also), to pay a certain sum of 
 money to another at a day appointed. 
 If this be all, the bond is called a simple 
 one (simplex oUigatio}. But there is 
 generally a condition added, that, if the 
 obligor does some particular act, the obli- 
 gation shall be void, or else shall remain 
 hi full force ; as payment of rent, per- 
 formance of covenants in a deed, or re- 
 payment of a principal sum of money 
 borrowed of the obligee, with interest ; 
 which principal sum is usually one half 
 of the penal sum specified in the bond. 
 In case this condition is not performed, 
 the bond becomes forfeited, or absolute at 
 law, and charges the obligor while living, 
 and, after his death, his personal repre- 
 sentatives, and his heirs, if the heirs be 
 named hi the bond. In case of a failure 
 to perform the condition of the bond, the 
 obligee can recover only his principal, 
 interest and expenses, if the bond were 
 given to secure the payment of money, 
 or, if it were given to secure the" per- 
 formance of a covenant, he can recover 
 only reasonable damages for the breach. 
 
 BONDAGE. (See Villenage.) 
 
 BONDI, Clemente, abbate, one of the 
 most esteemed niedern poets of Italy, 
 born at Mantua, or, according to some 
 accounts, at Parma, entered the order of 
 the Jesuits a few years before its abolition. 
 After his talents became known to the 
 
 archduke Ferdinand, governor of Milan, 
 and his lady, Maria Beatrice of Este, a 
 princess worthy of that name, which has 
 been immortalized by Ariosto and Tasso, 
 he was appointed tutor of their children, 
 and appeared successively as a lyric, de- 
 scriptive, satirical and elegiac poet ; often, 
 also, as a poetical translator. By the ele* 
 gance, flow and harmony of his versifi- 
 cation, and by the nobleness of his style, 
 disfigured neither by extravagance nor 
 by affectation, he became a favorite in 
 Italy. We possess all the poetry of B. 
 in an elegant edition (1808, 3 vols. by 
 Degen, Vienna). The first volume con- 
 tains the longer poems, La Conversazione ; 
 La Fdicita ; II Govenw Pacifico ; La 
 .1/brfrt, and La Giornata Vilhrtccia. The 
 second and third contain sonnets, epistles, 
 elegies, caiizoni, cantatas, and other small 
 poems. The third concludes with the 
 translation of Virgil's Georgics. 
 
 BOMDY, Taillepied, count of; bom at 
 Paris, 1766, of an ancient family. In 
 1792, he was made director of the manu- 
 factory of assignats. August 10th of this 
 year, he retired from public office until 
 1805, when Napoleon made him a cham- 
 berlain, and afterwards prefect of the de- 
 partment of the Rhone, where he con- 
 ducted with mildness, and promoted the 
 public works in his district. In 1812, he 
 was very useful to Lyons by his care to 
 prevent a scarcity of food in the city. 
 In 1814, he maintained the city for a long 
 time against the allies. In 1815, he was 
 appointed, by Napoleon, prefect of the 
 Seine, with a vote in the council of state. 
 Here he spoke, usually, with great frank- 
 ness to Napoleon, on the necessity of a 
 Constitutional system of government. July 
 3d, 1815, he was one of the three com- 
 missioners of the government for conclud- 
 ing with the generals of the allies the 
 terms for the surrender of the capital. 
 In 1816 and 18, he was deputy for the 
 department of the Indre, and advocated 
 the principles of the left side. 
 
 BONE. The bones are the hardest and 
 most solid parts of animals ^ they consti- 
 tute the frame, serve as points of attach- 
 ment to the muscles, and afford support 
 to the softer solids. They are the instru- 
 ments, as muscles are the organs, of mo- 
 tion. In the mammalia, birds, fish and 
 reptiles, the whole system of bones unit- 
 ed by the vertebral column is called the 
 skeleton. In the foetus, they are first a 
 vascular, gelatinous substance, in different 
 points of which earthy matter is gradual- 
 ly deposited. This process is perceptible 
 towards the end of the second month,
 
 BONE BONIFACE. 
 
 18& 
 
 and, at the time of maturity, the bone is 
 completely formed. After birth, the bones 
 become gradually more solid, and, in the 
 temperate zones, reach their perfection in 
 men between the ages of 15 and 20. 
 From this age till 50, they change but 
 slightly; after that period, they grow 
 thinner, lighter, and more brittle. Those 
 of the two first classes of animals are 
 harder on their exterior than they are in- 
 ternally. Their material, except in the 
 teeth, is nearly the same throughout. 
 Their structure is vascular, and they are 
 traversed by the blood-vessels and the ab- 
 sorbents. They are hardest at the surface, 
 which is formed by a firm membrane, 
 called the periosteum ; the internal parts 
 are cellular, containing a substance called 
 marrow. The use of the marrow is to 
 prevent the too great dryness and brittle- 
 ness of the bones. Chemistry decomposes 
 bone into gelatin, fat, cartilage and earthy 
 salts. A fresh bone boiled in water, or 
 exposed to the action of an acid, gives out 
 its gelatin ; if boiled in water, on cooling 
 the decoction, a jelly is formed, which 
 makes a good portable soup. A pound 
 of bone yields twice as much as the same 
 quantity of flesh. The earth of bones is 
 obtained by calcination ; that is, by ex- 
 posing them to a red heat, by which they 
 are deprived of the soft substances. That 
 part of anatomy which treats of the bones 
 is called osteology. 
 
 BONER, Ulrich, the most ancient Ger- 
 man fabulist, was a Dominican friar at 
 Berne, in the first half of the 14th centu- 
 ry. He lived when the age of minstrelsy 
 and chivalrous poetry was in its decline, 
 and has published a collection of fables, 
 under the title Der Edelstein (The Gem), 
 which is distinguished by purity of lan- 
 guage and picturesque simplicity of de- 
 scription. The first editions of these 
 fablos were by Bodmer and Eschen- 
 burg. Benecke in Gottingen has publish- 
 ed a very good edition more recently, and 
 added a vocabulary (Berlin, 1816). 
 
 BONESET. The herb known by the 
 name of boneset or thoroughwort (eupato- 
 rium perfoliatum) is a very useful annual 
 plant, indigenous to the United States. It 
 is easily distinguished, in the autumn, in 
 marshy grounds, by its tall stem, four or 
 five feet in height, passing through the 
 middle of a large, double, hairy leaf, which 
 is perforated by the stalk, and surmounted 
 by a broad, flat head of light-purple 
 flowers. It is much used as a medicine, 
 throughout the country, in the form of an 
 infusion of the heads of the flowers, and 
 part of the remainder of the plant, in 
 
 boiling water, which is allowed to stand 
 a few minutes upon the fire. It is one 
 of the best domestic articles for breaking 
 up and throwing off a violent cold, for 
 which purpose, from a half pint to a pint 
 of the above infusion may be drank cold, 
 at bed-time, which will be found to purge 
 by morning ; or it may be taken warm 
 before eating, hi the morning, when it 
 will generally operate as an emetic and 
 purgative. Smaller quantities of the in- 
 fusion, taken warm through the day, in 
 bed, and in combination with other med- 
 icines, will be found highly serviceable in 
 rheumatism and rheumatic fevers. As a 
 safe and valuable family medicine, it can- 
 not be too highly recommended. 
 
 BONIFACE ; the name of several popes. 
 B. I, elected, 418, by a party of the clergy, 
 and confirmed by the emperor Honorius, 
 who declared the antipope EuLalius a 
 usurper. B. persecuted the Pelagians, 
 and extended his authority by prudent 
 measures. A decree of the emperor The- 
 odosius deprived him, in 421, of the 
 spiritual sovereignty over Eastern Illyria. 
 He died 422. His history proves the 
 Roman bishop to have been, hi his time, 
 dependent on the secular power. B. II, 
 elected 530. The death of his rival, the 
 antipope Dioscorus, a few days after his 
 election, left him in quiet possession of 
 the papal chair. He acknowledged the 
 supremacy of the secular sovereign, in a 
 council held at Rome. B. Ill, chosen 
 607, died nine months after his election. 
 B. IV, elected 608. He consecrated the 
 Pantheon (q. v.) to the virgin and all the 
 saints. B. V, a Neapolitan, was pope from 
 619 to 625. He confirmed the inviola- 
 bility of the asylums, and endeavored to 
 diffuse Christianity among the English. 
 B. VI, a Roman, elected 896, died of 
 the gout a fortnight after. B. VII, anti- 
 pope, elected 974, during the lifetime of 
 Benedict VI, whose death he was sus- 
 pected of having caused. Expelled from 
 Rome, he returned on the death of Bener 
 diet VII, and found the chair occupied 
 by John XIV, whom he deposed and 
 threw into prison, where he allowed him 
 to die of hunger. B. died 11 months af- 
 ter his return. B. VIII, see the article. 
 B. IX, Pietro Tomacelli of Naples, suc- 
 ceeded Urban VI at Rome, during the 
 schism in the church, while Clement VII 
 resided at Avignon. He was distinguish- 
 ed for the beauty of his person, and the 
 elegance of his manners, rather than for 
 a profound knowledge of theology and 
 canon law. Even the counsel of his ex- 
 perienced cardinals could not save him
 
 184 
 
 BONIFACE. 
 
 from the commission of gross blunders. 
 He was more skilled in the arts of simony 
 and extortion. He sold the same bene- 
 fice repeatedly, established the annates in 
 1372, and lavished the treasures thus pro- 
 cured on his relations, or in costly edi- 
 fices ; the fortification of the castle of St. 
 Angelo, for instance, and the capital. 
 He supported the pretensions of Ladis- 
 laus to the throne of Naples, and, during 
 the greatest part of liis pontificate, was 
 engaged in negotiations with his rivals 
 at Avignon, Clement VII and Benedict 
 XIII. He died in 1404. 
 
 BONIFACE VIII, Benedict Cajetan ; bom 
 at Anagui, of an ancient Catalonian fami- 
 ly ; elected pope Dec. 24th, 1294. He 
 received a careful education, studied ju- 
 risprudence, was a canon at Paris and 
 Lyons, advocate of the consistory, and 
 prothonotary of the pope at Rome. After 
 Martin IV had elevated him to the dignity 
 of a cardinal (1251), he went as legate to 
 Sicily and Portugal, and was intrusted 
 with embassies at several courts ; in par- 
 ticular, with the charge of reconciling the 
 king of Sicily with Alphonso of Arragon, 
 and Philip the Fair with Edward I of 
 England. After Co3lestine V had resigned 
 the papal dignity, at Naples, in 1294, at 
 the instigation of B., the latter was chosen 
 pope. He met with opposition from the 
 cardinals of the family Colonna, and re- 
 venged hirnselfby excommunicating them. 
 His induction was magnificent. The 
 kings of Hungary and Sicily held his 
 bridle on his way to the Lateran, and 
 served him, at table, with their crowns on 
 their heads. B., however, was not suc- 
 cessful in his first efforts for the increase 
 of his power. The sovereignty of Sicily 
 was denied him, and Frederic II was 
 crowned king there in spite of his excom- 
 munication. He was equally unsuccess- 
 ful in his attempt to arbitrate between 
 England and France. The bulls which 
 he issued, at this time, against king Philip 
 the Fair of France, obtained no considera- 
 tion. This was also the case with the 
 interdict which he pronounced against 
 him at the council of Rome, in 1302. 
 Supported by the states and the clergy 
 of France, Philip defended his royal rights 
 against the encroachments of the pope. 
 The pope was accused of duplicity, of 
 simony, of usurpation, of heresy, of un- 
 chastity ; and it was resolved to condemn 
 and depose him at a general council at 
 Lyons. Philip went still further : he sent 
 Nogaret to Italy, in order to seize his 
 person, and bring him to Lyons. Nogaret 
 united himself, for this purpose, with Sci- 
 
 arra Colonna, who, with his whole fami- 
 ly, had been oppressed by B., and was, 
 in consequence, his enemy. B. fled to 
 Anagni, where Nogaret and Colonna sur- 
 prised him. B., on this occasion, acted 
 with spirit. " Since I am betrayed," said 
 he, " as Jesus Christ was betrayed, I will 
 die at least as a pope." He assumed the 
 pontifical robes and the tiara, took the 
 keys and the cross in his hand, and seated 
 himself in the papal chair. But the insig- 
 nia of his holy office did not save him 
 from arrest. Nay, Colonna went so far 
 as to use personal violence. B. remained 
 in a disagreeable confinement for two 
 days, when the Anagnese took up arms, 
 and delivered him. After this, he depart- 
 ed to Rome, where he died, a month later, 
 in 1303. From fear of poison, he had 
 not taken any food during his captivity. 
 This abstinence brought on a fever, which 
 terminated fatally. Boldness in his views, 
 and perseverance in his resolutions, can- 
 not be denied to B. ; but these qualities 
 were stained by ambition, vanity, a spirit 
 of revenge, and a mean pliability. Dante 
 assigns to him, as guilty of simony, a 
 place in hell, between Nicholas III and 
 Clement V. . B. founded, in 1300, the cen- 
 tennial jubilee, and enriched his treasury 
 by the frequent sale of indulgences. He 
 was an accomplished man, for the times 
 in which he lived. 
 
 BONIFACE, St. ; the apostle of Germany, 
 who first preached Christianity, and spread 
 civilization among the Germans. He was 
 born in England (680), and his original 
 name was Winfrid. In his 30th year, he 
 was consecrated a priest. A great part 
 of Europe, at this period, was inhabited 
 by heathens, and several missionaries set 
 out from England to convert them. Gal- 
 lus, in 614, went to Allemania ; Emme- 
 ran, who died 652, to Bavaria ; Kilian, 
 who died 689, to Franconia ; Willibrord, 
 who died 696, to Friesland; Sigfrid to 
 Sweden ; Swidvert to Friesland. In 716, 
 B. conceived the plan of preaching Chris- 
 tianity among the Frieslanders ; but was 
 prevented by the war between Charles 
 Martel and the king of Friesland, Rad- 
 bod. He therefore returned to England, 
 where he was chosen abbot. In 718, he 
 went to Rome, where Gregory 'II au- 
 thorized him to preach the gospel to all 
 the nations of Germany. He commenced 
 his labors in Thuringia and Bavaria, 
 passed three years in Friesland, and jour- 
 neyed through Hesse in Saxony, baptiz- 
 ing every where, and converting the pa- 
 gan temples to Christian churches. In 
 723, he was invited to Rome, made a
 
 ST. BONIFACE BONN. 
 
 bishop, by Gregory II, and recommended 
 to Charles Martel and all princes and 
 bishops. His name Winfrid he changed 
 to B. In 724, he destroyed the oak sa- 
 cred to Thor, near Geismar, in Hesse, 
 founded churches and monasteries, invit- 
 ed from England priests, monks and nuns, 
 and sent them to Saxony, Friesland and 
 Bavaria. In 732, Gregory III made him 
 archbishop and primate of all Germany, 
 and authorized him to establish bishop- 
 rics, the only existing bishopric being 
 the one at Passau. He founded those of 
 Freisingen, Ratisbon, Erfurt, Barabourg 
 (transferred afterwards to Paderborn), 
 Wiirtzburg and Aichstadt. In 739, he 
 restored the episcopal see of St. Rupert, 
 at Salzburg. After the death of Charles 
 Martel, he consecrated Pepin the Short 
 king of the Franks, in Soissons 4 by whom 
 he was made bishop of Mentz. He held 
 eight ecclesiastical councils in Germany, 
 founded the famous abbey of Fulda, and 
 undertook, in 754, new journeys for the 
 conversion of the infidels. He was killed 
 at Dockum, in West Friesland, by some 
 barbarians, in 755, in his 75th year. In 
 Fulda, a copy of the Gospels, in his own 
 handwriting, is to be seen. At the place 
 where B. built, in 724, the first Christian 
 church in North Germany, near the vil- 
 lage of Altenburg, in the Thuringian for- 
 est, a monument has been erected to his 
 memory, consisting of a candelabrum, 30 
 feet high. The most complete collection 
 of the letters of B. was published at Mentz, 
 1789, folio. 
 
 BONN ; capital of the Prussian govern- 
 ment of Cologne, formerly the residence 
 of the elector of Cologne, on the left bank 
 of the Rhine, with 1109 houses, four 
 Catholic, and, since 1817, one Protestant 
 church. It contains 10,600 inhabitants, 
 among whom are 200 Jews, who dwell 
 in a particular street. B. was formerly 
 fortified : the works were demolished in 
 1717. A lyceum was instituted here in 
 1802. An academy had been established 
 in 1777, and, in 178(5, erected into a uni- 
 versity. This institution was superseded 
 by the lyceum. The manufactures are 
 not important. The commerce is chiefly 
 in the hands of the Jews. A walk, with 
 four rows of trees, and 1200 paces in 
 length, leads to the beautiful palace of 
 Glemensruhe, near the village of Poppels- 
 dorf. B. contains the university of the 
 Rhine, the charter of which was given, 
 Oct. 18, 1818, at Aix-la-Chapelle, by the 
 king of Prussia, who, at the same time, 
 endowed it with an annual income of 
 fcO,OCO Prussian dollars, Ki.OOO of which 
 1C* 
 
 are appropriated to the botanical garden. 
 The former residence of the elector of 
 Cologne was bestowed on the university. 
 It has been fitted up at great expense, and 
 is surpassed, in extent and beauty, by no 
 university buildings in Europe. It con- 
 tains all the lecture halls, a library of 
 more than 50,000 volumes, a museum of 
 antiquities, a collection of casts of the 
 principal ancient statues, a cabinet for 
 natural philosophy, clinical institutions of 
 uncommon extent and order, to which 
 will be added a Catholic theological sem- 
 inary, and a convictorium (refectory). The 
 paintings in the aida minor (among oth- 
 ers, the great allegorical picture, the 
 Christian Church) were executed by some 
 pupils of Cornelius. To the liberality of 
 the king, the university owes also an ana- 
 tomical hall, a new riding-school, and an 
 edifice, once a royal palace, in Poppels- 
 dorf, ten minutes' walk from the city, 
 which contains the mineralogical and 
 zoological collections, and before which 
 lies the botanical garden. Adjoining it 
 are lands and buildings for the use of the 
 agricultural institute. The tower of the 
 old custom-house, which commands a 
 fine view, is destined for an observatory. 
 The king has also established here a print- 
 ing press for Sanscrit, under the inspec- 
 tion of A. W. von Schlcgel. The museum 
 of German and Roman antiquities is un- 
 der the direction of the same distinguish- 
 ed scholar. The teachers of the five 
 faculties, of which the university con- 
 sists, are more than fifty. Particular ad- 
 vantages are afforded for the education 
 of young men intended for instructors. 
 Many men distinguished in various 
 branches of science are connected with 
 the university. The historian Niebuhr 
 has lately repaired thither to deliver 
 lectures. The exertions of the govern- 
 ment to collect in B. all the means of 
 instruction, united with the charms of the 
 place and the beauties of the scenery, 
 have made the university in a short time 
 very much frequented. In 1826, it con- 
 tained 931 students, among whom were 
 110 foreigners. 
 
 BONN, Andrew, an anatomist, born at 
 Amsterdam, in 1738, studied and received 
 his degree at Leyden. His dissertation 
 was the excellent treatise De Continuita- 
 tibus Membranarum, of which two famous 
 physicians, Biohat and Wrisberg, have 
 made use in their works. He finished 
 his studies at Paris. In 1771, he returned 
 to Amsterdam, where he delivered lec- 
 tures. He had the three first numbers of 
 the Thesaurus Hvdanus Ossium
 
 186 
 
 BONN BONNET. 
 
 soriim engraved at his own expense. He 
 died iu 1818. His long life was devoted 
 to the relief of the suffering, and to the 
 education of skilful physicians and sur- 
 geons. As president of the Monnikhof 
 institution for the investigation of the best 
 remedies against the different kinds of 
 hernia, he has likewise accomplished a 
 great deal. 
 
 BojfNER, Edmund, an English prelate 
 of infamous notoriety, was the son of a 
 peasant at Hanley in Worcestershire. He 
 was educated at Pembroke college, Ox- 
 ford, where he was made doctor of com- 
 mon law, in 1525. For his skill in busi- 
 ness, he was patronised by cardinal 
 Wolsey, from whom he received several 
 clerical .preferments. On the death of 
 Wolsey, he acquired the favor of Henry 
 VIII, who made him one of his chaplains, 
 and sent him to Rome to advocate his 
 divorce from queen Catharine. Here he 
 conducted with so much intemperance, 
 that the pope is said to have threaten- 
 ed to throw him into a caldron of boil- 
 ing lead, on which he thought proper 
 to return. In 1538, he was nominated 
 bishop of Hereford, being then ambas- 
 sador at Paris; but, before his conse- 
 cration, he was translated to the see of 
 London. At the time of the death of 
 Henry, he was ambassador to the emperor 
 Charles V, but returned the same year, 
 when, refusing to take the oath of suprem- 
 acy, he was deprived of his bishopric, 
 to which, however, he was restored, on 
 making submission. Still continuing to 
 act with contumacy, he was, after a long 
 trial, once more deprived of his see, and 
 committed to the Marshalsea ; from which 
 prison, on the accession of Mary, he was 
 released, and once more restored by com- 
 mission. During this reign, B. distin- 
 guished himself by a most sanguinary 
 persecution of the Protestants, 200 of 
 whom he was instrumental in bringing to 
 the stake, whipping and torturing several 
 of them with his own hands. When 
 Elizabeth succeeded, he went, with the 
 rest of the bishops, to meet her at High- 
 gate, but, at the sight of him, she averted 
 her countenance with an expression of 
 horror. He remained, however, unmo- 
 lested, until his refusal to take the oath 
 of supremacy; on which be was once 
 more committed to the Marshalsea, where 
 he remained a prisoner for nearly 10 years, 
 until his death, in 1569. He was buried 
 at midnight, to avoid any disturbance on 
 the part of the populace, to whom he was 
 extremely obnoxious. B. was well versed 
 in the canon law, and was an able diplo- 
 
 matist. He cannot, says a Catholic wri- 
 ter, be defended from the charge of ex- 
 treme rigor and cruelty ; yet he deserves 
 credit for his firmness of principle, for his 
 courage when in disgrace, and for the 
 calmness and resignation with which he 
 supported a long imprisonment. 
 
 BONNET, in fortification; an elevation 
 of the parapet in the salient angles of a 
 field retrenchment, or of a fortification, 
 designed to prevent the enfilading of the 
 front of the work, at the end of which it 
 is situated. The bonnet accomplishes, 
 however, only part of this object, and is 
 subject, at least in field retrenchments, to 
 the disadvantage, that the men destined 
 for its defence are too much exposed to 
 be taken in flank by the fire of the ene- 
 my, on account of the necessary elevation 
 of the banquette (q. v.) a fault which 
 cannot occur in the works of a fortress 
 which are well laid out 
 
 BOSKET, Charles, a natural philosopher 
 and metaphysician, born at Geneva, in 
 1720, exchanged the study of the laws for 
 that of natural history. His essay On 
 Aphides, in which he proved that they 
 propagated without coition, procured him, 
 in his 20th year, the place of a corre- 
 sponding member of the academy of 
 sciences at Paris. Soon afterwards, he 
 partook in the discoveries of Trembley re- 
 specting the polypus, and made interesting 
 observations on the respiration of cater- 
 pillars and butterflies, and on the structure 
 of the tape-worm. An active correspond- 
 ence with many learned men in his own 
 country and abroad, and too continued 
 perseverance in labor, brought on an in- 
 flammation in his eyes, which prevented 
 him from writing for more than two years. 
 His active spirit employed this interval in 
 meditating on the source of our ideas, on 
 the nature of the soul, and on other myste- 
 ries of metaphysics. From 1752 till 1768, 
 he was a member of the great council of 
 his native city. He afterwards retired to 
 his countiy-seat (Genthod), on the banks 
 of the lake of Geneva, where he led a 
 retired life, devoting his time to the inves- 
 tigation of nature, to the conversation of 
 learned men, and to an extensive corre- 
 spondence, till his death, in 1793. B. was 
 a close and exact observer. He carried 
 religious contemplations into the study of 
 nature. In his views of the human soul, 
 many traces of materialism are to be 
 found ; for instance, the derivation of all 
 ideas from the movements of the nervous 
 fibres. Of his works on natural history 
 and metaphysics, there are two collec- 
 tions ; one in 9 vols., 4to., the other in 18
 
 BONNET BONNYCASTLE. 
 
 187 
 
 vols., 8vo., Neufchatel, 1779. The most 
 celebrated are, Traits cTInsectologie ; Re- 
 f lurches sur VUsage des Feuilles dans les 
 Plantes ; Considerations sur les Corps or- 
 ganises ; Contemplation de la Nature ; Es- 
 sai analytique sur les Facultes de VAme ; 
 Palinginesie Phtiosophique, and Essai de 
 Psychologic. 
 
 BONNET ; advocate, andbatonnier (presi- 
 dent) of the advocates in Paris. During 
 the revolution, he was zealous in defend- 
 ing many unfortunate persons who were 
 dragged before the revolutionary tribunal. 
 He displayed his brilliant eloquence in 
 the defence of general Moreau. In later 
 times, he has been blamed for having 
 yielded too much to the vindictive spirit 
 of the French state attorneys : since 1815, 
 particularly, he has been considered too 
 compliant towards the procureur-general 
 Bellart. We have reason to suppose that 
 much of the reproach which has been 
 cast upon him is unfounded, as he is 
 known to have exposed his life and lib- 
 erty, in former times, to save the accused. 
 B. belongs to the extreme right side in 
 the chamber of deputies, and has thus 
 lost his popularity. 
 
 BONJXEVAL, Claude Alexander, count 
 of, or ACHMET PACHA, born 1672, at 
 Coussac, in Limousin, of an illustrious 
 French family, entered, in his 16th year, 
 the body-guard of the king, but showed 
 an extravagant propensity for pleasure. 
 In war, he was an able and successful 
 partisan, beloved by those under his com- 
 mand. He enjoyed the esteem of the 
 marshal of Luxembourg. In the war of 
 the Spanish succession, he obtained a 
 regiment, with which he marched to Italy, 
 and distinguished himself by his valor as 
 well as by his excesses. On his return, 
 he was obliged to fly, in consequence of 
 some violent expressions against the min- 
 ister and madainc de Maintenon. He 
 was, in 1706, appointed major-general by 
 prince Eugene, and fought against his 
 native country. At the peace of Rastadt, 
 in 1714, by the interference of prince 
 Eugene, the process against him for high 
 treason was withdrawn, and he was al- 
 lowed to return to his estates. In 1716, 
 he was lieutenant field-marshal of the 
 Austrian infantry, and distinguished him- 
 self by his valor against the Turks at 
 Petenvardein (1716). In 1718, B. was 
 made a member of the imperial council 
 of war, but his licentiousness and indis- 
 cretion induced prince Eugene to get rid 
 of him, by appointing him, in 1723, mas- 
 ter-general of the ordnance in the Neth- 
 erlands. To revenge himself on Eugene, 
 
 he sent complaints to Vienna against the 
 governor, the marquis of Prie ; but the 
 latter, who, on liis side, had not been in- 
 active, received an order to arrest B., and 
 to imprison him in the citadel of Ant- 
 werp. B., being afterwards ordered to 
 appear at Vienna, and give an explanation 
 of his conduct, spent a month at the 
 Hague before he chose to comply with 
 the summons. He was therefore confined 
 in the castle of Spielberg, near Brimn, 
 and condemned to death by the imperial 
 council of war; but the sentence was 
 changed, by the emperor, into one year's 
 imprisonment and exile. B. now went 
 to Constantinople, where the fame of his 
 deeds, and his humanity towards the 
 Turkish prisoners of war, procured him a 
 kind reception. He consented to change 
 his religion, received instruction in Mo- 
 hammedanism from the mufti, submitted 
 to circumcision, and received the name 
 Achmd Pacha, with a large salary. He 
 was made a pacha of three tails, com- 
 manded a large army, defeated the Aus- 
 trians on the Danube, and quelled an 
 insurrection in Arabia Peti'sea. His ex- 
 ertions, as commander of the bombardiers, 
 to improve the Turkish artillery, were 
 opposed by the jealousy of powerful pa- 
 chas, the irresolution of Mohammed V, 
 and the dislike of the Turkish troops to 
 all European institutions. He enjoyed, 
 however, the pleasures of his situation. 
 He died in 1747. His Memoires were 
 published by Desherbiers (Paris, 1806, 
 2 vols.) In the second volume of the 
 Memoirs of Casanova are to be found 
 some notices of B. 
 
 BONNYCASTLE, John, professor of math- 
 ematics at the royal military academy at 
 Woolwich, was born in Buckingham- 
 shire. Though his education was not 
 neglected, yet he was chiefly indebted to 
 his own exertions tor the various and 
 extensive knowledge which he acquired. 
 While young, he became private tutor to 
 the two sons of the earl of Pomfret. 
 After two years, he quitted that situation 
 on being appointed one of the mathe- 
 matical masters at Woolwich. Here, for 
 more than 40 years, he devoted his time 
 to the duties of his profession, and to the 
 composition of elementary mathematical 
 works. His first production was the 
 Scholar's Guide to Arithmetic, which has 
 passed through many editions. His 
 guides to algebra and mensuration are 
 useful school-books. He likewise wrote 
 a Treatise upon Astronomy, 8vo. ; the 
 Elements of Geometry, 8vo. ; a Treatise 
 on Plane and Spherical Trigonometry,
 
 188 
 
 BONNYCASTLE BONZES. 
 
 8vo. ; a Treatise on Algebra, 2 vols. 8vo. ; 
 and various articles in the early part of 
 the last edition of doctor Rees's Cyclopte- 
 dia. He died at Woolwich, May 15, 1821. 
 
 BONPLAND, Aime, educated at the 
 medical school and the botanical garden 
 in Paris, accompanied Alexander von 
 Humboldt to America in 1799, and dis- 
 covered above GOOO new species of plants. 
 After his return, he was made, in 1804, su- 
 perintendent of the garden at Mahnaison, 
 which he has described (Paris, 1813 
 1817/11 numbers, folio, with copper- 
 plates). He was also co-editor of the 
 Travels and Voyages in the Equinoctial 
 Regions of the New Continent, from 
 1799 to 1804,- by Alex. Humboldt and A. 
 Bonpland ; published in French in Paris, 
 and in German, by Cotta, in Tubingen 
 (1818). In 1818, he went, as professor of 
 natural history, to Buenos Ayres. There, 
 Oct. 1, 1820, he undertook a journey 
 along the Parana, to explore the interior 
 of Paraguay. At Santa Ana, however, 
 on the eastern bank of the Parana, where 
 he had laid out plantations of tea, and 
 had founded a colony of Indians, he was 
 surprised, on the territory of Buenos 
 Ayres, by 800 soldiers of doctor Francia, 
 dictator of Paraguay, who destroyed his 
 plantations, and carried him off prisoner, 
 together with most of the Indians. Fran- 
 cia sent him, as physician, to the garrison 
 of a fort, and employed him in laying out 
 a commercial road. B. lived till within a 
 few years in Santa Maria. There is no 
 other reason for his captivity, than his suc- 
 cess in planting the Paraguay tea. Alex. 
 Humboldt wrote to doctor Francia to 
 persuade him to liberate his friend, and 
 he was supported in his request by the 
 English minister Canning, and the British 
 consul in Buenos Ayres, Mr. Parish, but 
 without success. A late French mission 
 to South America has in view his libera- 
 tion. From the manuscripts of B., Kunth 
 arranged the large work, Nova Genera et 
 Species Planiarum, which B. and Alex. 
 Humboldt had collected and described 
 on their travels in the tropical countries 
 of the new world. (Paris, 18151825, 7 
 vols., fol., with copperplates, in 35 num- 
 bers, 1240 francs.) 
 
 BO:VSTETTEN, Charles von ; bom at 
 Berne, 1745, of an ancient and noble 
 family, in the canton of Zurich. His 
 father, Charles Emanuel, was treasurer 
 of Berne. He was educated, till his 19th 
 year, at Yverdun, then in Geneva, where 
 he improved himself in the society of 
 Bonnet, Stanhope, Voltaire, Saussure and 
 other learned men. He studied at Ley- 
 
 den, afterwards with Gray at Cambridge, 
 then at Paris, and travelled in Italy. In 
 1775, he became a member of the supreme 
 council at Berne, and, in 1787, landvoigt 
 in Nyon. Here Matthisson, Salis and 
 Frederica Brim lived with him ; here 
 John Miiller wrote on the history of his 
 native countiy. By his endeavors to im- 
 prove education, and other useful efforts, 
 he promoted the welfare of his native 
 country. During the revolutionary times, 
 he lived with his friend Frederica Brun, 
 in Copenhagen. On his return, in 1802, 
 he chose Geneva for his residence. The 
 results of a journey to Italy, in which he 
 had made interesting investigations on 
 the depopulation of the campagna at 
 Rome by the maV aria, appeared under 
 the title Voyage sur la Scene du dernier 
 Lavre de VEneide, suivi de quelques Obser- 
 vations sur le Latium Moderne (Geneva, 
 1813). In 1807, appeared his Recherclus 
 sur la Nature et les Lois de V Imagination, 
 2 vols. He afterwards published Pensees 
 Diverses sur divers Objets du Bien Public 
 (Geneva, 1815); Etudes ou Recherches sur 
 les Facultes de Sentir et de Penser (1821, 
 2 vols.) ; and UHomme du Midi et du Nord 
 (Geneva, 1824). These works indicate a 
 philosophical spirit of observation. 
 
 BOISZANIGA, Giuseppe ; royal sculptor 
 at Turin. By a persevering application 
 of 40 years, he raised the art of carving in 
 wood and ivory to a high degree of per- 
 fection, and founded an establishment, 
 from which numerous works of art have 
 been produced, that are much sought for 
 in all Italy, and valued by connoisseurs. 
 He died Dec. 18, 1820. 
 
 BONZES ; the name given by Europe- 
 ans to the priests of the religion of Fo, in 
 Eastern Asia, particularly in China, Bir- 
 mah, Tonquin, Cochin-China and Japan. 
 As these priests live together in monas- 
 teries, unmarried, they have much resem- 
 blafice to the monks of the Christian 
 church : the system of their hierarchy 
 and of their worsliip also agrees, in many 
 respects, with that of the Catholics. They 
 do penance, and pray for the sins of the 
 laity, who secure them from want by en- 
 dowments and alms. The female bonzes 
 may be compared to the Christian nuns ; 
 as the religion of Fo suffers no priest- 
 esses, but admits the social union of pious 
 virgins and widows, under monastic vows, 
 for the performance of religious exer- 
 cises. The bonzes are commonly ac- 
 quainted only with the external forms of 
 worship and the idols, without under- 
 standing the meaning of their religious 
 symbols. They endeavor to keep up the
 
 BONZES BOOK-TRADE. 
 
 189 
 
 superstition by which they are support- 
 ed. 
 
 BOOK-KEEPING is a mercantile term, 
 used to denote the method of keeping 
 commercial accounts, of all kinds, in such 
 a manner, that a man may thereby know, 
 at any time, the true state of his aftairs, 
 with clearness and expedition. Book- 
 keeping rests, like commerce in general, 
 on the notions of debtor and creditor, or 
 on the notions of that which we possess 
 or are to receive, and that which we are 
 to pay, and is divided into single, and 
 double or Italian book-keeping. In the 
 first, the posts of debtor and creditor are 
 separated from each other, and entered 
 in such a way, that each one appears 
 singly ; while, in the latter, creditor and 
 debtor are in continual mutual connex- 
 ion, to which end all the posts are entered 
 doubly, once on the debtor ami once on 
 the creditor side, by which every error 
 or mistake is prevented. This mode of 
 double book-keeping sprung up in Italy, 
 in the 15th century ; yet it had been prac- 
 tised already in Spain in the 14th century, 
 according to a legal ordinance. The 
 principle of this system is, that all money 
 and articles received become debtors to 
 him from whom they are received, and, 
 on the other hand, all those who receive 
 money or goods from us become debtors 
 to cash or to the goods. The books 
 which the merchant wants are principally 
 a waste-book, in which all his dealings 
 are recorded without particular order ; a 
 journal, in which the contents of the 
 waste-book are separated every month, 
 and entered on the debtor and creditor 
 sides ; and a leger, in which the posts 
 entered in the journal are placed under 
 particular accounts, and from which, every 
 year, the balance is drawn. 
 
 BOOK-TRADE, BOOKSELLERS. Before 
 the invention of typography, those who 
 cop ied books carried on the trade in 
 them. In Greece, in Alexandria, and in 
 Rome, there were booksellers who kept 
 a number of transcribers. In the middle 
 ages, there were booksellers, called sta- 
 tionarii, at the universities of Bologna and 
 Paris, who loaned single manuscripts at 
 high prices. In Paris, after 1342, no one 
 could deal in books without the permis- 
 sion of the university, who had particular 
 officers to examine the manuscripts and 
 fix the price. After the invention of 
 printing, the printers were also the book- 
 sellers. Faustus, the first bookseller, car- 
 ried his printed Bibles for sale to France. 
 Those who had formerly been employed 
 in copying now acted as agents of the 
 
 printers, and canned the printed copies 
 into the monasteries for sale. Towards 
 the end of the 15th century, there were 
 such book traders in Uhn, Nordlingen and 
 Augsburg. The first bookseller who pur- 
 chased manuscripts from the authors, and 
 had them printed by others, without pos- 
 scssing a press of his own, was John 
 Otto, in Nuremburg (1516). In Leipsic, 
 there were, for the first time, in 1545, two 
 booksellers of this kind Steiger and Bos- 
 kopf. The books were carried to Frank- 
 fort on the Maine to the fair. The book- 
 lair at Leipsic did not become important 
 until a later period : in 1667, it was at- 
 tended by 19 foreign booksellers. The 
 Leipsic catalogue of books appeared as 
 early as 1600. The booksellers of the 
 present day may be divided into printers 
 who sell their own publications (they 
 have become rare), booksellers who sell 
 the books which have been printed at 
 their expense by others, and those who 
 keep for sale the publications of others. 
 The last have, usually, at the same time, 
 publications of their own, which they sell 
 or exchange with others. This trade is 
 promoted, in Germany, chiefly by the 
 book- fairs at Leipsic, of which the Easter 
 fair is frequented by all the booksellers 
 of Germany, and by those of some of 
 the neighboring countries, as of France, 
 Switzerland, Denmark, Livonia, in order 
 to settle their mutual accounts, and to 
 form new connexions. The German 
 publisher sends his publications to the 
 keeper of assortments, a condition, that is, 
 on commission for a certain time, after 
 which the latter pays for what have been 
 sold, and can return what have not been 
 sold. This is not so favorable for the 
 publisher as the custom hi the French 
 book-trade, where the keeper of assort- 
 ments takes the quantity he wants at a 
 fixed rate. In the German book-trade, it 
 is the practice for almost every house, 
 either in the country or abroad, which 
 publishes or sells German books, to have 
 its agent at Leipsic, who receives and 
 distributes its publications. A., in Riga, 
 who publishes a book calculated for the 
 German trade, has his agent, B., in Leip- 
 sic, to whom he sends, free of expense, a 
 number of copies of his publication, that 
 he may distribute the new work to all the 
 booksellers with whom he is connected, 
 from Vienna to Hamburg, and from 
 Strasburg to Konigsberg, each of whom 
 has his agent in Leipsic. Instructions are 
 also given as to the number of copies to 
 be sent to each. B. delivers those copies 
 in Leipsic to the agents, who send them
 
 190 
 
 BOOK-TRADECATALOGUES OF BOOKS. 
 
 every week, or more or less frequently, 
 by the post, or by carriers, at the expense 
 of the receiver. C., in Strasburg, who 
 finds that he has not received copies 
 enough, writes for an additional number 
 of copies to his agent, D., in Leipsic. D. 
 gives this order to B., who delivers the 
 number wanted to D., to be transmitted 
 to C. This arrangement is advantageous 
 to the German book-trade as well as to 
 Leipsic. The dealer receives every thing 
 free to Leipsic, and, as a great number of 
 packets, with books from all parts of Ger- 
 many, arrive there for him every week, 
 he can have them packed together and 
 sent at once. The freight is thus much 
 less than if the packets were sent to him 
 separately from the different places, and 
 the whole business is simplified. The 
 booksellers are also enabled to agree with 
 greater ease on a certain discount per 
 cent. In other European countries, for 
 instance, in England and France, no such 
 connexion of the booksellers has yet been 
 formed. Paris is the central place of the 
 French book-trade. In Great Britain, 
 Edinburgh rivals London. In the Neth- 
 erlands, the most important repositories 
 of books are at Amsterdam, Utrecht, Ley- 
 den and Haerlem. In Brussels and Liege, 
 many French works are reprinted. In Ger- 
 many, several houses rarely unite for the 
 publication of great works, as is done in 
 France and England. In 1802, the book- 
 sellers of the U. States established a fair 
 at New York, and rules for its regulation. 
 In Spain and Portugal, the price of every 
 book is regulated by the government. 
 
 BOOKS, CATALOGUES OF. Catalogues of 
 books are interesting if the libraries they 
 describe contain a great number of works 
 (Bibliotheca Thottiana, Copenhagen, 1789 
 95, 7 parts, in 12 vols. ; Bibliotheca Fir- 
 miana, Milan, 1783, 6 vols. ; Catalogue du 
 Due de la Valliere, Paris, 178388, 9 
 vols.), or are distinguished by well-select- 
 ed, by rare and costly works (Cat. Bill. 
 Harleiantx, by Michael Maittaire, London, 
 1743 45, 5 vols.), or by scarce books 
 merely (Catalogue of Sam. Engel, Bern, 
 1743, and Dan. Salthen, Konigsberg, 
 1751), by old editions (J. F. Dibdin, 
 Biblwth. Spenceriana, London, 1814, 4 
 vols. ; Ferd. Fossii, Cat. Codd. Sec. 15 Im- 
 pressor. Bibl. Magliabccckiana!, Florence, 
 1793, 3 vols. fol.), by beautiful copies, 
 particularly on parchment (Cat. de la 
 Bibl. de McCarthy, Paris, 1815, 2 vols.), 
 or by being very rich in some particular 
 department. For natural history, the most 
 important catalogues are those of sir Jos. 
 Banks (London, 1796, 5 vols.), and of 
 
 Cobres (Augsburg, 1782, 2 vols.) ; for 
 Hungarian history, that of count Szecheny 
 (Sopronii, 1799 et seq.) ; for classical lit- 
 erature, those of count Rewiczky (Berlin, 
 1794), and of Askew (London, 1775), with 
 some others ; for French literature, the 
 second part of the catalogue of Valliere ; 
 for Italian literature, the catalogues of" 
 Capponi (Rome, 1747, 4 vols.), Floncel 
 (Paris, 1774, 2 vols.), and Ginguen6 (Paris, 
 1817) ; for the German language, that 
 of Adelung (Dresden, 1807). Catalogues 
 acquire their true value and utility by 
 judicious arrangement and accuracy of 
 detail. For this purpose, besides perfect 
 exactness in the material statements 
 which must prevail throughout, and es- 
 pecially with regard to uncommon works, 
 a notice of the printer, number of pages, 
 signatures, catchwords, &c., and 1 , ia en- 
 gravings, an account of the number and! 
 quality of the impressions, and the artist's 
 name, are necessary. Above all, a clear 
 arrangement of the books is requisite, that 
 they may be easily consulted. In this 
 department, the French took the lead. 
 Gabriel Naud6 opened the way by the 
 Catalogus Bibliothecce Cordesiance {Paris, 
 1643, 4 vols.) : he was followed by Ish- 
 mael Bullialdus and Jos. Quesnel, in the 
 Cat. Bib. Thuana: (Paris, 1679). Ga- 
 briel Martin, a bookseller at Paris, dis- 
 tinguished himself, in the 18th century, by 
 a further attention to the method of ar- 
 rangement, and, at the same time, by 
 bibliographical accuracy, (Catalogues of 
 Bulteau, 1711, du Fay, 1725, Brochard, 
 1729, count Hoym, 1738). On the foun- 
 dation laid by Martin, Debure built, in the 
 catalogue of Gaignat, 1769 ; and, in the 
 preparation of the first part of Valliere's 
 catalogue, as well as in the arrangement 
 of the second part, the bookseller Nyon 
 followed him with success. About this 
 time, Jac. Morelli, in Venice, published a 
 catalogue of the excellent library of Mkf- 
 feo Pinelli (Venice, 1787, 6 vols.), distin- 
 guished by similar merits. All these cat- 
 alogues, however, were prepared only to 
 facilitate the sale of the books enumerated, 
 and aspired to nothing higher. The ear- 
 lier catalogues of the Bodleian (Oxford, 
 1738, 2 vols. fol.) and Parisian libraries 
 (1739, 6 vols. fol.) are very defective. 
 John Michael Francke, in his catalogue of 
 the library of Bunau (Leipsic, 1750, 7 vols. 
 4to.), and Audiffredi, in the alphabetical 
 catalogue of the library of Casanati (Rome, 
 1761, 4 vols. fol.), have distinguished 
 themselves as scientific bibliothecarians. 
 Both works, though incomplete, are ex- 
 cellent models. Catalogus Biblioth. Jlca-
 
 CATALOGUES OF BOOKS CENSORSHIP OF BOOKS. 
 
 191 
 
 demias TheresiantE, by Joseph de Sartori 
 (Vienna, 1801, 13 vols. 4to.), is full of er- 
 rors and defects, and is by no means to 
 be compared to the former of the above- 
 mentioned works. There are, lastly, crit- 
 ical catalogues (cat. raisonnes) which 
 contain more minute information and 
 opinions, descriptions of uncommon and 
 remarkable books, and sometimes ac- 
 counts of their prices. Besides the few 
 generally interesting works of this nature 
 by John Fabricius (Wolfenb., 1717, 6 vols. 
 4to.), Jac. Fred. Reimmann (Hildesh., 
 1731, 2 vols.), Gotlieb Stolle (Jena, 1733, 
 18 vols. 4to.), and others, the catalogues 
 of Crevenna (Amsterdam, 1778, 6 vols. 
 4to.), Serna Santander (Brussels, 1803, 5 
 vols.), and lord Spencer (see above), and 
 Denis's Memorabilia of the Library of Ga- 
 relli (Vienna, 1780, 4to.) are very valuable. 
 BOOKS, CENSORSHIP OF. Unless we 
 consider die burning of condemned books 
 under the Roman emperors as a censor- 
 ship, the establishment of this institution 
 must be attributed to die popes ; but it 
 cannot be denied, that It would have 
 sprung up in a thousand other places, 
 even if it had not existed in their domin- 
 ions. Soon after the invention of print- 
 ing, the popes perceived the influence 
 which this art exerted over the diffusion 
 of knowledge. It was, besides, doubly 
 dangerous at a time when the authority of 
 the church had been assailed, and was 
 shaking under the load of its abuses. 
 They endeavored, therefore, to prohibit 
 first the reading, and secondly the print- 
 ing, of certain literary works. They en- 
 forced the ancient decrees of the church 
 against the reading of heretical books, 
 and introduced an ecclesiastical superin- 
 tendency of the press in 1479 and 1496, 
 which was more completely established 
 by a bull of Leo X, in 1515. In this, the 
 bishops and inquisitors were required to 
 examine all works before they were print- 
 ed, and thus to prevent the publication of 
 heretical opinions. They went still fur- 
 ther: as this papal decree could not be 
 carried into execution in all countries, on 
 account of the reformation, they prepared 
 an index of books which nobody was al- 
 lowed to read under penalty of the cen- 
 sure of the church. This index was 
 commenced by the council of Trent, in 
 the fourth session of which (1546), the 
 decree of the censorship was renewed ; 
 but it was not executed, and was finally 
 left to the popes (25th session of 1563), by 
 whom several such Indices LAbrorum pro- 
 hibitorum have been published. Even in 
 recent times, in 1758, such an augmented 
 
 index was issued. Works of an estab- 
 lished character, which could not well be 
 prohibited, it was determined to expur- 
 gate. The duke of Alva caused such an 
 Index expurgatorius to be prepared in the 
 Netherlands ; another was drawn up at 
 Rome, in 1607, which, however, with the 
 exception of some fragments, has re- 
 mained secret. This censorship was soon 
 afterwards adopted by the secular author- 
 ity, and, in some respects, extended still 
 further. In Germany, the politico-theo- 
 logical controversies gave the first occa- 
 sion for the introduction of this institution, 
 as they were carried on with the greatest 
 violence on both sides. The decree of 
 the Gentian diet, in 1524, prohibited 
 them. By the diet of 1530, a more severe 
 superintendence of the press was estab- 
 lished ; and this was confirmed by later 
 laws of the empire, in 1541, 1548, 1567, 
 and 1577, &c. It was also provided, at 
 the peace of Westphalia, 1648 ( Osnabr. 
 Instr., chapter v, 50), that the states 
 should not suffer attacks on religious par- 
 ties : From that time, the emperors have 
 promised, in their elective capitulations, 
 to watch strictly over the fulfilment of 
 tin's article. In the capitulations of the 
 emperor Leopold II, 1790, and of the 
 emperor Francis II, it was further added 
 (art. vi, 8), "that no work should be 
 printed, which could not be reconciled 
 with the symbolical books of both Cath- 
 olics and Protestants, and with good mor- 
 als, or which might produce the ruin of 
 the existing constitution, or the disturb- 
 ance of public peace. It was, however, 
 not difficult, in most Protestant countries, 
 for individual authors or literary journals 
 to obtain an exemption from the censor- 
 ship ; and many institutions, academies, 
 universities, &c., were privileged in this 
 way, as far as concerned their regular 
 professors. The governments sometimes 
 protected their subjects with great ener- 
 gy ; as, for instance, that of Hanover, in 
 the case of Putter and Schloezer. In 
 France, the censorship belonged to the 
 department of the chancellor, and was 
 administered by royal censors. It was 
 first abolished in England. It was 
 formerly exercised by the well-known 
 star-chamber, and, after the abolition of 
 this court, in 1641, by the parliament. In 
 1662, it was regulated by a particular 
 statute, but only for a certain number of 
 years. This statute was renewed in 1679, 
 and again, in 1692, for two years more. 
 In 1694, the right of the crown to render 
 the printing of writings, journals, &c. de- 
 pendent on its permission, that is, the
 
 192 
 
 CENSORSHIP OF BOOKS. 
 
 censorship, ceased entirely. In Holland, 
 and even in the Austrian Netherlands, a 
 great liberty, if not an entire freedom of 
 the press, prevailed. All that was not 
 permitted to be printed in France ap- 
 peared in the Netherlands or in Switzer- 
 land, at Lausanne and Geneva, to the 
 great advantage of the Dutch and Swiss 
 book-trade. In Sweden, by an edict of 
 1766, and accordingly under the aristo- 
 cratical constitution, the abolition of the 
 censorship was ordered; yet Gustavus 
 III, personally a friend to the liberty of 
 the press, was obliged to retain the cen- 
 sorship, and even to execute it with se- 
 verity, during the aristocratic al machina- 
 tions which disturbed his reign, and which 
 were but imperfectly counteracted in the 
 revolution of 1771. Gustavus IV issued 
 an edict soon after he ascended the 
 throne, by which the censorship was re- 
 tained only in matters of religion, and 
 was administered by the consistories. 
 This, however, was not permanent : at 
 first, penalties were enacted, and, in 1802, 
 the censorship was entirely reestablished, 
 committed to the chancellor of the court, 
 and executed with severity. French and 
 German books were prohibited. King 
 Charles XIII, immediately after his as- 
 cension to the throne, abolished it entirely 
 "by a provisional order of April 12, 1809, 
 which was confirmed, as an article of the 
 constitution ( 86), June 6, 1809. In Den- 
 mark, by a royal rescript of Sept. 14, 
 1770 (under the minister Struensee), the 
 censorship was wholly abolished ; neither 
 has it been restored, though the laws by 
 which the liberty of the press has been 
 regulated have been changing, and have 
 sometimes been very oppressive. In 
 France, the censorship, like so many 
 other institutions, was annihilated by the 
 revolution. All the constitutions, from 
 1791 to the Charts Constitutionelle of 1814, 
 declare the liberty of the press one of the 
 fundamental laws. During the republic, 
 there was no censorship, but the revolu- 
 tionary tribunals took its place. Napo- 
 leon restored it, in another form, by the 
 decree of Feb. 5, 1810 (Direction de Vlm- 
 primerie). Since the restoration, it has 
 also undergone various changes. Books 
 of more than 20 sheets have always re- 
 mained-free, but the censorship has been 
 exercised over pamphlets and journals at 
 different periods ; for the last time, Aug. 
 15, 1824, just before the death of Louis 
 XVIII : it was, however, abolished again 
 by the present king, Sept. 29 of the same 
 year. For the establishment of new po- 
 litical journals, the permission of the gov- 
 
 ernment must be obtained, and bonds 
 must In- given by the editors. What 
 changes will yet be made in France re- 
 mains to be seen. The introduction of 
 the censorship is demanded by one side, 
 even in respect to books already pub- 
 lished. In the kingdom of the Nether- 
 lands, the censorship is abolished by a 
 fundamental statute of Aug. 24, 1815, art. 
 226. Even in the kingdom of Poland, 
 this was formerly the case (constitution 
 of Nov. 27, 1815, art. 16), but it has been 
 restored by a decree of June 16, 1819. 
 In the German states, the liberty of the 
 press was much restrained till 1606, the 
 state-attorney having till then had control 
 over it. After 1814, several states abol- 
 ished the censorship Nassau (decree of 
 May 4, 1814), Weimar (in the constitu- 
 tion, May 5, 1816), Wiirtemberg (decree 
 of Jan. 30, 1817), Bavaria (May 26, 1818), 
 grand-duchy of Hesse (constitution of 
 Dec. 17, 1820, 35), though with very 
 different provisions as to the responsibili- 
 ty of authors, printers and booksellers. 
 (See Press, Lairs of the.) In accordance 
 with the infamous decrees of Carlsbad, 
 1819, and the resolutions of the German 
 diet of Sept. 20, 1819, the censorship in 
 all the states of the German confederation 
 has become one of the conditions of 
 union, but only with regard to books of 
 less than 20 sheets, and journals. These 
 measures were, at first, adopted only for 
 five years, but are, at present, continued 
 indefinitely. In Russia and Austria, there 
 is naturally a despotic censorship. In the 
 U. States, a censorship has never existed. 
 Besides the different degrees of severity 
 with which the censorship is exercised in 
 different countries, it may be divided into 
 different kiisds, according to the field 
 which it embraces. 1. A general censor- 
 ship of the book-trade and of the press, 
 under which even foreign books cannot 
 be sold without the consent of the c*n- 
 sors, exists in Russia, Austria, Spain, &c. 
 (Austria has, in the censorship of foreign 
 books, four formulas : A. admittitur, en- 
 tirely free ; B. transeat, free, but without 
 public advertisements for sale ; c. ergo, 
 schedam, to be sold only to public officers 
 and literary men, on the delivery of a 
 receipt ; D. damnatur, entirely forbidden.) 
 2. A general censorship of the press, ex- 
 tending only to books printed in the 
 country, exists in Prussia (edict of Sept. 
 19, 1788 ; order of the cabinet of Dec. 28, 
 1824), where, however, a case once took 
 place, in which the publications of a for- 
 eign bookseller, Brockhaus of Leipsic, 
 were prohibited. 3. A limited censor-
 
 CENSORSHIP OF BOOKS BOONE. 
 
 193 
 
 ship, only over works of less than 20 
 sheets, and journals, is at present the law 
 in the states of the German confederation. 
 
 Sue Press, Liberty of the.) 
 
 BOONE, Daniel, one of the first adven- 
 turers who penetrated into the wilds of 
 Kentucky, was horn in Virginia. He 
 was, almost from his infancy, addicted to 
 hunting in the woods. He emigrated 
 early to Xorth Carolina, theVi recently 
 settled. Having determined to cross the 
 wilderness bordering on the Cumberland 
 mountains, in quest of the region of Ken- 
 tucky, then little known, he set out on 
 his expedition, with five companions, May 
 1, 17u'l>. June 7, they arrived at Red 
 river, north of the Kentucky. A short 
 time afterwards, B. and one of his com- 
 panions, John Stewart, were captured by 
 a party of savages. They soon escaped, 
 but could discover no traces of their 
 friends, who had returned home. B. and 
 Stewart would have been constrained to 
 follow them, had not Squire B., the 
 brother of Daniel, pursued their track 
 from Xorth Carolina, and relieved them 
 with a few necessaries. Shortly after- 
 wards, Stewart was killed by the Indians, 
 and the two Boones were left the only 
 white men in the wilderness. They 
 passed the winter in a cabin. In May, 
 1770, B.'s brother returned home. In 
 July of the same year, however, he came 
 back, according to agreement. They then 
 traversed the country to the Cumberland 
 river, and, the following year, returned to 
 their families, with a determination of re- 
 moving with them to Kentucky. In 
 September, 1773, B. commenced his re- 
 moval to Kentucky, with his own, and 
 five other families, and was joined by 40 
 men, vvho placed themselves under his 
 guidance. Being attacked by the Indians, 
 6 of his men were slain, and the cattle 
 belonging to the party dispersed. The 
 survivors returned, in consequence, to 
 the settlements on Clinch river, about 40 
 miles from the scene of action. A com- 
 pany of North Carolina, having formed a 
 plan of purchasing the lands on the south 
 side of the Kentucky river from the 
 southern Indians, employed B. to buy a 
 tract of country, the limits of which were 
 described to him. He performed the ser- 
 vice, and, soon after, made a road from 
 the settlements on the Holston to the 
 Kentucky river, notwithstanding the in- 
 cessant attacks of the Indians, in which 4 
 of his men were killed and 5 wounded. 
 In Apr., 1775, he built a fort at a salt-spring, 
 on the southern bank of the Kentucky, 
 where Boonesborough is now situated. 
 
 VOL. n. 17 
 
 It consisted of a block-house and several 
 cabins, enclosed with palisades. In 1777, 
 he sustained two sieges in Booncsborough 
 from the Indians, but repulsed them. In 
 the following year, however, Feb. 7, B. 
 was taken prisoner by the savages, while 
 hunting, with a number of his men. In 
 May, they were conducted to Detroit, 
 where they experienced great kindne.-ss 
 from governor Hamilton, the British com- 
 mander of that post. He even offered the 
 Indians 100 for their prisoner, in order 
 that he might liberate him on parole, but 
 they would not part with him, having con- 
 ceived for him sentiments of great affec- 
 tion and respect. On his return, he was 
 adopted by one of the principal chiefs at 
 Chilicothe, and might have been happy 
 in this situation, had not the thoughts <-,f 
 his wife and children continually kept 
 alive the desire of escape. This he ef- 
 fected one morning, having risen at the 
 usual hunting hour, and departed, appa- 
 rently for the woods, but in reality for 
 Boonesborough. He arrived there on the 
 20th of June, after a journey of 160 miles, 
 which he performed in 4 days, having 
 eaten, it is said, but one meal during that 
 time. On the 8th of August, a body of 
 savages, to the number of 450, command- 
 ed by Canadian Frenchmen and some of 
 their own chiefs, invested the fort, with 
 British colors flying. B. was summoned 
 to surrender, but announced his deter- 
 mination, and that of the garrison, who 
 amounted to but 50 men, "^o defend the 
 fort as long as a man of them was alive.'' 
 The enemy then resolved to obtain it by 
 stratagem, and requested that nine of the 
 principal persons of the garrison would 
 come out and treat with them, promising 
 terms so favorable, that the invitation was 
 accepted. After the articles of the treaty 
 had been signed, B. and his companions 
 were told mat it was customary, upon 
 such occasions, among the Indians, for 
 two of them to shake each white man by 
 the hand, in order to evince the sincerity 
 of their friendship. This was also agreed 
 to ; and, accordingly, two Indians ap- 
 proached each of the nine, and, taking his 
 hand, grappled him, with the intent of 
 making him prisoner. Their object being 
 then immediately perceived, B. and his 
 party extricated themselves, and retreated 
 into the fort, amid' a heavy fire from the 
 savages. An attack was then quickly 
 commenced, and continued until the 20th 
 of August, when the enemy abandoned 
 the siege. This was the last attempt of 
 the Indians to possess themselves of 
 Boonesborough. In October, as B. was
 
 194 
 
 BOONE BOOTAN. 
 
 returning from the Blue Licks, with his 
 brother, the latter was slain, and B. pur- 
 sued by a party of Indians for three miles, 
 by the aid of a dog; but, having killed the 
 animal, he escaped. In 1782, the depre- 
 dations of the savages increasing to an 
 intolerable extent, B., with other militia 
 officers, collected 176 men, and went in 
 pursuit of a large body, who had march- 
 ed beyond the Blue Licks to a bend of 
 the main fork of the Licking river, 40 
 miles from Lexington. They overtook 
 them August 19, but, being much inferi- 
 or in numbers, were obliged to retreat. 
 General Clark, then at the falls of the 
 Ohio, immediately assembled a consider- 
 able number of men, and commenced the 
 pursuit of the savages, accompanied by 
 B. From that time until 1798, B. resided 
 alternately in Kentucky and in Virginia. 
 In that year, he removed to Upper Louis- 
 iana, where he received a grant from the 
 Spanish authorities of 2000 acres of laud. 
 His children, friends and followers were 
 also presented, with 800 acres each. He 
 settled with them on the Missouri river, 
 at Charette, some distance beyond the 
 inhabited parts of the country, where he 
 followed his usual course of life hunting, 
 and trapping for bears until Sept., 1822, 
 when he died, at the residence of his son, 
 major A. Boone, in Montgomery county, 
 in the 85th year of his age. He had been 
 gradually declining for some years previ- 
 ous, to his decease. It is related, that, 
 some time before that event, he had two 
 coffins made out of a favorite cherry-tree, 
 the first of which, not fitting, he gave to a 
 son-in-law ; in the second he was buried, 
 having bestowed on it a fine polish by a 
 course -of rubbing for several years. His 
 sons and daughters still reside in Mis- 
 souri. 
 
 BOORS. The peasants of Russia are 
 divided into two classes -free loors and 
 vassal boors. The former cannot be alien- 
 ated or sold. The latter are mere slaves, 
 not being capable of possessing property, 
 but, with their families, being at the dis- 
 posal of their lords. They are of three 
 sorts the crown boors, the mitie boors and 
 the private boors. The crown boors are, 
 some of them, considered as absolute prop- 
 erty ; others are attached to the mines or 
 soil, while many are only obliged to per- 
 form a certain quantity of labor, or to pay 
 a certain proportion of the produce of it. 
 Their condition is superior to that of the 
 other two classes, as they usually pay an 
 annual abrock, or rent, of about five rubles 
 each, and enjoy the rest of their earnings 
 undisturbed. They are allowed also to 
 
 purchase from noblemen lands or villages, 
 with the vassals belonging to them. The 
 mine boors are unalienably attached to 
 particular mines, and may be transferred 
 with them to different masters. The third 
 sort, or private boors, are those belonging 
 to the nobles. Their condition depends 
 on the character of their masters : it is 
 sometimes very comfortable, but often 
 most wretched. In the richest provinces, 
 according to the testimony of doctor 
 Clarke, you may find them dying of hun- 
 ger, or pining from bad food. Pastures, 
 covered with cattle, yield no milk for 
 them. The harvest supplies no bread for 
 their children. The lord claims all the 
 produce. Some attempts were made by 
 Alexander (q. v.) to alleviate their condi- 
 tion, but private interests interfered with 
 the, benevolent intentions of the govern- 
 ment. 
 
 BOOTAN ; an extensive region of North- 
 em Hindostan, lying between Bengal 
 and Thibet. It is about 250 miles from 
 east to west, and 90 from north to south ; 
 but its eastern boundaries are imperfectly 
 known. It forms a portion of the decliv- 
 ity of that stupendous Alpine chain, of 
 which Thibet occupies the table land. 
 Notwithstanding it is mountainous, and, 
 in many parts, extremely cold, the coun- 
 try is productive, and highly cultivated, 
 the slope of the mountains being cut 
 into terraces for this purpose. As it 
 is situated without the tropics, it is free 
 fr.om periodical rains ; and the climate is, 
 in genera], moderate, calculated to bring 
 forth both European and Asiatic fruits 
 and vegetables. Thus we find the trees 
 and shrubs of Northern Europe, in sight 
 of the large forests, and a rank vegetation 
 of plants strictly tropical. The Deb Rajah, 
 who resides at Tassisudon, is the prince 
 of the country, but is tributary to the 
 grand lama of Thibet. The inhabitants 
 are robust, active and ferocious. They 
 have the Tartar features. They are of 
 the Boodh religion, and leave most of the 
 labor to the women. Their houses are, 
 hi general, of only one story, but the pal- 
 ace of the rajah is a lofty pile. From the 
 precipitous nature of the country, they 
 are obliged to use numerous bridges, 
 many of which are constructed with ropes 
 and iron chains. B. produces a hardy 
 breed of horses, about 13 hands high, 
 called tangans. A caravan is sent annu- 
 ally by the prince Deb Rajah, who is the 
 only merchant in the dominions, to Rung- 
 pore, in Bengal. The goods which are 
 carried by the tangahs are coarse woollen 
 cloths, cow-tails from Thibet, bees-wax,
 
 BOOTAN BORA. 
 
 195 
 
 ivory, musk, gold dust, silver ingots, with 
 silks, tea, paper and knives from China, 
 with which B. has a close intercourse. 
 The current coin is the Narainy rupee of 
 Couch Behar, worth about 20 cents. The 
 customs of the inhabitants resemble those 
 of the Birmans or inhabitants of Ava, 
 more than they do those of their nearer 
 neighbors of Thibet or Assam. 
 
 BOOTES ; a northern constellation, called, 
 also, by the Greeks, Arctophylax, and, by 
 the English, Charles's Wain. Arcturus was 
 placed, by the ancients, on his breast ; by 
 the moderns, on the skirt of his coat. 
 Fable relates that Philomelus, son of 
 Ceres and Jasion, having been robbed by 
 his brother Plutus, invented the plough, 
 yoked two bulls to it, and thus supported 
 himself by cultivating the ground. Ceres, 
 to reward his ingenuity, transferred him, 
 with his cattle, under the name of Bootes, 
 to the heavens. 
 
 BOOTH, Barton, an actor of great celeb- 
 rity in the reigns of queen Anne and 
 George I, was born in 1681, and placed, 
 under doctor Busby, at Westminster 
 school. An early attachment for the dra- 
 ma was fostered by the applause he met 
 with while performing a part ^iu one of 
 Terence's plays, at the annual 'exhibition 
 in that seminary. He eloped from school 
 at the age of 17, and joined Ashbury's 
 company of strolling players, with whom 
 lie went to Dublin. After performing 
 three years in the Irish capital with great 
 applause, he returned, in 1701, to Lon- 
 don, and, engaging with Betterton, met 
 with similar success. On the death of 
 that manager, he joined the Drury lane 
 company, and, on the production of Cato, 
 in ] 712, raised his reputation as a trage- 
 dian to the highest pitch, by his perform- 
 ance of the principal character. It was 
 on this occasion that lord Bolingbroke 
 presented him from the stage-box with 50 
 guineas an example .which was imme- 
 diately followed by that nobleman's polit- 
 ical opponents. Declamation, rather than 
 passion, appears to have been his forte, 
 though Gibber speaks of his Othello as 
 his finest character. He became a pat- 
 entee and manager of the theatre in 1713, 
 in conjunction with Wilks, Gibber and 
 Doggett, and died May, 1733. He was 
 buried in Westminster abbey, where there 
 is a monument to his memory. He was 
 the author of Dido and ^Eneas, a mask, 
 various songs, &c., and the translator of 
 several odes of Horace. 
 
 BOPP, Francis, born in 1791, at Mentz, 
 went to Paris, in the autumn of 1812, in 
 prder to become acquainted with the Ori- 
 
 ental, and, in particular, with the Indian 
 language and literature. While study- 
 ing these, he did not neglect Arabian and 
 Persian, and found in Elmina von Chezy 
 and Sylvestre de Sacy, as well as in Au- 
 gustus William von Schlegel, friends who 
 willingly assisted him in his investiga- 
 tions. With a small pension from tlie 
 king of Bavaria, he lived five years in 
 Paris, afterwards in London, then in Got- 
 tingen, devoted to his favorite studies with 
 the greatest perseverance. He was now 
 made professor of the Oriental languages 
 in Berlin. He wrote on the system oi' 
 conjugation in the Sanscrit language, 
 compared with that of the Greek, Latin, 
 Persian, and German tongues, and accom- 
 panied his remarks witli translations of 
 extracts from Indian poems (Frankfort 
 on the Maine, 1816). He also published 
 works with the following titles: Srima- 
 habharate Nalopakhajanam. Nalas, carmen 
 Sanscritum, e Mahabharato, edidit, Latine 
 vertit d adnot. illust., Fr. Bopp, London, 
 Paris and Berlin ; Complete System of the 
 Sanscrit Language ; Indralokagamanan, 
 Voyage of Ardschura to the Sky of In- 
 dra; together with other Episodes of 
 Masabsarah, published for the first Time 
 in the original Language, and translated in 
 Metre, with a Commentary. 
 
 BORA, Catharine von, wife of Luther, 
 was born in 1499. Her birth-place is not 
 known, and of her parents we only know 
 that her mother, Anna, was descended 
 from one of the most ancient families of 
 Germany, that of Hugewitz (Haugewitz). 
 The daughter took the veil, very early, in 
 the nunnery of Nimptschen, near Grim- 
 ma. Notwithstanding her devout dispo- 
 sition, she soon felt very unhappy in her 
 situation, and, as her relations would not 
 listen to her, applied, with eight other 
 nuns, to Luther, whose fame had reached 
 them. Luther gained over a citizen of 
 Torgau, by the name of Leonard Koppe, 
 who, iu union with some other citizens, 
 undertook to deliver the nine nuns from 
 their convent. This was done the night 
 after Good Friday, April 4, 1523. He 
 brought them to Torgau, and from thence 
 to Wittenberg, where Luther provided 
 them a decent abode. At the same time, 
 to anticipate the charges of his enemies, 
 he published a letter to Koppe, in which 
 he frankly confessed that he was the au-. 
 thorof this enterprise, and had persuaded 
 Koppe to its execution ; that he had done 
 so in the confident hope that Jesus Christ, 
 who had restored his gospel, and destroy- 
 ed the kingdom of Antichrist, would be 
 their protector, though it might cost them
 
 196 
 
 BORA BORACIC ACID. 
 
 even life. He also exhorted the parents 
 and relations of the nine virgins to admit 
 them again into their houses. Some of 
 them were received by citizens of Wit- 
 tenberg; others, who were not yet too 
 old, Luther advised to marry. Among 
 the latter was Catharine, whom Philip 
 Reichenbach, at that time mayor of the 
 city, had taken into his house. Luther 
 proposed to her (by his friend Nicholas 
 von Amsdorf, minister in Wittenberg) 
 doctor Kaspar Glaz and others in mar- 
 riage. She declined these proposals, but 
 declared her willingness to bestow her 
 Jiand on Nicholas von Amsdorf, or on 
 Luther himself. Luther, who, in 1524, 
 had laid aside the cowl, was not averse to 
 matrimony, yet appears to have been led 
 to the resolution of marrying by reason 
 rather than by passion. Besides, he was 
 not then favorably inclined towards Catha- 
 rine, because he suspected her of worldly 
 vanity. He says, however, that he found 
 in her a pious and faithful wife. There 
 could be no want of disadvantageous ru- 
 mors on. this occasion, some of them as 
 shameful as they were unfounded. The 
 domestic peace of the pair was also drawn 
 into question, and. Catharine, in particular, 
 was accused of being peevish and domi- 
 neering, so that her husband was often 
 obliged to correct her. Although this 
 last story is without foundation, yet Lu- 
 ther seems not to have been fully satisfied 
 with her ; for he speaks with great sincer- 
 ity of the sufferings, as well as of the hap- 
 piness, of his marriage. When, after Lu- 
 ther's death, in 1547, Charles V entered 
 Wittenberg in triumph, Catharine saw 
 herself obliged to leave this place, and to 
 remove to Leipsic, where she was com- 
 pelled to take boarders for her support. 
 She afterwards returned to Wittenberg, 
 and lived there till 1552 in want. When 
 the plague broke out hi this place, and 
 the university was removed to Torgau, 
 she went thither also, arrived there sick, 
 and died soon after (Dec. 27, 1552). In 
 the church of Torgau her tomb-stone is 
 still to be seen, on which is her image, of 
 the natural size. 
 
 BORACIC ACID, uncombined, exists in 
 several small lakes in Tuscany, at Volca- 
 no, one of the Lipari islands, and in the 
 hot springs near Sasso, in the Florentine 
 territory, from whose waters it is deposit- 
 ed by natural evaporation. It is easily 
 obtained also from borax, a native salt, 
 composed of this acid and soda, by dis- 
 solving it in boiling water, and gradually 
 adding sulphuric acid to engage the soda: 
 the boracic acid is in this -manner set at 
 
 liberty, and is deposited in crystals on the 
 cooling of the liquid : these, when wash- 
 ed with cold water and dried, are per- 
 fectly pure. In this state, it presents 
 the form of brilliant, white, hexagonal 
 scales, soft and greasy to the touch, and 
 having a specific gravity of 1.479. Its 
 taste, when first taken into the mouth, is 
 sourish ; afterwards it becomes bitter, and 
 finally leaves a sweetish impression upon 
 the tongue. It is slightly soluble in wa- 
 ter, and much more so in alcohol, to 
 which, when burning, it communicates a 
 green color. It contains 43 per cent, of 
 water, which it parts with, on being heat- 
 ed to redness, when it melts into a trans- 
 parent glass, and is called calcined boracic 
 acid. Boracic acid was discovered by sir 
 H. Davy to be a compound of a peculiar 
 base, which he called boron, and oxygen, 
 in the proportion of 8 parts of the former 
 to 16 of the latter. Its principles are sep- 
 arated both by means of galvanism and 
 by the action of potassium. Boron is a 
 tasteless and inodorous substance, in the 
 form of a greenish-brown powder. It is 
 insoluble in water, ether, alcohol and oils; 
 nor does it fuse when subjected to the 
 strongest heats. By exposure to common 
 air, it gradually becomes oxygenated, 
 and, when heated in oxygen gas, burns 
 vividly, and is converted into boracic acid. 
 Boracic acid is sometimes employed in 
 the analysis of minerals, and for soldering 
 metals in the arts ; and, since its discovery 
 in such abundance in the Italian springs 
 and lakes, it has also been used in the 
 manufacture of borax, being united with 
 soda. The most important combination 
 formed by boracic acid is that with soda, 
 commonly called borax. It is brought 
 into Europe, in an impure state, from die 
 East Indies, under the name of tincal, and 
 is understood to occur principally in cer- 
 tain lakes, from whence it is obtained by 
 evaporation. It is also reported to be dug 
 from the earth in Thibet, and to exist in 
 the mines of Riquintipa and Escapa, in 
 South America. A knowledge of its 
 manufacture was, for a long time, confin- 
 ed to the Venetians and Hollanders. This 
 is now known to consist in boiling car- 
 bonate of soda with the calcined tincal, in 
 order to saturate its excess of acid : 12 
 pounds of carbonate of soda are requisite 
 for every 100 pounds of washed tincal, in 
 the water: the lie is left to cool gradually 
 and crystallize. The French nation man- 
 ufacture their borax (of which they con- 
 sume about 25 tons annually) from the 
 boracic acid found in the Italian lakes ; in 
 consequence of which the price of this
 
 BORACIC ACID BORDELAIS WINES. 
 
 197 
 
 article has fallen in France from five shil- 
 lings and ten pence the pound, to two 
 shillings and two pence. The process 
 which they adopt is to dissolve 1200 
 pounds of carhonate of soda in 1000 
 pounds of water, to which is added, by 20 
 pounds at a time, GOO pounds of Tuscan 
 boracic acid. This is done in a leaden 
 boiler, of double the capacity requisite to 
 contain the materials, in order to provide 
 for the effervescence which takes place. 
 The heat is kept up for 30 hours, when 
 the clean liquid is drawn off into leaden 
 coolers, a foot in depth, where the first 
 crop of crystals deposits itself in three days. 
 100 pounds of the best Tuscan boracic 
 acid produce about 150 of borax. Borax 
 appears in crystalline masses of a mode- 
 rate size, or in distinct hexagonal prisms, 
 terminated by three or six-sided pyra- 
 mids ; is of a white color, and transparent. 
 It requires 20 parts of cold and 6 of boil- 
 ing water for its solution. Exposed to 
 heat, it swells up, boils, loses its water of 
 crystallization, and becomes converted in- 
 to a porous, white, opaque mass, common- 
 ly called calcined borax. A stronger heat 
 brings it to the form of a vitreous trans- 
 parent substance, in which state it is 
 known under the name of glass of borax. 
 Borax forms one of the best nuxes known. 
 It is used in the analysis of minerals by 
 the blow-pipe, in melting the precious 
 metals, in forming artificial gems, and in 
 soldering. Another native combination 
 of boracic acid is that with magnesia, 
 known, in mineralogy, under the name of 
 boracite. It is found in small crystals, 
 imbedded in gypsum, near Lunenbunr, 
 in Lower Saxony, and at Segeborg, in 
 Holstein. Their form is that of a cube, 
 with the edges and four of the solid an- 
 gles truncated. They are remarkable for 
 their electric properties, becoming, when 
 heated, negatively electrified at their per- 
 fect angles, and positively so at their trun- 
 cated angles. 
 
 BORAK AL. (See .Qlborak.) 
 
 BORDA, Jean Charles; born at Dax, in 
 the department of Landes, in 1733 ; an 
 engineer, and afterwards a captain in the 
 French marine, famous for his mathemat- 
 ical talents. In 1756, he was chosen a 
 member of the academy of sciences, and 
 occupied himself in making experiments 
 on the resistance of fluids, the velocity of 
 motion, and other topics relating to dy- 
 namical science. In 1767, he published 
 a dissertation on hydraulic wheels, and 
 afterwards one on the construction of 
 hydraulic machinery. In 1771, with Ver- 
 dune and Pingre, he made a voyage to 
 17* 
 
 America, to determine the longitude and 
 latitude of several coasts, isles and shoals, 
 and to try the utility of several astronom- 
 ical instruments. In 1774, he visited the 
 Azores, the cape Verde islands, and the 
 coast of Africa, for the same purpose. In 
 the American war, he was very useful to 
 the count d'Estaing, by his knowledge of 
 navigation. In later times, he visited 
 a second time the Azores, the cape Verde 
 islands, and the coast of Africa ; but the 
 observations which he made in this voy- 
 age have not been published. B. was the 
 founder of the schools of naval architect- 
 ure in France. He invented an instru- 
 ment, of a very small diameter, which 
 measures angles with the greatest accu- 
 racy, and which has been used in meas- 
 uring the meridian ; the reflecting circle, 
 which has made his name immortal ; 
 besides an instrument for measuring the 
 inclination of the compass needle, and 
 many others. On the establishment of the 
 national institute, he became one of its 
 members, and was occupied, with other 
 men of science, in framing the new sys- 
 tem of weights and measures adopted in 
 France under the republican government. 
 Among the latest of his labors was a series 
 of experiments to discover the length of 
 a pendulum which should vibrate seconds, 
 in the latitude of Paris. Among his wri- 
 tings are Recherches sur la Resistance des 
 Fluides ; Nouvelle Methode pour observer 
 la Longueur du Pendule ; Nouveau Sys- 
 ttme de Poids et Mesures, adopte par IKS 
 lltais Generaux, &c. The principal are 
 his Voyage, published in 2 vols, in 1778, 
 and his Tables Trigonometriques Deci- 
 males, which have been edited by De- 
 lambre. B. died at Paris, in 1799. 
 BORDEAUX. (See Bourdeaux.) 
 BORDELAIS WIJSES. The finer red 
 wines of the Bordelais (country round 
 Bourdeaux) are the best which France 
 produces. They contain but little alcohol, 
 keep well, and even improve by removal. 
 As the original fermentation is complete, 
 they are, if judiciously managed, less 
 subject to disorder and acidity than 
 the Burgundy wines. None of the very 
 best quality, however, is exported pure : a 
 bottle of the best Cliateaux-Margaux, or 
 Haut-Brion, is a rarity hardly to be pro- 
 cured in Bourdeaux itself, at the rate of 
 six or seven francs a bottle. For export, 
 the secondary growths of Medoc are min- 
 gled with the rough Palus. The red 
 wines of the Bordelais are known in Eng- 
 land and North America under the name 
 of claret. They have less aroma and 
 spirit, but more astringency, than the Bur-
 
 198 
 
 BORDELAIS WINES BOREAL. 
 
 gundy wines. The Bordelais are the safest 
 wiues for daily use, as they are among 
 the most perfect of the light wines, and 
 do not easily excite intoxication. They 
 have been accused of producing the front, 
 but without reason. Persons who drench 
 themselves with Madeira, Port, &c., and 
 indulge in an occasional debauch of claret, 
 may, indeed, be visited in that way ; be- 
 cause a transition from the strong bran- 
 Hied wines to the lighter is always fol- 
 lowed by a derangement of the digestive 
 organs. The principal vineyards are those 
 of Medoc, Graves, Palus and Vignes 
 Blanches; after these, those of Entre- 
 deux-Mers, St. Emilion and the Bourgeais 
 are the most important. The first growth 
 of Medoc are the famous wines of Cha- 
 teaux-Margaux, Lafitte and Latour. The 
 Lqfitte is characterized by its silky sort- 
 ness on the palate, and a perfume partak- 
 ing of violet and raspberry. The Lalour 
 is fuller, has more aroma, but less softness. 
 The Chateaux-Margaux is lighter than 
 the Latour, and delicate, like the Lqfitte, 
 but has not so high a flavor. Of the sec- 
 ond growth, we may mention the Rauran 
 and the Leoville. The average produce 
 of the first growth is 100 tonneau (of 217 
 gallons each). The soil of Medoc is a 
 sandy and calcarious loam. The gravelly 
 lands (les Graves), to the south and west 
 of Bourdeaux, produce the Graves. The 
 first growth of the red Graves is the Ilaut- 
 Brion, which rivals the first growth of 
 Medoc ; it has more color and body, but 
 is inferior in aroma and taste. The 
 principal white Graves are St. Bris and 
 Carbonieux. The best Medoc ought to be 
 kept three or four years before removal ; 
 the Graves five or six. The wines of 
 Palus, which is a bed of rich alluvial de- 
 posits, are inferior to the preceding ; they 
 are stronger and more deeply colored than 
 those of Medoc. Being hard and rough, 
 they are improved by a voyage, and 
 are principally sent to the East Indies 
 and America as vins de cargaison, or are 
 mixed with Medoc, which is intended for 
 exportation. By the voyage, they become 
 more light and delicate, but are not to be 
 compared with the growths of Medoc and 
 the Graves. The best are Queyries and 
 Mt. Ferrand. The former are deeply 
 colored, and have much body. Age gives 
 them an agreeable aroma, resembling that 
 of a raspberry. Among the white Borde- 
 lais wines, besides those already mention- 
 ed, the finest growths are Sauternes, 
 Preignac, Barsac and Bommes. Martillae 
 and St. Medard are of a good quality, and 
 bare lightness and body. Dariste, for- 
 
 merly Dulamon, is equal to St. Bris and 
 Carbonieux. Among other red wines are 
 the Bourgeais, which are of a fine color, 
 and acquire by age lightness and an 
 agreeable almond aroma : of all the Bor- 
 delais wines, they most resemble the Bur- 
 gundy wines. The first growths are 
 Debosquet, Chateau-Rousset, Tajac and 
 Falfax. The Bourgeais wines were for- 
 merly preferred to Medoc. The wines 
 of St. Emilion have been much esteemed. 
 The Frousac and Canon are the best. 
 Those of Entre-deux-Mers become agree- 
 able with age. The vins de Cotes are good 
 vins ordinaircs : they are generally fermes 
 and hard, and improve by age. The best 
 are those of Bassens and Cenon. Those 
 of St. Gervais, Cadillac and St. Remain 
 are soft and agreeable. (For further in- 
 formation, see Le Guide ou Conducteur 
 de I'Etranger a Bordeaux ; 2d ed., Bour- 
 deaux, 1827, which contains a minute 
 account of the wines raised in the neigh- 
 borhood of Bourdeaux. See, also, A. 
 Henderson's History of the Ancient and 
 Modem ffines, 4to., London, 1824.) The 
 light wines of Bourdeaux might be very 
 advantageously substituted, in the U. 
 States, for the strong liquors too generally 
 drank in this country. 
 
 BORDEXTOWJV, in New Jersey ; on the 
 east side of the Delaware, 26 miles N. E. 
 of Philadelphia. It is a small, pleasant 
 town, and now the residence of Joseph 
 Bonaparte. 
 
 BORDO.XE, Paris, a celebrated painter 
 of the Venetian school, born at Treviso, 
 in 1500, died in 1570. Under Titian, he 
 made rapid progress in painting. The 
 execution of many works for his native 
 city and fpr Venice spread his fame as 
 far as France, whither he was invited by 
 the king. The galleries of Dresden and 
 Vienna possess several of his pieces. 
 His most famous picture is the Old Gon- 
 dolier presenting a Ring to the Doge; it is 
 painted in oil, and now to be seen at 
 Venice. 
 
 BOREAL ; northern. 
 
 BOREAS ; the north wind, worshipped 
 by the Greeks as a deity, residing in 
 Thrace, and represented with wings, 
 wliich, as well as his hair and beard, 
 were full of flakes of snow ; instead of 
 feet, he had the tails of serpents, and, with 
 the train of his garment, he stirred up 
 clouds of dust. Boreas was the son of 
 Astreus and of Aurora. When Apollo 
 and his favorite Hyacinthus were once 
 playing at quoits, he blew the quoit of the 
 former, of whom he was jealous, upon 
 the head of the youth, who was killed by
 
 BOREAS BORGHESE. 
 
 199 
 
 the blow. By Orithya, daughter of Erec- 
 theus of Athena, he was father of Cleopa- 
 tra, Chione, Calais and Zetes. The last 
 two partook in the Argonautic expedi- 
 tion. 
 
 BORGHESE ; a Roman family, which 
 derives its origin from Sienna. They 
 have held the highest offices in this re- 
 public, from the middle of the 15th cen- 
 tury. Pope Paul V, who belonged to 
 this family, and ascended the papal chair 
 in 1G05, loaded his relations with honors 
 and riches. In 1007, he appointed his 
 brother, Francesco B., leader of the troops 
 sent against Venice to maintain the papal 
 claims; bestowed the principality of Sul- 
 mone on Marco Antonio B., the son of 
 his brother Giovanni Battista ; granted him 
 a revenue of 150,000 dollars, and obtained 
 for him the title of a grandee of Spain. 
 Another of his nephews, Scipione Caffa- 
 relli, he created cardinal, and made him 
 adopt the name of B. From Marco An- 
 tonio B., prince of Sulmone, is descendt.'d 
 the rich family of B., which is continued 
 in the prince Camillo B. and his brother 
 Francesco, prince B. Aldobrandini. (See 
 Genet.) 
 
 BORGHESE, Camillo Philip Louis, 
 prince ; formerly duke of Guastalla, 
 prince of France, &c. ; born 1775, at 
 Rome ; son of Marco Antonio B. When 
 the French invaded Italy, he entered 
 their service, showed great attachment to 
 the cause of France, in particular to gen- 
 eral Bonaparte ; went, in 1803, to Paris, 
 and married the second sister of Napole- 
 on, Pauline, widow of general Leclerc. 
 In 1804, he became a French prince, and 
 grand cross of the legion of honor, and, 
 at the breaking out of the war against 
 Austria, in 1805, commander of a squad- 
 ron of the imperial guard. After its ter- 
 mination, his wife received the duchy of 
 Guastalla, and lie was created duke of 
 Guastalla. After having served, in 1800, 
 in the campaign against the Prussians 
 ;uid Russians, and after having been sent 
 to Warsaw, to prepare the Poles for a re- 
 volt, the emperor appointed him governor- 
 general of the provinces beyond the Alps. 
 lie fixed his court at Turin, and became 
 very popular among the Piedmontese. 
 After the abdication of Napoleon, he 
 broke up all connexion with the Bona- 
 parte family, and separated from his wife. 
 The prince sold to the French govern- 
 ment, for the sum of 8,000,000 francs, 
 322 works of art, which ornamented the 
 palace of his ancestors, known under the 
 name of the villa Borghese. -(See Rome,} 
 Among them were several masterpieces ; 
 
 e. g., the Borghese Gladiator, the Her- 
 maphrodite, the Silenus, the Dying Sene- 
 ca, Jlmor and Psyche. Bonaparte pro- 
 vided for the payment out of the national 
 domains in Piedmont, which the king of 
 Sardinia confiscated in 1815 ; at the same 
 time, in consequence of the second inva- 
 sion of France, the prince received back 
 part of these treasures of art. He now 
 lives in Florence. In 1818, he sold Lu- 
 cedio, in Savoy, for 3,000,000 livres. In 
 the kingdom of Naples, he possesses the 
 principalities Sulmone and Rosano. He 
 is one of the richest Italian princes. Dur- 
 ing his residence in Rome, in 1826, Leo 
 XII treated him with great distinction, 
 and the establishment of some pious in- 
 stitutions was expected from him. 
 
 BORGHESE, Marie Pauline, princess, 
 originally Bonaparte, sister of Napoleon, 
 born at Ajaccio, Oct. 20, 1780, went, 
 when the English occupied Corsica, in 
 1793, to Marseilles, where she was on the 
 point of marrying Freron, a member of 
 the convention, and son of that critic 
 whom Voltaire made famous, when an- 
 other lady laid claim to his hand. The 
 beautiful Pauline was then intended for 
 general Duphot, who was afterwards 
 murdered at Rome, in December, 1797 ; 
 but she bestowed her hand, from choice, 
 on general Leclerc, then at Milan, who 
 had been, in 1795, chief of the general 
 staff" of a division at Marseilles, and had 
 there fallen in love with her. When Le- 
 clerc was sent to St. Domingo, with the 
 rank of captain-general, Napoleon ordered 
 her to accompany her husband with her 
 son. She embarked, in December, 1801, 
 at Brest, and was called, by the poets of 
 the fleet, the Galatea of the Greeks, the 
 Venus manna. Her statue, in marble, has 
 since been made by Canova, at Rome a 
 successful image of the goddess of beauty. 
 She was no less courageous than beautiful, 
 for when the Negroes, under Chrisfophe, 
 stormed Cape Francois, where she re- 
 sided, and Leclerc, who could no longer 
 resist the assailants, ordered his lady and 
 child to be carried on shipboard, she 
 yielded only to force. After the death of 
 her husband, Nov. 23, ]802, she married, 
 at Morfbutaine, Nov. 6, 1803, the prince 
 Camillo Borghese. (q. v.) Her son died 
 at Rome, soon after. With Napoleon, 
 who loved her tenderly, she had many 
 disputes, and as many reconciliations ; for 
 she would not always follow the caprices 
 of his policy. Yet even the proud style 
 in which she demanded what her brothers 
 begged, made her the more attractive to 
 her brother. Once, however, when she
 
 200 
 
 BORGHESE BORGIA. 
 
 forgot herself towards the empress, whom 
 she never liked, she was obliged to leave 
 the court. She was yet in disgrace, at 
 Nice, when Napoleon resigned his crown 
 in 1814 ; upon which occasion she imme- 
 diately acted as a tender sister. Instead 
 of remaining at her palace in Rome, she 
 set out for Elba, to join her brother, and 
 acted the part of mediatrix between him 
 and the other members of his family. 
 When Napoleon landed in France, she 
 went to Naples, to see her sister Caroline, 
 and afterwards returned to Rome. Be- 
 fore the battle of Waterloo, she placed all 
 her diamonds, which were of great value, 
 at the disposal of her brother. They were 
 in his carriage, which was taken in that 
 battle, and was shown publicly at Lon- 
 don. He intended to have returned them 
 to her. She lived, afterwards, separated 
 from her husband, at Rome, where she 
 occupied part of the palace Borghese, and 
 where she possessed, from 1816, the villa 
 Sciarra. Her house, in which taste and 
 love of the fine arts prevailed, was the 
 centre of the most splendid society at 
 Rome. She often saw her mother, her 
 brothers Lucieu and Louis, and her uncle 
 Fesch. When she heard of the sickness 
 of her brother Napoleon, she repeatedly 
 requested permission to go to him at St. 
 Helena. She finally obtained her request, 
 but the news of his death arrived imme- 
 diately after. She died, June 9, 1825, 
 at Florence. She left many legacies, and 
 a donation, by the interest of which two 
 young men of Ajaccio will be enabled to 
 study medicine and surgery. The rest 
 of her property she left to her brothers, 
 the count of St. Leu and the prince of 
 Montfort. Her whole property amounted 
 to 2,000,000 francs. 
 
 BORGIA, Caesar ; the natural son of an 
 ecclesiastic, who afterwards became pope 
 Alexander VI, and of a Roman lady, 
 named Vanozza. At a time when the court 
 of Rome was a school of falsehood and 
 licentiousness, and compacts and oaths 
 afforded no security, he reduced crime to 
 a system. Other princes have shed more 
 blood, have exercised more atrocious cru- 
 elty; but his name is stigmatized with 
 the greatest infamy ; for with B. all was 
 calculated with cool reflection. He pro- 
 faned whatever was most holy for the at- 
 tainment of his purposes. His father, 
 who had become pope in 1492, invested 
 him with the purple. When Charles 
 VIII of France made his entry into Rome, 
 Alexander was obliged to treat with him, 
 and delivered Caesar B. into his hands as 
 a hostage, who escaped, however, after a 
 
 few days, from the camp of the king. In 
 1497, Alexander bestowed the duchy of 
 Benevento, together with the counties of 
 Terracina and Ponte-corvo, on his eldest 
 son, who had already received from the 
 king of Spain the duchy of Gandia. 
 Caesar became jealous of his elevation, 
 and, when the duke of Gandia was mur- 
 dered, a week after his investiture, public 
 opinion accused his brother Caesar of the 
 deed. His father permitted him to lay 
 aside the purple, and devote himself to 
 the profession of arms, and sent him to 
 France, to carry to Louis XII the bull 
 for divorce and dispensation for marriage 
 which he had long desired to obtain. 
 Louis rewarded B., for the compliance of 
 his father, with the duchy of Valentinois, 
 a body-guard of 100 men, and 20,000 li- 
 vres a year, and promised to aid him in 
 his projects of conquest. In 1499, Caesar 
 married a daughter of king John of Na- 
 varre, and accompanied Louis XII to It- 
 aly. He first undertook the conquest of 
 Rornagna, expelled the lawful possessors 
 of the land, caused them to be treacher- 
 ously murdered, and himself to be ap- 
 pointed, by his father, duke of Romagna, 
 in 1501. In the same year, he wrested 
 the principality of Piombino from Jacopo 
 d'Apiano. He also endeavored, though 
 in vain, to make himself duke of Bologna 
 and Florence. In 1502, he announced 
 that he was about to attack Camerino, 
 and demanded, for that purpose, soldiers 
 and artillery from Guidobaldo of Monte- 
 feltro, duke of Urbino. Camerino was 
 taken by storm, and Julius of Barona, the 
 lord of the city, with both his sons, was 
 strangled at the command of B. This 
 fate he prepared for all whom he had 
 robbed. Those who did not fall into his 
 hands, he pursued with poison or the 
 dagger. Meanwhile, all the petty princes 
 had united, and collected the soldiery for 
 their defence ; but Caesar B. terrified some 
 by means of 3000 Swiss, whom he called 
 to Italy, and gained over others by advan- 
 tageous offers. Thus he dissolved their 
 alliance, seized their lands, and saw no 
 further obstacle to his being made, by his 
 father, king of Romagna, of the March, 
 and of Umbria, when Alexander VI died, 
 Aug. 17, 1503. At the same time, Caesar 
 B. was attacked by a severe disease, at a 
 moment when his whole activity and 
 presence of mind were needed. He 
 found means, indeed, to get the treasures 
 of his father into his possession, assem- 
 bled his troops in Rome, and formed a 
 closer alliance with France ; but enemies 
 rose against him on ah 1 sides, one of the
 
 BORGIA BORNEO. 
 
 201 
 
 most bitter of whom was the new pope, 
 Julius II. B. was arrested and carried to 
 Spain, where he remained for two years 
 in prison. He at length made his escape 
 to his brother-in-law the king of Navarre, 
 went with him to the war against Castile, 
 and was killed by a shot before the castle 
 of Biano, March 12, 1507. Cresar B. was 
 temperate and sober, loved and protected 
 the sciences, wrote verses himself, and 
 possessed so much eloquence, that he se- 
 duced even those who were most on their 
 guard against his treacherous designs. 
 
 BORGIA, Stefano, cardinal, superintend- 
 ent of the Propaganda, one of the noblest 
 protectors of science in the 18th century, 
 was born at Velletri, ih 1731, and died 
 November 23, 1804, in Lyons. His life 
 was affected, in various ways, by the po- 
 litical revolutions of Europe. The dicta- 
 torship of Rome was intrusted to him, 
 together with two other cardinals, by 
 Pius VI, when the French attacked the 
 city. His j\lemorie istoriche delta Citta di 
 Benevento del Secolo Fill al XFI1I (3 
 vols., 1763, 4to.), show his ability as a his- 
 torian and antiquary. 
 
 BORGXE ; a bay or gulf (improperly 
 called lake) in Louisiana, east of lake 
 Pontchartrain. It communicates with 
 the gulf of Mexico and lake Pontchar- 
 train, and is 40 miles long and about 15 
 broad. 
 
 BORIXG is a species of circular cutting, 
 in which a cylindrical portion of a sub- 
 stance is gradually removed. When 
 tubes of metal are to be formed, a cast is, 
 in some cases, made in solid metal, and 
 the whole of the bore is produced by the 
 boring machine : in others, the cast is 
 made hollow at first, and the borer is on- 
 ly used to give uniformity and finish to 
 the inside of the tube. In boring cannon, 
 the tool is at rest while the cannon re- 
 volves. By this arrangement the bore is 
 formed with more accuracy than by the 
 old method of putting the borer in mo- 
 tion. The tool is kept pressed against 
 the camion by. a regular force. Cylinders 
 of steam-engines are cast hollow, and af- 
 terwards bored ; but, in this case, the borer 
 revolves, and tiie cylinder remains at rest. 
 In either case, the axis of the borer and 
 that of the cylindrical material should co- 
 incide ; for otherwise, if the borer revolve, 
 it will perforate obliquely ; if the material 
 revolve, the perforation will be conical. 
 The instruments used are gimlets, augers, 
 centrebits, drills, &c. Drills are made to 
 turn rapidly, either in one direction by 
 means of a lathe-wheel and pulley, or al- 
 ternately in opposite directions by a spi- 
 
 ral cord, which coils and uncoils itself 
 successively upon the drill, and is aided 
 by a weight or fly. Boring for water has 
 been, of late, successfully employed in 
 obtaining a supply without sinking a 
 well. In the progress of the boring, fre- 
 quent veins of water are passed through, 
 but the operation should be continued un- 
 til a main spring is struck, which, if from 
 a sufficiently elevated source, will flow 
 up to the surface ; otherwise a well must 
 be sunk to the level of the source, and the 
 water must be raised by a pump. To ex- 
 clude mineral waters, land-springs, <Scc., 
 the hole is generally cased with a metal- 
 lic pipe. 
 
 BORNEO, next to New Holland, the 
 largest island in the world, is about 800 
 miles long and 700 broad, with a popu- 
 lation estimated at from 3,000,000 to 
 5,000,000. Lon. 109 to 119 E. ; lat. 7 
 N. to 4 20 7 S. Its central parts have 
 never been explored by Europeans, and 
 the insalubrity of its climate has prevent- 
 ed them from frequenting its shores. On 
 this account, the geography of Borneo is 
 very imperfect. The principal chain of 
 mountains is called the Crystal mountain, 
 from the numerous crystals they contain. 
 The island is often devastated by volca- 
 noes and earthquakes. The coast, for 10 
 or 20 miles inland, is marshy, and a 
 considerable portion is a moving bog. 
 Though situated under the equator, the 
 heat is not excessive, being moderated by 
 the sea and mountain breezes, and by the 
 rains, wliich are incessant from Novem- 
 ber till 3Iay. Some of the rivers are 
 large. The principal are the Borneo, the 
 Banjarmassing and Passmir. Gold is 
 found iu large quantities. Diamonds, 
 which are found no where else but in 
 Hindostan and Brazil, are confined to the 
 south and west coasts. The best are ob- 
 tained from Landak. The miners are the 
 aboriginal savages. The petty prince of 
 Maltan is in possession of one of the 
 largest diamonds in the world. It is val- 
 ued at 1,200,000 dollars, wliich is 150,000 
 dollars less than the Russian, and 500,000 
 more than the Pitt diamond. The other 
 minerals are iron, copper and tin. Pearl 
 and mother of pearl are found on the 
 north coast. Rice, yams and betel, with 
 all the fruit-trees of India, excellent ship- 
 timber, groves of nutmeg and clove-trees, 
 pepper, ginger and cotton, are produced 
 on the island. The camphor differs from 
 that of Japan, and is found only in Su- 
 matra and Borneo. Benzoin, a species 
 of resin, is produced in great abundance. 
 B. produces the pongo, the largest of the
 
 
 BORNEO BORNOU. 
 
 monkey tribe, w r hich grows to the size of 
 a man ; the oran-outang, which bears the 
 strongest resemblance to the human spe- 
 cies in look, manners, and gait ; two spe- 
 cies of wild buffalo, wild boars, elephants 
 and tigers. The species of birds are in- 
 numerable, and most of them different 
 from those of Europe. The salangane or 
 swallow, which constructs edible nests, is 
 numerous. Wild bees supply wax, which 
 is exported in great quantity. The coasts 
 are inhabited by Malays, Javanese, Bugis 
 or natives of Celebes, and some descend- 
 ants of Arabs, who are all subject to des- 
 potic princes called sultans. Moham- 
 medanism is the prevailing religion. The 
 princes and nobles live in a style of bar- 
 barous pomp. The interior is peopled 
 by a race of Malay colonists, who have 
 been longer established on the island than 
 those of the coasts. They are called Bi- 
 ajoos or Viajas. The natives are called 
 Dcjakkese or Idaan. They are fairer than 
 the Malays, tall, robust and ferocious. 
 They extract some of the front teeth, and 
 insert pieces of gold in their stead. Their 
 bodies are painted, and their only cloth- 
 ing is a girdle round the middle. The 
 Biajoos hang up the skulls of their ene- 
 mies at the doors of their huts. The 
 Harafooras, a race of the ulterior, differ 
 from the Idaans in having darker com- 
 plexions and longer ears. Their dancing 
 girls are much admired by Europeans for 
 their activity and grace. The forests of 
 the central region are occupied by Papu- 
 ans. Several European nations have at- 
 tempted to form settlements on the island. 
 The Dutch alone have succeeded in form- 
 ing permanent establishments. Their 
 chief profits are derived from pepper and 
 diamonds. On the north-west part of 
 the island, 10 miles from the sea, on a 
 fine river, is situated the town of Borneo. 
 It contains 3000 houses, and is the seat 
 of a sultan who formerly reigned over the 
 whole island. The houses are often built 
 on rafts, moored to the shore, so as to rise 
 and fall with the tide: the chief commu- 
 nication is by means of boats. The in- 
 habitants carry on considerable trade with 
 China : they are said to be intelligent, and 
 faithful to their contracts, but, in other 
 cases, prone to treachery, and the crews 
 of vessels trading here cannot be too 
 much on their guard against them. 
 
 BORNHOLM; an island belonging to Den- 
 mark, in the Baltic sea, nearly surrounded 
 with rocks ; Ion. 15 E. ; lat. 55 10 7 N. ; 
 pop., 18,902. It is about 28 miles long, 
 and 18 broad. Square miles, 218. The 
 soil is stony, but fertile, wkh excellent 
 
 pastures. Oats, butter and fish constitute 
 the principal riches of the inhabitants. 
 There are mines of coal and quarries of 
 marble in the island. 
 
 BORNOU, a kingdom of Central Africa, 
 lying between 15 and 10 N. lat., and 12 
 and 18 E. Ion., is bounded N. by Kanem 
 and the Desert, E. by lake Tchad, S. by 
 Mandara, and W. by Soudan. The first 
 Europeans by whom it was visited, major 
 Denham and captain Clapperton, furnish 
 us with the most authentic information 
 concerning this country ( Travels in North- 
 ern and Central Africa, in 1822, 23 and 
 24; London, 1826). From March to July, 
 the heat is extreme, the thermometerrising 
 to 107, and rarely falling below 86 Fahr. : 
 during this time, scorching winds from the 
 south prevail. As in other tropical coun- 
 tries, the seasons are divided into the diy 
 and rainy : the latter continues from March 
 to October, when the air becomes milder 
 and fresher. The country is populous, 
 containing 13 principal towns. These aro 
 generally large and well built, with walls 
 40 feet high and about 20 feet thick. The 
 houses consist of several court-yards, 
 with apartments for slaves, habitations for 
 the different wives, and several turrets 
 connected by terraces, forming the apart- 
 ments of the owner. The Shouaas an; 
 Arabians : they are deceitful, arrogant and 
 cunning. The Bornou people, or Kanow- 
 ry, have Negro features : they are peace- 
 able and quiet, but cowardly, and addict- 
 ed to pilfering. The government, until 
 lately, has been an elective absolute mon- 
 archy, under a sultan. The sultanship is 
 now but a name, the real power being in 
 the hands of El Kanemy, sheikh of the 
 Goran, an able, warlike and popular chief. 
 His force is chiefly cavalry, and is esti- 
 mated at about 30,000 men, armed with 
 spears, shields and daggers. The chiefs- 
 wear jackets of chain armor, cuirasses, or 
 coats of mail. Indian corn, cotton and in- 
 digo are the most valuable productions of 
 the soil. Very few fruits or vegetables are 
 raised, and agriculture is in a wretched 
 state. The domestic animals are asses, 
 camels, horses, dogs, sheep, goats, cows, 
 and innumerable herds of oxen. Lions, 
 panthers, leopards, hyenas, jackals, ele- 
 phants (in herds of from 50 to 400) and 
 buffaloes crowd the forests. The croco- 
 dile and hippopotamus are considered a 
 luxury. A Shouaa belle, arrayed for con- 
 quests, her hair streaming with fat, a 
 black rim of kohol round her eyes, sits 
 jambe defa jambe dela on her favorite 
 bullock, who is guided by a thong passed 
 through the cartilage of his nose. The
 
 BORNOU BORROMEO. 
 
 203 
 
 ostrich, pelican, crane and Guinea fowl 
 abound. The air is filled with locusts, 
 which are devoured by the natives, both 
 roasted and boiled, and formed into balls 
 of a sort of paste. The mineral produc- 
 tions are unimportant. The principal 
 return which the Moorish merchants ob- 
 tain for their goods is slaves. The cur- 
 rency of the country consists of strips of 
 cotton, about three inches wide and a 
 yard long, called gubbuk, four or five of 
 which make a rottala, 
 
 BORODINO. (See Moscoie, Battle of.) 
 BOROUGH ; originally, a fortified town. 
 In England, the term was early restricted 
 to those towns which sent burgesses to 
 parliament. This burden, as it was once 
 considered, was probably imposed on the 
 largest and wealthiest towns, or on those 
 which had placed themselves under the 
 protection of some baron. The number 
 of boroughs in Great Britain, represented 
 in parliament, is 222, sending 396 bur- 
 gesses: of these, 171 are in England, and 
 are represented by 339 burgesses. Sev- 
 eral centuries have elapsed since the dis- 
 tribution of representatives among the 
 towns was fixed. Many places, formerly 
 populous, and entitled to be represented, 
 now contain not more than two or three 
 houses, and yet retain their original priv- 
 ilege. These are called rotten borouglis, 
 (See Parliament.) 
 
 BORROMEI ISLANDS (Isole dei Conigli, 
 on account of the many rabbits there) ; 
 four small islands in the Lago Maggiore, 
 in Upper Italy, which is 30 miles in length 
 and 7 or 8 in breadth. The greater part 
 belongs to Piedmont, the rest to the king- 
 dom of Lombardy. Its banks are formed 
 of a beautiful Alpine country, with many 
 villages, villas, vineyards, gardens and 
 chestnut groves. The islands have their 
 name from the family of Borromeo, which, 
 for centuries, was in possession of the 
 richest estates in the vicinity of the Lago 
 Maggiore. Vitelliano Borromeo, in 1671, 
 caused garden-soil to be spread over three 
 naked rocks in this lake, and terraces to 
 be walled up. Thus arose the Isola Bella, 
 Isola Madre, L'Isolino and Isola dei Pes- 
 catori, the two first famous for their beau- 
 tiful garden-grounds. The Isola Madre, 
 abounding in pheasants, lies in the middle 
 of the lake. It consists of seven ten-aces, 
 with a kitchen-garden, cypresses, laurels, 
 chestnuts and myrtles. The Isola Bella 
 is loaded with artificial ornament. It 
 contains a handsome palace of four sto- 
 ries, which lies near the shore, and is 
 occupied, for some months in the year, by 
 the count Borromeo. By means of the 
 
 Grotte Terrene, it communicates with the 
 gardens, which are laid out in the French 
 taste, upon 10 terraces, rising above each 
 other, and narrowing in proportion to 
 their elevation. The whole has the ap- 
 pearance of a truncated pyramid, on the 
 top of which stands a colossal unicorn, 
 the armorial ensign of the Borromei. 
 Orange, citron and lemon-trees, united by 
 fine hedges, or forming arbors, breathe 
 their fragrance ; lofty laurels form a little 
 grove ; myrtles and cypresses are to be 
 seen, together with pomegranate-trees, the 
 fruit of which ripens here ; for the moun- 
 tains which crown the lake serve as a shel- 
 ter against the cold winds. The climate 
 of the Isola Madre, however, is milder 
 than that of the Isola Bella. In the latter, 
 the orange and citron-trees, &c. must be 
 secured, in winter, by boards laid over 
 them, and, in extreme cold, by applying 
 charcoal-pans underneath. The inhabit- 
 ants of the Isola dei Pescatori carry on a 
 trade in fish to Milan and Piedmont, and 
 are engaged in smuggling. 
 
 BORROMEO, Carlo, count, of an ancient 
 Milanese family, born, Oct. 2, 1538, at 
 Arona, on Lago Maggiore, the family-seat 
 of his virtuous and pious parents, was, at 
 the age of 12, a commendatory abbot; 
 studied the law at Pavia : was, in 1559, 
 made doctor, and, in 1560, was succes- 
 sively appointed, by his uncle, Pius IV, 
 apostolical prothonotary, referendary, car- 
 dinal, and archbishop of Milan. From his 
 earliest youth, grave, pious and severe 
 towards himself, the young ecclesiastic, 
 at the age of 22, devoted himself to the 
 duties of government with a conscientious 
 zeal. As legate over Romagna, the march 
 of Ancona and Bologna, he had a great 
 share in the civil government : as protect- 
 or of Portugal, of the Netherlands, of 
 Switzerland, of the Franciscans, Carmel- 
 ites, and of the knights of Malta, he ad- 
 ministered several important branches of 
 the spiritual government of the pope, who 
 created him his grand penitentiary, and 
 did nothing of importance without his 
 advice. The re-opening and the results 
 of the council of Trent, so advantageous 
 to the papal authority, were chiefly effect- 
 ed by the great influence of B., which 
 was felt during the whole sitting of the 
 council. He did much for the embellish- 
 ment of the papal buildings, employing 
 even his own fortune for that purpose, 
 and established many good institutions, 
 as archbishop of Milan ; improved the dis- 
 cipline of the clergy, founded schools, sem- 
 inaries, a regular order of secular divines, 
 libraries, hospitals, and was indefatigable
 
 204 
 
 BORROMEO BOS. 
 
 in doing good. All his virtues, however, 
 could not save him from persecution and 
 calumny ; he was even severely attack- 
 ed by the government, hut no charge 
 could be proved against him. He died, 
 Nov. 3, 1584, at the age of 46, exhausted 
 by mental sufferings, the accusations of 
 his enemies, and his monastical penances. 
 Miracles were immediately wrought at his 
 tomb, and his canonization took place in 
 1616. Posterity will venerate the purity 
 of his life, the energy and grandeur of his 
 character, his exemplary administration, 
 and the noble works which he accom- 
 plished ; and, in spite of the bigotry which 
 is to be attributed to the spirit of his age, 
 and to his clerical relations, must acknowl- 
 edge his truly Christian and apostolic 
 character. 
 
 BORSTELL, Louis George Leopold von ; 
 lieutenant-general in the Prussian service^ 
 born in 1773. In the campaign against 
 the French, in 1813, he commanded two 
 brigades, and decided the battles of Gross- 
 beeren and of Dennewitz ; the latter, by 
 hastening from Kropstadt to the field of 
 battle, and, in opposition to the orders of 
 the crown-prince of Sweden, joining the 
 left wing of Bulow, in order to take Gehls- 
 dorf, the key of the enemy's position. 
 General B. was very active through die 
 whole war, and, in 1815, had the com- 
 mand of the 2d Prussian corps. While 
 he was occupied with its organization in 
 Namur, some battalions of Saxon guards 
 and grenadiers in Liege, excited by the 
 news of the partition of their country, and 
 by some incautious expressions, as well 
 as by the measures which had been taken 
 to gain over the Saxon officers and sol- 
 diers, broke the windows in the lodgings 
 of prince Blucher, and committed other 
 excesses. It was necessary that they 
 should be punished in the most severe 
 manner, as many thousand soldiers, for- 
 merly in the French and Westphaliau 
 service, but now united under Prussian, 
 English, Belgian and other colors (many 
 of them yet attached to Napoleon), were 
 on the French borders, almost in sight of 
 the enemy, and there was danger of a 
 repetition of these scenes, if they were 
 treated with clemency. Blucher therefore 
 sent the guilty battalions to Namur, with 
 orders to B. to disarm them, to burn their 
 colors, and to shoot the ring-leaders. B. 
 considered the order too severe: accus- 
 tomed to expose his person and life for 
 his own colors, he felt that such a dis- 
 grace must be worse than death ; and he 
 adopted the determination of not obeying 
 the command, although pronounced in 
 
 the most decided manner, and confirmed 
 by a refusal to listen to his remonstrances. 
 Blucher felt obliged to suspend him from 
 his command, and to report his behavior 
 to the king. Borstell returned into his 
 country, and a court-martial condemned 
 him to several years' confinement in a 
 fortress. In the year 1815, he was par- 
 doned and reinstated in his command by 
 the king. 
 
 BoRY-DE-SAirfT-VlNCEXT, J. B. G. M., 
 
 bom at Agen, 1772, displayed, from his 
 earliest youth, an excessive ardor both on 
 literary and political subjects. As a youth, 
 he was full of zeal for natural history, and, 
 as a man, his political views, though often 
 erroneous, were always marked with 
 genius. This is the character of the es- 
 says which he wrote in the .Vain Jamie, 
 and Aristarque, and of the defence of his 
 principles, published in Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 His Essai sur les Isles Fortunes de 
 V Antique Atlanlide ou Precis de rHistoire 
 generate de VArchipel des Canaries, and 
 his treatise on the cryptogamic plants, are 
 full of original views. He accompanied 
 captain Baudin, in 1798, in his voyage 
 round the coasts of New Holland, examin- 
 ed closely the volcanoes of the island of 
 Bourbon, and was led to form many geo- 
 logical hypotheses. When military in- 
 tendant of the general staff of marshal 
 Soult, he showed much severity towards 
 the commissaries. In 1815, he served as 
 colonel in the campaign under Napoleon. 
 After the battle of Waterloo, he proposed, 
 July 1, to his colleagues of the chamber 
 of representatives, not to submit volunta- 
 rily to the Bourbons. In consequence of 
 the royal decree of Jan. 17, 1816, he emi- 
 grated, and lived in Aix-lu-Chapelle and 
 Halberstadt, and, afterwards, in Brussels, 
 where, with van Moiis, he edited a jour- 
 nal dedicated to natural science, which is 
 at present continued in Paris. He wrote, 
 also, an excellent work on the subterranean 
 (marries in the lime mountains near M 
 tricht. After his return, in 1820, he was 
 engaged in many of the journals of the 
 liberal party. He reported the sittings of 
 the deputies in the Courier Frangais, and 
 assisted in Courtin's Encyclopedic. 
 
 Bos, Lambert, a profound philologist, 
 was born at Worcum, in Friesland, 1670,. 
 and died in 1717. He studied in the uni- 
 versity at Franeker, where his rapid and 
 brilliant progress obtained for him the 
 Greek professorship in 1704. His Ellipses 
 Greece; is a standard work, and has been 
 often printed. The edition of Sch after 
 (Leipsic, 1808) is the best. The Antiquit. 
 Grcec. Descriptio has also passed through
 
 BOS BOSCOVICH. 
 
 205 
 
 numerous editions. His Vet. Test, ex 
 Versione LXX is highly esteemed. He 
 was also the author of several other valu- 
 able philological works. 
 
 Bosc, Louis Antoine Guillaume; super- 
 intendent of the French establishments 
 for breeding sheep ; member of several 
 learned societies in France, &c. ; born at 
 Paris, in 1/59, where his father was phy- 
 sician to the king ; made himself known, 
 from 1784 to 1788, as editor of the Jour- 
 nal de Physique. Proscribed in the reign 
 of terror, in 1793, he took refuge in the 
 forest of Montmorency ; and, though daily 
 exposed to the danger of being taken and 
 executed, he occupied himself with labors 
 in natural history. In 1796, the directory 
 sent him to the U. States, as consul at 
 Wilmington, and afterwards at New York ; 
 but the American government doubted 
 whether the French directory was entitled 
 to be represented by a consul. Tims 
 exempt from official duties, he travelled 
 through the U. States, collecting botan- 
 ical and zoological specimens, and con- 
 tributing to the advancement of his favor- 
 ite studies. In 1799, B. was made admin- 
 istrateur des hospices. From that time, he 
 has been actively engaged in researches 
 in natural history. His brother, Etienne 
 Bosc, an orator and author, combines a 
 profound knowledge of natural history 
 with an extensive acquaintance with po- 
 litical economy. 
 
 BOSCAN, Almogaver, Juan, a Spanish 
 poet, born towards the close of the 15th 
 century, at Barcelona, died about 1540. 
 His parents, who belonged to the most 
 ancient nobility, gave him a careful edu- 
 cation. He followed the court of Charles 
 V, and, in 1526, was attached to it for some 
 time in Grenada. His noble manners 
 and character gained him the favor of the 
 emperor. The education of the duke of 
 Alva was committed to him, and his in- 
 structions developed the great qualities 
 which the duke afterwards displayed. 
 After his marriage, B. lived at Barcelona, 
 occupied in publishing his works, togeth- 
 er with those of his deceased friend Gar- 
 cilaso, in which he was employed at the 
 time of his death. B. was persuaded to 
 attempt Italian measures in Spanish, by 
 Antonio Navagero, an Italian scholar and 
 ambassador of the republic of Venice at 
 the court of the emperor. Thus he be- 
 came the creator of the Spanish sonnet, 
 and, with Garcilaso, first used the ter- 
 zine in his poetical epistles and elegies. 
 In general, he distinguished himself by 
 introducing Italian forms into Spanish 
 poetry, which met with great. opposition, 
 
 VOL. n. 18 
 
 and not less applause. The poems of B. 
 are still esteemed. His other literary 
 works, mostly translations, are forgotten. 
 
 BOSCAWEN, Hon. Edward, a British 
 admiral of the last century, was born in 
 1711, and distinguished himself at Porto 
 Bcllo and at. Carthagena, where he storm- 
 ed a battery at the head of a part of his 
 crew. In 1744, he was promoted to the 
 Dreadnought, a sixty gun ship, in which 
 he took the Media. Three years after- 
 wards, he signalized himself under Anson, 
 at the battle of cape Finisterre. Towards 
 the close of this year, he was raised Jo the 
 rank of rear-admiral, and despatched with 
 a squadron to the East Indies. Though 
 he failed in an attempt on Pondicherry, 
 he succeeded in making himself master 
 of Madras, and returned to England, 
 where he obtained a seat at the admiralty 
 board. In 1755, he again sailed for North 
 America, and, in an action with a French 
 squadron, two ships of the line fell into 
 his hands. In 1758, in conjunction with 
 lord Amherst, who commanded the land 
 forces, he succeeded in reducing Louis- 
 Ixmrg and cape Breton, and, the year fol- 
 lowing, having then the command in the 
 Mediterranean, pursued the Toulon fleet, 
 under De la Clue, through the straits of 
 Gibraltar, and, coming up with it in Lagos 
 bay, completely defeated it, burning two 
 ships and taking three. For these ser- 
 vices, he received the thanks of parliament 
 and 3000 a year, with the rank of gen- 
 eral of marines, in 1760. He died in the 
 following year. He sat in the parliament 
 of 1743, as member for Truro, in his na- 
 tive county. 
 
 BOSCOVICH, Roger Joseph, an astron- 
 omer and geometrician of distinguished 
 eminence in the 18th century, Avas a na- 
 tive of Ragusa, in Dalmatia. He was ed- 
 ucated among the Jesuits, and, entering 
 into their order, was appointed professor 
 of mathematics in the Roman college, 
 before he had entirely completed the 
 course of his studies. He was employed 
 by pope Benedict XIV in various under- 
 takings, and, in 1750, began the measure- 
 ment of a degree of the meridian in the 
 Ecclesiastical States, which operation oc- 
 cupied him for two years. He after- 
 wards visited the Pontine marsh, to give 
 advice respecting the draining of it. He 
 was then intrusted, by the republic of 
 Lucca, with the defence of its interests, in 
 a dispute about boundaries with the gov- 
 ernment of Tuscany. This affair obliged 
 him to go to Vienna, and, having termi- 
 nated it with success, he visited Paris and 
 London. He was elected a fellow of the
 
 206 
 
 BOSCOVICH BOSPHORUS. 
 
 royal society, and dedicated to this body 
 a Latin poem on eclipses. Returning to 
 Italy, he was appointed mathematical pro- 
 fessor in the university of Pavia; whence, 
 in 1770, he removed to Milan, and there 
 erected the celebrated observatory at the 
 college of Brera. On the suppression of 
 the order of Jesuits, he accepted au invi- 
 tation to France from Louis XV, who 
 gave him a pension of 8000 livre?, with 
 the office of director of optics for the 
 navy. This appointment induced him to 
 pay particular attention to that part of op- 
 tical science which treats of the theory of 
 achromatic telescopes, on which subject 
 he wrote a treatise of considerable extent. 
 He was obliged to leave Paris, in 1783, 
 on account of ill health, when he retired 
 to Milan, where he died Feb. 12, 1787. 
 An edition of the works of father B. was 
 published by himself, in 5 vols., 4to., 1785. 
 His Theoria Philosophies JVaturalis reduda 
 ad unicam Legem Virium in Natura t$- 
 istentium, first published in 1758, is a cu- 
 rious production, containing speculations 
 of which doctor Priestley availed himself 
 in his writings in favor of materialism. 
 
 BOSHMEN, BOSJESMEN, Ol' BuSH.ME.N. 
 
 (See Hottentots.) 
 
 BOSHUANAS. (See Bushwanas.) 
 Bosio, N.; the most celebrated of liv- 
 ing French sculptors. His Hercules, ex- 
 hibited in 1814, has been particularly 
 admired. In the following year, he pro- 
 duced another excellent statue, his Her- 
 maphrodite. The artist received from 
 Napoleon the cross of the legion of honor 
 in 1815. The royal government has since 
 honored him with important commissions, 
 and confirmed the choice of the academy 
 of the fine arts, which elected him a 
 member. Since 1823, his statue of Hen- 
 ry IV, as a child, met with public admira- 
 tion. His statue of Louis XIV was des- 
 tined for the place des vidoires at Paris. 
 The execution is excellent; but the trans- 
 fer of the support of the horse to its tail 
 might be objected to as contrary to mod- 
 ern taste. 
 
 BOSJESMEN. (See Hottentots.) 
 BOSNIA ; a Turkish province, with the 
 title of a kingdom, which comprehends, 
 besides the ancient B., part of Croatia 
 (Sanjiak Bielogrod), between the rivers 
 Unna and Verbas, a tract of Dalmatia and 
 Herzogovina, and is bounded N. by Scla- 
 vonia, W. by Croatia, S. by Dalmatia and 
 the Adriatic sea, and E. by Servia. B. 
 contains 22,500 square miles, with 850,000 
 inhabitants, mostly of Sclavonian origin, 
 Bosniacs and Morlacs, among whom are 
 50,000 Turkish militia. The inhabitants 
 
 are two thirds Christians, mostly of the 
 Greek church, and one third Turks, who 
 possess nearly all the territorial property 
 as allodiums or feuds, besides Jews and 
 Gipsies. The country is level towards 
 the north ; in the south, mountainous and 
 woody. Its chief rivers are the Save, the 
 Verbas, the Bosna, Rama and Drina. B. 
 contains fertile fields, orchards and vine- 
 yards : the breed of cattle is excellent, and 
 the inountuin.s furnish good iron, of which 
 a great part is manufactured in the coun- 
 try into guns and blades. The other arti- 
 cles manufactured are leather, morocco, 
 and coarse woollen cloths. In the 12th 
 and 13th centuries, B. belonged to Hun- 
 gary. In 1339, it fell into the hands of 
 Stephen, king of Servia. After his death, 
 it remained independent, and the Ban 
 Twartko took the title of king in 1370. 
 In 1401, it became tributary to the Turks, 
 and, since 1463, has been a Turkish prov- 
 ince. It is divided into the southern and 
 northern parts, or Upper and Lower B. 
 The former is called sometimes Herzogo- 
 vina, or the duchy of Saba, because the 
 emperor Frederic III bestowed the title 
 of duke on the ruler of this district in 
 1440. Travnik is the residence of the 
 pacha of B. The capital of the country 
 is Bosna-Serai, or Saraievo (in Italian, 
 Seraglio), at the confluence of the Migli- 
 azza with the Bosna, with 15,000 mostly 
 miserable houses, and 60,000 inhabitants, 
 including the garrison of 10,000 janiza- 
 ries. The citadel lies at some distance 
 from the town. The taxes of Saraievo 
 are an appanage of the mother of the sul- 
 tan. Zwornick, Banjaluka and Turkish 
 Gradiska are also important in historical 
 and statistical points of view. The fear 
 of losing their property is the chief cause 
 of the adherence of the Bosuiacs to the 
 Turkish government, since, in case of the 
 conquest of B. by the Christians, they 
 expect the same treatment which the 
 Christians formerly experienced, when it 
 was conquered by the Turks. 
 
 BOSPHORUS. The strait which leads 
 from the Black sea into the Propontis, or 
 sea of Marmora, was formerly so called, 
 either because lo, after being metamor- 
 phosed into a cow, passed over at this 
 place, or because the strait is so narrow 
 that an ox can swim across. When other 
 straits were afterwards called by the same 
 name, this was called B. Thracicus. Over 
 this channel (5 stadia, about 3300 feet 
 wide) Darius constructed a bridge of boats, 
 on his expedition against the Scythians. 
 Bosphorus Cimmericus was the name giv- 
 en by the ancients to the strait that leads
 
 BOSPHORUS BOSSUET. 
 
 207 
 
 from the Black sea into the sea of Azof. 
 The Italians, who formerly traded in these 
 regions, called it bocca di S. Giovanni, 
 or estrttio di Caffa. There was also an- 
 ciently a kingdom of the name of B., so 
 called from the straits, on both sides of 
 which it was situated. In Panticapoeum 
 (at present, Kertsch, q. v.) a Milesian col- 
 ony in the Tauric Chersonese, the Archae- 
 anaktides established this kingdom, B. C. 
 479, and reigned till B. C. 437. Spartacus 
 was the first king. Under his successor, 
 Satyrus, the kingdom was extended to the 
 coast of Asia, and his son Leucon acquired 
 Theodosia, B. C. 300. He improved the 
 commerce of the country (in particular by 
 the exportation of corn to Athens, also of 
 fishes, fur, skins, bees-wax and slaves). 
 From him his descendants were called 
 Leucanides. Leucanor became tributary 
 to the Scythians 290 B. C., and the trib- 
 ute was finally so oppressive, that Pari- 
 sades, the last of the Leuconides, prefer- 
 red to submit to Mithridates, the king of 
 Pontus, who vanquished the Scythians 
 under Scilurus, 116 B. C., and made his 
 .son king of B. The latter killed himself. 
 At the death of Mithridates, the Romans 
 gave the country, B. C. 64, to his second 
 son, Pharnaces, who was afterwards mur- 
 dered. The Romans placed different 
 princes successively upon the throne, who 
 all pretended to be descendants of Mith- 
 ridates. When this family became ex- 
 tinct, A. D. 259, the Sarmatians took pos- 
 session of the kingdom, from whom it 
 was taken by the Chersonides, in 344. 
 The Tauric Chersonese then belonged to 
 the Eastern empire, till it was seized by 
 the Chazars, and afterwards by the Tar- 
 tars, under the Mongol princes. (See 
 Tauria.) 
 
 Bossi, Charles Aurele, baron de, born 
 at Turin, 1758, son of count Bossi de 
 Sainte-Agathe, is a lyric poet of reputa- 
 tion. In his 18th year, he published two 
 tragedies the Circassians and Rhea Syl- 
 via. His great poem on the French rev- 
 olution, entitled LSOromasia, and a com- 
 plete collection of his poems, appeared in 
 London, 1814. Only a few copies were 
 struck off. His present life, in Paris, is 
 that of a scholar and a private man. His 
 former political life placed him in difficult 
 situations, and has exposed his conduct 
 to reproach. 
 
 BOSSUET, Jacques Benigne, bishop of 
 Meaux, born at Dijon, 1627, was six years 
 old when his father became member of 
 the parliament at Metz. The son re- 
 mained at Dijon, in the college of the 
 Jesuits. By chance, the boy got posses- 
 
 sion of a Latin Bible, which made an 
 indelible impression upon him. At the 
 age of 15, he was sent to Paris, where he 
 entered the college of Navarre, the presi- 
 dent of which, Nicholas Comet, took 
 pleasure in forming his mind. B., under 
 the direction of this worthy teacher, 
 studied Greek and the Holy Scriptures, 
 read the ancient classics, and investigated 
 the Cartesian philosophy. He was made 
 doctor of the Sorbonne and canon in 
 Metz. Here he edified his hearers by his 
 preaching and example ; was commis- 
 sioned by his bishop to refute the cate- 
 chism of the Protestant minister Paul 
 Ferry, and did it in such a way, that even 
 his antagonists were obliged to respect 
 him. The queen mother (Anne of Aus- 
 tria) was induced, by this work, to em- 
 ploy B. in the conversion of the Protest- 
 ants in the diocese of Metz. This business 
 often called him to Paris, where his ser- 
 mons met with great approbation. The 
 sermon which he delivered in 1668, on 
 the occasion of marshal Turenne's joining 
 the Catholic church, procured him the 
 bishopric of Condom. In 1670, the king 
 charged him with the education of the 
 dauphin. In consequence of this ap- 
 pointment, he resigned his bishopric in 
 1671, because he thought it inconsistent 
 with his duty to retain it during a contin- 
 ual absence from his diocese. At this 
 time, he delivered his sermon at the fu- 
 neral of madame, the duchess of Orleans, 
 a princess, who, in the midst of a brilliant 
 court, of which she was the ornament, 
 died suddenly in the bloom of youth. 
 His last sermon of this kind (that at the 
 tomb of the great Conde) is considered as 
 a masterpiece. The manly vigor which 
 characterized his orations is seen also in 
 the Discours sur VHistoire Universelle, de- 
 signed for the instruction of his royal 
 pupil. The care which he took of the 
 education of this prince was rewarded, in 
 1680, by the office of the first almoner of 
 the dauphin ; in 1681, by the bishopric of 
 Meaux ; in 1697, lie obtained the dignity 
 of a counsellor of state, and, a year aftei> 
 wards, that of the first almoner of the 
 duchess of Burgundy. His practice and 
 his doctrine were equally severe. All his 
 time was divided between his studies and 
 the execution of his official duties ; he 
 seldom allowed himself any recreation. 
 The last years of his life he passed among 
 his flock, in the midst of whom he died, 
 in 1704. The learned Benedictines of 
 the brotherhood of St. Maur have lately 
 published a complete edition of all the 
 works of B. The style of B. is full of
 
 208 
 
 BOSSUET BOSTON. 
 
 energy, but not without defects : his Latin 
 style is hard. The French academy con- 
 sider him among their most renowned 
 members. B. has described his own life 
 at length. (For his dispute with the arch- 
 bishop of Cambray, Fenelon, see Fenelon 
 and Quietism.) 
 
 BOSTANGI (gardeners) ; the" guard of the 
 sultans in the seraglio, whose overseer is 
 called bostangi baschi, and has the super- 
 intendence over the gardens of the se- 
 raglio, over the channel of the Black sea, 
 and the imperial summer residences. 
 The bostangi baschi accompanies the 
 sultan in all his rides, and has the privi- 
 lege of wearing a beard. The bostangi 
 are also the boatmen and executioners of 
 the sultan. 
 
 BOSTON (anciently BotolpWs Town) ; a 
 town of England, in Lincoln ; 34 miles 
 S. S. E. Lincoln, 115 N. London ; Ion. 
 Z W. ; lat. 52 4S 7 N. Population in 1801, 
 5926; in 1811, 8113. It is nearly sur- 
 rounded by fens, on the Witham, which 
 is navigable, and forms a port, well fre- 
 quented, and much assisted by navigable 
 canals. It has four annual fairs, and 
 markets on Wednesday and Saturday. 
 It has a flourishing trade with the Baltic 
 for hemp, tar, timber, &c. In former 
 periods, it stood high as a commercial 
 town. The church is a handsome struct- 
 ure, and serves as a mark to seamen. 
 
 BOSTON, the capital of Massachusetts 
 and the largest city in New England, lies 
 14 miles S. W. Salem, 40 N. N. E. Prov- 
 idence, 56 S. W. Portsmouth, 100 E. N. 
 E. Hartford, 210 N. E. New York, 300 
 S. S. E. Montreal, 300 N. E. Philadelphia, 
 436 N. Washington ; Ion. 71 4' W. ; lat. 
 42 22' N. Pop. in 1765, 15,520 ; in 1790, 
 18,038 ; in 1800, 24,937 ; in 1810, 33,250 ; 
 in 1820, 43,298 ; in 1825, 48,281. Its popu- 
 lation, in 1829, amounted to about 60,000. 
 It is situated at the bottom of Massachu- 
 setts bay, at the mouth of Charles river. 
 It stands principally on a small peninsula 
 of elevated ground, two miles and three 
 quarters in length and one in breadth, and 
 is connected with the continent by a nar- 
 row neck of land, and by seven bridges. 
 Including South Boston, which is without 
 the peninsula, its whole extent is nearly 
 three square miles. It has a capacious 
 harbor, of sufficient depth of water for 
 the largest ships of war to enter safely 
 and lie at anchor, protected from storms 
 by a great number of islands, on several 
 of which are fortifications. The bridges, 
 with one exception, are of wood. That 
 which leads from B. to Cambridge is 
 3483 feet in length, and is supported by 
 
 180 piers. The icestern avenue, so called, 
 leading across the buy, from the western 
 part of the city to Roxbury, is 8000 feet 
 in length, and is formed of solid earth, 
 supported on each side by walls of stone. 
 It serves the double purpose of a bridge 
 and a dam, by means of which arid a 
 cross dam, two large basins are formed, 
 one of which is filled at every flood-tide, 
 and the other is emptied at every ebb, 
 whereby a perpetual water-power is cre- 
 ated for carrying mills and machinery. 
 This dam was built at a cost exceeding 
 $600,000. One of the bridges is free ; all 
 the others are toll bridges. The streets 
 are mostly narrow and irregular, and 
 some of them are crooked. The wharves 
 are, in general, spacious, and afford ample 
 accommodation to shipping, and store- 
 houses for merchandise. Long wharf is 
 1650 feet in length ; Central wharf, 1240 
 feet long and 150 wide. The wharves 
 and many of the streets have been made 
 by raising the ground 'formerly covered 
 by the tide. The number of dwelling- 
 houses is about 10,000, besides a great 
 number of store-houses and shops. A 
 great part of the buildings are of brick, 
 four stories in height. Many of them are 
 of hammered granite and sienite. These 
 are excellent building materials, of a 
 beautiful gray color, hard and durable, 
 splitting easily, and readily wrought into 
 the required form. Many of the dwelling 
 houses are large and well built. The 
 principal public buildings are the state- 
 house, which is of brick, is situated on 
 the highest part of the city, and com- 
 mands a view of the country and bay for 
 many miles round ; the county court- 
 house, which is of stone ; Faneuil hall, in 
 which town-meetings and public assem- 
 blies for political discussions are held ; 
 the Massachusetts general hospital, and 
 the Faneuil hall market, two handsome 
 buildings of granite, the latter two stories 
 in height, 540 feet in length and 50 feet 
 in width ; about 40 churches ; 10 public 
 school-houses ; a house of industry ; a 
 house of correction ; a county jail ; and 
 two theatres. Among the best specimens 
 of architecture are the market-house, 
 Trinity church, the general hospital, sev- 
 eral of the bank buildings, and the Tre- 
 mont house, the front of which is built of 
 gray sienite, and is ornamented with a 
 handsome portico of the Doric order, 
 with fluted pillars. This last-named 
 building is finely situated, and is the most 
 elegant and commodious hotel in the U. 
 States. The city is divided into 12 wards. 
 The municipal government is vested in a
 
 BOSTON. 
 
 209 
 
 mayor, 8 aldermen, and a common coun- 
 cil of 48 members. The executive pow- 
 ers are exercised by the mayor and alder- 
 men, and measures of a legislative char- 
 acter are adopted by a concurrent act of 
 that board and of the common council. 
 These officers are chosen annually by the 
 citizens, voting in the wards in which 
 they reside. Ward officers are also chosen 
 annually to superintend the elections. 
 The city, with the small town of Chelsea, 
 forms the county of Suffolk. The coun- 
 ty is represented in the senate of the state 
 by six senators. Until the year 1821, the 
 municipal affairs of the town were super- 
 intended by a board of seven select-men, 
 annually chosen; and all measures for 
 raising and granting money, establishing 
 schools, and making municipal regula- 
 tions, were adopted in town-meeting, or 
 assembly of the qualified voters, held in 
 Faneuil hall. All public officers were 
 chosen in town-meeting. There is a po- 
 lice court of three justices, for examining 
 all criminal charges and the trial of minor 
 offences ; and a municipal court, held by 
 a single judge, which has jurisdiction of 
 all criminal causes not capital, which are 
 tried by jury. The annual expenditures 
 of the city amount to about 300,000; of 
 which sum $53,000 are expended for the 
 support of schools ; $50,000 for paving, 
 repairing and widening streets ; 30,000 
 for the support and relief of the poor, &c. 
 The public schools are, a Latin grammar 
 school, open to all boys between the ages 
 of 9 and 15 ; a high school, in which are 
 taught the various branches of mathe- 
 matics and other branches of English edu- 
 cation ; 8 grammar and writing schools, 
 7 of which have 2 masters each a 
 grammar and a writing master, who teach, 
 alternately, boys and girls, at different 
 hours ; one African school ; and 57 pri- 
 mary schools, which are kept by wo- 
 men, and in which children from four to 
 seven years of age are taught to read, 
 spell and write. The schools are under 
 the direction of a school committee, con- 
 sisting of the mayor and aldermen and 12 
 members, annually elected. The princi- 
 pal literary institution in the vicinity, 
 Harvard university, is situated at Cam- 
 bridge, three miles from the city. The 
 medical branch of this institution is es- 
 tablished in Boston, where the professors 
 reside. The Boston athenaeum has two 
 large buildings ; one containing a library, 
 and the other a picture gallery, a hall for 
 public lectures, and other rooms for sci- 
 entific purposes. The library consists of 
 about 24,000 volumes. There are many 
 18* 
 
 literary, scientific and charitable societies 
 in B. Among the former are the Amer- 
 ican academy of arts and sciences, which 
 has published four volumes of memoirs ; 
 the historical society, which has published 
 22 volumes ; the Massachusetts medical 
 society ; the mechanic institution, under 
 whose patronage courses of lectures for 
 mechanics are delivered annually. Among 
 the latter are the humane society ; the 
 Boston dispensary, by which the poor are 
 furnished with medical attendance and 
 medicine free of expense ; the female 
 asylum, for the maintenance of female 
 orphans ; the boys' asylum, and several 
 others. The pursuits of the inhabitants 
 are in a great measure mercantile. They 
 carry on an extensive foreign trade, and 
 own many ships, which are employed not 
 only in the importing, exporting and 
 coasting trade, but in trade between for- 
 eign markets. B. is the second commer- 
 cial town in the U. States. The value of 
 the annual imports is about $13,000,000, 
 and that of the exports $9,000,000. The 
 amount of shipping owned in B., at the 
 commencement of 1828, was 161,583 tons. 
 Many kinds of manufactures are carried 
 on here. The capitalists of B. are also 
 the principal proprietors in the joint stock 
 manufacturing companies established in 
 Lowell, Waltham, and other towns in 
 Massachusetts and some of the neighbor- 
 ing states. Great improvements have 
 been made, within a few years, in the 
 appearance of the city by the widening 
 and repaying of streets, the erection of 
 new and elegant buildings, and the em- 
 bellishment of the public grounds. The 
 principal public square is the common, 
 which, with the mall, a gravelled walk 
 which surrounds it, covers a surface of 
 about 50 acres. It is a handsome piece 
 of ground, has a sloping and undulating 
 surface, is partly shaded with elms, and is 
 surrounded by some of the most elegant 
 buildings in the city. There are six 
 newspapers published daily, three semi- 
 weekly, several weekly, and a number of 
 other periodical journals, some of which 
 are conducted with great ability, and are 
 extensively circulated. Among these are 
 the North American Review and the 
 Christian Examiner. B. was founded in 
 August, 1630. It received the name of B. 
 from a borough of the same name in Lin- 
 colnshire, England (from which a part of 
 the inhabitants emigrated), by a vote of 
 the court of assistants, September 7, and, 
 on the 19th of October of the same year, 
 the general court of the colony was held 
 there. This general court was not coin-
 
 210 
 
 BOSTON BOSWELL. 
 
 posed of representatives, but of the pro- 
 prietors under the charter, acting in their 
 own right. The first church was built in 
 1632. The Middlesex canal, leading from 
 Boston harbor to the Merrimack river, 
 forms with this river a navigable channel 
 to Concord in New Hampshire. There 
 are no other means of transportation to 
 and from the interior, except such as are 
 afforded by the common roads. In this 
 respect, B. is behind the other principal 
 cities of the U. States, and its inland trade 
 is much less than it would otherwise have 
 been. Projects are now before the public 
 for remedying this inconvenience by the 
 construction of rail-roads. The popula- 
 tion has doubled from the year 1783 
 once in about 23 years. Previously to 
 that date, the population of the town had 
 been, for 100 years, nearly stationary, and 
 for 50 years entirely so ; its trade, and that 
 of the colony, having been subjected to 
 severe restraints and heavy burdens In 
 the reign of Charles II, the inhabitants of 
 the colony fell under the royal displeas- 
 ure, and, in 1683, a writ of quo warranto 
 was issued against the charter of the col- 
 ony. A legal town-meeting of the free- 
 men of B. was held, and the question was 
 put to vote, whether it was their wish that 
 the general court should resign the charter 
 and the privileges therein granted, and it 
 was resolved in the negative unanimously. 
 The charter, however, was declared for- 
 feited by a decree of the court of chan- 
 cery, and, soon after, sir Edmund Andros 
 was appointed the first royal governor. 
 His administration, wliich endured for 
 two or three years, was arbitrary and op- 
 pressive. In April, 1689, the people of 
 B. took forcible possession of the fort in 
 B., and the castle in the harbor, turned the 
 guns upon the frigate Rose, and compelled 
 her to surrender, seized the governor, and 
 held him a close prisoner under guard in 
 the castle. A little more than a month 
 afterwards, news was received of the 
 revolution in England, and the event was 
 celebrated with great rejoicings. In 1765, 
 after the passage of the stamp act, the 
 person appointed distributor of stamps 
 was compelled, by threats of violence, to 
 decline the acceptance of the office, and 
 the house of the lieutenant-governor was 
 destroyed by a mob. A large military 
 and naval force was stationed at B. for 
 the purpose of overawing the people. 
 On the evening of March 5, 1770, a ser- 
 geant's guard fired upon a crowd of peo- 
 ple, who were surrounding them, and 
 pelting them with snow-balls, and killed 
 five men. Dec. 16, 1773, on the arrival 
 
 of three ships loaded with tea, after various 
 unsuccessful attempts had been made by 
 public meetings of the citizens, to prevent 
 its being landed and sold, in violation of 
 the non-importation resolves of the peo- 
 ple, a number of men, disguised as In- 
 dians, went on board the ships, and threw 
 all the tea overboard. In the following 
 spring, the port of B. was closed by an 
 act of parliament (Boston Port-bill), and 
 the landing and shipping of goods within 
 the harbor was ordered to be discontin- 
 ued. The session of the general court 
 was removed to Salem, and additional 
 bodies of troops and a military governor 
 were ordered to B. In 1775, the war 
 commenced with the battles of Lexington 
 and Bunker hill, and the town of B., in 
 which the British troops were encamped 
 to the number of 10,000 men, was be- 
 sieged by the American army. The 
 siege continued until the March follow- 
 ing, when the British troops evacuated 
 the town and castle, embarked on board 
 their own ships, and withdrew to another 
 part of the country. The inhabitants 
 were among the earliest and most ardent 
 assertors of the rights of the people, and 
 among the earliest advocates and active 
 supporters of independence. During the 
 revolutionary struggle, popular meetings 
 were frequent. These meetings were 
 usually held in Faneuil hall. Benjamin 
 Franklin was born in B., Jan. 17, 1706. 
 
 BOSWELL, James, the friend and biog- 
 rapher of Johnson, born at Edinburgh, in 
 1740, studied in his native city, in Glas- 
 gow, and in the Dutch university of 
 Utrecht. He afterwards resided several 
 times in London, and cultivated the ac- 
 quaintance of the most distinguished men 
 of his time. Here he became acquaint- 
 ed with Johnson a circumstance which 
 he himself calls the most important event 
 of his life. He afterwards visited Voltaire 
 at Ferney, Rousseau at Neufchatel, and 
 Paoli in Corsica, with whom he became 
 intimate. He then returned by the way 
 of Paris to Scotland, and devoted himself 
 to the bar. In 1768, when Corsica at- 
 tracted so much attention, he published 
 his valuable Account of Corsica, with 
 Memoirs of Paoli. At a later period, he 
 settled at London, where he lived in the 
 closest intimacy with Johnson. In 1773, 
 he accompanied him on a tour to the 
 Scottish Highlands and Hebrides, and 
 published an account of the excursion 
 after their return. After the death of 
 Johnson, he became his biographer. The 
 minuteness and accuracy of his account, 
 and the store of literary anecdote which
 
 BOSWELL BOTANY. 
 
 211 
 
 it contains, render this work very valua- 
 ble. It was published in 2 vols. 4to., in 
 1790, and has been repeatedly reprinted. 
 B. died in 1795. 
 
 BOSWORTH ; a small town in the county 
 of Leicester, England, about three miles 
 from which is Bosworth field, where was 
 fought, in 1458, the memorable battle be- 
 tween Richard III and the earl of Rich- 
 mond, afterwards Henry VII. This battle, 
 in which Richard lost his life, put a period 
 to the long and bloody wars of the roses, 
 between the houses of York and Lancas- 
 ter. 
 
 BOTANICAL GARDENS ; establishments 
 in which plants from all climates, and all 
 parts of the world, are cultivated in the 
 open air, in green-houses and hot-houses. 
 The object of such an establishment is 
 partly information and the improvement 
 of science, partly pleasure and luxury. 
 Theophrastus seems to have instituted the 
 first botanical garden. He bequeathed it 
 to his scholars. Attalus Philometor, king 
 of Pergamus, and Mithridates Eupator of 
 Pontus, vied with each other in the estab- 
 lishment of gardens, where they cultivated 
 poisons and antidotes. Pliny mentions a 
 botanical garden which was laid out in Ita- 
 ly by Anlonius Castor, son-in-law of king 
 Dejotarus. In the middle ages, Charle- 
 magne exerted a ikvorable influence, by 
 establishing gardens near the imperial 
 palaces and castles, specifying even the 
 single shrubs, which were to be planted. 
 In the beginning of the 14th century, 
 Matthseus Sylvaticus, at Salerno, found- 
 ed the first botanical garden, properly so 
 called. The republic of Venice, soon 
 afterwards, in 1333, instituted a public 
 medical garden, and had the plants paint- 
 ed by Amadei. The paintings are still 
 preserved. After the time of the revival 
 of learning, the first botanical gardens, 
 which contained, however, for the greater 
 part, merely medicinal plants, were laid 
 out in Italy. Duke Alfonso of Este was 
 the founder of an excellent institution of 
 this kind in Ferrara ; then followed the 
 gardens in Padua, Pisa and Pavia. Mont- 
 pellier, in France, first imitated his exam- 
 ple. The academical garden iii Leyden 
 was instituted in 1577 ; that of Paris, in 
 1633 ; and about the same time the first 
 botanical gardens in Germany and Eng- 
 land were founded. At present, the 
 largest and most renowned in Germany 
 are the imperial Austrian, at Schonbrunn, 
 under the inspection of Jacquin ; the royal 
 Prussian, near Berlin, under Link and 
 Otto ; that of Weimar, in Belvedere ; 
 that of the grand duke of Baden, at 
 
 Schwetzingen ; and the royal Hanove- 
 rian, in Herrnhausen. In Great Britain, 
 the royal garden at Kew ; the, Chelsea 
 garden, founded for the London apothe- 
 caries ; and that at Liverpool, under the 
 superintendence of Shepherd, are the 
 most celebrated scientific institutions, to 
 say nothing of the extensive gardens 
 where plants are raised for sale. In 
 France, the royal garden in Paris, under 
 the inspection of Desfontaines and Thouin, 
 is the principal. Formerly, that of Mal- 
 maison, founded by the empress Jose- 
 phine, was the most famous (see Bon- 
 pland). In Italy, the garden of the 
 university at Turin, superintended by 
 Capelli, is, perhaps, the best ; in Spain, the 
 royal garden at Madrid, under Mariano 
 Lagasca ; in Denmark, the garden of the 
 university at Copenhagen, under the su.-. 
 perintendence of Hornemann. In Russia, 
 the excellent institution of the count 
 Alexis Rasumowsky, at Corinka, near 
 Moscow, deserves to be placed by the 
 side of the most celebrated establishments. 
 The principal botanical gardens in the 
 U. States are in New York, in Philadel- 
 phia and Cambridge. In Asia, the gar- 
 den of the East India company at Cal- 
 cutta is the most important. At present, 
 almost all universities and learned acade- 
 mies, as well as many rich private pro- 
 prietors, have botanical gardens. 
 
 BOTANY, the science of plants, may be 
 divided into two parts, one of which de- 
 scribes their external appearance, and is 
 sometimes called phytography ; the other 
 treats of their internal structure and or- 
 ganic action, and may be termed philo- 
 sophical botany or phytonomy. The former 
 requires a perfect knowledge of terminol- 
 ogy, the latter a thorough knowledge of 
 the plants themselves, with a view to a 
 systematic classification of them, accord- 
 ing to fixed principles. The necessity of 
 such a classification must have been felt 
 as soon as the number of known plants 
 became great, and their relations and 
 analogies obvious. At the time of the 
 revival of letters, hardly 1500 plants were 
 known from the descriptions of the an- 
 cients. At present, at a moderate estima- 
 tion, more than 50,000 have been describ- 
 ed. It is obviously impossible to introduce 
 order into this infinite chaos, or to acquire 
 any distinct knowledge, without the aid 
 of general principles. Even in the 16th 
 and 17th centuries, the founders of botan- 
 ical science perceived that in plants, as 
 well as in all other natural bodies, the es- 
 sential and necessary parts must be dis- 
 tinguished from the accidental, and that a
 
 212 
 
 BOTANY. 
 
 scientific classification must be founded 
 on the former alone. Now it was obvious 
 that the production of fruit and seed is the 
 ultimate object of vegetation, and, accord- 
 ingly, in the first attempts at classification, 
 the relations and component parts of the 
 seed and of the fruit were made the found- 
 ation of the arrangement. This arrange- 
 ment was confirmed by an observation of 
 the uniformity of nature in the formation of 
 those parts in plants of similar kinds. 
 But it was found, also, that uniformity in 
 these formations prevailed in too great a 
 number of plants to allow them alone to 
 be made the distinguishing characteristics. 
 It became, therefore, necessary to have 
 recourse to other parts. The flower was 
 first chosen, as it presents a great variety 
 of forms, and, at the same time, a uniform- 
 ity of structure. But the limits to this 
 uniformity, and the absence of flowers in 
 innumerable plants, with the consideration 
 that they are not essential, suggested to 
 the immortal founder of modern scientific 
 botany the idea that the sexual parts are 
 most intimately related to the growth of 
 the fruit, and that they are, therefore, of 
 the greatest importance, and furnish bet- 
 ter grounds of classification than the 
 flower. A general principle was thus 
 established, fertile in consequences, excel- 
 lently adapted to facilitate the diffusion 
 and extend the sphere of the science. 
 The Limisean system was founded exclu- 
 sively on the relations of the sexual parts. 
 Linnaeus divided all known plants into 
 two general divisions, one of which has 
 visible sexual parts (phanerogamous], 
 while in the other they are invisible or 
 wanting (cryptogamous). The first divis- 
 ion comprehends the 23 first classes of his 
 system, which are distinguished according 
 to the situation of the sexual parts in the 
 same or in separate flowers, their number, 
 their length, &c. If any system has in- 
 troduced order in the midst of variety, 
 and shed light on the immense diversities 
 of nature, it is that of Linnaeus. Hence, 
 even those who have departed from it in 
 their writings have considered it neces- 
 sary for elementary instruction. Many 
 objections, however, are brought against 
 it. It has been made a question whether 
 it is fitted for the investigation and classi- 
 fication of unknown plants. It is said 
 that the sexual parts may be very differ- 
 ent in similar plants; that he never will 
 have a complete idea of nature, who pro- 
 ceeds only on one principle. It has, there- 
 fore, been thought necessary to find a more 
 natural arrangement. (See Plants.) In 
 order to follow nature, we must look at 
 
 every part; at the internal structure, as 
 well as the external relations, analogies 
 and differences. This can be done only 
 by a profound and toilsome investigation, 
 of which the mere follower of a system 
 has hardly a notion. Seed is considered 
 as the ultimate object of vegetation. Its 
 parts, their formation, situation, and other 
 relations, must be critically examined. 
 The most perfect natural system, in mod- 
 ern times, is that of Jussieu, particularly 
 as enlarged by Decandolle. (See Decan- 
 dolle's Regni vegetabilis Systema naturale, 
 his Thtone elementaire de la Botanique, 
 and his Prodromus Systematis naturalis 
 Regni vegetabilis ; also the Nouveaux El- 
 emens de la Botanique, by Richard.) 
 
 The second general division of this sci- 
 ence begins with the investigation of the 
 internal structure, or the anatomy of 
 plants. This study has been recently cul- 
 tivated, by the Germans, to an extent, 
 which, 30 years ago, could hardly have 
 been conceived. It is closely connected 
 with the first division, if the plants are 
 studied in their natural order. Without 
 good microscopes, and the aid of the best 
 works in this branch, a distinct knowledge 
 of the structure of plants cannot easily be 
 obtained. Chemical botany must be con- 
 nected with the anatomy of plants. Their 
 constituent parts, their various changes, 
 and the different combinations of their 
 liquid and solid parts, are to be examined. 
 From those, at last, we ascend to the laws 
 of vegetable life, which are, in general, the 
 same as those of animal life. Animal 
 physiology must, therefore, be intimately 
 united with the physiology of plants. 
 Connected with the latter are two 
 branches of knowledge, which the bota- 
 nist cannot well dispense with, since they 
 offer the most important conclusions on 
 the economy of nature, on the history" 
 of the earth, and on the application of 
 science to the arts. These are, first, the 
 science of the deformities and diseases of 
 plants, which can be made certain only 
 by correct physiological views, and which 
 is of great value in gardening, agriculture, 
 and the cultivation of woods ; and, second^ 
 a knowledge of the mode in which plants 
 have been spread over the earth. If we 
 study the forms of vegetation which have 
 come to us from distant ages, in the Jlotz 
 formations, this observation affords the 
 most interesting discoveries in relation to 
 the history of our earth. If we trace the 
 laws by which vegetation seems to have 
 been distributed, we extend our knowl- 
 edge of the general action of nature, and 
 arrive at conclusions which may be of
 
 BOTANY. 
 
 213 
 
 great practical utility. The work of 
 Sprengel on the structure and nature of 
 plants, is, perhaps, the most complete. 
 Separate parts of the anatomy of plants 
 have been treated of by Link, Treviranus 
 and Moldenhawer ; vegetable chemistry 
 by Senebier, Saussure and Schrader. 
 
 History of the Science. Of the two gen- 
 eral divisions of botany, the physiological 
 or philosophical is the elder. Before the 
 Greek philosophers attempted to distin- 
 guish classes and species of plants, they 
 examined the laws of vegetable life, the 
 difference of plants from animals, and, as 
 far as it could be done with the naked 
 eye, their structure. Theophrastus of 
 Eresus is the creator of philosophical 
 botany, which he treated on a great and 
 original plan. From the writings of the 
 Alexandrians, and from original observa- 
 tions, Dioscorides of Anazarba, in the first 
 century of the Christian era, compiled a 
 work, which contains imperfect descrip- 
 tions of about 1200 plants, the medical 
 qualities of which were more attended to 
 by the author than the description of their 
 characteristics or their philosophical clas- 
 sification. This work continued, for 15 
 centuries, the only source of botanical 
 knowledge. The Persian and Arabian 
 physicians added about 200 plants, which 
 were unknown to the Greeks, and, conse- 
 quently, the number of known plants, at 
 the time of the revival of letters, was 
 about 1400. Germany has the merit of 
 having founded historical botany. The 
 obvious imperfections of Dioscorides, 
 when the plants of Germany came to be 
 investigated, and the extravagances into 
 which those persons fell, who attempted 
 to apply his descriptions to German 
 plants, impelled Hieronymus of Bruns- 
 wick, Otho Braunfelsius, Leon. Fuchsius, 
 Hieron. Tragus and Conrad Gesner, to 
 examine the vegetable productions of 
 their country, independently of Dioscori- 
 des, and to represent them in wood-cuts. 
 Gesner first started the idea that the partsof 
 fructification were the most essential, and 
 that plants must be classified with refer- 
 ence to them. They were followed, in 
 the 16th century, by the Italians, Peter 
 Matthiolus, Andr. Csesalpinus, Prosp. Al- 
 pinus and Fab. Columna; the Belgians, 
 Dodonseus, Clusius and Lobelius. Among 
 the botanists of this period, who extended 
 the science by their labors in collecting 
 specimens, are the French Da'echamp, 
 the English Gerard, the German Joach. 
 Camerarius, Taberna?montanus and John 
 Bauhin, whose brother Gaspard not only 
 increased the number of known plants by 
 
 numerous discoveries, but endeavored to 
 reform the nomenclature, which had be- 
 come much confused by the multiplica- 
 tion of names of the same plant. These 
 are the fathers of botany, whose standard 
 works still reward examination. By the 
 exertions of these men, the number of 
 known plants, at the beginning of the 17th 
 century, amounted to 5500. The neces- 
 sity of classification increased with the 
 quantity of materials. Lobelius and John 
 Bauhin adopted the natural division of 
 trees, grasses, &c., without reference to 
 any general principle. Andreas Csesalpi- 
 nus, by the advice of Conrad Gesner, fix- 
 ed upon the fruit and the seed as the 
 foundation of a classification, which is still 
 retained by many of his followers, who 
 are called fructists. In the 17th century, 
 new methods were introduced by Robert 
 Morison and John Ray, the latter of 
 whom attended to the structure of the 
 corolla and its parts, while Rivinus con- 
 sidered only the regularity or irregularity 
 of its shape, and Tournefort its resem- 
 blance to other objects. The number of 
 known plants was increased by Morison, 
 Plukenet, Barrelier, Boccone, van Rheede, 
 Petiver and Plumier. In the 17th centu- 
 ry, the foundation of botanical anatomy 
 was laid by Grew and Malpighi ; botani- 
 cal chemistry was founded by Homberg, 
 Dodart and Slariotte ; and the difference 
 of sex was discovered by Grew, Morland 
 and Rud. Jak. Camerarius. This discov- 
 ery Micheli attempted to extend even to 
 the lower degrees of organization, moss, 
 lichens and sponges. To such predeces- 
 sors, and to the great collectors of her- 
 bariums, Rumphius, Parkinson, Sloane, 
 Flacourt, Sommelyn, Buxbaum, Amrnann 
 and Feuillee, the immortal Linnaeus was 
 indebted, in part, for the idea on which 
 his system was founded, and for his great 
 stores of botanical knowledge. When 
 the first edition of his Species Plantarum 
 was published, he was acquainted with 
 7300 species ; in the second edition, with 
 8800. If we consider that a moderate 
 herbarium now contains from 11,000 to 
 12,000 species, we must be astonished at 
 the increase in the number of known 
 plants in 60 years. The two sexes of 
 Linnaeus were afterwards extended, by 
 Dillenius, Schmidel and Hedwig, to the 
 imperfect vegetables. This system was 
 opposed by Adanson, Alston and Haller ; 
 it was extended still farther by Schreber, 
 Scopoli, Crantz and Jacquin. In the 18th 
 centuiy, numerous discoveries in the ve- 
 getable world were made by John Bur- 
 mann, J. G. Gmelin, Pallas, Forskal, For-
 
 214 
 
 BOTANY BOTOCUDES. 
 
 ster, Hasselquist, Browne, Jacquin, Aublet, 
 Sommerson, Stahl, Swartz, Alton. Ve- 
 getable physiology was enlarged and en- 
 riched with new discoveries by Bonnet, 
 Du Harnel, Hill, Koelreuter and Senne- 
 bier, and thus botany approached its pres- 
 ent degree of improvement. (SeeSpren- 
 gel's History of Botany, 2 vols., Leipsic, 
 1818.) An outline of the Linnsean sys- 
 tem is to be found in the article Plants. 
 
 BOTANY BAY. (See New South Wales.) 
 
 BOTH, John and Andrew ; born at 
 Utrecht, in 1610, the sons of a glass painter, 
 who instructed them in the rudiments of 
 drawing. They afterwards made further 
 progress in the school of Abraham Bloe- 
 maert, and went, at an early age, together 
 to Italy. John, attracted by the works of 
 Claude Lorraine, chose him for his model ; 
 Andrew preferred the painting of the hu- 
 man figure, and imitated the style of 
 Bamboccro. But, although their inclina- 
 tions led them in different directions, their 
 mutual friendship often united their talents 
 in the same works. Thus Andrew paint- 
 ed the figures in the landscapes of his 
 brother ; and their labors harmonized so 
 well, that their pictures could not be sus- 
 pected of coming from different hands. 
 The ease and fine coloring, in the beauti- 
 ful figures of John, cannot be overlooked, 
 in spite of .the excess of yellow, sometimes 
 found in them. His fame has been con- 
 firmed by time, and his merit, as well as 
 his residence in Italy, has procured him 
 the name of Both of Italy. Andrew was 
 drowned at Venice, in 1650. John, in- 
 consolable for his loss, abandoned Italy, 
 and returned to Utrecht, where he died 
 shortly after. The plates which John 
 Both has himself etched from his princi- 
 pal works are much valued. 
 
 BOTHNIA, EAST, a province formerly 
 belonging to Sweden, but ceded to Russia 
 in 1809, situated on the E. side of the gulf 
 of Bothnia, bounded N. by Lapland, E. by 
 the Russian government of Archangel 
 and Olonetz, S. by Finland, and W. 
 by the gulf of Bothnia, is about 300 
 miles in length, and from 60 to 210 
 in breadth. Towards the south, and on 
 the sea-coast, the land is low and marshy. 
 The summers are often so cold as to de- 
 stroy a great part of the crops. Popula- 
 tion, about 70,000. The cattle are small, 
 and bears are numerous. The salmon 
 fishery is abundant, and that of pearls 
 often successful. The principal exports 
 are timber, butter, whale-oil, pitch, tar, 
 &c. The principal towns are Cajana, or 
 Cajaneborg, Ulea, Christinestadt, &c. 
 
 BOTHNIA, WEST; a province of Sweden, 
 
 situated on the W. side of the gulf of 
 Bothnia, bounded N. and W. by Lapland, 
 S. by Angermania, and E. by the gulf of 
 Bothnia. The country is tolerably fertile, 
 but sudden frosts, in the month of July, 
 often destroy the laborer's hopes. There 
 are mines of copper and iron. The prin- 
 cipal towns are Urnea, Pithea and Lulea. 
 Population, about 56,000. 
 
 BOTHNIA, GOLF OF ; the northern part 
 of the Baltic sea, which separates Sweden 
 from Finland. It commences at the island 
 of Aland, 61 N. lat., and extends to 66 : 
 its length is about 360 miles, its breadth 
 from 90 to 130, and its depth from 20 to 
 50 fathoms. It freezes over in the winter, 
 so as to be passed by sledges and carriages. 
 Its water contains only one third of the 
 proportion of salt found in other sea- 
 water. It abounds in salmon and in 
 seals, which furnish great quantities of 
 train-oil. This gulf is gradually decreas- 
 ing in extent. 
 
 BOTHWELL ; a village of Scotland, on 
 the Clyde, nine miles from Glasgow. At 
 Bothwell bridge, a decisive battle was 
 fought, in 1679, between the Scottish 
 covenanters, commanded principally by 
 their clergy, and the royal forces, com- 
 manded by the duke of Monmouth, in 
 which the former were totally routed. 
 
 BOTHWELL, James Hepburn, earl, is 
 known in Scotch history by his marriage 
 with queen Mary. It is supposed, by 
 some historians, that he was deeply con- 
 cerned in the murder of the unfortunate 
 Daniley, Mary's husband, and that he 
 was even supported by the deluded 
 queen. He was charged with the crime, 
 and tried, but acquitted. After the death 
 of Darnley, he seized the queen at Edin- 
 burgh, and, carrying her a prisoner to 
 Dunbar castle, prevailed upon her to mar- 
 ry him, after he had divorced his own 
 wife. Though seemingly secure in the 
 possession of power, and though created 
 earl of Orkney by the unfortunate queen, 
 he soon found that his conduct had rous- 
 ed the indignation of the kingdom. Ma- 
 ry found not in him the fond husband she 
 expected : he became unkind and brutal. 
 A confederacy was formed against him 
 by the barons, the queen was liberated 
 from his power, and he escaped to the 
 Orkneys, and afterwards to Denmark, 
 where he died, 1577. In his last mo- 
 ments, it is said, that, with an agonizing 
 conscience, he confessed his own guilt, 
 and the queen's innocence, of the murder 
 of Darnley. 
 
 BOTOCUDES, savages of Brazil, received 
 their name from the large wooden pegs,
 
 BOTOCUDES BOTTOMRY. 
 
 215 
 
 with which they ornament their ears and 
 lips. A small part of these savages is 
 now somewhat civilized. Most of the 
 tribes are still in a completely barbarous 
 state, continually at war among them- 
 selves, and accustomed to eat the flesh 
 of their enemies. A more particular, 
 though incomplete, account of them is 
 to be found in the Travels of the Prince 
 of Neuwied and others in Brazil. With 
 the view of promoting their civilization, 
 three Indian villages were laid out, in 
 1824, by order of the emperor. 
 
 BOTTA, Carlo Giuseppe Guglielmo, 
 member of the academy of sciences at 
 Turin, a poet and historian, born, 1766, at 
 S. Giorgio, in Piedmont, studied medicine 
 and botany at Turin. In 1794, he was 
 a physician in the French army which 
 passed the Alps. This service carried 
 him to Corfu. In 1799, he was a member 
 of the provisory government of Piedmont, 
 and was one of those who favored the in- 
 corporation of Piedmont with France. 
 After the battle of Marengo, he was a 
 member of the Piedmontese considta. In 
 the corps legislatif, he displeased Napo- 
 leon, because he openly censured the des- 
 potism of his administration. In 1814, he 
 was one of the members of the corps le- 
 snslatif, which pronounced that Napoleon 
 had forfeited his throne. After the resto- 
 ration, he was struck out of the list of 
 members of the legislative body, because 
 he was a foreigner, and not naturalized. 
 In 1815, Napoleon appointed him direct- 
 or of the academy at Nancy. At the res- 
 toration, he resigned this post, and lives 
 now as a private individual. His most 
 important works are his Description of 
 the Island of Corfu (2 vols.) ; his transla- 
 tion of Bora's (Joannis physiophili) Speci- 
 men monachologicB ; Memoir on the The- 
 ory of Brown; Recollections of a Journey 
 in Dalmatia ; On Tones and Sound ; 
 Short History of the Royal House of Sa- 
 voy and Piedmont ; History of the North 
 American Revolutionary War ; 11 Camillo 
 o Veja conquistata, a much-esteemed epic, 
 poem, in 12 cantos, published in 1816; 
 Storia d 'Italia dal 1789 al 1814 (4 vols. 
 4to.), in 1824, somewhat rhetorical, but a 
 good picture of the state of this unhappy 
 country; Histoire des Peuples d'ltalie 
 (Paris, 1825, 3 vols.), in which he denies 
 to the Christian religion and to philoso- 
 phy the merit of having civilized Europe, 
 and attributes this effect to the revival of 
 learning. 
 
 BOTTLES, by the ancients, were made 
 of skins and leather: they are now chief- 
 ly made of thick glass, of the cheapest 
 
 kind, and formed of the most ordinary 
 materials. It is composed of sand, with 
 lime, and sometimes clay, and alkaline 
 ashes of any kind, such as kelp, barilla, 
 or even wood ashes. The green color 
 is owing partly to the impurities in the 
 ashes, but chiefly to oxyde of iron. This 
 glass is strong, hard and well vitrified. 
 It is less subject to corrosion by acids 
 than flint-glass, and is superior to any 
 cheap material for the purposes to which 
 it is applied. 
 
 BOTTOMRY is the hypothecation or 
 pledge of a vessel for the payment of a 
 debt. The creditor has no right to take 
 possession of the ship, until the expiration 
 of the time for which the loan is made, 
 and then (under a bottomry contract in 
 the usual form) only by the intervention 
 of an admiralty court. If the loan is not 
 repaid at the stipulated time, the lender 
 applies to an admiralty court, which (the 
 truth of the claim being established) de- 
 crees a sale of the ship to satisfy the debt. 
 The conditions of such a contract usually 
 are, that, if the ship is not lost or destroy- 
 ed by those risks which the lender agrees 
 to run, the debt is to become absolute. 
 The risks assumed by the lender are usu- 
 ally the same as are enumerated in a 
 common policy of insurance. If the ship 
 is wholly lost in consequence of these 
 risks, the lender loses his loan. In case 
 of a partial damage, the bottomry bond 
 usually provides that this damage shall 
 be borne by the lender in the proportion 
 of the amount loaned to the value of the 
 ship. If this amount is equal to one half 
 of the value of the ship, the lender is to 
 bear one half of the amount of such loss, 
 &c. As the lender thus assumes a cer- 
 tain risk, he is justly entitled to a greater 
 interest than if he did not thus take the 
 hazard of the loss of the whole loan; and 
 this is called marine interest. He is enti- 
 tled to the usual rate of interest on his 
 loan, in addition to the usual premium of 
 insurance for the same voyage or period. 
 The stipulation for such a rate of marine 
 interest is not a violation of the laws 
 against usury, for it is not merely a com- 
 pensation for the use of the money loan- 
 ed, but also for the risk assumed. Tiie 
 ship-owner may borrow money on bot- 
 tomry, whether his vessel be in port or at 
 sea. But the captain of the ship, as such, 
 cannot so borrow when in the port where 
 the owner resides, or near enough to con- 
 sult him on any emergency. In any 
 other port, he may pledge the ship on 
 bottomry for the purpose of raising money 
 necessary for repairing, supplying and
 
 216 
 
 BOTTOMRY BOUCHER. 
 
 navigating her, if he can obtain it in no 
 other way. If he borrow thus without 
 necessity, the bond is void, and the lender 
 can look only to the personal responsi- 
 bility of the captain. 
 
 BOTS. (See (Estrus.) 
 
 BOTZEN, or BOLZANO ; a town in Ty- 
 rol, at the confluence of the Eisack and 
 the Adige, containing 8100 inhabitants, 
 and 1000 houses. It has four annual 
 fairs. The rivers of the town, the former 
 privileges of the bishop of Trent, and die 
 intersection of the main roads leading to 
 Germany, Italy and Switzerland, at this 
 place, on account of the chains of moun- 
 tains and the courses of the streams, af- 
 forded it great advantages for commerce, 
 which yet continue, in some degree. Its 
 commerce, however, is much injured by 
 the smuggling over lake Como, and also 
 from Switzerland, into Lombardy. B. 
 lies in a valley, enclosed by high moun- 
 tains ; it is, therefore, excessively hot in 
 summer, and sometimes even visited by 
 the sirocco. The finest fruits of Upper 
 Italy (agnaui] are produced here, if pro- 
 tected by a covering in winter on the east 
 side of the mountain. Autumn is here 
 the most beautiful season in the year. 
 The winter is generally short. On the 
 declivities of the mountains is produced a 
 peculiar kind of red wine. In the valleys, 
 mulberry-trees flourish. B. is, therefore, 
 the best place for silk-worms in the Aus- 
 trian dominions. 
 
 BOLCHARDON, Edmund, born, in 1698, 
 at Chaumont-en-Basigni, son of a sculptor 
 and architect, applied himself early to. 
 drawing and painting. He made many 
 copies, without, however, giving up the 
 study of nature. In order to devote him- 
 self to statuary, he went to Paris, and en- 
 tered the school of the younger Coustou. 
 He soon gained the highest prize, and 
 was made royal pensioner at Rome. He 
 studied his art partly in the works of anti- 
 quity, and partly in "those of Raphael and 
 Domenichino. He executed several busts, 
 and was to have erected the tomb of 
 Clement XI, but the orders of the king 
 recalled him to Paris in 1732. Here, 
 among other works, he made a large 
 group in stoue, representing an athlete 
 overcoming a bear. This stood for a long 
 time in the garden of Grosbois. After- 
 wards, he assisted in repairing the foun- 
 tain of Neptune at Versailles. He exe- 
 cuted ten statues, which adorn the church 
 of St. Sulpice. A monument to the duch- 
 ess of Lauraguais, made by him, is also 
 in that church. The fountain in the rue 
 de Crenelle, which the city of Paris order- 
 
 ed to be constructed in 1739, was made 
 by him, and is considered his master- 
 piec*e. A Cupid which he made for the 
 king was unsuccessful. For the Traite 
 des Pierrts gravies, B. furnished designs, 
 from which the plates were copied. The 
 execution of the greatest monument of 
 that period, the equestrian statue of Louis 
 XV, which was erected by order of the 
 city of Paris, was committed to him. He 
 labored 12 years on this, with inconceiva- 
 ble perseverance, and has left, in the 
 horse, a model which may be ranked 
 with any work of antiquity. He died in 
 1762. His designs are great and accurate. 
 His pieces bear the character of simple 
 grandeur. He put more spirit and ex- 
 pression into his sketches than into the 
 marble. In general, more fire is to be 
 desired in his sculpture. The paintings 
 which he executed at Rome are bold 
 and powerful. Afterwards he adopted a 
 more polished, delicate manner, to suit the 
 taste of the age. Among his scholars, 
 Louis-Claude Vasse, who died in 1772, 
 is distinguished. Cavlus has written his 
 life. 
 
 BOUCHER, Alexander, or, as he was ac- 
 customed to call himself, from the title 
 given him in a French journal, UJUexan- 
 dre du w'oion, one of the most remarkable 
 but eccentric violinists, was born at Paris 
 in 1770. At the age of six, he played be- 
 fore the dauphin, and at eight he played 
 in public. He was in unfortunate circum- 
 stances in early life, until he obtained a 
 place in Spain, under Charles IV, who was 
 himself a very good violinist. In 1814, he 
 went to England. At Dover, the custom- 
 house officers were about to seize his in- 
 strumrnt, but B. suddenly struck up " God 
 save the King," with variations, and was 
 suffered to pass unmolested. He is as 
 remarkable for eccentricity as for his mu- 
 sical powers. He is now established at 
 Berlin. B. has attracted much attention by 
 his resemblance to Napoleon, whose gait, 
 demeanor and look he can perfectly imi- 
 tate. Every one fancies he sees the ex- 
 emperor when B. folds his arms. He 
 declares this resemblance to have been 
 disadvantageous to him at the time of the 
 restoration of the Bourbons. 
 
 BOUCHER, Francis ; painter to the king, 
 and director of the academy of painters ; 
 born at Paris, 1704, died 1770. While a 
 pupil of the celebrated Lemoine, he gain- 
 ed, at the age of 19, the first prize of the 
 academy. After studying at Rome for a 
 short time, he returned to Paris, and was 
 styled the painter of the graces a title 
 which he did not merit He would, per-
 
 BOUCHER BOUFFLERS. 
 
 217 
 
 haps, have risen to excellence, had he 
 not yielded to the corrupt taste of his age, 
 aud had devoted himself more completely 
 to his studies. The ease with which he 
 executed made him careless. His draw- 
 ing is faulty ; his coloring does not har- 
 monize, especially in his naked pieces, 
 which are so glaring, that they appear as 
 if the light was reflected on them from a 
 red curtain. In a word, he is looked 
 upon as the corrupter of the French 
 school. He was neither envious nor av- 
 aricious, but encouraged younger artists 
 as much as was in his power. The great 
 number of his paintings and sketches 
 show with what rapidity he produced 
 them. The latter alone amounted to 
 more than 10,000. He has also etched 
 some plates, and many of his paintings 
 have been engraved. 
 
 BOUCHES-DU-RHONE (mouths of the 
 Rhone) ; a department in the south of 
 France, in the ancient government of 
 Provence. Chief town, Marseilles. Pop. 
 in 1827, 326,302. (See Departments.) 
 
 BOUDINOT, Elias, was born in Phila- 
 delphia, May 2, 1740. He was descended 
 from one of the Huguenots, who sought 
 refuge in America from religious perse- 
 cution in France. He studied the law, 
 and became eminent in that profession. 
 At an early period of the revolutionary 
 war, he was appointed, by congress, com- 
 missary-general of prisoners. In the year 
 1777, he was chosen a member of con- 
 gress, and, in 1782, was made president 
 of that body. After the adoption of the 
 constitution, he entered the house of rep- 
 resentatives, where he continued six 
 years. He then succeeded Ritten house 
 as director of the mint of the U. States, 
 an office which he resigned in the course 
 of a few years, and lived, from that time, 
 at Burlington, New Jersey. He devoted 
 himself earnestly to Biblical literature, 
 and, being possessed of an ample fortune, 
 made munificent donations to various 
 charitable and theological institutions. 
 The American Bible society, of which he 
 became president, was particularly an 
 object of his bounty. He died at the age 
 of 82, in October, 1821. 
 
 BOUDOIR; a small room, simply and 
 gracefully fitted up, destined for retire- 
 ment (from bonder, to pout, to be sulky). 
 It may be indebted for its name to an 
 angry husband, whose wife, when inclined 
 to pout, shut herself up in her chamber. 
 The boudoir is the peculiar property of 
 the lady her sanctum sanctorum. To 
 this she flies for peace and solitude from 
 the bustle of society. 
 
 VOL. II. 19 
 
 BOUFFLERS, marshal de, born 1644, 
 died 1711, may be considered one of the 
 most celebrated generals of his age. He 
 wiis an eleve of the great Conde, ofTu- 
 renne, Crequi, Luxembourg and Catinat. 
 His defence of Natnur, in 1695, and of 
 Lille, in 1708, are famous. The siege of 
 the former place was conducted by king 
 William in person, and cost the allies more 
 than 20,000 men. The latter was con- 
 ducted by prince Eugene. An order was 
 sent from Louis XIV, signed by his own 
 hand, commanding B. to surrender ; but 
 he kept it secret, until all means of de- 
 fence were exhausted. The retreat of 
 the French alter the defeat at Malplaquet, 
 under the direction of B., was more like 
 a triumph than a defeat. 
 
 BOUFFLERS, Stanislaus, chevalier de, 
 member of the French academy, son of 
 the marchioness of B., mistress of Stanis- 
 laus, king of Poland, born at Luneville, 
 1737, was considered one of the most 
 ingenious men of his time, and was dis- 
 tinguished for the elegance of his man- 
 ners and conversation. He was destined 
 for the church, but declared that his love 
 of pleasure would interfere with the du- 
 ties of this profession. He entered the 
 military career, was soon appointed gov- 
 ernor of Senegal, and, while in this office, 
 made many useful regulations. After his 
 return, he devoted himself to that light 
 kind of literature which distinguished the 
 age of Louis XV. He was much admired 
 by the ladies, and in the higher circles of 
 the capital, as well as in the foreign courts 
 which he visited. His reputation gave 
 him a seat in the states-general, where he 
 was esteemed for his moderation and his 
 good intentions. After Aug. 10, 1792, he 
 left France, and met with a friendly re- 
 ception from prince Henry of Prussia, at 
 Reinsberg, and Frederic William II. A 
 large grant was made to him in Poland 
 for establishing a colony of French emi- 
 grants. In 1800, he returned to Paris, 
 where he devoted himself to literary 
 pursuits, which, in 1804, procured him a 
 seat hi the French institute. He died 
 Jan. 18, 1815. He lies buried near the 
 abbe Delille, and on his tomb is this in- 
 scription, written by himself, and charac- 
 teristic of his lively disposition : Mes 
 amis, croyez queje dors. His works were 
 published in 8 vols. 12mo. 1815. His 
 mother was long the ornament of the 
 court of Stanislaus, during its residence 
 at Luneville, by the graces of her mind 
 and beauty of her person. Voltaire ad- 
 dressed to her a madrigal which finishes 
 thus :
 
 218 
 
 BOUFFLERS BOUILLON. 
 
 Si' vous eussiez vecu du temps de Gabrielle 
 Jc nc sais pas ce qu'on cut (lit tie vous, 
 Mais on n'aurait point parle d'elle. 
 
 She died 1787. 
 
 BOUGAINVILLE, Louis Antoine de, count 
 of the empire, senator, and member of the 
 institute in 1796, born, 1729, at Paris, 
 died at the same place, 1811. At first a 
 lawyer, afterwards a distinguished sol- 
 dier, diplomatist and scholar, he was al- 
 ways remarkable for his energy of char- 
 acter. He fought bravely in Canada, 
 under the marquis of Montcahn, and it 
 was principally owing to his exertions, in 
 1758, that a body of 5000 French with- 
 stood successfully an English army of 
 16,000 men. Towards the conclusion of 
 the battle, he received a shot in the head. 
 The governor of Canada, finding himself 
 unable to defend the colony, sent B. to 
 France for reenforcetnents. lie set off" 
 in Nov., 1758, and returned Jan., 1759, 
 after the king had made him colonel and 
 knight of St. Louis. After the battle of 
 Sept. 13, 1759, in which Montcalm was 
 killed, and the fate of the colony decided, 
 B. returned to France, and served with 
 distinction under Choiseul Stainville, in 
 the campaign of 1761, in Germany. Af- 
 ter the peace, he entered the navy, and 
 became one of the greatest naval officers 
 in France. He persuaded the inhabit- 
 ants of St. Malo to fit out an expedition 
 for the purpose of establishing a colony 
 in the Falkland islands, and undertook 
 the command of the expedition himself. 
 The king appointed him captain, and B. 
 set sail, with his little fleet, in 1763. But, 
 as the Spaniards had a prior claim to the 
 islands, France was obliged to surrender 
 them, and B., having returned to France, 
 was commissioned to carry the surrender 
 into execution, on receiving from Spain a 
 remuneration for his expenses. For this 
 purpose, he set sail, with one frigate and a 
 merchant ship, from St. Malo, Dec. 15, 
 1766. After the immediate object of his 
 voyage was accomplished, he circumnav- 
 igated the world, and returned to St. Ma- 
 lo, March 16, 1769. He enriched the 
 science of geography by a number of new 
 discoveries. In the American war, he 
 commanded several ships of the line, with 
 great honor ; was, in 1779, chef (Tescadre, 
 and, hi the following year, field-marshal 
 in the land forces. After 1790, he 
 devoted himself to science. He was a 
 man of the most engaging manners, 
 obliging, liberal, and, in every respect, 
 worthy of the greatest esteem. He re- 
 tained the natural li veliness of his dispo- 
 sition to a very advanced age. 
 
 BOUILLE, Francis Claude Amour, mar- 
 quis de, one of the most celebrated of 
 the generals of Louis XVI, born 1739, at 
 Auvergne, early entered on a military 
 life. He distinguished himself in the 
 seven years' war, and was appointed gov- 
 ernor of Guadaloupe in 1768, and con- 
 quered Dominica, St. Eustatia, Tobago, 
 St. Christopher, Nevis and Montserrat. 
 After the peace of 1783, he returned to 
 Paris, and was appointed lieutenant-gen- 
 eral. He afterwards travelled in England, 
 through Holland and a great part of Ger- 
 many, until he was made chief of the 
 province Trois-Eveches. In the assem- 
 bly of notables (1787 88), he declared 
 for the proposed reforms of Calonne, 
 which, however, were defeated by cardi- 
 nal Brienne. He was opposed to the plan 
 of Necker for the union of the provinces. 
 At the breaking out of the revolution, he 
 supported the existing government, both 
 in his former province and in Lorraine, 
 Alsace and Franche-Comte. It was only 
 at the urgent desire of the king, that he 
 swore allegiance to the constitution of 
 1791. He repressed, in 1790, the re- 
 bellion of the garrisons of Metz and 
 Nancy ; and, although the national assem- 
 bly decreed him a vote of thanks for the 
 bravery and ability he had displayed on 
 this occasion, still the revolutionists dis- 
 trusted him. Shortly afterwards, he made 
 preparations to assist Louis XVI in his 
 escape. B. had made his arrangements 
 well, and, had not the king forbidden any 
 bloodshed, he would certainly have res- 
 cued him. Being .thus compelled to 
 leave the king at Varennes to his fate, he 
 fled from the dangers to which he him- 
 self was exposed by the attacks of the 
 revolutionists. From Luxembourg, he 
 wrote a threatening letter to the national 
 assembly, and then exerted himself to 
 excite the foreign powers against the 
 republic. . He succeeded well at Vienna, 
 gained over Gustavus III, and obtained 
 the promise of 30,000 men from the em- 
 press Catharine II, to be put under the 
 command of the king of Sweden and the 
 French general. But Gustavus was mur- 
 dered, the empress forgot her promises, 
 and B. went over to England in 1796. 
 Here he wrote his Memoirs of the Revo- 
 lution, which appeared in an English 
 translation (London, 1797), and, after his 
 death, in the original. B. died at Lon- 
 don in 1800. 
 
 BOUILLON ; a large district in Ardennes, 
 9 miles wide and 18 long, on the borders 
 of Luxembourg and Liege. This woody 
 and mountainous tract consists of the
 
 BOUILLON BOULOGNE. 
 
 219 
 
 town of B. with 1980 inhabitants, and 21 
 villages with 16,000 inhabitants. The 
 town, which is the capital of a canton, 
 within the arrondissement of Sedan, de- 
 partment of Ardennes, lies in the midst 
 of hills, on the left bank of the Semois, 
 which abounds with fish, 40 miles from 
 Liege and 18 from Ivoix. It has a strong 
 castle upon a rock, which, however, is 
 commanded by the neighboring moun- 
 tains. Godfrey of B. once possessed the 
 dukedom of this name. He was duke of 
 Lower Lorraine, and B. was bestowed 
 upon him as belonging properly to the 
 county of Ardenne. In order to supply 
 himself with funds for his expedition to 
 the Holy Land, Godfrey mortgaged his 
 duchy of B., in 1095, to the bishop Albert 
 of Liege. After the estate had been held 
 for many years by the bishopric, the 
 houses of La Marc and La Tour d'Aii- 
 vergne laid claims to B., but, in 1641, 
 relinquished their pretensions to the 
 bishop of Liege for 150,000 Brabant 
 guilders. In the war of 1672, France 
 conquered B., and Louis XIV gave it, 
 in 1678, to the chevalier La Tour d'Au- 
 vergne, his chamberlain. After this time, 
 it belonged to the house of La Tour until 
 the revolution, when it was taken from 
 them, in 1792. The last possessor, God- 
 frey Charles Henry de la Tour d'Au- 
 vergne, died Dec., 1812. By the peace 
 of Paris, in 1814, the dukedom Was in- 
 cluded in that of Luxembourg, which had 
 fallen to the king of the Netherlands. 
 The title of prince of B. was assumed, in 
 1792, by Philip d'Auvergne, captain in 
 the British navy, and he continued to 
 bear it till his death, in 1816. The con- 
 gress which met at Vienna in 1815 ap- 
 pointed commissioners to investigate the 
 comparative claims of this nobleman and 
 prince Charles of Rohan. They decided 
 in favor of the latter. 
 
 BOUILLY, J. N., a popular French 
 writer, born of a respectable family at 
 Tours, applied himself, at first, to the 
 la\v; but this study did not prevent him 
 from devoting himself to literature. In 
 the revolution, in which his whole heart 
 was engaged, he united himself with 
 Mirabeau and Barnave. About this time, 
 he wrote his opera Peter the Great, 
 which Gretry set to music. At Tours, 
 where he was president of the depart- 
 ment, judge of the civil tribunal, and pub- 
 lic prosecutor, his sense of justice pre- 
 vented him from misusing his power to 
 the detriment of the opposite party. Nei- 
 ther the excesses of the Vendeans nor the 
 fury of the revolutionary tribunal were 
 
 experienced in his government. With 
 La Chabeaussiere, he contributed much 
 to the introduction of primary schools. 
 When the direction of public instruction 
 passed from the hands of the committee 
 of organization into those of the police, 
 he left his oftice, and devoted himself to 
 the drama. On account of the prolix- 
 ity of his style, the critic d'Arnaud says, 
 he suffers from embonpoint du sentiment. 
 His L'Mbe de VEpte met with much suc- 
 cess; He also wrote Madame de Stvigne, 
 a comedy ; for the royal academy of 
 music he wrote Les Jeux Floreaux, and 
 some other pieces ; for the Vaudeville 
 theatres, Haine mix Femmes ; for the 
 opera comique, Fanchon, and Une Folie. 
 His works on education are very popular, 
 and have been often published. These 
 are Les Conies a ma Fille, Les Conscdls a 
 ma Fills, and some others. 
 
 BOULEVARDS. (See Paris.) 
 
 BOULOG.VE ; an old seaport town on 
 the coast of Picardy, now chief town of 
 an arrondissement of 388 square miles, 
 with 74,676 inhabitants, in the department 
 Pas de Calais, at the mouth of the Liane ; 
 lat. 50 43' 33" N. ; Ion. 1 36' 59" E. It 
 consists of the upper and lower town ; the 
 latter of which is called Boulogne surMer, 
 and is far superior to the former in the 
 beauty of its houses and streets. Both 
 parts contain together over 16,000 inhab- 
 itants, and about 1600 houses, and a har- 
 bor, which is too shallow for large vessels 
 of war, but the largest merchant vessels 
 can go in and out, at high tide, without 
 danger. With a favorable wind, vessels 
 can reach the coasts of England in two or 
 three hours from this place. Bonaparte, 
 therefore, ordered the harbor to be made 
 deeper, and a number of vessels to be 
 built, in order to transport the army in- 
 tended for the invasion of England, and 
 some small forts and batteries to be erect- 
 ed, in order to strengthen the harbor and 
 the town. A large army remained here 
 for many months in a camp, which al- 
 most resembled a town, waiting to em- 
 bark ; when, upon the breaking out of 
 hostilities with Austria, 1805, they were 
 called to other places. B. is a bishopric, 
 contains 6 churches, an hospital, an ex- 
 change, a maritime court, a society for the 
 promotion of agriculture, commerce and 
 the arts, a school for instruction in navi- 
 gation, sea baths, manufactories of soap, 
 earthen-ware, linen and woollen cloths. 
 Herring and mackerel, large quantities of 
 which are caught off the coast, Cham- 
 pagne and Burgundy wines, coal, corn, 
 butter, linen and woollen stuffs, are the
 
 220 
 
 BOULOGNE BOUNTY. 
 
 articles of export. Four steam-boats run 
 from this place to England. 
 
 BOULOGNE, WOOD OF ; a pleasant grove 
 near the gates of Paris, mentioned in all 
 the French romances. The greatest part 
 of the old trees were destroyed during 
 the revolution. When Napoleon chose 
 St. Cloud for a summer residence, he or- 
 dered young trees to be planted, had the 
 place enclosed with a wall, ind the wood 
 stocked with game, so that it became 
 more a place of resort than before. From 
 July, 1815, to September, the English 
 troops under lord Wellington were sta- 
 tioned in it, and cut down the most beau- 
 tiful trees, old and young, for barracks. 
 For a long time, it has been the duel- 
 ground of the Parisians. Here was ma- 
 ny a partie fine ; and gay equipages and 
 horsemen often enlivened the place. 
 Through the principal walk the pious 
 world made pilgrimages to Longchamps. 
 Here Montgolfiers (balloons) were first 
 raised. Cuvier discovered, by geological 
 investigations, that the soil of the wood is 
 alluvial. Petrified trunks of trees are 
 found in it at a great depth, as are also 
 the bones of elephants, oxen, elks, and 
 other mammalia. The wild plants of the 
 place are only those which prefer a rich 
 alluvial soil. The little castles of Madrid 
 and Bagatelle lie near the wood, which 
 no traveller should omit seeing. > 
 
 BOULTON, Matthew, a celebrated engi- 
 neer, was born at Birmingham in 1728. 
 After being educated at a grammar-school, 
 he was instructed in drawing by Wor- 
 lidge, and he also studied mathematics. 
 He engaged in business as a manufacturer 
 of hardware, and, as early as 1745, he is 
 said to have invented, and brought to great 
 perfection, inlaid steel buckles, buttons, 
 watch-chains, &c., of which large quan- 
 tities were exported to France, whence 
 they were repurchased with avidity by 
 the English, as " the offspring of French 
 ingenuity." In 17G2, B., finding his man- 
 ufactory at Birmingham too confined for 
 his purposes, purchased a lease of the 
 Soho, about two miles distant, in the 
 county of Stafford. This spot, then a 
 barren heath, was gradually converted 
 into an extensive manufactory and school 
 of the mechanical arts, where ingenious 
 men found ample employment for their 
 talents from the liberal patronage of the 
 patriotic proprietor. The introduction of 
 that important machine the steam-engine, 
 at Soho, led to a connexion between B. 
 and James Watt, of Glasgow, who became 
 partners in trade in 1769. Among the 
 many great undertakings in which these 
 
 gentlemen were engaged, one of the most 
 useful and important was the improve- 
 ment of the coinage. In beauty and ac- 
 curacy of execution, the coins struck at 
 the Soho manufactory have rarely been 
 surpassed ; and the reform thus effected 
 in the state of the English national cur- 
 rency confers the highest honor on those 
 with whom it originated. About the year 
 1773, was invented, at the establishment 
 of Boulton and Watt, a method of copy- 
 ing, by a mechanical process, paintings in 
 oil, so as to produce fac-similes of the 
 originals, sufficiently accurate to deceive 
 a practised connoisseur. The various 
 mechanical inventions and improvements 
 which originated, more or less directly, 
 from the genius and application of B., 
 are too numerous to admit of specifica- 
 tion. His long life was almost uninter- 
 ruptedly devoted to the advancement of 
 the useful arts, and the promotion of 
 the commercial interests of his country. 
 He died at Soho, Aug. 17, 1809, and was 
 interred in the parish-church of Hands- 
 worthi 600 of his workmen attended his 
 funeral, each of whom had a silver medal 
 presented to him, which had been struck 
 for the occasion. He was a fellow of the 
 royal societies of London and Edinburgh, 
 and an associate of several scientific in- 
 stitutions abroad. His manners and con- 
 versation are said to have been highly 
 fascinating, and his private character was 
 extremely respectable. He left an only 
 son, who succeeded him in his establish- 
 ment at Soho. (See his Memoirs, pub- 
 lished at Birmingham, 8vo.) 
 
 BOUNTY, in political economy, is a re- 
 ward or premium granted to particular 
 species of trade or production. 'The gen- 
 eral subject of encouragement of domes- 
 tic, in competition with foreign, industry 
 or trade (which is one species of indus- 
 try), will be treated of under other heads, 
 and only those circumstances mentioned, 
 in this place, which distinguish bounties 
 from other species of encouragement. 
 And it is to be observed, in the first place, 
 that the general principle is the same, 
 whether the encouragement is given to a 
 particular species of education, as that in 
 the clerical profession, which has been 
 the subject of encouragement, direct or 
 indirect, time immemorial ; or education 
 in general ; or a particular kind of literary 
 productions, as the best poetical composi- 
 tion ; or a treatise on some scientific sub- 
 ject, as one on light and heat (for which 
 count Rumford has provided a premium, 
 in the funds left by him to the American 
 academy of arts and sciences) ; or to some
 
 BOUNTY. 
 
 221 
 
 agricultural or manufactured product, as 
 in the case of the premiums formerly 
 granted by England on the exportation of 
 wheat, and those given by agricultural 
 societies in the U. States, for the greatest 
 production of any kind of grain on a 
 given extent of land, or the best threshing 
 or winnowing machine, &c. In all these 
 instances, the general doctrine is assumed 
 and presupposed, that the successful di- 
 rection of talent or industry to the species 
 of art or mode of production indicated 
 will be beneficial to the public. The 
 utility of the bounty will depend upon 
 the correctness of this assumption. All 
 bounties or premiums are not offered for 
 the encouragement of domestic talent and 
 industry to the exclusion of foreign com- 
 petition. Many of those offered by the 
 British and French governments, and by 
 private associations, are held out to all 
 competitors indiscriminately ; and, where 
 the object is universal improvement, this 
 is one of the appropriate modes of encour- 
 agement, though others concur with it, 
 such as the monopolies of copyrights and 
 patents, and the honors and distinctions 
 conferred on those who make any im- 
 portant improvement. But if the object 
 be to favor the domestic production of 
 any article which is consumed in great 
 quantities, and the supply of which will 
 employ many hands, bounties are only 
 the first steps in promoting it ; for, when 
 the species of production is once introdu- 
 ced to an extent sufficient for the supply of 
 the consumption, or so far introduced that 
 it can readily be pushed to the limits of the 
 national demand, the production is more 
 usually, and may be more economically, 
 sustained by a tax or prohibition of the 
 foreign substitute. It was, for instance, 
 a very expensive mode of encouraging 
 the domestic production of grairi in Great 
 Britain, to offer a bounty upon the export- 
 ation, for it was buying a place in the 
 foreign market ; and though the bounty 
 went to the subjects of the kingdom, 
 namely, the British landholders, yet expe- 
 rience abundantly shows that a govern- 
 ment may oppress, derange, and, possibly, 
 paralyze, its industry, by pensions, re- 
 wards and gratuities to its own subjects. 
 The object of the bounty was to encour- 
 age the home production, by guarantying 
 that the domestic should be generally 
 higher than the foreign market price, by 
 the excess of the amount of the bounty 
 over that of the freight paid on the ex- 
 portation. If the government had, at the 
 same time, imposed an additional land- 
 tax, proportional to the enhancement of 
 19* 
 
 rents occasioned by the corn-bounty, it 
 would thus have derived a great revenue. 
 If the land-tax could, in this case, have 
 been exactly proportioned, on each estate, 
 to the enhancement of the rents in conse- 
 quence of the bounty, the bounty and 
 land-tax would have constituted a tax 
 on the consumption of wheat, without af- 
 fecting the value or rent of land. But no 
 tax on land seems to have been levied as 
 a counterpart to the bounty ; one object 
 of which seems to have been to promote 
 the culture of grain, in order to provide 
 adequate supplies of so necessary an arti- 
 cle, for which, in time of war, it would 
 be dangerous to depend upon foreign 
 sources. The other object was, probably, 
 to raise or sustain rents ; at least, as that 
 was its tendency, the agricultural interest 
 would favor the measure on this ground. 
 But the result was the payment of a tax, 
 by the nation, for the advantage of the 
 export trade in corn ; and the question 
 then arose, whether the advantages, di- 
 rcct and incidental, of that trade, were 
 sufficient to compensate for the tax; and, 
 after a long experiment, the nation finally 
 became convinced that they were not so, 
 and the bounty was abolished. But they 
 secured its objects, in some degree, by a 
 prohibition of the importation of grain, 
 except at times when the prices in the 
 home market rose to an unusual height, 
 which was specified in these acts, which 
 have since been so modified, that, at a cer- 
 tain price ' in the home market, the im- 
 portation becomes allowable at a certain 
 duty, and, at a higher rate of prices, the 
 duty is less. The supply of the home 
 market is thus secured to the agricultur- 
 ists, within certain limits of price, and 
 they are previously certain of no other 
 than domestic competition below those 
 prices : in short, they have the monopoly 
 of the home market as long as they throw 
 into it a quantity sufficient to supply the 
 consumption, and foreign grain is intro- 
 duced only in case of a rise of price ap- 
 parently indicating an inadequate stock 
 in the country. The only way of making 
 rip the deficiency of scant crops is by im- 
 portation. If an ordinary crop supplies a 
 large export trade, a blight would leave a 
 smaller, or perhaps no deficiency of the 
 home production for the home consurnp- 
 lion. But no regulation, except the pub- 
 lic granary system, would provide against 
 an occasional resort to foreign supplies, 
 If the present regulations secure a pro- 
 duction commensurate with the consump- 
 tion, in ordinary years, it will be attended 
 with nearly all the advantages of the
 
 222 
 
 BOUNTY BOURBON. 
 
 bounty system, without being liable to its 
 objections, which arise from the direct 
 purchase of a foreign export trade, with- 
 out any means of making that particular 
 trade reimburse the expenditure. This 
 shows us one of the objections to the 
 bounty system, which is a more cumbrous 
 and burthensome one than even that of 
 monopolies, when applied directly and 
 permanently to the supply of foreign mar- 
 kets. It can be advantageously applied 
 only at the opening of such a trade, to 
 meet a part of the expense of the experi- 
 ment ; and this is one of the proper ob- 
 jects of this species of encouragement. 
 One other class of cases may, properly 
 enough, be made the subjects of bounties 
 or premiums; namely, the productions 
 of extraordinary efforts of ingenuity and 
 skill. A competition is in this way ex- 
 cited, by which none suffers, and all the 
 effects of which are beneficial to a com- 
 munity. There is one other class of cases 
 in which nations have offered bounties ; 
 namely, to species of industry in the pros- 
 ecution of which the national security is 
 supposed to be, in some measure, involv- 
 ed. The support of the British navy, for 
 instance, is supposed to depend, in some 
 degree, upon the fisheries, since these are 
 considered to be one of the great schools 
 of seamen. The British government, 
 therefore, encourages this species of in- 
 dustry by bounties. This kind of boun- 
 ties have the effect of reducing the price 
 of fish in the British market. If the re- 
 duction of the cost of this article increases 
 the consumption, and creates a large ex- 
 port, then the bounty has the effect of 
 training more seamen in this branch of 
 business than would otherwise resort to 
 it. The advantages, however, obtained 
 by the bounty, over what would result 
 from the prohibition of foreign fish, are, 
 probably, inconsiderable, and are pur- 
 chased at a high price. Bounties are a 
 more expensive mode of encouragement 
 than duties and prohibitions, as the money 
 must be first collected by a tax, and then 
 distributed in bounties a process in which 
 a loss of from 2 to 20 per cent, is sustain- 
 ed that is, a bounty of 100 dollars costs 
 the nation from 102 to 120 dollars, ac- 
 cording as the collection and distribution 
 of the revenue is more or less expensive. 
 BOURBON. The founder of this family, 
 which has governed France, Spam, the 
 Two Sicilies, Lucca and Parma (q. v.), is 
 Robert the Strong, who, in 861, became 
 duke of Neustria, and, in 866, lost his life 
 in a battle against the Normans. Some 
 trace his descent from Pepin of Heristel, 
 
 others from a natural son of Charlemagne, 
 and others from the kings of Lombardy. 
 It is certain that tfie two sons of this 
 Robert were kings of France. The elder, 
 named Eudes, ascended the throne in 888, 
 and died in 898 ; the younger, Robert, in 
 922, and died 923. The eldest son of 
 this Robert was Hugh the Great, duke of 
 the Isle of France, and count of Paris and 
 Orleans. Hugh Capet, son of Hugh the 
 Great (great grandson of Robert the 
 Strong), founded the third French dynas- 
 ty, in 987. (See Capet) One of his de- 
 scendants, named Robert, was the root of 
 the elder line of the dukes of Burgundy, 
 which became extinct in 1361. A de- 
 scendant of this Robert, Henry of Bur- 
 gundy, was first regent of Portugal in 
 1095, where his legitimate descendants 
 became extinct in 1383. Pierre de Cour- 
 tenay, a descendant of Hugh Capet in the 
 fifth generation, was father and ancestor 
 of many emperors of Constantinople. 
 The house of Anjou, which was descend- 
 ed from Hugh Capet in the eighth genera- 
 tion, possessed the throne of Naples for 
 two centuries, and, for some time, that of 
 Hungary. Another descendant of Hugh 
 Capet, in the tenth degree, founded the 
 house of Navarre, which continued from 
 1328. to 1425. A second family of Anjou, 
 descended from' Hugh Capet in the 13th 
 degree, gave some distinguished princes 
 to Provence. In the same degree, die 
 younger line of the powerful dukes of 
 Burgundy derived its origin from him. 
 This line became extinct with the death 
 of Charles the Bold, in 1477, whose suc- 
 cessor, Maria, married Maximilian, arch- 
 duke of Austria, and became grandmother 
 of Charles V. All these lines, with the 
 exception of that of Burgundy, are de- 
 scended from Anna Jaroslawua, a Russian 
 princess, wife of Henry I, in 1051. Rob- 
 ert, earl of Clerrnont, second son of St. 
 Louis, married Beatrice, duchess of B. 
 In this way, the city of B. 1'Archambaud, 
 or B. les Bains, in the department of 
 Allier (formerly Bourbonnais), became the 
 birthplace of the house of B., and Louis 
 I, duke of B., son of Robert and Beatrice, 
 its founder. Two branches took their or- 
 igin from the two sons of this Louis duke 
 of B., who died in 1341. The elder line 
 was that of the dukes of B., which be- 
 came extinct at the death of the constable 
 of B., in 1527, in the assault of the city 
 of Rome. The younger was that of the 
 counts of La Marche, afterwards counts 
 and dukes of Vendome. Of these, 
 Charles duke of Vendome, who died hi 
 1537, had two sons, who became the
 
 BOURBON. 
 
 223 
 
 founders of the following lines. Anthony 
 of Navarre, father of Henry IV, is the 
 origin of the royal house of B. ; the el- 
 der line of which governs France, and 
 branches of the same rule in Spain (since 
 1701), in the Two Sicilies (where a 
 branch of the Spanish Bourbons was 
 established in 1735), and in Lucca (Far- 
 ma was ceded to the last branch in 1748) ; 
 the younger line is the ducal house of 
 Orleans. From the other son, Louis, is 
 derived the ducal family of Conde, Avhich 
 is divided into the houses of Conde and of 
 Conti. The French revolution overthrew 
 the house of Capet from 1792 to 1814 in 
 France; from 1808 to 1814 in Spain; 
 from 1806 to 1815 in Naples ; from 1801 
 to 1817 in Parma ; and also in Etruria, 
 where a Bourbon ruled, by means of Na- 
 poleon, from 1801 to 1807. The throne 
 of Ferdinand IV alone was upheld by the 
 English at Palermo. After the fall of Na- 
 poleon, in 1814, the Bourbons succeeded 
 again to the throne of France. The 
 history of the Bourbon race is connected 
 with a great part of the histoiy of Europe. 
 We shall here give a general view of 
 the family of B. After the death of 
 Charles IV the Fair, the last of the old 
 branch of the Capets, in 1328, the house 
 of Valois came to the throne in the per- 
 son of Philip IV. This house became 
 extinct, in 1589, by the murder of Henry 
 III. Henry IV of B. (king of Navarre), 
 a descendant of Louis I, duke of B., in 
 the eighth degree, succeeded to the 
 throne by right of inheritance, and main- 
 tained his power by his own personal 
 greatness. His father, Anthony, had ob- 
 tained the kingdom of Navarre through 
 his wife, who inherited it, and Henry 
 now added it to the French dominions. 
 Anthony's younger brother, Louis, prince 
 of Conde, was the founder of the line of 
 Conde. There were, therefore, two chief 
 branches of the Bourbons the royal, and 
 that of Conde. The royal branch was 
 divided by the two sons of Louis XIII, 
 the elder of whom, Louis XIV, continued 
 the chief branch, whidh, under his de- 
 scendants Louis (the dauphin) and Philip 
 V, was separated into the elder or royal 
 French branch, and the younger or royal 
 Spanish branch; whilst the younger, 
 Philip I, founded the house of Orleans, 
 when he received the duchy of Orleans 
 from Louis XIV. The kings of the elder 
 or French line of the house of B. run in 
 this way : Henry IV, Louis XIII, XIV, 
 XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII, and Charles X. 
 (For the kings of the younger royal 
 branch, see Spain.) The house of B. 
 
 consisted, in 1826, of the following 
 branches and members: A. The royal 
 French line. 1. Charles X (q. v.) ; 2. his 
 son, Louis Anthony, dauphin, duke of 
 Angouleme (q. v.) ; 3. the dauphiness, 
 daughter of Louis XVI, Maria Theresa 
 Charlotte, bom Dec. 19, 1778 ; 4. Caro- 
 line Ferdinande Louise, born 1793, wid- 
 ow of the duke of Berri, second son of 
 the present king Charles X, murdered in 
 1820, has a daughter, Louise, mademoi- 
 selle de France, born Sept. 21, 1819, and 
 a son, Henry, duke of Bourdeaux, born 
 Sept. 29, 1820, petit-fds de France, heir 
 apparent, by whose birth the house of 
 Orleans have lost their chance of suc- 
 ceeding to the throne of France. In 
 1826, Charles X appointed the duke of 
 Riviere his governor, the bishop of Stras- 
 burg, Tharin, a friend of the Jesuits, his 
 instructor, and the counts Maupas and 
 BarbanQois assistant instructors. B. The 
 house of Bourbon in Spain, and its branch 
 in Italy, founded by Philip V, second 
 grandson of Louis XIV. (This line, by 
 compact, stands, in the order of succes- 
 sion to the throne of France, next after 
 that of Orleans.) I. The children of 
 Charles IV, king of Spain (died at Naples, 
 Jan. 19, 1819), and his wife, Maria Louisa 
 of Parma (died at Rome, Jan. 2, 1819). 
 These are as follows : 1. Charlotte, born 
 1775, queen-dowager of Portugal, whose 
 son, Peter of Alcantara, now emperor of 
 Brazil, married Leopoldine,second daugh- 
 ter of Francis I, emperor of Austria', 2. 
 the son of his daughter Maria Louisa, 
 queen-dowager of Etruria (died March 
 13, 1824), Charles Louis, born at Madrid, 
 1799, duke of Lucca (afterwards of Par- 
 ma), who married the second daughter 
 of Victor Emanuel, former king of Sar- 
 dinia, and by her had a son, Ferdinand, 
 Jan. 14, 1823 ; 3. Ferdinand VII (q. v.), 
 king of Spain ; 4. Charles, infant of 
 Spain, born 1788, lives at Madrid, mar- 
 ried Maria Francisca, third daughter of 
 the late king of Portugal, who has borne 
 him two sons Charles, born Jan. 31, 
 1818, and Ferdinand, Oct. 19, 1824; 5. 
 Isabella, bom 1789, second wife of Fran- 
 cis I, king of the Sicilies, had five sons 
 and six daughters ; 6. Francis of Paula, 
 infant of Spain, bom at Madrid, 1794, 
 married, in 1819, his niece, Louisa, sec- 
 ond daughter of Francis I, king of the 
 Two Sicilies, by his second wife, Isabella ; 
 he has had two sons Francis, duke of 
 Cadiz, born at Madrid, May 18, 1822, and 
 Charles, duke of Seville, born June 12, 
 1824. II. Brothers of Charles IV. 1. 
 Ferdinand I, king of the Two Sicilies
 
 224 
 
 BOURBON. 
 
 (q. v.), died Jan. 4, 1825. His children 
 by his first wife, Caroline of Austria, are, 
 a. the present king, Francis I, whose 
 daughter, by his first marriage with Clem- 
 entina of Austria, is Caroline, widow of 
 the duke of Berri and mother of the 
 duke of Bourdeaux ; 6. Christina, wife of 
 Charles Felix, who became king of Sar- 
 dinia in 1821 ; c. Amalie,wifeof the duke 
 of Orleans, Louis Philip, mother of nine 
 living children; d. Leopold, prince of 
 Salerno, married Maria Clementina, third 
 daughter of the emperor Francis I. 2. 
 Gabriel Anthony Francis Xaver, infant of 
 Spain, died in 1788 ; his son Peter mar- 
 ried Theresa, eldest daughter of the king 
 of Portugal, died in 1812, at Rio Janeiro, 
 leaving a son, Sebastian Maria, infant of 
 Spain, born in 1811. From the marriage 
 of the brother of Charles HI, Louis Antho- 
 ny Jacob, with Theresa of Ballabriga and 
 Drummond, duchess of Chinchon, daugh- 
 ter of an Arragonian captain of infantry, 
 have sprung, don Louis Maria of Bour- 
 bon, archbishop of Toledo; Caroline Jo- 
 sephine Antoine, wife of don Manuel 
 Godoy, prince of peace ; and Maria Lou- 
 isa of Bourbon, who married, hi 1817, the 
 duke of San Fernando, grandee of Spain. 
 C. The collateral branch of the royal 
 French line of Bourbon-Orleans, which, 
 by the revolution, lost the peerage of that 
 name, and which derives its origin from 
 Philip I, brother of Louis XIV, is the fol- 
 lowing : 1. Louis Philip, duke of Bour- 
 bon-Orleans, born 1773 (see Orleans) ; 2. 
 Eugenie Adelaide Louise, mademoiselle 
 d 1 Orleans, sister of the duke of Orleans, 
 born 1777. D. Of the line of Conde, 
 second branch of the house of B., the 
 following individuals, of the branch of 
 Bourbon-Conde, were living in 1826: 
 Louis Hemy Joseph, duke of B., son of 
 Louis Joseph, duke of B., prince of Con- 
 de (see Conde), who died in 1818. (His 
 sister Louise Adelaide, princess of Conde, 
 born in 1757, lived in England, in a con- 
 vent at Norfolk ; in 1768, was abbess at 
 Remiremont ; entered a convent at Turin 
 in 1795 ; became, in December, 1816, di- 
 rectress of a convent at Paris, and died 
 March 10, 1824.) Charles Charolois, 
 prince of Conde, had two natural daugh- 
 ters, afterwards legitimated, one of whom, 
 Charlotte Margaret Elisabeth, mademoi- 
 selle de Bourbon, married the count of 
 Lowendahl, now Danish major-general. 
 The second branch, Bourbon-Conti, be- 
 came extinct by the death of Louis Fran- 
 cis Joseph of B., prince of Conti, March 
 13, 1814. In 1815, Louis XVIII granted 
 his two natural sons, the lords of Hattoa- 
 
 ville and Removille, permission to as- 
 sume the name and arms of Bourbon- 
 Conti. The countess of Mont-Cair-Zaim r 
 Gabrielle Louisa, is considered as the nat- 
 ural daughter of prince Louis of Bour- 
 bon-Conti. She was a knight of the order 
 of the Holy Ghost, belonged to the le- 
 gion of honor, and died at Paris, 70 years 
 of age, March 29, 1825. She served in a 
 regiment of dragoons with honor for 
 some time. Gome has taken the materi- 
 als for his Eugenia, the Natural Daughter, 
 from the biography of this lady, published 
 in 1798. (See Histoire du Bourbonnais et 
 des Bourbons, by Coiffier Demoret, mem- 
 ber of the chamber of deputies, Paris, 
 1818, 2 vols. ; and Achaintre's Histoire 
 chronologique et genealogique de, la Maison 
 royale de Bourbon, Paris, 1824, 2 vols.) 
 The Memoires relatifs a la Famille royale 
 de France pendant la Revolution, publics 
 d'aprcs It Journal, &fc. de la Princesse de 
 Lamballe (Paris, 1826, 2 vols.), is, through- 
 out, a miserable work. 
 
 BOURBON, Charles, duke of, or consta- 
 ble of Bourbon, son of Gilbert, count of 
 Montpensier, and Clara of Gonzaga, was 
 born in 1489 ; received from Francis I, in 
 the 26th year of his age, the sword of 
 constable. By the coolness with which 
 he faced death in posts of the greatest 
 hazard, he excited the admiration of his 
 fellow-soldiers. When viceroy of Milan, 
 he won all hearts by his frankness and 
 affability. His fame was not yet tarnish- 
 ed, when the injustice of his king depriv- 
 ed him of his offices, banished him from 
 France, and brought the family of Bour- 
 bon into disgrace, in which state it con- 
 tinued until the conclusion of the reign 
 of Hemy III, Some historians declare, 
 that the duchess of Angouleme, mother 
 of Francis I, had fallen in love with the 
 young constable, and could not endure 
 the contempt with which he treated her 
 passion : others relate, that, influenced by 
 avaricious motives, she laid claim to the 
 estates of Charles of B., and obtained 
 possession of them by a judicial process. 
 Whatever may be the true cause of her 
 conduct, it is certain that she strove to 
 invalidate a formal donation of Louis XII. 
 The constable, enraged at seeing himself 
 deprived of his estates by the mother of 
 the king whom he had served with so 
 much fidelity and zeal, listened to the 
 proposals made him by Charles V and 
 the king of England. He experienced 
 the usual fate of deserters : he was well 
 received while his services were needed, 
 but narrowly watched to secure his fidel- 
 ity. Exposed as he was to the contempt
 
 BOURBON BOURDALOUE. 
 
 225 
 
 of the Spanish nobility, and the jealousy 
 of the generals of Charles V, nothing re- 
 mained to him but his courage and re- 
 pentance. His ability, however, induced 
 die emperor to bestow upon him the 
 command of an army, and to treat him 
 with honor. He was already beyond the 
 confines of France, when Francis I sent to 
 demand the sword which he bore as con- 
 stable, and the badge of his order. His 
 answer displays the anguish of his heart 
 " The king took from me my sword at 
 Valenciennes, when he gave to d'AleuQon 
 the command of the vanguard, which be- 
 longed to me : the badge of my order I 
 left under my pillow at Chantelles." His 
 flight was a misfortune to France ; the 
 expedition of Francis into Italy was ar- 
 rested. Having been appointed to the 
 command of the imperial troops, he made 
 an unsuccessful attack upon Marseilles, but 
 contributed greatly to the victory of Pavia. 
 When Francis was carried a prisoner to 
 Madrid, he went there in person, that he 
 might not be forgotten in the treaties be- 
 tween the two monarchs ; but Charles V 
 delayed concluding them, and B. discov- 
 ered that he could not trust the emperor, 
 who had even promised him his sister in 
 marriage. Compelled to smother his re- 
 sentment, he returned to Milan, maintain- 
 ed possession of Italy by the terror of his 
 arms, and obtained so much authority as 
 to become an object of suspicion to the 
 emperor, who, in order to weaken him, 
 refused to grant him the necessary sup- 
 plies. In order to prevent the dispersion 
 of his army, he led the soldiers to the 
 siege of Rome, the plunder of which city 
 he promised them. He was the first to 
 mount the breach, and was killed, May 6, 
 1527, by a ball, shot, it is said, by Benve- 
 nuto Cellini. He died excommunicated, 
 without issue, in the 38th year of his age. 
 His body being conveyed to Gaeta, his 
 soldiers erected over it a splendid monu- 
 ment, which was afterwards destroyed. 
 
 BOURBON, Louis, cardinal and arch- 
 bishop of Toledo ; born 1777 ; son of the 
 infant Louis, brother of king Charles HI 
 of Spain, and the duchess of Chinchon. 
 The marriage was concluded with the 
 royal assent : nevertheless, it was doubt- 
 ed, after the death of Charles III, wheth- 
 er the prince would be lawful heir to tlie 
 throne, if a male descendant of the old 
 line should be wanting. He therefore 
 entered the church, and a cardinal's hat 
 was given to him in 1800. After the im- 
 prisonment of Ferdinand VII at Valencay} 
 he joined the party of the cortes, and be- 
 came very influential. He offered, iii 
 
 1814, the constitution of the cortes to 
 Ferdinand VII for his signature ; and, the 
 king having altered his determination, B. 
 lost his favor, and was deprived of the 
 archbishopric of Seville. After the events 
 which took place on the insurrection of 
 the army at the island of Leon, he engag- 
 ed in the revolution, and was president 
 of the provisional junta before which the 
 king swore, at Madrid, March 9, 1820, to 
 abide by the constitution of the cortes of 
 1812. He died March 19, 1823. 
 
 BOURBON, Isle of: situated in the In- 
 dian ocean, about 400 miles east of Mad- 
 agascar ; lat. 20 51' S. ; Ion. 55 20 7 E. 
 It is 48 miles long and 30 broad. It was 
 discovered by Mascarenhas, a Portuguese, 
 in 1545, who called it by his own name. 
 The French took possession of it in 1649, 
 and gave it the name of B. At different 
 periods of the revolution, it was called 
 Reunion and Bonaparte. It was captur- 
 ed by the English in 1810, and restored 
 to France in 1815. The population con- 
 sists of 17,000 whites, 6,000 free Negroes, 
 and 60,000 slaves. Its commerce is im- 
 peded by the want of good harbors. The 
 principal articles of export are coffee, 
 sugar, rice, tobacco, spices, indigo, pepper, 
 maize, &>c. The coffee was brought 
 from Mocha, and is of an excellent quali- 
 ty. The capital is St. Denis, a pretty 
 town, with about 8000 inhabitants. The 
 heat is excessive from November to April ; 
 the evenings, however, are refreshed by 
 the sea-breezes, and the mornings by the 
 land-breezes. The island is of volcanic 
 origin, and seems to be composed of two 
 enormous volcanic mountains, in one of 
 which the fire is extinct : the other is still 
 in activity. The loftiest summit, le Piton 
 de Neige, or the Snowy Spike, is about 
 10,000 feet above the level of the sea. 
 
 BOURBON.VAIS ; a province and govern- 
 ment of Old France, with the title, first 
 of a county, and afterwards of a duchy, 
 lying between the Nivernais, Berry and 
 Burgundy. It now forms the department 
 of the Allier. It derived its name from 
 the small town of Bourbon 1'Archambaud, 
 from which the reigning family of France 
 and the dukes of Bourbon also received 
 their title. (See Bourbon.) 
 
 BOURDALOUE, Louis, the reformer of 
 the pulpit, and founder of genuine pulpit 
 eloquence, in France, was born at Bour- 
 ges, in 1632, and was 16 years old when 
 he entered the society of Jesuits. His in- 
 structers successively intrusted to him the 
 chairs of polite letters, rhetoric, philoso- 
 phy and moral theology. In 1669, he 
 entered the pulpit, and extended his rep-
 
 226 
 
 BOURDALOTJE BOURDEATJX. 
 
 utation by attacking, with a powerful and 
 religious eloquence, free from the bad 
 taste of the age, the passions, vices and 
 errors of mankind. The dignity of his 
 delivery and the fire of his language made 
 him distinguished amidst the victories of 
 Turenne and the feasts of Versailles, 
 among the master-spirits of the arts and 
 of literature, in the time of Corneille and 
 Racine. Louis XIV invited him, at the 
 time of Advent, in 1670, to preach before 
 the court, and B. acquitted himself with 
 so much success, that he afterwards re- 
 ceived invitations at 10 different times. 
 After the repeal of the edict of Nantes, 
 he was sent to Languedoc, in order to ex- 
 plain to the Protestants the doctrines of 
 the Catholic faith, and he succeeded in 
 this difficult business in reconciling the 
 dignity of his office- with the rights of 
 mankind. In his latter days, he re- 
 nounced the pulpit, and devoted himself 
 to the care of hospitals, prisons and re- 
 ligious institutions. He well knew how 
 to accommodate his manner to the ca- 
 pacity of those to whom he gave instruc- 
 tion, advice or consolation. With the 
 simple, he was simple ; with the learned, 
 he was a scholar ; with free-thinkers, he 
 was a logician ; and came off successful 
 in all those contests in which the love of 
 his neighbor, religious zeal, and the duties 
 of his office, involved him. Beloved alike 
 by all, he exercised authority over the 
 minds of all ; and no consideration could 
 make him give up his openness and in- 
 tegrity of character. He died in 1704. 
 His sermons have been translated into 
 several languages. 
 
 BOURDEAUX (Ion. 34' W.; lat. 44 
 50 7 14" N.), in the Bordelais district of the 
 ancient Guyenne or Aquitania, the me- 
 tropolis of trade and chief city in the de- 
 partment of the Gironde, and the head of 
 an arrondissement containing 13 cantons, 
 1632 square miles, and 223,863 inhabit- 
 ants, lies on the left bank of the Garonne, 
 and is connected with the opposite side 
 by the new bridge erected by Louis 
 XVIII, 700 feet long, and supported by 
 17 arches, 16 leagues from the mouth of 
 the river. It numbers 7800 houses and 
 100,000 inhabitants. It is an antique and 
 gloomy city, having 19 gates, 12 of which 
 lead to the river, and 7 to the. adjacent 
 country; also 2 suburbs (Les Chartrons 
 and St. Severin), splendid public places, 
 delightful promenades, 46 Catholic 
 churches and 1 Protestant. Among the 
 buildings deserving of mention are the 
 cathedrals, the council-house, of Lam- 
 briere {in which the ancient dukes of 
 
 Guyenne resided, and the parliament af- 
 terwards held its sessions), the exchange, 
 the hotel desfermes, the theatre, the Vaux- 
 hall, the palace built by Bonaparte in 
 1810, and a newly invented mill, with 24 
 sets of stones, put in motion wholly by 
 the ebb and flow of the tide. B. is en- 
 circled by walls and strong towers. The 
 small fortifications of Haa and St. Louis, 
 or St. Croix, and the stronger works of 
 the chateau Trompette, protect the harbor, 
 which is entered without difficulty by the 
 largest merchant-vessels during the flow 
 of the tide, which sometimes rises to the 
 height of 12 feet ; but it has been unfortu- 
 nately injured by the accumulation of 
 sand. B. has more than 900 merchant- 
 ships. It exports, on an average, 100,000 
 hogsheads of wine, and 20,000 of French 
 brandy. Other articles of export are vine- 
 gar, dried fruits, ham, firewood, turpen- 
 tine, glass bottles, cork, honey, &c. 
 Among the articles of import are colonial 
 wares, British tin, lead, copper and coal, 
 dye-stuffs, timber, pitch, hemp, leather, 
 herrings, salted meat, cheese, &c. B. has 
 the greatest share of any city in France, 
 except Nantes, in the French and Ameri- 
 can trade. It contains a bank, an insur- 
 ance company, &c. Its fairs, in March 
 and October, are of the utmost import- 
 ance to all the west of France. Its 
 merchants carry on the whale and cod 
 fisheries through the harbors of Bayonne, 
 St. Jean de Luce, and St. Malo. B. is 
 the seat of an archbishop, a Protestant 
 consistory, a prefect, and of the com- 
 manderrin-chief of the llth division of 
 the militia. It has a royal court of jus- 
 tice, a chamber of commerce, a commer- 
 cial court, a university (established in 
 1441), an academv of sciences (instituted 
 in 1712, which has a library of more 
 than 55,000 volumes), an academy of fine 
 arts (founded in 1670, and renewed in 
 1768), a museum, a lyceum, a Linnsean 
 society, an institution for the education 
 of the deaf and dumb, a school of trade 
 and navigation, &c. The most important 
 manufactories are 14 sugar-houses, several 
 glass-houses, potteries, manufactories of 
 woollen and lace. B. is the Burdigala of 
 the Romans. In the 5th century, it was 
 in the possession of the Goths, and at 
 length pillaged and burnt by the Nor- 
 mans. By the marriage of Eleonora, 
 daughter of William X, the last duke of 
 Guyenne, to Louis VII, it fell into the 
 hands of France. But, in 1152, the prin- 
 cess was repudiated by her husband, and 
 afterwards united in marriage with the 
 duke of Normandy, who ascended the
 
 BOURDEAUX BOURSAULT. 
 
 227 
 
 throne of England, and transferred B. to 
 that crown. After the battle of Poictiers, 
 Edward, the black prince, carried John, 
 king of France, prisoner to B., where he 
 resided 11 years. Under Charles VII, in 
 1451, it was restored again to France. 
 In 1548, the citizens rebelled on account 
 of a tax on salt, and the governor De Mo- 
 rems was put to death, for which the 
 constable of Montmorency inflicted se- 
 vere punishment on the city. During 
 the revolution, it was devastated as the 
 rendezvous of the Girondists, by the ter- 
 rorists, almost as completely as Lyons and 
 Marseilles. The oppressiveness of the 
 continental system to the trade of B. made 
 the inhabitants disaffected to the govern-, 
 ment of Napolepn, so that they were the 
 first to declare for the house of Bourbon, 
 March 12th, 1814. The Roman poet 
 Ausonius was a native of B. Montaigne 
 and Montesquieu were born in the neigh- 
 boring country, and the latter lies buried 
 there in the church of St. Bernard. (For 
 the wines of Bourdeaux, see Bordelais.} 
 
 BOURDON, Sebastian ; a celebrated 
 French painter, born at Montpellier, in 
 1616. Being poor and without occupa- 
 tion, he enlisted as a soldier. After re- 
 ceiving his dismission, he visited Italy, 
 and studied under Sacchi and Claude 
 Lorraine. In 1G52, lie was driven from 
 the French kingdom by the religious 
 troubles. He afterwards became distin- 
 guished in his" own country by many 
 great works, among which are the fol- 
 lowing : the Dead Christ, the Adulter- 
 ess, the Old Kings of Burgundy in the 
 Senate-house at Aix. He had no pecu- 
 liar manner, but he imitated others. He 
 was a good engraver on copper. He died 
 in 1671, while engaged in painting the 
 ceiling of the Tuileries. 
 
 BOURGES ; a city of France, formerly 
 the capital of the province of Berri, now 
 of the department of the Cher, with a 
 population of 16,350 inhabitants. The 
 cathedral is one of the finest Gothic 
 structures in France. The pragmatic 
 sanction (q. v.) was published at B. by 
 Charles VII. Louis XI was born there, 
 and founded its university in 1465. It 
 now contains one of die 26 academies of 
 the university of France. There are some 
 manufactures of silk, woollen stuffs, cot- 
 tons and stockings in the city and its 
 neighborhood, which are disposed of at 
 its annual fairs. The inhabitants are 
 principally supported by the nobility and 
 students who reside in the town. It was 
 anciently called Avaricum, and afterwards 
 Bituriga, and was one of the most an- 
 
 cient and best fortified cities of Gaul. It 
 lies 155 miles S. of Paris ; lat. 47 5* N. ; 
 Ion. 2 23' E. 
 
 BOURGOGNE. (See Burgundy.) 
 BOURIGNON, Antoinette ; a celebrated 
 religious fanatic, born in 1616, at Lille, 
 daughter of a merchant. At her birth, 
 she was so defonned, that a consultation 
 was held whether it would not be proper 
 to destroy her as a monster. She made 
 herself famous by her restless manner of 
 life, her wanderings through France, Ger- 
 many and Denmark, and by her fanati- 
 cism. A collection of her authentic 
 works, in which she displays an animated 
 eloquence, was published at Amsterdam, 
 in 1686, in 21 volumes. 
 
 BOURSAULT, Edme, was bom in 1638, 
 at Muci-1'Eveque, in the province of Bur- 
 gundy, grew up without education, and 
 went, in 1651, to Paris, without under- 
 standing any thing but his own provin- 
 cial patois. Here he learned to speak 
 and write French, and improved so fast, 
 that the composition of a book for the in- 
 struction of the dauphin was committed 
 to him. This work, La Veritable Etude 
 des Souverains, pleased the king so much, 
 that he appointed B. assistant instructor 
 of his son. B. declined the office, and 
 also refused to offer himself as a candi- 
 date for admission into the academy, on 
 account of his ignorance of Latin. In his 
 youth, he undertook a poetical gazette, 
 with which the king and court were so 
 much pleased, that an annuity of 2000 
 livres was granted him. But, happening 
 to satirize, in this work, a ludicrous adven- 
 ture, which had befallen a Capuchin, the 
 confessor of the queen caused the journal 
 to be suppressed, and B. himself escaped 
 the Bastile only by the influence of the 
 prince of Conde. Another journal of his 
 was suppressed soon after, on account of 
 a satirical couplet on king William, with 
 whom the French court then wished to 
 negotiate. He was more fortunate in his 
 writings for the stage, and many of his 
 pieces met with permanent success; 
 among others, Esope a la Ville, and 
 Esope a la Cour, which still continue on 
 the stage. His two tragedies Marie Stu- 
 art and Germanicus are forgotten. B. had 
 the misfortune to quarrel with Moliere 
 and Boileau. He wrote a severe criti- 
 cism on the Ecole des Femmes, under the 
 title of Le Portrait du Peintre. Moliere 
 chastised him in his Impromptu de Ver- 
 sailles. To revenge himself on Boileau, 
 who had ridiculed him in his satires, he 
 wrote a comedy called Satyre des Satyres ; 
 but Boileau prevented its performance.
 
 228 
 
 BOURSAULT BOW. 
 
 B. afterwards took a noble revenge. He 
 heard that Boileau -was at the baths of 
 Bourbonne entirely destitute : he hasten- 
 ed to him, and compelled him to accept a 
 loan of 200 louis d'ors. Touched by this 
 generous conduct, Boileau struck his 
 iiamo from his satires. B. died at Mont- 
 lucon, in 1701. 
 
 BOUSTROPHEDON ; a kind of writing 
 which is found on Greek coins and in in- 
 scriptions of the remotest antiquity. The 
 lines do not run in a uniform direction 
 from the left to the right, or from the 
 right to the left ; but the first begins at 
 the left, and terminates at the right ; the 
 second runs in an opposite direction, 
 from the right to the left ; the third, 
 again, from the left, and so on alternately. 
 It is called boustrophedon (that is, turning 
 back like oxen] because the lines written 
 in this way succeed each other like fur- 
 rows in a ploughed field. The laws of 
 Solon were cut in tables in this manner. 
 
 BOUTERWEK, Frederic, professor of 
 moral philosophy at Gottingen, a man of 
 much merit as an academical instructor 
 and a writer on literature, w r as born April 
 15, 176G, at.Oker, a village not far from 
 Goslar, in North Germany. After apply- 
 ing himself to many departments of learn- 
 ing, jurisprudence, poetry, &c., he at last 
 became entirely devoted to philosophy 
 and literary history. He was at first a 
 follower of Kant, but finally attached 
 himself to Jacobi. His Idee einer Apo- 
 dikiik was the immediate fruit of his inti- 
 mate acquaintance with the philosophical 
 views of Fr. H, Jacobi. This work was 
 published hi two volumes, 1799. It was 
 afterwards completed by the Manual of 
 Philosophical Knowledge (two volumes, 
 1813 ; 2d edition, 1820), and by the Re- 
 ligion of Reason (Gottingen, 1824). In 
 this work, as well as in his Asthetik, two 
 vols., 1806 and 1824, he had to contend 
 with many powerful antagonists. B. has 
 gained a permanent reputation by his 
 History of Modern Poetry and Elo- 
 quence, published 1801 1821, a work 
 which, though unequal in some respects, 
 and in parts, especially in the first volume, 
 partial and superficial, is an excellent col- 
 lection of notices and original, observa- 
 tions, and may be considered one of the 
 best works of the kind in German litera- 
 ture. Among his minor productions, a 
 selection of which he published in 1818, 
 are many essays, which are superior to 
 the best of his larger speculative works; 
 for instance, the introduction to the His- 
 tory, in which he gives an account of his 
 literary labors, until that period, with 
 
 great candor, and with almost excessive 
 severity against himself. B. died in 1828. 
 His history of Spanish literature has 
 been translated into Spanish, French and 
 English. 
 
 BOUTS RIMES (French) ; words or syl- 
 lables which rhyme, arranged in a partic- 
 ular order, and given to a poet with a 
 subject, on which he must write verses 
 ending iii the same rhymes, disposed in 
 the same order. Menage gives the fol- 
 lowing account of the origin of this ridic- 
 ulous conceit, which may be classed with 
 the eggs and axes, the echoes, acrostics, 
 and other equally ingenious devices of 
 learned triflers. " Dulot (a poet of the 
 17th century) was one day complaining, 
 in a large company, that 300 sonnets had 
 been stolen from him. One of the com- 
 pany expressing his astonishment at the 
 number, ' Oh,' said lie, 'they are blank son- 
 nets, or rhymes (holds rimes) of all the 
 sonnets I may have occasion to write.' 
 This ludicrous statement produced such 
 an effect, that it became a fashionable 
 amusement to compose blank sonnets, 
 and, in 1648, a 4to. volume of bouts rimes 
 was published." Sarrazin's Dulot Vain- 
 e, ou la Defaite des Bouts Rimts, is an 
 amusing performance.- 
 
 Bow ; the name of one of the most 
 ancient and universal weapons of offence. 
 It is made of steel, wood, horn or other 
 clastic substance, which, after being bent 
 by means of a string fastened to its two 
 ends, in returning to its natural state, 
 throws out an arrow with great force. 
 The figure of the bow is nearly the same 
 in all countries, having generally two in- 
 flexions, between which, in the place 
 where the arrow is fixed, is a right line. 
 The Grecian bow was nearly in the form 
 of the letter 2 : in- drawing it, the hand 
 was brought back to the right breast, and 
 not to the ear. The Scythian bow was 
 distinguished for its remarkable curva- 
 ture, which was nearly semicircular; 
 that of the modern Tartars is similar to 
 it. Th materials of bows have been dif- 
 ferent in different countries. The Per- 
 sians and Indians made them of reeds. 
 The Lycian bows were made of the 
 cornel-tree ; those of the Ethiopians, of 
 the palm-tree. That of Pandarus (II. iv, 
 104) was made from the horn of a moun- 
 tain goat, 16 palms in length : the string 
 was an ox-hide thong. The horn of the 
 antelope is still used for the same purpose 
 in the East. The long-bow was the favor- 
 ite national weapon in England. The 
 battles of Cressy (1346), Poictiers (1356) 
 and Agincourt (1415) were won by this
 
 BOW BOWDICH. 
 
 229 
 
 weapon. It was made of yew, ash, &c., 
 of the height of the archer. The arrow 
 being usually half the length of the bow, 
 the cloth-yard was only employed by a 
 man six feet high. The arbalist, or 
 oross-bow, was a popular weapon with 
 tiie Italians, and was introduced into 
 England in the 13th century. The ar- 
 rows shot from it were called quarrels. 
 The bolt was used with both kinds of 
 bows. Of the power of the bow, and the 
 distance to which it will cany, some re- 
 markable anecdotes are related.. Xeno- 
 j)hon mentions an Arcadian whose head 
 was shot through byaCarduehian archer. 
 Httiart (. 1th. Ant. i.) mentions a random 
 shot of a Turk, which he found to be 5t?4 
 yards; and Mr. Strutt/saw the Turkish 
 ambassador shoot 480 yards in the arch- 
 ery ground near Bedford square. Lord 
 Bacon speaks of a Turkish bow which 
 has been known to pierce a steel target, 
 or a piece of brass, two inches thick. In 
 the journal of king Edward .VI, it is men- 
 tioned, that 100 archers of the king's 
 guard shot at an inch board, and that 
 some of the arrows passed through this 
 and into another board behind it, although 
 the wood was extremely solid and firm. 
 It has been the custom of many savage 
 nations to poison their arrows. This 
 practice is mentioned by Homer and the 
 ancient historians ; and we have many 
 similar accounts of modern travellers and 
 navigators from almost eveiy part of the 
 world. Some of these stories are of 
 doubtful authority, but others are well 
 authenticated. Some poison, obtained by 
 Condamine from South American sav- 
 ages, produced instantaneous death in an- 
 imals inoculated with it. The poisoned 
 arrows used in Guiana are not shot from a 
 bow, but blown through a tube. They 
 are made of the hard substance of the 
 cokarito-tree, and are about a foot long, 
 and of the size of a knitting-needle. One 
 end is sharply pointed, and dipped in the 
 poison of wooraia : the other is adjusted 
 to the cavity of the reed, from which it is 
 to be blown, by a roll of cotton. The 
 reed is several feet in length. A single 
 breath carries the arrow 30 or 40 yards. 
 (See Bancroft's History of Guiana.) 
 
 Bow, in music, is the name of that well 
 known implement by the means of which 
 the tone is produced from viols, violins 
 and other instruments of that kind. It is 
 made of a thin staff of elastic wood, taper- 
 ing slightly till it reaches the lower end, 
 to which the hairs (about 80 or 100 horse- 
 hairs) are fastened, and with which the 
 bow is strung. At the upper end is an 
 
 VOL. n. 20 
 
 ornamented piece of wood or ivory, call- 
 ed the nut, and fastened with a screw, 
 which serves to regulate the tension of 
 the hairs. It is evident that the size and 
 construction of the bow must correspond 
 with the size of the species of viol-instru- 
 ments from which the tone is to be pro- 
 duced. 
 
 Bow INSTRUMENTS are all the instru- 
 ments strung with catling or goat-gut, 
 from which the tones are produced I>y 
 means of the bow. The most usual are 
 the double bass (violono or contrabasso) ; 
 the small bass, or violoncello ; the tenor 
 (viola di braccio); and the violin proper 
 (violino, from violon). In reference to 
 their construction, the several parts are 
 alike : the difference is in the size. (See 
 Violin and Qnartett.) 
 
 BOWDICH, Thomas Edward ; an in- 
 genious and enterprising man ; one of the 
 victims of the attempts to explore the in- 
 terior of the African continent. He was 
 bom at Bristol, in June, 1793, and was 
 sent to Oxford, but was never regularly 
 matriculated. At an early age, he marri- 
 ed, and engaged in trade at Bristol. Find- 
 ing the details of business irksome, he 
 obtained the appointment of writer in the 
 service of the African company. In 1816, 
 he arrived at Cape Coast Castle. It being 
 thought desirable to send an embassy to 
 the Negro king of Ashantee, B. was cho- 
 sen to conduct it ; and he executed with 
 success the duties of his situation. After 
 remaining two years in Africa, he return- 
 ed home, and soon after published his 
 Mission to Ashantee, with a Statistical 
 Account of that Kingdom, and Geograph- 
 ical Notices of other Pans of the Interior 
 of Africa (1819, 4to.) Having offended 
 the company in whose service he had 
 been engaged, and having therefore no 
 prospect of further employment, yet 
 Avishing ardently to return to Africa for 
 the purpose of visiting its hitherto unex- 
 plored regions, B. resolved to make the 
 attempt with such assistance as he could 
 obtain from private individuals. He, 
 however, previously went to Paris, to 
 improve his acquaintance with physical 
 and mathematical science. His reception 
 from the French literati was extremely 
 flattering. A public eulogium was pro- 
 nounced on him at a meeting of the in- 
 stitute, and an advantageous appointment 
 was offered him by the French govern- 
 ment. To obtain funds for the prosecu- 
 tion of his favorite project, B. also pub- 
 lished a translation of Mollier's Travels to 
 the Sources of the Senegal and Gambia, 
 and other works ; by the sale of which
 
 230 
 
 BOWDICH BOYDELL. 
 
 he was enabled, with a little assistance 
 from other persons, to make preparations 
 for his second African expedition. He 
 sailed from Havre in August, 1822, and 
 arrived in safety in the river Gambia. A 
 disease, occasioned by fatigue and anxie- 
 ty of mind, here put an end to his life, 
 Jan. 10, 1824. B. is said to have been a 
 profound classic and linguist, an excellent 
 mathematician, well versed in most of the 
 physical sciences, in ancient and modern 
 history, and in polite literature. He was 
 a member of several literary societies in 
 England and abroad. 
 
 BOWDOIN, James, a governor of Massa- 
 chusetts, born, in the year 1727, at Boston, 
 was the son of an eminent merchant. He 
 was graduated, in 1745, at Cambridge 
 (N. E.). In 1753, he was elected a repre- 
 sentative to the general court, and, in 
 1756, became a member of the council. 
 In this situation he continued until 1769, 
 when he was negatived by governor Ber- 
 nard, on account of his decided whig 
 principles, but afterwards accepted by 
 Hutchinson, because he thought his in- 
 fluence more prejudicial " in the house, of . 
 representatives than at the council board." 
 Iii consequence of his being a member of 
 the committee who prepared the answer 
 to the governor's speeches, which assert- 
 ed the right of Great Britain to tax the 
 colonies, he was negatived by governor 
 Gage, in the year 1774. In the same 
 year, he was elected a delegate to the first 
 congress, which was to meet at Philadel- 
 phia, but was prevented from attending 
 by the state of his health. His place was 
 afterwards filled by Mr. Hancock. In 
 1775, he was moderator of the meeting 
 in which the inhabitants consented to 
 deliver up their arms to general Gage, on 
 condition of receiving permission to de- 
 part from the city unmolested, which 
 agreement, however, was violated by the 
 British commanders. Shortly after, he 
 was appointed chief of the Massachusetts 
 council, and, in 1778, was chosen presi- 
 dent of the convention which formed the 
 constitution of that state. In 1785, he 
 was appointed governor of Massachu- 
 setts, and had the good fortune to crush, 
 without a single execution, an insurrec- 
 tionary movement against the govern- 
 ment Governor B. was a member of 
 the convention of Massachusetts assem- 
 bled to deliberate on the adoption of the 
 constitution of the U. States, and exerted 
 himself in its favor. He was ever an ar- 
 dent lover of learning and science, and a 
 benefactor to others of the same character. 
 The university of Edinburgh honored 
 
 him with the degree of doctor of laws, 
 and the royal societies of Dublin and 
 London, with several other foreign socie- 
 ties, admitted him among their members. 
 He was the first president of the academy 
 of arts and sciences, which was establish- 
 ed, in 1780, at Boston, in a great measure 
 through his influence and exertions, and 
 to which he contributed several papers, 
 printed in the first volume of their Trans- 
 actions. His letters to doctor Franklin 
 have likewise been published. He died 
 at Boston, in 171K). 
 
 BOWER. (See Anchor.) 
 
 BOX-TREE. The box-tree (biiTus-sem- 
 percirens) is a shrubby evergreen-tree, 12 
 or 15 feet high, which has small, oval and 
 opposite leaves, and grows wild in several 
 parts of Britain. It has been remarked, 
 that this tree was formerly so common in 
 some parts of England, as to have given 
 name to several places, particularly to 
 Box-hill in Surry, and Boxley in Kent ; 
 and, in 1815, there were cut down, at 
 Box-hill, as many trees of this sort as 
 produced upwards of 10,000. This 
 tree was much admired by the ancient 
 Romans, and has been much cultivated, 
 in later times, on account of its being 
 easily clipped into the form of animals 
 and other fantastic shapes. The wood is 
 of a yellowish color, close-grained, very 
 hard and heavy, and admits of a beautiful 
 polish. On these accounts, it is much 
 used by turners, by engravers on wood, 
 carvers, and mathematical instrument 
 makers. Flutes and other wind-instru- 
 ments are formed of it ; and furniture, 
 made of box-wood, would be valuable 
 were it not too heavy, as it would not 
 only be very beautiful, but its bitter quali- 
 ty would secure it from the attacks of in- 
 sects. In France, it is much in demand 
 for combs, knife-handles and button- 
 moulds ; and it has been stated that the 
 quantity annually sent from Spain to 
 Paris is alone estimated at more than 
 10,000 livres. An oil distilled from the 
 shavings of box-wood has been found to 
 relieve the tooth-ache, and to be useful 
 in other complaints ; and the powdered 
 leaves destroy worms. 
 
 BOXING. (See Gymnastics.) 
 
 BOYDELL, John, born at Dorington, 
 1719, deserves a place in the history of 
 the arts in England, on account of the in- 
 fluence which his enterprises had upon 
 the advancement of the arts in that coun- 
 try. He was an engraver on copper ; af- 
 terwards, a collector and seller of engrav- 
 ings. His greatest undertaking is his 
 Shakspeare Gallery, for which he em-
 
 BOYDELL BOYER. 
 
 231 
 
 ployed most of the great painters and 
 engravers of his time. He made some 
 other collections of prints, among which 
 the Houghton Gallery is conspicuous, 
 which was bought by the empress Cath- 
 arine. To him we owe a work of high 
 interest, Liber Veritatis, a copy of that 
 precious volume in which Claude Lor- 
 raine sketched the designs of all his 
 paintings. The original is owned by the 
 duke of Devonshire. Of his Collection 
 of Prints engraved after the best Paint- 
 ings in England (19 parts), the two first 
 volumes are excellent. B. enjoyed much 
 respect. He was an alderman and lord 
 mayor of London. He died in 1804. 
 
 BOYELDIEU, Adrian ; one of the most 
 celebrated opera composers of France. 
 He was born at Rouen, in 1775, and, at 
 seven years of age, studied music with 
 Broche, the organist of the cathedral of 
 that place. About 1795, he went to 
 Paris, and soon made himself known 
 and esteemed by the composition and 
 execution of his ballads. He was soon 
 appointed professor of the piano-forte at 
 the conservatory. At this time, he wrote 
 several operas, among which Ma tante 
 .'lurore and the Calife de Bagdad are the 
 most celebrated. In 1803, he went to St. 
 Petersburg. His reputation obtained him 
 a favorable reception, and the emperor 
 Alexander appointed him his chapel- 
 master. For the theatre of the hermit- 
 age at St. Petersburg, he wrote his Aline, 
 Queen of Golconda, and the opera Tde- 
 machus, which is considered by some as 
 his masterpiece. In 1811, he returned to 
 Paris, and, political events retaining him 
 in France, he devoted his talents entirely 
 to the theatre Feyde.au. The most esteem- 
 ed operas which he has since composed 
 are, La dot de Susette, Jean de Paris 
 (1812), which has had the greatest suc- 
 cess of all his pieces ; Le nouveau Seig- 
 neur de Village ( 1813) ; and La Fete du 
 Village Voisin (1816). A later opera, Le 
 Chaperon Rouge, has lively music, but is 
 not equal to John of Paris in originality. 
 His latest opera, La Dame Blanche (1825), 
 has met with great applause. A sweet 
 and natural melody, simple but agreeable 
 accompaniments, an expressive gayety 
 and great variety, are the characteristic 
 excellences of B. 
 
 BOYER, Alexis ; baron ; one of the first 
 surgeons in Europe, clinical professor in 
 Paris, and chirurgien en chef adjoint at the 
 hospital of charity. Surgery is indebted 
 to him for many instruments which he 
 has either invented or improved. He was 
 torn in 1760, at D'Uzerche, in the Limo- 
 
 sin, became a pupil of the celebrated 
 Desault, and, as early as 1787, delivered 
 lectures. He accompanied Napoleon on 
 his campaigns as chief surgeon. His 
 Traiie complet d'Anatomie (four vols.) has 
 gone through four editions. His Traite 
 des Maladies chirurgicales et des Opera- 
 tions qui leur conviennent is not yet fin- 
 ished. He explains diseases and their 
 remedies very circumstantially. Without 
 relating what others have done, he de- 
 scribes his own mode of treatment, and 
 the advantages of it. He was for a long 
 time fellow-laborer with Roux and Cor- 
 visart in the Journal de Medicine Chirurgic 
 d Pharmacie. He also wrote many sur- 
 gical articles for the Dictionnaire des Sci- 
 ences medicales. When the king wished 
 for an official statement of the circum- 
 stances of the medical and surgical col- 
 leges in the kingdom, in 1815, drawn up 
 by the most learned physicians and sur- 
 geons, B. was a member of the committee 
 of inquiry. 
 
 BOYER, Jean Pierre, president of the 
 island of Hayti, was bom at Port an 
 Prince, in that island, about the year 
 1780. He is a mulatto, although some- 
 what darker than most persons of that 
 cast. His father was a shop-keeper and 
 tailor of good repute and some property 
 in the city of Port au Prince, and his 
 mother a Negress from Congo in Africa, 
 who had been a slave in the neighbor- 
 hood. He joined the cause of the French 
 commissioners Santhonax and Polverel, 
 in whose company, after the arrival of 
 the English, he withdrew to Jacquemel. 
 Here he attached himself to Rigaud, set 
 out with him for France, and was cap- 
 tured on his passage by the Americans, 
 during the war between France and the 
 U. States. After the conclusion of the 
 war, being released, he resumed his voy- 
 age to France, where he remained until 
 Le Clerc's expedition against St. Domin- 
 go was organized. Like many other per- 
 sons of color, he took part in that expedi- 
 tion ; but, on the death of Le Clerc, he 
 joined Petion's party, and continued at- 
 tached to that chieftain until his death. 
 He rose, in the service of Petion, from 
 the rank of his aid and private secretary 
 to be general of the arrondissement of 
 Port au Prince, and was finally named 
 by Petion to be his successor in the pres- 
 idency. Petion died March 29th, 1818, 
 and B. was immediately installed in his 
 office, and assumed the functions of gov- 
 ernment. When the revolution broke 
 out in the northern part of the island, in 
 1820, he was invited by the insurgents to
 
 232 
 
 BOYER BOYLE. 
 
 place himself at their head ; and, upon 
 Christophe's death, the north and south 
 parts of the island were united, under his 
 administration, into one government, by 
 the name of the republic of Hayti. In the 
 course of the succeeding year, a similar 
 revolution took place in. the eastern or 
 Spanish part, the inhabitants of which vol- 
 untarily placed themselves under the gov=- 
 ernment of B., who thus became, in the 
 course of a few years, by mere good for- 
 tune, and without any merit on his part, un- 
 disputed master of the whole island. Had 
 his wisdom corresponded to his fortune, he 
 might, by fostering the agricultural inter- 
 ests of the island, and strengthening its 
 friendly relations with the U. States and 
 Great Britain, have accomplished much 
 towards establishing the prosperity of the 
 republic on a stable foundation. But he 
 is represented as a vain and weak man ; 
 and, although more amiable in his temper 
 than Christophe, is destitute of the energy 
 of character and comprehensive views, 
 by which that despot's policy was direct- 
 ed. The consequence has been the grad- 
 ual decline of the agriculture, commerce 
 and wealth of Hayti, and, finally, its total 
 prostration, by the absurd arrangement 
 concluded by B. with France in 1825. 
 He foolishly agreed to pay to France an 
 indemnity of 150,000,000 of francs in five 
 equal annual instalments, in consideration 
 of which, France merely recognised the 
 actual government of Hayti ; and the ab- 
 solute inability of B. to make good his 
 engagements places him at the mercy 
 of France* Franklin's Present State of 
 Hayti. (See Hayti.) 
 
 BOYLE, Robert ; a celebrated natural 
 philosopher ; born, at Lismore, in Ireland, 
 1627, 7th son of Richard, the great earl 
 of Cork. In 1658, he went to Geneva, 
 under the care of a learned French gen- 
 tleman, where he continued to pursue his 
 studies for several years. In 1641, he 
 made a journey to Italy. In 1642, he was 
 left at Marseilles destitute of money, on 
 account of the breaking out of the Irish 
 rebellion. This circumstance did not al- 
 low him to return to England until 1644. 
 During this period his father had died, 
 leaving him considerable property. He 
 now went to his estate at Stallbridge, 
 where he devoted himself to the study of 
 physics and chemistry. He was one of 
 the first members of a learned society, 
 founded in 1645, which at first went un- 
 der the name of the philosophical col- 
 lege. On account of the political dis- 
 turbances, this society retired to Oxford, 
 but was revived after the restoration, un- 
 
 der the name of the royal society. B. 
 occupied himself, at Oxford, in making 
 improvements in the air-pump. Like 
 Bacon, he esteemed observation the only 
 road to truth. He attributed to matter 
 merely mechanical properties. Every 
 year of his life was marked by new ex- 
 periments. We are indebted to him for 
 the first certain knowledge of the absorp- 
 tion of air in calcination and combustion, 
 and of the increase of weight which met- 
 als gain by oxydation. He first studied 
 the chemical phenomena of the atmos- 
 phere, and was thus the predecessor of 
 Mayow, Hales, Cavendish and Priestley. 
 In all his philosophical inquiries, lie dis- 
 played an accurate and methodical mind, 
 relying wholly upon experiments. At 
 the same time, his imagination was warm 
 and lively, and inclined to romantic no- 
 tions, which were first produced, in his 
 childhood, by the perusal of Amadis of 
 Gaul, and always exercised a visible in- 
 fluence on his character. He was natu- 
 rally inclined to melancholy, and this 
 temper of mind was increased by circum- 
 stances. The sight of the great Carthu- 
 sian monastery at Grenoble, the wildriess 
 of the country, as well as the severe asce- 
 tic life of the monks, made a deep im- 
 pression upon him. The devil, as he 
 said, taking advantage of his melancholy 
 disposition, filled his soul with terror, 
 and with doubts concerning the funda- 
 mental doctrines of religion. This situa- 
 tion was so insufferable, that he was 
 tempted to free himself from it by com- 
 mitting suicide, and was only prevented 
 by the fear of hell. While endeavoring 
 to settle his faith, he found those defences 
 of the Christian religion, which had been 
 published before his time, unsatisfactory. 
 In order, therefore, to read the original 
 works, which are considered the founda- 
 tion of Christianity, he studied the Oriental 
 languages, and formed connexions with 
 Pococke, Thomas Hyde, Samuel Clarke, 
 Thomas Barlow, &c. The result of his 
 studies was a conviction of its truth, which 
 was manifested not only by his theological 
 writings, but by his benevolence and 
 generous disinterestedness. He institut- 
 ed public lectures for the defence of 
 Christianity ; and to this endowment we 
 owe the convincing arguments of Samuel 
 Clarke, on the existence of a God. B. 
 did much for the support of the mission 
 in India, and caused Irish and Gaelic 
 translations of the Bible to be made and 
 printed at his own expense. To his re- 
 ligious principles were united the purest 
 morals, a rare modesty, and an active be-
 
 BOYLE BRABANT. 
 
 233 
 
 nevolence. He died at London, in 1691, 
 and was interred at Westminster abbey. 
 Birch published an edition of his works 
 5 vols. folio, London, 1744. 
 
 BOYLSTON, Zabdiel, was born at Brook- 
 line, Massachusetts, in 1684. He studied 
 medicine at Boston, where, in a few 
 years, he rose into extensive practice, and 
 accumulated a considerable fortune. In 
 1721, when the small-pox broke out in 
 Boston, and filled the whole country with 
 alarm, doctor Cotton Mather pointed out 
 to the physicians of the town an account 
 of the practice of inoculation in the East, 
 contained in a volume of the Transactions 
 of the royal society. This communication 
 was received with great contempt by the 
 whole faculty, with the exception of 
 B. Although this practice was unex- 
 ampled in America, and not known to 
 have been introduced into Europe, he 
 immediately inoculated his own son, a 
 child of six years of age, and two servants. 
 Encouraged by his success, he began to 
 extend his practice. This innovation was 
 received with general opposition. The 
 physicians of the town gave then- unani- 
 mous opinion against it, and the select- 
 men of Boston passsd an ordinance to 
 prohibit it. But, supported by the con- 
 viction of the utility of this invention, and 
 the countenance of several intelligent 
 clergymen, he persevered ; and, in 1721 
 and 172*2, inoculated 247 persons ; 39 
 more were inoculated by others, and of 
 the whole number (286), only six died. 
 During the same period, of 5759, who 
 had the small-pox the natural way, 844, 
 nearly one seventh, died. Still, however, 
 his opponents maintained that his prac- 
 tice was wilfully spreading contagion ; 
 that, as the disease was a judgment from 
 God on the sins of the people, all attempts 
 to avert it would but provoke him the 
 more ; and that, as there was a time ap- 
 pointed to every man for death, it was im- 
 pious to attempt to st;iy or to avert the 
 stroke. Religious bigotry, being thus 
 called into action, so exasperated many of 
 the ignorant against B., that attempts were 
 threatened against his life, and it became 
 unsafe for him to leave his house after 
 dusk. Time and experience at length 
 came in to the aid of truth, opposition 
 died away, and B. had the satisfaction of 
 seeing inoculation in general use, in New 
 England, for some time before it became 
 common in Great Britain. In 1725, he 
 visited England, where he received much 
 attention, and was elected a fellow of the 
 royal society. Upon his return, lie con- 
 tinued at the head of his profession for 
 20* 
 
 many years, but yet found time for lite- 
 rary and philosophical pursuits, and con- 
 tributed several valuable papers to the 
 Transactions of the royal society. He 
 died March 1, 1766. His only publica- 
 tions, besides his communications to the 
 royal society, are, Some Account of what 
 is said of Inoculating, or Transplanting 
 the Small-pox, by the learned doctor 
 Emanuel Timonius, and Jac. Pylarinus, 
 (a pamphlet, Boston, 1721), and An His- 
 torical Account of the Small-pox inocu- 
 lated in New England, &c. (London 1726). 
 BOTNE ; a river of Ireland, running into 
 the Irish channel, near which was fought 
 a celebrated battle between the adherents 
 of James II and William III, in 1690? 
 the latter was victorious, and James was 
 obliged to flee to the continent. 
 BOZZA.RIS. (See Greece.) 
 BRABAM', duchy of; in the kingdom 
 of the Netherlands, having Holland on 
 the north, Liege and Limburg on the 
 east, Flanders on the west, and Hainault 
 and Namur on the south. North B. con- 
 tains 252,000 inhabitants, and South B. 
 306,000. B. was erected into a duchy in 
 the 7th century. For some ages, it be- 
 longed to the Prankish monarchy, and sub- 
 sequently became a German fief. At all 
 periods in the history of the Belgic prov- 
 inces, it appears to have been pree'mi- 
 nent among the states, in the general 
 assemblies of which its deputies held the 
 first place, and gave their votes before the 
 others. The last duke, a descendant of 
 Charlemagne, dying in 1005, the duchy 
 devolved on Lambert I, count of Louvain, 
 his brother-in-law. Through his posteri- 
 ty, it descended to Philip II, duke of 
 Burgundy, and afterwards came, in the 
 line of descent, to the emperor Charles V. 
 In the 17th century, the republic of Hol- 
 land took possession of the northern part, 
 which was thence called Dutch B. The 
 other part belonged to Austria, and was 
 occupied by the French in 1746, but re- 
 stored at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 It was again occupied by them hi 1797, 
 and their possession confirmed by the 
 treaties of Campo Formio (1797) and 
 Luneville (1801). Dutch B. was united 
 to the Frencli empire in 1810. Austrian 
 B., while under the dominion of Austria, 
 had its own states, consisting of 2 bishops 
 and 11 abbots, with the barons, and 7 
 deputies, chosen by the cities of Brussels, 
 Louvain and Antwerp. Since the forma- 
 tion of the kingdom of the Netherlands 
 in 1815, North B. sends 7, and South B. 
 8 members to the representative assem- 
 bly. The province of Antwerp, which
 
 234 
 
 BRABANT BRADFORD. 
 
 formerly belonged to the duchy, sends 5. 
 Much of the soil, especially in the south- 
 ern part, is fertile, produces large quanti- 
 ties of grain, and affords excellent pas- 
 turage. In the north, considerable tracts 
 are covered with moss, heath and woods ; 
 but others yield large crops of wheat, 
 hops and flax. There are manufactures 
 of cloth, lace, linen, <fcc. The chief riv- 
 ers are the Dommel, the Demer, the Dyle 
 and the Nethe, which, with the canals, 
 facilitate the internal commerce of the 
 duchy. In the northern part, the in- 
 habitants are Protestants ; in the southern, 
 chiefly Catholic. 
 
 BRACHMAXS. (See Gymnosopliists.) 
 BRACTEATES ; thin coins of gold or 
 silver, with irregular figures on them, 
 stamped upon one surface only, so that 
 the impression appears raised on one 
 side, while the other appears hollow. It 
 seems most probable, that these coins, 
 being circulated in great quantities under 
 Otho I, emperor of Germany, when the 
 working of the silver mines of the Hartz 
 afforded the most convenient medium of 
 exchange, were first coined at that place, 
 and spread into other countries, where 
 the Roman money was not known or in 
 circulation. The original form of these 
 coins was borrowed from that of the By- 
 zantian gold ones, which, about that time, 
 lost in thickness what they had gained 
 in extension. Allowance was made, how- 
 ever, for the greater softness of the silver. 
 Gold and copper bracteates belong only to 
 a later period. The name bradeate itself 
 points to Byzantium (according to Isidore, 
 it is derived from 0pa%uv, to ring). Brae- 
 tea signifies leaf of gold, or other metal. 
 The real name, at the time when they 
 were in circulation, was denarius, moneta, 
 obolus, panningus. They are of impor- 
 tance as illustrating history. A very good 
 representation of a rich collection of brac- 
 teates can be seen in W. G. Becker's 
 Two hundred rare Coins of the Middle 
 Ages (Dresden, 1813, 4to.). In later times, 
 there have been many bad imitations of 
 these corns, and the study of them is there- 
 fore much more difficult. Bracteated 
 coins, or bracteati nummi ; a term used to 
 signify coins or medals covered over with 
 a thin plate of some richer metal. They 
 are usually made of iron, copper or brass, 
 plated over and edged with gold or silver 
 leaf. Some of them are to be found even 
 among the truly ancient coins. The 
 French call them /ounces. 
 
 BRACTON, Henry de, one of the earliest 
 writers on English law, nourished in the 
 13th century. He studied civil and canon 
 
 law at Oxford, and, about the year 1244, 
 Henry III made him one of his judges 
 itinerant. Some writers say, that he was 
 afterwards chief justice of England ; but 
 his fame at present is derived from his 
 legal treatise, entitled De Legibus et Con- 
 suetudinibus AnglitE, which was first print- 
 ed in 1569, folio, but of which a more 
 correct edition was published in 1640, 
 4to. It is possibly to the unsettled nature 
 of the times, and the alternate ascendency 
 of the crown and barons, that we must 
 attribute his inconsistency with regard to 
 the royal prerogative ; in one place ob- 
 serving that no man must presume to 
 dispute or control the actions of the king; 
 and in another, that he is subordinate to 
 the law, and may be "bridled" by his 
 court of "earls and barons." The time 
 of his death is unknown. 
 
 BRADDOCK, Edward, major-general, 
 and commander of the British army in 
 the expedition against the French, on the 
 river Ohio, in 1755, arrived in Virginia 
 in February of that year, and, in the spring, 
 marched against fort Du Quesne, now 
 Pittsburg. He reached the Monongahela, 
 July 8, at the head of 1200 men, the bag- 
 gage having been left behind, under the 
 care of colonel Dunbar, to advance by 
 slower marches. On the next day, he 
 moved forward to invest the fort, and, by 
 disregarding the caution of his provincial 
 officers, who warned him of the danger 
 of surprise in an Indian war, fell into an 
 ambuscade, by which he lost nearly one 
 half of his troops, and received himself a 
 mortal wound. All his officers on horse- 
 back, except colonel, afterwards general, 
 Washington, who acted as aid, being 
 killed, the army retreated precipitately, 
 near 40 miles, to Dunbar's camp, where 
 the general, who was conveyed there in 
 a tumbril, expired. 
 
 BRADFORD, William, an American law- 
 yer of eminence, was born in Philadel- 
 phia, September 14th, 1755. In the 
 spring of 1769, he entered the college 
 of Nassau hall, at Princeton, New Jersey, 
 then under the direction of the late learned 
 and pious doctor John Witherspoon. In 
 1779, he was admitted to the bar of the 
 supreme court of Pennsylvania, where 
 his character soon introduced him to an 
 unusual share of business ; and, in Au- 
 gust, 1780, only one year after he was 
 licensed to practise, he was appointed 
 attorney-general of the state of Pennsyl- 
 vania. " August 22, 1791, he was made a 
 judge of the supreme court of Pennsyl- 
 vania. His industry, integrity and ability 
 enabled him to give general satisfaction
 
 BRADFORD BRAHAM. 
 
 235 
 
 in this office. On the attorney-general 
 of the U. States being promoted to the 
 office of secretary of state, B. was ap- 
 pointed to the vacant office, Jan. 28, 1794. 
 This office lie held till his death. In 1793, 
 he published an Inquiry how far the 
 Punishment of Death is necessary in 
 Pennsylvania. This performance justly 
 gained him great credit. His death was 
 occasioned by an attack of the bilious 
 fever. He died August 23, 1795, in the 
 40th year of his age. 
 
 BRADLEY, James, a celebrated astrono- 
 mer, was born at Shireborn, England, in 
 1692. He studied theology at Oxford, 
 and took orders ; but his taste for astron- 
 omy soon led him to change his course 
 of life. His uncle instructed him in the 
 elements of mathematics, his own indus- 
 try did eveiy thing else, and, in 1721, he 
 was appointed professor of astronomy at 
 Oxford. Six years afterwards, he made 
 known his discovery of the aberration of 
 light, (q. v.) But, ahhough this discove- 
 ry gave a greater degree of accuracy to 
 astronomical observations, and although 
 the discrepancies of different observations 
 were much diminished, yet slight differ- 
 ences remained, and did not escape his 
 observation. He studied them during 18 
 years with the greatest perseverance, and 
 finally discovered that they were fully 
 explained by the supposition of an oscil- 
 lating motion of the earth's axis, com- 
 pleted during a revolution of the moon's 
 nodes, i. e., in 18 years. He called this 
 phenomenon the nutation of the earth's 
 axis ; and published, in 1748 (Philosoph. 
 Trans. No. 785), his account of the ap- 
 parent motion of the lixed stars, with its 
 laws, arising from this phenomenon of 
 nutation. D'Alembert afterwards ex- 
 plained the physical causes of this phe- 
 nomenon, upon the principle of universal 
 attraction. By these two discoveries, 
 astronomers were, for the first time, 
 enabled to make tables of the motions of 
 the heavenly bodies with the necessary 
 accuracy. B. had already, in 1726, ex- 
 plained the method of obtaining the lon- 
 gitude by means of the eclipse of Jupiter's 
 first satellite. In 1741, at the death of 
 doctor Halley, he received the office of 
 astronomer royal, and removed to the ob- 
 servatory at Greenwich. Here he spent 
 the remainder of his life, entirely devoted 
 to his astronomical studies, and left 13 
 volumes folio of his own observations, in 
 manuscript. Of these, the first volume 
 was published by Horesby, 1798. The 
 whole appeared under the title of Astro- 
 nomical Observations made at the Obser- 
 
 vatory at Greenwich, 1750 62; Oxford, 
 1805, 2 vols. folio. From this rich mine 
 have been taken thousands of observations 
 on the sun, moon and planets, which, 
 properly arranged, have brought our as- 
 tronomical tables to great accuracy. It 
 was from this that Mayer drew the ele- 
 ments of his celebrated tables of the moon. 
 In addition to his merit as a man of sci- 
 ence, B. was modest, benevolent, humane 
 and generous in private life. He died in 
 1762, aged 70. 
 
 BRADSHAW, John ; president of the high 
 court of justice which tried and condemn- 
 ed Charles I. He studied law in Gray's 
 Inn, and obtained much chamber prac- 
 tice from the partisans of the parliament, 
 to which he was zealously devoted. 
 When the trial of the king was determin- 
 ed upon, the resolute character of B. 
 pointed him out for president, which 
 office, after a slight hesitation, he accept- 
 ed. His deportment on the trial was 
 lofty and unbending, in conformity to the 
 theory which rendered the unhappy sove- 
 reign a criminal, and amenable ; and every 
 thing was done, both for and by him, to 
 give weight and dignity to this extraordi- 
 nary tribunal. He rendered himself ob- 
 noxious to Cromwell, when the latter 
 seized the protectorate, and was deprived 
 of the chief justiceship of Chester. On 
 the death of Cromwell, and the restora- 
 tion of the long parliament, he obtained a 
 seat in the council, and was elected pres- 
 ident. He died in 1659, and, on his death- 
 bed, asserted that, if the king were to be 
 tried and condemned again, he would be 
 the first to agree to it. He was mag- 
 nificently buried in Westminster abbey, 
 whence his body was ejected, and hanged 
 on a gibbet at Tyburn, with those of Oli- 
 ver and Ireton, at the restoration. 
 BRAGA. (See Mythology, northern,} 
 BRAGANZA; one of the oldest towns of 
 Portugal. It was made a duchy in 1442, 
 and from its dukes the present reigning 
 family of Portugal are descended. The 
 town and surrounding district still belong 
 to the king of Portugal as duke of Bra- 
 gaiiza. Lat. 41 44' N.; Ion. 6 25> W. 
 (See Portugal.) 
 
 BRAHAM; one of the greatest profes- 
 sional singers England has ever produced. 
 His tenor is unrivalled for power, com- 
 pass and flexibility. His compass extends 
 to about 19 notes, to each of which he 
 knows how to give almost any degree of 
 strength ; and his falsetto, from D to A, is 
 so entirely within his control, that it is 
 hardly possible, in the ascent and descent 
 of the scale, to distinguish at what note
 
 236 
 
 BRAIIAM BRAIN. 
 
 the natural voice begins and ends. His 
 intonation may be called perfect, so far as 
 respects the strength and quality of a note, 
 and his tone readily takes the character 
 of whatever he wishes to express. His 
 articulation is equally excellent, and not a 
 syllable escapes the hearer. On this ac- 
 count, he particularly excels in recitative. 
 The flexibility of his organs, and his rapid- 
 ity of execution, are incredible. He goes 
 rapidly through the whole compass of his 
 voice, makes the boldest leaps from the 
 highest to the lowest notes, and makes 
 chromatic runs with incredible velocity. 
 The hearer is never troubled with the 
 fear of his failing ; and this unlimited pow- 
 er is used with extravagant liberality. B. 
 enters into every composition with a glow 
 of feeling which gives the performance 
 the liveliest coloring, and brings into full 
 action all his natural powers. Always 
 enthusiastic, his imagination pours itself 
 out most profusely on sentiment, passion, 
 melody, expression and ornament. , But 
 it is in this that he overleaps the bounds 
 of art, and often excites more of wonder 
 than pleasure, often dissatisfies more than 
 he delights, and, indeed, too often de- 
 stroys the general eft'ect. From this man- 
 ner of his arise that indescribably pervert- 
 ed and constrained tone, those sudden 
 stops, vehement bursts, and immoderate 
 heaping together of notes, which injure 
 the singing ; and hence also proceeds his 
 mixture of the theatrical with the church 
 and concert styles, in all of which he has to 
 sing by turns. B. has had numerous imi- 
 tators: the whole kingdom resounds with 
 them ; and a generation must pass away 
 before the bad taste, which his errors have 
 occasioned in every corner of England, 
 shall be destroyed. Although he is one 
 of the greatest singers which any age has 
 produced, yet it is not easy to find united 
 in one individual such extraordinary pow- 
 ers and such glaring faults. He still sings 
 at Drury lane theatre with great applause. 
 He is also a composer; as, for example, of 
 the Cabinet, in which he performs the 
 principal part. 
 
 BRAKE, TYCHO DE. (See Tycho.) 
 BRAHILOW, BRAILOW, or BRAILA, a 
 strongly-fortified Turkish town in Wala- 
 chia, on the northern bank of the Danube, 
 with 30,000 inhabitants, governed by a 
 pacha of three tails, lies in a Turkish mil- 
 itary district, which is similarly organized 
 to the adjacent frontier districts of Austria. 
 The town is situated at the confluence of 
 the Sereth and the Danube, which divides 
 itself there into three arms, embracing a 
 piece of neutral territory between the 
 
 dominions of the Turks and the Russians. 
 From this place much grain, raised in 
 Walachia, is sent to Constantinople. The 
 fishery of sturgeon in the Black sea car- 
 ried on from B. is considerable. Lon 28 
 ItfE. lat. 4516'N. 
 
 BRAILOW. (See Brahilow.) 
 
 BRAILS ; certain ropes passing through 
 pulleys on the mizzen-mast (q. v.), and 
 afterwards fastened, in different places, on 
 the hinder edge of the sail, in order to 
 draw it up to the mast, as occasion re- 
 quires. Brails is likewise a name given 
 to all the ropes employed to haul up the 
 bottoms, lower corners and skirts of the 
 great sails in general. The operation of 
 drawing them together is called brailing 
 them up, or hauling them up to the brails. 
 
 BRAIN. The brain is a soft substance, 
 partly reddish-gray and partly whitish, 
 situated in the skull, penetrated by nu- 
 merous veins, and invested by several 
 membranes. Democritus and Anaxago- 
 ras dissected this organ almost 3000 years 
 ago. Haller, Vicq d'Azir, and other anat- 
 omists in modern times, have also dissect- 
 ed and investigated it without exhausting 
 the subject. Between the skull and the 
 substance of the brain three membranes 
 are found. The outer one is called the 
 dura mater. This is strong, dense and 
 elastic. It invests and supports the brain. 
 The next which occurs is the tunica 
 arachnoidea. This is of a pale white 
 color, yet in some degree transparent, 
 very thin, and, in a healthy state, exhibits 
 no appearance of vessels. The mem- 
 brane below this is called the pia mater. 
 It covers the whole surface of the brain. 
 It is very vascular, and a great portion of 
 the blood which the brain receives is 
 spread out upon its surface in minute 
 vessels. The brain consists of two prin- 
 cipal parts, connected by delicate veins 
 and fibres. The larger portion, the cere- 
 brum, occupies, in men, the upper part of 
 the head, and is seven or eight times 
 larger than the other, the cerebellum, lying 
 behind and below it. It res,ts on the 
 bones which form the cavities of the eyes, 
 the bottom of the skull and the tentorium, 
 and projects behind over the cerebellum. 
 On the whole exterior of the cerebrum 
 there are convolutions, resembling the 
 windings of the small intestines. The 
 external reddish substance of the brain is 
 soft and vascular, and is called the cortical 
 substance ; the internal is white, and is 
 called the medullary substance of the 
 brain. This medulla consists of fibres, 
 which are very different in different parts.
 
 BRAIN BRAINERD. 
 
 237 
 
 The cerebellum lies below the cerebrum, in 
 a peculiar cavity of the skull. By exam- 
 ining the surface, it is seen to be divided 
 into a right and left lobe, by the spinal 
 marrow lying between, but connected at 
 the top and bottom. Like the cerebrum, 
 it is surrounded by a vascular membrane, 
 reddish-gray on the outside, and compos- 
 ed of a medullary substance within. lu 
 proportion to its size, also, it has a more 
 extensive surface, and more of the vascu- 
 lar membrane, than the cerebrum. In a 
 horizontal section of it, we find parallel 
 curved portions of the cortical and the 
 medullary substances alternating with 
 each other. Between the cortical and the 
 medullary substance, there is always 
 found, in the cerebellum, a third intermedi- 
 ate yellow substance. All the medulla of 
 the cerebellum is also united in the middle 
 by a thick cord. Experience teaches that, 
 in the structure of the brain, irregularities 
 are far more uncommon than in other 
 parts of the human body. It is worthy 
 of observation, that every part of the brain 
 is exactly symmetrical with the part oppo- 
 site. Even those which lie in the middle, 
 and are apparently single (the spinal mar- 
 row, for instance) consist, in fact, of two 
 symmetrical portions. The total weight 
 of the human brain is estimated at two or 
 three pounds. It is larger and heavier in 
 proportion to the youth of the subject; 
 and in old age it becomes specifically 
 lighter. In delirious affections, it is some- 
 times harder and sometimes less solid and 
 softer. The brain is the organ of sensa- 
 tion, and, consequently, the material rep- 
 resentative of the soul, and the noblest 
 organ of the body.. (See Serres's Anato- 
 mic comparee du Cerveau dans les quatre 
 Classes des animaux Vertebres, &c. (Com- 
 parative Anatomy of the Brain in the four 
 Classes of vertebral Animals, &c.); Paris, 
 1824, with engravings. It received the 
 prize of the French institute.) 
 
 BRAINERD, David, the celebrated mis- 
 sionary, was born in April, 1718, at Had- 
 darn, Connecticut. From an early pe- 
 riod, he was remarkable for the serious 
 and religious turn of his mind, devo- 
 tional exercises occupying a considerable 
 portion of his time, though, as he says, his 
 piety was originally prompted by the fear 
 of punishment, and not by the love of 
 God. In 1739, he became a member 
 of Yale college, where he was distin- 
 guished for application and general cor- 
 rectness of conduct ; but was expelled, in 
 1742, in consequence of having said, in 
 the warmth of his religious zeal, that one 
 of the tutors was as devoid of grace as a 
 
 chair an expression which reached the 
 ears of the rector, who commanded B. to 
 make a public confession in the hall. 
 Thinking the order unjust to humble him- 
 self before the whole college for what he 
 had uttered in private conversation, he 
 refused to comply, and, on this account, 
 as well as for having gone to the separate 
 religious meeting at New Haven, after 
 being prohibited to do so by the authority 
 of the college, he was dismissed. In the 
 spring of 1742, he began the study of 
 divinity; and, at the end of July, he was 
 licensed to preach, for which a thorough 
 examination had shown him qualified. 
 He had for some time entertained a strong 
 desire of preaching the gospel among the 
 heathens, which was gratified by an ap- 
 pointment as missionary to the Indians 
 from the society for propagating Christian 
 knowledge. At Kaunarneek, an Indian 
 village of Massachusetts, situated between 
 Stockbridge and Albany, he commenced 
 his labors, in the 25th year of his age. He 
 remained there about 12 months, at first 
 residing in a wigwam among the Indians, 
 but afterwards in a cabin, which he con- 
 structed for himself, that he might be 
 alone when not engaged in his duties of 
 preaching and instruction. On the re- 
 moval of the Kaunameeks to Stockbridge, 
 he turned his attention towards the Dela- 
 ware Indians. In 1744, he was ordained 
 by a presbytery at Newark, New Jersey, 
 and took up his habitation near the forks 
 of the Delaware, in Pennsylvania, where 
 he resided for a year, during the course 
 of which he made two visits to the In- 
 dians on the Susquehannah river. His 
 exertions, however, were attended with 
 little success, until he went to the Indians 
 at Crosweeksung, near Freehold, in New 
 Jersey. .Before the end of a year, a com- 
 plete reformation took place in the lives 
 of the savages, 78 of whom he baptized 
 within that time. They became humble 
 and devout ; and it was not unusual for 
 the whole congregation to shed tears and 
 utter cries of sorrow and repentance. In 
 1747, be went to Northampton, in Massa- 
 chusetts, where he passed the short resi- 
 due of his life in the family of the cele- 
 brated Jonathan Edwards. He died in 
 1747, after great sufferings. B. was a man 
 of vigorous intellect and quick discern- 
 ment. He was gifted with a strong mem- 
 ory, a happy eloquence, arid a sociable 
 disposition, that could adapt itself with 
 ease to the different capacities, tempers 
 and circumstances of men, which, togeth- 
 er with an intimate knowledge of human 
 nature, as well as of theology and worldly
 
 238 
 
 BRAINERD BRAMINS. 
 
 science, peculiarly fitted him for the busi- 
 ness of instruction. He was remarkably 
 composed and resigned during the ap- 
 proaches of death, and left this world in 
 the full hope of a glorious immortality. 
 His publications are, a narrative of his 
 labors at Kaunameek, and his journal, or 
 account of the rise and progress of a 
 remarkable work of grace among a num- 
 ber of Indians in New Jersey and Penn- 
 sylvania, 1746. 
 
 BRAINERD ; a missionary station among 
 the Cherokee Indians, in the district of 
 Chickamaugah, within the chartered lim- 
 its of Tennessee, near the boundary line 
 of Georgia, on Chickamaugah creek, a 
 few miles above its entrance into the river 
 Tennessee ; 150 miles S. E. of Nashville, 
 250 N. W. Augusta. This missionary 
 station was commenced in 1817, and 
 it is the oldest establishment formed by 
 the American board of missions among 
 the Cherokees. The property belonging 
 to the mission, in 1822, was estimated at 
 $17,390, and there are between 30 and 40 
 buildings of various descriptions, mostly 
 of logs. The labors of the missionaries 
 here have been remarkably successful in 
 imparting to the Cherokees a knowledge 
 of the rudiments of learning, and of the 
 arts of civilized life, as well as of the. 
 principles and duties of religion. 
 
 BRAKENBDRG, Regner, a well-known 
 Dutch painter, distinguished for his rustic 
 scenes, family pieces, &c., was born at 
 Haerlem, in 1649. The time of his death 
 is not known : it took place at Friesland. 
 His paintings are true to nature. 
 
 BRAMA ; the first person in the Trinity, 
 or Trimurti, of the Hindoos, consisting of 
 JSrama, the creator, Vishnu, the preserv- 
 er or redeemer, and Siva, the destroyer. 
 He is represented with four heads and as 
 many arms, and the swan is consecrated 
 to him. His name signifies knowledge of 
 the laws, in allusion to his creative power. 
 He is the god of the fates, master of life 
 and death, and, by some, has been repre- 
 sented as the supreme eternal power; but 
 he is himself created, and is merely the 
 agent of the Eternal One. He is believed 
 to die, according to some, annually, or, 
 according to others, after a longer period, 
 and to rise again. His character is no 
 letter than that of the Grecian Jupiter. 
 He is considered as the author of the 
 Vedas, and as the lawgiver and teacher 
 of India. The worship of B. is regarded 
 as the oldest religious observance in that 
 country. (For a more particular account, 
 see Indian Mythology.) 
 BRAMANTE OF URBINO, Francesco Laz- 
 
 zari, shares with Brunelleschi the credit 
 of being the restorer of architecture. He 
 was born at Castel Duranti, in the, duchy 
 of Urbino, in 1444. He applied himself 
 first to painting ; but his passion for archi- 
 tecture soon gained the ascendency. At 
 length he went to Milan, and there his 
 whole time was spent at the cathedral. 
 Pope Alexander VI named him his archi- 
 tect, and Julius II made him superin- 
 tendent of his buildings. At the command 
 of the latter, he united the Belvedere with 
 the palace of the Vatican. He persuaded 
 the pope to order the church of St. Peter 
 to be torn down, and another to be erect- 
 ed in its place, which should not have its 
 equal in the world. In 1513, the founda- 
 tion of this edifice was laid, according to 
 the plan of B. It yet remains the greatest 
 production of modern architecture. B. 
 died in 1514, without living to see this 
 work completed. He had begun the edi- 
 fice with incredible despatch ; but his suc- 
 cessors, Raphael, Julius of San Gallo, 
 Peruzzi and Michael Angelo altered the 
 original plan, and left nothing of B.'s 
 workmanship standing, except the arches 
 which support the tower of the dome. 
 His writings, part prose, part verse, first 
 discovered in 1756, were printed jthe same 
 year at Milan. 
 
 BRAMINS ; the first of the four casts of 
 the Hindoos. They proceeded from the 
 mouth of Brama, which is the seat of 
 wisdom. They form the sacred or sacer- 
 dotal cast, and its members have main- 
 tained a more absolute and extensive au- 
 thority than the priests of any other nation* 
 Their great prerogative is that of being 
 the sole depositaries and interpreters of 
 the Vedas or sacred books. There are 
 seven subdivisions of the Bramins, which 
 derive their origin from seven penitents, 
 personages of high antiquity and remark- 
 able purity, who are said to have rebuked 
 the gods themselves for their debauch- 
 eries. The great body of the Bramins 
 pay equal veneration to the three parts of 
 the mysterious trinity, but some attach 
 themselves more particularly to one per- 
 son of the triple godhead. Thus the 
 Vishnuvites are distinguished by an or- 
 ange-colored dress, and the mark called 
 nama on their foreheads. The devotees 
 of Siva wear the lingam, and are distin- 
 guished from the former by their great 
 abstemiousness. A Bramin should pass 
 through four states. The first begins 
 at about seven, when the duty of the 
 young novice, or Brachmacari, consists in 
 learning to read and write, studying the 
 Vedas, and becoming familiar with the
 
 BRAMINS BRANDENBURG. 
 
 privileges of his cast, and all points of 
 corporeal purity. Thus he is taught his 
 right to ask alms, to be exempted from 
 taxes, from capital and even corporal pun- 
 ishment. Earthen vessels, belonging to 
 Bramins, when used by profane persons, 
 or for certain purposes, must be broken. 
 Leather and skins of animals, and most 
 animals themselves, are impure, and must 
 not be touched by them. Flesh and eggs 
 they are not allowed to eat. The Bramin 
 is also taught to entertain a horror of the 
 defilement of the soul by sin ; and rules 
 for purification by ablution, penances, and 
 various ceremonies, are prescribed. The 
 second state begins at his marriage, when 
 he is called Grihastha. Marriage is neces- 
 sary to his respectability. His daily du- 
 ties become more numerous, and must be 
 more strictly performed. Regular ablu- 
 tions, fasting, and many minute observ- 
 ances, become requisite. The Bramins, 
 however, engage in secular employments, 
 political, commercial, &c. The third 
 state is that of the Vana-Prasthas, or in- 
 habitants of the desert, which is now, how- 
 ever, seldom reached. They were honored 
 by kings, and respected even by the gods. 
 Retiring to the forest, green herbs, roots 
 and fruit were their food: reading the 
 Vedas, bathing morning, noon and even- 
 ing, and the practice of the most rigor- 
 ous penances, were prescribed. " Let the 
 Vana-Prastha," says Menou in the Insti- 
 tutes, " slide backwards and forwards on 
 the ground, or stand the whole day on 
 tip-toe, or continue rising and sitting 
 down alternately ; in the hot season, let 
 him sit exposed to five fires ; in the rain, 
 let him stand uncovered ; in the cold sea- 
 son, let him wear wet garments ; then, 
 having stored up his holy fires in his 
 mind, let him live without external fire, 
 without a shelter, wholly silent, and feed- 
 ing on roots and fruit. When he shall 
 have thus become void of fear and sorrow, 
 and shaken off his body, he rises to the 
 divine essence." The fourth state is that 
 of a Sannyasi, in which new and severer 
 penances are to be performed. Suppress- 
 ing the breath, standing on the head, and 
 other such ceremonies, are performed, till 
 the devout patient rises to a participation 
 of the divine nature. The sanctity and 
 inviolability of a Bramin are maintained, in 
 the eyes of his countrymen, by the most 
 severe penalties. The murder of one of 
 the order, robbing him, &c., are inexpia- 
 ble sins : the killing of his cow can only be 
 expiated by a painful penance. To some 
 travellers it appears that the number of 
 Bramins respectable for knowledge and 
 
 virtue is very small ; that the great body 
 of them are devoted to ambition, intrigue 
 and voluptuousness, and that their char- 
 acter is disgraced by avarice, meanness 
 and cruelty. Their charity extends only 
 to those of their own cast. The objects 
 of their worship, besides their innumera- 
 ble gods, are almost every species of ani- 
 mals, and a variety of malignant demons. 
 The transmigration of souls is one of their 
 essential doctrines, and they believe in the 
 existence of a hell. Some of the ceremo- 
 nies of the Braminical worship are horri- 
 ble: some are more licentious than the or- 
 gies of Bacchus. The sacrifices commonly 
 consist of vegetables, but animals are some- 
 times sacrificed, and the burning of widows 
 is a relic of the horrid practice of offering 
 human victims. (See Indian Mythology.) 
 BRANDENBURG, mark or marquisate of; 
 one of the most extensive districts in the 
 former circle of Upper Saxony. The soil 
 is, in some parts, fertile, but mostly sandy, 
 and fit for grain. It is rich in wood, fish, 
 flax, hemp, hops, tobacco, and pastures, 
 particularly for sheep ; it also produces 
 lime, salt-petre, turf, and some iron, &c. 
 B. carries on an active trade in manufac- 
 tured articles, and is well situated for 
 commerce, since it has many canals, riv- 
 ers, lakes, and many towns lying on them. 
 Most of the inhabitants profess the Lu- 
 theran faith ; the rest are Calvinists. From 
 1685 to 1C88, many French refugees, 
 Walloons, and inhabitants of Lorraine 
 and of the Palatinate, settled in the mark. 
 During the reign of Frederic II, prior to 
 1777, more than 10,000 families took up 
 their residence there. The country is 
 watered by the Elbe, Spree, Havel, Oder, 
 Wartha, Netze and Ucker. The district 
 of B. is divided into the Electoral Mark 
 and the New Mark. I. The former in- 
 cludes, 1. the Old Mark (capital Stendal); 
 2. the Priegnitz (capital Perleberg) ; 3. 
 the Middle Mark (capital Berlin)-; 4. the 
 Ucker Mark (capital Prenglau). II. The 
 New Mark (capital Custrin) receives its 
 name from this circumstance, that the 
 elector Frederic II redeemed it, in 1455, 
 from the knights of the Teutonic order, 
 to whom it had been pledged until that 
 period. At present, B. is the most im- 
 portant of the Prussian states, including, 
 as it does, the capital (Berlin), and the 
 
 fovernments of Potsdam and Frankfort, 
 t contains, upon 15,800 square miles, 
 1,335,160 inhabitants, and 150 towns, &c. 
 The first people who are known to have 
 inhabited B. were the Suevi. They were 
 succeeded by the Sclavonians, a barba- 
 rous people, whom Henry I conquered
 
 240 
 
 BRANDENBURG BRANDYWINE. 
 
 and converted to Christianity in the early 
 part of the 10th century. The govern- 
 ment was first conferred on a Saxon 
 count, and did not become hereditary till 
 the time of Albert, whose son was raised 
 to the dignity of elector in 1100. This 
 race becoming extinct, Charles IV as- 
 signed the electorate to his son Sigis- 
 inund, who became emperor in 1415, and 
 sold the region to Frederic, burgrave of 
 Nuremberg, the ancestor of the present 
 reigning family. Frederic William the 
 Great made various accessions to the ter- 
 ritories of his ancestors, and obliged the 
 king of Poland, in 1656, to declare Prus- 
 sia an independent state. The Old Mark 
 was ceded to Napoleon in 1807, and 
 formed part of the kingdom of Westpha- 
 lia f but it was restored to Prussia in 
 1814. The elector of B. held the seventh 
 rank among the electors of the empire, and 
 had five votes in the council of princes. 
 
 BRANDENBURG ; capital of the province 
 of the same name (q. v.), on the Havel, 30 
 miles west of Berlin, formerly the resi- 
 dence of the reigning family of Prussia. 
 It contains 12,000 inhabitants. 
 
 BRANDES, Ernest ; a learned and able 
 German scholar and statesman, bom at 
 Hanover in 1758. Happily endowed by 
 nature, and educated under favorable 
 circumstances, he afterwards extended 
 his views by travel, by his connexion 
 with public affairs, by his intercourse 
 with the best society, and by an intimate 
 union with the greatest scholars in Ger- 
 many. From 1775 to 1778, he studied at 
 Gottingen, of which he afterwards be- 
 came the benefactor, when the govern- 
 ment of Hanover appointed him, secretary 
 of the cabinet, and intrusted him with the 
 chief direction of the affairs of the uni- 
 versity. During a tour which he made 
 through Germany and France (1780 81) 
 his attention was particularly drawn to 
 the theatres of Paris and Vienna, and he 
 gave his opinion concerning them in his 
 well-known remarks upon the theatres of 
 London, Paris and Vienna. During his res- 
 idence in England, in the winter of 1784, 
 1785, he formed many literary and politi- 
 cal connexions, besides gaining a complete 
 knowledge of the English constitution. 
 His journey gave his mind a political 
 turn. After having been appointed to fill 
 a number of honorable offices, he was 
 made a member of the privy council. 
 When the French took possession of 
 Hanover, in 1803, he was one of the del- 
 egates appointed to treat with Mortier, 
 and remained a member of the govern- 
 ment, until the committee of administra- 
 
 tion was established by the victors. B. 
 had gained so much respect, that his 
 death, in 1810, was lamented as a public 
 calamity. Great pOAvers of observation, 
 and an extensive knowledge of the world, 
 are displayed in all his works 
 
 BRANDT, Nicholas or Sebastian ; a Ger- 
 man chemist of the 17th century, usually 
 considered the discoverer of phosphorus. 
 Leibnitz mentions him as a' chemist of 
 Hamburg, who, during a course of exper- 
 iments on urine, for the purpose of dis- 
 covering a solvent which would convert 
 silver into gold, accidentally produced 
 phosphorus, in 1667 or 1(M>. He com- 
 municated his discovery to another chem- 
 ist, who showed it to Leibnitz and Boyle. 
 
 BRANDT^ Sebastian (named Titio), born 
 at Stras'ourg, in 1458, died there in 1520. 
 He studied law at Bale, where he was 
 graduated ; and delivered lectures on this 
 science, for many years, with great a[>- 
 plause. He was still more distinguished 
 for his poetical talents, and the emperor 
 Maximilian I invited him, several times, 
 to his court. He has immortalized him- 
 self by a poem called The. Ship of Fools, or 
 the Ship from the Land of Folly, which 
 satirizes the crimes and follies of his age, 
 first published at Bale, 1494, 4to. Four 
 editions appeared in one year. It has 
 since been repeatedly printed and trans- 
 lated into all the languages of Europe. 
 In Germany, it was, for about a century, 
 truly a national book, so well known ami 
 esteemed by all classes, that the cele- 
 brated preacher Geiler of Kaisersberg 
 delivered public lectures upon it from the 
 pulpit at Strasburg. In this work, we 
 rind a collection of moral instructions, 
 and satires upon the crimes, vices and 
 abuses common both in public and pri- 
 vate life. The book is divided into 113 
 chapters, which, however, have no con- 
 nexion with each other. The descrip- 
 tions are not, in general, poetic, but still 
 contain many happy and beautiful pas- 
 sages, often display learning, and not sel- 
 dom vigor ; and the Ship of Fools will 
 always be a valuable book, full of sound 
 reasoning, pure morality, dear and bold 
 thoughts, and knowledge of mankind. 
 It has been republished by Hagen in his 
 Fool's Books. 
 
 BRANDT. (See Distillation.) 
 
 BRANDYWINE, a small river which 
 rises in the state of Pennsylvania, passes 
 into the state of Delaware, and, after a 
 course of about 45 miles, joins tho Chris- 
 tiana, two miles below Wilmington. It 
 abounds in favorable sites for the appli- 
 cation of water-power ; and the Brandy-
 
 BRANDYWINE BRAUWER. 
 
 241 
 
 wine flour-mills form the finest collec- 
 tion of the kind in the U. States. This 
 river is noted for giving name to a battle 
 fought near it, Sept. 11, 1777, between 
 the British and Americans, in which the 
 latter were defeated, with the loss of 
 about 300 men killed and 600 wounded. 
 
 BRANTOME, Pierre de Bourdeilles, lord 
 of the abbey of, born at Perigord, about 
 1157, died in 1614. In his epitaph, com- 
 posed by himself, he relates, in a vaunting 
 manner, how he first bore arms under 
 the great Francis of Guise, and after- 
 wards served the king, his master. After 
 the death of Charles IX, he withdrew to 
 his estate, and wrote his memoirs, which 
 have a great deal of vanity and self- 
 complacency, mingled with much that is 
 interesting. They are a living picture of 
 his age ; for B. was personally acquainted 
 with all the great characters of the time, 
 and an eye-witness of all the important 
 events which then took place, and, in 
 some, was an actor. B.'s character was 
 that of his birth-place (Gascony) and of 
 his rank. He was a courtier, regardless 
 of right or wrong ; who does not blame 
 the great, but observes and relates their 
 faults and crimes as ingenuously as if he 
 were uncertain whether they deserve 
 praise or blame ; as indifferent about hon- 
 or and chastity in women as about integ- 
 rity in men. He describes a scandalous 
 act without being sensible of its offensive- 
 ness. He speaks of the good king Louis 
 XI, who ordered his brother to be poison- 
 ed, and of the virtuous ladies, whose ad- 
 ventures no pen but his own could de- 
 scribe. He places us in the middle of 
 that century, when expiring chivalry was 
 contending with the forming, and, as yet, 
 unsettled manners of later times. B., in 
 the midst of his wandering life, had ac- 
 quired more learning than most of his 
 fellow-soldiers. He has left Vie des 
 Hommes illustres et des grands Capitaines 
 Frangais ; Vie des grands Capitaines 
 Ktrangers ; Vie des Dames illustres ; Vie 
 des Dames galantes ; Anecdotes touchant 
 les Duels ; Rodomontades et Jurements des 
 Espagnols. Twelve editions of his works 
 were published from 1666 to 1740, some- 
 times entire, sometimes in selections. 
 
 BRASIL. (See Brazil.) 
 
 BRASS. (See Copper.) 
 
 BRATTLEBOROUGH ; a post-town in 
 Windham county, Vermont, on the Con- 
 necticut, 41 miles N. of Northampton, 
 110 S. ofMontpelier; population in 1820, 
 2,017. It is one of the most considerable 
 and flourishing towns in Vermont, and 
 contains two parishes, in each of which 
 
 VOL. II. 21 
 
 there is a handsome village. The village 
 in the west parish contains an academy ; 
 that in the east parish has a large printing 
 establishment, various manufactures, and 
 a flourishing trade. In the south-east 
 corner of B. was fort Dummer, which 
 was established in 1724, and was the first 
 settlement formed by Anglo-Americans 
 in Vermont. 
 
 BRAUWER, BRATJR, or BROCWER, Adri- 
 an ; a celebrated painter, of the Dutch 
 school, born at Haerlem, in 1608, or, 
 more probably, at Oudenarde, where his 
 father was a painter of common paper- 
 hangings. Poverty contributed, perhaps, 
 to form his talents. When a child, he 
 painted flowers and birds to be stitched 
 on caps, which were sold by his mother. 
 Francis Hals, a skilful painter, expecting 
 to profit by the talents of the young artist, 
 took him to Haerlem. Here, amidst 
 wearisome labors and poor diet, B. spent 
 the greater part of his time in a garret, 
 occupied in making little paintings, of the 
 value of which he was ignorant, while 
 Hals kept the profits of them for himself. 
 Two pretty paintings of his, The Five 
 Senses and The Twelve Months, are men- 
 tioned as belonging to that period. By 
 the advicp of Adrian of Ostade, his fellow 
 pupil, he escaped to Amsterdam, where 
 he was surprised to hear, that his paint- 
 ings were esteemed. He now gained 
 considerable sums by his labors ; but, in- 
 stead of devoting himself to his art, he 
 made the inn his workshop, never exert- 
 ing himself till the hostess insisted upon 
 payment. He threw into the fire a paint- 
 ing for which he did not receive the 
 price demanded, and began a new one 
 with more care. Having gone to Ant- 
 werp during the wars of the Low Coun- 
 tries, he was thrown into prison as a spy. 
 He declared that he was a painter, ap- 
 pealing to the duke of Ahremberg, who 
 was likewise imprisoned there ; and, at 
 the prince's intercession, having been 
 provided with materials, he painted his 
 guards engaged in playing card?, with so 
 much expression and truth, that Rubens, 
 at the sight of the picture, exclaimed, 
 " This is B.'s work ; none but he can 
 succeed so well in such subjects." Ru- 
 bens effected his release by standing 
 bail for him, clothed him, and received 
 him into his house and at his table. 
 B., however, instead of being grateful 
 for this generosity, escaped secretly, to 
 plunge into stifl greater extravagan- 
 ces. He took lodgings with a baker, 
 Craesbeke, who became a skilful painter 
 by his instructions. This man, whose
 
 242 
 
 BRAUWER BRAY, 
 
 inclinations agreed with those of B., had 
 a handsome wife, and the connexion 
 between these three persons became so 
 intimate, that they were obliged to flee 
 from justice. B. went to Paris, but, find- 
 ing no employment there, returned to 
 Antwerp, where he died in the hospital, 
 in 1640. Rubens, who remembered only 
 his talents, caused him to be honorably 
 buried in the church of the Carmelites. 
 All the pictures of B. show what sort of 
 places and company this artist frequented. 
 He did not, however, like Teniers, under- 
 stand how to give to mean objects the 
 variety of which they are susceptible. 
 Nevertheless, his paintings command high 
 prices from amateurs. It would, indeed, 
 be difficult to excel B. in power and har- 
 mony of coloring, in the management of 
 the ckiaro-oscuro, and in truth of expres- 
 sion. 
 
 BRAVO, Nicholas, one of the most prom- 
 inent leaders in the Mexican revolution, 
 was a native of New Spain, and son of 
 don Leonardo Bravo. He became iden- 
 tified with the patriot party at an early 
 period of their struggle for independence, 
 and adhered to it through all their vicissi- 
 tudes of fortune. After the fatal termina- 
 tion of Hidalgo's career, B. made common 
 cause with Morelos, commanding a di- 
 vision of the Jatter's army in 1812, at 
 which period he was particularly distin- 
 guished, among other achievements, by a 
 victory over the Spanish general Musitu. 
 When Iturbide's deception of the royal- 
 ists gave him the means of promoting the 
 revolution, in 1821, B. was one of the first 
 to take advantage of circumstances, and 
 to raise anew the standard of revolt, un- 
 deterred by past misfortunes. Iturbide 
 endeavored in vain to acquire the confi- 
 dence of B., who, like Victoria, suspected 
 his ambitious purposes long before he 
 suffered them openly to appear. Victoria 
 and B. steadily opposed the projects of 
 the usurper, and, at length, became so far 
 committed in their opposition as to be 
 arrested and imprisoned by him, whilst 
 president of the executive junta. They 
 were subsequently released, and B. took 
 arms against the emperor at the earliest 
 opportunity. Upon the establishment of 
 a provisional republican government in 
 1823, subsequently to the fall of Iturbide, 
 the executive consisted of generals Vic- 
 toria, B. and Negrete. During the dis- 
 cussions relative to the formation of a 
 constitution, B. maintained the necessity 
 of a central system, like that of Colombia, 
 in opposition to the federal party, which 
 finally prevailed in organizing the gov- 
 
 ernment in imitation of that of the IT. 
 States. The new constitution was sol- 
 emnly sworn to in the capital, Feb. 9, 
 1824; and, in the ensuing elections, B., 
 being unsuccessful in the contest for the 
 presidency, was chosen vice-president ; 
 and, from that period, has been regarded 
 as the leader of the opposition party in 
 Mexico. During the year 1827, it is well 
 known, the struggle between the party in 
 favor of the present constitution, and the 
 party opposed to it, daily increased in 
 violence and bitterness, the former being 
 distinguished by the party name of York- 
 inos, the latter by that of Escoceses, from 
 the different masonic rites which they 
 uphold. Although the latter party in- 
 cluded the Spaniards and other enemies 
 of the republic, it was hoped that B.'s 
 love of his country and weight of char- 
 acter would prevent his countenancing 
 any design of theirs inimical to the liber- 
 ties of Mexico. But, Dec. 23, 1827, lieu- 
 tenant-colonel Manuel Montano raised the 
 standard of rebellion at Otumba, and the 
 government immediately despatched a 
 strong body of troops, under general 
 Guerrero, to disperse the insurgents. A 
 few days after he marched, several offi- 
 cers, known to be violent Escoceses, clan- 
 destinely left Mexico, and joined Montano ; 
 and, at length, the vice-president, B., fol- 
 lowed them. Their whole force, at this 
 time, did not exceed 150 men. They 
 proceeded to Tulanciugo, immediately on 
 B.'s joining them, where they fortified 
 themselves ; but, after a feeble resistance, 
 were compelled to surrender. B., and 25 
 other officers, were taken prisoners, and 
 thus terminated this desperate attempt. 
 B.'s great merits in the cause of indepen- 
 dence secured to him the lenity of the 
 government; and he was merely sen- 
 tenced to seven years' banishment from 
 the republic. No authentic account has 
 yet transpired of B.'s motives and partic- 
 ular inducements in taking this step ; and, 
 in the absence of such evidence, it is dif- 
 ficult to believe that a man of his tried 
 patriotism can have dreamed of restoring 
 the Spanish authority* in Mexico. (See 
 Ward's Mexico, &c.) 
 
 BRAVURA AIR ; an air so composed as 
 to enable the singer to show his skill in 
 execution by the addition of embellish- 
 ments, striking cadences, &c. It is some- 
 times used for the style of execution. 
 
 BRAT ; a small village in the county of 
 Berks. The church is a vicarage in the 
 gift of the bishop of Oxford. The vicar 
 of Bray lived in the reigns of Henry VIII, 
 Edward VI, Mary and Elizabeth, and
 
 BRAY BRAZIL. 
 
 243 
 
 was first a Papist, then a Protestant, then 
 a Papist, and finally a Protestant again. 
 Being accused of inconstancy, " It is not 
 so," he replied ; " for I always keep to my 
 principle, which is this to live and die 
 vicar of Bray." A well known song is 
 founded on this incident. 
 
 BRAY, Francois Gabriel, count de ; in 
 1809, Bavarian ambassador at St. Peters- 
 burg ; since 1820, at Paris ; was born in 
 Normandy, where his father belonged to 
 the nobility of the province ; assisted, as 
 knight of St. John of Malta, in a bloody 
 attack upon Algiers. He prepared him- 
 self for the diplomatic career at Ratisbon, 
 where, previous to the overthrow of the 
 German empire, French diplomatists were 
 bred for the courts of Northern Europe. 
 In the revolution, he entered the Bavari- 
 an service, and, while ambassador at St. 
 Petersburg, wrote his able work, Essai 
 Ci-itique sur VHistoire de la lAvonie, siiivi 
 (Tun Tableau de VEtat actuel de cette Pro- 
 vince (1817, Dorpat, 3 vols.) 
 
 BRAZIL, ; a country of vast extent, and 
 one of the richest regions of the earth, 
 comprising the eastern and central parts 
 of South America ; bounded N. by Colom- 
 bia, Guiana, and the Atlantic ocean, E. 
 and S. E. by the Atlantic ocean, and W. 
 by Buenos Ayres, or the United Provinces 
 of La Plata, Bolivia and Peru. The fol- 
 lowing table exhibits the population of the 
 several capitanias, or provinces, as stated 
 by Mr. Brackenridge, who visited South 
 America in the years 1817 and 1818. 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 Pernambuco . . 
 Bahia 
 
 Pop. 
 
 . 550,000 . 
 . 500,000 . 
 
 Cliiqf Tou-ius. 
 
 , . Pernambuco. 
 
 Minas Geraes. 
 Rio Janeiro . . 
 St. Paul 
 
 .380,000. 
 . 400,000 . 
 . 300 000 
 
 . . Villa Rica. 
 . . Rio Janeiro. 
 St Paul 
 
 Rio Grande . . 
 Maranham . . . 
 Para 
 
 . 250,000 . 
 . 200,000 . 
 . 150,000 . 
 
 . . Portalagrc. 
 . . St. Luis. 
 . . Para. 
 
 Matto Grosso . 
 Goyas 
 
 . 100,000 , 
 .170,000, 
 
 . . Cuyaba. 
 , . . Villa Boa. 
 
 In 1826, the country was divided anew, 
 so as to constitute nineteen provinces. 
 Of tlie population, as stated by Mr. Brack- 
 enridge, 1,000,000 are supposed to be of 
 European origin or descent, 1,200,000 
 Negroes, and 800,000 subdued Indi- 
 ans; the unsubdued Indians not being 
 included. A later estimate makes the 
 number of Negro slaves, 1,800,000. Malte- 
 Brun estimates the population of B. at 
 3,800,000; Hassel and Humboldt, at 
 4,000,000. The principal rivers are the 
 
 Amazon, Madeira, Topayas, Xingu, To- 
 cantins, Negro, St. Francisco, Paraguay, 
 Parana, and Uraguay. There is scarcely 
 to be found on the globe a finer coun- 
 try than B. ; one blessed with a more 
 genial climate, or a more fertile soil ; 
 more happily diversified with wood and 
 water, or with abundance of navigable 
 rivers ; or more famed for its precious 
 produce of gold and diamonds. It com- 
 prises within its limits nearly all the most 
 valued productions of the earth. Viewed 
 from the sea, the country appears rugged 
 and mountainous ; but, on a nearer ap- 
 proach, its appearance is highly romantic 
 and picturesque, clothed as it is with the 
 most luxuriant vegetation, its hills cov- 
 ered with thick woods, and its valleys 
 with a verdure which never fades. To- 
 wards the interior, the land rises, by gentle 
 gradations, to the height of from 3 to 
 b',000 feet above the level of the sea; 
 and, in these temperate regions, European 
 fruits and grain are raised in abundance, 
 while the intermediate valleys are ex- 
 tremely favorable to the production of 
 sugar, coffee, and all kinds of tropical 
 produce. A large part of the interior is 
 overspread with an impenetrable forest, 
 the trees being closely interwoven with 
 brushwood and shrubs, and covered with 
 creeping plants, adorned with beautiful 
 flowers, thus giving a peculiar and rich 
 appearance to the scenery. The forests 
 abound in a great variety of useful and 
 beautiful wood, adapted for dyeing, cab- 
 inet-work and ship-building. They con- 
 tain numerous wild animals. The cli- 
 mate, in the neighborhood of the Amazon 
 and in the northern parts, is hot, but 
 tempered by the humidity of the air; in 
 the southern parts, it is temperate, and 
 generally healthy. B. has been long cel- 
 ebrated for gold and diamonds, which 
 abound in the higher regions of the in- 
 terior, and are chiefly found in the beds 
 of the mountain torrents, where the stream 
 is most rapid. Most of the streams that 
 rise from the chain of mountains which 
 extend through the province of Minas Ge- 
 raes are rich, especially near their sources, 
 in gold and diamonds. The towns of St. 
 Paul,' Villa Rica, Cuyaba, and others in 
 the interior, have grown out of mining 
 establishments. Tejuco is the chief town 
 of the principal diamond district. Brazil 
 was discovered by Pedro Alvarez Cabral. 
 Emanuel, king of Portugal, had equipped 
 a squadron for a voyage to the East In- 
 dies, under the command of Cabral. The 
 admiral, quitting Lisbon, March 9, 1500, 
 fell in accidentally, April 24, with the
 
 244 
 
 BRAZIL. 
 
 continent of South America, which lie at 
 first supposed to be a large island on the 
 coast of Africa. In this conjecture he 
 was soon undeceived, when the natives 
 came in sight. Having discovered a good 
 harbor, he anchored his vessels, and called 
 the bay Puerto Seguro. On the next day, 
 he landed with a body of troops, and, hav- 
 ing erected the cross, took possession of 
 the country in the name of his sovereign, 
 and called it Santa Cruz ; but the name 
 was afterwards altered by king Emanuel 
 to that of Brazil, from the red- wood which 
 the country produces. The Portuguese 
 entertained, for some time, no very fa- 
 vorable opinion of the country, not hav- 
 ing been able to find there either gold or 
 silver ; and, accordingly, they sent thither 
 none but convicts, and women of aban- 
 doned character. Two ships were annu- 
 ally sent from Portugal, to carry to the 
 new world the refuse of the human race, 
 and to receive from thence cargoes of 
 parrots and dye-woods. Ginger was af- 
 terwards added, but, in a short time, pro- 
 hibited, lest the cultivation of it might 
 interfere with the sale of the same article 
 from India. In 1548, the Jews of Por- 
 tugal, being banished to B., procured 
 sugar-canes from Madeira, and began the 
 cultivation of that article. The court of 
 Lisbon began to perceive that a colony 
 might be beneficial without producing 
 gold or silver, and sent over a governor 
 to regulate and superintend it. This was 
 Thomas de Souza, a wise and able man. 
 De Souza found it very difficult to suc- 
 ceed in inducing the natives to fix on 
 settled habitations, and to submit to the 
 Portuguese government. Dissatisfaction 
 ensued, which at length terminated in 
 war. De Souza did not bring with him a 
 sufficient number of men to conclude 
 hostilities speedily. By building St. Sal- 
 vador, in 1549, at the bay of All Saints, 
 he established a central and rallying point 
 for the colony ; but the great object of re- 
 ducing the Indians to submission was 
 effected by the Jesuits, who gained their 
 affections by presents and acts of kind- 
 ness. The increasing prosperity of B., 
 which became visible to Europe at the 
 beginning of the 17th century, excited 
 the envy of the French, Spaniards and 
 Dutch, successively. The latter, howev- 
 er, were the principal enemies with whom 
 the Portuguese had to contend for the 
 dominion of B. Their admiral, Willekens, 
 in 1624, took possession of the country 
 in the name of the United Provinces. 
 Having plundered the people of St. Sal- 
 vador, lie returned to Europe, leaving a 
 
 strong garrison. The Spaniards next 
 sent out a formidable fleet, laid siege to 
 St. Salvador, and compelled the Dutch 
 to surrender. When the affaire of the 
 Dutch assumed a more favorable aspect 
 at home, they despatched admiral Hen- 
 ry Lonk, in the beginning of 1630, to at- 
 tempt the entire conquest of B. He suc- 
 ceeded in reducing Pernambuco, and, on 
 his return to Europe, left behind him 
 troops which reduced, in 1633, 1634 and 
 1035, the provinces of Temeraca, Parai- 
 ba and Rio Grande. These, as well as 
 Pernambuco, furnished yearly a large 
 quantity of sugar, a great deal of wood 
 for dyeing, and other commodities. The 
 Dutch now determined to conquer all B., 
 and intrusted Maurice of Nassau with 
 the direction of the enterprise. This dis- 
 tinguished officer reached the place of his 
 destination in the beginning of 1637, and 
 subjected Seara, Seregippe, and the greater 
 part of Bahia. Seven of the fifteen prov- 
 inces which composed the colony had 
 already submitted to them, when they 
 were suddenly checked by the revolu- 
 tion, which removed Philip IV from the 
 throne of Portugal, and gave to the Portu- 
 guese independence, and a native sove- 
 reign. The Dutch, then, as enemies 
 of Ihe Spaniards, became friends to the 
 Portuguese, and the latter confirmed the 
 title of the Dutch to the seven provinces, 
 of which they were in possession. This 
 division gave rise to the name of the Bra- 
 zils, in place of the former appellation. 
 The Dutch government soon began to 
 oppress the Portuguese colonists, who, 
 after an obstinate contest, drove them out 
 of several of the provinces. Finding they 
 were not able to retain possession of the 
 country, the Dutch ceded all their interest 
 to the Portuguese for a pecuniary com- 
 pensation. The dominion of Portugal 
 was now extended over all B., which, 
 during the 18th century, remained hi the 
 peaceful possession of the Portuguese. 
 The value of B. to Portugal has been on 
 the increase since the discovery of the 
 gold mines, in 1698, and the discovery of 
 the diamond mines, in 1782. Up to the 
 year 1810, B. had sent to Portugal 14,280 
 cwt. of gold, and 2100 pounds of dia- 
 monds, which foreign countries, and es- 
 pecially Great Britain, at last succeeded 
 in purchasing, at the Lisbon market. 
 Rio Janeiro now became the mart for the 
 proceeds of the Brazilian mines and native 
 productions. But the administration was 
 any thing but adapted to promote the 
 prosperity of the country. The attention 
 of the government was turned almost ex-
 
 BRAZIL. 
 
 245 
 
 clusively to the gold washings, and to the 
 working of the diamond mines ; and the 
 policy of the administration consisted in 
 the exaction of taxes and duties, which 
 were collected from the fortified ports, 
 to which trade was solely confined. 
 Foreigners were excluded, or jealously 
 watched, and trade was paralysed by nu- 
 merous restrictions. In the interior, the 
 lands situated on the great rivers, after 
 being surveyed, were frequently pre- 
 sented, after the year 1640, by the kings 
 of the house of Braganza, to the younger 
 sons of the Portuguese nobility, whom the 
 system of entails excluded from the pnos- 
 pect of inheritance. These grantees en- 
 listed adventurers, purchased Negro slaves 
 by thousands, and subjected the original 
 inhabitants, or drove them from their dis- 
 tricts, and ruled their dominions with al- 
 most unlimited sway. The missions of 
 the Jesuits also received similar dona- 
 tions from the kings. They organized a 
 brave militia from the converted savages 
 and their descendants, and bore the sword 
 and the cross farther and farther into the 
 interior. Equally independent with the 
 secular lords of the soil, they united the 
 converted savages in villages and parishes 
 along the rivers. The celebrated Jesuit 
 Vieyra introduced the cultivation of 
 spices, in which Holland alone had hith- 
 erto traded. As these Brazilian proprie- 
 tors defrayed, from their own means, the 
 above-mentioned indemnifications made 
 to the Dutch, the Portuguese govern- 
 ment, in return, confirmed and enlarged 
 all the privileges of the ancient planters, 
 extending them to the present and future 
 possessions of these noble families. But, 
 in the end, the government multiplied its 
 own monopolies, and assumed preroga- 
 tives interfering with the interests of the 
 ancient and rich landlords. Even from 
 1808 to 1821, as long as the court resided 
 in Rio Janeiro, the Portuguese by birth 
 continued to have the preference, in the 
 high offices of state, before the chief na- 
 tive families ; and the system of taxing 
 the productions of B., and the importa- 
 tion of articles needed by the Brazilian 
 nobility for themselves and slaves, was 
 even extended. The government final- 
 ly placed obstacles in the way of in- 
 creasing the number of the latter, which 
 the rich landlords deemed indispensable 
 for the establishment of new plantations. 
 The vassals, moreover, always had a 
 stumbling-block in their way in the fiscal 
 prerogative of the court, that the land 
 which the vassal called his own, but 
 which he had hitherto neglected to search 
 
 for gold, or for diamonds, in case of any 
 future discovery of such treasures, should 
 be the property of the crown, or, at least, 
 the object of high taxation. In the grants 
 of the ancient plantations, the crown had 
 not indeed provided for such a contin- 
 gency, and had reserved no such rights. 
 Even the humanity of the government, 
 in attempting to ameliorate by laws the 
 condition of the slaves, was a subject of 
 offence, because it appeared to the lords 
 to be an injury to their legal property to 
 proceed in such a matter without their 
 consent. Out of Rio Janeiro, in the more 
 northerly and more fertile section, the 
 number of young merchants in the large 
 maritime cities and their vicinity was 
 greatly increased by emigrations from 
 states where more freedom of thought 
 was enjoyed than in B. Many came 
 even from Germany. These adventurers, 
 bent on gain, naturally felt burthened by 
 the heavy system of taxation, and by the 
 monopolies of the crown. They carried 
 on the smuggling trade to such a degree, 
 that they lived, in fact, in open war with 
 the government. In addition to these 
 malcontents, there were many disbanded 
 soldiers, who had embarked from Portu- 
 gal, in the hope of being rewarded by the 
 court for their services, but, from the pov- 
 erty of the finances, found that they could 
 obtain nothing but land, which was of no 
 value to these warriors. Moreover, many 
 Europeans emigrated to Bahia and Per- 
 nambuco, who, though destitute, were not 
 altogether uninformed, and who desired 
 to make their fortune there, some way or 
 other. The lower class of the native 
 clergy, too, were very much dissatisfied, 
 because, even while the court resided 
 in B., Portuguese noblemen received 
 the most important ecclesiastical offices. 
 Without ascribing to the Brazilians any 
 democratic propensities, all these circum- 
 stances must have awakened the desire 
 of independence in their breasts, as much 
 as it augmented their hatred of the Por- 
 tuguese. From these two causes, a con- 
 flict of parties of several years' duration 
 has lately taken place, the result of which 
 is the new empire. The removal of the 
 Portuguese government to B., Jan. 19, 
 1S08), when the royal family landed in 
 Bahia, whence it transferred its residence 
 to Rio Janeiro in March, till the depar- 
 ture of king John VI to Lisbon, April 
 26, 1821), was the commencement of 
 the prosperity of B. As early as Jan. 
 28, 1808, all the ports of B. were open- 
 ed for the unconditional entrance of 
 all friendly and neutral vessels, and for
 
 246 
 
 BRAZIL. 
 
 the exportation of Brazilian productions, 
 under certain duties, with the sole excep- 
 tion, of Brazil wood. B. now entered, 
 also, into an immediate connexion with 
 Germany, which had an equally bene- 
 ticial influence on its agriculture, intellect- 
 ual improvement and commerce. The 
 treaty of alliance and commerce conclud- 
 ed with England at Rio Janeiro, Feb. 
 19, 1810, permitted the British even to 
 build and repair vessels of war in the har- 
 bors of B. ; and the then prince-regent 
 of Portugal promised never to introduce 
 the inquisition into B., and to co-operate 
 in earnest to effect the abolition of the 
 slave-trade, excepting such as was carried 
 on in the Portuguese possessions in Af- 
 rica. The decree of Nov. 18, 1814, 
 next allowed all nations free intercourse 
 with B. In 1815, the prince-regent 
 promised B. independence and equal 
 privileges with Portugal. Dec. 16, 1815, 
 he made it a monarchy. Finally, by the 
 marriage of the crown-prince (now em- 
 peror) of B., don Pedro, with the arch- 
 duchess Leopoldine, daughter of Francis 
 I. of Austria, Nov. 6, 1817, Germany 
 was in various ways brought into contact 
 with B. The government in Rio Janeiro 
 now allowed the free prosecution of 
 natural researches. Thus Mawe, an Eng- 
 lishman, was permitted to examine the 
 diamond mines ; the chevalier Eschwege, 
 afterwards overseer of the cabinet of min- 
 erals in Rio, was enabled to examine the 
 mountains of Minas Geraes at Villa Rica ; 
 and the latest work on B., by Martius and 
 Spix, contains similar evidence how zeal- 
 ous even a royal minister, Conde da 
 Barca, is in promoting scientific investi- 
 gations. As B., by reason of its soil and 
 climate, may become the chief mart of all 
 colonial commodities, the government 
 has encouraged, since 1809, the settle- 
 ment of strangers, and has granted to 
 foreigners, at a small price, large tracts of 
 land (dsmarias), of a league (22,500 feet) 
 in breadth, and three leagues in length, 
 for the cultivation of sugar, coffee, cotton, 
 &c., as well as wheat, rice and maize, 
 which afford here annually two crops, 
 Swiss and Gennans (such as Freyreiss, 
 the baron Busche, and Paycke of Ham- 
 burg) have therefore founded large set- 
 tlements here. According to Langsdorf, 
 who published Observations on Brazil, at 
 Heidelburg, 1821, Welsh com generally 
 yields in B. 130 fold, and rice 80 fold. 
 The coffee-tree, which, in the West Indies, 
 yields annually, on an average, li pounds 
 of coffee, in B., yields at least 2 or 3, 
 and not unfrequently 5 or 6 pounds. 
 
 But the want of industry, at that time, 
 rendered the means of living in the capi- 
 tal and neighborhood extremely dear, 
 while the total absence of highways, and 
 other means of facilitating transportation, 
 deprived the products of the interior of 
 almost all their value. Without a con- 
 siderable capital, no foreigner can culti- 
 vate the land bestowed on him, and B. is 
 as yet far removed from that equality of 
 rights, which secures to each one the full 
 use of his means, as well as from that 
 toleration, which affords protection and 
 freedom of conscience to every creed. 
 The royal decree of March 16, 1820, 
 which encourages the settlement of 
 foreigners, by an exemption from taxes 
 for four years, will never, therefore, while 
 these impediments exist, produce the re- 
 sults which have followed the coloniza- 
 tion of North America a country, in other 
 respects, less inviting. The foreign rela- 
 tions of B., of late years, have not been 
 altogether of a peaceful nature. After 
 the conclusion of the congress of Vienna, 
 Spain refused to cede Olivenza to Portu- 
 gal ; on which account, the Banda Oriental, 
 with its capital, Monte Video, an important 
 portion of the Spanish province of Buenos 
 Ayres, was taken possession of by B., 
 and maintained with effect against the 
 claims of the republic of Buenos Ayres, 
 after it had attained independence. An 
 insurrection in Pemambuco, in April, 
 1817, where a party raised the republican 
 standard, was suppressed by the Portu- 
 guese troops stationed in B. But when 
 the revolution broke out in Portugal, Aug. 
 1820, having for its object the establish- 
 ment of a constitution, the Portuguese 
 troops in B. also obtained a constitution 
 in behalf of the latter country. Don Pe- 
 dro, the crown -prince, proclaimed the 
 acceptation of the Portuguese constitu- 
 tion in the name of himself and father, 
 Feb. 26, 1821. King John VI now com- 
 manded the choice of deputies (March 
 7th) to meet with the cortes assembled in 
 Lisbon, and was desirous to embark with 
 them for that city. But, the bank being 
 unable to make the necessary advances 
 of money, a bloody insurrection ensued. 
 The king therefore changed the bank 
 into a national bank, and, to defray the 
 sums loaned, appropriated to it the charge 
 of the diamond mines, and the regulation 
 of the trade in diamonds. The king soon 
 after (April 21 and 22) saw himself com- 
 pelled to order the military to disperse 
 the assembly of electors, who demanded 
 the adoption of the Spanish constitution. 
 On the other hand, he repeated the rati-
 
 BRAZIL. 
 
 247 
 
 fication of the (then incomplete) Portu- 
 guese constitution, and, April 22, appoint- 
 ed his son don Pedro prince-regent of 
 B. He now embarked for Portugal, 
 April 26. But, as the Portuguese cortes 
 was not willing to grant the entire equali- 
 ty of civil and political relations demanded 
 by the Brazilians, and, without waiting 
 for the arrival of the Brazilian deputation, 
 had framed the articles of the constitution 
 which related to B., and subsequently re- 
 jected the additional articles proposed by 
 the Brazilian deputies, and, finally, had 
 expressly declared, that B. was to be di- 
 vided into governments, and ruled by the 
 ministry of state at Lisbon, and the prince- 
 regent was to be recalled to Portugal, 
 such violent convulsions were excited 'in 
 Rio Janeiro, and various parts of B., Dec., 
 1821, that it was explicitly declared to the 
 prince-regent, that his departure would 
 be the signal for establishing an indepen- 
 dent republic. The prince, therefore, re- 
 solved to remain in B., and gave a public 
 explanation of his reasons, Jan. 9th, 1822, 
 to his father, to the cortes in Portugal, 
 and to the people of B. The Portuguese 
 troops were removed from B. The prince- 
 regent assumed, May 13th, 1822, the title 
 of perpetual defender of B., and, in June, 
 convened a national assembly, composed 
 of 100 deputies, to frame a separate con- 
 stitution for the country. The cortes in 
 Lisbon, on the other hand, declared this 
 constitution void, Sept. 19th, 1822, and 
 demanded the return of the prince-regent 
 to Europe, on pain of forfeiting his right 
 to the throne. Meanwhile, the national 
 assembly of B. had declared the separa- 
 tion of that country from Portugal, Aug. 
 1, 1822, and, Oct. 12, appointed don 
 Pedro the constitutional emperor of B. 
 The new emperor retained, at the same 
 time, the title of perpetual defender of B. 
 Soon after the establishment of the em- 
 pire, began the struggle with the republi- 
 can party. In this party were many 
 free-masons. Don Pedro, who had pro- 
 claimed himself, shortly before, grand 
 master of all the free-masons in B., or- 
 dered that all the lodges should be closed, 
 and the congress, which he had promised 
 to assemble for the purpose of framing a 
 constitution, was not convened. At that 
 time, the two brothers Andrade, Jose 
 Bonifacio, minister of foreign affairs and 
 of the interior, and Martin F. Ribeiro, 
 minister of finances, especially the former, 
 possessed the entire confidence of the 
 emperor. The most difficult matter was 
 to effect his recognition in Europe ; for 
 don Pedro had acquired the new dignity 
 
 in consequence of the principle of the sove- 
 reignty of the people in a colony separated 
 from the mother country ; and it ^as also 
 made a question, whether he should not re- 
 nounce his claims to the crown of Portugal. 
 His father, indeed, when he left B., April 
 26, 1821, had given him full powers to do 
 all that might be necessary to preserve this 
 country to the house of Braganza. The 
 mission, nevertheless, of major Schaffer 
 to Vienna, could not procure the ac- 
 knowledgment of the new emperor by 
 his father-in-law, the emperor of Austria. 
 The Brazilian troops, in the meantime, 
 conquered Monte Video, which still had 
 a Portuguese garrison, in Dec., 1823, after 
 which the Banda Oriental was united 
 with B., under the name of Cisplatino, as 
 also Bahia, which was defended by a 
 Portuguese garrison, under general Ma- 
 deira. Lord Cochrane, the Brazilian ad- 
 miral, blockaded the harbor from March 
 26, 1823. Madeira, compelled to surren- 
 der by famine, sailed, during the nego- 
 tiation, in the night of July 2, to Europe, 
 and the Brazilian troops entered the place. 
 At home, don Pedro had two parties to 
 contend with the ancient Portuguese, 
 which was the weaker, and the republi- 
 can, the stronger. The latter was espe- 
 cially powerful in Pernambuco. The 
 brothers Andrade sought to gain both 
 parties by the proposal of a free constitu- 
 tion, formed after the model of the Eng- 
 lish ; but the obstacles of all kinds, and the 
 violent opposition with which their ad- 
 ministration was harassed, compelled them 
 to resort to arbitrary measures and arrests. 
 They treated the malcontents as Carbon- 
 ari, and thereby excited the suspicion, 
 that the emperor aspired to absolute au- 
 thority. They finally convoked the cortes 
 of B., the session of which was opened- 
 by the emperor, May 3, 1823. Of the 20 
 members, who constituted the opposition, 
 out of the 60 (instead of 160) present, 
 Aranjo Lima was the most eloquent. 
 The ministers succeeded in causing se- 
 cret societies to be prohibited, by which 
 means they gained a pretence for im- 
 prisoning many, whose sentiments were 
 republican. This augmented the public 
 dissatisfaction, and, when the emperor, 
 having been severely injured by a fall 
 from a horse, did not appear in public for 
 a month, the enemies of the ministers 
 became more bold in their outcries, and 
 even sent threatening representations to 
 the emperor. The imprisoned were ac- 
 quitted by the supreme court of justice, 
 and the emperor found himself compelled 
 to dismiss the two Andrade, July 16,
 
 248 
 
 BRAZIL. 
 
 1823. Don Joaq. de Carneiro Campos 
 (formerly professor of mathematics at the 
 college, of Lisbon) received the depart- 
 ment of foreign affairs, and don Man. 
 Jacint. Figueroa da Gama that of the 
 finances both adherents to the politi- 
 cal principles of 1791. Meanwhile, the 
 royal power had been restored in Lis- 
 bon in May, 1823 ; but the Brazilians 
 demanded the more loudly a free con- 
 stitution and a separation from Portu- 
 gal. The emperor, therefore, refused to 
 receive the envoy of the king his father, 
 the count de Rio Mayor, Sept 6, 1823, 
 because he could not give assurance 
 of the acknowledgment of the indepen- 
 dence of B. At the same time, the con- 
 gress authorized a loan of 2,500,000 in 
 London, which has subsequently been 
 increased about 700,000. (75 per cent, 
 only was paid in specie, at 6 per cent, 
 interest!) The constitution of Aug. 10, 
 1823, which the national assembly had 
 accepted with some alterations, was final- 
 ly laid before the emperor, but, in conse- 
 quence of a revolution which suddenly 
 ensued, not accepted, because it resem- 
 bled the Spanish and Portuguese consti- 
 tutions, and restricted too much the au- 
 thority of the sovereign. Since the fall of 
 the Andrade, the republican party had 
 gained strength, and attacked, in their 
 journals, with particular violence, the 
 Portuguese in the Brazilian service, and 
 demanded their expulsion. Two officers, 
 in retaliation, did some injury, Nov. 8, 
 to an apothecary at Rio, who laid his 
 complaints before the congress. The two 
 ex-ministers Andrade, and their third 
 brother, don Antonio Carlos, likewise a 
 deputy, demanded that congress should 
 investigate the matter ; others desired 
 that it should be referred to the courts of 
 justice. This gave rise to a violent tu- 
 mult on the 10th ; the people took part in 
 it ; the dismissal of the ministers, and 
 the departure of all the-Portuguese, were 
 loudly required. The ministers gave in 
 their resignation, and the emperor col- 
 lected the troops at his palace San Chris- 
 tovao, four leagues from the city. The 
 congress hereupon declared itself perma- 
 nent. Nov. 12, it was informed, by a 
 message from the emperor, that all the 
 officers regarded themselves as injured 
 by two journals, of one of which the 
 three Andrade were editors, and patrons 
 of the other ; and they were accused, in 
 general, of being at the head of a rebel- 
 lious party. The minister of the interior 
 declared, at the same time, that the troops 
 insisted on the removal of the two An- 
 
 drade from the assembly. Immediately 
 after, the troops entered the city, sur- 
 rounded the hall of the convention, and 
 an officer delivered an imperial decree, 
 ordering the dissolution of the assembly. 
 The president recorded it on the journal's, 
 declared the session terminated, and the 
 deputies separated, Nov. 12, 1823. But 
 while departing, and subsequently, many 
 were arrested ; among them the three 
 Andrade, who were eventually transport- 
 ed. In a decree of the same day, the 
 emperor termed the assembly perjured, 
 but, on the following day, limited this 
 expression to the faction of the Andrade. 
 The provinces, also, Avere the theatre 
 of many turbulent scenes. In Pernam- 
 buco, the violent dissolution of the con- 
 gress gave rise to much dissatisfaction, 
 and it was difficult to appease the hatred 
 of the Brazilians against the Portuguese. 
 A second national assembly was finally 
 convened at the end of Nov., 1823, and 
 the emperor caused a constitution, drawn 
 up by his council of state, to be laid be- 
 fore the cabildo (the municipality) of the 
 capital, Dec. 11, 1823, which collected 
 the votes of the citizens respecting it in 
 writing. As all assented to this constitu- 
 tion, the oath was administered Jan. 9, 
 1824. The same course was pursued in 
 the provinces: but here many citizens 
 voted against the constitution ; among 
 others, the president, Man. de Carvalho 
 Paes d Andrade of Pernambuco. March 
 25, 1824, the oath to observe the consti- 
 tution was also taken by the emperor and 
 empress. In its fundamental principles, 
 this constitution coincided with those 
 previously projected. The four branches 
 of civil authority the legislative, the 
 mediative, the executive and the judicial 
 are administered by the representatives 
 of the people. The government is mo- 
 narchical, hereditary, constitutional and 
 representative. The representation of the 
 Brazilian nation consists of the emperor 
 and the general assembly, a body com- 
 posed of two chambers that of the depu- 
 ties, chosen for four years, and that of the 
 senators, chosen by the emperor from the 
 election-lists. With the former rests the 
 power of originating bills for the imposi- 
 tion of taxes and the levying of soldiers, 
 as well as of proposing a change of dyn- 
 asty. The latter retain their dignity for 
 life. The sessions of these chambers are 
 public. The majority of votes decides. 
 The senate has jurisdiction of the misde- 
 meanors of the members of the royal 
 family, of the ministers, deputies and 
 council of state. The two chambers poa-
 
 BRAZIL. 
 
 249 
 
 sess, in general, great privileges. The 
 emperor has the executive and mediato- 
 rial authorities ; hut his veto is not abso- 
 lute. He cannot refuse his sanction to a 
 bill equally approved by two legislative 
 assemblies. The press is free, but libels 
 are punished by law. All immunities, 
 privileged corporations, &c. are abolish- 
 ed. The Roman Catholic is the estab- 
 lished religion : to other denominations 
 domestic worship is allowed, but without 
 the power of having churches, &c. Not- 
 withstanding this liberal constitution, the 
 republican party gained the supremacy in 
 Pernambuco. The president, Man. de 
 Carvalho Paes d'Andrade, recalled by the 
 emperor, attempted to unite the northern 
 provinces into one republic, called the 
 Union of the Equator. But, as soon as 
 the emperor had no longer cause to fear 
 an attack from Portugal, his forces in- 
 vaded Pernambuco, in August, by land 
 and sea, under the command of lord 
 Cochrane and general Lima. Carvalho 
 and Barros, with a great portion of the 
 inhabitants, made an obstinate resistance ; 
 but, on the 17th of Sept., 1824, the city 
 was taken by assault. Carvalho had fled 
 to an English ship of war ; the others 
 into the interior of the country. In the 
 following year, the emperor sent general 
 Brandt and the chev. de Carneiro to Lon- 
 don, to negotiate there, with the Portu- 
 guese minister, the marquis de Villareal, 
 respecting the independence of B. Sim- 
 ilar negotiations afterwards took place in 
 Lisbon, through the British envoy ex- 
 traordinary, sir Charles Stuart, who 
 finally concluded, at Rio Janeiro, with 
 the Brazilian minister of foreign affairs, 
 Luis Jose de Carvalho e Mello, a treaty 
 between B. and Portugal, Aug. 29, 1825, 
 on the following terms : 1. B. should be 
 recognised as an independent empire, 
 separate from Portugal and Algarvia. 2. 
 The king of Portugal was to resign the 
 sovereignty of B. in favor of his son and 
 his legitimate posterity. 3. The king of 
 Portugal should retain the title of empe- 
 ror of B. for his own person merely. 4. 
 The emperor don Pedro should promise 
 to receive from no Portuguese colony 
 proposals for a union with B. 5. The 
 trade between the two nations should be 
 restored, and all property confiscated 
 should be returned, or compensation 
 made for it. The king of Portugal rati- 
 fied this treaty Nov. 15, 1825. The em- 
 peror of B. has since sent ambassadors to 
 the courts of Lisbon, London, Paris and 
 Vienna. Sir Charles Stuart, soon after, 
 concluded at Rio, Oct. 18, 1825, a treaty 
 
 of amity and commerce, anJ another 
 treaty, 'respecting the abolition of the 
 slave-trade, delayed for four additional 
 years, between B. and Great Britain. 
 But neither was ratified by the king of 
 Great Britain, because, among other 
 things, they contained stipulations for the 
 mutual surrender of political criminals 
 (or those charged with high treason) and 
 refugees. About this time, the govern- 
 ment of the United Provinces of the Plata 
 urged the restoration of the Banda Ori- 
 ental, which B. had held in possession 
 since 1816. The emperor, therefore, de- 
 clared war against Buenos Ayres, Dec. 
 10, 1825, and caused the mouth of the 
 La Plata to be blockaded by his vessels 
 of war. But the people of the Cisplatino, 
 with the natives of Monte Video, had al- 
 ready taken up arms, for the sake of a 
 union with the' United Provinces of the 
 Plata. The insurgents took Maldonado. 
 General Lecor (viscount de Laguna), 
 however, maintained himself in Monte 
 Video. On the other hand, the republic 
 of the Plata formally received the Banda 
 Oriental into its confederacy, and, at the 
 close of the year 1825, B. possessed tut 
 two points in the Banda Oriental Monte 
 Video and the colony del San Sagramen- 
 to. A question of much importance now 
 arose, whether the emperor don Pedro 
 should succeed his father, king John VI, 
 in the kingdom of Portugal. The king 
 died March 10, 1826, having appointed 
 his daughter, the infanta Isabella Maria, 
 provisional regent. According to the 
 constitution of B., don Pedro could not 
 leave the country without the consent of 
 the general assembly. He therefore en- 
 tered upon the government of Portugal, 
 and gave this kingdom a representative 
 constitution, but renounced the crown 
 of Portugal in his own person by the act 
 of abdication of May 2, 1826, and resign- 
 ed his right to his daughter donna Maria 
 da Gloria, princess of Beira, born in 1819, 
 who was to marry her uncle don Miguel, 
 bora in 1802; meanwhile, the emperor 
 confirmed the present regent of Portugal. 
 (For a further account of Maria, Miguel, 
 and the state of Portugal, see Portugal.) 
 Soon after, May 8, he opened the second 
 constitutional assembly of B. at Rio. He 
 had previously, April 16, 1826, founded 
 the new Brazilian order of Pedro 1.^ 
 The war with Buenos Ayres was contin- 
 ued in the Banda Oriental with little 
 vigor, and with little prospect of advan- 
 tage to either party, but with a ruinous 
 charge upon the finances of both. A ne- 
 gotiation for peace was at length opened,
 
 250 
 
 BRAZIL BREACH. 
 
 under the mediation of Great Britain, 
 which terminated in the execution of a 
 treaty, Aug. 27, 1828. In this treaty, the 
 emperor of Brazil and the government of 
 the United Provinces unite in declaring 
 the Cisplatino, or the province of Monte 
 Video, which had been the chief object 
 of controversy, a free and independent 
 state, under such form of government as 
 it might deem most suitable to its inter- 
 ests, wants and resources. It was stipu- 
 lated, that, for the puipose of forming this 
 government, the existing government of 
 the Banda Oriental should, immediately 
 on the ratification of the treaty, convoke 
 the representatives of the part of the 
 province subject to it, and the govern- 
 ment of Monte Video its citizens, to make 
 choice of a proportional number of dele- 
 gates, and that these representatives and 
 delegates should constitute a provisional 
 government, whose duty it should be to 
 form a political constitution for the new 
 state. After the meeting of this provis- 
 ional government, the functions of the 
 previously existing governments were to 
 cease. The independence of the prov- 
 ince of Monte Video was guarantied by 
 the contracting parties. This treaty was 
 duly ratified, the blockade of the La Plata 
 was immediately raised, and the troops 
 of the two belligerents were withdrawn 
 from the contested territory. By an act 
 of the legislature, passed in 1827, the cel- 
 ibacy of the clergy has been abolished in 
 B. (For further information, see Banda 
 Oriental.) 
 
 The national debt of B. is considerable, 
 including the English loan of 3,200,000. 
 The principal ecclesiastical dignitaries 
 are an archbishop, who resides at Bahia, 
 and 16 bishops, of the Roman Catholic, 
 the established religion. In all the large 
 towns, the government supports element- 
 ary and high schools. In the former, the 
 system of mutual instruction is introduced. 
 In Bahia and Rio Janeiro, there are in- 
 stitutions for teaching surgery, medicine, 
 engineering and law, and for imparting 
 commercial information. Rio has an 
 academy for the instruction of officers 
 intended for the naval service ; also an 
 observatory. This city and Bahia, also, 
 contain academies for the promotion of 
 the fine arts, public libraries, &c. In 
 1826, 300 young Brazilians were pursuing 
 their studies in France. The army con- 
 sisted, in 1824, of 30,000 regular troops 
 and 50,000 militia, besides a regiment of 
 free Negroes. The navy, in 1826, con- 
 sisted of 96 ships, including 1 ship of the 
 line and 4 frigates. The revenue of B, 
 
 has been lately estimated, by the minister 
 of finances, at about $16,290,000. Of 
 this sum, about $7,200,000 are all which 
 come into the hands of the general gov- 
 ernment for the supply of the general ex- 
 penses. The remainder is consumed in 
 the internal administration of the prov- 
 inces in which it is collected. The whole 
 estimate, however, is vague, and not much 
 to be depended on. Notwithstanding the 
 many natural resources of B., it must 
 long remain weak, in a political view ; 
 for its inconsiderable population is too 
 unequal in its advantages and too divided 
 in its views. 1,800,000 are Negro slaves, 
 ignorant and barbarous ; the Indians are 
 of no advantage to the industry of the 
 country. They live, for the most part, re- 
 tired in the wilderness. The Mulattoes 
 seem to combine in themselves the vices 
 of the savage and the European. Both 
 sexes give themselves up, without shame, 
 to the impulses of their passions, and 
 their cruelty to their slaves is often horri- 
 ble. The Europeans and the Creoles 
 form, to some extent, the aristocracy of 
 the country. Most of them are planters 
 or miners, or overseers in the colonies, 
 and, in this way, are scattered far over 
 the country, with little communication 
 with each other, without knowledge and 
 education. The most cultivated persons 
 are found in the maritime cities. But, 
 even in Rio, the merchants, according to 
 Mathison, are men of very little informa- 
 tion. They take no interest in any thing 
 but what immediately concerns their 
 business. The clergy Mathison found 
 so dissolute, that he was ashamed to give 
 a description of their morals. Of men of 
 higher character, capable of administering 
 public offices, there are but few, and they 
 are chiefly Portuguese. (See the Coro- 
 grqfia Brazilica of Manoel Ayres de Cazal, 
 Rio Janeiro, 1817, 2 vols. 4to. ; Southey's 
 History of Brazil, London, 1818, 2 vols. 
 4to.) 
 
 BREACH ; the aperture or passage made 
 in the wall of any fortified place, by 
 the ordnance of the besiegers, for the 
 purpose of entering the fortress. They 
 should be made where there is the least 
 defence, that is, in the front or face of the 
 bastions. In order to divide the resist- 
 ance of the besieged, breaches are com- 
 monly made at once in the faces of the 
 attacked bastions, and in the ravelin. 
 This is effected by battering, and, at 
 such places as the cannon do not reach, 
 by the aid of mines. Breach-Battery. 
 (See Battery. } The breach is called prac- 
 ticable, if it is large enough to afford.
 
 BREACH BREAD-FRUIT. 
 
 251 
 
 some hope of success in case of an assault. 
 This is generally considered to be the 
 case if it allows a passage to 14 men 
 abreast. Frequently, however, a breach 
 of much less extent, even of half that 
 width, may be entered. 
 
 BREAD. In the earliest antiquity, we 
 find the flour or meal of grain used as 
 food. The inconvenience attending the 
 use of the grain in its natural state, and, 
 perhaps, the accidental observation, that, 
 when bruised, and softened in water, 
 it formed a paste, and, when dried 
 again, a more compact, mealy substance, 
 led, by degrees, to the artificial prepara- 
 tion of bread. Easy as it seems to us, it 
 must have been a long time before it was 
 completely successful. The grain was 
 first bruised between stones, and, from the 
 meal mixed with milk and water, a dry, 
 tough and indigestible paste was made 
 into balls. This is yet the chief food of 
 the caravans in the deserts of Northern 
 Africa. The Carthaginians, also, ate no 
 bread, and hence were called, in derision, 
 by the Romans,/* idtiphagi (pottage-eaters). 
 After many attempts, or, perhaps, acci- 
 dentally, it was observed that, by bring- 
 ing the paste into a state of fermentation, 
 its tenacity is almost entirely destroyed, 
 and the mass becomes bread, porous, 
 agreeable to the taste, digestible, and, 
 consequently, healthy. The process pur- 
 sued is the following : Some old dough, 
 called leaven, which, by a peculiar spirit- 
 uous fermentation, has swelled up, be- 
 come spongy, and acquired an acid and 
 spirituous smell, is kneaded with the new 
 dough, and produces, though in an infe- 
 rior degree, a similar fermentation in the 
 whole mass. The whole thus becomes 
 spongy ; a quantity of air or gas is devel- 
 oped, which, being prevented from es- 
 caping by the tenacity of the dough, 
 heaves and swells it, and gives it a porous 
 consistency. This is called the working 
 of the dough. In this state, the dough is 
 put into the heated oven, where the air 
 contained in it, and the spirituous sub- 
 stance, are still more expanded by heat, 
 and increase the porosity of the "bread, 
 making it materially different from the un- 
 baked dough. The best and most whole- 
 some bread is baked in some parts of 
 France, and on the Rhine. In England, 
 the flour is adulterated with too many 
 foreign substances, in order to make the 
 bread whiter. In some parts of Sweden, 
 the bread is composed, in part, of the bark 
 of trees, during the winter. In Westpha- 
 lia, a kind of very coarse, black bread is 
 made, of which the peasants bake one 
 
 large loaf for the whole week. This is 
 divided for use with small saws. It ia 
 called pumpernickel, and is sometimes 
 exported. In many parts of Germany, 
 bread is made of grain nearly entire, or 
 but just bruised, which is very coarse, and 
 frequently forms part of the food of the 
 horses. Bread is found wherever civili- 
 zation has extended. It is made of wheat, 
 rye, maize, barley, oats, spelt, &c. The 
 want of bread has often occasioned public 
 commotions, particularly in Paris and an- 
 cient Rome. 
 
 BREAD-FRUIT. The bread-fruit is a 
 large, globular berry, of a pale-green color, 
 about the size of a child's head, marked 
 on the surface with irregular six-sided 
 depressions, and containing a white and 
 somewhat fibrous pulp, which, when ripe, 
 becomes juicy and yellow. The tree that 
 produces it (artocarpus incisa) grows wild 
 in Otaheite and other islands of the South 
 seas, is about 40 feet high, with large and 
 spreading branches, and has large, bright- 
 green leaves, deeply divided into 7 or 9 
 spear-shaped lobes. We are informed, in 
 captain Cook's first voyage round the 
 world, that the eatable part of this fruit 
 lies between the skin and the core ; and 
 that it is as white as snow, and somewhat 
 of the consistence of new bread. When 
 gathered, it is generally used immediate- 
 ly : if it be kept more than 24 hours, it 
 becomes hard and choky. The inhabit- 
 ants of the South sea islands prepare it as 
 food by dividing the fruit into three or 
 four parts, and roasting it in hot embers. 
 Its taste is insipid, with a slight tartness, 
 somewhat resembling that of the crumb 
 of wheaten bread mixed with Jerusalem 
 artichoke. Of this fruit, the Otaheitans 
 make various messes by mixing it with 
 water or the milk of the cocoa-nut, then 
 beating it to a paste with a stone pestle, 
 and afterwards mingling with it ripe 
 plantains, bananas, or a sour paste made 
 from the bread-fruit itself, called mahic. 
 It continues in season eight months, and 
 so great is its utility in the island of Ota- 
 heite, " that," observes captain Cook, " if, 
 in those parts where it is not spontane- 
 ously produced, a man plant but 10 trees 
 in his whole lifetime, he will as com- 
 pletely fulfil his duty to his own and to 
 future generations, as the native of our 
 less temperate climate can do by plough- 
 ing in the cold of winter, and reaping in 
 the summer's heat, as often as these sea- 
 sons return ; even if, after he has procured 
 bread for his present household, he should 
 convert the surplus into money, and lay 
 it up for his children." Not only does
 
 252 
 
 BREAD-FRUITBREATH. 
 
 this tree supply food, but clothing, and 
 numerous other conveniences of life. 
 The inner bark, which is white, and 
 composed of a net-like series of fibres, is 
 formed into a kind of cloth. The wood 
 is soft, smooth; and of a yellowish color, 
 and is used for the building of boats and 
 houses. In whatever part the tree is 
 wounded, a glutinous, milky juice issues, 
 which, when boiled with cocoa-nut oil, is 
 employed for making bird-lime, and as a 
 cement for filling up cracks in such ves- 
 sels as are intended for holding water. 
 Some parts of the flowers serve as tinder, 
 and the leaves are used for wrapping up 
 food, and other purposes. As the climate 
 of the South sea islands is considered not 
 very different from that of the West In- 
 dies, it was, about 42 years ago, thought 
 desirable, that some of the trees should 
 be transferred, in a growing state, to the 
 English islands there. His majesty's ship 
 the Bounty sailed, in 1787, for this pur- 
 pose, to the South seas, under the com- 
 mand of lieutenant, afterwards admiral, 
 Bligh. But a fatal mutiny of the crew 
 at that time prevented the accomplish- 
 ment of this benevolent design. The 
 commander of the vessel, however, re- 
 turned in safety to life country, and a 
 second expedition, under the same person, 
 and for the same purpose, was fitted out 
 in the year 1791. He arrived in safety 
 at Otaheite, and, after an absence from 
 England of about 18 months, landed in 
 Jamaica, with 352 bread-fruit-trees, in a 
 living state, having left many others at 
 different places in his passage thither. 
 From Jamaica, these trees were transfer- 
 red to other islands ; but, the Negroes 
 having a general and long-established 
 predilection for the plaintain, the bread- 
 fruit is not much relished by them. 
 Where, however, it has not been gener- 
 ally introduced as an article of food, it is 
 used as a delicacy ; and, whether em- 
 ployed as bread, or m the form of pud- 
 ding, it is considered highly palatable by 
 the European inhabitants. 
 
 BREAKERS ; billows which break vio- 
 lently over rocks lying under the surface 
 of the sea. They are readily distinguish- 
 ed by the foam which they produce, and 
 by a peculiar hoarse roaring, very differ- 
 ent from that of waves in deep water. 
 When a ship is driven among breakers, it 
 is hardly possible to save her, as every 
 billow that heaves her upward serves to 
 dash her down with additional force. 
 
 BREAKING BULK ; the act of beginning 
 to unlade a ship, or of discharging the 
 first part of the cargo. 
 
 BREAKWATER. (See Cherbourg, Plym- 
 outh and Delaware.} 
 
 BREAST. (See Chest.') 
 
 BREAST-PLATE ; a piece of defensive 
 armor, covering the breast, originally 
 made of thongs, cords, leather, &c. (hence 
 lorica, cuirass), but afterwards of brass, 
 iron, or other metals. It may be consid- 
 ered as an improvement of the shield or 
 buckler, which was borne on the left arm, 
 and moved so as to protect, successively, 
 all parts of the body. It being perceived 
 that the free use of both hands in the 
 employment of offensive weapons was 
 important, the defensive armor was at- 
 tached to the body, and received different 
 names from its position, use, &c. ; as, for 
 instance, breast-plate, cuisses, greaves. 
 These different species of defensive ar- 
 mor are of little use against fire-aiins, and 
 have, therefore, generally fallen into dis- 
 use in modern war. (See Cuirass.) 
 Breast-plate, in Jewish antiquity, was a 
 folded piece of rich, embroidered stuff, 
 worn by the high-priest. It was set with 
 12 precious stones, bearing the names of 
 the tribes. It was also called the breast- 
 plate of judgment, because it contained the 
 Urim and Thummim. 
 
 BREAST- WHEEL ; a water-wheel which 
 receives the water at about half its height, 
 or at the level of its axis. In England, 
 float-boards are employed, which are fit- 
 ted accurately to the mill-course, so that 
 the water, after acting on the floats by its 
 impulse, is detained in the course, and 
 acts by its weight. In the U. States, they 
 are often constructed with buckets, anil 
 with a part of the circumference fitted to 
 the mill-course. 
 
 BREAST-WORK. In the military art, 
 every elevation made for protection 
 against the shot of the enemy. Wood 
 and stone are not suitable for breast- 
 works, on account of their liability to 
 splinter. The best are made of earth ; in 
 some circumstances, of fascines, dung, 
 gabions, bags of sand and of wool. The 
 thickness of the work must be in propor- 
 tion to the artillery of the enemy. In 
 general, it ought not to be less than 10, 
 nor more than 18, or, at most, 24 feet 
 thick. The rule of Cugnot is, that the 
 breast-work should be so high, that noth- 
 ing but the sky and the tops of trees can 
 be seen within cannon shot from the in- 
 terior of the intrenchrnents. If this rule 
 cannot be followed, on account of the 
 height of neighboring mountains, the in- 
 terior of the fortification ought to be se- 
 cured by traverses. 
 
 BREATH. The air which issues from
 
 BREATH BREDOW. 
 
 253 
 
 the lungs, during respiration (q. v.), 
 through the nose and mouth. This op- 
 eration is performed without effort, hut 
 still it causes a motion in the external air, 
 before the nose and mouth. The air ex- 
 pired is the vehicle of sound and speech. 
 A smaller portion of oxygen and a larger 
 portion of carbonic acid is contained in 
 the air which is exhaled than in that 
 which is inhaled. There are, also, aque- 
 ous particles in the breath, which are 
 precipitated, by the coldness of the ex- 
 ternal air, in the form of visible A'apor ; 
 likewise other substances which owe 
 their origin to secretions in the mouth, 
 nose, wind-pipe and lungs. These cause 
 the changes in the breath, which may be 
 known by the smell, like the other quali- 
 ties of the air. In youth, the breath is 
 insipid, and contains acid : it loses these 
 qualities after the age of puberty, and be- 
 comes more agreeable. With advancing 
 age, it becomes again unpleasant. A bad 
 breath is often caused by local affections 
 in the nose, the mouth, or the wind-pipe : 
 viz. by ulcers in the nose, cancerous poly- 
 pi, by discharges from the mouth, by 
 sores on the lungs, or peculiar secretions 
 in them. It is also caused by rotten 
 teeth, by impurities in the mouth, and by 
 many kinds of food (viz. horse-radish, 
 onions, and also by flesh, if used to the 
 exclusion of other food), and by fevers. 
 In the last case, it often varies with the 
 character of the disease. The remedy 
 for this complaint must depend on the 
 causes which produce it. Substances of 
 an aromatic kind, which have a strong, 
 rich smell, should be chewed to diminish 
 its oftensiveiiess. (See Mengin's Tenta- 
 men Physiologicum de respirat (Edin- 
 burgh, 1790.) But it is often impossible 
 to remove this unpleasant disorder. Ac- 
 cording to the Prussian code, a bad breath 
 furnishes ground for a divorce. 
 
 BREATHING. (See Respiration.) 
 
 BRECCIA ; a term applied to a rock 
 composed of angular fragments cemented 
 together. 
 
 BRECHIN ; a town of Scotland, 83 miles 
 north of Edinburgh, with 5906 inhabit- 
 ants. It is more distinguished in history 
 than for its present importance. David I 
 founded a bishop's see at B. in 1150, and 
 some remains of its cathedral still exist. 
 The steeple is a fine tower, surmounted 
 by a spire, and is 120 feet high. Near it 
 is one of those old towers common in 
 Ireland, 103 feet high, and 1G feet in di- 
 ameter at the base. Nothing is known 
 of the uses of these towers, or of the time 
 of their erection. The Culdees (q. v.) had 
 
 VOL. n. 22 
 
 a cell or convent here. There was, for- 
 merly, a strong castle at B., which sir 
 Thomas Maule defended against Ed- 
 ward I. 
 
 BREDA, in the Netherlands ; capital of 
 a district of the same name, has 9000 
 inhabitants, is connected with the Meuse 
 by the navigable river Merk. B., being a 
 strong frontier fortress, was formerly of 
 the greatest importance to Holland, and 
 is still of great military value as the chief 
 point of the line of fortresses before the 
 IMeuse. The fortifications consist of 15 
 bastions, as many ravelins, and 5 horn- 
 works, besides the citadel. The chief 
 strength of this fortress lies in its marshy 
 environs, which may easily be laid under 
 water. B. became a town in 1534 : since 
 that time, it has often been a subject of 
 contention between the Dutch, Spaniards 
 and French. It was taken by surprise 
 by Barlainiont in 1581, and by Maurice 
 of Orange in 1590. The latter capture 
 was accomplished by means of a boat 
 loaded with turf, in which 70 Dutch sol- 
 diers were concealed. Spinola took B., 
 in 1625, after a siege of 10, and Henry of 
 Orange after one of 4 months. During 
 the French revolutionary war, Dumouriez 
 made himself master of the city and for- 
 tress in February, 1793, and would there- 
 by have prepared the way for the con- 
 quest of Holland, had he not been forced, 
 by the loss of a battle at Neerwinden, to 
 evacuate the city and fortress, April 4. 
 In September, 1794, B. was attacked by 
 the army of Pichegru, but did not sur- 
 render till all Holland was conquered, in 
 the winter of 1794. On the approach of 
 the Russian van-guard, under general 
 Benkendorf, in Dec., 1813, the French 
 garrison made a sally, and the patriotic 
 citizens profited by the occasion, rose en 
 masse, shut the gates, and prevented the 
 French from returning into the town. A 
 peace was concluded at B. between Eng- 
 land and Holland in 1667. 
 
 BREDOW, Gabriel Godfrey, professor of 
 history in Breslau, born in Berlin, in 
 1773, of poor parents, was, for a time, 
 professor at Eutin, and a colleague of the 
 celebrated Voss ; afterwards professor at 
 Helmstadt, and, still later, at Frankfort on 
 the Oder, whence he went to Breslau on 
 the removal of the university to that 
 place. He died in 1814. He was distin- 
 guished for his patriotism and his literary 
 works. His Handbuch der alien Geschiclde 
 (Manual of Ancient History) has passed 
 through five editions, the last of which 
 appeared in 1825. He is the author of 
 Chroilik des neunzehnten Jahrhundcrts
 
 254 
 
 BREDOW BREISLAK. 
 
 (Chronicle of the Nineteenth Century), 
 Epistolw Parisienses (he went to Paris in 
 1807, to collect all that has been left to us 
 by the Greek geographers), Untersuch- 
 ungen tibcr Geschichtc, Geographic und 
 Cltronologie (Researches on History, Ge- 
 ography and Chronology), and of the 
 very useful Historisclie, Tabdlen (Histori- 
 cal Tables), which have been translated 
 into English. 
 
 BRF.E, Matthew van, first painter to the 
 crown-prince of the Netherlands, mem- 
 ber of the national institute of the Neth- 
 erlands, born at Antwerp in 1773, culti- 
 vated his talents in this city, and after- 
 wards in Paris, under the direction of 
 Vincent, and in Italy. As early as 1798, 
 his Death of Cato was admired. This 
 great painter, being accustomed to sketch 
 his ideas rapidly, was able to present to 
 Napoleon the manoeuvres of the fleet on 
 the Scheldt before Antwerp, a few hours 
 after they took place. With almost equal 
 rapidity, he made a painting of Napo- 
 leon's entrance into Amsterdam, at the 
 moment chosen, being that when the 
 magistrates are delivering to him the 
 keys of the city. In architecture and in 
 sculpture, B. also exhibited considerable 
 talents. Philip James van B. is likewise 
 a celebrated painter, and lives at Pavia. 
 Several of his- works have been purchased 
 in France for the Louvre, St. Cloud, &c. 
 He was born in 1786. 
 
 BREECHES ; an article of clothing in 
 use even among the Babylonians, and 
 which, with them, were made so as to 
 cover the foot, and supply the place of 
 stockings. In Europe, we find hose first 
 used among the Gauls ; hence the Ro- 
 mans called a part of Gaul breeched Gaul 
 (Gallia braccata). In the 5th century, 
 they had become fashionable in Rome ; 
 but the breeches-makers were expelled 
 from the city by an imperial edict, it 
 being considered unworthy of the lords 
 of the world to wear these barbarous in- 
 vestments. The stockings were separated 
 from them some centuries since. Some- 
 times they were worn small, and some- 
 times large, as the fashion changed. In 
 some instances, an immense quantity of 
 cloth was put in them. The poor stuffed 
 theirs out with such substances as they 
 could procure. Joachim II, elector* of 
 Brandenburg, who had forbidden the 
 wearing of these enormous integuments, 
 made a person, whom he saw with a pair, 
 rip them open, when some bushels of 
 bran fell out of them. Osiander (in his 
 Hoffahrtsteufel] and Musculus (in his 
 Hosenteufel) raised their voices against 
 
 this preposterous fashion. The modern 
 breeches were first introduced during the 
 reign of Louis XIV. 
 
 BREECIII.NG; a rope used to secure the 
 cannon of a ship of war, arid prevent 
 them from recoiling too much in the time 
 of battle. It is of sufficient length to al- 
 low the muzzle of the cannon to come 
 within the ship's side to be charged. 
 
 BREEZES, SEA, LAND and MOUNTAIN. 
 (See Winds.) 
 
 BREGUET, A. L., maker of time-pieces 
 for the royal marine in France, member 
 of the academy of sciences and the bu- 
 reau des longitudes, of the society for the 
 encouragement of national industry, the 
 royal council of arts and manufactures, 
 and the legion of honor, born at Neuf- 
 chatel, in 1747, contributed to the perfec- 
 tion of the art of watch-making, as well 
 as of mechanics in general, by a number 
 of useful inventions, for instance, astro- 
 nomical double watches, double chro- 
 nometers, marine watches, a sympathetic 
 clock, watches that need not be wound 
 up, provided they are occasionally worn 
 about the person, the metallic thermome- 
 ter, &c. He likewise improved the tele- 
 graph. He has a son, who possesses a 
 large share of his father's talents, and has 
 been concerned with him in the execu- 
 tion of many of his great works. 
 
 BREHON ; an ancient Irish magistrate. 
 The office appears to have been hereditary. 
 Each tribe had one brehon, whose judg- 
 ments were given in the open air on the 
 hill-tops ; many spots are yet called 
 Brelwns 1 chairs. The office was abol- 
 ished under Edward III. Some fragments 
 of the brehon law are yet extant. (See 
 Ledwich's Antiquities of Ireland, 1790.) 
 
 BREISGAU. (See Brisgau.) 
 
 BREISLAK, Scipio, born in Rome, 1 768, 
 and destined for the church, for which 
 reason he is mentioned as an abbate in 
 the works of Spallanzani, was one of the 
 most ingenious geologists of our times, 
 and opposed to the Neptunian system, 
 without, however, implicitly adopting the 
 Vulcanian. He was professor of natural 
 philosophy and mathematics at Ragusa. 
 He was afterwards professor in the colle- 
 gia Nazareno, at Rome, made a scientific 
 tour through Naples, and went to Paris, 
 where he formed an intimacy with Four- 
 croy, Chaptal, Cuvier, &c. Napoleon 
 appointed him inspector of the saltpetre 
 works and powder-mills in the kingdom 
 of Italy. He was also a member of the 
 institute and many other literary societies. 
 The first work, by which he made him- 
 self known to the public as an observer
 
 BREISLAK BREMEN. 
 
 255 
 
 of nature (e. g. his treatise on the solfata- 
 ra in the vicinity of Naples, in the neigh- 
 borhood of which he lived for years as 
 director of the establishments for boiling 
 alum), contains indications of the princi- 
 ples which he afterwards developed in his 
 system. The first extensive work, which 
 he published at Florence in 1798, was the 
 Topogrqfia Fisica ddla Campagna (Phys- 
 ical Topography of Campania). After 
 some time spent in the examination of 
 this region, he returned to Rome, exam- 
 ined the adjoining country in a geological 
 point of view, and confirmed his former 
 opinion, that the seven hills are chiefly 
 the remains of an extinct volcano. Leav- 
 ing his native city on account of political 
 disturbances, he went to France, where 
 lie made himself known to the mineralo- 
 gists, in 1801, by a new edition of the 
 above-mentioned work (disfigured, in- 
 deed, by many misprints), with additional 
 remarks, supplements and corrections, 
 under the title Fayages Physiques et Ln- 
 thologiques dans la Campanie, 2 vols. A 
 tnpograplrico-mineralogical description of 
 the environs of Rome is added to it. It 
 contains the results of 12 years' research- 
 es. Till then, there had been no system- 
 atic treatise ou the mineralogy of mount 
 Vesuvius. Earlier writings on this vol- 
 cano contained merely the history of sin- 
 gle eruptions, and the only mineralogical 
 work on this subject, by Gouni, is nothing 
 but a catalogue. B. was the first who 
 examined geologically the regions de- 
 scribed in his work. This valuable work 
 lias been translated into several languages ; 
 into French by general Pommereuil, into 
 German by Fr. Ambr. Reuss (Leipsic, 
 1802, 2 vols. with engravings). B. took 
 advantage of his residence in France to 
 examine the regions of Auvergne famous 
 for the Puys (volcanic mountains), and 
 his observations there contributed not a 
 little to the formation of his theories on 
 the effects of volcanoes. In Milan, he 
 wrote his Jlrte di Salnitrajo (Art of man- 
 ufacturing Saltpetre), and, in 1811, pub- 
 lished his Introduzione alia Geologia (In- 
 troduction to Geology), 2 vols., which 
 was, in 1818, followed by an edition in 
 French, almost a new work, under the 
 title Institutions Geologiques, 3 vols., like- 
 wise published at Milan. In 1822, his 
 beautiful geological description of the 
 province of Milan appeared. He died at 
 Turin, Feb. 15, 182G, at the age of 78. 
 He left his celebrated cabinet of minerals 
 to the family of Borromeo. 
 
 BREITKOPF, John Gottlob Emmanuel ; 
 born at Leipsic, in 1719. He pursued, at 
 
 first, a literary career. During his studies, 
 the works of Albert Diirer, in which the 
 proportions of letters are mathematically 
 calculated, fell into his hands. He was 
 pleased with this subject, and, during his 
 whole life, labored with zeal to improve 
 the German characters. An attempt was 
 once made to introduce into Germany 
 the Latin characters instead of those 
 commonly used in that country'. B. was 
 one of the most zealous oppose rs of the 
 plan. In 1755, he essentially improved 
 the art of printing music with movable 
 characters. His invention of a method 
 of printing maps, pictures, and even Chi- 
 nese characters, by means of movable 
 types, is ingenious, though less useful 
 than the other. Although the pope, as 
 well as the academy in Paris, testified 
 their great approbation of this invention, 
 yet no practical use has yet been made 
 of it. He was engaged in writing a 
 history of the art of printing, but died in 
 1794, before this work was finished. B. 
 was a man of great probity. 
 
 BREMEN, on the Weser, situated in a 
 territory formerly an archbishopric, but 
 erected into the duchy of Bremen in 
 1648, was one of the leading members of 
 the Hanseatic league. At the reforma- 
 tion, the city embraced the Lutheran reli- 
 gion, and expelled the archbishop. Since 
 1562, Calvinism has been the prevailing 
 religion. By the peace of Westphalia, the 
 crown of Sweden came into possession 
 of the secularized archbishopric, under 
 the title of a duchy. When the elector 
 of Brunswick gained possession of the 
 duchy in 1731, the prerogatives of a free 
 city were confirmed to B. B. is divided 
 by the Weser into the old and the new 
 towns. The fortifications have been de- 
 molished, and on the ground where they 
 stood a garden, in the English style, was 
 laid out in 1802, extending, in a semicir- 
 cle, round the old town, from one bank 
 of the Weser to the other : the garden is 
 provided with running water, and wide, 
 clean walks. Outside of each of its gates 
 is a retired place, planted with fir-trees, 
 affording sheltered walks, and room for 
 sports of various sorts. There is, also, 
 much taste displayed in the arrangement 
 of the trees, shrubs and plants. Adjoining 
 it are the finest houses, which have a good 
 view of the river, the city, and the sur- 
 rounding country. The principal build- 
 ings, besides the churches, are the senate- 
 house, with its cellar of Rhenish wine, 
 the former archiepiscopal palace, con- 
 verted, in 1819, into the city hall; the 
 exchange, a museum, theatre, hospital,
 
 256 
 
 BREMEN BR EXNUS. 
 
 city library, and two orphan asylums. 
 The water-works furnish the old town 
 with pure, soft water. The number of 
 inhabitants is estimated at 38,000 ; that of 
 the houses is 5350. The city contain.- a 
 ', f \ mnasium (academy), and, for scientific 
 instruction, a p&dagogium. The magis- 
 trates (two of whom may be Lutherans), 
 are 4 burgomasters and 24 senators, com- 
 posed partly of the learned and partly of 
 the mercantile professions. If matters of 
 general moment arise, the Witthcit (wis- 
 dom), consisting of all the citizens who 
 pay taxes, is convoked. The territory 
 belonging to the city is about 74 square 
 miles, and contains 48,500 inhabitants. 
 From 1810 to 1813, B. was the capital 
 of die French department of the Mouths 
 of the Weser. The congress of Vienna 
 admitted it into the German confederacy, 
 as a free city, with one vote in the gener- 
 al assembly. B. and the three other free 
 cities have, together, a vote in the diet. 
 The revenues amount to 400,000 florins ; 
 the debt, to 4,500,000 florins. The con- 
 stitution is, like that of Hamburg and Lii- 
 beck, a relic of other times. A thousand 
 antiquated forms render the government 
 of this small city a complicated web of 
 jarring interests. These free cities do not 
 even possess the liberty of the press, and 
 their existence depends on the mutual 
 jealousy of the powers which surround 
 them, with whose whims they must al- 
 ways comply. The only advantage of 
 which they can boast is the comparative 
 lightness of the taxes. The chief points 
 deserving of remark in the political con- 
 stitution of these cities are, that they have 
 four burgomasters chosen for life, a sen- 
 ate, chosen froni among the citizens, also 
 for life ; likewise meetings of the citizens, 
 either in primary assemblies or by dele- 
 gates, whose opinion and consent are 
 seldom asked, except when new taxes 
 are to be imposed ; and, finally, a number 
 of subjects not represented. In 1820, the 
 toll at Elsfleth was abolished ; but the" 
 accumulation of sand between Vegesack 
 and B. has not ceased, and vessels deeply 
 laden can go up the river ordy to Bracke 
 and Elsfleth, or, at most, to Vegesack. 
 Their cargoes are, therefore, discharged 
 into lighters, which is inconvenient and 
 expensive. The herring and whale fish- 
 eries carried on from this city are import- 
 ant, and the trade, principally in German 
 linen, to St. Thomas and South America, 
 is increasing. Olbers and Heereu were 
 born at B. B. lies in Ion. 8 48' 3" E. ; 
 lat. 53 4' 45" N. 
 
 BREX.NER, in the Tyrol. Mount B., 
 
 properly so called (also mons Brenniu\ 
 rising between Inspruck and Sterzing, and 
 between the rivers Inn, Aicha and Adige, 
 729 fathoms above the level of the sea, is 
 (JOIJ3 feet in height. The road from Ger- 
 many to Italy traverses this mountain. 
 It is 437C feet high, and about 12 miles 
 long. At its foot is the pass, called laieg 
 or Lug, where the milestones of Maximin 
 and Maxentius are standing ; the first of 
 which was erected in 236, or the year of 
 the victory over the Allemanni, and indi- 
 cates the distance of 130 Roman miles to 
 Augsburg. The B. has been the chief 
 position for the defence of the Tyrol. In 
 the last revolution of the Tyrolese, in 
 1809, particularly in August, they de- 
 fended themselves gallantly in this place 
 against the Bavarians and French, who 
 were advancing, cutting off their commu- 
 nication with Italy, until November, (See 
 *ilp.i, Roads over.) 
 
 BRKXXCS ; the name of several princes 
 of the ancient Gauls, and expressive of 
 their dignity. Its derivation from the 
 old Celtic word brcnn (chief, leader) is 
 not improbable. A leader of the Sen- 
 nones, a Gallic, nation in the upper part 
 of Italy, who is mentioned under this 
 name, made an invasion into the Roman 
 territoiy about the year 390 B. C. Aruns, 
 an Etrurian, having failed in an attempt 
 to obtain justice at Rome in a lawsuit 
 with his ward, addressed himself to the 
 Sennones for the purpose of revenging 
 himself. Enticed by the description of 
 the fertility of Etruria, they conquered 
 the whole country from Ravenna as far 
 as Picenum. They then laid siege to 
 Clusium, the inhabitants of which city 
 had recourse to Rome for assistance. 
 The Romans, in consequence, sent three 
 brothers of the Fabian family to remon- 
 strate with B. B. replied, that his right 
 lay in his sword. The Fabii, provoked 
 by this haughty answer, entered the city 
 under pretence of negotiating, exhorted 
 the inhabitants to perseverance, promised 
 them assistance, and even conducted a 
 sally at their head. B. resolved to avenge 
 this breach of faith, and, raising the siege 
 of Clusium, directed his march towards 
 Rome, uller having in vain demanded the 
 surrender of the Fabii. They were ap- 
 pointed military tribunes, and, at the head 
 of 40,000 men, went forth to meet the 
 enemy. A battle was fought near the 
 river Allia, not far from Rome ; the Ro- 
 mans were .totally defeated, and B. took 
 possession of the city, which had been 
 previously abandoned by the inhabitants. 
 The capitol only was provided with a
 
 BRENNUS BRESCIA. 
 
 957 
 
 garrison ; but several aged citizens of rank, 
 priests, ex-consuls and generals, amount- 
 ing in the whole to about forty, had 
 resolved to remain in the city, and de- 
 vote themselves to the infernal deities. 
 Attired in their sacerdotal, consular and 
 triumphal robes, like victims decorated 
 for the sacrifice, they seated themselves 
 in their chairs of office, in the middle of 
 the forum, awaiting death. When B. 
 arrived at the forum, he was struck with 
 astonishment at their venerable aspect. 
 The Gauls looked upon them as so many 
 statues of deities, and feared to go near 
 them. At last one ventured to approach 
 31. Papirius, and stroke his beard, upon 
 which the latter struck him with his ivory 
 sceptre, and was immediately massacred, 
 together with his companions, by the 
 infuriated Gauls. Rome was sacked, and 
 all the inhabitants who yet remained in 
 their houses were slain. B. then assault- 
 ed the capitol, and, being repelled with 
 considerable loss, he set tire to the city, 
 and levelled it with the ground. The 
 capitol, however, was so strong, that he 
 resolved to reduce it by famine. Detach- 
 ed parties, at the same time, plundered 
 the plain country, and exacted contribu- 
 tions from the neighboring cities. Such 
 a party appeared before Ardea, the place 
 where the valiant Camillus lived in exile. 
 This magnanimous patriot persuaded the 
 senate of Ardea to defend their city, 
 made a nocturnal attack on the besiegers, 
 and caused a dreadful slaughter among 
 them. By this victory, the courage of the 
 Romans, who had fled from their city, 
 was revived: they rallied a body of 40,000 
 men, chose Camillas their leader, and the 
 senate, being secretly apprized of it, nam- 
 ed him dictator. Meanwhile, the garrison 
 of the capitol was in great distress. B. 
 attempted a surprise by night, in which 
 he would have succeeded, had not the 
 cackling of the geese, sacred to Juno, 
 awakened the Romans. Manlius, the for- 
 mer consul, alarmed the garrison, and the 
 Gauls were repulsed. As it was not 
 known in the capitol that arnillus was 
 approaching, or that the Gauls were dis- 
 tressed for want of provisions (Camillus 
 having cut off their supplies), the garrison 
 was inclined to enter into a treaty. B. 
 promised to raise the siege, and leave the 
 Roman territory, for 1000 pounds of gold. 
 The gold was weighed, but the Gauls 
 made use of false weights : and, when the 
 Romans complained of the fraud, B. threw 
 his sword into the scale, and cried out, 
 " Wo to the vanquished !" The Romans 
 were about to submit to this injustice, 
 22* 
 
 when Camillus appeared with his army, 
 and declared the treaty void. A battle 
 ensued : after having sustained an incon- 
 siderable loss, the Gauls retreated, and, in 
 the succeeding night, abandoned their 
 camp. On the following day, Camillus 
 pursued and defeated them. Those who 
 escaped death in battle were slain by the 
 inhabitants of the country, so that not one 
 of them returned to his native land. An- 
 other B., likewise a leader of the Gauls, 
 invaded Macedonia, about 100 years later, 
 with an immense army (150,000 foot and 
 30 40,000 horse), and, after having de- 
 feated Sosthenes, directed his inarch 
 through Thessaly and Greece, towards 
 Delphi, where he plundered, or was on 
 the point of plundering, both city and 
 temple ; but, as several writer assert, he 
 was repelled by a terrible storm, accom- 
 panied by lightning and earthquakes: a 
 Greek army drew near, and a general 
 defeat of the Gauls ensued. B. himself 
 put an end to his life. 
 
 BRE.VTANO, Clement, born at Frankfort 
 on the Maine, in 1777, has made himself 
 known by several literary works. Among 
 them is Des Knaben Wunderhorn (The 
 Boy's wondrous Horn, 3 vols., 1826), a coir 
 lection of German popular songs, which 
 he published with his friend Achim von 
 Arniin. 
 
 BRENTFORD ; a town in Middlesex, Eng., 
 si-ven miles W. of London. It has a week- 
 ly market and two annual fairs. Here 
 Edmund Ironside defeated the Danes, 
 under Canute, in 1016; and Charles I a 
 part of the parliamentary forces, in 1642. 
 The magnificent edifice of the duke of 
 Somerset, where lady Jane Grey resided, 
 now belonging to the duke of Northum- 
 berland, was built here, on the site of a 
 suppressed nunnery. 
 
 BRESCIA ; capital of a delegation com- 
 prising 314,000 inhabitants, and 1200 sq. 
 miles, in the Milanese, at the foot of a 
 mountain rising between the lakes Guarda 
 and Iseo, on the rivers Mella and Gar/a. 
 This latter river divides the city into two 
 parts, in which respect it resembles most of 
 the cities of Lombardy. It is a manufaCT 
 taring place, containing 3438 bouses and 
 31,000 inhabitants. It is commanded by 
 citadel, elevated on a rocky height, and 
 is adorned with a magnificent cathedral. 
 This, as well as the splendid library in the 
 episcopal palace, it owes to cardinal QuU 
 riiii. It has also a philharmonic society, 
 a cabinet of medals, and a theatre. This 
 last is to be found in almost all Italian 
 cities of equal importance, because, in Ita- 
 ly, many possessors of landed estates, hav-
 
 258 
 
 BRESCIA BRETEUIL. 
 
 ing no other pursuit than pleasure, spend 
 their income in the cities. In this city 
 (for many centuries called Armata) and in 
 Bergamo were the chief manufactories of 
 anus of every description, to answer the 
 demand of the Levant, where much lux- 
 ury is displayed in this article. Venice, 
 for a Jong time, sent thither supplies of 
 beautiful and costly arms. The guns' of 
 B., and the steel prepared there, are cele- 
 brated in the East. B. has also manufac- 
 tures of oil, fustian, linen, silk, -paper and 
 hardware. Much silk, wine, flax and 
 cloth is conveyed into the interior; for the 
 artificial irrigation, by the aid of Alpine 
 streams and the abundance of lakes, to- 
 gether with the southern exposure of the 
 territory of B., impart to the fertile soil of 
 this delegation a great richness of vegeta- 
 tion, which is increased by the industry 
 of the tenants, assisted by the advances 
 of funds on the part of the wealthy pro- 
 prietors. Under the government of Vn- 
 ice, the taxes were very light; neverthe- 
 less, the inhabitants of B. and its territory 
 were veiy unruly subjects of the republic, 
 whose police was so lax, as scarcely to 
 punish those who undertook to revenge 
 themselves. An end has been put to the 
 disorders, caused by banditti in the terri- 
 tory of Venice, by the French and Aus- 
 trian government in Italy. In 182(5, a 
 number of remarkable antiquities were 
 found buried in a vault near B. 
 
 BRESLAU, capital of Silesia, on the river 
 Ohlau, at its junction with the Oder, has 
 78,860 inhabitants, among whom are 4(500 
 Jews. B. is the residence of both the 
 military and civil governors of Silesia, and 
 the seat of a superior council of adminis- 
 tration, a superior court of justice, &c. It 
 contains more than 20 Catholic churches, 
 of which the cathedral of St. John on the 
 Dominsel (island of the cathedral) is the 
 seat of the bishop of B. Among 84 liter- 
 ary institutions, there are four distinguish- 
 ed gymnasia; two Lutheran, one Reform- 
 ed and one Catholic. Among the libraries 
 worthy of notice are the royal library, the 
 library of the university, and the library 
 of Rhediger, which belongs to the city, 
 and is remarkable for its rich collection 
 of manuscripts. The city possesses, in 
 its senate-house, and in the church of 
 the cross, standing on Sandinsel (Sandy 
 island) two magnificent monuments of 
 ancient German architecture, and, in 
 public places as well as private collec- 
 tions, contains many exquisite works of 
 art. It has also a theatre. B. carries 
 on a considerable commerce, which has, 
 however, been diminished by late events. 
 
 The two annual fairs of wool are numer- 
 ously attended. Among the misfortunes 
 that have befallen the .city in modern 
 times, the siege in 1806 and 1807, by the 
 French and the troops of the confedera- 
 tion of the Rhine, must be noticed. After 
 the capture, the French began to destroy 
 the fortifications, which have since been 
 entirely demolished. The spacious walks 
 and new buildings, which occupy the place 
 of the works, have very much contributed 
 to embellish B. The Catholic university 
 was established under Leopold II, in 
 1702, by the Jesuits, and, in 1811, com- 
 bined with the Protestant university of 
 Frankfort on the Oder. In 1826, it con- 
 tained more than 850 students. The 
 Prussian government has done much for 
 this institution, as well as for the other 
 new universities in Berlin and Bonn. 
 
 BREST (anciently, Brivates Portu-s, and 
 Gisobrivate) ; a seaport in France, and 
 principal place of a district in the depart- 
 ment of Finisterre, in the former province 
 of Brittany, 23 posts N. W. Vannes, 69| 
 W. Paris ; "ion. 4 2iX W. ; lat. 48 23' N. ; 
 pop., 25,865 ; houses, 2600. It has one of 
 the best harbors in France, and a safe 
 road, capable of containing 500 men-of- 
 war, in 8, 10 and 15 fathoms at low water, 
 and it is the chief station of the French 
 marine. The harbor and magazines were 
 constructed in 1631, by Richelieu. The 
 coast, on both sides, is well fortified. The 
 entrance is narrow and difficult, with 
 covered rocks, that make it dangerous to 
 those not well acquainted with it. It con- 
 tains two parishes and a marine seminary. 
 The arsenal is an immense and superb 
 building, and the dock-yards are well con- 
 structed. It is the seat of a governor, of 
 an admiralty board, and a municipality. 
 The climate of B. is wet and uncomfort- 
 able, and the sky is almost always obscur- 
 ed. June 1, 1794, the French fleet was 
 beaten off Brest by the English, under 
 Howe, who took from them six ships of 
 the line, and sunk a seventh. 
 
 BRETAG.VE. (See Brittany.) 
 
 BRETEUIL, Louis Auguste le Tonne- 
 lier, baron de ; born in 1733 ; a French 
 diplomatist; at first, minister plenipoten- 
 tiary at the court of the elector of Cologne, 
 afterwards at the Russian court, then suc- 
 cessively ambassador in Sweden, Holland, 
 Naples, at Vienna, and the congress at 
 Teschen. His embassy to Vienna ex- 
 plains his attachment to the queen Marie 
 Antoinette. As minister and secretary of 
 state, he was a zealous defender of the 
 monarchy : he was, therefore, considered 
 as one of the greatest enemies of the rev-
 
 BRETEUIL BREVE. 
 
 259 
 
 olution. After the 14th of July, he escap- 
 ed the fate of Foulon by a hasty flight. 
 In 1790, Louis XVI intrusted him with 
 several secret negotiations at the prin- 
 cipal northern courts. The convention 
 issued a decree against him. In Bertrand 
 de Moleville's history of the revolution, 
 there is valuable information with respect 
 to his last diplomatic labors. In 1802, he 
 returned, with the permission of the gov- 
 ernment, to France, and died at Paris, in 
 1807. 
 
 BRETSCHNEIDER, Henry Godfrey von, 
 born at Gera, March 6, 1739, died at the 
 castle of Krziuitz, near Pilsen, Nov. 1, 
 1810. He was a soldier, a provincial 
 counsellor, librarian at Ofen and Leniberg, 
 the adviser and confidant of Joseph II, a 
 travelling adventurer, a poet, a writer of 
 songs, a collector of engravings and pic- 
 tures, an author of reviews and satires, a 
 Percgrinus-Proleus, in a hundred different 
 colors ; yet, withal, an upright friend to 
 what he considered the truth ; a sworn 
 enemy to all political and priestly impos- 
 ture, which he unmasked without mercy ; 
 an encyclopedist, without having ever 
 been connected with d'Alembert and Di- 
 derot ; an instructor and benefactor of his 
 age ; in his writings and conversation, an 
 enemy of Napoleon; hated by thousands; 
 loved by all who were intimately ac- 
 quainted with him ; courted on account 
 of his wit and social talents; feared by 
 all fools and hypocrites. He received his 
 first instruction in the academy at Ebers- 
 dorf, under the care of the Bohemian 
 brethren, where he was taught by hunger 
 to steal, and, by hypocritical cant, to doubt 
 all that is holy. He has written a great 
 deal, and no folly of the times escaped 
 him. All were boldly exposed and forci- 
 bly attacked. His Journey to London 
 and Paris (Berlin, 1817) was translated 
 and published in the Edinburgh Magazine. 
 If B. had written nothing but the Alma- 
 nac of the Saints, for the year 1788, in 
 which, in compliance with the wish of the 
 emperor Joseph, he unsparingly attacks 
 priests and priestcraft, he Would deserve, 
 for this work alone, to be known to en- 
 lightened foreigners. 
 
 BREUGHEL ; the name of a celebrated 
 Dutch family of painters, the first of whom 
 adopted this name from a village not far 
 from Breda. This was Peter B., also 
 called, from the character and subject of 
 most of his representations, the Droll, or 
 the Peasants' B. He was born in 1510 
 (according to Mechel, in 1530), was a pu- 
 pil of Peter Koeck van Aelst, travelled 
 into Italy and France, copying the beau- 
 
 ties of nature, and, after his return, fixed 
 his residence at Antwerp, where he was 
 received into the academy of painters in 
 that place. He subsequently married the 
 daughter of his instructor Koeck, and 
 removed to Brussels, where he died in 
 1570 (according to some, in 1590). In 
 his rural weddings, his rustic feasts and 
 dances, he strikingly represents the gay- 
 ety of the villagers, as he himself had 
 frequently observed them, in disguise, in 
 his youth. He also etched, but many of 
 his pictures have been engraved by oth- 
 ers. He left two sons Peter and John. 
 The former, (called the Younger B.,) pre- 
 ferring subjects affording striking con- 
 trasts, painted many scenes in which 
 devils, witches or robbers are the princi- 
 pal figures. This particular turn of ge- 
 nius procured him the name of Hell B. 
 Among his pieces are Orpheus playing on 
 his Lyre before tlie infernal Deities ; also, 
 the Temptation of St. Anthony. The for- 
 mer picture hangs in the gallery of Flor- 
 ence. The second brother, John, was 
 distinguished by his landscapes and small 
 figures. From his usual dress, he re- 
 ceived the title of Velvet B. He also 
 painted for other masters landscapes, as 
 back-grounds to their pieces, and some- 
 times little figures in them. He was a 
 very prolific artist. In connexion with 
 Rubens, he represented Adam and Eve in 
 Paradise. The figures in this picture are 
 painted by Rubens. This piece, his Four 
 Elements, also Vertumnus and Pomona, 
 which were all executed jointly with Ru- 
 bens, are among his principal perform- 
 ances, lie is said to have been bom in 
 1568. He visited Italy, and enriched his 
 imagination with beautiful scenery. He 
 is said to have died in 1640. Other mem- 
 bers of this family, belonging to a later 
 period, are Ambrose and Abraham, who, 
 for a time, resided in Italy, and died in 
 1690 ; the brother of the latter, John 
 Baptist, who died in Rome ; and Abra- 
 ham's son, Caspar B., known as a painter 
 of flowers and fruits. 
 
 BREVE ; a note of the third degree of 
 length, and formerly of a square figure, 
 as S 5 but now made of an oval shape, 
 with a line perpendicular to the stave on 
 each of its sides : |o! The breve, in its 
 simple state, that is, without a dot after it, 
 is equal in duration to one quarter of a 
 large, or to two semibreves, and is then 
 called imperfect; but, when dotted, it is 
 equal to three eighths of a large, or to 
 three semibreves, which being the greatest 
 length it can assume, it is then called per- 
 fect.
 
 260 
 
 BREVET BREWING. 
 
 BREVET ; a term borrowed from the 
 French, in which it signifies a royal act 
 granting some favor or privilege ; as,1>revet 
 ({'invention. It is applied, in England and 
 the U. States, to nominal rank in the army 
 higher than that for which pay is received. 
 Thus a brevet major serves as captain, and 
 draws pay as such. In the army of the 
 U. States, officers, having brevets or com- 
 missions of a prior date to those of the 
 regiments in which they serve, may take 
 place in courts-martial, and on detach- 
 ments composed of different corps, ac- 
 cording to the rank given them in their 
 brevets, or dates of their former commis- 
 sion ; but, in the regiment, troop or com- 
 pany, to which they belong, they shall do 
 duty and take rank according to the com- 
 missions by which they are mustered in 
 such corps. (Rules aiid Jlrt. of War, 61.) 
 By act of congress, April 16, 1818, brevet 
 officers shall receive the pay and emolu- 
 ments of their brevet commissions only 
 when on duty, and having command ac- 
 cording to their brevet rank. The same 
 act provides that brevet commissions shall, 
 from that date, be conferred only with the 
 consent of the senate. 
 
 BREVIARY ; the book containing the 
 daily service of the church of Rome, mat- 
 ins, lauds, prime, third, sixth, nones and 
 vespers, which all Catholics were formerly 
 bound to read daily. This obligation is 
 now restricted to the beneficiary clergy. 
 
 BREWING. The juices of fruits contain 
 sugar, which is essential to the vinous fer- 
 mentation. But this does not exist, in 
 any important quantity, in seeds. Instead 
 of it, however, we have starch, and this 
 may combine with water, so as to form 
 sugar. This combination is performed 
 very perfectly by a vital process ; that is 
 to say, it takes place only in a living seed, 
 and not in one which is frozen, burned, or 
 otherwise killed. It is known by the 
 name of germination or groioing, and is 
 of familiar occurrence, being what takes 
 place in every seed that is successfully 
 planted. The seeds of wheat, rye, barley, 
 &c. consist principally of starch. If a 
 grain of these is examined, we find near 
 one end of it a small body, which is the 
 rudiment of the future plant, and the 
 microscope shows us that this consists of 
 two parts the plumula, which is destined 
 to ascend through the earth to form the 
 stalk, and the radicle, which is to be 
 spread abroad below, and form the root. 
 Whenever a grain of barley, oats, or cer- 
 tain other of the gramineous seeds, is 
 exposed to water, it begins to swell and 
 absorb the moisture ; and, at the same time, 
 
 if the temperature of the air is not too 
 cold, the radicle thrusts itself out at the 
 lower end ; the plumula, on the other hand, 
 pushes itself along beneath the husk of 
 the grain to the other end, before it thrusts 
 itself out. There are several curious con- 
 siderations in regard to this process. The 
 one which concerns us at present is this, 
 that, as the plumula is passing along 
 through the husk, the part of the seed 
 along which it passes becomes changed 
 into the substance known in chemistry by 
 the name of starch sugar ; that is, when 
 the plumula has passed along one third 
 of the length of the grain, that third is 
 starch sugar, while the remaining two 
 thirds are still starch ; and so with the rest. 
 The starch sugar seems to be some com- 
 bination of starch and water. The final 
 cause of the change is undoubtedly the 
 support of the growing plant, sugar being 
 evidently necessary to the growth of 
 plants, as it is always found in their sap, 
 and sometimes, as in the sugar maple, in 
 great quantities. The moment, however, 
 the plumula begins to protrude beyond 
 the end of the grain, the sugar diminishes, 
 as it is consumed by the young stalk ; and 
 the substance of the seed is also consumed, 
 though by no means to the same extent, 
 by the growth of the root. To produce 
 this change in seeds, and thereby to lit 
 them for yielding a sweet fluid, when 
 mixed with water, is the business of the 
 maltster; and it is an operation of great 
 delicacy, upon the successful perform- 
 ance of which the success of a manufac- 
 tory of ale or beer in a great measure 
 depends. The first operation in malting 
 is, to plunge the barley, or other grain to be 
 malted, into a large cistern, containing 
 water enough to cover the whole mass. 
 The barley immediately separates into 
 two parts; one is heavy, and remains- at 
 the bottom of the water, while .the lighter 
 portion, consisting of chaff, defective 
 grains, &c. floats on the top. This latter 
 is skimmed off as of no use. The heavier 
 part, or sound barley, is suffered to remain 
 till it has absorbed a portion of the water, 
 sufficient for the purpose of enabling it to 
 germinate. This is steeping. It is the 
 first process, and usually occupies about 
 two days. When the grain is sufficiently 
 steeped, the water is let off, and the grain 
 thrown out of the cistern, and piled in a 
 heap, or, as it is technically called, a couch. 
 After a few hours, the bottom and inner 
 part of the heap begin to grow warm, and 
 the radicle or root to make its appearance ; 
 and the germination thus commenced 
 would go on rapidly but for the labor of
 
 BREWING. 
 
 201 
 
 the malster, who, with a view of making 
 all the grains grow alike, checks the 
 growth of such as are in the middle of 
 the heap by turning them to the outside, 
 and vice versa. For this reason, malting 
 cannot be performed, with any success, in 
 summer, which would, at tirst sight, seem 
 to be the fittest season. On tbe contrary, 
 the best maltsters prefer the coldest weath- 
 er ; for, at this season, they can always 
 keep the germination going on at the rate 
 they wish, by heaping up the grain ; 
 whereas, in warm weather, it grows so 
 rapidly, that no effort can make the pro- 
 cess equal and regular. Thus the grain 
 is turned backwards and forwards for 14 
 days, at the end of which period the acros- 
 jrire, as it is called, or the plumula, having 
 nearly reached the end of the grain, and 
 the latter having acquired a sweet taste, 
 the process of growth is suddenly and 
 effectually stopped by spreading the whole 
 upon a kiln, which is a floor of iron or 
 tiles, perforated with small holes, and 
 having a tire beneath it. There the life 
 of the grain is destroyed, and it is thor- 
 oughly dried. The malt thus made is 
 ground, or rather crushed, by passing it 
 between a pair of iron rollers. It is then 
 prepared for brewing. The first step in 
 brewing is called mashing. It consists in 
 stirring up tbe malt with a quantity of hot 
 "water, which dissolves the starch sugar 
 of the malt, and forms a sweet liquor 
 called wort, similar to the must, or sweet 
 juice of the grape, from which wine is 
 made. The manufacture differs, ho \vever, 
 in some essential particulars, at this stage 
 of the process, from that of wine ; for, if 
 the wort were allowed, as the must is, to 
 ferment without obstruction, it contains 
 so much of the mucilage and starch of 
 the grain, that it would run into the ace- 
 tous, and from thence into the putrefac- 
 tive fermentation, and would l>e fuxetf, as 
 it. is technically termed; that is, it would 
 become ill-smelling vinegar instead of 
 beer. To prevent this, it is first boiled. 
 This process renders it stronger, by evap- 
 orating a portion of the water; and, fur- 
 ther, it coagulates or curdles the mucilage, 
 which subsides afterwards, and is not 
 again dissolved, thus separating an injuri- 
 ous ingredient. While boiling, a portion 
 of hops is added. One object of this is to 
 give an aromatic, bitter taste to the liquor, 
 which habit has rendered agreeable. The 
 principal object of adding the hops, how- 
 ever, is, to check the tendency to the ace- 
 tous fermentation, which is always far 
 greater, in liquor so compound in its char- 
 acter as beer, than in the simpler liquors, 
 
 as wine and cider. It is further a com- 
 mon opinion, that hops add to the intoxi- 
 cating qualities of the article; and this 
 opinion is probably well founded. After 
 the worts are sufficiently boiled, they are 
 poured out into large shallow cisterns or 
 coolers, till they become cool, and deposit 
 much of the curdled mucilage. They are 
 then allowed to run into a deep tub or 
 vat to ferment. If left to themselves, 
 however, the process would take place 
 very imperfectly, and it i.s therefore assist- 
 ed by the addition of yeast. Tbe true 
 nature of this substance, notwithstanding 
 much attention and some laborious anal- 
 yses, is not yet understood. It excites fer- 
 mentation, however, which continues for a 
 period of time longer or shorter, according 
 to the fancy of the brewer, and is then 
 checked by drawing off the liquor into 
 barrels or hogsheads. In these the fer- 
 mentation still goes on, but it is now called 
 by brewers cleansing. With a view to 
 take advantage of this process, the casks 
 are placed with their bung-holes open, 
 and inclined a little to one side. The 
 scum, as it rises, works out at the bung, 
 and runs over the side, and thus the beer 
 is cleansed from a quantity of mucilage, 
 starch, and other unfermented matters. 
 What does not run out at the bung sub- 
 sides to the bottom, and constitutes the 
 lees. After this cleansing is completed, 
 the clear beer is racked off into barrels, 
 and preserved for use. The scum and lees 
 are collected, and the former constitutes 
 the yeast for the next brewing. Such is 
 the general history of brewing, whether 
 the product is to be beer, ale, porter or 
 wash, except that in the latter the cleans- 
 ing is not necessary. Even this racking, 
 however, does not remove all the unfer- 
 mented matter. Some starch and gluten 
 still remain; of course, the liquor soon 
 begins to ferment again in the barrels; 
 but, as these are closely stopped, tbe car- 
 bonic acid gas, or fixed air, cannot escape, 
 but becomes mingled with the beer. Ev- 
 ery successive fermentation causes some, 
 lees, from which the beer may be racked 
 off, and, by repeated racking, the ferment- 
 ative matter may be completely removed, 
 and such beers become clear, transparent, 
 and somewhat like the German wines, as, 
 for instance, that commonly called hock. 
 But, the disposition to ferment being thus 
 entirely destroyed, they are, like these 
 wines, perfectly still, and acquire no dis- 
 position to froth by being bottled. Hence 
 old sound beers may remain in bottles for 
 years without coining up, as it is techni- 
 cally called. The object of the brewer i3
 
 262 
 
 BREWING. 
 
 to produce an agreeable beverage, distin- 
 guished not so much for absolute strength, 
 or quantity of alcohol, as for color, flavor, 
 transparency, liveliness, and power of 
 keeping well. Some of these qualities 
 are not compatible with the developement 
 of the greatest quantity of alcohol or 
 ardent spirit, which is the main object of 
 the whiskey-distiller. To effect this pur- 
 pose, he makes a kind of beer, which is 
 culled wash. This differs from brewers' 
 beer in some important particulars. In 
 tlit: first place, the grain is not all malted: 
 in England, only a part of it is so ; in the 
 U. States, generally, none at all. In the 
 next place, it is ground a great deal finer 
 than in brewing. If the brewer were to 
 grind his grist as fine as the distiller, he 
 would run great risk of setting his mash, 
 as the phrase is; that is, he would make 
 paste of his grain, and -entangle the solu- 
 tion of sugar so effectually, that 'he could 
 not get it out again. The distiller does 
 not run the same risk, because he does 
 not use such hot water as the brewer, and 
 he can mash and stir his goods a great 
 deal longer without injury, and even with 
 benefit to his liquor. Again, he does not 
 need to boil or add hops to his worts, for 
 he does not care about precipitating the 
 mucilage, or making his beer keep. In 
 the next place, he adds a great deal of 
 yeast, and ferments violently and rapidly, 
 so as to decompose the sugar as quickly 
 as possible, and is quite indifferent wheth- 
 er the worts even become somewhat sour- 
 ish in the process, as, when sufficiently 
 fermented, the alcohol is removed at once 
 by distillation. If raw grain be ground, 
 mixed with water at a certain heat, and 
 allowed to stand, the change of the starch 
 into starch sugar, or the combination of 
 starch and water, takes place in the same 
 way as in malting. It takes some time, 
 however, and hence the distillers' mashes 
 stand longer than the brewers'. It would 
 seem, therefore, from this, that the malt- 
 ing of grain is not necessary for the 
 making of beer; and, accordingly, this 
 method of proceeding has been recom- 
 mended by an eminent chemist, one who 
 has paid much attention to this subject, 
 and there can be no doubt that a certain 
 description of small beer may be so made. 
 But the process is not applicable to the 
 finer and more valuable kinds of malt 
 liquors, for reasons which it would require 
 too many details to explain perfectly. 
 Besides the kinds of beer and wash al- 
 ready mentioned, there are others in very 
 common use in the U. States. These are 
 made by mixing honey, molasses or sugar 
 
 with water, and fermenting with yeast, or 
 some other leaven. Beers made in this 
 way are commonly mingled with some 
 vegetable substance, as ginger, spruce, 
 sarsaparilla, &c. to give them a particular 
 flavor, and are familiar to all by the names 
 of ginger beer, spruce beer, sarsaparilla 
 mead, &-c. &c. The wash, of this kind is 
 made from molasses and water, fermented 
 in large vats under ground, by means, not 
 of yeast, but the remains or returns of 
 former fermentations. The liquor thus 
 fermented is pumped up at once into the 
 still, and the. product is common under 
 the name of rum. Of the beers manufac- 
 tured from grain, as an article of con- 
 sumption in that state, there are a great 
 many varieties. These, however, may be 
 all comprehended under three principal 
 ones beer, ale and porter. Beer differs 
 from the other two in the circumstance of 
 its being made for immediate consump- 
 tion. There are two or three kinds of it, 
 known by the names of strong beer, table 
 beer, half-and-half, &c. These differ only 
 in their relative strength, being all brewed 
 upon the same general principle, and 
 adapted to be used soon after they are 
 made. It is of no consequence, so far as 
 regards the principle of brewing beer, 
 whether the malt of which it is made be 
 of one color or another : it may be pale, 'or 
 high-dried, or amber, or any thing else. 
 It is not even of the first consequence 
 whether the malt be good or bad, for the 
 beer is drank soon after it is made, and if 
 it is not, it is lost ; so that there is little 
 opportunity to discover any particular 
 flavor. Moreover, it is a common and 
 necessary practice to color it so highly 
 with burned molasses or sugar, that the 
 original taste of the liquor is, in a great 
 measure, concealed. There is also a sort 
 of fulness of taste which is given to beer, 
 by this practice in part, but still more by 
 the mode of fermentation. This mode is 
 to stop the progress of the latter before 
 the sweet taste is entirely gone, by remov- 
 ing the beer from the fermenting tun to 
 the smaller casks. In some places, indeed, 
 where the beer is to be sent out very 
 weak, it does not go into the fermenting 
 tun at all, but the yeast is mingled with 
 the worts in the small casks, and it is sent 
 out at once in full fermentation, and drank 
 u]), in fact, before this has time to subside 
 entirely. Ordinarily, however, it is li-r- 
 mented alittle in the tun, and then cleansed 
 and racked in a very short time. When 
 beer is sent out in this state, it is always 
 necessary to mingle with it a quantity of 
 what are called finings, that is to say,
 
 BREWING. 
 
 263 
 
 isinglass, or something of the sort, which 
 has the same effect as the fish-skin or isin- 
 glass commonly put into coffee it settles 
 it ; that is, it causes the dregs to subside 
 to the bottom. Beer made in this way is 
 an agreeable liquor, and well adapted to 
 the purposes of draught in cold weather, 
 especially when its briskness is increased, 
 as it usually is, by wanning it a little. How- 
 ever, beer, properly so called, is an imper- 
 fect liquor. The process is not complete, 
 and very slight variations alter its charac- 
 ter. The other varieties of malt liquor are 
 ale and porter, or, as they are commonly 
 called, stock liquors. These are not in- 
 tended for immediate consumption, but to 
 be kept for a longer or shorter period, 
 during which they do or ought to im- 
 prove in quality. Ale is a sweeter liquor 
 than porter, and much stronger, the best 
 London brown stout being about 25 per 
 cent, weaker than Burton ale. The first 
 part of the process, on which the differ- 
 ence in the liquors depends, is the drying 
 of the malt: for ale it must be dried very 
 carefully and slowly, so as to be of a pale 
 color; and the article is inferior if any of 
 the grains are scorched or burned, so as 
 to communicate a harsh taste to the liquor. 
 In the next place, the heat of the water, 
 when poured on the grain or mash, must 
 be higher. The reason given for this is, 
 that it renders the worts clearer when 
 they are drawn off from the mash-tun. It 
 is not clear why this is of any conse- 
 quence, for it would seem that the boiling, 
 to which the worts are afterwards sub- 
 jected, would be sufficient to curdle and 
 precipitate any mucilage dissolved during 
 the mashing. Such, however, is not the 
 case ; and a low heat in mashing is always 
 apt to be followed by violent fermentation, 
 very difficult to check, and very apt to 
 produce acidity. The higher the heat of 
 the mashing-water the better, provided it 
 is not so high as to set or make paste of 
 the mash. The exact point can be deter- 
 mined only by experiment, and must vary 
 with the comparative softness of the wa- 
 ter and comparative paleness of the malt. 
 In the next place, the mashing or stirring 
 must not be long continued, as it is only 
 desirable to dissolve the sugar; and the 
 effect of long mashing is to mix the starch 
 and mucilage with the worts, and, of 
 course, to diminish their comparative 
 sweetness. For the same reason, the first 
 mash only is proper for fine ales, as the 
 last always contains much more starch 
 and mucilage. These ales thus acquire a 
 sweetness which cannot be removed, ex- 
 cept by very long fermentation, and, there- 
 
 fore, they long continue more generally 
 palatable than portor. The fermentation 
 of ales is conducted very differently from 
 that of beer. They are let clown, or put 
 into the fermenting tun, at a lower tem- 
 perature, and the fermentation is made to 
 go on slowly and gradually. They are 
 then drawn off clear, and cleansed, till the 
 yeast is as much as possible removed. 
 Hence these liquors, when well made, 
 require no finings, but are racked off so 
 clear that they become fine of themselves, 
 and much higher flavored than they can 
 possibly be when finings are used. Lastly, 
 ale can only be had in perfection from 
 bottles. Its sweetness, high flavor and 
 effervescing quality cannot long be pre- 
 served on draught, any more than the fine 
 qualities of Champagne. Porter, the fa- 
 vorite drink of Londoners, to be perfect, 
 in the first place, requires a large propor- 
 tion of brown or high-dried malt ; i. e., malt 
 which has been scorched on the kiln ; but 
 it is rarely, or, rather, never made so at the 
 present day. It is a wasteful and expen- 
 sive practice to diy malt in this way, as 
 very much of its valuable constituents is 
 wasted by this high-drying, which ope- 
 rates, in fact, like distillation, carrying off 
 in the steam what ought to be left In-- 
 hind. Only a small portion of such malt 
 i?, therefore, now used, and sometimes 
 very little indeed, the color of porter 
 being produced artificially, by means of 
 burned sugar. Low heats are used in the 
 mashing, for the liquor is not to be sweet, 
 and it is, therefore, most profitable to get 
 as much starch as possible. For the same 
 reason, the products of all the mashings 
 are mingled together, thus constituting 
 entire porter. Formerly, it was the prac- 
 tice, in London, to take the separate 
 mashes, for porter, of three different qual- 
 ities, which were mixed by the retailer, 
 to form porter of three threads; but, after- 
 wards, the brewers, disliking this practice, 
 made the porter entire at once. It is ob- 
 vious that ale could not be made entire. 
 Again, porter is fermented with more 
 rapidity than ale, and hence it requires 
 very careful watching, lest it suddenly 
 pass the bounds of the vinous, and run 
 into the acetous fermentation. It requires 
 to be cleansed off sometimes at a mo- 
 ment's warning, or else it gets that acidity 
 which is its most common fault. After 
 all, it abounds in unfermented matter, and 
 requires a length of time to ripen, that is, 
 to change this matter into alcohol ; and 
 this it does best in large masses. Whether 
 from this reason, or some other that does 
 not appear, it seems to be pretty generally
 
 204 
 
 BREWING BRIBE. 
 
 admitted, that no brewery, either in Eng- 
 land or elsewhere, has been able to make 
 porter equal to the large porter-breweries 
 of London. This superiority has been at- 
 tributed to the use of the Thames water ; 
 but, in the first place, the small London 
 breweries, which do not make good por- 
 ter, have this advantage in common with 
 the larger ones; and, secondly, these last 
 have long since ceased to use the water 
 of the river, as it contains too much vege- 
 table matter, and is liable to cause acidity 
 in the liquor. The superiority, as far as 
 it exists, is doubtless owing to command 
 of capital, and consequent power of choice 
 in the malt-market, and system in con- 
 ducting the business: as to the rest, a 
 wealthy concern, like a London brew- 
 ing company, has always means of per- 
 suading bottlers and retailers of all de- 
 scriptions, that it is for their advantage to 
 sell and praise their porter in preference 
 to that of a small establishment, whose 
 liquor may be equally good, but not quite 
 so cheap. Of the two stock liquors, por- 
 ter is generally considered more whole- 
 some, and more easily digestible. It keeps 
 better, and, in London, is generally pre- 
 ferred for common use. The ales manu- 
 factured in many parts of the IT. States 
 are colored by the addition of brown malt 
 or burnt sugar. This is to suit the taste 
 of the consumers, who obstinately asso- 
 ciate the idea of strength and body with 
 high color. It is impossible that ales thus 
 colored should be without a harsh taste, 
 which is a defect. Ales, to be perfect, 
 must be pale, and the fine English ales 
 always are so. No very good porter is 
 made in the U. States, so far as Is known 
 to the writer of this article. Three mash 
 tuns are necessary to make it perfect, and 
 only one is commonly used in this coun- 
 try. (See Me, Beer, Porter.) 
 
 BREWSTER, David ; secretary of the 
 royal society of Edinburgh ; one of the 
 most learned natural philosophers in 
 Great Britain; born about 1785. The 
 great number of treatises which he has 
 written, on various subjects in natural 
 philosophy, are chiefly inserted in the 
 Transactions of the Edinburgh Royal So- 
 ciety. He is the editor of the much 
 esteemed Edinburgh Encyclopedia. He 
 is also the principal editor of the Edin- 
 burgh Philosophical Journal, which ap- 
 pears quarterly. His fame became gene- 
 ral by his invention of the kaleidoscope, 
 (q. v.) Among the many learned men 
 who render a residence in Edinburgh 
 agreeable to foreigners, B. is one of the 
 most eminent, as he has a great fund of 
 
 general information, and is a man of the 
 most polite manners. 
 
 BRKZK, marquis de ; grand master of 
 ceremonies at the court of Louis XVI ; 
 known in consequence of the famous re- 
 ply of JMiralteaii to the message which 
 he brought, June 23, 1789, from the king 
 to the deputies of the tiers etat, ordering 
 the dissolution of their body : " Tell your 
 master," said Mirabeati, in a voice of 
 thunder, " that we are here by the will of 
 the people, and that nothing but the bay- 
 onet shall drive us out." The court, in- 
 timidated by this bold answer, which 
 produced the highest enthusiasm in the 
 assembly and the public, became waver- 
 ing and irresolute in its measures. Mira- 
 bean, on the other hand, taking advan- 
 tage of the excitement, carried the decree 
 declaring the -persons of the deputies in- 
 violable, and that whoever should dare 
 issue or execute a warrant of arrest 
 against a part or the whole of them 
 should be deemed guilty of treason. The 
 marquis de B. followed Louis XVIII 
 abroad, and, after the restoration, was re- 
 instated in his former office. 
 
 BRIAREUS (also called JEgaRori) ; a giant 
 with 100 arms and 50 heads, the son of 
 Uranus and Terra. His two brothers, Cot- 
 tus and Gyges, were formed in a similar 
 manner ; and their formidable appearance 
 struck their father with such terror, that 
 he imprisoned them, at their birth, in the 
 bowels of the earth, (ties. Theog. 147.) 
 In the war with the Titans, Jupiter set 
 them free, and, by their assistance, gain- 
 ed the victory. When Juno, Neptune 
 and Slinerva conspired to bind the sove- 
 reign of the gods, Thetis brought Bria- 
 reus from the depths of the sea (how lie 
 came there is not known), to the relief of 
 the trembling Jove. (II. a. 402.) Virgil 
 places B. in the vestibule of hell. (JEn. vi, 
 287.) He was employed, with his hun- 
 dred-handed brothers (Centimani), in 
 watching the Titans in Tartarus. (lies, 
 Theog. 734.) 
 
 BRIBE ; a reward given to a public of- 
 ficer, or functionary, to induce him to 
 violate his official duty for the benefit 
 or in compliance with the wishes of 
 the party by whom, or on whose be- 
 half, the bribe is given or promised. The 
 term bribery is applicable alike both to the 
 receiving and to the giving of the reward. 
 A corrupt bargain for the votes of electors 
 in the choice of persons to places of trust 
 under the government is bribery. In this 
 instance, the electors, as such, are a kind 
 of public functionaries. Particular spe- 
 cies of bribery are expressly forbidden,
 
 BRIBE BRICK. 
 
 265 
 
 with penalties, by the positive laws of 
 every state that is governed according to 
 a written code. The corrupt discharge 
 of a public trust, in consideration of brib- 
 ery, is punishable at the common law, 
 though not prohibited by any positive 
 statute. A clerk to the agent for French 
 prisoners in England was indicted and 
 punished for taking bribes given for the 
 purpose of inducing him to procure them 
 to be exchanged out of their regular turn. 
 An attempt to influence jurymen in giv- 
 ing their verdict, by rewards, is a species 
 of bribery, denominated embracery. Even 
 offering a reward to a revenue officer, 
 to induce him to violate his duty, though 
 the reward was not received, has been 
 held to be an indictable offence. (2 Dal- 
 las's Reports, p. 384.) A similar doctrine 
 is held in England. (3 Coke's Institutes, 
 part third, p. 147, and 4 Burrow's Reports, 
 p. 2500.) The same was held of a prom- 
 ise of money to a member of a corpora- 
 tion, to induce him to vote for a mayor. 
 {2 Lord Raymond's Reports, p. 1377.) 
 The British laws, as well as those of 
 the U. States, specially prohibit bribery 
 of the officers of the revenue ; and the 
 forfeiture, on the part of the offender of- 
 fering the bribe, in England, is 500 ; 
 the officer receiving the bribe incurs the 
 like forfeiture, and is disqualified for pub- 
 lic employment, civil or military. Under 
 the U. States' laws, the party offering or 
 receiving a bribe, in such case, incurs a 
 pecuniary penalty, and becomes disquali- 
 fied for any place of trust under the gov- 
 ernment. The laws of many of the U. 
 States contain special provisions against 
 bribery of judges or jurymen, or of elect- 
 ors in the choice of public officers. 
 
 BRICENO MENDEZ, Pedro, was born in 
 1792, in Varinas, capital of the province 
 of that name in Venezuela, of a wealthy 
 and distinguished family; At the com- 
 mencement of the Colombian revolution, 
 he was pursuing the study of law in Ca- 
 raccas. Having concluded his studies 
 there, he returned to Varinas in 1812, and 
 obtained the office of chief secretary to 
 the provincial legislature. But the suc- 
 cess of Monteverde dissolved that body, 
 and compelled him to emigrate into New 
 Grenada. Here he joined Bolivar after 
 his victories in Cucuta, and, making a 
 tender of his services as a volunteer, Bo- 
 livar appointed him his secretary. In 
 this capacity, Briceiio served through the 
 campaign of 1813. After the disastrous 
 battle of La Puerta, he followed Bolivar 
 back to Carthagena, and continued at- 
 tached to him, as secretary, through all 
 
 VOL. ii. 23 
 
 his vicissitudes of fortune, until the form- 
 ation of the congress of Angostura, in 
 1819. At this period, he was made sec- 
 retary of war and the marine, with the 
 rank of colonel, and accompanied the 
 liberator in his campaigns, as before. In 
 1821, he received the same appointment 
 under the constitution, but remained at 
 the seat of government when Bolivar de- 
 parted for the campaign of Quito, after 
 having been confidentially attached to his 
 person for eight years. In 1823, he be- 
 came general of brigade. In 1825, he 
 resigned his office of secretary of war, 
 and was succeeded by general Soublette. 
 (Restrepo's Colombia, vi, 29.) 
 
 BRICK is a sort of artificial stone, made 
 principally of argillaceous earth, formed 
 in moulds, dried in the sun, and baked by 
 burning. The use of unburnt bricks is 
 of great antiquity. They are found in 
 the Roman and Grecian monuments, and 
 even in the ruins of Egypt and Babylon. 
 They were dried in the sun, instead of 
 being burned, and mixed with chopped 
 straw, to give them tenacity. On account 
 of the extreme heat and dryness of the cli- 
 mate, they acquired a great hardness, and 
 have lasted for several thousand years; 
 but they are unsuitable for more northern 
 latitudes. The most common bricks, 
 among the Romans, were 17 inches long 
 and 11 broad, and, in later periods, they 
 were burned. Modern bricks are gener- 
 ally about twice as long as they are broad, 
 and twice as broad as they are thick; 
 their length is ordinarily about 10 inches. 
 The best are made of a mixture of argil- 
 laceous earth and sand. Their red color 
 is owing to the presence of oxyde of iron, 
 which is turned red by burning. The 
 best season for making them is spring or 
 autumn, since the process of drying then 
 takes place more gradually and equably. 
 The clay should be dug in autumn, and 
 exposed to the influence of frost and rain. 
 It should be worked over repeatedly with 
 the spade, and not made into bricks until 
 the ensuing spring, previously to which it 
 should be well tempered by treading it 
 with oxen, or by a horse mill, till it is re- 
 duced to a ductile and homogeneous 
 paste. The clay may have- too great or 
 too small a proportion of argillaceous 
 earth or of sand to form a paste of proper 
 consistency ; it will then be necessary to 
 add the one or the other, as the case may 
 be. When the mass has thus been thor- 
 oughly mixed, the moulder throws it into 
 the mould, presses it down till it fills all 
 the cavity, and removes the overplus with 
 a stick. The bricks are then arranged on
 
 266 
 
 BRICK BRIDGE. 
 
 hacks to dry, disposed diagonally, to al- and the slabs of stone sufficiently long, 
 
 low a free passage to the air. In about 
 nine or ten days, .they are ready for the 
 burning, for which purpose they are 
 formed into clamps or kilns, having flues 
 or cavities at the bottom for the insertion 
 of the fuel, and interstices between them 
 for the fire and hot air to penetrate. A 
 fire is kindled in these cavities, and grad- 
 ually increased for the first 12 hours, af- 
 ter which it is kept at a uniform height 
 for several days and nights, till the bricks 
 are sufficiently burned. Much care is 
 necessary in regulating the fire, since too 
 much heat vitrifies the bricks, and too 
 little leaves them soft and friable. 
 Pressed bricks are those which, after be- 
 ing moulded in the common manner, are 
 placed in a machine, and subjected to a 
 strong pressure, by which they become 
 regular in shape, and smooth, and more 
 capable of resisting the action of the at- 
 mosphere. Floating bricks are so called 
 on account of their property of swimming 
 on the water. They are made of Agaric 
 mineral, or fossil farina, which is found 
 in some parts of the U. States. Their 
 infusibility at the highest temperatures 
 renders them useful in constructing rever- 
 beratory furnaces, pyrometers, and maga- 
 zines of combustible materials. Their 
 lightness and non-conducting property 
 render them particularly useful for the 
 construction of powder-magazines on 
 board of ships. 
 
 BRIDEWELL HOSPITAL, situated in 
 
 or the art and strength of the untaught 
 architect sufficient to the task, a roadway 
 was formed from pier to pier, like the 
 Vitruvian architrave of the primitive Tus- 
 can temple. With the Greeks, who were 
 a more maritime people, and more accus- 
 tomed to navigation than the Romans, 
 there is no doubt that ships and boats 
 preceded, if they did not supersede, the 
 use of bridges. In their brightest days, 
 when their fine style of architecture was 
 complete, when their porticoes were 
 crowded with paintings, and their streets 
 with statues, the people of Athens wad- 
 ed or ferried over the Cephisus, for 
 want of a bridge. The Greeks do not 
 seem to have valued the construction of 
 the arch sufficiently to excel in bridge- 
 building. No people of the ancient 
 world carried the power of rearing the 
 stupendous arch and the magnificent 
 dome to such an extent as the Romans. 
 After the construction of their great sew- 
 ers, their aqueducts, and the cupola over 
 the Pantheon of M. Agrippa, a bridge 
 over the Tiber was of easy execution ; 
 and the invention of the architecture of 
 stone bridges, as practised in its best and 
 most effectual manner, must be conceded 
 to this great and indefatigable people. 
 The most celebrated bridges of ancient 
 Rome were not distinguished by the ex- 
 traordinary size of their arches, nor the 
 peculiar lightness of their piers, but, like 
 the rest of the magnificent works of this 
 
 Blackfriars, London, is now used as a city, as far as construction is concerned, 
 house of correction for dissolute persons, they are worthy of study from their ex- 
 idle apprentices and vagrants. The cellence and durability. The span or 
 building is a large quadrangle, one side chord of their arches seldom exceeded 
 of which is occupied by the hall, contain- 70 or 80 feet, and the versed sine or 
 ing a picture by Holbein, representing height was nearly half of the chord, so 
 Edward VI, who founded the hospital in that they were mostly semicircular, or 
 
 constituted a segment nearly of that form. 
 Among the most celebrated bridges in 
 modern times, or those built subsequently 
 to the destruction of the Roman empire, 
 are those of the Moors in Spain, who im- 
 itated and rivalled the best constructions 
 of the Romans. The bridge of Cordova, 
 
 1553, delivering the charter to the corpo- 
 ration of London. The other sides of 
 the quadrangle are occupied by the mas- 
 ters of the trades, with whom several 
 youths are placed as apprentices, and by 
 the prison, where disorderly persons are 
 made to work during their confinement. 
 BRIDGE. It is needless to investigate 
 
 over the Guadalquivir, is an eminent ex- 
 
 ancient authors for a description of the ample of their success. The bridge over 
 
 primitive bridge, as its origin and ele- the Rhone, at Avignon, is one of the most 
 
 ments are to be found hi uncultivated na- ancient bridges of modern Europe. It 
 
 tions of modern times. Stepping-stones, was built by a religious society, called the 
 
 in shallow rivers, covered with planks brethren of tlie bridge, which was estab- 
 
 from stone to stone, exhibit the incipient lished upon the decline of the second, 
 
 principles of piers and arches, which sci- and the commencement of the third race 
 
 ence has brought to their present perfec- of French kings, when a state of anarchy 
 
 tion. In deeper rivers, an accumulation existed, and there was little security for 
 
 of stones forms a loftier pier ; and, where travellers, particularly in passing rivers, 
 
 the openings were sufficiently narrow, on which they were subject to the rapaci*
 
 BRIDGE. 
 
 267 
 
 ties of banditti. The object of this soci- 
 ety was, to put a stop to these outrages, 
 by forming fraternities for the purpose of 
 building bridges and establishing ferries 
 and caravansaries on their banks. The 
 bridge of Avignon was commenced in 
 1176, and completed in 1178. It was 
 composed of 18 arches. The length of 
 the chord of the largest was 110 feet 9 
 inches, and its height 45 feet 10 inches. 
 France can boast of many fine bridges, 
 built during the last two centuries. In 
 Great Britain, the art of building bridges 
 appears to have been diligently studied 
 from early times. The most ancient 
 bridge in England is the Gothic triangu- 
 lar bridge at Croyland in Lincolnshire, 
 said to have been built in 860. The as- 
 cent is so steep that none but foot-passen- 
 gers can go over it. The longest bridge 
 in England is that over the Trent at Bur- 
 ton in Staffordshire, built in the 12th 
 century, of squared free-stone. It con- 
 sists of 34 arches, and is 1545 feet long. 
 London bridge was commenced in 1176, 
 and was incumbered with houses for 
 many years. These were removed be- 
 tween 1756 and 1758. The other bridges 
 over the Thames are highly ornamental, 
 as well as necessary, to the metropolis. 
 Blackfriars bridge is both novel and hand- 
 some in design, and its elliptical arches 
 are well suited to its situation, but its ma- 
 terial is bad and perishing. This bridge 
 was designed and erected by Robert 
 Milne, an able Scotch architect. It was 
 commenced in 1760, and completed in 
 1771. It is 995- feet long, and 43 feet 6 
 inches broad between the parapets. The 
 centre arch is 100 feet in span, and 41 
 feet 6 inches in height. Waterloo bridge 
 is one of the greatest architectural works 
 of our times. It is the only bridge over 
 the Thames which has a flat surface in 
 its whole course. Its length is 1250 feet. 
 It consists of 9 elliptical arches, each of 
 120 feet span, and 32 feet in "height. 
 Westminster bridge is one of the hand- 
 somest as well as most scientifically con- 
 structed bridges in Europe, and forms an 
 era in English bridge architecture, from 
 the success of the method employed in 
 laying the foundations in deep water and 
 a rapid current. It was commenced in 
 1740, and completed in 1750. It is 1220 
 feet long, and 44 feet between the para- 
 pets, has 13 large and 2 small arches, all 
 semicircular. The middle arch is 76 feet 
 in span. 
 
 Metal bridges are the invention of 
 British artists. The true elements of 
 their construction are as yet but imper- 
 
 fectly understood. The first bridge of 
 cast-iron ever erected is that over the 
 Severn, about two miles below Colebrook- 
 dale, in Shropshire. It is an arch com- 
 posed of five ribs, forming the segment 
 of a circle. Its chord is 100 feet long, 
 and its height 45 feet. It was erected in 
 1777. The second cast-iron bridge was 
 designed by Thomas Paine, the famous 
 political writer, and was intended to have 
 been taken to America ; but, the specula- 
 tor failing in his payments, the materials 
 were afterwards used in constructing the 
 beautiful bridge over the river Wear at 
 Bishop's Wearmouth, in the county of 
 Durham. The chord of the arch is 240 
 feet long ; the height, 30 feet. The South- 
 wark or Trafalgar bridge over the Thames 
 at London is, at present, the finest iron 
 bridge in the world. It consists of three 
 arches. The chord of the middle arch is 
 240 feet long, and its height 24 feet. 
 There are several other fine bridges of this 
 kind in England. Mr. Telford proposed 
 an iron arch of much larger dimensions 
 than any now existing, to take the place 
 of London bridge. The length of the 
 chord was to be 600 feet, and its height 
 65. The plan has not been executed. 
 
 Timber bridges. Timber is the most 
 ready, and perhaps the most ancient ma- 
 terial used for the construction of bridges. 
 The earliest timber bridge on record is 
 that thrown by Julius Caesar over the 
 Rhine, and described in his Commenta- 
 ries. Germany is the school for wooden 
 bridges, as England is for those of iron. 
 The most celebrated wooden bridge was 
 that over the Rhine at SchafFhausen. 
 This was 364 feet in length, and 18 feet 
 broad. The plan of the architect wa, 
 that the bridge should consist of a single 
 arch. The magistrates of the place, how- 
 ever, required that he should make it of 
 two, and use the middle pier of a stone 
 bridge, which had previously stood there. 
 He did so, but contrived to leave it doubt- 
 ful whether the bridge was at all support- 
 ed by the middle pier. It was destroyed 
 by the French, in April, 1799. The 
 same architect and his brother have also 
 erected several other fine arched wooden 
 bridges. Several others have been erect- 
 ed, in Germany, by Wiebeking, perhaps 
 the most ingenious carpenter of our 
 times. In the United States, the Trenton 
 bridge over the Delaware, erected by 
 Burr in 1804, is the segment of a circle 
 345 feet in diameter. Its chord measures 
 200 feet ; its height, or versed sine, is 32 
 feet, and the height of the timber framing 
 of the arch, at its vertex, is no more than
 
 268 
 
 BRIDGE. 
 
 2 feet 8 inches. The timber bridge over 
 the Schuylkill, at Philadelphia, is of the 
 extraordinary span of 340 feet. The 
 versed sine is only 20 feet, and the height 
 of the wooden framing, at the vertex, 7 
 feet. Its architect was Wernwag, who 
 built it in 1813. The bridge built by 
 Palmer, over the Piscataqua, near Ports- 
 mouth, New Hampshire, in 1794, is the 
 segment of a circle 600 feet in diameter. 
 Its chord line measures 250 feet, its versed 
 sine 27 feet 4 inches, and the height of 
 the timber frame- work of the arch 18 feet 
 
 3 inches. It is put together with wooden 
 keys. The same ingenious mechanic 
 erected two other wooden bridges, one 
 over the Merrimack, at Deer Island, near 
 Newburyport, of 160 feet diameter, fin- 
 
 .ished in 1792, and the other over the 
 Schuylkill at Philadelphia, of 194 feet 
 chord, and 12 feet versed sine, being the 
 segment of a circle 796 feet in diameter. 
 This was finished in 1803. 
 
 Pendent bridges, or bridges of suspen- 
 sion, although held, by some persons, to 
 be a modern invention, or derived from 
 the rope bridges of South America and 
 the East Indies, were in use in Europe in 
 the time of Scamozzi, as may be seen in 
 his Del Idea Archi, 1615 ; yet the princi- 
 ples requisite to determine the structure 
 of this kind of bridges had not been made 
 public before the. time of Bernouilli. 
 The use of these bridges is of great an- 
 tiquity in mountainous countries. The 
 most remarkable bridge of suspension in 
 existence is that lately constructed by Mr. 
 Telford over the Menai strait, between 
 the isle of Anglesea and Caernarvonshire 
 in Wales. It was finished in 1825. The 
 roadway is 100 feet above the surface of 
 the water at high tide. The opening be- 
 tween the points of suspension is 560 feet. 
 The platform is about 30 feet in breadth. 
 The whole is suspended from 4 lines of 
 strong iron cables by perpendicular iron 
 rods, 5 feet apart. The cables pass over 
 rollers on the tops of pillars, and are fixed 
 to iron frames under ground, which are 
 kept down by masonry. The weight of 
 the whole bridge, between the points of 
 suspension, is 489 tons. There are sever- 
 al other bridges of suspension in Great 
 Britain. In 1814, a chain-bridge, 1000 
 feet long, was projected by Mr. Telford, 
 to cross the Mersey at Liverpool, but it 
 has never been executed. In the U. 
 States, such bridges are to be found, 
 though not of the dimensions of the Eng- 
 lish. That over the Merrimack, at New- 
 buryport, is a curve whose chord meas- 
 ures 244 feet. That over the river 
 
 Brandywine, at Wilmington, has a chord 
 of 145 feet ; that at Brownsville, over the 
 Monongahela, measures 120 feet between 
 the points of suspension. Another, in its 
 vicinity, forms an inverted suspended 
 arch, with a chord of 112 feet. Besides 
 these there are some others. 
 
 The following remarks -on the con- 
 struction of bridges are from Bigelow's 
 Technology, (Boston, 1829): The con- 
 struction of small bridges is a simple pro- 
 cess, while that of large ones is, under 
 certain circumstances, extremely difficult, 
 owing to the fact, that the strength of ma- 
 terials does not increase hi proportion to 
 their weight, and that there are limits, 
 beyond which no structure of the kind 
 could be carried, and Avithstand its own 
 gravity. Bridges differ in their construc- 
 tion, and in the materials of Avhich they 
 are composed. The principal varieties 
 are the following : 1. Wooden bridges. 
 These, when built over shallow and slug- 
 gish streams, are usually supported upon 
 piles driven into the mud at short distances, 
 ( or upon frames of timber. But, in deep 
 and powerful currents, it is necessary to 
 support them on strong stone piers and 
 abutments, built at as great a distance as 
 practicable from each other. The bridge, 
 between these piers, consists of a stiff 
 frame of carpentry, so constructed, with 
 reference to its material, that it may act 
 as one piece, and may not bend, or break, 
 with its own weight and any additional 
 load to which it maybe exposed. When 
 this frame is straight, the upper part is 
 compressed by the weight of the whole, 
 while the lower part is extended, like the 
 tie-beam of a roof. But the strongest 
 wooden bridges are made with curved 
 ribs, which rise above the abutments in 
 the manner of an arch, and are not sub- 
 jected to a longitudinal strain by exten- 
 sion. These ribs are commonly connect- 
 ed and strengthened with diagonal braces, 
 keys, bolts and straps of iron. The floor- 
 ing of the bridge may be either laid above 
 them or suspended by trussing under- 
 neath them. Wooden bridges are com- 
 mon in this country, and some of them 
 are of large size. One of the most re- 
 markable is the upper Schuylkill bridge 
 at Philadelphia, already mentioned. 2. 
 Stone bridges. These, for the most part, 
 consist of regular arches, built upon stone 
 piers constructed in the water, or upon 
 abutments at the banks. Above the 
 arches is made a level or sloping road. 
 From the nature of the material, these 
 are the most durable kind of bridges, and 
 many are now standing, which were built
 
 BRIDGE BRIEF. 
 
 269 
 
 by the ancient Romans. The stone piers, 
 on which bridges are supported, require 
 to be of great solidity, especially when 
 exposed to rapid currents, or floating ice. 
 Piers are usually built with their greatest 
 length in the direction of the stream, and 
 with their extremities pointed or curved, 
 so as to divide the water, and allow it to 
 glide easily past them. In building piers, 
 it is often necessary to exclude the water 
 by means of a coffer-dam. This is a 
 temporary enclosure, formed by a double 
 wall of piles and planks, having their 
 interval filled with clay. The interior 
 space is made dry by pumping, and kept 
 so till the structure is finished. 3. Cast- 
 iron bridges. These have been construct- 
 ed, in England, out of blocks or frames of 
 cast-iron, so shaped as to fit into each oth- 
 er, and, collectively, to form ribs and arches. 
 These bridges possess great strength, but 
 are liable to be disturbed by the expan- 
 sion and contraction of the metal with 
 heat and cold. 4. Suspension bridges. 
 In these the flooring or main body of the 
 bridge is supported on strong iron chains 
 or rods, hanging, in the form of an invert- 
 ed arch, from one point of support to an- 
 other. The points of support are the tops 
 of strong pillars or small towers, erected 
 for the purpose. Over these pillars the 
 chain passes, and is attached, at each ex- 
 tremity of the bridge, to rocks or massive 
 frames of iron, firmly secured under 
 ground. The great advantage of sus- 
 pension bridges consists in their stability 
 of equilibrium, in consequence of which 
 a smaller amount of materials is necessary 
 for their construction than for that of any 
 other bridge. If a suspension bridge be 
 shaken, or thrown out of equilibrium, it 
 returns by its weight to its proper place, 
 whereas the reverse happens in bridges 
 which are built above the level of their sup- 
 porters. 5. Floating bridges. Upon deep 
 and sluggish water, stationary rafts of tim- 
 ber are sometimes employed, extending 
 from one shore to another, and covered 
 with planks, so as to form a passable bridge. 
 In military operations, temporary bridges 
 are often formed by planks laid upon boats, 
 pontons, and other buoyant supporters. 
 
 BRIDGETOWN ; a seaport town, and cap- 
 ital of the island of Barbadoes, in the 
 West Indies, lying in the S. W. part, 
 and in the parish of St. Michael. Lon. 
 59 40' W. ; lat. 13 & N. Population, 15 
 or 20,000. It is situated on the innermost 
 part of Carlisle bay, which is large enough 
 to contain 500 ships, being 4 miles in 
 breadth, and 3 in depth ; but the bottom 
 is foul, and apt to cut the cables. It suf- 
 23* 
 
 fered greatly by fire, on Feb. 8th, 1756, 
 May 14th, 1766, and Dec. 27th, 1767, 
 when the greatest part of the town was 
 destroyed ; before which time, it had 
 about 1500 houses, mostly brick, very ele- 
 gant, and said to be the finest and largest 
 in all the Caribbee islands, the greatest 
 part of which have been rebuilt. It has 
 a college, founded liberally, and endowed 
 by colonel Codrington. Here are com- 
 modious wharves for loading and unload- 
 ing goods, with some forts and castles. 
 The town is subject to hurricanes. On 
 the east side of the town is a small fort of 
 eight guns, where the magazines of pow- 
 der and stores are kept under a strong 
 guard. This is the seat of the governor, 
 council, assembly, and court of chancery. 
 
 BRIDGEWATER ; a borough town in the 
 county of Somerset, England, on the 
 Parret, over which is an iron bridge. 
 Although the town is 12 miles from the 
 sea, the tide rises six fathoms at high wa- 
 ter, and flows in with such impetuosity 
 as frequently to injure the shipping. This 
 rapid motion is called the tore, and is not 
 uncommon in the rivers which flow into 
 the Bristol channel, (q, v.) It has little 
 coasting, but considerable foreign trade. 
 In the castle built by king John, the duke 
 of Monmouth lodged, and was here pro- 
 claimed king, in 1685, before the battle 
 of Sedgemoor, which was fought about 
 three miles from the town, B. then be- 
 came the theatre of Feversham's and Jef- 
 feries' barbarity. The borough sends two 
 members to parliament. Population, 6155. 
 Lon. 2 59' W. ; lat. 51 7' N. 
 
 BRIDGEWATER CANAL. (See Canal.) 
 
 BRIDLE : the head-stall, bit and reins, by 
 which a horse is governed. The origin of 
 it is of high antiquity. The first horse- 
 men guided their horses with a little stick, 
 and the sound of their voice. A cord 
 drawn through the nose is sometimes used 
 for other animals. The ancient Thes- 
 salian coins often represent a horse with 
 a long rein trailing on the ground. The 
 Romans were trained to fight without 
 biddies, as an exercise in the manege. 
 On Trajan's column, soldiers are thus 
 represented at full speed. The parts of a 
 modern bridle are the snaffle or bit ; the 
 headstall, or leathers from the top of the 
 head to the rings of the bit ; the fillet, 
 over the forehead, and under the fore^top ; 
 the throat-band, which buttons under the 
 throat ; the reins ; the nose-band, buckled 
 under the cheeks ; the trench, the cavesan, 
 the martin gal and the chaff-halter. 
 
 BRIEF, from the French bref, which 
 comes from the Latin brevis, denotes a
 
 270 
 
 BRIEF BRIENNE. 
 
 thing of short extent or duration. It is 
 more particularly used for a summary or 
 short statement. -Brief, in law, signifies 
 an abridgment of the client's case, made 
 out for the instruction of counsel on a trial. 
 In this, the case of the party is to be con- 
 cisely but fully stated ; the proofs are to 
 be placed in due order, and proper an- 
 swers made to whatever may be objected 
 against the cause of the client. In pre- 
 paring the brief, great care is requisite, 
 that no omission be made which may en- 
 danger the case. Briefs, apostolical ; writ- 
 ten messages of the pope, addressed to 
 princes or magistrates, respecting matters 
 of public concern. Such brevia as are 
 despatched by the datarii or secretarii, and 
 called rescripts, despatches, concessions, 
 mandates, &c., are written on parchment, 
 and sealed, with the fisher's ring, in red wax. 
 Pastoral letters, directed to princes and 
 bishops, are without seal. These papers 
 derive their name from the shortness of 
 their formalities, since they have no in- 
 troductory preamble, but commence with 
 the pope's name, and these words : dilecto 
 Jilio salutem et apostolicam benedictionem. 
 Briefs are not subscribed by the pope, nor 
 with his name, but with that of his secre- 
 tary. 
 
 BRIEL, or BRIELLE, a town of the Neth- 
 erlands, near the mouth of the Maese, 
 with a good harbor, well built and strong- 
 ly fortilied. It is remarkable, in history, 
 as the place where the confederates laid 
 the foundation of the Dutch republic, in 
 1572. Having been expelled by Alva 
 from the Low Countries, they equipped a 
 small fleet in England, and were carried 
 accidentally, by an unfavorable wind, to 
 B., which capitulated to them, and thus 
 became the cradle of Dutch liberty. Van 
 Tromp was born here. The population 
 is 3200, principally engaged in the fish- 
 eries. Lon. 4 10 7 E. ; lat. 51 54' N. 
 
 BRIENNE, a small town in the depart- 
 ment of the Aube (Upper Champagne), con- 
 sists of Brienne-la-Ville and Brienne-le- 
 Chatean, containing together 285 houses, 
 and 3200 inhabitants, with a number of 
 manufactories and vineyards. In the mili- 
 tary academy for young noblemen, for- 
 merly existing at B.-le-Chateau, Napoleon 
 received his first instruction in the mili- 
 tary art. B. afterwards became celebrated 
 as the scene of the last struggles of his 
 long and oppressive domination. There 
 the first battle within the boundaries of 
 France was gained by the allied powers, 
 the last trust of the army in Napoleon 
 shaken, and the charm, which, it was sup- 
 posed, would render the French invinci- 
 
 ble at their own hearths, was broken. 
 The way to Paris and the overthrow of 
 the imperial dignity were prepared. After 
 the battle at Bar-sur-Aube (Jan. 24, 1614), 
 where the allied armies met with the first 
 resistance after their entry into France 
 by the way of Switzerland, they advanced 
 rapidly. Napoleon, having left Paris, com- 
 pelled Blucher to retreat, on the 2(Jth. 
 near Vitry, before superior numbers, and 
 concentrated his forces on the 28th at B. ; 
 Schwarzenberg took up his position at 
 Chaumont, Blucher at St. Dizier, Wrede 
 at Andelot, and Witgensteiri at Vassy. 
 On the 29th, the French made an impetu- 
 ous attack on the allies. The struggle 
 on both sides was obstinate and bloody. 
 Night came on, but the flames of B., 
 which had been set on fire, shed their 
 light over the field of battle. General 
 Chateau, with two battalions, had taken 
 the castle of B., but was soon forced to 
 relinquish it. The battle continued till 
 11 o'clock. It was renewed on the fol- 
 lowing day, and Blucher was compelled, 
 by superior numbers, to fall back upon 
 Trannes. On the 31st, Napoleon arrayed 
 his whole force in the plains between 
 La Rothiere and Trannes. The corps of 
 the crown-prince of Wiirtemberg, count 
 Giulay, and the Russian reserves of gren- 
 adiers, having effected a junction with 
 Blucher oil the 1st of Feb., prince Schwar- 
 zenberg gave orders to commence the 
 battle. About noon, Bliicher's forces ad- 
 vanced hi three columns ; general Sacken 
 leading one upon La Rothiere, Giulay 
 another upon Dienville, and the crown- 
 prince of Wiirtemberg another upon 
 Chaumreil. In the mean time, general 
 Wrede took up his line of march from 
 Doulevent upon B. Only a few field- 
 pieces could be brought into action, on 
 account of the nature of the ground ; but 
 the courage of the soldiers compensated 
 for this deficiency. The crown-prince 
 of Wiirtemberg first drove the enemy from 
 his position, which was covered by woods, 
 and deprived him of the important point 
 of La Gibrie. Although he was imme- 
 diately assailed in this position, he re- 
 mained in possession of it after a strug- 
 gle of more than an hour. Giulay took 
 Unienville, and Sacken forced his way to 
 La Rothiere. By 3 o'clock, all the lines 
 were brought into action. A heavy snow- 
 storm silenced for a moment the fire of 
 the "artillery, but could not paralyse the 
 activity of the combatants. Napoleon di- 
 rected all the operations of his army, and 
 repeatedly exposed his person, with a full 
 conviction of the importance of success.
 
 BRIENNE BRIGHTON. 
 
 271 
 
 The allied monarchs, also, encouraged 
 their troops by their presence in the field. 
 La Rothiere was repeatedly taken, lost 
 and recovered. Sacken renewed his ef- 
 forts to gain possession of it : the cavalry 
 of the enemy had already encountered 
 the bayonets of his infantry, when he re- 
 ceived succor. The French cavalry was 
 forced back as far as Old B., and threw 
 the infantry into disorder. Sacken took 
 32 pieces of cannon. Meantime, Blucher 
 had brought up fresh troops against La 
 Rothiere, and captured that position. The 
 crown-prince of Wurtemberg got pos- 
 session of Petit Masnil, Wrede of Chuuin- 
 reil, Giulay of Dienville. The victory 
 was decisive for the allied powers. Dur- 
 ing the night, the French retreated on all 
 sides upon the road of B., leaving there a 
 small detachment as a rear guard, which, 
 however, on the following morning, was 
 compelled to retreat with the main army. 
 The loss was great on both sides. The 
 allies took 60 pieces of cannon and a 
 considerable number of prisoners. 
 
 BRIENNE, cardinal de Lomenie de. (See 
 Lomtnie,} 
 
 BRIG, or BRIGANTIXE ; a square-rigged 
 vessel, with two masts. The term is ap- 
 plied to different kinds of vessels, by 
 mariners of different countries. Tlie 
 term Lrigantine is also applied to a light, 
 flat, open vessel, with 10 or 15 oars on a 
 side, furnished also with sails, and able to 
 carry upwards of 100 men. The rowers, 
 being also soldiers, have their muskets 
 lying ready under the benches. Brigan- 
 tines are frequently made use of, especial- 
 ly in the Mediterranean, for the purpose 
 of piracy, from which they derive their 
 name. They are very fast sailers. 
 
 BRIGADE ; in general, an indeterminate 
 number of regiments or squadrons. In 
 die English army, a brigade of infantry 
 is generally composed of 3 regiments ; a 
 brigade of horse, of from 8 to 12 squad- 
 rons ; and one of artillery, of 5 guns and 
 a howitzer. In the U. States' army, the 
 brigade is commonly composed of two, 
 but sometimes of more regiments. A 
 number of brigades form a division, and 
 several divisions an army corps. A brig- 
 ade-major is the chief of the brigade-staff. 
 A brigadier-general is the officer who 
 commands a brigade. In the British ser- 
 vice, this rank is now abolished. In the 
 U. States' service, he is next in rank to 
 the major-general, who is the highest of- 
 ficer under the president, as commander- 
 in-chief. Brigadier-general is also the 
 title of the chief of the staff of an army- 
 corps. In the French military language, 
 
 brigade, in the cavalry, signifies a cor- 
 poral's guard. Hence brigadier signifies 
 a corporal. 
 
 BRIGANDINE ; a kind of defensive armor, 
 consisting of thin, jointed scales of plate, 
 pliant and easy to the body. 
 
 BRIGANTINE. (See Brig.) 
 
 BRIGHELLA. (See Mask.) 
 
 BRIGHT, in painting ; a picture is said 
 to be bright, when the lights so much 
 prevail as to overcome the shadows, and 
 are kept so clear and distinct as to pro- 
 duce a brilliant appearance. 
 
 BRIGHTHELMSTONE, or BRIGHTON ; a 
 seaport town in the county of Sussex, 
 England, much resorted to for sea-bath- 
 ing. It was not long since a mere village 
 of fishermen ; but, under the patronage of 
 George IV, when prince of Wales, it rap- 
 idly increased, and, by the returns of 1821, 
 the population was 24,429. It is situated 
 on a gentle eminence, at the base of which 
 is the Steine, a lawn surrounded with 
 elegant buildings. The Steine and ma- 
 rine parade are fashionable promenades. 
 The esplanade, extending from the Steine 
 to the pier, which is 1154 feet long, and 
 supported by 8 chains, is 1250 feet in 
 length. The king has a palace here, 
 called the marine pavilion. B. contains 
 several public libraries and reading-rooms, 
 and hot, cold, vapor and salt-water baths, 
 air-pump water baths, for the gout anil 
 violent scorbutic affections, and a swim- 
 ming bath. The streets are clean and 
 well paved, and the hotels numerous and 
 well fitted up. Travellers embark hence, 
 in the steam-packets, for France. The 
 number of visitors is greatest towards the 
 end of July. B. is 52 miles south of 
 London. 
 
 BRIGHTON, in England. (See BrigJit- 
 hehnstone.) 
 
 BRIGHTON ; a post-town in Middlesex 
 county, Massachusetts, 4i miles west of 
 Boston. Population, in 1820, 702. It is 
 a pleasant town, and contains a number 
 of elegant country seats. A cattle fair 
 was begun here during the revolutionary 
 war, and has been increasing since the 
 peace of 1783. Most of the cattle for the 
 supply of Boston market are driven to 
 this place. Often from 2 to 3000, and even 
 5000, have come in one week ; and sheep, 
 also, in great numbers. -In 1816, the trus- 
 tees of the Massachusetts agricultural 
 society commenced a cattle-show and ex- 
 hibition of domestic manufactures at this 
 place ; and a commodious house, 70 feet 
 by 36, has been erected, for the accommo- 
 dation of the trustees, and the exhibition 
 of cloths, implements of husbandry, &c.
 
 272 
 
 BRILLIANT BRISACH. 
 
 BRILLIANT. (See Diamond,} 
 BRIMSTONE. Sulphur (q. v.), as first 
 obtained, is mixed with foreign bodies, 
 and, for the purpose of purification, is 
 melted in a close vessel, by wliich the 
 impurities are allowed to subside. It is 
 then poured, in the liquid state, into cylin- 
 drical moulds, in which it becomes hard, 
 and is known in commerce by the name 
 of roll brimstone. The Jewish history 
 (Gen. xix, 24) relates that Sodom and 
 Gomorrah were destroyed by fire and 
 brimstone from heaven. Showers of fire 
 have been observed by Bergmann (occa- 
 sioned by electricity) ( Geog. Physique ii, 
 45, 115), and showers of brimstone may 
 be produced from the sulphuric acid 
 which exists in the atmosphere. 
 
 BRINDLEY, James, a native of Tunsted, 
 near Wormhill, Derbyshire, an eminent 
 engineer and mechanic, was born in 1716. 
 The poverty of his family prevented his 
 receiving more than the rudiments of 
 education, and, at 17, he became appren- 
 tice to a millwright. On the expiration 
 of his indentures, he commenced busi- 
 ness as an engineer, and, in 1752, dis- 
 played great talent in contriving a wa- 
 ter-engine for draining a coal-mine. A 
 silk-mill, which he constructed on a new 
 plan, and other works of the same de- 
 scription, introduced him to the patronage 
 of the duke of Bridgewater, then occupied 
 in planning a communication between bis 
 estate at Worsley and the towns of Man- 
 chester and Liverpool by water. This 
 immense work, the idea of which was 
 ridiculed by most of the scientific men 
 of the period as impracticable, B. under- 
 took, and, by means of an aqueduct over 
 valleys, rivers, &c., completed, so as to 
 form a junction with the Mersey. This 
 success caused him to be employed, in 
 1766, to unite the Trent and Mersey, 
 upon which he commenced the "grand 
 trunk navigation canal," but, dying before 
 its completion, the work was finished, in 
 1777, by his brother-in-law, Mr. Henshaw. 
 From this main branch B. also cut an- 
 other canal near Haywood in Stafford- 
 shire, uniting it with the Severn in the 
 vicinity of Bewdley, and finished it in 
 1772. From this period scarcely any 
 work of the kind in the kingdom was 
 entered upon without his superinten- 
 dence or advice. Among other designs, 
 he prepared one for draining the fens in 
 Lincolnshire and the Isle of Ely, and 
 another for clearing the Liverpool docks 
 of mud, which was especially successful. 
 The variety of his inventions, and the 
 fertility of his resources, were only equal- 
 
 led by the simplicity of the means with 
 which he carried his expedients into 
 effect. He seldom used any model or 
 drawing, but, when any material difficulty 
 intervened, generally retired to bed, and 
 there meditated on the best mode of 
 overcoming it. On such occasions, he 
 has been known to seclude himself for 
 days ; and so partial was he to inland 
 navigation, that he is said, to a question 
 humorously put to him on his examina- 
 tion before the house of commons, " For 
 what purpose did he consider rivers to 
 have been created," at once to have re- 
 plied, "Undoubtedly to feed navigable 
 canals." The intensity of his application 
 to business brought on a hectic fever, of 
 which he died in 1772. 
 
 BRING-TO ; to check the course of a 
 ship, when she is advancing, by arranging 
 the sails in such a manner, that they shall 
 counteract each other, and prevent her 
 from moving forward or backward. In 
 tliis situation, she is said to lie to, having 
 some of her sails aback, to oppose the 
 force of those which are full. 
 
 BRINKMANN, Charles Gustavus, one of 
 the most eminent living scholars of Swe- 
 den, born in 1764, was for a long time 
 ambassador in France (in the time of the 
 republic), England and Germany. He 
 now lives retired in Stockholm, and keeps 
 up an extensive correspondence with 
 many of the most distinguished persons 
 of our times. He carried on a lively cor- 
 respondence with the baroness de Stael. 
 He is distinguished in the literary world 
 by works in German as well as in Swe- 
 dish. 
 
 BRION, Luis, a native of the island of 
 CuraQoa, distinguished for his love of 
 freedom, early took part with the patri- 
 ots of Carthagena. When Bolivar set 
 on foot the celebrated enterprise against 
 Margarita, the command of the maritime 
 forces was intrusted to Brion, who, being 
 possessed of considerable property, con- 
 tributed largely from his private resources 
 towards defraying the expenses of the 
 expedition. He had previously served 
 on board the republican flotilla, and re- 
 ceived the privileges of citizenship in ac- 
 knowledgment of his bravery and con- 
 duct, and continued to be actively engag- 
 ed in the naval operations of the patriots 
 until near the close of the war. (See 
 Colombia.) 
 
 BRISACH, Old ; a town of the jrrand- 
 duchy of Baden, once included in the 
 Brisgau, formerly on the west side of the 
 Rhine, but, since the river changed its 
 course, near the east bank. It was lor-
 
 BRISACH BRISTOL. 
 
 273 
 
 merly a very strong place, and has sus- 
 tained several sieges. New B. is in the 
 department of the Upper Rhine, in France, 
 on the west side of the river. Vauban 
 fortified it in 1699, and it is considered 
 one of his master-pieces. It is 30 miles 
 south of Strasburg. 
 
 BRISEIS. (See Achilles.) 
 
 BRISGAU, also BREISGAU, with the dis- 
 trict of Ortenau, formerly constituted a 
 landgraviate in the south-western part of 
 Suabia, between the Schwartzwald and 
 the Rhine. This is one of the most fer- 
 tile parts of Germany, containing 1,272 
 square miles, and 140,000 inhabitants. 
 Though chiefly in possession of Austria 
 since the 15th century, it was governed 
 by its own laws. At the peace of Lune- 
 ville, 1801, Austria ceded B., one of the 
 oldest possessions of the house of Haps- 
 burg, to the duke of Modena, after whose 
 death it fell to his son-in-law, the arch- 
 duke Ferdinand of Austria, as duke of 
 Brisgau. By the peace of Presburg, 
 1805, it was assigned to Baden, with the 
 exception of a small part, and still be- 
 longs to the grand-duchy. 
 
 BHISSAC. (See Cosse.) 
 
 BRISSOT DE WARVILLE, Jean Pierre ; 
 born in 1754, at Ouarville, a village in 
 the vicinity of Chartres, where his father, 
 a pastry-cook, and keeper of an ordinary, 
 possessed a small estate. This circum- 
 stance led him to assume the surname 
 d'Ouarville, which he afterwards, while 
 in England, changed into de Warville. 
 At the age of 20, he had already publish- 
 ed several works, for one of which he 
 was thrown into the Bastile, in 1784. 
 Madame de Genlis, in her memoirs, says, 
 that she procured his liberty through her 
 influence with the duke of Chartres. He 
 married one of the household of madame 
 d'Orleans, and went to England, where 
 he was in the pay of the lieutenant of 
 the police in Paris. At the same time, he 
 was engaged in literary pursuits, and at- 
 tempted to establish a lyceum in London ; 
 but, being disappointed in his plans, he 
 returned to France. In 1788, he travel- 
 led in America, as it is asserted, to study 
 the principles of democracy. After his 
 return, he published, in 1791, a work on 
 the United States. On the convocation 
 of the states general, he published several 
 pamphlets in Paris, and afterwards a 
 journal the French Patriot. When the 
 municipal government of Paris was es- 
 tablished, July, 1789, he was one of the 
 members, and was one of the principal 
 instigators of the revolt of the Champ 
 de Mars, where the dethronement of 
 
 Louis XVI and the establishment of a 
 republican constitution were demanded. 
 He constantly displayed a hostile dispo- 
 sition towards foreign powers, and the 
 first declaration of war against Austria 
 was owing to him. On the 10th of Au- 
 gust, the new ministry was almost entirely 
 composed of his partisans. In the con- 
 vention, he was at the head of the diplo- 
 matic committee, in the name of which 
 he made a motion for war against Eng- 
 land and Holland. On the trial of Louis 
 XVI, he endeavored to refer the sentence 
 to the decision of the people, and voted 
 'for the king's death, proposing, at the 
 same time, that the execution should be 
 deferred till 'the constitution should be 
 sanctioned by the whole people in pri- 
 mary assemblies. In the midst of the 
 revolutionary ferment, the ground where- 
 on his party stood was insensibly under- 
 mined. After several charges had been 
 brought against him, Robespierre accused 
 him, May 28, 1793, of favoring a federa- 
 tive constitution, with two parliaments, 
 &c., and demanded that he should be 
 brought before the revolutionary tribunal. 
 The 31st of May completed his ruin. 
 He endeavored to reach Switzerland in 
 the disguise of a merchant of Neufchatel, 
 but was arrested at Moulins, and led to 
 the guillotine, in Paris, October 31, at the 
 age of 39. He was a great admirer of 
 the Americans, assumed the habits of 
 the Quakers, and introduced the fashion 
 of wearing the hah- without powder. His 
 personal qualities were below his fame : 
 he was indeed a leader among the Girond- 
 ists, but many others of this party were 
 far superior to him in courage and talents. 
 
 BRISSOTINS, or BRISSOTISTS ; a name 
 sometimes given to the Girondists (q.v.), 
 from the subject of the preceding article. 
 
 BRISTOL ; a city and county of England, 
 situated on the Avon. The river is here 
 deep and rapid, and the tide flows to the 
 height of 40 feet, so that a vessel of 1000 
 tons can come up to the city. It was 
 constituted a bishop's see by Henry VIII, 
 and part of a monastery founded by Ste- 
 phen, in 1140, has been converted into a 
 cathedral. The church of St. Mary's, 
 Redcliffe, is one of the finest Gothic 
 structures in the kingdom. The city has 
 long been distinguished for its well con- 
 ducted and extensive charities, and is 
 adorned with many handsome public 
 buildings. Manufactories of glass and 
 sugar, distilleries and brass-works, the 
 largest in England, give employment to 
 many of its inhabitants. Its foreign trade 
 is also considerable, principally to the
 
 274 
 
 BRISTOL BRITAIN. 
 
 West Indies. It returns 2 members to 
 parliament, and is governed by a mayor, 
 2 sheriffs, 12 aldermen, and 28 common 
 councilmen. Here the famous Chatterton 
 was born : his father was sexton of St. 
 Mary's. About a mile from B. stands the 
 village of the Hot- Wells, famous for its 
 medicinal spring, the temperature of 
 which is from 72 to 76 : it discharges 60 
 gallons a minute. The Hot- Wells, and 
 the village of Clifton, on the hill above, 
 are fashionable resorts. At the time of 
 the earthquake at Lisbon, in 1755, the 
 water of the spring became red and tur- 
 bid, the tide of the Avon flowed back, 
 and the water in the vicinity turned black, 
 and was unfit for use for a fortnight. The 
 extensive commerce and fine harbor of 
 B. rendered it desirable to obviate the in- 
 convenience attending ships lying aground 
 at every tide. By constructing extensive 
 works, and opening a new channel for the 
 Avon, the flux and reflux of the tide at 
 the quays have been prevented, and mer- 
 chant-ships of any burden may now con- 
 stantly lie afloat. B. is very ancient. 
 Gildas mentions it, in 430, as a fortified 
 city. By the Britons it was called Caer 
 Brito, and by the Saxons Brightstowe, or 
 Pleasant Place. It was erected into an 
 independent county by Edward III, in 
 1372, and has since been endowed with 
 various privileges. All persons are free 
 to trade here, and the markets are un- 
 equalled in plenty and variety by any in 
 England. Many of the houses in the 
 older part of the town are built of wood, 
 and crowded together in narrow streets, 
 but those of more recent erection are of 
 brick and stone, and disposed in spacious 
 streets and squares. The common sew- 
 ers, which run through the town, render 
 it remarkably clean. Carts are not ad- 
 mitted into the city for fear of damaging 
 the arches of vaults and gutters under the 
 streets, and every thing is conveyed by 
 sledges. The population, in 1821, includ- 
 ing the suburbs, was 52,889. It is 117 
 mUes west from London ; Ion. 2 4G 7 W. ; 
 lat. 51 30' N. 
 
 BRISTOL (Indian names, Pocanocket 
 and Sowam) ; a seaport town, and capital 
 of a county of the same name in Rhode 
 Island, on the continent: 15 miles S. 
 Providence, 15 N. Newport, 56 S. S. W. 
 Boston ; Ion. 71 12' W. ; lat 41 3^ N. ; 
 population, in 1820, 3197. It is a very 
 pleasant town, finely situated, and hand- 
 somely built, has a safe and commodious 
 harbor, and is a place of considerable 
 trade. The shipping belonging to this 
 port in 1820 amounted to 10,701 tons. 
 
 The trade is chiefly to the West Indies 
 and to Europe. It contains a court- 
 house, a jail, a market-house, a masonic 
 hall, an academy, a public library, con- 
 taining about 1400 volumes, and four 
 houses of public worship. Great quanti- 
 ties of onions are raised here for exporta- 
 tion. Mount Hope, which lies two miles 
 N. E. of Bristol, within the township, is a 
 pleasant hill of a conical form, and is fa- 
 mous for having been the residence of the 
 Indian king Philip. 
 
 BRISTOL CHANNEL ; an arm of the Irish 
 sea, extending between the southern shores 
 of Wales and the western peninsula of 
 England, and terminating in the estuary 
 of the Severn. It is about 90 miles long, 
 and from 15 to 50 miles wide. It is re- 
 markable for its high tides and the rapid- 
 ity with which they rise. (See Bridge- 
 water.) 
 
 BRITAIN, according to Aristotle, was 
 the name which the Romans gave to 
 modern England and Scotland. This 
 appellation is, perhaps, derived from the 
 old word brit, party-colored, it having been 
 customary with the inhabitants to paint 
 their bodies with various colors. Ac- 
 cording to the testimony of Pliny and 
 Aristotle, the island, in the remotest times, 
 also bore the name ofMbion. (q.v.) The 
 sea, by which B. is surrounded, was gen- 
 erally called the Western, the Atlantic, or 
 the Hesperian ocean. Until the time of 
 Caesar, B. was totally unknown to the 
 Romans. But the Pho3nicians, Greeks 
 and Carthaginians, especially the first, 
 were acquainted with it from the earliest 
 period, being accustomed to obtain tin 
 there. On this account, they called it 
 Tin island, as Herodotus informs us. 
 Caesar undertook two expeditions to B. 
 He defeated the inhabitants, whom he 
 found entirely savage, and continued a 
 short time on the island. It was not, 
 however, until the time of Claudius, that 
 the Romans gained a firm footing there. 
 At that period, they extended their pos- 
 sessions in the country, and called the 
 territory under their dominion Britannia 
 Romano. The most important acquisi- 
 tions were afterwards made under Adrian 
 and Constantine. At last, the inhabitants 
 assumed the manners of their conquerors. 
 The country was very populous in the 
 time of Caesar, and, according to the tes- 
 timony of Tacitus, fertile. It was divided 
 into Britannia Romana and B. Barbara. 
 The Romans, from the time of Adrian, 
 anxiously endeavored to secure the for- 
 mer against the invasions of the barbari- 
 ans, by a wall or rampart of earth fortified
 
 BRITAIN BRITANNICUS CJESAR, 
 
 275 
 
 with turrets and bulwarks. Lollius Urbi- 
 cus, in the reign of Antoninus, extended 
 this wall ; but Septimius Severus restored 
 its former limits. In his time, the Ro- 
 man province was divided into the east- 
 ern (prima, or inferior) and the western 
 part (secunda, or superior). Two prov- 
 inces were added by Constantine. The 
 inhabitants of ancient B. derived their 
 origin partly from an original colony of 
 Celtas, partly from a mixed body of Gauls 
 and Germans. The Celtic colonists, or 
 the Britons, properly so called, living in 
 the interior of the country, had less inter- 
 course with foreign merchants than the 
 Gauls, who lived along the coasts. They 
 are therefore represented by the Romans 
 as less civilized. The Gallic inhabitants, 
 who had settled nearer the sea-coast, pos- 
 sessed some property, and were therefore 
 more easily intimidated than those tribes 
 that were dispersed through the forests. 
 None of them cultivated the ground : 
 they all lived by raising cattle and hunt- 
 ing. Their dress consisted of skins. 
 Then- habitations were huts made of 
 wicker-work and covered with rushes. 
 Their priests, the Druids, together with 
 the sacred women, exercised a kind of 
 authority over them. (For the modern 
 kingdom of Great Britain, see Great 
 Britain.} 
 
 BRITAIN, New ; a group of islands be- 
 longing to Australia (q. v.), and separated 
 by Dampier's strait from New Guinea. 
 The situation of these islands has not 
 been very exactly ascertained ; but they 
 stretch from about 1 30' to 6 S. lat., and 
 from 148 to 153 E. Ion. Their extent 
 is equally uncertain. Some geographers 
 include in this group the island of the 
 same name, New Ireland, New Hanover, 
 Admiralty islands, and some smaller ones. 
 Some of the group are volcanic. The 
 natives are Papuas, and manage their ca- 
 noes, some of which are 80 feet long, 
 with great skill. They are black ; then- 
 hair is curled and woolly ; but they have 
 neither the thick lips nor the flat noses of 
 the Negroes. Those of the Admiralty 
 islands are gentle and peaceful ; those of 
 New Holland are warlike. The islands 
 contain some high mountains, covered 
 with lofty trees to their summits. The 
 bread-fruit-tree, the fig-tree, pepper, aloes, 
 nutmeg, &c., are found here. The seas 
 abound in coral reefs, which often render 
 the navigation dangerous. Dampier first 
 discovered that this archipelago was sep- 
 arate from New Guinea. Carteret first 
 showed that New Ireland was separated 
 from New Britain by the strait which he 
 
 called St. George's channel. These islands 
 have been also visited by d'Entrecasteaux, 
 Bougainville, Hunter, &c. (See Labil- 
 lardierfs Voyage, 2 vols., 4to., 1798.) 
 
 BRITAIN, New ; a vast country of North 
 America, lying round Hudson's bay, north 
 and north-west of Upper and Lower Can- 
 ada, comprehending Labrador, New North 
 Wales and New South Wales, attached to 
 the government of Lower Canada, and 
 belonging to Great Britain. The face of 
 the country is various. On the south- 
 west of Hudson's bay, from Moose river 
 to Churchill's river, in some parts, for the 
 distance of 600 miles inland, the country 
 is flat, marshy, and wooded, in many 
 parts, with pines, birch, larch and wil- 
 lows. North of Churchill's river, and on 
 the eastern coast, it is high, rocky and 
 barren, every where unfit for cultivation, 
 covered with masses of rock of amazing 
 size, composed of fruitless valleys and 
 frightful mountains, some of them of 
 great height. The valleys are full of 
 lakes formed by rain and snow, and are 
 covered with stunted trees, pines, fir, birch 
 and cedar, or juniper. The mountains 
 have here and there a blighted shrub, or 
 a little moss. The climate is extremely 
 severe, and, in lat. 60., on the coast, veg- 
 etation ceases. The principal rivers are 
 Mackenzie's river, Copper-Mine river, 
 Nelson's, Churchill's, Albany, Moose, 
 Seal, Severn, Rupert and Pokerekesko. 
 The most considerable lakes are Winni- 
 peg, Slave lake, Great Bear lake, and 
 Athapescow. The principal article of 
 trade is fur. The trade is earned on by 
 two companies, who have several forts, 
 viz. forts Prince of Wales, Chippeyan, 
 Alexandria, Churchill, Albany, Nelson, 
 Severn, &c. The wild animals are nu- 
 merous, such as bears, beavers, deer, 
 raccoons, &c. The Esquimaux Indians 
 occupy the coasts of Labrador : the inte- 
 rior is inhabited by various tribes of a di- 
 minutive and miserable race. 
 
 BRITANNICUS CJESAR (Tiberius Claudi- 
 us Germanicus), son of the emperor 
 Claudius and Messalina, was bom a few 
 days after the accession of Claudius to 
 the throne. After the return of the em- 
 peror from his expedition to Britain, the 
 surname Bntannicus was bestowed on 
 the father and son. As the eldest son of 
 the emperor, B. was the legitimate heir 
 to the throne ; but Claudius was prevailed 
 upon by his second wife, the ambitious 
 Agrippina, to adopt Domitius Nero, her 
 son by a former marriage, who was three 
 years older than B., and declare him his 
 successor. The venal senate gave its
 
 276 
 
 BRITANNICUS (LESAR BRITTANY. 
 
 consent In the mean time, Agrippina, 
 under the pretext of motherly tenderness, 
 strove to keep B., as much as possible, 
 in a state of imbecility. She removed 
 his servants, and substituted her own 
 creatures. Sosibius, his tutor, was mur- 
 dered by her contrivance. She did not 
 permit him to appear beyond the pre- 
 cincts of the palace, and even kept him 
 out of his father's sight, under the pre- 
 tence that he was insane and epileptic. 
 Although the weak emperor showed that 
 he penetrated the artifices of Agrippina, 
 yet his death, of which she was the au- 
 thor, prevented him from retrieving his 
 error. Nero was proclaimed emperor, 
 while B. continued in close confinement. 
 In a dispute with Nero, Agrippina threat- 
 ened to place B., who was then 14 years 
 old, on the throne, upon which Nero 
 caused him to be poisoned. 
 
 BRITINIANS ; a body of monks of the 
 order of St. Augustine, who received their 
 name from Britini, in Ancona, which was 
 the place of their institution. Their man- 
 ner of living was very austere. They ab- 
 stained from all kinds of meat, and lasted 
 from the festival of the Exaltation of the 
 Cross to Easter, besides observing the 
 fasts prescribed by the church, which 
 they were strictly enjoined to do by the 
 rules of their order. Their dress was 
 gray ; and, to distinguish themselves 
 from the Minorites, they wore no girdle. 
 When Alexander IV, in 1256, effected 
 the union of the different congregations 
 of the order of St. Augustine, the Britini- 
 ans became members of this union. 
 
 BRITISH AMERICA. Under the general 
 name of British America is comprehend- 
 ed all that part of the continent of North 
 America which lies to the north of the IT. 
 States, with the exception of the Russian 
 possessions in the north-west, and Green- 
 land hi the north-east. It consists of four 
 provinces : 1. Lower Canada, to which is 
 annexed New Britain ; 2. Upper Canada ; 
 3. New Brunswick'; 4. Nova Scotia ; to- 
 gether with the island of Newfoundland. 
 The whole country is under a governor- 
 general, whose residence is at Quebec. 
 Each of the four provinces has also a 
 lieutenant-governor ; and Newfoundland 
 is governed by an admiral. 
 
 BRITISH CHANNEL. (See English Chan- 
 nel.) 
 
 BRITISH MUSEUM was founded by sir 
 Hans Sloane, who, in 1753, bequeathed 
 his collection of natural and artificial cu- 
 riosities, and his library, consisting of 
 50,000 volumes of books and MSS., to 
 the nation, on condition of the payment 
 
 of 20,000 to his heirs. Montague-house, 
 one of the largest mansions in the me- 
 tropolis, was appropriated to its recep- 
 tion, and it has since been gradually in- 
 creased by gifts, bequests, and purchases 
 of every species of curiosity animals, 
 vegetables, minerals, sculptures, books, 
 MSS., &c. The main building is 21 6 
 feet long and 57 high ; the wings are oc- 
 cupied by the officers of the establish- 
 ment The library of printed books oc- 
 cupies 16 rooms. The upper floor is 
 composed of 11 rooms, 2 of which con- 
 tain miscellaneous collections, 4 contain 
 collections of natural history, and 5 the 
 library of MSS., which is extremely val- 
 uable, besides the saloon, containing the 
 minerals. The Lansdowne library of 
 MSS. consists of 1245 volumes, exclusive 
 of rolls and charters, and contains the 
 Burleigh, Csesar and Kennet paper?. 
 (Catalogue of Lansdoumc MSS., folio, 
 1819.) The Sloane and Birch MSS., 
 consisting of 4437 volumes, are valuable. 
 (See Ayscough's Undescribed .MSS., 2 
 vols., 4to., 1782.) The Harleian MSS. 
 were collected by Harley, lord Oxford, 
 and form 7639 volumes, containing 40,000 
 documents. ( Catalogue of Harleian MSS., 
 4 vols., folio, 1809.) The Cottonian col- 
 lection was injured by fire in 1751. The 
 number of articles is upwards of 20,000, 
 among which is the original of the Magna 
 Charta, and original documents connected 
 with it. (Catalogue, folio, 1802.) There 
 are many other very valuable collections, 
 which we cannot enumerate. The galle- 
 ry, or department of antiquities, is dis- 
 tributed in 15 rooms ; 6 of which contain 
 Greek and Roman sculptures and antiqui- 
 ties, and 2 are occupied with Egyptian 
 sculptures and antiquities, many oi' which 
 were collected by the French, and fell 
 into the hands of the English at the cap- 
 ture of Alexandria, September, 1801. 
 Salt's Egyptian antiquities have also 
 been lately added. The famous Rosetta 
 stone belongs to the collection. Other 
 rooms are occupied by terracottas, the 
 Hamilton vases, coins and medals, prints 
 and drawings, the Phigalian marbles, and 
 the Elgin marbles. The anteroom con- 
 tains the famous Barberini vase, or, as it 
 is generally called, the Portland vase. 
 
 BRITTANY, or BRETAGNE ; formerly one 
 of the largest provinces of France, being 
 a peninsula washed by the Atlantic on all 
 sides except the east, where it joined 
 Poitou, Anjou, Maine and Normandy. 
 It now forms five departments (q. v.), 
 containing 2,532,500 inhabitants, on 1775 
 square miles. It is supposed to have
 
 BRITTANY BROEKHUIZEN. 
 
 277 
 
 received its name from the Britons, who 
 were expelled from England, and took 
 refuge here in the fifth century. It form- 
 ed one of the duchies of France, .till it 
 was united to the crown by Francis I, in 
 1532. The province was divided into 
 Upper and Lower B. Agriculture, in 
 this territory, is very backward, and it is 
 estimated, that about one half of the sur- 
 face lies waste. Corn and wine are pro- 
 duced in small quantities. Flax and 
 hemp, apples and pears, are abundant, 
 and of good quality. Cider is the prin- 
 cipal drink. Salt is made on the coast, 
 and coals, lead and iron are found in va- 
 rious parts. There are manufactures of 
 hemp, flax and iron. The fisheries, also, 
 employ many of the inhabitants. The 
 Bas-Bretons speak a dialect of the Celtic. 
 There is also a patois among them, called 
 Lueache, of which the words are princi- 
 pally Greek. The lower classes are poor 
 and ignorant. 
 
 BRIZARD. (See French Theatre.) 
 
 BROACH ; a large, ruinous town in Gu- 
 zcrat, Hindostan, on the Nerbuddah. It 
 contains a Hindoo hospital for sick and 
 infirm beasts, birds and insects, which has 
 considerable endowments in land, and 
 accommodates not only animals consid- 
 ered sacred by the Hindoos, such as 
 monkeys, peacocks, &c., but horses, dogs 
 and cats : it has, also, in little boxes, an. 
 assortment of lice and fleas. These ani- 
 mals are fed only on vegetable food, and 
 are, generally, in a miserable condition. 
 Near B. is the celebrated banian-tree, 
 which has been renowned ever since the 
 first arrival of the Portuguese in India, 
 arid which, according to the natives, was 
 capable of sheltering 10,000 horsemen 
 under its shade. Part of it has been 
 washed away by the river, but enough 
 yet remains to make it one of the noblest 
 groves in the world. B. was captured by 
 the English in 1803. Lon. 73 6' E. ; lat. 
 21 41' N. 
 
 BROACH ; any thing which will pierce 
 through ; a pin ; that part of certain orna- 
 ments by which they are stuck on ; the 
 ornament itself. Among the Highlanders 
 of Scotland, there are preserved, in sev- 
 eral families, ancient broaches of rich 
 workmanship, and highly ornamented. 
 Some of them are inscribed with charac- 
 ters to which particular virtues were at- 
 tributed, and seem to have been used as 
 a sort of amulet or talisman. 
 
 BROACH-TO ; to incline suddenly to 
 windward of the ship's course when she 
 sails with a large wind ; or, when she 
 sails directly before the wind, to deviate 
 
 VOL. u. 24 
 
 from her line of course with such rapid- 
 ity as to bring her side to windward, and 
 expose her to the danger of oversetting. 
 The masts act like levers on the ship, 
 sideways, so as to overturn her, unless 
 she is relieved by the rending of the sails, 
 or the carrying away of the masts. 
 
 BROAD PIECE ; a denomination that has 
 been given to some English gold pieces 
 broader than a guinea, particularly Caro- 
 luses and Jacobuses. 
 
 BROADSIDE, in a naval engagement ; 
 the whole discharge of the artillery on one 
 side of a ship of war, above and below. A 
 squall of wind is said to throw a ship on 
 her broadside, when it presses her down 
 in the water, so as nearly to overset her. 
 
 BROAD-SWORD ; a sword with a broad 
 blade, designed chiefly for cutting, used 
 by some regiments of cavalry and High- 
 land infantry in the British service. It 
 has, in general, given place to the sabre, 
 among the cavalry. The claymore or 
 broad-sword was formerly the national 
 weapon of the Highlanders. 
 
 BROCADE ; a stuff of gold, silver or 
 silk, raised and enriched with flowers, 
 foliage and other ornaments. Formerly, 
 it signified only a stuff wove all of gold 
 or silver, or in which silk was mixed ; at 
 present, all stuffs, grograms, satins, taffe- 
 tas and lustrings are so called, if they are 
 worked with flowers or other figures. 
 
 BROCKEN. (See Hartz.) 
 
 BRODV, a town in Austrian Gallicia, 
 situated in the circle of Zloczow, border- 
 ing on the Russian frontier, includes 2(300 
 houses, and 16,500 inhabitants, half of 
 whom are Jews, who have a college and 
 a school for the instruction of artists and 
 mechanics. The commerce, earned on 
 principally by Jews, is important, the 
 town being very favorably situated for the 
 exchange of the products of Poland for 
 the horses, black cattle, wax, honey, tal- 
 low, skins, furs, anise, preserved fruits, 
 &c., of Walachia, the Crimea, &c. B. 
 belongs to count Potocki. 
 
 BROEKHUIZE\, Jan van (better known 
 as Janus Broukhusiits) ; born at Amster- 
 .dam in 1649. When young, he lost his 
 father, a hatter, and was put under the 
 guardianship of one of his relations, who 
 placed him with an apothecaiy, though 
 he desired to study a learned profession. 
 While in this situation, he wrote verses, 
 and was encouraged by the applause of 
 the public. He subsequently entered the 
 military service of his native country. In 
 1674, he embarked under the command 
 of the famous admiral de Ruyter, as a 
 marine, on an expedition to the West
 
 278 
 
 BROEKIIUIZEN BROGLIO. 
 
 India islands. In the autumn of the sarne 
 year, he went into winter quarters at 
 Utrecht. Here he became acquainted 
 with several scientific men, and published 
 a collection of his poems Utrecht, 1684). 
 A splendid edition of them appeared at 
 Amsterdam in 1711, 4to. He afterwards 
 received a military appointment at Am- 
 sterdam, which afforded him leisure for 
 literary pursuits. He published an edi- 
 tion of the poems of Sannazarius, and 
 also of Palearius's works, an edition of 
 Propertius (Amsterdam, 1702 and 1720, 
 4to.), and Tibullus (Amsterdam, 1708 
 and 1727, 4to.), with critical notes. In 
 these works, he displayed extensive 
 knowledge. After the peace of Ryswick, 
 he received his dismission, with the rank 
 of a captain. He died in 1707. 
 
 BROGLIO ; a family distinguished in the 
 annals of French wars and French di- 
 plomacy, which derives its origin from 
 Piedmont 1. Francois Marie, marshal 
 of France, born in 1671, died in 1745 ; 
 from 1689, fought with distinction in the 
 Netherlands, in Germany and Italy. He 
 was also employed in diplomatic affairs. 
 He rose by degrees, till, in 1734, he be- 
 came marshal of France. In the Austrian 
 war of succession, he had the chief com- 
 mand of the armies of Bavaria and Bohe- 
 mia ; but, leading them back to the fron- 
 tiers of France, he fell into disgrace at 
 court. 2. Victor Francois, the eldest son 
 of the preceding, Likewise marshal of 
 France, born in 1718, commenced his 
 career in the battles of Guastalla and Par- 
 ma (1734) ; was engaged in all the wars 
 of France, and was always distinguished 
 for his valor, though not uniformly suc- 
 cessful. During the seven years' war, he 
 fought under d'Estrees at Hastenbeck, 
 and at Rossbach under Soubise. He 
 was more successful as commauder-in- 
 chief at Bergen. The emperor, to reward 
 him for the victory obtained at that place, 
 created him a prince of the empire. Dis- 
 putes with Soubise, who was in particu- 
 lar favor with madame de Pompadour, 
 caused his recall and banishment. In 
 1789, when the revolution broke out,. 
 Louis XVI appointed him minister of 
 war ; at the same time, he received the 
 command of the troops that were to keep 
 Paris in check. The desertion of the 
 national guards rendered all his efforts 
 vain, and B. left France. In the cam- 
 paign of 1792, he commanded a division 
 of the emigres without success. After its 
 close, he withdrew entirely from public 
 life, and died at Miinster in 1804, in the 
 86th year of his age. 3. Claude Victor, 
 
 the third son of Victor Francois, on the 
 other hand, entered wholly into the views 
 of the revolutionary party. He was dep- 
 uty of the nobility of Cofmar to the states 
 general. After the dissolution of the con- 
 stituent assembly, he was appointed field- 
 marshal in the army of the Rhine, but, 
 upon his refusal to acknowledge the de- 
 crees of the 10th of August, was deprived 
 of his command, and afterwards, on the 
 same account, summoned before the rev- 
 olutionary tribunal, and led to the guillo- 
 tine in June, 1794. 4. Charles Francois, 
 a brother of Victor Francois, is known in 
 the history of French diplomacy as the 
 head of the secret ministry of Louis XV. 
 Although B. discharged the duties of this 
 difficult office with much ability, yet, as 
 his views were often in direct opposition 
 to those of the public ministry, the great- 
 est and the most ridiculous confusion was 
 often produced. He was, therefore, for- 
 mally banished by the king ; but, at the 
 same time, received secret instructions to 
 continue his usual duties in his exile. 
 Under Louis XVI, he was not employed, 
 and died in 1781. 5. Victor, peer of 
 France, a son of Claude Victor : see the 
 following article. 
 
 BROGLIO, Victor, duke of, peer of 
 France, born in 1785, married a daughter 
 of the celebrated madame de Stael. His 
 grandfather was the marshal duke of B., 
 who was distinguished in the seven years' 
 war. His father, Victor, notwithstanding 
 the patriotism which he had always dis- 
 played, fell a victim to the revolutionary 
 tribunal. The son received an excellent 
 education, and devoted himself, at first, to 
 literature and the fine arts. But he soon 
 engaged in more serious studies, and in 
 political affairs. He became counsellor 
 of state, auditor, military intendant in II- 
 lyria and Valladolid, and was attached to 
 the French embassies in Warsaw, Vienna 
 and Prague. In 1814, he took his seat in 
 the chamber of peers, where he gave 
 splendid proofs of his intimate acquaint- 
 ance with the present state of society, and 
 with the legislation adapted to it. In the 
 trial of Ney, he was one of the few peers 
 who voted for his acquittal. He spoke 
 with energy against the laws of exception 
 and the proscription lists. At the time 
 when the ministry was making efforts to 
 extend the power of the police, the fol- 
 lowing observation of his met with great 
 approbation : " The existing government 
 (said he) wish to know all things, and to 
 confine this knowledge to themselves. 
 Hence arises the inconvenience, that the 
 public remains ignorant of facts by which
 
 BROGLIO BRONNER. 
 
 279 
 
 the government are guided, and the gov- 
 ernment of the opinions of the public." 
 In the debates upon the censorship of the 
 public journals, he observed: "A new 
 government may more readily grant free- 
 dom of speech, as k is not called upon to 
 defend former abuses. Restrictions on 
 the liberty of the press prevent the min- 
 isters from acquiring a knowledge of their 
 real situation, and discredit them with the 
 nation. The restraint of the press can only 
 be of importance to ministers, who throw 
 themselves into the arms of a violent 
 } tarty, with the intention of allowing it an 
 unlimited license." The duke is pro- 
 foundly versed in the whole department 
 of political economy. 
 
 BROKER ; an agent who is employed to 
 conclude bargains, or transact other busi- 
 ness, for his employer, for a certain fee or 
 premium. Brokers are of several kinds 
 merchandise, money, exchange, ship, in- 
 surance, real estate, pawn, stock brokers, 
 &e. Exchange brokers negotiate notes 
 and bills of exchange ; money brokers 
 exchange different kinds of money ; these 
 two classes are not unfrequently united. 
 Merchandise brokers make contracts for 
 the sale of merchandise. Pawn brokers 
 make it their business to lend money 
 upon pawns. Insurance brokers are 
 those whose business it is to procure in- 
 surance of vessels at sea or bound on a 
 voyage. They are, at once, the agents 
 of the underwriters (who expect from 
 them a full disclosure of all circum- 
 stances affecting the risk, and the pay- 
 ment of their premiums), and of the party 
 insured (who trusts to them for the regu- 
 larity of the contract, and a proper selec- 
 tion of underwriters). An agent or broker 
 should not, therefore, be an insurer ; for 
 lie then becomes too much interested to 
 settle with fairness the rate of premium, 
 the amount of partial losses, &c. Stock 
 brokers are those who are employed to 
 buy and sell shares in the stocks, includ- 
 ing the public funds of their own and 
 other countries, bank stock, &c. In the 
 U. States, brokers are not required to be 
 licensed, nor to give bonds. In France, 
 the brokers who deal in money, exchange, 
 merchandise, insurance and stock, are 
 called agents de change, and their number 
 at Paris is fixed at 60. The company of 
 agents de change is directed by a chamber 
 of syndics (chambre syndicate), chosen an- 
 nually by the company. They are obliged 
 to give bonds to the amount of 125,000 
 francs, for the prevention of abuses. They 
 are also obliged to keep books, and are 
 restricted to from Jto per cent, for each 
 
 negotiation. They are allowed to deal in 
 the public funds, foreign and domestic, 
 and the different kinds of merchandise, 
 &c. In London, the brokers must be 
 licensed by the lord mayor, who takes 
 bonds for the faithful execution of their 
 duties. In Egypt, the Arabs are the ex- 
 change brokers, and are called consuls. 
 In tlie Levant and the Indies, the Jews, 
 Armenians and Banians are the chief 
 brokers. 
 
 BROME ; a peculiar substance discov- 
 ered in 1826, and named from the Greek 
 /*?>/">?, in consequence of its disagreeable 
 odor. It is obtained from the bittern of 
 sea-water, or the washings of the ashes 
 of sea-weed. It is a dark-red liquid, of 
 a specific gravity of 2.965, highly volatile, 
 and emits copious red fumes at the ordi- 
 nary temperature of the air. It boils at 
 116. The vapor does not sustain the 
 combustion of a candle, though several 
 of the metals burn in it. It possesses the 
 bleaching powers of chlorine, and, like 
 that substance, is eminently hostile to 
 life ; a single drop of it, placed upon the 
 bill of a bird, being sufficient to kill it. 
 With oxygen and hydrogen it forms acids. 
 Its properties have led to the opinion, that 
 it might be a compound of chlorine and 
 iodine ; but, as neither of these substances 
 have been detected in it, we are, for the 
 present at least, obliged to regard it as a 
 simple element. 
 
 BROMELIA. (See Pine-Apple.} 
 
 BROMIUS ; a surname of Bacchus. 
 
 BRONKHORST, Peter van ; a Dutch 
 painter, born at Delft in 1588, and died 
 in 1661. He painted, with great success, 
 perspective views of temples and church- 
 es, enlivened with small but well exe- 
 cuted human figures. In the town-house 
 of Delft is his representation of Solomon's 
 judgment. John van B., born at Leyden 
 in 1648, learned the art of painting with- 
 out any instruction, and attained to a high 
 degree of perfection. He principally 
 painted animals, and was particularly 
 successful in his birds. The lightness 
 and brilliancy of the feathers are repre- 
 sented with much truth. He was a 
 pastry-cook, and painted merely for his 
 amusement. Another John van B., born 
 at Utrecht in 1603, was a painter on glass. 
 His Works in the new church at Amster- 
 dam are much esteemed. He has also 
 engraved some works of Cornelius Poel- 
 enburg. 
 
 BRONNER, Francis Xaver,born in 1758, 
 at Hochstadt, on the Danube, of the low- 
 est extraction, while a boy, entered the 
 Jesuit college at Dillingen, as a singer.
 
 280 
 
 BRONNER -BROOKLYN. 
 
 He afterwards became a Benedictine 
 monk, and devoted himself, with the 
 greatest zeal, to the study of philosophy 
 and mathematics, as well as to music and 
 poetry. He fled twice from the monas- 
 tery, and took shelter in Zurich. In 
 1810, he was made professor in Kazan, 
 in Russia, whence he returned in 1817. 
 His poems, in particular his piscatory 
 idyls, are interesting for their truth and 
 simplicity, and the refined feeling of 
 moral and natural beauty which pervades 
 them. He wrote his own life, in -J vols. 
 
 BRONZE. For the mode in which this 
 metal is prepared, see Copper. 
 
 BRONZES,, in archajology ; works of art 
 cast in bronze. The ancients used bronze 
 for a great variety of purposes : arms and 
 other instruments, medals and statues, of 
 this metal, are to be found in all cabinets 
 of antiquities. Egyptian idols of bronze 
 are contained in the British museum. 
 The most celebrated antique bronze 
 statues are, the sleeping satyr ; the two 
 youthful athletes ; the colossal equestrian 
 statue of Marcus Aurelius, at Rome ; the 
 Hercules of the capital ; the colossal head 
 of Commodus ; the statue of Septimius 
 Severus in the Barberini palace. The 
 horses of St. Mark, at Venice, are of pure 
 copper. On tables of bronze were in- 
 scribed laws, edicts, and treaties. 3000 
 of these were destroyed by fire in the time 
 of Vespasian. Bass-reliefs, vaults, and 
 doors of public edifices, were ornamented 
 with decorations of the same metal. Ur- 
 ban VIII took from the Pantheon alone 
 450,000 pounds of bronze, which he used 
 for the ornaments of St. Peter's, and for 
 the cannon of the castle of St. Angelo. 
 One of these was composed wholly of 
 bronze nails, taken from the portico, and 
 bore the inscription, Ex clavis trabalibus 
 portions Jlgrippce. The ancients consid- 
 ered this metal as naturally pure ; all 
 their instruments of sacrifice, and sacred 
 vessels, were therefore of bronze. They 
 also believed it endowed with the power 
 of driving away spectres and malignant 
 spirits. ( Ov. Met. vii. 226, and Fast. v. 441.) 
 The words moneta sacra are found only 
 on bronze medals. It was sacred to the 
 gods; and the Roman emperors, who 
 struck gold and silver coins, could not 
 strike them of bronze without the per- 
 mission of the senate; hence the inscrip- 
 tion S. C. (Senatus consulto). (For the 
 method of casting in bronze among the 
 ancients, see Winckelmann's History of 
 1rt, book ii.) The moderns have also 
 made much use of bronze, particularly 
 for statues exposed to accidents, or the 
 
 influence of the atmosphere, and for casts 
 of celebrated antiques. The moulds are 
 made on the pattern, of plaster and brick 
 dust. The parts are then covered on the 
 inside with a coating of clay as thick as 
 the bronze is intended to be. The mould 
 is now closed, and filled on its inside with 
 a nucleus or core of plaster and brick- 
 dust, mixed with water. When this is 
 done, the mould is opened, and the clay 
 carefully removed. The mould, with its 
 core, are then thoroughly dried, and the 
 core secured in its position by bars of 
 bronze, which pass into it through the 
 external part of the mould. The whole 
 is then bound with iron hoops, and the 
 melted bronze is poured in through an 
 aperture left for the purpose: of course, 
 the bronze fills the same cavity which 
 was previously occupied by the clay, and 
 forms a metallic covering to the core. It 
 is afterwards made smooth by mechanical 
 means. 
 
 BRONZING. Bronze of a good quality 
 acquires, by oxydation, a fine green tint, 
 called patina antiqua, or, by the Romans, 
 cerugo. Corinthian brass receives in this 
 way a beautiful clear green color. This 
 appearance is imitated by an artificial 
 process, called bronzing. A solution of 
 sal ammoniac and salt of sorrel in vine- 
 gar is used for bronzing metals. Any 
 number of layers may be applied, and 
 the shade becomes deeper in proportion 
 to the number applied. For bronzing 
 sculptures of wood, plaster, figures, &c. a 
 composition of yellow ochre, Prussian 
 blue, and lampblack, dissolved in glue- 
 water, is employed. 
 
 BRONZINO, Angelo, a painter of the 
 Florentine school, and imitator of Michael 
 Angelo, flourished about 1550. He paint- 
 ed a great number of portraits; and his 
 historical paintings are distinguished by 
 the striking and pleasing features of the 
 heads which they contain. One of his 
 best paintings is a Christ, in the church 
 Santa Croce, at Florence. It is remark- 
 able for its grouping and coloring, as well 
 as for the heads, many of which are the 
 portraits of his friends and contempora- 
 ries; yet. it is not altogether free from 
 mannerism and affectation. Some persons 
 have found fault with the nakedness of 
 his figures. He died at Florence, 1570. 
 
 BROODING. (See Ornithology.) 
 
 BROOKLYN, a post-town of New York, 
 in King's county, on the west end of 
 Long Island, separated from the city of 
 New York by East river. Population in 
 1810, 4,402 ; in 1820, 7,175. The village 
 of B., within the township, is incorporat-
 
 BROOKLYN BROOM. 
 
 281 
 
 cd, and has a pleasant and somewhat 
 elevated situation, opposite to the city of 
 New York, from which it is three fourths 
 of a mile distant. It is a flourishing vil- 
 lage, compactly and handsomely built, 
 having various manufactures, and an ex- 
 tensive trade ; and contained, in 1825, 
 8,800 inhabitants, and 5 houses of pub- 
 lic worship. To the east of the village is 
 a tract of land called the Wallaboght, 
 which is the site of a navy-yard, and 
 public store-houses, belonging to the U. 
 States. Between B. and Flatbush, on 
 the south, a severe battle was fought 
 during the revolutionary war, between 
 the British and Americans, in which the 
 latter were defeated with great loss. 
 
 BROOKS, John, was born in Medford, 
 Mass, in the year 1752. His father was 
 a respectable fanner. After receiving a 
 common education at the town school, 
 young B. was indented as an apprentice, 
 according to the prevailing custom, to 
 doctor Simon Tufts, for the space of seven 
 years. He here contracted an intimacy 
 with the celebrated count Rumford, which 
 was continued by correspondence until 
 the latter's death. After completing his 
 studies, he commenced the practice of 
 his profession in the neighboring town 
 of Reading; but he had not been long so 
 engaged, when the revolutionary war 
 broke out, and he was appointed to com- 
 mand a company of minute men, whom 
 he soon had an opportunity of exercising 
 against the British, on their retreat from 
 Lexington and Concord. He was soon 
 after raised to the rank of major in the 
 continental service, and was distinguish- 
 ed for his knowledge of tactics, being 
 considered as second, in that respect, to 
 baron Steuben alone, with whom he was 
 associated in the duty of introducing a 
 uniform system of exercise and manceu- 
 vres. In 1777, he was appointed lieuten- 
 ant-colonel, and had no small share in the 
 capture of Burgoyne, on the 7th of Oc- 
 tober, at Saratoga. When the conspiracy 
 of some of the officers against the conir 
 mander-in-chief, in March, 1783, had 
 well nigh ruined the country, Washing- 
 ton rode up to Brooks, and requested him 
 to keep his officers within quarters, to 
 prevent their attending the insurgent 
 meeting. Brooks replied, " Sir, I have 
 anticipated your wishes, and my orders 
 are given." Washington took "him by 
 the hand, and said, "Colonel Brooks, this 
 is just what I expected from you." He 
 was one of the committee who brought 
 in the resolutions of the officers, express- 
 ing their abhorrence of this plot, and also 
 24* 
 
 one of that appointed by the officers to 
 adjust their accounts with congress. 
 After the army was disbanded, colonel 
 Brooks resumed the practice of medicine 
 in Medford and the neighboring towns, 
 He was soon after elected a member of 
 the Massachusetts medical society, and, 
 on its extension, and new organization, 
 in the year 1803, a counsellor. He was 
 for many years major-general of the mi- 
 litia of his county, and his division, during 
 the insurrection of 1786, was very effi- 
 cient in the protection of the courts of 
 justice, and the support of the govern- 
 ment. General Brooks also represented 
 his town in the general court, and was a 
 delegate in the state convention, for the 
 adoption of the federal constitution, of 
 which he was one of the most zealous 
 advocates. In the late war with England, 
 he was the adjutant-general of governor 
 Strong, and was chosen to succeed him 
 on his retirement from office, almost 
 without opposition. As governor, he 
 discharged his duties with signal ability 
 and excellent temper. He was president 
 of many literary, religious, patriotic, be- 
 nevolent and professional societies. 
 After discharging, for seven successive 
 years, the duties of chief magistrate, he 
 retired to private life, and spent his re- 
 maining years in the town of Medford, 
 where he was much beloved, The in- 
 habitants referred to him all their disr 
 putes, and his decisions generally satisfi- 
 ed both parties. The death of this ex- 
 cellent man took place in the 73d year 
 of his age, March 1st, 1825. As a phy- 
 sician, he was judicious and accurate in 
 his investigations, and clear in his dis- 
 cernment ; prudent rather than bold, and 
 kind and attentive to his patients. His 
 mind was active, ardent, and indefatiga- 
 ble. His whole conduct was regulated 
 by the purest sentiments of morality and 
 religion, imbibed at an early period, 
 
 BROOM; a genus of plants which in-? 
 eludes numerous species. The common 
 Iroom (spartium scoparium) is a shrub 
 growing abundantly on sandy pastures 
 and heaths in England. It is distin- 
 guished by having large, yellow, butterfly- 
 shaped flowers, leaves in threes, and sin- 
 gle, and the branches angular. This is 
 a handsome shrub, and one of the most 
 useful of the common plants of Great 
 Britain. Its twigs are tied in bundles, 
 and formed into brooms. Some persons 
 roast the seeds, and make them into a 
 kind of coffee. The fibrous and elastic 
 parts of the bark, separated by soaking 
 in water, may be manufactured into cor-*
 
 282 
 
 BROOM BROUGHAM. 
 
 dage, matting, and even into a coarse 
 kind of cloth. The twigs and young 
 branches have been successfully employ- 
 ed as a substitute for oak bark in tanning 
 leather. They may also be rendered ser- 
 viceable as thatch for houses and rorn- 
 ricks ; and some persons mix them with 
 hops in brewing; but it is doubtful wheth- 
 er, in this respect, they are wholesome. 
 The flower-buds, when pickled, have, 
 occasionally, been used as a substitute for 
 capers. The wood, when the dimensions 
 are sufficient for the purpose, is employed 
 by cabinet-makers for veneering ; and it 
 is stated, by doctor Mead, that a decoction 
 of the green tops, in conjunction with 
 mustard, has been found efficacious in the 
 cure of dropsy. Spanish broom, or spurt 
 (spartium junceum), is an ornamental 
 flowering shrub, common in English gar- 
 dens, which has opposite round branches, 
 that flower at the top, and spear-shaped 
 leaves. In the province of Valencia, and 
 other parts of Spain, great attention is 
 paid to the manufacture of various articles 
 from the twigs and bark of this shrub. 
 They are plaited into mats, carpets, cov- 
 ering for plants, baskets, ropes, and even 
 shoes. A great portion of these twigs 
 was formerly exported to different 
 French ports in the Mediterranean, par- 
 ticularly to Marseilles ; but, in 1783, on 
 account of the employment of which it 
 deprived the Spanish people in working 
 them, their exportation was prohibited by 
 the government. 
 
 BROSSES, Charles de, first president of 
 the parliament of Burgundy, was born at 
 Dijon in 1709. He applied himself to the 
 study of law, and, at the same time, did 
 not neglect the arts and sciences. His 
 intimate acquaintance with Roman his- 
 tory produced in him a desire of visiting 
 Italy, whither he went in 1739. On his 
 return, he published his Letters on the 
 present Condition of the subterraneous 
 City Herculaneum (Dijon, 1750). Ten 
 years afterwards appeared his treatise on 
 the religious worship called Fdisch. At 
 the request of Buffon, who had been his 
 friend from youth, he wrote a History of 
 the Voyages to Australia (1756). At that 
 time, it was generally believed that there 
 was a southern continent, to which De B. 
 gave the name of Magellania. The erro- 
 neous nature of this supposition was first 
 made known by Cook. A work of a 
 very different kind succeeded this, and 
 displayed the extent and variety of the 
 author's learning. This w r as a treatise on 
 the mechanical formation of languages. 
 It contained, together with many imper- 
 
 fections, numerous curious and profound 
 investigations, ingenious conjectures, and 
 penetrating views. De B. employed him- 
 self, through his whole life, on a work 
 which was held in no slight estimation 
 by the learned. This was a translation 
 of Sallust, in which he labored to supply 
 the lost parts of this historian. For this 
 purpose, he collected above 700 fragments 
 of Sallu.-it, by means of which, with some 
 important additions, he composed a his- 
 tory of the 7th century of the Roman 
 republic, displaying a great extent of 
 erudition. The work would have been 
 received with greater approbation, if the 
 graces of style had been joined to the 
 depth and sagacity of research which it 
 manifests. Though these various labors 
 claimed a large portion of his time, yet 
 they did not hinder him from attending 
 to the duties of his office. He died in 
 1777. The manuscripts which he left 
 were lost during the revolution. 
 BROTHEL. (See Bawdy- House.) 
 BROTHERHOOD, HOLY. (See Herman- 
 dad.) 
 
 BROTHERHOODS. (See Fraternities:) 
 BROTHERS ; male children of the same 
 father or mother, or both. Among the 
 ancients, the term was employed to denote 
 more remote relations. Thus, among the 
 Jews, Abraham was called the brother of 
 Lot, his nephew. By the civil law, 
 brothers and sisters stand in the second 
 degree of consanguinity : by the canon 
 law, they are in the first degree. In the 
 monastic and military orders, the members 
 were called brothers, as being united in 
 one family. In Europe, the kings ad- 
 dress each other by the title of brother : 
 the president of the U. States uses the 
 same title in addressing the Indian chiefs 
 who are sent to talk with him. 
 
 BROUGHAM, Henry, was born at Lon- 
 don, in 1779. He attracted public notice, 
 originally, as one of the principal contrib- 
 utors to the Edinburgh Review. Sound 
 learning, a terse and expressive style, 
 logical reasoning, vigor and independence 
 of thought, were the distinguishing traits 
 of his compositions. But his efforts as a 
 parliamentary orator, as an advocate, and 
 as a public benefactor, have given him 
 the most extensive reputation, and raised 
 him to an enviable height in public opin- 
 ion. As an advocate, he stands in the 
 front rank of the English bar; and the 
 variety of his talents and acquisitions 
 have served to reflect credit upon his char- 
 acter as a lawyer ; while the solid foot- 
 ing of professional eminence has commu- 
 nicated authority and weight to his exer-
 
 BROUGHAM BROUSSONET. 
 
 283 
 
 tions in other walks of life. His profes- 
 sional course has been, to a considerable 
 degree, associated with his political ca- 
 reer, in consequence of the differences 
 between George IV, when prince-regent, 
 and the then princess of Wales. During 
 the discussions relative to her conduct and 
 affairs, he acted as her counsel ; and af- 
 terwards, on the accession of George IV, 
 when queen Caroline claimed the rights 
 and privileges of queen-consort, B. was 
 appointed her attorney-general, and acted 
 in that capacity at her trial. Of course, he 
 belonged to the opposition party ; and he 
 lias consistently maintained the principles 
 of the whigs down to the present mo- 
 ment. The responsible part he took in 
 behalf of queen Caroline secured to him 
 the regard of her friends and of the op- 
 position. But he possesses more solid 
 claims to the respect of the liberal party, 
 from his labors as a member of the house 
 of commons. Among these may be men- 
 tioned his efforts to procure a repeal of 
 the orders in council ; his opposition to 
 the leather tax ; his opinions on the liber- 
 ty of the press ; his efforts in behalf of 
 popular education ; and, recently, his at- 
 tempts to procure a reform in the admin- 
 istration of the laws. On all occasions, 
 he has acted with purity and independ- 
 ence, and has proved himself above mero 
 personal considerations. Although he 
 never took office, yet he is, unquestiona- 
 bly, the most prominent man in the 
 house. The variety of his powers and 
 attainments is not the least of his claims 
 to attention. Preeminent as a man of 
 science, a literary man, a statesman, law- 
 yer and orator, and throwing himself, 
 with energy and success, into all these 
 different departments of intellectual pur- 
 suit, he necessarily occupies a large space 
 in the public eye. As an orator, he is 
 neither finished nor accurate in style, but 
 his characteristics are ingenuity and force 
 of argument, quickness and strength of 
 sarcasm, and a prompt, vigorous, impas- 
 sioned style of reasoning, which ren- 
 der him, as an antagonist in debate, al- 
 ways redoubtable, and often irresistible. 
 In addition to his contributions to the 
 Edinburgh Review, and to various scien- 
 tific journals, we may mention, among his 
 publications, the following: 1. An In- 
 quiry into the Colonial Policy of the Eu- 
 ropean Powers; 2 vols., 8vo., 1803. 2. 
 On the State of the Nation. 3. Speech 
 on the State of Commerce and Manufac- 
 tures ; 1812. 4. Speech at Liverpool ; 
 1812. 5. Practical Observations on the 
 Education of the People ; 1825. 6. 
 
 Speech on the State of the Law ; 1828. 
 The reputation which he has hitherto ac- 
 quired by his occasional efforts, upon 
 temporary and transient subjects, is splen- 
 did ; but he is now laying the foundation 
 of a deeper and more brilliant fame, by 
 his unwearied industry in the cause of 
 popular instruction and of legal reform. 
 As to the first, it is sufficient to say, that 
 his principles on the subject of extending 
 the elements of knowledge among the 
 middling or loAver classes, have met with 
 the most decided support, and are the 
 basis of much that is now doing for their 
 improvement. His propositions of legal 
 reform having been brought forward but 
 lately, the result remains to be seen ; but 
 the reception they have met with augurs 
 auspiciously for the result. His life, we 
 hope, will long be spared to his country. 
 
 BROUGHTON'S ARCHIPELAGO ; an ex- 
 tensive range of islands, rocky islets and 
 rocks, in an arm of the Pacific ocean, on 
 the west coast of North America ; so call- 
 ed from an Englishman, who discovered 
 them in 1790. Lon. 232 3ff to 233 4(X 
 E. ; lat 50 33 / to 51 N. 
 
 BROUSSONET', Pierre Marie Auguste, 
 physician and naturalist, born at Mont- 
 pellier in 1761, first introduced the Lin- 
 naean system into France. Daubenton, 
 though an opponent of LinnaBiis, made 
 him his substitute in the college de France, 
 and, in 1784, his assistant in the veterina- 
 ry school. B. read several valuable pa- 
 pers before the academy, and was chosen 
 a member. As secretary of the agricul- 
 tural society at Paris, he published the 
 useful UJlnnee rurale ou Calendrier a 
 I' Usage des Cultivateurs, and caused the 
 first flock of Merino sheep to be introdu- 
 ced from Spain, and Angora goats from 
 the Levant. In 1789, he became a mem- 
 ber of the national assembly, and, al- 
 though he did not distinguish himself in 
 political disputes, he was imprisoned by 
 the convention as a Girondist. He escap- 
 ed to Madrid, but was obliged, by the 
 royalist emigres, to fly from that place. 
 By the assistance of his friend sir Joseph 
 Banks, he embarked in an English ves- 
 sel for India. A storm forced the vessel 
 into the harbor of Lisbon, where he soon 
 met with new persecutions. Under the 
 title of physician to the American consul 
 at Morocco, he went to Africa, and reas- 
 sumed his botanical studies. His name 
 was finally struck from the list of emi- 
 grants, lie was made consul at Moga- 
 dore, and at the Canaries, and, in 1805, 
 member of the corps legislatif. He died, 
 in 1807, from the consequences of a fall
 
 284 
 
 BROUSSONET BROWN. 
 
 he had met with some time before, by 
 which he lost his memory for all proper 
 names and other substantives, but had ad- 
 jectives in abundance at his command. 
 His manuscripts are of great value. 
 
 BROWER. (See Brauwer.) 
 
 BROWN, Charles Brockden, greatly dis- 
 tinguished as a novelist, and the editor of 
 various periodical works, was born in the 
 city of Philadelphia, in 1771. He was 
 remarkable in his childhood for his at- 
 tachment to books, and, at the age of 16, 
 after having received a liberal education, 
 had already formed plans of extensive 
 literary works. The profession of which 
 he made choice was the law. He was 
 apprenticed to an eminent member of the 
 Philadelphia bar, but, during the term 
 intended for preparatory legal study, was, 
 in fact, principally occupied with literary 
 pursuits ; and, when the time approached 
 for his admission into the courts, he re- 
 nounced, altogether, the legal career from 
 constitutional timidity, and an invincible 
 dislike to the scenes which courts present. 
 His friends remonstrated and reasoned in 
 vain. The youth desired only retirement 
 and the employments of a student and an 
 author. The delicacy of his frame, more- 
 over, incapacitated him for the bustle of 
 business and all athletic amusements. 
 During frequent visits to New York, he 
 became intimate with a literary club, who 
 fostered his devotion to letters, and in- 
 creased his eagerness to be conspicuous 
 as a writer. He kept minute journals, 
 indited essays and dissertations, and cul- 
 tivated, with unremitting assiduity, the 
 arts of composition. The first novel 
 which he wrote was entitled Sky Walk. 
 It was never published, owing to the 
 death of the printer, who had undertaken 
 to issue it at his own risk. Parts of it 
 were afterwards incorporated in the pro- 
 ductions by which B. became so advan- 
 tageously known to his country and Great 
 Britain. The first of these was the novel 
 called Wieland, which appeared in 1798. 
 It soon acquired the reputation of a pow- 
 erful and original romance. The next 
 published, in the following year, was Or- 
 mond, or the Secret Witness, which had 
 neither the success nor the merit of the 
 other, but still exhibits uncommon pow- 
 ers of invention and description. At this 
 time, B. had begun no less than five nov- 
 els, two of which Arthur 31ervyn and 
 Edgar Huntley were completed and 
 sent forth almost immediately. In Ar- 
 thur Mervyn, the ravages of the yellow 
 fever, which the author had witnessed in 
 New York and Philadelphia, are painted 
 
 with terrific truth. All these composi- 
 tions abound both with excellences and 
 faults, and bear a character of originality. 
 In 1801, he published another novel 
 Clara Howard less open to exception, 
 but also less deserving of praise. Its form 
 is different from that of the others, being 
 epistolary. The last of his novels was 
 Jane Talbot, originally published in Lon- 
 don, in 1804. It is deficient in interest, 
 and, indeed, in all respects, inferior to its 
 predecessors. In April, 1799, B. pub- 
 lished the first number of the Monthly 
 Magazine and American Review. This 
 work he continued with great industry 
 and ability until the end of the year 1800. 
 lie wrote abundantly for it. Circum- 
 stances compelled him to relinquish it ; 
 but, in 1805, he commenced another 
 journal, with the title of the Literary 
 Magazine and American Register ; and, 
 in this undertaking, he persevered for five 
 years. His prolific pen gave birth to 
 three large political pamphlets in the 
 same interval. Their respective titles are, 
 an Address to the Government of the U, 
 States on the Cession of Louisiana to the 
 French, and on the late Breach of Treaty 
 by the Spaniards ; the British Treaty ; 
 and an Address to the Congress of the U. 
 States on the Utility and Justice of Re- 
 strictions on Foreign Commerce, with 
 Reflections on Foreign Trade in general, 
 and the future Prospects of America. In 
 1804, B. married Miss Linn, a sister of 
 the amiable and popular poet, the rever- 
 end doctor John Blair Linn. The match 
 proved eminently happy. In 1806, he 
 entered upon a new work, a semi-annual 
 American Register, five volumes of which 
 he lived to complete and publish. It is 
 now and must long be consulted as a 
 valuable body of annals. We have al- 
 ready mentioned the delicacy of B.'s con- 
 stitution. It had a tendency to consump- 
 tion of the lungs, which his sedentary and 
 studious habits unfortunately aggravated. 
 In 1809, it was discovered that his lungs 
 were seriously affected, and he then con- 
 sented to travel for the recovery of his 
 health. The remedy, however, was ap- 
 plied too late. In November of that year, 
 after an excursion into the states of New 
 Jersey and New York, he betook himself 
 to his chamber, as he thought, for a few 
 days; but his confinement lasted until 
 February, and ended only with his life. 
 He expired on the 22d of that month, at 
 the age of 39. Among his manuscripts, 
 an unfinished system of geography was 
 found, to which his friends have ascribed 
 rare merit. He was widely and critically
 
 BROWN. 
 
 285 
 
 conversant with geography and history, 
 and, therefore, particularly qualified to 
 produce a superior system of this kind. 
 His knowledge of the French language is 
 evinced in his accurate translation of 
 Volney's Travels in the U. States. B. 
 was a man of romantic temper, benevo- 
 lent heart, pregnant invention, extensive 
 attainments and prodigious industry. His 
 colloquial powers were considerable, but 
 rarely indulged in mixed society. He 
 was reserved, but not unsocial. He could 
 be taxed with no excess, save that of ap- 
 plication. His moral character has no 
 stain. He was one of the gentlest of 
 human beings. In person, he was of the 
 middle size, and bore the marks of a 
 valetudinarian and literary devotee. The 
 writings of B. were admired and current 
 during his life. Even his novels, how- 
 ever, tell, after his death, into comparative 
 oblivion at home, and remained so until 
 they began, not long since, to be read and 
 praised in England. An edition of them 
 in G vols. 8vo. was printed in Boston in 
 1828. Their leading traits are, a rich and 
 correct diction, variety of incident, vivid 
 scenes of joy and sorrow, a minute devel- 
 opement and strong display of emotion, 
 and a powerful use of wonderful phe- 
 nomena in the physical faculties and 
 habits of man. Almost all is new and 
 strange in his machinery and situations ; 
 but he deals too much in the horrible and 
 criminal. Extravagant and consummate 
 depravity actuates too many of his char- 
 acters. His scenes may rivet attention, 
 and his plots excite the keenest curiosity ; 
 yet they pain the heart beyond the privi- 
 lege of fiction, and leave in the imagina- 
 tion only a crowd of terrific phantasms. 
 None of his novels can be said to possess 
 unity in the details, or to be finished in 
 the general design and execution. These 
 merits were incompatible with the ex- 
 treme rapidity of his workmanship, and 
 the number of distinct performances in 
 which his fancy and pen were engaged 
 at the same time. 
 
 BIIOWN, George, count, an Irishman, 
 born in 1698, studied at Limerick, and 
 entered the Russian service, in 1730, as 
 lieutenant, where he distinguished him- 
 self iu several wars, and was three times 
 made prisoner and sold as a slave by the 
 Turks. In reward for the discovery of 
 some secrets of the divan, he was inado 
 Major-general in the Russian army. In 
 the battle of Zorndorf, he was taken pris- 
 oner by the Prussians, and disabled, by 
 wounds, for future military services. 
 Notwithstanding his bold remonstrances 
 
 against the Danish war, Peter III made 
 him governor of Livonia, in which post 
 he remained 30 years, and was not less 
 honored by Catharine II. He died in 
 1792. 
 
 BROWN, John, M. D., the founder of 
 the Brunonian system in physic, was born 
 at Buncle in Berwickshire, in 1735. His 
 parents apprenticed him to a weaver, but, 
 it being discovered that he possessed abil- 
 ities superior to his occupation, he was 
 sent to a grammar-school. Having im- 
 bibed a considerable portion of religious 
 enthusiasm, he looked forward to the 
 ministerial office, among the strict sect cf 
 seceders. Upon some disgust, however, 
 he changed his mind, and, in 1756, en- 
 tered himself as a student of divinity in 
 the university at Edinburgh. His theo- 
 logical predilection gradually forsaking 
 him, after officiating as the usher of the 
 school in which he had been educated, 
 he returned to Edinburgh in 1759, aiid 
 commenced the study of physic, lie 
 was admitted, as an indigent scholar, to a 
 gratuitous attendance on the lectures, and 
 obtained the patronage of doctor Cullen, 
 who employed him as a tutor in his own 
 family. During this course of study, he 
 married, and set up a boarding-house, but 
 failed, and became bankrupt. About this 
 time, by a long course of meditation on 
 the animal system, and the vigor of his 
 own mind, directed by some reading, but 
 seconded by little or no aid from practical 
 observation, he elaborated a new theory 
 of medicine. The result was the publica- 
 tion of his Elementa Medicinae, which he 
 further explained in a course of private 
 lectures. B. scrupled at no means to 
 push his doctrines. A new medical lan- 
 guage was introduced ; ideas totally at 
 variance with former opinions were main- 
 tained ; and the most virulent abuse of 
 the regular professors of the university 
 was perseveringly uttered. At length, 
 ruined in reputation and involved in his 
 circumstances, he repaired, in 1786, to 
 London. Here he endeavored to excite 
 attention by his Observations on the Old 
 Systems of Physic, but without success, 
 and died suddenly of apoplexy, probably 
 produced by laudanum, which he was iu 
 the habit of taking when common spirits 
 failed to excite him sufficiently. The opin- 
 ions of B., although not admitted to the 
 extent and) in the form in which he pro- 
 posed them, made a considerable change 
 in medical language and doctrines, not 
 only in Great Britain, but in the principal 
 schools of Europe, his Elementa and Ob- 
 servations having been translated aaU
 
 BROWN. 
 
 published at more than one place on the 
 continent. His object was to simplify 
 medicine, by arranging both diseases and 
 remedial powers into large and strongly- 
 marked classes. He divided all diseases 
 into sthenic and asthenic, or those in 
 which excitement is too great or too little, 
 and all curative means into such as in- 
 crease or diminish excitement. The sys- 
 tem has been useful in overturning false 
 and trifling analogies, and in leading to 
 a full trial of vigorous remedies ; but 
 in practice it is found impossible to act 
 on ideas so general and abstract. The 
 best edition of the English translation of 
 the Elementa is that revised and correct- 
 ed by doctor Beddoes, with a biographi- 
 cal preface. 
 
 BROWN, Robert, the founder of a reli- 
 gious sect, first called Brownists, and af- 
 terwards Independents, was born of an 
 ancient family in Rutlandshire, and studied 
 at Cambridge, where, in 1580, he began 
 openly to attack the government and lit- 
 urgy of the church of England as anti- 
 Christian. He first ascended the pulpit 
 at Norwich in 1581, where he succeeded 
 in converting a number of Dutch, who 
 had a congregation there, to his opinions, 
 for which he was brought before the ec- 
 clesiastical commissioners, to whom he 
 behaved so rudely, that he was sent to 
 prison, but soon obtained a release. He 
 then went to Middleburg, in Zealand, 
 with his followers, and wrote a book 
 called A Treatise of Reformation ivithout 
 tarrying for any Man. In 1585, he re- 
 turned to England, and, as he still labor- 
 ed to gain converts, he was excommuni- 
 cated by the bishop of Peterborough. 
 This censure, joined, perhaps, with the 
 evaporation of his zeal, induced him to 
 submit; and, in 1590, he was presented to 
 a living in Northamptonshire, of which 
 he received the emoluments without dis- 
 charging the duties. In other respects, 
 too, his morals were licentious, so that he 
 retained little of the austerity of the 
 founder of a sect After leading a turbu- 
 lent life, this extraordinary character died 
 in 1630, in Northampton jail, where he 
 had been sent for assaulting a constable and 
 insulting a magistrate. The sect of 
 Krownists was far from expiring with 
 their founder, but spread so as to become 
 a great object of alarm ; and a bill was 
 brought into parliament which inflicted 
 on them very severe pains and penalties. 
 In process of time, however, the name of 
 Brownists was merged in that of Congre- 
 gationalists or Independents (q. v.), under 
 the latter of which titles they fonned a 
 
 powerful party in the commonwealth, and 
 were very obnoxious to the Presbyterians, 
 whose successors, it is remarkable, have, 
 for the most part, gradually adopted 
 Brownist principles in relation to church 
 government. 
 
 BROWN, doctor Thomas ; an ingenious 
 writer on metaphysics and morals. He 
 was born in Scotland, hi 1778, and was 
 educated at the high-school, and subse- 
 quently at the university of Edinburgh, 
 where he obtained the professorship of 
 moral philosophy. He distinguished him- 
 self, at a veiy early age, by an acute re- 
 view of the medical and physiological 
 theories of doctor Darwin, in a work en- 
 titled Observations on Darwin's Zoono- 
 inia, 8vo. This work introduced him to 
 the academy of physics, of which Mac- 
 kenzie, Jeffery and Brougham were mem- 
 bers. It was this society which gave rise 
 to the Edinburgh Review, to which the 
 first contributors sent their papers gratu- 
 itously. B. wrote the review of the phi- 
 losophy of Kant, in the second number, 
 but, being displeased with some liberties 
 taken with one of his papers intended for 
 the fourth number, his connexion with it 
 was terminated. He also published some 
 poems, which displayed considerable tal- 
 ent. His principal poetical work is the 
 Paradise of Coquettes, London, 1814. 
 But he chiefly deserves notice on account 
 of his metaphysical speculations ; and his 
 last work, on the Philosophy of the Hu- 
 man Mind, affords ample proof of his 
 merit as a profound and original thinker. 
 He died at Brompton, near London, April 
 2, 1820. 
 
 BROWN, William, the celebrated admi- 
 ral of Buenos Ayres, was born in Ireland, 
 from whence he emigrated to Baltimore, 
 in the U. States, in 1793, being then about 
 14 years of age. He was employed in 
 the American mercantile marine until 
 1796, when he was impressed by a British 
 man-of-war. He continued partly in the 
 English navy and partly in the merchant 
 service until 1814, when, being at Buenos 
 Ayres, in the command of an English 
 merchant-ship, during the war of inde- 
 pendence, he was induced to enter into 
 the naval service of the country. Being 
 appointed to the command of the repub- 
 lican flotilla of two brigs, three corvettes 
 and a schooner, he put to sea in April, 
 1814, and engaged some ships of the 
 Spaniards, off the island of Martin Garcia^ 
 In the ensuing May, a more decisive en- 
 gagement took place off Monte Video, in 
 which four of the enemy's vessels were 
 either taken or destroyed, and the rest
 
 BROWN BROWNE. 
 
 287 
 
 dispersed. This victory enabled B. to 
 blockade Monte Video, and thus contrib- 
 ute essentially to bring about the surren- 
 der of that city, which speedily took 
 place. B. was now raised to the rank of 
 admiral ; and, there being no further oc- 
 casion for his services in the river La 
 Plata, after the destruction of the Spanish 
 fleet, he planned an expedition against 
 the Spaniards in the Pacific ocean. For 
 some time he cruised with great success, 
 making many rich prizes from the Span- 
 iards, who had no force in those seas ad- 
 equate to oppose him. He was daring 
 enough to attack Callao, but without suc- 
 cess ; and afterwards made a similar at- 
 tempt to gain possession of Guayaquil. 
 But, on the latter occasion, his flag-sliip, 
 the Trinidad, grounded on the sands un- 
 der the guns of a battery, and he was 
 obliged to surrender at discretion. He 
 remained in confinement but a few days, 
 being exchanged for the governor of 
 Guayaquil, don Manuel Mendiburu, who 
 had been made prisoner by one of his 
 cruisers. In May, 1816, he anchored in 
 the harbor of Buenaventura with the cor- 
 vettes Hercules and Hawk, and entered 
 into communication with the government 
 of Popayan, for the purpose of selling 
 some of the property taken from his 
 prizes, and obtaining supplies. At this 
 time, the patriot cause in New Grenada 
 was in its most desperate condition, Mo- 
 rillo having overrun the whole country, 
 and obtained possession of Santa Fe. 
 Some of the most eminent republican 
 leaders, who were flying for their lives, 
 took the road for Buenaventura, hoping 
 to escape on board B.'s vessels. But, the 
 Spaniards having gained possession of 
 Choco, B. found it necessary to put to sea 
 precipitately in the Hercules, scuttling the 
 Hawk, and abandoning a number of his 
 seamen, who were on shore, with a large 
 quantity of valuable merchandise. After 
 having greatly annoyed the Spanish com- 
 merce in the Pacific, and sent a number 
 of his prizes to Buenos Ayres, he return- 
 ed in the Hercules, with a rich booty on 
 board, to enjoy the fruits of his intrepidity 
 and enterprise. Finding the La Plata 
 blockaded by the Portuguese, and his 
 vessel needing repairs, he determined to 
 proceed either to the West Indies or the 
 U. States. On the way, be was captured 
 by the British ship of war Brazen, cap- 
 tain Sinclair, carried into Antigua, and 
 condemned by the admiralty court, upon 
 allegations so frivolous and unreasonable 
 as to afford good cause to charge the 
 captors or the court with corrupt and 
 
 arbitrary conduct. Owing to this unjust 
 proceeding, B. lived at Buenos Ayres in 
 retirement, and almost in poverty, until 
 the war with Brazil commenced. This 
 event brought him once more into notice, 
 and gave him an opportunity of acquiring 
 no small share of naval reputation. As 
 admiral of the naval forces of the repub- 
 lic during this war, B. has displayed un- 
 common bravery, activity and skill, hav- 
 ing been generally successful in his 
 military enterprises. But, owing to the 
 straitened means of the republican gov- 
 ernment, his courage has generally been 
 wasted upon small enterprises, which 
 have signalized his talents and prowess on 
 many brilliant occasions, but produced no 
 decisive effect upon the war. 
 
 BROWNE, Maximilian Ulysses, count, 
 field-marshal in the Austrian service, 
 born at Bale, in 1705. His father, Ulys- 
 ses de Browne, left Ireland in 1690, as a 
 follower of king James II, became colo- 
 nel in the Austrian service, and died in 
 1721. The son served from his early 
 youth in the imperial army ; distinguish- 
 ed himself in the Italian war, in particu- 
 lar, in the battles of Parma and Guastalla ; 
 and, in 1739, was made lieutenant-field- 
 marshal. In the Silesian wars, B. serv- 
 ed with zeal and ability; the 15th June, 
 1746, he gained the battle of Piacenza 
 against the French, took the pass of 
 Bochetta, and made himself master of 
 Savona. In 1752, he was made governor 
 of the city of Prague, and commander in 
 chief of the forces in Bohemia; and, in 
 1756, when king Frederic II attempted 
 to penetrate through Saxony to Bohemia, 
 he was appointed field-marshal. Octo- 
 ber 1, 1756, he lost the battle of Lowositz, 
 but, seven days after, advanced towards 
 Saxony, to rescue the Saxon troops, who 
 were surrounded between Pirna and 
 Konigstein. Although he did not effect 
 this purpose, he forced the Prussians to 
 evacuate Bohemia, and was, in conse- 
 quence, rewarded with the order of the 
 golden fleece. Frederic invaded Bohe- 
 mia a second time with his whole force, 
 and, May 6, 1757, the battle of Prague 
 was fought. B. was obliged to leave the 
 field, and was carried to Prague, mortally 
 wounded, and died in June, 1757. Fred- 
 eric II called him his master. 
 
 BROWNE, Simon; a learned and inge- 
 nious dissenting divine, remarkable for 
 an extraordinary species of mental de- 
 rangement, born about 1680. He preach- 
 ed for some time at Portsmouth; after- 
 wards at the Old Jewry, one of the prin- 
 cipal congregations of Dissenters in Lon-
 
 288 
 
 BROWNE BRUCE. 
 
 don. Here he published a volume of 
 hymns, and one of sermons. In 1723, 
 the loss of liis wife and only son threw 
 him into a settled melancholy, attended 
 with the persuasion, that God had anni- 
 hilated in him the thinking substance, 
 and utterly divested him of conscious- 
 ?;rss; and, although he retained the hu- 
 man shape, and the faculty of speaking 
 in a inanner that appeared to others ra- 
 tional, he had all the while no more no- 
 tion of what he said than a parrot. He, 
 therefore, thought himself no longer a 
 moral agent, or a subject of reward or 
 punishment, and, desisting from his func- 
 tions, could not be prevailed upon to join 
 in any act of worship, public or private. 
 This persuasion, which remained with 
 him to the end of his life, at first tempted 
 him to commit suicide ; but he at length 
 became calm, and appeared uneasy only 
 when his friends appeared to doubt the 
 truth of his assertions. Notwithstanding 
 this alienation of mind, his faculties, in 
 other respects, were in full vigor, which 
 he proved by various publications, in- 
 cluding the compilation of a dictionary. 
 This, he observed, " was nothing that re- 
 quired a reasonable soul." Towards the 
 close of his life, he published several 
 clearly-written theological pieces, and, 
 among the rest, a defence of revelation. 
 So strong, however, was his delusion, 
 that, in a dedication to queen Caroline, 
 which his friends would not permit him 
 to publish, but which appeared in the 
 88th number of the Adventurer, he de- 
 scribes his deprivation of a soul with 
 great force of expression, and even pa- 
 thos. He died in 1732, aged 55. 
 
 BROWNE, sir Thomas, a physician and 
 writer, was born in London, in 1605. 
 He was educated at Winchester school, 
 whence he was removed to Oxford, and 
 afterwards received the degree of M. D. 
 at Leyden. On his return to England^ 
 he settled at Norwich, where he acquired 
 extensive practice and reputation. In 
 1642, he published his famous work, en- 
 titled Religio Medici, which was trans- 
 lated into various languages. In 1646, 
 his literary character was still further ex- 
 alted by his Pseudodoxia Epidemica, or 
 Treatise on Vulgar Errors, a work of ex- 
 traordinary learning. In 1658, his Hy- 
 driotaphia, or Treatise on Urn-Burial, ap- 
 peared, with his Garden of Cyrus. In 
 1665, he was constituted an honorary 
 member of the college of physicians, and, 
 in 1671, Charles II conferred on him the 
 honor of knighthood. He died in 1682. 
 Fancy and feeling predominated in him 
 
 over judgment ; he believed in the exist- 
 ence of guardian angels, in the reality of 
 witchcraft, and the appearance of spectres. 
 The Treatise on Vulgar Errors ably dis- 
 cusses the causes of error. A folio edi- 
 tion of his works was published in HiHti. 
 Doctor Johnson, who has written his life, 
 speaks highly of his exuberance of knowl- 
 edge and plenitude of ideas. 
 
 BROWNY, in the Hebrides, and the 
 Highlands of Scotland ; a spirit who 
 cleaned the house, churned, threshed, 
 and did other good-natured offices. He 
 seems to be the same as the English 
 puck, hobgoblin, or Robin Goodfellow, 
 whom Reginald Scott(Discovery of Witch- 
 craft) describes as one, who, for his pains 
 in grinding malt and mustard, and sweep- 
 ing the house, had a bowl of milk set for 
 him. When Johnson visited the Hebri- 
 des, nothing had been heard of the browiiy 
 for many years. 
 
 BRUCE, James, a celebrated modem 
 traveller, was born at Kinnaird -house, in 
 Scotland, in 1730. He received his early 
 education at Harrow, whence he was re- 
 moved to the university of Edinburgh, 
 where he studied with a view to pursue 
 the profession of the law. His object, 
 however, changing, he entered into part- 
 nership with a wine-merchant, whose 
 daughter he married ; but, upon his wife's 
 death within a year, he made a tour 
 abroad, during which absence he suc- 
 ceeded, by the death of his father, to the 
 estate of Kinnaird. On his return to 
 England, he sought public employment, 
 and at length was indebted to lord Hali- 
 fax for the appointment of consul at Al- 
 giers. He repaired to his post in 1763, 
 and employed himself there for a year in 
 the study of the Oriental languages. He 
 commenced travelling by visits to Tunis, 
 Tripoli, Rhodes, Cyprus, Syria, and several 
 parts of Asia Minor, where, accompanied 
 by an able Italian draughtsman, (of whose 
 labors he is now known to have assum- 
 ed the merit,) he made drawings of the 
 ruins of Palmyra, Baalbec, and other re- 
 mains of antiquity. These were deposit- 
 ed in the king's library at Kew, and, in 
 the language of boast and hyperbole, 
 which formed the great weakness of this 
 able and adventurous character, consti- 
 tuted "the most magnificent present in 
 that line ever made by a subject to his 
 sovereign." Of his first travels he never 
 published an account In June, 1768, 
 he set out on his famous journey to dis- 
 cover the source of the Nile. Proceed- 
 ing first to Cairo, he navigated the Nile 
 to Syene, thence crossed the desert to
 
 BRUCE. 
 
 280 
 
 the Red sea, and, arriving at Jidda, pass- 
 ed some months in Arabia Felix, and, 
 after various detentions, reached Gondar, 
 the capital of Abyssinia, in February, 1770. 
 In that country, he ingratiated himself 
 with the sovereign, and other influential 
 persons, of both sexes, in the several ca- 
 pacities of physician, courtier and soldier. 
 On November 14, 1770, he obtained the 
 great object of his wishes a sight of the 
 sources of the Nile. Claiming to be the 
 first European who had accomplished 
 tli is interesting discovery, his exultation 
 was proportionate, and he records it with 
 singular strength of expression. The 
 right of the fountains which he visited to 
 the title of the principal sources of the 
 Nile is rationally controverted : but, wheth- 
 er they be so or not, they had been previ- 
 ously visited by the missionary Jesuits of 
 Portugal, a fact of which he could scarce- 
 ly have been ignorant. On his return to 
 Gondar, he found the country engaged 
 in a civil war, and was detained two 
 years before he could obtain permission 
 to leave the country. Thirteen months 
 more were occupied in travelling back to 
 Cairo, in which journey he endured ex- 
 cessive privations. He returned to his 
 native country in 1773, and retired to his 
 paternal seat. He married again, and 
 maintained the character of an elegant 
 and hospitable host, and an amiable man 
 in private life, but capricious in his friend- 
 ships, and haughty and arrogant to stran- 
 gers. His long-expected Travels did not 
 appear until 1796, in four large quarto 
 volumes, decorated with plates. These 
 volumes are replete with curious infor- 
 mation concerning a part of the world 
 but little known to Europeans, and con- 
 tain much interesting personal adven- 
 ture, and fine description. It is to be 
 lamented that the authority of the work, 
 in regard to facts of natural history and 
 human manners, is not altogether satis- 
 factory ; and, the pride of the author not 
 allowing him to remove objections, it is, 
 perhaps, entitled to more credit than it 
 has received. Whatever its portion of 
 accuracy and merit, the nature of its re- 
 ception may serve to guard all future 
 travellers against the indulgence of too 
 much egotism and personal vanity in their 
 narrations ; for, with little direct evidence 
 against either his facts or his veracity, 
 those faults have greatly obscured the 
 feme of B., who, after escaping the most 
 momentous danger in a long peregrina- 
 tion through barbarous countries, lost his 
 life in consequence of an accidental fall 
 down stairs, as he was attending the de- 
 VOL. ir. 25 
 
 parture of some guests whom he had 
 been entertaining. His death took place 
 in April, 1794. 
 
 BRUCE, Michael, a British poet of 
 the last century, distinguished for the 
 plaintive elegance of his compositions. 
 He was born at Kinnasswood, in Scotland, 
 in 1746 ; and, his friends being persons 
 in low circumstances, he had to struggle 
 with poverty, which, together with con- 
 stitutional disease, gave a melancholy turn 
 to his mind, and influenced the character 
 of his writings. For a short time, he was 
 engaged in the occupation of a village- 
 schoolmaster, the fatigues of which prob- 
 ably shortened his life. He became con- 
 sumptive, and died in 1767. His poems, 
 which are few in number, were published 
 by the reverend John Logan, together with 
 some of his own, at Edinburgh, in 1770. 
 One, composed on the anticipation of his 
 own death, is peculiarly affecting. 
 
 BRUCE, Robert; the competitor of John 
 Baliol for the throne of Scotland. On 
 the death of Alexander HI, without any 
 lineal descendant, the right to the crown 
 devolved on the descendants of David, 
 earl of Huntington, who were John Baliol, 
 descended from his oldest daughter, and 
 Bruce, descended, though one generation 
 nearer, from his second daughter. Baliol, 
 therefore, claimed as issue of the elder 
 branch ; Bruce as one degree nearer the 
 common stock. If the principle of rep- 
 resentation were regarded, the former had 
 the better claim ; if propinquity were con- 
 sidered, the latter was entitled to the pref- 
 erence. The dispute was referred to the 
 decision of Edward I of England, who 
 decided in favor of Baliol ; and the new 
 king took the oath of fealty as vassal of 
 England. The oppressions of the English 
 induced Baliol and his countrymen to 
 have recourse to arms, and Bruce served 
 in the army of Edward. Scotland was 
 subjected, her king imprisoned, her de- 
 fenders reduced, slain, or made captive, 
 when an obscure individual arose to re- 
 venge her wrongs. William Wallace 
 (q. v.), having succeeded in delivering his 
 country, was accused by Bruce of aspir- 
 ing to the throne, and, in the dreadful 
 battle of Falkirk, B. was in the English 
 ranks. In the pursuit, Wallace had the 
 celebrated interview with him on the 
 banks ' of the Carron. Hume (ch. 13) 
 relates that the interview was between 
 Wallace and the younger Bruce ; but the 
 Scottish historians Drummond, Lesly, 
 Buchanan, &c., give the account as here 
 stated. Wallace displayed such eleva- 
 tion of sentiment, such disinterestedness
 
 290 
 
 BRUCE BRUGES. 
 
 of patriotism, that Bruce melted into tears, 
 and swore to embrace the cause of his 
 oppressed country. 
 
 BRUCE, Robert ; son of the preceding. 
 Seven years of alternate resistance and 
 submission, of wars and truces, had pass- 
 ed, from the battle of Falkirk, when Ed- 
 ward I returned to London, in 1305, vic- 
 torious for the third time over Scotland, 
 and delivered by treachery from the 
 dreaded Wallace. In his train, among 
 other Scotch nobles, were Robert Bruce 
 and John Cumyn, who, formerly rivals, 
 now conspired to deliver themselves from 
 the perfidious Edward. They agreed 
 that B. should be declared king, and that 
 Scotland should be summoned to arms. 
 Cumyn betrayed his accomplice, who, 
 without being informed of the discovery 
 of the plot, was ordered not to leave the 
 court. He received the first intimation 
 of his danger by the present of a pair of 
 spurs and a purse of gold from one of 
 his friends ; and, understanding the hint, 
 he had his horses shod with their shoes 
 inverted, that the traces on the snow might 
 baffle his pursuers, and escaped to Scot- 
 land. He immediately assembled his 
 friends at Dumfries, and all the nobles, 
 except Cumyn, encouraged his resolution, 
 and promised their aid. Cumyn endeav- 
 ored to dissuade them from so desperate 
 an undertaking ; and, after the assembly 
 was dismissed, he was attacked by B. in 
 the cloisters of the Gray Friars, and run 
 through the body. B. was soon after 
 crowned at Scone. Being twice defeat- 
 ed, he dismissed his troops, and retired to 
 the Hebrides, accompanied only by two 
 friends. His wife was earned captive to 
 London, his three brothers were hanged, 
 and he himself was supposed to be dead, 
 when he reappeared in Scotland, collect- 
 ed an army, put to the sword the English 
 garrisons, and rallied all Scotland under 
 his banners. Edward set out to subdue 
 the thrice-conquered Scots, and was on 
 the point of entering the kingdom, vow- 
 ing revenge, and secure of success, when 
 lie sickened and died, enjoining it with 
 his last breath on his successor never to 
 desist till he had subjected all Scotland. 
 B., though obliged to be carried in a litter, 
 defeated the English at Bannockburn, 
 near Stirling, and secured the indepen- 
 dence of his crown, June 24, 1314. The 
 distracted state of the country required 
 vigorous measures. The Scottish nobles 
 had encroached on the possessions of the 
 king and the commons. The king called 
 upon them to show the tides by which 
 they held their lands. " By these," they 
 
 exclaimed, drawing their swords, "we 
 have acquired our lands, and with these 
 we will preserve them !" King Robert 
 was once more obliged to defend his ter- 
 ritories from the English, who, encour- 
 aged by these disputes, had again passed 
 the Scottish borders. On the plains of 
 Byland, 1323, he gained another memo- 
 rable victory over those formidable ene- 
 mies. On the accession of Edward III, 
 1329, he obtained from that king the rec- 
 ognition of the independence of Scot- 
 land, and the renunciation of all claims 
 of sovereignty on the part of the English. 
 He died in the course of the same year. 
 
 BRUGES ; a city of the Netherlands, and 
 capital of West Flanders, situated about 6 
 miles from the sea. It is the centre of 
 an extensive canr.l commerce. The prin- 
 cipal canals are those wliich lead to Sluys 
 and Ostend, on the latter of which ves- 
 sels of 300 tons can come up to B. In 
 the 14th century, it was one of the chief 
 commercial places in Europe, and an im- 
 portant member of the Hanseatic confed- 
 eracy. Towards the end of the 15th cen- 
 tury, it began to decline. It now carries 
 on a considerable trade with the north of 
 Europe. The population is about 34,300. 
 The exchange is supposed to have been 
 one of the earliest establishments of the 
 kind in Europe, and is still a fine build- 
 ing. B. has also a chamber of commerce, 
 a large insurance company, a navigation 
 school, and a dock-yard ; likewise an 
 academy of painting, sculpture and ar- 
 chitecture ; a national literary society, 
 &c., and many valuable specimens of 
 architecture and sculpture. In the church 
 of Notre Dame, with its elevated spire, 
 are the splendid tombs of Charles the 
 Bold, and of Mary of Burgundy, his 
 daughter, constructed in 1550. Philip 
 the Good here founded the order of the 
 
 f olden fleece, in 1430 ; and the celebrated 
 ohn van Eyk, or John of Bruges, the 
 supposed inventor of painting hi oil, was 
 bom here. (See Collection de Gravures 
 au Trait representant les principaux Mon. 
 d 1 Architect, et de Sculpt de Bruges, dtpuis 
 le 14?ne jusqu? au I7me Siecle, 1824.) 
 The chief articles manufactured at B. are 
 lace and linen. It also exports much grain, 
 and, when the English ports are open, 
 immense quantities are shipped. Lat. 
 51 13' N. ; Ion. 3 14' E. 
 
 BRUGES, viscount of; one of the prin- 
 cipal persons of the French court. He 
 was a h'eutenant in the marine when the 
 French revolution broke out, and served 
 among the English troops on the expedi- 
 tion to St. Domingo, where his family
 
 BRUGES BRUHL. 
 
 291 
 
 had great possessions. He afterwards 
 married the countess Golofkin, in Ger- 
 many. After the restoration of the Bour- 
 bons, the viscount, who drew his origin 
 from one of the oldest families, was ap- 
 pointed inspector of the eighth military 
 division of Provence. He could not pre- 
 vent the landing of Napoleon, on his re- 
 turn from Elba, in 1815. He served in 
 the army of the duke of Angouleme, 
 in the south of France, and attempted to 
 take Marseilles in June, 1815, when mar- 
 shal Brune compelled the duke to capit- 
 ulate. In 1816, he was sent by the French 
 government on an important mission to 
 Berlin. His elder brother, count Bruges, 
 became, in 1815, inspector-general of the 
 national guards. 
 
 BRUGMANS, Sebald Justinus ; a learned 
 Dutchman, physician-in-chief of the army, 
 of the marine, and of the colonies; mem- 
 ber of the institute of the Netherlands, and 
 of many learned societies. He was born 
 at Franeker, in 1763, and graduated, in 
 1781, at Groningen. His dissertations, 
 Lithalogia Groningiana ; On hurtful and 
 poisonous Plants in Pastures ; On the 
 Symptoms of Decay in Trees, and De 
 Puogenia, in 1785, procured him distinc- 
 tion. He became professor of philoso- 
 phy and physics in Franeker, where he 
 formed a cabinet of comparative anatorny, 
 one of the first in Europe. In 1795, he 
 went to Leyden as professor of chemistry. 
 His labors for the organization of the 
 medical department of the army com- 
 menced in 1794. He was an active con- 
 tributor to the Pharmacopeia Batava. 
 King Louis made him his physician, and 
 confirmed all his institutions. After the 
 union of Holland with France, Napoleon 
 made him inspector-general of the hospi- 
 tals, and rector of the university of Ley- 
 den, for which he procured large sums of 
 money from the state, and, in later times, 
 the return of its collection of natural his- 
 tory from Paris. During the many years 
 he was director of the military hospital, 
 the number of deaths by Avounds and dis- 
 eases was never increased by hospital 
 fevers. After the battle of Waterloo, he 
 promptly procured medical aid for more 
 than 20,000 wounded men. His treatise 
 On the Nature of the Miasma of Hospi- 
 tal Fever gained the prize of the acade- 
 my in Haarlem. His original views on 
 the organization of fishes are to be found 
 in the transactions of the national in- 
 stitute of the Netherlands. He died in 
 1819. 
 
 BRUHL, Frederic Aloysius, count of, 
 >x>rn at Dresden, 1739," son of Henry 
 
 count of Bruhl, described hi the next arti- 
 cle, was very unlike his father. Educated 
 by his mother, an estimable and enlighten- 
 ed lady, with prudence and strictness, and 
 happily endowed by nature, he became 
 the ideal of an accomplished man of the 
 world. He was remarkable for his beauty 
 and strength, wrote and spoke almost all 
 the European languages, was skilled in 
 music, painted with taste, and was well 
 acquainted with mathematics and gun- 
 nery. He worked a whole year incognito 
 in a cannon foundery. His activity and 
 temperance were both extraordinary. He 
 excelled in writing, and still more in con- 
 versation. 
 
 BRUHL, Henry, count of, minister of Au- 
 gustus III, king of Poland and elector of 
 Saxony, was born in 1700, in Thuringia. 
 His family not being very rich, he entered, 
 as a page, the service of the duchess Eliz- 
 abeth, whose favor, as well as that of Au- 
 gustus II, he gained by his lively and grace- 
 ful manners. On the death of the king, 
 at Warsaw, in 1733, the crown of Poland, 
 with the other regalia, being, through the 
 good fortune of B., intrusted to him, he car- 
 ried them immediately to the new elector, 
 Augustus III, and showed the greatest ac-r 
 tivity in promoting his election. From 
 this time, fortune never deserted him. He 
 had cunning and skill sufficient to govern 
 his master and get rid of his rivals. While 
 he felt himself not sufficiently powerful 
 to remove his rival, count Sulkowski, lie 
 acted as his friend ; but, after his marriage 
 with the countess Kollowrath, the favor- 
 ite of the queen, he effected the dismissal 
 of Sulkowski through her influence. He 
 now succeeded in keeping every body at 
 a distance from the king. No servant 
 entered his service without the consent, 
 of B. ; and, even when he went to the 
 chapel, all approach to him was prevent- 
 ed. The monarch's wish that his minis- 
 ter should make a great parade was grat- 
 ified in the widest extent. B. kept 200 
 domestics; his guards were better paid 
 than those of the king himself, and his 
 table more sumptuous. Frederic II says 
 of him, "B. had more garments, watches, 
 laces, boots, shoes and slippers than any 
 man of the age. Cresar would have 
 counted him among those curled and 
 perfumed heads which he did not fear." 
 But Augustus III was no Csesar. When 
 this idle prince loitered about, smoking, 
 and asked, without looking at his favor- 
 ite, " Briilil, have I any money ?" " Yes, 
 sire," was the continual answer ; and, to 
 satisfy the king's demands, he exhausted 
 the state, plunged the country into debts,
 
 292 
 
 BRUIIL BRUXE. 
 
 and greatly reduced the army. At the 
 beginning of the seven years' war, it com- 
 prised but 17,000 men, and these were 
 compelled to surrender, at Pirna, from 
 want of the necessary supplies. B. fled 
 with the king, the pictures and the china, 
 to Poland; but the archives of the state 
 were left to the victor. He was no less 
 avaricious of titles and money than of 
 power. He died a few weeks after His 
 king, in 1763. An examination, after his 
 death, showed that he owed his immense 
 fortune to the prodigality of the king, 
 rather than to unlawful means of accu- 
 mulation. His own profusion was often 
 beneficial to the arts and sciences. He 
 hud four sons. An account of the eldest 
 is contained in the preceding article. 
 
 BRUHL, John Maurice, nephew of the 
 minister, died in 1809, while Saxon am- 
 bassador in London, is known by his in- 
 genious improvements of several instru- 
 ments, by his essays in the Philosophical 
 Transactions, and by his Recherches sur 
 divers Objets de VEconomie politique (Dres- 
 den, 1781). 
 
 BRULOTTA. (See Fire-Ship.) 
 
 BRUMAIRE, THE 18-TH (Nov. 9), 1799. 
 On this day, general Bonaparte overthrew 
 the directory. The next day, he dispersed, 
 at the point of the bayonet, the council of 
 the five hundred, and was elected consul. 
 (See Napoleon and France.) 
 
 BRUN. (See Lebrun.) 
 
 BRU^CK, Richard Francis Philip, one 
 of the most ingenious critics of modern 
 times, born at Strasburg, in 1729, made 
 rapid progress in learning, when he stud- 
 ied with the Jesuits in Paris, but neglect- 
 ed study as soon as he entered into active 
 life. While in winter quarters at Giessen, 
 as commissary of war, during the French 
 campaigns, he resided with a professor, 
 who, by his advice and example, revived 
 his love of letters, and led him to the study 
 of the classics. When B, returned to 
 Strasburg, he devoted all his leisure time 
 to Greek, and, at the age of 30 years, and 
 while holding a public office, attended the 
 lectures of the Greek professor of the 
 university. The zeal which had encour- 
 aged him to undertake this laborious study 
 was increased by the pleasure of overcom- 
 ing difficulties, and he became fixed in the 
 conviction, that all the instances of appar- 
 ently careless writing in the Greek poets 
 were only errors of the transcribers. En- 
 tertaining this opinion, he altered what- 
 ever displeased him, overthrew the order 
 of the verses, and permitted himself liber- 
 ties which criticism must needs reject. 
 To this rage of altering he gave himself 
 
 up, particularly in the marginal comments 
 of his book?-, and in the numerous copies 
 which he made of the Greek poets, more 
 for his own pleasure than for use. This 
 arbitrary process is so visible, even in the 
 editions he has published, that much cau- 
 tion is required in using them. B. has 
 nevertheless been of essential service to 
 Greek literature ; and, since the revival of 
 letters, few scholars have so effectually 
 promoted it. It is wonderful how much 
 he has done in the space of 20 years. He 
 published also a valuable edition of Virgil. 
 Of his Greek editions we may mention 
 those of \\ieAnaltcta, Apollonius Rhodius, 
 Aristophanes, the Gnomic poets, and his 
 masterpiece, Sophocles, for which the king 
 allowed him a pension of 2000 francs. At 
 this time, the French revolution interrupt- 
 ed his studies. He adopted the new ideas 
 with enthusiasm, and was one of the first 
 members of the popular society in Stras- 
 burg, without deviating, however, from 
 the principles of moderation. This is 
 proved by the circumstance that he was 
 arrested at BesanQon, during the reign of 
 terror, and did not obtain his liberty until 
 after the death of Robespierre. In 1791, 
 economical reasons obliged him to sell 
 part of his library, and, in 1801, he was 
 obliged to adopt the same resource a sec- 
 ond time. As he was passionately fond 
 of his books, and his former fortune had 
 enabled him to collect an excellent libra- 
 ry, this was a severe privation. If he 
 was reminded of an author he had once 
 possessed, tears came into his eyes. From 
 this time, Greek became his aversion ; but 
 he prepared an edition of Terence, and 
 had Plaidus ready for publication, when 
 he died, in 1803. Many of the papers 
 which he left are in the library at Paris. 
 
 BRUNDUSIUM (now Brindisi) ; a city in 
 Terra di Otranto, in the kingdom of Na- 
 ples, on the Adriatic sea, very celebrated 
 in the time of the ancient Romans. It 
 had then an excellent harbor, which is 
 now almost filled up with sand. From 
 this place the Romans usually embarked 
 for Greece and Asia. The Appian way 
 led to this city. It was also on the nearest 
 route from Constantinople to Rome, by 
 the way of the mountains of Macedonia 
 and Albania. Virgil died here. The pop- 
 ulation, in the 12th century, was 60,000, 
 but is noAv reduced to about 5900. It is 
 the seat of an archbishop. 
 
 BRUXE, William Maria Anne, marshal 
 of France, son of a lawyer at Brives la 
 Gaillairde, was born there March 13, 1763, 
 and went while young to Paris. At the 
 breaking out of the revolution, he was a.
 
 BRUNE BRUNEHILD. 
 
 293 
 
 r, and had made himself known by 
 some small pieces ofhis own composition. 
 He now devoted himself ardently to poli- 
 tics, became a member of the club des Cor- 
 deliers, was connected with Danton, and 
 played an active part in the tempests of 
 that period. Till Aug. 10, 1792, he was 
 engaged in publishing a daily newspaper. 
 Afterwards, he went as a commissary to 
 Belgium. In 1793, he entered the mili- 
 tary service in the revolutionary army, in 
 the Gironde. Oct. 10, 1795, he aided 
 Barras to put down the Jacobins, who 
 had assaulted the camp of Grenelle. Af- 
 terwards, he distinguished himself as gen- 
 eral of brigade in the Italian army, in 
 1797, in the attack of Verona, and in the 
 battle of Arcoli. When the directory of 
 Switzerland declared war, B. received the 
 chief command of an army, entered the 
 country, without much opposition, in Jan- 
 uary, 1798, and effected a new organiza- 
 tion of the government. In 1799, he 
 received the chief command in Holland, 
 defeated the English in the north of Hol- 
 land, Sept. 19, near Bergen, and compel- 
 led the duke of York to agree to the 
 treaty of Alcmaer, Oct. 18, by which the 
 English and Russians were to evacuate 
 the north of Holland. In January, 1800, 
 he was made a counsellor of state, and 
 was placed at the head of the army of 
 the west. The restoration of tranquillity 
 to the provinces, torn by civil war, was, 
 in a great degree, effected by him. Aug. 
 13, he was appointed commander-in-chief 
 of the Italian army. Towards the end 
 of December, he led his troops over the 
 Mincio, conquered the Austrians, passed 
 the Adige, Jan, 8, 1801, took possession 
 of Vicenza and Roveredo, and concluded 
 an armistice, Jan. 16, at Treviso, with the 
 Austrian general Bellegarde, by which 
 several fortified places in Italy were sur- 
 rendered to the French troops. When 
 peace recalled him to the council of state, 
 i awards the end of November, 1802, he 
 laid before the legislative body for con- 
 firmation the treaty of peace with the 
 court of Naples. The next year, he went 
 as ambassador to the court of Constanti- 
 nople. He prevailed there at first over 
 the English party, and received from the 
 Turkish ministry the highest marks of 
 honor ; but, when new dissensions arose 
 between the two powers, he left Turkey. 
 During his absence, May 19, 1804, he was 
 appointed marshal of the empire. At the 
 end of 1806, Napoleon appointed him 
 governor-general of the Hanseatic towns, 
 and, soon after, commander of the troops 
 in Swedish Pomerania, against the king 
 25* 
 
 of Sweden. This monarch invited the 
 marshal to a personal interview, in which 
 he endeavored to convert him to the 
 cause of Louis XVIII. B. refused every 
 proposal. He may, however, have drawn 
 upon himself the indignation of Napoleon 
 by his conduct in this interview, or by 
 favoring the English contraband trade in 
 Hamburg. At any rate, he was recalled, 
 and suffered to remain without employ- 
 ment. After the revolution of 1814, he 
 recognised Louis XVIII, and received the 
 cross of Louis, but no appointment. This 
 was the cause of his declaring himself for 
 Napoleon, immediately upon his return. 
 He received the chief command of an 
 important army in the south of France, 
 and was made a peer. When circum- 
 stances changed again, he delayed a long 
 time before he gave up Toulon, which 
 was in his possession in 1815, to the troops 
 of Louis XVIII, and sent hi his resigna- 
 tion to the king. This circumstance, and 
 the severities exercised by his command, 
 might well have excited against him the 
 rage of the people. While retiring from 
 Toulon to Paris, he was recognised, at 
 Avignon, by the people who favored the 
 king ; and they immediately collected to- 
 gether about the hotel where he had en? 
 tered. The excited populace were heated 
 still more, when a report was spread 
 among them, that B. was the murderer of 
 the princess Lamballe. The marshal was 
 permitted, however, to go away quietly. 
 But scarcely had his carriage left the city, 
 before a mob of the rabble winch had 
 followed compelled the driver to turn 
 buck to the hotel. When the marshal 
 had alighted, and retired, with his two ad- 
 jutants, to his former chamber, the doors 
 of the house were locked. The insur- 
 gents had, in the mean time, gained a 
 powerful accession to their numbers, and, 
 with loud shouts, demanded the death of 
 the marshal. In vain did the prefect and 
 the mayor strive to defend him (as there 
 were no troops in the city) for the space 
 of four hours and a half, at the peril of 
 their lives. The door was at last broken 
 open, a crowd of murderers rushed into 
 the chamber, and the unhappy marshal 
 fell under a shower of balls, after a fruit- 
 less attempt to defend himself and justify 
 his conduct. His body was exposed to 
 the most shameful insults, and then drag- 
 ged from the hotel to the bridge over the 
 Rhone, from which it was thrown into 
 the river. 
 
 BRUJ.-EHACT. (See Brunehild.) 
 BRCNEHILD, Brunichild ; married to 
 Siegbert I, king of Austrasia, in 568, a
 
 294 
 
 BRUNEHILD BRUNINGS. 
 
 Visigothic princess, of powerful mind, 
 enterprising spirit, heroic resolution, deep 
 political knowledge, and unrestrained 
 ambition. She involved her husband in 
 u war with his brother Chilperic, in the 
 course of which he was murdered, A. D. 
 575; but .she continued to live and rage 
 till 613, when she fell into the hands of 
 Clothaire II, king of Soissons, who put 
 her to a most terrible death, as having 
 been the murderess of 10 kings and royal 
 princes. (See Fredegonde.) 
 
 BRU.NELLF.SCHI, Philip, born 1377, at 
 Florence, devoted himself to the study of 
 the works of Dante, to natural philosophy 
 and perspective, the rules of which were 
 then scarcely known. He formed various 
 figures, and invented ingenious machines. 
 He devoted himself particularly, however, 
 to architecture, and learned the art of 
 drawing, to make his architectural plans ; 
 statuary, to adorn them ; and mechanics, 
 that he might be able to raise the materi- 
 als. He was also profoundly versed in 
 mathematics ami geometry. He is said 
 to have drawn views of the finest monu- 
 ments in Florence in perspective an art 
 which then excited much astonishment. 
 This various knowledge prepared him for 
 bold and difficult undertakings, and gain- 
 ed him the name of the restorer of archi- 
 tecture. As- a statuary, he was much 
 indebted to his intimate connexion with 
 Donatello, who was then very young, but 
 very able. Both went to Rome. Here B. 
 conceived the idea of restoring architect- 
 ure to the principles of the Greeks and 
 Romans. When the architects assembled, 
 in 1407, at Florence, to consult upon the 
 building of the dome of the cathedral, 
 the plan whicli B. proposed received but 
 little attention, and he went back to 
 Rome. It was found necessary, however, 
 to have recourse to him, as the under- 
 taking far surpassed the powers of the 
 other architects. He engaged to erect a 
 dome, which, by its own weight, and by 
 the strong connexion of its parts, should 
 hang suspended. This proposal seemed 
 so wonderful, that the author was regard- 
 ed as insane. As all other plans, howev- 
 er, failed to answer the expectations of 
 the magistrates, B. was again recalled, and 
 ordered to explain the mode in which he 
 intended to execute his plan. -This he 
 refused to do, but built two small 
 chapels according to his new system, 
 upon which the charge of erecting the 
 dome was committed to him. As he ob- 
 served that the higher the building was 
 raised the more time was lost in going up 
 and down, he erected some small lodg- 
 
 ings on the dome itself, and by that means 
 saved the laborers the time thus spent. 
 Aided only by his own genius, lie accom- 
 plished the work, which remains one of 
 the boldest creations of the human mind. 
 Hut the ingenious lantern, which formed 
 the upper part of the dome, was not fin- 
 ished when he died, in 1444, aged t>7. It 
 was completed, however, according to his 
 first design. No monument of ancient 
 architecture is so noble as this wonderful 
 building. Only the dome of St. Peter's 
 at Rome, which was built since, excels it 
 in height, but is inferior to it in lightness 
 and grandeur of style. Michael Angelo 
 said it was difficult to imitate B., and im- 
 possible to excel him. B. is the author 
 of a great number of other masterpieces 
 of architecture. 
 
 BRUNET, James Charles, bookseller at 
 Paris, began his bibliographical career by 
 the preparation of several auction cata- 
 logues, of which the most interesting is 
 that of the count d'Ourches (Paris, 1811), 
 and of a supplementary volume to Cail- 
 leau's and Duclos's Dictionnaire Biblio- 
 graphique (Paris, 1802). In 1810 was pub- 
 lished the first edition of his Manuel du 
 Isibraire et de V Amateur de Livres, in 3 
 vols., which gained such universal ap- 
 plause, that, in 1814, a second, and, in 
 1820, a third edition, of four volumes each, 
 were demanded. This work showed him 
 the worthy successor of the meritorious 
 Debure (from whose works those of B. 
 are distinguished only by the alphabeticcd 
 form.) An attempt to unite the plan of 
 his work with the considerations which 
 must guide the man of learning in his 
 studies and labors, is contained in the Bib- 
 liographical Lexicon, by Ebert, since 
 published. 
 
 BRUJVET. (See Paris, Theatre of.) 
 BRUNHILDIS. (See Nibdungen.) 
 BRU> T I. (See Bruno, Giordano.) 
 BRUMXGS, Christian; one of the great- 
 est hydraulic architects of Holland ; born 
 1736, at Neckerau, in the Palatinate. In 
 his childhood, he devoted himself to the 
 sciences connected with hydraulic archi- 
 tecture. In 1769, the states of Holland 
 appointed him general inspector of rivers. 
 This introduced him to a share in several 
 important commissions ; for instance, that 
 for the improvement of the dike system, 
 in 1796 ; that for draining the tracts be- 
 tween Niewskogs and Zevenhoven, in 
 1797, &c. His most important water- 
 works are his improvements in the diking 
 of the lake of Haerlem, the improved 
 diking and deepening of the Oberwasser, 
 so called^ in the Netherlands, which, at
 
 BRUNINGS BRUNO. 
 
 295 
 
 high tides, often inundated vast extents 
 of country, together with the change in 
 the course of the Waal-stream and the 
 canal of Paimerde, by which the beds of 
 the Rhine, the Waal 'and the Leek were 
 improved. He introduced into his de- 
 partment the use of the stream measure, 
 so called. His many official duties per- 
 mitted this worthy officer but seldom to 
 appear as an author. Yet we find scien- 
 tific essays written by him in the 14th, 
 19th and 20th volumes of the Memoirs of 
 the Haerlem Society of Sciences, and 
 some other pieces. He died in 1805. 
 The directory of the then republic wish- 
 ed to erect a monument to him in the 
 cathedral church at Haerlem ; but it has 
 never been completed, on account of the 
 political disturbances that occurred soon 
 after his death. 
 
 BRCNN ; the capital of Moravia, and of 
 a circle ofthesame name, which contains 
 a population of 300,000, and is fertile in 
 corn and flax. The population of the 
 city, with the suburbs, is 33,300. It con- 
 tains the government offices, the house 
 for the meeting of the states, the palace 
 of prince Lichtenstein, a gymnasium, 
 many fine houses, &c. There are at B. 
 several flourishing manufactures of fine 
 woollen cloths and kerseymeres, one of 
 which employs 5000 individuals. It is 
 the centre of the Moravian commerce, a 
 great part of which is earned on by fairs 
 held at B. every three months. On a hill 
 near it is the fortress of Spielberg, now 
 used as a prison. Lat. 49 11' N. ; Ion. 
 16 35' E. 
 
 BRUNO THE GREAT, archbishop of Co- 
 logne and duke of Lorraine, third son of 
 Henry the Fowler, and brother of the 
 emperor Otho I, had a great share in the 
 events of his time, and surpassed all the 
 contemporary bishops in talents and 
 knowledge. A numerous train of learn- 
 ed men from all countries, even from 
 Greece, continually followed him, and 
 his excellent example was imitated by 
 many prelates. He died at Rheims, Oct. 
 11,965. Commentaries on the five books 
 of Moses, and the biographies of some 
 saints, are ascribed to him. 
 
 BRUNO, St. Among several individuals 
 of this name, the most famous is the one 
 who established the order of Carthusian 
 monks. He was bom at Cologne, about 
 1030, of an old and noble family, which 
 still flourished in the middle of the 13th 
 century ; was educated in the school of 
 the collegiate church of St. Cunibert ; in 
 which, also, he afterwards received a 
 canonship, and then studied at Rheims, 
 
 where he distinguished himself to such a 
 degree, that Gervais, the bishop, appoint- 
 ed him to superintend all the schools of 
 the district. He attracted many distin- 
 guished scholars, and, among others, Odo, 
 afterwards pope Urban II. The immo- 
 rality of his times induced him to go into 
 solitude. He retired, therefore, with six 
 friends of the same disposition, to the res- 
 idence of St. Hugo, bishop of Grenoble, 
 who, in 1084, led them to a desert, four 
 or five leagues distant from the city, call- 
 ed Chartreuse, whence the order of monks 
 received its name. Here, in a narrow 
 valley, overshadowed by two steep rocks, 
 covered with snow and thorns, B. and his 
 companions built an oratory, and small, 
 separate cells to dwell in, and founded, in 
 108ti, one of the severest orders of monks. 
 In the mean time, Urban II became pope, 
 and, in 1089, invited his former instructer 
 to his court. B. reluctantly obeyed, but 
 refused every spiritual dignity, and, in 
 19:14, received permission to found a 
 second Carthusian establishment in the 
 solitude of della Torre, in Calabria. Here 
 ho lived in his former mode, ruled his 
 new colony with wisdom, and died in the 
 arms of his scholars, A. D. 1101. Leo X, 
 in 1514, permitted the Carthusians to cel- 
 ebrate a mass in honor of him ; and Greg- 
 ory XV, in 1023, extended it to the whole 
 Catholic church. He was afterwards 
 canonized. B. gave his scholars no par- 
 ticular laws. A complete set of regula- 
 tions for the Carthusians was first formed 
 A. D. 1581, and confirmed by Inno- 
 cent XL 
 
 BRUNO, or BRUNI (Bmnus, Leonardo), 
 of Arezzo, whence his name Aretino 
 (Aretinus), was one of the most famous 
 of the literati at the period of the revival 
 of classic literature in Italy. He was 
 born in 1370, and, in his childhood, was 
 excited by the character of Petrarch, to the 
 j tursuit of those studies to which he con- 
 : ['crated his life. He first studied law at 
 Florence and Ravenna; but the arrival of 
 Emanuel Chrysoloras at Florence gave 
 him a decided turn for classical learning. 
 ] le afterwards filled many offices in the 
 Roman Catholic church, and accompani- 
 ed pope John XXIII to Constance, where 
 the latter was deposed, and B. escaped to 
 Florence. Here he wrote his Florentine 
 History, received, in consequence, the 
 rights of citizenship, and afterwards, by 
 the favor of the Medici, became secretary 
 to the republic. In this important post 
 he died, A. D. 1444. Florence and Arez- 
 zo vied with each other in honoring his 
 memory by splendid obsequies and mon-
 
 296 
 
 BRUNO. 
 
 uments. The merits of B., in spreading 
 and advancing the study of Greek litera- 
 ture, consist particularly in his literal Latin 
 translations of the classics ; for instance, 
 the writings of Aristotle, the orations of 
 Demosthenes, the biographies of Plutarch, 
 &c. The other works on which his fame 
 rests are, his Florentine History, also a 
 history of his times, from 1378 to 1440, 
 and his speeches. His collection of let- 
 ters, also, is valuable. His writings are 
 in the Latin language, with the exception 
 of two biographies of Dante and Petrarch. 
 His chief work is Historice Florentine (12 
 books, Strasb., 1610, folio), with which is 
 connected the Commentarius Reriim suo 
 Tempore Gestarum, published in Italian, 
 at Venice, 1476, folio. 
 
 BRUXO, Giordano ; a philosopher of the 
 16th century, distinguished by the origin- 
 ality and poetical boldness of his specula- 
 tions ; born at Nola, in the Neapolitan ter- 
 ritory ; entered the order of Dominicans ; 
 took refuge, probably, from the persecu- 
 tions which he drew upon himself by his 
 religious doubts and his satires on the life 
 of the monks, at Geneva, in 1582, where, 
 however, he was soon persecuted, by the 
 Calvinists, for his paradoxes and his vio- 
 lence ; stood forth, in 1583, at Paris, as the 
 antagonist of the Aristotelian philosophy, 
 and as teacher of the ars lAilliana. Here 
 he found many opponents, went to Lon- 
 don, returned to Paris, and, from 1586 to 
 1588, taught his philosophy at Witten- 
 berg. Why he left Wittenberg is not 
 known ; but it is certain that he went, in 
 1588, to Helmstadt, and he seems to have 
 visited Prague before that year. Protect- 
 ed by duke Julius of Wolfenbuttel, he 
 remained in Helmstadt till his protector 
 died, in 1589. He was then engaged, at 
 Frankfort on the Maine, with the publi- 
 cation of some works, but left this city, 
 also, in 1592, and returned (it is not 
 known for what purpose) to Italy. He 
 . remained for some time at Padua in tran- 
 quillity, until the inquisition of Venice ar- 
 rested him, in 1598, and transferred him 
 to Rome. After an imprisonment of two 
 years, that he might have opportunity to 
 retract his doctrines, he was burnt, Feb. 
 16th, 1600, for apostasy, heresy, and vio- 
 lation of his monastic vows. He suffered 
 death, which he might have averted, even 
 eight days before, by a recantation, with 
 fortitude. Whilst his violent attacks on 
 the prevailing doctrines of the Aristotelian 
 philosophy, and on the narrow-minded 
 Aristotelians themselves, every where 
 created him enemies, his rashness and 
 pride threw him into the hands of his ex- 
 
 ecutioners. *His philosophical writings, 
 which have become very rare, display a 
 classical cultivation of mind, a deep in- 
 sight into the spirit of ancient philosophy, 
 wit and satire, as well as a profound 
 knowledge of mathematics and natural 
 philosophy. Most of them were publish- 
 ed between 1584 and 1591, as appears 
 from the enumeration of the oldest edi- 
 tions in the Bibliographical Lexicon of 
 Ebert (Lps., 1821, quarto, vol. i, p. 238 
 et seq.). In 1584 appeared, at Paris, his 
 famous Spaccio della Beslia trionfante (a 
 moral allegory, with many satirical strokes 
 on his own limes), also his work De la 
 Causa, Principio et Uno (Venice and 
 London, 1584), besides De Vlnfinito, 
 Universo, et Mondi. The former con- 
 tains the foundation, the latter the appli- 
 cation, of metaphysics to the natural world. 
 The doctrine is a pure Pantheism, con- 
 nected with truly dignified notions of 
 God a more complete Pantheistical sys- 
 tem than had been previously exhibited, 
 and which, since his time, Spinoza only, 
 who, like Descartes, borrowed his ideas, 
 has carried to a greater perfection. The 
 notion that God is the soul of the uni- 
 verse, and the world endowed with or- 
 ganization and life, might have been for- 
 given by his contemporaries ; but his in- 
 ference that the world is infinite and 
 immeasurable, and his doctrine of the 
 plurality of worlds, at the moment when 
 the new system of Copernicus was at- 
 tacked from all quarters, could not but be 
 looked upon as a crime. His writings 
 are mostly in the form of dialogues, with- 
 out any methodical order. His language 
 is a strange mixture of Italian and Latin. 
 His style is violent and fiery. The orig- 
 inality and loftiness of his ideas take a 
 powerful hold on those who can under- 
 stand hint. His logical writings, in which 
 lie boldly and skilfully applies Raymond 
 Lully's art of^topical memory, are moro 
 obscure and less interesting. His belief 
 in magic and astrology, notwithstanding 
 his enlightened views of the nature of 
 things, is to be attributed to the spirit of 
 his age. He has also written poems, He- 
 roici Furori, and, among others, a come-, 
 dy, 11 Candtlajo. The most eminent phi- 
 losophers since his time have borrowed 
 much from him. Among recent writers, 
 Schelling resembles him the most in his 
 metaphysics and his philosophical views 
 of nature, and has given his name to one 
 of his philosophical writings (Bruno, 
 oder iiber das gottliche und naturliche 
 Princip der Dinge, Berl., 1802). On 
 Bruno and his writings, see Sieber's
 
 BRUNO BRUNSWICK. 
 
 297 
 
 and Thanner's Lehrmeinungen beriihmter 
 Physiker (5 vols., Sulzb., 1824.) 
 
 BRUNONIAN SYSTEM. (See Brown, John.) 
 BRUXSWICK, FAMILY OF. The true 
 founder of this ancient house was Azo II, 
 marquis of Tuscany, who, in the llth 
 century, married Cunigunda, heiress of 
 the counts of Altorf, and thus united the 
 two houses of Este and Guelph. The 
 previous history of the Este family is un- 
 certain. Guelph, the son of Azo, was 
 created duke of Bavaria in 1071. He 
 married Judith of Flanders, who was de- 
 scended from Alfred the Great of Eng- 
 land. His posterity acquired Brunswick 
 and Luneburg, and William, or his son 
 Otho (1235), was the first who bore the 
 title of duke of B. John, eldest son of 
 Otho, founded the house of Luneburg. 
 Albert the Great, a younger son of Otho, 
 conquered Wolfenbuttel, and, on his death 
 (1278), his three sons divided his domin- 
 ions. Henry founded the house of Gru- 
 benhagen ; Albert became duke of Bruns- 
 wick, and William duke of Brunswick- 
 Wolfenbuttel. Henry Julius, of this last 
 branch, inherited Grubenhagen (1590). 
 Ernest of Zell, of the second branch, 
 who succeeded (1532), conquered the 
 territories of Wolfenbuttel, and left two 
 sons, by whom the family was divided into 
 the two branches of Brunswick-Wolfen- 
 biittel (II) and Brunswick-Hanover ; from 
 the latter of which comes the present 
 royal family of England. The former is 
 the German family, now in possession of 
 the duchy of Brunswick- Wolfenbuttel. 
 (q. v.) Charles William married Au- 
 gusta, sister of George III of England 
 (1764). His descendants are presumptive 
 heirs to the throne of Great Britain in 
 case of a failure of the direct line. Er- 
 nest Augustus, of the Brunswick-Hano- 
 ver house, was created elector of Hanover 
 in 1692. He married Sophia, daughter 
 of Elizabeth, the daughter of James I of 
 England. George Louis, son of Ernest 
 Augustus and Sophia, succeeded his fa- 
 ther, as elector of Hanover, in 1698, and 
 was called to the throne of Great Britain 
 in 1714, by act of parliament passed in 
 the reign of queen Anne, which vested 
 the succession in the Protestant line of 
 James I. George IV, the present king 
 of Great Britain and Ireland, and of Han- 
 over (made a kingdom in 1815), is the 
 23d of the family of Brunswick by lineal 
 descent from Azo ; the 53d king of Eng- 
 land from Egbert, and is descended from 
 Woden, the head of the ancient Saxon 
 family, from which so many sovereigns 
 of Europe have sprung, by 52 genera- 
 
 tions. (See the articles George, Hanover, 
 England, &c.) 
 
 BRUNSWICK ; the duchy of Brunswick- 
 Wolfenbuttel, in Germany, situated in the 
 former circle of Lower Saxony, and bor- 
 dering upon Luneburg on the north and 
 Westphalia on the west. The duke holds 
 the 12th rank among the members of the 
 German confederation. The duchy com- 
 prises 1500 square miles, and 232,000 in- 
 habitants. It is divided into six districts, 
 besides the two cities of Brunswick and 
 Wolfenbuttel, which are also considered 
 as districts. The family of B. (q. v.) is 
 one of the most ancient in Europe. In 
 1806, the duchy was annexed, by Napo- 
 leon, to the kingdom of Westphalia, but 
 its native prince, Frederic William (q. v.), 
 was restored by the peace of Leipsic, 
 1813. The reigning duke, Charles, bora 
 Oct. 30th, 1804, succeeded to the govern- 
 ment in 1824. The revenue, exclusive 
 of Oels (q. v.), is 2,000,000 florins. The 
 circumstances and manners of the inhab- 
 itants resemble those of the adjacent 
 countries. Most of the people are Luther- 
 ans. The whole number of Catholics 
 and Calvinists does not probably exceed 
 4000. The ducal house is Lutheran. 
 (For the form of government, see Consti- 
 tutions.) B. has, with Nassau, one vote 
 in the diet of the German states ; and has, 
 by itself, two votes in the general assem- 
 bly. Its contingent of troops to the army 
 of the confederacy is 2096 men. The 
 most important articles of trade and man- 
 ufacture are corn, rape-seed, flax, tobac- 
 co, chicory, hops, madder and wood. 
 The country affords sheep, swine, goats, 
 poultry and bees in sufficient quantities 
 to supply the inhabitants. Some fat cat- 
 tle and horses are imported. In the for- 
 ests there are wild boars, deer, hares, 
 heath-cocks, black-cocks, partridges and 
 hazel grouse; but, as no attempts are made 
 to preserve the game, the quantity gradu- 
 ally decreases. The mountainous tracts 
 yield iron, copper, salt, marble, coal, por- 
 celain earth and other minerals. In the 
 Rammelsberg are found silver, copper, 
 lead, arsenic, vitriol and sulphur, and 
 small quantities of gold. Large tracts 
 are covered with peat, in the sandy 
 regions in the northern districts. The 
 breweries and distilleries of spirit, the 
 spinning of linen yarn (the most exten- 
 sive branch of industry), the manufacture 
 of linen and leather, the preparation of 
 paper, soap, tobacco, sal-ammoniac, mad- 
 der and chicory afford the principal em- 
 ployment of the people. The lackered 
 wares and porcelain of B. are famous
 
 298 
 
 BRUNSWICK. 
 
 even in foreign countries. B., the capital, 
 is the centre of trade. The country is 
 provided with good roads. 
 
 BRUNSWICK, capital of the duchy of the 
 same name, is situated on the Ocker, and 
 contains 3041 houses, with 32,500 inhab- 
 itants. It was fonnerly one of the free 
 cities of Germany, but it is now subject 
 to the duke, and has been the ducal resi- 
 dence since 1754. The principal build- 
 ings are the ducal palace, the mint, the 
 house in which the diet assembles, the 
 town-house, the arsenal and the cathedral, 
 the public wine-cellars. The collegium 
 Carolinum was founded in 1745, and in- 
 tended as a medium between the com- 
 mon schools and the universities. It has 
 enjoyed a high reputation even in foreign 
 countries, particularly in England and 
 Russia. The principal manufactures are 
 wool, yarn, linen, porcelain, pasteboard, 
 paper hangings and chemical prepara- 
 tions. The traffic in home produce, and 
 the carrying trade, are of some conse- 
 quence, and the great Brunswick fairs 
 rank next to those of Leipsic and Frank- 
 fort. Lat. 52 W N. ; Ion. 10 29? 30" E. 
 
 BRUNSWICK ; a post-town of Maine, in 
 Cumberland county, on the south-west 
 side of the Androscoggin, 26 miles N. E. 
 of Portland ; lat 43 53' N. ; Ion. 69 55' 
 W. ; population, 2931. The tails of the 
 Androscoggin, at this place, afford excel- 
 lent seats for several mills and manufac- 
 tories. Bowdoin college, in this town, 
 was incorporated in 1794, and went into 
 operation in 1802. It is pleasantly situ- 
 ated on an elevated plain, about half a 
 mile from the Androscoggin, is a well 
 endowed and flourishing institution, and 
 has a medical school connected with it. 
 The officers, in 1829, consisted of a presi- 
 dent, a professor of mathematics, natural 
 philosophy, chemistry and mineralogy, a 
 professor of the learned languages, a pro- 
 fessor of moral and intellectual philos- 
 ophy. 
 
 BRUNSWICK, NEW. (See jYetc Bruns- 
 ttnck.) 
 
 BRUNSWICK, Charles William Ferdi- 
 nand, duke of, was born in 1735. He 
 was the eldest son of the reigning duke 
 Charles of Brunswick and a sister of 
 Frederic the Great. At the age of 7, his 
 education was committed to the abbe Je- 
 rusalem, then chaplain to the court at 
 Wolfenbuttel. At the age of 12, he en- 
 tered, under the superintendence of Jeru- 
 salem, the collegium Carolinum, then re- 
 cently established. His tutor was the 
 chamberlain von Wittorf a man of tal- 
 ents, l)ut without principle. His ambi- 
 
 tion was early kindled by the achieve- 
 ments of Frederic II. The seven years* 
 war afforded him the first opportunity of 
 cultivating his military talents. He com- 
 manded the Brunswick troops in the alli- 
 ed army, and, in the fatal battle at Has- 
 tenbeck, July 28th, 1757, in which he 
 recaptured a battery that had been taken 
 by the French in the centre of the allied 
 army, " he showed" (such was the ex- 
 pression of Frederic) " that nature had 
 destined him for a hero." June 23d r 
 1758, he decided the victory of Crefeld. 
 He took the most active part in all the 
 enterprises of his uncle Ferdinand ; and 
 Frederic's esteem for him continued to 
 increase, as appears from his Geschichte 
 des Siebenjahrigen Kriegs (History of the 
 Seven Years' War), and his Ode auf den 
 ErbprinzenvonBraunschiveig (Ode on the 
 hereditary Prince of Brunswick). In 1764, 
 he married the princess Augusta of Eng- 
 land. Having early become acquainted 
 with the real situation of his native coun- 
 try, and drawn salutary instruction from 
 the constant embarrassments of his father, 
 before he entered upon the government, 
 he practised the greatest economy, living 
 mostly retired from public business, and 
 devoted to the arts and sciences. In 
 1773, he entered the Prussian service, and 
 became general of infantry, but had no 
 opportunity of cultivating his military 
 talents. After the death of his father (in 
 1780), he entered upon the government 
 with zeal and activity. Anxious above 
 all for the improvement of the finances, 
 he diminished his household, discharged 
 the debts of the state, encouraged agri- 
 culture, extended the liberty of commerce, 
 undertook or assisted in the erection of 
 considerable buildings, and, by causing 
 Italian operas, masquerades, &c. to be 
 exhibited gratis, provided also for the 
 amusement of the public. Yet, with the 
 best intentions, he was often unsuccessful^ 
 This was the case with his plans for the 
 improvement of public education. He 
 invited men of learning into the country 
 at great expense, but, the projected refor- 
 mation having met with innumerable 
 obstacles, they became a burthen to the 
 state. In 1787, he was obliged to place' 
 himself at the head of a Prussian army 
 for the support of the stadtholder of Hol- 
 land. The facility with which this cam- 
 paign was terminated procured the duke 
 more reputation than he perhaps deserved. 
 High expectations were entertained of 
 him when the wars of the French revo-' 
 lution broke out. The duke received the 
 chief command of the Austrian and Prus-
 
 BRUNSWICK. 
 
 299 
 
 sian army, and issued at Coblentz, July 
 15, 1792, the famous manifesto, drawn 
 up in a very harsh and haughty style by 
 a Frenchman, De Limon. It certainly 
 did more injury to the allied forces than 
 a hostile army could have done. It in- 
 flamed the French nation almost to fury 
 against the insolent conquerors, who in- 
 tended " to make every city, that dared to 
 resist, level with the ground, and to cut 
 their way to Paris." The emperor Fran- 
 cis approved it, and so did the king of 
 Prussia ; but the duke considered the ex- 
 pressions too strong. The severest pas- 
 sages were expunged ; but its tone Avas 
 still very insolent. The duke designed to 
 press forward from Lorraine to Paris, to 
 cut off its supplies, and thus to force it to 
 surrender by famine. Aug. 23, 1792, 
 Longwy was taken, and, Sept. 2, Ver- 
 dun. But, in Champagne, a country of 
 itself unproductive, the transport of pro- 
 visions for the army from the frontiers 
 was rendered difficult by mountains and 
 forests. Dumouriez was encamped in 
 the vicinity of St. Menehould, and skir- 
 mishes took place daily ; but Dumouriez, 
 not willing to hazard the fate of France, 
 and foreseeing that the Germans would 
 be forced to retreat by want and disease, 
 avoided a decisive action, notwithstand- 
 ing the efforts of the enemy to provoke 
 him to it. The Germans were, therefore, 
 obliged to conclude an armistice, and to 
 evacuate Champagne. Custines took 
 Worms and Spire during this retreat, 
 and, Oct. 21, captured the fortress of 
 Mentz, and soon afterwards Frankfort, 
 which latter city, however, was retaken 
 by the Prussians and Hessians Dec. 2. 
 The endeavors of the Germans, therefore, 
 were principally directed to the recapture 
 of those places. To this end the duke, in 
 conjunction with the Austrians, opened 
 the campaign on the Upper Rhine in 
 1793, took the fortress of Konigstein 
 March 7, conquered Mentz July 22, 
 and prepared to attack the strong fortress 
 of Landau, then in the power of the 
 French. The French, on the other 
 hand, Sept. 14, made a general attack 
 on the duke and Wurmser, from Stras- 
 burg to Saarbriick. On that day, the 
 duke had a sanguinary engagement with 
 Moreau, in the vicinity of Pirmasens, a 
 town belonging to the landgraviate of 
 Hesse-Darmstadt. The French were 
 driven from their camp near the village 
 of Hornbach, as far as to the Saar. A 
 month later, the duke, having formed a 
 union with Wurmser, succeeded, Oct. 
 13th, in his attack on the lines of Weis- 
 
 senburg, and his attempt to draw nearer 
 to Landau. In order to gain another 
 strong point of support, he ventured, on 
 the night of Nov. 16, to make an assault 
 upon the mountain-fortress of Bitsch, 
 which is the key of the Vosges, as the 
 roads from Landau, Pirmasens, Weissen- 
 burg and Strasburg unite at that place. 
 This attempt miscarried. Between the 
 28th and the 30th of November, however, 
 he defeated a division of the army of the 
 Moselle, at Lautern, which was pressing 
 through the mountains, under the com- 
 mand of Hoche, with the intention of re- 
 lieving Landau. But the daily attacks of 
 Hoche and Pichegru, without regard to 
 the sacrifice of men, and the successful 
 attempt of the latter to break the Austrian 
 lines near Froschweiler, Dec. 22, forced 
 the Austrians to retreat beyond the Rhine, 
 and occasioned the retreat of the duke 
 also. As some difficulties had already 
 risen between Austria and Prussia, he 
 laid down the chief command of the 
 army in the beginning of the year 1794. 
 Mollendorf wa his successor. The 
 duke continued to labor for the welfare 
 of his country until the fatal year 1800'. 
 Although he was now of such an age that 
 he might have retired without reproach 
 from public life, yet he assumed burthens 
 beyond his powers. At the beginning of 
 the year 1806, commissioned by the king 
 of Prussia, he made a journey to Peters- 
 burg relative to the Avar that soon broke 
 out Avith France. He Avas then placed at 
 the head of the Prussian army. But his 
 physical strength Avas not equal to his 
 moral energy, as Avas proA 7 ed by the bat- 
 tles of Jena and Auerstadt. (q. v.) He 
 Avas mortally Avounded, and closed his 
 life at Ottensen, near Altona, NOA-. 10, 
 1806. As a civil ruler, he Avas distin- 
 guished for good intentions ; yet the Avant 
 of consistency, which is evident in most 
 actions of his life, may have been the 
 cause of the many failures of his benevo- 
 lent purposes. The duke's subjects were 
 also offended by his foreign partialities, 
 particularly his fatal inclination for the 
 French nation, which had been instilled 
 into him by Frederic II. 
 
 BRUSSAVICK, Ferdinand, duke of, born 
 at Brunswick, Jan. llth, 1721, fourth son 
 of duke Ferdinand Albert, was educated 
 for the military profession. In 1739, he 
 entered into the Prussian service, Avas 
 engaged in the Silesian Avars, and became 
 one of the most eminent generals in the 
 seven years' Avar. He commanded the 
 allied army in Westphalia, where, always 
 opposed to superior forces, he displayed
 
 300 
 
 BRUNSWICK. 
 
 superior talents. He drove the French 
 from Lower Saxony, Hesse and West- 
 phalia, and was victorious in the two 
 great hattles of Crefeld and Minden. 
 (See Seven Years' War.) After the peace, 
 he resigned his commission, on account 
 of a misunderstanding between him and 
 the king. From that time he lived at 
 Brunswick, the patron of art and litera- 
 ture. He died in 1792. 
 
 BRUNSWICK, Frederic William, duke 
 of; fourth and youngest son of duke 
 Charles William Ferdinand of Bruns- 
 wick. He was bom in 1771, and receiv- 
 ed the same education with his second 
 and third brothers, who were a few years 
 older, till the military career, to which he 
 was destined, gave his studies a particular 
 direction. He was loved by his father 
 with great tenderness, but very strictly 
 treated. In 1786, he was appointed, by 
 the king of Prussia, successor of his uncle, 
 Frederic Augustus, duke of Oels and 
 Bernstadt. He then went to Lausanne, 
 remained two years in Switzerland, and, 
 upon his return, was made captain hi a 
 Prussian regiment of foot. During the 
 war against France, in 1792, and the fol- 
 lowing year, he fought in the Prussian 
 armies, and was twice wounded. After 
 the peace of Bale, he received a regiment, 
 and, in 1804, married the princess Maria 
 Elisabeth Wilhelmina of Baden. The 
 offspring of this marriage were two prin- 
 cesses, born in 1804 and 1806, who are 
 still living. In 1805, his uncle died, and 
 he became duke of Oels and Bernstadt. 
 In 1806, he took part in the war against 
 France, with all the fire which the op- 
 pression of Germany and his father's un- 
 happy fate had kindled in him. He finally 
 joined the corps of Bliicher, and was made 
 prisoner with him at Liibeck. By the 
 death of his eldest brother, the hereditary 
 prince, who died in September of the 
 same year, without leaving any children, 
 and by an agreement adjusted by his 
 father between him and his elder broth- 
 ers, who, on account of their blindness, 
 were unfit to govern, and were unmarri- 
 ed, he would have succeeded his father in 
 the government of Brunswick, had not 
 the peace of Tilsit and Napoleon's will 
 prevented. After that time, he lived at 
 Bruchsal, where, in April, 1808, his wife 
 died. In 1809, at the breaking out of the 
 war between Austria and France, he rais- 
 ed a body of volunteers in Bohemia. 
 Schill had already perished in Stralsund, 
 when the duke made an invasion into 
 Saxony. He was, however, compelled, 
 by the king of Westphalia, to evacuate 
 
 Dresden and Leipsic, with his black hus- 
 sars. The duke, in conjunction with the 
 Austrian general Am Ende, forced his 
 way from Dresden to Franconia, whither 
 the Austrian?, under Kicnmayer, had pen- 
 etrated from Bohemia. After the armis- 
 tice of Znaim (July 12), the Austrians 
 again evacuated Dresden, which they had 
 occupied for the second time, and retreat- 
 ed behind the frontiers of Bohemia. But 
 the duke, renouncing his alliance with 
 the emperor of Austria, advanced with 
 his corps, consisting of 1500 men, among 
 whom were 700 horse, from Altenburg, 
 towards Leipsic. After a slight skirmish 
 with the garrison there, he continued his 
 march to Halle, where he arrived July 
 27, and immediately pushed on to Hal- 
 berstadt, where he arrived July 30. 
 The Westphalian colonel Wellingerode, 
 with the fifth regiment of infantry, had 
 entered the place the same morning. 
 Although this regiment made a gallant 
 resistance, it was overpowered, and its 
 commander taken prisoner. The duke 
 then proceeded to Brunswick, his native 
 city, where he arrived July 31, and biv- 
 ouacked on the ramparts. He did not al- 
 low himself any rest, for he was closely 
 pursued on all sides. The Westphalian 
 general Reubel assembled 4000 men of 
 his division at Ohof, in the vicinity of 
 Brunswick ; general Gratien, with a Dutch 
 division, had set out from Erfurt ; and the 
 Danish general Ewald, marching from 
 Gliickstadt into the territories of Hano- 
 ver, crossed the Elbe in order to cover 
 that river. Aug. 1, Reubel met the duke 
 not far from Brunswick, near the village 
 of Oelper, and an action ensued (the llth 
 since he had left Saxony), in which a 
 corps of 4000 men not only retreated be- 
 fore 1500, but also opened to them the 
 only way by which they could escape. 
 Aug. 2, the duke left Brunswick. From 
 the road he took, it was conjectured that 
 he would march towards Celle, whither 
 he was pursued, therefore, by the West- 
 phalian troops. Instead, however, of do- 
 ing this, he took his way through Hano- 
 ver immediately to Nienburg, crossed the 
 Weser, and, having destroyed the bridges 
 behind him, marched down the river. 
 He reached Hoya Aug. 4, and hastened 
 his march upon the left bank of the 
 Weser, while part of his corps, to make 
 a demonstration, turned towards Bremen. 
 Here the black hussars entered on the 
 5th, and occupied the gates, but on the 
 next day continued their march. Mean- 
 time the duke advanced through the ter- 
 ritory of Oldenburg. He passed the night
 
 BRUNSWICK BRUSSELS. 
 
 301 
 
 I 
 
 of the 5th of August at Dehnenhorst, and 
 appeared to be directing his course to 
 East Friesland, in order to embark there. 
 But, contrary to expectation, he crossed, 
 at Huntebriick, the small river Hunte, 
 which falls into the Weser, seized the 
 merchant ships which were lying at Els- 
 fleth, principally unloaded, embarked his 
 troops in the night of the 6th, leaving be- 
 hind the horses, and procuring, in that 
 country, which is inhabited by seamen, 
 the necessary sailors by force. On the 
 7th, in the morning, the duke himself, 
 having the English Hag hoisted, set sail, 
 and, on the 8th, landed at Heligoland, 
 whence he sailed, on the llth, with his 
 corps, for England. In England, the duke 
 was received with great distinction. His 
 corps immediately entered the English 
 service, and was afterwards employed in 
 Portugal and Spain. The parliament 
 granted him a pension of 0000, until he 
 returned to his hereditary dominions, 
 Dec, 22, 1813. He was a prince of an 
 uncommonly open character. In his he- 
 reditary states, lie acted with the best 
 intentions ; but his frequent errors disap- 
 pointed the great expectations which had 
 been formed of him, and narrow-minded 
 counsellors contributed to lead him astray. 
 He wished to sow and reap at the same 
 time. His military spirit and penetrating 
 mind led him to foresee new dangers 
 from the great oppressor of Europe. His 
 great preparations must be explained from 
 this view of circumstances in 1814 and 
 1815. His finances were thrown into 
 great disorder by his maintaining so many 
 troops ; and even the interest of the pub- 
 lic debt was not paid. Thus he became 
 unpopular as the sovereign of a country 
 which had been prosperous under his 
 father's sceptre. The events of 1815 
 called him again to arms, and he fell 
 June 16, 1815. (See Quatrebras, and 
 Ligny.} 
 
 BRUNSWICK, Louis Ernest, duke of; 
 third son of Ferdinand Albeit, duke of 
 Brunswick-Liineburg ; born in 1718 ; en- 
 tered the imperial service in 1750 ; be- 
 came field-marshal of the republic of 
 Holland ; during seven years from 1759, 
 was captain-general of the United Prov- 
 
 errors, he was obliged to leave the stadt- 
 holder in 1772. He died in 1788. 
 
 BRUNSWICK (M. J. Leopold), prince of, 
 major-general in the Prussian service, 
 youngest son of duke Charles of Bruns- 
 wick, born at Wolfenbiittel in 1752, was 
 instructed by the abbe Jerusalem. He 
 studied in Strasburg military science and 
 other branches of knowledge, travelled 
 through Italy under the care of Lessing, 
 and entered the Prussian service, in 177ti, 
 as commander of a regiment of foot, at 
 Frankfort on the Oder. In this city, 
 where he resided after his return from 
 the Bavarian war of succession in 1779, 
 he gained universal esteem by his amia- 
 ble character, his talents, and his zeal for 
 literature. In 1780, Frankfort was pre- 
 served, by his activity, from an inunda- 
 tion which threatened to overthrow the 
 dikes and deluge the suburbs. He dis- 
 played the same vigilance on the occa- 
 sion of several conflagrations, with which 
 this city was afflicted. He visited the 
 poor in their most miserable haunts, and 
 his life was devoted to works of benevo- 
 lence. He fell a sacrifice to his humanity 
 hi the inundation of 1785, in which he 
 was drowned while hastening to the as- 
 sistance of the suburbs. The monuments 
 that have been erected to him will bear 
 witness to future generations of the es- 
 teem of his contemporaries. 
 
 BRUSH- WHEELS. In light machinery, 
 wheels sometimes turn each other by 
 means of bristles or brushes fixed to their 
 circumference. They may, also, com- 
 municate circular motion by friction only. 
 The surface brought in contact is then 
 formed of the end grain of wood, or is 
 covered with an elastic substance, and 
 the wheels are pressed together to in- 
 crease the friction. 
 
 BRUSSELS, formerly the capital of the 
 Austrian Netherlands, with 75,000 inhab- 
 itants, principally Catholics, and, after 
 Amsterdam, the second city of the king- 
 dom of the Netherlands, is a handsome 
 city of South Brabant. During 20 years, 
 from 1794 to 1814, it was in the posses- 
 sion of the French, and the chief town in 
 the department of the Dyle. It is now, 
 
 alternately with the Hague, the royal res- 
 
 inces ; was regent during the minority of idence, and the place of meeting of the 
 
 the stadtholder, and had previously pre- 
 served the neutrality of the republic dur- 
 ing the long war of the neighboring 
 powers from 1754. After the stadtholder 
 became of age, B. was made counsellor 
 by the states- general. Having, however, 
 incurred the hatred of the people by his 
 partiality for the nobility, and some other 
 VOL. ii. 26 
 
 states-general of the kingdom. It is a 
 favorite resort of the English, many of 
 whom have resided here since the peace 
 of 1814. The gloomy forest of Soignies, 
 so memorable since the battle of Water- 
 loo, lies on the south and south-west of 
 the town. It was formerly surrounded 
 by a wall, which has been demolished,
 
 302 
 
 BRUSSELS BRUTUS. 
 
 and the ramparts laid out in public walks. 
 The upper part of the city is magnificent. 
 The park is a spacious square, laid out 
 with shaded walks, and surrounded by 
 the palaces, public offices and principal 
 private houses. In the lower part, lying 
 on a plain watered by the Senne, the 
 streets are narrow and crowded, but the 
 great market-place is very beautiful. 
 This part of the city is intersected by 
 several canals, connected with the Senne, 
 and the great Scheldt canal. The other 
 principal squares are Oorlogo plaats, Mi- 
 chael's plaats and Sands plaats. The 
 principal churches are St. Michael's and 
 the church of St. Gudule. B. also con- 
 tains an academy of arts and sciences, a 
 foundling hospital, and a central school 
 with a library of 100,000 volumes, a valu- 
 able gallery of paintings and a cabinet of 
 natural history. The school of medicine 
 and that of botany have also apartments, 
 and there is a public botanic garden. 
 The town is ornamented with 20 public 
 fountains, all embellished with sculpture. 
 The manufactures of B. are celebrated 
 throughout Europe and America, partic- 
 nlarly its lace, camlets and carpets ; the 
 first alone employs 10,000 individuals. 
 Its carnages surpass even those of Lon- 
 don and Paris. The other articles made 
 here are ticking, various kinds of cotton 
 and woollen stuffs, sijk stockings, gal- 
 loons, earthenware, &c. It carries on 
 considerable trade with the interior of the 
 Netherlands, and also with foreign coun- 
 tries, by means of its canals. The prin- 
 cipal of these was constructed in 1560 
 and 1561, and leads to Antwerp : it is 110 
 feet above the level of the sea. The city 
 owes its origin to St. Gery, who, in the 
 7th century, built a chapel on an island 
 in the Senne, and preached to the peas- 
 ants. As the numbers collected here be- 
 came great, it was surrounded with a wall 
 in 1044, and became, in process of time, 
 the residence of the dukes of Brabant, 
 and of the Austrian governors. It was 
 several times captured by the French, and, 
 in 1789 90, took the lead in the troubles 
 which broke out in th.^ Netherlands. 
 
 BRUTUS, or BRUTE, in the fabulous his- 
 tory of Britain, was the first king of the 
 island, according to Geoffrey of Mon- 
 mouth. He is said to have been the son 
 of Sylvius, and grandson of Ascanius, the 
 sou of ^Eneas, and to have been born in 
 Italy. He landed at Totness, in Devon- 
 shire, destroyed the giants who then in- 
 habited Albion, and called the island 
 from his own name. At his death, the 
 island was divided among his three sons: 
 
 Locrine had England, Camber Wales, 
 and Albanact Scotland. 
 
 BRUTUS, Lucius Junius, son of Marcus 
 Junius and the daughter of the elder 
 Tarquin, saved his life from the perse- 
 cutions of Tarquin the Proud by feign- 
 ing himself insane, on which account he 
 received the surname Brutus (stupid). 
 During a plague that broke out at Rome, 
 he accompanied the son of Tarquin to 
 the oracle in Delphi. When Lucretia, 
 the wife of Collatinus, plunged a dagger 
 into her bosom, that she might not out- 
 live the insult which she had suffered 
 from Sextus, the son of Tarquin, B., being 
 present, threw off the mask. He drew 
 the dagger, all bloody, from the wound, 
 and swore vengeance against the Tar- 
 quins, explaining to the astonished spec- 
 tators the reason of his pretended imbe- 
 cility, and persuading all who were pres- 
 ent to take the same oath. The people 
 submitted to his guidance, and he caused 
 the gates to be shut, the inhabitants to be 
 assembled, and the body to be publicly 
 exposed. He then urged the banishment 
 of the Tarquins. After this had been 
 resolved on, B. proposed to abolish 
 the regal dignity, and introduce a free 
 government. It was then determined 
 that two consuls should exercise supreme 
 power for a year, and Junius Brutus and 
 Tarquinius Collatinus were chosen for 
 the first term. Tarquin, who had seen 
 the gates shut against him, and found 
 himself deserted by his army, sent ambas- 
 sadors to Rome to demand a restoration 
 of his private property, and, at the same 
 time, to promise that he would make no 
 attempt against the republic. His request 
 was granted. The ambassadors, however, 
 set on foot a conspiracy, and drew into it 
 many young men, among whom were the 
 two sons of B. and the nephews of Col- 
 latinus. But a slave named Vindex dis- 
 covered the plot. The criminals were 
 imprisoned, and the consuls caused the 
 people the next morning to be called to 
 the comitia. All were deeply shocked 
 to see the sons of B. among the prisoners, 
 and their father on the judgment-seat to 
 condemn them. Collatinus wept, and 
 even the stern Valerius sat silent. But 
 B. arose firmly, and, after their crime had 
 been proved beyond a doubt, ordered the 
 lictors to execute the law. Neither the 
 entreaties of the people nor of his sons 
 could alter his resolution. He witnessed 
 the horrible spectacle without emotion, 
 and did not leave the assembly until after 
 the execution. He was called back, 
 however, when Collatinus wished to save
 
 BRUTUS BRUYERE. 
 
 303 
 
 his guilty nephews. The people con- 
 demned them all, and chose Valerius 
 consul in place of Collatinus. In the 
 mean time, Tarquin, supported by Por- 
 senna, collected an army, and marched 
 against Rome. The consuls advanced to 
 meet him. B. led the cavalry; Aruns, 
 son of Tarquin, commanded the body 
 opposed to him. They pierced each 
 other with their spears at the same mo- 
 ment, and both fell, A. C. 509. The Ro- 
 mans came off conquerors, and B. was 
 buried with great splendor. The women 
 lamented him a whole year, as the avenger 
 of the honor of their sex. 
 
 BRUTUS, Marcus Junius. This repub- 
 lican resembled in spirit, as well as in 
 name, the expeller of Tarquin. He was 
 at first an enemy of Pompey, who had 
 slain his father in Galatia, but forgot his 
 private enmity, and was reconciled to 
 hiiii, when he undertook the defence of 
 freedom. He did not, however, assume 
 any public station, and, after the unfortu- 
 nate battle of Pharsalia, surrendered him- 
 self to Caesar, who received him with the 
 tenderest friendship, as lie had always 
 loved him, and regarded him almost like 
 his own son, because the mother of Bru- 
 tus, sister of the rigid Cato, had been the 
 object of his affection. In the distribu- 
 tion of the offices of state, the dictator 
 appointed B. to the government of Mace- 
 donia. Notwithstanding these benefits, 
 B. was the head of the conspiracy against 
 Ca?sar, deeming the sacrifice of private 
 friendship necessary for the welfare of 
 his country. He was led into the con- 
 spiracy by Cassius, who, impelled by 
 hatred against Ca?sar, as well as by the 
 love of freedom, sought, at first, by writ- 
 ing, and then by means of his wife, Junia, 
 sister of B., to gain his favor ; and, when 
 lie thought him prepared for the propo- 
 sal, disclosed to him, verbally, the plan of 
 a conspiracy against Cassar, who was then 
 aiming at the supreme power. B. agreed 
 to the design, and his influence led many 
 of the most distinguished Romans to em- 
 brace it also. Ca3sar was assassinated in 
 the senate-house. In public speeches, B. 
 explained the reasons of this deed, but 
 he could not appease the dissatisfaction of 
 the people, and retired, with his party, to 
 the capitol. He soon after took courage, 
 when the consul P. Cornelius Dolabella, 
 and the praetor L. Cornelius Cinna, Ca3- 
 sar's brother-in-law, declared themselves 
 in his favor. But Antony, whom B. had 
 generously spared, was reconciled to him 
 only in appearance, and obtained his leave 
 to read Csesar's will to the people. By 
 
 means of this instrument, Antony suc- 
 ceeded in exciting the popular indignation 
 against the murderers of Csesar, and they 
 were compelled to flee from Rome. B. 
 went to Athens, and endeavored to form 
 a party there among the Roman nobility : 
 he gamed over, also, the troops in Mace- 
 donia. He then began to levy soldiers 
 openly, which was the easier for him, as 
 the remainder of Pompey's troops, since 
 the defeat of their general, had been 
 roving about in Thessaly. Hortensius, 
 the governor of Macedonia, aided him ; 
 and thus B., master of all Greece and 
 Macedonia, in a short time stood at the 
 head of a powerful army. He went now 
 to Asia, and joined Cassius, whose efforts 
 had been equally successful. In Rome, 
 on the contrary, the triumvirs prevailed. 
 All the conspirators had been condemned, 
 and the people had taken up arms against 
 them. B. and Cassius, having with diffi- 
 culty subdued the Lycians and Rhodians, 
 returned to Europe to oppose the trium- 
 viri. (Plutarch informs us, that a spirit 
 appeared to B., on his march from 
 Sardis to Abydos, in Asia Minor.) The 
 army passed over the Hellespont, and 19 
 legions and 20,000 cavalry were assem- 
 bled on the plains of Phihppi, in Macedo- 
 nia, whither, also, the triumvirs Antony 
 and Octavianus inarched with their le- 
 gions. Although the Roman historians 
 do not agree in their accounts of the bat- 
 tle of Philippi, so much as this appears 
 certain, that Cassius was beaten by An- 
 tony, and caused himself to be killed by 
 a slave ; that B. fought with greater suc- 
 cess against the division of the army con> 
 manded by Octavianus, who was hindered 
 by indisposition from conducting the bat- 
 tle in person ; that B., after the engage- 
 ment, took possession of an advantageous 
 situation, where it was difficult for an 
 attack to be made upon him ; that he was 
 induced, by the ardor of his soldiers, to 
 renew the contest, and was a second time 
 unsuccessful. He was totally defeated, 
 escaped with only a few friends, passed 
 the night in a cave, and, as he saw his 
 cause irretrievably ruined, ordered Strato, 
 one of his confidants, to kill him. Strato 
 refused, a long time, to perform the com- 
 mand ; but, seeing B. resolved, he turned 
 away his face, and held his sword, while 
 B. fell upon it. Thus died B. (A. C. 42), 
 in the 43d year of his age. 
 
 BRUYERE, John de la, the famous au- 
 thor of the Characters and Manners of his 
 age, was born, 1639, in a village near 
 Dourdan, not far from Paris. He pur- 
 chased the place of treasurer at Caen ;
 
 304 
 
 BRUYERE BUBNA. 
 
 but, a short time after, through the influ- 
 ence of Bossuet, lie was employed in the 
 education of the duke of Burgundy, with 
 a pension of 3000 livres, and was attached 
 to his person during the remainder of his 
 life. In 1687, he translated the Charac- 
 ters of Theophrastus into French, with 
 much elegance, and accompanied them 
 with a succession of characters, in which 
 he represented the manners of his time 
 with great accuracy, and in a style epi- 
 grammatical, ingenious and witty. B. 
 often took his characters from living per- 
 sons, although he denied it, and seems, 
 by this means, to have gained many ene- 
 mies. He was a man of pleasant man- 
 ners and amiable disposition. In 1(593, 
 he was elected a member of the French 
 academy, with some opposition, and died 
 in 1096. 
 
 BRUVN, Coraeillc le, a painter and 
 traveller, born at the Hague in 1652, 
 went, in 1674, to Rome, where he studied 
 his art for two years and a half. He then 
 followed his inclination for travelling, vis- 
 ited Naples, and other cities of Italy, em- 
 barked for Smyrna, travelled through 
 Asia Minor, Egypt, and the islands of the 
 Archipelago, noting down and drawing 
 all that he found worthy of his attention. 
 He afterwards settled in Venice, and be- 
 came a disciple of Carlo Lotti. In 1693, 
 he returned to his native country, and 
 published his travels in 1698. The favor- 
 able reception of this work excited in him 
 the desire to travel anew. He visited, in 
 1701, and the following years, Russia, 
 Persia, India, Ceylon and other Asiatic 
 islands. In Russia, he painted Peter the 
 Great, and different princes of his family ; 
 in 1706, in Batavia, some of the prin- 
 cipal men. In 1708, he returned to his 
 country, where he published an account 
 of his second journey, the value of which, 
 like that of the first, consists more in the 
 beauty and correctness of the drawings 
 than in the trustworthiness of the state- 
 ments. During the rest of his life, Le B. 
 was occupied exclusively with his art, 
 passed his time alternately at the Hague 
 and at Amsterdam, and died at Utrecht, 
 in the house of his friend and protector 
 van Mollein. 
 
 BRYANT, Jacob, a philologist and anti- 
 quary, born at Plymouth in 1715, died, in 
 1804, at his country-seat, near Windsor. 
 He studied at Eton and Cambridge, be- 
 came afterwarda tutor of the sons of the 
 famous duke of Marlborough, the eldest 
 of whom he also accompanied to the con- 
 tinent as his secretary. After his return, 
 he received, by the influence of his pa-* 
 
 tron, a lucrative post in the ordnance, 
 which gave him leisure for his researches 
 into Biblical, Roman and Grecian antiqui- 
 ties. His most important work is the 
 New System of Ancient Mythology, 
 which appeared in 3 vols. 4to., 1773 to 
 177(5. Whatever may be the ingenuity 
 and the learning of the author, it is justly 
 objected, that he has taken conjectures 
 for proofs, and, in particular, that he has 
 trusted too much to the deceptive conclu- 
 sions of etymology. He was engaged in 
 a famous dispute on the veracity of Ho- 
 mer and the existence of Troy, in which 
 he endeavored to show, that there never 
 was such a city as Troy, and that the 
 whole expedition of the Greeks Avas a 
 mere fiction of Homer's. The object of 
 one of his earlier treatises, which appear- 
 ed in 1767, is to show, that the island Me- 
 lita, on which Paul was wrecked, was not 
 Malta, but situated in the Adriatic. He 
 endeavored to illustrate the Scriptures by 
 explanations drawn from Josephus, from 
 Philo the Jew, and from Justin Martyr ; 
 but in this, as in all his writings, his 
 learning and his ingenuity are misled by 
 his love of controversy and paradox. 
 
 BUBNA, count of, descended from an 
 old family in Bohemia, was, early in life, 
 the chamberlain of the emperor of Aus- 
 tria, afterwards entered the military ser- 
 vice, and rose to the rank of field-mar- 
 shal-lieutenant. At the end of 1812, he 
 was sent, by his court, with extraordinary 
 commissions, to Napoleon, at Paris, and, 
 in May, 1813, was sent again to him at 
 Dresden. In the war of 1813, he com- 
 manded an Austrian division with much 
 honor, and, in 1814, received the chief 
 command of the Austrian army which 
 was to pass through Geneva to the south 
 of France. Here he showed as much 
 caution in his movements as forbearance 
 and humanity towards the inhabitants. 
 He advanced upon Lyons, which was de- 
 fended by marshal Augereau, but was 
 unsuccessful in his attacks uj>on the city, 
 till the corps of Bianchi and Hessen-Hom- 
 berg came to his assistance, upon which 
 the prince of Hessen-Homberg took the 
 chief command. B. remained at Lyons 
 till the return of the allied forces, and 
 then retired to Vienna. After the land- 
 ing of Napoleon in 1815, he again led a 
 corps, under Frimont, against Lyons, and 
 in Savoy opposed marshal Suchet, till 
 Paris was conquered, and the marshal 
 retreated beyond Lyons. He then took 
 possession of Lyons without opposition, 
 established a court-martial to punish the 
 disturbers of public order, and proceeded
 
 BUBNA BUCCANEERS. 
 
 305 
 
 with greater severity than on his former 
 campaign. In September, he marched 
 back to Austria, and received, for his ser- 
 vices, valuable estates in Bohemia, from 
 his ernperor. In the insurrection of Pied- 
 mont (q. v.), 1821, the count de B. receiv- 
 ed the chief command of the Austrian 
 troops destined to restore the ancient 
 government. After the accomplishment 
 of this commission, he was appointed 
 general commandant of Lombardy. He 
 died at Milan, June 6, 1825, in the 50th 
 year of his age. 
 
 BUCCANEERS ; a band of English and 
 French freebooters in America, whose 
 exploits form one of the most remarkable 
 parts of the history of the 17th century. 
 After the assassination of Henry IV, in 
 France, in 1610, several Frenchmen 
 sought a residence on the island of St. 
 Christopher, one of the Antilles. Driven 
 thence in 1G30, some of them fled to the 
 western coast of St. Domingo, others to 
 the small island of Tortugas, in the vicin- 
 ity. Several Englishmen, led by a simi- 
 lar disposition, associated themselves with 
 the latter. The fugitives at St. Domingo 
 employed themselves especially in the 
 chase of wild cattle, of which there were 
 large herds on the island. They sold the 
 hides to the mariners who landed on the 
 coast, and, because they did not boil the 
 flesh, but roasted it before the fire, like 
 the American savages, they were called 
 buccaneers. Without a captain, without 
 laws, without the society of women, these 
 hunters lived in the rudest state of nature, 
 associating two by two, and enjoying in 
 common all that they had taken in the 
 chase or acquired by robbery. The 
 Spaniards, who could not conquer them, 
 determined to extirpate all the cattle on 
 the island, and thus obliged the bucca- 
 neers either to cultivate the land as hus- 
 bandmen, or to join the other freebooters 
 on the island of Tortugas. These bold 
 adventurers attacked, in small numbers, 
 and with small means, but with an intre- 
 pidity which bade defiance to danger, not 
 only single merchant vessels, but several 
 of them together, and sometimes armed 
 ships. Their common mode of attack 
 was by boarding. They directed their 
 efforts especially against the Spanish 
 ships which sailed for Europe laden with 
 the treasures of America. By the repeat- 
 ed losses which they suffered, the Span- 
 iards were at last so discouraged, that 
 they seldom offered a serious resistance. 
 It happened once that a ship of the buc- 
 caneers fell in with two Spanish galleons, 
 each of which had 60 cannon and 1500 
 26* 
 
 men on board. To escape was impossi- 
 ble, and the pirates could not think of 
 surrender. Their captain, Laurent, made 
 a short speech to them, sent one of his 
 men to the powder-room with orders to 
 set fire to it upon the first sign which he 
 should give him, and then placed his 
 men in order of battle on each side. "We 
 must sail between the enemy's ships," 
 cried he to his crew, "and fire upon them 
 to the right and left." This manoeuvre 
 was executed with extraordinary rapidity. 
 The fire of the pirate killed so many peo- 
 ple, on board both ships, that the Span- 
 iards were struck with a panic, and let 
 him escape. The Spanish commander 
 was afterwards put to death on account 
 of the disgrace which he had brought 
 upon his nation. Their frequent losses 
 greatly reduced the trade of the Spaniards 
 with America. The buccaneers now be- 
 gan to land on the coast, and to plunder 
 the cities. Their manner of dividing 
 their booty was remarkable. Every one 
 who had a share in the expedition swore 
 that he had reserved nothing of the plun- 
 der. A false oath was of extremely rare 
 occurrence, and was punished by banish- 
 ment to an uninhabited island. The 
 wounded first received their share, which 
 was greater according to the severity of 
 their wounds. The remainder was di- 
 vided into equal parts, and distributed by 
 lot. The leader received more than the 
 others only when he had particularly dis- 
 tinguished himself. Those who had per- 
 ished in the expedition were not forgotten. 
 Their part was given to their relations or 
 friends, and, in default of them, to the 
 poor and to the church. Religion was 
 strangely blended with their vices, and 
 they always began their enterprises with 
 a prayer. The wealth which they ac- 
 quired was spent in gambling and de- 
 bauchery, for it was the principle of these 
 adventurers to enjoy the present and not 
 care for the future. The climate and 
 their mode of life gradually diminished 
 their number, and the vigorous measures 
 of the English and French governments 
 at last put an end to their outrages, which 
 had, perhaps, been purposely tolerated. 
 From this band of pirates arose the 
 French settlements on the western half 
 of St. Domingo. In the beginning of the 
 18th century, the piracies of the bucca- 
 neers had entirely ceased. An account 
 of their mode of life, and of many of their 
 deeds, is to be found in the 10th volume 
 of Raynal's History of the two Indies, 
 and in the 2d volume of Archenholz's 
 Historical Writings.
 
 306 
 
 BUCENTAUR BUCHANAN. 
 
 BUCENTAUR, in mythology ; a monster, 
 half man and half ox or ass. The splen- 
 did galley in which the doge of Venice 
 annually sailed over the Adriatic on As- 
 cension-Day also bore this name. Drop- 
 ping a ring into the sea, he espoused it in 
 the name of the republic, with the words 
 Desponsamus <e, mare, in signum veri per- 
 pduique dominii. The custom originated 
 in 1176, when the doge, having refused 
 to deliver up the pope, who had taken 
 refuge in Venice, to the emperor, encoun- 
 tered and defeated the imperial fleet 
 which was sent to reduce the Venetians. 
 BUCEPHALUS ; the horse of Alexander 
 the Great, which he bought for 13 talents 
 (about 10 or 11,000 dollars). Philonicus, 
 a Thessalian, offered to sell him to king 
 Philip ; but Philip, who considered the 
 price too great, commanded the unman- 
 ageable steed to be led away, when the 
 young Alexander offered to mount him. 
 He leaped up, in fact, and, to the aston- 
 ishment of all, the horse obeyed him, 
 and willingly submitted to his guidance, 
 though he had never before obeyed a 
 rider. Alexander, from this circumstance, 
 conceived such au affection for him, that 
 he never rode upon any other horse ; and 
 Bucephalus, also, when caparisoned for 
 battle, endured no other rider. He died 
 of a wound, and Alexander caused him 
 to be buried near the Hydaspes, and built, 
 over his grave, a city, which he called 
 Bucephala. 
 
 BUCER, Martin ; born, 1491, at Schlett- 
 stadt, in Alsace. He died in the office of 
 professor of theology at Cambridge, 1551. 
 At the time of the reformation, he left the 
 Dominican order, and became a convert 
 to Lutheranism. He was, at first, preach- 
 er at the court of Frederic, the elector 
 of the Palatinate, afterwards in Strasburg, 
 and at the same time professor in the uni- 
 versity there for 20 years, till king Ed- 
 ward VI of England, at the suggestion 
 of archbishop Cranmer, invited him to 
 Cambridge. In 1557, queen Mary caus- 
 ed his bones to be burned, to show her 
 detestation of Protestantism. The cardi- 
 nal Contarini called him the most learned 
 divine among the heretics. He wrote a 
 commentary on the Psalms, under the 
 name of Aretius Filinus. His first wife 
 had been a nun in her youth. After her 
 death, he married again. 
 
 BUCH, Leopold von ; bom in 1777, in 
 Prussia ; one of the most distinguished 
 geologists of Germany. He has studied 
 the structure of the earth, by personal ob- 
 servation, for more than 30 years, in his 
 travels through all the provinces of Ger- 
 
 many, through Scandinavia to the North 
 cape, through parts of Great Britain, 
 France, Italy and the Canaries. In the 
 possession of a happy independence, he 
 sets out every spring, from Berlin, where 
 he usually passes the winter, on his sci- 
 entific travels. Simple in his habits, fru- 
 gal, accustomed to hardships, he travels 
 in the carriage, on horseback, on foot, as 
 his purpose requires. He was the first 
 geologist who clearly explained the dif- 
 ferent volcanic phenomena, particularly 
 their effects on the elevation of the sur- 
 face and the nature of the soil. He di- 
 vides volcanoes into central volcanoes 
 and volcanic chains. The latter appear 
 to him to follow the direction of great 
 clefts in the earth, which, in turn, corre- 
 spond with the direction of the primitive 
 mountains. His central volcanoes are, 
 Etna, the isles of Lipari, Iceland, the 
 Azores, the Canaries, &c. The results 
 of his geological labors are contained in 
 his Geognostical Observations on Travels 
 through Germany and Italy (1802), and 
 his Physical Description of the Canaries, 
 where he lived, in 1815, for several 
 months. He was afterwards accompa- 
 nied by the Norwegian botanist Chris- 
 tian Smith, who, some years later, was 
 among the victims of the unhappy expe- 
 dition of captain Tuckey in the Congo 
 river. Buch's Travels through Norway 
 and Lapland (2 vols., Berlin, 1810, with 
 copperplates) is one of the best works on 
 the structure of the earth in the high 
 northern regions. 
 
 BUCHANAN, George, an eminent poet 
 and historian, and one of the great mas- 
 ters of modem Latinity, was bom in 
 Scotland, in 1506. His parents were in- 
 digent, and he owed his education to an 
 uncle, who sent him to Paris. He af- 
 terwards repaired to St. Andrew's. He 
 became tutor or companion of the earl of 
 Cassilis, with whom he lived five years, 
 and obtained the notice of James V, who 
 appointed him tutor to his natural son, 
 afterwards the famous regent, earl of 
 Murray. His satires against the monks 
 exposed him to the vengeance of the 
 clergy, and he was imprisoned for here- 
 sy; but, contriving to escape, he with- 
 drew to Bourdeaux, where be taught 
 three years, and composed his tragedies 
 of Baptistes and Jepthes, and his transla- 
 tions of the Medea and Jttcestes of Eurip- 
 ides. In 1543, he quitted Bourdeaux on 
 account of the pestilence, and became, for 
 a while, domestic tutor to the celebrated 
 Montaigne, who records the fact in his 
 essays. In 1544, he went to Paris, and,
 
 BUCHANAN BUCHAREST. 
 
 307 
 
 for some time, taught in the college of 
 Bourbon. In 1547, he accompanied his 
 friend Govea to Portugal. He had not 
 been there a year before Govea died, and, 
 the freedom of B.'s opinions giving of- 
 fence, he was thrown into prison, where 
 he began his translations of the Psalms 
 into Latin verse. He obtained his liberty 
 in 1551, and spent four years at Paris, as 
 tutor to the son of the marshal de Brissac. 
 In 1560, he returned to Scotland, where 
 he openly embraced Protestantism, yet 
 was well received at court, and assisted 
 the queen in her studies. He was also 
 employed in regulating the universities, 
 and was made principal of St. Leonard's 
 college, St Andrew's. He even obtained 
 a pension from Mary, which did not pre- 
 vent him from connecting himself with 
 the party of Murray. Though a layman, 
 he was made, in 1567, moderator of the 
 general assembly, which appointed him 
 preceptor to James VI, who acquired, 
 under his tuition, the scholastic knowl- 
 edge on which he so much prided him- 
 self. It is said that Buchanan, on being 
 subsequently told that he had made the 
 king a pedant, replied, that " it was the best 
 he could make of him." He next accom- 
 panied Murray to England, in order to pre- 
 fer charges against Mary, and, in 1571, 
 published his Detedio Maria Regince, a 
 virulent attack upon the character and 
 conduct of that unhappy queen ; and, al- 
 though his patron Murray had been assas- 
 sinated in 1570, he continued in favor 
 with the prevalent party, who made him 
 one of the lords of the council and lord 
 of the privy seal. He likewise received a 
 pension of 100 per annum from queen 
 Elizabeth. In 1579, he published his 
 celebrated De Jure Regni, a work which 
 will c-ver rank him among the spirited 
 defenders of the rights of the people to 
 judge of the conduct of their governors. 
 He spent the last 12 or 13 years of his 
 life in composing his great work, entitled 
 Rerum Scoticarum Historia, in 90 books, 
 which was published at Edinburgh, in 
 1582. He died the same year, at the age 
 of 76, in very poor circumstances ; and the 
 city of Edinburgh interred him at the 
 public expense. The moral character of 
 B. has been the subject of much obloquy 
 with his enemies; and the charge of early 
 licentiousness seems countenanced by 
 several of his poems. Conscious of his 
 great abilities, he was also querulous and 
 discontented with his circumstances, and 
 by no means scrupulous in his attempts 
 to amend them ; added to which, his 
 temper was harsh and unamiable, and his 
 
 conduct, as a party man, exceedingly vir- 
 ulent As a writer, he has obtained high 
 applause from all parties ; and as a Latin 
 poet, in particular, he stands among the 
 first of the modems. His Psalms are in 
 all kinds of measure, and some of them 
 are extremely beautiful. As a historian, 
 he is considered to have united the beau- 
 ties of Livy and Sallust as to style ; but 
 he discovered a great lack, of judgment 
 and investigative spirit, taking up all the 
 tales of the chronicles as he found them, 
 and affording to their legendary absurdi- 
 ties the currency of his own eloquent 
 embellishment. On the whole, however, 
 B. may justly be deemed an honor to his 
 country ; as a man whose genius burst 
 through all disadvantages to the attain- 
 ment of a wide and justly-celebrated dis- 
 tinction. Of his different works in verse 
 and prose, various editions have been 
 given ; and a valuable edition of the whole 
 was published at Edinburgh, in 2 vols. 
 folio, 1714, and reprinted at Leyden, in 3 
 vols. 4to., 1725. 
 
 BUCHAREST (i. e. city of joy), the chief 
 city of Walachia, the residence of the 
 hospodar and of a Greek bishop, contains 
 10,000 meanly built houses, and 60,000 
 inhabitants, including Greeks, Jews and 
 Armenians. The streets are not paved, 
 but covered with logs. The Greeks for- 
 merly had an academy here with 12 in- 
 structors, which, in 1810, contained 244 
 students. It has declined since the pres- 
 ent hospodar Ghika, a native of Wala- 
 chia, took possession of its funds in 1825. 
 The trade in wine, skins, and other pro- 
 ducts of the country, is very brisk. May 
 28, 1812, a peace was concluded here 
 between Russia and the Porte. 
 
 Bucharest, Peace of, May 28, 1812, be- 
 tween Russia and the Porte. In Novem- 
 ber, 1806, the emperor Alexander took up 
 arms for the protection of Moldavia and 
 Walachia, and on account of the viola- 
 tion of the free navigation of the Bospho- 
 rus. He occupied Moldavia, upon which 
 the Porte declared war against Russia, 
 Jan. 7, 1807. An armistice, however, 
 was agreed upon at Slobosia, Aug. 24, 
 1807, in consequence of the peace of 
 Tilsit, by which the Russians evacuated 
 the principality. After the expiration of 
 the truce, hi April, 1808, it was tacitly 
 continued ; but when Napoleon, in the 
 congress at Erfurt, had agreed to the 
 union of the two principalities with Rus- 
 sia, the Russian court opened a congress, 
 to deliberate upon peace at Jassy, in Feb., 
 1809, and demanded the cession of both 
 principalities by the Turks, and the re-
 
 308 
 
 BUCHAREST BUCHARIA. 
 
 moval of the British ambassador from 
 Constantinople. Upon this, the Porte 
 broke off the negotiations, and in April, 
 1809, the war was renewed. The Rus- 
 sians advanced to Bulgaria, and, after two 
 bloody campaigns, remained masters of 
 die Danube. The Porte now offered 
 terms of peace. A congress was opened 
 at B. in Dec., 1811. Napoleon soon after 
 turned his arms against Russia, and con- 
 cluded an alliance with Austria, March 
 14, 1812, by which both powers guaran- 
 tied the integrity of the Porte. He also 
 did all in his power to induce the Porte 
 to continue the war. But the interposi- 
 tion of Great Britain and Sweden, as well 
 as the concessions of Russia, and the 
 distrust of the Porte towards Napoleon, 
 brought to a conclusion the peace of B., 
 which was signed, on the part of the Rus- 
 sians, by Andri Italinski, Sabanejeff, and 
 Jos. Fonton, May 28. The Porte gave 
 up to Russia all Bessarabia and a third 
 of Moldavia, with the fortresses of Choc- 
 zim, Bender, Ismail and Kilia, so that the 
 Pruth, as far as to its confluence with the 
 Danube, became the boundary between 
 the two powers, and from thence the left 
 bank of the Danube as far as Kilia, and 
 even to its entrance into the Black sea. 
 The Russians gave back the remainder 
 of their conquests. In Asia, the bounda- 
 ries were established as before the war. 
 The Porte granted the Servians, who had 
 fought for their independence as allies of 
 the Russians, a full amnesty, with the 
 right of administering their internal af- 
 fairs themselves, and of raising, in the way 
 which they should judge best, the small 
 tax which the Porte imposed upon them. 
 The Servians, however, would not accept 
 these conditions, and continued the con- 
 test, but were soon overpowered by the 
 Turks. 
 
 BUCHARIA, GREAT ; a country of Cen- 
 tral Asia, lying between the parallels of 
 35 and 44 N. lat., and from 60 to 72 
 E. Ion. It comprehends the three prov- 
 inces of Bucharia Proper, Samarcand and 
 Balkh, corresponding to the country of 
 the nomade Scythians, Sogdiana and 
 Bactriana of ancient geography. It forms 
 the south-eastern part of Tartar}-, and, 
 being occupied chiefly by the Usbeck 
 Tartars (q. v.), is sometimes called Us- 
 beckistan. The original inhabitants, or 
 Taujiks, a Persian colony, are handsomer 
 than the Tartars, and stiil speak the Per- 
 sian language. They live in cities, and 
 carry on a trade with Russia, China, Hin- 
 dostan and Persia. There are also many 
 Jews in the country. The rivers are the 
 
 Gihon or Oxus, the Sir, or Jaxartes, and 
 the Sogd. The Buchanans or Taujiks 
 lead a frugal life, their food consisting 
 chiefly of rice, wheat, millet, and, above 
 all, fruits, such as melons, grapes and ap- 
 ples : they are fond of horse-flesh, but it is 
 expensive, and beef is more used. Tea and 
 wine, the former flavored with anise, are 
 their principal drink : they intoxicate them- 
 selves with opium, and their bread is not 
 fermented. Besides these articles, which, 
 except tea, are produced in the country, 
 the principal vegetable productions are 
 the Judas tree, the rhubarb, assafcetida, 
 &c. B. is supposed to be the native 
 country of the camel, and a large, shaggy 
 variety, called luk, has the peculiarity of 
 blowing a large bladder from its mouth 
 when it utters a cry. Other varieties of 
 the camel, and dromedaries, fine horses, 
 and asses, of various sorts, abound. Sheep 
 and cows are scarce. Several rare birds 
 are found here, particularly the tetraopar- 
 adoxus. This bird resembles the par- 
 tridge of the desert, except in the structure 
 of its feet, which consist of one large toe, 
 placed between two diminutive ones, rest- 
 ing on a hard sole, and enabling it to run 
 witli great speed over the dry, gritty sand. 
 The province of Balkh, which is described 
 by geographers as forming a part of B., 
 lies on the south of the Oxus, and belongs, 
 at present, to the Afghans. The two 
 provinces on the north of that river form 
 the Transoxana, famous in Arabian and 
 Tartar history, under the Arabian name 
 Maweralnahr (beyond the river), where 
 Timur received the homage of so many 
 conquered princes. His descendants were 
 driven out by the Tartars in the 15th 
 century. The government, as in other 
 Mohammedan states, is despotic. The 
 population, extent and revenue of the 
 state have not been ascertained. (Evers- 
 mann's Reise nach Buchara, Berlin, 1823 ; 
 Elphinstone's Caubul ; Meyendorf 's Jour- 
 nal (in French), Paris, 1826.) Bucharia, 
 or Bochara, a large and populous city, has 
 often disputed with Samarcand the title 
 of capital. Its population has been stated 
 at from 100,000 to 200,000. The streets 
 are so narrow, that a loaded camel fills 
 the space from side to side. The houses 
 are low, and built of mud and brick. The 
 number of mosques is said to be 360, and 
 that of merfreses, or schools, 285. It has 
 always been distinguished for the study 
 of theology and Mohammedan law. B. is 
 the commercial emporium of Central Asia 
 for the Hindoos, Afghans, Persians, Rus- 
 sians, Chinese and Arabians. The trade 
 is carried on by caravans, and there are
 
 BUCHARIA BUCKINGHAM. 
 
 309 
 
 10 large caravansaries in the city. The 
 caravans bring Russian and English manu- 
 factures from the Russian towns, and re- 
 turn silk, wool, Cashmere shawls, indigo, 
 &c. About 500 camels bring silk and 
 woollen cloths, shawls, &c. from Meschid 
 and Herat, and Russian manufactures are 
 carried back in return. China w r are and 
 tea from Cashgar, and shawls, calicoes, 
 muslins, from Caubul and Cashmere, are 
 the other principal articles of import. A 
 description of the city is contained in the 
 work of Meyendorf, above referred to, 
 who was attached to the Russian mission 
 to B. in 1820. 
 
 Bucharia, lAttle, as it is improperly 
 called, lies east of Great B., stretching 
 from 73 to 100 E. Ion., and from 38 to 
 44 X. lat. It is very imperfectly known, 
 but appears to be bounded on the north 
 and east by the Calmuck country, on the 
 south by Thibet, and on the west is sep- 
 arated from Great Bucharia by the Beloor 
 mountains. It is a very elevated country, 
 forming a portion of the great central 
 plateau of Asia, which constitutes a sixth 
 part of the old continent, yet shrouds from 
 the curious philosopher its mineral, ani- 
 mal and vegetable productions. The cli- 
 mate is very rigorous, owing to the great 
 elevation of the country. It was overrun, 
 in 1683, by the Calmucks, who were sub- 
 dued by the Chinese in 1759. Little is 
 known of the origin and manners of the 
 native inhabitants, who still form the 
 principal part of the population. The di- 
 visions into provinces are very differently 
 stated by different authors. Cashgar, 
 with a town of the same name, Yarkand, 
 also with a town of the same name, which, 
 by some, is thought to be the capital of 
 Little B., if, indeed, Yarkand is not merely 
 another name for Cashgar, and the other 
 provinces, are little known. Both sexes 
 wear long drawers, and a garment reach- 
 ing to the calf, bound round the waist by 
 a girdle. The women dye their nails 
 with henna. The houses are chiefly of 
 stone, and furnished with articles of Chi- 
 nese manufacture. Tea is the general 
 beverage, taken, in the manner of Central 
 Asia, with milk, butter and salt 
 
 BUCHER, Anthony von, a well known 
 and much esteemed Catholic writer 
 against the Jesuits, born in Munich, Jan. 
 8, 1746, w^as educated in the Latin schools 
 of the Jesuits, studied at Ingoldstadt, and 
 was consecrated priest in 1768. In his dif- 
 ferent offices as a public teacher, he has 
 done a great deal to instruct and enlighten 
 his countiy. His contributions to the 
 history of the Jesuits in Bavaria (Beitrage 
 
 zur Geschicfde der Jesuilen in Baiern) are 
 of great historical value. His works were 
 published in 6 vols., Munich, 1819 et 
 seq. 
 
 BUCHHOLZ, Paul Ferdinand Frederic ; 
 born, Feb. 5, 1768, at Altruppin (Old 
 Ruppin). At the age of 32, he resigned 
 the office of teacher at Brandenburg, and 
 went to Berlin, where, for 21 years, he 
 has been an author. He is best kpown 
 to foreign countries as the publisher of 
 the New Monthly Journal for Germany. 
 In many of his writings, he tries to prove 
 the existence of a law of gravitation ia 
 the moral as well as the natural world. 
 
 BUCK ; the male of the fallow deer, 
 also of rabbits and other animals. (See 
 Deer, Rabbit, &c.) 
 
 BUCKEBURG. (See Lnppe.) 
 
 BUCKETS, in water-wheels, are a series 
 of cavities into which the water is deliv- 
 ered, on the circumference of the wheel 
 to be set in motion. By the revolution 
 of the wheel, the buckets will be alter- 
 nately erected so as to receive water, and 
 inverted so as to discharge it ; the loaded 
 side will descend, and present the empty 
 buckets in succession to the current, and 
 thus keep up a constant revolution of the 
 wheel. 
 
 BUCKINCK, Arnold, the first artist who 
 engraved geographical maps on copper. 
 He brought this art to a high degree of 
 perfection. Schweynheym, who had 
 learnt the secret of printing from the 
 inventors, Faustus and Schoeffer, wished 
 to publish an edition of Ptolemy. Wood 
 cuts were too imperfect for the maps 
 contained in the expensive manuscripts 
 of it. Sweynheym determined to en- 
 grave them on copper, and, for that pur- 
 pose, associated himself with B. The 
 former died during the progress of the 
 work. B. completed it. The first edition 
 of Ptolemy with maps (for the edition of 
 1468 is certainly dated wrong) at length 
 appeared in folio, at Rome, 1478, and 
 concluded as follows : Claudii Ptolcmcri 
 Alexandrini philosophi geographiam, Ar- 
 noldus Buckinck e Germania Roma tab- 
 vlis Kneis in picturis forrnatam impressit 
 sempiterno ingenii artificiique monumento, 
 &c. These charts are also added to 
 some Roman editions of Ptolemy pub- 
 lished afterwards. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM, George Villiers, duke of; 
 the unworthy favorite of James I and 
 Charles I of England; born, 1592, at 
 Brookesby, in Leicestershire, of a family 
 which came thither, from Normandy, in 
 the time of William the Conqueror. In 
 his youth, he showed little taste or little
 
 310 
 
 BUCKINGHAM. 
 
 aptitude for literature. Nature had lav- 
 ishly bestowed upon him beauty, ease 
 and grace. By means of these qualities, 
 he so effectually won the affections of 
 James I, that, in less than two years, he 
 was made a knight, a gentleman of the 
 bedchamber, baron, viscount, marquis of 
 B., lord high-admiral, lord warden of the 
 cinque ports, &c., and, at last, dispenser 
 of al| the honors, offices, favors and reve- 
 nues of the three kingdoms, according to 
 the dictates of his ambition, his cupidity 
 and his caprice. The nation was indig- 
 nant at seeing merit undervalued, the 
 Eeople trampled upon, the nobility hum- 
 led, the crown impoverished and de- 
 graded, to elevate and enrich a weak and 
 insolent favorite. To complete the cata- 
 logue of his misdeeds, B. became a traitor 
 in 1623, the eighth year of his favor. He 
 desired to remove the earl of Bristol, an 
 able and virtuous minister, from office. 
 Bristol was then negotiating the marriage 
 of a Spanish princess with the prince of 
 Wales, afterwards Charles I. The design 
 of B. was, not only to reconcile to him- 
 self the prince, against whom he had 
 dared to lift his hand in a fit of passion, 
 but also to make him dependent upon 
 himself, that he might secure the contin- 
 uance of his power, in case of the death 
 of James. He therefore inspired young 
 Charles with the romantic idea of going 
 to Madrid himself, and removing all the 
 difficulties of negotiation by his presence. 
 The king's consent to this measure was 
 gained in an hour of weakness, and, 
 though he was long angry, on this ac- 
 count, with B., he soon after made him a 
 duke. The event was what James had 
 anticipated. While the young prince de- 
 lighted the royal family and the whole 
 nation by the gentleness and modesty of 
 his manners, B., who accompanied him, 
 offended them by his arrogance and li- 
 centiousness. He attained his purpose : 
 the negotiation, which was far advanced 
 by means of Bristol, was broken off; and, 
 that no one else might afterwards com- 
 plete it with success, he indulged himself 
 in the grossest insults against the Spanish 
 ministry, speedily left the kingdom with 
 the prince, deceived James by false re- 
 ports, and instigated the parliament to 
 declare, that, instead of forming a connex- 
 ion with Spain, it was necessary to make 
 war against it, which was accordingly 
 done by James. The house of commons 
 peremptorily refused the requisite sup- 
 plies, although they had consented to the 
 war. B. connected himself with the Pu- 
 ritan party, and formed the project of 
 
 abolishing the episcopal dignity, selling 
 the possessions of the church, and con- 
 tinuing the war with the money raised in 
 this way. Thus the policy, the feelings 
 and conscience of James were betrayed 
 by his favorite, and in the midst of these 
 disorders he died. He had succeeded, 
 indeed, in concluding a treaty for the 
 marriage of his son with Henrietta of 
 France ; but had the grief of seeing an 
 English army, which was intended to re- 
 cover the hereditary dpminions of his 
 son-in-law, the unhappy elector palatine 
 Frederic V, ruined by the mismanagement 
 of B., while a union with Spain might 
 have effected a peaceful restoration of the 
 territories. After the death of James, B. 
 continued to be the arbitrary minister of 
 Charles I ; but the time had now come 
 for the fulfilment of the prophecy of his 
 former king. After having been declared 
 the savior of the prince and the nation, in 
 the house of commons of the last parlia- 
 ment, B. was declared, by the new one, a 
 seducer of the king, a traitor to the liberty 
 of his country, and a public enemy. This 
 took place during a war which required, 
 more than ever, the fullest harmony with 
 the house of commons. Hence the dis- 
 solution of two parliaments, the imprison- 
 ment of the members who had been 
 most distinguished for their zeal, illegal 
 taxes and forced loans, instead of supplies 
 granted by parliament, the arbitrary im- 
 prisonment of those who refused to pay 
 them ; in short, every thing that could 
 conspire to bring a virtuous king to the 
 most fearful end. But B., who had 
 learned, by his disgraceful attempt on 
 Cadiz, that he was unequal to a war 
 against Spain, did not hesitate to engage 
 in a war against France. He had gone 
 to Paris to solemnize, in the name of the 
 king, his marriage with the daughter of 
 Henry IV. Here he dared to raise his 
 eyes to the queen of France. As this 
 princess dismissed him with indulgence 
 rather than indignation, he desired to re- 
 turn to the French court as English am- 
 bassador. His rashness, however, did not 
 remain unobserved ; and Louis XIII 
 wrote to him to forbid his cherishing the 
 thought of this journey. In order to 
 avenge himself for this prohibition, B. 
 engaged with the Protestants of Rochelle 
 in a war against France. This enterprise, 
 and the assault of the island Rhe (1627), 
 was more disgracefully conducted than 
 the attempt on Cadiz. B., at the same 
 time minister, admiral and general, seem- 
 ed to make it his object to dishonor him- 
 self in all three capacities. After having
 
 BUCKINGHAM BUCKLER. 
 
 311 
 
 excited the people of Rochelle to a sedi- 
 tion, only to deliver them to the ven- 
 geance of Richelieu, and after having sa- 
 crificed a third of the British army, he 
 returned to England, despised and exe- 
 crated as much by his fellow-citizens as 
 by his enemies. Pecuniary necessity 
 compelled him to call a new parliament. 
 B. opened it with the declaration, that 
 the king might have done without it, and 
 that, if money was refused, his majesty 
 would find other means to supply his 
 wants. Thus he scattered the seeds of 
 discord between the king and people. In 
 the course of the debates, he was obliged 
 to hear himself called the author of the 
 public distress, while the king's heart was 
 acknowledged to be the sanctuary of all 
 the virtues. Without knowing when to 
 yield and when to resist, he contended 
 most violently against the famous petition 
 of rights ; but he suddenly ceased his re- 
 sistance, when he heard that an impeach- 
 ment was preparing against him hi the 
 house of commons. The complaints 
 against him, however, continued ; but the 
 Louse of commons contented itself, in- 
 stead of a solemn impeachment, with a 
 petition, that the king would remove him 
 from his person and his council, as the 
 author of the public calamities. The 
 only reply of the monarch was a sudden 
 dissolution of the parliament. Charles 
 resolved to attempt anew the relief of the 
 Protestants of Rochelle. Count Denbigh 
 was appointed to command the expedi- 
 tion, but soon after returned without ac- 
 complishing any thing, after having dis- 
 graced the banner of England by his 
 inefficiency. The king now ordered B. 
 to put himself at the head of a new arma- 
 ment, which was fitted out with incredible 
 despatch. The duke was obliged to sub- 
 mit to the command, and was on the 
 point of embarking at Portsmouth, when, in 
 Aug., 1628, surrounded by courtiers, guards 
 and soldiers, he fell under the dagger of 
 Felton, a subaltern officer. Thus died a 
 man, whose name suggests the idea of the 
 most unlimited power ; who had braved 
 the denunciations of the two houses of 
 parliament, the hatred of Richelieu and 
 Olivarez, and even the displeasure of the 
 two kings in whose names he ruled. At 
 the moment of his death, he had regained 
 the favor of his master by the activity of 
 his zeal, and, confiding in the immense 
 resources with which he was surrounded, 
 was looking forward to victory. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM, George Villiers, duke of, 
 son of the preceding, was born at Wal- 
 lingford-house, in Westminster, Jan. 30, 
 
 1627. After studying at Trinity college, 
 Cambridge, he travelled abroad, and, on 
 his return home, after the commencement 
 of the civil war, he was presented to the 
 king at Oxford. He served in the royal 
 army, under prince Rupert and lord Ge- 
 rard. His estate was seized by the parlia- 
 ment; but, having obtained the restoration 
 of it, he travelled, with his brother, into 
 France and Italy. In 1648, he returned 
 to England, and was with Charles II in 
 Scotland, and at the battle of Worcester. 
 He followed that prince abroad, and 
 served, as a volunteer, in the French ar- 
 my in Flanders. He afterwards returned 
 to England, and, in 1657, married the 
 daughter of lord Fairfax, by which means 
 he repaired the ruin of his fortune in the 
 royal cause. He, however, preserved the 
 favor of Charles II, and, at the restora- 
 tion, was made master of the horse. He 
 also became one of the king's confidential 
 ministers, who were designated by the 
 appellation of the cabal. His political 
 conduct was, like his general behavior, 
 characterized by unprincipled levity and 
 imprudence. In 1666, he engaged in a 
 conspiracy to effect a change of the gov- 
 ernment ; notwithstanding which, he re- 
 covered the favor of king Charles, which 
 he repeatedly abused. The profligacy 
 of his private life was notorious. He se- 
 duced the countess of Shrewsbury, and 
 killed her husband in a duel ; and he was 
 more than suspected of having been the 
 instigator of the infamous colonel Blood 
 to his brutal outrage against the duke of 
 Ormond, whom he attempted, with the 
 assistance of other ruffians, to carry to 
 Tyburn, and hang on the common gal- 
 lows. In 1676, he was, together with 
 the earls of Shaftesbury and Salisbury, 
 and lord Wharton, committed to the 
 Tower for a contempt, by order of the 
 house of lords ; but, on petitioning the 
 king, they were released. After plotting 
 against the government with the Dissent- 
 ers, and making himself the object of 
 contempt to all parties, he died, neglected 
 and unregretted, at Kirkby Moorside, in 
 Yorkshire, April 16, 1688. Pope (Moral 
 Essays, epistle 3d) has strikingly describ- 
 ed his death. His abilities were far su- 
 perior to those of his father ; and, among 
 his literary compositions, the comedy of 
 the Rehearsal may be mentioned as a 
 work which displays no common powers, 
 and which greatly contributed to the 
 correction of the public taste, which had 
 been corrupted by Dryden, and other 
 dramatists of the age. 
 BUCKLER. (See Shield.)
 
 312 
 
 BUCKLER BUCKMINSTER. 
 
 BUCKLER, John, under the name of 
 Schinderhannes, was the leader of a band 
 of robhers, on the banks of the Rhine, 
 towards the end of the last century. 
 Born of indigent parents, he entered into 
 the service of an executioner. He stole 
 some skins from his master, and eloped, 
 but was apprehended, and condemned to 
 be scourged. This punishment, publicly 
 inflicted on him, as he himself said, de- 
 termined the character of his future life. 
 Without knowing what to undertake at 
 this juncture, he wandered about stealing 
 sheep. He was a second time brought 
 to justice, escaped, and connected him- 
 self, at Fink, with Rothbart, the leader of 
 a band of robbers. Being seized again, 
 he again escaped, and returned to his old 
 acquaintance. He was apprehended once 
 more, and escaped anew. He now re- 
 solved upon highway robbery, and collect- 
 ed a large band, which soon struck terror 
 into all the surrounding country. lie 
 was not entirely destitute of good quali- 
 ties. He often assisted the poor, and 
 relieved the distresses of those who were 
 severely treated by his band. Political 
 commotions drove him to the right bank 
 of the Rhine, where he married one Ju- 
 liet Blasius. A song which he composed 
 on her was played at all the fairs and 
 religious festivals throughout the adjacent 
 country. About this time, his followers 
 began to rob houses ; and earned on their 
 lawless trade so publicly, that the Jews, 
 who were most annoyed by them, sent 
 to treat with B. At length Schinderhan- 
 nes was taken prisoner, and brought to 
 Frankfort. He confessed immediately 
 his true name, and a great part of his 
 crimes. He was then given up, with his 
 comrades, to the tribunal at Mentz. Here 
 he confessed many facts, thinking, that, as 
 he had never committed murder, he would 
 not be condemned to death. After his 
 condemnation, he still continued to hope 
 for pardon, and, till the last moment of 
 his life, showed the greatest presence of 
 mind. He was guillotined Nov. 21, 1803. 
 BUCKMINSTER, Joseph Stevens, cele- 
 brated as a pulpit orator and man of 
 letters, was born at Portsmouth, New 
 Hampshire, May 26, 1784. His father 
 was eminent among the clergy of that 
 state, and he himself manifested, in his 
 boyhood, such talents and dispositions as 
 gave assurance of his success in the same 
 career. In 1797, he entered Harvard 
 college, Cambridge. In the year 1800, 
 he received the honors of the university 
 with the distinction due to his uncom- 
 mon proficiency in the studies of the 
 
 institution, and to the excellence of the 
 oration which he delivered on the literary 
 character of different nations. After leav- 
 ing college, he devoted himself for more 
 than four years to theology and general 
 literature. In Oct., 1804, at Boston, he 
 preached for the first time, and, in the fol- 
 lowing year, accepted an invitation from 
 a religious society in that place, to become 
 their minister. The fatigue and agitation 
 which he suffered at his ordination threw 
 him into a severe illness of two months 
 duration. On his recovery, he devoted 
 himself ardently to his clerical duties, but 
 his zeal aggravated a predisposition to 
 epilepsy, which had been felt some years 
 before. The increase of this dreadful 
 disorder rendered a voyage to Europe 
 expedient. He embarked for England 
 in 1806, remained for some months in 
 that country, went through Holland to 
 Switzerland, and thence proceeded to 
 Paris, where he passed nearly half a year. 
 After revisiting England, he returned to his 
 native land, not, indeed, cured of his mal- 
 ady, but generally more vigorous in con- 
 stitution, and enriched with a large addi- 
 tional store of knowledge. No American 
 of his age had made a more favorable 
 impression abroad. His parishioners wel- 
 comed him back with enthusiasm, and 
 he requited their esteem by an admirable 
 discharge of all his duties. His sermons 
 placed him in the first rank of popular 
 preachers. He also contributed valuable 
 and beautiful papers to the periodical 
 publications of the day, besides prepar- 
 ing a number of occasional addresses of 
 distinguished merit. In 1808, he super- 
 intended an American edition of Gries- 
 bach's Greek Testament, and wrote much 
 in vindication and praise of this author's 
 erudition, fidelity and accuracy. In 1810, 
 he digested a plan of publishing all the 
 best modern versions of the prophetical 
 books of the Old Testament; but the 
 whole design failed for want of public 
 patronage. In 1811, he was appointed 
 the first lecturer on Biblical criticism at 
 the university of Cambridge, on the foun- 
 dation established by Samuel Dexter. 
 While he was laboriously preparing for 
 the execution of this office, a violent fit 
 of epilepsy at once destroyed his noble 
 and affluent intellect, and gave a shock 
 to his frame, which he survived only a 
 few days. He died June 9, 1812, at the 
 completion of his 28th year. Mr. Buck- 
 minster possessed a fine face, an easy and 
 winning address, a cheerful temper, and 
 the power of gaining a multitude of friends 
 and admirers. In 1814, his sermons wer%
 
 BUCKMINSTER BUDDHA. 
 
 313 
 
 collected, and published in an octavo vol- 
 ume, to which is prefixed a well-written 
 memoir of his life and character. These 
 remains have been extensively circulated. 
 They are highly valuable in every re- 
 spect, and fitted to excite universal regret 
 at the premature fate of the accomplished 
 and virtuous author. A second volume 
 has appeared very recently (Boston, 
 1829). 
 
 BUCKWHEAT, or BRANK, is a black and 
 triangular grain, produced by a plant of 
 the persicaria tribe (polygonum fagopy- 
 rum\, with somewhat arrow-shaped leaves, 
 and purplish-white flowers. Buckwheat 
 was first brought to Europe from the 
 northern parts of Asia, and first cultivat- 
 ed in England about the year 1600. The 
 flowers appear about July, and the seeds 
 ripen in October ; and so tender are the 
 plants, that a single night's sharp frost 
 will destroy a whole crop. As a grain, 
 buckwheat has been principally cultivat- 
 ed for oxen, swine and poultry ; and, 
 although some farmers state, that a single 
 bushel of it is equal in quality to two 
 bushels of oats, others assert, that it is a 
 very unprofitable food. Mixed with bran, 
 chaff" or grain, it is sometimes given to 
 horses. The flower of buckwheat is oc- 
 casionally used for bread, but more fre- 
 quently for the thin cakes called crum- 
 pets. In Germany, it serves as an ingre- 
 dient in pottage, puddings, and other food. 
 In Pennsylvania, it is, very extensively 
 used, throughout the winter, in cakes, 
 which are cooked upon a griddle. Beer 
 may be brewed from it ; and by distilla- 
 tion it yields an excellent spirit. The 
 best mode of harvesting this grain is said 
 to be by pulling it out of the ground like 
 flax, stripping off the seeds with the hand, 
 and collecting these into aprons or cloths, 
 tied round the waist. Buckwheat is much 
 cultivated in the domains of noblemen, 
 possessed of landed property, as a food 
 lor pheasants. With some farmers, it is 
 the practice to sow buckwheat for the 
 pin-pose only of ploughing it into the 
 ground, as a manure for the land. Whilst 
 green, it serves as food for sheep and 
 oxen ; and, mixed with other provender, it 
 1 1 1 ay also be given with advantage to horses. 
 The blossoms may be used for dyeing a 
 brown color. It is frequently cultivated in 
 the Middle U. States as food for bees, who 
 are very fond of it, and to whose honey 
 it imparts a flavor by no means unpleas- 
 ant, The principal advantage of buck- 
 wheat is, that it is capable of being culti- 
 vated upon land which will produce 
 scarcely any thing else, and that its cul- 
 
 VOL. ii. 27 
 
 ture, compared with that of other grain, 
 is attended with little expense. 
 
 BUCOLICS. (See Pastoral Poetry.) 
 BUDA (in German, Ofen) is the Hunga- 
 rian name of the capital of Hungary, sit- 
 uated on the west bank of the Danube, 
 opposite Pest. It consists of the Upper 
 Town, which is fortified, and lies, with the 
 castle, on a hill ; of the Lower Town, or 
 Waterstadt, which lies at the foot of the 
 hill, and is connected with Pest by a 
 bridge of boats ; of the Neustift, in which 
 is the remarkable Trinity pillar, 52 feet 
 high ; and of the Taban, called, in Ger- 
 man, Raitzenstadt, from being almost en- 
 tirely occupied by the Rascians, a Scla- 
 vonian race. There are three other parts 
 inhabited by Germans and Hungari- 
 ans. The population is 28,500, exclusive 
 of the court of the palatine, the officers 
 of government, the military and the cler- 
 gy. Among the public buildings are the 
 royal fortress, in which the crown is kept, 
 the arsenal, the cannon foundery, the new 
 observatory on the Blocksberg. The 
 trade in wine, which the environs pro- 
 duce of an excellent quality, is the chief 
 occupation of the inhabitants. There 
 are also manufactures of silk, leather, 
 tobacco, copper and iron. The baths 
 are efficacious in palsy, weakness of limbs, 
 and similar complaints. The castle was 
 chosen as a place of residence by the 
 emperor Louis I ; and king Matthias I 
 founded the library, which was destroyed 
 by the Turks, in whose hands B. remain- 
 ed from 1530 till 168G, when it was taken 
 by storm by the duke of Lorraine. The 
 castle was then destroyed, but was rebuilt 
 by the empress Maria Theresa for the 
 university, which was removed from 
 Tyrnau to Buda in 1777, and which has 
 subsequently been removed to Pest. Lon. 
 19 2' E. ; lat. 47 30' N. ; distant 120 
 miles S. E. from Vienna. 
 
 BUDDHA, the founder of a very ancient 
 religion, called after him. His worship, 
 after the Bramins had put a stop to it in 
 India, spread to Japan, Thibet and Chi- 
 na, where, as well as in Ceylon, it exists 
 at the present day. Ritter, in his Vor- 
 hallsn Enropaisa^er Volkergeschickten (In- 
 troduction to the Histories of the Euro- 
 pean Nations), advances the opinion, that 
 the Buddhists also migrated to the N. W. 
 to the shores of the Black sea, to Colchis, 
 to the modern Mingrelia, and thence to 
 Thrace, where they laid the foundation 
 of the civilization of the Pelasgi and Hel- 
 lenes. Even in the doctrine of Asa, in 
 the extreme north, traces of Buddhism 
 have been thought to appear. According
 
 BUDDHA BUDGELL. 
 
 to Abel Remusat, who cites the Japan 
 Encyclopedia, in the Journal des Savam, 
 Jan. 1821, Buddha, whose historical name 
 was Tshakia-muni, was bom under the 
 reign of Tshao-wang, of the dynasty of 
 Tslieu, 1029 B. C., and died under the 
 reign of Mou-wang, 950 B. C. Before 
 his death, he intrusted his disciple Ma- 
 hakaya, a Bramin in the kingdom of 
 Makata, which lay in the centre of India, 
 with his mysteries. This Mahakaya, 
 who lived under Hio-wang, 950 B. C., 
 is the first saint or patriarch of Buddhism, 
 which was left by him to his successor, 
 Ananta. The Japan Encyclopedia enu- 
 merates 33 patriarchs, including Maha- 
 kaya, in chronological succession, each 
 of whom chose his successor, and trans- 
 mitted to him the secret doctrine of 
 Tshakia-muni, who was afterwards wor- 
 shipped as a god, under the name of 
 Buddha. Several of them died (or, to use 
 the language of the Buddhists, emigrated) 
 voluntarily in the flames. Among them, 
 Maming, the successor of Buddha (by the 
 Chinese called Phu-sa; in Sanscrit, Deva- 
 Bodhisatua), who gave names to the gods 
 of the second class, was worshipped as 
 his son, born from his mouth, because he 
 perfected the doctrine of Buddha by his 
 own philosophy, which is a metaphysical 
 allegorical mysticism. His epoch must 
 be fixed, according to the above-men- 
 tioned work, in 332, under the reign of 
 Hian-wang, 618 years after the death 
 of Tshakia-muni. The 28th patriarch, 
 Bodhidhorma, was the last who lived in 
 Hindostan. He afterwards fixed his resi- 
 dence in China, near the famous moun- 
 tain Sung. He died A. D. 495. The 
 secret of his doctrine was left by him to 
 a Chinese, who was the 29th patriarch. 
 After him, the above-mentioned book 
 gives the names of four Chinese, who 
 succeeded to the same dignity. The last 
 of them died A. D. 713. Their history, 
 like that of many other saints, is mixed 
 with fables : their manner of living was 
 the same as what the ancients report to 
 us of the Gymnosophists and Samaneans. 
 They devoted themselves to religious 
 exercises and constant contemplation, 
 and condemned themselves to the most 
 severe abstinence ; nay, several of them, 
 as we have mentioned, sealed their belief 
 in the transmigration of souls with a vol- 
 untary death. From that Indian patriar- 
 chate originated, A. D. 706, the sacerdo- 
 tal dignity, which is common in China, 
 and among the Monguls, with the title 
 spiritual prince of the law. These priests 
 are, at the same time, a sort of confessors 
 
 to the emperors. From this priesthood 
 afterwards sprung the hereditary dignity 
 of Grand Lama, in Thibet ; and, in process 
 of time, the whole hierarchal system, 
 when the monastical life of the Buddhists 
 required regular superiors, or inferior 
 lamas. Besides many other monuments 
 of the ancient worship of Buddha, there 
 are two particularly remarkable the ruins 
 of the gigantic temple Boro-Budor, in 
 Java, with works of sculpture ; and the five 
 large subterranean halls, called Pantsh- 
 Pandu, probably an old temple of the 
 Buddhists, near the city of Bang, on the 
 way from Guzurat to Malwa. Tradition 
 ascribes these astonishing works of an- 
 cient Indian architecture and sculpture, 
 which far surpass the skill of the modern 
 Hindoos, to the Pandus, the heroes of 
 Indian mythology. An accurate descrip- 
 tion of these monuments is contained in 
 the second volume of the Transactions of 
 the learned society at Bombay (London, 
 1819). 
 
 BUDE, Guillaume ; more generally 
 known under the Latin form Budeeus ; 
 one of the greatest French scholars of 
 his time ; born at Paris in 1467, died in 
 1540 ; was royal librarian, and master of 
 requites ; studied at Paris and Orleans at 
 first without success, on account of his 
 dissipated life in his early youth. From 
 his 24th year, he devoted himself to study 
 with the greatest zeal, in particular to 
 belles-lettres, to mathematics, and to 
 Greek. Among his philosophical, philo- 
 logical and juridical works, his treatise 
 De Jlsse et Partibus ejus, and his commen- 
 taries on the Greek language, are of the 
 greatest importance. By his influence, 
 the college royal de France was founded. 
 He enjoyed, not only as a scholar, but 
 also as a man and citizen, the greatest 
 esteem. His works appeared at Bale, 
 1557, 4 vols. folio. 
 
 BUDESSIN. (See Bautzen.) 
 
 BUDGELL, Eustace, an ingenious writer, 
 was born at St. Thomas, near Exeter, about 
 1685, and educated at Christ church, Ox- 
 ford ; after which he went to London, and 
 was entered of the Inner Temple, where 
 his inclinations led him to neglect his pro- 
 fession, and study polite literature. Dur- 
 ing his stay here, he contracted a friend- 
 ship with Addison, who, in 1717, when 
 principal secretary of state in England, 
 procured for B. the place of accountant 
 and comptroller-general of the revenue 
 in Ireland. He lost these places when 
 the duke of Bolton was appointed lord- 
 lieutenant, in 1718, by a lampoon on his 
 grace. He then returned to England,
 
 BUDGELL BUENOS AYRES. 
 
 315 
 
 where, in 1720, lie lost 20,000 by the 
 South sea bubble. He afterwards tried 
 to get into parliament, and spent 5,000 
 more in unsuccessful attempts, which 
 completed his ruin. In 1727, the duch- 
 ess-dowager of Marlborough gave him 
 10,000 for the purpose of getting him into 
 parliament ; but his attempts were inef- 
 fectual. In 1733, he commenced a 
 weekly paper, called the Bee, which 
 was very popular. On the death of doc- 
 tor Tindal, the author of Christianity as 
 old as the Creation, 2,000 was left to 
 B., by his will. This sum was so dis- 
 proportionate to the testator's circum- 
 stances, and the legacy so contrary to his 
 known intentions, that suspicions arose 
 respecting the authenticity of the testa- 
 ment ; and, upon its being contested by his 
 nephew, it was set aside. The disgrace 
 of this affair had such an effect upon this 
 unhappy man, that, on May 4th, 1737, 
 taking a boat at Somerset stairs, he threw 
 himself overboard, with stones in his 
 
 pocket, and immediately sank. Besides 
 
 the above-mentioned works, he also pos- 
 sessed a share in the Craftsman, wrote 
 several papers in the Guardian, with the 
 history of Cleomenes, (8vo.,) and memoirs 
 of the lives of the Boyles, (8vo.) 
 
 BUDGKT, in the parliamentary language 
 in England, means the minister's propos- 
 ed plan of taxation for the ensuing year ; 
 and comprehends a general view of the 
 national debt, income and expenditure, 
 ways and means of raising supplies, &c., 
 with the actual product of the preceding 
 budget. It is brought forward by the 
 chancellor of the exchequer. The term 
 has also been introduced into France, 
 where the minister of finances presents 
 the budget to the king and chambers. 
 
 BUDWEISS ; a circle and city of Bohe- 
 mia. The circle is separated from Austria 
 by high mountains, in which the Muldau 
 lias its source : it contains extensive for- 
 ests and sheep-walks, and abounds in 
 game and fish. The city of B. is a min- 
 ing town on the Muldau, with manufac- 
 tures of saltpetre and cloth. Population 
 of the circle, 170,000 ; of the city, 4,600. 
 The latter lies in Ion. 14 20 7 "E. ; lat. 
 49 2' N. 
 
 BUENAVENTURA ; a settlement, and 
 Spanish mission, on the coast of New 
 California. Lon. 118 58' W. ; lat. 34 
 16' N. It was founded in 1782, and con- 
 tains 950 inhabitants. It has a tolerably 
 good roadstead, and the soil and climate 
 are very favorable to the production of 
 a great variety of fruits. 
 
 BUENAVENTURA ; a seaport in Colom- 
 
 bia, on the bay of Choco, at the mouth 
 of a river of the same name ; 90 miles 
 W. N. W. Cali, 200 W. by S. Santa Fe 
 de Bogota. It is supported by the vessels 
 that touch at it ; the entrance is difficult, 
 and the climate unhealthy. It is the port 
 of Santa Fe de Bogota, Popayan and 
 Cali. Lat. 3 56' N. ; Ion. 77 42' E. 
 There are many small settlements and 
 villages of this name in Spanish America. 
 
 BOEN AYRE, or BONAIR ; a small island 
 near the coast of South America, belong- 
 ing to the Dutch, 50 miles in circumfer- 
 ence, inhabited chiefly by Indians, with 
 a small mixture of Europeans ; moun- 
 tainous; producing a few cattle, goats, 
 large quantities of poultry, and a consid- 
 erable quantity of salt. It has springs of 
 fresh water. On the S. W. side is a good 
 harbor and road. 52 miles E. CuraQoa. 
 Lon. 67 36 / W. ; lat. 12 2tf N. 
 
 BUENOS AYRES ; an extensive country 
 of South America, formerly belonging to 
 Spain, and styled the viceroyalty of La 
 Plata, or of Rio de. la Plata ; but since the 
 declaration of independence, in 1816, it 
 lias assumed the name of the United 
 Provinces of South America. It is bound- 
 ed N. by Bolivia, E. by Brazil, S. E. by 
 the Atlantic ocean, S. by Patagonia, and 
 W. by Chili and the Pacific ocean. It 
 comprehends most of the valley or basin 
 of the great river La Plata, and is water- 
 ed by the river La Plata, and its tributa- 
 ries, the Parana, Paraguay, Uraguay, Pil- 
 comayo and Rio Grande, and also by the 
 Colorado and Negro. The great chain 
 of the Andes extends along the western 
 side, and the western and northern parts 
 of the country are mountainous. Most 
 of the other portions, which comprise the 
 greater part of the whole country, consist 
 of one vast and uniform plain ; and exten- 
 sive tracts which border on the river are 
 liable to inundation. In the southern di- 
 vision are found immense pampas, or 
 plains, which extend into Patagonia, and 
 are upwards of 1200 miles in length, and 
 500 in breadth. They are covered with 
 tall, waving grass, which affords pasture 
 to vast numbers of cattle and wild horses, 
 and have few interruptions from forests 
 or eminences. The climate is different 
 in different parts, but generally healthy. 
 On the plains, the atmosphere is moist, 
 and, in summer, the heat is excessive, 
 with frequent rains, accompanied by tre- 
 mendous thunder and lightning. A large 
 part of the country has a very fertile soil, 
 adapted to the growth of wheat, maize, 
 barley, tobacco, sugar, wine and fruits; 
 but agriculture is much neglected. A
 
 31G 
 
 BUENOS AYRES BUFFALO. 
 
 great portion of the wealth of this coun- 
 try consists in the immense herds of cat- 
 tle and horses which graze upon its 
 plains. The principal exports are hides, 
 tallow, beef, gold and silver. It has val- 
 uable mines of gold, silver, copper, lead 
 and tin. Some of the principal towns are 
 Buenos Ayres, Monte Video, Cordova 
 and Assumption. (Respecting the rela- 
 tions of Buenos Ayres and Brazil, see 
 Brazil) 
 
 BUENOS AYRES, or NUESTRA SENORA 
 DE BUENOS AYRES ; a city of South 
 America, and capital of the country to 
 which it gives name, on the S. W. side 
 of the La Plata, 06 leagues from its 
 mouth ; first built in the year 1535. Lou. 
 58 31' W. ; lat. 34 35' S. The popula- 
 tion is uncertain, and, within a few years, 
 has been variously stated at 50,000, 
 70,000, and 100,000". About one fourth 
 of the inhabitants are whites; the rest are 
 Indians, Negroes and mixed breeds. 
 The situation is agreeable and healthy, 
 .and the city derives its name from the 
 salubrity of its climate. The temperature 
 is nearly the same throughout the year. 
 The city is built with great regularity, 
 and the principal streets are straight and 
 regular, and some of them are paved. 
 They are broad, with side-walks, but, 
 from the great scarcity of stone, are gen- 
 erally unpaved in the middle. The 
 houses are mostly built of brick or chalk, 
 with flat roofs, many of them of two sto- 
 ries, though the greater part of only one. 
 They are generally plaster%d on the out- 
 side, but now appear somewhat shabby. 
 The public buildings are a palace, a royal 
 chapel, a cathedral, a college, 2 hospitals, 
 4 monasteries, 2 nunneries, 10 or 15 
 churches, a public library of nearly 20,000 
 volumes, an academy, and 8 public 
 schools. Some of these public buildings 
 are large and splendid. There is no 
 harbor at Buenos Ayres, nor so much as 
 a mole to facilitate the landing of boats. 
 Ships can only come within three 
 leagues of the town ; there they unload 
 their goods into boats, which enter a little 
 river named Rio Chuelo, from whence the 
 merchandise is brought in carts to the 
 town, which is about a quarter of a league 
 from the landing places. The ships 
 which want careening, or take lading at 
 Buenos Ayres, go to the bay of Baragon, 
 a kind of port about 12 miles S. E. of the 
 town. The environs of this city are well 
 cultivated, furnishing all the necessaries 
 of life in abundance, except wine, which 
 is brought from Spain, or from Mendoza. 
 The inhabitants have country-houses 
 
 there, called quintets. Wood is very 
 dear at Buenos Ayres and at Monte Vi- 
 deo. In the neighborhood of these places 
 are only some little shrubs, hardly lit for 
 fuel. All timber for building houses, and 
 constructing and refitting the vessels that 
 navigate in the river, comes from Para- 
 guay in rafts. After the province of 
 Buenos Ayres withdrew from the gov- 
 ernment of Spain, the city of B. was the 
 temporary seat of the central government, 
 and the congress of the United States of 
 South America. In 1826, it was made, 
 by the congress of the United Provinces 
 of La Plata, the permanent seat of gov- 
 ernment, and the capital of the confed- 
 eracy. It is also the seat of a bishop. 
 The city has an extensive trade in ox- 
 hides and tallow, which are disposed of, 
 principally, to the British and people of 
 the U. States. The Germans and Dutch 
 likewise trade with B. Much of the 
 commerce of Brazil, Chili, Peru and Par- 
 aguay is also carried on through this city. 
 From 300 to 400 foreign ships annualiy 
 enter this port. The climate of B. is 
 mild. There are very few days in winter 
 in which water is frozen. In 1806, B. 
 was conquered by an English squadron, 
 under the command of admiral Popham 
 and general Beresford. Soon after, the 
 inhabitants, having recovered from their 
 terror, attacked the English by surprise, 
 and made a great slaughter among them. 
 In the following year, Whitelock and 
 Crawford came over with reinforcements. 
 They were quietly permitted to enter the 
 city, and were then attacked with such 
 fury, that a third part of their number was 
 destroyed, and the remainder were glad 
 to conclude a truce. 
 
 BUEN RETIRO ; a royal summer-resi- 
 dence, on an elevated ground, near Ma- 
 drid, built, with much splendor, by the 
 duke of Olivarez, at the beginning of the 
 17th century. It has a theatre, park, and 
 some valuable pictures. In 1808, when 
 the French attacked Madrid, Dec. 5, it 
 was the centre of the conflict, and was 
 plundered. The French afterwards for- 
 tified it, and used it as a citadel. 
 
 BUFFALO ; a post-town of New York, 
 the capital of Erie county, situated at the 
 eastern end of lake Erie, at the efflux of 
 Niagara river, and at the west end of the 
 Erie canal ; 296 miles W. of Albany, 240 
 E. of Sandusky. Population in 1810, 
 1508 ; in 1820, 2095 ; in 1825, 5140. 
 The village of B. is very advantageously 
 and finely situated on a handsome plain, 
 near the entrance of Buffalo creek or 
 river into lake Erie, on the channel of
 
 BUFFALO BUFFON. 
 
 317 
 
 communication between the Atlantic 
 ocean and the lakes. It has been, for 
 several years past, a very flourishing 
 place, and has an extensive trade. In 
 1813, this village, which then contained 
 about 100 houses, was burnt by the Brit- 
 ish, in retaliation for the burning of New- 
 ark, in Upper Canada, by the Americans. 
 Black Rock is a considerable post-vil- 
 lage, within the township of B., two miles 
 from the village of B. It is situated at 
 the ferry across the Niagara river, which 
 is here about three quarters of a mile 
 wide. 
 
 BUFFALO ; in America, a name mis- 
 applied to the bison, (q. v.) It properly 
 belongs to a species of ox (bos bubalus), 
 found in various parts of India. This 
 species, in the wild state, lives in herds 
 of considerable numbers, frequenting 
 moist and marshy situations. It is natu- 
 rally fierce and stubborn, and is with 
 difficulty subjugated. The bellowing of 
 the buffalo is hoarser than that of the 
 common bull. The female begins to 
 breed at 4 years of age, and ceases at 12. 
 The term of life in this species is from 18 
 to 25 years. One variety of this species 
 has horns of vast size and length. This 
 is the ami or arnee. The horns are turn- 
 ed laterally, and flattened in front. They 
 are wrinkled on the concave surface, 4 or 
 5 feet long, and 8 or 10 from tip to tip. 
 The buffalo is 7 or 8 feet long, by 4 in 
 height, and is generally of a black color. 
 The skin is covered by a harsh and thin-: 
 ly-.*ciittered hair. 
 
 BUFFET ; anciently, a little apartment, 
 separated from the rest of the room, for 
 the disposing of china, glass, &c. It is 
 now a piece of furniture in the dining- 
 room, called also a side-board, for the re- 
 ception of the plate, glass, &c. In France, 
 the principal houses have a detached 
 room, called buffet, decorated with pitch- 
 ers, vases, fountains, &c. 
 
 BUFFON (George Louis Leclerc), count 
 of, one of the most celebrated naturalists 
 and authors of the 18th century, born at 
 Montbard. in Burgundy, 1707, received 
 from his lather, Benjamin Leclerc, coun- 
 sellor to the parliament of his province, a 
 careful education. Chance connected 
 him, at Dijon, with the young duke of 
 Kingston, whose tutor, a man of learning, 
 inspired him with a taste for the sciences. 
 They travelled together through France 
 and Italy, and B. afterwards visited Eng- 
 land. In order to perfect himself in the 
 language without neglecting the sciences, 
 he translated Newton's Fluxions and 
 Hales's Vegetable Statics. After some 
 27* 
 
 time, he published some works of his 
 own, in which he treated of geometry, 
 natural philosophy, and rural economy. 
 He laid his researches on these subjects 
 before the academy of sciences, of which 
 he became a member hi 1733. The most 
 important were on the construction of 
 mirrors for setting bodies on fire at a 
 great distance, as Archimedes is said to 
 have done, and experiments on the 
 strength of different kinds of wood, and 
 the means of increasing it, particularly by 
 removing the bark of the trees some time 
 before felling them. B., in his earlier 
 years, was animated only by an undefined 
 love of learning and fame, but his ap- 
 pointment as intendant of the royal gar- 
 den, in 1736, gave his mind a decided 
 turn towards that science in which he has 
 immortalized himself. Considering natu- 
 ral history in its whole extent, he found 
 no works in this department but spiritless 
 compilations and diy lists of names. 
 There were excellent observations, in- 
 deed, on single objects, but no compre- 
 hensive work. Of such an one he now 
 formed the plan, aiming to unite the elo- 
 quence of Pliny and the profound views 
 of Aristotle with the exactness and the 
 details of modem observations. To aid 
 him in this work, by examining the nu- 
 merous and often minute objects em- 
 braced in his plan, for which he had not 
 the patience nor the physical organs re- 
 quisite, he associated himself with Dau- 
 benton, who possessed the qualities in 
 which he was deficient ; and, after an as- 
 siduous labor of 10 years, the two friends 
 published the three first volumes of the 
 Natural History, and, between 1749 and 
 1767, 12 others, which comprehend the 
 theory of the earth, the nature of animals, 
 and the history of man and the viviparous 
 quadrupeds. The most brilliant parts of 
 them, the general theories, the descrip- 
 tions of the characters of animals, and of 
 the great natural phenomena, are by B. 
 Daubenton limited himself to the de- 
 scription of the forms and the anatomy 
 of the animals. The nine following 
 volumes, which appeared from 1770 to 
 1783, contain the history of birds, from 
 which Daubenton withdrew his assist- 
 ance. The whole shape of the work was 
 thus altered. Descriptions, less detail- 
 ed, and almost entirely without anato- 
 my, were inserted among the historical 
 articles, which, at first, were composed 
 by Guenau de Montbeillard, and after- 
 wards by the abbe Bexon. B. published 
 alone the five volumes on minerals, from 
 3.783 to 1788, Of the seven supplement-
 
 318 
 
 BUFFON BUGENHAGEN. 
 
 ary volumes, of which the last did not 
 appear until after his death, in 1789, the 
 5th formed an independent whole, the 
 most celebrated of all his works. It con- 
 tains his Epochs of Nature, in which the 
 author, in a style truly sublime, and with 
 the triumphant power of genius, gives a 
 second theory of the earth, very differ- 
 ent from that which he had traced in the 
 first volumes, though he assumes, at the 
 commencement, the air of merely defend- 
 ing and developing the former. This 
 great labor, with which B. was occupied 
 during 50 years, is, however, but a part 
 of the vast plan which he had sketched, 
 and which has been continued by Lace- 
 pede, in his history of the different spe- 
 cies of cetaceous animals, reptiles and 
 fishes, but has remained unexecuted as 
 far as regards the invertebral animals and 
 the plants. There is but one opinion of 
 B. as an author. For the elevation of his 
 views, for powerful and profound ideas, 
 for the majesty of his images, for noble 
 and dignified expression, for the lofty 
 harmony of his style in treating of im- 
 portant subjects, he is, perhaps, unrival- 
 led. His pictures of the sublime scenes 
 of nature are strikingly true, and are 
 stamped with originality. The fame of 
 liis work was soon universal. It excited 
 a general taste for natural history, and 
 gained for this science the favor and 
 protection of nobles and princes. Louis 
 XV raised the author to the dignity of a 
 count, and d'Argivilliers, in the reign of 
 Louis XVI, caused his statue to be erect- 
 ed, during his life, at the entry of the royal 
 cabinet of natural curiosities, with the in- 
 scription Majestati naturtz par ingenium. 
 The opinions entertained of B. as a nat-. 
 ural philosopher, and an observer, have 
 been more divided. Voltaire, d'Alembert, 
 Condorcet, have severely criticised his 
 hypotheses, and his vague manner of 
 philosophizing from general views. But 
 although the views of B. on the theory 
 of the earth can no longer be defended 
 in detail, he will always have the merit 
 of having made it generally felt, that the 
 present state of the earth is the result of 
 a series of changes, which it is possible to 
 trace, and of having pointed out the phe- 
 nomena which indicate the course of 
 these changes. His theory of generation 
 has been refuted by Haller and Spallan- 
 zani, and his hypothesis of a certain inex- 
 plicable mechanism to account for animal 
 instinct, is not supported by facts ; but his 
 eloquent description of the physical and 
 moral developement of man, as well as his 
 ideas on the influence which the delicacy 
 
 and developement of each organ exert on 
 the character of different speciea of ani- 
 mals, are still of the highest interest. His 
 views of the degeneracy of animals, and 
 of the limits prescribed to each species 
 by climates, mountains and seas, are real 
 discoveries, which receive daily confirma- 
 tion, and furnish to travellers a basis for 
 their observations, which was entirely 
 wanting before. The most perfect part 
 of his work is the History of Quadru- 
 peds; the weakest, the History of Miner- 
 als, in which his imperfect acquaintance 
 with chemistry, and his inclination to hy- 
 pothesis, have led him into many errors. 
 His last days were disturbed by the pain- 
 ful disease of the stone, which did not, 
 however, prevent the prosecution of his 
 great plan. He died at Paris, April 16, 
 1788, at the age of 81 years, leaving an 
 only son, who perished, in the revolution, 
 by the guillotine. B. was of a noble fig- 
 ure, and of great dignity of manners. 
 His conversation was remarkable for a 
 simplicity but little in accordance with 
 the style of his writings. The best edi- 
 tion of his Natural History is that pub- 
 lished from 1749 to 1788, in 36 vol- 
 umes. 
 
 BUFFONE (Italian) ; buffoon ; a comic 
 singer in the opera buffa, or the Italian 
 intermezzo. The Italians, however, distin- 
 guish the buffo cantante, which requires 
 good singing, from the 'buffo comico, in 
 which there is more acting. Buffoonery, 
 is the name given to the jokes which the 
 buffoon introduces. The word is, no 
 doubt, borrowed from the Low Latin, in 
 which the name buffo (cheeked), was 
 given to those who appeared on the the- 
 atre, with their cheeks puffed up, to re- 
 ceive blows on them, and to excite the 
 laughter of the spectators. Hence buffo, 
 cheeks ; buffare, to puff up the cheeks. 
 Afterwards, the name came to signify a 
 mimic, a jester in general. 
 
 BUGE.NHAGEN, John, also Pomeranus, 
 doctor Pommer, was of great service to 
 Luther in the reformation. He was born 
 in 1485, at Stettin, and, in 1505, was 
 made rector of the school in Treptow. 
 He fled from his Catholic superiors to 
 Wittenberg, in 1521, where he was made,, 
 in 1522, professor of theology. Luther 
 derived assistance from his profound exe- 
 getical learning, in preparing his transla- 
 tion of the Bible. In 1525, he gave oc- 
 casion for the controversies about the 
 sacrament, by a work against Zwinglius, 
 on the communion. He acquired more 
 reputation by his excellent Interpretatio. 
 in Librum Psalmorum (Nuremberg, 1523),
 
 BUGENHAGEN BULGARIAN S. 
 
 319 
 
 He effected the union of the Protestant 
 free cities with the Saxons, and introduced 
 into Brunswick, Hamburg, Liibeck, Pom- 
 erania and Denmark, and many other 
 places, the Lutheran service and church 
 discipline. For the Lower Saxons, he 
 translated the Bible into Low German 
 (Liibeck, 1533). He was a faithful friend 
 to Luther, and delivered his eulogy. To- 
 gether with Melancthon, he composed the 
 Interim of Leipsic. He died in 1558. He 
 wrote also a History of Pomerania. 
 
 BUGGE, Thomas, born in 1740, at. Co- 
 penhagen, professor of mathematics and 
 astronomy at the university in that city, 
 and in the royal marine, has rendered 
 much service to astronomy and geogra- 
 phy by his own observations, and by the 
 education of young men, from many of 
 whom we have valuable observations in 
 Norway, Iceland, Greenland, and several 
 parts of the East and West Indies. He 
 caused more correct surveys to be made in 
 Denmark, for the equalization of the land- 
 taxes, and had the principal part in the 
 preparation of the excellent map of Den- 
 mark. His works are, Elementary Prin- 
 ciples of spherical and theoretical Astron- 
 omy (1796), Elementary Principles of 
 pure Mathematics (Altona, 1797), Descrip- 
 tion of the Method of Measurement in the 
 Construction of the Danish Maps and 
 Charts. He died in 1815. 
 
 BUGLE-HORN. (See Horn.) 
 
 BCHRSTO.N-E. (See Quartz.) 
 
 BUILTH ; a small town of Wales, on the 
 Wye, 171 miles W. N. W. of London. 
 It was probably the Roman station Bid- 
 IcEiim, and Roman relics are yet occasion- 
 ally discovered there. The Britons built 
 a castle there, when driven from their 
 country by the Saxons, which was occu- 
 pied by the English after the conquest. 
 Llewellyn, the last Welsh prince, was 
 slain in the neighborhood, in an engage- 
 ment between the Welsh and English. 
 Lon.S !^ W.: lat. 52 D & N. 
 
 BUIIVAAH POIST ; a cape on the west 
 coast of Ireland, in the county of Mayo, 
 on the south side of the entrance into 
 Newport bay. Lon. 9 3 W. ; lat. 53 
 4ii X. 
 
 BUKHARIA. (See Buchario,.} 
 
 BUKOWI.NA. (See Galicia.) 
 
 BULAC, or BOULAC, in Egypt; the port 
 of Grand Cairo, on the Nile, where ves- 
 sels which bring goods to that city abide ; 
 one mile W. of Cairo. It is a large, 
 irregular town, and contains a custom- 
 house, magazines, and a large bazar. In 
 1799, it was almost destroyed by the 
 French, Niehuhr seems to fix on this 
 
 as the site of the ancient Utopolis. The 
 baths are fine. 
 
 BULAMA ; an island on the west coast of 
 Africa, one of the Bissgoes. It is 24 
 miles long and 12 broad, and is situated 
 about two miles from the mouth of the 
 Rio Grande. It is very fertile, but not 
 easy of access. The Bulama association 
 attempted to colonize it, in 1792, but it 
 was soon abandoned. Lon. 14 3& W. : 
 lat. 11 N. 
 
 BULGARIA, European or Little, a Turk- 
 ish province, which owes its name to the 
 Asiatic race of Bulgarians (q. v.), who 
 overran it, was the Motsia Inferior of the 
 Romans. Its capital is Sophia, and it is 
 divided, by the Turks, who conquered it 
 in 1392, into four sangiacats, forming a 
 part of the pachalic of Romelia. It is 
 nearly in the form of a triangle, enclosed 
 by the Danube on the north, the Black 
 sea on the east, the Balkan (q. v.) or 
 mount Haemus on the south and west. It 
 is 36,870 square miles in extent, with a 
 population of 1,800,000 inhabitants, en- 
 gaged in agricultural labors, peaceful and 
 industrious, and mostly members of the 
 Greek church. The whole province, ex- 
 cept in the neighborhood of the Danube 
 and the Black sea, is rugged and moun- 
 tainous. From the eastern extremity of 
 the Balkan, a branch runs north-easterly, 
 nearly parallel with the Euxine, and the 
 streams flow northerly and westerly to the 
 Danube, or south-easterly to the sea. The 
 soil is very productive ; all sorts of grain 
 cattle, wool, iron and wine are raised in 
 abundance, and the province is considered 
 by the Turks the granary of Constantino- 
 ple. About Philippopoli are large rice 
 farms. A very fine wool is brought from 
 the pastures near Xicopoli, and silk, hon- 
 ey, wax and tobacco are important arti- 
 cles of produce. Dobrudsha, the sandy 
 plain on the Black sea, is famous for its 
 horses, which are small, but strong and 
 well-shaped. Some of the principal 
 towns, besides those already mentioned, 
 are Silistria, taken by the Russians, June 
 28, 1829, 216 milj N. of Constantinople, 
 Brailow (q. v.), Varna (q. v.), Chumla or 
 Schumla (q. v.), which have been the 
 objects of violent contest between the 
 Russians and Turks in the war now ex- 
 isting between them. 
 
 Bulgarians, or Voidgarians ; an ancient 
 Turkish or Tartar nation, which, in the 
 fourth century, was settled on the Volga. 
 The ruins of their former capital may still 
 be seen in the neighborhood of Kazan. 
 Their kingdom, which occupied a part of 
 the Asiatic Sarmatia of the Greeks, is
 
 320 
 
 BULGARIANS BULL-DOG. 
 
 called Great Bulgaria, and is now com- 
 
 S-ehended in the Russian government of 
 renburg. They afterwards removed to 
 the countries between the Bog and the 
 Danube, and called their territories Second 
 Bulgaria. They passed the Danube in 
 539, made themselves masters of the 
 coasts of the Black sea, as far as mount 
 Ilsemus, subdued the Sclavonic tribes of 
 that region, and founded the kingdom of 
 Black Bulgaria. They penetrated Thrace, 
 Macedonia and Thessaly, and their wars 
 with the Greek empire were very san- 
 guinary. Whole provinces were reduced 
 to deserts, called Bulgarian forests, and 
 the Greeks, not less barbarous, put out 
 the eyes of 15,000 Bulgarian prisoners in 
 one clay. Their kingdom, whicli extend- 
 ed, in 1010, over Macedonia, Albania and 
 Servia, Was destroyed by the emperor 
 Basil II, and the dispersed tribes took 
 refuge in Turkey, in 1185. Those who 
 remained in B. revolted, and formed, with 
 the Walachians, a new kingdom, which 
 was sometimes the ally and sometimes 
 the vassal of the Byzantine empire, until 
 it was finally conquered by the Ottomans, 
 in the 14th century. 
 
 BULIMIA. The persons attacked by 
 this disorder are tormented with an insa- 
 tiable hunger. When their stomach is 
 surfeited, they are seen to faint, and throw 
 off the food which they have taken, half 
 digested, and with violent pain. It usual- 
 ly appears as a concomitant of other dis- 
 eases. It occurs during certain intermit- 
 tent fevers, in certain diseases of the 
 stomach and bowels, particularly in such 
 as are produced by the tape-worm ; and 
 is also common after fevers, by which the 
 strength of the patient is exhausted. In 
 this last case, it arises from the effort of 
 all parts of the body to supply the lost 
 flesh and strength. In certain cases, 
 however, the extraordinary desire for food 
 seems to be caused by a particular condi- 
 tion of the stomach, which digests with 
 too great rapidity. This is observed 
 sometimes in women during their preg- 
 nancy, in young people who exercise too 
 violently, and in persons who take much 
 high-seasoned and heating food. In this 
 case, the desire is not to be considered as 
 a disease, but only as an excessive appetite. 
 As a disease, its consequences are dread- 
 ful leanness, pulmonary fevers, con- 
 sumption, constipation, dropsy. 
 
 BULKH, or BALKH. (See Afghanis- 
 tan.) 
 
 BULK-HEADS ; certain partitions or 
 walls built up in several places of a ship 
 between two decks, either lengthwise or 
 
 across, to form and separate the various 
 apartments. 
 
 BULL ; the name applied to the males 
 of all the species of ox (bos, L.) (See Ox.) 
 
 BULL ; an instrument, ordinance or de- 
 cree of the pope, treating of matters of 
 faith or the affairs of the church, written on 
 parchment, and provided with a lead seal. 
 The word was originally the name of the 
 seal itself. The papal bulls are commonly 
 designated by the words with which they 
 begin ; e. g., the bulls In ccsna Domini, 
 Cum inter, Unigmitus, Jlscendente, &c. A 
 collection of bulls is called bullary. Cer- 
 tain ordinances of the German emperors 
 are also called bulls. The golden bull, 
 emphatically so called, from the seal at- 
 tached to it being in a gold box, is that 
 fundamental law of the German empire 
 enacted by the emperor Charles IV, in 
 two diets, held in succession, in 1356, at 
 Nuremberg and at Metz, with the assist- 
 ance of the electors, and, in part, with the 
 assent of the empire. The chief design 
 of the golden bull was to fix, with certain- 
 ty, the manner of electing the emperor, 
 and whatever was connected with it. An- 
 other object was to check the lawless 
 violence of the times, which was not, 
 however, then effected. (For an account 
 of the particular bulls of importance, see 
 the separate articles.) 
 
 BULL-BAITING ; the barbarous and un- 
 manly sport of setting dogs on a bull, who 
 is tied to a stake, with the points of his 
 horns muffled, and torn to death for the 
 amusement of the spectators. Bears and 
 badgers are baited, even at the present 
 day, in the cock-pits in London, and 
 dog-fights also are exhibited in the same 
 places. 
 
 BULL-DOG; a variety of the common 
 dog, called, by naturalists, canis molossus, 
 remarkable for its short, broad muzzle, 
 and the projection of its lower jaw, which 
 causes the lower front teeth to protrude 
 beyond the upper. The condyles of the jaw 
 are placed above the line of the upper 
 grinding teeth. The head is massive and 
 broad, and the frontal sinuses large. The 
 lips are thick and pendulous ; the ears 
 pendant at the extremity ; the neck robust 
 and short ; the body long and stout, and 
 the legs short and thick. The bull-dog is 
 a slow-motioned, ferocious animal, better 
 suited for savage combat, than for any 
 purpose requiring activity and intelligence. 
 For this reason, he is generally employed 
 to guard houses, especially by the butch- 
 ers, tanners, &c., and this office he per- 
 forms with great fidelity. The butchers 
 use bull-dogs in catching and throwing
 
 BULL-DOG BULL-FIGHTS. 
 
 321 
 
 down cattle; and it is surprising to see 
 the apparent ease with which the dog 
 will seize an ox by the nose, and hold 
 him perfectly still, or throw him on his 
 side, at his master's command. In fight- 
 ing with other dogs, or in attacking ani- 
 mals capable of exciting their fury, bull- 
 dogs display the most ferocious and 
 indomitable spirit. It is stated, in the 
 Sporting Calendar, that they have suffered 
 their limbs to be cut off, while thus enga- 
 ged, without relinquishing their hold on 
 the enemy. They become very vicious, 
 and sometimes extremely dangerous, as 
 they advance in years, inflicting dreadful 
 bites for the slightest provocation. Indeed, 
 at no period of their lives, will bull-dogs 
 allow even their masters to take liberties 
 with them. 
 
 BULLEN, Anne. (See Boleyn.} 
 
 BULLERS OF BUCHAN, Or BOILERS OF 
 
 B. ; a large oval cavity in the rocks on the 
 coast of Aberdeenshire, 150 feet deep. 
 Boats enter under a natural arch, near 
 which is a large rock, separated by a deep 
 chasm from the land. Through an ap- 
 erture, in the middle of this rock, the 
 waves rush with a tremendous noise. 
 
 BULLETIN (French ; diminutive of bid- 
 la) ; an official report, giving an account 
 of the actual condition of some important 
 affair ; thus the bulletin of the army, of his 
 majesty's health, &c. It has acquired 
 great celebrity by the brilliant despatches 
 issued from the French head-quarters, 
 under this name, during the imperial 
 domination. All Europe and America 
 echoed with their accents of blood and 
 victory, until the 29th bulletin of the grand 
 army announced that the tide was rolled 
 back, and that Paris was to share the fate 
 of the other capitals of Europe. 
 
 BULLETIN UNIVERSEL DBS SCIENCES ET 
 DE L'INDUSTRIE, LE, is divided into eight 
 sections, of each of which a number is 
 issued monthly. It is published at Paris, 
 by the French society for the promotion 
 of useful knowledge, under the general 
 direction of the baron Ferussac, assisted 
 by eight editors, one for each section. 
 These divisions are 1. mathematical, 
 physical and chemical sciences ; 2. nat- 
 ural history and geology; 3. the medi- 
 cal sciences; 4. agriculture, horticulture, 
 fishing and hunting; 5. technology; 6. 
 geography, statistics, political economy, 
 voyages and travels; 7. philology, anti- 
 quities and history; 8. military. (See 
 Periodicals.) 
 
 BULL-FIGHTS are among the favorite di- 
 versions of the Spaniards, who, like all the 
 nations of the south of Europe, are pas- 
 
 sionately fond of public combats, and ex- 
 hibitions of strength and agility. The ex- 
 communications of the popes have not 
 been sufficient to induce them to abandon 
 this amusement. Charles IV abolished it; 
 but it was revived again by Joseph. The 
 assailants are seldom killed in these sports. 
 The splendid bull-fights formerly exhibited 
 by the king on festival days were very cost- 
 ly. The Spaniards distinguish the toreo, 
 in which the bull is killed, from the corrida, 
 de novillos, where he has his horns tipped 
 with leaden balls (novillo embolado\ and is 
 ordy irritated. Bull-fights, in the capital, 
 and in all the larger cities of Spain, are 
 got up by private persons, or for the ben- 
 efit of some public institution. They are 
 exhibited at Madrid twice a week through 
 the summer regularly, for the benefit of 
 the general hospital. The income from 
 such a spectacle is commonly about 2000 
 dollars, and the outlay, which goes prin- 
 cipally to the combatants, who have their 
 fixed wages, about 1000. The bull-fights 
 are held, at Madrid, in the Coliseo de los 
 Toros, an amphitheatre having circular 
 seats, rising one above another, and a row 
 of boxes over them. All the spectators 
 are dressed in their best. The comba- 
 tants, who make bull-fighting their profes- 
 sion, march into the arena in procession, 
 with some magistrate at their head. They 
 are of various kinds the picadores, com- 
 batants on horseback, in the old Spanish 
 knightly garb ; the banderiUeros, comba- 
 tants on foot, in short, variegated frocks, 
 with banners ; and, lastly, the matador 
 (the killer). As soon as the corregidor 
 gives the signal, the bull is loosed from 
 the stall. The picadores, who have sta- 
 tioned themselves near him, commence 
 the attack. Sometimes a horse is wound- 
 ed, and the rider is obliged to run for his 
 life. A peculiar kind of foot-combatants, 
 chuhij, assist the horsemen, by drawing 
 the attention of the bull with their banners ; 
 and, in case of danger, they save them- 
 selves by leaping over the wooden fence, 
 which surrounds the arena. The bande- 
 rilleros then come into play. They try 
 to fasten on the bull their banderillas 
 hollow tubes filled with powder, having 
 strips of paper wound round them, and 
 small hooks at the ends. If they succeed, 
 the squibs which are attached to them are 
 discharged, and the bull races madly about 
 the arena. The matador now comes in 
 gravely, with a naked sword, and aims a 
 fatal blow at the animal. If it is effectual, 
 the slaughtered bull is dragged away, and 
 another is let out from the stall. If a bull 
 is too inactive, the dogs are set upon him ;
 
 BULL-FIGHTS BULOW. 
 
 if he is too violent, several horses are often 
 killed. The bull is more furious in pro- 
 portion as the heat of the weather is 
 greater. Burlesque scenes accompany 
 the spectacle : apes are trained to spring 
 upon the neck of the bull, without his 
 being able to reach them. Men of straw 
 are set up before him, upon which he 
 exhausts his strength. Some of the foot 
 combatants, likewise, dress themselves 
 grotesquely, to irritate the bull, and amuse 
 the spectators. (See Doblado's Letters 
 from Spain, and A Year in Spain, by a 
 young American (Boston, 1829). 
 
 BULLFINCH (loxia pyrrhula; L.); a 
 well-known European bird, which has a 
 short, rounded, robust bill, a black cap, 
 and plumage on the back of an ash or 
 dark blue gray color: the inferior parts 
 of the body are reddish. The female is 
 of a grayish red beneath. The bullfinch 
 builds its nest in hedges, and various trees, 
 and feeds chiefly on different seeds and 
 buds of fruit-trees, for which its strong, 
 thick bill is well adapted. The bullfinch 
 is remarkable for the facility with which 
 it is tamed and taught to sing, or even to 
 articulate words. Its natural tones are 
 soft, and, when taught to repeat tunes, by 
 a bird organ, nothing can be imagined 
 more delightfully sweet and clear than its 
 piping. In captivity, it appears to be 
 rather a dull and quiet bird, though it 
 displays much attachment to its feeder, 
 showing evident marks of pleasure at his 
 approach, and singing at his bidding. 
 Bullfinches thus taught are sold at high 
 prices, as much as $20 or 830 being de- 
 manded for a single bird. There are spe- 
 cies of finch found in America, which 
 might, without much difficulty, be taught 
 to perform as well. 
 
 BULLFROG. (See Frog.) 
 BULL, John. (See John Butt.) 
 BULLION is uncoined gold or silver, in 
 bars, plate, or other masses. The word 
 bullion was of frequent use in the pro- 
 ceedings respecting the bank of England 
 (see Bank), from 1797, when the order of 
 council was issued, that the bank should 
 discontinue the redemption of its notes 
 by the payment of specie, to 1823, when 
 specie payments were resumed ; for, by a 
 previous law, the bank was authorized to 
 pay its notes in uncoined silver or gold, 
 according to its weight and fineness. The 
 investigations of the bullion committees, 
 and the various speculations on the sub- 
 ject of bullion, related to the supply of 
 gold and silver, whether coined or not, 
 as the basis of the circulating medium. 
 (See Currency.) 
 
 BULLOCK. (See Ox.) 
 
 BULLOCK'S MUSEUM, Piccadilly, Lon- 
 don ; a private establishment for the de- 
 posit of collections of all sorts, particularly 
 of natural history and ethnography. The 
 following not very scientific classification 
 of the curiosities there is given in the Pic- 
 ture of London : curiosities from the south 
 seas, from America, from Africa; works 
 of art, natural history, specimens of quad- 
 rupeds stuffed, birds, reptiles, insects, fisli, 
 productions of the sea, minerals, miscella- 
 nea, halls of arms. This museum is open 
 for the inspection of the curious every 
 week-day (admittance, one shilling), and 
 continual additions are made to it. Here 
 Belzoni deposited his Egyptian collec- 
 tions. 
 
 BULLRUSH. (See Scirpus.) 
 
 BULL'S BAY, or BABOUL BAT; a well- 
 known bay in Newfoundland, a little to 
 the north of St. John's harbor, on the east 
 side of the island. Lon. 52 20 7 W. ; lat. 
 47 25> N. 
 
 BULMER, William ; next to Bensley, the 
 most distinguished printer in England. 
 One of the first productions of his press 
 was an edition of Persius, 1790, 4to. 
 Among his masterpieces are the splen- 
 did editions of Shakspeare (17921801, 
 9 vols., folio), from which his establish- 
 ment was called the Shakspeare press; 
 and of Milton (179497, 3 vols., folio). 
 He is a particular favorite of the fancy 
 booksellers in England (hence he has 
 most of the printing for the Roxburgh 
 club), and is supported almost solely by 
 them. The unprejudiced will, however, 
 not put him above Bensley. The produc- 
 tions of his press, particularly the works 
 of Dibdin, are disfigured by errors more 
 than is allowable in an artist who aspires 
 to tread in the steps of Didot and Bodoni. 
 
 BULOW, Frederic William, count von 
 Dennewitz, royal Prussian general of 
 infantry, knight of several military orders, 
 &c., famous for his victories in the last 
 French and German war, was born in 
 1755, on his father's estate, Falkenburg, in 
 Altmark. In his 14th year, he entered 
 the Prussian army, and, in 1793, was ap- 
 pointed governor of prince Louis Ferdi- 
 nand of Prussia. In this capacity, he 
 served with distinction in the campaign 
 on the Rhine. In 1795, his charge of the 
 prince ended, and he received a battalion. 
 In the war of 1806, he was a lieutenant- 
 colonel at the siege of Thorn, and distin- 
 guished himself in various battles. In 
 1808, he was made major-general and 
 general of brigade. When the war against 
 France broke out in 1813, he fought the
 
 BULOW BUNYAN. 
 
 823 
 
 first successful battle, at Mockern, April 
 5 ; May 2, took Halle, and protected Ber- 
 lin from the danger which threatened it, 
 by his victory at Luckau, June 4. After 
 the armistice, he commanded the third 
 division of the army, under the crown- 
 prince of Sweden, and saved Berlin a 
 second time by the memorable victoiy of 
 Grosbeeren, Aug. 23. He relieved the 
 same city a third time, by the great vic- 
 tory at Dennewitz. (q. v.) For this ser- 
 vice, the king made him one of the few 
 grand knights of the iron cross, and, after 
 the end of the campaign, bestowed on 
 him the title count Billow of Denneivitz, 
 and made the same hereditary in his fam- 
 ily. At the storming of Leipsic, Oct. 19, 
 he took an important part. He distin- 
 guished himself equally in Westphalia, 
 Holland, Belgium, on the Rhine, at Laon, 
 and took Soissons and Lafere. After 
 the peace, he was commander-in-chief in 
 East Prussia, and Lithuania. At the 
 opening of the campaign of 1815, he re- 
 ceived the chief command of the fourth 
 division of the army, with which he con- 
 tributed so essentially to the victory of 
 Waterloo, that the king gave him the 
 command of the 15th regiment of the 
 line, which was to bear, in future, the 
 name of the regiment of Biilow von Den- 
 new'dz. Jan. 11, 1816, he resumed the 
 chief command in Konigsberg, in Prussia, 
 and died there, Feb. 25, 1816. B. was 
 highly esteemed, both as a citizen and as 
 a man. He had learned the art of war, in 
 early youth, scientifically, and continued 
 the same study with unremitting dili- 
 gence, throughout his military course. He 
 was also devoted to literature and the fine 
 arts. Music especially attracted him, and 
 he composed many motets, a mass, and 
 the 51st and 100th psalms. 
 
 BULOW, Henry von, bora at Falkenberg, 
 in Brandenberg, 1770, studied in the mili- 
 tary academy at Berlin, and afterwards 
 entered die Prussian service. But he soon 
 retired, and occupied himself with the 
 study of Polybius, Tacitus, and J. J. Rous- 
 seau, and then served for a short period in 
 the Netherlands. He afterwards under- 
 took to establish a theatre, but immediately 
 abandoned his project, and visited the U. 
 States ; from whence he returned poor in 
 purse, but rich in experience, and became 
 an author. His first work was on the Art 
 of War, in which he displayed uncommon 
 talents. He wrote a book on Money, 
 translated the Travels of Mungo Park, and 
 published, in 1801, his History of the 
 Campaign of 1800. In 1804, he wrote 
 Lehrsatze des neuern Krieges (Theory of 
 
 modem Warfare), and several other mili- 
 tary works, among which is Tactics of the 
 Moderns as they should be. In the for- 
 mer, he points out the distinction between 
 strategy and tactics, and makes the trian- 
 gle the basis of all military operations. 
 This principle of his was opposed by 
 Jomini, and other French writers. His 
 history of the war of 1805 occasioned his 
 imprisonment in Prussia, at the request 
 of the Russian and Austrian courts. He 
 died in 1807, of a nervous fever, in the 
 prison of Riga. He was a follower of 
 Swedenborg. 
 
 BULWARK. (See Bastion.) 
 
 BUM-BOAT; a small boat used to sell 
 vegetables, &c., to ships lying at a distance 
 from shore. 
 
 BUNDELCUND ; a district of Allahabad, 
 lying between 24 and 26 N. lat. The 
 country is mountainous and stony, and 
 produces all kinds of fruit. It was ceded 
 by the Mahrattas to the British in 1804, 
 by whom it was annexed to the prov- 
 ince of Benares. It is famous for the dia- 
 monds of Paunah. Square miles, 11,000. 
 Chief towns, Banda, which is the resi- 
 dence of the officers of government ; Cal- 
 linger, &c. 
 
 BUNGALOW ; an East Indian term for a 
 house with a thatched roof. 
 
 BUNGO ; a kingdom in Japan, and one 
 of the most considerable in the island of 
 Bungo, or Ximo. The capital is Fumay. 
 The king of Bungo was baptized by the 
 name of Francis Civan, and sent a solemn 
 embassy to pope Gregory XIII, in the 
 year 1582. Lon. 132 E.; lat. 32 40 7 N. 
 
 BUNK is a word used, in die U. States, 
 to signify a case or cabin of boards for a 
 bed. Thus, in the army, the soldier's 
 birth is called his bunk. 
 
 BUNKER HILL. (See Charlestoim.) 
 
 BUNT ; the middle part or cavity of the 
 principal square-sails, as the main-sail, 
 fore-sail, &c. If one of them be supposed 
 to be divided into four equal parts, from 
 one side to the other, the two middle di- 
 visions, which comprehend half of the 
 sail, form the limits of the bunt. 
 
 BUNTING; a thin woollen stuff, of which 
 the colors and signals of a ship are usually 
 formed. 
 
 BUNYAN, John, was the son of a tinker, 
 and was born at the village of Elston, 
 near Bedford, in 1628. He followed his 
 father's employment, and, for some time, 
 led a wandering, dissipated life. During 
 the civil war, he served as a soldier in the 
 army of the parliament ; and the danger 
 to which he was then exposed probably 
 brought him to reflection, in consequence
 
 324 
 
 BUNYAN BURCKHARD. 
 
 of which his conduct became reformed, 
 and his mind impressed with a dee]) sense 
 of the truth and importance of religion. 
 He joined a society of Anabaptists at Bed- 
 ford, and at length undertook the office 
 of a public teacher among them. Acting 
 in defiance of the severe laws enacted 
 against dissidents from the established 
 church, soon after the restoration, B. in- 
 curred the sentence of transportation ; 
 which was not executed, as he was de- 
 tained in prison more than twelve years, 
 and at last liberated through the charitable 
 interposition of doctor Barlow, bishop of 
 Lincoln. To this confinement he owes 
 his literary fame ; for, in the solitude of 
 his cell, his ardent imagination, brooding 
 over the mysteries of Christianity, the 
 miraculous narratives of the sacred Scrip- 
 ture, and the visions of Jewish prophets, 
 gave birth to that admired religious alle- 
 gory, the Pilgrim's Progress a work 
 which, like Robinson Crusoe, has remain- 
 ed unrivalled amidst a host of imitators. 
 His Holy War made by Shaddai upon 
 Diabolus, his other religious parables, and 
 his devotional tracts, which are numerous, 
 are now deservedly consigned to oblivion. 
 There is a curious piece of auto-biogra- 
 phy of B. extant, entitled, Grace abound- 
 ing to the Chief of Sinners. On obtaining 
 his liberty, B. resumed his functions as a 
 minister at Bedford, and became extreme- 
 ly popular. He died during a visit to 
 London, in 1688. 
 BUONAPARTE. (See Bonaparte.} 
 BUOXAROTTI, Michelagnolo. (See An- 
 gela.) 
 
 BUOY ; any floating body employed to 
 point out the particular situation of any 
 thing under water, as of a ship's anchor, 
 a shoal, &c. The can buoy is of a coni- 
 cal form, and painted with some conspic- 
 uous color ; it is used for pointing out 
 shoals, sand-banks, &c. The cask buoy 
 is in the form of a cask ; the larger are 
 employed for mooring, and are called 
 mooring buoys ; the smaller for cables, 
 and are known as cable buoys. The 
 buoy-rope fastens the buoy to the anchor, 
 and should be about as long as the depth 
 of the water whore the anchor lies ; it 
 should also be strong enough to draw up 
 the anchor in case the cable should break. 
 The life or safety buoy is intended to 
 keep a person afloat till he can be taken 
 from the water. It should be suspended 
 from the stern of the ship, and let go as 
 soon as any person falls overboard. A 
 light may be attached to it, both to indi- 
 cate its position to the individual in dan- 
 ger, and to direct the course of the boat 
 
 sent to relieve him, if the accident hap- 
 pens by night. 
 
 BURATS. (See Buriats.) 
 
 BCRCHIELLO, Domenico ; one of the 
 most eccentric of poets. Of the circum- 
 stances of his life we know but little. He 
 lived, at the beginning of the 15th centu- 
 ry, at Florence, where he was probably 
 born. He was the son of a barber named 
 Giovanni, and was called, originally, only 
 Domenico. He assumed the name of B. 
 afterwards, for reasons that cannot be 
 assigned. His fame began about 1425. 
 He was first registered as a barber in 
 1432. Some writers have reproached him 
 for shameful vices, and represented him 
 as a low buffoon, who did every thing for 
 money. Others have defended him. His 
 shop was so famous, that learned and un- 
 learned, high and low, assembled there 
 every day, and Cosmo the Great caused 
 it to be painted on one of the arches of 
 his gallery. It appears here divided into 
 two portions ; in one, B. is acting the 
 part of a barber ; in the other, that of a 
 musician and poet. The portrait of B. 
 himself is painted over his shop. It is 
 extremely difficult to decide upon the ab- 
 solute value of his satires, as the local and 
 personal allusions in them are obscure. 
 They were composed for his contempo- 
 raries, with a studied obscurity and ex- 
 travagance of expression. His style is, 
 nevertheless, pure and elegant. His bur- 
 lesque sonnets are enigmas, of which we 
 have no intelligible explanation, notwith- 
 standing what Doni has done. The nar- 
 rative and descriptive parts are very easy 
 to be understood ; but the wit they con- 
 tain is, for the most part, so coarse, that 
 the satire fails of producing its effect. 
 They are, on the whole, lively, but licen- 
 tious. The best editions of his sonnets 
 are those of Florence, 1568, and of Lon- 
 don, 1757. 
 
 BURCKHARD, John Louis, born in 1784, 
 celebrated for his travels to Nubia, was 
 descended from a respectable family in 
 Bale. As he was unwilling to enter into 
 the service of his country, at that time 
 oppressed by France, after having com- 
 pleted his studies at Leipsic and Gottin- 
 gen, he went to London, in 1806, where 
 the African association wished to make a 
 new attempt to explore Africa, from the 
 north to the interior, in the way already 
 trodden by Hornemann. They received 
 B.'s proposal to undertake this journey in 
 1808. B. now studied the manners of 
 the East, and the Arabian language, in 
 their purest school, at Aleppo. He re- 
 mained two years and a half in Syria,
 
 BURCKHARD BURDETT. 
 
 325 
 
 visited Palmyra, Damascus, Lebanon and 
 other regions ; after which he went to 
 Cairo, in order to proceed with a caravan, 
 through the northern part of Africa, to 
 Fezzan. In 1812, he performed a jour- 
 ney up the Nile, almost to Dongpla ; and 
 afterwards, in the character of a poor 
 trader, and a Turk of Syria, proceeded 
 through the deserts of Nubia (uhere 
 Bruce had travelled before him), under 
 great hardships, to Berbera and Shendy, 
 as far as Suakem on the Red sea, whence 
 lie passed through Jidda to Mecca. He 
 was now so well initiated into the lan- 
 guage and manners of the Arabians, that, 
 when a doubt arose concerning his Islam- 
 ism, after having passed an examination 
 in the theoretical and practical parts of 
 the Mohammedan faith, he was acknowl- 
 edged, by two learned jurists, not only a 
 very faithful, but a very learned Mussul- 
 man. In 1815, he returned to Cairo, and 
 afterwards visited Sinai. Just before the 
 arrival of the long-expected caravan, he 
 died at Cairo, April 15, 1817. The Mo- 
 hammedans performed his obsequies with 
 the greatest splendor. He had previously 
 sent home all his journals. His last 
 thoughts were devoted to his mother. 
 B. was the first modern traveller who 
 succeeded in penetrating to Shendy, in 
 the interior of Soudan, the Meroe of an- 
 tiquity (still, as it was 3000 years ago, the 
 depot of trade for Eastern Africa), and in 
 furnishing exact information of the-slave- 
 trade in that quarter. He found articles 
 of European fabric, such as the Zellingen 
 sword-blades, at the great fair of Sheudy. 
 His Travels in Nubia, in 1815, were pub- 
 lished in London (1819) by the African 
 association, with his researches into the 
 interior of Africa. 
 
 BORCKHARDT, John Charles ; member 
 of the royal French academy of sciences, 
 one of the first astronomical calculators 
 in Europe, born at Leipsic, April 30, 
 1773, applied himself to mathematics, and 
 acquired a fondness for astronomy from 
 the study of the works of Lalande. He 
 applied himself particularly to the calcu- 
 lation of solar eclipses, and the occultation 
 of certain stars, for the determination of 
 geographical longitudes. He made him- 
 self master, at the same time, of nearly all 
 the European languages. Professor Hin- 
 denburg induced him to write a Latin 
 treatise on the combinatory analytic meth- 
 od (Leipsic, 1794), and recommended him 
 to baron von Zach, with whom he studied 
 practical astronomy at his observatory on 
 the Seeberg near Gotha, and whom he 
 assisted, from 1795 to 1797, in observing 
 
 VOL. H. 28 
 
 the right ascension of the stars. Von 
 Zach recommended him to Lalande, at 
 Paris, who received him at his house, 
 Dec. 15, 1797. Here he distinguished 
 lumself by the calculation of the orbits of 
 comets, participated in all the labors of 
 Lalande, and those of his nephew, Le- 
 francois Lalande, took an active part in 
 the observatory of the ecole mttitaire, and 
 translated the two first volumes of La- 
 place's Mecanique Ctleste into German 
 (Berlin, 1800). Being appointed adjunct 
 astronomer by the board of longitude, he 
 received letters of naturalization as a 
 French citizen, Dec. 20, 1799. His im- 
 portant treatise on the comet of 1770, 
 which had not been visible for nearly 30 
 years, although, according to the calcu- 
 lations of its orbit, it should have re- 
 turned every five or six, was rewarded 
 with a gold medal, by the institute, in 
 1800. This treatise, which proposed 
 some improvements in doctor Gibers' 
 mode of calculation, is contained in the 
 Mem. de VInstitut y 1806. During this 
 year, he was made a member of the de- 
 partment of physical and mathematical 
 sciences in the academy ; in 1818, was 
 made a member of the board of longitude, 
 and, after Lalande's death, astronomer in 
 the observatory of the military school. 
 In 1814 and 1816, he published in French, 
 at Paris, Tables to assist in Astronomical 
 Calculations. He also wrote some trea- 
 tises in von Zach's Geographical Epheme- 
 rides. His labors in the board of longi- 
 tude were particularly valuable. He died 
 in 1825. 
 
 BURDEN, or BURTHEN ; 1. the con- 
 tents of a ship ; the quantity or number 
 of tons which a vessel will carry ; 2. the 
 part of a song which is repeated at every 
 verse or stanza, is called the burden of the 
 song, from the French bourdon, drone or 
 base, because they are both characterized 
 by an unchangeable tone, and bear upon 
 the ear with a similar monotony. 
 
 BURDETT, sir Francis, baronet, mem- 
 ber of the British parliament, in which he 
 has long held a conspicuous place in the 
 opposition, is descended from an ancient 
 and opulent family, and was educated at 
 Westminster. He entered on his parlia- 
 mentary career in 1796, when he was 
 chosen member from Boroughbridge. He 
 soon distinguished himself as an ardent 
 and enlightened friend of reform, and 
 the steady opposer of the arbitrary meas- 
 ures of the ministry, the suspension of the 
 habeas corpus act, the sedition bills, and 
 the policy towards Ireland. In 1802, he 
 was returned member for Middlesex. In
 
 326 
 
 BURDETT BURGER. 
 
 1804, he was wounded in a duel with Mr. 
 Paull, which arose from political causes. 
 After the death of Pitt, he voted with the 
 Fox ministry, and, in 1807, was elected to 
 parliament from Westminster. In 1810, 
 aving addressed a letter to his constitu- 
 ents, in which he accused the house of 
 commons of a usurpation of power in 
 committing to prison the author of a pub- 
 lication derogatory to the dignity and 
 privileges of the house, a writ was issued 
 against him, ordering that he should be 
 committed to the Tower. The execution 
 of the writ was resisted, during three 
 day*, by crowds which surrounded his 
 house. Several riots took place ; but he 
 was finally arrested, and conducted to the 
 Tower, where he remained till the pro- 
 rogation of parliament. He has since 
 continued a vigilant and bold opponent 
 of corruption and oppression on the part 
 of the ministry. In 1815, he presented a 
 petition of the city of Westminster, in fa- 
 vor of peace and parliamentary reform, 
 with a speech, in which he advocated a 
 peace with Napoleon, accused the minis- 
 ters of a violation of treaties, by which, he 
 said, they had effected the downfall of the 
 emperor, and placed the Bourbons, a 
 name synonymous with falsehood, on the 
 throne of France. 
 
 BUREAU ; a writing-table ; afterwards 
 used to signify the chamber of an officer 
 of government, and the body of subordi- 
 nate officers who labor under the direc- 
 tion of a chief. Bureau system, or bu- 
 reaucracy, is a term often applied to those 
 governments in which the business of 
 administration is carried on in depart- 
 ments, each under the control of a chief; 
 and is opposed to those in which the offi- 
 cers of government have a coordinate 
 authority. Sometimes a mixture of the 
 two systems is found. Thus the business 
 of the executive branch of government 
 may be carried on by bureaus, while the 
 administration of justice is in the hands 
 of coordinate judges. The bureau des 
 longitudes, in France, corresponding to 
 the English board of longitude, is charged 
 with the publication of astronomical and 
 meteorological observations, the correc- 
 tion of the astronomical tables, and the 
 publication of the Connaissance des Temps, 
 an astronomical and nautical almanac. 
 (See Almanac.) According to the parlia- 
 mentary usage of France, at the opening 
 of each session, the chamber of deputies 
 is divided into nine bureaus, composed of 
 an equal number of deputies, designated 
 by lot. Each bureau appoints its own 
 president, and discusses all matters refer- 
 
 red to it by the chamber separately. A 
 reporter is appointed by each bureau, and, 
 after the discussion by bureaus, the nine 
 reporters meet, discuss the subject, and 
 appoint one of their number to report to 
 the whole chamber, where the final dis- 
 cussion and decision of the subject takes 
 place. (See Reglement pour la Chambre 
 des Deputes, Paris, 1827, chap, v.) 
 
 BURG, John Tobias ; an astronomer, 
 born, 176G, in Treves ; resolved, when 
 young, to become a mechanic, for the 
 purpose of supporting his father, but was 
 prevented by his teacher, who perceived 
 his great talents ; studied mathematics 
 and astronomy under Triesnecker ; was, 
 in 1791, professor of natural philosophy 
 in Clagenfurt, and, in 1792, adjunct as- 
 tronomer at the imperial observatory. He 
 has distinguished himself by his theory 
 of the motion of the moon. The national 
 institute proposed, as a prize question, in 
 1798, the determination, by at least 500 
 accurate observations, the epochs of the 
 mean distance of the apogee of the 
 moon and of her ascending node. The 
 committee who examined the calcula- 
 tions of the competitors found those of 
 B. and of Alexander Bouvard both so 
 excellent, that they determined to divide 
 the prize between them ; but the consul 
 Bonaparte doubled the prize, assigning 
 one to each. B.'s tables of the moon, ac- 
 cording to the theory of Laplace, were 
 published in 1806, by the national insti- 
 tute. 
 
 BURGAS, or BOURGAS ; a trading town 
 of European Turkey on the Black sea, in 
 the government of Roumelia. The bay 
 on which it stands is of sufficient depth 
 for large vessels, and the exports are 
 grain, iron, butter, wine, and also woollen 
 goods for Constantinople. Lon. 27 29 / 
 E. ; lat. 42 31' N. 
 
 BURGER, Godfrey Augustus, born Jan. 
 1, 1748, at Wolmerswende, near Halber- 
 stadt, where his father was a preacher, 
 died June 18, 1794, at Gottingen. Before 
 his 10th year, he learned nothing but 
 reading and writing, but showed a great 
 predilection for solitary and gloomy 
 places, and began early to make verses, 
 with no other model than that afforded 
 by hymn books. He learned Latin with 
 difficulty. In 1764, he studied theology 
 at the university in Halle, and, in 1768, 
 he went to Gottingen, in order to ex- 
 change theology for law, but soon formed 
 connexions here equally disadvantageous 
 to his studies and his morals, so that his 
 grandfather, who had hitherto maintained 
 him, withdrew his support from him.
 
 BURGER BURGLARY. 
 
 327 
 
 The friendship of several distinguished 
 young men at the university was now of 
 great service to him. In union with his 
 friends, he studied the ancient classics 
 and the best works in French, Italian, 
 Spanish and English, particularly Sbak- 
 speare, and the old English and Scotch 
 ballads. Percy's Relics was his constant 
 companion. His poems soon attracted 
 attention. In 1772, he obtained, by the 
 influence of Boie, the small office of 
 baily in Alten-Gleichen, and, by a recon- 
 ciliation with his grandfather, a sum for 
 The payment of his debts, which he un- 
 fortunately lost, and, during the rest of his 
 life, was involved in pecuniary difficulties. 
 In 1774, he married the daughter of a 
 neighboring baily, named Leonhardt, but 
 his marriage was unfortunate. He con- 
 ceived a violent passion for the sister of 
 his wife, and married her, in 1784, soon 
 after his first wife's death. She also, his 
 celebrated .Molly, died in the first year of 
 their marriage. At the same time, he lost 
 his little property by imprudent manage- 
 ment, and was obliged, by intrigues, to 
 resign his place. He was made professor 
 extraordinary in Gottingen, but received 
 no salary, and this favorite poet of the 
 nation was obliged to gain a living for 
 himself and his children by poorly-reward- 
 ed translations for booksellers. A third 
 marriage, in 1790, with a young lady of 
 Suabia, who had publicly offered him her 
 hand in a poem, completed his misfor- 
 tunes ; he was divorced from her two 
 years afterwards. The government of 
 Hanover afforded him some assistance 
 shortly before his death, which took place 
 in June, 1794, and was occasioned by a 
 complaint of the lungs. In the midst of 
 these misfortunes arid obstacles, it is 
 astonishing how much he did. He has 
 left us songs, odes, elegies, ballads, narra- 
 tive poems and epigrams. In none of 
 these departments does he hold a low 
 rank ; in some, the public voice has 
 placed him ,in the first. Schiller criti- 
 cised him very severely ; he denied him 
 the power of idealizing, and reproached 
 his muse as being of too sensual a char- 
 acter. The judgment of A. W. Schlegel 
 seems more just: he says, "B. is a poet 
 of a more peculiar than comprehensive 
 imagination ; of more honest and plain 
 than delicate feelings ; his execution is 
 more remarkable than his conception ; he 
 is more at home in ballads and simple 
 songs than in the higher lyrical poetry ; 
 yet, in some of his productions, he ap- 
 pears as a true poet of the people, and his 
 style, with some faults, is clear, vigorous, 
 
 fresh, and sometimes tender." The first 
 collection of his poems appeared in Got- 
 tingen, 1778. His poetical works have 
 been published several times by K. Rein- 
 hard ; last in Berlin, 1823 25, 8 vols. ; so 
 also his Lehrbuch der JEsihetik (Compen- 
 dium of ^Esthetics), Berlin, 1825, and hia 
 Lehrbuch des Deutschen Styls (Manual of 
 German Style), Berlin, 1826. 
 
 BURGESS, in England ; the holder of a 
 tenement in a borough : in a parliament- 
 ary sense, the representative of a borough. 
 The latter must have a clear estate to the 
 value of 300 per annum. The bur- 
 gesses in parliament bear a quadruple 
 proportion to the members for counties ; 
 the former being (from England alone) 
 339, the latter, 80. The whole number 
 of the former, from the three kingdoms, 
 is 396; of the latter, 186. Before the 
 North American revolution, the popular 
 branch of the legislature in Virginia was 
 called the house of burgesses : it is now 
 called the house of delegates. 
 
 BURGHERS. (See Seceders.) 
 
 BURGLARY (supposed to be derived 
 from the German burg, a house, and 
 larron, a thief, from the Latin latro) is 
 defined to be a breaking and entering the 
 mansion-house of another, in the night, 
 with intent to commit some felony within 
 the same, whether such felonious intent 
 be executed or not. This is the modern 
 signification of the term, which formerly 
 applied, also, to the breaking into a 
 church, fort or town ; and the breaking 
 into a church is said, by sir William 
 Blackstone (4 Com. 224), to be, undoubt- 
 edly, burglary. Both breaking and en- 
 tering are considered necessary to consti- 
 tute the offence. The opening a door or 
 window, picking a lock, or unlocking it 
 with a key, raising a latch, or loosing any 
 fastenings, constitutes a breaking. Like- 
 wise, knocking at the door, and, on its 
 being opened, rushing in, has been so 
 considered. So, if a lodger in the same 
 house open and enter another's room ; or 
 if a servant conspire with a robber and 
 let him into the house, it will be such a 
 breaking of a house, as, if done with in- 
 tent to commit a felony, will be burglary. 
 The breaking and entering must, how- 
 ever, be in the night, to make it burglary ; 
 and, according to lord Hale's opinion 
 (1 P. C. 550), if there be enough of day- 
 light in the evening twilight or dawn for 
 discerning a man's face, it will not be 
 burglary. But this does not extend to 
 moonlight, since such a construction 
 would secure impunity to many burgla- 
 ries. The breaking open of a barn, shop,
 
 328 
 
 BURGLARY BURGOYNE. 
 
 shed, or other building, is not burglary, 
 unless it be appurtenant to a dwelling- 
 house. A chamber in a college, or in the 
 London inns of court, is, for this purpose, 
 considered to be a mansion-house. The 
 more usual punishment of burglary has 
 heretofore been death. In the U. States, 
 there is some diversity of punishment for 
 this offence, the penalty being death in 
 some states, and imprisonment for life or 
 years in others. In Maine, for the prin- 
 cipal and accessary before the fact, where 
 the criminal enters a dwelling-house by 
 night, with a deadly weapon, it is death. 
 In New Hampshire, the offence, accord- 
 ing to the common definition, is punished 
 by imprisonment and hard labor for life. 
 In Vermont, the punishment is imprison- 
 ment in the state prison for a term not 
 exceeding 15 years, or a fine not exceed- 
 ing 1000 dollars ; in Massachusetts, im- 
 prisonment for life of the principal and 
 accessary before the fact, in case of being 
 armed with a deadly weapon ; in Rhode 
 Island, death ; in Connecticut, imprison- 
 ment in the state prison not exceeding 8 
 years ; in New York, a fine, and impris- 
 onment with hard labor not exceeding 10 
 years ; in Pennsylvania, for the first of- 
 fence, imprisonment not exceeding 10 
 years ; for the second, not exceeding 15 ; 
 in Maryland, restoration of property, and 
 imprisonment not less than 2 nor ex- 
 ceeding 10 years ; in Virginia, restora- 
 tion of property, and imprisonment not 
 less than 5 nor more than 10 years ; and 
 in Louisiana, imprisonment not less than 
 10 nor more than 15 years; and the code 
 of this state makes the crime the same 
 where the culprit conceals himself in the 
 house during the day, until night, as 
 where he breaks into it during the night. 
 The British statute 7 & 8 Geo. IV, c. 29, 
 makes the punishment death; and this 
 statute, pursuing that of 12 Anne, c. 7, 
 makes the committing a felony in a house, 
 and breaking out of it by night, burglary. 
 This statute of Geo. IV also alters the 
 definition of the crime, by substituting 
 dwelling for mansion-house. [The Amer- 
 ican statutes generally adopt this descrip- 
 tion.] It also defines what shall be con- 
 sidered as part of the house, saying, that 
 no building within the same curtilage, and 
 occupied with the dwelling-house, shall 
 be deemed a part of it for this purpose, 
 "unless there shall be a communication" 
 with the house " by means of a covered 
 and enclosed passage." This provision 
 clears up a doubt that had hung over the 
 former law. This act also provides (s. 12), 
 that, " if any person shall break and enter 
 
 a house and steal," &c., or shall steal any 
 property in any dwelling-house, any per- 
 son therein being put in fear," or " shall 
 steal to the value of 5," he shall suffer 
 death ; and it does not appear, by Mr. ' 
 Collier's edition of the criminal statutes, 
 1828, that any distinction is made, in this 
 section, as to the offence being by day or 
 night. This crime is punishable, under 
 the French code (Penal, lib. 3, tit. 2, c. 2, 
 s. 1, No. 381, 383), either by death or by 
 hard labor for life, according to the cir- 
 cumstances of aggravation. 
 
 BURGOMASTER ; the name of the chief 
 magistrates of large towns in the Neth- 
 erlands and Germany. Their num- 
 ber and term of office are different in 
 different places. They are sometimes 
 chosen for life, sometimes for a fixed pe- 
 riod. They preside in the municipal 
 counsels, &c. The same officer, in 
 France, is called maire ; in England and 
 the cities of North America, mayor. 
 
 BURGOS ; a city of Spain, the capital 
 of Old Castile, and once the residence of 
 its kings. It stands on the declivity of a 
 hill, on the right bank of the Arlanzon. 
 The streets are narrow and dark. It con- 
 tains a college, numerous churches and 
 convents, and a population of about 
 10,000. The cathedral, one of the most 
 beautiful Gothic structures in Spain, was 
 built in the 13th century, and, as well as 
 some of the other churches, contains 
 splendid mausoleums. It is so large, 
 that service can be performed in eight 
 chapels at once, without confusion. The 
 wool of Old Castile passes principally 
 through B., and it has some woollen 
 manufactures. It was captured by the 
 English in 1813. Lat. 42 21' N. ; Ion. 
 240 / W. 
 
 BURGOYNE, John ; an English general 
 officer and dramatist. He was the natu- 
 ral son of lord Bingly, and entered early 
 into the army. In 1762, he commanded 
 a force sent into Portugal for the defence 
 of that kingdom against the Spaniards. 
 He also distinguished himself, in the 
 American war, by the taking of Ticonde- 
 roga, but was, at last, obliged to surren- 
 der, with his army, to general Gates, at 
 Saratoga. He was elected into parlia- 
 ment for Preston, in Lancashire, but, re- 
 fusing to return to America, pursuant to 
 his convention, was dismissed the service. 
 He published some pamphlets in defence 
 of his conduct, and is the author of three 
 dramas, the Maid of the Oaks, Bon Ton, 
 and the Heiress, all in the line of what 
 is usually called genteel comedy, of which 
 they form light and pleasing specimens.
 
 BURGUETTA BURGUNDIANS. 
 
 329 
 
 BURGUETTA, or ELBURGUETTA ; a town 
 of Spain, in the valley of RonQeval, where 
 the rear-guard of Charlemagne's army 
 was defeated by the Saracens, and the fa- 
 mous Roland slain, A. D. 778 ; 24 miles 
 *N. E. of Pampeluna. 
 
 BURGUNDIA:N s. The Burgundians (call- 
 ed, by the ancients, Burgundi, Burgundi- 
 ones, Burngundi, Bugantce, Bunticcx, and 
 sometimes Urugundi), one of the princi- 
 pal branches of the Vandals, can be traced 
 back to the country between the Oder 
 and the Vistula, in what is now the New 
 Mark, and the southern part of West 
 Prussia. They were distinguished from 
 the other Germans by living together in 
 villages, burgen (whence, perhaps, they 
 received the name of Burgundians). The 
 others lived separately, and led a more 
 wandering life. This is probably the rea- 
 son why they retained possession of their 
 country much longer than the neighbor- 
 ing Goths and Vandals, till, at length, 
 they were no longer able to withstand the 
 Gepidse, who pressed in upon them from 
 the mouths of the Vistula. In conse- 
 quence of the loss of a great battle with 
 the Gepida3, they emigrated to Germany, 
 where they advanced to the region of the 
 Upper Rhine, and settled near the Alle- 
 manni. From them they took a consid- 
 erable tract of countiy, and lived in al- 
 most continual war with them. In the 
 beginning of the 5th century, with other 
 German nations, they passed over into 
 Gaul. After a long struggle, and many 
 losses, they succeeded in obtaining pos- 
 session of the south-eastern part of this 
 country by a contract with the Romans. 
 A part of Switzerland, Savoy, Dauphiny, 
 Lionnais and Franche-Comte belonged to 
 their now kingdom, which, even in the 
 year 470, was known by the name of 
 Burgundy. The seat of government 
 seems to have been sometimes Lyons, 
 and sometimes Geneva. By their old 
 constitution, they had kings, called hendi- 
 nos, whom they chose and deposed at 
 their pleasure. If any great calamity be- 
 full them, as a failure of the crops, a pesti- 
 lence, or a defeat, the king was made re- 
 sponsible for it, and his throne was given to 
 another, under whom they hoped for better 
 times. Before their conversion to Chris- 
 tianity (which happened after their settle- 
 ment in Gaul), they had a high-priest, 
 called sinestus, whose person was sacred, 
 and whose office was for life. The trial 
 by combat even then existed among them, 
 and was regarded as an appeal to the 
 judgment of God. Continually endeav- 
 oring to extend their limits, they became 
 28* 
 
 engaged in a war with the Franks, by 
 whom they were finally wholly subdued, 
 under the son of Clovis, after Clovis him- 
 self had taken Lyons. They still pre- 
 served their constitution, laws and cus- 
 toms for a time. But the dignity of 
 king was soon abolished, and, under the 
 Carlovingians, the kingdom was divided 
 into provinces, which, from time to time, 
 shook off their dependence. In 879, 
 Boson, count of Autun, brother-in-law 
 of king Charles the Bald, and duke of 
 Milan, with the assent of the Burgundian 
 nobles, succeeded in establishing again 
 the royal dignity in this kingdom. He 
 styled himself ting- of Provence. His res- 
 idence was at Aries, and hence is derived 
 the name kingdom of Aries. He was de- 
 prived of several provinces by Louis and 
 Carloman ; but his son Louis added to 
 his hereditary possessions the country ly- 
 ing beyond the Jura, and thus established 
 the kingdom of Burgundy, Cis- Jurana, or 
 Lower Burgundy, which included a part 
 of Provence, with Aries, Dauphiny, Li- 
 onnais, Savoy, and a part of Franche- 
 Comte. A second kingdom of Burgundy 
 arose when the Guelph Rodolph von 
 Strettlingen (duke of Swiss Lorraine) 
 gained possession of the rest of Lorraine, 
 namely, Switzerland beyond the river 
 Reuss, the Valais, and a part of Savoy, 
 and, in short, all the provinces between 
 the Jura and the Pennine Alps, and caus- 
 ed himself, in 883, to be crowned king 
 of Upper Burgundy (regnum Burgun- 
 dicum Transjuranum). Both Burgundian 
 kingdoms were united about the year 
 930, and, after the race of Rodolph be- 
 came extinct (1032) were incorporated 
 with Germany, under the emperor Con- 
 rad II. But a third state, which had its 
 origin about the same time with Upper 
 Burgundy, consisting, principally, of the 
 French province Bourgogne (Burgundy, 
 properly so called), and the founder of 
 which is said to have been Richard, 
 brother of Boson (first king of Lower 
 Burgundy), maintained its independence. 
 From Ludegardis, granddaughter of 
 Richard, and her husband, Otho, a broth- 
 er of Hugh Capet, sprang the ancient 
 dukes of Burgundy (Bourgogne). They 
 became extinct, in 1361, with the death 
 of duke Philip, and Burgundy was im- 
 mediately united, by king John of France, 
 with the French crown, partly as a fief 
 of the kingdom, and partly because his 
 mother was sister of the grandfather of 
 the last duke. The dignity of duke of 
 Burgundy was restored in 1363, by his 
 grant of those domains, under the title of
 
 330 
 
 BURGUNDIANS. 
 
 a dukedom, as an appanage to his young- 
 est and favorite son, Philip the Bold. 
 Philip was the founder of the new line of 
 the dukes of Burgundy. In 13(58, he mar- 
 ried Margaret, the widow of the last duke 
 Philip of the old line, only daughter and 
 heiress of Louis III, count of Flanders, 
 whereby he greatly augmented his pos- 
 sessions. At that time, Flanders, Mech- 
 lin, Antwerp and Franche-Comte fell to 
 Win. In 1402, he was made regent of 
 France, on account of the sickness of 
 Charles VI. Louis, duke of Orleans, 
 brother of the king, being obliged to 
 yield to him this dignity, conceived a bit- 
 ter hatred against him. This was the 
 occasion of the famous division of the 
 French into the Orleans and Burgundian 
 parties. In 1404, Philip died, and was 
 succeeded by his son, John the Fearless. 
 Orleans now became regent of France. 
 But both cousins remained bitter enemies, 
 till, under the walls of MontfauQon, at the 
 commencement of a civil war (1405), they 
 embraced each other in the sight of the 
 whole army, and, as a pledge of entire 
 reconciliation, slept in the same bed the 
 following night. Nevertheless, Orleans 
 was assassinated in the street in 1407, and 
 duke John of Burgundy declared him- 
 self the author of the deed, which was 
 the melancholy cause of the greatest dis- 
 turbances in Paris. Indeed, John obtain- 
 ed a letter of pardon from the king ; but 
 justice overtook him as he was about to 
 repeat the farce of a public reconciliation 
 with the dauphin, on the bridge of Mon- 
 tereau. While the first words of saluta- 
 tion were passing between them, he was 
 stabbed by the companions of the dauphin 
 (1419). His son and successor, Philip, sur- 
 namedthe Good (previously count of Char- 
 olais), in the peace which was concluded 
 between England and^France and Burgun- 
 dy (1420), succeeded 'in effecting the ex- 
 clusion of the dauphin, as a punishment 
 for the murder of duke John. In the 
 reign of Philip happened his memorable 
 dispute with Jacqueline of Brabant, and 
 her second husband, the duke of Glouces- 
 ter, which was settled by a treaty, by virtue 
 of which Philip was to become the heir 
 of Jacqueline (if she died childless), and 
 she was not to marry without his consent. 
 But Jacqueline violated this last stipula- 
 tion (1430), and Philip took possession of 
 her territories, Hainault, Holland and 
 Zealand, setting aside a small portion for 
 her maintenance. The year before, Phil- 
 ip had purchased Namur, and, in 1431, 
 Brabant and Limburg reverted to him, 
 when the line of Anthony of Burgundy, 
 
 second son of duke Philip the Bold, be- 
 came extinct. In the peace with France 
 (Arras, 1435), it was stipulated that king 
 Charles VII should sue for pardon on ac- 
 count of the murder of John, and that 
 Philip should receive from France the 
 valuable districts of Macon, St. Gengou, 
 Auxerre and Bar sur le Seine for himself 
 and his lawful male and female heirs; 
 Peronne, Mondidier and Roye for his 
 lawful male heirs ; and, further, St. Quen- 
 tin, Corby, Amiens, Abbeville, Ponthieu, 
 Dourlens, St. Riquier, CrevecoBur, Ar- 
 Icux and Mortagne, and the county of 
 Boulogne, for himself and his heirs. To 
 these important possessions he added 
 also, in 1441, the duchy of Luxemburg. 
 In 1430, Philip had contracted a third mar- 
 riage, as his two former wives had borne 
 him no children. On his marriage with 
 Isabella (Elisabeth), daughter of king 
 John of Portugal, at Bruges (q. v.), in 
 Flanders, he founded the order of the 
 golden fleece. Three sons sprung from 
 this marriage, of whom the two first soon 
 died. The third, Charles count Char- 
 olais, after the death of Philip (at Bruges, 
 July 16th, 1467), became duke of Bur- 
 gundy. (See Charles the Bold.) He ac- 
 quired Gueldres in 1475, and left behind 
 him, in 1477, a daughter, Maria, the sole 
 heiress of his states. Seven princes were 
 her suitors, among whom were the dau- 
 phin of France and Maximilian of Aus- 
 tria. The last obtained her hand and 
 the dukedom (the Netherlands and Upper 
 Burgundy). The king of France receiv- 
 ed, of the Burgundian territory, nothing 
 except the cities in Picardy and the duke- 
 dom of Bourgogne, which he assumed as 
 being a male fief. Maria died in her 25th 
 year, in consequence of a fall, leaving 
 three children, Philip, Margaret and 
 Francis (who died soon after). The Bur- 
 gundian provinces would not all recog- 
 nise Maximilian as the guardian of his 
 children. He betrothed his daughter to 
 the dauphin, Charles, with the county of 
 Artois and Burgundy, together with the 
 Maconnais, Auxerrois, Salins and Bar sur 
 le Seine, as her dowry. But his object^ 
 which was wholly to pacify the provinces, 
 was not attained. The people of Flan- 
 ders were particularly obstinate, and they 
 went so far that Maximilian, two years 
 after his election as king of the Romans 
 (1488), was retained a prisoner at Bruges 
 for more than three months. Finally, the 
 people of Flanders acknowledged him as 
 guardian of his son Philip, and regent of 
 the government. Burgundy was, as we 
 have seen above, separated into two parts
 
 BURGUNDIANS BURGUNDY WINES. 
 
 331 
 
 Burgundy Proper, and Upper Burgundy 
 or Franche-Comte. The former was 
 transferred from Spain to France in the 
 ladies' peace, so called, of Cambray, 1529. 
 (See Francis I.) The latter Louis XIV 
 conquered, and retained at the peace of 
 Nimeguen. Since that time, the Bur- 
 gundies have never been separated from 
 France. (See Netherlands, Kingdom of.) 
 The baron Barante, peer of France, pub- 
 lished at Paris, in 1824, in 10 volumes, a 
 Histoire des Dues de Bourgogne de la 
 Maison de Valois (1364 1477). 
 
 BURGUNDY (called, also, Burgundy 
 Proper, or Lower Burgundy) ; formerly a 
 province in the east of France, lying on 
 the west of Franche-Comte, and on the 
 south of Champagne. It was divided in- 
 to the duchy of B. and four counties. It 
 now forms the four departments of Yonne, 
 Cote-d'Or, Saone-et-Loire and Ain, con- 
 taining, according to official tables for 
 1827, 1,570,463 inhabitants. It is watered 
 by a number of navigable rivers. The 
 central canal joins the Loire with the 
 Saone ; that of B. will connect the Seine 
 and the Rhone ; and that of Monsieur 
 will unite the Saone with the Rhine. B. 
 is one of the most productive provinces 
 in France. The plains are rich in arable 
 land, the sides of the hills are covered 
 with vineyards and fruit-trees, while the 
 summits abound in pastures, wood and 
 game. The principal product is wine. 
 (See Burgundy Wines.) Iron ore and oth- 
 er minerals are found in the mountains. 
 (See Burgundians.) 
 
 BURGUNDY, circle of; one of the 10 cir- 
 cles of the German empire, as divided by 
 Maximilian in 1512. At first it compris- 
 ed the Franche-Comte and the 17 prov- 
 inces of the Netherlands. The 7 Dutch 
 provinces having declared themselves in- 
 dependent, and the Franche-Comte being 
 conquered by France, the Spanish or Aus- 
 trian Netherlands atone composed the 
 circle. 
 
 BURGUNDY, Louis, duke of, was born at 
 Versailles, in 1682. His parents were the 
 dauphin, son of Louis XIV, and the 
 princess Anne of Bavaria. In his early 
 childhood, he was stubborn, irascible, ob- 
 stinate, passionately fond of every kind of 
 pleasure, and inclined to cruelty, severe 
 in his satire, attacking with great penetra- 
 tion the follies of those about him. The 
 education of the prince was intrusted, in 
 the seventh year of his age, to Fenclon, 
 Fleury, and Beauvilliers. They succeed- 
 ed in gaining his affection, and in giving 
 him a right turn of mind. From this al- 
 teration in his character, he became amia- 
 
 ble, humane and modest, and faithful in 
 the discharge of his duties. In 1697, he 
 married the intelligent and amiable prin- 
 cess Adelaide of Savoy, who was the or- 
 nament of her court, and was beloved by 
 her husband with the tenderest affection. 
 In 1699, Louis XIV ordered an encamp- 
 ment at Compiegne for the instruction of 
 his grandson, to whom, in 1702, he gave 
 the command of the army in Flanders, 
 under the direction of marshal Boufflers. 
 In a battle between the cavalry, near Ni- 
 meguen, he showed determination and 
 courage. Afterwards, under the most 
 difficult circumstances, he was appointed 
 commander-in-chief of all the forces in 
 Flanders, but with instructions which 
 made him dependent on the duke of Ven- 
 dome ; Marlborough and prince Eugene 
 having command of the opposing army. 
 The differences which arose between the 
 prince and Vendome drew after them the 
 most disastrous consequences. All France 
 accused the prince as the author of these 
 misfortunes, censuring his timid charac- 
 ter and his religious scruples. He, how- 
 ever, appears to have succeeded in justify- 
 ing his conduct in the eyes of the king. 
 Vendome, on the contrary, who had be- 
 haved very insolently towards the heir to 
 the throne, fell into disgrace, but was fa- 
 vored by the opposition party. In 1711, 
 the duke of Burgundy became dauphin, 
 by the death of his father, and now be- 
 gan to attract the attention of the court, 
 and the confidence of his sovereign, who 
 appointed him a counsellor of state. 
 France expected, from the virtues and ex- 
 cellent intentions of this prince, to enjoy 
 a long and general rest from her troubles; 
 but lie was suddenly taken away, Feb. 
 18, 1712, by a disease to which his wife 
 and eldest son had already fallen victims, 
 the one 6, the other 20 days before. In 
 less than one year, France had seen three 
 dauphins; and the fourth, the youngest 
 son of the duke of Burgundy, and the 
 only heir to the throne, afterwards Louis 
 XV, was also in a dangerous situation. 
 The public voice loudly accused the duke 
 of Orleans, afterwards regent, as the cause 
 of these misfortunes, of which, however, 
 Louis XIV himself declared him innocent. 
 BURGUNDY WINES are produced in the 
 former provinces of Upper and Lower 
 Burgundy (q. v.), in a soil of a light-black 
 or red loam, mixed with the debris of the 
 calcarious rock on which it reposes. In 
 richness of flavor and perfume, and all 
 the more delicate qualities of the juice of 
 the grape, they are inferior to none in the 
 world. It is to the great skill with which
 
 332 
 
 BURGUNDY WINES BURIATS. 
 
 the cultivation of the vine and the fer- 
 mentation of the liquor are managed, that 
 they owe those generous qualities, which 
 gave to the dukes of Burgundy the title 
 of princes des bon vins, and which, as Pe- 
 trarch more than hints, contributed not a 
 little to prolong the stay of their holiness- 
 es at Avignon. They are remarkable for 
 their spirituosity and powerful aroma, 
 and are, therefore, more heating than 
 some other wines which contain more 
 alcohol. The exhilaration they produce 
 is, however, more innocent than that re- 
 sulting from heavier wines. The finer 
 wines of Burgundy do not bear removal 
 except in bottles ; and, as they are not pro- 
 duced in great abundance, they are rarely, 
 if ever, met with in foreign countries. It 
 is the inferior growths which are sold 
 under that name. The Burgundy wines 
 are generally exported between January 
 and May, chiefly in double casks. They 
 keep only four or five years, and are very 
 apt to acquire a bitter taste, which Chap- 
 tal attributes to the developement of the 
 acerb principle, and Henderson to that of 
 citric ether. It may sometimes be par- 
 tially removed by new sulphuring and 
 fining. The most numerous are the red 
 wines of Burgundy. The finest growths 
 of these are the Romanee-Conty, the 
 Chambertin (the favorite of Louis XIV 
 and Napoleon), the Closbougeot, the 
 Richebourg, the Romanee de St. Vivant, 
 &c. They are distinguished for their 
 beautiful color, and exquisite flavor and 
 aroma, combining more than any other 
 wines lightness and delicacy with rich- 
 ness and fulness of body. Of the second 
 class are the vins de primeur, of which 
 the Volnay and Pomard are the best ; 
 those of Beaune, distinguished above all 
 by their pure flavor, and formerly consid- 
 ered the most choice of the Burgundy 
 wines ; the Macon wines, remarkable for 
 their strength and durability ; those of 
 Tonnerre and Auxerre, &c. The white 
 wines of Burgundy are less numerous, 
 but not inferior in aroma and flavor. 
 The famous Montrachet is equal to the 
 finer red wines, and is distinguished for 
 its agreeable nutty flavor. Of the second 
 class are che Goutte (Tor, so called from 
 the splendor of its tint ; La Perriere, &c. 
 (See Jullien's Classification des Vins, and 
 Henderson's Ancient and Modern Wines.) 
 BURIAL. Great care should be taken 
 not to bury the body too soon after death. 
 The ancient nations endeavored to satisfy 
 themselves, by many precautions, that 
 death had really taken place. The an- 
 cieut Egyptians embalmed their dead ; the 
 
 Romans cut off one of their fingers, be- 
 fore they burnt them ; other nations re- 
 peatedly washed and anointed them. In- 
 terments should never be allowed before 
 the most undoubted symptoms of putre- 
 faction have taken place. We should 
 wait at least three days in winter, and two 
 whole days in summer, unless the hot 
 weather requires a quicker interment. 
 It would be well to introduce the custom 
 of exposing the corpse to the inspection 
 of a person regularly instructed for this 
 purpose, who should carefully and re- 
 peatedly examine it, and none should be 
 interred without the certificate of this in- 
 spector. In many cases, it is troublesome, 
 and even dangerous, to keep the body 
 long, as in case of contagious diseases, or 
 of want of room. In many places, to ob- 
 viate this inconvenience, houses are erect- 
 ed, where the corpse is brought a few 
 hours after the decease. (Sec Trance ; 
 also Burying-Places and Sepulture). 
 
 BURIATS, BURATS, or BURATTI. This 
 nomadic Tartar nation consists ot'77 tribes. 
 They submitted to the Russian sceptre in 
 1644, and form the second principal 
 branch of the Calmucs. They rove 
 about in the southern part of the govern- 
 ment of Irkutsk. Their number is up- 
 wards of 100,000. They can furnish 32,000 
 archers, and choose their own princes and 
 elders. Their choice is confirmed, how- 
 ever, by the government of Irkutsk. 
 They support themselves by their flocks, 
 by hunting, and the mechanical arts, par- 
 ticularly the forging of iron. Their dress 
 is leather bordered with fur. The B. 
 protect their huts, which are hexagonal 
 or octagonal, from heat and cold by cov- 
 ering them with leather. These huts 
 they call juries. The religion of this 
 people is partly Lamaism and partly 
 Shamanism. They call their supreme 
 God Octorgon Burchan, or Tingiri Bur- 
 chan (God of heaven). The planets are 
 inferior gods ; and the chief of the evil 
 spirits is called Ockodol. The idols of 
 Lamaism, like those of Shamanism, are 
 sometimes painted on cloth, and some- 
 times made of wood, metal, felt and 
 sheep-skin. The smoke of the juries 
 makes the idols, disgusting in themselves, 
 still more disgusting. The worshippers 
 of the Grand Lama have this peculiarity, 
 that male forms are the basis of their 
 idols. As the female sex in this nation is 
 considered unclean, they may not ap- 
 proach the place where the household 
 gods are arranged. The male B. always 
 burn incense, to purify any place where a 
 woman has been sitting, before they sit
 
 BURIATS BURKE. 
 
 333 
 
 there themselves. The poor B. some- 
 times go over to the Greek church, but 
 continue to use their old ceremonies in 
 reference to their new objects of worship. 
 Their number, in 1783, was estimated at 
 49,764 males, and 47,932 females. 
 
 BURIN, or GRAVER ; an instrument of 
 tempered steel, used for engraving on 
 copper. It is of a prismatic form, having 
 one end attached to a short wooden han- 
 dle, and the other ground off obliquely, 
 so as to produce a sharp point. In work- 
 ing, the burin is held in the palm of the 
 hand, and pushed forward so as to cut a 
 portion of the copper. The expressions 
 brilliant burin, soft burin, are used to 
 characterize the manner of a master. 
 (See Engraving.) 
 
 BURKARD, Waldis, a fabulist of the 16th 
 century, was born at Allendorf, on the 
 Werra. In his earlier years, he was a 
 monk. After having travelled over Eu- 
 rope, he became a zealous Protestant, and 
 died, in 1555, in the office of preacher at 
 Abterode. His ^Esop, in rhyme, contains 
 400 fables and amusing stories, partly 
 from ^Esop and other fabulists and nov- 
 elists, partly original. They are writ- 
 ten in a strain of happy humor and well- 
 directed satire, and in an easy and often 
 peculiar style. Eschenburg published a 
 collection of them in 1776. 
 
 BURKE, Edmund, a writer, orator and 
 statesman of great eminence, was born in 
 Dublin, Jan. 1, 1730. His father was an 
 attorney of reputation, and he received 
 his education under Abraham Shackle - 
 ton, a Quaker, at Ballitore. In 1744, he 
 was entered at Trinity college, Dublin, as 
 pensioner, where he chiefly occupied 
 himself with a plan of study of his own, 
 the principal objects of which were the 
 classics, logic, metaphysics, morals, history, 
 rhetoric, and composition. He left Trinity 
 college, after taking a bachelor's degree, 
 in 1749; and not much is recorded of this 
 period of his life, except that he made an 
 unsuccessful application for the professor- 
 ship of logic at Glasgow. At this period, 
 he had planned a refutation of the meta- 
 physical theories of Berkeley and Hume. 
 In 1750, he first entered the great the- 
 atre of London, as a law student at 
 the Temple, where he soon became the 
 admiration of his intimates, for the bril- 
 liancy of his parts, and the variety of 
 his acquisitions. Applying more to lit- 
 erature than to law, he supported him- 
 self by his pen, and, by intense occu- 
 pation, brought himself into a state of 
 ill health. This illness, by making him 
 a guest to doctor Nugent, an eminent 
 
 physician, led to his marriage with that 
 gentleman's daughter. In 1756, he pub- 
 lished, without a name, his first avowed 
 work, entitled a Vindication of Natural 
 Society, in a Letter to Lord ****, by a no- 
 ble Lord. This work exhibited so com- 
 plete an imitation, although ironical, of 
 the style of Bolingbroke, that many per- 
 sons were deceived by it, not perceiving 
 B.'s intention to prove that the same ar- 
 guments with which that nobleman had 
 attacked religion, might be applied against 
 all civil and political institutions whatever. 
 In the same year, he published his Essay 
 on the Sublime and Beautiful. The ele- 
 gance of its language, and the spirit of 
 philosophical investigation displayed in 
 it, introduced the author to the best lite- 
 rary acquaintances. In 1758, he suggest- 
 ed to Dodsley the plan of the Annual 
 Register, and took upon himself the com- 
 position of the historical part, which he 
 continued for a number of years. He 
 was thus gradually forming himself for a 
 statesman. His political career may be 
 said to have commenced in 1761, when 
 he went to Ireland as confidential friend 
 to William Gerard Hamilton, then secre- 
 tary to the lord lieutenant, lord Halifax. 
 For his services in this unofficial capacity, 
 he was rewarded with a pension of 300 
 per annum, on the Irish establishment. 
 On his return, in 1765, he was introduced 
 to the marquis of Rockingham, then first 
 lord of the treasury, who made him his 
 private secretary ; and, through the same 
 interest, he became M. P. for the borough 
 of Wendover. The marquis also made 
 him a nominal loan, but real gift, of a 
 large sum, which placed him in easy cir- 
 cumstances, and enabled him to purchase 
 his elegant seat near Beaconsfield. His first 
 speech in parliament was on the Gren- 
 ville stamp act ; and it was at his advice, 
 that the Rockingham administration took 
 the middle and undecided course of re- 
 pealing the act, and passing a law declar- 
 atory of the right of Great Britain to tax 
 America. This ministry was soon dis- 
 solved, to make room for a new cabinet, 
 under 3Ir. Pitt. B. concluded his official 
 labors by his pamphlet, entitled Short 
 Account of a late short Administration. 
 In the proceedings against Wilkes, he 
 joined the remonstrants against the vio- 
 lation of the rights of election, and, in 
 1770, published his Thoughts on the 
 Causes of the present Discontents, the 
 sentiments of which are consistent with 
 his future doctrines and conduct. He 
 opposed the ministerial measures antece- 
 dent and consequent to the American
 
 334 
 
 BURKE. 
 
 war; and the whole powers of his elo- 
 quence were exerted, first to prevent, and 
 then to heal, the fatal breach between the 
 mother country and her colonies. In 
 1774, he was chosen member for Bristol ; 
 and it is to his credit that he subsequently 
 ventured to give offence to his Bristol 
 friends, by his support of the Irish peti- 
 tions for free trade, and for moderating 
 the penal statutes against the Roman 
 Catholics. He soon, however, recovered 
 all the ground thus lost by his famous 
 reform bill, which he unsuccessfully ad- 
 vocated with an extraordinary union of 
 wit, humor, and financial detail. In 1783, 
 lord North's ministry was dissolved ; and, 
 on the return of the marquis of Rocking- 
 hutn and his party to power, B. obtained 
 the lucrative post of paymaster-general 
 of the forces, and a seat at the council 
 board. He also embraced the auspicious 
 opportunity to re-introduce his reform 
 bill, which passed, but not without con- 
 siderable modifications. On the death of 
 the marquis of Rockingham, and the suc- 
 cession of lord Shelburn, B. resigned, and 
 joined the coalition : the India bill form- 
 ed the ostensible cause for dismissing this 
 ill-judged combination; and Mr. Pitt suc- 
 ceeded to the helm, and dissolved the 
 parliament. The next great political 
 event of his life was his share in the 
 prosecution of Mr. Hastings, which trial, 
 indeed, originated with him. The Report 
 of the Committee on the Trial of W. 
 Hastings, 1794, was by B. His conduct 
 in this affair gained him little in the pub- 
 lic estimation, except increased fame as 
 an orator. On the settling of the regency, 
 in 1788, he argued against the principle 
 of the ministers, that the regency was 
 elective, and not hereditary. The last 
 great act of his political life was, the part 
 he took in the French revolution. He 
 early manifested his dislike to it, and, in 
 1790, loudly condemned the principles 
 and conduct of the revolutionists. His 
 famous Reflections on the Revolution in 
 France appeared in the following Octo- 
 ber ; and no work ever attracted more 
 attention, or produced more effect. It 
 exhibits both the merits and defects of 
 the writer, and contains much justness of 
 argument, profundity of observation, and 
 beauty of style ; but it is equally obvious 
 that he commits the very fault which he 
 intended to reprobate, in his Vindication 
 of Natural Society, by making his argu- 
 ments applicable to the defence of all 
 establishments, however tyrannical, and 
 censure of every popular struggle for lib- 
 erty, whatever the oppression. It had 
 
 an unprecedented sale, and obtained un- 
 bounded praise from all who trembled 
 for establishments, or were alarmed at 
 the odious character which the French 
 revolution was beginning to assume. On 
 the other hand, it met with severe and 
 formidable critics and opponents, and, 
 among other things, produced the cele- 
 brated Rights of Man, of Thomas Paine. 
 B. followed up this attack with a Letter 
 to a Member of the National Assembly 
 (1791); an Appeal from the New to the 
 Old Whigs; Letter to a noble Lord on 
 the Subject in Discussion with the Duke 
 of Bedford (1796) ; Letters on a Regi- 
 cide Peace, &c. In all these produc- 
 tions, he displayed unabated powers of 
 mind. In 1792, he published a Letter to 
 Sir Hercules Langrishe, on the Propriety 
 of admitting Roman Catholics to the 
 Elective Franchise, and, in 1794, with- 
 drew from parliament, and was succeed- 
 ed in the representation of Malton by his 
 only son, whose death soon after hasten- 
 ed the decline of nature which he was 
 beginning to experience. Decay, by grad- 
 ual approaches, terminated his life on 
 July 8, 1797, in the 68th year of his age. 
 He preserved his senses to the last ; and, &. 
 few hours before he died, he had read to 
 him Addison's paper in the Spectator, on 
 the immortality of the soul. Amiable in 
 private life, and exemplary in his domes- 
 tic and social relations, he was greatly 
 beloved by his friends. His conversation 
 was delightful and instructive. He was 
 exceedingly charitable and beneficent, 
 and founded a school for the children of 
 French emigrants, the permanent support 
 of which formed one of his latest cares. 
 His public character will be best collected 
 from a study of his political career, and 
 his powers of mind from his publications. 
 His oratory was preeminently that of a 
 full mind, which makes excursions to a 
 vast variety of subjects, connected by the 
 slightest and most evanescent associations, 
 and that in a diction as rich and varied as 
 the matter. In delivery, however, the 
 effect of his speeches was by no means 
 proportioned to their absolute merit ; 
 their length, their copiousness, abundance 
 of ornament, and wide field of specula- 
 tion, producing impatience in men of 
 business absorbed in the particular sub- 
 ject of debate ; added to which, his man- 
 ner was indifferent, his voice harsh, and 
 his action, though forcible, inelegant. 
 On the whole, though the greatest genius, 
 he was by no means the most effective 
 orator, in the house of commons. The 
 entire works of this great man have been
 
 BURKE BURMANN. 
 
 335 
 
 published by his executors, in 5 vols., 4to., 
 and 10vols.,8vo. (See Memoir of Burke, 
 by J. Prior, 2d edition, 2 vols., London, 
 1826.) 
 
 BURLEIGH, Lord. (See Cecil.) 
 
 BURLESQUE signifies the low comic 
 arising from a ludicrous mixture of things 
 high and low. High thoughts, for in- 
 stance, are clothed in low expressions, or 
 noble subjects described in a familiar 
 manner, or vice versa. The burlesque 
 style allows of the mixture of foreign and 
 domestic words, the introduction of pro- 
 vincialisms, colloquial phrases, &c. Its 
 object may be, simply, to excite laughter, 
 or to provoke derision and ridicule. 
 
 BURLETTA ; a light, comic species of 
 musical drama, which derives its name 
 from the Italian burlare, to jest. It origi- 
 nated in Italy, from whence it passed to 
 the Transalpine countries. 
 
 BURLINGTON ; a post-town of Vermont, 
 and capital of Chittenden county, situated 
 on a bay, to which it gives name, on the 
 south side of the entrance of Onion river 
 into lake Champlain ; 38 miles W. by N. 
 of Montpelier, 100 S. of Montreal. Lat. 
 44 27' N. ; Ion. 73 15 7 W. Population 
 in 1820, 2,111. B. is the most considera- 
 ble commercial town in Vermont. Its 
 trade is principally with the city of New 
 York, with which it has a water commu- 
 nication by means of lake Charnplain, 
 the Champlain canal, and the river Hud- 
 son. The village is very finely situated, 
 lying in the form of a parallelogram, with 
 its shortest side on the lake, and extend- 
 ing back, up a gradual ascent, to the dis- 
 tance of a mile from the water. It con- 
 tains a court-house, a jail, a bank, 3 houses 
 of public worship, an academy, and a 
 univershy. The university of Vermont 
 was incorporated and established at B. 
 in 1791, but it did not go into operation 
 till 1800. It is finely situated on the east 
 side of the village, a mile distant from 
 lake Champlain, on ground elevated 245 
 feet above the surface of the water, and 
 commands an extensive and delightful 
 prospect, embracing a view of the lake, 
 with the high mountains beyond on the 
 west, and the Green mountains on the 
 east. A large college edifice of brick, 
 which was completed in 1801, was con- 
 sumed by fire in 1824; since which time 
 three brick edifices have been erected, two 
 of them containing rooms for students, 
 the other containing a chapel, and other 
 public rooms. The university posses- 
 ses considerable endowments, consisting 
 chiefly of lands ; but the number of stu- 
 dents has never been large. Its officers 
 
 are, a president, a professor of mathemat- 
 ics and natural philosophy, a professor of 
 the learned languages, a tutor, and four 
 medical professors. 
 
 BURMAN EMPIRE. (See Birman Empire.) 
 BURMANN ; the name of a family of 
 learned men, originally from Cologne 
 Francis B., born in 1632, was professor at 
 Leyden and Utrecht, where he died in 
 1769, and author of several theological 
 writings. His son Peter, born at Utrecht, 
 in 1668, studied there and at Leyden . He 
 became doctor of law in 1688. After trav- 
 elling in Germany and Switzerland, he 
 began the practice of the law, without, 
 however, deserting the study of the an- 
 cients, as is proved by his treatise De 
 Vectigcdibus Pop. Rom. In 1696, he was 
 made professor of history and rhetoric at 
 the university of Utrecht. At a later pe- 
 riod, he became professor of the Greek 
 language and politics. From this time, 
 he published, annually, either some classic 
 author, with notes, or masterly Latin 
 verses, or some pamphlet against his ad- 
 versaries, of whom he had made many 
 by his intolerant vehemence. His edi- 
 tions of the classics are not so much dis- 
 tinguished for taste, as for learning and 
 accuracy. He became professor of elo- 
 quence, history, and the Greek language, 
 in Leyden, 1715, and died in 1741. His 
 younger brother, Francis, died in 1719, 
 while professor of theology at Utrecht, 
 and was the author of several theological 
 writings. He left four sons, distinguish- 
 ed likewise as scholars. John, born in 
 1706, died 1780, at Amsterdam, was a 
 physician, and professor of botany. Lin- 
 na?us makes honorable mention of his 
 writings. Peter, born in 1713, devoted 
 himself, like his uncle, to philological 
 pursuits. In 1734, he was made doctor 
 of law at Utrecht. In the following year, 
 he became professor of eloquence and 
 history at the university of Franeker. 
 In 1742, he went to Amsterdam, as pro- 
 fessor of history and ancient languages, 
 where he became, in succession, professor 
 of poetry, librarian, and inspector of the 
 gymnasium. Like his uncle, he has pub- 
 lished many good editions, particularly 
 of the Latin classics ; like him, he was 
 distinguished by learning, by his talent 
 for Latin poetry, and by his hasty dispo- 
 sition. He died in 1778. Nicolaus Lau- 
 rentius B. succeeded, in 1781, his fa- 
 ther, John B., as professor of botany, 
 for which science he did much by his 
 own writings, and by aiding the un- 
 dertakings of others. In particular, he 
 encouraged Thunberg to visit the cape
 
 336 
 
 BURMANN BURNET. 
 
 of Good Hope and Japan. He died in 
 1793. 
 
 BURMANN, Gottlob William, originally 
 Bormann, born in 1737, at Lauban, in 
 Upper Lusatia, resided in Berlin in great 
 poverty. He was small of figure, meagre, 
 lame and deformed, but was endowed 
 with sensibility for every thing sublime 
 and beautiful. He was highly eccentric. 
 His poems were irregular, and deficient 
 in taste and finish. His merits were ob- 
 scured by his singularities, and his vigo- 
 rous mind was forgotten before he died. 
 He had a rare talent of improvisation. 
 Struck with palsy, he passed the last ten 
 years of his life in great misery. His 
 most celebrated works are his fables, 
 songs, and his poems without the letter r. 
 He died in 1805. 
 
 BURMHAN. (See Birman Empire.) 
 BURSET, Gilbert, was born at Edin- 
 burgh, in 1643, and, having studied at Ab- 
 erdeen, he travelled into Holland in 1664. 
 On his return, he was made fellow of the 
 royal society, in London, and ordained 
 at Edinburgh in 1665. In 1669, he was 
 made professor of divinity at Glasgow, 
 where he published his Conference be- 
 tween a Conformist and a Nonconform- 
 ist ; also, Memoirs of the Duke of Hamil- 
 ton ; and was offered a Scottish bishopric, 
 which he refused. His Vindication of the 
 Church and State of Scotland, so inconsist- 
 ent witli the general tenor of his conduct 
 and opinions, was much approved at 
 court, and a bishopric was again offered 
 him, and refused. In 1673, he was made 
 chaplain in ordinary to the king ; and 
 was in high credit, both with Charles 
 and the duke of York. In consequence 
 of the machinations in favor of popery, 
 he inclined to the opposition party in the 
 Scottish parliament, and afterwards re- 
 moved to London, where he was coldly 
 received by the king, and struck out of 
 his list of court chaplains. The nation 
 being alarmed on account of the prog- 
 ress of popery, B. undertook a History 
 of the Reformation in England. He gave 
 a first volume to the public in 1679, when 
 the affair of the popish plot was in agita- 
 tion. It procured for the author the un- 
 Erecedented honor of thanks from both 
 ouses of parliament. The second volume 
 appeared in 1681 ; the third, which was 
 supplementary, in 1714. This is esteem- 
 ed the most valuable of his writings. 
 The high character of B. as a divine 
 caused him to be sent for by the witty 
 and profligate earl of Rochester, when, 
 exhausted by a course of libertinism, he 
 was sinking into the grave, at the early 
 
 age of 33. The result of his conferences 
 with the dying nobleman he gave to the 
 world in his celebrated Account of the 
 Life and Death of the Earl of Rochester. 
 About this time, he wrote a letter to the 
 king, censuring his public mis-govern- 
 ment and private vices. His connexion 
 with the opposition party was now very 
 intimate, and he attended lord Russel to 
 the scaffold, whose speech there it is 
 thought that he penned. He published, 
 during this period, several works in favor 
 of liberty and Protestantism, and wrote 
 the lives of bishop Bedell and sir Mat- 
 thew Hale. On the accession of James 
 II, he made a tour in France and Italy, 
 of which he published an account in let- 
 ters addressed to Mr. Boyle. At the close 
 of his travels, he was invited to the Hague 
 by the prince and princess of Orange, and 
 had a great share in the councils relative 
 to England. James caused a prosecution 
 for high treason to be commenced against 
 him in England, and demanded his per- 
 son from the states, who refused to de- 
 liver him up. In the revolution, he took 
 an active part, accompanying the prince 
 of Orange to England as chaplain, and 
 was rewarded for his services with the 
 bishopric of Sarum. On taking his seat 
 in the house of lords, he displayed his 
 usual moderation in regard to the non- 
 juring clergy and dissenters. As a prel- 
 ate, bishop B. distinguished himself by 
 fervor, assiduity and charity. In 1699, 
 he published his Exposition of the Thir- 
 ty-nine Articles. The scheme for the 
 augmentation of poor livings out of the 
 first fruits and tenths due to the crown 
 originated with B. He died in March, 
 1715, in the seventy-second year of his 
 age, leaving behind him his well-known 
 History of his own Times, with an Ac- 
 count of his Life (2 vols. fol., 17231724). 
 He merits the praise of depth, vigor, and 
 variety of knowledge, but was hasty and 
 rough in his composition. He was ar- 
 dent, active and open, benevolent, liberal 
 and disinterested ; but vain, self-important 
 and garrulous. He was the author of 
 numerous works besides those mentioned. 
 William, his eldest son, originally bred 
 to the law, became governor, first of New 
 York and New Jersey, and subsequently 
 of Massachusetts and New Hampshire. 
 
 BCRNET, Thomas, a learned divine 
 and philosopher, was born at Croft, in 
 Yorkshire, about 1635, educated under 
 doctor Ralph Cudworth, at Cambridge, 
 and afterwards travelled as tutor to seve- 
 ral young noblemen. In 1681, he made 
 himself known by his Tdluris sacra The-
 
 BtlRNET BURNEY. 
 
 337 
 
 oria, which lie subsequently translated 
 into English. After the revolution of 
 1688, B. was appointed chaplain in or- 
 dinary and clerk of the closet to king 
 William. In 1692, he published his Ar- 
 rhct'ologia Philosophica, sive Doctrina an- 
 tiqita de Rerum Originibus. The free- 
 dom of opinion displayed in this work 
 led to the removal of the author from the 
 clerkship of the royal closet. He died in 
 September, 1715, and was interred in the 
 charter-house chapel. Two posthumous 
 works of this author appeared in 1737 
 a treatise De Fide et Officiis Christiano- 
 rum; and another, De Statu Mortuorum 
 et Resurgentium. All the works of 
 B. exhibit him as an ingenious specula- 
 tor, rather than as a patient and sober 
 inquirer concerning the moral and natu- 
 ral phenomena of which he treats. His 
 great work, the Theory of the Earth, is 
 one of the many systems of cosmogony, 
 iu which Christian philosophers have at- 
 tempted to reconcile the Mosaic account 
 of the creation, paradise, and the deluge, 
 with the traditions of the ancients, and 
 the principles of modem science. His 
 speculations are recommended by sub- 
 limity of description and eloquence of 
 style. In his Arch&ologia Philosophica, 
 tlic doctor has combatted the literal inter- 
 pretation of the history of the fall of man ; 
 and, to expose its improbability, he has 
 introduced an imaginary dialogue be- 
 tween Eve and the serpent, which, as 
 coming from the pen of a divine, is sin- 
 gular enough. It is only to be found in 
 the first edition of the work. 
 
 BURNETT, James ; better known by his 
 official title of lord Monboddo, as judge 
 of the court of session in Scotland. He 
 was bora, in 1714, at the family seat of 
 Monboddo, in Kincardineshire. After 
 studying at Aberdeen, he went to the 
 university of Groningen, whence he re- 
 turned in 1738, and commenced practice 
 as an advocate at the Scottish bar. In 
 1767, he was raised to the bench on the 
 decease of his relative, lord Miltown. He 
 distinguished himself by his writings as a 
 metaphysician, having published a Dis- 
 sertation on the Origin and Progress of 
 Language (1774-1792, 6 vols., 8vo.); and 
 Ancient Metaphysics (1778, &c., 6 vols., 
 4to.) Lord Monboddo was an enthusias- 
 tic admirer of ancient literature, and es- 
 pecially of the works of Plato, and other 
 Grecian philosophers. His works con- 
 tain many interesting observations, but 
 also exliibit some strange and paradoxical 
 opinions. Thus he seriously advocates 
 the existence of satyrs and mermaids ; 
 
 VOL. n. 29 
 
 and has advanced some whimsical specu- 
 lations relative to a supposed affinity be- 
 tween the human race and the monkey 
 tribe, which exposed him to a good deal 
 of ridicule on the first publication of his 
 theories. Both his official and his pri- 
 vate character were extremely respecta- 
 ble ; and he was, notwithstanding his ec- 
 centricities, a man of considerable learning 
 and ability. He died, in consequence of 
 a paralytic stroke, at Edinburgh, May 
 26, 1799. 
 
 BURXET, Charles, a celebrated com- 
 poser and writer on music, born at 
 Shrewsbury, in 1726, began his studies 
 at Chester, under the organist of the cathe- 
 dral there, continued them at Shrews- 
 bury, under the direction of his half- 
 brother, Burney, and completed them in 
 London, between 1744 and 1747, under 
 doctor Arne. In the latter year appeared 
 his first compositions. His musical pieces 
 Alfred, and Queen Mab, composed in 
 1749, made him known. In 1751, he 
 obtained the place of organist at Lynn 
 Regis, in Norfolk. Here he commenced 
 his General History of Music, and deter- 
 mined to visit all the institutions in Eu- 
 rope, at which he could obtain important 
 information for his work. In 1760, he 
 returned to London, at the request of the 
 duke of York, where his compositions, 
 and the musical skill of his eldest daugh- 
 ter, then eight years of age, excited ad- 
 miration. In 1769, the university of Ox- 
 ford bestowed on him the honorary de- 
 gree of doctor of music. In 1770, he 
 visited France and Italy, and, two years 
 afterwards, the Netherlands and Germa- 
 ny, for the sake of his great work. He 
 published an account of both tours. After 
 his second return, he became a fellow of 
 the royal society. In 1776 appeared the 
 1st volume of his General History of 
 Music from the earliest Ages to the pres- 
 ent Period (4to.); the 2d in 1779, and 
 the 3d and 4th in 1789. He is the author 
 also of several other valuable works, 
 among which are the Memoir of Handel, 
 and several musical compositions. He 
 died in April, 1814, in the office of organ- 
 ist at Chelsea college. He wrote most 
 of the musical articles in Rees' Cyclo- 
 pedia. B. had a numerous family, seve- 
 ral members of which have highly distin- 
 guished themselves. His second daugh- 
 ter, Francisca d'Arblay. is the authoress 
 of the well-known novels Evelina, Ce- 
 cilia, and Camilla. 
 
 BCRXEY, Charles ; second son of the 
 historian of music ; a classical scholar and 
 critic of high reputation. He was born
 
 338 
 
 BURNEY BURNING-GLASS. 
 
 at Lynn, in Norfolk, in 1757, and receiv- 
 ed his education at the charter-house 
 school, and the universities of Cambridge 
 and Aberdeen ; distinguished himself 
 as a writer in the Monthly Review, to 
 which he contributed many articles on 
 classical literature ; subsequently entered 
 into holy orders, and obtained some 
 preferment in the church. He died in 
 December, 1817 ; and his valuable collec- 
 tion of books, many of them enriched with 
 manuscript notes, was purchased by par- 
 liament for the British museum. B. pub- 
 lished an appendix to Scapula's Greek 
 Lexicon from the MSS. of doctor Askew ; 
 a valuable edition of the choral odes of 
 ^Eschylus, the Greek tragedian ; the 
 Greek Lexicon of Philemon ; remarks on 
 the Greek verses of Milton ; an abridge- 
 ment of Pearson's exposition of the creed ; 
 find a sermon preached at St. Paul's: 
 besides which he printed, for private dis- 
 tribution, a small impression of the Latin 
 epistles of doctor Bentley and other 
 learned scholars. 
 
 BURNING-GLASS ; a lens which unites 
 the rays of light that fall upon it in so 
 narrow a space as to cause them to kin- 
 dle any combustible matter coming in 
 their way, like fire. The same name has 
 been sometimes given, though improp- 
 erly, to the burning-mirror. (See the next 
 article.) The lenses commonly used as 
 burning-glasses are convex on both sides ; 
 these bring the rays upon a point with the 
 greatest force, because of the shortness 
 of their focal distance. The effects of a 
 burning-glass are more powerful in pro- 
 portion as its surface is greater, and its 
 focus smaller. That such a glass may 
 produce its greatest effect, it is necessary 
 that the rays of the sun should fall upon 
 it in a perpendicular direction, which is 
 the case when the image of the sun, that 
 appears at the moment of burning, is cir- 
 cular. If a second lens, of a smaller focal 
 distance, is placed between the first and 
 its focus, so as to intercept the rays which 
 pass through the first, they are still more 
 condensed, and united in a still narrower 
 compass, so that the effect is greatly aug- 
 mented. The Greeks and Romans seem 
 to have been acquainted with burning- 
 glasses, or, at least, with a kind of trans- 
 parent stones similar to them. They 
 became more known in the 13th century. 
 At the close of the 17th, von Tschirnhau- 
 sen caused the largest burning-glasses, 
 consisting of one piece, that are known, 
 to be poh'shed with incredible pains. 
 Two of them, still in Paris, are 33 inches 
 in diameter, and the weight of one 
 
 amounts to 160 pounds. Both glasses 
 produce an effect equal to that of the 
 most intense fire. They kindle wood 
 which is both hard and wet in a mo- 
 ment, and make cold water, in small ves- 
 sels, boil in an instant ; metals, placed 
 upon a plate of china, are melted and 
 vitrified by them ; tiles, slates, and simi- 
 lar objects, become instantly red-hot, and 
 vitrified. As Tschirnhausen's glasses, 
 however, are not perfectly clear, and the 
 effect is thus considerably lessened, Bris- 
 son and Lavoisier undertook, in 1774, to 
 put together two lenses, resembling those 
 used for watch glasses, filling up the 
 space between them with a transparent 
 fluid. In this manner, veins and impuri- 
 ties may be avoided, at less expense. 
 They succeeded in making a burning- 
 glass of 4 feet in diameter, the greatest 
 thickness of which, in the centre, amount- 
 ed to 8 inches, and which, of itself, had a 
 much greater power than the glasses of 
 Tschirnhausen, in connexion with a 
 smaller lens, or collective glass, but pro- 
 duced an extraordinary effect if joined 
 to a collective glass. The experiments 
 made by means of large burning-glasses 
 are important in chemistry and physics. 
 The power of a burning-glass, however, 
 is almost four times less than that of a 
 burning mirror, or reflector (q. v.), of equal 
 extent and equal curvature. This reflects 
 more light than the glass allows to pass 
 through it ; has a smaller focal distance, 
 and is free from the dissipation of the 
 rays, which takes place in the burning- 
 glass, since it reflects them all nearly to 
 one point, while the burning-glass refracts 
 them to different points. On the other 
 hand, the burning-glass is much more 
 convenient, on account of the place of its 
 focus, which is behind the glass. The 
 burning point (focus) is an image of the 
 sun; its diameter is equal to the 108th 
 part of the focal distance, and its cen- 
 tre is the focus, properly so called. In the 
 higher branches of geometry and conic 
 sections, the foci are points in the parab- 
 ola, ellipsis, and hyperbola, where the 
 rays, reflected from all parts of these 
 curves, meet. Several accidents in mod- 
 ern times have shown, that conflagrations 
 may be caused by convex window-glasses 
 or water-bottles, &c., which have the 
 form of burning-glasses, if the rays of the 
 sun are concentrated by them upon com- 
 bustible substances lying within their 
 reach. Since the casting and polishing 
 of large lenses are attended with great dif- 
 ficulties, Buffon's plan of casting them in" 
 pieces, or zones, and afterwards putting
 
 BURNING-GLASSBURNS. 
 
 339 
 
 them together, has lately been practised. 
 Lenses of this last kind have been inge- 
 niously applied, by Becquey, for augment- 
 ing the light on light-houses, according 
 to the suggestion of Fresnel. (See Pha- 
 ros.) For the history of burning instru- 
 ments, see the article Burning Mirrors. 
 
 BURNING MIRRORS, or REFLECTORS ; 
 mirrors, the smoothly polished surface of 
 which reflects the rays of the sun that 
 fall upon it in such a direction, that they 
 unite at some distance from the mirror, 
 in a more limited space, and act upon 
 substances within this space like the 
 most powerful fire. Concave mirrors 
 cause the rays that fall upon them in a 
 direction parallel to their axes to con- 
 verge. Spherical mirrors of this kind 
 are the most common ; but parabolic ones 
 are also used ; and even plane mirrors may 
 be employed like concave ones, if several 
 of them are combined in a proper man- 
 ner. In order that a burning mirror 
 should produce its whole effect, its axis 
 must be directed exactly towards the cen- 
 tre of the sun's disk. This is the case if 
 the light, intercepted by a plane, perpen- 
 dicular to the axis of the mirror, at its 
 focal distance, forms a circle. The focus 
 then lies in a straight line between the 
 sun and the mirror. The ancients were 
 acquainted with such mirrors, as is mani- 
 fest from several of their writings still 
 extant. It is impossible, from the na- 
 ture of things, that Archimedes, during 
 the siege of Syracuse by Marcellus, should 
 have set on fire the fleet of the latter by 
 means of concave mirrors : it would be 
 more credible, that it had been effected 
 by a combination of plane mirrors. Va- 
 rious experiments have shown, that great 
 effects may be produced, at a consider- 
 able distance, by the latter instrument 
 Kircher placed five plane mirrors, of an 
 equal size, in such a position as to reflect 
 the rays upon a spot one hundred feet 
 distant, and thereby produced a great 
 heat. Buffon, in 1747, effected a combi- 
 nation of 168 plane mirrors, each of which 
 was G inches broad, and 8 long. With 
 40 of these mirrors, he set on fire, almost 
 instantaneously, a board of beech wood, 
 covered with tar, at a distance of 66 feet; 
 and, with 128 mirrors, a board of pine 
 wood, likewise covered with tar, at a dis- 
 tance of 150 feet. With 45 mirrors, he 
 melted a tin bottle, at a distance of 20 
 feet, and, with 117 mirrors, small pieces 
 of money. He afterwards burned wood 
 with this machine, at the distance of 200 
 feet, melted tin at the distance of 150, 
 lead. at the distance of 130, and silver at 
 
 the distance of 60 feet. During the last 
 century, several large mirrors were made 
 in Italy, two of which are still in Paris 
 and Cassel. Von Tschirnhausen also 
 manufactured one in 1687, 3 Leipsic ells 
 (about 5 English feet) in diameter, and 
 the focal distance of which was 2 ells 
 (Sy 7 ^ English feet).* It consists of a tliin 
 plate of copper, highly polished, and is 
 now in the mathematical hall in Dresden. 
 This mirror sets wood on fire, makes 
 water boil, melts tin three inches thick, as 
 well as lead, vitrifies bricks, bones, &c, 
 Besides metals, wood, pasteboard, glass, 
 and other materials, serve for burning 
 mirrors, if their surface be polished. 
 Burning mirrors have of late been used 
 as reflectors (q. v.), to throw light at a 
 great distance, and may be very usefully 
 employed in light-houses. If, for in- 
 stance, a lamp is placed in the focus of a 
 parabolic mirror, the rays of light which 
 fall on it are all reflected in a direction 
 parallel to the axis; thus the reflectors 
 of Lenoir appear like stars of the first 
 magnitude at the distance of 80,000 feet 
 (For further information on burning- 
 glasses and burning mirrors, see Priestley's 
 History and present State of Optics ; and 
 the 5th vol. of the new edition of Gehler's 
 PJiysikalisches Lexicon, Leips. 1825). 
 BURNING of houses. (See Arson.) 
 BURNISHER is a blunt, smooth tool, used 
 for smoothing and polishing a rough sur- 
 face by pressure, and not by removing 
 any part of the body. Other processes 
 of polishing detach the little asperities. 
 Agates, tempered steel, and dogs'-teeth, 
 are used for burnishing. It is one of 
 the most expeditious methods of polish- 
 ing, and one which gives the highest lus- 
 tre. The burnishers used by engravers 
 are formed to burnish with one end, and 
 to erase blemishes with the other. 
 
 BURNS, Robert ; a celebrated Scottish 
 poet, whose history affords a memorable 
 example of the miseries arising from the 
 possession of extraordinary talents, unac- 
 companied by habits of prudence and 
 self-control. He was the son of William 
 Burnes or Burns, a gardener and small 
 farmer, near the town of Ayr, and was 
 born January 25, 1759. He was brought 
 up to rustic labor ; but his education was 
 not neglected, as he was, at an early age, 
 instructed in English grammar, by Mr. 
 Murdoch, (who died not long since in Lon- 
 don), to which he added an acquaintance 
 with the French language and practical 
 mathematics. Smitten with a passion for 
 
 * Another account gives diameter, 4% French 
 feet, focal distance, 12 feet.
 
 340 
 
 BURNS. 
 
 reading, he devoted every moment he 
 could spare to the perusal of such books 
 as fell in his way, and, among them, meet- 
 ing with the works of some of the best 
 English poets, he was enabled to culti- 
 vate and improve a taste for poetry and 
 romantic fiction ; which was, perhaps, 
 first inspired by the chimney-corner talcs 
 of an old woman in his father's family, 
 whose memory was plentifully stored 
 with adventures of fairies, witches, war- 
 locks, ghosts and goblins, which she re- 
 ligiously believed, and therefore detailed 
 with the most impressive effect to her 
 admiring auditors. Burns's first poetical 
 effusions were prompted by love, a pas- 
 sion of which he was peculiarly suscep- 
 tible. Having begun, he continued to 
 make verses, which attracted the notice 
 of his neighbors, and gained him consider- 
 able reputation. His company was con- 
 sequently much sought a circumstance 
 which led him to an indulgence in hab- 
 its of dissipation, and a disgust at the 
 plebeian occupation to which he seemed 
 destined by fortune. He then engaged 
 in business as a flax-dresser, in the town 
 of Irvine ; but his premises were destroyed 
 by fire, and he was obliged to relinquish 
 the undertaking. His father dying, he 
 took a small farm in conjunction with a 
 younger brother ; and this scheme also 
 proved unsuccessful. In the mean time, 
 he had formed a connexion with a young 
 woman, whom, on her becoming preg- 
 nant, he would have married ; but his 
 ruined circumstances induced her friends 
 to object to it. Thus unsuccessful at 
 home, he engaged himself as assistant 
 overseer to a plantation in Jamaica. To 
 obtain the funds necessary for the voyage, 
 he was induced to publish, by subscrip- 
 tion, a volume of his poetical effusions. 
 It was accordingly printed at Kilmar- 
 nock in 1786, and Burns, having derived 
 from the publication the assistance he 
 expected, was about to set sail from his 
 native land, when his purpose was pre- 
 vented by the communication of a letter 
 from doctor Blacklock to a friend of the 
 Ayrshire poet, recommending that he 
 should visit Edinburgh, in order to take 
 advantage of the general admiration his 
 poems had excited, and publish a new 
 edition of them. This advice was eagerly 
 adopted, and the result exceeded his most 
 sanguine expectations. After remaining 
 more than a year in the Scottish metrop- 
 olis, admired, flattered and caressed by 
 persons of eminence for their rank, for- 
 tune or talents, he retired to the country 
 with the sum of 500, which he had re- 
 
 alized by the second publication of his 
 poems. A part of this sum he advanced 
 to his brother, and, with the remainder, 
 took a considerable farm near Dumfries, 
 and at the same time procured the office 
 of an exciseman. He also now complet- 
 ed his matrimonial engagement with the 
 female to whom he had been contracted. 
 His convivial habits ere long prevented 
 him from paying a proper attention to Ins 
 farm ; and, after a trial of three years and 
 a half, he found himself obliged to resign 
 his lease, and remove to the town of 
 Dumfries, to follow his employment as 
 an exciseman. He continued to exercise 
 his pen, particularly in the composition 
 of a number of beautiful songs, adapted 
 to old Scottish tunes, for a periodical 
 work, published at Edinburgh. His dis- 
 position to intemperate indulgence was 
 too deeply rooted to be overcome ; and, 
 in spite of the remonstrances of his friends, 
 and his own acknowledged conviction of 
 the folly of his conduct, he persisted in 
 the use of inebriating liquors till he had 
 ruined his constitution, and brought on 
 a disease, which occasioned his death, 
 July 21, 1796. The poems of B. are 
 none of them of any great length, nor do 
 they appertain to the higher kinds of po- 
 etical composition. It appears, indeed, 
 from his correspondence, that he at one 
 time meditated an epic or dramatic ef- 
 fort, but the mode of spending his time, 
 to which he had become habituated, ut- 
 terly prevented the necessary application. 
 Whatever he has done, however, he has 
 done well. His songs, his tales, and his 
 poetical epistles, display pathos, humor, a 
 vigor of sentiment, and a purity and ele- 
 gance of style, which, in spite of their 
 being clothed in what may be termed a 
 provincial dialect, will not only ensure a 
 permanent fame to their author, but ad- 
 vance him high in the records of native 
 genius. His prose compositions, which 
 consist entirely of private letters, never 
 intended for the press, are altogether as 
 extraordinary productions as his poems; 
 and those literary men who were ac- 
 quainted with him have asserted, that 
 his conversation was not less calculated 
 to leave a powerful impression of the ex- 
 tent and accuracy of his knowledge and 
 observation, and the strength and vivacity 
 of his genius. He left a wife and four 
 children unprovided for ; but his friends 
 raised a subscription for then- support; 
 and an edition of the works of Bums, in 
 4 vols. 8vo., was published for then- ben- 
 efit, in 1800, with a life of the author, by 
 doctor Currie, of Liverpool.
 
 BURRAMPOOTER BURTON-UPON-TRENT. 
 
 341 
 
 BURRAMPOOTER, or BRAMAPOOTRA, is 
 the largest river in India. Its sources, not 
 yet explored, seem to be situated near 
 lake Manasarovara, in Thibet, near those 
 of the Indus. In Thibet, it is called the 
 Sanpoo, flows by Lassa, the residence 
 of the Grand Lama, and, after being lost 
 to European knowledge, re-appears in 
 Assam. In its rise and fall, its periods 
 coincide nearly with those of the Ganges. 
 Its navigation is rendered difficult by 
 shifting sand-banks, and trunks of trees 
 sticking in its bed. After entering Ben- 
 gal, it joins the Ganges, at Luckipoor, 
 where the united rivers form a wide gulf, 
 communicating with the sea of Bengal. 
 The course of the B. is estimated at about 
 1650 miles. Rising from opposite sides 
 of the same mountains, and separating to 
 a distance of 1200 miles, the B. and the 
 Ganges are destined to mingle their wa- 
 ters again in the same channel. 
 
 BURRILL, James, a distinguished senator 
 of the U. States, was born in Providence, 
 Rhode Island, April 25, 1772. He re- 
 ceived his education at the college in Provi- 
 dence, now Brown university, and was 
 graduated in Sept. 1788. He then pursu- 
 ed the study of the law, and was admitted 
 to practise in the supreme court of the 
 state before he reached his majority. In 
 a few years, he stood at the head of his 
 profession in Rhode Island. In October, 
 1797, he was elected, by the general as- 
 sembly, attorney-general of the state, and 
 annually after, by the people, for seven- 
 teen successive elections. The decay of 
 his health, and other causes, induced him 
 to resign that office in May, 1813. In 
 1816, he was appointed, by the general 
 assembly, chief justice of the supreme 
 court, having been, for several years pre- 
 vious, speaker of the house of represen- 
 tatives of Rhode Island. In the next 
 year, he was placed in the senate of the 
 U. States, of which he remained a highly 
 esteemed member until the period of his 
 decease, December 25, 1820. 
 
 BURSA, a city of Natoh'a, in Asiatic 
 Turkey, with a population of about 60,(JOO 
 Turks, Greeks, Armenians and Jews, 
 engaged in commerce, and the manufac- 
 ture of satins, silk stuffs, carpets, gauze, 
 &e. The bazars are filled with mer- 
 chandise, and the caravans, passing from 
 Aleppo and Smyrna to Constantinople, 
 promote its commerce. It contains 140 
 mosques, two of which are magnificent, 
 and is adorned with an immense number 
 of fountains. It is one of the most beau- 
 tiful cities in the empire, situated in a 
 fertile and finely-wooded plain, which is 
 29* 
 
 enclosed by the ridges of Olympus, and 
 abounds in hot springs. The castle, 
 which is about a mile in circumference, 
 is supposed to be the Prusa of the an- 
 cients, built, according to Pliny (v. 22), by 
 Hannibal. In the 14th century, it was 
 taken by the Turks, and became the cap- 
 ital of the Ottoman empire previous to 
 the capture of Constantinople. Its port 
 is Montagna, or Mondania, on the sea of 
 Marmora, 75 miles S. W. of Constantino- 
 ple. Lon. 29 12' E. ; lat. 40 11' N. 
 
 BURSCHE:* ; the name given to one 
 another by the students at the German 
 universities. It is derived from lursales 
 or buraarii, the name which the students 
 bore in the middle ages, from the build- 
 ings (bursw) in which they lived in 
 common. (See Universities.) 
 
 BURTON, Robert ; a writer of the 17th 
 century. He was born at Lindley, in 
 Leicestershire, 1576, educated at Oxford, 
 embraced the ecclesiastical profession, and 
 became rector of Segrave, in Leicester- 
 shire. His learning, which was various 
 and extensive, is copiously displayed in 
 the Anatomy of Melancholy, by Democ- 
 ritus Junior, first published in 1621, and 
 repeatedly reprinted. B. died in 1640, 
 and was buried at Christ church, with 
 the following epitaph, said to have been 
 his own composition : 
 
 Faucis notus, paucioribus ignotus, 
 Hie jacet Dernocritus Junior; 
 Cui vitam pariter et mortem 
 Dedit Melancholia. 
 
 He was a man of integrity and benevo- 
 lence, but subject to strange fits of hypo- 
 chondriac melancholy, which rendered 
 his conduct flighty and inconsistent- 
 Sometimes be was an agreeable and 
 h'vely companion, delighting those around 
 him with perpetual sallies of wit and hu- 
 mor ; while, at other times, devoured with 
 spleen and ennui, he sought relief by 
 listening to the jests of the bargemen on 
 the river near Oxford. He is reported 
 also to have undertaken the composition 
 of his Anatomy of Melancholy with a 
 view to the dissipation of his morbid feel- 
 ings. Among those who have been most 
 deeply indebted to B. is the facetious 
 author of Tristram Shandy ; who has, 
 however, been perhaps too harshly cen- 
 sured for a fault which every man of 
 general and extensive reading knows 
 to be common to almost all great writ- 
 ers. 
 
 BURTOX-UFON-TRE:NT ; a town of Eng- 
 land, on the north bank of the Trent, 
 which is here crossed by a fine old bridge
 
 342 
 
 BURTON-UPON-TRENT BURYING-PLACESv 
 
 of 36 arches. B. is a borough, and the 
 inhabitants have the privilege of exemp- 
 tion from county juries. It is mentioned 
 early in Saxon history, and suffered much 
 in the civil wars. It is chiefly celebrated 
 for its excellent ale, of which vast quanti- 
 ties are made, both for home consump- 
 tion and exportation. Contrary to com- 
 mon usage, the brewers, in preparing it, 
 employ hard instead of soft water. (See 
 Brewing.) Population, in 1821, G700. 
 Lon. 1 3& W. ; lat. 52 5(X N. 
 
 BURY ST. EDMUND'S : a town in Suf- 
 folk, England, formerly surrounded with 
 walls. It contains two fine churches, 
 with numerous monuments, and, before 
 the reformation, had five hospitals. Of 
 many benevolent institutions, the princi- 
 pal is a free school founded by Edward 
 VI. It is one of the greatest corn mar- 
 kets in the kingdom, and its great fair, in 
 October, which lasts three weeks, is at- 
 tended by the nobility and gentry of the 
 neighborhood. The town is a borough, 
 returning two representatives. It is an 
 ancient place, and is supposed to have de- 
 rived its name from St. Edmund, a king 
 of the East Angles, who was buried here. 
 The barons, in John's reign, met here, 
 and fdrmed a league against him. B. has 
 been the seat of two parliaments, and con- 
 tains the remains of an abbey, the most 
 wealthy and magnificent in Britain, "with 
 gates of brass, towers and high walls, so 
 that one might think the monastery alone 
 a city." Barren women, desirous of oft- 
 spring, offered a white bull at the shrine 
 of St. Edmund's. 72 miles N. N. E. of 
 London. Lat. 52 5(X N. 
 
 BURTING-PLACES. The custom of bu- 
 rying the dead in public places prevailed 
 among the most ancient nations. The 
 Romans had this custom in the earliest 
 times. Afterwards, in the flourishing pe- 
 riods of the republic, they burnt their 
 dead, and only buried the ashes, collected 
 in urns (urna). The ancient Germans 
 buried their dead in the groves consecra- 
 ted by their priests. With the introduc- 
 tion of the Christian religion, consecrated 
 places were appropriated for the purpose 
 of general burial ; and it was regarded as 
 ignominious not to be buried in conse- 
 crated earth. The deprivation of the 
 rites of burial was, therefore, part of the 
 punishment of excommunication. The 
 Romans Avere accustomed to provide 
 their sepulchres at least with a stone, 
 upon which was inscribed the name of 
 the deceased, and the wish, May he rest 
 in peace (Sit illi terra levis, that is. May 
 the earth rest lightly upon him ). This cus- 
 
 tom was preserved by the Christians, The 
 sepulchres in churches originate from an 
 inclination, common to men of all times 
 and nations, to honor their relations, even 
 in the grave. The Egyptians, Greeks 
 and Romans erected over the graves of 
 men of rank, or persons otherwise re- 
 markable, pyramids, mau-solea or temples. 
 After the introduction of Christianity, 
 little churches, called chapels, were erect- 
 ed over the dead. The early Christian 
 Tnartyrs were buried in caverns, which, 
 by degrees, were enlarged to spacious sub- 
 terranean vaults, and called chambers of 
 repose. In the sequel, others considered 
 themselves happy if their bones were al- 
 lowed to repose near the ashes of a mar- 
 tyr. The sepulchres of the martyrs were, 
 on this account, distinguished by a white 
 altar over them. When the Christians 
 were allowed the public exercise of their 
 religion, they erected churches, and 
 the heathen temples became places of 
 Christian worship. As early as the 4th 
 century, they built churches over the sep- 
 ulchres of the holy martyrs ; and, in the 
 belief that a place was sanctified by their 
 ashes, they anxiously sought out, on the 
 erection of new churches in cities, or the 
 transformation of heathen temples into 
 Christian churches, the remains (relics) 
 of the martyrs, and buried them under 
 the altar of the new church, to communi- 
 cate to it a character of greater sanctity. 
 It gradually came to be universally con- 
 sidered, among the Christians, a privilege 
 to be buried in the neighborhood of a 
 saint. The emperor Constantine, who 
 died in 337, was the first person that we 
 know of, who ordered his sepulchre to be 
 erected in a church. This was done in 
 the church of the apostles at Constanti- 
 nople, of which he was the founder, anil 
 therefore, probably, considered himself as 
 peculiarly entitled to this privilege. He 
 was soon imitated by the bishops, and, in 
 the sequel, all those who had enriched 
 the church were distinguished by this 
 honor. The emperors Theodosius and 
 Justinian, indeed, forbade the erection of 
 sepulchres hi churches, but in vain. Leo 
 the Philosopher again permitted them to 
 every body. It is only in later times that 
 men have become convinced how injuri- 
 ous it is to the health of the living to re- 
 main, for a long time, hi the vicinity of 
 the dead ; particularly if the corpses re- 
 main standing in simple coffins, and are 
 not placed deep in the earth, as is com- 
 monly the case in the sepulchral vaults 
 of churches. From these the effluvia of 
 putrefaction escape easily, and diffuse
 
 BURYING-PLACES BUSCHING. 
 
 343 
 
 themselves in the air. On the occa- 
 sion of opening such sepulchral vaults, 
 those who stood near them have some- 
 times fallen dead on the spot, and no 
 one could venture into the church, for a 
 long time after, without exposing himself 
 to dangerous consequences. At present, 
 the burying in churches is almost every- 
 where suppressed, or, at least, permitted 
 only under certain restrictions. Even in 
 Naples and Rome, the general practice of 
 erecting sepulchres in churches was for- 
 bidden in 1809, and the foundation of 
 burial-places without the city was provid- 
 ed for. The custom of the communities 
 of Moravian Brothers, who form their 
 burial-places into gardens, is worthy of 
 imitation. Several Catholic church-yards 
 hi Germany are also distinguished by 
 their pleasing aspect ; for instance, one in 
 Munich, where every grave is covered 
 with a bed of flowers, which the relations 
 of the deceased water from a fountain 
 dug for the purpose. The Quakers, it is 
 well known, erect no tomb-stones. The 
 beautiful name of the German Moravian 
 Brothers, friedhof, or field of peace, is be- 
 coming more and more common in Ger- 
 many. The celebrated burying-place of 
 Pfre la Chaise, near Paris, is one of the 
 most beautiful and interesting spots in 
 the world. 
 
 BUSACO ; a convent in Portugal, in the 
 province of Beira. The monks are Car- 
 melites, and the prospect from the sum- 
 mit of the Sierra de Busaco is one of the 
 finest in Portugal. It is memorable for 
 the battle, Sept. 27, 1810, between Mas- 
 sena and lord Wellington, who, on a re- 
 treat before the superior forces of the 
 former, availed himself of the favorable 
 position of the Sierra for checking the 
 pursuit. Two attacks, one on the right 
 wing, consisting of British, and the other 
 on the left, composed chiefly of Portu- 
 guese, were repulsed ; but, Massena having 
 detached a force to march round the 
 mountain, and cut off the British troops 
 from Coimbra, Wellington retreated to- 
 wards that city, and afterwards to the 
 11 ncs of Torres Vetlras. (q. v.) 
 
 BUSBECQ, or BUSBEQUIUS, Augier 
 Ghislen ; the natural son of a nobleman ; 
 born in 1522, at Comines, in Flanders; 
 legitimated by Charles V. After having 
 studied in the most celebrated universities 
 of Flanders, France and Italy, he accom- 
 panied Peter Lassa, ambassador of Fer- 
 dinand, king of the Romans, to England. 
 In the next year (1555), that prince 
 made him his ambassador to Soliman II. 
 His first negotiation was not very suc- 
 
 cessful. He obtained only an armistice 
 for six months, and a letter, which he de- 
 livered immediately to Ferdinand. He 
 then returned to his post, and this time 
 his negotiations were completely suc- 
 cessful. After seven years, he returned 
 home, and was made tutor of the sons of 
 Maximilian II. When this prince be- 
 came emperor, B. was sent to accompany 
 the archduchess Elizabeth (who was to 
 be married to Charles IX) on her journey 
 to France. B. remained there in the 
 character of steward with Elizabeth, and, 
 when she left France, after the death of 
 her husband, he continued there as am- 
 bassador of Rodolph II. In 1592, he set 
 out on his return to Flanders, and was 
 attacked, on the way, by a party of the 
 Leaguers. As soon as they had seen 
 his passports, they permitted him to con- 
 tinue his journey unmolested, from re- 
 spect to his character of an ambassador ; 
 but the terror which he had suffered 
 threw him into a violent fever, of which 
 he died several days afterwards. We 
 have remaining two important works 
 of his : 1. Legationis Turciccc Epistolce 
 quatuor, in which the policy, the power 
 and the weakness of the Porte are so 
 profoundly and clearly explained, that, 
 even at present, information may be 
 drawn from them ; and, 2. Epistoke ad 
 Rudolphum II, Imp. e Gallia script ce (edi- 
 tce a Houivaert), a very important work 
 for the history of those times. His style 
 is pure, elegant and simple. During his 
 stay hi Turkey, he collected Greek in- 
 scriptions, which he communicated to 
 Andreas Schott, Justus Lipsius and Gru- 
 ter. We are indebted to him for a copy 
 of the celebrated monumcnium Jtocyranum, 
 which he had transcribed and brought to- 
 Europe. More than a hundred Greek 
 manuscripts, which he had collected, were 
 presented by bun to the library of Vienna. 
 BUSCHIJVG, Anthony Frederic ; born, 
 1724, in Stadthagen, in Lippe : studied 
 theology in Halle, in 1744, where he 
 found a friend and protector in Baum- 
 garten. On his travels, as tutor of the 
 young count of Lynar, he became con- 
 vinced of the defects of existing geo- 
 graphical treatises, and resolved to write 
 a new one, which he began, on his return 
 to Germany (1752), by publishing a short 
 Description of Sleswic and Holstein, as a 
 specimen. In 1754, he was made pro- 
 fessor of philosophy in Gottingen. In 
 1755, he married Christiana Diltey, a lady 
 who was remarkable as a member of the 
 Gottingen learned society. Notwith- 
 standing some difficulties about his hete-
 
 344 
 
 BUSCHING BUSHMEN. 
 
 rodox opinions, he received an invitation 
 to become pastor in a Lutheran church 
 at Petersburg. In 1766, he was made 
 director of the united gymnasiums of 
 Berlin and of the suburb Koln, and dis- 
 charged his duties with great diligence. 
 He died in 1793. He is chiefly distin- 
 guished as a geographer. Before his 
 great work, Jlllgemeine Erdbeschreibung, 
 which he began to publish in 1754, in 
 separate volumes, and which, though not 
 entirely completed by the author, passed 
 through eight legal editions during his 
 life, neither the Germans nor any other 
 nation had a thoroughly scientific geo- 
 graphical work. 
 
 BUSEMBAUM, Hermann, a Jesuit, fa- 
 mous for his Medulla Theologies moralis, 
 ex variis probatisque Auctonbus concin- 
 nata, born at Nottelen, in Westphalia, 
 1600, rector of the Jesuits' colleges at 
 Hildesheim and Miinster, died in 1668. 
 His work was much used in the semina- 
 ries- of the Jesuits, and had passed through 
 50 editions, when father Lacroix publish- 
 ed it, increased from a single duodecimo 
 to two folios by his own commentaries 
 and the additions of father Collendall. It 
 was published at Lyons, in 1729, with 
 further additions by father Montausan. 
 The latter edition was reprinted, in 1758, 
 at Cologne. It was now found to con- 
 tain principles concerning homicide and 
 regicide, which appeared the more repre- 
 hensible on account of the recent attempt 
 on the life of Louis XV, by Damiens. 
 The parliament of Toulouse caused the 
 work to be publicly burnt, and summon- 
 ed the superiors of the Jesuits to appear 
 at their bar for trial. They disavowed 
 the doctrines of the book, declared them- 
 selves ignorant of the author, and denied 
 that any Jesuit had any share in it. 
 The parliament of Paris was satisfied 
 with condemning the book. Against both 
 these sentences, father Zacharia, an Ital- 
 ian Jesuit, with the permission of his su- 
 periors, stepped forward as the defender 
 of B. and Lacroix ; but his defence was 
 condemned by the parliament of Paris. 
 B. was also the author of Lilium inter 
 Spinets, de Virginibus Deo devotis eique in 
 Sxculo inservientibit.f. 
 
 BUSHEL ; an English dry measure, 
 containing 8 gallons or 4 pecks. It is 
 also used in the North American U. States. 
 The standard English bushel (12 Henry 
 VII) contains 8 gallons of wheat, each of 
 8 pounds troy, each of 12 ounces, each 
 of 20 pennyweights, each of 32 corns of 
 wheat that grew in the middle of the ear. 
 In 1696, a duty being laid upon malt, it 
 
 became necessary to ascertain the exact 
 contents of the Winchester bushel, as that 
 of Henry VII was called. It was found 
 that the capacity was 2151.7 cubic inches 
 of pure water, equivalent to 1131 oz., 13 
 dwts. troy. (See J. Q. Adams's Report 
 upon Weights and Measures, Washington, 
 1821.) The capacity of the Imperial 
 bushel, prescribed by the act of uniformi- 
 ty (5 Geo. IV, c. 74), which took effect 
 Jan. 1, 1826, is, for coal, potatoes, fruits, 
 and other goods sold by heaped measure, 
 2815 cubic inches, the goods to be heaped 
 up in the form of a cone, to a height 
 above the rim of the measure of at least 
 three fourths of its depth. The imperial 
 bushel for all liquids, and for corn and 
 other dry goods not heaped, contains 
 2218.20 cubic inches, and holds 80 Ibs. 
 avoirdupois of pure water. 
 
 BUSHIRE, or ABUSHEHR ; the principal 
 seaport of Persia, situated on the Persian 
 gulf, with 5000 inhabitants. The princi- 
 pal exports are carpets, wine of Shiraz, 
 rose-water, drugs, pearls and cotton. 
 The English East India company have a 
 factory here. Lon. 50 43' E. ; lat. 28 
 59' N. 
 
 BUSHMEN, or BOSHMEN ; the common 
 name of that wild race of people, who 
 dwell in the western part of South Africa, 
 in the immense plains bordering on the 
 north side of the colony of the cape of 
 Good Hope, and are lost in the unknown 
 regions of the interior. Janssens, former- 
 ly Dutch governor at the cape, gives the 
 following account of them : The Bush- 
 men are a wild, rude, cruel and miserable 
 people. So far from forming a nation, 
 they do not even form societies. They 
 h've together in single families, and unite 
 in great numbers only for defence or for 
 pillage. They do not cultivate the land, 
 and have no domestic animals except the 
 dog. Their usual food is locusts. They 
 endure hunger for a long time, but in- 
 demnify themselves by their voracity if 
 they are so fortunate as to kill any wild 
 game, or steal an ox or a sheep. They 
 are entirely destitute of huts and house- 
 hold furniture. The scorching heaven is 
 their tent, and the hot sand their bed. 
 Their weapons consist of a small bow 
 and poisoned P.ITOWS, which they shoot, 
 with astonishing accuracy, to a great dis- 
 tance. Their language is exceedingly 
 poor. It consists of a certain rattling 
 with the tongue, and harsh, gurgling 
 tones, for which we have no letters. 
 They are, for the most part, of low stat- 
 ure ; their skin is of a dark-yellow : and 
 their hair, which resembles wool, is twist-
 
 BUSHMEN BUSTARD. 
 
 345 
 
 ed together in small tufts. (See Hotten- 
 tots.) 
 
 BUSHWANAS, or BOSHUANAS, or BET- 
 JOUANAS ; an African people, occupying 
 the country lying between 20 and 25 
 S. latitude, divided into several tribes. 
 Though under the government of sepa- 
 rate chiefs, who are often at war with 
 each other, these tribes are united by lan- 
 guage, manners and customs. Less tall 
 tiian the Caff'res, and as well proportion- 
 ed, their form is even more elegant. 
 Their skin is of a brown tint, between the 
 shining black of the Negro and the yellow 
 color of the Hottentots. They surpass 
 the Caffres in civilization and the arts of 
 life. Some of their towns are considera- 
 ble. Kurechanee was visited by Camp- 
 bell in 1821, who estimated the popula- 
 tion at 16,000. Inoculation for the small- 
 pox is practised there. Old and Now 
 Leetakoo contain each 4000 inhabitants. 
 The Bushwanas arc inquisitive and intel- 
 ligent ; without any settled occupation, 
 yet always active. Their principal food 
 is the curds of milk and the produce of 
 the chase : they rarely kill cattle, and have 
 an invincible aversion to fish. The ashes 
 in which their meat is cooked serve 
 them for salt. Their clothes are made 
 of the skins of animals : the women cover 
 the breast, and leave the belly exposed. 
 Their ornaments are rings and bracelets 
 of ivory and brass. Their houses are 
 light, clean, aiiy, and generally of a cir- 
 cular form. They are very skilful in 
 tempering iron, and making their arms, 
 which consist of a hassagay (javelin), a 
 shield and a club. Polygamy is estab- 
 lished among them ; a young man buys a 
 wife for 10 or 12 oxen : her first business 
 is to build a house, for which she fells the 
 necessary quantity of wood. The erec- 
 tion of the stable, the cultivation of the 
 fields, and all the household work, falls to 
 her. As soon as he can afford it, the 
 Bushwana buys a second wife, who, in 
 like manner, must build a house and sta- 
 ble, and cultivate a piece of ground. 
 Honesty, loyalty and courage are the 
 highest virtues, in their estimation. They 
 have an idea of a soul, and believe in an 
 invisible Lord of nature, the sovereign 
 Dispenser of good and evil, whom they 
 call Mourimo. Their principal ceremo- 
 nies are circumcision and the blessing 
 of cattle. They divide the year into 13 
 lunar months, and distinguish the planets 
 from the fixed stars. Christianity has 
 been introduced among them by mission- 
 aries, and with it some degree of civiliza- 
 tion. 
 
 BUSKIN (in Greek and Latin, cothur- 
 nus) ; a kind of high shoe worn upon the 
 stage, by the ancient actors of tragedy, in 
 order to give them a more heroic appear- 
 ance. It was introduced by Sophocles, 
 and, from this use, the word is figuratively 
 employed, by the classic authors, for 
 tragedy itself (Juvenal, xv. 29), or for a 
 lofty and elevated style (grandc munus 
 Cecropio cothurno, Hor. Od. ii. 1, 12). 
 The buskin was also worn, by both sexes, 
 particularly by the ladies, for ornament 
 (juv. vi. 505). The Melpomene in the 
 Villa Borghese has the buskin. Hunters 
 and soldiers used a different kind, re- 
 sembling the half-boot. 
 
 BUST (Italian, il busto, from the Latin 
 bustum), in sculpture ; the representation 
 of that portion of the human figure, which 
 comprises the head and the upper part of 
 the body. Busts are of different extent : 
 1. such as consist of the head, the upper 
 part of the neck, and the upper part of 
 the shoulders ; 2. heads with the upper 
 part of the chest, to the end of the breast- 
 bone (busts properly so called) ; and, 3. 
 heads with the whole chest to the middle 
 of the body, often to the hips. Between 
 the bust and its pedestal is sometimes a 
 column, or a square prop ; such a bust is 
 called Herme. The figure is sometimes 
 in relief. The origin of the bust may be 
 derived from the Herme, and from the 
 custom of the Greeks and Romans to 
 decorate their shields with portraits, and 
 their vestibules with the images of their 
 ancestors. Busts were afterwards used 
 for the images of their gods, as being less 
 expensive. The greater part have been 
 found in Rome and Italy. Some remarkable 
 ones have been obtained from Herculane- 
 um, in bronze. The chief difficulty in the 
 execution of busts arises from this circum- 
 stance, that we are accustomed to estimate 
 the size of the head by comparing it 
 with the whole body. In a bust, there- 
 fore, the head appears disproportion- 
 ately large, and the artist is obliged to 
 yield, in some measure, to this ocular 
 deception, by lessening its natural pro- 
 portion. 
 
 BUSTARD ; the trivial name of a species 
 of wader belonging to the genus otis, L., 
 and to the family pressirostres, C. The 
 great bustard (otis tarda, L.) is the largest 
 of European land-birds, the male weigh- 
 ing, on an average, 25 pounds. It is four 
 feet in length, and measures nine feet 
 from tip to tip of the wings. The head 
 and neck are ash-colored, and there is a 
 tuft of feathers about five inches long on 
 each side of the lower mandible. The
 
 346 
 
 BUSTARD BUTE. 
 
 back is transversely barred with black and 
 bright ferruginous colors, and the prima- 
 ries are black. The tail consists of 20 
 feathers, broadly barred with red and 
 black. The belly is white, the legs dusky, 
 naked, and without a hind toe. The 
 female is but half the size of the male, 
 and has the crown of the head of a deep 
 orange color, traversed by red lines ; the 
 remainder of the head is brown. She 
 otherwise resembles the male, except that 
 the color of her plumage is less bright. 
 This species is found in most of the open 
 and level countries of the south and east 
 of England, where they are occasionally 
 seen, in autumn, in flocks of 50 and up- 
 wards. They are very shy and vigilant, 
 and by no means easy to shoot. They 
 run with great speed, and aid their course 
 with their wings, like the ostrich. Al- 
 though they rise on the wing with diffi- 
 culty, they are said to fly many miles 
 without resting. They feed on grain, 
 seeds, worms, &c., and lay two eggs, as 
 large as those of a goose : these are of a 
 pale olive tint, with dark spots. The nest 
 is merely a hole scraped in the earth. 
 They do not wander far from their accus- 
 tomed haunts, seldom going to a greater 
 distance than 20 or 30 miles. Their flesh 
 is considered fine eating. 
 
 BUTCHERS have been much the same 
 in all ages and countries, and we know 
 not of any great improvements that mod- 
 ern art or science has introduced into 
 the practice of slaughtering animals. The 
 ancient Scythians, and their Tartar de- 
 scendants, seem to be peculiar in their 
 taste for horse-flesh. The Romans appear 
 to have loved beef, and veal, and mutton, 
 as well as the modern Europeans and 
 their American descendants : cara omnia, 
 is the complaint of the old comic writer, 
 agninam caram, caram bubulam, vituli- 
 nam, porcinam, omnia cara. In Paris, the 
 butcheries, formerly receptacles of filth, 
 and injurious to health, were remov- 
 ed by Napoleon, in 1809, to the outskirts 
 of the city. They are called abattoirs 
 (abattre, to fell), and consist of spacious 
 buildings for the reception of the cattle, 
 preparing the tripe, tallow, &c, and reser- 
 voirs of water for the service of the estab- 
 lishments. Of these there are five, in 
 which are slaughtered annually 75,000 
 black cattle, with a proportionate number 
 of sheep, &c. The larger animals are 
 felled by a blow on the head, and the ju- 
 gular vein is immediately separated with a 
 knife. The flesh is then blown (gonft6), 
 by injecting air into the vessels through a 
 bellows, which gives it a plump appear- 
 
 ance. Every part of the animal bones, 
 horns, hoofs, blood, intestines, hide, tal- 
 low is used for the fabrication of glue, 
 jelly, Prussian blue, sal-ammoniac, &c. 
 In London, the carcass butchers kill the 
 meat, and sell it out in great quantities ; 
 the retail butchers sell it out to the con- 
 sumers. The average number of oxen 
 sold at Smithfield annually is 156,000; 
 sheep and lambs, 1,500,000 ; calves, 22,000 ; 
 hogs, 20,000. The Jews in London have 
 their own butchers, who are licensed by 
 the rabbis. They cut the throats of the 
 animals, never knocking them down, ac- 
 cording to the usual practice. In some 
 countries, the method of slaughtering cat- 
 tle by penetrating the spinal marrow is 
 practised. 
 
 BUTE ; a small island of Scotland, lying 
 at the mouth of the Clyde, with an area 
 of 29,000 acres, belonging principally to 
 the marquis of Bute. The climate is 
 moist and mild. The herring fishery is a 
 profitable employment. The only town 
 is Rothesay, the ruins of the castle of 
 which, formerly inhabited by the Scottish 
 monarchs, still remain. It gave the title 
 of duke of Rothesay to the heir apparent 
 of Scotland. The title is now transferred 
 to the prince of Wales. 
 
 BUTE (John Stuart) earl of; a British 
 statesman, born in the beginning of the 
 18th century, hi Scotland. His ancestors 
 had been elevated to the peerage in 1703, 
 and were connected with the old kings 
 of Scotland. In his youth, B. seemed 
 devoted to pleasure, and little inclined to 
 engage in politics ; nevertheless, in 1737, 
 after the death of a Scottish peer, he was 
 chosen to fill his seat in parliament. In 
 consequence of his opposition to the 
 measures of the ministry, he was left out 
 when a new parliament was convened, 
 in 1741. Offended by this neglect, B. re- 
 tired to his estates, and lived there, wholly 
 secluded, till the landing of the Pretender 
 in Scotland, 1745, induced him to go to 
 London, and offer his services to the 
 government. Notwithstanding this man- 
 ifestation of zeal, he would not have been 
 brought forward again, if he had not at- 
 tracted the notice of the prince of Wales, 
 at an exhibition of private theatricals, in 
 consequence of which he was invited to 
 the court. Here he soon gained influence, 
 and succeeded in making himself indis- 
 pensable to the prince. At his death, in 
 1751, he was appointed, by the widowed 
 princess, chamberlain to her son, and was 
 intrusted by her with his education. B. 
 never lost sight of his pupil, and possessed 
 so much more influence with the princess
 
 BUTE BUTLER. 
 
 347 
 
 of Wales than her son's particular tutors, 
 the earl of Harcourt and the bishop of 
 Norwich, that they resigned their offices. 
 Lord Waldegrave and the bishop of Lin- 
 coln, who were chosen in their stead, 
 opposed him unsuccessfully. George II 
 died Oct. 25, 1760, and, two days after, 
 B. was appointed member of the privy 
 council. In March, 1761, the parliament 
 was dissolved. B. was made secretary of 
 state, in the place of lord Holderness, and 
 appointed Charles Jeukinson, afterwards 
 lord Hawkesbury and earl of Liverpool, 
 his uader-secretary. Legge, chancellor of 
 the exchequer, was removed. Pitt (the 
 great Chatham), who saw his influence in 
 the new council annihilated, gave in his 
 resignation the same year. This event 
 made an unfavorable impression on the 
 nation ; but B., possessing the unbounded 
 confidence of his king, stood at the head 
 of the state. Soon after, he removed the 
 old duke of Newcastle, then first lord of 
 the treasury, and the only one of the for- 
 mer ministry remaining in office, and im- 
 mediately took this important post upon 
 himself, receiving, at the same time, the 
 order of the garter. After a severe con- 
 test in parliament, he concluded a peace 
 with France. The terms for England 
 were perhaps not disproportionate to the 
 successes obtained during the war; but it 
 was disgraceful that the king of Prussia, 
 in violation of former treaties, should have 
 been left to his fate. B. was obliged to 
 hear the most bitter reproaches ; yet he 
 succeeded in winning the popular favor, 
 and every thing seemed to promise the 
 power of the minister a long continuance. 
 He had rendered the whigs objects of 
 suspicion to the king, and excluded them 
 from the administration ; 011 the contrary, 
 he favored the tories, even the former 
 Jacobites, and thus surrounded the king 
 with persons whose principles coincided 
 with his own, especially with his Scotch 
 countrymen. The people murmured, and 
 numberless pamphlets attacked the min- 
 ister with bitterness, who was slowly 
 gaining the confidence of the public, when 
 new causes of dissatisfaction produced a 
 great irritation against him. To discharge 
 the debt contracted by the war, he was 
 obliged to negotiate a loan, the interest of 
 which was to be paid by a tax on cider, 
 perry, &c. In spite of the opposition, the 
 bill passed both houses. The city of 
 London in vain petitioned the king to 
 refuse his consent. The influence of B. 
 seemed unbounded, when it was made 
 known, contrary to expectation, that he 
 had resigned his office as prime minister, 
 
 and was, in future, to live as a private 
 man. George Grenville succeeded him 
 in the ministry. B. soon perceived the 
 weakness of the administration, and en- 
 deavored to unite himself with Pitt. The 
 plan failed, and the exasperation of the 
 people was redoubled. B. was still con- 
 sidered as the soul of the royal resolutions, 
 and particularly as the author of the 
 stamp act, which kindled the first flame 
 of discord between Great Britain and the 
 North American colonies. Certain it is, 
 that his friends spoke zealously against its 
 repeal. Those ministers who did not 
 support B.'s views were removed. His 
 adherents, who called themselves friends 
 of the king, formed a powerful party. 
 They were stigmatized with the old name 
 of cabal, and were denounced as the au- 
 thors of all the present evils. In 1766, B. 
 declared, in the house of lords, that he 
 had wholly withdrawn from public busi- 
 ness, and no longer saw the king ; still it 
 was not doubted that his great influence 
 continued. On the death of the princess 
 of Wales, 1772, he seems first to have 
 given up all participation in the affairs of 
 government. The public hatred towards 
 him ceased, and he was forgotten. He 
 spent his last years on his estate. A cost- 
 ly botanical garden, a library of 30,000 
 volumes, excellent astronomical, philo- 
 sophical and mathematical instruments, 
 afforded him occupation. His favorite 
 study was botany, with which he was in- 
 timately acquainted. For the queen of 
 England, he wrote the Botanical Register, 
 which contained all the different kinds of 
 plants in Great Britain (9 vols., 4to.). 
 This work is remarkable, both for its 
 splendor, in which it excels all former 
 botanical works, and for its rarity. Only 
 12 copies were printed, at an expense of 
 more than 10,000 sterling. B. died in 
 1792. He had more pretension than abil- 
 ity. By engaging in politics, for which he 
 had neither talent nor knowledge, he lost 
 his own quiet, and his imprudent meas- 
 ures brought trouble and confusion on the 
 nation. He was reproached with haugh- 
 tiness ; but this was the fault of a noble 
 spirit ; and he steadily refused, during hia 
 ministry, to employ venal writers. Dis- 
 trustful and reserved, he has been describ- 
 ed as harsh, imperious and obstinate ; yet 
 he was generally irresolute, and even 
 timid. His morals were irreproachable* 
 In private life, he displayed an amiable 
 simplicity. 
 
 BUTLER, James, duke of Ormond ; an 
 eminent statesman in the reigns of Charles 
 I and II. He was born at London ; sue-
 
 348 
 
 BUTLER. 
 
 ceeded his grandfather, in 1632, and, al- 
 though all "his connexions were Catholics, 
 his wardship being claimed by James I, 
 he was brought up a member of the 
 church of England, to which he ever after 
 constantly adhered. When Strafford be- 
 came lord-lieutenant of Ireland, B. was 
 made commander of the army, which 
 consisting of only 3000 men, he could do 
 little more than keep the enemy in check, 
 and was obliged to agree to a cessation of 
 hostilities; after which, having been cre- 
 ated a marquis, he was appointed lord- 
 lieutcnant. On the ruin of the royal cause, 
 he retired to France. After the execution 
 of Charles, he returned to Ireland, with a 
 view of raising the people ; but, on the 
 landing of Cromwell, he again returned 
 to France. While abroad, he exerted 
 himself to further the restoration of 
 Charles ; and, when that event was 
 brought about by Monk, returned with the 
 king. Before the coronation, he was cre- 
 ated duke, and assisted at that ceremo- 
 ny as lord high steward of England. In 
 1662, he was again appointed lord-lieu- 
 tenant of Ireland, which country he re- 
 stored to comparative tranquillity, and 
 was an active benefactor to it, by encour- 
 aging various improvements, particularly 
 the growth of flax and manufacture of 
 linen. On the exile of lord Clarendon, 
 his attachment to that nobleman involved 
 B. in much of the odium attached to 
 him, and although, on his recall from Ire- 
 land, nothing, on the most rigorous inqui- 
 ry, could be proved against him, he was 
 removed by the machinations of Bucking- 
 ham. In 1670, a desperate design was 
 formed by the noted colonel Blood, whom 
 he had imprisoned in Ireland, to seize 
 his person, and hang him at Tyburn. 
 The project succeeded so far, that he was 
 one night forcibly taken out of his coach 
 in St. James's street, placed behind a 
 horseman, and carried some distance ; but 
 at length he threw the man and himself 
 from the horse by his personal exertions, 
 and obtained assistance before he could 
 be replaced. The king sent lord Arling- 
 ton to request the duke to forgive the 
 insult; who calmly replied, that, " li' 
 his majesty could pardon Blood for his 
 attempt to steal the crown, he might easi- 
 ly pardon that upon his life;" "adding, 
 that " he would obey the king, without 
 inquiring his reason." For six years, he 
 was deprived of court favor, but at length 
 was again appointed lord-lieutenant of 
 Ireland, which place he held during the 
 remainder of the reign of Charles ; but 
 soon after resigned, his principles not 
 
 suiting the policy of James. He died at 
 his seat in Dorsetshire, in 1688, leaving 
 behind him the character of a man who 
 united the courtier and the man of honor 
 and integrity better than any nobleman of 
 the time. 
 
 BUTLER, Joseph ; an English prelate of 
 distinguished eminence as a writer on 
 ethics and theology. He was born in 
 1692, at Wantage, in Berkshire, where his 
 father was a shopkeeper, and a Presbyte- 
 rian dissenter. After some previous edu- 
 cation at a grammar-school, he was sent 
 to an academy at Tewkesbury, with a 
 view to ordination as a minister among 
 the dissenters. While occupied by his 
 studies, he gave a proof of his talents by 
 some acute and ingenious remarks on 
 doctor Samuel Clarke's Demonstration of 
 the Being and Attributes of God, in pri- 
 vate letters addressed to the author. He 
 likewise paid particular attention to the 
 points of controversy between the mem- 
 bers of the established church and the 
 dissenters, the result of which was a de- 
 termination to be no longer a nonconform- 
 ist ; and he therefore removed to Oxford, 
 in 1714. Having taken orders, he was, 
 in 1718, appointed preacher at the Rolls 
 chapel, and, in 1736, he was appointed 
 clerk of the closet to the queen. The 
 same year, he published his celebrated 
 work, the Analogy of Religion, Natural 
 and Revealed, to the Constitution and 
 Course of Nature. In 1738, doctor B. 
 was promoted to the bishopric of Bristol, 
 on the recommendation of queen Caro- 
 line; and, in 1750, obtained his highest 
 preferment the bishopric of Durham. 
 He died in 1752, and was interred in Bristol 
 cathedral. A charge, delivered to the 
 clergy of the diocese of Durham, on the 
 subject of external religion, together with 
 the circumstance of his setting up a mar- 
 ble cross in his chapel at Bristol, gave 
 rise to suspicions that he was inclined to 
 the principles of popery ; and, after hig 
 death, a report was spread that he had 
 died in the Catholic faith ; but this story 
 was satisfactorily contradicted by arch- 
 bishop Seeker. 
 
 BUTLER, Samuel, a celebrated English 
 poet, was the son of a farmer in Strens- 
 ham, in Worcestershire, where he was 
 bom in 1612, and educated at Cambridge. 
 He resided some time with sir Samuel 
 Luke, a commander under Cromwell. In 
 this situation, B. acquired the materials 
 for his Hudibras, by a study of those 
 around him, and particularly of sir Sam- 
 uel himself, a caricature of whom consti- 
 tuted the celebrated knight Hudibras.
 
 BUTLER BUTTMANN. 
 
 349 
 
 The first part of Hudibras was published 
 in 1GG3, and was brought into the notice 
 of the court by the well-known earl of 
 Dorset. It immediately became highly 
 popular with the prevailing party hi 
 church and state, and served as a general 
 source of quotation; the king himself per- 
 petually answering his courtiers out of 
 Hudibras. Celebrated as it rendered its 
 author, it did nothing towards extricating 
 him from indigence. All the bounty of 
 Charles was a gratuity, said to amount to 
 300. Thus unpatronlaed, but respected 
 for his integrity, and beloved for his social 
 qualities, he died in 1680, and was buried 
 in St. Paul's church, Coveiit garden, at 
 the expense of his friend Mr. Longueville, 
 of the Temple. A monument was, 40 
 years after, erected to his memory in 
 Westminster abbey, by alderman Barber, 
 the printer, lest, as the inscription ob- 
 serves, ne cut vivo deerant fere omnia, de- 
 esset etiam mortuo tumulus (he who, when 
 living, wanted every thing, should, when 
 dead, also want a tomb). Of Hudibras it 
 is scarcely necessary to observe, tiiat, both 
 in its style and matter, it is one of the 
 most original works that was ever written, 
 and that it exhibits the faculty especially 
 denominated wit, meaning the power of 
 rapid illustration by remote contingent 
 resemblances, to a most remarkable de- 
 gree. Possessed of much wit, of great 
 knowledge of life, and extensive learning, 
 B. united in himself all the requisites for 
 his very peculiar undertaking. As a work 
 intended to ridicule the Puritans, the at- 
 traction of Hudibras was great, but tem- 
 porary. As applicable to classes of char- 
 acter which exist for ever, its satire always 
 will be relished. Fanaticism, hypocrisy, 
 and time-serving venality, are of all ages. 
 Its diction, though coarse and negligent, is 
 adapted for the conveyance of the odd 
 and whimsical notions and associations 
 with which the work abounds. In fact, 
 the originality of B., as to matter, elicited 
 equal originality in its delivery. In 1759, 
 appeared the Genuine Remains, in Prose 
 and Verse, of Mr. Butler, from the origi- 
 nal Manuscripts, formerly in the Posses- 
 sion of W. Longueville, Esquire (2 vols., 
 8vo.). 
 
 BUTTER; an oily substance, produced 
 from the milk of kine. Cream is composed 
 of an oily substance, a caseous matter, and 
 serum or whey. If it be agitated about 
 an. hour in a churn, a separation of 
 these parts takes place, and a solid, called 
 butter, and a liquid, called butter-milk, con- 
 sisting of the whey and the caseous mat- 
 ter, are the products. The proportions 
 
 VOL. ii. 30 
 
 of these products, in 100 parts of cream, 
 are, 
 
 Butter, 4.5 
 
 Cheese, 3.5 
 
 Whey, 92.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 Chemical analysis gives stearin*?, elaine, 
 and a small quantity of acid and coloring 
 matter, as the component parts of butter. 
 Beckmann (History of Inventions, 372) 
 comes to the conclusion that butter is not of 
 Grecian nor of Roman invention ; but that 
 the Greeks received it from the Scythians, 
 Thracians and Phrygians, and that the 
 Romans derived it from the people of 
 Germany, and used it as a medicine, rather 
 than as a culinary luxury. In warm coun- 
 tries, the place of butter is still, for the 
 most part, supplied by oil. In Italy, Spain, 
 Portugal, and the south of France, it is 
 to be purchased in the apothecaries' shops. 
 The difficulty of keeping it any length 
 of time is, indeed, an effectual barrier 
 to its general use. The ancients appear 
 to have been wholly deficient in the art 
 of giving it consistency. The European 
 countries, in which oil or butter is used, 
 says Malte-Brun (Geog., liv. xcv), may be 
 separated by a line extending along the 
 Pyrenees, the Cevennes, the Alps and 
 mount Ha3mus. To the north, the pas- 
 turage is better; cattle abound, and the 
 food is chiefly derived from them. The 
 olive-groves to the south supersede the 
 use of butter by that of oil. The butter, 
 beer, and animal food, of the north of Eu- 
 rope, give way to oil, wine and bread, in 
 the warmer regions. The word chameafi, 
 translated butter, in the English version of 
 the Bible, means some liquid preparation 
 of milk or cream. It was in general use 
 among the Celts: Spuma id est lactis, 
 concretiorque quam quod serum vocatur, 
 barbararum gentium lavtissimus ribus. 
 (Pliny, ix, 41, and xxviii, 9.) The Hindoos 
 make use of ghee, which means butter 
 clarified by boiling. They boil the milk 
 two or three hours, which, when cool, is 
 fermented with curdled milk, left to sour, 
 churned, and, when it is sufficiently ran- 
 cid, is boiled, and mixed with salt, or 
 betel-leaf, and ruddle, to improve its taste 
 and color. 
 
 BUTTERFLY. (See Papilio.) 
 
 BUTTMANN, Philip Charles; born at 
 Frankfort, in 1764 ; studied at Gottingen ; 
 was tutor of the princes of Dessau ; and, 
 in 1800, professor of the gymnasium of 
 Joachimsthal ; at present, second librarian 
 and member of the academy of sciences 
 in Berlin. (See Lowe's Autobiography of
 
 350 
 
 BUTTMANN BUXHOWDEN. 
 
 learned Men in Berlin (Selbstbiographie 
 von Berl. Gelehrten), 1807, 3d number.) 
 B. is one of the most distinguished philol- 
 ogists of the present time, uniting with 
 comprehensive learning, penetration, per- 
 spicuity and conciseness of style. His 
 grammatical writings are known and used 
 in all the hest schools. The first edition 
 of his abridged Greek Grammar appeared 
 at Berlin (1792), the seventh, in 1824 ; the 
 tenth edition of the larger Grammar was 
 published in 1822 ; an English translation 
 of the School Grammar, by Everett, ap- 
 peared in 1822 (Boston, N. E.),2ded., 182(3 ; 
 reprinted in England, with the name of 
 the American translator struck out. This 
 work owes its popularity to the philosoph- 
 ical clearness, order and unity with which 
 the elements of the language are illustrat- 
 ed and combined. The philosophical 
 treasures, which were excluded by the 
 limits of a school book, are deposited in 
 two other works ; his Lexilogus, particu- 
 larly intended for the explanation of Ho- 
 mer and Hesiod (1st vol., Berlin, 1818, 
 and 2d ed., 1825) ; and his Complete Greek 
 Grammar (Berlin, 18191825). He was 
 also actively engaged in editing the clas- 
 sics, and in many works on the mythologi- 
 cal periods of antiquity. They are spirit- 
 ed and elegant. 
 
 BUTTONS are of almost all forms and 
 materials wood, horn, bone, ivory, steel, 
 copper, silver, similor, &c. The tailor 
 covers them with stuffs, and the female 
 artisan envelopes them with a texture of 
 thread, silk, cotton and gold or silver 
 thread. The non-metallic buttons, called 
 also moulds, are made of the substances 
 first mentioned, by sawing them into 
 little slips, of the thickness of the button 
 to be made, which are then cut into the 
 form required, by an instrument adapted 
 to the purpose. Metallic buttons are cast 
 in moulds, or cut by a fly-press. Any 
 figure or inscription may be impressed on 
 them at the same time that they are cut. 
 The little wire ring, by which they are 
 attached to a garment, is called shank, and 
 is soldered separately on each button. 
 The details of smoothing, polishing, boil- 
 ing, &c., would occupy too much room. 
 The face of the button is generally plated 
 or gilt. Doctor Church, an American, 
 obtained a patent, in England (1829), for 
 an improved manufacture of buttons with 
 a metallic shank, the face being either of 
 polished metal, or covered with any 
 fabric. The various operations of shaping 
 the discs, forming the shanks, cutting the 
 cloth, and covering the faces of the but- 
 tons, are all effected by one revolving shaft. 
 
 BUTTRESSES, in Gothic architecture, 
 are lateral projections on the outside of 
 the walls of an edifice, extending from 
 the top to the bottom, at the corners and 
 between the windows. They are neces- 
 sary to support the walls, and prevent 
 them from spreading under the weight of 
 the roof. 
 
 BUTTURA, Antonio ; an Italian poet, 
 born at Verona, 1771. When the com- 
 bined A ustrian and Russian armies over- 
 threw the young Italian republics in 1799, 
 B. took refuge in France. At this time, 
 he was known in his own country by 
 some pleasing sonnets, and an Italian 
 translation of Arnault's tragedy of the 
 Venetians. In Paris, he translated Boi- 
 \eu.u's Art Pottique into Italian verse, with 
 a strict adherence to the ideas of the 
 original. The attempt was the more dif- 
 ficult, as Boileau had so harshly censured 
 the master- work of Tasso. Nevertheless, 
 the translation met with approbation in 
 Italy. This approbation of the public 
 induced him to translate, also, Racine's 
 Iphigenie en Aulide into Italian verse. In 
 1811, he printed a volume of poems, 
 mostly odes, full of enthusiasm for France, 
 His Essay on the History of Venice, in 
 Italian prose, received the highest appro- 
 bation in Italy and France, as likewise 
 did his Tableau de la Litterature Italicnne, 
 which is merely an introduction to his 
 lectures at the Athenee, in Paris. 
 
 BUXHOWDEX, Frederic William, count 
 of; descended from an ancient Livonian 
 family ; born on the isle of Moen, near 
 Osel; was educated at St. Petersburg, and 
 engaged in the war against the Turks in 
 1769, and for some time subsequent. In 
 1783, he was made colonel, owing his 
 promotion chiefly to his marriage with 
 Natalia Alexijeff, 1777. In 1790, he de- 
 feated the Swedish generals Hamilton 
 and Meyerfeld, and rescued Fredericks- 
 ham and Viborg. In Poland, he com- 
 manded a Russian division in 1792 and 
 1794. At the storming of Praga, he re- 
 strained, as far as he was able, the fury of 
 the soldiers. Suwaroff intrusted him 
 with the command of Wai-saw and the 
 administration of Poland. His modera- 
 tion and disinterestedness gained him the 
 esteem of the Poles. While military gov- 
 ernor in Petersburg, he fell into disgrace 
 under the emperor Paul. Alexander 
 made him inspector of the troops in Li- 
 vonia, Esthonia and Courland, with the 
 dignity of governor-general. In 1805, he 
 commanded the left wing at Austerlitz, 
 which advanced, whilst the centre and 
 the right wing were beateu. In 1806, he
 
 BUXHOWDEN BUYUKDERE. 
 
 351 
 
 commanded 50,000 Russians, and with- 
 stood the French in the eastern part of 
 Prussia, After the defeat of Pultusk, he 
 was unjustly superseded by count Ben- 
 nigscn. After the battles of Eylau and 
 Friedland, he was again made com- 
 niander-in-cliief. In 1808, with 18,000 
 Russians, he conquered Finland, obliged 
 Sweaborg to capitulate, and terminated 
 the war at Tornea. In 1809, he resigned 
 on account of his health, and died in 
 1811. 
 
 BUXTON ; a market-town in the county 
 of Derby, England, situated in a valley, 
 celebrated for its mineral waters. The 
 springs discharge GO gallons a minute : 
 the temperature of the water is 82. It 
 is colorless, and devoid of taste or smell. 
 It contains calcarious earth, vitriolic sele- 
 nite and sea-salt, and is an active remedy 
 in nephritic and bilious complaints. It is 
 used both externally and internally. The 
 Crescent is an extensive edilice, divided 
 into three hotels, and a private lodging- 
 house. The lowest story forms a colon- 
 nade, extending the whole length of the 
 front, the span of which is 257 feet. The 
 season for the Buxton waters is from 
 June to the end of October. It was 
 known to the Romans; and the unfortu- 
 nate Mary Stuart, while in captivity, re- 
 sided some time at the Hall. She left it 
 with the farewell, 
 
 Buxtona, 
 Forte mihi posthac non adeunda, vale ! 
 
 B. is 159 miles X. N. W. of London. 
 
 BUXTON, Jedediah, an extraordinary 
 calculator, was born in Eberton, in Derby- 
 shire. His education was wholly neglect- 
 ed : he was never taught to read or write ; 
 and how he first learned the proportions 
 of numbers, their powers and denomina- 
 tions, he never could remember. His 
 power of abstraction was so great, that no 
 noise whatever could disturb him ; and, 
 when asked any question, he would reply, 
 and immediately return to his calculation, 
 without the least confusion. He was 
 once asked this question : In a body, 
 whose three sides are 23,145,789 yards, 
 5,(34Q,733 yards, and 54,9(55 yards, how 
 many cubical eighths of an inch ? He im- 
 mediately set to work, though in the midst 
 of a hundred laborers, and, in about five 
 hours, produced the exact answer. His 
 application to figures prevented his mak- 
 ing the smallest progress in any other 
 branch of knowledge; and, on other sub- 
 jects, his ideas were as confined as those 
 of a ehild. In 1754, he walked to Lon- 
 don, and was introduced to the royal soci- 
 ety. He was also taken to see Richard 
 
 III, at Drury lane, where, instead of pay- 
 ing attention to the entertainment, he w r as 
 engaged in counting how many words 
 Garrick uttered, and the steps of the 
 dancers. He died at about 70 years of 
 age. 
 
 BUXTORF, John, an eminent Calvinistic 
 divine, was born in 1564, at Camen, in 
 Westphalia. Being very learned in He- 
 brew and Chaldaic, in the acquirement of 
 which he obtained the assistance of many 
 learned Jews, he was engaged, by the 
 magistrates of Basil, in the professorship 
 of those languages, which he taught with 
 great success. He died at Basil, in 1629. 
 His works are, Lexicon Chaldaicum Thal- 
 mudicum et Rabbinicum; Thesaurus Lin- 
 gua; Hcbraicce ; Hebrew Bible, with the 
 Rabbinical and Chaldaic Paraphrases, the 
 Massora, &c. ; Hebrew and Chaldaic Dic- 
 tionary ; Hebrew Grammar ; Synagoga, 
 Judaica, a Collection of Modes and Cere- 
 monies ; Bibliotheca Rabbinica ; Imtitittw 
 Epistolaris Hebraica; ConcordanticE He- 
 braiccs, &c. &c. 
 
 BUXTORF, John, son of the preceding, 
 was bom at Basil, in 1599, and was made 
 professor of the Oriental languages there, 
 He published a Chaldaic and Syriac Lex- 
 icon ; Tradatiw de Punctorum Vocalium et 
 Jlccentuum in Libris veteris Testamenti He- 
 braicis Origine, Antiquitate et ductoritatc ; 
 and Anti-critica, seu Vindicice Vei'itatis He- 
 braiccE ; in the two last of which he de- 
 fended his father's opinions concerning 
 the Hebrew vowel points. He was also 
 the author of Dissertations on the Old and 
 New Testament ; Florilegium Hebraicum ; 
 Ezercitationes Philologico-critica:, &c. He 
 died at Basil, in 1664. There were two 
 other Buxtorfs John James, and John 
 relations of the former, who both were 
 professors in the same chair at Basil, and 
 both writers on Hebrew literature. 
 
 BUYUKDERE (i. e., great valley, from 
 buyuk, great, and dere, valley) ; a charm- 
 ing little town on the western side of the 
 Bosphorus, not far from Constantinople 
 and the Black sea, so called from the 
 great valley in which it lies, whence also 
 the stream passing through it is called B. 
 The yalley, as well as the river, is called 
 ZadvKo\*os t i. e., the deep-bosomed. It was 
 formerly called the fair land ( Ka \os aypos). 
 This splendid walk is now called the 
 meadows (Libadia, la prairie). In the 
 lower part of this meadow is one of the 
 most splendid groups of trees on the Bos- 
 phorus, consisting of seven plane-trees, 
 which are called, together, Jedi Kardasch, 
 i. e., the seven brothers. According to a 
 tradition not well substantiated, Godfrey
 
 352 
 
 BUYUKDERE BUZZARD. 
 
 of Bouillon encamped in these meadows, 
 in 10SXJ, with an arriiy of crusaders. The 
 place consists of the lower and the upper 
 town. In the former are the houses of 
 the Greeks, Armenians, and some Turks. 
 In the upper part are the summer-houses 
 and gardens of the European ambassa- 
 dors, besides which, many also have 
 houses in Belgrade. Among these houses, 
 the most splendid is the palace of the 
 Russian ambassador, with its gardens. 
 This and several other palaces lie to- 
 gether on the beautiful quay, which is 
 one of the most frequented walks of the 
 people of B. A long and handsome 
 street, running through the place, con- 
 sists of two rows of houses, built, for the 
 most part, in the European fashion. 
 Foreigners often pass the winter here, 
 on account of the beauty of the country. 
 B. is also the general resort of the higher 
 classes, if a contagious disease prevails in 
 Constantinople, Galata or Pera, as well 
 as when an insurrection of the people is 
 apprehended. (See Frankland's Journey 
 to and from, Constantinople, London, 1829.) 
 BUZZARD (vultur aura, Wils. ; cathartes 
 aura, Illig. ; commonly called turkey- 
 buzzard, or turkey-vulture}. This bird is 
 found over a vast extent of territory on 
 the American continent, in the West India 
 islands, and in the southern parts of Eu- 
 rope and Asia. In the U. States, they are 
 most numerous in the southern parts, and 
 appear in the Northern States only during 
 the summer. The turkey-buzzard is a 
 perfectly harmless creature, and derives 
 its food exclusively from the putrid car- 
 casses which are to be found within its 
 range. It is, therefore, seldom disturbed 
 by man, and does not exhibit much timid- 
 ity, though by no means in the habit of 
 frequenting the immediate vicinity of hu- 
 man dwellings, like its allied species, the 
 black vulture, or carrion crow of the 
 south. The turkey-buzzard is gregari- 
 ous, and flocks of considerable size are 
 always found to feed and roost together. 
 For the latter purpose, they generally 
 choose the limbs of dead trees, upon 
 which they may be seen sitting, with both 
 wings outspread, in the morning, as.if for 
 the purpose of giving the fresh air free 
 access to their bodies. When their fa- 
 vorite carrion is to be obtained, they are 
 very voracious, gorging themselves until 
 actually unable to contain more, and even, 
 for a time, rendering themselves unable 
 to fly. Under such circumstances, it is 
 unadvisable to approach them, as they 
 are sure to be revenged upon their dis- 
 turbers by vomiting over them a torrent 
 
 of horribly disgusting filth. This is the 
 only mode in which they attempt to de- 
 fend themselves ; and they especially re- 
 sort to it when any one interferes with 
 their nests. The turkey-buzzard flies in 
 a very beautiful manner, rarely flapping 
 the wings, except in rising from the 
 earth, but sailing and dipping in beautiful 
 curved lines, traversing a vast space with 
 wonderful celerity and ease, or soaring to 
 the higher regions of the atmosphere, 
 until entirely lost to sight. Like all the 
 birds of their class, the buzzards possess 
 strong powers of vision ; but the sense of 
 smelling is that by which they are princi- 
 pally guided to their food. This they are 
 capable of thus discovering from im- 
 mense distances, and the most striking 
 facts illustrative of the acuteness of their 
 olfactory organs are on record. Notwith- 
 standing these, and the obvious evidence 
 afforded by the structure of their smelling 
 apparatus, ti recent writer has undertaken 
 to assert that they are possessed of little 
 or no power of smelling. The places 
 chosen by the turkey-buzzard for laying 
 are generally in remote and solitary 
 swamps, or dense forests, where a hollow 
 stump or rotten log serves for a nest. 
 The eggs are from two to four, of a dull- 
 white or cream color, splashed with 
 chocolate and black, the patches of this 
 being largest and thickest towards the 
 larger end. The egg resembles that of a 
 goose, but is blunter at the small end : it 
 is two inches and three fourths long by 
 two broad. The young are covered by a 
 whitish down, somewhat similar to that 
 upon a young gosling. Some years since, 
 we obtained a young buzzard while still 
 covered with long, white down, with the 
 exception of the wings, which were partly 
 feathered. It was unable to fly, and had 
 advanced to a party of wood-cutters, 
 while at work, having apparently wan- 
 dered too far from the nest to retrace its 
 steps. As it seemed hungry, one of them 
 gave it some meat, which it greedily 
 swallowed, and afterwards remained with 
 them until they returned home, and 
 brought it with them. -This young buz- 
 zard speedily became domesticated, and 
 as importunately demanded food as any 
 of the regular tenants of the poultry-yard. 
 It ate all sorts of meat and garbage, uni- 
 formly preferring the most filthy. As it 
 acquired full plumage, it began to kill and 
 devour the young ducks and chickens, 
 placing one foot upon the victim, and 
 leisurely tearing it to pieces with the bill. 
 As this buzzard learned to fly, he fre- 
 quently made excursions, and returned to
 
 BUZZARD BYLES. 
 
 353 
 
 roost upon a kitchen ehimney. At length 
 he one day joined a flock which was 
 soaring over his residence, and never 
 after returned. The turkey-buzzard is 
 two feet and a half long, and his wings 
 are six feet two inches from tip to tip. 
 The head and neck, for an inch and a 
 half below the ears, are furnished with a 
 reddish, wrinkled skin, beset with short, 
 black liaLrs, which also cover the bill, as 
 far as the anterior angle of the nostrils, 
 which are oval. The plumage is black, 
 the neck feathered equally all round, and 
 the wings not reaching beyond the tail. 
 The tail. is rounded. There is no obvi- 
 ous difference between the male and fe- 
 male. 
 
 BUZZARD'S BAT ; a bay on the south 
 coast of Massachusetts, opposite Barnsta- 
 ble bay. It runs up between Seakonnet 
 point on the west, and Chatahunk, one 
 of the Elizabeth islands, on the east; is 35 
 or 40 miles long, and 7 wide. It ap- 
 proaches within 3 miles of Barnstable 
 bay. It has been contemplated to unite 
 these bays by a canal. Lon. 70 33' to 
 71 W W. ; laL 41 25' to 41 42' N. 
 
 BY-LAW is a particular law made by a 
 corporation, or by any other distinct por- 
 tion of the community, for the regulation 
 of the affairs of its members in such of 
 their relations as are not reached by the 
 general law of the land. Such private 
 laws may legally be made by all incoiv 
 porated bodies, as civic corporations, trad- 
 ing companies, &c,, and even by the body 
 of the inhabitants of a town or parish, 
 provided they involve the infraction of 
 no public laws, but are merely calculated 
 to supply their want of application in the 
 particular instance. These private laws 
 are binding only on the members of the 
 body for which they are framed, and will 
 not bo recognised as valid unless they . 
 appear to be intended for the general 
 good of that body, and not for the mere 
 furtherance of private or personal inter- 
 ests. 
 
 BYLES, doctor Mather, was born in 
 Boston in 1706, and educated at Cam-; 
 bridge. After completing his studies in 
 theology, he was ordained the first pastor 
 of the church in Hollis street, Boston, B. 
 contributed many essays to the New Eng- 
 land Weekly Journal, and several occa- 
 sional poems, some of which were coir 
 lected in a volume, lie corresponded 
 with Pope, Lansdowne and Watts. In 
 1776, his connexion with his congregation 
 was dissolved, on account of his toryism, 
 for any disaffection to the cause of the 
 colonies could no longer be tolerated. In 
 30* 
 
 1777, he was denounced, in town-meeting, 
 as an enemy to his country, and after- 
 wards was tried before a special court. 
 The charges against him were, that he 
 remained in the town during the siege, 
 that he prayed for the king, and received 
 the visits of the British officers. He was 
 sentenced to confinement, with his fam- 
 ily, on board a guard-ship, and to be sent 
 to England with them. On being brought 
 before the board of war, he was treat- 
 ed with respect, and was ordered to be 
 confined to his own house for a short 
 time. He possessed, in a remarkable de- 
 gree, a ready and powerful wit, which he 
 sometimes exerted where good nature 
 would have refrained, and left a lasting 
 sting by a transient jest. He exhibited 
 this love of ridicule in various ways. On 
 one occasion, when sentenced, under sus- 
 picion of toryism, to be confined to his 
 own house, with a sentinel over him, he 
 persuaded this sentinel to go on an errand 
 for him, promising to take his place, 
 The sentinel consented to the arrange- 
 ment, and, to the great amusement of all 
 who passed, B, was seen very gravely 
 marching before his own door, the mus-r 
 ket on his shoulder, keeping guard over 
 himself. During his confinement in his 
 own house, a guard was placed over him, 
 and then removed. On some further com- 
 plaint, a sentinel was again placed over 
 him. He was soon freed, and no further 
 noticed. In speaking of these transact 
 tions, he said, ^'he had been guarded, 
 reguarded, and disregarded." Directly 
 opposite to his house there was a very 
 bad slough in wet weather. It happened 
 one day, that two of the select-men, who 
 had the care of the streets, stuck fast in 
 this hole, and were obliged to get out in 
 the mud to extricate their vehicle. B. 
 came out, and, making them a respectful 
 bow, said : " Gentlemen, I have often 
 complained to you of this nuisance, with- 
 out any attention being paid to it, and I 
 am very glad to see you stirring in this 
 matter now." A ship from London 
 brought out 300 street lamps for the town 
 of Boston. It chanced that, on the same 
 day, a female neighbor, who was a new 
 light, with a weak mind and a whining 
 manner, called to see him. Wishing to 
 get rid of the visitor, he soon asked, with 
 a tone calculated to excite curiosity, if 
 she had heard the news. " O, no ! dear 
 doctor, what news ?" " Why, 300 new 
 lights have come over in the ship that 
 arrived this morning from London, and 
 the selectmen have wisely ordered them 
 to be put in irons immediately." His
 
 354 
 
 BYLES BYRON. 
 
 visitor at once hurried away, in great 
 anxiety, to make further inquiries. B. 
 lived in retirement the last 12 years of 
 his life, and died July 5, 1788, at the age 
 of 82. 
 
 BY.NG, John, served under his father, 
 admiral George B., and by his merits, as 
 well as the influence of his name, was 
 raised to the rank of admiral. His at- 
 tempts to relieve fort St. Philip, in Minor- 
 ca, when blockaded by a French fleet 
 under La Galissoniere, proved abortive ; 
 and his hesitation in engaging the enemy, 
 when a bold attack might have perhaps 
 gained him the victory, excited the clamor 
 of the nation against him. The ministry, 
 who wished to avert the public odium 
 from their unsuccessful measures, beheld 
 with seeming satisfaction the unpopulari- 
 ty of B. ; and, when he was condemned 
 by a court martial, they suffered him, 
 though recommended to mercy, to be 
 sacrificed to the general indignation, and 
 lie was shot at Portsmouth, March 14, 
 1757, meeting his death with calm res- 
 ignation. 
 
 BYNKERSHOECK, Cornelius van ; a Dutch 
 lawyer, born at Middleburg in 1675. He 
 studied at the university of Franeker, 
 and, after practising as a banister at the 
 Hague, became professor of law at Ley- 
 den, and president of the council of Hol- 
 land. He died in 1743. B. was one of 
 the most learned among modem civilians. 
 His works were published at Geneva in 
 1761, and at Leyden in 1766. They are 
 written in Latin ; and his treatise De 
 Foro Legatorum competenie was trans- 
 lated, by Barbeyrac, into French, under 
 the title of Du Juge competent des *4mbas- 
 sadeurs, 1728, 4to. B. edited a periodical 
 publication, called TJie New Mercury of 
 Hie Hague, which was suppressed, owing 
 to the offence taken at the strain of satire 
 which it exhibited. 
 
 BYRON (George Gordon) lord, an Eng- 
 lish peer and poet of elevated genius, was 
 born at Dover, Jan. 22, 1788. He was 
 the grandson of admiral John B. (q. v.), 
 and succeeded his great uncle, William 
 lord B., while at school, in 1798. His 
 father was the admiral's only son, captain 
 John B. of the guards, notorious for his 
 gallantries and reckless dissipation. By 
 the eccentricity and misconduct of the old 
 lord B., and of the captaiii his nephew, 
 the reputation of the family of B., so 
 ancient and honorable in English history, 
 had been considerably tarnished. The 
 former was tried by his peers for killing 
 his relation, Mr. Chaworth, in a combat 
 with swords, after a tavern dispute, under 
 
 circumstances so equivocal, that he was 
 indicted for murder, and only saved from 
 the penalty attendant on manslaughter by 
 pleading his peerage an escape which 
 did not prevent him from being consigned, 
 by public opinion, to a life of seclusion 
 iind obscurity. Captain B., the poet's la- 
 ther, was so dissipated, that he obtained 
 the name of the mad Jack Byron. He wad 
 one of the handsomest men of his day, 
 but so immersed in all the fashionable 
 vices, that, at length, to be seen in his 
 company was deemed discreditable. In 
 his 27th year, he seduced Amelia, mar- 
 chioness of Carmarthen, daughter of the 
 earl of Holdernesse, to whom, on a di- 
 vorce following, he was united in mar- 
 riage. This ceremony the ill-fated lady 
 did not survive more than two years, 
 when he took, for a second wife, Miss 
 Gordon, whose fortune he quickly dissi- 
 pated, leaving her a destitute widow, in 
 1791, with a son, the celebrated subject 
 of this article, then only three years of 
 age. Previously to the death of her hus- 
 band, having been deserted by him, Mrs. 
 B. retired, with her infant son, to Aber- 
 deen, where she lived hi narrow circum- 
 stances and great seclusion. The singular 
 circumstances attendant upon the early 
 childhood of B. seem to have operated 
 very materially in the formation of his 
 veiy striking character. Until seven years 
 of age, the care of his education rested 
 solely on his mother, to whose excusable, 
 but injudicious indulgence, some of the 
 waywardness, by which it was subse- 
 quently marked, was, even by himself, 
 attributed. Being then of a weakly con- 
 stitution, that disadvantage, added to a 
 slight malconformation in one of his feet, 
 naturally rendered him an object of pe- 
 culiar solicitude ; and, to invigorate his 
 constitution, he was not sent to school, 
 but allowed to brace his limbs upon the 
 mountains in the neighborhood ; where 
 he early acquired associations, and en- 
 countered a mass of legendary lore, which 
 indisputably nurtured his poetical tenden- 
 cies. At the age of seven, he was sent to 
 the grammar-school at Aberdeen, where 
 he was more distinguished for great occa- 
 sional exertion?, in order to make up for 
 the intervals of absence, rendered neces- 
 sary by his delicacy of health, than by 
 his general application. In all boyish 
 sports, however, the ardor of his temper- 
 ament enabled him to surmount his natu- 
 ral disadvantages. In 1798, the death of 
 his great uncle, without issue, gave him 
 the ntles and estates of the family ; on 
 which, being then ten years of age, he
 
 BYRON. 
 
 355 
 
 was removed from the immediate care of 
 his mother, and placed under the guardi- 
 anship of the earl of Carlisle, who had 
 married the sister of the late lord B., a 
 lady of considerable poetical abilities. On 
 this change, the youthful lord was placed 
 at Harrow, where he distinguished him- 
 self more by his love of manly sports, 
 and by his undaunted spirit, than by at- 
 tention to his studies, or submission to 
 school discipline ; but, although, in a sub- 
 sequent part of his life, he indulged in 
 some animadversion upon the tendency 
 of the system in public schools, he always 
 cherished an affectionate remembrance 
 of Harrow, and of its master, doctor 
 Drury. While yet at school, he fell 
 deeply in love with Miss Chavvorth, the 
 daughter and heiress of the gentleman 
 who had fallen by the hand of his great 
 uncle, whom he met with on his oc- 
 casional visits to Newstead. This lady, 
 to whom he very beautifully alludes in a 
 well-known poetical Dream, although 
 some interviews and billets seem to have 
 passed between them, ultimately married 
 another and more mature suitor. This 
 disappointment exceedingly wounded 
 the ardent spirit of the youthful lover. 
 When between 16 and 17, he was entered 
 of Trinity college, Cambridge ; and here, 
 as at Harrow, his dislike of discipline 
 drew upon him much unavoidable re- 
 buke, which he repaid with sarcasm and 
 satire ; and, among other practical jokes, 
 kept a bear, which, he observed, he was 
 training up for a degree. At 19, he quit- 
 ted the university, and took up his resi- 
 dence at the family seat of Newstead 
 abbey, where he employed himself chiefly 
 in amusement, and especially in aquatic 
 sports and swimming. In 1807, while 
 still at Newstead, he arranged his early 
 productions, which he caused to be print- 
 ed at Newark, under the tide of Hours of 
 Idleness, by George Gordon Lord Byron, 
 a Minor. These poems, although exlii'n- 
 iting some indication of the future poet, 
 also betrayed several marks of juvenility 
 and imitation, which induced the Edin- 
 burgh reviewers to indulge in a cele- 
 brated attack, much less distinguished for 
 wit or acumen, than for unreasonable 
 causticity and ill-nature. The ridicule 
 produced by this critique roused the an- 
 ger of the poet, who took revenge in his 
 celebrated satire of English Bards and 
 Scotch Reviewers. The spirit of resent- 
 ment is seldom very just; and the anger, 
 rather than the judgment of B., guided 
 his pen on this occasion. It happened, 
 too, singularly enough, that, owing to 
 
 party and other predilections, a number 
 of the persons satirized in this poem, no 
 long time after, were numbered among 
 the friends of the author ; for which rea- 
 son, after it had passed through 4 editions, 
 he suppressed it. It is unpleasant to re- 
 late, that, about this time, B. gave into a 
 career of dissipation, too prevalent among 
 the youthful possessors of rank and for- 
 tune, when altogether uncontrolled. Thus 
 his fortune became deeply involved be- 
 fore he had attained legal maturity, and 
 his constitution much impaired by the 
 excesses in which he spent it. This, 
 however, was not a course to last ; and, 
 in the year 1809, he determined to trav- 
 el. Accordingly, in company with his 
 fellow collegian, John Cam Hobhouse, 
 Esq., he embarked at Falmouth for Lis- 
 bon, and proceeded through the southern 
 provinces of Spain to the Mediterranean. 
 His subsequent peregrinations in Greece, 
 Turkey, &c., need not be detailed here, 
 having been rendered so famous by his 
 fine poem of Childe Harold's Pilgrimage. 
 He returned home in June, 1811, after an 
 absence of two years, and had not long 
 arrived, before he was summoned to 
 Newstead, in consequence of the danger- 
 ous illness of his mother, who breathed 
 her last before he could reach her. In 
 1812, he gave to the world the two first 
 cantos of Childe Harold's Pilgrimage. 
 This assumption of the character of a 
 wayward libertine, satiated, by an over 
 cultivation of pleasure, into misanthropy, 
 tedium and listlessness, and that in such 
 a manner, that the application would 
 necessarily be made to himself, afforded 
 proof both of the perverted feeling and of 
 the originality of B. There was, how- 
 ever, a boldness in the repulsive personi- 
 fication, and a force and an energy in the 
 mode of supporting it, so indicative of 
 great powers, that it at once produced its 
 impression. Eulogy now flowed in from 
 all quarters. Even the readers who dis- 
 approved the misanthropy and sombre 
 views of human nature, displayed in this 
 extraordinary production, confessed its 
 genius. Thus the feelings of admiration 
 became general, and, the strong current 
 of fasliion turning directly in his favor, 
 his acquaintance was widely, not to say 
 universally, courted ; and his first entry 
 on the stage of public life may be dated 
 from this era. Nor were the manners, 
 person and conversation of B. of a nature 
 to dissipate the charm with which his 
 talents had invested him. Although easy 
 and affable in his general manners, the 
 latent reserve of conscious genius was
 
 356 
 
 BYRON. 
 
 always observable ; added to which, the 
 associations connected with his identifi- 
 cation with his own Childe Harold ex- 
 cited a mysterious and indefinable curios- 
 ity. Even his physiognomy was emi- 
 nently calculated to keep up the interest 
 which lie otherwise inspired ; the pre- 
 dominating expression of his fine features 
 being that of deep and habitual thought, 
 although, when engaged in interesting 
 discussion, they as forcibly exhibited 
 gayety, indignation and satire. Thus, in 
 the imitative world of fashion, the enthu- 
 siastic looked on him to admire, the seri- 
 ous to admonish, and the soft with a 
 desire to console. The latter sympathy 
 lie excited too powerfully in certain 
 quarters, and a course of noxious intrigue 
 was the consequence. It is more gratify- 
 ing to observe, that, in the midst of all 
 this license, he was capable of delicate 
 and generous actions, of which a number 
 of well authenticated instances are on 
 record. The quick and scrutinizing 
 glance which he had cast on Eastern 
 character and manners was now mani- 
 fested in the Giaour, the Bride of Aby- 
 dos, the Corsair (the copyright of which, 
 as well as that of Childe Harold, he gave 
 to Mr. Dallas), Lara, and the Siege of 
 Corinth, which followed one another in 
 quick succession. For parliamentary dit- 
 ties he seems to have had a decided 
 distaste ; and it was not until his return 
 from the continent, that he ventured to 
 speak. He made his maiden speech in 
 February, 1812, from the opposition bench, 
 against the frame-work bill, and was ar- 
 gumentative and lively, if not very origi- 
 nal. Having now become a character 
 whose support might be of considerable 
 consequence, he was congratulated ac- 
 cordingly. Another time, he addressed 
 the house in support of Catholic emanci- 
 pation, and a third and last time on pre- 
 senting a petition from major Cartwright. 
 On the 2d of January, 1815, he married 
 Anna Isabella, only daughter of sir Ralph 
 Milbanke Noel, baronet, to whom he had 
 proposed himself a year before, and been 
 rejected. The fortune received with his 
 lady was not large, and, his own having 
 been previously much enthralled, the 
 reckless system of splendor which suc- 
 ceeded the marriage could not be long 
 maintained ; and, after enduring consider- 
 able embarrassments, it was finally settled, 
 that lady B., who had presented his lord- 
 ship with a daughter on the 10th of 
 December, should pay her father a visit, 
 until better arrangements could be made. 
 From this visit lady B, ultimately re- 
 
 fused to return, and a formal separation 
 ensued. This rupture produced a con- 
 siderable sensation in the world of fashion, 
 and the most contradictory rumors pre- 
 vailed, in the midst of which B. left 
 England, with an expressed resolution 
 never to return. He crossed over to 
 France, through which he passed rapidly 
 to Brussels, taking, on his way, a survey 
 of the field of Waterloo. He then visited 
 the banks of the Rhine, Switzerland, and 
 the north of Italy, and, for some time, 
 took up his abode at Venice. Here he 
 was joined by Mr. Hobhouse, who accom- 
 panied him on a visit to Rome, where he 
 completed his third canto of Childe Har- 
 old. Not long after appeared the Pris- 
 oner of Chillon, a Dream, and other 
 Poems ; and, in 1817, Manfred, a tragedy, 
 and the Lament of Tasso. In one of his 
 excursions from Italy, he resided, for 
 some time, at Abydos, and thence pro- 
 ceeded toTenedos and the island of Scio, 
 where he likewise staid three months; 
 during which time he visitecl every clas- 
 sical scene, and frequently slept in the 
 peasants' cottages, to whom his liberality 
 made him a welcome guest. He also 
 visited several other islands, and at length 
 repaired to Athens, where he sketched 
 many of the scenes of the fourth ami last 
 canto of Childe Harold, which poem was 
 published in 1818, and sustained the high 
 reputation of the author. In the same 
 year appeared the jeu d 1 esprit of Beppo, 
 in the mixed and pointed manner of the- 
 Italian style of poetical humor, and mark- 
 ed by a tone of loose morality, which 
 ripened into licentiousness in Don Juan. 
 In 1819 was published the romantic tale 
 of Mazeppa, and the same year was 
 marked by the commencement of Don 
 Juan, which his bookseller, Mr. Murray, 
 declined openly to publish. Of this cel- 
 ebrated production, it is as vain to deny 
 the profligacy as the genius. In 1820 
 was published Marino Faliero, Doge of 
 Venice, a tragedy, written with an avow- 
 ed attention to the exploded system of 
 the dramatic unities, which too frequently 
 subtracts from the interest all that it gives 
 to more cold and classical qualities ; nor 
 did this eflbrt of B.'s prove an exception. 
 The next year, he addressed a letter to 
 Mr. VV. Lisle Bowles, in defence of the 
 poetical character of Pope, which had 
 been rated very low in that writer's life 
 of him. This dispute arose out of a dis- 
 position, in certain critics, to ground poet- 
 ical character exclusively on a tendency 
 to deal with the primary associations con- 
 nected with natural objects and affections,
 
 BYRON. 
 
 357 
 
 rather than on the more complex and 
 factitious combinations produced by art 
 and cultivation. This school not unfre- 
 quently pushes its theory to an extreme, 
 as in the case of Pope, whom B., on the 
 other hand, may have somewhat hyper- 
 bolically exalted. In the same year ap- 
 peared the drama of Sardanapalus, indis- 
 putably the finest of his tragic offspring ; 
 the Two Foscari, a tragedy ; and Cain, a 
 mystery. The last is a production of 
 much power, but marked by the same 
 rashness of speculation and recklessness 
 of moral effect, which disfigure many of 
 die author's productions. When B. quit- 
 ted Venice, after visiting several parts of 
 the Italian dominions of Austria, he set- 
 tled at Pisa ; where he became connected 
 with the Gamba family, in whose behalf 
 he endured some inconvenience, which 
 ended in the banishment of the counts 
 Gamba, and the open residence of the 
 countess with B. In 1822, in conjunction 
 with Mr. Leigh Hunt, who, on invitation, 
 had become his guest, and Mr. Percy 
 Bysshe Shelly, the periodical publication 
 called the Liberal was commenced, 
 which, principally owing to the unhappy 
 fate of Mr. Shelly (who perished by the 
 upsetting of a boat in the Mediterranean), 
 extended only to four numbers. In this 
 work first appeared the Vision of Judg- 
 ment, caused by the singularly ill-judged 
 performance, under the same title, of Mr. 
 Southey. The publisher was prosecuted, 
 and fined 100. Heaven and Earth, a 
 mystery, also first appeared in the Lib- 
 eral. It is founded on the supposed 
 intercourse between angels and the 
 daughters of earth before the flood, and 
 possesses great force and beauty. The 
 later cantos of Don Juan, with Werner, a 
 tragedy, and the Deformed Transformed, 
 a fragment, bring up the rear of B.'s 
 performances. In the autumn of 1822, 
 he quitted Paris, and wintered at Genoa, 
 and now began to indulge those feelings, 
 in regard to the efforts of the Greeks to 
 throw off the Mohammedan yoke, which 
 determined him to lend them the aid 
 of his person, purse and influence. It 
 would also appear, by some noble versos 
 which have been printed ^ince his death, 
 that a secret consciousness of his career 
 of action having too long been unworthy 
 of him, induced him to seek a nobler spe- 
 cies of distinction than one of mere self- 
 engrossment and successful gallantry. It 
 is unnecessary to dwell upon the general 
 tendency of powerful minds, at a particu- 
 lar stage of existence, to break from the 
 enthrahnents of pleasure and the senses, 
 
 because it has been the great theme of 
 allegory ever since allegory was invent- 
 ed. In addition to being satiated with 
 the usual enjoyments of a dissipated man 
 of rank, and disgusted with the sameness 
 of common-place life, many circumstances 
 contributed to render B. an enthusiast for 
 Greece. In common with many more, 
 the associations connected with its illus- 
 trious history doubtless served to stimu- 
 late his concern for its modern degrada- 
 tion ; but in him these feelings were 
 quickened by an acquaintance with its 
 grand and beautiful scenery, its various 
 races of wild and picturesque manners, 
 and by the personal interest which he had 
 already excited there. Whatever may 
 have been the exact combination of mo- 
 tive, in August, 1823, he embarked, ac- 
 companied by five or six friends, in an 
 English vessel, which he had hired for 
 the purpose, and arrived at the com- 
 mencement of the third campaign. He 
 established himself some time in Cepha- 
 lonia, and despatched his friends, Messrs. 
 Trelawney and Hamilton Brown, with a 
 letter to the Greek government. The 
 result of their information induced him 
 to advance 12,000 for the relief of Mis- 
 solunghi. The dissensions among the 
 Greeks gave him great pain, and involved 
 him in considerable difficulties. At length 
 he sailed from Argostoli with two Ionian 
 vessels, and, taking considerable specie on 
 board, proceeded to Missolunghi, where, 
 after considerable hazard and danger, and 
 the loss of one of his vessels, he finally 
 arrived, and was received with every 
 mark of honor Grecian gratitude could 
 devise. His influence was immediately 
 salutary in the mitigation of the ferocity 
 with which the war was waged on the 
 part of the Greeks ; but it was much 
 more difficult to produce union among 
 their leaders. He immediately began to 
 form a brigade of Suliotes, 500 of whom 
 were taken into his pay, with a viesv to 
 an expedition against Lepanto ; but such 
 was tlie disorderly and unsettled temper 
 of these troops, that he was obliged to 
 postpone it. This unexpected disappoint- 
 ment preyed on his spirits, and, Feb. 15, 
 lie was attacked with a severe fit of epi- 
 lepsy. He had, subsequently, other at- 
 tacks, but at length the violence of the 
 disorder began to yield to the skill of his 
 physician, and he was recommended to 
 remove, for a while, from the flat, marshy 
 and unhealthy site of Missolunghi, to 
 Zante. This step, with his usual tenaci- 
 ty, he refused to take. "I cannot quit 
 Greece (he wrote to a friend) while there
 
 358 
 
 BYRON 
 
 is a chance of my being even of (sup- 
 posed) utility. There is a stake worth 
 millions such as I am, and while I can 
 stand at all, I must stand by the cause. 
 While I say this, I am aware of the diffi- 
 culties, dissensions and defects of the 
 Greeks themselves ; but allowance must 
 be made for them by all reasonable peo- 
 ple." On the expedition against Lepanto 
 being given up, other projects were pro- 
 posed with reference both to military op- 
 em t ions and to congresses for uniting 
 Eastern and Western Greece ; but, un- 
 happily, the fatal moment was at hand 
 which was to deprive the Greek cause of 
 its firm and energetic friend. On the 9th 
 of April, B., while riding out, got ex- 
 tremely wet ; and, scarcely recovered 
 from the effects of his former disorder, a 
 fever ensued, which, it is thought, might 
 have yielded to copious bleeding in the 
 first instance, but which, owing either to 
 his own objection or the inaccurate opin- 
 ion of the physician of the nature of the 
 disease, was destined to prove fatal on the 
 evening of the 19th of April, 1824. During 
 his illness, some fine traits of humanity 
 and feeling for his attendants were exhib- 
 ited by B., and nearly his last words, pre- 
 vious to sinking into the lethargy which 
 ended in death, were, "My wife, my 
 child, my sister! you know all~yoti 
 must say all." His utterance then failed 
 him, as it had previously done in refer- 
 ring to the same near connexions. Thus, 
 in his 37th year, prematurely died this 
 extraordinary genius, to the deep afflic- 
 tion of the people whose cause he had 
 espoused, who decreed every possible 
 public testimony of their sorrow. Nor 
 was his death a subject of less regret to 
 many, who looked for a noble recom- 
 pense, in the maturity of his life, for the 
 faults of its commencement and preced- 
 ing progress. Many of his errors were 
 evidently the result of a too early release 
 from all discipline and control, and the 
 neglect which family circumstances had 
 thrown round him. In other respects, 
 the vices and failings of B., undeniable, it 
 is true, were much magnified by the pe- 
 culiarity of his genius and character, 
 which attracted an intensity of observa- 
 tion to all which concerned him. The 
 disposition of the public at once to ad- 
 mire and condemn, accompanied as it 
 was with an involuntary tendency to con- 
 found the character of the poet with some 
 of the most romantic creations of his 
 imagination, however it might annoy him 
 in the first instance, in the sequel too ob- 
 viously nurtured a degree of personal 
 
 vanity, which formed one of the greatest 
 weaknesses of his character. Common- 
 place censure produces little effect when 
 coupled with great admiration, and still 
 less is effected by the virulence of party 
 attack, or by direct personal hostility. 
 The morals of B., on the score of gal- 
 lantry, his carelessness of female reputa- 
 tion, and hasty and vindictive spirit of re- 
 sentment, are altogether indefensible ; but 
 it is certain that they were mixed up with 
 great humanity, benevolence and gen- 
 erosity. It was evident, too, from his 
 death, and many other circumstances, 
 that, whatever his pride and resentment 
 at being so decisively abandoned, he nur- 
 tured the natural feelings of a husband 
 and father deep in his bosom. In respect 
 to several disputed points of his conduct, 
 the Memoirs, by himself (which he gave 
 to Mr. Moore to raise a loan from Mr- 
 Murray, the bookseller, and which that 
 gentleman, at the instance of his family, 
 thought proper to destroy), would, doubt- 
 less, have given much information to the 
 world. As it is, certain journals of visit- 
 ors, and of temporary companions, pro- 
 fessing to record his conversation, but 
 poorly supply their place. The body of 
 B. was brought to England, and laid in 
 state in London. It was subsequently 
 interred near his own seat of Newstead 
 abbey, where a plain marble slab merely 
 records his name and title, date of death, 
 and age. Besides his only legitimate 
 child and heiress, B. left another daugh- 
 ter in Italy, to whom he bequeathed 
 5000, on the condition of her not mar- 
 rying an Englishman. The successor to 
 his estate and title was his cousin, captain 
 George Anson Byron, of the royal navy. 
 
 BYRON, John, an English commodore, 
 born in the year 1723, embarked, at the 
 age of 17, in one of the ships of lord An- 
 son, which was fitted out for a voyage 
 round the world, but was wrecked on the 
 coast of the Pacific, north of the straits of 
 Magellan. B., with some of his unfortu- 
 nate companions, was conducted, by the 
 Indians, to Chili, and remained there till 
 1744, when he embarked on board a ship 
 of St. Malo, and, in 1745, returned to 
 Europe. In 1758, he commanded three 
 ships of the line, and distinguished him- 
 self in the war against France. George 
 III, who wished to explore the part of the 
 Atlantic ocean between the cape of Good 
 Hope and the southern part of America, 
 gave B. the command of a frigate, with 
 which he set sail, June, 1764, having un- 
 der his order the frigate Tamar. Both 
 ships touched at Madeira and the Cape
 
 BYRON BYZANTINE EMPIRE. 
 
 359 
 
 Verd islands, and proceeded thence to the 
 Rio Janeiro, opposite the city of that 
 name. B. then sailed to the southern 
 part of the Atlantic ocean, and, after hav- 
 ing searched in vain for Pepys' islands, 
 he visited the Falkland islands, and, pass- 
 ing through the straits of Magellan, con- 
 tinued his voyage in the South sea. Here 
 he fell in with Bougainville, who was en- 
 gaged in founding a colony in the Falk- 
 land islands. B. directed his course 
 northward to the island of Masafuero ; 
 then, sailing westward, he passed the Dan- 
 gerous Archipelago, lying on the east of 
 the Society islands, and discovered the 
 isles of Disappointment and King George's 
 islands. Thence he directed his course 
 north- west, and discovered the islands call- 
 ed Danger and Byron's island ; sailed by 
 the Carolinas into the Chinese sea ; 
 thence proceeding southerly, he passed 
 through the straits of Banca to Batavia ; 
 from whence he set sail at the close of 
 the year 1/65, and, in May, 1766, arrived 
 in England. Although B.'s voyage was 
 not fruitful in discoveries, it still deserves 
 on honorable place in the history of 
 voyages round the world, since he was 
 the first of those renowned circumnavi- 
 gators of the globe, including Wallis, Car- 
 teret and Cook, whose enterprises were 
 not barely mercantile, but were directed 
 to scientific objects. 
 
 BYRON'S ISLAND ; a small island in the 
 Pacific, about 12 miles in length, abound- 
 ing in cocoa-trees. It was discovered by 
 commodore Byron (q. v.) in 1765. Lon. 
 173 1& E. ; lat. 1 IS' S. 
 
 BYSSUS (gossypion and xylori), cotton, 
 was brought from India about the time 
 of Herodotus, and still earlier from Egypt. 
 In this latter country, it was used in em- 
 balming, and the mummies are still found 
 wrapped in it. As an article of dress, it 
 was worn only by the rich. Dives, in 
 Christ's parable (Luke xvi, 19), was cloth- 
 ed in byssus, and it is mentioned among 
 the riches of fallen Babylon (Rev. xviii, 
 12). Byssus was formerly erroneously 
 considered as a fine kind of linen. The 
 fine stuff manufactured from the byssus 
 is called, more particularly, sindon. Fos- 
 ter derives the word byssus from the 
 Coptic. Byssus was also used by the an- 
 cients, and is still used, to signify the hair 
 or thread-like substance (called beard), 
 with which the different kinds of sea- 
 muscles fasten themselves to the rocks. 
 The pinna marina, particularly, is distin- 
 guished by the length and the silky fine- 
 ness of its beard, from which very durable 
 cloths, gloves and stockings are still man- 
 
 ufactured in Sicily and Calabria. (See 
 Foster De Bysso .Qntiquorum, 1776.) 
 
 BYZANTINE EMPIRE. The Byzantine 
 or Eastern Roman Empire comprehend- 
 ed, at first, in Asia, the country on this 
 side of the Euphrates, the coasts of the 
 Black sea, and Asia Minor; hi Africa, 
 Egypt ; and in Europe, all the countries 
 from the Hellespont to the Adriatic and 
 the Danube. This survived the Western 
 Empire 1000 years, and was even increas- 
 ed by die addition of Italy and the coasts 
 of the Mediterranean. It commenced in 
 395, when Theodosius divided the Ro- 
 man empire between his two sons, Arca- 
 dius and Honorius. The Eastern Em- 
 pire fell to the elder, Arcadius, through 
 whose weakness it suffered many misfor- 
 tunes. During his minority, Rufinus was 
 his guardian and minister, between whom 
 and Stilicho, the minister of the Western 
 Empire, a fierce rivalry existed. The 
 Goths laid waste Greece. Eutropius, the 
 successor, and Gainas, the murderer, of 
 Rufinus, were ruined by their own crimes 
 (399). The latter lost his life in a civil 
 war excited by him (400). Arcadius and 
 his empire were now ruled by his proud 
 and covetous wife, Eudoxia, till her death 
 (404). The Isaurians and the Huns 
 wasted the provinces of Asia and the 
 country along the Danube. Theodosius 
 the Younger succeeded his father (408), 
 under the guardianship of his sister Pul- 
 cheria. Naturally of an inferior mind, 
 his education had made him entirely im- 
 becile and unfit for self-command. Pul- 
 cheria, who bore the title of Augusta, ad- 
 ministered the kingdom ably. Of the 
 Western Empire, which had been ceded 
 to Valentinian, Theodosins retained West 
 Illyria (423). The Greeks fought with 
 success against the king of the Persians, 
 Varanes. The kingdom of Armenia, 
 thrown into confusion by internal dissen- 
 sions, and claimed, at the same time, by 
 the Romans and the Persians, became 
 now an apple of contention between the 
 two nations (440). Attila laid waste the 
 dominions of Theodosius, and obliged 
 him to pay tribute (448). After the death 
 of her brother, Pulcheria was acknowl- 
 edged empress (450). She was the first 
 female who attained this dignity. She 
 gave her hand to the senator Marcian, and 
 raised him to the throne. His wisdom 
 and valor averted the attacks of the Huns 
 from the frontiers, but he did not support 
 the Western Empire, in its wars against 
 the Huns and the Vandals, with sufficient 
 energy. He afforded shelter to a part of 
 the Germans and Sarmatians, who were
 
 360 
 
 BYZANTINE EMPIRE. 
 
 driven to the Roman frontiers by the in- 
 cursions of the Huns. Pulcheria died 
 before him, in 453. Leo I (457), a prince 
 praised by contemporary authors, was 
 chosen successor of Marcian. His expe- 
 ditions against the Vandals (467) were un- 
 successful. His grandson Leo would have 
 succeeded him, but died a minor short- 
 ly after him, having named his father, 
 Zeno, his colleague (474). The govern- 
 ment of this weak emperor, who was 
 hated by his subjects, was disturbed by 
 rebellions and internal disorders- of the 
 empire. The Goths depopulated the 
 provinces till their king Theodoric turned 
 his arms against Italy (489). Ariadne, 
 widow of Zeno, raised the minister Anas- 
 tasius, whom she married, to the throne 
 (491). The nation, once excited to dis- 
 contents and tumults, could not be entire- 
 ly appeased by the alleviation of their 
 burdens and by wise decrees. The forces 
 of the empire, being thus weakened, could 
 not offer an effectual resistance to the 
 Persians and the barbarians along the 
 Danube. To prevent their incursions in- 
 to the peninsula of Constantinople, Anas- 
 tasius built the long wall, as it is called. 
 After the death of Anastasius, the soldiers 
 proclaimed Justin emperor (518). Not- 
 withstanding his low birth, he maintained 
 possession of the throne. Religious per- 
 secutions, which he undertook at the in- 
 stigation of the clergy, and various crimes, 
 into which he was seduced by his nephew 
 Justinian, disgrace his reign. After his 
 early death, in 521, he was succeeded by 
 the same Justinian (q. v.), to whom, 
 though lie deserves not the name of the 
 Great, many virtues of a ruler cannot be 
 denied. He was renowned as a legisla- 
 tor, and his reign was distinguished by 
 the victories of his general Belisarius ; but 
 how unable he was to revive the strength 
 of his empire, was proved by its rapid de- 
 cay after his death. Justin II, his succes- 
 sor (565), was an avaricious, cruel, weak 
 prince, governed by his wife. The Lom- 
 bards tore from him part of Italy (568). 
 His war with Persia, for the possession 
 of Armenia (570), was unsuccessful ; the 
 Avari plundered the provinces on the 
 Danube, and the violence of his grief at 
 these misfortunes deprived him of reason. 
 Tiberius, his minister, a man of merit, 
 was declared Caesar, and the general Jus- 
 tinian conducted the war against Persia 
 with success. The Greeks now allied 
 themselves, for the first time, with the 
 Turks. Against his successor, Tiberius 
 II (578), the empress Sophia and the gen- 
 eral Justinian conspired hi vain. From 
 
 the Avari the emperor purchased peace ; 
 from the Persians it was extorted by his 
 general Mauritius or Maurice (582). This 
 commander Tiberius declared Caesar in 
 the same year. Mauritius, under other 
 circumstances, would have made an ex- 
 cellent monarch, but, for the times, he 
 wanted prudence and resolution. He 
 was indebted for the tranquillity of the 
 eastern frontiers to the gratitude of king 
 Chosroes II, whom, in 591, he restored 
 to the throne, from which he had been 
 deposed by his subjects. Nevertheless, 
 the war against the Avari was unsuccess- 
 ful, through the errors of Commentiolus. 
 The army was discontented, and was ir- 
 ritated, now by untimely severity and 
 parsimony, and now by timid indulgence. 
 They finally proclaimed Phocas, one of 
 their officers, emperor. Mauritius was 
 taken in his flight, and put to death (602). 
 The vices of Phocas, and his incapacity for 
 government, produced the greatest disor- 
 der in the empire. Heraclius, son of the 
 governor of Africa, took up arms, conquer- 
 ed Constantinople, and caused Phocas to 
 be executed (610). He distinguished him- 
 self only in the short period of the Persian 
 war. During the first 12 years of his 
 reign, the Avari, and other nations of the 
 Danube, plundered the European prov- 
 inces, and the Persians conquered the 
 coasts of Syria and Egypt. Having final- 
 ly succeeded in pacifying the Avari, he 
 marched against the Persians (622), and 
 defeated them ; but, during this time, the 
 Avari, who had renewed the war, made 
 an unsuccessful attack on Constantinople, 
 in 626. Taking advantage of an insur- 
 rection of the subjects of Chosroes, he 
 penetrated into the centre of Persia. By 
 the peace concluded with Siroes (628), he 
 recovered the lost provinces and the holy 
 cross. But the Arabians, who, mean- 
 while, had become powerful under Mo- 
 hammed and the caliphs, conquered 
 Phoenicia, the countries on the Euphra- 
 tes, Judea, Syria and all Egypt (631641 ). 
 Among his descendants there was not 
 one -able prince. He was succeeded by 
 his son Constantino III, probably in con- 
 junction with his step-brother Heracleo- 
 nas (641). The former soon died, and 
 the latter lost his crown in a rebellion, 
 and was mutilated. After him, Constans, 
 son of Constantine, obtained the throne 
 (642j. His sanguinary spirit of persecu- 
 tion, and the murder of his brother Theo- 
 dosius (650), made him odious to the nation. 
 The Arabians, pursuing their conquests, 
 took from him part of Africa, Cyprus and 
 Rhodes, and defeated him even at sea
 
 BYZANTINE EMPIRE. 
 
 361 
 
 (653). Internal disturbances obliged him 
 to make peace. After this, he left Con- 
 stantinople (C59), and, in the following 
 year, carried on an unsuccessful war 
 against the Lombards in Italy, in which 
 he lost his life, at Syracuse (660). Con- 
 stantine IV, Pogonatus, son of Constans, 
 vanquished his Syracusan competitor, 
 Mezizius, and, in the beginning of his 
 reign, shared the government with his 
 brothers Tiberius and Heraclius. The 
 Arabians inundated all Africa and Sici- 
 ly, penetrated through Asia Minor into 
 Thrace, and attacked Constantinople, for 
 several successive years, by sea (669). 
 Nevertheless, he made peace with them 
 on favorable terms. But, on the other 
 hand, the Bulgarians obliged him to pay 
 a tribute (680). Justinian II, his son and 
 successor, weakened the power of the 
 Maronites (685), but fought without suc- 
 cess against the Bulgarians (688) and 
 against the Arabians (692). Leonitius 
 dethroned this cruel prince, had him mu- 
 tilated and sent to the Tauric Chersonese 
 (695). Leonitius was dethroned by Ap- 
 simar, or Tiberius III (698), who was 
 himself dethroned by Trebelius, king of 
 the Bulgarians, who restored Justinian to 
 the throne (705) ; but Philippicus Barda- 
 nes rebelled anew against him. With 
 Justinian II the race of Heraclius was 
 extinguished. The only care of Philip- 
 picus was the spreading of monotheism, 
 whilst the Arabians wasted Asia Minor 
 and Thrace. In opposition to this prince, 
 who was universally hated, the different 
 armies proclaimed their leaders emperors, 
 among whom Leo the Isaurian obtained 
 the superiority (713 714). Leo repelled 
 the Arabians from Constantinople, which 
 they had attacked for almost two years, 
 and suppressed the rebellion excited by 
 Basilius and the former emperor Anasta- 
 sius. From 726, the abolition of the wor- 
 ship of images absorbed his attention, and 
 the Italian provinces were allowed to be- 
 come a prey to the Lombards, while the 
 Arabians plundered the eastern provinces. 
 After his death (741), his son Constantine 
 V ascended the throne a courageous, 
 active and noble prince. He vanquished 
 his relrellious brother-in-law Artabasdus, 
 wrested from the Arabians part of Syria 
 and Armenia, and overcame, at last, the 
 Bulgarians, against whom he had been 
 long unsuccessful. He died (775), and 
 was succeeded by his son Leo III, who 
 fought successfully against the Arabians, 
 and this latter by his son Constantine VI 
 (780), whose imperious mother, Irene, his 
 guardian and associate in the government, 
 
 VOL. II. 31 
 
 raised a powerful party by the restoration 
 of the worship of images. He endeavor- 
 ed, in vain, to free himself from depend- 
 ence on her and her favorite, Stauratius. 
 and died in 796, after having had his eyes 
 put out. The war against the Arabians 
 and Bulgarians was long continued ; 
 against the first it was unsuccessful. 
 The design of the empress to marry 
 Charlemagne excited the discontent of 
 the patricians, who placed one of their 
 own order, Nicephorus, upon the throne 
 (802). Irene died in a monastery. Ni- 
 cephorus became tributary to the Arabi- 
 ans, and fell in the war against the Bul- 
 garians (811). Stauratius, his son, was 
 deprived of the crown by Michael I, and 
 he, in turn, by Leo IV (813). Leo was 
 dethroned and put to death by Michael II 
 (826). During the reign of the latter, the 
 Arabians conquered Sicily, Lower Italy, 
 Crete and other countries. He prohibit- 
 ed the worship of images; as did also his 
 son Theophilus. Theodora, guardian of 
 his son Michael III, put a stop to the dis- 
 pute about images (841). During a cruel 
 persecution of the 3Ianicha?ans, the Ara- 
 bians devastated the Asiatic provinces. 
 The dissolute and extravagant Michael 
 confined his mother in a monastery. The 
 government was administered, in his 
 name, by Bardas, his uncle, and, after 
 the death of Bardas, by Basil, who was 
 put to death by Michael (867). Basil I, 
 who came to the throne in 867, was not 
 altogether a contemptible monarch. He 
 died 886. The reign of his learned son, 
 Leo V, was not very happy. He died 
 911. His son, Constantine VIII, Porphy- 
 rogenitus, a minor when he succeeded 
 his father, was placed under the guar- 
 dianship of his colleague, Alexander, and, 
 after Alexander's death, in 912, under 
 that of his mother, Zoe. Romanus La- 
 kopenus, his general, obliged him, in 919, 
 to share the throne with him and his 
 children. Constantine subsequently took 
 sole possession of it again, and reigned 
 mildly, but weakly. His son Romanus 
 II succeeded him in 959, and fought suc- 
 cessfully against the Arabians. To him 
 succeeded, in 963, his general Nicephorus, 
 who was put to death by his own general, 
 John Zimisces (970), who carried on a 
 successful war against the Russians. Ba- 
 sil II, son of Romanus, succeeded this 
 good prince. He vanquished the Bulga- 
 rians and the Arabians. His brother, 
 Constantine IX (1025), was not equal to 
 him. Romanus III became emperor 
 (1028) by a marriage with Zoe, daughter 
 of Constantine. This dissolute but able
 
 362 
 
 BYZANTINE EMPIRE. 
 
 princess caused her husband to be exe- 
 cuted, and successively raised to the 
 throne Michael IV (1034), Michael V 
 (1041) and Coustantine X (1042). Rus- 
 sians and Arabians meanwhile devastated 
 the empire. Her sister Theodora suc- 
 ceeded her on the throne (1053). Her 
 successor, Michael VI (1050), was de- 
 throned by Isaac Comnenus in 1057, who 
 became a monk (1059). His successor, 
 Constantine XI, Ducas, fought success- 
 fully against the Uzes. Eudocia, his 
 wife, guardian of his sons, Michael, An- 
 dronicus and Constantiue, was intrusted 
 with the administration (1067), married 
 Romanus IV, and brought him the crown. 
 He carried on an unsuccessful war against 
 the Turks, who kept him for some time 
 prisoner. Michael VII, son of Constan- 
 tine, deprived him of the throne (1071). 
 Michael was dethroned by Nicephorus 
 III (1078), and the latter by Alexius I, 
 Comnenus (1081). Under his reign the 
 crusades commenced. His son, John II, 
 came to the throne (1118), and fought 
 with great success against the Turks and 
 other barbarians. The reign of his son, 
 Manuel I, who succeeded him (1143), 
 was, also, not unfortunate. His son, Alex- 
 ius II, succeeded (1180), and was dethron- 
 ed by his guardian, Andronicus, as was 
 the latter by Isaac (1185). After a reign 
 disturbed from without and within, Isaac 
 .was dethroned by his brother, Alexius 
 III (1195). The crusaders restored him 
 and Ms son, Alexius IV ; but the seditious 
 Constantinopolitans proclaimed Alexius 
 V, Ducas Murzuphlus, emperor, who put 
 Alexius IV to death. At the same time, 
 Isaac II died. During the last reigns, 
 the kings of Sicily had made many con- 
 quests on the coasts of the Adriatic. The 
 Latins now forced their way to Constan- 
 tinople (1204), conquered the city, and re- 
 tained it, together with most of the Euro- 
 pean territories of the empire. Baldwin 
 count of Flanders was made emperor, 
 Boniface marquis of Montferrut obtained 
 Thessalonica as a kingdom, and the Ve- 
 netians acquired a large extent of terri- 
 tory. In Attalia, Rhodes, Philadelphia, 
 Corinth and Epirus, independent sove- 
 reigns arose. Theodore Lascaris seized 
 on the Asiatic provinces, bore the title of 
 emperor at Nice, and was, at first, more 
 powerful than Baldwin. A descendant 
 of the Comneni, named .Alexius, establish- 
 ed a principality at Trebisond, in which 
 his great-grandson John took the title of 
 emperor. Neither Baldwin nor his suc- 
 cessors were able to secure the tottering 
 throne. He himself died in captivity, 
 
 among the Bulgarians (1206). To him 
 succeeded Henry, his brother, with Peter, 
 brother-in-law of Henry, and his son 
 Robert (1221). With the exception of 
 Constantinople, all the remaining Byzan- 
 tine territory, including Thessalonica, was 
 conquered by John, emperor of Nice. 
 Baldwin II, brother of Robert, under the 
 guardianship of his colleague, John Bri- 
 enne, king of Jerusalem, died in 1237. 
 Michael Palseologus, king of Nice, con- 
 quered Constantinople in 1261, and Bald- 
 win died in the West, a private person. 
 The sovereigns of Nice, up to this pe- 
 riod, were Theodore Lascaris (1204); 
 John Ducas Patatzes, a good monarch 
 and successful warrior (1222) ; Theodore 
 II, his son (1259), who was deprived of 
 the crown by Michael Paleeologus (1260). 
 In 1261, Michael took Constantinople 
 from the Latins. He labored to unite 
 himself with the Latin church, but his 
 son, Andronicus II (1282), renounced the 
 connexion. Internal disturbances, and 
 foreign wars, particularly with the Turks, 
 threw the exhausted empire 'into confu- 
 sion. Andronicus III, his grandson, oblig- 
 ed him to divide the throne (1322), and, 
 at length, wrested, it entirely from him. 
 Andronicus died a monk (1328). Andro- 
 nicus IV, who ascended the throne in the 
 same year, waged war unsuccessfully 
 against the Turks, and died 1341. His 
 son John was obliged to share the throne 
 with his guardian, John Cautacuzene, 
 during 10 years. The son of the latter, 
 Matthew, was also made emperor. But 
 John Cantacuzene resigned the crown, 
 and Matthew was compelled to abdi- 
 cate (1355). Under the reign of John, 
 the Turks first obtained a firm footing in 
 Europe, and conquered Gallipolis (1357). 
 The family of Palseologus, from this 
 time, were gradually deprived of their 
 European territories, partly by revolt, 
 partly by the Turks. The sultan Amu- 
 rath took Adrianople (1361). Bajazet 
 conquered almost all the European prov- 
 inces except Constantinople, and obliged 
 John to pay him tribute. The latter was, 
 some time after, driven out by his own 
 son, Andronicus, who was succeeded by 
 his second son, Manuel (1391). Bajazet 
 besieged Constantinople, defeated an ar- 
 my of western warriors, under Sigismund, 
 near Nicopolis (1396), and Manuel was 
 obliged to place John, son of Andronicus, 
 on his throne. Timur's invasion of the 
 Turkish provinces saved Constantinople 
 for this time (1402). Manuel then recov- 
 ered his throne, and regained some of the 
 lost provinces from the contending sons
 
 BYZANTINE EMPIRE BYZANTINE HISTORIANS. 
 
 363 
 
 of Bajazet. To him succeeded his son 
 John (1425), whom Amurath II stripped 
 of all his territories except Constantino- 
 ple, and extorted a tribute from him 
 (1444). To the emperor John succeeded 
 his brother Constantine. With the assist- 
 ance of his general, the Genoese Justin- 
 ian, he withstood the superior forces of 
 the enemy with fruitless courage, and fell 
 in the defence of Constantinople, by the 
 conquest of which, May 29, 1453, Moham- 
 med II put an end to the Greek or Byzan- 
 tine empire. In 1461, David Comnenus, 
 emperor of Trebisond, submitted to him, 
 and, at a subsequent period, was put to 
 death. (See Comntni.) 
 
 BYZAXTI.VE HISTORIANS ; a series of 
 Greek authors, whose works relate to the 
 history of the lower Greek empire, from the 
 fourth century until the conquest of Con- 
 stantinople by the Turks, and to the Turk- 
 ish history until the end of the 16th cen- 
 tury. These authors display the faults of a 
 degenerate period ; but they contain, also, 
 the relics of former excellence. They are 
 the principal source of the history of the 
 decay of the Roman empire, and a correct 
 delineation of the condition and character 
 of the modern Greeks requires an inti- 
 mate acquaintance with them, of which 
 D'Anse de Villoison is an example. They 
 contain, besides, an inexhaustible store of 
 materials relative to the great migration 
 of the nations, and the new political sys- 
 tem to which it gave rise in the north of 
 Asia and in Europe, and illustrative of 
 ecclesiastical history. These too much 
 neglected authors have been collected in 
 an edition, published at Paris Corpus 
 Scriptorum Histories Byzantince (Paris, 
 royal press, 1645 1702,23 vols.); reprint- 
 ed at Venice, with a different arrangement 
 of the works (1729 1733), and explained 
 by several French scholars, particularly 
 by Du Cange, who have rendered great 
 service by their commentaries and glos- 
 saries. These collections, however, are 
 rarely to be found complete. Hase has 
 enlarged the list of these writers, by his 
 edition of Leo Diaconus (Leonis Diaconi 
 Caloensis Hwloria, etc., e Bill. Regia nunc 
 primum in Lucem edid. ill. C. B. Hase, Par- 
 is, 1819, folio), which, in form and the value 
 of the contents, approaches the great Paris 
 edition. He has promised, also, to publish 
 Psdlus. Stritter, keeper of the royal ar- 
 chives at Moscow, under Paul, has prov- 
 ed, by an excellent extract (Memorice Pop- 
 vlorum ad Danubium, Pontum Euxinum, 
 Paludem McEotidem, Mare Caspium et inde 
 magis ad Septentrionem Incolentium, Pe- 
 tersb., 177179, 4 vols., 4to.), their im- 
 
 portance as sources of ancient Russian 
 history. Four of them form a continued 
 history of the Byzantine empire to the 
 year 1470, viz.: 1. Zonaras; 2. Nicetas 
 Acominatus Choniates; 3. Nicephorus 
 Gregoras ; 4. Laonicus, or Nicholas Chal- 
 condylas of Athens. The other authors, 
 who have treated only single parts of the 
 Byzantine history, are almost all to be 
 found in the Corpus Byzantinum, which 
 appeared at Paris, in 1648, from the royal 
 press, in three splendid folio volumes. 
 The most remarkable among these are in 
 chronological order : 1. Procopius of Cae- 
 sarea, rhetorician at Constantinople. We 
 have from him eight books of histories, 
 viz., Persica, in four books, and Gothica, 
 in four books, published separately by 
 Hoschel (Augsburg, 1607) ; and Secret 
 Histoiy (rfnecdota), in nine books (in 
 which, contrary to the opinions expressed 
 in his first work, he shows himself very 
 inimical to the emperor Justinian), pub- 
 lished by Reinhard, at Erlangen and Leip- 
 sic (1753). 2. Agathias, after the death 
 of Justinian, wrote an account of his reign, 
 in five books, published at Paris (1660, 
 folio). 3. Theophylact of Egypt. We 
 have from him a history of the emperor 
 Maurice, in eight books, to 604 (Paris, 
 1644). 4. Nicephorus, patriarch of Con- 
 stantinople, who has left several learned 
 theological writings. His Breviarium His- 
 toricum extends from the death of the em- 
 peror Maurice to 770 (Venice, 1759). 5. 
 Joh. Scylitzes held several offices at Con- 
 stantinople. We have from him an abridg- 
 ment of history, from 811 to the time 
 of Isaac Comnenus (1057.) It appeared 
 in a Latin translation (Venice, 1570). The 
 same work he continued to the time of 
 Alexander Comnenus, 1081. The con- 
 tinuation is yet in manuscript. 6. Anna 
 Comnena, daughter of the emperor Alex- 
 ius I, died about 1150. She wrote an 
 Jttexias, or a work on the history of her 
 father, Alexius Comnenus, in 15 books, 
 edited by Hoschel in Augsburg, 1610. (A 
 more complete edition, Paris, 1651, folio). 
 7. George Acropolita, a statesman in 
 Constantinople, wrote an abridgment of 
 the Byzantine history, from the capture of 
 Constantinople by the Latins, 1204, to its 
 recapture. 1260 (Paris, 1651). 8. George 
 Pachymer held high offices in church and 
 state in Constantinople. He wrote Byzan- 
 tine History, in thirteen Books, from the 
 Birth of Michael Palseologus, 1158, to 1308 
 (Frankfort, 1568, folio). 9. John Canta- 
 cuzenus, the emperor, is the author of 
 Byzantine History, in four Books, from 
 1320^54 (Paris, 1645). 10. George Co-
 
 364 BYZANTINE HISTORIANS BYZANTINE SCHOOL OF ART. 
 
 dinus, intendant of the palace in Constan- 
 tinople. We have from him several works 
 on the antiquities of Constantinople. The 
 most important of them is On the Offices 
 and Services appertaining to the Court 
 and the Church of Constantinople (Paris, 
 1648, folio). 11. Constantiuus 1'orphyro- 
 gennetus, or Porphyrogenneta, emperor, 
 wrote the life of his grandfather Basilius 
 Macedo, edited by John Meursius. We 
 have also a work of his on government, 
 written for his son, and on the provinces of 
 the Eastern and Western Empire, besides 
 other writings and collections. The most 
 important treats of the ceremonies ojT the 
 Byzantine court. It was edited by Leich 
 and Reiske (Leipsic, 1751 54, 2 vols.). 
 12. After the capture of Constantinople, 
 Ducas wrote a Byzantine history, from 
 1341 to the capture of Lesbos, 1462. 13. 
 Anselm Banduri, a Benedictine monk, 
 left an extensive work on the antiquities 
 of Constantinople, in which several works 
 of more ancient writers are contained. 
 14. Peter Gilles. From him we have 
 three books on the Thracian Bosphorus, 
 and four books on the topography and 
 antiquities of Constantinople. 15. Zosi- 
 mus wrote a Roman history, in six books, 
 from' Augustus to Honorius. This work 
 is of particular importance for the later 
 epochs ; published by Reitmeyer (Leipsic, 
 1784). 16. George Phranza died, after 
 the capture of Constantinople, in a mon- 
 astery of Corfu. We have from him 
 a chronicle of the Byzantine history, in 
 tour books, from 1401 77, published by 
 Alter (Vienna, 1796). 
 
 A new and highly-improved edition of 
 this important collection was commenced, 
 in 1828, by that distinguished scholar, 
 Mr. Niebuhr, to be published by Weber, 
 the well-known bookseller at Bonn hi 
 Germany. Three volumes of this edition, 
 in octavo, have been received in the U. 
 States, and will fully justify the high ex- 
 pectations entertained by the learned of 
 this Herculean undertaking. By a sin- 
 gular concurrence of circumstances, the 
 college at Cambridge, Massachusetts, hap- 
 pens to be possessed of a valuable manu- 
 script of one of the Byzantine historians, 
 Michael Glycas, which, as we are inform- 
 ed by a gentleman who has cursorily 
 examined it, appeal's never to have been 
 collated, and will furnish several various 
 readings of importance in the emendation 
 of the text. This MS. is one of a number 
 purchased in Constantinople, and brought 
 to the U. States by the Hon. Edward Ev- 
 erett, in the year 1819, and a particular 
 account of which is given by him in the 
 
 Memoirs of the American Academy, voL 
 4, p. 413. It is on parchment, and is sup- 
 posed to have been written as early as the 
 13th century. A collation of it is now 
 begun, as we are informed, for the pur- 
 pose of being transmitted to the learned 
 editor hi Germany. 
 
 BYZANTINE SCHOOL OF ART. After 
 Constantino the Great had made the 
 ancient Byzantium the capital of the Ro- 
 man empire, and ornamented that city, 
 which was called after him, with all the 
 treasures of Grecian art, a new peri- 
 od commenced in the history of art. 
 From this time it became subservient to 
 Christianity, as the religion of the state. 
 All the productions of heathen artists, 
 which formed suitable ornaments for 
 Christian cities and temples, were now 
 employed in the service of the invisible 
 God, and art began, by slow degrees, to 
 rise from its degeneracy, under the influ- 
 ences of Christianity. At the time when 
 Constantino converted Byzantium into an 
 imperial residence, splendor and ornament 
 had already supplanted the simplicity of 
 ancient taste. Asiatic luxury had become 
 predominant, and this laid more stress on 
 richness of material and decoration than 
 on purity of conception. Architecture, 
 which adorned the forum Augusteum, in 
 Byzantium, with a fourfold colonnade, 
 and created splendid curue, imperial pal- 
 aces, baths, theatres and porticoes, pre- 
 served, for a long time, the grand forms 
 of classic times,, and deviated from them 
 slowly and gradually, at first in the Chris- 
 tian churches, as a model for which Jus- 
 tinian built the church of St. Sophia, and 
 decorated it with Oriental magnificence, 
 in 537. But, even in architecture, the 
 costliness and color of the marble was 
 soon considered as of more importance 
 than the proportion of the pails and the 
 distribution of the columns. There are, 
 however, as late as the ninth century, ad- 
 mirable works of Greek architecture, par- 
 ticularly those of Theodosius the Great 
 and Justinian. This period was still less 
 favorable to the simplicity of sculpture. 
 The mythology of ancient Greece afford- 
 ed sacred subjects to die statuary. Gods 
 appeared hi the human form, and the 
 human figure, hi the Grecian model, was 
 raised to the classical ideal. On the 
 introduction of the Christian religion, 
 sculpture was confined to the imitation 
 of nature ; afterwards to portraits, and 
 to mere purposes of ornament ; for Chris- 
 tianity is averse to sensible representations 
 of the Divinity. Statues of emperors, of 
 great statesmen and generals, became the
 
 BYZANTINE SCHOOL OF ART. 
 
 365 
 
 subjects of the sculptor, and seem, event- 
 ually, to have given rise to the introduc- 
 tion of the worship of images in the 
 Christian churches, since the custom of 
 erecting monuments and statues to the 
 emperors, and distinguished bishops, was 
 extended to martyrs and saints, and was 
 afterwards followed by the superstitious 
 worship of them. (See Iconoclasts.) 
 Though images of this kind became more 
 frequent in the third and fourth centuries, 
 there were yet many Christian teachers, 
 who, like Tertullian (q. v.), at an early 
 period, declared the fine arts inventions 
 of the devil, and the pagan statues pos- 
 sessed by demons. This superstition 
 often caused the destruction of the noblest 
 statues of the Grecian gods by popular 
 violence. It was not until after many diffi- 
 culties, that, in the ninth century, the 
 worship of images was established in the 
 Greek empire, and after that time appear- 
 ed the first known traces of Christian 
 sculpture and painting in the East. But 
 even those statues, to which sculpture was 
 now confined, no longer displayed the 
 freedom and dignity of ancient art. The 
 pride of the emperors demanded statues 
 of gold and silver, as long as their treas- 
 ury, filled by exhausting their subjects, 
 could supply them. Images of bronze 
 and marble were despised. And how 
 seldom could the artist be inspired by his 
 subject, when flattery erected monuments 
 and busts to the most worthless of men ! It 
 was natural, that, with the loss of elevated 
 subjects, the dignity of art should be lost 
 in petty technical details. Heyne, in his 
 treatise on the later works of art, under 
 the Byzantine emperors (Commented. Soc. 
 Gutting., vol.xi), observes, that the repre- 
 sentations of the emperors, of distinguish- 
 ed men, or of saints, were uniform in fig- 
 ure and character. The vestiges of genius 
 were nowhere seen in free creations and 
 ideal forms, in the desire of truth ami 
 expression. From the time of Justinian 
 downwards, the true measure and propor- 
 tion of the parts, and the correctness of 
 the outlines, were so much neglected, that 
 the representations became constantly 
 more like masks, spectres and monsters. 
 The old Roman faces were seldom rep- 
 resented : the forms appeared to belong 
 to quite another race to some new nation ; 
 and it was often necessary to write the 
 names under them. In the perspective 
 of the figures no rules were observed. It 
 became, at this time, the great object to 
 imitate the costly robes bf the emperors, 
 bishops, and other noble persons, who 
 gratified their vanity not only with purple 
 31* 
 
 garments, but by the extravagant use of 
 pearls and precious stones, which were 
 worn in long pendants from the ear, in 
 bracelets and in necklaces. The whole 
 mantle was often garnished with precious 
 stones, and round the edge ran a double 
 row of pearls. Such garments the empe- 
 rors used to change several times a day. 
 As such exterior ornaments are foreig'n 
 from sculpture, which prefers the naked 
 figure, or a simple drapery, it is easy to 
 see why the production of statues ceased 
 so soon. In the lists of Byzantine works 
 of sculpture given by authors of the first 
 centuries, there are no images of Christ, 
 no statues of apostles and saints. Instead 
 of them, we find only crucifixes, painted, 
 or ornameiited with mosaic work. If 
 there were any such images in earlier 
 times, they must have been destroyed in 
 the time of the Iconoclasts (q. v.), as was 
 the case with the bronze statue of Christ, 
 near fhat of Constantine, which was de- 
 molished by Leo, the general destroyer of 
 images, and the representations of the 
 Good Shepherd, praised by Eusebius, and 
 that of Daniel among the Lions, with which 
 Constantine adorned the public fountains. 
 An image of the Savior, surrounded by 
 angels, and worked in mosaic, is described 
 by Photius. We also find mention of the 
 images of two angels upon the forum of 
 Constantine, the representation of Adam 
 and Eve, the bronze statue of Moses, with 
 which Justinian is said to have ornament- 
 ed the curia:, and that of Solomon, of an 
 earlier date. According to Eusebius, the 
 roof of the palace in Constantinople was 
 also decorated with rich mosaics of gold 
 and costly stones, representing scenes 
 from the passion of Christ ; and another, 
 which Justinian erected, in Chalcis, con- 
 tained representations of events in the 
 war against the Vandals. The most cel- 
 ebrated of all the mosaics in the interior 
 of St. Sophia's church in Constantinople 
 has been preserved in fragments to mod- 
 ern times. The taste of those times in- 
 clined, in general, more to mosaic works 
 than to sculpture; because the former 
 were rendered attractive by the costliness 
 and colors of the stones. Sculpture was 
 employed particularly in ornamenting al- 
 tars, tabernacles, holy vessels and urns, 
 which were made of the most precious 
 marble. The art of engraving on stones 
 was also long preserved. In the art of 
 painting, which was imitated in mosaic, 
 the taste of this age was the same as in 
 sculpture pleased with gold and lively 
 colors, but careless about truth of repre- 
 sentation, and beauty and grandeur of
 
 366 
 
 BYZANTINE SCHOOL OF ART. 
 
 conception. The first germ of a Christian; 
 style of art was, however, developed in 
 the Byzantine pictures. The ideal rep- 
 resentations of human figures, which the 
 ancient Grecian artists had exhibited in 
 their master- works, were necessarily given 
 up by Christian artists : another ideal was 
 to be formed, which should not recall the 
 odious features of paganism. But the 
 ideal of the Savior, of the mother of Christ, 
 and of his apostles, could be formed only 
 by degrees. The artists, who had nothing 
 real and material before them, but were 
 obliged to find, in their own imaginations, 
 conceptions of the external appearance of 
 sacred persons, could give but feeble 
 sketches of their ideas by means of their 
 imperfect art. In their representations of 
 Jesus and his apostles, they finally adopt- 
 ed the national features of the Jews. In 
 the figure, and sometimes even in the 
 countenance, they imitated the external 
 appearance of some revered bishop. The 
 hands were often lifted, as in blessing, or 
 one hand was laid upon the breast, or 
 holding a book. Thus the figures of the 
 founders of the Christian church were 
 first represented in paintings. They were 
 also exhibited in mosaic, but not in mar- 
 ble. Christian subjects, indeed, are gen- 
 erally more suited to painting, which gives 
 the outward expression of the mind, by 
 means of light, and shade, and colors, 
 than to sculpture, which, on the contrary, 
 elevates the external form to a kind of 
 spiritual dignity. As the artists cared but 
 little for a faithful imitation of nature, but 
 were satisfied with repeating what was 
 once acknowledged as successful, it is not 
 strange that certain forms, introduced by 
 the authority of soriie celebrated artists, 
 and approved by the taste of the time, 
 should be made, by convention, and with- 
 out regard to truth and beauty, general 
 models of the human figure, and be trans- 
 mitted as such to succeeding times. In 
 his treatise on the continuation of the 
 arts in Constantinople (Comment* Soc., 
 Gotting., vol. xiii), Heyne remarks, that art 
 continued to be exercised here, as far as 
 it consists in mechanical skill, in the use 
 of instruments, in particular rules and 
 general precepts ;. but taste, and a sense 
 for truth and simple beauty, had vanished. 
 Delicacy, elegance and gracefulness in 
 design, proportion of parts, harmony of 
 the figures, and beauty of form, were lost. 
 The artists did not even aim at an accu- 
 rate representation, but were contented 
 with rude and general outlines, as may be 
 seen in the coins of the time. These de- 
 formed and meagre figures were slavishly 
 
 copied, and labor was lavished on costly,, 
 and often tasteless, ornaments. A certain 
 propensity to the grotesque prevailed, 
 even in architecture. The influence of 
 ancient works of art continually decreased 
 as their number was diminished by the 
 violences of war, by superstition, by ava- 
 rice, and by the hand of time. Most of the 
 then existing works of antiquity perished 
 in the capture of Constantinople, during 
 the crusades of 1204 and 1261 ; and thus 
 the city had long been deprived of its 
 most beautiful ornaments, when it was 
 taken by the Turks, in 1453. This was, 
 in general, the state of art in the Byzan- 
 tine empire. Its influence has been felt 
 ever since ; in earlier times, by the con- 
 nexion of the imperial residence in the 
 East with the Western Empire^and after- 
 wards by commercial intercourse and the 
 crusades. Let us first consider this con- 
 nexion of the lower Greek art with the 
 west of Europe, and, in particular, with 
 Italy. According to Stieglitz (on German 
 Architecture), the character of the lower 
 Greek architecture was tranquillity and 
 simplicity, originating from poverty of 
 ideas and materials, and terminating in 
 heaviness. But this architecture, which 
 prevailed till the earlier part of the middle 
 ages, preserved the seed, from which, hi 
 later times, a new and better style sprung 
 up. Constantinople became a school of 
 architecture, from which artists issued to 
 all parts of the Roman empire, as far as 
 Britain, to erect churches after the model 
 of St. Sophia. They also penetrated into 
 the countries of the East, introducing 
 their art among the Arabians, who applied 
 it to the erection of then- mosques, and 
 among the Moors in Spain, who formed 
 their own style from it. The lower 
 Greek or Byzantine style kept itself pure 
 and uncorrupted in Italy, under the Lom- 
 bards, as well as under the Goths, whose 
 artists came from the East ; and thence it 
 spread, during the reign of Charlemagne, 
 to Germany, Gaul and England. The 
 style of architecture introduced by Char- 
 lemagne into Germany, was a corruption 
 of that prevailing in the lower Greek 
 empire, from which, together with the 
 Arabian and German .style, sprang the true 
 German or Gothic architecture, which 
 flourished from the 13th to the 16th cen- 
 tury. (See Architecture, History of.) The 
 basso-reKevos on the oldest churches in 
 Germany, and some pictures in them, still 
 show the traces of the lower Grecian art. 
 There are also to be found in Gori (e. g., 
 Diptych, vol. 3, p. 33 and 270, tab. iv and 
 xxiii) and Ciampini ( Vet. J\Ioniment., part
 
 BYZANTINE SCHOOL OF ART BYZANTIUM. 
 
 367 
 
 ii, p. 104, tab. xxix), representations of 
 Italian and Gallic sculpture, which, in 
 their draper} 7 , ornaments and architectural 
 forms, betray a Byzantine origin. In re- 
 gard to painting, we are indebted to the 
 Byzantines for the preservation of some 
 portion of its ancient excellence. As, in 
 the early period of Christianity, Grecian 
 and Roman art, in general, differed but 
 little, since both sprung from the ruins of 
 ancient art, so, in painting, no striking 
 difference is to be observed between them. 
 They became, however, constantly more 
 and more distinct, in later times, as Greece 
 and Italy became more and more separat- 
 ed. Short, thick bodies, stiff and forced at- 
 titudes, exaggeration of the characteristic 
 parts, in particular of the eyes, faces con- 
 tracted above and broad below, and mark- 
 ed with overcharged tints, short thick 
 hair, highly-arched eyebrows, awkward 
 drapery, loaded with unnatural folds, dis- 
 tinguish the Greek pictures as far back 
 as the fifth century. The better paintings, 
 which are found" particularly in manu- 
 scripts, show a neat, accurate and diligent 
 execution. When art declined in Italy, 
 particularly in the ninth century, painting 
 was still cultivated by the Greeks, who, 
 driven from home by the disputes con- 
 cerning images, carried it into Italy and 
 other countries, and adorned the churches 
 there. Thus the lower Greek or Byzan- 
 tine school was the mother of the old 
 Italian school, and of the lower Rhenish, 
 which preceded the German. The rela- 
 tion of both is seen in the similarity of 
 the Italian pictures to those of the lower 
 Rhenish school. According to the com- 
 mon statement, several Grecian artists 
 passed over into Italy, in the beginning 
 of the 12th century, and adorned the 
 churches of Florence and Venice with 
 their works. These were joined by the 
 Italian artists, who founded, in the 13th 
 century, a school of art and painting (see 
 Italian drt), which, in its developement, 
 acquired a peculiar character, distinguish- 
 ed by beauty both of conception and exe- 
 cution. The lower Rhenish school, how- 
 ever, which is also called the school of 
 Cologne, as it flourished chiefly, from 
 the beginning of the 14th to the begin- 
 ning of the 15th centuries, in the city of 
 Cologne, appears to have retained still 
 
 more closely the Byzantine character 
 than the Italian did, since there are tra- 
 ces of it even in the later German school, 
 exhibited in the symmetrical and pyram- 
 idal grouping of the objects, in the close 
 drapery, and in the love of ornament and 
 splendor, shown particularly in the golden 
 back-grounds. The collection of the 
 brothers Boisseree (q. v.) contains the 
 most excellent works of this school. John 
 Van Eyck first set the example of a more 
 individual representation of natural ob- 
 jects, in opposition to the general repre- 
 sentations of the lower Greek, and the 
 ideal style of the old Roman school. More 
 exact accounts are wanting of the histori- 
 cal connexion of the lower Rhenish and 
 of the old Italian school with the Byzan- 
 tine style of art. (On the earlier times of 
 the Byzantine art, see Histoire de VArt par 
 les Monument depuis sa Decadence au 
 14me Siecleijusqu'a son Renouvellement au 
 I6me; Paris, 1810, folio). 
 
 BYZANTIUM (from its original founder, 
 Byzas), lying on the Thracian Bosphorus, 
 on a triangular promontory, the present 
 Constantinople, even in ancient times a 
 nourishing city, was at first a Megarian 
 colony, and was afterwards enlarged and 
 embellished by the 3Iilesians and other 
 Greeks. Near it was a small bay of the 
 Propontis, called Keras, forming three 
 harbors. The situation of B. was highly 
 favorable to trade, and gave it the com- 
 mand of the commerce of other nations 
 in the Black sea, and the opportunity of 
 imposing tolls and duties. These circum- 
 stances increased the resources of the 
 city ; but it suffered much from the at- 
 tacks of the Thraeians, Bithynians, Gauls, 
 and even the Greeks. It was severely 
 treated in the Peloponnesian war, but 
 afterwards rose again, and, under the em- 
 perors, was in the most flourishing condi- 
 tion. From the time of Constantine, it 
 was the second city in the Roman em- 
 pire, and the residence of the emperor, 
 who endeavored to give it the splendor 
 of old Rome. It was, like Rome, divided 
 into 14 districts ; had an amphitheatre, a 
 Roman forum, a circus, and a multitude 
 of splendid buildings and statues, some 
 of which had been brought from Rome. 
 (See Constantinople.}
 
 368 
 
 C CABALA 
 
 C. 
 
 C, THE third letter of the alphabet in 
 most of the European dialects. "In Eng- 
 lish," says Ben Jonson, " it might well have 
 been spared, for it has no peculiar sound." 
 It has the simple power of k, before a, 
 o, w, and most of the consonants ; and 
 the power of s, before e, i, y. The 
 Greeks had no c in their alphabet, and 
 they supplied the use of it in Roman 
 words by K or 2, as the Romans often 
 indicated the kappa and sigma, in Greek 
 words, by a c. The earner Romans also 
 used it in many words which were at a 
 later period written with a g ; as, leciones 
 for legiones. This renders it probable that 
 it was originally the Greek gamma, as the 
 form of the letters, in ancient inscriptions, 
 is very similar. The Roman g was in- 
 vented, according to Plutarch, by Spurius 
 Carvilius. Q and C are often inter- 
 changed on monuments; thus we find 
 Q FMfor C VM, cotidie for quotidie. Its 
 arithmetical significations, and its principal 
 uses in abbreviations, have been explained 
 in the article Abbreviations (q. v.). On med- 
 als, it stands for many names of persons, 
 as, Caesar, Caius, Cassius, &c. ; of officers, 
 as, censor, consul ; of cities, as, Carthago, 
 &c. ; also for cives, civitas, colonia, cohors, 
 dypeus, caslra, circensis. In the calen- 
 dars and fasti, it denoted the days in 
 which the comitia might be held. In tri- 
 als, the opinions of the judges were given 
 by writing on a little cube or die (tessera) 
 the initial C, condemno, A, absolto, or X L, 
 non liqud. For this reason, Cicero (pro 
 Mil. G.) calls C, Utter a tristw, and A, litter a 
 salutaris. C, in music ; the name of that 
 note in the natural major mode, to which 
 Guido applied the monosyllable ut, but 
 which has long since been relinquished 
 by the Italians for that of do, as softer and 
 more vocal. C sometimes, in Italian mu- 
 sic, stands for canto, as C 1. ca?i/o primo. 
 It stands, likewise, when placed at the 
 clef, for common time, and, with a line 
 run through it perpendicularly, for cut 
 time, or a quicker kind of movement. 
 
 CABAL ; the infamous English ministry 
 under Charles II (q. v.), which consisted 
 of five men famous for their intrigues 
 Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, 
 and Lauderdale, whose initial letters form 
 
 this word. (Burnet, Own Times, An. 1672.) 
 Some think the use of the word cabal, 
 to denote an intrigue, or a body of in- 
 triguers, is derived from this circumstance. 
 " Never," says Hume (ch. 65), " was there a 
 more dangerous ministry in England, nor 
 one more noted for pernicious counsels. 
 Ashley (more known as the earlofSbaftes- 
 bury), bold, ambitious, eloquent, insinuat- 
 ing, subtle, united great industry with a 
 sound judgment of business and of meix 
 Buckingham, Avith the advantages of a 
 graceful person, high rank, splendid for- 
 tune, and a lively wit, bnt without pru- 
 dence or principle, sacrificing, in turn, 
 honor to interest, interest to pleasure, and 
 pleasure to caprice, dissipated his fortune, 
 and ruined his health, by his riot and de- 
 bauchery, and destroyed his character, in 
 public life, by his want of secrecy and 
 constancy. Lauderdale, tyrannical, am- 
 bitious, implacable, insolent, yet abject, 
 had a great ascendency over the king. 
 Clifford, daring, impetuous, yet artful, and 
 eloquent, and Arlington, of moderate ca- 
 pacity, without courage or integrity, were, 
 secretly, Catholics. Shaftesbury was at 
 once a deist, and addicted to astrology ; 
 Lauderdale a bigoted, and, earlier, a furi- 
 ous Presbyterian." 
 
 Cabal; a beverage made in Portugal, 
 by bruising 20 pounds of raisins, and sat- 
 urating them with white wine during 3 
 months. The mixture is rich, clear and 
 agreeable. 
 
 CABALA, or CABBALA, (i. e. oral tradi- 
 tion),is used by the Jews to denote some- 
 times the doctrines of the prophets, some- 
 times the traditions of their ancestors, 
 sometimes, and most commonly, their 
 mystical philosophy. The opinions of 
 scholars respecting the origin of the 
 cabalistic philosophy are very various. 
 The Jews derive the cabalistic mysteries 
 from the most ancient times of their na- 
 tioo, nay, even from Adam himself. But, 
 although a secret doctrine existed among 
 the Hebrews in the earliest ages, this had 
 reference merely to religious worship. 
 The origin of the philosophical cabala is 
 to be sought for in Egypt, and dates from 
 the times of Simeon Schetacliides, who 
 conveyed it from Egypt to Palestine. It
 
 CABALA CABBAGE. 
 
 369 
 
 was first committed to writing in the 2d 
 century, that it might not be lost with the 
 dispersion of the Jewish nation. Later 
 expositors have mingled with it much 
 foreign matter. The cabala is divided 
 into the symbolical and the real. The 
 symbolical portion treats principally of 
 letters, to which it gives mystical signifi- 
 cations. The real, which is opposed to the 
 symbolical, and comprehends doctrines, 
 is divided into the theoretical and prac- 
 tical. The aim of the theoretical is to 
 explain the Holy Scriptures according 
 to the secret traditions, and to form there- 
 from a philosophical system of metaphys- 
 ics, physics and pneumatology. The prac- 
 tical portion, on the other hand, pretends 
 to teach the art of performing miracles, 
 and that merely by an artificial applica- 
 tion of the divine names and sentences 
 in the Sacred Scriptures. After the revi- 
 val of science, many scholars studied the 
 cabala. The most famous modern cab- 
 alists are Henry Morus and Christian 
 Knorr, the last of whom has made a 
 compilation of the most important parts 
 of the cabalistic writings, in two Latin 
 volumes, in 4to. (Respecting the myste- 
 ries of the cabala, see Pet. Beer's History 
 of the. Doctrines and Opinions of all the 
 Jewish Sects, and of the Cabala, Briinn, 
 1822, 2 vote. ; also Brucker's History of 
 Philosophy, by doctor Enfield, vol. li. 
 Allen's Modern Judaism, ch. v. ; and Bud- 
 daei Introductio ad Historiam Philosophies 
 HebrcEorum.) 
 
 CABANIS, Peter John George, physi- 
 cian, philosopher, and literateur, born at 
 Cognac, 1757, went to Paris in his 14th 
 year, and devoted himself with zeal to 
 the sciences. In his 16th year, he went 
 to Warsaw as secretary of a Polish lord. 
 The proceedings of the stormy diet of 
 1773 filled him with melancholy and 
 contempt of mankind. He began at Paris 
 a complete translation of the Iliad. In 
 Auteuil, near Paris, he became acquaint- 
 ed with madame Helvetius, and, through 
 her, with Holbach, Franklin and Jeffer- 
 son, and became the friend of Cond iliac, 
 Turgot and Thomas. In his Serment 
 d'un Medecin, he formally took leave of 
 the belles-lettres. He professed the prin- 
 ciples of the revolution, and was ulti- 
 mately connected with Mirabeau, who 
 made use of his ideas, and obtained from 
 him the work on public education, which 
 Cabanis published himself, hi 1791, after 
 the death of Mirabeau. He lived in still 
 closer intimacy with Condorcet. At the 
 time of his death, May 5th, 1808, he was 
 a member of the senate. His Rapports 
 
 du Physique et du Moral de VHomme 
 (Paris, 1802, 2 vols., improved in 1805), 
 are highly esteemed. His works appeared 
 in Paris, 1824, complete, hi 4 vols. 
 
 CABARRUS, Francois, count of, born 
 1752, at Bayonne, was destined for com- 
 merce by his father, who sent him to a 
 commercial friend, Galabert, at Saragos- 
 sa, whose daughter he married in secret, 
 against the will of both families, in 1772. 
 His father-in-law, however, gave him the 
 charge of a soap manufactory, near Ma- 
 drid. The nearness of the city enabled 
 him to become acquainted with several 
 learned men and metaphysicians, as Ol- 
 avides and the count of Campomanes. 
 During the North American war, in which 
 Spain took part against England, and was 
 consequently cut off from her resources 
 hi America, C. advised the minister of 
 the finances to make an issue of paper 
 money, payable with interest, of which 
 10,000,000 piastres were put in circula- 
 tion with the greatest success. He after- 
 wards established the bank of San Carlos, 
 1782, and a company to trade with the 
 Philippine islands. After the death of 
 Charles III, in 1788, he fell into disgrace. 
 In 1790, he was arrested ; in 1792, releas- 
 ed, and made a nobleman ; and, in 1797 r 
 appointed minister plenipotentiary at the 
 congress of Rastadt. He died in 1810, in 
 the office of minister of finance, to which 
 he had been appointed by Joseph Bona- 
 parte. He had a daughter equally cele- 
 brated for beauty and talents. 
 
 CABBAGE. The cabbage, including 
 many species of the numerous genus of 
 brassica, is a biennial plant, too well known 
 to need description, and constitutes one 
 of our most valuable classes of vegetables. 
 There are several species of the wild or 
 original stock, from which the garden 
 cabbage has been derived by cultivation. 
 These are natives of various parts of Eu- 
 rope, Africa, &c., and, although very re- 
 mote in appearance from the full, round 
 head, which our plants present, are scarce- 
 ly more so than are the kale, cauliflower, 
 brocoli, &c., all of which belong to the 
 cabbage family. In general terms, we 
 may consider this plant as divided into 
 three classes the common headed cab- 
 bage of the field and garden ; the cauli- 
 flower, brocoli, &c., which form, their 
 stalks into a loose head; and the kale, 
 colewort, &c., which grow in a natural 
 branching way, without forming any 
 heads at all. Of these, the common cab- 
 bage is by far the most valuable, both to 
 man and to the beasts, by whose assist-, 
 ance he ia able to. make the earth so fer-
 
 870 
 
 CABBAGE CABIRI. 
 
 tile. It is also the most productive ; for 
 it is believed that an acre of ground will 
 yield a greater weight of green vegetable 
 matter (and thus be more profitable to 
 the farmer), in the shape of cabbage, 
 than in that of any other vegetable 
 whatever. It is very abundantly produc- 
 ed by clay soils, which are unfit for tur- 
 nips, and the farmers who cultivate such 
 soils will find it a vegetable worthy of 
 much attention. The cabbage furnishes 
 green fodder for cows and sheep, which 
 is, at least, as good as turnips or carrots, 
 fattening the animals equally fast, and 
 rendering their milk, butter, &c., to the 
 full as sweet; and is far preferable, as it 
 keeps later in the spring, and thus sup- 
 plies green food when no other can be 
 procured. It is eaten by men in three 
 forms, all of which have their admirers, 
 but which vary much in respect to their 
 wholesomeness and digestibility. These 
 forms are, the sliced raw cabbage, plain 
 boiled cabbage, and salted cabbage or 
 sour-crout, the favorite dish of the whole 
 German nation. In the first form, of raw 
 cabbage, sliced fine, and eaten with vine- 
 gar, whether entirely cold, or hot enough 
 merely to wilt the vegetable, it is one of 
 the lightest and most wholesome articles 
 of vegetable food, and, in this shape, will 
 supply a green summer vegetable through 
 the whole of the winter. Its use cannot 
 be too highly recommended. Boiled cab- 
 bage, is, on the contrary, one of the worst 
 articles of diet that a weak stomach can 
 be tried with, and is rarely got rid of with- 
 out a troublesome colicky pain. Sour- 
 crorit, or, properly, sauer-kraut, is much 
 eaten by the Germans in the U. States, 
 and they consider it very wholesome, 
 although it is nearly, if not quite, as diffi- 
 cult of digestion as boiled cabbage. It is 
 prepared in the following manner : Cab- 
 bage is sliced up fine, and a layer of it placed 
 in the bottom of a barrel, which is plen- 
 tifully salted ; it is then well bruised with 
 a heavy mall or pestle, or is trodden 
 down by a pair of heavy boots, till the 
 barrel is half filled with the froth that 
 arises from this operation. Successive 
 layers of cabbage and salt are added in 
 this manner, each receiving the same 
 treatment, till the vessel is nearly full. 
 Some cold water is then poured in, and 
 the top of the barrel is pressed down with 
 heavy stones. The contents undergo a 
 brisk fermentation, which continues for a 
 week or two, during which time the 
 brine must be drawn off, and replaced by 
 new, until it remains perfectly clear, when 
 the process is finished. It must be kept 
 
 covered with brine, and is thus simply a 
 fermented, or half sour, salted mass of 
 cabbage. The other forms of cabbage, as 
 the cauliflower, &c., supply the epicures 
 of all countries with some of their great- 
 est delicacies, while the hardy kale, which 
 endures all degrees of cold, affords the 
 poor, and the fanners of poor soils, a valu- 
 able fodder for cattle of all kinds. 
 CABBALA. (See Cabala.) 
 CABELLO. (See Porto Cabello.) 
 CABENDA ; a sea-port of Africa, in Ca- 
 congo ; Ion. 12 3(y E. ; lat. 5 4(X S. It 
 is situated on the coast, a little to the north 
 of the river Zaire, and has a safe and easy 
 landing. It is a great emporium for 
 trade in slaves. The situation is so dis- 
 tinguished for beauty and fertility, that it 
 has been called the paradise of the coast. 
 
 CABIN ; an apartment in a ship for offi- 
 cers and passengers. In large ships, there 
 are several cabins, the principal of which 
 is occupied by the commander. In small 
 vessels, there is only one cabin, which is 
 in the stern. The bed-places in ships are 
 also called cabins, or, more commonly, 
 berths. Berth is used, likewise, for the 
 room where a number of men mess and 
 reside. 
 
 CABINET ; 1. a small apartment adjoin- 
 ing a larger one ; 2. the most retired 
 part of a private dwelling, designed for 
 work, for amusement, or for collections 
 of valuable articles. 3. In the abode of a 
 prince, the cabinet is a room set apart for 
 the ruler's particular use ; also, the apart- 
 ment where he transacts government 
 business, advises with his privy counsel- 
 lors, and issues his decrees. Hence, in 
 political language, the cabinet is put for 
 the government ; as the cabinet of Lon- 
 don, of Vienna, of the Tuileries, &c. 
 4. Finally, a cabinet is any part of a build- 
 ing, or one or more whole buildings, 
 where are preserved valuable collections 
 from the kingdoms of nature or art ; as 
 paintings, plants, animals, coins, minerals, 
 and curiosities of every description ; and, 
 by metonymy, the name is applied to the 
 collections themselves. A work of art, 
 and sometimes of nature, of uncommon 
 beauty, and fitted from its size to be 
 placed in a cabinet, is called a cabinet-piece. 
 A cabinet painter is one who executes 
 small highly-finished pictures, suitable 
 for cabinets. 
 
 CABIRI ; sacred priests or deified he- 
 roes, venerated by the pagans as the au- 
 thors of religion and the founders of the 
 human race. The multiplicity of names 
 applied to the same character, the biter- 
 change of the names of the deities them-
 
 CABIRI CABOT. 
 
 371 
 
 selves with those of their priests, the 
 oracular law, which enjoined the preser- 
 vation of ancient barbaric names, and 
 thus led to a double nomenclature, sacred 
 and profane, together with the profound 
 secrecy of the rites, have involved the 
 subject in great obscurity. Some have 
 thought that the Eastern mythology and 
 the Druidism of Western Europe contain 
 traces of the Cabiri. Herodotus (ii. 51) 
 says that their worship was brought to 
 Samothrace by the Pelasgi. Strabo (x. 
 47'2) says they are the same as the Cory- 
 bantes. Others have identified them with 
 the Titans, the Dii Magni, the Penates, 
 the Dioscuri, &c. Some say there were 
 (j, 3 male and 3 female, children of Vul- 
 can and Cabira, daughter of Proteus. 
 Others make 2, sons of Jupiter or 
 Bacchus. In Samothrace, 4 were vene- 
 rated. In Egypt, their temple was never 
 entered by any but the priests. In Phoe- 
 nicia, Rome (where, according to Pausa- 
 nias, they had an altar in the circus maxi- 
 mus), and other countries of Europe and 
 Asia, traces of their worship are found. 
 But the mysteries (Cabiria) celebrated at 
 Samothrace were the most famous. The 
 mysteries of Isis, Ceres, Mithras, Tropho- 
 niiis, Bacchus, Khea, Adonis, Osiris, and 
 all the similar customs of Egypt, Greece, 
 Hindustan and Britain, seem to be merely 
 varieties of the Samothracian rites, which 
 were celebrated in the obscurity of night, 
 and with the most profound secrecy. 
 (See Faber on the Mysteries of the Cabiri, 
 Oxford, 1803, 2 vols. 8vo.; Potter's Gre- 
 cian .Antiquities, ii. c. 20.) Alter a pre- 
 vious probation of abstinence, chastity 
 and silence, the candidates for initiation 
 were purified by water and blood ; they 
 then offered a sacrifice of a bull or rain, 
 and were made to drink of tw ( o fountains, 
 called Lethe (oblivion) and Mnemosyne 
 (memory), to wash away the memory of 
 their former guilt, and to enable them to 
 remember the new instructions. They 
 were then transported into a dark tower 
 or cavern, where their ears were assailed 
 by the most appalling sounds, the rushing 
 of waters, the roar of thunder, dreadful 
 yells, with occasional gleams of light 
 flashing through the darkness, and dis- 
 playing the most horrible phantoms, with 
 a dead body exposed on a bier. Thus 
 filled with terror, they were suddenly hur- 
 ried into other scenes ; light and cheerful 
 music succeeded to darkness and the dis- 
 mal sounds, the dead body revived, and the 
 temple resounded with rejoicings. The 
 hidden doctrines and secret rites were 
 now communicated. Dances and orgies, in 
 
 which the mystic phallus or lingam, and 
 the yoni (aiSotov ywaiKetov), were introduced, 
 closed the ceremony. 
 
 CABLE, in architecture ; 1. wreathed cir- 
 cular mouldings, resembling a robe ; also, 
 the staff which is left in the lower part of 
 the flutings of some examples of the Co- 
 rinthian and Composite orders. 2. In na- 
 val affairs, it is a long, thick rope, formed 
 of 3 strands of hemp, which is employed 
 for confining a vessel to its place by 
 means of an anchor or other fixed body. 
 The long and heavy chains, which have 
 been recently introduced for this purpose, 
 are also called cables. Large vessels have 
 ready for service 3 cables the sheet cable, 
 the best bower cable, and the small bower 
 cable. They should be at least 100 120 
 fathoms in length. A best bower cable, 
 of 25 niches in circumference, is formed 
 of 3240 threads. The invention of iron 
 cables is of recent date, and they have 
 supplanted those of hemp in sliips of war. 
 They are stronger, less liable to be de- 
 stroyed on rocks, &c. It is sometimes 
 desirable to cut the cable when of hemp : 
 this contingency is provided for in iron 
 cables by a bolt and shackle at short dis- 
 tances, so that, by striking out the bolt, the 
 cable is easily detached. Cable's length, 
 is used to signify the measure of 120 
 fathoms, the usual length of a cable. 
 
 CABOOSE; the cook-room or kitchen of 
 a ship. In smaller vessels, it is an enclosed 
 fireplace, hearth or stove, for cooking, on 
 the main deck. In a ship of war, the 
 cook-room is called a galley. Caboose 
 also signifies the box that covers the chim- 
 ney in a ship. 
 
 CABOT, George, was born in Salem, 
 Massachusetts, in the year 1752, and 
 early manifested distinguished talents. 
 He spent the early part of his life in the 
 employment of a shipmaster. But he 
 did not neglect the improvement of his 
 mind, even amid the restlessness and dan- 
 ger of a seafaring career. Before he was 
 twenty-six years of age, he was chosen 
 to the provincial congress, which met at 
 Concord, with the visionary project of 
 ordaining a maximum of prices, in order 
 that commodities might be cheapened by 
 constraining the owners to sell at reduced 
 and fixed rates ; and there he first dis- 
 played that intimate acquaintance with 
 the true principles of political economy, 
 for which he was thenceforward preemi- 
 nent. Before Adam Smith was known 
 hi the U. States, and Say and the other 
 continental writers had formed any cor- 
 rect notions on the subject, Mr. Cabot 
 maintained the present enlightened doc-
 
 372 
 
 CABOT. 
 
 trines, and strenuously contended for the 
 entire liberty of domestic and international 
 commerce. Mr. Cabot was a prominent 
 member of the state convention assembled 
 to deliberate on the adoption of the fed- 
 eral constitution, and, soon after that event 
 took place, was elected a senator of the 
 United States, an office which his sense 
 of public duty caused him to accept, al- 
 though against his inclinations. In that 
 station, he enjoyed the unlimited confi- 
 dence, not only of the august body of 
 which he was a member, but also of 
 Washington and Hamilton ; and to his 
 commercial knowledge and profound 
 views of finance and political economy, 
 the latter was greatly indebted in the for- 
 mation of his financial system. With 
 Fisher Ames, also, Mr. Cabot was long 
 linked by ties of the most affectionate 
 friendship. At a recent period, when, in 
 the late war, the exigencies of the country 
 seemed to him to require his co-operation, 
 he presided over a body of delegates from 
 New England, who, in a season of extreme 
 solicitude, attempted to provide means 
 for averting a dreadful storm of public 
 calamity. Mr. Cabot died at Boston, 
 April 18, 1823, in the 72d year of his age. 
 He was the delight and veneration of all 
 who knew him, and his talents seemed 
 the most extraordinary, his virtues the 
 most bright, to those who had the happi- 
 ness to see him most familiarly. His 
 mind was capacious and elevated. In 
 public life, he was pure and disinterested, 
 all his exertions tending to one single 
 object public good ; in private, he was 
 endeared to his family and his friends by 
 his kindness, urbanity and benevolence. 
 The study of political economy and the 
 science of government was his favorite 
 pursuit. His eloquence, which was oft- 
 ener displayed in private than in public, 
 was remarkable for its beauty and sim- 
 plicity. As a Christian, he was sincere and 
 devout ; and the manner of his death 
 suited the exemplary character of his life. 
 CABOT, Sebastian, a navigator of great 
 eminence and abilities, was born at Bris- 
 tol, about the year 1477. He was the son 
 of John Cabot, a Venetian pilot, who 
 resided at Bristol, and was highly esteemed 
 for his skill in navigation. Sebastian was 
 early instructed in the mathematical 
 knowledge required by a seaman, and, at 
 the age of 17, had made several voyages. 
 In 1495, John Cabot obtained from Hen- 
 ry VII letters patent empowering him 
 and his three sons, Lewis, Sebastian and 
 Sanctius, to discover unknown lands, and 
 conquer and settle them. In consequence 
 
 of this permission, the king supplied one 
 ship, and the merchants of London and 
 Bristol a few smaller ones, and, in 1496, 
 John and Sebastian sailed to the north-west. 
 In July of the same year, they discovered 
 Newfoundland, and explored it up to lat- 
 itude 67. The accounts of this voyage 
 are attended with much obscurity ; but it 
 seems, that, in a subsequent voyage, the 
 father and son sailed as far as cape Flori- 
 da, and were actually the first who saw 
 the main land of America. Little, how- 
 ever, is known of the proceedings of Se- 
 bastian Cabot for the ensuing 20 years ; 
 but it seems, that, in the reign of Henry 
 VIII, by the patronage of sir Thomas 
 Peart, vice-admiral of England, he pro- 
 cured another ship to make discoveries, 
 and attempted a southern passage to the 
 East Indies, in which he failed. This 
 disappointment is supposed to have in- 
 duced him to quit England, and visit 
 Spain, where he was treated with great 
 respect, and appointed pilot-major. An 
 opulent company of Spanish merchants 
 soon after gave him the command of an 
 expedition to the Spice islands, through 
 the newly-discovered straits of Magellan. 
 Accordingly, in 1525, he sailed from Ca- 
 diz to the Canaries and Cape de Verd 
 islands ; and, failing, from the opposition 
 of his crew, in his view of reaching the 
 Spice islands, he proceeded to the river 
 La Plata, where he discovered St. Salva- 
 dor, and erected a fort there. He subse- 
 quently reached the great river Paraguay, 
 and remained on die American coast a 
 considerable time, with the view of form- 
 ing an establishment. Being disappointed 
 in the expected aid from Spain, he ulti- 
 mately returned home with all his crew, 
 but was not very favorably received, owing 
 to his failure in respect to the Spice islands, 
 and his severe treatment of the mutineers 
 of his crew. He notwithstanding contin- 
 ued in the service of Spain for some years 
 longer, but at length returned to England 
 towards the latter end of the reign of 
 Henry VIII. At the beginning of the 
 reign of Edward VI, he was introduced, 
 by the protector Somerset, to the young 
 king, who took much pleasure in his con- 
 versation, and settled a pension on him as 
 grand-pilot of England. From this time, 
 he was consulted on all questions relating 
 to trade and navigation ; and, in 1552, be- 
 ing governor of the company of merchant 
 adventurers, he drew up instructions, and 
 procured a license for an expedition to 
 discover a passage to the East Indies by 
 the north. These instructions, which are 
 preserved hi Hackluyt's collection of
 
 CABOT CACAO. 
 
 373 
 
 voyages, form a very honorable proof of 
 his sagacity and penetration. He was 
 also governor of the Russian company, 
 and was very active in their affairs. He 
 is supposed to have died in the year 1557, 
 at a very advanced age, leaving behind 
 him a high character, both as a skilful 
 seaman and a man of great general abili- 
 ties. He was the first who noticed the 
 variations of the compass ; and, besides 
 the ordinances to be found in Hackluyt, 
 he published a large map of the world, as 
 also a work under the title of JVavigazione 
 nelle parte Septentrionali, per Sebastiano 
 Cabota (fol., Venice, 1583). 
 
 CABRERA ; one of the Balearic isles in 
 the Mediterranean, belonging to Spain; 
 Ion. 3 E. ; lat. 39 7' N. (See Bakares.) 
 
 CABUL, or CAUBXJL, capital of the king- 
 dom of Afghanistan, is a very ancient 
 city, situated in a spacious and well- 
 watered plain, enclosed on three sides by 
 a semicircular range of hills, on the sum- 
 mit of which is a fortification. The Bala 
 Hissar, or Upper Fort, contains the palace 
 and other public buildings. The houses 
 are mean, the bazars well supplied, and 
 crowded by Usbecks, Afghans and Hin- 
 doos. The vicinity is famous, in the 
 East, for flowers and fruits. Cabul is a 
 great mart for horses from Tartary, which 
 are brought for exportation to Hindostan. 
 (See Elphinstone's Caubul, ch. viii xi.) 
 Lon. 69 15 7 E. ; lat. 33 3(X N. 
 
 CABULISTAN. The country compre- 
 hended under this name has already been 
 described in the articles Afghanistan and 
 Bdujistan. It is sometimes called Cabid, 
 or Caubul, from the capital ; sometimes 
 Cabidistan; sometimes Candahar, from 
 another capital. It was formerly, also, 
 called Ghizne, from another city, for the 
 same reason. The origin of the name 
 Afghans is unknown. Their own name 
 for their nation is Pooshtoon, whence, 
 probably, the Indian name for diem, 
 Putnns (See slfglians.) 
 
 CACAO. Chocolate is a kind of cake, 
 or hard paste, the basis of which is the 
 pulp of the cacao, or chocolate-nut, a 
 production of the West Indies and South 
 America. The cacao-tree (theobroma ca- 
 cao), both in size and shape, somewhat 
 resembles a young cherry-tree, but sepa- 
 rates, near the ground, into four or five 
 stems. The leaves are about four inches 
 in length, smooth, but not glossy, and of 
 a dull green color. The flowers arc saf- 
 fron-colored, and very beautiful. The 
 fruit of the cacao-tree somewhat resem- 
 bles a cucumber in shape, but is furrowed 
 deeper on the sides. Its color, wliile 
 
 VOL. ii. 32 
 
 growing, is green ; but, as it ripens, this 
 changes to a fine bluish-red, almost pur- 
 ple, with pink veins ; or, in some of the 
 varieties, to a delicate yellow or lemon 
 color. Each of the pods contains from 
 20 to 30 nuts or kernels, which, in shape, 
 are not much unlike almonds, and consist 
 of a white and sweet pulpy substance, 
 enveloped in a parchment-like shell. 
 These are the cacao or chocolate-nuts. 
 Plantations of cacao are numerous on the 
 banks of the river Magdalena, in South 
 America. They are usually formed hi 
 morassy situations, and are sheltered from 
 the intense heat of the sun by larger trees, 
 which are planted in them. There are 
 two principal crops of cacao in the year ; 
 the first in June, and the second in De- 
 cember. As soon as the fruit is ripe, it is 
 gathered, and cut into slices ; and the 
 nuts, which are, at this time, in a pulpy 
 state, are taken out, and laid in skins, or 
 on leaves to be dried. They have now a 
 sweetish acid taste, and may be eaten 
 like any other fruit When perfectly dry, 
 they are put into bags, each containing 
 about a hundred weight, and, thus packed, 
 are exported to foreign countries. Pre- 
 viously to being formed into chocolate, 
 these nuts are generally toasted or parch- 
 ed over the fire in an iron vessel, after 
 which process their thin external cover- 
 ing is easily separated. The kernel is 
 then pounded in a mortar, and subse- 
 quently ground on a smooth, warm stone. 
 Sometimes a little arnatto is added ; and, 
 with the aid of water, the whole is formed 
 into a paste. This is put, whilst hot, into 
 tin moulds, where, in a short time, it con- 
 geals ; and in this state it is the choco- 
 late of the shops. In South America and 
 Spain, other modes are adopted : the 
 chocolate is mixed with sugar, long pep- 
 per, vanilla, cinnamon, cloves, almonds, 
 and other ingredients, according to the 
 taste of the respective inhabitants. Mr. 
 Edwards was of opinion, that the cakes 
 of chocolate used in England were made 
 of about one half genuine cacao, and the 
 remainder of flour or castile soap. That 
 from Caraccas is considered the best. 
 By the natives of South America, the 
 chocolate-nuts are used for food. A 
 white, oily matter, about the consistence 
 of suet, is also obtained by bruising them, 
 and boiling the pulp. The oil is by this 
 means liquified, and rises to the sur- 
 face, where it is left to cool and congeal, 
 that it may the more easily be separated. 
 This, which is called butter of cacao, is 
 without smell, and, when fresh, has a 
 very mild taste. Its principal use is as
 
 374 
 
 CACAO CACTUS. 
 
 an ingredient in pomatums. From the 
 uuts, when slightly roasted, an oil is 
 sometimes obtained by pressure, which is 
 occasionally used in medicine. 
 
 CACHAO, KACHO, HECHO, or BAG-KING; 
 capital of the kingdom of Tonquin, on 
 the river Songkoi, about 100 miles from 
 its mouth. It is an open, straggling town, 
 with wide streets, the houses of mud, or 
 wood thatched with straw. It was for- 
 merly the residence of the king ; and the 
 English and Danes had factories there. 
 It is a commercial place of some conse- 
 quence. Gold, beautiful silks, and the 
 finest lackered ware, is exported. Lat. 
 21 25' N. ; Ion. 105 12' E. 
 
 CACHELOT. (See Wholes.) 
 
 CACHET, LETTRES DE ; secret war- 
 rants, by means of which, under the 
 former kings of France, and their minis- 
 ters, any body could be imprisoned or 
 banished to a certain place, without any 
 reason given. The introduction of them 
 is ascribed to the famous Capuchin padre 
 Joseph, under the ministry of cardinal 
 Richelieu. In this sense, the term lettres 
 de cachet is commonly used, but it has, in 
 fact, a more extensive signification. All 
 despatches from the royal state-chancery 
 were issued either openly, as lettres pa- 
 tentes, or sealed, as lettres closes, or de 
 cachet. The first were always written 
 upon parchment, the name of the king 
 signed by a minister of state, counter- 
 signed by the minister, not folded, but 
 only the lower part turned over, and 
 stamped with the great seal of state. 
 They commenced with the words A tons 
 presens et a venir Salut ! and ended with 
 the form Car tel est notre plaisir. In this 
 shape, all edicts, ordinances, charters, priv- 
 ileges, &c. were issued, but all had to be 
 recorded by the parliament of the dis- 
 trict to which they referred. The repre- 
 sentations of the parliament often pre- 
 vented these lettres patentes from being 
 carried into effect. The others, the lettres 
 closes, were only written on paper, some 
 in the name of the king (who spoke in 
 the first person, and concluded with the 
 formula Sur ce je prie Dieu, qu'd vous 
 ait dans sa sainte et divine garde, and 
 signed with his name), some by commis- 
 sion from the king. In the latter case, 
 they began with the words De par le 
 roi : il est ordonne a, and were signed by 
 a minister. They were then closed, and 
 sealed with the small royal seal, so that 
 the contents could not be seen. The 
 lettres closes were used for many purposes 
 besides that of arrests. All the orders 
 sent to officers and private individuals 
 
 (e. g., to report opinions, to repair to a 
 certain place, to leave their place of resi- 
 dence, or go into banishment) were issued 
 in this form. Warrants also were often 
 issued in this form, because the courts, 
 and particularly the police, could not 
 have acted without such authority in ur- 
 gent cases. To the lieutenant-gtntral de 
 la police of Paris a number of them were 
 always given, to fill out the blanks as 
 occasion might require. Without them, 
 he would not have been authorized to 
 arrest suspected persons. Frequently the 
 arrest by lettre de cachet was a favor on 
 the part of the king, as it withdrew the 
 accused from the severer punishment to 
 which he would have been liable upon a 
 trial before the courts. (See Lingtiet's 
 Memoirs sur la Bastille, London, 1783, 
 and Mirabeau's Des Lettres de Cachet et 
 des Prisons d'Etat, 1782.) These letters 
 were detestable instruments of arbitrary 
 power, hostile to every principle of right. 
 (See Hostile.) 
 
 CACIQUE ; in some parts of America, 
 the title of the native chiefs at the time 
 of the conquest by the Spaniards. 
 
 CACODEMON. (See Demon.) 
 
 CACOPHONY ; a fault of style, which 
 consists in a harsh and disagreeable sound, 
 produced by the meeting of two letters or 
 two syllables, or by the too frequent repe- 
 tition of the same letters or syllables. It 
 destroys the harmony of the whole pe- 
 riod ; it is unpleasant in prose and intol- 
 erable in verse. Thus the Roman was 
 shocked with the 
 
 O fortimotam natam,'me consule Romam; 
 and, according to Juvenal, a few more 
 such cacophonies would have saved 
 Cicero's head. A French ear is offended 
 with Voltaire for the expression glaca. sa 
 main. Pope says, 
 
 And oft the ear the open vowels tire. 
 
 CACTUS, in botany ; a genus of succu- 
 lent plants, containing 28 species, perma- 
 nent in duration, singular and various in 
 structure, generally without leaves, hav- 
 ing the stem or branches jointed, for the 
 most part armed with spines in bundles, 
 with which, in many species, bristles are 
 intermixed. They are natives of South 
 America and the West Indies. Several 
 of the species are cultivated in other 
 countries, for curiosity, in green-houses. 
 Gardeners divide them into, 1. melon- 
 thistles ; these are of a roundish form : 2. 
 torch-thistles ; erect, supporting them- 
 selves : 3. cereuses ; creeping with lat- 
 eral roots : 4. prickly-pears, or Indian 
 Jigs ; compressed, with proliferous joints.
 
 CACTUS CADA MOSTO. 
 
 375 
 
 The two first sorts appear like large, 
 fleshy, green melons, with deep ribs, set 
 all over with strong, sharp thorns, setting 
 close to the surface of the earth, and dif- 
 fering in height, from a foot to a yard. 
 When these plants are cut through the 
 middle, their inside is found to be a soft, 
 pale-green, fleshy substance, very full of 
 moisture, the taste of which is agreeably 
 acid. The fruits are frequently eaten in 
 the West Indies. One of the most re- 
 markable species of cactus is the C. 
 granuiflorus, or eight-flowering creeping 
 cereus, l>elonging to the third class. The 
 flower of this species, though very short- 
 lived, is a splendid production. It be- 
 gins to open in the evening, between seven 
 and eight o'clock, is fully blown by eleven, 
 and by three or four in the morning be- 
 gins to fade ; soon after which, it hangs 
 down in a state of irrecoverable decay. 
 When the plants are large, several flow- 
 ers will open in the same night, and there 
 will be a succession of them for several 
 nights together. The calyx, when ex- 
 panded, is about six inches, sometimes 
 nearly a foot, in diameter, yellow within, 
 and dark-brown without. The petals are 
 many, and of a pure white, and the great 
 number of recurved stamina surrounding 
 the style in the centre of the flower mak 
 a grand appearance. It generally flowers 
 in July. 
 
 CACUS, a robber in Italy, the terror of 
 the Aventine wood, of the surrounding 
 inhabitants and of strangers, a monstrous 
 giant, according to some, vomiting lire, of 
 enormous strength and terrible appear- 
 ance, was a son of Vulcan. A deep, 
 winding cavern was his residence, over 
 the entrance of which hung the heads 
 and arms of those whom he had slain. 
 This cave he closed with a stone, which 
 20 pair of oxen could not remove. When 
 Hercules was driving the herds of Geryon 
 through Italy, C. robbed him of some of 
 them, and, to conceal their tracks, dragged 
 them backwards into his cave. But their 
 lowing betrayed them ; upon which Her- 
 cules attacked the robber, and, after a 
 terrible conflict (see Virgil's JEneid, b. 8), 
 killed him with his club. To express his 
 gratitude for his victory, Hercules erected 
 the ara maxima, and Evander, with his 
 Arcadians, performed divine honors to 
 Hercules as their benefactor. 
 
 CADALSO, Jose, a man of veiy respecta- 
 ble standing among the later writers of 
 Spain, was born at Cadiz, in 1741, of an 
 ancient and noble family, and educated 
 in Paris, where he made himself master 
 of Greek and Latin, and the principal 
 
 languages of modern Europe. He after- 
 wards travelled through England, France, 
 Portugal, Germany and Italy. At the age 
 of 20, he returned home, and joined the 
 Spanish forces then employed against 
 Portugal. He remained in the army till 
 his death, in 1782, attentive to his military 
 duties, though devoted to literature. He 
 was the friend of the most distinguished 
 writers then living in Spain, and, by his 
 advice and example, contributed much to 
 bring out the talent of several among 
 them. He was killed by a shell at the 
 siege of Gibraltar, in 1782. He is the 
 author of Cartas Marruecas, a series of 
 letters written in the character of a Moor- 
 ish traveller in Spain, and containing re- 
 flections upon Spanish institutions and 
 manners. It is a work of much merit. 
 C. also wrote a satire called Eruditos a la 
 Violeta, in ridicule of sciolists ; also a 
 tragedy, and several poetical pieces under 
 the title of Ocios de mi Juventud. 
 
 CADA MOSTO, or CA DA MOSTO, Louis 
 da, born at Venice, about 1432, devoted 
 himself to commerce, after receiving a 
 careful education, and made many voy- 
 ages into the Mediterranean sea and At- 
 lantic ocean. In 1454, he sailed in the 
 ship of his countryman, Marco Zcno, for 
 Flanders. Contrary winds stopped the 
 progress of the vessel in the straits of 
 Gibraltar, and she was compelled to lie to 
 near cape St. Vincent, where prince Hen- 
 ry had retired to devote himself to his 
 studies, and to promote discoveries along 
 the coast of Africa. C., a young man 
 full of the spirit of enterprise, offered his 
 services to the prince, and obtained a 
 ship of 90 tons. In 1455, he departed 
 from Lagos, sailed into the river Senegal, 
 which had been discovered five yeara 
 before, proceeded yet farther along the 
 coast, and visited prince Darnel, whose 
 states extended from the Senegal to cape 
 Verd. After trading in slaves and gold, 
 he steered for cape Verd, where he joined 
 two other discovery-ships of the prince, 
 and visited, in company with them, the 
 mouths of the Gambia, the riches of 
 which had been greatly extolled. As 
 they were attacked by the inhabitants, 
 and the mariners, weary of their long 
 voyage, had become discouraged, the 
 commanders were compelled to return to 
 Portugal. In 1456, C., in company with 
 two other ships, made a second voyage to 
 the Gambia. On the way thither, they 
 discovered the cape Verd islands. When 
 they entered into the Gambia this time, 
 they were well received ; but the quantity 
 of gold which they obtained did not
 
 376 
 
 CADA MOSTO CADIZ. 
 
 answer their expectations. The three 
 ships continued their course as far as the 
 river Casaimmsa and the Rio Grande, and 
 returned to Portugal. C. remained there 
 till 1463, in which year prince Henry 
 died. The description of his travels, 
 Prima Navigazione per VOctano alle, Terre 
 de* JVegri della Bassa Etiopia, di Luigi 
 Cada Mosto (Vicenza, 1507, and Milan, 
 1519), the oldest of the voyages of the 
 moderns, is a master-piece. The ar- 
 rangement is admirable, the narrative in- 
 teresting, the descriptions clear and accu- 
 rate. 
 
 CADE, John (better known as Jack 
 Cade) ; a man of low birth, who had been 
 obliged to fly into France for his crimes. 
 Observing the discontents of the people 
 on his return to England (1450), in the 
 reign of Henry VI (q. v.), he took the 
 name of John Mortimer, published com- 
 plaints against the abuses of government, 
 and soon found himself at the head of 
 20,000 men, common people of Kent. 
 Having defeated a force sent against him, 
 he advanced to London, which opened 
 its gates ; but the riotous disposition of 
 his followers alarmed the citizens. They 
 drove out and defeated the rebels, who 
 soon dispersed, and Cade was killed by 
 one Iden, a gentleman of Kent. 
 
 CADENCE, or REPRISE ; a pause or sus- 
 pension at the end of an air, to afford the 
 performer an opportunity of introducing 
 a graceful extempore close. The word 
 cadence is also frequently applied to the 
 embellishment itself. 
 
 CAD^R IDRIS ; a mountain of Wales ; 
 the commencement of a chain running 
 north-easterly. There are here several 
 small lakes, abounding in fish. The 
 height of the mountain is 3550 feet above 
 the level of the sea. It is three miles 
 south of Dolgelly, Merionethshire. 
 
 CADET (French) ; 1. a younger brother. 
 3. In the French sen-ice, a cadet was a 
 gentleman who served in the ranks with- 
 out pay, for the purpose of learning the 
 art of war. 3. It is now applied, in 
 England and the North American U. 
 States, to the pupils of a military acade- 
 my, (q. v.) 
 
 CADET DE VAUX, Antoine Alexis, a 
 chemist, member of the French college de 
 pharmacie, and of many learned German 
 societies, born in Paris, 1743, was at first an 
 apothecary, but for many years has been a 
 successful practical agriculturalist, and ac- 
 tive, even in his old age, in improving the 
 soil and the manufactures of his country. 
 He has discussed the effect of the destruc- 
 tion of mountain forests in diminishing the 
 
 copiousness of the springs in the valleys, 
 the improvement of vineyards, the culti- 
 vation of foreign plants, and the providing 
 of substitutes for the usual articles of 
 ibod in times of scarcity. He is one of 
 the principal editors of the Journal d'Eco- 
 nomie rurale et domestique, and of the 
 Cours complet d\3griculture pratique. He 
 has also been engaged in politic*. 
 
 CAI, in Arabic ; a judge or jurist. 
 Among the Turks, cadi signifies an inie- 
 rior judge, in distinction from the molla, 
 or superior judge. They belong to the 
 higher clergy, as the Turks derive their 
 law from their prophet. 
 
 CADIZ, the principal port, and one of 
 the handsomest cities of Spain, is situated 
 at the extremity of a long tongue of land 
 projecting from the island of Leon. The 
 narrowness of the land communication 
 prevents its capture by a military force, 
 while the garrison is master of the sea. 
 This was exemplified in the long block- 
 ade of 1810, 11, 12. It is walled, with 
 trenches and bastions on the land side, 
 and, the population being large (70,000), 
 the houses have been built high, and the 
 streets are narrow. It has been much 
 extended, and adorned with handsome 
 buildings, since 1786. The chief build- 
 ings are the great hospital, the custom- 
 house, the churches, and 13 monasteries. 
 From the harbor, the town has a fine 
 appearance. The bay of C. is a very fine 
 one. It is a large basin enclosed by the 
 main land on one side, and the projecting- 
 tongue of land on the other. It is from 
 10 to 12 leagues in circumference, with 
 good anchorage, and protected by the 
 neighboring hills. It has 4 forts, 2 of 
 which form the defence of the grand 
 arsenal, La Caraca, in which are 3 basins 
 and 12 docks. This bay is the great ren- 
 dezvous of the Spanish navy. C. was 
 the centre of Spanish American trade, 
 and the commerce of the port was very 
 extensive, before the separation of the 
 colonies. An important branch of indus- 
 try in the vicinity is the preparation of 
 salt : the pits belong to the government, 
 and supply many of the fishermen of dif- 
 ferent countries of Europe. The city 
 was taken by the earl of Essex in 1596, 
 and from its bay Villeneuve sailed, previ- 
 ous to the battle of Trafalgar, in 1808. 
 In 1809, it became the seat of the central 
 junta, and afterwards of the cortes. It 
 sustained a long blockade from the French 
 (Feb. 6, 1810, to Aug. 25, 1812^ which 
 was not raised till after the battle of Sala- 
 manca. In 1823, the French entered it 
 (Oct. 3), after a short siege. In 1829, it
 
 CADIZ CADWALADER. 
 
 377 
 
 was declared a free port. On the island 
 of Leon, the village of Las Cabezas is 
 also situated, where Riego began the 
 military revolution, Jan. 1, 1820. (See 
 Spain.) 
 
 CADIZ, STRAITS OF ; that part of the 
 Atlantic which has the coasts of Algarve 
 and Andalusia on the north, those of Fez 
 and Morocco on the south, and the straits 
 of Gibraltar on the east. 
 
 CADMUS ; the name of several persons 
 in mythology and history. The most fa- 
 mous is the son of Agenor and grandson 
 of Neptune. With his brothers, he was 
 sent, by his father, to seek for his sister 
 Europa, who had been carried away by 
 Jupiter, and he was not to return without 
 her. After several adventures, C. inquired 
 of the oracle at Delphi, which command- 
 ed him to desist from further search, to 
 intrust himself to the guidance of a 
 heifer, and where she should stop to 
 build a city. He accordingly went to 
 Bosotia, where he wished to sacrifice the 
 cow to Minerva. But his companions, in 
 attempting to fetch water from the foun- 
 tain of Mars, for the purpose of the sacri- 
 fice, were slain by the dragon that guarded 
 it. C. killed the dragon, and, at the com- 
 mand of Minerva, sowed its teeth in the 
 earth ; armed men immediately sprung 
 up, whom he called Sparti (the sowed), 
 but who perished in a contest with each 
 other, excepting only five. With the re- 
 mainder, he built the city of Cadmea or 
 Thebes (see Thebes). Jupiter then mar- 
 ried him to Harmonia, and all the gods 
 were present at his nuptials. He became, 
 by this marriage, the father of Antinoe, 
 Ino, Semele, Agave and Polydorus. Af- 
 ter ruling, for a time, the city which lie 
 bad built, and the state wliich he had 
 founded, he proceeded, at the command 
 of Bacchus, with Harmonia, to the En- 
 chela?, conquered their enemies, the Illyr- 
 ians, became their king, and begat another 
 son, Illyrius. Jupiter finally changed 
 him and Harmonia into seq>ents, or, as 
 some say, into lions, and transported 
 them to Elysium. Tradition states, that 
 C. came to Boaotia from Pho2nicia, 1550 
 B. C., conquered the inhabitants who 
 opposed him, and, in conjunction with 
 them, founded the above-mentioned city. 
 To promote the improvement of his new 
 subjects, he taught them the Phoenician 
 alphabet, the employment of music at the 
 festivals of the gods, besides the use of 
 copper, &c. Another C. of Miletus, a 
 son of Pandion, was regarded, among the 
 Greeks, as the first who wrote in prose. 
 He lived about 600 years before Christ, 
 32* 
 
 CADSA^D ; an island near the coast of 
 Flanders, at the mouth of the Scheldt; 
 Ion. 3 18' E. ; lat. 51 23; 1 N. This island 
 is preserved by lofty dikes, constructed 
 at a vast expense, from the inundations 
 of the sea ; and yet is scarcely free from 
 danger when the N. W. wind blows with 
 violence. The land is fertile, and the 
 corn is equal to any produced in the 
 United Provinces ; the meadows are luxu- 
 riant, and the farmers make a large quan- 
 tity of excellent cheese. 
 
 CADUCEUS, a wand of laurel or olive, 
 with two little wings on the upper end, 
 about which two serpents are twisted, 
 with their heads turned towards each 
 other, and their crests not bristled, served 
 for a symbol of peace. It was borne by 
 the heralds, whose persons were then 
 sacred and inviolable. The fable tells us, 
 that Apollo gave this staff to Mercury, in 
 consideration of his resigning to him the 
 honor of inventing the lyre. As Mercury 
 entered Arcadia with this wand in his 
 hand, he saw two serpents fighting to- 
 gether ; he threw the staff between them, 
 and they immediately wound themselves 
 around it in friendly union. The ser- 
 pents which adorn this staff were, accord- 
 ing to Bottiger, originally, emblems of 
 the knots with which the oldest mer- 
 chants of the Mediterranean sea secured 
 their chests and goods. The C. is Mer- 
 cury's peculiar mark of distinction. With 
 this lie conducted the shades to the lower 
 world, and from it received the name 
 Caducifer ; yet we find it, on ancient 
 coins, in the hands of Bacchus, Hercules, 
 Ceres, Venus and Anubis. Among the 
 moderns, it serves principally as an em- 
 blem of commerce. 
 
 CADWALADER, John, was born in Phil- 
 adelphia, and, at the commencement of 
 the revolution, commanded a volunteer 
 corps, of which almost all the members 
 received commissions in the line of the 
 army. He was afterwards appointed 
 colonel of one of the city battalions, from 
 which rank he rose to that of brigadier- 
 general, and was intrusted with the com-* 
 rnand of the Pennsylvania troops in the 
 winter campaign of '76 '77. He acted 
 in this command, and as a volunteer, in 
 the battles of Princeton, Brandywine, 
 tjfermautown, Monmouth, and on other 
 occasions, and received the thanks of 
 general Washington, whose confidence 
 and esteem he always possessed. C. was 
 appointed to command one of the divis- 
 ions into which the army was separated 
 when Washington determined to attack 
 the enemy at Trenton ; but, in conse-
 
 378 
 
 CADWALADER CAERMARTHEtf. 
 
 quence of the ice in the river, neither he 
 nor general Irvine, the commander of 
 another division, could cross the river in 
 tune. But, the day after Washington's 
 return, he effected the passage, suppos- 
 ing him still on the Jersey side, and pur- 
 sued the vanquished enemy to Burling- 
 ton. In 1778, he was appointed by con- 
 gress general of cavalry an appointment 
 which he declined on the score of being 
 more useful in the station which he occu- 
 pied. He died Feb. 10, 1786, in the 44th 
 year of his age. 
 
 C.SLIUS Mows, one of the hills of the 
 city of Rome, received its name from 
 Cselius Vibenna, an Etruscan, to whom 
 it was assigned. The palace of Tulltis 
 Hostilius was on this mount. In the time 
 of Tiberius, it received the name Augus- 
 tus. It is at present covered with ruins, 
 which serve to excite the curiosity and 
 baffle the ingenuity of antiquaries. 
 
 CAEN ; a large and well-built town of 
 France, the ancient capital of Lower 
 Normandy, and the chief place in the 
 department of Calvados. According to 
 Dupiu (Force* productives commercials 
 de la France, 1828), it is one of the most 
 important cities of the west of France, 
 with a population of 37,890 inhabitants, 
 the centre of an important domestic 
 trade, the market of a rich agricultural 
 district, a seaport and a manufacturing 
 city. Its institutions, literary, charitable 
 and scientific, are numerous, and very 
 well organized. The antiquarian society, 
 the Linna?an society, the agricultural soci- 
 ety, and the academy of science, arts and 
 literature, are distinguished. C. also con- 
 tains one of the 26 academies of the uni- 
 versity (academic universitaire), a royal 
 college, a large and valuable public libra- 
 ry, an academy of drawing, architecture 
 and sculpture, a gallery of paintings, and 
 many other useful and liberal institutions. 
 The hospital of the abbaye-aux-dames is 
 one of the best regulated in France. The 
 noble hospital of the bon-saitveur is divid- 
 ed into the asylum for the insane, the 
 dispensary for the sick and wounded, the 
 school for the deaf and dumb, the lying- 
 in-hospital, a boarding school for young 
 ladies, and a free school for 120 destitute 
 girls. The whole is administered by 125 
 charitable females (soeurs hospitaliers), 
 The streets are less narrow and crooked 
 than is usual in France, and the houses are 
 mostly of white stone. It has 12 parish 
 churches, of which the principal are the 
 abbaye-ausc-hommes, built by William the 
 Conqueror, who lies buried in it, and 
 notrc-dame. The city was formerly forti- 
 
 fied, but the fortifications are now in ru- 
 ins. Henry VI of England foui>ded a 
 university here in 1431, C. having been 
 in the possession of the English, of whom 
 it is now a favorite retreat, from 1417 to 
 1448. Admiral de Coligni captured it 
 for the Protestants in 1562, and, in 1815, 
 it was occupied by the Prussians. Linen, 
 serges, particularly rich lace, with stock- 
 ings, caps, paper-hangings and oil, are the 
 principal articles of manufacture. A su- 
 gar refinery has lately been established, 
 in which a steam-engine is employed. A 
 large fair is held here annually, and an 
 exhibition of the manufactures of the 
 department biennially. Malherbe, De 
 Laplace, Vauquelin, were born in this 
 city or in its vicinity. It is 132 miles 
 N. W. of Paris. Lon. 21' 38" W. ; lat. 
 49 11' 12" ty 
 
 CAERLEON ; a small town in England, 
 26 miles from Bristol, on the Usk, in 
 which the tide rises 30 feet. (See Bris- 
 tol Channel.) It was the site of the Isca 
 Silurum, the chief Roman station in the 
 country of the Silures. The ruins of 
 baths, temples and a theatre were to be 
 seen here in the 12th century ; and Roman 
 coins, statues and sepulchral monuments 
 are yet found. There are also the vesti- 
 ges of an amphitheatre, which the inhab- 
 itants call king Arthur's round table, from 
 a tradition that he instituted the round 
 table in tliis place. Population, in 182], 
 1062. 
 
 CAERMARTHEN ; chief town of Caer- 
 marthenshire, South Wales. It is situ- 
 ated on the Towy, the picturesque beau- 
 ties of the vale of which are seen to great 
 advantage from the celebrated Grongar 
 hill and the ruins of Dynevor castle. 
 The streets are many of them steep and 
 irregular. The river is navigable for ves- 
 sels of 300 tons burden. In the history 
 of romance, C. is famed as the birthplace 
 of Merlin, and three miles from the town 
 is a spot called Merlin's grove, in which 
 tradition relates that the Lady of the Lake 
 intombed the unhappy magician (Faerie 
 Queen, iii. 3). Merlin's chair, from which 
 he uttered his prophecies, is also shown. 
 Roman roads, coins and sepulchral anti- 
 quities are found in the neighborhood. 
 About eight miles from the town there is 
 an immense cairn, 18 feet high and 150 in 
 circuit, covered with turf. The top is 
 hollow, with a stone chest in it, covered 
 with an oval stone nine feet long. Be- 
 tween the Towy and the Cowen there is 
 a barrow with a stone chest in it. C. is 
 212 miles west from London. Popula- 
 tion, in 1821, 8906.
 
 CAERNARVON C.ESAR. 
 
 379 
 
 CAERNARVON, the principal town of 
 North Wales, stands on the Menai strait, 
 with a good harbor, but difficult of access. 
 It is built in the form of a square, enclos- 
 ed on three sides with walls. Edward I 
 built it in 1282, and his son, Edward II, 
 first prince of Wales, was born here. C. 
 stands near the site of the ancient Segon- 
 tium of Antoninus, the Caer Seiont of the 
 Britons. Being formerly a strong hold, 
 it was frequently attacked in the wars be- 
 tween the Welsh and English, and in the 
 civil wars. Population, 5788. Distant 
 253 miles N. W. from London. 
 
 CAERPHILLY, or CAERPHILI ; a small 
 market-town in the county of Glamorgan, 
 distinguished for the ruins of one of the 
 most magnificent castles in Great Britain. 
 The date of its foundation is unknown ; 
 but, till the time of Henry HI, it w as call- 
 ed the castle of Senghenyda. The great 
 hall, 70 feet by 30, and the hanging tower, 
 nearly 80 feet high, and inclining about 11 
 feet from the perpendicular, are remark- 
 able objects. The position of the latter 
 was produced by the steam of a quantity 
 of water which was thrown upon a fur- 
 nace of melted iron beneath the tower. 
 Distant 158 miles west from London. 
 
 CAERWKNT ; a village of England, sup- 
 posed to have been the J'enta Silurum of 
 Antoninus. The vestiges of a large Ro- 
 man camp are visible. A mosaic pave- 
 ment of blue, white, yellow and red was 
 discovered here some years ago. Distant 
 17 miles N. W. of Bristol. 
 
 CAERWYS, a small town of North 
 Wales, is noted for the celebration of the 
 Eisteddfod, or competition of the bards 
 (q. v.). They recited their odes, or per- 
 formed on the harp, in presence of judges 
 appointed by the native princes. The 
 prize was a small silver harp. Distant 
 212 miles N. \V. from London. 
 
 C^SAR. was the family name of the five 
 first Roman emperors. With Nero the 
 imperial family became extinct (A.D.68), 
 and Caesar became merely a title of dig- 
 nity. The emperor, who bore thn title 
 of dttgustits, appointed his successor, with 
 the title of Ceuttr. On medals and mon- 
 uments we find the title Ccesar preceding 
 the name of the emperor, as, Imp. Casar 
 .Vmv( Trajanus .iusrustus, and following 
 that of the designated successor, as, Marc, 
 .fun!. .Intonin. Ccesar. In the lower 
 Greek empire, a new dignity of Sebasto- 
 crator was conferred, and that of Ccesar 
 became the third rank in the state. 
 
 C.ESAR, Cains Julius, a great general, 
 statesman and historian, was born July 
 10th (Quinctilis), B. C. 100. He was the 
 
 son of the pretor Caius Julius Ca?sar, 
 and of Aurelia, a daughter of Aurelius 
 Cotta. From his earliest boyhood, he 
 discovered extraordinary talents. He 
 had a penetrating intellect, a remarkably 
 strong memory, and a lively imagination ; 
 was indefatigable in business, and able, as 
 we are told by Pliny, to read, write, hear 
 and dictate, at the same time, from four to 
 seven different letters. When the party 
 of 3Iarius gained the ascendency in Rome, 
 China gave his daughter Cornelia in mar- 
 riage to C., with the view thereby to 
 establish his own power more firmly. 
 Sylla, when he came to Rome, tried to 
 prevail on him to repudiate her. His re- 
 fusal provoked the anger of the usurper, 
 who was prevented only by the earnest 
 entreaties of his friends from putting him 
 under proscription. The saying of Sylla, 
 that "he saw in this stripling many a 
 Marius," hastened the departure of C. 
 from Rome. He travelled into the Sa- 
 bine territory, Avas seized by the soldiers 
 of Sylla, and was obliged to procure his 
 release by a bribe of two talents. He 
 then proceeded tothecourtof Nicomedes, 
 king of Bithynia. Thence he went to M. 
 Minucius Therm us, the pretor in Asia, 
 who intrusted him with the command of 
 the fleet which was to blockade Mitylene. 
 In the execution of this trust, C. distin- 
 guished himself highly, although but 22 
 years old. He next visited Rhodes, and 
 placed himself under the instruction of 
 Apollonius, to fit himself for speaking at 
 the bar. On the way, he was taken by 
 pirates, and compelled to pay 50 talents 
 for his release. To revenge himself, he 
 fitted out some vessels at Miletus, over- 
 took the pirates, made the greatest part 
 of them prisoners, and had them crucified 
 before Pergamus. He now returned to 
 Rome, and became military tribune, ques- 
 tor and edile. At the some time, he 
 had the address to -vrin the favor of the 
 people by affability, by splendid enter- 
 tainments and public shows ; and, trust- 
 ing to his popularity, he ventured to erect 
 again the statues and trophies of Marius, 
 who was hated by the senate and the pa- 
 tricians. By means of one of his rela- 
 tions, L. Julius Caesar, whom he had aid- 
 ed in obtaining the consulship, he caused 
 many of Sylla's followers to be banished 
 or p"ut to "death. In the conspiracy of 
 Catiline he certainly had a secret part. 
 He defended the conspirators, who were 
 arrested, and succeeded in raising a tu- 
 mult against Cato, who strongly opposed 
 him, so that he was obliged to quit the 
 rostrum, and even his life was endanger-
 
 C.ESAR. 
 
 ed. Cato, however, prevailed, and C. 
 was for a time kept out of the pretorship. 
 But he was soon after chosen pontifex 
 maximus, and was about to go as govern- 
 or to Farther Spain. His creditors refus- 
 ing to let him depart, Crassus became his 
 bondsman for the enormous sum of 830 
 talents. It was on his journey to Spain, 
 that he expressed, on seeing a miserable 
 village, the well-known sentiment, that 
 "he would rather be first there, than 
 second at Rome." In Spain, he made 
 several conquests, and returned to Rome 
 with money enough to pay off his debts. 
 In order to gain the consulship, he now 
 found it expedient to bring about a recon- 
 ciliation between Pompey and Crassus, 
 whose enmity had divided Rome into 
 two parties. He succeeded in his design, 
 and all three agreed to divide the sove- 
 reign power between them. This was 
 the first triumvirate in Roman history 
 (B. C. 60.) C. then became consul with 
 M. Calpurnius Bibulus, confirmed the 
 measures of Pompey, and procured the 
 passage of a law, in opposition to the 
 senate and his colleague, to distribute 
 certain lands among the poor citizens. 
 This brought him into the highest favor 
 with the people. With Pompey he form- 
 ed a still more intimate connexion by 
 giving him his daughter Julia in mar- 
 riage, and gained the favor of the eques- 
 trian order by remitting a third part of 
 their taxes. In vain did the heads of the 
 patriotic party, Cicero and Cato, raise 
 their voices against the triumvirate : they 
 only drew upon themselves their ven- 
 geance. When the year of his consul- 
 ship had expired, C. obtained the govern- 
 ment of Gaul for five years, with the 
 command of four legions. After his 
 marriage with the accomplished Calpur- 
 nia, the daughter of one of the new con- 
 suls, Calpurnius Piso,he repaired to Gaul, 
 compelled the Helvetians, who had invad- 
 ed that province, to retreat to their native 
 country, subdued Ariovistus, who, at the 
 head of a German tribe, intended to settle 
 in the country of the ^Edui, and con- 
 quered the Belgians. In nine years, he 
 reduced all Gaul, crossed the Rhine 
 twice (B. C. 55 and 53), and twice passed 
 over to Britain, defeated the gallant na- 
 tives of this island in several battles, and 
 compelled them to give him hostages. 
 The senate had continued his govern- 
 ment in Gaul for another period of five 
 years, while Pompey was to have the 
 command of Spain, and Crassus that of 
 Syria, Egypt and Macedonia for five 
 years also. But the death of Crassus, in 
 
 his campaign against the Parthiatis, dis- 
 solved the triumvirate ; and the death of 
 Julia, which took place about the same 
 time, cooled the friendship between C. 
 and Pompey. Meanwhile the power and 
 authority of Pompey were constantly in- 
 creasing. C., too, strove to strengthen 
 and enlarge his own party in the capital 
 by enormous bribes. He made Gaul a 
 Roman province, and governed the con- 
 quered lands with policy and kindness. 
 Pompey, on the other hand, promoted 
 C.'s enemies to the consulship, and per- 
 suaded the senate to pass a decree, by 
 which C. was to leave his army, and re- 
 sign his government of the province. 
 He declared himself ready to obey, if 
 Pompey would do the same. Hereupon 
 the senate ordered that C. should resign 
 his offices and^command within a certain 
 time, or be proclaimed an enemy to the 
 state, and appointed Pompey general of 
 the army of the republic. Upon this, C. 
 urged his soldiers to defend the honor of 
 their leader, passed the Rubicon (49 B. C.), 
 and made himself master of Italy without 
 striking a blow, as Pompey, destitute of 
 troops to meet him, had left the city with 
 the consuls, senators and magistrates. C. 
 then levied an army with the treasures of 
 the state, and hastened into Spain, which 
 he reduced to submission without com- 
 ing to a pitched battle with Pompey's 
 generals. He next conquered Marseilles, 
 and returned to Rome, where he was 
 appointed dictator by the pretor, M. 
 ^Emilius Lepidus. At the same time, he 
 was chosen consul for the following year 
 by the people. In the meanwhile, Pom- 
 pey had collected an army in the east, 
 and his rival hastened to Epiruswith five 
 legions by land. But when the vessels 
 which were intended to transport the rest 
 of his troops had been captured by Pom- 
 pey's fleet, C. proposed an accommodation, 
 which, however, was refused. Mean- 
 while C. received the expected reenforce- 
 ments, and challenged his antagonist to 
 battle. Pompey declined coming to an 
 engagement, but, at last, being surrounded 
 in liis camp, was forced to take a decisive 
 step, in order to break through the ene- 
 my's line. This measure was successful, 
 and C. retreated to Pharsalia, where, in a 
 bloody but decisive engagement (48 B. C.), 
 he gained the victory. Pompey fled to 
 Asia, and then to Egypt, to raise a new 
 army. As his party was only weakened, 
 but not destroyed, C. hastened after him, 
 passed over the Hellespont, where Cas- 
 sius surrendered to him with his fleet, and 
 then went to Egypt. Here he received
 
 CAESAR. 
 
 381 
 
 intelligence of the murder of Pompey. 
 He shed tears at the tragical end of his 
 rival, gave his body an honorable burial, 
 and loaded his followers with favors, by 
 which many of them were won to em- 
 brace his cause. Being detained by con- 
 trary winds, he made use of the time to 
 compose the differences between Ptolemy 
 and his sister Cleopatra (q. v.). In Rome, 
 the senate and the people strove eagerly 
 to gain the favor of the victor. They ap- 
 pointed him consul for five years, dictator 
 for a year, and tribune of the people for 
 life. Pharnaces, king of Pontus, a son of 
 Mithridates the Great, having attempted 
 to recover the territories of his father in 
 Asia, C. marched against him, pardoned 
 king Dejotarus, an adherent of Pompey, 
 on his way, and finished the war so 
 speedily, that he announced^ his success 
 to his friends in the famous words Veni, 
 vidi, vici. Returning to Rome, he grant- 
 ed an amnesty to all the followers of 
 Pompey, and gained, by his clemency, 
 the universal love of the people. When 
 his dictatorship had expired, he caused 
 himself to be chosen consul again, and, 
 without changing the ancient forms of 
 government, ruled with almost unlimited 
 power. In Africa, however, the friends 
 tsf the republic had gathered under the 
 standard of Cato and other generals. C. 
 passed over with an army, and fought 
 several battles with various success, till 
 the victory at Thapsus over Scipio Me- 
 tellus decided the contest in his favor. 
 Cato, who was in Utica, stabbed himself, 
 and the city surrendered to the conqueror. 
 C. then made Mauritania and Numidia 
 Roman provinces, and gave orders for the 
 rebuilding of Carthage and Corinth, which 
 was accomplished in a year. In Rome, 
 he was received with the most striking 
 marks of honor. The term of his dicta- 
 torship was prolonged to 10 years, the of- 
 fice of censor conferred on him alone ; his 
 person was declared inviolable, and his 
 statue placed by that of Jupiter in the 
 capitol. In a speech to the people on 
 this occasion, he declared his resolution 
 to use his power for the good of the state ; 
 and put an end to the apprehensions, 
 which some still entertained, by the par- 
 don of Marcellus, one of his most open 
 and bitter enemies. He soon after cele- 
 brated the four triumphs which had been 
 decreed him over Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces 
 and Juba, all in one month, and among 
 the most magnificent ever witnessed in 
 Rome. He now passed many useful 
 laws, and invited the learned men of 
 foreign countries to Rome. Amongst 
 
 other things, he undertook the reforma- 
 tion of the calendar (q.v.). During these 
 peaceful occupations, the sons of Pompey 
 had collected new forces in Spain, so that 
 C. took the field in person against them. 
 Corduba was captured after a most obsti- 
 nate resistance ; and, soon after, the par- 
 ties came to a general engagement at 
 Munda. A fortunate accident decided 
 the battle in favor of C., after victory had 
 been for a whole day doubtful. In seven 
 months, Spain was conquered, and C. en- 
 tered Rome in triumph. He was now 
 made perpetual dictator, and received the 
 title of imperator, with full powers of sove- 
 reignty. He continued, meanwhile, to 
 conciliate his enemies by clemency, and 
 to heap honors upon his friends. The 
 number of senators he increased from 
 300 to 900. But this degradation of the 
 senate offended the Romans, and their 
 displeasure was increased by the arro- 
 gance with which he conducted towards 
 that order. On one occasion, as he was 
 sitting in the rostrum, in his chair of gold, 
 Mark Antony offered him a royal diadem. 
 He refused it, however, and his refusal 
 drew shouts of applause from the people. 
 The next morning, his statues were deck- 
 ed with diadems. The tribunes of the 
 people, who had them taken off, ar.il in>. 
 prisoned the persons who had done the 
 act, were deposed from their office by C. 
 This was the occasion of an animosity, 
 which ended in a conspiracy, of which 
 Cains Cassius was the prime mover. C., 
 having no suspicion of the danger which 
 threatened him, was forming new projects. 
 He resolved to subdue the Parthians, and 
 then to conquer all Scythia, from the Cau- 
 casus to Germany and Gaul. C.'s friends 
 gave out, that, according to the Sibylline 
 books, the Parthians could be conquered 
 only by a king, and, therefore, proposed 
 that C. should retain the title of dictator 
 with regard to Italy, but should be saluted 
 with that of king in all the conquered 
 countries. For this purpose, a meeting 
 of the senate was appointed for the loth of 
 March ; and this was the day fixed on by 
 the conspirators for the execution of the 
 plot. A soothsayer warned C. of his dan- 
 ger ; and his wife, disturbed by a frightful 
 dream, conjured him not to go to the 
 senate-house. His doubts, however, 
 were overcome by Decimus Brutus, one 
 of the conspirators, and he proceeded to 
 the capitol. On his way thither, a billet 
 was handed him, giving him information 
 of the conspiracy ; but, in the crowd, he 
 put it by without reading it. The con- 
 spirators had concerted, that Metellus
 
 382 
 
 (LESAR CAFFARELLI DU FALGA. 
 
 Cimber should entreat a pardon for his 
 brother, and, if C. should refuse, he was 
 to tear the mantle from his shoulders, 
 which was to be the signal for their rush- 
 ing upon him with their daggers. All 
 was done as they had planned. Casca's 
 dagger first pierced him in the neck. 
 Scarcely had C. turned, and uttered the 
 words "Accursed Casca, what doest 
 thou ?" when the conspirators rushed 
 upon him from all sides. He defended 
 himself, however, undauntedly. But, 
 when he descried Brutus among the con- 
 spirators, he exclaimed, " And thou, too, 
 my son ?" covered his face with his man- 
 tle, and fell, pierced with 23 wounds, at 
 the foot of Pompey's statue. Thus died 
 this remarkable man, the best who ever 
 aspired to sovereignty in Rome, the vic- 
 tor in 500 battles, and the conqueror of a 
 thousand cities, B. C. 44, 15th of March, in 
 the 56th year of his age. Of C.'s writ- 
 ings, we have his history of his wars with 
 the Gauls and with Pompey, written in 
 a simple, noble style. The most esteem- 
 ed editions are those of Clarke (London, 
 1712, fol.), Grsevius (Leyden, 1713, 2 
 vols.j, and Oudendorp (Leyden, 1737, 2 
 vols. 4to.) One of the best modern small 
 editions is that of Oberlin (Leipsic, 1805). 
 
 C.&SAREA ; the ancient name of many 
 cities. 1. C. Philippi, or Paneas, built by 
 Philip, tetrarch of Galilee, son of Herod 
 the Great. 2. C. Stratonis, on the shores 
 of the Mediterranean, about 7o miles 
 north-west from Jerusalem. Herod the 
 Great enlarged it, and it became the me- 
 tropolis of Palestine, and the seat of the 
 Roman proconsul. (Joseph. Arch. 15, 9, 
 6.) It is the place where Herod Agrippa 
 was smitten by the angel (Acts xii. 20 
 23), where Cornelius the centurion re- 
 sided (x.), and St. Paul was imprisoned 
 two years (xxiii. xxv). It is now, ac- 
 cording to Clarke, in utter desolation. 
 3. The capital of Cappadocia, and now 
 called Kaisarich. It was once supposed 
 to contain 400,000 inhabitants. Lucas 
 (2d Voyage, xviii.)says that all the moun- 
 tains in the environs are perforated with 
 grottoes, which served as summer resi- 
 dences, and that there are 200,000 little 
 pyramids in the vicinity. It has now 
 25,000 inhabitants, and considerable trade 
 in cotton. There were many other towns 
 of this name. 
 
 C.ESAREAN OPERATION. (See Midwife- 
 ry-) 
 
 CJESTUS ; the boxing-glove of the Gre- 
 cian and Roman pugilists. The original 
 Greek ca?stus was merely a raw hide, fas- 
 tened to the hand, and reaching to the 
 
 Avrists, intended for defence. It was af- 
 terwards enlarged, so as to reach to the 
 elbow, and loaded with metal, to increase 
 the weight of the blow. The combat 
 with the caBstus was not more dangerous 
 than a common English boxing-match. 
 Theocritus (Idyll. 22) has described one 
 of these combats. 
 
 C.ESURA, in Latin verse ; the separa- 
 tion of the last syllable of any word from 
 those which preceded it, and the cam ing 
 it forward into another foot. It always 
 renders the syllable on which it falls long, 
 and is accompanied by a slight pause, 
 hence called the cctsural pause, as in the 
 following line : 
 
 Ille lato-s nivetffli molli fultus hyacintho. 
 
 In English poetry, it is equivalent to a 
 pause. (Se Versification.} 
 
 CAF ; a mountain, which, if we believe 
 the Mohammedans, environs the whole 
 earth, which is thus set within it like a 
 finger in a ring. Its foundation is the 
 stone Sakhral, one grain of which enables 
 its possessor to work miracles. The agi- 
 tation of this stone, which is an emerald, 
 whose reflection gives the sky its tints, is 
 the cause of earthquakes. The Dives, or 
 giants, and the Peri, or fairies, dwell in it. 
 
 CAFE. (See Coffee- Houses.} 
 
 CAFFA ; one of the principal ports of the 
 Crimea, formerly a large and rich city, now 
 much reduced. On the south stood the 
 Genoese town, of which ruined walls 
 and massive magazines remain. On 
 some neighboring heights was the Arme- 
 nian town, and near this the Tartar city, 
 its magnificent baths and mosques falling 
 into decay. It was called, by the Tar- 
 tars, Little Constantinople ; but, from the 
 time of its capture by the Turks, in 1475, 
 it began to decline. When Clarke visited 
 it, in 1800, its population was diminished 
 to 50 families. In 1783, it was ceded to 
 Russia, and called Feodosia, from its an- 
 cient name, Theodosia. 
 
 CAFFA, strait of, anciently the Cimme- 
 rian Bosphorus, discharges the turbid wa- 
 ters of the sea of Azoph (Palus Mcsotis) 
 into the Black sea. It is about 15 leagues 
 in length and 3 in breadth. 
 
 CAFFARELH. (See Majorano.) 
 
 CAFFARELLI DU FALGA. Among five 
 brothers of this name, all of whom have 
 distinguished themselves in different de- 
 partments of politics and literature, the 
 best known are, 1. Louis Marie Joseph 
 Maximilian, born in 1756. He was killed 
 in 1799, before St. Jean d'Acre, while 
 general of division. His works, which 
 gained him a place in the national insti-
 
 CAFFARELLI DU FALGA CAFFRES. 
 
 383 
 
 tute, relate to mathematics, the necessity 
 of better public instruction, and various 
 political and philosophical subjects. His 
 whole life was devoted to learning, and to 
 the welfare of mankind. He adopted the 
 principles of the revolution, and served 
 as a captain in the army of the Rhine ; 
 but, when the national convention made 
 known to the armies the condemnation 
 of Louis XVI, in 1793, he declared his 
 disapprobation of it, and was, on that ac- 
 count, deprived of his office, and impris- 
 oned 14 months. He was afterwards set 
 at liberty, employed in the department of 
 war, and finally returned to the army of 
 the Rhine. The loss of a leg did not pre- 
 vent him from engaging in the expedition 
 to Egypt, as chief of the corps of engi- 
 neers. 2. His brother Augustus, lieuten- 
 ant-general, born in 1766, served first in 
 the Sardinian troops, and afterwards in 
 almost all the campaigns of the revolu- 
 tionary war, under the standard of France. 
 In 1804, Napoleon sent him to Rome to 
 induce the holy father to go to France, to 
 anoint him at his coronation. He was 
 then made governor of the Tuileries, re- 
 ceived a command in the army, and was, 
 from 1806 to 1810, minister of war in the 
 kingdom of Italy, and afterwards in active 
 service in the war in Spain. Napoleon 
 gave him the command of the first mili- 
 tary division during the "hundred days." 
 
 GAFFE. Daniel ; a painter in crayons ; 
 born at Kustrin, 1750. After having 
 passed his childhood and youth in want, 
 he left a comfortable office from his love 
 to painting, and was received, at the age 
 of 32 years, as a pupil of the academy of 
 painting in Dresden. Here he studied, 
 chiefly, the pictures of Mengs, and soon 
 acquired a great reputation by his por- 
 traits. He also established a manufactory 
 of crayons. He copied many pictures in 
 the galleries of Dresden, with a vigor and 
 warmth uncommon in a painter in cray- 
 ons. He died in 1815. 
 
 CAFFILA ; a company of merchants or 
 travellers who join together for security, 
 in some eastern countries. It differs from 
 the caravan by being in the employ of 
 some sovereign or company, while the 
 former is composed of merchants trading 
 each on his own account. 
 
 CAFFRARIA ; a name adopted, by the 
 Portuguese, from the Arabs, who called all 
 the African continent, southward from 
 Sofala (their most southerly settlement), 
 the land of Cqfirs (infidels). It was first 
 applied to the whole width of the conti- 
 nent, from cape Corrientes on the east to 
 cape Negro on the west. As the names 
 
 of particular states and people became 
 known, the extent of C. diminished ; and 
 the term is now applied only to the territory 
 on the north-eastern borders of the Cape 
 Colony. C. is but imperfectly known. 
 (See Caffres.) 
 
 CAFFRES. In the south-eastern part of 
 Africa, there is a race distinguished from 
 the Negroes by a larger facial angle (the 
 head being formed like that of Europe- 
 ans), a high nose, hair frizzled, Uit less 
 woolly than that of the Negroes, and a 
 brown or iron-gray complexion, differing 
 from the shining black of that race. 
 They have many Arab words in their dia- 
 lects, and the custom of circumcision pre- 
 vails among them. These people were 
 called, by the Portuguese, Caffres, mistak- 
 ing the Mohammedan term Cajtr (here- 
 tics) for a national appellation. It is now 
 retained, by geographical writers, to de- 
 note the savage tribes, whose physical 
 characteristics have already been describ- 
 ed, extending from Quiloa southward, 
 and the Cape Colony eastward. The his- 
 tory, origin and actual extent of this race 
 is unknown, and is reserved to instruct 
 or confound future explorers in these un- 
 known regions. In a more limited sense, 
 this name has been given to the tribe 
 whose true name is Koussas, living on 
 the confines 6f the Cape Colony. They 
 are a handsome, vigorous race, of simple 
 habits, their principal food being milk in 
 the form of curd. They use no salt : wa- 
 ter is their only drink. They are all pas- 
 sionately fond of tobacco. Their dress 
 is made of the skins of sheep. Ivory 
 rings, worn on the left arm, are their 
 chief ornaments. The women have their 
 backs, arms and breasts furrowed by tear- 
 ing up the skin with a sharp instrument. 
 Both sexes paint the whole body red. 
 Their dwellings are low, circular cabins, 
 constructed by the women. Plurality of 
 wives is allowed, but it is rare that they 
 have more than two. Cattle are of the 
 first importance, and the chief object of 
 affection to a Caffre. They obey and 
 follow their master like dogs. The 
 ground is cultivated by the women. At 
 the age of 12, the boys are appointed to 
 the care of cattle, ami exercised publicly 
 in the use of the javelin and tlie club. 
 The girls, under the inspection of the 
 chiefs' wives, are taught to perform the 
 work of the hut and the garden. The 
 Caffres are of a peaceful disposition, but 
 display great activity and skill in the use 
 of arms, when necessary. Their weap- 
 ons are the hassagay, the shield and the 
 club. Previous to commencing hostili-
 
 CAFFRES CAGLIOSTRO. 
 
 ties, they send heralds to the enemy. 
 They are fond of the chase, pursuing the 
 lion and the elephant. Each horde has 
 a hereditary and absolute chief. The 
 cupidity of the English colonists has 
 found pretences for depriving them of 
 their finest territory (1821), now called 
 Albany ; and this lately kind and happy 
 people seem destined to extinction, or to 
 a miserable and degraded condition. (See 
 Lichtenstein's Travels in Soidhern Africa.) 
 
 CAFTAN ; the well-known national dress 
 of the Turks, in the form of a night-gown, 
 and generally white, with pale-yellow 
 flowers. It is made of woollen or silk, 
 and sometimes lined with costly fur. 
 Such caftans are presented as gifts, by 
 the Turkish court, to the Christian am- 
 bassadors, or to other persons on whom a 
 particular honor is to be conferred. And 
 ambassadors, if they are not expressly 
 permitted to appear in the dress of their 
 nation, are compelled to wear a caftan at 
 the audiences that are given them. 
 
 CAGLIA, cape. (See Matapan, cape.} 
 
 CAGLIARI, the capital of the island of 
 Sardinia, is situated on a hill near the sea. 
 It consists of four parts, 1. the castle, on 
 the top of the hill ; 2. the Marina ; 3. 
 Estempache ; 4. the Villa Nuova. It is 
 strongly fortified, and is the residence of 
 the viceroy, of an archbishop, and the 
 seat of a university with 300 students, 
 which was revived and remodelled in 
 1765. It contains a royal society for the 
 promotion of agriculture, established in 
 1805, a museum of natural history, and 
 one of antiquities. Population, 28,000. 
 It has some manufactures. C. is the em- 
 porium of all the Sardinian trade. Here 
 are the dock-yards and the quarantine- 
 ground. Its spacious and safe harbor is 
 defended by several forts. 
 
 CAGLIARI, Eaul ; known under the name 
 of Paid Veronese ; a painter of Verona, 
 born, 1532. His father, who was a sculp- 
 tor, wished to educate his son for the same 
 profession ; but the young man betrayed 
 a greater inclination for painting, and 
 was, therefore, placed under the care of 
 his uncle, Antonio Badile, a painter. Un- 
 der this able instructer, Paul made con- 
 siderable progress ; but, as the school of 
 Verona already possessed distinguished 
 artists, such as Forbicini, Giolsino, Li- 
 gozzi, Brusasorci and Farinato, he ob- 
 tained, at first, but little celebrity. He 
 went to Mantua and Vicenza, and after- 
 wards to Venice. Here he imitated Ti- 
 tian and Tintoretto, but, at the same time, 
 appeared desirous of surpassing them by 
 a more studied elegance, and a richer va- 
 
 riety of ornament. It soon became evi- 
 dent, from his works, that he had studied 
 the casts of ancient statues, and the etch- 
 ings of Parmesan and Albert Durer. In 
 his first great works, which are in the 
 church of St. Sebastian, in Venice, his 
 pencil is yet timid. The History of 
 Esther, in fresco, which he afterwards 
 painted in this church, excited general 
 admiration ; and the execution of impor- 
 tant works was intrusted to him, among 
 which are many that adorn the library of 
 St. Mark's. He afterwards accompanied 
 the Venetian ambassador Grimani to 
 Rome, where he saw, with enthusiasm, 
 the beautiful models of Raphael and Mi- 
 chael Angelo, and painted, after his re- 
 turn, his fine Apotheosis of Venice.. His 
 numerous banquetting pieces are also ex- 
 cellent. Six, at least, of these are found at 
 Venice, in the refectories of the monas- 
 teries, among the best of which are the 
 Marriage at. Cana, comprising 120 figures, 
 ' many of which are portraits, and the 
 Feast of Christ with Simon. In the for- 
 mer piece, the extravagant display of 
 Asiatic pomp, and the confusion of differ- 
 ent persons and dresses, have been justly 
 censured. In the latter, the air of pride 
 in the aspect of Christ, instead of a sim- 
 ple expression of dignity, the placing of 
 the principal personage in a corner of the 
 picture, and the running into each other 
 of the white table-cloth and the archi- 
 tecture of the background, have been 
 considered blemishes. In his Pilgrims 
 of Emmaus, Paul violated all the unities 
 of time, place and action. But, with all 
 these faults, he displays splendid talents 
 and great fruitfulness of conception. His 
 portraits are spirited and noble, and his 
 coloring splendid. He died in 1588. His 
 scholars were, Charles and Gabriel, his 
 sons, and Benedetto, his brother, besides 
 Michael Parrasio, Naudi, Maffei Verona, 
 Francesco Montemezzano. 
 
 CAGLIOSTRO, count of (real name Giu- 
 seppe Balsamo), was born in 1743, at Pa- 
 lermo. His father died when he was 
 young, and he was educated by his ma- 
 ternal relations. He entered the order of 
 the Brothers of Mercy, where he found 
 an opportunity to cultivate his talents for 
 medical science, by which he aftenvards 
 distinguished himself. But he showed, 
 at the same time, a great love of dissipa- 
 tion, and was, at last, compelled to sepa- 
 rate from the order. He returned to Pa- 
 lermo, where, among other tricks, he 
 deceived some credulous persons by his 
 pretended skill in magic and the finding 
 of hidden treasures. He also showed
 
 CAGLIOSTRO CAGNOLI. 
 
 385 
 
 himself adroit in counterfeiting hand- 
 writing, and attempted to get possession 
 of a contested estate by means of a Ibrged 
 document, but was discovered, and oblig- 
 ed to Hee. He now determined to go to 
 Rome, and, in his journey through Cala- 
 bria, became acquainted with the beautiful 
 Lorenza Feliciani, daughter of a belt- 
 maker. She appeared to him intended 
 by fortune to assist his -designs. He 
 formed an intimacy with her, and soon 
 compelled her to assist in the accomplish- 
 ment of his purposes by the loss of her 
 virtue. They now began their travels, in 
 which he assumed the character of a man 
 of rank, first appearing under the name 
 of the marquis Pellegrini, and finally 
 under that of the count Cagliostro. He 
 travelled through many countries of Eu- 
 rope, stopped in the capital cities, and, by 
 his chemical mixtures, by his tricks, and 
 by the amours of his lady, gained consid- 
 erable sums. We find him in Madrid, 
 Lisbon, Paris, London, and many other 
 cities. He knew how to cheat with great 
 ingenuity, and was always fortunate 
 enough to preserve himself by an early 
 flight, if men's eyes began to be opened, 
 or waking justice threatened him with 
 imprisonment. The discovery of the phi- 
 losopher's stone, the preparation of a 
 precious elixir vita?, &c., were the pre- 
 tences, under which he extracted from 
 credulous people considerable sums in 
 ready money. Many had recourse to his 
 assistance, not, indeed, to be initiated into 
 the mysteries of magic, but to purchase, 
 at a high rate, different kinds of medi- 
 cine, one of which was the water of 
 beauty. This profitable business em- 
 ployed our hero many years ; but, with 
 the fading charms of his lady, many 
 sources of wealth failed. His trade in 
 medicine also began to grow less lucra- 
 tive, and he determined to seek his for- 
 tune as the founder of a new and secret 
 sect. In pursuance of this plan, he passed 
 himself off, during his second residence 
 ill London, for a freemason, and played 
 the part of a magician and worker of 
 miracles, in which character he drew* 
 upon himself the eyes of all the enthusi- 
 asts in Europe. The countess C., on her 
 part, did not remain idle. She was the 
 first and most perfect scholar of her hus- 
 band, and played the part of a priestess 
 to this new order in as able a manner as 
 she had before played that of a priestess 
 to another goddess. His plan for reviving 
 an old Egyptian order, the founders of 
 which he declared to be Enoch and Elias, 
 contained a mass of the greatest absurdi- 
 VOL. ii. 33 
 
 ties and nonsense. But his pretensions 
 to supernatural power, the mystery with 
 which his doctrines were enveloped, his 
 pretended ability to work miracles, his 
 Dealing the sick without pay, with the 
 greatest appearance of generosity, arid the 
 belief that, as the great Kophtha (this 
 name he had taken, as -the restorer of 
 Egyptian masonry), he could reveal the 
 secrets of futurity, gained him many 
 friends and supporters. C. again travel- 
 led through Europe, and attracted great 
 attention in Mittau, Strasburg, Lyons and 
 Paris. While in this last city (1785), he 
 had the misfortune to be implicated in 
 the scandalous affair of the necklace, and 
 was banished the country as a confidant 
 of cardinal Rohan. He now returned to 
 London, and sent many epistles to his 
 followers, wherein he bitterly complained 
 of the injury he had received in France, 
 and painted the French court in the 
 blackest colors. From London, where 
 he could not long remain, he went to 
 Bale, and other cities in that quarter. 
 But, at length, listening to the repeated 
 entreaties of his wife and other friends, 
 he returned (1789) to Rome. Here he 
 busied himself about freemasonry ; but, 
 being discovered, and committed to the 
 castle of St. Angelo, he was condemned, 
 by a decree of the pope, to imprisonment 
 for life, as a freemason, an arch-heretic, 
 and a man very dangerous to religion. 
 He died, in the summer of 1795, in the 
 castle of St. Leo, a small city in the States 
 of the Church. A biography of madame 
 von der Recke, in the Zeitgenossen, No. xi, 
 contains an account of C.'s residence in 
 Riga, and his connexion with madame 
 von der Recke ; and in Casanova's me- 
 moirs there is some interesting informa- 
 tion concerning him. 
 
 CAGNOLI, Anthony, astronomer, member 
 of the French national institute, and pres- 
 ident of the Italian academy of sciences, 
 was born at Zante, and was attached, in 
 his youth, to the Venetian embassy at 
 Paris, where, after the year 1776, he 
 showed more love for astronomy than for 
 diplomacy. Having settled in Verona in 
 1782, he constructed an observatory in 
 his own house, by his observations in 
 which he enriched the science of astron- 
 omy with many discoveries. After the 
 destruction of his observatory by the 
 French (1798), who, however, compen- 
 sated him for his loss, his instruments 
 were transferred to the observatory of 
 Brera, in Milan, and he was appointed 
 professor of astronomy in the military 
 school at Modena. In 1814, he went
 
 386 
 
 CAGNOLI CAILLE. 
 
 back to Verona, and died there in 
 His best works are, Notizie Astronomiche 
 adat. aW Uso comune (Modena, 1802, 2 
 vols., with plates); and his Trigonomrtria 
 Pinnae Sferica (2d edition, Bologna, 1804, 
 with plates) ; translated into French by 
 Chompre (2d edition, Paris, 1804, 4to.). 
 
 CAGOTS ; an unfortunate race of men, 
 resembling the Cretins. They are found 
 in the south of France, near the Pyrenees. 
 They are mostly poor beggars, perform- 
 ing the meanest offices, and covered with 
 leprosy, king's evil, and vermin ; confined 
 to the coarsest food, wandering about 
 without habitation, without clothes or fire 
 in the depth of winter, barely covered 
 with dirty rags, retiring, in the night, to 
 bams and hovels ; of a thin and pale 
 aspect, generally mutilated, lamed in their 
 limbs, despised, insulted, or pitied ; cast out 
 of the race of men as unworthy of life ; 
 given up to the most beastly excess, and 
 accused of the most horrid crimes with 
 which the human race can be stained. 
 In former ages, they were shut out from 
 society as lepers, cursed as heretics, ab- 
 horred as cannibals and pederasts ; their 
 feet were bored with an iron, and they 
 were forced to wear an egg-shell on their 
 clothes, by way of distinction. The very 
 name of Cagot, which Scaliger 'derives 
 from cam's gotius, is a proof of the detest- 
 ation in which they were held. Opin- 
 ions are much divided with regard to the 
 origin of this miserable race, living in the 
 midst of a highly cultivated people. The 
 most plausible conjecture is that which 
 derives them from some northern barba- 
 rians, who migrated into the south of Eu- 
 rope in the 3d or 4th century. More 
 accurate researches have established the 
 fact, that they are not without capacity to 
 become useful members of human soci- 
 ety ; and that, to accomplish this, it is only 
 necessary to remove them from the con- 
 dition in which they suffer so much mis- 
 en' and contempt, which alone would be 
 sufficient to hinder them from developing 
 their talents, if, indeed, they are inferior 
 to those of other men. 
 
 CAHOES, or CAHOOS FALLS. (See Mo- 
 kawk.) 
 
 CAHORS WIXE is that wine which is 
 used to improve the Pontac and other 
 red French wines. It is consumed in 
 Bourdeaux and other places, where the 
 lighter and cheaper French wines find a 
 ready market. 
 
 CAIAPHAS, a Jew, was the high priest 
 at the time when Jesus Christ was cruci- 
 fied by the Romans. In the dismay 
 which the resurrection of Lazarus pro- 
 
 duced among the priests and Pharisees, 
 he proposed the death of that obnoxious 
 person (John, xi. 49, 50) ; and, when the 
 officers of the Jewish hierarchy arrested 
 Jesus, they carried him first to Annas, and 
 then to C., from whom he was transferred 
 to the hands of the civil authority. C. 
 was deposed, A. D. 35, and Jonathan ap- 
 pointed in his stead. 
 
 CAIC, or CAIQUE ; a skiff of a galley. 
 It was pointed at both ends, and was 25 
 feet long by 6 broad and 2 deep. It 
 went out of use with the galley. The 
 name is now applied, in the Levant, and 
 particularly in the Black sea, to small 
 barks. (In the latter sea they are manned 
 by Cossacks.) It is also used in the French 
 navy for a small vessel. 
 
 CAICOS, or CATOS ; a cluster of small 
 islands or rocks, called Little and Great 
 Caicos, between Hayti, or St. Domingo, 
 and the Bahama islands. The largest, 
 called Grand Caico, is 60 miles long, and 
 2 or 3 broad. St. George's Key is the 
 principal harbor. Population in 1803, 40 
 whites, and about 1200 slaves. Lon. 72 
 W. ; lat. 21 3& N. 
 
 CAILAS, or CAILASA ; the loftiest ridge 
 of the Himalaya mountains, (q. v.) On 
 its eastern side is a remarkable peak, 
 called the Lingam of Siva or Mahadeva, 
 an object of great veneration to his vota- 
 ries. It is the favorite abode of Siva, and 
 blooms with eternal spring. 
 
 CAILLAUD, Frederic ; a French travel- 
 ler in Africa, who explored the situation 
 of the ancient Meroe, and penetrated to 
 the southern part of the kingdom of Sen- 
 naar. He travelled in Africa during the 
 years 1819, 1820, 1821, and 1822. (See 
 Meroe.) 
 
 CAILLE, Auguste ; a French traveller, 
 and the only European who has returned 
 from Timbuctoo or Ten-Boctoo. In 1819, 
 lie accompanied major Gray in his ex- 
 ploring expedition, and, being on the 
 Senegal in 1824, determined to attempt 
 to reach Timbuctoo and Jenna by his 
 own exertions. Having adopted the Ara- 
 bian dress, and embraced the religion of 
 fhe country, he joined a caravan, and set 
 out from Kakondi (Kokundi), April 19, 
 
 1827. He crossed the Joliba (Niger), and 
 spent some time at Kankan, whence he 
 travelled about 200 miles eastwardly, to 
 Time. Leaving this place, where he was 
 detained five months by sickness, Jan. 10, 
 
 1828, and taking a northerly direction, 
 he again fell in with the Joliba, March 
 10, and, crossing an arm of that stream, 
 arrived at Jenna. Having embarked, 
 March 23, on the Niger, and passed, on
 
 CAILLE. 
 
 387 
 
 his way, the lake Delo (misplaced, on the 
 maps, under the name of Dioit'e), he 
 reached Timbuctoo April 20. Leaving 
 this city May 4, he crossed the Great Des- 
 ert, and reached Talilet, July 23, whence 
 he passed through Fez to Tangiers. 
 Thus this intrepid young traveller, at the 
 age of 28 years, has achieved alone, and 
 by his own resources, what the exertions 
 of powerful societies, the aid of govern- 
 ments, and the most devoted efforts of 
 experienced travellers, had in vain at- 
 tempted. This account is the substance 
 of the report of a committee of the geo- 
 graphical society of Paris, by whom bis 
 accounts have been examined. The prize 
 offered by that society to the first travel- 
 ler who should reach Timbuctoo has 
 been awarded to him ; the king has be- 
 stowed on him the cross of the legion of 
 honor, and 3000 francs, with a pension 
 of 3000 francs for the years 1829 and 
 1830, to enable him to pursue the studies 
 necessary to prepare him to renew his 
 visit to those hitherto unknown regions. 
 
 CAILLE, Nicholas Louis de la, born at 
 Ilumigny, not far from Rosoy, in Thie- 
 rache, 1713, studied at the college at 
 Lisieux, and wished to dedicate himself 
 to the service of the church. But, at this 
 time, his attention was directed to astron- 
 omy, and he carried the spirit of geometry 
 into the scholastic philosophy, and even 
 into theology, of which he wished to re- 
 form the language, and treat the proposi- 
 tions after the manner of Euclid. He 
 soon renounced theology altogether. Cas- 
 siui and JMaraldi were his friends, and 
 with them he drew up a description of 
 the coast of France, from Nantes to Bay- 
 onne. On account of the accuracy and 
 .skill which he displayed in this operation, 
 he was selected to take part in the verifi- 
 cation of the meridian, which was then 
 beginning to be a subject of interest. He 
 began this great, work April 30, 1739, 
 and, in this year, finished all the triangles 
 from Paris to Perpignan ; measured the 
 bases of Bourges, Rhodez and Aries ; ob- 
 served the azimuths and /cnith distances 
 of the stars at Bourges, Rhodez and Per- 
 pignan, and took the principal share in 
 the measurement of the degree of longi- 
 tude which terminates at the harbor of 
 Cette. During ihe severe winter of 1 740, 
 lie extended his triangles over the princi- 
 pal mountains of Auvergne, to connect 
 with the meridian a new basis measured 
 at Riom. The object of this excursion 
 was to procure additional information for 
 the purpose of clearing up the doubt 
 he entertained concerning the ba- 
 
 sis of Juvisy, measured by Picard in 1669. 
 He had discovered and demonstrated that 
 this basis was a thousandth part too long, 
 from whence it follows, that the toise 
 used by Picard was at least a line shorter 
 than the toise of the academy. This 
 assertion of his, so long contested, was 
 now placed beyond doubt. During his 
 absence, he was made professor of math- 
 ematics in the college of Mazarin, in con- 
 sequence of which, the continuation of 
 the meridian in the north was delayed till 
 the next autumn. C. ended his surveys 
 in the course of some months; during 
 which he measured two bases more, and 
 made the astronomical observations at 
 Paris and Dunkirk. After his return, he 
 commenced the calculations for which 
 he had prepared the materials by these 
 long operations, and, by a comparison of 
 the different arcs which he had measured, 
 he showed that the degrees increase from 
 the equator to the poles a result diamet- 
 rically opposite to the old measurement. 
 His works on geometry, mechanics, as- 
 tronomy ifnd optics, which followed each 
 other in a few years, show with what 
 ability he discharged the duties of pro- 
 fessor. His Ephenierides, and the numer- 
 ous and able memoirs which he presented 
 to the academy of sciences, and his cal- 
 culations of the eclipses for 1800 years, in 
 the lirst edition of his Art de verifier les 
 Dates, prove with what ardor he pursued 
 his astronomical studies. He had under- 
 taken the correction of the list of staiv, 
 according to the method of corresponding 
 heights. In 1746, he was in possession 
 of an observatory erected for him at the 
 collide Mazarin. True to the laborious 
 method which he believed the best, C. 
 spent his days and nights, for 14 years, in 
 making observations on the sun, the plan- 
 ets and the stars, to rectify the astronomi- 
 cal catalogues and tables. He had re- 
 ceived the two six-foot sectors, with which 
 he had verified the meridian of France. 
 Desirous of observing the stars of the 
 southern hemisphere, which never ap- 
 pear above the horizon at Paris, he formed 
 the plan of a voyage to the cape of Good 
 Hope. He saw immediately the advan- 
 tage to be derived from this change of 
 place, in determining the parallax of the 
 moon, of Mars and Venus, and the refrac- 
 tion of the rays of light. Lalande (q. v.), 
 then 19 years old, was sent to Berlin, 
 which lies nearly under the same merid- 
 ian as the cape, to take corresponding 
 measures at the same time. This astro- 
 nomical undertaking cost four years of 
 journeys and labor. C. determined the
 
 CAILLE CAIN. 
 
 position of about 10,000 stars, in 127 
 nights, with wonderful accuracy. As his 
 departure from the cape was delayed, he 
 employed the interval in measuring a 
 degree of the southern hemisphere. He 
 also received orders to superintend the 
 construction of an accurate chart of the 
 Isle of France and the Isle of Bourbon, 
 though one had recently been executed 
 by the celebrated navigator d'Apres. Af- 
 ter his return, he employed himself, with 
 great assiduity, in comparing the different 
 methods which had been proposed for 
 solving the problem of the longitude. 
 (See Longitude, Geograph.) He chose, 
 for this purpose, the distances of the moon 
 from the sun or the stars, showed the 
 advantage of this method, and proposed 
 a plan lor a nautical almanac, since uni- 
 versally adopted. For the use of naviga- 
 tors with but little knowledge, he con- 
 trived ingenious and graphic means of 
 assistance, by which they were made 
 acquainted, in an easy manner, with a 
 method which must otherwise have terri- 
 fied them by the length of the calcula- 
 tions. C. divided his time between his 
 observatory, his calculations, his duties as 
 an academician and professor, and the 
 publication of his different works. Now 
 appeared his tables of the sun, his As- 
 tronomies Fundamenta novissima Solis et 
 Stdlarum observat. stabil. (Paris. 1757), the 
 continuation of his Ephemerides. He was 
 particularly engaged in observations of 
 the moon, and the stars of the zodiac. 
 Finding the method of corresponding 
 heights too slow for the vast plan which 
 he had formed, he fixed in his observatory 
 a meridian telescope, which gave him the 
 right ascension of the stars with much 
 more ease. But, in order to attain the 
 degree of accuracy at which he aimed, 
 he made it a rule to admit no star into his 
 new catalogue, which he had not ob- 
 served for three or four days, comparing 
 it each time with several of those, the 
 places of which he had previously deter- 
 mined with so much care. He thus at- 
 tained a greater degree of accuracy than 
 his celebrated rivals, Bradley and Mayer, 
 who were furnished with better instru- 
 ments, and generally contented them- 
 selves with a single observation of the 
 stars of lesser magnitude. It is to be re- 
 gretted, that this great work has not been 
 edited with greater accuracy by the friend 
 and scholar of C. Engaged in so many 
 employments, C. still found time for other 
 labors. From the manuscripts of Bou- 
 guer, who had intrusted them to him at 
 the time of his death, he published Traite 
 
 de la Gradation de la Lumiere, and wholly 
 revised the Traite de Navigation. He 
 afterwards published the observations of 
 the landgrave of Hesse-Cassel and Wal- 
 ther, the travels of Chazelle to Egypt, 
 and Feuillee's voyage to the Canary isl- 
 ands. A violent attack of the gout having 
 interrupted his labors, he resumed them, 
 as soon as he was able, with too much 
 eagerness, exhausted his weak frame, and 
 died in 1762. He bequeathed his manu- 
 scripts to his friend Maraldi, who pub- 
 lished the del Austral, preceded by an 
 doge of the author, by Broiler. Never 
 was there a greater friend of labor and 
 truth than C. The number, as well as 
 the accuracy of his observations, is wor- 
 thy of admiration, more particularly if 
 we consider that all his astronomical la- 
 bors took place within 27 years. His 
 Journal du Voyage, fait au Cap de Bonne 
 Esperance was edited by Carlier (Paris, 
 1763). 
 
 CAIMACAN (lieutenant) ; a title of the 
 grand signior, the grand vizier, and the 
 governor of Constantinople. 
 
 CAIMAN. (See Cayman Islands.) 
 
 CAIMAN. (See Alligator.) 
 
 CAIN ; the eldest son of Adam and 
 Eve ; the first murderer. Jealous of the 
 favor shown to his younger brother (see 
 Abel), he murders him in the field. The 
 avenging voice of conscience asks him 
 the terrible question, " Cain, where is thy 
 brother ?" which he vainly endeavors to 
 evade "Am I my brother's keeper ?" The 
 curse is pronounced upon him ; he is de- 
 clared a fugitive and a wanderer on the 
 face of the earth. His remorse and de- 
 spair fill him with the apprehension of 
 retribution of death from the hand of 
 whoever shall meet him. But a mark is 
 set upon him, as a sign, lest any one 
 should kill him. He then, continues 
 Moses (Gen. iv. 16 24), went out and 
 dwelt in the land of Nod, on the east of 
 Eden. (q. v.) His wife bore him a son, 
 Enoch, who built a city. Jabal, one of 
 his descendants, is called the father of 
 those who live in tents (scenites). Jubal, 
 brother of Jabal, was the first musician, 
 and Tubal-cain, another brother, was the 
 first smith. This is the last information 
 which the Mosaic history gives of the 
 family of Cain, unless we suppose the 
 beautiful daughters of men ( Gen. vi. 2), 
 or the giants (Gen. vi. 4), to be his pos- 
 terity. The conciseness of the sketch of 
 antediluvian history in Genesis has left 
 a wide field for conjecture. Why was 
 Abel's offering preferred ? What was the 
 sign which indicated the acceptance of
 
 CAIN CAISSON. 
 
 389 
 
 the one and the rejection of the other ? 
 What was to be the effect of this prefer- 
 ence ? Did Abel manifest a more lively 
 faith ? Was his offering consumed by a 
 fire from heaven ? Were the privileges 
 of primogeniture transferred to him from 
 the eldest born, as was frequently done in 
 the patriarchal times? Who were the 
 avengers whom he feared ? Preadamites, 
 as some have gravely conjectured (Bayle, 
 art. Cain), or descendants of Abel ? Was 
 the mark set upon Cain, or does the 
 original signify that a sign was given him 
 to inspire him with confidence in the 
 promise ? Josephus relates, that he be- 
 came the leader of a band of robbers, 
 committed all sorts of licentiousness, cor- 
 rupted the simplicity of primitive man- 
 ners by his luxury, established the right 
 of property by setting up landmarks, and 
 was the inventor of weights and meas- 
 ures. 
 
 CAIQCE, GRAND ; a small island among 
 the Bahamas ; Ion. 70 W. ; lat. 19 5(X 
 N. The Little C. lies south-west of the 
 former. 
 
 (^A-!RA. These famous revolutionary 
 couplets were written on the occasion of 
 the celebration of the capture of the Bas- 
 tile, when the civic oath was taken before 
 the altar of the country. The celebration 
 took place on the Champ de Mars, July 
 14, 1790, in the midst of torrents of rain. 
 The refrain, or chorus, runs thus : 
 
 All ! ca ira, 93 ira, ^a ira, 
 
 En depit d' z'aristocrat' et d' la pluie, 
 
 All ! ^a ira, &o. 
 
 Nous nous mouillerons, mais ^a finira. 
 
 This, it will be seen, was directed against 
 the aristocrats. The famous Marseillaise, 
 or Marseilles hymn, which resounded 
 throughout Europe during the wars of 
 the young republic against the coalition 
 of sovereigns, was directed against foreign, 
 as the a-ira was against the domestic, 
 enemies of the revolution. The author 
 and composer of the Marseillaise (Rouget 
 de 1'Isle), an officer of the engineers, nar- 
 rowly escaped with his head, during the 
 reign of terror, (See Potsies Rev. et Anti- 
 Rev., Paris, 1821, 2 vols,) Theso poems 
 were proscribed by the directory in 1797, 
 and have not, of course, been restored to 
 favor by the consulate, the empire, or 
 since the restoration, 
 
 CAIRN ; a name given to heaps of 
 stones, common in Great Britain, particur 
 larly in Scotland and Wales, generally of 
 a conical form, and crowned by a flat 
 stone. They are of various sizes, and 
 were probably constructed for different 
 objects. Some are evidently sepulchral, 
 33* 
 
 containing urns, stone chests, bones, &c. 
 Others were erected to commemorate 
 some remarkable event, and others appear 
 to have been intended for religious rites, 
 (See Tumuli.) 
 
 CAIRNGORM, or BLUE MOUNTAIN ; a 
 mountain of Scotland, belonging to the 
 Grampian hills. It is particularly cele* 
 brated for the crystals found on it, called 
 cairngorms, of various colors and sizes. 
 They have now become scarce. They 
 are, in general, of a smoky or yellowish 
 hue (smoky quartz and yellow quartz), 
 and are used for seals and other trinkets, 
 
 CAIRO (in Arabic, Kahira, which signi- 
 fies victorious] ; the capital city of Egypt, 
 and one of the largest cities in the world, 
 It lies on the east bank of the Nile, in a 
 sandy plain, and contains Old Cairo, Bou- 
 lac (the harbor), and New Cairo, which 
 are, to a considerable degree, distinct from 
 each other. The city itself, separate from 
 the gardens and plantations which surr 
 round it, is 3.| leagues in circuit, has 31 
 gates, and 2400 irregular, unpaved streets, 
 which, during the night, are closed at the 
 end of the quarter, to prevent disturb-* 
 ances ; also 25,840 houses, for the mpst 
 part built of brick, with flat roofs, and 
 more than 200,000 inhabitants Arabs 
 or Mohammedans, Coptish Christians, 
 Mamelukes, Greeks, Syrians, Armenian;?, 
 Jews, and natives of various countries of 
 Europe. The castle, situated on a rock 
 containing Joseph's well, 276 feet deep, 
 is the residence of the pacha. There are 
 80 public baths, 300 mosques, 2 Greek, 
 12 Coptish, and 1 Armenian church, 3ti 
 synagogues, and many silk, camlet, tapes-r 
 tiy, gunpowder, leather, linen and cotton 
 factories. The commerce of the city is 
 very great, since it is the centre of coniT 
 inunication between Europe, the Medir 
 terranean sea, Asia, and the north of Af- 
 rica. Here is also a Mohammedan high-r 
 school, a printing-office, and a library of 
 25,000 volumes. A line of telegraphs 
 extends from hence to Alexandria, about 
 255 miles distant, by which intelligence is 
 communicated in 40 minutes. In the 
 neighborhood v is an aqueduct of 317 
 arches ; also Boulac, the harbor of C., 
 wliich contains an institution for 100 
 scholars, supported by the pacha, and a. 
 printing-office. In 1798, C. was taken, 
 by the French. (See Egypt.) 
 
 CAISSON ; 1. a chest filled with combus* 
 tibles, and buried under ground, in order 
 to explode at a particular time. It is alsq 
 a covered wagon for the provisions and 
 ammunition of an army. 2. In archi- 
 tecture, a kind of chest, case, or flat-boU
 
 390 
 
 CAISSON CALABASH-TREE. 
 
 tomed boat, used in the construction of 
 bridges, large enough to contain an entire 
 pier, -which is built in it ; the caisson is 
 then sunk to the bed of the river, and the 
 sides removed from the bottom, which is 
 left as a foundation for the pier. Floating 
 vessels, under the same name, are used to 
 close the entrances of docks and basins. 
 A groove is worked in the masonry of 
 the entrance, and a vessel of the shape of 
 the opening, with a projection correspond- 
 ing to the groove, a hanging scuttle on 
 each side, and furnished with pumps, is 
 floated into it at high tide. The scuttles 
 being opened, the caisson sinks, and rills 
 up the groove. The scuttles are then shut, 
 and the water is prevented from entering 
 the dock, or from discharging itself from 
 the basin. If the dock is to be filled, the 
 scuttles are opened, till the water is nearly 
 on a level on each side, when the scuttles 
 are again shut, the caisson emptied by the 
 pumps, and then floated off. 
 
 CAIUS, or, in the Greek manner of 
 writing, GAIUS ; a learned lawyer of the 
 time of Adrian and Antoninus Pius (117 
 161), of whose life but very little is known. 
 Of his numerous works, his Institutes are 
 particularly important; first, as having 
 been, for centuries, down to the time of 
 Justinian, one of the most common man- 
 uals of law ; secondly, as having been the 
 foundation of the official compendium of 
 the law, which occupies an important 
 place in the reform of the judicial system 
 by Justinian ; and, thirdly, as the only tol- 
 erably full, systematic and well-arranged 
 source of the old Roman law. Some 
 parts of this work have been known for a 
 considerable time. Two leaves of a man- 
 uscript of it were discovered in the library 
 of the cathedral chapter at Verona, as 
 early as the beginning of the last century, 
 by Scipio Maffei ; but the manuscript 
 itself was first discovered in 1816, by Nie- 
 buhr, who staid two days at Verona, on 
 bis way to Rome as Prussian ambassador. 
 The parchment, on which the Institutes 
 of C. were written, had been used to 
 copy the letters of St. Jerome. MafFei 
 had perceived it to be a Codex Rescriptus, 
 without, however, having very accurately 
 examined it. Niebuhr saw that an old 
 juridical work lay here concealed, and von 
 Savigny, professor of law in Berlin, at 
 that time at Paris, happily conjectured 
 that it might be the Institutes of C. The 
 academy of sciences at Berlin sent, in 
 1817, two professors, Bekker, the philolo- 
 gist, and Goschen, the jurist, to Italy, to 
 investigate this discovery with accuracy. 
 The present professor, Bethmann Hol- 
 
 weg offered his services to them, and, by 
 their united efforts, the greatest part of 
 the book has been brought into order, and 
 that part which was before illegible whol- 
 ly restored. The fragments of C. were 
 printed at Berlin, 1820. The manuscript 
 lias been again examined, by proli/ssor 
 Blume, and many additional discoveries 
 have been made, which have been intro- 
 duced into a new edition (Berlin, 1825). 
 They have opened new views upon many 
 points of the history of Roman law, and 
 have also destroyed many acute and learn- 
 ed hypotheses. 
 
 CA JEPUT OIL ; the volatile oil obtained 
 from the leaves of the cajeput-trce the 
 cajeputa officinarum (the melaleuca leuca- 
 dtnaron of Linna?us). The tree which fur- 
 inslirs the cajcput oil is common on the 
 mountains of Amboyna, and the other 
 Molucca islands. It is obtained, by distil- 
 lation, from the dried leaves of the smaller 
 of two varieties. It is prepared, in great 
 quantities, in the island of Banda, and 
 sent to Holland in copper flasks. As it 
 comes to us, it is of a green color, very 
 limpid, lighter than water, of a strong 
 smell, resembling camphor, and of a 
 strong, pungent taste. It bums entirely 
 away, without leaving any residuum. It 
 is often adulterated with other essential 
 oils, colored with the resin of milfoil. In 
 the genuine oil, the green color depends 
 on the presence of copper ; for, when rec- 
 tified, it is colorless. 
 
 CALABAR, OLD ; a country of Africa, on 
 a river of the same name, in Upper Guinea. 
 Duke Town, the principal place on the 
 river, is in Ion. about 8 E., lat. 5 4' N., and 
 contains 2000 inhabitants. Creek Town, 
 eight miles N., contains 1500 inhabitants. 
 Old Town was formerly the capital. The 
 inhabitants are represented as cruel, 
 treacherous and dishonest. New Calabar, 
 situated on a river of the same name, 80 
 miles VV. of Old C., contains about 300 
 houses, and is the centre of the Dutch 
 commerce in this countiy. 
 
 CALABASH-TKEE. The calabash-tree 
 (crescentia ntjcta) is a production of the 
 West Indies and the continent of Ameri- 
 ca, about the height and dimensions of 
 an apple-tree, with crooked, horizontal 
 branches, wedge-shaped leaves, pale- 
 white flowers on the trunk and branches, 
 and a roundish fruit, from two inches to 
 a foot in diameter. The uses to which the 
 fruit of the calabash-tree is applied are 
 very numerous. Being covered with a 
 greenish-yellow skin, which encloses a 
 thin, hard, and almost woody shell, it is 
 employed for various kinds of domestic
 
 CALABASH-TREECALABRIA. 
 
 391 
 
 vessels, such as water-cans, goblets and 
 cups of almost every description. So hard 
 and close-grained are these shells, that, 
 when they contain any fluid, they may 
 even be put several times on the fire as 
 kettles, without any injury. When in- 
 tended for ornamental vessels, they are 
 sometimes highly polished, and have fig- 
 ures engraven upon them, which are vari- 
 ously tinged with indigo and other colors. 
 The calabash contains a pale-yellow, 
 juicy pulp, of an unpleasant taste, which 
 is esteemed a valuable remedy in several 
 disorders, both external and internal. 
 
 CALABRESE ; the appellation of a paint- 
 er, by name Mattia Preti, a native of Ca- 
 labria ; born 1643, died 1699. 
 
 CALABRIA ; a mountainous country, ly- 
 ing on the sea-coast, about 164 miles in 
 length, and from 20 to 60 broad, forming 
 the southern part of the Italian peninsula. 
 It extends, in the southern part of Naples, 
 along the Apennines and the Tyrrhenian 
 sea, to the capes of Spartivento and Squil- 
 lace on the south, and to the gulf of Ta- 
 rcnto in the Mediterranean sea on the 
 east. In a space of 6800 square miles, it 
 contains more than 890,000 inhabitants, 
 among whom are many Arnauts. The 
 accurate accounts of this country, so fa- 
 mous in fable and history, but hitherto 
 not very accessible to travellers, we owe 
 to the war which the Frencb, under Jo- 
 seph and Jerome, carried on against the 
 proud and fanatical natives, until 1810. 
 In ancient times, C. was a part of Magna 
 Graecia, the residence of Pythagoras, the 
 birth-place of Charonidas, of Zaleucus, 
 Praxiteles, Agathocles, and other distin- 
 guished men. The country where the 
 luxurious Sybaris once flourished is now 
 sunk in deep barbarism. The climate 
 was much esteemed in antiquity ; but, in 
 some places, the stagnant waters, to the 
 draining off of which no one pays dny 
 attention, produce contagious diseases in 
 the hot season. The heavy dews pre- 
 serve, during the greater part of the year, 
 a delightful verdure, which is increased 
 by numerous spring? and streams. Pliny 
 extols the fertility of the dark soil, which, 
 with the exception of the great plain Mar- 
 cesato, resembling an entire waste, covers 
 the calcarious rocks of C. Beautiful 
 groves of pine, fir and larch, the pitch- 
 bearing trees of the wood of Sila, famous 
 in ancient times, shade the sides of the 
 Apennines. The evergreen-oak, the Ori- 
 ental plane-tree, the Indian chestnut, the 
 beech, the aloe, the fig, various nut- 
 trees, and others, flourish here. The Ca- 
 labrian ash affords manna. The fields 
 
 are beautifully adorned with herbage, the 
 cinnamon rose and sage, and the hills 
 with strawberries and raspberries. On 
 the coast grow the evergreen tamarisk and 
 arbutus. With all the rich fruits of the 
 torrid zone, we find here some of those 
 which belong to the north of Europe we 
 wander amid orchards of fine apples, and 
 through green Alpine meadows, with 
 their soft herbage. In the valleys, the 
 thorny caper mingles its bright flowers 
 Avith the dark-green rosemary, and the 
 laurel overshadows all the streams. From 
 the rush (sarrachio) the Calabrian manu-. 
 factures his ship-tackle, his baskets, his 
 mats, his ropes and his nets, in which he 
 catches the tunny. The lazy and igno- 
 rant inhabitant of this beautiful land has 
 forgotten the Grecian mode of culture, 
 Avhich produced excellent wines and good 
 oil. He has corn and rice, saffron, anise, 
 liquorice, madder, flax and hemp. He 
 cultivates olives, figs, almonds and cotton. 
 The noble sugar-cane will come to per- 
 fection here. The silk* of this country is 
 good. The sheep, horned-cattle and 
 hoi-ses are numerous. The waters con- 
 tain tunnies and eels. Near Reggio a 
 kind of muscle is found, called pinna i- 
 rina, from whose silky beard a splendid 
 fabric is manufactured, which is as light 
 as it is effectual in affording protection 
 against the cold. Coral is also fished up. 
 The quarries and pits afford alabaster, 
 marble, g3'psum, alum, chalk, rock-salt, 
 lapis lazuli, and the fine copper, renown- 
 ed since the time of Homer. The 
 condition of the people is a subject of 
 astonishment to all observers. The Ca- 
 labrian, scarcely 40 leagues from the 
 gates of the capita], is wild as a Tartar, 
 cruel as a Moor, rude and ignorant as a 
 Negro of Senegal ; yet he lias some good 
 qualities. He is honest, hospitable, and 
 tender of his honor. The corruption of 
 a race of men, naturally so energetic, is 
 the fault of the government, the church, 
 and the feudal system now abolished. A 
 few rich individuals are found here among 
 a great number of miserable poor. The 
 peasant labors little, and subsists almost 
 entirely on the spontaneous productions 
 of nature. His habitation resembles the 
 pig-sties of the rest of Europe. The feu- 
 dal lords formerly exercised a dreadful 
 tyranny over their vassals, who, weary of 
 suffering, fled to the mountains, and lived 
 by robbery. Ignorance, love of revenge, 
 cruelty and cunning are the principal 
 traits in the character of the people. 
 Once offended, a Calabrian is irreconcila- 
 ble. Hereditary hatred, therefore, divides
 
 392 
 
 CALABRIA CALAMINES. 
 
 most of the families, and an individual 
 never goes abroad without carrying arms 
 under his black mantle. In the night, 
 they barricade their houses. They have 
 no idea of social pleasures, and the rich 
 think only of scraping together money. 
 The females are not beautiful : they marry 
 early, and soon fade. Even those of the 
 higher classes cannot, in general, read or 
 write. The husbands are so jealous, that 
 they always confine their wives, and treat 
 them severely. The recourse to lawsuits 
 and chicanery is common, although the 
 administration of justice is wretchedly 
 defective. The clergy are as ignorant as 
 they are corrupt, and superstition rules all 
 classes. Even the robber carries relics 
 in his bosom, which he supplicates for 
 assistance in his enterprises. The people 
 are naturally intelligent. Their language 
 is a corruption of the Italian, difficult to 
 be understood, but full of original and 
 pointed expressions. The classes which 
 are in some degree well informed express 
 themselves with great ease and warmth. 
 Their gestures are extremely lively. They 
 have great powers of persuasion. If they 
 cannot attain their end in this way, they 
 revenge themselves by murder. They are 
 well-formed,' muscular, and of a brown 
 complexion. They have animated coun- 
 tenances, and eyes full of fire and expres- 
 sion, but passionate hearts and giddy 
 heads. They are, like the Sardinians and 
 the CorsicanSjthe savages of Europe. (See 
 Sejour d'un Officier Frangais en Calabre, 
 Paris, 1810.) In regard to government, 
 the country is divided into Calabria Citra 
 on the north, and Calabria Oltra I and II 
 on the south. The former contains Co- 
 senza, which has 15,000 inhabitants ; the 
 latter, Reggio, which has 16,500, and 
 Catanzaro, the capital city, which has 
 1 1,000. These, alone, among the few cit- 
 ies, are of importance, on account of their 
 manufactures and commerce. There are 
 some silk manufactories at Monteleone 
 (the Grecian Hippo-mum, called, by the 
 Romans, Vibona, now containing 15,000 
 inhabitants, and the ruins of a temple of 
 Ceres). The seaport Crotona has some 
 commerce. The city of Gerace is built 
 of the ruins of Locri. Pizzo, where Mu- 
 ral was seized, Oct. 13, 1815, is called, 
 from that event, the most faithful city, and 
 is freed from all city taxes and excise. 
 Many marks of the earthquake, which, in 
 February, 1783, laid waste the southern 
 part of C., destroyed 300 cities and vil- 
 lages, and buried 30,000 men, are still to 
 be seen. 
 
 CALAHORRA (anciently Calagurris)', a 
 
 toAvn of Spain, in Old Castile, near the 
 south side of the Ebro, on the borders of 
 Navarre ; 136 miles N. N. E. of Madrid j 
 Ion. 2 W.; lat. 42 l& N.; population, 
 7200. It is a bishop's see, and contains 
 three parish churches and three convents. 
 In the year of Rome 682, this town, then 
 called Calagurris, siding with Sertorius, 
 was besieged by Afranius, one of Pom- 
 pey's generals, and the inhabitants reduc- 
 ed to such extremity, that they fed on 
 their wives and children ; whence the 
 Romans were wont to call any grievous 
 famine fames Calagurritana. Quintilian 
 was born here. 
 
 CALAIS ; a French sea-port on the 
 channel which separates England from 
 France, called by the French the Pas de 
 Calais and La Manche ; by the English, 
 the English channel. This strongly-for- 
 tified city is protected by a citadel and 
 the fort of Nieuvelet. It contains 8,500 
 inhabitants, and has a harbor which is 
 too shallow for large ships, and is impor- 
 tant only because passage boats run con- 
 tinually from here to Dover. The strait is 
 24 miles wide, and the passage by the 
 steam-boat seldom exceeds 5 hours. In 
 1346, C. was taken by Edward III, king 
 of England, after such a bold defence as 
 made the siege one of the most remark- 
 able in history. It remained in the pos- 
 session of the English until 1558, when 
 it was lost, together with all the English 
 possessions in France. Near the harbor 
 a monument has been erected to com- 
 memorate the return of Louis XVIII, 
 April 24, 1814. In the year 1819, 15,577 
 travellers landed here, and 11,033 em- 
 barked from this port. 
 
 CALAIS, Pas de (i. e., straits of Calais) ; 
 a department of France, formerly the 
 province of Artois, lying east of the chan- 
 nel, and south of the straits. Population, 
 in 1827, 642,969; chief place, Arras, 
 (See Departments.) 
 
 CALAIS, straits of. (See Dover, straits 
 
 of-) 
 
 CALAITE. (See Turquoise.) 
 
 CALAMANCO ; a woollen stuff, princi- 
 pally manufactured in the Netherlands. 
 The English manufactures of it have de- 
 clined of late years. The warp is some- 
 times mixed with silk or goats' hair, 
 This stuff is made plain, colored, striped 
 or watered. 
 
 CALAMATA. (See Greece.) 
 
 CALAMINE. (See Zinc.) 
 
 CALAMI.NES, or CALAMIANES ; a cluster 
 of islands in the Indian sea, among those 
 called the Philippine islands. They are 
 17 in number, one of which is 30 miles
 
 C ALAMINES C ALC HAS. 
 
 393 
 
 long, and 12 broad, divided between the 
 king of Borneo and the Spaniards, with 
 some independent natives in the interior 
 parts, who live without chiefs and with- 
 out laws : they are black, and have no 
 fixed places of abode. About 1200 on 
 the sea-coast have submitted to the Span- 
 iards, who have a garrison at a place 
 railed Tatay. The country is mountain- 
 ous, and produces some rice, and great 
 quantities of wax and honey. Lon. 120 
 2(X E. ; lat. 12 N. 
 
 CALAMUS ; a reed. 1. The C. pastora- 
 lis was a simple reed or cane, used as a 
 musical instrument. Thejistula, or shep- 
 herd's pipe, was made of this substance : 
 it is hence figuratively used by the poets 
 for the pipe itself. 2. The C. scriptorius, 
 or chartarius, was used by the ancients to 
 write on materials which the style would 
 injure, as papyrus, parchment, &c. It 
 was generally made of the Egyptian, 
 sometimes of the Persian reed. It was 
 sharpened with a knife, or a rough stone, 
 and split like our pens. 3. The C. aro- 
 maticus (the acorus of botanists) is an 
 odoriferous reed, formerly brought from 
 India, now found also in the north of Eu- 
 rope, and in North America. It is used 
 by the distillers of Dantzic to correct the 
 empyreumatic odor of spirits, and to give 
 them a peculiar flavor. 
 
 CALAXDRA. (See Mosaic.) 
 
 GALAS, John. This unfortunate man, 
 who died on the scaffold, a victim of fa- 
 naticism, was born, 1098, in Lacaparede, 
 near Chartres, in Languedoc, educated in 
 the Protestant religion, and established as 
 a merchant in Toulouse, lie had three 
 sons and three daughters, whom he edu- 
 cated himself, and was held in general 
 esteem, when, in his G8th year, he was 
 suddenly accused of the dreadful crime 
 of murdering his son. In 17(31, his oldest 
 son, Marc Antoine, was found strangled 
 in his father's house. It was reported 
 that the unfortunate youth had been put 
 to death by his father, because he had be- 
 come a Catholic. John C. and his whole 
 family were arrested, and a prosecution 
 instituted against him, in support of 
 which numerous witnesses, whose insuf- 
 ficiency was apparent, appeared against 
 him. In vain did the old man plead his 
 affection for his son, and that son's mel- 
 ancholy ; in vain did he assert that he had 
 another son, who had embraced the Cath- 
 olic religion, who still received his yearly 
 allowance ; that it was impossible for him, 
 a weak old man, to execute such a deed 
 of violence on a youth full of strength, 
 and that he had not murdered a Catholic 
 
 maid-servant whom he had in the house. 
 The parliament of Toulouse condemned 
 him, by 8 voices against 5, to be tortured, 
 and then broken on the wheel ; and, on 
 the 9th of March, 1762, the sentence was 
 executed. He suffered the torture with 
 firmness, and ascended the scaffold with 
 these words : " I die guiltless ; my judges 
 have been deceived; Imt Christ, who was 
 himself guiltless, suffered a death even 
 more dreadful." The youngest son was 
 banished for ever, but the mother and the 
 maid were acquitted. The family of the 
 unhappy man retired to Geneva. Vol- 
 taire, who was then at Ferney, became 
 acquainted with them, and formed the de- 
 sign of defending the memory of C. He 
 brought the cause before the bar of public 
 opinion, and directed the attention of men 
 to the defects of the criminal law. The 
 widow and children of C. solicited a re- 
 vision of the trial. Fifty judges once 
 more examined the circumstances, and 
 declared C. altogether innocent. The king, 
 by his liberality, sought to recompense the 
 family for their undeserved losses, and 
 people of the first rank emulated each 
 other in endeavoring to relieve them. 
 
 CALATRAVA. (See Orders.) 
 
 CALCAR, John van ; a Dutch painter of 
 the school of John van Eyk, born about 
 1500, at Calcar, in Cleves. His paintings 
 are true to nature. He studied so thor- 
 oughly the works of Titian, that their 
 pictures cannot always be distinguished. 
 The Mater dolorosa, in the collection of 
 Hoisseree (q. v.), in Stuttgard, a perfect 
 work of art, is by him. Another small 
 picture of his, the Infant Christ itnth the. 
 Shepherds, was a favorite of Rubens. In 
 this piece, the light is represented as pro- 
 ceeding from the child. He designed 
 almost. all the portraits in Vasari's Lives, 
 and the figures for the anatomical work 
 of Vesalius. He died in Xapl<;s, 1546. 
 
 CAJ.CARIOCS SPAR. (See Lime.) 
 
 CALCHAS ; son of Thestor ; priest and 
 prophet of the Greeks at the time of the 
 Trojan war. When the fleet destined for 
 Troy assembled in the harbor of Aulis, 
 the Greeks, before their departure, at- 
 tempted to propitiate the favor of the gods 
 by sacrifices on an altar under a plane- 
 tree, when a serpent, creeping from under 
 the altar, crawled up the tree, devoured a 
 sparrow on her nest, with 8 young ones, 
 and was then changed into a stone. The 
 prophet now foretold to the Greeks that 
 Troy would not be subdued by them till 
 the 10th year of the siege. He himself 
 accompanied the army to Troy. During 
 the siege, the Greeks were attacked by a
 
 394 
 
 CALCH AS C A LCULUS. 
 
 plague, and C. declared that it was tlio 
 effect of Apollo's anger, because they had 
 deprived his priest of his daughter Chry- 
 seis, whom Agamemnon had selected as 
 his mistress. He counselled the Greeks to 
 appease Apollo by restoring the damsel ; 
 and it was at his advice that they after- 
 wards built the wooden horse. He 
 prophesied that the Trojan JEneas would 
 found an empire in Italy. After C.'s 
 death, an oracle was dedicated to him on 
 mount Drium in Daunia. 
 
 CALCINATION. Calcination, as com- 
 monly understood, consists in heating 
 bodies in a steady fire, at a greater or less 
 temperature. The product is a powder 
 which is called calx. In a narrow sense, 
 we understand by this process a change 
 of metals into a metallic calx, or metallic 
 earth. Metals are calcined in two ways 
 by the dry method, which consists in 
 burning them in the open air, or by the 
 wet, method, which consists in dissolving 
 the metal, and precipitating its calx. Take, 
 for instance, a quantity of lead, and melt 
 it in the open air in a flat vessel ; it soon 
 assumes a grayish hue, the earthy sub- 
 stance forming a coat on the surface. 
 Upon the removal of this, the metal ap- 
 pears, having a brilliant lustre, and, after 
 some time, the same gray coat reappears. 
 It may be removed as long as any lead 
 remains. This substance is the calx. Cal- 
 cined lead is specifically lighter than the 
 metal, but its absolute weight is consid- 
 erably greater, so that 10 pounds of metal 
 make 11 pounds of calx. Platina, gold 
 and silver are not affected in this way in 
 so great a degree, on which account they 
 are called the perfect metals. Chemists 
 are now convinced, that, in this process, 
 the atmospheric air is decomposed, and a 
 portion absorbed by the metal, which ac- 
 counts for its increase of weight. Calci- 
 nation is, therefore, nothing but oxydation ; 
 and, as the body is not saturated with ox- 
 ygen, no acid is formed, but the result is 
 ti metallic oxyde. 
 
 CALCOGRAPHT. (See Engraving.) 
 CALCULUS. The lower or common 
 analysis (q. v.) contains the rules necessa- 
 ry to calculate quantities of any definite 
 magnitude whatever. But quantities are 
 sometimes considered as varying in mag- 
 nitude, or as having arrived at a given 
 state of magnitude by successive varia- 
 tions. This gives rise to the higher anal- 
 ysis, which is of the greatest use in the 
 physico-mathematical sciences. Two ob- 
 jects are here proposed : First, to descend 
 from quantities to their elements. The 
 method of effecting this is called the dif- 
 
 ferential calculus. Second, to ascend 
 from the elements of quantities to the 
 quantities themselves. This method is 
 called the integral calculus. Both of 
 these methods are included under the 
 general name infinitesimal analysis. Those 
 quantities which retain the same value 
 are called constant; those whose values 
 are varying are called variable. When 
 variable quantities are so connected that 
 the value of one of them is determined by 
 the values ascribed to the others, that va- 
 riable quantity is said to be a function of 
 the others. A quantity is infinitely great 
 or injinitely small, with regard to another, 
 when it is not possible to assign any quan- 
 tity sufficiently large or sufficiently small 
 to express the ratio of the two. When 
 we consider a variable quantity as increas- 
 ing by infinitely small degrees, if we wish 
 to know the value of those increments, 
 the most natural mode is to determine the 
 value of this quantity for any one instant, 
 and the value of the same for the instant 
 immediately following. This difference 
 is called the differential of the quantity. 
 The integral calculus, as has been already 
 stated, is the reverse of the differential cal- 
 culus. There is no variable quantity ex- 
 pressed algebraically, of which we cannot 
 find the differential ; but there are differ- 
 ential quantities, which we cannot inte- 
 grate : some, because they could not have 
 resulted from differentiation; others, be- 
 cause means have not yet been discovered 
 of integrating them. We have made 
 these elementary observations for the pur- 
 pose of introducing the history of the dis- 
 covery of this mighty instrument. For a 
 full examination of the subject, we refer 
 to Lacroix's works, Carnot's Metaphysiqne 
 du Calcul Infinitesimal, Lagrange s C'alcul 
 des Fonctions. Newton was the first dis- 
 coverer, having pointed out the principle* 
 in a treatise written before IGG'J, but not 
 published till many years after. Leibnitz, 
 meanwhile, made the same discover}-, and 
 published it to the world before Newton, 
 and independently of Newton's prior 
 discoveries, with a much better nota- 
 tion, which is now universally adopted. 
 The methods analogous to the infinitesi- 
 mal analysis previously employed were 
 ihat of exhaustions, known to the ancients, 
 that of indivisibles of Cavalieri, and Des- 
 cartes' method of indeterminates. Leib- 
 nitz considered the differences of the 
 variable quantities as infinitely small, and 
 conceived that he might reject the higher 
 powers of those differences without sen- 
 sible error; so that none of those powers 
 but the first remained in the differential
 
 CALCULUS. 
 
 395 
 
 equation finally obtained. Instead of the 
 actual increments of the flowing or vari- 
 able quantities, Newton introduced the 
 fluxions of those quantities; meaning, by 
 fluxions, quantities which had to one 
 another the same ratio which the incre- 
 ments had in their ultimate or evanes- 
 cent state. The fluxions of Newton cor- 
 responded with the differentials of Leib- 
 nitz; and the fluents of the former with 
 the Inffifi-ftla of the latter. The fluxionary 
 and the differential calculus are therefore 
 two modifications of one general method. 
 The problems \vhich relate to the maxima 
 and minima, or the greatest and least val- 
 ues of variable quantities, are among the 
 most interesting in mathematics. When 
 any function becomes either the greatest 
 or the least, it does so by the velocity of 
 its increase or decrease becoming equal 
 to nothing: in this case, the fluxion which 
 is proportional to that velocity must be- 
 come nothing. By taking the fluxion of 
 the given function, and supposing it equal 
 to nothing, an equation may be obtained 
 in finite terms, expressing the relation of 
 the quantities when the function assigned 
 is the greatest or least possible. The new 
 analysis is peculiarly adapted to physical 
 researches. The momentary increments 
 represent precisely the forces by which 
 the changes in nature are produced ; so 
 that this doctrine seemed created to pen- 
 etrate into the interior of things, and take 
 cognizance of those powers which elude 
 the ordinary methods of geometrical in- 
 vestigation. It alone affords the means 
 of measuring forces, when each acts sep- 
 arately and instantaneously, under condi- 
 tions that can be accurately ascertained. 
 In comparing the effects of continued ac- 
 tion, the variety of time and circumstance, 
 and the continuance of effects after their 
 causes have ceased, introduce uncertainty, 
 and render the conclusions vague and un- 
 satisfactory. The analysis of infinites 
 here goes to the point ; it measures the in- 
 tensity or instantaneous effort of the force, 
 and removes all those causes of uncer- 
 tainty. It is by effects, taken in their 
 nascent or evanescent state, that the true 
 proportion of causes must be ascertained. 
 CALCULUS. Little stones, anciently used 
 for computation, voting, &c., were called 
 calculi. The Thracians used to mark 
 lucky days by white, and unlucky by 
 black pebbles ; and the Roman judges, at 
 an early period, voted for the acquittal of 
 the accused by a white, and for condem- 
 nation by a black calculus : hence, niger 
 or albus calculus, a favorable or unfavor- 
 able vote. Sometimes the ballots were 
 
 marked with characters, and then were 
 made of wood. Calculi lusorii or latrones 
 were counters used in a game, something 
 like backgammon. Calculus Minerva was 
 an expression employed to signify that 
 the accused escaped by an equal division 
 of the votes of the judges. He was said 
 to be acquitted calculo Minerva (by the 
 vote of Minerva), because Orestes was 
 acquitted by the vote of that goddess 
 when the judges were equally divided. 
 
 CALCULUS, or STONE, is the name giv- 
 en to all hard concretions, not bony, 
 formed in the bodies of animals. Calculi 
 may be divided into two classes, accord- 
 ing as they are found in the gall-bladder 
 or in the urinary bladder. The first are 
 called biliary calculi, the second urinary 
 calculi. Biliary calculi are of a lamella- 
 ted structure, and are composed of a sub- 
 stance which is considered, by M. Chev- 
 reul, as a peculiar principle, which he has 
 named cholesterine (from x^'h bile, and 
 cT p of, solid). It is described as a white, 
 crystalline substance, with much lustre, 
 insipid and inodorous, much resembling 
 spermaceti, but differing in being less 
 fusible, and in not forming a soap with 
 alkalies. It is also converted, by the ac- 
 tion of nitric acid, into a peculiar acid, 
 called cholesteric acid. This is slightly 
 soluble in water, and forms soluble salts 
 with the alkalies. Cholesterine consists of 
 carbon 85.095, oxygen 3.025, and hydro- 
 gen 11.88. It has lately been detected in 
 the bile itself, both in that of animals and 
 of man. Besides cholesterine, biliary 
 concretions contain a portion of inspissa- 
 ted bile, and the yellow coloring matter 
 of the bile in a concentrated state, which, 
 from the beauty of its hue, and its perma- 
 nence, is much valued as a pigment. 
 Urinary calculi are of very variable char- 
 acters and composition. The following 
 substances enter principally into their 
 composition : uric acid, urate of ammo- 
 nia, phosphate of lime, phosphate of am- 
 monia and magnesia, oxalate of lime, 
 silex, sometimes oxyde of iron and animal 
 matter these being more or less pure or 
 mixed, and being often diversified by me- 
 chanical structure, so as to render it diffi- 
 cult to constitute well-defined species. 
 The six following species embrace the 
 principal varieties of urinary calculi: 1. 
 that composed chiefly of uric acid ; 2. 
 that consisting chiefly of the triple phos- 
 phate of ammonia and magnesia ; 3. the 
 bone-earth calculus, formed, almost en- 
 tirely, of phosphate of lime ; 4. the fusi- 
 ble calculus, composed of the two pre- 
 ceding intermixed ; 5. the mulberry cal-
 
 396 
 
 CALCULUS CALCUTTA. 
 
 culus, consisting of oxalate of lime ; and, 
 6. a rare species, the cystic oxyde calcu- 
 lus. Two others, still more rare, are, the 
 xanthic oxyde and fihrinous calculus, dis- 
 covered by doctor Marcet ; and, lastly, 
 Calculi have been met with formed of 
 carbonate of lime. In all these calculi, 
 besides the saline matter, there is present 
 a portion of animal matter, which is con- 
 ceived to be the mucus of die bladder. 
 This seems to give them color and indu- 
 ration. It is found even in those which 
 are white and crystalline. In the mul- 
 berry calculus it is present in a larger 
 proportion than in the others. The in- 
 gredients of calculi are often, also, diver- 
 sified by intermixture in layers. These 
 must, of course, be various, and, as their 
 production is, in some measure, accident- 
 al, irregularly arranged. Those which 
 have been the most frequently observed 
 are alternations of uric acid with phos- 
 phate of magnesia and ammonia, or phos- 
 phate of lime ; or of oxalate of lime with 
 uric acid, or with either or both of these 
 phosphates. 
 
 CALCUTTA, the capital of Bengal, and 
 of the whole British East Indies, is situa- 
 ted on the west branch of the Hoogly, an 
 arm of the Ganges, on which the largest 
 East Indiamen may come quite up to the 
 city. The navigation, however, on ac- 
 count of several sandbanks, which are 
 continually changing their size and posi- 
 tion, is very dangerous. This place, for- 
 merly the insignificant village of Govind- 
 pour, rose, in the last century, to the size 
 of a great city. The climate, when the 
 English first made a settlement here, in 
 1690, was as unhealthy as that of Batavia; 
 but it has been gradually becoming less 
 fatal to settlers, partly by the removal of 
 a forest near the city, partly by greater 
 attention, in the settlers themselves, to 
 their mode of living. Notwithstanding 
 the unhealthiness of the place, it continu- 
 ed steadily to increase, quickly recovered 
 from its losses in 1756, and is now one 
 of the most magnificent cities in the 
 world. In 1802, the population was com- 
 puted at 600,000 ; a few years after (in- 
 cluding the suburbs), at 1,000,000, of 
 which about one half may be given to the 
 city. The population of the surrounding 
 districts, within a space of 20 miles, was 
 estimated, in the same year, at 2,225,000 
 inhabitants. The houses of the English, 
 who occupy a separate quarter of the city, 
 are of brick, elegantly built, and many of 
 them like palaces. On account of the 
 heat of the climate, they are not joined 
 together, but stand at some distance from 
 
 each other, have high and airy apart- 
 ments, flat roofs, and are surrounded with 
 verandahs. With this part of the city, 
 "the black town" so called (the Pdtah), 
 which is the quarter occupied by the na- 
 tives, forms a striking contrast. It has 
 extremely narrow and crooked streets, 
 interspersed with gardens and innumera- 
 ble tanks. Some of the streets are paved. 
 The houses, which are some of brick, 
 some of mud, but mostly of bamboo or 
 straw mats, present a motley appearance. 
 Fort William, not. far from the city, was 
 begun by lord Clive, in 1757, and is a 
 magnificent work, in the form of an octa- 
 gon, but on too extensive a scale for the 
 purposes of defence. It has bomb-proof 
 barracks, large enough for 10,000 men, 
 and would require 600 pieces of cannon 
 for the works. It commands the river. 
 A trench is drawn round the whole, 
 which may be filled, in case of need, with 
 water from the Hoogly, to the depth of 
 eight feet. Between fort William and 
 the city there is a plain, which forms a 
 favorite promenade of the inhabitants, 
 Hindoos, blacks, Europeans, equipages 
 of all sorts, and palanquins, are here seen 
 mixed together in a motley crowd. On 
 the western side stands the new palace, 
 built by the marquis of Wellesley, at an 
 expense of a million pounds sterling, and 
 reminding one, by its grandeur, of the fa- 
 bled palaces of Arabian story. The old 
 fort is now a custom-house, and the infa- 
 mous " black hole" has been turned into 
 a ware-house. An obelisk, 50 feet high, 
 at the entrance, contains the names of the 
 unfortunate captives, who, in 1756, when 
 the city was taken and plundered by Su- 
 raja Dowla, fell victims to the most inhu- 
 man cruelty. Amongst the other public 
 buildings are the court-house, an Arme- 
 nian and an English church. In the 
 middle of the city is a large tank, for the 
 purpose of supplying the inhabitants dur- 
 ing the hot season, when the river- water 
 becomes offensive. Here is the residence 
 of the governor-general of India, and the 
 seat of the supreme court of justice, 
 which decides causes according to the 
 English law, without regard to rank, sta- 
 tion or country. Smaller offences are 
 tried by the superintendent of police and 
 justices of the peace. Order is main- 
 tained by several companies of seapoys, 
 who make regular patrols through the 
 city. C. is the great emporium of Ben- 
 gal, and the channel through which the 
 treasures of the interior provinces are 
 conveyed to Europe. The port is filled 
 with ships of all nations. Mercantile en
 
 CALCUTTA CALDAS DE MONBUY. 
 
 397 
 
 terprise is nowhere more active than here. 
 There are some houses which trade, an- 
 nually, to the amount of 4 or 5 million 
 pounds sterling. The trade in sugar, 
 opium, silk, muslin, &c. is very consider- 
 able. Large quantities of salt are export- 
 ed to Assam, and gold, silver, ivory, musk, 
 and a peculiar kind of silky cotton, are 
 brought back in exchange. Cowries, a 
 kind of small shells, passing as coin, are 
 received in exchange for rice from the 
 Maldives. The trade with Pegu, Siam, 
 and the Malay isles, formerly so profita- 
 ble, has very much declined. The Brit- 
 ish merchants are, as might be expected, 
 the most numerous ; and many of them 
 have acquired fortunes which enable them 
 to live in a style of great splendor. Next 
 to them, in number and respectability, as 
 well as in outward show, are the Ar- 
 menians. They are peaceable and indus- 
 trious merchants. Many of them have 
 large capitals, and carry on an extensive 
 trade to China and the ports to the west, 
 as far as the Persian gulf. The Mongols, 
 however, are the wealthiest ; and, as they 
 lend only at an enormous interest, their 
 profits, from this source, are three times 
 as great as a capital commonly gives. 
 The Hindoos remain fixed, however rich 
 they may become, in their narrow views, 
 and then- accustomed frugality. Their 
 houses and shops are mean, and it is only 
 on occasion of their nuptials and religious 
 festivals, that they indulge in any extraor- 
 dinary expense. Then they assemble un- 
 der magnificent, illuminated canopies, dis- 
 tribute rose-water and other perfumes in 
 profusion, and regale themselves with 
 confectionary from golden vessels, while 
 they are entertained by the voices of 
 singing girls, or the exhibition of a panto- 
 mime. The petty trade of C. is mostly 
 in the hands of the Banyans and Sarkars, 
 who are constantly on the watch for 
 cheap purchases, and make use of the 
 lowest artifices to impose on their cus- 
 tomers. This kind of deception is so far 
 from being in disrepute among their 
 countrymen, that they honor the adepts 
 in it with the title of pucka adme, which 
 signifies a man of great talent. Notwith- 
 standing the high price of all the necessa- 
 ries of life, and the enormous expendi- 
 tures of the English merchants, we find a 
 multitude of institutions for the relief of 
 the indigent. Of this kind are, an hospital 
 for those natives who are in want of medi- 
 cal aid, two schools for orphans whose 
 fathers were in the service of the compa- 
 ny, a free school, &c. The college of 
 fort William, founded by the marquis of 
 VOL. n. 34 
 
 Wellesley, has been changed, in part, 
 from its original plan, which was, not on- 
 ly to instruct the youth in the service of 
 the company in the languages, and other 
 branches of study necessary for their pro- 
 fession, but also to watch over their beha- 
 viour, and to guard them from the dan- 
 gers to which they were exposed by their 
 inexperience. The latter part of the plan 
 is now given up. The Asiatic society, 
 founded by sir William Jones, in 1784, is 
 devoted to the study and explanation of 
 the literature, histoiy, antiquities, arts arid 
 sciences of Asia. The papers already 
 published are, generally, of great value. 
 There is a botanical garden belonging to 
 the society on the beautiful island of 
 Garden Reach, the summer residence of 
 the rich English. 
 
 CALDARA, Polidoro, called Caravaggia, 
 born in 1495, at Caravaggio, in the Mil- 
 anese, went to Rome in his youth, carried 
 bricks, at first, for the masons who work- 
 ed in the Vatican, and felt a great desire 
 to become a painter, from seeing Giovan- 
 ni da Udina and the other painters who 
 were occupied in the Vatican. He form- 
 ed a close friendship with Maturin of 
 Florence, who assisted him with his ad- 
 vice. C. soon surpassed him, and exerted 
 himself to introduce improvements in 
 drawing, having always in view the an- 
 tiques. Raphael employed him in the 
 galleries of the Vatican, where he paint- 
 ed, under his direction, several excellent 
 friezes. At Messina, he executed an oil- 
 painting, which represents Christ bearing 
 the cross, contains a number of beautiful 
 figures, and proves his ability to treat the 
 most elevated subjects. He has ap- 
 proached, more than any one, to the style 
 and the manner of the ancients, particu- 
 larly in imitating their basso-relievos. His 
 figures are correct, well-distributed and 
 arranged; the positions are natural, the 
 heads full of expression and character. It 
 is evident that he would have acquired 
 great celebrity if he had undertaken 
 greater works. He applied himself to 
 the chiaro-oscuro, particularly to that kind 
 of it which is called sgrqffiato. He 
 showed, also, much talent in his land- 
 scapes. At the sack of Rome, in 1527, 
 he fled to Naples, and, on his return from 
 that place to Rome, in 1543, he was mur- 
 dered by his domestic. 
 
 CALDARA, a celebrated composer of the 
 18th century, was born at Venice, 1714, 
 and died 1763. His church compositions 
 are still in repute. 
 
 CALDAS DE MONBUY ; a small town in 
 Catalonia, Spain, about 20 miles north
 
 398 
 
 CALDAS DE MONBUY CALDERON. 
 
 of Barcelona. It contains hot mineral 
 springs, of such a temperature that the 
 inhabitants bring eggs, vegetables, &c., 
 to boil them in the water. When cooled, 
 it is drunk in scrofulous and rheumatic 
 complaints. 
 
 CALDER, or CAWDOR; a village and 
 parish in Nairnshire, Scotland, in which 
 are seen the remains of a castle, once the 
 residence of Macbeth, destroyed by Mal- 
 colm ; 4 miles south of Nairn. 
 
 CALDERARI (coppersmiths}. This name 
 was assumed by one of the many secret 
 societies which have sprung up in Italy, 
 from the political agitation of the times. 
 Of late years, they have been most nu- 
 merous at Naples, and, indeed, more so 
 in the provinces than in the capital, where 
 they were once united, for a long time, 
 with the Carbonari, but were after- 
 wards opposed to them. All these so- 
 cieties, so far as they have any definite 
 political object, appear to have in view 
 the political union of Italy, and its libera- 
 tion from foreign dominion, but differ 
 from each other so widely, in regard to 
 the means and the results, that a decided 
 hostility has been the consequence. Of 
 the true character of each of these socie- 
 ties, among which the Calderari and the 
 Carbonari have been the most famous and 
 extensive, it is as difficult to give any cer- 
 tain information, as it is to ascertain their 
 history ; for, though they have both, and 
 particularly the Carbonari, published their 
 statutes and proceedings since 1817, yet 
 these sources of information have not all 
 reached us, nor are they entirely to be de- 
 pended on. Of the Calderari, we are 
 told by count Orloff (Memoires sur le 
 Royaume de Naples, vol. ii. 286), that they 
 sprung from the Carbonari, towards the 
 end of the year 1813. It appears that a 
 change was then made in the form of the 
 society, which had become too large, and 
 a great number of its former members 
 were excluded in consequence. These 
 united themselves into a new society, un- 
 der the name of the Calderari, and be- 
 came the most bitter opponents of their 
 former brethren. After the return of 
 king Ferdinand to Naples, prince Canosa, 
 minister of police, favored the Calderari, 
 that he might more effectually put down 
 the Carbonari, who were objects of his 
 suspicion. For this purpose, he organiz- 
 ed them anew, divided them into wards, 
 appointed a central ward in each prov- 
 ince to oversee the rest, and gave them 
 the name of Calderari del contrapeso (Cal- 
 derari of the counterpoise). He distrib- 
 uted 20,000 muskets among them ; but, 
 
 when the king was apprized of this haz- 
 ardous undertaking, which had been be- 
 gun without his knowledge, a stop was 
 put to any further proceedings by Cano- 
 sa's dismissal and banishment ; but the as- 
 sociation was not then abolished. This 
 account has been contradicted from other 
 quarters. Canosa was tunied out of his 
 office, which he had held but six months, 
 June 27, 1816; and, three months after his 
 banishment, a royal decree was issued, 
 renewing the prohibitions and penalties 
 against all secret societies, not excepting 
 the Caklerari, and commanding their 
 prosecution, although they had lately 
 manifested their attachment to the king 
 and to good order. Canosa himself, in an 
 anonymous work (/ Pifftri di Montagna, 
 Dublin, 1820), has contradicted the state- 
 ments of count OrlorT with regard to him 
 and the Calderari. According to his ac- 
 count, they sprang up, not in Naples, but 
 in Palermo, when lord Bentinck abolish- 
 ed the companies of tradesmen. This 
 measure excited great dissatisfaction. 
 The ' coppersmiths' or Calderari, in partic- 
 ular, declared to the queen their readiness 
 to take up arms against the British, and 
 disturbances ensued, in which the Nea- 
 politan fugitives took a conspicuous part. 
 Lord Bentinck had them sent to Naples, 
 where they became active in the secret 
 associations against Murat ; and, on this 
 occasion, one of the old societies, which 
 had hitherto borne the name of Trinita- 
 rians, assumed that of Calderari. When 
 it was proposed, in the ministry of 1816, 
 to take strong measures against them, as 
 the remains of the party of 1799, prince 
 Canosa was for upholding the party, not 
 for any selfish reason, but from the belief 
 that they were a necessary counterpoise 
 to the more numerous and formidable Car- 
 bonari. The society, however, has never 
 adopted the name of Calderari of the 
 counterpoise ; and the stoiy of the distri- 
 bution of muskets is contradicted by 
 prince Canosa, in the publication above- 
 mentioned. The Calderari, who, accord- 
 ing to the above accounts, appear to be a 
 continuation of the body got together by 
 cardinal Ruftb, in 1799, are composed, al- 
 most entirely, of the lower classes, and, 
 hence, not so much has been published by 
 them, as by the Carbonari. A single un- 
 important publication, by the jurist Pasqu. 
 Tonelli (Breve Idea delta Carbonaria, sua 
 Ori^ine nel Regno di Napoli, suo Scopo, 
 sua Persecuzione e Causa chefe' nascere la 
 Setia de' Calderari, Naples, 1820), has a 
 notice of them. 
 
 CALDERON. Don Pedro Calderon de
 
 CALDERON. 
 
 399 
 
 lu Barca Henao y Riano, descended from 
 an ancient family, was born at Madrid, 
 Jan. 1, 1601, received his early education 
 in the Jesuits' college of his native city, 
 and studied at Salamanca, where he de- 
 voted himself chiefly to history, philoso- 
 phy and jurisprudence. His poetical 
 genius early discovered itself. Before his 
 14th year, he had written his first play, El 
 Carro del Cielo (vol. 9 of his works). 
 His talent for this species of poetry, which 
 has brought his name down to posterity, 
 und, perhaps, his powers of invention in 
 the preparation of entertainments for fes- 
 tivals, soon gained him friends and pat- 
 rons. When he left Salamanca, in It i'^5, 
 to seek employment at the court of Ala- 
 drid,many noblemen interested themselves 
 in bringing forward the young poet. But, 
 having an inclination for the military pro- 
 fession, he entered the service in 1625, 
 and bore arms with distinction for 10 
 years in Milan and the Netherlands. In 
 1636, he was recalled by Philip IV, who 
 gave him the direction of the court enter- 
 tainments, and, in particular, the prepara- 
 tion of plays for the court theatre. The 
 next year, he was made knight of the or- 
 der of San Jago, and served in the cam- 
 paign in Catalonia. The unexpected ter- 
 mination of the war restored him again to 
 his peaceful occupation. The king now 
 conferred on him a monthly pension of 
 30 escudos de oro ; but he still employed 
 his talents with unintermitted industry in 
 composing for the theatre and the church. 
 The king spared no cost in the represent- 
 ation of his theatrical pieces. Ten years 
 after, in 1651, he procured permission 
 from the order of San Jago to enter the 
 clerical profession, and, in 1653, obtained 
 a chaplain's office in the archiepiscopal 
 church at Toledo, without quitting, how- 
 ever, his former occupation. But, as this 
 situation removed him too far from court, 
 he received, in 1663, another at the king's 
 court-chapel (being still allowed to hold 
 the former) ; and, at the same time, a pen- 
 sion was assigned him from the Sicilian 
 revenue. His fame greatly increased his 
 income, as he was solicited by the princi- 
 pal cities of Spain to compose their autos 
 sacramentales, for which he was liberally 
 paid. He bestowed particular pains on 
 the composition of these pieces, and, in 
 fact, eclipsed all that the Spanish litera- 
 ture, so rich in this department of fancy, 
 had hitherto produced. These subjects 
 were particularly suited to his religious 
 turn of mind ; and he set a peculiar value 
 on his performances of this kind, so as 
 even to disparage his other works, which 
 
 deserre no mean reputation. Religion is 
 the ruling idea, the central point, of his 
 poems. Whatever subject he handles, he 
 exhibits true poetical genius. Even al- 
 lowing that he is inferior in richness of 
 invention to Lope de Vega, he certainly 
 excels him in fineness of execution, ele- 
 vation of feeling, and aptness of expres- 
 sion. If we find in him much that is 
 foreign to our modes of thinking and 
 feeling, to our accustomed views and 
 manner of expression, we shall have oc- 
 casion much oftener to admire his unri- 
 valled genius. The Spanish nation esteem 
 C. among the greatest poetical geniuses. 
 Many faults in his writings are to be at- 
 tributed to the age and circumstances of 
 the author. Among his dramatic works 
 are many pieces of intrigue, full of com- 
 plicated plots, and rich in interesting inci- 
 dents. There are, besides, heroic come- 
 dies and historical plays, some of which 
 merit the name of tragedies. To this 
 class belongs the Constant Prince, which 
 deserves an honorable place among ro- 
 mantic tragedies of the first rank. Be- 
 sides these, C. has left 95 autos sacramen- 
 tcdes, 200 loos (preludes) and 100 saynetes 
 (farces). He wrote his last play in 
 the 81st year of his age. The smaller 
 poems of C., his songs, sonnets, ballads, 
 &c., notwithstanding the applause which 
 they received from his contemporaries, are 
 now forgotten ; but his plays have main- 
 tained their place on the stage even more 
 than those of Lope de Vega. The num- 
 ber of his collected plays amounts to 128. 
 He wrote, however, many more, some of 
 which were never published. The most 
 complete edition of his works is that pub- 
 lished by D. Juan de Vera Tassis y Vil- 
 larroel (Madrid, 1685, 9 vols.). A. W. 
 Schlegel and Gries have given masterly 
 translations of his pieces into German. 
 The former has published 5 plays in 2 
 vols. (Berlin, 18031806) ; the latter, 10 
 plays in 5 vols. (Berlin, 1815 1822). 
 These were followed by the translations 
 of baron Malsburg, of which 6 vols. 
 (Leipsic, 1819 1825) have appeared. 
 Gothe and Schlegel have the merit of 
 having opened the German stage to the 
 genius of C., as Schroder, before them, had 
 done to that of Shakspeare. The Con- 
 stant Prince shows, perhaps, in the high- 
 est degree, the skill of C. as a tragic poet. 
 It turns on one of the most perplexing of 
 all subjects, viz. the idea of destiny, man- 
 aged in a truly poetical way, in a tragedy 
 terminating happily. The great fertility 
 of C.'s invention has heaped up an abun- 
 dance of materials, from which foreign
 
 400 
 
 CALDERON CALEDONIANS. 
 
 theatres might be much enriched. It is 
 to be regretted that his works have not 
 been clironologically arranged. We 
 might then have traced the growth of 
 mysticism in his mind, and seen it strik- 
 ing root more deeply as he advanced in 
 life. At the age of 62, he was admitted 
 into the fraternity of San Pedro. In 
 1687, he was elected their capdan mayor. 
 He left them all his property, for which 
 they erected a splendid monument to his 
 memory. He died May 25, 1687, aged 
 87. Among his imitators, Tirso de Moli- 
 na is worthy of mention, as the author of 
 the Inflexible Stranger, which has been 
 often imitated, and is the groundwork of 
 the celebrated opera of Don Juan. 
 
 CALEB, of the tribe of Juda, born B. C. 
 1530, was sent with Joshua and 10 oth- 
 ers to examine the Land of Canaan. 
 When Joshua had conquered the coun- 
 try, C. reminded the Jews of the promise, 
 which had been made by God, that they 
 should enjoy this country. He obtained 
 the city of Hebron for his share of the 
 spoil, besieged and captured it, and drove 
 out three giants, or Anakim. He then 
 marched against Kirjath-Sepher, and of- 
 fered his daughter Achsah to the first who 
 should enter it. Othniel, his nephew, was 
 the successful aspirantfor the fair Jewess. 
 
 CALEDONIA ; the ancient name of Scot- 
 land, (q. v.) 
 
 CALEDONIA ; a town in New York, on 
 the west side of the Genesee, 20 miles 
 south-west of Rochester, 235 west of Al- 
 bany. The village is situated on the 
 great road from Albany to Buffalo, pro- 
 duces wheat in great quantities, and has 
 several beds of gypsum ; also limestone, 
 iron ore, salt and sulphur springs. Great 
 or Big springs, situated on the north side 
 of the village, are regarded as a curiosity. 
 The waters, which are impregnated with 
 sulphur and lime, boil up in great quanti- 
 ties from the earth in a pond or reservoir 
 of five acres. In this pond, except at the 
 places where the water boils up, grows a 
 singular weed, five or six feet high, and 
 so thick as to be almost impenetrable. 
 The surface of the water is covered with 
 a frothy substance, which, when dried, 
 has a very offensive smell. The temper- 
 ature of the water is always nearly the 
 same, extremely cold, but never freezes. 
 A fine mill-stream issues from this pond ; 
 and the quantity of water is little affected 
 by rain or drought. 
 
 CALEDONIA, New ; a country of North 
 America, west of the Rocky mountains, 
 extending about 500 miles from north to 
 south, and nearly 400 from east to west. 
 
 It is mountainous ; abounds in lakes, the 
 largest of which are Stuart's lake and 
 Natteotain lake. The largest rivers are 
 Eraser's and Natteotain rivers. The 
 thermometer sometimes falls 32 degrees 
 below zero ; but the seasons are generally 
 milder than in the same parallel east of 
 the Rocky mountains. The summer is 
 never very hot. The natives call them- 
 selves Td-cullits. The whites call them 
 Carriers. They are estimated at 5000. 
 
 CALEDONIA, New ; a large island in the 
 Pacific ocean, from 220 to 250 miles long, 
 and 50 broad. It is rendered dangerous 
 of approach by formidable reels, extend- 
 ing 270 miles beyond the island. The 
 danger is increased by the current setting 
 directly on the breakers. Lon. 163 to 
 167 E. ; lat. 20 to 22 5W S. It was 
 discovered by Cook, in his second voy- 
 age (1774), who remained on the coast a 
 week. D'Entrecasteaux was the first 
 who sailed completely round it (1792 and 
 1793). A chain of mountains, 2500 feet 
 high, extends through the island, from 
 the summits of which the sea is visible 
 on both sides. The island produces the 
 bread-fruit-tree, banana, sugar-cane, arum 
 and cocoa, although the soil is by no 
 means fertile. The animals are very few. 
 A spider called nookee forms threads so 
 large as to offer a sensible resistance be- 
 fore breaking. They are eaten by the 
 people. Their other articles of food are 
 not more choice. Like the Ottomacs of 
 South America, described by Humboldt, 
 they eat steatite a soft, friable, greenish 
 earth, containing magnesia, silex and iron. 
 Cook and Forster described them as gen- 
 tle, simple, kind and honest. D'Entre- 
 casteaux represents them as cruel, perfid- 
 ious and thievish. The women were 
 hired for a nail. Recent observation has 
 shown them to be cannibals. They are 
 armed with darts and clubs, but do not 
 use the bow. Their huts are small, and 
 filled with smoke, to defend them from 
 insects. Their language is different from 
 that of Polynesia, and is described as 
 harsh and croaking. Their dress is a 
 girdle of fibrous bark. They also wear 
 ornaments of bone or coral, and paint 
 their breasts with wide black streaks. 
 Their hair is nearly woolly, the surface of 
 their bodies shiny and black. Some 
 have the thick lips of the African Negro- 
 
 CALEDONIANS; the name of a confed- 
 eracy of tribes in what is now Scotland 
 (Britannia Barbara)* Tacitus supposes 
 them to be Germans; others, with more 
 reason, Celts. They are the ancestors of 
 the modern Highlanders.
 
 CALEMBOURG CALENDAR. 
 
 401 
 
 CALEMBOURG ; a kind of pun, in which 
 a word is employed in an unusual sense, 
 or by which, without regard to grammar 
 or orthography, some letters are changed, 
 added or left out, without changing the 
 pronunciation. Thus a calembourg is dis- 
 tinguished from the proper jeu de mot. 
 A Westphalian count Caleinberg, who 
 lived in Paris under Louis XV, is said 
 to have amused the circles there by his 
 blunders in the French language, and oc- 
 casioned the marquis Bievre to introduce 
 this new kind of witticism. As an in- 
 stance, we adduce the following: A 
 robber demanded from a traveller his 
 purse, putting a pistol to his breast, with 
 the words " La bourse, ou la vie" " Pour 
 Vat-is (la vie}" the traveller answered, 
 dryly, " le meilleur que je puisse vous don- 
 ner, cst de quitttr votre metier, sans quoi 
 vous sercz pendit, et pour la bourse (hair- 
 bag) je n'cn ai pa$, parceque jc porte un 
 cadogan (hair-knot)." The French lan- 
 guage is rich in such puns, because it is 
 poor in words, and these, consequently, 
 may be taken in different significations. 
 (See Pun.) 
 
 CALE.VBERG ; a principality in the king- 
 dom of Hanover, which derives its name 
 from an ancient castle, now in ruins, situ- 
 ated 11 or 12 miles south of Hanover. Its 
 extent is 1050 square miles. It has about 
 139,222 inhabitants, chiefly Lutherans. 
 (See Hanover.) 
 
 CALENDAR ; the division of time into 
 years, months, weeks and days ; also a 
 register of these divisions. Among the 
 old Romans, for want of such a register, 
 it was the custom for the pontifex maxi- 
 mus, on the first day of the month, to 
 proclaim (calare) the month, with the fes- 
 tivals occurring in it, and the time of new 
 moon. Hence calender and calendar. 
 The periodical occurrence of certain nat- 
 ural phenomena gave rise to the first di- 
 vision of time. The app;irent daily revo- 
 lution of the starry heavens and the sun 
 about the earth occasioned the division 
 into days. But, as the number of days 
 became too great for convenience, some 
 larger measure of time was found neces- 
 sary. The changes of the moon, which 
 were observed to recur every 29 or 30 
 days, suggested the division of time into 
 months. After a considerable period, 
 these also were found to multiply too 
 much, and a still larger measure of time 
 was wanted. Such a one was found in 
 the apparent yearly revolution of the sun 
 round the earth in the ecliptic. The time 
 of this revolution, after several erroneous 
 calculations hereafter to be mentioned, 
 34* 
 
 was finally determined to be a little more 
 than 365 days. This was called a solar 
 year, or, simply, a year, which was divid- 
 ed, according to the former measures of 
 time, into months and days. Now, on ac- 
 count of the great influence of the sun's 
 course in the ecliptic, and its consequent 
 variations of distance from us upon the 
 earth, and the affairs of its inhabitants in 
 all countries, the attention of men would 
 naturally be drawn to this phenomenon. 
 Hence it has happened that all nations, in 
 any degree civilized, have adopted the 
 year as the largest measure of time. It 
 is probable that the Phoenicians first, then 
 the Egyptians, and afterwards the Greeks, 
 made use of this mode of reckoning, from 
 whom it was communicated to other na- 
 tions. The division of the year, however, 
 into months and days, could not have 
 been very accurate at first, because it can 
 be settled only by long and attentive ob- 
 servation. The calendar of the oldest 
 nations was quite imperfect. They were 
 satisfied with one which enabled them to 
 manage the common business of hus- 
 bandry. The Greeks were the first who 
 attempted to adjust the courses of the sun 
 and the moon to each other. For this 
 purpose, they reckoned 12.J revolutions of 
 the moon round the earth for one solar 
 year; and, to avoid the fractions of a 
 month, they made the year consist of 13 
 and 12 months alternately. Solon, per- 
 ceiving the defects of this arrangement, 
 fixed the number of days in a month at 
 29, and made the month consist of 29 
 and 30 days alternately. Still the length 
 of the month and that of the year were 
 not brought into exact adjustment, and 
 new disorders soon followed. Various 
 plans for the reformation of the calendar 
 were proposed from time to time; but all 
 proved insufficient, till Meton and Encte- 
 mon finally succeeded in bringing it to a 
 much greater degree of accuracy, by fix- 
 ing on the period of 19 years, in which 
 time the new moons return upon the 
 same days of the year as before (as 19 
 solar veal's are very nearly equal to 235 
 lunations). (See Cycle.) This mode of 
 computation, first adopted by the Greeks 
 (433 B. C.), was so much approved of, that 
 it was engraven with golden letters oil a 
 tablet at Athens. Hence the number, 
 showing what year of the moon's cycle 
 any given year is, is called the golden 
 number. This period of 19 years was 
 found, however, to be about six hours too 
 long. This defect Calippus, about 102 
 years later, endeavored to remedy, but 
 still failed to make the beginning of the
 
 CALENDAR. 
 
 seasons return on the same fixed day of 
 the year. Among the Romans, their first 
 king, Romulus, introduced a year of 10 
 divisions or months, of which 4 (namely, 
 March, May, July and October) contained 
 31 days ; the rest (April, June, August, 
 September, November and December), 
 only 30. When he discovered that this 
 mode of reckoning was imperfect, he in- 
 serted as many days as were necessary to 
 complete the year, and bring it up to the 
 beginning of the following one. His suc- 
 cessor, Numa Pompilius, abolished this 
 method, added 50 days more, took 1 day 
 frorn each of the 6 months containing 30 
 days, because even numbers were sup- 
 posed to be unlucky, and out of the whole 
 56 days formed 2 new months of 28 days 
 each, which he called January and Feb- 
 ruary. Thus the year consisted of 12 
 months, and 350 days ; and, to make it 
 agree with the course of the sun, interca- 
 lations were made use of, after the man- 
 ner of the Greeks. These intercalations, 
 however, were left to the discretion of the 
 priests ; and, as they made them very arbi- 
 trarily, according to the exigences of the 
 state, or their own private view^, com- 
 plaints and irregularities soon arose. 
 Notwithstanding this defect, the arrange- 
 ment continued to the end of the republi- 
 can constitution. The calendar of the 
 Romans had a very peculiar arrange- 
 ment. They gave particular names to 
 3 days of the month. The first day was 
 called the calends. In the 4 months of 
 March, May, July and October, the 7th, 
 in the others, the 5th day, was called the 
 nones ; and, in the 4 former, the 15th, in 
 the rest, the 13th day, was called the ides. 
 The other days they distinguished in the 
 following manner: they counted from 
 the above-mentioned days backwards, 
 observing to reckon also the one from 
 which they began. Thus the 3d of 
 March, according to the Roman reckon- 
 ing, would be the 5th day before the 
 nones, which, in that month, fall upon 
 the 7th. The 8th of January, in which 
 month the nones happen on the 5th, and 
 the ides on the 13th, was called the 6th 
 before the ides of January. Finally, to 
 express any of the days after the ides, 
 they reckoned in a similar manner from 
 the calends of the following month. 
 From the inaccuracy of the Roman 
 method of reckoning, it appears that, in 
 Cicero's time, the calendar brought the 
 vernal equinox almost two months later 
 than it ought to be. According to the 
 last letter of the 10th book of Cicero's 
 Epistles to Attieus, this equinox was not 
 
 yet past, although it was near the ead of 
 May, by their calendar. To check thie 
 irregularity, Julius Caesar, on being: ap- 
 pointed dictator and pontiff (A. U. C.707), 
 invited the Greek astronomer Sosignes 
 to Rome, who, with the assistance of 
 Marcus Fabius, invented that mode of 
 reckoning, which, after him who intro- 
 duced it into use, has been called the Ju- 
 lian calendar. The chief improvement 
 consisted in restoring the equinox to ks 
 proper place in March. For this pur- 
 pose, two months were inserted between 
 November and December, so that the 
 year 707, called, from this circumstance, 
 the year of confusion, contained 14 months. 
 In the number of days, the Greek com- 
 putation was adopted, which made it 365^, 
 The number and names of the months 
 were kept unaltered, with the exception 
 of Quintilis, which was henceforth called,, 
 in honor of the author of the improve- 
 ment, Jidius. To dispose of the quarter 
 of a day, it was determined to intercalate 
 a day every fourth year, between the 23d 
 and 24th of February. This was called 
 an intercalary day, and the year in which 
 it took place was called an intercalary 
 year, or, as we term it, a leap year. This 
 calendar continued in use among the Ro- 
 mans until the fall of the empire, and 
 throughout Christendom till 1582. The 
 festivals of the Christian church were de- 
 termined by it. With regard to Easter, 
 however, it was necessary to have ref- 
 erence to the course of the moon. The 
 Jews celebrated Easter (i. e., the Passover) 
 on the 14th of the month Xi san( or March ); 
 the Christians in the same month, but al- 
 ways on a Sunday. Now, as the Easter 
 of the Christians sometimes coincided 
 with the Passover of the Jews, and it was 
 thought unchristian to celebrate so im- 
 portant a festival at the same time as the 
 Jews did, it was resolved, at the council 
 of Nice, 325 A. D., that, from that time, 
 Easter should be solemnized on the Sun- 
 day following the first full-moon after the 
 vernal equinox, which was then suppos- 
 ed to take place on the 21st of March. 
 As the course of the moon was thus made 
 the foundation for determining the time 
 of Easter, the lunar cycle of Meton was 
 taken for this purpose ; according to 
 which the year contains 365 days, and 
 the new moons, after a period of 19 years, 
 return on the same days as before. The 
 inaccuracy of the Julian year, thus com- 
 bined with the lunar cycle, must have 
 soon discovered itself, on a comparison 
 with the true time of the commencement 
 of the equinoxes, since the received length
 
 CALENDAR. 
 
 403 
 
 of 365^ days exceeds the true by about 11 
 minutes; so that, for every such Julian 
 year, the equinox receded 11 minutes, or 
 a day in about 130 years. In consequence 
 of this, in the 16th century, the vernal 
 equinox had changed its place in the cal- 
 endar from the 21st to the 10th ; i. e., it 
 really took place on the 10th instead of 
 the 21st, on which it was placed in the 
 calendar. Aloysius Lilius, a physician of 
 Verona, projected a plan for amending 
 the calendar, which, after his death, was 
 presented by his brother to pope Gregory 
 XIII. To carry it into execution, the 
 pope assembled a number of prelates and 
 learned men. In 1577, the proposed 
 change was adopted by all the Catholic 
 princes ; and, in 1582, Gregory issued a 
 brief abolishing the Julian calendar in all 
 Catholic countries, and introducing hi its 
 stead the one now in use, under the name 
 of the Gregorian or reformed calendar, or 
 the neiv style, as the other was now called 
 the old style. The amendment consisted 
 in this : 10 days were dropped after the 
 4th of Oct., 1582, and the 15th was reckon- 
 ed immediately after the 4th. Every 100th 
 year, which, by the old style, was to have 
 been a leap year, was now to be a com- 
 mon year, the 4th excepted ; i. e., 1600 
 was to remain a leap year, but 1700, 1800, 
 1900, to be of the common length, and 
 2000 a leap year again. In this calendar, 
 the length of the solar year was taken to 
 be 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes and 12 
 seconds. Later observations of Zach, 
 Lalande and Delambre fix the average 
 length of the tropical year at about 27 
 seconds less ; but it is unnecessary to di- 
 rect the attention of the reader to the er- 
 ror arising from this difference, as it will 
 amount to a day only in the space of 3000 
 years. Notwithstanding the aoove im- 
 provement, the Protestants retained the 
 Julian calendar till 1700, when they also 
 adopted the new style, with this differ- 
 ence, that they assigned the feast of 
 Easter to the day of the 'first full moon 
 after the astronomical equinox. But this 
 arrangement produced new variations. 
 In 1724 and 1744, the Easter of the Cath- 
 olics was eight days later than that of the 
 Protestants. On this account, the Grego- 
 rian calendar was finally adopted, 1777, 
 in Germany, under the name of the gen- 
 eral calendar of the empire, or, as it is now 
 called, the reformed calendar, in order that 
 the Catholics and Protestants might cele- 
 brate Easter, and, consequently, all the 
 movable feasts, at the same time. Eng- 
 land introduced the new style in 1752, 
 and Sweden in 1753. Russia only re- 
 
 tains the old style, which now differs 12 
 days from the new. In France, during 
 the revolution, a new calendar was intro- 
 duced by a decree of the national conven- 
 tion, Nov. 24, 1793. The time from 
 which the new reckoning was to com- 
 mence was the autumnal equinox of 
 1792, which fell upon the 22d of Sept., 
 at 18 minutes and 30 seconds after 9 
 A. M., Paris time. This day was select- 
 ed as that on which the first decree of 
 the new republic had been promulgated. 
 The year was made to consist of 12 
 months of 30 days each, and, to complete 
 the full number of days, 5 jours comple- 
 mentaires were added to the end of it, in 
 common years, and 6 in leap years. Each 
 period of 4 years, terminating with a leap 
 year, was called a franciade. Instead of 
 weeks, each month was divided into 3 
 parts, called decades, consisting of 10 days 
 each ; the other divisions being also ac- 
 commodated to the decimal system. The 
 names of the months were so chosen as 
 to indicate, by their etymology, the time 
 of year to which they belonged. They 
 were as follows : Autumn, from the 22d 
 Sept. to the 22d Dec. ; Vendemiaire, vint- 
 age month (Oct.) ; Brumaire, foggy month 
 (Nov.); Frimaire, sleet month (Dec.): 
 Winter, from 22d Dec. to 22d March ; 
 Nivose, snowy month (Jan.) ; Fentvse, 
 windy month (Feb.) ; Pluviose, rainy 
 month (March) : Spring, from 22d March 
 to 22d June ; Germinal, bud month 
 (April) ; Floreal, flower month (May) ; 
 Prairial, meadow month (June) : Sum- 
 mer, from 22d June to 22d Sept. ; Messi- 
 dor, harvest month (July) ; Thermidor> 
 hot month (Aug.) ; Frudidor, fruit month 
 (Sept.). The 10 days of each decade were 
 called, 1. Primidi, 2. Duodi, 3. Tridi, 4. 
 Quartidi, 5. Quintidi, 6. Sextidi, 7. Sep- 
 tidi, 8. Octifii, 9. JVbnirft, 10. Decadi (the 
 Sabbath). Besides this, each day in the 
 year had its particular name, appropriate 
 to the time when it occurred ; e. g., the 
 7th of vintage month, Fendemiaire, was 
 named carottes (carrots). This calendar 
 was abolished, at the command of Napo- 
 leon, by a decree of the senate, 9th Sept., 
 1805, and the common Christian or Gre- 
 gorian calendar introduced throughout 
 the French empire. (For a pretty full 
 historical account of this subject, see 
 Biisch's Handbuch der Erfindungen, vol. 
 vii. p. 152 et seq. ; also Gebelin's His- 
 toire du Calendrier. There are also astro- 
 nomical calendars, to which the Astro- 
 nomical Year-Book of professor Bode 
 belongs, and of which 50 vols. had ap- 
 peared in 1822. It is still continued. Of
 
 404 
 
 CALENDAR CALICO. 
 
 the same class are the Paris Connaissance 
 des Temps, and the London Nautical Al- 
 manac. See Almanac and Chronology.) 
 
 CALENDER. Different fabrics, before 
 they leave the hands of the manufacturer, 
 are subjected to certain processes, the 
 object of which is to make them smooth 
 and glossy, to glaze them, to water them, 
 or give them a wavy appearance. This 
 is done, in general, by pressing the fabric 
 between wooden or metallic cylinders, 
 whence the machine is called a calender, 
 and the workman a calender or calen- 
 derer. 
 
 CALENDERS ; a sect of dervises in Tur- 
 key and Persia. They are not very strict 
 in their morals, nor in very high esteem 
 among the Mohammedans. They preach 
 in the market-places, and live upon alms. 
 Their name is derived from their founder. 
 (See Demise.) 
 
 CALENDS, with the Romans, the first 
 days of the month ; so called because the 
 pontifex maximus then proclaimed (calavit ) 
 whether the nones would be on the 5th or 
 the 7th. This was the custom until the 
 year 450 U. C., when the fasti calendares, 
 or calendar (q. v.), were affixed to the 
 wall of public places. The Greeks did 
 not make use of calends ; whence the 
 proverbial expression ad Grcecas calendas 
 (on the Greek calends), meaning never. 
 The calends of January were more sol- 
 emn than the others, and were consecrated 
 to Janus and Juno. On this day, the 
 magistrates entered on their offices, and 
 friends interchanged presents. On the 
 calends, debtors were obliged to pay the 
 interest of their debts ; hence tristes ca- 
 lendtR (Hor. Serm. 1 Sat. 3. v. 87). The 
 book of accounts was called Calendarium. 
 Calends, in ecclesiastical history, de- 
 notes conferences, 1 anciently held by the 
 clergy of each deanery on the first of 
 each month, concerning their duty and 
 conduct. (Du Cange, in voce.) 
 
 CALENTURE ; a violent fever, incident to 
 persons in hot climates, especially to such 
 as are natives of cooler climates. It is 
 attended with delirium ; and the patient 
 imagines the sea to be a green field, in 
 which he is tempted to walk by the cool- 
 ness and freshness of its appearance. 
 This is, at least, the poetical explanation of 
 the matter. The fact seems to be, that the 
 intense inflammation of the fever prompts 
 the patient to plunge into cold water to 
 relieve his sufferings. 
 
 CALEPIN (French) ; a lexicon. The 
 name is derived from Calepino, a famous 
 grammarian and lexicographer of the 15th 
 century, who was the author of a poly- 
 
 glot dictionary, which has passed through 
 numerous editions, and been enlarged by 
 different editors. The most complete 
 edition is that of Bale, 1590, fol., in 11 
 languages. This work was usually called 
 the Calepin, and such was its celebrity, 
 that the name became a common appella- 
 tion for a learned lexicon. 
 
 CALIBER ; the interior diameter of the 
 bore of any piece of ordnance, or the di- 
 ameter of a shot or shell. Caliber or 
 calliper compasses are a sort of compasses 
 with arched legs, used in the artillery 
 practice, to take the diameter of any 
 round body, particularly of shot or shells, 
 the bore of ordnance, &c. The instru- 
 ment consists of two thin pieces of brass, 
 joined by a rivet, so as to move quite 
 round each other. It contains a number 
 of tables, rules, &c., connected with the 
 artillery practice. 
 
 CALICO ; a cotton cloth, which derives 
 its name from Calicut, a city of India, 
 from which it was first brought. In Eng- 
 land, white or unprinted cotton cloth is 
 called caZico. In the U. States, printed 
 cloth only is called by that name. Calico 
 printing is a combination of the arts of 
 engraving and dyeing, and is used to pro- 
 duce, upon woven fabrics, chiefly of cot- 
 ton, a variety of ornamental combinations, 
 both of figure and color. In this process, 
 the whole fabric is immersed in the dye- 
 ing liquid ; but it is previously prepared in 
 such a manner, that the dye adheres only 
 to the parts intended for the figure, while 
 it leaves the remaining parts unaltered. 
 In calico-printing, adjective colors are 
 most frequently employed. The cloth is 
 prepared by bleaching, and other process- 
 es, which dispose it to receive the color. 
 It is then printed with the mordant, in a 
 manner 'similar to that of copperplate- 
 printing, except that the figure is en- 
 graved upon a cylinder instead of a plate. 
 The cylinder, in oni- part of its revolution, 
 becomes charged with the mordant, mix- 
 ed to a proper consistence with starch. 
 The superfluous part of the mordant is 
 then scraped oft* by a straight steel edge, 
 in contact with which the cylinder re- 
 volves, leaving only that part which re- 
 mains in the lines of the figure. The 
 cloth then passes in forcible contact with 
 the other side of the cylinder, and receives 
 from it a complete impression of the 
 figure in the pale color of the mordant. 
 The cloth is then passed through the 
 coloring-bath, in which the parts previ- 
 ously printed become dyed with the in- 
 tended color. When it is afterwards 
 exposed and washed, the color disappears
 
 CALICO CALIGULA. 
 
 405 
 
 from those parts which are not impreg- 
 nated with the mordant, but remains per- 
 manently fixed to the rest. When addi- 
 tional colors are required, they are printed 
 over the rest, with different mordants, 
 suited to the color intended to be pro- 
 duced. This secondary printing is gen- 
 erally performed with blocks, engraved 
 in the manner of wood-cuts, and applied 
 by hand to the successive parts of the 
 piece. 
 
 CALICUT; a city of Hindostan, formerly 
 capital of the kingdom of C., which was 
 ceded to the British in 1792. From this 
 port the first vessel was freighted with 
 Indian commodities for Europe, by Vasco 
 da Garna, in 1498. The ancient city, 
 however, is now buried beneath the sea ; 
 and, at low tides, the tops of temples and 
 minarets are discernible. The present 
 town stands on a low shore, and has con- 
 siderable trade. It was taken and de- 
 stroyed by Tippoo Saib, but was rebuilt 
 when the country fell into the hands of 
 the English. Cardamoms, teak, sandal- 
 wood, pepper and wax are the principal 
 exports. It contains 5000 houses. Lat. 
 11 1ST N. ; Ion. 75 5CK E. The rajah of 
 the C. district, or the Tamuri rajah, called 
 Zamorin by the Europeans, is a Bramin, 
 who pretends to be superior to the other 
 Braining, and inferior only to the gods. 
 The males of the family are called Tam- 
 lurans, and the females Tamburetties. 
 These ladies are married at the age of 10, 
 but it would be scandalous for them to 
 have any intercourse with their hus- 
 bands. The Namburi Brarnins, or the 
 Nairs, are the fathers of their children, 
 who are all, of course, in the dilemma 
 described by Telemachus. 
 
 CALIF and CALIFATE. (See Caliph.) 
 
 CALIFORNIA, Gulf of; a gulf on the 
 west coast of North America, in Mexico, 
 lying on the east side of the peninsula of 
 California, extending from S. S. E. to N. 
 N. W., between lat. 22 40 7 and 34 N. 
 It is about 800 miles long, and, through 
 most of its length, is less than 100 miles 
 wide. It receives the river Colorado at 
 its northern extremity. It contains nu- 
 merous islands and shoals, and is of diffi- 
 cult navigation. 
 
 CALIFORNIA, New ; a province of Mex- 
 ico, on the coast of the N. Pacific ocean, 
 called, by captain Vancouver, New Albion. 
 It lies north of the peninsula, which is 
 called Old California, and is 600 miles 
 long, and only 30 broad. Square leagues, 
 2,125. Montery is the capital. There is 
 not any country in the world which more 
 abounds in fish and game of every de- 
 
 scription. Hares, rabbits and stags are 
 very common here ; seals and otters are 
 also found in prodigious numbers. To 
 the northward, and during the winter, the 
 inhabitants kill a very great number of 
 foxes, bears, wolves and wildcats. The 
 land possesses, also, great fertility ; farina- 
 ceous roots and seeds of all kinds abun- 
 dantly prosper here. The crops of maize, 
 barley, corn and peas cannot be equalled 
 but by those of Chili. European cultiva- 
 tors can have no conception of a similar 
 fertility. The medium produce of corn is 
 from 70 to 80 for 1 ; the extremes, 60 and 
 100. The population, in 1802, including 
 Indians who had settled and begun to 
 cultivate fields, was 15,562. 
 
 CALIFORNIA, Old ; a province of Mex- 
 ico, comprising a peninsula in the Pacific 
 ocean, united, on the north, to the conti- 
 nent of North America, from which the 
 other part is separated by a narrow sea, 
 called the gulf of California, and bounded 
 S. and W. by the Pacific ocean ; near 900 
 miles in length, and, in different places, 
 30, 60, 90, and 120 miles wide. A chain 
 of mountains extends through the penin- 
 sula, of which the greatest height is from 
 4500 to 4900 feet above the sea. Thia 
 peninsula is said to have been discovered 
 by sir Francis Drake, and by him called 
 New Albion; and the gulf of California 
 has been sometimes called the Vermilion 
 sea, or Purple sea, or Red sea. In a pen- 
 insula of so great an extent, which reaches 
 nearly from 23 to 34 N. lat., the soil and 
 climate must naturally be found to vary. 
 Some parts are continually covered with 
 flowers, but the greater part is wild, rug- 
 ged and barren, overrun with rocks and 
 sand, and destitute of water. From cape 
 St. Lucas to the Colorado, nearly 200 
 leagues, only two streams run into the 
 gulf of California. Population, in 1803, 
 9000. The principal places are Santa 
 Maria, St. Ignatio, St. Isidoro, Loreto, 
 St. Estevan, St. Xavier, St. Yago, Rosa- 
 lio, St. Juan Guadalupe and St. Joseph. 
 
 CALIGULA, Caius Caesar Augustus Ger- 
 manicus, son of Germanicus and Agrip- 
 pina, was born, A, D. 12, in the camp, 
 probably in Germany, and brought up 
 among the legions. Here he received, 
 from the soldiers, the surname of C., on 
 account of his wearing the caligce, a kind 
 of little boots in use among them. He 
 understood so well how to insinuate him- 
 self into the good graces of Tiberius, that 
 he not only escaped the cruel fate of his 
 parents and brothers and sisters, but was 
 even loaded with honors. Whether, as 
 some writers inform us, he removed TK
 
 406 
 
 CALIGULA. 
 
 berius out of the way by slow poison, is 
 uncertain. When the latter was about to 
 die, he appointed, according to Suetonius, 
 C. and the son of Drusus, Tiberius Nero, 
 heirs of the empire. But C., universally 
 beloved for the sake of his father, Ger- 
 maTiicus, was able, without difficulty, to 
 obtain sole possession of the throne. 
 Rome received him joyfully, and the dis- 
 tant provinces echoed his welcome. His 
 first actions, also, were just and noble. 
 He interred, in the most honorable man- 
 ner, the remains of his mother and of his 
 brother Nero, set free all state-prisoners, 
 recalled the banished, and forbade all 
 prosecutions for treason. He conferred 
 on the magistrates free and independent 
 power. Although the will of Tiberius 
 had been declared, by the senate, to be 
 null and void, he fulfilled every article of 
 it, with the exception only of that above- 
 ^mentioned. When he was chosen con- 
 sul, he took his uncle Claudius as his 
 colleague. Thus he distinguished the 
 first eight months of his reign by many 
 magnanimous actions, when he fell sick. 
 After his recovery, by a most unex- 
 pected alteration, he suddenly showed 
 himself the most cruel and unnatural of 
 tyrants. The most exquisite tortures 
 served him for enjoyments. During his 
 meals, he caused criminals, and even in- 
 nocent persons, to be stretched on the 
 rack and beheaded : the most respectable 
 persons were daily executed. In the 
 madness of his arrogance, he even con- 
 sidered himself a god, and caused the 
 honors to be paid to him which were 
 paid to Apollo, to Mars, and even to Ju- 
 piter. He also showed himself in public 
 with the attributes of Venus and of other 
 goddesses. He built a temple to his own 
 divinity. At one time, he wished that 
 the whole Roman people had but one 
 head, that he might be able to cut it off at 
 one blow. He frequently repeated the 
 words of an old poet, Oderint dum metu- 
 ant. One of his greatest follies was the 
 building of a bridge between Baia? and 
 Puteoli (Puzzuoli). He himself conse- 
 crated this strange structure with great 
 splendor; and, after he had passed the 
 night following in a revel with his friends, 
 in order to do something extraordinary 
 before his departure, he caused a crowd 
 of persons, without distinction of age, 
 rank and character, to be seized, and 
 thrown into the sea. On his return, he 
 entered Rome in triumph, because, as he 
 said, he had conquered nature herself. 
 After this, he made preparations for an 
 expedition against the Germans, passed, 
 
 with more than 200,000 men, over the 
 Rhine, but returned after he had travelled 
 a few miles, and that without having seen 
 an enemy. Such was his terror, that, 
 when he came to the river, and found the- 
 bridge obstructed by the crowd upon 
 it, he caused himself to be passed over 
 the heads of the soldiers. He then went 
 to Gaul, which he plundered with unex- 
 ampled rapacity. Not content with the 
 considerable booty thus obtained, he sold 
 all the property of both his sisters, Agrip- 
 pina and Livilla, whom he banished. He 
 also sold the furniture of the old court, 
 the clothes of Marcus Antoninus, of Au- 
 gustus, Agrippina, &c. Before he left 
 Gaul, he declared his intention of going 
 to Britain. He collected his army on the 
 coast, embarked in a magnificent galley,, 
 but returned when he had hardly left the 
 land, drew up his forces, ordered the sig- 
 nal for battle to be sounded, and com- 
 manded the soldiers to fill their pockets 
 and helmets with shells, while he cried 
 out, " This booty, ravished from the sea, 
 is fit for my palace and the capitol !' r 
 When he returned to Rome, he was de- 
 sirous of a triumph on account of his 
 achievements, but contented himself with 
 an ovation. Discontented with the sen- 
 ate, he resolved to destroy the greater 
 part of the members, and the most dis- 
 tinguished men of Rome. This is proved 
 by two books, which were found after his 
 death, wherein the names of the pro- 
 scribed were noted down, and of which 
 one was entitled Gladius (Sword), and 
 the other Pugillus (Dagger). He became 
 reconciled to the senate again when he 
 found it worthy of him. He supported 
 public brothels and gaming-houses, and 
 received himself the entrance-money of 
 the visitors. His horse, named Incitatus, 
 was his favorite. This animal had a 
 house and a servant, and was fed from 
 marble and gold. C. had caused him to 
 be admitted into the college of his priests, 
 and was desirous of making him a consul 
 also. He even had the intention of de- 
 stroying the poems of Horner, and was 
 on the point of removing the works and 
 images of Virgil and Livy from all libra- 
 ries : those of the former, because he was 
 destitute of genius and learning ; those 
 of the latter, because he was not to be 
 depended upon as a historian. C.'s mor- 
 als were, from his youth upward, corrupt ; 
 he had committed incest with all his sis- 
 ters. After he had married and repudi- 
 ated several wives, Csesonia retained a 
 permanent hold on his affections. A 
 number of conspirators, at the head of
 
 CALIGULA CALIPH. 
 
 407 
 
 whom were Chaerea and Cornelius Sa- 
 binus, both tribunes of the pretorian co- 
 horts, murdered him in the 29th year of 
 his life, and the fourth of his tyrannical 
 reign (from A. D. 37 to 41). 
 
 CALIPH (i. e., vicegerent) is the name 
 assumed by the successors of Mohammed, 
 in the government of the faithful and in 
 the high priesthood. Caliphate is, there- 
 fore, the name given, by historians, to the 
 empire of these princes which the Arabs 
 founded in Asia, and, impelled by religious 
 enthusiasm, enlarged, within a lew centu- 
 ries, to a dominion far superior in extent 
 to the Roman empire. Mohammed (q. v.), 
 in the character of the prophet of God, 
 made himself the spiritual and temporal 
 ruler of his people. After the death of 
 the prophet, the election of a successor 
 occasioned considerable excitement. Ab- 
 dallah Ebn Abu Koafas, called Abubeker, 
 i. e., father of the virgin (because his 
 daughter Ayesha was the only one of the 
 wives of Mohammed, whom he had mar- 
 ried when a virgin), obtained the victoiy 
 over AH, the cousin and son-in-law of 
 Mohammed, and became the first caliph, 
 A. D. 632 (year of the Hegira 11). Victo- 
 rious over all enemies, by the aid of his 
 general, the brave Caled, he began, as the 
 Koran directs, to spread the doctrines of 
 Mohammed by arms among the neighbor- 
 ing nations. With the watch-word con- 
 version or tribute, a numerous army, con- 
 sisting entirely of volunteers, inspired with 
 zeal for the holy war, penetrated first into 
 Syria. Conquerors in the first battle, they 
 were subsequently several times defeated 
 by the Greeks ; but, having once acquired 
 a strong footing in the country by the 
 treacherous surrender of Bosra, they un- 
 dertook, under Caled, the siege of Damas- 
 cus, and, having repulsed two large ar- 
 mies, sent by the emperor Heraclius to 
 the relief of the city, they obtained pos- 
 session of it by a capitulation (A. D. 633, 
 of the Hegira 12), the terms of which were 
 perfidiously broken, Caled pursuing and 
 slaughtering the retreating Christians. 
 Abubeker died after he had filled the place 
 of the prophet two years and four months.. 
 By his will, Omar, another father-in-law 
 of the prophet, became second caliph. He 
 intrusted the command of the army of the 
 faithful to the humane Obeidah, instead 
 of Caled, and completed, by his means, 
 though not without a brave resistance on 
 the part of the Greeks, the subjugation of 
 Syria (A. D. 638, of the Hegira 17). Je- 
 rusalem having been compelled to surren- 
 der (A. D. 636, Heg. 15), Omar proceeded 
 thither in person to fix the terms of capit- 
 
 ulation, which have subsequently served 
 as a model in settling the relations of the 
 Moslems to the subject Christians. These 
 terms were carefully observed by the con- 
 scientious caliph. Equally successful was 
 another general, Amrou, in Egypt, which 
 was subjected to the caliphate in two 
 years (640). Omar was the first who bore 
 the appellation of emir al moumenin (prince 
 of the faithful) a title inherited by all 
 succeeding caliphs, and perverted into 
 miramolin by the ignorant Europeans. 
 After the murder of Omar by a revenge- 
 ful slave (A. D. 643, Heg. 23), a council, 
 appointed by him on his death-bed, chose 
 Osman, or Othman, son-in-law of the 
 prophet, passing over Ali. Under him, the 
 empire of the Arabs soon attained a won- 
 derful magnitude. In the East, their arms 
 spread the doctrines of the Koran through 
 Persia. At the same time, they advanced 
 along the northern coast of Africa, as far 
 as Ceuta. Cyprus, too (A. D. 647), and 
 Rhodes (A. D. 654) were conquered ; but 
 the former was lost again two years 
 after. Thus Alexandria and all Egypt 
 were a second time, though not without 
 difficulty, torn from the Greeks, who had 
 regained their power there by the aid of 
 the natives. These reverses were caused 
 by the measures of Othman, who, far in- 
 ferior to Omar in wisdom, intrusted the 
 provinces, not to the most capable, but to 
 his favorites. The dissatisfaction thus 
 excited occasioned a general insurrection 
 in the year 654 (Heg. 34), which terminat- 
 ed in his death. Ali, the son-in-law of the 
 prophet by Fatima, became the fourth 
 caliph, by the choice of the people of 
 Medina, and is regarded as the first legiti- 
 mate possessor of the dignity, by a numer- 
 ous sect of Mohammedans, which gives 
 him and his son Hassan almost equal hon- 
 or with the prophet. This belief prevails 
 among the Persians; whence arises the 
 hatred in which they are held by the 
 Turks. Instead of being able to continue 
 the conquests of his predecessors, Ali al- 
 ways had to contend with domestic ene- 
 mies. Among these was Ayesha, the 
 widow of the prophet, called the mother 
 of the faithful; also Tellah, Zobeir, and 
 especially the powerful Moawiyah, gov- 
 ernor of "Syria, who all laid claim to the 
 government. These were able to create 
 suspicion, and spread the report that Ali 
 had instigated the murder of Othman. 
 In vain did he endeavor to repress the 
 machinations of his enemies, by intrust- 
 ing the government of the provinces 
 to his friends. Nowhere were the new 
 governors received. The discontented
 
 408 
 
 CALIPH. 
 
 collected an army, and made themselves 
 masters of Bassora. Ali defeated it, and 
 Tellah and Zobeir fell ; but he could not 
 prevent Moawiyah and his friend Amrou 
 from extending their party, and main- 
 taining themselves in Syria, Egypt, and 
 even in a part of Arabia. Three men of 
 the sect of the Khoregites proposed to 
 restore concord among the faithful, by 
 slaying each one of the three heads of the 
 parties, Ali, Moawiyah and Amrou ; but 
 Ali only fell (A. D. 660, Heg. 40). He 
 was a man of a cultivated mind. The 
 celebrated moral maxims, and the Giafa, 
 as it was termed, are the most famous of 
 his works. His son, the mild, peaceful 
 Hassan, had no desire to defend the ca- 
 liphate against the indefatigable Moawi- 
 yah ; but vainly did he hope to obtain 
 security by a solemn abdication of the 
 government. He perished by poison, 
 said to have been administered at the 
 instigation of Moawiyah. Moawiyah I 
 transferred the seat of the caliphate from 
 the city of the prophet, Medina, where it 
 had hitherto always been, to Damascus, 
 in the province of which he had formerly 
 been governor (A. D. 673, Heg. 54). With 
 him begins the series of the caliphs called 
 Oinmiades, which name this family bore 
 from Moawiyah's progenitor, Ommiyah. 
 Not long after his accession, he was 
 obliged to quell an insurrection of the 
 Khoregites by a campaign, and a rebellion 
 at Bassora by severe punishments. He 
 then seriously meditated the entire sub- 
 version of the Byzantine empire, (q. v.) 
 His son Jezid marched through Asia Mi- 
 nor, meeting but little resistance ; then 
 crossed the Hellespont, and laid siege to 
 Constantinople, but was obliged to raise it 
 (A. D. 669, Heg. 49). His general Obei- 
 dah was more successful against the Turks 
 in Chorasan : he defeated them, and pen- 
 etrated almost into Turkestan (A. D. 673, 
 Heg. 54). His son Jezid was not alto- 
 gether a worthy successor of the politic 
 Moawiyah (A. D. 679, Heg. 60). At first, 
 he was not acknowledged by the two 
 holy cities, Mecca and Medina, which, as 
 long as the caliphs had resided in the lat- 
 ter city, had enjoyed a principal voice in 
 their election, but which had not been 
 consulted when Moawiyah, according to 
 the custom of the caliphs, appointed his 
 successor in his life-time. The discon- 
 tented espoused the cause, either of Hous- 
 sain, the famous son of Ali, or of Abdal- 
 lah, Zobeir's son, both of whom laid claim 
 to the crown. A rebellion of the inhabit- 
 ants of Irak, in favor of Houssain, led by 
 Moslem and Hanni, was suppressed by 
 
 the prudence and decision of Obeidallah, 
 governor of Cufa ; and Houssain, who had 
 accepted the invitation of the conspirators, 
 was killed (A. D. 680, Heg. 61), to the 
 great dissatisfaction of the caliph, who 
 sought to make reparation by acts of be- 
 neficence towards the children of Hous- 
 sain. Abdallah Ebn Zobeir was recog- 
 nised as caliph in Medina, where Jezid 
 was detested for his voluptuousness and 
 scepticism. On this account, Medina was 
 invested, stormed and sacked ; but Hous- 
 sain's family, residing there, was spared, 
 at the express command of the caliph. 
 After Jezid's death (A. D. 683, Heg. 64), 
 his son, Moawiyah II, a pious youth of 
 the sect of the Motagelites (who rejected 
 the fanaticism of the other Mohamme- 
 dans), voluntarily resigned the caliphate, 
 after a reign of a few months. As he had 
 chosen no successor, anarchy prevailed. 
 Obeidallah, governor of Irak, sought to 
 found a distinct empire in Bassora, but 
 was soon driven out by the inhabitants 
 themselves, who now, as well as all Irak, 
 Hegiaz, Yemen and Egypt, acknowledged 
 Abdallah Ebn Zobeir-as caliph. In Syria, 
 Dehac, regent to Abdallah, was at first 
 chosen caliph ; but the people of Damas- 
 cus appointed Merwan I, of the race of 
 the Ommiades, caliph, who made himself 
 master of all Syria and Egypt. Chorasan 
 separated from the caliphate, and submit- 
 ted to a prince of its own choosing the 
 noble Salem. In the following year (A. D. 
 684, Heg. 65), Soliinan Ebn Sarad excited 
 a great rebellion of the discontented in 
 Syria and Arabia, and pronounced both 
 caliphs deposed, but was defeated by the 
 experienced soldier Obeidallah. Merwan 
 had been compelled to promise, on oath, 
 to leave the caliphate to Caled, the son of 
 Jezid ; yet he nominated his son Abdalme- 
 lek as his successor. Under him (A. D. 
 684, Heg. 65), Mokthar, a new rebel 
 asrainst both caliphs, was subdued by one 
 of them, Abdallah (A. D 686, Heg." 67) ; 
 but this only made Abdullah more formi- 
 dable to Abdalmelek, who, in order to be 
 able to direct all his forces against him, 
 concluded a peace with the Greek empe- 
 ror, Justinian II, in which, reversing the 
 order of the Koran, he conceded to the 
 Christians a yearly tribute of 50,000 pieces 
 of gold. He then marched against Ab- 
 dallah, defeated him twice, and took Mec- 
 ca by assault. In this last conflict, Ab- 
 dallah fell. Thus he united under his 
 dominion all the Mussulmans; but the 
 resistance of the governors the curse of 
 all despotisms, and the symptom of the 
 future dissolution of the caliphate kept
 
 CALIPH. 
 
 409 
 
 him constantly occupied. He was the 
 first caliph that caused money to be coin- 
 ed. He died A. D. 705 (Heg. 86). Under 
 Walid I, his son, the Arabs conquered, in 
 the East, Charasm and Turkestan (A. D. 
 707, Heg. 88) ; in the North, Galatia (A. D. 
 710); and, in the West, Spain (A. D. 711). 
 (See Spain). He died in 716 (Heg. 97). 
 liis brother and successor besieged Con- 
 stantinople, but his fleet was twice de- 
 stroyed by tempests and the Greek fire. 
 On the other hand, he conquered Georgia. 
 He died 718 (Heg. 99). Omar II, his suc- 
 cessor by Soliman's last will, incurred the 
 displeasure of the Ommiades by his in- 
 dulgence towards the sect of Ali, and was 
 poisoned by them (A. D. 721, Heg. 102). 
 Jezid II, his successor, also, by the dispo- 
 sition of Soliman, died of grief for the loss 
 of a female favorite, of whose death he 
 was the author (A. D. 723, Heg. 104.) The 
 Alide Zeid, grandson of Iloussain, now 
 contested the caliphate with his brother 
 Hescham. He was indeed overpowered, 
 and put to death ; but another house, the 
 Abliassidcs, descendants of Abbas, son of 
 Abdalmotaleh, uncle of the prophet, be- 
 gan to be formidable. Under Hescham, 
 an end was put to the progress of the 
 Saracens in the West, by the energy of 
 Charles Mattel, who annihilated their ar- 
 mies at Tours in 732, and at Narbonne in 
 736. The voluptuous Walid II was mur- 
 dered after a reign of one year (A. D. 743, 
 Heg. 124). After the equally brief reigns 
 of Jezid III, and of the Abbasside, Ibra- 
 him, Merwan II followed, with the sur- 
 name (respectable among the Arabs) of 
 the Jlss (al Hemar). Ibrahim, being de- 
 throned and imprisoned by this prince, 
 appointed his brother Abul Abbas his suc- 
 cessor, and was, shortly after, murdered 
 in prison. Abdallah, Abul Abbas's uncle, 
 now took up arms against the caliph, who 
 was, at that time, fully occupied by a dan- 
 gerous rebellion in Persia. Merwan was 
 twice defeated, and fell (A. D. 752, Heg. 
 133). With him terminates the series of 
 caliphs of the race of Ommiyah. The 
 furious Abdallah treacherously destroyed 
 almost all the Ommiades, by a horrible 
 massacre at a meeting where they were 
 all assembled. Two only escaped. Ab- 
 derames fled to Spain, where he founded 
 the independent caliphate of Cordova (see 
 Spain] ; another to a corner of Arabia, 
 where he was acknowledged as caliph, 
 and his posterity reigned till the 16th cen- 
 tury. Abul Abbas, although innocent of 
 that cruel action, which secured him the 
 throne, derived from it the name of Sqffah 
 (the Bloody). He died very soon, 18 years 
 VOL. ii. 35 
 
 of age, of the small-pox (A. D. 753, Heg. 
 134). His brother, Abu Giafar, called al 
 .Mansor (the Victorious), was obliged to 
 contend with a rival in his own uncle, 
 Abdallah, whom he, however, overcame. 
 His avarice made him many enemies, 
 whom he succeeded in suppressing by his 
 perfidious cunning. He acquired his sur- 
 name by his victories in Armenia, Cilicia 
 and Cappadocia. In the year 764 (Heg. 
 145), he founded the city of Bagdad on the 
 Tigris, and transferred thither the seat of 
 the caliphate (A. D. 768, Heg. 149). He 
 died on a pilgrimage to Mecca, leaving 
 immense treasures (A. D. 775, Heg. 156). 
 Mahadi, his son and successor, a man of 
 a noble character, had to contend with 
 the turbulent inhabitants of Chorasan, 
 under the pretended prophet Hakeni, and 
 died A. D. 785 (Heg. 166) ; and Hadi, his 
 grandson, met with the same opposition 
 from the Ali party, under Houssain, Ali's 
 great-grandson. Hadi caused the Zen- 
 dists to be exterminated a sect adhering 
 to the doctrine of two principles of nature. 
 According to the usual order of succes- 
 sion, and Mahadi's provision, Hadi was 
 followed, not by his son, but by his broth- 
 er Haruu (A. I). 786, Heg. 167), who was 
 denominated al Raschid, on account of 
 his justice, and is famous for promoting 
 the arts and sciences. He concluded a 
 truce (an actual peace could never be 
 made with Christians.) witli the Greek 
 empress Irene (788, Heg. 169), who con- 
 sented to pay him tribute. Juhir, an Alide, 
 disputed with him the possession of the 
 throne, but subsequently submitted. Ha- 
 run, however, tarnished! his reputation by 
 the murder of J'ahir, and still more by 
 the murder of his sister Abbassah, and 
 her favorite, the Barmecide Giafar, and 
 by the expulsion and persecution of the 
 whole family of the Barmecides, whose 
 services to the state and himself had been 
 of very great value. Harun divided the 
 empire among his three sons. Al Amin, 
 as sole caliph, was to reign over Irak, 
 Arabia, Syria, Egypt, and the rest of Afri- 
 ca: under him, Al Matnun was to govern 
 Persia, Turkestan, Chorasan, and the 
 whole East; and Motassem was to rule 
 Asia Minor, Armenia, and all the coun- 
 tries on the Black sea. The younger 
 brothers were to succeed Amin in the 
 caliphate. At Thus, in Chorasan, through 
 which Harun was passing, in order to 
 quell a rebellion that had broken out in 
 Samarcand, he was arrested by death, of 
 which he had been forewarned by won- 
 derful dreams (A. I). 809, Heg. 190). Al 
 Amin the Faithful (his proper name was
 
 CALIPH. 
 
 Mohammed) was undeserving of this name. 
 Untrue to his obligations as a ruler, and 
 addicted to all kinds of sensuality, he left 
 the discharge of his duties to his vizier, 
 Fadhel. The vizier, from hatred of Ma- 
 mun, persuaded the caliph to appoint his 
 .son his successor, and deprive Motassem 
 of his portion of territory. A war arose 
 between the brothers. Mamun's general, 
 Thaher, defeated the armies of the caliph, 
 took Bagdad, and caused Amin to be put 
 to death (A. D. 813, Heg. 194). Manmn 
 was recognised as caliph. Nobler in his 
 inclinations than Amin, he cherished the 
 arts and sciences ; but, like his brother, he 
 left the government and armies to his 
 ministers. His measures to secure the 
 caliphate to the Alides, in order to please 
 Riza, his favorite, excited the powerful 
 Abbassides to an insurrection. They de- 
 clared Mamun to have forfeited the throne, 
 and proclaimed Ibrahim caliph, but sub- 
 mitted again, after the death of Riza, 
 when the caliph had changed his senti- 
 ments. The vast empire of the Arabs, 
 embracing numberless provinces in two 
 quarters of the globe, could hardly be 
 held under his sceptre. There is but one 
 step, and that an easy one, under a weak 
 sovereign, from a viceroyalty to a king- 
 dom. The wisdom of the former Abbas- 
 sides could only retard this evil ; the faults 
 of the latter precipitated it. Even under 
 Harun al Raschid, the Agladides had 
 founded an independent empire in Tunis 
 (A. D. 800, Heg. 181), as had likewise the 
 Edrisides in Fez. Thaher, having been 
 appointed governor of Chorasan, made 
 himself independent. From him the 
 Thaherides derived their origin. Mamun 
 sent Thomas, a Greek exile, with an army 
 against the Greek emperor, Michael II, 
 the Stammerer. Thomas depopulated 
 Asia Minor, and laid siege to Constanti- 
 nople ; but a storm destroyed his fleet 
 (A. D. 823, Heg. 207). A second attack 
 on the imperial city was repelled by the 
 aid of the Bulgarians. Thomas was taken 
 prisoner, and executed. Towards the ma- 
 ny religious sects, into which the Mussul- 
 mans were then divided, Mamun acted 
 with toleration. He died A. D. 833 (Heg. 
 218). During his government (about 830, 
 Heg. 215), the African Arabs conquered 
 Sicily and Sardinia, where they maintain- 
 ed themselves about 200 years, till the 
 former island was torn from them by the 
 Normans, in 1035, and the latter island by 
 the Pisans, in 1051. Motassem, at first 
 named Billdk (by the grace of God), Ha- 
 run's third son, built a new city, Samara, 
 56 miles from Bagdad, and transferred 
 
 thither his residence. In his wars against 
 the Greeks and rebellious Persians, he 
 first used Turkish soldiers. From grief 
 at the death of his private physician, Mo- 
 tassem became insane, and died A. D. 
 842, Heg. 227. Vathek Billah, his son, 
 member of the Motazelite sect, exerted 
 himself to promote the advancement of 
 science ; but he was an enervated volup- 
 tuary, and died of nervous weakness (A. D. 
 846, Heg. 232). A contest for the succes- 
 sion, between his brother Motawackel and 
 his son Mothadi, was decided by the al- 
 ready powerful and arrogant Turkish 
 body-guard in favor of the most unworthy 
 competitor, the former. Under Mota- 
 wackel, it became more and more custom- 
 ary to carry on all wars by means of 
 Turkish mercenaries. Thus the Arabs 
 were rendered unwarlike and effeminate, 
 as must necessarily be the case, in a hot 
 climate, with those who do not live in 
 constant activity. Motawackel manifested 
 a blind hatred of the Alides, not sparing 
 even the memory of the deceased. He 
 moreover evinced a malignant spirit, and 
 a proneness to sensuality and cruelty. His 
 own son, Montassar, educated in the in- 
 dulgence of both these vices, and often 
 barbarously treated by him, conspired 
 against him with the Turkish body-guards, 
 and effected his murder (A. D. 861, Heg. 
 247). The Turks, who now arrogated the 
 right of electing the caliphs, called the 
 murderer to the throne of the faithful, and 
 compelled his brothers, who were kino- 
 cent of the atrocious act, and whose re- 
 venge they feared, to renounce the suc- 
 cession which had been designed for 
 them by Motawackel. Montasser died, 
 soon after, of a fever, caused by the goad- 
 ings of remorse (A. D. 862, 'Heg. 248). 
 The Turks then elected Mostain Billah, 
 a grandson of the caliph Motassem. Two 
 of the Alides became competitors with 
 him for the caliphate. One of them, at 
 Cufa, was defeated and put to death ; but 
 the other founded an independent empire 
 in Tabristan, which subsisted half a cen- 
 tury. The discord of the Turkish soldiers 
 completed the dismemberment of the 
 empire. One party raised to the throne 
 Motaz, second son of Motawackel, and 
 compelled Mostain to abdicate. Motaz 
 Billah soon found means to get rid of him, 
 as well as of his own brother, Muwiad. 
 He then meditated the removal of the 
 Turkish soldiers; but, before he found 
 courage to execute his projects, they re- 
 belled on account of their pay being in ar- 
 rear, and forced him to resign the govern- 
 ment. He soon after died (A. D. 869, Heg.
 
 CALIPH. 
 
 411 
 
 255). They conferred the caliphate on 
 Mohadi Billah, son of the caliph Vathek, 
 but deposed this excellent priuce, eleven 
 months after, because he attempted to im- 
 prove their military discipline. Under Mo- 
 tawackel's third son, the sensual Motam- 
 ed Billah, whom they next called to the ca- 
 liphate, his prudent and courageous fourth 
 brother, Muaffek, succeeded in overcom- 
 ing the dangerous preponderance of these 
 Turks. Motamed transferred the seat of 
 the caliphate from Samara back to Bag- 
 dad, in the year 873 (Heg. 259), where it 
 afterwards continued. In the same year, 
 owing to a revolution in the independent 
 government of Chorasan, the dynasty of 
 the Thaherides gave place to that of the 
 Softarides, who, eventually, extended their 
 dominion over Tabristan and Segestan. 
 The governor of Egypt and Syria, Ach- 
 met Ben Tulun, also made himself inde- 
 pendent (A. D. 877, Heg. 263), from whom 
 are descended the Tulunides. The brave 
 Muaffek annihilated, indeed, the empire 
 of the Zinghians, in Cufa and Bassora, 10 
 years after its formation (A. D. 881, Heg. 
 268) ; but he was unable to save the ca- 
 liphate from the ruin to which it was con- 
 tinually hastening. Motamed died soon 
 after him (A. D. 892, Heg. 279),. and was 
 succeeded by Muaffek's son, Mothadad 
 Billah. He contended unsuccessfully with 
 anew sect that had arisen in Irak the Car- 
 mathians (A. D. 899, Heg. 286) against 
 whom his son, Moktaphi Billah (A. D. 902, 
 Heg. 289), was more fortunate. He was 
 still more successful in a war against the 
 Tulunides, as he again reduced Egypt 
 and Syria, in 905 (Heg. 292). Under his 
 brother, Moktadar Billah, who succeeded 
 him at the age of 13 years (A. D. 909, 
 Heg. 296), rebellions and bloody quarrels 
 about the sovereignty disturbed the gov- 
 ernment of the empire. He was several 
 times deposed and reinstated, and finally 
 murdered (A. D. 931, Heg. 319). During 
 his reign, Abu Mohammed Obeidallah 
 rose in Africa, who, pretending to be de- 
 scended from Fatima, daughter of the 
 prophet (therefore from Ali), overthrew 
 the dynasty of the Agladides in Tunis, and 
 founded that of the Fatimites (A. D. 910, 
 Heg. 298). Not satisfied with reigning 
 independent of the caliph, this party, as 
 descendants of the prophet, asserted them- 
 selves to be the only lawful caliphs. 
 Shortly afterwards, the dynasty of the 
 Bouides, in Persia, rose to authority and 
 power (A. D. 925, Heg. 315). Chorasan 
 was still independent. The only change 
 was, that the Samanides had taken the 
 place of the Soffarides. In a part of Ara- 
 
 bia the heretic Carmathians ruled ; in Mes- 
 opotamia, the Hamadamites. In Egypt, 
 which had just been recovered, Akschid, 
 from a governor, was called to be a sove- 
 reign. From him descended the Akschi- 
 dites. Kaher Billah, Mothadad's third son, 
 merited his fate, on account of his malice 
 and cruelty. The Turkish soldiers, having 
 recovered their power, drove him from 
 the throne into exile (A. D. 934, Heg. 322), 
 in which he perished five years after- 
 wards. Rhadi Billah, his brother, bore 
 the dignity of an emir al omra (captain of 
 the captains), with which the exercise of 
 absolute power, in the name of the caliph, 
 was united ; and thus the caliph was more 
 and more thrown into the back-ground. 
 The first who was invested with this 
 dignity was Raik ; but it was soon torn 
 from him by the Turk Jakan, by force of 
 amis, in the year 939 (Heg. 327). Jakan 
 extended the power of the office to such 
 a degree as to leave the caliph nothing but 
 the name of his temporal sway, and even 
 assumed the right of determining the suc- 
 cession to the throne. Raik was indem- 
 nified by receiving Cufa, Bassora and 
 Irak Arabi, as an independent govern- 
 ment. The next caliph, Motaki Billah, 
 Moktader's son, made an effort to regain 
 his independence by the murder of Ja- 
 kun ; but he was soon compelled, by the 
 Turkish soldiers, to appoint Tozun, an- 
 other of their countrymen, emir, who 
 made this office hereditary. He formally 
 devised it to a certain Schirzad, but it soon 
 came into the possession of the Persian 
 royal house of the Bouides, whose aid the 
 succeeding caliph, Mostaki Billah, solicit- 
 ed against the tyranny of Schirzad. The 
 first Bouide emir, 3Ioezeddulat, left it as 
 an inheritance to his posterity. Not the 
 caliph, but the emir, now reigned in Bag- 
 dad, though over only a small territory. 
 In every remote province, there were 
 independent princes. To continue the 
 catalogue of the names of those who 
 were henceforward caliphs, would be 
 superfluous, for these Mussulman popes 
 had not by any means the power of the 
 Christian. It would lie too tedious to 
 pursue the branches into which the histo- 
 ry of the caliphate is now divided ; but 
 we must briefly show the great changes 
 which the different states and their dynas- 
 ties have undergone, and which gave rise 
 to the dominion of the Ottoman Porte. 
 During the minority of the Akschidite 
 Ali, the Fatimite Morz Ledinillah, at that 
 time caliph in Tunis, subjugated Egypt 
 in 969 (Heg. 358), and founded Cairo, 
 which he made the seat of his caliphate.
 
 412 
 
 CALIPH CALIXTINS. 
 
 There were, consequently, at this time, 
 three caliphs at, Bagdad, Cairo and Cor- 
 dova each of which declared the others 
 heretics. But the Fatimites, as well as 
 the Abbassides, fell under the power of 
 their viziers, and, like them, the Ommi- 
 ades in Cordova were deprived of all 
 power by the division of Spain into ma- 
 ny small sovereignties, till they were en- 
 tirely subverted by the Morabethun. (See 
 Spain.) Ilkan, king of Turkestan, having 
 conquered Chorasan, and overthrown the 
 Samanides, was expelled again by Mach- 
 mud, prince of Gazna, who founded there 
 the dominion of the Gaznevides, in 998 
 (Heg.388), who were soon, however, over- 
 thrown in turn by the Seldjook Turks, 
 under Togrul Beg, in 1030 (Heg. 421). 
 This leader conquered also Charasm, 
 Georgia, and the Persian Irak. Called to 
 the assistance of the caliph KajemBeme- 
 illah, at Bagdad, against the tyranny of 
 the Bouide emirs, he proceeded to Bag- 
 dad, and became emir himself in 1055 
 (Heg. 448), by which means the dominion 
 of the Turks was firmly established over 
 all the Mussulmans. To his nephew, 
 Alp Arslan (who defeated and took pris- 
 oner the Greek emperor Romanus Dioge- 
 nes), he left this dignity, with so great 
 power, that these Turkish emirs al omra 
 were frequently called the suLtans of Bag- 
 dad. Turkish princes, who aspired to be 
 sovereigns in the other provinces, were, 
 at first, satisfied with the title of atabek 
 (father, teacher), such as the atabeks of 
 Irak and Syria, of Adherbidschan, Far- 
 sistan (Persis) and Laristan. It was the 
 atabeks of Syria and Irak, with whom 
 the crusaders had principally to contend. 
 The first was called Omadeddin Zenghi; 
 by the Franks, Sanguin. They were af- 
 terwards termed sultans. The caliph of 
 Bagdad was recognised by all as the spir- 
 itual sovereign of all Mussulmans: his 
 temporal authority did not extend beyond 
 the walls of Bagdad. Noureddin, Zen- 
 ghi's .son, being requested, by the Fatimite 
 caliph Adhed, to protect Bagdad against 
 his vizier, sent to Cairo, in succession, the 
 Curds, Schirkueh and Salaheddin or Sa- 
 ladin;.but the latter overthrew the Fati- 
 mites (as schismatic anti-popes), an A usurp- 
 ed the authority of sultan of Egypt in 
 1170 (Heg. 556), with which he united 
 Syria, after Noureddin's death. This is 
 the great Salaheddrn (Saladin),the formi- 
 dable enemy of the Christians, the con- 
 queror of Jerusalem. The dynasty which 
 commenced with him was called, from 
 his father, Ayoub, the AyovMtes. They 
 reigned over Egypt till expelled by the 
 
 Mamelukes in 1250. The Seldjook sul- 
 tans of Irak were overthrown, in 1194 
 (Heg. 590), by the Charasmians; and, as 
 those of Chorasan were extinct, there re- 
 mained of the Seldjook dominions noth- 
 ing but the empire of Iconium or Roum, 
 in Asia Minor, from which the present 
 Turkish empire derives its origin. (See 
 Ottoman Empire.} The Charasmian sul- 
 tans extended their conquests far into 
 Asia, until their territories were invaded 
 by the Tartars, under Zenghis Khan, in 
 1220 (Heg. 617). They were finally totally 
 destroyed by his son Octai. Bagdad, also, 
 the remains of the possessions of the ca- 
 liplis, became the easy prey of a Mougul 
 horde, under Holagou, in 1258 (Heg. 636),. 
 by the treachery of die vizier al Kami, 
 and a slave, Amrarn, under the 56th ca- 
 liph, Motazem. The nephew of the cru- 
 elly-murdered Motazem fled to Egypt, 
 where he continued to be called caliph, 
 under the protection of the Mamelukes, 
 and bequeathed the Mohammedan pope- 
 dom to his posterity. When the Turks 
 conquered Egypt, in 1517, the last of 
 these nominal caliphs was carried to 
 Constantinople, and died, after returning 
 to Egypt, in 1538. The Turkish sultans 
 subsequently assumed the title of caliph, 
 and the padishah or grand signer at Con- 
 stantinople retains it to the present day, 
 with the claim of spiritual supremacy 
 over all Mussulmans, though this claim 
 is little regarded out of his own domin- 
 ions, and strongly disputed by the Per- 
 sians. 
 
 CALIXTINS, or UTRAQUISTS ; a sect of 
 the Hussites in Bohemia, who differed 
 from the Catholics principally in giving 
 the cup in the Lord's supper to laymen. 
 (See Hussites.) Under George of Podie- 
 brad, from 1450 to 1471, who declared 
 himself for them, the C. obtained the as- 
 cendency. Under Wladislaw, they main- 
 tained their religious liberties, and, from 
 the time of the reformation in the 16th 
 century, shared the doctrines as well as 
 the fate of the Protestants in Bohemia. 
 Their refusal to fight against their own 
 sect in the Smalkaldian war, at first drew 
 upon them severe persecutions ; but Fer- 
 dinand I, though unfavorable to them in 
 other respects, permitted them to partici- 
 pate in the advantages of the religious 
 peace of 1556 with his other Protestant 
 subjects, and the excellent Maximilian II 
 granted them perfect liberty in the exer- 
 cise of their religious belief. Their situ- 
 ation became more critical under Rodolph 
 II, and they found it difficult to prevail 
 on him publicly to acknowledge the Bo-
 
 CALIXTINS CALIXTUS. 
 
 413 
 
 hemian confession, presented by them in 
 connexion with the Bohemian Brethren 
 and the Lutherans, and to confirm the 
 church government, under which they 
 had hitherto possessed teachers, churches 
 and schools of their own, and a separate 
 consistory at Prague. When Matthias 
 made many encroachments on the privi- 
 leges thus granted, the united Protestants, 
 under the count of Thurn, in 1617, un- 
 dertook to defend themselves. This final- 
 ly kindled the 30 years' war. After a 
 short triumph under Frederic of the 
 Palatinate, whom they had chosen king, 
 they were defeated, in 1620, near Prague, 
 and the Protestant cause completely over- 
 thrown. Ferdinand II caused many 
 C., Lutherans and Calvinists to be exe- 
 cuted as rebels, and drove others into 
 banishment ; and Ferdinand III did not 
 extend the benefits of the peace of West- 
 phalia to the Protestants in Bohemia. 
 His successors were not more favorably 
 disposed towards the Protestants ; and the 
 edict of toleration of Joseph II, 1782, rirst 
 restored to the Protestants in Bohemia 
 their religious liberty, of which they had 
 been deprived during 162 years, and 
 which is enjoyed to the present day by 
 the Calvinists and Lutherans, among 
 whom the remains of the old C. have 
 been lost. 
 
 CALIXTUS ; the name of several popes. 
 1. The first was a Roman bishop from 
 217 to 224, when he suffered martyrdom. 
 2. Guido, son of count William of Bur- 
 gundy, archbishop of Vienna, and papal 
 legate in France, was elected, in 1119,. in 
 the monastery of Clugny, successor of 
 the expelled pope Gelasius II, who had 
 been driven from Italy by the emperor 
 Henry V, and had died in this monastery. 
 He received the tiara at Vienna. In the 
 same year, he held councils at Toulouse 
 and at Rheims, the latter of which was 
 intended to settle the protracted dispute 
 respecting the right of investiture. As 
 the emperor Henry V would not confirm 
 an agreement which he had already made 
 on this subject, C. repeated anew the ex- 
 communication which he had pronounced 
 against him as legate, at the council of 
 Vienna, in 1112. He excommunicated, 
 also, the anti-pope Gregory VIII, and re- 
 newed former decrees respecting simony, 
 lay investiture and the marriage of priests. 
 Successful in his contest with the emperor 
 on the subject of investiture by means of 
 his alliance with the rebels in Germany, 
 in particular with the Saxons, he made 
 his entrance into Italy in 1120, and, with 
 great pomp, into Rome itself; took Greg- 
 35* 
 
 oiy VIII prisoner, in 1121, by the aid of 
 the Normans, and treated him shamefully. 
 He availed himself of the troubles of the 
 emperor to force him, in 1122, to agree to 
 the concordat of Worms. (See Investi- 
 ture and Concordat). He died in 1124. 
 C. Ill, chosen in 1168, in Rome, as anti- 
 pope to Paschal III, and confirmed by 
 the emperor Frederic I, in 1178, was 
 obliged to submit to pope Alexander III. 
 As he was not counted among the legal 
 popes, a subsequent pope was called C. ///. 
 This was a Spanish nobleman, Alphonso 
 Borgia, counsellor of Alphonso, king of 
 Arragon and the Sicilies. He was made 
 pope in 1455. He was at this time far 
 advanced in life, but equalled in policy 
 and presumption the most enterprising 
 rulers of the church. In order to appease 
 the displeasure of the princes and nations, 
 occasioned by the proceedings of the 
 councils of Constance and Basil, he in- 
 stigated them to a crusade against the 
 Turks, and supported Scanderbeg, for 
 this purpose, with mouey and ship?. 
 His intention was counteracted in Ger- 
 many by the discontent of the states of 
 the empire with the concordat of Vienna, 
 and in France by the appeals of the uni- 
 versities of Paris and Toulouse against 
 the tithe for the Turkish war. King Al- 
 phonso, moreover, was indignant at the 
 refusal of the pope to acknowledge his 
 natural son Ferdinand as king of Naples. 
 The Romans, also, were displeased at the 
 favors which he conferred on his worth- 
 less nephews. After his death, in 1458, 
 a treasure of 115,000 ducats was found, 
 destined for the Turkish war. 
 
 CALIXTUS (properly Callisen), George, 
 the most able and enlightened theologian 
 of the Lutheran church in the 17th century, 
 was born in 1586, at Meelby, in Holstein, 
 and educated at Flensborg and Helmstadt. 
 In 1607, in the latter university, he turn- 
 ed his thoughts to theology ; in 1609, vis- 
 ited the universities of the south of Ger- 
 many, in 1612, those of Holland, England 
 and France, where his intercourse with 
 the different religious parties, and the 
 greatest scholars of his time, developed 
 that independence and liberality of opin- 
 ion, for winch he was distinguished. 
 After a brilliant victory, in 1614, in a re- 
 ligious dispute with the Jesuit Turrianus, 
 he was made professor of theology, and 
 died in 1656, His treatises on the au- 
 thority of the Holy Scriptures, transub- 
 stantiation, celibacy, supremacy of the 
 pope, and the Lord's supper, belong, even 
 according to the judgment of learned 
 Catholics, to the most -profound and acute
 
 414 
 
 CALIXTUS CALLIOPE. 
 
 writings against Catholicism. But his 
 genius, and the depth of his exegetic and 
 historical knowledge, exposed him to the 
 persecutions of the zealots of his time. 
 His assertion, that the points of difference 
 between Calvinists and Lutherans were of 
 less importance than the doctrines in 
 which they agreed, and that the doctrine 
 of the Trinity was less distinctly express- 
 ed in the Old Testament than in the New, 
 and his recommendation of good works, 
 drew upon him the reproaches of crypto- 
 papism. His heresy was termed Syncret- 
 ism, (q. v.) The elector John George I 
 of Saxony protected him, in 1655, at the 
 diet of llatisbon, against the Lutheran 
 theologians. His historical investigations 
 and his philosophical spirit shed new 
 light on dogmatic theology and the ex- 
 egesis of the Bible, and gave them a more 
 scientific form. He made Christian mo- 
 rality a distinct branch of science, and, by 
 reviving the study of the Christian fathers 
 and of the history of the church, prepared 
 the way for Spener, Thomasius and Sem- 
 ler. He educated his son Frederic Ulrich 
 Calixtus, and many other enlightened the- 
 ologians. 
 
 CALK ; to drive a quantity of oakum 
 , into the seams of planks, to prevent the 
 entrance of the water. After the oakum 
 is driven in, it is covered with melted 
 pitch or resin, to preserve it from the ac- 
 tion of the water. 
 
 CALKAR. (See Calcar.) 
 
 CALKOEN, Jan Frederic ran Beck, a 
 Dutch scholar and astronomer, born 1772, 
 at Groningen, died in 1811. He was a 
 member of many learned societies, pra- 
 fessor at Ley den, and afterwards at U- 
 trecht. His Euryalns, on Beauty, 'and 
 another work on the Time-Pieces of the 
 Ancients, are deserving of mention. His 
 essay against the work of Dupuis, Origine 
 de tons les Cultes, obtained the Taylerian 
 prize. 
 
 CALL is the cry of a bird to its young, 
 or to its mate in coupling time, which, in 
 most instances, is a repetition of one note, 
 and is generally common to the cock and 
 hen. Calls are also a sort of pipes used 
 by fowlers to catch birds, by imitating 
 their notes. They are commonly formed 
 of a pipe, reed or quill, and blown by bel- 
 lows attached to it, or by the mouth. Hares 
 are also sometimes taken by a call. 
 
 CALLAO ; a seaport town of Peru, on a 
 river of the same name, near the Pacific 
 ocean. It is the port of the city of Lima, 
 from which it is six miles distant. Lon. 
 77 4' W. ; lat. 12 3' S. ; population, about 
 50Q(X The road is one of the most beau- 
 
 tiful, the largest and safest, in the South 
 sea. Two islands, named St. Laurence 
 and Callao, and the peninsula, which 
 nearly reaches them, defend vessels from 
 south winds : towards the west and north 
 is open sea, but the winds from these 
 points are never violent ; the water is al- 
 ways tranquil ; is deep, and without rocks. 
 C. is the rendezvous of from 16 to 17,000 
 tons of shipping, 5000 of which are re- 
 served for the navigation of the Pacific 
 ocean. The town was fortified by 10 
 bastions and some batteries, and defended 
 by a garrison. There are two fauxbourgs 
 inhabited by Indians. In 1746, this town 
 was destroyed by an earth quake, when, of 
 4000 inhabitants, only 200 escaped. Since 
 that time, C. has been rebuilt upon the 
 same plan, but a little farther from the 
 sea. 
 
 CALLIMACHUS, a Greek poeJ arid gram- 
 marian, born at Cyreue, in Lybia, of a no- 
 ble family, flourished under the reign of 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus, about 250 years 
 before Christ. He opened, in Alexandria, 
 a school of grammar, i. e., of the belles- 
 lettres and liberal sciences, and could 
 boast of several scholars of distinguished 
 attainments, such as Eratosthenes, Apol- 
 lonius Rhodius, Aristophanes of Byzanti- 
 um, &c. Ptolemy Philadelphus present- 
 ed him with a place in the museum, and 
 gave him a salary, as he did other men of 
 learning. After the death of Philadel- 
 phus, he stood in equal favor with Ptole- 
 my Euergetes. Under these circum- 
 stances,, he wrote most of his works, the 
 number of which was very considerable. 
 With the exception of some fragments, 
 all that we have of these is 72 epigrams 
 and 6 hymns. His poem on the hair of 
 Berenice (coma Btrcnices) has been pre- 
 served in the Latin translation of Catullus. 
 C.'s pocins bear the stamp of their age, 
 which sought to supply the want of nat- 
 ural genius by a great ostentation of learn- 
 ing. Instead of noble, simple grandeur, 
 they exhibit an overcharged style, a false 
 pathos, and a straining after the singular, 
 the antiquated, the learned. His elegies 
 are mentioned by the ancients with great 
 praise, and served Propertius as models. 
 The best edition of C. is by J. A. Ernesti 
 (Leyden, 1761, 2 vols.), which, as well as 
 the edition of Graevius (Utrecht, 1697, 2 
 vols.), contains Spanheim's learned com- 
 mentary. Valckenaer also published Ele- 
 iriarum Fragmenta, by this author (Ley- 
 den, 1799). 
 
 CALLIOPE; one of the muses (q. v.); 
 daughter of Jupiter and Mnemosyne. 
 She presided over eloquence and heroic
 
 CALLIOPE CALMAR. 
 
 415 
 
 poetry. She is said to have been the 
 mother of Orpheus by Apollo. She was 
 represented with an epic poem in one 
 hand, and a trumpet in the other, and 
 generally crowned with laurel. 
 
 CALLISEN, Henry, a physician and sur- 
 geon, bom in 1740, at Pentz, in Holstein, 
 son of a poor clergyman, educated him- 
 self by his own exertions, served in the 
 army and in the fleet, afterwards in the 
 hospitals at Copenhagen, was made, in 
 1771, chief surgeon in the Danish fleet, 
 and, in 1773, professor of surgery at the 
 university in Copenhagen. He wrote, in 
 1777, his Institut. Chirurgice tfjndierncgj 
 which was received with applause by all 
 Europe. In Vienna, and at the Russian 
 universities, lectures are given on them. 
 There are also excellent essays by him in 
 the medical journals. He died at Copen- 
 hagen, February 5, 1824, at the age of 84 
 years. 
 
 CALLISTHENES, a Greek philosopher 
 and historian, a native of Olynthus, was 
 appointed to attend Alexander in his ex- 
 pedition against Persia. His republican 
 sentiments rendered him unfit for a 
 courtier, added to which he had no small 
 share of vanity. But his unpardonable 
 crime was his opposition to the assump- 
 tion by that conqueror of divine honors. 
 The conspiracy of Hermolaus affording a 
 pretext for a charge of treason, ho was 
 apprehended. Historians disagree as to 
 his fate ; but most of them admit that lie 
 was for some time carried about with the 
 army in the ignominious character of a 
 convicted traitor. Aristotle states that he 
 died of a disease contracted under this 
 treatment. Ptolemy asserts that he was 
 crucified; Justin, that he was disfigured 
 and confined in a cage, with a dog for 
 his companion, until Lysimachus enahled 
 him to terminate his sufferings by poison. 
 He wrote a Histoiy of the Actions of 
 Alexander, and other historical works. 
 
 CALLISTHENICS. (See Gymnastics.) 
 
 CALLISTO ; a nymph of Diana, daugh- 
 ter of Lycaon, king of Arcadia. Ju- 
 piter loved her, assumed the shape of 
 Diana, and seduced her. The fruit of 
 her amour, called Areas, was hid in the 
 woods, but preserved. She was changed, 
 by the jealousy of Juno, into a bear. Ju- 
 piter placed her, with her son, among the 
 stars, where she still shines as the Great 
 Bear. 
 
 CALLOT, Jacques, born in 1594, at 
 Nancy, vanquished, by perseverance, ev- 
 ery obstacle which obstructed his perfec- 
 tion in his art. He twice ran away from 
 his parents, who intended him for another 
 
 profession, fled to Italy, and learnt draw- 
 ing, in Rome, under Giul. Parigi, engrav- 
 ing under Philip Thomassin, and became 
 afterwards, at Florence, a disciple of 
 Canta-Gallina, and, at Nancy, of Claude 
 Henriet. He soon gave himself up en- 
 tirely to his love for engraving, and pre- 
 ferred etching, probably, because his ac- 
 tive and fertile genius could, in that way, 
 express itself more rapidly. In the space 
 of 20 years, he designed and executed 
 about 1600 pieces. (See the catalogue in 
 the Cabinet de Singularites d 1 Architecture, 
 Peinture, Sculpture et Gravure, by Le 
 Comte, vol. 2, p. 376 to 392, and Ger- 
 saint's Catalogue de Lorangere.) In the 
 composition, the disposition of the parts, 
 and in the distribution of light, C. is not 
 particularly eminent ; but, in the single 
 parts of his pieces, he is very successful. 
 His drawing is correct ; the attitudes 
 mostly pleasing ; the groups have consid- 
 erable variety ; harsh contrasts are avoid- 
 ed ; the expression is vigorous ; and the 
 execution displays the ease of a master. 
 He is particularly distinguished by the 
 drawing of the little figures with which 
 he has filled all his pieces. Most of them, 
 except sacred subjects, are representa- 
 tions of battles, sieges, dances, festive 
 processions. The Miseres et Malheurs dt 
 la Guerre, in 18 pieces, are considered the 
 best. He executed works of this kind for 
 Cosmo II of Florence, Louis XIII of 
 France, and the duke of Lorraine. He 
 was so strongly inclined to the comic, 
 that this disposition appears even in his 
 representations of sacred subjects, for in- 
 stance, in the Temptation of St. Anthony. 
 He not only introduced some burlesque 
 and grotesque figures in his engravings, 
 but executed whole pictures in this style, 
 in which his whole art is displayed. His 
 Fair and his Beggars are called his best 
 pieces. He was the first who used, in his 
 etchings, the hard varnish the vcr.tice 
 grosso dei lignaiuoli of the Italians. He 
 died at Nancy, in 1635. He was distin- 
 guished for piety, magnanimity, and regu- 
 larity of life. (See the biography of C. 
 by Gersaint, or that of Husson, Paris, 
 1766.) 
 
 CALLUS is a preternatural hardi>ess, 
 whether cameous or osseous. The new 
 growth of bony substance between the 
 extremities of fractured bones, by which 
 they are united, is an instance of the 
 latter. External friction or pressure pro- 
 duces die former, as in the hands of 
 laborers, and the feet of persons who wear 
 tight slices. (See Corns.) 
 
 CALMAR, the principal city of Sma-
 
 416 
 
 CALMAR CALMUCS. 
 
 land, in Sweden, on the Baltic sea, is 
 situated opposite to Oland, on the island 
 of Quarnholm, and contains 4500 inhab- 
 itants. It has a small but good harbor, 
 and carries on considerable trade in tim- 
 ber, alum and tar. It has also manufac- 
 tures of woollen cloth, and is the resi- 
 dence of a bishop, and of the governor of 
 the province. The well-fortified castle 
 of C. lies outside of the city, on the strait 
 of Oland. (For the ordinance called the 
 Union of Calmar, see Margaret, queen of 
 Denmark and Norway.) 
 
 CALMET, Augustine, distinguished as an 
 exegetical and historical writer, born in 
 1672, at Mesnil-la-Horgne, in the diocese 
 of Toul, entered, in 1688, into the Bene- 
 dictine order at Toul, and studied chiefly 
 in the abbey of Moyen-Moutier. Here 
 he became, in 1698, teacher of philosophy 
 and theology ; in 1728, abbot of Senones, 
 in Lorraine, and died, in 1757, at Paris. 
 He was a judicious compiler of volumi- 
 nous works, such as Commentaire sur tons 
 les Livres de VJlnc. et de Nouv. Test. (Paris, 
 170716, 23 vols. 4to.), Dictionnaire Hist, 
 et Crit. de la Bible (4 vols.), Histoire Eccl. 
 et Civile de Lorraine (4 vols.) Acuteness 
 and taste are wanting in his writings, and 
 they have been censured both in France 
 and in other countries. 
 
 CALMS, REGION OF. In the Atlantic 
 ocean, between the tropic of Cancer and 
 lat. 29 N., and on the confines of the 
 trade-winds, between 4 and 10 N. lat, 
 calms of long duration prevail ; and hence 
 these tracts are called the calm latitudes, 
 or the regions of calms. In the latter 
 tract, particularly, these perpetual calms 
 are accompanied by a suffocating heat, 
 by thunder-storms and floods of rain, so 
 that it is sometimes called the rainy sea. 
 The only winds that occur are sudden 
 squalls of short duration and little extent 
 In these calms, the provisions are corrupt- 
 ed, the seams open, and the stagnant air 
 breeds disease. When a ship is in this po- 
 sition, if the currents set in towards rocks, 
 and the sea is too deep to cast anchor, 
 her destruction is almost inevitable. In the 
 Mediterranean, where there are no tides, 
 dead calms are more common than hi the 
 open ocean ; but they are often the pres- 
 ages of approaching storms. 
 
 CALMUCS (Oelot, Eleuthes); the most 
 remarkable branch of the Mongol race. 
 They themselves maintain, that their 
 primitive residence was situated between 
 the Koko-Noor (the Blue Lake) and 
 Thibet. Long before the time of Genghis 
 Khan, a part of this people is said to have 
 made an expedition to the west, as fur as 
 
 Asia Minor, and to have lost themselves 
 there among the mountains of Caucasus ; 
 but the rest, who had remained in Great 
 Tartary, received, from their Tartar neigh- 
 bors, the name of Khalimik (the sepa- 
 rated). In fact, they call themselves, to 
 this day, Khalimik, though Oelot, which 
 signifies the same tiling, continues to be 
 their proper appellation. They have been 
 divided, at least since the dismemberment 
 of the Mongol empire, into four principal 
 branches, called Khoschot, Derbet, Soon- 
 gar, and Torgot. The greater portion of 
 the Khoschot Calmucs has remained in 
 and around Thibet and on the Koko- 
 Noor, and is said to have been under the 
 protection of the Chinese since the down- 
 fall of the Soongar Calmucs. The smaller 
 portion of this tribe had, long before, re- 
 tired to the Irtish, and finally fell under 
 the dominion of the Soongar horde, with 
 which it took part in the war against 
 China, and was dispersed with them. 
 The horde of the Khoschots (warriors), 
 which is still united under the Chinese 
 sovereignty, received its name from the 
 courage which it displayed under Genghis, 
 and is rated at 50,000 souls. For this 
 reason, and also because the family of 
 their princes derives its origin immedi- 
 ately from the brother of the great 
 Genghis, the Khoschots maintain the 
 first rank among the Calmuc tribes. A 
 part of them, about 1800 families, settled 
 on the Wolga in 1759, and voluntarily 
 submitted to the Russian sovereignty. At 
 the dismemberment of the Mongol em- 
 pire, the Soongar Calmucs constituted but 
 one tribe with the Derbets, which was 
 afterwards divided between two brothers 
 of their princely family. In the 17th 
 century, and the beginning of the 18th, 
 this horde subjected a great part of the 
 other Calmuc tribes, especially the Khos- 
 chot, Derbet and Khoit, and carried on 
 bloody wars, both with the Mongols and 
 with the Chinese empire, which termi- 
 nated in their entire subjugation and dis- 
 persion. They were regarded as the 
 bravest, richest and most powerful horde. 
 The Derbet Calmucs, whose pasture- 
 grounds were originally situated in the 
 region of the Koko-Noor, departed from 
 thence on account of the Mongol dis- 
 turbances towards the Irtish, and sepa- 
 rated into two parties. One of them be- 
 came united with the Soongars, and was 
 finally destroyed with them. The other 
 settled on the Ural, Don and Wolga, and 
 the majority of them joined the Torgots, 
 but afterwards separated from them. The 
 Torgot (Wolgaic) Calmucs seem to have
 
 CALMUCS CALONNE. 
 
 417 
 
 been fonned into a distinct horde, later 
 than the other Calmuc branches. In the 
 very beginning, they separated from the 
 restless Soongars, and settled on the 
 Wolga ; for which reason, the Russians, 
 to whom they submitted in 1616, called 
 them the JVolgaic Calmucs. But, the 
 oppression of the Russian government 
 having excited dissatisfaction among 
 them, they returned to Soongary in 1770, 
 and put themselves under the Chinese 
 protection. Here, however, strict meas- 
 ures were at first adopted against them. 
 All these different tribes were formerly, 
 or are at present, under the rule of their 
 own khans, who are tributary to the gov- 
 ernment under which the horde lives. 
 There is also a colony of baptized Cal- 
 mucs, to which the Russian government 
 has granted a fertile territory, with the 
 city Stavropol, in the Orenberg district 
 of the government Ufa. This colony has 
 been much augmented of late. In the 
 same district, there is likewise a small 
 colony of Mohammedan Calmucs, formed 
 of proselytes which the Kirghises have 
 made and received among themselves. 
 
 CALOMEL. (See Mercury.) 
 
 CALO>*> T E, Charles Alexander de, born 
 in 1734, at Douai, where his father wad 
 first president of the parliament, studied 
 at Paris, devoted himself to the duties of 
 an advocate at Artois, went as attorney- 
 general (procureur general) to the parlia- 
 ment of Douai, and was, in 1763, ap- 
 pointed maitre des requites, in 1768, 
 intendant of Metz, and afterwards of 
 Lille. This was his situation on the 
 death of Louis &V. The minister Mau- 
 repas, returning from a long exile, had 
 placed successively in the office of min- 
 ister of finance, Turgot and Necker, 
 Fleury and Ormesson. In November, 
 1783, after the death of Maurepas, they 
 were succeeded by C., who found the fi- 
 nances already in disorder. Besides the 
 loans and the arrears accumulated under 
 preceding ministers, 176 millions had been 
 raised in advance. C. concealed his embar- 
 rassment, and assumed an appearance as if 
 all was well. He despised the expedient of 
 retrenchment, paid the instalments which 
 were due, supported the public paper by 
 secret advances of money, hastened the 
 payment of the interest of the public debt, 
 made great improvements in the farming 
 of the royal monopolies and of the public 
 lands, established the credit of the came 
 cfescompte, projected a sinking-fund, and 
 undertook a new coinage of gold money, 
 as if no difficulties existed. At first, he 
 followed the system of loans, which was 
 
 begun before him. According to his esti- 
 mate, the government bad, from 1776 to 
 
 1786, borrowed 1250 millions. The an- 
 nual deficit amounted, however, to 115 
 millions. This, nevertheless, was to be 
 reduced, in 1797, to 55 millions. To this 
 end, the revenues of the state, which 
 might then amount to 475 millions, should 
 have been increased to 590 millions. C.'s 
 first operations were calculated only for 
 the moment ; the national debt rested on 
 no good security. To provide this, the 
 only means was a new system of taxation, 
 and C. proposed it. His two principal 
 instruments were a general land-tax, pay- 
 able in kind, and an increase of the 
 stamp-tax. Since, however, it was fore- 
 seen, that the execution of a plan which 
 called for sacrifices from the two highest 
 ranks of the nation, till this time unheard 
 of, would meet with much opposition 
 from them, and yet a general assembly 
 of the states seemed too dangerous, C. 
 chose a middle course, which seemed to 
 be favorable to the accomplishment of his 
 design. He proposed an assembly of the 
 notables, chosen from the most respectable 
 members of the two first orders, the magis- 
 trates and the heads of the most important 
 municipalities. On the 22d of February, 
 
 1787, the notables held their first session 
 at Versailles. The report of the minister 
 of finance was impatiently expected. He 
 delivered it with all the ability of which 
 he was capable ; but this could not di- 
 minish the ill impression of his explana- 
 tions. The deficit of 115 millions waa 
 greater than had been feared. C. traced 
 the origin of this from the administration 
 of Terray ; asserted that it amounted then 
 to 40 millions ; that, from 1776 to 1783, it 
 had increased about as much more ; and, 
 at last, confessed that he himself had in- 
 creased it about 35 millions from that 
 time till 1786. Lafayette appeared at the 
 head of those numerous complainants 
 who now came forward against C. ; but 
 the king seemed, at first, to support his 
 minister. The keeper of the great seal, 
 C.'s constant adversary, was dismissed. 
 This triumph was, however, of short du- 
 ration. Independently of the friends of 
 Lafayette and Necker, a third party came 
 forward against him that party which 
 brought into the ministry the archbishop 
 of Toulouse, Lomenie-Brienne. The 
 court was alarmed at the delays of the 
 assembly of the notables, and the ferment 
 which if excited. C. was deprived of his 
 office, and banished to Lorraine. Thence 
 he went to England, where be received a 
 flattering invitation from the empress
 
 418 
 
 CALONNE CALORIC. 
 
 Catharine II. He now employed him- 
 self in refuting the charges which were 
 brought against him. In his petition ad- 
 dressed to the king about the end of 1787, 
 he takes a renew of all his ministerial 
 operations, and endeavors to prove that 
 he had always for his object the improve- 
 ment of the finances. The archbishop of 
 Toulouse, his successor, had informed 
 him of the personal displeasure of the 
 king ; the parliaments of Grenoble, Tou- 
 louse, Besauijon, had made him the ob- 
 ject of public animadversion ; the parlia- 
 ment of Paris had come forward formally 
 against him. C. defended himself against 
 all these attacks. He besought the king 
 to declare, that he had constantly acted 
 by his express command or with his con- 
 sent, and offered, in case the king should 
 be silent, to justify himself before the 
 tribunal of peers, before which he had 
 been accused. To all the charges brought 
 against him, his friends opposed this fact, 
 which is certainly true, that he retired 
 from the ministry poor. In a letter of C. 
 to the king, Feb. 9, 1789, containing po- 
 litical reflections, and principally directed 
 against Necker, he manifested the inten- 
 tion of offering himself a candidate for 
 the states-general. He actually made 
 his appearance in the electoral assembly 
 of the nobility of Bailleul, but returned 
 to London without effecting his purpose, 
 where he employed himself in writing on 
 the state of affairs in France. The revo- 
 lution had, in the mean time, begun. C. 
 took part in it with a zeal which seemed 
 to exceed his powers. His negotiations, 
 his journeys to Germany, Italy and Rus- 
 sia, his perseverance, his attachment to 
 their cause, made him invaluable to the 
 party which he served. In order to as- 
 sist his unfortunate party with the pen, 
 he wrote his Tableau de I'Europe en No- 
 vembre, 1795, remarkable on account of 
 its warmth, and its faithful delineation of 
 events. From that time he lived in Lon- 
 don, principally occupied with the fine 
 arts, which he had always cultivated with 
 taste. In 1802, he returned to Paris, 
 where he died in October of the same 
 year. Such was the career of a minister 
 who gave the first impulse to the French 
 revolution. He possessed, in a high de- 
 gree, the qualities requisite to a great states- 
 man an accurate acquaintance with de- 
 tails, together with comprehensive views, 
 and the power of conceiving extensive 
 projects. But, if wisdom which matures 
 the conceptions, if a prophetic glance 
 which foresees all the impediments, if 
 consistency and a spirit of method which 
 
 provides for the success of the execution, 
 are essential to a statesman, then C. can 
 lay no claim to that title. A knowledge 
 of human nature was wanting in hia 
 character. His morals were far from be- 
 ing strict. His works, among which his 
 speeches and memorials to the notables 
 deserve the first place, are valuable con- 
 tributions to the history of financial ad- 
 ministration. 
 
 CALORIC is the name given, in chemis- 
 try, to that agent which produces the 
 phenomena of heat and combustion. It 
 is hypothetically regarded as a subtile flu- 
 id, the particles of which repel one an- 
 other, and are attracted by all other sub- 
 stances. It is imponderable, and, by 
 its distribution, in various proportions, 
 among the particles of matter, gives rise 
 to the three general forms of gas, li- 
 quids and solids. The particles of water, 
 by losing caloric, have their cohesion so 
 much increased, that they assume the 
 solid form of ice ; by adding caloric, they 
 again become fluid ; and by a still further 
 addition, they are converted into vapor. 
 Caloric exists in two different states -free 
 or uncombined, and in a state of combina- 
 tion. In the former condition, it creates 
 the sensation of heat, and produces ex- 
 pansion in other bodies. The power 
 which any body has of exciting the sen- 
 sation of heat, and occasioning expansion, 
 is understood by the expression of its 
 temperature. This is supposed to vary 
 with the quantity of free caloric in a giv- 
 en quantity of matter ; a high tempera- 
 ture being ascribed to the presence of a 
 large quantity of free caloric, and a low 
 temperature to that of a small quantity. 
 We are ignorant, however, of the ex- 
 tremes of temperature, and may compare 
 it to a chain, of which a few of the middle 
 links, only, are exposed to our observa- 
 tion, while its extremities are concealed 
 from our view. The expansion of bodies 
 is one of the most universal effects of an 
 increase of temperature. This increase 
 in bulk, however, is not the same in all 
 bodies. The same increase of tempera- 
 ture causes liquids to expand more than 
 solids, and aeriform bodies much more 
 than either. On this principle are con- 
 structed the various instruments for meas- 
 uring temperature ; since the degree of 
 expansion produced by caloric bears a 
 sufficient proportion to its quantity to af- 
 ford us the means of ascertaining it with 
 tolerable accuracy. Our senses, it is ob- 
 vious, are quite inadequate to afford us 
 this information ; for we compare our 
 sensations of heat, not with any fixed or
 
 CALORIC. 
 
 419 
 
 uniform standard, but with those sensa- 
 tions which we have had immediately 
 previous. Hence, the same portion of 
 water will feel warm to a hand removed 
 from contact with snow, and cold to an- 
 other hand which has been heated before 
 the fire. To convey precise notions of 
 temperature, therefore, we are obliged to 
 describe the degree of expansion pro- 
 duced hi some one body which has been 
 previously agreed upon as a standard of 
 comparison. The standard most gene- 
 rally adopted is quicksilver, which is con- 
 tained in a glass ball, terminating a long, 
 narrow tube. This instrument is called 
 a thermometer. If quicksilver, or, indeed, 
 any other substance except the gases, 
 suffered equal expansion by equal incre- 
 ments of the calorific power, then this 
 instrument would be perfect ; but the 
 same increase of bulk is not effected in 
 the same liquid or solid, at all tempera- 
 tures, by adding similar quantities of 
 heat ; for bodies expand, by equal incre- 
 ments of caloric, more in high than in 
 low temperatures, because the force op- 
 posing expansion is diminished by the 
 interposition of caloric between the par- 
 ticles of bodies ; and, therefore, when 
 equal quantities of caloric are added in 
 succession, the last portions meet with 
 less resistance to their expansive force 
 than the first. In gases, on the contrary, 
 which are destitute of cohesion, equal in- 
 crements of heat appear to be attended 
 with equal augmentations of bulk. The 
 tendency to an equilibrium is a characteris- 
 tic of free caloric. Any number of dif- 
 ferent bodies, unequally heated, when 
 exposed, in an apartment, to the same 
 temperature, gradually arrive to an equal- 
 ity of temperature. It is in obedience to 
 tliis law, that we experience the sensations 
 of heat and cold when we touch bodies 
 which are warmer or colder than our- 
 selves. There exists much diversity in 
 the rapidity with which different sub- 
 stances abstract caloric when in contact 
 with a body in which it is accumulated. 
 Common air and gases abstract it but tar- 
 dily, while wood, stones and metals ac- 
 quire it more rapidly. According to their 
 power of conducting it off under these 
 circumstances, bodies are divided into 
 conductors and non-conductors of caloric ; 
 and, in general, the power of conduction 
 varies with the densities of bodies. But 
 this tendency of caloric to an equilibrium 
 is not established solely by the agency of 
 intermediate bodies or communication. 
 A part of it moves through the atmos- 
 phere, like light, in right lines, and with 
 
 immeasurable velocity, and has, there- 
 fore, been called radiant caloric. The 
 comparative quantities lost by radiation 
 and by conduction may be approximated 
 by observing what time it takes to cool 
 any body through the same number of 
 degrees in air and in vacua. Thus doctor 
 Franklin imagined he had ascertained 
 that a body, which requires five minutes 
 to cool in vacuo, will cool in air, through 
 the same number of degrees, in two min- 
 utes. Count Rumford's experiments, with 
 a Torricellian vacuum, give the propor- 
 tions of five to three. Radiant caloric 
 passes only through transparent media, 
 or free space. When, in its passage, its 
 rays impinge upon the surface of a solid 
 or a liquid substance, they are either re- 
 flected from it, and thus receive a new 
 direction, or they lose their radiant form 
 altogether, and are absorbed. In the lat- 
 ter case, the temperature of the receiving 
 substance is increased ; in the former, it is 
 unchanged. The nature of the surface 
 of a body has been found to influence 
 powerfully both the radiation and absorp- 
 tion of caloric. The energy of calorific 
 emanation from a cubical tin vessel, 
 coated with different substances, and con- 
 taining warm water (as determined by 
 the differential thermometer of Leslie), 
 gave, with a covering of 
 
 Lampblack, 100 
 
 Isinglass, 75 
 
 Tarnished lead, 45 
 
 Polished iron, 15 
 
 Tin-plate, gold, silver or copper, . . 12 
 
 Similar results were obtained simply by 
 noting the rates of cooling in vessels of 
 similar shapes and capacities with various 
 surfaces. Useful lessons have been de- 
 rived from these discoveries. Tea and 
 coffee-pots, which are intended to retain 
 their heat, are made of bright and polish- 
 ed metals ; and steam-pipes, intended to 
 convey heat to distant apartments, are 
 kept bright in their course, but darkened 
 where they reach their destination. The 
 power of different surfaces to absorb ca- 
 loric was found, by coating one of the 
 bulbs of the differential thermometer suc- 
 cessively with different substances, and 
 presenting it to an uniformly heated sub- 
 stance, to follow the same order as the 
 radiating or projecting quality. With re- 
 gard to combined caloric, it has been 
 shown that solids, during liquefaction, 
 imbibe a quantity of caloric, which ceases 
 to be obvious, both to our senses and to 
 the thermometer. The same is also true 
 of solids and liquids in their conversion
 
 CALORIC CALPURNIUS. 
 
 into vapors or gases ; a portion of caloric, 
 which is essential to the elasticity of the 
 new product, ceases to become apparent. 
 Whenever this effect takes place, cold is 
 said to be produced; by which we are 
 only to understand the passage of caloric 
 from a free to a latent form. The reverse 
 of these phenomena lias also been satis- 
 factorily established ; viz. when the densi- 
 ty of bodies is increased, either by chemical 
 or mechanical means, caloric is evolved. 
 For example, a high temperature is pro- 
 duced by mingling cold sulphuric acid 
 and water ; metals become intensely heat- 
 ed by the augmentation of their density 
 through hammering ; liquids, by be- 
 coming solids, or gases by conversion in- 
 to liquids, also evolve caloric. A pound 
 of water, condensed from steam, will ren- 
 der 100 pounds of water at 5CP warmer 
 by 11; whereas, a pound of boiling wa- 
 ter will produce the same rise of temper- 
 ature in no more than about 13.12 pounds ; 
 and, since steam and boiling water affect 
 the thermometer in the same manner, 
 this effect can be produced only from the 
 existence of a much greater quantity of 
 caloric in the former than in the latter. 
 The sources of caloric are six ; viz. the 
 sun's rays, combustion, percussion, fric- 
 tion, the mixture of different substances, 
 and electricity. 
 
 CALORIMETER ; an instrument to meas- 
 ure the capacity of a body for caloric, or its 
 specific caloric. The thermometer (q. v.) 
 measures merely the variations of tem- 
 perature, or sensible heat. The body in 
 the calorimeter is placed in the innermost 
 of three concentric vessels, the two outer 
 ones containing ice ; the quantity of wa- 
 ter produced by the cooling of the body 
 a given number of degrees, determines its 
 specific caloric. This instrument was in- 
 vented by Lavoisier and Laplace. In the 
 C. invented by Rumford, water is used ; 
 the capacity of the body is determined by 
 the number of degrees which the temper- 
 ature of the water is raised, in cooling the 
 body a given number of degrees. 
 
 CALORIMOTOR. (See Galvanic Battery.) 
 CALOTTISTS, or the REGIMENT DE LA 
 CALOTTE ; a society which sprung up at 
 Paris, in the last years of the reign of 
 Louis XIV, and formed a regiment under 
 the name La Calotte, signifying a flat cap 
 of a peculiar shape, which was the symbol 
 of the society. All were admitted whose 
 ridiculous behavior, odd character, foolish 
 opinions, &c., had exposed them to public 
 criticism. They had a singular coat of 
 arms, on which was the sceptre of Momus, 
 with bells, apes, rattles, &c. : on their 
 
 principal standard were the words "Pa- 
 vet Momus, luna influit" Every one who 
 made himself particularly ridiculous re- 
 ceived letters-patent, and those who were 
 most angry were most laughed at. On 
 the death of Torsac, the colonel of the 
 Calottists, the cloge (a spirited satire on 
 the academical style), which the Calottists 
 pronounced on this occasion, was sup- 
 pressed. Aimon, colonel of the guards, 
 hastened to marshal Villars with their 
 complaints, and concluded with the words, 
 " My lord, since the death of Alexander 
 and Caesar, the Calottists have not had any 
 protector besides you," and the order was 
 retracted. They became, however, too 
 bold, attacked the ministers, and even 
 foreign kings ; and the regiment was, in 
 consequence, dissolved. Of a similar 
 character is the dcademy of Fools, which, 
 for many years, has existed in Duisburg. 
 Some act of folly is necessary to procure 
 a man admission as a member. 
 
 CALOYERS ; Greek monks, who chiefly 
 reside on mount Athos, and lead a very 
 solitary and austere life, eating no meat, 
 and observing the fasts of the Greek 
 church very rigidly. They do not even 
 eat bread, unless they have earned it. 
 During their 7 weeks of Lent, they pass 
 the greatest part of the night in weeping 
 and lamentations for their own sins and 
 for those of others. The Turks some- 
 times call their dervishes by this name. 
 
 CALPE. (See Abyla and Gibraltar.) 
 
 CALPREJSEDE, Gauthier de Costes de la, 
 born in Tolgou, in Gascony, died at Paris 
 in 16G3, in the office of royal cham- 
 berlain. He was one of the authors who, 
 in the 17th century, brought into fashion 
 a new kind of voluminous and long-spun 
 romances of chivalry. Events from the 
 Greek and Roman history were treated in 
 the spirit and manner of the old romances 
 of chivalry. C. wrote Cassandra, in 10 
 vols., Cleopatra, in 12 vols., Pharamond, 
 in 7, besides some tragedies. His trage- 
 dies obtained little reputation by the side 
 of those of Corneille, but his romances 
 were highly celebrated, and are, certainly, 
 the best of their kind. He is not desti- 
 tute of poetical imagination, and his char- 
 acters are often dignified and well drawn, 
 though his Artaban has become a pro- 
 verbial name for exaggeration. He wrote 
 with great rapidity. His plots, however, 
 are constructed with care, and his stories, 
 long as they are, are not deficient in keep- 
 ing. His lady has surpassed him in bold- 
 ness of romantic narration in Les JVouvelles 
 de la Priiicesse Mddiane. 
 
 CALPURMUS, Titus Julius, a native of
 
 CALPVRNIUS CALVERT. 
 
 421 
 
 Sicily, lived in the 3(1 century. We have 
 7 idyls written by him, which are not 
 without merit, and approach near to 
 those of Virgil, although they are inferior 
 to them in elegance and purity, as well 
 as to those of Theocritus in simplicity 
 and conformity to nature. The best edi- 
 tion if that of Beck (Leipsic, 1603). 
 
 CALTROP ; a kind of thistle, armed with 
 prickles, which grows in France, Italy and 
 Spain, and is troublesome by running in- 
 to the feet of cattle. Hence, in the mili- 
 tary art, C. is an instrument with 4 iron 
 points, disposed in a triangular form, 3 
 of them being turned to the ground, and 
 the other pointing upwards. They are 
 used to impede the progress of cavalry. 
 
 CALUMET; the Indian pipe of peace. 
 The origin of the word is doubtful. Ileck- 
 ewelder, in his Narrative of the Mission 
 of the United Brethren among the Dela- 
 ware and Mohegan Indians (Phil. 1820), 
 gives several derivations. Mr. Dupon- 
 ceau thinks it may come from the French 
 chalumtau, a reed. Upon all .occasions, 
 when Indian chiefs and warriors meet in 
 peace, or at the close of a war with those 
 of another nation, in their talks and trea- 
 ties with the whites, or even when a sin- 
 gle person of distinction comes among 
 them, the calumet is handed round with 
 ceremonies peculiar to each tribe, and 
 each member of the company draws a few 
 whiffs. To accept the calumet, is to 
 agree to the terms proposed ; to refuse it, 
 is to reject them. Some symbols of ami- 
 ty are found among all nations: the white 
 flag, or flag of truce, of the moderns, and 
 the olive branch of the ancients, are simi- 
 lar in character to the Indian calumet. 
 The calumet is still in use among the In- 
 dians, and was introduced at a late inter- 
 view between president Adams and the 
 chiefs of some Indian tribes. Tobacco 
 is smoked in the calumet, and the leaves 
 of various other kinds of plants. The bowl 
 of this pipe is made of different kinds of 
 marble, and the stem of a reed, or of some 
 light kind of wood, which is easily perfo- 
 rated. This stem is adorned in various 
 ways ; sometimes it is marked with the fig- 
 ures of animals, and hieroglyphical deline- 
 ations, and almost universally has beautiful 
 feathers attached to it, disposed according 
 to the taste of the individual, or of the tribe 
 to which he belongs. The calumet dance is 
 the least hideous of the Indian dances. 
 It is of a peaceful character, and seems to 
 be intended to represent, by a series of 
 movements, the power and utility of the 
 calumet. It is rude and simple, as are all 
 the dances of the Indians. 
 VOL. ii. 36 
 
 CALVADOS ; a dangerous ridge of rocks 
 on the north coast of Normandy, extend- 
 ing (lat. 49 22' N.) to the west of Orne, 
 lor the space of 10 or 12 miles. It is so 
 culled from a Spanish vessel once wrecked 
 on it, and gives its name to the depart- 
 ment, (q. v.) 
 
 CALVADOS. (See Departments.) 
 
 CALVART, Dionysius, a painter, born at 
 Antwerp, in 1555, went, very young, to 
 Italy, as a landscape painter ; where, in 
 order to learn how to draw figures, he 
 entered the school of Fontana and Sabba- 
 tini, in Bologna, with the latter of whom 
 he visited Rome. After having passed 
 some time in copying the paintings of 
 Raphael, he opened a school at Bologna, 
 from which proceeded 137 masters, and 
 among these Albano, Guido and Domeni- 
 chino. The people of Bologna regarded 
 him as one of the restorers of their school, 
 particularly in respect to coloring. C. 
 understood perspective, anatomy and archi- 
 tecture ; but the attitudes of his figures are 
 sometimes mean and exaggerated. He died 
 in 1619, at Bologna, where are his best 
 paintings. Agostin Caracci and Sadeler 
 have engraved some of his works. 
 
 CALVARY (in Heb., Golgotha, the skull, 
 Luke xxiii. 33., or the place of the skull, 
 Matt.xxvii. 33.) ; a mountain situated with- 
 out the walls of Jerusalem, on which Je- 
 sus Christ was crucified. Matthew re- 
 lates, that, at the time when our Savior 
 expired, the earth shook, and the rocks 
 split ; and some modern travellers assert 
 that the fissures in this mountain do not 
 follow the direction of the strata, but are 
 evidently supernatural. Jewish traditions 
 affirmed, that Adam was buried on mount 
 Calvary (credat Judmis), and the early 
 Christians believed that Jesus Christ was 
 crucified here, that the blood shed for the 
 redemption of the world might also pu- 
 rify the remains of the first sinner ! Cal- 
 varies are small chapels, raised on hills 
 in the vicinity of cities, with a crucifix, 
 in allusion to the place and manner of 
 Christ's death. Thus the calvary of 
 mount Valerian, near Paris, is composed 
 of 7 chapels, in each of which some mys- 
 tery of the passion is represented. 
 
 CALVERT, George, the first baron of 
 Baltimore, was descended of a Flemish 
 family settled at Kipling, in Yorkshire, 
 where he was born in 1582. He was 
 educated at Oxford, and, after travelling 
 abroad, entered into the service of Robert 
 Cecil, afterwards earl of Salisbury. He 
 was knighted by James I, and made clerk 
 of the privy council, and, in 1619, was 
 appointed one of the secretaries of state.
 
 CALVERT CALVIN. 
 
 Tliis post he resigned in 1624, in conse- 
 quence of having become a Roman Cath- 
 olic. Notwithstanding this, he retained 
 the confidence of the king, who, in 1025, 
 r; i i st ( 1 ] i in i to the Irish peerage of Baltimore. 
 lie had previously obtained a grant of 
 land in the island of Newfoundland, 
 where he was prevented from making a 
 settlement by the invasions of the French. 
 He therefore resigned his claim, receiving, 
 instead of it, a territory on the Ameri- 
 can continent, now forming the state of 
 ^Maryland. This country was colonized 
 under the patronage of lord Baltimore, 
 who displayed justice and good faith in 
 his dealings with the Indians, and liberal- 
 ity to religious sects in his legislative ar- 
 rangements, highly creditable to his prin- 
 ciples and character. He died in Lon- 
 don, in 1632. He wrote some political 
 tract?, and his speeches in parliament and 
 letters have also been published. 
 
 CALVIN, John (so called from Calvinus, 
 the Latinized form of his family name 
 Chauvin), the second great reformer of 
 the 16th century, was born at Noyon, in 
 Picardy, July 10, 1509. His father/Gerard 
 Chauvin, a cooper, dedicated him early 
 to the church. C. says, in a letter to 
 Claude d'Hangest, abbot of St. Eloi, at 
 Noyon, that he was indebted to the family 
 of this prelate for his first instruction and 
 a liberal education. When hardly 12 
 years old, he received a benefice in the 
 cathedral of his native city. Six years 
 after, he was appointed to a cure, which 
 he soon exchanged for another. Thus, 
 by the means of his benefactors, he en- 
 joyed, even before his 20th year, several 
 benefices, and even the title and income 
 of a cure, while he was yet pursuing his 
 studies in Paris. Here he became ac- 
 quainted with his townsman Peter Robert 
 Olivetan, his senior by some years, from 
 whom he received the first genii of the 
 new doctrine, which was then begin- 
 ning to spread in France. He was in- 
 duced, by this, to renounce the study of 
 theology, and to devote himself to law, at 
 Orleans, and afterward at Bourges. He 
 made rapid progress therein, and, at the 
 same time, studied the Greek language, 
 under Melchior Volmar, a German, who 
 strengthened the inclination for innova- 
 tions already awakened in him by Olive- 
 tan. In 1532, he returned to Paris, and 
 resigned his benefices. In the same year, 
 he published a Latin commentary upon 
 the two books of Seneca, De dementia, 
 in which he called himself by his Latin- 
 ized name, Johannes Calvinus, and was 
 obliged, in 1533, to flee from Paris, be- 
 
 cause his friend Michael Cop, rector of 
 the university, was persecuted on account 
 of a discourse in favor of the new doc- 
 trine, in which he was suspected of hav- 
 ing participated. C. took refuge in the 
 house of Du Tillet, a canon at Angoii- 
 leme, with whom he quietly pursued his 
 studies, and began to collect the matrrials 
 for his Christian Institution, which ap- 
 peared two years afterwards. Thence he 
 went to Nerac, to queen Margaret of Na- 
 varre, the sister of Francis I, who, not so 
 much from a decided inclination for the 
 new doctrine, as from love for science, 
 afforded refuge to several learned men, 
 who were obliged to leave France on ac- 
 count of their opinions. C. was very 
 well received by her, and here became 
 acquainted with several men, who, at a 
 future time, were useful to his party ; re- 
 turned to Paris^ but, in 1534, was again 
 obliged to leave France. He retired to 
 Bale, where he published his Christian 
 Institution, as the confession of faith of 
 those who were persecuted in France, 
 and condemned to the stake ; in which H 
 was his design to free them from the cal- 
 umny, which had been circulated from 
 political motives, that they were rebels 
 and Anabaptists, and had nothing in 
 common with the Lutheran doctrine. It 
 would be difficult briefly to relate how 
 he went farther than Luther in regard to 
 the doctrine of free will, of imputative 
 justice, and the merit of good works ; but 
 it is more easy to display the bold conse- 
 quences which he drew from his doc- 
 trines. He attacked not only the su- 
 premacy of the pope, but even the 
 authority of general councils; he does 
 not recognise the character of a bishop or 
 a priest any more than that of a visible 
 head of the church ; he permits no vow-? 
 but those of baptism, and no sacraments 
 but those of baptism and the Lord's sup- 
 per; even these he does not regard as 
 indispensable to salvation. The mass is 
 to him a profanation, and the honors paid 
 to the saints, idolatry. This work, Insti- 
 tutio Christiana: Religionis, appeared af- 
 terwards in French, and almost every 
 year was published by him with emenda- 
 tions and additions. The most complete 
 edition was published by Robert Ste- 
 phens, in 1559. The prefixed Prcrfaiio 
 ad Christianissimum regent, qua hie ei 
 liber pro confessione Jldei qffertur, could 
 not, however, put an end to the religious 
 persecutions in France ; since Francis I, 
 although far from being actuated by reli- 
 gious fanaticism, was influenced, by polit- 
 ical views, to continue them. C. then
 
 CALVIN. 
 
 423 
 
 went to Italy, to preach his doctrine there, 
 and met with a favorable reception from 
 the duchess Renata of France, the daugh- 
 ter of Louis XII, and wife of Ercole 
 d'Este, who subsequently professed her 
 belief in his doctrines. But he was 
 obliged to save himself by a hasty flight 
 from Aosta, where he was discovered. 
 lie returned to Paris about the middle of 
 the year 1536. Since, however, he could 
 not live there hi security, he resolved to 
 go to Bale, and took the road through 
 Geneva, where, a year before, the new 
 doctrine had been introduced by a formal 
 decree of the government, and Farel was 
 very active in effecting its establishment 
 With him C. united himself, and, soon 
 after, undertook a course of theological 
 instruction, to which he devoted himself 
 exclusively, while he left the pulpit to 
 Farel. They attempted to reibrm the 
 manners of the inhabitants ; but this enter- 
 prise, in which they had connected them- 
 selves with an equally zealous, but less 
 able preacher, drew upon them a crowd 
 of powerful enemies, by whom they were 
 at last overthrown. The cause of this 
 was the following : the Genevan church 
 made use of leavened bread in the eucha- 
 rist, and had removed the baptismal font 
 from the church, and, moreover, abol- 
 ished all holy-days, except the Sabbath. 
 These innovations were not approved by 
 the synod of Lausanne. The magistracy 
 of Geneva required Farel and C. to com- 
 ply with the decision of the synod, and 
 commanded them, on their refusal, to 
 leave the city in three days. This hap- 
 pened in April, 1538. They went to 
 Berne ; and, since the exertions of the 
 magistracy of Berne and of the synod of 
 Zurich could not effect their recall, C. 
 went to Strasburg, where Luther's doc- 
 trine had been introduced by Bucer 10 
 years before. Bucer received him very 
 kindly, and caused him to be appointed 
 professor of theology. At the same time, 
 lie obtained permission to erect a French 
 church, which, on account of the great 
 number of fugitives from France, was 
 very important. Notwithstanding the 
 great esteem in which he was held here, 
 his views were still directed to Geneva ; 
 the inhabitants of which he exhorted, in 
 two letters, to remain true to the new 
 doctrine, when cardinal Sadolet invited 
 them to return into the bosom of the 
 church. Here, also, in 1540, C. published 
 his work on the Lord's supper, in which 
 he sought to refute both the opinion of 
 Luther, who took this sacrament in the 
 Jiieral sense, and that of Zuingliua (q. v.), 
 
 who understood it typically. In a con- 
 ference held at Zurich in 1549, he first 
 declared himself, unconditionally, in favor 
 of the opinion of the latter. At last, in 
 1541, his friends in Geneva succeeded in 
 effecting his recall ; a particular deputa- 
 tion besought the magistracy of Strasburg 
 to restore him to his former flock. But, 
 as C. was appointed a deputy to the diet at 
 Frankfort, and was afterwards obliged to 
 be present at the conference at Ratisbon, 
 he was not able to return to Geneva till 
 September of the same year. He now 
 laid before the council the draft of liis 
 ordinances respecting church-discipline, 
 which were immediately accepted, and 
 published in November. In pursuance 
 of the provisions of these, a consistory 
 was formed, composed half of clergymen, 
 half of laymen, in order to watch " over 
 the support of the pure doctrine," and 
 over morals. This tribunal called every- 
 body, without exception, to account for 
 their slightest words and actions, and re- 
 ferred cases, where ecclesiastical censure 
 was not sufficient, to the council, with an 
 opinion upon them. Thus C. made him- 
 self director of the conduct, as well as of 
 the opinions, of the Genevans. His spirit 
 governed exclusively in the council as in 
 the consistory, and the judges never hes- 
 itated to punish every one who set him- 
 self in opposition to him. Thus a magis- 
 trate was deposed and condemned to two 
 months' imprisonment, "because his life 
 was irregular, and he was connected with 
 the enemies of C." James Gruet was 
 beheaded, " because he had written pro-, 
 fane letters and obscene verses, and en- 
 deavored to overthrow the ordinances of 
 the church." Opinions were judged with 
 equal severity. It is well known, that 
 Michael Servetus, on his passage through 
 Geneva, in 1553, was arrested, and, on C.'s 
 accusation, was burnt alive, because he had 
 attacked the mystery of the Trinity in a 
 book which was neither written nor print- 
 ed at Geneva. Numerous other similar 
 examples might be adduced, to prove the 
 blind and fanatical zeal which he had in- 
 fused into the magistracy of Geneva, for 
 the support of good morals, and of what 
 he esteemed sound doctrine ; and, by this 
 means, he succeeded in putting a check 
 upon innovations, and upon the spirit of 
 inquiry, and in introducing a character 
 of austerity among his adherents. He 
 also proposed alterations in the civil legis- 
 lation of the Genevans, and hi the form 
 of their government, in which some 
 French refugees were useful to him. 
 For the advancement of useful studies,
 
 424 
 
 CALVIN CALVISIUS. 
 
 he erected the academy so happily con- 
 ducted by his friend Theodore Beza. 
 When we consider all that C. did during 
 Lis continuance in Geneva, we can hardly 
 conceive how he could have accomplish- 
 ed so much. He preached almost daily, 
 delivered theological lectures three times 
 a week, attended all deliberations of the 
 consistory, all sittings of the association 
 of ministers, and was the soul of all the 
 councils, lie was consulted, too, upon 
 points of law as well as of theology. 
 Besides this, he found time to attend to 
 political affairs in the name of the repub- 
 lic ; to publish a multitude of writings in 
 defence of his opinions, of which his 
 commentaries on the Bible are the most 
 important ; and to maintain a correspon- 
 dence through all Europe, but principally 
 in France, where he labored incessantly 
 to extend the new doctrine. Besides his 
 printed sermons, the library of Geneva 
 contains 2025 in manuscript, and, like 
 that of Berne, several theological treatises 
 not printed. Although C. differed from 
 Luther in essential points, yet his adhe- 
 rents were not distinguished from the Lu- 
 therans in the edicts of Francis I and 
 Henry II, nor even in the edict of Rouen 
 in 1559. They themselves, indeed, re- 
 garded C. as their head, but without con- 
 sidering themselves as different, on this 
 account, from the adherents of Luther. 
 A formal separation first took place after 
 the colloquium (conference) of Poissy, in 
 1561, where they expressly rejected the 
 10th article of the confession of Augs- 
 burg, besides some others, and took the 
 name of Calvinists. C. died May 27, in 
 the 55th year of his age. He was of a 
 weak constitution, and suffered from fre- 
 quent sickness. In Strasburg, he had 
 married a widow, Idelette de Burie, in 
 1539 : a son, the fruit of their union, died 
 early. In 1549, he lost his wife, after 
 which he never married again. He was 
 temperate and austere, gloomy and in- 
 flexible. He knew nothing of friendship, 
 and had no other passion than to estab- 
 lish the opinions which he believed to be 
 correct. His disinterestedness was rare. 
 He had a yearly stipend of 150 francs, 15 
 measures of corn, and 2 casks of wine : 
 he never received a larger one. The 
 value of the whole property which he 
 left, in books, furniture, money, &c., did 
 not exceed 125 crowns. His character 
 was impetuous, and impatient of contra- 
 diction. "I have," he writes to Biicer, 
 " no harder battles against my sins, which 
 are great and numerous, than those in 
 which I seek to conquer my impatience. 
 
 I have not yet gaineS the mastery over 
 this raging beast." The tone of his con- 
 troversies is always harsh, bitter and con- 
 temptuous. He does not always succeed 
 in concealing the feeling of his own su- 
 periority. As a theologian, C. was equal 
 to any of his contemporaries in profound 
 knowledge, acuteness of mind, and, as he 
 hinisi'll' boasts, in the art of making good 
 a point in question. As an author, he 
 merits great praise. His Latin works are 
 written with much method, dignity and 
 correctness. He was also a great jurist 
 and ail able politician. But all these 
 qualities would not have been sufficient 
 to make him the head of a distinct reli- 
 gious sect, had he not boldly rejected all 
 religious ceremonies. By this means, he 
 gained, on the one side, the highly culti- 
 vated, who were induced to look upon 
 visible forms in religion as something 
 derogatory, and also gave the uneducated 
 an easy means of distinguishing them- 
 selves from the opposite party, without 
 the necessity of examining the grounds 
 of their faith, for which they were neither 
 inclined nor qualified. The chief doc- 
 trines of C.'s system are those which were 
 discussed at the famous synod of Dort, 
 under the following heads : predestina- 
 tion, particular redemption, total depravity, 
 irresistible grace, and the certain perse- 
 verance of the saints. In succeeding con- 
 troversies, these were denominated the/re 
 points. The doctrine of original sin, often 
 set forth as peculiar to C.'s system, is com- 
 mon to those of many Protestant sects. 
 The followers of C., hi Germany, are 
 called the Reformed, but the doctrine of 
 predestination, it may be safely said, is 
 every day losing ground in that country. 
 In France, it is well known, most Prot- 
 estants are Calvinists. Calvinism is the 
 professed belief of the greatest part of the 
 Presbyterians both of Europe and Amer- 
 ica ; the Particular Baptists, in England 
 and India, and the Associated Baptists in 
 America ; the Independents of every class 
 in England and Scotland, and the Con- 
 gregationalists of New England. 
 
 CALVINISM. (See the conclusion of 
 the preceding article ; also Protestants.) 
 
 CALVISIUS, Seth ; a musician and chro- 
 nologer of the IGth century. He was the 
 son of a Thuringian peasant, Jacob Kal- 
 wiz ; was born in 155(3, and, after a lib- 
 eral musical and scientific education, 
 became chanter at the Schulpforta and 
 at the Thomas school at Leipsic. He 
 died in KJ17. His valuable works on the 
 theory of music, written in good Latin, 
 are mentioned in Gerber's Biographical
 
 CALVISIUS CAMBACERES. 
 
 425 
 
 Lexicon of Musicians. He composed, 
 also, many important chronological and 
 other scientific works. Zach calls him 
 an exact and zealous investigator of chro- 
 nology, possessed of as much learning as 
 penetration. 
 
 CALX ; properly lime or chalk (hence 
 calcarious earth) ; but the term is more 
 generally applied to the residuum of a 
 metal or mineral which has been subject- 
 ed to violent heat, burning or calcination 
 (q. v.), solution by acids, or detonation by 
 nitre, and which is or may be reduced to 
 a fine powder. Metallic calces are now 
 called oxydes. (q. v.) They weigh more 
 than the metal from which they are pro- 
 duced, on account of the oxygen which 
 they have absorbed. 
 
 CALYDON ; an ancient city of ^Etolia, 
 celebrated in the stories of king CEneus, 
 the Calydonian boar, and Dejanira and 
 Hercules. OEneus, as the fable runs, had 
 forgotten Diana in a solemn sacrifice of- 
 fered to all the gods ; that goddess, in 
 revenge, sent a terrible boar, which laid 
 waste the fields and gardens. In order to 
 slay this monster, Meleager, the son of 
 (Eneus, solicited the aid of the boldest 
 heroes of Greece Theseus, Jason, Nes- 
 tor, &c. Several of the assailants perish- 
 ed. Meleager finally pierced him in the 
 back with his javelin, and the others 
 speedily despatched him. (See J\ftlca~ 
 ger.) 
 
 CALYPSO ; a daughter of Atlas (some 
 say of Nereus and Doris, or of Oceanus 
 and Thetis). She inhabited the woody 
 island Ogygia, situated deep in the ocean, 
 and lived remote from all intercourse with 
 gods and men. Ulysses having suffered 
 shipwreck on her island, she received him 
 kindly, and promised him immortality if 
 he would consent to many her. But his 
 desire of beholding his country and his 
 wife overcame the charms of the goddess. 
 Seven years he had to remain with her. 
 Mercury finally brought C. the command 
 of Jupiter, that Ulysses should be permit- 
 ted to return to his home. This com- 
 mand she dared not oppose. Ulysses 
 departed, but C., who had borne him two 
 children, Nausinous and Nausithmis, died 
 of grietl This subject has been wrought 
 up in many different way?. 
 
 CAMAIKU, or CAMEO. (See Cameo,) 
 Camaieu is also used for a painting 
 wherein there is only one color, and 
 where the lights and shades are of gold, 
 wrought on a golden or azure ground. 
 When the ground is yellow, the French 
 call it drage, when gray, grissaile. This 
 kind of work is chiefly used to represent 
 30* 
 
 basso-relievos. The Greeks call pieces of 
 
 this SOrt fioro^po^ara. 
 
 CAMALDOLITES, CAMALDULIANS, or CA- 
 MALDUMANS ; hermits and monks of the 
 order established, in 1012, by St. Romu- 
 aid, a Benedictine of Ravenna, in the 
 valley of Camaldoli, near Arezzo, in the 
 Apennines, and confirmed afterwards by 
 pope Alexander III. They were origin- 
 ally hermits, living in separate cells ; but, 
 as their wealth increased, the greater part 
 of them associated in convents. They 
 existed in Italy, France, Germany and 
 Poland. In the 18th century, there were 
 five independent fraternities of them : 
 1. at Camaldoli ; 2. at Cronenberg, near 
 Perugia ; 3. at Turin ; 4. at Grandbois, 
 near Paris ; 5. at Murano, in the Vene- 
 tian territory ; besides 12 monasteries of 
 Camaldulian nuns. White garments and 
 the austere rules of the Benedictines they 
 all had in common. The hermits wore 
 beards, and had still more severe rules in 
 regard to fasting, silence and penances. 
 Their life was devoted to contemplation 
 rather than to usefulness. Joseph II and 
 the French revolution put an end to the 
 order. There is, in the vicinity of Na- 
 ples, a mountain which takes its namn 
 from a convent of the Camaldoli, situated 
 on its toj), from which the traveller en- 
 joys a prospect of remarkable grandeur 
 and beauty. It seemed to us the most 
 charming of all the beautiful views 
 around Naples ; yet the spot is not much 
 visited by travellers. 
 
 CAMARGUE, or CAMARQCE, LA ; a piece 
 of land, insulated by the two principal 
 mouths of the Rhone, sometimes called the 
 Delta of France. It is a cluster of islands 
 extending over nearly 200 square miles. 
 
 CAMBACERES, Jean Jacques Regis ; ex- 
 duke of Parma, prince and archchancellor 
 of the French empire, member of the in- 
 stitute ; bom in 1753, at Montpellier, of an 
 aneient/ami7/e de robe (family of lawyers), 
 His zeal and talents soon obtained him 
 distinction and the office of a counsellor 
 at the cour des comptes at Montpellier. 
 At the beginning of the revolution, he re- 
 ceived several public offices, became, in 
 September, 1792, a member of the con- 
 vention, and labored in the committees, 
 particularly in the committee of legis- 
 lation, Dec. 12, 1792, he was commis- 
 sioned to inquire of Louis XVI whom he 
 desired for his counsel, and it was on his 
 motion that the counsel was allowed to 
 communicate freely with the king. In 
 January, 1793, he declared Louis guilty, 
 but disputed the right of the convention 
 to judge him, and voted for his provisory
 
 426 
 
 CAMBACERES CAMBRIDGE. 
 
 arrest, and, in case of a hostile invasion, 
 death. The 24th of January, he was 
 chosen secretary of the convention. As 
 a member of the committee of public 
 safety, he reported, in the session of 
 March 2ti, the treason of Dournouriez. 
 In August and October, 1793, he present- 
 ed his h'rst plan for a civil code, in which 
 his (iemocratical notions were displayed. 
 In an intercepted letter of Antraigue, 
 these words were found : " I do not won- 
 der at all that C. is among those who 
 wish for the return of royalty. I know 
 him," &c. C. confuted the charge, and 
 the convention ordered his speech to be 
 printed ; but his character as a republican 
 had been shaken, and he was not receiv- 
 ed into the directory for which lie was 
 nominated. He entered into the council 
 of the rive hundred, where he presented 
 a new plan for a code civile. This Projet 
 df. Code, civile, 1796, became, subsequently, 
 the foundation of the Code JVapoleon. 
 May 20, 1797, he left his seat in the 
 council. A year afterwards, he appeared 
 among the electors of Paris; and, after 
 the revolution of the 30th Prairial, VII 
 (19th of June, 1799), he was made minis- 
 ter of justice. On the 18th of Brurnaire, 
 he was chosen second consul, and enter- 
 ed on the office in December. He made 
 the administration of justice the chief ob- 
 ject of his attention. After Napoleon had 
 ascended the throne, C. was appointed 
 archehancellor of the empire, and after- 
 ward, grand officer of the legion of honor, 
 obtained, successively, almost all the dis- 
 tinguished foreign orders, and, in 1808, 
 was made duke of Parma. He always 
 showed a remarkable attachment to Na- 
 poleon. The numerous edicts which 
 ajupeared during his government were 
 drawn up by C. During the campaign 
 of Xapoleon against the allied powers in 
 1813, C. was made president of the coun- 
 cil of regency. At the approach of the 
 allies in 1814, he followed the government 
 to Blois, and, from that place, sent his 
 consent to the abdication of the emperor. 
 When Napoleon returned, in 1815, C. was 
 again made archehancellor and minister 
 of justice, and, subsequently, president of 
 the chamber of peers. After the second 
 foil of Napoleon, he was banished. He 
 went to Brussels. In December, 1818, 
 the king permitted him to return to Paris, 
 where he lived afterwards as a private in- 
 dividual, and died March 8, 1824. 
 
 CAMBODIA, or GAMBOGE, or CAMBOJA, 
 or CAMBOYA ; a country in Asia, between 
 10 and 15 N. lat., bounded N. by Laos, 
 E. by Cochin-China and Chiampa, S. by 
 
 the sea, and W. by Siam ; about 400 miles 
 in length and 150 in breadth. Population 
 vaguely estimated at 1,000,000. The air 
 is exceedingly hot, which compels the in- 
 habitants to reside chiefly by the sides of 
 rivers or lakes, where they are tormented 
 by mosquitoes. The soil is very fertile. 
 Gold of great purity, amethysts, hyacinths, 
 rubies, topazes and other precious stones 
 are found. Cattle are exceedingly nu- 
 merous. Elephants, lions, tigers, and al- 
 most all the animals of the deserts of Af- 
 rica, are found here. The capital is also 
 called Cambodia, or Leveck. Lon. 104 
 35f E. ; lat. 13 N. 
 
 CAMBODIA, or DONNAI ; a river in Asia, 
 called, also, in different parts of its course, 
 Kiou-Long; May-Kanng, .Vecon or Jlicon, 
 which rises in Thibet, passes through 
 Yunnan, a province of China, the coun- 
 tries of Laos and Cambodia, and runs into 
 the Chinese sea ; Ion. 104 W E. ; lat. 10 
 N. It is navigable for the largest vessels 
 40 leagues, and is generally two miles 
 wide, and very deep. (See Mecon.) 
 
 CAMBRAT, or CAMERICH, a large and 
 strongly fortified city (having 3000 houses 
 and 15,600 inhabitants), lies on the Scheldt, 
 in the French Netherlands, department 
 of the North, and contains a number of 
 manufactories. From this place comes 
 the linen cloth known by the name of 
 cambric. C. has been the seat of an arch- 
 bishop since the 16th century. In the 
 cathedral church is Fenelon's monument. 
 Inl508, the league (q.v.) against Venice was 
 concluded at C. ; in 1529, the peace with 
 Charles V (see Francis 1) ; and, in 1724, 
 negotiations for peace were begun here 
 by the emperor Charles VI and Philip V, 
 which were terminated at Vienna, in 1725. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE ; a post-town in Middlesex 
 county, Massachusetts, on the north side 
 of Charles river, three miles \V. X. \V. of 
 Boston. Population, in 1820, 3295. C. 
 consists of three principal parts or di- 
 visions, namely, Old Cambridge, which 
 contains the university, a state arsenal, a 
 Congregational meeting-house, an Episco- 
 pal church, &c. ; Cambridge-Port, which 
 is a considerable trading village, contain- 
 ing four houses of public worship, and is 
 connected with Boston by West Boston 
 bridge; East Cambridge, a flourishing 
 manufacturing village, which is situated 
 on Lechmere point, is connected with 
 Boston by Craigie's or Canal bridge, and 
 contains a court-house, a jail, a large glass 
 manufactory, and three houses of public 
 worship. The university in C., the oldest 
 in the U. States, was incorporated in 1638, 
 and named Harvard college, from its prin-
 
 CAMBRIDGE. 
 
 427 
 
 cipal founder. Its endowments have been 
 since greatly increased by donations from 
 the state, as well as by numerous acts of 
 private bounty ; and, with regard to funds, 
 library, professorships, and literary ad- 
 vantages in general, it is the first institu- 
 tion of the kind in America. It compris- 
 es a department for under-graduates, and 
 one for students preparing for each of the 
 learned professions, theology, law and 
 medicine. The principal college build- 
 ings are, University hall, an elegant edifice 
 of granite, containing a chapel, lecture 
 rooms, dining halls, &c. ; Harvard hall, a 
 brick edifice, containing the library, phi- 
 losophical apparatus and mineralogical 
 cabinet; four other brick edifices, called 
 Massachusetts, Hollis, Stoughton and Hoi- 
 worthy halls, each four stories high, con- 
 taining rooms for the accommodation of 
 under-graduates ; Divinity hall, a large 
 brick edifice for the accommodation of 
 the theological students ; and Holdeu 
 chapel, containing the anatomical muse- 
 Tim, chemical laboratory and lecture rooms. 
 The library is the largest in the union, 
 and contains about 30,000 volumes. The 
 philosophical apparatus is probably not 
 surpassed by any in the country. The 
 chemical laboratory, anatomical museum, 
 and cabinet of minerals, are all valuable. 
 The botanic garden comprises seven acres, 
 laid out in an ornamental style, and is 
 furnished with an interesting collection of 
 trees, shrubs and plants, both native and 
 foreign. The legislative government is 
 intrusted to a corporation, consisting of 
 the president of the university and six 
 fellows, and to a board of overseers, com- 
 posed of the president, the governor of 
 the state, lieutenant-governor, members 
 of the council and senate, and the speak- 
 er of the house of representatives, ex ojjl- 
 ciis, together with 30 others, 15 clergy- 
 men and 15 laymen, elected for the pur- 
 pose. The officers of the university, to 
 whom the business of instruction is con- 
 fided, are a president, 21 professors, 2 tu- 
 tors, and several instruders. The presi- 
 dent, a part of the professors and the tu- 
 tors constitute the immediate government 
 of the institution. The course of educa- 
 tion requisite to obtain the first degree in 
 arts in this university, as in American 
 colleges generally, is completed in four 
 years. In the theological school, the 
 course of education is completed in three 
 years, and the students are divided into 
 three classes, junior, middle and senior. 
 Tuition is afforded free of expense to all 
 pupils in this school, and further assist- 
 ance is given to such as are indigent. 
 
 Graduates of any college, of good moral 
 character, may be admitted to share in all 
 the benefits of this institution. The law 
 school was established in 1817. Can- 
 didates for admission must be graduates 
 of some college, or qualified, according to 
 the rules of court, to become students at 
 law. Students in this department, who 
 are graduates of a college, complete their 
 education in three years. Those who are 
 not graduates complete it in five years. 
 The lectures for the medical students arc 
 delivered in Boston, at the Massachusetts 
 medical college, which is a spacious edi-.- 
 fice of brick, and contains a medical li- 
 brary of about 4000 volumes. They com- 
 mence annually on the third Wednesday 
 in November, and continue three months. 
 In order to obtain a degree of M. D., it is 
 necessary for a student to attend two 
 courses of lectures, and to pass three 
 years, including the time occupied in at- 
 tending the lectures, under the direction 
 of some regular practitioner. In 1829, 
 the number of under-graduates was 252, 
 theological students 42, law students 24, 
 medical students 83 ; total, 401. Com- 
 mencement is on the last Wednesday in 
 August. The academical year is divided 
 into three terms and three vacations. The 
 first vacation is of two weeks, from the 
 Wednesday preceding the 25th day of 
 December, the second of two weeks, from 
 the first Wednesday in April, and the 
 third, the six weeks next preceding com- 
 mencement. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE ; a town of England, situ- 
 ated on the river Cam, 51 miles north of 
 London. It is an ancient place, and 
 was a Roman station (Granta). It has a 
 population of 14,142 inhabitants, and re- 
 turns two members to parliament. This 
 town is celebrated for its university, 
 M'hic.h, according to some writers, was 
 founded as early as (!30 ; but the earliest 
 authentic document relative to it bears 
 date 1229. The university consists of 17 
 colleges, 4 of which are called halls, the 
 schools, the public library, and the senate- 
 house. The following list contains the 
 name of each of these institutions, and 
 the time when it was founded. 
 
 1. Peter house 1257 
 
 2. Clare hall 1326 
 
 3. Pembroke hall 13-W 
 
 4. Gonville and Cains college . . . 1.543 
 
 5. Corpus Christi 1-M 
 
 G. Trinity hnll 1350 
 
 7. King's college 1-J41 
 
 8. Queen's college 1-1-13 
 
 D. Catharine hall M75 
 
 10. Jf-us college MlXi 
 
 11. Christ college 1305 
 
 12. it. John's college 1511
 
 428 
 
 CAMBRIDGE. 
 
 13. Magdalen college 1519 
 
 14. Trinity college 1646 
 
 15. Emanue! college 1584 
 
 1(5. Sidney Sussex college 1593 
 
 17. Downing college 1800 
 
 (See Colleges,) Previous to the erection 
 of colleges, the students resided in hostels 
 or inns, which were provided by the 
 townsmen for their reception, of which 
 there were 34. The charges of educa- 
 tion and maintenance were paid by the 
 students themselves. The university is 
 composed of a chancellor, vice-chancel- 
 lor, the masters or heads, fellows of col- 
 leges, and students, amounting in all (in 
 1823) to 4277 members, and is incorpor- 
 ated as a society for the study of all the 
 liberal aits and sciences. Although each 
 college or hall is a body of itself, and 
 bound by its own statutes, it is controlled 
 by the paramount law of the university 
 (chiefly contained in the statutes given by 
 Elizabeth), each furnishing members for 
 the government of the whole. The gov- 
 ernment is administered by a chancellor, 
 who is a nobleman, a high steward, cho- 
 sen by the senate, a vice-chancellor, who 
 is usually the head of some college or 
 hall, two proctors, who attend to the dis- 
 cipline of the under-masters of arts, read 
 the graces, &c. ; taxors, moderators, scru- 
 tators, a commissary, a public orator ; the 
 caput, consisting of the vice-chancellor 
 and several doctors, which determines 
 what graces shall be brought before the 
 university. There are also 23 professors 
 in the various departments of literature 
 and science. The senate is composed of 
 all the doctors and masters, and is divided 
 into two houses, the regent-house and 
 the senate-house. The two members of 
 parliament, returned by the university, 
 are chosen by the whole body collective- 
 ly. The election of officers, the admis- 
 sion to degrees, &c., take place in the 
 senate-house. The fellows, scholar?!, and 
 certain inferior officers, are maintained on 
 the foundation. Besides which there are 
 other orders of students : the greater pen- 
 sioners are the young nobility and gentle- 
 men of fortune, who dine with the fellows, 
 and are therefore called fellow-commoners ; 
 the less pensioners dine with the schol- 
 ars ; the sizars are scholars who receive 
 benefactions, called exhibitions. Three 
 years' study at the university are necessa- 
 ry for taking the degree of bachelor of 
 art (q. v.), and four veal's more for that 
 of master. In divinity, a student may com- 
 mence bachelor seven years after receiving 
 the degree of bachelor of arts ; in law, 
 six years after ; and, in physic, five years 
 
 after. The tune for conferring these de- 
 grees is called the commencement. The 
 nobility are entitled to degrees without 
 waiting the statutable time. The whole 
 number of students in 1823 was 1800. 
 (See Universities.) The public library 
 occupies the four sides of a quadrangle 
 over the schools, and contains 140,000 
 vols. (See libraries.) The Fitzwilliam 
 museum comprehends the collection of 
 books, paintings, drawings, engravings, 
 left by the viscount Fitzwilliam in 1815. 
 The observatory is placed under the Plu- 
 mian professor of astronomy and two as- 
 sistant observers. (See Fuller's History 
 of Cambridge University ; Dyer's History, 
 London, 1814, 2 vols., ovo., and the Uni- 
 versity Calendar.) 
 
 CAMBRIDGE (Adolphus Frederic of 
 England), duke of, earl of Tipperary, 
 baron of Culloden, governor-general of 
 Hanover, chancellor of the university of 
 St. Andrews, and field-marshal, was born 
 Feb. 24, 1774. He entered the military 
 service as an ensign when 16 years old, 
 and soon afterwards went to the university 
 of Gottingen. After he had passed one 
 winter at the court of Frederic William 
 II, he returned to London ; was present, 
 in 1793, in the campaign in the Nether- 
 lands, and was taken prisoner in the bat- 
 tle at Hondtschoote (8th of September, 
 1793), but immediately released. In 1794, 
 having attained his majority, he was ap- 
 pointed colonel, and duke of C., and was 
 called into the house of lords. Here he 
 enlisted on the side of the opposition, un- 
 der Fox, and adhered to this party until 
 it was almost dissolved. He now joined 
 the other party, opposed to Pitt that of 
 Grenville. Iii 1803, he was sent without 
 an army to the defence of Hanover. But 
 he soon transferred the chief command 
 to Wallmoden, and returned to EnsrHBR. 
 Being always violent against Napoleon, 
 he fluctuated between the parties ot' lord 
 Sidmouth, Grenville, and the opposition ; 
 and, after the re-acquisition of Hanover, 
 was raised to the office of governor-jren. 
 eral of this kingdom (Oct. 24, 1816). The 
 city of Hanover was much benefited by his 
 residence, and by the protection and pat- 
 ronage which he bestowed on many aits, 
 particularly the dramatic. He was mar- 
 ried, May 7, 1818, to Augusta, the daugh- 
 ter of the landgrave Frederic of Hesse- 
 Cassel, who, in March, 1819, bore him a 
 son, and, in 1822, a daughter. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE MANUSCRIPT, or BEZ.VS 
 MANUSCRIPT : a copy of the Gospels and 
 Acts of the Apostles in Greek and Latin, 
 Beza found it in the monastery of Irense*
 
 CAMBRIDGE CAMDEN. 
 
 429 
 
 us at Lyons, in 1562, and gave it to the 
 university of Cambridge in 1582. It is a 
 quarto, and written on vellum. 66 leaves 
 of it are much torn and mutilated, and 10 
 of these are supplied by a later transcriber. 
 The age of this MS. is differently estimat- 
 ed by different writers, but all agree that 
 it is of great antiquity. The most compe- 
 tent judges consider it one of the most 
 ancient. In the Greek, it is defective from 
 the beginning to Matthew i. 20 ; in the 
 Latin, to Matthew i. 12 ; besides which 
 it has some other chasms. Wetstein, 
 Griesbach, Michaelis, and several others, 
 have written upon this MS. 
 
 CAMBRONNE, Pierre Jacques Etienne, 
 baron, general, commander of the legion 
 of honor, and field-marshal, born Dec. 26, 
 3 770, at St. Sebastien, near Nantes, was 
 descended from an opulent family, and 
 enjoyed a good education. Under the 
 republic, and under Napoleon, he served 
 in every campaign, and became so cele- 
 brated, on account of his personal bravery, 
 that the soldiers wished to give him the 
 title of first grenadier of /Vance, after the 
 death of Latour d'Auvergne. but he de- 
 clined the honor. He was made com- 
 mander of die chasseurs of the imperial 
 guard, and was at Fontainebleau when 
 Napoleon abdicated. He went with him 
 to the island of Elba as chief of the divi- 
 sion of the old guard, which accompanied 
 him into his exile. C. commanded the 
 little corps with which Napoleon landed, 
 March 1, 1815, in the gulf of St. Juan, 
 and signed the address to the French ar- 
 my, summoning them to return to Napo- 
 leon's standard. On the field of battle at 
 Waterloo, he was taken prisoner by the 
 British, among those who were severely 
 wounded. His celebrated answer to the 
 British, proposal of capitulation is well 
 known " La garde meurt, die, ne se rend 
 pas.'" He was one of the 19 generals of 
 Napoleon who, by the royal decree of Ju- 
 ly 24, 1815, were to be tried by a court- 
 martial. He returned from his captivity 
 a.s a prisoner of war, and appeared in per- 
 son before this tribunal. As lie had taken 
 no oath of fidelity to the Bourbons, he 
 was acquitted. The sentence was revis- 
 ed, and the acquittal confirmed. 
 
 CAMBYSES, 1. the son of Cyrus the 
 Great and of Cassandana, became, after 
 the death of his father, king of the Per- 
 sians and Medes, A. C. 530. Soon after 
 his accession to the throne, he made an 
 attack upon Egypt, killed the king of this 
 country, Psammenitus, plundered the 
 chief city, Memphis, and conquered the 
 whole kingdom within six months. He 
 
 now wished to send a fleet against Car-*; 
 thage, to conquer Ethiopia, and to obtain 
 possession of the temple of Jupiter Am- 
 inoii. The first of these expeditions, 
 however, did not take place, because the 
 fleet, which was manned with Phoenicians, 
 refused obedience to him. The army 
 which was sent against the Ammonites 
 perished in the desert ; and the troops, at 
 whose head he himself had set out against 
 the Ethiopians, were compelled by hunger 
 to retreat. From this time, he gave him- 
 self up to the greatest cruelties. On his 
 entrance into Memphis, seeing the Egyp- 
 tians engaged in the celebration of a feast 
 in honor of their god Apis, whom they 
 had found, he believed that they were re- 
 joicing at his misfortunes. He caused 
 the holy bull to be brought before him, 
 slew him with his own sword, and caused 
 the priest to be scourged with rods. To 
 drown his vexation, he indulged himself 
 in the most immoderate enjoyment of 
 wine. No relation was held sacred by 
 him when intoxicated. He caused his 
 brother Smerdis, a dream concerning 
 whom had disturbed him, to be murder- 
 ed. His sister and wife Atossa, who la- 
 mented the death of Smerdis, he killed 
 with a blow of his foot. These and other 
 actions of the most insane rage had irri- 
 tated his subjects. A Magian availed him- 
 self of this discontent, and obtained pos- 
 session of the throne under the name of 
 Smerdis, whose death had been conceal- 
 ed. C. had resolved to go to Susa, in or- 
 der to punish him, when, as he was 
 mounting his horse, he was wounded in 
 the hip by his sword. He died of this 
 wound soon after, in 522, at Ecbatana, in 
 Assyria, without leaving any children. 
 2. A Persian of low descent, the grand- 
 father of the former, to whom king Asty- 
 ages gave his daughter Mundane in mar- 
 riage, in order to prevent the fulfilment 
 of a dream, according to which he was to. 
 lose his crown by means of his daughter's 
 son, while he flattered himself with the 
 hope, that his grandson would constantly 
 hold in remembrance the benefit confer- 
 red on his father. He did not, however, 
 escape his fate, for Cyrus, the son of Man- 
 dane, dethroned him. 
 
 CAMDEX ; a post-town, and capital of 
 Kershaw district, South Carolina, on the 
 E. side of the Wateree, 35 miles N. E. 
 Columbia, 130 N. N. W. Charleston ; Ion. 
 80 33' W. ; lat. 34 17' N. ; population, 
 about 1000. It is a pleasant town, regu- 
 larly laid out, and contains a court-house, 
 a jail, an academy, and four places of pub- 
 lic worship. The surrounding country is
 
 430 
 
 CAMDEN CAMEL. 
 
 fertile and pleasant. The Wateree is 
 navigable to this place for boats of 70 
 tons. Two battles were fought here dur- 
 ing the revolutionary war ; one, Aug. 16, 
 1780, between general Gates and lord 
 Cornwallis, in which the Americans were 
 defeated ; the other, April 25, 1781, be- 
 tween general Greene and lord Kawdon. 
 The Americans had 120 men killed, and 
 100 taken prisoners. The British had 
 about 100 killed. 
 
 CAMEL (came/us, L.) ; a genus of 
 niammiferous quadrupeds, of the rumi- 
 nant order, characterized by their size; 
 the possession of incisive, canine and mo- 
 lar teeth ; the upper lip divided ; the neck 
 long and arched ; by the absence of horns, 
 and by having one or two humps or protu- 
 berances \ipon the back, and naked callos- 
 ities at the joints of the leg, the inferior 
 part of the breast, &c. The inferior ex- 
 tremities terminate in two toes, which are 
 not wholly covered by hoof, as they have 
 only a small one at the extremity, and a 
 sort of very hard, callous sole, common 
 to both. There are six incisive and two 
 canine teeth in the lower jaw ; and, in the 
 upper, there are two incisors in the inter- 
 maxillary bone, with one or two canine 
 teeth on each side, which increase to a 
 considerable size with the increasing age 
 of the animal. The camel is the only ru- 
 minant animal which has cutting teeth in 
 the upper jaw. The native country of this 
 genus is said to extend from Mauritania to 
 China, within a zone of 900 or 1000 miles 
 in breadth. The common camel, having 
 two humps, is only found in the northern 
 part of this region, and exclusively from 
 the ancient Bactria, now Turkestan, to 
 China. The dromedary, or single-hump 
 camel, is found throughout the entire 
 length of this zone, on its southern side, 
 as far as Africa and India. Notwithstand- 
 ing this, the dromedary cannot sustain 
 either the burning heat of the torrid, or 
 the mild climate of the temperate zone, 
 while the camel supports all the vicissi- 
 tudes of climate with but little injury. It 
 is highly probable that the camel has long 
 ceased to exist in its wild or natural state, 
 as it has been enslaved by man from the 
 earliest times of which we have record. 
 Among the stock composing the wealth 
 of the patriarch Job, we find 600 camels 
 enumerated. Unlike the elephant, and 
 other animals which cease to breed in a 
 state of captivity, the camel is as prolific 
 as if at liberty ; and vast numbers are rais- 
 ed and employed throughout the Oriental 
 countries, especially in the commerce car- 
 ried on between the people residing in the 
 
 vicinity of the great deserts. To these 
 people the camel serves in the place of 
 ships, and other modes of conveyance, 
 being especially adapted by nature for the 
 .service in which it is employed. In re- 
 gions where water is exceedingly scarce, 
 and wells or springs are several days' 
 journey distant from each other, it would 
 be impossible to traverse the country with 
 the usual beasts of burthen. But the 
 camel can abstain from drinking for seven 
 or eight days together without injury on 
 important advantage, which is owing to 
 the possession of a fifth pouch, or appen- 
 dix to the stomach, destined to receive 
 water, whenever it can be procured, and 
 capable of retaining it unchanged for a 
 long time. From this receptacle a por- 
 tion of water can be thrown into the other 
 stomachs or gullet when necessary, and 
 thus avert the evils of thirst. Possessing 
 strength and activity surpassing that of 
 most beasts of burthen, docile, patient of 
 hunger and thirst, and contented with 
 small quantities of the coarsest provender, 
 the camel is one of the most valuable 
 gifts of Providence. There is nothing, 
 however, in the external appearance of 
 the animal to indicate the existence of any 
 of its excellent qualities. In form and 
 proportions, it is very opposite to our usual 
 ideas of perfection and beauty. A stout 
 body, having the back disfigured with one 
 or two humps; limbs long, slender, and 
 seemingly too weak to support the trunk ; 
 a long, slim, crooked neck, surmounted 
 by a heavily-proportioned head, are all 
 ill-suited to produce favorable impres- 
 sions. Nevertheless, there is no creature 
 more excellently adapted to its situation, 
 nor is there one in which more of creative 
 wisdom is displayed in the peculiarities of 
 its organization. To the Arabs, and other 
 wanderers of the desert, the camel is at 
 once wealth, subsistence and protection. 
 Then- strength and fleetness render their 
 masters the terror of enemies, and secure 
 them from pursuit a few hours being 
 sufficient to place leagues of trackless 
 desert between them and their foes. The 
 milk of the females furnishes the Arab 
 with a large part of his nutriment. The 
 flesh of the young animal is one of his 
 greatest luxuries: of the skins, he forms 
 tents : the various sorts of hair, or wool, 
 shed by the camel, are wrought into dif- 
 ferent fabrics; and its dried dung consti- 
 tutes excellent fuel, the only kind, indeed, 
 to be obtained throughout vast extents of 
 country. In order to qualify camels for 
 great exertions, and the endurance of 
 fatigue, the Arabs begin to educate them
 
 CAMEL. 
 
 431 
 
 at an early age. They are first tauglit to 
 bear burdens, by Laving their limbs secur- 
 ed under the belly, and then a weight 
 proportioned to their strength is put on : 
 this i,s not changed for a heavier load till 
 the animal is thought to have gained suffi- 
 cient power to sustain it. Food and drink 
 are not allowed at will, but given in small 
 quantity, at long intervals. They are then 
 gradually accustomed to long journeys, 
 and an accelerated pace, until their qual- 
 ities of fleetness and strength are fully 
 brought into action. They are taught to 
 kneel, for the purpose of receiving or re- 
 moving their load. When too heavily 
 laden, they refuse to rise ; and, by loud 
 cries, complain of the injustice. Small 
 camels carry from 600 to 800 Ibs. ; the 
 largest and strongest bear 1000 or 1200 Ibs., 
 from 30 to 35 miles a day. Those which 
 are used for speed alone are capable of 
 travelling from GO to 90 miles a day. In- 
 stead of employing blows or ill treatment 
 to increase their speed, the camel-drivers 
 sing cheerful songs, and thus urge the 
 animals to their best efforts. When a 
 caravan of camels arrives at a resting or 
 baiting-place, they kneel, and, the cords 
 sustaining the load being untied, the bales 
 slip down on each side. They generally 
 sleep on their tellies, crouching between 
 the bales they have earned: the load is, 
 therefore, replaced with great facility. 
 lu an abundant pasture, they generally 
 browse as much in an hour as serves 
 them for ruminating all night, and for 
 their support during the next day. But 
 it is uncommon to find such pasturage, 
 and they are contented with the coarsest 
 fare : nettles, thistles, wormwood, and va- 
 rious harsh vegetables are eaten by them 
 with avidity, and are even preferred to 
 more delicate plants. Camels, designed 
 exclusively for labor, are usually gelded, 
 and females are also treated in a similar 
 manner. They are, it is true, not so strong, 
 nor so spirited, as unmutilated animals, 
 but are much more manageable. During 
 their sexual season, the males become 
 furious and ungovernable : they refuse 
 food, are spiteful, biting and kicking even 
 their keepers, to whom they are, at other 
 times, very obedient. At this time, also, 
 a fcetid secretion is effused from a glandu- 
 lar apparatus on the neck; the "animal 
 foams at the mouth, and a red, membran- 
 ous vesicle, similar to a bladder, is extend- 
 ed on each side of the mouth. One male 
 is reserved perfect for every eight females. 
 The female receives the male in the same 
 crouching attitude, in which she places 
 herself to receive a load, or for the pur- 
 
 pose of sleeping. She goes with young 
 12 months, and brings forth one at a birth. 
 Her milk is very thick, abundant and rich, 
 but of rather a strong taste. Mingled with 
 water, it forms a very nutritive article of 
 diet. Breeding and milk-giving camels 
 are exempted from service, and fed as 
 well as possible, the value of their milk 
 being greater than that of their labor. The 
 young camel usually sucks for 12 months ; 
 but such as are intended for speed are 
 allowed to suck, and exempted from re- 
 straint, for two or three years. The camel 
 attains the full exercise of its functions 
 within 4 or 5, and the duration of its life 
 is from 40 to 50 years. The humps or 
 bunches on the back of the camel are 
 mere accumulations of cellular substance 
 and fat, covered by skin, and a longer 
 hair than that of the general surface. 
 During long journeys, in which the ani- 
 mals suffer severely from want of food, 
 and become greatly emaciated, these pro- 
 tuberances are gradually absorbed, and 
 no trace of them left, except that the skin 
 is loose and flabby where they were situ- 
 ated. In preparing for a journey, it is 
 necessary to guard the humps from pres- 
 sure or friction by appropriate saddles, as 
 the slightest ulccration of these parts is 
 followed by the worst consequences : in- 
 sects deposit their larves in the sores, and 
 sometimes extensive and destructive mor- 
 tification ensues. The Bactrian or com- 
 mon camel is larger than the dromedary ; 
 the limbs are not so long in proportion to 
 the body ; the muzzle is larger and more 
 tumid ; the hair of a darker brown, and 
 the usual gait slower. A still more strik- 
 ing distinction is afforded by the two 
 humps the dromedary having but one. 
 This single hump of the latter occupies 
 the middle of the back, rising gradually 
 on all sides towards its apex, and never 
 inclining to one side. Both species are 
 occasionally found in collections of ani- 
 mals. The dromedary is more frequently 
 seen than the camel. During that season 
 of the year when these gentle creatures 
 become violent, the Turks take advantage 
 of this change in their disposition to set 
 on foot camel-fights disgraceful exhibi- 
 tions, indicative of the same spirit as the 
 lion-fights of Rome, the bull-fights of 
 Spain, the bull and badger-baitings and 
 cock-fights of England. These fights are 
 common at Smyrna and Aleppo. The 
 camels of Smyrna are led out to a large 
 plain, filled with eager crowds. The ani- 
 mals are muzzled, to prevent their doing 
 each other serious injury, for their bite is 
 tremendous, always bringing the piece
 
 432 
 
 CAMEL CAMELOPARD. 
 
 out. A couple, being let loose, run at 
 each other with extreme fury. Their 
 mode of combat is curious : they knock 
 their heads together laterally, twist their 
 long necks, wrestle with their fore-legs, 
 almost like bipeds, and seem to be princi- 
 pally bent on throwing down their adver- 
 sary. 
 
 CAMEL, in mechanics ; a machine used 
 in Holland and St. Petersburg for lifting 
 ships over shallow bars. De Witt invented 
 these machines, and Peter the Great in- 
 troduced them into Russia. A camel is 
 composed of two separate parts, the in- 
 sides of which are shaped so as to em- 
 brace the hull of a ship on botli^ sides. 
 Each part has a cabin, with many pu/nps 
 and plugs. They are fastened to the ves- 
 sel underneath, and entirely enclose its 
 sides and bottom. They are then towed 
 to the bar, ami are sunk with the vessel, 
 by taking out the plugs. The water being 
 now pumped out, the camel lifts the ves- 
 sel, and the whole is towed over the bar. 
 CAMELEON. (See Chameleon.] 
 CAMELOPARD ; also called giraffe (cam- 
 elopardalis girqffu, L.) ; a very remark- 
 able genus of mammiferous quadrupeds, 
 belonging to the order of ruminants ; 
 characterized by having 8 incisive teeth 
 in the lower jaw ; a bony prominence on 
 the frontal bone ; horns somewhat inclined, 
 covered by the skin of the head, and hav- 
 ing a bristly fringe round their tips ; cal- 
 losities upon the sternum and knee joints; 
 a tuft at the end of the tail; a reddish 
 mane, extending from the occiput along 
 the whole of the neck and shoulders, as 
 far as the root of the tail. The body of the 
 giraffe having considerable resemblance 
 to that of the camel, and the color of its 
 skin being an impure or yellowish white, 
 spotted with rhomboidal patches of fawn 
 color, something like that of the leopard, 
 led to its bearing the names of these ani- 
 mals conjoined. In its manner of kneel- 
 ing for the purpose of sleeping, in the 
 length of its neck, and the presence of 
 callosities on the lower part of the breast 
 and over the joints, it has a further simi- 
 larity to the camel. Its horns, which, in 
 the male, are about a foot long, perma- 
 nent, and covered by the skin of the head 
 to their very tips, give the giraffe some 
 analogy to the genus cerviis or deer, under 
 which it was classed by Linnaeus. Its 
 most striking peculiarity is the great ap- 
 parent height of its foreparts, which rise 
 very suddenly from the fore-shoulders. 
 Measured from the ground to the top of 
 the head, the animal is from 15 to 17 
 feet high. The posterior extremities are 
 
 not higher than 9 feet; but the difference 
 in length between the anterior and pos- 
 terior extremities is by no means as great 
 as would be inferred from the appearance 
 of the animal. The great difference is 
 owing to the length of the neck, which 
 tapers upwards, and at its base is rendered 
 exceedingly thick, by tiie long dorsal and 
 cervical spinous processes, that give at- 
 tachment to its powerful muscles and 
 ligaments. The trunk of the body is 
 short in proportion to the neck, and the 
 fore limbs are more robust than the pos- 
 terior. The hoofs are rounded and cleft, 
 like those of the ox. The tail is slender, 
 cylindrical, and terminated by a tuft 3 or 
 4 inches long. The head of the giraffe is 
 not unlike that of die horse ; the eyes are 
 ^arge, fine and brilliant ; the cars, both in 
 length and figure, more resemble thoi--e 
 of the ox. It is a mild, timid and harm- 
 less animal, choosing dense forests for its 
 residence, and feeding on the leaves and 
 shoots of trees. When it browses the 
 herbage on the ground, it is not, as has 
 been supposed, under the necessity of 
 kneeling, though its natural mode of feed- 
 ing, for which it seems to be especially 
 constructed, is by browsing upon trees or 
 shrubs of considerable elevation. The 
 giraffe is a native of the country lying be- 
 tween Egypt and Ethiopia. It is rare in 
 Abyssinia, and still more so in Southern 
 Africa. It is hunted and killed by the 
 natives for the sake of its large and beau- 
 tiful skin, as well as for the marrow of its 
 bones, considered by them to be an ex- 
 quisite dainty. The flesh of the young 
 camelopard is said, by travellers, to be 
 an acceptable article of diet. Little is 
 known of the gestation of this animal, 
 though it is said, like that of the camel, to 
 endure for 12 months. The giraffe has 
 long been known to naturalists, though 
 opportunities of examining living speci- 
 mens have always been rare. They were 
 brought living to Rome, to adorn the pub- 
 lic games and festivals, as Pliny states, 
 during the dictatorship of Caesar. Fig- 
 ures of the animal are still preserved in 
 the Pnenestine pavement, wrought under 
 the orders of Sylla. The figure of the 
 giraffe also occurs among the hieroglyphic 
 monumental drawings of the Egyptians. 
 The giraffe moves with great celerity, and 
 it requires a swift horse to equal its speed, 
 when only in a trot. It has not been 
 tamed, or applied to any useful purpose, 
 as far as we know, though a few speci- 
 mens have, at different times, been sent to 
 Europe, as presents to sovereigns, or for 
 exhibition. The pacha of Egypt, not
 
 CAMELOPARD CAMERARIUS. 
 
 433 
 
 long since, sent one to the king of France, 
 which is still living in the menagerie of 
 Paris. 
 
 CAMEXZ ; a village in the Prussian gov- 
 ernment of Reichenbach, circle of Frank- 
 enstein, on the Neiss ; remarkable for the 
 rich Cistercian abbey of the same name, 
 now abolished, which was built in 1094, 
 and numbered, from 1249 to 1810, 53 ab- 
 bots. The most celebrated abbot was 
 Tobias Stusche, who acquired the favor of 
 Frederic the Great in a way till lately in- 
 explicable. According to a manuscript 
 history in the Latin language, left by a 
 friar of C., during the war of 1741, the 
 abbot suddenly summoned the monks, one 
 evening, to the chapel, at an unusual 
 hour, by the sound of the bell. With him 
 came a stranger in a clerical dress. Scarce- 
 ly had the monks begun to pray, when a 
 great tumult was heard. Austrian troops 
 had arrived from Wartha, and were seen 
 in the monastery, and even in the church. 
 They searched the building for king Fred- 
 eric, but found and seized his aids only. 
 The address of the abbot saved the king 
 of Prussia and the monarchy. Frederic 
 ivlers to this adventure in the Histoirc de 
 man Temps, i. chap. 3. The monastery 
 was dissolved by the edict of Oct. 30, 
 1811. The beautiful castle was burnt in 
 1817. 
 
 CAMEO, or CAMAIEU; in the proper 
 sense, a gem engraved in rditvo. The 
 ancients generally used the onyx for this 
 purpose. At first, such onyxes, and, af- 
 terward, all gems carved in relief, were 
 called cam-eos. They were carved ac- 
 cording to the layers of the stone, so that 
 the ground should be of a different color 
 from the figure in relief. One of the most 
 famous cameos is the onyx at present in 
 Paris, called the Apotheosis ofslugustus, 
 1 foot high and 10 inches wide : its 
 history is also singular. (See Gem Sculp- 
 ture.) 
 
 CAMERA .-EOLIA ; a contrivance for 
 blowing the fire, for the fusion of ores, by 
 means of water falling through a funnel 
 into a vessel, which emits a quautity 
 of air or vapor continually, sufficient to 
 keep up a strong fire. 
 
 CAMERA CLARA (light chamber) ; an 
 optical instrument invented by Reinthaler, 
 which supplies the deficiencies of tho 
 camera obscura, and has this advantage 
 over that instrument, that the object to be 
 represented need not be illuminated by 
 the sun. All objects appear in it with 
 great distinctness. It can be used equally 
 well in bright and dark weather, in the 
 light of the sun or that of the moon. 
 
 VOL. ii. 37 
 
 Camera lucida is the somewhat awkward 
 name of an instrument invented in Eng- 
 land, which only so far resembles the cam- 
 era obscura, that it presents a complete 
 image of objects on a very diminished 
 scale. The chief part is a prism. If this 
 is placed in a proper position, and the 
 spectator approaches his eye to it, he per- 
 ceives the image of the object before it 
 represented with the greatest clearness, 
 and perfect precision of outline, on a sheet 
 of paper fixed underneath, and can easily 
 trace it, whilst the persons around him 
 see only the drawing made on the paper. 
 Camera obscura (dark chamber) is either 
 a closed room, in which the light can fall 
 only through a small aperture, or an opti- 
 cal box, in which exterior objects are rep- 
 resented on a smaller scale. It is used 
 for amusement or for drawing landscapes 
 and scenery, though what is gained in 
 rapidity and ease of execution is lost in the 
 dimness of the coloring. (For the theory 
 of this instrument, see treatises on natu- 
 ral philosophy and optics.) 
 
 CAMERA LUCIDA. (See Camera clara.) 
 
 CAMERA OBSCURA. (See Camera cla- 
 ra.) 
 
 CAMERARIUS (Joachim I) ; born in 
 1500, at Bamberg ; one of the most dis- 
 tinguished scholars of Germany, who con- 
 tributed to the progress of knowledge, in 
 the Kith century, by his own works as 
 well as by editions of Greek and Latin 
 authors with commentaries, and by a bet- 
 ter organization of the universities at 
 Leipsic and Tubingen, and of the gymna- 
 sium at Nuremberg. He also took an 
 important part in the political and reli- 
 gious affairs of his time. He was a friend 
 of Melancthon, and was held in great 
 esteem by the emperors Charles V, Ferdi- 
 nand I, and Maximilian II. In 1555, ho 
 was deputy of the university of Leipsic 
 to the diet of Augsburg, and died in 1574. 
 He was naturally grave and serious, and 
 had such a detestation of falsehood, that 
 'no could never endure it, even in jest. 
 His works are estimated at 150, mostly 
 translations from Greek and Latin writers, 
 besides many poems, and a great number 
 of familiar letters. 
 
 CAMERARIUS (Joachim II); son of the 
 preceding ; born in 1534, at Nuremberg ; 
 one of the most learned physicians and 
 greatest botanists of his time. After hav- 
 ing studied in the German and Italian 
 universities, he practised with great suc- 
 cess in Nuremberg, where he instituted a 
 medical academy^ laid out a botanical 
 garden, and published many botanical 
 works. lie died in 15L><?. Several of his
 
 434 
 
 CAMERARIUS CAMILLUS. 
 
 sons and grandsons have distinguished 
 themselves in medicine and botany. 
 
 CAMERLINGO (Italian) denotes the high- 
 est officer in the Ecclesiastical States. The 
 cardinale camerlingo stands, in fact, at the 
 head of affairs in this government. He 
 has the control of the treasury, adminis- 
 ters justice, and exercises almost sove- 
 reign power when the papal chair is va- 
 cant. 
 
 CAMEROMANS ; a sect in Scotland, who 
 separated from the Presbyterians in 1666, 
 and continued long to hold their religious 
 assemblies in the fields. Their name is 
 derived from Richard Cameron, a preach- 
 er, the founder of the sect. They rebelled 
 against the government, and were nev- 
 er entirely reduced till the revolution. 
 They adhered rigidly to the form of gov- 
 ernment established in 1648. Cargillites 
 was another name for the same sect, de- 
 rived from another preacher among them. 
 It is said, that not above 14 or 15 congre- 
 gations of them exist. 
 
 GAMES are slender rods of cast lead, 
 of which glaziers make their turned or 
 milled lead, for joining the panes or quar- 
 rels of glass. 
 
 CAMILLUS, Marcus Furius. This Ro- 
 man hero was chosen tribune of the peo- 
 ple in the year B. C. 401, and took part 
 in the siege of Veil. Three years after, 
 he was invested with the same dignity, 
 and went against the Falisci. After he 
 had become censor, he proposed a law 
 to oblige unmarried men to marry the 
 widows of those slain in battle. After the 
 defeat of the military tribunes L. Atilius 
 and Cn. Genucius, before Veil, by the 
 Tuscans, C. was made dictator. He de- 
 feated the Falisci, Capenates and Tuscans, 
 advanced to Veii, into which he penetrat- 
 ed by a subterraneous passage, and, B. C. 
 896, obtained possession of a place, which, 
 for 10 years, had defied the Roman pow- 
 er. The people murmured when they 
 saw him make a triumphal entry in a 
 splendid chariot drawn by four white 
 horses, and with his face painted; for 
 both of these distinctions were appropri- 
 ated to the gods. But the discontent of 
 the citizens rose to the highest pitch 
 when the dictator demanded of them the 
 tenth part of the plunder, to perform a 
 vow which he had made to Apollo in 
 case of success. After a long contention, 
 they agreed to consecrate to the god a 
 golden cup, for which the Roman ladies 
 were obliged to give all their jewels into 
 the public treasury. Not long after, C. 
 was appointed military tribune. He be- 
 sieged Falerii, the inhabitants of which 
 
 defended themselves to the last extremity. 
 A schoolmaster delivered into the power 
 of C. the children of the most distinguish- 
 ed Falisci, but he sent back the traitor, 
 with his hands bound, while the boys 
 beat him with rods, as they returned to 
 their parents. This generosity induced 
 the besieged to surrender ; and the senate 
 allowed C. to determine their fate. He 
 contented himself with obliging them to 
 pay the arrears due to his soldiers ; but 
 this increased the number of his enemies. 
 Some time before, C. had opposed the 
 proposal of colonizing Veii with one half 
 of the citizens of Rome: he did the same 
 now, when that proposal was renewed. 
 For some time, he was invested with the 
 dignity of an interrex, and had to contend 
 with all the consequences of hatred. The 
 tribune of the people, Apuleius, accused 
 him of having embezzled a part of the 
 plunder of Veii. C., who foresaw his con- 
 demnation, went into voluntary exile, al- 
 though his friends offered to pay the sum 
 demanded of him. Less magnanimous 
 than Aristides, in a similar situation, C. 
 is said to have prayed the gods to compel 
 his ungrateful country to a speedy repent- 
 ance. This wish was granted. Brennus 
 (q. v.) had obtained possession of Rome, 
 with the exception of die capitol. C., 
 who was residing in Ardea, aroused die 
 inhabitants of that city to resistance, and 
 defeated the Gauls, who were carelessly 
 encamped before it. The Romans, who 
 had fled to Veii, besought him to place 
 himself at their head ; but he declared that 
 lie was ready to do this only in case die 
 Roman people, now in the capitol, would 
 commit to him the chief command. Pon- 
 tius Cominius, a young plebeian, had the 
 courage and the good fortune to carry the 
 message from the city. C. was unani- 
 mously appointed dictator, and soon saw 
 himself at the head of an army of 40,000 
 men, with which he hastened to the re- 
 lief of the capitol, where he found the 
 besieged just on the point of purchasing 
 peace, and exclaimed, " With iron, not 
 with gold, Rome buys her freedom." 
 The Gauls were defeated, and left their 
 camp by night. C. overtook them on the 
 next day, and obtained a complete victo- 
 ry. He now made a triumphal entry into 
 Rome, amidst the acclamations of the 
 people and die army, who greeted him 
 widi the name of Romulus, father of his 
 country, and second founder of the city. 
 But the city was a heap of ruins, and the 
 tribunes renewed the proposal of remov- 
 ing to Veii, while, at the same time, they 
 sought to excite in die people apprehen-
 
 CAMILLUS CAMOENS. 
 
 436 
 
 sions of the power of C. The senate, 
 however, frustrated their designs, and C. 
 retained the dictatorship. Rome was re- 
 built. The JEqui, Volsci, the Etruscans, 
 and even the Latins, united against Rome. 
 C., for the third time dictator, armed the 
 whole people, came to the assistance of 
 the military tribunes, who were surround- 
 ed, fired the enemy's camp, and gave the 
 plunder to his soldiers. He then took 
 Boise, the chief city of the ^Equi, defeat- 
 ed the Volsci, and compelled the Etrus- 
 cans to retreat. He now triumphed for 
 the third time, restored, from the booty, 
 to the Roman ladies, what they had for- 
 merly contributed to the accomplishment 
 of his vow, and retired into a private sta- 
 tion. Soon after, when the inhabitants of 
 Antium attacked Rome, he was appointed 
 military tribune, obtained from his col- 
 leagues the chief command, and took 
 severe vengeance on the enemy. His 
 glory excited the jealousy of Manlius. 
 The senate, alarmed, once more raised C. 
 to the military tribuneship. Manlius was 
 overcome ; but the people, who had at 
 first rejoiced at his condemnation, soon 
 felt repentance. It was resolved to attack 
 the Prsenestines, allies of the Volsci. C. 
 was obliged, notwithstanding his age, to 
 take the chief command. It appeared to 
 him hazardous to venture a battle ; but 
 Lucius Furius, his colleague, pressed him 
 to attack the enemy. C. allowed him to 
 direct the engagement, and confined him- 
 self to the command of the reserve. The 
 troops under the command of Furius be- 
 ing thrown into disorder, C. came up, and 
 prevented a total defeat. On the day fol- 
 lowing, he obtained a complete victory, 
 being nobly supported by his colleague. 
 The inhabitants of Tusculum, against 
 whom he then advanced, surrendered 
 without resistance, and obtained the 
 friendship of Rome, which they had lost 
 by their own fault. C. was appointed 
 dictator, for the fourth time, on account 
 of the disturbances excited by Licinius 
 and Sextus, the tribunes of the people ; 
 but he soon resigned the power which he 
 was obliged to employ against Romans, 
 and not against enemies. He was already 
 80 years old, when the appearance of 
 a new army of Gauls terrified Rome. He 
 once more resumed the dictatorship, at- 
 tacked the Gauls, dispersed them entirely, 
 and obtained again the honor of a tri- 
 umph. As new disturbances had broken 
 out, C. did not lay down his office till the 
 ferment was quelled. After this, he caus- 
 ed a temple to Concord to be built near 
 the capitol, retired from public life, and 
 
 died soon after, B. C. 365, of the plague, 
 greatly lamented by the Romans. 
 
 CAMISARDS ; Calvinists in France (in 
 the Cevenues), who, in the beginning of 
 the 18th century, opposed the oppressive 
 proceedings of the royal deputies. The 
 collectors of taxes were attacked by night 
 by the malcontents (who, to disguise them- 
 selves, appeared only in their shirts 
 whence their name), dragged out of bed, 
 anil hung, with the tax-rolls about their 
 necks. The government sent troops to 
 punish the authors of these acts. A certain 
 John Cavalier, a peasant, whom a fortune- 
 teller had pointed out as the deliverer of 
 Israel, placed himself at the head of the 
 Camisards. His unlimited authority with 
 his adherents, and his talents and courage, 
 enabled him to oppose the measures of 
 experienced generals with so much suc- 
 cess, that negotiation was substituted for 
 force. The marshal Villars made a trea- 
 ty with Cavalier, which conceded to die 
 party all their demands, and by virtue of 
 which Cavalier himself was received into 
 the royal service as a colonel. Sickness 
 subsequently induced him to leave France, 
 and he went to England, where queen 
 Anne gave him a favorable reception. 
 Voltaire, who became acquainted with 
 him in London, speaks of him in high 
 terms. At the time of his death,, Cavalier 
 was general and governor of Jersey. 
 
 CAMLET, or CAMBLE.T (in French, cam- 
 dot ; Italian, comeflaft}}; a fine stuff, com- 
 posed of a warp and woof, and manufac- 
 tured on a loom with two treddles, so 
 called because originally made of camels' 
 hair only, Caiplets are of different kinds,, 
 as goats'-hair, wool, silk camlets. 
 
 CAMMA. ; a river, and a kingdom, in Af- 
 rica: the former divides Benin from Loan- 
 go, and runs into the Atlantic ; lat. 1 40 7 
 S, ; the latter is near the river. 
 
 CASKEN^E, a name often given to die 
 Muses. Properly, Camoma, was synony- 
 mous with Carmenta, a prophetess, whom 
 the oldest colony that settled in Latium, 
 under Evauder, brought with them out 
 of Arcadia ; therefore tradition calls her 
 his mother. Others mention two Car- 
 mentcE as looking into the past and future 
 goddesses of fate, who afterwords be- 
 came goddesses of birth. Numa conse- 
 crated to the Camrenae a fountain and 
 grove, and, from that circumstance, they 
 became confounded widi the Muses. 
 
 CAMOEAS, Louis de ; the most celebrat- 
 ed poet of die Portuguese ; one of the 
 great men whose merit was first apparent 
 to after time, while their own age suffered 
 them to starve. He was born at Lisbon,
 
 CAMOENS. 
 
 probably in 1524 ; for it appears, from a 
 catalogue of persons embarking for the 
 East Indies in 1550, that C., whose age is 
 there given at 25 years, oflbred himself as 
 a volunteer for the campaign. His father, 
 Simon Vaz de C., was a ship-captain, and 
 perished, by shipwreck, on the coast of 
 Goa, in 155b'. C. studied at Coimbra. At 
 that time, writers were esteemed in pro- 
 portion as they imitated the ancients. C. 
 was inspired by the history of his country, 
 and by the manners of his age. His lyric 
 poems, like the works of Dante, Petrarch, 
 Ariosto and Tasso, belong to the literature 
 formed under the influence of Christian- 
 ity. After the completion of his studies, 
 he returned to Lisbon, where he fell 
 deeply in love with a lady of the palace, 
 Catharine d'Attayde. Violent passions 
 are often joined with great talents : C. had 
 both. He was exiled to Santarem, on 
 account of disputes in which his love for 
 Catharine involved him. From despair, 
 he became a soldier, and served in the 
 fleet which the Portuguese sent against 
 Morocco. He composed poetry in the 
 midst of battles ; and, as danger kin- 
 dled bis genius, so genius animated his 
 courage. An arrow deprived him of his 
 right eye before Ceuta. He hoped that 
 his wounds would receive a recompense, 
 though his talents were not appreciated ; 
 but envy opposed his claims. Full of 
 indignation at seeing himself neglected, 
 he embarked, in 1553, for India. He 
 landed at Goa. His powerful imagina- 
 tion was excited by the heroic deeds of 
 his countrymen in this quarter ; and, al- 
 though he had much reason to complain 
 of them, he could not resist the desire of 
 celebrating their glory in an epic. But 
 this vivacity of mind, essential to the 
 poet, is not easily united with the moder- 
 ation which a dependent condition de- 
 mands. C. was displeased with the 
 abuses of the government in India, and 
 wrote a satire, which caused liis ban- 
 ishment to Macao. Here he lived sev- 
 eral years in no other society than that 
 of nature, which showered round him 
 in abundance all the charms of the 
 East. Here, too, he composed his 
 Lusiad. Vasco da Gania's expedition 
 to India is the subject of the poem. 
 The parts of it which are best known 
 are the episode of Ines de Castro, and 
 the appearance of Adamastor, who, by 
 means of his power over the storms, 
 aims to stop Gama's voyage, when he is 
 about to double the Cape. In conformity 
 to the taste of the time, C. united, in this 
 poem, a narrative of the Portuguese his- 
 
 tory with the splendor of poetic descrip- 
 tion, and Christianity with mythological 
 fables. He pleased himself with tracing 
 the descent of the Portuguese from the 
 Romans, of whom Mars and Venus are 
 considered the progenitors and protectors. 
 Since fable ascribes to Bacchus the first 
 conquest of India, it was natural to rep- 
 resent him as jealous of the undertaking 
 of the Portuguese. If the imitation of 
 the works of classical antiquity has Ixrn 
 of any disadvantage to the Lusiad, the 
 injury consists, perhaps, in a diminution 
 of the originality which one expects in a 
 work in which India and Africa are de- 
 scribed by an eye-witness. The versifi- 
 cation of the Lusiad has something BO 
 charming and splendid, that not only cul- 
 tivated minds, but even thecommon peo- 
 ple, are enraptured by its magic, and learn 
 by heart and sing its beautiful stair/as. 
 The general interest of the poem consists 
 principally in the patriotic feeling which 
 pervades it. The national glory of the 
 Portuguese appears here in every form 
 which invention can lend to it ; and there- 
 fore the countrymen of C. must naturally 
 admire this poem more than foreigners. 
 
 C-l T P 1 
 
 fcome critics pronounce the Lusiad a 
 more powerful and pure historical paint- 
 ing than Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered. 
 C. was at last recalled from his banish- 
 ment. At the mouth of the river Mecon, 
 in Cochin-China, he was shipwrecked, 
 and saved himself by swimming ; holding 
 in one hand, above the water, the manu- 
 script of his poem, the only treasure 
 which he rescued from the waves, and 
 which was dearer to him than life. In 
 Goa, he encountered new persecutions ; 
 he was confined in prison for debt, and 
 was not allowed, until his friends became 
 responsible for him, to embark and return 
 to Lisbon in 1569. King Sebastian, yet 
 hardly past the age of childhood, took 
 an interest in C. He accepted the dedi- 
 cation of his epic (which appeared in 
 1572), and, being on the point of embark- 
 ing on his expedition against the Moors 
 in Africa, he felt, more sensibly than 
 others, the genius of the poet, who, like 
 him, loved dangers if they led to glory. 
 But Sebastian was killed in a battle before 
 Alcacar, in 1578. With him the royal 
 family became extinct, and Portugal lost 
 her independence. Every source of as- 
 sistance, as well as every hope of C., was 
 destroyed by this event. So great was 
 his poverty, that, at night, a slave, whom 
 he had brought with him from India, 
 begged in the streets, in order to support 
 the life of his master. In this misery, he
 
 CAMOENS CAMPAGNA DI ROMA. 
 
 437 
 
 yet wrote lyric poems, some of which 
 contain the most moving complaint?. 
 This hero of Portuguese literature, the 
 ornament of his country and of Europe, 
 died, at last, in 1579, in the hospital at 
 Lisbon, in the (>2d year of his age. 15 
 years afterwards, a splendid monument 
 was erected to his memory. The best 
 edition of the Lusiad ( Os Lusiadas, etc.) 
 was published by Jose Maria de Souza- 
 Botellio (Paris, 1807, by Didot, small 
 folio). The best French translation, with 
 notes, is Lcs Lusiades, ou les Portugais, 
 etc., by J. B. F. Millie (Paris, 1825, 2 vote.) 
 The works of C., besides the Lusiad, con- 
 sist of sonnets, songs, odes, elegies, ec- 
 logues, redondillas, epigrams, satires, let- 
 ters, and two comedies (Amphitryon, after 
 Plautus, and the Love of Philodemus). 
 (See the article Portuguese Language 
 and Literature.) John Adamson's Me- 
 moirs of the Life and Writings of L. de 
 Camoens (London, 1820, 2 vols.), of 
 which the 2d volume contains a criticism 
 on his works, are valuable. See, also, 
 madame de Stae'l's article respecting him 
 in the Biographic Unircrstlle (5th vol.). 
 
 CAMOMILE (anthemis nobili-s) is a well- 
 known plant, the dried, daisy-like flowers 
 of which are frequently used in medicine. 
 The principal use, for which camomile 
 flowers are applied, is to excite vomiting, 
 and promote the operation of emetics. 
 They have likewise been substituted for 
 Peruvian bark, in the case of intermittent 
 fevers or agues, particularly on the conti- 
 nent of Europe, but not with much suc- 
 cess. Both the leaves and flowers are 
 employed in fomentations and poultices. 
 They each, but particularly the flowers, 
 have a powerful, though not unpleasant 
 smell, and a bitter taste. They arc ad- 
 ministered in substance, as a powder or 
 electuary ; in infusion, as tea ; in decoc- 
 tion or extract, or in the form of an es- 
 sential oil, obtained by distillation. So 
 fragrant is the camomile plant, that the 
 places where it grows wild, on open, 
 gravelly commons, may easily be discov- 
 ered by the somewhat strawberry-like 
 perfume which is emitted by treading on 
 them. This quality has sometimes in- 
 duced the cultivation of camomile for a 
 green walk in gardens. 
 
 CAMP means, generally, the place and 
 order of tents or huts for soldiers in the 
 field. In modern times, a difference is 
 made between camp and bivouac, the 
 former signifying the residence of an 
 army resting in tents ; the latter, the situ- 
 ation of one which dispenses with them, 
 and remains either entirely in the open 
 37* ' 
 
 air, or, where time allows it, in huts built 
 of branches, &c. (See Bivouac.) On the 
 continent of Europe, tents are abolished, 
 and the name of cany), therefore, is sel- 
 dom used there at present. Camps, of 
 course, are of very ancient origin, since 
 almost all nations, in their infancy, lived 
 as nomades, dwelling in tents; as is the 
 case with many tribes in Asia and Africa 
 at the present day, e. g., the Arabs. The 
 Romans, probably, first carried the art of 
 encampment to a high degree of perfec- 
 tion, on account of their many wars in 
 distant and thinly settled regions, where 
 their large armies found no cities to quar- 
 ter in. Ca3sar and several other Roman 
 authors give us much information ori 
 their way of constructing a camp, which 
 they improved in strength and conven- 
 ience, according to the time that they 
 were stationed in it, and which, at the 
 same time, the want of fortresses obliged 
 them to make, in some cases, the points 
 of their military operations. From such 
 camps, it is well known, many cities 
 originated, as Cologne on the Rhine, 
 Treves, Cambridge, Bristol, and many 
 others. It is a fact of much interest, that 
 the military art, after so many changes in 
 tactics, and in the principles of strategy, 
 again resorts to something similar to these 
 fortified camps of the ancients, as, in very 
 recent times, it has been thought advisa- 
 ble, besides providing fortresses, properly 
 so called, to strengthen certain large cities 
 on the chief roads, partly in order to de- 
 fend them against the first attack of the 
 enemy, and to prevent his possessing 
 himself easily of the important resources 
 which they afford, but chiefly to give to 
 retreating armies rallying points, able to 
 furnish support to numerous soldiers. 
 They are also points of assembly for the 
 militia. Thus the Prussians fortified the 
 large city of Cologne. Of all the Euro- 
 pean armies, the English are the only 
 ones, we believe, who make use of tents, 
 and therefore have camps, in the nar- 
 rower sense of the word. It is to be ob- 
 served, that camps have become slighter 
 and simpler with the progress of the mil- 
 itary art. The camps of the Turks, or 
 other Asiatic nations, are extremely cum- 
 bersome, in comparison with the light bi- 
 vouac of the Europeans, from which, at 
 any moment, the whole army can rise in 
 arms, prepared for battle. 
 
 CAMPAGNA DI ROMA ; a territory in 
 Italy, which comprehends the greater 
 part of old Latium, about 70 miles wide 
 and 230 long. We usually understand 
 by it the desert plain which commences
 
 438 
 
 CAMPAGNA DI ROMA CAMPAIGN. 
 
 near Ronciglionc or Viterbo, and, includ- 
 ing the Poutine marshes (q. v.), extends 
 to Terracina. In the middle of this re- 
 gion lies, half deserted, the ancient capi- 
 tal of the world. The lakes of the C. 
 are evidently craters of extinct volcanoes. 
 Thus the lake Regillus, above Frascati, 
 lies at the bottom of an inverted cone of 
 hard, black lava, rising in wild and naked 
 masses from 40 to b'O feet high. The 
 craters containing the lakes of Albano 
 and Nemi, which lie from 400 to 500 feet 
 higher than the lake Regillus, have a very 
 regular conical form. The lake of Al- 
 bano is also remarkable for its aqueduct, 
 or emissarium, one of the most ancient 
 and excellent works of the Romans, 
 which discharges the waters of the lake 
 through the mountains. It was cut 
 through the lava, in a year, by the com- 
 mand of an oracle, during the siege of 
 Veii, when the lake threatened to inun- 
 date even Rome. (See 1lbano.) It an- 
 swers its original purpose even at the 
 present day. There are, also, many sul- 
 phur springs here, particularly between 
 Rome and Tivoli, where the water issues 
 almost boiling from the earth, and forms 
 the lake of Solfatara, which contains 
 floating islands, consisting of a calcarious 
 deposit, which collects round substances 
 thrown into the water. The water of the 
 river, which issues from this lake, lias the 
 same qualities, and was considered, by 
 the ancients, as particularly salutary. 
 Near the lake were the baths of M. 
 Agrippa, The soil of the C, is, in gen- 
 eral, dry, but very fertile in the lower 
 parts, though its cultivation is much neg- 
 lected, From Monterosi to the hills of 
 Albano, a tree is seldom to be seen. All 
 the efforts of the French to diminish the 
 malignity of the ma/' aria in these regions, 
 by planting trees, have been unsuccessful. 
 There arc no villages and towns in the C. 
 Here and there you find single huts lean- 
 ing against the ruins of old towers or 
 temples, and patched up from their frag- 
 ments. In* the middle of the summer, 
 when malignant fevers render a residence 
 in the C. very dangerous, the unhappy 
 inhabitants are obliged to take refuge in 
 the neighboring town?, or in Rome, where 
 they seek shelter under the porticoes of 
 the churches and palaces. The great 
 number of sick persons who fill the Ro- 
 man hospitals during the mouths of July, 
 August and September, are chiefly in- 
 habitants of the country. Besides their 
 huts, innumerable ruins of temples, cir- 
 cuses and monuments arc scattered about 
 C., particularly near the Via Appia ; and 
 
 long rows of aqueducts, some in ruins, 
 some in a state of preservation, are over- 
 grown with ivy and other plants. In the 
 winter, flocks of sheep pasture in these 
 solitudes : during the summer, they are 
 driven up the Apennines. Herds of half- 
 wild cattle remain during the whole year 
 in the C. Their keepers, however, soon 
 become a prey to the pestilence, or fall 
 into a gradual decline. They arc mostly 
 natives of the mountains, and serve the 
 proprietors of the herds for trifling wages. 
 Bonstetten saw at Torre Paterno, very 
 near Home, a herd of several hundred 
 cows, the proprietors of which did not 
 consider it worth while to milk them, 
 though milk is as dear in Rome as in 
 other large cities. The herdsmen are 
 mounted, and armed with long lances, 
 with which they manage the cattle very 
 skilfully. Scarcely a ninth part of the C. 
 is cultivated ; the rest is used for pastur- 
 age. In the times of the ancient Roman.*, 
 this dreary solitude exhibited a smiling 
 picture of abundance and fertility. Corn- 
 ik'Us, groves, villas, monuments, alter- 
 nated with each other, and, according to 
 the accounts of Strabo, Varro and Pliny, 
 the air was remarkably healthy, with the 
 exception of a few marshy tracts along 
 the coasts. The corruption of the cli- 
 mate originated as early as the 6th cen- 
 tury, according to tradition, after some 
 great inundations of the Tiber ; which, 
 however, still take place, without increas- 
 ing the evil. The unhealthy air, the fa- 
 mous aria caitiva, is most injurious in the 
 dry and hot seasons. The most probable 
 supposition is, that it originated after the 
 devastations of the barbarians, when the 
 waters became stagnant irom the want 
 of human industry. The greatest obsta- 
 cle to the removal of the evil is in the 
 prejudices and indolence of the people. 
 Thus the corruption is continually spread- 
 ing, and has even attacked some quarters 
 of Rome, 
 
 CAMPAIGN generally denotes the season 
 during which armies keep the field. It 
 also means an extensive level country. 
 Formerly, when war was not earned on 
 with so much impetuosity as at present, 
 campaigns lasted only during the warmer 
 months ; and, towards winter, the troops 
 went into winter-quarters, when the of- 
 ficers of the opposing armies often met 
 very amicably at balls and other entertain- 
 ments ; but, of late, armies have kept 
 the field through the winter, till a deci- 
 sive victoiy has been gained. Thus the 
 allies, in the winter of 1813 14, followed 
 the French over the Rhine ; some battles
 
 CAMPAIGN CAMPANILE. 
 
 439 
 
 were fought in January and February, 
 and the armies remained, for several 
 months, without roof or tent, in the open 
 air of a cold winter. 
 
 CAMPAN, Jeanne Louise Henriette 
 (originally Genet), born at Paris, Oct. G, 
 1752, became reader to the daughters of 
 Louis XV ; gained the favor of the wife 
 of the dauphin, afterwards the queen Ma- 
 ne Antoinette, who gave her in marriage 
 to the son of her private secretary, M. 
 Campan, and appointed her the first lady 
 of the bed-chamber. Madame C. gave 
 her patroness many proofs of fidelity and 
 attachment, and wished to follow her into 
 the Temple after the 10th of Aug., 1792, 
 which, however, Pethion did not allow. 
 After the fall of .Robespierre, madame C. 
 established a boarding-school for the edu- 
 cation of young ladies at St. Germain, 
 which soon acquired a wide reputation. 
 On this account, Napoleon appointed her 
 the principal of an institution founded by 
 him for the daughters of the officers of 
 the legion of honor, at Ecouen, which 
 she organized and superintended for seven 
 years. After the restoration, Louis XVIII 
 abolished this institution, and madame C. 
 lost her situation. Her only son died in 
 1821, in consequence of ill treatment suf- 
 fered because he was a relation of mar- 
 shal Ney. Madame C. died at Paris, 
 March 10, 1822. Of her Memoirs re- 
 specting the Private Life of the Queen 
 Marie Antoinette, with Recollections of 
 the- Times of Louis XIV, XV, and XVI, 
 in 4 vols. (translated into English, Ir.'-'i , 
 the fifth edition appeared at Paris, l^.'i. 
 They contain interesting contributions to 
 the history of the French revolution. Her 
 Journal ,'inccdotique, also (Paris, 1824), is 
 rich in piquant anecdotes of Napoleon, 
 Alexander I, and others. 
 
 CAMPANELLA, Thomas : a native of Ca- 
 labria, in Italy, famous for his talents and 
 misfortunes. He displayed great quick- 
 ness of paits when quite young, and, at 
 the age of 15, entered into the order of 
 the Dominicans. He studied theology 
 and other branches of knowledge with 
 uss'idiiity, but was principally attracted by 
 philosophy. The opinions of Aristotle, 
 then generally taught in the schools, ap- 
 peared to him unsatisfactory ; and, in 
 1591, he published, at Naples, a work, 
 entitled Philosophia Scnsibus denwnstrata, 
 intended to show the futility of the pre- 
 vailing doctrines. This book procured 
 him some admirers, and more enemies, 
 He then went to Rome, and afterwards 
 to Florence, where lie was well received 
 by the grand-duke Ferdinand ; but, not 
 
 obtaining some preferment which he ex- 
 pected, he proceeded to Bologna, and 
 then to Padua, where he gave lectures on 
 philosophy. In 1598, he returned to Na- 
 ples, and revisited, shortly after, Calabria, 
 where, in the following year, he was ar- 
 rested on a charge of conspiracy against 
 the Spanish government, to which Naples 
 was then subject. A scheme was im- 
 puted to him of having engaged the 
 Turks to assist him in making himseJf 
 master of Calabria. On this improbable 
 and apparently unfounded accusation, he 
 was imprisoned, and, after being repeat- 
 edly tortured, condemned to perpetual 
 confinement. In this situation, he wrote 
 many learned works, afterwards publish- 
 ed. "At length, in 1626, pope Urban VIII 
 procured his removal to Rome, and, in 
 1629, gave him his liberty, and bestowed 
 on him a pension. Dreading some fur- 
 ther persecution from the Spaniards, he 
 withdrew, in 1634, to France, where he 
 was honorably received, and much es- 
 teemed by the learned men of that coun- 
 try. He died at Paris in 1639. C. was a 
 man of more imagination than judgment, 
 displaying his talents rather by under- 
 mining the systems of others than by 
 establishing his own. He was a believer 
 in astrology, one of the follies of the age ; 
 and some of his opinions were very ec- 
 centric. His works are extremely nu- 
 merous. 
 
 CAMPAMA ; the ancient name of a 
 province of Italy, in the present kingdom 
 of Naples, which, partly on account of its 
 natural curiosities, including Vesuvius. 
 the Pblegraan fields, the lake of Avemus, 
 and partly for its remarkable fertility, was 
 a favorite resort of the distinguished Ro- 
 mans, who built there magnificent coun- 
 try-houses. Cuma, Puteoli, Naples, Her- 
 culaneum, Pompeii, Caprcre, Salernum 
 and Capua, the principal cities of C., are 
 names rich in classical associations. The 
 Appian and Latin ways led into the inte- 
 rior of this charming province. Even 
 now, C., or Terra di Lavoro, is the most 
 beautiful and fruitful part of Italy ; and no 
 traveller can wish for a moro delightful 
 country than the fields of C., filled, in the 
 month of April, with barley four feet 
 high, and adorned with lofty poplars, 
 which are connected by luxuriant vines, 
 forming a canopy over the fields. 
 "There," says Gothe, "it is worth while 
 to till the ground." 
 
 CAMPANILE ; a detached tower, in some 
 parts of Italy, erected for the purpose of 
 containing bells. Several of them have 
 deviated considerably from . the perjjen-
 
 440 
 
 CAMPANILE CAMPBELL. 
 
 dicular, in consequence of their great 
 height and narrowness of base. The 
 campanile of Pisa, called Torre Pendente, 
 or Hanging Tower, is the most remarka- 
 ble of these. Its height is 150 feet, and 
 it inclines nearly 13 feet from the per- 
 pendicular. The tower consists of eight 
 stories, each of which is surrounded by 
 columns. (See Bologna.) 
 
 CAMPBELL, George, a distinguished 
 Scotch divine, was born at Aberdeen, in 
 1709. He was educated at Mareschal 
 college, and afterwards articled to a writer 
 of the signet at Edinburgh. In 3741, he 
 relinquished the law, and studied divinity. 
 In 1759, he was appointed principal of 
 Mareschal college. In 1763, he published 
 his celebrated Dissertation on Miracles, in 
 answer to the Essay on Miracles of Mr. 
 Hume. This Dissertation was translated 
 into the French and Dutch languages. 
 In 1771, C. was chosen professor of di- 
 vinity, and, in 1776, gave to the world his 
 Philosophy of Rhetoric, which established 
 his reputation as an accurate grammarian, 
 a sound critic and a tasteful scholar. He 
 also published occasional sermons. The 
 last work which he lived to publish, was 
 his Translation of the Gospels, with Pre- 
 liminary Dissertations and Notes (2 vols. 
 4to.) He died in 1796. Besides the works 
 already mentioned, his Lectures on Sys- 
 tematic Theology and the Pastoral Char- 
 acter (folio) have been printed since his 
 death ; as also his Lectures on the Eccle- 
 siastical Character (2 vols. 8vo.), with his 
 life prefixed. 
 
 CAMPBELL, John, a native of Edin- 
 burgh, was, when very young, brought to 
 England. His earliest productions are 
 not certainly known ; but, in 1736, he 
 published the Military History of Prince 
 Eugene and the Duke of Marlborough (2 
 vols. folio), which gained him so much 
 reputation, that he was engaged, soon 
 after, to assist in writing the ancient part 
 of the Universal History, in 60 vols. 8vo. 
 In 1742, he published the first two vol- 
 umes of the Lives of the Admirals and 
 other British Seamen, the two last vol- 
 umes of which appeared in 1744. In 
 1745 commenced the publication of the 
 Biographia Britannica, one of the most 
 important undertakings in which C. was 
 engaged. The articles written by him, 
 extending through four volumes of the 
 work, are, both in point of style and mat- 
 ter, much superior to those of his coadju- 
 tors. They are liable, however, to one 
 general censure, arising from the almost 
 unvarying strain of panegyric, in which 
 the writer indulges, and which has re- 
 
 peatedly subjected him to critical animad- 
 version. In 1750, he published the Pres- 
 ent State of Europe, containing much 
 historical and political information. He 
 was then employed on the modern part 
 of the Universal History. Hi* last and 
 favorite work was a Political Survey of 
 Great Britain (1774, 2 vols. 4to.) C. died 
 Dec. 28, 1775. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Thomas, was born at Glas- 
 gow, Scotland, Sept. 7, 1777 r and early 
 displayed a remarkable vivacity of imagi- 
 nation and vigor of mind. He entered the 
 university of Glasgow at the early age of 
 12, and immediately distinguished him- 
 self by carrying ofl" the academical prizes, 
 particularly for translations from the 
 Greek poets. Moral philosophy was one 
 of his favorite pursuits j but he never ap- 
 plied himself to any professional studies-. 
 After passing 7 years at the university, he 
 went to Edinburgh, and produced, at the 
 age of 20, his principal poem, the Pleas- 
 ures of Hope, which established his repu- 
 tation in England. Harmony of versifi- 
 cation, a polished and graceful diction, 
 and an accurate finish, are united with 
 an ardent poetical sensibility, in this 
 youthful production. The passage con- 
 cerning the partition and subjugation of 
 Poland is full of the lyric fire, which 
 afterwards burst forth so brilliantly in 
 the Mariners of England, the Battle of 
 the Baltic, and Hohenlinden. In 1800, 
 he visited the continent, and passed a 
 year in Germany, where he became ac- 
 quainted with the principal poets and lit- 
 erati. Here he witnessed the bloody 
 fight of Hohenlinden, which inspired one 
 of his finest lyric effusions. On leaving 
 the continent, he visited London for the 
 first time, and resided there till his mar- 
 riage, in 1803, when he removed to Sy- 
 denham, where he resided about 20 years, 
 receiving a pension of 200 from the 
 crown. He lias lately lived in London. 
 In 1808 appeared his Annals of Great 
 Britain, from the Accession of George III 
 to the Peace of Amiens (3 vols., 8vo.) In 
 1809, he published a volume of poems 
 containing Gertrude of Wyoming, a Penn- 
 sylvanian tale. It is full of pathos and 
 beautiful simplicity. In O'Connor's Child 
 he has touched a wilder string of passion 
 and despair. His Theodric (1824) disap- 
 pointed even' body ;. and C. has, of late, 
 done nothing worthy of his earlier pro- 
 ductions. He is remarkable for his severe 
 criticism of his own works, and this may 
 account for his having written so little for 
 the last 25 years. His poems have all 
 been republished in America, where they
 
 CAMPBELL CAMPER. 
 
 are very popular. His Specimens of 
 British Poets, with biographical and criti- 
 cal Notices, and an Essay on English Po- 
 etry (1819, 7 vols., 8vo.), contain short 
 extracts from the poets, from the time of 
 Chaucer to that of Anstey. His Lectures 
 on Poetiy were written, originally, for the 
 London Institution, and afterwards deliv- 
 ered in different cities of the kingdom, to 
 his own profit and honor. They were 
 printed, or at least a part of them, in the 
 New Monthly 3Iagazine. This magazine 
 was originally projected by C. It appear- 
 ed in 1821, and was edited by C. about 
 four years, with much reputation. He 
 was one of the early .promoters of the 
 London university, and, by his letter to 
 Mr. Brougham, which first appeared in 
 the Times, Feb. 9, 1825, and by his Sug- 
 gestions, which appeared in the Xt.-w 
 Monthly soon afterwards, materially fur- 
 thered that great project. In 1827, he 
 was elected rector of the university of 
 Glasgow an office without labor or emol- 
 ument. His rival was sir Walter Scott, 
 and the election was made entirely on 
 political grounds, C. representing the 
 whig interest, to which he has always 
 been attached. C. is a veiy amiable and 
 interesting person in private life, of lively 
 manners, and devoted entirely to literary 
 pursuits. Besides his pension and the 
 profits of his literary labors, he has a small 
 inheritance, received from an uncle. 
 
 CAMPE, Joachim Heinrich, born in 
 1746. at Deensen, in the territory of 
 Brunswick, studied theology at Helm- 
 stadt, in Halle. In 1773, he was a chap- 
 lain in the Prussian service. He founded 
 a private institution for education near 
 Hamburg, but left it, on account of his 
 health, in 1783, to professor Trapp. He 
 died, Oct. 22, 1818, at the age of 72 years. 
 His philosophical treatises, as well as the 
 works which he composed for the in- 
 struction of youth, display a noble and 
 philanthropic spirit. The services which 
 he has rendered to the cause of educa- 
 tion have been universally acknowledged. 
 His style is pure and flowing, artless and 
 animated. He possessed a rare faculty 
 of accommodating himself to the youthful 
 capacity. His endeavors to purify and 
 enrich the German language were carried 
 to excess. His writings for the instruction 
 of childhood and youth were published 
 together, at Brunswick, 1806 9, in 30 
 vols. 12mo., with copperplates. His Rob- 
 inson the Younger has been translated in- 
 to almost all the European languages, even 
 into modern Greek. His Theopliron has 
 also had a wide circulation. His Worter- 
 
 buck der Deutschen Sprache (Brunswick, 
 1807 11, 5 vols. 4to.^is a production of 
 much merit. His letters written (1789) 
 from Paris, containing warm eulogiums on 
 the French revolution, are bold and elo- 
 quent, but marked with the enthusiastic 
 exaggeration of the time, and drew upon 
 him many serious and satirical attacks. 
 
 CAMPEACHY, or CAMPECHE ; a seaport 
 town of Mexico, in Yucatan, in a bay to 
 which it gives name, on the west coast 
 of the peninsula of Yucatan ; 90 miles 
 W. S. W. Merida ; Ion. 90 31' W. ; lat. 
 19 51' N. ; population, 6000. It is de- 
 fended by a castle furnished with cannon, 
 and has several times been taken from 
 the Spaniards, and plundered. Its port is 
 large, but shallow. The houses are well 
 built of stone. The exportation of the 
 wax of Yucatan constitutes one of the 
 most lucrative branches of its trade. It 
 has a manufacture of cotton cloth. It 
 w r as, for a long time, the chief mart for 
 logwood, of which great quantities grew 
 in the neighborhood, before the English 
 landed here, and cut it at the isthmus. 
 At the time when it w 7 as taken by the 
 Spaniards, it was said to have contained 
 3000 houses, and considerable monu- 
 ments of Indian art. The bay of Cam- 
 peachy lies on the south-west of the pen- 
 insula of Yucatan, and on the north of 
 the province of Tabasco. 
 
 CAMPER, Peter, born at Leyden, 1722, 
 died at the Hague, April 7, 1789, was 
 one of the most learned and acute physi- 
 cians and anatomists of the 18th century. 
 He distinguished himself in anatomy, 
 surgery, obstetrics and medical jurispru- 
 dence, and also as a writer on the beauti- 
 ful. He drew with great skill with the 
 pen, painted in oil, modelled in wax, and 
 knew how to handle the chisel of the 
 sculptor. C. was the first who proved 
 that the ape, of which the ancients have 
 left anatomical descriptions, was a species 
 of orang outang. His essays on lithotomy, 
 &c., have spread light on these sub- 
 jects. He was much devoted to com- 
 parative osteology, and believed, what the 
 discoveries of Cuvier have confirmed, 
 that there have really existed animals of 
 which the species are at present extinct. 
 His Dissertation on the natural Varieties, 
 &c., is the first work which has thrown 
 much light on the varieties of the human 
 species, which the author distinguishes 
 by the shape of the skull. His Treatise 
 on the natural Difference of Features in 
 Persons of various Countries and Ages, 
 ami on Beauty as exhibited in ancient 
 Paintings and Engravings, followed by a
 
 442 
 
 CAMPER CAMPHOR. 
 
 method of delineating various sorts of 
 heads with accuracy, is intended to prove 
 that the rules laid down by the most cel- 
 ebrated limners and painters are very de- 
 fective. His general doctrine is, that the 
 difference in form and cast of counte- 
 nance proceeds from the facial angle, 
 (q. v.) In his essay on the organs of 
 speech in apes, he proves that nature has 
 rendered the pronunciation of articulate 
 sounds impossible, even to those which ap- 
 proach nearest to man, by lateral pouches 
 connected with the windpipe. C. wrote in 
 four languages, and received ten prizes 
 from different academies. He received 
 his education at Leyden, and travelled, 
 and obtained the acquaintance of many 
 of the most distinguished men of Europe, 
 after which he was made professor of 
 philosophy, medicine and surgery in Fra- 
 neker. He taught the same sciences, af- 
 terwards, in Amsterdam and Groningen. 
 CAMPETTI ; an Italian, born at Garg- 
 nano, on lake Garda, who has attracted 
 much attention, in our time, by pretend- 
 ing to be capable of ascertaining, by his 
 feelings, the places where metals and 
 water exist under the ground. Many ex- 
 periments seemed to confirm his state- 
 ments. The king of Bavaria sent for him 
 in 1806, and he came to Munich, where 
 the experiments were renewed. These 
 experiments were chiefly made with pen- 
 dulums- of sulphurous pyrites, which are 
 said to vibrate if brought near to met- 
 als. Information on this subject is con- 
 tained in Aretin's Neuer Literarischer An- 
 zeiger (1807), beginning with No. 22. 
 Gilbert also published, in 1808, interest- 
 ing elucidations of these experiments. 
 (See Rhabdomancy.) 
 
 ^ CAMPHOR is a white, resinous produc- 
 tion, of peculiar and powerful smell, not 
 unlike that of rosemary, and is extracted 
 from two or three kinds of trees of the 
 bay tribe, that grow in the islands of the 
 East Indies and China. Of these, the 
 principal is the laurus campkora of Lin- 
 naeus. It is of considerable height, much 
 branched, and has spear-shaped leaves, 
 with nerves, of a pale-yello wish-green 
 color on the upper side, and bluish-green 
 beneath. The flowers are small, white, 
 and stand on stalks which issue from the 
 junction of the leaves and branches. 
 Camphor is found in every part of the 
 trees ; in the interstices of the perpendic- 
 ular fibres, and in the veins of the wood, 
 in the crevices and knots, in the pith, and 
 in the roots, which afford by far the 
 greatest abundance. The method of ex- 
 tracting it consists in distilling with water 
 
 in large iron pots, which serve as the 
 body of the still, with earthen heads fitted 
 to them, stuffed with straw, and provided 
 with receivers. Most of the camphor be- 
 comes condensed in the solid form among 
 the straw, and part comes over with the 
 water. Its sublimation is performed in 
 low, flat-bottomed glass vessels, placed in 
 sand, and the camphor becomes concrete, 
 in a pure state, against the upper part, 
 whence it is afterwards separated with a 
 knife, after breaking the glass. Numer- 
 ous other vegetables are found to yield 
 camphor by distillation. Among them 
 are thyme, rosemary, sage, elecampane, 
 anemone and pusatilla. A smell of cam- 
 phor is disengaged when the volatile oil of 
 fennel is treated with acids ; and a small 
 quantity of camphor may be obtained 
 from oil of turpentine by simple distilla- 
 tion, at a very gentle heat. Camphor has 
 a bitterish, aromatic taste, is unctuous to 
 the touch, and possesses a degree of 
 toughness which prevents it from being 
 pulverized with facility, unless a few. 
 drops of alcohol be added,, when it is 
 easily reduced to a powder. It floats on 
 water, and is exceedingly volatile, being 
 gradually dissipated in vapor if kept in 
 open vessels. At 288 Fahr. it enters into 
 fusion, and boils at 400 Fahr. It is insol- 
 uble in water, but is dissolved freely by 
 alcohol, from which it is immediately 
 precipitated, hi milky clouds, on the addi- 
 tion of water. It is likewise soluble in 
 the fixed and volatile oils, and in strong 
 acetic acid. Sulphuric acid decomposes 
 camphor, converting it into a substance 
 like artificial tannin. With nitric acid, it 
 yields a peculiar acid, called camphoric 
 acid. This acid combines with alkalies, 
 and forms peculiar salts, called cmnpkor- 
 ates. They have not hitherto been ap- 
 plied to any useful purpose. As an 
 internal medicine, camphor has been fre- 
 quently employed, in doses of from 5 
 to 20 grains, with much advantage, to 
 procure sleep in mania, and to counteract 
 gangrene. In large doses, it acts as a 
 poison. Dissolved in acetic acid, with 
 some essential oils, it forms the aromatic 
 vinegar. It promotes the solution of co- 
 pal ; and, from the circumstance that its 
 effluvia are very noxious to insects, it is 
 much used to defend subjects of natural 
 history from their ravages, In a crude 
 state, camphor is formed into irregular 
 lumps, of a yellowish-gray color, some- 
 what resembling nitre or bay-salt. It is 
 imported into Europe in canisters, and 
 the refining of it was long kept a secret 
 by the Venetians. The Dutch have since
 
 CAMPHOR CAMPO-FORMIO. 
 
 443 
 
 performed this work ; and large quanti- 
 ties of camphor are now refined by some 
 of the English and American chemists. 
 For carpenters' work the wood of the 
 camphor-tree is much used. It is light 
 and durable, and, in consequence of long 
 retaining its aromatic smell, is not liable 
 to be injured by insects. Plants of the 
 camphor and cinnamon trees were cap- 
 tured by admiral Rodney, in 1782, and 
 afterwards carried to Jamaica, and propa- 
 gated there. The camphor-tree which 
 grows very abundantly in the western parts 
 of Japan, is a different species from that 
 found in the islands of Sumatra and Bor- 
 neo, with which we are principally ac- 
 quainted. Camphor was formerly in 
 great repute as a medicine, but at present 
 its virtues are less highly rated. It is a 
 cordial and stimulant of a decidedly heat- 
 ing character, and is, therefore, improper 
 in all fevers, unless the system is very 
 low and weak. In such cases, if com- 
 bined with nitre and other cooling articles, 
 it is sometimes an excellent diaphoretic. 
 But, in fevers in general, it is an article 
 rather to be avoided. It was once, how- 
 ever, and is now, in some parts of Europe, 
 thought to be one of the best medicines 
 in fever of almost all sorts ; but it is an 
 article that could well be dispensed with 
 in common practice. As a domestic cor- 
 dial and medicine, it is, perhaps, more 
 used than any other, being still, in fami- 
 lies, a panacea for all ailments of the 
 smaller sort. 
 
 CAMPISTRO.V, Jean Galbert de; a dra- 
 matic poet, contemporary with Racine; 
 born 1656, at Toulouse, died 1723, at the 
 same place. His tragedies, at the time of 
 their appearance, met with extraordinary 
 applause. At present, however, they are 
 much less esteemed ; so that only two of 
 his pieces *4ndronicus, a tragedy which 
 represents, under fictitious names, the his- 
 tory of don Carlos, and the comedy Le Ja- 
 loux Desabusc are admitted into the se- 
 lection of the Theatre Francois des Aiiteurs 
 du Second Ordre. Laharpe says of C., "His 
 plots have been commended as probable : 
 they are so, but they are feeble in concep- 
 tion and execution." 
 
 CAMPO CHIARO, duke of; a Neapolitan 
 diplomatist. In 1805, he served, in the 
 royal guard, as captain of the Lipariots 
 a kind of mounted chasseurs. He remain- 
 ed in Naples when the king, on the ap- 
 proach of the French, fled, with his fam- 
 ily, to Sicily. His liberal sentiments placed 
 him, the next year, in Joseph's council of 
 state, and he was soon after appointed 
 minister of the royal house. Murat, also, 
 
 when Joseph was appointed king of 
 Spain, placed great confidence in him, 
 and intrusted to him the direction of the 
 police. He was afterwards employed on 
 the most important diplomatic missions, 
 among which was that to the congress of 
 Vienna. The imprudence of the king 
 himself, however, frustrated all the nego- 
 tiations of the duke, which were conduct- 
 ed with great ability. After the revolu- 
 tion of Naples, in 1820, he was appointed 
 minister of foreign affairs. His exertions 
 in this difficult post were not crowned with 
 success ; and, after the departure of the 
 king for the congress of Laybach, he was 
 summoned before the parliament, on ac- 
 count of the circular of count Zurlo, which 
 he had countersigned. He was, however, 
 acquitted. He now lives in retirement. 
 
 CAMPO-FORMIO; a castle near (or rather 
 a suburb of) Udine, in Friuli, a province 
 of the Austrian government of Venice, 
 celebrated for the peace, concluded here 
 October 17, 1797, between Austria and 
 France, and signed, on the part of Austria, 
 by the ambassadors Cobentzl, Meerveldt, 
 Degelmann, and the marquis of Gallo, 
 and, on the part of France, by general Bo- 
 naparte. The negotiations were begun at 
 Udine May 19, and were carried on alter- 
 nately there and in the castle of Passeria- 
 no, where Bonaparte resided. Austria 
 consented to cede Mantua, when Bona- 
 parte threatened to renew the war. The 
 treaty of peace was signed at both places, 
 but it was dated at Campo-Formio, be- 
 cause this place lay between Udine and 
 Passeriano, although the ambassadors had 
 never been there. Austria gave up the 
 Netherlands, Milan and Mantua. The 
 Cisalpine republic was formed from Mi- 
 lan, Mantua, Modena, Bologna, Ferrara, 
 Romagna, and the Venetian Terra Firma, 
 on the right bank of the Adige. The 
 republic of Venice was divided. Austria 
 obtained Venice, Istria, Dalmatia, and the 
 mouths of the Cattaro, and the Terra Fir- 
 ma, on the left bank of the Adige ; France, 
 the Venetian Ionian islands, and the Ve- 
 netian possessions in Albania. To effect 
 a peace with the German empire, a con- 
 gress was to be held at Rastadt. By secret 
 articles of agreement, the emperor con- 
 sented to the partial or total surrender of 
 the left bank of the Rhine to France, for 
 which Austria was to receive Salzburg, 
 and a part of Bavaria on the Inn. To 
 the duke of Modena, and other princes 
 who had lost a portion of their territory, 
 indemnifications in Germany were secur- 
 ed. Bonaparte had, of his own authority, 
 concluded this peace. The reader will
 
 CAMPO-FORMIO LOWER CANADA. 
 
 find his explanation of this subject in his 
 .Mr-moires (4th vol.) dicte au Compte de 
 Montholon (London, 1824, p. 242). The 
 directory was discontented with the trea- 
 ty. Later occurrences gave occasion to a 
 second coalition against France, in 1798 ; 
 upon which France declared war against 
 the king of Hungary and Bohemia, and the 
 grand-duke of Tuscany, March 12, 1799. 
 (See the articles Rastadt, Luncville, peace 
 at ; also, Scholl's Traites dc Paix, vol. 5th.) 
 CAMPOMANES (don Pedro Rodriguez) 
 count of, a celebrated Spanish minister, 
 whose learning, and profound and elevat- 
 ed views iii political economy, place him 
 among the first writers of his country, was 
 born early in the 18th century. He was 
 director of the academy of history, and 
 his own works were a model of taste and 
 industry. As a statesman and a publicist, 
 he enlightened his countrymen by his 
 writings on agriculture, manufactures, and 
 the true principles of commerce. He was 
 chosen a member of the academy of 
 belles-lettres at Paris, and, on the proposal 
 of Franklin, of the philosophical society 
 of Philadelphia. C. raised himself solely 
 by his own merits. His reputation as the 
 most learned lawyer in Spain obtained 
 him, in 1765, the appointment of fiscal to 
 the royal council of Castile, by whose or- 
 der he published, 1768, an Answer to the 
 Letters of the Bishop of Cuenca, in which 
 that prelate asserted that the immunities 
 and revenues of the Spanish church were 
 attacked. He had already published a 
 Treatise on Ecclesiastical Mortmain 
 (1765), which was translated into Italian, 
 by order of the senate of Venice. He as- 
 sisted Aranda in the expulsion of the Jes- 
 uits from Spain, and labored to introduce 
 a more equal distribution of the taxes, 
 to diminish the number of mendicants, 
 &c. In 1788, on the accession of Charles 
 IV, C. was appointed president of the 
 council of Castile and minister of state. 
 With the rise of the count Florida Blan- 
 co, the favor of C. began to decline. He 
 was removed from the council, and retired 
 in disgrace. His death took place early 
 in the 19th century. Among his numer- 
 ous works are, Dissertation on the Tem- 
 plars (1747); Commercial Antiquity of 
 Carthage (1756), in which he controverts 
 the opinions of Dodwell, on the Periplns 
 of Hanno ; Discurso Sobre el Fomento de 
 la [iiduslria popular (8vo., 1774); and Dis- 
 curso Sobre la Education popular de Ins 
 Artisanos (1775); and a Sequel to the lat- 
 ter work (4 vols., 8vo., 1775 77), which 
 treats of the causes of the decline of the 
 arts in Spain. 
 
 CAMPUS MARTIUS (called also, by way 
 of eminence, Campus, merely) was a large 
 place in the suburbs of ancient Rome, 
 between the mons Capitolinus and Picius, 
 surrounded, in a great measure, by the 
 Tiber. Its name was derived from a 
 temple of Mars, situated in it. The first 
 meetings of the people (comitia centuriata) 
 were held here, and the first lustrum was 
 celebrated in this place. (!M. i.,24.) Tar- 
 quiii the Proud sowed it with grain, but 
 Brutus and Collatinus restored it to the 
 people, who destroyed the grain, appro- 
 priated it anew to its former destination, 
 and made it, at the same time, a place of 
 exercise and gymnastic sports for the Ro- 
 man youth. The bodies of the most dis- 
 tinguished men were burned there. Sit- 
 uated so near the city, it soon became 
 covered with splendid buildings, of which 
 the finest was the circus Flaminius. It 
 is now filled with memorable ruins, and 
 is one of the most interesting parts of 
 Rome. 
 
 CAMUCCIM, Vicenzo, is considered the 
 best among the living historical painters 
 of Italy. He was born at Rome, and is a 
 follower of the French school, from the 
 hardness and exaggeration of which the 
 iceling of the beautiful, natural to an Ital- 
 ian, has secured him. A. W. Schlegel 
 says of him, " He is correct, in the better 
 sense of the word, to a very high degree. 
 His drawing is accurate, his coloring vig- 
 orous and bright without harshness, his 
 draperies well studied, the arrangement 
 of his groups happy, as is his composition 
 in general ; yet he seems wanting in in- 
 vention." He is a member of the acad- 
 emy of San Luca, and painted for St. 
 Peter's his Christ with the unbelieving 
 Thomas. He possesses a large collection 
 of pictures and casts, and is celebrated tor 
 his success in restoring old pictures. 
 
 CAXAAX. (See Palestine.) 
 
 CANADA ; a country in North America, 
 belonging to Great Britain ; divided, in 
 1791, into the provinces of Upper and 
 Lower Canada. 
 
 Lower Canada is bounded X. by New 
 Britain, E. by New Britain and the gulf 
 of St. Lawrence, S. E. and S. by New 
 Brunswick, and the states of Maine, New 
 Hampshire, Vermont and New York, and 
 S. W. and W. by Upper Canada. The 
 Ottawa river forms a great part of the 
 boundary between Upper and Lower Can- 
 ada. Above its source, the line runs due 
 north to Hudson's bay, about Ion. 81 W. 
 Lon. 62 81 W. ; lat, 45 52 N. The 
 5. .habitants, in 1763, were 70,000; in 1814, 
 335,000, of whom 275,000 were native or
 
 CANADA. 
 
 445 
 
 Frencli Canadians, the remainder being 
 a mixture of English, Scotch, Irish, and 
 emigrants from the L T . States. In 1823, 
 the population was 427.4(5.1. It is divided 
 into 5 districts, viz., Montreal, Three 
 Rivers, Quebec, Gaspe and St. Francis, 
 which were subdivided, in 1792, into 21 
 counties. The 'minor divisions are, 1. 
 seigniories, or the original grants of the 
 French government under the feudal sys- 
 tem; 2. townships, or grants of land made 
 by the English since 1790, in free and 
 common soccage. The principal towns 
 are Quebec, the capital, Montreal, Three 
 Rivers, New Carlisle, William Henry, St. 
 John's, Chambly and La Chine. The 
 government is modelled on the principles 
 of the British constitution. The execu- 
 tive power is vested in a governor, with a 
 council of 10 members, all appointed by 
 the king of Great Britain. The legisla- 
 ture, or provincial parliament, is compos- 
 ed of a council of 28 members, appointed 
 by the king, and a house of assembly of 
 50 members, elected by the people. About 
 nine tenths of the inhabitants are Catho- 
 lics ; the majority of the remainder are 
 Episcopalians. There are two bishops 
 residing at Quebec, one Catholic, the 
 other of the church of England. The 
 number of Catholic clergymen, in 1811, 
 was 140; of Episcopal clergymen, in 
 1829, 25, and of Presbyterian, 4. There 
 are respectable seminaries at Quebec and 
 Montreal, but education is generally neg- 
 lected by the French Canadians, the most 
 of whom are unable to read and write. 
 The descendants of the ancient Canadian 
 colonists retain the politeness, sprightli- 
 ness, and easy manners of the old French, 
 from whom they sprung. Their houses 
 are built of stone and plastered, seldom, 
 except in the towns, of more than one 
 story, and made extremely warm by 
 means of stoves. Their furniture is gen- 
 erally of their own workmanship, and 
 very simple. Their principal article of 
 food is peas soup, with a small quantity 
 of pork boiled in it, and a dish of thick, 
 sour milk. The women and children 
 seldom make use of any other drink than 
 milk and water, but the men are passion- 
 ately fond of rum. During the six months 
 of winter, a great portion of the time is 
 devoted to amusement, of which the most 
 prevalent is dancing. The climate is 
 healthy, but the extremes of heat and cold 
 are very great; the thermometer some- 
 times rising, in summer, to 100 Fahr., and 
 sinking, in winter, to 40 below 0. The 
 great river St. Lawrence forms a striking 
 feature of Canada. The other principal 
 VOL. ii. 38 
 
 rivers are the Ottawa or Uttawas, Richelieu 
 or Sorel, St. Francis, Chaudiere, Sague- 
 nay, St. Maurice, Black, Bustard, Jietsia- 
 mites, Harricanaw and Rupert. The prin- 
 cipal lakes are St. John's, St. Peter's, Abbi- 
 tibbe, Mistassiu and Manicouagan. Lower 
 Canada is intersected by ridges of moun- 
 tains, which generally extend from the 
 coast into the interior, with intervening 
 valleys of a fertile and pleasant appearance. 
 The valley through which the St. Law- 
 rence flows is enclosed on each side by 
 mountains. It is mostly level, ofa very rich 
 soil, and is thickly settled. The country 
 lying upwards of 50 miles north of the 
 St. Lawrence has been but little explored, 
 and is only known to be covered with 
 immense Ibrests. The productions are 
 grass, wheat, peas, rye, Indian corn, bar- 
 Icy, and culinary vegetables. The com- 
 merce has been progressively increasing, 
 since the country came into the posses- 
 sion of Great Britain. The exports, in 
 1769, amounted to only 163,000; in 
 1808, to 1,156,000. These consist chief- 
 ly of lumber, furs, grain, and pot and 
 pearl ashes ; the imports, of wines, rum, 
 sugar, molasses, coftee, tobacco, salt, coals, 
 and British manufactures, amounting, in 
 1808, to 610,000. 
 
 Upper Canada is bounded E. and S. E. 
 by Lower Canada, S. by the U. States, 
 from which it is separated by the St. Law- 
 rence and the chain of the great lakes. 
 New Britain lies on the north and west, 
 but the limits are not well denned, the 
 regions on these borders being unsettled. 
 Lon. 74 to about 98 W. ; lat. 42 to about 
 50 N. The population, in 1783, was es- 
 timated at only 10,000 ; in 1814, at 95,000 ; 
 and, in 1826, at 231,778. The country 
 has been settled chiefly by emigrants 
 from Great Britain and Ireland, and the 
 U. States. It is divided into 11 districts, 
 viz., Eastern, Johnstown, Midland, New- 
 castle, Home, Niagara, London, Western, 
 Gore, Bathurst and Ottawa. These are 
 subdivided into counties and townships. 
 The townships contain, on an average, 
 about 61,600 acres each ; total, 9,694,400 
 acres. Of these, about 3,000,000 acres 
 are granted in free and common soccage, 
 2,769,828 reserved for the crown and cler- 
 gy, and 3,924,572 still remain to be grant- 
 ed. The country which, in 1818, had 
 been laid out and surveyed, extends about 
 570 miles along the north shore of the 
 river St. Lawrence, lakes Ontario and 
 Erie, up to lake St. Clair, varying from 
 40 to 50 miles in breadth. The soil con- 
 sists, generally, of a fine dark loam, mixed 
 with a rich vegetable mould. The whole
 
 446 
 
 CANADA. 
 
 country presents a great degree of same- 
 ness, au almost uniform level, rising only 
 a few feet above the banks of the St. Law- 
 rence, and finely intersected, in every 
 direction, by numerous streams, some of 
 which are navigable. The productions 
 are grass, wheat, Indian corn, flax, hops, 
 &c. The climate is healthy, and consid- 
 erably milder than in Lower Canada. 
 Farther north, the country is covered 
 with immense forests, but is little known, 
 except to the Indians. The principal riv- 
 ers are the St. Lawrence, Ottawa, Niagara, 
 Trent, Ouse, Redstone and Thames. One 
 half of the lakes Ontario, Erie, St. Clair, 
 Huron, Superior, and lake of the Woods, 
 is included in Upper Canada. There are, 
 besides, lakes Nipissing, Simcoe, St. Jo- 
 seph's, &c. The principal towns are 
 York, the capital, Kingston, Niagara, 
 Brockville, Queenstown and Chippeway. 
 The Methodists are the most numerous 
 religious denomination. There are also 
 Episcopalians, Presbyterians, Baptists, 
 Quakers and Mennonists. The executive 
 power is vested in a lieutenant-governor 
 and a council of 7 members, all appointed 
 by the king. The legislative power is 
 vested in a council, the members of which 
 are appointed by the king, and a house 
 of assembly, or provincial parliament, 
 consisting of upwards of 40 members, re- 
 turned from the counties. 
 
 The French appear to have availed 
 themselves of the information derived 
 from Cabot's voyage to North America, 
 before any other nation. We hear of 
 their fishing for cod on the banks of New- 
 foundland very early in the 16th century. 
 About 1506, one Denys, a Frenchman, is 
 said to have drawn a map of the gulf of 
 St. Lawrence, and, two years afterwards, 
 Aubert, a master of a vessel belonging to 
 Dieppe, carried over to France some of 
 the natives of C. Several years, however, 
 passed away before public attention was 
 again turned to it. In 1524, Francis I 
 sent four ships, under Verazani, a Floren- 
 tine, to prosecute discoveries in this coun- 
 try. The particulars of his first expedi- 
 tion are not known. He returned to 
 France, and, the next year, undertook a 
 second, which appeal's to have produced 
 no beneficial result. On a third voyage, 
 he and all his company perished. In 
 April, 1534, James Cartier, of St. Maloes, 
 sailed, by commission from the king, 
 with two small ships and 122 men, and, 
 May 10, came in sight of Newfoundland ; 
 but the earth was covered with snow, and 
 great quantities of ice were about the 
 shore. Having sailed to the 51st degree 
 
 of latitude, in the vain hope of passing to 
 China, he returned to France without 
 making a settlement. In the following 
 year, he sailed a second time from France, 
 with three ships, proceeded up the St. 
 Lawrence 300 leagues, to a great and 
 swift fall ; built a foit, and wintered in the 
 country. The French were well received 
 by the natives, but were soon infected 
 with the scurvy, of which disease 25 of 
 their number died. The next spring, 
 Cartier returned, with the remains of his 
 crew, to France. Between 1540 and 1549, 
 a nobleman of Picardy, de la Roque, lord 
 of Roberval, made an attempt to found a 
 colony in C., but perished, on his second 
 voyage, with a great number of adventur- 
 ers. At last, Henry IV appointed the 
 marquis de la Roche lieutenant-general 
 of C. and the neighboring countries. In 
 1598, he landed on the isle of Sable, 
 which he absurdly imagined to be a suit- 
 able place for the establishment of a colo- 
 ny, though it was without any port, and 
 produced no other crop than briers. Here 
 he left about 40 malefactors, the gleanings 
 of the French jails. After cruising, for 
 some time, on the coast of Nova Scotia, 
 without being able to relieve these unfor- 
 tunate settlers, he returned to France. 
 His colony must have perished, had not a 
 French ship been wrecked on the island, 
 from which a few sheep were driven 
 ashore. With the boards of the ship they 
 erected huts, and, while the sheep lasted, 
 they lived upon them, feeding afterwards 
 upon fish. Then 1 clothes wearing out, 
 they made garments of seal-skins, and, 
 in this miserable condition, spent seven 
 years, when Henry IV ordered them to be 
 brought home to France, and, on seeing 
 their miserable appearance, was so much 
 moved, that he forgave them their of- 
 fences, and presented each with 50 crowns 
 to begin the world anew. In 1600, one 
 Chauvin, a commander in the French 
 navy, made a voyage to C., from which 
 he returned with a profitable cargo of furs. 
 The public now began to turn more 
 attention to this country. An arma- 
 ment was equipped, and the command 
 given to Pontgran. He sailed in 1603. 
 In 1608, the city of Quebec was founded, 
 and from this period the establishment 
 of a permanent French colony commenc- 
 ed. The settlement was, for many years, 
 in a feeble condition, and was often in 
 danger of being totally exterminated by 
 the Indians. The French, however, con- 
 cluded a treaty of peace with them, and, 
 finally, by their address, obtained entire 
 control over them, to the great inconven-
 
 CANADA CANAL. 
 
 447 
 
 ience of the neighboring English settle- 
 ments. In 1028, a company of French 
 merchants obtained a patent for the ex- 
 clusive trade with Canada. The next 
 year, an English expedition, under sir 
 David Keith, "took possession of Quebec; 
 but it was surrendered again to the 
 French, by the treaty of St. Germain's. In 
 1<><>3, the "charter of the company of mer- 
 chants was taken away, and new privi- 
 leges were granted, for 40 years, to the 
 "\Yt 'st India company. From this period, 
 C. appears to have remained in a state of 
 tranquillity until ItiPO, when a bold at- 
 tempt was made by the people of New 
 England to reduce it to subjection to the 
 crown of England. An armament was 
 equipped for this service, and the com- 
 mand given to sir William Pliipps. The 
 effective men, to the number of between 
 12 and 1300, landed a little below the 
 town of Quebec, and vyere fired on from 
 the woods by the French and Indians. 
 Having found the place too strong for 
 them, they reembarked with precipitation, 
 and returned to Boston. The attempt 
 was renewed, in 1711, by a powerful 
 force of British veteran troops, assisted by 
 about 4000 provincials and Indians. Such 
 were the difficulties and losses, however, 
 experienced in passing up the river, that 
 the design wa.s abandoned by the British 
 officers, to the great mortification of the 
 provincial troops. C. continued in the 
 occupation of the French, without any 
 further molestation, until the breaking out 
 of the war between France and England, 
 in 175G. Great preparations were then 
 made, on both sides, for attack and de- 
 fence. In 1759, the British government 
 formed the project of attempting the con- 
 quest of C. by three different but simulta- 
 neous attacks. One division of the army 
 was to ascend the St. Lawrence, and lay 
 siege to Quebec. The central and main 
 body was to be conducted against Ticon- 
 deroga and Crown Point. The third was 
 to proceed against Niagara, and, after the 
 reduction of that place, to descend tlje 
 St. Lawrence to Montreal. The division 
 which ascended the St. Lawrence was 
 commanded by general Wolfe, and was 
 defeated in its first operations by the 
 French. The English, however, finally 
 obtained possession of Quebec, after a 
 gallant resistance on the part of the 
 French, whose brave commander, Mont- 
 ralm, had been killed in the action. The 
 English general Wolfe was also killed. 
 Soon afterwards, the whole province of 
 C. was subdued by the English forces, 
 Slid was confirmed to Great Britain by 
 
 the treaty of 1763. In 1775, C. was in- 
 vaded by a body of provincial troops, un- 
 der general Montgomery. Montreal was 
 taken, and a gallant but unsuccessful at- 
 tempt was made on Quebec, in which the 
 brave Montgomery was killed. No other 
 attempt was made on this province during 
 the revolutionary war. We have lew- 
 records of Canadian history from this pe- 
 riod until the late war between the U. 
 States and 'England. Upper C. then be- 
 came the theatre of a sanguinary contest. 
 The American troops were unable, how- 
 ever, to make any permanent conquests, 
 and the province has since remained sub- 
 ject to Great Britain. In 1625, the re- 
 strictions upon its commerce, under which 
 it had labored, with the other colonies of' 
 Great Britain, were principally removed, 
 and its trade has since greatly increased. 
 
 CANAILLE ; a French word, signifying 
 the lowest class of people. In the time, 
 however,, which immediately preceded 
 the revolution, when the arrogance of the 
 nobility wa.s outrageous, canaille signified, 
 with them, all who were not noblemen. 
 The people adopted the word, during the 
 revolution, in contempt of the nobility. In 
 this sense, Napoleon said, at St. Helena, 
 that he sprung from the canaille ; i. e., he 
 did not belong to the feudal aristocracy. 
 
 CANAL. A canal, in navigation, is an 
 artificial channel for transportation by 
 water, The first inquiry in the project 
 of such a work, accordingly, relates to the 
 amount of transportation that will be ac- 
 commodated by the route proposed, at 
 some given rate of tolls (for the quantity 
 will be in some degree influenced by that 
 rate). If the project be a mere specula- 
 tion, or investment of capital by individu- 
 als fin- the sake of income, its expediency 
 will be determined by the net amount of 
 annual tolls it will probably yield; which 
 ought, in this view of the matter, tp be 
 equal to the ordinary rate of interest. But 
 the general utility or public expediency 
 of a project of this sort is not determined 
 wholly by this mode of calculation ; for, 
 in this view, we must look at the indirect 
 advantages, such as the increased value 
 of lands on the borders of the canal, the 
 increased profits of other works connected 
 with or affected by the one proposed ; as 
 in the case of the smaller branches of in- 
 ternal navigation in England, many of 
 which, as will be seen by referring to the 
 subjoined list, are not very productive 
 investments, but doubtless contribute 
 to the large income of the great lines 
 of transportation between the principal 
 towns, as London and Liverpool, by in*
 
 448 
 
 CANAL CANALS OF EGYPT. 
 
 creasing the amount of goods that pass 
 along those lines. To determine the 
 general public utility of one of these 
 smaller branches, therefore, we must esti- 
 mate not only the increased value which 
 it gives to coal mines, stone quarries, for- 
 ests, &<c. on its borders, but also its effects 
 in enhancing the value of other canals. 
 But a work of this sort may be, on the 
 whole, of public utility, although an ab- 
 solute income, in consequence of the in- 
 vestment, can nowhere be traced, but 
 only a reduction of the cost of some arti- 
 cle of general use, by means of adiminution 
 of the labor, the number of days' or hours' 
 work, necessary to furnish the article, at 
 any place. Thus the proprietors of the 
 duke of Bridgewater's canal are under ob- 
 ligation to supply the inhabitants of Man- 
 chester with coals at the rate of 4d, for 
 140 pounds, which is a great benefit to 
 the inhabitants of that town. This is one 
 of the advantages of this work, which 
 should be taken into the account in esti- 
 mating its public utility. Another bene- 
 ficial consequence of any great improve- 
 ment of this description, as well as those 
 of other kinds, often is to promote some 
 species of arts : for instance, a canal may 
 promote agriculture, horticulture, &c. by 
 irrigation or opening a market. In deter- 
 mining on any canal project, then, as well 
 as in estimating its utility, these various 
 circumstances are to be taken into con- 
 sideration. The motives, whether of pub- 
 lic utility or private emolument, or a union 
 of them both, being sufficient to induce to 
 the undertaking, the next things to be con- 
 sidered are, the obtaining of an adequate 
 supply of water, the particular route to be 
 taken, and the mode of construction. On 
 these subjects, the reader is referred to the 
 treatises more particularly relating to them. 
 The remainder of the present article will 
 be devoted to a general account of some 
 of the most considerable works of this 
 sort. Minuteness of detail and technical 
 accuracy, in regard to the dimensions, &c., 
 cannot be expected in a book of this kind. 
 The length of the canals is probably 
 given with sufficient correctness. The 
 breadth is, in many instances, stated, in 
 the works to which a resort was necessa- 
 rily had, without distinguishing whether 
 it was that of the bottom or water line, 
 and, in these instances, it has been given 
 as it was found, the reader being left to 
 refer it to one or the other of these di- 
 mensions, according to the breadth of the 
 locks, and other facts stated respecting 
 such canals. 
 CASALS OF EGYPT. Egypt has been 
 
 celebrated for its canals from the earliest 
 periods of history. The principal are, the 
 canal of Alexandria, between that city and 
 Rosetta and the Nile ; that of Jessuf, on 
 the western bank of the Nile, and paral- 
 lel to it ; and that of the Red sea and 
 Nile, across the isthmus of Suez. The 
 existence of this last, though a subject 
 heretofore of some discussion, is now 
 established beyond doubt. It was begun 
 by Necho, son of Psammeticus, about (il(i 
 B. C., and the work was continued by 
 Darius Ilystaspes, but was afterwards 
 abandoned, from fear of inundating a great 
 part of Egypt, which is supposed to be 
 lower than the surface of the Red sea. 
 The Avork was, however, resumed, and 
 completed near a century afterwards, 
 about 521 years before the Christian era. by 
 Ptolemy II ; but a current from the Red 
 sea upon Egypt was prevented, it seems, 
 by a barrier or bank across the canal ; or a 
 part of the route may have been left not 
 excavated. This dam, if narrow, might 
 have been passed by boats on inclined 
 planes, after the Chinese method, or oth- 
 erwise ; but it seems to be more probable, 
 that boats did not pass between the canal 
 and the Red sea, but that the cargoes 
 were earned by land across the interven- 
 ing barrier, or portion of ground not exca- 
 vated, and reshipped. Herodotus says 
 this canal was of 4 days' navigation, and 
 wide enough to admit of 4 vessels to pass 
 abreast. Strabo says it was 100 cubits wide, 
 and of sufficient depth for large vessels. The 
 breadth would probably vary very much, 
 as does that of the canal of Alexandria ; 
 for if it was made, for any considerable 
 part of the distance, by embanking, instead 
 of excavating, additional- breadth might 
 be given without increasing the expense of 
 construction; and, if navigated by sailing- 
 vessels, like the canal of Alexandria, the 
 additional breadth would be convenient, 
 though not maintained through the whole 
 route. The canal of Jessuf leaves the 
 Rosetta outlet of the Nile, near Rha- 
 meneh, passes a little south of Demanhour 
 (the ancient Hermopolis perrra), and thence 
 by the north-east snore of the lakeMareo- 
 tis, to Alexandria. Two branches pass 
 off in a north-west direction, and one in 
 a southwardly, which communicates with 
 the lake Mareotis. This canal is navi- 
 gated by sailing-vessels, being, in most 
 parts, of a convenient breadth for this 
 purpose, though, at its entrance from the 
 Nile by its new channel, it is only 19 feet 
 wide. The old entrance, a little north of 
 the new, is not used, on account of the 
 height of the banks, which intercept the
 
 CANALS OF EGYPT AND CHINA. 
 
 449 
 
 wind. Afterwards, at the village of Leme- 
 dis, it spreads to the breadth of about 55 
 yards, and keeps this breadth for 2 
 leagues, where the banks are 13 feet 
 above the bottom of the canal, and 10 
 above the surface of the ground. Passing 
 over 2 leagues more, towards Alexandria 
 to Gabel, the breadth is contracted to 22 
 yards. It continues of about this breadth 
 lor 4 leagues, and is very regular. Be- 
 yond Leloha, it widens, varying in^the 
 first half league from 109 to 273 yards in 
 breadth. Near Beda, it is 55 yards wide, 
 and the banks 23 feet high. Passing on 
 towards Alexandria, the country sinks by 
 degrees, until the bottom of the canal is 
 on a level with the adjacent territory, and 
 then rises above it, the canal being here 
 formed by embankments ; but, for a league 
 before arriving at Alexandria, the ground 
 rises again, so that the canal is here formed 
 by an excavation in the ground. It passes 
 very near the lake Aboukir, on the left, in 
 the course we have been following, and 
 Is separated from it, near the western ex- 
 tremity of the lake, only by a wall about 
 20 feet in thickness. The water must 
 rise 13 feet above the lowest state of the 
 Nile to enter the Alexandria canal ; and, 
 at high water in the Nile, the water in 
 the canal is about 2 feet deep on an 
 average. The distance, in a straight line, 
 from Rhameneh to Alexandria, is about 
 15 leagues, but by the course of the canal, 
 20. The navigation of this canal con- 
 tinues only about 20 or 25 days in the 
 year, during the highest water of the Nile. 
 The French, when in Egypt, were enabled 
 to navigate this canal tor six weeks by 
 clearing away about 18 inches of mud 
 near Rhameneh, at the eastern extremity, 
 This canal, which now passes through 
 ruins and deserts, and is navigable for on- 
 ly a few days of the year, was, as late as 
 the 14th century, bordered by a wealthy 
 and populous territory, and, in the time 
 of the Roman and Greek empires, was 
 the channel of an extensive transportation. 
 CA.NALS OF CHINA. The Chinese seem 
 to have a more extensive inland canal 
 navigation than any other nation, if not 
 greater than that of all other nations. 
 The general course of the rivers is from 
 west to east, the principal of which are 
 the Yang-tse, or Kiang-keo, to the south, 
 the course of which is said to be 200Q 
 miles, and its breadth 2-i miles at a dis- 
 tance of 100 miles from its mouth : and 
 the Yellow river, to the northward, which 
 is represented to lie still longer. These 
 two rivers empty into the sea, within 100 
 miles of each other, though they are more 
 38* 
 
 than 1000 miles apart in the interior of the 
 country. The artificial channels of navi- 
 gation pass in a northerly and southerly 
 direction across the territory lying between 
 the natural streams, thus making lines of 
 communication between these principal 
 rivers and their various branches, which 
 form the natural channels of transporta- 
 tion in the easterly and westerly direction. 
 As these canals pass over the summits of 
 the intermediate territories between the 
 great streams, the different parts of the 
 canals must be upon different levels, and 
 there must, accordingly, be some means 
 for boats to pass from one level to anoth- 
 er, which they do mostly by means of 
 inclined planes and rollers, over which 
 they are drawn by men. The ascent and 
 descent, at some of these planes, is 15 feet. 
 The banks of the canals are, in many 
 instances, lined with freestone, and con- 
 tain sluices to let the water off for irrigate 
 ing the country and supplying the towns ; 
 and in many parts, also, they are beautifully 
 ornamented with trees. The barque in 
 which Le Compte passed from Nimpo on 
 a canal, was 70 feet long and 16 feet 
 broad. The management, repairs and 
 extension of the canals is a very impor- 
 tant branch of the internal economy of 
 the empire, and the description and his- 
 tory of these works is said to occupy 40 
 volumes ; which does not, however, give 
 us a very definite idea of the extent of 
 these records, as we are not told the size 
 of these volumes. Some of the most exr 
 tensive of these works have been in ope- 
 ration about 2000 years, having been 
 completed 80 years before the Christian 
 era ; and, about A. D. 605, it is said there 
 were completed in the empire 1GOO 
 leagues of canal. The Imperial canal, 
 and the continuation of the line of trans- 
 portation between Pekin and Canton, of 
 which that forms a part, is most frequent- 
 ly spoken of, though the distance of the 
 whole route is variously stated. Malte- 
 Brun, in his Geography, states it at 1660 
 miles, but it is stated by others at 920. 
 The navigation over this route occupies 
 about 3 months. The part of this line 
 called the Imperial canal is said to be 
 about 500 miles in length from the vicinity 
 of Pekin to the Yellow river, which it 
 meets about 25 leagues from the sea, where 
 the river is about a mile wide and 9 or 10 
 feet deep. This canal is called the Imperial, 
 from its being navigated only by the em- 
 peror's boats, which Le Compte estimates 
 at 1000, of 100 tons burthen each. Be- 
 tween the Yellow river and Canton, the 
 navigation is interrupted, for about 30
 
 450 
 
 CANALS OF CHINA, ITALY, RUSSIA, SWEDEN. 
 
 iniles, by a mountainous district, causing a 
 portage of that distance. 
 
 CANALS or ITALY. In ancient Italy, 
 besides the canal of the Pontine marshes, 
 intended as a drain, and used also for navi- 
 gation, the region about the mouths of the 
 Po was intersected by the fossa Augusti, 
 fossa PhilisHna, and numerous other 
 canals. It was in Italy that the great 
 improvement, in modern canals, over the 
 ancient and those of China, was first in- 
 troduced, in 1481, by the construction of 
 locks and sluices to pass boats from one 
 level to another. It was the invention of 
 two engineers of Yiterbo, brothers, whose 
 names have not been handed down. 
 This improvement was soon after adopted 
 in the Milanese territory, under the direc- 
 tion of Leonardo da Vinci, the famous 
 painter, who was also celebrated as an 
 engineer. Inland navigation became so 
 important, that the Italian governments 
 paid great attention to it, and enacted 
 many regulations on the subject, and nu- 
 merous treatises were published on the 
 construction of locks and the art of mak- 
 ing and managing canals. The following 
 are some of the principal canals of modern 
 Italy. The Naviglio Grande, between 
 Milan and the river Tesino, 15 miles in 
 length, 130 French feet broad at the sur- 
 face, and 46 at the bottom. It was ex- 
 tended to Milan in 1257, and enlarged, in 
 1269, with a branch of about 11 miles in 
 length, from Abiato southward. The Mar- 
 tesena canal branches off from the right 
 bank of the Adda, near Concessa (ancient 
 Trizzo) ; is 24 miles in length and 33 
 feet in breadth, and is raised, in some 
 places, by walls and embankments, 110 
 feet above the level of the river. In 1497, 
 5 locks were introduced into this canal. 
 The great canal of Tesino terminates at 
 Milan. The Muzza canal is drawn also 
 from the river Adda, near Cassano, and 
 re-enters the river at Castiglione, 40 miles 
 distant. In Piedmont are the Naviglio 
 ifJnea, 38 miles in length, uniting the 
 Dora Baltea and the Sessia, with a branch 
 of 13 miles, to the Gardena river ; and a 
 canal of 27 miles from Dora Baltea, a little 
 above the falls of the Po,which, passing Tri- 
 no, unites with the Po 4 miles below Casal. 
 These 2 canals are parallel to the Po, and 
 substitutes for it. There are 3 other short 
 canals in this territory. In the duchy of 
 Mantua is the fossa Pvzzola, 15 miles in 
 length, from the Mincio to the Tartaro, 
 and the canal of St. George, 7 miles long, 
 branching to the lake of Mantua; also 
 the Montanaro, 8 miles from the same 
 lake to the Po, at Borgo Fute ; the fossa 
 
 ,Mrie.<ttra, 5 miles from Ozoma to the canal 
 Montnnaro ; and the Fossero, from the Min- 
 cio, 7 miles. In the duchy of Modcna is a 
 canal 1C! miles in length, from SerHiia by 
 Modena to Panaro, which has iseveral 
 branches, one 5 miles long. In the papal 
 territory is the fossa Rangone, parallel to r ! ;< > 
 Panaro, from which a branch passes (AY by 
 Conteto Po Mort or Po di Jerana, and the 
 canalDi Giovanni >\*iginales,%2 miles long. 
 From Bologna to Ferrara is the canal Di 
 .Vru'i'fifZj'o, 24 miles long, and terminating 
 in the great marshes. There are, besides, 
 many short branches of the canals, already 
 mentioned, as well as locks and channels 
 for passing rapids in the navigable rivers. 
 
 CANALS OF RUSSIA. The canals of Rus- 
 sia began with Peter the Great, who had 
 observed their useful effects in Holland. 
 He commenced three. The canal of Lado- 
 ga, begun by him A. D. 1718, and finished 
 by the empress Anne, is 67 miles long, 
 from the Yolk to the Neva, 70 feet broad, 
 and the water 7 feet deep in summer, and 
 10 in winter. The canal of Vishnti- Volo- 
 sholk, completed under Peter the Great, 
 but much improved, afterwards, by Cath- 
 arine, forms a communication, by water, 
 between Astracan and Petersburg, or 
 between the Caspian and the Baltic, 
 which is effected, as will be seen by re- 
 ferring to the map, by passing from the 
 Caspian up the Wolga, then turning into 
 the river 1 vertza ; leaving which, the ca- 
 nal passes over to the river Schlina, 
 which flows towards the Baltic into the 
 lake Martina, from which flows the river 
 Mista, which, after a course of 234 miles, 
 disc-barges itself into lake Ilmen, from 
 which issues the Yolk, that runs 130 
 miles, and empties into the lake Ladoga, 
 which again gives rise to the Neva, that 
 discharges itself into the Baltic at Peters- 
 burg ; so that these three rivers are, in 
 fact, the same stream, passing through 
 three lakes in its course. It is said that 
 3485 barques have passed through this ca- 
 nal in one year. There are many other ca- 
 nals in Russia, which we have not space 
 to describe. The canals and rivers supply 
 the channels of a very extensive inland 
 navigation in Russia: so that goods may be 
 transported, by rivers and canals, from the 
 frontiers of China to Petersburg, a distance 
 of 4472 miles; and the line of navigation 
 from Astracan to that capital is 1434 miles. 
 
 CANALS OF SWEDEN. Canals were early 
 opened in Sweden, and the improvement 
 of the inland navigation has always been 
 a subject of great interest to the govern- 
 ment. Among the modern canals of this 
 country is that of Stromskolm, 60 iniles
 
 CANALS OP SWEDEN, DENMARK, HOLLAND, GERMANY, SPAIN. 451 
 
 long, the descent 336 feet, the number of 
 locks 25, breadth 18 feet, and depth 4 feet 
 4 inches. The Kindac canal and the 
 Gotha canal, intended to open a commu- 
 nication between the lake Wenner and 
 the Baltic, have been commenced under 
 the superintendence of the English engi- 
 neer Mr. Telford. The canal of Trol- 
 hatta makes a navigable channel round 
 the rapids of Trolhatta, in the river Gotha, 
 consisting of successive cascades, one of 
 60 feet in height, and, in all, 114 feet, and 
 situated N. E. of Gothenburg, about 45 
 miles. The project of constructing works, 
 by which to pass these rapids, was long 
 contemplated, and finally accomplished 
 in 1800. These rapids interrupted the 
 navigation of the Gotha for about two 
 miles ; and the difficulty of making a ca- 
 nal past them was owinj* to the banks 
 being bold and rocky, as is usual at falls 
 of such extent. They are now passed by 
 nine locks, mostly excavated out of solid 
 rock. This is considered a gigantic work, 
 and was executed by a private company, 
 to their own emolument, as well as the 
 public benefit. 
 
 CANALS OF DENMARK. The principal 
 canal in this country is that of Keil, which 
 commences about 3 miles north of Keil, 
 and passes 20J miles across the duchy of 
 llolstein to the river Eydar, which, run- 
 ning by Rendsburg, falls into the German 
 ocean at Jonningen. The Keil canal thus 
 opens a communication between the two 
 seas. It was begun in 1777, and com- 
 pleted in 1765 ; is 100 feet broad at the 
 top, 57 at the bottom, and the least depth 
 of water is 10 feet. The descent from 
 the summit towards the Baltic is 25i feet, 
 and towards the German ocean 23 feet. 
 It has 6 locks. 
 
 CANALS OF HOLLAND. This country, 
 it is well known, is intersected v in all direc- 
 tions, by canals, which serve for naviga- 
 tion in summer, and roads of ice in winter. 
 The surface of the water, in many of 
 these canals, is above that of the sur- 
 rounding country ; the lands of which 
 are drained by pumping the water up into 
 the canals ; for which purpose numerous 
 windmills are scattered about the country, 
 and kept in operation. (For the great 
 phi]) canal from Amsterdam to Niewe 
 Diep, see Amsterdam.) 
 
 CANALS OF GERMANY. The improve- 
 ment of inland navigation in Germany has 
 been obstructed by the division of the ter- 
 ritory into numerous small jurisdictions, 
 which are, in many respects, independent 
 of each other. The canal between Vienna 
 mid .Ycusld'lt is 40 miles in length ; and 
 
 that of Francis, completed in 1802, be- 
 tween the Danube and Jeysse, is of the 
 same length, and has 3 locks. In Prussia 
 are the canals of Stecknitz, Planer, Pots- 
 dam, Finow, Muhlrose, Frederic William, 
 and the Bromberg. This last was con- 
 structed under Frederic the Great, by the 
 engineer Breekenhaaff. It is 16 miles in 
 length, has a descent of 67 feet, and 9 
 locks. (See Fossa Carolina.) 
 
 CANALS OF SPAIN. Spain has done al- 
 most nothing towards improving its inter- 
 nal navigation. Some canals have been 
 projected, but only a part of the Jlrragon 
 canal has been completed, consisting of 
 two pieces of canal, both commencing at 
 Navarre. Though this partial execution 
 of the projected navigation has had a 
 sensible effect in promoting the popuious- 
 ness, fertility and wealth of the neighbor- 
 ing territory, the work stands still; and 
 there seems to be little prospect of the 
 completion of the project. 
 
 CANALS OF FRANCE. The canals of 
 France, next to those of Great Britain, 
 are the most important in Europe, in 
 respect to their extent and the difficulties 
 overcome in their construction. The 
 whole length of canal navigation in 
 France is about 900 miles, or about one 
 third part of that of Great Britain. Canal 
 of Briare. The first important work of 
 this kind, constructed in France, was the 
 canal of Briare, called, also, that of the 
 Loire and Seine, because its object was 
 to connect those two rivers. It was 37 
 years in execution, being begun in 1605, 
 during the reign of Henry IV, and com- 
 pleted in 1642. It is 34 miles in length. 
 From the Loire, about a mile from Briare, 
 it ascends along the river Frezee, by Ou- 
 zonne and Ilogny, where are 7 locks ; then 
 byChatillon and Montargis, and, near Ce- 
 pay, meets the river Loing, which falls 
 into the Seine. The locks of this canal, 
 40 or 42 in number, were the first exe- 
 cuted in France. They vary from 124 
 to 164^ feet in length, and from 5 feet 4 
 inches to more than 13 feet in lift, and 
 are, according to some authorities, l4 feet 
 5 inches, or, according to others, IS-j^ 
 feet, in breadth. The bottom of the canal 
 is 25^-fty wide. It is supplied with water 
 principally by lakes ; one of the feeders, 
 that of Prive, is 12 miles in length. The 
 cost of this canal is estimated at 20,000,000 
 francs, or about .$3,700,000, which, con- 
 sidering the difference in the value of 
 money, is nearly equal to that of the Erie 
 canal* of New York. It is important for 
 the supply of provisions to Paris. The 
 canal du Midi, or Languedoc canal, makes
 
 452 
 
 CANALS OF FRANCE. 
 
 a communication between the Mediterra- 
 nean at the city of Cette, and the Atlantic 
 ocean at the mouth of the Garonne, pass- 
 ing through the province of Languedoc, 
 and is supplied by the rivers Garonne and 
 Gironde, and their tributaries. It was 
 undertaken in 1664, 22 years after that 
 of Briare was completed, and finished in 
 1680 ; being 148 English miles in length, 
 from the coast of the Mediterranean to 
 Toulouse, where it meets the Garonne ; 
 64 feet wide at the surface of the water, 
 and 34 or 35 feet at the bottom ; rising, at 
 the summit, 200 metres, or about 640 leet, 
 above tide-water, and having 114 locks, 
 varying in lift from 4 to 12 feet, and nav- 
 igated by boats 85 feet long, and from 
 17 to 19 broad, drawing 5 feet 4 inches 
 of water, and of 100 tons burthen. The 
 reservoir of St. Ferrol is situated at the 
 summit-level, where a body of water more 
 than five French leagues in length is ac- 
 cumulated, for the supply of the canal, 
 from the streams falling from the neigh- 
 boring mountains. This reservoir and 
 the basins at Castelnaudary cover 595 
 acres. The canal passes under a moun- 
 tain at Beziers, by a tunnel of 720 feet 
 in length, lined throughout with free- 
 stone a kind of construction novel at the 
 time when the canal was made, though 
 now common. The canal is crossed by 
 92 road-bridges, and has 55 aqueduct 
 bridges. It was completed under Louis 
 XIV, under the direction of Francois 
 Aiidreossi, as engineer. It is estimated 
 to have cost 33,000,000 francs, or about 
 $6,160,000; in comparing which with 
 the cost of similar works in Great Britain 
 and the U. States, allowance must, as 
 above suggested, be made for the differ- 
 ence in the value of money, the same 
 nominal cost, in France, being a much 
 greater actual cost, in this comparison. 
 The canal of Orleans was the next in 
 order of time, having been begun in 1675, 
 and completed in 1(392, 12 years after 
 that of Languedoc. It branches from the 
 Loire, near to Orleans, 36 miles below 
 the place where the canal of Briare meets 
 that river, and joins the canal of Briare at 
 Montargis, being 45 miles long. One 
 object of its construction was to save the 
 difficult navigation on the Loire, between 
 Orleans and the junction of the canal of 
 Briare with that river, and to open a 
 shorter route of communication between 
 the Lower Loire and Paris. It has 28 
 locks, varying from 136i to 1774 feet in 
 length, and of lifts from 5 feet 4 inches to 
 12 feet 7 inches. From the Loire to the 
 summit, the ascent is 98 feet 2 inches. 
 
 The breadth is from 25 feet 7 inches to 
 32 feet, at the surface of the water, and 
 the depth from 4i feet, when full, to 2 
 feet, when lowest. The boats are from 
 96 to 102 feet long, and 13 feet 10 inches 
 broad. The expense of its construction 
 is stated at 8,000,000 francs, or about 
 8 1,500,000. The canal of Loing is a 
 continuation of the navigation of that of 
 Orleans, and the northern part of that of 
 Briare, commencing from the northern 
 extremity of that of Briare, and extending 
 to the river Seine, terminating in the 
 neighborhood of Fontainebleau. It was 
 completed in 1723, is 33 miles long, 44 
 feet broad at the surface, 34 at the bot- 
 tom, and from 4 to 5 feet deep. The 
 towing path, on each side, is 6 feet 5 
 inches broad, outside of which, on each 
 side, is an embankment, like the kvees on 
 the Mississippi, or the dykes of Holland, 
 3 feet high, 19 feet broad at the base, and 
 12 feet 9 inches at the top, to prevent the 
 waters from overflowing during floods. 
 The whole descent is 136 feet 8 inches, 
 divided among 21 locks, which vary in 
 lift from 4 to 7 feet, and in breadth from 
 15-i to 16. The cost is stated at 2,500,000 
 francs, or about $466,000. It was con- 
 structed about the same time with the 
 canal of Orleans. The canal of the cen- 
 tre, called, also, that of Charolois, and 
 likewise a branch of the "Grand Naviga- 
 tion," completed in 1791, leaves the Loire 
 at Dijon, follows the banks of the Arran, 
 then the left bank of the Bourbonne, and 
 passes by Parce, Genelard, Aire and 
 Blauzey, to the lakes of Monschamin and 
 Long-pendu, which form the summit- 
 level, the rise being 240 feet, by 30 locks, 
 in 6300 metres. The summit-level is a 
 distance of 3940 metres, whence the ca- 
 nal descends, by the river Dheune, to St. 
 Julian, where it crosses that river, and. 
 passes along the right bank by St. Benain, 
 St. Leger and St. Gilles, to Chagny, 
 leaves the valley of the Dheune, and 
 crosses towards the river Halia, which it 
 follows to its junction with the Soane at 
 Chalons, the descent from the summit 
 being 400 feet by 50 locks, in a distance 
 of 47,000 metres; the whole length of the 
 canal being about 71 miles, the breadth, 
 at the surface of the water, 48 feet, at the 
 bottom 30 feet, the depth of the water 
 55 fret, the length of each lock 100 feet, 
 and its breadth 16. The cost of this cana! 
 is stated at 11,000,000 franc?, or about 
 $2,060,000. The canal of St. Quin/m 
 unites the Scheldt with the canal of 
 Flanders. It was projected, in 1727, by 
 the military engineer Devieq, but not
 
 CANALS OF FRANCE AND GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 453 
 
 constructed until 1810. The original 
 plan, which has been very nearly fol- 
 lowed, was to proceed from Maquincourt, 
 near the Scheldt, to mount St. Martin, 
 there pass through a tunnel 3440 toises, 
 or a little more than 3* miles, long ; then 
 follow the valley of Bellinglise and Haut 
 Court to the heights of Tronquoy ; there 
 pass through a tunnel 700 toises, a little 
 more than 3 of a mile, in length, coming 
 out at Ledin ; making the distance of the 
 summit-level 7000 toises, or a little over 8 
 miles, of which 2950 are open, and 4140, 
 or more than 4-i miles, subterraneous. 
 The length of this canal is 28 miles ; in 
 the rise from St. Quintin to the summit- 
 level, there are 5 locks, and in the 
 descent to Cambray, 17. The cost is 
 stated at 12,000,000 francs, or about 
 82,250,000. Besides the above canals, 
 42 others are enumerated in the Ency- 
 cloptdie Moderne, as completed, or in 
 the course of construction, in France, in 
 1825. 
 
 CANALS OF GREAT BRITAIN. The 
 English were a century after the French 
 in commencing the construction of canals 
 upon a large scale. The first considera- 
 ble work of this description was the San- 
 key canal, for which an act of parliament 
 was passed in 1755 ; the object of the 
 act being the improvement of the naviga- 
 tion of Sankey brook ; which plan was 
 afterwards changed to that of a separate 
 canal of 12 miles in length. While the 
 work on this canal was in progress, in 
 1758, the duke of Bridgewater obtained 
 an act of parliament for making Worsley 
 
 brook navigable from Worsley mill to the 
 river Irwell, for the purpose of facilitating 
 the transportation of coals from his estate 
 to Manchester ; but, seeing the advan- 
 tages of still-water navigation over that 
 of a river, he conceived the project of a 
 canal over dry land, passing the river Ir- 
 well by an aqueduct, and thus making a 
 communication between his coal-mines 
 and the town of Manchester on one level. 
 The plan was subsequently extended, and 
 the duke, who lived 14 years after the 
 commencement of the execution of his 
 project (he died in 1772, at the age of 56), 
 devoted his time and his fortune to the 
 execution of his great work, with the 
 assistance of an engineer distinguished for 
 his genius. He diverted all his resources 
 into this channel, and, to enlarge his 
 means for the undertaking, he limited his 
 personal expenses to 400 a year, and is 
 even supposed to have shortened his life 
 in consequence of the toils and anxiety 
 attendant upon so arduous an enterprise. 
 It was a grand project, worthy of the sac- 
 rifices he made to it. And it is a stupen- 
 dous monument, whereby his memory is 
 associated with the wealth and prosperity 
 of England. The works were projected 
 by the celebrated engineer John Brind- 
 ley, and executed under his direction, and 
 constitute a lasting memorial of his genius 
 and skill. 
 
 The following are the principal canals 
 in Great Britain. (Origiiially denotes the 
 first assumed cost per share, where the 
 actual cost is not ascertained.) 
 
 Name. 
 
 3 3 
 
 H 
 
 i! 
 s* 
 
 Ascent if Iktctrtt, 
 infett and deci- 
 mal parts. 
 
 bi 
 
 | 
 
 | 
 ? 
 
 
 T.Mai. jPr.nnlp. 
 
 Aberdare, . . . 
 
 1793 
 
 7i 
 
 40 
 
 5.5 
 
 
 
 From Glamorganshire to Aber- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 nant. Length of the boats, 12 feet ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 breadth, 5. Number of shares, 221 ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 originally, 100 ; value in 1824, 25. 
 
 Aberdeenshire, 
 
 1805 
 
 19 
 
 170 
 
 8.8 
 
 20 
 
 3i 
 
 From Aberdeen harbor to Don 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 river, at Inverary bridge ; 17 locks. 
 
 Andover, . . . 
 
 1790 
 
 22i 
 
 177 
 
 7.8 
 
 
 
 From Southampton water to An- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 dover ; lias been partially abandon- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ed. Number of shares, 350 ; ori- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ginally, 100 ; value in 1824, 5. 
 
 A^hby-de-la- ? 
 Zouch, 5 
 
 1805 
 
 40i 
 
 224 
 
 5.6 
 
 
 
 From the Coventry canal, at 
 Marston bridge, to an iron railway, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3h miles long, at Ticknall. The first 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 miles are level, forming, with the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coventry and Oxford canal, a level 
 
 of 73 miles, without including the branches. It has tunnels at Ashby-de-la-Zoucli and 
 
 Snareton (the length of the two is 700 yards), and an iron railway, 6 miles in length, 
 to the Cloudshill mines. It has 2 aqueduct bridges. At Boothorpe, a steam-engine 
 is erected, to convey the water to a feeder for the summit-level. Number of shares, 
 1482; cost, 113; price in 1824, 20.
 
 454 
 
 CANALS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 Ifame. 
 
 y 
 
 Fa 
 
 = | 
 &s 
 
 JlKmt S,- Oacait, 
 in feet and deci- 
 mal parts. 
 
 P 
 
 S- 
 
 
 Total. IPr.mile. 
 
 Ashton-under-1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 From Rochdale canal, at Man- 
 
 line, or Man- | 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 chester, to Huddersfield, at Duck- 
 
 Chester and !> 
 
 1797 
 
 18 
 
 152 
 
 8.4 
 
 3315 
 
 5 
 
 enfield ; has 3 aqueduct bridges ; 
 
 Oldham,and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 boats of 25 tons burthen. Num- 
 
 branches, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ber of shares, 1760 ; average cost, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 97 18s. ; price in 1824, 150. 
 
 Baniesleyand ? 
 branches, $ 
 
 1799 
 
 18 
 
 120 
 
 6.7 
 
 
 
 From river Calder, below Wake- 
 field, to Barnby bridge ; has 1 aque- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 duct bridge and 20 locks. Num- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ber of shares, 720 ; cost, 160 j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 price in 1824, 215. 
 
 Basingstoke, . 
 
 1790 
 
 37 
 
 195 
 
 5.3 
 
 
 
 From Wye to Basiugstoke ; has 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 72 bridges and 29 locks. Number 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of shares, 1650 ; cost, 100 ; price 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 in 1824, 6. The Tingis branch is 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 54 miles in length. The boats are 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of 45 tons burthen. It has a tunnel 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of | mile. 
 
 Birmingham, . 
 
 1772 
 
 224 
 
 204 
 
 9.07 
 
 40 
 
 44 
 
 Commences in the Birmingham 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and Staffordshire canal, and termi- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 nates in the Birmingham and Faze- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ley canal. The boats are 70 feet 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 long and 7 wide, and of 22 tons 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 burthen. Number of shares, 4000 ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 originally 140 ; price in 1824, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 315. The tonnage is not to ex- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ceed l^d. per mile. 
 
 Birmingham ? 
 and Fazeley, $ 
 
 1790 
 
 16i 
 
 248 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 44 
 
 From the Coventry canal, at 
 Whittiugton brook, to Birming- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ham canal, at Fanner's bridge ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 has 44 locks; boats 22 tons bur- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 then. 
 
 Brecknock } 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 From the Monmouthshire canal 
 
 and 
 
 1776 
 
 33 
 
 68 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 to Brecon. There is, at Abergaven- 
 
 Abergavenny, ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ny, an iron railway a mile in length ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 at Wain Dew another 4| miles, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and at Llangroiney another li 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 mile. It has a tunnel of 220 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 yards, and 3 aqueduct bridges. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Number of shares, 958; originally, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 150; price in 1824, 100. 
 
 Bridgewater, . . 
 
 1758 
 
 40 
 
 83 
 
 2 
 
 52 
 
 5 
 
 From the tide-way of the Mer- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 sey, at Runcorn Gap ; and at Long- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ford bridge divides into 2 branches, 
 
 one terminating at 3Ianchester, the 
 
 other at Pennington, near the town of Leigh. The whole lockage is the 83 feet at 
 
 the Mersey, in rising from tide-water, by 10 locks. This canal, with a part of the 
 Trent and Mersey canal connected with it, makes a level of 70 miles, 30 of which 
 are on this canal. Mr. Gary states that there are about 16 miles of canal under 
 ground within the mountains at Worsley. It has 3 principal aqueduct bridges, 
 and several smaller ones. Arched branches pass off from it at considerable 
 distances, under the town of Manchester, from one of which coals are hoisted 
 up to supply -the inhabitants, which the proprietors, successors to the duke of 
 Bridgewater, are bound to furnish them at 4rf. for 140 Ibs. an advantage to which 
 much of the prosperity of that town has been attributed. The embankment over 
 Stratford meadows is 900 yards long, 17 feet high, and 112 feet wide at the base ; 
 that at Barton bridge is 200 yards long and 40 feet high. The tonnage is 
 2*. 6d.
 
 CANALS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 455 
 
 Name. 
 
 II 
 
 H 
 
 f* 
 
 Atcatt $ Dacmt, 
 in feet and deci- 
 mal parts. 
 
 to 
 
 ! 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Ir.mile. 
 
 Bristol and ) 
 Tauuton, $ 
 
 Burrowstonness, 
 Caistor, 
 
 1790 
 1793 
 
 1822 
 
 41 
 
 7 
 9 
 
 28 
 21| 
 
 13G 
 190.5 
 
 4.8 
 8.6 
 
 40 bot. 
 
 20 
 
 From Taunton bridge to the 
 mouth of the Avon, below Bristol. 
 The operations on this canal were 
 at a stand in 1824. 
 
 From Ancholme to Caistor. 
 A branch of the Grand Trunk 
 canal, terminating at Uttoxeter. 
 This stupendous canal passes 
 through a chain of lakes, or lochs, 
 
 Calclon and ? 
 I'rtMxeter, 
 Caledonian, . . 
 
 and narrow arms of the sea ; and, 
 by making 21J miles of canal, and deepening the beds of the rivers Lochy and Oich, 
 and dredging to deepen a part of Loch Ness (in the whole a distance of 4 miles, 
 making the total length of excavation 25 miles, with a lockage, up and down, of 190 
 feet), an interior navigation of 250 miles is opened across the central part of Scotland, 
 from the Murray Firth, on the eastern coast, to Cantyre, on the western, and about 
 opposite to the northern coast of Ireland ; being one half of the distance of the navi- 
 
 fation between the same extreme points, round the northern coast by the Orkneys, 
 t has 27 locks, including the tide-locks, one of them 170, but most, if not all, the 
 others 180 feet long, and all 40 feet wide ; thus opening a ship-navigation through 
 the midst of the country, rising, at the summit-level, 94 feet above the tide- water of 
 the eastern coast, and 9<>i feet above that of the western, showing the ocean to be 2;J 
 feet higher on the eastern. At fort Augustus, where it leaves Loch Ness in a north- 
 westerly direction, this canal is cut through the glacis of the fortification, thus adding 
 to the military defences as well as to the appearance of the fort, which, with the five 
 locks of masonry rising behind, presents a grand combination of civil and military 
 engineering amid romantic mountain scenery. From Loch Ness, passing in the 
 westward!}' direction of the canal to Loch Oich, 15 mile, the land is 20 feet above 
 the water line, which, with the depth of water in the canal, makes an excavation, iu 
 this distance, of 40 feet in depth, with a bottom of 40 feet in breadth. To save rock- 
 cutting, in descending, in the westwardly direction, as before, from Loch Oich to 
 Loch Lochy, the natural difference of the surfaces of the two lakes being 22 feet, 
 die whole area of Loch Lochy, which is 10 miles in length and 1 in breadth, is 
 raised 12 feet. In the last 2 miles, before the canal, in its westerly direction, enters 
 Loch Eil, there is a descent of 64 feet, which is passed by 8 connected locks, each 
 180 feet long by 40 in breadth. These locks are founded on inverted arches, exhib- 
 iting a solid and continuous mass of masonry 500 yards in length and 20 yards wide, 
 in which, as late as 1824, and 5 years after its construction, no flaw had been dis- 
 covered. The gates are of cast-iron. This system of locks has received the fanciful 
 appellation of Neptune's Staircase ; and the appearance of large vessels, with their 
 masts and rigging, descending these stupendous locks, from the hill towards Loch 
 Eil, is most majestic and imposing, exhibiting a striking instance of the triumph of 
 art. In the distance of 8 miles, from Loch Lochy to tide-water in Loch Eil, the 
 canal, in passing along the north-westerly bank of the river Lochy, crosses, by aque- 
 duct bridges, 3 large streams and 23 smaller ones. Since the construction of this 
 canal, upwards of a million of forest-trees have been planted along its borders. The 
 cost of this great national work was, for 
 
 Management and travelling ex- 
 penses, 29,000 
 
 Timber, 68,600 
 
 Machinery, cast-iron work, &c., 121,400 
 Quarries and masonry, .... 195,800 
 
 Shipping, 11,000 
 
 Labor and workmanship, . . . 418,000 
 Houses and buildings, 4,600 
 
 Purchase and damage of land, . . 47,900 
 
 Horse labor, 3,000 
 
 Road-making, 4,000 
 
 Incidental expenses, 2,000 
 
 905,300 
 Add, to complete the dredging, . . . 7,200 
 
 912,500 
 
 Assuming the number of miles operated upon to be 25, the canal cost 36.500 per 
 mile. It was constructed under the direction of Thomas Telford, Esq.
 
 450 
 
 CANALS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 JtaM 
 
 II 
 
 =' 
 |l 
 
 Axait tf Dacent, 
 in /ret and did- 
 riifU parts. 
 
 m 
 
 f 
 
 
 Total. Pr.mile. 
 
 Cardiff, or Gla-> 
 morganshire, $ 
 
 1775 
 
 25 
 
 600 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 From a sea-basin on the Severn, 
 near Cardiff, to Merthyr; is con- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 nected with various railways, one 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of which is 26| miles long. Num- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ber of shares, GOO ; cost, 172 13s. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4rf. ; price in 1824, 265. 
 
 Chester, .... 
 
 1775 
 
 m 
 
 170 
 
 9.7 
 
 
 
 From the Dee, at Chester, to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nantwich, where it communicates 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 with the Whitchurch branch of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the Ellesmere canal. 
 
 Chesterfield, . . 
 
 1776 
 
 46 
 
 380 
 
 8.2 
 
 
 
 From the Trent, at Stockwitb, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to Chesterfield ; has 05 locks and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 tunnels, together 2850 yards long, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and 9 feet wide. The lower part 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of the canal is navigable for boats 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of from 50 to GO tons burthen, and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the higher, being but 26 or 28 feet 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 broad, is navigable for boats of on- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ly 20 or 22 tons burthen. These 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 boats are 70 feet long and 7 feet 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 broad. Number of shares, 1500 ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cost, 100 ; price in 1824, 120. 
 
 Coventry, . . . 
 
 1790 
 
 27 
 
 96 
 
 3.6 
 
 
 
 A part of the line of canal be- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tween London and Liverpool. 
 
 Crinan, 
 
 1805 
 
 9 
 
 117 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 From lake Gilp to lake Crinan. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Number of shares, 1851 ; cost, 50; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 price in 1824, 2 10*. 
 
 Cromford, . . . 
 
 1794 
 
 18 
 
 80 
 
 4.4 
 
 26 
 
 
 From the Erewash canal, at 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Langley, to Cromford. It has sev- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 eral tunnels, and passes the river 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Derwent by an aqueduct 200 yards 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 long and 30 feet high. The arch 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 over the channel of the river is 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 80 feet broad. Another aqueduct 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 over a branch of the Derwent is 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 yards long and 50 feet high. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Each aqueduct cost about 3000. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Number of shares, 460 ; cost, 31 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2s. Wd. ; price in 1824, 270. 
 
 Croydon, .... 
 
 1801 
 
 9i 
 
 150 
 
 15.8 
 
 
 
 From Grand Surry canal to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Croydon. It has 23 locks. Num- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ber of shares, 4546 ; originally, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 ; price in 1824, 4 10s. 
 
 Dearne and ? 
 Dove, $ 
 
 1804 
 
 M 
 
 125 
 
 6.6 
 
 
 
 From the river Dove, between 
 Swinton and Mexburgh to Barnes- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ley canal. The boats are from 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to 60 tons burthen. It has two 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 branches, of 3| and If miles in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 length. 
 
 Derby, 
 
 1794 
 
 9 
 
 78 
 
 8.6 
 
 4424 
 
 4 
 
 From the river Trent to Derby. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Number of shares, 600 ; cost, 110 ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 price in 1824, 140. It has a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 branch, the Erewash, 8i miles in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 length. 
 
 Dorset and ? 
 
 1 Q/\O 
 
 Art 
 
 
 
 
 
 From the Kennet and Avon ca- 
 
 Somerset, $ 
 
 loUd 
 
 4/6 
 
 
 
 
 
 nal to the river Stour ; but not 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 completed in 1824 ; has a branch 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 miles long.
 
 CANALS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 Kami. 
 
 H 
 
 3-R- 
 1'* 
 
 Jiicmt if Dacait, 
 tn fat and did- 
 inalpart*. 
 
 s. 
 
 ! 
 
 
 Total. IPr.mile. 
 
 Dublin and ) 
 
 177 'fi 
 
 fiCI 
 
 
 
 
 
 From Dublin, at the mouth of the 
 
 Shannon, $ 
 
 it o 
 
 DOj 
 
 
 
 
 
 Liffey, to the river Shannon, near 
 
 Lawton branch, 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 
 
 the town of Moy. It passes 24 miles 
 
 Miltoun branch, 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 across a marsh, in which the absorb- 
 
 Bog of Allen br., 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 ing nature of the soil rendered 
 
 Edenderry br., 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 the work enormously expensive. 
 
 Kildarebr.,. . . 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dudley, .... 
 
 1776 
 
 10i 
 
 35 
 
 3.3 
 
 
 5 
 
 From the Worcester and Bir- 
 
 Stourbridge br., 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 mingham canal. It has 61 locks ; 
 
 Dudley br., . . . 
 
 
 U 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 tunnels, one 3776 yards in length, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 another 623 yards, and the other 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2926 yards, all 13 feet wide ; and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 near one of them, the Laplat tun- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 nel, it passes 9 locks, nearly con- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tiguous. Number of shares, 2060 ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 originally, 100; price in 1824, 63. 
 
 Edinburgh & ) 
 
 
 en 
 
 
 
 
 
 This canal is proposed to com- 
 
 Glasgow, ) 
 
 
 ou 
 
 
 
 
 
 mence at Leith, in the Forth, and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 terminate in the Clyde, at Glasgow. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The enterprise was suspended on 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 account of a supposed insufficiency 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of water, and is not known (1829) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to have been resumed. 
 
 Ellesmere and l 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 This canal is said to be the first 
 
 Chester, and > 
 
 1804 
 
 109 
 
 755 
 
 6.9 
 
 
 
 constructed in England for agri- 
 
 branches, ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cultural purposes, as well as trade. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 It has 1262 yards of tunnelling. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Number of shares, 3575 ; cost, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 133 ; price in 1824, 68. 
 
 Erewash, . . . 
 
 1777 
 
 111 
 
 181 
 
 15.4 
 
 
 
 From the Trent toCromford canal. 
 
 Fazeley, .... 
 
 1790 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 Is a part of the Liverpool line, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 joining the Grand Trunk with the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coventry canal. It is entirely lev- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 el. The Fazeley and Birmingham, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and the Birmingham, are continu- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ations of this. 
 
 Forth and ? 
 
 17QO 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 
 
 From the tide- water, at the junc- 
 
 Clyde, $ 
 
 J. * 7 V 
 
 O*J 
 
 
 
 
 
 tion of the river Carron with the 
 
 Glasgow branch, 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 
 
 Forth, to Glasgow. It was the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 first considerable work of the kind 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 undertaken in Scotland, having 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 been commenced in 1777 and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 completed in 1790. It ascends, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 from the Fortli to the summit, by 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 locks, 156 feet, in 10i miles, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and keeps this level 18 miles, to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Glasgow, and, one mile beyond 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 that city, terminates in the Monk- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 land canal basin. About 2| miles 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 north of the port of Dundas, near 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Glasgow, a branch of the canal 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 passes off 8| miles, crossing the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kelven by a magnificent stone 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 aqueduct, to the tide-water at 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bowling bay, to which it descends 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 by 19 locks, 74 feet in length and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 in breadth. When full, it has 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 feet of water. 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 39
 
 458 
 
 CANALS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 Kami. 
 
 If 
 
 it 
 
 Ascent if Descent, 
 in fat and deci- 
 mal partt. 
 
 J 
 
 I 
 
 
 Total. |Pr.milc. 
 
 Foss Dyke, . . 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 From the Trent, at Torksey, to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the Witham. It is a level. 
 
 Glasgow and ? 
 
 t Of C\ 
 
 
 1 /JO 
 
 
 
 
 
 Saltcoats, \ 
 
 1812 
 
 33 
 
 168 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 Glenkenns, . . 
 
 1802 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 
 
 From the Dee, at Kirkcudbright, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to Dairy. 
 
 Gloucester, . . 
 
 1793 
 
 184 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 A channel for ship navigation, 
 
 Hockcrib branch, 
 
 
 2 * 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 to 
 
 to avoid the windings of the Sev- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 ern from Berkley Pill, where it 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 leaves that river, to Gloucester, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 where it joins the river again. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Number of shares, 1960 ; price in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1824, 100, and a loan of 60 per 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 share, making the investment 160 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 per share. 
 
 Grand Junction, 
 
 1805 
 
 93| 
 
 587 
 
 6.3 
 
 3624 
 
 44 
 
 A part of the line between Lon- 
 
 Paddington br., 
 
 
 13| 
 
 
 
 
 
 don and Liverpool, from Brentford 
 
 6 other branches, 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 to the Oxford canal at Braunston. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 It has 101 locks ; passes the river 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ouse and its valley by an embank- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ment about half a mile in length and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 feet high. It has a tunnel at 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Blisworth, 3080 yards in length, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 18 feet high, and 1 64 wide ; and an- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 other at Braunston, 2045 yards long, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the other dimensions being the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 same as those of the Blisworth 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tunnel. Number of shares, 11,6574 ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 originally, 100 ; price in 1824, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 270. 
 
 Grand Surrey, 
 
 1801 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 From the Thames, at Rother- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 hithe, to Mitcham. It is of large 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 dimensions, being navigable by the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thames boats. The company pays 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to London, annually, 60, for the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 junction of the canal with the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thames. 
 
 Grand Western, 
 
 1796 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 
 
 From the mouth of the Ex, at 
 
 Tiverton br., . . 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 Topsham, to Taunton bridge ; in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1824, was but partially finished. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Number of shares, 3096 ; cost, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 79; price in 1824, 6. 
 
 Grand Trunk, 
 
 1777 
 
 93 
 
 642 
 
 6.9 
 
 
 
 A part of the line between Lon- 
 
 Its branch, . . . 
 
 
 37 
 
 
 
 
 
 don and Liverpool. It has 4 tun- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 nels, in length 3940 yards, and 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 feet wide. Number of shares, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13004 ; price in 1824, 2150. The 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tonnage is from 3d. to 44rf. per 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 mile. 
 
 Grand Union, . 
 
 
 23| 
 
 130 
 
 5.5 
 
 
 
 From the Leicester and North- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ampton Union canal, near Foxton, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to the Grand Junction, east of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Braunston tunnel. Number of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 shares, 1521 ; cost, 100 ; price in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1824, 50. The canal has, besides, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a loan, at 5 per cent, interest, of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 19,327.
 
 CANALS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 459 
 
 Grantham, . 
 
 Haslingden, 
 
 Hereford and 
 Gloucester, 
 
 Huddersfield, 
 
 Kennet and 
 Avon, 
 
 Kingston and 
 Leominster, 
 
 Lancaster, . . 
 
 Leeds and 
 Liverpool, 
 
 1799 
 
 1793 
 
 1790 
 
 1798 
 
 1801 
 
 1797 
 
 1799 
 
 1771 
 
 33| 
 
 13 
 
 36i 
 
 57 
 
 45| 
 
 76 
 
 130 
 
 .limit if Dacrnt, 
 mat parts. 
 
 I 
 
 Total. 
 
 Pr.mile. 
 
 148 
 
 4.4 
 
 
 225 
 
 6.1 
 
 
 770 
 
 39.5 
 
 
 263 
 
 4.6 
 
 
 544 
 
 11.8 
 
 
 287 
 
 3.8 
 
 
 841 
 
 6.4 
 
 42 
 
 From the Trent, near Holme 
 Pierpoint, to Grantham. It has 
 divided 8 per cent., and left a clear 
 surplus of 3000 to meet unfore- 
 seen accidents. Number of shares, 
 749; cost, 150; price in 1824, 
 160. It is supplied with water 
 wholly from reservoirs. 
 
 From the Manchester, Bolton 
 and Bury canal, at Bury, to the 
 Leeds and Liverpool, at Church. 
 
 From the Severn, at Gloucester, 
 to the Wye, at Hereford. It has 3 
 tunnels, of 2192, 1320 and 440, 
 making, in all, 3952 yards. In con- 
 sequence of the opening of this 
 canal, the price of coals at Ledbu- 
 ry was reduced from 24*. to 6*. 
 per ton. Shares, originally, 100 ; 
 price in 1824, 60. 
 
 From Ramsden's canal, at Hud- 
 dersfield, to the Manchester, Ash- 
 ton and Oldham canal, at Ducken- 
 field bridge, near Marsden. It has 
 a tunnel of 5280 yards in length. 
 Number of shares, 6312 ; cost, 
 57 14s. ; price in 1824, 26. 
 
 From the Avon, at Dole-mead, 
 near Bath, to the Kennet and 
 Newbury. It has an aqueduct 
 bridge over the Avon. The boats 
 are of 25 or 26 tons burthen. 
 Number of shares, 25,328 ; cost, 
 35 5s. ; price in 1824, 24. 
 
 From the Severn, at Areley, to 
 Kingston. It has two tunnels of 
 3850 and 1250, making 5100 yards. 
 
 From Kirby Kendall to Hough- 
 ton. It has tunnels at Hincaster 
 and Chorley, 800 yards long in the 
 whole. It passes the Loyne by a 
 stone aqueduct, 50 feet high, on 5 
 arches, each of 70 feet span. It 
 has also a road aqueduct, near 
 Blackmill, 60 feet high. The 
 boats are 56 feet long and 14 
 broad. Number of shares, 1 1,699 ; 
 cost, 47 6. 8d.; price in 1824, 
 29. 
 
 From Liverpool to Leeds. The 
 boats navigating between Leeds 
 andWigan are of 42 tons burthen; 
 those below Wigan, and on this 
 side Leeds, of 30- tons. The tunnels at Foulbridge and Finnloy are, in the whole, 
 1609 yards long. It has a beautiful aqueduct bridge over the Ayre. The locks are 
 70 feet long and 15J wide. The number of shares is 2897| ; originally, 100 each ; 
 price in 1824, 380. Tonnage on merchandise, lrf. per mile ; on coals and lime, 
 Id. ; on stone, &d.
 
 460 
 
 CANALS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 ffeimt. 
 
 If 
 
 jf 
 
 Axtnt If Daunt, 
 in feet and deci- 
 mal partt. 
 
 | 
 
 ! 
 
 
 Total. IPr.mile. 
 
 Leicester, . . . 
 
 
 214 
 
 230 
 
 10.7 
 
 
 
 From the Loughborough basin 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to the Soar, which has been ren- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 dered navigable as far as Leicester. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Number of shares, 545 ; cost, 140 ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 price in 1824, 330. 
 
 Leicestershire} 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 From Leicester to Market Har- 
 
 and North-f 
 amptonshire? 
 
 1805 
 
 43| 
 
 407 
 
 9.3 
 
 
 
 borough. It has 4 tunnels, 1056, 
 990, 880 and 286, in the whole 
 
 Union, j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3212, yards in length. Number of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 shares, 1895 ; cost, 83 10s. ; price 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 in 1824, 82. 
 
 Loughborough, 
 
 1776 
 
 94 
 
 41 
 
 4.3 
 
 
 
 From the Trent, near Sawley, to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Loughborough. No. shares, 70; cost, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 142 17s. 8rf. ; price in 1824, 4000. 
 
 Manchester, } 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 From the Mersey and Irwell 
 
 Bolton and > 
 
 1797 
 
 15 
 
 187 
 
 12.4 
 
 
 
 navigation to Bolton. The locks 
 
 Bury, > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 have been reconstructed and en- 
 
 Haslingden br., 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 larged. Number of shares, 477 ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 originally, 250 ; price in 1824, 
 
 Market Weigh- ) 
 
 1770 
 
 11 
 
 35 
 
 3.2 
 
 
 
 112. 
 
 ton, ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Monkland, . . . 
 
 
 12 
 
 96 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 A continuation of the Forth and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Clyde canal. 
 
 Monmouthshire, 
 
 1796 
 
 171 
 
 1057 
 
 53.5 
 
 
 
 This canal is remarkable for the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 extent of its railways and inclined 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 planes. Number of shares, 2409 ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cost, 100 ; price in 1824, 198. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 It has, besides, a loan of 43,526, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 at an interest of 5 per cent. 
 
 Montgomery- > 
 
 1797 
 
 27 
 
 225 
 
 8.3 
 
 
 
 From a branch of the Ellesmere 
 
 shire, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 canal to Newtown. Number of 
 
 Welshpool br., . 
 
 
 3i 
 
 
 
 
 
 shares, 700; originally, 100 ; price 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 in 1824, 71. 
 
 Neath, 
 
 1798 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 From the river Neath, at the Gi- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ant's Grave, to the Aberdare canal, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 at Abernant. It serves for the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 transportation of copper and lead 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ore from Cornwall to Glamorgan- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 shire. Number of shares, 247 ; cost, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 107 10s. ; price in 1824, 333. 
 
 North Wilts, . . 
 
 1798 
 
 84 
 
 
 
 
 
 From the Thames and Severn 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 canal to the Wilts and Berks. 
 
 Nottingham, . . 
 
 1802 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 From the Trent, at Nottingham, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to the Cromford canal, near Lang- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ley bridge. 
 
 Oakham, .... 
 
 1803 
 
 15 
 
 126 
 
 8.4 
 
 
 
 From Melton Mowbray to Oakr 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ham. Number of shares, 522 ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cost, 130 ; price in 1824, 50. 
 
 Oxford, 
 
 1790 
 
 QU 
 
 269 
 
 9Q 
 
 an_ifi 
 
 5 
 
 From the Coventry canal to the 
 
 
 
 
 river Isis at Oxford, and a part of 
 
 the grand line between Liverpool and London. It has 3 aqueducts of very consid- 
 
 erable magnitude, a tunnel at Newbold 125 yards long and 124 feet wide, and one 
 at Fenny Compton 1188 yards long and 9J feet wide. It rises, from the level of the 
 Coventry canal, in 454 miles, to the summit at Marston Tolls, 74 feet 1 inch, by 12 
 locks ; and descends, from the summit at Claydon, in 35 miles, to the Isis, 195i feet, by 
 30 locks. It has 188 stone and brick bridges. It cost 178,648 stock, besides 130,000 
 loan, above half of which has been paid off. Number of shares, 1786 ; originally, 
 100 ; price in 1824, 780.
 
 CANALS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 461 
 
 Name, 
 
 3 
 
 it 
 
 Atcent 4- Dacent 
 infect and dcct 
 mal parts. 
 
 r 
 
 ! 
 
 
 Total. IPr.mile 
 
 Peak Forest, . . 
 
 1800 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 
 
 From the Manchester, Ashton 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and Oldham canal, at Djickenfield, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to the Chapel Milton basin. It 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 has a railway 6 miles iong. It 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 passes the Mersey, by a bridge 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 feet high, of 3 arches, each of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 60 feet span. Number of shares, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2400; cost, 77; price in 1824, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 94. 
 
 Portsmouth & ? 
 
 1815 
 
 14A 
 
 
 
 
 
 From the river Arun, near Little 
 
 Arundel, 
 
 
 itz 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hampton, to the bay connected 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 with Portsmouth harbor. Number 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of shares, 2520 ; cost, 50 ; price 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 in 1824, 25. 
 
 Ramsden's, . . 
 
 1774 
 
 8 
 
 56 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 From the Calder and Hebble 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 navigation to the Huddersfield 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 canal. 
 
 Regent, .... 
 
 1820 
 
 9 
 
 86 
 
 9.5 
 
 
 
 The last link, near London, of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the chain connecting that city and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Liverpool. It commences at Pad- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 dington, from the Grand Junction 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 canal, and meets the Thames at 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Limehouse, descending, by 12 locks, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to a basin communicating with a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ship lock. The locks have double 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 chambers, which are estimated to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 make a saving of one third of the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 usual quantity of water. It has 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tunnels, one at Maida Hill, 370 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 yards long, the other under Isling- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ton, 900 yards. Number of shares, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12,294 ; 'cost, 40 10s.; price in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1824, 49 10*. 
 
 Ripon, 
 
 1767 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 From the river TJre at IVIilbv 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to Ripon. 
 
 Rochdale, . . . 
 
 1804 
 
 31 
 
 613 
 
 19.7 
 
 
 
 From the Bridgewater canal, in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the town of Manchester, to the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Calder and Hebble navigation, at 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sowerby bridge. It has 49 locks, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 aqueducts, a tunnel of 70 yards 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 in length, and several reservoirs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Number of shares, 5631 ; cost, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 85 ; price in 1824, 94. 
 
 Royal Irish, . . 
 
 
 68 
 
 614 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 From Dublin, in a westward di- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rection, to the Shannon, at Tas- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 monbarry, nearly parallel to the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dublin canal, and about 10 miles 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 distant from it. Its greatest eleva- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tion above the sea is 307 feet, to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 which it ascends from Dublin by 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 26 locks, and descends to the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Shannon by 15 locks. 
 
 Sankey, .... 
 
 760 
 
 m 
 
 78 
 
 65 
 
 48 
 
 5 
 
 From the Mersey and Irwell 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 navigation, at Fiddler's Ferry, to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3utton Heath mines. It has 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ocks, and also a tunnel, near St. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Helen's. It was the first canal 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 constructed in England. 
 
 39*
 
 462 
 
 CANALS OF GREAT BRITAIN, 
 
 ffamt. 
 
 11 
 
 *! 
 
 |s 
 
 Jlaccnt If Dacml, 
 in feet and dect* 
 null parts. 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 
 Total. iPr.mile. 
 
 Shorncliffjindi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 From the sea, at Hythe, to the 
 
 Rye,orF*.oy-[ 
 
 1809 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 mouth of the river Rother. It is a 
 
 al Milkary, j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 level, having locks to keep in the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 water at low tide. It is large 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 enough to receive vessels of 200 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tons burthen. Each of its extrem- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ities is defended by strong batteries. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 It was constructed on account of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bonaparte's projected descent on 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 England, and hence its name of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Royal Military canal. 
 
 Shrewsbury, . 
 
 1797 
 
 17* 
 
 155 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 From Shrewsbury to the Shrop- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 shire canal. One half of the ascent 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 is effected by locks, the other half 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 by inclined planes. It has one 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tunnel. Number of shares, 500 ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 originally, 125; price in 1824, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 180. 
 
 Shropshire. . . 
 
 1792 
 
 7i 
 
 453 
 
 60.4 
 
 
 
 From the Severn, at Coalport, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to the Shrewsbury canal, at Down- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ington wood. It has several in- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 clined planes and railways, but no 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 locks. 
 
 Somerset Coal, 
 
 1802 
 
 8i 
 
 138 
 
 16.2 
 
 
 
 From the Kennet and Avon ca- 
 
 Radstock br.,. . 
 
 
 7i 
 
 138 
 
 18.4 
 
 
 
 nal, at Monkton Coombe, to Paul- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ton. The boats are 72 feet long 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and 7 broad. It has 22 locks. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Number of shares, 800 ; original 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cost, 50 ; price in 1824, 135. 
 
 Southampton 
 & Salisbury, 
 
 1804 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 From the Itchin, at Northam, 
 to the Avon, at Salisbury. 
 
 Stafford and 
 Worcester, 
 
 1772 
 
 46.J 
 
 394 
 
 8.4 
 
 30 
 
 5 
 
 From the river Severn, at Stour- 
 port, to the Grand Trunk canal. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 It has 44 locks. Its boats are of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 tons burthen. It has 3 tun- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 nels. Number of shares, 700 ; cost, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 140 ; price in 1824, 800. The 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tonnage is not to exceed l^rf. per 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 mile. 
 
 Stainforth and ? 
 
 1 w/^o 
 
 ~t K 
 
 
 
 
 
 From the river Trent, at Kead- 
 
 Keadby, 
 
 1798 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 by, to the Don, at Fishlake. 
 
 Stourbridge, . . 
 
 1776 
 
 5 
 
 191 
 
 38.2 
 
 28 
 
 5 
 
 From the Stafford and Worces- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ter canal, at Stourton, to the Dud- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ley canal. It has 20 locks. Num- 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ber of shares, 300 ; originally, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 245 ; price in 1824, 212. 
 
 Stover, 
 
 1792 
 
 6i 
 
 50 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 From the river Teign, at New- 
 
 Chudleigh br., . 
 
 
 5i 
 
 
 
 
 
 town, to Bovey Tracey. 
 
 Stroudwater, . 
 
 1796 
 
 8 
 
 108 
 
 ias 
 
 
 
 From the river Severn, at Fra- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 miload, to the Thames and Severn 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 canal, at Wallbridge. 
 
 Swansea, . . . 
 
 1798 
 
 I7i 
 
 366 
 
 20.9 
 
 
 
 From Swansea harbor to Hen 
 
 Llansamlet br., 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 Noyadd. Like the Neath canal, it 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 serves to transport copper ore from 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cornwall to Glamorganshire foun- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 deries. Number of shares, 533; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 originally, 100; price in 1824, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 195.
 
 CANALS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 463 
 
 Name. 
 
 II 
 
 It 
 (% 
 
 .1xmt If Descent, 
 in feet and deci- 
 mal parts. 
 
 > 
 
 ! 
 
 
 Total. IPr.mile. 
 
 Tavistock, . . . 
 
 1810 
 
 44 
 
 237 
 
 52.7 
 
 
 
 From the river Tamar, at Cal- 
 
 Mill Hill branch, 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 stock, to Tavistock. It has a tun- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 nel at Morwellham, 460 feet below 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the surface. This tunnel led to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the discovery of a copper-mine. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Its boats are 154 feet in length and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 in breadth. Number of shares, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 350 ; originally, 100 ; price in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1824, 150. 
 
 Thames and ? 
 
 IftflO 
 
 fU 
 
 
 
 
 
 From the Thames, at Gravesend, 
 
 Medway, $ 
 
 JLO\A/ 
 
 05 
 
 
 
 
 
 to the river Medway. Number of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 shares, 2670; cost, 42 9*. 5rf.; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 price in 1824, 26. This canal 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 has loans to a large amount. 
 
 Thames and ? 
 Severn, $ 
 
 1789 
 
 304 
 
 377 
 
 12.3 
 
 4030 
 
 5 
 
 From the Stroudwater canal to 
 the Thames and Isis navigation. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The boats are of 70 tons burthen, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 being 80 feet long and 5 broad. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 It has a tunnel at Sapperton, 250 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 feet below the top of the hill of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rock under which it passes. The 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 bottom of this tunnel is an invert- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ed arch. 
 
 Warwick and/ 
 
 1799 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 From the Warwick and Napton 
 
 Birmingham, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 canal, near Warwick, to the Dig- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 beth branch of the old Birming- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ham canal. It has a tunnel at 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fazeley 300 yards in length. It 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 has 32 locks. 
 
 Warwick and ? 
 
 1799 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 From the Warwick and Bir- 
 
 Napton, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 mingham to the Oxford canal. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Number of shares, 980 ; originally, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 ; in 1824, 215. 
 
 Wey & Arun ? 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 
 From the river Wey, near God- 
 
 Junction, $ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 aiming, to the north branch of the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Arun river navigation. Number 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of shares, 905; cost, 110; price 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 in 1824, 25. 
 
 Wilts and Berks, 
 
 1801 
 
 52 
 
 376 
 
 7.2 
 
 
 
 From the Kennet and Avon ca- 
 
 Calne branch, . 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 nal, at Semington, to the Thames 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and Isis navigation. 
 
 Worcester and ^ 
 Birmingham,) 
 
 1797 
 
 29 
 
 128 
 
 4.3 
 
 42 
 
 (3 
 
 From the Severn, at Diglis, be- 
 low Worcester, to the Birming- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ham and Fazeley canal, at Farmer's 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 bridge. 
 
 Wyrley and ? 
 Essington, $ 
 
 1796 
 
 23 
 
 270 
 
 11.6 
 
 28 
 
 44 
 
 From a detached part of the 
 Fazeley canal, at Huddlesford, to 
 
 Hayhead br., . . 
 
 
 54 
 
 
 
 
 
 the Birmingham canal, at Wolver- 
 
 Lordshery br., . 
 
 
 2i 
 
 
 
 
 
 hampton. The boats are of 18 
 
 Wyrley Bank? 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 tons burthen. It has 28 locks. 
 
 br.. $ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Essinirton br., . 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Norwich and } 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The works near Yarmouth open 
 
 Lowestoff > 
 
 1829 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 an inland navigation in two direc- 
 
 Navigation, ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tions ; one 30 miles, by the Yare, 
 
 
 the other 20 miles, by the Wave- 
 
 ney, without a lock. The river Yare discharges at Yarmouth, about 30 miles below 
 
 Norwich, but the navigation is obstructed by shoaJs and shifting sands at its
 
 464 
 
 CANALS OF GREAT BRITAIN AMERICAN CANALS. 
 
 mouth. To avoid these obstructions, the 
 river is to be made navigable for sea- 
 borne vessels from Norwich to a place 20 
 miles lower down the river, called Reed- 
 1mm Ferry, where a new cut of 2 miles 
 is to be made across the marshes, to join 
 the river Waveney at St. Olave's bridge, 
 whence the water communication pro- 
 ceeds by a small stream (Oulton Dyke) 
 and two lakes (Oulton Broad and Lo- 
 thing), from the latter connected with 
 the sea by a channel 700 yards long and 
 40 feet wide, with a sea-lock 50 feet wide 
 in the clear and 24 feet deep, for the pur- 
 pose of admitting sea-borne vessels. Oul- 
 ton Dyke and Oulton Broad are to be 
 deepened. The lock constructed at the 
 outlet of lake Lothing makes an artificial 
 harbor, the first that has been formed in 
 England. This lock has folding gates 
 pointing both landward and seaward, so 
 as to admit of vessels passing in or out at 
 any time of tide, and whether the water 
 be higher on the outside or inside. The 
 harbor covers about 200 acres, the whole 
 contents of which it is proposed, occasion- 
 ally, to let off at low water, to keep open 
 the channel from the sea. 
 
 AMERICAN CANALS. It is proposed to 
 give a more particular description of the 
 American canals under the article In- 
 land Navigation. In the mean time, a 
 very general enumeration will be here 
 made of the principal works of this kind 
 already completed or in progress, which 
 will show the astonishing extent to which 
 canal navigation has been opened in the 
 U. States, during the short period, now 
 (1829) only 13 or 14 years, since these 
 works began to be undertaken upon a 
 large scale. It will appear, from the fol- 
 lowing outline, that not less than 2500 
 miles of canal are constructed, or in the 
 progress of execution in the U. States, 
 and will probably soon be completed, 
 making a liberal allowance for a suspen- 
 sion of some of the works projected and 
 commenced. The extent of canal in the 
 U. States will soon equal that in Great 
 Britain. The canals constructed and now 
 in progress in the state of Pennsylvania 
 have been estimated at a length of 900 
 miles ; very nearly equal to that of the 
 canals of France, but doubtless inferior in 
 the style and durability of execution. 
 The WeUand canal, in Canada, is intended 
 for opening a sloop navigation between 
 lakes Erie and Ontario. It is not com- 
 pleted. The Middlesex canal opens a 
 boat navigation between Boston and the 
 Merrimack river, and runs 28 or 29 miles, 
 in a northwesterly direction, from its out- 
 
 let into the harbor of Boston, in the town 
 of Charlestown. The Blackstone canal 
 is constructed along Blackstone river from 
 Providence, in Rhode Island, north-west- 
 erly 45 miles, to Worcester, in Massachu- 
 setts. The Fai-mington canal leaves the 
 coast of Long Island sound at New Ha- 
 ven, in Connecticut, and takes a north- 
 easterly course, towards Northampton in 
 Massachusetts, 65 miles distant, where it 
 is to communicate with Connecticut river. 
 A great part of it is finished and in opera- 
 tion, but a portion, towards the north- 
 eastern termination, remains to be con- 
 structed. The Hudson and Erie canal 
 passes from Albany, in the state of New 
 York, along the western bank of Hudson 
 river, until it meets the Mohawk ; then 
 runs, in a north-westerly direction, up the 
 south-western bank of that river, to the 
 town of Rome, where it turns more west- 
 erly, on a summit level of about 60 miles, 
 without a lock, and, passing in a line cor- 
 responding, in some measure, to the di- 
 rection of the southern shore of lake 
 Ontario, and crossing the Seneca and 
 Genesee rivers in its course, communi- 
 cates with lake Erie at Buffalo, 363 miles 
 from Albany. This canal is connected 
 with lake Champlain by the Champlain 
 canal, 63 miles in length ; with lake On- 
 tario by the Oswego canal, about 38 miles 
 long : and with Seneca lake by the Seneca 
 canal, about 20 miles long. The Hudson 
 and Delaware canal begins at the west 
 bank of Hudson river, near Kingston, in 
 New York, about 85 or 90 miles north 
 of the city of New York, and runs in a 
 south- westerly direction 65 miles, to the 
 Delaware river, near to the north-east 
 corner of Pennsylvania, and the north- 
 west of New Jersey. It then takes a 
 general direction a little to the north-west, 
 and keeps the northern bank of the Dela- 
 ware river for 25 or 30 miles, to the en- 
 trance of Lackawaxen creek, from the 
 opposite side ; crosses the Delaware at a 
 point about 110 miles north of Phila- 
 delphia, and, leaving that river, keeps the 
 northern bank of Lackawaxen creek ; then 
 crosses it, in a westerly direction, to Ris- 
 cis Gap, a distance, added to the former, 
 of between 40 and 50 miles, as- nearly as 
 can be estimated from Mr. Tanner's map 
 of Pennsylvania, of 1829. This canal 
 opens the Lackawaxen coal district to 
 Hudson river. The Morris canal, now in 
 progress, commences, at its western ex- 
 tremity, at the river Delaware, near Eas- 
 ton, and passes across the state of New 
 Jersey in a north-easterly, then in an east- 
 erly, then in a southerly direction, 86
 
 AMERICAN CANALS. 
 
 465 
 
 miles, to Newark, in that state. Its west- 
 ern extremity is at the eastern termination 
 of the Lehigh navigation in Pennsylvania, 
 and it is intended for the transportation 
 of Lehigh coal to New York. The Ohio 
 state canal commences at the mouth of 
 Sciota river, where it discharges into the 
 river Ohio, and takes a northerly course, 
 for about 306 miles, to lake Erie, at the 
 mouth of the Cuyahoga river, in the town 
 of Cleveland. This work is in rapid 
 progress. The Miami canal is also a line 
 of communication between the river Ohio, 
 which it leaves at Cincinnati, and lake 
 Erie. Its northerly termination is in the 
 Maumee, which discharges into the west- 
 erly part of lake Erie. The proposed 
 length of this canal is 265 miles. It is 
 now in progress. Illinois and Michigan 
 canal. An act was passed in the legisla- 
 ture of Illinois, Jan. 22, 1829, authorizing 
 Commissioners, "as soon thereafter as they 
 could command funds, and might deem 
 it expedient to commence the work, to 
 effect a navigable communication between 
 lake Michigan and the Illinois river." 
 This is the fourth projected work for 
 making a communication between the 
 great northern and western waters ; one 
 of the others being projected by Penn- 
 sylvania, from Pittsburg to Erie, of which 
 a very small part is executed ; the other 
 two are undertaken by Ohio, and both in 
 progress. The Lehigh canal commences 
 at the Maunch Chunk coal-mine, on the 
 river Lehigh, and runs to Easton, on the 
 Delaware ; the whole distance of this 
 navigation being 46J miles ; but a part of 
 it is river navigation, the length of the 
 canal being 37 miles. Its eastern termi- 
 nation at Easton meets the western ter- 
 mination of the Morris canal in New 
 Jersey. The Delaware canal commences, 
 at its northern extremity, at Easton, about 
 55 miles in a right line nearly north from 
 Philadelphia, on the north-western bank 
 of Delaware river, the general course of 
 which, for about 50 miles from this place, 
 is south-easterly, when it turns, in nearly 
 a south-westerly direction, about 30 miles, 
 to Philadelphia. This canal, which is 
 now (1829) in progress, is to follow the 
 general course of the Delaware, keeping 
 its westerly bank to Morrisville, where it 
 bears off from the river, to avoid a bend, 
 and proceeds, in a pretty direct course, a 
 little to the west of south, to Bristol, on the 
 westerly bank of the Delaware, 19 miles 
 N. E. from Philadelphia. The Schuyl- 
 kill canal is constructed on the banks of 
 Schuylkill river, from Philadelphia, about 
 110 miles, to mount Carbon, the region 
 
 of the Anthracite, in Schuylkill county, 
 the general direction being nearly north- 
 west. The Union canal. A little to the 
 westward of the town of Reading, in 
 Berks county, Pennsylvania, about 60 
 miles from Philadelphia, the Union canal 
 branches off from the Schuylkill canal in 
 a general south-westerly direction, first 
 passing up a branch of the Schuylkill, and 
 then down the valley of the Swatara, 
 somewhat circuitously, about 80 miles, to 
 Middletown, a little above the junction of 
 the Swatara with the Susquehanna. 
 Pennsylvania canal commences at Mid- 
 dletown, at the termination of the Union 
 canal, whence it is proposed to proceed 
 up along the Susquehanna, in a westerly 
 direction, to the Alleghanies, which are 
 to be passed by a rail-road, now in prog- 
 ress, about 50 miles in length, into the 
 valley of the Ohio, where the canal again 
 commences, and is continued to Pitts- 
 burg, a distance, in the whole, of 320 
 miles of canal and rail-road ; the part of 
 the canal beyond the Alleghanies being 
 already completed, and the part on the 
 eastern side being in progress. The Little 
 Schuylkill canal is 27 miles in length, from 
 the mouth of the Little Schuylkill river 
 to the coal-mines. Conestoga canal passes 
 from Lancaster, in Pennsylvania, about 
 62 miles directly west from Philadelphia, 
 down the Conestoga creek, 18 miles, in 
 nearly a south-west direction, to Susque- 
 hanna river. The Chesapeake and Dela- 
 ware canal, 18 miles in length, from the 
 Delaware river to Elk river, which dis- 
 charges into Chesapeake bay, is of suffi- 
 cient dimensions for the passage of coast- 
 ing vessels, in the route between Phila- 
 delphia and Baltimore. Dismal Swamp 
 canal is a channel of sloop navigation, be- 
 ing 6 feet deep and 70 wide, along the 
 low land between Chesapeake bay and 
 Albemarle sound, and thence to Pamlico 
 sound. Several branches have been con- 
 structed, and the whole is in operation, 
 being a very important work, as will be 
 apparent by an inspection of the map, and 
 somewhat similar to that of the Chesapeake 
 and Delaware canal. The Chesapeake 
 and Ohio canal is a gigantic enterprise, in 
 progress, for opening a navigation of 360 
 miles, from Wahsington, along the Poto- 
 mac and its branches, across the Allegha- 
 ny mountains, and thence down the val- 
 ley of the Youghiogeny and Monongahela 
 rivers, to Pittsburg, on the Ohio. The 
 execution of this work was commenced 
 in 1828, at the eastern extremity. The 
 Louisville canal, though only 3 or 4 miles 
 in length, is a work of great importance,
 
 466 
 
 AMERICAN CANALS CANARIES. 
 
 as well as great expense. It is now in 
 progress, and is intended to form a pas- 
 sage along the side of the rapids of the 
 Ohio, near to Louisville, in Kentucky. 
 The canal is constructing of sufficiently 
 large dimensions to admit of the passage 
 of steamboats ; and the difficulty and ex- 
 pense, as in the case of the canal at Trol- 
 hatta falls, in Sweden, is occasioned by 
 the necessity of excavating rock. The 
 James and Kanhawa canal is a name given 
 to works intended to form a line of trans- 
 portation, partly by water and partly by 
 land, from the Atlantic coast to the Ohio ; 
 being a navigation along James river to 
 the Blue Ridge, partly by an artificial 
 channel, but mostly by the river, and, 
 across the Ridge, by a well-constructed 
 road, graduated to an inclination not ex- 
 ceeding 3 degrees, which has been com- 
 pleted, and descending, by river or canal 
 navigation, along the Kanhawa river, to 
 the Ohio. A canal was commenced, 
 along the bank of James river, to pass 
 the falls at Richmond, before the revolu- 
 tion. The work was resumed, and com- 
 pleted, after the establishment of the 
 present government, by a private com- 
 pany ; but the state has since assumed 
 these works, and greatly enlarged them, 
 upon an improved construction, in the 
 execution of the plan of the extended 
 line of transportation above described. In 
 Mr. Boye's map of Virginia, the canal is 
 laid down along the north-western bank 
 of the James river, from Richmond to 
 Venture falls ; a distance of about 20 
 miles, and, by the course of the canal, 
 probably as much as 24 or 25. The Ap- 
 pomattox canal is about 5 miles of canal, 
 in detached portions, being a part of a 
 system of improvement of the Appomat- 
 tox navigation in Virginia. The Roanoke 
 canal is a similar work on Roanoke river. 
 The Santee canal is a proposed and 
 partly executed line of navigation from 
 Charleston to Columbia, and thence to 
 Cambridge, in South Carolina. The 
 whole distance is 160 miles. A canal has 
 been cut. and for many years in operation, 
 22 miles in length, across from Cooper's 
 river, which discharges into the ocean 
 at Charleston, to Santee river. Thence 
 the route of this navigation is proposed 
 to pass along Santee, Broad and Saluda 
 rivers ; the project being an improvement 
 of the river navigation, by removing ob- 
 structions, deepening the water in shal- 
 low places, and locking round falls. The 
 work has not, hitherto, been prosecuted 
 with great success. The canal Carondo- 
 let is a short, artificial channel, connecting 
 
 the Mississippi with lake Pontchartrain, 
 near New Orleans. It has no locks. 
 Such is a general geographical outline of 
 the most important artificial channels of 
 inland navigation, completed or com- 
 menced in the U. States, down to 1829. 
 The table of dimensions, and the most 
 striking features of construction, of these 
 works, is deferred to the article on inland 
 navigation, where a more satisfactory de- 
 scription, in these respects, may be given, 
 when the results or prospects of some of 
 the great enterprises in progress, at the 
 time of writing this article, shall be more 
 fully ascertained. 
 
 CAXALETTO ; 1. a Venetian painter, 
 born in 1687, whose true name was ./to/o- 
 nto Canale. He is celebrated for his land- 
 scapes, which are true to nature, and his 
 architectural paintings. He died at Lon- 
 don, in 1768. There is a bird's-eye view 
 of Venice painted by him. He is also 
 said to have first used the camera obscura 
 for perspective. 2. Bernardo Bellotti, 
 who was likewise a good artist, and paint- 
 ed at Dresden many Italian landscapes, 
 also goes by this name. He lived in 
 Dresden, where he was a member of the 
 academy of painters, and died in 1770. 
 
 CANARIES ; a cluster of islands in the 
 Atlantic, considered as belonging to Afri- 
 ca, the most easterly being about 150 
 miles from cape Non. They are 13 in 
 number, 7 of which are considerable, viz., 
 Palma, Ferro, Gomera, TenerifFe, Grand 
 Canary, Fuerteventura and Lancerota: 
 the other 6 are very small ; Graciosa, Ro- 
 ca or Rocca, Allegranza, Sta. Clara, In- 
 ferno and Lobos. Lon. 13 20* 18 10' 
 W. ; lat. 27 30 7 29 30' N. The extent 
 and population of the seven largest, ac- 
 cording to Ledru, are given in the follow- 
 ing table : 
 
 Pop. 
 Sq. leagues. Pop. to sq. I. 
 
 Teneriffe, 73 ... 70,000 ... 958 
 
 Fuerteventura,. .63 9,000 ... 142 
 
 Grand Canary,. . 60 ... 50,000 ... 833 
 
 Palma, 27 ... 22,600 ... 837 
 
 Lancerota, 26 ... 10,000 ... 384 
 
 Gomera, 14 7,400 ... 528 
 
 Feiro, 7 5,000 . . . 714 
 
 "270" 174,000 ~644 
 
 Hassel states the population of the whole 
 at 181,000, and the square miles at 3213. 
 The soil of these islands is very fertile, 
 and produces all kinds of grain, fruits and 
 pulse in great abundance ; so that the 
 name of Fortunate Islands, which the an- 
 cients gave them, was well deserved ; but 
 the method of cultivation practised by the 
 natives tends very little to its improvement.
 
 CANARIES CANCER. 
 
 467 
 
 All the islands furnish good wine ; but the 
 preference is given to the wines of Palma 
 and Teneriffe. The situation of the C., 
 the salubrity of their climate, the fertility 
 of their soil, and the quality of their pro- 
 ductions, all conspire to render them the 
 most valuable of the Spanish colonies. 
 The exports amount to 242,000 dollars 
 annually, and consist of wine, raw silk, 
 soda and fruits. One of the most recent 
 works on these islands, and probably the 
 most valuable one, is Leopold von Buch's 
 Physikaliscfie Beschreibung der Canaris- 
 chen Inseln (Physical Description of the 
 Canary Islands, by Leop. von Buch ; Ber- 
 lin, 1825, 4to. They are of volcanic origin, 
 and were, as has been stated, known to 
 the ancients. Juba II, king of Maurita- 
 nia, described them first with some degree 
 of accuracy. He graced a triumphal en- 
 try of Caesar into Rome, was instructed in 
 all branches of liberal knowledge, and 
 became a highly accomplished prince. 
 Pliny followed his description of the isl- 
 ands. Juba called the C. Proper Fortu- 
 nate, but Madeira and Porto Santo, Pur- 
 purece. Of the island of Ferro, which he 
 calls Ombrios, and of the others, he gives 
 an interesting account The loss of this 
 work is the more to be regretted, as we 
 might reasonably hope to find in it some 
 information respecting that mysterious 
 tribe who originally inhabited these isl- 
 ands. This people understood how to 
 embalm their dead, who were sewed in 
 goat-skins, put into coffins of one piece 
 of wood, and placed in grottoes. These 
 mummies smell agreeably, but fall to dust 
 if they are taken out of their goat-skin 
 coverings. The Spaniards relate strange 
 things of the civilization of these tribes, 
 called Guanches, of their respect for wo- 
 men, of their chastity, and aristocratic 
 constitution. Their language resembled 
 that spoken on the neighboring continent; 
 but we know too little of it to be able to 
 give any opinion respecting it. Between 
 1316 and 1334, the Spaniards, pressed by 
 the Moors, discovered and conquered 
 these islands; and they are laid down with 
 accuracy in the old map which Andreas 
 Bianco published in Venice, 143G. The 
 Spaniards seem, however, not to have 
 esteemed these islands much ; for the 
 infante of Portugal, Henry the Navigator 
 (q. v.), ordered them to be taken posses- 
 sion of, and prosecuted his discoveries 
 from them to the coast of Guinea. In 
 1478, the Spaniards undertook again the 
 conquest of the C. At the end of the 
 loth century, they had subdued the origin- 
 al inhabitants entirely ; and they extirpated 
 
 them at a later period. At present, the 
 islands are inhabited almost entirely by 
 Spaniards : only a few Portuguese reside 
 there. Teneriffe (q. v.) is an island of 
 basaltic formation, thrown up by internal 
 convulsions. The fortified capital is the 
 seat of the governor, has 8400 inhabitants, 
 and an excellent harbor on the eastern 
 side of the island. Another city, Laguna 
 (8800 inhabitants), is the seat of the bish- 
 op (who has an income of about 6000 
 sterling), and of the tribunals. The island 
 Lancerota, or Lancelotta, contains three 
 volcanoes, and, in 1823, experienced vio- 
 lent eruptions. Five islands of this clus- 
 ter are uninhabited. The people of the 
 C. are rigid Catholics. 
 
 CANARY-BIRD, or CANARY FINCH. (See 
 Finch.) 
 
 CANARY, GRAND, or CANARIA ; an island 
 in the Atlantic ocean, about 180 miles 
 from the coast of Africa. It is the most 
 fertile and important of the Canary isl- 
 ands, to which it gives name. Canary, 
 or Cividad de Palmas, is the capital of the 
 island. (See Canaries.) 
 
 CANCER, in astronomy ; the fourth sign 
 in the zodiac (q. v.), marked thus 5, 
 which the sun enters on the 21st day of 
 June, thence called the summer solstice. 
 It consists, according to Kepler, of 17, 
 according to Bayer, of 35 stars, 2 of 
 which are of the third magnitude. Flam- 
 stead made a catalogue of 83 stars, the 
 comparative brightness of several or' 
 which will be found estimated by doctor 
 Herschel (Phil. Tran, Ixxxvii., 311). The 
 tropic of cancer is a small circle of the 
 sphere, parallel to the equator, from which 
 it is 23i distant, and marks the sun's 
 greatest northern declination. It is so 
 called because it passes through the be- 
 ginning of the sign Cancer. 
 
 CANCER. In medicine, this name is 
 given to a roundish, unequal, hard and 
 livid tumor, generally seated in the glan- 
 dular texture. Though this is the texture 
 in which it is believed always to origin- 
 ate, it may extend to others. This is 
 doubted by some ; and the disease which 
 is often met with in the immediate neigh- 
 borhood of advanced cancer, and in dif- 
 ferent textures, is, by them, ascribed to 
 mechanical pressure of the cancerous tu- 
 mors, aided by the acrid discharges which 
 accompany its ulceration. The name 
 was derived from a supposed resemblance 
 of the tumor to a crab, and furnishes a 
 good example of the nomenclature from 
 resemblance, which was very much in 
 use in the early periods of the sciences. 
 Two forms of cancer are recognised by
 
 468 
 
 CANCER CANDELABRA. 
 
 physicians. They may rather be called 
 two states or stages of the same disease. 
 One of these, and the first, is carcinoma, 
 scirrhus, or concealed cancer, of some 
 writers. The second is the open, or ul- 
 cerated cancer ulcerated carcinoma, as 
 it is designated by writers. Under proper 
 internal treatment, the second stage may 
 be kept off for some time ; and, in favor- 
 able cases, the extirpation of the tumor 
 by the knife may effect a cure. The 
 disease is kept in check, in the first case, 
 but is not removed, and is very prone to 
 pass into the ulcerative stage. The fact 
 that this can be deferred, by proper treat- 
 ment, is an important one. The suffer- 
 ings of the patient are thus made less, 
 especially during the first stage ; and, even 
 in the last, their severity is much miti- 
 gated. One very early symptom of car- 
 cinoma is pain. This pain differs from 
 that which ordinarily accompanies local 
 diseases of a different kind. It is de- 
 scribed as lancinating, occurring some- 
 what hi paroxysms, and resembling the 
 suffering which the sudden passage of a 
 sharp and pointed instrument would pro- 
 duce in the part. Besides this, there is 
 always more or less dull pain present. 
 The progress of the disease, and the oc- 
 currence of the second stage, are marked 
 by increased pain of both kinds ; by in- 
 crease in the size of the tumor, augment- 
 ed heat, greater inequality in the surface, 
 a darker color, and increased tenderness 
 on pressure. When ulceration is just 
 established, and even a little before, the 
 patient complains of general irritation of 
 the skin ; the stomach is disturbed ; and 
 symptoms of constitutional irritation, 
 more strongly marked, make then- ap- 
 pearance. Ulceration begins on the sur- 
 face of the tumor, and parts are destroyed, 
 in succession, from without, until the 
 whole texture presents a mass of disease. 
 Instead of this destructive ulceration, we 
 have, in many cases, fungous masses pro- 
 jecting from the diseased surface ; and 
 these, at times, attain considerable size. 
 But it is not a character of carcinoma to 
 grow, and become as large as other dis- 
 eases of some of the organs in which it 
 appears. This is especially true of it 
 when seated in the womb. An offensive, 
 sanious discharge proceeds from the ulcer. 
 Bleeding often takes place from it, es- 
 pecially when fungous, either from me- 
 chanical irritation, though slight, or from 
 accidental excitement of the arterial sys- 
 tem only. Carcinoma is a malignant dis- 
 ease. Its tendency is to death. The 
 constitution has not power to overcome 
 
 it ; and hence, when left to itself it is 
 certainly mortal. Internal remedies do 
 little more than palliate symptoms, or 
 prevent the rapid progress to ulceration, 
 which belongs to the disease. The only 
 remedy is the knife ; and, in cases in 
 which the constitution and neighboring 
 parts are not contaminated, extirpation by 
 the knife has removed the disease en- 
 tirely. There are parts of the body which 
 are liable to carcinoma, in which extirpa- 
 tion cannot be practised, and some in 
 which, though an operation has been per- 
 formed, death has, nevertheless, followed. 
 In cases of this sort, especially those of 
 the first class, palliatives only can be re- 
 sorted to ; such remedies, namely, as 
 mitigate suffering, and retard the progress 
 of the disease. 
 
 CANCER-ROOT, or BEECH-DROP (oro- 
 banche virginiana, L.) ; a parasitic plant, 
 indigenous in America, growing almost 
 exclusively on the exposed root of the 
 beech tree. The whole plant is powerful- 
 ly astringent, and the root of a brownish 
 color, spongy, and of a very nauseous, 
 bitter taste. It has been applied more 
 externally than internally to the cure of 
 cancer. The one-flowertd cancer-root (oro- 
 bancht uniflora) is used in the same man- 
 ner. All parts of the plants are used in 
 medicine. 
 
 CANDELABRA. Torches and lamps were 
 the means used by the ancients for obtain- 
 ing artificial light. The latter were either 
 suspended from the ceilings of their 
 rooms, with chains, or placed upon small, 
 movable tables (lampadaria, candelabra, 
 and candelabri). The candelabra were 
 originally made of cane, with one plate 
 fixed above and another underneath, or 
 with feet, for supporters. The Greeks 
 called these Xu^vou^oi. The Grecian art- 
 ists produced, in ornamenting these lamp- 
 stands, the richest forms, which always, 
 however, had reference to the original 
 cane, and were encircled with an infinite 
 variety of beautiful ornaments. Some- 
 times "they were shafts in the shapes of 
 columns, which could be shortened or 
 drawn out ; sometimes the luxuriant Scan- 
 thus, with its leaves turned over ; some- 
 times they represented trunks of trees, 
 entwined with ivy and flowers, and ter- 
 minated by vases or bell-flowers at the 
 top, for the reception of the lamps. Ex- 
 amples of these forms may be found in 
 the British museum and the Louvre, but 
 particularly at the Vatican, where a gal- 
 lery is filled with marble candelabra. 
 Candelabra of yet more delicate forms, of 
 bronze, inlaid with silver and other met-
 
 CANDELABRA CANDIA. 
 
 469 
 
 als, have been found in Herculaneum. 
 In ancient times, Tarentuin and JEgiiiu. 
 were famous for their elegant candelabra. 
 The graceful and expressive form of this 
 utensil was made use of for colossal 
 works of art, particularly on account of 
 its resemblance to the holy torches em- 
 ployed in the worship of ^Esculapius. 
 The largest and grandest of those monu- 
 ments was the Pharos, at the harbor of 
 Alexandria. In modern times, this an- 
 cient form has been used for an ingenious 
 Christian monument. At the place where 
 (721) the first church in Tlmringia was 
 founded by Boniface, the apostle of the 
 Germans, only a few relics remaining of 
 the building, which had served for more 
 than 10 centuries as a Christian temple, a 
 candelabrum, 30 feet high, formed of 
 sand-stone, was erected (Sept. 1, 1811), as 
 a symbol of the light which spread from 
 this spot. 
 
 CANDI, or CANDY (anciently Maagram- 
 mum) ; a city of Ceylon, and capital of a 
 country to which it gives name ; 80 miles 
 from Columbo; Ion. 80 44' E.; lat. 73& 
 N. The town is a poor, miserable place, 
 surrounded by a mud wall. The king- 
 dom is fertile, intersected with rivers, and 
 well furnished with woods. It was an- 
 nexed to the British dominions in 1816. 
 (See bishop Heber's Narrative of a Jour- 
 ney through the Upper Provinces of India, 
 &c., loith Notes upon Ceylon, vol. ii, p. 188 
 et seq.) 
 
 CANDIA (in the Turkish language, Kirid, 
 called, in the most ancient times, Mm, 
 from mount Ida, afterwards Crete), one of 
 the most important islands of the Turkish 
 empire, situated in the Mediterranean (Ion. 
 23 40 7 26 40* E., and lat. 34 5(X 35 
 55* N., 81 miles from the southern extrem- 
 ity of the Morea, 92 from Rhodes, and 230 
 from the African coast), is 160 miles long, 
 14 50 broad, and contains 4026 square 
 miles. A high chain of mountains, cov- 
 ered with forests, runs through the whole 
 length of the island, in two ranges, the 
 western part of which is called by the 
 Venetians Monte di Sphachia (formerly 
 Leuce) ; the eastern part, Lasthi or Sethia 
 (formerly Dicte). On the north side, it 
 declines moderately to a fertile coast, pro- 
 vided with good harbors ; on the south 
 side, steeply to a rocky shore, with few 
 roadsteads ; and reaches its greatest height 
 in the lofty Psiloriti (the ancient Ida), 
 7670 feet high, and always covered with 
 snow. Mountain torrents, which are 
 swollen in the winter and spring, but al- 
 most dry in summer, conduct the waters 
 to the sea. Numerous springs give fertility 
 
 VOL. ii. 40 
 
 to most of the valleys, in which, and on 
 the declivities of the mountains, is seen a 
 luxuriant vegetation. The air is mild ; the 
 summer is cooled by the north winds ; 
 the winter is distinguished only by show- 
 ers of rain. The island would, therefore, 
 be a most delightful residence, and supply 
 its inhabitants, as formerly, with grain, 
 wine and oil, wool, flax, silk and cotton, 
 fish, honey, game, cattle, the noblest fruits 
 of the south, and even with metals, in 
 abundance, did not the oppressions and 
 cruelties of the Turks prevent all cultiva- 
 tion, and render it impossible for the dis- 
 couraged inhabitants (who, instead of be- 
 ing 1,200,000, as in the time of the Greeks, 
 or 900,000, as in the time of the Venetians, 
 amount only to 300,000, half Greeks, half 
 Turks) to attain more than the most in- 
 dispensable necessaries of life. Manufac- 
 tures, trade, navigation, the arts and sci- 
 ences, are not to be thought of. All the 
 harbors, with the exception of that of 
 Canea, are filled with sand, and the cities 
 are mere aggregations of rubbish. The 
 capital, Candia, the seat of the pacha, has 
 15,000 inhabitants ; Retimo, 6000 ; Canea 
 (the ancient Cydonia], the most important 
 place of trade on the island, 12,000. Ac- 
 cording to Homer, king Idomeneus sailed 
 from tliis island to Ilium, with 80 vessels. 
 The Greek mythology made Crete the 
 scene of many of the adventures of the 
 gods and heroes. Here Saturn reigned, 
 and afterwards Minos, 1300 years before 
 Christ. After the banishment of the kings, 
 Crete became a republic, and then a seat 
 of the Cihcian pirates, till it was conquer- 
 ed by the Romans. In the year 823, it 
 passed from the hands of the Roman 
 emperors in the East into those of the 
 Saracens, who built the capital, Candia, 
 on the ruins of Heraclea, but were expel- 
 led again, in 962, by the Greeks. Against 
 the will of the inhabitants, the Byzantine 
 sovereign sold the island to the Venetians 
 in 1204, who, aware of its importance, 
 fortified most of the cities, won the good 
 will of their new subjects by a mild gov- 
 ernment, and repelled all the assaults of 
 the Genoese and Turks, till the middle of 
 the 17th century. About this time, the 
 attacks of the Turks became more vio- 
 lent, on account of a prize taken by the 
 Maltese, on board of which was the aga 
 of the eunuchs, and, according to a re- 
 port then very generally spread through- 
 out Europe, the favorite wife and son of 
 the sultan Ibrahim, but probably only a 
 slave of the aga, who had been employed 
 in the seraglio as a nurse, with her son, to 
 whom, however, the sultan was much at-
 
 470 
 
 CANDIA. 
 
 taclied. This vessel was carried, for a 
 short time, into Calismene, a harbor of 
 Candia, without, however, the consent 
 of the Venetians, who had no garrison 
 there. The sultan was highly incensed, 
 ascribed all the fault to the Venetians, and 
 landed a large force in Candia, in June 
 1G45, which soon tookCanea and Retiino, 
 and besieged the capital with vigor. The 
 attack was bravely repelled, but repeated 
 in 1649; and was this time also unsuccess- 
 ful. In 1656, the Turks made a third ef- 
 fort, but afterwards changed the siege into 
 a blockade, which they continued for 10 
 years without success, since the Venetians, 
 being masters of the sea, supplied the for- 
 tress, without difficulty, with provisions, 
 men and ammunition. In 1667, after the 
 peace of Vasvar, the grand vizier, Kio- 
 purli, in order to restore his reputation, 
 which had been tarnished by the loss of 
 the battle of St. Gothard, and to regain the 
 favor of Mohammed IV by an important 
 conquest, took vigorous measures for the 
 entire reduction of Candia, investing the 
 capital, May 14th, with 80,000 men. A wall 
 1 with 7 bastions surrounded the fortress ; 
 the same number of ravelins were situated 
 in front of the wall, and several detached 
 works still farther in advance : a numerous 
 fleet held the Turks in check by sea, and 
 the garrison, commanded by the chevalier 
 de Ville and Morosini, was ready to be 
 buried under the ruins of the fortress. 
 The attack of the Turks was directed 
 against the bastion called Panigra. The 
 Christians contested every step of their 
 advance ; but the Turks were soon at the 
 foot of a breach, which was, however, so 
 well defended by mines, sallies, and in- 
 trenchments, that the most furious assaults, 
 directed by Kiopurli in person, who fear- 
 ed the displeasure of his master, were 
 without success. The winter found the 
 Turks still before the breach, and com- 
 pelled them to withdraw to their intrench- 
 ments. The natives of the East, unac- 
 customed to a winter campaign, were car- 
 ried off by sickness ; and new masses of 
 troops, with all the materials for a siege, 
 supplied the loss. Changes occurred also 
 in the fortress. In the spring of 1668, 
 the brave chevalier de Ville was recalled, 
 on account of the jealousy of his superi- 
 ors, and a quarrel with Morosini. His 
 place, however, was well supplied by the 
 chevalier St. Andre Montbrun. Volun- 
 teers, likewise, poured in from all the coun- 
 tries of Europe, to display their courage 
 on so bloody a field, and to learn the art 
 of war. Numerous engineers made the 
 place their school, and Werthmuller, 
 
 Rimpler and Vauban were together here, 
 The pope sent troops and money ; the 
 Maltese, knights and soldiers. The duke 
 de la Feuillade led hither 600 Frenchmen, 
 some of them of the noblest families, 
 who, with French thoughtlessness, rushed 
 into needless danger, and were, for the 
 most part, destroyed. The count of Wai- 
 deck subsequently came with 3 regi- 
 ments of Liineberg troops, so that the 
 garrison was always kept from 8000 to 
 10,000 strong. Treachery had given the 
 Turks information that the bastions of St. 
 Andre and Sabionetta were the weakest 
 points of the fortress : they therefore al- 
 tered their plan, and attacked the last- 
 mentioned works. Departing from the 
 line of operations which they had hitherto 
 followed, they approached the fortress by 
 employing a great number of men in dig- 
 ging a deep ditch, throwing up the earth 
 towards the place, and continuing to 
 move it forward Avith shovels, till they 
 reached and filled the trench. Daring sal- 
 lies and well-applied mines, however, kept 
 the Turks in check for a longtime, and often 
 destroyed their works ; but, having finally 
 succeeded in establishing themselves on 
 the bastion of St. Andre, they found be- 
 yond it strong intrenchments, which with- 
 stood the most violent assaults ; and the 
 approach of winter found the besiegers 
 no farther advanced. In the spring of 
 1669, the Turks pursued their labors 
 slowly, but surely and successfully. In a 
 short time, nothing but a heap of earth 
 and stones remained to the Venetians of 
 the bastion of St. Andre, and their last 
 defence was a wall, thrown up during the 
 winter, as a general intrenchment. In 
 this extremity, the dukes of Beaufort arid 
 Navailles appeared with a French fleet 
 and 7000 troops. A desperate sally was 
 undertaken with this new reinforcement. 
 A mine, which was to serve as a signal, 
 and throw the Turks into confusion, did 
 not explode : on the contrary, a Turkish 
 powder-magazine blew up when the 
 French had already got possession of the 
 trenches, and repelled an attempt of the 
 Turks to recover them. This explosion 
 filled the French with such a fear of con- 
 cealed mines, that they fled in disorder to 
 the fortress, and left 200 men dead on 
 the field, among whom were many brave 
 officers, and the duke of Beaufort. At the 
 same time, the Christian fleet, consisting 
 of 80 ships and 50 galleys, which were to 
 attack the Turkish camp in the flank, was 
 thrown into disorder by the batteries on 
 the coast, and the blowing up of a ship of 
 70 guns, and the sally was entirely un-
 
 CANDIA CANDIDATE. 
 
 471 
 
 successful. This misfortune increased 
 the discord which already existed to such 
 u degree, that the duke of Navailles, con- 
 vinced that the preservation of the for- 
 tress was impossible, re-embarked his 
 corps, and returned to France. Individ- 
 uals belonging to the other troops joined 
 the French ; the Maltese, and almost all 
 the volunteers, also, departed shortly after ; 
 a new assault of the Turks was more suc- 
 cessful than the previous ones, and brought 
 them to the palisades of the last intrench- 
 iiipnt ; the garrison, amounting to scarcely 
 3000 men, was desponding and disobedi- 
 ent; quarrels distracted the commanders, 
 and every thing announced that the place 
 must fall at the next assault. It was re- 
 solved, therefore, in a council of war, to 
 surrender. The terms of capitulation 
 gave the garrison and inhabitants liberty 
 to depart within 12 days, and to take with 
 them all their property, even the artillery 
 which had been introduced into the city 
 during the siege, and left the Venetians 
 in possession of Suda, Garabusa and Spi- 
 nalonga. Sept. 27, 10(59, the city was 
 surrendered, alter a war of 25 years, a 
 blockade of 13 years, and a siege, in which 
 the trenches had been open 2 years 3 
 months and 27 days. Its defence must 
 serve as a model to the latest ages, as one 
 of the bravest recorded in history, and 
 proves what Christian courage could ef- 
 fect against Turkish fury and superiority 
 of numbers, even at a time when the Eu- 
 ropean art of war was imperfect, and the 
 Turkish empire was at the zenith of its 
 prosperity. At the time of the capitula- 
 tion, the garrison consisted of only 2500 
 soldiers. 30,985 Christians and 118,754 
 Turks were killed or wounded during the 
 siege ; 56 assaults were made by the 
 Turks ; 96 sallies by the Christians ; 472 
 mines were sprung by the former, 1173 
 by the latter; 509,692 cannon shot were 
 fired by the fortress, and 180,000 cwt. of 
 lead used for musket balls by the Chris- 
 tians. The Turks found the city in a ru- 
 inous state; every thing of any value was 
 taken away ; only 33 men, for the most 
 part far advanced in years, remained be- 
 hinil, and 350 miserable cannon stood on 
 the walls. The Turks immediately re- 
 paired all the works. Having obtained 
 possession of the capital, they now en- 
 deavored to expel the Venetians from the 
 strong holds which remained to them on the 
 island ; and, before the expiration of the 
 17th century jGarabuaa fell into their power 
 by treachery, and Suda and Spinalonga by 
 surrender. They managed Candia in the 
 usual manner. Three pachas, at Candia, 
 
 Canea and Retimo, governed the island. 
 On account of the feuds of these pachas, 
 the inhabitants of the western mountains 
 succeeded in forming a government of 
 their own, under Turkish protection, in 
 the agalic of Sphachia. As the compacts 
 made with them were not always observ- 
 ed, they were wont, in such cases, to take 
 up arms, were often defeated, but never 
 entirely subdued. The pachas having 
 demanded hostages of them in 1821, they 
 joined the Greek insurgents. Even under 
 the Venetian government, the Candiotes 
 had the reputation of suffering no infringe- 
 ment of their privileges, and would not 
 permit the Venetians to establish, as in the 
 other districts of Greece, a nobility, degli 
 possidcnti, by whose means they might 
 hold the other inhabitants under the yoke 
 of the podestas. Had the mountaineers 
 been armed, when the Turks made their 
 first descent on the island, it would prob- 
 ably have been impossible for the invaders 
 to have maintained themselves in Candia, 
 Tho Sphachiotes have played the same part 
 in Candia as the Mainotes in the Morea, 
 excepting that they have not escaped the 
 tribute of the poll-tax. The energy of the 
 inhabitants seems to be now relaxed. (See 
 Greek. Insurrection. ) The histori cal i mpor- 
 tance of ancient Crete, in a mythological 
 point of view, and as a seat of ancient civ- 
 ilization, is shown bv Hock's Krcta (Gott., 
 1823). In 1817, F. W. Sieber, a German 
 physician, penetrated far into Crete, and 
 made many observations on it, which had 
 principally in view the improvement of 
 natural history and medical science. See 
 his Reise nach der Insel Kreta Voyage to 
 the Island of Crete (Leips. 1823), 2 vols. 
 with plates and a map. 
 
 CANDIDATE (from the Latin candidatus, 
 lohite-robed, because, among the Romans, 
 a man who solicited an office appeared in 
 a shining white garment toga Candida). 
 The candidati of the Romans wore no 
 tunic ; either as a sign of humility, or in 
 order to show the wounds received on 
 their breasts. The time of their canvass- 
 ing was two years, during which they 
 wore the toga Candida. In the first year, 
 they delivered speeches to the people, or 
 had them delivered by others, with the 
 consent of the magistrates. This was 
 called profiteri nomtn suum, and the year, 
 annus professions. After this year, they 
 requested the magistrate to enter their 
 names on the list of candidates for the 
 office sought for. An aspirant was sel- 
 dom refused permission to deliver his 
 speeches ; but he was not yet necessarily 
 treated as a candidate by the magistrates,
 
 CANDIDATE CANGA-ARGUELLES. 
 
 or proposed by them to the people on the 
 day of election. Before that was done, 
 his life was subjected to a scrutiny in the 
 senate, after the pretor or consul had re- 
 ceived his name. If the senate^ accepted 
 him, he was permitted to offer himself, 
 on the day of election, as a candidate. 
 The formula, by which permission was 
 granted, was, rationem liabebo, rtnuntiabo ; 
 if he was not accepted, he received the 
 answer rationem non habcbo ; non rcnun- 
 tiabo. The tribunes often opposed a 
 candidate who had been accepted by 
 the senate. The morals of the aspirants, 
 in the purer ages of the republic, were 
 always severely examined. In the later 
 period of the republic, nobody could ob- 
 tain an office if he was not present, and 
 if he had not offered himself on three 
 market-days. (Sail. Cat. 18., Cic. Fam. 
 xvi. 12.) On these days, the candidates 
 tried to insinuate themselves into the 
 favor of the people. They went from 
 house to house (ambiendo), shook hands 
 with every body whom they met (pren- 
 sando), addressed each one by his name, 
 for which purpose they generally had a 
 nomendator with them, who whispered 
 the names of those whom they met into 
 their ear. Cicero, therefore, calls the can- 
 didates natio qfficiosissima. They placed 
 themselves, on market-days, in elevated 
 places, in order to be seen. On the day 
 of election, they did the same. Favor- 
 ites of the people accompanied them (de- 
 ductorts] ; some of their suite (diinsores) 
 distributed money among the people, 
 which, though prohibited, was done pub- 
 licly. Interprdes were employed to bar- 
 gain with the people, and the money 
 was deposited in the hands of sequestres. 
 Sometimes a number of candidates united 
 into parties (coitiones), in order to defeat 
 the endeavors of the others. At last, the 
 grounds on which each candidate rested 
 his claims to the office were read, and the 
 tribes delivered their votes. The success- 
 ful candidate then sacrificed to the gods 
 in the capitol. To oppose a candidate 
 was called t.i refragari; to support him, 
 suffragari, or sitff'mgatores esse. We have 
 dwelt so long on this subject, on account 
 of the similarity between the ancient and 
 the modern modes of seeking office. The 
 word candidate is also used, by Protestants, 
 to designate a theologian, who, having fin- 
 ished his studies at a university, is waiting 
 for an appointment in the church. 
 
 CASDIDE ; the name of a famous tale 
 of Voltaire's, forming an epoch in French 
 literature, in which he ridicules the sys- 
 tem of optimism with his usual spirit, and 
 
 attacks revelation with plausible but su- 
 perficial arguments. Voltaire is unsur- 
 passed in the art of treating the most 
 serious subjects with light raillery, while 
 he seduces the reader by the charms of 
 his style. Some descriptions in this tale, 
 for instance, that of the carnival at Venice, 
 arc excellent. 
 
 CANDLEMAS ; a Catholic feast, insti- 
 tuted by pope Gelasius I, in 492, in com- 
 memoration of the presentation of Christ 
 in the temple, and of the purification of 
 Mary ; perhaps intended to take the place 
 of the rude heathen feast called the Lu- 
 percalia, which was abolished by him. 
 It is celebrated on February 2, and has 
 its name from the consecrated torches 
 which are carried about in procession, in 
 allusion to the words of Simeon, " a light 
 to enlighten the Gentiles." 
 
 CANE. (See Bamboo and Ratan.) 
 
 CANEA ; the principal port of Candia ; 
 lat. 35 28' 45" N. ; Ion. 24 12> 45" E. ; 
 supposed to be on the site of the ancient 
 Cydonia. Population, 7150. The city 
 has been fortified from the time of the 
 Venetian government. 
 
 CANGA-ARGUELLES, don Jose, Spanish 
 minister of finance from 1820 to March, 
 1821, distinguished himself in the cortes 
 of 1812, no less by his talents than by his 
 zeal for the establishment of a constitu- 
 tion. When he was minister, he laid 
 before the cortes a statement of all the 
 possessions of the crown and of the 
 church in Spain, from which it appeared 
 that the latter surpassed the former by a 
 third part. When king Ferdinand, in 
 1814, resumed the government, C. was 
 confined in Penniscola, but, in 1816, was 
 restored to liberty, and employed in Va- 
 lencia. In his Memoria Sobre d Credito 
 Publico, he represented the condition of 
 the treasury, at the time when the king 
 swore to observe the constitution, and set 
 forth the measures of the ministry for 
 improving the condition of the finances. 
 According to this report, the annual defi- 
 cit of 340,050,231 reals was more than 
 the whole revenue. Among other means 
 of remedying the evil, the minister pro- 
 posed to raise 140,000,000 reals by direct 
 taxes ; to sell a 7th part of the property 
 of the church and monasteries ; also the 
 small possessions of the crown in North 
 Africa, and to make proposals for a loan 
 of 200,000,000 reals. He presented a 
 plan, likewise, for diminishing the great 
 number of officers, and reducing the 
 amount of exclusive privileges. His pro- 
 jects were executed only in part. Irt 
 1821, he resigned his office, together with
 
 CANGA-ARGUELLES CANNING. 
 
 478 
 
 the other ministers, and was chosen, in 
 1822, a member of the cortes. In this 
 body, he joined the party of the moderate 
 liberals. After the fall of the constitution 
 in Cadiz, he fled to England. 
 CANGE, Du. (See Du Fresne.) 
 CANISIUS, Petrus, born in 1524, at 
 Nimeguen, was the rirst man in Germany 
 who entered the order of the Jesuits, of 
 which he became a very active member. 
 In 1549, he was made professor of the- 
 ology, rector and vice-chancellor of the 
 university at Ingolstadt. He afterwards 
 reformed the university of Vienna, ac- 
 cording to the views of the order. His 
 catechism is yet in use. He persuaded 
 Ferdinand I to adopt violent measures 
 against the Protestants, and founded the 
 colleges at Prague, Augsburg, Dillingen, 
 and Friburg, in Switzerland, in the latter 
 of which he died, in 15! >7. 
 
 CANN.S: ; a city in the Neapolitan prov- 
 ince Puglia, at the mouth of the Aufidus, 
 on the Adriatic, famous for the great bat- 
 tle in which the Romans were here de- 
 feated by Hannibal (216 B. C.). The con- 
 suls yEmiluis Paulus and Terentius Varro 
 contented themselves with acting on the 
 defensive against the Carthaginian gen- 
 eral, who endeavored to decide the fate 
 of Rome by one blow ; but the senate, 
 considering that the Roman army con- 
 sisted of 7,000 men, while that of the 
 enemy amounted only to 50,000, among 
 whom were 10,000 horse, and would have 
 no point of support when beaten, com- 
 manded the consuls to give battle. Han- 
 nibal, seeing that their plan was changed, 
 allowed Varro to gain a slight advantage 
 in a skirmish of cavalry. The Romans 
 left their strong position at Canusiimi, on 
 the banks of the Aundus, and the whole 
 army crossed the river. The consul Varro 
 drew up his troops on the plain, with his 
 right wing protected by the river. At 
 the same time, Hannibal forded the Auti- 
 dus, and led his small army to the attack. 
 The Romans had their own cavalry on 
 the right wing, that of their allies on the 
 left, and the infantry, as usual, in the 
 centre. Hannibal opposed the Numidian 
 cavalry to that of the Roman allies, and 
 that of the Spaniards and Gauls to the 
 Roman. His infantry from Africa he 
 divided into two bodies, each of them 
 near the cavalry. At some distance from 
 both wings, the Spaniards and Gauls, on 
 foot, arranged in an obtuse angle, occur 
 pied the centre. Behind them was a 
 strong reserve. Hannibal himself com- 
 manded the centre. He had calculated 
 that the wind called I'oUarnus, which 
 40* 
 
 blew regularly at certain hours in that 
 country, would, at the time of attack, 
 throw dust and sand in the eyes of the 
 Romans, and hide his own evolutions. 
 The consul ^Emilius Paulus was wounded 
 by a Balearian slinger, soon after the 
 light troops had begun the engagement. 
 The first shock of the Roman cavalry 
 upon the Spaniards and Gauls was vio- 
 lent. After the fight had lasted for a long 
 time, they alighted, and fought on foot. 
 The Gauls and Spaniards then broke 
 through the dismounted Romans, and cut 
 them down. The Roman infantry, to 
 assist their horse, moved in a curved" line 
 towards the wing, under very disadvan- 
 tageous circumstances, and attacked the 
 Spanish and Gallic infantry, which retired 
 in good order into the intervals, as Han- 
 nibal had commanded. By this means, 
 Hannibal was enabled to attack the Ro- 
 mans hi flank, as they advanced incau- 
 tiously, with the African infantry, which 
 he had kept back for this purpose. Thus 
 surrounded, and contracted into a small 
 compass, the Romans fell in great num- 
 bers, among them the consul ^Emilius 
 Paulus, and both the proconsuls Serviliua 
 and Atilius. The Numidian horse de- 
 stroyed those who fled from the field of 
 battle. The victor made 13,000 prison- 
 ers. The Romans lost, according to their 
 own lowest statements, 45,000 men ; ac- 
 cording to the highest, 70,000. Hannibal 
 collected the gold rings of the knights 
 who had fallen, and sent some bushels 
 thereof to Carthage. But the victory had 
 also weakened his own army. He was 
 in want of, money to recruit his troops. 
 This want, rather than the short period 
 of luxurious living in winter-quarters at 
 Capua, obliged him, at length, to give up 
 the hope of conquering Italy, after a war 
 of 17 campaigns. (See Hannibal.) 
 
 CANNES, or CANES ; a small seaport of 
 France, on the shore of the Mediterra- 
 nean, in the department of the Var ; pop- 
 ulation, about 2eOO. C. is famous as the 
 place where the memorable march of 
 Napoleon through France began, when 
 he returned from Elba. He landed here 
 March 1, 1815. 
 
 CANNIBALS. (See Anthropophagi and 
 C'aribs.) 
 
 CANNING, George, was born in London, 
 April 11, 1770. His father, a man of 
 considerable abilities and literary cultiva- 
 tion, had offended his family by marrying 
 a lady of beauty and accomplishments, 
 but without fortune, and died in 1771, 
 leaving his widow destitute. She had 
 recourse to the stage for support, but was
 
 474 
 
 CANNING. 
 
 not very successful, and was afterwards 
 twice married. Her second husband was 
 an actor ; her third, Mr. Hunn, a linen- 
 draper of Exeter. She lived to see the 
 success of her son, from whom she ever 
 received the tenderest marks of filial love. 
 C., who had inherited a small estate in 
 Ireland, was educated at Eton, where he 
 was distinguished for industry, vigor of 
 mind, and elegance of taste, and, at the 
 age of 15, formed the plan of a periodical 
 paper, called the Microcosm, of which he 
 was the principal editor. In 1787, he was 
 entered at Oxford. His vacations were 
 passed with Sheridan, by whom he was 
 introduced to Burke, Fox, and other dis- 
 tinguished whigs. But, although Sheri- 
 dan had already announced him, in par- 
 liament, as the future ornament of his 
 party, C. entered into terms with Pitt, by 
 whom he was brought into parliament in 
 
 1793. During the first session, he re- 
 mained silent. His maiden effort was 
 made in 1794, on the Sardinian treaty, 
 and rather disappointed expectation. In 
 
 1794, he took the degree of M. A., and, 
 from that time, resided constantly in Lon- 
 don. In 1796, he was under-secretary 
 of state. In 1797, he projected, with some 
 of his friends, the Anti-Jacobin, or Week- 
 ly Examiner, of which Giffbrd was ap- 
 pointed editor. C. contributed many 
 poetical and other articles to this period- 
 ical. In 1798, he supported Wilberforce's 
 motion for the abolition of the slave-trade, 
 and continued always an advocate for the 
 amelioration of the condition of the 
 blacks. In July, 1800, C. increased his 
 fortune and influence by a marriage with 
 Joanna, daughter of general Scott, a lady 
 with a fortune of 100,000. The admin- 
 istration being dissolved in 1801, C. be- 
 came a member of the opposition, until 
 the restoration of Pitt in 1804. In 1807, 
 he was appointed secretary of state for 
 foreign affairs in the Portland administra- 
 tion. A political misunderstanding with 
 lord Castlereagh led to a duel between 
 that minister and C., in which the latter 
 was slightly wounded. This dispute oc- 
 casioned the dissolution of the ministry. 
 In 1810, he opposed the reference of the 
 Catholic claims to the committee of the 
 whole house, on the ground that no se- 
 curity or engagement had been offered 
 by the Catholics. Some of his most 
 brilliant speeches were on this subject. 
 He invariably supported the admission of 
 the Catholics to power, not as an abstract 
 question of right, but as a matter of expe- 
 diency of hourly increasing expediency. 
 The adoption of the measure being then 
 
 a matter of policy, the state of opinion, 
 the condition of affairs, and the securities 
 with which it should be accompanied, 
 were, with him, elements of the question. 
 He proposed securities, in 1813, which, 
 with the bill, were rejected. He sup- 
 ported, in 1812 and 1813, the same motion 
 which he had opposed in 1810; and, in 
 1821, two bills in favor of the Catholics 
 having been introduced into the house of 
 commons, he observed, " that the moment 
 was peculiarly favorable for discussion ; 
 that they were in possession of a peace 
 achieved by Catholic arms, and cemented 
 by Catholic blood." To C. was princi- 
 pally owing the first blow which shook 
 the throne of Napoleon ; the British poli- 
 cy in Spain was directed and animated 
 by him. " If there was any part of his 
 political life," he declared, on one occa- 
 sion, " in which he gloried, it was that, in 
 the face of every difficulty, discourage- 
 ment, and prophecy of failure, his had 
 been the hand which had committed 
 England to an alliance with Spain." 
 "Never," said he, on another occasion, 
 "ought we to relinquish our hold of the 
 Peninsula. The ruler of France has one 
 grand object, to which he stands pledged 
 the establishment of his dominion in 
 the Peninsula. If he fail in this, his de- 
 feat must be most signal." In 1812, he 
 was elected member of parliament for 
 Liverpool ; from which he was also re- 
 turned in 1814, 1818, 1820. In 1814, 
 he was appointed minister to Portugal, 
 and remained absent about two years. 
 In 1819, he declared his decided hostility 
 to parliamentary reform, in whatever 
 shape ; and his speech on lord John Rus- 
 sell's motion for reform, in 1822, is among 
 the most finished specimens of his elo- 
 quence. On the occasion of the pro- 
 ceedings relative to the queen, he de- 
 clared, that "toward the object of that 
 investigation, he felt an unaltered regard 
 and affection ," and soon after resigned 
 the presidency of the board of control, 
 and went abroad. Having been nomi- 
 nated governor-general of India, he was 
 on the point of embarking, when the 
 death of the marquis of Londonderry 
 called him to the cabinet as secretary for 
 foreign affairs (Sept. 16, 1822). One of 
 his earliest acts, in this situation, was to 
 check the French influence in Spain ; 
 and, in a debate on this subject (April 28, 
 1823), he observed, " It is true that there 
 is a contest going on in the world between 
 the spirit of unlimited monarchy and the 
 spirit of unlimited democracy. Between 
 these two spirits there is a strife openly in
 
 CANNING CANNON. 
 
 475 
 
 action, or covertly at work, throughout 
 the greater portion of Europe." It was 
 in this session that Brougham accused 
 him of "the most monstrous truckling 
 which the whole history of political ter- 
 giversation could furnish." C. rose im- 
 mediately, and exclaimed, " That is false." 
 The affair was settled, after some expla- 
 nations on the part of Mr. Brougham. 
 He continued to support the propositions 
 in favor of the Catholics, and, in 1825, 
 communicated to foreign ministers the 
 determination of his majesty to appoint 
 charges d'affaires to Colombia, Mexico 
 and "Buenos Ayres. In consequence of 
 the attempts made by Spain to assist the 
 malcontents of Portugal, it was imme- 
 diately determined, by the ministry, to 
 support the regency of that country. On 
 this occasion, C. concluded his speech 
 with these remarks : " Some years ago, I 
 said that I feared that the next war, which 
 should be kindled in Europe, would be a 
 war of opinions. It is the contemplation 
 of this new power, in any future Avar, 
 which excites my most anxious appre- 
 hensions." And, in answer to the argu- 
 ment that the ministers had encouraged 
 the attack upon Portugal, by having per- 
 mitted the occupation of Spain by France, 
 he uttered the memorable Avords : " Was 
 it necessary that we should blockade 
 Cadiz ? No. I looked another way ; I 
 resolved that if France had Spain, it 
 should not be Spain with the Indies. I 
 called the new world into existence, to 
 redress the balance of the old." April 
 12, 1827, his appointment to be prime 
 minister was announced. His adminis- 
 tration was terminated by his death, the 
 8th of August following ; but not until it 
 had been crowned by the treaty of Lon- 
 don (July 6), for the settlement of the 
 affairs of Greece. As a statesman, he 
 was liberal, profound, consistent and in- 
 dependent. His foreign policy was mark- 
 ed by the three great measures of the 
 recognition of the South American states, 
 the maintenance of the independence of 
 Portugal, and the treaty in behalf of 
 Greece. His uniform support of the 
 Catholic claims, and his constant and ar- 
 dent exertions in favor of the slave popu- 
 lation of the colonies, are not less honor- 
 able to his humanity than to his policy. 
 His eloquence was persuasive and impas- 
 sioned ; his reasoning clear and logical ; 
 his manner graceful ; his expression win- 
 ning, and his whole appearance prepos- 
 sessing. His wit was brilliant, and his sat- 
 ire was extremely caustic. He died poor. 
 Hirs body is deposited in Westminster 
 
 abbey. (See Speeches of the Right Hon. 
 G. Canning, with a Memoir, by R. Therry, 
 London, 1828.) The cousin of G. Can- 
 ning, the honorable Stratford Canning, 
 is well known by the conspicuous part 
 which he has played during the late diffi- 
 culties between the Porte and the other 
 European powers. 
 
 CAXNOK ; a heavy metallic gun, which is 
 moved by the strength of men and horses. 
 It is mounted on a carriage, and iron (for- 
 merly stone or leaden) balls are projected 
 to a distance from it by the force of gun- 
 powder. The interior of the cannon is. 
 called the bore. The solid piece of metal 
 behind is named the breech, and termi- 
 nates in the button. The dolphins (so 
 called because they used to be made in 
 the form of this animal) are the handles 
 by which the piece is mounted or dis- 
 mounted. The aperture through which 
 the fire is introduced into the bore, to ig- 
 nite the charge, is called the vent or touch- 
 hole, in which a small tube, used to contain 
 the priming, is placed previous to firing. 
 The supports, which are denominated car- 
 riages, are mounted on trucks, as in the 
 case of ship-guns or garrison-guns, or on 
 two wheels, as in the case of field-pieces. 
 When a field-piece is to be moved, a 
 two-wheeled frame is fixed to the car- 
 riage, which is called a limber, and this 
 process is called to limber up. The charge, 
 or cartridge, is a bag filled with powder, 
 carried near the cannon. The cannon 
 is fired by means of the match, which is 
 a lighted bunch of tow, wound round a 
 small stick ; or by a tube, filled with the 
 priming-powder, from which a piece is 
 broken oft' every time, and forced into a 
 stick, to light the charge. On board most 
 of the English ships there are cannon 
 fired by means of locks. To perform the 
 labor required in managing cannon is 
 called to serve the guns. Cannon were 
 formerly dignified with great names. 12, 
 cast by Louis XII, were called after the 
 12 peers of France. Charles V had 12, 
 which he called the Twelve apostles. One 
 at Bois le Due is called the Devil; a GO 
 pounder, at Dover castle, is named Queen 
 Elizabeth's pocket-pistol ; an 80 pounder, 
 at Berlin, is called the Tnunderer; another 
 at Malaga, the Terrible ; two 60 pounders 
 at Bremen, the Messengers of bad neivs. In 
 the beginning of the 15th century, names 
 of this sort were abolished, and the follow- 
 ing came into general use : cannon royal, 
 or carthoun, carrying 48 pounds ; bastard 
 cannon, or 3 carthoun, 36; i carthoun, 
 24 ; whole culverins, 18 ; demi-culverins, 
 9 ; falcon, G ; saker, lowest sort, 5 ; ordi-
 
 476 
 
 CANNON CANOE. 
 
 nary, 6 ; largest sort, 8 ; basilisk, 48 ; ser- 
 pentine, 4 ; aspick, 2 ; dragon, 6 ; siren, CO ; 
 falconet, 3, 2 and 1 ; moyens, which car- 
 ried a ball of 10 or 12 ounces : rabincts 
 earned one of 16 ounces. Cannons are, 
 at present, named, from the weight of the 
 balls which they carry, 6 pounders, 12 
 pounders, &c. The length of the cannon 
 is in proportion to the caliber. Cannon 
 took their name from the French word 
 canne (a reed). Before their invention, 
 machines were used for projecting mis- 
 siles by mechanical force. These were 
 imitated from the Arabs, and called inge- 
 nia ; whence engineer. The firet cannon 
 were made of wood, wrapt hi numerous 
 folds of linen, and well secured by iron 
 hoops. They were of a conical form, 
 widest at the muzzle. Afterwards, they 
 received a cylindrical shape. At length 
 they were made of iron bars, firmly bound 
 together, like casks, by iron hoops. In 
 the second half of the 14th century, they 
 were formed of an alloy of copper and 
 tin, and, in process of time, other metals 
 were added. Some attribute the inven- 
 tion of cannon to the Chinese, and say 
 that there are now cannon in China, which 
 were made in the 80th year of the Chris- 
 tian era. From the Chinese the Saracens 
 probably learned to manufacture them, 
 and Callinicus, a deserter from Heliopolis, 
 hi Phoenicia, made them known, in 670 
 (676), to the Greek emperor Constantinus 
 Pogonatus. Bombards were brought into 
 use in France in 1338, and, according to 
 another and more doubtful authority, Sol- 
 omon, king of Hungary, used them, in 
 1073, at the siege of Belgrade. From all 
 these accounts, it appeal's that the true 
 epoch of the invention of cannon cannot 
 be exactly * determined : it is certain, 
 however, that they were actually in use 
 about the middle of the 14th century. In 
 1370, the people of Augsburg used cast 
 cannon-. In the beginning of the 15th 
 century, nearly all the countries of Eu- 
 rope, except Russia, where cannon were 
 first cast in 1475, were provided with 
 them. The lead cannon, which were 
 invented and employed by the Swedes, 
 between 1620 and 1632, in the 30 years' 
 war, were lined with tubes of wood or 
 copper, and secured on the outside with 
 iron rings. The art of firing red-hot balls 
 from cannon was invented by major-gen- 
 eral Weiler, of the electorate of Branden- 
 burg. In the commencement of the 16th 
 century, Maurice of Switzerland discov-^ 
 ered a method of casting cannon whole, 
 and boring them, so as to draw out the 
 interior in a single piece. Arms for ex-> 
 
 peditious firing, loaded from behind, and 
 having the charge closed in with a wedge* 
 were introduced by Daniel Spekle (who 
 died 1589) and Uffanus. Charles Millon 
 invented a kind of air cannon, 2 feet long, 
 3 inches diameter in the thickest part, 12 
 lines caliber, charged with inflammable 
 air, and fired with a Leyden jar, or a piece 
 of cat-skin, by which 12 discharges can 
 be made in a minute. It stands on a 
 frame of glass, and may be directed to 
 any point. In 1740, cannons were made 
 of ice at St. Petersburg, and balls of ma- 
 ny pounds weight were projected without 
 injuring the pieces. (See Steam-Gun, 
 Gun-Boat.) Cannon-clock is a contrivance 
 invented by one Rousseau, and placed in 
 the garden of the palais royal, and in the 
 Luxembourg at Paris. A burning-glass 
 is fixed over the vent of a cannon, so 
 that the sun's rays, at the moment of its 
 passing the meridian, are concentrated, by 
 the glass, on the priming, and the piece is 
 fired. The burning-glass is regulated, for 
 this purpose, every month. (For the use 
 of cannon in naval warfare, see Ship.) 
 
 CANO, Alonzo or Alexis ; a painter, 
 sculptor and architect. The variety and 
 extent of his talents made him the Michael 
 Angelo of Spain, whom he also resembled 
 in his private character. He was born in 
 1608, at Grenada, studied in Seville, with 
 Pacheco, and first made himself known 
 by the statues which he executed lor the 
 great church of Lebrija. In his 24th year, 
 he had acquired the fame of a great artist, 
 and was (1638) appointed painter to the 
 king. In this capacity, he executed sev- 
 eral celebrated pictures, and was at the 
 summit of his prosperity, when a dreadful 
 event destroyed his happiness. His wife 
 was one day found murdered, and his 
 house plundered. Instead of a suspected 
 Italian servant, who had fled, C. himself, 
 convicted of a connexion witli another 
 woman, was condemned by the judges as 
 guilty of the murder. He was put to the 
 torture ; but his right arm was spared, from 
 respect for his talents. He bore the tor^ 
 ture with silent fortitude. The king par- 
 doned him. He became a priest, and was 
 made a racionero (resident) of Grenada, 
 where he passed the remainder of his life 
 in a pious and exemplary manner, and 
 died in 1676. 
 
 CAXOBUS. (See Canopus.) 
 
 CANOE, also CANOA ; the term generally- 
 used to designate the small vessels which 
 uncivilized people, living near the water, 
 use. In the East Indies, there is a kind 
 of boat which goes by this name, some- 
 times from 40 to 50 feet long, and 5 or 6
 
 CANOE CANON. 
 
 477 
 
 broad. The North American Indians 
 generally impel their canoes with paddles, 
 which have a very large blade, and are 
 managed perpendicularly. The canoes 
 of Canada are of the most fragile texture, 
 and of so little weight, that, in passing 
 from one river to another, the boat-men 
 cany them on their heads across their 
 portages. They are mostly covered with 
 bark, the pieces of which are sewed to- 
 gether with a kind of grass. This bark 
 is generally not more than a quarter of an 
 inch in thickness; yet, in these frail ves- 
 sels, the Indians and Canadians do not 
 hesitate to descend very dangerous rap- 
 ids. The Esquimaux are exceedingly 
 dexterous in the management of their 
 canoes. These consist of a light, wooden 
 frame, covered with seal-skins, sewed 
 together with sinews. The skins are not 
 only extended round the bottom and sides, 
 but likewise over the top, forming a com- 
 plete deck, and having only one opening 
 to admit the Indian to his seat. To this 
 hole a flat hoop, rising about four inches, 
 is fitted, to which is fastened the sur- 
 rounding skin. The paddle is about 10 
 feet long, light, and flat at each end. In 
 the Esquimaux language, the canoe is 
 called a kaiak, or man's boat, to distinguish 
 it from umiak, the woman's boat, which 
 latter is a large boat for transporting the 
 women, with their families and posses- 
 sions. The Greeulanders and Esqui- 
 maux use, the same kind of canoes, and it 
 is astonishing, when we consider their iu- 
 eignincant construction, at what a distance 
 from the regions they commonly inhabit, 
 these people, especially the former, are 
 found in them. In the islands of the 
 South sea, the natives have a double ca- 
 noe, united by a strong platform, serving, 
 in this way, as one vessel. Such a canoe 
 is capable of carrying a number of per- 
 sons, and a considerable lading. Captain 
 Cook gives us a long account of the dif- 
 ferent kinds of canoes used in Otaheite. 
 
 CA.\O>' ; a person who possesses a preb- 
 end, or revenue allotted for the perform- 
 ance of divine service in a cathedral or 
 collrgiate church. 
 
 CA.NOX, in the arts. When art has 
 succeeded in producing beautiful forms, 
 the question arises, with what propor- 
 tions beauty of form is united. Artists 
 of genius first started this question, and 
 imitators, inferior to them in talents, scru- 
 pulously followed their results, and natu- 
 rally exalted some existing work into a 
 model for every performance. Among 
 the Greeks, the celebrated statuary Poly- 
 cletus (q. v.) first instituted such inquiries ; 
 
 and, as he generally represented youthful, 
 pleasing figures, it is probable that he fix- 
 ed the standard of beauty in the youthful 
 form. The canon (the model statue) 
 of Polycletus was accordingly a statue, 
 which was made principally for the pur- 
 pose of showing the beautiful proportions 
 of the human form in a youth just ripen- 
 ing into manhood. No copy of it is 
 kno\vn to exist ; the artist probably gave 
 his model of proportion a quiet, simple 
 attitude, without any strong, distinguish- 
 ing marks. His successors imitated it 
 without deviation. Polycletus was not 
 the only Greek artist who pursued such 
 investigations respecting the proportions 
 of form. Euphranor, for instance (in the 
 10th Olympiad), is celebrated in the same 
 way. Among the moderns, Diirer and 
 Leonardo da Vinci have devoted them- 
 selves to similar inquiries. See A. Hirt's 
 Qbhandlung uber den Canon in der bilden- 
 den Kunst in the Mhandl. der Histor-phi- 
 lolog. Classe der ki'migl. Jlkad. der Jf'iss. 
 in Berlin (1814 and 1815), a table annexed 
 to which gives the average proportions 
 (ascertained by careful measurements) of 
 the best ancient statues. 
 
 CANOX, in music, signified, with the an- 
 cient Greeks, what now is called mono- 
 chord. At present, it signifies a composi- 
 tion in which the several voices begin at 
 fixed intervals, one after the other, and in 
 which each successive voice sings the 
 verse or the strain of the preceding one. 
 In Italian, therefore, it is called fuga di 
 conseguenza ; in Latin, canon perpetmis, 
 or continuous fugue ; in German, Kreis- 
 fuge (circulating fugue). Sometimes 
 each voice begins with the same, some- 
 times with different notes. Canons may 
 be finite or infinite. The former end, like 
 any other compositions, with a cadence, 
 while the infinite canon is so contrived, 
 that the theme is begun again before the 
 parts which follow are concluded. By 
 this means, the performance might be 
 continued to an indefinite length. A 
 canon may consist of two, three, four or 
 more voices. Generally only one voice of 
 a canon is written, and a sign shows the 
 place where the other voices are to begin. 
 Formerly, at the beginning of canons, it 
 was the custom to place the directions by 
 which they were to be deciphered and sung. 
 These directions were called the ride or 
 canon, and thence arises the title which 
 such compositions have since retained. 
 Canons differ from ordinary fugues ; for, 
 in the latter, it is sufficient that the subject 
 be occasionailv repeated and imitated ac- 
 cording to the laws of counterpoint ; but,
 
 478 
 
 CANON CANON OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES. 
 
 iu the former, it is essential that the sub- 
 ject be strictly repeated by all the suc- 
 ceeding parts; which repetition may be 
 made in the unison or octave, the fourth, 
 or the fifth, or any other interval of the 
 scale. There are several other canons, as 
 canon polymorphus, canon pertpnos, canon 
 per diminutionem, and canon per augmen- 
 tationein, which to explain, would exceed 
 our limits. Sometimes, also, a musical 
 passage of a composition, in which one 
 voice repeats, for a short time, another, is 
 called, improperly, a canon. 
 
 CANOX ( Greek) ; properly a measure, a 
 rule, a standard ; thence canon is used to 
 denote the rule or standard of primitive 
 Christianity. The same term is employed to 
 designate the collection of books contain- 
 ing this rule ; that is, the canonical books 
 of the Holy Scriptures, whose divine ori- 
 gin the church acknowledges. The can- 
 on of the books of the Old Testament, as 
 drawn up by the Jews in the 4th century 
 before Christ (see Hebrew Language and 
 literature), receives in this form equal 
 respect among all Christians, because 
 Christ and the apostles have expressly 
 appealed to them, and pronounced them 
 writings inspired by God. The apocry- 
 phal books of the Old Testament, whose 
 canonical character the Jews did not ac- 
 knowledge, the Eastern church has never 
 received ; but the Western church declar- 
 ed them canonical, in the African council, 
 about the end of the 4th century. Nev- 
 ertheless, the opinions of the clergy re- 
 specting the canonical authority of the 
 apocryphal books of the Old Testament 
 remained for a long time divided. Je- 
 rome, one of the fathers of the church, 
 denied it, and many theologians coincided 
 with him. (See the following article.) 
 The Protestant churches reject the Apoc- 
 rypha as books not belonging to the rule 
 of faith. Respecting the value and the 
 number of the books belonging to the 
 canon of the New Testament, the opin- 
 ions of Christians were much divided till 
 the 6th century. As early as the 2d cen- 
 tury, the separation was made into the 
 Evangelicon (the four evangelists) and 
 the Apostolicon (the Acts and Epistles of 
 the Apostles). The five historical books, 
 the Epistles of Paul, the First Epistle 
 of Peter, and the First Epistle of John, 
 were uui versally acknowledged to be gen- 
 uine in the 3d century ; hence they are 
 called, by Eusebius, in his Ecclesiastical 
 History, written about A. D. 325, Homo- 
 logomena (universally received). The 
 other five Catholic Epistles (Second of Pe- 
 ter, Second and Third of John, Jude and 
 
 James) he calls Jlntilegomena (doubtful, 
 not universally received). At that time, 
 the Epistle to the Hebrews was consid- 
 ered genuine by most persons, and the 
 Apocalypse by many. These books were 
 received, in the second half of the 4th 
 century, in the Egyptian church (where 
 Athanasius first used the term canonical), 
 and in the Western church. In the East- 
 ern church, properly so called (the dio- 
 ceses of the patriarchs of Constantinople, 
 Antioch and Jerusalem), only the Catho- 
 lic Epistles were of canonical authority 
 at that time ; the Apocalypse not till the 
 (5th century. The canon of the New 
 Testament has since remained unaltered, 
 and the Protestant churches hold it in 
 common with the Greek and Catholic 
 churches. The results of critical exami- 
 nations of the genuineness and canonical 
 character of the single books of the Bible, 
 even when they were unfavorable to the 
 books, have produced no alteration in the 
 established canon. The reasons of the 
 ancient fathers of the church for or against 
 the canonical character of the Biblical 
 books were merely historical and tradi- 
 tional, and built on philological criticism ; 
 they are still the most tenable and ration- 
 al : the philosophical grounds are more 
 subject to be affected by extraneous in- 
 fluences. Modern criticism has attacked, 
 with success, the genuineness of single 
 passages ; but it has failed in its attempt to 
 destroy the canonical authority of whole 
 books. With respect to the Apocalypse, or 
 Revelation of John, however, a large num- 
 ber of the Protestant commentators inclina 
 to the side of the assailants. Canon is 
 also the name of the prayers which the 
 Catholic priests repeat before, at and af- 
 ter the consecration of the host. In arith- 
 metic, algebra, &c., cation denotes a for- 
 mula obtained by the solution of a prob- 
 lem, and containing the rule by which all 
 examples, comprehended under the gene- 
 ral problem, may be solved. 
 
 CANON OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES 
 [written by a Catholic]. The distinguish- 
 ing characteristic of the Catholic religion, 
 as is fully explained in the article Catholi- 
 cism, is, the authority which it attributes 
 to tradition, by which revelation continues 
 in life and power. The Holy Scrip^ 
 tures are esteemed sacred by the Catho- 
 lics, because the church has transmitted 
 thorn from age to age as sacred, and illus- 
 trative of revelation, as far as any writings 
 can be. The church has only declared 
 what writings have been handed down as 
 of divine origin. The catalogue of these 
 Holy Scriptures is the canon ; the writ-
 
 CANON OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES CANON LAW. 
 
 479 
 
 ings themselves are called Canonical 
 Books. In this sense, the Protestant 
 church has no canon ; it rejects the au- 
 thority of all the traditions of the church. 
 Hence, in order to be consistent, it must 
 leave every Protestant, on free investiga- 
 tion, to decide what hooks he will regard as 
 canonical. But the Bible, the pillar of the 
 Protestant faith, is made up of separate 
 canonical hooks; and, by pursuing such a 
 course, the basis of the Protestant faith 
 might be undermined. It has been 
 agreed, therefore, however inconsistently, 
 to adopt the New Testament canon of the 
 Catholic church. But, in fixing the canon 
 of the Old Testament, the decisions of the 
 Catholic church have been rejected ; and, 
 contrary to the African councils and the 
 usage of the Roman church, established 
 by the council of Trent, part of Es- 
 ther, also Baruch, Tobit, Judith, Wisdom, 
 Ecclesiastic i is or Jesus the Son of Sirach, 
 the two books of Maccabees, the Song 
 of the Three Youths in the Fiery Fur- 
 nace, described in Daniel, together with 
 the two last, chapters of this prophet, are 
 thrown out as uncanonical and apocry- 
 phal. It is worthy of mention, that a 
 controversy on this subject broke off the 
 negotiations for a union of the Catholic and 
 Protestant churches, which commenced 
 in the beginning of the 18th century, be- 
 tween Leibnitz, Molanus and Bossuet. 
 
 CANON AND CAPUT IN COUNCILS. A 
 council is not only the church universal 
 assembled, which declares the faith of the 
 members, and fixes the doctrines to be de- 
 fended, but it also possesses the supreme 
 power in the administration of all ecclesi- 
 astical affairs, which have not immediate 
 reference to doctrines (as liturgies and 
 rules of discipline). In the language of 
 the church, a distinction is made between 
 these two kinds of ordinances. Such as 
 respect doctrine are called canons ; and 
 every other precept or regulation, caput 
 or decretum. The latter are subject to be 
 changed as the spirit of the age requires, 
 and hence lay no claim to infallibility : 
 the former are the unalterable truths and 
 doctrines of the infallible church of the 
 Lord. The council of Trent makes a 
 distinction between the two, and the cap- 
 ita on church discipline are superscribed 
 De Reformations. It would be a great 
 mistake to view these capita as doctrinal 
 truths, and then to reproach the church 
 with establishing erroneous dogmas as 
 truths essential to salvation. 
 
 CANON LAW [written by a Catholic]. 
 The famous Gravina begins his Institutes 
 of the canon law thus : Since the word 
 
 law is imperative, and includes the idea 
 of physical enforcement, the ancient 
 church preferred to apply to its precepts 
 the milder term of 'rule or canon (from the 
 Greek xa'vui', rule), which agrees with the 
 language of the council of Trent, and the 
 most able canonists, as Van Espen, &c. 
 Canons, therefore, are the laws which 
 the church has promulgated; and by 
 canon law, in English, is understood the 
 whole body of ecclesiastical laws, ordi- 
 nances and regulations. The church has 
 been, from the time of its establishment, 
 a free society, possessing and exercising 
 the right of forming laws for itself, either 
 by positive enactment, or by the gradual 
 growth of custom. The regulations of 
 the apostles, the decrees of the general 
 and partipular councils, and of the bish- 
 ops, constitute these laws. Even when, 
 after the downfall of paganism, the Chris- 
 tian church became connected with the 
 state, it retained this legislative power. 
 If the Theodosian code acquired author- 
 ity, it was only in consequence of recep- 
 tion. The more the organization of the 
 church became settled, the more frequent 
 became the regulations and orders of the 
 supreme bishop (the decretals). There is 
 no question about the authority which 
 was allowed to these decretals, and it is 
 useless to inquire here whether this au- 
 thority originated from positive enactment 
 or from customary observance. The ec- 
 clesiastical as well as the political law is 
 to be traced, in part, to each of these 
 sources. In the course of time, collec- 
 tions were made of these canons, arranged 
 in chronological order (Collectio Canonum). 
 These collections came into use in the 
 fifth and sixth centuries. The chief basis 
 of them was a translation of the decrees 
 of the four first general councils, to which 
 other decrees of particular synods and 
 decretals of the popes were added. In 
 the time of Charlemagne, the collection 
 of Dionysius the Little acquired almost 
 the authority of laws. Equal authority, 
 also, was allowed to the collection of can- 
 ons ascribed to Isidore, bishop of Seville, 
 which appeared in the ninth century. 
 This famous collection is falsely attributed 
 to Isidore, and abounds in spurious inter- 
 polations. It was entitled the Isidorian 
 Code, and is said to have been brought 
 from Spain. The object of the interpola- 
 tions of the Pseudo- Isidore was probably 
 to give a historical basis to a system 
 grown up out of observance, which trans- 
 ferred many of the former rights of the 
 metropolitans to the pope. After the 10th 
 century, the custom which had before
 
 480 
 
 CANON LAW. 
 
 prevailed, of collecting chronologically 
 the ordinances of the church, and study- 
 ing them from the sources, was given up, 
 and systematical compendiums of ecclesi- 
 astical law began to be drawn from these 
 canons. In these compendiums, it is true, 
 literal extracts of the canons were retained, 
 but often mutilated, and separated from 
 their proper connexion. The most im- 
 portant of these compendiums is that of 
 the Benedictine Gratian (of Chiusi), which 
 he finished in 1151, in the convent of St. 
 Felix, at Bologna. Gratian treated the 
 subjects of the canon law according to a 
 system which he had formed himself, and 
 under each division laid down principles, 
 which he established by quotations from 
 the original decrees. By means of these 
 authorities, with additions of his own, he 
 extended his principles further, and en- 
 deavored to reconcile apparent contradic- 
 tions in the law, or, where they could not 
 be reconciled, to determine which part 
 was binding. Hence the title of his work 
 Concordantia Discordantium Canonum. 
 He divides the whole subject into three 
 parts : in the first, he begins with a gen- 
 eral essay on law, particularly ecclesiasti- 
 cal law, and treats of the officers of the 
 church, their character, rights, duties, con- 
 secration, and share in the government of 
 the church : the second part contains the 
 system of the powers of the church, par- 
 ticularly of its jurisdiction and judicial 
 processes: the third part embraces the 
 rules respecting religious rites, the liturgy, 
 the sacraments, &c. This new collection 
 met with great success. Within 10 years 
 after its appearance, the universities of 
 Bologna and Paris had their professors of 
 canon law, who taught from Gratian's 
 work ; and, within a short time, it super- 
 seded all former chronological collections. 
 As the civil law acquired authority in so 
 many countries from the circumstance 
 that it was taught in the universities, so 
 the Decretum Gratiani, in the same way, 
 became a code, and with more reason, 
 since it expounded a law really existing ; 
 and what Gratian had added was, to a 
 certain degree, considered as commentary. 
 Any direct cooperation of the popes in 
 elevating the Decretum Gratiani to the 
 authority of a code has never been proved. 
 This Decretum, however, is only the first 
 part of the present Corpus Juris Canonici. 
 After the appearance of the Decretum, 
 new decrees of councils and new decre- 
 tals were promulgated, which several au- 
 thors collected into appendices. All these 
 new collections pope Gregory IX ordered 
 to be put in order, which was done by the 
 
 Dominican Raymond, of Pennaforte. The 
 work was divided into five book.<. This 
 authentic collection was finished in 1284, 
 and sent to the universities of Bologna 
 and Paris. It bears the name of Decre- 
 tales Gregorii jVora, and lias the authority 
 of law. The later decretals and decrees 
 of councils were collected by Boniface 
 VIII, and published as the sixth book 
 (lAber Sextus) of the Gregorian Decretals, 
 in 1298. They have also the authority of 
 laws. Pope Clement V published, in 
 1313, a collection of his decrees, mostly 
 issued at the council held at Vienne, in 
 France : they are also a part of the Corpus 
 Juris Canonici. About the year 1340, the 
 decretals of John XXII were published ; 
 they are called Extravagantes Johannis 
 XXII; and, at a later period, the subse- 
 quent decretals, to the time of Sixtus IV, 
 Avho died in 1484, called Extravagantes 
 Communes, appeared. These Extrava- 
 gantes Imve not altogether the authority 
 of law. Under pope Pius IV, a commis- 
 sion of 35 persons (the correctors Roma- 
 ni) was appointed to revise the Decretum 
 Gratiani. The labor was continued un- 
 der Pius V, and completed under Gregory 
 XIII, arid sanctioned by a bull of July 1, 
 1580. The later bulls have the force of 
 law, if they concern a subject on which 
 the pope has an unquestionable right to 
 legislate, or as far as the secular govern- 
 ments accept them. The canon law, ex- 
 cepting some of its regulations, is in force 
 in Germany, even in civil cases. Luther, 
 it is well known, burned a copy of the 
 canon law at Wittemberg, but the Protest- 
 ant courts have continued to apply it, ex- 
 cept where it disagrees with Protestant 
 principles. The canons, even those of 
 the general councils, which respect the 
 discipline of the church, have no authori- 
 ty in the Gallican church, unless it is 
 proved that they have been admitted as 
 laws of the kingdom. The celebrated 
 declaration of the clergy of France, of 
 1682, is a series of very important canons. 
 They are to be considered as rules oftlie 
 Gallican church and laivs of the kingdom. 
 Many Catholics are willing to admit that 
 there exist arbitrary canons in the eccle- 
 siastical codes, as much as unconstitution- 
 al laws in civil governments. In Eng- 
 land, when the Catholic faith prevailed in 
 that country, there existed, besides the 
 general canon law, the legalise and pro- 
 vincial constitutions ; the former being 
 laws enacted in national synods, held un- 
 der the cardinals Otlio and Othobon, le- 
 gates from pope Gregory IX and Clement 
 IV, about the years 1220 and 1268 ; the
 
 CANON LAW CANOSA. 
 
 481 
 
 latter being decrees of various provincial 
 synods, under several archbishops of Can- 
 terbury. The authority of the canon law 
 in England, since the reformation, depends 
 upon the statute 25th Henry VIII, ac- 
 cording to which the ecclesiastical laws 
 were to be revised by the king and a 
 commission of nobles and clergymen, and 
 such as were not repugnant to the laws 
 of the realm and the king's pm-ugative 
 wore to remain in force till so revised. 
 This revision was never made. There 
 are four species of courts in England, in 
 which the canon law, as well as the civil, 
 is, under different restrictions, permitted 
 to be used : 1. the courts of the archbish- 
 ops and bishops, and their derivative offi- 
 cers, usually called, in the English law, 
 courts Christian (write Christianitatis), or 
 ecclesiastical courts ; 2. the military courts ; 
 3. the courts of admiralty ; 4. the courts 
 of the two universities. The reception of 
 these laws in general, and the different 
 degrees of their reception in these courts, 
 are grounded entirely upon custom, cor- 
 roborated, in the case of the universities, 
 by acts of parliament. The courts of 
 common law have a superintendence over 
 these courts. An appeal lies from all of 
 them to the king. 
 
 CANONICAL BOOKS. (See Canon, and 
 Apocryphal.) 
 
 CANONICAL HOURS are certain stated 
 times of the day, devoted, more especially 
 by the Roman church, to the offices of 
 prayer and devotion, as matins, lauds, sixth, 
 ninth, vespers. In England, the canonical 
 hours are from 8 to 12 in the forenoon, 
 before or after which marriage cannot be 
 legally performed in any parish church. 
 
 CANONIZATION ; a ceremony in the Ro- 
 man church, by which deceased pel-sons 
 are declared saints. Alexander III, in 
 1 170, pronounced it an exclusive privilege 
 of the papal chair. This ceremony is one 
 of the most solemn in the Roman church. 
 The pope institutes a formal investigation 
 of the qualifications of the deceased per- 
 son recommended for canonization, in 
 which his manner of life and the genuine- 
 ness of the miracles ascribed to him are 
 strictly examined ; and an advocate of the 
 devil, as he is called, is appointed, to assail 
 the memory of the candidate, but, of 
 course, always loses his cause. If the 
 examination is satisfactory, the pope pro- 
 nounces the beatification (q. v.) of the 
 candidate ; but, in order to collect new 
 proofs of his merits (e. g., of miracles per- 
 formed by his relics), the actual canoniza- 
 tion generally takes place many years 
 afterwards ; and then a day, usually the 
 
 VOL. II. 41 
 
 anniversary of the death of the new saint, 
 is dedicated to his honor, his name is in- 
 serted in the Canon or the Litany of the 
 Saints in the Mass (thence canonization), 
 churches and altars are consecrated to 
 him, and his remains are preserved as 
 holy relics. The last instance of canon- 
 ization occurred in 1803. (See Saints.) 
 
 CANOPUS, or CANOBDS, in Egyptian an- 
 tiquities, is the name given to large-bellied 
 vessels, used formerly for preserving the 
 water of the Nile fresh and fit for drink- 
 ing. They were frequently made of basalt 
 (as the fine canopus of green basalt in the 
 villa Albani), and decorated with figures 
 in relievo or paintings; or of costly white 
 alabaster, like that in the Mus. Pio. Cle- 
 mentinum, with spiral flutings ; or they 
 were formed from black, burned clay. 
 Under the shape of such a vessel, sur- 
 mounted by a human head, connected 
 also sometimes with serpents, and similar 
 attributes, the Egyptians worshipped one 
 of their beneficent deities. The city Ca- 
 nobus or Canopus, between Alexandria 
 and the western mouth of the Nile, is said 
 to have derived its name from this deity. 
 The worship of Serapis was introduced, 
 in the room of that of this rude idol, under 
 the first Ptolemy. (See Part 1st of Creu- 
 zer's Symbolik, where representations of 
 this idol are given. For information re- 
 specting the worship of the same, see 
 Creuzer's Dionysos.) According to Eu- 
 sebius, the spherical shape of the vessel 
 was to express the universal nature, or the 
 world. The human head upon it signified 
 the all-enlivening spirit (vovs), which was 
 denoted also, in former times, by the fig- 
 ures of a ball and a serpent. According 
 to Zoega (.Vumi JEgyptii Imperatorii, page 
 34), Canopus was the same as Knuph, 
 which seems to come from the same root, 
 and denotes the kind, protecting god. 
 There are traces, in Italy, of the worship 
 of this deity, in that country, in the time 
 of Adrian. 
 
 CANOSA ; a city in Lower Italy ( Terra 
 di Bari), famous for the tombs in its vi- 
 cinity, near the field where Hannibal de- 
 feated the Romans. They are cut in 
 rocks, on a hill. Vases of coarse, whitish 
 clay have been found in them. In 1813, 
 a beautiful burial-chamber was opened. 
 It had a small ante-chamber, supported by 
 pillars, and contained the corpse of a war- 
 rior in armor, with a helmet on his head, 
 but one leg bare. The body crumbled to 
 dust as soon as it was exposed to the 
 exterior air. The wall of the apartment 
 contained a fine basso-relievo. A copper 
 lamp and a number of beautiful vases
 
 CANOSA CANOVA. 
 
 were also found here. (See M iliin's De- 
 scription des Tombeaux de C'anosa alnsi 
 que des Bas-reliefs, des Jlrmures, et dts 
 leases peints qui y ont tie decouverts en 
 1813 (Paris, 1813, folio), with correct rep- 
 resentations). The paintings upon the 
 vases are the most important part of this 
 discoveiy. They refer to the Greek-Ital- 
 ian mysteries of the eldest inhabitants. 
 
 CANOSA (near Reggio, in the duchy of 
 Modena); a mountain castle, now in ruins. 
 Adolheid, widow of king Lotharius, was 
 l)i sieged here, in 951, by Berengcr II., 
 when she offered her hand and the crown 
 of Italy to Otho the Great, emperor of 
 Germany. In the llth century, Canosa 
 belonged to Matilda, duchess of Tuscany, 
 with whom Gregory VII resided, in 1077, 
 when he imposed a severe penance upon 
 the excommunicated emperor Henry IV. 
 
 CANOVA, Antonio ; the third sculptor 
 of modern times, who has formed an 
 epoch in Italian statuary. Michael Ange- 
 lo Buonarotti was the first, Bernini the 
 second. C. may be considered as the 
 restorer of the graceful and lovely style, 
 and the founder of a new school, as far as 
 it respects softness and delicacy of exe- 
 cution, and excellent handling of the 
 marble. He was born, Nov. 1, 1757, at 
 Possagno, in the Venetian territory. 
 While a boy of 12 years old, he displayed 
 his talents by modelling the figure of a 
 lion in butter, which was placed on the 
 table of Falieri, the seigneur of the place. 
 The Falieri, father and son, sent him, 
 therefore, as an apprentice, to a statuary 
 in Bassano, where he acquired skill in 
 the mechanical part of the ait His first 
 work, executed in his 17th year, was an 
 Eurydice, in soft marble, of half the nat- 
 ural size. He was now sent to' the acad- 
 emy of Venice, where his proper study 
 of the art commenced. He gained several 
 prizes, and excited expectations which he 
 more than equalled in the sequel. The 
 first work, which he was commissioned to 
 execute, was the statue of the marchese 
 Poleni, of the natural size, for the city of 
 Padua. In his 25th year, he finished" the 
 group of Da3dalus and Icarus, of the nat- 
 ural size, in Carrara marble. It is re- 
 markable as a juvenile work, but is only 
 a faithful imitation of common nature. 
 The senate of Venice sent him, in 1779, 
 to Rome, with a salary of 300 ducats. 
 Here the first fruit of his study was an 
 Apollo crowning himself with laurel, three 
 palms high, in marble. It is weak, and 
 without character. Yet the artist, in this 
 production, has advanced beyond the 
 mere imitation of nature ; and this statue 
 
 is to be considered as his transition to the 
 ideal. A group as large as life Theseus 
 sitting upon the slain Minotaur was the 
 first large work by which C. made him- ' 
 self known in Rome (1783). It is one of 
 his best works. Theseus has the charac- 
 ter of a hero ; and the forms show the 
 study and style of the antiques. It was 
 received with universal applause, and 
 count Fries, in Vienna, purchased it. In 
 l?t-;3, C. undertook the execution of the 
 tomb of pope Clement XIV, in the church 
 Degli Apostoli. He retained the usual 
 style of composition, and only improved 
 on the depraved taste of the school of 
 Bernini. He next made the group of 
 Cupid and Psyche, where he first dis- 
 played his own peculiar style, of which 
 loveliness is a striking characteristic. The 
 figures are exceedingly delicate and grace- 
 ful ; yet there is no point of view from 
 which the countenances of both can be 
 seen at the same time ; besides, the wings 
 of Cupid project disagreeably from the 
 group, which presents too many inter- 
 stices. About the same time, he executed 
 the likeness of the young prince Czarto- 
 riski, in the character of Cupid. He was 
 employed on a second public monument, 
 the tomb of pope Clement XIII, in St. 
 Peter's. It was finished in 1792, and is 
 distinguished by its colossal size and 
 simple style. (See the engravingof Ra- 
 phael Morghen.) The figure of Religion 
 is objected to as stift"; the long rays, the 
 huge cross, and the petty folds of the 
 lower dress, give her a tasteless air. The 
 Genius has more beauty of appearance 
 than depth of expression. Meanwhile, 
 the fame of the artist continually in- 
 creased. He established, in the palace 
 of the Venetian ambassador, a school for 
 the benefit of young Venetians. His next 
 works were a winged Cupid, standing ; 
 another group of Cupid and Psyche ; a 
 group of Venus and Adonis (in which the 
 figure of the latter is particularly beauti- 
 ful), for the marchese Verio, in Naples ; 
 the tomb of the Venetian admiral Emo, 
 for the republic of Venice. This is a com- 
 bination of basso-relievos, with figures in 
 full relief. C. also made a very lovely 
 Psyche, standing, half-dressed, with a but- 
 terfly in her left hand, which she holds 
 by the wings with her right, and contem- 
 plates with a calm, smiling mien. He 
 also modelled, at this time, many basso- 
 relievos, mostly scenes from the life of 
 Socrates, taken from ancient fable and 
 history, which cannot all be called suc- 
 cessful. Only one of these models, which 
 represents the city of Padua as a sitting
 
 CAN OVA. 
 
 483 
 
 female figure, he executed in marble. A 
 repentant Magdalen, of the natural size, 
 belongs to the works in marble, in which 
 he has carried the expression of the melt- 
 ing and the soft to the highest degree. 
 The relaxing effect of repentance is ex- 
 pressed witli great truth. His Hebe is a 
 delightful figure. In an easy and ani- 
 mated attitude, the smiling goddess of 
 youth hovers upon a cloud, pouring nec- 
 tar, witli her right hand, into a bowl, 
 which she holds in her left. Both vessels, 
 as well as the coronet of Hebe, and the 
 edges of her garment, are gilt. C. is fond 
 of a variety of material, and often endeav- 
 ors to give to his statues the eflect of 
 pictures. He repeated this and the pre- 
 ceding statue. He next displayed his 
 talent for the tragical, in the raging 
 Hercules hurling Lichas into the sea, 
 The group is colossal, and Hercules some- 
 what larger than the Farnesian ; but it 
 makes a disagreeable impression, which 
 proves that the genius of C. was not 
 adapted to such subjects. His represent- 
 ation of the two pugilists, Krengas and 
 Demoxenos, is much more successful. A 
 standing group of Cupid and Psyche, 
 which has been often repeated, was the 
 triumph of his ait. Psyche here appears 
 again holding the butterfly. A Palamedes, 
 subsequently executed by C. in marble, 
 was overthrown, in the winter of 1805, 
 by an inundation, and broken in pieces, 
 lii 171)0 and 1797, C. finished the model 
 of the celebrated tomb of the late arch- 
 duchess Christina of Austria, wife of duke 
 Albert of Saxe-Teschen, which, in 1805, 
 was placed in the church of the Angus- 
 tines, at Vienna. The design of it is 
 original ; for the first time, the great artist 
 ventured to leave the common track. In 
 1797, lie made the colossal model of a 
 statue of the king of Naples, one of his 
 finest works. In the beginning of the 
 revolution, the studio of C. was in great 
 danger from the Jacobins ; but the lovely 
 Psyches, Hebes and Cupids softened the 
 rage of the mob, and saved the work-shop 
 of the artist, in the back part of which 
 the royal colossus was concealed. This 
 Ptatno, 15 palms high, was executed in 
 marble, in 1803. During the revolution 
 of 1798 and 1799, C. accompanied the 
 senator prince Rezzonico on a journey 
 through Germany. After his return, he 
 remained for some time in the Venetian 
 territory, and painted, for the church of 
 his native village, Possagno, an altar- 
 piece, in which are represented the dead 
 Christ, the Maries, Nicodemus and Jo- 
 seph, and, on high, God the Father. He 
 
 afterwards executed, in Rome, his Perseus 
 with the head of Medusa, which, when 
 the Apollo of Belvedere was carried to 
 France, occupied its place and pedestal. 
 This statue increased the fame of C. more 
 than any of the preceding works. But 
 Perseus has no decided character. It is 
 only an imitation of the Apollo. The 
 separate parts are of exquisite beauty in 
 form, as well as in masterly, delicate fin- 
 ishing. The magical charm of the finish 
 dazzles the eye, and makes us often for- 
 get the more severe forms of art. Far 
 less successful is the Mars pacifer, of 
 equal size. In 1802, C. was made, by 
 Pius VII, superintendent of the Roman 
 works of art, and knight of the Golden 
 Spur. In the same year, he was invited 
 by Bonaparte to Paris, to make the model 
 of his colossal statue. In the beginning 
 of 1803, the model of the emperor's bust, 
 and afterwards that of his colossal statue, 
 was to be seen in the workshop of the 
 artist. It is impossible to conceive a 
 more characteristic likeness, exhibiting, at 
 the same time, the ideal character of the 
 ancient heroic style. We have not a 
 more successful work of the kind than 
 this bust : the figure of the statue is not 
 so good. George IV has since presented 
 the latter to the duke of Wellington. The 
 statue of madame Laatitia Bonaparte was 
 purchased, in 1819, in Paris, by the duke 
 of Devonshire, for 36,000 francs. Among 
 the later works of the artist are a Wash- 
 ington, of colossal size, in a sitting atti- 
 tude, now in the state-house at Raleigh, 
 the seat of government of North Carolina ; 
 the tombs of the cardinal of York and of 
 Pius VII ; the busts of Pius VII and of 
 Francis II; an imitation of the Medicean 
 Venus; a Venus rising from the bath; a 
 portrait statue, lying, half-dressed, upon a 
 couch ; the tomb of the late engraver 
 Volpato ; the colossal group of Theseus 
 killing the Minotaur, far surpassing his 
 earlier works in the heroic style ; the 
 tomb of Alfieri, for the countess of Stol- 
 berg, in Florence, and erected in that 
 place (the weeping Italia, a colossal statue 
 in marble, is particularly admired) ; the 
 Graces rising from the bath ; the monu- 
 ment of the marchioness of &. Croce ; a 
 colossal basso-relievo, in marble ; a Ve- 
 nus ; a dancing girl, with almost transpa- 
 rent garments ; the portrait etatue of the 
 wife of Lucien Bonaparte, with the lyre 
 in her arms, a large marble statue, with 
 beautiful drapery ; a colossal Hector ; a 
 Paris ; a Muse, larger than the natural 
 size ; a model of a colossal Ajax ; and the 
 model of a sitting statue, in rich robes, of
 
 484 
 
 CANOVA CANTACUZEXO. 
 
 the archduchess Maria Louisa of Austria. 
 After the second full of Napoleon, in 
 1815, C. was commissioned, by the pope, 
 to demand the restoration of the works 
 of art carried from Rome ; went from 
 Paris to London, and returned to Rome 
 in 1816, where Pius VII inscribed his 
 name in the golden book of the capitol, 
 declared him " to have deserved well of 
 the city of Rome," and made him marquis 
 of Ischia, with a pension of 3000 scudi. 
 C. died at Venice, Oct. 13, 1822. In his 
 manner of treating the marble, a particu- 
 lar endeavor to produce the appearance 
 of the greatest softness is visible. Not 
 satisfied with giving to the surface of the 
 marble the most delicate finish, by means 
 of the rasp and the pumice-stone, he has 
 invented a corrosive color, of a yellowish 
 hue, and prepared with soot, which he 
 applies, after the last polish, in order to 
 break the dazzling white of the marble, 
 and to give it the soft, mellow appearance 
 of ivory or wax. This excessive refine- 
 ment in finishing is more attractive to 
 amateurs than to true connoisseurs. C. 
 used to make his models first of a small 
 size, in wax, then in clay, of the same 
 size as the work was to be. From this 
 last a cast was taken in gypsum. The 
 first shaping of the marble from the cast 
 he left to skilful workmen. As a man, 
 C. was respectable and amiable. He was 
 active, open, mild, obliging and kind to- 
 wards every body. He had neither the 
 pride nor the envy of an artist. His opin- 
 ion of himself was very modest, notwith- 
 standing his fame was spread through all 
 Europe. He was not only disinterested, 
 but animated by the noblest benevolence. 
 He assisted promising young artists, and 
 established prizes for the encouragement 
 of the arts. In short, his moral character 
 was so excellent, that, even among his 
 many rivals, there is but one voice re- 
 specting his worth as a man. His last 
 work was a large group, the principal 
 figure of which represents Religion victo- 
 rious. It was intended to be placed in 
 Rome, as a monument commemorative 
 of late events, the expense to be defrayed 
 by a subscription in England. C. was 
 also an agreeable painter, but, strangely 
 enough, more of a colorist than a correct 
 designer. (See the Life of Canova, by 
 Missinini ; 4 vols., Prato, 1824 : also, the 
 Biotrrqfia, by the count Cicognara ; Venice, 
 1823). Engraved representations of all 
 his works have appeared in Italy and at 
 Paris. 
 
 CANSTEIN (Charles Hildebrand, von), 
 founder of a famous establishment for 
 
 printing Bibles, which goes under his 
 name, was bom, in 1667, at Lindenborg, 
 in Germany, studied at Frankibrt on the 
 Oder, travelled much in Europe, went, in 
 1688, to Berlin, where he was appointed 
 page of the elector of Brandenberg, and 
 served as a volunteer in the Netherlands. 
 A dangerous sickness obliged him to 
 leave the military service. He went to 
 Halle, where he became familiarly ac- 
 quainted with Spener. His wish to spread 
 the Bible among the poor led him to 
 form the idea of printing it with stereo- 
 type plates. Thus originated the famous 
 institution, called, in German, Die Can- 
 steinsche Bibelanstait, of which we shall 
 speak more in the article Franke. Can- 
 stein published some works, wrote the 
 life of Spener, and died, in 1719, in Halle, 
 leaving to the great orphan asylum his 
 library, and a part of his fortune. 
 
 CANT TIMBERS, in ship-building ; those 
 timbers which are situated at the two 
 ends of a ship. They derive their name 
 from being canted, or raised obliquely 
 from the keel, in contradistinction from 
 those the planes of which are perpendic- 
 ular to it. 
 
 CANTABILE ; a term applied to move- 
 ments intended to be performed in a 
 graceful, elegant and melodious style. 
 
 CANTABUI ; the rudest and most valiant 
 of all the Iberian tril>es, who dwelt in the 
 ancient Hispania Tarraconensis, and in- 
 habited the greater part of what is now 
 La Montana, and the north-west part of 
 the present province Burgos. In ancient 
 history, Cantabri is generally used to de- 
 note all the inhabitants of the northern 
 mountains of Spain. Cantabria is the 
 name which was given to the country 
 they inhabited. Oceanus Cuntabricus is 
 the ancient name of the bay of Biscay. 
 
 CANTACUZEXO, George and Alexander. 
 These Greek princes are descendants of 
 the ancient Byzantine family of the same 
 name, of which the emperor John Canta- 
 cuzenus was a member. (See the next 
 article.) Under the dominion of the 
 Turks, the Cantacuzenes belonged to the 
 first families of the Fanar, in Constanti- 
 nople, called the Fanariotes. Many years 
 ago, they settled in Russia, where the 
 brothers George and Alexander were 
 employed in the Russian service. As 
 members of the Hetaeria (q. v.), they fol- 
 lowed prince Alex. Ypsilanti, in 1821, to 
 Moldavia. George accompanied Alex. 
 Ypsilanti to Jassy, Feb. 22, and Alexander 
 repaired 1o Kischenaw, Feb. 28, O. S. 
 (March 12, N. S.), where the Hetserists, 
 who wished to fight in the cause of Gre-
 
 CANTACUZENO CANTATA. 
 
 485 
 
 cian freedom, were assembled. He re- 
 ceived, at this place, from Alex. Ypsilanti, 
 orders to repair to the Morea. April 16, 
 O. S., he proceeded to Trieste, by way of 
 Vienna and Laybach. At Laybach, he 
 had two interviews with count Nesselrode, 
 the Russian minister, who said, among 
 other things, " It is the will of his majesty, 
 that you do not go to Greece ; but you may 
 continue your travels." This made Alex. 
 Cantacuzeno irresolute what to do ; but, 
 being informed, during his residence of 
 four weeks in Venice, of the murder of 
 the patriarch, and the breaking out of the 
 Greek insurrection in the Morea, the idea 
 that his absence might corroborate the 
 suspicion that the revolution met with 
 the disapprobation of Russia, induced 
 him to sacrifice every thing to the cause 
 of his country. He obtained from the 
 Russian consul a passport to return to 
 Odessa by water, and went to Greece 
 without interruption. For this step, he 
 was subsequently forbidden to return to 
 Russia. 60 young Greeks, from the vari- 
 ous universities, the French captain Ba- 
 lestras, and Demetrius Ypsilanti, who 
 had been intrusted, by his brother Alex^- 
 ander, with the management of the insur- 
 rection in the Morea, embarked with him. 
 June 19, they reached Hydra, where they 
 were received with the greatest ivjoicings. 
 Alex. Cantacuzeno immediately under- 
 took the charge of the department of war, 
 organized a general administration of the 
 islands, and formed a band of volunteers, 
 whom Balestras commanded. But they 
 were soon in want of arms and powder. 
 June 20, Cantacuzeno and Demetrius 
 Ypsilaiiti proceeded to the Peloponnesus, 
 to Gerusia, in Vervena, a village near 
 Tripolizza. Cantacuzeno immediately in- 
 vested the fortress of Malvasia (Epidau- 
 rus), and reduced it by famine, July 21, 
 1821. He next deliberated with the Hy- 
 driots anil Spezziots respecting the form- 
 ation of a national senate, and was, in 
 other respects, active in establishing order. 
 He then proceeded to Tripolizza, and, at 
 the head of the Albanian soldiers, took 
 part in the siege of the place ; refused, in 
 the meanwhile, an offer of the Cretans, 
 who wished to confer on him the com- 
 mand of their island; travelled through the 
 provinces of Hellas, in order to establish 
 elective assemblies, and undertook the 
 charge of fortifying Missolonghi, though 
 he had to contend with great obstacles, 
 confusion and discord prevailing every- 
 where. The management of Greek af- 
 fairs having passed into other hands, he 
 received, from the Greek senate, the com-? 
 41* 
 
 mission to convey to Petersburg the so- 
 licitations of the Greeks for succor from 
 the Russian government ; but, being un- 
 able to obtain a passport for this purpose, 
 he remained in Dresden. His brother 
 George, under the command of Ypsilanti, 
 was engaged in the unsuccessful struggle 
 in Moldavia and Walachia, and published 
 a memorial on the subject at Kischenaw, 
 Oct. 28, containing, likewise, a vindica- 
 tion of his conduct. Both of the brothers 
 have been erroneously estimated by many. 
 Even Pouquevillc, in his Hist, de la Re- 
 generation de la Greet (Paris, 1824, 4 vols.), 
 has represented the two Cantacuzenos as 
 one person, and given an incorrect view 
 of their character. (See Ypsilanti.} 
 
 CASTACUZENUS, John, a Byzantine em- 
 peror and historian, was born in 1295. 
 While minister of Andronicus III, he ne- 
 gotiated a favorable peace with the Gen- 
 oese in 1336, and repelled the encroach- 
 ments of the Turks in 1337. On the 
 death of Andronicus in 1341, C. became 
 regent during the minority of the young 
 emperor, John Pateologus. He defeated 
 the Bulgarians and Turks, assumed the 
 diadem, and entered Constantinople, vic- 
 torious over his rivals, in 1346. He used 
 his power with moderation, and endeav- 
 ored to heal the wounds which five years 
 of civil war had inflicted on the state ; 
 but religious disputes, civil dissensions 
 and foreign enemies soon disturbed his 
 government ; and the jealousy of Pate- 
 ologus, the rebellion of his own son, war, 
 plague, the frightful disorders which pre- 
 vailed in the empire, and his own loss of 
 popular favor, induced him to renounce 
 the crown. He retired to a monastery 
 (1355), where he employed himself in lit- 
 erary labors. He is considered one of the 
 greatest among the successors of Constan- 
 tine. His Four Books of Byzantine His- 
 tory were printed in 1645 (Paris, 3 vols., 
 folio), and belong to the collection of the 
 Byzantine historians. His other works, 
 principally theological, are partly printed, 
 and partly in manuscript. 
 
 CASTAL ; a chain of mountains in Up-r 
 per Auvergne, France, the highest peak of 
 which, called le ploinb de Cantal, is said to 
 be nearly 6000 teet above the level of the 
 pea. They give name to a department, 
 (See Department.) 
 
 CANTATA ; an elegant and passionate 
 species of vocal composition, consisting 
 of an intermixture of air and recitative. 
 It was invented by Barbara Strozzi,a Ve- 
 netian lady, who flourished about the 
 middle of the 17th century, and was at 
 one time extended to such length as tQ
 
 486 
 
 CANTATA CANTIIARIDES. 
 
 form a little opera, but has since been 
 cultivated in Italy, Germany and England 
 only as chamber music. 
 
 CANTEEN (from the French cantine, 
 Spanish cantina) signifies both a bottle- 
 case and a tavern for soldiers. In milita- 
 ry language, it denotes a little coffer divid- 
 ed into minute partitions for holding an 
 officer's eating utensils ; likewise, a 
 semi-cylindric tin case, carried over a 
 soldier's knapsack, to hold his cooked 
 victuals in ; also a vessel to hold the ra- 
 tion of spirits or wine served out to the 
 English troops when employed abroad. 
 Canteen, moreover, signifies a public 
 house, licensed in English barracks or forts, 
 to sell liquors and tobacco to the soldiers. 
 
 CAJVTEMIR, Demetrius, was born in 
 Moldavia, in 1673. At the age of 15, he 
 was sent as a hostage to Constantinople, 
 where he remained 4 years. He served 
 his first campaign in 1692, under his fa- 
 ther, upon whose death, in the succeeding 
 year, lie was chosen prince of Moldavia, 
 at the age of 20. This choice was not 
 confirmed by the Porte, and he was or- 
 dered to reside at Constantinople, where 
 his abilities soon gained him the favor of 
 the government ; and he was twice nomi- 
 nated hospodar of Moravia. He success- 
 fully used his influence to transfer that 
 dignity to his brother. He was appoint- 
 ed the third time, in 1710, with the prom- 
 ise of the annexation^ of Walachia, and 
 exemption from tribute. Notwithstand- 
 ing this promise, as soon as he was in- 
 vested witli his office, he was called upon 
 for the amount, usually paid on such occa- 
 sions. He entered, therefore, into a trea- 
 ty with the czar Peter, by the terms of 
 which the principality was to be heredi- 
 tary in the family of C., under the protec- 
 tion of the czar, whom Cantemir was to 
 assist in his war with Turkey. The czar, 
 however, being abandoned by the Poles 
 and betrayed by the Moldavians, was 
 obliged to retire, and C. took refuge in 
 his dominions, with the rank of prince of 
 the Russian empire. He died at Astra- 
 can, in 1723. C. spoke 8 languages, and 
 understood the ancient Greek, French 
 and Sclavonian. He was a member of 
 the academy of Berlin. His principal 
 work is called History of the Growth and 
 Decay of the Ottoman Empire (in Latin). 
 It has been translated into English (Lon- 
 don, 1734, 2 vols., folio), French and Ger- 
 man. He is the author, likewise, of the 
 Present State of Moldavia (in Latin), and 
 the System of the Mohammedan Religion, 
 which have both been published. His 
 other works are in MS. 
 
 CANTERBURY (ancient Darvenum, Dti- 
 rovernum, Dorobernia, and Cantivara-byrg), 
 city, Eng., capital of Kent ; 56 E. Lon- 
 don ; Ion. 55' E. ; lat. 51 17' N. ; pop. 
 10,498 ; houses, 2,093. It is the see of an 
 archbishop, primate of all England, situ- 
 ated in a valley, between gently-rising 
 hill?, on the river Stour ; founded' before 
 the Christian era. It is a county of itself, 
 and the magistrates have authority to de- 
 termine all Taw-suits between the citizens, 
 and to try for capital crimes committed 
 within the city. There are two markets 
 weekly, on Wednesday and Saturday. 
 It contains a cathedral, and 12 parish 
 churches within the walls, and 3 in the 
 suburbs. The cathedral is spacious and 
 magnificent, built in the form of a double 
 cross, 514 feet long; the height of the 
 great tower is 235 feet. The Jews have a 
 synagogue here ; Methodists,Baptists, Pres- 
 byterians and Quakers have each a place 
 of public worship. It sends 2 members 
 to parliament. The principal manufac- 
 tures are cotton and silk. It is famous 
 for its brawn. The country round it 
 produces a great quantity of hops. In 
 former times, this place was distinguished 
 for the festivals celebrated here in memo- 
 ry of St. Thomas a Becket, who was 
 murdered here. (See Becket.) 
 
 CANTHARIDES, or Spanish fly (in medi- 
 cine); the name of a kind of fly, the can- 
 tharis vesicatoria, Geoflray ; meloe vesica- 
 toria, Lin. ; lytta vesicatoria, Fab. ; be- 
 longing to the family of the trachtlides. 
 They are very common in Spain, Italy 
 and France, where they are found in 
 large families on the ash, lilac, viburnum, 
 &c. Their body is from 6 to 10 lines 
 long ; the feelers are black, setaceous, 
 composed of 12 articulations ; the elytra 
 long, flexible, of a shining, golden green, 
 and the tarses of a deep brown. Their 
 odor is strong, penetrating, peculiar and 
 unpleasant ; their taste extremely acrid ; 
 their powder is of a brownish gray, inter- 
 mixed with shining particles of a metallic 
 green color. According to Robiquet, 
 they contain, with several other ingredi- 
 ents, a peculiar substance, called canthari- 
 din. (q. v.) These insects are, of all the 
 vesicating substances, those which are 
 most commonly used. Their action is 
 principally confined to the skin ; how- 
 ever, their active principles may be ab- 
 sorbed, and cause serious accidents. The 
 application of a blister is often followed 
 by strangury, tuematuria, priapism, &c. 
 Taken internally, they act as the most en- 
 ergetic acrid poison ; they produce irrita- 
 tion on the intestines, and especially affect
 
 CANTHARIDES CANTON. 
 
 487 
 
 the genito-urinary organs, which they 
 stimulate violently. In certain disorders, 
 they are administered in small doses, as 
 powerful stimulants. The medicine is of 
 a very dangerous character, and its use 
 requires the greatest caution on the part 
 of the physician. Several species of blis- 
 tering fly are found in the U. States, some 
 of which are more powerful than the 
 Spanish fly. 
 
 CA>THARIDI\, the vesicating principle 
 of the cantharides, or Spanish fly, is white, 
 in small, crystalline scales, insoluble in 
 water and cold alcohol, soluble in ether, 
 boiling oils and alcohol, from which it 
 precipitates by cooling. The vesicating 
 properties could be extracted from can- 
 tharides by oil of turpentine, and probably 
 a satisfactory ointment be prepared by 
 merely evaporating the oil of turpentine 
 at a moderate temperature. (See Can- 
 tharides.} 
 
 CANTICLES. (See Solomon, Song of.) 
 
 CANTIUM ; an ancient territory in 
 South Britain, whence the English word 
 Kent is derived, supposed to have been 
 the first district which received a colony 
 from the continent. The situation of Can- 
 tium occasioned its being much frequent- 
 ed by the Romans, who generally took 
 their way through it in their marches to 
 and from the continent. Few places in 
 Britain are more frequently mentioned by 
 the Roman writers than Portus Rutupen- 
 sis. Portus Dubris (now Dover), Duro- 
 brivfe and Durovernum (now Rochester 
 and Canterbury) were also Roman towns 
 and stations. Cantiurn, in the most per- 
 fect state of the Roman government, 
 made a part of the province called Flavia 
 Ccesariensis. (See Kent.) 
 
 CANTO FERMO ; the name given to the 
 ancient chants of the Roman Catholic 
 church, which were adopted as standing 
 melodies. These chants, until counter- 
 point was discovered, were unaccompa- 
 nied, or only harmonized with octaves. 
 
 CANTO FIGURATO. This term was ap- 
 plied, by the old Christian ecclesiastics, 
 to the canto fermo in its more cultivated 
 state, when harmony began to assume 
 modulation. 
 
 CA> T TO> T , principal city of the Chinese 
 province of the same name, otherwise 
 called Quang-tong, or Koanton, is situated 
 in 23 3(y N. lat., and 113 2' 45" E. Ion., 
 on the banks of the river Taho, which is 
 here very wide. This city, distinguished 
 for size, wealth, and a numerous popula- 
 tion, is the only seaport in China open to 
 the ships of Europe and America. The 
 estimate of missionaries, that it contains 
 
 1,000,000 of inhabitants, is exaggerated. 
 The number is probably nearer 750,000. 
 The circuit of the walls, which are of a 
 moderate height, is over 9 miles. Only 
 about a third part, however, of the space 
 enclosed is covered with buildings ; the 
 rest is occupied with pleasure-gardens 
 and fish-ponds. The neighboring coun- 
 try is very charming, hilly towards the 
 east, and presenting, in that quarter, a 
 beautiful prospect. The houses are most- 
 ly of one story ; but those of the manda- 
 rins and principal merchants are high and 
 well built. In every quarter of the town 
 and the suburbs are seen temples and pa- 
 godas, containing the images of Chinese 
 gods. The populous streets are long and 
 narrow, paved with flat stones, and adorn- 
 ed at intervals with triumphal arches. Shops 
 line the sides, and an unbroken range of 
 piazza protects the occupants of the 
 houses, as well as foot-passengers, from 
 the rays of the sun. At night, the gates 
 are closed, and bars are thrown across the 
 entrances of the streets. The traders 
 express themselves with sufficient fluen- 
 cy in the languages of their European and 
 American customers, with whom they 
 deal almost exclusively, selling them 
 porcelain, lackered wares, &c. The 
 Americans trade here to a greater extent 
 than any other nation : next to them come 
 the English. The greatest part of the 
 silver, which is carried from America to 
 Europe, eventually circulates through 
 China, by means of the ports of Canton 
 and Batavia, to which large supplies of 
 the productions of the empire are trans- 
 mitted. The principal articles of export 
 are tea, India ink, varnish, porcelain, rhu- 
 barb, silk and nankeen. A company, 
 consisting of 12 or 13 merchants, called 
 the Cohong, is established here, by order 
 of the government, for the purpose of 
 purchasing the cargoes of foreign ships, 
 and supplying them with return cargoes 
 of tea, raw silk, &c. This society inter- 
 feres, undoubtedly, with private trade, but 
 adds greatly to the security of the foreign 
 dealer, as each member is answerable for 
 all the rest. Carriages are not used hen', 
 but all burdens are transported on bam- 
 boo poles laid across the shoulders of 
 men. All the inhabitants of distinction 
 make use of litters. Chinese women are 
 never seen in the streets, and Tartar 
 women but seldom. The European fac- 
 tories, to wit, the Dutch, French, Swe- 
 dish, Danish and English, are situated on a 
 very commodious quay, on the bank of 
 the river. Nearly a league from Canton 
 is the Soat-tovm, which consists of about
 
 488 
 
 CANTON CANUTE. 
 
 40,000 barks, of various kinds, arranged 
 close to each other in regular rows, with 
 passages between them, to allow other 
 vessels to pass. In this manner they 
 form a kind of floating city, the inhabit- 
 ants of which have no other dwellings, 
 and are prohibited by law from settling 
 on shore. As this is the only emporium 
 in the empire for foreign commerce, which 
 is carried on not only by Europeans and 
 Americans, but also to a great extent by 
 the Chinese themselves, with almost all 
 the ports of India and the eastern Archi- 
 pelago, the number of vessels frequently 
 seen in the river, at once, is said to exceed 
 5000. An American paper, issued twice 
 a month, called the Canton Register, has 
 lately been established at Canton. The 
 following table gives the amount of im- 
 ports from Canton into the ports of the 
 II. States, also the exports of domestic 
 and foreign goods from the U. States to 
 Canton, from 1821 to 1827. 
 
 Year. Imports. Dom. Exp. For. Exp, 
 
 ]821 $3,111,951 $388,535 $3,902,025 
 
 1823 5,242,536 429,230 5,506,138 
 
 1823 6,511,425 288,375 4,347,686 
 
 1824 5,618,502 30,466 4,970,705 
 ]i^>5 7,573,115 1(50,059 5,410,456 
 
 1826 7,422,186 242,451 2,324,193 
 
 1827 3,617,183 290.8C2 3,573,543 
 
 The climate of Canton is healthy, warm 
 in summer, but pretty cold in winter. 
 Provisions, including various luxuries, are 
 abundant. 
 
 CANUTE I, king of England and Den- 
 mark, ascended the throne of both king- 
 doms A. D. 1015. He was called the 
 Great, on account of his power, as Alfred 
 had been for his virtue. The barbarities 
 committed by the Danes in England ex- 
 cited Ethelred II, the 12th king of Sax- 
 on descent, to a bloody vengeance. In 
 1002, he caused all the Danes, women 
 and children, to be massacred on the same 
 day. The sister of Sweyn, then king of 
 Denmark, he caused to be beheaded in 
 his presence. Sweyn landed in England, 
 and laid waste the country with fire and 
 sword. Ethelred had escaped to Nor- 
 mandy. Sweyn died 1014, before he had 
 time to confirm the Danish power in the 
 island. This was accomplished, however, 
 by his son and successor, Canute. He 
 began his reign by devastating all the 
 eastern coast of his new kingdom, and 
 causing the English, who were given to 
 his father as hostages, after he had cut 
 off their noses and band?, to be drowned 
 at Sandwich. He then received rein- 
 forcements from Denmark, and extended 
 
 his ravages in the south of England. Tho 
 valiant Edmund marched against him 
 with an army, and, although he was seve- 
 ral times overcome, through the treachery 
 of Edric, his brother-in-law, he still main- 
 tained himself against Canute, so that the 
 English and Danish nobles, weary of the 
 long-continued contest, sought to bring 
 about a division of England between the 
 two princes. A solemn treaty secured to 
 Canute the north of England, and to Ed- 
 mund the south. But only a month after 
 this contract, Edmund was assassinated 
 by two chamberlains, hired by Edric ; and 
 Canute became master of all England. 
 At a general assembly of the states, lie in- 
 duced false witnesses to affirm that Ed- 
 mund had appointed him heir to his 
 crown, to the prejudice of his two minor 
 children. After the assembly had con- 
 firmed this settlement, Canute sent the 
 two young princes to the king of Sweden, 
 with the request that he would put them 
 to death. The latter, however, sent them 
 to Hungary, where they met with the 
 kindest reception. Canute, who had be- 
 gun his reign with barbarity and crime, 
 afterwards became humane, and finally 
 pious, and even superstitious. He com- 
 menced a more equitable administration, 
 by punishing the English natives, who 
 had betrayed their king, and by causing 
 Edric to be hanged, and thrown into the 
 Thames. He restored the Saxon customs 
 at a general assembly, and ensured to the 
 Danes and Englishmen equal rights and 
 equal protection of person and property, 
 so that the horror which had been excited 
 by his tyranny was changed into respect 
 and gratitude. His power was confirmed 
 by his marriage with Emma, Ethelred's 
 widow. He now made two expeditious 
 to the continent, one to conquer Sweden, 
 and the other to reduce Norway. But 
 the most powerful prince of his age was 
 at length brought to feel the vanity of 
 earthly greatness, lie erected churches 
 and monasteries, and even performed a 
 pilgrimage to Rome, where lie obtained 
 important privileges for the schools of 
 England. It was this spirit of piety that 
 animated him, when, to confound his flat- 
 terers, he seated himself upon the strand, 
 and commanded the waves to retire. As 
 they advanced, and bathed his feet, Ca- 
 nute arose, and said, that He only was 
 almighty, whom the ocean obeyed when 
 he proclaimed, "Tim* far shah thou go, 
 and no farther." His last expedition was 
 against Malcolm, king of Scotland. Ho 
 died four years after, A. D. 1036, at 
 Shafisbury. By his will, he left Norway
 
 CANUTE CAOUTCHOUC. 
 
 to his eldest son, Sweyn ; to the second, 
 Harold, England ; to the third, Hardica- 
 nute, Denmark. 
 
 CAXZO.XA ; a kind of lyric poem, of 
 Provencal origin. It is found in the Ital- 
 ian poetry of the 13th century. At first, 
 it was quite irregular, but was confined 
 by Petrarch to more fixed and regular 
 forms. Hence it is called canzone Pe- 
 trarchesca : it is also called canzone Tos- 
 cana, because it originated in Tuscany. 
 It is divided into several stanzas, in which 
 the nature and disposition of the verses, 
 which are of 11 and 7 syllables, and the 
 place of the rhymes, are uniform. The 
 canzona usually concludes with a stanza 
 which is shorter than the others, and is 
 called ripresa, congedo, comiato (signifying 
 dismission or taking leave). With Pe- 
 trarch, this is rarely wanting ; in the elder 
 poets, it is often omitted. It generally 
 contains the poet's apostrophe to his song, 
 bidding it farewell, &c. There are dif- 
 ferent kinds of canzonas, and different 
 names are given to the different parts. 
 The canzona Jlnacreontica is divided into 
 small stanzas, consisting of short verses, 
 with a regular disposition of the rhymes 
 through all the stanzas. In the selection 
 of his verse, however, and of the disposi- 
 tion of the rhymes which he will observe 
 in the poem, the poet may follow his 
 pleasure. Not only light, pleasing songs 
 of love, gayety and mirth, but poems on 
 solemn and lofty subjects, and of an ele- 
 vated dithyramhic strain, are included 
 under this name. The latter subjects, 
 however, are better adapted to the canzona 
 Pindarica, which was first introduced in- 
 to Italian poetry, in the 16th century, by 
 Luigi Alamanni, and owes its perfection 
 chiefly to Chiabrera. It is distinguished 
 from that of Petrarch by a bolder flight, 
 loftier ideas, greater freedom in the choice 
 and disposition of the verses, and by the 
 form of the stanzas, which is borrowed 
 from the Greek chorus. The Pindaric 
 canzonas are divided into strophe, anti- 
 strophe and epode, and are also called 
 canzoni alia Greca. Those divisions are 
 sometimes called ballata, contraballata and 
 stanza ; or volta, rivolta and stanza ; almost 
 all of which signify the same as the Greek 
 divisions : the Greek names are the most 
 common. There is also the canzona a ballo, 
 an old Italian poem, originally intended 
 to be sung at a dance (ballo). It is called, 
 also, ballata. It is not employed by the 
 Italian poets later than the 16th century. 
 
 CA.VZONET, CA.VZONETTA (poetry and 
 music); in Italian poetry, a canzona (q. v.), 
 consisting of short verses, much in use 
 
 with the poets of the loth century. Ri- 
 nuccini, and, after him, Chiabrera, have 
 used it in modern times, and given it 
 more grace. Canzonets are generally ex- 
 pressive of tender feelings. In music, 
 canzonet signifies a short song, in one, 
 two or three parts ; but, in England, it is 
 more generally applied to the two latter. 
 
 CAOUTCHOUC. This substance, improp- 
 erly termed elastic gum, and more com- 
 monly, from its application to remove 
 pencil-marks from paper, India rubber, is 
 obtained from the milky juice of several 
 plants, which are natives of the torrid zone. 
 The chief of these are the tuevea Guianensis, 
 thejatropha dastica, and urceola ehistica. 
 Caoutchouc is brought principally from 
 South America. This juice, obtained from 
 incisions, is applied, in successive layers, 
 over a mould of clay, and dried by expo- 
 sure to the sun, and to the smoke from 
 burning fuel. When perfectly dry, the 
 mould is broken, leaving the caoutchouc in 
 the form of a hollow ball. In its solid state, 
 caoutchouc is of a close texture, distinctly 
 fibrous, of a light-brown color, or some- 
 times nearly white. Its elasticity is such 
 that it can be stretched to a great extent ; 
 and, on removing the stretching force, it 
 recovers its original dimensions. Its soft- 
 ness and pliancy are increased by heat. 
 Boiling water renders it so soft, that two 
 slips, newly cut and pressed closely to- 
 gether, may be firmly united. By a great- 
 er heat, it is fused, and may, in that state, 
 be applied, as proposed by Mr. Aitkin, to 
 the surface of steel instruments, which it 
 will cover with a transparent film, that 
 effectually preserves them from rust. It 
 is insoluble in alcohol and in water. Sul- 
 phuric ether, when purified by washing in 
 water, dissolves it; and, by evaporation, 
 the caoutchouc may be recovered un- 
 changed. Oil of turpentine softens it, and 
 forms with it a sort of paste, that may be 
 spread as a varnish, but is very long in 
 drying. The fluid now commonly used 
 to dissolve it is the purified naphtha from 
 coal tar, which is, at the same time, a 
 cheap and effectual solvent, and which 
 does not change its properties. This so- 
 lution is employed to give a thin covering 
 of caoutchouc to cloth, which is thus ren- 
 dered impervious to moisture. Caout- 
 chouc is also readily soluble in cajepnt 
 oil. Caoutchouc, from its softness, elas- 
 ticity, and impermeability to water, is ap- 
 plied to the formation of catheters, bou- 
 gies, and tubes for conveying gases. These 
 are formed by twisting a slip of it round a 
 rod, and causing the edges to adhere by 
 pressure, when softened by maceration in
 
 490 
 
 CAOUTCHOUC CAPE BRETON. 
 
 warm \vator. It is also used for over- 
 shoes; and its solution in oils forms a flex- 
 ible varnish. It was not until about the 
 year 17:36 that this very extraordinary nat- 
 ural production was made known in Eu- 
 rope. It is obtained by making incisions 
 through the bark of the tree, chiefly in 
 wet weather. From the wounds thus 
 formed the juice flows abundantly. It is 
 of a milky-white color, and is conducted 
 by a tube or leaf, supported by clay, into 
 a vessel placed to receive it. Some wri- 
 ters assert that, on mere exposure to the 
 air, it gradually hardens, and others, that 
 it goes through a certain process for this 
 purpose, which the Indians of South 
 America keep a profound secret. It is 
 usually brought to Europe in the form of 
 pear-shaped bottles, which are formed by 
 spreading the juice over a mould of clay, 
 exposing it to a dense smoke, or to a fire, 
 till it becomes so dry as not to stick to the 
 fingers, when, by certain instruments of 
 iron or wood, it is ornamented on the out- 
 side with various figures. This done, the 
 clay in the inside is moistened with wa- 
 ter, and picked out. India rubber is re- 
 markable for the flexibility and elasticity 
 which it acquires on attaining a solid 
 state, and also for the numerous useful 
 purposes to which it is capable of being 
 applied. By the Indians, it is sometimes 
 formed into boots, which are impenetrable 
 by water, and which, when smoked, have 
 the appearance of leather. Bottles are 
 made of it, to the necks of which are fas- 
 tened hollow reeds, through which the 
 liquor contained in them can be squirted 
 at pleasure. One of these, filled with 
 water, is always presented to each of the 
 guests at their entertainments. Flam- 
 beaux are likewise formed of this sub- 
 stance, which give a very brilliant light ; 
 and it is said that a torch of it, an inch 
 and a half in diameter, and two feet long, 
 will burn 12 hours. The inhabitants of 
 Quito also prepare a species of cloth with 
 the hardened juice of this tree. 
 
 CAP : the cover of the end or head of 
 any thing. The word is very often used 
 in the mechanical arts. In ship-building, 
 cap is a square piece of timber placed 
 over the head or upper end of a mast, in 
 which is a round hole to receive the top 
 or top-gallant-masts, which are thus kept 
 steady and firm. Cap of a block; a semi- 
 circular projection from the sides and 
 round the end of a block above the pins. 
 Cap-merchant ; the parser of a ship. To 
 cap verses is an exercise of the memory 
 among school-boys ; the one repeating a 
 verse, and the second proceeding where 
 
 he left off, and so on with the rest. Caps 
 were not worn by the Romans for many 
 ages. When either the rain or sun was 
 troublesome, the lappet of the gown was 
 thrown over the head ; and hence all the 
 ancient statues appear bareheaded, ex- 
 cepting, sometimes, a wreath or the like. 
 The same usage prevailed among the 
 Greeks, to whom, at least during the hero- 
 ic age, caps were unknown. The sort of 
 caps or covers of the head in use among 
 the Romans, on divers occasions, were 
 the pitra, pileus, cucutlus, gulerus and pal- 
 liolum, which are often confounded by 
 ancient as well as modern writers. The 
 general use of caps and hats is refer- 
 red to the year 1449. The first seen in 
 Europe were used at the entry of Charles 
 VII into Rouen. From that time, they 
 began to take the place of chaperons, or 
 hoods. When the cap was of velvet, they 
 called it mortier ; when of wool, simply 
 bonnet. None but kings, princes and 
 knights were allowed to use the mortier. 
 The cap was the head-dress of the clergy 
 and graduates. Pasquin says that it was 
 anciently a part of the hood worn by the 
 people of the robe ; the skirts whereof, 
 being cut off, as an incumbrance, left the 
 round cap an easy, commodious cover for 
 the head; which cap, being afterwards as- 
 sumed by the people, those of the gown 
 changed it for a square one, first invented 
 by a Frenchman, called Patrouillet. He 
 adds, that the giving of the cap to the 
 students in the university was to denote 
 that they had acquired full liberty, and 
 were no longer subject to the rod of their 
 superiors, in imitation of the ancient Ro- 
 mans, who gave a pileus, or cap, to their 
 slaves, in the ceremony of making them 
 free: whence the proverb vocare servos ad 
 pileum : hence, also, on medals, the cap is 
 the symbol of Liberty, who is represented 
 holding a cap in the right hand, by the 
 point. Of the derivation of this word, 
 and its use in almost all European lan- 
 guages, Adelung gives an interesting ac- 
 count in his German dictionary. 
 
 CAPE. Of the immense number of 
 capes, which have received names from 
 navigators, the limits of the present work 
 will permit us to enumerate only a few. 
 
 Cape Ann ; a cape on the coast of Mas- 
 sachusetts, in the township of Gloucester, 
 forming the northern limit of 3Iassaclui- 
 setts bay ; lat. 42 35' N. ; Ion. 70 37' W. 
 
 Cape Breton; an island of North Amer- 
 ica, belonging to Great Britain ; situated in 
 the gulf of St. Lawrence; separated from 
 Nova Scotia by the strait of Fronsac, about 
 3 miles wide. This island is about 110
 
 CAPE BRETON CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 
 
 491 
 
 miles in length, and from 20 to 84 in 
 breadth, full of mountains and lakes, and 
 intersected by a great numher of creeks 
 and bays. The soil is fertile, and abounds 
 in timber. In the mountains are coal- 
 mines ; in the valleys, excellent pasture ; 
 and the coast abounds in fish. The chief 
 towns are Louisburg, Sydney and Ari- 
 chat. Population, 3000. Lat. 45 34' to 
 47 y N. ; Ion. 59 to 61 20' W. 
 
 Cape Cod; a noted cape and peninsula 
 on the coast of Massachusetts, on the 
 south side of Massachusetts bay ; lat. of the 
 cape, 42 5' N.; Ion. 70 14' W. The 
 peninsula is 05 miles in length, and from 
 1 to 20 in breadth, and is in the form of a 
 man's arm, bent inward both at the elbow 
 and the wrist. Though mostly sandy 
 and barren, it is nevertheless populous; 
 and the inhabitants derive their subsistence 
 chiefly from the sea. The cape was dis- 
 covered in 1602, by Bartholomew Gos- 
 nold, who gave it its name from having 
 taken a great quantity of cod-fish near it. 
 
 Cape Fear ; a dangerous cape on the 
 coast of North Carolina, being the south- 
 ern extremity of Smith's island, at the 
 mouth of Cape Fear river ; lat 33 32' 
 N.; Ion. 78 25' W. 
 
 Cape Fear ; a river of North Carolina, 
 the largest and most important that flows 
 wholly within that state. The north- 
 west, or principal branch, rises in the 
 northern part of the state, flows southerly, 
 passing by Fayetteville, and above Wil- 
 mington. 35 miles from its entrance into 
 the ocean, it is joined by the north-east- 
 ern branch. The Cape Fear is navigable 
 for vessels of 300 tons to Wilmington, 
 and for steam-boats to Fayetteville. 
 
 Cape Franfois. (See Cape Haytien.) 
 
 Cape of (jood Hope ; in the southern 
 part of Africa ; Ion. 18 24' E. ; lat. 33 53 
 S. Bartholomew Diaz discovered it in 
 1493. The tempestuous sea which beat 
 against it prevented him from landing; he 
 therefore called it Cabo dos Tormenlos 
 (see Camoen-s) ; but John II changed it to 
 Cabo da Bona Esperan~a. It was first 
 doubled by Vasco de Garna. The Portu- 
 guese never formed any permanent settle- 
 ment here. (See next article.) 
 
 Cape of Good Hope ; a British colony, 
 near the southern extremity of Africa. 
 The Dutch, who had early fixed upon 
 this point as a watering-place for their 
 ships, first colonized it in the middle of 
 the 17th century. Reducing the Hotten- 
 tots (q. v.) to slavery, or driving them 
 beyond the mountains, they extended the 
 Cape settlement to nearly its present lim- 
 its. It was captured by the English in 
 
 1795, restored at the peace of Amiens, 
 1802, and again taken in 1806; since 
 which time it has remained in their pos- 
 session. The colony extends about 230 
 miles from north to south, and 550 from 
 east to west ; from 30 to 34 30 7 S. lat., 
 and from 18 to 28 E. Ion. The space 
 included within these limits is about 
 120,000 square miles, with a population 
 of about one to a square mile. On the 
 west and south, it is washed by the ocean, 
 and, on the north, it is bounded by a range 
 of lofty mountains. The principal bays 
 on the coast are Saldanha, Table, Platten- 
 bnrg, Algoa bays. Cape Aguillas is the 
 most southern point of the old world. In 
 the interior, almost every variety of soil 
 and surface is found. Several ranges of 
 mountains, running nearly parallel to the 
 southern coast, divide the country into 
 successive terraces, between which lie 
 Itrlts of fertile land, or vast barren plains. 
 One of these, called the Great Karroo, is 
 300 miles long and 100 broad, presenting 
 a scene of complete desolation. In fact, 
 according to Barrow, nearly seven tenths 
 of the colony are destitute of vegetation 
 during a great part of the year. The 
 summits of the Nieuweldt Gebirgte, the 
 highest chain of southern Africa, are cov- 
 ered with perpetual snow. The Table 
 mountain is a stupendous mass of naked 
 rock, rising, almost perpendicularly, about 
 3585 feet in height. The colony is defi- 
 cient in navigable rivers for vessels of 
 any considerable burthen. The principal 
 streams are the Doom and the Berg, flow- 
 ing into the Atlantic ; the Breede, Groot, 
 and Great Fish, emptying themselves into 
 the Indian ocean. The last, in part of its 
 course, separates the Cape colony from 
 CafTraria. The spring and autumn are 
 temperate, and the most agreeable part of 
 the year. The heat is excessive in sum- 
 mer, and, on account of the elevation of 
 the surface, many parts experience the 
 extreme of cold in winter. The soil is, 
 of course, various, but its general charac- 
 ter is not that of fertility. The cultivation 
 is very imperfect, the inhabitants depend- 
 ing principally on pasturage. Wheat and 
 maize thrive well ; the vine flourishes lux- 
 uriantly; oranges, lemons and figs are 
 good, but all kinds of nuts have failed. 
 The aloe and myrtle grow to a great size. 
 Timber is scarce : the chestnut, wild al- 
 mond and plum are indigenous. The 
 domestic animals of civilized man have 
 all been introduced. The sheep are of 
 the broad-tailed kind. Lions, tigers, 
 wolves, hyamas, buffaloes and jackals are 
 numerous in the vicinity of the settle-
 
 CAPE OF GOOD HOPE CAPE TOWN. 
 
 ments. In the more remote parts are the 
 elephant, the rhinoceros, the quagga, the 
 giraffe, &c. The spring-hock is seen in 
 herds of 10,000. Monkeys, armadillos, 
 and other small animals, are numerous. 
 The ostrich is common. Vultures, eagles, 
 kites, and the gigantic condor inhabit the 
 mountains. There are also pelicans, fla- 
 mingoes, parrots, and many kinds of 
 aquatic birds. Noxious reptiles are not 
 numerous. Fish are plentiful on the coasts. 
 The capital is Cape Town. (q. v.) Scarce- 
 ly any manufactures have been intro- 
 duced into the colony, and its commerce 
 is very limited. Some British merchants 
 have settled at Cape Town, and the trade 
 appears to be increasing. The principal 
 export is Cape wine. The imports are 
 in small quantities, and consist of cloths, 
 hardware, furniture, hats, &c. The aver- 
 age amount is about a million of dollars. 
 The value of the colony to Great Britain 
 must not, however, be estimated by its 
 revenue. It is important, principally, as 
 being the connecting link between that 
 kingdom and her possessions in the East. 
 The Dutch settlers, who live in the inte- 
 rior, are called boors, and are in a veiy 
 degraded condition. Indolent and stu- 
 pid, every thing about them exhibits the 
 utmost wretchedness in the midst of plen- 
 ty. (See Barrow's Travels in Southern 
 .'Africa ; Vaillant, Lichtenstein and Camp- 
 bell's Travels, and the reverend Mr. La- 
 trobe's Visit to South Africa, in 1815 and 
 1816. Beauvois, the French traveller, has 
 also lately given interesting information 
 on the south of Africa.) 
 
 Cape Hatteras ; a noted and danger- 
 ous cape on the coast of North Carolina ; 
 being the projecting point of a long reef 
 of sand, extending from Ocracoke inlet to 
 New inlet; lat. 35 14' N. ; Ion. 75 
 3(X W. 
 
 Cape Haytien (formerly called Cape 
 Francois, or Le Cap, and, during the reign 
 of Cnristophe, Cape Henry) ; a town of 
 Hayti, and the capital of the island and 
 republic ; Ion. 72 10' W. ; lat. 19 46' N. 
 It is situated on the north coast ; was 
 founded in 1670 ; burnt in 1792, by the 
 blacks ; was the last town retained by the 
 French in the island, but was surrendered 
 by them to the blacks in 1803 ; it then 
 became the capital of the black emperor, 
 Henry Christophe. Before it suffered so 
 severely by intestine convulsions, it con- 
 tained a number of elegant buildings, 
 about 900 houses of stone and brick, and 
 a population of from 8 to 12,000 ; some 
 say 20,000, 12,000 being slaves. It is 
 situated in a very fertile tract, and has 
 
 one of the most secure and convenient 
 harbors in the island. It is built on a 
 capo, at the edge of a large plain, 60 miles 
 long and 12 broad, between the sea and 
 the mountains. Its situation is not fortu- 
 nate, as it is screened from the land wind 
 by the mountains, and thus left exposed 
 to the unmitigated fervor of the sun's 
 rays. The plain is well watered and 
 highly cultivated. It is cut through by 
 straight roads, 40 feet broad, lined with 
 hedges of lime and lemon trees, leading 
 to plantations which produce as great a 
 quantity of sugar as any spot of the same 
 size in the world. 
 
 Cape Horn ; a cape on the south coast 
 of Terra del Fuego. It is the southern 
 extremity of South America ; lat. 55 58' 
 S.; Ion. 67 21' W. The navigation 
 round cape Horn is very dangerous, on 
 account of frequent tempests: yet, of late, 
 it has been the common course of vessel -, 
 being found much preferable to the te- 
 dious passage through the straits of Ma- 
 gellan. The shore is inhabited by Indians, 
 of whom little is known. The cape was 
 discovered by Jacob le Maire, a Dutch- 
 man, in 1616. It is cold, lofty, and cov- 
 ered with wood. 
 
 Cape Lookout; a dangerous cape on 
 the coast of North Carolina ; lat. 34 22' 
 N. ; Ion. 76 37' W. 
 
 Cape Town; capital of the cape of 
 Good Hope ; lat. 33 & S. Ion. 18 23' E. : 
 population in 1818, 18,173; of whom 
 7460 were whites, 1905 free blacks, 810 
 apprentices, 536 Hottentots, 7462 slaves. 
 It is agreeably situated, rather more than 
 30 miles from the cape of Good Hope, 
 properly so called, at the head of Table 
 bay, in a valley between the Table and 
 Lion mountains. It is defended by a 
 castle of considerable strength, and con- 
 tains a court-house, a guard-house, a Cal- 
 vinistic church, a Lutheran church, a 
 theatre, and 1145 houses, many of Avhich 
 are fine. The tone of society is wholly 
 commercial, the minds of all classes being 
 bent on trade. There was not, in 1818, 
 a public school nor a bookseller's shop in 
 the town. The streets are broad, but ill- 
 paved. The price of provisions is very 
 reasonable. The town is well supplied 
 with springs of excellent water, sufficient 
 also for the ships which stop at the port. 
 The harbor is tolerably secure from Sep- 
 tember to May, while the S. E. winds 
 prevail. During the rest of the year, when 
 the wind blows generally from the X. 
 and N. W., ships are obliged to resort to 
 False bay, on the opposite side of the 
 peninsula. A missionary is supported
 
 CAPE TOWN CAPELLO. 
 
 here by the London missionary soci- 
 ety. 
 
 Cape Verde (anciently, Arsenariwn) ; on 
 the west coast of Africa ; lat. 14 44' N. ; 
 Ion. 17 31' W. 
 
 Cape Verde Islands ; islands of Af- 
 rica, in the Atlantic ; so called from cape 
 Verde, opposite to which they are situ- 
 ated ; 390 miles W. cape Verde, and be- 
 tween 15 and 18 N. lat They belong 
 to Portugal. As to their number, some 
 reckon 10, others 14 or more, by giving 
 the name of islands to those which are 
 only rocks. They are, in general, moun- 
 tainous ; the lower hills are covered with 
 a beautiful verdure, as well as the exten- 
 sive valleys between ^ but with little wa- 
 ter, except what is found in ponds and 
 wells. They are said to have been, and 
 probably were, known to the ancients, 
 under the name of Gorgades. The air is 
 extremely hot and unwholesome. It rare- 
 ly rains.; and the ground is so hot that 
 one can hardly stand in places exposed to 
 the sun. It is dangerous to pass the 
 night in die open air, for the great heat is 
 often succeeded by a .sudden cold, which 
 proves mortal to such as arc exposed to 
 it. The soil is, for the most part, stony 
 and barren ; nevertheless, some pans pro- 
 duce rice, maize, bananas, lemons, oran- 
 ges, citrons, pomegranates, figs and mel- 
 ons. Grapes are gathered twice a year. 
 The manufacture of leal her and salt forms 
 the principal riches. Two of the islands, 
 St. Yago and St. Philip, depend immedi- 
 ately on the king, and are the only ones 
 fortified. The number of inhabitants 
 is calculated at 100,000. Few whites are 
 now seen. The governor and priests are 
 often Negroes. The chief town is Porto 
 Praya. In the small island of Mayo, 
 much salt is made. Numerous vessels, 
 principally American, visit this place for 
 the salve of obtaining it, and bring flour to 
 give in exchange. In 1827, the imports 
 into the U. States from these islands 
 amounted to 77,425; the exports to them 
 from the U. States, to 8104,lt;5. The 
 island of Fuego, one of the group, con- 
 sists of one single mountain, formerly a 
 volcano, according to lieutenant Mudge, 
 9790 feet above the level of the sea. 
 
 CAPELLEN, G. A. J., baron de : gov- 
 ernor-general of all the Dutch settlements 
 in Asia ; one of the few politicians of our 
 time, who, in good and bad fortune, have 
 preserved integrity of principle. His fa- 
 ther is known by his defence of the for- 
 tress of Gorkum against the Prussians. 
 The son, after an excellent education, was 
 made, in 1608, by Louis king of Holland, 
 
 VOL. ii. 42 
 
 prefect of East Friesland, where he was 
 much beloved. Louis afterwards made 
 him minister of the interior and counsel- 
 lor of state, and it was very probably he 
 who advised the king to resign his throne. 
 Under Napoleon, he accepted no office. 
 King William made him minister of the 
 colonies. When the congress of Vienna 
 united Belgium with Holland, he was 
 commissioned to prepare the Belgians for 
 the new government. Since 1815, Ca- 
 pellen, in his high post in Batavia, has 
 increased the productiveness of the Dutch 
 possessions in Asia, particularly of Java, 
 by his excellent institutions. Batavia has 
 been made a free port, at which the ships 
 of the U. States of America, in particular, 
 procure great quantities of coftee, sugar, 
 rice, rum and spices, for ready money. 
 The commerce of Banda and Amboyna, 
 as well as that of Borneo, has also been 
 increased. 
 
 CAPELLO, Bianca ; a noble Venetian 
 lady, whose singular ad ventures and final 
 elevation have rendered her exceedingly 
 remarkable. She was born about 1542, 
 being the daughter of Bartolomeo Capel- 
 lo, a patrician of Venice. She early fell 
 in love with a young and handsome clerk 
 in the banking-house of Salviati, named 
 Buonaventuri. The consequence of the 
 intrigue was the pregnancy of the lady, 
 and the flight of the lovers to Florence, 
 where they married, and Bianca lay in of 
 a daughter. Here they lived some time 
 in great apprehension and obscurity, until 
 some accident or contrivance introduced 
 Bianca to the notice of Francis, son of 
 Cosmo, grand-duke of Tuscany. Her 
 uncommon beauty and engaging man- 
 ners made an immediate impression on a 
 prince notorious for his attachment to the 
 sc\ ; and the consequence was, that she 
 and her husband were quickly settled in 
 a splendid palace, and the latter made 
 chamberlain to the duke, and, to the great 
 disgust of the Florentines, intrusted with 
 a large share of public business. Bianca 
 was, in the mean time, introduced at 
 court, and became the object of great 
 admiration ; and it is asserted, that, even 
 at that time, Francis promised to many 
 her, should they become released from 
 the marriage ties by which they were 
 each of them bound. This took place in 
 a very few years on her part. Buonaven- 
 turi, having engaged in an intrigue with a 
 woman of rank, was assassinated by her 
 family; and Francis now avowedly pro- 
 claimed Bianca his mistress. As Francis, 
 who had no issue, passionately desired 
 even a natural child, Bianca, whose in-
 
 494 
 
 CAPELLO CAPERNAUM. 
 
 temperate mode of living was not favora- 
 ble to his wishes, carried on all the forms 
 of pregnancy, and presented to her de- 
 luded lover a new-born male child, of 
 poor parents, whom he joyfully received 
 as his own, and christened Antonio. A 
 legitimate son, produced to him soon after 
 by his duchess, induced him to be less 
 open in his attentions to Bianca ; but the 
 death of his wife, very soon after, opened 
 to the latter a road to her final elevation, 
 and she was quickly united to Francis by 
 a private marriage. Her ambition, how- 
 ever, was not to be gratified without pub- 
 licity ; and she induced the grand-duke 
 to send a solemn embassy to Venice, to 
 inform the senate of his marriage, and to 
 request them to confer on Bianca the 
 title of daughter of the republic, which 
 honor was supposed to entitle those on 
 whom it was bestowed to a royal alliance. 
 That government assented, and Bianca, 
 being crowned daughter of the state, was 
 solemnly installed grand-duchess of Tus- 
 cany in 1579. In 1582, the legitimate son 
 of Francis expired ; and, soon after, he de- 
 clared Antonio his lawful son, although, it 
 is said, Bianca had acknowledged her 
 imposition. Ferdinand, the brother of 
 Francis, and his lawful heir, was not 
 blind to these proceedings, and paid the 
 greatest attention to the subsequent re- 
 ported pregnancies of the duchess, until, 
 the state of her health setting all idea of 
 further progeny aside, she essayed to ef- 
 fect a reconciliation between the brothers, 
 and Ferdinand paid a visit to Florence. 
 He had been there but a short time, when 
 Francis fell ill, at his hunting village of 
 Poggio, where his brother was a guest ; 
 and, two days after, the duchess being 
 seized with the same symptoms, they 
 both died, after about a week's illness, in 
 October, 1587, Bianca being then in her 
 45th year. The known character of the 
 Medici family caused this catastrophe to 
 be attributed to poison ; and a story is 
 current, that Bianca, intending to poison 
 Ferdinand with a prepared viand, he had 
 the address to make the duke and duchess 
 eat of it themselves. As there was no 
 direct motive for the attempt at the pe- 
 riod, and it rests only on the character of 
 the parties, it is more reasonable to sup- 
 poseMhat a malignant fever, at an un- 
 healthy season, was the real cause of the 
 sudden termination of so extraordinary a 
 career. The hatred of the Florentines 
 has made Bianca a monster of vice and 
 cruelty ; a thousand absurd stories were 
 propagated of her propensity to magic, 
 and other crimes ; and, perceiving the 
 
 impossibility of gaining their affections, 
 she employed trains of spies and inform- 
 ers, which added still more to their ani- 
 mosity. The truth seems to be, that she 
 was a woman of consummate beauty and 
 address, with little or no principle ; and 
 such was the character of the Italian 
 courts, at the period in which she flourish- 
 ed, that she had only to act in the spirit 
 of the times, to become very nearly as 
 vicious as the Florentines described her. 
 
 CAPER. Capers are the unopened flow- 
 er-buds of a low shrub (capparis spinosa), 
 which grows from the crevices of rocks 
 and walls, and among rubbish, in the 
 southern parts of France, in Italy and the 
 Levant. The sterns of the caper-bush 
 are trailing, and two or three feet long. 
 The leaves are alternate, of somewhat 
 oval shape, veined, and of a bright-green 
 color ; and the flowers are large and 
 beautiful, with four petals, and white, 
 with a tinge of red. In the south of 
 France, the caper-bush is very common. 
 It grows wild upon the walls of Rome, 
 Sienna and Florence, and, when trained 
 against a wall, flourishes even in the 
 neighborhood of Paris ; notwithstanding 
 which, it is almost unknown in English 
 gardens, where it cannot be made to 
 flower without the aid of artificial heat. 
 It is cultivated, on a large scale, between 
 Marseilles and Toulon, and in many parts 
 of Italy. In the early part of the sum- 
 mer, it begins to flower, and the flowers 
 continue successively to appear, until the 
 commencement of winter. The buds are 
 picked every morning, before the petals 
 are expanded ; and, as they are gathered, 
 they are put into vinegar and salt. When 
 a sufficient quantity is collected, they are 
 distributed, according to their size, into 
 different vessels, again put into vinegar, 
 and then packed up for sale and exporta- 
 tion. This pickle is much used in sauce 
 for boiled mutton. To persons unaccus- 
 tomed to it, the taste of capers is unpleas- 
 ant ; but, after a little while, the palate 
 becomes perfectly reconciled to it. The 
 flower-buds of the marsh-marigold (cal- 
 tha palustris) and nasturtiums are fre- 
 quently pickled, and eaten as a substitute 
 for capers. The bark of the root, cut 
 into slices, and dried in small rolls or 
 quills, like cinnamon, is sometimes used 
 in medicine, in cases of obstruction of the 
 liver. 
 
 CAPER, in shipping, is the Dutch and 
 German name for privateer. 
 
 CAPERNAUM ; a town in ancient Pales- 
 tine, on the west side of the sea of Tibe- 
 rias ; Ion. 35 44' E. ; lat. 32 4^ N. Near
 
 CAPERNAUM CAPI AGA. 
 
 495 
 
 it were a mountain and rivulet of the 
 same name. This place is famous, in 
 Christian history, because Jesus used to 
 reside here during the time of his minis- 
 try ; and in its vicinity he delivered the 
 sermon on the mount. Nothing of it now 
 remains. As Capernaum is not men- 
 tioned in the Old Testament, it may have 
 been built after the return from the Baby- 
 lonish captivity. It stood on the coast of 
 Galilee, on the lx>rders of Zabulon and 
 Nephthalim. 
 
 CAPET ; the name of the French race 
 of kings, which has given 118 sove- 
 reigns to Europe, viz. 36 kings of France, 
 22 kings of Portugal, 11 of Naples and 
 Sicily, 5 of Spain, 3 of Hungary, 3 em- 
 perors of Constantinople, 3 kings of Na- 
 varre, 17 dukesof Burgundy, 12 dukes of 
 Brittany, 2 dukes of Lorraine, and 4 dukes 
 of Parma. The history of this royal race 
 is, at the same time, the history of the 
 rise and progress of the French mon- 
 archy. (See France.) The fate of one 
 of the most interesting countries and na- 
 tions in Europe is connected with the 
 name of Capet. After having been de- 
 prived of four thrones, and again restored 
 to them, this family stands forth as the 
 first and most ancient support of the Eu- 
 ropean principle of political legitimacy, 
 that divine right, which, in this house, 
 commenced with treason. Its origin is 
 remarkable. Pepin the Short, the father 
 of Charlemagne, and mayor of the palace 
 under the Merovingian dynasty, had dis- 
 placed that royal house, and usurped the 
 throne of the ancient kings of the Franks. 
 After a space of 2:35 years, his own de- 
 scendants, the Carlovingian monarchs, 
 experienced a similar fate. Under the 
 last Carlovingians, destitute alike of ener- 
 gy and wisdom, Hugh the Great, duke of 
 France (by which was then understood 
 the Isle of France), Orleans and Burgun- 
 dy, exercised a power as unlimited as 
 that of the mayor of the palace under the 
 Merovingians. On the death of Louis V, 
 without children, in 987, his uncle Charles, 
 duke of Lower Lorraine, laid claim to the 
 throne, which the Franks had sworn to 
 preserve to the family of Charlemagne, 
 The French nobility, supported by pope 
 John XV 7 , proclaimed Hugh, son of Hugh 
 the Great, duke of France and count: of 
 Paris, king, vyith the surname of Capet 
 (capetus, capita, broad-head ; or, more 
 probably, from a sort of hat, capatus). 
 The valiant Charles of Lorraine was sur- 
 prised in Laon, by the treachery of a 
 bishop, and made prisoner. He died, 
 soon afterwards, in prison, and his son 
 
 Otho, duke of Lower Lorraine, died in 
 1006. Both his younger brothers died 
 childless in Germany. Thus the race 
 of Capet was left in possession of the 
 throne of France. According to some 
 historians, Hugh Capet was descended 
 from a German family. He was married 
 to a German princess, Adelaide, daughter 
 of king Henry I of Germany (duke of 
 Saxony). Hugh was crowned at Rheims, 
 and swore to preserve to the nation, and 
 particularly to the powerful feudal nobil- 
 ity and clergy, all their existing privilege*. 
 By his wise measures, he gave perma- 
 nence to his dynasty, which, next to the 
 family of Guelph, is the eldest sovereign 
 house at present existing. (See Bourbon.) 
 Hugh, and the succeeding monarchs, till 
 Louis VII, took the precaution to have 
 their successors invested with the royal 
 title during their own life-time. Thus 
 Hugh had his son Robert crowned and 
 anointed, as his colleague, as early as Jan. 
 1, 988. He abolished, by law, the parti- 
 tion of the hereditary estates among the 
 sons of the kings, and forbade the aliena- 
 tion of the family domains. The daugh- 
 ters of the kings were endowed, from 
 that time, with money, and the appanage 
 which was given to the princes of the 
 blood returned to the crown in default 
 of male heirs. Both these principles were 
 more fully confirmed by later laws. Thus 
 Hugh Capet, by uniting his hereditary 
 duchy, consisting of Paris, Isle de France 
 and Burgundy, unalienably with the 
 crown, may be regarded as the founder 
 of the French monarchy. What he had 
 begun was completed by his successors, 
 particularly in the times of the crusades, 
 and by the establishment of standing ar-< 
 mies. All the political statements illus-. 
 trative of this subject are collected by the 
 marquis de Pastoret, peer of France, in 
 his continuation of the Ordonnances des 
 Rois de France de la troisitme Race, vols. 
 xv. xvi. xvii, (Paris, 1811, 1814, 1820, fol.), 
 with which may be compared the essay 
 of the advocate Beugriot, which obtained 
 the prize of the academy of inscriptions, 
 Essai sur les Institutions de St. Louis 
 (Paris, 1821), 
 
 CAPI AGA ; in the Turkish court, the 
 superintendent of the eunuchs. He also 
 announces all who desire to speak to the 
 grand vizier, and introduces foreign am-, 
 bassadors to an audience. Capigi (capid- 
 schi) is a name applied to the guards or 
 door-keepers of the seraglio, in number 
 about 400. Their superintendent is called 
 Capigi Baschi. They likewise convey 
 the sultan's orders. Among their duties
 
 496 
 
 CAPI AGA CAPIAS. 
 
 is that of carrying the cord to those who 
 are to be strangled. 
 
 CAPIAS. A writ or process of capias is 
 one whereby the sheriff is ordered to ar- 
 rest the body of die defendant, either 
 before judgment, to compel him to an- 
 swer to a suit ; and this is called a capias 
 ad respondendum ; or, after the judgment, 
 to compel him to satisfy the judgment ; 
 and this is called a capias ad satwfacien- 
 dum, commonly abbreviated ca. set. In 
 case of injuries without force, the civil 
 law, and, originally, the common law, did 
 not authorize the arrest of the defendant 
 before judgment, that is, the arrest to an- 
 swer ; and upon feudal principles, says 
 .sir William Blackstone, 3 Com. 281, "the 
 person of a feudatory was not liable to 
 be attached for injuries merely civil, lest, 
 thereby, the lord should be deprived of 
 his sen-ices." The first writ of capias 
 ad respondendum was given by act of 
 parliament in 12G7, 52 Henry III, c. 23, 
 1, which provided, that, "if bailiffs, 
 which ought to make account to their 
 lords, do withdraw themselves, and have 
 no lands nor tenements whereby they 
 may be distrained, they shall be attached 
 by their bodies, so that the sheriff shall 
 cause them to come to make their ac- 
 count." This act applied to a particular 
 description of receivers, and supposes 
 them not only to be debtors, but also to 
 have in their own hands the evidence of 
 the amount of the debt, the production 
 of which was one object of the process. 
 The statute of 13 Edward I, c. 11, passed 
 in 1285, 18 years after the former, extends 
 this process to " all manner of receivers 
 bound to yield account," and provides "if 
 they be found in arrearages upon this 
 account, their bodies shall be arrested, 
 and, by the testimony of the auditors, shall 
 be sent into the next gaol, and be impris- 
 oned in irons under safe custody, and 
 remain in prison at their own cost, until 
 they have satisfied their master [the cred- 
 itor] fully of their arrearages." This 
 statute seems to suppose the proof and 
 establishment of the debt before the ar- 
 rest, and, so far, seems to have the char- 
 acter of a ca. sa. ; but it is considered a 
 capias ad respondendum by sir William 
 Blackstone ; so in Jacobs's Law Dictiona- 
 ry, and, indeed, generally. And it ap- 
 pears that the practice of arresting on 
 mesne process, that is, before judgment, 
 to answer, in civil suits, grew out of these 
 statutes : for the sulisequem statutes of 
 25 Edward III, c. 17 (A. D. 1350), pro- 
 viding that " such process shall be made 
 in writ of debt, detinue of chattels, and 
 
 taking of beasts, by writ of capias, as is 
 used in writ of account ;" and of 21 Hen- 
 ry VII, c. 9 (A. D. 1503), providing that 
 " like process shall be hereafter, in actions 
 upon the case, as in action of trespass or 
 debt ;" evidently have reference to an ar- 
 rest to answer. A writ upon which a suit 
 is commenced is either a capias, distress 
 or summons ; either the person of the 
 defendant is seized, and (unless he is 
 bailed) imprisoned until the trial, or his 
 goods or lands are seized as a guarantee 
 of his appearance to answer ; and more 
 often, in modern times, to obtain a lien to 
 secure satisfaction of the judgment ; or he 
 is only summoned, that is, merely has 
 notice, that a suit has been commenced be- 
 fore such a court, by such a plaintiff, and 
 is to be heard at such a time. This last 
 is uniformly the process adopted in claims 
 of land. But by the statute of 5 Geo. II, 
 c. 27, since made perpetual by another 
 statute, it is provided, that, "in all cases 
 where the cause of action shall not 
 amount to ten pounds, the plaintiff shall 
 not arrest the body of the defendant ;" 
 and " in all cases where the cause of ac- 
 tion shall amount to ten pounds, an affi- 
 davit shall be made and filed of such 
 cause of action, and the sum specified in 
 such affidavit shall be endorsed on tho 
 writ, for which sum the sheriff shall take 
 bail, and no more." "It is curious to 
 remark," says Mr. Tidd, "the changes 
 which the law of arrest has undergone at 
 different periods. Anciently, an arrest was 
 not allowed, except in action of trespass 
 vi et armis ; afterwards, an arrest was in- 
 troduced with a capias in other actions ; 
 now, by the operation of the before-men- 
 tioned statutes, an arrest cannot be made 
 in the only action wherein it was for- 
 merly allowed." But, as has been justly 
 remarked in a Pennsylvania case (6 Binn, 
 302), the reason for not requiring bail in 
 trespass is, the difficulty of fixing the 
 amounts for which it ought to be required. 
 In the U. States, except Louisiana, the 
 form of process is usually adopted from 
 the English law, but with so great modi- 
 fications on this particular subject, that it 
 is not easy to lay down any general rule ; 
 and to state the particular cases in which 
 an arrest of the person on mesne process 
 is allowed in each of the states, would far 
 exceed the limits prescribed by the plan 
 of this work. The general principle was 
 laid down, in the trial of judge Chase on 
 articles of impeachment, in 1804, that, in 
 criminal proceedings, wherever the of- 
 fence charged subjects the party to the 
 punishment of imprisonment, the process
 
 CAPIAS CAPITAL. 
 
 497 
 
 may be commenced by an arrest of the 
 person, that the party charged may be 
 held in custody, to receive punishment in 
 case of his being found guilty. In civil 
 suits, the capias ad respondendum was 
 anciently adopted very extensively, if not 
 universally, under the colonial govern- 
 ments, in actions of account, assuinpsit, 
 covenant, debt and case. The capias was 
 adopted early and implicitly, in many of 
 the states, as a part of the common law ; 
 and a large part of the legislation on the 
 subject, subsequent to the adoption of the 
 constitutions of the states, is a modifica- 
 tion of a practice already existing. And 
 the very laws authorizing the arrest are 
 not to be found, except by implication 
 from those modifying and regulating the 
 practice. In many of the states, however, 
 arrest on mesne process for debt is abol- 
 ished, except in cases where it is appre- 
 hended the debtor intends to escape. In 
 other states, the debtor is arrested on the 
 capias ad respondendum, but set at large 
 immediately on surrendering his property, 
 on oath, for the benefit of his creditors. 
 It seems, indeed, to be putting a slight 
 value upon personal liberty to permit ar- 
 rest, in any case, without the intervention 
 of a magistrate ; and, in case of debt or 
 contract, there does not appear to be any 
 good reason for arresting the person on 
 mesne process, unless it be made to ap- 
 pear satisfactorily to a magistrate, that 
 there is reason to apprehend the defend- 
 ant will depart beyond the jurisdiction of 
 the court. The capias ad satisfaciendum, 
 or arrest on execution, issues, in England, 
 in those cases where the capias ad respon- 
 dendum lies, and so was the original com- 
 mon or statute law, generally, in the U, 
 States ; but the bankrupt and insolvent 
 laws of England, and the insolvent laws 
 of several of the U. States, enable the 
 defendant, by surrendering his property 
 for the benefit of his creditors, to defeat 
 the capias ad satisfaciendum. 
 
 CAPIGI. (See Capi .%cr,) 
 
 CAPILLARY TUBES, in physics; little 
 pipes, the canals of which are extremely 
 narrow, their diameter being only a half, 
 third or fourth, &c. of a line. If one end 
 of a tube of this sort, open at both ends, 
 be immersed in a fluid which adheres to 
 glass, as water, the liquor within the tube 
 will rise to a sensible height above the 
 surface of that without, and the height to 
 which it will rise is inversely as the dU 
 ameter of the tube, at least unless the 
 tubes are excessively fine. This phe-. 
 nomenon is explained by the attraction 
 which exists between the glass and the 
 42* 
 
 fluid. Such liquids as do not adhere to 
 glass (e. g., quicksilver) do not rise in the 
 tube : on the contrary, they stand lower 
 within than without it. The phenome- 
 non of the rise of liquids in such tubes is 
 exliibited in numberless instances in na- 
 ture, as in the rising of the sap in plants. 
 (See the article Adhesion ; also, Laplace's 
 Theorie de V Action Capillaire, Paris, 1806, 
 4to., and the Supplement to the same, 
 Paris, 1807, 4to., also annexed to the 
 third volume of his Mecanique Celeste.) 
 
 CAPILLARY VESSELS ; the minute ves- 
 sels in which the arteries terminate, and 
 from which, in a way not well under- 
 stood, the veins commence. The distinc- 
 tion between the arteries and veins is, 
 therefore, lost in these vessels. The sup- 
 port of the solid, and the formation of the 
 fluid, parts of the system take place 
 especially in these vessels. 
 
 CAPITAL, in political economy, is the 
 stock of valu.ible exchangeable commodi- 
 ties possessed by individuals or a com- 
 munity. This is the usual and more 
 limited meaning of the term ; for, in com- 
 paring the capital of one individual with 
 that of another, we have in mind the 
 amount of money for which the stock of 
 each can be exchanged. The market 
 value is in view. In estimating the capi- 
 tal of any individual, we necessarily take 
 into consideration the debts due to and 
 from him; and many men of large capital 
 are only possessed of claims upon others; 
 their whole stock is in the hands of others 
 at interest ; and they have only promises 
 for a certain amount of money, and actu- 
 ally possess neither lands nor goods to 
 any considerable value ; while others 
 possess large quantities of both, and yet 
 have little or no capital, since they owe, 
 in money, the value of the greater part or 
 the whole of their possessions. Now it 
 is plain that no individual can undertake 
 production, to any large extent, without 
 an extensive stock. He must have land 
 to cultivate, or materials to work up, and 
 implements to work with, Even a sav- 
 age must have a capital, such as his hut, 
 clothes, cooking utensils, food enough 
 to support him until he can obtain a new 
 supply, and implements, such as a hatch- 
 et, gun, canoe, fishing gear, with which 
 to procure this supply, The first effort 
 of industry is to supply the implements, 
 apparatus and machinery for his own em- 
 ployment ; and as society and the arts 
 advance, and the operations of industry 
 are extended, the implements, apparatus, 
 machinery and materials, requisite in con- 
 ducting the processes of production, must
 
 498 
 
 CAPITAL. 
 
 be proportionally accumulated ; and these 
 will constitute a' part of the capital of a 
 community, and also of an individual, 
 which is essential to success in productive 
 processes. And these can be command- 
 ed by any one in proportion to the extent 
 of his individual capital ; or, if he have 
 credit, then his resources for production 
 will depend upon the capital of others 
 in other words, that of the community to 
 which he belongs. In considering the 
 aggregate capital of a community, we 
 may put out of the question all the debts 
 due from any of the members to others ; 
 for, whether these be great -or small, 
 and they will vary according as the prac- 
 tice of giving credit is more or less in use, 
 still the capital of the community will 
 consist in its lands, buildings, ships, ma- 
 chinery, materials on hand, implements ; 
 in short, in all those things which bear a 
 value in the market. Provided the com- 
 munity owes no debts abroad, these will 
 constitute its aggregate capital ; and, if its 
 members are indebted abroad, we find its 
 actual net capital, as in the case of an in- 
 dividual, by deducting the amount of its 
 debts from the value of its possessions, 
 without regarding the debts due from 
 some of its members to others. In com- 
 paring the capital or wealth of two com- 
 munities, we may be led into an error by 
 comparing the value of their possessions 
 in gold and silver, since the value of these 
 metals is well known to differ in differ- 
 ent countries, by whatever standard the 
 comparison be made. If, for instance, 
 we compare the value of the metals in 
 reference to the wages of a common day 
 laborer, we find he has 2 or 3 pence a 
 day in Egypt, and from 50 to 72 pence in 
 the U. States, We shall find the same 
 diversity in other things. If we take a 
 horse, of the same beauty and serviceable 
 qualities, for an example, we shall find 
 his price, in money, to be twice as great 
 in one place as in another. In order, 
 therefore, to make such a comparison 
 through the medium of the metals, or by 
 adopting them as a common measure, we 
 should, in the first place, correct the 
 measure itself, and ascertain whether an 
 ounce of gold, in one of the places be- 
 tween which the comparison is to be 
 made, is worth a half of an ounce or an 
 ounce and a half in the other ; and the 
 way of correcting the standard would be, 
 to take equal quantities of a great num- 
 ber of articles of the same quality, in the 
 two places, or equivalent quantities of 
 equivalent articles, as nearly as their 
 equivalence can be ascertained, and com- 
 
 pare their money prices in the two place* 
 But this correction of the common meas- 
 ure is not very easily made. The means 
 of comparing the value of money at suc- 
 cessive periods, in the same community, 
 are very defective ; and the only attempt 
 at any scale of value, of this description, 
 known to the writer of this article, is that 
 of Mr. Evelyn, published in the Transac- 
 tions of the royal society of London for 
 1798, and corrected, since, by Mr. Col- 
 quhoun. But suppose the comparative 
 value of money, in two states or king- 
 doms, to be ascertained, and then a valu- 
 ation of all the property in each, of every 
 description, to be made, the capital of 
 each and the comparative capital of the 
 two are thus ascertained. But this com- 
 parison would not show the comparative 
 resources of the two, either for war or for 
 production. This will appear from the 
 obvious fact, that a river like the Hudson 
 is a greater facility to transportation than 
 the Languedoc canal ; yet, in making a 
 return of the property, or the estimation 
 of the capital of France, the Languedoc 
 canal would be a great item, whereas the 
 Hudson river, though of equal or greater 
 utility, would not appear as constituting 
 a part of the capital of New York. The 
 inhabitants are the great agents of pro- 
 duction in every country ; and, though 
 their productive efficiency will be influ- 
 enced, very essentially, by the amount of 
 capital, fertility of the soil, quality of its 
 products, facilities of transportation, and ar- 
 rangements of industry, still the character, 
 habits and skill of the agents themselves 
 are the most important circumstances in 
 estimating the productive resources of a 
 community. Industry and skill will rapidly 
 create capital. Mr. Phillips, in his Man- 
 ual of Political Economy, estimates that 
 the whole value of the capital of a coun- 
 try is consumed and reproduced every 
 three or four years. But the training 
 of a population, and forming its character 
 and habits, is a work of many years. The 
 most important ingredient in the national 
 resources is, therefore, not only no part 
 of its capital, but is a thing of very slow 
 growth, and results from the combined 
 and long-continued influence of a thou- 
 sand causes, moral, physical and political, 
 too complicated to be disentangled, and 
 so blended that the action of each cannot 
 be distinctly traced. Economists have 
 confined their views of production too 
 much to considerations of capital, and 
 neglected, or, at least, not given sufficient 
 weight to, the other economical capacities 
 and resources. Capital is distinguished
 
 CAPITAL. 
 
 499 
 
 into footing, or movable, and fixed; the 
 former consisting of things that may be 
 moved, and are susceptible of manual de- 
 livery; the latter, of those confined to one 
 place, as a house or piece of land. We 
 use the terms in a different sense when 
 applied to any particular establishment, 
 by the floating capital of which is meant 
 that which remains after payment is made 
 tor all their apparatus and the implements 
 of their business, and which is usually in- 
 vested in the materials to be manufactur- 
 ed or transported, or to pass through the 
 process, whatever it is, which constitutes 
 the business conducted. Thus one car- 
 rying on a flouring-mill wants a floating 
 or disposable capital, over and above the 
 cost of his works, to be invested in wheat 
 to be floured, and flour not yet disposed 
 of. This instance illustrates what is 
 meant by the floating or disposable capi- 
 tal of a whole community being that 
 movable, exchangeable stock of things on 
 hand, over and above the fixtures and ap- 
 paratus of production, including lands, 
 buildings, ships, working animals, all the 
 implements of the arts, with necessary 
 food, clothing, and a stock of seed suffi- 
 cient for the time requisite for reproduc- 
 tion. What remains over these is the 
 disposable capital, and, in a flourishing 
 community, the disposable floating capital 
 is constantly invested in new fixed capi- 
 tal, implements and apparatus of produc- 
 tion. A declining community, on the 
 contrary, consumes a part of its imple- 
 ments and apparatus of industry, or, what 
 is, in effect, the same thing, it does not 
 repair and replace the damage of use and 
 decay. The idea is held out in many 
 economical treatises, that a community 
 cannot have a surplus capital ; that is, it 
 cannot have more capital than it can 
 make use of in its consumption and re- 
 production. As no grounds whatever are 
 given for this doctrine, it seems to be 
 hardly entitled to a consideration ; for the 
 position is certainly, at the first view, very 
 improbable, since we know very well that 
 men may accumulate ; and why they may 
 not, in any possible case, accumulate a 
 surplus, does not appear by any plausible 
 reason ; and whether such surplus accu- 
 mulation may be useful or not, will de- 
 pend entirely upon the kind of articles 
 of which such accumulation consists. If 
 it consist in articles the value of which 
 depends on the prices in foreign mar- 
 kets, the excess may be of no value at 
 all ; for it may so depress the foreign 
 prices as to countervail all the indirect 
 advantage arising from the cheaper sup- 
 
 ply, for a time, of the domestic demand. 
 Fictitious capital generally means 
 nothing more nor less than excessive 
 credits, which throw the management 
 and disposition of a great deal of proper- 
 ty into the hands of persons who are not 
 able to answer for the risks of loss from 
 its bad management, or other causes. A 
 whole community, in the aggregate, can 
 have fictitious capital only in case of its 
 members having an excessive credit in a 
 foreign country. But the members may, 
 among themselves, have a fictitious capi- 
 tal, by too great facility of credits in their 
 dealings with each other, and the fiction, 
 in this case, is in their false promises of 
 payment. 
 
 CAPITAL, in geography ; a city in which 
 reside the highest authorities of a district, 
 province, country, &c. Capitals, in the 
 modern meaning of the word, can hardly 
 be said to have existed in ancient times ; 
 at least, they were then only the seat of 
 the sovereign, but not the centre of all the 
 national activity, Rome only, perhaps, ex- 
 cepted ; but this city was, for a very long 
 time, the state itself, and, at a later period, 
 the tyrant of the whole empire, rather 
 than the head of a well-organized body. 
 In Asia, there existed, indeed, in ancient 
 times, capitals of very large empires : but 
 they are not to be compared to the capi- 
 tals of large modern empires, since the 
 channels of communication and inter- 
 course had not then reached that degree 
 of perfection which enables them, in our 
 days, to bring into close connexion all 
 parts of a country. Each province was, 
 therefore, left much more to itself. It 
 would be difficult to determine whether 
 the good or evil consequences of large 
 capitals, in modem times, are greater, and 
 such an examination would far exceed 
 our limits ; otherwise, it would be very 
 easy to point out, in every department of 
 civilization, in science, social intercourse, 
 politics, arts, &c., both salutary and per- 
 nicious effects, resulting from the influ- 
 ence of capitals. It seems to us a matter 
 of little doubt, that it must be regarded 
 as disadvantageous to any country, if 
 the capital ceases to be the concentration 
 of the skill, genius and strength of a na- 
 tion, for the benefit of the whole, and by 
 a disproportionate superiority destroys the 
 importance of the rest of the country, as 
 we find to be tho case with Paris, which, 
 as lias been often observed, contains 
 France. In Germany, the state of tilings 
 is quite the reverse. There is no city 
 which may boast of being the point of na- , 
 tional concentration. The consequences
 
 500 
 
 CAPITAL CAPITOL. 
 
 have been very advantageous to science, 
 and somewhat disadvantageous to litera- 
 ture. In politics, this want of a central 
 point has had melancholy consequences 
 for Germany. London never exercised 
 that degree of influence over England 
 which Paris has over France ; one reason 
 of which may be, that the two most ex- 
 tensive institutions for the diffusion of 
 knowledge are not seated in the metrop- 
 olis. The system of concentration has, 
 there is little doubt, been carried to an 
 extreme in Europe ; the best of every 
 thing having been collected in the capi- 
 tals, and the provinces having been al- 
 most stripped of pictures, libraries, &c. 
 In many countries, this fault is acknowl- 
 edged, and a return to a more equitable 
 system is perceptible. The great increase 
 of wealth and consequence, which the cap- 
 itals of large empires in Europe have ac- 
 quired, in modern times, by the introduc- 
 tion of the bureau system (q. v.), which has 
 brought together, in one place, the differ- 
 ent departments of administration, has had 
 much influence on military operations, 
 having made the capture of the capital 
 now far more important than formerly. 
 In the U. States, the word capital is not 
 used officially, but, instead of it, the 
 phrase seat of government, which is, in 
 most cases, not the largest place of the 
 state. It is not here the place to dis- 
 cuss, whether it would be more benefi- 
 cial to the whole country if the seat of 
 the general government were in one of 
 the largest cities of the U. States. As it 
 is now, to use the words of a traveller, 
 " Washington must by no means be 
 considered as the capital of the nation, 
 but only as the capital of governmental 
 business. It is a camp of business." 
 
 CAPITAL, in architecture. (See Archi- 
 tecture.) 
 
 CAPITAL OFFENCE. (See Crime.) 
 
 CAPITAL PUNISHMENT. (See Death, 
 punishment of.) 
 
 CAPITANATA ; a province of Naples, 
 bounded N. and E. by the Adriatic, S. by 
 the country of Bari "and Basilicata, and 
 W. by the Molise. This was the ancient 
 Apulia, Daunica. The whole country is 
 a vast plain, and the soil generally sandy, 
 with few trees, and scarcely any springs 
 or rivers of fresh water; yet the land pro- 
 duces a great deal of corn, and feeds a 
 great number of cattle. Salt is made along 
 the coast. The Gargano is the only 
 mountain : on the sides are plantations 
 of oranges. The coasts are defended by 
 22 towers. The principal towns are Lu- 
 cera, Foggia, St. Severe and Yolturara. 
 
 Population, 254,809. Square miles, 3289. 
 Manfredonia is the principal seaport. 
 Capitanata forms what is generally called 
 the spur of Italy. 
 
 CAPITA.VI, or CA PA TANS ; the heredi- 
 tary chieftains who have taken possession 
 of the district of Maina, the mountain- 
 ous country of the ancient Messenia. 
 They exercised, under the Turkish gov- 
 ernment, an arbitrary jurisdiction, without 
 any kind of responsibility. With the bey, 
 whom they chose from among them- 
 selves, they formed a kind of great coun- 
 cil. The bey took care that the haratsch, 
 or poll-tax, was paid to the Turks, and 
 was the agent in all dealings with the 
 pacha. Generally, the capiiani were 
 robber chieftains, who lived retired in 
 rocky fastnesses, and defied the Turks 
 and their neighbors. They united only 
 if resistance against the Turks became 
 necessary. At other times, they lived at 
 war amongst themselves. From this 
 wild oligarchy most of the generals of the 
 modern Greeks have sprung up ; their Co- 
 locotroni, Odysseus, Niketas (called Tur- 
 kophagus) and others. The palikaris, or 
 the Greek warriors, also called klephtes 
 (i. e., robbers), followed the orders of the 
 capitani as long as they had confidence 
 in them, and met with good success. The 
 French colonel Voutier has given us in- 
 teresting information concerning them. 
 
 CAPITE CENSI were the Roman citi- 
 zens, of the lowest class, who possessed 
 no property. They had this name be- 
 cause they were counted by their heads, 
 not by their property, in the divisions of 
 the centuries. 
 
 CAPITOL, now Campidoglio ; the cita- 
 del of ancient Rome, standing on the 
 Capitoline hill, the smallest of the seven 
 hills of Rome, anciently called the Satur- 
 nine and the Tarpeian rock. It was be- 
 gun A. C. 614, by Tarquinius Priscns, but 
 not completed till after the expulsion of 
 the kings. At the time of the civil com- 
 motions under Sylla, it was burnt down, 
 and rebuilt by the senate. It again suf- 
 fered the same fate twice, and was restor- 
 ed by Vespasian and Domitiau. The 
 latter caused it to be built with great 
 splendor, and instituted there the Capito- 
 line games. Dionysius says the temple, 
 with the exterior pillars, was 200 feet long 
 and 185 broad. The whole building con- 
 sisted of three temples, which were dedi- 
 cated to Jupiter, Juno and Miverva, and 
 separated from one another by walls. In 
 the wide portico, triumphal banquets were 
 given to the people. The statue of Jupi- 
 ter, in the capitol, represented him sitting
 
 CAPITOL CAPITULATION. 
 
 501 
 
 on a throne of ivory and gold, and con- 
 sisted, in the earliest times, of clay, paint- 
 ed red. Under Trajan, it was formed of 
 gold. The roof of the temple was made 
 of bronze : it was gilded by Q, Catulus. 
 The doors were of the same metal. 
 Splendor and expense were lavished upon 
 the whole edifice. The gilding alone 
 cost 12,000 talents (about 9,000,000 dol- 
 lars), for which reason the Romans called 
 it the golden capital. On the pediment 
 stood a chariot, drawn by four horses, 
 at first of clay, and afterwards of gilded 
 brass. The temple itself contained an 
 immense quantity of the most magnifi- 
 cent presents. The most important state 
 papers, and particularly the Sibylline 
 books, were preserved in it. The present 
 capitol (Campidoglio), standing near, and 
 partly on, the site of the old one, is a 
 modern edifice, after the design of Mi- 
 chael Angelo. The principal entrance to 
 it commands a most splendid prospect, 
 but the buildings, as connoisseurs tell us, 
 are among Michael Angelo's inferior 
 works. The modern capitol consists of 
 three buildings (in the principal one re- 
 sides the senator of Rome), which do not, 
 however, cover the whole Capitoline 
 mount. On the ruins of the former tem- 
 ple of Jupiter Capitolinus, of which some 
 pillars are still' to be found, a Franciscan 
 church is now erected. The present 
 capitol is one of the most interesting spots 
 in Rome. From the summit of the mid- 
 dle building, the spectator has a splendid 
 view of one of the most remarkable re- 
 gions in the world the Campagna up to 
 the mountains. The museums contain 
 some of the finest collections of statues 
 and paintings. The stairs leading up to 
 the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius 
 are beautiful. Every thing contributes 
 to render the capitol venerable and interest- 
 ing. The name of capitol is also given to 
 the edifice in Washington, where congress 
 assembles. Some of the states of North 
 America also call their state-houses capitals. 
 CAPITDLART. The word ccmihucay is 
 generic, and denotes every kind of litera- 
 ry composition divided into chapters. 
 Laws of this description were promul- 
 gated by Childebert, Clothaire, Carloman 
 and Pepin, kings of France ; but no sove- 
 reign seems to have put forth so many of 
 them as the emperor Charlemagne, who 
 appears to have wished to effect, in a cer- 
 tain degree, a uniformity of law throughout 
 his extensive dominions. With this view, 
 it is supposed, he added to the existing 
 codes of feudal laws many other laws, di- 
 vided into capitularies, or small chapters or 
 
 heads, sometimes to explain, sometimes 
 to amend, and sometimes to reconcile or 
 remove the difference between them. 
 They were generally promulgated in 
 public assemblies, composed of the sove- 
 reign and the chief men of the nation, both 
 ecclesiastical and secular. They regu- 
 lated- equally the spiritual and temporal 
 administration of the kingdom ; and the 
 execution of them was intrusted to the 
 bishops, the courts and the missi rtg-ii, 
 officers so called because they were sent, 
 by the French kings of the first and sec- 
 ond race, to dispense law and justice in 
 the provinces. 3Iany copies of these 
 capitularies were made, one of which 
 was generally preserved in the royal ar- 
 chives. The authority of the capitularies 
 was very extensive. It prevailed in every 
 kingdom under the dominion of the 
 Frank!?, and was submitted to in many 
 parts of Italy and Germany. The earliest 
 collection of the capitularies is that of 
 Angesise, abbot of Fontenelles. It was 
 adopted by Louis the Debonnaire and 
 Charles the Bald, and was publicly ap- 
 proved of in many councils of France 
 and Germany. But, as Angesise had 
 omitted many capitularies in his collec- 
 tion, Benedict, the Levite or deacon of 
 the church of Mentz, added three books 
 to them. Each of the collections was 
 considered to be authentic, and of course 
 was appealed to as law. Subsequent 
 additions have been made to them. The 
 best edition of them is that of Baluze, in 
 1697. The capitularies remained in force 
 in Italy longer than in Germany, and in 
 France longer than in Italy. The incur- 
 sions of the Normans, the intestine con- 
 fusion and weakness of the government 
 under the successors of Charlemagne, 
 and, above all, the publication of the 
 epitome of canon law, termed the De- 
 cntum of Gratian, in the year 1150, which 
 totally -superseded them in all religious 
 concerns, put an end to their authority in 
 France. (Butler's Horn Juridicce Subseci- 
 vas, p. 128131.) 
 
 CAPITULATION formerly signified a 
 writing drawn up in heads ; now com- 
 monly used, in military language, to sig- 
 nify the act of surrendering to an enemy 
 upon stipulated terms, in opposition to 
 surrender at discretion. In the 15th 
 century, capitulations, as they were call- 
 ed, were presented by the ecclesiastical 
 establishments in Germany to then- new- 
 ly chosen abbots and bishops, who were 
 obliged to swear to observe them as laws 
 and conditions for their future rule. The 
 ecclesiastical electors obtained, after the
 
 502 
 
 CAPITULATION CAPO D'ISTRIA. 
 
 fall of the Hohenstaufen family, certain 
 advantageous promises from the new 
 emperors, which were called capitulations. 
 When Charles V was proposed as empe- 
 ror, and it was apprehended, on account 
 of his foreign education, that he would 
 disregard the German constitution, he was 
 obliged to make oath, that he would not 
 reside without the German empire, nor 
 appoint foreigners to office in the empire, 
 &c. This was called his election capitu- 
 lation. Such a Wahlcapitulation was 
 afterwards presented to every new empe- 
 ror, as a fundamental law of the empire, 
 and shook the constitution of the German 
 government to its veiy foundations, since 
 the electors, at the choice of every new 
 emperor, made some new infringement on 
 the imperial privileges. The Wahlcapit- 
 ulutionen were acknowledged bargains, 
 certainly unique in history. 
 
 CAP.MST, orKAP.MST, Wassil Wassilje- 
 witsch, Russian counsellor of state, mem- 
 ber of the academy of St. Petersburg and 
 other learned societies, one of the first 
 lyric poets of Russia, bom in 1756, was 
 the rival of his friend and relation, the 
 celebrated poet Derschavin. (q. v.) He 
 translated Horace with applause. The 
 collection of his works appeared at Pe- 
 tersburg, in 180G (Lyric Poems, by Was- 
 sil Capnist). He wrote a comedy, called 
 Jabtda, in 1799, and a tragedy, called .An- 
 tigone, in 1815. His critique on Ho- 
 mer's Odyssey, published in Russian and 
 French, is more acute than profound. 
 His odes have not the easy and bold 
 character by which those of Derschavin 
 are distinguished, but they have a charm 
 of another kind. Purity of style, richness 
 of thought, and a sound philosophy, con- 
 nected with deep and genuine feeling, are 
 Capnist's characteristic traits. Some 
 years ago, he retired to Obuchowka, his 
 country-seat, in Little Russia, where he 
 lived devoted to the muses till his death, 
 which took place Oct. 28, 1823, in his 
 G7th year. 
 
 CAPO D'ISTRIA, John, count of, for- 
 merly Russian secretary of state, now 
 president of Greece, WHS born at Corfu, 
 1780, where his father was a physician, 
 and studied medicine at Venice. When 
 the Russian troops occupied the Ionian 
 islands, in 1799, Anthony Maria de Capo 
 d'Istria, his father, was at the head of 
 the government. But, after the islands 
 were again made dependent on France, 
 in 1807, in consequence of the peace of 
 Tilsit, he entered into the Russian service. 
 He afterwards returned to Corfu, became 
 a senator there, and died, April 17, 1821, 
 
 aged 80 years. The son still continued 
 in Russia, where he was first employed in 
 the office of count Rumanzoff, and after- 
 wards went as Russian ambassador to 
 Vienna. In 1812, he conducted the 
 diplomatic business of the army of the 
 Danube, of which admiral TschitschagofF 
 WHS commander-in-chief. When this 
 army was united with the great Russian 
 army, after the retreat of the French, 
 Capo d'Istria managed the diplomatic 
 correspondence at head-quarters, under 
 the emperor's direction, and soon gained 
 the confidence of his monarch to such a 
 degree, that he was afterwards engaged 
 in the most important public business, 
 and appointed secretary of state for the 
 department of foreign affairs. He was 
 made grand-cross of the Wladimir order, 
 knight of St. Ann, grand-cross of the royal 
 Austrian Leopold order, and of the Prussian 
 order of the red eagle. In 1813, he was 
 Russian ambassador to Switzerland, ne- 
 gotiated with the Austrian ambassadors 
 the new relations of this republic, and, 
 in Sept., 1814, was present at the con- 
 gress of Vienna as Russian plenipotentia- 
 ry, from which the downfall of Napoleon, 
 in 1815, recalled him to the head-quarters 
 of the alh'es at Paris. As imperial Rus- 
 sian plenipotentiary, he subscribed the 
 treaty of Paris, Nov. 20, 1815, and re- 
 turned with his monarch to Petersburg, 
 where he took a very active part in the 
 business of the council of state. His en- 
 deavors for the restoration of the republic 
 of the Ionian islands, for the support of 
 the established religion in Russia against 
 the intrigues of the Jesuits, and for the 
 deliverance of the Greeks from the Turk- 
 ish yoke, are well known. But, as Russia 
 disapproved of the attempts of the Greeks, 
 and StroganofF (q. v.) returned from his 
 mission to Constantinople, in 1822 count 
 Capo d'Istria left the public service, and 
 retired, as a private man, to Germany and 
 Switzerland, living chiefly at Geneva, till 
 the year 1827, when he was elected pres- 
 ident of the Greek republic. He stands 
 now at the head of this government ; but 
 his means have been as yet so feeble, and 
 the whole state of Greece such, that we 
 are not able to judge of his talents for 
 administration. So much, however, is 
 certain, that he immediately brought 
 Greece into closer connexion with the 
 other governments of Europe, and has 
 thus exerted a salutary influence. 
 
 CAPO D'ISTRIA (the ancient JEgida] ; 
 a seaport of Austria, on the gulf of 
 Trieste, 8 miles south of Trieste ; Ion. 13 
 43' E. ; lat. 45 31' N. ; population 5,119 ;
 
 CAPO D'ISTRI A- CAPSTAN. 
 
 is a bishop's see, and the capital of a dis- 
 trict, containing 65,150 inhabitants. The 
 town is two miles in circumference, has, 
 besides the cathedral, 30 other churches, 
 six convents, hospitals, &c. 
 
 CAPOC ; a sort of cotton, so short and 
 fine, that it cannot be spun. It is used, in 
 the East Indies, to line palanquins, to 
 make beds, mattresses, &c. 
 
 CAPONIER, or CAPONNIERE, in fort- 
 resses ; a place which is covered against 
 the fire of the enemy, on the sides, some- 
 times also above, and serves for the 
 connexion of two works, or for maintain- 
 ing an important point. In particular 
 1. a passage secured by two parapets, in 
 the form of glacis, which leads through 
 the dry ditch, from one work to another ; 
 for instance, from the chief wall to the 
 ravelin. If danger is to be apprehended 
 only from one side, and consequently 
 only one parapet is made, it is called a 
 demi-caponniere : if it is covered above 
 with hurdles or with wood, it is called a 
 coffer : but this word is often used indif- 
 ferently for caponniere. 2. Small block- 
 houses" in the covered way, for its defence. 
 Coehorn laid out similar, but less useful 
 works below the glacis, and Scharnhorst 
 proposes them, under the name of fidd- 
 caponnieres, for the saliant angles of field- 
 fortifications. 
 
 CAPPADOCIA, in antiquity ; one of the 
 most important provinces of Asia, once a 
 famous kingdom ; bounded W. by Lyca- 
 onia, S. by Cilicia and Syria, E. by Arme- 
 nia, and N. by the Pontus Euxinus. In 
 the period of the Persian government, 
 Cappadocia comprehended all the coun- 
 try between the Halys and Euphrates. 
 By the former river, it, was separated from 
 Phrygia and Paphlagonia ; by the latter, 
 from Armenia : therefore the region after- 
 wards called Pontus was comprehended 
 in this territory. The Persians divided it, 
 according to Strabo, into two satrapies, 
 which bore the name of Cappadocia Mag- 
 nn (afterwards Cappadocia Proper] and 
 Cappadocia Minor (afterwards Pontus}. 
 This division, however, was not always 
 strictly observed. The Persian satraps 
 governed, at a later time, under the title 
 of kings, and sometimes made themselves 
 independent At the time of the famous 
 retreat of the 10,000 Greeks, both the 
 Cappadocias seem to have been under the 
 rule of Mithridates, who had participated 
 in the conspiracy of Cyrus the Younger, 
 but retained his government, and became, 
 after the defeat of Cyrus, again depend- 
 ent upon the kings of Persia. Cappado- 
 cia Magna was a poorly-cultivated coun- 
 
 try, little favored by nature, the plains of 
 which were only fit for breeding sheep. 
 The climate was rough, and, wood being 
 scarce, the habitations of the people were 
 low and mean. Even the capital, Ma- 
 zaca, was more like a camp than a city. 
 The Cappadocians, also called Leukosyri 
 (the .White Syrians), because they had a 
 language resembling the Syrian, were 
 considered stupid and ill-tempered. 
 CAPREA, or CAPREJE. (See Capri.} 
 CAPRI ; an island in the beautiful gulf 
 of Naples, which contributes not a little 
 to the charms of this favorite scene of 
 nature. Capri, five miles long and two 
 broad, lies at the entrance of the gulf, and 
 consists of two mountains of limestone, 
 remarkable for their picturesque shape, 
 and a well-cultivated valley. The inhab- 
 itants, amounting to 3000, are occupied 
 in the production of oil and wine, in fish- 
 ing and in catching quails, which come in 
 immense numbers from Africa to the 
 shores of Italy. Every spot on, the island, 
 which can be made productive, is culti- 
 vated. In fact, agriculture all around 
 Naples is in the highest state of perfection. 
 The town of Capri (Ion. 14 W E.; lat. 40 
 11' N.) is the seat of a bishop, to whom 
 all the quails belong. A high rock sepa- 
 rates Capri from Anacapri, 1600 feet high, 
 with 3500 inhabitants, to which a stair- 
 way in the rock, of 522 steps, leads from 
 the lower part of the island. With the 
 Romans, Capri was called Caprece. Au- 
 gustus obtained it by exchange from the 
 Neapolitans, and made it a place of agree- 
 able retreat, but never made use of it. 
 Tiberius spent here the last seven years 
 of his life in degrading voluptuousness 
 and infamous cruelty. The ruins of his 
 palace are still extant, and other ruins are 
 scattered over the island. 
 
 CAPRICCIO. Caprice is the name appli- 
 ed to a sort of musical composition, in 
 which the composer follows the bent of 
 lii.s humor. The capriccio may be used 
 with propriety in pieces for exercise, in 
 which the strangest and most difficult fig- 
 ures may be introduced, if they are not at 
 variance with the nature of the instrument 
 or of the voice. 
 
 CAPRIFICATION. (See -Fig's.) 
 CAPSICIN. Cayenne pepper contains a 
 peculiar substance, discovered by Forch- 
 hammer, and called capsicin by doctor C. 
 Conwell, which, according to the latter, 
 when perfectly pure, is tasteless, inodor- 
 ous, and crystallizes in acicular frag- 
 ments. It is neither acid nor alkaline. 
 
 CAPSTAN, in shipping (in French, cabes- 
 tan ; Dutch, kapstani) ; a strong, massy
 
 504 
 
 CAPSTAN-CAPTAIN. 
 
 column of limber, in the form of a trun- 
 cated cone, and having its upper extrem- 
 ity divided into several squares, with holes 
 in them, to receive bars or levers. It is 
 let down perpendicularly through the 
 deck of a ship, and is fixed in such a man- 
 ner, that the men, by turning it horizon- 
 tally with their bars, are able to weigh the 
 anchors, and to perform other work re- 
 quiring great exertion. 
 
 CAPTAIN. This is one of those many 
 words derived from the Latin of the mid- 
 dle ages, and now to be found in all the 
 different idioms of Europe. Captain 
 comes from the Latin capitaneus, from 
 caput, head, and signified, first, a governor 
 of a province, who, in the first half of the 
 middle ages, was generally a military 
 man. Thus the word captain soon came 
 to be used chiefly to denote a high, or 
 rather the highest, military officer. Opitz, 
 an early German poet, calls God, Lord, 
 Master, Captain ; and, in English, Christ 
 is called the Captain of our salvation. Like 
 many other words, however, this has, in 
 the course of time, lost much of its dig- 
 nity, and, in military technology, now sig- 
 nifies the commander of a small body a 
 company and, in maritime language, the 
 master of a vessel. In the United States 
 of America, the master of the smallest 
 craft, and even the chief man on a raft, is 
 styled captain. In the latter part of the 
 middle ages, when armies were not yet 
 so regularly divided and subdivided as at 
 the present time, captains were the com- 
 manders of those small bodies of which 
 the armies consisted. These were gener- 
 ally collected by their commander, who 
 entered, with his company, into the ser- 
 vice where most pay or most booty could 
 be obtained. The practice of carrying on 
 wars, by troops collected in this manner, 
 prevailed to the greatest extent in Italy, 
 where the continual quarrels of the nu- 
 merous small states afforded ample em- 
 ployment to the unsettled and the disso- 
 lute. These companies play an important 
 part in the history of the middle ages, par- 
 ticularly that of tlte two centuries pre- 
 ceding the reformation, and had a very 
 important influence on the manners and 
 morals of the south of Europe. They are 
 further interesting to the student of histo- 
 ry, because they are so unlike any thing 
 at present existing. We refer the reader, 
 for some further remarks on this subject, 
 to an able article on Macchiavelli, in the 
 Edinburgh Review, March, lrv>7. Cap- 
 tain, in modern armies, is the commander 
 of a company of foot, or a troop of horse. 
 In the English army, he appoints the ser- 
 
 jeants, corporals and lance-corporals of 
 his company a right which belongs, in 
 other armies, to the commander of the 
 regiment. In the horse and foot-guards, 
 the captains have the rank of lieutenant- 
 colonels in the army. In the French 
 army, besides the commanders of the 
 companies of the line, commanders of 
 certain detached bodies of guards, &c., 
 are called captain, and have, sometimes, a 
 very high rank in the army. Captain- 
 lieutenant is, in the English army, a lieu- 
 tenant, who, with the rank of captain, 
 commands a troop or company in the 
 name of some other person. Thus, the 
 colonel being usually captain of the first 
 company of his regiment, that company 
 is commanded by his deputy as captain- 
 lieutenant. Captain of a merchant ship ; 
 he who has the direction of the ship, her 
 crew, lading, &c. In small vessels, he is 
 more ordinarily called master. In the 
 Mediterranean, he is called patroon. Post- 
 captain ; an English officer commanding 
 any man-of-war, from a ship of the line 
 down to a ship-rigged sloop. Formerly, 
 a twenty-gun ship was the smallest that 
 gave post-rank ; but, by a late regula- 
 tion, the largest class of ship-sloops has 
 been added to the list of post-ships ; and 
 post-captains, under three years' standing, 
 are now appointed to them, unless they 
 happen to be selected as flag-captains to 
 admirals' ships. After being three years 
 posted, they are appointed to frigates, 
 which they may continue to command 
 till they are of 10 years' standing, when 
 they are generally removed to 50 or (54 
 gun-ships, preparatory to their taking the 
 command of ships of the line. Captain- 
 general signifies, in England, the first mil- 
 itary rank, power and authority in the 
 realm ; therefore the king is. by the con- 
 stitution, captain-general, or generalissimo, 
 of all the forces in the United Kingdoms. 
 In 1799, the king delegated this rank, 
 with the powers annexed to it. to the 
 duke of York. In France, it is an ancient 
 title, which conferred an almost unlimited 
 power on the person who possessed it, in 
 the district where he commanded. But it 
 never corresponded to that of generalissi- 
 mo, except in the case of the duke of Sa- 
 voy, in 1635, in the time of Louis XIII. 
 The count de Tesse was French captain- 
 general in Italy in -1702. The title is not 
 in use at present, nor would it agree with 
 the existing organization of the adminis- 
 tration. In Spain, the rank of a captain- 
 general corresponds with that of a mar- 
 shal of France, who has the command of 
 an army. This title was also given to the
 
 CAPTAIN CARACALLA. 
 
 505 
 
 head of a province, in the Spanish colo- 
 nies in South America, which was divided 
 into viceroyalties and captain-generalships 
 (capitanias-generales) ; thus Chili was a 
 captain-generalship. The captain-gener- 
 als were not placed under the viceroys, 
 but accountable only to the king, through 
 the council of the Indies. The captain- 
 general of Venezuela, for instance, had no 
 connexion with the viceroy of New Gre- 
 nada. They decided, in the last instance, on 
 all legislative, judicial and military affairs, 
 and presided in the real audicncia. The 
 time during which these governors remain- 
 ed in power was limited to a few years, 
 probably in order to prevent them from be- 
 coming too powerful. The consequence 
 was, that the colonies were oppressed the 
 more to enrich the governors, for rich 
 every one was when he left his office. 
 
 CAPTURE. (See Prize.) 
 
 CAPUA; a fortified place in the Terra 
 di Lavoro, in the kingdom of Naples, on 
 the Volturno ; the see of an archbishop ; 
 contains a military school, and 7300 in- 
 habitants ; one league distant from the an- 
 cient Capua, out of the ruins of which it 
 was partly built, in the 9th century ; Ion. 
 14 & E.; lat. 41 & N.; 15 miles north of 
 Naples. There are 12 convents in this 
 city. Jan 11, 1797, it was taken by the 
 French, and, in 1820, it did not resist the 
 Austrians. The ancient Capua, one of 
 the finest and most agreeable cities of 
 Italy, was so important, that it was com- 
 pared to Rome and Carthage. Hannibal 
 went into quarters here, after the battle of 
 Cannae, and promised to make the city 
 the capital of Italy. Capua therefore form- 
 ed an alliance with him, but was recon- 
 quered after five years. The Vandals laid 
 it waste. Narses restored it, but the Lom- 
 bards devastated it again. There are still 
 many ruins here. Around Capua lie the 
 fertile Campanian fields, which produced 
 three crops a year. Living was cheap here, 
 and the climate healthy, so that it was a 
 favorite place of resort of the Romans. 
 
 CAPUCHINS. (See Franciscans.) 
 
 CAPUT-MORTUUM (dead head) ; a tech- 
 nical expression, in chemistry, for the de- 
 posit in the retort, arising from dry dis- 
 tillation ; because, if the operation is con- 
 tinued, volatile substances cease to be 
 given off. 
 
 CAQUETA ; a large river in South Amer- 
 ica, which rises about 60 miles south of 
 Popayan. Being enlarged by the addition 
 of several streams, it takes a course due 
 east about 300 miles, when it divides into 
 three branches, one of which falls into the 
 lea; another takes the name of Yupura, 
 
 VOL. ii. 43 
 
 and the third forms the principal stream 
 of the Negro. 
 
 CARABINE ; formerly, a kind of guns, 
 which are now out of use. At present, 
 short guns, used by the cavalry, have this 
 name. Tacticians entertain very different 
 opinions respecting this kind of arms. 
 Some think that they are of no use what- 
 ever, as the aim from on horseback is ex- 
 tremely uncertain. In some armies, eve- 
 ry third man of certain regiments of cav- 
 alry is armed with a carabine. The word 
 carabine is found in all European lan- 
 guages, with different endings only. Many 
 derive the word from Calabria, which, for 
 a long time, was famous for a certain light 
 cavalry. The transformation of the I 
 into r would not be extraordinary. Du 
 Fresne derives the word from a kind of 
 arms called chavarina, of which mention 
 is made in the 14th century. 
 
 CARABOBO ; a province of Colombia, 
 forming, according to the law of June 23, 
 18'24, with the province Caracas, the 
 department of Venezuela. The residence 
 of the governor of Carabobo is Valencia. 
 This name has been rendered famous by 
 the battle of Carabobo, which was deci- 
 sive of the independence of Colombia. It 
 was fought June 24, 1821, soon after the 
 armistice concluded between Bolivar and 
 Morillo had expired. Bolivar, having 
 formed a junction with Paez in Varinas, 
 advanced to attack the Spanish general 
 La Torre, who had taken a strong posi- 
 tion upon the heights commanding the 
 only pass by which his army could be 
 approached. The battle was commenced 
 by Paez, who led on his division in per- 
 son, and, by the valor and impetuosity of 
 himself and his followers, drove the Span- 
 iards from their intrenchments, and thus 
 gained a complete victory, before the sec- 
 ond division, under general Cedeiio, came 
 up. Of all the troops, the English, in the 
 service of the republic, distinguished 
 themselves most : they chiefly decided the 
 day, and suffered most severely. The 
 battalion in which most of the English 
 and Irish served received the name of 
 battalion of Carabobo. Caracas, La Guay ra, 
 Carthagena and Cumana, and all that por- 
 tion of Venezuela which is dependent 
 upon them, were permanently secured 
 to the patriots by this victory. '(See 
 Columbia ii., 495, 724.) 
 
 CARACALLA, Antoninus Bassianus, eld- 
 est son of the emperor Severus, was born 
 at Lyons, A. D. 188, and appointed by his 
 father his colleague in the government, at 
 the age of 13 years. Nevertheless, he at- 
 tempted his life. Severus died A. D. 211.
 
 506 
 
 CARACALLA CARACAS. 
 
 He was succeeded by Caracalla and Geta. 
 The two brothers, from their earliest 
 years, hated one another inveterately. 
 After a campaign against the Caledoni- 
 ans, they concluded a disgraceful peace. 
 They then wished to divide the empire 
 between them; but their design was op- 
 posed by their mother, Julia, and by the 
 principal men of the state. Caracalla now 
 resolved to get rid of his brother, by caus- 
 ing him to be assassinated. After many un- 
 successful attempts, he pretended to desire 
 a reconciliation, and requested his mother 
 to procure him an interview with his 
 brother in private in her chamber. Geta 
 appeared, and was stabbed in his mother's 
 arms, A. D. 212, by several centurions, 
 who had received orders to this effect. 
 The praetorian guards were prevailed 
 upon, by rich donations, to proclaim Car- 
 acalla sole emperor, and to declare Geta 
 an enemy to the state. The tyrant caused 
 Geta's children and friends to be put to 
 death. (See Papinian.) Dion estimates 
 the number of victims at 20,000. He af- 
 terwards executed many of the murderers 
 of his brother, and caused him to be 
 placed among the gods. His pattern was 
 Sylla, whose tomb he restored and adorn- 
 ed. Like this dictator, he enriched his 
 soldiers with the most extravagant lar- 
 gesses, which extortion enabled him to 
 furnish. Cruel as Caligula and Nero, but 
 weaker than either, he regarded the sen- 
 ate and the people with equal contempt 
 and hatred. From motives of avarice, he 
 gave all the free men of the empire the 
 right of citizenship, and was the first who 
 received Egyptians into the senate. Al- 
 exander, whose habits he imitated, and 
 Achilles, were the objects of his deepest 
 veneration. He went to Ilium to visit 
 the grave of Homer's hero, and poisoned 
 his favorite freedman, named Festus, to 
 imitate Achilles, in his grief for Patroclus. 
 His conduct in his campaigns in Gaul, 
 where he committed all sorts of cruelties, 
 was still more degrading. He marched 
 over the Rhine to the countries of the 
 Catti and Alemanni. The Catti defeated 
 him, and permitted him to repass the river 
 only on condition of paying them a large 
 sum of money. He marched through the 
 land of the Alemanni as an ally, and built 
 several fortifications. He then called to- 
 gether the young men of the tribe, as if 
 he intended to take them into his service, 
 and caused his own troops to surround 
 them, and cut them in pieces. For this 
 barbarous exploit, he assumed the name 
 Alemannicus. In Dacia he gained some 
 advantages over the Goths. He signed a' 
 
 treaty of peace at Antioch with Artabanus, 
 the Parthian king, who submitted to all 
 his demands. He invited to Antioch Ab- 
 garcs, the king of Edessa, an ally of the 
 Romans, loaded him with chains, and took 
 possession of his states. He exercised the 
 same treachery towards Vologeses, king 
 of Armenia; but the Armenians flew to 
 arms, arid repulsed the Romans. After 
 this, Caracalla went to Alexandria, to 
 punish the people of the city for ridiculing 
 him. While preparations were making 
 ibr a great massacre, he offered hecatombs 
 to Serapis, and visited the tomb of Alex- 
 ander, on which he left his imperial orna- 
 ments, by way of offering. He afterwards 
 devoted the inhabitants, for several days 
 and nights, to plunder and butchery, and 
 seated himself, in order to have a view of 
 the bloody spectacle, on the top of the 
 temple of Serapis, where he consecrated 
 the dagger which he had drawn, some 
 years before, against his brother. His 
 desire to triumph over the Parthians in- 
 duced him to violate the peace, under the 
 pretence that Artabanus had refused him 
 his daughter in marriage. He found the 
 country undefended, ravaged it, marched 
 through Media, and approached the capi- 
 tal. The Parthians, who had retired be- 
 yond the Tigris to the mountains, were 
 preparing to attack the Romans, the fol- 
 lowing year, with all their forces. Cara- 
 calla returned without delay to Mesopo- 
 tamia, without having even seen the Par- 
 thians. When the senate received from 
 him information of the submission of the 
 East, they decreed him a triumph, and 
 the surnazne Parthicus. Being informed 
 of the warlike preparations of the Parthi- 
 ans, he prepared to renew the contest ; but 
 Macrinus, the pretorian prefect, whom he 
 had offended, assassinated him at Edessa, 
 A. D. 217, on his way to the temple of 
 Lunus. Caracalla erected at Rome some 
 splendid monuments, magnificent baths, 
 which bear his name, and a triumphal 
 arch, in commemoration of the achieve- 
 ments of Severus. 
 
 CARACAS ; a province, which, with the 
 province of Carabobo, constitutes, accord- 
 ing to the law of June 23, 1824, the de- 
 partment of Venezuela, one of the 12 de- 
 partments of Colombia. (See Venezuela.) 
 The city of Caracas, or Leon de Caracas, 
 is the capital of the department of Vene- 
 zuela, formerly a captain-generalship; 
 Ion. 67 5' W. ; lat. 10 31' N. In 1812, 
 the population was estimated at 50,000. 
 March 26 of that year, the city was partly 
 destroyed by an earthquake, and nearly 
 12,000 persons were buried in the ruins,
 
 CARACAS CARAMANIA. 
 
 507 
 
 By the political events which followed 
 this catastrophe, the population of this 
 ill-fated city was reduced, in four or five 
 years, to less than 25,000. The city is 
 situated five leagues from the sea, from 
 which it is separated by a chain of moun- 
 tains, at an elevation of 3000 feet above 
 the ocean. A good road traverses the 
 mountains to the port La Guayra. Cara- 
 cas carries on a considerable trade. The 
 greatest part of the productions of the 
 whole province, consisting principally of 
 cocoa, coffee, indigo, cotton, sarsaparilla, 
 and the Vurinas tobacco, is brought here 
 for sale, or to be exchanged for European 
 manufactures and productions. The tem- 
 perature is generally between 77 and 90 
 Fahr. in the day, and between 68 and 72 
 at night; but this general mildness is con- 
 nected with great fluctuations in the 
 weather. Humboldt, among the vapors 
 of November and December, could some- 
 times hardly fancy himself in one of the 
 temperate valleys of the torrid zone, the 
 weather rather resembling that of the 
 north of Germany. Caracas is the seat 
 of the intendant of Venezuela, and has a 
 college, a court of justice, nine churches, 
 and rive convents. The streets are 
 straight and well built, intersecting each 
 other at right-angles, at a distance of 
 about 300 feet. The inhabitants consist 
 of whites, descendants of Spaniards, free 
 colored people, a few slaves, and Indians. 
 The first are either merchants, planters, 
 professional or military men, very proud, 
 and disdaining all kinds of labor. The 
 women are considered very handsome, 
 having large black eyes, full of expression, 
 jet-black hair, and fine complexions ; but 
 they are careless of their figures. They sel- 
 dom leave their houses except to go to mass, 
 when they wear the long veils called mantil- 
 las, covering nearly the whole body. They 
 possess considerable natural talent and vi- 
 vacity, but little or no accomplishments. 
 Caracas, as is well known, has been con- 
 spicuous throughout the revolution of Ven- 
 ezuela and New Grenada against Spain. 
 
 CARACCI. (See Carracci.) 
 
 CARACCIOLI, Louis Antoine de ; born 
 in 1721, at Paris, of an ancient and distin- 
 guished Neapolitan family. His talents 
 for conversation procured him a distin- 
 guished reception, in Rome, from Bene- 
 dict XIV and Clement XIII. He after- 
 wards went to Germany and Poland. 
 After having educated the children of 
 prince Rzewuski, in the latter country, 
 lie returned to Paris, and wrote his Let- 
 tres du Pape Clement X/F(Ganganelli), 
 which display a kind spirit, a benevolent 
 
 philosophy, and fine taste. They also 
 contain intelligent observations on many 
 situations of life. For a long time, they 
 were thought to be the genuine produc- 
 tions of the pope, and excited the greatest 
 interest in France, and throughout Eu- 
 rope. He died in 1803. 
 
 CARACCIOLI, marquis de, the friend of 
 Marmontel and D'Alembert, born in 1711, 
 was, about the middle of the 18th cen- 
 tury, Neapolitan ambassador in London 
 and Paris. He was esteemed one of the 
 first ornaments of the accomplished soci- 
 ety of the capital of France. He died in 
 1789, in the office of viceroy of Sicily. 
 
 CARACCIOLI, Francisco, brother of the 
 duke of Roccarornana, was distinguished 
 as Neapolitan admiral, in 1793, at Toulon ; 
 but, being treated by his court with con- 
 tempt, he entered the service of the Par- 
 thenopean republic, and repelled, with a 
 few vessels, an attempt of the Sicilian- 
 English fleet to effect a landing. When 
 Ruffo took Naples, in 1799, Caraccioli 
 was arrested, contrary to the terms of the 
 capitulation, was condemned to death by 
 the junta (see Speziale), was hung at the 
 mast of his frigate, and thrown into the sea, 
 His death is a blot on the fame of Nelson. 
 
 CARACTACUS ; a king of the ancient 
 British people called Silures, inhabiting 
 South Wales. He defended his country 
 seven years against the Romans, but was, 
 at last, defeated, and led hi triumph to the 
 emperor Claudius, then at York, where 
 his noble behavior and pathetic speech 
 obtained him liberty, A. D. 52. Buchan- 
 an, Monipenny, and the other ancient 
 Scottish historians, make this heroic 
 prince one of the Scotch monarchs. 
 
 CARAFA, or CARAFFA, Michael ; one of 
 the most popular Italian composers now 
 living. lie was born at Naples, 1787, 
 studied under Fenaroli, at the conserva- 
 toire of Naples, and enjoyed the advan- 
 tages of an acquaintance with Cherubini 
 during his residence at Paris. He has 
 composed some agreeable and character- 
 istic melodies, and is an imitator of Ros- 
 sini. Among his operas, the opera seria 
 " Gabriels de Vergy" has gained the 
 most applause. Carafa is also an excel- 
 lent composer of music for songs. 
 
 CARAITES, or CAR^AXS, among the 
 Jews ; those who reject the tradition of the 
 Talmud, and hold merely to the letter of 
 Scripture, in opposition to the Rabbinists. 
 (See Rabbi.) 
 
 CARAMANIA ; an ulterior province of 
 Asiatic Turkey, east of Natolia, compris- 
 ing about 35,000 square miles. It is in- 
 tersected by the Kisil Jermak, which, af-
 
 503 
 
 CARAMANIA CARAVANSARIES. 
 
 ter a course of about 350 miles, flows 
 north into the Black sea. Caramania 
 comprehends the ancient Pamphylia, and 
 a great part of Cilicia, Pisidia and Cappa- 
 docia Minor. Bajazet united it to the 
 Ottoman empire in 1488. The inhabit- 
 ants carry on some trade with camels' 
 hair, goats' wool and opium. The popu- 
 lation probably does not exceed from 150 
 to 200,000. Cogni, or Konich (lat. 38 KX 
 N., Ion. 32 25' E., 308 miles east of Smyr- 
 na, and 150 north of the shore of the Med- 
 iterranean) is the capital. There is also a 
 town of this province called Caramania. 
 
 CARASCOSA, Michele, baron. This gen- 
 eral, distinguished in the latest history of 
 Naples, rose to eminence during the pe- 
 riod of the Parthenopean republic, and, 
 after 1806, under Joseph Bonaparte, in 
 Spain. After his return, Joachim (Murat) 
 raised him successively through various 
 degrees of military command. In 1814, 
 he commanded a body of troops which 
 assisted the Austrians against the French, 
 and, in 1815, a division of Neapolitan 
 troops against the Austrians, and signed, 
 with the other Neapolitan generals, the 
 capitulation of Casalanza. In 1820, when 
 minister of war, he endeavored, unsuc- 
 cessfully, to suppress the insurrection 
 which broke out in the army. In later 
 times, he took part in the revolution, after 
 the king had shown himself apparently 
 favorable to constitutional principles. At 
 the time of the invasion of the Austrians, 
 he received an important command, and 
 was appointed to guard the road from 
 Terracina to Naples. (See Jlbruzzo, Ne- 
 apolitan Revolution, and Pepe.) At Sul- 
 mona, his army was surrounded, and 
 dispersed. He fled to Barcelona, and 
 lives, at present, in England, where he 
 has written his Memoirs hist.,polit. et milit., 
 sur la Revolut. du Roy. de Naples en 1820 
 (London, 1823), which are valuable in a 
 historical and military respect. 
 
 CARAVAGGIO, Michael Angelo Amerighi, 
 or Morigi, called Michael Angelo da Cara- 
 vaggio, a celebrated painter, born at Ca- 
 ravaggio, in the Milanese, in 1569, was, 
 at first, a journeyman mason, but soon 
 applied himself to the study of painting, 
 studied in Milan and Venice, and after- 
 wards went to Rome, where he distin- 
 guished himself. He may be considered 
 as the inventor of a manner which has 
 had a crowd of imitators. His char- 
 acteristic traits are vigor and truth of 
 chiaro-oscuro combined with excellent 
 coloring. He was fond of introducing 
 broad and deep masses of shade, where- 
 by a great effect is given to the light. To 
 
 aid him in producing this effect, the room 
 in which he worked was illuminated by 
 a skylight, and the walls were painted 
 black. He excelled in the painting of 
 naked figures. His faults are obvious. 
 Narrow and servile imitation of nature 
 was his highest aim. Annibal Caracci 
 and Domenichino were, perhaps, less dis- 
 tinguished than Caravaggio during their 
 lives, but, after then- death, were ranked 
 higher, because, without neglecting color- 
 ing and the study of nature, they aimed at 
 correctness of design and dignity of con- 
 ception. His violent character involved 
 him in many difficulties. He died as 
 early as 1609. The painters who have 
 imitated him most are Manfredi, Valentin, 
 and Ribeira, called Espagnolet. 
 
 CARAVAGGIO. (See Caldara.) 
 
 CARAVAN, or KARAVAN ; a Persian 
 word, used to denote large companies 
 which travel together in the Levant and 
 in Africa, for the sake of security from 
 robbers, having in view, principally, trade 
 or pilgrimages. Such a company often 
 has more than 1000 camels to cany their 
 baggage and their goods. These walk 
 in single file, so that the line is often a 
 mile long. On account of the excessive 
 heat, they travel, mostly, early in the 
 morning. As every Mohammedan is 
 obliged to visit the tomb of Mohammed 
 once, at least, during his life, caravans of 
 pilgrims go to Mecca, every year, from 
 various places of meeting. The leader 
 of such a caravan to Mecca, who carries 
 with him some cannon for protection, is 
 called Emir Jldge. Trading caravans 
 choose one of their own number for a 
 leader, whom they call Caravan- Baschi. 
 Much information on the subject of cara- 
 vans is to be found in the travels of Nie- 
 buhr, who made many journeys with them, 
 and describes them, as it is well known, 
 minutely and faithfully. (For an account 
 of some of the most important routes 
 pursued by the caravans in Africa, see 
 the article Africa, p. 90, vol. i.) 
 
 CARAVAN TEA. (See Tea.) 
 
 CARAVANSARIES, in the East ; a sort of 
 inn, situated in countries where there are 
 no cities or villages for a considerable 
 extent, to furnish travellers with a shelter. 
 Some of them are built with much splen- 
 dor, though they are generally unfurnish- 
 ed, and the traveller is obliged to bring 
 with him his bed and carpet. In many, 
 the hospitality is gratuitous. It is com- 
 mon for a pious Mohammedan to estab- 
 lish, during his life, or by will, one or 
 several of such caravansaries. This kind 
 of benevolence is considered peculiarly
 
 CARAVANSARIES CARBON. 
 
 509 
 
 agreeable to the Deity, and promotive of 
 the eternal happiness of the founder. 
 Sometimes persons are kept in these 
 establishments "to show the way to the 
 caravans for some distance. (See Khan.) 
 
 CARAWAY SEEDS (fructus cam) are a 
 stimulant and excitant, the fruit of a bi- 
 ennial plant (carum carpi, Linnaeus), a na- 
 tive of Europe, growing particularly in 
 the south of France. 
 
 CARBON. Charcoal, as we are familiar 
 v/ith it in common life, contains hydrogen 
 and saline and metallic substances. Ac- 
 cordingly, it became necessary to intro- 
 duce a peculiar term for its pure base, 
 and the one adopted by chemists was 
 carbon. This element, besides forming 
 the inflammable matter of charcoal, ex- 
 ists largely in animal substances, and is 
 extensively distributed in the mineral 
 kingdom. The only body in which car- 
 bon has been found to exist in a state of 
 absolute purity, is the diamond. This 
 precious stone lias always been esteemed 
 as the most valuable of the gems a su- 
 periority which it owes to its hardness, 
 lustre and high refractive power. Dia- 
 monds are brought from India and from 
 Brazil. Those of India, which have been 
 the longest known, are principally found 
 in the kingdoms of Colconda and of Visia- 
 pour. Those of Brazil, discovered at the 
 commencement of the 17th century, be- 
 long to the district of Serro-do-Frio. The 
 situations in which they occur arc such 
 as to favor the idea of their recent form- 
 ation ; since they exist disseminated 
 through a loose, ferruginous sandstone, or 
 quite detached in a sandy soil ; arid, in 
 both cases, are situated at no great depth 
 below the surface. In Brazil, the con- 
 glomerate in which they exist is called 
 ( cascalho ; from which they are extracted 
 by washing, in the same manner as gold. 
 The diamond uniformly occurs crystal- 
 lized, and presents a great variety of 
 forms ; all of which yield readily to me- 
 chanical division parallel to all the planes 
 of the regular octohedron, which, there- 
 fore, is the form of the primary crystal, 
 and under which figure it is sometimes 
 found in nature. The faces of its crys- 
 tals are very frequently curved, so as to 
 communicate to them a rounded appear- 
 ance. They are commonly limpid ; and 
 are either colorless, or of a yellowish, 
 bluish, yellowish-brown, black-brown, 
 Prussian blue or rose-red color. Specific 
 gravity, 3.5. Its hardness is extreme ; so 
 that it can be worn down only by nibbing 
 one diamond against another, and is pol- 
 ished only by the finer diamond powder, 
 43* 
 
 The weight, and, consequently, the 
 value of diamonds, are estimated in carats, 
 one of which is equal to four grains ; and 
 the price of one diamond, compared with 
 that of another of equal color, transpa- 
 rency and purity, is as the squares of the 
 respective weights. The average price 
 of rough diamonds, that are worth work- 
 ing, is about 2 for the first carat. The 
 value of a cut diamond is equal to that of 
 a rough diamond of double weight, ex- 
 clusive of the price of workmanship ; and 
 the whole cost of a wrought diamond of 
 
 1 carat may be about $36, or 8 
 
 2 carats "is 2 2 X 8 = 32 
 
 3 do. is 3 2 X 8 = 72 
 
 4 do. is 4 2 X 8 = 128 
 100 do. is 100 2 X 8 = 80,000 
 
 This rule, however, is not extended to 
 diamonds of more than 20 carats. The 
 larger ones are disposed of at prices infe- 
 rior to their value by that computation. 
 The snow-white diamond is most prized 
 by the jeweller. When transparent, and 
 free from cracks, it is said to be of the 
 first ivaler. The following are some of 
 the mort extraordinary diamonds known : 
 one in the possession of the rajah of 
 Mattan, in the island of Borneo, where it 
 was found about a century ago : it is 
 shaped like an egg, and is of the finest 
 water : its weight is 367 carats, or 2 oz. 
 169 grs. Troy. Another is the celebrated 
 Pitt diamond, now among the crown 
 jewels of France, weighing 136 carats; 
 another in the sceptre of the emperor of 
 Russia, of the size of a pigeon's egg ; and 
 another in the possession of the Great 
 Mogul, which is said to weigh 280, and 
 w!/ich, in a rough state, weighed 793 
 carats. From the fact that transparent 
 inflammable bodies refract light in a ratio 
 greater than their densities, sir Isaac 
 Newton conjectured that the diamond 
 might consist of an unctuous matter co-^ 
 agulated. The Florentine academicians 
 had rendered its combustibility probable, 
 by exposing it to the solar rays of a pow- 
 erful burning-glass, and observing that it 
 gradually disappeared, or was consumed, 
 Subsequent experiments settled the ques- 
 tion, by proving, that the diamond lost 
 none of its weight when calcined out of 
 contact with the air ; but, on the contrary, 
 that it was dissipated when heated in 
 contact with this fluid. It still remained, 
 however, to be discovered, what was the 
 true nature of the diamond. This Avas 
 accomplished by Lavoisier, who enclosed 
 diamonds in jars filled with atmospheric 
 air or oxygen gas, and, after having
 
 510 
 
 CARBON. 
 
 caused them to disappear by the heat of 
 a burning-glass, examined the air in the 
 vessels. He found it to exhibit precisely 
 the same properties as the air which re- 
 sulto from the combustion of charcoal. 
 This experiment was also performed by 
 Morveau, who demonstrated the nature 
 of the diamond by still another arrange- 
 ment. A diamond was enclosed in a 
 cavity made in a piece of pure, soft iron ; 
 a stopper of the same metal was driven 
 into it, and the mass was put into a small 
 crucible, which was covered, and this 
 into a second ; the space between them 
 being filled with pure sih'cious sand. 
 The whole was exposed, for some time, 
 to an intense heat. When examined, the 
 diamond had disappeared, and the iron, 
 with which it had been in contact, was 
 converted into steel. Now steel is a com- 
 pound of iron and carbon ; and, as the 
 diamond was not visible, and as there was 
 no source from which the carbon could 
 have been obtained, the conclusion was 
 unavoidable, that the diamond was pure 
 carbon. Yet so different is this mineral 
 from charcoal, that it was, for a time, 
 imagined that it contained some other 
 element than carbon ; but the numerous 
 and delicate experiments of sir H. Davy, 
 and several other chemists, failed of de- 
 tecting any thing else in its composition ; 
 and, although there' exists so great a dif- 
 ference between the diamond and char- 
 coal, in their external properties, we are 
 forced to believe that they are identically 
 of the same nature. The diamond is, 
 therefore, pure carbon, and differs from 
 charcoal (leaving out of question its tri- 
 fling impurities) only in the arrangement 
 of its molecules. The substance in which 
 carbon exists next in purity is charcoal. 
 For common purposes, this is prepared by 
 piling billets of wood in a pyramidical 
 form, with vacuities between them for 
 the admission of air, covering them with 
 earth, and inflaming them. In conse- 
 quence of the heat, part of the combusti- 
 ble substance is consumed, part is vola- 
 tilized, together with a portion of water, 
 and there remains behind the ligneous 
 fibre only of the wood, in the form of a 
 black, brittle and porous body. When 
 required pure, and in small quantities, for 
 the purposes of the chemist, it may be 
 obtained by immersing the wood in sand 
 contained in a crucible exposed to heat.. 
 According to the experiments of Messrs.. 
 Allen and Pepys, the weight of charcoal 
 obtained from 100 parts of different woods- 
 was as follows : -fir, 18.17 ; lignum vitse, 
 17,25; box, 20.25; beech, 15 ; oak, 17.40; 
 
 i 
 
 mahogany, 15.75. Lampblack is char- 
 coal in a state of minute division, and is 
 prepared for the demands of trade from 
 the dregs which remain after the eliqua- 
 tion of pitch, or else from small pieces of 
 fir-wood, which are burned in furnur s 
 of a peculiar construction, the smoke of 
 which is made to pass through a long 
 horizontal flue, terminating in a close, 
 boarded chamber. The roof of this 
 chamber is made of coarse cloth, through 
 which the current of air escapes, while 
 the soot, or lampblack, remains behind. 
 Coke is a peculiar kind of charcoal, which 
 remains in the retort, after the heating of 
 coal to procure the coal gas. Iroiy-black r 
 or animal charcoal, is obtained from bones 
 made red-hot in a covered crucible, and 
 consists of charcoal mixed with the earthy 
 matters of the bone. Wood charcoal,, 
 well prepared, is of a deep-black color r 
 brittle and porous, tasteless and inodorous. 
 It is infusible in any heat a furnace can 
 raise ; but, by the intense heat of a pow- 
 erful galvanic apparatus, it is hardened, 
 and at length is volatilized, presenting a 
 surface with a distinct appearance of hav- 
 ing undergone fusion. The density of 
 charcoal, according to Mr. Leslie, is little 
 short of that of the diamond itself, al- 
 though its specific gravity has usually 
 been considered as low as 2.00. Charcoal 
 is insoluble in water, and is not affected 
 by it at low temperatures ; hence wooden 
 stakes, which are to be immersed in water, 
 are often charred to preserve them. 
 Owing to its peculiarly porous texture, 
 charcoal possesses the property of absorb- 
 ing a large quantity of air, or other gases, 
 at common temperatures, and of yielding 
 the greater part of them when heated. 
 It appears, from the researches of Saus- 
 sure, that different gases are absorbed by 
 it in different proportions. He found that 
 charcoal prepared from box- wood absorbs, 
 during the space of 24 or 36 hours, of 
 
 A mmoniacal gas, 90 times its volume ;. 
 Muriatic acid, ... 85 do. 
 
 Carbonic acid, ... 35 do. 
 
 Oxygen, 9.25 do. 
 
 Hydrogen, 1.75 do. 
 
 Charcoal likewise absorbs the odoriferous 
 and coloring principles of most animal 
 and vegetable substances. Thus, all sa- 
 line substances, which, from the ad- 
 herence of vegetable or animal extractive 
 matter, are of a brown color, as crude 
 tartar, crude nitre, impure carbonate of 
 ammonia, and other salt?, may, after 
 being digested through the medium of 
 water with charcoal, be obtained .white
 
 CARBON. 
 
 511 
 
 by a second crystallization. Resins, gum- 
 resius, assafcetida, opium, balsams, essen- 
 tial oils, and many other substances, even 
 those that have the strongest smell, are 
 rendered nearly inodorous when they are 
 rubbed with charcoal and water, or when 
 solutions of diem in alcohol are macer- 
 ated with the charcoal, or filtrated re- 
 peatedly through it. A number of the 
 vegetable tinctures and infusions also lose 
 then- color, smell, and much of their taste, 
 by the same process. Common vinegar, 
 on being boiled with charcoal powder, 
 becomes colorless. Malt spirit, by distil- 
 lation with charcoal, is freed from its 
 disagreeable flavor. In the same manner 
 wines, also, become colorless, and distilled 
 waters lose their odors. Water, which, 
 from having been long kept in wooden ves- 
 sels, as during long voyages, has acquired 
 an offensive smell, is deprived of it by fil- 
 tration through charcoal powder, or even 
 by agitation with it for a few minutes, 
 especially when a few drops of sulphuric 
 acid have also been added. Hence, also, 
 it has been found that, by charring the 
 inside of casks for keeping water, it may 
 be preserved a long time without spoiling. 
 Charcoal can even remove or prevent the 
 putrescence of animal matter. If a piece 
 of ilesh has become tainted, the taste and 
 smell may, in a great measure, be re- 
 moved, by rubbing it with charcoal powder; 
 and it may be preserved fresh for some 
 time by burying it in the same substance. 
 To produce these effects, however, it is 
 jieci >sary that the charcoal should have 
 been well calcined and newly prepared. 
 The uses of charcoal are extensive. It is 
 used as fuel in various arts, where a strong 
 heat is required without smoke, as in 
 dyeing, and in various metallurgic opera- 
 tions. By cementation with charcoal, iron 
 is converted into steeL It is used in the 
 manufacture of gunpowder, in its finer 
 tate of aggregation, under the form of 
 ivory-black, lamp-black, &c. It is the 
 basis of black paint ; and, mixed with fat 
 oils and resinous matter, to give a due 
 consistence, it forms the composition of 
 printing ink. It is used to destroy color 
 and odor, particularly in sirups ; to pu- 
 rify honey ; to resist putrefaction ; to con- 
 fine heat, and for a number of other 
 important purposes. When charcoal is 
 heated to a certain degree in the open air, 
 or in oxygen gas, it takes fire, and burns 
 with the production of an elastic vapor, 
 which has been called carbonic acid gas. 
 It is usually obtained, however, by other 
 processes. It exists, combined with lime, 
 in the different varieties of limestone, 
 
 marble and chalk ; and, if any of these 
 substances be exposed to a strong heat, 
 the affinity of the acid to the lime is 
 so far weakened, that it assumes the elas- 
 tic form, and may be collected. An 
 easier mode is also practised for effecting 
 its disunion, through the affusion of one 
 of the more powerful acids. From the 
 experiment of the direct formation of this 
 acid, by the combustion of charcoal in 
 oxygen gas, its composition has been de- 
 termined to be 27.4 carbon and 72.6 oxy- 
 gen. Tennant illustrated its nature ana- 
 lytically, by passing the vapor of phos- 
 phorus over chalk, or the carbonate of 
 lime, heated to redness in a glass tube. 
 The phosphorus took oxygen from the 
 carbonic acid, charcoal, in the form of a 
 light, black powder, was deposited, and 
 the phosphoric acid, which was formed, 
 united with the lime. Carbonic acid is a 
 colorless, inodorous, elastic fluid, which 
 possesses all the physical properties of 
 the gases in an eminent degree, and re- 
 quires a pressure of 36 atmospheres to 
 condense it into a liquid. Its specific 
 gravity, compared with common air, is 
 1.5277. It extinguishes burning sub- 
 stances of all kinds, and is incapable of 
 supporting the respiration of animals, its 
 presence, even in a moderate proportion, 
 being soon fatal. An animal cannot live 
 in air which contains sufficient carbonic 
 acid for extinguishing a lighted candle ; 
 and hence the practical rule of letting 
 down a burning taper into old wells or 
 pits, before any one ventures to descend. 
 When an attempt is made to inspire pure 
 carbonic acid, a violent spasm of the 
 glottis takes place, which prevents the 
 gas from entering the lungs. If it be so 
 much diluted with air, as to admit of its 
 passing the glottis, it then acts as a nar- 
 cotic poison on the system. It is this gas 
 which so often proves destructive to per- 
 sons sleeping in a confined room with a 
 pan of burning charcoal. Lime-water 
 becomes turbid when brought into con- 
 tact with carbonic acid, from the union 
 of the lime w r ith the gas, and the insolu- 
 ble nature of the compound thus formed. 
 Hence, lime-water is not only a valuable 
 test of the presence of carbonic acid, but 
 is frequently used to withdraw it alto- 
 gether from any gaseous mixture that 
 contains it. Carbonic acid is absorbed by 
 water. Recently-boiled water dissolves 
 its own volume of carbonic acid, at the 
 common temperature and pressure ; but 
 it will take up much more if the pressure 
 be increased. Water and other liquids, 
 which have been charged with carbonic
 
 512 
 
 CARBON. 
 
 acid under great pressure, lose the greater 
 part of the gas when, the pressure is re- 
 moved. The effervescence which takes 
 place on opening a bottle of ginger beer, 
 cider, or brisk champaign, is owing to 
 the escape of carbonic acid gas. Water 
 which is fully saturated with carbonic 
 acid gas sparkles when it is poured from 
 one vessel to another. The solution has 
 an agreeably acidulous taste, and gives to 
 litmus paper a red stain, which is lost on 
 exposure to the air. On the addition of 
 lime-water to it, a cloudiness is produced, 
 which at first disappears, because the car- 
 bonate of lime is soluble in an excess of 
 carbonic acid ; but a permanent precipi- 
 tate ensues, when the free acid is neutral- 
 ized by an additional quantity of lime- 
 water. The water which contains car- 
 bonic acid in solution is wholly deprived 
 of the gas by boiling. The agreeable 
 pungency of beer, porter and ale is, in a 
 great measure, owing to the presence of 
 carbonic acid ; by the loss of which, on 
 exposure to the air, they become stale. 
 All kinds of spring and well-water con- 
 tain carbonic acid, which they absorb 
 from the atmosphere, and to which they 
 are partly indebted for their agreeable 
 flavor. Boiled water has an insipid taste, 
 from the absence of carbonic acid. Car- 
 bonic acid is always present in the atmos- 
 phere, even at the summit of the highest 
 mountains. Its origin is obvious. Be- 
 sides being formed abundantly by the 
 combustion of all substances which con- 
 tain carbon, the respiration of animals is 
 a fruitful source of it, as may be proved 
 by breathing a few minutes into lime- 
 water. It is also generated in all the 
 spontaneous changes, to which dead ani- 
 mal and vegetable mattere are subject. 
 The carbonic acid proceeding from such 
 sources is commonly diffused equably 
 through the air; but, when any of these 
 processes occur in low, confined situa- 
 tions, as in the galleries of mines or in 
 wells, the gas is then apt to accumulate 
 there, and form an atmosphere called 
 cfutke damp, which proves fatal to any 
 animals that are placed in it. These ac- 
 cumulations take place only where there 
 is some local origin for the carbonic acid ; 
 for example, when it is generated by fer- 
 mentative processes going on at the sur- 
 face of the ground, or when it issues 
 directly from the earth, as happens at the 
 grotto del Cane, in Italy, and at Pynnont, 
 in Westphalia. Though carbonic acid is 
 the product of many natural operations, 
 no increase of its quantity in the atmos- 
 phere is discoverable. Such an increase 
 
 appears to be prevented by the process of 
 vegetation. Growing plants purify the 
 air by withdrawing carbonic acid, and 
 yielding an equal volume of pure oxygen 
 in return ; but whether a full compensa- 
 tion for the deterioration of the air by 
 respiration is produced in this way, has 
 not, as yet. been satisfactorily determined. 
 Carbonic acid abounds in mineral 
 springs, such as those of Tunbridge, 
 Carlsbad and Saratoga. In combination 
 wi:h lime, it forms extensive masses of 
 "rock, which occur in all countries, and in 
 every formation. It unites with alkaline 
 substances, and the salts so produced are 
 called carbonates. Its acid properties are 
 feeble, so that it is unable to neutralize 
 completely the alkaline properties of pot- 
 ash, soda and lilhia. For the same rea- 
 son, all the carbonates, without exception, 
 are decomposed by the muriatic and all 
 the stronger acids ; the carbonic acid is 
 displaced, and escapes in the form of gas. 
 Another gaseous compound of carbon 
 with oxygen, called carbonic oxyde, exists, 
 or may be obtained by heating powdered 
 chalk, or any carbonate which can bear a 
 red heat without decomposition, with iron 
 filings in a gun-barrel. It is evolved to- 
 gether with carbonic acid gas, from which 
 it may be freed by agitating the mixed 
 gases with lime-water, when the carbonic 
 acid is absorbed, and the gas in question 
 is left in a state of purity. It is colorless 
 and insipid. Lime-water does not absorb 
 it, nor is its transparency affected by it. 
 When a lighted taper is introduced into a 
 jar of carbonic oxyde, it takes fire, and 
 burns calmly at its surface with a lam- 
 bent, blue flame. It is incapable of sup- 
 porting respiration. A mixture of 100 
 measures of carbonic oxyde, and rather 
 more than 50 of oxygen, on being ex- 
 ploded in Volta's eudiometer by electrici- 
 ty, disappear, and 100 measures of car- 
 bonic acid gas occupy their place ; from 
 which the exact composition of carbonic 
 oxyde is easily deduced. For carbonic 
 acid contains its own bulk of oxygen ; 
 and, since 100 measures of carbonic ox- 
 yde, with 50 of oxygen, form 100 measures 
 of carbonic acid, it follows that 100 of 
 carbonic oxyde are composed of 50 of 
 oxygen, united with precisely the same 
 quantity of carbon as is contained in 100 
 measures of carbonic acid. Consequently, 
 the composition of carbonic acid being, 
 
 By volume, 
 Vapor of carbon, 
 Oxygen gas, . . . 
 
 100 
 100 
 
 100 carbonic acid gas,
 
 CARBON CARBONARI. 
 
 513 
 
 By weiglit, 
 
 Carbon, 6 
 
 Oxygen, 16 
 
 22 carbonic acid, 
 that of carbonic oxyde must be, 
 
 By volume, 
 
 Vapor of carbon, 100 
 Oxygen gas, ... 50 
 
 100 carbonic oxyde gas, 
 By weiglit, 
 
 Carbon, 6 
 
 Oxygen, 8 
 
 14 carbonic oxyde. 
 
 Its specific gravity is 0.9721. The 
 process for generating carbonic oxyde 
 will now be intelligible. The princi- 
 ple of the method is to bring carbonic 
 acid, at a red heat, in contact with some 
 substance which has a strong affinity for 
 oxygen. This condition is fulfilled by 
 igniting chalk, or any of the carbonates, 
 with half its weight of iron filings, or of 
 charcoal. The carbonate is reduced to 
 its caustic state, and the carbonic acid is 
 converted into carbonic oxyde by yielding 
 oxygen to the iron or the charcoal. 
 When the first is used, an oxyde of iron 
 is the product ; when charcoal is em- 
 ployed, the charcoal itself is converted 
 into carbonic oxyde. 
 
 CARBONARI (colliers) ; the name of a 
 large political secret society in Italy. 
 According to the Memoirs of the Secret 
 Societies of the South of Italy, particu- 
 larly the Carbonari, translated from the 
 Original Manuscript (London, 1821), it 
 emerged from its former obscurity in 
 1818. It has published instructions, cate- 
 chisms of the different degrees, statutes, 
 rituals, and so on, which give, however, 
 only a partial view of the subject, without 
 entering into the secret motives of the 
 leaders, and the real spirit of the whole 
 society. They have a tradition, that they 
 were founded by Francis I of France, on 
 which account they drink to his memory 
 at their festivals. It is evidently going 
 too far to associate them with the dis- 
 turbances among the German peasantry 
 in the beginning of the 16th century, or 
 to look for their origin in the oppressive 
 forest laws of the Norman kings of Eng- 
 land. If, however, as their antiquity is not 
 to be disputed, they could be proved to 
 be a branch of the Waldenses, their re- 
 ligious character, which aims at evangeli- 
 cal purity and a rejection of traditions, 
 would be best accounted for. According 
 to Botta's Histoire iPItcdie, the republicans 
 fled, under the reign of Joachim (Murat), 
 
 to the recesses of the Abruzzi, inspired 
 with an equal hatred of the French and 
 of Ferdinand. They formed a secret 
 confederacy, and called themselves colliers. 
 Their chief, Capobianco, possessed great 
 talents as an orator. The war cry 
 "Revenge for the land crushed by the 
 wolf!" revealed the objects of the soci- 
 ety. Ferdinand and Caroline endeavored 
 to obtain their assistance against the 
 French. Prince Moliterni himself, a re- 
 publican at heart, was sent to them for this 
 purpose. Count Orloff, in his work on 
 Naples, ascribes the foundation or revival 
 of the Carbonari to queen Caroline of 
 Naples : others assert that Maghella, the 
 former minister of police, gave this soci- 
 ety its present importance. Maghella, a 
 native Genoese, was made minister of 
 police in the time of the Ligurian repub- 
 lic, and, after it was united with France, 
 director of the tobacco monopoly. When 
 Murat ascended the throne of Naples, he 
 employed him in the department of po- 
 lice, and, after the lapse of some time, ap- 
 pointed him minister. All his efforts 
 were directed to the union and indepen- 
 dence of Italy ; and, for this purpose, he 
 made use of the society of the Carbonaria, 
 which he reformed and extended. In 
 1812, he urged his sovereign to make 
 himself independent of Napoleon, and to 
 raise the standard of liberty and inde- 
 pendence in Italy. Murat was supported 
 by the Carbonari (who desired a consti- 
 tution) only during the short intervals in 
 which it was hoped that he would act 
 according to these suggestions. In the 
 sequel, he informed his brother-in-law, 
 Napoleon, of the designs of Maghella, and 
 delivered him, as a native Genoese, to 
 France, where he lived, for some time, 
 under the superintendence of the police. 
 In 1815, he returned to Italy, and exerted 
 his influence chiefly in the States of the 
 Church, then occupied by Murat. After 
 the expulsion of Murat by the Austrian 
 armies, he was first carried to a Hunga- 
 rian fortress, afterwards delivered to the 
 king of Sardinia, imprisoned for a year 
 in Fenestrelles, and then set at liberty. 
 The ritual of the Carbonari is taken from 
 the colliery. Clearing the wood of wolves 
 (opposition to tyranny) is the basis of their 
 symbols. By this, they are said to have 
 meant, at first, only deliverance from for- 
 eign dominion ; but, in later times, derno- 
 cratical and antimonarchical principles 
 have sprung up, which were probably 
 discussed chiefly among the higher de- 
 grees of the order. They call one another 
 good cousins. Those of the second degree
 
 514 
 
 CARBONARI CARD. 
 
 are called Pythagoreans, and the oath of 
 admission is, " Hatred to all tyrants !" Of 
 the third degree, whose existence cannot 
 be doubted, little is known. There are 
 even traces of a fourth degree. A gen- 
 eral union of the order under a common 
 head seems not to have been effected. 
 The separate societies in the small towns 
 entered into a connexion with each other ; 
 but this union extended no farther than the 
 province. The place of assembly is call- 
 ed the hut (baracca) : the exterior parts are 
 called the wood ; the interior of the hut is 
 called the colliery (vendita). The confedera- 
 tion of all the huts of the province is called 
 the republic, generally bearing the ancient 
 name of the province ; for instance, the 
 republic of West Lucania, in Principato 
 Citra, which consisted of 182 huts, and 
 had its seat at Salerno ; the East Luca- 
 nian republic, in the province of Basilica- 
 ta, chief seat at Potenza ; the republics of 
 Hirpinia, Daunia, &c. The chief huts 
 (a/to vendita) at Naples and at Salerno 
 endeavored to effect a general union of 
 the order, at least for the kingdom ; but 
 the attempt appears to have been unsuc- 
 cessful. To what degree, however, the 
 feelings of the nation were prepared for 
 the object, appears from the fact, that the 
 order, soon after its foundation, contained 
 from 24,000 to 30,000 members, and in- 
 creased so rapidly, that it spread through 
 all Italy. In 1820, in the month of March 
 alone, about 650,000 new members are 
 said to have been admitted. Whole cities 
 joined it; the little town Lanciano, in 
 Abruzzo Citra, hi March, 1814, contained 
 1200 armed members of the order. The 
 term's of admission could not, of course, 
 have been difficult ; even notorious rob- 
 bers became Carbonari ; and the asser- 
 tion, that their admission effected an im- 
 mediate reformation of their life, will not 
 meet with much credit. The clergy, and 
 the military, in particular, seem to have 
 thronged for admission. The religious 
 character of the order appears from its 
 statutes : " Every carbonaro has the natu- 
 ral and inalienable right to worship the 
 Almighty according to his own opinions 
 and the dictates of his conscience :" and 
 this spirit shows most clearly the impor- 
 tance of the order ; for it is far more dif- 
 ficult to be suppressed than the political 
 spirit, and indicates a more universal and 
 profound excitement. The Carbonari 
 seem to have borrowed many forms from 
 the freemasons, but did not, probably, 
 originate from them. Even in Italy, free- 
 masonry is considered distinct. Besides 
 the Carbonari, several other secret socie- 
 
 ties have been formed the European 
 Patriots ; the Resolute (Decisi), at whose 
 head was a famous robber, Giro Annichi- 
 arico (formerly a clergyman), who, in 
 1817, was taken prisoner and executed 
 by general Church. With him his troop, 
 consisting of a few members, was extin- 
 guished. (On the tendency and the con- 
 stitution of the Carbonari, during the 
 reign of Napoleon, see Hermes, xix.) 
 After the suppression of the Neapolitan 
 and Piedmontese revolution, in 1821, the 
 Carbonari, throughout Italy, were declared 
 guilty of high treason, and punished as 
 such by the laws. Some interesting facts 
 concerning them are contained in De 
 Wit's Fragments from my Life and 
 Time (Brunswick, 1827) ; but the book 
 is such a mixture of presumption and 
 exaggeration, that it is of little value to 
 any reader who is not sufficiently ac- 
 quainted with the political affairs of that 
 time to distinguish the false from the true. 
 The Carbonari have added one more to 
 the attempts of Italy to realize a wish as 
 old as its misfortunes ; that is, to attain 
 deliverance from a foreign yoke, and to 
 become united under one government. 
 There has not existed one Italian of tal- 
 ent, from Dante, who called his country 
 di dolor 1 ostello (mansion of pain), down 
 to the latest times, poet or politician, who 
 has not lamented the divided state of his 
 countiy, and subscribed the sentiment of 
 Petrarca, Italia mia, benche sia indarno, 
 &c. 
 
 CARBONIC ACID. (See Carbon.} 
 
 CARBO.MC OXTDE. (See Carbon.} 
 
 CARBUNCLE. (See Garnet.) 
 
 CARBUNCLE, in surgery ; a roundish, 
 hardj livid and painful tumor, quickly 
 tending to mortification, and (when it is 
 malignant) connected with extreme de- 
 bility of the constitution. When this 
 complaint is symptomatic of the plague, a 
 pestilential bubo usually attends it. (See 
 Plague.) The carbuncle is seated deeply, 
 in parts provided with cellular mem- 
 brane, and therefore does not soon dis- 
 cover its whole dimensions, nor the ill 
 digested matter it contains. 
 
 CARCASS (in French, carcasse), in mili- 
 tary language ; an iron case filled with 
 combustible materials, which is discharged 
 from a mortar, like a bomb. There were 
 formerly two kinds, oblong and round 
 ones, but they are now out of use. In 
 architecture, carcass signifies the timber- 
 work of a house, before it is either lathed 
 or plastered. 
 
 CARCINOMA. (See Cancer.) 
 
 CARD. Playing-cards are, probably,
 
 CARD CARDAN. 
 
 515 
 
 an invention of the East, as appears 
 from the name which cards originally 
 bore in Italy (naibi), and still bear in 
 Spain and Portugal (naipes), which word, 
 in the Oriental languages, signifies divina- 
 tion or prognostication. If it could be 
 proved that the Gipsies first made cards 
 known in Asia and Africa, this supposi- 
 tion would be placed beyond doubt. It 
 is asserted, that the Arabs or Saracens 
 learned the use of cards from the Gipsies, 
 and spread the use of them in Europe. 
 The course that card-playing took, in its 
 diffusion through Europe, shows that it 
 must have come from the East, for it was 
 found in the eastern and southern coun- 
 tries before it was in the western. The 
 historical traces of the use of cards are 
 found earliest in Italy, then in Germa- 
 ny, France and Spain. The first cards 
 were painted, and the Italian cards of 
 1299 are acknowledged to have been so. 
 The art of printing cards was discovered 
 by the Germans, between 1350 and 1360. 
 The Germans have, moreover, made ma- 
 ny changes in cards, both in the figures 
 and the names. The lanzknechtsspiel, which 
 is regarded as the first German game with 
 cards, is a German invention. Of this game 
 we find an imitation in France, in 1392, 
 under the name of lansquenet, which con- 
 tinued to be played there till the time of 
 Moliore and Regnard, and, perhaps, still 
 longer. The first certain trace of card- 
 playing in France occurs in the year 1361, 
 and Charles VI is said to have amused 
 himself with it during his sickness, at the 
 end of the 14th century. The modern 
 French figures are said to have been in- 
 vented in France between 1430 and 1461. 
 It has been said that cards were known in 
 Spain as early as 1332, but this opinion is 
 supported by no evidence. The earliest 
 indication of card-playing in Spain is its 
 prohibition by the king of Castile, John 
 I, in 1387, when it must, consequently, 
 have been very prevalent. One of the 
 best works on the different games at cards 
 is the well-known treatise of Hoyle. (For 
 the different games, see the respective 
 articles:.) 
 
 CARDAMOM, small (cardamomum minus ; 
 amomum cardamomum, Linnaeus) ; a per- 
 ennial plant growing in the East Indies. 
 The fruit is used as a stimulant and 
 excitant. Triangular capsules, from four 
 to five lines in length, of a yellowish- 
 white, contain the seeds, which are of a 
 brown color, a pleasant, aromatic smell, a 
 warm, pepper-like taste, weaker, howev- 
 er, than that of the various peppers. In 
 France, it is much less used than in Eng- 
 
 land and the U. States. The great and 
 middle cardamoms are furnished by other 
 species of amomum, as yet unobserved 
 and undescribed. They may be only 
 varieties of the preceding. Then* proper- 
 ties are not so energetic. 
 
 CARDAN, or CARDANO, Geronimo (Hie- 
 ronymm Cardanus). This famous philos- 
 opher, physician and mathematician was 
 born in 1501, at Pavia, and was educated, 
 from his fourth year, very carefully, in 
 the house of his father, a physician and 
 lawyer in Milan, distinguished for his 
 learning and integrity. In his 20th year, 
 he went to Pavia to complete his studies ; 
 and, after two years, he began to ex- 
 plain Euclid. He was, subsequently, 
 professor of mathematics and medicine 
 in 3Iilan. He then returned to Pavia, 
 again visited Milan, taught, for some time, 
 at Bologna, and, meeting with some diffi- 
 culties there, went to Rome. Here he 
 was received into the medical college, and 
 was allowed a pension by the pope. He 
 declined the invitations of the king of 
 Denmark, on account of the climate and 
 of the religion of that country. The lat- 
 ter reason for his refusal appears strange 
 from a man who was accused of irreli- 
 gion ; but his biographers differ with re- 
 gard to his religious opinions. Contra- 
 dictory passages are cited from his works, 
 which cannot surprise us in one who was 
 lost in cabalistic dreams and paradoxes, 
 and pretended to have a familiar demon 
 (dtzmon familiaris), from whom he receiv- 
 ed warnings, &c. All this excited the 
 theologians against him, who attacked his 
 orthodoxy, and even accused him of athe- 
 ism, but certainly without foundation. 
 The truth is, that Cardan was supersti- 
 tious, but his chimeras were in opposition 
 to the reigning superstitions of the age. 
 He believed so implicitly in astrology, 
 that he drew his own horoscope several 
 times, and ascribed the falsehood of his 
 predictions, not to the uncertainty of the 
 art, but to his own ignorance. His two 
 works, De SubtUitate and DK Rerum 
 Varietale, contain the whole of his nat- 
 ural philosophy and metaphysics, and 
 are curious as an instance of a strange 
 mixture of wisdom and folly. Cardan 
 wrote, also, on medicine. His writings 
 on this subject, amid much trash, contain 
 some sound ideas. His fame as a physi- 
 cian was so great, that the primate of 
 Scotland, who had been sick for 10 years, 
 and had consulted the physicians of the 
 king of France and of the emperor of 
 Germany without success, invited him to 
 Scotland, and was restored to health by his
 
 516 
 
 CARDAN CARDINAL POINTS. 
 
 prescriptions. His highest claims to the 
 gratitude of the learned rest on his math- 
 ematical discoveries. Algebra, which, 
 from the time of its origin, had been cul- 
 tivated almost exclusively in Italy, ex- 
 cited, at that time, much rivalry among 
 the mathematicians, who carefully kept 
 their discoveries secret, in order to tri- 
 umph over each other in their public dis- 
 putes. Cardan, it is said, was told that 
 Tartalea had discovered the solution of 
 equations of the third degree, and obtain- 
 ed the secret from him by stratagem and 
 under promise of silence, but published 
 the method, in 1545, in his Ars magna. 
 A violent dispute arose, which cannot 
 now be decided with certainty. The 
 honor of giving his name to the invention 
 has remained to him who first made it 
 known, and it is still called the formula 
 of Cardan. It is universally believed 
 that Cardan discovered some new cases, 
 which were not comprehended in the rule 
 of Tartalea ; that he discovered the multi- 
 plicity of the roots of the higher equa- 
 tions, and, finally, the existence of nega- 
 tive roots, the use of which he did not, 
 however, understand. His tranquillity 
 was disturbed, not only by the attacks of 
 his enemies, but also by his own extrava- 
 gancies, which are related in his work 
 De Vita propria, no doubt with much 
 exaggeration. They are exposed with so 
 much frankness, that those who have 
 judged him with indulgence have been 
 obliged to suppose him subject to fits of 
 insanity. He died, probably, in 1576, ac- 
 cording to some accounts, by voluntary 
 starvation, that he might not survive the 
 year in which he had predicted that his 
 death would occur. All his works, to 
 the number of more than 50, are contain- 
 ed in the edition of Lyons, 1663, hi 10 
 vols., foL 
 
 CARDINAL ; a clergyman of the Catho- 
 lic church, who has a right to a vote in 
 the choice of the pope. The cardinals 
 are next in dignity to the pope, enjoy the 
 rank of princes, and, since 1631, have 
 borne the title of eminence. The origin 
 of the dignity of cardinals is uncertain. 
 The name is derived from cardinalis (dis- 
 tinguished.) The same name was given, 
 under the emperor Theodosius, to the 
 highest civil officers in the state. Till the 
 llth century, the title of cardinal was 
 common to all clergymen who actually 
 officiated in any church. From this time 
 the popes, having grown powerful, form- 
 ed a college, a secret council of ecclesias- 
 tics of high rank, to whom, alone, the 
 title of cardinal was soon reserved, by 
 
 way of eminence ; and, under Alexander 
 III, in 1160, they obtained the exclusive 
 right of choosing the pope, with much 
 opposition, however, on the part of the 
 other Roman clergy, and much scandal. 
 Innocent IV (1243 1254) gave them a 
 rank above the bishops, together with the 
 red hat, and Boniface VIII assigned to 
 them the princely mantle. Urban VIII 
 gave them the title eminence, instead of t7- 
 lustrissimi, which they had enjoyed till 
 then. With the pope, they form the sa- 
 cred college, and are divided into three 
 ranks 14 cardinal-deacons, 50 cardinal- 
 priests, and 6 cardinal-bishops, who take 
 their names from the ancient bishoprics 
 Ostia (to which is added that of St. Ru- 
 fin), Porto, Sabina, Palestrina, Frascati, 
 and Alba. In 1526, their number was 
 fixed at 70 by Sixtus V ; but it is by no 
 means necessary that this number should 
 be always full, and, in modern times, it 
 has generally not been so. The number 
 of bishops only is always complete. The 
 choice of the cardinals depends solely on 
 the pope. He causes the names of those 
 appointed to be read in the consistory, 
 with the formula " Fratres habebitis" (Ye 
 shall receive as brethren, &c.). The red 
 cardinal's hat is sent to those elected, to 
 inform them of their election. Their 
 dress consists of a surplice, with a short 
 purple mantle, and a small cap, over 
 which they wear a hat, with silk strings 
 and tassels at the end. The color is either 
 red or violet. The prerogatives of cardi- 
 nals, in different countries, are different. 
 (For those which they enjoy in France, 
 see the article Cardinal in the Diction- 
 naire de Theologie, Toulouse, 1817.) The 
 king of France gives a cardinal the title 
 of cousin. A cardinal, sent to a prince in 
 a diplomatic character from the pope, is 
 called legatus a latere or de latere. A 
 province, the governor of which is a car- 
 dinal, takes the title of a legation. The 
 income of the cardinals is, at present, not 
 large, and, compared to that of some of 
 the rich clergy in England, is small. The 
 importance and authority of the cardinals 
 has, of course, sunk very much in mod- 
 ern times, like those of the other dignita- 
 ries of the Catholic church, the pope 
 himself included. Formerly, they pre- 
 ceded the princes of the blood, sat at the 
 right of kings, on or near the throne, and 
 were considered equal to kings in rank. 
 (For the manner in which they choose 
 the pope, see Conclave.) 
 
 CARDINAL POINTS ; the four intersec- 
 tions of the horizon with the meridian 
 and the prime vertical circle. They co-
 
 CARDINAL POINTS CARIATI. 
 
 517 
 
 incide with the four cardinal regions of 
 the heavens, and are, of course, 90 dis- 
 tant from each other. The intermediate 
 points are called collateral points. 
 
 CARDINAL VIKTIKS, or principal vir- 
 tues, in morals ; a name applied to those 
 virtues to which all the rest are subordi- 
 nate, or which comprehend all the others. 
 The distribution of the virtues, which lies 
 at the foundation of this notion, had its 
 origin in the old Grecian philosophy; and 
 the same number is found here as in the 
 elements of nature. These principal vir- 
 tues, as enumerated by IMato, are, pru- 
 dence, temperance, fortitude and justice. 
 The three first seem to relate to the duties 
 of man towards himself, and to corre- 
 spond with the triple division of the soul 
 into the intellectual, the irrational (the 
 seat of the sensual desires), and the seat 
 of the affections, which connects the two 
 first. Justice either relates to our duties 
 to others (God and men), or is the union 
 of the three first virtues. This division 
 appeal's to be peculiar to the old Pythag- 
 oreans. Aristotle divided them still fur- 
 ther. The Stoics, too, made the same 
 division in their system of morals, and 
 Cicero introduced it into his Offices. Plo- 
 tinus and many New-Platonists divide the 
 virtues into four classes civil or political, 
 philosophical or purifying, religious, and, 
 lastly, divine or pattern virtues ; a divis- 
 ion coinciding with the rest of his philo- 
 sophical views. The influence of the an- 
 cient philosophers has made the preced- 
 ing cardinal virtues also a part of the 
 Christian code. Some add to them the 
 three Christian virtues, so called faith, 
 charity and hope and call the former 
 philosophical. The imagination of artists 
 has represented the cardinal virtues under 
 sensible images. In modern times, this 
 division is regarded as useless in treating 
 of ethics; and, in order to judge of it cor- 
 rectly, we must form a just notion of the 
 idea which the ancients attached to the 
 words i'.fnrr\ and virtus (virtue). 
 
 CARDING ; a preparation of wool, cot- 
 ton, hair or flax, by passing it between 
 the iron points, or teeth, of two instru- 
 ments, called cards, to comb, disentangle 
 and arrange the hairs or fibres thereof for 
 spinning, &c. Before the wool is carded, 
 it is smeared with oil, whereof one fourth 
 of the weight of the wool is required for 
 wool destined for the woof of stuffs, and 
 one eighth for that of the warp. 
 
 CAREENING (in French, fairc dbattre, 
 carener) ; heaving the vessel down on one 
 side, by applying a strong purchase to the 
 masts, so that the vessel may be cleansed 
 
 VOL. ii. 44 
 
 from any filth which adheres to it by 
 breaming. A half careen takes place when 
 it is not possible to come at the bottom of 
 the ship ; so that only half of it can be ca- 
 reened. 
 
 CAREW, Thomas, an English poet, sup- 
 posed to have been born in 1585', was ed- 
 ucated at Corpus Christi college, Oxford. 
 Cultivating polite literature in the midst 
 of a life of affluence and gayety, he was 
 the subject of much eulogy to Jien Jon- 
 son, Davenant, and other writers of the 
 period. He seems to have died in 1639, 
 having, in the mean time, exhibited the 
 not unusual transformation of die courtly 
 and libertine fine gentleman into the re- 
 pentant devotee. Carevv is coupled with 
 Waller, as one of the improvers of Eng- 
 lish versification. It does not appear that 
 any edition of his poems was published 
 during his life-time ; but Oldys, in his 
 notes on Langbaine, asserts that his son- 
 nets were in more request than those of 
 any poet of his time. The first collec- 
 tion of his poems was printed in 1640, 
 l % 2mo. ; the last, in 1772. His elegant 
 masque of Ccelum Bntannicum was print- 
 ed, both in the early editiqns and sepa- 
 rately, in 1651, and the whole are now 
 included in Chalmers's British Poets. Ca- 
 revv was much studied by Pope ; and doc- 
 tor Percy also assisted to restore him to 
 a portion of the favor with which he has 
 lately been regarded. Specimens both of 
 the sublime and the pathetic may be. 
 found in his works ; the former in his ad- 
 mirable masque, and the latter in his epi- 
 taph on lady Mary Villiers. 
 
 CARGILLITES ; a name of the sect more 
 generally known under the denomination 
 of Camtronians. (q. v.) 
 
 CARIACO ; a seaport town in Colombia, 
 in the province of Cumana ; Ion. 63 -W 
 W. ; lat. 10 30' N. ; population, 6500. It 
 is situated to the east of the gulf of Cari- 
 aco, near the mouth of a river of the same 
 name, on a large plain, covered with plant- 
 ations. The climate is very hot, the air 
 damp and unhealthy. Its trade is in cot- 
 ton and sugar. The gulf of Cariaco is 68 
 miles long, and 35 broad, from 80 to 100 
 fathoms deep, surrounded by lofty moun- 
 tains, and the waters quiet. 
 
 CARIATI, prince, a Neapolitan diploma- 
 tist, of the ancient family Fuscaldo, served 
 under Joseph Bonaparte and Joachim 
 Murat, in the marine and in the army, in 
 the latter as field-marshal. In 3Iarch, 
 1815, together with the duke of Campo- 
 Chiaro, he negotiated, at the congress of 
 Vienna, the acknowledgment of Joachim 
 Murat as king of Naples. Ferdinand
 
 518 
 
 CARIATI CARICATURE. 
 
 allowed the prince to retain the rank of a 
 field-marshal, and, in 1820, the govern- 
 ment intrusted him, under the direction 
 of general Nugent, minister of war, with 
 the command of the troops sent against 
 the rehels in the province of Avdlino ; 
 but he was unsuccessful. He was now 
 commissioned to declare at Paris, and 
 afterwards at Laybach, the king's accept- 
 ance of the Spanish constitution; but he 
 was refused an audience. He then left 
 his native country for England, where he 
 has since lived. 
 
 CARIATIDES. (See Caryatides, also 
 Architecture, volume 1, page 340, near 
 the bottom.) 
 
 CARIBBEAN SEA ; that part of the Atlan- 
 tic ocean, which is bounded N. by the isl- 
 ands of Jamaica, St. Domingo, Porto Ri- 
 co, and the Virgin islands, E. by the Ca- 
 ribbean islands, S. by Colombia, and W. 
 by Guatirnala. 
 
 CARIBBEE ISLANDS ; the West India 
 islands, so called, which lie in a line from 
 Anguilla N. to Tobago S., and form the 
 eastern boundary of the sea called Carib- 
 bean sea. The name has been loosely 
 applied to the whole of the West India 
 islands, but is more particularly understood 
 of that archipelago which hes between 
 the 58th and 63d W. Ion., and the 
 llth and 19th N. lat. The principal are 
 St. Christopher's, Guadaloupe, Antigua, 
 Montserrat, Mariegalante, called Leeivard 
 islands (q. v.) ; Dominica, Martinico, St. Lu- 
 cia, St. Vincent's, called Windward islands 
 (q. v.) ; Grenada, Tobago, Barbadoes, &c. 
 
 CARIBBEE or ST. LUCIA BARK. Under 
 the general denomination of cinchona, 
 several barks have been comprehended 
 which are not the products of the real 
 cinchona (q. v.), and which, in fact, nei- 
 ther contain cinchonia nor quinia, and 
 cannot, consequently, be substituted as a 
 febrifuge for the true species of cinchona. 
 One of the principal substitutes of this 
 kind is the Caribbee or St. Lucia bark, 
 which is procured from the exostema Cu- 
 ribcea (Persoon), a tree growing in the 
 West Indies. This bark is in convex 
 fragments, covered with a yellow epider- 
 mis, commonly thin, but sometimes hard 
 and spongy, with deep fissures, of a yel- 
 low, red or brown tint internally, of a 
 fibrous texture, offering here and there 
 small, shining and crystalline points, of a 
 very bitter taste, and very faint smell. 
 
 CARIBBEES ; the original inhabitants of 
 the Caribbee islands (q. v.), who, in con- 
 sequence of domestic broils, emigrated 
 from North America, in the neighborhood 
 of Florida, to these islands, and to Guia- 
 
 na, in South America, where they live 
 independent, and have been joined by 
 many runaway Negroes. They often 
 engage in wars against the European col- 
 onists. They were almost entirely ex- 
 pelled from the islands in the 18th cen- 
 tury. On St. Vincent, there are only 100, 
 and on Dominica, only 30 families of red 
 Caribbees. They are of an olive-brown 
 color, but they paint themselves witli 
 arnoito, as a defence against insects. 
 On tin: island of St. Vincent, there are 
 black Caribbees, sprung from the inter- 
 course of black slaves and Caribbean wo- 
 men. Their number amounts to 2000 fam- 
 ilies. They are of a dark-brown color, 
 and, notwithstanding all the efforts of the 
 English, they maintain the independence 
 of their quarter of the island. The red 
 Caribbees are distinguished for their activ- 
 ity and courage. They inhabit villages, 
 governed by an elective chief, whom the 
 Europeans call captain. They assemble 
 for battle at the sound of a conch. Next 
 to the Patagonians, they are perhaps the 
 most robust nation with which we are 
 acquainted. They devour the flesh of 
 their enemies with great voracity. Their 
 language, one of the most sonorous, and 
 one of the softest in the world, contains 
 nearly 30 dialects. 
 
 CARIES. (See the preceding article.) 
 CARICATURE (from the Italian caricare, 
 to load, to overcharge ; cJutrger, with the 
 French). A caricature is therefore an 
 exaggerated representation of the qualities 
 and peculiarities of an object ; but in such 
 a way that the likeness is preserved, or 
 even made more striking. The effect of 
 such a representation need not be always 
 ridiculous ; it may also be terrible. Ben 
 David says, " A child of the usual size, 
 with the head and amis of a giant, is a 
 horrid caricature, whilst a large man, with 
 a diminutive nose, with a little mouth, and 
 a small voice, is a ridiculous one." Con- 
 sidered in reference to the fine arts, ex- 
 ternal deformities, which do not spring 
 from the fault of the persons afflicted, and 
 therefore excite compassion rather than 
 disgust, can never be the proper subjects 
 of caricature ; for, besides that the moral 
 sense is offended, the arts are not permit- 
 ted to idealize deformities, unless for the 
 purpose of imbodying and representing 
 character. Such corporeal disfigurements, 
 however, as arise from moral defects, and 
 all disagreeable peculiarities of manner 
 and appearance which spring from the 
 same cause, are fair subjects of caricature. 
 These caricatures are to be considered as 
 poetical representations of moral and in-
 
 CARICATURE CARILLONS. 
 
 519 
 
 tellectual deformities, of the vices and fol- 
 lies of individuals, or of whole classes, 
 sects, &c.; as dramatic pictures, which ac- 
 quire interest from the moral views with 
 which they are composed by the painter, 
 and understood by the spectator. With 
 this object, Leonardo da Vinci has drawn 
 his caricatures. He represents the quar- 
 relsome, the peevish, the braggart, the 
 slothful, the bloated glutton, the dissipated 
 rake, the awkward clown, the laughing 
 fool, &c., all with fidelity, but with exag- 
 geration. Caricatures may be tragic or 
 comic. To the former belong illustrations 
 of moral depravity ; to the latter, those of 
 intellectual deficiencies, arising from self- 
 neglect. They were in use even among 
 the ancients, who had among their masks 
 a number of caricatures. Hogarth (q. v.) 
 is an unrivalled master of caricature. Le- 
 onardo da Vinci, Annibale Caracci, Ghez- 
 zi, Callot and Ramberg (q. v.) were also 
 distinguished in this branch of art. The 
 political caricatures of the English are of 
 a striking and peculiar kind, often exhib- 
 iting a greater sensibility for political lib- 
 erty than for dignity and beauty, but 
 abounding in wit and bold humor. Gil- 
 ray and Bunbury may be considered as 
 the chief masters in this kind of caricature. 
 The French caricatures are rather exag- 
 gerated representations of life than satiri- 
 cal ideals. The Italians have too strong a 
 sense for the beautiful to relish caricatures, 
 and the Germans are too grave to excel in 
 these sportive productions. Grose, in 
 London (1788), published rules for the 
 drawing of caricatures, with an essay on 
 comic painting ; and Malcolm, a Histori- 
 cal Sketch of the Art of Caricaturing, with 
 Graphic Illustrations (London, 1813, 4to). 
 CARIG.NANO, Charles Arnadeus Albert, 
 prince of Savoy, was born Dec. 28, 1798, 
 and, in 1817, married Maria Theresa, 
 daughter of the grand-duke Ferdinand of 
 Tuscany, heir apparent to the crown of 
 Sardinia, as the king, Charles Felix Jo- 
 seph, had no male heir. Until the insur- 
 rection of a part of the Sardinian army, in 
 the night of March 11 and 12, 1821, the 
 prince had taken no part in state affairs ; 
 and, when he at length came forward, he 
 showed himself extremely irresolute, and 
 destitute alike of sound views and manly 
 character. The leaders of the insurrec- 
 tion well knew how to make the prince, 
 who had no knowledge of the political 
 condition of the state, approve the steps 
 of the insurgents, which he did by a pub- 
 lic proclamation of March 12. March 21, 
 the prince travelled to Novara, without 
 giving instructions to the provisorialjunta ; 
 
 and from Novara he proceeded, March 
 31, to the Austrian head-quarters, and, 
 subsequently, to France, as he was not 
 allowed to return to Turin. In 1823, un- 
 der the duke of Angouleme, he made a 
 campaign in Spain, distinguished himself 
 somewhat before Cadiz, and, since 1824, 
 has lived again in Turin. The founder 
 of the line of Savoy-Carignan was Thom- 
 as Francis, youngest son of Charles 
 Emanuel I, duke of Savoy, who married 
 Maria de Bourbon, countess of Soissons, 
 in 1624. This line possesses consider- 
 able private estates, both in France and 
 Piedmont. The former remained entire 
 during the period of the French revo- 
 lution, as the duke Charles Ferdinand 
 received the rights of a French citizen. 
 There have sprung, likewise, from this 
 house, the chevalier de Savoy, a son of 
 count de Villafranca ; Maria Louis (who 
 died in 1785), brother of the grandfather 
 of the heir apparent, and Louisa Anna de 
 Mahon, wife of the count. But this mar- 
 riage was never acknowledged by the 
 chief of the ruling house, as entitling the 
 heirs of it to be regarded in the line of suc- 
 cession to the throne. The possibility of 
 the succession of the house of Carignano, 
 even before the declaration of the congress 
 of Vienna, could not be contested ; but, 
 as the line of Savoy-Carignano, for 200 
 years, had been confounded with the prin- 
 cipal- line, disputes might arise, whether 
 the new acquisitions of the latter, consist- 
 ing, among other places, of the duchy of 
 Montferrat, the western part of Milan, 
 the island Sardinia, and Genoa, would 
 not admit of a female succession to the 
 last possessor of the crown in the chief 
 line. The succession was more involved, 
 from the circumstance that many parts of 
 Savoy and Piedmont had been undoubted 
 German fiefs ; and it might be thought that 
 the possessor of the crown of the chief 
 line of this family could settle how they 
 should be disposed of, after the dissolution 
 of the German empire. The experience 
 drawn from history, how contests for suc- 
 cession to the thrones of Europe, after 
 the direct lines had become extinct, have 
 often involved this continent in bloody 
 wars, induced the congress of Vienna to 
 put an end to all uncertainty, by a dis- 
 tinct acknowledgment of the right of suc- 
 cession in the house of Carignano, in case 
 of a failure of male heirs in the principal 
 line. The marriage of the prince of Ca- 
 rignano has already been blessed by the 
 birth of two princes. ( See Sardinian Mon- 
 archy.) 
 
 CARILLONS. (See Chimes.)
 
 520 
 
 CARINTHIA CARLIN. 
 
 CARIJJTHIA ; a ducliy of the Austrian 
 monarchy. (See Austria.) 
 
 CARISSIMI, Giacomo ; a famous Italian 
 musical composer of the 17th century. 
 He was born at Padua, and was living as 
 late as 1672. He wrote many oratorios, 
 cantatas and motets, and his contempora- 
 ries praised him for his characteristic ex- 
 pression of feeling, and his easy, flowing 
 .style. He deserves the most honor for 
 the improvement of the recitative, having 
 given it a more expressive and natural 
 language. He wrote, also, it is said, the 
 first church cantatas. 
 
 CARITA (Italian, from the Latin caritas) ; 
 a name, in the line arts, applied to the rep- 
 resentation of Christian love. It is exhib- 
 ited under the figure of a tender mother, 
 in the midst of her children, manifesting 
 her kindness and affection for them. In 
 this \viiy, for instance, Andrea del Sarto 
 has represented it in a picture which 
 was formerly in the Napoleon museum. 
 A careful and tender mother, holding two 
 children, of whom one lies upon her 
 breast, and the other is refreshing itself 
 with sweet fruits, while a third, on whom 
 her eyes are fixed, slumbers softly near 
 her, are the prominent parts of the picture. 
 This representation of loveliness and ten- 
 derness united was unknown to ancient 
 art. 
 
 CARLETON, sir Guy, lord Dorchester, 
 was born at Strabaue, in Ireland, in 1724, 
 and, entering the army, became lieutenant- 
 colonel in the guards in 1748. In 1758, 
 he accompanied general Amherst to 
 America, where he distinguished himself 
 at the siege of Quebec. He was promot- 
 ed to the rank of colonel in the army in 
 1762, and, at the siege of the Havannah, 
 -signalized himself by his bravery. In 
 1772, he was appointed governor of Que- 
 bec, and created major-general. By his 
 great exertions, he saved the whole of 
 Canada, the capital of which was besieged 
 by the American generals Montgomery 
 and Arnold. - The inhabitants joined the 
 British troops, and, after an obstinate re- 
 sistance, the Americans were repulsed, 
 -and Montgomery was killed at the head of 
 his army. In consequence of this exploit, 
 he was knighted, and, the next year, be- 
 came a lieutenant-general. In 1781, he 
 was appointed to succeed sir Henry Clin- 
 ton, as commander-in-chief in America, 
 where he remained until the conclusion 
 of the war. In 1786, he was again creat- 
 ed governor of Quebec, Nova Scotia anil 
 New Brunswick ; and, as a reward for his 
 long services, was raised to the peerage, 
 by the title of lord Dorchester, of Dorches-, 
 
 ter in the county of Oxford. He died in 
 1808, aged 85. 
 
 CARLI (Giovanni Rinoldo), count, called 
 sometimes Carli-Rubbi, from the title of 
 his wile, was born in 1720, at Capo d'ls- 
 tria, of an ancient noble family, and early 
 manifested an inclination for the study of 
 the middle ages, with which he connected 
 the study of belles-lettres and of poetry. 
 In his 21st year, the senate of Venice 
 made him professor of astronomy and 
 naval science. On account of a ridicu- 
 lous controversy between him and the 
 abbe Tartarotti, on witches and witchcraft, 
 lie was accused of heresy. Maffei put an 
 end to the controversy by his La Magia 
 Annihiluta. The care which his large 
 estates required compelled Carli to resign 
 his professorship and retire to Istria, 
 where he spent his time in the study of 
 antiquities, on which he has written some 
 valuable treatises. He was afterwards 
 appointed, by the emperor, president of 
 the highest commercial court at Milan, 
 and, subsequently, president of the col- 
 lege of finance in the same city. He 
 published his works, 1784 17!>4, com- 
 plete in 15 volumes, under the title Op- 
 ere del Sig. Commendatore D. dan. Ri- 
 naldo, Conte Carli, Presidtnte, &c. ; but, 
 in this edition, his American letters are 
 not contained, which form a work of five 
 volumes. He died in 1795. 
 
 CARLIN ; the most celebrated harle- 
 quin of the French stage. Some writers 
 consider the word harlequin as derived 
 from his name. He was bom at Turin in 
 1713. His true name was Carlo Anto- 
 nio Beitinazzi, and Carlin is the abbrevi- 
 ation of Carlino, the Italian diminutive of 
 Carlo. In 1741, he went to Paris, took 
 part in the Italian comedy there, and per- 
 formed, for 42 years, in the character of 
 harlequin, with constant applause. Gol- 
 doni praises him not only as one of the 
 best comic actors, but also for his excel- 
 lent manners and elegant appearance in 
 society. He enjoyed the greatest favor 
 with the parterre, and addressed the audi- 
 ence with a familiarity not allowed to any 
 other actor. He was still more successful 
 in improvisation than in the performance 
 of written parts, and has performed a 
 whole piece of five acts (Les viitgls-six 
 Infortunes (PJlrlequin) in this manner. 
 The union of mirth and benevolence, the 
 grace of his figure and manners, and the 
 respectability of his private character, 
 made him so beloved, that it was said of 
 him, 
 
 Dans sex gestes, ses terns, c'est la nature meme. 
 Sous la masque on I'ailntire, a decouvert ott Caima.
 
 CARLIN CARLOS. 
 
 521 
 
 Many bon-mots and witty sayings by him 
 were long current in Paris. The mel- 
 ancholy temper of his latter years form- 
 ed a remarkable contrast with his mirth 
 on the stage. He was the author of a 
 piece in five acts Les nouvelles Metamor- 
 phoses d'Jlrlequin (1763). 
 
 CARLISLE (anciently, Lmguvallium, and 
 Liigubalum) ; a city of England, and 
 capital of Cumberland ; 300 miles N. of 
 London ; Ion. 2 50' W. ; lat. 54 54' N. 
 Population, 12,531. It is a bishop's see. 
 It is surrounded with a wall, and defend- 
 ed by a castle and citadel. The wall 
 and citadel are in a ruinous state, but the 
 castle is kept in repair. It contains two 
 churches, with several other places of re- 
 ligious worship. It sends two members 
 to parliament. It is situated at the con- 
 flux of the rivers Eden, Peterelland Can- 
 da, which soon after fall into the sea, in 
 Solway Frith. The principal manufac- 
 tures in Carlisle are cotton-yarn, cotton 
 and linen checks, gray cottons, osna- 
 burgs, coarse linen, drills, pocketing, 
 worsted shag, silk and cotton fancy pieces, 
 stamped cottons, hats, chamois and tan- 
 ned leather, linseys, nails, coarse knives, 
 stockings, dressed flax, soap, candles, nan- 
 keens and ropes. 
 
 CARLISLE ; a post-town and capital of 
 Cumberland county, Pennsylvania ; 16 
 miles W.of Harrisburg, 114 W. Philadel- 
 phia ; Ion. 77 W W. ; lat. 40 12' N. 
 Population in 1820, 2908. It is pleasantly 
 situated, regularly laid out, built chiefly 
 of stone and brick, and has considerable 
 trade. It contains a court-house, a jail, a 
 market-house, and seven houses of public 
 worship. Dickinson college was founded 
 in this town, in 1783, and continued a 
 respectable and flourishing institution till 
 about 1816, when its operations were sus- 
 pended. It has been reorganized, and 
 its operations were resumed in Janua- 
 ry, 1822. The principal officers are a 
 president and three professors. There is 
 a grammar-school connected with the 
 college. In the United States and in 
 Canada, there are several other places 
 called Carlisle. 
 
 CARLOS, don; infante of Spain ; son of 
 Philip II and Maria of Portugal ; born at 
 Valladolid, 1545. His mother died four 
 days after his birth. He himself was 
 sickly ; and one of his legs was shorter 
 than the other. The extreme indulgence 
 with which he was educated by Joan, 
 sister of the king, confirmed his violent, 
 obstinate and vindictive disposition. In 
 1560, Philip caused him to he acknowl- 
 edged heir of the throne by the estates 
 44* 
 
 assembled at Toledo, and, in 1562, he 
 sent him to the university of Alcala de 
 Henarez, in hopes that the study of the 
 sciences would soften his turbulent char- 
 acter. An unlucky fall threw him into a 
 burning fever, and the physicians lost 
 all hopes of his recovery. The king im- 
 mediately hastened to his son, and, as it 
 was recollected that the prince had a very 
 great veneration for St. Didacius, who 
 was not yet canonized, Philip command- 
 ed the corpse of the saint to be brought in 
 a procession. It was laid upon the bed 
 of the sick prince, and his hot face cover- 
 ed with the cold shroud. He fell asleep ; 
 when he awoke, the fever had left him ; 
 he demanded food, and recovered. All 
 believed a miracle had been wrought, and 
 Philip requested the canonization of Di- 
 dacius. Contemporary historians differ 
 in the description of the prince. Accord*- 
 ing to some, he had a thirst for glory, an 
 elevated courage, pride, and a love of 
 power. According to others, he was fond 
 of whatever was strange and uncommon ; 
 an accident or opposition irritated him to 
 frenzy ; address and submission softened 
 him. He is also represented as a favorer 
 of the insurgents in the Netherlands, arid, 
 in particular, as an enemy of the inquisir 
 tion ; yet he possessed neither knowledge 
 nor principles, nor even sufficient under-t 
 standing to be capable of liberal views, 
 With him, all was passionate excitement, 
 which resistance converted into fury. 
 Llorente has corrected the accounts of 
 the character and fate of this prince, from 
 authentic sources, in his work on the 
 Spanish Inquisition, (q. v.) According to 
 him, don Carlos was arrogant, brutal, ig-r 
 norant and ill-educated. Thus much is 
 certain, that, at the congress of chateau 
 Cambresis (1559), the marriage of don 
 Carlos with Elizabeth, daughter of Hen* 
 ry JI of France, was proposed ; but Philip, 
 being left a widower by the death of 
 Mary of England, took the place of his 
 son. Don Carlos is said to have loved 
 Elizabeth, and to have never forgiven his 
 father for having deprived him of her, 
 Llorente proves, however, that don Carlos 
 never had fallen in love with the queen, 
 and that she was never too intimate 
 with him. In 1563, Philip, who had no 
 other heir than don Carlos, considering 
 him unfit for the throne, sent for his 
 nephews, the archdukes Rodolph and 
 Ernestus, to secure to them the siicees* 
 sion to his dominions. Don Carlos, who 
 lived in continual misunderstanding with 
 his father, resolved, in 1565, to leave 
 Spain, and was on the point of embark-
 
 522 
 
 CARLOS. 
 
 ing, when Ruy Gomez cle Silva, a confi- 
 dant both of Philip and Carlos, dissuaded 
 him from his resolution. In 1507, when 
 the rebellion in the LOAV Countries dis- 
 quieted Philip, don Carlos wrote to sev- 
 eral grandees of the kingdom, that he had 
 the intention of going to Germany. He 
 disclosed his plan to his uncle, don Juan 
 of Austria, who mildly dissuaded him 
 from it, and represented to him, that most 
 of the grandees to whom he had written 
 would not omit to inform the king. This 
 was, in fact, done ; and, indeed, don Juan 
 himself told Philip what don Carlos had 
 confided to him. It is believed that he 
 was touched by the sufferings of the peo- 
 ple of the Netherlands ; that he had been 
 invited by them to place himself at their 
 head, and that this plan, from its bold 
 and extravagant character, had gained his 
 approbation. Philip himself seemed to 
 believe that his son intended to go to the 
 Netherlands. The baron Montigny lost 
 his head on this account. The infante 
 had often shown a vehement desire to par- 
 ticipate in the government. But Philip, 
 jealous of his own authority, treated his 
 son coolly and with reserve, whilst he 
 gave his confidence to the duke of Alva, 
 to Ruy Gomez de Silva, don Juan of 
 Austria, and Spinola. Don Carlos con- 
 ceived an invincible aversion to them. 
 He could not bear that Alva should have 
 received the government of Flanders, 
 which he had requested for himself. The 
 architect of the Escurial, Louis de Foix, 
 gives the following facts relating to don 
 Carlos, which have been preserved to us 
 by De Thou. The prince had always 
 under his pillow two naked swords, two 
 loaded pistols, and, at the side of his bed, 
 several guns, and a chest full of other fire- 
 arms. He was often heard to complain, 
 that his father had deprived him of his 
 bride. On Christmas evening, he con- 
 fessed to a priest that he had resolved to 
 murder a man. The priest, therefore, 
 refused him absolution. The prior of the 
 monastery of Atocha artfully drew from 
 him expressions, from which it could be 
 inferred that he meditated an attempt 
 upon his own father. The confession 
 was then communicated to the king, who 
 exclaimed, " I am the man whom my 
 son intends to murder ; but I shall take 
 measures to prevent it." Thus Philip, a 
 jealous husband, a gloomy and suspi- 
 cious king, and an unfortunate father, im- 
 pelled by hatred or fear, by policy or 
 superstition, resolved on the destruction 
 of his only son, in whom he saw only a 
 criminal, unworthy of the crown. On 
 
 the night of Jan. 18, 1568, while don 
 Carlos was buried in a deep sleep, count 
 Lerma entered his chamber, and removed 
 his anus. Thou appeared the king, pre- 
 ced'-d by Ruy Gomez of Silva, the duke 
 of Fcria, the grand prior of the order of 
 St. John, brother of the duke of Alva, and 
 several officers of the guard, and state 
 counsellors. Don Carlos still slept. They 
 awaked him: he beheld the king, his fa- 
 ther, and exclaimed, "I am a dead man." 
 Then, addressing Philip, he said, "Does 
 your majesty wish to kill me? I am not 
 mad, but reduced to despair by my suf- 
 ferings." He conjured, with tears, those 
 who were present to put him to death. 
 "I am not come," answered the king, "to 
 put you to death, but to punish you as a 
 rather, and to bring you back to your 
 fluty." He then commanded him to rise, 
 deprived him of his domestics, ordered a 
 box of papers under his bed to be seized, 
 and committed him to the care of the 
 duke of Feria and six noblemen, enjoin- 
 ing them not to permit him to write, nor 
 to speak with any one. These guards 
 clothed don Carlos in a mourning dress, 
 took from his chamber the tapestry, the 
 furniture, and even his bed, leaving him 
 nothing but a mattress. Don Carlos, full 
 of rage and despair, caused a large fire to 
 be kindled, under pretext of the extreme 
 cold of the winter, and threw himself 
 suddenly into the flames, for the purpose 
 of suffocating himself. It was with diffi- 
 culty that he was rescued. He attempt- 
 ed, by turns, to finish his life by thirst, by 
 hunger, by eating to excess ; he also at- 
 tempted to choke himself, by swallowing 
 a diamond. After Philip had endeavored 
 to justify his measures to the pope, and 
 the principal sovereigns of Europe, and 
 had also given notice to the superior 
 clergy, to the courts of justice, and to the 
 cities of his empire, of what had passed, 
 he referred the case of the prince, not to 
 the inquisition, but to the council of state, 
 under the direction of cardinal Espinosa, 
 who was state counsellor, grand inquisi- 
 tor, and president of the junta of Castile. 
 This court is said, after a minute exami- 
 nation, and hearing many witnesses, to 
 have condemned him to death. But it is 
 a mistake to suppose that the sentence 
 was executed by means of a poisoned 
 soup, or that his arteries were opened in 
 a bath, or that he was strangled. Ferre- 
 ras and other Spanish historians report, 
 that he died of a malignant fever, after 
 having taken the sacrament with much 
 devotion, and having asked his father's 
 pardon. According to Llorente, the king
 
 CARLOS CARLSBAD. 
 
 523 
 
 signed, March 2, the judicial order for the 
 formal arrest of the prince, for whom the 
 pope, and all the princes to whom Philip 
 had written, in particular the emperor 
 Maximilian II, had interposed in vain. 
 The execution of the order of imprison- 
 ment was committed, by Philip, to Ruy 
 Gomez de Silva, prince of Evoli. The 
 prince displayed all the violence of his 
 passionate disposition. He obstinately re- 
 fused to confess, lived irregularly, and his 
 fury inflamed his blood to such a degree, 
 that even ice-water, which he used daily, 
 could not refresh him. He ordered a 
 great quantity of ice to be laid round his 
 bed, went naked and barefoot upon the 
 stone floor, and, for 1 1 days in June, took 
 uo food but ice. The king then visited 
 him, and addressed to him some words 
 of consolation ; after which, the prince 
 eat to great excess. This brought on a 
 malignant fever. Meanwhile, don Diego 
 Bribiesca de Mugnatones, member of the 
 council of Castile, conducted the trial. 
 The prince had not the slightest official 
 notice of it. In July, Mugnatones drew 
 up a report to the king, from the testimo- 
 ny of the witnesses, and from the papers 
 of the prince, which had teen seized, 
 stating that don Carlos was guilty of trea- 
 son, in having plotted against the life of 
 his father, and in having attempted to 
 make himself master of the government 
 of Flanders by a civil war; but that it 
 must depend on the king whether he 
 would have the infante judged according 
 to the common laws of the kingdom. 
 Philip declared that, as king, his con- 
 science did not permit him to make any 
 exception from the laws in favor of a 
 prince who had shown himself so un- 
 worthy of the throne. He believed that 
 the recovery of the prince's health was 
 not to be expected ; and that, therefore, 
 he ought to be permitted to take food 
 without any restraint, which would cause 
 his death ; that he ought, however, to 
 be convinced, that his death was inevita- 
 ble, in order to induce him to confess, and 
 secure his eternal welfare. The judicial 
 records make no mention of this resolu- 
 tion of the king ; no judgment was writ- 
 ten or signed ; and the secretary Pedro del 
 Hoyo observes, in a note, "that the judi- 
 cial process had proceeded thus far, when 
 the prince was carried oft' by sickness, and 
 that, therefore, no judgment was render- 
 ed." With this the written accounts of 
 other persons, who were employed in the 
 palace of the king, agree. In consequence 
 of the declaration of the king, the cardinal 
 Espinosa and the prince of Evoli thought 
 
 it advisable to leave the death of the 
 prince to the progress of the disease. To 
 the physician of the king, Olivarez, who 
 had the care of the prince, this purpose 
 of the prince of Evoli was communi- 
 cated. On the 20th of July, he adminis- 
 tered a medicine to the patient, after 
 which the disease appeared to become 
 fatal, and advised the infante to prepare 
 himself for his approaching death by 
 taking the sacrament. This don Carlos 
 did, July 21, and asked pardon of the 
 king, his father, through his confessor. 
 Philip granted it, and also his blessing. 
 Upon this, don Carlos received the sacra- 
 ment, and made his will. The struggle 
 lasted during the 22d and 23d of July. 
 The prince listened, during that time, 
 with calmness, to the prayers of the cler- 
 gyman. On the night of the 23d, the 
 king visited him, gave him his blessing, 
 without being recognised by the prince, 
 and withdrew weeping. Soon afterwards, 
 at 4 o'clock in the morning of the 24th of 
 July, 1568, don Carlos expired. He was 
 buried, as became his rank, yet without 
 any funeral sermon, in the convent of the 
 Dominican nuns, El Real, at Madrid. 
 The virtuous queen Elizabeth died, Oct. 
 23 of the same year, in child-bed, and not 
 by poison, as the enemies of Philip as- 
 serted. Philip II, in 1592, ordered the 
 judicial acts to be locked in a box, and to 
 be deposited in the royal archives at Si- 
 inancas. The melancholy fate of don 
 Carlos has served as a subject for several 
 tragedies those of Schiller, Alfieri, Ot- 
 way and Campistron. 
 
 CARLOVITZA, or CARLOWITZ, or KAR- 
 LOWITZ ; a town of Austrian Sclavonia, 
 on the Danube ; 7 miles S. E. Petenvar- 
 dein ; population, 5800. It is the see of 
 a Greek archbishop. Here is a Greek 
 gymnasium, which had, in 1817, 164 stu- 
 dents. This town is remarkable for a 
 peace concluded here, in 1699, between 
 the emperor of Germany, Poland, Russia, 
 Venice and the Turks, by the mediation 
 of England and Holland. By the terms 
 of this peace, the emperor Leopold I re- 
 ceived Siebenbiirgen and Sclavonia ; Po- 
 land received back Kaminiec, Podolia and 
 the Ukraine ; Venice retained the con- 
 quered Morea ; Russia, Azoph. (See 
 Austria and Ottoman Empire.) 
 
 CARLSBAD, in the kingdom of Bohe- 
 mia, one of the most famous watering- 
 places in the world, is situated in a deep, 
 narrow valley of the river Tcpel. It is 
 said that Charles IV discovered the warm 
 springs here, in 1358, during a chase. 
 Peter Baier, his physician, directed him
 
 524 
 
 CARLSBAD CARLSTADT. 
 
 to use them, to obtain relief for a disorder 
 of his foot. The application proved most 
 effectual ; and, in consequence of this, 
 the emperor is related to have built a cas- 
 tle here ; and houses gradually accumu- 
 lated round it. Carlsbad signifies, in Ger- 
 man, Charles' bath. The town has 450 
 houses, with 2510 inhabitants. Ample 
 provision has been made for the amuse- 
 ment of the visitors of this place. Fine 
 buildings have been erected, and beautiful 
 promenades laid out. A great number of 
 strangers are attracted here every year. 
 (See Mineral Waters.) Carlsbad is also 
 known on account of the 
 
 Congress of Carlsbad. This congress 
 was only for Germany, and is to be con- 
 sidered as one of the many consequences 
 of the increase of a liberal spirit in the 
 German nation, and the unwillingness of 
 the monarchs to keep their promises re- 
 specting liberal institutions. The final 
 act of this congress was closed May 15, 
 1820, and made a law of the German 
 confederation on July 2. The object of 
 the congress, according to its own re- 
 solves, was, to decide upon measures for 
 the safety and internal order of Germany. 
 Laws were passed for the establishment 
 of a stricter police in the universities, 
 which, since that time, have been brought 
 into closer contact with the governments, 
 and officers have been appointed to watch 
 over the conduct of the students. Peri- 
 odical works, and such as contain less 
 than 20 sheets, were put, for five years, 
 under a severe censorship ; and the diet 
 was to have' the right to suppress any 
 books which disturbed the peace or at- 
 tacked the dignity of any member of the 
 confederation, or tended so to do. For 
 the detection and prosecution of secret po- 
 litical societies throughout Germany, and 
 the checking of " demagogic tendencies," a 
 central police-commission was organized. 
 The congress, moreover, complained of 
 dangerous theories eveiy day becoming 
 more and more widely epread, &c. 
 
 CARLSCRONA, or CARLSCROON ; a sea- 
 port of Sweden, capital of the province 
 of Blekingen, or Carlscrona ; Ion. 15 33' 
 E. ; lat. 56 17' N. : population in 1810, 
 10,639; in 1815, 11,860. The greatest 
 part stands upon a small, rocky island, 
 which rises gently in a bay of the Baltic. 
 The suburbs extend over another small 
 rock, and along the mole close to the ba- 
 sin, where the fleet is moored. It is 
 adorned with one or two handsome 
 churches, and a few tolerable houses of 
 brick ; but the buildings in general are 
 of wood. The suburbs are fortified, to- 
 
 wards the land, by a stone wall. The 
 entrance into the harbor, which, by na- 
 ture, is extremely difficult, from a number 
 of shoals and rocky islands, is still further 
 secured from the attack of an enemy's 
 fleet by two strong forts, built on two 
 islands, under the batteries of which all 
 vessels must pass. The harbor is large 
 and commodious, with depth of water 
 sufficient for ships of the first rate. The 
 exports are timber, tar, potash, tallow and 
 marble. Carlscrona is the principal de- 
 pot of the Swedish navy. 
 
 CARLSRUHE (German, which means 
 the rest of Charles), the capital of the 
 grand-duchy of Baden, was laid out in 
 1715, and is one of the most regularly- 
 built towns in Europe. The castle of the 
 grand-duke stands in the centre of the 
 city, from which nine streets run at regu- 
 lar distances from each other, to the cir- 
 cumference of a circle enclosing the area 
 of the city, and thus forming a star. 
 Other streets intersect these in parallel 
 circles. The roads leading to the city 
 correspond to this regular disposition, 
 which, as is often the case in strictly reg- 
 ular cities, often leaves upon the traveller 
 the impression of monotony, rather than 
 that of agreeable order. The city con- 
 tains 17,232 inhabitants and 1170 houses. 
 It is ornamented with several beautiful 
 public buildings. The court library con- 
 tains 70,000 volumes ; the botanical gar- 
 den, 6000 species of plants. There are 
 also here several valuable museums and 
 cabinets, several institutions for the pro- 
 motion of literature and the fine arts, one 
 for the deaf and dumb, and some manu- 
 factories. Lon. 20 45' E. ; lat. 49 N. 
 
 CARLSTADT (so called from his native 
 town, Carlstadt, in Franconia ; his proper 
 name was Andrew Bodenstein) is cele- 
 brated, in the history of the reformation, 
 for his fanaticism as well as his misfor- 
 tunes. He was professor of theology at 
 Wittenberg. His learning enabled him 
 to render great support to Luther in his 
 first steps for the introduction of a refor- 
 mation. In 1520, he was included in the 
 bull which condemned Luther ; and his 
 spirited appeal from the pope to a gen- 
 eral council, of which he gave the first 
 example, as well as his opinion, openly 
 expressed, in favor of the marriage of the 
 priesthood, which soon gained ground, 
 was among the many proofs which he 
 gave of his zeal for the reformation. 
 Whilst Luther was at Wartburg, Carl- 
 stadt's zeal urged him to acts of violence. 
 He even instigated the people and stu- 
 dents to the destruction of the altars and
 
 CARLSTADT CARMEL. 
 
 525 
 
 the images of the saints, greatly to the 
 displeasure of Luther, who lost the friend- 
 ship of Carlstadt by his opposition to his 
 outrages. In 1524, he declared himself 
 publicly the opponent of Luther, who had 
 preached at Jena against the disturbances 
 which he had excited, so that the elector 
 Frederic banished him from the country, 
 in September, 1524. Carlstadt, upon this, 
 commenced the controversy respecting 
 the sacrament, denying, in opposition to 
 Luther, the bodily presence of Christ in 
 the sacrament. This controversy was 
 carried on with the bitterest animosity ; 
 and, Zwinglius having declared himself 
 in favor of Carlstadt's doctrine, a dispute 
 commenced between the Swiss and Wit- 
 tenberg theologians, which ended in the 
 separation of the Calvinists and Luther- 
 ans. Carlstadt, in the mean time, being 
 suspected, not without reason, of having 
 taken part in the revolt of the peasants in 
 Franconia, was obliged to wander through 
 Germany, and, being ultimately reduced 
 to extreme distress, sought relief of Lu- 
 ther, who procured him an asylum at 
 Kemberg, on condition that he should 
 refrain from the expression of his opin- 
 ions. Here he lived nearly three years. 
 His restless mind, however, soon led him 
 to break his promise, by the publication 
 of some writings, in 1528 ; and he even 
 went so far as to plot against Luther's 
 person. To escape from the conse- 
 quences of his conduct, he repaired to 
 Switzerland, at the end of the same year, 
 where he was appointed vicar of Altstadt, 
 in the valley of the Rhine ; in 1530, dea- 
 con at Zurich, and, in 1531, vicar and 
 professor of theology at Basle, where he 
 died in 1541 or 1543. 
 
 CARMAG.XOLE ; a name applied, in the 
 early times of the French republic, to a 
 dance, and a song connected with it. 
 The appellation originated, probably, from 
 the city of Carmagnole, in Piedmont. The 
 dance was first used at the time of the 
 indignation of the people on account of the 
 veto allowed to the king on the resolves 
 of the national assembly. The carmag- 
 nole was commonly sung and danced at 
 popular festivals, executions, and erup- 
 tions of popular discontent. Afterwards 
 the name was also applied to the national 
 guards, who wore a dress of a peculiar 
 cut, and to the enthusiastic supporters 
 of the revolution. Several members of 
 the national convention, Barrere, for in- 
 stance, by way of jest, gave this name to 
 their communications to the assembly. 
 Petits carmagnoles is a name given, by the 
 people in Paris, to boys who sweep chim- 
 
 neys and black boots, chiefly Savoyards ; 
 probably taken from the name of the city 
 before mentioned. 
 
 CARMEL ; a mountain in Palestine, con- 
 stituting part of Lebanon, on the southern 
 frontier of Galilee, in the pachalic of 
 Acca. It consists of several rich, woody 
 heights, separated by fertile and habitable 
 valleys, within a circuit of about 28 miles, 
 and terminates, at the mouth of the Kis- 
 chen, in a lovely plain, which forms the 
 southern coast of the gulf of Ptolemais or 
 Acca, on the Mediterranean. Upon dif- 
 ferent parts of this mountain there are 
 ruins of churches and monasteries from 
 the time of the Christian kingdom of Je- 
 rusalem, and the cave which, according 
 to tradition, was inhabited by the prophet 
 Elias. From the 4th century, Christian 
 hermits have chosen mount Carmel for 
 their abode. It was not, however, till 
 about the middle of the 12th century, that 
 pilgrims, under the direction of Berthold 
 of Calabria, established an association for 
 the purpose of leading a secluded life 
 upon this mountain, which received its 
 rules from Albert, the patriarch of Jeru- 
 salem, in 1209, and the papal confirma- 
 tion from Honorius III, in 1224. Their 
 rules coincide nearly with those of the 
 ancient Basilians. This is the origin of 
 the order of Our Lady of mount Carmel. 
 The Carmelites enumerate among tlieir 
 members all the prophets and holy men 
 mentioned in the Scriptures, from Elias to 
 Jesus; also Pythagoras, the Gallic Dru- 
 ids, the holy women of the New Testa- 
 ment, and the hermits of Christian an- 
 tiquity. Christ they consider as their 
 particular protector, and his apostles as 
 missionaries from mount Carmel. The 
 Jesuit Papebroch has shown how utterly 
 unfounded their pretensions are, and no 
 well-informed man believes their account 
 of their origin. Yet they were allowed, 
 as late as in the 18th century, by Benedict 
 III, to erect the statue of the prophet 
 Elias, as the founder of their order, in St. 
 Peter's church in Rome. Being driven 
 by the Saracens to Europe, they adopted, 
 in 1247, a milder rule, and the forms vf 
 monastic life. They also became divided 
 into four independent bodies: 1. the 06- 
 servantes, who wore shoes; 2. the con- 
 gregation of Mantua ; 3. the bare-footed 
 friars, and bare-footed or Theresian nuns, 
 in Spain ; 4. the bare-footed friars in 
 Italy. The two latter classes observe the 
 elder and stricter rule. The knightly or- 
 der of Our Lady of mount Carmel, estab- 
 lished by Henry IV in France, is con- 
 nected with the Carmelites only by the
 
 526 
 
 CARMEL CARNEADES. 
 
 name. As their mode of life precludes 
 all useful exertion, governments, in mod- 
 ern times, have taken measures to prevent 
 th,e extension of their order, and the ad- 
 mission of novices has been forbidden, 
 except in Spain, Portugal and America. 
 In Paris, a nunnery of this order was 
 established in 1817, under the royal pro- 
 tection. 
 
 CARMER (John Henry Casimir) count 
 of; high chancellor and minister of jus- 
 tice in Prussia. He rendered the great- 
 est service to Prussian jurisprudence by 
 the assistance which he afforded in the 
 preparation of the Prussian code, and still 
 more by the improvements which he in- 
 troduced into the civil process of that 
 country. (See Prussian Code.) He was 
 born in 1721, entered the Prussian service 
 early, and was soon noticed by Frederic 
 the Great. After 50 years' service, he re- 
 tired from official life, and died, in 1801, 
 near Glogau, in Silesia. 
 
 CARMINE, the most splendid of all the 
 red colors, is made from the cochineal in- 
 sect, or coccus cacti. It is deposited from 
 a decoction of powdered cochineal in 
 water, to which alum, carbonate of soda, 
 or oxyde of tin, is added. As the beauty 
 of this valuable color is affected, not only 
 by the mode of applying it, but also by 
 the quantity of the ingredients mixed 
 with it, we find various recipes for the 
 preparation of it. The manufactories 
 which prepare the best carmine carefully 
 conceal the method. The best natural 
 cochineal is found in Mexico. 
 
 CARMONTELLE, a French poet, known 
 by his Proverbes dramatiques (10 vols.), 
 born in 1717, at Paris, died there 1800. 
 These little pieces are without much con- 
 nexion in themselves, being, in fact, only 
 a series of dramatic scenes, but are well 
 adapted for private theatres. The fertili- 
 ty of Cannon telle was as extraordinary as 
 his ease in writing. He is said to have 
 left, besides his printed works and his 
 pieces for the theatre, more than a hun- 
 dred volumes of manuscripts. 
 
 CARNATIC ; a country in Hindostan, ly- 
 ing along the coast of Coromandel, from 
 cape Comorin, in lat. 8, to 16 N. ; 500 
 miles in length, and from 40 to 100 in 
 breadth. The Carnatic or Camada, an- 
 ciently called JVarosinha, in early periods, 
 was subject to the king of Bisnagar. Since 
 the year 1787, the whole country has been 
 under the authority or absolute control 
 of the English East India company. The 
 soil is generally sandy, and the climate is 
 one of the hottest in India. The country 
 of Ongole, Mudura and Tinevelly is in- 
 
 cluded in the Carnatic. The principal 
 towns are Arcot, Madras, Ongole, Pondi- 
 cherry, Cuddalore, Tanjore, Tritchinopo- 
 ly, Madura and Tinevelly. The princi- 
 pal rivers are the Pennar, the Paliar and 
 the Cauvery. 
 
 CARNATION (from the Latin caro, car- 
 nis, flesh) signifies, in the fine arts, the 
 coloring of the flesh of the human body. 
 The use of carnation requires very at- 
 tentive study, and great skill in the art- 
 ist. It varies with the sex of the individ- 
 ual, with the classes and countries to 
 which the subjects belong, with the pas- 
 sions, the state of the health, &c. The 
 cheeks are, in a healthy subject, of a live- 
 ly red ; the breast, neck, and upper part 
 of the arms of a soft white ; the belly yel- 
 lowish. At the extremities, the color be- 
 comes colder, and, at the joints, assumes 
 a violet tint, on account of the transpar- 
 ent appearance of the blood. All these 
 shades require to be softly blended. Two 
 faults in carnation are chiefly to be avoid- 
 ed hardness, the fault of the masters of 
 the 15th century, and too great weakness. 
 Guido Reni not unfrequently painted liis 
 flesh so that it appeared almost bloodless. 
 The French school has gone furthest in 
 this respect. The flesh of the followers 
 of this school often looks like porcelain 
 or wax. Titian is still unrivalled in car- 
 nation. 
 
 CARNEADES, an eminent Greek philoso- 
 pher, founder of the third or new acade- 
 my, was a native of Cyrene, in Africa, and 
 is supposed to have been born in the third 
 year of the 141st Olympiad. He studied 
 first under Diogenes the Stoic, but subse- 
 quently attended the lectures of Egesinus, 
 who explained the doctrines of Arcesi- 
 laus ; and, succeeding his master in the 
 chair of the academy, he restored its rep- 
 utation by softening the prevailing pyr- 
 rhonism, and admitting practical proba- 
 bilities. The doctrine of Carneades spe- 
 cifically Avas, that, "as the senses, the 
 understanding and the imagination fre- 
 quently deceive us, they cannot be the 
 infallible judges of truth, but that from 
 the impression made by the senses we 
 infer appearances of truth, which, with 
 respect to the conduct of life, are a suffi- 
 cient guide." He was a strenuous op- 
 poser of Chrysippus, and attacked, with 
 great vigor, the system of theology of the 
 Stoics. He was an advocate of free-will 
 against the fate of the same sect, and 
 urged just the same difficulties in recon- 
 ciling divine prescience with the freedom 
 of human actions, as have divided some 
 contending sects of Christianity. One of
 
 CARNEADES CARNIVAL. 
 
 527 
 
 the most distinguished events of his life 
 was his being joined in an embassy to 
 Rome with Diogenes the Stoic and Cri- 
 tolaus the Peripatetic, in order to gain the 
 mitigation of a fine levied by the Roman 
 senate on the Athenians. This extraor- 
 dinary embassy was successful, and Car- 
 neades so captivated the people by his 
 eloquence, that Cato the censor, fearful 
 of its effect on the Roman youth, per- 
 suaded the senate to send the philoso- 
 phers hack to their schools without delay. 
 ( '. died in the ninetieth year of his age, 
 continually complaining of the shortness 
 of life, and lamenting that the same na- 
 ture which composed the human frame 
 could dissolve it. 
 
 CAR.NELIA*. (See Quartz.) 
 
 CARNIOLA ; a duchy in the Austrian 
 dominions. (See Austria, vol. i., page 
 493.) 
 
 CARNIVAL. The same views which 
 led men to propitiate the higher invisible 
 powers by gifts, sacrifices and purifica- 
 tions, also introduced fasts, abstinence 
 from pleasure, and penances. By fast is 
 meant an abstinence from the usual 
 means of nourishment, in order to morti- 
 fy the appetites, and thereby to propitiate 
 the Deity. In every nation of impor- 
 tance, customs of this kind are found. 
 Their historical origin is in the religious 
 customs of the East, where the priests 
 were originally the physicians of the peo- 
 ple, and prescribed these fasts as a part 
 of the regimen necessary in this warm 
 region, as well as from religious views. 
 Fasts are observed to this day in the East. 
 The religions of the Persians and the Hin- 
 doos, those of Mohammed and Moses, and 
 of the worshippers of the Lama, insist 
 much on fasts. Few traces of them are 
 found in the religion of the ancient people 
 of the North. The earliest Christians 
 fasted on the vigils, (q. v.) The fasts on 
 the jejunia quatuor tempestatum, which 
 continued for three days every quarter of 
 the yearj were penances, as was that of 
 the period of 40 days (before Easter, or 
 rather before Good Friday, Quadrigesi- 
 mce), which was called, by way of excel- 
 lence, the fast, and which commemorated 
 the 40 days' fast of Jesus in the wilder- 
 ness. With regard to the origin of fasts, 
 opinions differ. The most common is, 
 that Telesphorus, bishop of Rome, in the 
 middle of the 2d century, first instituted 
 the 40 days' fast as a rule of the church. 
 By pope Gregory the Great, about 600, 
 Ash -Wednesday was made the beginning 
 of the fast, and the day before was called 
 fast-eve, because in the night of this day, at 
 
 12 o'clock, the fast began. This fast was 
 preceded by a feast of three days, very ob- 
 noxious to the strict zealots. " Christians," 
 it is said, " on these days, deliver themselves 
 up to voluntary madness, put on masks, 
 exchange sexes, clothe themselves like 
 spectres, give themselves up to Bacchus 
 and Venus, and consider all pleasure al- 
 lowable." This is the origin of the pres- 
 ent carnival, orFaschings, as it is called in 
 the south of Germany, and which contin- 
 ues, in that country, from Twelfth-day to 
 Arfh-Wednesday. The name carnival is 
 derived from the Latin words carne and 
 vale (according to Ducange, from the Latin 
 denomination of the feast in the middle 
 ages, carne levamen), because at that time 
 people took leave of flesh. Previously to 
 the commencement of their long absti- 
 nence, men devoted themselves to enjoy- 
 ment, particularly during the three last 
 days of the carnival. The carnival is 
 nothing but the Saturnalia of the Chris- 
 tian Romans, who could not forget their 
 pagan festivals. At least it greatly resem- 
 bles the Saturnalia, which were celebrat- 
 ed, annually, in December, with all kinds 
 of mirth, pleasure and freedom, in honor 
 of Saturn, and the golden age when he 
 governed the world, and to preserve the 
 remembrance of the liberty and equality 
 of man in the youth of the world. In 
 Rome, the carnival brought to view, in a 
 lively manner, the old Saturnalia in a 
 new form. During the last days of the 
 carnival, and particularly during the day 
 which preceded the long fast, mumme- 
 ries, plays, tricks, and freedom of every 
 kind, abounded. From Italy, the mod- 
 ern Saturnalia passed to the other Chris- 
 tian countries of Europe. In the amuse- 
 ments of this period the dramatic poetry 
 of Germany had its origin, after the cities 
 had attained a flourishing condition. Its 
 first traces appeared in the 13th century. 
 The mummeries of the carnival produced 
 the idea of adopting some character, and 
 carrying it through. To please the mul- 
 titude, and make the laugh more certain, 
 the manners of common life were carica- 
 tured. These exhibitions afterwards be- 
 came more cultivated and developed. 
 " On fast-eve," says Flogel, in his History 
 of Comic Literature, vol. 4, p. 292, " per- 
 sons in disguise sometimes went from 
 one house to another, to make sport with 
 their friends and acquaintances. A mer- 
 ry society of this kind formed a plan to 
 represent some scene in their disguises, 
 and hold a regular conversation at one of 
 these mummeries. The unknown play- 
 ers received praises, entertainments or
 
 528 
 
 CARNIVAL CARNOT. 
 
 presents. Encouraged by this success, 
 the company grew stronger, their fables 
 and speeches became longer by degrees, 
 until they attained to regular representa- 
 tions of human life." It was in Nuivm- 
 l>erg, renowned for its wares and its wit, 
 that the first fast-eve's play was pro- 
 duced, coarse and frolicsome, to suit the 
 taste of the citizens. These pieces 
 have a near relationship to the masques 
 of the English and the farces of the 
 French, as have the spiritual fast-eve's 
 plays, religious burlesques, to the Myste- 
 ries and Moralities. According to the 
 ancient custom, these plays were opened 
 and closed by a crier or herald. The 
 carnival is celebrated, in modern times, 
 with the greatest show and spirit at Ven- 
 ice and Rome. In the former place, it 
 begins after Christmas. The diversions 
 of it are shows, masquerades, the amuse- 
 ments of the place of St. Mark, and some- 
 times, in case of the visits of great princes, 
 a regatta, or boat-race. After this, there 
 was a second carnival in Venice, the 
 Venetian mass, called also the festival of 
 the Ascension, and the Bucentaur festival, 
 because it commonly began on Ascen- 
 sion-day, and because the celebration of 
 the marriage of the doge with the Adri- 
 atic sea was connected with it. It con- 
 tinued 14 days. No character-masks 
 were worn there, however, except Vene- 
 tian dominos. The carnival at Rome 
 (see Gothe's excellent description, Das 
 Ri'nnische. Carneval, and that of lady Mor- 
 gan) continues but eight days, and is oc- 
 cupied mostly in masquerades and races. 
 Since the return of peace, the carnival 
 has been celebrated again in Cologne, on 
 the Rhine, under the direction of the 
 committee of fools, to the great satisfac- 
 tion of all who were present. In Spain, 
 the carnival is called carnestolendas. 
 
 CARNOT, Lazare Nicholas Marguerite ; 
 born at Nolay, in Burgundy, 1753 ; the 
 son of an advocate. From his youth, he 
 exhibited an uncommon talent for the 
 mathematical and military sciences, en- 
 tered the corps of engineers, and rose in 
 office by the favor of the prince of Conde. 
 He published, afterwards, Mathematical 
 Essays, which caused him to be elected 
 a member of several learned societies. 
 His eulogy on Vauban received the prize 
 of the academy at Dijon. At the begin- 
 ning of the revolution, he was captain in 
 the corps of engineers. In 1791, he was 
 appointed deputy to the constituent as- 
 sembly, but at first took part only in mil- 
 itary affairs. At his proposal, the officers 
 of the nobility were removed from the 
 
 army, and others substituted from the 
 citizens. As a member of the conven- 
 tion, he voted for the death of Louis. In 
 the following March, he was sent to the 
 army of the north, where he deprived the 
 cowardly general Gratien of his command 
 on the field, put himself at the head of 
 the army, and repulsed the enemy. On 
 his return to the convention, he was made 
 a member of the committee of public 
 safety, (q. v.) The influence of Carnot 
 in the military operations now began to 
 be more deeply felt. In possession of all 
 the plans deposited in the archives of 
 Louis XIV, he organized and directed 
 the French armies ; and his direction un- 
 doubtedly contributed very much to their 
 success. After the fall of Robespierre, 
 he was often accused, but always acquit- 
 ted, because his duty had been to take 
 care of the defence of the country, and 
 he could not be made answerable for the 
 cruel decrees of Robespierre, in which 
 Carnot's name, as he was a member of 
 the committee, of course, was to be found. 
 At the establishment of the directory, in 
 1795, Camot was chosen a member, and, 
 for some time, maintained an important 
 influence. Barras at length succeeded 
 him in the department of war, and was, 
 ever after, his enemy. His plan for the 
 overthrow of Barras was unsuccessful, 
 and, with some others, he was sentenced 
 to transportation on the 18th Fructidor 
 (Sept. 4), 1797. He fled to Germany, and 
 published a defence, which was eagerly 
 read in Paris, and, by the exposure of the 
 conduct of his former colleagues, hasten- 
 ed their overthrow on the 30th Prairial 
 (June 18), 1799. After the 18th Brumaire, 
 Carnot was recalled and appointed in- 
 specteur aux revues, and, two months later, 
 in April, 1800, minister of war. He soon 
 after retired into the bosom of his family, 
 but was called to the tribunate, March 9, 
 1802. The same inflexible integrity and 
 republican principle, which had hitherto 
 distinguished him, did not now desert 
 him. He often opposed the views of the 
 government, voted alone against the con- 
 sulship for life, and resisted strenuously 
 the proposal for the imperial dignity. He 
 remained, however, a member of the tri- 
 bunate till it was abolished, passed the 
 next seven years of his life in retirement, 
 and published several valuable military 
 works. In 1814, Napoleon gave him the 
 chief command at Antwerp. He con- 
 nected a vigorous defence with a careful 
 regard for the interest of the city, which, 
 by the command of Louis XVIII, he al- 
 terwards surrendered to the English gen-
 
 CARNOT CAROLINA. 
 
 529 
 
 era! Graham. He still retained his titles 
 and his honors, but, as a firm republican, 
 he could never expect the favor of the 
 court ; particularly as, in his memorial to 
 the king, he openly and severely censured 
 the measures of government, in conse- 
 quence of which he was passed over in 
 the new organization of the academy of 
 sciences. When Napoleon was once 
 more at the helm of state, in 1815, he 
 made Carnot count and peer of the em- 
 pire, and pressed upon him the ministry 
 of the interior. Carnot discharged the 
 difficult duties of this office with his usual 
 integrity. After the emperor's second 
 fall, he was made a member of the pro- 
 visory government of France, and was 
 afterwards the only one of the members 
 of it comprehended in the ordinance of 
 July 24. He retired to Cerney, where he 
 employed his pen on political subjects; 
 then to Warsaw, in 1815, with his family ; 
 and, finally, to Magdeburg, where he died 
 Aug. 3, 1823. (See the Corresp. de .Yap. 
 Buonap. av. le Cte. Carnot pend. les 1(JO 
 Jours (Paris, 1819), and Carnofs Leben 
 (Carnot's Life), by Korte.) The broth- 
 ers Baudouin, in Paris, who have in 
 their possession all Carnot's manuscripts, 
 published, in 1824, Mem. histor. d mili- 
 taires sur Carnot, rediges d'apres ses Man- 
 uscrits, sa Corresp. inedite, et ses Ecrits, 
 etc., far Tissot. Among Carnot's writ- 
 ings, the most valuable are his Essai sur 
 les Machines ; Reflexions sur la Mcta- 
 physique du Calcul infinitesimal; Sur la 
 Geometric du Position ; De la JJt'fense des 
 Places fortes ; Expose de la Conduite po- 
 litique de Carnot, depuis le 1 Juill., 1814. 
 In Magdeburg, Carnot published Mtmoire 
 sur la Fortification primitive, and a vol- 
 ume of poems. He was rigid in his love 
 of virtue, a scholar, a general, and an in- 
 flexible republican. He was universally 
 esteemed, both in France and in foreign 
 lands, and was honored by all parties. 
 Camot's life is one of those which ought 
 to be familiar to every young republican, 
 like that of Barneveldt. (q. v.) 
 
 CARO, Annibale, one of the most cele- 
 brated Italian authors of the 16th century, 
 born 1507, at Citta-Nuova, in the March 
 of Ancona, after the death of his patron, 
 Gaddi, 1543, was appointed secretary to 
 Pietro Ludovico Famese, duke of Parma 
 and Piacenza, who intrusted him with 
 several missions to Charles V. After the 
 assassination of the duke, his own life 
 was in considerable danger. He took 
 refuge in Parrna, and was treated in a 
 friendly manner by the new duke, Octa- 
 vio Farnese, whose two brothers, the car- 
 
 VOL. ii. 45 
 
 dinals Ranuccio and Alexander, took him 
 successively into their service. With the 
 latter he remained from 1548 to his death 
 in 1566, and received from him several 
 ecclesiastical preferments. Caro devoted 
 himself chiefly to the study of numis- 
 matics and the Tuscan language, and his 
 pure and elegant style, in verse and prose, 
 soon became generally admired. His 
 translation of the ^Eneid, in blank verse, 
 is excellent. After his death, appeared a 
 translation by him of Longus, and of 
 Aristotle's Rhetoric ; also Rime and Let- 
 tere, the former of which are admired for 
 the elegance of the verse, and the latter 
 as models of beautiful Italian prose. He 
 belongs to the most elegant writers of 
 Italian literature. 
 
 CAROLINA. This name is generally 
 given to a famous law of the German 
 empire, of the year 1532, under Charles 
 V, which he called himself an ordinance 
 of criminal procedure (Peinliche GericMs- 
 ordnung]. From him, it was, at a later 
 period, called Constitutio criminalis Caro- 
 lina, or, shortly, Carolina. The arbitrary 
 administration of justice, the disorder and 
 cruelty which had become customary in 
 the courts of Germany, where many a 
 process was begun and ended with the 
 torture, and persons were sentenced even 
 to death Avithout regular process, gave 
 occasion to this law. From the begin- 
 ning of the peace of the land, the necessity 
 of such a law was felt throughout the 
 country ; but it was difficult, in this, as in 
 all other cases, to make the different mem- 
 bers of the empire agree on one general 
 measure. The baron John von Schwarz- 
 enberg, a man of talent and a patron of 
 science (of the family of the present 
 princes of Sclnvarzenberg), was chiefly 
 instrumental in introducing this ordi- 
 nance. He was born in 1463, became 
 minister of state of the prince-bishop of 
 Bainberg, and succeeded in procuring an 
 ordinance of criminal procedure forBam- 
 berg to be drawn up and published in 
 1507. The same was also adopted, in 
 1510, by the margrave of Brandenburg 
 and Franconia; and, at last, a law of 
 criminal procedure for the empire at 
 large was passed by the diet at Regens- 
 burg, in 1532, which, for that time, was a 
 very great step, and had a salutary influ- 
 ence. Several German princes, as the 
 elector of Saxony, the elector of Bran- 
 denburg, and of the palatinate, protested 
 against it, in order to protect the laws of 
 their states and their own privileges 
 against the legislative power of the em- 
 peror ; but at last the Carolina was
 
 530 
 
 CAROLINA NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 established in almost every part of the 
 empire. (See Malblank's Geschichte der 
 peinlichen Gerichtsordnung Kaiser Karls 
 F, 1783.) 
 
 CAROLINA MARIA ; wife of Ferdinand 
 I, king of the Two Sicilies, daughter of 
 the emperor Francis I and of Maria The- 
 resa, born 13th August, 1752; an ambitious 
 and intelligent woman, but, unfortunately, 
 without firmness of character. Accord- 
 ing to the terms of her marriage contract, 
 the young queen, after the birth of a male 
 heir, was to have a seat in the council of 
 state ; but her impatience to participate in 
 the government would not allow her to 
 wait for this event, previous to which she 
 procured the removal of the old minister, 
 Tanucci, who possessed the confidence 
 of the king and of the nation, and raised 
 a Frenchman named Acton (q. v.) to the 
 post of prime minister, who ruined the 
 finances of the state by his profusion, and 
 excited the hatred of all ranks by the in- 
 troduction of a political inquisition. The 
 queen, too, drew upon herself the dislike 
 of the oppressed nation by cooperating in 
 the measures of the minister ; and banish- 
 ments and executions were found insuffi- 
 cient to repress the general excitement. 
 The declaration of war by Naples against 
 France (1798) was intended to give an- 
 other turn to the popular feeling ; but the 
 sudden invasion of the French drove the 
 reigning family to Sicily. The revolution 
 of cardinal Ruftb in Calabria, and the re- 
 publican party in the capital, restored the 
 former rulers in 1799. The famous lady 
 Hamilton (q. v.) now exerted the greatest 
 influence on the unhappy queen, on her 
 husband, on the English ambassador and 
 admiral Nelson, and sacrificed more vic- 
 tims than Acton and Vauini had formerly 
 done. (See Speziale.) After the battle 
 of Marengo, 12,000 Russians could not 
 prevent the conquest of Naples by the 
 French, and the formation of a kingdom 
 out of the Neapolitan dominions for Jo- 
 seph (Bonaparte), who was afterwards 
 succeeded in the same by Joachim (Murat). 
 The queen was not satisfied with the ef- 
 forts which the English made for the res- 
 toration of the old dynasty, and thereup- 
 on quarrelled with lord Bentinck, the 
 British general in Sicily, who wished to 
 exclude her from all influence in the gov- 
 ernment. She died in 1814, without hav- 
 ing seen the restoration of her family to 
 the throne of Naples. 
 
 CAROLINA, North ; one of the United 
 States ; bounded N. by Virginia, E. by 
 the Atlantic, S. by South Carolina, and 
 W. by Tennessee ; Ion. 75 45> to 84 
 
 W. ; lat. 33 5& to 36 30 7 N. ; 430 miles 
 long and 180 broad. Square miles, 50,000. 
 Population in 1790, 393,751 : in 1800, 
 478,103 : in 1810, 555,500 ; 179,090 blacks. 
 Population in 1820, 638,829 ; whites, 
 419,200 ; white males, 209,f>44 ; white fe- 
 males, 209,55(5 ; slaves, 205,017 ; free col- 
 ored, 14,912 : persons engaged in agri- 
 culture, 174,196; in manufactures, 11,844; 
 in commerce, 2,551. Militia in 1817, 
 50,387. This state is divided into 63 
 counties. There are no large towns in 
 this state. Raleigh is the seat of govern- 
 ment. The other most considerable 
 towns are Newbem, Fayetteville, Wil- 
 mington, Edenton, Washington, Hillsbor- 
 ough, Halifax, Tarborough, Salisbury and 
 Salem. The legislative power is vested 
 in a senate and house of commons, both 
 chosen annually. One senator and two 
 members of the house of commons are 
 sent from each county, and one of the 
 latter from each of the towns of Newbern, 
 Wilmington, Edenton, Fayetteville, Hali- 
 fax, Salisbury and Hillsborough. The 
 governor is chosen by joint ballot of both 
 houses, and is eligible three years in six. 
 The principal denominations of Chris- 
 tians in North Carolina are Methodists, 
 Baptists, Presbyterians, Quakers, Mora- 
 vians and Episcopalians. There is a re- 
 spectable institution, entitled the univer- 
 sity of North Carolina, at Chapel Hill. 
 Academies are established at various 
 places, and an increasing attention has, 
 of late, been paid to education. The 
 principal rivers are the Roanoke, Chow- 
 an, Neuse, Pamlico or Tar, cape Fear, 
 Yadkin and Catawba. Of these, the 
 cape Fear affords the best navigation, 
 and is ascended by vessels of 300 tons 
 to Wilmington, and by steam-boats to 
 Fayetteville. The two most considerable 
 sounds on the coast are those of Pamlico 
 and Albemarle. Dismal swamp lies part- 
 ly in North Carolina and partly in Virginia. 
 Little Dismal or Alligator swamp is be- 
 tween Pamlico and Albemarle sounds. 
 There are three noted capes on the coast, 
 viz., cape Hatteras, cape Lookout and cape 
 Fear, which are all dangerous to seamen. 
 North Carolina, in its whole width, for 
 about 60 miles from the sea, is generally 
 a dead level, varied only by occasional 
 openings in the immense forest with 
 which it is covered. After travel-sing this 
 tedious plain, we are at length relieved 
 by the appearance of hills and mountains, 
 from the summits of which we behold a 
 beautiful country, which stretches west 
 far beyond the range of vision, and is 
 adorned with forests of lofty trees. In
 
 NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 531 
 
 the level parts, the soil, generally, is hut 
 indifferent. On the banks of some of the 
 rivers, however, and particularly the Ro- 
 anoke, it is remarkably fertile ; and in 
 other parts of this champaign country, 
 glades of rich swamp, and ridges of oak- 
 land, of a black and fruitful soil, form an 
 exception to its general sterility. The 
 sea coasts, the sounds, inlets, and lower 
 parts of the rivers, have, invariably, a soft, 
 muddy bottom. That part of the state 
 which lies west of the mountains is, for 
 the most part, remarkably fertile, and 
 abounds with oak-trees of various kinds, 
 walnut, elm, linn and cherry-trees ; the 
 last of which not unfrequcntfy attains the 
 size of 3 feet in diameter. The soil and 
 productions, in the hilly country, are 
 nearly the same as in the Northern States. 
 Wheat, rye, barley, oats and flax are the 
 crops most generally cultivated, and seem 
 to suit well the nature of the soil. 
 Throughout the whole state, Indian corn 
 and pulse of all kinds are abundant. 
 Cotton is raised in considerable quanti- 
 ties. North Carolina abounds in iron ore ; 
 and it is the only one of the U. States in 
 which gold has been found in any con- 
 siderable quantities. The gold mines, 
 which have lately excited a good deal of 
 interest, though they have not yet proved 
 very productive, are found on the Yad- 
 kin and its branches, and extend over a 
 district comprising about 1000 square 
 miles. In almost any part of this territo- 
 ry, gold may be found in greater or less 
 abundance, mixed with the soil. It exists 
 in minute grams or particles, and is also 
 sometimes found in lumps of one or two 
 pounds weight. Of the plains in the low 
 country, the large natural growth is, almost 
 universally, pitch pine, a tall and beautiful 
 tree, which grows here to a size far supe- 
 rior to the pitch pine of the Northern 
 States. This valuable tree affords pitch, 
 tar, turpentine, and various kinds of lum- 
 ber, which, together, constitute about one 
 half of the exports of North Carolina. It 
 is of two kind?, the common and the 
 long-leaved. The latter differs from oth- 
 er pines, not in shape, but in the length 
 of its leaves, which are nearly half a yard 
 long, and hang in large clusters. The 
 trees in the low countries, both of North 
 and South Carolina, arc loaded with 
 quantities of a long, spongy moss, which, 
 hanging in clusters from the limbs, gives 
 the forests a singular appearance. The 
 misletoe frequently engrafts itself upon 
 the trees in the back country. In this 
 part, plums, grapes, blackberries and 
 etrawberries grow spontaneously ; also 
 
 several valuable medicinal plants, as gin- 
 seng, Virginia snakeroot, Seneca snake- 
 root, and some others. The rich bottoms 
 are overgrown with canes, the leaves of 
 which continue green through the winter, 
 and afford good pasture for cattle. North 
 Carolina is far removed from that perfec- 
 tion of culture, which is necessary to give 
 it the full advantage of the natural rich- 
 ness of its soil and the value of its pro- 
 ductions. One great cause of its back- 
 wardness, in agricultural improvement, is 
 the want of inland navigation, and of good 
 harbors. It has several large rivers, but 
 their mouths are blocked up with bars of 
 hard sand. The best of the indifferent 
 harbors in this state are those of Wilming- 
 ton, Newbern and Edenton. The most 
 of the produce of the upper country, con- 
 sisting of tobacco, wheat, maize, &c., has 
 hitherto been carried to Charleston, S. C., 
 and to Lynchburg, and Petersburg, Va. 
 Since 1815, the state has been zealously 
 engaged in an extensive system of inter- 
 nal improvements. These improvements 
 relate to the navigation of the sound, in- 
 lets, and the rivers Roanoke, Tar, Neuse, 
 cape Fear, Yadkin, Catawba, &c. ; the 
 construction of canals and roads, and the 
 draining of marshes and swamps. Like 
 all the Southern States, North Carolina 
 has a considerable diversity of climate, 
 occasioned by the physical peculiarities 
 of its different parts. In the level part of 
 the country, intermittent fevers are fre- 
 quent during the summer and autumn. 
 During these sickly seasons, the counte- 
 nances of the inhabitants have a pale-yel- 
 lowish hue, occasioned by the prevalence 
 of bilious affections. Many fall vic- 
 tims, during the winter, to pleurisies and 
 peripneumonies. In the western and 
 hilly parts, the air is as pure and salubri- 
 ous as in any part of America, and the 
 inhabitants live to a great age. The heat 
 of the summer's day is succeeded in the 
 evening by a grateful and refreshing 
 coolness. Autumn is temperate and se- 
 rene, and, in some years, the winters are 
 so mild, that autumn may be said to con- 
 tinue till spring. The wheat harvest 
 commences in the beginning of June, 
 and that of Indian corn early in Septem- 
 ber. In 1827, merchandise to the value 
 of 8276,791 was imported into North Car- 
 olina, and $449,237 worth exported. (For 
 similar accounts of preceding years, see 
 Watterson and Zandt's Tabular Statistical 
 Views, Washington, Jan. 1829). 
 
 Historical Sketch ofJVorth Carolina. In 
 158(3, the first attempt was made by the 
 English to colonize North America, under
 
 532 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 a patent to sir Francis Drake. A small 
 colony was left on the lloanoke in 1587, 
 but was never again to he found ; all at- 
 tempts to ascertain their fate were fruit- 
 less. Some emigrants from Virginia 
 penetrated into the country ahout 1650, 
 and made the first actual settlement of 
 whites. On the early Spanish maps, 
 what is now called Carolina had been 
 marked as part of Florida. The French 
 had given it the name of Carolina in 
 honor of king Charles IX, when they 
 made the disastrous attempt to colonize 
 the North American coast, noticed under 
 the head of Florida. The name Carolina 
 prevailed. In 1661, a second English 
 colony from Massachusetts arrived, and 
 established themselves at cape Fear riv- 
 er. In 1667, after many vexatious strug- 
 gles, the infant colony obtained a repre- 
 sentative government. Two years later, 
 the fanciful constitution, so famous under 
 the name of Locke's scheme of government, 
 was introduced. This wild project was 
 soon abandoned ; and, like other English 
 colonies, Carolina advanced but slowly, 
 and experienced the horrors of Indian 
 warfare as late as 1712. Previous to 
 1717, Carolina had been a proprietaiy 
 government, but, in that year, became a 
 royal one by purchase, and continued 
 such until the revolution in 1775. In 
 1720, the two Carolinas were separated 
 into North and South Carolina. The 
 inaccessible coast of North Carolina gave 
 it very great advantages in the revolu- 
 tionary war. Those destructive inroads, 
 from which other states along the Atlan- 
 tic suffered so much, were here imprac- 
 ticable. Though, however, less exposed, 
 the people of this state evinced their full 
 share of sympathy with the residue of the 
 American people. A convention was 
 assembled at Halifax, where, on Dec. 18, 
 1776, the existing constitution was adopt- 
 ed. Since that auspicious event, it may 
 be doubted whether any other community 
 ever passed 52 years with less disturb- 
 ance. (Darby 1 * 's View of the U. States. See 
 Carey and Lea's American Atlas.) 
 
 CAROLINA, South ; one of the U. States ; 
 bounded N. by North Carolina, E. by the 
 Atlantic, S. W. and W. by Georgia ; Ion. 
 78 24' to 83 30 / W. ; lat. 32 to 35 & N. ; 
 200 miles long, 125 broad ; containing 
 30,000 square miles. Population in 1790, 
 240,000 : in 1800, 345,591 : in 1810, 415, 
 115; 200,919 blacks : in 1820, 502,741 ; 
 whites, 237,440; white males, 120,934; 
 white females, 116,506 ; slaves, 258,475 ; 
 free colored, 6,826. Militia in 1821, 23,729. 
 S. Carolina is divided into 30 districts. 
 
 Columbia is the seat of government, but 
 Charleston is the largest town. The leg- 
 islature consists of a senate and house of 
 representatives. The senate consists of 
 43 members, chosen every 4 years by 
 districts. The representatives are chosen 
 every 2 years. The governor and lieu- 
 tenant-governor are chosen biennially, by 
 a joint ballot of both houses. The prin- 
 cipal denominations of Christians in South 
 Carolina are Presbyterians, Episcopali- 
 ans, Baptists and Methodists. Education 
 is liberally patronised by the state gov- 
 ernment. The two literary institutions 
 are the college of South Carolina at Co- 
 lumbia, and Charleston college, in the 
 city of Charleston. The distinguishing 
 virtues of the Carolinians are hospitality 
 to strangers, and charity to the indigent 
 and distressed. The planters in the low 
 country, who, in general, have large in- 
 comes, live in a luxurious and splendid 
 style, devoting much of their time to the 
 pursuit of pleasure, and possessing much 
 of that pride and dignity of spirit, which 
 characterize an independent country gen- 
 tleman. The virtues of the farmers of 
 the upper country are less brilliant, but 
 more substantial. They have fewer 
 vices, are of more frugal and industrious 
 habits, and exhibit greater fortitude in the 
 reverses of fortune. In the low or allu- 
 vial country, labor in the field is per- 
 formed almost wholly by slaves, who, in 
 this part of the state, exceed the free in- 
 habitants in the ratio of more than three 
 to one. This division, comprising less 
 than one third of the territory of South 
 Carolina, contains more than half of the 
 slaves, and only about one fifth of the 
 whites. The principal rivers are the 
 Waccamaw, Pedee, Black river, Santee, 
 Cooper, Ashley, Stono, Edisto, Asheppo, 
 Cambahee, Coosaw, Broad and Savan- 
 nah. South Carolina is divided by na- 
 ture into two parts, which, from their 
 physical situation, have been called Up- 
 per and Lower Carolina. The latter is 
 supposed to have once been under the 
 ocean. Towards the coast, the country is 
 a level plain, extending more than 100 
 miles westward from the sea. Here the eye 
 finds no relief from the dull uniformity of 
 boundless forests, swamps, and level fields. 
 This fatiguing plain is succeeded by a curi- 
 ous rangeof little sand hills, resembling the 
 waves of an agitated sea. This singular 
 country occupies an extent of about 60 
 miles. It is extremely barren, enlivened 
 here and there by spots of verdure, or by 
 some straggling pines ; and its few inhab- 
 itants earn a scanty subsistence by the
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 533 
 
 cultivation of com and sweet potatoes. 
 After passing these sand hills, we come 
 next to a remarkable tract of ground, call- 
 ed the Ridge, which, on its approach from 
 the sea, is lofty and bold, but on the north- 
 west is level from its summit. This is a 
 fine belt of land, extending from the Sa- 
 vannah to Broad river, fertile, well cul- 
 tivated, and watered by considerable 
 streams. The country beyond this ridge 
 resembles, in its scenery, the most inter- 
 esting of the Northern States. The trav- 
 eller is gratified by the pleasant alterna- 
 tion of hill and dale. The lively verdure 
 of the hills is contrasted with the deeper 
 tints of the extensive forests, which deco- 
 rate their sides ; and, in the valleys, broad 
 rivers roll their streams through the va- 
 ried beauties of luxuriant and cultivated 
 fields. From these delightful regions, 
 the ground still continues to rise, till we 
 reach the western limit of the state. 
 Here 7 or 8 mountains run in regular 
 direction, the most distinguished of which 
 is Table mountain. Other mountains are 
 Oolenoy, Oconee, Paris's, Glassey, Hog- 
 back and King's. These are all in the 
 districts of Pendleton, Greenville, Spar- 
 tanburg and York. The soil of South 
 Carolina is divided into six classes : 
 1. tide swamp ; 2. inland swamp ; 3. high 
 river swamp, or low grounds, distin- 
 guished by the name of second low 
 grounds ; 4. salt marsh ; 5. oak and hick- 
 ory high land ; 6. pine barren. The iirst 
 two classes are peculiarly adapted to the 
 culture of rice and hemp ; the third is 
 most favorable to the growth of hemp, 
 corn and indigo. The salt marsh has 
 been much neglected. The oak and 
 hickory land is remarkably fertile, and 
 well adapted to the culture of corn, as 
 well as indigo and cotton. The pine bar- 
 ren, though the least productive, is so 
 much more salubrious than the other 
 soils in the low country, that a proportion 
 of pine barren is an appendage indispen- 
 sable to every swamp plantation. The 
 staple commodities of this state are cotton 
 and rice, of which great quantities are 
 annually exported. These articles have 
 so engrossed the attention of the planters, 
 that the culture of wheat, barley, oats, 
 and other crops equally useful, but less 
 profitable, has been almost wholly neg- 
 lected. So little wheat is raised through- 
 out the state, that considerable quantities 
 are annually imported. Cotton was not 
 raised in any considerable quantities till 
 as late as 1795, Before that period, indi- 
 go was, next to rice, the most important 
 Article of produce; but it is now n Tlect- 
 45* 
 
 ed. Tobacco thrives well. The fruits 
 which flourish best are pears, pomegran- 
 ates and water-melons : the latter, in par- 
 ticular, grow to an enormous sixe, and 
 are superior, perhaps, to any in the world. 
 Other fruits are figs, apricots, nectarines, 
 apples, peaches, olives, almonds and or- 
 anges. The period of vegetation com- 
 prehends, in favorable years, from 7 to 8 
 months, commencing in January or Feb- 
 ruary, and terminating in October or No- 
 vember. The frosts, generally, in the 
 mouths of November, December, January 
 and February, are too severe for the deli- 
 cate productions of more southern lati- 
 tudes. The low country is seldom cov- 
 ered with snow, but the mountains near 
 the western boundary often are. Fro.st 
 sometimes binds up the earth, but seldom 
 penetrates deeper than 2 inches, or lasts 
 longer than 3 or 4 days. At some sea- 
 sons, and particularly in February, the 
 weather is very variable. The tempera- 
 ture has been known to vary 46 degrees 
 in one day. In Charleston, for 7 years, 
 the thermometer was not known to rise 
 above 93 or to fall below 17 above 0. 
 The number of extremely hot days in 
 Charleston is seldom more than 30 in a 
 year ; and there are about as many sultry 
 nights, in which the heat and closeness 
 of the air are such as to prevent the en- 
 joyment of sound sleep. -The low coun- 
 try is infested with all the diseases which 
 spring from a warm, moist and unelastic 
 atmosphere. Of these the most frequent 
 are fevers, from which the inhabitants suf- 
 fer more than from any, or perhaps from 
 all other diseases together. The districts 
 of the upper country enjoy as salubrious 
 a climate as any part of the U. States. 
 In 1827, merchandise to the value of 
 1,434,106 was imported into South Car- 
 olina, and $8,322,561 worth exported. 
 (For similar accounts of preceding years, 
 see Watterson and Zandt's Tabular Sta- 
 tistical Fieios, Washington, Jan. 1829.) 
 
 Historical Sketch of South Carolina. 
 The first settlement of South Carolina by 
 the whites appears to have been made at 
 Port Royal, about 1670 ; but, until 1680, 
 no permanent establishment was formed, 
 when the few settlers then in the country 
 fixed on Oyster point, between Ashley 
 and Cooper rivers, and laid the founda- 
 tion of the city of Charleston. A grant 
 had, however, been made, in 1662, previ- 
 ous to the founding of Charleston, by 
 Charles II, to lord Clarendon and seven 
 others, of all that zone of North America 
 from N. lat. 31 to 36 ; and, two years 
 rt'terwards, the boundaries were extended
 
 534 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA CAROLINE. 
 
 to N. lat. 36 3(X. The proprietary gov- 
 ernment of Carolina was, if possible, more 
 complex than any other similar govern- 
 ment in the English colonies. This 
 confusion was augmented by Locke's 
 scheme, and by religious contention, and 
 was terminated, in 1719, by a separation 
 of the two Carolinas, and the establish- 
 ment of a royal government. One of the 
 events of most importance in the history 
 of South Carolina was the cultivation of 
 rice, introduced by governor Smith, in 
 1695 : that of cotton followed ; and the col- 
 ony flourished until its progress was check- 
 ed by war with the Indians, and, subse- 
 quently, by the revolution. South Caroli- 
 na suffered severely in the latter contest, 
 and was the theatre of some of the most 
 remarkable events which it produced. 
 The names of Marion, Surnter and Lee 
 conferred honor on the state. The exist- 
 ing government or constitution of South 
 Carolina was adopted June 3, 1790, 
 amended Dec. 17, 1808, and again Dec. 
 19, 1816. (See Carey and Lea's Atlas.) 
 
 CAROLINE AMELIA ELIZABETH ; wife 
 of George IV, king of Great Britain and 
 Hanover, second daughter of duke Charles 
 William Ferdinand of Brunswick (who 
 was mortally wounded in the battle at 
 Auerstadt), and of the princess Augusta of 
 England, sister of George III. She was 
 born May 17, 1768. The young princess 
 spent her youth in her father's court, un- 
 der much constraint, till 1795, when she 
 was married to the prince of Wales, now 
 king of Great Britain. The next year, she 
 rejoiced the royal family and the British 
 nation by the birth of a daughter, Charlotte 
 Augusta. (Charlotte died Nov. 6, 1816, 
 wife of prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg.) 
 She had scarcely recovered from her con- 
 finement, when her husband abandoned 
 her, declaring that no one could force his 
 inclinations. This was the beginning of 
 the disgraceful dispute between the two 
 parties, which lasted till the death of Car- 
 oline, and exposed her honor to repeated 
 accusations from her husband; while 
 George III, and all the British nation, 
 favored the deserted bride. (See George 
 IV.) The princess of Wales lived retired 
 from the court, at a country-seat at Black- 
 heath, where she devoted herself to the 
 arts and sciences, to benevolence and the 
 gratification of her taste, till 1808. Mean- 
 while, many reports were circulated, ac- 
 cusing her of illicit connexions with cap- 
 tain Manly, sir Sidney Smith and others, 
 and of being the mother of a boy ; on ac- 
 count of which the king instituted an in- 
 quiry into her conduct, by a ministerial 
 
 committee. They examined a great num- 
 ber of witnesses, and acquitted the prin- 
 cess of the charge, declaring, at the same 
 time, that she was guilty of some impru- 
 dences, which had given rise to unfounded 
 suspicions. The king confirmed this dec- 
 laration of her innocence, and paid her a 
 visit of ceremony. She afterwards receiv- 
 ed equal marks of esteem from the princes, 
 her brothers-in-law. The duke of Cum- 
 berland attended the princess to court and 
 to the opera. The reports above-men- 
 tioned were caused by the adherents of 
 the prince of Wales and the court of the 
 reigning queen, who was very unfavora- 
 bly disposed towards her daughter-in-law. 
 On this occasion, as on many others, the 
 nation manifested the most enthusiastic 
 attachment to the princess. In 1813, the 
 public contest was renewed between the 
 two parties ; the princess of Wales com- 
 plaining, as a mother, of the difticulties 
 opposed to her seeing her daughter. The 
 prince of Wales, then regent, disregarded 
 these complaints. Upon this, in July, 
 1814, the princess obtained permission to 
 go to Brunswick, and, afterwards, to make 
 the tour of Italy and Greece. She now 
 began her celebrated journey through 
 Germany, Italy, Greece, the Archipelago 
 and Syria, to Jerusalem, in which the Ital- 
 ian Bergami was her confidant and at- 
 tendant. Many infamous reports were 
 afterwards circulated, relating to the con- 
 nexion between the princess and Bergami. 
 On her journey, she received grateful 
 acknowledgments for her liberality, her 
 kindness, and her generous efforts for the 
 relief of the distressed. She afterwards 
 lived in Italy a great part of the time, 
 at a country-seat on lake Como. When 
 the prince of Wales ascended the British 
 throne, Jan. 29, 1820, lord Hutchinson 
 offered her an income of 50,000 sterling, 
 the name of queen of England, and every 
 title appertaining to that dignity, on the 
 condition that she would never return to 
 England. She refused the proposal, and 
 asserted her claims, more firmly than ever, 
 to the rights of a British queen, complain- 
 ed of the ill treatment shown to her, and 
 exposed the conspiracies against her, 
 which had been contrived by a secret 
 agent, the baron de Ompteda, of Milan. 
 Attempts at a reconciliation led to no 
 favorable result. She at length adopted 
 the bold resolution to return to England, 
 where she was neither expected nor wish- 
 ed for by the ministry, and, amid the loud- 
 est expressions of the public joy, arrived 
 from Calais, June 5, and, the next day, 
 entered London in triumph. The minis-
 
 CAROLINE CARP. 
 
 535 
 
 ter, lord Liverpool, now accused the queen 
 before the parliament, for the purpose of 
 exposing her to universal contempt as an 
 adulteress. Whatever the investigations 
 of the parliament may have brought to 
 light, the public voice was louder than 
 ever in favor of the queen ; and, after a 
 protracted investigation, the bill of pains 
 and penalties was passed to a third read- 
 ing only by a majority of 123 to 95 ; and 
 the ministers deemed it prudent to delay 
 proceeding with the bill for six months, 
 which was equivalent to withdrawing it. 
 Thus ended this revolting process, which 
 was, throughout, a flagrant outrage on 
 public decency. In this trial, Mr. Broug- 
 ham acted as the queen's attorney-gene- 
 ral, Mr. Denman as her solicitor, and 
 Drs. Lushington, Williams and Wilde as 
 her counsel. Though banished from 
 the court of the king, her husband, the 
 queen still lived at Brandenburg house, 
 in a manner suitable to her rank, under 
 the protection of the nation. In July, 
 1821, at the coronation of George IV, she 
 first requested to be crowned, then to be 
 present at the ceremony. But, by an or- 
 der of the privy council, both requests 
 were denied, and, notwithstanding the 
 assistance of the opposition, she suffered 
 the personal humiliation of being repeat- 
 edly refused admission into Westminster 
 abbey. She then published in the public 
 papers her protest against the order of 
 the privy council. Soon after her hus- 
 band's departure to Ireland, Juty 30, in 
 consequence of the violent agitation of 
 her mind, she was suddenly taken sick 
 in Drury lane theatre. An inflammation 
 of the Dowels (enteritis) succeeded, and 
 she foretold her own deatli before the 
 physicians apprehended such an event. 
 She died Aug. 7, 1821. The corpse, ac- 
 cording to her last will, was removed to 
 Brunswick, where it rests among the re- 
 mains of her ancestors. Her tomb-stone 
 has a very short inscription, in which she 
 is called the unhappy queen of England. 
 The removal and the entombing of her 
 mortal remains gave rise to many dis- 
 turbances, first in London, and afterwards 
 in Brunswick. These were founded 
 more in opposition to the arbitrary meas- 
 ures of the ministry than in respect for 
 the memory of the queen. Two causes 
 operated much in favor of the queen 
 the unpopularity of the ministry and the 
 general feeling that the king was perhaps 
 the last man in the whole kingdom, 
 who had a right to complain of the in- 
 continencies of his wife, which rnanj', 
 even of her friends, undoubtedly believed. 
 
 CAROLINE LAWS. (See Carolina.') 
 CAROLINE MATILDA, born 1751, daugh- 
 ter of Frederic Lewis, prince of Wales, 
 married, 1766, king Christian VII of Den- 
 mark, and became mother of the present 
 king of Denmark, Frederic VII, who was 
 born 1768. Though young and beautiful, 
 and universally esteemed by the nation, 
 yet she was treated with hatred and neg- 
 lect by the grandmother of her husband, 
 queen Sophia Magdalena, as well as by 
 his step-mother, J uliana Maria, who, for 
 some time, influenced even her husband 
 against her. Strueusee (q. v.), by profes- 
 sion a physician, the favorite of the king, 
 became her friend, and both, in union 
 with Brandt, endeavored to gain the king 
 from the influence of the party opposed 
 to the queen. The reins of government 
 came into the hands of Struensee, but the 
 party of the king's step-mother and her 
 son, prince Frederic, procured (1772) the 
 imprisonment of the queen, the counts 
 Struensee and Brandt, and all their friends. 
 Struensee and Brandt were tried, and ex- 
 ecuted for high treason. Even the queen 
 was at first in danger of being condemned 
 to death. April 6, she was separated 
 from her husband, and confined in Aal- 
 borg, but liberated by the interference of 
 her brother, king George III. She died 
 May 10, 1775, at Celle, in Hanover, scarce- 
 ly 24 years old, of a lung fever, the conse- 
 quence of her grief. The interesting let- 
 ter, in which she took leave of her broth- 
 er, the king of England, is to be found in 
 the small work Die lezten Stunden der 
 Konigin von Dunemark. She was of a 
 mild temper, and beloved by all around 
 her. 
 
 CARP (cyprinus, L.); a genus of soft- 
 firmed abdominal fish, which Cuvier 
 makes the fourth family of the order. 
 This is a very natural genus, containing 
 very numerous species. It is easily dis- 
 tinguishable by the small mouth, toothless 
 jaws, and gills of three flat rays. The 
 tongue and palate are smooth, but the 
 gullet is admirably constructed for inasti- 
 cation, having large teeth attached to the 
 inferior pharyngeal bones, which press the 
 food between themselves and a gelatinous 
 knob, connected with a bony plate that 
 is united with the first vertebra, common- 
 ly called the carp's tongue. They have 
 but one dorsal fin, and the body is covered 
 with scales, generally of large size. They 
 frequent fresh and quiet waters, feeding 
 on herbs, grains, and even mud, being, 
 perhaps, the least carnivorous of the finny 
 race. Some of the species have a beard 
 of small, fleshy threads at the angles of
 
 536 
 
 CARP CARPETS. 
 
 the upper jaw. The most noted of the 
 species are the common car}) (C. carpio, 
 L.), which, in many parts of the world, 
 are bred in ponds, for the use of the table, 
 and the goldfish (C. auratus], believed to 
 be originally from China, very commonly 
 bred in ponds and vases as an ornament, 
 on account of its beautiful colors. In his 
 memoir on American Icthyology, doctor 
 Mitchill enumerates four species of carp, 
 under the names of C. feres, fresh-water 
 sucker ; C. oblongus, chub of New York; 
 C. clirysoleucas, New York shiner; and 
 C. atronasus, brook minnow. The com- 
 mon carp of Europe is esteemed very 
 highly for stocking ponds, being of quick 
 growth, spawning thrice a year. As the 
 females do not commence breeding until 
 eight or nine years old, it is necessary to 
 keep up a supply of carp of that age by 
 avoiding to destroy the females. The 
 proportion of males to be preserved is four 
 for every twelve females. Under com- 
 mon circumstances, the carp grows two 
 or three inches in length in a year; but, 
 where the ponds are exceedingly well 
 supplied with food, they have been known 
 to grow from five to eighteen inches in 
 the same time. They thrive best in ponds 
 having clayey or marly sides, and well 
 provided with aquatic vegetables. In or- 
 der to furnish them with fresh vegetable 
 food, it is usual to rake the sides of the 
 pond, left dry by evaporation, with an 
 iron rake, and then to sow grass-seed, so 
 that, when the pond is again filled up by 
 the rains, there may be a growth of tender 
 herbage for the fish. Grains of various 
 sorts, and garbage, are frequently thrown 
 into the pond, with a view to aid in fatten- 
 ing carp. A pond of one acre in extent is 
 said to be sufficient to feed 300 carp of 
 two or three years, or 400 of one year old. 
 Carp, in their native condition, frequent 
 the deepest places of ponds or rivers, 
 where there is the least current. It is a 
 fish which requires much patience and 
 address in the angler. They seldom bite 
 in cool weather, but, during hot seasons, 
 bite very freely. The bait commonly used 
 in angling for carp is worms, and some- 
 times grasshoppers. Various sweet pastes 
 are also used, formed of honey or sugar, 
 mingled with flour and small quantities 
 of veal, pounded together in a mortar, till 
 sufficiently tough to adhere to a hook 
 without being easily washed off. A little 
 white wool, mixed with the other ingre- 
 dients, is of great assistance in giving the 
 mass the requisite tenacity. To increase 
 the pleasure and profit of"' carp fishing, it 
 is well, for a few days previous, to have 
 
 some brewer's grains or other food thrown 
 into the water, by which the fish will be 
 induced to collect at any particular place 
 in greater numbers. 
 
 CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS ; one of the 
 most extensive ranges of mountains in 
 Europe, which covers an area of about 
 39,432 square mile:* ; running from the 
 Black sea, between Walachia and -Molda- 
 via, through Transylvania, Galicia and 
 Hungary, to Silesia, there uniting itself 
 with the Riesengebirge, at the pass of 
 Jablunka (where are the sources of the 
 Oder and Vistula), and sending out spurs, 
 which roach as far as the Danube, and the 
 spurs of the Alps. The highest points 
 (covered with perpetual snow), called 
 Tatra, rise in peaks, of which the most 
 elevated, the Lomnitz peak (Lomnitzer 
 Spitze), is over 8162 feet high. The prin- 
 cipal chain contains much salt. On the 
 branches, the vine is cultivated, and vari- 
 ous metals, precious and base, are found' 
 in them. The Carpathian mountains 
 have lately been attentively investigated 
 by geologists, and interesting facts have 
 been ascertained respecting them. They 
 afford refuge to a great number of Gip- 
 sies. 
 
 CARPENTARIA ; a large bav on the N. 
 coast of New Holland ; lon/130 50 7 E. ; 
 lat. 10 20' S. That part of the country 
 which borders on the bay is also called 
 Carptntaria. 
 
 CARPETS are thick textures, composed 
 wholly or partly of wool, and wrought by 
 several dissimilar methods. The simplest 
 mode is that used in weaving Venetian 
 carpets, the texture of which is plain, 
 composed of a striped woollen warp on a 
 thick woof of linen thread. Kiddermin- 
 ster carpeting is composed of two wool- 
 len webs, which intersect each other in 
 such a manner as to produce definite 
 figures. Brussels carpeting has a basis 
 composed of a warp and woof of strong 
 linen thread. But to ever}' two threads 
 of linen in the warp, there is added a 
 parcel of about ten threads of woollen of 
 different colors. The linen thread never 
 appears on the upper surface, but parts 
 of the woollen threads are, from time to 
 time, drawn up in loops, so as to consti- 
 tute ornamental figures, the proper color 
 being each time selected from the parcel 
 to which it belongs. A sufficient number 
 of these loops is raised to produce a uni- 
 form surface. To render them equal, 
 each row passes over a wire, which is 
 subsequently withdrawn. In some cases, 
 the loops are cut through with the end of 
 the wire, which is sharpened for the pur-
 
 CARPETS CARRACCI. 
 
 537 
 
 pose, so as to cut off the thread as it 
 passes out. In forming the figure, the 
 weaver is guided by a pattern, which is 
 drawn in squares upon a paper. Turkey 
 carpets appear to be fabricated upon the 
 same general principles as the Brussels, 
 except that the texture is all woollen, and 
 the loops larger, and always cut. There 
 are several carpet-manufactories in New 
 England, which make handsome goods. 
 The English and Americans are the only 
 nations among whom carpets are articles 
 of general use. 
 
 CARPI, Ugo da, a painter and engraver, 
 flourished in the beginning of the 16th 
 century. He is generally considered as 
 the inventor of that species of engraving 
 denominated chiaro-oscuro, which was af- 
 terwards carried to such perfection by 
 Balthasar Peruzzi. 
 
 CARPI, Girolamo da, a painter of the 
 16th century, a native of Ferrara, painted 
 many pictures for the churches there and 
 at Bologna. He was a great admirer of 
 Correggio and Parmegiauo, whose works 
 he copied with great success. He died 
 in 1556. 
 
 CARRACCI ; the name of a celebrated 
 family of painters. Ludovico Carracci, 
 sou of a butcher, born 1555, at Bologna, 
 appeared, at first, to be more fit for grind- 
 ing colors than for transferring them to 
 canvas. But his slowness did not, in fact, 
 arise from deficiency of talent, but from 
 zeal for excellence. He detested all that 
 was called ideal, and studied only nature, 
 which he imitated with great care. At 
 Florence, he studied under Andrea del 
 Sarto, and enjoyed the instruction of Pas- 
 signano. He went to Parma for the pur- 
 pose of studying Correggio, who was then 
 imitated by almost all the Florentine 
 painters. At Bologna, he endeavored to 
 obtain popularity for his new principles 
 among the young artists, and united him- 
 self with his cousins, Agostino and Anni- 
 bale Carracci, whom he sent, in 1580, to 
 Parma and Venice. On their return to 
 Bologna, the three artists began to acquire 
 reputation, but met with the most violent 
 opposition. Annibalc, the most resolute 
 of them, was of opinion, that they should 
 refute the slanders in circulation by the 
 excellence of their productions. Ludo- 
 vico resolved to establish an academy for 
 painters at Bologna, which he called the 
 accademia degli incamminati (from incam- 
 manare, to put in the way). His first prin- 
 ciple was, that the study of nature must 
 be united with the imitation of the best 
 masters. He soon gave an example of 
 this principle in the Prophecy of John the 
 
 Baptist, in the monastery of the Carthu- 
 sians, imitating, in single figures, the style 
 of Raphael, Titian and Tintoretto. The 
 finest works of Ludovico are at Bologna ; 
 for instance, those which adorn the hall 
 in the monastery of St. Michael, in Bos- 
 co, and the Annunciation, in the cathedral 
 at Bologna. He excelled in architectural 
 views and in drawing, and, in general, 
 was very thorough in all the branches of 
 his art. After having enjoyed his fame 
 for a long time, at least as long as his 
 cousins were alive, Ludovico died, hi 
 1619, almost in poverty, 17 years after 
 the death of Agostino, and 10 after that 
 of Annibale. The chief reproach to 
 which he is liable is, that he did not 
 unite the study of the antiques with 
 that of nature. His coloring has also 
 been blamed. Paolo Carracci, a brother 
 of Ludovico, is of no importance. Agos- 
 tino Carracci, mentioned above, was born 
 in 1558, at Bologna. He soon became 
 one of the most accomplished disciples 
 of Ludovico, and excelled particularly in 
 invention. He engraved more pieces 
 than he painted, in order to please his 
 brother Annibale, who became envious 
 of his fame, after a picture of Agostino 
 had obtained a prize in preference to one 
 of his own, and another excellent picture 
 the Communion of St. Jerom had gain- 
 ed his brother universal admiration. Sub- 
 sequently, Agostino accompanied Anni- 
 bale to Rome, and assisted him in painting 
 the Farnesian gallery. As many persons 
 said that the engraver worked better than 
 the painter, Annibale removed his brother, 
 under pretext that his style, though ele- 
 gant, was not grand enough. Agostino 
 went then to the court of the duke of 
 Parma, and painted there a picture rep- 
 resenting the heavenly, the earthly and 
 the venal love. There was only one 
 figure wanting, when, exhausted by labor 
 and mortification, he died, in 1601. He 
 wrote a treatise on perspective and archi- 
 tecture. As an engraver, he deserves 
 great praise, and often corrected the im- 
 perfect outlines of his originals. Among 
 his engravings are many obscene ones, 
 which have become rare. Annibale Car- 
 rarci, his brother, born 1560, at Bologna, 
 worked, tit first, with his father, who was 
 a tailor. By the advice of his cousin 
 Ludovico, he learnt drawing, and made 
 the most astonishing progress, copying 
 first the pieces of Correggio, Titian and 
 Paul Veronese, and painting, like them, 
 small pictures before he undertook largo 
 ones. In the academy founded by the 
 Carracci, he taught the rules of arrange-
 
 538 
 
 CARRACCI CARRERAS. 
 
 ment and distribution of figures. He is 
 one of the greatest imitators of Correggio. 
 His St. Roque distributing Alms, now in 
 Dresden, was the first painting whirh 
 gave him reputation. His Genius of 
 Gloi-y is likewise celebrated. In the 
 Farnesiaii gallery, which he painted, 
 there breathes an antique elegance, and 
 all the grace of Raphael. You find there 
 imitations of Tibaldi (who painted at Bo- 
 logna, about 1550, with Nicolo del Abate), 
 of Michael Angelo (the style, indeed, 
 somewhat softened), and the excellences 
 of the Venetian and Lombard schools. 
 Out of Bologna, he is acknowledged as 
 the greatest of the Carracci. In that city, 
 however, Ludovico is more admired. 
 Agostino, perhaps, had more invention, 
 and Ludovico more talent for teaching ; 
 but Annibale had a loftier spirit, and his 
 style is more eloquent and noble. He 
 died of grief (1609), at the ingratitude of 
 cardinal Farnese, who paid him for 20 
 years' labor with 500 gold scudi. He was 
 buried at the side of Raphael, in the Pan- 
 theon of Rome. Francesco Carracci, 
 another brother, is unimportant. Antonio 
 Carracci, a natural son of Agostino, born, 
 1583, at Venice, has more merit. Among 
 the many well-known disciples of the 
 Carracci, Domenichino deserves to be 
 particularly named. 
 
 CARRERAS ; three brothers, distinguish- 
 ed in the revolution of Chile. Jose Mi- 
 guel Carrera, Juan Jose Carrera, and 
 Luis Can-era, were the sons of a rich 
 landholder in Santiago, don Ignacio Car- 
 rera. One of them served in Europe 
 until 1811, and attained the rank of lieu- 
 tenant-colonel and commandant of a regi- 
 ment of hussars. The three brothers 
 took an active part in the revolution from 
 its commencement, and, in November, 
 1811, obtained the effective control of the 
 revolutionary government ; don Jose Mi- 
 guel, the eldest, being a member of the 
 junta, and colonel in the army, and the 
 two younger brothers being also colonels 
 in different corps, and the military being 
 strongly in their favor. They continued 
 in the possession of power until 1813, 
 when they were taken prisoners by the 
 Spaniards, and confined at Taloa. During 
 their confinement, O'Higgins placed him- 
 self at the head of affairs. But they soon 
 regained their liberty, and, by means of 
 their popularity with the army, were ena- 
 bled to displace O'Higgins, and resume 
 their former influence, although not with- 
 out a conflict with their antagonist. They 
 became reconciled to him, however, and 
 acted in concert with him at the battle of 
 
 Rancagua, in October, 1814, in which the 
 patriots were defeated, and in conse- 
 quence of which the Carreras and their 
 associates fled across the Andes. Don 
 Jose Miguel left South America for the 
 U. States, seeking supplies of men and 
 money. Meanwhile, don Juan Jose and 
 don Luis remained in Buenos Ayres, 
 where they were detained, on their pa- 
 role, by Pueyrredon, and not allowed to 
 join the army sent for the liberation of 
 Chile, commanded by their personal en- 
 emy, O'Higgins, and his bosom friend, 
 general San Martin. Don Jose Miguel 
 found them in this condition upon his 
 return in 1817, and was himself arrested 
 at Buenos Ayres, but made his escape. 
 His brothers fled from Buenos Ayres, but 
 were apprehended, Aug. 17, 1817, near 
 Mendoza, and thrown into prison. Upon 
 learning this, general San Martin de- 
 spatched his secretary, Monteagudo, to 
 bring them to trial, and, if -possible, in- 
 vent some plausible cause for their exe- 
 cution, so as to prevent their return to 
 Chile. Accordingly, a false accusation of 
 having murdered some obscure person in 
 1814 was brought against don Juan Jose ; 
 but, as this did not inculpate don Luis, a 
 plot was contrived with the soldiers, and 
 the brothers were induced to attempt their 
 escape ; after which the proceedings were 
 resumed, and they were condemned, on 
 the 8th of March, 1818, to be shot on the 
 same day. They heard their sentence at 
 three o'clock in the afternoon, and were 
 slaughtered at six. They walked arm in 
 arm to the place of execution, gave the 
 word to the soldiers to fire, and embraced 
 each other in death. So causeless were 
 these legal murders, that public opinion 
 charges them upon San Martin, who, 
 finding the friends of the Carreras nu- 
 merous in Chile, employed his creature 
 Monteagudo to procure their death. With 
 brutal cruelty, San Martin sent their aged 
 father an account of the expenses of their 
 execution, with an order for its immediate 
 payment. He paid the bloody charge, 
 and, two days afterwards, expired of a 
 broken heart. Don Jose Miguel resolved 
 to avenge their death. He raised a small 
 body of troops, natives and foreigners, 
 and marched across the pampas, having 
 found means to correspond with his 
 friends in Santiago. His progress was 
 viewed with great uneasiness by O'Hig- 
 gins, then supreme director of Chile ; for 
 the people cherished the fondest recol- 
 lections of the Carreras, whose wisdom in 
 government, and personal condescension, 
 affability and munificence, had won all
 
 CARRERAS CARRIER PIGEON. 
 
 539 
 
 hearts. A conspiracy in favor of Carrera, 
 unfortunately, was detected by O'Higgins, 
 and suppressed. Don Jose Miguel ar- 
 rived near Mendoza in January, 1822, 
 and was there unexpectedly met by a 
 superior force, and surrounded and taken 
 prisoner, after a brave resistance. Being 
 conducted to Mendoza, he was hurried 
 through a brief form of trial, and exe- 
 cuted on the very spot where his brothers 
 suffered. Thus, by a singularly adverse 
 fortune, perished a family of brothers, 
 who left not their equals in patriotism, 
 talents and purity of character in Chile. 
 Their friend and adviser, Rodriguez, also 
 perished, a victim of the same enemies. 
 In testimony of their respect for the 
 memory of the Carreras, the government 
 of Chile have recently ordered the re- 
 moval of their remains from Mendoza to 
 their native country. (Stevenson's South 
 America, vol. iii ; Norm American Review, 
 vol. xxiv, p. 313 ; Miller's Mem., i. p. 383.) 
 
 CARRIER, COMMON. (See Common Car- 
 rier.) 
 
 CARRIER, John Baptist, born in 1756, 
 at Volai, near Aurillac, in Upper Au- 
 vergne, an obscure attorney at the begin- 
 ningof the revolution, was chosen, in 1792, 
 member of the national convention, aided 
 in the establishment of the revolutionary 
 tribunal, March 10, 1793, and exhibited 
 the wildest rage for persecution, lie 
 voted for the death of Louis XVI, de- 
 manded the arrest df the duke of Orleans, 
 April 6, 1793, and contributed greatly to 
 the revolution of May 31. Oct. 8, 1793, 
 he was sent to Nantes with a commission 
 to suppress the civil war by the exercise 
 of greater severity than had yet been 
 used. The prisons were already full, 
 while the defeat of the Vendeans near 
 Savenay increased the number of prison- 
 ers. Multitudes, informally and precipi- 
 tately condemned, were executed daily ; 
 but Carrier found this process too slow. 
 He resolved, therefore, to destroy the 
 prisoners in a mass, and without a trial. 
 He caused 94 priests to be conveyed to a 
 boat with a perforated bottom, under pre- 
 tence of transporting them, but, in reality, 
 with a view of having them drowned by 
 night. Every day this artifice was repeat- 
 ed. In the evening, the destined victims, 
 of every age and of both sexes, were 
 brought to the boats. Two were tied 
 together, and plunged into the water, at 
 the point of the bayonet and the edge of 
 the sabre. The executioners sometimes 
 amused themselves by tying together a 
 young man and woman ; and they called 
 these noyades (republican marriages). Be- 
 
 sides this, more than 500 prisoners were 
 daily shot in the quarries at Gigan. For 
 more than a month, these deeds of mad- 
 ness were perpetrated. It has been esti- 
 mated that 15,000 individuals perished in 
 this way. The banks of the Loire were 
 strewed with the dead, and the water was 
 so polluted, that it was prohibited to drink 
 it. Some months before the fall of Ro- 
 bespierre, Carrier was recalled. The 9th 
 Therinidor (July 27), 1794, he was appre- 
 hended, and brought before the revolu- 
 tionary tribunal, which condemned him 
 to death, Dec. 16, 1794. 
 
 CARRIER PIGEON (pavcdette, columba 
 tabellaria). This bird is a native of the 
 East ; and the practice of sending letters 
 by pigeons belongs, therefore, principally 
 to Eastern countries. The pigeons cho- 
 sen for this service are called, in Arabic, 
 hamahn. They have a ring of particolored 
 feathers round the neck, red feet, covered 
 with down, and build their nests in the 
 neighborhood of human habitations. In 
 the province of Irak (that is, Chaldaea, 
 Babylonia and Assyria), white pigeons 
 are trained with the least difficulty. The 
 first pigeon used as a messenger some 
 consider to be that which Noah sent from 
 the ark, and which returned with the leaf 
 of the olive. An actual post-system, in 
 which pigeons were the messengers, was 
 established by the sultan Noureddin 
 Mahmood, who died in 1174. It was 
 improved and extended by the caliph 
 Ahmed Alraser-Lidiv-Allah, of Bagdad, 
 who died in 1225. The price of a well- 
 trained pair of such pigeons was, at that 
 time, 1000 dinars, that is, Arabic ducats. 
 This flying post lasted till 1258, when 
 Bagdad fell into the hands of the Mongols, 
 and was destroyed by them. At present, 
 only a few wealthy individuals in the 
 East keep these pigeons. It requires 
 much time and patience to train them. 
 As soon as the young (a cock and a hen 
 are preferred) are fledged, they are made 
 as tame as possible, and accustomed to 
 each other's society. They are then sent, 
 in an uncovered cage, to the place whither 
 they are usually to carry messages. If 
 one of them is carried away, after having 
 been well treated for some time, it will 
 certainly return to its mate. A small let- 
 ter is written on the finest silk-paper, 
 sometimes on a particular kind called 
 bird-paper. This is placed lengthwise 
 under one wing, and fastened with a pin 
 (the point being turned from the body) to 
 a feather. It needs not to be mentioned, 
 that no part of the letter must hang loose, 
 lest the wind should be collected in it,
 
 540 
 
 CARRIER PIGEON CARRON. 
 
 the wing become tired, and the pigeon he 
 compelled to alight A pigeon of this 
 kind can go a distance of upwards of 1000 
 parasangs (more than 2700 English miles) 
 in a day. There were similar posts in 
 Egypt, in 1450, for which columbaries 
 were prepared in towers, erected at cer- 
 tain distances for the public security. 
 This custom is, however, not confined to 
 the nations of the East. Decius Brutus, 
 according to the elder Pliny's account, 
 sent despatches from Modena by pigeons; 
 and in modern times, they were made 
 use of, during the Dutch war, by the in- 
 habitants of Haerlem, when besieged in 
 1573, and in Leyden, in 1574. It is also 
 well known, that some merchants in Paris 
 and Amsterdam employ carrier-pigeons, 
 in order that the course of exchange and 
 the prices of stocks, in Paris, may be 
 known as soon as possible in Amsterdam. 
 
 CARRO, Giovanni di ; a physician of 
 Milan, who settled in Vienna. He is cel- 
 ebrated for his efforts in spreading inocu- 
 lation, as a protection from the small -pox, 
 in Germany, Poland, Hungary and Rus- 
 sia. He found means to overcome even 
 the prejudices of the Turks, by sending 
 to lord Elgin, at Constantinople, in 1800, 
 a quantity of virus, together with a work 
 of his, translated into Turkish, on inocu- 
 lation. All the attempts of the English 
 to introduce inoculation into India had 
 been hitherto unsuccessful, because the 
 virus had always been spoiled on the way. 
 Carro procured the matter from Lombard? 
 cows, for doctor Harford, at Bagdad. It 
 retained all its strength, and was the 
 means of imparting the benefits of kine- 
 pock inoculation to India, which the In- 
 dians consider as derived from a sacred 
 cow, and to which they have given the 
 name of amurtum (immortality). Cairo's 
 Observations et Experiences sur la Vacci- 
 nation, avec unt, Planclie coloree (Vienna, 
 1801 and 1802), and his translation (Vi- 
 enna, 1802) of an English work, by J. J. 
 Loy, on the origin of the kine-pock virus, 
 are very valuable works. In the Biblio- 
 thtque Britannique are some letters deserv- 
 ing of notice, written by him, particularly 
 one, dated Aug. 27, 1803, on the antipesti- 
 lential nature of the kine-pock matter. 
 
 CARROLL, John, first Catholic bishop 
 of the U. States, was born in Maryland, in 
 the year 1734. His parents were Catho- 
 lics of distinguished respectability, and 
 sent him, at the age of 13, to the college 
 of St Omer's, in Flanders, where he re- 
 mained for six years, wlien he was trans- 
 ferred to the colleges of Liege and Bniges. 
 In 1769, he was ordained a priest, and 
 
 soon after became a Jesuit. In 1770, h 
 accompanied the present lord Stourton, 
 the son of an English Catholic nobleman, 
 on a tour through Europe, in the capacity 
 of private tutor; and, on his return to 
 Bruges, in 1773, accepted a professorship 
 in the college. Shortly afterwards, he 
 was on the point of going back to his na- 
 tive country; but his voyage was prevent- 
 ed by the intelligence of the entire sup- 
 pression of the Jesuits by the pope ; and 
 he retired to England, where he resided 
 until 1775, when he returned to America. 
 His stay in Europe was prolonged in or- 
 der that he might assist his brethren in 
 procuring a mitigation of the severe sen- 
 tence that had been passed upon them. 
 He acted as secretary-general to the dis- 
 persed fathers in their remonstrances with 
 the courts, by which they had been per- 
 secuted. Upon his arrival in Maryland, 
 he entered upon the duties of a parish 
 priest. In 1776, at the solicitation of con- 
 gress, he accompanied doctor Franklin, 
 Charles Carroll of Carrollton, and Samuel 
 Chase, on a mission to Canada, designed 
 to induce the people of that province to 
 preserve a neutral attitude in the war be- 
 tween England and the colonies, but was 
 unsuccessful. The Roman Catholic cler- 
 gy of the U. States having requested from 
 the pope the establishment of a spiritual 
 hierarchy here, in preference to being 
 under the superintendence of one in Eng- 
 land, Mr. Carroll was appointed vicar- 
 general in 1786, when he fixed his abode 
 in Baltimore. In 1789, he was named 
 first Catholic bishop of the U. States, and 
 went to England, in the summer of 1790, 
 where he was consecrated. In the same 
 year, he returned to Baltimore, and, as 
 the seat of his episcopal see was estab- 
 lished in that city, assumed the title of 
 bishop of Baltimore. He was universally 
 esteemed and beloved for the exemplary 
 manner in which he discharged his duties, 
 the mildness and courtesy of his manners, 
 and the sanctity of his life. He lived in 
 friendly communion with persons of other 
 sects, his character being entirely devoid 
 of intolerance. A few years before his 
 demise, he was elevated to the archiepis- 
 copal dignity. He died Dec. 3, 1815, in 
 the 81st year of his age. 
 
 CARROT ; a village of Scotland, on the 
 banks of a stream of the same name, in 
 Stirlingshire, and about three miles from 
 the shore of the -Forth. Its extensive 
 iron-foundery is one of the most noted 
 in Great Britain. This was established 
 in 1760, and now employs nearly 2000 
 men. There are about 20 furnaces, and
 
 CARRON CARSTARES. 
 
 541 
 
 many kinds of iron articles are made in 
 great quantities, as heavy pieces of ord- 
 nance, cylinders for steam-engines, pumps, 
 boilers, wheels, with all kinds of ponder- 
 ous apparatus used in the arts. That 
 species of ordnance called a carronade, 
 used in the navy, derived its name from 
 being first made here. Immense num- 
 bers of shot and shells, of all sizes, are 
 annually sent from Can-on. Carron is 
 about 2 miles north-east of Falkirk, and 
 26 in the same direction from Edinburgh. 
 The banks of the river Carron were the 
 boundary of the Roman empire in Britain ; 
 for the wall of Antoninus stood within a 
 short distance, and ran parallel to them 
 for sevend miles. Two mounds, one of 
 them 50 feet in height, called the hills of 
 Dunipail, rise about the middle of its 
 course. Tradition affirms that they were 
 monuments of a peace between the Ro- 
 mans and Caledonians, and that they take 
 their name from dun, a hill, mitlpax, peace. 
 It is more probable that they are barrows. 
 
 CARRONADES (from the river Carron, 
 in Scotland, where they were first made) ; 
 a sort of artillery, resembling howitzers. 
 They are of very large caliber, and cany 
 balls, shells or cartouches. They are 
 much lighter than common cannon, and 
 have a chamber for the powder, like mor- 
 tars. They are mostly used on board of 
 ships, in close engagements, from the poop 
 and forecastle. Sometimes they are em- 
 ployed in fortifications. They have been 
 cast from 12 to G8 pounders. They were 
 first used in the North American revolu- 
 tionary war. 
 
 CARROT (daucus carota, LinnsBiis) is a 
 biennial plant, a native of Britain. The 
 leaves are pinnatifid, and much cut. The 
 plant rises to the height of two feet, and 
 produces white flowers, succeeded by 
 rough, hispid seeds. The root of the plant, 
 in its wild state, is small, d^, sticky, of a 
 white color, and strong-flavored ; but the 
 root of the cultivated variety is large, suc- 
 culent, and of a red-yellow or pale straw- 
 color, and shows remarkably the improve- 
 ment which may be effected by cultivation. 
 Though long known as a garden plant, 
 it is comparatively of recent introduction 
 in agriculture. It appears to have been 
 cultivated from an early period in Ger- 
 many and Flanders, and introduced from 
 the latter country to Kent and Suifolk 
 early in the 16th century. The various 
 uses of the carrot in cookery are well 
 known. But, although it contains much 
 nutriment, it is difficult of digestion, par- 
 ticularly if eaten raw or imperfectly boil- 
 ed. Carrots are an excellent fodder for 
 
 VOL. ii. 46 
 
 cattle and horses, either alone or mixed 
 with hay ; and, if given to cows in winter 
 or the early part of spring, they are said 
 to cause a great increase of milk, which 
 will have a much less offensive taste and 
 smell than when they are fed on turn) [is. 
 Hogs thrive well upon carrots boiled with 
 their wash. In some parts of England, 
 this vegetable has been cultivated as a 
 winter food for deer; and the tops have 
 even been made into hay. Carrots con- 
 tain a large proportion of saccharine mat- 
 ter, and various but unsuccessful experi- 
 ments have been made to extract sugar 
 from them. They have been more ad- 
 vantageously employed in distillation. 
 Ten pounds weight of carrots will yield 
 about half a pint of very strong ardent 
 spirit; and the carrots produced by an 
 acre of ground, amounting to 20 tons, 
 have been known to yield 240 gallons of 
 spirit. A sirup made of these roots, and 
 clarified with the whites of eggs, has been 
 found useful for several purposes. An in- 
 fusion of the seeds, and the expressed 
 juice of the roots, are said to afford relief 
 in fits of the gravel. A marmalade of 
 carrots has been used with success in sea- 
 scurvy, and a poultice prepared from 
 them is sometimes employed in cancer- 
 ous ulcers. Crickets are so fond of these 
 roots, that they may easily be destroyed 
 by making a paste of flour, powdered ar- 
 senic and scraped carrots, and placing 
 this near their habitation. Parkinson in- 
 forms us that, in his day, ladies wore car- 
 rot leaves in the place of feathers. In 
 winter, an elegant ornament is sometimes 
 formed by cutting off a section from the 
 head or thick end of a can-ot, containing 
 the bud, and placing it in a shallow ves- 
 sel with water. Young and delicate 
 leaves unfold themselves, forming a radi- 
 ated tuft of a very handsome appearance, 
 heightened by contrast with the season 
 of the year. 
 
 CARRYING TRADE. (See Commerce.) 
 CARSTARES, William, a Scotch divine 
 of political eminence, was born in 1649, 
 at Cathcart, near Glasgow, where his la- 
 ther was minister. He pursued his stud- 
 ies at the university of Edinburgh, whence 
 he was removed to that of Utrecht, was 
 introduced to the prince of Orange, and 
 intrusted with all his views in regard to 
 Britain. He, however, returned to Scot- 
 land, with the view of entering the minis- 
 try, but, after receiving a license to preach, 
 re'solved to return to Holland. As he was 
 to pass through London, he was employed 
 by Argyle and his party to treat with the 
 English exclusionists, and became privy
 
 542 
 
 CARSTARES CARTE. 
 
 to the rye-house plot. On the discovery 
 of that conspiracy, he was apprehended. 
 After a rigorous confinement in irons, he 
 was subjected to the torture, and endured 
 this trial with great firmness ; but, being 
 afterwards deluded with the hopes of a 
 full pardon, and assured that his answers 
 should never be made evidence against 
 any one, he submitted to make a judicial 
 declaration. The privy council violated 
 their engagement, by producing his evi- 
 dence in court against his friend, Mr. 
 Bail lie, of Jerviswood. Being released, 
 he returned to Holland, and was received 
 by .the prince of Orange as a sufferer in 
 his cause. The prince made him one of 
 his own chaplains, and procured his elec- 
 tion to the office of minister of the Eng- 
 lish congregation at Leyden. He accom- 
 panied the prince in his expedition, and 
 always remained about his person, both 
 at home and abroad. During this reign, 
 he was the chief agent between the 
 church of Scotland and the court, and was 
 very instrumental in the establishment of 
 the presbytery, to which William was 
 averse. On the death of William, he was 
 no longer employed on public business ; 
 but Anne continued him her chaplain- 
 royal, and made him principal of the uni- 
 versity of Edinburgh. When the union 
 of the two kingdoms was agitated, he 
 took a decided part in its favor. He did 
 not long survive this event, dying in 1715, 
 at the age of 66. The memory of Car- 
 stares is, for the most part, revered by his 
 countrymen as that of an enlightened 
 patriot ; and few men of active power and 
 influence have steered between parties 
 more beneficially and ably. 
 
 CARSTENS, Asmus Jacob, a distinguish- 
 ed painter, born at St. Jurgen, near Sles- 
 wic, in 1754, died at Rome in 1798. He 
 studied at Copenhagen, where he pro- 
 duced his first picture the Death of JEs- 
 chylus. In 1783, he set out for Rome ; but, 
 after having seen some works of Julio Ro- 
 inani and Leonardo da Vinci, was obliged 
 to return to Germany, from want of 
 means, and ignorance of the Italian lan- 
 guage. In Liibec, he lived almost five 
 years by painting likenesses. A piece, 
 containing more than 200 figures the Fall 
 of the Angels procured him the place of a 
 professor in the academy at Berlin. In 
 1792, he went to Rome. His picture of 
 Megapont was compared to the produc- 
 tions of Raphael and Michael Angelo. 
 His subjects were almost all taken from 
 Homer, Pindar, Sophocles, ^Eschylus, 
 Shakspeare and Ossian. In Carstens' 
 works, we find that effort to attain cor- 
 
 rectness of form and outline, gracefulness 
 of attitude, and loftiness and vigor of ex- 
 pression, by which the works of the an- 
 cients are distinguished ; but they fre- 
 quently exhibit a certain harshness, arising 
 from too close imitation. He was often 
 defective in anatomy and perspective, and, 
 having begun late to paint in oil, was un- 
 acquainted with the secrets of coloring. 
 (See Fernow.} 
 
 CARTE, Thomas, an English historian, 
 was born at Dunmoor, Warwickshire, in 
 1686. He was admitted at University 
 college, Oxford, in 1698, and was after- 
 wards incorporated at Cambridge, where 
 he took his degree of M. A. in 1706. His 
 first publication was entitled the Irish 
 Massacre, set in a true Light, &c. Incur- 
 ring suspicions during the rebellion of 
 17i5, a warrant was issued for his appre- 
 hension, which he eluded by concealment 
 in the house of a clergyman at Coleshil. 
 He subsequently acted as secretary to 
 bishop Atterbury ; and, as it was supposed 
 that he was concerned in the conspiracy 
 imputed to that intriguing prelate, he was 
 charged with high treason, and a reward 
 of 1000 was offered for his apprehension. 
 He was again successful in making his 
 escape, and, reaching France, he resided 
 there several years under the name of 
 Philips. Having obtained various intro- 
 ductions to persons of influence and learn- 
 ing, he obtained free access to the princi- 
 pal libraries, and employed himself in col- 
 lecting materials for an English edition of 
 the History of Thuanus. At length, queen 
 Caroline, the liberal patroness of literary 
 merit of every party, procured leave for 
 his return to England. His important 
 work, the Life of James Duke of Orrnond, 
 was published in 3 vols, folio, 1735 6. 
 This work gained him great reputation, 
 especially with the tory party, amMed 
 him to meditate a general history of Eng- 
 land, as a counterbalance to the tendency 
 of that of Rapin tie Thoyras, which the 
 tones charged with error and partiality. 
 In 1744, he was arrested, under a suspen- 
 sion of the habeas corpus act, and exam- 
 ined, on a suspicion of being employed by 
 the Pretender. Nothing, however, ap- 
 pearing against him, he was discharged. 
 The first volume of his history, in folio, 
 concluded with the death of king John, 
 and might have been very well received, 
 had not the author materially injured the 
 credit of his work, and his own reputation 
 as a man of sense, by the unnecessary in- 
 sertion of a note, containing the ridiculous 
 story of the care of one Christopher Level, 
 who went from Somersetshire to Paris to
 
 CARTE CARTHAGE. 
 
 543 
 
 be touched for the king's evil by the Pro- 
 tender. Still lie proceeded with his work, 
 and published two more volumes, in 1750 
 and 1752; the fourth, which brought down 
 the history to 1654, not appearing until 
 after his death. The character of this 
 work is deservedly very high for useful 
 and elaborate research, for which quali- 
 ties it has risen greatly in esteem, since the 
 obligations of Hume to it have been ren- 
 dered apparent. In point of style, it is 
 mean; and the prejudices of the author, 
 who was utterly destitute of the philo- 
 sophical impartiality requisite for a histo- 
 rian, are every where conspicuous : but 
 its diligence and exactness, with regard 
 to facts, and the intimate knowledge of 
 original authors displayed by the writer, 
 will always render it valuable. Mr. Carte 
 died in April, 1754. He is the author of 
 several works besides those already men- 
 tioned. He was a man of indefatigable 
 industry, cheerful and entertaining in con- 
 versation, but very slovenly and ungainly 
 in his appearance. 
 
 CARTEL ; an agreement for the delivery 
 of prisoners or deserters : also, a written 
 challenge to a duel. Cartel-Skip ; a ship 
 commissioned, in time of war, to exchange 
 prisoners ; also to carry any proposal be- 
 tween hostile powers. She must carry 
 no cargo, ammunition, or implements of 
 war, except a single gun for signals. 
 
 CARTER, Elizabeth, an English lady of 
 great learning, was the daughter of doctor 
 Nicholas Carter, a clergyman in Kent, 
 and was born in 1717. She was educated 
 by her lather, and soon became mistress 
 of Latin, Greek, French and German; to 
 which she afterwards added Italian, Span- 
 ish, Portuguese, Hebrew, and even Arabic. 
 Several of her poetical attempts appeared 
 in the Gentleman's Magazine, before she 
 attained her 17th year, and these procured 
 her much celebrity. In 1739, she trans- 
 lated the critique, of Crousaz on Pope's 
 Essay on Man ; and, in the same year, 
 gave a translation of Algarotti's explana- 
 tion of Newton's philosophy, for ladies. 
 In 1749, she commenced her translation 
 of Epictetus. In 1791, Miss Carter had 
 an interview with queen Charlotte, by the 
 queen's own desire, and, during the re- 
 mainder of her life, occasionally received 
 visits from different members of the royal 
 family, who paid her particular attention. 
 She died in 1806, in the 89th year of her 
 age, and lies interred m the burying- 
 ground of Grosvenor chapel. The year 
 following her death, her Memoirs were 
 published, and a new edition of her po- 
 eins ; and, subsequently, her correspond- 
 
 ence with Miss Talbot (in 2 vols., 4to.), 
 and letters to Mrs. Montague and Mrs. 
 Vesey (4 vols. 8vo.), all which are much 
 esteemed. 
 
 CARTES, DBS. (See Descartes.} 
 CARTHAGE ; the most famous city of Af- 
 rica in antiquity, capital of a rich and pow- 
 erful commercial republic. Dido (q. v.), 
 fleeing from Tyre, came to this country, 
 where the inhabitants, according to tradi- 
 tion, agreed to give her as much land as 
 could be compassed by an ox-hide. Dido 
 cut the hide into small thongs, with which 
 she enclosed a large piece of land. Here 
 she built the castle of Carthage, and gave 
 the newly-founded state excellent institu- 
 tions. The first period of the history of 
 Carthage extends to the beginning of the 
 war with Syracuse, from B. C. 878 to 480. 
 Carthage extended its conquests in Africa 
 and Sardinia, carried on a commercial 
 war with the people of Marseilles and the 
 Etruscans, and concluded a commercial 
 treaty with Rome, 13. C. 509, the original 
 document of which, on stone, is still ex- 
 tant. The Carthaginians then directed 
 their chief attention to the conquest of 
 Sicily, with which commences their sec- 
 ond and most splendid period, extending 
 to the beginning of their war with the 
 Romans, B. C. 265. When Xerxes un- 
 dertook his campaign into Greece, the 
 Carthaginians made a -league with him 
 against Gelon, king of Syracuse, but were 
 defeated at Himera, B. C. 480, and obliged 
 to sue for peace, and abstain from ^the 
 practice of offering human sacrifices. 
 (See Gelon.) In the war with Hiero, the 
 next king, the Carthaginians conquered 
 the cities Selinus, Himera and Agrigen- 
 tum. Dionysius the elder obtained a 
 temporary peace. But, after Tinioleou 
 had delivered Syracuse and Sicily from 
 the yoke of tyranny, the Carthaginians 
 were peculiarly unfortunate. Contagious 
 diseases and frequent mutinies reduced 
 the strength of the city. When Sicily 
 suffered under the tyranny of Agathocles, 
 Carthage engaged in a war with him, and 
 was soon attacked and severely pressed by 
 the usurper. After the death of Agatho- 
 cles, Carthage once more took part in 
 the commerce of Sicily, when difficul- 
 ties broke out there with their auxiliaries, 
 the Mamertines. The Romans took ad- 
 vantage of these troubles to expel the 
 Carthaginians from Sicily, although they 
 had previously received assistance from 
 them (in 275) in a war against Pyrrhus 
 of Epirus, in Sicily and Lower Italy. 
 Here begins the third period of Cartha- 
 ginian history, embracing the thrice re-
 
 544 
 
 CARTHAGE. 
 
 peated straggle for dominion between 
 Rome and Carthage, in the interval be- 
 tween 264 and 146 B. C. The first Punic 
 war (see Punic) continued 2.'3 years. 
 The fleets and armies of Carthage were 
 vanquished. By the peace (B. C. 241), 
 the Carthaginians lost all their possessions 
 in Sicily. Upon this, the mercenary 
 forces, whose wages could not be paid 
 by the exhausted treasury of the city, 
 took up arms. Ham il car Barcas con- 
 quered them, and restored the Cartha- 
 ginian power in Africa. Notwithstanding 
 the peace with Carthage, the Romans 
 took possession of Sardinia in 228, where 
 the mercenary troops of Carthage had 
 revolted. Hamilcar, who was at the head 
 of the democratic party, now undertook 
 the conquest of Spain, whose rich mines 
 tempted the Carthaginians. For the suc- 
 cess of this enterprise, within 17 years, 
 Carthage was indebted to the family of 
 Barcas, which could boast of the glorious 
 names of Hamilcar, Asdrubal and Hanni- 
 bal. To secure the possession of this 
 acquisition, Asdrubal founded New Car- 
 thage (now C'arthagena), the most power- 
 ful of all the Carthaginian colonies. The 
 second Punic war (218201 B. C.), not- 
 withstanding the abilities of the general, 
 ended with the subjugation of Cartilage. 
 Hannibal, neglected by his countrymen, 
 and weakened by a victory that cost him 
 much blood, was obliged to leave Italy, 
 in order to hasten to the assistance of 
 Carthage, which was threatened by the 
 Romans. The battle at Zama, in the 
 neighborhood of Carthage, resulted in fa- 
 vor of the Romans. Scipio granted the 
 city peace under the severest conditions. 
 Carthage ceded Spain, delivered up all 
 her ships of war except 10, paid 10,000 
 talents (about $10,000,000), and promised 
 to engage in no war without the consent 
 of the Romans. Besides this, Masinissa, 
 the ally of Rome, and implacable enemy 
 of Carthage, was placed on the Numidiaii 
 throne. This king, under the protection 
 of Rome, deprived the Carthaginians of 
 the best part of their possessions, and de- 
 stroyed their trade in the interior of Afri- 
 ca. The third war with the Romans was 
 a desperate contest. The disarmed Car- 
 thaginians were obliged to demolish their 
 own walls. Then, taking up arms anew, 
 they fought for death or life. After three 
 years, the younger Scipio ended this war 
 by the destruction of the city, B. C. 146. 
 Augustus peopled it anew, and it regained 
 some degree of renown. From A. D. 
 429 to 534, it was the residence of the 
 Vandal kings. But the Arabians destroy- 
 
 ed it a second time, and few traces now 
 remain of it, except an aqueduct. 
 
 The government of Carthage, according 
 to the common opinion, in its origin, was 
 monarchical ; afterwards, it is not known 
 how nor when, it became republican. 
 The Phoenician states, likewise, had kings, 
 and their government, too, was republican. 
 As no distinct period is mentioned when 
 the government received its form, the 
 constitution scoms to have been gradually 
 formed, mostly by and through domestic 
 troubles. The government was com- 
 posed of the sif/fcfes, the senate, the tribu- 
 nal of the hundred, and the freemen. 
 The s-iiffetes were at the head of afl'airs, 
 and were commonly called kings, by the 
 Greek authors, and consuls by the Ro- 
 mans. They were permanent officers, 
 and not, like the Roman consuls, chosen 
 for short periods. The Carthaginian sen- 
 ate seems to have been a permanent and 
 numerous body, in which there was a 
 smaller committee, composed, probably, 
 of the elder members. As regards the 
 power of the senate, and its relation to 
 the people, we know that the former had 
 the right of deliberating beforehand on 
 all affairs that were to be referred to the 
 people. If the svjfdes agreed with the 
 senate, the business might be referred to 
 the people, or not, as these magistrates 
 saw fit ; but if they disagreed, it was al- 
 ways referred to the people ; and every 
 citizen had the right of expressing his 
 opinions freely. War and peace, likewise, 
 depended on the decision of the senate. 
 The tribunal of the hundred was chosen 
 from the most respectable families, and 
 Avas the highest political tribunal. It 
 seems, also, to have been in possession of 
 supreme civil jurisdiction. A highly re- 
 markable peculiarity of the Carthaginian 
 government Avas, the separation of the 
 civil and military poAver at so early a pe- 
 riod. The svffetes were never their gen- 
 erals. The latter Avere chosen by the 
 people, and, in time of Avar, had unlimited 
 power in regard to military operations. 
 Affairs of state, on the contrary, alli- 
 ances, and the like, Avere administered by 
 a committee of the senate, which Avas 
 associated with the generals. In this re- 
 spect, the Carthaginian constitution Avas 
 superior to the Roman, in which the 
 union of the two powers cost the state its 
 freedom. The religion of Carthage Avas 
 a branch of the Avorship of the stars and 
 of fire, which prevailed in the East. 
 Concerning Moloch (Baal or the Sun), 
 the supreme god of the Phoenicians, the 
 human sacritices, and other peculiarities
 
 CARTHAGE CARTHUSIANS. 
 
 545 
 
 of the Phoenician worship, the bishop of 
 Zealand, doctor Frederic Munter, lias 
 published the result of his interesting in- 
 quiries, in his Religion of the Carthagin- 
 ians (Copenhagen, 1821, 2d edition, 4to.). 
 
 CARTHAGENA ; an ancient town on the 
 coast of the kingdom of Murcia, with 
 considerable trade, one of the three great 
 naval harbors of Spain, and the best port 
 of the Mediterranean. The basin i 
 very deep, even quite close to the town. 
 The hills that surround it, with steep 
 ascents, and an island at the mouth of 
 the harbor, protect the vessels from all 
 winds. The town, with the citadel, is 
 situated on a peninsula in the harbor. It 
 contains 29,000 inhabitants, fine wharves, 
 a naval arsenal, a naval school, a mathe- 
 matical, nautical and pilot academy, an 
 observatory, a botanical garden, a sail- 
 cloth manufactory, has some fisheries, 
 and some trade in barilla, silk, &-c. In 
 the neighborhood of the town, the Car- 
 thaginians possessed mines of silver of 
 such richness, that Hannibal was enabled 
 to carry on the war against the Romans 
 out of their produce. There are hot 
 springs and salt mines in the neighbor- 
 hood. The town was built by the Car- 
 thaginian general Asdrubal. 
 
 CARTHAGEXA ; a province of Colombia, 
 forming, with the provinces Santa Mar- 
 tha and Rio Hacha, the department Mag- 
 dalena (see Colombia), bordering on the 
 Caribbean sea and the gulf of Darie.n. 
 The country is composed of mountains 
 and valleys, covered with large and small 
 forests. The variety of plants and trees, 
 as well as fruits, is wonderful. The earth 
 is covered with perpetual verdure, Wheat 
 and other kinds of European grain do not 
 flourish well, but Indian corn and rice are 
 raised in sufficient quantity for the con- 
 sumption of the inhabitants The cli- 
 mate is very hot. From May to Decem- 
 ber, there is a great deal of rain. The 
 variety and beauty of the birds is remark- 
 able. Poultry, pigeons, partridges and 
 geese, are good and plentiful. The fruits 
 of the country are pine-apples, papayas, 
 plantains, &c. The principal town is 
 Carthagena. 
 
 CARTHAGEXA ; a city and seaport of 
 Colombia, capital of the province of the 
 same name ; lat. 10 25' N.; Ion. 77 30 / 
 W. The population is rated at 24,000, 
 It contains a handsome cathedral, several 
 churches, convents and monasteries, The 
 city is situated on a sandy island, which 
 forms a narrow passage on the S. W, 
 The bay is one of the best in the country. 
 It extends seven miles from N. to S., and 
 46* 
 
 has a safe anchorage, though the many 
 shallows at the entrance make a careful 
 steerage necessary. There are among 
 the inhabitants of Carthagena very many 
 of Indian descent. The city, like the 
 whole province, is subjected to the incon- 
 venience of periodical rains. 
 
 CARTHUSIA.XS ; a religious order, insti-r 
 tuted by St. Bruno (q. v.), who, in 1086, 
 built several hermitages in a desert sur- 
 rounded by hills and rocks, four leagues 
 from Grenoble, and, with six companions, 
 united the ascetic with the monastic life, 
 like the Camaldulians. The inhabitants 
 of this desert built a church, and, by in- 
 dustry and skill, converted into gardens 
 a place which seemed to have been des- 
 tined for the haunt of wild beasts only, 
 At the same time, they practised the 
 greatest abstinence, wore coarse gar-r 
 mente, and eat only vegetables and the 
 coarsest bread. From their original seat 
 (La Chartreuse}, they were called Carthu- 
 sians, and their monasteries, at first only 
 a few in number, were called Chartreuses. 
 Their fifth general, Guigues (died 1137), 
 prescribed, besides the usual monastic 
 vows, eternal silence and solitude. Me- 
 chauical labors and copying of books, to-, 
 gether with religious worship, constituted 
 their occupation. They observed a strict 
 temperance, and submitted to bleeding 
 five times a year. In 1170, they were 
 confirmed by the pope. In the following 
 centuries, they received additional stat- 
 ute*, which forbade altogether the eating 
 of flesh, arid allowed them to speak only 
 during certain hours on Thursdays and 
 the days on which the chapter met. 
 With increasing wealth, however, many 
 embellishments were added to their soli- 
 tary lite, as the great Chartreuse, near 
 Grenoble, and their elegant palace at Na? 
 pies, prove, The monks were, in general, 
 well informed, hospitable, and remarkable 
 for their neatness. Excessive penance 
 was interdicted, but their laws were ex* 
 ceedingly severe against disobedience, 
 Their habit was entirely white within, 
 covered with a black mantle. The lay 
 brothers were distinguished by the beard 
 and a shorter scapulary, The Carthiit 
 siau nuns originated in 1616. They were 
 dressed in white, like the monks, with a 
 black veil. They obtained permission to 
 dine in common, and to interrupt their 
 silence more frequently. The general of 
 the whole order was always the vicar of 
 the Chartreuse at Grenoble, In the mid-, 
 die of the 18th century, the Carthusian 
 monks occupied 172 monasteries, of which 
 75 were in France, the others mostly ii\
 
 54G 
 
 CARTHUSIANS CARTOON. 
 
 Germany and Italy. The Carthusians in 
 Sicily and Spain only have escaped the 
 general abolition of the order. 
 
 CARTILAGE is a semi-pellucid substance, 
 of a milk-white or pearly color, entering 
 into the composition of several parts of 
 the body. It holds a middle rank, in 
 point of firmness, between bones, or hard 
 parts, and the softer constituents of the 
 human frame. It appears, on a superfi- 
 cial examination, to be homogeneous in 
 its texture ; for, when cut, the surface is 
 uniform, and contains no visible cells, 
 cavities, nor pores, but resembles the sec- 
 tion of a piece of glue. It possesses a 
 very high degree of elasticity, which 
 property distinguishes it from all other 
 parts of the body. Hence it enters into 
 the composition of parts whose functions 
 require the combination of firmness with 
 pliancy and flexibility, the preservation 
 of a certain external form, with the power 
 of yielding to external force or pressure. 
 Anatomists divide cartilages into two 
 kinds, the temporary and the permanent. 
 The former are confined to the earlier 
 stages of existence ; the latter common- 
 ly retain their cartilaginous structure 
 throughout life. The temporary carti- 
 lages are those in which the bones are 
 formed. All the bones except the teeth 
 are formed in a nidus of cartilage. The 
 permanent cartilages are of various kinds. 
 They compose the external ear and ex- 
 ternal aperture of the nostrils and eyelids. 
 The larynx is formed entirely of this sub- 
 stance, and the trachea or windpipe, with 
 its branches, is furnished with cartilagin- 
 ous hoops, by which these tubes are kept 
 permanently open for the ready passage 
 of air to and from the lungs. The bodies 
 of the vertebrae are joined by large masses 
 of a peculiar substance, partaking of the 
 properties and appearance of cartilage 
 and ligament, which allow of the motions 
 of these parts on each other, without 
 weakening the support that is afforded to 
 the upper parts of the body in general, 
 and to the head in particular, by the ver- 
 tebral column. These cartilages impart 
 great elasticity to the spine, by which the 
 effects of concussion from jumping, from 
 falls, &c., are weakened and destroyed 
 before they can be propagated to the 
 head. When the body has been long in 
 an erect position, the compression of these 
 cartilages, by the superior parts, dimin- 
 ishes the height of the person. They re- 
 cover their former length when freed 
 from this pressure. Hence a person is 
 taller when he rises in the morning, than 
 after sustaining the fatigues of the day, 
 
 and the difference has sometimes amount- 
 ed to an inch. Cartilages are sometimes 
 interposed between the articular surfaces 
 of bones, where they iill up irregularities 
 that might otherwise impede the motions 
 of the part, and increase the security of 
 the joint by adapting the articular "sur- 
 faces to each other. These surfaces are, 
 in every instance, covered by a thin crust 
 of cartilage, having its surface most ex- 
 quisitely polished, by which all friction in 
 the motions of the joint is avoided. 
 
 CARTOON has many significations. In 
 paintinir, it denotes a sketch on thick pa- 
 per, pasteboard, or other material, which 
 is used as a model for a large picture, es- 
 pecially in fresco, oil, tapestry, and, for- 
 merly, in glass and mosaic. In fresco 
 painting, cartoons are particularly useful ; 
 because, in this, a quick process is neces- 
 sary, and a fault cannot easily be corrected. 
 In applying cartoons, the artist commonly 
 traces them through, covering the back 
 of the design with black lead or red chalk ; 
 then, laying the picture on the wall, or 
 other matter, he passes lightly over each 
 stroke of the design with a point, which 
 leaves an impression of the color on the 
 plate or wall ; or the outlines of the figures 
 are pricked with a needle, and then, the 
 cartoon being placed against the wall, a 
 bag of coal-dust is drawn over the holes, 
 in order to transfer the outlines to the 
 wall. In fresco painting, the figures were 
 formerly cut out, and fixed firmly on the 
 moist plaster. The painter then traced 
 their contour with a pencil of wood or 
 iron ; so that the outlines of the figures 
 appeared on the fresh plaster, with a 
 slight but distinct impression, when the 
 cartoon was taken away. In the manu- 
 facture of a certain kind of tapestry, the 
 figures are still cut out, and laid behind 
 or under the woof, by which the artist 
 directs his operations. In this case, the 
 cartoons must be colored. Of this kind 
 are the cartoons which Raphael executed 
 for pope Leo X, from which the famous 
 tapestries of Raphael (see Tapcstrij and 
 Raphael)in the Netherlands were woven. 
 There were twelve of them, representing 
 histories taken from the New Testament. 
 Seven of them are still extant, and may 
 be seen at Hampton court, near London. 
 The best copy of them has been taken by 
 Nicholas Dorigny, and the collection is call- 
 ed Pinacotheca Hnmptoniana. (See Rich- 
 ardson's historical and critical description 
 of them). Rubens bought tlvese cartoons 
 for Charles I, and king William built a 
 gallery for them at Hampton court. The 
 cartoon of the school of Athens, earned
 
 CARTOON CARTWRIGHT. 
 
 547 
 
 to Paris by the French, and a fragment of 
 the battle of Maxentius and Constantino, 
 are preserved in the Ainhrosian gallery at 
 Milan. There are likewise cartoons by 
 Giulio Romano in the Sala Borgia, by Do- 
 inenichino and other Italian masters, who 
 caused their pictures to be executed, in a 
 great degree, by their scholars, alter these 
 cartoons. The value set upon cartoons 
 by the old Italian masters may be seen by 
 Giov. 1}. _\rmenini's Precelli della Pittura 
 (Venice, 1(167, 4to.). In later times, large 
 paintings, particularly in fresco, were not 
 executed so frequently. The artists also 
 labored with less care, and formed their 
 great works more from small sketches. 
 In modern times, some German artists 
 have prepared accurate cartoons. Among 
 them is Cornelius, whose cartoons, for his 
 fresco-paintings in Munich, have acquir- 
 ed much celebrity. He prepared, too, a 
 cartoon for the fresco picture represent- 
 ing Joseph interpret ing the Dream. Over- 
 berk, also, has made cartoons, from which 
 he has painted the Seven Years of Famine, 
 and the Selling of Joseph. The ,S'< IYH 
 Years of Plenty he executed, with the as- 
 sistance of William Schadow and Philip 
 Veil. The representations of Joseph's 
 history, just mentioned, the late Prussian 
 consul-general Bertholdy has caused to 
 be executed in fresco, at his resilience in 
 Rome, by the above-named artists. For 
 the villa Massimi, near Rome, Over- 
 beck has prepared cartoons representing 
 scenes from Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered ; 
 Julius Schnorr, illustrations of Ariosto, 
 and Veit, scenes taken from Dante. 
 
 CARTOUCH, in architecture, sculpture, 
 &c., denotes an ornament representing a 
 scroll of paper, being usually in the form 
 of a table, or flat member, with wavings, 
 whereon is some inscription or device. 
 In heraldry ; a name given to a sort of 
 oval shields, much used by the popes and 
 secular princes in Italy, and others, both 
 clergy and laity, for painting or engraving 
 their arms on. In the military art: a 
 wooden case, about three inches thick at 
 bottom, and girt round with marline, 
 holding 2, 3, or 400 musket balls, with 8 
 or 10 iron balls, weighing one pound 
 each, to be fired from a mortar, gun or 
 howitzer, for the defence of a p;>- 
 trenchrnent, &c. It is also used for a 
 cartridge-box, now employed mostly by 
 the cavalry. The charge of a cannon is 
 also sometimes called by this name. 
 Cat-louche is likewise the, name given by 
 the French literati to that oval rinir, or 
 bonier, which includes, in the Egyptian 
 hieroglyphics, the names of persons of 
 
 high distinction, as M. Champollion has 
 proved. This border was thought, at 
 first, by Zoe'ga, to include every proper 
 name. 
 
 CARTOUCHE, Louis Dominique. The 
 pilfering propensities of this man, who 
 was born at Paris, near the end of the 
 17th century, early showed themselves. 
 Being expelled from school, and after- 
 wards from his father's house, for theft, 
 lie joined a band of rogues in Normandy, 
 and then put himself at the head of a nu- 
 merous company of banditti in Paris, over 
 which he exercised the power of life and 
 death. lie was first apprehended in a 
 tavern, in 1721, and brought to the Chdte- 
 let. On the rack, he named none of his 
 accomplices. But when he arrived at 
 the place of execution, where he was to 
 be broken alive on the wheel, and found 
 that his companions had not assembled 
 to his rescue, he retracted, and named his 
 accomplices, to gain a respite. His exe- 
 cution soon followed. Various authors 
 have described his adventurous, and, in 
 some respects, interesting life. 
 
 CARTRIDGE ; a case of paper, parch- 
 ment, or flannel, fitted to the bore of fire- 
 arms, and filled with gun-powder, to ex- 
 pedite the discharge of the piece. Car- 
 tridges are of two sorts, viz. ftaM-cartridges, 
 used in firing balls, and Wan&-cartridges, 
 used in firing without ball. Riflemen 
 avoid the use of cartridges, because the 
 cartridge injures the shot of a rifle. In 
 most armies, a soldier carries GO car- 
 tridges into battle. 
 
 ( ' ARTWRIGHT, Edmund, was born in 
 174^5, in Nottinghamshire (brother of ma- 
 jor John Cartwright,the well-known advo- 
 cate of parliamentary reform), and studied 
 at Oxford. His poems were very popular, 
 especially a ballad entitled slrmyne and 
 Elvira, 1771. He was one of the princi- 
 pal contributors to the Monthly Review. 
 He is also distinguished for his mechani- 
 cal inventions. In 178G, he took out a 
 patent for a weaving machine ; for which 
 he obtained from parliament a grant of 
 10,000, and was often rewarded with 
 prizes for his inventions. For the last 30 
 years of his life, he was employed in plans 
 for propelling carriages and boats by 
 steam. He died in It'Jl. 
 
 CARTWRIGHT, John, an English gen- 
 tleman, celebrated for his exertions in the 
 cause of political reform, was born in 
 1740, at Marnham, Nottinghamshire, of 
 an ancient family. His early education 
 was rather deficient ; but he made some 
 progress in mechanics and practical math- 
 ematics. He entered the navy, and be-
 
 548 
 
 CARTWRIGHT CARVER. 
 
 came a first lieutenant in 1766. In 1774, 
 his attention was turned to politics. In 
 his Letters on American Independence, 
 written in this year, he advocated a union 
 between the colonies and the mother 
 state, under separate legislatures, and ar- 
 gued this great question on the founda- 
 tion of natural, inherent right ; maintain- 
 ing " that the liberty of man is not derived 
 from charters, but from God, and that it 
 is original in every one." In 1775, he 
 was appointed major of the Nottingham- 
 shire militia, and, after several ineffectual 
 attempts, on the part of government, to 
 remove him from that post, his dismission 
 was finally accomplished, in 1792, in con- 
 sequence of an act of parliament. In the 
 American war, lord Howe was desirous 
 of having him with him in America ; but 
 major Cartwright, although always eager 
 for promotion in the navy, refused the 
 proposal, alleging that he could not fight 
 in a cause which he disapproved. From 
 this time, he devoted himself to the two 
 great objects of aimual parliaments and 
 universal suffrage. In 1779, he succeed- 
 ed in the establishment of a Society for 
 Constitutional Information, and was the 
 author of a Declaration of Rights, distrib- 
 uted by the society, which, sir William 
 Jones said, " ought to be written in letters 
 of gold." The French revolution was 
 warmly welcomed by Cartwright, as by 
 other friends of liberty. The alliance of 
 the sovereigns, which soon followed, he 
 considered equally irreconcilable with 
 policy and with national justice. The sub- 
 sequent prosecutions against the friends 
 of reform, the fate of Muir and of Holt, 
 occasioned no small dismay among the 
 people. In the trials of Tooke, Hardy, 
 Thelwall and others, Cartwright took a 
 great interest, was present as a witness, 
 and displayed much openness, fearless- 
 ness and firmness. By his writings, pub- 
 lic addresses, &.C., he continued to pro- 
 mote the work of reform and constitu- 
 tional liberty ; and, as late as 1819, he 
 was tried for conspiracy and sedition, for 
 advising the inhabitants of Birmingham 
 to send what he called their " legislatorial 
 attorney" to the house ; but he escaped 
 with a fine of 100. Major Cartwright 
 was not a political reformer only. The 
 plan of making the slave-trade piracy, is 
 said to have been first developed in his 
 Letters on the Slave-Trade. The in- 
 formation which he furnished to Daines 
 Barriugton respecting the possibility of 
 approaching the north pole ; his plan for 
 a perpetual supply of English oak for the 
 navy, which has since been partially 
 
 adopted, and several other useful projects 
 and inventions, are sufficient evidences 
 of his enterprise, activity and diversified 
 knowledge. He died in 1824, in the 84th 
 year of his age. He has been described 
 as alike just in all the relations of life, as 
 a citizen, a politician, a husband and a 
 friend; disinterested, firm and fearless; 
 and Fox, upon presenting one of his peti- 
 tions to the house, remarked, " He is one, 
 whose enlightened mind and profound 
 constitutional knowledge place him in 
 the highest rank of public characters, and 
 whose purity of principle, and consistency 
 of conduct through life, command the 
 most respectful attention to his opinions." 
 The most prominent traits of his charac- 
 ter are enterprise, firmness and perse- 
 verance. He was a fruitful writer, quick, 
 ingenious, powerful in argument, and 
 sometimes eloquent. His language is 
 plain, pure and strong. 
 
 CARVER, Jonathan, was born in Con- 
 necticut, in 1732. He embraced a mili- 
 tary career, and, in the French war, 
 commanded with reputation a company 
 of provincials, in the expedition across 
 the lakes, against Canada. When peace 
 was concluded, in 1763, captain Carver 
 undertook to explore the vast territory 
 which Great Britain had gained. His 
 object was, to acquire a knowledge of the 
 manners, customs, languages, soil, and 
 natural productions of the nations and 
 region beyond the Mississippi, and to 
 ascertain the breadth of the continent by 
 penetrating to the Pacific over its widest 
 part, between N. lat. 43 and 46. He. 
 accordingly set out from Boston in 17(il), 
 and, having reached Michillimackinac, the 
 remotest English post, applied to 3Ir. 
 Rogers, the governor, for an assortment 
 of goods, as presents for the Indians 
 dwelling in the parts through which his 
 course was to be directed. Receiving a 
 portion of the supply which he desired, 
 and a promise that the residue should be 
 sent to him at the falls of St. Anthony, 
 he continued his journey. But, not ob- 
 taining the goods at the appointed place, 
 in consequence of their having been dis- 
 posed of elsewhere by those to whom the 
 governor had intrusted them, he found it 
 necessary to return to la Prairie du Chien. 
 He then."in the beginning of the year 1?<>7, 
 directed his steps northward, with a view 
 of finding a communication from the 
 heads of the Mississippi into lake Supe- 
 rior, in order to meet, at the grand port- 
 agf on the north-west side of that lake, 
 the traders that usually come, about this 
 season, from Miehillimackinac, from whom
 
 CARVER GARY. 
 
 549 
 
 he intended to purchase goods, and then 
 to pursue his journey. He reached lake 
 Superior in good time ; but, unfortunately, 
 the traders whom he met there could not 
 furnish him with any goods, as they had 
 barely enough for their own purposes, 
 and, in consequence, he was obliged to 
 return to the place whence he first de- 
 parted, which he did in October, 1768, 
 after remaining some months on the north 
 and east borders of lake Superior, and 
 exploring the bays and rivers that empty 
 themselves into that body of water. He 
 soon after repaired to England, with the 
 view of publishing his journal and charts, 
 and of obtaining a reimbursement for the 
 expenses which he had incurred. Having 
 undergone a long examination before the 
 lords commissioners of trade and planta- 
 tions, he received permission to publish 
 his papers ; but, when they were nearly 
 ready for the press, an order was issued 
 from the council-board, requiring him to 
 deliver immediately into the plantation- 
 office all his charts and journals. He 
 was, consequently, obliged to re-purchase 
 them, at a great expense, from the book- 
 seller to whom he had disposed of them 
 a loss for which he received no indemni- 
 fication, but was forced to be satisfied 
 with that obtained for his other expenses. 
 He had fortunately kept copies of his pa- 
 pers, and he published them ten years 
 afterwards, in Boston, while in the situa- 
 tion of clerk of a lottery. Having sold 
 his name to a historical compilation, 
 which was published in 1779, in folio, 
 entitled The New Universal Traveller, 
 containing an account of all the empires, 
 kingdoms and states in the known world, 
 he was abandoned by those whose duty 
 it was to support him, and died in want 
 of the common necessaries of life, in 
 1780, aged 48 years. Besides his travels 
 above noticed, captain Carver published 
 a tract on the culture of tobacco. 
 
 GARY, Lucius (viscount Falkland), one 
 of those rare characters who serve as pro- 
 verbial instances of social excellence, was 
 born about the year 1G10. Being carried 
 young into Ireland, he received part of 
 his education at Trinity college, Dublin, 
 and part at St. John's college, Cambridge. 
 His youth did not pass without irregular- 
 ities, but they were suddenly closed by 
 his marriage with a young lady of small 
 fortune, whom he passionately loved. 
 After passing some time abroad, he re- 
 turned home, and devoted himself to a 
 life of retirement, and the cultivation of 
 polite literature. In 1033, he was ap- 
 pointed one of the gentlemen of the bed- 
 
 chamber to Charles I, but still chiefly 
 resided at his seat at Burford, near Ox- 
 ford, which he made a kind of academy 
 of learned men, being continually sur- 
 rounded by the most eminent men of the 
 neighboring universities. Here it was 
 that Chillingworth composed his famous 
 work against popery ; and questions of 
 morals, theology and literature were dis- 
 cussed, in a congenial circle, with the 
 utmost freedom. Lord Falkland himself 
 was deeply read in works of controversy ; 
 but in him they produced only strictness 
 of principle, and an aspiration after per- 
 fection, without debasing the man in the 
 exaltation of the scholar. In 1G39, he 
 joined the expedition against Scotland ; 
 and, in 1640, his peerage being Scotch, 
 he was chosen member of the house of 
 commons for Newport, in the Isle of 
 Wight. In the first instance, like many 
 of the most honorable characters of the 
 day, he warmly supported parliament. 
 He spoke with severity against Finch and 
 Strafford, and was so disgusted with the 
 proceedings of Laud, that he concurred 
 in the first bill for depriving the bishops 
 of a vote in the house of lords. A strong 
 attachment, however, to established forms, 
 and some doubts of the ultimate objects 
 of the parliamentary leaders, caused him 
 to retract ; and he afterwards strongly op- 
 posed the same measure. He still, how- 
 ever, kept at a distance from the court ; 
 but his high character rendered it so great 
 an object to gain him over to the king's 
 service, that at length he was induced to 
 accept a seat in the council, and the office 
 of secretary of stole. While in office, he 
 refused to employ spies or open suspected 
 letters. He very decidedly embraced the 
 party of the king, when hostilities com- 
 menced, and attended him at the battle 
 of Edge-hill, and the siege of Gloucester. 
 A view, however, of the evils impending 
 over the country, and, very probably, a 
 conviction of sinister objects on both 
 sides, broke his spirits. He would fre- 
 quently sit abstracted among his friends, 
 and, sighing deeply, exclaim, " Peace, 
 peace !" and exhibit every sign of grief 
 and anxiety. His closing scene almost 
 proves a determination to die in battle, as 
 he volunteered his services at the battle 
 of Newbury, without a command, and, 
 
 Sitting himself in the front rank of lord 
 yron's regiment, was struck from his 
 horse by a musket-shot, and was found, 
 the next day, dead upon the field. Such 
 was the fate of lord Falkland, at the age 
 of 34 ; and, while the universal praises 
 which he has received are, doubtless, very
 
 550 
 
 CARY CASANOVA. 
 
 much owing to the elaborate character 
 drawn of him by his friend Clarendon, 
 there can be no doubt of the strict integ- 
 rity of his character and intentions. As 
 a man of active talent, he claims little ad- 
 miration, and was evidently framed for 
 tl'ut life of studious retirement and men- 
 tal culture in which he so much delight- 
 ed. One of his sayings marks his taste 
 and character " I pity unlearned gentle- 
 men on a rainy day." Lord Falkland 
 left behind him several published speeches 
 and pamphlets on political and theologi- 
 cal subjects, as also a few poems. 
 
 CARYATIDES : a kind of pillars, which 
 represent the upper part of female bodies. 
 The name is of Greek origin. The god- 
 dess Diana, who had a temple in Karyatis, 
 a Peloponnesian city, was, for this reason, 
 called Karyatis. In honor of her, virgins 
 danced in a festive procession, on the 
 feast of Karyatis, which suggested to 
 architects the idea of adopting the image 
 of virgins in a kind of column which 
 ornamented the Pantheon. Thus Lessing 
 explains the name and form of the Caryat- 
 ides. Another explanation of the origin 
 of Caryatides is the following : The in- 
 habitants of Carya, a city of Pelopon- 
 nesus, allied themselves with the barba- 
 rians in the Persian war. The Greeks, 
 on the successful termination of that 
 struggle, exterminated the males of Carya, 
 and reduced all the women to slavery. 
 The captives, as a further mark of infamy, 
 were forbidden to lay aside the robes in 
 which they had decorated the conquerors' 
 triumph ; and the architects of the time, 
 to perpetuate the memory of the transac- 
 tion, made statues representing these 
 women in the servile office of supporting 
 entablatures. (See Architecture., i. 340.) 
 
 CASA, Giovanni della, an Italian poet 
 and orator, of an ancient and noble family 
 of Mugello, near Florence, was born 1503, 
 studied at Bologna, Padua, Rome, and 
 entered, as an ecclesiastic, into the service 
 of the two cardinals Alessandro Farnese, 
 the first of whom, in 1534, ascended the 
 papal chair, under the name of Paul III. 
 He rose through various offices in the 
 church, till Paul IV made him his private 
 secretary. He died probably in 1556. His 
 most celebrated work is Galateo, ovvero 
 de 1 Costumi, to which one, Degli tijjizj, 
 Communi tra gli Amid Superiori e Infe- 
 riori, forms a supplement This last is 
 a translation of his Latin treatise, De Offi- 
 ciis inter Potentiores et Tenuiores Amicos. 
 The best and most complete edition of 
 his works appeared at Venice, 1752, in 3 
 vols., 4to. 
 
 CASANOVA, Francis, a painter famous for 
 his battle-pieces, born at London, 1730, 
 went, while a boy, to Venice, where he 
 applied himself to the art of painting. He 
 afterwards obtained admission into the 
 academy in Dresden, and painted several 
 pieces for the prince Conde. The spirit 
 and liveliness of his coloring and execu- 
 tion cannot be surpassed. At the request 
 of Catharine of Russia, he painted, in Vien- 
 na, a piece representing the victory of this 
 princess over the Turks, which she after- 
 wards put up in her palace. He was con- 
 stantly occupied with his art, and died at 
 Briihl, near Vienna, 1805. His brother 
 John, likewise a painter, was born 1729, 
 at London ; died, 1795, at Dresden, where 
 he was professor and superintendent in 
 the academy of painting, and had instruct- 
 ed many able pupils in his art. His work 
 on the Ancient Monuments of Art, pub- 
 lished in Italian, and also in German (Leip- 
 sic, 1771), is still in esteem. 
 
 CASANOVA, John James de Seingalt ; 
 eldest brother of the preceding ; born at 
 Venice, 1725 ; known by his Memoirs as 
 an original and gay-tempered man, who 
 acted an interesting part in all situations, 
 amongst all classes of society, and in all 
 the large cities of Europe. His various 
 adventures are related by himself in a 
 most entertaining manner. They were 
 first published, in part, at Leipsic, 1826, 
 in a German translation. The French 
 original has since appeared. His father, 
 Cajetan John James, a descendant of the 
 Spanish family of Palafox, falling in love 
 with a dancer, turned actor, but afterwards 
 united himself with the daughter of a 
 shoemaker, Fanosi, who followed the pro- 
 fession of her husband. James Casanova, 
 their eldest son, received the rudiments of 
 his education in Padua, and made rapid 
 progress in the Latin language, as well as 
 in the other branches of learning. His 
 ardent temperament, early developed, 
 soon, however, involved him in many ad- 
 ventures, that served to sharpen his ob- 
 servation, and enlarge his knowledge of 
 human nature. He studied law, and, in 
 his 16th year, wrote two dissertations ; 
 one, De Testame-ntis, the other on the 
 question, Utrum Htbrai possint constru- 
 ere novas Synagogas. His talent for 
 shining in society introduced him, at Ven- 
 ice, into the select circles, in which a re- 
 fined but frivolous tone of manners pre- 
 vailed. The patriarch of Venice gave 
 him the inferior ordination, and his first 
 sermon was received with general ap- 
 plause. But he failed in his second ; and 
 from this period commences his restless
 
 CASANOVA LAS CASAS. 
 
 551 
 
 career, in which he became entangled in 
 a series of love adventures, that can be 
 understood only from his memoirs, lie 
 is arrested in Venice, cornes into personal 
 contact with pope Benedict XIV at 
 Rome, goes to Constantinople, is in the 
 military service at Corfu, and, in short, 
 visits all the principal cities of Europe, 
 being continually connected with the 
 highest personages, is followed and ca- 
 ressed, till at last he accompanies the count 
 of Waldstein to Dux, in Bohemia, where 
 he becomes his librarian. He died at 
 Vienna, in 1803. The escape of Casanova 
 from the lead prisons of Venice was 
 managed with admirable address and in- 
 genuity. He has left several works in 
 Italian and French, which give proof of 
 the great powers of this Proteus, though 
 he was more at home in the bustling 
 world than in the pursuits of learning. 
 Of these may be mentioned Confutazione 
 della Storia del Goberno Vtndo d'Jlmdot 
 de la Houssaie, divisa in tre Parti (Am- 
 sterdam, 1769) ; Istoria delle Tarbulenze 
 della Polonia dalla Morte di Elisabet Pe- 
 trowna fino alia pace fra la Russia e la 
 Porta Ottomana, in cui si trovano tutti gli 
 Avcnimenti Cagioni della Rivoluzione di 
 quel Regno (Gratz, 1774, 3 vols.); Histoire 
 de ma Fuite des Prisons de la RepuUique de 
 Vcnise, qit? on appelle les Plombs (Prague, 
 1788). His memoirs are a mirror of the 
 manners of his time. 
 
 CASAS, Bartholomew de las, a Spanish 
 prelate, was bom at Seville in 1474, and, 
 in his 19th year, accompanied his father, 
 who sailed with Columbus, to the West 
 Indies. Five years afterwards, he return- 
 ed to Spain, and, pursuing his studies, en- 
 tered the ecclesiastical order. He again 
 accompanied Columbus in his second 
 voyage to Hispaniola, and, on the con- 
 quest of Cuba, settled there, and distin- 
 guished himself by his humane conduct 
 towards the oppressed natives, of whom 
 he became, in a manner, the patron. He 
 set at liberty the Indians who had fallen 
 to his share in the division ; and so much 
 was he interested for them, that, in 1516, 
 he went to Spain to lay a statement of 
 their case before king Ferdinand, whose 
 death, at that time, prevented any meas- 
 ures for their redress. The regent, cardinal 
 Ximenes, however, appointed a commis- 
 sion to examine circumstances upon the 
 spot, and to determine accordingly. Las 
 Casas was to accompany them, with The 
 title of protector of the Indians. The 
 commissioners found that it was imnos- 
 sible to liberate the Indians, and therefore 
 endeavored to secure them humane treat- 
 
 ment ; but Las Casas, still dissatisfied, 
 remonstrated so warmly, that he was 
 obliged to take refuge in a convent, from 
 the rage of the planters. He again return- 
 ed to Europe, and, on the accession of 
 Charles V, in consequence of his repre- 
 sentations, the council appointed a chief 
 judge, to reexamine the points of contro- 
 versy between the partisans of Indian 
 liberty and the colonists. Las Casas, by 
 a singular inconsistency, in his zeal for 
 the Indians, became the author of the 
 slave-trade, by proposing to purchase Ne- 
 groes from the Portuguese in Africa, to 
 supply the planters with laborers, of the 
 want of whom they complained ; and 
 this was unfortunately put into execution. 
 He next applied for a grant of an unoc- 
 cupied tract, in order to try his own plan 
 with a new colony. This he at length 
 obtained, and, with 200 persons, whom 
 he persuaded to accompany him, landed 
 at Porto Rico in 1521, but found that an 
 expedition was advancing to ravage this 
 very tract, and convey its inhabitants to 
 Hispaniola as slaves. ' He endeavored in 
 vain to prevent the threatened danger, and, 
 with the few who still adhered to him, 
 returned to Hispaniola to solicit succor. 
 During his absence, the natives attacked 
 the colonists with such success, that, in a 
 short time, not a Spaniard remained in that 
 part of South America. Las Casas, in 
 despair at the failure of his project, retir- 
 ed to the Dominican convent at St. 
 Domingo, and assumed the habit of the 
 order. Notwithstanding his retirement, 
 his zeal in the cause of the Indians did 
 not abate ; and, being sent on a mission to 
 Spain, by a chapter of his order at Chiapa, 
 in 1542, he pleaded their cause with his 
 pristine warmth, and composed his fa- 
 mous treatise Brevissima Relacion de la De- 
 struction des Indes, in which he exposed 
 the cruelties practised by the Spaniards. 
 His unremitting perseverance at length 
 obtained a new set of laws and regulations, 
 by which the natives were greatly reliev- 
 ed. In 1544, he returned to America as 
 bishop of Chiapa, and continued there 
 until 1551, when he resigned his bishop- 
 ric, and again returned to Spain. He 
 died at Madrid in 1556, in the 92d year 
 of his age. Besides the treatise above- 
 named, he was also the author of a trea- 
 tise, in Latin, on the question "Whether 
 sovereigns may in conscience, by virtue 
 of any right, alienate their subjects from 
 their crown, and transfer them to the do- 
 minion of any other lord ?" which difficult 
 question he treats with great freedom, 
 spirit and delicacy. He also composed
 
 552 
 
 LAS CASAS CASE-HARDENING. 
 
 several works which have never been 
 published, among which is a General 
 History of the Indies, which was a great 
 assistance to Antonio cle Herrera in his 
 history. All his works evince profound 
 learning, and solid judgment, and piety ; 
 and, notwithstanding his great inconsist- 
 ency in regard to the Negroes, he must 
 be regarded as a very benevolent man, 
 and a lover of mankind. 
 
 CASAUBON, Isaac de (commonly called 
 Casaubonus), born Feb. 18, 1559, at Ge- 
 neva, of a family from Dauphiny, was 
 educated by his father, a clergyman. In 
 his 9th year, he spoke Latin fluently. In 
 his 19th year, he entered the university at 
 Geneva, where he studied jurisprudence, 
 theology, and the Oriental languages, and, 
 in 1582, succeeded Portus as professor of 
 the Greek language. He here married 
 the daughter of Henry Stephens, and 
 published, every year, editions of Greek 
 and Latin authors, with critical notes and 
 translations. In 1596, he accepted a pro- 
 fessorship of Greek and belles-lettres at 
 Montpellier, but held it only two years. 
 Henry IV invited him to Paris. His re- 
 ligious principles (the same as those for 
 which his father had left his country), the 
 jealousy of the other professors, and per- 
 haps his rather unyielding character, were 
 the occasion of many unpleasant occur- 
 rences, for which, however, he was in- 
 demnified by the office of royal librarian. 
 After the death of Henry IV, he followed 
 sir Henry Wotton, envoy extraordinary 
 from James I, to England, where he was 
 received with distinction, had two bene- 
 fices and a pension conferred on him, and 
 died at London, July 1, 1G14. He was 
 buried in Westminster abbey. Casaubon 
 was a liberal theologian, a man of exten- 
 sive learning, a good translator, and an 
 excellent critic. As a critic, he has com- 
 mented on Diogenes Laertius, Aristotle, 
 Theophrastus, Suetonius, Persius, Polyb- 
 ius, Theocritus, Strabo, Dionysius of Hal- 
 icarnassus, Athenseus, Pliny the Younger, 
 &c. Nearly all the ancient classics are 
 indebted to his valuable researches. His 
 profound dissertation on the satirical 
 poetiy of the Greeks and the satire of the 
 Romans (De Satyrica Groecorum Potsi et 
 Romanorum Satyra) deserves particular 
 praise. His theological writings are of 
 less value. 
 
 CASAUBON, Meric, son of the preceding, 
 born at Geneva, 1599, likewise distin- 
 guished himself by his learning. He fol- 
 lowed his father to England, and was 
 made doctor of divinity at Oxford. He 
 filled successively several offices in the 
 
 church, Avhen the revolution, which 
 brought Charles I to the scaflbld, deprived 
 him of his income. Still he rejected the 
 proposal of Cromwell to write the history 
 of liis time, us also the invitation of queen 
 Christina to live in Sweden. On the 
 return of the Stuarts, he was rewarded 
 for his loyalty by restoration to his office 
 in the church, which he held till his death, 
 1671. His learning was various and ex- 
 tensive, but not so profound as his la- 
 ther's. He published, besides his theolo- 
 gical works, observations on several clas- 
 sic authors ; e. g., Terence, Epictetus, 
 Florus, Polybius, &c. 
 
 CASCO BAY ; a bay in Maine, between 
 cape Elizabeth on W. S. W. and cape 
 Small Point on E. N. E. Within these 
 capes, which are about 20 miles apart, 
 there are about 300 small islands ; most 
 of which are cultivated, and are much 
 more productive than the main land on 
 the coast of Maine. Portland harbor is 
 on the W. side of the bay. 
 
 CASE, ACTION UPON THE. Jlctio super 
 causam is a general action, given for the 
 redress of a wrong done any man without 
 force, and not especially provided for by 
 law, in order to have satisfaction for dam- 
 age. This is called an action on the case, 
 because the whole cause or case is set 
 down in the writ ; and there is no other 
 action given in the case, except where 
 the plaintiff' has his choice to bring this 
 or another action. This action lies in a 
 variety of instances; as for words spoken 
 or written, which affect a person's life, 
 reputation, office or trade, or tend to his 
 loss of preferment in marriage or service, 
 or to his disinheritance, or which occa- 
 sion him any particular damage. Action 
 on the case likewise lies upon an as- 
 sumpsit. (q. v.) It lies, also, in all in- 
 stances wherein no general action could 
 be framed ; e. g., against carriers ; against 
 a common innkeeper, for goods stolen in 
 his house ; for deceit in contracts, bar- 
 gains and sales ; for neglect or malfea- 
 sance ; for injuries done in commons ; for 
 malicious prosecution and false arrests ; 
 against sheriffs, for default in executing 
 writs, permitting escapes, &c. ; for con- 
 spiracy, nuisances, &c. &c. 
 
 CASE, in grammar. (See Language.) 
 
 CASE-HARDENING is a process by which 
 iron is superficially converted into steel, 
 in such articles as require the toughness 
 of the former, conjointly with the hard- 
 ness of the latter substance. The articles 
 intended for case-hardening are first man- 
 ufactured in iron, and are then placed in 
 an iron box, with vegetable or animal
 
 CASE-HARDENINGCASHMERE GOAT. 
 
 553 
 
 coals in powder, to undergo cementation. 
 Immersion of the heated pieces into wa- 
 ter hardens the surface, which is after- 
 wards polished. Coarse files and gun- 
 barrels are among the articles most com- 
 monly case-hardened. 
 
 CASEMATES (from the Spanish casa, a 
 house, aud mature, to kill), in fortification ; 
 vaults which are proof against bombs, 
 under the main wall, particularly in bas- 
 tions, for the purpose of defending the 
 moat of a fortification, also for making 
 countermines. They serve, at the same 
 time, as a place for keeping the heavy 
 ordnance, and, in case of necessity, as 
 habitations for the garrison. 
 
 CASE-SHOT, in artillery, is formed by 
 putting a quantity of small iron balls into 
 it cylindrical tin box, called a canister, that 
 just fits the bore of the gun. In case of 
 necessity, the canister is filled with brok- 
 en pieces of iron, nails, stones, &c. The 
 case is closed at both ends by wood. 
 Shot of this sort are thrown from cannons 
 and howitzers. In sieges, sometimes, in- 
 stead of cases, bags are used. This kind 
 of shot is very injurious to the enemy, 
 because the balls contained in the canis- 
 ter spread, diverging in proportion to the 
 distance. The amount of divergence is, to 
 the distance which the shot reaches, gene- 
 rally in the proportion of 1 to 10; thus, at 
 the distance of 600 paces, they make a 
 circle of 60 paces diameter. The canis- 
 ters used in the Prussian army contain 
 balls of 1, 1=1, 3, 4, 6, 8 and 12 ounces 
 and of 1 pound. The distance which the 
 shot will reach varies according to the 
 weight and number of the balls. A six- 
 pounder shoots canister balls of 1 ounce 
 from 200 to 500 paces; twelve and 
 twenty-four-pounders shoot balls of 1 
 pound 800 to 1000 paces. The number 
 of the balls varies according to their 
 weight. 
 
 CASES, Emanuel, count of. (See Las 
 Cases.) 
 
 CASHMERE (17,291 sq. miles, 2,000,000 
 inhabitants) in Hindostan, now a province 
 of the Afghan state of Cabul, in Asia, is a 
 very celebrated valley, surrounded by the 
 gigantic mountains of Asia, the Himalaya 
 and Hindoo Koh, and traversed by the 
 river Behat or Chelum (formerly Hydas- 
 pes). From three sides, seven passes only 
 lead to this region ; to the east, the Hima- 
 laya presents an insurmountable hairier of 
 snow. The splendor and sublimity of the 
 diadem of snow-capped mountains, the 
 beauty and richness of the hills, which 
 form the ascent to the higher peaks, it is 
 impossible to describe. The elevated situ- 
 
 VOL. n. 47 
 
 ation of the valley, and the mountains of 
 snow which surround it, render the cli- 
 mate rather cold ; but it is, on the whole, 
 moderate and mild. This region, so rich in 
 romantic scenery, is watered by numerous 
 streams, and is blessed with an abundance 
 of the finest productions. The Asiatics, 
 therefore, call it the paradise of India, the 
 flower-garden, and the garden of eternal 
 spring,. The hills are covered with for- 
 ests and Alpine pastures ; at the foot of 
 these are fields of com ; along the sides 
 of the rivers, rice is planted ; rich orchards 
 extend over the foremost range of hills ; 
 mulberry trees are "cultivated in abun- 
 dance, for the support of silk- worms, and 
 are entwined with vines, from whose 
 grapes wine, very similar to Madeira, is 
 prepared. The fruits of warm climates 
 do not ripen here. The valley is famous 
 for its flowers, with which all the gardens 
 and meadows abound. Violets, roses, 
 narcissuses, aud innumerable European 
 flowers, besides many that are not known 
 in Europe, grow wild. The inhabitants 
 are Hindoos, of the religion of Brama, 
 although they are under the dominion of 
 the Afghans, who profess the Mohamme- 
 dan religion. Their language is a dialect, 
 of the Sanscrit. They manufacture their 
 celebrated shawls in great perfection. 
 The wool which they use for this purpose 
 comes from Thibet and Tartary, in which 
 countries, only, the goat, from which it is 
 taken, is said to thrive* About 80,000 
 shawls are made yearly, in ]li,000 looms, 
 each of which employs 3 workmen. The 
 capital, Cashmere (likewise Serinagur), 
 the largest town in the whole empire of 
 Afghanistan, is situated on the Behat, 
 and contains 200,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Cashmere Goat, a nobler species of the 
 common goats, is descended from the 
 goat of Thibet, which pastures on the 
 J limalaya. The climate in Thibet is sub- 
 ject to sudden changes. There is little 
 rain, but much snow, as the cold in winter 
 is below the freezing point. Thibet is 
 situated at the northern descent of the 
 Himalaya mountains, and Cashmere at 
 the southern ; hence the latter is a little 
 warmer than Thibet. In Thibet, this 
 goat is a domestic animal. It is not 
 allowed a very luxuriant pasture. The 
 favorite food of those animals is buds, 
 aromatic plants, rue and heath. The 
 people of Thibet give their goats, at least 
 once a week, some salt, which lias always 
 proved a useful accompaniment to the 
 customary food of these animals. If they 
 are transferred from their cold, mountain- 
 ous abode into a warmer country, the
 
 554 
 
 CASHMERE GOAT CASIMIR. 
 
 natural consequence follows, that the 
 wool becomes inferior in quantity and 
 fineness. It grows, also, very slowly in 
 the warm part of the year, and more 
 vigorously as the cold season approaches. 
 The head of the Asiatic goat is large, the 
 horns situated backwards, and somewhat 
 curved, the legs slender. The colder 
 the region where the animal pastures, the 
 heavier is its fleece. Proper food and 
 careful tending increase the fineness of 
 the wool. Yearlings, as in the case with 
 the Merino sheep, afford the finest wool. 
 A full-grown goat yields not more than 8 
 ounces. The goats which pasture in the 
 highest vales of Thibet have a bright 
 ochre color. In lower grounds, the color 
 becomes of a yellowish-white, and, still 
 farther downwards, entirely white. The 
 highest mountains of the Himalaya, in- 
 habitable by man, contain also a kind of 
 goats with black wool, which, in India, 
 and in the mountainous country of the 
 goats, obtains the highest price, as a mate- 
 rial for shawls. The goats of Thibet and 
 Cashmere have the fine curled wool close 
 to the skin, just as the under-hair of our 
 common goat lies below the coarse, up- 
 per-hair. The wool is shorn in the spring, 
 shortly before the warm season the time 
 when the animal, in its natural state, 
 seeks thorns and hedges in order to free 
 itself from the burden of its warm cover- 
 ing. All the hard and long hairs are 
 picked out most carefully. The wool, 
 thus purified, is washed, first in a warm 
 solution of potash, and afterwards in cold 
 water, in which process felting must be 
 carefully avoided. It is then bleached 
 upon the grass, and carded for spinning. 
 The shawl-wool is three times dyed 
 before carding, after spinning, and in the 
 shawl. The Asiatics avoid spinning the 
 wool hard, in order that the shawl may be 
 soft. They use a spindle, which consists 
 of a ball of clay, with an iron wire at- 
 tached. The finger and the thumb of the 
 spinner are kept smooth by steatite pow- 
 der. A large shawl, of the finest quality, 
 requires 5 pounds of the wool ; one of 
 inferior quality, from 3 to 4 pounds. 
 Main, in London, has invented a machine, 
 which spins this wool, in a very simple 
 way, finer than can be done by the best 
 spindles of Thibet, and, at the same time, 
 of a firmer thread. The flesh othe Cash- 
 mere goat tastes as well as that of the 
 common one ; and its milk is as rich, 
 if it is well tended. Since 1820, this 
 species has been introduced into France, 
 and succeeds very well. The enterpris- 
 ing baron Ternaux (q. v.) ordered 1289 
 
 of these goats to be brought to France 
 (1820), under the care of the celebrated 
 professor of Oriental languages in Paris, 
 Amadee Joubert. Joubert found these 
 goats already spread from Cashmere to 
 the Ural, over Bucharia, in Independent 
 Tartary, purchased them in the deserts 
 there, and transported them over the Volga 
 along the coast to Theodosia, in the Crimea, 
 where they were put on board vessels 
 to be earned to France. On the voyage, 
 which lasted a long time, a great number 
 died: there remained, however, more 
 than 400 healthy animals, which were 
 sent from Toulon and Marseilles, partly 
 to the Pyrenees of Roussillon, partly to 
 the lime-hills of Provence, and to the 
 pastures of Alsatia and Rambouillet. 
 
 CASHNA, or CASSINA, or KASSINA ; a 
 city in Africa, capital of a kingdom, 
 between Bornou and Timbuctoo ; 220 
 miles W. N. W. Bornou, 690 E. S. E. Tim- 
 buctoo ; Ion. 11 34' E. ; lat 16 30' N. 
 A large proportion of the country of Cash- 
 na consists of land of great fertility, inter- 
 spersed with arid wastes. Cashna is 
 level, and said to contain 1000 towns and 
 villages. The monarch is called sultan of 
 all Soudan, i. e. Negroland. The princi- 
 pal articles of traffic are senna, gold dust, 
 slaves, cotton cloths, goat skins, ox and 
 buffalo hides, and civet. Cashna has no 
 salt lakes or mines, but is supplied with 
 salt from Bornou. 
 
 CASHOO ; the common name of the 
 anacardium occidentals of Lin. ; a native 
 of Bahar. The fruit of the tree is called 
 cashoo-nut. The expressed juice makes 
 a pleasant wine ; and an aromatic and 
 medicinal drug is prepared by a decoc- 
 tion and maceration of several parts of the 
 tree, afterwards consolidated by evapora- 
 tion. The Indians chew it. The Euro- 
 peans employ it as a digestive, and a 
 soother of coughs. 
 
 CASIMIR III, the Great, king of Poland, 
 son of Uladislaus Loketek, distinguished 
 himself by his valor, under the reign of 
 his father, who had commissioned him to 
 take revenge on the knights of the Teu- 
 tonic order ; and, that he might learn the 
 art of governing, made him regent of 
 Great Poland. In 1333, he ascended the 
 throne, and had many contests with the 
 Teutonic knights, made himself master 
 of Little Russia, which had formerly be- 
 longed to Poland, conquered Silesia, re- 
 pelled the Tartars, who had advanced to 
 Poland, and the Bohemians, who at- 
 tempted to gain possession of Silesia, as a 
 fief of Bohemia. He died in 1370, with- 
 out children, having named a son of the
 
 CASIMIR CASSANDER. 
 
 555 
 
 king of Hungary his successor, in 1339. 
 He caused a new code of laws to be com- 
 piled, and protected the peasants with 
 much energy, on which account he was 
 called the peasants' king. He had a great 
 number of mistresses, among whom was 
 a Jewess, named Esther, who procured 
 for her nation those liberties which they 
 enjoy in Poland to the present day. With 
 Casimir, the line of the Piasti, which had 
 ruled in Poland for 523 years, became 
 extinct. From that time, the Poles chose 
 foreigners for their kings, and thus laid 
 the foundation of the troubles which dis- 
 tracted the kingdom till its final ruin. 
 
 CASINO, in Germany, is used to signify 
 a clubhouse. They are now to be found 
 in almost every place of middling popu- 
 lation. 
 
 CASIRI, Michael, a learned Orientalist 
 and Syro-Maronite clergyman, was born 
 at Tripoli, in Syria, 1710, came to Rome, 
 where he studied in the college of St. 
 Peter and St. Marcellino, and, in 1734, 
 entered the clerical profession. The fol- 
 lowing year, he accompanied the learned 
 Assemanni to Syria, where he was going, 
 at the command of the pope, to attend 
 the synod of the Maronites, and, in 1738, 
 gave, at Rome, an exact account of the 
 religious tenets of the Maronites. He af- 
 terwards taught, in his monastery, the 
 Arabic, Syrian and Chaldee languages, 
 theology and philosophy ; and, in the 
 year 1748, was invited to Madrid, where 
 he was appointed to an office in the royal 
 library. In 1749, he devoted his atten- 
 tion, by the king's orders, to the library 
 of the Escurial, of which he subsequently 
 became the superintendent. Here lie 
 collected the materials for his celebrated 
 work, Bibliotheca Jlrabico-Hispana (Ma- 
 drid, 1760 70, 2 vols., folio), which enu- 
 merates, in 1851 articles, the manuscripts 
 of the Escurial library, perhaps the rich- 
 est in Europe in Arabic manuscripts. 
 This work, though not entirely free from 
 errors, contains very important informa- 
 tion and valuable extracts, and is indis- 
 pensable to every Orientalist. Casiri died 
 at Madrid in 1791. 
 
 CASPIAN SEA ; a large lake, or inland 
 sea, in Asia ; bounded N. by Russia, E, 
 by Tartary and Persia, S, by Persia, and 
 W. by Persia, Circassia and Russia ; 646 
 miles in length from N, to S., and from 
 100 to 265 in breadth ; supposed to be 
 die largest lake in the eastern part of the 
 globe. The water is less salt than that of 
 the ocean, of a bitter taste, and of an 
 ochre color, without ebb or flow. In 
 gome places it is exceedingly deep, yet it 
 
 abounds in shallows, so as to prevent the 
 navigation of ships which draw more than 
 9 or 10 feet of water. Among the rivers 
 which flow into it are the Volga, Ural and 
 Kur. It has no outlet. The fisheries 
 here, which are very valuable, occupy 
 and train many seamen. The coasts are 
 divided among the Russians, Persians 
 and Tartars. The Caspian sea was, by 
 the ancients, called the Hyrcanian sea ; 
 the Tartars call it Akdingis, i e. the White 
 sea ; the Georgians call k the Kurtshen- 
 sian sea ; and by the Persians it is styled 
 Gursen. The level of the Caspian sea is 
 375 feet lower than that of the ocean. 
 The Truchmenes, on the shores of the 
 Caspian sea, assert, that the lake Kuli- 
 Daria, which is connected with the gulf 
 of Karabogaskoi, a part of the Caspian 
 sea, contains a whirlpool, which takes in 
 the water of the latter. In tact, the cur- 
 rent from the Caspian sea into the gulf 
 of Karabogaskoi is very great. The most 
 recent information respecting the shores 
 of the Caspian sea is that given by Mu- 
 ravview in his Journey to Khiwa, in the 
 year 1819, in Russian. 
 
 CAS SANDER, George, born in 1515, in 
 the island of Cadsand, or Cassand, nea* 
 Bruges, in the Netherlands, from which 
 he received his name, is celebrated for 
 his endeavors to settle the disputes be- 
 tween religious parties. At Bruges, 
 Ghent and Cologne, he studied, and 
 taught philology, the canon law and 
 Catholic theology, and accepted no pub^ 
 lie office, on account of his ill health. In 
 1561, he published a work designed to 
 allay religious disputes, in which his cen- 
 sure of Calvin for his violence and intol- 
 erance drew upon him the attacks both 
 of Calvin and Beza, In 1564, he was 
 employed by the duke of Cleves to con* 
 vert the Anabaptists. The emperor Fer-. 
 dinand I invited him to Vienna, to com- 
 pose articles of union between the Catho- 
 lics and Protestants. These he published, 
 under Maximilian II, the successor of 
 Ferdinand De Jlrticulis Religionis inter 
 Catholicos et Protestantes Controversis ad 
 Impp. Ferd. 7, et Max. //, C'onsultatio, ed. 
 Hug, Grot. (1642.) Though a sincere 
 Catholic, he founded his opinions on the 
 doctrines of the old Christian fathers, and 
 showed his concurrence with the Prot- 
 estants, in regard to fundamental doc- 
 trines, by proposing communion under 
 both forms, the marriage of priests, the 
 abolition of image- worship, the reform of 
 many abuses, and a modification of the 
 Catholic system. But he asserted the 
 supremacy of the pope, supported the
 
 556 
 
 CASSANDER COURT OF CASSATION. 
 
 doctrine of transubstantiation, and the 
 importance of the sacrament, ex opere 
 operato. His proposals were not relished 
 by the zealots of either party. He died 
 at Cologne, in 1566, with the reputation 
 of a learned and liberal theologian. 
 
 CASSANDRA, also ALEXANDRA ; daugh- 
 ter of Priam and Hecuba, and twin-sister 
 of Helenas. Both children, according to 
 tradition, were playing in the vestibule of 
 the temple of the Thymbifean Apollo, not 
 far from Ilium ; and, having staid there too 
 late to be carried home, a couch of laurel 
 twigs was prepared for them, for the 
 night, in the temple. When the nurses 
 went to them the next morning, they 
 found two serpents at the side of the 
 children, which, instead of injuring them, 
 harmlessly licked their ears. This mira- 
 cle produced a still greater one ; the 
 hearing of the children was rendered so 
 acute, that they could distinguish the 
 voices of the gods. Cassandra subse- 
 quently spent much of her time in the 
 temple of Apollo, who, becoming en- 
 amored of her charms, disclosed to her 
 all the secrets of the prophetic art, and, 
 in retum, demanded her love. But Cas- 
 sandra, when her curiosity was satisfied, 
 refused the dishonorable reward. Apol- 
 lo, incensed at this, put a curse on her 
 prophesies, that they should never find 
 belief. She frequently and continually 
 foretold the destruction of Troy, and 
 warned her countrymen in vain against 
 the deceitful horse. When Troy was 
 conquered, and Cassandra, with the other 
 maidens, fled to the temple of Minerva, 
 Ajax tore her ti-om the altar, deflowered 
 the virgin in the sacred place, and dragged 
 her away to the other female slaves, 
 with her hands tied. On the division of 
 the booty, she fell to Agamemnon, who 
 carried her, as his slave and mistress, to 
 Mycene. Clytemnestra murdered them 
 both. Agamemnon had twins by her 
 Teledamus and Pelops. The ancients 
 regarded this rape of Cassandra as a most 
 infamous atrocity. It has often afforded 
 :-. subject to poets and sculptors. The 
 Locrians, the countrymen of Ajax, were 
 afflicted, on this account, for many years, 
 with storms, and their country was deso- 
 lated with the plague. 
 
 CASSAS, Louis Francis, born in 1756, 
 inspector and professor in the Gobelin 
 manufactory, celebrated ,as a draughts- 
 man, is a pupil of Lagrenee, junior, and 
 Le Vien. He travelled as companion of 
 the count of Choiseul-Gouffier, about 1770, 
 over Asia Minor, Palestine, Syria, a part 
 of Egypt, Istria, Dalmatia, and Troas. 
 
 He compared the present topography of 
 those places with the accounts of the an- 
 cients, took exact measurements of the 
 finest remains of architecture, made draw- 
 ings of the most remarkable places with 
 equal taste and accuracy, and published 
 his labors, engraved by the best masters, 
 in splendid editions. His Voyage Pitto- 
 resque de la Syne, de la Phenicie, de la 
 Palestine, et de la Basse Egypte, (1799 et 
 seq. 30 livraisons, folio, text by De la Porte 
 du Thcil), is fully described by Landon 
 (ii., 133 6). The original drawings are 
 preserved in the king's library at Paris. 
 In his Voifage Pittor. de VIstrie et de la 
 Dalmatie, he has inserted a journal and a 
 short history of this province, digested by 
 Joseph la Vallee (Paris, 1802, grand fol., 
 with engravings). 
 
 CASSATION ; a term used in the courts 
 on the contineiit of Europe. It is derived 
 from the middle ages, and signifies the 
 annulling of any act or decision, if the 
 forms prescribed by law have been neg- 
 lected, or if any thing is contained in it 
 contrary to law. 
 
 Cassation, Court of (Coiir de Cassa- 
 tion) ; one of the most important institu- 
 tions of modern France, which gives to 
 the whole jurisdiction of that country 
 coherency and uniformity, without endan- 
 gering the necessary independence of the 
 courts. It was established by the first 
 national assembly, and has been pre- 
 served, in every essential respect, under 
 all the changes of the revolution and res- 
 toration. It has been maintained even in 
 those districts which, by their union with 
 France, became subjected to French laws, 
 but, by the peace of Paris, have become 
 part of the Prussian monarchy. In France, 
 as early as the reign of Louis IX (1226 
 1272), petitions were presented to the 
 king by appellants from the decisions of 
 the courts. In later times, appeals to the 
 parliaments, as the highest courts of the 
 kingdom, came into use, and their decis- 
 ions were not liable to be set aside by the 
 ordinary forms of law. Yet the parties 
 were allowed to dispute even these de- 
 cisions, if they were founded upon errors 
 of fact, or violated undisputed principles 
 of law ; and, by an ordinance of 1302, it 
 was provided, that the parties should be 
 allowed royal letters for the defence of 
 their rights against the decisions of the 
 supreme courts (lettres de grace de dire 
 contre les arrets), which should be issued 
 from the chancery (by the chancellor of 
 France). The case was then sent back 
 to the parliament for further investigation, 
 but was examined and decided in the
 
 COURT OF CASSATION. 
 
 557 
 
 presence of the king himself or of a spe- 
 cial commissioner. An abuse, however, 
 crept in, of transferring these cases to the 
 royal council, where they were decided 
 by officers called maitres des requites. 
 These letters received the name of Idtres 
 de proposition d'erreur, and, during the 
 civil commotions at the end of the 14th 
 century, began to be more frequently 
 presented to the council, which, as soon 
 as one party complained of the partiality 
 of the parliaments, transferred the case to 
 its own bar, and obstructed the course of 
 justice by lettres d'etat (suspensions of the 
 process, on the pretext of the absence of 
 one of the parties in the service of the 
 king). Under the chancellor Poyet (1538 
 1542), this abuse reached its highest 
 pitch; but the chancellors Olivier (1545 
 1551) and Hopital (1560 1508), the two 
 great reformers of French jurisprudence, 
 limited the use of these lettres, till, by the 
 ordinance of Blois (1576), all the provis- 
 ions against the decisions of the parlia- 
 ments were reduced to these three : the 
 proposition d'erreur, for an error of fact ; 
 requtte civile, to restore the parties to 
 their former condition, on account of the 
 fraud of one of the parties, or the mistakes 
 of the attorney ; and cassation (petition 
 for abrogation), for violation of forms or 
 settled principles of law. By the famous 
 order of procedure of 1667, the first of 
 these provisions was abolished, but the 
 province of the requete civile and cassation 
 was enlarged, and more precisely de- 
 fined. The former was always brought 
 before the court itself, and decided there, 
 the latter before the council. For this 
 purpose, in the conseil prive, or cons, 
 des parties, a particular committee was 
 formed, consisting of the chancellor, the 
 four secretaries of state (ministers of the 
 departments), the council of state, and all 
 the maitres des requites (in 1789, 78 in 
 number). The decisions of this committee 
 were too much influenced by the will of 
 the king and the ministers, and by vari- 
 ous other circumstances, so that they did 
 not enjoy great respect, though they often 
 exposed acts of great injustice on the part 
 of the parliament, and other high courts. 
 It was therefore abolished in the first na- 
 tional assembly, and its place supplied by 
 an independent court the tribunal of cas- 
 sation (law of Nov. 27, 1790), which was 
 retained in all the constitutions, and re-, 
 ceived, under the imperial government, 
 (1804), the name court of cassation, which 
 it still retains. It consisted, according to 
 the organization of 1800, of 48 members, 
 chosen from the senate, on the nomina- 
 47* 
 
 tion of the consuls, who elected their own 
 president from among themselves. The 
 appointment of president was afterwards 
 vested in the emperor. In the Charts 
 Constitutionm-lle of 1814, the right of ap- 
 pointing the counsellors was vested in the 
 king; but they are not removable.. The 
 minister of justice or keeper of the seals 
 (garde des sceaux) has the right of presid- 
 ing when the tribunal exercises its right 
 of censorship over the conrs royalcs : h 
 has, besides, a first president and thnv 
 presidents of sections. This court never 
 decides on the main question at issue, 
 but on the competency of the other courts, 
 and on the petitions to have their decisions 
 reviewed or annulled, and assigns the 
 question to another court, if a decision is 
 to be set aside for an evident violation of 
 the forms or the principles of the law. 
 For this purpose, it is divided into three 
 sections : the section des requites, which 
 decides on the admissibility of the peti- 
 tions in civil cases ; the section de cassa- 
 tion civile ; and the section de cassation 
 criviinelle. After a decision has been re- 
 versed, if a second court decides the same 
 case in the same way, and an appeal is 
 entered again, the court of cassation must 
 either request an authentic explanation of 
 the law from the government, or, at least, 
 all the jhree sections must unite, to pro- 
 nounce a second reversal, or cassation ; 
 and if a third decision is the same as the 
 preceding, a repeated petition for a re- 
 versal makes the authentic explanation 
 indispensably necessary. The sentences 
 of the court of cassation are not only re- 
 corded in the journals of the courts, the 
 decisions of which are reversed, but pub- 
 lished likewise in an official bulletin, by 
 which consistency and uniformity are 
 preserved. The tribunal of cassation has 
 enjoyed, from its commencement, the re- 
 spect and confidence of France, and 
 numbers among its members several of 
 the most distinguished lawyers, as the 
 president Henrion de Pansey, the counsel-, 
 lors Chabot, Merlin and Carnot. For the 
 Prussian province on the Rhine (the dis- 
 tricts of Cleves,Diisseldorf, Coblentz, Aix- 
 la-Chapelle, Treves and Cologne), by the 
 ordinance of June 21, 1819, a court of 
 revision and cassation was established at 
 Berlin (consisting of a president and 16 
 judges, among whom is professor Sa- 
 vigny), which has under it the court of 
 appeal at Diisseldorf (consisting of a pres- 
 ident, together with 32 other officers), and 
 six district courts (the former resembling 
 the French royal courts, the latter the 
 French tribunals of original jurisdic-
 
 558 
 
 COURT OF CASSATION CASSINI. 
 
 tion). (See Appeal, Writs of Error, and 
 Courts.) 
 
 CASSAVA, or CASSADA. The cassava or 
 cassada (jatropha manihot) is a South 
 American shrub, about three feet in 
 height, with broad, shilling, and some- 
 what hand-shaped leaves, and beautiful 
 white and rose-colored flowers. It is a 
 very remarkable circumstance, that the 
 roots of the cassava, if eaten raw, are a 
 fatal poison, both to man and beast, and 
 that, when prepared by heat, they yield a 
 safe and valuable food ; on which, in- 
 deed, many, both of the Indian and Eu- 
 ropean inhabitants of South America, 
 almost wholly subsist. The roots are the 
 only edible parts of the plant. These are 
 white, soft and farinaceous, from one to 
 two feet in length, and rive or six inches 
 in circumference. They are dug out of 
 the earth, washed, stripped of their rind, 
 and ground to a pulp. The juice, or 
 poisonous part, is carefully pressed out, 
 and thrown away ; since cattle and other 
 animals, which have accidentally drank 
 of it, have almost instantly died. The 
 flour that remains after pressure is form- 
 ed into thin, round cakes, and baked. 
 To a European, accustomed to eat 
 bread, these, though sweetish and not 
 unpalatable, have an insipid taste. If 
 placed in close vessels, and preserved 
 from the attacks of insects, cassava bread 
 may be kept for several months without 
 injury. With the natives of South Amer- 
 ica, it is not unusual to throw a great 
 number of cakes of cassava together to 
 heat ; after which they soak them in wa- 
 ter, which causes a rapid fermentation to 
 take place ; and, from the liquor thus ob- 
 tained, they make a very sharp and disa- 
 greeable, but intoxicating beverage, which 
 wiH not keep longer than 24 hours with- 
 out spoiling. From the pure flour of 
 cassava is formed the substance called 
 tapioca, which is frequently used for jelly, 
 puddings, and other culinary purposes. 
 This is separated from the fibrous part of 
 the roots by taking a small quantity of the 
 pulp, after the juiee is extracted, and 
 working it in the hand till a thick, white 
 cream appears on the sin-face. This, be- 
 ing scraped off and washed in water, 
 gradually subsides to the bottom. After 
 the water is poured off, the remaining 
 moisture is dissipated by a slow fire, the 
 substance being constantly stirred, until, 
 at length, it forms into grains about the 
 size of sago. These become hard by 
 keeping, and are the purest and most 
 wholesome part of the cassava. The 
 roots of another species of this shrub, 
 
 called sweet cassava, are usually eaten 
 with butter, after being roasted in hot 
 ashes. They have much the flavor of 
 chestnuts, and are an agreeable and nu- 
 tritive food. 
 
 CASSEL, the residence of the elector 
 of Hesse Cassel, lies on the Fulda ; lat. 
 51 l<y 20" N. ; Ion. 9 35 / 18" E. ; and 
 has 1586 houses and 23,300 inhabitants, 
 among whom are 500 Jews. One part 
 of the city is quite regular. The river 
 Fulda is navigable at this place. The 
 situation renders the climate pure and 
 healthy. It has 19 squares, 9 churches, 
 and many public buildings, containing 
 highly valuable libraries, collections of 
 works of art, &c. The gallery of paint- 
 ings contains some famous masterpieces. 
 An observatory is likewise situated here. 
 The city was much embellished under 
 the government of Jerome, king of West- 
 phalia, whose capital it was till the disso- 
 lution of this kingdom, in October, 1813. 
 The old elector again took possession of 
 it, Nov. 21, 1813. About a league distant 
 is the summer palace, called Willidms- 
 hohe. Cassel has considerable manufac- 
 tories. 
 
 CASSEL (Hesse-Cassel). (See Hesse.) 
 
 CASSIA. Wild cinnamon, or cassia, is 
 the bark of a tree of the bay tribe (laums 
 cassia), which grows in the East Indies 
 and China, and is distinguished by having 
 spear-shaped leaves, each with three 
 nerves. This bark was well known to 
 the ancients, and highly esteemed by 
 them. But since the use of cinnamon 
 has been getierally adopted, the cassia 
 bark has fallen into disrepute, on account 
 of its inferiority. It is thicker and more 
 coarse than cinnamon, of weaker quality, 
 and abounds more with a viscid, muci- 
 laginous matter. For many purposes, 
 cassia, as being much less expensive, is 
 substituted for cinnamon, but more par- 
 ticularly for the preparation of what is 
 called oil of cinnamon ; and nearly the 
 whole of what is at present sold under 
 the name either of simple or spirituous 
 cinnamon waters, is prepared from cassia. 
 The buds as well as the bark of this tree 
 are used in cooking, &c. Cassia is im- 
 ported mostly from China. 
 
 CASSINA. (See Cashna.) 
 
 CASSINI ; a name famous in the history 
 of astronomy and geography for three 
 generations. 1. Giovanni Domenico, born 
 July 8, 1625, at Perinaldo, near Nice, 
 studied at Genoa with the Jesuits. 
 Chance turned his attention to astrono- 
 my, in which he made such rapid prog- 
 ress, that, in 1G50, the senate of Bologna
 
 CASSINI-CASSIODORUS. 
 
 559 
 
 bestowed on him the first professorship 
 of astronomy at the university. A me- 
 ridiau had been drawn by Ignatio Dante 
 (1575), in the church of St. Petronia, in 
 that city. In 1653, Cassini conceived the 
 idea of extending and correcting it. In 
 two years he completed this difficult task, 
 the first fruits of which were more cor- 
 rect tables of the sun, a more precise 
 determination of its parallax, and an ex- 
 cellent table of refractions. By an obser- 
 vation at Citta della Piave, he discovered 
 the shadows cast by the satellites of Ju- 
 piter on the disk of that planet, when 
 they are between it and the sun. By 
 means of these, he corrected his theory 
 of the motion of the satellites, and deter- 
 mined the period of Jupiter's revolution. 
 At the same time, he made a number of ob- 
 servations on insects, which were publish- 
 ed by Aklrovandi. In 1668, he published 
 his Ephemerides of the Satellites of Jupi- 
 ter. In 1673, Colbert prevailed on him 
 to settle in France. He discovered four 
 new satellites of Saturn, and the zodiacal 
 light, proved that the axis of the moon is 
 not perpendicular to the plane of the 
 ecliptic, and showed the causes of her 
 Jibration. The laws of this motion, which 
 he determined with much accuracy, are 
 one of his finest discoveries. He also 
 wrote observations on the Indian calen- 
 dar. The meridian commenced by Pi- 
 card and Lahire was continued by Cas- 
 sini, in 1700, to the extreme limits of 
 Koussillon, and, when measured 100 years 
 later, showed a difference of only 21 
 toise?. He died Sept. 14, 1712, having 
 lost his sight some years before. Lalande 
 gives a catalogue of his writings in the 
 BibL Astronom. His first work was Ob- 
 scrv. Cometce, Anni 1652 53 (Modena, 
 1653, fol.). His Opp. Astronom. (Rome, 
 1666) contain a complete collection of his 
 earlier works. His nephew, Cassini de 
 Thury, has published his biography, writ- 
 ten by Cassini himself, under the title 
 Mf moires pour servir a VHist. des Sci- 
 ences (4to.) 2. James, son of the preced- 
 ing, born at Paris, Feb. 18, 1677, was 
 admitted into the academy of sciences in 
 1694. After several essays on subjects 
 in natural philosophy, &c. he completed 
 his great work on the inclinations of the 
 orbits of Saturn's satellites and ring. His 
 labors to determine the figure of the earth 
 (q. v.) are well known. The first measure- 
 ment of 1669 made the degrees of the 
 meridian shorter towards the north than 
 towards the south ; whence it was con- 
 cluded that the earth was an oblong sphe- 
 roid. Cassini continued the measure- 
 
 ment, and maintained this opinion in his 
 work De la Grandeur et de la Figure de la 
 Terre (Paris, 1720). In order to settle the 
 question, the academy was commissioned, 
 in 1733, to measure the whole length of 
 France from Brest to Strasburg. Cassini 
 directed this undertaking, but was led into 
 some errors by the defective instruments 
 of former observers. He died in 1756, 
 at Thury. Besides the above-mention- 
 ed works, he wrote Elemens d'Astro- 
 nomie (Paris, 1740, 4to.), and Tables Astr. 
 His eloge in the Mem. de VAcad. contains 
 a biographical notice of him. 3. Cassini 
 de Thury, Caesar Francois, son of the 
 preceding, born June 14, 1714, member 
 of the academy from his 22d year. He 
 undertook a geometrical survey of the 
 whole of France, embracing the deter- 
 mination of the distance of even 7 place 
 from the meridian of Paris, and from the 
 perpendicular of that meridian. When 
 the support of the government was with- 
 drawn, in 1756, Cassini formed a society 
 for advancing the requisite sums, which 
 were to be repaid by the sale of the maps 
 constructed from the survey. The work 
 was almost entirely finished, when he 
 died (1784), leaving many writings relat- 
 ing to his great topographical under- 
 taking. 4. Jacques Dominique, count, 
 son of the preceding, born at Paris, 1740, 
 is director of the observatory, and mem- 
 ber of the academy, and is a statesman of 
 ability, as well as a mathematician. In 
 1789, he presented to the national assem- 
 bly the Carte Topographique de France, 
 in 180 sheets, now increased to 182, by 
 the addition of the Carte, des Assemblages 
 des Triangles. The Atlas JVationale is a 
 reduction of it on a scale of one third, 
 prepared by Dumey, and other engineers. 
 Cassini was arrested by order of the rev- 
 olutionary tribunal. He escaped with life, 
 but lost the copperplates of the Carte de 
 France, which had cost half a million 
 francs. There is a second reduction of 
 the large map, being only a fourth of the 
 size of the original, in 24 plates. 
 
 CASSINO ; a game at cards, in which 
 four are dealt to each player, four being 
 also placed on the board. The object is 
 to take as many cards as possible, by 
 making combinations. Thus a ten in the 
 player's hand will take a ten from the 
 board, or any number of cards which can 
 be made to combine into tens. The 
 greatest number of cards reckons three 
 points, and of spades, one ; the ten of 
 diamonds, two ; the two of spades, one ; 
 and each of the aces, one. 
 
 CASSIODORUS, Marcus Aurelius, a
 
 560 
 
 CASSIODORUS CASSOWARY. 
 
 learned Roman, lived at the time of the 
 dominion of the Ostrogoths, and contrib- 
 uted to the promotion and preservation 
 of learning. He was born at Squillace 
 (Scylaceum), 480 A. D., or, aa some say, 
 470, filled several public offices in Rome, 
 and became secretary of the Ostrogoth 
 king Theodoric, but, in 537, voluntarily 
 retired to a monastery in Calabria, where 
 he died, 577. He made the monks of his 
 convent copy the manuscripts of the an- 
 cient authors, and his book De Septem 
 Disciplinis liberalibus, in which he treat- 
 ed of the tritium and quadrivium, and in- 
 serted extracts from the ancient classic 
 literature, was of much value in the mid- 
 dle ages. For Theodoric he also wrote 
 his compilation of letters, Variorum Epis- 
 tolarum L/ibri XII. He likewise composed 
 Historia Gothorum (a History of the 
 Goths), of which we have an epitome by 
 Jornaudes, and several theological works 
 of little importance. His works have 
 been collected by J. Caret (Venice, 1679, 
 fol.; new edit. 1721). 
 
 CASSIOPEIA ; daughter of Arabus, and 
 wife of Cepheus, to whom she bore An- 
 drorneda. She dared to compare her 
 beauty to that of the Nereides, who, en- 
 raged thereat, besought Neptune for ven- 
 geance. The god, in compliance with 
 the request of the water-nymphs, laid 
 waste the dominions of Cepheus by 
 means of a deluge and a dreadful sea- 
 monster. Thus it appears that in ancient 
 times, as well as in modern, nations have 
 had to suffer for the faults of their mas- 
 ters, Cassiopeia was the mother of Atym- 
 nius by an intrigue with Jupiter. In 
 astronomy, Cassiopeia is a conspicuous 
 constellation in the northern hemisphere, 
 situated next to Cepheus. In 1572, a 
 new and brilliant star appeared in it, 
 which, however, after a short time, gradu- 
 ally diminished, and at last disappeared 
 entirely. It was thought, at that time, by 
 many persons, that this was the star 
 which appeared to the wise men in the 
 East. The constellation Cassiopeia con- 
 tains 52 stars of the first six magnitudes. 
 
 CASSIQUIARI ; a river of Colombia, be- 
 ing a large branch of the Rio Negro, and 
 remarkable as forming a communication 
 between the two great rivers, the Amazon 
 and Orinoco. The Cassiquiari flows 
 from the Orinoco, and joins the Rio Ne- 
 gro, which last is a large tributary of the 
 Amazon. The reality of this communi- 
 cation, which had been previously assert- 
 ed by the Jesuit missionaries, was con- 
 firmed by the celebrated traveller Hum- 
 boldt. 
 
 CASSITERIDES, in ancient geography ^ 
 a name given by Strabo to 10 islands, N. 
 W. of Spain, in the open ocean, abound- 
 ing in tin and lead. Strabo says the 
 Phoenicians only visited them. There 
 are no islands where he describes them 
 to have been. They are, perhaps, the 
 modern Stilly islands. It is probable that 
 the ancient merchants kept their true 
 situation secret from interested views, 
 which, in those times, could easily be 
 done. 
 
 CASSIUS, Longinus Caius, the friend of 
 Brutus, was the questor of Crassus, and 
 preserved the few troops of that general 
 who escaped from the bloody battle with 
 the Parthians. With these he defended 
 Syria against the Parthians till the arrival 
 of Bibulus. In the famous civil war that 
 broke out between Pompey and Ca?sar, 
 he espoused the cause of the former, and, 
 as commander of his naval forces, ren- 
 dered him important services. When 
 Csesar, after the victory at Pharsalia, was 
 in pursuit of Pompey, he advanced with 
 a few vessels, while crossing the Helles- 
 pont, against a fleet of 70 sail command- 
 ed by Cassius, and called upon him to 
 surrender. The latter, astonished by his 
 daring courage, surrendered at his sum- 
 mons. But, when it became evident that 
 Caesar was aiming at sole sovereignty, 
 Cassius, who was a zealous republican, 
 resolved to destroy the usurper, and exe- 
 cuted his plan, with the aid of several 
 fellow-conspirators, B. C. 44. He then, 
 together with Brutus, raised an army to 
 maintain his country's freedom. They 
 were met by Octavius and Antony, who 
 professed themselves the avengers of Cse- 
 sar, at Philippi. The wing which Cas- 
 sius commanded being defeated, he ima- 
 gined that all was lost, and killed himself, 
 B. C. 42. Brutus called him the last of 
 the Romans. (See Brutus and Caesar.) 
 
 CASSOWARY (casuarius, Briss.) ; a genus 
 of birds, arranged by Cuvier in his family 
 brevipennes, the first of the order gralfa, 
 waders, to which they are related solely 
 by their long, naked, stilt-like legs, and 
 long neck. In the form of the bill and 
 their mode of living, they more closely 
 resemble the gallinaceous birds. The 
 shortness of their wings totally unfits 
 them for flying, and it would seem im- 
 possible for nature to have furnished mus- 
 cular power sufficient to move wines 
 large enough to sustain their great weight 
 in the air. Unlike other birds, their pec- 
 toral or wing muscles are comparatively 
 slight and weak, while those of their pos- 
 terior limbs are very robust and powerful.
 
 CASSOWARY CAST ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 561 
 
 The wings of the ostrich are of some as- 
 sistance to it in running, but those of the 
 cassowary are too short even to be of 
 service in this way. Indeed, its whole 
 plumage is so poorly supplied with feath- 
 ers as to resemble, at a little distance, a 
 coat of coarse or hanging hair. The cas- 
 sowaries have three toes, all provided 
 with nails. Two species of the ge- 
 nus are well known, the common casso- 
 wary (casi(arius, B. ; struthio caxuarius, 
 L.), inhabiting various islands of the In- 
 dian archipelago ; and the emeu (C.Novce 
 HoUanditc), or New Holland cassowary. 
 The first species, called galeated or hd- 
 meted cassowary, has a laterally compress- 
 ed beak, with a head surmounted by an 
 osseous prominence, covered with a sort 
 of horny helmet ; the skin of the head 
 and superior part of the neck is naked, 
 of a deep-blue and fiery-red tint, with 
 pendent caruncles, similar to those of the 
 turkey-cock. There are some naked, 
 rigid quills on the wings, which are used 
 us weapons of defence. The inner toe- 
 nail is the largest of all. The ostrich is 
 the only bird which surpasses the casso- 
 wary in size and strength. From the 
 form of its head, and bright eyes, the cas- 
 sowary is of a fierce and threatening 
 aspect. This, however, is not a true in- 
 dication of its character, which is rather 
 timorous and shy. It is about 5 feet 
 long, from the tip of the bill to the ex- 
 tremity of the longest claw. The head 
 and neck together measure 18 inches, and 
 the largest toe, including the claw, is 5 
 inches long. The claw of the inner toe 
 is 3i inches long. All the feathers of the 
 cassowary are of the same kind, being 
 entirely designed for covering, and exter- 
 nally are all of one color. They general- 
 ly grow double, having two long shafts 
 growing out of a short one attached to the 
 skill. The double feathers are ail of un- 
 equal length, some on the rump being 12 
 or 14 inches long, while others are only 3. 
 The stem or shaft is flat, shining, black, 
 and knotted below, having a beard arising 
 from each knot. The beards at the ends 
 of the large feathers are perfectly black, 
 and towards the root of a tawny gray. 
 The feathers on the head and neck are so 
 short and scattered, that the skin appears 
 naked, except towards the hind part of 
 the head, where they are somewhat 
 longer. The wings, without the feathers, 
 are not more than 3 inches long. The 
 rigid quills or prickles already mentioned 
 are 5 ; the longest is 11 inches in length 
 and a quarter of an inch thick at the base. 
 The helmet is black in front and yellow 
 
 behind. The eye is of a bright yellow, 
 and more than an inch in diameter. The 
 anatomy of the cassowary differs very 
 materially from that of the ostrich, which 
 it resembles so much in general appear- 
 ance and habits. The intestines are short, 
 and the ccecum small ; there is no stomach 
 intermediate to the crop and gizzard, and 
 the cloaca is not larger, in proportion, than 
 that of other birds. It feeds on fruit.*, 
 eggs of birds, &c., but never on grain. 
 It swallows its food with great voracity, 
 and, like the ostrich, bolts down bits of 
 iron, broken brick, glass, &c., without in- 
 jury. In fact, such substances perform 
 the service, in the digestion of these great 
 birds, that gravel does in that of ordinary 
 fowls. As might be inferred from its 
 structure, the cassowary is a swift runner, 
 and its mode of progression, being unaid- 
 ed by wings, is as peculiar as it is effi- 
 cient In running, the cassowary ap- 
 pears to strike out powerfully with one 
 leg, so as to project its body violently for- 
 ward with a bounding motion, far sur- 
 passing the speed of a horse. It also 
 kicks violently when, in a state of captivi- 
 ty, it is provoked to anger, and can inflict 
 a very severe blow. The eggs of the ga- 
 leated cassowary are of a grayish-ash 
 color, verging to green, and are neither as 
 round nor as large as those of the ostrich. 
 The shell is not very thick, and is marked 
 by numerous little deep-green tubercles. 
 The largest of their eggs measure about 
 15 inches in length and 12 round. The 
 emeu, or New Holland cassowary, differs 
 from that of the old world by being much 
 larger, and standing higher on its legs, 
 being 7 feet 2 inches in length. The 
 head is destitute of the helmet, and feath- 
 ered throughout, except around the ear. 
 The plumage is thicker, and the webs of 
 the feathers more perfect. It has neither 
 caruncles to the neck nor prickles on the 
 wings. The nails of the toes are nearly 
 equal. The legs are stout, similar to 
 those of the galeated species, but jagged 
 or dcntated along the whole of their back 
 part. The emeu is swifter in running 
 than the fleetest gray-hound. It has not 
 yet been found any where but in New 
 Holland. The flesh has a considerable 
 resemblance to beef. The young of the 
 New Holland cassowary are striped with 
 white and brown. 
 
 CAST. (See Casting.) 
 
 CAST ENGRAVINGS. An important dis- 
 covery has lately been made, which con- 
 sists in taking moulds from every kind of 
 engraving, whether line, mezzotinto^ or 
 aquatinta, and in pouring on this mould an
 
 562 
 
 CAST ENGRAVINGS CASTE. 
 
 alloy in a state of fusion, capable of taking, 
 as it is stated, the finest impression. No 
 sooner is one cast worn out, than another 
 may immediately be procured from the 
 original plate, so that every impression 
 may be a proof. 
 
 CASTAGNO, Andrea del, an eminent 
 painter, was born at the village of Cas- 
 tagno, in Tuscany, in 1409. Being de- 
 prived, when young, of his parents, who 
 were extremely poor, he was employed 
 by his uncle to attend the cattle in the 
 fields, and, in that situation, by his sur- 
 prising and untutored essays in the art, 
 attracted the notice of Bernardetto de 
 Medici, who placed him under the tuition 
 of one of the best masters Florence then 
 afforded. At first, he painted only in dis- 
 temper and fresco, and was in high repu- 
 tation when Domenico Venetiano visited 
 Florence, who had learned, from An- 
 tonello da Messina, the new method of 
 painting in oil and varnish, till then un- 
 known in Tuscany. The splendor of 
 this new mode of coloring was very 
 much admired, and, by a pretended 
 friendship for Domenico, Castagno ob- 
 tained his secret from him ; but, not sat- 
 isfied with this, he desired to be the sole 
 possessor, and determined to murder his 
 friend and benefactor. This he effected 
 without any suspicion, and continued to 
 practise his ill-acquired art with great 
 success. The real author of this atro- 
 cious act was never discovered until An- 
 drea made a full confession of his guilt, 
 shortly before his death, which happened 
 in 1480. The best of his remaining works 
 are at Florence, in the church of St. Lu- 
 cia de Magnuoli, and in the monastery 
 degli Angeli. The latter contains a cruci- 
 fixion, by him, painted on a wall. 
 
 CASTANETS ; small wooden rattles, 
 made in the shape of two bowls or cups, 
 fitted together, and tied by a string, and 
 then fastened to the thumbs. The fin- 
 gers being rapidly struck upon them, a 
 tremulous sound is produced, which 
 marks exactly the measure of the dance. 
 Something similar to this was the crota- 
 lon of the ancients, who also made use of 
 small cymbals in their dances and festivals 
 in honor of Bacchus. It is probable, 
 however, that they had their origin in the 
 East, and were brought by the Moors in- 
 to Spain. Here, too, they received their 
 name castanudas, from being commonly 
 made of the wood of the chestnut (casta- 
 no), or from their color. They are still in 
 use in Spain, and here and there in the 
 south of France. The charm of variety 
 has also procured for them a place in bal- 
 
 lets and operas, as, for example, in John 
 of Paris. 
 
 CASTANOS, don Francisco de, a Span- 
 ish general, born 1743, compelled the 
 French general Dupont de 1'Etang to lay 
 down his arms, July 20, 1808, in the 
 Sierra Morena, and concluded with him 
 the important capitulation of Baylen. 
 He is descended from a distinguished 
 family in Biscay, and was a pupil of the 
 celebrated general count O'Reilly, whom 
 he accompanied to Germany, where he 
 studied tactics in the school of the great 
 Frederic. In 1794, he served as colonel 
 in the army of Navarre, under Caro. In 
 1798, he was made lieutenant-general, 
 and soon after was banished, with many 
 other officers, for enmity to the prince 
 of peace. On the invasion of the French, 
 he received, in 1808, the command of a 
 division of the army, on the frontiers of 
 Andalusia, towards which Dupont was 
 preparing to advance his forces. With 
 9000 regular troops, and about 30,000 
 militia, he defeated general Dupont. (See 
 Baylen.) He lost, however, a battle at 
 Tudela (November, 1808). In 1811, the 
 regency appointed him commander-in- 
 chief of the fourth Spanish army, and 
 governor of several provinces. He was 
 now the companion in arms of the duke 
 of Wellington, and displayed great mili- 
 tary talent in the battle of Vittoria, which 
 was, in part, won by his bravery and the 
 valor of his troops. The regency depriv- 
 ed him of his command, and appointed; 
 him counsellor of state. He wrote to the 
 minister of war, " I have the satisfaction 
 of delivering up to field-marshal Freyre,. 
 on the frontiers of France, the command 
 which I received before Lisbon, in 1811." 
 On the return of Ferdinand, he was made 
 captain-general of Catalonia, and had sev- 
 eral orders conferred on him. In 1815, 
 he commanded the army that was to in- 
 vade France. In 1816, he resigned his 
 commission. In 1824, lie succeeded in 
 defending himself from the charge of 
 constitutional sentiments, was again ap- 
 pointed captain-general, and, in 1825,. 
 made counsellor of state. 
 
 CASTE ; certain classes whose burdens- 
 and privileges are hereditary. The word 
 is derived from the Portuguese casta, and 
 was originally applied, by the conquerors 
 of the East Indies, to the Indian families, 
 whose occupations, customs, privileges 
 and duties are hereditary. This term has 
 been sometimes applied to the hereditary 
 classes in Europe ; and we speak of the 
 spirit or the prerogatives and usurpations 
 of a caste, to express particularly that un-
 
 CASTE CASTI. 
 
 563 
 
 natural constitution of society, which 
 makes distinction dependent on the acci- 
 dents of birth or fortune. The division 
 into castes, among the people of the old 
 world, comes to us from a period to 
 which the light of history does not ex- 
 tend ; hence its origin cannot be clearly 
 traced: but it is highly probable that, 
 wherever it exists, it was originally 
 grounded on a difference of descent, and 
 in the modes of living, and that the sepa- 
 rate castes were originally separate races 
 of people. This institution is found 
 among many nations. According to the 
 accounts collected by Clavigero, some 
 traces of it are apparent among the 
 Peruvians and Mexicans ; but it prevails 
 principally in the East, where it has ex- 
 isted from the earliest times, and has be- 
 come blended with the political condition 
 of the people, because it favors despo- 
 tism, which is the prevailing form of gov- 
 ernment. Thus, in Persia, even before 
 Zoroaster, there was a division into four 
 classes or castes ; priests (magi), soldiers, 
 husbandmen, tradesmen. But the divis- 
 ion into castes was nowhere so perfectly 
 formed, and so entirely interwoven in the 
 whole fabric of civil society, as in Egypt 
 and India. In Egypt (q. v.), this division 
 was perfected, as a political institution, in 
 the flourishing period of the Pharaohs ; 
 and the lines of separation which had 
 been drawn, in earlier times, by a differ- 
 ence of descent, and different modes of 
 living, were then rendered still more dis- 
 tinct. The number of castes in that 
 country was originally seven. The class 
 of priests, who formed, in some respects, 
 a highly-privileged order of nobility, and 
 maintained possession of the offices of 
 state, was the highest. Next followed 
 the soldiers, who were divided into two 
 classes, and whose occupation was hered- 
 itary. Of the remaining castes, the hus- 
 bandmen, the watermen (who navigated 
 the Nile), the interpreters (who arose sub- 
 sequently to the rest, and sprung from the 
 Greeks who were invited into the coun- 
 try), and the two castes of herdsmen, 
 formed a gradation of ranks, the order of 
 which is not known, any further than 
 that the herdsmen were the lowest. 
 Among these the swineherd was consid- 
 ered impure, and despised, and was ex- 
 cluded from the temples. In India, there 
 were originally four castes. (See Hin- 
 doos.} Probably the deep researches into 
 Egyptian antiquities recently made, or in 
 a state of progress, particularly those of 
 Champollion, will throw much light upon 
 this interesting subject. 
 
 CASTELCICALA (don Fabricio Ruffo), 
 prince of, descended from a very ancient 
 Neapolitan family, obtained great influ- 
 ence under the minister Acton (1796), 
 in the infamous political inquisition or 
 junta. When Acton resigned his minis- 
 try, prince Castelcicala became minister, 
 and Vanini committed suicide. After the 
 battle of Aboukir, Castelcicala persuaded 
 his court to declare war against France. 
 In 1799, he fled with his monarch to Si- 
 cily. Two years after, he was Sicilian 
 ambassador in London, and still later at 
 the French court. In 1816, he signed the 
 important treaty admitting all British pro- 
 ductions and manufactures into Sicily on 
 paying 10 per cent. duty. After the rev- 
 olution (1820), he was appointed ambas- 
 sador to Madrid, but remained in Paris. 
 
 CASTELLO, Gabriel Lancelot, an emi- 
 nent antiquary, was born at Palermo, in 
 1727, of a noble family, and was placed 
 under a private tutor, with a view to 
 study botany, chemistry, &c.; but, acci- 
 dentally meeting with some old coins, 
 which had been dug up by a ploughman, 
 he was seized with a great desire to de- 
 cipher them, and from that time devot- 
 ed himself to antiquarian pursuits. He 
 formed a splendid collection of the re- 
 mains of antiquity found in Sicily, and his 
 museum was always open to foreigners as 
 well as to natives. On his death-bed, he 
 bequeathed a large quantity of books, 
 &.c. to the public library of Palermo. He 
 died in 1794, being at that time an honor- 
 ary member of the royal society, and of 
 the academy at Paris. He published sev- 
 eral works. There was another Castello 
 (Ignatius Paterno), who published an ac- 
 count of the earthquake in Sicily in 
 1783. 
 
 CASTI, Giambattista, a poet, born in 
 1721, at Prato, in the vicinity of Florence, 
 studied at Montefiascone, became pro- 
 fessor there, was appointed a canon, and 
 made a journey to France. Receiving 
 an invitation from the prince of Rosen- 
 berg, who became acquainted with him 
 in Florence, he went to Vienna, and was 
 presented to Joseph II, who knew how 
 to appreciate the genius of the poet, and 
 delighted in his conversation. Casti took 
 advantage of every opportunity of visiting 
 other courts, and joined several embassies, 
 without office or title. Catharine II re- 
 ceived him in the most flattering manner. 
 He visited also the court of Berlin, and 
 several other German courts. After his 
 return to Vienna, prince Rosenberg, the 
 director of the imperial theatre, caused 
 him to be appointed poeta Cesareo on the
 
 564 
 
 CASTI CASTILE. 
 
 death of Metastasio. After the death of 
 Joseph II, Casti requested his dismission, 
 and retired to Florence, where he wrote 
 many of his works. In 1783, he went to 
 Paris. Notwithstanding his advanced 
 age, the vigor and activity of his mind 
 were still unimpaired. His vivacity, his 
 naivete, seasoned by a delicate irony, and 
 his knowledge of the world, made his 
 conversation very attractive. At the same 
 time, he was remarkable for the firmness 
 of his character and the regularity of his 
 habits. He died suddenly, Feb. 6, 1803, 
 at the age of 82. His Novelle galanti 
 were republished at Paris, 1804, under 
 the title Novelle di Giamb. Casti, in 3 vol- 
 umes. They are 48 in number. Almost 
 all are of a licentious character, but writ- 
 ten in a lively, original and graceful style. 
 The same may be said of his didac- 
 tic-satirical poem, Gli Animali parlanti, 
 Poema epico, diviso in 26 Canti, di Giamb. 
 Casti (Milan, 1802, 5 vols.), which he 
 wrote between 1792 and 1799, and which 
 did not receive the attention it deserves 
 until the present day, probably because 
 people formerly feared to speak openly 
 on the bitter truths which it contains. 
 There are two translations of it in French 
 and one in German. It has been also 
 translated into English by Rose. Casti's 
 Rime Anacreontiche are pleasing, and his 
 comic operas La Grotta di Trofonio, and 
 11 Re Teodoro in Venezia, &c., are full 
 of wit and originality. 
 
 CASTIGLIO> T E, Baldassare ; one of the 
 most elegant of the elder Italian writers ; 
 born 1478, at Casatico, in the territory of 
 Mantua ; studied at Milan, and entered 
 into the service of the duke Ludovico 
 Sforza, and, afterwards, of the duke of 
 Urbino, of whose elegant and splendid 
 court he soon became an ornament. 
 In 1505, he was sent as ambassador to 
 Henry VIII of England, and, in 1507, in 
 the same capacity, to Louis XII, at Milan. 
 In 1513, Castiglione appeared as ambas- 
 sador at the court of Leo X, where he 
 became intimate with the most distin- 
 guished literati and artists. In 1521, he 
 obtained for the new duke of Urbino, 
 Federigo, the command of the papal 
 troops, and, in 1524, was employed by 
 pope Clement VII, to conduct his nego- 
 tiations with Charles V. When Rome 
 was plundered by the constable of Bour- 
 bon, in 1527, he was accused of negligence, 
 and his health was undermined by cha- 
 grin. He refused to accept the rich bish- 
 opric of Avila, which was offered to him 
 by the emperor, until the pope should be 
 reconciled with Charles. He died Feb. 
 
 8, 1529, at Toledo. Among his works 
 the Libra del Cortigiano is the most cele- 
 brated. It teaches the art of succeeding at 
 court. His few Italian and Latin poems 
 are elegant. His letters (Padua, 1769) are 
 valuable contributions to political and lit- 
 erary history. 
 
 CASTILE, New; a province of Spain, 
 bounded N. by Old Castile, E. by Arragon 
 and Valencia, S. by Murcia, Jaen and 
 Cordova, and VV. by Estremadura ; 220 
 miles long, and 160 broad. It contains 
 the following subdivisions or provinces: 
 
 Provinces. Sq. m. 
 
 Madrid, 1,5330 
 
 Guadalaxara, 1,970 
 Cuenca, . . . 11,410 
 
 Toledo, 8,863 
 
 La Maucha, . 7,620 
 
 Pop. Capitals. 
 228,500 Madrid. 
 121,100 Guadalaxara. 
 294,300 Cuenc;a. 
 370,600 Toledo. 
 205,600 Ciudad Real. 
 
 31,193 1,220,100 
 
 The surface is diversified, consisting part- 
 ly of extensive plains, and partly of ranges 
 of mountains, of which the most remark- 
 able is the Sierra de Cuenca. The prin- 
 cipal rivers are the Tagus, Guadiana and 
 Xucar. The climate is temperate, the soil 
 naturally fertile, but the cultivation back- 
 ward, and the country thinly inhabited. 
 The productions are wheat, barley, hemp, 
 flax, wine, oil, saffron, honey, sheep, cat- 
 tle, fcc. It contains one arch bishopric 
 (Toledo), one bishopric (CuenQa) and for- 
 merly had three universities, Alcala, To- 
 ledo and Siguenca. (For further infor- 
 mation, see Spain.} 
 
 Castile, Old ; a province of Spain, bound- 
 ed N. by Asturia and Biscay, E. by Na- 
 varre and Arragon, S. by New Castile, and 
 W. by Leon ; 220 miles long, and, where 
 widest, 120 broad. It contains the follow- 
 ing provinces or subdivisions : 
 
 Provinces. Sq. m. Pop. Capitals. 
 
 Avila, 2600 . . . 118,100 . . . Avila. 
 
 Segovia, . . 3502 . . . 164,000 . . . Segovia. 
 
 Soria, 4118 ... 199,000 . . . Soria. 
 
 Burgos,. . . 7752 . . . 470,600 . . . Burgos. 
 
 18,372 951,700 
 
 The surface is diversified with mountain!--, 
 plains and valleys. The soil is generally 
 fertile, but, in some parts, stony and un- 
 fruitful. The productions are rye, barley, 
 wheat, madder, in some parts, wine ; but 
 its chief wealth consists in its hundreds 
 of thousands of sheep and cattle. Its but- 
 ter is excellent, and its wool, particularly 
 that of Segovia, is much celebrated for its 
 fineness. The country is remarkably bare 
 of trees, as is also much of New Castile. 
 The rivers are the Ebro, Duero, Xalon,
 
 CASTILE CASTING. 
 
 5G5 
 
 Carrion and Tornies. (For further infor- 
 mation, see Spain.) 
 
 CASTILLO, Jose Maria del, in 1809, was 
 an advocate of the province of Tunja ; 
 and, in the junta of notables, convened at 
 Bogota by the viceroy D. Antonio A mar, 
 in September of that year, in consequence 
 of the revolutionary movement at Quito, 
 and on other occasions previous to the 
 deposition of A mar, he distinguished him- 
 self by his zeal in the cause of America. 
 lie was also a member of the constituent 
 college, as it was called, which assembled 
 at Bogota in 1811, and organized the 
 state of Cundinamarca. During the dis- 
 sensions among the patriots of New Gre- 
 nada, in the first years of the revolution, 
 Castillo acted in opposition to Nariiio, 
 the political chief of Cundinamarca, and 
 was active and influential in support of 
 the deputies assembled at Ibague, being 
 repeatedly appointed on missions to treat 
 with Narifio. In the congress at Neyba, 
 in October, 1812, he was one of the two 
 delegates from Tunja, of which province, 
 in the following year, we find him the 
 acting governor. In 1813, likewise, he 
 and D. Jose Fernandez Madrid were de- 
 spatched by the congress to Bogota, with 
 full powers to make a final arrangement 
 with Narifio, and remained in the city 
 for some time as representatives of the 
 congress. After the change in the form 
 of government in 1814, when the author- 
 ity of the executive was increased, the 
 three persons elected to exercise the exec- 
 utive power being absent, Castillo was one 
 of the deputies appointed to the tempora- 
 ry discharge of their duties. When the 
 Spaniards, under Morillo, took possession 
 of Bogota in 1816, Castillo's life was 
 spared ; but he was imprisoned at Omoa, 
 in the government of Guatemala. After 
 the union of New Grenada and Venezu- 
 ela, and the adoption of the constitution 
 of Colombia, Castillo was made secretary 
 of the department of the treasury, in 
 which office he continued until the year 
 1828. He was a member of the conven- 
 tion of Ocafia for the province of Cartha- 
 gena, and was elected president of that 
 body. He was one of the twenty deputies 
 who withdrew from the assembly, and 
 testified their. confidence in Bolivar in a 
 printed exposition of their motives. When 
 the liberator assumed all the powers of 
 the state, after the dissolution of the con- 
 vention, Castillo was appointed, by decrees 
 dated the 27th and 28th of August, 1828, 
 president of the council of ministers, and 
 also of the council of state, by which the 
 new government was to be administered, 
 
 VOL. n. 48 
 
 with a rank next to that of Bolivar him- 
 self. 
 
 CASTIXE ; a seaport town, and capital 
 of Hancock county, Maine, on the east 
 side of Penobscot bay ; 34 miles S. Ban- 
 gor, 122 E. N. E. Portland ; lat. 44 24' 
 N.; Ion. 68 46' W.; population in 1820, 
 975. It is situated on a promontory, on 
 the east side of Penobscot bay, a little 
 below the entrance of Penobscot river 
 into the bay. It has an excellent and 
 very spacious harbor, capable of receiving 
 ships of the largest size, and accessible at 
 all seasons of the year. Its situation is 
 such that it might easily be made a place 
 of great strength. It is a pleasant town, 
 and has considerable trade. 
 
 CASTING. Iron, as well as brass, and 
 other metals which melt at temperatures 
 above ignition, is cast in moulds made of 
 sand. The kind of sand most employed 
 is loam, which possesses a sufficient por- 
 tion of argillaceous matter to render it 
 moderately cohesive when damp. The 
 mould is formed by burying in the sand 
 a wooden pattern, having exactly the 
 shape of the article to be cast. The sand 
 is most commonly enclosed in flasks, 
 which are square wooden frames, re- 
 sembling boxes, open at top and bottom. 
 If the pattern be of such form that it can 
 be lifted out of the sand without derang- 
 ing the form of the mould, it is only ne- 
 cessary to make an impression of the pat- 
 tern in one flask ; and articles of this kind 
 are sometimes cast in the open sand upon 
 the floor of the foundery. But, when 
 the shape is such that the pattern could 
 not be extracted without breaking the 
 mould, two flasks are necessary, having 
 half the mould formed in each. The first 
 flask is filled with sand, by ramming it 
 close, and is smoothed off" at the top. 
 The pattern is separated into halves, one 
 half being imbedded in this flask. A 
 quantity of white sand, or burned sand, is 
 sprinkled over the surface, to prevent the 
 two flasks from cohering. The second 
 flask is then placed upon the top of the 
 first, having pins to guide it ; the other 
 half of the pattern is put in its place, and 
 the flask is filled with sand, which, of 
 course, receives the impression of the re- 
 maining half of the pattern on its under 
 side. After one or more holes are made 
 in the top, to permit the metal to be 
 poured in, and the steam and air to es- 
 cape, the flasks are separated, and the pat- 
 tern withdrawn. When the flasks are 
 again united, a perfect cavity, or mould, is 
 formed, into which the melted metal is 
 poured. The arrangement of the mould
 
 566 
 
 CASTING. 
 
 is, of course, varied for different articles. 
 When the form of the article is complex 
 and difficult, as in some hollow vessels, 
 crooked pipes, &c., the pattern is made in 
 three or more pieces, which are put to- 
 gether to form the mould, and afterwards 
 taken apart to extract them. In some 
 other irregular articles, as andirons, one 
 part is cast first, and afterwards inserted 
 in the flask which is to form the other 
 part. The metal for small articles is usu- 
 ally dipped up with iron ladles, coated 
 with clay, and poured into the moulds. 
 In large articles, such as cannon, the 
 mould is formed in a pit dug in the earth 
 near the furnace, and the melted metal is 
 conveyed to it in a continued stream, 
 through a channel communicating with 
 the bottom of the furnace. Cannon-balls 
 are sometimes cast in moulds made of 
 iron, and, to prevent the melted metal 
 from adhering, the inside of the mould 
 is covered with powder of black lead. 
 Rollers for flattening iron are also cast 
 in iron cases. This method is called chill 
 casting, and has for its object the harden- 
 ing of the surface of the metal, by the 
 sudden reduction of temperature, which 
 takes place in consequence of the superior 
 conducting power of the iron mould. 
 These rollers are afterwards turned smooth 
 in a powerful lathe, which has a slow mo- 
 tion, that the cutting tool may not become 
 heated by the friction. Casting in Plaster. 
 Copies are most frequently taken, both 
 from new models, and from old statues, 
 by casting them in plaster. For this pur- 
 pose, a mould in plaster is first made from 
 the surface of the statue or figure itself; 
 and this mould is afterwards used to re- 
 produce the figure by casting. Plaster is 
 prepared for use by pulverizing common 
 gypsum, and exposing it to the heat of a 
 fire until its moisture is wholly expelled.* 
 While in this diy state, if it be mixed 
 with water, to the consistence of cream 
 or paste, it has the property of hardening 
 in a few minutes, and takes a very sharp 
 impression. The hardness afterwards in- 
 creases by keeping, till it approaches the 
 character of stone. Moulds are formed 
 in the following manner: The statue, or 
 figure to be copied, is first oiled, to pre- 
 vent it from cohering with the gypsum. 
 A quantity of liquid plaster sufficient for 
 the mould is then poured on, immediately 
 after being mixed, and suffered to harden. 
 If the subject be a bass-relief, or any figure 
 
 * The heat requisite for this purpose must be 
 greater than that of boiling water. Care must be 
 taken not to raise the heat too high, as, in that case, 
 the sulphate of lime would be decomposed. 
 
 which can be withdrawn without injury, 
 the mould may be considered as finished 1 , 
 requiring only to be surrounded with an 
 edging. But, if it be a statue, it cannot be 
 withdrawn without breaking the mould ; 
 and, on this account, it becomes necessary 
 to divide the mould into such a number 
 of pieces as will separate perfectly from 
 the original. These are taken off from 
 the statue, and, when afterwards replaced, 
 or put together without the statue, they 
 constitute a perfect mould. This mould, 
 its parts having been oiled, to prevent ad- 
 hesion, is made to receive a quantity of 
 plaster, by pouring it in at a small orifice. 
 The mould is then turned in every direc- 
 tion, in order that the plaster may fill 
 every part of the surface ; and, when a 
 sufficient quantity is poured in to produce 
 the strength required in the cast, the re- 
 mainder is often left hollow, for the sake 
 of lightness, and economy of the material. 
 When the cast is dry, it is extricated by 
 separating the pieces of the mould, and 
 finished by removing the seams and blem- 
 ishes with the proper tools.* If the form 
 or position require it, the lirnbs are cast 
 separately, and afterwards cemented on. 
 Moulds and busts are obtained in a similar 
 manner from living faces, by covering 
 them with new plaster, and removing it 
 in pieces, as soon as it becomes hard. It 
 is necessary that the skin of the face 
 should be oiled ; and, during the operation, 
 the eyes are closed, and the person 
 breathes through tubes inserted in the 
 nostrils. Elastic moulds have been form- 
 ed by pouring upon the figure to be cop- 
 ied a strong solution of glue. This hard- 
 ens upon cooling, and takes a fine impres- 
 sion. It is then cut into suitable pieces, 
 and removed. The advantage of the 
 elastic mould is, that it separates more 
 easily from irregular surfaces, or those 
 with uneven projections and under cut- 
 tings, from which a common mould 
 could not be removed without vio- 
 
 * Plaster casts are varnished by a mixture of 
 soap and white wax in boiling water. A quarter 
 of an ounce of soap is dissolved in a pint of water, 
 and an equal quantity of wax afterwards incorpo- 
 rated. The cast is dipped in this liquid, and, afier 
 drying a week, is polished by nibbing with soft 
 linen. The surface produced in this manner ap- 
 proaches to the polish of marble. When plaster 
 casts are to be exposed to the weather, their dura- 
 bility is greatlv increased by saturating them with 
 linseed on, with which wax or rosin maybe com- 
 bined. When intended to resemble bronze, a soap 
 is used, made of linseed oil and soda, colored by the 
 sulphates of copper and iron. Walls and ceilings 
 are rendered water-proof in the same way. (See 
 an abstract of a memoir of D'Arcet and Thenard, 
 in Brando's Journal, vol. xxii., 184, and Franklin 
 Journal, ii., 276.)
 
 CASTING CASTOR-OIL. 
 
 5G7 
 
 lence.* For small and delicate impres- 
 sions in relief, melted sulphur is some- 
 times used; also a strong solution of isin- 
 ia proof spirit. Bronze Casting. 
 Statues intended to occupy situations in 
 which they may be exposed to violence 
 are commonly made of bronze. This 
 material resists both mechanical injuries 
 and decay from the influence of the at- 
 mosphere. The moulds in which bronze- 
 statues are cast are made on the pattern, 
 out of plaster and brick-dust, the latter 
 material being added to resist the heat of 
 the melted metal. The parts of this 
 mould are covered on their inside with 
 a coating of clay, as thick as the bronze 
 is intended to be. The mould is then 
 closed, and filled, on its inside, with a 
 nucleus or core of plaster and brick-dust, 
 mixed with water. When this is done, 
 the mould is opened, and the clay care- 
 fully removed. The mould, with its core, 
 is then thoroughly dried, and the core 
 secured in its central position by short 
 liars of bronze, which pass into it through 
 the external part of the mould. The 
 whole is then bound with iron hoops, and, 
 when placed in a proper situation for 
 casting, the melted bronze is poured in 
 through an aperture left for the purpose : 
 of course, the bronze nils the same cavity 
 which was previously occupied by the 
 clay, and forms a metallic covering to the 
 core. This is afterwards made smooth 
 by mechanical means. (Bigelow's TecJir 
 nology.) 
 
 CASTLEREAGH. (See Londonderry.} 
 
 CASTOR. (See Beaver.) 
 
 CASTOR AND POLLUX ; the sons of Tyn*- 
 rlarus, king of Lacedeemon, and Lcda, or, 
 according to some, of Jupiter and Leda. 
 The fable runs, that Leda brought forth 
 two eggs, one of which contained Pollux 
 and Helen, the other Castor and Cljv 
 tenmestra. Pollux and Helen, being the 
 offspring of Jupiter, were immortal ; but 
 Castor and Clytemnestra were begotten 
 by Tyntlarus, and mortal. The two broth* 
 <TS were inseparable companions, equally 
 brave and spirited, and attached to each 
 other with the fondest affection. Castor 
 was particularly skilled in the art of break- 
 ing horses, and Pollux in boxing and 
 wrestling. They were among the heroes 
 of the Argonautic expedition, in which 
 they acquired divine honors; for, a ter- 
 rible tempest having arisen on the voyage, 
 and all, with loud voices, calling on tlie 
 gods to save them, there suddenly appear- 
 ed over the heads of Castor and Pollux 
 
 See a papnr by Mr. Fox, republishcd in the 
 ournal, vol. iii. 
 
 two star-like meteors, and the tempest 
 subsided. From this time, they were the 
 patron deities of mariners, and received 
 the name of Dioscuri; and, from them, 
 the name of Castor and Pollux was given 
 to the fires that are often seen on vessels' 
 masts in storms, and which are electrical 
 phenomena. After their return, they re- 
 leased their sister Helen from the con- 
 finement in which Theseus had for some 
 time held her. They were also among 
 the heroes of the Calydonian hunt. They 
 wooed the daughters of Leucippus, Phoe- 
 be and Ilaria, and were each obliged to 
 contend for their mistresses with their ri- 
 vals, Idas and Lynceus, the sons of Apha^ 
 rms. Castor killed Lynceus, and was 
 slain by Idas. Pollux revenged his broth- 
 er's death by killing Idas; but, full of grief 
 for the loss of Castor, he besought Jupiter 
 either to take away his life, or grant that 
 his brother might share his immortality. 
 Jupiter listened to his request, and Pol- 
 lux and his brother alternately descended 
 to Orcus, and returned to lite. It is 
 doubtful whether the ancients understood 
 them as being together or separate in 
 their alternate passage between the upper 
 and the lower worlds. The former opin- 
 ion seems to be the oldest ; the latter, to 
 have gained ground subsequently. Tem- 
 ples and altars were consecrated to them. 
 In great perils, especially in battles, the 
 ancients believed that they frequently ap- 
 peared to mortals as two youths on white 
 steeds, in shining garments, with meteors 
 over their heads ; and then they were 
 chiefly called Dioscuri. They were also 
 represented side by side, either riding or 
 standing, each holding a horse by the rein, 
 with spears in tlieir hands and stars on 
 their heads. In the heavens, the Dios- 
 curi appear as one of the 12 constellations 
 of the zodiac (the Twins). 
 
 CASTOR-OIL. The castor-oil plant (rici- 
 nus palma Christi] is a native both of the 
 East and West Indies, and has a stem 
 from 5 to 15 or 1C feet in height, and 
 large, bluish-green leaves, divided into 7 
 lobes, serrated and pointed, the foot-stalks 
 long, and inserted into the disk. The 
 flowers are produced in a terminating 
 spike, and the seed-vessels are covered 
 with spines, and contain three flattish, 
 oblong seeds. It is to the seeds of this 
 plant that we are indebted for the drug 
 called castor-oil. It is now often prepar- 
 ed by pressing the seeds in the same way 
 as is practised with oil of almonds. The 
 oil thus obtained is called cold expressed. 
 But the mode chiefly adopted in the. 
 West Indies is first to strip the seeds of
 
 568 
 
 CASTOR-OILCASTRATES. 
 
 their husks or pods, and then to bruise 
 them in mortars. Afterwards they are 
 tied in linen bags, and boiled in water 
 until the oil which they contain rises to 
 the surface. This is carefully skimmed 
 off, strained, to free it from any accident- 
 al impurities, and bottled for use. The 
 oil which is obtained by boiling is con- 
 sidered more mild than that procured by 
 pressure, but it sooner becomes rancid. 
 The mildest and finest Jamaica castor-oil 
 is very limpid, nearly colorless, and has 
 scarcely more smell or taste than good 
 olive-oil. Many people, however, have 
 so great an aversion to castor-oil, even in 
 its purest state, that they do not take it 
 without great reluctance. The uses of 
 castor-oil in medicine are well known. 
 It is at present prepared, in great quanti- 
 ties, in various parts of the U. States, and 
 of an excellent quality. 
 
 CASTRAMETATION ; strictly, the art of 
 tracing out and disposing to advantage the 
 several parts of a camp on the ground. It 
 is sometimes used more extensively to in- 
 clude all the ordinary operations of a cam- 
 paign. A camp, whether composed of tents 
 or barracks, or merely of places assigned 
 for bivouacking, must be divided in such 
 a way that the several divisions shall be 
 disposed as they are intended to be when 
 drawn up in order of battle ; so that, on a 
 sudden alarm, the troops may rise in their 
 proper posts. At the same time, the places 
 for cooking, for the baggage, and for am- 
 munition, must be conveniently arranged. 
 
 CASTRATES. The change produced in 
 men by emasculation is highly remark- 
 able, and assimilates their constitution, in 
 some respects, to that of females. The 
 elasticity of the fibres and muscles is 
 weakened, and the cellular membrane be- 
 comes charged with a much larger quan- 
 tity of fat ; the growth of the beard is pre- 
 vented ; the upper part of the windpipe 
 contracts considerably, and the castrate 
 acquires the physiognomy and voice of a 
 female. On the moral character it like- 
 wise appears to have some influence, by 
 weakening the intellectual faculties, and 
 rendering the subject unfeeling, morose, 
 faint-hearted, and, on the whole, incapable 
 of performing those deeds which require 
 a high, magnanimous disposition. The 
 most numerous class of castrates are those 
 who are made such by the removal of the 
 testicles. Another class are not deprived 
 of the parts of generation, but have them 
 ingeniously injured in such a manner as 
 to leave them the faculty of copulating, 
 but deprive them of the power of beget- 
 ting. Juvenal mentions these as the par- 
 
 ticular favorites of the licentious Roman 
 ladies. To the third class belong those 
 who are entirely deprived of their genital 
 members. They are used in preference, 
 by the Turks, as keepers of their women. 
 The castrates of all three classes are called 
 eunuchs. Those of the third class, to dis- 
 tinguish them from the two others, are 
 frequently termed entire eunuchs. The 
 word eunuch is Greek, and signifies guard 
 or keeper of the bed. The castration of 
 adults produces some change in the dis- 
 position, but little in the bodily constitu- 
 tion. Even the power of engender- 
 ing continues for a short time. Accord- 
 ing to the accounts of ancient historians, 
 the Greeks, particularly the Lydians, cas- 
 trated women. The latter are said to 
 have used these beings as guards of their 
 wives and daughters. With females, the 
 operation produces a completely opposite 
 effect to that which it has on men. The 
 sexual appetite ceases, a beard appears on 
 the chin and upper lip, the bosom van- 
 ishes, the voice becomes harsh. &c. Boer- 
 haave and Pott relate modern instances 
 of this kind. Nothing but an immediate 
 and fatal injury to the parts authorizes an 
 operation of such vital consequence to 
 the human race. Among the evils which 
 religious enthusiasm has at all times pro- 
 duced, castration is conspicuous. The 
 emperors Constantino and Justinian were 
 obliged to use their utmost power to op- 
 pose this religious frenzy, and could put 
 a stop to it only by punishing it like mur- 
 der. The Valerians, a religious sect, 
 whose minds had been distracted by the 
 example of Origen (q. v.), not only consid- 
 ered this mutilation of themselves as a 
 duty which religion imposed on them, 
 but believed themselves bound to perform 
 the same, by fair means or foul, on all 
 those who came into their power. In 
 Italy, the castration of boys, in order to 
 form them for soprano singers, has been 
 in use for a long time, emrati having been 
 employed in the pontifical chapel, ever 
 since the beginning of the 17th centu- 
 ry, to sing the treble parts. Clement 
 XIV prohibited this abuse, which, not- 
 withstanding, continued for a long time, 
 and, in some Italian towns, was not only 
 suffered, but exercised with such shame- 
 ful openness, that the. practitioners gave 
 public notice of their profession. In 
 modern times, severe laws have been 
 enacted against castration, and the custom 
 is going out of use. Beings thus muti- 
 lated, however, are sometimes to be found 
 on European stages and in Catholic 
 churches. Among the papal singers, WQ
 
 CASTRATES CAT. 
 
 569 
 
 found castrates as late as 1823. It is re- 
 jnarkable that so odious and unnatural an 
 operation should produce the fine effect 
 on the tones of the singer, which all must 
 acknowledge who can rid themselves of 
 the disagreeable effect of the association. 
 In the Catholic church, no castrate, how- 
 ever he became such, is permitted to be 
 an officiating priest. The part which 
 eunuchs have always played, wherever 
 they have belonged to the household of 
 princes, is well known ; and some authors 
 have compared them to Catholic priests, 
 who, like them, have often been the intrigu- 
 ing advisers of sovereigns, and, like them, 
 tire not connected with society by the gen- 
 tle bonds of marriage and family relations. 
 CASTRIOT. (See Scanderbeg.) 
 CASTRUM DOLORIS, a Latin term, signi- 
 fying castle of grief, has a different mean- 
 ing from catafalco. The latter is used to 
 denote an elevated tomb, containing the 
 coffin of a distinguished person, together 
 with the tapers around, ornaments, armo- 
 rial bearings, inscriptions, &c., placed in 
 the midst of a church or hall. The cas- 
 Irurn doloris is the whole room in which 
 the catafalco is elevated, with all the 
 decorations. The sarcophagus, usually 
 empty, is exposed for show upon an ele- 
 vation covered with black cloth, under a 
 canopy surrounded with candelabra. Up- 
 on the coffin is laid some mark of the 
 rank of the deceased, as his epaulette or 
 sword, and, when the deceased was a 
 sovereign or a member of a ruling fam- 
 ily, princely insignia are placed on sur- 
 rounding seats. The French call the 
 castrum doloris, chapelle ardente, which 
 is to be distinguished from chambre ar- 
 dente. (q. v.) 
 
 CASUISTRY ; that part of the old theol- 
 ogy and morals, which relates to the prin- 
 ciples by which difficult cases of con- 
 science (especially where there is a collis- 
 ion of different duties) are to be settled. 
 Kant calls it the dialectics of conscience. 
 Hence a casuist is a moralist, who en- 
 deavors to solve such doubtful questions. 
 There have been many celebrated casu- 
 ists among the Jesuits (e. g., Escobar, 
 Sanchez, Biisenbaum, &c.), famous for 
 their ingenuity in the invention of such 
 cases, and for the ambiguity and singu- 
 larity of their solutions. It is impossible, 
 without reading the works of some of the 
 casuistical writers, to form an idea of the 
 ingenious and fine-spun sophistry which 
 they contain. 
 
 CAT (fdis caius, L.) ; a well-known 
 domesticated, carnivorous quadruped, 
 whose attachment appears to be rather to 
 43* 
 
 the dwellings than the persons of her 
 protectors ; in which respect her conduct 
 is very opposite to that of the dog, whose 
 alliance with man is founded upon disin- 
 terested, personal attachment, not to be 
 affected by changes of place or fortune. 
 Her youthful sportiveness, beautiful fur, 
 and gentle demureness of manner in after 
 life, dispose mankind to regard the animal 
 with kindness ; but the most persevering 
 attempts to cultivate her good disposi- 
 tions are followed with such slight suc- 
 cess, and met with so much of deceit and 
 ingratitude, as to weary the patience of 
 the most benevolent. The cat is capable 
 of showing considerable fondness for an 
 individual, but never appeal's to confide 
 fully, even in the warmest demonstra- 
 tions of kindness. Her treacherous calm- 
 ness of disposition needs but slight provo- 
 cation to be changed to vengeful malig- 
 nity. When hurt, or much alarmed, 
 she is ready to attack her best benefactor, 
 with as much fury as a stranger. Being 
 highly sensitive, and fond of ease, the cat 
 evinces little anxiety, except for the con- 
 tinuance of her enjoyment, and is ever 
 prepared to seek more comfortable quar- 
 ters, whenever the condition of her pat- 
 rons may render a movement politic. At 
 what period cats became inmates of hu- 
 man habitations, it is scarcely possible, at 
 this period, to determine. Beyond doubt, 
 their usefulness in destroying rats, mice, 
 and other small animals, first introduced 
 them to notice. The first mention we. 
 find made of them, in profane history, is 
 by Herodotus, the father of historians, in 
 his account of Egypt. (Euterpe, vel lib. ii.) 
 He speaks of them as diminishing the 
 vermin infesting human dwellings ; states 
 some of the Egyptian superstitions rela- 
 tive to them, as well as some observations 
 upon their breeding, dispositions, &c. 
 The celebrated naturalist Temminck, in his 
 excellent monography of the genus ftlis, 
 adduces strong reasons for believing that 
 the cat was originally domesticated in 
 Egypt, and that the gloved cat, F. manic* 
 iddta (chat gante of Southern Africa) is, 
 in all probability,' the original stock of the 
 domestic cat. Its strong resemblance in 
 size, proportions, &c., renders this opin- 
 ion more acceptable than that which at- 
 tributes the origin to the common Eun> 
 pean wild cat, which is smaller, has .1 
 shorter, thicker tail, and, indeed, would 
 seem rather to be the domestic cat re 
 turned to the savage state, than its origin- 
 al stock. The subtlety and circumspec- 
 tion of the common cat are evinced by all 
 its habits and movements ; and the ob
 
 570 
 
 CAT CAT-BIRD. 
 
 serration of this disposition has obtained 
 for it the name it bears in most of the 
 living languages of Europe. In Greek, 
 it is called uiAoupos, for which we have found 
 no derivation. In Latin, it was called 
 catus, from the adjective signifying cun- 
 ning, wary, subtle, &c. According to 
 Varro, this adjective is a Sabine, and not 
 a Roman word ; but, as we find it used by 
 Horace, in his ode Ad Mercurium,* its ad- 
 mission into the classic vocabulary can 
 scarcely be denied. From this name, ca- 
 tus, we have the English cat, the German 
 katze, the French chat, &c. The domes- 
 tic cat belongs to a genus (felis) better 
 armed for the destruction of animal life 
 than all other quadrupeds. The short 
 and powerful jaws, moved by vigorous 
 muscles, are supplied with most formid- 
 ably trenchant teeth : a cunning disposi- 
 tion, combined with nocturnal habits and 
 much patience in pursuit, gives them great 
 advantages over their prey ; and their 
 keen, lacerating claws, which are always 
 preserved in the most acute state by the 
 peculiar arrangement that keeps them 
 concealed when not in use, enables them 
 to inflict a death-blow on their victims 
 with as much certainty as ease. The cat, 
 in a degree, partakes of all the attributes 
 of her race lies in ambush for her prey, 
 and seizes it by a sudden leap ; plays 
 with her captives before putting them to 
 death ; and does not limit her destruction 
 to the mere gratification of appetite. Cold 
 and wet are disagreeable to the cat, and 
 electricity is especially feared by her: 
 advantage may be taken of the latter cir- 
 cumstance to avert the troublesome visits 
 of the animal. After having once re- 
 ceived a shock from a Leyden vial, but 
 little apprehension need be entertained of 
 the cat's return to the same place. Of 
 various aromatic substances, as catnep or 
 catmint, &c., puss is remarkably fond ; 
 and the odor of valerian appears to throw 
 her into an ecstasy of pleasure. The food 
 of the cat, in a state of domestication, is ne- 
 cessarily very various, but always of flesh 
 or fish, if it can be obtained. A desire to 
 possess herself of the latter article of diet, 
 proves one of the strongest temptations to 
 theft that the cat is exposed to : in fact, it 
 takes a very severe education to make her 
 any better than a thief under any circum- 
 stances. The cat is remarkable for the 
 fetor of its eructations, as well as the 
 powerfully offensive and phosphorus-like 
 
 * Mercuri, facunde nepos Atlantis 
 Qui feros culms hominum receutum 
 Voce formasti catus et decorse 
 More palaestrae. Lib. i. Carm. 
 
 odor of its urine, &c. But, personally, it 
 is a very cleanly animal, avoiding to step 
 in any sort of filth, and preserving its fur 
 in a very neat condition. Of its habits, 
 when well taken care of and much petted, 
 it cannot be necessary to speak hero, as 
 they are universally known. Equally 
 notorious is their clamorous mode of 
 making love, which is designated by the 
 term caterwauling, and, once heard, can 
 never be forgotten. The cat goes with 
 young for sixty-three days, and brings 
 forth from three to six at a litter, which 
 remain blind for nine days. 
 
 CAT-BIRD (turdusfdivox, Viell ; T.liv- 
 idus, Wils.); a numerous and well-known 
 species of thrush, which annually advances 
 from the south with the progress of agri- 
 culture, and, during the summer, is found 
 throughout the Middle and New England 
 States, frequenting thickets of brambles, 
 or the shrubberies of gardens. The note 
 from which the bird obtains its name is 
 strikingly similar to the plaint of a kitten 
 in distress, and would almost certainly de- 
 ceive the ear of any one unacquainted with 
 the cry of this species. The cat-bird is 
 exceedingly familiar and unsuspicious, al- 
 lowing itself to be closely approached, and 
 saluting every one passing near its abode 
 by its cat-like note. It is lively and ac- 
 tive in its movements, and, but for the 
 unfortunate resemblance of its ordinary 
 cry to the voice of an animal by no means 
 a favorite, would be considered an agree- 
 able bird, notwithstanding its plain, lead- 
 colored plumage. Wilson informs us, 
 that the cat-bird arrives in the lower 
 parts of Georgia about the end of Febru- 
 ary, whence 1 3 infers that its winter resi- 
 dence is not far distant from Florida. It 
 reaches Pennsylvania by the second week 
 in April, and has its nest built by the be- 
 ginning of May. For this purpose, a 
 brier or bramble thicket, a thorn-bush, 
 thick vine, or fork of a sapling, is selected. 
 Little attention is paid to concealment, 
 though few birds are more solicitous for 
 the safety of their young. The nest is 
 constructed of dry leaves, weeds, small 
 twigs, and fine, dry grass, the inside being 
 lined with fine, black, fibrous roots. The 
 female lays 4 or 5 eggs, of a uniform 
 greenish-blue color, free from spots. They 
 generally raise two, and sometimes three, 
 broods in a season. The admirable natu- 
 ralist above mentioned relates, that he 
 sometimes, when in the woods, amused 
 himself with imitating the violent chirp- 
 ing or squeaking of young birds, in order 
 to discover what species were in his vi- 
 cinity ; and these sounds, to birds in the
 
 CAT-BIRDCATACOMBS. 
 
 571 
 
 breeding seasons, he compares to the 
 alarm of fire in a large and populous city. 
 On such occasions of alarm and conster- 
 nation, the cat-bird is the first to make 
 his appearance, not singly, but sometimes 
 half a dozen at a time, flying from differ- 
 ent quarters to the spot. Other birds are 
 variously affected, but none show symp- 
 toms of such extreme suffering. He hur- 
 ries backward and forward with hanging 
 wings and open mouth, calling out louder 
 and faster, and actually screaming with 
 distress, till lie appears hoarse with his 
 exertions. He attempts no offensive 
 measures, but he bewails, he implores, in 
 the most pathetic terms with which na- 
 ture has supplied him, and with an agony 
 of feeling which is truly affecting. This 
 species does not readily desert its nest ; 
 and, when the eggs or young of other 
 birds are placed in it, they are content to 
 throw out the intruders, and continue 
 their attentions to their own family. 
 When the nest and eggs are carefully 
 removed to another place by man, the 
 parents follow, and do not remit their 
 cares. Before the dawn, when there is 
 scarcely light enough to render it visible, 
 the cat-bird generally begins its song, 
 while fluttering with great sprightliness 
 from bush to bush. His notes are more 
 singular than melodious, consisting of 
 short imitations of other birds, but failing 
 where strength and clearness of tone are 
 requisite. He appears to study certain 
 passages with great perseverance, com- 
 mencing in a low key, and, as he suc- 
 ceeds, ascending to a higher and freer 
 note, unembarrassed by the presence of a 
 spectator, even within a few yards. An 
 attentive listener discovers considerable 
 variety in his performance, apparently 
 made up of a collection of odd sounds 
 and quaint passages. The cat-bird is a 
 great enemy to the common black snake 
 or horse-runner (coluber constrictor), which 
 rifles its nest whenever an opportunity 
 offers. As the cat-bird uniformly attacks 
 or pursues this snake, and is frequently 
 seen in the act of bopping eagerly after it, 
 numerous ridiculous stories are related of 
 its being fascinated or charmed by the 
 snake. The testimony of Wilson and 
 Bartram show that the bird is almost uni- 
 formly the aggressor and victor, driving 
 the snake to its hiding-place. In one 
 instance, the writer witnessed an attack 
 of a cat-bird on the black snake, almost 
 precisely similar to that related in Wil- 
 son's Ornithology, by his venerable friend, 
 the naturalist Bartram. The cat-bird is 
 nine inches long, and, at a short distance, 
 
 appears nearly black, but, on a closer in- 
 spection, is seen to be of a deep slate-color 
 above, lightest on the edges of the prima- 
 ries, and of a considerably lighter slate-col- 
 or below, except under the tail coverts, 
 which are of a very dark red ; the tail, 
 which is rounded, and the superior part 
 of the head, as well as the bill and legs, 
 are black. (See Wilson, 1st ed., vol. ii. 
 p. 90.) 
 
 CAT ISLAND, or ST. SALVADOR, or Gu- 
 ANAHAM, or GUAMMINA ; one of the Ba- 
 hama islands ; about GO miles in length 
 from N. to S., and 12 in its mean breadth. 
 Population, in 1797, G57. This island is 
 remarkable for being the first land of 
 America discovered by Columbus, who 
 landed here Oct. 12, 1492, and named it 
 St. Salvador. Lon. 75 W. ; lat. 24 30 7 
 N. 
 
 CATACOMBS (caverns, grottoes, subter- 
 raneous caves, destined for the sepulture 
 of the dead). The respect felt for the 
 dead, by all nations, naturally led them 
 to some outward manifestation of regard, 
 such as the pomp of funeral solemnities, 
 or the consecration of a particular spot 
 for sepulture, or the erection of monu- 
 ments, to transmit to posterity the re- 
 membrance of the services or virtues 
 of the deceased. Some nations, as the 
 Eiryptians, constructed pyramids and lab- 
 yrinths to contain their mortal remains. 
 Others, as the Phoenicians, and, after them, 
 the Greeks, hollowed out the rocks for 
 tombs, surrounding their towns with vast 
 magazines, containing the bones of their 
 fathers. Asia Minor, the coast of Africa, 
 and Cyrenais, afford instances of these 
 singular and gigantic works. The Ro- 
 mans, not so bold, but still more magnifi- 
 cent, embellished their roads with superb 
 mausoleums and sarcophagi of marble, 
 consecrated to their distinguished families. 
 At a later period, when the change of 
 their religion made it necessary to con- 
 ceal these last marks of regard, they con- 
 secrated vast subterraneous caverns to 
 the purpose of tombs. The discovery of 
 these monuments has always excited the 
 curiosity of travellers and the attention of 
 artists. The latter have applied them- 
 selves to learn from them the character 
 of architecture and painting at different 
 epochs ; and, though they have often 
 found only coarse representations, the 
 productions of art in its infancy or de- 
 cline, they have occasionally met with 
 types of perfection. Many monuments 
 of this description have been preserved 
 to our days, and still contain traces of the 
 painting and architecture with which
 
 572 
 
 CATACOMBS. 
 
 they were decorated. There are cata- 
 combs existing iu Syria, Persia, and 
 among the most ancient Oriental nations. 
 But the revolutions in these countries, 
 and the changes which they have occa- 
 sioned, have deprived us of the docu- 
 ments which would have given us exact 
 information regarding them. The de- 
 scription of the catacombs in Upper 
 Egypt gives us an idea of those whose 
 existence is still unknown to us. They 
 contain the history of the country, and 
 the customs and manners of the people, 
 painted or sculptured in many monu- 
 ments of the most admirable preserva- 
 tion. The subterraneous caves of these 
 countries, like almost all of the kind, have 
 their origin in quarries. From the depths 
 of the mountains which contain them, 
 stone was taken, which served for the 
 building of the neighboring towns, and 
 also of the great edifices and pyramids 
 which ornament the land. They are 
 dug in a mountain situated in the neigh- 
 borhood of the Nile, and furnished the 
 Romans with materials for the construc- 
 tion of buildings in their colonial estab- 
 lishments. The excavations in these 
 mountains are found throughout a space 
 of 15 to 20 leagues, and form subterrane- 
 ous caverns, which appear to be the work 
 of ait ; but there is neither order nor 
 symmetry in them. They contain "vast 
 and obscure apartments, low and irregu- 
 lar vaults, supported, hi different parts, 
 with piles, left purposely by the workmen. 
 Some holes, of about six feet in length 
 and two feet in width, give rise to the 
 conjecture, that they were destined for 
 sepulchres. Cells of very small dimen- 
 sions, formed in the hollows of these ob- 
 scure caverns, prove them to have been 
 the abode of recluses. In Sicily and Asia 
 Minor, a prodigious number of grottoes 
 and excavations have been discovered, 
 containing sepulchres. Some appear to 
 have served as retreats to the victims of 
 despotism : the greater part are the work 
 of the waters which traverse the moun- 
 tains of these regions, as, for instance, the 
 great cave of Noto, which passes for one 
 of the wonders of Sicily. This cave, the 
 height, length and breadth of which are 
 equal, has been formed by the river Cas- 
 sibili, which runs at the bottom, and trav- 
 erses it for the length of 100 fathoms. In 
 the interior of this cave are a number of 
 houses and tombs. In the ancient Hybla, 
 there is a grotto containing many sepul- 
 chres, near which is the tomb of ^Eschy- 
 lus. At Yela are abodes for the living 
 and sepulchres for the dead, cut in the 
 
 rocks ; at Agrigentum, subterraneous 
 caves, labyrinths and tombs, arranged 
 with great order and symmetry. There 
 are also caverns in the environs of Syra- 
 cuse, which may be ranked with the 
 principal monuments of this description, 
 from their extent and depth, their archi- 
 tectural ornaments, and from some his- 
 torical recollections attached to them. In 
 the catacombs of Rome, coffins are some- 
 times found, and it is supposed that the 
 bones in them belonged to Christians. 
 Inscriptions are also seen on the walls of 
 the apartments. But, though they may 
 not have been used by the Christians as 
 tombs, it is certain that they served for 
 places of assembling for secret exercises 
 of devotion. (See Artaud's Voyage dans 
 les Catacombes de Rome., Paris, 1810.) 
 The catacombs in the tufa mountains of 
 Capo di Monte, near Naples, consist of 
 subterraneous galleries, halls, rooms, ba- 
 silicas, and rotundos, which extend to the 
 distance of two Italian miles. Through- 
 out there are seen niches for coffins 
 (loculi] and hones. A description of them 
 was given by Celano, in 1643. They 
 probably owe their origin to the quarries 
 which afforded tufa for the walls of the 
 cities Palseopolis and Neapolis, and after- 
 wards served as sepulchres for the Chris- 
 tian congregations. The catacombs of 
 Paris arc extensive subterraneous galle- 
 ries, to winch you descend from the 
 buildings on the western side of the bar- 
 riere (Tcnfcr. The name itself, which has 
 been given to this labyrinth of caverns 
 and galleries, from its resemblance to the 
 asylums and places of refuge of the per- 
 secuted Christians under Naples and 
 Rome, informs us of the purpose to 
 which it has been applied since 1780. 
 These galleries were originally the quar- 
 ries from which materials were excavated 
 for constructing the edifices of the capi- 
 tal. The weight of the superincumbent 
 houses rendered it necessary to prop 
 them ; and when the cemeteries of the 
 demolished churches and the burying- 
 grounds were cleared in 176, the gov- 
 ernment resolved to deposit the bones in 
 these quarries, which were consecrated 
 for that purpose. The relics of ten gen- 
 erations were here united in the repose 
 of the grave. Eight times as great as the 
 living tide that rolls over this spot is its 
 subterraneous population. By the light 
 of wax tapers you descend 90 feet to a 
 world of silence, over which the Parisian 
 police keeps watch as strictly as over the 
 world of noise and confusion above. You 
 enter a gallery, where two can just go
 
 CATACO3IBS CATALAXI. 
 
 573 
 
 abreast. A black streak on the stones, of 
 which the walls consist, points out the 
 way, which, from the great number of 
 intersecting by-passages, it would be dif- 
 ficult to retrace without this aid, or with- 
 out guides. The plain of Moutrouge and 
 the great suburb St. Jacques, as well as 
 St. Germain, and, according to some, the 
 channel of the Seine, are thus under- 
 mined. Among the curiosities of this 
 pan of that lower world is a plan of the 
 harbor of Mahon, which, in his hours 
 of leisure, an ingenious soldier faithfully 
 copied, from memory, in the material of 
 the quarries. You tinally enter the hall, 
 whence you are ushered into the realms 
 of death by the inscription which once 
 stood over the entrance to the church- 
 yard of St. Sulpice : Has ultra metas re- 
 quiescunt beatam sptm exspedantes. Nar- 
 row passages between walls of skeletons; 
 chambers in which mausoleums, altars, 
 candelabras, constructed of human bones, 
 with festoons of skulls and thigh-bones, 
 interspersed, occasionally, with inscrip- 
 tions, not always the most happily select- 
 ed, from ancient and modern authors, 
 excite the gloomy impression which is 
 always produced, even in the most light- 
 minded, by the sight of the dissolution of 
 the human frame. Fatigued with these 
 horrible embellishments, you enter a sim- 
 ple chape!, without bones, and containing 
 an altar of granite. The inscription D. M. 
 II et III Septembr. MDCCXCII. recalls 
 to memory the victims of those mournful 
 days, whose remains are here united. It 
 is the only spot in the whole labyrinth, 
 that speaks immediately to the heart of 
 every body. On leaving these rooms, 
 consecrated to death, where, however, the 
 air is always preserved pure by means of 
 secret passages, you may visit a geo- 
 logical cabinet, formed by 3Ir. Hericourt 
 de Thury, the director of the carricres 
 sons Pans, who has also published a de- 
 scription of them (Paris, 1615). Speci- 
 mens of the minerals furnished by the 
 regions you have traversed, and a collec- 
 tion of diseased bones, in a contiguous 
 hall, scientifically arranged, are the last 
 curiosities which these excavations offer. 
 300 toises east of the road to Orleans you 
 finally return to the light of day. We 
 understand that it has lately been prohib- 
 ited to visit this remarkable spot, because 
 a person had lost himself in this labyrinth, 
 and had never been heard of again. In 
 Rome, there is a Franciscan church, un- 
 der which, for centuries, the bones of the 
 monks of the convent, and of many per- 
 sons, who think their eternal happiness 
 
 will be promoted by their burial there, 
 have been preserved, ingeniously arranged 
 in columns, altars, arches, garlands, fes- 
 toous and architectural ornaments. Ev- 
 ery year, mass is read there. 
 
 CATACOUSTICS (from KOTO, and UKKU, / 
 hear), called, also, cataphonics ; the sci- 
 ence of reflected sounds, or that part of 
 acoustics which considers the properties 
 of echoes. (See Acoustics.) 
 
 CATAFALCO. (See Casirum Doloris.) 
 CATALAJSI, Angelica, by marriage J'al- 
 abreguc ; a celebrated singer, born, ac- 
 cording to her own statement, in 1784, at 
 Sinigaglia, in the Ecclesiastical States, and 
 educated in the convent .of St. Lucia, near 
 Rome. Angelica displayed, in her seventh 
 year, an uncommon talent for singing, and 
 such multitudes came to hear her, that the 
 magistrates of the place prohibited her 
 singing any longer in the convent. But 
 the favor of a cardinal, and the love of 
 the celebrated Bosello, enabled her to 
 cultivate her talents. After leaving the 
 convent, she appeared, in her fifteenth 
 year, at the theatre in Venice, and then 
 in other Italian cities. In Lisbon, she 
 was, for five years, together with Cres- 
 centini and Gafforini, the ornament of the 
 Italian opera. Her first concert in Ma- 
 drid brought her more than 815,000; and, 
 from her concerts in Paris, her fame 
 spread over all Europe. In London, she 
 had, in the first year of her engagement, 
 a salary of 72,000 francs ($12,03 1), and, 
 in the folio wing, of 96,000 francs (817,241). 
 Two concerts, besides, brought her 30,000 
 francs (83,388) each, and she received 
 immense sums in her journeys through 
 the country towns during her eight 
 months' stay in the island. In 1814, she 
 undertook, in Paris, the direction of the 
 Italian opera, left it on the return of Na- 
 poleon, and obtained it anew on the res- 
 toration of the king, after an interval 
 which she spent in journeys through Bel- 
 gium. In 181<i, she visited the chief 
 cities of Germany and Italy. She owes 
 her fame to an agreeable exterior, to a 
 lively way of acting, to an uncommon 
 fulness and a rare flexibility of voice, a 
 singularly fine shake, and an exceeding 
 richness of difficult and striking, but bril- 
 liant rather than beautiful, figures and or- 
 naments, particularly in chromatic pas- 
 -. and an original combination of all 
 those excellences in a whole, which is 
 more fit to excite astonishment and ad- 
 miration than to touch the heart. As the 
 French government, after her return, 
 were continually obliged to advance con- 
 siderable sums for the support of the Ital-
 
 574 
 
 CATALANI CATAMENIA. 
 
 ian opera in Paris, whilst she never yield- 
 ed to the wish of the public in the choice 
 of the pieces performed, and, through 
 jealousy, removed other female singers 
 of merit, she was dismissed, and travelled 
 anew, in 1818, through the chief cities of 
 (in-many, and then to Petersburg and 
 Warsaw ; in 1822 to London, in 1825 to 
 Italy, in 1826 to Stuttgart. She is marri- 
 ed to M. Valabrt-gue, formerly a captain 
 in the French service, by whom she has 
 several children. The latest accounts in- 
 form us that she has determined not to 
 sing publicly any more, except for chari- 
 table purposes. She lives retired in 
 Italy. 
 
 CATALEPSY. This is a spasmodic dis- 
 ease, and, by some, regarded as a species 
 of tetanus. It affects the whole body, so 
 as to render it immovable, as if dead. 
 Tetanus differs from catalepsy in its sub- 
 jects and causes. Females are most lia- 
 ble to the last, while the first is equally 
 produced in both sexes by appropriate 
 causes. Tetanus is most frequently pro- 
 duced by punctured wounds of tendinous 
 textures, and most readily in hot weather. 
 Sometimes, however, it occurs, like cata- 
 lepsy, independently of wounds. The 
 spasm is more limited in tetanus ; some- 
 times being most severe in the muscles 
 of the face, producing lock-jaw ; now it 
 attacks the muscles of the trunk, on the 
 fore part, producing emprosthotonos, and 
 now the muscles of the back part, pro- 
 ducing opistkotonos, or curvature of the 
 trunk backwards. During all this, the 
 natural temperature may remain, the 
 pulse be perfectly natural, and the senses 
 unimpaired. Under the most active and 
 varied treatment, tetanus has always been 
 a very fatal malady. Catalepsy is a uni- 
 versal spasmodic disease of the organs of 
 locomotion. The body remains in the 
 position in which it may have been when 
 attacked with the fit, and the limbs pre- 
 serve any situation in which they may be 
 placed. The senses are obliterated, and 
 the mind totally inactive, nothing being 
 able to rouse the patient. The pulse and 
 temperature remain natural. The fit is 
 of uncertain length ; according to some 
 writers, not lasting more than a quarter 
 of an hour, though known by others to be 
 much longer. This disease is an obsti- 
 nate one, and is very liable to recur, even 
 when the patient seems in the least re- 
 spect liable to a recurrence. It is, for the 
 most part, a consequence of some other 
 disease. This may be a local affection ; 
 but it more frequently occurs in a gen- 
 erally enfeebled constitution, induced by 
 
 some grave malady, or one which has 
 been caused by the gradual operation of 
 unobserved morbid causes. 
 
 CATALOGUES OF BOOKS. (See Books, 
 Catalogues of.) 
 
 CATALONIA (anciently Taraconensis) ; 
 a province of Spain, bounded N. by 
 France, E. and S. E. by the Mediterra- 
 nean, S. W. by Valencia, and W. by Ar- 
 ragon. Its form is nearly that of a trian- 
 gle, the base towards the Mediterranean 
 being about 140 miles in length, the side 
 towards France 120, and that towards 
 Arragon 140. The country in general is 
 mountainous, but intersected with fertile 
 valleys, while the mountains themselves 
 are covered with valuable Avoods and 
 fruit-trees. Corn, wine, oil, flax, hemp, 
 legumes, and almost every kind of fruit, 
 are abundant. Here are quarries of mar- 
 ble of all colors, of crystal, and alabaster ; 
 also topazes, rubies, jaspers and other 
 precious stones ; mines of lead, tin, iron, 
 alum, vitriol and salt, and, formerly, of 
 gold and silver. On the coast is a coral- 
 fishery. Catalonia is naturally much less 
 fertile than either of the Castiles ; but it 
 far surpasses both, and, indeed, every 
 other province in Spain, in the industry 
 of its inhabitants, as well as the improve- 
 ments which they have effected in man- 
 ufactures, agriculture and commerce. 
 Pop. 858,818; square miles, 12,111. It 
 has usually been divided into 15 vigueries 
 or jurisdictions. The principal towns 
 are Barcelona, Tortosa, Tarragona, Ge- 
 rona, and Villa Franca de Panades. (See 
 Spain.) 
 
 CATAMEMA (derived from these two 
 Greek words, Kara, according to, and prjt , 
 the month); menses, the monthly discharge 
 from the uterus of females, between the 
 ages of 14 and 45. Many have question- 
 ed whether this discharge arose from a 
 mere rupture of vessels, or whether it was 
 owing to a secretory action. There can 
 be little doubt of the truth of the latter. 
 The secretory organ is composed of the 
 arterial vessels situated in the fundus of 
 the uterus. The dissection of women 
 who have died during the time of their 
 menstruating proves this. Sometimes, 
 though very rarely, women, during preg-. 
 nancy, menstruate ; and, when this hap- 
 pens, the discharge takes place from the 
 arterial vessels of the vagina. During 
 pregnancy and lactation, when the person 
 is in good health, the catamenia, for the 
 most part, cease to flow. The quantity 
 a female menstruates at each time is very 
 various, depending on climate and a vari- 
 ety of other circumstances. It is com-
 
 CATAMENIA CATARACT. 
 
 575 
 
 monly, in England, from five to six 
 ounces : it rarely exceeds eight. Its du- 
 ration is from three to four, and some- 
 times, though rarely, five days. With 
 respect to the nature of the discharge, it 
 differs very much from pure blood. It 
 never coagulates, but is sometimes gru- 
 mous, and membranes like the decidua 
 are formed in difficult menstruations. In 
 some women, it always smells rank and 
 peculiar ; in others, it is inodorous. The 
 use of this monthly secretion is said to be, 
 to render the uterus fit for the conception 
 and nutrition of the fostus ; therefore girls 
 rarely conceive before the catamenia ap- 
 pear, and women rarely after their entire 
 cessation, but very easily soon after men- 
 struation. 
 
 CATANIA (anciently Catana) ; a city of 
 Sicily, in the valley of Demona, on the 
 borders of the valley of Noto, the see of a 
 bishop, the suffragan of Monreal ; 47 
 miles S. S. W. Messina, 85 E. S. E. Pa- 
 lermo ; lat. 37 3(X N. ; Ion. 15 & E. 
 The population is variously estimated at 
 from 40 to 80,000. It is situated on a 
 gulf of the Mediterranean, at the foot of 
 mount ^Etna, This city has been repeat- 
 edly visited by tremendous earthquakes, 
 and was laid in ruins by one in 1693, 
 when 18,000 people were destroyed ; and 
 upon the situation which it occupied, the 
 present city is built ; the lava serving, at 
 the same time, for a foundation, as well 
 as a quarry, from which stone was dug 
 for its construction. Catania is reviving 
 with great splendor, and has much more 
 the features of a metropolis and royal 
 residence than Palermo. The principal 
 streets are wide, and well paved with 
 lava. Most of the edifices have an air of 
 magnificence unknown in other parts of 
 the island, and the town has a title to 
 rank among the elegant cities of Europe. 
 Here is a university with three faculties, 
 much celebrated in Sicily. The inhabit- 
 ants have always been noted for their su- 
 periority over the other Sicilians in polite- 
 ness. The Benedictine convent of St. 
 Nicholas is very large. Every part has 
 been rebuilt since the earthquake of 1G93. 
 An obelisk of red granite, placed on the 
 back of an antique elephant of touchstone, 
 stands in the centre of the great square, 
 which is formed by the town-hall, semi- 
 nary and cathedral. The cathedral, ded- 
 icated to St. Agatha, the patroness of the 
 city, has suffered so much by earthquakes, 
 that little of the original structure remains. 
 The other religious edifices are profusely 
 ornamented, but in a bad taste. The har- 
 bor, though one of the largest in the 
 
 island, is not much frequented ; but the 
 trade is considerable. The exports are 
 wheat, barley, wine, oil, &c. 
 
 CATAPLASMS, or POULTICES, are soft 
 compounds, intended to be applied to the 
 surface of the body. They are common- 
 ly made of meals, powders, boiled pulps, 
 &c., mixed with water, milk, or some 
 other liquid. They are called sinapisms 
 when mustard forms their base. 
 
 CATAPULTS (Latin, catapultai ; Greek, 
 Koran-Aral); certain machines of the an- 
 cients, corresponding to our heavy can- 
 non. The catapults differed from the 
 lallistce by throwing more horizontally, 
 the latter more in a curve. The form 
 also differed, and the catapults resembled, 
 in their general shape, a cross-bow. The 
 whole machine rested on a frame, and, if 
 intended for the field, had wheels. The 
 size of these machines varied much. 
 The large catapults shot arrows of 3 
 cubits, or 4i Roman feet, in length, often 
 larger ones, and sometimes beams 12 
 feet long. Burning arrows were likewise 
 often thrown by the catapults. The large 
 ones threw their arrows 4 stadia, but 
 not more than 2 stadia with precision. 
 Pliny ascribes the invention of catapults 
 to the Syrians ; Plutarch and Diodorus, to 
 other nations. At the siege of Jerusalem, 
 the Romans had 300 catapults and 40 
 ballista3. The Romans did not cany all 
 the parts of these machines with them, 
 but only the ropes and fastenings, with 
 the necessary tools ; and the soldiers built 
 the catapults when they wanted them. 
 The terms catapult and ballistce were 
 often used indiscriminately ; and, in later 
 times, the word catapult went entirely out 
 of use. Vegetius and Ammianus Marcel- 
 linus never introduce it, and employ bal- 
 listce, to signify all machines throwing large 
 arrows or beams, and onager for those 
 thro wing stones. 
 
 CATARACT. By this term two very dif- 
 ferent diseases are designated by some 
 writers, viz. the true cataract, and amau- 
 rosis, or giitta screna. By the first of 
 these terms, in its most common signifi- 
 cation, is understood opacity of the crys- 
 talline lens, or its capsule, or both. By 
 the second is meant a disease of the reti- 
 na, by which it is rendered unsusceptible 
 of the action of light. In cataract, the 
 lens becomes opaque, loses its transpa- 
 rency, and is no longer capable of trans- 
 mitting the light. The causes of cataract 
 are numerous. Inflammation may pro- 
 duce it. Sometimes it is ascribed to a state 
 of the vessels of the part which prevents 
 a proper nourishment of the lens or it3
 
 CATARACT. 
 
 capsule. It is produced by various dis- 
 eases, such as gout, rheumatism, scrofula, 
 and accompanies old age. Its earliest 
 approach is marked by a loss of the natu- 
 ral color of the pupil; this becoming tur- 
 bid, or slightly fray. Musccs volitantes 
 accompany this period. The opacity is 
 not, at first, over the whole crystalline, 
 and, most frequently, first attacks the 
 centre portion ; this being turbid, and of a 
 grayish color, while the surrounding por- 
 tions remain transparent, and of the usual 
 black color. While it exists in this de- 
 gree only, the person can see in an ob- 
 lique direction. The color of the pupil 
 is various ; mostly grayish- white or pearl- 
 colored ; sometimes milk-white, or of a 
 yellowish-gray ; now and then of a gray- 
 ish-brown, and even of a dark-brown or 
 dark-gray. The consistence of the lens 
 differs hi different cases, being either hard, 
 and even horny, or very soft, as if dis- 
 solved. The treatment of cataract is by a 
 surgical operation on the eye, and differ- 
 ent operations have been tried and recom- 
 mended. They all consist in removing 
 the diseased lens from its situation oppo- 
 site the transparent cornea. By one of 
 these operations, the cataract is depressed, 
 removed downwards, and kept from ris- 
 ing by the vitreous humor. This is call- 
 ed couching. Another operation is ex- 
 traction, and consists in making an incis- 
 ion of the cornea, and of the capsule of 
 the lens, by which the lens may be 
 brought forward, and through the cut in 
 the cornea. The third operation is by 
 absorption. This consists in wounding 
 the capsule, breaking down the crystal- 
 line, and bringing the fragments into the 
 anterior chamber of the eye, where they 
 are exposed to the action of the aqueous 
 humor, and are, at length, absorbed. 
 This last operation has the name kerato- 
 nyxis applied to it. The choice of the 
 operation is determined by the character 
 of the cataract. After the operation, the 
 patient is to be kept from the light, and 
 from all means of irritation. Such medi- 
 cines and such articles of food are to be 
 prescribed as will most effectually pre- 
 vent inflammation ; and should this occur, 
 it must be treated by such means as are 
 the most sure to restrain or overcome it. 
 Jlmaurosw is a disease of the optic nerve, 
 and its continuation, the retina. Its 
 causes are numerous. It may be occa- 
 sioned by organic disease of the parts re- 
 ferred to, by mechanical pressure upon 
 the nerve, by too powerful light, by long- 
 continued use of the eyes in too weak 
 light, by rapid transition from darkness- to 
 
 light, and, finally, by old age. Various 
 other, and some more general, causes may 
 produce amaurosis. Among these urn 
 wounds of the head, compression of :!K> 
 brain, fits of apoplexy, suppressed' colds 
 in the head, habitual inebriety, vomiting, 
 coughing, sneezing, affections of the ali- 
 mentary canal, and some of the neighbor- 
 ing viscera the liver, for example. Ac- 
 cording to the activity of these various 
 causes, the malady conies on sudden- 
 ly or gradually. The patients are some- 
 times unable to bear the light, and, there- 
 fore, seek the darkness, where sparks and 
 flames frequently appear to their eyes. 
 Objects sometimes appear of different 
 colors, or fluctuate, swim, and confuse 
 themselves. At other times, the patients 
 begin to squint, suffer a severe pain in 
 the ball of the eye, and a straining above 
 the eyebrows : finally, they begin to see 
 as if through a crape or fog, and only in 
 bright daylight can distinguish accurate- 
 ly: black flakes and specks appear to 
 hover before their eyes. The greatest 
 insensibility of the retina is often oppo- 
 site the centre of the cornea; but ulti- 
 mately the disease produces total blind- 
 ness, the pupil losing its motion, and be- 
 coming permanently dilated. Deep in 
 the eye a white speck is often visible, 
 which is traversed by veins. According 
 to the different causes, the malady is 
 either easily cured or is incurable. Re- 
 gard is especially to be had to them in the 
 selection and use of remedies. 
 
 CATARACT, in geography (from the 
 Greek /curapaxr^s). The English language 
 has more words than most European lan- 
 guages, to express different degrees of 
 rapid and sudden descent in streams of 
 water. The most general term is falls. 
 A considerable declivity in the bed of 
 a river produces rapids ; when it runs 
 down a precipice, it forms a cataract ; 
 and, if it falls from steep to steep, in suc- 
 cessive cataracts, it is often called a cas- 
 cade. In primary and transition countries, 
 rivers abound in rapids : they also some- 
 times occur in secondary regions, but the 
 descent is always more gentle. In allu- 
 vial districts, falls, of course, are very 
 rare : they are almost always found in 
 the passage of streams from the primitive 
 to the other formations : thus falls are 
 found where the alluvial formations, on 
 the coast of the U. States, border on the 
 primitive formations ; but none are found 
 in the alluvion below. Rapids and cata- 
 racts are often the greatest blessing to 
 rugged countries, since they furnish the 
 cheapest means to move machines hi
 
 CATARACT. 
 
 577 
 
 manufactories, &c. In flat countries, as 
 Holland, the lower part of Germany, and 
 the West Indies, people must resort to 
 windmills, on account of the want of lulls. 
 Many cataracts are remarkable for their 
 sublimity ; and the falls of Niagara sur- 
 pass all others of the known world in 
 grandeur. The whole mass of water 
 which empties itself from the great in- 
 land seas of North America is here com- 
 pressed into a channel of three quarters 
 of a mile in width, and plunges over a 
 precipice of 150 to 160 feet in height. 
 The river, more than a mile above the 
 falls, is divided by Grand and Navy isl- 
 ands, and has a gradual descent of 57 feet 
 from this place. The banks preserve the 
 level of the country, and, in some parts, 
 rise 100 feet from the water : the whole 
 stream is covered with foam and waves. 
 At the grand falls, the river is three quar- 
 ters of a mile broad, and the precipice 
 curves nearly in a semicircle, extending 
 in the longest line on the American or 
 eastern side. An island, called Goat isl- 
 and, divides the cataract into two princi- 
 pal portions the American fall on the 
 east, and the Horse-shoe on the west, or 
 Canada side. A small portion of the fall 
 on the American side is cut off by a 
 small island on the precipice : the rest 
 descends in one body, almost perpendic- 
 ularly, from a height of 164 feet, and 1000 
 feet in width. Both the falls on the 
 American side are crossed by bridges. 
 The Horse-shoe fall is 14 feet less in 
 height, but surpasses the other much in 
 grandeur. The great body of the water 
 passes the precipice with such force, that 
 it forms a.curled sheet, which strikes the 
 water below 50 feet from the base of the 
 precipice, and visitors can pass behind 
 the sheet of water. The best view of 
 this cataract is from Table rock. It is fre- 
 quently adorned with a rainbow. Some- 
 times three are seen in the clouds of 
 spray, which rise 100 feet above the preci- 
 pice. (See Dwight's Travels.) The river 
 Montmorency forms a cataract 250 feet in 
 height and 50 feet in breadth ; nine miles 
 below Quebec. The falls of the river 
 Chaudiire, not far from the cataract just 
 mentioned, are about 100 feet in height. 
 The Mississippi forms a cataract of 40 
 feet in height, above its junction with the 
 Ohio. The stream is 700 feet in width, 
 and the surrounding country level. The 
 Missouri, at a distance of 500 miles from 
 its sources, descends 360 feet in 18 miles. 
 There are three principal cataracts ; one 
 of 87, one of 47, and one of 26 feet in 
 height. The river is 1000 feet broad, and 
 VOL. n. 49 
 
 the whole scene is described as most beau- 
 tiful, only surpassed by the falls of Ni- 
 agara. The falls of Passaic, in New Jer- 
 sey, at Patterson, about 15 miles from 
 Newark, are among the most celebrated 
 of the U. States. The river is 150 feet 
 broad, and falls, in one entire sheet, into a 
 chasm 70 feet in depth, and 12 wide. Its 
 waters form the moving power for one of 
 the most manufacturing districts of the 
 U. States. The Mohawk river, near its 
 junction with the Hudson, forms the^falls 
 termed the CoJwes, about 60 feet high. 
 The Housatonic river, in the north-west 
 of Connecticut, forms the finest cataract 
 in New England. In Georgia, the cata- 
 ract in the Tuccoa creek is interesting. It 
 passes through a channel 20 feet wide, 
 over a precipice of 187 feet, in one sheet, 
 if the season is wet. A similar cataract 
 occurs in the river *%chc, in Bavaria; fall- 
 ing 200 feet, by five steps, and being en- 
 tirely scattered in spray. Its noise is 
 heard at a distance of several miles. 
 Bellows falls, on the Connecticut river, 
 near Walpole, are grand and striking. 
 Glen's falls, in the Hudson river, are 
 similar. The highest cataract in America 
 is that of Tcqucndama, in the river Bo- 
 gota, or Funza, a -branch of the Magda- 
 lena. The river rises in the lofty plain, in 
 which Bogota is situated, 9000 feet above 
 the sea, and is precipitated into the lower 
 country, through deep ravines and over 
 steep precipices, and finally plunges 600 
 feet into a deep chasm. The cataracts of 
 tha Nile (one at Syene, and the other 
 some distance above) have been describ- 
 ed, by Mr. Bruce, as grand, principally 
 from the wildness and desolation of the 
 scene ; but the highest of them does not 
 exceed 40 feet in height. The primary 
 regions of Europe abound in cataracts. 
 The torrents are seldom of great size, but 
 the rocky beds over which they roar and 
 dash in foam and spray, the dark glens 
 into which they rush, and the wildness 
 of the whole sceneiy, often produce awful 
 emotions. The most remarkable cataract 
 in Scotland is the Fyers. The river Go- 
 tha has a fall of celebrity at Trolhatta, in 
 Sweden. It descends 100 feet. One of 
 the most considerable falls in Europe has 
 lately been discovered in the river Lattin, 
 in Swedish Lapland. It is described as 
 half a mile in width and 400 feet in 
 height. Another, of immense size, has 
 been discovered by Mr. Esmark, in the 
 river Maamdven, in Norway, consisting 
 of three separate falls, the whole height 
 being 800 feet. The Alpine highlands, 
 in Europe, abound in beautiful falls. The
 
 578 
 
 CATARACT CATECHETICAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 cataract near SchajfhaiLsen is 400 feet 
 broad and 70 high. The river Oreo, de- 
 scending from mount Rosa into Italy, 
 forms a cascade, the height of which is 
 estimated at 2400 feet. The fall of the 
 Evanson, flowing from the same moun- 
 tain, is stated to be 1200 feet high. At 
 Stfiubbach, in the canton of Bern, in 
 Switzerland, a small stream descends a 
 height of 1400 feet. In Italy, the falls of 
 Ttrni and Tivoli are beautiful, and were 
 celebrated even among the ancients. 
 At Term', about 45 miles north of Rome, 
 the Evelina plunges over a precipice of 
 marble rocks, 300 feet high. The waters 
 contain lime, which produces many petri- 
 factions. At Tivoli, 18 miles north-east 
 of Rome, are the falls of the Anio or Tev- 
 erino, a branch of the Tiber. It falls 
 nearly lOOfeetdeep. (See Woodbridge's 
 System of Universal Geography, Hartford, 
 1827.) * 
 
 CATARRH (from xarappca, I flow down); 
 an increased secretion of mucus from 
 the membranes of the nose, fauces and 
 bronchia, accompanied with fever, and 
 attended with sneezing, cough, thirst, las- 
 situde, and want of appetite. There are 
 two species of catarrh, viz : catarrhus afri- 
 gore, which is very common, and is called 
 a cold in the head ; and catarrhus a conta- 
 gio, the influenza, or epidemic catarrh, 
 which sometimes attacks a whole city. 
 Catarrh is also symptomatic of several 
 other diseases. It is seldom fatal, except 
 in scrofulous habits, by laying the foun- 
 dation of phthisis ; or where it is aggra- 
 vated, by improper treatment, or repeated 
 exposure to cold, into some degree of 
 peripneumony ; when there is hazard of 
 the patient, particularly if advanced in 
 life, being suffocated by the copious effu- 
 sion of viscid matter into the air-passages. 
 The epidemic is generally, but not invari- 
 ably, more severe than the common form 
 of the disease. The latter is usually left 
 to subside spontaneously, which will 
 commonly happen in a few days, by ob- 
 serving the antiphlogistic regimen. If 
 there should be fixed pain of the chest, 
 with any hardness of the pulse, a little 
 blood may be taken from the arm, or 
 topically, followed by a blister ; the bow- 
 els must be kept regular, and diaphoretics 
 employed, with demulcents and mild opi- 
 ates, to quiet the cough. When the dis- 
 ease hangs about the patient in a chronic 
 form, gentle tonics and expectorants are 
 required, as myrrh, squill, &c. In the 
 epidemic catarrh, more active evacuations 
 are often required, the lungs being more 
 seriously affected ; but, rthough these 
 
 should be promptly employed, they must 
 not be carried too far, the disease being 
 apt to assume the typhoid character in its 
 progress ; and, as the chief danger appears 
 to be that suffocation may happen from the 
 cause above-mentioned, it is especially 
 important to promote expectoration, tirst 
 by antimonials, afterwards by squill, the 
 inhalation of steam, &c., not neglecting 
 to support the strength of the patient as 
 the disease advances. 
 
 CATECHESIS ; the science which teach- 
 es the proper method of instructing be- 
 ginners in the principles of the Christian 
 religion by question and answer, which 
 is called the catechetical method. (See 
 .Method.) Hence catechist and catechise. 
 The art of the catechist consists in being 
 able to elicit and develope the ideas of 
 the youthful minds of learners. This 
 part of religious science was first culti- 
 vated in modern times, and Rosenmuller, 
 Dinter, Schmid, Wolrath, Doltz, Grafte, 
 Daub, Winter, Heinrich Midler, and 
 others have particularly distinguished 
 themselves by their writings upon it. 
 
 CATECHETICAL SCHOOLS ; institutions 
 for the elementary education of Christian 
 teachers, of which there were many in 
 the Eastern church from the 2d to the 5th 
 century. They were different from cate- 
 chumenical schools, which were attached 
 to almost every church, and which were 
 intended only for the popular instruction 
 of proselytes, and of the children of Chris- 
 tians ; whereas the catechetical schools 
 were intended to communicate a scien- 
 tific knowledge of Christianity. The 
 first and most renowned was established 
 about the middle of the 2d century, for 
 the Egyptian church at Alexandria, on 
 the model of the famous schools of Gre- 
 cian learning in that place. (See Alexan- 
 drian School.) Teachers like Pantrenus, 
 Clement and Origen gave them splendor 
 and secured their permanence. They 
 combined instruction in rhetoric and ora- 
 tory, in classical Grecian literature, and 
 the Eclectic philosophy, with the principal 
 branches of theological study, exegesis, 
 the doctrines of religion, and the tradi- 
 tions of the church ; distinguished the 
 popular religious belief from the Gnosis, 
 or the thorough knowledge of religion ; 
 established Christian theology as a sci- 
 ence, and finally attacked the dreams of 
 the Chiliasts (believers in a millennium) ; 
 but, by blending Greek speculations and 
 Gnostic phantasies with the doctrines of 
 the church, by an allegorical interpreta- 
 tion of the Bible, and the assumption of a 
 secret sense in the Scriptures, different
 
 CATECHETICAL SCHOOLS CATECHISM. 
 
 579 
 
 from the literal, contributed to the cor- 
 ruption of Christianity. The distraction 
 of the Alexandrian church by the Arian 
 controversies proved the destruction of 
 the catechetical schools in that place, 
 about the middle of the 4th century. 
 The catechetical school at Antioch ap- 
 pears not to have been a permanent insti- 
 tution, like the Alexandrian, but only to 
 have been formed around distinguished 
 teachers, when there happened to be any 
 in the place. There were some distin- 
 guished teachers in Antioch, about the 
 year 220. We have no certain informa- 
 tion, however, of the theological teachers 
 in that place, such as Lucian, Diodorus 
 of Tarsus, and Theodore of Mopsuestia, 
 until the latter part of the 4th century. 
 These teachers were distinguished from 
 the Alexandrian by more sober views of 
 Christianity, by confining themselves to 
 the literal interpretation of the Bible, by 
 a cautious use of the types of the Old 
 Testament, and by a bolder discussion of 
 doctrines. The Nestorian and Eutychian 
 controversies, in the 5th century, drew 
 after them the ruin of the schools at An- 
 tioch. Of a similar character were the 
 ratfchetical school instituted at Edessa, 
 in the 3d century, and destroyed in 489, 
 and the school afterwards established at 
 Nisibis, by the Nestorians, in its stead ; 
 both of which were in Mesopotamia. To 
 these catechetical schools succeeded, at a 
 later date, the cathedral and monastic 
 schools, especially among the Western 
 Christians, who, as late as the 6th cen- 
 tury, made use of the heathen schools, 
 and. had never established catechetical 
 schools even at Rome. (See Schools.) 
 
 CATECHISM ; a book which contains 
 the principles and first instructions to be 
 communicated in any branch of knowl- 
 edge, particularly in religion. In modern 
 times, the word has been applied more 
 freely than formerly. Thus we see cate- 
 chisms of chemistry, history, and, in 
 France, catechism des gejis de bon sens (a 
 satire), catechism du bon ton, &c. The 
 word is derived from the Greek (car^fu, 
 I sound, i. e., into the ears of the person 
 to be instructed. The word, however, is 
 chiefly used to denote the books that 
 contain the religious instruction which 
 any sect deems most important to be 
 taught to the children and the people, in 
 a popular and easy form, generally in the 
 form of question and answer. In the 
 Catholic church, each bishop has the 
 right to make a catechism for his diocese. 
 But, in modern times, their catechisms are 
 jjeiierally a pretty close copy of the one 
 
 drawn up by the council of Trent, of 
 which an English translation was pub- 
 lished in London (1687), "jwrwAtow supe~ 
 riorum" under the patronage of James II. 
 Among Protestants, the catechism of Lu- 
 ther acquired great celebrity, and still 
 continues to be used by many clergymen 
 in Germany, where regular instruction 
 in religion, during a certain period pre- 
 scribed by law, must precede the con- 
 firmation, which takes place between the 
 13th year of age and the 17th. Clergymen, 
 however, in some parts of that country, 
 have been allowed to publish and use 
 their own catechisms ; arid it is a matter 
 of no little interest, to observe how the 
 many different philosophical schools of 
 Germany have influenced the tone of the 
 catechisms by their various systems of 
 morals, &c. Some, which we have seen, 
 were books of 300 pages, and rather phil- 
 osophical systems, supported by numer- 
 ous quotations from the Bible, than sim- 
 ple catechisms. Such catechisms, how- 
 ever, are going out of use. The catechet- 
 ical mode of giving instructions in Chris- 
 tianity had much declined previous to 
 the reformation, when it was revived, and 
 numerous catechisms sprung up. The 
 proper preparation of such manuals, the 
 communication of religious and moral 
 instruction in a short compass and a sim- 
 ple form, is a thing of no small difficulty. 
 In England, soon after the reformed reli- 
 gion was established there, a short cate^ 
 rliisni was introduced, consisting of the 
 creed, the Lord's prayer, and the deca-; 
 logue, to which a few cautious, explana- 
 tory passages were added, about 1549, it 
 is supposed by archbishop Cranmer. " A 
 Shorte Catechisme or Playne Instruction, 
 conteynynge the Summe of Christian 
 Learninge, sett fourth by the King's 
 Maiesties Authoritie for all Scholemais- 
 ters to teach," was the work which closed 
 the labors of the reformers in the reign 
 of Edward VI, whose name it commonly 
 bears. It was printed both in Latin and 
 in English, in 1553, and may fairly be 
 considered as containing the sense of the 
 church of England then established. The 
 catechism of the English church, now in 
 use, is drawn up, after the primitive man- 
 ner, by way of question and answer. The 
 questions and answers relative to the sac- 
 raments were subjoined to it, at the revis- 
 ion of the liturgy, in the first year of 
 James I. As now extant, it consists of 
 five parts, viz. : 1. the doctrine of tho 
 Christian covenant ; 2. the articles of be- 
 lief; 3. the commandments ; 4. the duty 
 and efficacy of prayer ; and, 5. the nature
 
 580 
 
 CATECHISM CATGUT. 
 
 and end of the holy sacraments. Calvin 
 wrote a catechism, as Luther did ; but 
 that of the former has not enjoyed so 
 much popularity] nor heen translated into 
 so many languages, as that of the latter. 
 In France, the catechisms of later times 
 exhibit plain marks of political influence. 
 The catechism of Napoleon, in its tenth 
 chapter, explicitly states in what light he 
 aud his family were to be regarded. This 
 celebrated chapter has generally been 
 thought scandalous, though it was approv- 
 ed, after a fashion, by the papal nuncio. 
 Most of the catechisms published since 
 1814 are equally scandalous, because 
 they contain illegal, nay, anti-constitu- 
 tional, precepts. When the complaints 
 on this score became too loud to be dis- 
 regarded, the pitiful excuse was made, 
 that the offensive turn of the passages 
 was owing to errors of the press. 
 
 CATECHU (terra japonica) ; an extract 
 prepared from the wood and the green 
 fruit of the mimosa catechu (Lin.) and of 
 several other trees of the same family, 
 which grow in the East Indies, princi- 
 pally in Bengal. There are three sorts 
 of catechus. The first, Bombay catechu, 
 is in square pieces, of a reddish-brown 
 color, friable, of a uniform texture, fracture 
 uneven, of a specific gravity of about 1.39. 
 The second, Bengal catechu, is in round 
 pieces, of the weight of three or four 
 ounces, of a deep. chocolate color inter- 
 nally, and resembling iron rust externally, 
 more friable, of the specific gravity of 1.28. 
 The third kind, catechu in masses, is in 
 irregular pieces of two or three ounces, 
 of a reddish-brown color, shining, homo- 
 geneous, and wrapped up in large-nerved 
 leaves. These three kinds of catechu are 
 inodorous, of an astringent taste at first, 
 but, soon after, sweet and agreeable ; at 
 least, this is the case with the first and 
 last sort. Catechu is one of the best as- 
 tringents to be found in the materia med- 
 ica, and likewise one of the most in use. 
 
 CATECHUMENS is a name which was 
 applied to those converted Jews and hea- 
 thens, in the first ages of the church, who 
 were to receive baptism, had a particular 
 place in the church, but were not permit- 
 ted to be present at the celebration of the 
 sacrament. Afterwards, it was applied 
 to those young Christians, w r ho, for the 
 first time, wished to partake of this ordi- 
 nance, and, for this purpose, went through 
 a preparatory course of instruction. 
 
 CATEGORY, in logic ; an assemblage of 
 all the beings contained under any genus 
 or kind, ranged in order. The school 
 philosophers distribute all beings, all the 
 
 objects of our thoughts or ideas, into cer- 
 tain genera or classes, which classes the 
 Greeks call categories, and the Latins, 
 predicaments, and which Mr. Harris has 
 styled philosophical arrangements. The 
 ancients, following Aristotle, generally 
 make 10 categories. Under the first all 
 substances are comprised, and all acci- 
 dents or attributes under the 9 last, viz., 
 quantity, qualify, relation, action, passion, 
 time, place, situation and habit. This ar- 
 rangement, however, is arbitrary, and now 
 almost excluded, Accordingly, some phi- 
 losophers think that all nature may be 
 better considered under these seven divis- 
 ions spirit, matter, quantity, substance, 
 figure, motion and rest. Others make but 
 two categories, substance and attribute, 
 or subject and accident; or three, acci- 
 dent being divided into the inherent and 
 circumstantial. The arrangement of the 
 10 categories was borrowed from the 
 Pythagorean school. It is said to have 
 been invented by Archytas of Tarentnm. 
 From him it passed to Plato (who, 
 however, admitted only five categories 
 substance, identity, diversity, motion and 
 rest), and from Plato to Aristotle. The 
 Stoics held four subjects, qualities, in- 
 dependent circumstances, relative circum- 
 stances. (For the categories of Kant, see 
 Kant.) 
 
 CATEL, Charles Simon, composer of 
 music, born about 1773, a pupil of Gossec, 
 professor of harmony at the conservatory 
 (q. v.) in Paris, has published many mu- 
 sical works, of which none has obtain- 
 ed so much fame as his Traite d'Harmo- 
 nie (1802), which the conservatory has 
 chosen as a text-book for instruction in 
 composition. Among the works of Catel, 
 besides a great number of compositions for 
 wind instruments, particularly for military 
 music, are the operas Semiramis, Les Ba- 
 yaderes, LtJluberge, de Bagneres, and Les 
 Artistes par Occasion. 
 
 CATERPILLAR. (See Papilio.] 
 CATGUT. The strings of certain musical 
 instruments, the cords of clock-weights, 
 and those of some other machines and 
 implements, are made of a dense, strong 
 animal substance, denominated catgut. It 
 is made from the intestines of different 
 quadrupeds, particularly those of cattle 
 and sheep. The manufacture is chiefly 
 carried on in Italy and France. The tex- 
 ture from which it is made is tliat which 
 anatomists call the muscular coat, which 
 is carefully separated from the peritoneal 
 and mucous membranes. After a tedious 
 and troublesome process of steeping, 
 scouring, fermenting, inflating, &c., the
 
 CATGUT CATHARL 
 
 581 
 
 material is twisted, rubbed with horse- 
 hair cords, fumigated with burning sul- 
 phur, to improve its color, and dried. 
 Cords of different size, and strength, and 
 delicacy, are obtained from different do- 
 mestic animals. The intestine is some- 
 times cut into uniform strips, with an 
 instrument made for the purpose. To 
 prevent offensive effluvia during the pro- 
 cess, and to get rid of the oily matter, the 
 French make use of an alkaline liquid, 
 called eau de Javelle. Catgut for stringed 
 instruments, as violins and harps, is made 
 principally in Rome and Naples. For the 
 smallest violin strings, 3 thicknesses are 
 used ; for the largest, 7 ; and, for the largest 
 bass-viol strings, 120. In the kingdom 
 of Naples, whence the best strings, com- 
 monly called Roman, are obtained, there 
 are large manufactories of this article. 
 
 CATHARI; a denomination which was 
 applied, from the middle of die llth to 
 the 13th century, to several parties and 
 sects, that appeared first in Lombard y, 
 and afterwards in other countries of the 
 West, and which were violently persecut- 
 ed, on account of their Manicheun tenets 
 and usages. As they originated in Bulga- 
 ria, they were sometimes termed Bulga- 
 rians, whence arose the French term of 
 abuse, Bougrts. Sometimes, in token of 
 their contemptibleness, as men of the 
 lowest class, they were called Patarenes, 
 or Palarines, from Pataria, a region of 
 bad reputation near Milan ; sometimes 
 Publicans, or Popelites, and, in the Low 
 Countries, Piphlcs. But the most general 
 name, by which they were denoted, in the 
 middle ages, was Cathari (either from 
 xaflu-poi, the pure, which they claimed to 
 be, or from the national appellation Cha- 
 zars, because they were said to have pro^ 
 ceeded from Chazary, the present Crimea; 
 whence ketzer, the German word for her- 
 etics). The religious views and practice 
 of the sects comprehended under this 
 name differed much, according to the age 
 and country in Which they appeared, and 
 according to the spirit of their loaders ; 
 but they all agreed in an obstinate resist- 
 ance to Catholicism, and in the following 
 points of doctrine and religious life : In 
 common with the old Manicheans, but 
 without esteeming Manes a prophet, they 
 entertained an aversion to the mixture of 
 Judaism in Christianity, professed the 
 dualism couched in scriptural language, 
 which places the devil nearly on a level 
 with God, and entertained the conceit of 
 a high moral perfection. The influence 
 of Ariaii and Platonic notions was con-r 
 spicuous in their explanations of the dcc- 
 49* 
 
 trine of the Trinity, which defined the 
 Father to be the unity of the divine will, 
 the Son, or Logos, to be his first thought, 
 and the Spirit to be their common opera-: 
 tion. In every good man they saw a 
 Christ, and, therefore, in their congrega- 
 tions, separated the elect from the novices. 
 The merit of the Redeemer they believed 
 to consist more in his example than in 
 his expiatory death, and built their hopes 
 of happiness, for the consummation of 
 which a resurrection of the body did not 
 appear to them requisite, on their own 
 virtue. They regarded the exaltation of 
 the soul over the mortal nature, so as to 
 become wholly absorbed in mystical con- 
 templation, as the highest stage in the 
 religious life of man. They despised the 
 mass, the service of the altar, and similar 
 ceremonies, as mere vanity. The adora- 
 tion of the cross, of saints and relics, to- 
 gether with all arbitrary penances and 
 good works, so called, they deemed idle 
 superstition. The daily blessing of their 
 meats and drinks they esteemed equiva- 
 lent to the celebration of the eucharist. 
 The imposition of the hands of spotless 
 teachers served for the communication of 
 the spirit, for baptism, and as a pledge of 
 the forgiveness of sins. Deep devotion 
 of the heart in prayer, and a life of purity, 
 connected with abstinence from sexual 
 pleasure, and from the use of stimulating 
 food, were their exercises of piety. The 
 tenets of popery, and the whole estab- 
 lishment of the Catholic priesthood, as it 
 then existed, they looked upon as un- 
 christian and pernicious. They insisted 
 on the restoration of the apostolic sim- 
 plicity, and the literal fulfilment of the 
 precepts of the New Testament, which 
 they read, indeed, with assiduity, but fre- 
 quently misunderstood. In an age when 
 the heartless subtilties of dialectics, the 
 mechanical administration of divine wor- 
 ship, and the scandalous morals of the cler- 
 gy, widened more and more the breach be- 
 tween religion and the established church, 
 such doctrines and maxims necessarily 
 met with approbation, on account of their 
 opposition to the prevalent practices.' The 
 piety and morality at which most of the 
 separatists diligently aimed, the charm of 
 their secret connexion, and the high intel- 
 ligence of things sacred to which they 
 made claim, the warmth of their mysti- 
 cism, and the moving power of their sim- 
 ple worship, procured them many adhe- 
 rents, and those not from the common 
 people merely, They were joined by the 
 discontented of all classes, even by the 
 clergy and nobles; whence they were
 
 582 
 
 CATHARI CATHARINE OF ARRAGON. 
 
 called, in France, bons hommes, good, i. e., 
 noble, people ; and, in the rude state of the 
 existing political constitutions, amid the 
 confusion of civil wars and ecclesiastical 
 controversy, their congregations, with little 
 mutual connexion, and not menacing the 
 state with danger, were able to pursue with 
 impunity, for years, their quiet course. 
 But these sects were not free from cor- 
 ruptions. The nocturnal assemblies, the 
 community of goods, the homeless, roving 
 life (on account of which several of them 
 were called Passageri, Passagini), and the 
 contempt of the marriage state, which 
 originated in ascetic views, gave rise, in 
 many cases, since they permitted the two 
 sexes to live together, to gross immorali- 
 ties; and the mystery, in which they en- 
 veloped their religious exercises, some- 
 times served to conceal the errors of an 
 unbridled fanaticism. But, when the old 
 denominations became disgraced by such 
 errors, new leaders, and reforms in doc- 
 trine and life, gave rise to new sects, and 
 imparted a fresh impulse to the once ex- 
 cited spirit of separatism. From this 
 originated the excitements gccasioned 
 among the people of France, Switzerland 
 and Italy, by Peter Bruys, and Henry and 
 Arnold of Brescia, in the 12th century, 
 which introduced the names Petrobru- 
 siwis, Henricians and Anwldists. (See 
 Arnold of Brescia.) The ecclesiastical 
 authority now became zealous in search- 
 ing out and punishing heretics ; so that 
 these new, but unconnected, classes of 
 Cathari soon became extinct. The older 
 Cathari, Publicans, Patarenes, &c., had 
 the prudence, wherever they were settled, 
 to adhere publicly to the Catholic church, 
 and to hold their private meetings in the 
 night. They even allowed the persecuted 
 members to have recourse, before the 
 spiritual courts, to an apparent recanta- 
 tion ; but, the attention of these authorities 
 being once excited, and the popes carry- 
 ing on the persecution of the heretics by 
 their own legates, and establishing the 
 horrible inquisition in the 13th century, 
 the most blameless life, and the utmost 
 secrecy in the performance of religious 
 exercises, no longer afforded security to 
 these heterodox believers. The fate of 
 the Albigenses (q. v.), who were mainly 
 Cathari, finally produced the overthrow 
 of all this family of sects in the 13th cen- 
 tury. The Waldenses (q. v.) alone, who 
 were unjustly confounded with the Ca- 
 thari, escaped. No sects, of a later origin, 
 have borne this general appellation. 
 
 CATHARINE, ST. ; a virgin of Alexan- 
 dria, who, according to Catholic tradition, 
 
 suffered martyrdom under Maximin, about 
 A. D. 236. She is represented with a 
 piece of a wheel ; and the legend of her 
 marriage with Christ has been painted by 
 several of the first masters. Correggio's 
 Catharine,]n Dresden, is beautiful. There 
 are two other St. Catharines mentioned. 
 The knights of St. Catharine on mount 
 Sinai are an ancient military order, in- 
 stituted for the protection of the pilgrims 
 who came to visit the tomb of St. Catha- 
 rine, on this mountain. In Russia, the 
 order of St. Catharine is a distinction for 
 ladies, instituted by Catharine, wife of 
 Peter the Great, in memory of his signal 
 escape from the Turks in 1711. 
 
 CATHARINE OF FRANCE, queen of Eng- 
 land, youngest child of Charles VI and 
 Isabella of Bavaria, was born in 1401, 
 and, in 1420, was married to Henry V of 
 England, who was then declared succes- 
 sor to the crown of France. To this 
 prince she bore Henry VI, crowned in 
 his cradle king of both countries. After 
 the death of Henry, Catharine privately 
 married Owen Theodore, or Tudor, a 
 Welsh gentleman of small fortune, but 
 descended from the ancient British 
 princes. By this marriage she had two 
 sons, the eldest of whom, Edmund, earl 
 of Richmond, by a marriage with Marga- 
 ret Beaufort, of the legitimated branch of 
 Lancaster, became father of Henry VII, 
 and founder of the house of Tudor. 
 Catharine was treated with some rigor, 
 on the discovery of her second mar- 
 riage, and died in the prime of life, in 
 1438. 
 
 CATHARINE OF ARRAGON, queen of 
 England, the youngest daughter of Ferdi- 
 nand of Arragon and Isabella of Castile, 
 was born in 1483. In 1 501 , she was married 
 to Arthur prince of Wales, son of Henry 
 VII. Her husband dying about five 
 months after, the king, unwilling to return 
 her dowry, caused her to be contracted to 
 his remaining son Henry, and a dispensa- 
 tion was procured from the pope for that 
 purpose. In his 15th year, the prince 
 made a public protest against the mar- 
 riage; but, at length, yielding to the repre- 
 sentations of his council, he consented to 
 ratify the contract, and, on his accession 
 to the throne, in 1509, was crowned with 
 her. The inequality of their ages, and the 
 capricious disposition of Henry, were cir- 
 cumstances very adverse to the durability 
 of their union, and it seems surprising 
 that Catharine should have acquired and 
 retained an ascendency over the affections 
 of the king for nearly 20 years. The 
 want of male issue, however, proved a
 
 CATHARINE OF ARRAGON CATHARINE DE MEDICI. 583 
 
 source of disquietude to him, and scruples, 
 real or pretended, at length arose in his 
 mind concerning the legality of their 
 union, which were greatly enforced by a 
 growing passion for Anne Boleyn, one of 
 the queen's maids of honor. He speedily 
 made application to Rome for a divorce 
 from Catharine. An encouraging answer 
 was returned, and a dispensation promis- 
 ed, it being the interest of the pope to 
 favor the English king. Overawed, how- 
 ever, by the power of the emperor Charles 
 V, Catharine's nephew, the conduct of 
 the pontiff, who depended upon the em- 
 pire, became embarrassed and hesitating. 
 Catliarine, meanwhile, conducted herself 
 with gentleness and firmness, and could 
 not in any way be induced to consent to 
 an act, which would render her daughter 
 illegitimate, and stain her with the impu- 
 tation of incest. Being cited before the 
 papal legates, cardinals Wolsey and Cam- 
 peggio, in 1529, she declared that she 
 wouid not submit her cause to their judg- 
 ment, but appealed to the court of Rome; 
 which declaration was declared contu- 
 macious. The subterfuges of the pope at 
 length induced the king to decide the 
 affair for himself; and the resentment ex- 
 pressed on this occasion, by the court of 
 Rome, provoked him to throw off his 
 submission to it, and declare himself head 
 of the English church a result of royal 
 caprice more curious and important than 
 most in history. In 1532, he married 
 Anne Boleyn ; upon which Catharine, no 
 longer considered queen of England, re- 
 tired to Ampthill in Bedfordshire. Cran- 
 nier, now raised to the primacy, pronounc- 
 ed the sentence of divorce, notwithstand- 
 ing which Catharine still persisted in 
 maintaining her claims. She died in Jan- 
 uary, 1536. Shortly before her death, 
 she wrote a letter to the king, recom- 
 mending their daughter (afterwards queen 
 Mary) to his protection, praying for the 
 salvation of his soul, and assuring him of 
 her forgiveness and unabated affection. 
 The pathos ef this epistle is said to have 
 drawn tears from Henry, who was never 
 backward in acknowledging the virtues 
 of his injured wife, who certainly acted 
 with eminent dignity and consistency. 
 Several devotional treatises have been 
 attributed to Catharine, which belong to 
 queen Catharine Parr. 
 
 CATHARINE DE MEDICI ; wife of Henry 
 II, king of France ; born at Florence in 
 1519 ; the only daughter of Lorenzo do 
 Medici, duke of Urbino, and the niece of 
 pope Clement VII. Francis I consented 
 that his sou Henry should marry her, only 
 
 because he did not believe she ever would 
 ascend the throne, and because he was in 
 great want of money, which Lorenzo 
 could furnish him. The marriage was 
 celebrated at Marseilles in 1533. Catha- 
 rine was equally gifted with beauty and 
 talents, and had cultivated her taste for 
 the fine arts in Florence ; but, at the same 
 time, imbibed the perverted principles of 
 politics then prevailing in Italy, which 
 justified a constant resort to cabal, in- 
 trigues and treachery, and are jxirtic- 
 ularly unsuited to the government of 
 large empires. Catharine's ambition was. 
 unbounded. She sacrificed France and 
 her children to the passion for ruling; but 
 she never aimed steadily at one great end, 
 and had no profound views of policy. 
 The situation in which she was placed, 
 on her arrival at the French court, gave 
 her great opportunity to perfect herself in 
 the art of dissimulation. She flattered 
 alike the duchess d'Etampes, the mistress 
 of the king, and Diana de Poitiers, the 
 mistress of her own husband, though these 
 two ladies hated each other. From her 
 apparent indifference, she might have 
 been supposed inclined to shun the tumult 
 of public affairs; but, when the death of 
 Henry II, in 1559, made her mistress of 
 herself, she plunged her children in a 
 whirl of pleasures, partly to enervate them 
 by dissipation, partly from a natural incli- 
 nation towards prodigality ; and, in the 
 midst of these extravagances, cruel and 
 bloody measures were executed, the mem- 
 ory of which slill makes men shudder. 
 Her authority was limited under the 
 reign of Francis II, her eldest son, since 
 this prince, by his marriage with the un- 
 fortunate Mary Stuart, was entirely devot- 
 ed to the party of the Guises. Jealous 
 of a power she did not exercise, Catharine 
 then decided to favor the Protestants. If 
 it had not been for her patronage, by 
 which the ambition of the chiefs of the 
 Huguenots was stimulated, the conflicting 
 religious opinions in France never would 
 have caused such lasting civil wars. Cath- 
 arine felt herself embarrassed, by this in- 
 dulgence towards the innovators, when 
 the death of Francis II placed the reins 
 of government, during the minority of 
 Charles IX, in her hands. Wavering 
 between the Guises on one side, who had 
 put themselves at the head of the Catho- 
 lics, and Conde and Coligny on the other, 
 who had become very powerful by the aid 
 of the Protestants, she was constantly 
 obliged to resort to intrigues, which failed 
 to procure her as much power as she 
 might easily have gained by openness of
 
 584 
 
 CATHARINE DE MEDICI CATHARINE I. 
 
 conduct Despised by all parties, but 
 consoled if she could deceive them ; taking 
 arms only to treat, and never treating 
 without preparing the materials for a new 
 civil war, she brought Charles IX, when 
 he became of age, into a situation in 
 which he must either make the royal au- 
 thority subordinate to a powerful party, 
 or cause part of his subjects to be massa- 
 cred, in the hope, at best a doubtful one, 
 of subduing faction. The massacre of 
 St. Bartholomew (see Bartholomew, mas- 
 sacre of) was her work. She induced 
 the king to practise a dissimulation foreign 
 to his character; and, as often as he 
 evinced a disposition to free himself from 
 a dependence of which he was ashamed, 
 she knew how to prevent him, by the fear 
 and jealousy which she excited in him 
 by favoring his brother Henry. After the 
 death of Charles IX, Catharine became 
 again regent of the kingdom, till the re- 
 turn of Henry III, then king of Poland. 
 She contributed to the many misfortunes 
 of his reign, by the measures which she 
 had adopted previously to its commence- 
 ment, and by the intrigues in which she 
 was uninterruptedly engaged. At her 
 death, in 1589, France was in a state of 
 complete dismemberment. The religious 
 contests were, in reality, very indifferent 
 to her. The consequences she was not 
 able to conceive. She was ready to risk 
 life for the gratification of her ambition. 
 She was equally artful in uniting her 
 adherents, and in promoting dissension 
 among her adversaries. She was extrav- 
 agant to folly, and was unable to limit her 
 expenses. To those who directed her 
 attention to the prodigal expenditure of 
 the public treasure, she used to say," One 
 must live." Her example contributed 
 greatly to promote the corruption of mor- 
 als which prevailed in her time. Her 
 manners, however, were elegant, and she 
 took a lively interest in the sciences and 
 arts. She caused valuable manuscripts 
 to be brought from Greece and Italy, and 
 the Tuileries and the Hotel de Soissons 
 to be built. In the provinces, also, several 
 castles were erected by her order, distin- 
 guished for the beauty of their architect- 
 ure, in an age when the principles of the 
 art were still unknown in France. She 
 had two daughters, Elizabeth, married to 
 Philip II of Spain hi 1559, and Margaretta 
 (q. v.) of Valois, married to Hemy of Na- 
 varre, afterwards Henry IV. 
 
 CATHARINE OF BRAGAXZA, wife of 
 Charles II, king of England, and daugh- 
 ter of John IV, king of Portugal, was 
 born in 1638. In 1661, she married 
 
 Charles II, in whose court she long en 
 dured all the neglect and mortification 
 his dissolute conduct was calculated to 
 inflict upon her. This endurance was 
 also rendered greater by her proving un- 
 fruitful ; but "she supported herself with 
 great equanimity, and, after the death of 
 Charles, received much attention and re- 
 spect. In 1693, she returned to Portugal, 
 where, in 1704, she was made regent by 
 her brother, don Pedro, whose increasing 
 infirmities rendered retirement necessary. 
 In this situation, Catharine showed con- 
 siderable abilities, carrying on the war 
 against Spain with great firmness and 
 success. She died in 1705, aged 67. 
 
 CATHARINE I, empress of Russia. The 
 early history of this remarkable woman is 
 uncertain. According to some accounts, 
 she was the daughter of a Catholic peas- 
 ant in Lithuania, by name Samiiel, for he 
 had (as is frequently the case there) no 
 family name. It is said that she was born 
 in 1686, named Martha, and placed, by 
 her poor parents, in the service of a Lu- 
 theran clergyman, named Daut, at Roop, 
 in the circle of Riga, where she imbibed 
 the principles of the Protestant religion. 
 She then removed to Marienburg, a small 
 village in the circle of Wenden, and enter- 
 ed the service of a clergyman named Gliick, 
 who caused her to be instructed in the Lu- 
 theran religion. Here she was married 
 to a Swedish dragoon. But, a few days 
 after, he was obliged to repair to the field, 
 and the Russians, within a short period, 
 took Marienburg, in 1702. Martha fell 
 into the hands of general Scheremetjeff, 
 who relinquished her to prince MenzikorF. 
 While in his possession, she was seen by 
 Peter the Great, who made her his mis- 
 tress. She became a proselyte to the 
 Greek church, and assumed the name of 
 Catharine Jllexiewna. In 1708 and 1709, 
 she bore the emperor the princesses Anna 
 and Elizabeth, the first of whom became 
 ,the duchess of Holstein by marriage, and 
 mother of Peter III. The second became 
 empress of Russia. In 1713, the empe- 
 ror publicly acknowledged her his wife. 
 She was subsequently proclaimed empress, 
 and crowned in Moscow. Besides the 
 daughters above-named, she bore the em-! 
 peror five more children, all of whom died 
 early. The princesses Anna and Eliza- 
 beth were declared legitimate. By her 
 kindness, by her perseverance, and, above 
 all, by her intelligence, she gained posses- 
 sion of the heart of the emperor. When 
 Peter, with his army, seemed irreparably 
 lost on the Pruth, in 1711, Catharine, in 
 connexion with, Ostermann and Schaffi-
 
 CATHARINE I CATHARINE II. 
 
 585 
 
 roff, endeavored to win over the grand 
 vizier; and, having succeeded, by bribing 
 his conn' d ant with her jewels, she dis- 
 closed her plan to the emperor, who gave 
 it his approbation, and was soon relieved. 
 She afterwards received many proofs of 
 the gratitude of her husband. (Her coro- 
 nation, as empress, in Moscow, which 
 some place in 1718, took place, according 
 to Weber and Bergholz, in 1724.) Peter 
 even deemed her worthy of being his 
 successor. But, hi the latter part of 1724, 
 she fell tinder his displeasure. Her cham- 
 berlain Mons, with whom Peter had found 
 her Me a tete, was beheaded, on pretence 
 that he had been bribed by the enemies 
 of Russia; and she was obliged to view 
 the head of 3Ions nailed to a gibbet. 
 This, however, is only an anecdote, and 
 the affair of Mons remains a mystery. 
 Menzikoff, who had always manifested 
 much attachment to her, had now been 
 in disgrace for some time, and Peter had 
 very frequent attacks of bodily pain, 
 which were interrupted by dreadful ex- 
 plosions of rage. These circumstances 
 made Catharine's situation critical, and 
 her anticipations of the future must have 
 been the more melancholy, as the empe- 
 ror had littered some threats of a change 
 in the succession to her disadvantage. 
 To prevent such an event, she applied to 
 Menzikoff; and, by the prudence of Ja- 
 guschinski, who then enjoyed the favor 
 of Peter, and whom she gained over, a 
 reconciliation was effected with the em- 
 peror. The empress and the favorite 
 were laboring to confirm their improving 
 prospects, when Peter the Great died, 
 Jan. 28, 1725. Catharine, Menzikoff and 
 Jaguschinski considered it necessary to 
 keep the death of the emperor secret, 
 until, by judicious arrangements, they had 
 secured the succession of the throne to 
 the empress. Theophanes, archbishop of 
 i'lescow, swore before the people and 
 troops, that Peter, on his death-bed, had 
 declared Catharine alone worthy to suc- 
 ceed him in the government. She was 
 then proclaimed empress and autocrat of 
 all the Russias, and the oath of allegiance to 
 her was taken anew. At first, the cabinet 
 pursued the plans of Peter, and, under 
 MenzikofFs management, the administra- 
 tion was conducted with considerable 
 ability. But the pernicious influence of 
 favorites was soon felt, and great errors 
 crept into the administration. Catharine 
 died suddenly, on the 17th of May, 1727, 
 in the 42d year of her age. Her death 
 was probably hastened by excess in tiie 
 use of Tokay wine and ardent spirits. 
 
 CATHARINE II, empress of Russia, a 
 woman of remarkable ability, was born 
 at Stettin, April 25, 1729, where her 'father, 
 Christian Augustus, prince of Anhnlt- 
 Zerbst, and Prussian field-marshal, was 
 governor. Her name was originally Sophia 
 .Augusta. The empress Elizabeth, at the 
 instigation of Frederic II, chose her for the 
 wife of Peter, her nephew, whom she ap- 
 pointed her successor. The young prin- 
 cess accompanied her mother to Russia, 
 where she joined the Greek church, 
 and adopted the name of Catharine, Alcx- 
 ie.wna, given to her by the empress. The 
 marriage was celebrated Sept. 1,1745. It 
 was not a happy one, but Catharine found 
 recreation in the improvement of her 
 mind. She was endowed with uncommon 
 strength of character ; but the ardor of her 
 temperament, and the ill-treatrncnt of her 
 husband, led her into errors which had 
 the most injurious influence on her whole 
 political life. Amongst the friends of her 
 husband, count Soltikoff was distinguish- 
 ed for talent and the graces of his person. 
 He attracted the attention of Catharine, 
 and an intimate connexion between them 
 was the consequence. When Soltikoff, 
 who was employed in foreign embassies, 
 grew indifferent to Catharine, a young 
 Pole, Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski, 
 celebrated both for his good and ill for- 
 tune, gained the affections of the grand 
 princess. Their intimacy was known to 
 the empress, but did not appear to dis- 
 please her ; and it was at her recomm.-n- 
 dation that Augustus III appointed Po- 
 niatowski his ambassador at the court of 
 St. Petersburg. This connexion created 
 alarm at Paris. France, at that time at 
 war with England, had formed a secret 
 treaty with Austria, and drawn Russia 
 into the same. Poniatowski was known 
 to be a warm adherent of England, and it 
 was feared that, through his influence on 
 the princess, he might prejudice Elizabeth 
 against France ; and Louis XV endeavor- 
 ed to induce the king of Poland to recall 
 him. In the year 1761, Elizabeth died, 
 and Peter III ascended the throne. The 
 emperor now became still more alienated 
 from his wife. Peter lived in the great- 
 est dissipation, and on such intimate terms 
 with a lady of the court, named Elizabeth 
 Woronzoff, that it was generally thought 
 that he would repudiate Catharine, and 
 marry his mistress. The empress, there- 
 fore, was obliged to take measures for 
 her personal security. At the same time, 
 Peter grew continually more and more 
 unpopular with his subjects, owing to his 
 blind predilection for the Prussian military
 
 CATHARINE II. 
 
 discipline, his politics, and the faults of his 
 character. This led to a conspiracy, at 
 the head of which were the hetinan 
 count Rasumowski, count Panin, the en- 
 terprising princess Daschkoff, and a young 
 officer of the guards, Gregory Orloff, 
 who, since Poniatowski's departure, had 
 taken his place in Catharine's affections. 
 All those who were dissatisfied, or who 
 expected to gain by a change, joined 
 this conspiracy. Panin and the greater 
 part of the conspirators were actuated 
 only by the desire to place the minor 
 prince, Paul, on the throne, under the 
 guardianship of the empress, and a coun- 
 cil of the empire. But this plan was 
 changed through the influence of the Or- 
 ion's. The guards were the first to swear 
 allegiance to the empress, on her present- 
 ing herself to them- at Peterhoff, on the 
 morning of July 9, 1762; and Alexei 
 Orloff prevailed on Teplow, who was 
 afterwards appointed senator, to read, at 
 the Kazan church, instead of the proc- 
 lamation of the conspirators in favor of 
 the young prince, one announcing the ele- 
 vation of Catharine to the throne. Peter 
 died, a few days after, in prison. The 
 accusation against Catharine, of having 
 contributed to hasten this event, is with- 
 out foundation. The young, ambitious 
 princess, neglected by her husband, whom 
 she did not respect, remained passive on 
 the occasion, yielded to circumstances, 
 which were, it is true, propitious to her, 
 and consoled herself for an event which 
 she could not remedy. She knew how 
 to gain the affections of the people by 
 flattering their vanity; showed great re- 
 spect for their religion ; caused herself to 
 be crowned at Moscow with great pomp ; 
 devoted herself to the promotion of agri- 
 culture and commerce, and the creation 
 of a naval force; improved the laws, and 
 showed the greatest activity in the admin- 
 istration of the internal as well as the ex- 
 ternal affairs of Russia. A year after her 
 ascension to the throne, she forced the 
 Courlanders to displace their new duke, 
 Charles of Saxony, and to recall Biren, 
 who was extremely odious to the nobles. 
 After the death of Augustus III, king of 
 Poland, she was the means of Stanislaus 
 Poniatowski's being crowned at Warsaw. 
 But, whilst she was forcing this king on 
 the Poles, the number of the malcontents 
 in her own empire increased, and several 
 attempts against her life were made at 
 St Petersburg and Moscow. The young 
 Ivan (q. v.) was the person to whom the 
 hopes of the conspirators were directed ; 
 but his sudden death, at the fortress of 
 
 Schh'isselburg, overthrew the plans of the 
 disaffected. After this, the court of the 
 empress was only disturbed, from time to 
 time, by intrigues, in which gallantry and 
 politics went hand in hand, and which 
 had no other object than to replace one 
 favorite by another. In the midst of 
 pleasure and dissipation, Catharine did 
 not neglect the improvement of the laws. 
 Deputies from all the provinces met at 
 Moscow. The empress had herself pre- 
 pared instructions for their conduct, which 
 were read at the first session ; but it was 
 impossible for so many different nations 
 to understand each other, or to be subject 
 to the same laws. In the first sessions, 
 the emancipation of the peasants was 
 proposed. This alone would have been 
 sufficient to cause a bloody revolution. 
 Catharine, who presided at the debates, 
 and received from the assembly the title 
 of mother of the country, soon dismissed 
 the discordant legislators. About this 
 time, France formed a party in Poland 
 against Russia ; but these attempts only 
 served to accelerate Catharine's plans. 
 The war to which the Porte was instigated 
 had the same result. The Turks were 
 beaten. The Russian flag was victorious 
 on the Greek seas ; and on the banks of the 
 Neva, the plan was formed of reestablish- 
 ing the republics of Sparta and Athens, as 
 a check to the Ottoman power. The ad- 
 vancement of Austrian troops into Poland 
 inspired Catharine with the desire to 
 aggrandize herself in this quarter. She 
 therefore entered into ^ui agreement for 
 the division of the country with the courts 
 of Berlin and Vienna in 1772, by which 
 the governments of Polotzk and Mohilow 
 fell to her share, and she ensured to her- 
 self exclusive influence in Poland, by un- 
 dertaking to guaranty the Polish constitu- 
 tion. At the same time, she abandoned 
 all her conquests, with the exception of 
 Azoph, Taganrog and Kinburn, in the 
 peace with the Porte, concluded at Kain- 
 ardschi in 1774, but secured to herself the 
 free navigation of the Black sea, and stip- 
 ulated for the independence of the Cri- 
 mea. By this apparent independence, the 
 Crimea became, in fact, dependent on 
 Catharine. This peace was as opportune 
 as it was advantageous to Russia ; for, in 
 the third year of the war, Moscow and 
 several other cities were desolated by the 
 plague ; and, about the same time, an ad- 
 venturer, named Pugatscheff, assuming 
 the name of Peter III, had excited a revolt 
 in several provinces of Eastern Russia. 
 At this time, Potemkin exercised an un- 
 limited influence on the empress. In
 
 CATHARINE II. 
 
 587 
 
 1784, he succeeded in conquering the 
 Crimea, to which he gave its ancient 
 name of Tauris, and extended the con- 
 fines of Russia to the Caucasus. Catha- 
 rine, upon this, traversed the provinces 
 which had revolted under Pugatscheff, 
 and navigated the Wolga and Borysthe- 
 nes, taking greater interest in the expedi- 
 tion, as it was connected with some dan- 
 ger. She was desirous, likewise, of see- 
 ing Tauris. Potemkin turned this jour- 
 ney, which took place in 1787, into a 
 triumphal march. Throughout a dis- 
 tance of nearly 1000 leagues, nothing but 
 feasts and spectacles of various kinds 
 were to be seen. Palaces were raised on 
 barren heaths, to be inhabited for a day. 
 Villages and towns were built in the wil- 
 dernesses, where, a short time before, the 
 Tartars had fed their herds. An immense 
 population appeared at every step the 
 picture of affluence and prosperity. A 
 hundred different nations paid homage to 
 their sovereign. Catharine saw, at a dis- 
 tance, towns" and villages, of which only 
 the outward walls existed. She was sur- 
 rounded by a multitude of people, who 
 were conveyed on during the night, to 
 afford her the same spectacle the follow- 
 ing day. Two sovereigns visited her on 
 her journey the king of Poland, Stanis- 
 laus Augustus, and the emperor Joseph II. 
 The latter renewed his promise, given at 
 St. Petersburg, to assist her in her projects 
 against the Turks. About this time, Prus- 
 sia and England combined to instigate the 
 Porte and Sweden to take up arms against 
 Russia. The Turks were no more fortu- 
 nate this time than before ; and perhaps 
 they would have been driven entirely out of 
 Europe, had not Catharine been restrain- 
 ed by the interference of other states. 
 (See Reichenbach Congress, 1790.) Peace 
 was concluded at Jassy in 1792. Catha- 
 rine kept Oczakow, and all the country 
 between the Bug and the Dniester. Whilst 
 Russia was occupied with the Turks, 
 Gustavus III had commenced hostilities, 
 and, at one time, threatened St. Peters- 
 burg. After a war of two years, peace 
 was concluded at Werela, in 1790, leaving 
 the possessions of both countries as they 
 were before the commencement of hos- 
 tilities. Thus all the wars undertaken 
 against Russia had only tended to aug- 
 ment her political preponderance. Cath- 
 arine's influence on Poland was equal to 
 absolute dominion. When the republic, 
 in 1791, wished to change its constitution, 
 she took part with the opponents of the 
 plan, gained the concurrence of Prussia, 
 garrisoned Poland with her troops, and 
 
 concluded a new treaty of partition with 
 the cabinet of Berlin in 1792. (See Po- 
 land.) The insurrection, which broke out 
 in Poland in 1794, could not save this un- 
 happy country, which, after the storming 
 of Praga, and the devastation of several of 
 its provinces, was, at last, in 1795, entirely 
 divided. Courland, too, was united with 
 the Russian empire. A pension was given 
 to the last duke of Courland, and the last 
 king of Poland spent his pension at St. 
 Petersburg. During these occurrences, 
 Catharine could not take part in the war 
 against France. She, however, broke off 
 all connexion with the French republic, 
 actively assisted the emigrants, and enter- 
 ed into an alliance with England against 
 France. She likewise made war against 
 Persia, and, as some historians assure us, 
 entertained the project of destroying the 
 power of the English in Bengal, when a 
 fit of apoplexy put an end to her life, Nov. 
 9, 1796. Catharine II has been equally 
 censured and praised. With all the 
 weakness of her sex, and with a love of 
 pleasure carried to licentiousness, she 
 combined the firmness and talent of a 
 powerful sovereign. Two passions were 
 predominant with her until her death, 
 love and ambition. She was never with- 
 out her favorite, who, by the manner in 
 which she distinguished him, and by the 
 valuable presents she gave him, was pub- 
 licly designated as such. She never, how- 
 ever, lost sight of her dignity. She was 
 distinguished for activity, working with 
 her ministers, writing a philosophical let- 
 ter to Voltaire, and signing an order to 
 attack the Turks, or to occupy Poland, in 
 the same breath. She favored distinguish- 
 ed authors, and was particularly partial to 
 the French. At Paris, she had a literary 
 agent (baron Grimm). She several times 
 invited Voltaire to her court, proposed to 
 D'Alembert to finish the Encyclopedia at 
 St. Petersburg, and to undertake the edu- 
 cation of the grand-duke. Diderot visited 
 her at her request, and she often allowed 
 him the privilege of familiar conversation 
 with her. By these means, she gained the 
 favor of the literati of Europe, who called 
 her the greatest of rulers ; and, in fact, 
 she was not without claims to this title. 
 She protected commerce, unproved the 
 laws, dug canals, founded towns, hospi- 
 tals and colleges. Pallas and others trav- 
 elled at her expense. She endeavored to 
 put a stop to the abuses which had crept 
 into the administration of the different de- 
 partments of government ; but she began 
 without being able to finish. Civilization 
 advanced but slowly in Russia under
 
 588 
 
 CATHARINE II CATHARINE PAWLOWNA. 
 
 her reign ; and her anxiety to enlighten 
 her subjects ceased when she began to 
 entertain the idea that the French rev- 
 olution had been brought about by the 
 progress of civilization. Laws, colonies, 
 schools, manufactures, hospitals, canals, 
 towns, fortifications, every thing was com- 
 menced, but frequently left unfinished for 
 want of means. She issued no paper 
 money. Several letters, and other corn- 
 positions by her, in the French and Rus- 
 sian languages, have been published. A 
 statue of Catharine, of white marble, in a 
 sitting posture, was executed by professor 
 Gothe, at Stockholm, in 1825. The man- 
 ners of the Russian court, in her time, are 
 set forth in the diary of Krapomisky (St. 
 Petersburg, 1826). Krapomisky was her 
 private secretary for 10 years. Among 
 several histories of her life are Tooke's 
 Life of Catharine II (3 vols.), and Cas- 
 tera's Hisloirt de Catharine II (3 vols.). 
 
 CATHARINE PARR, sixth and last wife 
 of Henry VIII, was the eldest daughter 
 of sir Thomas Parr of Kendal, and was, 
 at an early age, distinguished for her 
 learning and good sense. She was first 
 married to Edward Burghe, and secondly 
 to John Neville, lord Latimer, and, after 
 his death, attracted the notice of Henry 
 VIII, whose queen she became in 1543. 
 Her zealous encouragement of the reform- 
 ed religion excited the anger and jealousy 
 of Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, the 
 chancellor Wriothesley, and others of the 
 Catholic faction, who conspired to ruin her 
 with the king. Taking advantage of one 
 of his moments of irritation, they accused 
 her of heresy and treason, and prevailed 
 upon the king to sign a warrant for her 
 committal to the Tower. This being ac- 
 cidentally discovered to her, she repaired 
 to the king, who purposely turned the 
 conversation to religious subjects, and be- 
 gan to sound her op'inions. Aware of his 
 purpose, she humbly replied, "that on 
 such topics she always, as became her 
 sex and station, referred herself to the 
 wisdom of his majesty, as he, under God, 
 was her only supreme head and governor 
 here on earth." "Not so, by St. Mary, 
 Kate," replied Henry ; " you are, as we 
 take it, become a doctor, to instruct, and 
 not to be instructed by us." Catharine 
 judiciously replied, that she only objected 
 in order to be benefited by his superior 
 learning and knowledge. " Is it so, sweet- 
 heart ?" said the king ; " and tended your 
 arguments to no worse end ? Then are 
 we perfect friends again." After the 
 death of the king, she espoused the lord 
 admiral sir Thomas Seymour, uncle to 
 
 Edward VI ; but this connexion proved 
 unhappy, and involved her in troubles 
 and difficulties. She died in child-bed in 
 1548, not without suspicion of poison. 
 She was a zealous promoter of the refor- 
 mation. Among her papers, after her 
 death, was found a composition, entitled 
 Queen Catharine Parr's Lamentations of 
 a Sinner, bewailing the Ignorance of her 
 Hind Life ; a contrite meditation on the 
 years she had passed in Catholic fasts and 
 pilgrimages. It was published, with a 
 preface, by the great lord Burleigh, in 
 1548. In her lifetime, sh.o published a vol- 
 ume of "Prayers or Meditations, wherein 
 the Mind is stirred patiently to suffer all 
 Afflictions here, and to set at nought the 
 vaine Prosperitie of this Worlde, and also 
 to long for the everlasting Felicitee." Ma- 
 ny of her letters have also been printed. 
 
 CATHARINE PAWLOWNA, queen of 
 Wurtemburg, grand-princess of Russia; 
 born May 21, 1788; younger sister of the 
 emperor Alexander, and widow of George, 
 priuce of Holstein-Oldenburg, whom she 
 married in 1809, and thus got rid of a 
 proposal of marriage made her by Napo- 
 leon. George died in Russia, December, 
 1812. Her two sons, by this marriage, 
 born in 1810 and 1812, are still living. 
 She was distinguished alike for beauty, 
 talents and resolution, and exhibited the 
 teriderest affection for her brother Alex- 
 ander. After 1812, she was frequently 
 his companion in the campaigns in Ger- 
 many and France, as well as during his 
 residence at London and Vienna, and 
 evidently had an important influence on 
 several of his measures. It is said that 
 she effected, in 1814, the marriage of the 
 prince of Orange with her younger sister. 
 In 1813, William, crown-prince of Wiirt- 
 emburg, in Germany, formed an acquain- 
 tance with her, and, in 1814, saw her again 
 in Paris. They were married Jan. 24, 1 8 1 6, 
 at Petersburg ; and, after the death of his 
 father, in October, 1816, he ascended 
 with her the throne of Wurtemburg. 
 She was a generous benefactor to her 
 subjects in the famine of 1816. She 
 formed the female associations existing 
 throughout the country, and established 
 an agricultural society. She labored to 
 promote the education of her people, and 
 founded valuable institutions for the poor 
 (particularly a school for educating and 
 employing poor children), a school for 
 the females of the higher classes, and 
 savings banks for the lower classes, after 
 the example of the English savings banks. 
 Indeed, she interfered, often arbitrarily, 
 in the internal economy of the state, and
 
 CATHARINE PAWLOWNA CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION. 589 
 
 chiefly imitated the institutions of Eng- 
 land. For the fine arts she had but little 
 taste. She died Jan. 9, 1819, leaving two 
 daughters. 
 
 CAT-HARPINGS ; small ropes in a ship, 
 running in little blocks, from one side of 
 the shrouds to the other, near the deck. 
 Their use is to force the main shrouds 
 tight, for the ease and safety of the masts 
 when the ship rolls. 
 
 CATHEDRAL ; the Episcopal church of 
 a diocese. The word is derived from the 
 Greek KaOiSpa, a seat or bench. From the 
 early times of the Christian church, the 
 bishop presided in the presbytery, or the 
 assembly of priests. He was seated on a 
 chairi a little higher than that of the 
 others. The whole meeting of priests 
 was called cathedra; and, at a later pe- 
 riod, when Christians were allowed to 
 build churches, this name was applied to 
 the Episcopal churches, and the name 
 basilica to the particular churches erected 
 in honor of a saint or a martyr. In the 
 middle ages, the cathedral received the 
 form of the cross. Several of the old 
 churches are masterpieces of Gothic ar- 
 chitecture. Among these are the cathe- 
 dral at Oviedo, that at Milan [see Storia e 
 Descrizione del Duomo di Miiano (com- 
 menced in 1387, and not yet finished), by 
 GaeL Franchetti, with engravings. Milan, 
 1821, 4to.] ; those at Toledo and Burgos ; 
 those at Rouen, Rheims, Amiens, and the 
 church of Notre-Dame, in Paris (see Ca- 
 thedrales Francaises, dessintes, titkogr. et 
 publ. par Chapuy, avec un Atlas historique 
 et descriptif, par Jolimont, 30 numbers, 
 Paris, 1823 et seq. It contains views of 
 25 cathedrals). Those at Lund, Dron- 
 theim, Upsal, at York, Salisbury and 
 Canterbury, also Westminster abbey, are 
 celebrated (see J. Britton's Hist, and An- 
 tiquities of the Metropolitan Church of 
 Canterbury, London, 1823, with engrav- 
 ings ; and Cathedratical Antiquities, by the 
 same author). The cathedrals at Oppen- 
 heim, Ulm, Marburg, Meissen, Freiburg 
 (q. v.) in the Brisgau, are line buildings (see 
 doctor Moller's Denkmale dcr Deutschen 
 Baukunst, Darmstadt, 1825 ; and F. W. 
 Schwechten's Der Dom zu Meisstn, bilill. 
 dargest. u. beschr., Berlin, 182u', 3 DOS.). 
 Respecting the cathedral of Cologm . 
 Boisseree. (For further information, see 
 Wiebeking's work Die Kaihedralen von 
 Rheims und York, nebst den Grundrissen 
 von 42 andem merkwurdigtn Kirchen, 
 Munich, 1825, fol., with engravings.) In 
 Rome there has appeared, since 1822, 
 the Collection of the oldest Christian 
 Churches, or Basilicas, of Rome, from the 
 
 VOL. ii. 50 
 
 4th to the 13th Century ; drawn and 
 published by J. G. Guteusohn and J. M. 
 Knapp (architects) ; accompanied by an 
 Archseol. Histor. Description, by Anth. 
 Nibby, professor of Archaeology in the 
 University at Rome ; 7 numbers, each 
 containing 7 plates. There is now in the 
 course of publication at Milan, a splendid 
 work, entitled Chiese principali d'Europa, 
 which will extend to 36 numbers ; each 
 of them being devoted to one particular 
 edifice. From the numbers already pub- 
 lished, we extract the subsequent meas- 
 urements of celebrated buildings. 
 St. Peter's, at Rome. 
 
 English feet. 
 
 Width of the cathedral, 233 
 
 External diameter of the cupola, . 158 
 Total height, 448 
 
 Cathedral at Milan. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Width of the front, 21G 
 
 Width of the cross, 251 
 
 Total height, 350 
 
 Pantheon at Rome. 
 
 Pieds*. 
 
 Length of the portico, 103 
 
 Width of do. 61 
 
 Interior diameter, 132 
 
 Height from the pavement to the 
 summit of the cupola, 132 
 
 St. Stephen's, at Vienna. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Width of the facade, 148 
 
 Great tower, from the ground to 
 
 the top of the cross, 450 
 
 Greatest breadth between the two 
 
 chief towers, 235 
 
 Santa Maria del Fiore, Florence. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Whole length, 517 
 
 Total height, 386 
 
 CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION. Emanci- 
 pation, with the Romans, signified the 
 release of a son from the power of his 
 father, or of a slave from that of his mas- 
 ter. It was performed before the pretor, 
 attended by certain solemnities. By the 
 emancipation of the Catholics is under- 
 stood the abolition of those civil and 
 ecclesiastical restraints, to which the 
 Catholics of Great Britain, and particu- 
 larly of Ireland, were once subjected. 
 Ireland, from the time of its subjugation, 
 was maltreated by its conquerors ; and 
 repeated attempts, on the part of the na- 
 tives, to free themselves from foreign 
 domination, only increased the severity 
 * The measurements of this edifice are given in 
 feet ; hut they are neither Roman nor the Parisian, 
 nor any other feet we are acquainted with.
 
 590 
 
 CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION. 
 
 of their rulers. (See Orangemen.) The 
 Catholic inhabitants of the country were 
 excluded from public offices, and from all 
 participation in the choice of members of 
 parliament. None but the Anglo-Irish, 
 belonging to the Episcopal church, which 
 had now become the established church 
 in Ireland men who possessed the great- 
 est part of the landed property, that had 
 been torn from the original inhabitants 
 were eligible to public offices, or to a seat 
 in parliament. In this oppressed condi- 
 tion the Irish Catholics remained till 
 1793. But when the principles dissemi- 
 nated at the time of the French revolu- 
 tion produced a general fermentation, 
 which extended to the Irish Catholics, a 
 lively desire was awakened in them to 
 obtain equal rights with their Protestant 
 fellow-citizens. They were supported in 
 England itself by a very respectable party. 
 Burke repeatedly spoke in parliament in 
 favor of their emancipation. In 1792, 
 they presented a petition, praying for the 
 abolition of all the restrictions to which 
 they had hitherto been subjected. Upon 
 this, a recommendation was addressed 
 from the throne to the Irish parliament, 
 to contrive means for the melioration of 
 the condition of the Catholics. Accord- 
 ingly, the Irish ad, so called, was passed 
 in 1793, which conferred the elective 
 franchise on the Catholics, threw open to 
 them all employments in the army in 
 Ireland, and all offices in the navy. Three 
 offices in the army only were excepted 
 those of the commander-in-cliief, master- 
 general of the ordnance, and generals on 
 the staff. They continued to be excluded, 
 however, from 30 public offices, and from 
 parliament an arrangement which could 
 not be changed without a repeal of the 
 corporation and test acts. (q. v.) A part 
 of the Irish Catholics were satisfied with 
 the concessions. Another party, however, 
 encouraged by a few noblemen, who had 
 entered into connexion with France, 
 cherished the hope that Ireland would 
 succeed, with the help of France, in free- 
 ing itself from the British power. An 
 insurrection speedily broke out, which 
 was quelled by the severity of the gov- 
 ernor, lord Camden. It blazed forth 
 again, however, in 1798, and Ireland be- 
 came the theatre of a new civil war. By 
 this rebellion, judicious men, both in 
 England and Ireland, were convinced 
 that, as long as the two kingdoms had 
 separate legislatures, and that of the 
 weaker was dependent on that of the 
 stronger, and the inhabitants of the two 
 kingdoms thought their interests incon- 
 
 sistent, jealousy and distrust would con* 
 tinue. The Anglo-Irish, also, who had 
 previously desired the independence of 
 Ireland, and, at first, supported the re- 
 bellion, perceived that the superior num- 
 bers of the Catholics, and their bitter 
 enmity to the Protestants, would make 
 the separation of Ireland from England a 
 great misfortune for them. It was re- 
 solved, then, to unite Ireland with Eng- 
 land ; and, three years after the last re- 
 bellion, the union was effected, and the 
 united parliament was opened Jan. 22, 
 1801. In regard to ecclesiastical affairs, 
 nothing further was provided in the act 
 of union, than that the Episcopal church 
 in Ireland should remain the established 
 church, and should constitute, with the 
 English, one church. Respecting the 
 condition of the Catholics nothing was 
 done, and Pitt observed that it would be 
 well to reserve this business for future 
 deliberation. The united parliament had 
 been in session but a few days, when re- 
 ports were spread, which cast a dark 
 shade over the union, and gave occasion 
 for much anxiety. The Catholics in Ire- 
 land, it was said, complained of the non- 
 fulfilment of expectations which had been 
 held out to them, to make them favorable 
 to the union. Full emancipation had 
 been promised them, as a certain conse- 
 quence of it. Pitt, the author of the 
 union, had pledged himself, with his col- 
 leagues, to promote the fulfilment of this 
 wish of the Catholics. After the union 
 was completed, invincible obstructions 
 were found in the way of the accomplish- 
 ment of their promise. Pitt and his col- 
 leagues had encouraged these hopes with 
 the expectation of being able to fulfil 
 them. For this reason, they endeavored, 
 after the union was completed, to obtain 
 an act of parliament, by which admission 
 to parliament and to offices of state, from 
 which the Catholics were still excluded, 
 should be made possible for a certain 
 number of them, by dispensing with the 
 test-oath. But the king set himself against 
 this measure, as being inconsistent with 
 his coronation-oath. Pitt and his col- 
 leagues, therefore, in 1801, resigned their 
 places. Pitt foresaw that, if both houses 
 agreed to this measure, the king would 
 still withhold his permission ; and thus the 
 discontent of the Catholics would be di- 
 rected against the person of the king 
 himself. This, like a wise statesman, he 
 wished by all means to avert; and, on 
 this ground, in 1805, he spoke against 
 the emancipation, when the opposition 
 proposed anew to grant the Catholic a
 
 CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION CATHOLIC MAJESTY. 
 
 591 
 
 seat and a voice in parliament, and ad- 
 missibility to all offices of state. During 
 late years, the petition for complete 
 emancipation has been several times re- 
 newed in vain. In 1822, on the motion 
 of Mr. Canning, a bill was passed, in the 
 house of commons, by a majority of 21 
 voices, enabling Roman Catholic peers to 
 sit in parliament ; but, in the house of 
 lords, the bill was rejected. The same 
 happened in 1825, when the duke of 
 York, who died in 1827, solemnly op- 
 posed it. In 1827, under Canning's ad- 
 ministration, the motion for emancipation 
 was lost, in the house of commons, by 
 a majority of 3. The measure has, at 
 last, been effected, under the administra- 
 tion of the duke of Wellington. The 
 disturbances in Ireland were assuming 
 continually a more organized character, 
 under the influence of the Catholic asso- 
 ciation, which was spread through the 
 country, and directed by men of great 
 abilities such as O'Connell and Shiels 
 BO that his grace was, at last, driven to 
 support the cause of emancipation. He 
 said that he had to choose between con- 
 cession to the Catholics and civil war. 
 Mr. Peel, who had formerly spoken warm- 
 ly against emancipation, now moved it in 
 the house of commons. One of the chief 
 opposers of the measure was lord Eldon, 
 the former lord chancellor ; one of the 
 royal family the duke of Cumberland 
 also took part with the opponents. The 
 emancipation of the Catholics is so inter- 
 esting an event, that the following abstract 
 of the fate of various motions respecting 
 it may not be unacceptable to our readers. 
 In the year 1805, a majority of 129 in the 
 house of lords, and of 212 in the house 
 of commons, refused to act on the peti- 
 tion of the Catholics, moved severally by 
 lord Grenville and Mr. Fox. In 1807, 
 lord Grenville withdrew his motion in 
 favor of emancipation, it being under- 
 stood that his majesty was averse to it. 
 In 1808, Mr. Grattan's motion was reject- 
 ed, in the house of commons, by a major- 
 ity of 153, and lord Donoughmore's, in 
 the house of lords, by a majority of 87. 
 In 1810, a motion to the same effect, by 
 the same members, was again lost, by a 
 majority of 112 in the commons, and 80 
 in the lords. In 1812, there was Ji ma- 
 jority of 72 in the lords, and 85 in the 
 commons, against the movers. Mr. Can- 
 ning's motion was lost, in the same year, 
 by a majority of 129 in the commons, 
 and that of the marquis of Wellesley, by 
 a majority of 113 in the lords. In 1813, 
 the motions of Mr. Grattan, sir John Cox 
 
 Hippesley and doctor Duigenan, drew forth 
 majorities against the Catholics of 40, 48 
 and 42, and, on the 24th of May, the bill 
 was given up. In 1821, Mr. Plunkett car- 
 ried the bill through the house of com- 
 mons by a majority of 19 ; but it was lost 
 in the lords by a majority of 39. In 1822, 
 Mr. Canning carried it, in the commons, 
 by a majority of 21 ; but it was thrown 
 out, in the lords, by a majority of 42. In 
 1825, sir Francis Burdett carried it, in the 
 commons, by a majority of 27 ; but it was 
 again thrown out, in the lords, by a ma- 
 jority of 48. In 1827, sir Francis Bur- 
 dett's motion for a committee was lost, in 
 the commons, by a majority of 3. In 
 1828, the motion for a conference with 
 the lords was earned, in the commons, by 
 a majority of G ; but thrown out, in the 
 lords, by a majority of 45. And, in 1829 
 (April 10), a relitfbill, abolishing the civil 
 disabilities on Roman Catholics, by re- 
 pealing the oaths of supremacy, &c., 
 was carried through the commons by 
 Mr. Peel, with a majority of 180 on the 
 second reading, and 178 on the third ; 
 and through the lords, by the duke of 
 Wellington, with a majority of 105 on 
 the second reading, and 104 on the 
 third. By this bill, Catholics are eligible 
 to all offices of state, excepting the lord- 
 chancellorships of England and Ireland, 
 the lord-lieutenancy of Ireland, the office 
 of regent or guardian of the United King- 
 dom, and that of high commissioner to 
 the church of Scotland. They are still 
 excluded from the right of presentation to 
 livings, and all places connected with the 
 ecclesiastical courts and establishment. 
 The church patronage attached to any 
 office in the hands of a Catholic is to be 
 vested in the archbishop of Canterbury. 
 Attached to the bill is a clause for the 
 gradual suppression of the Jesuits and 
 monastic orders (religious establishments 
 of females excepted). At the same time, 
 the duke carried a disfranchisement bill, 
 by which the 40 shilling freeholders of 
 Ireland were disfranchised, and the in- 
 come of real estate necessary to entitle to 
 a vote in elections in that country raised 
 to 10 sterling. There has lately been 
 published a History of the late Catholic 
 Association of Ireland, from its Institu- 
 tion, in 1760, to its final Dissolution in 
 1829 ; by Thomas Wyse, junior, Esq., one 
 of the members of that body ; 2 vols. 8vo., 
 London, 1829, Colburn. 
 
 CATHOLIC MAJESTY ; a title which pope 
 Alexander VI gave to the kings of Spain, 
 in memory of the perfect expulsion of the 
 Moors out of Spain, in 1491, by Ferdi-
 
 592 CATHOLIC MAJESTY. 
 
 nand of Arragon. But even before that Toledo, in 589, several Spanish kings had 
 time, and especially after the council at borne this title.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 BPise. 
 attic- Axe 3 
 
 Piece 
 
 Battoges, Battacks ........ 
 
 Battuecas (Las) 
 
 Baucis 
 
 Bauman Islands 
 
 Baumann's Cavern 
 
 Baumgarten (Alex. Gottlieb) . 
 
 Bause (John Frederic) 
 
 Bautzen 
 
 Bavaria 5 
 
 (constitution of) 9 
 
 Maevius 10 
 
 vius (Marcus) and 
 wdv- House .... 
 
 Bavius 
 Ba 
 
 Baxter (Andrew) " 
 
 (Richard) " 
 
 Bayadeer 11 
 
 Bayamo " 
 
 Bayard (chevalier de) " 
 
 (James A.) 13 
 
 Bayle (Pierre) 14 
 
 Bavlen (capitulation at) 15 
 
 Baylcy (Richard) 1G 
 
 Bayonet " 
 
 Bayonne 17 
 
 Bazar " 
 
 Beacon (see Signals, and Light- 
 house) " 
 
 Beagle " 
 
 Bea? " 
 
 Beard 18 
 
 Bearn 19 
 
 Beatification " 
 
 Beaton (archbishop) 20 
 
 Beattie (James) " 
 
 Beaucaire 21 
 
 Beaufort (in S. C.) " 
 
 (Henry) " 
 
 Beaulianiais (viscount) " 
 
 (marquis de). ... " 
 
 Beaumarchais (P. A. Caron de) 22 
 
 Beaumont and Fletcher " 
 
 (mad. Leprince de). 23 
 
 Beauty (see Philosophy) " 
 
 Beaver " 
 
 Beccaria (Cesare Bonesana) . 24 
 
 (Giovanni Battista) . 25 
 
 Beclier (John Joachim) " 
 
 Beck (Christian Daniel) " 
 
 Becket (Thomas) ' 
 
 Beckmann (John) 27 
 
 50* 
 
 Bed (in gunnery) 
 
 of Justice (see Lit de Jus- 
 tice) 
 
 Beddoes (Thomas) 
 
 Bede 
 
 Bedford (duke of) 
 
 (inEng.) 
 
 (in Penn.) 
 
 Level 
 
 (New) 
 
 Bedouins 
 
 Bee 
 
 Beech 
 
 Beef-Eaters 
 
 Beejapoor 
 
 (see Bija-pur) .... 
 
 Beek( David)..... 
 
 Beelzebub. . . 
 
 27 
 
 Beer 
 
 (Michael) . . 
 
 Beeriug (Vitus) . , 
 
 's Island . 
 
 's Straits , 
 
 Beet 
 
 Beethoven (Louis von). 
 
 Beetle 
 
 Befaua . . 
 
 Beg 
 
 Beggary (see Pauperism) 
 
 Beglerbeg 
 
 Beguards (see Beguines) . 
 
 Beguiues 
 
 Behaim (Martin) 
 
 Beheading 
 
 Behn (Aphara) 
 
 Behring (see Beering) . . . 
 
 Beira 
 
 Beiram (see Bairam). . . . 
 
 Bekker (Elizabeth) 
 
 (Imnianuel) 
 
 Bel (see Baal) 
 
 Belem 
 
 Belfast (in Ireland) 
 'in Maine). 
 
 33 
 
 36 
 
 37 
 
 38 
 
 Belgians . 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Belgrade 
 
 Belgrano (Manuel) 
 
 Belfal.. .. 
 
 Belisarius 
 
 Belknap (Jeremy) 
 
 Bell 
 
 Bell (see Lancaster) 41 
 
 Bella (Stefano della) " 
 
 Bellamy (James) 42 
 
 Beilarmin (Robert) " 
 
 Belle Alliance (see Waterloo) " 
 
 Bellegarde (count) 43 
 
 ( Gabriel duPacde) " 
 
 Belle-Isle (in bay of Biscay) . . 42 
 (inN.A.) 43 
 
 44 
 
 Belleisle (count de) 
 Bellenden (William) . 
 
 Belles-Lettres 
 
 Bellevue 
 
 Bellini (James) 
 
 Bellisle (see Belle-Isle) 
 Bellmann (Charles Michael). . " 
 
 Bell-Metal (see Copper) 41 
 
 Bellona " 
 
 Bellows 45 
 
 Belloy (P. Laurent Buirette de) " 
 
 Bell-Rock 41 
 
 Beloochistan (see Belujistan) . 46 
 
 Belt (Great and Little) " 
 
 Belujistan " 
 
 Belvedere " 
 
 Belzoni (Giambattista) " 
 
 Bembo (Pietro) 47 
 
 Ben 48 
 
 Benares " 
 
 Benavides 49 
 
 Benbow (John) " 
 
 Bencoolen " 
 
 Benda (George) 50 
 
 Bender " 
 
 Benedict XIV " 
 
 (St.) 51 
 
 Benedictbeurn " 
 
 Benedictines " 
 
 Benediction 52 
 
 Benefit of Clergy " 
 
 Benevento 53 
 
 Benezet (Anthony) " 
 
 Bengal 54 
 
 Bengel (John Albanus) 56 
 
 Benger (Elizabeth Ogilvy). . . " 
 
 Benguela " 
 
 Benin (kingdom) 57 
 
 (town) " 
 
 Bcnjowsky (count of) " 
 
 Ben-Lawers 58 
 
 -Lodi " 
 
 -Lomond "
 
 594 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 (M 
 
 Ben-Macduie 58 
 
 More " 
 
 Nevis " 
 
 Benningsen (baron of) " 
 
 Bennington " 
 
 Benno (St.) " 
 
 Benserade (Isaac de) " 
 
 Bensley (Thomas) 59 
 
 Bentham (Jeremy) " 
 
 Bentivoglio (Coruelio) " 
 
 (Guy, or Guido). . " 
 
 Bentlev (Richard) 60 
 
 Benzef-Sternau (count) 61 
 
 Benzenberg (John Frederic). . " 
 
 Benzoic Acid " 
 
 Benzoin 62 
 
 Beranger (Pierre, Jean de) . . " 
 
 Berber " 
 
 Berbice 63 
 
 Berchtesgaden " 
 
 Berchtold (count) 
 
 Bercy 
 
 Berengarius 
 
 Berenhorst (F. Leopold von) . " 
 
 Berenice " 
 
 Beresford (William) " 
 
 Berezina 65 
 
 Berg " 
 
 Book of (see Symbolic 
 
 Books) 66 
 
 Bergamo " 
 
 Bergamots " 
 
 Bergasse (Nicholas) " 
 
 Bergen (several towns of this 
 
 name) " 
 
 Berger (Louis von) 67 
 
 Bergerac " 
 
 Berghem (Nicholas) " 
 
 Bergmann (Torbern Olof ) ..." 
 
 Bergstrasse 68 
 
 Berkeley (George) " 
 
 Berlichingen (Gotz or Godfrey) 69 
 
 Berlin " 
 
 Bermudas' Islands 71 
 
 Bern 72 
 
 Bernadotte (see Charles XIV) 73 
 Bernard (Pierre Joseph) .... " 
 
 (duke of Weimar). . . " 
 
 of Clairvaux 74 
 
 (Great St.) . . 75 
 
 Bernard! (Augustus Frederic). " 
 Bernardin de St. Pierre (see 
 
 Pierre, St.) 76 
 
 Bernardine Monks (see Cister- 
 cians) " 
 
 Bernburg (Anhalt) " 
 
 Berners, or Barnes (Juliana). . " 
 
 Berni (Francesco) " 
 
 Bernini (Giovanni Lorenzo). . " 
 
 Bernis (cardinal de) 77 
 
 Bernoulli i (James, &,c.) 78 
 
 Bernstorff (count of, &c.) 79 
 
 Berri (duke of) " 
 
 (province and dukedom) 80 
 
 Berserker " 
 
 Berthier (marshal) " 
 
 Berthollet (count) 81 
 
 Berthoud (Ferdinand) 82 
 
 Bertoli fcount of) " 
 
 Berton (Henry Montan) " 
 
 Benrand (count) " 
 
 Bertuch (Frederic Justin). ..." 
 Bervic (Charles Clement). ..." 
 
 Berwick (duke of) 83 
 
 Berwick-upon-Tweed . . 
 Beryl . . . ! 
 
 Berzelius (James) 
 
 Besancon 
 
 Bessarabia 
 
 Bessel (Frederic William) . . 
 Betel 
 
 Bethania 
 
 Bethesda 
 
 Bethlehem (in Palestine) . . 
 (in Penn.) 
 
 Betrothment. 
 
 Betterment . ; 
 
 Better-ton (Thomas) 
 
 Bettinelli (Saverio) 
 
 Bey 
 
 Beza (Theodore) 
 
 Bezant 
 
 Bezoar 
 
 Bia. . 
 
 Biagioli (Josaphat) 
 
 Bianchim (Francesco) 
 
 Bias 
 
 Bibbiena (Fernando) 
 
 Bible 
 
 (geography of) 
 
 Societies 
 
 Biblical Archaeology 
 
 Bibliography 
 
 Bibliomancy 
 
 Bibliomania 
 
 Bicetre 
 
 Bidassoa 
 
 Biddle (John) 
 
 Bidpai (see Pilpay) 
 
 Bielefeld 
 
 Bievre (marquis de) 
 
 Big (see Barley) 
 
 Bigamy 
 
 Bignon (Louis Edward). . . . 
 
 Bha-pur 
 
 Bilbao (see Bilboa) 
 
 Bilboa 
 
 Bilderdyk (William) 
 
 Bildge (see Bilge) 
 
 Bile 
 
 Biledulgerid 
 
 Bilin 
 
 Bilious Fever (see Fever) . . 
 
 Bill of Exchange 
 
 Lading 
 
 Rights. 
 
 Bill in Equity 
 
 Billiards 
 
 Islington (Elizabeth) 
 
 Bingen 
 
 Binglev 
 
 Binnacle 
 
 Binomial 
 
 Bioernstaehl (James Jonas) . 
 Biology and Biometry (see 
 
 Life) 
 
 Bion 
 
 Biot (Jean Baptiste) 
 
 Birch 
 
 103 
 
 106 
 
 107 
 
 (Thomas) 
 
 Bird (Edward) 
 
 Island (several islands of 
 
 this name) 
 
 Birds (see Ornithology) .... 
 
 ' Nest 
 
 Biren (Ernst John von) .... 
 
 Birman Empire 
 
 Birmingham 
 
 Biron (duke of) 
 
 Birth (see Labor) 
 
 Biscay 
 
 (bay of) 
 
 108 
 
 109 
 
 110 
 
 115 
 
 Biscay (bay of,Newfoundland) 116 
 
 New (in Mexico) .... " 
 
 Bischofswerder " 
 
 Bishop 
 
 's Hood (see Mitre) . . 116 
 
 's Staff (see Crosier) 
 
 Bismark (count) " 
 
 Bismuth " 
 
 Bison 117 
 
 Bissago 118 
 
 Bisset (Robert) " 
 
 Bitaube (Paul Jeremiah) ... " 
 
 Bithyiiia " 
 
 Bilsch 119 
 
 Bittern " 
 
 Bitumen " 
 
 Bivouack 120 
 
 Blacas (count) " 
 
 Black (Joseph) " 
 
 Art (see Magic) " 
 
 Blackbird 7! " 
 
 Blackfish 121 
 
 Black Forest 122 
 
 Blackfriars' Bridge 123 
 
 Blackguard " 
 
 Black-Lead (see Plumbago). " 
 
 Blacklock (Thomas) " 
 
 Blackmore (sir Richard) . . . 124 
 Black Rock (see Buffalo). . . 123 
 
 Sea " 
 
 Blackstone (sir William) ... 124 
 Canal . . . . 126 
 
 129 
 
 130 
 
 Bladensbun 
 
 Blair (Hugh) " 
 
 (John) " 
 
 (Robert) " 
 
 Blake (admiral) 127 
 
 Blakeley (Johnston) 128 
 
 Blanc, Mont (see Mont Blanc 
 
 Blanchard (Frai^ois) 
 
 Blanco (cape) 
 
 Blangini (G. M. M. Felice). 
 
 Blank Verse 
 
 Blasphemy 
 
 Blasting 
 
 Blazoning 
 
 Bleaching " 
 
 Blemmyes " 
 
 Blende (see Zinc) 131 
 
 Blenheim " 
 
 Blessing 132 
 
 Blight " 
 
 Blind 133 
 
 (institutions for the) ... " 
 
 Blinds 135 
 
 Blister 136 
 
 Bloch (Marcus Eliezer) .... " 
 
 Blockade " 
 
 Blockhouse " 
 
 Blocks " 
 
 Bloemart (Abraham) 137 
 
 Blois " 
 
 Blomfield (Charles James) . . " 
 
 (Edward Valentine) " 
 
 Blonde! 
 
 Blood (Thomas) 
 
 (in animals) 
 
 Vessels 
 
 Bloodhound 
 
 Bloomfield (Robert) 
 
 Blowing-Machines 
 
 Blowpipe 
 
 Blucher ( prince | 
 
 Blue (see Color) 
 
 Bluebird 
 
 Blue (Prussian) 
 
 138 
 
 139 
 140 
 
 141 
 143
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 595 
 
 Blue Ridge 144 
 
 Bonner (Edmund) 186 
 
 Bots (see CEstrus) 216 
 
 
 Bonnet (in fortification) .... " 
 Bonnet (Charles) " 
 
 Botta (Carlo G. G.) 215 
 
 
 Bottles 215 
 
 Blumenbach (John Frederic) " 
 Boa " 
 
 
 
 Bonneval (count of) " 
 
 Botzen 216 
 
 
 Bonnycastle (John) " 
 
 Bouchardon (Edmund) " 
 
 Boat " 
 
 Bonpland ( Aime) 188 
 
 Boucher (Alexander) " 
 
 
 Bonstetten (Charles von) ... " 
 Bonzaniga (Giuseppe) " 
 
 
 Boccage (Marie Anne du) . . 148 
 
 Bouches-du-Rhone 217 
 
 
 Boudinot (Elias) " 
 
 
 Book-keeping 189 
 
 Boudoir . " 
 
 Bochica " 
 
 Books, (catalogues of) 190 
 
 Boufflcrs (marshal dej " 
 
 
 
 
 Bode (John Elert) " 
 
 Book-Trade 189 
 
 Bougainville (L. Antoine de) 218 
 Bouille (marshal de) " 
 
 Bodin (Jean) " 
 
 Boone (Daniel) 193 
 
 Bodleian Library (see Libra- 
 ries) 150 
 
 Boors 194 
 
 Bouillon " 
 
 
 Bouilly ( J. N ) 219 
 
 Bodlev (sir Thomas) . . " 
 
 Bootes 195 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bopp (Francis) " 
 
 (wood of) 220 
 
 Boce (see BotHhius) 151 
 
 Bora (Catharine von) " 
 
 Boulton (Matthew) " 
 
 
 
 
 
 Borak Al (see Alborak) 197 
 
 Bourbon family 222 
 
 Boerhaave . ... 152 
 
 (duke of) 221 
 
 Boe-thius(A.M.T.Severinus) 153 
 Boettcher (John Frederic) . . 154 
 Bogdanowitsch (H. F.) " 
 Bogota " 
 
 Bordeaux (see Bourdeaux) . " 
 
 (isle of) "25 
 
 . . . (Louis) .... " 
 
 Bordentown 198 
 
 
 
 Bourdaloue (Louis) " 
 
 
 Boreal " 
 
 
 
 
 Bourdon (Sebastian) 227 
 
 dama Cataract of) " 
 
 Borghese 199 
 
 Bourges " 
 
 
 
 Bourgogne (see Burgundy) . " 
 Boungnon (Antoinette) .... " 
 Boursault (Ednie) .... " 
 
 
 
 
 Borgia (Caesar) 200 
 
 est . . . . 158 
 
 (Stefano) 201 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Boring " 
 
 
 Boiardo (Matteo Maria) .... 164 
 Boil " 
 
 
 Bow .... " 
 
 Bornholm . ... 202 
 
 (in music) 229 
 
 Boileau ( Despreaux Nicliolas) 165 
 Boiler (see Steam, and Steam 
 
 
 
 Borodino (sec Moscow, Bat- 
 tle of ) 203 
 
 Bowdich (Thomas Edward) . " 
 Bowdoin (James) . . . 230 
 
 
 Borough " 
 
 Bower (see Anchor) " 
 Boxing (see Gymnastics) ... " 
 
 
 Boissonade (Jean Francois) . " 
 Boiaca (battle of) " 
 Bole " 
 
 
 Borstell (L. G. Leopold von) 204 
 Bory -de-Saint-Vincent " 
 
 Boydell (John) " 
 
 Boyeldieu (Adrian) 231 
 
 
 
 
 Bolin^broke (viscount) 167 
 
 Bosc (L. Antoine Guillaume) 205 
 Boscan (Almogaver Juan) . . " 
 
 (Jean Pierre) " 
 
 Bolivar (Simon) 169 
 
 Bovle (Robert) . . 232 
 
 Bolivia 176 
 
 Bovlstoii (Zabdiel) 233 
 
 Bollandists 177 
 
 Boscovich (Roger Joseph) . . " 
 Boshmen (see Hottentots) . . . 206 
 Boshuanas (see Bushwanas) . " 
 Bo<;io (N ) " 
 
 Boyne " 
 
 Bollman (Erich) " 
 
 
 Bologna " 
 
 Brabant " 
 
 Bomb 178 
 
 Brachmans (see Gymnoso- 
 pliists) 234 
 
 Bombast 179 
 
 Bosjesmen (see Hottentots). . " 
 
 liombay " 
 
 
 Bombelles (marquis de) .... 180 
 Bomb-Ketch " 
 
 
 Bracton (Henry de) '' 
 
 Bossi (baron de) . . 207 
 
 Braddock (Edward) " 
 
 Bona " 
 
 Bossuet (Jacques Benigne) . . " 
 Bostangi . 208 
 Boston (in Eng ) " 
 
 Bradford (William) " 
 
 Dea 
 
 Bradley (James) 235 
 
 
 
 Braga (see Mythology, North- 
 ern) '' 
 
 Bonaventura (John of Fidan- 
 za) 181 
 
 Boswcll (James) 210 
 
 Bosworth 211 
 
 Braganza '' 
 
 Bond 182 
 
 Bondage (see Villenage) ... " 
 
 Botany " 
 
 Brahe, Tycho de (seeTycho) 236 
 
 
 Bondy (count of) " 
 
 Wales) . 214 
 
 Brahma (see Brama) " 
 
 
 Both (John and Andrew) ... " 
 Bothnia (East) " 
 
 Brailow (see Brahilow) . . . .' " 
 Brails " 
 
 Boner (Ulrich) 183 
 
 Boneset " 
 
 (rrulf O f\ " 
 
 
 Boniface (popes) . " 
 
 (West) " 
 
 Brainerd (David) 237 
 
 (St ) 184 
 
 Bothwell (in Scotland) " 
 . (carl) " 
 
 ... ._ (jn Tcnn ) "38 
 
 Bonn (in Prussia) 185 
 
 Brakenburg (Regner) " 
 Brama " 
 
 (Andrew) . . . " 
 
 Botocudes . . . "
 
 696 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 
 238 
 
 239 
 240 
 
 n 
 t 
 
 Brienne (in France) 270 
 
 Brown (Charles Brockden). . 284 
 
 
 
 Brandenburg (province) .... 
 
 nie) 271 
 
 
 Brig " 
 Brigade " 
 
 
 
 
 Brandt (Nicholas) 
 
 Brigandine " 
 Brifantine (see Brig) " 
 
 (William) '< 
 
 Browne (count) . . . . 287 
 
 Brandy (see Distillation) . . . 
 
 
 
 Bright " 
 
 (sir Thomas) 288 
 
 
 241 
 
 < 
 < 
 
 242 
 
 a 
 
 243 
 
 250 
 251 
 
 252 
 u 
 
 IS 
 
 253 
 
 n 
 n 
 
 254 
 it 
 
 
 <i 
 
 11 
 255 
 
 256 
 
 257 
 
 
 258 
 M 
 
 259 
 
 u 
 
 260 
 
 u 
 
 264 
 
 
 
 265 
 t< 
 
 266 
 
 u 
 
 269 
 
 
 u 
 
 H 
 II 
 
 270 
 
 Briglithelmstone " 
 
 Browny " 
 
 Brasil (see Brazil) 
 
 Brighton, in Eng. (see Bright- 
 
 Bruce (James) . . " 
 
 
 (Michael) "89 
 
 
 
 - (Robert) " 
 
 Brauwer (Adrian) 
 
 Brilliant (see Diamond) 272 
 
 (Robert, son of the pre- 
 ceding) . . . 290 
 
 Bravo (Nicholas) 
 
 
 
 Bruges (in the Netherlands) . " 
 
 Bray (vicar of) 
 (count de) 
 
 Bring-to " 
 Brinkmann (Charles G.) ... " 
 
 Brugmans (Sebald Justinus) . 291 
 Bruhl (F. Aloysius, count of) " 
 (Henry, count of). ... " 
 (John Maurice) . 292 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Breach 
 Bread 
 
 Brisach " 
 
 Briseis (see Achilles) 273 
 
 Fruit 
 
 
 Brulotta (see Fire-Ship). ... " 
 Brunwire (the 18th of) " 
 
 Breakers 
 
 Brissac (see Cosse) " 
 
 Breaking Bulk. . . ..... 
 
 Brissot de Warville (Jean P.) " 
 Brissotins " 
 
 Brun (see Lebrun) " 
 
 Breakwater (see Cherbourg-, 
 Plymouth and Delaware) . 
 Breast (see Chest) 
 
 Brunck (R. Francis Philip) . " 
 Brundusium '' 
 Bruiie (marshal) . . u 
 
 Bristol (in Eng.) " 
 (in R.I.) 274 
 
 
 
 Bruuehaut (see Brunehild) . . 293 
 
 - - Wheel 
 
 
 - Work 
 
 New (in Australia) 275 
 
 Brunelleschi (Philip) 294 
 
 Breath 
 
 
 Brunei (James Charles) .... " 
 
 Breathing (see Respiration) . 
 Breccia. . . ... 
 
 
 Britinians 276 
 
 Brunhildis (see Nibelungen) . " 
 Bruni (see Bruno, Giordano) " 
 
 Brechin 
 
 British America " 
 
 Breda. 
 
 
 Bredow (Gabriel Godfrey). . 
 Bree (Matthew van, &c.). . . 
 Breeches. ... 
 
 Channel) " 
 
 Bruim 295 
 
 
 
 Brittany " 
 
 (St ) " 
 
 Breeching 
 
 Brizard (see French Theatre) 277 
 
 
 Breezes (see Winds) . . . 
 
 (Giordano) . 296 
 
 Breguet ( 4 L ) 
 
 
 Brunoiiian System (see Brown, 
 John) . 297 
 
 
 'to " 
 
 Breisgau (see Brisgau) .... 
 Breislak (Scipio) 
 
 Broad Piece ' 
 
 Brunswick (family of) .... " 
 (duchy of) " 
 
 Broadside ' 
 
 Breitkopf ( J. G. Emmanuel). 
 
 
 (city) 298 
 
 
 
 Brenner . 
 
 
 
 Brennus . . .... 
 
 Brody ' 
 
 Brunswick). . . " 
 (C W F duke of) " 
 
 Brentano (Clement) 
 
 Broekhuizen (Jan van) ' 
 Broglio (family of) 278 
 
 Brentford . . . . 
 
 (Fcrdin " " ) 99 
 
 Brescia 
 
 (duke of) " 
 
 (F Wm " " ) 300 
 
 Breslau . 
 
 Broker 279 
 
 (Lour E " " ) 301 
 
 Brest .... 
 
 Brome " 
 
 (M.J.L. prince of) " 
 
 Bretagne (see Brittany). . . . 
 
 Bromelia (see Pine-Apple). . " 
 
 Brush- Wheels " 
 
 Brussels " 
 
 Bretschneider (H. G. von) . , 
 Breughel (Peter &c ) 
 
 Bronkhorst (Peter van, &c.). " 
 Bronner (Francis Xaver). . . " 
 
 Brutus . A 302 
 
 
 Breve 
 
 
 Brevet 
 
 Bronzes 280 
 
 Bruyere (Jean de la) " 
 
 Breviary 
 
 
 Bruyn (Corneille le) 304 
 
 
 Bronzino (Angelo) " 
 
 Bryant (Jacob) " 
 
 Brewster (David) . 
 
 Brooding (see Ornithology) . " 
 Brooklvn 
 
 Bubna (count of) " 
 
 Breze (marcjuis de) 
 
 Buccaneers 305 
 
 Briareus 
 
 Brooks (John) 281 
 Broom' " 
 
 Bucentaur 306 
 Bucephalus " 
 
 Bribe 
 
 Briceno Mendez (Pedro). . . . 
 Brick 
 
 Brosses (Charles de) 282 
 Brothel (see Bawdy-House) . " 
 Brotherhood, Holy (see Her- 
 mandad) " 
 
 Bucer (Martin) " 
 Buch (Leopold von) ' 
 
 Bridewell Hospital 
 
 
 Bridffe . . 
 
 Bucliarest 307 
 
 
 Brotherhoods (see Fraterni- 
 ties) " 
 
 
 Bridgewater 
 
 Bucharia (Great). .' 308 
 
 
 
 (Little) 309 
 
 nal) 
 
 Brougham (Henry) " 
 
 Bucher (Anthony von) " 
 Buchholz (Paul F. Frederic) " 
 Buck ' " 
 
 Bridle j . . . . 
 
 Broughton's Archipelago . . . 283 
 Broussonet (P. M. Auguste) . " 
 Brower (see BrauwerT. . . . 284 
 
 Brief 
 
 Briel . . 
 
 Buckeburg (see Lippe) ..."
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 597 
 
 
 Buonarroti, Michelagnolo 
 (see Augelo) 324 
 
 Butter 349 
 
 
 Butterfly (see Papilio) " 
 
 Buckingham (duke of) " 
 _ - (duke of, son of 
 
 
 Buttmann (Philip Charles) . . " 
 Buttons 350 
 
 
 
 Burchiello (Domenico^ " 
 
 Buttresses " 
 
 Buckler (see Snield) " 
 
 Burckhard (John Louis). ... " 
 Burckhardt (John Charles). . 323 
 Burden " 
 
 Buttura (Antonio) . '' 
 
 ... (John) ..... ?12 
 
 
 Buckmiuster (Joseph S.) . . . " 
 
 
 
 
 Bucolics (see Pastoral Poetry) " 
 Buda " 
 
 Bureau 326 
 
 
 
 
 Buddha " 
 
 
 
 Bude (Guillaume) 314 
 
 Burger (Godfrey Augustus) . " 
 
 Buzzard ... . 3y-> 
 
 Budessin (see Bautzen) .... " 
 Budgell (Eustace) " 
 
 , '; B-1V IVt 
 
 Burghers (see Seceders) ... " 
 
 By-law " 
 
 Budget 315 
 
 Burglary " 
 
 Byles ( Mather) " 
 
 
 Burgomaster 322 
 
 Byng (John) 354 
 
 Buenaventura (in California) " 
 (in Colombia) " 
 
 Burgos " 
 
 Bynkershoeck (Coraelius) . . " 
 Bvron (John) 358 
 
 Burgoyne (John) " 
 
 
 Burguetta 329 
 
 --._, (lordl 154. 
 
 Buenos Ayres (country in S. 
 America). . " 
 _____ (city) 316 
 
 Burgundiaus " 
 
 ,.'s Island 359 
 
 Burgundy ( Lower) 331 
 
 Bvssus " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Buffalo (in N Y ) " 
 
 \Vinc " 
 
 
 
 Burial 332 
 
 
 Bufl'et " 
 
 
 c. 
 
 C 368 
 
 
 Burin 333 
 
 Buffone 318 
 
 Burkard (Waldis) " 
 
 
 Burke (Edmund) " 
 
 BuS^e ('fhomas) 319 
 
 Burleigh, lord (see Cecil) . . 335 
 Burlesque " 
 
 Cabal " 
 
 Bugle-Horn (see Horn) .... " 
 Buhrstone (see Quartz) .... " 
 Builth " 
 
 
 Burletta " 
 
 Cabala " 
 
 Burlington " 
 
 Cabanis (P. John George) . . 369 
 CabaiTus (count of) " 
 
 
 Burman Empire (see Birman 
 Empire) " 
 
 Bukharia (see Bucharia) ... " 
 Bukowina (see Galicia) .... " 
 Bulac . . " 
 
 Cabbage " 
 Cabbala (see Cabala) 370 
 
 (Gotttob William) 336 
 
 Cabello (see Porto Cabelloj . " 
 Cabenda " 
 
 
 Burmhan (see Birman Em- 
 pire) " 
 
 
 Cabin " 
 
 
 Burnet (Gilbert) " 
 
 
 Bulimia 320 
 
 (Thomas) " 
 
 Cabiri . " 
 
 Bulkh (see Afghanistan). ... " 
 Bulk-Heads " 
 
 Burnett (James) 337 
 
 Cable 371 
 
 Burney (Charles) ... " 
 
 
 Bull " 
 
 (Charles, son of the 
 
 Calx>t (George) " 
 
 
 preceding) " 
 
 (Sebastian) . . . 372 
 
 Do- " 
 
 Burning-Glass 338 
 
 Cabrera . 373 
 
 (papal) " 
 
 Burning Mirrors 339 
 
 Cabul " 
 
 Bullen, Anne (see Boleyn) . . 321 
 Bullers of Buchan " 
 Bulletin " 
 
 Burning of houses (see Arson) ' 
 Burnisher " 
 
 Cabulistan " 
 
 Cacao . . " 
 
 Bums (Robert) " 
 
 Cachao . . . 374 
 
 
 Burrampooter 341 
 
 
 Bull-Fights " 
 
 Burrill (James) " 
 
 
 Bullfincn 322 
 
 Bursa " 
 
 
 Bullfroo- (see Frog 1 ) 
 
 Burschen " 
 
 Cacodemon (see Demon) ... " 
 
 Bullion . . ..." 
 
 Burton (Robert) " 
 
 Bull, John (see John Bull) . . " 
 Bullock (see Ox) " 
 
 Burton-upon-Trent " 
 
 Cactus . . " 
 
 Bury St. Edmund's 342 
 
 Cacus 375 
 
 
 
 C'adalso (Jose) " 
 
 
 Busaco . . . . 343 
 
 Cada Mosto . . " 
 
 Bull's Bav " 
 
 Busbecq " 
 
 Cade (John) 376 
 
 Buhner (William) . . . . " 
 
 Busching( Anthony Frederic) " 
 Busembaum (Hermann). . . . 344 
 Bushel " 
 
 
 Bulow (Frederic William) .. " 
 (Henry von) . . . 323 
 
 Cader Idris " 
 Cadet " 
 
 Bulwark (see Bastion) " 
 
 Bushire " 
 
 de Vaux " 
 
 Bum-Boat " 
 
 Bushmen " 
 
 Cadi " 
 
 
 
 Cadiz "' 
 
 Bungalow " 
 
 Buskin " 
 
 (straits of) 377 
 
 Bungo " 
 
 Bust " 
 
 
 Bunk " 
 
 Bustard " 
 
 
 Bunker Hill (see Charles- 
 town) " 
 
 Butchers 3-16 
 
 Caduceus " 
 
 Bute (earl of) " 
 
 
 Bunt " 
 
 (island of, Scotland) . . " 
 Butler (James) . . . 347 
 
 Cselius Mons 378 
 
 Bunting " 
 
 Caen " 
 
 
 (Joseph) 348 
 
 Caerleon u 
 
 Buonaparte (see Bonaparte). 324 
 
 (Samuel) . . . " 

 
 598 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Caernarvon 379 
 Caerphilly " 
 
 Calcutta 396 
 Caldara (Polidoro) 397 
 
 ^amaieu 425 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ualdas de Monbuy " 
 Calder 398 
 
 I^ambaceres (Jean J. Regis) " 
 Cambodia (country in Asia) . 426 
 (river in Asia). . . " 
 Cambray " 
 
 Csesar " 
 
 
 Calderari " 
 
 Csesarea 382 
 
 Calderon " 
 
 Caesarean Operation (see 
 Midwifery) " 
 
 Caleb 400 
 
 
 Caledonia " 
 
 (in Eng ) '127 
 
 
 (inN Y 1 " 
 
 (duke of) 128 
 
 
 .. ., __ New (in N A ) " 
 
 
 Caf " 
 
 - (in the Pacific) " 
 
 
 Cafe (see Coffee-Houses). . . " 
 Cafia " 
 
 
 I^ambyses (two of this name) " 
 
 Calembours' . . . . 401 
 
 (strait of) " 
 
 *~i i i ^ 
 
 Camel 430 
 
 Caflarelli (see Majorano) ... " 
 du Falga " 
 
 
 
 Calender 404 
 
 Hameleon (see Chameleon) . " 
 Camelopard " 
 
 Caffe (Daniel) 383 
 
 Calenders " 
 
 Calfila " 
 
 
 
 Caffraria " 
 
 Calenture ' 
 
 Cameo " 
 
 Caffres " 
 
 
 Camera ./Eolia " 
 
 Caftan 384 
 Caglia, cape (see Matapan, 
 
 Caliber ' 
 
 - Clara " 
 
 
 Calicut 405 
 
 ra Clara) " 
 
 
 Calif and Califate (see Ca- 
 liph) ' 
 
 
 (Paul) . " 
 
 ra Clara) " 
 
 Cagliostro (count of) " 
 
 California (gulf of) ' 
 
 Camerarius (Joachim I). ... '' 
 (Joachim II) " 
 
 Cagnoli (Anthony) 385 
 
 ... (New) ' 
 
 Cagots 386 
 
 . (Old) ' 
 
 Camerlingo 434 
 
 Canoes Falls (see Mohawk) . " 
 Cahors Wine " 
 
 Caligula (Caius C. A. G.) . . ' 
 Caliph 407 
 
 Cameronians " 
 
 Games " 
 
 Caiaphas " 
 
 Calixtins 412 
 
 Camillus (Marcus Furius). . . " 
 Camisards 435 
 
 Caic " 
 
 Calixtus (popes) 413 
 
 
 
 Camlet . . . " 
 
 Cailas " 
 
 Calk 1 414 
 
 Camma " 
 
 Caillaud (Frederic) " 
 
 Calkar (see Calcar) " 
 
 Camosnae " 
 
 Caille (Auguste) " 
 
 Calkoen ( Jan F. van Beek) . ' 
 Call ' 
 
 Camoens (Louis de) " 
 
 (Nicholas Louis de la) 387 
 Caimacan 388 
 
 Camomile 437 
 
 Callao ' 
 
 Camp " 
 
 Caiman (see C aymau Islands) " 
 
 
 Campagna di Roma " 
 
 
 
 Cain " 
 
 Callisen (Heiuy) 415 
 
 Campan (Jeanne Louise H.) 439 
 Campanella (Thomas) " 
 
 Caique (Grand) 389 
 
 Callisthenes " 
 
 Ca-Ira " 
 
 Callisthenics (see Gymnastics) " 
 Callisto " 
 
 Campania " 
 
 Cairn " 
 
 Campanile " 
 
 Cairngorm " 
 
 Callot (Jaques) " 
 
 Campbell (George) 440 
 
 Cairo " 
 
 Callus " 
 
 
 
 Calmar " 
 
 - (Thomas) . . " 
 
 Caius 390 
 
 Calmet (Augustine) 416 
 
 Campe (Joachim Heinrich). . 441 
 Campeachy " 
 
 Cajeput Oil " 
 
 
 Calabar " 
 
 Calmucs " 
 
 Camper (Peter) " 
 
 Calabash-Tree " 
 
 Calomel (see Mercury) .... 417 
 Calonne (C. Alexander de) . " 
 Caloric 418 
 
 Campetti 442 
 
 Calabrese 391 
 
 
 Calabria " 
 
 Campistron(JeanGalbertde) 443 
 Campo Chiaro (duke of) ... " 
 
 Calahorra 392 
 
 Calorimeter . 420 
 
 Calais . " 
 
 Calorimeter (see Galvanic 
 Battery) " 
 
 
 Campomanes (count of). . . . 444 
 Campus Martius " 
 
 
 Calottists " 
 
 straits of) " 
 
 Caloyers " 
 
 
 Calaite (see Turquoise) .... " 
 Calamanco " 
 
 Calpe (see Abyla and Gib- 
 raltar) " 
 
 Canaan (see Palestine) .... " 
 Canada " 
 
 Calamata (see Greece) .... " 
 
 Calprenede (G. de C. de la). " 
 Calpuruius (Titus Julius) ... " 
 Caltrop . . 421 
 
 (Lower) " 
 
 
 Calamines " 
 
 Canaille 447 
 
 Calamus 393 
 
 Calumet " 
 
 Canal " 
 
 Calandra (see Mosaic) " 
 Galas (John) " 
 
 
 Canals of Eg>-pt 448 
 
 
 China 449 
 
 Calatrava (see Orders) .... " 
 
 
 Italy 450 
 
 Calvary " 
 
 Russia " 
 
 Calcarious Spar (see Lime) . " 
 Calchas . " 
 
 Calvert (George) " 
 
 
 Calvin (John) 422 
 
 
 Calcination 394 
 
 
 , Holland " 
 
 Calcography (see Engraving) " 
 Calculus " 
 
 Calvisius (Seth) " 
 
 
 Calx . 425 
 
 
 
 Calydon " 
 
 France " 
 
 (in animals) " 
 
 Calypso . . . 
 
 Great Britain 453
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 599 
 
 
 Cape of Good Hope (colony) 491 
 
 Carbuncle (see Garnet) . . . 514 
 
 Canaletto (Antonio, &c.) . . . 466 
 
 
 Carcass " 
 
 Canary-Bird (see Finch) . . . 467 
 . (Grand) , , . " 
 
 Horn " 
 
 Carcinoma (see Cancer) ... " 
 Card , " 
 
 
 
 Town " 
 
 
 
 Verde 493 
 
 
 Root ' 46 
 
 Verde Islands " 
 Capellen (baron de) " 
 
 Cardinal 516 
 
 
 Candi 469 
 
 Capello (Bianca) " 
 
 Virtues 517 
 
 
 Caper 494 
 
 
 Candidate . . 471 
 
 
 Careening " 
 Carew (Thomas) " 
 
 Candida 472 
 
 Capernaum " 
 
 
 Capet 495 
 
 Canrillites. ... " 
 
 Cane ( see Bamboo and Rat an ) " 
 
 Capi Aga " 
 
 
 Capias 496 
 
 Cariati (prince). . . ** 
 
 Canga-Arguelles (don Jose) . " 
 Cange, Du (see Du Fresne) . 473 
 
 Capigi (see Capi Aga) .... 497 
 Capillary Tubes " 
 
 Cariatides (see Caryatides 
 and Architecture) . 518 
 
 
 
 
 Capital (in political econo- ' 
 mv) '' 
 
 Caribbee Bark. ... " 
 
 
 
 Cannibals (see Anthropophagi 
 arid Caribs) " 
 
 
 
 
 Caribs (ee Caribbees) " 
 
 
 Architecture) .... 500 
 ^ Offence (see Crime) " 
 
 Caricature " 
 
 
 Carignano (prince) 519 
 
 Cano (Alonzo, or Alexis) . . . 476 
 Canobus (see Canopiis) .... " 
 
 
 
 Death, punishment of) ... 
 
 Carimhia 520 
 
 C<irisimi (Giacomo) ... " 
 
 
 
 Carita . . " 
 
 (in the arts) " 
 
 Capite Ceusi ' 
 
 Carlcton (sir Guv). . . " 
 
 
 
 Carli (count) " " 
 
 of the Scriptures .... 478 
 
 Capitular}' 501 
 
 Carlin " 
 
 
 Carlisle (in England) 521 
 
 
 Capnist (VVassil Wassilje- 
 witsch) 502 
 
 
 
 Carlos (don) " 
 
 Canonical Books (see Canon 
 and Apocryphal) 481 
 
 Capo d'Istria (count of). ... " 
 . (in Austria) . . " 
 
 Carlovitza . 523 
 
 
 Capoc . 503 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Carlsruhe . " 
 
 
 
 Carlstadt " 
 
 (castle) 482 
 
 Capri 
 Capriccio " 
 
 Carmagnole . 525 
 
 Canova (Antonio) " 
 
 CarmfH " 
 
 Canstein (Charles H. von) . . 484 
 Cantabile " 
 
 Caprification (see Figs) .... ' 
 Capsicin a 
 Capstan " 
 
 Carmer (count of) 526 
 
 Cannine " 
 
 Cantabri " 
 
 Cantacuzeno(Geo.andAlex.) " 
 Cantacuzenus (John) 485 
 
 Captain 504 
 
 Carnatic " 
 
 Capture (<ee Prize) 505 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cantata " 
 
 Capuchins (see Franciscans). '' 
 Caput-mortuum " 
 
 Carnelian (see Quartz) .... 527 
 
 Canteen 486 
 
 Cantemir (Demetrius) " 
 
 
 
 
 
 Carnot (L \ M ) 528 
 
 Cantharidcs " 
 
 Carabobo 
 
 Caro (Annibale) 529 
 
 Cantharidin . .... 487 
 
 
 
 Canticles (see Solomon, Song 
 of) . . ..." 
 
 Caracas 506 
 
 Mnrii (of Naples) 530 
 
 
 (North) ... . " 
 
 Cant Timbers 484 
 
 
 (South) 53 
 
 Cantiiun 487 
 
 
 Caroline Amelia Elizabeth . . 534 
 
 
 
 
 
 .- Matilda (of Denmark) " 
 
 Canton " 
 
 Carafa (Michael) ' 
 
 Carp " 
 
 Canute 1 488 
 
 
 
 Canzona . -189 
 
 
 
 Canzonet " 
 
 Carascosa (baron) 508 
 Carava<^gio(Mich.Ang.Am.) " 
 
 Carpets " 
 Carpi (Girolamo da) 537 
 
 Caoutchouc " 
 
 Cap . . 490 
 
 (U~o da> " 
 
 Caue . . " 
 
 
 
 Ann " 
 Breton 
 
 Caravansaries " 
 Caravan Tea (see Tea) " 
 Caraway Seeds 509 
 
 Carreras (family) 538 
 Carrier, common (see Com- 
 mon Carrier) .... 539 
 (John Baptist) " 
 
 Cod .... 491 
 
 Fear . " 
 
 
 ^^ Fear River . . " 
 
 
 Pigeon " 
 
 Fran9ois (see Cape 
 
 Carbonic Acid (see Carbon) . .314 
 
 Carro (Giovanni di) 540 
 
 Carroll (John) . " 
 
 of Good Hope . . . " 
 
 bon) . . . " 
 
 Carron "
 
 600 
 
 CONTENTS, 
 
 Carronades 541 
 
 
 Catechesis . . ffJS 
 
 
 
 Catechetical Schools " 
 
 Carrying Trade (see Com- 
 merce) " 
 
 
 
 Cassia " 
 
 Catechu 680 
 
 Carstares (William) " 
 
 Cassina (see Cashna) " 
 
 
 Ciirsteus (Asmus Jacob). . . . 542 
 Cur'e (Thomas) " 
 
 
 Category " 
 
 Cassino 559 
 
 
 Cartel 543 
 
 Cassiodorus (Marcus Aurel.) " 
 
 Caterpillar (see Papilio). ... " 
 Catgut " 
 
 Carter (Elizabeth) " 
 Cartes, Des (see Descartes) . " 
 
 
 Cathari 581 
 
 Cassiterides. " 
 
 Catharine (St ) 682 
 
 
 Cassius ( Longinus Caius) . . " 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cast (see Casting) 561 
 
 
 (city in Colom- 
 bia) " 
 
 
 ... dc Medici 583 
 
 Castagno (Andrea del) .... 562 
 Castanets " 
 
 1 of Russia . . . 584 
 
 
 II . 585 
 
 
 Castaiios (don Francisco de). " 
 Caste " 
 
 p ;lrr 533 
 
 
 
 Cartouch 547 
 
 Castelciciila (prince of) .... 563 
 Castello (Gabriel Lancelot) . " 
 Casti (Giambattista) " 
 
 Cat-Harpings 589 
 
 Cartouche (Louis Dominique) " 
 
 Cathedral " 
 
 
 
 Castiglione (Baldassare). . . . 564 
 Castile " 
 Castillo (Jose Maria del) ... 665 
 Castine " 
 
 
 (John) " 
 
 
 Carver (Jonathan) 548 
 
 Gary (Lucius) 549 
 
 Caryatides . 550 
 
 Castin" " 
 
 Casa (Giovanni della) " 
 
 Castlereagh (see Londonder- 
 ry) 567 
 
 
 (J J dc Scing'ilt) " 
 
 
 Casas (Bartholomew de las). 551 
 
 and Pollux ... " 
 
 Oil " 
 
 
 
 
 Castrates " 
 
 Case (action upon the) " 
 
 Castriot (see Scanderbeg). . . 569 
 Castnun Doloris " 
 
 in grammar (see Lan- 
 
 
 , . c ' .. 
 
 Cat " 
 
 Casemates 553 
 
 
 
 
 Cases, count of (see Las 
 Cases) " 
 
 Catafalco (see Castmm Dolo- 
 ris) " 
 
 
 Catalan! (Angelica) " 
 
 Goat " 
 
 
 Cashna 554 
 
 Catalogues of Books (see 
 Books, Catalogues of) ... " 
 
 Cashoo " 
 
 Casimir III, the Great .... " 
 
 Catamenia " 
 
 
 
 
 Cataplasms " 
 
 
 
 
 Cataract '' 
 
 Cassas (Louis Francis) " 
 
 
 Catarrh 678 
 
 (court of ). . , . " 
 
 Cat-Bird.. , . 570
 
 UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA 
 
 AT 
 
 LOS ANGELES 
 LIBRARY
 
 /