GIFT OF JH4 o TWENTIETH CENTURY TEXT-BOOKS CLASSICAL SECTION EDITED BY JOHN HENRY WRIGHT, HARVARD UNIVERSITY BERNADOTTE PERRIN, YALE UNIVERSITY ANDREW FLEMING WEST, PRINCETON UNIVERSITY TWENTIETH CENTURY TEXT-BOOKS A LATIN GRAMMAR FOR SCHOOLS BY ANDREW FLEMING WEST PROFESSOR OF LATIN IN PRINCETON UNIVERSITY QVI ERGO DOCET VITABIT VERBA OMNIA QVAE NON DOCENT RABANUS MAURUS NEW YORK D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 1902 COPYRIGHT, 1902 BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY Published April, 1902 FILIOLO MEO AMATISSIMO AMANTISSIMO 411392 PREFACE THIS book is planned to give as much grammar as is serviceable in the school study of Latin. If Latin grammar is to be understood and relished by boys, it must be con- fined to the most necessary facts, and these must be pre- sented in a clear and pleasing way. Ut intelligamur in- standum est, ' ' insist on being understood, ' ' was the maxim of a very great teacher, and should be the supreme rule in presenting the elements of any subject. Living directness of statement, even at the risk of missing the finer shadings, is better than inanimate precision. A sketch in outline con- tains less, but tells the beginner far more than an elabo- rated picture does. Scientific Latin grammar is not for boys, but for men. The best that can be done for a boy is to acquaint him surely with the facts of first value for him the facts he can use in reading his school authors. This is enough ; for the authors he is to read represent the best period of Latin and serve to introduce him to the literature generally. The object is not to make grammarians or Latinists, but to educate the boy to train his taste and judgment in the field of language and literature by means of one of the most powerful instruments that can be used. Latin grammar has been making and unmaking for two thousand years. Great grammarians have searched every nook and corner of the subject. Most of the best (and worst) things have been said. Accordingly, while an elementary grammar offers opportunities for improved restatement, it affords little chance to write with originality without writing fiction. In issuing this book I wish to acknowledge unre- servedly the abundant help received from leading writers, vii viii LATIN GRAMMAR American, English, and German, and especially from those who have done so much in our own land to clarify the school grammars. The penetrating researches of Hale, the pure brightness of Lane's renderings, the lucid order of Gildersleeve, the exactness of Lodge, the mastery of sum- mary statement in Bennett, the steady good sense in Hark- ness, and the critical carefulness of Allen and Greenough's grammar all these, I hope, have in some degree influenced this little manual, which is under many obligations to them. The Schmalz-Wagener and Ellendt-Seyifert grammars, as well as other German school editions, have likewise been constantly useful in suggestion. The fundamental studies of the masters in scientific grammar, upon which all our school grammars rest, have also been consulted at need again and again. I must mention in addition the very valuable help given by my colleagues, Professor Westcott and Dr. Charles Alexander Robinson, in solving many difficulties and in reading the proofs. Acknowledgment of friendly aid is also due to my fellow-editors in this series. Puerulus mindbit eos is an old word of prophecy, where- unto writers of school-books will " do well that they take heed, as unto a light shining in a dark place." Thus warned, I have tried to keep in ever-present view the needs of the boys and girls for whom this book has been made. If it shall lead them, without too many scratches, through what Alcuin long ago so picturesquely styled ' ' the thorny thickets of grammatical density," it will have been well worth the writing. ANDREW F. WEST. PRINCETON UNIVERSITY. CONTENTS (The numbers refer to sections) INTRODUCTORY 1-12 FIEST PAKT : SOUNDS . . . 13-40 I THE ALPHABET : Letters, 13-15 ; Vowels and Diphthongs, 16 ; Consonants, 17-25 ; Pronunciation, 26-29. II SYLLABLES: Definition, 30; Division, 31; Quantity, 32-37; Accent, 38-40. SECOND PAET: WOEDS. . . 41-276 A. THE PARTS OF SPEECH, 41-46. I NOUNS: Kinds, 47, 48; Genders, 49-52; Numbers, 53; Cases, 54, 55. Declensions, 56-58; First, 59-63; Second, 64-72; Third, 73-92 ; Fourth, 93-96 ; Fifth, 97, 98 ; Stems and Endings of all Declensions, 99. Indeclinable, Defective and Variable Nouns, 100-106. II ADJECTIVES: Declensions, 107; First and Second, 108- 112; Third, 113-117; Indeclinable, 118. Comparison, 119-129; Numerals, 130-135. III PRONOUNS : Kinds, 136 ; Personal, 137 ; Reflexive, 138 ; Possessive, 139, 140; Demonstrative, 141-145; In- tensive, 146; Relative, 147; Interrogative, 148; In- definite, 149, 150 ; Pronominal and Correlative Ad- jectives, 151, 152 ; Tables, 153, 154. IV VERBS : Definitions, 155-157 ; Voices, 158 ; Moods, 159 ; Tenses, 160, 161 ; Numbers, 162 ; Persons, 163. Conjugation, 164; Stems, 165, 166; Tense and Mood Signs, 167 ; Personal Endings, 168, 169. X LATIN GRAMMAR The Four Regular Conjugations, 170, 171 ; Synopsis, 172; Conjugation of sum, 173; First Conjugation, 174, 175; Second Conjugation, 176, 177; Third Con- jugation, 178, 179; Fourth Conjugation, 180, 181; Verbs in -io, 182-184; Deponent, 185, 186; Semi- Deponent, 187; Periphrastic, 188; Peculiar Forms, 189-192. Changes of Stem, 193-197; Lists of Verbs giving Principal Parts, 198-220. Irregular Verbs, 221-229 ; Defective, 230-232 ; Imper- sonal, 233. THE PARTICLES, 234 V ADVERBS: Formation, 235-237; Comparison, 238-239; Classes, 240. VI PREPOSITIONS, 241-246. VII CONJUNCTIONS: Kinds, 247; Coordinate, 248-253; Sub- ordinate, 254-261. VIII INTERJECTIONS, 262. B. THE FORMATION OF WORDS, 263 : Derivatives, 264-273 ; Com- pounds, 274-276. THIED PAET : SENTENCES . . 277-663 I THE SENTENCE IN GENERAL: Definitions, 277, 278; Ways of Stating, 279; Direct Questions, 280-283; Kinds of Sen- tences, 284-287 ; How Words are Combined, 288 ; Rules for Combining, 289-304. II USES OF NOUNS: The Cases, 305; Nominative, 306; Voca- tive, 307 ; Accusative, 308-325 ; Dative, 326-345 ; Genitive, 346-371 ; Ablative, 372-407. III USES OF ADJECTIVES: 408-418. IV USES OF PRONOUNS: 419-439. V USES OF VERBS: 440-655. THE FINITE VERB : 440-620 (I) VOICE, PERSON, NUMBER, 442. (II) TENSES, 443, 444; of Indicative, 445-460; of Subjunc- tive : in Leading Clauses, 461 ; in Subordinate Clauses (Sequence of Tenses), 462-472 ; of Impera- tive, 473-475. CONTENTS xi (III) MOODS : 476. A. In Principal Clauses, 477-496. Indicative, 477-479. Subjunctive, 480; Volitive, 481-483; Optative, 484; Conditional, 485-490 ; with Negatives, 491, 492 ; in Questions, 493 ; with Indefinite Second Person, 494. Imperative, 495, 496. B. In Subordinate Clauses, 497-620. I Uses of Subordinate Clauses, 498-501. 1. As Nouns (Substantive Clauses), 498, 499. 2. As Adjectives (Attributive Clauses), 500. 3. As Adverbs (Adverbial Clauses), 501. II Forms of Subordinate Clauses, 502-620. 1. Introduced by a Conjunction (Conjunctional Clauses), 503-579 ; Transition to Conjunc- tional Clauses, 504, 505 ; Clauses of Purpose, 506-518 ; Clauses of Result, 519-528 ; Clauses of Time, 529-540 ; Clauses of Cause, 541-549 ; Clauses of Condition, 550-565 ; THE CONDI- TIONAL SENTENCE, 551-562 ; Clauses of Com- parison, 566-568 ; Clauses of Concession, 569- 572 ; Negative Clauses with quin, 573-579. 2. Introduced by a Relative (Relative Clauses), 580-589. 3. Introduced by an Interrogative (Indirect Ques- tions), 590-595. (SYNOPSIS OF MOODS, 596) 4. Governed by Verbs of Saying or Thinking (IN- DIRECT DISCOURSE): 597-619. Subjunctive by Attraction, 620. VERBAL NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES: 621-655 Infinitive, 622-636 ; Gerund and Gerundive, 637-644 ; Participle, 645-652 ; Supine, 653-655. VI USES OF ADVERBS: 656-663. APPENDIX: 664-740. Order of Words : Grammatical, 664-672 ; Rhetorical, 673-677. Prosody, 678-717 : Quantity of Syllables, 682-695 ; Verse and Metre, 696-717. Roman Calendar, Roman Names, Abbreviations, 718-728. English Pronunciation of Latin, 729-739. Figures of Speech, 740. INDEX OF LATIN WORDS 741 INDEX OF SUBJECTS , 742 LATIN GRAMMAR INTRODUCTORY LANGUAGE 1 If we are to be able to tell what we think about anything, we must know how to use some kind of Language. Every lan- guage is made up of Signs. A sign is that by which anything is made known. Thus, a red light on a railway is a sign of danger, and a white light is a sign of safety. The sound of the sunset gun at a fort is a sign to lower the flag. Other well-known signs or signals are the bugle-calls in an army, and the waving of flags or flashing of lights by ships passing at sea. 2 Then there are signs that come nearer to what we commonly mean when we speak of language ; that is, language in the sense of speech. Such are the movements of fingers made by the deaf and dumb, the clicks of the key in a telegraph- office, the picture-writing of American Indians, and the fig- ures of a sum in arithmetic. For in these last cases each sign usually means either some letter of the alphabet, as in the movements of fingers and the clicks of the telegraph, or some word, as in the Indian picture-writing and the figures of a sum in arithmetic. 3 But for all men who are able to talk, the one common and most useful kind of language is Speech, the language of words spoken and written. Spoken words last only while being spoken or remembered. Written words last longer, and may last for ages, if copies are correctly made and kept l 1 RAMMAR for reading. By this means we may learn what men said and thought thousands of years ago. 4 The two ways of learning a language are by speaking and reading. Our own language, or mother-tongue, is first learned by speaking and afterward by reading. Other lan- guages now spoken in the world are also best learned by speaking, followed by reading. Ancient languages, now no longer spoken, or but little spoken, are most usefully learned by reading. For there is no great need of learning to speak them in order to talk with others, and they are best worth learning in order to read, and so to understand, what has been preserved to us in the ancient writings, or books. . GRAMMAR 5 Grammar is the study which explains speech or language. Speech is made up of words. Spoken words are made up of sounds and written words of letters, which are nothing else than written sounds. Then words may be combined with other words to make sentences. There are thus three divi- sions in which we may study the words which make up a language : 1. The Sounds or letters of which words are made (Sounds) ; 2. The separate Words themselves (Etymology) ; 3. The combinations of words, or Sentences (Syntax). These are the three Parts of Grammar. 6 Words are of different kinds, according to their use and meaning. There are, first of all, the words which are used to name things or persons. They are called Nouns. Such are eagle, man, John, city, thirst, truth. Then there are the words which mean doing or being. They are called Yerbs. Such are see, write, suffer, come, is. Nouns and Yerbs are the two most important kinds of words. INTRODUCTORY 3 7 Then there are the words which describe or tell about Nouns. They are called Adjectives. Such are good, swift, large, many, three. Thus we say good 'man, swift eagle, three cities. Next come the Pronouns, or words used instead of Nouns. Such are he, they, who. Thus we may say he for John. There are also the words which usually describe or tell about Yerbs. They are called Adverbs. Sometimes they describe Adjectives or other Adverbs. Such are soon, slowly, very. Thus we may say come soon, write slowly, very good. 8 Besides these there are the Prepositions, little words placed before Nouns or Pronouns, and often used to bring out the idea of place or time more clearly. Such are in, from, after. Thus we say in school, after dark, seven from ten ( = seven taken from ten). There are also Conjunctions, or joining words, such as and, but, or. Thus we say hoys and girls, poor hut proud, sink or swim. Last of all are the Interjections or words of exclamation, such as oh ! alas ! halloo ! 9 These eight kinds of words include all the words in a lan- guage. They are called the Parts of Speech. The last four, being less important than the others, are called Particles " little parts " of Speech. Parts of Speech I. Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, II. Verbs, Adverbs, III. Prepositions, Conjunctions, Interjections. THE LATIN LANGUAGE 10 The Latin language is so named because it was first spoken by the ancient Latin tribe which inhabited the neighborhood of Rome. It gradually spread until it became the principal 4 LATIN GRAMMAR language of the Roman Empire, which once covered the whole western civilized world. It lasted as a spoken lan- guage well into the Middle Ages, and as the written language of scholars until about the middle of the eighteenth century. Some books are still written in Latin, and some scholars speak it. It is also used in our time as the language of the Roman Catholic Church. 11 It is the parent of the modern languages known as Romance languages such as French, Spanish, and Italian. One-half of all our English words are borrowed from foreign languages, and four-fifths of these borrowed words come either directly or in a roundabout way from the Latin. 12 A knowledge of Latin is not only a great help in understand- ing our own mother-tongue and other modern languages, but it also enables us to read the old Latin books, especially the so-called classical books, which are models of fine style, and contain treasures of information about the life, thought, and deeds of the ancient world. We may thus almost hear the great Romans as they tell their own story in their own words. FIRST PART: SOUNDS THE ALPHABET 13 The Latin alphabet is the same as the English, except that W is missing. The Romans wrote their books in capital letters. The small letters came into use early in the Middle Ages, and at the invention of printing, in the fifteenth century, were taken as models for the Roman types. Latin books, as well as most modern books and newspapers, are printed in Roman type. 14 K is rarely used. Y and Z were brought into Latin from Greek in the time of Cicero. 15 J as the consonantal form of I and U as the vowel form of V were not invented until the Middle Ages. Although J and U were not used by the Romans, it is convenient to retain them in order to make clear at the start the real difference in sound between J and I, U and V. VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS 16 Six letters are vowels, a, e, i, o, u, y. There are these six diphthongs : ae, oe, au, eu, ei, ui. However, eu, ei, ui are often sounded separately not as diphthongs. Other pairs of vowels are not diphthongs ; that is, they are rarely or never sounded together as one. Thus iu, ou, ie, ea, and so on, are not diphthongs. 6 LATIN GRAMMAR They are ph th ch CONSONANTS 17 All the other letters are consonants, divided into six classes : Mutes, Liquids, Nasals, Spirants, Semivowels, Double Consonants. 18 The Mutes (stopped sounds) are divided into Labials (lip sounds) p b Dentals (tooth sounds) t d Gutturals (throat sounds) c, k, q g 19 They are also divided into the Smooth or Voiceless p, t, c, k, q Middle or Voiced b, d, g Rough or Aspirate ph, th, ch A voiceless mute is sounded without vibration, and a voiced mute with vibration of the vocal cords. An aspirate is a voiceless mute with the breathing h added. 20 The sound of ph is not the same as /. The aspirates, ph, th, ch, are to be sounded as in up-hill, cart-horse, inkhorn. Table of Mutes 21 Smooth or Voiceless Middle or Voiced Rough or Aspirate Labials Dentals P t b d ph th Gutturals c, k, q S ch 22 The Liquids (flowing sounds) are 1, r. The Nasals (nose sounds) are m, n. When followed by a guttural, n has the sound of n in fling. Thus lingua, tongue, is sounded ling-gwa. 23 The Spirants (breathings) are f, s, h. 24 The Consonants j (sounded like y) and v (sounded like w) are called Semivowels. THE ALPHABET 7 25 There are two Double Consonants, x and z. x is equal to cs or gs, and z is probably equal to ds. PRONUNCIATION 26 The sounds of the letters, according to the pro- nunciation of the ancient Romans, are very nearly as follows : I. VOWELS The mark ~ over a vowel means it is long, and w that it is short. In this grammar the short vowels are not marked, ex- cept in a few special cases. The pupil should carefully remem- ber that every unmarked vowel is short. a as in the last a of a as in the first a of aha. aM. e as in whey. e as in whet. 1 as in pique. i as in pick. 6 as in omen. 6 as in omit. u as oo in pool. u as in put. y, y, like the Ger- man u. 27 Sometimes u is sounded as w. This always occurs in qu and in ngu before a vowel. Thus qul kivee and lingua = ling-gwa (see 22). It also occurs in su in the words suavis, suadeo, suesco. 28 Diphthongs ae like ai in aisle. eu like eu in feud. oe like oi in oil. ei like ei in feint. au like ow in owl. ui like we. 8 LATIN GKAMMAR II. CONSONANTS 29 Consonants are sounded as in English, ex- cept that b before s or t = p. c is always like k. g is always as in get. j is always like y in yet. r is slightly trilled. s is always as in this, never as in has. t is always as in notice, never as in notion. v is always like w. x is always like ks. SYLLABLES 30 In pronouncing Latin words the letters are sounded in syllables. A syllable is a separate vowel or diphthong, or a vowel or diphthong sounded with one or more consonants. Thus e ? from, et, and, haec, this, dum, while, are words of one syllable ; Roma, Rome, aurum, gold, are words of two syllables ; Romanus, Roman, and folium, leaf, are words of three syllables. A word has as many syllables as it contains separate vowels and diphthongs. SYLLABLES 9 31 In dividing words into syllables : 1. One consonant between two vowels must go with the following vowel. Thus Cae-sar, Caesar, a-xis, axle. 2. Of two or more consonants standing together, as many as may begin a word usually go with the following vowel. Thus ex-tra, beyond, ma-gnus, great. But this rule is not always true, for the division of syllables is as yet imperfectly under- stood. The combinations of consonants which may not be- gin a word or syllable are : (1) Repeated Consonants, as mm, tt. Thus mit-to, send. (2) A Liquid or Nasal (1, m, n, r) followed by a conso- nant. Thus ul-mus, elm, cor-pus, body, am-bo, both. 3. Compound words divide into their component parts. Thus ad-sum, / am here, red-I, come back. QUANTITY OF SYLLABLES 32 A syllable is long either by nature or by position. The Quantity of a syllable, whether long or short, is the time taken in sounding it. A long syllable is said to have twice the time of a short one ( equals ^^). 33 I. A syllable is long by nature if it contains a long vowel or a diphthong. The long vowel in the syllable is always long by nature not by position. Simple rules can not be given for determining all the vowels that are long. They must be learned by prac- tice. In this grammar all long vowels are marked. See 26. It is important to notice that 1. Diphthongs, vowels formed from diphthongs, and con- tracted vowels are long. Thus aurae, inlquus formed from in + aequus, cogo contracted from co-ago. 2. A vowel before j, nf, ns, and often before gn, is long. Thus hujus, infans, mensa, magnus. 10 LATIN GRAMMAR 34 Most words of one syllable are long by nature. Thus pes. sol, da, tu, qui, si, 6s (oris). But the following are short : Nouns: vir, lac, mel, fel, cor, os (ossis). Pronouns : quis, quid, .quod, quot, tot, is, id. Verb forms: dat, stat, it, scit, fer, fac. Also es from sum, but es from edo. Particles: ab, ad, an, at, sat, et, ut, ob, sub, sed, bis, cis, cum, dum, in, nee, per, ter, vel. Enclitics: -que, -ve, -ce, -te, -pte, -ne. 35 II. A syllable is long by position if it contains a short vowel followed by two or more con- sonants, or by a double consonant. Thus the syllable mors, containing a vowel short by na- ture, is long by position. So the syllable ab is short by nature, but becomes long by position in absolvo. In all such cases the vowel stays short. It is the syllable, never the vowel, which is long by position. It is important to remember that a vowel followed by nt or nd is regularly short, as amant, amandus. But qumtus, nondum. The breathing h is not to be counted a consonant in mak- ing position. 36 III. Almost all other syllables are short. Thus a syllable containing a short vowel followed by another vow^el, by h, or by a single consonant, is short ; as via, traho, amat The most important exceptions are 1. Some words taken from the Greek, as aer, Aeneas. 2. Genitives in -lus, as unlus. But utrtusque. ACCENT 11 37 A syllable is common (long or short at will) if it contains a short vowel followed by a mute and 1 or r. A common syllable is marked by *. Thus te-ne-brae. Such syllables are common in poetry only. In prose they are short. ACCENT 38 The last syllable of a word is called the ultima, the next to the last the penult, and the next before the penult the antepenult. 39 Words of two syllables are accented on the pe- nult : pa ter, ma ter. 40 Words of more than two syllables are accented on the penult, if the penult is long : Ro ma nus, pu e ro rum. Otherwise they are accented on the antepenult : ta bu la, ma ri ti mus. SECOND PART: WORDS THE PARTS OF SPEECH 41 Of the eight Parts of Speech in Latin, the fol- lowing five change their form to express change of meaning : Nouns, Adjectives, Pro- nouns, Verbs, Adverbs. The Prepositions, Con- junctions, and Interjections do not so change. 42 There are three kinds of change : Declension, Comparison, Conjugation. All changes of form may be included under the word In- flection, though it is also used in the sense of Declension only. 43 Declension is the simpler kind of change. It occurs in the endings of Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns. 44 Comparison is a special kind of change used to express the degree of Adjectives and Ad- verbs. 45 Conjugation is the more complicated kind of 12 change. It occurs in Verbs. NOUNS 13 46 Table of Inflection Nouns have Declension. Adjectives have Declension and Comparison. Pronouns have Declension. Verbs have Conjugation. Adverbs have Comparison. NOUNS KINDS OF NOUNS 47 Nouns are divided into Concrete and Abstract. A Concrete noun is the name of a person, place, or thing : homo, man. An Abstract noun is the name of a quality : amicitia, friendship. 48 Concrete nouns are divided into Proper and Common. A Proper noun is the name of some particular person, place, or thing : Caesar, Caesar, Tiberis, the Tiber. All others are Common. GENDERS OF NOUNS 49 There are three Genders : Masculine, Feminine, Neuter. Gender is either Natural or Gram- matical. 50 The rule for Natural Gender is : Names of males are Masculine ; names of 14 LATIN GRAMMAR females are Feminine. Thus pater, father, Cicero, Cicero-, soror, sister, Juno, Juno. 51 The rules for Grammatical Gender are : 1. Names of rivers, winds, and months are Masculine : Rhenus, Rhine, Eurus, east wind. 2. Most names of countries, islands, towns, and trees are Feminine : Corinthus, Corinth, Aegyptus, Egypt, quercus, oak. 3. Indeclinable nouns are Neuter : nihil, noth- ing. 4. The gender of other nouns is shown by the ending of the Nominative Singular. See 59, 64, 88-90, 93, 97. 52 Some nouns have two grammatical and natural genders masculine and feminine. Thus parens, parent, comes, com- panion. They are said to have Common Gender. Some names of animals have one grammatical and the two natural genders : aquila, f., eagle, anser, m., goose or gander. They are called Epicenes. NUMBERS OF NOUNS 53 There are two Numbers, the Singular mean- ing one, and the Plural meaning more than one. Thus arbor, sing., tree, arbores, pi., trees. CASES OF NOUNS 54 Nouns change their endings to express change in meaning. Thus porta, a gate, portae, of agate. The body of the word is called the Stem, to which is at- tached the Ending. NOUNS 15 The Ending is properly the part attached to the last let- ter of the Stem. In porta-s the ending is attached without change and in portae (for old porta-I) with change. Some cases have no Ending. Oftentimes the last letter or letters of the stem are weakened, otherwise altered, or lost ; as in the Nominatives porta, gate, from the older stem porta-, puer, boy, from puero-, leo, lion, from Icon-, virgo, maiden, from virgin-. The changes made in forming the Cases are too com- plicated for a beginner in grammar. For convenience, there- fore, the changeable part at the end of a noun is allowed to stand as the Ending. 55 Such changes of form are called Cases. There are six Cases, both in the Singular and in the Plural. Table of Cases Name of Case Answers the Questions Principal Use 1. Nominative 2. Genitive 3. Dative 4. Accusative 5 Vocative What? who? Of what? whose? To, for what or whom ? What? whom? Subject In defining nouns and adjectives Indirect object Direct object Direct address 6. Ablative With, from, in, by what or whom ? Like an adverb Another Case, the Locative, denoting the place where, sur- vives in names of towns and in a few other words : Romae, at Rome, doml, at home. DECLENSIONS OF NOUNS 56 The Cases taken together make up the De- clension of a noun. There are five different 16 LATIN GRAMMAR 57 Declensions. They may be known apart by the last letter of the Stem or by the Genitive Ending. Thus the Stem of porta ends in a, and the Ending of portae, the Genitive Singu- lar, is ae. Table of Declensions Declension Last Letter of Stem Genitive Ending First (a) -ae Second 6 -i Third t or a consonant -is Fourth W 11 -us Fifth e -e~I 58 The following Cases have the same Ending : 1. Nominative and Vocative, except in the Singular of the Second Declension when the Nominative ends in -us. 2. Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative of Neuter nouns. In the Plural these end in -a. 3. Nominative and Accusative Plural of all nouns in the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Declensions. 4. Dative and Ablative Plural. FIRST DECLENSION 59 The Stem originally ended in a, later in a. Nouns of the First Declension have the Nomi- native Singular ending in -a, and are of the Feminine Gender. Thev are declined as fol- / lows : NOUNS 17 mensa (Stem mensa-), /., table Case Meaning Ending SING. Nom. mensa a table -a Gen. mensae of a table -ae Dat. mensae to or for a table -ae Ace. rnensam a table -am Voc. mensa table! -a Abl. mensa with, from, in, by a table -a PLURAL Nom. mensae tables -ae Gen. mensarum of tables -arum Dat. mensls to or for tables -Is Ace. mensas tables -as Voc. mensae tables ! -ae Abl. mensls with, from, in, by tables -Is Latin has no Article : mensa, table, a table, the table. 60 A few nouns in -a are Masculine, as nauta, sailor, scriba, clerk. See 50. 61 The Locative Singular ends in -ae, the Locative Plural in -is ; Romae, at Rome, Athenis, at Athens. 62 In a few nouns the old Genitive Singular in -ai, -as some- times occurs; aulal, of the hall, familias, of the family. A few nouns have the Genitive Plural in -um, not in -arum. Thus amphora, ajar, amphorum, of jars, caeli- cola, a celestial, caelicolum, of celestials. The Dative and Ablative Plural of dea, goddess, filia, daughter, end in -abus. GREEK NOUNS 63 Greek nouns ending in -e are Feminine. Those ending in -as or -es are Masculine. In the Plural they are declined like mensa, and in the Singular as follows : 18 LATIN GRAMMAR epitome, f ., epitome Aeneas, m., Aeneas Anchises, m., Anchises Nom. epitome Aeneas Anchises Gen. epitomes Aeneae Anchlsae Dat. epitomae Aeneae Anchisae Ace. epitomen Aenean (-am) Anchisen Voc. epitome Aenea (-a) Anchlse (-a, -a) Abl. epitome Aenea Anchise (-a) SECOND DECLENSION 64 The Stem ends in o, which is often absorbed in the case-endings or lost altogether. Nouns of the Second Declension ending in -us, -er, -ir are Masculine, those in -um are Neuter. 65 Nouns in -us and -um hortus, m., garden Stem horto- Ending SING. Nom. hortus -us Gen. hortl -I Dat. horto -0 Ace. hortum -um Voc. horte -e Abl. horto -o PLURAL Nom. hortl -I Gen. hortorum -orum Dat. hortis -Is Ace. hortos -OS Voc. hortl -1 Abl. hortis -Is bellum, n., war Stem bello- Ending bellum -um belli -I bello -6 bellum -um bellum -um bello -0 bell* -a bellorum -orum bellis -Is bella -a bella -a bellis -Is NOUNS 19 66 Nouns in -er and -ir ager, m., field Stem agro- puer, m., boy Stem puero- vir, m., man Stem viro- Ending S.ING. Nom. ager puer vir none Gen. agri pueii viri -I Dat. agro puero viro -o Ace. agrum puerum virum -um Voc. ager puer vir none Abl. agro puero viro -0 PLURAL Nora. agri pueii viri -I Gen. agrorum puerorum virorum -orum Dat. agris puerls virls -is Ace. agros pueros viros -OS Voc. agri puerl viri -1 Abl. agris puerls virls -Is 67 Most nouns in -er are declined like ager, developing an e before the r in the Nominative and Vocative Singular. But decline gener, son-in-law, socer, father-in-law, llberl, chil- dren, vesper, evening, like puer. Note that liber, book, is like ager. 68 Some nouns in -us are Feminine, according to the general rules in 50 and 51. Thus pirus, f., pear-tree. Also these five : alvus, lelly, carbasus, linen, colus, dis- taff (94), humus, ground, vannus, fan. Three in -us are Neuter : pelagus, sea, virus, poison, vulgus, crowd. 69 The Locative Singular ends in -I, the Locative Plural in -Is ; doml, at home, Argis, at Argos. Nouns in -ius and -ium have the Genitive Singular in -I or -ii, keeping the accent on the same syllable as in the Nomi- native. Thus ingenium, disposition, has ingenil or ingenl. 20 LATIN GRAMMAR 70 But Proper nouns in -ius have both the Genitive and Voca- tive Singular in -I : Vergilius, Virgil, Vergili, of Virgil or Virgil. Notice that the accent in these Genitives and Vocatives is always on the penult. The Vocative Singular of filius son, is fill, deus, god, has no Vocative Singular. The Plural is as follows : 71 Nom. del, dl Gen. deorum, deum Dat. dels, dig Ace. deos Voc. del, dl Abl. dels, dls GREEK NOUNS 72 Greek nouns in -os, -os are Masculine or Feminine. Those in -on are Neuter. In the Plural most of them are declined like hortus, if Masculine or Feminine, and like bellum, if Neuter. In the Singular they are declined as follows : Delos, f., Delos Androgeos, m., Androgeos Nom. Delos Androgeos Gen. Deli Androgeo, -I Dat. Delo Androgeo Ace. Delum, -on Androgeo, -on Voc. Dele Androgeos Abl. Delo Androgeo Ilion, n., Troy mythos, m., fable Nom. Dion mvthos Gen. Tlii myth! Dat. Ilio mytho Ace. Ilion mython Voc. Ilion my the Abl. Ilio mytho NOUNS 21 THIRD DECLENSION 73 The Stem ends in -i or a consonant, and the nouns are divided according to their Stems into four classes, as follows : A. Consonant Stems. C. Mixed Stems. B. i- Stems. D. Rare and Irregular. 74 The Nominative Singular ends in one of the following letters : -a, -e, -I, -6, -y, -c, -1, -n, -r, -s, -t, -x. All these may be remembered by the words irons exactly. A. CONSONANT STEMS 75 The Consonant Stems end in a Mute, Liquid, Nasal, or Spirant. See 17. The Mute Stems end in a Labial, Dental, or Guttural. See 18. I. MUTE STEMS 76 1. Stems ending in a Labial : b or p trabs, f., beam Stem trab- princeps, m., chief Stem princip- Ending SING. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. trabs trabis trabi trabem trabs trabe prmceps prmcipis prlncipi prmcipein princeps prmcipe -s -is -I -em -s -e PLURAL Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. trabes trabum trabibus trabes trabes trabibus prmcipes principnm prlncipibus principes priii cipes prlncipibus -es -um -ibus -es -es -ibiis 22 LATIN GRAMMAR 77 Notice that the i in the last syllable of the Stem princip- is changed to e in the Nominative and Vocative Singular. This usually occurs in every kind of consonant stem of two syllables containing i in the last syllable. 2. Stems ending in a Dental : d or t lapis, m., stone Stem lapid- miles, m., soldier Stem milit- aetas, f., age Stem aetat- SING. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. ^Voc. Abl. lapis lapidis lapidl lapidem lapis ' lapide miles militis militl militem miles milite aetas aetatis aetatl aetatem aetas aetate PLURAL Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. lapides lapidum lapidibus lapides lapides lapidibus milites militum mllitibus milites milites mllitibus aetates aetatum aetatibus aetates aetates aetatibus 78 Notice that final t and d of the Stem are lost before -s. 3. Stems ending in a Guttural : g or c rex, m., king Stem reg- radix, f., root Stem radlc- dux, m. and f., leader Stem duc- SING. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. rex regis regl regem rex rege radlx radicis radicl radicem radix radlce dux^ ducis duel ducem dux duce PLURAL Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. reges regum regibus reges reges regibus radices radicum radicibus radices radices radicibus duces ducuni dncibns duces duces ducibus NOUNS 23 79 Notice that final g and c of the Stem combine with -s of the Ending to form the double consonant x. See 25. II. LIQUID STEMS ; 1 OR r consul, m., consul Stem consul- victor, m.,victor Stem victor- aequor, n., sea Stem aequor- Ending SING. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. consul consulis consul! consulem consul consule victor victoris victor! victorem victor victore aequor aequoris aequorl aequor aequor aequore m., f. -is -I -em -e n. -77~ -i -e PLURAL Nora. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. consules consulum consulibus consules consules consulibus victores victorum victoribus victores victores victoribus aequora aequorum aequoribus aequora aequora aequoribus -es -um -ibus -es -es -ibus -a -um -ibus -a -a -ibus 80 Notice that Liquid Stems form the Nominative and Voca- tive Singular of Masculine and Feminine nouns and the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative Singular of Neuter nouns without the case-ending. III. NASAL STEMS : n leo. m., lion Stem leon- virg-o, f., maiden Stem virgin- nomen, n., name Stem nomin- SING. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. leo leonis leoni leonem leo leone virgo virginis virgin! virginem virgo virgine nomen nominis nomin! nomen nomen nomine PLURAL Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. leones leonum leonibus leones leones leonibus virgines virginum virginibus virgines virgines virginibus nomina nominum nominibus nomina nomina nominibus LATIN GRAMMAR / Notice that Nasal Stems often lose final n in the Nominative and Vocative Singular. Their case-endings are the same as for Liquid Stems. 81 IV. SPIRANT STEMS : S mos, m., custom Stem mos- honor, m., honor Stem honos- corpus, n., body Stem corpos- SING. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. mos moris morl more ill mos more honor honoris honor! honor em honor honore corpus corporis corporl corpus corpus corpore PLURAL Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. mores morum moribus mores mores moribus honores honorum honoribus honores honores honoribus corpora corporum corporibus corpora corpora corporibus / 82 Notice that the final s of Spirant Stems changes to r between two vowels, and becomes r in the Nominative and Vocative Singular of honor, arbor, clamor, color, dolor. B. 1- STEMS I. WITH NOMINATIVE IN -is turris, f., tower Stem turri- Ignis, m., fire Stem igni- hostis, m. f.,/oe Stem liosti- Ending SING. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. turris turris turri turrim, -em turris turri, -e Ignis Ignis igni ignem ignis igni, -e hostis hostis hostl hostem hostis hoste -is -is -I -im, -em -is -I, -e PLURAL Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. turres turrinin turribus turris, -es turres turribus Tgnes Tgniuiu Igni bus Ignis, -es Ignes ignibus hostes hostium hostibus hostis, -f'S hostes hostibns -es iiiin -ibus -Is, -es -8 -ibus NOUNS 25 83 Notice that these nouns end in -is in the Nominative Singular and in -ium in the Genitive Plural. The original endings -im, -I (in Ablative), and -is are less common than the later -em, -e, -es. The Accusative in -im and Ablative in -I occur in the following important nouns : Always in sitis, thirst, tussis, cough, and names of towns and rivers in -is : Neapolis, Naples, Tiberis, the Tiber. Often in restis, rope, securis, axe, turris, tower. Sometimes in clavis, key, messis, harvest, navis, ship. There are many nouns in -is, some of them formed from Consonant Stems. In the following nouns in -is the Geni- tive Plural in -um, not in -ium, occurs : Always in juvenis, young man, senex, old man, canis, dog, panis, bread. Sometimes in mensis, month, sedes, seat, vates, bard. II. WITH NOMINATIVE IN -C, -al, -ar cubile, n., couch Stem cubili- animal, n., animal Stem animali- calcar, n., spur Stem calcari- Ending SING. Noin. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. cubile cubllis cubili cubile cubile cubili animal animalis animall animal animal animall calcar calcar is calcarl calcar calcar calcarl none -is -I none none -I PLURAL Nora. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. cubilia cubllium cubilibus cubilia cubilia cubilibus animalia animalinm animalibus animalia animalia animalibus calcaria calcarium calcaribus calcaria calcaria calcaribus -ia -ium -ibus -ia -ia -ibus Notice that final i of the Stem is either lost or changed to e. The Ablative Singular ends in -I, the Geni- 26 LATIN GRAMMAR tive Plural in -ium, and the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative Plural in -ia. C. MIXED STEMS 84 These appear to be Consonant Stems treated in the Plural as i- Stems. nubes, f., cloud Stem nub(i)- urbs, f ., city Stem urb(i)- arx, f., citadel Stem arc(i)- imber, m., shower Stemimbr(i)- Ending SING. Nom. nubes urbs arx imber -s Gen. nubis urbis arcis irnbris -is Dat. nubi urbl arcl imbrl -I Ace. nubem urbem arcem imbrem -em Voc. nubes urbs arx imber -s Abl. nube urbe arce imbre, -I -e, -I PLURAL Nom. nubes urbes arces imbres -es Gen. nubi urn urbium arcium imbrium in in Dat. nubibus urbibus arcibus imbribus -ibus Ace. nubes, -Is urbes, -Is arces, -Is imbres, -Is -es, -Is Voc. nubes urbes arces imbres -es Abl. nubibus urbibus arcibus imbribus -ibus Notice the Genitive Plural ends in -ium, and the Accusa- tive Plural in -es or -is. Important nouns with Mixed Stems are : 1. Nouns in -es, with Genitive in -is ; as aedes, temple* caedes, slaughter, clades, disaster, nubes, cloud, rupes, rock. 2. Most monosyllables in -s or -x preceded hy a consonant ; as arx, citadel, calx, heel, stirps, stock, urbs, city. Also dens, gens, mens, fons, mons, pons, ars, pars, sors. 3. Most nouns in -ns, -rs ; as cliens, tridens, cohors. 4. fur, Us, mas, mus, nix. NOUNS 85 D. RARE AND IRREGULAR FORMS Stems in -I, -u, -ou ( = -ov) vis, f., force Stem vl- sus, ra. f., swine Stem su- bos, m. f., ox, cow Stem bou- SING. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. V1S sus suis sul suem sus sue bos bovis bovi bovera bos bove vim VI PLURAL Nora. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. vires virinm viribus vires vires viribus sues suum suibus, subus sues sues suibus, subus boves bovum, bourn bobus, bubus boves boves bobus, bubus 86 Jupiter, Jupiter, is declined in the Singular only : Jupiter, Jovis, Jovl, Jovem, Jupiter, Jove. Irregular Nouns senex, in., old man caro, f., flesh OS, n., bone iter, n., Journey SING. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. senex senis sen! sen em senex sene caro earn is carnl carnem caro carne OS ossis ossl OS OS osse iter itineris itineri iter iter itinere PLURAL Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. senes senum senibus senes senes senibus carnes ossa ossium ossibus ossa ossa ossibus itinera itinerum itineribus itinera itinera itineribus carnibus carnes carnes carnibus 87 The Locative Singular ends in -I or -e, the Locative Plural in -ibus : Tlburl or Tibure, at Tilur, run, in the country, vesper! or vespere, at evening, Gadibus, at Gades. 28 LATIN GRAMMAR RULES FOR GENDER IN THE THIRD DECLENSION 88 Nouns in -o, -or, -os, -er, -es, are Masculine. IMPORTANT EXCEPTIONS 1. In -o, -or, -os. Feminine : card, flesh, arbor, tree, dos, dowry. Neuter : aequor, sea, cor, heart, 6s, mouth. Also 6s, hone. 2. In -er, -es. Feminine : linter, boat, seges, crop. Neuter : iter, way, aes, copper. Also ver, spring. 89 Nouns in -as, -es, -is, -us, -ys ; -x, -s (after a consonant) ; -do, -go ; -io (in abstract and col- lective nouns), are Feminine. IMPORTANT EXCEPTIONS 1. In -as, -es. Masculine : as, farthing, pes, foot, aries, ram, paries, wall. 2. In -is. Masculine : All in -nis and -guis ; as finis, end, Ignis, fire, panis, bread, sanguis, blood. Also axis, axle fascis, bundle orbis, circle collis, hill lapis, stone piscis,fish ensis, sword mensis, month pulvis, dust 3. In -us. Common : mus, mouse. Neuter : crus, leg, jus, right, rus, the country. 4. In -x. Masculine : calix, cup, grex,/0c&, vertex, summit. 5. In -s after a consonant. Masculine : dens, tooth, fons, fountain, mons, moun- tain, pons, bridge. 6. In -do, -go. Masculine : cardo, hinge, ordo, order, margo, border. NOUNS 29 90 Nouns in -a, -e, -I, -y ; -c, -1, -n, -t ; -ar, -ur, -us, are Neuter. IMPORTANT EXCEPTIONS 1. In -1. Masculine : sal, salt, sol, sun. 2. In -ur, -us. Masculine : vultur, vulture, lepus, hare. GEEEK NOUNS 91 Greek nouns of the Third Declension often take the regular Latin endings, but sometimes preserve their Greek endings, particularly the following : 1. -a in Accusative Singular. 2. -es in Nominative Plural. 3. -as in Accusative Plural. 4. -is in Dative and Ablative Plural of Neuters in -ma. heros, m., hero la in pas, f., torch poema, n.,poem SING. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. herds herois heroi heroa heros heroe lampas lampados larapadl lampada lampas lampade poem a poematis poemati poema poema poem ate PLUR. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. heroes heroum heroi bus hero&S heroes heroibns lampades lampadum lampadibus lampadas lampades lampadibus poemata poematum poematis poemata poemata poematis But Greek Nouns are sometimes declined with both Greek and Latin endings. 92 Examples of Greek Proper Nouns : Dido, Dido Paris, Paris Atlas, Atlas SING. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. Dido Didus, -onis Dido, -onl Dido, -onem Dido Dido, -one Paris Paridis, -OS Paridi, -i Parida, -im Paris, Pari Paride Atlas Atlantis AtlantI Atlanta Atla Atlante 30 LATIN GRAMMAR FOURTH DECLENSION 93 The Stem ends in -ii. Fourth Declension / nouns in -us are Masculine, those in -ii are Neuter. fructus, m., fruit Stem fructu- Ending cornu, n., horn Stem cornu- Ending SING. Nom. fructus -us cornu -n Gen. fructfis -us corn us -us Dat. fructui, -ii -ul, -ii cornu -u Ace. fructum -um cornu -u Voc. fruetus -us cornu -u Abl. fructu -u cornu -u PLURAL Nom. fructfis -us cornua -ua Gen. fructuum -uum cornuum -unm Dat. fructibus -ibus corn ibus -ibus Ace. fructus -us cornua -ua Voc. fructfis -us cornua -ua Abl. fructibus -ibus cornibus -ibus 94 These nouns in -us are Feminine : acus, needle, anus, old woman, colus, distaff (68), domus, house, manus, hand, por- ticus, porch, Idus (pi.), the Ides. 95 domus, f ., house, is declined as follows : Singular Plural Norn. domus domus Gen. domus domuum, domorum Dat. domul, dome domibus Ace. domum domus, domos Voc. domus domus Abl. domu, dome domibus There is also the Locative form domi, at home. NOUNS 31 96 These nouns have -ubus or -ibus in the Dative and Abla- tive Plural : acus, needle, artus, limbs, partus, birth, por- tus, harbor ; and dissyllables in -cus, as arcus, bow, lacus, lake. tribus, tribe, has -ubus only. FIFTH DECLENSION 97 The Stem ends in -e. Fifth Declension nouns end in -es, and are Feminine. res, f., thing Stem re- dies, m., day Stem die- spes, f., hope Stem spe fides, f., faith Stem flde- Ending SING. Nom. res dies spes fides -es Gen. rel die! spei fidel -el Dat. rel diel speT fidei -51 Ace. rem diem spem fidem -em Voc. res dies spes fides -es Abl. re die spe fide -e PLURAL Nom. res dies spes -es Gen. rerum dierum -erum Dat. rebus diebus -ebus Ace. res dies spes -es Voc. res dies -es Abl. rebus diebus -ebus 98 The Locative case ends in -e. It occurs in the compounds of die : hodie, to-day, prldie, on the day before, postrldie, on the day after. meridies, noon, is always and dies, day, is usually mas- culine, dies is sometimes feminine in the singular, especially when it means an appointed time. LATIN GRAMMAR 99 Stems and Endings of All Declensions FIRST SECOND THIRD FOURTH FIFTH -a -6 - v i or Consonant -U -e F. M. N. M.andF. N. M. N. F. Nom. -a -us, -um -s, -us -u -es ft Gen. -ae -I -I -is -is -us -us -el D Dat. -ae -5 -5 -I -I -ul, -u -u -el Ace. -am -um -um -em,-im -um -u -em CO Voc. -a -e, -um -s, -us -u -es Abl. -a -0 -5 -e, -I -e, -I -u -u -e Nom. -ae .I -a -es -U)a -us -ua -cs Gen. -arum -or urn -drum -(i)um (i)nm u u in -uum -erum 3 Dat. -Is -Is -Is -ibus -ibus -ibus -ibus -ebus j Ace. -as -OS -a -es, -Is -(i)a -us -ua -es cu Voc. -ae -I -a -es -(Da us -ua -es Abl. -Is -Is -Is -ibus -ibus -ibus -ibus -ebus Indeclinable, Defective, and Variable Nouns of All Declensions I. INDECLINABLE 100 Indeclinable Nouns are neuter, and occur in the singu- j lar only. They are fas, right, nefas, wrong, nihil, nothing, Instar, likeness, mane, morning. II. DEFECTIVE 101 Defective nouns lacking a regular plural meaning are used mostly in the singular. 1. Proper names ; as Roma, Rome, Italia, Italy. 2. Abstract nouns ; as gravitas, dignity. 3. Names of material ; as ferrum, iron, oleum, oil. NOUNS 33 102 Defective nouns used only in the plural : 1. Names of classes : as majores, ancestors, gemini, 2. Some names of places: as Athenae, Athens, Gades, Gades, Alpes, the Alps. 3. Also the following : angustiae, narrows, a defile minae, threats arma, arms nuptiae, nuptials divitiae, riches reliquiae, remains Insidiae, ambush, " snares " tenlbrae, darkness, manes, the shades the " shades " of night i^ 103 Nouns Defective in Case. Important to remember are : 1. jussu, by order, natu, by Urth, in ablative only. 2. fors, chance, forte, by chance ; spontis, of choice, sponte, ~by choice, have two cases only. 3. preci, precem, prece, prayer-, vicis (gen.), vicem, vice, turn, have three cases only in the singular. 4. opis, opi, opem, ope, help, has four cases only in the singular. It lacks the Nominative and Vocative. III. VARIABLE ,/ 104 Nouns varying their meaning in the Plural : aedes, temple aedes, house auxilium, help auxilia, auxiliaries castrum, castle castra, camp copia, plenty copiae, troops finis, end fines, boundaries gratia, favor gratiae, thanks impedimentum, hindrance impedimenta, baggage littera, letter of alphabet litterae, epistle mos, custom mores, morals, character (ops) opis, help opes, resources pars, part partes, a party 34 LATIN GRAMMAR 105 Nouns varying in Gender (Heterogeneous). 1. In the singular : clipeus, clipeum, shield. 2. In the plural : loci, m., topics, loca, noplaces; ; V joci, m., and joca, n., 3. Between the singular and plural : caelum, n., heaven, caeli, m., the heavens-, epulum, n., and epulae, L, feast. 106 Nouns varying in Declension (Heteroclites). 1. First and Fifth. Some First Declension nouns in -ia have Fifth Declension forms in -ies, as materia, materies, matter. 2. Second and Third : jugerum, -I, acre ; plural jugera, -um, -ibus ; vas, vasis, jar ; plural vasa, vasorum. 3. Second and Fourth : domus, house. See 95. 4. Third and Fifth : plebs, -bis, or plebes, -el, the people. Two nouns of the Third Declension, requies, rest, and fames, hunger, take respectively the additional Fifth Declen sion forms requiem and fame. ADJECTIVES 107 Adjectives are declined like Nouns, and have three genders in each case. Thus, Nominative bonus, m., bona, f., bonum, n., good. Adjec- tives are divided into I. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions. II. Adjectives of the Third Declension. ADJECTIVES 35 108 I. ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS bonus, good\ masculine like hortus Masculine Feminine Neuter SING. Nora. bonus bona bonum Gen. bonl bonae bonl Dat. bono bonae bono Ace. bonum bou am bonum Voc. bone bona bonum Abl. bono bona bono PLURAL Nom. bonl bonae bona Gen. bonornm bonarum bonorum Dat. bonls bonls bonls Ace. bonos bonas bona Voe. bonl bonae bona Abl. bonls bonls bonls 109 liber, free ; masculine like puer Masculine Feminine Neuter SING. N^om. liber libera liberum Gen. Ilberi liberae liberi Dat. libero liberae libero Ace. liberum liberam liberum Voc. liber libera liberum Abl. libero libera libero PLURAL Nom. liberi liberae libera Gen. liberorum liberarum liberorum Dat. liberls liberls liberls Ace. liberos liberas libera Voc, liberi liberae libera Abl. liberls liberTs liberls 36 LATIN GRAMMAR 110 sacer, sacred ; masculine like ager Masculine Feminine Neuter SING. Nom. sacer sacra sacrum Gen. sacri sacrae sacri Dat. sacro sacrae sacro Ace. sacrum sacram sacrum Voc. sacer sacra sacrum Abl. sacro sacra sacro PLURAL Nom. sacri sacrae sacra Gen. sacrorum sacrarum sacrorum Dat, sacris sacris sacris Ace. sacros sacras sacra Voc. sacri sacrae sacra Abl. sacris sacris sacris 111 Most adjectives in -er are declined like sacer. A few are like liber ; as asper, rough, miser, wretched, tener, tender. dexter, right, is declined both ways : dextera, dexterum, or dextra, dextrum. 112 Xine adjectives have -lus throughout the Genitive Singular and -I throughout the Dative Singular : unus una unum one solus sola solum alone totus tota totum whole ullus ulla ullum any nullus nulla nullum not any, no alius alia aliud another alter altera alterum the other uter utra utrum which (of two) ? neuter neutra neutrum neither These adjectives have no Vocative. The Genitive of alter is alterius. This is regularly used in place of the Genitive alms, wjiich is very rare. ADJECTIVES 37 Notice -d in the Neuter Singular ending of alius in Nomi- native and Accusative. II. ADJECTIVES OF THE THIED DECLENSION 113 These are divided, according to their Endings in the Nominative, into 1. Adjectives of Three Endings. 2. Adjectives of Two Endings. 3. Adjectives of One Ending. Except Comparatives, they are nearly all declined like 1- Stems. 1. Adjectives of Three Endings 114 acer, sharp Masculine Feminine Neuter SING. Nom. acer acris acre Gen. acpis acris acris Dat, acrl acrl acrl Ace. acrem acrem acre Voc. acer acris acre Abl. acrl acrl acrl PLURAL Nom. acres acres acria Gen. acrium acrium acrium Dat. acribus acribus acribus Ace. acres, -Is acres, -Is acria Voc. acres acres acria Abl. acribus acribus acribus But celer, swift, keeps the e celere. 4 before r: celer, celeris, 38 LATIN GRAMMAR 115 2. Adjectives of Two Endings fortis, strong fortior, stronger M. and F. N. SING. Nom. fortis forte Gen. fortis fortis Dat. fortl fortl Ace. fortem forte Voc. fortis forte Abl. fortl fortl PLURAL Nom. fortes fortia Gen. fortium fortium Dat. fortibus fortibus Ace. fortes, -Is fortia Voc. fortes fortia Abl. fortibus fortibus M. and F. N. fortior fortius fortior is fortioris fortiori fortiori fortiorem fortius fortior fortius fortiore fortiore fortiores fortiora fortiorum fortioriini fortioribus fortioribus fortiores fortiora fortiores fortiora fortioribus fortioribus 116 Comparatives are declined like fortior. Notice in fortior the Ablative Singular in -e, the Genitive Plural in -um, and the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative Plural Neuter in -a. The endings -I (Ablative) and -is occur, but are rare. 3. Adjectives of One Ending felix, happy amans, loving M. and F. N. SING. Nom. felix felix Gen. felicis felicis Dat. felicl felicl Ace. fellcem felix Voc. felix felix Abl. felicl felicl PLURAL Nom. fellces felicia Gen. felicium felicium Dat. felicibus felicibus Ace. fellces, -Is fellcia Voc. fellces frllcia Abl. felicibus felicibus M. ar>d F. N. amans amans amantis amantis am ant I amantl amantem amans amans amans amantl amantl am antes amantia amantium amantium ainantibus amantibus amantes. -Is amantia amantes amantia ainantibus amantibus ADJECTIVES 39 In the Ablative Singular -e for -I often occurs in poetry, but is not common in prose of the classical period, except in Participles in -ans and -ens used as nouns or occurring in the Ablative Absolute (397). Thus amante, lover, me impe- rante, l>y my command. 117 Less regular are such Adjectives of One Ending as the follow- ing : vetus, old memor, mindful plus, more M. and F. N. M. and F. N. M. and F. N. SING. Nom. Gen. Dat. vetus veteris veteii vetus veteris veterl memor memoris memori memor memoris memori plus pluris Ace. Voc. veterem vetus vetus vetus memorem memor memor memor plus Abl. vetere vetere memori memori plure PLUR. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. veteres veterum veteribus veteres veteres veteribus vetera veterum veteribus vetera vetera veteribus memores memorum memoribus memores, -Is memores memoribus plures plurium pluribus plures, -Is pluribus plura plurium pluribus plura pluribus Like vetus in case-endings are dives (gen. divitis), rich, pauper (gen. pauperis), poor, particeps (gen. participis), sharing, princeps (gen. principis), chief. Like memor is inops (gen. inopis), needy. 118 Indeclinable Adjectives : frugl, thrifty, nequam, worthless, and most Cardinal Numeral Adjectives. See 132. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES Regular Comparison 119 Adjectives are compared in three Degrees the Positive, Comparative, and Superlative ; as 40 LATIN GRAMMAR fortis, fortior, fortissimus, strong, stronger, strongest. 120 The Comparative is formed by adding -ior (neuter -ius), and the Superlative by adding -issimus (-a, -um) to the Stem of the Positive. When the stem ends in a vowel, the vowel is dropped. POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE alt us. high altior, higher allissiiuus, highest fellx, happy felicior, happier fellcissimus, happiest 121 Participles used as Adjectives are compared in the same way : amans, loving amantior, more anianl issimns, most loving loving 122 But Adjectives in -er form the Superlative by adding -rimus to the Nominative of the Positive : liber, free liberior liberrimus acer, sharp acrior acerrimus 123 Six Adjectives in -ilis form the Superlative by adding -limus to the stem of the Positive less its final vowel : facilis, easy facilior fan 1 1 i in us difflcilis, difficult difflcilior difficillinms similis, like similior si in i 1 1 i in us dissimilis, unlike dissimilior dissimillimus humilis, low hnmilior humillimus gracilis, slender gracilior gracillimus 124 Adjectives in -dicus, -ficus, -volus are compared as if end- ing in -dicens, -ficens, -volens : maledicus, slanderous maledicentior maledlcentissimus maun i (icus, magnificent ma^niflcentior magniflcentissimus benevolus, kindly benevolentior benevolentissimus Also egenus, needy egentior egentissinms providus, foreseeing providentior providentissimus ADJECTIVES 41 Irregular and Defective Comparison 125 The following are Irregular in Comparison POSITIVE bonus, good mains, bad magnus, large parvus, small multus, much frugl, thrifty nequam, worthless COMPARATIVE melior pejor major minor plus frugalior nequior SUPERLATIVE optimus pessimus maximus minimus plurimus rrugalissimus nequissimus 126 The following are Defective in Comparison : 1. No Positive. 2. Positive Rare, (poster!) (exterl) (Infer!) (super!) 127 3. No Comparative. vetus, old novus, new f!dus, faithful falsus, false sacer, sacred pins, good 128 4. No Superlative. alacer, lively ingens, huge pronns, inclined juvenis, young senex, old prior, former citerior, hither ulterior, farther interior, inner propior, nearer deterior, inferior potior, preferable ocior, swifter posterior, later exterior, outer primus, first citimus, hithermost ul t i n 1 1 is. farthest, last i nl i in us. inmost proximus, nearest, next deterrimus, worst Ijol issi m us. best ocissimus, swiftest postremus, latest, last postumus, late-born Inferior, lower superior, higher 8S" }"-" supremus, last summns, highest veterrimus novissimus fidissiinus falsissimus sacerrimus pi issi in us alacrior ingentior pronior junior senior [Use natu minimus] Use natu maximus] LATIN GRAMMAR Comparison ~by magis and maxime 129 Some Adjectives have no endings of Comparison, and use instead the Adverbs magis, more, and maxime, most. They include most Adjectives in -eus, -ius, -uus (except -quus), as POSITIVE idoneus, fit COMPARATIVE magis idoneus SUPERLATIVE maxime idoneus NUMERALS 130 Numerals include Numeral Adjectives and Nu- meral Adverbs. Numeral Adjectives are of three kinds : Cardinal : as unus, one, duo, two, tres, three. Ordinal : as primus, first, secundus, second. Distributive : as singuli, one by one, bin!, two by two. Declension of Numeral Adjectives 131 The only Cardinals declined are unus, duo, tres, and the hundreds above centum. The latter are declined like the plural of bonus : ducenti, -ae, -a, two hundred. unus, one, alone, the only Singular Plural M. F. N. M. F. N. Nora. unus n M a iiiiiini unl finae iina Gen. u n ins minis unius unoruin nnarum unoruin Dat. u nl unl unl finis finis finis Ace. n n n 111 uii am uniim UII OS unas fin a Abl. uno iniii uno finis miis unis duo, two tres, three Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Abl. M. F. N. duo duae duo dnorum duarum duorum duobus duabus duobus duos, duo g IP 4 S ^5 y. pfi S fl o> o> a s 9 : 00 _jj '2 '~ .2 .S i~ IPH M 12 .S 9 o 'S 1 ^ 1 s b S 2 OB B 1* fc O io> eS es a? o> i ? H P EH J3 1 s s 1 sai f 5 : "S 15, io> e3 e3 o> o> o> < IP <3 bJO B I0> 1 1 1 i i I i S OJ a 0> 1 o a 1 a a a eg o S o> o> ? 10 - -a eg .^H ( ^ ( g ; N 1 C/J a d ^d o a OB m* '- :: *H ieg 1 O ieS ieS o> teg isS icj eg 1 p JS i: 4 ^ J 10 _ a? o> * ? 1 ic3 iS ! 1 Q0 O 3 a cS (D o -^ > "o m CC 2; -u o '^3 p o ^ 5 .^ * > o 3 a, O "tl* -^ '[^ p "f"* 'p! "7^ H s * 8 -ft P 'S 'i3 O f p^fg^.u> ^fL( 1 O |&,-2&,&. 1 i 2 2 |s|aa loo VERBS SYNOPSIS OF THE REGULAR VERB 59 w 1 l-< eram ,0 a 1 ffi 82 o a *s CO =3 Q I ' a 5 H g ip S s 1 85 '2 a SECOND a o a eram 1 a 1 1 OQ G O & 1 a es i eram ' a a 1 s g S -2 CO * !/} ^5 O o & 1 erfect Indicative luperfect Indicative uture Perfect Indicati Brfect Subjunctive luperfect Subjunctive erfect Infinitive OH OH fe PH OH PH CO CD w i 'S g H a O g 92 2 '- IFH g s a * S is a s a a -2 itn CO 1 Q |^ o> s 'S g P3 4 "/" 35 ' '"* 5R S c< H 1 **" A 85 a" a 82 .a a a a a GO '3 a isS i '? !C S 02 |FH 2 ^ 1 ia 3 kl a a 85 85 i= a a a = < 1 1 1^1 ^ f > '~S *o -^ 'S -3 '3 "C "^ "S ' c o3 d /^ E3 OH (-H OH (_5 2 2 "S o | 1 1 i 11 3 S S o S UH CO MH OH OH 60 LATIN GRAMMAR THE IRREGULAR VERB SUM 173 As sum, I am, has to be used in the conjuga- tion of all the regular verbs, it is given first. PRES. IND. sum PRINCIPAL PARTS PRES. INF. esse INDICATIVE PERF. IND. ful SINGULAR sum, I am es, thou art est, he is eram, I was eras, thou wast erat, he was ero, / shall be eris, thou wilt be erit, he will be PRESENT PLURAL sumus, we are estis, you are sunt, they are IMPERFECT eramus, we were eratis, you were erant, they were FUTURE erimus, we shall be eritis, you will be erunt, they will be PERFECT fui, I have been, I was f uimus, we have been, we were fuisti, thou hast been, thou wast fuistis, you have been, you were fuit, he has been, he was f ueram, I had been fueras, thou hadst been fuerat, he had been f tierunt, fuere, (. they have been, they were PLUPERFECT f ueramus, we had been f ueratis, you had been fuerant, they had been FUTURE PERFECT f uero, / shall have been fuerimus, we shall have been fueris, thou wilt have been fueritis, you will have been fuerit, he will have been fuerint, they will have been VERBS 61 SUBJUNCTIVE SINGULAR sim, I may be sis, thou mayst be sit, he may be essem, / should be esses, thou wouldst be esset, lie would be f uerim, / may have been fueris, thou mayst have been fuerit, he may have been PRESENT PLURAL sim us, we may be sitis, you may be slut, they may be IMPERFECT essemus, we should be essetis, you would be essent, they would be PERFECT fuerimus, we may have been fueritis, you may have been fuerint, they may have been PLUPERFECT f uissem, / should have been fuisses, thou wouldst have been fuisset, he would have been fuissemus, we should have been fuissetis, you would have been fuissent, they would have been IMPERATIVE Pres. es, be thou Put. esto, thou shalt be esto, he shall be este, be ye estote, ye shall be sunto, they shall I INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE Pres. esse, to be Perf. fuisse, to have been Fut. futurus esse or fore, to be about to be Fut. futurus, about to be 62 LATIN GRAMMAR FIRST CONJUGATION 174 Active Voice. amo, / love PRINCIPAL PARTS PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. PERF. PASS. PART. amo amare amavi amatus INDICATIVE PRESENT SINGULAR PLURAL amo, Hove amamus, we love amas, you love amatis, you love amat, he loves amant, they love IMPERFECT amabam, / was loving amabamus, we were loving am abas, you were loving am abatis, you were loving amabat, he was loving amabant, they were loving FUTURE amabo, / shall love amabimus, we shall love amabis, you will love amabitis, you will love amabit, he will love amabunt, they will love PERFECT amavi, I have loved, I loved amavimus, we have loved, we loved amavisti, you have loved, you amavistis, you have loved, you loved loved amavit, he has loved, he loved amaverunt, or -ere, they have loved, they loved PLUPERFECT amaveram, / had loved amaveramus, we had loved amaveras, you had loved amaveratis, you had loved amaverat, he had loved amaverant, they had loved FUTURE PERFECT amavero, I shall have loved amaverimus, we shall have loved amaveris, you will have loved amaveritis, you will have loved amaverit, he will have loved amaverint, they will have loved VERBS 63 SUBJUNCTIVE SINGULAR am em, / may love ames, you may love arnet, Tie may love amarem, / should love amares, you would love amaret, he would love PRESENT PLURAL amemns, we may love ametis, you may love ament, they may love IMPERFECT amaremus, we should love amaretis, you would love amarent, they would love PERFECT amaverim, I may have loved amaverimus, we may have loved amaveris, you may have loved amaveritis, you may have loved amaverit, he may have loved amaverint, they may have loved PLUPERFECT amavissem, I should have loved amavissemus, we should have loved amavisses, you would have loved amavissetis, you would have loved amavisset, he would have loved amavissent, they would have loved IMPERATIVE Pres. am a, love thou Put. amato, thou shalt love amato, he shall love am ate, love ye amatote, ye shall love am an to, they shall love INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE Pres. amare, to love Perf. amavisse, to have loved Fut. amaturus esse, to be about to love Pres. amans, loving Fut. amaturus, about to love GERUND SUPINE Gen. amandl, of loving Dat. amando, for loving Ace. amanduin, loving Abl. amando, by loving Ace. amatum, to love Abl. amatii, to love, in the loving 175 LATIN GRAMMAR FIRST CONJUGATION Passive Voice. amor, / am loved PRINCIPAL PARTS PRES. IND. amor PRES. INF. amarl INDICATIVE PERF. IND. a in at us sum SINGULAR amor amaris, or -re amatur a ma bar amabaris, or -re amabatur PRESENT / am loved IMPERFECT / was loved PLURAL araamur a in am in! amantur amabamur am aba mi m amabantur FUTURE / shall be loved amabor amabimur amaberis, or -re amabimini amabitnr amabuntnr PERFECT / have been loved or I was loved amatus sum amati snmus amatus es amati estis amatus est amati sunt amatus eram amatus eras amatus erat amatus ero amatus eris amatus erit PLUPERFECT / had been loved FUTURE PERFECT / shall have been loved amati eram us amati eriitis amati erant amati erimus amati eritis amati erunt VERBS 65 SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT / may be loved SINGULAR amer ameris, or -re ametur PLURAL amemur amemini amentur IMPERFECT amarer amareris, or amaretur I should be loved -re amaremur amaremini amarentur PERFECT amatus sim amatus Sis amatus sit I may have been loved amati sunns amati sltis amati sint PLUPERFECT I should have been loved amatus essem amatus esses amatus esset amati essemns amati essetis amati essent IMPERATIVE Pres. am are, be thou loved Fut. amator, thou shalt be loved amator, he shall be loved amamini, be ye loved amantor, they shall be loved INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE Pres. a marl, to be loved Perf. amatus esse, to have been loved Fut. amatum TrI, to be about to be loved Perfect. amatus, loved Gerundive, amandus, to be loved, deserving to be loved 66 LATIN GRAMMAR 176 PRES. IND. moneo SECOND CONJUGATION Active Voice. moneo, / advise PRINCIPAL PARTS PRES. INF. PERF. IND. PERF. PASS. PART. monere monui monitus INDICATIVE SINGULAR moneo mones monet monebam monebas monebat monebo monebis monebit monui monuistl monuit monueram monueras monuerat monuero monueris monuerit PRESENT / advise PLURAL monemus monetis monent IMPERFECT / was advising, or / advised monebamus monebatis monebant FUTURE I shall advise monebimus monebitis monebunt PERFECT / have advised, or / advised monuimus monuistis monuerunt, or -ere PLUPERFECT / had advised FUTURE PERFECT / shall have advised monueramus monueratis monuerant monuerinms monueritis monuerint VERBS 67 SUBJUNCTIVE SINGULAR moneam moneas moneat monerem moneres moneret monuerim monueris monuerit monuissem monuisses monuisset PRESENT I may advise IMPERFECT / should advise PERFECT I may have advised PLUPERFECT I should have advised PLURAL moneamus moneatis moneant moneremus moneretis monerent monuerimus monueritis monuerint monuissemus monuissetis monuissent IMPERATIVE Pres. mone, advise thou Put. moneto, thou shalt advise moneto, he shall advise monete, advise ye monetote, ye shall advise monento, they shall advise INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE Pres. monere, to advise Perf. monuisse, to have advised Fut. moniturus esse, to be about to advise Pres. monens, advising Fut. moniturus, about to advise GERUND SUPINE Gen. monendi, of advising Dot. monendo, for advisiny Ace. monendum, advising Abl. monendo, by advising Ace. monitum, to advise A bl. monitu, to advise, in the advising 68 LATIN GRAMMAR 177 SECOND CONJUGATION Passive Voice. moneor, / am advised PRES. IND. moneor PRINCIPAL PARTS PRES. INF. moneri INDICATIVE PERF. IND. inonitus sum SINGULAR moneor moneris, or monetur re monebar monebaris, or -re monebatur PRESENT / am advised IMPERFECT / was advised PLURAL monemur moneniim monentur monebamur monebamini monebantur FUTURE I shall be advised monebor monebimur moneberis, or -re monebiminl monebitur monebuntur PERFECT JT have been advised, I was advised monitus sum monitus es monitus est monitus eram monitus eras monitus erat PLUPERFECT / had been advised moniti sumus moniti estis moniti sunt moniti erjimus moniti eratis moniti erant FUTURE PERFECT I shall have been advised monitus ero monitus eris monitus erit moniti erimus moniti eritis moniti erunt VERBS 69 SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT / may be advised SINGULAR PLURAL monear moneamur monearis, or -re raoneamini moneatur moneantur IMPERFECT / should be advised monerer moneremur monereris, or -re moneremim moneretur inonerentur PERFECT I may have been advised monitus Sim monitl sTinus monitus sis monitl sltis monitus sit monitl sint PLUPERFECT I should have been advised monitus essem monitl essemus monitus esses monitl essetis monitus esset monitl essent IMPERATIVE Pres. monere, be thou advised monemini, be ye advised Fut. monetor, thou shall be ad- vised monetor, he shall be advised monentor, they shall be advised INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE Pres. moneri, to be advised Perf. monitus 6SS6, to have been advised Fut. monitum Irl, to be about to be advised Perfect. monitus, advised Gerundive, monendus, to be ad- vised, deserving to be advised 6 TO LATIN GRAMMAR 178 PRES. IND. rego THIED CONJUGATION Active Voice. rego, / rule PRINCIPAL PARTS PRES. INF. PERF. IND. PERF. PASS. PART. regere rexi rectus INDICATIVE SINGULAR rego regis regit regebam regebas regebat regam reges reget rexi rexistl rexit rexeram rexeras rexerat rexero rexeris rexerit PRESENT 1 rule IMPERFECT / was ruling, or / ruled FUTURE I shall rule PERFECT / have ruled, or I ruled PLUPERFECT / had ruled FUTURE PERFECT / shall have ruled PLURAL regiinus regitis regunt regebamus regebatis regebant regemus regetis regent reximus rexistis rexerunt, or -ere rexeramus rexeratis rexerant rexerimus rexeritis rexerint VERBS 71 SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT . SINGULAR 1 may rule PLURAL regam regamus regas regatis regat regant IMPERFECT 1 should rule regerem regeremus regeres regeretis regeret regerent PERFECT I may have ruled rexerim rexerimus rexeris rexeritis rexerit rexerint PLUPERFECT / should have ruled rexissem rexissemus rexisses rexissetis rexisset rexissent IMPERATIVE Pres. rege, rule thou Fut. regito, thou shall ru regito, he shall rule regite, rule ye regitote, ye shall rule regunto, they shall rule INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE Pres. regere, to rule Perf. rexisse, to have ruled Fut. recturus esse, to be about to rule Pres. regens, Fut. recturus, about to rule GERUND SUPINE Gen. regendi, of ruling Dat. regendo, for ruling Ace. regeiidum, ruling Abl. regendo, by ruling Ace. rectum, to rule Abl. rectu, to rule, in the ruling LATIN GRAMMAR 179 THIRD CONJUGATION Passive Voice. regor, / am ruled PRINCIPAL PARTS PRES. IND. regor PRES. INF. regl INDICATIVE PERF. IND. rectus sum PRESENT SINGULAR 1 am ruled regor regeris, or -re regitur IMPERFECT / was ruled regebar regebaris, or -re regebatur FUTURE / shall be ruled regar regeris, or -re regetur PERFECT I have been ruled, or / was rectus sum rectus es rectus est PLUPERFECT / had been ruled rectus eram rectus eras rectus erat PLURAL regimur regiminl reguntur regebamur regebamini regebantur regemur regemini regentur ruled rectl snmus recti estis rectl sunt recti eramus rectl eratis recti erant FUTURE PERFECT / shall have been ruled rectus erd rectus eris rectus erit rectl erimus rectT eritis recti erunt VERBS SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT SINGULAR 1 may be ruled PLURAL regar regaris, or -re regatur regain ur regainini regantur IMPERFECT I should be ruled regerer regereris, or -re regeretur regeremur regereminl regerentur PERFECT / may have been ruled rectus sim recti simns rectus sis recti sltis rectus sit recti sint PLUPERFECT / should have been ruled rectus essem recti essemus rectus esses recti essetis rectus esset recti essent IMPERATIVE Pres. regere, be thou ruled regimini, be ye ruled Put. regitor, thou shalt be ruled regitor, he shall be ruled reguntor, they shall be ruled INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE Pres. regi, to be ruled Perf. rectus esse, to have been Put. rectum Irl, to be about to be ruled Perfect. rectus, ruled Gerundive, regendus, to be ruled, deserving to be ruled LATIN GRAMMAR 180 PRES. IND. audio FOUKTH CONJUGATION Active Voice. audio, / hear PRINCIPAL PARTS PRES. INF. PERF. IND. audire audivl INDICATIVE PERF. PASS. PART. auditus SINGULAR audio audls audit audiebam audiebas audiebat audiam audies audiet audivl audlvisti audlvit audlveram audlveras audiverat audivero audlveris audiverit PRESENT TENSE / hear PLURAL audlmus auditis audiunt IMPERFECT I was hearing, or I heard FUTURE I shall hear PERFECT / have heard, or / heard PLUPERFECT / had heard FUTURE PERFECT / shall have heard audiebamus audiebatis audiebant audiemus audietis audient audlvimus audlvistis audiverunt, or -ere audiveramus audlveratis audlverant audiverimus audlveritis audiverint VERBS SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT SINGULAR I may hear PLURAL audiam audiamus audias audiatis audiat audiant IMPERFECT / should hear audlrem audlremus audires audlretis audlret audirent PERFECT I may have heard audiverim audlverimus audiveris audiveritis audlverit audlverint PLUPERFECT I should have heard audlvissem audivissemus audivisses audlvissetis audlvisset audlvissent IMPERATIVE Pres. audi, hear thou Fut. audito, thou shall hear audlto, he shall hear audite, hear ye auditote, ye shall hear audiunto, they shall hear INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE Pres. audire, to hear Perf. audlvisse, to have heard Fut. auditurus esse, to be about to hear Pres. audiens, hearing Fut. auditurus, about to hear GERUND SUPINE Gen. audiendl, of hearing Dat. audiendo, for hearing Ace. audiendum, hearing Abl. audiendo, by hearing Ace. auditum, to hear Abl. audltu, to hear, in the hearing 76 LATIN GRAMMAR 181 PRES. IND. audior FOURTH CONJUGATION Passive Voice. audior, / am heard PRINCIPAL PARTS PRES. INF. audiri INDICATIVE PERF. IND. auditus sum SINGULAR audior audlris, or andltur -re audiebar audiebaris, or -re audiebatur PRESENT / am heard IMPERFECT / was heard PLURAL audlmur audimini audiuntur audiebamur audiebaminl audiebantur FUTURE / shall be heard audiar audiemur audieris, or -re audieminl audietur audientur PERFECT / have been heard, or I was heard auditus sum auditus es auditus est auditus eram auditus eras auditus erat PLUPERFECT / had been heard auditus ero auditus eris auditus erit FUTURE PERFECT / shall have been heard audit! suiiiiiK audit! estis audit! sunt audit! eramus audit! eratis audit! erant audit! erimus audit! eritis audit! erunt VERBS 77 SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT SINGULAR I may be heard audiar audiaris, or -re audiatur PLURAL audiamur audiamini audiantur IMPERFECT audirer audireris, or audiretur / should be heard -re audlremur audiremini audlrentur PERFECT auditus sim auditus sis audltus sit / may have been heard audit! slums audit! sitis auditl sint PLUPERFECT I should have been heard audltus essem auditus esses auditus esset audit! essemus audit! esset is audit! essent IMPERATIVE Pres. audire, be thou heard Put. auditor, thou shalt be heard auditor, he shall be heard audiminl, be ye heard audiuntor, they shall be heard INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE Pres. audiri, to be heard Perf. auditus esse, to have been heard Fut. auditum Iri, to be about to be heard Perfect. auditus, heard Gerundive, audiendus, to be heard, deserving to be heard 78 LATIN GRAMMAR VERBS IN -IO OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION 182 Some Verbs of the Third Conjugation end in -io. In the Present System (171) they take the end- ings of the Fourth Conjugation whenever these endings contain two successive vowels. These verbs are 1. capio, take cupio, desire facio, make fodio, dig fugio,flee jacio, throw pario, bear quatio, shake rapid, seize sapid, know ; and their compounds. 2. Compounds of -licio, lure, and -spicio, look. Thus allicio, allure, suspicio, look up at. 3. The deponent verbs gradior, walk ; morior, die ; patior, suffer ; and their compounds. 183 Active Voice. capio, I take PRINCIPAL PARTS PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. PERF. PASS. PARTIC. capio capere cepi captus INDICATIVE SINGULAR PRESENT PLURAL capio, capis, capit capimus, capitis, capiunt IMPERFECT capiebam, -iebas, -iebat capiebamus, -iebatis, -iebant FUTURE capiam, -ies, -iet capiemus, -ietis, -lent PERFECT cepi, -isti, -it cepimus, -istis, -erunt or -ere PLUPERFECT ceperam, -eras, -erat ceperamus, -eratis, -erant FUTURE PERFECT cepero, -eris, -erit ceperiraus, -eritis, -erint VERBS 79 SUBJUNCTIVE SINGULAR PRESENT PLURAL capiam, -ias, -iat capiamus, -iatis, -iant IMPERFECT caperera, -eres, -eret caperemus, -eretis, -erent PERFECT ceperim, -eris, -erit ceperimus, -eritis, -erint PLUPERFECT cepissem, -isses, -isset cepissemus, -issetis, -issent IMPERATIVE Pres. Put. cape capito capito capite capitote capiunto INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE Pres. Perf. Put. capere cepisse capturus esse Pres. capiens Fut. capturus GERUND SUPINE Gen. Dat. Ace. Abl. capiendi capiendo capiendum capiendo Ace. captum Abl. captu 80 LATIN GRAMMAR 184 Passive Voice. capior, / am taken PRINCIPAL PARTS PEES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. capior cap! captus sum INDICATIVE SINGULAR PRESENT PLURAL capior, caperis, capitur capimur, capimini, capiuntur IMPERFECT capiebar, -iebaris, -iebatur capiebamur, -iebamini, -iebantur FUTURE capiar, -ieris, -ietur capiemur, -iemini, -ientur PERFECT captus sum, es, est capti sumus, estis, sunt PLUPERFECT captus eram, eras, erat capti eramus, eratis, erant FUTURE PERFECT captus ero, eris, erit capti erimus, eritis, erunt SUBJUNCTIVE SINGULAR PRESENT PLURAL capiar, -iaris, -iatur capiamur, -iamini, -iantur IMPERFECT caperer, -ereris, -eretur caperemur, -eremini, -erentur PERFECT captus sim, sis, sit capti simus, sitis, sint PLUPERFECT captus essem, esses, esset capti essemus, essetis, essent IMPERATIVE Pres. cape re capimini Fut. capitor capitor capiuntor VERBS 81 INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE Pres. capl Per/, captus esse Fut. captum irl Perfect. captus Gerundive, capiendus DEPONENT VERBS 185 Verbs having Passive forms with Active mean- ings are called Deponents. 1. They have also the following Active forms : Future In- finitive, Present and Future Participles, Gerund, and Supine. 2. The Gerundive always, and the Perfect Participle sometimes, has the Passive meaning. 186 The Principal Parts of a Deponent Yerb are the Present Indicative, Present Infinitive, and Perfect Indicative. PERF. IND. hortatus sum, exhort veritus sum, fear secutus sum, follow largltus sum, bestow INDICATIVE CONJ. PRES. IND. PRES. INF. I. hortor hortari II. vereor vererl III. sequor sequi IV. largior largiri I. II. III. IV. Pres. hortor vereor sequor largior hortaris vereris sequeris larglris hortatur veretur sequitur largitur hortamur veremur sequi mur larglmur hortamini vereminl sequimini larglminl hortantur verentur sequuntur largiuntur Impf. hortabar verebar sequebar largiebar Fut. hortabor verebor sequar largiar Per/, hortatus sum veritus sum secutus sum largltus sum Plup. hortatus eram veritus eram secutus eram largltus eram F. P. hortatus ero veritus ero secutus ero largltus ero 82 LATIN GRAMMAR SUBJUNCTIVE Pres. horter Impf. hortarer Perf. hortatus sim Plup. hortatus essem verear vererer veritus sim veritus essem sequar sequerer secutus sim secutus essem largiar larglrer largitus sim largitus essem IMPERATIVE Pres. hortare Put. hortator verere veretor sequere sequitor largire largltor INFINITIVE Pres. Perf. Fut. hortari hortatus esse hortaturus esse vererl veritus esse veriturus esse sequl secutus esse secuturus esse larglrl largitus esse largiturus esse PARTICIPLE Pres. hortans verens sequens largiens Fut. hortaturus veriturus secuturus largiturus Perf. hortatus veritus secutus largitus Oer. hortandus verendus sequendus largiendus GERUND hortandl verendl sequendl largiendl SUPINE hortatum, -tu veritum, -tu secutum, -tu largitum, -tu SEMI-DEPONENT VERBS 187 Semi-Deponent Yerbs liave Active forms in the Present System (171) and Passive Forms in the Perfect System, keeping their Active meaning throughout. VERBS 83 audeo audere ausus sum, dare gaudeo gaudere gavlsus sum, rejoice soleo solere solitus sum, ~be wont fido fidere fisus sum, trust PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION 188 The Periphrastic (" roundabout ") kind of Con- jugation is formed in the Active by adding the verb sum to the Future Active Participle, and in the Passive by adding sum to the Gerun- dive. Thus amaturus sum, I am about to love] amandus sum, I am to be loved. Active. amaturus sum, / am about to love INDICATIVE Pres. amaturus sum / am about to love Imp. amaturus eram / was about to love Fut. amaturus ero I shall be about to love Perf. amaturus fui / have been about to love Plup. amaturus fueram I had been about to love F. P. amaturus fuero / shall have been about to love SUBJUNCTIVE Pres. amaturus sim 1 may be about to love Imp. amaturus essem 1 should be about to love Perf. amaturus f uerim I may have been about to love Plup. amaturus f uissem / should have been about to love INFINITIVE Pres. amaturus esse to be about to love Perf. amaturus fuisse to have been about to love LATIN GRAMMAR Passive. amandus sum, I am to le loved INDICATIVE Pres. amandus sum I am to be loved, I deserve to be loved Imp. amandus eram / was to be loved, deserved to be loved Fut. amandus ero / shall deserve to be loved Perf. amandus f ui / have deserved to be loved Plup, amandus fueram / had deserved to be loved F. P. amandus f uero / shall have deserved to be loved SUBJUNCTIVE Pres. amandus sim Imp. amandus essem Perf. araandus fuerim Plup. amandus fuissem / may deserve to be loved I should deserve to be loved I may have deserved to be loved I should have deserved to be loved INFINITIVE Pres. amandus esse amandus fuisse to deserve to be loved to have deserved to be loved PECULIAR FORMS IN CONJUGATION 189 Perfects in -avi, -evi, -Ivi, -ovi, and kindred forms in the Perfect System, sometimes drop ve, ve, or vi before r or s. Thus : amasti = amavisti delesti = delevisti amarunt = amaverunt audisti = audlvisti amarim = amaverim audisse = audivisse amassem = amavissem nosti = novisti 190 Notice the following Imperatives ; dico, say, has die facio, make, has fac duco, lead, has due fero, bear, has fer 191 In Future and Perfect Infinitives esse is often omitted : amaturus (esse), amatus (esse). VERBS 85 192 The endings -undus and -undi, instead of -endus and -endl, often occur in the Gerund and Gerundive of the Third and Fourth Conjugations ; as faciundus for faciendus. CHANGES OF STEM IN EEGULAR VERBS 193 The four Conjugations regularly form their Principal Parts as follows (see 166, 170, 171) : I. amo amare amavl amatus, love II. moneo monere monui monitus, advise (in most verbs) deleo delere delevl deletus, destroy III. carpo carpere carps! carptus, pluck \ (in consonant rego regere rexl rectus, rule j stems) acuo acuere acul acutus, sharpen (in vowel stems) IV. audio audire audivi audltus, hear 194 But other changes often occur in the body or in the end- ing of the Stem in forming the Principal Parts. 1. In forming the Perfect Stem notice the following changes before s : (1) b becomes p : scribo, write ; (scrib-si =) scrips!. (2) d or t is lost : rldeo, laugh ; (rid-sl =) risi. mitto, send\ (mitt-Si =) misi. (3) c or g becomes x: duco, lead\ (due-si =) diixl. rego, rule ; (reg-si = ) rexi. 195 2. In forming the Perfect Stem the Present Stem is sometimes (1) Reduplicated : curro, run ; cu-curri. mordeo, bite ; mo-mordi. posco, demand ; po-posci. (2) Lengthened : ago, do, try ; egi. edo, eat ; edi. video, see ; vidi. venio, come ; veni. (3) Left Unchanged : solvo, loose ; solvi. verto, turn ; verti. 86 LATIN GRAMMAR 196 3. In forming the Participial Stem notice the following changes before t : (1) b becomes p : scribo, write ; (scrib-tus =) scriptus. (2) d or t combine to make s or ss : video, see ; (vid-tus =) visus. mitto, send; (mitt-tus =) missus. (3) g becomes c : rego, rule; (reg-tus =) rectus. (4) Sometimes an i develops : moneo, advise ; (mon-tus =) monitus. 197 In forming compound verbs the Stem vowel of simple verbs often changes as follows : 1. The stem vowel e, changing to e in Perfect Stem, be- comes i in Present Stem of compounds : emo emere emi emptus, buy red-imo red-imere red-emi red-emptus, redeem 2. The stem vowel e, remaining e throughout, becomes i in Present and Perfect Stems of compounds : teneo tenere tenui hold re-tineo re-tinere re-tinul re-tentus, retain 3. The stem vowel a, changing to e in Perfect Stem, be- comes i in Present Stem and e in Participial Stem of com- pounds : facio facere feel factus, do de-ficio de-ficere de-feci de-fectus, fail 4. The stem vowel a, remaining a throughout, becomes i in Present and Perfect Stems and e in Participial Stem of compounds : rapio rapere rapui raptus, seize e-ripio e-ripere e-ripui e-reptus, pull out LIST OP VERBS 87 198 LIST OF VERBS The regular verbs in each Conjugation are most conveniently arranged in classes according to the various forms in which the Perfect Indicative Active ends. In the following table the leading Perfect form in each Conjugation is given in bold type: THIRD FIRST SECOND FOURTH Consonant Vowel In -sco -vl -vi -vi -vi (-vi) -VI -ul -Ul -ul -ul -Ul -ul -I -I -i -1 -1 -I -si -SI -si (-si) -si The following list includes only the commonly used verbs of the four regular Conjugations : FIKST CONJUGATION 199 Perfect in -vi. amo amare amavi amatus love So all strictly regular verbs of the First Conjugation. 200 Perfect in -ui. mico micare raicui glitter dimico dimicare dlmicavi (dimicatum) fight seco secare secui sectus cut sono sonare so mil (sonaturus) sound veto vetare vetul vetitus forbid 201 Perfect in -I. 1. With Reduplication : do dare dedi datus give The a of the Stem is short, except in das, da, dans. Compounds of do with words of one syllable belong to the 88 LATIN GRAMMAR Third Conjugation. See 211. In other compounds do does not change. sto stare steti stand Compounds of sto with words of one syllable have the Perfect in -stiti (not -steti) ; as prae-sto, prae-stiti. 2. With Stem Vowel Lengthened : juvo lavo juvare lavare JUVl lavi jutus lautus help wash 202 Deponents. All are strictly regular like hortor, hortari, hortatus sum, exhort. SECOND CONJUGATION 203 Perfect in -vl. cieo ciere civi citus stir up deleo delere delevi deletus destroy fleo flere flevi fletus weep compleo complere complevi completus fill up impleo implere implevi impletus fulfil 204 Perfect in -Ul. So most verbs of the Second Conjugation. 1. Principal Parts in -eo, -ere. -ui, -itus : arceo arcere arcui check coerceo coerce re coercul coercitus hold in check exerceo exercere exercui exercitus practise careo carere carui (cariturus) lack doleo dolere dolui (doliturus) grieve habeo habere habul habitus have debeo debere debui debitus owe, ought praebeo praebere praebui praebitus offer jaceo jacere jacui (jaciturus) lie mereo merere merui rneritus deserve moneo raonere monui monitus advise pareo parere parui (pariturus) obey placeo placere placui (placi turns) please taceo tacere tacui (taciturus) be silent terreo terrere terrui territus frighten LIST OF VERBS Also the following, which have no Participial Stem : 89 egeo egere egui need emineo eminere eminui stand forth horreo horrere horrui bristle lateo latere latui lie hid niteo nitere nitui gleam pateo patere patui lie open sileo silere silui be silent splendeo splendere splendui gleam studeo studere studui desire stupeo stupere stupul be amazed timeo timere tirnui fear torpeo torpere torpui be dull And the following, which have only the Present Stem : frigeo frigere be cold iramineo imrainere overhang maereo maerere mourn 2. Principal Parts in -eo, -ere, -ul, -tus (-sus) : censeo censere censui census rate, think doceo docere docu! doctus teach misceo miscere miscui mixtus mix teneo tenere tenui hold obtineo obtinere obtinui obtentus maintain retineo retinere retinui retentus retain 205 Perfect in -si. abstergeo abstergere abstersi abstersus wipe off ardeo ardere arsi (arsurus) burn augeo augere auxi auctus increase fulgeo fulgere fulsi gleam haereo haerere haesi (haesurus) stick indulgeo indulgere indulsi indulge jubeo jubere jussl jussus order luceo lucere luxl be light maneo raanere mansi (raansurus) stay rideo ridere rlsi (risura) laugh suadeo suadere suasi (suasura) advise torque o torque re torsi tortus twist 90 LATIN GRAMMAR 206 Perfect in -I. 1. With Reduplication : mordeo mordere momordi pendeo pendere pependi spondeo spondere spopondl morsus sponsus 2. With Stem Vowel Lengthened : caveo cavere cavi (cauturi faveo favere favi (fautun foveo fovere fovi fotus moveo movere movi motus sedeo sedere sedi (sessuru video videre vidi visus 3. With Stem Unchanged : ferveo fervere fervi (ferbul) strideo stridere strldi 207 Deponents and Semi-Deponents. fateor fateri fassus sum confiteor confiterl confessus sum liceor liceri licitus sum polliceor polliceri pollicitus sum misereor misereri miseritus sum reor rerl ratus sum tueor tueri vereor vereri veritus sum audeo audere ausus sum gaudeo gaudere gavisus sum soleo solere solitus sum bite hang boil creak confess confess bid, offer promise pity think look to, protect fear dare rejoice be accustomed THIRD CONJUGATION CONSONANT STEMS. 208 Perfect in -si. 1. Principal Parts in -6, ere, -Si, -tus : carpo carpere carps! carptus cingo coquo cmgere coquere cinxi coxi cmctus coctus pluck gird cook LIST OF VERBS 91 209 dico dlcere dlxi dictus say duco ducere duxi ductus lead fingo fingere finxl flctus fashion gero gerere gessi gestus carry jungo jungere junxi junctus join rego regere rexi rectus rule scribo scribere scrlpsl scriptus write stringo stringere strinxi strlctus bind tego tegere texi tectus cover traho trahere traxi tractus draw uro urere USSl ustus burn veho vehere vexi vectus carry vivo vivere V1X1 (victum) live 2. Principal Parts in -6, -ere, -si, -sus : cedo cedere cessi (cessum) yield claudo claudere clausi clausus shut divide dividere divisl divlsus divide flgo figere fix! fixus fasten flecto flectere flexl flexus bend laedo laedere laesi laesus hurt ludo ludere lusi (lusum) play mergo mergere mersi mersus sink mitto mittere misi missus send premo preraere press! pressus press rado radere rasi rasus shave spargo spargere spars! sparsus scatter Perfect in -vl : arcesso arcessere arcessivl arcessitus summon cerno cernere see decerno decernere decrevi decretus decide peto petere petivi (petil) petltus seek, beg pono ponere posui positus place quaero quaerere quaesivi quaesitus seek, ask acquire acquirers acqulsivl acqulsltus acquire sero serere sevi satus sow sino sinere S1V1 situs let desino desinere desiT desitus cease sperno spemere sprevi spretus scorn stern o sternere stravi stratus strew prosterno prosternere prostravi prostratus overthrow tero terere trivi tritus rub 92 LATIN GRAMMAR 210 Perfect in -ul : alo colo alere colere alui colul altus (alitus) nourish cultus cultivate incolo incolere incolui inhabit consero consulo conserere consulere coiiserui consului consertus join consultus consult desero deserere deserui desertus desert fremo fremere fremui roar gemo gigno incumbo gemere gignere incumbere genmi genui incubui groan genitus bring forth incubitus lean on texo texere texul textus weave tremo tremere tremui tremble 211 Perfect in -I. 1. With Keduplication : abdo abdere abdidi credo credere credidi reddo reddere reddidi and all other compounds of do, give, abditus put away, hide creditus put faith in, believe redditus give back, restore with monosyllabic words. cado cadere cecidl (casurus) fall occido occidere occidi occasus go dow caedo caedere cecidl caesus cut occido occidere occidi occisus cut doi cano canere cecim sing circumsisto circumsistere circumsteti surrou'i consisto consistere constiti take a curro currere cucurri (cursura) run fallo fallere fefelli (falsus) deceive parco parcere peperci (parsurus) spare pello pellere pepuli pulsus drive resisto resistere restiti resist tango tangere tetigi tactus touch tendo tendere tetendi tentus stretch Also the following, which have lost their original redupli- cation : findo findere fidi fissus split percello percellere perculi perculsus strike down scindo scindere scidi scissus tear apart tollo tollere (sustuli) (sublatus) bear of, lift LIST OF VERBS 93 2. With Stem Vowel Lengthened ago agere eg! actus drive, do cogo cogere coeg! coactus compel perago peragere pereg! peractus finish subigo subigere subeg! subactus subdue edo edere, esse ed! esus eat emo emere em! emptus take, buy coemo coemere coem! coemptus buy up demo demere dempsi demptus take away dirimo dirimere diremi diremptus destroy redimo redimere redemi redemptus buy back sumo sumere sumps! sumptus take up frango frangere freg! fractus break fundo fundere fud! fusus pour lego legere leg! lectus gather, read colligo colligere colleg! collectus collect deligo deligere deleg! delectus choose diligo dlligere dllex! dllectus love intellego intellegere intellex! intellectus understand neglego neglegere neglex! neglectus neglect relinquo relinquere rel!qu! rellctus leave rumpo rumpere rup! ruptus break, burst vinco vincere vie! victus conquer 3. With Stem Unchanged : accendo accendere accend! accensus kindle defendd defendere defend! defensus defend pando pandere pand! passus spread prehendo prehendere prehend! prehensus seize scando scandere climb ascendo ascendere ascend! (ascensum) climb up solvo solvere solv! solutus loose vello vellere veil! vulsus pluck verro verrere verr! versus sweep verto vertere vert! versus turn volvo volvere volv! volutus roll 212 Present System only : ango angere choke claudo claudere limp lambo lambere lick vergo vergere incline, lie LATIN GRAMMAR 213 VOWEL STEMS. 1. Present Stems in -u : acuo acuere acui sharpen arguo arguere argui accuse fluo fluere flux! flow imbuo imbuere imbui imbutus imbue mduo induere indui indutus put on luo luere lui pay, atone for polluo polluere pollul pollutus defile metuo metuere metui fear minuo rninuere minui minutus lessen ruo ruere rul ruiturus fall dlruo dlruere dirui dlrutus destroy obruo obruere obrui obrutus overwhelm statuo statuere statui statutus set, settle constituo constituere constitui constitutes determine struo struere struxi structus build tribuo tribuere tribui tributus allot 2. Present Stems in -i (see 182) : aspicio aspicere aspexi aspectus look at capio capere cepi captus take accipio accipere accepi acceptus accept incipio incipere incepi inceptus begin conspicio conspicere conspexi conspectus behold cupio cupere cupivi cupitus desire facio facere feel factus make interficio interficere interfeci interfectus kill and other prepositional compounds of facio. But -facio is in- flected without change of its simple stems in the compounds assuefacio, accustom, calefacio, heat, patefacio, open. fodio fodere fodl fossus dig fugio fugere fugi fugiturus flee effugio effugere effugi escape jacio jacere jeci j act us hurl abicio abicere abjeci abjectus throw away pario parere peperi partus bring forth quatio quatere quassus shake concutio concutere concuss! concussus shock rapio rapere rapul raptus seize dlripio diripere dlripui direptus plunder LIST OF VERBS 95 214 VERBS IN -sco. These are called Inceptive or Inchoative Verbs, because all but the simple verbs in -sco regularly de- note the beginning of an action : floresco, begin to bloom. 1. Simple Verbs in -SCO : consuesco consuescere consuevi consuetus accustom one's self cresco crescere crevi cretus grow disco discere didici learn nosco noscere novl know agnosco agnoscere agnovi agnitus recognize cognosce cognoscere cognovi cognitus recognize Ignosco ignoscere Ignovl (Ignotum) pardon pasco pascere pa vi pastus feed posco poscere poposci demand quiesco quiescere quievi (quietum) be still 2. Derivatives in -sco formed from Verbs and Adjectives ; such as : floresco florescere maturesco maturescere and many others. 215 DEPONENTS : florui blossom (floreo, bloom) maturui ripen (maturus, ripe) adipiscor adipiscT amplector amplecti comminiscor comminisci fruor frul fungor fungi gradior gradi irascor irasci labor lab! loquor loqul morior mori nanclscor nancisci nascor nasci nitor niti obllviscor oblivisci paclscor pacisci patior patl perpetior perpetl proficiscor proficisci adeptus sum araplexus sum commentus sum (fruiturus) functus sum gressus sum (iratus) lapsus sum locutus sum mortuus sum nanctus (nactus) sum natus sum nlsus (nlxus) sum oblitus sum pactus sum passus sum perpessus sum profectus sum attain embrace invent, make up enjoy perform step, march get angry glide, slip talk die acquire be born rest on, strive forget bargain suffer endure set out 96 LATIN GRAMMAR queror remimscor sequor ulciscor utor vescor queri reminlsci sequi ulclscl fit! vescl questus sum secutus sum ultus sum usus sum complain recollect follow avenge use feed FOUETH CONJUGATION 216 Perfect in -vi : audio audire audlvi audltus hear So all strictly regular verbs of the Fourth Conjugation. Perfect in -ui : 217 apeno operio salio aperire operire salire aperui operui salui apertus opertus 218 Perfect in -si : 219 1. With old Eeduplication Lost : comperio comperire comperi compertus reperio reperlre repperi repertus 2. With Stem Vowel Lengthened : venio venire veni (ventum) advenio advenire adveni (adventum) invenio invenire invem inventus 220 Deponents are usually strictly regular, like largior largirl largitus sum But the following should be noticed : assentior assentiri assensus sum experior experiri expertus sum metior metlri mensus sum opperior opperiri oppertus sum ordior ordlri orsus sum orior oriri ortus sum open cover fulcio haurio fulcire haurire fulsi hausi fultus haustus support draw sancio sentio vincio sancire sentire vincire sanxi sens! vinxi sanctus sensus vinctus ratify feel bind Perfect in -I. ascertain find come arrive find bestow try measure await begin arise IRREGULAR VERBS 97 IRREGULAR VERBS 221 The Irregular Verbs are sum, edo, fero, volo, fio, eo, queo and their compounds. For the conjugation of sum see 173. Its compounds are conjugated in the same way, excepting prosum, profit, and possum, be able, prosum is a compound of prod- (old form of pro-) and sum. It keeps the d before e, but loses it elsewhere. Thus pro-sum, prod-es, prod-est ; pro-sumus, prod-estis, pro-sunt. possum is a compound of pot-is, able, and sum. 222 possum, be able. PRINCIPAL PARTS possum posse pot in be able INDICATIVE SINGULAR PLURAL Pres. possum, potes, potest possumus, potestis, possunt Imp. poteram poteramus Fut. potero poterimus Perf. potui potuimus Plup. potueram potueramus P.P. potuero potuerimus SUBJUNCTIVE Pres. possim. possis, possit possimus, possitis, possint Imp. possem possemus Perf. potuerim potuerimus Plup. potuissem potuissemus INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE Pres. posse Pres. potens Perf. potuisse 98 LATIN GRAMMAR 223 edo, eat. PRINCIPAL PARTS edo edere edl esus eat Active Voice INDICATIVE SINGULAR PLURAL Pres. edo edimus edis, es editis, estis edit, est edunt SUBJUNCTIVE Imp. ederem, essera ederes, esses ederet, esset ederemus, essemus ederetis, essetis ederent, essent IMPERATIVE Pres. ede, es edite, este Fut. edito, esto editote, estote edito, esto edunto INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE Pres. edere, esse Fut. esurus esse Perf. edisse Pres. edens Fut. esurus GERUND SUPINE edendi esura, -u In the Passive Voice the following forms in the Third Per- son Singular occur : Present Indicative, editur or estur, and Imperfect Subjunctive, ederetur or essetur. IRREGULAR VERBS 99 224 fero, bear, carry. fero PRINCIPAL PARTS ferre tull latus bear Active Voice INDICATIVE SINGULAR PLURAL Pres. fero, fers, fert ferimus, fertis, ferunt Imp. ferebam ferebam us Fut. feram feremus Perf. tull tulimus Plup. tuleram tuleramus P.P. tulero tulerimus SUBJUNCTIVE Pres. feram Imp. ferre m Perf. tulerim Plup. tulissem feramus ferremus tulerimus tulissemus IMPERATIVE Pres. fer ferte Fut. ferto fertote ferto ferunto INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE Pres. ferre Pres. ferens Perf. tulisse Fut. laturus esse Fut. laturus GERUND SUPINE Gen. ferendi Dat. ferendo Ace. ferendum Ace. latum All. ferendo AU. latu 100 LATIN GRAMMAR 225 Passive Voice feror ferri latus sum be borne INDICATIVE SINGULAR PLURAL Pres. feror, ferris, fertur ferimur, ferimini. feruntur Imp. ferebar ferebamur Fut. ferar feremur Per/, latus sum lati sumus Plup. latus eram lati eramus F. P. latus ero lati erimus SUBJUNCTIVE Pres. ferar feraraur Imp. ferrer ferremur Perf. latus sim lati simus Plup. latus essem lati essem us IMPERATIVE Pres. ferre ferimini Fut. fertor fertor feruntor INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE Pres. ferri Perf. latus esse Fut. latum iri Perfect. latus Gerundive, ferendus 226 In compounds notice that fero preserves its simple form with- out change, and that the preposition with which it is com- pounded undergoes various changes : affero afferre attuli allatus carry to aufero auferre afostuli ablatus carry away confero conferre contuli collatus compare differo differre distuli dilatus put off effero efferre extuli elatus carry off infero inferre intuli illatus bring against offero offerre obtuli oblatus present refero referre rettuli relatus bring back [tollo] [tollere] sustuli sublatus lift, take away :-'. 101 227 volo, nolo, malo. volo nolo malo PRINCIPAL PARTS velle volul nolle nolul malic malu! INDICATIVE be willing be unwilling prefer Pres. volo nolo malo vis non vis mavis vult non vult mavult volumus nolumus malumus vultis non vultis mavultis volunt nolunt malunt Imp. volebam nolobam malebam Fut. volam nolam malam Perf. volul nolul malui Plup. volueram nolueram malueram P.P. voluero noluero maluero SUBJUNCTIVE Pres. velim, -Is, -it, etc. nolim malim Imp. vellem, -es, -et, etc. nollem mallem Perf. voluerim noluerim maluerim Plup. voluissem nolaissem maluissem IMPERATIVE Pres. Fut. noli nolite nollto nolltote nollto nolunto INFINITIVE Pres. Perf. velle voluisse nolle noluisse malle maluisse PARTICIPLE Pres. volens [nolens] nolo is compounded of non, not, and volo ; malo of magis, more, and volo, 102 J^A^ QR&MMAR 228 fio, "become, ~be made. PRINCIPAL PARTS fio fieri factus sum become, be made INDICATIVE SINGULAR PLURAL Pres. fio, f Is, fit flmus, f Itis, f lunt Imp. flebam flebamus Fut. flam flemus Perf. factus sum factl sumus Plup. factus eram fact! eramus F. P. factus ero factl erimus SUBJUNCTIVE Pres. flam flamus Imp. fierem fieremus Perf. factus sim factl slmus Plup. factus essem factl essemus IMPERATIVE Pres. fl flte INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE Pres. fieri Perf. factus esse Fut. factum irl Perfect. factus Gerundive, faciendus IRREGULAR VERBS 103 229 eo, go. PRINCIPAL PARTS eo Ire Ivi ituin INDICATIVE SINGULAR PLURAL Pres. Imp. Put. eo, is, it ibam ibo imus, itis, eunt ibamus ibimus Perf. Plup. P.P. ivl (ii) iverara (ieram) ivero (iero) ivimus (iimus) iveramus (ieramus) iverimus (ierimus) SUBJUNCTIVE Pres. earn Imp. irem Perf. iverim (ierim) Plup. ivissem (iissem, issem) eamus iremus iverimus (ierimus) ivissemus (iissemus, Issemus) IMPERATIVE Pres. j ite Fut. ito itote ito eunto INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE Pres. ire Pres. iens Perf. ivisse (isse) (Gen. euntis) Fut. iturus esse Fut. iturus GERUND SUPINE Gen. eundi Dat. eundo Ace. eundum Abl. eundo Ace. itum AN. itu queo, / can, and nequeo, / cannot, are conjugated like eo 104 LATIN GRAMMAR DEFECTIVE VERBS 230 The following three lack the Present System : coepi, / have begun mcmiiil, I remember odi, / hate INDICATIVE Perf. Plup. P.P. coepi coeperam coepero meminl memineram meminero odi oderam odero SUBJUNCTIVE Perf. Plup. coeperim coepissem meminerim meminissem oderim odissem IMPERATIVE memento, mementote INFINITIVE Perf. Fut. coepisse meminisse coepturus esse odisse osurus esse PARTICIPLE Perf. coeptus Fut. coepturus osus osurus The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect of meminl and odi have the meanings of the Present, Imperfect, and Fu- ture respectively ; odi, / hate, oderam, / was hating, odero, / shall hate. IMPERSONAL VERBS 105 231 inquam, say I (inserted in direct quotations). SINGULAR PLURAL 2nd. Pres. inquam mquis inquit inquiunt Ind. Fut. inquies inquiet 232 ajo, I say, assert. SINGULAR PLURAL Ind. Pres. ajo ais ait ajunt Ind. Impf. ajebam ajebas ajebat ajebamus ajebatis ajebant Subj. Pres. ajas ajat IMPERSONAL VERBS 233 Impersonal Verbs are those which do not take a personal subject, and are therefore translated with it. Thus pluit, it rams, pudet, it shames, accidit, it happens. They are used only in the Third Person Singular and in the Infinitive. Impersonal Verbs include : 1. Verbs referring to the weather : pluit, it rains fulget, it lightens ningit, it snows tonat, it thunders 2. Verbs of feeling and conduct : FEELING CONDUCT miseret, it causes pity decet, it is becoming paenitet, it repents dedecet, it is unbecoming piget, it grieves libet, it suits pudet, it shames licet, it is lawful taedet, it disgusts oportet, it ought refert, it concerns With Impersonal Verbs of Feeling the person concerned is in the Accusative. Thus pudet me, it shames me = I am ashamed. 106 LATIN GRAMMAR With Impersonal Verbs of Conduct the person concerned is in the Dative. Thus libet mihi, it suits me, oportet tibi, you ought = you must, licet tibi, it is lawful for you = you may. 3. Other verbs sometimes used impersonally, and a few Passive forms, such as : accidit, it happens accedit, it is added placet, it pleases praestat, it is better curritur it is run = some one runs pugnatur it is fought = there is fighting actum est it is done = all is over ventum est it is come = some one has come THE PARTICLES 234 Adverbs, Conjunctions, Prepositions, and Interjections are called Particles (7, 8, 9). Adverbs change their form by Comparison only (44). Apart from this the Particles are not inflected. ADVERBS FORMATION 235 Most Adverbs are derived from Adjectives. 1. Adverbs are formed from Adjectives of the First and Sec- ond Declensions by changing the final vowel of the stem to -e. ADJECTIVES ADVERBS Thus liber (stem libero-),/ree, becomes Hbere, freely verus (stem vero-), true, " vere, truly 2. Adverbs are formed from Adjectives of the Third Declension by adding -ter to the stem. ADJECTIVES ADVERBS acer (stem acri-), sharp, becomes acriter, sharply fortis (stem forti-), brave, " fortiter, bravely felix (stem felici-), happy, " fellciter, happily amans (stem amant-), loving, " amanter, lovingly Notice that stems in -nt lose the t before -ter. ADVERBS 107 236 1. Some Adverbs in -e have also a form in -iter : humane and humaniter, kindly large and largiter, lavishly 2. Some Adverbs in -e have also a form in -6, sometimes with change of meaning : certe, at least certo, certainly rare, thinly raro, seldom vere, truly vero, true but 237 1. Many Adverbs are really Accusative or Ablative forms of Adjectives, Nouns, or Pronouns : ACCUSATIVE FORMS ABLATIVE FORMS triste, sadly modo, only multum, much primo, at first clam, secretly magnopere, greatly quam, as forte, by chance quid ? why 9 qua, where 2. Some Adverbs have the ending -tim (~sim) or -im : statim, at once passim, everywhere paulatim, gradually interim, meanwhile 3. Some Adverbs end in -tus : antiquitus, of old radlcitus, from the roots COMPARISON 238 Adverbs follow the comparison of the Adjec- tives from which they are derived. The end- ings of Adverbial comparison are : POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE 1. -e or -ter -ius -issime alte, loftily altius altissime fellciter, happily felicius felicissime following the comparison of altus and felix (see 120). 108 LATIN GRAMMAR 2. -e or -ter -ius -rime libere, freely liberius liberrime acriter, sharply acrius acerrime following the comparison of liber and acer (see 122). 3. -e or -ter -ius -lime facile, easily facilius facillime similiter, in like manner similius simillime following the comparison of facilis (see 123). 239 The following are irregular in comparison : POSITIVE bene, well male, ill multum, much parum, (too) little diu, long saepe, often nequiter, worthlessly prope, near COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE melius optime pejus pessime plus plurimum minus minime diutius diutissime saepius saepissime nequius nequissime propius proxime magis, more maxime, most potius, rather potissimum, most of all prius, formerly primum, first CLASSES 240 Adverbs are divided into the following classes : 1. Adverbs of Manner. This is by far the largest class, including nearly all Adverbs derived from Adjectives ; as vere, truly, bene, weU y facile, easily. 2. Adverbs of Place : ubi, where ibi, there alicubi, usquam, somewhere hie, here hue, hither hinc, lience hac, this way illic, there illuc, thither illinc, thence iliac, that way PREPOSITIONS 109 3. Adverbs of Time : cum, when turn, then nunc, just now tune, just then quando ? jam, now, al- umquam, ever numquam, when 9 ready, soon never 4. Adverbs of Degree : quam, as much as tarn, so much quamvls, however much quotiens, as often as totiens, so often 5. Adverbs of Question (Interrogative Particles) : -ne, nonne, num are question marks (280) an, anne, utrum, utrumne, or, whether annon, necne, or not 6. Adverbs of Assent and Denial : etiam yes, so ita, yes, so quidem, indeed, to be sure non, no, not haud, hardly, not minime, not at all 7. Adverbs of Number (see 132). PREPOSITIONS 241 Prepositions stand before the cases they govern. But versus, -ward, and tenus, as far as, are postpositive. 242 These twenty-nine take the Accusative only : ad, to erga, towards pone, behind adversus, against extra, without post, after adversum, towards infra, below praeter, except ante, before inter, among prope, near apud, at, near intra, within propter, on account of circa, around juxta, near secundum, according circiter, about ob, on account of supra, above [to circum, around penes, in the trans, across cis, citra, this side power of ultra, beyond contra, opposite to per, through versus, -ward 110 LATIN GRAMMAR 243 These ten take the Ablative only : a, ab, abs, away from, by e, ex, out from, out of absque, without (apart from) prae, compared with coram, in presence of pro, for, in behalf of, in front of cum, with sine, without, -less de, down from, concerning tenus, up to, as far as 244 Before consonants a or ab, e or ex may be used. Before a vowel or h always use ab and ex : ab imtio,from the begin- ning, ex urbe, out from the city, ex hordeo, out of bar- ley, abs is rare. Sometimes cum is appended to certain Pronouns in the Ablative : mecum, with me voblscum, with you secum, with him, with them quibuscum, with whom 245 These four take the Accusative or Ablative : in, in, into, against subter, underneath sub, under super, above in and sub with the Accusative denote motion to a place ; with the Ablative they denote rest in a place. Thus : in urbem venit he came into the city in urbe habitat he dwells in the city sub montem pervenit he arrived at the foot of the mountain sub monte underneath the mountain 246 The Inseparable Prepositions (or Adverbs) are so named be- cause they occur only in compound words. They are : amb(i)-, around amb-ire, go around au-,away au-fugere, flee away dis-, dl-, asunder dis-tinere, hold apart in-, not, un- in-imicus, un-friendly por-, forth por-rigere, hold forth red-, re-, back red-Ire, go back, re-turn sed-, se-, apart se-cedere, go apart, se-cede ve-, not, -less ve-cors, heart-less CONJUNCTIONS 111 CONJUNCTIONS 247 Conjunctions (joining-words) connect words, phrases, or clauses. They are of two kinds : I. Coordinate Conjunctions, joining words, phrases, or clauses having the same construc- tion : sol et lima, sun and moon. senatus populusque, the senate and people. aut vivam aut moriar, / shall either live or die. II. Subordinate Conjunctions, joining a sub- ordinate to a principal clause (see 287) : si vales, bene est, if you are in health, it is ivell veni ut viderem, (/ came that I might see), I came to see I. COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS 248 Coordinate Conjunctions are divided into five classes : 1. Copulative (uniting) : et, -que, atque (ac), and ; etiam, quoque, also et connects expressions of like importance. -que connects expressions closely combined in mean- ing. It is regularly appended to the second word (terra manque, by land and sea) or to the first word of the sec- ond clause (Aquilonem claudit emittitque Notum, he holds the North (wind) and sends forth the South). atque (ac) connects two expressions, the second of which is more prominent in meaning, ac is used only before con- sonants. etiam is like et. quoque follows its word : tu quoque, and you too! 112 LATIN GRAMMAR The following pairs are often used : et . . . et both . . . and neque . . . neque ) nee ... nee [ mither " ' nor cum . . . turn while . . . at the same time 249 2. Disjunctive (separating) : aut, vel, -ve, sive, or The following pairs are often used : aut . . . aut either . . . or (exclusive) vel . . . vel either . . . or (indifferent) sive . . . sive if ... or if aut Caesar aut nullus either Caesar or nobody vel paci vel bello paratus ready for (either) peace or war 250 3. Adversative (opposing) : sed, verum, autem, at, atqui, but verum is^stronger than sed. autem, but, however, is postpositive (follows its word) : haec autem dico, but this I say. at, but, on the contrary ; atqui, but yet. Also : tamen, however ; ceterum, but still ; vero, but The following pair is often used : non solum . . . sed etiam, not only . . . but also 251 4. Inferential (consequence, result) : ergo, therefore : cogito ergo sum, / think, therefore I am. igitur, then, is postpositive : quid igitur faciam ? what then shall I do? itaque, and so. 252 5. Causal (reason, explanation) : nam, namque, enim, etenim, for enim is postpositive : haec enim dico, for this I say. 253 The omission of coordinate conjunctions is called Asyndeton. veni, vidi, vlci, / came and saw and overcame. CONJUNCTIONS 113 II. SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS 254 Subordinate Conjunctions are divided into eight classes : 1. Final (end or purpose) : ut, uti, quo, (in order) that ne, quominus, quin, that not veni ut te viderem, (/ came that I might see you), I came to see you. claudl curiam jubet, ne quis egredi possit, he orders the senate-chamber to be closed, that no one may be able to leave. 255 2. Consecutive (completion, result) : ut, (so) that ut non, (so) that not tarn longe aberam ut non viderem, / was so far away that I did not see. 256 3. Temporal (time) : quando, cum (quom), ubi, when simul, simul ac, simul atque, as soon as dum, donee, quoad, quamdiu, while, until, as long as antequam, priusquam, before postquam, after cum ver appetit, milites ex hibernls movent, when spring approaches, the soldiers move out-of winter-quarters. dum splro, spero, (as) long as I breathe, I hope. 257 4. Causal (reason, explanation) : quia, quod, quoniam, quando, because, inasmuch as cum (quom), since gaudeo quod te interpellavi, / am glad (because) I inter- rupted you. 258 5. Concessive (allowing) : quamquam, quamvls, cum, licet, etsi, although quamvis ingenio non valet, arte valet, although he not succeed by genius, he succeeds by art. 114 LATIN GRAMMAR 259 6. Conditional (supposing) : si, if\ nisi, ni, if not ; sin, but if dum, modo, dummodo, if only, provided si vales, bene est, if you are in health, it is well. oderint dum metuant, let them hate, provided they fear. 260 7. Comparative (comparing) : ut, uti, quam, as slcut, even as ; prout, according as ; velut, just as tamquam, quasi, as if perge ut Instituisti, go on as you have begun. 261 8. Interrogative (in questions). These are Adverbs used as Conjunctions (for list see 240) : quaero utrum hoc feceris necne, / ask whether you did this, or not. INTERJECTIONS 262 Interjections are exclamations of surprise, joy, sorrow, disgust, and calling: 6, ! 6 tempora, the times ! ecce, lo ! see I ecce Crispmus, see ! (here's) Crispinus ! en, lo here ! en ego, here I am ! io, euoe, ho ! io Bacche, ho ! Bacchus ! euge, bravo ! euge, beatus es quom clamas, bravo ! you look fine ivhen you're shouting ! heu, eheu, alas ! eheu fugaces labuntur anni, alas ! the fleeting years glide by. vae, woe f vae victis, woe to the conquered ! pro, for ! pro pudor, for shame ! apage, get out ! apage, molestus ne sis, get out ! don't bother me! ohe, there I ohe jam satis est, there! that's enough now. heus, eho, halloo! heus tibi dico, halloo (there) ! Pm speak- ing to you. FORMATION OF WORDS 115 THE FORMATION OF WORDS 263 Words formed from other words are divided into two classes, Derivatives and Compounds. 1. Derivatives are formed by adding endings called Suf- fixes to the stems of nouns, adjectives, verbs, or adverbs : filius (stem filio-), son fili-olus, little son fili-ola, little audax (stem audac-), bold audac-ia, boldness [daughter rego (stem reg-), rule rex (= reg-s), reg-num, ruler, king kingdom 2. Compounds are formed by linking one word or its stem to another. The word thus prefixed or added modifies the meaning of the other word, which contains the leading idea. Thus in red-eo, go back, the leading idea is contained in eo, go, and is modified in meaning by red-, back. 264 Nouns from Nouns. 1. Diminutives in I. DERIVATIVES A. NOUNS -ulus -ula -ulum -olus -ola -olum -culus -cula -culum -ellus -ella -ellum -illus -ilia -ilium riv-ulus, rivulet (rivus, flos-culus, floiveret (flos, stream) flower) silv-ula, little wood (silva, sac-ellum, shrine (sacrum, forest) holy place) fili-olus, young son (filius, son) Iap-illus,^e^ (lapis, stone) 116 LATIN GRAMMAR 2. Nouns of Place Where Gathered, ending in -arium, -etum, -He : aerarium, treasury (aes, money) quercetum, oak grove (quercus, oak) ovlle, sheepfold (ovis, sheep) 3. Nouns of Place or Eelationship, ending in -ma, -ium : doctrlna, teaching (doctor, teacher) tonstrina, barber shop (tonstor, barber) consortium, companionship (consors, consort) 4. Greek nouns of Descent (Patronymics), ending in -ides, -Ides, -ades ; feminine in -is, -eis, -ias : Priamides, son of Priam Atlantis, daughter of Atlas Atrldes, son of Atreus Nereis, daughter of Nereus 265 Nouns from Adjectives are Abstract. The endings -ia, -(i)tia, (i)tas, (i)tudo denote quality : audacia, boldness (audax, Hbertas, freedom (liber, bold) free) amicitia, friendship (ami- fortitudo, bravery (fortis, cus, friendly) brave) 266 Nouns from Verbs. 1. Nouns of Activity or Feeling, ending in -or : amor, love calor, warmth (caleo, am warm) 2. Nouns of Personal Agency, ending in -tor (-sor) ; fem- inine, -trlx : victor, victrlx, conqueror cursor, runner A few nouns in -tor are derived from nouns : viator, trav- eler (via, way), janitor, doorkeeper (janua, door), funditor, slinger (funda, a sling). FORMATION OF WORDS 117 3. Nouns of Action Going On, ending in -tio (-sio) and -tus (-sus), genitive -us : actio, action, a doing motus, motion, a moving oratio, oration, a speaking cursus, race, a running consensio and consensus, consent, an agreeing 4. Nouns of Embodiment of Action (Instrument, Means, Place). These end in -men, -mentum, -crum, -trum, -bulum, -culum : flumen, river (f[uo,flow) aratrum, a plow (a.ro,plow) ornamentum, ornament (or- stabulum, stall (sto, stand) no, adorn) vehiculum, carriage (veho, sepulcrum, grave (sepultus, carry) buried) B. ADJECTIVES 267 Adjectives from Nouns. From Common Nouns 1. Adjectives of Material, ending in -eus and -inus : aur-eus, golden (aurum, gold) ferr-eus, of iron (ferrum, iron) 2. Adjectives meaning Belonging or Pertaining To, end- ing in -ius, -icus, -icius -His, -alis, -aris, -arius -nus, -anus, -Inus, -ivus, -ensis, -ester reg-ius, royal (rex, king) urb-anus, of the city (urbs, bell-icus, warlike (bellum, city) war) mar-mus, marine (mare, sea) vir-Ilis, manly (vir, man) aest-ivus, of summer (aes- reg-alis, regal (rex, king) tas, summer) popul-aris, popular (popu- castr-ensis,o/^cwjt?(cas- lus, people) tra, camp) pater-nus, paternal (pater, camp-ester, level (campus, father) plain) 9 118 LATIN GRAMMAR 3. Adjectives of Fulness, ending in -osus, -lentus : aquosus, watery (aqua, opulentus, ivealthy (opes, water) resources) 4. Adjectives meaning Supplied With, ending in -tus : alatus, winged (ala, wing) aurltus, having ears (auris, togatus, gowned (toga, ear) gown) From Proper Nouns 5. Adjectives derived from names of Persons end in -anus, -ianus, -Inus : Caesarianus, of Caesar, Caesarian Plautmus, of Plautus 6. Adjectives derived from names of Nations end in -icus, -ius: Gallicus, Gallic Syrius, Syrian 7. Adjectives derived from names of Places end in -anus, -Inus, -ensis, -aeus, -ius, -as. Romanus, Roman Smyrnaeus, of Smyrna Caudmus, Caudine, of Cau- Corinthius, Corinthian dium Arpmas, of Arpinum Atheniensis, Athenian 268 Adjectives from Adjectives. A few Diminutives only : parvulus, little (parvus, small) aureolus, golden-hued (aureus, golden) 269 Adjectives from Verbs. 1. Adjectives of Imminent Condition, ending in -bundus, -cundus. They are like Present Participles : moribundus, going to die, dying (morior, die) iracundus, getting enraged (Irascor, am angry) FORMATION OF WORDS 119 2. Adjectives of Settled Condition, ending in -idus: calidus, warm madidus, wet candidus, white validus, strong 3. Adjectives of Capability, ending in -ilis, -bilis: fragilis, fragile (breakable) mobilis, movable 4. Adjectives of Tendency, ending in -ax, -ulus i audax, daring bibulus, apt to drink loquax, talkative credulus, credulous 270 Adjectives from Adverbs, ending in -ernus, -ternus, -tmus, -tinus : hodiernus, of to-day (hodie) hesternus, yester-(day) (hen) clandestmus, secret (clam) crastinus, of to-morrow (eras) c. VERBS 271 Verbs from Nouns. euro, care for (cura, care) metuo, fear (metus, fear) luceo, shine (lux, light) vestio, clothe (vestis, garment) 272 Verbs from Adjectives. claudico, limp (claudus, lame) levo, lighten, relieve (levis, light) Hbero, set free (liber, free) 273 Verbs from Verbs. 1. Inceptives, denoting Action Beginning, ending in -sco : horre-sco, shudder, groiv rough (horreo, dread, be rough) ob-dormi-sco, go to sleep (dormio, sleep) 2. Frequentatives, denoting Action Repeated, ending in -to, -so ; or in -ito when derived from verbs of First Conjugation : cap-to, grasp at (capio, take) can-to, sing on (cano, sing) cur-so, run about (curro, run) rog-ito, keep asking (rogo, ask) 120 LATIN GRAMMAR, But notice : agito, agitate (from ago of Third Conjugation) haesito, hesitate (from haereo of Second Conjugation) Frequentatives derived from other Frequentatives some- times occur : cantito, sing on and on (canto) cursito, keep running about (curso) 3. Desideratives, denoting Desire to Act, ending in -urio : esurio, long to eat, am hungry (edo, es-se, eat] 274 Nouns. 1L COMPOUNDS 1. Noun and Verb : agri-cola, (field-tiller), farmer arm(i)-ger, armor-bearer fratri-cida, fratri-cide 2. Preposition and Noun : de-decus, dis-grace in-genium, (in-born nature), disposition 275 Adjectives. 1. Adjective and Noun : magn-animus, great-souled miseri-cors, (tender-hearted), merciful 2. Noun and Verb : muni-ficus, muni-ficent, generous parti-ceps, parti-bating, sharing 3. Preposition (or Adverb) and Adjective or Noun (246) : in-dlgnus, un-worthy de-mens, de-mented per-magnus, very great se-curus, care-less 276 Verbs. 1. Noun and Verb : anim-adverto, notice (turn mind to) aedi-fico, build (make house) FORMATION OP WORDS 121 2. Adjective and Verb : ampli-fico, ampli-fy, enlarge _ 3. Verb and Verb : cale-facio, make warm (cale-6 and facio) 4. Adverb and Verb : ne-scio, not know, be ignorant satis-facio, satis-fy (do enough) 5. Preposition and Verb (246) : dis-traho, draw apart, dis-tract red-eo, go lack, re-turn THIRD PART: SENTENCES I. THE SENTENCE IN GENERAL 277 A Sentence is a thought expressed in words. Every Sentence must contain a Subject and a Predicate. The Subject is that which is spoken of; the Predicate is that which is said about the Subject. Thus in the sentence Caesar pervenit, Caesar arrived, Caesar is the Subject and pervenit is the Predicate. In errare humanum est, to-err is human, errare is the Subject and humanum est is the Predicate. 278 The Finite Yerb (157) always contains a Subject and a Predicate. It alone can make a complete Sentence. Thus ama-t, lie loves. Every Sentence must contain a Verb (155), either expressed or understood. In the following the Yerb is not expressed, but is understood : i nemo malusj felix, no bad man (is) happy omne vlvuni ex ovo, every living-thing (comes) from the egg 122 THE SENTENCE IN GENERAL 123 WAYS OF STATING THE SENTENCE 279 A sentence may be expressed in four ways 1. Declarative as a fact : Caesar Galliam vicit, Caesar conquered Gaul. 2. Interrogative as a question : quis Galliam vlcit, who conquered Gaul? 3. Imperative as a command : Galliam vince, conquer Gaul ! 4. Exclamatory as an exclamation : quot gentes Caesar vlcit, how many tribes Caesar conquered ! DIRECT QUESTIONS 1 280 Interrogative Sentences (Direct Questions) are divided into 1. Word-Questions, introduced by interrogative pronouns and adverbs : quern vides, whom do you see 9 quo vadis, whither goest thou 9 2. Sentence-Questions, introduced by -ne, nonne, num : videsne, do you see 9 (answer may be yes or no) nonne vides, don't you see 9 (expects answer yes) num vides, you don't see 9 (expects answer no) Sometimes the Sentence-Question omits the introductory particle : video, do I see 9 281 Direct Double Questions are introduced by V utrum ... an (anne) -ne . . . an (anne) ... an (anne) -ne . . . annon eloquar an sileam, shall I speak or keep silent 9 utrum honestum est an turpe, is it honorable or base 9 tune hoc fecisti annon, did you do this, or not 9 1 For Indirect Questions see 590. 124: LATIN GRAMMAR 282 The Answer to a question is expressed as follows : 1. Yes by repeating the verb, or by ita, certe, etiam, sane, scilicet, vero : venlsne, are you coming 9 venio, yes, or ita, yes. 2. No by repeating the verb with a negative, or by non, non ita, minime : venlsne, are you coming ? non venio, no, or non, no. 283 Questions which have the force of asserting something oppo- site to the question asked are called Rhetorical Questions : quis hoc credat, who would believe this 9 (nobody). quis dubitat, who doubts 9 (nobody). KINDS OF SENTENCES 284 A Simple Sentence contains but one Subject and one Predicate. A Compound Sentence contains more than one Subject or Predicate. Simple Sentence : ego te amo, / love you. Compound Sentences : tu me amas, ego te amo, you love me, I love you. divide et impera, divide and conquer. 285 Sentences containing more than one Subject or Predicate treated as a single Subject or Predicate are sometimes ex- plained as Simple Sentences and sometimes as shortened Compound Sentences : pater et mater mortui sunt, father-and-mother are dead. pater vivit atque valet, father is-alive-and-well. Every Compound Sentence is made up of two or more sentences called Clauses. 286 The Clauses of a Compound Sentence are called Coordinate when they are parallel independ- THE SENTENCE IN GENERAL 125 ent sentences. Thus sol ruit et montes um- brantur, the sun descends and the mountains are shadowed, consists of two independent sen- tences, sol ruit and montes umbrantur. 287 A Clause which is governed by another is called dependent or Subordinate. Thus in cum sol ruit, montes umbrantur, when the sun descends, the mountains are shadowed, cum sol ruit is a Subordinate Clause stating the Time of montes umbrantur, the leading or Principal Clause. HOW WOEDS ARE COMBINED IN SENTENCES 288 Words are combined in five ways. Each word either 1. Agrees With, 2. Governs, 3. Depends On (or Is Governed By), 4. Introduces, or 5. Connects some other word or words. 1. Agreement. In vir magnus, a great man, the ad- jective magnus agrees with the noun vir in Gender (mas- culine), Number (singular), and Case (nominative). 2. Government. In montem video, I see the mountain, the verb video governs montem. 3. Dependence. In montem video, I see the mountain, the noun montem is governed in the Accusative Case by the verb video. 126 LATIN GRAMMAR 4. Introduction. In si venis, if you come, the conjunc- tion si introduces the verb venis. 5. Connection. In pater et mater, father and mother, the conjunction et connects the nouns pater and mater. IMPORTANT RULES FOR COMBINING WORDS 289 The following rules are so important that they should be learned at the start : I. The Subject of a Finite Verb is in the Nominative : hora venit, the hour has come. The Subject must be a noun or a substitute for a noun for example, a pronoun, an infinitive, or a clause : quis scribit, who writes? e r r a r e humanum est, to-err is human. accidit ut esset luna plena, (it) happened that-it- was -fu ll-moon. The Subject is always implied in the personal end- ing of the verb : ama-t, he loves, ama-mus, we love. 290 II. A Predicate Noun agrees with its Subject, in Case. A Predicate Noun is one which explains another noun referring to the same thing, and is connected with it by some verb of Being, Seeming, Becoming, or the like : Romulus rex fuit, Romulus was Icing. Cicero factus est consul, Cicero became consul. re gin a colorum lux est, light is the queen of colors. The Predicate Nouns above are rex, consul, regina. When possible, a Predicate Noun agrees with its Subject in Gender : TEE SENTENCE IN GENERAL 127 Masculine: usus magister est, experience is a teacher. Feminine: vita magistra est, life is a teacher. 291 III. An Appositive (Noun) agrees with its Sub~ ject in Case. An Appositive is a noun which explains another noun referring to the same thing, and is joined to it without any connecting word : urbs Roma, the city Rome. flumen R h e n u s , the river R h i n e . Vergilius p o t a , Virgil the poet . 292 1. When possible, the Appositive agrees with its Subject in Gender and Number : Orion venator, Orion the hunter. voluptas adsentatrix, pleasure the flatterer. But, Tullia, deliciae meae, Tullia, my darling. 2. Partitive Apposition : Caesar et Bibulus consules, Caesar and Bibulus, the consuls . Here consules is in Apposition with Caesar and Bibu- lus separately or Partitively. 3. A common noun in Apposition with a Locative (55) is put in the Ablative : Antiochiae, celebrl urbe, at Antioch, a famous city. 293 IV. An Adjective agrees with its Noun in Gen- der, Number, and Case. Like Adjectives in Agreement are Pronouns and Par- ticiples. servus bonus, a good slave dl magnl, the great gods b o n a fides, good faith d u a e partes, two parts oleum b o n u m , g o o d oil t r i a verba, three words ilia mulier, t h a t woman sol o r i e n s , the rising sun 128 LATIN GRAMMAR 294 1. With two or more Nouns the Adjective is usually in the Plural Number, but sometimes agrees with the nearest : Nisus et Euryalus primi, Nisus and Euryalus first. pater meus et mater, my father and mother. 2. With a Collective Noun (singular in form and plural in meaning) the Adjective may be of the Number and Gender which suit the meaning of the Noun : pars certare p a r a 1 1 , part ready to fight. pars melior, the better part. mllle c a p 1 1 sunt, a thousand (men) are captured. 3. A Neuter Adjective is sometimes used to bring out better the sense intended : mors est extremum, death is the last (thing). 295 With two or more Nouns in different Genders 1. An Attributive Adjective usually agrees with one noun : c u n c t a maria terraeque, a 1 1 seas and lands. 2. A Predicate Adjective is Masculine when the nouns denote persons, and Neuter when the nouns denote things : pater et mater mortul sunt, father and mother are dead. Ira et odium t u r p i a sunt, anger and hatred are base. When the nouns include both persons and things, the Ad- jective may be Masculine or Neuter : rex regiaque classis una prefect!, the king and the royal fleet set sail together. natura inimica sunt libera civitas et rex, hostile ly nature are a free state and a king. NOTE. An Attributive Adjective is one which modifies its Subject directly: vita brevis, a short life. A Predicate Adjective is one which modifies its Subject by the help of a Verb to which it is joined: vita brevis est, life is short, ars est longa, art is long. THE SENTENCE IN GENERAL 129 296 V. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Person : tempus fugit, time flies (singular number, third person). nos desumus, we fail (plural number, first person). With One Subject 297 1. Sometimes the Yerb is Plural when its Subject in the Singular is used in a plural sense : multitude a b e u n t , the multitude depart. uterque eorum exercitum educunt, they each lead forth (their) army. 2. When the Predicate Noun (290) stands nearer than the Subject to the Yerb, the Yerb agrees with the Predicate Noun : puerl Trqjanum dicitur agmen, the boys are called the Trojan band. 3. Sometimes the Yerb agrees with the Appositive (291) instead of the Subject : Corinthus, totlus Graeciae lumen, exstinctum est, Corinth, the light of all Greece, is put out . 4. The participial forms (167. 3) of the Yerb agree with the Subject in Gender, Number, and Person : delenda est Karthago, Carthage must be destroyed. With More Than One Subject 298 1. With two or more Subjects the Yerb may agree in Num- ber with one or all of them : ego et Cicero valemus, Cicero and I are well. et castra et legiones et imperator in penculo versa- t u r , camp, legions, and commander are involved in peril. 2. With subjects of different Person the Yerb agrees with the first person rather than the second or third, and with the second rather than the third : ego et tu valemus, you and I are ivell. ego et Tullia valemus, Tullia and I are well. tu et Tullia v a 1 e t i s , you and Tullia are well. 130 LATIN GRAMMAR 3. With Subjects of different Gender participial forms (167. 3) of the Yerb follow the rule for Predicate Adjec- tives (295. 2). 299 VI. The Relative Pronoun (147) agrees with its Antecedent in Gender and Number, but its Case depends on the construction of the clause in which it stands. The Antecedent is the word to which the Relative Pro- noun refers : is minimo eget, qui minimum cupit, he needs least, who wants least. liber, quern legis, meus est, the book (w hick) you are reading is mine. flumen, quod in Rhodanum influit, a river which empties into the Rhone. 300 When there is more than one Antecedent the Relative follows the rule for Predicate Adjectives (295. 2) : pater et films, qui sunt mortul, father and son, who are dead. pater et mater, qui sunt mortul, father and mother, who are dead. divitiae et honores, quae sunt caduca, riches and hon- ors, which are perishable (things). Variations in Agreement 301 1. The Relative usually agrees with an Appositive (291) or a Predicate Noun (290), rather than with its Antecedent : flumen O x u s , qui semper turbidus est, the river Oxus, which is always muddy. Here qui agrees with the masculine Appositive Oxus, and not with flumen, the neuter Antecedent. Thebae, quod est caput Boeotiae, Thebes, ivhich is the capital of Boeotia. Here quod agrees with the neuter singular Predicate THE SENTENCE IN GENERAL 131 Noun caput, and not with Thebae, the feminine plural Antecedent : 2. The Relative sometimes agrees with the sense rather than with the form of the Antecedent : equitatum praemittit, qui videant,/^ sends forth cav- alry to see (literally, who may see). Here qui is plural, agreeing with the plural sense rather than with the singular form of equitatum. x 302 1. The Relative is sometimes attracted into the case of its Antecedent : natus eo patre quo dixi, lorn of the father that I said. Instead of quern dm. 2. In poetry the Antecedent is sometimes attracted into the case of the Relative (Inverse Attraction) : urbem quam statuo, vestra est, the city (which) I build is yours. Instead of the regular urbs, quam statuo, vestra est. The Antecedent 303 1. The Antecedent is sometimes omitted : quod scrips!, scrips!, what I have written, I have written. 2. The Antecedent is sometimes repeated in the Relative clause : erant itinera duo, quibus itineribus ex!re possent, there were two routes by 'which (routes) they could go out. 3. The Antecedent is often placed in the Relative clause : Amanus, qui mons erat hostium plenus, Amanus, a mountain ivhich was full of enemies. Instead of mons Amanus, qu! erat. quam quisque novit a r t e m, in hac se exerceat, what trade each one understands, (in) that let him practise (himself). 132 LATIN GRAMMAR 304 1. The Relative is never omitted, as it is in English : Idem sum qui semper fui, / am the same I always ivas. 2. The Relative is often used with the force of a Demon- strative (141), especially at the beginning of a sentence : quae cum ita sint, since these things are so, since this is so. quae qui audiebant, (those) who heard this. quo cognito, this (being) known, when this was known. When the Relative refers to a whole sentence as its Ante- cedent, quod or quae res is used : sapientes soli, quod est proprium divitiarum, content! sunt rebus suis, the wise alone are content with their own, w hich is the true mark of riches. multae civitates defecerunt; quae res multorum bel- lorum causa fuit, many states revolted ; a thing that was the cause of many wars. In the same way id quod is used in clauses containing incidental or passing statements (by the way) : si a vobis deserar, id quod non spero, tamen non defi- ciam, if I am to be deserted by you,, a thing (by the way) I do not expect, still I shall not fail. Here id is in apposition with the clause si a vobis de- serar, which is used as Antecedent. II. THE USES OF NOUNS 305 The various uses of the six Cases (55) make up the Syntax of the Noun. The Cases are best studied in the following order : 1. Nominative Used as Subject 2. Vocative Used in Direct Address 3. Accusative Used as Direct Object 4. Dative Used as Indirect Object 5. Genitive Used like an Adjective 6. Ablative Used like an Adverb THE USES OF NOUNS 133 NOMINATIVE 306 The Nominative is used, as already explained," 1. As the Subject of a Finite Verb (289). 2. As a Predicate Noun (290). 3. As an Appositive (291, 292). VOCATIVE 307 The Vocative is regularly the Case of Direct Address, with or without an Interjection : 6 di immortales, immortal gods ! audi, fill ml, hear, my son ! But the Nominative is sometimes used in a similar way : 6 festus dies, happy day ! audi tu, populus Albanus, hear, Allan people! ACCUSATIVE 1. THE DIRECT OBJECT 808 The Direct Object of an Active Transitive Verb is in the Accusative. Verbs which take a Direct Object are called Transitive (passing-over), because the action of such Verbs passes over to or ends on an object. The Direct Object is usually the Person or Thing on which the Verb acts directly (Object Affected), but is some- times the Eesult Produced by the action (Object Effected) : Romulus R e m u m interfecit, Romulus killed Remus. Here Remum is the Object Affected. Romulus Romam condidit, Romulus founded Rome. Here Romam is the Object Effected. 10 134 LATIN GRAMMAR 309 Intransitive verbs of Feeling are often used transitively : meum casum doled, I grieve-at my misfortune. / 310 Also verbs of Tasting and Smelling : piscis mare sapit, the fish smacks-of the sea. v I n u m redolens, smelling-of wine. 311 Many intransitive verbs of Motion become transitive when compounded with prepositions. These include all compounded with circum, per, praeter, subter, trans ; many with ad, in, super ; and some with ante, con, inter, ob, sub : M u t i n a m circumsedent, they besiege (sit-around) Mutina. agrum percurrit, he overruns (runs-through) the terri- tory. f 1 u m e n transiit, he went-across the river. sublre perlculum, to under-go danger. 312 Many verbs, commonly intransitive, take as the Object a neuter pronoun or adjective : i d gaudeo, / am glad-of that. idem glorior, I make the same boast. utrumque dolet, he is grieved-at both. mult a taceo, / keep-silent-alout many (things). 313 Some intransitive verbs take as an Object a noun of kindred meaning (Cognate Accusative) : vl tarn be at am vivere, to live a happy life. mirum s o m n i u m somniavi, I dreamed a wondrous dream. J 314 Many Impersonal verbs (233) take an Accusative of the Per- son as Object : pudet t e, you are ashamed (it shames y o u). nisi m e fallit, unless I am mistaken. 315 A few verbs in the Passive voice are used in a reflexive sense, and thus take an Accusative as Object : g a 1 e a m induitur, lie puts on his helmet (literally, he puts- on-himself his helmet). THE USES OF NOUNS 135 316 The Accusative is sometimes used as an Adverb : maximam partem lacte vlvunt, they live on milk for the most part. The following are in common use : multum, much nihil, not at all maximam partem,/or the most part non nihil, someivhat plurimum, very greatly aliquid, somewhat plerumque, usually quid, why ? (for 2. TWO ACCUSATIVES SAME PERSON OR THING 317 Verbs of Making, Choosing, Calling, Showing, and the like, may take two Accusatives, one the Direct Object and the other a Predicate Noun or Adjective : Caesarem certiorem fecerunt, they informed Caesar (literally, made Caesar more- certain). me cepere arbitrum, they took me (as) umpire. urbem Romam vocavit, he called the city Rome. In the Passive both the Object and Predicate become nominatives : Caesar certior factus est, Caesar was informed. urbs Roma vocata est, the city was called Rome. 3. TWO ACCUSATIVES PERSON AND THING 318 Some verbs of Asking, Demanding, Teaching, and Concealing take two Accusatives,, one of the Person and the other of the Thing : Catonem sententiam rogavit, he asked Cato (his) opinion. quis te litteras docuit, who taught you (your) letters? non te celavi sermonem, / did not conceal the con- versation (from) you. 136 LATIN GRAMMAR In the Passive the Accusative of the Person becomes a nominative, and the Accusative of the Thing remains accusa- tive : Cato sententiam rogatus est, Cato was asked (his) opinion. V319 Instead of the Accusative of the Person the Ablative with ab or de is used with some verbs of Asking : pacem ab Romanis petunt, they seek peace from the Romans. 320 Some compounds of trans take two accusatives : milites flumen traduxit, he led the soldiers across the river. J 4 ACCUSATIVE OF PART AFFECTED (GREEK ACCUSATIVE) 321 This accusative is used chiefly in poetry and with reference to some part of the human body. It is sometimes called the Accusative of Specification : miles fractus membra, a soldier shattered (i n h i s) limbs. tremis ossa pavore, you shiver (in your) bones from fear. It occurs with Adjectives, as well as Verbs : nuda genu, bared (to) the knee. os deo similis, like a god (in) countenance. 5. AS SUBJECT OF THE INFINITIVE 322 The Subject of the Infinitive is in the Accusa- tive: Caesarem adesse nuntiat, he announces that Caesar is present. 6. IN EXCLAMATIONS 323 The Accusative is used in Exclamations : m e miserum, wretched m e ! en quattuor aras, lo! four altars! THE USES OF NOUNS 137 7. TIME AND SPACE K 324 Duration of Time and Extent of Space are ex- pressed by the Accusative . decem annos natus, ten years old (born ten years). sex mili a passuum procedit, he advances six miles. Duration of Time is sometimes expressed by the Accusa- tive with per : per totum diem, (throughout) the whole day. 8. LIMIT OP MOTION 325 The Aim or Limit of Motion is expressed by the Accusative. 1. Generally with ad or in : ad Genavam pervenit, he arrived at (near) Geneva. Hannibal exercitum in Italiam duxit, Hannibal led his army into Italy. 2. But without a Preposition are Frequently the Names of Towns, Little Islands, and Pen- insulas : Rom am proficlscitur, he sets out for Rome. confugit Delum, she fled to Delos. Chersonesum pervenit, he arrived at the Chersonesus. And always domum, home, rus, the country, foras, out-doors : d o m u m redi, go lack home I rus Ibo, I shall go to the country. effugi foras, I fled out-doors. DATIVE I. THE INDIRECT OBJECT 326 The Indirect Object is in the Dative. The Indirect Object is that to which anything is done : hoc tibi dicp, I tell you this. 138 LATIN GRAMMAR 327 This use of the Dative occurs 1. With transitive verbs along with the Di- rect Object : do tibi librum, I give you a book. sese fugae mandaverunt, they betook themselves to flight. pecuniae pudorem anteponit, he prefers honor to money (places honor before money). 328 Some verbs admit two constructions. Dative and Accusative : urbi muros circumdat, he puts walls around the city. Accusative and Ablative : urbem muris circumdat, he surrounds the city with walls. 329 Like the Indirect Object is the Dative used in poetry to ex- press the Direction of Motion : it clamor caelo, the shout goes up to heaven. 330 2. With many intransitive verbs meaning Favor, Please, Trust, Assist (and their opposites), Command, Obey, Serve, Resist, Threaten, Pardon, Spare, Persuade ; and the like : quae vidi, m i h i placent, wliat I have seen pleases m e. huic legion! Caesar conf idebat maxime, Caesar trusted this legion most. b o n I s nocet qui malls parcit, he harms the good who spares the bad. crede mihi, believe me! sic mihi persuasi, so I have persuaded myse If. ^331 In the Passive such verbs are used impersonally only, and retain the Dative : mihi persuadetur, / am being persuaded (it is persuaded to me). null! parcitur, none is spared (it is spared to no one). THE USES OF NOUNS 139 v 332 3. With many verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, pro, sub, and super. adfuit his pugnis, he was present at these I at ties. parva magnis conferre, to compare small (things) with great. ponto nox incubat atra, Uack night broods on the deep. 333 4. With many Adjectives and a few Nouns and Adverbs. These include Adjectives meaning Useful, Pleasant^ Friendly, Fit, Like, Equal) Near, and Dear, with others of like or opposite meaning : m i h i amicissimus, most friendly to me. canis similis 1 u p 6 est, a dog is like a wo If. sunt proximi German! s, they are next to the Germans. The Nouns and Adverbs thus used are derived from words which govern the Dative : obtemperatio legibus, obedience to the laws. convenienter naturae vivere, to live agreeably to nature. II. DATIVE OF PERSON OR THING CONCERNED 334 This Dative expresses that for or with regard to which anything is or is done. It includes the following different uses : 335 1. Dative of Reference, denoting the object in- terested or referred to : militibus spem minuit, as for the soldiers, it less- ened their hopes. 140 LATIN GRAMMAR non scholae sed vltae discimus, we are learning, not for school, but for life. erit ille mi hi semper deus, to me (in my eyes) he will ever be a god. 336 The personal pronouns are sometimes used in a similar way to give a light touch of special reference (Ethical Dative) : at tibi repente venit Caninius, but, (mark) you! all at once in came Caninius. quid sibi vult? what does he mean? (wish so far as con- cerns himself). 337 Here belongs the Dative used with verbs of Separation, compounds of ab, de, ex : solstitium p e c o r I defendite, keep the hot sun from the flock. silici scintillam excudit, he struck a spark from the flint. 338 Also Dative of the Supposed Standpoint, always a participle : GomphI est oppidum primum Thessaliae venienti- bus ab Epiro, Gomplii is the first town of Thessaly as you come (to those coming) from Epirus. 339 2. Dative of the Agent, denoting the person acting. This is used with the Gerundive and compound tenses of the Passive Voice : ratio nobis reddenda est, we must give an account (as for us, our account must he given). mi hi consilium captum est, my plan is formed (as for m e , my plan is formed). 340 3. Dative of the Possessor. This is used with the verb esse. Here est mihi means / have. est mihi liber, / have a hook. sunt tibi libri, you have books. THE USES OP NOUNS 141 With nomen est the name may be Nominative or Dative : fons cui nomen Arethusa est, a fount ivhose name is Arethusa. nomen Arcturo est mihi, my name is Arcturus. III. PREDICATE DATIVE 341 The Predicate Dative is of two kinds, the Da- tive of Tendency and the Dative of Purpose. 342 1. Dative of Tendency, denoting what a thing tends to be. This is used with verbs of Being and Considering : est c u r a e, it is (fo r) a care. vitio ducere, to count U (as) a fault. 343 2. Dative of Purpose, denoting what a thing is meant to be : c o 1 1 o q u i 6 diem dicunt, they name a day for the inter- view. receptui canere, to sound (for) a retreat. 344 Adjectives meaning Useful or Suitable are used with a Dative which is like the Dative of Purpose : castris locus idoneus, ajrtacefit for a camp. 345 A Predicate Dative often occurs along with the Dative of Keference (335) : cui bo no est? to ivliom is it (any) good? hoc mihi nemo vitio ducat, may no one count this against me as a faiilt. GENITIVE 346 The Genitive, or Adjective Case, defines or ex- plains the word it modifies. It is used chiefly with nouns, adjectives, or verbs, and is usually 142 LATIN GRAMMAR to be translated by the preposition of. The Genitive is used in three ways as an Attribute, a Predicate, and an Object-Case with Verbs. I. ATTRIBUTIVE GENITIVE 347 The Attributive Genitive is used chiefly with nouns and adjectives. It adds to or explains more precisely the meaning of the word it modifies. It includes the following uses : 348 1. Genitive of Exact Definition, expressing the particular sense to which the modified word is limited : dies profectionis, day of departure. nomen amicitiae, the name "friendship" pridie ejus diet, on the day before that day. copiae peditatus equitatusque, forces of infantry and cavalry. (Origin) Marcl fllius, the son of Marcus. (Material) pondus auri, amass of gold. 349 This Genitive also occurs before causa, by reason of, and gratia, for the sake of : ejus causa, on his account. exempli gratia, for the sake of example. 350 2. Subjective Genitive, denoting the subject of the action implied in the modified word : amor patris, a father's love. illud P 1 a 1 6 n i s , that (saying] of Plato. 351 3. Objective Genitive, denoting the object of the action implied in the modified word : amor patriae, love of country, venditio bonorum, a sale of goods. THE USES OF NOUNS 143 352 Many adjectives and participles take the Objective Genitive : immemor beneficii, forgetful of a kindness. avidus gloriae, eager for glory. amantes patriae, lovers of (their) country. 353 4. Possessive Genitive, denoting possession or ownership : domus Ciceronis, Cicero'' s house. 354 5. Genitive of Quality, denoting the kind or quality of the modified word. Used along with an Adjective : vir magnae auctoritatis, a man of great influ- ence. floras mille c o 1 6 r u m , flowers of a thousand hues. puer novem annorum, a boy of nine years. fossa quindecim pedum, a trench fifteen feet (wide). Under this are included the Genitives of Number, Meas- ure, Time, and Space. For the Ablative of Quality see 394. 355 6. Genitive of the Whole, denoting the whole of which the modified word is a part. It is also called the Partitive Genitive. It occurs 356 (1) With nouns, adjectives (in comparative and superlative), pronouns, and numerals (130) : pars equitatus, part of the cavalry. mille passuum, a thousand paces, a mile. minor fratrum, the younger of the brothers. ultimus Romanorum, the last of the Romans. primus omnium, the first of all. quis v e s t r u m , who of you? 357 (2) With the Neuter Singular of some adjectives and pro- nouns, and the adverbs satis and parum : 144 LATIN GRAMMAR reliquum vltae, the rest of life. quid consilil, what plan? satis eloquentiae, sapientiae parum, eloquence enough, (but) little sense. 358 (3) Occasionally with adverbs of Place : eo loci, atthat point (literally, there of the place). ubi terrarum, where in the world? II. PREDICATE GENITIVE 359 A Genitive used with a verb to assert some- thing of the modified word is called a Predi- cate Genitive. Thus : domus est Ciceronis, the house is Cicero's. 360 The Possessive Genitive (353), Genitive of Qual- ity (354), and Genitive of the Whole (355) are sometimes used as Predicate Genitives : domus est Ciceronis, the house is Cicero'' s. fossa qulndecim pedum est facta, the trench was made fifteen feet (wide). quid sui consilil sit, ostendit, he shows what his plan is. 361 The Genitive of Indefinite Price or Value is used with verbs of Valuing : quanti est, how much is it? t a n 1 1 aestimatur, it is valued at so much. par vl duco, I think it worth (but) little. 362 The verbs most used are esse, be (worth), ducere, think (it worth), facere, account (it worth), putare, suppose (it worth), haberi, be held, and aestimare, value. The genitives most used are the neuter adjectives tantl, quanti, magni, pluris, plurimi, parvi, minoris, minimi. THE USES OF NOUNS 145 363 tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris, are also used with verbs of Buying and Selling : quanti aedes vendis, for how much are you selling your house ? For the Ablative of Price see 395. III. OBJECTIVE GENITIVE WITH VERBS 364 1. The Genitive is used with verbs of Memory: memim, / remember, reminlscor, / recall, obliviscor, / forget, (a) With Persons, regularly take the Genitive : memento mei, remember me. reminisceretur pristinae virtu tis Helvetiorum, he should recall the old- time valor of the Helvetians. oblltus m e 6 r u m , forgetting my (friends). (b) With Things, take the Genitive or Accusative : consiliorum memim, 1 remember your advice. oblivisci n i h i 1 soles nisi i n j u r i a s , you are wont to for- get nothing, except insults. NOTE 1. With neuter pronouns and adjectives the Accu- sative is regular : forsan et h a e c olim meminisse juvabit, perchance some day we shall be glad to remember this too. NOTE 2. memim, meaning recall, takes the Accusative : Cinnam memim, I recall Cinna. 365 recorder, / bethink myself, takes the Genitive, but oftener the Accusative : consiliorum (or consilia) recorder, / bethink myself of his counsel. The Impersonal in mentem venit, it comes to mind, takes the Genitive : P 1 a 1 6 n i s mihi in mentem venit, Plato comes to my mind. 146 LATIN GRAMMAR 366 Yerbs of Reminding take the Genitive of the Thing with an Accusative of the Person : te veteris amlcitiae admoneo, I remind you of our old friendship. 367 2. The Genitive is used with some verbs of Ju- dicial Action. These include verbs of Accusing, Acquitting, Convict- ing, and Condemning. They take the Genitive of the Thing charged and an Accusative of the Person : me furti Insimulat, he falsely -accuses me of theft. Catilinam majestatis damnare, to condemn Catiline for treason. reum capitis absolvere, to acquit the prisoner of a capi- tal crime (of his head). But the Penalty is in the Ablative : reum capite damnare, to condemn the prisoner to death (with his head). 368 3. The Genitive is used with some Impersonal Verbs (233). (1) With verbs of Feeling. These are miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, taedet. They take a Genitive of that which causes the feeling, and an Accusative of the person concerned : nonne t e miseret m e I , are you not sorry fo r me? me pudet facti, lam ashamed of what- I-did (the deed). Sometimes a Neuter or the Infinitive is used instead .of the Genitive : te h 6 c pudet, you are ashamed of t h i s . pudet me dissentiri, 1 am ashamed to disagree. 369 (2) With interest and refert. (a) The one concerned is in the Genitive : ref publicae interest, it concerns the state. THE USES OF NOUNS 147 In place of the Genitive of the Personal Pronoun the Abla- tive Singular Feminine of the Possessive Pronoun is used: me a refert, nostra refert. (b) The cause of concern is the Subject, and is expressed by A Neuter Pronoun id refert mea, that interests me. An Infinitive mea interest te valere, your health concerns me. A Clause quicquid dixeris mea interest, whatever you say concerns me. (c) The degree of concern is expressed by An Adverb magnopere refert, it greatly concerns. n i h i 1 interest, it makes n o dif- ference. A Genitive of Value (361) parvi interest, it makes little difference. 370 4. The Genitive is occasionally used with Verbs of Plenty or Want : egeo consilii, I need advice. hoc bellum indiget celeritatis, this war requires speed. These verbs, except indigeo, usually take the Ablative (375). 371 5. The Genitive is occasionally used with Verbs of Partaking and Acquiring : potiri r e r u m , to get control of affa irs. The Ablative of Means is the usual construction (387). ABLATIVE 372 The Ablative, or Adverbial case, is principally used to modify verbs and adjectives. It con- tains three different meanings, corresponding 148 LATIN GRAMMAR to three cases which originally were separate but later were blended in one. The three mean- ings are as follows : I. Whence? Ablative Proper, translated by from. II. Wherewith? Instrumental, translated by with or by. III. Where? Locative, translated by in or at. I. THE ABLATIVE PROPER 373 The Ablative Proper includes the 1. Ablative of Separation. 2. Ablative of Source. 3. Ablative of Agent. 4. Ablative of Comparison. 374 1. The Ablative of Separation is used with or without a preposition. 375 (1) Usually without a preposition after verbs and adjectives meaning Relieve, Deprive, Need, Lack : m e t u liberatus, freed from fear. hostes arm Is exuit, he stripped the enemy of their weapons. egeo consilio, I need advice (370). vacuus curls, free from cares. 376 (2) With or without a preposition after verbs meaning Re- frain, Keep Off, Remove, Depart: abstinere i n j u r i a , to abstain from i nj ury. e clvitate pulsus est, he was expelled from the state, urbe cessit, he withdrew from the city. THE USES OF NOUNS 149 377 (3) Usually with a preposition after other verbs of Separa- tion, especially compounds of ab-, dis-, se- : Roma longe abest ab Athenis, Rome is far distant fr om Athens. Britanni differunt a Gallls, the Britons differ from the Gauls. 378 2. The Ablative of Source is used with partici- ples denoting Birth : Romulus deo natus, Romulus, lorn of a god. summo loco natus, of high birth. edite re gib us, descendant of kings. With pronouns ex is used : e x m e natus, my son (liter- ally, sprung from me). To express remote ancestry ab is used : Belgae sunt orti ab Germ an Is, the Belgians are descended from the Germans. 379 3. The Ablative of the Personal Agent is used with ab after passive verbs : rex ab suls appellatur, he is called king ~by his own (men). For the Dative of the Agent see 339. 380 4. The Ablative of Comparison is used after the nominative or accusative of Comparatives : Cicerone eloquentior, more eloquent than Cicero. 381 But Comparatives are commonly used with quam, than. When this occurs, the two things compared are in the same case : Caesar minor est quam Cicero, Caesar is younger than Cicero. When the first of the two things compared is in any other case than the nominative or accusative, quam must be used. 11 150 LATIN GRAMMAR 382 The neuter comparatives plus, minus, amplius, longius, are often used adverbially without affecting the case : plus septingenti capti, over seven hundred (were) captured. minus qulnque milia, under five miles. II. THE INSTRUMENTAL ABLATIVE 383 The Instrumental Ablative includes the following Ablatives : 1. Cause. 6. Quality. 2. Means. Y. Price. 3. Manner. 8. Specification. 4. Accompaniment. 9. Ablative Absolute. 5. Degree of Difference. 384 1. The Ablative is used to denote Cause : seu Ira seu odio seu superb i a nullam vocem emi- sit, whether from anger or hate or pride, he uttered not a word. Jovis j u s s u venio, / come a t Jove's command. 385 This use is common with verbs of Feeling and Trusting : m a e r 6 r e discrueior, / am distracted by reason of grief. non mo vetur p e c u n i a , lie is not siverved by money. natura loci confidebant, they trusted in the nature of their position. 386 2. The Ablative is used to denote the Means or Instrument : o culls videmus, we see with our eyes. minimo contentus, content with very little. 387 The following uses of the Ablative of Means should be noticed : (1) With the deponent verbs utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, and their compounds : uti consilio, to use advice. victoria potiri, to gain a victory (become master by a victory). See 371. lacte vescuntur, they live on milk (feed themselves with milk). THE USES OF NOUNS 151 388 (2) With words of Consisting, Abounding, and Filling : totum montem ho mi nib us complevit, lie filled the whole mountain with men. 389 (3) With many other expressions, such as consilio nobis opus est, we need advice. quid me fiet, what will become of me? (be done with me}. scopulo nlxus, leaning on a rock. pi la ludere, to play ball (with a ball). fug a salutem petere, to seek safety in (by] flight. proelio lacessere, to provoke to (by) battle. 390 3. The Ablative of Manner is regularly used with the preposition cum : cum virtute vivere, to live virtuously. But cum may be omitted when there is an adjective agree- ing with the ablative noun : magna gravitate loqul, to speak with much dig- nity. 391 Here may be included the Ablative of Accordance, which is used without cum : more et exemplo, according to custom and prece- dent. Also the Ablative of Attendant Circumstance : Capuam veni maximo imbrl, / came to Capua in a very heavy shower. 392 4. The Ablative of Accompaniment is regu- larly used with the preposition cum : cum omnibus copiis exlre, to depart ivith all their forces. In military expressions cum is sometimes omitted : omnibus copiis contenderunt, they marched with all their fo rces. 152 LATIN GRAMMAR 393 5. The Ablative of Degree of Difference is used with comparatives and words suggesting com- parison : uno pede longior, one foot longer (by one foot}. paulo post, a little afterwards (by a little). m u 1 1 6 malim, / should m uch prefer. 394 6. The Ablative with an Adjective is used to express Quality : mille coloribus arcus, a rainbow of a thousand hues. flumen rip Is praeruptis, a river with steep banks. bono animo es, be of good courage. For the Genitive of Quality see 354. 395 7. The Ablative is used to express Definite or Indefinite Price : aedes duobus talent Is emit, he bought the house for two talents. a u r 6 viri vltam vendidit, she sold her husband's life fo r gold. Indefinite Price is often expressed by magno, parvo, plurimo, minimo, or by the Genitive (361-363). 396 8. The Ablative of Specification denotes that in respect to which anything is or is done : virtu te praestare, to excel in valor. Galli lingua differunt, the Gauls differ in language. major natu, older (greater in point of age). The Ablative with dignus and indignus belongs here : fide dignus, worthy of belief. indigna relatu, things not worth telling. THE USES OF NOUNS 153 397 9. A noun or pronoun in the ablative, com- bined with a participle and used adverbially, is said to be in the Ablative Absolute : Caesar equitatu praemisso subsequebatur, send- ing forward the cavalry, Caesar followed (literally, the cavalry being sent forward). 398 Instead of a participle an adjective or noun may be used : Caesare vivo, Caesar (being] alive, when Caesar was alive, while Caesar lived. me invito, against my ivish (with me unwilling) . Romulo rege, Romulus (being) king, when Romulus was king. 399 In translating into English, the Ablative Absolute is often best rendered by a clause with an active verb or participle. Thus equitatu praemisso may be translated sending for- ward the cavalry, when he had sent forward the cavalry. The Ablative Absolute should always be translated so as to bring out the particular meaning intended. Thus : data facultate if opportunity were given. _ . ^against his will. [without his consent. ( thouqh the aods are unwilling. dis invitis \ . ,-, j -77 [since the gods are unwilling. III. THE LOCATIVE ABLATIVE 400 The Locative Ablative includes the Ablatives of Place and Time. 401 1. The Place Where is expressed by the Abla- tive with a preposition : erat in Gallia ulteriore una legio, there was one le- gion in farther Gaul. 154 LATIN GRAMMAR 402 But the following are used without a preposition : (1) Names of towns and little islands : Carthagine, at Carthage. Athenis, at Athens. (2) Expressions of Place containing locus or totus : alio loco, elsewhere. tota urbe, in the whole city. (3) foris, outdoors, run, in the country, terra manque, T)y land and sea. 403 Here may be included the following Locative forms (61, 69) : (1) Names of towns and small islands ; found in the singu- lar of first and second declensions : Romae, at Rome. Ephesi, at Ephesus. Rhodi ego non fui, I was not at Rhodes. (2) domi, at home. huml, on the ground. militiae, in ivar, abroad. vesperl, at evening. belli, in ivar. hen, yesterday. 404 2. The Place From Which is expressed by the Ablative with a preposition : Xerxes ex Europa in Asiam revertit, Xerxes returned from Europe into Asia. imber de caelo decidit, a shower falls from the sky. 405 But names of towns and small islands are used without a preposition : Carthagine profectus, setting out from Carthage. C y p r 6 reversus, returned from Cyp rus. 406 3. The Time at Which is expressed by the Ab- lative without a preposition : prima luce, at dawn. adventu meo, at my departure. bellls Punicis, at the time of the Punic wars. proximis comitils, at the last election. Sometimes in is used : in tali tempore, at such a time. THE USES OF ADJECTIVES 155 407 4. The Time Within Which is expressed by the Ablative with or without a preposition : quinque annis illos libros confecit, lie completed those books in five years. bis in die, twice a day. III. THE USES OF ADJECTIVES 408 The Agreement of Adjectives has been explained in 293, 294, 295. 409 Adjectives are used as Nouns, 1. Often in the Plural : fortuna fortes adjuvat, fortune favors the brave. vae v i c t ! s , woe to the vanquished ! parva componere magnis, to compare small (things) with great. 2. Sometimes in the Singular : sapiens dominatur astris, the ivise (man) rules his stars. multum in parvo, much in little. nihil no vl, nothing new. 410 In the singular the noun is generally expressed when persons are meant : homo doctus, a scholar. m u 1 i e r vidua, a widow. liber homo, a gentleman. 411 Some Adjectives have become Nouns : amicus, friend librarius, bookseller cognatus, kinsman vlcmus, neighbor In such instances the Adjective use has partly or wholly disappeared. 156 LATIN GRAMMAR 412 Some Adjectives are used like Adverbs : laetus veni, I came gladly. i n v 1 1 1 discessimus, we departed umoillingly. 413 Ordinal Numerals are more common in Latin than in English : anno mil le si mo, in the year 1000. quart us annus est, it is going on four years. COMPAEATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES 414 The Comparative and Superlative include several shades of meaning : 1. Positive. magnus great 2. Comparative. major somewhat great rather great more great, greater too great 3. Superlative. maximus very great most great, greatest 4. Superlative ( vel maximus very greatest strengthened. ( quam maximus greatest possible 415 With a Comparative, the word compared is either connected by quam or, less often, is put in the Ablative (380, 381) : virtus utilior est quam scientia,) virtue is more useful virtus s c i e n t i a utilior est, ) than knowledge. 416 A few Adjectives of Place and Order, mostly Superlatives, are used with a partitive meaning. They are primus, extremus; summus, medius, infi- mus (Imus) : prim 6 vere, in early spring (literally, in first spring). extrema aestate, in late summer. s u m m a arbor, the top of the tree. in media urbe, in the midst of the city. THE USES OF PRONOUNS 157 417 prior, primus, postremus, ultimus, sometimes have the force of an English clause : primus venit, he was-the-first to come (he came the first one). 418 This use of primus must not be confused with the mean- ing of the adverbs primum and primo : prlmum venit, he came for the first time. prim 6 me non agnovit, at first he did not know me. IV. THE USES OF PRONOUNS PERSONAL 419 The Personal Pronoun (137) as Subject is usu- ally not expressed, unless it is emphatic : feel, / did it. ego fed, it was I ^vho did it. 420 The Genitives mei, tui, nostri, vestri, are usually Object- ive (351), but nostrum and vestrum are usually Genitives of the "Whole (355) : memoria mei tua, your remembrance of me. oblitus nostri, forgetful of us. nemo nostrum, not one of us. REFLEXIVE 421 The Reflexive se (138) and the Possessive suus (140) are used to refer to the Subject. 1. They usually refer to the Subject of the clause in which they stand : gladio se defendit, he defended himself with a sword. Brutus amicum suum occidit, Brutus slew his own friend. Helvetios in suos fines revert! jussit, he ordered the Helvetians to return into their own territory. 158 LATIN GRAMMAR 2. When in a subordinate clause (287) they sometimes refer to the Subject of the principal clause. This is regular in Indirect Discourse (609). This happens when the main thought of the subordinate clause refers to the subject of the principal clause : his Caesar mandat ut ad se revertantur, Caesar com- mands them to return to him. 422 Sometimes two Reflexives in a subordinate infinitive clause refer one to the subject of the principal and one to the sub- ject of the subordinate clause : Ariovistus respondit neminem secum sine sua per- nicie contendisse, Ariovistus answered that no man had con- tended with him without his own destruction. Here secum refers to A r i o v i s t u s, the subject of re- spondit in the principal clause, and sua to neminem the subject of the infinitive contendisse in the subordinate clause. 423 suus, especially when combined with quisque, is sometimes used to refer to some other word than the Subject : Hannibalem sui elves e civitate ejecerunt, his oivn fellow-citizens cast out Hannibal. jus suum cuique tribuere, to give every one his due. POSSESSIVE 424 The Possessive Pronoun (139) is usually omitted, unless it is emphatic : patrem amisi, / lost (my) father. But suo loco dicam, / shall state in the proper place (its oivn place). me a sententia, in my opinion. A word in apposition with a possessive pronoun is put in the Genitive. ipse, solus, unus, omnis, are most fre- quently used in this way : mea unius opera, by my help alone. in tua ipsius epistola, in your own letter. THE USES OF PRONOUNS 159 SUBSTITUTES FOR RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS 425 Latin has no Reciprocal Pronoun for each other, one another^ The following expressions are to be used instead : 1. inter nos, inter vos, inter se : obsides inter se dare, to give each other hostages (among themselves). inter nos conjunct! sumus, we are attached to each other. 2. alter, alius or neuter repeated in a different case : alter a 1 1 e r u m amat, the one loves the other. alius alii subsidium fert, they give help to one another. 3. A noun repeated in a different case : apes apium sunt simillimae, lees are very like each other. DEMONSTRATIVE 426 In addition to the meanings of hie, iste, ille, already ex- plained (141), the following should be noticed : 1. hie refers to what is nearest, ille to what is remote : hie dies, to-day. haec nox, last night (if spoken in the morning). ille sol, yonder sun. 2. hie and ille in contrast often mean this . . . that, the former. . . the latter : hoc idem est quod illud, this is the same as that. haec in nostra, ilia in deorum manu sunt, the former is in our hand, the latter in the hand of the gods. 3. ille often means well-known, famous : ille Demosthenes, the famous Demosthenes. illud Platonis, that noted (saying) of Plato. 4. iste often indicates contempt : ista impudentia, such impudence! 160 LATIN GRAMMAR 5. The missing pronoun of the third person is supplied by ille or is (137, 144). is also serves as the regular antecedent of the relative pronoun (299) : is fecit, Tie did it. id, quod praedixT, evenit, that, which I foretold, has happened. 427 Idem, the same (145), may sometimes be translated by also, likewise : quidquid honestum, idem utile, whatever (is) honorable (is) also expedient. INTENSIVE 428 The Intensive ipse, self (146), emphasizes the word it modifies : ipse dixit, (he) h imse If said. nosce te ipsum, know thyself. sapientia ipsa bona, wisdom in itself (is) good. hoc ipsum, this very thing. decem dies i p s I , j u s t ten days. ipse aderat, he was present in person. EELATIVE 429 The rules for the Eelative qui, who, have been given in 299-304. INDEFINITE 430 For a list of Indefinite Pronouns see 149. 431 quis, aliquis, quispiam, and quidam are indefinite in dif- ferent degrees : si quis dixerit, should any one say. Most indefinite. aliquis dixerit, dixerit quispiam, f some ne ma ^ ** Less i scriptor quidam narrat, a certain writer says. Least indefinite. THE USES OF PRONOUNS 161 432 quisquam and the pronominal adjective ullus mean any one at all. They are used mostly in negative, interroga- tive and conditional sentences, and after comparatives : neque me quisquam agnovit, and not a soul recog- nized me. an quisquam Croeso dlvitior fuit, ivas ever any one richer than Croesus f si quisquam, ille sapiens fuit, he was wise, if any one (ever was). taetrior tyrannus quam quisquam superiorum, a viler tyrant than any of his predecessors. hostem esse in Syria negant u 1 1 u m , they say that there is not an enemy in Syria. 433 quisque, each one, is used particularly 1. In relative and demonstrative sentences : quod cuique obtigit, id quisque teneat, what each one has got, that let him keep. mens cuj usque, is est quisque, each one's mind is each one's self. 2. With the reflexives se and suus (421) : se quisque diligit, each one loves himself. 3. Following superlatives and unus : optimus quisque, all the lest (each lest one). unus quisque vestrum, every one of you. 4. Following ordinal numerals : tertio quoque anno, every third year. 434 The negative of quisquam is nemo, nobody, and of ullus is nullus, no, none, nemo is always used as a noun and nullus generally as an adjective : neminem video, I see nobody. null a causa, no reason. 162 LATIN GRAMMAR 435 The genitive and ablative of nemo are regularly supplied by nullius and nullo. neminem laesit ; nullius aures violavit, he has injured nobody ; lie has shocked no one's ears. PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES 436 The principal Pronominal Adjectives (151) are alius, alter, ullus, nullus, uter, neuter, ceteri, reliqui, uterque. 437 alius, another, and alter, the other, have various uses. 1. Singly: Idem et alius, the same and (yet) another. alter Nero, a second Nero. claudus alter 6 pede, lame in one foot. 2. In Pairs, meaning each other, one . . . another, some . . . others : alter alt e rum amat, each loves the other (Eeciprocal use, 425). alii alio modo vivunt, some live one ivay, some an- other. alii resistunt, fugiunt alii, some resist, others flee. 438 Notice the following plurals : alii, others ceteri, all the others reliqui, the rest, the remaining (ones) 439 Also these uses : uterque, each (of two) utrique, both ambo, both together THE USES OF THE VERB 163 V. THE USES OF THE VERB The Finite Verb 440 The various uses of Voice, Mood, Tense, Per- son, and Number make up the Syntax of the Finite Verb (156). 441 In finding the place where any form of the finite verb oc- curs, pick out (1) the Tense first, then (2) the Mood and (3) Voice, and after that (4) the Person and (5) Number. 1. Tense 2. Mood 3. Voice 4. Person 5. Number Cloves [* s P resen t Indicative Active Third Singular fefuflove \ is Presenfc Subjunctive Active First Plural I. VOICE, PEKSON, NUMBEK 442 The principal uses of Voice (158), Person (163), and Number (162) have been explained. VOICE In addition, the following special uses of Voice should be noticed : 1. The Active Voice of transitive verbs is sometimes used Absolutely alone, with no object implied : amat, he is in love, audio, / am listening. Reflexively with or without a reflexive pronoun : terra movit (se), the earth quaked (moved itself). Both these uses may be considered Intransitive. 2. The Active Voice of intransitive verbs is sometimes used transitively. 164: LATIN GRAMMAR Thus rideo, / laugh, is usually intransitive, but is transi- tive in quid rides, what are you laughing at f 3. The Passive Yoice sometimes has a reflexive meaning : ACTIVE REFLEXIVE PASSIVE lavo, / wash lavor, / bathe (wash lavor, / am myself) washed 4. Sometimes intransitive verbs have a few Passive forms. These are always used with an impersonal meaning (233. 3) : pugnatum est, there was fighting (literally, it was fought). II. TENSE 443 Every Tense shows two things : First, the Progress of the action, either 1. Defined as Going On or Completed, or 2. Undefined. Second, the Time of the action, as Past, Pres- ent, or Future. Thus in the Imperfect Tense dicebam, I was saying, the action of the verb is Defined as Going On in Past Time. In the Present Tense dlco, / am saying, the action of the verb is Defined as Going On in Present Time, but when- ever dlco means simply I say, the action of the verb is Un- defined in Present Time. PRINCIPAL AND HISTORICAL TENSES 444 The Principal Tenses include the Present, Pres- ent Perfect (160), Future, and Future Perfect. The Historical Tenses include the Imperfect, Historical Perfect (160), and Pluperfect. THE USES OF THE VERB 165 TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE Present Indicative 445 The Present Indicative states the action of the verb as going on or as undefined in pres- ent time. Going On : dico, / am saying quid f a c i s ? what are you doing? Undefined: dico, I say bene est, it is well. 446 It is also used 1. For what is generally true or customary : Ira furor brevis est, anger is a brief madness. Ciceronis orationes in scholls leguntur, Cicero's ora- tions are read in the schools. 2. For attempted action : penculum vitant, they are trying to avoid (literally, are avoiding} danger. 3. In citing the statements or opinions of writers (Literary Present) : Plato disputat animam esse immortalem, Plato ar- gues the soul is immortal. 447 4. To express past or future time as viewed from the present. (1) Past action in a lively or present manner (Historical Present) : mllites incedere jubet, he ordered (literally, orders) the soldiers to advance. Here belongs the use of dum, while, with the Present Tense : dum haec geruntur, while these things were (literally, are) being attended to. 12 166 LATIN GRAMMAR (2) Past action continued into the present. This use occurs in connection with the adverbs jam, now (at last), jam diu, now for a long time, tarn diu, so long, jam pridem, now long since, and jam dudum, now at length : jam video, now (at last) I see. tarn diu Germania vincitur, so long is Germany in being conquered. (3) Future action in advance : si vivo, if Hive. Imperfect Indicative 448 The Imperfect Indicative states the action of the verb as going on in past time : librum legebam, I was reading a booh ut hen dicebam, as I was saying yesterday. 449 It is also used 1. For repeated or customary action : consules quotannis creabantur, the consuls were chosen yearly. 2. For action attempted or begun : eum in exsilium ejiciebam, I was trying to drive him into exile. 3. Instead of the Present Tense in letters (Epistolary Im- perfect) : cum haec scribebam,in exspectatione erant omnia, as I write this, everything looks hopeful. See 456, 458. 4. For earlier past action continued in the more recent past. This use occurs with jam, jam diu, and similar adverbs, as it does in the Present Tense (447) : jam dudum flebam, long had I been weeping. 5. In descriptions : oppidum Alesia erat in colle summo, the town (of) Alesia was on the top of a hill. THE USES OF THE VERB 167 Future Indicative 450 The Future Indicative states the action of the verb as going on or as undefined in future time : Going on : scribam, / shall be writing. Undefined : scribam, / shall write. 451 It is sometimes used with an imperative meaning : tu nihil dices, you will say nothing. Perfect Indicative 452 The Perfect Indicative has two separate uses : 1. Present Perfect : amavl, / have loved. 2. Historical Perfect : amavl, / loved. 1. Present Perfect 453 The Present Perfect states the action of the verb as completed at the present time. It is translated with have : quod scrips!, scrips!, what I have written, I have written. 2. Historical Perfect 454 The Historical Perfect states the action of the verb as undefined in past time : vem, v!d!, v!c!, / came and saw and overcame. 455 The Perfect of some inceptive (214) and defective verbs (230) is translated by the Present Tense : nov!, I know. memim, I remember. The Pluperfect and Future Perfect of these verbs are to be translated in a simple past and future sense : noveram, / knew. novero, / shall know. 456 In letters (449. 3, 458) the Perfect is sometimes used instead of the Present Tense (Epistolary Perfect) : tertiam ad te hanc epistulam scrips!, this (is) the third letter I'm writing you. 168 LATIN GRAMMAR Pluperfect Indicative 457 The Pluperfect Indicative states the action of the verb as completed in past time : fuerat inimicus, he had been (my] enemy. 458 In letters (449. 3, 456) the Pluperfect is sometimes used in- stead of the Present Perfect (Epistolary Pluperfect) : ad tuas omnes epistulas rescrlpseram, I have re- plied to all your letters. Future Perfect Indicative 459 The Future Perfect Indicative states the action of the verb as completed in future time : dicam tibi, cum ipse audlvero, I'll tell you, when I hear myself (literally, shall have heard). 460 Table showing the Chief Uses of Tenses of the Indicative PROGRESS OF ACTION TIME OF ACTION Present Past Future I. Defined GOING ON PRESENT dice / am saying IMPERFECT dicebam I was saying FUTURE dicam I shall be saying 1 COMPLETED PRESENT PERF. dixl / have said PLUPERFECT dixeram / had said FUTURE PERFECT dlxero I shall have said II. Undefined PRESENT dico I say HISTORICAL PERF. dixl I said FUTURE dicam / shall say THE USES OF THE VERB 169 TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE I. IN PRINCIPAL CLAUSES 461 In independent sentences and principal clauses (287) the four tenses of the Subjunctive (160) are usually like the same tenses of the Indicative. But notice that 1. The Present Subjunctive regularly has a future meaning : man eat, may he stay, let him stay. 2. The Imperfect Subjunctive sometimes has a present meaning : utinam ne haec scriberem, would I were not writ- ing this! 3. The Perfect Subjunctive sometimes has a future meaning : ne mortem timueris, do not fear death. II. IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 462 In a subordinate clause (287) the tense of the Subjunctive is said to follow the tense of the principal clause. This is called the Sequence of Tenses. The general rule for the Sequence of Tenses is : Principal Tenses follow Principal ; Historical Tenses follow Historical. 1TO LATIN GRAMMAR 463 TABLE SHOWING THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES 1. Principal Tenses following Principal PRIN. CLAUSE SUB. CLAUSE dlcam lWtt" ^ll say )**/** dixl I have said or dlxero j md Senserim I shall have said \ what T hm ' e " Wu 3 ht 2. Historical Tenses following Historical dlcebam \ quid sentlrem / was saying \ what I thought dlxl or I said or dlxeram ) quid sensissem I had said ) what I had thought 464 Following a Principal Tense : 1. The present Subjunctive expresses the same time as that of the principal clause : die 6 quid s e n t i a m , / say (now) what I think (now). dlcam quid sentiam, / shall say (then) what I think (then). 2. The Perfect Subjunctive expresses time earlier than that of the principal clause : dlcam quid s e n s e r i m , I shall say (then) what I thought (before that time). 465 Following a Historical Tense : 1. The Imperfect Subjunctive expresses the same time as that of the principal clause : dlcebam quid sentlrem, / was saying (then) what I was thinking (then). 2. The Pluperfect Subjunctive expresses time earlier than that of the principal clause : dlcebam quid sensissem, / was saying (then) what I had thought (before that time). THE USES OF THE VERB 171 Apparent Variations in the Sequence of Tenses 466 These variations occur mostly because of (I) the frequent historical use of the Perfect, and (2) the construction of certain Conditional Sen- tences (471). 467 1. The Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive commonly fol- low the Perfect Indicative, since it is generally used as a his- torical tense often in instances where it may be translated with have. This is regular in Clauses of Purpose (506) : convocavi vos ut pauca dicerem, I have called you together that I might say a few (tvords). 468 2. The Perfect Subjunctive, although it follows a principal tense, usually refers to past action : dicam quid senserim, / shall say what I thought. 469 3. The Perfect Subjunctive often (and the Present Subjunc- tive rarely) follows a historical tense in Clauses of Result (519) : ita quievit ut eo tempore omm Neapoli fuerit, he kept so quiet that he stayed all that time at Naples. Verres Siciliam ita p e r d i d i t ut ea restitui non p o s - sit, Verres so ruined Sicily that it cannot be restored. 470 4. The Historical Present (447) usually behaves as a histor- ical, but sometimes as a principal tense : ut januam clauderent, imperat, he ordered (them) to shut the door. hortatur ut arma capiant, he exhorted (them) to take up arms. 471 5. Conditional Sentences contrary to fact (557) are not gov- erned by the general rule for the Sequence of Tenses (462) : honestum tale est ut, vel si Ignorarent id homines, tamen laudabile e s s e t , virtue is such (a thing) that, even if men were ignorant of it, it would still b e glorious. LATIN GRAMMAR Here the Conditional Sentence contrary to fact is si Ignorarent id homines, tamen laudabile esset. The verbs Ignorarent and esset are in the Imperfect Subjunctive according to the rules for Conditional Sentences (557). They stay in the Imperfect Subjunctive, although they are in a subordinate clause following a principal clause whose verb (est) is in a principal tense. Future Time in Subordinate Subjunctive Clauses 472 As the Subjunctive has no Future or Future Perfect, the place of these missing tenses is filled by the existing subjunctive tenses especially after principal clauses which suggest future time. In this construction either the regular or the periphrastic form (188) may be used. The periphrastic form is to be pre- ferred when future time is to be expressed very definitely. In Regular Form To fill the place of the missing Future, the Present is used after principal tenses and the Imperfect after historical tenses : quaero quid facias, I ask what you will do. quaeslvl quid f a c e r e s , / aslced what you would do. To fill the place of the missing Future Perfect, the Per- fect is used after principal tenses and the Pluperfect after historical tenses : quaero quid feceris, I ask what you will have done. quaesivi quid f e c i s s e s , / asked what you would have done. In Periphrastic Form quaero quid facturus sis, I ask what you are going- to-do. quaeslvl quid facturus esses, I asked what you were going-to-do. THE USES OF THE VERB 173 TENSES OF THE IMPERATIVE 473 As all commands and requests are used of future acts, the two tenses of the Imperative always have a future meaning. When used together, the Present refers to an imminent and the Future to a later future : crede et credito, believe this and then believe (if you can). 474 Generally the Present Imperative is used : vale, fare (thee) well valete, fare (ye) well. divide et impera, divide and conquer. cave canem, look out for the dog. 475 The Future Imperative is found 1. In sentences stating an expected result or conclu- sion : si iste Ibit, It 6, if that (fellow) goes, you shall go (too). ubi nihil erit quod scribas, id ipsum scrlbito, when there is nothing for you to write, (then) you'll write just that. 2. In general formal statements, such as laws, wills, rules, and maxims : hominem mortuum in urbe ne sepelito, thou shalt not bury a dead man within the city. salus populi suprema lex esto, let the welfare of the people b e the highest law. Ignoscito saepe alteri, numquam tibi, forgive your brother often, yourself never. III. MOOD 476 Mood (159) is the manner of stating the action of the Verb. The action may be stated 174 LATIN GRAMMAR 1. As Really Happening. The Mood of Fact (Indicative). 2. As Thought Of. The Mood of Will, Desire, Possibility (Subjunctive). 3. As Demanded. The Mood of Command (Imperative). A. IN PKINCIPAL CLAUSES INDICATIVE MOOD 477 The Indicative (159) always expresses the action of the verb as a fact. The fact may be expressed in three ways : Asserted : is me quaerit, he seeks Tine. Asked : quis me quaerit, who seeks me f Supposed : si quis me quaerit, if any one seeks me. 478 The Indicative is used mostly in independent sentences or principal clauses. But it also occurs in subordinate clauses which express facts : non is sum q u I f u I , Pm not the man I was. quod scrips!, scrips!, what I have written, I have written. 479 The English ought, might (in sense of can or could), and it would be usually become Indicatives with the Present In- finitive : d e b e 6 tacere, I ought to keep silent. debebam tacere, I ought to have kept silent. possum dicere, / might say. potu! d!cere, I might have said. difficile erat dicere, it would be hard to say. THE USES OF THE VERB 175 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 480 The Subjunctive (159) in independent sentences or principal clauses expresses the action of the verb, not as a fact, but as thought of in one of three ways: 1. As Willed: Volitive Subjunctive. 2. As Desired : Optative Subjunctive. 3. As Possible : Conditional Subjunctive. I. Volitive Subjunctive [Subjunctive of Will] 481 The Volitive Subjunctive states the action as willed. It is used 1. In commanding: Jussive Subjunctive. 2. In conceding : Concessive Subjunctive. 482 1. Jussive Subjunctive, used in commanding, like the Imperative Mood (495) : First Person only in Plural of Present Tense : vlvamus atque amemus, let us live and love. This is the so-called Hortatory Subjunctive. Second and Third Persons generally in Present Tense (492) : cautus sis, you must le careful. suum quisque no scat ingenium, let each learn Ms own disposition. nomina declinare puerl sciant, let loys know (how) to decline nouns. 483 2. Concessive Subjunctive, used in conceding: The tenses used are the Present and Perfect : 176 LATIN GRAMMAR ne sit summum malum dolor: malum certe est, (grant) pain i s not the worst evil : an evil it surely is. fruatur sane hoc solatio, that comfort, of course, he may take. II. Optative Subjunctive [Subjunctive of Desire] 484 The Optative Subjunctive states the action as a wish or desire. The tenses used are the Present, Imperfect, and Pluper- fect. The Present states the wish as possible : dl istaec prohibeant, may the gods avert that! utinam ilium diem videam, may I see that day I The Imperfect states the wish as unfulfilled in present time : utinam Cyrus viveret, that Cyrus were alive ! The Pluperfect states the wish as unfulfilled in past time : utinam tacuissem, that I had Tcept still! NOTE : utinam, that or would that, is often used with the Present, regularly with the Imperfect and Pluperfect, in the optative subjunctive. ///. Conditional (in a few cases Potential) Subjunctive [Subjunctive of Possibility] 485 This Subjunctive includes the 1. Potential Subjunctive, which states the action as that which can be. This use is not common. The tense is the Present or the Perfect with a present meaning : dicat or dixerit aliquis, someone may say. THE USES OF THE VERB 177 frangas, potius quam corrigas, quae in pravum induruerunt, you can break, easier than mend, what has hardened into The Potential Subjunctive suggests possibility, but possi- bility of only one kind (what can be), and so it easily dis- appears in the general 486 2. Conditional Subjunctive, which states the action of the verb as possible in any way that is, (^possible (2) on any condition. 487 (1) The possible action is always stated in the principal clause : hoc dixissem, I should have said so and so. 488 (2) The condition of its being possible may be 1. Omitted, but understood : hoc dixissem, / should have said so and so. Here -some such condition, as si adfuissem, if I had been there, or si dixissem, if / had spoken, is understood, though not stated. 2. Suggested in the principal clause : pace tua dixerim, by your leave I would say. Here the condition is suggested in pace tua, meaning if I have your leave. 3. Expressed by a subordinate clause : si adesset, bene esset, if he were here, it would be well. Here the condition is expressed by the subordinate clause si adesset. This is in the regular form of the Conditional Sentence (557). 489 The Conditional Subjunctive in a leading clause is there- fore nothing but the conclusion of a Conditional Sentence (551), in which the condition is either omitted, suggested, or expressed. 178 LATIN GRAMMAR 490 The Subjunctive used in polite or cautious statements may be considered a Conditional Subjunctive. This is common with velim, nolim, malim (227) : pace tua dixerim, ~by your leave, I would say. velim mihi ignoscas, / wish you would forgive me. veil em me ad cenam invltavisses, / wish you had asked me to dinner. vix ausim dicere, I hardly dare say. NEGATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SENTENCES 491 The negative word used I. With the Volitive and Optative Subjunctives is ne : Volitive : n e desperemus, let us not despair (Hortatory). ne audeant, let them not dare (Jussive). ne sit summum malum, (grant] it is not the worst evil (Concessive). Optative : utinam natus n e essem, ivould I had not been born ! II. With the Conditional Subjunctive is non : n 6 n facile dixerim, / could not easily say. The Negative Jussive Subjunctive 492 A negative command or prohibition in the Second Person of the Subjunctive occurs chiefly in poetry. The Present or (oftener) the Perfect is used : n e me attigas, don't touch me. tu ne feceris, don't you do (it). THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN RHETORICAL QUESTIONS (283) 493 The Subjunctive is found in questions of doubt, disbelief, and disdain. The negative is non. THE USES OF THE VERB 1Y9 Doubt : quid a g a m , what am I to do f quid a g e r e m , what was I to do f Disbelief : quis p u t e t , who would s upp ose? cur n 6 n liceat, why should it not he alloived ? Disdain sometimes introduced by ut or uti : te ut ulla res f ran gat, anything h re ale you down ? SUBJUNCTIVE WITH INDEFINITE SECOND PERSON 494 The Second Person Singular of the Subjunctive is sometimes used with an indefinite meaning. Here you has the force of one : memoria minuitur nisi earn exerceas, the memory weakens, unless one exercises it. videres, one could see. IMPERATIVE MOOD 495 The Imperative (159) states the action of the verb as a command or request. Any kind of request maj be thus expressed : An Order : I curre, puer, go, hoy ! run along I Exhortation: ora et labora, ivork and pray. Prayer : audl Jupiter, hear thou, Jove ! Comic Bequest: abi, ludis me, go away! you're fooling me. 496 Negative commands, or prohibitions (see 492), may be ex- by: 1. noli or nollte with the Infinitive : noli timere, fear not. 2. ne with Imperative : ne cede malls, yield not to the ills (of life). 180 LATIN GRAMMAR 3. Imperatives such as cave^ beware, fac or vide, see to it, followed by ne with the Subjunctive : cave ne eas, (look out,) don't go. fac ne aliud quid cures, see you attend to nothing else. B. IN SUBOKDINATE CLAUSES 497 The Moods in subordinate clauses are the In- dicative and Subjunctive. Generally the Sub- junctive is used. The Indicative occurs only in clauses of fact (478). NOTE : This is the principal use of the Subjunctive, as the name indicates (sub-junctus, sub-joined, dependent). Its meaning in subordinate clauses is the same as in principal clauses, or is derived from that meaning. I. USES OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 498 A subordinate clause (287) taken as a whole, is construed like a single word. It is used 1. As a Noun (Substantive Clause) usually as the Subject or Object of the verb in the principal clause : saepe fit ut homines fallantur, it often happens that men are deceived. Here the Substantive Clause ut homines falluntur is the Subject of fit. impero tibi ut abeas, I order you to depart. Here the Substantive Clause ut abeas is the Object of impero. 499 Substantive Clauses are also used as Appositives (291) ? and occasionally in other constructions : THE USES OF THE VERB 181 hoc praestamus fens, quod colloquimur inter nos, we are better than the beasts in this, that we can talk ivith each other (Appositive). oro te, virum te praebeas, 1 pray you, show your- self a man (Accusative of Thing, 505). 500 2. As an Adjective (Attributive Clause) : pontem, qui erat ad Genavam, jubet rescind!, he or- ders the bridge, which was near Geneva, to be cut down. Here the Clause qui erat ad Genavam acts as an Adjec- tive and describes the noun pontem. 501 3. As an Adverb (Adverbial Clause) : cum sis mortalis, mortalia cures, since you are mortal, care for mortal (things). Here the Clause cum sis mortalis acts as an Adverb of Cause and modifies the verb cures. II. FOEMS OF SUBOEDINATE CLAUSES 502 Subordinate clauses are joined to the principal clause by an introducing word. The intro- ducing word is either a Conjunction, a Kela- tive, or an Interrogative : 1. Conjunction: rogo ut venias, / ask that you come. 2. Relative: bis dat, qui cito dat, who gives quickly, gives twice. 3. Interrogative : quaero q u i s dederit, / ask who has given (if). I. CONJUNCTIONAL CLAUSES 503 Conjunctional clauses are introduced by the Subordinate Conjunctions (254-261). 13 182 LATIN GRAMMAR Transition to the Conjunctional Clause 504 Subordinate clauses without a conjunction often occur after verbs expressing a Wish, Command, or Need : 1. velim, nolim, malim ; vellem, nollem, mallem. 2. The Imperatives fac and cave. 3. licet, oportet, necesse est. 4. Sometimes after volo, nolo, malo and verbs of Asking or Commanding. velim dicas, / wish you would tell. fac me ames, see (that) you love me. condemnetur necesse est, be condemned he must. rogo hoc, dicet, (if) I ask this, he will say. oro te, virum te praebeas, I pray you, show yourself a man. 505 Such sentences were formed by huddling together two inde- pendent sentences without change of form. Thus oro te virum te praebeas easily falls apart into the two sentences oro te, I pray you, and virum te praebeas, show yourself a man (482). But when the two are put together, oro becomes the leading verb which governs te as Accusative of the Per- son and the subordinate Substantive Clause (498) virum te praebeas like an Accusative of the Thing (318). 1. CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 506 Clauses of Purpose are introduced by ut (utl) or quo, that, or by ne or quominus, that not, and always take the Subjunctive. impero tibi ut abeas, I order you to depart (that you depart). praesidia disponit quo facilius hostes prohibean- tur, he stations guards that the enemy may be more eas- ily repelled. oravit ne enuntiare t , he legged that he would not telL quid obstat quominus sit beatus, what is-to-keep (him) from being happy? THE USES OF THE VERB 183 507 The usual introducing word is ut or (in negative clauses) ne. quo ( ut eo, that thereby) is an Ablative of Means, and is_ regularly used when the clause contains a Comparative word or suggestion, quominus (that thereby . . . not) is the negative of quo. It is used after verbs of Hindering, and may be translated from. 508 ut ne sometimes occurs as a strengthened form instead of ne : u t n e quid agamus, that we may not do anything. ut non occurs only when the non belongs to some one word and not to the whole clause. ut non e j e c t u s sed invltatus Ivisse videaris, that you may seem to have departed, not (as one) e xp etled, but in- vited. This rhetorical use must not be confused with the use of ut non in introducing Clauses of Eesult (519). 509 Clauses of Purpose are either Substantive or Adverbial. 510 I. Substantive clauses of Purpose fill out or complete what is implied in the leading verb. Such clauses are used chiefly as Object of the leading verb : suls ut idem faciant, imperat, he orders his (men) to do the same thing. Here ut idem faciant is a Substantive Clause of Pur- pose, used as the Object of imperat. 511 Substantive clauses of Purpose occur after verbs in which the action looks toward the future that is, verbs of Will or Aim. These include especially : 512 1. Verbs of Asking, Commanding, Warning, Persuading, Allowing : 184 LATIN GRAMMAR Ubil orabant, ut sibi auxilium ferret, the Ubii kept as Icing that he would bring them help. mllites cohortatus est ut impetum sustinerent, he exhorted his soldiers to withstand the attack. concede ut abeas, 1 allow you to go. 513 2. Yerbs of Resolving and Striving : decrevit senatus ut consules viderent, the Senate de- creed that the consuls should see to it. enitl debes ut vincas, you must strive to conquer. cur a ut quam primum intellegam, take care that I learn as soon as possible. 514 3. Yerbs of Hindering ; used with quominus or ne : aetas non imp edit quominus agrl colendl studia teneamus, age does not hinder us from following the pur- suits of agriculture. impedior ne plura dicam, I am prevented from say- ing more. 515 4. Yerbs of Wishing : optavit Phaethon ut in currum patris tolleretur, Phae- ton desired to be borne (aloft) in his father's chariot. 516 5. Yerbs of Fearing. Notice that with these verbs ut means that not and ne means that : vereor ut veniat, I fear that he will not come = I am fear- ful : (0) that he may come. [Here the coming is not ex- pected.] vereor ne veniat, I fear that he will come = I am fearful : may he not come. [Here the coming is expected.] 517 II. Adverbial Clauses of Purpose supplement the meaning of the leading verb, and merely state the purpose of the action : edo ut vivam, I eat to live (that I may live). THE USES OF THE VERB 185 Here ut vivam states the purpose of edo and modifies it like an Adverb of Cause (because 1 would live}. veni ut viderem, I came to see. ut ameris, amabilis esto, that you may he loved, be lovable. gallinae pennis fovent pullos, ne frigore laedantur, hens shelter (their) chickens with (their) wings, lest they be hurt by the cold. 518 The purpose is often suggested by some Demonstrative ex- pression in the principal clause ; such as idcirco, ideo, prop- terea, on that account, therefore, eo, ea mente, eo consilio, with that intent, for this reason : litteras ad te e 6 misl, ut rescrlberes, / sent you a letter for this reason that you might answer it. 2. CLAUSES OF RESULT 519 Clauses of Result are introduced by ut, (so) that, or by ut non, (so) that not, and always take the Subjunctive : sol efficit ut omnia floreant, the sun makes all things flourish (literally, so that all things flourish). mons impendebat, ut perpauci prohibere possent, a mountain hung over, so that a very few could block (the way). 520 Clauses of Result are either Substantive or Adverbial. 521 I. Substantive Clauses of Result fill out or com- plete what is implied in the leading verb. Such clauses are used chiefly as Subject or Object, and sometimes as an Appositive. They occur after 522 1. Verbs of Accomplishing : sol efficit ut omnia floreant, the sun makes all things flourish. 186 LATIN GRAMMAR 523 2. Impersonal Yerbs of Happening, Following, Eemaining : saepe fit ut homines fallantur, it often happens that men are mistaken. si verum non est, sequitur ut falsum sit, if it is not *true, it foil ow s that it is false. r e s t a t ut dicam, it remains for me to say. 524 3. Some words of Law and Custom : mos Romanorum erat ut binos haberent consules, it was a custom of the Romans to have two consuls (at a time). 525 4. A Comparative with quam : vivebat lautius quam ut invidiam effugeret, he lived too lavishly to escape envy. 526 The Eesult is often suggested by a neuter demonstrative in the leading clause : i d facere conantur, ut e finibus suis exeant, they try to accomplish this, (namely) to move out of their territory. soli hoc contingit sapient!, ut nihil invitus faciat, to do nothing against one's own will, t his belongs to the wise alone. 527 II. Adverbial Clauses of Result supplement the meaning of the leading verb, and merely state the result of the action. mons impendebat, ut perpauci prohibere possent, a mountain hung over, so that a very few could block the way. 528 The Eesult is often suggested by some correlative to ut, espe- cially by talis, tantus, ejus modi, ita, sic, tantopere, adeo, or by the demonstratives hie, is, Idem, ille, used in the sense of talis or tantus : t ant 6s sibi spiritus sumpserat, ut ferendus non vide- retur, he had put on such airs, that he seemed unendurable. i t a vixi, ut non frustra me natum existimem, / have s o lived that I do not think I ivas born in vain. ea celeritate ierunt, ut hostes impetum sustinere non possent, they advanced with such swiftness that the foe could not withstand the attack. THE USES OP THE VERB 187 3. CLAUSES OF TIME 529 Clauses of Time are Adverbial, and take the Indicative or Subjunctive. They are intro- duced as follows : 530 1. By postquam, after, ubi, lit, when, cum prl- mum, ubi primum, simul, simul ac (simul atque), as soon as. Here the time of the leading verb is later than that of the subordinate clause. 531 These clauses regularly refer to a single past action, and take the Perfect Indicative : postquam hostes fugavit, flumen Axonam exerci- tum transduxit, after he routed the foe, lie led (his) army across the river Axona. qui ut peroravit, surrexit Clodius, when he fin- ished speaking, up rose Clodius. 532 But the Pluperfect Indicative is used 1. To express past time with greater exactness. nono anno postquam venerat, in the ninth year after he came. 2. To express repeated action, with ubi, ut, simul atque : ubi nostros egredientes conspexerant, adorieban- tur, 10 hen (ever} they noticed our (soldiers) disembark- ing, they attacked (them). 533 2. By dum, donee, quoad, while, as long as. Here the time of the leading verb is the same as that of the subordinate clause. These clauses usually take the Indicative, but clauses of expected action take the Subjunctive and are translated until : 188 LATIN GRAMMAR abi, dum est facultas, go ! while you have a chance. donee eris felix multos numerabis amicos, so long as you are lucky, you will count up many friends. exspectavit dum naves convenirent,A^ waited u n - til the ships should assemble. For dum with Subjunctive of Proviso see 565. quamdiu, as long as, always takes the Indicative, quamdiu potuit, tacuit, he kept still as long as he could. 534 3. By antequam, priusquam, before (that), ere. Here the time of the leading verb is earlier than that of the subordinate clause. Each may be written as two words, ante . . . quam, prius . . . quam. They are used with the Indicative to express a known fact or with the Present Subjunctive to express an anticipated fact : priusquam lucet, adsunt, before it is dawn, they are here. ante videmus fulgorem quam sonum audiamus, we see the flash ere we hear the sound. [CLAUSES WITH cum] " cum temporal " 535 4. By cum, when, whenever, to express past, present, or future time with a corresponding tense of the Indicative : Romae videor esse, cum tuas litteras lego, when I am reading a letter of yours, I seem to he in Rome. "cum historical" 536 In expressing past time the Indicative in a historical tense (161) states the particular time THE USES OF THE VERB 189 when something happened, and the Subjunctive in the Imperfect or Pluperfect the surroundings^ or situation in which it happened : Gallo narravl, cum proxime Romae fui, quid audis- sem (189), when I was last in Rome, I told Gallus what 2 had heard. Zenonem, cum Athenis essem, audiebam frequens, being in Athens, 1 regularly used-to-hear Zeno (lecture). The Subjunctive is the usual construction. 537 In sentences of sudden or unexpected action the subordinate cum-clause often contains the leading thought and the prin- cipal clause contains the dependent thought. The principal clause conies first, often with jam, already, vix, aegre, hardly, or nondum, not yet. The cum-clause is put last, often with repente or subito, suddenly : jam subibat muros, cum repente in eum erum- punt Rdma.nl, he was already coming-up-to the walls, when suddenly the Romans dash out upon him. Here the regular arrangement would be, cum subibat, erumpunt Rdmani, when he was coming, the Romans dash out. " cum inverse " takes the Indicative. "cum coincident" 538 When both clauses must have the same Subject and Tense, cum with the Indicative is often used to show that the action of the principal and subordinate clauses coincides : cum tacent, clamant, when they hold their peace, they cry aloud. omnia tribuisti, c u m ei regium nomen concessisti, when you yielded him the royal title, you granted every- thing. " cum coincident " takes the Indicative. 190 LATIN GRAMMAR "cum relative" 539 After words of Time cum often has the force of a Relative Pronoun (= quo). The cum-clause then becomes Attribu- tive (500) : clarus fuit ille dies cum . . . , glorious was that day when (= in which). fuit tempus cum Germanos Galll virtute sup era- rent, there was a time when the Gauls surpassed the Germans in valor. So est cum, fuit cum, erit cum, there is, was, ivill ~be (a time) when. " cum relative " takes the Indicative or, oftener, the Sub- junctive. 540 For cum in clauses of Cause and Concession see 542, 571. 4. CLAUSES OF CAUSE 541 Clauses of Cause are Adverbial, and take the Indicative or Subjunctive. They are intro- duced as follows : " cum causal " 542 1. By cum, since, and take the Subjunctive: quae cum ita sint, since this is so (304). Aedui, cum se defendere non possent, legates ad Caesarem mittunt, since the Aedui could not defend themselves, they sent (447) envoys to Caesar. 543 2. By quando, since, and take the Indicative : quando ad majora nati sumus, since we are lorn for greater things. 544 3. By quod, (in) that, quia, because, quoniam, inasmuch as, since, and take the Indicative or Subjunctive. THE USES OF THE VERB 191 545 The Indicative is used when the reason of the speaker or writer is asserted ; the Subjunctive when the reason of some one else is reported : Indicative with quod, quia, quoniam tibi, quod abes, gratulor, / congratulate you that you are absent. concede, quia necesse est, lyield, because I must. solus ero, quoniam non licet esse tuum, Pll be alone, since I may not be thine. Subjunctive with quod, quia, quoniam 546 Socrates accusatus est quod corrumperet juventu- tem, Socrates was accused (on the ground] that he was corrupting the youth. [So his accusers said.] mater Irata est, quia non r e d i e r i m , mother was angry, (saying it was) because 1 did not come back. Such Subjunctives are really in Indirect Discourse, with the verb of Saying implied (597). 547 A rejected reason is introduced by non quod, non quo, non quia, not because, or by non quod non, non quo non, non quin, not because . . . not, and usually takes the Subjunctive : non quod do leant, not because they are suffering. [As might be supposed.] non quin ab eo dissentiam, not that I do not dis- agree with him. 548 Bat a, fact stated as the rejected reason takes the Indicative : non quia multis debeo, not because 1 am in debt to many. [As in fact I am.] 549 As the conjunction quod (in) that, (for the reason] that, is nothing but quod, which, that, the neuter of the relative pronoun used with a causal meaning, it is easy to confuse the two uses. But notice that The Conjunctional quod-clause acts as an Adverb of cause (Adverbial Clause, 501). 192 LATIN GRAMMAR The Relative quod-clause acts as a Noun (Substantive Clause, 498) : gaudeo quod te interpellavl, lam glad that I in- terrupted you. Conjunctional clause (cause of gaudeo). quod redilt mirabile videtur, that he ret timed seems marvelous. Eelative clause (acts as Subject of vide- tur). 5. CLAUSES OF CONDITION 550 The Conditional Clause is introduced by si, if, si non, si minus, if not, nisi, unless, or sin, but if. It is Adverbial (501). It is always part of a Conditional Sentence : si vis, potes, if you 'will, you can. THE CONDITIONAL SENTENCE 551 The Conditional Sentence is made up of 1. The Condition, or subordinate clause, and 2. The Conclusion, or principal clause. Thus in si vis, potes, the Condition is si vis, if you will, and the Conclusion is potes, you can. The Condition is also called the Protasis, and the Conclu- sion the Apodosis. 552 Conditional Sentences take the Indicative or the Subjunctive. Both the Condition and Conclusion are regularly in the same Mood ; very frequently in the same Tense. FIRST KIND: CONDITION AS FACT 553 I. The Indicative is used when the Condition is stated as if it were a Fact. Any tense may be used : THE USES OF THE VERB 193 si a d e s t , bene e s t , if he is here, it is well. si nescis, tibi ignosco, if you don't know, I for- give you. hi, si quid erat durius concurrebant, if there ivas any very-hard (fighting], these men rushed in. si fortuna volet, fies consul, if fortune (shall) will it, consul you will be. si peccavi, Insciens feci, if I have sinned, I did so unknowingly). convincam, si negas, / will prove it, if you (now) deny it. si quis equitum deciderat, circumsistebant, if (= whenever) any horseman fell, they stood about him (lit- erally, were standing). 554 When the Conclusion has a future meaning it sometimes takes the Subjunctive or Imperative instead of the regular Indicative : quod si non possumus facere, moriamur, if we cannot do it, let us die. si peccavi, mihi ignosce, if I have sinned, forgive me. SECOND KIND: CONDITION AS POSSIBLE 555 II. The Present and Perfect Subjunctive are used when the Condition is stated as Pos- sible. The Present and Perfect are used in these Conditions with little or no difference of meaning. si a d s i t , bene sit, if he should be here, it would be well. si adfuerit, bene sit, if he should be here, it would be well. di si curent, bene bonis sit, should the gods care, (all) would go ivell with the good. 194 LATIN GRAMMAR 556 The Conclusion is sometimes in the Present or Future In- dicative : memoria minuitur, nisi earn exerceas, the memory weakens, unless one exercises it (494). si cupias, licebit, should you (so) desire, it will ~be al- lowed. THIRD KIND: CONDITION AS CONTRARY TO FACT 557 III. The Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used when the Condition is stated as Con- trary to Fact. The Imperfect is used for Present Conditions and the Pluperfect for Past Conditions : si adesset, bene esset, if he were here, it would ~be well. si viveret, verba ejus audlretis, were he alive, you would hear his statement. Si adfuisset, bene fuisset, if he had been here, it would have been well. nisi milites essent defessi, hostium copiae dele- tae essent, if the soldiers had not been worn out , the forces of the enemy would have been destroyed. nisi ante Roma profectus esses, nunc earn certe relinqueres, if you had not left Rome before, you would certainly leave it now. 558 The Imperfect Subjunctive is sometimes used to express continued or usual past action : si nihil littens adjuvarentur, numquam se ad earum studium contulissent, if they ivere getting no help from literature, they never would have betaken themselves to its study. quae nisi essent in senibus, non summum consilium majores nostrl appellassent senatum, if these (traits) were not usual in older men, our ancestors would not have called our highest council the Senate. THE USES OF THE VERB 195 Opposing and Negative Conditions 559 nisi, unless, negatives the whole clause : parva sunt forls arma, nisi est consilium domi, arms avail little abroad, unless there is wisdom at home. 560 si non, if not, negatives the single word which follows the non : quod si non possumus facere, moriamur, if we can't do it, let us die ! 561 si non (or si minus) introduces an opposing negative Condition. 1. Repeating a preceding positive condition in negative form : si feceris, magnam habebo gratiam ; si non feceris, Ignoscam, if you do it, I shall be very grateful ; if you don't, Pll forgive (you). 2. Modifying a Conclusion containing at, tamen, certe : cum spe, si non bona, at aliqua tamen vivo, still, I am living ; if not with good hope, yet with some. NOTE : si minus is used only when the verb in the re- peated condition is omitted : educ tecum omnes tuos ; si minus, quam plurimos, take with you all your (followers) ; if not , as many as possible. 562 sin, but if, introduces an opposing positive Con- dition : si verum est . . . , sin falsum . . . , if it is true . . . , but if false . . . Conditional Clauses of Wish and Proviso 563 These clauses are Adverbial. They are introduced by dum, modo, dummodo, if only, provided that, and take the Sub- junctive. They contain a Condition stated either as a Wish or as a Proviso. The negative is ne. 196 LATIN GRAMMAR 564 Wish (if only): dum ne tibi vide or, non laboro, if only I do not seem so to you, I do not worry. multi honesta neglegunt, dum mo do potentiam con- sequantur, many neglect honor, if only they may gain power. 565 Proviso (provided that, so) : valetudo modo bona sit, provided the health le good. oderint, dum metuant, let them hate, so they fear. dum ne, if only . . . not, provided . . . not, must not be confused with nedum, much less : nedum tu possis, much less could you. 6. CLAUSES OF COMPARISON 566 Clauses of Comparison are Adverbial. 567 I. Conditional Clauses of Comparison are intro- duced by si following some word meaning as or than, and take the Subjunctive. These words (with si added) are ac si, ut si, quasi, quam si, velut (si), tamquam (si) : velut si coram adesset, horrebant, they trembled, just as if he were there before them. quid his testibus utor, quasi res dubia sit, why do 1 use these witnesses, as if (indeed) the matter were obscure. 568 II. Correlative Clauses of Comparison are in- troduced by ut, slcut, quemadmodum, as, and take the Indicative. A correlative demonstrative word, such as ita, sic, item, so, likeivise, often stands in the principal clause : perge ut instituisti, go on as you have started. ut sementem feceris, ita metes, as you have done your sowing, s o shall you reap. quemadmodum vellent, imperarent, they should give orders, as they pleased. THE USES OF THE VERB 197 7. CLAUSES OF CONCESSION 569 Clauses of Concession are Adverbial. Notice that what is conceded in the subordinate clause is opposed in the principal clause, which often contains tamen, certe, or sane. 570 I. With quamquam, although, they generally take the Indicative : quamquam festinas, non est mora longa, although you are in haste, the delay is not long. NOTE : quamquam in a principal clause means and yet : quamquam quid loquor, and yet why do I speak 9 571 II. With cum, licet, although, ut, (grant] that, ne, (grant] that . . . not, they take the Subjunc- tive: Atticus honores non petiit, cum el paterent, Atticus did not seek honors, although they were open to him. licet omnes fremant, ego non tacebo, though all should rave (at me), I shall not hoi d-my -peace. verum ut hoc non sit, (grant) that this is not true. ne sit summum malum dolor : malum certe est, (grant) that pain is not the chief evil: an evil it surely is. 572 III. With etsi, tametsi, etiamsi, quamvls, even if, although, they take the Indicative or Sub- junctive like Conditional clauses with si : etsi mons Cevenna altissima nive iter impediebat, Caesar tamen profectus est, Caesar started nevertheless, although the Cevennes mountains were blocking (his) way with very deep snow. quamvls sis molestus, numquam te esse confitebor malum, though you may be annoying, I will never admit that you are bad. 14 198 LATIN GRAMMAR NEGATIVE CONJUNCTIONAL CLAUSES WITH quin 573 The negative conjunction quin, why not, that not (but, nay\ is made of the relative adverb qul, why, and ne, not. 574 I. It is sometimes used in principal clauses to state commands and direct questions : quin uno verbo die, nay, tell (me) in one word. quin conscendimus equos, why not mount our horses? II. Otherwise it always introduces subordinate clauses which follow principal clauses of negative meaning : nemo est quin audierit, there is nobody who has not heard. 575 Subordinate clauses with quin always take the Subjunctive. This happens especially after : 576 1. Words of Doubt or Omission. (Like an Indirect Ques- tion.) non dubium est quin uxorem nolit filius, there is no doubt that (my] son does not want a wife. nihil abestquin sim miserrimus, nothing is lack- ing to make me most unhappy (literally, why I should not be). 577 2. Verbs of Hindering. (Purpose or Eesult.) retineri non potuerant quin tela conjicerent, they could not be kept from hurling their pikes. 578 3. nullus, nemo, nihil, quis. (Result or Characteristic.) nemo est quin audierit, there is nobody who has not heard. quis est quin cernat, ivho is there that does not 579 4. facere non possum, fieri non potest. (Result.) facere non possum quin tibi gratias agam, / can not help thanking you. fieri non potest quin tibi gratias agam, it is impossible for me not to thank you. THE USES OF THE VERB 199 II. RELATIVE CLAUSES 580 Relative Clauses are introduced by relative' words, especially by the relative pronoun qui, who, that (147, 299). The negative is non. 581 Other relative words used are 1. The Adjectives quantus, as much, qualis, as, quot, as many (152). 2. Adverbs such as ubi, when, where, unde, whence, quo, where, whither, quotiens, as often as, and the relative ad- verbs so often used as conjunctions, such as quando, cum, when, ut, uti, quam, as. 582 Compound or General Relatives are those formed by doub- ling, or by adding -cumque, -ever. Thus quisquis, quicumque, whoever, quantuscumque, however much, ubicumque, wherever. 583 Clauses introduced by General Eelatives regularly take the Indicative : quidquid id est, whatever it is. quacumque iter fecit, wherever he made his way. 584 Relative Clauses in form, and often in use, are like adjectives. But they are more often used with the force of an adverb. 585 I. When the Relative Clause simply describes, like an adjective (500), it takes the Indicative: pons qul erat ad Genavam, the bridge which was near Geneva. Here qul erat ad Genavam describes pons, and does nothing more. 586 II. When the Relative Clause, like the Con- junctional (503), expresses Purpose, Result, Time, 200 LATIN GRAMMAR Cause, Condition, Comparison, or Concession, it is Adverbial in force. Notice that Eelative Clauses used adverbially and Con- junctional Clauses express in the main the same ideas, with the same use of moods and tenses. 1. Purpose (517) : equitatum praemittit qui videant, he sends forward cavalry to see (who may see). 2. Characteristic (Eesult, 527) : secutae sunt tempestates quae nostros in castris continerent, there came storms that kept our (soldiers) in camp. NOTE : It is doubtful whether there are any relative clauses of pure Result. Most, if not all, so-called relative clauses of Result are better explained as clauses of Characteristic (587). 3. Time (with relative adverb, 529) : quando omnes creati sunt, turn ad eos deus fatur, when all were created, then to them spake the god. 4. Cause (541) : 6 fortunate adulescens, qui tuae virtutis Homerum praeconem i n v e n e r i s , happy youth ! who hast found a Homer (as) the herald of thy valor. 5. Condition (550) : qui videret, urbem captam diceret, whoever saiv it, would say the city (was) taken. Here qui = si quis, if any one, whoever. 6. Comparison (with relative adverb, 566) : majus gaudium fuit quam quod universum homines acciperent, (their) joy was greater than that men com- monly experience. THE USES OF THE VERB 201 7. Concession (569) : absolvite eum, qui se fate at ur pecunias accepisse, although he confesses that he has accepted money -, acquit him. Clauses of Characteristic 587 A relative clause which states definitely the natural result or character of something sug- gested indefinitely in the principal clause, is called a Clause of Characteristic. Such clauses are Attributive, and take the Subjunctive : non is sum qui terrear, I'm not the man to be fright- ened (literally, who may be frightened). secutae sunt tempestates quae nostros in castris continerent, there came storms that kept our (sol- diers) in camp. 588 Clauses of Characteristic are used after 1. Principal clauses containing is, ejusmodi, talis, tan- tus, tarn: ea est Romana gens quae victa quiescere nesciat, the Roman race is one that knows not (how) to stay quiet (when) conquered. 2. General expressions, positive or negative, containing est qui, sunt qui: sunt qui putent, there are (some) who think. quid est quod veils, what is it that you wish ? erant itinera duo quibus itineribus exire possent, there ivere two routes by which they could depart. nemo est qui nesciat, there is nobody who does not know. res est una solaque quae possit facere et servare beatum, 'tis the one and only thing that can make and keep (you) happy. 202 LATIN GRAMMAR 3. dignus, worthy, indignus, unworthy, idoneus, fit : res digna est quam conslderemus, the matter is worth our consideration (literally, worthy, which we may consider}. indignus est qui imperet, lie is umvorthy to rule. idoneus qui ad bellum mittatur, fit to le sent to the war. 589 Relative clauses stating a restriction are characteristic : quod sciam, so far as I know. They are usually Subjunc- tive. Catonis orationes, quas quidem legerim, Calo's ora- tions, so far, at least, as I have read them (= those that I have read). III. INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES (INDIRECT QUESTIONS) 590 Subordinate interrogative clauses, or Indirect Questions, are Substantive clauses (498) used as the subject or object of verbs of asking, say- ing, thinking, or of interest and refert. They are introduced by the same interrogative words that are used in Direct Questions (280, 281). The verb is always Subjunctive. The Indirect Question is one form of Indirect Discourse (597): quaero quid facias, I ask what you are doing. die mihi ubi fueris, tell me where you were. miror cur me accuses, I wonder why you accuse me. multum interest quis die at, who says (so) is quite important. 591 Indirect Questions may easily be confused with Relative Clauses (580). It must be remembered that the Indirect Question differs from the Relative Clause : THE USES OF THE VEKB 203 1. In depending on a special kind of verb (asking, saying, thinking). 2. In its introducing word (an Interrogative). die mihi quid habeas, tell me what you have, contains an Indirect Question. d a mihi quod habes, give me what you have, contains a Relative Clause. utile est scire quid futurum sit, it is useful to know what will happen, contains an Indirect Question. ef fug ere nemo potest quod futurum est, none can esc ap e what will happen, contains a Relative Clause. 592 The negative particles (240, 5) num, -ne, are used in Indi- rect Questions in the sense of whether or if. But nonne is used only after quaero, and is rare : num quid vellet rogavi, I asked if he wanted ant/thing. rogavit essentne fusl hostes, he asked whether the enemy were routed. 593 An Indirect Question depending on a verb of waiting or trying may be introduced by si, if, whether : exspectabam si quid scriberes, / was waiting (to see) if you would write anything. conantur si perrumpere possent, they try ivh ether they can break through. 594 Indirect Double Questions are usually introduced by the same particles that are used in Direct Double Questions (281) : die utrum verum an falsum sit "] die verum ne an falsum sit \ whether it is die verum an falsum sit [ **% wlietfl * r lt die verum falsumne sit j true or f alse ' die verum sit necne, say whether it is true or not. 595 The second part of an Indirect Double Question often occurs alone after haud scio an, nescio an, meaning / don't know but, I almost think, I fancy : haud scio an falsum sit, I almost think it is false. 204 LATIN GRAMMAR 596 SYNOPSIS OF THE MOODS A. IN PRINCIPAL CLAUSES I. INDICATIVE : action of verb as fact. Negative non. No introducing words. II. SUBJUNCTIVE : action of verb as thought of. 1. As willed : Volitive Subjunctive. Negative ne. No introducing words. In Commanding : Jussive Subjunctive. In Conceding : Concessive Subjunctive. 2. As desired : Optative Subjunctive. Negative ne. utinam often used as introducing word. 3. As possible : Conditional Subjunctive. Negative non. As what can be : Potential Subjunctive. No introducing words. As possible (= Conclusion) on any condition (= Condition) : Con- ditional Subjunctive. Introducing words : Conclusion, none. [Condition, si, si non, nisi, sin, si minus.] III. IMPERATIVE : action of verb as command. Negative ne (see 496). No introducing words. B. IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES Indicative only in clauses of fact ; otherwise the Subjunctive. USES OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. 1. As Noun : Substantive Clause. 2. As Adjective : Attributive Clause. 3. As Adverb : Adverbial Clause. FORMS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. I. Introduced by a Conjunction : Conjunctional Clause. 1. Purpose : Subjunctive always. Negative ne, quominus. Introducing words : Uses : Substantive, positive, ut (uti), quo. Adverbial, negative, ne, quominus. 2. Result : Subjunctive always. Negative non. Introducing words : Uses : Substantive, positive, ut. Adverbial. negative, ut non. SYNOPSIS OF THE MOODS 205 3. Time : Indicative or Subjunctive. Negative non. Introducing words : Use: Adverbial only. With Indicative : postquam, ubi, ut, cum primum, ubi primum, simul ac. With Indicative or Subjunctive: cum, dum, donee, quoad, antequam, priusquam. 4. Cause : Indicative or Subjunctive. Negative non. Introducing words : Use : Adverbial only. With Indicative : quando. With Subjunctive : cum. With either : quod, quia, quoniam. 5. Condition : Indicative or Subjunctive. Negative non. Introducing words : si, si non, Use : Adverbial only. nisi, sin, si minus. KINDS OF CONDITIONS (1) As a fact : Condition in Indicative (any tense). Conclusion in Indicative (any tense). See 554. (2) As possible: Condition in Subjunctive (Present or Perfect). Conclusion in Subjunctive (Present or Perfect). (3) As contrary to fact : Condition in Subjunctive (Imperfect or Pluperfect). Conclusion in Subjunctive (Imperfect or Pluperfect). 6. Comparison: Indicative or Subjunctive. Negative non. Introducing words : Use : Adverbial only. With Indicative : ut, sicut, quemadmodum. With Subjunctive : ac si, ut si, quasi, quam si, velut(si), tamquam(si). 7. Concession : Indicative or Subjunctive. Negative non or ne. Introducing words : Use : Adverbial only. With Indicative : quamquam. Negative non. With Subjunctive : cum, licet, ut. Negative ne. With either : etsi, tametsi, etiamsi, quamvis. Negative non. II. Introduced by a Relative : Relative Clause. Moods : Same as in Conjunctional Clauses (Purpose, Result, etc.). Introducing words : qui, quantus, Uses: Attributive, qualis, quot, ubi, unde, quo, Adverbial, quotiens, quando, cum, ut (uti), quam. Also quisquis, quicumque, ubicumque, and other General Relatives. III. Introduced by an Interrogative : Indirect Question. Introducing words : Use : Substantive only. In Simple Question: interrogative Mood: Subjunctive only. words (280, 281) num, -ne, (si). In Double Question : utrum ... an (see 594). 206 LATIN GRAMMAR INDIEECT DISCOURSE 597 A sentence quoted in its exact words without any change is in Direct Discourse (oratio recta): Solon dicebat: nemo ante obitum est beatus, Solon used to say " Nobody is happy before (his) death" 598 A sentence quoted in dependence on a verb of Saying or Thinking is in Indirect Discourse (oratio obllqua) : Solon dicebat neminem ante obitum esse bea- tum, Solon used to say that nobody was happy before (his) death. The sentence in Indirect Discourse is the Object of the verb of Saying or Thinking. The rules for turning Direct into Indirect Dis- course are as follows : MOODS IN PRINCIPAL CLAUSES 599 I. Declarative sentences go into the Infinitive, with the Subject expressed in the Accusative; Interrogative and Imperative sentences go into the Subjunctive. 600 Declarative: mons ab hostibus tenetur, the mountain is held by the enemy. (Direct.) dicit montem ab hostibus tenerl, he says that the mountain is held by the enemy. (Indirect.) id faciam, / shall do it. (Direct.) Caesar dixit se id facturum (esse), Caesar said that he would do it. (Indirect.) THE USES OF THE VERB 207 601 Interrogative: quid tibi vis ? cur venis ? what do you luant f why do you come 9 (Direct.) pauca respondit: quid sibi vellet, cur venlret, he replied briefly : what did he want? why did he come? (Indirect.) 602 Imperative : legates mittite, send envoys. (Direct.) respondit legates mitt ant, he replied (that) they should send envoys. (Indirect.) 603 As Rhetorical questions (283) are really Declarative, they go into the Infinitive : plebs fremit : quid se vivere, the people roar out: why are they alive (at all) ? The Direct form is quid vivimus, why are we alive (at all) ? a Ehetorical question. 604 Imperative sentences usually go into the Subjunctive without ut or with ne : respondit legates mitt ant, he replied (that) they should send envoys. obsecravit ne quid gravius in fratrem statueret, he besought him not to do anything very severe to his brother. But jubeo, command, and veto, forbid, govern the In- finitive : naves aedificari jubet, he orders ships to be built. IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 605 II. Subordinate clauses become or remain Sub- junctive : concede, quia necesse est, / yield because it is necessary. (Direct.) dice me concedere, quia necesse sit, I say that I yield because it is necessary. (Indirect.) dicebam me concedere, quia necesse esset, / ivas saying that 1 yielded because it was necessary. (Indirect.) 208 LATIN GRAMMAR But notice : 606 1. Relative clauses equal in force to a leading clause with a demonstrative (qui = et is, et ille), go into the Infinitive with the Subject in the Accusative : unumquemque nostrum censent philosophi mundl esse partem, ex quo (= et ex eo) illud natura conse- q u I , philosophers think that each one of us is a part of the universe ; a nd from this it naturally follows. 607 2. Clauses of simple fact or incidental explanation may re- main in the Indicative : certior factus est ex ea parte vici, q u a m Gallls c o n - cesserat, omnes discessisse, he was informed that all had departed from that part of the village which he had al- lotted to the Gauls. quis neget haec omnia quae videmus deorum po- testate administrari, ivho could deny that all these (things) which we see are ruled by the power of the gods ? TENSES 608 III. Tenses of the Infinitive follow the rules for the Infinitive (632-636). Tenses of the Subjunctive follow the rule for the Sequence of Tenses (462-471). But after a historical tense the Present Subjunctive is often used to make the statement more vivid : Caesar respondit, si obsides dentur, sese pacem esse facturum, Caesar replied that, if hostages should be given (instantly), he would make peace. PERSONS 609 IV. After a verb of Saying or Thinking in the Third Person, verbs and pronouns in the First or Second Person change to the Third : THE USES OF THE VERB 209 Ariovistus Caesari dlxit : Ariovistus said to Caesar : (e g o) in Galliam venl / came Mo Gaul s e in Galliam venisse that he (Ariovistus) come into Gaul (t u) in Galliam venisti you came into Gaul ilium in Galliam venisse that he ( Caesar) had come into Gaul Notice that se, the Reflexive Pronoun, refers to the Sub- ject of dlxit (421, 422). Notice that ilium refers to some other person than the Subject of dlxit (426, 137). 610 Thus the First Personal ego, nos, become se; meus, noster, become suus (140). The Second Personal tu, vos, become ille or is (137). 611 After verbs of Saying or Thinking in the First Person, the verbs and pronouns do not change their Person : DIRECT INDIRECT dm : (ego) in Galliam venl m e in Galliam venisse dlxi : (tu) in Galliam venisti t e in Galliam venisse dm: (ille) in Galliam venit ilium in Galliam venisse 612 After verbs of Saying or Thinking in the Second Person, the First Person changes to Second, the Second to First, and the Third remains Third : DIRECT INDIRECT dixisti : (ego) in Galliam venl te in Galliam venisse dixisti : (tu) in Galliam venisti m e in Galliam venisse dixisti : (ille) in Galliam venit i 1 1 u m in Galliam venisse CONDITIONAL SENTENCES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 613 The Condition becomes or remains Subjunctive, and the Conclusion becomes Infinitive : si hoc credo, erro, if I believe this, I am ivrong. dicit, si hoc credat, se errare, he says that, if he believes this, he is wrong. 210 LATIN GRAMMAR 614 But if the Conclusion was an Interrogative or Imperative sen- tence in Direct Discourse, it becomes Subjunctive. See 599. sin perseveraret, reminisceretur pristmae virtutis Helvetiorum, but if he persisted (said they), he should re- member the ancient valor of the Helvetians. In Direct Discourse: sin perseveras, reminlscere, if you persist, remember. I. FIRST KIND: CONDITION AS FACT (553) 615 si hoc credo, err 6, if I believe this, I am wrong. dicit, si hoc credat, se errare. dixit, si hoc crederet, se errare. si hoc credam, errabo, if I (shall') believe this, I shall be wrong. dicit, si hoc credat, .se erraturum esse. dixit, si hoc crederet, se erraturum esse. si hoc credebam, erravl, if I believed this, I was wrong . dicit, si hoc crederet, se erravisse. dixit, si hoc crederet, se erravisse. II. SECOND KIND: CONDITION AS POSSIBLE (555) 616 The Conclusion becomes Future Infinitive : si hoc credam, errem, if I should believe this, 1 should be wrong. dicit, si hoc credat, se erraturum esse. dixit, si hoc crederet, se erraturum esse. III. THIRD KIND: CONDITION CONTRARY TO FACT (557) 617 The Condition always remains unchanged in Tense (as well as Mood). The Conclusion becomes Infinitive in the following manner : 1. The Imperfect Subjunctive becomes the Infinitive in -urum esse. This is the Present Infinitive in Periphrastic form (188). THE USES OF THE VERB 211 2. The Pluperfect Subjunctive becomes the Infinitive in -urum fuisse. This is the Perfect Infinitive in Periphrastic form (188). si hoc crederem, errarem, if I believed this, I would be in error. si hoc credidissem, erravissem, if I had be- lieved this, I would have been in error. *7 tsi hoc crederet, se erraturum esse. dixit, ) i cl *' I si hoc credidisset, se erraturum fuisse. dixit, j 618 Notice that in passing into Indirect Discourse the Conditional sentences lose some of their differences of form, and conse- quently are at times less exact in meaning than in Direct Dis- course. A striking example is dixit, si hoc crederet, se erraturum esse, occurring in 615, 616, 617. 619 If the Conclusion is in the Passive Voice : 1. The Imperfect Subjunctive becomes futurum esse (fore) ut with the Imperfect Subjunctive. 2. The Pluperfect Subjunctive becomes futurum fuisse ut with the Imperfect Subjunctive : nisi eo ipso tempore pervenisset, existimabant plerique futurum fuisse ut oppidum amitteretur, had he not arrived at that very time, most (persons) thought the town would have been lost. SUBJUNCTIVE BY ATTRACTION 620 Clauses which depend on a subordinate Subjunctive or a sub- ordinate Infinitive, and form a necessary part of the thought, are attracted into the Subjunctive : mos est Syracusis ut, si qua de re ad senatum refer- atur, dlcat sententiam qul velit, it is the custom at Syracuse that if anything is brought up in the Senate, (anyone) who likes may speak his opinion. Here si ad senatum referatur and qul velit depend on 212 LATIN GRAMMAR the subordinate Subjunctive clause ut dicat sententiam and are attracted into the Subjunctive. mos est Athenis laudari in contione eos, qui sint in proeliis inter fectl, it is the custom at Athens that those who have fa lien in battle are publicly eulogized. Here qui sint in proeliis interfectl depends on the sub- ordinate Infinitive clause laudari in contione eos, and is attracted into the Subjunctive. Verbal Nouns and Adjectives (157) 621 The Yerbal Nouns are the Infinitive, Gerund, and Supine. The Yerbal Adjectives are the Participle and Gerundive. THE INFINITIVE 622 The Infinitive acts as a neuter noun. It is chiefly used as Subject or Object : errare est humanum, to err is human. (Subject.) vereor dicere, I am afraid to say. (Object.) 623 The Infinitive, with or without a Subject Ac- cusative, is used as the Subject of esse and impersonal verbs : dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, to die for our country is sweet and noble. mlrum est te nihil s crib ere, it is strange that you write nothing. placuit Caesari Avaricum incendi, Caesar thought Avaricum should be burnt. 624 The Infinitive is also used as a Predicate Noun (290) or an Appositive (291) : vivere est c 6 git are, to live is to think. (Predicate Noun.) THE USES OF THE VERB 213 oraculum erat datum victrlces Athenas fore, the response had been given that Athens would be victor. (Appositive.) 625 The Infinitive, with or without a Subject Ac- cusative, is used as the Object : sclre volebat, he wanted to know. dicit montem ab hostibus teneri, he says the moun- tain is held by the enemy. 626 I. It is used, without Subject Accusative, after verbs which need another verb with the same subject to complete their action. Such are the auxiliary (or " helping ") verbs cupio, volo, nolo, malo ; possum ; debeo. Also verbs meaning begin, continue, cease, as incipio, pergo, desino. try, dare, strive, hasten, as conor, audeo, studeo, mature. purpose, prepare, decide, as cogito, paro, decerno. accustom, teach, learn, know, as soleo, doceo, disco, scio. neglect, be satisfied, as neglego, satis habeo. hesitate, delay, fear, as dubito, cunctor, vereor. sclre volebat, he wanted to know. praeterita mutare non possumus, we cannot change the past. proficisci maturat, he hastens to set forth. Rhenum transire decreverat, he had decided to cross the Rhine. 627 Exceptions occur, but are not frequent : cupio me esse clementem, / wish to be considerate. 628 II. It is used with Subject Accusative after verbs of Saying and Thinking. (This is In- direct Discourse.) 15 214 LATIN GRAMMAR The verbs of Saying include those of telling, promising, informing, accusing, admitting, and their opposites. The verbs of Thinking include those of knowing, perceiv- ing, remembering, hoping, suspecting, pretending, feeling, and their opposites : dicit montem ab hostibus teneri, he says the mountain is held by the enemy. promittit se venturum esse, he promises to come. no see te esse hominem, know that you are a man. te advenisse g a u d e 5 , I am glad you have arrived. 629 Here may be included jubeo, command, veto, forbid, sino, patior, allow, cogo, compel, prohibeo, prevent, cupio, volo, nolo, malo, when governing an Infinitive having a different Subject : German! vinum importari non sinunt, the Ger mans do not allow wine to be i mp or ted. Hadrianus finem imperil esse voluit Euphratem, Hadrian wished the Euphrates to be the boundary of the empire. 630 Some special uses are as follows : 1. To express the End or Purpose : quid habes dice re, what have you to say? cuncti suaserunt Italiam pet ere, all advised to seek Italy. 2. After a few adjectives : p a r a t u s audire, prepared to hear. cantari dignus, worthy to be sung. 3. In exclamations ; sometimes with -ne added to the Sub- ject Accusative : te sic vexarl, you to be so troubled! tene hoc die ere, you to say this! mene desistere, / to stop! THE USES OP THE VERB 215 631 The Nominative is used with the Infinitive 1. Always as Subject of the Historical Infinitive. This is the Present Infinitive used in lively narration in- stead of the Indicative. Caesar Aeduos frumentum flagitare, Caesar keeps asking the Aedui for the grain. 2. Often as Predicate ISToun or Adjective : consul esse potul, / might have been consul. omnes student fieri b e a 1 1 , all strive to become h app y. 3. Often in Passive sentences : dicitur Homerus c a e c us fuisse, Homer is said to have been blind. TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE 632 The Tenses of the Infinitive have no independent time of their own, but a time which depends on the leading verb. 633 The Present Infinitive expresses the same time as the time of the leading verb : dicit se scribere, he says (now) he is writing (now). dicebat se scribere, he said (then) he was writing (then). 634 The Perfect Infinitive expresses time before the time of the leading verb : dicit se scripsisse, he says (now) he has written (before now). dicebat se scrlpsisse, he said (then) he had written (before then). 635 The Future Infinitive expresses time after the time of the leading verb : dicit se scripturum (esse), he says (now) he will iv rite (later). dicebat se scripturum (esse), he said (then) he would write (later). 216 LATIN GRAMMAR 636 Verbs which lack the Participial Stem (171) supply their missing Future Infinitive by fore ut or futurum esse ut with the Subjunctive : spero fore ut contingat id nobis, / hope (it may happen that) this good luck befalls us. THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 637 The Gerund (157) is a noun with the force of an Active verb : mens cogitando alitur, the mind is nourished ~by think- ing. consilium urbem cap i end!, apian for talcing the city (literally, of taking). Here the Gerund capiendi governs urbem as Object. The Gerund is not used in the Nominative or Vocative. 638 The Gerundive (157) is an adjective with the force of a Passive verb. It acts as a Future Passive Participle, and, with sum, forms the Passive of the Periphrastic Conjugation (188). It expresses what must ~be done or ought to be done : liber legendus, a book to be read (that ought to be read). consilium urbis capiendae, a plan for taking the city (literally, of the city to be taken). Here the Gerundive capiendae agrees with urbis. 639 The Gerund is used as follows : 1. Genitive of Definition (348) : ars scribendi, the art of writing. modus Vivendi, manner of living. causa colloquendi, a reason for conferring. Here belongs the Genitive after causa or gratia, for the sake of. hiemandi causa, for the sake of passing-the-winter. THE USES OF THE VERB 217 Objective with Adjectives (352) : cupidus bellandi, desirous of waging war. 2. Dative of Purpose (344) : aqua utilis est bibendo, water is useful for drinking. 3. Accusative, only after prepositions ad, in, inter, ob : dant se ad ludendum, they give themselves to playing. 4. Ablative (Means, 386) : mens cogitando alitur, the mind is nourished by thinking. Often with the prepositions ab, de, ex, in : in jubendo et vetando, in commanding and forbidding. ex discendo capiunt voluptatem, they get pleasure out-of 640 The Gerundive in agreement with its noun is to be preferred to the Gerund governing a Direct Object. Instead of the Gerund : Use the Gerundive : Gen. urbem capiendi, urbis capiendae, of talcing the city. Dat. urbem capiendo, urbi capiendae, for taking the city. Ace. ad urbem capiendum, ad urbem capiendam, for talc- ing the city. Abl. urbem capiendo, urbe capienda, by talcing the city. 641 But when the Object is a neuter pronoun or adjective used as a noun the Gerund must be used : aliquid faciendl, of doing something (not alicujus faciendi). cupiditas pliira habendl, greed for having more (not plu- rium habendorum). This avoids confusing the neuter and masculine genders. 642 The Genitives mel, tul, sul, nostri, vestri, are used with Gerundives without regard to Gender : vestri adhortandl causa, for the sake of encourag- ing you. mulier sul servandl causa aufugit, the woman fled for the sake of saving herself. 218 LATIN GRAMMAR 643 The Gerundive is used as follows : I. Attributive Adjective (295, Note) : leges observandae, laws to-be-respected. II. Predicate Adjective (295, Note) : leges sunt observandae, laws are to-be-respected. 644 The Predicate use is common, and occurs 1. In the Passive of the Periphrastic Conjugation (188) with or without the Dative of the Agent (339) : Caesar! omnia erant agenda, Caesar had to do every- thing (literally, everything had to be done by Caesar). Intransitive verbs in this construction are always imper- sonal : (mihi) eundum est, (/) must go. paenitendum est malL (one) should repent of evil. utendum est divitils, non abutendum, (we) should use wealth, not abuse it. 2. In expressing Purpose after verbs of Giving, Sending, Caring, Permitting, Undertaking, and the like : pontem faciendum curat, he orders a bridge made. urbem diripiendam dedit, he gave-over the city to be plundered. THE PARTICIPLE 645 Participles are adjectives in form and verbs in force. They occur in the Present, Future, and Perfect Tenses as follows : PRESENT FUTURE PERFECT Active Voice, amans, loving amaturus, about to love Passive Voice. amatus, loved Deponents. utens, using usurus, about to use usus, (having used,} using THE USES OF THE VERB 219 646 The Tenses of the Participle, like those of the Infinitive (632), have no independent time of their own, but a time which depends on the verb they modify : sol oriens diem conficit, the sun (by) rising brings on the day. Plato scribens mortuus est, Plato died (while) writ- ing. Homerus fuit ante Romam conditam, Homer lived be- fore Rome (was) founded. 647 The Perfect Participles of Deponents and Semi-Deponents often have the force of Present Participles : iisdem ducibus usus, using the same guides. 648 The Participle, acting as a Yerb, governs other words in the same manner as a Finite Verb : amans gloriam, loving glory. miseris succurrens, relieving the wretched. 649 The Participle, acting as an Adjective, is Attributive and Predicate. 650 1. Attributive: homo adultus, a grown man. mater amata, a beloved mother. Like other Adjectives, it is also used as a Noun : amantes, lovers. natus, son (literally, born). docens discentem, disc ens docentem adjuvat, a teacher helps a learner, and a learner a teacher. 651 2. Predicate ; often with the force of a subordinate clause. Purpose : venerunt legionem oppugnaturl, they came to at- tack the legion. 220 LATIN GRAMMAR Time: Plato scrlbens mortuus est, Plato died while writ- Cause : moveor tali amico orb at us, / am distressed because bereaved of such a friend. Condition : reluctante natura, inritus labor est, if nature op- poses^ effort is useless. Concession : mortalis natus speras immortalia, though mortal- born, thou hopest for the immortal. 652 For the Participle in the Ablative Absolute see 397, 399. THE SUPINE 653 There are two Supines, one in -um and one in -iL They are verbal nouns. 654 The Supine in -um expresses Purpose after verbs of Motion : spectatum veniunt, they come to see. legates mittunt rogatum auxilium, they send envoys to as Jo help. 655 The Supine in -u is used as an ablative of Specification after adjectives and fas, nefas, opus : mirabile dictu, wonderful to say. si hoc fas est dictu, if it le right to say so. THE USES OF ADVERBS 221 VI. THE USES OF ADVERBS 656 Adverbs (240) usually modify Verbs, sometimes Adjectives or Adverbs, and rarely Nouns : late vagari, to roam widely, bis morl, to die twice. late diffusa, wide-spread. bis tlnctus, twice dyed. minus late, less widely. bis tantum, twice as far. late rex, a ruler fa r and bis consul, twice con- wide, sul. 657 The Adverb preferably stands just before the word it modifies : si ita putarem, levius dolerem, if I thought so, 1 should grieve less. haud ita magnus, not so great. 658 This order may be altered, especially for emphasis : quod, etsl saepe dictum est, dicendum est tamen saepius, this, though often said, must still be said yet oftener. Negative Adverbs 659 non is the general negative, both for words and sentences. ne is always prohibitive, and is especially used in negative commands or wishes, haud negatives single words, usually adjectives or adverbs. quern non amat, non amat, whom she loves not, she loves not. haec non magna res est, this is not a great matter. ne fle, weep not! ne eas, don't go! haud malus, not lad. haud male, not badly. 222 LATIN GRAMMAR 660 Two negatives usually cancel each other and make an affir- mative : non possum n 6 n confiteri, / must confess. nemo negat, nobody denies = everybody admits. 661 Notice also these affirmatives : Indefinite with non first : non nemo somebody non nihil something non numquam sometimes Universal with non second : nemo non everybody nihil non everything numquam non always 662 But when such negatives as non, nemo, nihil, numquam, are followed by ne . . . quidem, non . . . non, nee . . . nee, the sentence remains negative : non praetermittam ne illud quidem, not even that will I fail to mention. nemo umquam nee poSta nee orator fuit, qui quemquam meliorem quam se putaret, never was there orator or poet, who thought any one better than himself. 663 neque (nee), and not, with an affirmative word is preferred to et with a negative : nee quisquam, and nobody nee ullus, and no (one) nee quidquam, and nothing nee umquam, and never neque autem ego sum ita demens, and, moreover, I am not so APPENDIX ORDER OF WORDS I. GEAMMATICAL ORDER 664 In the plain or grammatical order of a Latin sentence 1. The Subject comes first and the Predi- cate last : legio | ve"nit, the legion \ arrived. 2. Modifiers of the Subject accompany the Subject : decima legio | venit, the tenth legion \ came. Cicero consul | rem publicam servavit, Cicero the con- sul | saved the republic. 3. Modifiers of the Predicate precede the Predicate : Cicero | rem publicam servavit, Cicero \ saved the republic. 665 Modifiers of the Predicate come in the following order : Adverbial constructions, Indirect Object, Direct Object, Adverbs. A complete example is : decima legio || per tribunes militum | el | gratias | sta- tim | egit, the tenth legion \ at once returned thanks to him through their military tribunes. 224 LATIN GRAMMAR ORDER OF SINGLE WORDS 1. Nouns 666 Genitives usually follow the words they modify : pater patriae, father of his country. avidus gloriae, eager for glory. satis pecuniae, enough money. Appositives usually follow : Herodotus pater historiae, Herodotus, the father of history. When the Appositive is a place, it often precedes : urbs Roma, mons Jura, flu men Rhenus. 2. Adjectives 667 Adjectives precede or follow. The common adjectives more frequently precede : bonus homo; longa dies. Adjectives of number and quantity usually precede : duo mllia passuum, two thousand paces, two miles. mult 6s annos, (for) many years. ullo modo, in any way. Cardinals usually follow : hora tertia, the third hour. 3. Pronouns 668 Demonstratives precede, Possessives follow : ille liber, that look liber meus, my look horum omnium, of all these filius suus, (7m) oivn son Relatives and Interrogatives stand first in their clauses : pons, qui erat ad Genavam, the bridge which was near Geneva. quid sui consilii sit, ostendit, he shows what his plan is. ORDER OF WORDS 225 4. Adverbs 669 Adverbs regularly precede : bene est, it is well. fere omnes, almost all. paulo post, a little after. 5. Prepositions 670 The Preposition precedes the noun or phrase it governs : in Italiam, into Italy. in eorum potestatem, into their power. i n communem omnium salutem, fo r the common safety of all. Short Erepositions (mostly of one syllable) may be put between the noun and its modifier : magna cum laude, with high praise. quam ob rem, wherefore. 6. Conjunctions 671 Conjunctions precede the expressions to which they belong. But -que, and, quoque, also, quidem, indeed, demum, at length, follow: ^ quoque , you too! autem, enim, igitur, take the second place in the sen- tence, or, when est or sunt are added, they often take the third place : civitati autem imperium provinciae pollicetur, to the assembly, h oiv ever, he promises dominion over the province. nihil est igitur, ther efo r e nothing is. ORDER OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 672 A subordinate clause is used like a Noun, an Adjective, or an Adverb. See 498-501. Ac- cordingly it is placed in the order which cor- responds to its construction : quod redilt | mlrabile videtur, that he returned seems marvelous. Substantive Clause (549) ; Subject of videtur. 226 LATIN GRAMMAR Caesar | quid sul consilil sit | ostendit, Caesar shows what his plan is. Substantive Clause ; Object of ostendit. fundusjqui est in agro Sabino|meus est,thefarm, which is in the Sabine region, is mine. Attributive Clause ; modifies fundus. si peccavi | ignosce, if I have done wrong , forgive me. Adverbial Clause ; modifies ignosce. II. EHETOEICAL ORDER 673 The plain or grammatical order is very often changed, especially to make some part of the sentence emphatic. This changed order is called the Rhetorical order. Examples of Changed Order 674 Subject emphatic : erat in Gallia ulteriore u n a 1 e g i 6 , there was in farther Gaul JUST ONE LEGION. Object emphatic : te ut ulla res frangat, anything break YOU down! Predicate first : fuit Ilium, Troy is NO MORE. jacta est alea, the die is CAS T. varia sunt hominum judicia, VARIOUS are the judg- ments of men. Appositive first : duae urbes potentissimae, Carthago atque Nu- mantia, TWO MOST MIGHTY CITIES, Carthage and Numantia. Genitive first : quanto latius o f f i c i 6 r u m patet quam juris regula, how much more widely extends the rule OF DUTY than (the rule] OF LAW. ORDER OF WORDS 227 Demonstrative last : Plato ille, the great Plato. Adjective emphatic : aliud iter habebant nullum, other way they had NONE. Adverbial phrase emphatic : intra moenia sunt hostes, WITHIN THE WALLS are our foes ! Three emphatic words : Object, Adverb, Genitive : Tram bene Ennius initium dixit Insaniae, it was ANGER finnius so WELL named the 'beginning of MAD- NESS, instead of the plain matter-of-fact Ennius Tram initium Insaniae bene dixit, Ennius well named anger the beginning of madness. 675 Notice the following special ways of securing emphasis : Anaphora or Kepetition in the same order : Scipio Carthaginem delevit, Scipio Numan- tiam sustulit, Scipio civitatem servavit, Scipio destroyed Carthage, Scipio razed Numan- tia, Scipio saved the state. Chiasmus (" criss-cross ") or Transposition : memini praeteritorum, praesentia cerno, / remember the past ; the present I behold. 676 For the sake of Clearness subordinate expressions are very often inserted in the clauses to which they belong : brevissimus (in Britannia m) trajectus, the shortest crossing (into Britain). 677 The order of words in the following fixed expressions is never changed : populus Romanus, civis Romanus, etc. terra manque pontifex maximus doml militiaeque tribunus plebis, tribunus militum, etc. mea sponte Jupiter optimus maximus mihi crede 228 LATIN GRAMMAR PROSODY 678 Poetry differs from Prose in having a regular swing, or Rhythm (from the Greek rhythmos, beat, throb). 679 In Latin this swing or rhythm comes from the regular recurring of long and short syllables, and not from the accent of the separate words as in English. Thus in the English lines Marching along, forty score strong, Gentlemen all, and singing this song, the word-accent settles the rhythm. 680 But in Latin poetry the word-accent is dis- regarded, and the quantity of the syllables, as long or short, settles the rhythm. Thus in the Latin hexameter (" six-foot ") line, parturi unt mon tes, na scetur | ridicu lus mus, the separate word-accents are as follows (38-40) : parturiunt m6ntes, nascltur ridiculus mus, But the line is not to be read by word-accent. It is to be read by the verse-accent of the six feet which compose it. In this line the verse-accent goes with the first long syllable of each foot, as follows : parturi unt mon tes, na scetur | ridicu lus mus. [Notice that final syllables are made long by position be- fore two consonants, even when the latter consonant is in the following word.] PROSODY 229 English verse is thus said to be Accentual and Latin verse Quantitative. 681 The Quantity of Syllables and their combination in Yerse of different Metres are the two parts of Prosody. I. QUANTITY OF SYLLABLES 682 The general rules for the quantity of syllables, including words of one syllable, have been given. See 32-37. Natural Quantity of Final /Syllables I. ENDING IN A VOWEL 683 Final a, e, y, are short ; final i, o, u, are long : porta, amate, misy ; bom, bono, cornu. EXCEPTIONS 684 Final a : Ablative Singular First Declension : porta. Imperative First Conjugation : ama. Indeclinable words as interea, triginta, contra. But ita, quia. 685 Final e : Ablative Singular Fifth Declension : die. Imperative Second Conjugation : mone. But sometimes cave, vale, vide. Adverbs from Adjectives of Second Declension : recte. But bene, male. 686 Final i : nisi, quasi. Final I: mini, tibl, sibl, ibi, ubl. Notice the quantity of i in the compounds ibidem, ibique, ubique, ubmam, ubivis, ubicumque, utmam, slcuti. 687 Final 6 : duo, cito, ego, modo and its compounds (dummodo). Rarely in Yerbs and Third Declension Nouns: amo, virgo. 16 LATIN GRAMMAR II. ENDING IN A CONSONANT 688 Final Syllables ending in any consonant or con- sonants, except s, are short : amat, amant, amabit, amantur, amem. EXCEPTIONS 689 The adverbs illlc, illuc, istic, istuc. Compounds of par : dispar, impar. lit, petilt, and compounds. Final Syllables in s 690 Final as, es, os, are long; final is, us, ys, are short: amas, mones, bonds; cams, bonus, chlamys. EXCEPTIONS 691 Final es : Nominative of Third Declension Nouns with Genitive in -etis, -itis, -idis : seges (segetis), miles (mllitis), obses (obsidis). But abies, aries, paries. Compounds of es, be : abes, ades, potes. The Preposition penes. 692 Final 6s : compos. 693 Final Is : Dative and Ablative Plural : pueris, boms, vobls. Accusative Plural : partis, omnls. Some proper nouns increasing in the Genitive: Quins (Quirltis), Samms (Sammtis). Second Person Singular of Present Indicative Active in Fourth Conjugation : audls. The verbal forms Is, fis, sis, vis, veils, noils, malls, and their compounds, as adsls, quam- vls, possls. The noun vis, force. PROSODY 231 694 Final us : Fourth Declension forms, except Nominative and Vocative Singular : fructus. Nominative of Third Declension Nouns with Genitive in -utis, -udis, -uris: virtus (vir- tutis), palus (paludis), tellus (telluris). 695 Greek nouns (63, 72, 91, 92) usually keep their quantities un- changed in Latin. Thus Aenea, poma, Tempe, Dido, Aeneas, Pallas, Anchises, Paris, Simois, Delos, heros, aer. II. VERSE AND METRE 696 A Verse, or line of poetry, is a series of long and short syllables arranged in a fixed order. 697 The unit of measure is the Foot, or least group of syllables arranged under one verse-accent. A foot usually has two or three syllables, never more than four. 698 The feet most used in Latin poetry are : Dactyl (" forefinger "), long and two short Spondee, two long Trochee, long and short Iambus, short and long 699 A long syllable is treated as equal to two short (- = ~w). Hence the Dactyl (---), for example, is equal in Quantity to the Spon- dee (- -). 700 A Foot has two parts ; the Thesis, or syllable which has the rhythmical beat called the Ictus, and the Arsis, or unaccented part. 232 LATIN GRAMMAR Thesis means " setting down " the foot, as in marching. Arsis means " lifting " or " raising." The Ictus is marked by a stroke, as follows : Dactyl with Ictus on Thesis, *- Spondee with Ictus on Thesis, -* - 701 Metre means measure. The metre of any verse means the number and kind of feet which, taken in their proper order, measure the Verse. Thus Dactylic Hexameter is the metre consist- ing of six Dactyls (or their equivalents) ar- ranged in a certain order : arma vi rumque ca|n6 Troljae qui | primus ab | oris. NOTE : The long and short marks used in scanning indi- cate the long and short syllables. 702 A verse lacking part of the last foot is Catalectic (" leaving off "). A complete verse is Acatalectic (" not leaving off "). The last syllable of every verse may be either long or short (^). 703 The reading of a Verse according to its Metre is called Scanning. Care must be taken to read the words unbroken, while observing the quantities, ictus and caesura. The following points should also be noticed : 704 The Caestira (||) is a slight pause for reading which divides the verse. It always occurs within a Foot and at the end of a word (713, 714). The pause which occurs when the Foot and word end together is called Diaeresis (#) : arma vi|rumque ca|n6 || Trojae qui primus ab 6ns. (Caesura.) Ite do|mum satu|rae venit | Hesperus # Ite calpellae. (Diaeresis.) PEOSODY 233 A Caesura between the thesis and arsis of the foot is called Masculine. A Caesura in the arsis of the foot is Feminine. 705 Elision ("crushing out") is the slurring or obscuring of a final vowel, diphthong, or syllable ending in m before a word beginning with a vowel or h. This is regular in Latin poetry. In scanning it is desirable to give a faint sound to the elided syllable : monstr[um] horrend[um] In|f6rm[e] m|gens, cui | lu- men ad|emptum. In Elision est, is, loses the e : dictum est = dictumst. Elision at the end of a line is called Synapheia (" bind- ing"). 706 In some instances the two successive separate vowels are sounded without Elision. This is called Hiatus. It is usual only before or after an Interjection : 6 et | de Lati|a, 6 | et de | gente Sa|bma. The following are less common : 707 Synizesis (" sitting together ") or Synaeresis (" taking to- gether ") is the blending of two vowels into one long vowel : deinde = delnde aurels = aurels de[h]inc = delnc cui = cui 708 Syncope (" cutting out ") is the dropping of a short vowel between two consonants : saec[u]lum = saeclum repos[i]tum = repostum 709 Diastole (" drawing out ") is the lengthening of a short syl- lable before a caesura : pect6rf|0M* mhi|ans spi|rantia | consulft | exta. 710 Systole (" drawing together ") is the shortening of a long syllable : 6bstipu|I stet|runtque co|m[ae] et vox | faucibus | haesit. 234 LATIN GRAMMAR 711 Tmesis (" cutting ") is cutting a compound word in two : quo nos cunque feret fortuna. Dactylic Hexameter 712 Dactylic Hexameter, also called Heroic Verse, is composed of six dactyls, partly replaced by spondees with the ictus of a dactyl. ( ~ ~ = -.) The sixth or last foot is always a spondee and the fifth foot is generally a dactyl. The first four feet may be spon- dees or dactyls : -^5 I -f-^7^ I -*-C7^ I -^C7^ I -t w w I -i-^ I I I I I fit fiigi|dnt aqui|las || timijdlssima tiirba cd|ltimbae. arma vi|rumque ca n6 || TroLJae qui | primus ab | 6ris. ill[I] In|t^r se|s || magnt vl | br^chia t6llunt. A spondee may occur in the fifth foot. Such a verse is called Spondaic : cum soci|is na| toque Pelnatibiis | et malgnis Dis. 713 The Caesura most commonly occurs in the third foot, and is Masculine (704) : irma vi|rumque ca|n6 || TroLJa^ qui | primus ab | 6rls. Sometimes the Feminine caesura (704) is found : Infan|ddm relglna || jujbs renolv^re do|16rem. 714 The Caesura in the fourth foot is less frequent. When it occurs, there is usually another caesura in the second foot : Inde to|ro || pater | Aene|as || sic | orsiis ab | alto. 715 The Diaeresis (also called the Bucolic Caesura) is sometimes found : Ite do|mum satii|rae venit | Hesperus # ite ca|pellae. PROSODY 235 Dactylic Pentameter 716 The Dactylic Pentameter consists of two parts, each composed of two and a half feet. The spondee may replace the dactyl in the first part, but not in the second. The last syllable of the first part always ends a word : -^C7T3 I -!-^7^ |^||^-^v^|-^v^v^|^ N_X V_^ j -^f N^ I!) I I 717 Dactylic Pentameter is used only in combina- tion with Dactylic Hexameter in the so-called Elegiac Distich, or couplet. Thus d6nec e|rls fe|llx, || mul|t6s nume|r^bis a|mlcos ; tempora | si fue|rtnt || ndbila, | s61us e|ris. The following English elegiac couplet helps one to re- member the two metres : fn the Hexameter rises the fountain's silvery column, fn the Pentameter dye falling in melody back. THE ROMAN CALENDAR 718 The twelve months are Januarius, Februarius, Martius, Aprllis, Maius, Jiinius, Julius, Augustus, September, October, November, December. The old names for Julius and Augustus were Qum- tllis and Sextilis, the Fifth and Sixth months, counting from March, originally the first month of the Roman year. The names of months are Adjectives agreeing with mensis, month, understood. 719 The first day of the month is the Calends (Kalendae), the fifth the Nones (Nonae), and 236 LATIN GRAMMAR the thirteenth the Ides (Idus). But in March, May, July, October, the Nones and Ides came two days later. This may be remembered by the following table : K. 1 N. 5 7] ;MAKCH MAY I. 13 15) JULY OCTOBER 720 The days were counted backward from these three fixed points. Thus January 1st is " on the January Calends" or Kalen- dls Januariis, and December 31st is " on the day before the January Calends" or pridie Kalendas Januarias. De- cember 12th is " on the day before the December Ides" or pridie Idus Decembres. Notice that in dates pridie acts as a preposition and governs the Accusative. But see 348. 721 " Two days before " is ante diem tertium, " three days before " is ante diem quartum ; and so on. This counts one day more than we should expect. But the Eomans counted in the day of the Calends, Nones, or Ides as the first day : ante diem tertium Kalendas Januarias, or a. d. Ill Kal. Jan. = December 30th. ante diem quartum Kalendas Junias, or a. d. IV Kal. Jim. = May 28th. 722 ante diem (tertium, etc.) is indeclinable, and governs the Accusative. It is sometimes used with the prepositions ab, ex, in : ex a. d. Ill Kal., Jan. from December 30th. THE ROMAN CALENDAR 237 723 The Julian Calendar ^5 ? &a P| March, May, July, October. 31 days. January, August, December. 31 days. April, June, September, November. 30 days. February. 28 (29) days. i KALENDIS. KALENDIS. KALENDIS. KALENDIS. 2 VI. Nonas. IV. Nonas. IV. Nonas. IV. Nonas. 3 V. III. III. III. 4 IV. Pridie Nonas. Pridie Nonas. Pridie Nonas. 5 III. NONIS. NONIS. NONIS. 6 Pridie Nonas. viii. Idas. viii. Idas. viii. Idas. 7 NONIS. VII. VII. VII. 8 viii. Idas. VI. VI. VI. 9 VII. V. V. V. 10 VI. IV. IV. IV. 11 V. III. III. III. 12 IV. Pridie Idas. Pridie Idas. Pridie Idus. 13 III. IDIBUS. IDIBUS. IDIBUS. 14 Pridie Idas. XIX. Kalendas. XVIILKalendas XVI. Kalendas. 15 TDIBUS. XVIII. " XVII. XV. 16 XVII. Kalendas. XVII. XVI. XIV. 17 XVI. XVI. XV. XIII. 18 XV. XV. XIV. XII. " 19 XIV. XIV. XIII. XI. 20 XIII. XIII. XII. X. 21 XII. XII. XI. IX. 22 XI. XI. X. VIII. 23 X. X. IX. VII. 24 IX. IX. VIII. VI. 25 VIII. VIII. VII. V. (VI.) " 26 VII. VII. VI. IV. (V.) 27 VI. VI. V. III. (IV.) " 28 V. V. IV. Prid.Kal.(III.Kal.) 29 IV. IV. III. (Prld. Kal.) 30 III. III. Pridie Kalendas. (Bracketed forms 31 Pridie Kalendas. Pridie Kalendas. for leap-year.) 238 LATIN GRAMMAR 724 The old Eepublican Calendar, replaced in 45 B.C. by the Julian Calendar, was based on a year of only 355 days 10 days less than the actual year. To make up this loss a short month, the mensis intercalaris, had been inserted every other year. The number of days in each of the regular twelve months was as follows : March, May, July, October, each 31 days ; February, 28 days ; the other months, each 29 days. Dates in Caesar, Cicero, and other writers before the time of the Julian Calendar, are to be read by the Repub- lican Calendar. 725 The Roman day was the time from sunrise to sunset, the night from sunset to sunrise. An hour was the twelfth part of this day, which varied in length with the seasons. " Are there not twelve hours in the day ? " was true of every Roman day, whether long or short. With sunrise at six o'clock, the approximate time of the Roman hours is as follows : hora prima, the first hour = 6 to 7 A. M. hora secunda, the second hour = 7 to 8 A. M., and so on. hora undecima, the eleventh hour = 4 to 5 p. M. Sometimes the divisions of the night were reckoned by hours. In such cases some word for night is usually ex- pressed : post primam horam noctis, after the first hour of the night = after 7 P. M. decem horis nocturms, in ten hours of the night. 726 The night was divided into four watches of three hours each. With sunset at six o'clock, the approximate time of the Roman watches is : vigilia prima, 6 to 9 p. M. vigilia secunda, 9 to midnight, vigilia tertia, midnight to 3 A. M. vigilia quarta, 3 to 6 A. M. ABBREVIATIONS 239 ROMAN NAMES 727 A Roman usually had three names : 1. praenomen, personal or " given " name, as Gaius. 2. nomen, name of gens or clan, as Julius. 3. cognomen, name of familia or family, as Caesar. The nomen nearly always ends in -ius. Every prae- nomen may be abbreviated. 728 COMMON ABBREVIATIONS 1. Personal Names A. = Aulus. Mam. = Mamercus. App. = Appius. N. = Numerius. C. = Gaius. P. = Publius. Cn. = Gnaeus. Q. or Qu. = Quintus. D. = Decimus. S. or Sex. = Sextus. K. = Kaeso. Ser. = Servius. L. = Lucius. Sp. = Spurius. M. = Marcus. T. = Titus. M'. = Manius. Ti. or Tib. = Tiberius. 2. Official and Miscellaneous A. U. C. = anno urbis conditae. P. R. = populus Romanus. = ab urbe condita. Pont. Max. = pontifex maximus. Aed. = aedilis. Pr. = praetor. Cos. = consul. Praef. = praefectus. Coss. = consules. Proc. = proconsul. D. = divus. Q. B. F. F. Q. S. = quod bonum Des. = designatus. fellx faustumque sit. D. M. = dis manibus. Quir. = Quirltes. F. = filius. Resp. = res publica. Id. = Idus. S. = senatus. Imp. = imperator. S. C. = senatus consultum. K., Kal. = Kalendae. S. D. P. = salutem dicit plurimam. Leg. = legatus. S. P. Q. R. = senatus populusque Non = Nonae. Romanus. O. M. = optimus maximus. Tr. PI. tribunus plebis. P. C. = patres conscript!. 240 LATIN GRAMMAR THE ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN I. LATIN WORDS USED AS ENGLISH 729 The multitude of English words derived from Latin includes some which have been taken over without change of form, though often with change of meaning. Such, for example, are circus, omnibus ', item, tandem, extra. They have be- come English words with English sounds. Such also are all personal, geographical, and official Latin names which occur in our language in their original form, as Julius Caesar, Cicero, Juno, Minerva Sarmatia, Scythia, Verona j dic- tator, consul, censor, praetor. These are freely used, especially in poetry. Thus Mil- ton writes : " From Gallia, Gades, and the British west." " Canst thou not remember Quintius, Fdbricius, Curius, Regulus 9 " 730 Latin words, short phrases, learned terms, and maxims in familiar use are almost naturalized as part of our language, and are therefore properly pronounced as English. Exam- ples are seriatim, excelsior, in memoriam, Vice versa, ex officio, bona fide, habeas corpus, e pluribus unum, nil desperandum. II. THE ENGLISH METHOD 731 According to the English method, now no longer in general use, all Latin words are sounded as English. Thus pater is sounded pdy-ter, mihi is my-high, otium is oh-she-um, grave is gravy. It is difficult to state this method in simple form, because of the inconsistencies which are to be found even in the best English usage. The following rules, how- ever, embody the essentials : THE ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN 241 I. VOWELS 732 An accented syllable ending in a vowel always preserves the long English sound of the vowel. The vowels in the accented syllables are sounded as fol- lows : ma-re de-us vi-ta to-tus mu-sa Ty-rus Md-ry de-ist w-tal to-tal mu-sic ty-Ysmt 733 An unaccented syllable ending in a vowel has a less distinct and shorter sound : a-re-a ma-re du-bi-us s6-lo ti-su are# Mary dubious so/0 you sue But final i, except in tibi, sibi, keeps the long sound. Thus t6ti = tow tie. 734 A syllable ending in a consonant preserves the short English sound of the vowel. The short vowels in such syllables are sounded as follows : hanc tes-tis fin-do hoc tus-sis cygnus hank tes-ty win-dow hock tus-sle s^-nal 735 The following exceptions occur : a, before one r, as in art : parte = party. qua, before dr, rt, as in quadrant, quarter. Final es as in ease : rupes = rupees. Final os as in dose : tardos = tar dose. er, ir, yr, ending a word or syllable, as in her, fir, myrrh. Thus fer, fer-vens, vir, vir-tus, myr-tus. 736 II. DIPHTHONGS ae and oe = ee : taeter = teeter, foedus =feed us. au = aw : laus = laws. eu = ew: heu = hew. ei = * : hei = high. ui = ui : quin as in quince. But cui and huic may be sounded Tci and liilce. 24:2 LATIN GRAMMAR 737 When the combinations ai, ei, oi, yi, are accented and also followed by a vowel, the i is joined in sound to the follow- ing vowel : Mai-a = Mdy-ya Pompei-us = Pompe-yus Troi-a = Tro-ya Harpyi-a = Ilarpy-ya 738 u before a vowel is often sounded as w. This is always the case after q, and sometimes after g" or s : suadeo = swdy-deo qui = Jcwy queror = kwee-ror quod = kwod III. CONSONANTS 739 Notice especially the following : c before e, i, y, is like s : Cicero = Sisero. ch is always like k : charta = kdr-tah. ci, when unaccented and before a vowel = sh(e) : socius = so-slie-us. g before e, i, y, is like j : eget = ee-jet, egit = ee-jit. s is usually sharp, as in this : dandos ddndose. si, when unaccented and before a vowel = sh, or some- times zh. Thus : confessio, as in confession (sJi). confusio, as in confusion (zh). ti, when unaccented and before a vowel = sh : ratio = ratio. x beginning a word = z : Xer-xes Zur-xees. FIGURES OF SPEECH 243 FIGURES OF SPEECH 740 Figures are variations from the plain form of statement. Ellipsis (leaving out) is the omission of one or more words : ne quid nimis, (do) nothing in excess. Pleonasm (excess) is the use of more words than are needed : diem dicunt, quo d i e conveniant, they set a day on which (day) to assemble. Zeugma (yoking) is the joining of two or more words in dependence on a word which strictly governs only one of them. pacem an bellum g e r e n s, (making) peace or waging war. Hendiadys (one ~by two) is the statement of one idea by means of two words joined by a conjunction : vi e t a r m I s , by force of arms. Prolepsis (taking before) is the introduction of a noun or participle before the construction which explains it : rem vides, quo mo do se habeat, you see how the matter stands. Hypallage (interchange) is exchange of construction in words without changing the sense : fulva leonis Ira, the lion's tawny rage = the taivny lion's rage. Hysteron Proteron (last first) is reversal of the natural order of two expressions : moriamur et in media arma ruamus, let us rush into the midst of battle and die. 24:4 LATIN GRAMMAR Hyperbaton (stepping over) is transposition : per te deos or 6, by the gods, I pray you. " With a violent hyperbaton to transpose the text." MILTON. Oxymoron (sharp nonsense} is seeming contradiction : absentes adsunt, (though) absent^ they are here. Synecdoche (give and take) is the use of part for whole, whole for part, material for thing made, and so on : Thus : tectum for domus miles for milites elephantus for ebur ferrum for gladius Hyperbole (overshooting) is exaggeration : nive candidior, whiter than snoiv. Litotes (Lessening) is understatement. It is common with negatives : haud malus, not bad = good. A Simile (likeness) is a direct statement that one thing is like another : . 6s deo si mil is, (he was) like a god in countenance. A Metaphor (transfer) is a compressed Simile : Fabius scutum Romanorum fuit, Marcellus gla- dius, Fabius was the shield of Rome, Marcellus her sword. Metonomy (change of name) is the use of a word to rep- resent another of like meaning : Mars = bellum, argentum = pecunia, Volcanus = ignis. For Anaphora and Chiasmus see 675. For Figures of Prosody see 705-711. 741 INDEX OF LATIN WOEDS The numbers refer to sections a, ab, abs, 34, 243, 244, 319, 337, 378, 379, 639.4. ab-, 377. abdo, 211.1. abiciO, 213.3. absque, 243. absterged, 205. ac, 248. ac si, 567. accedit, 233.3. accendo, 211.3. accidit, 233.3. accipio, 213.2. Seer, 114, 122. acquii'5, 2O9. acriter, 235.2, 238.2. act urn est, 233.3. acuo, 193, 213.1. acus, 94, 96. ad, 34, 242, 311, 335.1, 332, 639.3. adeo, 528. -ades, 264.4. adipiscor, 215. advenio, 219.2. adversum, 243. adversus, 242. aedes, 84.1, 1O4. aegre, 537. Aeneas, 36.1, 63. aequor, 79, 88.1. aer, 36.1. aes, 88.2. aetas, 77. -aeus, 267.7. aft'ero, 226. ager, 66. agiiosco, 214.1. ago, 195, 211.2. 17 ajo, 232. alacer, 128. alacrior, 128. alicubi, 240.3. alii, 438. aliqua, 150. aliquf, 149. aliquid, 316. aliquis, 149, 431. -alls, 267.2. alius, 113, 151, 425.2, 436, 437. alms, 113. allicio, 183.2. alo, 310. Alpes, 1O2.2. alte, 238.1. alter, 112, 151, 425.2, 436, 437. alterius, 112. altus, 120. alvus, 68. amandus, -a, -uiii, 167.3. a in and us sum, 188. amans, 116, 121, 167.3. amanter, 235.2. a ma riii i, 189. amarunt, 189. amaturus, -a, -uiu, 167.3, 191. amaturus sum, 188. amatus, -a, -urn, 167.3, 191. amassem, 189. a i lias IT, 189. ambi-, 246. amblre, 246. a m bo, 439. am5, 171, 174, 175, 193, 199. amphorum, 62. amplector, 215. amplius, 382. an, 34, 24O.5, 595. Anchlses, 63. Androgeos, 72. ango, 212. angustiae, 102.3. animal, 83. anne, 24O.5. anndn, 24O.5. ante, 242, 311, 333. antequam, 256, 534. a uti quit us, 237.3. anus, 94. -anus, 267.2, 267.5, 267.7. apage, 262. aperio, 217. apud, 242. arbor, 81, 88.1. arceo, 2O4.1. arcesso, 209. arcus, 96. ardeo, 2O5. Argis, 69. arguo, 213.1. aries, 89.1. -aris, 267.2. -arium, 264.2. -arius, 267.2. anna, 102.3. ars, 84.2. artiis (pi.), 96. arx, 84.2. as, 89.1. -as, 267.7. ascendo, 211.3. asper, 111. aspicio, 213.2. 345 246 LATIN GRAMMAR assentior, 22O. careS, 204.1. assuefacio, 213.2. card, 86, 88.1. at, 34, 250. carpS, 2O8.1. Athenae, 1O2.2. castra, 1O4. Atbenls, 61. causa, 349, 639.1. Atlas, 92. cave, 496.3, 5O4.2. atque, 248. caveS, 206.2. atqul, 25O. -ce, 34. au-, 246. cedo, 208.2. audeS. 187, 2O7, 626. celer, 114. audio, 171, 180, 181, censeS, 2O4.2. 193, 216. centum, 131, 132. audisse, 189. cernS, 2O9. a lulls 1 1, 189. certe, 236.2, 282.1, 569. aufero, 226. certS, 236.2. aufugere, 246. ceteri, 436, 438. augeS, 2O5. ceterum, 250. aulai, 62. cieo, 203. aut, 249. cingS, 208.1. aut . . . aut, 249. circa, 242. autem, 25O. circiter, 242. auxilia, 1O4. circum, 242, 311. -ax, 269.4. circuinsistS, 211.1. axis, 89.2. cis, 34, 242. citerior, 126.1. belli, 403. citimus, 126.1. bellum, 65. citra, 242. bene, 239. clades, 84.1. benevolus, 124. clam, 237.1, 270. -bilis, 269.3. clamor, 81. bim, 130, 132. clandestinus, 270. bis, 34, 132. claudS, 2O8.2. bonus, 108, 125. claudS, 212. bos, 85. clavis, 82. -bulum, 266.4. cliens, 84.3. -bundus, 269.1. clipeus, -um, 105.1. coem5, 211.2. cad5, 211.1. coepT, 230. caedes, 84.1. coerced, 2O4.1. caed5, 211.1. cogito, 626. caelicolum, 62. cogn5sco, 214.1. caelum, -T, 1O5.3. cogo, 33.1, 211.2, 629. calcar, 83. coliors, 84.3. calefaci5, 213.2. colligo, 211.2. calix, 89.4. collis, 89.2. calx, 84.2. colo, 210. canis, 82. color, 81. cano, 211.1. colus, 68, 94. capiS, 182, 183, 184, commimscor, 215. 213.2. comperio, 219.1. carbasus, 68. compleo, 2O3. cardo, 89.6. con, 311, 332. concutio, 213.2. confers, 226. conflteor, 207. conor, 626. consero, 210. consists, 211.1. conspiciS, 213.2. coiistituo, 213.1. consuesco, 214.1. consul, 79. consulo, 21O. contra, 242. cSpiae, 1O4. coquo, 2O8.1. cor, 34, 88.1. cSram, 243. cornu, 93. corpus, 81. eras, 27O. crastiims, 270. credS, 211.1. crescS, 214.1. -crum, 266.4. crus, 89.3. cubile, 83. cucurri, 195. -culum, 266.4. -culus (-a, -um), 264.1. cum (conj.), 24O.3, 256, 257, 258, 535-540, 542, 571, 581.2. cum (prep.), 343, 244, 390, 391, 392. cum prim u in, 53O. -cumque, 582. cum . . . turn, 248. cunctor, 626. -cundus, 269.1. cupio, 182.1, 213.B, 626, 629. curritur, 233.3. curro, 195, 211.1. da, dans, das, 201. dat, 34. de, 243, 319, 337, 639.4. dea, 62. debeo, 2O4.1, 626. decernS, 2O9, 626. decet, 233.2. dedecet, 233.2. d^decus, 274.2. INDEX OF LATIN WORDS 247 defendo, 211.3. dum, 34, 256, 359, 447.1, euge, 362. deficio, 197.3. 533, 563. euoe, 363. deleo, 193, 2O3. dummodo, 259, 563. -eus, 367.1. delesti, 189. dum ne, 565. exerceo, 204.1. deligd, 311.3. duo, 130, 131. experior, 22O. Delos, 73. dux, 78. exterl, 126.2. demens, 375.3. duxi, 194. exterior, 126.2. demo, 211.3. extimus, 126.2. dens, 84.3, 89.5. e, ex, 243, 244, 337, 378, extra, 242. desero, 31O. 639.4. extremus, 126.2, 416. desino, 209, 626. ecce, 262. deterior, 136.1. ecquis, 149. fac, 34, 190, 496.3, 5O4.2. deterrimus, 136.1. edi, 195. facere n5n possum, 579. deus, 71. edo, 195, 211.2, 221, 223. facio, 182.1, 197.3, 213.2. dexter, 111. effero, 226. facile, 238.3. di-, 346. effugio, 213.2. facilis, 123. die, 19O. egenus, 124. fallo, 211.1. died, 3O8.1. ege5, 3O4.1. falsissimus, 137. Dido, 93. egi, 195. falsus, 127. dies, 97, 98. ego, 137, 153, 61C. fames, 1O6.4. differo, 336. eheu, 363. families, 62. difficilis, 133. eho, 363. fas, 10O, 655. dignus, 396, 588.3. -eis, 364.4. fascis, 89.2. diligo, 311.3. ejus modi, 538, 588. fateor, 2O7. dimico, 30O. -ellus (-a, -um), 364.1. faveo, 206.2. dirimo, 311.3. emineo, 2O4.1. fel, 34. diripio, 313.3. emo, 197.1, 211.2. feliciter, 235.2, 238.1. diruo, 313.1. en, 262. felix, 116, 120. dis-, 346, 377. enim, 252. fer, 34, 19O. disc5, 314.1, 636. ensis, 89.2. fero, 221, 224, 225, 236. dissimilis, 133. -ensis, 267.2, 267.7. ferveo, 306.3. distinere, 346. eo, 221, 229. fides, 97. diu, 339, 447.3. eo (abl.), 518. fidissimus, 137. diutissime, 339. epitome, 63. fldo, 187. '< >. i I'J. IAI Uf, nT, ft. i. II, II. 100, :ilO. 5JM. 001. 00 '4. nhitflt, -:i:i. I. niHi, -jnu, AAO, nrvo. ill,-,,. iOI.I. >..)..,. -jin. i.U. Ml I ....i.... no. .011 ....i.i. IIMI.I. I. .11. .I... r.oi.i. llAIO. UU7, A04.4. 00, IIOtltKII, NO. iifln, 117. 440.0, UM'I.U, i-i i-.i. noN, UNO. onu, ooi, 001. ii. >n. In in. ,'IA, A.'IT. llAil till. ?JM5J.I. nonius U40.A, HO.?J. AUU. ..... i iillill. .110. ...... . . . ....i, OO'V iii.n ..I 111. i . . . . ,1 . I him UAO. urtM'i*, !JI I.I. miNii'i-. i:u, iri:i. oio. lionlT, I Nil. ..... < .. I -o. <.i ii. .MI mm. LIT) r.'O. IIOVlNNllllllH, 1517. OOVIIM, l7. llllllfN. Nl. ....II.,, I M'j. 151, 484, 1:10, ft7M. nil in, U40.A, WHO.'J. AIM. ii ..... .|iiiuii. U40.M, 001. I05J. !. -HUN. 07.. o! MOM. ..' i. 4)j, an, -. -Jlft. ..i. .. i,,. ;!:. I. ..)> MI, ..n, U04.U. ...... i... :! 1.1. ...... i... '.'i 1.1. ....... . i i IUII.I. (-a, -nun, :<; i i 44. opoi-lo, I7. ..(.. M. 101. .-P.. ,i,-i. 189,1, r,oi.:i. ..,.,, i.. . . -.vio. ,.is. 10:1.1. 101. ..|>l IIIIIIN, I!4A. opiiH, OAA. ... -oo.i. orAMo oi,ii,|iui. r.ON. orlU. NO. ". nl lor. HO. onl. NU.O. ....... . ON lONNU), :t I, NO. NN. I ...... i .<. :i l, NN.I. .HUH. ::o7.:i. i. ,. . ->. : ift. ,.. .,,(. . :tOH. IMMI.IO, Mil. 8. |, ill. IN. S". HU.U, I.IIM-O. M I.I. I.MI.-O. 01 |. . NO. I. . INM.I, i:t.y. I'm IN, 0)1. pill'O, OMO. piii-N. N4.. I ..... MM. |.lll II, '|.H. | 17. pllllllN. 00. P.M. ..... ... pnrvo, :iim. . I'Jft. l I.I. I.M). in. io. pill ..... Ml I. I. put I. .r. IH'J.:i. 9 I A, i .., P. . I I 7. , IUA. , Ntilf). , OH. p, II,.. 'I I.I. I ..... I. o. '.MIO.I. p, II..H. 44)1. P. - i. -:\ -'. :l I. :IJJ4. proHA, ui 1.1. P. -IK... 8M P. . p.-l lor, '.' I r.. P. |4, HO.I. P, ss.o,,. -::to. p.'NsliituN, IUA. P. i.. -. , ., . . -MJI.M, :IOM. pIlNNlOIIIN. 1517. pit-UN. ON. plNI'lN. NO/.'. plMN, I. i. , i. -. i:\.li. l\ll A OF liATIN \\OKhS pi. 1. .. pi. 1.. .. 1 01. 1 pro! . i .. |(M i > .iHO |>l. 1 II Ml. ,11. . | O. pi on, i . ..i . Ml A. ANO i . .^ ja. pin. imo. :iOA. pi onus. I-H. iiii.i. :.... ..i i. ..i.. MH. phu liiiuii. prop,\ '.MO, M4M. uou qiilu. A47. 1 1 i i i i 1 i i i i 1 * P . ' 1, :toa. proplo. 1 '< 1 quTiMinxi". . i i '. AHM. pi.. . M.. IMA, 980, P.opi, ,. MM. quid, a-l, Ma7. 1. a 10. p. opi. 1.0. II p.-. ... .. ''I prANltriiA, MOO. .p. ..I. ... ' IO.O. P..II,, -our, MO7. prAMuiu, MMI. ,,.H, s,o. -1 I.I. poii no, MI:I. i. pi ..MI. MOO. .,,,,1.1.. i 1 10. poiif. - 1 -. prAvhliiM, 1)14. ........ 7AI. A7a A')>. poiio, '" ' pioxitnfl. Mao. noii quTu, A47. U.M, HO.A. p, OV ,,,.,. 1 'I. 1 qulH. :il. 1 IH. 140, IAO, pop,.s, i. HA. pi, . :i I. i .1. 1:11. A7H. poi . Ii. P...). i . -:i . . .<.s quK I i . port -lii. in. poi 1 1. ii 'M pfltfu&tur, uaa.a. .,.,...,.. MM 1 Ml. 1 II poi tttt, oo. p. lit IN. HO.M. qilUquo, 1 10. 1 M. i::i. pos.o. l'> .. 'I l.|. qulNqulN, 110, IAO, AHM. i -i <;.M|. inn. IAO. quTvTN. 1 10. qua, Ma 7.1. quo. MA4, AOO, AO7, AaO. posl,-, 1. | 'I, -i M row, :04.9. AHI.M. posl.-llo,. 1 -,. - )ii.i % rot UOtl ( ott^li uou quo, i . posl,,,, am. ' ... o quaiU. 1AM. IAJ. AHI.I. uou quO uou, A47. !"- nuts. IMO.M. 417. i" M... v; . i. -10. I. MOO, quoit.i. -.'Ao. Aaa. POSH,, |l\ OH. :HI, 414, 41 A. AMA, quod (irl i, :i 1. :iO4.M. posiiiuiiiN. IMO.M. nni.M. qiiiMliiMiiiJ K'JAl.AU.AIA. Itl, .,.>. M NT, A07. AIO. !> poiio,. i-o.i. ant. .|i.,iiiulin. MAO, A88 uAu quod, A47 ,...i . . .. in M M, iM,<, Mum, MAH, A7O, uou quod uou, A47. p..| ,,,,,,,,,.., 1 Ml. |. A 70 N. ,,.,OM,. MAO, MA7. poll, is .iii.iiiivlM. M40.4, UAH, quAiuhiUN. MAI, AOO. AO7, |.rm. " 1 ATM. Al 1. pnioliiMi, -MM 1. .,,, ..,.1 ,.,. IAO. qiioiiluin, MA7i A44, A4A, pi M ' >'. M:.a. luuiulA, M4O.a, MAO, MA7, . n. pnii f, .0. . i o:i.:t. .,,, ...i , .,.101 MM.I I M, IAO. P., i,. ..,i... -i i.:i. . AHM. ,,o,.n, ,.-.. | 10. 1, AHI.M. pridir, OH. ......1 MM.I MM. IAO. pi - ; ;. i . MH. qililHl. -U>. A07. 1-ftdTcli ,,i IIMII.M. - ;>. i IH. ; how distinguished, 56 ; table of, 57 ; first, 59- 63; second, 64-73 ; third, 73-93; fourth, 93-96 ; fifth, 97, 98 ; nouns variable in (heteroclites), 1O6 ; of adjectives, 1O7- 118; of numerals, 131, 133, 134; of pronouns, 137-148 ; of participles, 116, 167.3. Defective, adjectives, 136-138 ; nouns, 101-103 ; verbs, 33O-232. Definition, genitive of exact, 348. Degree, adverbs of, 24O.4 ; ablative of, 393. Degrees in comparison. 119 ; of adjectives, 119-129 ; of adverbs, 338, 239. Demonstrative Pronouns, 141-14,5, 153, 154 ; 3O4.3 ; uses of, 426, 427 ; order of, 668. Denial, adverbs of, 24O.6. Dentals, 18, 21; stems ending in, 77. Dependent : see Subordinate. Deponent Verb, 185, 186, 2O2, 207, 215, 22O, 647. Derivatives, 263.1; nouns: from nouns, 264 ; from adjectives, 365 ; from verbs, INDEX OF SUBJECTS 257 366; adjectives: from nouns, 267; from adjectives, 368 ; from verbs, 369 ; from adverbs, 37O; verbs: from nouns, 371 ; from adjectives, 314.3, 373 ; from verbs, 214.3, 373; adverbs: from adjectives, 335, 34O.1. Desideratives, 273.3. Diaeresis, 704 ; also called Bucolic Caesura, 715. Diastole, 709. Diminutives, 364.1, 368. Diphthongs, 16 ; sounds of, 28 ; quantity of, 33.1. Direct Discourse, 597. Direct Object, 158, 3O8, 665. Direct Questions: word-questions, 380.1; sentence-questions, 38O.3 ; direct double questions, 381 ; answers to questions, 383 ; rhetorical questions, 383,493, 603; in indirect discourse, 599, 6O1. Direct Quotations, inquam in, 231. Distributives, 13O, 133, 134. Double Accusative, 317, 318. Double Questions, direct, 381 ; indirect, 594. Elegiac Distich, 717. Elision, 7O5. Ellipsis, 74O. Endings, of nouns : denned, 54 ; blended with stem, 54 ; table of, 99 ; of compari- son : in adjectives, 12O-138 ; in adverbs, 338, 339 ; of verbs : tables, 168, 169 ; subject implied in, 389. Epicenes, 53. Epistolary, imperfect, 449.3 ; perfect, 456 ; pluperfect, 458. Ethical Dative, 336. Etymology : see Words. Exact Definition, genitive of, 348. Exclamations, 363, 379.4 ; nominative in, 3O7 ; accusative in, 333 ; infinitive in, 630.3. Feet, 697, 698. Figures, of prosody, 705-711 ; of speech, 675, 740. Finite Verb, 157, 378, 289 ; uses of, 44O 63O. See Verbs. Frequentatives. 373.3. Future Perfect Tense, 156, 16O, 161, 167, 473. Future Tense, 156, 16O, 161, 167, 473 ; of infinitive, time expressed by, 635 ; verbs lacking, 636. Gender, kinds of, 49; rules, for natural, 5O; grammatical, 51 ; common (epicenes), 53 ; of indeclinable nouns, 51.3, 1OO ; nouns variable in (heterogeneous), 105 ; of adjectives, 107. See Agreement. Genitive, 55 ; stem of noun seen in endings of, 57 ; in -51, -as, 62 ; in -um for -arum, 63 ; in -I for -ii, 69, 7O ; uses of, 305, 346-371 : attributive, 347-358 : of exact definition (origin and material), 348 ; with causa and gratia, 349 ; subjective, 35O ; objective, 351, 353, 430 : with verbs, of memory, 364-366 ; of judicial action, 367 ; impersonal, 368, 369 ; of plenty or want, 37O ; of partak- ing and acquiring, 371 ; of possession, 353, 36O ; of quality (number, measure, time, space), 354, 36O ; of the whole (partitive), 355-358, 36O, 43O ; predi- cate, of possession, 36O ; of quality, 360; of the whole, 36O ; of indefinite price or value, 361-363 ; in apposition with a possessive pronoun, 424. Gerund, 157, 185, 193, 637 ; uses of, 639- 641. Gerundive, 157, 185, 188, 193, 339, 638; uses of, 64O, 643-644 : as attributive adjective, 643.1 ; as predicate adjective, 643.3 ; in periphrastic conjugation, 644.1 ; to express purpose, 644.3. Grammatical Order, of words, 664-673 ; of subordinate clauses, 672. Greek Accusative, 321. Greek Nouns, of 1st decl., 63 ; of 2d decl., 73 ; of 3d decl., 91, 93 ; quantity of, 695. Gutturals, 18, 31, 33 ; stems ending in, 78. Hendiadys, 74O. Heteroclites, 106. Heterogeneous Nouns, 1O5. Hexameter, 68O, 713-715. Hiatus, 706. Historical, perfect, 160 ; tenses, 161 ; pres- ent, 447.1, 470 ; infinitive, 631.1. Hortatory: see Jussive Subjunctive. Hypallage, 74O. Hyperbaton, 74O. Hyperbole, 74O. Hysteron Proteron, 740. 258 LATIN GRAMMAR Iambus, 698. Ictus, 70O. Imperative Mood, 159 ; tenses of, 16O, 473-475 ; in commands, 495 ; in prohi- bitions, 496 ; in conclusion of conditional sentence, 554. Imperative Sentence, 279.3 ; in indirect discourse, 599, 603, 6O4. Imperfect Tense, 156, 160, 161, 167; epistolary, 449.3. Impersonal Verbs, 233, 442.4 ; accusative with, 314 ; dative with, 233.2, 331 ; genitive with, 368, 369. Inceptives (inchoatives), 214, 273.1. Indeclinable, nouns, 51.3, 1OO ; adjec- tives, 118. Indefinite, pronouns, 149, ISO ; uses of, 430-435 ; second person with subjunc- tive, 494. Indicative Mood, 159 ; tenses of, 16O, 445- 460; in principal clauses, 477-479; in subordinate clauses, 497, 529, 535, 541, 553, 568, 57O, 572, 585, 6O7. Indirect Discourse, defined, 598 ; moods of, in principal clauses, 599-6O4 : declara- tive, 6OO, 6O3 ; interrogative, 599, 601 ; imperative, 599, 6O3, 6O4 ; in subordi- nate clauses, 605-6O7, 613 ; tenses in, of infinitive, 6O8, 633-636 ; of subjunc- tive, 6O8 ; persons in, 6O9-613 ; condi- tional sentences in, 613-619. Indirect Double Questions, 594. Indirect Object, 336, 665. Indirect Questions, 59O-595 ; unlike rela- tive clauses, 591 ; particles introducing, 590, 593-595. Infinitive, 157, 185, 191 ; uses of, 633- 636 : as neuter noun, 633 ; as subject, 633; as predicate noun or appositive, 634 ; as object, 635 ; without subject ac- cusative. 636 ; with, 638, 639 ; purpose expressed by, 63O.1 ; with adjectives, 630.2 ; in exclamations, 63O.3 ; nomina- tive with: as subject (historical), 631.1; as predicate noun or adjective, 631.2 ; in passive sentences, 631.3 ; tenses of, 6O8 : time depending on leading verb, 632 ; time expressed, by present, 633; by perfect, 634 ; by future, 635, 636. Inflection, defined, 42 ; table of, 46. See Declension, Conjugation, Comparison. Inseparable Prepositions (or Adverbs), 246. Intensive Pronouns, 146 ; uses of, 428. Interjections, 8, 41, 263. Interrogative, particles, 24O.5, 261, 59O, 593-595 ; pronouns, 148, 154 ; order of, 668. Interrogative Clauses (Indirect Questions), 59O-595 ; unlike relative, 591 ; particles introducing, 59O, 593-595 ; indirect double questions, 594. Interrogative Sentence, 379.3, 38O-383 ; in indirect discourse, 599, 6O1. Intransitive Verbs, 158 ; accusative with, 309-313 ; dative with, 33O. Inverse Attraction, 303.3. Irregular, nouns, 85, 86, 95 ; comparison, of adjectives, 135 ; of adverbs, 239 ; verbs, 321-229. Jussive Subjunctive, 482, 492. Labials, 18, 21 ; stems ending in, 76. Leading : see Principal. Limit of Motion, accusative of, 325. Liquids, 23 ; liquid stems, 79. Lists of Verbs, 198-33O. Literary Present, 446.3. Litotes, 740. Locative, case, 55 ; in -ae, -is, 61, 69 ; in -T, 69, 87, 95 ; in -e, -ibus, 87 ; in -e, 98 ; ablative, 40O-407. Manner, adverbs of, 34O.1 ; ablative of, 390, 391. Material, genitive of, 348. Means, ablative of, 386-389. Measure, genitive of, 354. Metaphor, 74O. Metonomy, 74O. Metre, defined, 7O1 ; dactylic hexameter, 713-715 ; dactylic pentameter, 716, 717. Mixed Stems, nouns of, 84. Monosyllables, quantity of, 34. Months, names of, 718. Moods, 156 ; defined, 159, 476 ; signs of, 167; in principal clauses, indicative, 477- 479; subjunctive,48O-494: volitive, 481- 483, 491: jussive, 483,493 ; concessive, 483; optative, 48O, 484, 491; condi- tional (potential), 48O, 485-49O, 491; with negatives, 491, 493; in rhetorical questions, 493 ; imperative, 495, 496 ; in subordinate clauses, 497; of conditional INDEX OF SUBJECTS 259 sentence, 553, 554 ; in principal clauses of indirect discourse, 599-6O4 ; in subor- dinate, 605-607. Motion, accusative of limit of, 335 ; dative of direction of, 339. Mutes, 18, 19; table of, 31; mute stems, 76-78. Names, Roman, 737 ; abbreviations of, 738. Nasals, 33 ; nasal stems, 8O. Negative, subjunctive sentences, 491, 493 ; and opposing conditions, 559-563 ; clauses with quiii, 573-579 : in prin- cipal clauses, stating commands and ques- tions, 574.1; after clause of negative meaning, 574.11-579 ; adverbs, 659- 663. No and Yes, in answers, 383. Nominative, 55, 389, 3O5 ; in exclamations, 307; with infinitive, as subject (histori- cal), 631.1; as predicate noun or adjec- tive, 631.3 ; in passive sentences, 631.3. Nouns, defined, 6, 41, 47-1O6 : kinds of, 47, 48 ; genders of, 49-53 ; numbers of, 53 ; cases of, 54, 55 ; declensions of, 56- 106 : first, 59-63 ; second, 64-73 ; third. 73-93 ; fourth, 93-96 ; fifth, 97, 98 ; table of endings, 99 ; indeclinable, 51.3, 10O ; defective, 1O1-1O3 ; variable, 1O4 106 ; verbal, 157; derivative, 364-366 ; compound, 374 ; appositive, 391, 393, 397.3 ; predicate, 39O, 397.3, 634, 631.3 ; collective, 304.3 ; adjectives as, 4O9-411; infinitive as neuter, 633; subordinate clauses as (substantive), 498, 499 ; order of, 666. Number, 53, 156. 163, 168 ; adverbs of, 340. 7; genitive of, 354. See Agreement. Numeral Adjectives, 13O ; table of, 133 ; declension of, 131, 133, 134 ; symbols of, 135 ; uses of, 413. Numeral Adverbs, 13O, 133. Object, direct, 158, 3O8 ; affected, 3O8 ; effected, 3O8 ; indirect, 336 ; infinitive as, 635 ; order of, 665. Objective Genitive, 351, 353, 364-371, 430 Opposing and Negative Conditions, 559- 563. Optative Subjunctive, 480, 484, 491. Oratio obliqua, 598. Oratio recta, 597. Ordinals, 13O, 133, 134, 413. Origin, genitive of, 348. Oxymoron, 740. Participial Adjectives, 116, 131, 167.3. Participial Stem (System), 166, 171, 173, 196, 197, 3O4.1, 636. Participle, 131, 157, 185, 188; declen- sion of, 116, 167.3 ; agreement of, 393, 395.3, 397.4, 398.3 ; uses of, 645-653 : time of tenses of, 646, 647 ; as verb, 648; as adjective, 649-651; with force of clause, 651. Particles, 9, 334 ; interrogative, 34O.5, 361, 590, 593-595. See Adverbs, Con- junctions, Prepositions, Interjections. Partitive, apposition, 393.3 ; genitive, 355- 358, 36O, 430. Passive Sentence, nominative used with in- finitive in, 631.3. Passive Voice, 158, 443 ; accusative with verbs in, 315, 317, 318; dative with, 331, 339 ; ablative of agent with, 379 ; with reflexive meaning, 443.3. Patronymics, 364.4. Pentameter, 716, 717. Perfect Stem (System), 166, 171, 173, 187, 189, 194, 195, 197. Perfect Tense, 156, 16O, 161, 167, 169, 198; in -vl, 199, 3O3, 3O9, 313, 314, 316; in -ul, 3OO, 304, 31O, 313, 317; in -T, 301, 3O6, 311, 313, 314, 319 ; in -si, 305, 3O8, 313, 318 ; historical, 16O ; epistolary, 456 ; of infinitive, time ex- pressed by, 634. Periphrastic Conjugation, 188 ; gerundive used in, 644.1; in subjunctive clause, 473. Person, 137-139, 141, 156, 163, 168. See Agreement. Person or Thing Concerned, dative of, 334- 34O. Personal Pronouns, 137, 153 ; uses of, 419, 430. Persons, 163 ; in indirect discourse, 6O9- 613. Place, ablative of, 4O1-4O5 ; accusative of, 335 ; adverbs of, 34O.3. Pleonasm, 74O. 260 LATIN GRAMMAR Pluperfect Tense, 156, 160, 161, 167; epis- tolary, 458. Position, syllables long by, 35, 68O. Possession, genitive of, 353, 36O. Possessive Pronouns, 139, 153 ; genitive in apposition with, 434 ; order of, 668. Possessor, dative of, 340. Potential Subjunctive, 485. Predicate, 377, 378, 384, 385 ; noun, 39O, 397.3 ; infinitive, 634 ; adjective, 395 ; dative, 341-345 ; genitive, 359-363 ; nominative with infinitive as, 631.3 ; ge- rundive as, 643.3, 644 ; participle, 651; order of, 664.1. Prepositions, defined, 8, 41, 341; with ace. only, 343 ; with abl. only, 343 ; with ace. or abl., 345 ; inseparable, 346 ; ace. with and without, 311, 330, 334, 335 ; abl. with and without, 319, 374-4O7; com- pounds with, 374.3, 375.3, 376.5 ; order of, 67O. Present Perfect Tense, 16O, 161, 453, 460. Present Stem (System), 166, 171, 173, 183, 187, 197, 3O4.1, 313. Present Tense, 156, 16O, 161, 167; his- torical, 447.1, 47O ; literary, 446.3 ; of infinitive, time expressed by, 633. Price, genitive of indefinite, 361-363 ; ab- lative of, 395. Principal, tenses, 161; parts of verbs, 171; clauses, 387: tenses of subjunctive in, 461; moods in, indicative, 4 7 7-4 79 ; sub- junctive, 480-494; imperative. 495, 496; clauses with quiii, stating commands and questions, 574.1. Prolepsis, 74O. Pronominal Adjectives, 151; uses of, 436- 439. Pronouns, defined, 7, 41; kinds, 136; de- clension of, 137-148: personal, 137; reflexive, 138 ; possessive, 139 ; demon- strative, 141-145 ; intensive, 146 ; rela- tive, 147; interrogative, 148 ; indefinite, 149, ISO ; tables of, 153, 154 ; correla- tives, 153, 154 ; agreement of, 393 ; uses of : personal, 419, 43O ; reflexive, 431- 433 ; possessive, 434 ; reciprocal, sub- stitutes for, 435 ; demonstrative, 436, 437 ; intensive, 438 ; relative, 399-3O4, 439; indefinite, 43O-435 ; order of, 668. Pronunciation of Latin, Roman, 36-39 ; English, 739-739. Prosody, 678-717: rhythm, 678-68O ; quantity of syllables, 683-695 ; verse and metre, 696-717: foot, 697; thesis, arsis, ictus, 700; scanning, 7O3-711; dactylic hexameter, 713-715; dactylic pentame- ter, 716, 717. Protasis, 551. Proviso, conditional clauses of, 563, 565. Purpose, dative of, 343, 344 ; clauses of, 5O6-518 : substantive, 51O-516 ; adver- bial, 517, 518 ; relative clause of , 586.1 ; expressed, by infinitive, 63O.1; by gerun- dive, 644.3 ; by participle, 651; by su- pine in -uiii, 654. Quality, genitive of, 354, 360 ; ablative of, 394. Quantity, of vowels, 33 ; of diphthongs, 33.1; of syllables, 33-37; of monosylla- bles, 34 ; of final syllables, 683-695. Questions, direct, 38O ; direct double, 381, 594 ; indirect, 59O-595 ; indirect double, 594 ; particles introducing, 34O.5, 38O, 381; rhetorical, 383, 493; in indirect discourse, 6O3. Reciprocal Pronouns, substitutes for, 435. Reference, dative of, 335-338, 345. Reflexive Pronouns, 138, 153 ; suns, 140, 433.3; uses of, 431-433. Regular Verbs, 17O, 174-184. Relative, pronouns, 147, 154 ; uses of, 399-3O4, 439 ; in apposition with whole sentence, 3O4.3 ; clauses, 58O-589 : words introducing, 58O-584 ; as adjec- tive, 585 ; conjunctional, 586 : of pur- pose (result), time, cause, condition, com- parison, concession, 586 ; of characteris- tic. 586.3, 587-589 ; order of, 668. Result, clauses of, 519-538 : substantive, 531-536 ; adverbial, 537, 538 ; relative, 586.3.N. Rhetorical Order, 673-676. Rhetorical Questions, 383, 493 ; in indirect discourse, 6O3. Rhythm, 678-68O. Scanning, 7O3-711. Semi-Deponent Verbs, 187, 3O7, 647. Semivowels, 34. INDEX OF SUBJECTS 261 Sentence-Questions, 280.3. Sentences, 5, 377, 378 ; declarative, 379.1; in indirect discourse, 60O, 6O3 ; inter- rogative, 379.3, 38O-383 ; in indirect dis- course, 599, 601 ; imperative, 379.3 ; in indirect discourse, 599, 6O3, 6O4 ; ex- clamatory, 379.4 ; simple, 384, 385 ; compound, 384-387: coordinate, 386; subordinate, 387; nominative used with infinitive in passive, 631.3. Separation, dative with verbs of, 337; abla- tive of, 374-377. Sequence of Tenses, 463 -4 71: defined, 463; general rule for, 463 ; table showing, 463 ; apparent variations in, 466-471. Simile, 74O. Simple Sentence, 384, 385. Sounds, 5; of vowels, 36, 37; of diph- thongs, 38 ; of consonants, 39. Source, ablative of, 378. Space, accusative of, 334 ; genitive of, 354. Specification, accusative of, 331 ; ablative of, 396, 655. Spirants, 33 ; spirant stems, 81. Spondaic, 713. Spondee, 698, 7OO. Standpoint, dative of supposed, 338. Stems, defined, 54 ; of nouns : classified, 57 ; in -a, 59 ; in -o, 64 ; in consonant, 75-81 ; in -i, 83 ; in -u, 93 ; in -e, 97 ; mixed, 84 ; table of, 99 ; of adjectives, In comparison, 13O, 133 ; of verbs, present, perfect, participial, 165, 166, 171; shown in synopsis, 173 ; changes, 193-197. Subject, 377, 378, 384, 385 ; in nomina- tive, 389 ; noun or substitute, 389 ; im- plied in verb-ending, 389 ; agreement of predicate noun with, 390 ; of appositive (apposition), 391, 393 ; accusative of in- finitive, 333 ; infinitive as, 623 ; accusa- tive, infinitive without, 623, 636 ; with, 633, 638, 639 ; nominative with infini- tive as (historical), 631.1 ; order of, 664. Subjective Genitive, 35O. Subjunctive Mood, 159 ; tenses of, 16O. 461-473. 6O8 ; in principal clauses, 48O- 494 : volitive, 481-483, 491 : jussive. 483, 493 ; concessive, 483 ; optative, 484, 491 ; conditional, 485-49O, 491 ; in subordinate clauses, 497-595 ; in in- direct discourse, 605, 613-619 ; by at- traction, 63O. 18 Subordinate (dependent) Clauses, defined, 387 ; tenses in, 463 ; moods in, 497 ; uses of : as nouns (substantive), 498, 499 ; as adjectives (attributive), 500 ; as ad- verbs (adverbial), 5O1 ; forms of, conjunc- tional, 5O3-579 : transition to, 5O4, 5O5 ; purpose, 5O6-518 ; result, 519-538 ; time, 539-54O ; cause, 541-549 ; condi- tion, 55O-565 ; comparison, 566-568 ; concession, 569-573 ; negative with quin, 573-579 ; relative, 58O-589 ; interroga- tive (indirect questions), 59O-595 ; in in- direct discourse, 6O5-63O. Subordinate Conjunctions, 354-361. Substantive Clause, 498, 499 ; of purpose, 51O-516 ; of result, 531-536 ; relative quod-clause, 549 ; interrogative, 590- 595. Suffixes, 363.1. Supine, 157, 185 ; uses of, in -um to ex- press purpose, 654 ; in -u, 655. Syllables, defined, 30 ; division of, 31 ; quantity of, 33-37; 683-695: long by nature, 33, 34 ; long by position, 35 ; short, 36; common, 37; names of, 38; accent on, 39, 4O ; monosyllables, 34. Synapheia, 7O5. Syncope, 708. Synecdoche, 740. Synopsis, of regular verb, 173 ; of uses of moods, 596. Syntax : see Sentences. Systole, 709. Tables : of mutes, 31 ; of inflection, 46 ; of cases, 55 ; of declensions, 57, 99 ; of pro- nouns, 153, 154 ; of tense and mood signs, 167 ; of personal endings, 168, 169 ; of regular verb, 173 ; of perfect forms, 198 ; of tenses of indicative, 46O ; showing sequence of tenses, 463 ; of uses of moods, 596. Temporal : see Time. Tendency, dative of, 343. Tenses, 156, 16O, 161, 443-475 ; for un- completed and completed action, 16O; for past, present, and future time, 161 ; principal, 161; historical, 161; signs of, 167; of indicative, 16O, 445-46O ; table, 46O ; of subjunctive, 16O, 461-473, 6O8 ; of imperative, 16O, 473-475 ; of infini- tive, 6O8, 633-636 : time depending on 262 LATIN GRAMMAR leading verb, 633 ; time expressed, by present, 633 ; by perfect, 634 ; by fu- ture, 635, 636 ; of participles, 645-647. Thesis, 7OO. Time, adverbs of, 24O.3 ; accusative of, 324 ; genitive of, 354 ; ablative of, 4O6, 407; clauses of, introduced by post- quam, ubi, etc., 53O-532 ; dum, donee, quoad, 533 ; aiitequam, postquam, 534 ; cum temporal, 535 ; cum histor- ical, 536 ; cum inverse, 537 ; cum coin- cident, 538 ; cum relative, 539 ; relative clause of, 586.3 ; of tenses, of infinitive, 632-636 ; of participle, 646, 647; parti- ciple denoting, 651. Tmesis, 711. Transition, to conjunctional clause, 504, 505. Transitive Verbs, 158, 3O8 ; accusative with, 308 ; dative with, 327, 328. Trochee, 698. Value, genitive of, 361-363. Variable Nouns, 1O4-1O6 ; in meaning, 1O4 ; in gender (heterogeneous), 1O5 ; in declension (heteroclites), 106. Verbal Adjectives, 157: gerundive, 638, 64O, 642-644 ; participle, 645-652. Verbal Nouns, 157; infinitive, as neuter noun, 622 ; as subject, 623 ; as predicate noun or appositive, 624 ; as object, 625 ; without subject accusative, 626 ; with, 628, 629 ; purpose expressed by, 63O.1; with adjectives, 630.2 ; in exclamations, 630.3 ; nominative with, as subject (his- torical), 631.1; as predicate, 631.2; in passive sentences, 631.2 ; tenses of, 632- 636 ; gerund, 157, 185, 192, 637; uses of, 639-641; supine, 157, 185 ; uses of, 653-655 : in -um to express purpose, 654 ; in -u, 655. Verbs, defined, 6, 41, 155 ; voices, 156, 158; moods, 156, 159; tenses, 156, 16O, 161 ; numbers, 162 ; persons, 163 ; stems, 165, 166, 171; systems, 171, 172; changes in, 166, 171, 172, 193- 197, see also list of verbs, 198-22O ; tense and mood signs, 167; personal end- ings, 168, 169; principal parts, 171; synopsis of, 172 ; verb lists, 198-22O ; conjugation of, 17O-232: sum, 173; first, 174, 175 ; second, 176, 177; third, 178, 179; fourth, 180, 181; in -io, 182-184 ; deponent, 185, 186, 2O2, 2O7, 215, 220, 647; semi-deponent, 187, 207, 647; periphrastic, 188, 644.1; peculiar forms, 189-192 ; irregular, 221-229 ; defective, 23O-232 ; impersonal, 233, accusative with, 314 ; dative with, 233.2, 331 ; genitive with, 368, 369 ; inceptive (inchoative), 273.3 ; compound, 197, 2O1, 211, 213.2, 321, 226, 227, 229, 276; dative with, 332 ; derivative, 214.2, 271- 273 ; necessary in sentence. 155, 278 ; omitted, 278, 191 ; agreement of, 296- 298; with accusative, 308-32O ; with dative, 326-332, 339; with genitive, 359-371 ; with ablative, 375-377, 379, 385. 387; uses of, finite, 44O-620 : voices, 442 ; tenses, 443-475 : of indicative, 445-460 ; of subjunctive, 461-472 ; of imperative, 473-475 ; moods, in prin- cipal clauses: indicative, 477-479; sub- junctive, 480-494: volitive, 481-483, 491 ; optative, 484, 491 ; conditional (potential), 485-49O, 491; in rhetorical questions, 493 ; with indefinite second person, 494 ; imperative, 495, 496 ; verbs in subordinate clauses, 497-620 ; verbal nouns and adjectives, 621-655 : infini- tive, 622-636; gerund, 637, 639-641; gerundive, 638, 64O, 642-644 ; participle, 645-652 ; supine, 653-655. Verse, 696, 7O3. Vocative, 55 ; in -I, 7O ; uses of, 305, 307. Voices, 156, 158, 168, 442. Volitive Subjunctive, 48O-483, 491, 492. Vowels, 16; sounds of, 26, 27; quantity of, 33. Whole, genitive of (partitive), 355-358, 36O, 420. Wish, conditional clauses of, 563, 564. Word-Questions, 280.1. Words (Etymology), 41-276 : formation of, 263-276; agreement of, 288.1; govern- ment of, 288.2 : dependence of, 288.3 ; introduction of, 288.4 ; connection of, 288.5 ; order of, grammatical, 664-672 ; rhetorical, 673-676 ; fixed, 677. Yes and No, in answers, 283. Zeugma, 740. TWENTIETH CENTURY TEXT-BOOKS. The closing years of the nineteenth century witnessed a remarkable awak- ening of interest in American educational problems. There has been elaborate discussion in every part of our land on the co-ordination of studies, the bal- ancing of contending elements in school programmes, the professional training of teachers, the proper age of pupils at different stages of study, the elimina- tion of pedantic and lifeless methods of teaching, the improvement of text- books, uniformity of college-entrance requirements, and other questions of like character. In order to meet the new demands of the country along these higher planes of educational work, the Twentieth Century Text-Books have been prepared. At every step in the planning of the series care has been taken to secure the best educational advice, in order that the books may really meet the in- creasing demand from academies, high schools, and colleges for text-books that shall be pedagogically suitable for teachers and pupils, sound in modern scholarship, and adequate for college preparation. The editors and the respective authors have been chosen with reference to their qualifications for the special work assigned to them. These qualifications are : First, that the author should have a thorough knowledge of his subject in its latest developments, especially in the light of recent educational discussions ; second, that he should be able to determine the relative importance of the subjects to be treated in a text-book ; third, that he should know how to pre- sent properly his topics to the ordinary student. The general editorial supervision of the series is in the hands of Dr. A. F. Nightingale, Superintendent of High Schools, Chicago, with whom is asso- ciated an advisory committee composed of an expert in each department of study. The offer of a complete series of text-books for these higher grades of schools, issued under auspices so favorable, is an event worthy of the twentieth century, and a good omen for the educational welfare of the future. One hundred volumes are comprised in the series. A list of those now ready, and of others in preparation, will be sent upon request. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. LITERATURES OF THE WORLD. Edited by EDMUND GOSSE, Hon. M. A. of Trinity College, Cambridge. A succession of attractive volumes dealing with the history of litera- ture in each country. Each volume will contain about three hundred and fifty I2mo pages, and will treat an entire literature, giving a uni- form impression of its development, history, and character, and of its relation to previous and to contemporary work. Each, J2mo, cloth, $J.50. NOW READY. Chinese Literature. By HERBERT A. GILES, A. M., LL. D. (Aberd.), Professor of Chinese in the University of Cambridge. Sanskrit Literature. By A. A. MACDONELL. M.A., Deputy Boden Professor of Sanskrit at the University of Oxford. Russian Literature. By K. WALISZEWSKI. Bohemian Literature. By FRANCIS, Count LUTZOW, author of " Bohemia : An Historical Sketch." Japanese Literature. By W. G. ASTON, C. M. G., M. A., late Act- ing Secretary at the British Legation, Tokio. Spanish Literature. By J. FITZMAURICE-KELLY, Member of the Spanish Academy. Italian Literature. By RICHARD GARNETT, C. B., LL. D., Keeper of Printed Books in the British Museum. Ancient Greek Literature. By GILBERT MURRAY, M. A., Professor of Greek in the University of Glasgow. French Literature. By EDWARD DOWDEN, D. C. L., LL. D., Pro- fessor of English Literature at the University of Dublin. Modern English Literature. By the EDITOR. IN PREPARATION. AMERICAN LITERATURE. By Prof. W. P. TRENT, of Columbia University. GERMAN LITERATURE. HUNGARIAN LITERATURE. By Dr. ZOLTAN BE5THY, Professor of Hun- garian Literature at the University of Budapest. LATIN LITERATURE. By Dr. ARTHUR WOOLGAR VERKALL, Fellow and Senior Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. MODERN SCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE. By Dr. GEORG BRANDRS, of Copenhagen. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. LITERATURES OF THE WORLD. Edited by EDMUND GOSSE, Hon. M. A. of Trinity College, Cambridge, J2mo. Cloth, $J.50 each. A HISTORY OF BOHEMIAN LITERATURE. BY FRANCIS, COUNT LUTZOW, Author of " Bohemia : An Historical Sketch." " This book deals with an interesting subject in an abk and impartial manner, and it is written in excellent English. ' ' London Morning Post. " Count Lutzow's wide and deep knowledge and experi- ence in matters Bohemian have particularly fitted him for the preparation of this work, and he has succeeded in producing a highly interesting as well as instructive exposition of a subject altogether unknown in western Europe, and hardly more familiar in America." Boston Beacon. " Students of literature will value this work, because it offers some insight into the character, the extent, and the quality of Bohemian literature extant, and the general public will find most interest in the discussion of the life and death of Hus and the principal events of his career, the life and work of Komensky, the sketch of Dobrovsky, and the long account of the enthusiastic work of the four patriots to whom the revival of Bohemian literature in the present century is due Jungmann, Kollar, Safarik, and Palacky." Boston Herald. " Count Lutzow's volume is of special value and in- terest." Philadelphia Public Ledger. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK LITERATURES OF THE WORLD. Edited by EDMUND GOSSE, Hon. M. A. of Trinity College, Cambridge. J2mo. Cloth, $J.50 each. ITALIAN LITERATURE. BY RICHARD GARNETT, C. B., LL. D., Formerly Keeper of Printed Books in the British Museum. " Finished and graceful, at once delicate and strong, and never relapses into prosiness." The Dial. "Dr. Garnett is lucid in arrangement, agreeable and cor- rect, and often powerful and felicitous in style. He has done a real service to both English and Italian literatures." Literature. "The manual is a worthy companion of its predecessors, and will be found useful by each one who desires to refresh or enlarge his acquaintance with the magnificent achievements of Italian genius." Public Ledger, Philadelphia. "A most interesting book, written rrom a full knowledge of the subject, but without pedantry. The style is simple, graceful, and readable ; the erudition is easily discovered by those who seek for it, but it is not ostentatiously displayed. Scholars will appreciate it at its worth ; the general reader will be grateful for the charity of the text, and for the labor that has made his path one of pleasure only." Saturday Evening Gazette. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. LITERATURES OF THE WORLD. Edited by EDMUND GOSSE, Hon. M. A. of Trinity College, Cambridge, J2mo. Cloth, $J.50 each. SPANISH LITERATURE. BY JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, Member of the Spanish Academy. " Mr. Kelly has written a book that must be read and pondered, for within its limits it has no rival as ' A History of Spanish Literature.' " The Mail and Express. ( ( The work before us is one which no student can hence- forth neglect, ... if the student would keep his knowl- edge of Spanish up to date. . . . We close with a re- newed expression of admiration for this excellent manual ; the style is marked and full of piquancy, the phrases dwell in the memory." The Spectator. "A handbook that has long been needed for the use of the general reader, and it admirably supplies the want. Great skill is shown in the selection of the important facts ; the criticisms, though necessarily brief, are authoritative and to the point, and the history is gracefully told in sound literary style." Saturday Evening Gazette. " For the first time a survey of Spanish literature is pre- sented to English readers by a writer of ample knowledge and keen discrimination. Mr. Kelly's work rises far be- yond the level of the text-books. So good a critic does not merely comment on literature; he makes it himself." New York Bookman. . APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. LITERATURES OF THE WORLD. Edited by EDMUND GOSSE, Hon. M. A* of Trinity College, Cambridge. J2mo. Cloth, $1.50 each. JAPANESE LITERATURE BY W. G. ASTON, C. M. G., M. A., late Acting Secretary at the British Legation at Tokio. "A volume of unique erudition, wide research, clear dis- crimination, and excellent design. Mr. Aston has wrought a memorable service not only to those interested in Japan and Japanese studies, but to the world of letters at large." Sir Edwin Arnold, in Literature. "Mr. Aston has written the first complete narrative from early times to the present of the history, the rituals, the po- etry, the drama, and the personal outpourings of thoughts and feelings which constitute the body of the literature of Japan." Baltimore Sun. "Mr. Aston has unquestionably enabled the European reader for the first time to enjoy a comprehensive survey of the vast and ancient field of Japanese literature, of which we have had hitherto only furtive and partial glimpses." London Times. "His work is a model of what a manual of this character should be. While it constitutes an admirable guide-book to any one who cares to go deeper into this special subject, it is sufficiently comprehensive to meet the requirements of the average reader or the general student of literature." Brooklyn Daily Eagle. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. THE GREAT PEOPLES SERIES Edited by DR. YORK POWELL, Regius Professor of Modern History in the University of Oxford. Each J2mo. Cloth, $1.50 net? postage, J4 cents additional. The aim of this series is to give in well-printed, clearly written, and read- able volumes a view of the process by which the leading peoples of the world have become great and earned their title to greatness, to describe the share each has contributed to the common stock of civilization. It is not so much a set of political or military or even social histories, as a sequence of readable studies on the tendencies and potencies of the chief peoples of the world, that this series will strive to present. NOW READY: THE SPANISH PEOPLE. By Dr. MARTIN A. S. HUME. " The reader quickly perceives that the riches promised by Dr. Powell are amply found, at least in this first volume. The history is written with a new object and from a new standpoint ; there is not a dull page in it. Mr. Hume writes with all the advantages of the modern historical specialist, and his picture of the development of the Spaniard is an important history of a people whose picturesque career is one of unfailing interest." Boston Daily Advertiser. THE FRENCH PEOPLE. By ARTHUR HASSALL, M. A., Student of Christ Church, Oxford ; Author of " The Balance of Power," etc. In accordance with the general plan of the series, this important work presents the evolution of a people. The method is modern, and although the sources, development, and transitions of a great race are fully indicated in a comparatively small compass, the author's aims and results differ widely from the set record of political, dynastic, and military facts which are chron- icled in the dry language of the usual hand-book. The part that France has played in the world's history has been frequently so picturesque and dra- matic, as well as great, that a vital analysis of her history like this possesses a profound interest. The author is one of the ablest of the rising English historians and a lecturer at Christ Church, Oxford. IN PREPARATION: THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE. By J. FITZMAURICE-KELLY. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. TWENTIETH CENTURY TEXT BOOKS. A History of the American Nation. By ANDREW C. MCLAUGHLIN, Professor of American History in the University of Michi- gan. With many Maps and Illustrations. I2mo. Cloth, $1.40. " One of the most attractive and complete one- volume his- tories of America that has yet appeared." Boston Beacon. <( Complete enough to find a place in the library as well as in the school." Denver Republican. "This excellent work, although intended for school use ; is equally good for general use at home." Boston Transcript. "It should find a place in all historic libraries." Toledo Blade. "Clearness is not sacrificed to brevity, and an adequate knowledge of political causes and effects may be gained from this concise history." New York Christian Advocate. "A remarkably good beginning for the new Twentieth Cen- tury Series of text-books. . . . The illustrative feature, and especially the maps, have received the most careful attention, and a minute examination shows them to be accurate, truthful, and illustrative." Philadelphia Press. "The work is up to date, and in accord with the best modern methods. It lays a foundation upon which a superstructure of historical study of any extent may be safely built." Pitt, burg Times. "A book of rare excellence and practical usefulness." Salt Lake Tribune. "The volume is eminently worthy of a place in a series des- dned for the readers of the coming century. It is highly creditable to the author." Chicago Evening Post. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. LITERATURES OF THE WORLD. Edited by EDMUND GOSSE, Hon. M. A. of Trinity College, Cambridge. Each, J2mo, cloth, $J.50. Chinese Literature. By HERBERT A. GILES, M. A., LL. D. (Aberd.), Professor of Chinese in the University of Cambridge. " Few recent histories of literature are more pregnant with new and interesting material than this. There is nothing like it in any library, and one may say with assurance that there is not a dull page in it." Boston Transcript. "Information and instruction share its pages with enlivening wit and wisdom, and it can be confidently relied upon for many hours of pure delight." Chicago Evening Post. "Any private, public, or school library that fails to place it on its shelves would be guilty of almost culpable indifference to the most opportune, the most instructive, the most fascinating of Asiatic masterpieces that has ever been garnered into a single volume." Brooklyn Daily Eagle. "The work is done with sympathy, with insight, and with that openness of mind which is so essential in dealing with the life and thought of the East. The quality of the poetry will surprise those who have thought of the Chinese as dealing in pru- dential maxims and in philosophy of the moral life rather than in the stuff of the imagination." The Outlook. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. By Prof. G. MASPERO. The greatest and most scholarly work on the history of the Ancient World. The Passing of the Empires (Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, and Medea), 850 B. C. to 330 B. C. By Prof. G. MASPERO, author of " The Dawn of Civiliza- tion " and "The Struggle of the Nations." Edited by the Rev. Prof. A. H. Sayce. Translated by M. L. McClure. With Maps and numerous Illustrations, in- cluding three Colored Plates. Uniform edition. 4to. Cloth, $7.50. " With this magnificent volume Professor Maspero completes his great task, which has extended over nearly seven years, of writing a history of the Oriental world from the earliest times down to the death of Darius. The work has been great, as the progress of Oriental le- search has been so rapid, and discoveries so numerous, that to attain any finality seemed impossible ; but the author has neglected nothing, and indeed the footnotes to these volumes show an almost herculean labor of research among authorities in every land and every tongue, and add immensely to the value of the work." Chronicle (London). " For learning and industry, Professor Maspero's epoch-making series on the ' History of the Ancient Peoples of the Classic East ' deserves to be called monumental. . . . The work is a remarkably full encyclopaedia of the subject of which it treats, though arranged in chronological and not in alphabetical order. Owing to these charac- \teristics it is indispensable as a book of reference. . . . ' The Passing of the Empires,' whatever be its imperfections or blemishes, is the completion of a prodigious achievement, and its usefulness will be in proportion to the labor it has cost." Sunday-School Times. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. TWENTIETH CENTURY TEXT-BOOKS. NOW READY. Botanical Text-Books by JOHN MERLE COULTER, A. M., Ph D., Head of Department of Botany, University of Chicago: Plant Relations, A First Book of Botany. $1.10. Plant Structures. A Second Book of Botany. $1.20. Plant Studies. An Elementary Botany. $1.25. Plants. Plant Relations and Plant Structures in i vol. $1.80. Key to Some of the Common Flora. Limp cloth, 25 cents. A History of the American Nation* By ANDREW C. MCLAUGHLIN, A. M., LL. B. $1.40. English Texts. For College- Entrance Requirements. Carefully edited. Per volume, 25 and 30 cents. Animal Life. A First Book of Zoology. By DAVID S. JORDAN, Ph. D., LL. D., and VERNON L. KELLOGG, M. S. $1.20. The Elements of Physics. By C. HANFORD HEN- DERSON, Ph. D., and JOHN F. WOODHULL, A. M., Ph. D. $1.10. With Experiments, $1.25. Physical Experiments. By JOHN F. WOODHULL. Ph. D., and M. B. VAN ARSDALE. With blank pages, 60 cents. With- out blank pages, 45 cents. The Elementary Principles of Chemistry. By ABRAM VAN EPS YOUNG, Ph. B. 95 cents. With Experiments, $1.10. Laboratory Manual separately, 45 cents. A Text-Book of Geology. By ALBERT PERRY BRIGHAM, A. M. $1.40. A Text-Book of Astronomy* By GEORGE C. COM- STOCK, Ph. B., LL. B. $1.30. A German Reader. By H. P. JONES, Ph. D. $1.00. Modern Language Texts. Schiller's Die Jimgfrau von Orleans. Rhoades. 60 cents. Freytag's Die Journalisten. Bronson. 45 cents. Jules Verne's Les Forceurs de Bloctts. Fontaine. 30 cents. A Commercial Geography. By C. C. ADAMS. $1.30. Send for complete Prospectus of the Twentieth Century Text-Books for High Schools. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. A WORK OF GREAT VALUE. The International Geography. By Seventy Authors, including Right Hon. JAMES BRYCE, Sir W. M. CONWAY, Prof. W. M. DAVIS, Prof. ANGELO HEILPRIN, Prof. FRIDTJOF NANSEN, Dr. J. SCOTT KELTIE, and F. C. SELOUS. With 488 Illustrations. Edited by HUGH ROBERT MILL, D. Sc. 8vo. 1088 pages. Cloth, $3.50. " Can unhesitatingly be given the first place among publications of its kind in the English language. ... An inspection of the list of asso- ciate authors leads readily to the conclusion that no single volume in recent scientific literature embodies, in original contributions, the labor of so many eminent specialists as this one. . . . The book should find a place in every library, public or private, that contains an atlas or gazetteer." The Nation. 11 The attempt to present in one volume an authoritative modern summary of the whole of geography as fully as space would permit has been admirably successful." New York Sun. " In brief, it may be said to be both a reference book and a con- nected geographical history of the modern world, something that any one can read with profit in addition to finding it of constant value in his library." Chicago Evening Post. u In his entirely studious moments the geographer cherishes above all things facts and accuracy. He must, therefore, value very highly a work like the ' International Geography.' It should be precious alike to the specialist and to the beginner. . . . Small but adequate maps are constantly introduced, and there is, finally, a splendid index." New York Tribune. "Simply invaluable to students, teachers, and others in need of such a book of reference." Washington Times. " Not only as complete as the limits would allow, but is strictly up to date." San Francisco Argonaut. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. D. APFLETON AND COMPANY'S PUBLICATIONS. LITERATURES OF THE WORLD. EDITED BY EDMUND GOSSE, Hon. M. A. of Trinity College, Cambridge. /J NCI EN T GREEK LITERATURE. By GIL* *-* BERT MURRAY, M. A., Professor of Greek in the University of Glasgow. I2mo. Cloth, $1.50. " A sketch to which the much-abused word ' brilliant ' may be justly applied. Mr. Murray has produced a book which fairly represents the best conclusions of modern scholarship with regard to the Greeks." London Times. by a /horn ancient Gre'ece and her literature are exceedingly real and vivid. His judgments and suggestions are full of a personal fresh sincerity ; he can discern the living men beneath their works, and give us his genuine impression of them." London Daily Chronicle. " A fresh and stimulating and delightful book, and should be put into the hands of all young scholars. It will make them understand, or help to make them understand, to a degree they have never yet understood, that the Greek writers over whom they have toiled at school are living literature after all." Westminster Gazette. " Brilliant and stimulating." London Athenaum. "A powerful and original study." The Nation. " Mr. Murray's style is lucid and spirited, and, besides the fund of information, he imparts to his subject such fresh and vivid interest that students will find in these pages a new impulse for more profound and exhaustive study of this greatest and most im- mortal of all the world's literatures." Philadelphia Public Ledger. " The admirable perspective of the whole work is what one most admires. The reader unlearned in Greek history and literature sees at once the relation which a given author bore to his race and his age, and the current trend of thought, as well as what we value him for to-day. . . . As an introduction to the study of some considerable por- tion of Greek literature in English translations it will be found of the very highest use- fulness." Boston Herald. " Professor Murray has written an admirable book, clear in its arrangement, com- pact in its statements, and is one, we think, its least scholarly reader must feel an in- structive and thoroughly trustworthy piece of English criticism." New York Mail and Express. " At once scholarly and interesting. . . . Professor Murray makes the reader ac- quainted not merely with literary history and criticism, but with individual living, striving Greeks. . . . He has felt the power of the best there was in Greek life and lit- erature, and he rouses the reader's enthusiasm by his own .honest admiration." Boston Transcript. "Professor Murray has contributed a volume which shows profound scholarship, together with a keen literary appreciation. It is a book for scholars as well as for the general reader. The author is saturated with his subject, and has a rare imaginative sympathy with ancient Greece." The Interior > Chicago. "Written in a style that is sometimes spasmodic, often brilliant, and always fresh and suggestive." New York Sun. " Professor Murray's careful study will be appreciated as the work of a man of unusual^ special learning, combined with much delicacy of literary insight." Neit> York Christian Advocate. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AI A Ne' Edited by F Geography i 8vo. Cloth The seri< of a great i people. Tc more especi Britain a Maps The Nea dalen Authc postaj CENTRA in the INDIA. Super on Mi SCANDII MARK Societ THE RU "Rus AFRICA Sociei Partit THE FA WESTE: RECI AUSTRJ of th Z.;/ NORTH LL. num SOUTH Prof Juni AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. MAR 3 1934 and . JAN 2 5 1955 LU LD 21-100m-7.'33 4TT352 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY