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ALLEN AND GREENOUqH.'§: -
NEW
LATIN GRAMMAR
FOR
SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES
FOUNDED ON COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR
EDITED BY
J. B. GREENOUGH G. L. KITTREDGE
A. A. HOWARD BENJ. L. D'OOGE
GINN AND COMPANY
BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON
ATLANTA • DALLAS • COLUMBUS • SAN FRANCISCO
~|30
Entered at Stationers' Hall
Copyright, 1888, by
JAMES B. GREENOUGH and J. H. ALLEN
Copyright, 1903, by
GINN AND COMPANY
Copyright, 1916, by
GEORGE L. KITTREDGE
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
620.4
C.INN AXD COMPANY • PKO-
PRIHTORS • BOSTON • U.S.A.
PREFACE
The present book is a careful revision of the edition of 1888.
This revision was planned and actually begun in the lifetime of
Professor Greenough and has been carried out in accordance
with principles that met with his full approval. The renum-
bering of the sections has made it possible to improve the
arrangement of material in many particiilars and to avoid a cer-
tain amount of repetition which was inevitable in the former
edition. Thus, without increasing the size of the volume, the
editors have been able to include such new matter as the advance
in grammatical science has afforded. The study of historical
and comparative syntax has been pursued with considerable vigor
during the past fifteen years, and the well-established results of
this study have been inserted in their appropriate places. In
general, however, the principles and facts of Latin syntax, as
set forth by Professor Greenough, have stood the test both of
scientific criticism and of practical use in the class-room, and
accordingly the many friends of Allen and Greenough's Gram,
mar will not find the new edition strange or unfamiliar in its
method or its contents. The editors have seen no occasion to
change long-settled nomenclature or to adopt novel classifica-
tions when the usual terms and categories have proved satis-
factory. On the other hand, they have not hesitated to modify
either doctrines or forms of statement whenever improvement
seemed possible.
In the matter of " hidden quantity" the editors have been even
more conservative than in the former revision. This subject is
one of great difficulty, and the results of the most recent investi-
gations are far from harmonious. In many instances the facts
IV PREFACE
are quite undiscoverable, and, in general, the phenomena are of
comparatively slight interest except to special students of the
arcana of philology. No vowel has been marked long unless the
evidence seemed practically decisive.
The editors have been fortunate in securing the advice and
assistance of Professor E. S. Sheldon, of Harvard University, for
the first ten pages, dealing with phonetics and phonology. They
are equally indebted to Professor E. P. Morris, of Yale Univer-
sity, who has had the kindness to revise the notes on historical
and comparative syntax. Particular acknowledgment is also
due to Mr. M. Grant Daniell, who has cooperated in the revision
throughout, and whose accurate scholarship and long experience
as a teacher have been of the greatest service at every point.
September 1, 1903.
CO^^TENTS
PAET I — WORDS AND FORMS
PAGE
Letters and Sounds • • • 1-10
Alphabet ; Classification of Sounds 1-3
pithography, Syllables, Pronunciation 3-5
Quantity and Accent 5-7
Combinations ; Phonetic Changes 7-10
Words and their Forms . 11-16
Parts of Speech 11, 12
Inflection; Root, Stem, and Base 12-1-4
Gender, Number, and Case 1-4-16
Declension of Nouns 16-45
General Rules of Declension 17
First Declension 18-20
Second Declension 20-24
Third Declension 24-37
' Mute Stems 25, 26
Liquid and Nasal Stems 27, 28
Pure i-Stems *. 29,30
Mixed i-Stems •. •. • 30, 31
Irregular Nouns 33, 34
Greek Nouns 34-36
Rules of Gender 36, 37
Fourth Declension 37-39
Fifth Declension 39, 40
Defective and Variable Nouns 40-44
Names of Persons 45
Inflection of Adjectives 46-62
First and Second Declensions 46-49
Third Declension 49-54
Comparison 55-57
Numerals 58-62
Inflection of Pronouns 63-71
Personal, Reflexive, Possessive, Demonstrative 63-67
Relative, Interrogative, Indefinite 68-71
Con-elatives (Pronouns and Adverbs) 71
Conjugation of Verbs 72-125
Inflection 72
Signification: Voice, Mood, Tense 73-75
|*ersonal Endings 76, 77
VI CONTENTS
PAGE
Forms : Stem and Verb-Endings 77-81
The Verb Sum 81-83
Regular Verbs 84-103
The Four Conjugations ; Principal Parts 84, 85
Formation of the Three Stems 85-89
Synopsis of the Verb 90
Peculiarities of Conjugation 91
First Conjugation , . . 92-95
Second Conjugation 96, 97
Third Conjugation 98, 99
Fourth Conjugation 100, 101
Verbs in -16 of the Third Conjugation 102, 103
Deponent Verbs 103-106
Periphrastic Conjugations . 106-108
Irregular Verbs 108-115
Defective Verbs ' 116-119
Impersonal Verbs 119, 120
Classified Lists of Verbs » 121-125
Particles 126-139
Adverbs 126-130
Prepositions 130-136
Conjunctions 137-139
Interjections 139
Formation of "Words .,...' 140-162
Roots and Stems 140, 141
Suffixes: Primary; Significant Endings 141-143
Derivation of Nouns 143-148
Derivation of Adjectives 148-154
Nouns w^ith Adjective Suffixes ; Irregular Derivatives .... 154-156
Derivation of Verbs 156-159
Compound Words 160-162
PART II — SYNTAX *
Introductory Note 163
The Sentence 164-208
Definitions : Subject and Predicate, Modification, etc 164-168
Agreement : the Four Concords 168
Nouns : Apposition ; Predicate Agreement 168-170
Adjectives . . . , 170-175
Rules of Agreement 171, 172
Special Uses 172-175
Pronouns 176-192
Personal and Demonstrative 176-180
Reflexive 180-183
Possessive 183, 184
co:ntents yu
PAGE
Relative ,...,....». 184-189
Indefinite 189-191
Alius and alter « . . 192
VfcRBS 193-195
Verb and Subject, Incomplete Sentences 193-195
Particles : Adverbs, Conjunctions, Negatives 196-204
Questions . . . . , 205-208
Construction of Cases 209-275
Introductory Note 209
Nominative Case 210
Vocative Case - 210
Genitive Case 210-224
Genitive with Nouns 211-216
Possessive Genitive 211,212
Genitive of Material, of Quality , . . . 213
Partitive Genitive 213-215
Objective Genitive 215, 216
Genitive with Adjectives 216, 217
Genitive with Verbs 218-223
Verbs of Kemembering and Forgetting .,.,,... 218, 219
Verbs of Reminding , 219
Verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquitting 220
Verbs of Feeling , 221
Interest and refert . . . . , 221,222
Verbs of Plenty and Want ; Special Verbs 222, 223
Peculiar Genitives : Exclamatory, etc 223, 224
Dative Case 224-239
Indirect Object with Transitives 225-227
Indirect Object with Intransitives 227-232
Dative cf Possession , 232, 233
Dative of the Agent 233, 234
Dative of Reference 234-236
Ethical Dative 236
Dative of Separation 236, 237
Dative of the Purpose or End 237
Dative with Adjectives 238, 239
Accusative Case 240-248
Direct Object 240-242
Cognate Accusative 242-244
Two Accusatives , . . . 244-246
Idiomatic and Special Uses 247, 248
Ablative Case 248-265
of the Ablative Proper 249-255
Ablative of Separation 249, 250
Ablative of Source and Materia,! 260-252
Ablative of Cause 252, 253
Vlil CONTENTS
PAGE
Ablative ol Agent , 25;3, 254
Ablative of Comparison 254, 255
Uses of the Ablative as Instrumental 256-265
Ablative of Means or Instrument 256-258
Ablative of Manner 258
Ablative of Accompaniment 258, 259
Ablative of Degree of Difference 259, 260
Ablative of Quality , » 260
Ablative of Price . 261,262
Ablative of Specification 262, 263
Ablative Absolute 263-265
Uses of the Ablative as Locative 265
l^MB AND Place . 266-273
Special Uses of Prepositions .'^74, 275
Syntax >p thb Verb . , 276-386
Mood* , , . . o 276-293
Introductory Note 276,277
Indicative Mood 277
SeBJUNCTivE IN Independent Sentences 278-283
Hortatory Subjunctive . , . , 278, 279
Hortatory Subjunctive in Concessions 279
Optative Subjunctive . ,. 280, 281
Deliberative Subjunctive 281
Potential Subjunctive . , 282, 283
Imperative Mood 283-285
Prohibition (Negative Command) 285
Infinitive Mood 286-292
Infinitive as Noun 286,287
Infinitive with Impersonals . , 287, 288
Complementary Infinitive 289, 290
Infinitive witli Subject Accusative 290
Infinitive of Purpose ; Peculiar Infinitives 290, 291
Exclamatory Infinitive 292
Historical Infinitive 292
Tenses ...... 293-308
Introductory Note 293
Tenses op the Indicative 293-301
Present Tense 293-295
Imperfect Tense 296-297
Future Tense 298
Perfect Tense . , 298-300
Pluperfect Tense 800
Future Perfect Tense 300
Epistolary Tenses 301
Tenses of the Subjunctive 801-306
Sequence of Tenses 802-306
CONTENTS ix
PAGE
Tenses of the Infinitive ....,.....,.., 307, 308
Participles 809-316
Distinctions of Tense , , 309-311
Uses of Participles 311-314
Future Active Participle . » 314, 315
Gerundive (Future Passive Participle) 315, 316
Gerund and Gerundive 816-319
iSupiNE o . . . 320
Conditional Sentences . 321-888
Introductory Note 321 . 322
Protasis and Apodosis 822, 323
Classificatiou of Conditions 828-325
Simple Present and Past Conditions . 825, 826
Future Conditions 826-328
Conditions Contrary to Fact . 328-330
General Conditions . 331
Conditional Relative Clauses . 882, 333
Condition Disguised 883, 834
Condition Omitted 334, 335
Complex Conditions 835
Clauses of Comparison (Conclusion Omitted) 836
Use of Si and its Compounds 337, 388
Concessive Clauses 338,839
Clauses of Proviso 840
Clauses op Purpose (Final Clauses) 340-843
Clauses of Characteristic 848-346
Clauses of Result (Consecutive Clauses) 346-348
Causal Clauses , 348-350
Temporal Clauses 350-359
Ubi, ut, cum, quando, as Indefinite Relatives 850
Postquam, ubi, ut, simul atque 851
Cum Temporal 852-854
Cum Causal or Concessive 854, 855
Antequam and priusquam 355, 856
Dum, donee, and quoad 357-359
Clauses with quin and quominus 359-361
Substantive Clauses 862-384
Introductory Note 362
Substantive Clauses of Purpose and Infinitive Clauses .... 362-367
Substantive Clauses of Result (Consecutive Clauses) 367-869
Indicative with quod 369, 370
Indirect Questions 870-373
Indirect Discourse < 873-384
Introductory Note , 873, 374
Declaratory Sentences 874-877
Subordinate Clauses .... 377, 378
X CONTENTS
PAGE
Tenses of the Infinitive 378, 379
Tenses of the Subjunctive 379,380
Questions in Indirect Discourse 380, 381
Commands in Indirect Discourse 381
Conditions in Indirect Discourse 381-384
^TERMEDIATE CLAUSES 384-386
Informal Indirect Discourse 385
Subjunctive of Integral Part (Attraction) 386
Important Rules of Syntax 387-392
Order of Words 393-400
General Rules 393-398
Special Rules 398, 399
Structure of the Period 399, 400
PEOSODY
Quantity 401-405
Rhythm , 405-409
Introductory Note 405, 400
Measures of Rhythm ; Feet 406-409
The Musical Accent ; Csesura ; Diaeresis 409
Versification 410-426
The Verse; Scansion and Elision 410,411
Dactylic Verse 411-414
Dactylic Hexameter 411,412
Elegiac Stanza ; Other Dactylic Verses 413,414
Iambic Verse 414-416
Iambic Trimeter 414, 415
Other Iambic Measures 416
Trochaic Verse , . . 417
Mixed Measures 418
Logaoedic Verse 418-421
Metres of Horace 421-425
Index to the Metres of Horace 423-425
Other Lyric Poets 425
Miscellaneous Measures 425, 426
Early Prosody 426, 427
Miscellaneous • 428-431
Reckoning of Time 428, 429
Measures of Value, Length, and Capacity 429-431
Glossary of Terms 432-435
Index of Verbs 436-444
Index of Words and Subjects 445-475
Latin Authors and their Works , 476, 477
Parallel References ..... » 479-490
ALLEN AND GKEENOUGH'S
NEW LATIN GRAMMAR
XI
LATIE^ GRAMMAR
Latin Grammar is usually treated under three heads: 1. Words and
Forms; 2. Syntax; 3. Prosody. Syntax tl^eats of the functioil of words
when Joined together as ^arts of the sentence $ Prosody of their arrange-
ment in metrical composition.
PART FIRST— WORDS AND FORMS
THfe ALPHABET
1. The Latin Alphabet is the same as the English (which is
in fact borrowed from it) except that it does not contain J, U,
and W.
Note 1. — The Latin alphabet was borrowed in very early times from a Greek
alphabet (though not from that most familiar to us) and did not at first contain the
letters G and Y. It consisted "of capital letters only, and the small letters with ^hich
we are familiar did not come into general use until the close of the eighth century of
our era.
Note 2. — The Latin names of the consonants were as follows : — B, be (pronounced
bay); 0, ce (pronounced kay}; i>, de '{day); F, ef-; G, ge igay); H, ha; K, ka; L, el;
M, em; 'S,en; 'P,pe{pay); <),qu(k6o); R, ery S,es; T, te(tay); X,ix; Z,zeta(the
Greek name, pronounced dzayta). The sound of each vovtel was used as its name.
a. The character € originally meant G, a value always retained in
the abbreviations <5. (fot GSfaft) and €ft. '(for G^aeas).
Note. — In early Latin C came also to be used for K, and K disappeared except be-
fore a in a few words, as Kal. (Kalendae), Karthago. Thus there was no distinction iri
writing between the sounds of g and k. Later this defect was remedied by forming
(from C) the new character G. This took the alphabetic place formerly occupied by
Z, which had gone out of use. In Cicero's time (see N. D. ii. 93), Y (originally a form
of V) and Z were introduced from the ordinary Greek alphabet to represent sounds in
words derived from the Greek, and they were put at the end of the Latin alphabet.
h, I and V were used both as vowels and as consonants (see § 5).
Note. — V originally denoted the vowel sound u (pd), and F stood for the sound of
our consonant w. When F acCfuited the value of our f, V came to be used for the
sound of w as well ^s for the vowel u.
In this book i is used for both vowel and consonant i, u for vowel u, and
V for consonant ti : — ifis, vir, iuvenis.
1
^A WOkDS AND PORMS [§§2-4
Classification of Sounds
2. The simple Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y.
The Diphthongs are ae, au, ei, eu, oe, ui, and, in early Latin, ai,
oi, ou. In the diphthongs both vowel sounds are heard, one fol-
lowing the other in the same syllable.
3. Consonants are either voiced (sonant) or voiceless (surd).
Voiced consonants are pronounced with the same vocal murmur
that is heard in vowels ; voiceless consonants lack this murmur.
1. The voiced consonants are b, d, g, 1, r, m, n, z, consonant i, v.
2. The voiceless consonants are p, t, c (k, q), f, h, s, x.
4. Consonants are further classified as in the following table :
Labials Dentals Palatals
' Voiced (mediae)
b
d
g
Mutes
Voiceless (tenues)
P
t
c (k, q)
Aspirates
ph
th
ch
Nasals
m
n
n (before c, g, q)
Liquids
l,r
Fricatives (Spirants)
V
s, z
Sibilants
8, Z
Semivo
wels
V
consonant i
Double consonants are x (= cs) and z (= dz) ; h is merely a breathing.
1. Mutes are pronounced by blocking entirely, for an instant, the passage of the
breath through the mouth, and then allowing it to escape with an explosion (distinctly
heard before a following vowel). Between the explosion and the vowel there may be
a slight puff of breath (h), as in the Aspirates (ph, th, ch),2
2. Labials are pronounced with the lips, or lips and teeth.
3. Dentals (sometimes called Linguals) are pronounced with the tip of the tongue
touching or approaching the upper front teeth.
4. Palatals are pronounced with a part of the upper surface of the tongue touching
or approaching the palate.s
5. Fricatives (or Spirants) are consonants in which the breath passes continuously
through the mouth with audible friction.
6. Nasals are like voiced mutes, except that the mouth remains closed and the
breath passes through the nose.
1 Strictly a lahio-dental, pronounced with the under lip touching the upper teeth.
3 The aspirates are almost wholly confined to words borrowed from the Greek. In
early Latin such borrowed sounds lost their aspiration and became simply p, t, c.
3 Palatals are often classed as (1) velars, pronounced with the tongue touching or ris-
ing toward the soft palate (in the back part of the mouth) , and (2) palatals, in which the
tongue touches or rises toward the hard palate (farther forward in the mouth) . Compare
the initial consonants in key and cool, whispering the two words, and it will be observed
that before e and i the k is sounded farther forward in the mouth than before a, o. or u.
§§ 5, 6] ORTHOGRAPHY 3
5. The vowels i and u serve as consonants when pronounced
rapidly before a vowel so as to stand in the same syllable.^ Con-
sonant i has the sound of English consonant y; consonant u (v)
that of English consonant w.
Consonant i and u (v) are sometimes called Semivowels.
Note 1. — The Latin alphabet did not distinguish between the vowel and consonant
sounds of i and u, but used each letter (I and V) with a double value. In modern books
i and u are often used for the vowel sounds, j and v for the consonant sounds ; but in
printing in capitals J and U are avoided : — I V LIVS (lulius) . The characters J and U are
only slight modifications of the characters I and V. The ordinary English sounds of
j and V did not exist in classical Latin, but consonant u perhaps approached English v
in the pronunciation of some persons.
Note 2. — In the combinations qu, gu, and sometimes su, u seems to be the conso-
nant (w) . Thus, aqua, anguis, consuetus (compare English quart, anguish, suave) . In
these combinations, however, u is reckoned neither as a vowel nor as a consonant.^
ORTHOGRAPHY
6. Latin spelling varied somewhat with the changes in the
language and was never absolutely settled in all details.
Thus, we find lubet, vort5, as earlier, and libet, verto, as later forms. Other
variations are optumus and optimus, gerundus and gerendus.
The spelling of the first century of our era, known chiefly from
inscriptions, is tolerably uniform, and is commonly used in modern
editions of the classics.
a. After v (consonant u), o was anciently used instead of u (voltus, servos),
and this spelling was not entirely given up until the middle of the first
century of o\ir era.
6. The older quo became cu in the Augustan period ; in the second cen-
tury of our era the spelling quu established itself in some words : —
cum, older quom ;3 equos, ecus, later equus ; sequontur, secuntur, later sequuntur ;
similarly exstinguont, exstingunt, later exstinguunt.
Note. — In most modern editions the spelling quu is adopted, except in cum.
c. Between consonant i and a preceding a, e, o, or u, an i was developed
as a transient sound, thus producing a diphthong ai, ei, etc., before the con-
sonant i. In such cases but one i was written : as, aid (for fai-io), mains
(for fmai-ius), peius (for fpei-ius).
1 Compare the English word Indian as pronounced in two syllables or in three.
2 In such words it is possible that the preceding consonant was labialized and that
no distinct and separate consonant u was heard.
' The spelliDg quum is very late and without authority.
4 WORDS AND FORMS [§§ 6-8
d. Similarly in compounds of iacio but one i was written (as, con-icio,
not con-iicio); but the usual pronunciation probably showed consonant i
followed by vowel i (see § 11. e).
Note. — Some variations are due to later changes in Latin itself, and these are not
now recognized in classical texts.
1. Unaccented ti and ci, when followed by a vowel, came to be pronounced alike ;
hence nuntio was later spePed with a c and dicio with a t.
2. The sound of h was after a time lost and hence this letter was often omitted (as,
arena for harena) or mistakenly written (as, humor for umor) .
3. The diphthong ae early in the time of the Empire acquired the value of long open
e (about like English e in there) , and similarly oe after a time became a long close e
(about like the English ey in they) ; and so both were often confused in spelling with
e : as, eoena or caeaa for the correct form cena.
Syllables
; 7. Every Latin word has as many syllables as it has vowels or
' diphthongs : —
a-6i-e, mo-ne, fi-li-us, fe-ro-ci-ta-te.
a. In the division of words into syllables a single consonant (including
consonant i and v) between two vowels is written and pronounced with
the following vowel. Ddtibled consonants are separated : —
pa-ter, mi-li-tes, in-iiJ-ri-a, di-vi-d5 ; mit-to, tol-16.
Note 1. — Some extend the rule for single consonants to any consonant group (as
sp, St, gn) that can begin a word. In this book, dix-it, sax-um, etc. are preferred to
di-xit, sa-xum ; the pronunciation was probably dic-sit, sac-sum.
Note 2. — A syllable ending with a vowel or diphthong is called open: all others
are called close. Thus in pa-ter the first syllable is open, the second close.
b. In compounds the parts are separated : —
ab-est, ob-latus, dis-cemo, du-plex, di-sto.
Pronunciation
8. The so-called Roman Pronunciation of Latin aims to repre-
sent approximately the pronunciation of classical times.
Vowels : a as in father; ^ as in idea.
§ as eh? (prolonged), or a in date; S as eh? (clipped) or e in net.
I as in machine; 1 as in holiest or sit.
o as in holy; 6 as in obey.
u as 00 in boot; H as oo in foot.
y between u and i (French u or German ii).
Diphthongs : ae like ay; ei as in eight; oe like oy in hoy;
eu as eh'oo; au.like ow in now; ui as oo'ee.
^§8-10] PRONUNCIATION AND QUANTITY 6
Consonants are the same as in English, except that —
c and g are as in come^ get, never as in cityj gem.
s as in sea, lips, never as in ease.
Consonant i is like y in young; v (consonant u) like w in toing.
n in the combinations ns and nf probably indicates nasalization of the
preceding vowel, which was also lengthened ; and final m in an
unaccented syllable probably had a similar nasalizing effect on
the preceding vowel.
ph, th, ch, are properly like p, t, k, followed by h (which may, for con-
venience, be neglected) ; but ph probably became like (or nearly
like) f soon after the classical period, and may be so pronounced
to distinguish it from p.
z is as dz in adze.
bs is like ps ; bt is like pt.
Note. — Latin is sometimes pronounced with the ordinary English sounds of the
letters. The English pronunciation should be used in Roman names occurring in
•English (as, Julius Caesar) ; and in familiar quotations, as, e pluribus unutn ; viva
voce; vice versa; a fortiori; veni, vidi, vici, etc.
Quantity
9. The Quantity of a Vowel or a Syllable is the time occupied
in pronouncing it. Two degrees of Quantity are recognized, —
long and short.
a. In syllables, quantity is measured from the beginning of the vowel
or diphthong to the end of the syllable.
10. Vowels are either long or short Bt/ nature^ and are pro-
nounced accordingly (§8).
a, A vowel before another vowel or h is short : as in via, nihil.
b, A diphthong is long : as in aedes, foedus. So, also, a vowel derived
from a diphthong ; as in excludo (from fex-claudo).
c, A vowel formed by contraction is long: as in nU (from nihil).
d, A vowel before ns, nf, gn, is long : as in constans, inferd, magnus.
Note. — But the quantity of the vowel hefore gn is not certain in all cases.
e, A vowel before nd, nt, is regularly short : as in amandus, amant.
In this book all vowels known to be long are marked (a, e, etc.), and
short vowels are left unmarked (a, e, etc.). Vowels marked with both signs
at once (a, e, etc.) occur sometimes as long and sometimes as short.
Note. — The Romans sometimes marked vowel length by a stroke above the letter
(called an apex), as, A ; and sometimes the vowel was doubled to indicate length. An
r made higher than the other letters was occasionally used for i. But none of these
devices came into general use.
6 WORDS AND FORMS L§ ^1
11. The Quantity of the Syllable is important for the position
of the accent and in versification.
a. A syllable containing a long vowel or a diphthong is said to be long
by nature : as, ma-ter, aes, au-la-.
b, A syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants
(except a mute before 1 or r) or by a double consonant (x, z) is said to be
long hy position, but the vowel is pronounced short : as, est, ter-ra, sax-um,
Me-zen-tius.
Note. — "When a consonant is doubled the pronunciation should show this dis-
tinctly. Thus in mit-to both t's should be pronounced as in out-talk (not merely a
single t as in better).
c, A syllable containing a short vowel followed by a mute before 1 or r
is properly short, but may be used as long in verse. Such a syllable is said
to be common.
Note 1. — In syllables long by position, but having a short vowel, the length is
partly due to the first of the consonants, which stands in the same syllable with the
vowel. In syllables of " common " quantity (as the first syllable of patrem) the ordi-
nary pronunciation was pa-trem, but in verse pat-rem was allowed so that the syllable
could become long.
Note 2. — In final syllables ending with a consonant, and containing a short vowel,
the quantity in verse is determined by the following word : if this begins with a vowel
the final consonant is joined to it in pronunciation ; if it begins with a consonant the
syllable is long by position.
Note 3. — In rules for quantity h is not counted as a consonant, nor is the appar-
ently consonantal u in qu, gu, su (see § 5. n. 2).
d, A syllable whose vowel is a, e, o, or u, followed by consonant i, is
long whether the vowel itself is long or short : as, a-io, ma-ior, pe-ius.
In such cases the length of the syllable is indicated in this book by a
circumflex on the vowel.
Note. — The length of a syllable before consonant i is due to a transitional sound
(vowel i) which forms a diphthong with the preceding vowel: as, a-i5 (for t3^i-io)j
mS-ior (for fmal-ior). See § 6. c.
e. In some compounds of iaci5 (as, in-icio) the consonant i of the simple
verb was probably pronounced (though not written). Thus the first syl-
lable was long by position : as, in-icio (for in-iicio). See % Q. d.
In such cases the length of the syllable is not indicated in this book by
a circumflex on the vowel.
/. When a syllable is long by position the quantity of the vowel is not
always determinable. The vowel should be pronounced short unless it is
known to be long.
Note. — The quantity of a vowel under these circumstances is said to be hidden.
It is often determined with a greater or less degree of certainty by inscriptional evi-
dence (see § 10. N.) or by other means. In this book, the quantity of all such vowels
known to be long is marked.
12-14] ACCENT
Accent
12. Words of two syllables are accented on the first syllable :
as, Ro'ma, fi'des, tan'go.
Words of more than two syllables are accented on the Penult ^
if that is long (as, ami'cus, mone'tur, contin'git) ; otherwise on the
Antepenult (as, do'minus, a'lScris, dissocia'bilis).
a. When an enclitic is joined to a word, the accent falls on the syllable
next before the enclitic, whether long or short : as, dea'que, amare've, tibi'ne,
ita'que (and . . . so), as distinguished from i'taque (therefore). So (accord-
ing to some) ex'inde, ec'quando, etc.
Exceptions : 1. Certain apparent compounds of facio retain the accent of the
simple verb : as, benef a'cit, calef a'cit (see § 266. a) .
Note. — These were not true compounds, but phrases.
2. In the second declension the genitive and vocative of nouns in -ius and the
genitive of those in -ium retaui the accent of the nominative : as, Come'li, Vergi'li,
inge'ni (see § 49. c).
3. Certain words which have lost a final vowel retain the accent of the com-
plete words : as, illi'c for illi'ce, produce for produce, sati'n for sati'sne.
Combinations
13. In some cases adjacent words, being pronounced together,
are written as one : —
unusquisque (unus quisque), siquis (si quis), quare (qua re), quamobrem (quam
ob rem ; cf . quas ob res), respublica (res publica), iusiurandum (ius iurandum),
paterfamilias (pater familias).
Note. — Sometimes a slight change in pronimciation resulted, as, especially in the
old poets, before est in homost (homo est) , periculumst (periculum est) , ausust (ausus est) ,
qualist (qualis est). Similarly there occur vin*, scin' for visne, scisne, sis (si vis), sodes
(si audes), sultis (si vultis). Compare in English somebody, to breakfast; he 's, I've,
thou 'rt.
Phonetic Changes
14. Latin, the language of the ancient Romans, was properly, as its name implies,
the language spoken in the plain of Latium, lying south of the Tiber, which was the first
territory occupied and governed by the Romans. It is a descendant of an early form
of speech commonly called Indo-European (by some Indo-Germanic) , from which
are also descended most of the important languages now in use in Europe, including
among others English, German, the Slavic and the Celtic languages, and further some
now or formerly spoken- in Asia, as Sanskrit, Persian, Armenian. Greek likewise
1 The Penult is the last syllable but one ; the Antepenult, the last but two.
8 WORDS AND FORMS [§§ 14, 16
belongs to the same family. The Romance (or Romanic) languages, of which the
most important are Italian, French, Provencal, Spanish, Portuguese, and Roumanian,
are modern descendants of spoken Latin.
The earliest known forms of Latin are preserved in a few inscriptions. These in-
crease in number as we approach the time when the language began to be used in litera-
ture; thaLlSj aliouj; b,c. 250. , It is the comparatively stable language of the classical
period (b.c. 80-a.d. 14) that is ordinarily meant when we speak of Latin, and it is
mainly this that is described in this book.
15. Among the main features in the changes of Latin from
the earliest stages of the language as we know it up to the forms
of classical Latin may be mentioned the following ; —
Vowel Changes
1. The old diphthong ai became the classical ae (aedHis for old aidilis),
old oi became oe or u (unus for old oinos), and old ou became u (diic5 for
old douco).
2. In compound verbs the vowel a of the simple verb often appears as i
or e, and ae similarly appears as i : —
facio, factum, but c6nfici5, confectum ; caed5, but occido, and similarly cecidi,
perfect of caed5 (cf. cado, occido ; cecidi, perfect of cado).
Note. — This change is commonly ascribed to an accentuation on the first syl-
lable, which seems to have been the rule in Latin before the rule given above (see § 12)
became established. The original Indo-European accent, however, was not limited by
either of these principles ; it was probably a musical accent so-called, consisting in a
change of pitch, and not merely in a more forcible utterance of the accented syllable.
3. Two vowels coming together are often contracted : —
cogo for tco-ago; promo for tpro-em5; nil for nihil; debeo for tde-hibeo
(tde-habe5).
Consonant Changes
4. An old s regularly became r between two vowels (rhotacisrn), passing
first through the sound of (English) z : —
eram (cf. est); generis, genitive of genus. i
Note. — Final s sometimes became r by analogy: as, honor (older honos), from the
analogy of honoris, etc.
5. A dental (t, d) often became s, especially when standing next to t, d,
or 8 : as, equestris for fequettris, casus for fcadtus (cf . 6, below).
6. Many instances of assimilation, partial or complete, are found : —
cessi for tced-sl ; summus for tsupmus ; scriptus for scribtus (b unvoicing to
p before the voiceless t); and in compound verbs (see § 16).
1 A similar change can ho seen in English; as, loere (cf. was), lorn (cf. lose).
§§ 15-17] VOWEL VARIATIONS 9
Dissimilation, the opposite kind of change, prevented in some cases the
repetition of the same sound in succcessive syllables : —
Thus, parilia for pamia(from Pale§) ; meridies for jmedidiesj naturalis with suffix
-alis (after r), but populayis with -aris (after 1).
7. Final s was in early Latin not always pronounced : as, plenu(s) fidM.
Note. — Traces of this pronunciation existed in Cicero's time. He speaks of the omis-
sion of final s hef ore a word beginning with a consonant as ' ' countrified ' ' (subrusticum) .
8. A final consonant often disappears : as, virg5 for f virg5n ; lag for
flact ; cor for f cord.
9. G, c, and h unite with a following s to form x : as, rex for fregs ; dux
for f dues ; traxi for f trahsi.^
10. G and h before t become c : as, rectum for fregtum ; actum for fagtum ;
tractum for ftrahtum.^
11. Between m and s or m and t, a p is often developed : as, siimpsi for
f sumsi ; emptum for f emtum.
16. In compounds with prepositions the final consonant in the preposition was often
assimilated to the following consonant, but usage varied considerably.
There is good authority for many complete or partial assimilations ; as, for ad,
aoc-, agg-, app-, att-, instead of adc-, adg-, etc. Before a labial consonant we find com-
(comb-, comp-, comm-), hut con:^ is the form before c, d, f, g, cons, i, q, s, t, cons, v ; we
find conl- or coll-, conr- or corr-; co- in conecto, coniveo, conitor, conubium. In usually
changes to ira- before p, b, m. Ob and sub may assimilate b to a following c, f, g, or
p ; before s and t the pronunciation of prepositions ending in b doubtless had p ; surr-,
summ-, occur for subr-, subm-. The inseparable amb- loses b before a consonant.
Circum often loses its m before i. The s of dis becomes r before a vowel and is assimi-
lated to a following f ; sometimes this prefix appears as di-. Instead of ex we find ef-
before f (also ecf-) . The d of red and sed is generally lost before a consonant. The
preposition is better left unchauged in most other cases.
VQwel Variations
17. The parent language showed great variation in the vowel
sounds of kindred words.^
a. This variation is often called by the German name Ablaut. It has
left considerable traces in the forms of Latin words, appearing sometimes
as a diiference of quantity in the same vowel (as, u, u ; e, e), sometimes as a
difference in the vowel itself (as, f , o ; i, ae) : * —
tego, I cover, toga, a robe ; pend5, 1 weigh, pondus, weight; fidee, faith, fidus,
faithful, foedus, a treaty ; miser, wretched, maestus, sad ; dare, to give,
donum, a gift; regS, I rule, rex, a king; dux, a leader, duco (for older
douco), I lead. Compare English drive, drove (drave), driven ; bind, bound,
band ; sing, sang, sung ; etc.
1 Really for ftraglisi. The h of traho represents an older palatal sound (see § 19) .
2 Really for ftraghtum. These are cases of partial assimilation (cf . 6, above) .
8 This variation was not without regularity, but was confined within definite limits.
^ In Greek, however, it is more extensively preserved.
10 WORDS AND FORMS [§§ 18, 19
Kindred Forms
18. Both Latin and English have gone through a series of phonetic changes, dif-
ferent in the two languages, but following definite laws in each. Hence both pre-
serve traces of the older speech in some features of the vowel system, and both show
certain correspondences in consonants in words which each language has inherited from
the old common stock. Only a few of these correspondences can be mentioned here.
19. The most important correspondences in consonants between
Latin and English, in cognate words, may be seen in the following
table: — !
Latin English
p : pater f : foAher^ earlier fader ^
f from bh : fero, f rater b : to bear, brother
b " " lubet, libet v, f : love, Hef
t : tu, tenuis th : thou, thin ^
d: duo, dent- t: two, tooth
f from dh : f acio di do
d " " medius d: mid
b " " ruber d: red
c : cord-, comu h : heart, horn
qu : quod wh : what
g : genus, gustus c, k, ch : kin, choose
h (from gh): hortus, haedus y, g: yard, goat
cons, i : iugum y : yoke
V : ventus, ovis w : wind, ewe
V from gv : vivus (for tgvivos), 1 , • ?
.- /r J. .-N t qu, c, k: quick, come
vemo (for tgvemio). J
Note 1. — Sometimes a consonant lost in Latin is still represented in English: as,
niv- (for fsniv-), Eng. snow ; anser (for fhanser), Eng. goose.
Note 2. — From these cases of kindred words in Latin and English must be care-
fully distinguished those cases in which the Latin word has been taken into English either
directly or through some one of the modern descendants of Latin, especially French.
Thus facio is kindred with Eng. do, but from the Latin participle (factum) of this verb
comes "Eng. fact, and from the French descendant (fait) of factum comes Eng. feat.
1 The Indo-European parent speech had amoug its consonants voiced aspirates
(bh, dh, gh). All these suffered change in Latin, the most important results being,
for bh, Latin f, b (English has b, v, or f) ; for dh, Latin f, b, d (English has d) ; for gh,
Latin h, g (English has y, g). The other mutes suffered in Latin much less change,
while in English, as in the other Germanic languages, they have all changed consid-
erably in accordance with wh9,t has been called Grimm's Law for the shifting of mutes.
2 The th in father is a late development. The older iorm fader seems to show an
exception to the rule that English th corresponds to Latin t. The primitive Germanic
form was doubtless in accordance with this rule, but, on account of the position of the
accent, which in Germanic was not originally on the first syllable in this word, the
consonant underwent a secondary change to d.
3 But to the group st of Latin corresponds also English st ; as in Latin sto, English
stand.
§20] THE PARTS OF SPEECH 11
THE PARTS OF SPEECH
20. Words are divided into eight Parts of Speech: Nouns,
Adjectives (including Participles), Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs,
Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections.
a, A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea : as, Caesar ;
Roma, Rome ; domus, a house ; virtus, virtue.
Names of particular persons and places are called Proper Nouns ; other
nouns are called Common.
Note. — An Abstract Noim is the name of a quality or idea : as, audacia, boldness ;
senectus, old age. A Collective Noun is the name of a group, class, or the like : as, turba,
crowd; exercitus, army.
b, An Adjective is a word that attributes a quahty : as, bonus, good;
fortis, bi'ave, strong.
Note 1. — A Participle is a word that attributes quality like an adjective, but, being
derived from a verb, retains in some degree the power of the verb to assert: as, —
Caesar consul creatus, Csesar having been elected consul.
Note 2. — Etymologically there is no difference between a noun and an adjective,
both being formed alike. So, too, all names originally attribute quality, and any com-
mon name can still be so used. Thus, King William distinguishes this WiUiam from
other Williams, by the attribute of royalty' expressed in the name king.
c, A Pronoun is a word used to distinguish a person, place, thing, or
idea without either naming or describing it : as, is, he ; qui, who ; nos, we.
Nouns and pronouns are often called Substantives.
d, A Verb is a word which is capable of asserting something : as, sum,
/ am ; amat, he loves.
Note. — In all modern speech the verb is usually the only word that asserts any-
thing, and a verb is therefore supposed to be necessary to complete an assertion.
Strictly, however, any adjective or noun may, by attributing a quality or giving a
name, make a complete assertion. In the infancy of language there could have been
no other means of asserting, as the verb is of comparatively late development.
e, An Adverb is a word used to express the time, place, or manner of
an assertion or attribute : as, splendide mendax, gloriously false ; hodie natus
est, he was born to-day.
Note. — These same functions are often performed by cases (see §§ 214-217) of
nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, and by phrases or sentences. In fact, all adverbs
were originally cases or phrases, but have become specialized by use.
/. A Preposition is a word which shows the relation between a noun or
pronoun and some other word or words in the same sentence : as, per agros
it, he goes over the fields ; e pliiribus iinum, one out of many.
Note. — Most prepositions are specialized adverbs (cf. § 219). The relations ex-
pressed by prepositions were earlier expressed by case-endings.
12 WORDS AND FORMS [§§ 20-22
gr. A Conjunction is a word which connects words, or groups of words,
without affecting tlieh' grammatical relations : as, et, and ; sed, but.
Note. — Some adrerbs are also used as connectives. These are called Adverbial
Conjunctions or Conjunctive (Relative) Adverbs: as, ubi, where f donee, untU.
ho Interjections are mere exclamations and are not strictly to be classed
as parts of speech. Thus, — heus, Tialloo ! 5, oh !
Note. — Interjections sometimes express an emotion which affects a person or thing
mentioned, and so have a grammatical connection like other words : as, vae victis, woe
to the conqitered (alas fpr the conquered) 1
INFLECTION
21. Latin is an inflected language.
Inflection is a change made in the form of a word to show its
grammatical relations.
a. Inflectional changes sometimes take place in the body of a word, or
at the beginning, but oftener in its termination ; -^
vox, a voice ; vocis, of a voice ; voco, I call ; vocat, he ealls ; vocet, let him call ;
vocavit, he has called^ tangit, he touches^ tetigit, he touched.
h. Terminations of inflection had originally independent meanings which
are now obscured. They correspond nearly to the use of prepositions,
auxiliaries, and personal pronouns in English.
Thus, in vocat, the termination is equivalent to he or she; in vocis, to the
preposition of; and in vocet the change pf vowel signifies a change of mood.
c. Inflectional changes in the body of a verb usually denote relations of
tense or mood, and often correspond to the use of auxiliary verbs in Eng-
lish:—
f rangit, he breaks or is breaking ; fregit, he broke or has broken ; mordet, he
bites; momordit, he bit,'^
22. The inflection of Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Par-
ticiples to denote gender, number, and case is caUed Declension,
and these parts of speech are said to be declined.
. The inflection of Verbs to denote voice, mood, tense, number,
and person is called Conjugation, and the verb is said to be con-
jugated.
Note. — Adjectives are often said to have inflections of comparison. These are,
however, properly stem-formations made by derivation (p. 55, footnote),
1 The only proper inflections of verbs are those of the personal endings ; and the
changes here referred to are strictly changes of stem, but have become a part of the
system of inflections.
§§23-25] ROd^r, STEM, AND BASE 18
23. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections are
not inflected and are called Particles.
Note. — The term Particle is sometimes limited to such words as num, -ne, an (inter-
rogative), non, ne (negative), si (conditional), etc., which are used simply to indicate
the form or construction of a sentence
Root, Stem, and Base
24. The body of a word, to which the terminations are attached,
is called the Stem.
The Stem contains the idea of the word without relations ; but, except
in the first part of a compound (as, arti-fex, artificer), it cannot ordinarily be
used without some te:rmination to express them.i
Thus the stem voc- denotes voice; y/ith -s added it becomes vox, a voice or the
voice, as the subject or agent of an action ; with -is it becomes vocis, and signifies
of a voice.
Note. — The stem is in many forms so united with the termination that a compari-
son with other forms is necessary to determine it.
25. A Root is the simplest form attainable by analysis of a
word into its component parts.
Such a form contains the main idea of the word in a very general sense,
and is common also to other words either in the same language or in kin-
dred languages.2
Thus the root of the stem voc- is voc, which does not mean to call, or I call,
or calling, but merely expresses vaguely the idea of calling, and cannot be used
as a part of speech without terminations. With a- it becomes voca-, the stem of
vocare (to call) ; with av- it is the stem of vocavit (he called) ; with ato- it becomes
the stem of vocatus (called) ; with ation- it becomes the stem of vocationis (of a
calling). With its vowel lengthened it becomes the stem of vox, v6c-is (a voice :
that by which we call). This stem voc-, with -alls added, means belonging to a
voice ; with -iila, a little voice.
Note. — In inflected languages, words are built up from Roots, which at a very
early time were used alone to express ideas, as is now done in Chinese. Roots are
modified into Stems, which, by inflection, become fully formed words. The process by
which roots are modified, in the various forms of derivatives and compounds, is called
Stem-building. The whole of this process is ori.sinally one of composition, by which
significant endings are added one after another to forms capable of pronunciation and
conveying a meaning.
Roots had long ceased to be recognized as such before the Latin existed as a sepa^
rate language. Consequently the forms which we assume as Latin roots never really
existed in Latin, but are the representatives of forms used earlier.
1 Another exception is the imperative second person singular in -e (as, rege).
2 For example, the root sta is found in the Sanskrit tishthdmi, Greek ia-TTjfj.i, Latin
sistere aad stare, German ftc^en, and Ilngiish stand.
14 WORDS AND FORMS [§§26-30
26. The Stem maybe the same as the root: as in due-is, q/" a leader^
fer-t, he hears; but it is more frequently formed from the root —
1. By changing or lengthening its vowel : as in scob-s, sawdust (scab,
shave)', reg-is, of a king (reg, direct); voc-is, of a voice (voc, call).
2. By the addition of a simple suffix (originally another root) ; as in fuga-.
stem of fuga, Jlight (fug + a-) ; regi-s, you rule (reg + stem-ending %-) ;
sini-t, he allows (si + nVo")-^
3. By two or more of these methods : as in duci-t, he leads (dug + stem-
ending %-).
4. By derivation and composition, following the laws of development
peculiar to the language. (See §§ 227 ff.)
27. The Base is that part of a word which is unchanged in
inflection : as, serv- in servus ; mens- in mgnsa ; ign- in ignis.
a» The Base and the Stem are often identical, as in many consonant
stems of nouns (as, reg- in reg-is). If, however, the stem ends in a vowel,
the latter does not appear in the base, but is variously combined with the
inflectional termination. Thus the stem of servus is servo-; that of mensa,
mensa- ; that of ignis, igni-.
28. Inflectional terminations are variously modified by com-
bination with the final vowel or consonant of the Stem, and thus
the various forms of Declension and Conjugation (see §§ 36, 164)
developed.
GENDER
29. The Genders distinguished in Latin are three : Masculine,
Feminine, and Neuter.
30. The gender of Latin nouns is either natural or grammatical.
a, Natural Gender is distinction as to the sex of the object denoted : as,
puer (m.), boy; puella (f.), girl; rex (m.), king; regina (f.), queen.
Note 1. — Many nouns have both a masculine and a feminine form to distinguish
sex: as, cervus, cerva, stag, doe; cliens, clienta, client; victor, victrix, conqueror.
Many designations of persons (as nauta, sailor) usually though not necessarily male
are always treated as masculine. Similarly names of tribes andpeop^e* are masculine :
as, Romani, the Romans; Persae, the Persians.
Note 2. — A few neuter nouns are used to designate persons as belonging to a class :
as, mancipium tuum, your slave (your chattel).
Many pet names of girls and boys are neuter in form : as, Paegnium, Glycerium.
Note 3. — Names of classes or collections of persons may be of any gender: as,
exercitus (m.), acies (f.), and agmen (n.), army; operae (f. plur.), loorkmen; c5piae
(f. plur.), troops; senatus (m.), senate; cohors (f.), cohort; concilium (n.), council.
1 These suflfixes are Indo-European stem-endings.
§§ 30-34] GENERAL RULES OF GENDER 15
b. Grammatical Gender is a formal distinction as to sex where no actual
sex exists in the object. It is shown by the form of the adjective joined
with the noun: as, lapis magnus (m.), a great stone; manus mea (f.), my
hand.
General Rules of Gender
31. Names of Male beings, and of Kivers, Winds, Months, and
Mountains, are maseulme: —
pater, father; luhus, Julius; Tiberis, the Tiber; auster, south wind; lanua-
rius, January ; Apenninus, the Apennines.
Note. — Names of Months are properly adjectives, the masculine noun mensis,
month, being understood : as, lanuarius, January.
a» A few names of Rivers ending in -a (as, Allia), with the Greek names
Lethe and Styx, are feminine ; others are variable or uncertain.
&. Some names of Mountains are feminine or neuter, taking the gender
of their termination : as, Alpes (f.), the Alps; Soracte (n.).
32. Names of Female beings, of Cities, Countries, Plants, Trees,
and Gems, of many Animals (especially Birds), and of most ab-
stract Qualities, d^vQ feminine : —
mater, mother; lulia, Julia; Roma, Rome; Italia, Italy ; rosa, rose; pinus,
pine; sapphirus, sapphire; anas, duck; Veritas, truth.
a. Some names of Towns and Countries are masculine : as, Sulmo, Gabii
(plm\) ; or neuter, as, Tarentum, Illyricum.
b, A few names of Plants and Gems follow the gender of their termina-
tion : as, centaureum (n.), centaury; acanthus (m.), bearsfoot ; opalus (m.),
opal.
Note.' — The gender of most of the above may also be recognized by the termina-
tions, according to the rules given under the several declensions. The names of Roman
women were usually feminine adjectives denoting their gens or house (see § 108. b).
33. Indeclinable nouns, infinitives, terms or phrases used as
nouns, and words quoted merely for their form, are neuter : —
fas, right; nihil, nothing; gummi, gum; scire tuum, your knowledge (to
know) ; triste vale, a sad farewell ; hoc ipsum diu, this very " long.''"'
34. Many nouns may be either masculine or feminine, accord-
ing to the sex of the object. These are said to be of Common
Gender: as, exsul, exile; bos, ox or cow; yarens^ parent.
Note. — Several names of animals have a grammatical gender, independent of sex.
These are called epicene. Thus lepus, hare, is always masculine, and vulpes, fox, is
always feminine.
16 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§36-37
NUMBER AND CASE
35. Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, and Participles are declined
in two Numbers, singular and plural; and in six Cases, nomina-
tive^ genitive^ dative^ accusative^ ablative, vocative,
a» The Nominative is the case of the Subject of a sentence.
h. The Genitive may generally be translated by the English Possessive,
or by the Objective with the preposition of.
c. The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object (§ 274). It may usually
be translated by the Objective with the preposition to ov for.
d. The Accusative is the case of the' Direct Object of a verb (§ 274). It
is used also with many of the prepositions.
e. The Ablative may usually be translated by the Objective with from,
by, with, in, or at. It is often used with prepositions.
/. The Vocative is the case of Direct Address.
g. All the cases, except the nominative and vocative, are used as object-
cases ; and are sometimes called Oblique Cases (pasus ohhqui).
h. In names of towns and a few other words appear traces of another
case (the Locative), denoting the place where : as, Romae, at Rome ; ran, in
the country.
Note. — Still another case, the Instrumental, appears in a few adverbs (§ 215. 4).
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
36. Declension is produced by adding terminations originally significant to differ-
ent forms of stems, vowel or consonant. The various phonetic corruptions in the lan-
guage have given rise to the several declensions. Most of the case-endings, as given
in Latin, contain also the final letter of the stem.
Adjectives are, in general, declined like nouns, and are etyraologically to be classed
with them ; but they have several peculiarities of inflection (see § 109 ff .) .
37. Nouns are inflected in five Declensions, distinguished by
the final letter {characteristic) of the Stem, and by the case-ending
of the Genitive Singular.
Decl. 1
Characteristic a Gen. Sing, ae
2
6 1
3
i or a Consonant is
4
ii us
5
e ei
a. The Stem of a noun may be found, if a consonant stem, by omitting
the case-ending ; if a vowel stem, by substituting for the case-ending the
characteristic vowel.
§§ 38, 39] CASE-ENDINGS OF THE FIVE DECLENSIONS 17
38. The following are General Rules of Declension : —
a. The Vocative is always the same as the Nominative, except in the
singular of nouns and adjectives in -us of the second declension, which have
-e in the vocative. It is not included in the paradigms, unless it differs
from the nominative.
h. In neuters the Nominative and Accusative are always alike, and in
the plural end in -a.
c. The Accusative singular of all masculines and feminines ends in -m ;
the Accusative plural in -s.
dm In the last three declensions (and in a few cases in the others) the
Dative singular ends in -i.
e. The Dative and Ablative plural are always alike.
/. The Genitive plural always ends in -um.
g» Final -1, -o, -u of inflection are always long ; final -a is short, except in
the Ablative singular of the first declension ; final -e is long in the first and
fifth declensions, short in the second and third. Final -is and -us are long in
plural cases.
Case-endings of the Five Declensions
39. The regular Case-endings of the several declensions are
the following: —1
Decl. I Decl. II Decl. Ill Decl. IV Decl. V
Singular
f. m. n. m.,f. n. m. n. f.
f -US -um -s -us -u -es
NoM. -a \
[ (modified stem)
Gen, -ae -i -is -us -ei (-e)
Dat. -ae -5 -I -ui (-ii) -u -el (-e)
Ace. -am -um -um -ettt("im) (likenom.) -um -u -em
Abl. -a -6 -e (-i) -u -e
Voc. -a -e -um (likenom.) -us -u -ea
Plural
N.V. -ae -i -a -es -a, -la -us -ua -es
Gen. -arum -orum -um, -ium -uum -erum
D.Ab. -is -is -ibus -ibus (-ubus) -ebus
Ace. -as -OS -a -es (-is) -a, -la -us -ua -es
1 For ancient, rare, and Greek forms (which are here omitted), see under tiie
several declensions.
18 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§40-43
FIRST DECLENSION (a-STEMS)
40. The Stem of nouns of the First Declension ends in a-. The
Nominative ending is -a (the stem-vowel shortened), except in
Greek nouns.
41. Latin nouns of the First Declension are thus declined : —
OASE-ENDINGS
-a
-ae
-ae
-am
-a
-ae
-arum
-IS
a. The Latin has no article ; hence stella may mean a star, the star, or
simply star.
Gender in the First Declension
42. Nouns of the first declension are Feminine.
Exceptions : Nouns masculine from their signification : as, nauta, sailor. So a
few family or personal names: as, Murena, Dolabella, Scaevolai; also, Hadria, the
Adriatic.
Case-Forms in the First Declension
43. a. The genitive singular anciently ended in -ai (dissyllabic), which
is occasionally found : as, aulai. The same ending sometimes occurs in the-
dative, but only as a diphthong.
1 Scaevola is really a feminine adjective, used as a noun, meaning little left hand;
but, being used as the name of a man (originally a nickname), it becailie masculine.
Original genders are often thus changed by a change in the sense of a noun.
Stella, F., star
Stem stella-
SlNGULAR
NOM.
Stella
a Star
Gen.
stellae
of a star
Bat.
stellae
to ov for a star
Ago.
stellam
a star
Abl.
Stella
with, from, by, etc. a star
Plural
NOM.
stellae
stars
Gen.
stellarum
of stars
DAT.
stellTfl
to or for stars
Acc.
Stellas
stars
Abl.
stellis
with, from, hy, etc. stars
§§ 43, 44]
FIRST DECLENSION (^-STEMS)
19
h. An old genitive in -as is preserved in the M^ord familias, often used in
the combinations pater (mater, filius, filia) familias, father, etc., of a family
(plur. patres familias or familiarum).
c. The Locative form for the singular ends in -ae ; for the plural in -is (cf .
p. o4, footnote): as, Romae, at Rome ; Athenis, at Athens.
d. The genitive plural is sometimes found in -um instead of -arum, espe-
cially in Greek patronymics, as, Aeneadum, sons of jEneas, and in compounds
with -cola and -gena, signifying dwelling and descent : as, caelicolum, celes-
tials ; Troiugenum, sons of Troy ; so also in the Greek nouns amphora and
drachma.
e. The dative and ablative plural of dea, goddess, filia, daughter, end in
an older form -abus (deabus, filiabus) to distinguish them from the corre-
sponding cases of deus, god, and filius, son (deis, filiis). So rarely with other
words, as, liberta, freed-woman ; mula, she-mule ; equa, mare. But, except
when the two sexes are mentioned together (as in formulas, documents,
etc.), the form in -is is preferred in all but dea and filia.
Note 1. — The old ending of the ablative singular (-ad) is sometimes retained in
early Latin: as, praidad, booty (later, praeda).
Note 2. — In the dative and ablative plural -eis for -is is sometimes found, and -iis
(as in taeniis) is occasionally contracted to -is (taenis) ; so regularly in words in -aia (as,
BaisfromBaiae).
Greek Nouns of the First Declension
44. Many nouns of the First Declension borrowed from the
Greek are entirely Latinized (as, aula, court) i but others retain
traces of their Greek case-forms in the singular.
Electra, f.
synopsisj F.
art of music, f.
NOM.
Electra (-a)
epitome
musica (-e)
Gen.
Electrae
epitomes
miisicae (-es)
Dat.
Electrae
epitomae
musicae
Ace.
Electram (-an)
epitomen
miisicam (-en)
Abl.
Electra
epitome
miisica (-e)
Andromache, f.
jEneas, m.
Persian, M.
NoM.
Andromache (-a)
Aeneas
Perses (-a)
Gen.
Andromaches (-ae)
Aeneae
Persae
DAT.
Andromachae
Aeneae
Persae
Ace.
Andromachen (-am)
Aenean (-am)
Persen (-am)
Abl.
Andromache (-a)
Aenea
Perse (-a)
Voc.
Andromache (-a)
Aenea (-a)
Persa
20 DECLENSION OE NOUNS [§§44-46
Anchises, m.
son of ^Eneas, M.
comet, M.
NOM.
Anchisgs
Aeneades (-a)
cometes (-a)
Gen.
Anchisae*
Aeneadae
cometae
DAT.
Anchisae
Aeneadae
cometae
Ace.
AncliTsen (-am)
Aeneaden
cometgn (-am)
Abl.
Anchise (-a)
Aeneade (-a)
cometa (-e)
Yog.
Anchise (-a, -a)
Aeneade (-a)
cometa
There are (besides proper names) about thirty-five of these words, several being
names of plants or arts : as, crambe, cabbage ; musice, music. Most have also regular
Latin forms: as, cometa; but the nominative sometimes has the a long.
a. Greek forms are found only in the singular; the plural, when it
occurs, is regular : as, cometae, -arum, etc.
h. Many Greek nouns vary between the first, the second, and the third
declensions : as, Bootae (genitive of Bootes, -is), Thucydidas (accusative plu-
ral of Thiicydides, -is). See § 52. a and § 81.
Note. — The Greek accusative Scipiadam, from Scipiades, descendant of the Scipios,
is found in Horace.
SECOND DECLENSION (<?-STEMS)
45. The Stem of nouns of the Second Declension ends in 5-:
as, virO" (stem of vir, man)^ servo- (stem of servus or servos, slave),
bello- (stem of bellum, war).
a. The Nominative is formed from the stem by adding s in masculines
and feminines, and m in neuters, the vowel 6 being weakened to fi (see
§§ 6. a, 46. N.i).
b» In most nouns whose stem ends in r5- the s is not added in the Nomi-
native, but is lost, and e intrudes before r,^ if not already present : as,
ager, stem agr5- ^ ; cf . puer, stem puero-.
Exceptions : erus, hesperus, iuniperus, moms, numerus, taurus, umerus, uterus,
virus, and many Greek nouns.
c. The stem-vowel 5 has a variant form e,^ which is preserved in the
Latin vocative singular of nouns in -us : as, serve, vocative of servus, slave.
Note. — In composition this S appears as i. Thus, — belli-ger, warlike (from bello/e-,
stem of bellum, war).
46. Nouns of the Second Declension in -us (-os) and -um (-om)
are thus declined : —
1 Compare the English chamber from French chambre.
2 Compare Greek dyp6s, which shows the original o of the stem.
« By so-called Ablaut (see § 17. a).
§§ 46, 47]
SECOND DECLENSION (0-STEMS)
21
servus, m,, slave
bellum, N., war
Pompeius, m., Pompey
Stem servo-
Stem bello-
Stem Pompeio-
SlNGULAR
CASE-ENDINGS CASE-ENDINGS
NOM.
servus (-os)
-US (-os) bellum
-um
Pompgius
Gen.
servi
-i
belli
-i
Pomp§i
Dat.
servo
-6
bello
-6
Pomp§i6
Ace.
servum (-om)
-um (-om) bellum
-um
Pompgium
Abl.
servo
-5
beUo
-6
Pompeio
Voc.
serve
-e
bellum
-um
Pompgi (-ei)
Plural
NOM.
servi
-1
bella
-a
Pompgi
Gen.
servorum
-orum
bellorura
-orum
Pompeiorum
Dat.
servis
-Is
bellis
-is
Pomp§is
Ace.
servos
-OS
bella
-a
Pompeios
Abl,
servis
-IS
bellis
-is
Pompeis
Note 1. — The earlier forms for nominative and accusative were -os, -om, and these
were always retained after u and v up to the end of the Republic. The terminations
s and m are sometimes omitted in inscriptions : as, Cornelio for Cornelios, Cornehom.
Note 2. — Stems in quo-, like equo-, change qu to c before u. Thus, — ecus (earlier
equos), equi, equo, ecum (earlier equom), eque. Modern editions disregard this principle.
47. Nouns of the Second Declension in -er and -ir are thus de-
clined : —
U.
puer, M., boy
ager, m, field
vir, M., man
Stem puero-
Stem agro-
SlNGULAR
Stem viro-
CASE-ENDINGS
NOM.
puer
ager
vir
Gen.
pueri
agri
viri
-i
Dat.
puero
agro
viro
-6
Aee.
puerum
agrum
virum
-um
Abl.
puero
agro
Plural
viro
-6
NOM.
pueri
agri
viri
-i
Gen.
puerorum
agrorum
virorum
-onim
Dat.
pueris
agris
viiis
-is
Aee.
pueros
agros
viros
-6s
Abl.
pueris
agris
viris
-is
Note. — When e belongs to the stem, as in puer, it is retained throughout; other-
wise it appears only in the nominative and vocative singular, as in ager.
22 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§48,49
Gender in the Second Declension
48. Nouns ending in -us (-os), -er, -ir, are Masculine ; those end-
ing in -um (-on) are Neuter.
Exceptions: Names of countries and towns in -us (-os) are Feminine: as,
Aegyptus, Corintlius. Also many names of plants and gems, with the following :
alvus, belly ; carbasus, linen (pi. carbasa, sails, n.) ; colus, distaff ; humus, ground;
vannus, winnowlng-shovel.
Many Greek nouns retain their original gender : as, arctus (f, ), tJie Polar Bear ;
methodus (f.), method.
a. The following in -us are Neuter ; their accusative (as with all neuters)
is the same as the nominative : pelagus, sea ; virus, poison ; vulgus (rarely
M.), the crowd. They are not found in the plui-al, except pelagus, which has
a rare nominative and accusative plural pelage.
Note. — The nominative plural neuter cete, sea monsters, occurs; the nominative
singular cetus occurs in Vitruvius.^
Case-Forms in the Second Declension
49. a. The Locative form of this declension ends for the singular in -i :
as, humi, on the ground ; Corinthi, at Corinth ; for the plural, in -is : as,
Philippis, at Philippi (cf. p. 34, footnote).
b. The genitive of nouns in -ius or -ium ended, until the Augustan Age,
in a single -i : as, fill, of a son ; Pompei, of Pompey (Pompeius) ; but the
accent of the nominative is retained: as, inge'ni, of genius?-
c. Proper names in -ius have -i in the vocative, retaining the accent of
the nominative : as, Vergili. So also, filius, son ; genius, divine guardian : as,
audi, mi fill, hear^ my son.
Adjectives in -ius form the vocative in -ie, and some of these are occa-
sionally used as nouns : as, Lacedaemonie, Spartan.
Note. — Greek names in -ius have the vocative -ie: as, Lyrcius, vocative L3rrcie.
d. The genitive plural often has -um or (after v) -om (cf. § 6. a) instead
of -orum, especially in the poets : as, deum, superum, divom, of the gods;
virum, of men. Also in compounds of vir, and in many words of money,
measure, and weight : as, Sevirum, of the Seviri ; nummum, of coins; iiigerum,
of acres.
e. The original ending of the ablative singular (-od) is sometimes found
in early Latin : as, Gnaivod (later, Gnaeo), Cneius.
/. Proper names in -aius, -eius, -dius (as, Aurunculeius, B6i), are declined
like Pompeius.
1 The genitive in -ii occurs once in Virgil, and constantly in Ovid, but was probably
unknown to Cicero.
49-52]
SECOND DECLENSION (0-STEMS)
23
g, Deus (m.), god, is thus declined: —
Singular Plukai.
NoM. deus del(dii), di
Gen. dei deonim, deum
Dat. deo dels (diis), dia
Ace. deum deos
Abl. deo dels (diis), dis
Note. — The vocative singular of deus does not occur in classic Latin, but is said
to have been dee ; deus (like the nominative) occurs in the Vulgate. For the genitive
plural, divum or divom (from divus, divine) is often used.
50. The following stems in ero-, in which e belongs to the stem,
retain the e throughout and are declined like puer (§ 47) : —
adulter, adulterer; gener, son-in-law; paer, hoy ;
socer, father-in-law ; vesper, evening ; Liber, Bacchus.
Also, the adjective liber, free, of which liberi, children, is the plural (§ 111. a),
and compounds in -fer and -ger (stem fero-, gero-) : as, lucifer, morning star ;
armiger, squire.
a. An old nominative socerus occurs. So vocative puere, toy, as if from
f puerus (regularly puer).
h, Vir, man, has genitive viri ; the adjective satur, sated, has saturi ; ves-
per, evening, has ablative vespere (locative vesperi, in the evening).
c. Mulciber, Vulcan, has -beri and -bri in the genitive. The barbaric
names Hiber and Celtiber retain e throughout.
51. The following, not having e in the stem, insert it in the
nominative singular and are declined like ager (§ 47)
ager, field, stem agro- ;
aper, hoar ;
arbiter, judge ;
auster, south wind ;
cancer, crah ;
caper, goat;
coluber, snake;
conger, sea eel ;
culter, knife;
faber, smith;
fiber, heavier;
liber, hook;
magister, master;
minister, servant;
oleaster, wild olive ;
onager (-grus), wild ass;
scomber (-brus), mackerel.
Greek Nouns of the Second Declension
52. Greek nouns of the Second Declension end in -os, -6s, mas-
culine or feminine, and in -on neuter.
They are mostly proper names and are declined as follows in
the Singular, the Plural, when found, being regular : —
24 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§52-55
mythos, m.
Athos, M.
Delos, F.
ilion, N.
fable
Athos
Singular
Belos
Ilium
NOM.
mythos
Athos (-6)
Delos
Tlion
Gen.
mythi
Atho (-1)
Deli
llii
Dat.
myths
Atho
Delo
Ilio
Ace.
mython
Athon (-um)
Delon (-um)
Ilion
Abl.
mytho
Atho
Dels
Ilio
Voc.
mythe
Athos
Dele
Ilion
a. Many names in -es belonging to the third declension have also a
genitive in -i: as, Thiicydides, Xhucydidi (compare §44. h).
b. Several names in -er have also a nominative in -us: as, Teucer or
Teucrus. The name Panthus has the vocative Panthu (§ 81. 3).
c. The genitive plural of certain titles of books takes the Greek ter-
mination -5n : as, Georgicon, of the Georgics.
d. The termination 'Oe (for Greek -oe) is sometimes found in the nomi-
native plural: as, Adelphoe, the Adelphi (a play of Terence).
e. Greek names in -eus (like Orpheus) have forms of the second and
third declensions (see § 82).
THIRD DECLENSION (CONSONANT AND /-STEMS)
53. Nouns of the Third Declension end in a, e, i, 6, y, c, 1, n,
r, s, t, X.
54. Stems of the Third Declension are classed as follows : —
Mute stems.
Liquid and Nasal stems.
Pure i-stems.
I. Consonant Stems \ '
[t
II. I-Stems 1 , ,r. J , ,
Mixed i-stems.
55. The Nominative is always derived from the stem.
The variety in form in the Nominative is due to simple modi-
fications of the stem, of which the most important are —
1. Combination of final consonants : as of c (or g) and s to form x ; dux,
ducis, stem due-; rex, regis, stem reg-.
2. Omission of a final consonant : as of a final nasal ; leo, leonis, stem
leon-; oratiS, orationis, stem oration-.
3. Omission of a final vowel : as of final i ; calcar, calcaris, stem calcari-.
4. Change of vowel in the final syllable : as of a to e ; princeps (for -caps),
principis, stem princip- (for -cap-).
§§ 66, 57] THIRD DECLENSION: CONSONANT STEMS
25
Consonant Stems
Mute Stems
56. Masculine and Feminine Nouns with mute stems form the
Nominative by adding s to the stem.
A labial (p) is retained before s : as, princep-s.
A lingual (t, d) is dropped before s : as, miles (stem milit-), custos (stem
custod-).
A palatal (c, g) unites with s to form x : as, dux (for f duc-s), rex (for
freg-s).
a. In dissyllabic stems the final syllable often shows e in the nomina-
tive and i in the stem : as, princeps, stem princip- (for -cap-).
57. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : —
princeps, c, chief
radix, F., root
miles, M., soldier
Stem princip-
Stem radic-
SlNGULAR
Stem milit-
/I A Qv intfTMiw/^a
NOM.
princeps
radix
miles
-s
Gen.
prmcipis
radicis
militis
-is
Dat.
principi
radici
militi
-i
Ace.
prmcipem
radicem
militem
-em
Abl.
principe
radice
Plural
milite
-e
NOM.
prmcipes
radices
milites
-es
Gen.
principnm
radicum
militum
-um
Dat.
principibus
radicibus
militibus
-ibus
Ace.
principes
radices
milites
-es
Abl.
principibus
radicibus
militibus
-ibus
custos, c, guard
dux, c, leader
rex, M., king
Stem cust5d-
Stem duc-
Stem reg-
SlNGULAR
OASE-ENDINGS
NOM.
ciistos
dux
rex
-s
Gen.
custodis
duels
regis
-is
Dat.
ciistodi
duel
regi
-I
Ace.
cdstodeni
ducem
regem
-em
Abl.
ciistode
duce
rege
-e
26
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
[§§ 67-60
Plural
NOM.
custodgs
ducgs
rgges
■«s
Gen.
custodum
ducum
regum
-um
DAT.
custodibus
ducibus
regibus
-ibus
Ace.
custodes
duces
reges
-es
Abl.
custodibus
ducibus
regibus
-ibus
a. In like manner are declined —
aries, -etis (m.), ram; comes, -itis (c), companion; lapis, -idis (m.), stone;
iudex, -icis (m..), judge; cornix, -ids (r.), raven, and many other nouns.
58. Most mute stems are Masculine or Feminine. Those that
are neuter have for the Nominative the simple stem. But, —
a. Lingual Stems (t, d) ending in two consonants drop the final mute :
as, cor (stem cord-), lac (stem lact-). So also stems in at- from the Greek :
as, poema (stem poemat-).
b. The stem capit- shows u in the nominative (caput for fcapot).
59. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : —
cor, N., heart
caput, N., head
poema, -s., poem
Stem cord-
Stem capit-
SlNGULAR
Stem poemat-
CASE-ENDINGS
NOM.
cor
caput
poema
Gen.
cordis
capitis
poematis
-is
DAT.
cordi
capiti
poemati
-i
Ace,
cor
caput
poema
Abl.
corde
capite
Plural
poemate
«
NoM.
corda
capita
poemata
-a
Gen.
capitum
poematum
-um
DAT.
cordibus
capitibus
poematibus
-ibus
Aec.
corda
capita
poemata
-a
Abl.
cordibus
capitibus
poematibus
-ibus
60. The following irregularities require notice : —
a. Greek neuters with nominative singular in -a (as poema) frequently
end in -is in the dative and ablative plural, and rarely in -orum in the geni-
tive plural; as, poematis (for poematibus), poematorum (for poematum).
b. A number of monosyllabic nouns with mute stems want the geni-
tive plural (like cor). See § 103. ^. 2.
§§61,62] THIRD DECLENSION: CONSONANT STEMS
27
Liquid and Nasal Stems (/, «, r)
61. In Masculine and Feminine nouns with liquid and nasal
stems the Nominative is the same as the stem.
Exceptions are the following : —
1. Stems in on- drop n in the nominative : as in legio, stem legion-.
2. Stems in din- and gin- drop n and keep an original 5 in the nominative : as
in Virgo, stem virgin-. ^
3. Stems in in- (not din- or gin-) retain n and have e instead of i in the nom-
inative : as in comicen, stem comicin-.i
4. Stems in tr- have -ter in the nominative : as, pater, stem patr-.^
62. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : —
consul, M. , consul leo, m. , lion virgS, f. , maiden pater, m. , father
Stem consul- Stem leon- Stem virgin- Stem patr-
Singular
NOM.
consul
leo
virgo
Gen.
consulis
leonis
virginis
DAT.
consul!
leoni
virgin!
Ace.
consulem
leon em
virginem
Abl.
consule
leone .
virgin e
Plural
NoM.
consules
leones
virgines
Gen.
consulum
leonum
virginum
DAT.
consulibus
leonibus
virginibus
Ace.
consules
leones
virgines
Abl.
consulibus
leonibus
virginibus
CASE-ENDINGS
pater
patris -is
patri
-i
patrem
-em
patre
-e
patres
patrum
patribus
patres
patribus
-es
-um
-ibus
-es
-ibus
Note 1. — Stems in 11-, rr- (n.) lose one of their liquids in the nominative: as, far,
farris; mel, mellis.
Note 2. — A few masculine and feminine stems have a nominative in -s as well as
in -r : as, honos or honor, arbos or arbor.
Note 3. — Canis, dofj, and iuvenis, youth, have -is in the nominative.
1 These differences depend in part upon special phonetic laws, in accordance with
which vowels in weakly accented or unaccented syllables are variously modified, and
in part upon the influence of analogy.
2 These, no doubt, had orieinally ter- in the stem, hut this had become weakened
to tr- in some of the cases even in the parent speech. In Latin only the nominative and
vocative singular show the e. But cf . Maspitris and Maspiteris (Ma[r]s-piter) , quoted by
Priscian as old forms.
28
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
63-65
63. In Neuter nouns with liquid or nasal stems the Nomina-
tive is the same as the stem.
Exceptions : 1. Stems in in- have e instead of i in the nominative : as in
nomen, stem nomin-.
2. Most stems in er- and or- have -us in the nominative : as, genus, stem gener-.i
64. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : —
nomen, n., name genus, n., race corpus, n., body aequor, x., sea
Stem nomin- Stem gener- Stem corpor- Stem aequor-
SlNGULAR
NOM.
nomen
genus
corpus
aequor
Gen.
nominis
generis
corporis
aequoris
Dat.
nomini
generi
corpori
aequori
Ace.
nomen
genus
corpus
aequor
Abl.
nomine
genere
Plural
corpore
aequore
Nom.
nomina
genera
corpora
aequora
Gen.
nominum
generura
corporum
aequorura
Dat.
norainibus
geneiibus
corporibuB
aequoiibus
Ace,
nSmina
genera
corpora
aequora
Abl.
nominibua
generibus
corporibus
aequoiibus
So also are dechned opus, -eris, work; pignus, -eris or -oris, pledge, etc.
Note. — The following real or apparent liquid and nasal stems have the genitive
plural in -ium, and are to be classed with the i-stems: imber, linter, uter, venter; glis,
mas, mus, [fren] ; also vires (plural of vis: see §79).
1-Stems
65. Nouns of this class include —
1. Pure i-Stems :
a. Masculine and Feminine parisyllabic ^ nouns in -is and four in -er.
6. Neuters in -e, -al, and -ar.
2. Mixed i-Stems, declined in the singular like consonant stems,
in the plural like i-stems.
1 These were originally s-stems (cf . § 15. 4) .
2 I.e. having the same number of syllables in the nominative and genitive singulai-.
§§ CG-08]
THIRD DECLENSION: PURE I-STEMS
29
Pure ^Sterns
66. Masculine and Feminine parisyllabic nouns in -is form the
Nominative singular by adding s to the stem.
Four stems iu bri- and tri- do not add s to form the nominative, but drop i
and insert e before r. These are imber, linter, uter, venter.
67. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : • —
sitis, F., thirst
turris, f., tower
ignis, M.,jire
imber, m., rain
Stem siti-
Stem turri-
Stem igni-
Stem imbri-
SlNGULAR
NOM.
sitis
turris
ignis
imber
Gen.
sitis
turris
ignis
imbris
Dat.
siti
turri
ignl
imbri
Ace.
sitim
turrim (-em)
ignem
imbrem
Abl.
sitI
turri (-e)
igni (-e)
imbri (-e)
Plural
NOM.
turres
ignes
imbres
Gen.
turrium
ignium
imbrium
Dat.
turribus
ignibus
imbribus
Ace.
turris (-es)
ignis (-es)
imbris (-es)
Abl.
turribus
ignibus
imbribus
68. In Neuters the Nominative is the same as the stem, with
final i changed to e: as, mare, stem mari-. But most nouns ^ in
which the i of the stem is preceded by al or ar lose the final vowel
and shorten the preceding a : as, animal, stem animali-.^
a, Neuters in -e, -al, and -ar have -i in the ablative singular, -ium in the
genitive plural, and -ia in the nominative and accusative plural : as, animal,
animali, -ia, -ium.
1 Such are animal, bacchanal^ bidental, capital, cervical, cubital, lupercal, minutal,
puteal, quadrantal, toral, tribunal, vectigal; calcar, cochlear, exemplar, lacunar, laquear,
lucar, luminar, lupanar, palear, pulvinar, torcular, Cf. the plurals dentalia, frontalia,
genualia, sponsalia ; altaria, plantaria, specularia, talaria ; also many names of festivals,
as, Saturnalia.
2 Exceptions are augurale, collare, focale, navale, penetrale, ramale, scQtale, tibiale;
dlveare, capillare, cochleare.
so
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
[§§ 69-71
69. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : —
sedile,N., seai
animal, n. , animal
calcar, m.^spur
Stem sedili-
Stem animali-
SlNGULAR
Stem calcari-
OASE-ENDINGS
NOM.
sedile
animal
calcar
-e or —
Gen.
sedilis
animalis
calcaris
-is
DAT.
sedili
animali
calcari
-i
Ace.
sedile
animal
calcar
-e or —
Abl.
sedili
animali
Plural
calcan
-i
NoM.
sedilia
animalia
calcaria
-ia
Gen.
sedilinm
animalium
calcarium
-ium
DAT.
sedllibus
animalibus
calcaribus
-ibus
Ace.
sedilia
animalia
calcaria
-ia
Abl.
sedllibus
animalibus
calcaribus
-ibus
Mixed /-Stems
70. Mixed i-stems are either original i-stems that have lost their
i-forms in the singular, or consonant stems that have assumed i-
forms in the plural.
Note. — It is sometimes impossible to distinguish between these two classes.
71. Mixed i-stems have -em in the accusative and -e in the abla-
tive singular, -ium in the genitive ^ and -is or -es in the accusative
plural. They include the following: —
1. Nouns in -es, gen. -is.^
2. Monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a consonant : as, ars, pons, arx.
3. Polysyllables in -ns or -rs : as, aliens, cohors.
4. Nouns in -tas, genitive -tatis (genitive plural usually -um) ^ : as, civitas.
5. Penates, optimates, and nouns denoting birth or abode (patrials) in -as,
-is, plural -ates, -ites : as, Arpinas, plural Arpinates ; Quiris, plural Quirites.
6. The following monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a vowel : d5s,
fraus, glis, lis, mas, miis, nix, nox, strix, vis.
1 There is much variety in the practice of the ancients, soQie of these words having
-ium, some -um, and some both. .
2 These are acinaces, aedes, alces, caedes, cautes, clades, compages, contages, fames,
feles, fides (plural), indoles, labes, lues, meles, moles, niibes, palumbes, proles, propages,
pubes, sedes, saepes, sordes, strages, strues, suboles, tabes, torques, tudes, vates. vehes,
vepres, verres, vulpes ; aedes has also nominative aedis.
§§72-75] THIRD DECLENSION: MIXED J-STEMS
72. Nouns of this class are thus declined : —
31
nuhes,F., cloud urhs, f., city nox,F., night c\iens,Tii., client aetas, f., a^e
Stem nub(i)- Stem arb(i)- Stem noct(i)- Stem client(i)- Stem aetat(i)-
Singular
NOM.
nubes
urbs
nox
cliens
aetas
Gen.
nubis
urbis
noctis
clientis
aetatis
Dat.
nubi
urbi
nocti
client!
aetati
Ace.
nubem
urbem
noctem
clientem
aetatem
Abl.
nube
urbe
nocte
Plural
cliente
aetate
NOM.
nubes
urbes
noctes
clientes
aetates
Gen.
nubium
urbium
noctium
clientium ^
aetatum ^
DAT.
nubibus
urbibus
noctibus
clientibus
aetatibus
Ace.
nubis(-es)
urbis(-es)
noctis (-es)
clientis (-es)
aetatis (-es)
Abl.
nubibus
urbibus
noctibus
clientibus
aetatibus
Summary of /-Stems
73. The i-declension was confused even to the Romans themselves, nor was it stable
at all periods of the language, early Latin having i-forms which afterwards disap-
peared. There was a tendency in nouns to lose the i-forms, in adjectives to gain them.
The nominative plural (-is) 3 was most thoroughly lost, next the accusative singular
(-im), next the ablative (-i) ; while the genitive and accusative plural (-ium, -is) were
retained in almost all.
74. I-stems show the i of the stem in the following forms : —
a. They have the genitive plural in -ium (but some monosyllables lack
it entirely). For a few exceptions, see § 78.
b. All neuters have the nominative and accusative plural in -ia.
c. The accusative plural (m. or f.) is regularly -is.
(l» The accusative singular (m. or f.) of a few ends in -im (§ 75).
e. The ablative singular of aU neuters, and of many masculines and
feminines, ends in -i (see § 76).
75. The regular case-ending of the Accusative singular of i-
stems (M. or F.) would be -im : as, sitis, sitim (cf . stella, -am ; servus,
-um); but in most nouns this is changed to -em (following the
consonant declension).
1 Rarely clientum. 2 Also aetatium. Cf. § 71. 4.
3 An old, though not the original, ending (see p. 32, footnote 2>.
32 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§75-78
a. The accusative in -im is found exclusively —
1. In Greek nouns and in names of rivers.
2. In buris, cucumis, ravis, sitis, tussis, vis.
3. In adverbs in -tim (being accusative of nouns in -tis), as, partim ; and in
amussim.
h. The accusative in -im is found sometimes in febris, puppis, restis,
turris, seciiris, sementis, and rarely in many other words.
76. The regular form of the Ablative singular of i-stems would
be -i : as, sitis, siti ; but in most nouns this is changed to -e.
a. The ablative in -i is found exclusively —
1. In nouns having the accusative in -im (§ 75) ; also secfiris.
2. In the following adjectives used as nouns : aequalis, annalis, aqualis, con-
sularis, gentilis, molaris, primipllaris, tribulis.
3. In neuters in -e, -al, -at . except baccar, iubar, rete, and sometimes mare.
h. The ablative in -i is found sometimes —
1. In avis, clavis, febris, finis, ignis,^ imber, lux, navis, ovis, pelvis, puppis,
sementis, strigilis, turris, and occasionally in other words.
2. In the following adjectives used as nouns ; affinis, bipennis, canalis, famili-
aris, natalis, rivalis, sapiens, tridens, triremis, vocalis.
Note 1. — The ablative of fames is always fame (§ 105. e). The defective mane has
sometimes mani (§ 103. 6. n.) as ablative.
Note 2. — Most names of towns in -e (as, Praeneste, Tergeste) and Soracte, a moun-
tain, have the ablative in -e. Caere has Caerete.
Note 3. — Canis and iuvenis have cane, iuvene.
77. The regular Nominative plural of i-stems is -es,^ but -is is
occasionally found. The regular Accusative plural -is is common,
but not exclusively used in any word. An old form for both
cases is -eis (diphthong).
78. The following have -um (not -ium) in the genitive plural:
1. Always, — canis, iuvenis,^ ambages, mare (once only, otherwise want-
ing), volucris ; regularly, sedes, vates.
2. Sometimes, — apis, caedes, clades, mensis, strues, suboles.
3. Very rarely, — patrials in -as, -atis; -is, -itis ; as, Arpinas, Arpinatum;
Samnis, Samnitum.
1 Always in the formula aqua et Igni interdici (§ 401).
2 The Indo-European ending of the nominative plural, -5s (preserved in Greek in
consonant stems, as 6pTv^, Bprvy-es), contracts with a stem-vowel and gives -es in the
Latin i-declension (cf. the Greek plural ^ets). This -es was extended to consonant
gtems in Latin, • Canis and iuv«Jis are really n-steras.
79]
TfflRD DECLENSION: IRREGULAR NOUNS
33
Irregular Nouns of the Third Declension
79. In many nouns the stem is irregularly modified in the nomi-
native or other cases. Some peculiar forms are thus declined : —
bos, c.
senex, m.
caro, F.
OS, N.
VIS, F.
ox, cow
old man
Sing
flesh
ULAR
bone
force
NOM.
bos
senex
caro
OS
vis
Gen.
b6\is
senis
carnis
ossis
vis (rare)
Dat.
bovi
seni
carni
ossi
vi (rare)
Ace.
bovem
senem
carnen]
L
OS
vim
Abl.
bove
sene
carne
osse
vi
cattle
Plural
strength
NOM.
boves
senes
carries
ossa
virgs
Gen.
bourn
senum
cariiium
ossium
virium
Dat.
bobus (bubus)
senibus
carnibus
ossibus
viribus
Ace.
bovgs
sengs
carnes
ossa
viris (-gs)
Abl.
bobus (bubus)
senibus
carnibus
ossibus
vii'ibus
sus, c.
luppiter,
M.
nix, F.
iter, N.
swine
Jupiter
snow
march
Singular
NOM,
sus
luppiter '
I
nix
iter
Gen.
suis
lovis
nivis
itineris
Dat.
sui
lovi
nivi
itineri
Ace.
suem
lovem
nivem
iter
Abl.
sue
love
nive
itinere
Plural
NOM
sugs
nives
itinera
Gen.
suum
nivium
itinerum
Dat,
subus
(suibus)
nivibus
itineribua
Ace.
sues
nives
\
itinera
Abl,
subus
(suibus)
nivibus
itineribus
1 Also lupiter.
34 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§ ?y-81
a. Two vowel-stems in u-, grii- and su-, which follow the third declension,
add s in the nominative, and are inflected like mute stems : griis has also
a nominative gruis ; siis has both suibus and subus in the dative and ablative
plural, griis has only gruibus.
h. In the stem bov- (bou-) the diphthong ou becomes 6 in the nominative
(bos, bSvis).
In nav- (nau-) an 1 is added (navis, -is), and it is declined like turris (§ 67).
In ISv- (= Zevs) the diphthong (ou) becomes u in lii-piter (for -pater),
genitive ISvis, etc. ; but the form luppiter is preferred.
c. In iter, itineris (n.), iecur, iecinoris (iecoris) (n.), supellex, supellectilis
(f.), the nominative has been formed from a shorter stem; in senex, senis,
from a longer ; so that these words show a combination of forms from two
distinct stems.
d. In nix, nivis the nominative retains a g from the original stem, the g
uniting with s, the nominative ending, to form x. In the other cases the
stem assumes the form niv- and it adds i in the genitive pluraL
e. Vas (n.), vasis, keeps s throughout ; plural vasa, vasorum. A dative
plural vasibus also occurs. There is a rare singular vasum.
The Locative Case
80. The Locative form for nouns of the third declension ends
in the singular in -i or -e, in the plural in -ibus i as, riiri, in the
country; Carthagini or Carthagine, at Carthage; Trallibus, at Tralles}
Greek Nouns of the Third Declension
81. Many nouns originally Greek — mostly proper names —
retain Greek forms of inflection. So especially —
1. Genitive singular in -os, as, tigridoSc
2. Accusative singular in -a, as, aethera.
3. Vocative singular like the stem, as, Pericle, Orpheu, Atla.
4. Nominative plural in -es, as, heroes.
5. Accusative plural in -as, as, herdas.
1 The Indo-European locative singular ended in -i, which became -5 in Latin. Thus
the Latin ablative in -e is, historically considered, a locative. The Latin ablative in
-i (from -id) was an analogical formation (cf . -a from -ad, -o from -od), properly belong-
ing to i-stemso With names of towns and a few other words, a locative function was
ascribed to forms in -i (as, Carthagini), partly on the analogy of the real locative of
o-stems (as, Corinthi, § 49. a) ; but forms in -e also survived in this use. The plural
-bus is properly dative or ablative, but in forms like Trallibus it has a locative func-
tionc Cf . Philippis (§ 49, a), in which the ending -is is, historically considered, eithei
locative, or instrumental, or both, and Athenis (§ 43. c), in which the ending is formed
on the analogy of o-stems.
S§ »2, 83]
THIRD DECLENSION: GREEK NOUNS
36
82.
Some of these forms are seen in the following examples : —
NOM.
Gen.
DAT.
Ace.
Abl.
herds, m., hero iampas, f., torch basis, f., base
Stem hero- Stem lampad- Stem basi-
SlNGULAR
Iampas
lampados
lampadi
lampada
lampade
tigris, c, tiger nais, f., naiad
Stem { ^}^^^' Stem naid-
Nom.
Gen.
D.,A.i
Ace.
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
Voc.
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
Voc.
heros
herois
heroi
heroa
heroe
basis
baseos
basi
basin
r tigrid-
l tigri-
tigris nais
tigris (-idos) naidos
tigri naidi
tigrin(-ida) naida
tigri(-ide) naide
Plural
herogs lampadgs bases tigres naidgs
heroum larapadum basiiim(-e6n) tigrium naidum
heroibus lampadibus basibus tigribus naidibus
heroSs lampad&s basis (-eis) tigris (-idSs) naidSs
Dido
Didoiiis(Didus)
Didoni(Dld6)
Didonem(-6)
Didone(-6)
Dido
Orpheus
Orphei(-e6s)
Orphei(-e6)
Orphea(-um)
Orpheo
Orpheu
Proper Names
Simois
Simoeiitis
Simoenti
Simoenta
Simoente
Simois
Pericles
Periclis(-i)
Pericli(-i)
Periclem(-ea, -en)
Pericle
Pericles (-e)
Capys
Capyos
Capyl
Capyn
Capye
Capy
Paris
Paridis
Paridi
fParidem,
Parini(-in)
Paride, Pari
Pari
Note. — The regular Latin forms may be used for most of the above.
83. Other peculiarities are the following : —
a, Delphinus, -i (m.), has also the form delphin, -mis ; Salamis, -is (f.),
has ace. Salamina.'
h. Most stems in id- (nom. -is) often have also the forms of i-stems : as,
tigris, gen. -idis (-idos) or -is ; ace. -idem (-ida) or -im (-in) ; abl. -ide or -i.
But many, including most feminine proper names, have ace. -idem (-ida),
abL -ide, — not -im or -i. (These stems are irregular also in Greek.)
1 Dative, hSroisin (onee only).
36 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§83-86
c. Stems in on- sometimes retain -n in the nominative : as, Agamem-
non (or Agamemno), genitive -8nis, accusative -6na.
d. Stems in ont- form the nominative in -on: as, horizon, Xenophon;
but a few are occasionally Latinized into on- (nom. -o) : a.s, Draco, -onis ;
Antipho, -onis.
e. Like Simois are declined stems in ant-, ent-, and a few in unt- (nomi-
native in -as, -is, -iis) : as. Atlas, -antis ; Trapezus, -iintis.
/. Some words fluctuate between different declensions : as Orpheus be-
tween the second and the third.
g, -on is found in the genitive plural in a few Greek titles of books : as,
Metamorphoseon, of the Metamorphoses (Ovid's well-known poem); Georgicon,
of the Georgics (a poem of Virgil).
Gender in the Third Declension
84. The Gender of nouns of this declension must be learned
by practice and from the Lexicon. Many are masculine or femi-
nine by nature or in accordance with the general rules for gen-
der (p. 15). The most important rules for the others, with their
principal exceptions, are the following : — *
85. Masculine are nouns in -or, -os, -er, -gs (gen. -itis), -ex (gen.
-ids); as, color, flos, imber, gurges (gurgitis), vertex (verticis).
Exceptions are the following: —
a. Feminine are arbor ; cos, dos ; linter.
h. Neuter are ador, aequor, cor, marmor ; 6s (oris) ; also os (ossis) ;
cadaver, iter, tiiber, uber, ver; and names of plants and trees in -er: as,
acer, papaver.
86. Feminine are nouns in-o,-as,-es, -is, -us, -x, and in -s preceded
by a consonant : as, legio, civitas, nubes, avis, virtus, arx, urbs. The
nouns in -6 are mostly those in -do and -go, and abstract and collec-
tive nouns in -io.
Exceptions are the following : —
a. Masculine are leo, leonis; ligo, onis ; sermo, -onis; also cardo, harpagd,
margo, 5rd5, turbo ; and concrete nouns in -io : as, pugio, uni5, papilio ; ^
acinaces, aries, celes, lebes, paries, pes ;
1 Some nouns of doubtful or variable gender are omitted,
2 Many nouns in -6 (gen. -onis) are masculine by signification: as, gero, carrier;
restio, ropemaker ; and family names (originally nicknames) : as, Cicero, Kaso. See
§5 236. c, 255.
FOURTH DECLENSION
37
Nouns in -nis and -guis ; as, ignis, sanguis ; also axis, caulis, coUis, cucumis,
ensis, fascis, foUis, fustis, lapis, mensis, orbis, piscis, postis, pulvis, vomis ;
mus;
calix, fornix, grex, phoenix, and nouns in -ex (gen. -icis) (§ 85) ;
dens, f5ns, mons, pons.
Note, — Some nouns in -is and -ns which are masculine were originally adjectives
or participles agreeing with a masculine noun: as, Aprilis (sc. mensis), m., April;
oriens (so. sol), m., the east; annalis (sc. liber), m., the year-book.
b* Neuter are vas (vasis) ; cms, iiis, piis, rus, tiis.
87. Neuter are nouns in -a, -e, -1, -n, -ar, -ur, -iis : as, poema, mare,
animal, nomen, calcar, robur, corpus ; also lac and caput.
Exceptions are the following : —
a» Masculine are sal, s51, pecten, vultur, lepus.
b. Feminine is pecus (gen. -udis).
FOURTH DECLENSION
88. The Stem of nouns of the Fourth Declension ends in u-.
This is usually weakened to i before -bus. Masculine and Femi-
nine nouns form the nominative by adding s ; Neuters have for
nominative the simple stem, but with u (long).
89. Nouns of the Fourth Declension are declined as follows :
manus, f., hand
lacus, M., lake
genu, N., knee
Stem manu-
Stem lacu-
Stem genu-
Singular
4
DASE-ENDIN63
.
CASE-ENDINGS
NOM.
manus
lacus
-US
genu
»U
Gen.
manus
lacus
-US
genus
-US
Dat.
manui(-u)
lacuT(-fl)
-ui(.u) •
genu
-u
Ace.
manum
lacum
-um
genu
-u
Abl.
manu
lacu
-u
Plural
genu
-u
NOM.
manfls
lacus
-us
genua
-ua
Gen.
manuTim
lacuum
-uum
genuuKi
-uum
Dat.
manibus
lacubus
-ibus(-ubus)
genibus
-ibus
Ace.
manus
lacus
-us
genua
-ua
Abl.
manibus
lacubus
-ibus(-ubus)
genibus
-ibu9
38 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§ 90-93
Gender in the Fourth Declension
90. Most nouns of the Fourth Declension in -us are Masculine.
Exceptions : The following are Feminine : acus, anus, colus, domus, idus (plural),
manus, nurus, porticus, quinquatrus (plural), socrus, tribus, with a few names of
plants and trees. Also, rarely, penus, specus.
91. The only Neuters of the Fourth Declension are comu, genu,
pecu (§ 105./), veru.^
Case-Forms in the Fourth Declension
92. The following peculiarities in case-forms of the Fourth
Declension require notice : —
a. A genitive singular in -i (as of the second declension) sometimes
occurs in nouns in -tus : as, senatus, genitive senati (regularly senatus).
b. In the genitive plural -uum is sometimes pronounced .as one sylla-
ble, and may then be written -um : as, currum (Aen. vi. 653) for curruum.
c. The dative and ablative plural in -iibus are retained in partus and
tribus; so regularly in artus and lacus, and occasionally in other words;
portus and specus have both -ubus and -ibus.
d. Most names of plants and trees, and colus, distaff] have also forms of
the second declension : as, f icus, ^/ig, genitive ficus or fici.
e. An old genitive singular in -uis or -uos and an old genitive plural in
-uom occur rarely : as, senatuis, senatuos ; fluctuom.
/. The ablative singular ended anciently in -iid (cf. § 43. n. 1): as,
magistratiid.
93. Domus (f.), house^ has two stems ending in u- and o-. Hence
it shows forms of both the fourth and second declensions :
Singular
Plural
NOM.
domus
domus
Gen.
domus (domi, loc.)
domuum (domorum)
DAT.
domui (domo)
domibus
Ace.
domum
domos (domus)
Abl.
domo (domu)
domibus
Note 1. — The Locative is domi (rarely domui), at home.
Note 2. — The Genitive domi occurs in Plautus ; domorum is late or poetic.
1 A few other neuters of this declension are mentioned by the ancient grammarians
as occurring in certain cases.
§§ 94-96]
FIFTH DECLENSION (^-STEMS)
39
94. Most nouns of the Fourth Declension are formed from
verb-stems, or roots, by means of the suffix -tus (-bUs) (§ 238. h) :
cantus, song, can, cano, sing; casus (for fcad-tus), chance, cad, csido, fall;
exsulatus, exile, from exsulo, to be an exile (exsul),
a. Many are formed either from verb-stems not in use, or by analogy:
consulatus (as if from fconsulo, -are), senatus, incestus.
b. The accusative and the dative or ablative of nouns in -tus (-sus) form
the Supines of verbs (§ 159. &): as, spectatum, petitum; dictu, visu.
c» Of many verbal derivatives only the ablative is used as a noun : as,
iussu (meo), by {my') command; so iniussu (populi), without (the people's) order.
Of some only the dative is used : as, divisui.
FIFTH DECLENSION (^-STEMS)
95. The Stem of nouns of the Fifth Declension ends in e-, which
appears in all the cases. The Nominative is formed from the stem
by adding s.
96. Nouns of the Fifth Declension are declined as follows : —
res, r., thing
dies, M., day
fides, r. , faith
Stem re-
Stem die-
SlNGULAR
Stem fide-
CASE-ENDING 1
NOM.
res
dies
fides.
-es
Gen.
r^i
diei (die)
fidgl
-ei(-e)
Dat.
rei
diei (die)
fidei
-ei (-e)
Ace.
rem
diem
fidem
-em
Abl.
re
die
Plural
fide
-e
NOM.
res
dies
-es
Gen.
rerum
dierum
-erum
DAT.
rebus
diebus
-ebus
Ace.
res
dies
-es
Abl.
rebus
diebus
-ebus
]VfOTE. — The e of the stem is shortened in the genitive and dative singular of fides,
spes, res, but in these it is found long in early Latin. In the accusative singular e
is always short.
40 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§97-99
Gender in the Fifth Declension
97. All nouns of the Fifth Declension are Feminine, except
dies (usually M.), day^ and meridies (M.), noon.
a. Dies is sometimes feminine in the singular, especially in phrases indi-
cating a fixed ti me, and regularly feminine when used of time in general :
as, constituta die, on a set day; longa dies, a long time.
Case-Forms in the Fifth Declension
98. The following peculiarities require notice : —
a. Of nouns of the fifth declension, only dies and res are declined through-
out. Most want the plural, which is, however, found in the nominative or
accusative in acies, effigies, eluvies, facies, glacies, series, species, spes.^
h. The Locative form of this declension ends in -e. It is found only in
certain adverbs and expressions of time : —
hodie, to-day; die quarto (old, quarti), the fourth day ;
perendie, day after to-morrow ; pridie, the day before.
c. The fifth declension is closely related to the first, and several nouns
have forms of both : as, materia, -ies ; saevitia, -ies. The genitive and dative
in -ei are rarely found in these words.
d. Some nouns vary between the fifth and the third declension : as,
requies, saties (also satias, genitive -atis), plebes (also plebs, genitive plebis),
fames, genitive famis, ablative fame.
Note. — In the genitive and dative -ei (-§!) was sometimes contracted into -€i:
as, tribunus pleb^, tribune of the people (plebes). Genitives in -i and -e also occur:
as, dii (Aen. 1. 636), plebi-scitum, acie (B. G. ii. 23). A few examples of the old geni-
tive in -es are found (of. -as in the first declension, § 43. 6) . The dative has rarely -e,
and a form in -i is cited.
DEFECTIVE NOUNS
Nouns wanting in the Plural
99. Some nouns are ordinarily found in the Singular number
only {singuldria taiitum). These are —
1. Most proper names: as, Caesar, Ccesar; Gallia, Gaul.
2. Names of things not counted, but reckoned in mass : as, aurum, gold:
aer, air; triticum, tvheat.
3. Abstract nouns: as, ambitio, ambition; fortitude, courage; calor, heat,
1 The forms facitnim, specierum, spcciebus, sperum, spebus, are cited by grammarians,
also speres, speribus, and some of these occur in hite authors.
§§ iOO-102] DEFECTIVE :N0UNS . , 41
100. Many of these nouns, however, are used in the plural in
some other sense.
a. The plural of a proper name may be applied to two or more persons
or places, or even things, and so become strictly common : —
duodecim Caesares, the twelve Ccesars.
Galliae, the two Gauls (Cis- and Iransalpine).
Castores, Castor and Pollux ; loves, images of Jupiter.
b. The plural of names of things reckoned in mass may denote particular
objects: as, aera, bronze utensils, nives, snoioflakes; or different kinds of a thing :
as, aeres, airs (good and bad).
c. The plural of abstract nouns denotes occasions or instances of the quality,
or the like : —
quaedam escellentiae, some cases of superiority ; otia, periods of rest ; calores,
frigora, times of heat and cold.
Nouns wanting in the Singular
101. Some nouns are commonly or exclusively found in the
Plural {plUrdlia tantum). Such are —
1. Many names of towns : as, Athenae (^^Aens), Thurii, Philippi, Veil.
2. Names of festivals and games : as, Olympia, the Olympic Games; Baccha-
nalia, feast of Bacchus ; Quinquatrus, festival of Minerva ; ludi Romani, the
Roman Games.
3. Names of classes: as, optimates, i^e upper classes; maiores, ancestors;
liberi, children; penates, household gods; Quirites, citizens (oi Rome).
4. Words plural by signification; as, arma, weapons; artns, joints ; divi-
tiae, riches; scalae, stairs; yalvae, folding-doors ; fores, double-doors ; angustiae,
a narrow pass (narrows) ; moenia, city walls.
Note 1. — Some words, plural by signification in Latin, are translated by English
nouns iu the singular number : as, delicia.e, delight, darling; i3iUCQs, throat; Mes, lyre
(also singular in poetry) ; insidiae, ambush; cervices, neck; visceTa., flesh.
Note 2. — The poets often use the plural number for the singular, sometimes for
metrical reasons, sometimes from a mere fashion : as, ora (for os), the face ; sceptra (for
sceptrum), sceptre; silentia (for silentium) , sUence.
102. Some nouns of the above classes (§ 101. 1-4), have a corre-
sponding singular, as noun or adjective, often in a special sense :
1. As noun, to denote a single object: as, Bacchanal, a spot sacred to
Bacchus; optimas, an aristocrat.
2. As adjective : as, Cato Maior, Cato the Elder.
3. In a sense rare, or found only in early Latin: as, scala, a ladder;
valva, a door; artus, a Joint.
42 DECLENSION OF NOUNS . [§103
Nouns Defective in Certain Cases
103. Many nouns are defective in case-forms : ^ —
a. Indeclinable nouns, used only as nominative and accusative singular,
fas, nefas, instar, nihil, opus (need), secus.
Note 1. — The indeclinable adjective necesse is used as a nominative or accusative.
Note 2. — The genitive nihili and the ablative nihilo (from nihilum, nothing) occur.
b. Nouns found in one case only (monoptotes) : —
1. In the nominative singular: glos (f.).
2. In the genitive singular : dicis, nauci (n. ).
3. In the dative singular : divisui (m.) (cf. § 94. c).
4. In the accusative singular : amussim (m.) ; venum (dative veno in Tacitus).
5. In the ablative singular: pondo (n.) ; mane (n.) ; astu (m.), by craft; iussu,
iniussij, natii, and many other verbal nouns in -us (m.) (§ 94. c).
Note. — Mane is also used as an indeclinable accusative, and an old form mam is
used as ablative. Pondo with a numeral is often apparently equivalent to pounds. A
nominative singular astus and a plural astus occur rarely in later writers.
6. In the accusative plural : infitias.
c. Nouns found in two cases only (diptotes): —
1. In the nominative and ablative singular : fors, forte (f.).
2. In the genitive and ablative singular : spontis (rare), sponte (f.).
3. In the accusative singular and plural : dicam, dicas (f.)-.
4. In the accusative and ablative plural: foras, foris (f.) (cf. fores), used as
adverbs.
' d» Nouns found in three cases only (triptotes) : —
1. In the nominative, accusative, and ablative singular ; impetus, -um, -u (m. )2 ;
lues, -em, -e (f.).
2. In the nominative, accusative, and dative or ablative plural : grates, -ibus (f).
3. In the nominative, genitive, and dative or ablative plural : iugera, -um, -ibus
(n.) ; but iugerum, etc., in the singular (cf. § 105. b).
e. Nouns found in four cases only (tetraptotes) : —
In the genitive, dative, accusative, ablative singular: dicionis, -T, -em, -e (f.).
/. Nouns declined regularly in the plural, but defective in the singidar : —
1. Nouns found in the singular, in genitive, dative, accusative, ablative: frijgis,
•i, -em, -e (f.) ; opis, -i (once only), -em, -e (f. ; nominative Ops as a divinity).
2. Nouns found in the dative, accusative, ablative: preci, -em, -e (f.).
3. Nouns found in the accusative and ablative : cassem, -e (f.) ; sordem, -e (f.).
4. Nouns found in the ablative only : ambage (r.) ; fauce (f.) ; obice (c).
g. Nouns regular in the singular, defective in the plural : —
1 Some early or late forms and other rarities are omitted.
2 The dative singular impetui and the ablative plural impetibus occur once each.
§§ 103-105] VARIABLE NOUNS 43
1. The following neuters have in the plural the nominative and accusative
only : fel (fella), far (farra), hordeum (hordea), ius, broth (iura), mel (mella), murmur
(murmura), pus (pura), rus (rura), tus or thus (tura).
Note. — The neuter ius, right, has only iura in classical writers, but a very rare geni-
tive plural iurum occurs in old Latin.
2. calx, cor, cos, crux, fax, faex, lanx, lux, nex, 6s (6ris),i os (ossis),^ pax, pix,
ros, sal, sol, vas (vadis), want the genitive plural.
3. Most nouns of the fifth declension want the whole or part of the plural
(see § 98. a).
h, Kouns defective in both singular and plural : —
1. Noun found in the genitive, accusative, ablative singular; nominative,
accusative, dative, ablative plural : vicis, -em, -e ; -es, -ibus.
2. Noun found in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular;
genitive plural wanting: dapis, -i, -em, -e; -es, -ibus.^
VARIABLE KOUNS
104. Many nouns vary either in Declension or in Gender.
105. Nouns that vary in Declension are called heter oolites.^
a. Colus (f.), distaff; domus (f.), house (see § 93), and many names
of plants in -us, vary between the Second and Fourth Declensions.
b. Some nouns vary between the Second and Third : as, iiigerum, -i, -o,
ablative -o or -e, plural -a, -um, -ibus ; Mulciber, genitive -beri and -beris ;
sequester, genitive -tri and -tris ; vas, vasis, and (old) vasum, -i (§ 79. e).
c. Some vary between the Second, Third, and Fourth : as, penus, penum,
genitive penl and penoris, ablative penu.
d. Many nouns vary between the First and Fifth (see § 98. c).
e. Some vary between the Third and Fifth. Thus, — requies has geni-
tive -etis, dative wanting, accusative -etem or -em, ablative -e (once -ete) ;
fames, regularly of the third declension, has ablative fame (§ 76. n. 1),
and pubes (m.) has once dative pube (in Plautus).
/. Pecus varies between the Third and Foui-th, having pecoris, etc., but
also nominative pecii, ablative pecii ; plural pecua, genitive pecuum.
gr. Many vary between different stems of the same declension : as, femur
(n.), genitive -oris, also -inis (as from ffemen); iecur (n.), genitive iecinoris,
iocinoris, iecoris ; miinus (n.), plural miinera and munia.
1 The ablative plural oribus is rare, the classical idiom being in ore omnium, in every-
body's mouth, etc., not in cribus omnium.
2 The genitive plural ossium is late ; ossuura (from ossua, plural of a neuter u-stem)
is early and late.
3 An old nominative daps is cited.
4 That is, "iiouns of different inflections" (erepos, another, and kXiVw, to inflect).
44
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
[§§ 106, 107
106. Nouns that vary in Gender are said to be heterogeneous.'^
a* The following have a masculine form in -us and a neuter in -um :
balteus, caseus, clipeus, collum, cingulum, pileus, tergum, vallum, with many
others of rare occurrence.
h. The following have in the Plural a different gender from that of the
Singular : —
balneae (f.), baths (an establishment).
cael5s (m. ace, Lucr.).
carbasa (n.) (-orum), sails.
deliciae (f.), pet.
epulae {v.)^ feast.
freni (m.) or frena (n.), a bridle.
ioca (n.), ioci {m.), jests.
loca (n.), loci (m., usually topics, passages in books).
rastri (m.), rastra (n.), rakes.
balneum (n.), bath;
caelum (n.), heaven;
carbasus (f.), a sail;
delicium (n.), pleasure.
epulum (n.), feast ;
frenum (n.), a bit;
iocus (m.), a jest;
locus (m.), place;
rastrum (n.), a rake;
Note, — Some of tbese nouns are heteroclites as well as heterogeneous.
107. Many nouns are found in
aedes, -is (f.), temple;
aqua (f.), water ;
auxilium (n.), help;
bonum (n.), a good;
career (m.), dungeon;
castrum {s.), fort;
comitium (n.), 2^lcLce of assembly ;
copia (f.), plenty ;
fides (f.), harp-string;
finis (m.), end;
fortuna (f.), fortune ;
gratia (f.), favor (rarely, thanks);
hortus (m,), a garden;
impedimentum (n.) hindrance;
littera (f.), letter (of alphabet) ;
locus (m.), place [plural loca (n.)] ;
ludus (m.), sport;
mos (m.), habit, custom;
natalis (m.), birthday ;
opera (f.), work;
[ops,] opis (F.), help (§ 103./. 1);
pars (f.), part;
rostrum (n.), beak of a ship;
sal (m. or n.), salt;
tabella (f.), tablet;
the Plural in a peculiar sense: —
aedes, -ium, house. *
aquae, mineral springs, a watering-place.
auxilia, auxiliaries.
bona, goods, property.
carceres, barriers (of race-course).
castra, camp.
comitia, an election (town-meeting).
copiae, stores, troops.
fides, lyre.
fines, bounds, territories.
fortunae, possessions.
gratiae, thanks (also, the Graces).
horti, pleasure-grounds.
impedimenta, baggage.
litterae, epistle, literature.
loci,2 topics, places in books.
ludi, public games.
mores, character.
natales, descent, origin.
operae, day-laborers ("hands").
opes, resources, wealth.
partes, part (on the stage), party.
rostra, speaker'' s platform .
sales, witticisms.
tabellae, documents, records.
1 That is, "of different genders" (?repos, another, and yhos^ gender).
2 In early writers the re;rular plural.
§ 108] NAMES OF PERSONS 45
NAMES OF PERSONS
108. A Roman had regularly three names: — (1) the praenomen,
or personal name ; (2) the nomen, or name of the gens or house ;
(3) the cognomen, or family name : —
Thus in Marcus TuUius Cicero we have —
Marcus, the praendmen, hke our Christian or given name ;
Tullius, the nomen, properly an adjective denoting of the Tullian gens (or
house) whose original head was a real or supposed Tullus ;
Cicero, the cognomen, or family name, often in origin a nickname, — in this
case from cicer, a vetch, or small pea.
Note. — When two persons of the same family are mentioned together, the cogno-
men is usually put in the plural : as, Piiblius et Servius Sullae.
a, A fourth or fifth name was sometimes given as a mark of honor or
distinction, or to show adoption from another gens.
Thus the complete name of Scipio the Younger was Publius Cornelius Scipio
Africanus Aemilianus : Africanus, from his exploits in Africa ; Aemilianus, as
adopted from the ^milian gens.^
Note. — The Romans of the classical period had no separate name for these addi-
tions, but later grammarians invented the word agnomen to express them.
h. Women had commonly in classical times no personal names, but were
known only by the nomen of their gens.
Thus, the wife of Cicero was Terentia, and his daughter Tullia. A second
daughter would have been called Tullia secunda or minor, a third daughter, Tullia
tertia, and so on.
c. The commonest prsenomens are thus abbreviated : —
A. Aulus. L. Lucius. Q. Quintus.
App. (Ap.) Appius. M. Marcus. Set. Servius.
C. (G.) Gains {Caius) (cf. § 1. a). M'. Manius. Sex. (S.) Sextus.
Cn. (Gn.) Gnaeus (Cneius). Mam. Mamercus. Sp. Spurius.
D. Decimus. N. (Num.) Numerius T. Titus.
K. Kaeso (Caeso). P. Publius. Ti. (Tib.) Tiberius.
Note 1. — In the abbreviations C. and Cn., the initial character has the value of G
(§l.a).
1 In stating officially the full name of a Roman it was customary to include the
praenomina of the father, grandfather, and great-grandfather, together with the name
of the tribe to which the individual belonged. Thus in an inscription we find M. TVL-
LIVS M. F. M. N. M. PR. COR. CICERO, i.e. Marcus Tullius Marclfilius Marc! nepos Marc! pro-
nepos Cornelia tribii Cicero. The names of grandfather and great-grandfather as well as
that of the tribe are usually omitted in literature. The name of a wife or daughter is
usually accompanied by that of the husband or father in the genitive: as, Postumia
Servi Sulpici! (Suet. lul. 50), Postumia, wife of Servius Sulpicius; Caecilia Metelli
(Div. i. 104), Caecilia, daughter of Metellus.
46
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES
109, 110
ADJECTIVES
109. Adjectives and Participles are in general formed and de-
clined like Nouns, differing from them only in their use.
1. In accordance -with their use, they distinguish gender by different
forms in the same word, and agree with their nouns in gender, number^ and
case. Thus, —
bonus puer, the good boy.
bona puella, the good girl.
bonum donum, the good gift.
2. In their inflection they are either (1) of the First and Second Declen-
sions, or (2) of the Third Declension.
FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS {d- AND <?-STEMS)
110. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions (a- and
o-stems) are declined in the Masculine like servus, puer, or ager;
in the Feminine like stella ; and in the Neuter like bellum.
The regular type of an adjective of the First and Second Declen-
sions is bonus, -a, -um, which is thus declined : —
bonus, bona, bonum, good
MASCULINE
FEMININE
NEUTER
Stem bono-
Stem bona-
SlNGULAR
Stem bono-
NOM.
bonus
bona
bonum
Gen.
boni
bonae
boni
DAT.
bono
bonae
bono
Ace.
bonum
bonam
bonum
Abl.
bono
bona
bono
Voc.
bone
bona
Plural
bonum
NOM.
boni
bonae
bona
Gen.
bonorum
bonarum
bonorum
Dat.
bonis
bonis
bonis
Ace.
bonos
bonas
bona
Abl.
bonis
bonis
bonis
^§ no, 111]
FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS
47
Note. — Stems in quo- have nominative -cus (-quos), -qua, -cum (-quom), accusative
^um (-quom), -quam, -cum (-quom), to avoid quu- (see §§ 6. h and 4G. N. 2). Thus,—
NoM. propincus (-quos) propinqua propincum (-quom)
Gen. propiuqui propinquae propinqui, etc.
But most modern editions disregard this principle.
a. The Genitive Singular masculine of adjectives in -ius ends in -ii, and
the Vocative in -ie ; not in -i, as in nouns (cf . § 49. h, c) ; as, Lacedaemonius,
-ii, -ie.
Note. — The possessive meus, my, has the vocative masculine mi (cf. § 145).
111. Stems ending in ro- preceded by e form the Nominative
Masculine like puer (§ 47) and are declined as follows: —
miser, misera, miserum, wretched
MASCULINE
FEMININE
NEUTER
Stem misero-
Stem misera-
SlNGULAR
Stem misero-
NOM.
miser
misera
miserum
Gen.
miseri
miserae
miseri
DAT.
misero
miserae
miserS
Ace.
miserum
miseram
miserum
Abl.
misero
misera
Plural
misero
NOM.
miseri
miserae
misera
Gen.
miseroriim
miserarum
miserorum
DAT.
miserls
miseris
miseris
Ace.
miseros
miseras
misera
Abl.
miseris
miseris
miseris
Cf. Like miser are declined asper, gibber, lacer, liber, prosper (also pros-
penis), satur (-ura, -urum), tener, with compounds of -fer and -ger : as, saeti-
ger, -era, -erum, bristle-bearing ; also, usually, dexter. In these the e belongs to
the stem ; but in dextra it is often omitted : as, dextra manus, the right hand.
Note. — Stems in ero- (as procerus), with morigerus, properus, have the regular nomi-
native masculine in -us.
b. The following lack a nominative singular masculine in classic use :
cetera, infera, postera, supera. They are rarely found in the singular except
in certain phrases : as, poster© die, the next day.
Note. — An ablative feminine in -o is found in a few Greek adjectives: as, lectica
octophoro fVerr. v. 27).
48
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES
112, 113
112. Stems in ro- preceded by a consonant form the Nominative
Masculine like ager (§ 47) and are declined as follows : —
niger, nigra, nigrum: black
MASCULINE
FEMININE
NEUTER
Stem nigro-
Sin
Stem nigra-
GULAR
Stem nigro-
NOM.
niger
nigra
nigrum
Gen.
nigri
nigrae
nigii
DAT.
nigro
nigrae
nigi'6
Ace.
nignim
nigram
nigrum
Abl.
nigro
Pi
nigra
LTRAL
nigro
NOM.
nigri
nigrae
nigra
Gen.
nigrorum
nigi'arum
nigrorum
DAT.
nigris
nigris
nigi-is
Ace.
nigros
nigras
nigra
Abl.
nigris
nigris
nigris
a. Like niger are declined aeger, ater, creber, faber, glaber, integer, liidicer,
macer, piger, pulcher, ruber, sacer, scaber, sinister, taeter, vafer ; also the pos-
sessives noster, vester (§ 145).
113. The following nine adjectives with their compounds have
the Genitive Singular in -ius and the Dative in -i in all genders :
alius (n. aliud), other. totus, whole. alter, -terius, the other.
nuUus, no, none. ullus, any. neuter, -trius, neither.
solus, alone. unus, one. uter, -trius, which (of two).
Of these the singular is thus declined : —
M.
F.
N.
M.
p.
N.
NOM.
unus
iina
iinum
uter
utra
utrum
Gen.
iinius
unius
iinius
utrius
utrius
utrius
Dat.
uni
iini
uni
utri
utri
utri
Ace.
iinum
uiiam
iinum
utrum
utram
utrum
Abl.
uno
iina
iino
utro
utra
utro
NOM.
^ alius
alia
aliud
alter
altera
alterum
Gen.
^ alius
alius
alius"
alterius
alterius
alterius
Dat.
alii
alii
alii
alteri
alteri
alteri
Ace.
alium
aliam
aliud
alterum
alteram
alterum
Abl.
alio
alia
alio
altero
altera
altero
§§113-116] ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION
49
a. The plural of these words is regular, like that of bonus (§ 110).
b. The genitive in -lus, dative in -i, and neuter in -d are pronominal in
origin (cf. illius, illi, illud, and § 146).
c. The i of the genitive ending -ius, though originally long, may be made
short in verse ; so often in alterius and regularly in utriusque.
d. Instead of alius, alterius is commonly used, or in the possessive sense
the adjective alienus, belonging to another, another's.
e. In compounds — as alteruter — sometimes both parts are declined,
sometimes only the latter. Thus, alteri utri or alterutri, to one of the two.
Note. — The regular genitive and dative forms (as in bonus) are sometimes found
in some of these words: as, genitive and dative feminine, aliae; dative masculine,
alio. Rare forms are alls and alid (for alius, aliud).
THIRD DECLENSION (CONSONANT AND /-STEMS)
114. Adjectives of the Third Declension are thus classified: —
1. Adjectives of Three Terminations in the nominative singular, — one
for each gender : as, acer, acris, acre.
2. Adjectives of Two Terminations, — masculine and feminine the same :
as, levis (m., f.), leve (n.).
3. Adjectives of One Termination, — the same for all three genders : as,
atrox.
a. Adjectives of two and thre6 terminations are true i-stems and hence retain
in the ablative singular -i, in the neuter plural -ia, in the genitive plural -ium, and
in the accusative plural regularly -is (see §§73 and 74). i
Adjectives of Three and of Two Terminations
115. Adjectives of Three Terminations are thus declined : —
acer, acris, acre, keen, Stem acri-
SiNGULAR Plural
M.
F.
N.
NOM.
acer
acris
acre
Gen.
acris
acris
acris
DAT.
acri
acri
acri
Ace.
acrem
acrem
acre
Abl.
acri
acri
acri
M. F. N.
acres acres acria
acrium acrium acrium
acribus acribus acribus
acris (-es) acris (-es) acria
acribus acribus acribus
1 But the forms of some are doubtful.
50 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES [§§ 115-117
a. Like acer are declined the following stems in ri- : —
alacer, campester, celeber, equester, paluster, pedester, puter, saluber, Silvester,
terrester, volucer. So also names of months in -ber: as, October (cf,
§66).
Note 1. — This formation is comparatively late, and hence, in the poets and in early-
Latin, either the masculine or the feminine form of these adjectives was sometimes
used for both genders : as, coetus alacris (Enn.). In others, as faenebris, funebris, illiis-
tris, lugubris, mediocris, muliebris, there is no separate masculine form at all, and these
are decUned like levis (§ 116).
Note 2. — Celer, celeris, celere, sioift, has the genitive plural celerum, used only as a
noun, denoting a military rank. The proper name Celer has the ablative in -e.
116. Adjectives of Two Terminations are thus declined:-^
levis, leve,
light,
Stem levi-
Sing
ULAR
Plural
M.,F.
N.
M., F.
N.
NOM.
levis
leve
leves
levia
GeNj
levis
levis
levium
levium
Dat.
levl
levi
levibus
levibus
Ace.
levem
leve
levis (-es)
levia
Abl.
leTl
lev!
levibus
levibus
Note.— Adjectives of two and three terminations sometimes have an ablative in -e
in poetry, rarely in prose.
Adjectives of One Termination
117. The remaining adjectives of the third declension are Con-
sonant stems ; but most of them, except Comparatives, have the
following forms of i-stems ; — ^
-i in the ablative singular (but often -e) ;
-ia in the nominative and accusative plural neuter ;
-ium in the genitive plural ;
-is (as well as -es) in the accusative plural masculine and feminine.
In the other cases they follow the rule for Consonant stems.
a. These adjectives, except stems in 1- or r-, form the nominative singu-
lar from the stem by adding s : as, atr5x (stem atroc- + s), egens (stem
egent- + s).«
h. Here belong the present participles in -ns(stemnt-)^: as,amans, monens
They are declined like egens (but cf. § 121).
1 For details see § 121. 2 stems in nt- omit t before the nominative -s.
i
§ 118, 119J ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION 51
118. Adjectives of one termination are declined as follows : —
atrox, fierce, Stem atroc-
egens, needy, Stem egent-
Singular
M., F.
N.
M., F.
N.
NOM.
atrox
atrox
egena
egens
Gen.
atrocis
atrocis
egentis
egentis
Dat.
atroci
atroci
egenti
egenti
Ace.
atrocem
atrox
egentem
egens
Abl.
atroci (-e)
atroci (-e)
Plural
egenti (-e)
egenti (-e)
NOM.
atroces
atiucia
egentes
egentia
Gen.
atrocium
atrocium
egentium
egentium
Dat.
atrocibus
atrocibus
egentibus
egentibus
Ace.
atrocis (-es)
atrocia
egentis (-es)
egentia
Abl.
atrocibus
atrocibus
egentibus
egentibus
119. Other examples are the following : —
N03I.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
concors, harmonious
Stem concord-
M., F.
concors
concordis
concord!
concordem
concordi
N.
concors
concordis
concordi
concors
concordi
praeceps, headlong
Stem praecipit-
SlNGULAR
praeceps
praecipitis
praecipiti
praecipitem
praecipiti
N.
praeceps
praecipitis
praecipiti
praeceps
praecipiti
Plural
NoM.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
Concordes
concordium
concordibus
concordis (-es)
concordibus
Concordia
concordium
concordibus
Concordia
concordibus
praecipites praecipitia
[praecipitium] ^
praecipitibus praecipitibus
praecipitis (-es) praecipitia
praecipitibus praecipitibus
i Gi v^en by grammarians, but not fomid.
52
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES
[§119
lens, going
Stem eunt-
par, equal
Stem par-
dives, rich
Stem divit-
M., F.
NoM. ieus
Gen. euntis
Dat. eunti
Ace. euntem
N.
iens
euntis
eunti
iens
vSlNGULAR
M., F. N.
Abl. eunte (-1) eunte (-1)
par
paris
pari
parem
pari
par
paris
pari
par
pari
M., F.
dives
divitis
diviti
divitexn
divite
N.
dives
divitia
diviti
dives
divite
NoM. euntes euntia
Gex. euntium euntium
Dat. euntibus euntibus
Ace. euntis (-es) euntia
Abl. euntibus euntibus
Plural
pares paria
parium parium.
paribus paribus
paris (-es) paria
paribus paribus
divites [ditia]
divituru divitum
divitibus divitibua
divitis (-es) [ditia]
divitibus divitibus
uber, fertile
vetus,
old
Stem uber-
Stem veter-
SlNGUL/.R
M., F.
N.
M.,F.
N.
NOM.
iiber
liber
vetus
vetus
Gen.
iiberis
uberis
veteris
veteris
Dat.
iiberi
uberi
veteri
veteri
Ace.
iiberem
iiber
veterem
vetus
Abl.
iiberi ^
iiberi 1
Plural
vetere (-1)
vetere (-P
NOM.
uberes
libera
veteres
Vetera
Gen.
iiberum
iiberum
veterum
veterum
Dat.
iiberibus
Iiberibus
veteribus
veteribus
Ace.
iiberes
libera
veteres
Vetera
Abl.
iiberibus
iiberibus
veteribus
veteribus
Note. — Of these vetus is originally an s-stem. In most s-stems the r has intruded
itself into the nominative also, as bi-corpor (for jbi-corpos), degener (for fde-genes).
1 An ablative in -e is very rare.
§§ 120, 121]
DECLENSION OF COMPARATIVES
53
Declension of Comparatives
120. Comparatives -are declined as follows : —
melior,
better
plus,
more
Stem melidr-
for melios-
SlNGULAR
Stem plur-
■ for plus-
M., F.
N.
M., F.
N.
NOM.
melior
melius
plus
Gen.
melioris
melioris
pliiris
DAT.
meliori
meliori
Ace.
meliorem
melius
pliis
Abl.
meliore (-i)
meliore (-i)
Plural
plure
NOM.
meliores
meliora
plures
plura
Gen.
meliorum
meliornm
plurium
plurium
DAT.
melioribus
melioribus
pliiribus
pluribus
Ace.
meliores (-is)
meliora
plures (-Is)
plura
Abl.
melioribus
melioribus
pluribus
pluribus
a. All comparatives except pliis are declined like melior.
h. The stem of comparatives properly ended in os-; but this became or
in the nominative masculine and feminine, and or- in all other cases except
the nominative and accusative singular neuter, where s is retained and 6 is
changed to u (cf. honQr, -oris; corpus, -5ris). Thus comparatives appear to
have two terminations.
c. The neuter singular pliis is used only as a noun. The genitive (rarely
the ablative) is used only as an expression of value (cf. § 417). The dative
is not found in classic use. The compound complures, several, has sometimes
neuter plural compluria.
Case-Forms of Consonant Stems
121. In adjectives of Consonant stems —
a» The Ablative Singular commonly ends in -i, but sometimes -e.
1. Adjectives used as nouns (as superstes, survivor) have -e.
2. Participles in -ns used as such (especially in the ablative absolute,
§419), or as nouns, regularly have -e; but participles used as adjectives
have regularly -i : —
domino imperante, at the master'' s command; ab amante, hij a lover ; ab amanti
muliere, by a loving woman.
54 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES [§§ 121, 122
3. The following have regularly -i : — amens, anceps, concors (and other
compounds of cor), consors (but as a substantive, -e), degener, hebes, ingens,
inops, memor (and compounds), par (in prose), perpes, praeceps, praepes, teres.
4. The following have regularly-e : — caeles, compos, [fdeses], dives, hospes,
particeps, pauper, princeps, sospes, superstes. So also patrials (see §71. 5) and
stems in at-, it-, nt-, rt-, when used as nouns, and sometimes when used as
adjectives.
h. The Genitive Plural ends commonly in -ium, but has -urn in the
following : i —
1. Always in compos, dives, inops, particeps, praepes, princeps, supplex, and
compounds of nouns which have -um : as, quadru-pes, bi-color.
2. Sometimes, in poetry, in participles in -ns ! as, silentum concilium, a coun-
cil of the silent shades (Aen. vi. 432).
c» The Accusative Plural regularly ends in -is, but comparatives com-
monly have -es.
d, Vetus (gen. -eris) and piibes (gen. -eris) regularly have -e in the abla-
tive singular, -a in the nominative and accusative plural, and -um in the
genitive plural. For uber, see § 119.
ۥ A few adjectives of one termination, used as nouns, have a feminine
form in -a ; as, clienta, hospita, with the appellative Iiin5 Sospita.
Irregularities and Special Uses of Adjectives
122. The following special points require notice : —
a. Several adjectives vary in declension : as, gracilis (-us), hilaris (-us),
inermis (-us), bicolor (-orus).
6, A few adjectives are indeclinable : as, damnas, friigi (really a dative
of service, see § 382. 1. n. 2), nequam (originally an adverb), necesse, and the
pronominal forms tot, quot, aliquot, totidem. Potis is often used as an inde-
clinable adjective, but sometimes has pote in the neuter.
c. Several adjectives are defective : as, exspes (only nom.), exlex (cxlegem)
(only nom. and ace. sing.), pemox (pernocte) (only nom. and abl. sing.);
and primoris, semineci, etc., which lack the nominative singular.
d. Many adjectives, from their signification, can be used only in the
masculine and feminine. These may be called adjectives of common gender.
Such are adulescens, youthful; [tdeses], -idis, slothful; inops, -opis, poor;
sospes, -itis, safe. Sinnlarly, senex, old man, and iuvenis, young man, are some-
times called masculine adjectives.
For Adjectives used as Nouns, see §§288, 289; for Nouns used as Adjectives, see
§321. c; for Adjectives used as Adverbs, see §214; for Adverbs used as Adjectives,
see §321.d.
1 Forms in -um sometimes occur in a few others-
§§ 123-127] COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 55
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
123. In Latin, as in English, there are three degrees of com-
parison : the Positive^ the Comparative^ and the Superlative.
124. The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior (neu-
ter -ius),i the Superlative by adding -issimus (-a,-um), to the stem of
the Positive, which loses its final vowel : —
carus, dear (stem caro-) ; carior, dearer; carissimus, dearest.
levis, light (stem levi-) ; levior, lighter ; levissimus, lighted.
felix, Mpp?/ (stem felic-) ; felicior, happier; iellcissimus, happiest.
hebes, dull (stem hebet-) ; hebetior, duller ; hebetissimus, dullest.
Note. — A form of diminutive is made upon the stem of some comparatives : as,
grandius-culus, a little larger (see § 243) .
a. Participles when used as adjectives are regularly compared : —
patiens, patient; patientior, patientissimus.
apertus, open; apertior, apertissimus.
125. Adjectives in -er form the Superlative by adding -rimus to
the nominative. The comparative is regular:- —
acer, keen; acrior, acerrimus.
miser, wretched; miserior, miserrimus.
a. So vetus (gen. veteris) has superlative veterrimus, from the old form
veter ; and maturus, besides its regular superlative (matiirissimus), has a rare
form maturrimus.
For the comparative of vetus, vetustior (from vetustus) is used.
126. Six adjectives in -lis form the Superlative by adding -limus
to the stem clipped of its final i-. These are facilis, difficilis, simi-
lis, dissimilis, gracilis, humilis.
facilis (stem facili-), easy ; facilior, facillimus,
127. Compounds in -dicus (saving) and -volus (ivilling) take in
their comparison the forms of the corresponding participles dicens
and volens, which were anciently used as adjectives : —
maledicus, slanderous; maledicentior, maledlcentissimus.
malevolus, spiteful; malevolentior, malevolentissimus.
1 The comparative suffix (earlier -ios) is akin to the Greek -iwv, or the Sanskrit -iyans.
That of the superlative (-issimus) is a double form of uncertain origin. It appears to
contain the is- of the old suffix -is-to-s (seen in TyS-ttrro-s and English siveetest) aud also
the old -mo-s (seen in pri-rnus, mini-mus, etc.) . The endiugs -limus and -rimus are formed
by assimilation (§ 15. 6) from -simus. The comparative and superlative are really new
stems, and are not strictly to be regarded as forms of iniiectiou.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
[§§ 127-130
a» So, by analogy, compounds in -ficus : —
magnificus, grand; niagnificentior, raagnificentissimus.
128. Some adjectives are compared by means of the adverbs
magis, more^ and maxime, most.
So especially adjectives in -us preceded by e or i : —
idoneus, fit ; magis idSneus, maxime idoneus.
Note. — But plus has piissimus in the superlative, — a form condemned by Cicero,
but common in inscriptions; equally common, however, is the irregular pientissimus.
Irregular Comparison
129. Several adjectives have in their comparison irregular
forms : —
bonus, good;
malus, had;
magnus, great;
parvus, small;
multus, much;
multl, many ;
nequam (indecL, § 122. 6),
worthless ;
frugi (indecl., § 122. b), use-
ful, worthy;
dextev, on the right, haridy ; dexterior; dextiinus.
Note. — These irregularities arise from the use of different stems (cf . § 127) . Tlius
frugalior and frugalissimus are formed from the stem frugal!-, but are used as the com-
parative and superlative of the indeclinable frugi.
Defective Comparison
130. Some Comparatives and Superlatives appear without a
Positive : —
Ccior, swifter; Ocissimus, swiftest.
potior, preferable ; ^ potissimus, most important,.
a. The following are formed from stems not used as adjectives:^ —
1 The old positive polls occurs in the sense of able, possible.
2 The forms in -tra and -terus were originally comparative (cf. alter), so that the
comparatives in -terior are double comparatives. Inferus and superus are comparatives
of a still more primitive form (cf. tlie English comparative in -er).
The superlatives in -timus (-tumus) are relics of old forms of comparison ; those in
-mus like imus, summus, primus, are still more primitive. Forms like extrgmus are
superlatives of a comparative. In fact, comparison has always been treated with an
accumulation of endings, as children sxy further er a,nd fur t?ter est.
melior, better;
peior, worse;
mMor, greater;
minor, less;
plus(N.) (§ 120), more;
plfires, more;
nequior ;
frugalior ;
optimus, best.
pessimua, worst.
maximus, greatest.
minimus, least.
pltirimus, 7nost.
pltirimi, most.
nequissimus.
frugalissimus
§§ 130, 131] DEFECTIVE COMPAKISON 67
cis, citra (adv., on this side): citerior, hither; citimus, hithermost.
de (prep,, down): deterior, worse; deterrimus, wo7'st.
in, intra (prep., in, within): interior, inner ; iutimus, inmost
prae, pro (prep., 6e/ore); prior, /ormer; primus, ^rsi.
prope (adv., near): propior, nearer; proximus, next.
ultra (adv., 6e?/ond): ulterior, /ari/ier ; MltivoMB, fatihest.
b. Of the following the positive forms are rare, except when used as
nouns (generally in the plural) : — •
exterus, outward; exterior, outer ; extremus (extimus), ow^moiii.
inferus, below (see § 111. b) ; inferior, lower ; infimus (imus), lowest.
Tposterus, following ; posterior, latter; postremus (postumus), Zasi.
superus, a?>ove; superior, Ai^r^er; supremus or summus, Mgr/iesi.
But the plurals, exteri, foreigners; inferi, the gods below ; poster!, posterity ;
superi, the heavenly gods, are common.
NoTB. — The superlative postumus has the special sense of last-born, and was a well-
known surname.
131. Several adjectives lack the Comparative or tlie Superla-
tive : —
a. The Comparative is rare or wanting in the following: —
bellus, inclutus (or inclitus), novus,
caesius, invictus, plus,
falsus, invitus, sacer,
fidus (with its compounds), meritus, vafer.
b. The Superlative is wanting in many adjectives in -ilis or -bilis (as,
agilis, probabilis), and in the following : —
actuosus ' exilis procllvis surdus
agrestis ingens propinquus tacitumus
alacer ieiunus satur tempestivus
arcanus longinquus segnis teres
caecus obliquus serus vicinus
diutumus opimus supinus
c. From iuvenis, youth, senex, old man (cf. § 122. d), are formed the com-
paratives iiinior, younger, senior, older. For these, however, minor natu and
maior natii are sometimes used (natii being often omitted).
The superlative is regularly expressed by minimus and maximus, with
or without natu.
Note. — In these phrases natu is ablative of specification (see § 418).
il. Many adjectives (as aureus, golden) are from their meaning incapable
of comparison.
Note. — But each language has its own usage in this respect. Thus, niger, glossy
black, and candidus, shining white, are compared ; but not ater or albus, meaning abso-
lute dead black or white (except that Plautus once has atrior).
68 NUMERALS [§§ 132, 133
NUMERALS
132. The Latin Numerals may be classified as follows : —
I. Numeral Adjectives :
1. Cardinal Numbers, answering the question how many? as, unus, one;
duo, two, etc.
2. Ordinal Numbers,^ adjectives derived (in most cases) from the Cardi-
nals, and answering the question which in order"? as, primus, ^rs« ; secun-
dus, second, etc.
3. Distributive Numerals, answering the question how many at a time ?
as, singuli, one at a time ; bini, two hy two, etc.
II. Numeral Adverbs, answering the question how often ? as, semel,
once; bis, twice, etc.
Cardinals and Ordinals
133. These two series are as follows : —
CARDINAL
ORDINAL
]
ROMAN
NUMERALS
1.
unus, una, tinum, one
primus, -a, -um, ^rs^
I
2.
duo, duae, duo, two
secundus (alter), second
II
3.
tres, tria, three
tertius, third
III
4.
quattuor
quartus
nil or IV
5.
quinque
quintus
V
6.
sex
sextus
VI
7.
septem
Septimus
VII
8.
octo
octavus
VIII
9.
novem
nonus
vim or IX
10.
decern
decimus
X
11.
undecim
undecimus
XI
12.
duodecim
duodecimus
XII
13.
tredecim (decem (et) tres)
tertius decimus (decimus
(et)
tertius
;) XIII
14.
quattuordecim
quartus decimus
xiiii or XIV
15.
quindecim
quintus decimus
XV
10.
sedecim
sextus decimus
XVI
17.
septendecira
Septimus decimus
XVII
18.
duodeviginti (octodecim)
duodevicensimus (octavus decimus)
XVIII
1 The Ordinals (except secundus, tertius, octavus, n5nus) are formed by means of suf-
fixes related to tho.se used in the superlative and in part identical with them. Thus,
decimus (compare the form infimus) m;iy he regarded as the last of a series of ten ; pri-
mus is a superlative of a stem akin to pro ; the forms in -tus (quartus, quintus, sextus) may
be compared -with the corresponding: Greek forms in ~tos, and with superlatives in
-i<r-To-s, while the others have the superlative ending -timus (changed to -simus) . Of the
exceptions, secundus is a participle of sequor ; alter is a comparative form (compare
-Tcpos in Greek), and nonus is contracted from jnovenos. The cardinal multiples of ten
ure compounds of -gint- 'ten' (a fragment of a derivative from decem).
133, 134]
CARDINALS AND ORDINALS
59
CARDINAL
ORDINAL
ROMAN NUMERALS
19.
undeviginti (novendecim) undevicensimus(noiius decimus) xviiii or xix
20.
viginti
vicensimus (vigensimus)
XX
21.
viginti imus
vicensimus primus
XXI
{or tinus et viginti, etc.
.) (tinus et vicensimus.
etc.)
30.
triginta
tricensimus
XXX
40.
quadraginta
quadragensimus
xxxx or XL
50.
qulnquaginta
quinquagensimus
si, or L
60.
sexaginla
sexagensimus
LX
70.
septuaginta
septuagensimus
LXX
80.
octoginta
octogensimus
LXXX
90.
nonaginta
nonagensimus
Lxxxx or xc
100.
centum
centensimus
c
101.
centum (et) unus, etc.
centensimus primus,
etc.
CI
200.
ducenti, -ae, -a
ducentensimus
cc
300.
trecentl
trecentensimus
ccc
400.
quadringenti
quadringentensi nms
cccc
500.
qulngenti
quingentensimus
D
600.
sescenti
sescentensimus
DC
700.
septingenti
septingentensimus
DCC
800.
octingenti
octingentensimus
DCCC
900.
nongenti
nongentensimus
DCCCC
1000.
mille
millensimus
CO (cio) or M
5000.
quinque milia (mlllia)
quinquiens millensimus
100
10,000.
decern milia (millia)
deciens millensimus
CCIOO
00,000.
centum milia (millia)
centiens millensimus
CCCIOOO
Note \. — The forms in -ensimus are often vt^ritten without the n : as, vicesimus, etc.
Note 2. — The forms octodecim, novendecim are rare, duodeviginti (two from twenty),
undeviginti (one from twenty), being used instead. So 28, 29; 38, 39; etc. may be
expressed either by the subtraction of two and one or by the addition of eight and
nine respectively.
Declension of Cardinals and Ordinals
134. Of the Cardinals only unus, duo, tres, the hundreds above
one hundred, and mille when used as a noun, are declinable.
a. For the declension of unus, see § 113. It often has the meaning of
same or only. The plural is used in this sense ; but also, as a simple nu-
meral, to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning : as, una castra,
one camp (cf. § 137. 6). The plural occurs also in the phrase uni et alteri, one
party and the other (the ones and the others).
h» Duo,^ two, and trgs, three, are thus declined : —
1 The form in -o is a remnant of the dual number, which was lost in Latin, but is
found in cognate languages. So in ambo, both, which preserves -o (cf . bvoj and § 629. 6).
60
1
NUMERALS
[§§
, 134, la
M.
F.
N.
M.,F.
N.
NOM.
duo
duae
duo
tres
tria
Gen.
duonim
duarum
duonim
trium
trium
DAT.
duobus
duabus
duobus
tribus
tribua
Ace.
duos (duo)
duas
duo
tres (triB)
tria
Abl.
duobus
duabus
duobus
tribus
tribus
Note. — Ambo, both, is declined like duo.
c. The hundreds, up to 1000, are adjectives of the First and Second
Declensions, and are regularly declined like the plural of bonus.
d, Mille, a thousand, is in the singular an indeclinable adjective : —
mille modis, in a thousand ways.
cum mille hominibus, with a thousand men.
mille trahens varios colores (Aen. iv. 701), drawing out a thousand various
colors.
In the plural it is used as a neuter noun, and is declined like the plural
of sedile (§ 69): milia, milium, milibus, etc.
Note. — The singular mille is sometimes found as a noun in the nominative and
accusative : as, mille hominum misit, he sent a thousand (of) men ; in the other cases
rarely, except in connection with the same case of milia : as, cum octo milibus peditum,
nulle equitum, with eight thousand foot and a thousand horse.
€, The ordinals are adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and
are regularly declined like bonus.
135. Cardinals and Ordinals have the following uses : —
a. In numbers below 100, if units precede tens, at is generally inserted :
duo et viginti ; otherwise et is omitted : viginti duo.
b. In numbers above 100 the highest denomination generally stands
first, the next second, etc., as in English. Et is either omitted entirely, or
stands between the two highest denominations : — mille (et) septingentl
sexaginta quattuor, 1764.
Note. — Observe the following combinations of numerals with substantives: —
unus et viginti milites, or viginti milites (et) unus, 21 soldiers.
duo milia quingenti milites, or duo milia militum et quingenti, 2500 soldiers.
milites mille ducenti tnginta iinus, 1231 soldiers.
c. After milia the name of the objects enumerated is in the genitive :
duo milia hominum, two thousand men.^
cum tribus milibus militum, with three thousand soldiers.
milia passuum tria, three thousand paces (three miles).
d. For million, billion, trillion, etc.. the Romans had no special words,
but these numbers were expressed by multiplication (cf. § 138. a).
1 Or, in poetry, bis mille homines, iwice a thousand men.
§§ 135-137]
DISTRIBUTIVES
Gl
e. Fractions are expressed, as in English, by cardinals in the numerator
and ordinals in the denominator. The feminine gender is used to agree
with pars expressed or understood : — two-sevenths, duae septimae (sc. partes) ;
three-eighths, tres octavae (sc. partes).
One-half is dimidia pars or dimidium.
Note 1. — When the numerator is one, it is omitted and pars is expressed: one-
third, tertia pars ; one- fourth, quarta pars.
Note 2. — When the denominator is but one greater than the numerator, the numer-
ator only is given : tioo-thirds, duae partes ; three-fourths, tres partes, etc.
Note 3. — Fractions are also expressed by special words derived from as, a pound :
as, triens, a third; bes, two-thirds. See § 637.
Distributives
136.
bonus.
Distributive Numerals are declined like the plural of
Note. — These answer to
many at a time?
1. singuli, one by one
2. bini, two by tivo
3. term, trini
4. quaterni
5. quini
6. seni
7. septeni
8. octoni
9. noveni
10. deni
11. undeni
12. duodeni
13. terni deni, etc.
the interrogative quoteni, how many of each? or how
18. octoni deni or duo- 100. centeni
deviceni 200, duceni
19. noveni deni or iin- 300. treceni
deviceni 400. quadringeni
20. viceni 500. quingeni
21. Aiceni singuli, etc. 600. sescem
30. triceni 700. septingeni
40. quadrageni 800. octingeni
50. qulnquageni 900. nongeni
60. sexageni 1000. milleni
70. septuageni 2000. bina milia
80. octogeni 10,000. dena milia
90. nonageni 100,000. centena milia
137. Distributives are used as follows : —
a. In the sense of so many apiece or on each side : as, singula singulis, one
apiece (one each to each one) ; agri septena iiigera plebi divisa sunt, i.e. seven
jugera to each citizen (seven jugera each), etc.
h» Instead of cardinals, to express simple number, when a noun plural in
form but usually singular in meaning is used in a plural sense : as, bina
castra, two camps (duo castra would mean two forts'). With such nouns trini,
not terni, is used for three : as, trina (not terna) castra, three camps ; terna
castra means camps in threes.
c. In multiplication : as, bis bina, twice two ; ter septenis diebus, in thrice
seven days.
d. By the poets instead of cardinal numbers, particularly where pairs or
sets are spoken of: as, bina hastilia, two shafts (two in a set).
62
NUMERALS
[§§ 138, 139
Numeral Adverbs
138. The Numeral Adverbs answer the question quotiens
(quoties), how many times? how often?
1. semel, once
2. bis, twice
3. ter, thrice
4. quater
5. quinquiens (-es)i
6. sexiens
7. septiens
8.' octiens
9. noviens
10. deciens
11. undeciens
12. duodeciens
13. terdeciens
14. quaterdeciens
15. quindeciens
16. sedeciens
17. septiesdeciens
18. duodeviciens
19. tindeviciens
20. viciens
21. semel viciens, ^ etc.
30. triciens
40. quadragiens
50. quinquagiens
60. sexagiens
70. septuagiens
80. octogiens
90. nonagiens
100. centiens
200. ducentiens
300. trecentiens
1000. miliens
10,000. deciens miliens
a, Numeral Adverbs are used with mille to express the higher numbers :
ter et triciens (centena milia) sestertium, 3^300^000 sesterces (three and thirty
times a hundred thousand sesterces).
vicies ac septies milies (centena milia) sestertium, 2^700^000^000 sesterces
(twenty-seven thousand times a hundred thousand).
Note. — These large numbers are used almost exclusively in reckoning money,
and centena milia is regularly omitted (see §634).
Other Numerals
139. The following adjectives are called Multiplicatives : —
simplex, single ; duplex, double, twofold ; triplex, triple, threefold ; quadruplex,
quinquiplex, septemplex, decemplex, centuplex, sesquiplex (1^), multiplex
{manifold).
a. Proportionals are : duplus, triplus, quadruplus, octuplus, etc., twice as
great, thrice as great, etc.
b. Temporals : bimus, trimus, of two or three years' age ; biennis, triennis,
lasting tioo or three years ; bimestris, trimestris, of two or three months ; biduum,
a period of two days; biennium, a period of two years.
c. Partitives : binarius, ternarius, of two or three parts.
d. Other derivatives are: unio, unity; binio, the tico (of dice); primanus,
of the first legion; primarius, of the first rank; denarius, a sum of iO asses;
binus (distributive), double, etc.
1 Forms in -ns are often written without the n.
2 Also written viciens et semel or viciens semel, etc.
140-143] PERSONAL PRONOUNS 63
PKONOUNS
140. Pronouns are used as Nouns or as Adjectives. They are
divided into the following seven classes : —
1. Personal Pronouns : as, ego, /.
2. Reflexive Pronouns : as, se, himself.
3. Possessive Pronouns : as, meus, my.
4. Demonstrative Pronouns: as, hie, this; ille, that.
5. Relative Pronouns : as, qui, who.
6. Interrogative Pronouns : as, quis, who ?
7. Indefinite Pronouns : as, aliquis, some one.
141. Pronouns have special forms of declension.
Note, — These special forms are, in general, survivals of a very ancient form of
declension differing from that of nouns.
Personal Pronouns
142. The Personal pronouns of the first person are ego, J, nSs,
we; of the second person., t% thou or ^ou, vos, ^e or i/ou. The
personal pronouns of the third person — he^ she, it, tJiey — are
wanting in Latin, a demonstrative being sometimes used instead.
143. Ego and tu are declined as follows : —
First Person
Singular Plural
NoM. ego, / n5s, we
Gen. mei, of me nostrum, nostri, of us
Dat. mihi (mi), to me n5bis, to us
Ace. me, me nos, us
Abl. me, by me nobis, hy us
Second Person
NoM. tu, thou or you vos, ye or you
Gen. tui, of thee or you vestrum, vestri ; vostnim (-tri)
Dat. tibi vobis
Ace. te vos
Abl. te vobis
a. The plural nos is often used for the singular ego ; the plural vos is
never so used for the singular tu.
64 PRONOUNS [§§ 143, 144
Note. — Old forms are genitive mis, tis; accusative and ablative med, ted (cf
§43. N. 1).
6. The forms nostrum, vestrum, etc., are used partitively : —
unusquisque nostrum, each one of us.
vestrum omnium, of all of you.
Note. — The forms of the genitive of the personal pronouns are really the genitives
of the possessives : mei, tui, sul, nostri, vestri, genitive singular neuter : nostrum, ves-
trum, genitive plural masculine or neuter. So in early and later Latin we find una
vestrarum, one of you (women) .
c. The genitives mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, are chiefly used objectively
(§347):-
memor sis nostri, be mindful of us (me).
me tui pudet, I am ashamed of you.
(I, Emphatic forms of tii are tute and tiitemet (tiitimet). The other
cases of the personal pronouns, excepting the genitive plural, are made
emphatic by adding -met : as, egomet, vosmet.
Note. — Early emphatic forms are mepte and tepte.
e. Reduplicated forms are found in the accusative and ablative singu-
lar : as, meme, tete.
/. The preposition cum, with, is joined enclitically with the ablative : as,
tecum loquitur, he talks with you.
Reflexive Pronouns
144. Reflexive Pronouns are used in the Oblique Cases to refer
to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand (see
§ 299): as, se amat, he loves himself.
a. In thejirst and second persons the oblique cases of the Personal pro-
nouns are used as Reflexives: as, me video, / see myself; te laudas, you
praise yourself; nobis persuademus, we persuade ourselves.
h. The Reflexive pronoun of the third person has a special form used
only in this sense, the same for both singular and plural. It is thus
declined: —
Gen. sui, of himself herself itself themselves
Dat. sibi, to himself herself itself themselves
Ace. se (sese), himself herself itself themselves
Abl. se (sese), [%] himself herself itself themselves
Note 1. — Emphatic and reduplicated forms of se are made as in the personals (see
§ 143. d, e). The preposition cum is added enclitically: as, secum, icith himself ^ etc.
Note 2. — An old form sed occurs in the accusative and ablative.
145, 14!^]
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
65
Possessive Pronouns
145. The Possessive pronouns are : —
First Person. meus, my noster, our
Second Person. tuus, thy, your vester, your
Third Person. suus, his, her, its suus, their
These are really adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and are
so declined (see §§ 110-112). But meus has regularly mi (rarely meus) in
the vocative singular masculine.
Note. -Suus is used only as a reflexive, referring to the subject. For a possessive
pronoun of the third person not referring to the subject, the genitive of a demonstrative
must he used. Thus, patrem suum occidit, Jie killed his {own) father; but pattern eius
occidit, lie killed Ms (somebody else's) father.
a. Emphatic forms in -pte are found in the ablative singular : suopte.
b, A rare possessive cuius (quoius), -a, -um, whose, is formed from the
genitive singular of the relative or interrogative pronoun (qui, quis). It
may be either interrogative or relative in force according to its derivation,
but is usually the former.
e. The reciprocals one another and each other are expressed by inter se or
alter . . . alterum : —
alter alterius ova frangit, they break each other'' s eggs (one . . . of the other),
inter se amant, they love one another (they love among themselves).
Demonstrative Pronouns
146. The Demonstrative Pronouns are used to point out or
designate a person or thing for special attention, either with nouns
as Adjectives or alone as Pronouns. They are: — hie, this; is,
ille, iste, that; with the Intensive ipse, self, and idem, same; ^ and
are thus declined : —
hie, this
Plural
Singular
M.
F.
N.
NOM.
hie
haec
hoc
Gen.
huius
huius
huius
DAT.
huic
huic
huic
Ace.
hunc
hane
hoc
Abl.
hoc
hac
hoc
M.
F.
N.
hi
hae
haec
horum
harum
horum
his
his
his
hos
has
haec
his
his
his
1 These demonstratives are combinations of o- and i- stems, which are not clearly
distinguishable.
66
PRONOUNS
[§146
Note 1. — Hie is a compound of the stem ho- with the demonstrative enclitic -ce.
In most of the cases final e is dropped, in some the whole termination. But in these
latter it is sometimes retained for emphasis : as, huius-ce, his-ce. In early Latin -c alone
is retained in some of these (horunc). The vowel in hie, hoc, was originally short, and
perhaps this quantity was always retained. lUe and iste are sometimes found with
the same enclitic : illic, illaec, illuc ; also illoe. See a, p. 67.
Note 2. — For the dative and ablative plural of hie the old form hibus is sometimes
found ; haec occurs (rarely) for hae.
is, that
Singular
Plural
M.
F.
N.
M.
F.
N.
NOM.
is
ea
id
ei, ii (i)
eae
ea
Gen.
eius
eius
eius
ednim
earum
eorum
DAT.
ei
ei
ei
eis, iis (is)
eis, iis (is)
eis, iis (is)
Ace.
eum
earn
id
eos
eas
ea
Abl.
eo
ea
eo
eis, iis (is)
eis, iis (is)
eis, iis (is)
Note 3. — Obsolete forms are eae (dat. fern.), and eabus or ibus (dat. plur.). For
dative ei are found also ei and ei (monosyllabic) ; ei, eTts, etc., also occur in the plural.
ille, that
Singular
Plural
M.
F.
N.
M.
F.
N.
NoM.
ille
ilia
illud
illi
illae
ilia
Gen.
illius
illius
illius
illorum
illarum
illorum
Dat.
illi
illi
illi
illis
illis
iUis
Ace.
ilium
illam
illud
ill5s
illas
ilia
Abl.
ill5
ilia
illo
illis
illis
illis
Iste, ista, istud, that (yonder), is declined like ille.
Note 4. — Ille replaces an earlier oUus (oUe), of which several forms occur.
Note 5. — Iste is sometimes found in early writers in the form ste etc. The first
syllable of ille and ipse is very often used as short in early poetry.
Note G. — The forms illi, isti (gen.), and illae, istae (dat.), are sometimes found;
also the nominative plural istaece, illaece (for istae, illae). See a, p. 67.
ipse, self
Singular
M.
F.
n.
NOM.
ipse
ipsa
ipsum
Gen.
ipsius
ipsius
ipsius
Dat.
ipsi
ipsi
ipsi
Ace.
ipsum
ipsam
ipsum
Abl.
ipso
ipsa
ipso
Plural
M.
N.
ipsi ipsae ipsa
ipsorum ipsarum ipsorum
ipsis ipsis ipsis
ipsos ipsas ipsa
ipsis ipsis ipsis
146]
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
67
Note 7. — Ipse is compounded of is and -pse (a pronominal particle of uncertain
origin: cf. §145. a), meaning self. Tlie former part was originally declined, as in
reapse (for re eapse) , in fact. An old form ipsus occurs, with superlative ipsissimus,
oion self, used for comic effect.
Note 8. — The intensive -pse is found in the forms eapse (nominative), eumpse,
eampse, eopse, eapse (ablative).
idem, the i
same
Singular
Plural
M.
F.
N.
M.. F. N.
NOM.
idem
eadem
idem
idem (ei-) eaedem eadem
Gen.
eiusdem
eiusdem
eiusdem
e5nindem earundem edrundem
DAT.
eidem
eidem
eidem
eisdem or isdem
Ace.
eundem
eandem
idem
eosdem ^ easdem eadem
Abl.
eodem
eadem
eodem
eisdem or isdem
Note 9. — Idem is the demonstrative is with the indeclinable suffix -dem. The mas-
culine idem is for fisdem ; the neuter idem, however, is not for fiddem, but is a relic of
an older formation. A final m of is is changed to n before d : as, eundem for eumdem,
etc. The plural forms idem, isdem, are often written iidem, iisdem.
a, lUe and iste appear in combination with the demonstrative particle -c,
shortened from -ce, in the following forms : —
Singular
NoM. illic illaec illuc(illoc)
Ace. illunc illanc illuc (illoc)
Abl. illoc iliac illdc
istic istaec istuc (istoc)
istunc istanc istuc (istoc)
ist5c istac istdc
Plural
N., Ace.
illaec
istaec
Note 1. — The appended -ce is also found with pronouns in numerous combinations :
as, huiusce, hunce, horunce, harunce, hosce, hisce (cf. § 146. n. 1), illiusce, isce ; also with the
interrogative -ne, in hocine, hoscine, istucine, illicine, etc.
Note 2. — By composition with ecce or em, behold! are formed eccum (for ecce
eum), eccam, eccos, eccas; eccillum (for ecce ilium); ellum (for em ilium), ellam, ellos,
ellas ; eccistam. These forms are dramatic and colloquial.
b. The combinations huiusmodi (htiiuscemodi), eiusmodi, etc., are used as
indeclinable adjectives, equivalent to talis, stich: as, res eiusmodi, such a
thing (a thing of that sort : cf. § 345. a).
For uses of the Demonstrative Pronouns, see §§ 296 ff.
68
PRONOUNS
}§ 147-149
Relative Pronouns
147. The Relative Pronoun qui, who^which^ is thus declined
Singular
Plural
M.
F.
N.
M.
F.
N.
NOM.
qui
quae
quod
qui
quae
quae
Gen.
cuius
cuius
cuius
quorum
quarum
quorum
Dat.
cui
cui
cui
quibus
quibus
quibus
Ace.
quern
quam
quod
quos
quas
quae
Abl.
quo
qua
quo
quibus
quibus
quibus
Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns
148. The Substantive Interrogative Pronoun quis, who? quid,
what? is declined in the Singular as follows : —
M.,F.
N.
NOM.
quis
quid
Gen.
ciiius
cuius
Dat.
cui
cui
Ace.
quern
quid
Abl.
quo
quo
The Plural is the same as that of the Relative, qui, quae, quae.
a. The singular quis is either masculine or of indeterminate gender,
but in old writers it is sometimes distinctly feminine.
h. The Adjective Interrogative Pronoun, qui, quae, quod, ivhat kind off
what ? which f is declined throughout like the Relative : —
Substantive Adjective
quis vocat, who calls ? qui homo vocat, what man calls ?
quid vides, what do you see ? quod templum vides, what temj^le do you see f
Note. — But qui is often used without any apparent adjective force; and quis is
■very common as an adjective, especially with words denoting a person : as, qui nomi-
nat me ? who calls my name ? quis dies fuit ? ichat day loas it ? quis homo ? vjhat man ?
but often qui homo? what kind of man? nescio qui sis, / know not who you are.
c. Quisnam, pray, who f is an emphatic interrogative. It has both sub-
stantive and adjective forms like quis, qui.
149. The Indefinite Pronouns quis, ant/ one, and qui, ani/, are
declined like the corresponding Interrogatives, but qua is com-
monly used for quae except in the nominative plural feminine : —
§§ 149-161J COMPOUNDS OF QUIS AND QUI 69
Substantive : quis, any one ; quid, anything.
Adjective : qui, qua (quae), quod, any.
a. The feminine forms qua and quae are sometimes used substantively.
b. The indefinites quis and qui are rare except after si, nisi, ne, and num,
and in compounds (see § 310. a, b).
Note. — After these particles qui is often used as a substantive and quis as an adjec-
tive (cf. §148. &. N.).
Case-Forms of qui and guts
150. The Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite Pronouns are
originally of the same stem, and most of the forms are the same
(compare § 147 with § 148). The stem has two forms in the mas-
culine and neuter, quo-, qui-, and one for the feminine, qua-. The
interrogative sense is doubtless the original one.
a. Old forms for the genitive and dative singular are quoius, quoi.
b. The form qui is used for the ablative of both numbers and all genders;
but especially as an adverb (how, by which way, in any way), and in the combi-
nation quicum, tvith whom, as an interrogative or an indefinite relative.
c. A nominative plural ques (stem qui-) is found in early Latin. A dative
and ablative quis (stem quo-) is not infrequent, even in classic Latin.
d. The preposition cum is joined enclitically to all forms of the abla-
tive, as with the personal pronouns (§ 143./) : as, quocum, quicum, quibuscum.
Note. — But occasionally cum precedes : as, cum quo (luv. iv. 9).
Compounds of quis and qm
151. The pronouns quis and qui appear in various combinations.
a. The adverb -cumque (-cunque) (cf. quisque) added to the relative
makes an indefinite relative, which is declined like the simple word : as,
quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whoever, lohatever ; cuiuscumque, etc.
Note. — This suffix, with the same meaning, may be used with any relative: as,
qualiscumque, of whatever sort ; quandocumque (also rarely quandoque), whenever ; ubi-
cumque, wherever.
b» In quisquis, whoever, both parts are declined, but the only forms in
common use are quisquis, quidquid (quicquid) and quoquo.
Note 1. — Rare forms are quemquem and quibusquibus ; an ablative quiqui is some-
times found in early Latin ; the ablative feminine quaqua is both late and rare. Cuicui
occurs as a genitive in the phrase cuicui modi, of whatever kind. Other cases are
cited, but have no authority. In early Latin quisquis is occasionally feminine.
Note 2. —Quisquis is usually substantive, except in the ablative qu6qu5, which is
more commonly an adjective.
TO
PRONOUNS
[§161
c. The indefinite pronouns quidam, a certain (one) ; quivis, quilibet, any
you please, are used both as substantives and as adjectives. The first part
is declined like the relative qui, but the neuter has both quid- (substantive)
and quod- (adjective) : —
quidam quaedam quiddam (quoddam)
quivis quaevis quidvis (quodvis)
Quidam changes m to n before d in the accusative singular (quendam, m.;
quandam, f.) and the genitive plural (quorundam, m., n. ; quarundam, f.).
d. The indefinite pronouns quispiam, sofue, any, and quisquam, atiy at all,
are used both as substantives and as adjectives. Quispiam has feminine quae-
piam (adjective), neuter quidpiam (substantive) and quodpiam (adjective);
the plural is very rare. Quisquam is both masculine and feminine ; the
neuter is quidquam (quicquam), substantive only ; there is no plural, tjllus,
-a, -um, is commonly used as the adjective corresponding to quisquam.
e. The indefinite pronoun aliquis (substantive), some one, aliqui (adjec-
tive), some, is declined like quis and qui, but aliqua is used instead of aliquae
except in the nominative plural feminine : —
Singular
M.
F.
N.
NOM.
aliquis (aliqui)
aliqua
aliquid (aliquod)
Gen.
aliciiius
alicuius
aHciiius
DAT.
alicui
alicui
alicui
Ace.
aliquem
aliquam
aliquid (aliquod)
Abl.
aliquo
aliqua
Plural
aliquo
NOM.
aliqui
aliquae
aliqua
Gen.
aliquorum
aliquarum
aliquorum
Dat.
aliquibus
aliquibus
aliquibus
Ace.
aliquos
aliquas
aliqua
Abl.
aliquibus
aliquibus
aliquibus
;. — Aliqui is sometimes used
substantively and a
iliquis as an adiect
/. The indefinite pronoun acquis (substantive), trhether any one, ecqui
(adjective), whether any, is declined like aliquis, but has either ecquae or
ecqua in the nominative singular feminine of the adjective form.
Note. — Ecquis (ecqui) has no genitive singular, and in the plural occurs in the
nominative and accusative only.
g. The enclitic particle -que added to the interrogative gives a universal :
as, quisque, every one; uterque, each of two, or both. Quisque is declined
§§ 161, 162]
CORRELATIVES
71
like the interrogative quis, qui : — substantive, quisque, quidque ; adjective,
quique, quaeque, quodque.
In the compound unusquisque, every single one, both parts are declined
(genitive uniuscuiusque), and they are sometimes written separately and even
separated by other words : —
ne in uno quidem quoque (Lael. 92), not even in a single one.
h. The relative and interrogative have rarely a possessive adjective
cuius (-a, -um), older quoius, whose ; and a patrial cuias (cuiat-), of what
country.
L Quantus, how great, qualis, of what sort, are derivative adjectives from
the interrogative. They are either interrogative or relative, corresponding
respectively to the demonstratives tantus, talis (§ 152). Indefinite com-
pounds are quantuscumque and qualiscumque (see § 151. a).
Correlatives
152. Many Pronouns, Pronominal Adjectives, and Adverbs
have corresponding demonstrative^ 7'elative^ interrogative, and
indefinite forms. Such parallel forms are called Correlatives.
They are shown in the following table : —
Demon.
Rel.
Interrog.
Indef. Rel.
Indef.
is
qui
quis?
quisquis
aliquis
that
who
who?
whoever
some one
tantus
quantus
quantus ?
quantuscumque
aliquantus
so great
how (as) great
how great ?
however great
some
talis
qualis
qualis ?
qualiscumque
such'
as
of what sort f
of whatever kind
ibi
ubi
ubi?
ubiubi
alicubi
there
where
where ?
wherever
somewhere
eo
quo
quo?
quoquo
aliqu5
thither
whither
whither ?
whithersoever
(to) somewhere
ea
qua
qua?
quaqua
aliqua
that way
which way
which way ?
whithersoever
somewhere
inde
unde
unde?
undecumque
alicunde
thence
whence
whence ?
whencesoever
from somewhere
turn
cum
quando ?
quandocumque
aliquando
then
when
when?
ivhenever
at some time
tot
quot
quot?
quotquot
aliquot
so many
as
how many ?
however many
some, several
totiens
quotiens
quotiens ?
quotienscumque
aliquotiens
so often
as
how often ?
however often
at several times
72 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§§153-166
VERBS
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
153. The inflection of the Verb is called its Conjugation.
Voice, Mood, Tense, Person, Number
154. Through its conjugation the Verb expresses Voice, Mood,
Tense, Person, and Number.
a. The Voices are two : Active and Passive.
h. The Moods are four : Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, and In-
finitive.^
Note.— The Indicative, Subjunctive, and Imi^erative are called Finite Moods in
distinction from the Infinitive.
c. The Tenses are six, viz.: —
1. For continued action, Present, Imperfect, Future.
2. For completed action, Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect.
The Indicative Mood has all six tenses, but the Subjunctive has no
future or future perfect, and the Imperative has only the present and the
future. The Infinitive has the present, perfect, and future.
d. The Persons are three : First, Second, and Third.
e. The Numbers are two : Singular and Plural.
Noun and Adjective Forms
155. The following Noun and Adjective forms are also included
in the inflection of the Latin Verb : —
a» Four Participles,^ viz.: —
Active: the Present and Future Participles.
►n, Passive : the Perfect Participle and the Gerundive.^
b. The Gerund : this is in form a neuter noun of the second declension,
used only in the oblique cases of the singular.
" c. The Supine : this is in form a verbal noun of the fourth declension
in the accusative (-urn) and dative or ablative (-u)* singular.
1 The Infinitive is strictly the locative case of an abstract noun, expressing the
action of tlie verb (§ 4r)l).
2 The Participles ai-e adjectives in inflection and meaning, but have the power of
verbs in construction and in distinguishing time.
8 The Gerundive is also used as an adjective of necessity, duty, etc. (§ 158. d). In
late use it became a Future Passive Participle. * Originally locative.
§§ 156, 157] voices and moods 73
Signification of the Forms of the Verb
Voices
156. The Active and Passive Voices in Latin generally cor-
respond to the active and passive in English ; but —
a* The passive voice often has a reflexive meaning : —
ferr5 accingor, I gird myself with my sword.
Turnus vertitur, Tiirmis turns (himself),
induitur vestem, he puts on his (own) clothes.
Note. — This use correspoods very nearly to the Greek Middle voice, and is doubt-
less a survival of the original meaning of the passive (p. 76, footnote 2) .
b. Many verbs are passive in form, but active or reflexive in meaning.
These are called Deponents (§ 190):^ as, hortor, / exhort; sequor, I follow.
c. Some verbs with active meaning have the passive form in the perfect
tenses ; these are called Semi-Deponents : as, audeo, audere, ausus sum, dare.
Moods
lB7. The Moods are used as follows : —
a« The Indicative Mood is used for most direct assertions and interroga-
tions : as, — valesne ? valeo, are you loell ? I am well.
h. The Subjunctive Mood has many idiomatic uses, as in commands, condi-
tions, and various dependent clauses. It is often translated by the English
Indicative; frequently by means of the auxiliaries may, might, would, should;^
sometimes by the (rare) Subjunctive ; sometimes by the Infinitive ; and
often by the Imperative, especially in prohibitions. A few characteristic
examples of its use are the following : —
eanuis, let us go ; ne abeat, let him not depart.
adsum ut videam, I am here to see (that I may see).
tu ne quaesieris, do not thou inquire.
beatus sis, may you he blessed.
quid merer, lohy should I delay f
nescio quid scribam, I knoio not what to write.
si moneam, audiat, if I should warn, he vjould hear.
1 That is, verbs which have laid aside (deponere) the passive meaning.
2 The Latin uses the subjunctive in many cases where we use the indicative; and
we use a colorless auxiliary in many cases where the Latin employs a separate verb
with more definite meaning. Thus, I may lorito. is often not scribam (subjunctive), but
licet mihi scribere ; I can write is possum scribere ; / would write is scribam, scriberem,
or scribere velim (vellem) ; I should write, {if, etc.), scriberem (si) . . ., or (implying duty)
oportet me scribere.
74 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§§ 157, 168
c. The Imperative is used for exhortation, entreaty, or command ; but the
Subjunctive is often used instead (§§ 439, 450): —
liber esto, he shall he free.
ne ossa legito, do not gather the hones.
d. The Infinitive is used chiefly as an indeclinable noun, as the subject
or complement of another verb (§§ 452, 456. n.). In special constructions it
takes the place of the Indicative, and may be translated by that mood in
English (see Indirect Discourse, § 580 ff.).
Note. — For the Syntax of the Moods, see § 436 ff .
Participles
158. The Participles are used as follows : —
a. The Present Participle (ending in -ns) has commonly the same
meaning and use as the English participle in -ing ; as, vocans, call-
ing ; legentes, reading. (For its inflection, see egens, § 118.)
h. The Puture Participle (ending in -urns) is oftenest used to ex-
press what is likely or about to happen: as, recturus, about to rule;
auditurus, about to hear.
Note. — With the tenses of esse, to he, it forms the First Periphrastic Conjugation
(see § 195) : as, urbs est casura, the city is about to fall ; mansurus eram, I was going
to stay.
c. The Perfect Participle (ending in -tus, -sus) has two uses : —
1. It is sometimes equivalent to the English perfect passive participle :
as, tectus, sheltered ; acceptus, accepted ; ictus, having been struck ; and often
has simply an adjective meaning : as, acceptus, acceptable.
2. It is used with the verb to be (esse) to form certain tenses of the pas-
sive : as, vocatus est, he icas (has been) called.
Note. — There is no Perfect Active or Present Passive Participle in Latin. For
substitutes see §§ 492, 493.
d. The Gerundive (ending in -ndus), has two uses : —
1. It is often used as an adjective implying obligation, necessity, or
propriety (ought or must) : as, audiendus est, he must be heard.
Note. — When thus used with the tenses of the verb to be (esse) it forms the Second
Periphrastic Conjugation: deligendus erat, he ought to have been chosen (§ 196).
2. In the oblique cases the Gerundive commonly has the same meaning
as the Gerund (cf. § 159. a), though its construction is different. (Foi
examples, see § 503 ff.")
§§ 169-162) TENSES OF THE FINITE VERR 75
Gerund and Supine
159. The Gerund and Supine are used as follows : —
a. The Gerund is a verbal noun, corresponding in meaning to the English
verbal noun in -ing (§ 502): as, loquendi causa, /or the sake of speaking.
Note. — The Gerund is found only in the oblique cases. A corresponding nomi- /
native is supplied by the Infinitive : thus, scribere est utile, writing (to write) is use- \
ful ; but, ars scribendi, the art of writing.
b. The Supine is in form a noun of the fourth declension (§ 94. &),
found only in the accusative ending in -turn, -sum, and the dative or abla^
tive ending in -tu, -su.
The Supine in -um is used after verbs and the Supine in -u after adjec-
tives (§§509, 510): —
venit spectatum, he came to see ; mirabile dictu, wonderful to tell.
Tenses of the Finite Verb
160. The Tenses of the Indicative have, in general, the same
meaning as the corresponding tenses in English : —
a. Of continued action,
1. Present : scribo, I write, I am writing, I do write.
2. Imperfect : scribebam, I wrote, I was writing, I did write.
3. Future : scnbam, I shall write.
b. Of completed action,
4. Perfect : scrips!, I have written, I wrote.
6, Pluperfect : scripseram, I had written.
6. Future Perfect : scripserd, I shall have written.
161. The Perfect Indicative has two separate uses, — the Per-
fect Definite and the Perfect Historical (or Indefinite).
1 . The Perfect Definite represents the action of the verb as completed
in present time, and corresponds to the English perfect with have: as,
scripsi, / have written.
2. The Perfect Historical narrates a simple act or state in past time
without representing it as in progress or continuing. It corresponds to the
English past or preterite and the Greek aorist: as, scripsit, he ivrote.
162. The Tenses of the Subjunctive are chiefly used in depend-
ent clauses, following the rule for the Sequence of Tenses ; but
have also special idiomatic uses (see Syntax).
For the use of Tenses in the Imperative, see §§ 446, 449.
76
CONJUGATION OF THE VEKB
[§163
Personal Endings
163. Verbs have regular terminations ^ for each of the three
Persons, both singular and plural, active and passive.^ These are :
1. -m(-o):
9 -9-
1. -mus
2. -lis:
3. -nt:
ACTIVE
am-o, / love.
ama-s, thou lovest.
ama-t, he loves.
ama-mus, ive love.
ama-tis, you love.
ama-nt, they love.
Singular
Plural
PASSIVE
-r (-or) : amo-r, / a7n loved.
-ris (-re) : ama-ris, thou art loved.
-tur : ama-tur, he is loved.
-mur : ama-mur, we are loved.
-mini : ama-mini, you are loved.
-ntur : ama-ntur, they are loved.
a. The Perfect Indicative active has the special terminations'
Sing.
1.
-i :
amav-i, I loved.
2.
-is-ti :
amav-is-ti, thou lovedst.
3.
-i-t :
amav-i-t, he loved.
1.
-i-mus :
amav-i-mus, we loved.
2.
-is-tis :
amav-is-tis, you loved.
3.
-erunt (-ere) :
amav-erunt (-ere), they loved.
Pldr.
b. The Imperative has the following terminations
Present Active
Singular
ama, love thou.
-te:
-t5:
-to:
Future Active
ama-to, thou shalt love. -tote :
ama-to, he shall love. -nt5 :
Plural
ama-te, love ye.
ama-tote, ye shall love.
ama-nto, they shall love.
1 Most of these seem to be fragments of old pronouns, whose signification is thus
added to that of the verb-stem (of. § 36). But the ending -mini in the second person
plural of the passive is perhaps a remnant of the participial form found in the Greek
-fievos, and has supplanted the proper form, which does not appear in Latin. The per-
sonal ending -nt is probably connected with the participial nt- (nominative -ns).
2 The Passive is an old Middle Voice, peculiar to the Italic and Celtic languages,
and of uncertain origin.
3 Of these terminations -i is not a personal ending, but appears to represent an
Indo-European tense-sign -ai of the Perfect Middle. In -is-ti and -is-tis, -ti and -tis are
personal endings ; for -is-, see § 169. c. n. In -i-t and -i-mus, -t and -mus are personal
endings, and i is of uncertain origin. Both -erant and -ere are also of doubtful origin,
but the former contains the personal ending -ut.
§§ 163, 104] THE THREE STEMS 77
Singular Present Passive pi^yal
2, -re : ama-re, be thou loved. -mini : ama-mini, be ye loved.
Future Passive
2. -tor : ama-tor, thou shalt be loved.
3. -tor : ama-tor, he shall be loved. -ntor : ama-ntor, they shall be loved.
Forms of the Verb
The Three Stems
164. The forms of the verb may be referred to three stems,
called (1) the Present, (2) the Perfect, and (3) the Supine stem-
1. On the Present stem are formed —
The Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative, Active and Passive.
The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive, Active and Passive.
The Imperative, Active and Passive.
The Present Infinitive, Active and Passive.
The Present Participle, the Gerundive, and the Gerund.
2. On the Perfect stem are formed —
The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative Active.
The Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive Active.
The Perfect Infinitive Active.
3. On the Supine stem are formed ^ —
a. The Perfect Passive Participle, which combines with the forms of the
verb sum, be, to make —
The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative Passive.
The Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive Passive.
The Perfect Infinitive Passive.
b. The Future Active Participle, which combines with esse to make
the Future Active Infinitive.
c. The Supine in -um and -ii. The Supine in -um combines with iri to
make the Future Passive Infinitive (§ 203. a).
Note. — The Perfect Participle with fore also makes a Future Passive Infinitive
(as, amatus fore). For fore (futurum esse) ut with the subjunctive, see § 569. 3. a.
1 The Perfect Passive and Future Active Participles and the Supine, though strictly
noun-forms, each with its own sutfix, agree in having the first letter of the suffix (t)
the same and in suffering the same phonetic change (t to s, see § 15. 5). Hence these
forms, along with several sets of derivatives (in -tor, -tura, etc., see § 238. b. N.i), were
feli by the Romans as belonging to one system, and are conveniently associated with
the Supine Stem. Thus, from pingo, we have pictum, pictus, picturus, pictor, pictiira;
from rideo, risum (for trid-tum), risus (part.), risus (uoun), risurus, risio, risor, risibilis.
78
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
165, 166
VERB-ENDINGS
165. Every form o£ the finite verb is made up of two parts :
1. The Stem (see § 24). This is either the root or a modification or
development of it.
2. The Ending, consisting of —
1. the Signs of Mood and Tense (see §§ 168, 169).
2. the Personal Ending (see § 163).
Thus in the verb voca-ba-s, you were calling, the root is voc, modified into the
verb-stem voca-, which by the addition of the ending -bas becomes the imperfect
tense vocabas ; and this ending consists of the tense-sign ba- and the personal
ending (-s) of the second person singular.
166. The Verb-endings, as they are formed by the signs for
mood and tense combined with personal endings, are —
ACTIVE
PASSIVE
INDICATIVE
SUBJUNCTIVE
INDICATIVE
SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
Present
Sing, 1. -6
•• M '2
' -m
-or
-r
2. -s
lii.
-s
-lis (-re)
N
-ris (-re)
3. -t
Plur. 1. -mus
-t
-mus
-tur
-mur
It
-tur
-mur
2. -tis
3. -nt
1 * °,
-tis
. -nt
-mini
-ntur
1'^
-mini
-ntur
Imperfect
Imperfect
Sing. 1. -ba-m
-re-m
-ba-r
-re-r
2. -ba-s
-re-s
-ba-ris (-re)
-re-ris (-re)
3. -ba-t
-re-t
-ba-tur
-re-tur
Plur. 1. -ba-mus
-re-mus
-ba-mur
-re-mur
2. -ba-tis
-re-tis
-ba-mini
-re-mini
3. -ba-nt
-re-nt
-ba-ntur
-re-ntur
INDICATIVE
INDICATIVE
Future
Future
I, III
in, rv
i,n
ni, IV »
Sing. 1. -b-6
S si' -2
' -a-m
-bo-r
-a-T
2. -bi-s
•" .5 «
-e-s
-be-ris (-re)
-e-ris (-re)
3. -bi-t
Plur. 1. -bi-mus
mi
-e-t
-e-raus
-bi-tur
-bi-mur
e ■-
-e-tur
-e-mur
2. -bi-tis
ills
-e-tis
-bi-mini
»? a
-e-mini
3. -bu-nt
-3|l
-e-nt
-bu-ntur
-e-ntur
1 These numerals refer to the four conjugations given later (see § 171).
166]
VERB-ENDINGS
79
Active
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Perfect
Sing. 1. -i -eri-m
2. -is-ti -eri-s
3. -i-t -eri-t
Plur. 1. -i-mus -eri-mus
2. -is-tis -eri-tis
3. -eru-nt (-ere) -eri-nt
Pluperfect
Sing.
Plur.
-era-m
-era-s
~era-t
-era-mus
-era-tis
-era-nt
-isse-m
-isse-s
-isse-t
-isse-mus
-isse-tis
-isse-nt
Future Perfect
Sing. 1. -er-6
2. -eri-s
3. -eri-t
Plur. 1. -eri-mus
2. -eri-tis
3. -eri-nt
Passive
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Perfect
-tus(-ta,
-turn)
-ti (-tae,
-ta)
-tus(-ta,
-turn)
-ti (-tae,
-ta)
sun
sis
sit
simus
sitis
sint
Pluperfect
eram
eras
erat
eramus
eratis
erant
essem
esses
esset
essemus
essetis
essent
Future Perfect
-tus(-ta,
-turn)
-ti (-tae,
-ta)
ero
eris
erit
erimus
eritis
erunt
IMPERATIVE
Present Present
Sing, 2. Plur. 2. -te Sing. 2. -re Plur. 2. -mini
Future Future
2. -to 2. -tote 2. -tor
3. -t5 3. -nto 3. -tor 3. -ntor
For convenience a table of the Noun and Adjective forms of
the verb is here added.
INFINITIVE
Pres. -re (Pres. stem) i, ii, iv. -ri ; in. -i
Perf. -isse (Perf. stem)
FuT. -turus (-a, -um) esse
-tus (-ta, -tum) esse
-tum iri
PARTICIPLES
Pres. -ns, -ntis Perf.
FuT. -turus, -a, -um Ger.
-tus, -ta, -tum
-ndus, -nda, -ndum
GERUND SUPINE
■ndi, -ndo, -ndum, -ndo -tum, -tii
80 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§§ 167, 168
167. A long, vowel is shortened before the personal endings
-m (-r), -t, -nt (-ntur) : as, ame-t (for older ame-t), habe-t (for habe-t),
mone-nt, mone-ntur.
168. The tenses of the Present System are made from the Pres-
ent Stem as follows : — ^
a. In the Present Indicative the personal endings are added directly to
the present stem. Thus, — present stem ara-: ara-s, ara-mus, ara-tis.
h» In the Imperfect Indicative the suffix -bam, -bas, etc. (originally a com-
plete verb) is added to the present stem : as, ara-bam, ara-bas, ara-bamus.
Note. — The form t^am was apparently an aorist of the Indo-European root bhu
(cf. fui, futurus, <f)V(jo, English be, been), and meant Iioas. This was added to a com-
plete word, originally a case of a verbal noun, as in / loas a-seeing; hence vide-bam.
The form probably began in the Second or Third Conjugation and was extended to the
others. The a was at first long, but was shortened in certain forms (§ 167).
c. In the Future Indicative of the First and Second Conjugations a similar
suffix, -bo, -bis, etc., is added to the present stem : as, ara-bo, ara-bis, mone-bo.
Note. — The form f'oo was probably a present tense of the root bhu, with a future
meaning, and was affixed to a noun-form as described in b. n.
d» In the Future Indicative of the Third and Fourth Conjugations the*
terminations -am, -es, etc. (as, teg-am, teg-es, audi-am, audi-es) are really sub-
junctive endings used in a future sense (see e). The vowel was originally
long throughout. For shortening, see § 167.
e. In the Present Subjunctive the personal endings were added to a
form of the present stem ending in e- or a-, which was shortened in certain
forms (§ 167). Thus, ame-m, ame-s, tega-mus, tega-nt.
Note 1. — The vowel e (seen in the First Conjugation : as, am-e-s) is an inherited
subjunctive mood-sign. It appears to be the thematic vowel e (§ 174. 1) lengthened.
The a of the other conjugations (mone-a-s, reg-a-s, audi-a-s) is of uncertain origin.
Note 2. — In a few irregular verbs a Present Subjunctive in -im, -Is, etc. occurs:
as, Sim, sis, simus, velim, velis, etc. This is an old optative, i being a form of the Indo-
European optative mood-sign ye- (cf. siem, sies, siet, §170. b. n.). The vowel has
been shortened in the first and third persons singular and the third person plural.
/. In the Imperfect Subjunctive the suffix -rem, -res, etc. is added to the
present stem : as, ama-rem, ama-res, mone-rem, tege-rem, audi-rem.
Note. — The stem element -re- is of uncertain origin and is not found outside of
Italic. The r is doubtless the aorist sign s (cf. es-se-m, es-se-s) changed to r between
two vowels (§ 15. 4). The e is probably the subjunctive mood-sign (see e).
J The conjugation of a verb consists of separate formations from a root, grad-
ually grouped together, systematized, and supplemented by new formations made on
old lines to supply deficiencies. Some of the forms were inherited from the parent
speech ; others were developed in the course of the history of the Italic dialects or of
the Latin language itself.
§§ 169, 170] VERB-ENDINGS 81
169. The tenses of the Perfect System in the active voice are
made from the Perfect Stem as follows : —
a. In the Perfect Indicative the endings -i, -isti, etc. are added directly
to the perfect stem : as, amav-isti, tex-istis.
h. In the Pluperfect Indicative the suffix -eram, -eras, etc. is added to the
perfect stem : as, amav-eram, monu-eras, tex-erat.
Note. — This seems to represent an older f-is-am etc. formed on the analogy of
the Future Perfect in -ero (older f-is-o : see c below) and influenced by eram (imperfect
of sum) in comparison with ero (future of sum).
c. In the Future Perfect the suffix -ero, -eris, etc. is added to the perfect
stem : as, amav-ero, monu-eris, tex-erit.
Note. — This formation was originally a subjunctive of the s-aorist, ending prob-
ably in f-is-o. The -is- is doubtless the same as that seen in the second person singular of
the perfect indicative (vid-is-tl), in the perfect infinitive (vid-is-se), and in the plu-
perfect subjunctive (vid is-sem), s being the aorist sign and i probably an old stem
vowel.
d. In the Perfect Subjunctive the suffix -erim, -eris, etc. is added to the
perfect stem : as, amav-erim, monu-eris, tex-erit.
Note. — This formation was originally an optative of the s-aorist (-er- for older
-is-, as in the future perfect, see c above). The i after r is the optative mood-sign i
shortened (see § 168. e. n. 2). Forms in -is, -it, -imus, -itis, are sometimes found. The
shortening in -is, -imus, -itis, is due to confusion with the future perfect.
e. In the Pluperfect Subjunctive the suffix -issem, -isses, etc. is added tc
the perfect stem : as, amav-issem, monu-isses, tex-isset.
Note. — Apparently this tense was formed on the analogy of the pluperfect indica-
tive in t-is-ain (later -er-am, see 6), and influenced by essem (earlier fessem) in ita
relation to eram (earlier fesam).!
The Verb Sum
170. The verb sum, he^ is both irregular and defective, having
no gerund or supine, and no participle but the future.
Its conjugation is given at the outset, on account of its impor-
tance for the inflection of other verbs.
1 The signs of mood and tense are often said to be inserted between the root (or
verb-stem) and the personal ending. No such insertion is possible in a language
developed like the Latin. All true verb- forms are the result, as shown above, of covfi-
position; that is, of adding to the root or the stem either personal endings or fully
developed auxiliaries (themselves containing the personal terminations) , or of imita-
tion of such processes. Thus videbamus is made by adding to vide-, originally a signifi-
cant word or a form conceived as such, a full verbal form t^amus, not by inserting
-ba- between vide- and -mus (§ 168. 6).
82
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§m
Principal Parts : Present Indicative sum, Present Infinitive esse,
Perfect Indicative fui, Future Participle futurus.
Present Stem es-
Perfect Stem fu-
SupiNE Stem fut-
SlNG.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
INDICATIVE
Present
SUBJUNCTIVE
1. sum, / am
Him ^
2. 6s, thou art (you are)
Sis
3. est, he (she, it) is
Sit
1. sumus, we are
simus
2. estis, you are
sitis
3. sunt, they are
Imperfect
sint
1. eram, / ivas
essem
2. eras, you were
esses
3. erat, he (she, it) was
esset
1. eram us, we were
essemus
2. eratis, you were
essetis
3. erant, they were
Future
assent
1. ero, / shall be
2. eris, you will be
3. erit, he will be
1. erimus, we shall be
2. eritis, you will be
3. erunt, they will be
Perfect
1. fui, / was (have been)
fuerim
2. fuisti, you were
fueris
3. fuit, he was
fuerit
1. fiiimus, we were
fuerimu!
2. fuistis, you were
fueritis
3. fuerunt, fuere, they were
fuerint
Pluperfect
Sing. 1. fueram, / had been
2. fueras, you had been
3. fuerat, he had been
fuissem
fuisses
fuisset
i Al\ translations of the Subjunctive are misleading, and hence none is given
^ 157. 6.
§ 170]
THE VERB SUM
Plur.
Sing.
1. ineramus, we had been fuissemua
2. fueratis, you had been fuissetis
3. fuerant, they had been fuissent
Future Perfect
1. fuero, I shall have been Plur. 1. fuerimus, we shall have been
2. fueris, you will have been 2. fueritis, you will have been
3. fuerit, he will have been 3. fuerint, they will have been
IMPERATIVE
Present Sing. 2. 6s, be thou Plur. 2. este, be ye
Future 2. esto, thou shall be 2. estote, ye shall be
3. esto, he shall be 3. sunto, they shall be
JNFTNITIVE
Present esse, to be
Perfect • fuisse, to have been
Future futurus esse or fore, to be about to he
Future
PARTICIPLE
futurus, -a, -urn, about to be
a. For essem, esses, etc., forem, fores, f oret, f orent, are often used ; so fore
for futurus esse.
h. The Present Participle, which would regularly be fsons,^ appears in
the adjective in-sons, innocent, and in a modified form in ab-sens, prae-sens.
The simple form ens is sometimes found in late or philosophical Latin as a
participle or abstract noun, in the forms ens, being ; entia, things which are.
Note. — Old forms are: — Indicative: Future, escit, escunt (strictly an inchoa-
tive present, see § 263. 1).
Subjunctive: Present, siem, sies, siet, sient; fuam, fuas, fuat, fuant; Perfect, fuvi-
mus; Pluperfect, fuvisset.
The root of the verb sum is es, which in the imperfect is changed to er (see § 15. 4),
and in many forms is shortened to s. Some of its modifications, as found in several
languages more or less closely related to Latin, may be seen in the following table, —
the Sanskrit sydm corresponding to the Latin sim (siem) : —
Sanskrit Greek
sydm (optative) imxi ^
syds i<ra-i ^
sydt iffri
sydma Iffixiv
s-tha sydta eari
s-anti syus IvtI^
The Perfect and Supine stems, fu-, fut-, are kindred with the Greek %<pv, and with
the English he.
1 Compare Sankrit sant, Greek cSv. * Old form.
as-mi
as-i
Latin
Lithuanian
s-um sim (siem)
es-mi
es sis (sies)
es-i
es-t sit (siet)
es-ti
s-umus simv^
es-me
es-tis sitis
es-te
s-unt sint (sient)
es-ti
Conjugation
Infinitive Endi]
First
-are (amare)
Second
-ere (monere)
Third
-ere (regere)
Fourth
-ire (audire)
84 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§§171-173
The Four Conjugations
171. Verbs are classed in Four Regular Conjugations, distin-
guished by the stem-vowel which appears before -re in the Present
Infinitive Active : —
Stem
a
e
g
1
The Principal Parts
172. The Principal Parts of a verb, showing the three stems
which determine its conjugation throughout, are —
1. The Present Indicative (as, am5) 1 , • -i -r* ^ o^
c^ m-L. T^ , T- n •. • X - N t showing the Present Stem.
2. The Present Infinitive (as, ama-re) J °
3. The Perfect Indicative (as, amav-i), showing the Perfect Stem.
4. The neuter of the Perfect Participle (as, amat-um), or, if that form
is not in use, the Future Active Participle (amat-iirus), showing the Supine
Stem.
173. The regular forms of the Four Conjugations are seen in
the following : —
First Conjugation : —
Active, amo, amare, £imavi, amatum, love.
Passive, amor, amari, amatus.'
Present Stem ama-, Perfect Stem amav-, Supine Stem amat-.
Second Conjugation : —
Active, deleo, delere, delevi, deletum, blot out.
Passive, deleor, deleri, deletus.
Present Stem dele-, Perfect Stem delev-, Supine Stem delet-.
In the Second conjugation, however, the characteristic e- rarely appears
in the perfect and perfect participle. The common type is, therefore : —
Active, moneo, monere, monul, monitum, warn.
Passive, moneor, moneri, monitus.
Present Stem mone-, Perfect Stem monu-, Supine Stem monit-.
§§ 173, 174] PRESENT STEM 85
Third Conjugation : —
Active, tego, tegere, texi, tectum, cover.
Passive, tegor, tegi, tectus.
Present Stem tege-. Perfect Stem tex-, Supine Stem tect-.
Fourth Conjugation : —
Active, audio, audire, audivi, auditum, hear.
Passive, audior, audiri, auditus.
Present Stem audi-, Perfect Stem audiv-. Supine Stem audit-.
Uo In many verbs the principal parts take forms belonging to two or
more different conjugations (cf. § 189): —
1, 2, domo, domare, domui, domitum, subdue.
2, 3, maneo, mane re, mansi, mansum, remain.
3, 4, peto, petere, petivi, petitum, seek.
4, 3, vincio, vincire, vinxi, vinctum, hind.
Such verbs are referred to the conjugation to which the Present stem
conforms.
Present Stem
174. The parent (Indo-European) speech from which Latin comes had two main
classes of verbs : —
1. Thematic Verbs, in which a so-called thematic vowel (7o, in Latin i/u) appeared
between the root and the personal ending: as, leg-i-tis (for fleg-e-tes), leg-u-nt (for
+leg-o-nti) .1 ,
2. Athematic Verbs, in which the personal endings were added directly to the root:
as, es-t, es-tis (root es)^, dJ-mus (do, root da), fer-t (fero, root fbr).
Of the Athematic Verbs few survive in Latin, and these are counted as irregular,
except such as have been forced into one of the four " regular" conjugations. Even
the irregular verbs have admitted mauy forms of the thematic typ^.
Of the Thematic Verbs a large number remain. These may be divided into two
classes : —
1. Verbs which preserve the thematic vowel e or o (in Latin i or u) before the per-
sonal endings. — These make up the Third Conjugation. The present stem is formed
in various ways (§ 176) , but always ends in a short vowel Vo (Latin %) . Examples are
tego (stem teg7o-), sternimus (stem stern%-) for fster-no-mos, plectunt (stem plectVo-)
for tplec-to-nti. So nosco (stem gnoscYo-) for gno-sc-o. Verbs like nosco became the
type for a large number of verbs in -sco, called inceptives (§ 263. 1).
2. Verbs which form the present stem by means of the suflSx yVo") which already
contained the thematic vowel Vo- —Verbs of this class in which' any vowel (except
u) came in contact with the suffix y Vo" suffered contraction so as to present a long
vowel a-, e-, i-, at the end of the stem. In this contraction the thematic Vo disappeared.
These became the types of the First, Second, and Fourth conjugations respectively.
In imitation of these long vowel-stems numerous verbs were formed by the Romans
themselves (after the mode of formation had been entirely forgotten) from noun- and
1 (Jf . \4y-e-T€, X^y-o-fxev ; Doric X^y-o-un-
2 Cf. i(x-Tl, ia-T4 (see p. 83, note).
86 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§§ 174-176
adjective-stems. This came to be the regular way of forming new verbs, just as in
English the borrowed suffix -ize can be added to nouns and adjectives to make
verbs: as, macadamize, modernize.
Thematic verbs of the second class in which a consonant or u came into contact
with the suffix yVo- suffered various phonetic changes. Such verbs fall partly into
the Third Conjugation, giving rise to an irregular form of it, and partly into the Fourth,
and some have forms of both. Examples are : — (c6n)spicio (-spicere) for fspekyo ; venio
(venire) for t(g)vem-y6 ; cupio, cupere, but cupivi ; orior, oritur, but oriri. Note, however,
pluo (pluere) for fplu-yo ; and hence, by analogy, acuo (acuere) for facu-yo.
In all these cases many cross-analogies and errors as well as phonetic changes have
been at work to produce irregularities. Hence has arisen the traditional system which
is practically represented in §§ 175, 176.
175. The Present Stem may be found by dropping -re in the
Present Infinitive : —
ama-re, stem ama-; mone-re, stem mone-; tege-re, stem tege-; audi-re, stem
audi-.
176. The Present Stem is formed from the Root in all regu-
lar verbs in one of the following ways : —
a. In the First, Second, and Fourth conjugations, by adding a long
vowel (a-, e-, i-) to the root, whose vowel is sometimes changed : as, voca-re
(voc), mone-re (men, cf. memini), sopi-re (sop).^
Note. — Verb-stems of these conjugations are almost all really formed from noun-
stems on the pattern of older f oianations (see § 174) .
6. In the Third Conjugation, by adding a short vowel %^ to the root.
In Latin this % usually appears as i/u, but e is preserved in some forms.
Thus, tegi-s (root teg), ali-tis (al), regu-nt (reg) ; but tege-ris (tege-re), ale-ris.
1. The stem-vowel e/o (Vu) may be preceded by n, t, or sc : ^ as, tem-ni-tis,
tem-nu-nt, tem-n6-ris (tem) ; plec-ti-s (plec) ; cre-sci-tis (ore).
2. Verbs in -io of the Third Conjugation (as, capio, capere) show in some forms
an i before the final vowel of the stem: as, cap-i-unt (cap), fug-i-unt (fug).
c. The root may be changed —
1. By the repetition of a part of it {reduplication) : as, gi-gn-e-re (gen).
2. By the insertion of a nasal (m or n) : as, find-e-re (fid), tang-e-re (tag).
1 Most verbs of the First, Second, and Fourth Conjugations form the present stem by
adding the suffix -yVo" to a noun-stem. The a of the First Conjugation is the stem-ending
of the noun (as, planta-re, from planta-, stem of planta). The e of the Second and thei
of the Fourth Conjugation are due to contraction of the short vowel of the noun-stem
with the ending -yVo"- Thus albere is from a.\h°/^-, stem of albus; finite is from fini-,
stem of finis. Some verbs of these classes, however, come from roots ending in a vowel.
2 This is the so-called " thematic vowel."
3 In these verbs the stem-ending added to the root is respectively -nVo"> "tVo"'
6cV„-.
§§ 176, 177 J PERFECT STEM 87
d» In some verbs the present stem is formed from a noun-stem in u- ;
as, statu-e-re (statu-s), aestu-a-re (aestu-s); cf. acuo, acuere.^
Note 1. — A few isolated forms use the simple root as a present stem: as, fer-re,
fer-t ; es-se ; vel-le, vul-t. These are counted as irregular.
Note 2. — In some verbs the final consonant of the root is doubled before the stem-
vowel: a'^, pell-i-tis (pel), mitt-i-tis (mit).
e. Some verbs have roots ending in a vowel. In these the present stem
is generally identical with the root ; as, da-mus (da), fle-mus (stem fle-, root
form unknown). 2 But others, as rui-mus (ru), are formed with an addi-
tional vowel according to the analogy of the verbs described in d.
Note. — Some verbs of this class reduplicate the root: as, si-st-e-re (sta, cf. stare).
Perfect Stem
177. The Perfect Stem is formed as follows : —
a. The suffix v (u) is added to the verb-stem ; as, voca-v-i, audi-v-i ; or
to the root : as, son-u-i (sona-re, root son), mon-u-i (mone-re, mon treated
as a root). 2
Note. — In a few verbs the vowel of the root is transposed and lengthened: as,
stra-v-i (sterno, star), spre-v-i (sperno, spar).
&. The suffix s is added to the root : as, carp-s-i (carp), tex-i (for teg-s-i,
teg).^
Note. — The modifications of the present stem sometimes appear in the perfect:
as, finx-i (fig, present stem finge-), sanx-i (sac, present stem sanci-).
c. The root is reduplicated by prefixing the first consonant — generally
with e, sometimes with the root-vowel : as, ce-cid-i (cad5, cad), to-tond-i
(tondeo, tond).
Note. — Infid-I (for ffe-fid-i, flnd-o), scid-i (for fsci-scid-i, scindo), the reduplication
has been lost, leaving merely the root.
d. The root vowel is lengthened, sometimes with vowel change : as, leg-i
(leg-o), em-i (em-6), vid-i (vid-e-o), fug-i (fug-i-o), eg-i (ag-o).
e. Sometimes the perfect stem has the same formation that appears in
the present tense : as, vert-i (vert-o), solv-i (solv-6).
/. Sometimes the perfect is formed from a lost or imaginary stem : as,
peti-v-i (as if from fpeti-5, fpeti-re, pet).
1 These are either old formations in -y Vq- in which the y has disappeared after the
u (as, statuo for jstatu-yo) or later imitations of such forms.
2 In some of the verbs of this class the present srem was originally identical with
the root ; in others the ending -y Vo- was added, but has been absorbed by contraction.
3 The v-perfect is a form of uncertain origin peculiar to the Latin.
^ The s-perfect is in origin an aorist. Thus, dix-i (for jdics-i) corresponds to the
Greek aorist ^-5ei^-o (for te-5ciKo--a).
88 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§§ 178, 179
Supine Stem
178. The Supine Stem may be found by dropping -um from the
Supine. It is formed by adding t (or, by a phonetic change, s) —
a. To the present stem : as, ama-t-um, dele-t-um, audl-t-um.
&. To the root, with or without i: as, cap-t-um (capio, cap), moni-t-um
(moneo, mon used as root), cas-um (for fcad-t-um, cad), lec-t-um (leg).
Note 1. — By phonetic change dt and tt become s (defensum, versum for fde-fend-
t-um, fvert-t-um) ; bt becomes pt (scrip-t-um for fscrib-t-um) ; gt becomes ct (rec-t-um
for treg-t-um).i
Note 2. — The modifications of the present stem sometimes appear in the supine :
as, tinc-t-um (tingo, tig) , ten-s-um for ftend-t-um (ten-d-o, ten) .
Note 3. — The supine is sometimes from a lost or imaginary verb-stem : as, peti-t-um
(as if from fpeti-o, fpeti-re, pet) .
Note 4. — A few verbs form the supine stem in s after the analogy of verbs in d
and t: as, fal-s-um (fallo), pul-s-um (pello).
»■
Forms of Conjugation
179. The forms of the several conjugations from which, by
adding the verb-endings in § 166, all the moods and tenses can
be made are as follows : —
«. The First Conjugation includes all verbs which add a- to the
roou to form the present stem : "- as, ama-re ; with a few whose root
ends iu a (ffor, fa-ri; flo, fla-re; no, na-re; sto, sta-re).
1. The stem-vowel a- is lost before -o : as, am5 = •fama-(y)6 ; and in the
present subjunctive it is changed to e : as, ame-s, ame-mus.
2. The perfect stem regularly adds v, the supine stem t, to the present
stem : as, ama-v-i, ama-t-um. For exceptions, see § 209. a.
b. The Second Conjugation 'includes all verbs which add e- to the
root to form the present stem : as, mone-re ; with a few whose root
ends in e ; as, fle-o, fle-re ; ne-6, ne-re ; re-or, re-ri (cf. § 176. e).
1. In the present subjunctive a is added to the verb-stem : as, mone-a-s,
mone-a-mus (cf. § 168. e).
2. A few verbs form the perfect stem by adding v (u), and the supine
stem by adding t, to the present stem : as, dele-v-i, dele-t-um. But most
form the perfect stem by adding v (u) to the root, and the supine stem by
adding t to a weaker form of the present stem, ending in i : as, mon-u-i,
moni-t-um. For listS; see § 210.
1 For these modifications of the supine stem, see § 15. 5, 6, 10.
2 The present stem is thus the verb-stem. For excei^tions, see § 209. a.
§179] FORMS OF CONJUGATION 89
c. The Third Conjugation includes all verbs (not irregular, see
§ 197) which add e- to the root to form the present stem : as, tege-
re, cape-re ; with a few whose root ends in e : as, se-re-re for fse-se-re
(reduplicated from se, cf. satuni).
1. The stem-vowel e is regularly lost before -5, and becomes u^ before
-nt and i before the other endings of the indicative and imperative: as,
teg-o, tegi-t, tegu-nt ; in the imperfect indicative it becomes e : as, tege-
bam, tege-bas, etc. ; in the future, e : as, tege-s (except in the first person
singular, tega-m, tega-r) ; in the present subjunctive, a : as, tega-s.
Verbs in -io lose the i before a consonant and also before i, i, and e
(except in the future, the participle, the gerund, and the gerundive).
Thus, — capi-at, capi-unt, capi-ebat, capi-es, capi-et, capi-ent; but, cap-it
(not fcapi-it), cap-eret.
2. All varieties of perfect and supine stems are found in this conjuga-
tion. See lists, § 211. The perfect is not formed from the present stem,
but from the root.
d. The Fourth Conjugation includes all verbs which add i- to the
root to form the present stem : as, audi-re.^ In these the perfect and
supine stems regularly add v, t, to the verb-stem : as, audi-v-i, audi-
t-urn.^ Endings like those of the third conjugation are added in the
third person plural of the present (indicative and imperative), in
the imperfect and future indicative, and in the present subjunctive :
as, audi-unt, audi-ebat, audi-etis, audi-at, the i being regularly short
before a vowel.
e. The Present Imperative Active (second person singular) is the
same as the present stem : as, ama, mone, tege, audi. But verbs in -io
of the third conjugation omit i: as, cape (not fcapie).
/. The tenses of completed action in the Active voice are all regu-
larly formed by adding the tense-endings (given in § 166) to the
perfect stem : as, amav-i, amav-eram, amav-ero, amav-erim, amav-issem,
amav-isse.
g. The tenses of completed action in the Passive voice are formed
by adding to the perfect participle the corresponding tenses of con-
tinued action of the verb esse : as, perfect amatus sum ; pluperfect
amatus eram, etc.
1 The gerundive varies between -endus and -undus,
2 A few are formed from noun-stems, as fini-re (from fini-s), and a few roots perhaps
end in 1 ; but these are not distinguishable in form.
3 For exceptions, see § 212. b.
90
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§180
Synopsis of the Verb
180. The following synopsis shows the forms of the verb ar-
ranged according to the three stems (§ 164). Amo, a regular verb
of the first conjugation, is taken as a type.
Principal Parts : Active, amo, amare, amavi, amatum.
Passive, amor, amari, amatus sum.
Present stem ama- Perfect stem amav- Supine stem amat-
ACTIVE PASSIVE
Present stem, ama-
INDIOATIVE
Pres.
Imperf.
Fut.
amo
ama-bam
ama-bo
amo-r
ama-bar
ama-bor
Pres.
Imperf.
ame-m
ama-rem
SUBJUNCTI\^
ame-r
ama-rer
Pres.
Fut.
ama
ama-to
IMPERATIVE
ama-re
ama-tor
Pres.
ama-re
INFINITIVE
ama-ri
Pres.
ama-ns
PARTICIPLE
Gerundive ama-ndus
GEKUND
ama-ndi
Perfect stem, amav-
Perf. amav-i
Plupekf. amav-eram
Fht. Perf. amav-ero
INDICATIVE
Supine stem, amSt-
amat-us sum
amat-us eram
amat-us ero
Perf.
Pluperf.
amav-erim
amav-issem
SUBJUNCTI^^
amat-us sim
amat-us essem
Perf.
amav-isse
INFINITIVE
Supine stem, amat-
Perf.
Fut.
INFINITIVE
amat-urus esse
amat-us esse
amat-um iri
F(TT.
amat-urus
PARTICIPLE
Perf. amSt-us
SUPINE amat-iim amat-ii
§§ 181-1881 TECULIAKl riKt^ OF CONJUGATION 91
Peculiarities of Conjugation
181. In tenses formed upon the Perfeei Stem, v between two
vowels is often lost and emit raet ion takes plaee.
a, Vcriccts in -avl, -ovi. -ovi. of ton oontvaot tho t\Yo vowols into a. e. 5,
rospoctivoly : as. amasso lor amavisse ; amarim tor amaverim ; amassem for
amavissem ; consuorat lor consiieverat : flestis for llevistis; nosse for novisse.
So in porfocts in -vi. uhoro tho v is a part of tho jnvsont stoni : as. commorat
for commoverat.
NoTK. — The first ihtsoti of tho povfivt iudioativo i,as. amrivi) is novor ootitraotod,
the thinl verj' raroly.
h» Perfoot^ in -ivi rogularly omit v, but raroly contraot tho vowels ox-
oopt boforo st and ss, and vory raroly in tho third porson porfoct : —
audienvm for audiveram ; audisse for audivisso ; audisti for audivisti ; abiit for
abivit ; abierunt for abiveruut.
NoTK 1. — Tho fi>vnis siris. sirit. siiitis. sirint. for sivcris oto. (from siveio or siverim),
are arohaio.
NoTK 2. — In many forms from tlio porfoot stom is, iss. sis. aro lost in liUo mnniKM*.
■\YhoT\ s vroiilil bo ropoatod if thoy A\oro retained : as. dixtl for dixisti (x — cs); tifixo
for traxisse ; fvasti for f vasisti ; vixot for vixisset ; Pri^psomus for CrSpsissf mus ; docosse
for dScessisse, Those forms belonix to ari-haio and oolUHjuial us;u;e.
182. Four verbs, — dicO, dijc5, faciS, ferS, — with tbeir eompounds,
drop the vowel-termination of the Imperative, making die, due, fSe,
f6r; but eomponnds in -liciO retain it, as, confice.
Note. — Tho imperative forms dioo. duco, laoo (never fero). oeenr in early T.atin,
a. For the iniporativo of scio. tho future form scito is always used in tho
singular, and scitote usually in tho plural,
183. The following aneient fm-ms are found eliietlv in poetry:
1. Tn the fourth conjuuation. -ibam, -ibo, for -iebam, -iain (futuroV Those
forms aro rogidar in eo. (jo (^ '20'r\).
L\ In tho present subjunetivo. -im : as in duim, perduim, retained in
religious formulas and often in eomody. This form is regular in sum and
volo and their com]HMnuls (§§ 170, 100).
;>. Tn tho perftH't subjunetivo and future porfoet indieative. -sim. -s5 : as,
faxim. faxo. iusso, recepso (— fecerim ete.") ; ausim ( - ausus simV
•t. In the [>assive intinitive, -ier : as. vocarier for vocari; agier for ai,i.
r>. A form in -asso. -assere is fi"»und used as a futurt^ ]>erfeot : as. amassis,
from amo ; levasso. from levo ; impetrassere, from impetro ; ifidicassit, from
iudico (of. § l-H);>. '2. h. n.).
92
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§184
FIRST CONJUGATION (a-STEMS) — ACTIVE VOICE
184. The First Conjugation includes all verbs which add a- to
the root to form the present stem, with a few whose root ends
in a-. The verb amo, love, is conjugated as follows : —
Principal Parts : Present Indicative amo, Present Infinitive amare.
Perfect Indicative amavi, Supine amatum.
Present stem ama-
Perfbct stem amav-
SupiNE STEM amat-
INDICATIVE
Present
SUBJUNCTIVE
amo,^ / love, am loving,
do love
amem ^
amas, thou lovest (you love)
ames
amat, Jie (she, it) loves
amet
amamus, we love
am emus
amatis, you love
ametis
amant, they love
Imperfect
ament
amabam, I loved, was loving, did love
amarem
amabas, you loved
amares
aniabat, he loved
amaret
amabamus, we loved
amaremus
am abatis, you loved
amaretis
amabant, they loved
amarent
Future
amabo, / shall love
amabis, you ivill love
aniabit, he will love
amabimus, toe shall love
amabitis, you will love
amabunt, they will love
1 The stem-vowel a- is lost before -6, and in the Present Subjunctive becomes e-.
2 The translation of the Subjunctive varies widely according to the construction-
Hence no translation of this mood is given in the paradigms.
184] FIRST CONJUGATION I
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Perfect
aniavl, / loved, have loved aniaverim
amavisti, you loved amaveris
amavit, he loved amaverit
amavimus, we loved amaverimus
amavistis, you loved amaveritis
amaverunt (-ere), they loved amaverint
Pluperfect
amaveram, / had loved aniavissem
amaveras, you had loved amavisses
amaverat, he had loved amavisset
araaveramus, we had loved amavissemua
amaveratis^ you had loved " amavissetis
amaverant, they had loved amavissent
Future Perfect
Singular Plural
amavero, / shall have loved amaverimus, we shall have loved
amaveris, you will have loved amaveritis, you ivill have loved
amaverit, he will have loved amaverint, they will have loved
IMPERATIVE
Present ama, love thou amate, love ye
Future amato, thou shall love amatote, ye shall love
amato, he shall love amanto, they shall love
INFINITIVE
Present amare, to love
Perfect amavisse or amasse, to have loved
Future amaturus esse, to be about to love
PARTICIPLES
Present amans, -antis, loving
Future amaturus, -a, -um, about to love
GERUND
Genitive amandi, of loving Accusative amandum, loving
Dative amando, for loving Ablative amando, by loving
SUPINE
amatum, to love amatu, to love
94
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§184
FIRST CONJUGATION (^Z-STEMS) — PASSIVE VOICE
Principal Parts : Present Indicative amor, Present Infinitive aman.
Perfect Indicative amatus sum.^
Present stem ama-
SupiNE STEM amSt-
ESTDICATIVE
Present
amor,^ / am loved, being loved
amaris (-re), you are loved
amatur, he is loved
amamur, ive are loved
amamini, you are loved
amantur, they are loved
SUBJUNCTIVE
amer^
ameris (-re)
ametur
amemur
amemini
amentur
Imperfect
amabar, I was loved, being loved amarer
amabaris (-re), you were loved amareris (-re)
amabatur,- he was loved amaretur
amabamur, we were loved amaremur
amabamini, you were loved amaremini
amabantur, they were loved amarentur
Future
amabor, / shall be loved
amaberis (-re), you will be loved
amabitur, he will be loved
amabimur, we shall be loved
amabimini, you icill be loved
amabuntur, they will be loved
1 Fui, fuisti, etc., are sometimes used instead of sum, es, etc. ; so also fueram instead
of eram and fuero instead of ero. Similarly in the Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive
fuerim, fueris, etc. are sometimes used instead of slm, sis, etc., and fuissem instead of
essem.
2 The stem-vowel a- is lost before -or, and in the Present Subjunctive becomes e-.
* The translation of the Subjunctive varies widely according to the construction.
Hence no translation of this mood is given in the paradigms.
§184]
FIRST CONJUGATION
95
INDICATIVE
amatus sum,^ / was loved
amatus es, you were loved
amatus est, he was loved
amati sumus, we were loved
amati estis, you ivere loved
araati sunt, thev were loved
Perfect
SUBJUNCTIVE
amatus sim^
amatus sis
amatus sit
amati simus
amati sitis
amati sint
Pluperfect
amatus eram,* / had been loved
amatus eras, you had been loved
amatus erat, he had been loved
amati eramus, we had been loved
amati eratis, you had been loved
amati erant, they had been loved
amatus essem^
amatus esses
amatus esset
amati essemus
amati essetis
amati essent
Future Perfect
Singular
amatus ero,^ / shall have been loved
amatus eris, you will have, etc.
amatus erit, he will have, etc.
Plural
amati erimus, we shall have, etc.
amati eritis, you will have, etc.
amati erunt, they will have, etc.
IMPERATIVE
Present amSre, he thou loved amamini, be ye loved
Future amator, thou shalt be loved .
amator, he shall he loved amantor, they shall he loved
INFINITIVE
Present amari, to be loved
Perfect amatus esse, to have been loved
Future amatum iri, to he about to be'loved
PARTICIPLES
Perfect amatus, -a, -um, loved (beloved, or having been loved)
Future (Gerundive) amandus, -a, -um, to-be-loved (lovely)
1 See page 94, footnote 1.
96
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§186
SECOND CONJUGATION (e-STEMS)
185. The Second Conjugation includes all verbs which add e-
to the root to form the present stem, with a few whose root ends
m e-.
Principal Parts: Active, moneo, monere, monui, monitum;
Passive, moneor, moneri, monitus sum.
Present stem mone-
Perfect stem monu-
SupiNE STEM monit-
ACTIVE VOICE
PASSIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
moneo, / warn
moneam
mones, you warn moneas
monet, he warns moneat
monemua
raonetis
monent
moneamus
moiieatifi
moneant
indicatht: subjunctive
Present
moneor
moneris (-re)
monetur
monemur
monemini
monentur
monear ^
monearis (-re)
moneatur
moneamur
moneamini
moneantur
Imperfect
monebam
monebas
monebat
monebamus
monebatis
monebant
monerem
moneres
moneret
moneremuB
mcneretis
raonerent
Imperfect
monebar monerer
monebaris (-re) monereris (-re)
monebatur moneretur
monebamur moneremur
monebamini moneremini
monebantur monerentur
Future
monebo
monebis
monebit
monebimua
monebitis
monebunt
Future
monebor
moneberis (-re)
monebitur
monebimur
monebimini
monebuntur
See § 179. b. 1.
§185]
SECOND CONJUGATION
91
Active Voice
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Perfect
monui monuerim
monuisti monueris
monuit monuerit
monuimus monuerimus
monuistis monueritis
monuerunt (-re) monuerint
Pluperfect
monueram
monueras
monuerat
monueramus
monueratis
monuerant
monuissem
monuisses
mormisset
monuissemus
monuissetis
moDuissent
Future Perfect
monuero
monueris
monuerit
monuerimus
monueritis
monuerint
Passive Voice
INDICATIVE subjunctive
Perfect
monitus sum ^ monitus sim ^
monitus es
monitus est
moniti sumus
moniti estis
moniti sunt
monitus sis
monitus sit
moniti simus
moniti sitis
moniti sint
Pluperfect
monitus eram ^ monitus esseni '
monitus eras
monitus erat
moniti eramus
moniti eratis
moniti erant
monitus esses
monitus esset
moniti essemus
moniti essetis
moniti essent
Future Perfect
monitus ero ^
monitus eris
monitus erit
moniti erimus
moniti eritis
moniti erunt
Singular
Present mone
Future moneto
moneto
IMPERATIVE
Plural * Singular
monete Present monere
monetote Future monetor
monento monetor
Plural
monemini
monentor
Present monere
Perfect monuisse
Future moniturus esse
INFINITIVE
moneri
monitus esse
monitum iri
PARTICIPLES
Present monens, -entis Perfect monitus, -a, -um
Future moniturus, -a, -um Gerundive monendus, -a,-um
GERUND SUPINE
monendi, -do, -dum, -do monitum, monitu
1 See footnote 1 on page 94.
98
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§186
THIRD CONJUGATION (^-STEMS)
186. The Third Conjugation includes all verbs (not irregular,
see § 197) which add e- to the root to form the present stem, with
a few whose root ends in e-.
Principal Parts : Active, tego, tegere, texi, tectum ;
Passive, tegor, tegi, tectus sum.
Present stem tege- Perf
ECT STEM tex- 1 Supine stem tect-
ACTIVE
VOICE
PASSIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE
SUBJUNCTIVE
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
Present
teg6,2 I cover
tegis, you cover
tegit, he covers
tegam 2
tegas
tegat
tegor 2 tegar ^
tegeris (-re) tegaris (-re)
tegitur tegatur
tegimus
tegitis
tegunt
tegamus
tegatis
tegant
tegimur tegam ur
tegimini tegamim
teguntur tegantur
Imperfect
Imperfect
tegebam
tegebas
tegebat
tegerem
tegeres
tegeret
tegebar tegerer
tegebaris (-re) tegereris (-re)
tegebatur tegeretur
tegebamus
tegebatis
tegebant
tegeremus
tegeretis
tegerent
tegebamui tegeremur
tegebamini tegeremin!
tegebantui tegerentur
Future
Future
tegam ^
teges
teget
'
tegar '-^
teggris (-re)
teggtur
tegemus
teggtis
tegent
teggmur
tegemini
tegentur
1 The perfect stem in this conjugation is always formed from the root; tSx- ig foi
teg-s- (see § 15. 9) . 2 See § 179. c. 1.
§ 186]
THIRD CUJSJUGATION
Active Voice
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Perfect
texi texerim
texisti texeris
texit texerit
teximus texerimus
texistis texeritis
texerunt (-re) texerint
Pluperfect
texeram texissem
texeras texisses
texerat texisset
texeramus texissemus
texeratis texissetis
texerant texissent
Future Perfect
texero
texeriB
texerit
texerimus
texeritis
texerint
Passive Voice
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Perfect
tectus sum ^
tectus es
tectus est
tecti sumus
tecti estis
tecti sunt
tectus sim ^
tectus SIS
tectus sit
tecti simus
tecti sitis
tecti sint
Pluperfect
tectus eram ^
tectus eras
tectus erat
tecti eramus
tecti eratis
tecti erant
tectus essem ^
tectus esses
tectus esset
tecti essemus
tecti essetis
tecti essent
Future Perfect
tectus ero -^
tectus eris
tectus erit
tecti erimus
tecti eritis
tecti erunt
imperative
Present
Future
Present
Perfect
Future
Present
Future
Plural
tegite
tegitote
tegunto
Singular
tege
tegito
tegito
tegere
texisse
tectums
tegens, -entis
tectiirus, -a, -um
GERUND
tegendi, -do, -dum, -do
Singular
tegere
tegitor
tegitor
infinitive
tegi
tectus esse
tectum iri
participles
Perfect
Gerundive
supine
tectum, tectu
Plural
tegimini
teguntor
tectus, -a, -um
tegendus (-undus)
1 See footnote 1 on page 94o
100
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§187
FOURTH CONJUGATION (/-STEMS)
187. The Fourth Conjugation includes all verbs which add i-
to the root to form the present stem.
Principal Parts: Active, audio, audire, audivi, auditum ;
Passive, audior, audiri, auditus sum.
Present stem audi-
Perfect stem audiv-
SupiNE stem audit-
ACTIVE
VOICE
PASSIVE
VOICE
INDICATIVE
SUBJUNCTIVE
INDICATIVE
SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
Present
audio, / hear
audis, you hear
audit, he hears
audiam ^
audias
audiat
audior
audiris (-re)
auditur
audiar ^
audiaris (-re)
audiatur
audimus
audrtis
audiunt
audiamus
audiatis
audiaut
audimur
audimini
audiuntur
audiamur
audiamini
audiantur
Imperfect
Imperfect
audiebam ^
audiebas
audirem
audires
audiebar ^
audiebaris (-re)
audirer
audireris (-re)
audiebamus audiremus
audiebatis audire tis
audiebant audirent
audiebatur
audiretur
audiebamur audiremur
audiebamini audiremini
audiebantur audirentur
Future
Future
audiam ^
audies
audiet
audiemus
audietis
audient
audiar ^
audieris (-re)
audietur
audiemur
audiemini
audientur
I See § 179. d.
§187]
FOUKTH CONJUGATION
101
Active Voice
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Perfect
audivi audiverim
audivisti audiveris
audivit audiverit
Passive Voice
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Perfect
auditus sum ^ auditus sim ^
auditus es auditus sis
auditus est auditus sit
audivimus audiverimus
audivistis audiveritis
audiveruat (-re) audiverint
auditi sumus
auditi estis
auditi sunt
auditi simus
auditi sitis
auditi sint
Pluperfect
audiveram audivissem
audiveras audivisses
audiverat audivisset
Pluperfect
auditus eram ^ auditus esseni ^
auditus eras auditus' esses
auditus erat auditus esset
audiveramus audivissemus
audiveratis audivissetis
audiverant audivissent
auditi eramus
auditi eratis
auditi erant
auditi essemus
auditi essetis
auditi essent
Future Perfect
audivero
audiveris
audiverit
Future
auditus ero ^
auditus eris
auditus erit
Perfect
audiverimus
audiveritis
audiverint
auditi erimus
auditi eritis
auditi erunt
Singular Plural
Present audi audite
Fttttire auditd auditote
[MPERATIVE
Singular
audire
auditor
auditor
Plural
audimini
audits audiunto
audiuntor
Present audire
Perfect audivisse
Future auditurus esse
INFINITIVE
audiri
auditus esse
auditum iri
PARTICIPLES
Present audiens, -ientis Perfect auditus, -a, -um
Future auditurus, -a, -um Gerundive audiendus, -a, -um
GERUND
audlendi, -do, -dum, -do
SUPINE
auditum, audltu
I See footnote 1, p. 94.
102
CGNJTTGATIOI^ OF THE VERB
[§188
VERBS IN Ho OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION
188. Verbs of the Third Conjugation in -io have certain forms
of the present stem like the fourth conjugation. They lose the
i of the stem before a consonant and also before i, i, and g (except
in the future, the participle, the gerund, and the gerundive).^
Verbs of this class are conjugated as follows : —
Principal Parts: Active^ capio, capere, cepi, captum;
Passive, capior, capi, captus sum.
Present stem capie- (cape-) Perfect stem c§p- Supine stem capt-
ACTIVE VOICE
indicative subjunctive
Present
capio, / take capiam
PASSIVE VOICE
indicative subjunctive
Present
capis, you take
capias
capit, he takes
capiat
capimus
capiamus
capitis
capiatis
capiunt
capiant
Imperfect
capiebam
caperem
Future
capiam
capies
capiet, etc.
Perfect
cepi
ceperim
Pluperfect
ceperam
cepissem
Future
Perfect
cepero
capior
caperis (-re)
capitur
capimur
capimini
capiuntur
capiar
capiaris (-re)
capiatur
capiamur
capi5mim
capiantur
Imperfect
capiebar caperer
Future
capiar
capieris (-re)
capietur, etc.
Perfect
captus sum captus sim
Pluperfect
captus eram captus essem
Future Perfect
captus ero
1 This is a practical working rule. The actual explanation of the forms of such
verbs is not fully understood.
188-190]
DEPONENT VERBS
103
Active Voice
Present
Singular Plural
cape capite
Future
capito capitote
capito capiunto
Present capere
Perfect cepisse
Future capturus
Passive
Voice
IMPERATIVE
Present
Singular
Plural
capere
capimini
Future
capitor
capitor
capiuntor
INFmiTIVE
capl
captus esse
captum
iri
PARTICIPLES
Present capiens, -ientis Perfect captus, -a, -um
Future capturus, -a, -um Gerundive capiendus, -a, -um
GERUND SUPINE
capiendi, -do, -dum, -do captum, -tu
Parallel Forms
189. Many verbs have more than one set of forms, of which
only one is generally found in classic use : —
lavo, lavare or lavere, wash (see § 211. e).
scateo, scatere or scatere, gush forth.
ludifico, -are, or ludificor, -ari, ynock.
fulgo, fulgere, or fulgeo, fulgere, shine.
DEPONENT VERBS
190. Deponent Verbs have the forms of the Passive Voice,
with an active or reflexive signification : —
{First conjugation : mlror, mirari, miratus, admire.
Second conjugation : vereor, vererl, veritus, /ear.
Third conjugation : sequor, sequi, secutus, follow.
Fourth conjugation : partior, partiri, partitus, share.
104
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§ 190
INDICATIVE
Pres. miror
miraris (-re)
miratur
miramur
miramini
mirantur
Impf. mirabar
FuT. mirabor
Perf. miratus sum
Plup. miratus eram
F. P. miratus ero
vereor
vereris (-re)
veretur
vergmur
veremini
verentur
verebar
verebor
veritus sum
veritus eram
veritus ero
sequor
sequeris (-re)
sequitur
sequimur
sequimini
sequuntur
sequebar
sequar
secutus sum
secutus eram
secutus ero
partior
partiris (-re)
partitur
partimur
partimiiii
partiuntur
partiebar
partiar
partitus sum
partitus eram
partitus ero
SUBJUNCTIVE
Pres. mirer
Impf. mirarer
Perf. miratus sim
Plup. miratus essem
verear
vererer
veritus sim
veritus essem
sequar
sequerer
sectitus sim
secutus essem
partiar
partirer
partitus sim
partitus essem
IMPERATIVE
Pres.
mirare
verere sequere
partire
Put.
mirator
veretor sequitor
INFINITIVE
partitor
Pres.
mirari
vereri sequi
partiri
Perf.
miratus esse
veritus esse secutus esse
partitus esse
Fdt.
miraturus esse
veriturus esse secuturus esse
PARTICIPLES
partiturus esse
Pres. mirans verens sequens partiens
FuT. miraturus veriturus secuturus partiturus
Perf. miratus veritus secutus partitus
Ger. mirandus verendus sequendus partiendus
GERUND
miran^, -6, etc. verendi, etc. sequendi, etc.
partiendi, etc.
SUPINE
miratum, -tu veritum, -tu secutum, -tu
partitum, -tu
§§ 190, 191] DEPONENT VERBS 105
a. Deponents have the participles of both voices : —
sequens, following. secuturus, oJbout to follow,
secntus, having followed. sequendus, to be followed.
b. The perfect participle generally has an active sense, but in verbs
otherwise deponent it is often passive : as, mercatus, bought ; adeptus, gained
(or having gained^.
c. The future infinitive is always in the active form : thus, sequor has
seciitunis (-a, -um) esse (not secutum iri).
d. The gerundive, being passive in meaning, is found only in transitive
verbs, or intransitive verbs used impersonally : —
hoc confitendum est, this must he acknowledged.
moriendum est omnibus, all must die.
e. Most deponents are intransitive or reflexive in meaning, correspond-
ing to what in Greek is called the Middle Voice (§ 156. a. n.).
/. Some deponents are occasionally used in a passive sense : as, criminor,
/ accuse, or / am accused.
g. About twenty verbs have an active meaning in both active and
passive forms : as, mere5 or mereor, / deserve.
191. More than half of all deponents are of the First Conju-
gation, and all of these are regular. The following deponents
are irregular : —
adsentior, -iri, adsensus, assent. obliviscor, -i, oblitus, forget.
apiscor, (-ip-), -i, aptus(-eptus), get. opperior, -iri, oppertus, await.
defetiscor, -i, -fessus, faint. ordior, -iri, orsus, begin.
expergiscor, -i, -perrectus, rouse. orior, -iri, ortus (oriturus), rise (3d
experior, -iri, expertus, try. conjugation in most forms).
fateor, -eri, fassus, confess. paciscor, -i, pactus, bargain.
fruor, -i, fructus (fruitus), enjoy. patior (-petior), -i, passus (-pessus),
fungor, -i, functus, fulfil. suffer.
gradior (-gredior), -i, gressus, step. -plector, -i, -plexus, clasp.
irascor, -i, iratus, be angry. proficiscor, -i, profectus, set out.
labor, -i, lapsus, fall. ' queror, -i, questus, complain.
loquor, -i, locutus, speak. reor, reri, ratus, think.
metior, -iri, mensus, medsure. reverter, -i, reversus, return.
-miniscor, -i, -mentus, think. ringor, -i, rictus, snarl.
morior,-i(-iri), mortuus (moriturus), die. sequor, -i, secutus, follow.
nanciscor, -i, nactus (nanctus) , find. tueor, -eri, tuitus (tutus), defend.
nascor, -i, natus, be born. ulclscor, -i, ultus, avenge.
nitor, -i, nisus (nixus), strive. utor, -i, usus, use, employ.
Note. — The deponent comperior, -iri, compertus, is rarely found for comperio, -ire.
Reverter, until the time of Augustus, had regularly the active forms in the perfect sys-
tem, reverti, reverteram, etc.
100 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [|| 191-1 {^
a. The ioVkjy^iy^^ depKjnentB Lave no Bupine stem : —
d^otor, -ti, t'/r/i tt«i<ie (to lodge). medeor, -eri, /((>eai.
difiteor, -*ri, cierty. renuiusoor, -L, coW to mt/uf.
fatitcor, -i, gapt. vetow, -L /eed wjcK/n,
Bqoor, -L, m-eK (JDtrarig.).
yf/TK. — 'Dffjj'jnffnin ar*; really pasjsjve ^w rxiiddle) vffrbs "whose a>ri:ve voice has
djsaj^jeared. TJifiTH ij» hardjy one Uxat dc»es Dot show bigns of having been luad in
tbe active at tome p»kKl of the langaage.
Semi-Deponents
192. A ffiw v*;rbf> h-avirjg uo peHeot bi^jj] aif: r^-gujar j;j me
present, but appear in the ten.ses of completed action as deponents.
These are called Semi-deponents. They are : —
aude*, andfre, aufus, dare. i;ande$, gand^e, givieus- rejc/tce.
fido, fidfre. fitui, (n/^, toled, tolfre, »olittJS, '>e v.JC/ztt.
a. Frorrj attd«>5 there is an old perfecrt f; ausim. The forrn s5des
f^yr 61 audegj, an (/tc/u trt/f, is freqtLent i: atistis aud rare el»evrher'r.
6. The active forr/j» vapulo. vapalare, he Ji/jgytd, and veneo, v&oirc, 6e «oW
(contrafrted from r^zram ire, ^^ to jta^e), have a passive r/ieaning, and are
RometiTues called neutral pmnves. To these may be added fieii, fo 2»e ma</«
^5 201), and exsnUre, to 6e hanUhsd (live in exile); cf. accedere, to ?«? arhled.
yont.. — Tlie foUowing T*:Tbi are »0Taeth»e» foond as »erfli-rflepfi»ent»; iurS, iariie,
-ritM, «rear; oSW, ni^ntn, afijrta, m^xrry ; pUc»5, pUofre, pUcitn*. j>/«'<m^.
THE PERIPHRASTIC a>NJUGATIOWS
193. A P'tripbra.^ix'^; ff/rrja, a« t>;t; narrjf; j'j^jfratie*, i» a " roandaV/nt way of ipeaV
fag." In th*; wJ'j»-^-t »«^;rTji!!ie, all Ter>>-r>>ira:-»''> r/,rj>::-tinsr rjf Tyartidf<!«-» and «am are P':-
I>hra«tic Forra*. llx*; T'r^.>^ ' !. atid the Perfef-i
J'artidple with »tJiB i» ixi':)'- sojo, rraro. eV:.).
Hfitxtsft itMi Utnu Periphra.>;t ; - >. .y v»rr>>-phra*e« c-r^n
«i*tiB4{ »^ the FtJtore Af.-tjvt : vrjth wm.
Jffyre. — The Ftjttjr^: Pa>.- ' ; • .r, ;.> «.".iT -j )rj. ffirrxj«'J from the infinite
|«l#l«ve '>f 05, y«>, Ti>,t:,'j jrr;;^-rv>nsil)y vritb tht: »rjj>;rj<' jn -Ufli, toay aJ«/> >>e r-la««ed *;
periphrastic fona 'J IJttfy. ay .
194- There afSHwo Periphrastic Conjugations, known resptr-
vfi]y au tFie Firnt (or Active) and the Second (or Passive).
a. The FJr»t Perjphra»tic Co^ the F^t^re Active
J'articiple with the irrrm^ of ram, ;* or irderuhd ^cXhon,
b0 The f>e'>r>nd Feriphr^istie Conjugation f-Ajmhinf» the Gertindive with
the ff/rrrm of raoL, and denotes fjUi^atwrt, neceneity, fjr prrjffrifiiy.
c. 77^e jA'7:;.hra*tixr ffirrn.* are mfUif^d regalarly throngliout tl*e Indiea
-.^ inU ,Su>>j«octiire »]id in the Vr^mtii aad Perfect Infinitive.
^ 1*^ 196] THE PERIPHRASTIC CONOTTGATIOJff lOT
Imfe^fstt
PfixnoCT
PLrF^jtF'E'CT
PlXrtHFECT
Sri5:."rrVi''T'JT2r
Pii^ES«:srr
l-^rc. ^1-1 -ic„ - c^iwiviut se-
ise. The Seeond Peiipbi^ti^ 1
IKT'-. -
PiR¥:s«xr
au«uidik< -
■ ', -iT>i:<e hr, Smtad
Inrtia^sx-T
UMOdhi^
>«f ^ itimni
Frrr^is
auBftajEo:i> ;
:t'i
PlEHFliCr
Aia^-" ^ ~
- .-^ fe* Umi U fe. Jkmi
Pi.cr«:s:F«\rT
f,---
FrttTiiE PlEXFSVT
''7H^
PlRS:SKVT
>\ :". '", ^ "V ■ y
I*F«XF«xrT
P>E*r«cr
Pnrp«ir«vr
P*r<«vT
»iiiatst<dbai$ «;<i<«f ,
^ ^
P*;«r»CT
MftWttdtttS l!i2l^^-
■ -Uhtf^
108
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
196-198
So in the other conjugations ; —
Second : monendus sum, I am to 6e, must be, advised.
Third : tegendus sum, / am to be, must be, covered.
Fourth : audiendus sum, I am to be, must be, heard.
Third (in -io) : capieadus sum, I am to be, must be, taken.
IRREGULAR VERBS
197. Several verbs add some of the personal endings of the
present system directly to the root,^ or combine two verbs in
their inflection. These are called Irregular Verbs. They are
sum, volo, fero, edo, do, eo, queo, fio, and their compounds.
Sum has already been inflected in § 170.
198. Sum is compounded without any change of inflection with
the prepositions ab, ad, de, in, inter, ob, prae, pro (earlier form prod),
sub, super.
In the compound prosum (help), pro retains its original d before e :
a.
Principal Parts : prosum, prodesse, profui, profuturus
Present
Imperfect
Future
Perfect
Pluperfect
Fut. Perf.
INDICATIVE
Singular Plural
prosum prosumus
prodes prodestis
prodest prosunt
proderam proderamus
prodero proderimus
profui profuimus
profueram profueramus
profuero profuerimus
SUBJUNCTRrE
Singular Plural
prosim
prosimus
prosis
prositis
prosit
prosint
prodessem prodessemus
profuerim profuerimus
profuissem profuissemus
IMPERATIVE
Present prodes, prodeste Future prodesto, prodestSte
INFINITIVE
Present prodesse Perfect profuisse
Future profuturus esse
PARTICIPLE
Future profuturus
1 These are athematic verbs, see § 174. 2.
§§ 198, 199]
IRiiEGLFLAR VERBS
109
&. Sum is also compounded with the adjective potis, or pote, able, making
the verb possum (be able, can). Possum is inflected as follows : — i
Principal Parts: possum, posse, potui^
INDICATIVE
SUBJUNCTIVE
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Present
possum
potes
potest
possumus
potestis
possunt
possim
possis
possit
possimus
possitis
possint
Imperfect
Future
Perfect
Pluperfect
FuT. Perf.
poterani
potero
potui
potueram
potuero
poteramus
poterimus
potuimus
potueramus
potuerimus
possem
potuerim
potuissem
possemus
potuerimus
potuissemus
Pres. posse
INFINITIVE
Perf. potuisse
PARTICIPLE
Pres.
potens (adjective), powerful
199.
Principal
Parts :
Note. — Nolo and malo are compounds of volo
volo from mage-volo.
volo, nolo, malo •
volo, velle, volui, , be willing, will, wish
n51o, nolle, nolui, , be unwilling, will not
malo, malle, malui, , be more tvilling, prefer
Nolo is for ne-volo, and malo for ma-
INDICATIVE
Present
volo
nolo
malo
vis 3
non vis
mavis
vult (volt)
non vnlt
mavult
volumus
nolumus
malumus
vultis (voltis)
non vultis
mavultis
volunt
nolunt
malunt
Imperfect
volebam
nolebam
malebam
Future
volam, voles, etc.
noiam, noles, etc.
malani, males, etc
Perfect
volui
nolui
raalui
Pluperfect
volueram
nolueram
malueram
FuT. Perf.
voluero
noluero
maluero
1 The forms potis sum, pote sum, etc. occur in early writers. Other early forms are
potesse ; possiem, -es, -et ; poterint, potisit (for possit) ; potestur and possitur (used with
a passive infinitive, of. § 205. a).
2 Potui is from an obsolete fpotere, 3 vis is from a different root.
110
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§§ 199, 200
SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
velim, -IS, -it,
nolim «
vellmus, -itis.
-int
Imperfect
vellem,^ -es, -et.
nollem
vellemus, -etis
, -ent
Perfect
voluerim
noluerim
Pluperfect
voluissem'
noluissem
IMPERATIVE
Present
noli, nolite
Future
nolito, etc.
INFINITIVE
Present
veUei
nolle
Perfect
voluisse
noluisse
PARTICIPLES
Present
volens, -entis
nolens, -entis
malim
mallem
maluerim
maluissem
malle
maluisse
Note. — The forms sis for si vis, sultis for si vultis, and the forms nSvis (n§-vis).
nSvolt, mavolo, mavolunt, mavelim, mavellem, etc., occur in early writers.
200,
Fero, hear, carry, endure ^
Principal Parts : fero, ferre,^ tuli, latum
Present stem fer- Perfect stem tul- Supine stem lat-
ACTIVE
PASSIVE
INDICATIVE
Present
fero
ferimus
feror ferimur
fers
fertis
ferris (-re) ferimini
fert
ferunt
fertnr ■ feruntur
Imperfect
ferebam
ferebar
Future
feram
ferar
Perfect
tuli
latus sum
Pluperfect
tuleram
latus eram
Future Perfect
tulero
latus ero
1 Vellem is for fvel-sem, and velle for fvel-se (cf. es-se), the s being assimilated to
the 1 preceding.
2 Fero has two independent stems: fer- in the present system, and tul- (for tol-) in
the perfect from tol, root of tollo. The perfect tetuli occurs in Plautus. In the parti-
ciple the root is weakened to tl-, latum standing for ftlatum (cf. t\t]t6s).
8 Ferre, ferrem, are for ffer-se, ffer-sem (cf. es-se, es-sem), s being assimilated to pre-
ceding r; or ferre, ferrem, may be for jferese, jferesem (see § 15. 4).
§200]
IRREGULAR VERBS
111
Active
Passive
SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
feram
ferar
Imperfect
ferrem ^
ferrer
Perfect
tulerim
latus sim
Pluperfect
tulissem
IMPERATIVE
latus essem
Present
fer
ferte
ferre ferimini
Future
ferto
fertote
fertor
ferto
ferunto
INFINITIVE
fertor feruntor
Present
ferre
ferri
Perfect
tulisse
latus esse
Future
laturus esse
5
PARTICIPLES
latum iri
Present
ferens, -entis
Perfect latus
Future
laturus
Ge]
RUNDivE ferendus
GERUND
SUPINE
ferendi, -do, -dum, -do
latum, latu
a. The compounds of fero, conjugated like the simple verb, are the
following : —
ad-
au-, ab-
con-
dis-, di-
ex-, e-
in-
ob-
re-
sub-
adfero
aufero
confero
differo
effero
infers
offero
refero
suffer©
adferre
auferre
conferre
differre
efferre
inferre
offerre
referre
sufferre
attuli
abstuli
contuli
distuli
extuli
intuli
obtuli
rettuli
sustuli^
allatum
ablatum
collatum
dilatum
elatum
illatum
oblatum
relatum
sublatum^
Note. — In these compounds the phonetic changes in the preposition are especially
to be noted, ab- and au- are two distinct prepositions with the same meaning.
1 See note 3, page 110.
2 Sustuli and sublatum also supply the perfect and participle of the verb toll3.
112
CONJUGATION OF THE VEKB
[§201
201. Edo, edere, edi, esum, eat^ is regular of the third conjuga-
tion, but has also an archaic present subjunctive and some alter-
native forms directly from the root (ed), without the thematic
vowel. These are in full-faced typt
le.
ACTIVE
INDICATIVE
Present ed6, edis (es^), edit (est)
edimus, editis (estis), edunt
Imperfect edebam, edebas, etc.
SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
Imperfect
edam (edim), edas (edis), edat (edit)
edamus (edimus), edatis (editis), edant (edint)
ederem, ederes (esses), ederet (esset)
edere mus (essemus), ederetis (essetis), ederent (essent)
IMPERATIVE
Singular
Plural
Present
Future
ede (es)
edito (esto)
edito (esto)
edite (este)
editote (estote)
eduiito
INFINITIVE
PARTICIPLES
Present
edere (esse)
Present edens, -entis
Perfect
edisse
Future esurus ^
Future
esurus esse
GERUND
edendi,
-do,
-dum, -do
1
SUPINE
esum,
esu'
a, Tn the Passive the following irregular forms occur in the third per-
son singular : Present Indicative estur, Imperfect Subjunctive essetur.
1 In es etc. the e is long. In the corresponding forms of sum, e is short. The differ-
ence in quantity between 6d6 andes etc. depends upon inherited vowel variation (§ 17. a).
2 Old forms are essunjs and supine essum.
202j IRREGULAR VERBS 113
202. The irregular verb do, give^ is conjugated as follows : —
Principal Parts : d5, dare, dedi, datum
Present Stem da- Perfect Stem ded- Supine Stem dat-
ACTIVE
PASSIVE
INDICATIVE
Present
do damus
damur
das datis
daris (-re) damini
dat dant
datur dantur
Imperfect
dab am
dabar
Future
dabo
dabor
Perfect
ded!
datus sum
Pluperfect
dederam
datus eram
Future Perfect dedero
datus ero
SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
dem, des, det, etc.
, deris (-re), detur, etc.
Imperfect
darem
darer
Perfect
dederim
datus sim
Pluperfect
dedissem
IMPEEATIVE
datus essem
Present
da date
dare damini
Future
dato datote
dato danto
dator dantor
INFINITIVE
Present
dare
dari
Perfect
dedisse
datus esse
Future
datiii'us esse
PARTICIPLES
datum iri
Present
dans, dantis Perfect
datus
Future
daturus Gerundive dandus
GERUND
dandi, -do, -dum, -do
SUPINE
datum, datu
For compounds of do, see § 209. a. k.
114
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
L§203
203. Eo, go.^ Principal Parts : e5, ire,
INDICATIVE
Preseni eo, IS, it
imus, itis, eunt
Imperfect ibam, ibas, ibat
ibamus, ibatis, ibant
Future ibo, ibis, ibit
ibimus, ibitis, ibunt
Perfect ii (ivi)
Pluperfect ieram (iveram)
Future Perfect iero (ivero)
IMPERATIVE
Present i Future
ite
ii (ivi), itum
SUBJUNCTIVE
earn, eils, eat
eamus, eat is, eant
irem, irea, iret
iremus, iretis, irent
ierim (iverim)
issem (ivissem)
Present ire
INFINITIVE
Perfect isse (ivisse)
PARTICIPLES
euntis Future iturus
Present iens, gen.
GERUND euiidi, -do, -dum, -do
ito, itote
ito, euiito .
Future iturus esse
Gerundive eundum
SUPINE itum, itu
a. The compounds adeo, approach, ineo, enter, and some others, are tran-
sitive. They are inflected as follows in the passive : —
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Pres. adeor
Impf.
adibar
Pres.
adear
adiris
FUT.
adibor
Impf.
adirer
aditur
Perf.
aditus sum
Perf.
aditus sim
adimur
Plup.
aditus eram
Plup.
aditus essem
adimini
F. P.
aditus ero
adeuntur
INFIN. adiri aditus esse
PART, aditus adeundus
Thus inflected, the forms of eo are used impersonally in the third person
singular of the passive : as, itum est (§ 208. d). The infinitive iri is used with
the supine in -um to make the future infinitive passive (§ 1 93. n.). The verb
veneo, be sold (i.e. venum eo, go to sale), has also several forms in the passive.
h. In the perfect system of eo the forms with v are very rare in the simple
verb and unusual in the compounds.
c. ii before s is regularly contracted to i : as, isse.
1 The root of eo is ei (weak form i). This ei becomes i except before a, o, and u,
where it becomes e (cf . eo, earn, eunt) . The strong form of the root, i, is shortened
before a vowel or final -t - the weak form, I, appears in itum and iturus.
§§ 203, 204j
mUEGULAR VEKBS
115
d* The compound ambi5 is inflected regularly like a verb of the fourth
conjugation. But it has also ambibat in the imperfect indicative.
e. Pro with eo retains its original d : as, prodeo, prcdis, prodit.
204. Facio, facere, feci, factum, make^ is regular. But it has im-
perative fac in the active, and, besides the regular forms, the future
perfect faxo, perfect subjunctive faxim. The passive of facio is —
fio, fi§ri, factus sum, be made or become.
The present system of fio is regular of the fourth conjugation,
but the subjunctive imperfect is fierem, and the infinitive fieri.
Note. — The forms in brackets are not used in good prose.
Present
Imperfect
Future
Perfect
Pluperfect
Future Perfect
Present fieri
INDICATIVE
fio, fls, fit
[fimus], [fitis], flunt
fiebam, fiebas, etc.
flam, fies, etc.
factus sum
factus eram
factus ero
IMPERATIVE
[fi, fite, f ito, ] 1
INFINITIVE
Perfect factus
SUBJUNCTIVE
fiam, fias, flat
fianms, fiatis, fiant
fierem, fieres, etc.
factus sim
factus essem
Future factum iri
PARTICIPLES
Perfect factus Gerundive faciendus
a. Most compounds of facio with prepositions weaken S to i in the present
stem and to e in the supine stem, and are inflected regularly like verbs in -io : —
conficio, conficere, confecl, couiectnm^ finish.
conficior, confici, confectus.
h. Other compounds retain a, and have -fio in the passive : as, benefaciS,
-facere, -feci, -factum ; passive benefio, -fieri, -factus, benefit. These retain the
accent of the simple verb : as, bene-fa'cis (§ 12. a, Exc.).
c, A few isolated forms of fio occur in other compounds : —
conflt, it happens, confiunt ; conflat ; confieret, confierent ; confieri.
defit, it lacks, deflunt ; defiet ; def iat ; defieri.
effieri, to be effected.
infio, begin (to speak), infit.
interfiat, let him perish ; interfieri, to perish.
superfit, it remains over ; superfiat, superfieri.
1 The imperative is rarely found, and then only in oTly writers.
116
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§206
DEFECTIVE VERBS
205. Some verbs have lost the Present System, and use only
tenses of the Perfect, in which they are inflected regularly.
These are —
coepi,^ / began
Perfect
Pluperfect
Future Perfect coepero
odi,2 / hate
INDICATIVE
coepi odi
coeperam oderam
odero
SUBJUXCTIVE
Perfect coeperim oderim
Pluperfect coepissem odissem
memini,^ / remember
memini
memiiieram
meminero
meminerim
meminissera
IMPERATIVE
memento
mementote
INFINITIVE
Perfect
Future
Perfect
Future
coepisse
coepturus esse
odisse
osurus esse
memmisse
PARTICIPLES
coeptus, begun osus, liating or hated
coepturus osurus, likely to hate
a. The passive of coepi is often used with the passive infinitive : as,
coeptus sum vocari, / began to be called, but coepi vocare, / began to call.
For the present system incipio is used.
Note. — Early and rare forms are coepio, coepiam, coeperet, coepere.
5. The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect of odi and memini have
the meanings of a Present, Imperfect, and Future respectively : —
odi, I hate ; oderam, I hated (loas hating) ; odero, I shall hate.
Note 1. — A present participle meminens is early and late.
Note 2. — Novi and consuevi (usually referred to nosco and consa?sc6) are often used
in the sense of Iknoio (have learned) and I am accustomed (have become accustomed)
as preteritive verbs. Many other verbs are occasionally used in the same way (see
476. N.).
1 Root AP (as in apiscor) with co(n-).
2 Root OD, as in 5dium.
8 Root MEN, as in mens.
§206] DEFECTIVE VEKBS 117
206. Many verbs are found only in the Present System. Such
are maereo, -ere, he sorrowful (cf . maestus, sad) ; ferio, -ire, strike.
In many the simple verb is incomplete, but the missing parts
occur in its compounds : as, vado, vadere, in-vasi, in-vasum.
Some verbs occur very commonly, but only in a few forms : —
a» Aio, / say : —
iNDic. Pres. §,io, ais,i ait ; , , aiunt
Impf. aiebam,2 aiebas, etc.
suBjv. Pres. , aias, aiat; , , aiant
IMPER. ai (rare)
PART. aiens
The vowels a and i are pronounced separately (a-is, a-it) except some-
times in old or colloquial Latin. Before a vov/el, one i stands for two (see
§ 6. c) : — thus aio was pronounced ai-yo and was sometimes written alio.
h, Inquam, / say^ except in poetry, is used only in direct quotations
(cf. the English quoth).
INDIC. Pres. inquam, inquis, inquit ; inquimus, inquitis (late), inquiunt
Impf. , , inquiebat ; , ,
Fdt. , inquies, inquiet ; • , ,
Perf. inquii, inquisti, ; , ,
IMPER. Pres. inque
FuT. inquito
The only common forms are inquam, inquis, inquit, inquiunt, and the
future inquies, inquiet.
c. The deponent fari, to speak, has the following forms : —
INDIC. Pres. , , f atur ; , , fantur
FuT. fabor, , fabitur ; , ,
Perf. , , fatus est ; , , fati sunt
Plup. fatus erarn, , fatus erat ; , ,
IMPER. Pres. fare
INFIN. Pres. fari
PART. Pres. fans, fantis, etc. (in singular)
Perf. fatus {having spoken)
Ger. fandus (to he spoken of)
GERUND, gen. landl, abl. fando supmi: fatu
Several forms compounded with the prepositions ex, prae, pro, inter,
occur : as, praefatur, praefamur, affari, profatus, interfatur, etc. The com-
pound infans is regularly used as a noun (child). Infandus, nefandus, are
used as adjectives, unspeakable, abominable.
1 The second singular ais with the interrogative -ne is often written ain.
2 An old imperfect aibam, aibas, etc. (dissyllabic) is sometimes found.
118
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§206
d, Queo, / can, nequeo, / cannot, are conjugated like e5. They are rarely
used except in the present. Queo is regularly accompanied by a negative.
The forms given below occur, those in full-faced ij^e in classic prose.
The Imperative, Gerund, and Supine are wanting.
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
INDICATIA^E SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
Present
queo queam
quis queas
quit queat
nequeo (non
nequls
nequit
queo)
nequeam
nequeas
nequeat
quimus queamus
quitis
queunt queant
nequimus
nequitis
nequeunt
nequeamus
nequeant
Imperfect
Imperfect
quibam
quibat quiret
quirent
nequibat
nequibant
nequirem
nequiret
nequirent
EUTUBE
Future
quibo
quibunt
nequibit
nequlbunt
Perfect
Perfect
quivi
quivit quiverit (-ierit)
quiverunt (-ere) quierint
nequivi
nequisti
nequivit (nequiit)
nequiverunt (-quiere)
nequiverim
nequiverit
nequiverint
Pluperfect
Pluperfect
quivissent
nequiverat (-ierat)
nequiverant (-ierant)
nequivisset (-quisset)
nequlssent
INFINITIVE
quire quisse
nequire
nequlvisse (-quisse)
PARTICIPLES
quiens
nequiens, nequeuntes
Note. — A few pas.sive forms are used with passive infinitives: as, quitur, queuntur,
quitus sum, queatur,queantur,nequitur,nequitum ; but none of theseoccurs in classic prose.
§§ 206, 207;
IMPEKSONAL VERBS
119
Co Quaeso, / ask, beg (original form of quaero), has —
iNDic. Pres. quaeso, quaesumus
Note. — Other forms of quaes5 are found occasionally in early Latin, For the per-
fect system (quaesivi, etc.), see quaero (§211. d).
f. Ovare, to triumph, has the following : —
INDIC. Pres. ovas, ovat
suBjv. Pres. ovet
Impf. ovaret
PART. ovans, ovaturus, ovatus
GER. ovandi
g, A few verbs are found chiefly in the Imperative : —
Pres. singular salve, plural salvete, Fur. salveto, hail ! (from sal-
vus, safe and sound). An infinitive salvere and the indica-
tive forms salveo, salvetis, salvebis, are rare.
Pres. singular ave (or have), plural avete, Fux. aveto, hail or fare-
well. An infinitive avere also occurs.
Pres. singular cedo, plural cedite (cette), give, tell.
Pres. singular apage, begone (properly a Greek word).
IMPERSONAL VERBS
207. Many verbs, from their meaning, appear only in the third
person singular, the infinitive, and the gerund. These are called
Impersonal Verbs, as having no personal subject.^ The passive
of many intransitive verbs is used in the same way.
CONJ. I
II
III
IV
Pass. Conj. i
it is plain
it is allowed
it chances
it results
it is fought
constat
licet
accidit
evenit
pugnatur
constabat
licebat
accidebat
eveniebat
ptignabatur
constabit
licebit
accidet
eveniet
pugnabitur
constitit
licuit, -itum est
accidit
evenit
pugnatum est
constiterat
licuerat
acciderat
evenerat
pugnatum erat
constiterit
licuerit
acciderit
evenerit
piignatum erit
constet
liceat
accidat
eveniat
pugnetur
constaret
liceret
accideret
eveniret
pugnaretur
constiterit
licuerit
acciderit
evenerit
piignatum sit
constitisset
licuisset
accidisset
evenisset
pugnatum esset
constare
hcere
accidere
evenire
pugnari
constitisse
licuisse
accidisse
evenisse
pugnatum esse
-stattirum esse
-iturum esse
-tiirum esse
pugnatum iri
1 With impersonal verbs the word it is used in English, having usually no repre-
sentative in Latin, though id, hoc, illud, are often used nearly in the same way.
120 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§208
208. Impersonal Verbs may be classified as follows : —
a. Verbs expressing the operations of nature and the time of day : —
vesperascit (inceptive, § 263. 1), it grows late. ningit, it snows.
luciscit hoc, it is getting light. fulgurat, it lightens.
grandinat, it hails. tonat, it thunders.
pluit, it rains. rorat, the dew falls.
Note. — In these no subject is distinctly thouglit of. Sometimes, however, the verb
is used personally with the name of a divinity as the subject : as, luppiter tonat, Jupiter
thunders. In poetry other subjects are occasionally used : as, fundae saxa pluunt, tht
slings rain stones.
b» Verbs of feeling, where the person who is the proper subject becomes
the object, as being himself aifected by the feeling expressed in the verb
(§354.6): —
miseret, it grieves. paenitet (poenitet), it repents.
piget, it disgusts. ' pudet, it shames.
taedet, it wearies.
miseret me, I pity (it distresses me) ; pudet me, I am ashamed.
Note. — Such verbs often have also a passive form : as, misereor, I pity (am moved
to pity) ; and occasionally other parts: as, paeniturus (as from fpaenio), paenitendus,
pudendus, pertaesum est, pigitum est.
c. Verbs which have a phrase or clause as their subject (cf. §§ 454,
569. 2): —
accidit, contingit, evenit, obtingit, obvenit, fit, it happens.
libet, it pleases. delectat, iuvat, it delights.
licet, it is permitted. oportet, it isfdting, ougM.
certum est, it is resolved. necesse est, it is needful.
constat, it is clear. praestat, it is better.
placet, it seems good (pleases). interest, refert, it concerns.
videtur, it seems, seems good. vacat, there is leisure.
decet, it is becoming. restat, superest, it remains.
Note. — Many of these verbs may be used personally; as, vaco, I have leisure.
Libet and licet have also the passive forms libitum (licitum) est etc. The participles
libens and licens are used as adjectives.
d. The passive of intransitive verbs is very often used impersonally (see
synopsis in § 207) : —
ventum est, they came (there was coming).
pugnatur, there is fighting (it is fought).
itur, some one goes (it is gone).
parcitur mihi, I am spared (it is spared to me, see § 372).
Note. — The impersonal use of the passive proceeds from its original reflexive (or
middle) meaning, the action being regarded as accomplishing itself (compare the
French cela sefait).
§§ 209, 210] CLASSIFIED LISTS OF VERBS 121
Classified Lists of Verbs
First Conjugation
209. There are about 360 simple verbs of the First Conjuga-
tion, most of them formed directly on a noun- or adjective-stem :
armo, arm (arma, arms); caeco, to blind (caecus, blind); exsulo, be an exile
(exsul, an exile) (§ 259).
Their conjugation is usually regular, like amo ; thougli of many only a few
forms are found in use.
a. The following verbs form their Perfect and Supine stems irregularly.
Those marked * have also regular forms.
crepo, crepui (-crepavi), -crepit-, resound. plico, *-plicui, *-plicit-, fold.
cubo, *cubul, -cubit-, lie down. poto, potavi, *p6t-, drink.
do, dare, dedi, dat-, give (da). seco, secui, sect-, cut.
domo, domui, domit-, subdue, sono, sonui, sonit-,^ sound.
frico, fricui, *frict-, rub. sto, steti, -stat- (-stit-), stand.
iuvo (ad-iuv6), iiivi, iut-,^ help, tono, tonui, *-tonit-, thunder.
mico, micui, , glitter. veto, vetui, vetit-, forbid.
need, *necui, necat- (-nect-), kill.'^
Note. — Compounds of these verbs have the following forms: —
crepo : con-crepui, dis-crepui or -crepdvi ; in-crepui or -crepdvi.
do : circum-, inter-, pessum-, satis-, super-, vetium-do, -dedl, -dat-, of the first con-
jugation. Other compounds belong to the root dha, put, and are of the third
conjugation: as, condo, condere, condidi, conditum.
mico: di-micdvi, -micdt-; e-micui, -micdt-.
plico: re-, sub- (sup-), multi-plico, -plicdvl, -plicdt-; ex-plied (unfold), -ul, -it-;
(explain), -dvl, -at-; im-plico, -dvi {-ul), -dtum (-itum).
sto: con-sto, -stitl, {-stdturus) ; ad-, re-std,-stitl, ,• ante- (anti-), inter-, super-
sto, -steti, ,• circum-sto, -stetl {-stitl), ; prae-sto, -stitl, -stit- {-stdt-);
dl-sto, ex-sto, no perfect or supine (future participle ex-stdturus).
Second Conjugation
210. There are nearly 120 simple verbs of the Second Conju-
gation, most of them denominative verbs of condition, having a
corresponding noun and adjective from the same root, and an
inceptive in -sc5 (§ 263. 1): —
caleo, be warm; calor, warmth; calidus, warm; calesc5, grow warm.
timeo, /ear; timor, /ear; timidus, izwud; T^ex-MmQsco., to take fright.
1 Future Participle also in -atiirus (either in the simple verb or in composition).
2Nec6 has regularly necavi, necatum, except in composition.
122
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
210, 211
a. Most verbs of the second conjugation are inflected like moneo, but
many lack the supine (as, arceo, ward off; careo, lack ; egeo, need ; timeo,
fear), and a number have neither perfect nor supine (as, n?aereo, he sad).
b. The following keep e in all the systems : —
deleo, destroy delere dele^ deletum
fleo, weep flere flevi fletum
ne5, sew nere nevi [netum]
vieo, plait viere [vievi] vietum
com-pleo, fill up ^ -plere -plevi -pletum
c. The following show special irregularities : —
algeo, alsi, he cold.
ardeo, arsi, arsurus, hum.
audeo, ausus sum, dare.
augeo, auxi, auct-, increase.
caveo, cavi, caut-, care.
censeo, censul, cens-, value.
cieo, civi, cit-, excite.
doceo, docul, doct-, teach.
faveo, favi, faut-, faxior.
ferve5, fervi (ferbui), , glow.
foveo, fovl, fot-, cherish.
fulgeo, fulsi, , shine.
gaudeo, gavisus sum, rejoice.
haere5, haesi, haes-, cling.
indulged, indulsi, indult-, indulge.
iube5, iussi, iuss-, order.
liqueo, licui (liqui), , melt.
luceo, luxi, , shine.
lugeo, luxi, , mourn.
maneo, mansi, mans-, wait.
misceo, -cui, mixt- (mist-), mix.
mordeo, momordi, mors-, hite.
moved, movi, mot-, move.
mulceo, mulsi, muls-, soothe.
mulgeo, mulsi, muls-, milk.
(c6)nive5, -nivi (-nixi), , ivink.
(ab)ole6, -olevi, -olit-, destroy.
pendeo, pependi, -pens-, hang.
prandeo, prandi, prans-, dine.
rideo, risi, -ris-, laugh.
sede5, sedi, sess-, sit.
soleo, solitus sum, he v:ont.
sorbeo, sorbui (sorpsi), , suck.
spondeo, spopondi, spons-, pledge.
strideo, stridi, , whiz.
suadeo, suasi, suas-, urge.
teneo (-tineo), tenui, -tent-, hold.
tergeo, tersi, ters-, wipe.
tondeo, -totondi (-tondi), tons-, shear.
torqueo, torsi, tort-, twist.
torreo, torrui, tost-, roast.
turgeo, tursi, , swell.
urgeo, ursi, , urge.
video, vidi, vis-, see.
voved, vovi, vot-, vow.
Third Conjugation
211. The following lists include most simple verbs of the
Third Conjugation, classed according to the formation of the Per-
fect Stem : —
a. Forming the perfect stem in s (x) (§ 177. h and note): —
angd, anxi, , choke. claudo, clausi, claus-, shid.
carpo, carpsi, carpt-, pluck. como, compsi, compt-, coiiih, deck.
cedo, cessi, cess-, yield. coquo, coxi, coct-, cook.
cingo, cinxi, cinct-, hind. -cutio, -cussi, -cuss-, shake.
, 1 And other compounds of -pleo.
211]
THIRD CONJUGATION
123
demo, dempsi, dempt-, take away,
died, dixi, diet-, say.
dividd, divisi, divis-, divide.
duco, duxi, duct-, guide.
emungo, -munxi, -munct-, clean out.
figo, fixi, fix-., fix.
fingo [fig] , finxi, fict-, fashion.
fleets, flexi, flex-, hend.
-fligo, -flixi, -flict-, , smite.
fluo, flijxi, flux-, ^oiy.
frendo, , fres- (fress-), gnash.
frigo, frixi, friet-, fry.
gero, gessi, gest-, carry.
iungo, iunxi, iunct-, join.
laedo, laesl, laes-, hurt.
-licio, -lexi, -leet-, entice (elicui, -licit-) .
ludo, lusi, lus-, play.
mergo, mersi, mers-, plunge.
mitto, misi, miss-, send.
necto [nec], nexi (nexui), nex-, weave.
nubo, nupsi, nupt-, marry.
pecto, pexi, pex-,. comb.
pergo, perrexi, perrect-, go on.
pingo [pig], pinxi, pict-, paint.
plango [flag], planxi, planet-, beat.
plaudo, plausi, plaus-, applaud.
plecto, plexi, plex-, braid.
premo, pressi, press-, press.
promo, -mpsi, -mpt-, bring out.
b. Reduplicated in the perfect (§
cado, cecidi, cas-, /aZZ.
caedo, cecidi, caes-, cut.
cano, cecini, , sing.
curro, cucurri, curs-, run.
disco [dig], didici, , learn.
-do [dha], -didi, -dit- (as in ab-do, etc.,
with credo, vendo), put.
falls, fefelli, fals-, deceive.
pango [pag], pepigi(-pegi), pact-,/asiew,
fix, bargain.
pared, peperei (parsi), (parsurus), spare.
quatio, (-cussi), quass-, shake.
rado, rasi, ras-, scrape.
rego, rexi, rect-, rule.
repo, repsi, , creep.
rodo, rosi, ros-, gnaw.
scalpo, sealpsi, sealpt-, scrape.
scribo, scripsi, script-, write.
sculpo, seulpsi, sculpt-, carve.
serpo, serpsi, , crawl.
spargo, sparsi, spars-, scatter.
-spicio, -spexi, -spect-, view.
-stinguo, -stinxi, -stinct-, quench.
strings, strinxi, strict-, bind.
struS, struxi, struct-, build.
sugo, siixi, stict-, suck.
sums, sumpsi, sumpt-, take.
surgS, surrexi, surrect-, rise.
tegS, texl, tect-, shelter.
temnS, -tempsi, -tempt-, despise.
tergS, tersi, ters-, wipe.
tingo, tinxi, tinet-, stain.
trahS, traxi, tract-, drag.
triidS, trijsi, triis-, thrust.
unguo (ungS), unxi, unct-, anoint.
urS, ussi, ust-, burn.
vadS, -vasi, -vas-, go.
vehS, vexi, vect-, draw.
vivS, vixi, vict-, live.
177. c): —
pario, peperi, part- (pariturus), bring
forth.
pellS, pepuli, puis-, drive.
pendo, pependi, pens-, weigh.
posco, poposci, , demand.
pungS [pug], pupugi (-punxi), punct-,
prick.
sistS [sta], stiti, stat-, stop.
tango [tag], tetigi, tact-, touch.
tends [ten], tetendi(-tendi), tent-, sireicA.
tundS [tud], tutudi, tuns- (-tus-), beat
c. Adding u (v) to the verb-root (§ 177. a) : —
alS, alui, alt- (alit-), nourish. compescS, compeseui
cemS, crevi, -cret-, decree.
colo, colui, cult-, dwell, till.
-, restrain.
cSnsulS, -lui, cSnsult-, consult.
cresco, crevi, cret-, increase.
124
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§211
-cumb5 [cub], -cubui, -cubit-, lie down
depso, depsui, depst-, knead.
fremo, fremui, , roar.
gemo, gemui, , groan.
gigno [gen], genui, genit-, beget.
meto, messui, -mess-, reap.
molo, mclui, molit-, grind.
occul5, occului, occult-, hide.
(ad)olesc6, -evi, -ult-, g^'oio up.
pasco, pavi, past-, feed.
percello, -culi, -culs-, upset.
pono [pos], posui, posit-, put.
quiesco, quievi, quiet-, rest.
d. Adding iv to the verb-root (§ 177./)
rapio, rapui, rapt-, seize.
scisco, scivi, scit-, decree.
ser5, sevi, sat-, sow.
sero, serui, sert-, entivlne.
sino, sivi, sit-, permit.
spemo, sprevi, spret-, scorn.
sterno, stravi, strat-, strew.
sterto, -stertui, , snore.
strep5, strepui, , sound.
suesco, suevi, suet-, be wont.
texo, texui, text-, weave.
tremS, tremui, , tremble.
vomo, vomui, , vomit.
arcesso,^ -ivi, arcessit-, summon.
capesso, capessivi, , undertake.
cupio, cupivi, cupit-, desire.
incesso, incessivi, , attack.
lacesso, lacessivi, lacessit-, provoke.
peto, petivi, petit-, seek.
quaero, quaesivi, quaesit-, seek.
rudo, rudivi, , bray.
sapio, sapivi, , be wise.
tero, trivi, trit-, rub.
e. Lengthening the vowel of the root (cf. § 177. d):
ago, egi, act-, drive.
capio, cepi, capt-, take.
edo, edi, esum, eat (see § 201).
emo, emi, empt-, buy.
facio, feci, fact-, make (see § 204).
fodi5, fodi, foss-, dig.
frango [frag], fregi, fract-, break.
fugio, fugi, (fugiturus),^ee.
fundo [fud], fudi, fus-, pour.
iacio, ieci, iact-, throw (-ici5, -iect-).
lavo, lavi, lot- (laut-), wash (also regu-
lar of first conjugation).
Ieg6,2 legi, Iect-, gather.
lino [li], levi (livi), lit-, smear.
Iiiiqu5 [lic], -liqui, -lict-, leave.
nosco [gno] , novi, not- (c6-gnit-, a-gnit-,
ad-gnit-), know.
rumpd [rup], rupi, rupt-, burst.
scabo, scabi, , scratch.
vinc5 [vie], vici, vict-, conquer.
f. Retaining the present stem or verb-root (cf. § 177. e): —
acuo, -ui, -lit-, sharpen.
arguo, -ui, -ut-,. accuse.
bibo, bibi, (p5tus), drink.
-cendo, -cendi, -cens-, kindle.
(con)gruo, -ui, , agree.
ciido, -cudi, -ciis-, forge.
facesso, -ii (facessi), facessit-, execute.
-fendd, -fendi, -fens-, ward off.
findo [fid], fidi,3 fiss-, split.
ico, ici, ict-, hit.
imbuo, -ui, -iit-, give a taste of.
luo, lui, -lut-, wash.
mando, mandi, mans-, chew.
metuo, -ui, -iit-, fear.
minuo, -ui, -iit-, lessen.
-nuo, -nui, , nod.
paado, pandi, pans- (pass-), open.
pinso, -si, pins- (pinst-, pist-), bruise.
prehendo, -hendi, -hens-, seize.
ruo, rui, rut- (ruiturus), fall.
1 Sometimes accerso, etc.
2 The following compounds of leg5 have -lexi : diligo, intellego, neglego.
3 In this the perfect stem is the same as the verb-root, having lost the reduplica-
tion (§ 177. c. n.).
§§ 211, 212]
FOURTH CONJUGATION
125
scando, -scendi, -scensus, climb.
scindo [scid], scidi,i sciss-, tear.
sido, sidi (-sedi), -sess-, settle.
solvo, solvi, solut-, loose, pay.
spuo, -ui, , spit.
statuo, -ui, -ut-, establish.
sternuo, -ui, , sneeze.
strido, stridi, , whiz.
su5, sui, sijt-, sew.
(ex)u6, -ui, -ut-, put off.
tribuo, -ui, -Ot-, assign.
vello, velii (-vulsi), vuls-, pluck,
vend, -verri, vers-, sweep.
verto, verti, vers-, turn.
viso [vid], visi, vis-, visit.
volvo, volvi, volut-,. turn.
Note. — Several have no perfect or supine: as, claud5, limp; fatisco, gape; hisco,
yaivn; tollo (sustuli, sublatum, supplied from suffero), raise; vergo, incline.
^.
Fourth Conjugation
212. There are — besides a few deponents and some regular
derivatives in -iirio, as, esurio, he hungry (cf. § 263.4) — about
60 verbs of this conjugation, a large proportion of them being
descriptive verbs : like —
crocio, croak; mugio, bellow; tianio, tinkle.
a. Most verbs of the Fourth Conjugation are conjugated regularly, like
audi5, though a number lack the supine.
&. The follovi^ing verbs show special peculiarities : —
amicio, amixi (-cui), amict-, clothe.
aperio, aperui, apart-, open.
comperio, -peri, comj^ei t-, find.
farcio, farsi, fartum, stuff.
feriS, , , strike.
fulcio, fulsi, fult-, prop.
haurio, hausi, haust- (hausurus), drain.
opsrio, operui, opert-, cover.
reperio, repperi, repert-, ^nd.
saepi5, saepsi, saept-, hedge in.
salio (-silio), salui (salii), [salt- (-suit-)],
leap.
sancio [sac], sanxi, sanct-, sanction.
sarcio, sarsi, sart-, patch.
sentio, sensi, sens-, feel.
sepelio, sepelivi, sepult-, bury.
venio, veni, vent-, come.
vinci5, vinxi, vinct-, bind.
For Index of Verbs, see pp. 436 ft.
1 See footnote 3, page 124.
126 PARTICLES [§§ 213, 214
PAETICLES
213. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections
are called Particles.
In their origin Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions are
either (1) case-forms^ actual or extinct, or (2) compounds and
phrases.
Particles cannot always be distinctly classified, for many adverbs are
used also as prepositions and many «s conjunctions (§§ 219 and 222).
ADVERBS
Deeivation of Adverbs
214. Adverbs are regularly formed from Adjectives as follows :
a. From adjectives of the first and second declensions by changing the
characteristic vowel of the stem to -e : as, care, dearly, from earns, dear (stem
caro-) ; amice, like a friend, from amicus, friendly (stem amico-) .
Note. — The ending -e is a relic of an old ablative in -ed (of. § 43. n. 1).
&. From adjectives of the third declension by adding -ter to the stem.
Stems in nt- (nom. -ns) lose the t-. All others are treated as i-stems : —
fortiter, bravely, from fortis (stem forti-), hrave.
acriter, eagerly, from acer (stem acri-), eager.
vigilanter, watchfully, from vigilans (stem vigilant-),
prudenter, prudently, from prudens (stem prudent-),
aliter, otherwise, from alius (old stem ali-).
Note. — This suffix is perhaps the same as -ter in the Greek -Tepo^ and in uter, alter.
If so,these adverbs are in origin either neuter accusatives (of . cZ) or mascuHne nominatives.
c. Some adjectives of the first and second declensions have adverbs of
both forms (-e and -ter). Thus Qmxxs, hard, has both dure and diiriter ;
miser, ivretched, has both misere and miseriter.
d» The neuter accusative of adjectives and pronouns is often used as an
adverb : as, multum, much ; facile, easily ; quid, ichy.
This is the origin of the ending -ius in the comparative degree of ad-
verbs (§ 218): as, acrius, more- keenly (positive .acriter) ; facilius, more easily
(positive facile).
Note. — These adverbs are strictly cognate accusatives (§ 390).
e. The ablative singular neuter or (less commonly) feminine of adjectives,
pronouns, and nouns may be used adverbially : as, fals5, falsely ; cit5,
§§214-216] DERIVATION OF ADVERBS 127
quickly (with shortened o); recta (via), straight (straiglitwmj) ; crebro, fre-
quently ; volgo, commonly ; forte, by chance; sponte, of one's own accord.
NofE. — Some adverbs are derived from adjectives not in use: as, abunde, plenti-
fully (as if from fabundus ; cf . abundo, abound) ; saepe, often (as if from fsaepis, dense,
close-packed ; cf . saepes, hedge, and saepio, hedge in) .
215. Further examples of Adverbs and other Particles which
are in origin case-forms of nouns or pronouns are given below.
In some the case is not obvious, and in some it is doubtful.
1. Neuter Accusative forms: non (for ne-oinom, later unum), not; iterum (compara-
tive of i-, stem of is), a second time; demum (superlative of de, down), at last.
2. Feminine Accusatives: partim, partly. So statim, 07i the spot; saltim, at least
(generally saltern), from lost nouns in -tis (genitive -tis). Thus -tim became a regular
adverbial termination ; and by means of it adverbs were made from many noun- and
verb-stems immediately, without the intervention of any form which could have an
accusative in -tim: as, separatim, separately, from separatus, separate. Some adverbs
that appear to be feminine accusative are possibly instrumental: as, palam, openly;
perperam, wrongly; tarn, so; quam, as.
3. Plural Accusatives : as, alias, elsewhere ; foras, out of doors (as end of motion).
So perhaps quia, because.
4. Ablative or Instrumental forms: qua, where; intra, within; extra, outside; qui,
how; aliqui, somehow; foris, out of doors; quo, whither; adeo, to that degree; ultro,
beyond; citr5, this side (as end of motion) ; retro, back; illoc (for fiHo-ce), weakened to
illuc, thither. Those in -tro are from comparative stems (cf, uls, cis, re-).
5. Locative forms : ibi, there ; ubi, lohere ; illi, illi-c, there ; peregri (peregre), abroad;
hie (for fhi-ce), here. Also the compounds hodie (probably for fhodie), to-day; perendie,
day after to-morrow.
6. Of uncertain formation: (1) those in -tus (usually preceded by 1), with an abla-
tive meaning: as, funditus, /rom the bottom, utterly _; divinitus, from above, provi-
dentially; intus, within; penitus, within; (2) those in -dem, -dam, -d5: as, quidem,
indeed; quondam, once; quando (cf. donee), when; (3) dum (probably accusative of
time), while; iam, now.
216. A phrase or short sentence has sometimes grown together
into an adverb (cf . notwithstanding., nevertheless^ besides) : —
postmodo, presently (a short time aftor).
denuo (for de novo), anew.
videlicet (for vide licet), to wit (see, you may),
nihilominus, nevertheless (by nothing the less).
Note. — Other examples are: — antea, old antidea, 6p/ore (ante ea, probably abla-
tive or instrumental) ; ilico (in loco), on the spot, immediately ; prorsus, absolutely (pro
versus, straight ahead) ; riirsus (re-vorsus), again; quotannis, yearly (quotannis, as many
years as there are) ; quam-ob-rem, wherefore ; cominus, hand to hand (con manus) ; eminus,
at long range (ex manus) ; nimirum, without doubt (ni mirum) ; ob-viam (as in Ire obviam,
to go to meet) ; pridem (cf. prae and -dem in i-AQm), for some time; forsan (fors slii), per-
haps (it's a chance whether); forsitan (fors sit an), perhaps (it would be a chance
whether) ; scilicet (fsci, licet), tliat is to say (know, you may ; cf. i-licet, you may go) ;
actutum (actu, on the act, and turn, then).
128
PARTICLES
[§217
Classification of Adverbs
217. The classes of Adverbs, with examples, are as follows : —
a. Adverbs of Place
hie, here.
ibi, there.
istic, there.
illic, there.
ubi, where.
alicubi, somewhere.
ibidem, in the same
place.
alibi, elsewhere, in
another place.
ubiubi, wherever.
ubivis, anywhere,
where you will.
sicubi, if any where.
necubi, lest any-
where.
hue, hither.
eo, thither.
istuc, thither.
illuc, thither.
quo, whither.
aliquo, somewhither,
{to) somewhere.
eodem, to the same
place.
alio, elsewhere, to
another place.
quoquo, whitherso-
ever.
quo vis, anywhere,
whither you will.
siquo, if anywhere
{any whither).
nequo, lest any-
whither.
hinc, hence.
inde, thence.
istinc, thence.
illinc, thence.
unde, whence.
alicunde,/ro.'H some-
where.
indidem, from the
same place.
aliunde, from an-
other place.
undecunque, whence-
soever.
undique, /rowi every
quarter.
sicunde, if from any-
where.
necunde, lest from
anywhere.
hac, by this vjay.
ea, by that way.
ista, by that way.
ilia (iliac), " "
qua, by what way.
aliqua, by someway.
eadem, by the same
way.
alia, in another
way.
quaqua, in whatever
way.
quavis, by whatever
way.
siqua, if anywhere.
nequa, lest any-
where.
Note. — The demonstrative adverbs Mc, ibi, istic, illi, illic, and their correlatives,
correspond in signification with the pronouns hie, is, iste, ille (see § 146), and are often
equivalent to these pronouns with a preposition : as, inde = ab eo, etc. So the relative or
interrogative ubi corresponds with qui (quis), ali-cubi with aliquis, ubiubi with quisquis,
si-cubi with siquis (see §§ 147-151, with the table of correlatives in § 152).
usque, all the way to; usquam, anywhere; nusquam, nowhere; citro, to this side;
intro, inwardly; ultro, beyond {or freely, i.e. beyond what is required);
porro, further on.
quorsum (for quo vorsum, whither turned?), to what end? horsum, this way;
prorsum, forward (prorsus, utterly); introrsum, inwardly; retrorsum, back-
ward; sursum, upward; deorsum, downward; seorsum, apart; aliorsum,
another loay.
h. Adverbs of Time
quando, when? (interrogative); cum (quom), when (relative); ut, when, as; nunc,
noiv; tunc (turn), then; mox, presently ; iam, already ; dum, while; iam diii,
iam diidum, iam pridem, long ago, long since.
1 All these adverbs were originally case-forms of pronouns. The forms iu -bl and
-ic are locative, those in -5 and -uc, -a and -ac, ablative (see § 215) ; those iu -inc are
from.-ini (of uncertain origin) with the particle -ce added (thus illim. illin-c).
§§ 217, 218] ADVERBS 129
primum (■pnmd) ^ first ; deinde (postea), next after; postremum {postxemo)^ finally;
posteaquam, postquam, ivhcn {after that, as soon as),
umquam (unquam), ever ; numquam (nunquam), never ; semper, always,
aliquando, at some time, at length; quandoque (quandocumque), whenever ; denique,
at last,
quotiens (quoties), how often; totieus, so often; aliquotiens, a number of times.
cotidie, every day ; hodie, to-day ; heri, yesterday ; eras, to-morrow ; pridie, the day
before ; postridie, the day after ; in dies, from day to day.
nondam, not yet ; necdum, nor yet ; vixdum, scarce yet ; quam primum, as soon as
possible; saepe, often; ciehro, frequently ; iam non, no longer.
c. Adverbs of Manner, Degree, or Cause
quam, hoiv, as; tam, so ; quamvis, however much, although; paene, almost; magis,
more; valde, greatly ; vix, hardly.
cur, quare, why ; ideo, idcirco, propterea, on this account, because; eo, therefore;
ergo, itaque, igitur, therefore.
ita, sic, so; ut (uti), as, how; utut, utcumque, however,
d. Interrogative Particles
an, -ne, anne, utrum, utrumne, num, whether.
nonne, annon, whether not ; numquid, ecquid, whether at all.
On the use of the Interrogative Particles, see §§ 332, 335.
e. Negative Particles
non, not (in simple denial) ; baud, minime, not (in contradiction) ; ne, not (in pro-
hibition) ; neve, neu, nor ; nedum, much less.
ne, lest; neque, nee, nor ; ne . . . quidem, not even.
non modo . . . verum (sed) etiam, not only . . . but also.
non modo . . . sed ne . . . quidem, not only not . . . but not even.
si minus, if not; quo minus (quominus), so as not.
quin (relative), but that; (interrogative), why not?
ne, nee (in composition), not; so in nescio, I know not ; nego, I say no (aio, / say
yes) ; negotium, business (fnec-otium) ; nemo (ne- and hemo, old form of homo),
no one ; ne quis, lest any one ; neque enim, for . . . not.
For the use of Negative Particles, see § 325 ff .
For the Syntax and Peculiar uses of Adverbs, see § 320 ff.
Comparison of Adverbs
218. The Comparative of Adverbs is the neuter accusative of
the comparative of the corresponding adjective; the Superlative
is the Adverb in -e formed regularly from the superlative of the
Adjective : —
130 PARTICLES [§§ 218-220
care, dearly (from carus, dear) ; carius, carissime.
misere (rniseriter), wretchedly (from miser, loretched); miserius, miserrime.
leviter (from levis, liyht) ; levius, levissime.
aiidacter (audaciter) (from audax, bold) ; audacius, audacissime.
bene, well (from bonus, good) ; melius, optime.
male, ill (from malus, bad) ; peius, pessime.
a. The following are irregular or defective : —
diu, long (in time) ; diutius, diutissime.
potiua, rather ; potissimum, ^rsi of all, in preference to all.
saepe, often; saepius, oftener, again; saepissime.
satis, enough; saXius, preferable.
secus, otherwise; setius, worse.
multum (multo), magis, maxime, much, more, juost.
parum, not enough ; minus, less ; minime, least.
nuper, newly ; nuperrime.
tempere, seasonably; temperius.
Note. — In poetry the comparative mage is sometimes used instead of magis.
PREPOSITIONS
219. Prepositions were not originally distinguished from Adverbs in form or mean-
ing, but have become specialized in use. They developed comparatively late in the
history of language. In the early stages of language development the cases alone
were sufficient to indicate the sense, but, as the force of the case-endings weakened,
adverbs were used for greater precision (cf . § 338) . These adverbs, from their habitual
association with particular cases, became Prepositions; but many retained also their
independent function as adverbs.
Most prepositions are true case-forms : as, the comparative ablatives extra, infra, supra
(for textera, flnfera, fsupera), and the accusatives circum, coram, cum (cf . § 215) . Circiter
is an adverbial formation from circum (cf. §214. b. N.) ; praeter is the comparative of
prae, propter of prope.i Of the remainder, versus is a petrified nominative (participle
of verto) ; adversus is a compound of versus ; trans is probably an old present participle
(cf . in-tra-re) ; while the origin of the brief forms ab, ad, de, ex, ob, is obscure and
doubtful.
220. Prepositions are regularly used either with the Accusa-
tive or with the Ablative.
a. The following prepositions are used with the Accusative : —
ad, to. circiter, about. intra, inside.
adversus, against. cis, citra, this side. iuxta, near.
adversum, towards. contra, against. ob, on account of.
ante, before. erga, towards. penes, in the power of.
apud, at, near. extra, outside. per, through.
circa, around. infra, below. pone, behind.
circum, around. inter, among. post, after.
i The case-form of these prepositions ir -ter is doubtf ul=
§§ 220, 221] PREPOSITIONS 131
praeter, beyond. secundum, next to. ultra, on the further side.
prope, near. supra, above. versus^ towards.
propter, on account of. trans, across.
h. The following prepositions are used with the Ablative : — ^
a, ab, abs, away from., by. e, ex, out of.
absque, without., but for. prae, in comparison with.
c5ram, in presence of. pro, in front of for.
cum, with. ■ sine, without.
de, from. tenus, up to., as far as.
c. The following may be used with either the Accusative or the Ablar
tive, but with a difference in meaning : —
in, into^ in. ' sub, under.
subter, beneath. super, above.
In and sub, when followed by the accusative, indicate motion to, when by
the ablative, rest in, a place :
venit in aedis, he came into the house ; erat in aedibus, he was in the house.
disciplina in Britannia reperta atque inde in Galiiam translata esse existi-.
matur, the system is thought to have been discovered in Great Britain and
thence brought over to Gaul.
sub ilice consederat, he had seated himself under an ilex.
sub leges mittere orbem, to subject the world to laws (to send the world under
221. The uses of the Prepositions are as follows : —
1. A, ab, away froTYi^ from, off from, with the ablatiVe.
a. Of place : as, — ab urbe prof ectus est, he set out from the city.
b. Of time : (1) from : as, — ab hora tertia ad vesperam, from the third hour
till evening ; (2) just after : as, — ab eo magistratti, after [holding] that office.
c. Idiomatic uses : a reliquis differunt, they differ from the others ; a parvulls,
from early childhood ; prope ab m-be, near (not far from) the city ; liberare ab,
to set free from ; occisus ab hoste (periit ab hoste), slain by an enemy ; ab hac
parte, on this side; ab re eius, to his advantage; a re publica, /or the interest of
the state.
2. Ad, to, towards, at, near, with the accusative (cf. in, into).
a. Of place : as, — ad nrbem venit, he came to the city ; ad meridiem, towards
the south; ad exercitum, to the army ; ad hostem, toward the enemy ; ad urbem,
near the city.
b. Of time : as, — ad nonam horam, till the ninth hoiir.
c. With persons : as, — ad eum venit, he came to him.
1 For palam etc., see § 432.
2 Ab signifies direction /rom the ol^ject* but often towards the speaker; compare dS,
down from, and ex, out of.
132 PARTICLES [§221
d. Idiomatic uses : ad supplicia descendant, tJiey resort to punishment ; ad
haec respondit, to this he answered; ad leinpas, at the [fit] time; adire ad rem
publicam, to go into public life; ad petendam pacem, to seek peace; ad latera,
on the flank ; ad arma, to arms; ad hunc modum, in, this way ; quern ad modum,
how, as; ad centum, nearly a hundred; ad hoc, besides; omnes ad tinum, all to
a man; ad diem, on the day.
3. Ante, in front of, before, with the accusative (cf. post, after).
a. Of place : as, — ante-poYta,m, in front of the gate; ante exerci turn, in adufwice
of the army.
b. Of time : as, — ante bellum, before the war.
c. Idiomatic uses : ante urbem captam, before the city was taken ; ante diera
quintum (a.d.v.) Kal., the fifth day before the Calends; ante quadriennium, /owr
years before or ago ; ante tempus, too soon (before the time). ,
4. Apud, at, by, among, with the accusative.
a. Of -place (rare and archaic) : as, — apud forum, at the forum (in the market-
place).
h. With reference to persons or communities : as, — apud Helvetios, among
the Helvetians; apud populum, before the people; apud aliquem, at one's house;
apud se, at home or in his senses; apud Ciceronem, in [the works of] Cicero.
5. Circa, abo2it, around, with the accusative (cf. circum, circiter).
a. Of place : templa circa forum, the temples about the forum ; circa se habet,
he has with him (of persons).
6. Of time or number (in poetry and later writers) : circa eandem hOram,
about the same hour; circa Idiis Octobris, about the fifteenth of October; circa
decern mllia, about ten thousand.
c. Figuratively (in later writers), about, in regard to (cf. de) : circa quern
ptigna est, loith regard to whom, etc. ; circa deos neglegentior, rather neglectful of
(i.e. in worshipping) tlie gods.
6. Circiter, about, with the accusative.
a. Of time or number : circiter idus Novembris, aboui the thirteenih of Novem-
ber ; circiter meridiem, about noon.
7. Circum, about, around, with the accusative.
a. Of place: circura haec loca, hereabout; circum Capuam, round Capua;
circum ilium, with him ; legatio circum Tnsulas missa, an embassy sent to the
islands round about; circum amicos, to his friends round about.
8. Contra, o2')jposite, against, with the accusative.
contra Italiam, over against Italy ; contra haec, in answer to this.
a. Often as adverb: as, — haec contra, this in reply; contra autem, but on
the other hand ; quod contra, whereas, on the other hand,
9. Cum, tvith, together ivith, with the ablative.
§221] PREPOSITIONS 133
a. Of place: as, — vade m5cum, go with me; cum omnibus impedlraentis,
with all [their] baggage.
h. Of time : as, — prima cum Itice, at early dawn (with first light).
c. Idiomatic uses: maguo cum dolore, with great sorrow; communicare ali-
quid cum aliquo, share something with some one; cum malo suo, to his own hurt;
confligere cum hoste, to fight with the enemy ; esse cum telo, to go armed; cum
silentio, in silence.
10. De, doivn from, from, with the ablative (cf. ab, away from ;
ex, out of).
a. Of place: as, — de caelo demissus, sent down from heaven; de navibus
desilire, to jump down from the ships.
b. Figuratively, concerning, about, of:^ as, — cognoscit de Clodi caede, he
learns of the murder of Clodlus ; consilia de bello, plans of war.
c. In a partitive sense (compare ex), out of, of: as, — unus de plebe, one of the-
people.
d. Idiomatic uses: multis de causis, for many reasons; qua de causa, for
which reason; de improvIs5, of a sudden; de industria, on purpose; de integro,
aneio ; d6 tertia vigilia, just at midnight (starting at the third watch) ; de mense
Decembri navigare, to sail as early as December.
11. Ex, e, from (the midst, opposed to in), out of, with the abla-
tive (cf. ab and de).
a. Of place : as, — ex omnibus partibus silvae evolaverunt, they flew out from
all parts of the forest; ex Hispania, [a man] /rom, Spain.
b. Of time : as, — ex eo die quintus, the fifth day from that (four days after) ;
ex hoc die, from this day forth.
c. Idiomatically or less exactly : ex consulatu, right after his consulship ;
ex gius sententia, according to his opinion; ex aequo, justly ; ex improvlso,
unexpectedly ; ex tua re, to your advantage; magna ex parte, in a great degree;
ex equo ptignare, to fight on horseback; ex usii, expedient; e regione, opposite;
quaerere ex aliquo, to ask of some one; ex senatus consulto, according to the
decree of the senate ; ex f uga, in [their] flight (proceeding immediately from it) ;
unus e filiis, one of the sons.
12. In, with the accusative or the ablative.
1. With the accusative, i7ito (opposed to ex).
a. Of place : as, — in Italiam contendit, he hastens into Italy.
b. Of time, till, until : as, — in Iticem, till daylight.
c. Idiomatically or less exactly : in meridiem, towards the south ; amor in
(erga, adversus) patrem, love for his father ; in aram confugit, he fled to the altar
(on the steps, or merely to) ; in digs, from day to day ; in longitudinem, length-
wise; in latitudinem patebat, extended in width; in haec verba iurare, to swear
to these words; hunc in modum, in this way ; 5ratio in Catilinam, a speech against
1 0/ originally meant /row (cf. off).
134 PARTICLES [§221
Catiline; in perpetuum, forever; in peius, /or the worse; in diem vlvere, to live
from hand to mouth (for the day).
2. With the ablative, in, on, among.
In very various connections : as, — in castris, in the camp (cf . ad castra, <o, at,
or near the camp) ; in mari, on the sea; in urbe esse, to be in town; in tempore,
in season; in scribendo, while writing ; est mihi in animo, I have it in mind, 1
intend; in ancoris, at anchor; in hoc homine, in the case of this man; in dubio
esse, to he in doubt.
13. Infra, helow, with the accusative.
a. Of place: as, — ad mare infra oppidum, by the sea helow the town; Infra
caelum, under the sky.
b. Figuratively or less exactly: as, — infra Homerum, later than Homer;
Infra tres pedes, less than three feet; infra elephantos, smaller than elephants;
Infra infimos omnis, the lowest of the low.
14. Inter, between, among, with the accusativa
inter me et Sclpionem, between myself and Scipio ; inter os et offam, between
thf. cup and the lip (the mouth and the morsel) ; inter hostium tela, amid
the weapons of the enemy ; inter omnis primus, first of all ; inter biben-
dnm, while drinking ; inter se loquuntur, they talk together.
15. Ob, towards, on account of, with the accusative.
a. Literally : (1) of motion (archaic) : as, — ob Romam, towards Borne
(Ennius) ; ob viam, to the road (preserved as adverb, in the way of). (2) Of place
in which, before, in a few phrases : as, — ob oculos, before the eyes.
b. Figuratively, in return for (mostly archaic, probably a word of account,
balancing one thing against another) : as, — ob mulierem, in pay for the woman ;
ob rem, for gain. Hence applied to reason, cause, and the like, on account of
(a similar mercantile idea), for : as, — ob earn causam,/or that reason; quam ob
rem (quamobrem), wherefore, why.
16. Per, through, over, with the accusative.
a. Of motion: as, — per urbem Ire, to go through the city ; per mtiros, over
the walls.
b. Of time : as, — per hiemem, throughout the winter.
c. Figuratively, of persons as means or instruments : as, — per homines ido-
neos, through the instrumentality of suitable persons ; licet per me, you (etc.) may
for all me. Hence, stat per me, it is through my instrumentality ; so, per se, in
and of itself.
d. Weakened, in many adverbial expressions; as, — per iocum. in jest; per
speciem, in show, ostentatiously.
17. Prae, in front of with the ablative.
a. Literally, of place (in a few connections) : as, — prae se portare, to carry
in one's arms; prae se ferre, to carry before one, (hence figuratively) exhibit, pro-
claim ostentatiously, make known.
§ 221] PREPOSITIONS 135
b. Figuratively, of hindrance, as by an obstacle in front (compare English
for) : as, — prae gaudio conticuit, he was silent for joy.
c. Of comparison : as, — prae magnitudine corporum suorum, in comparison
with their own great size.
18. Praeter, along by, by, with the accusative.
a. Literally : as, — praeter castra, hy the camp (along by, in front of) ; praeter
oculos, before the eyes.
b. Figuratively, beyond, besides, more than, in addition to, except : as, — praeter
spem, beyond hope; praeter alios, more than others; praeter paucos, with the
exception of a few.
19. Pro, in front of, with the ablative.
sedens pro aede Castoris, sitting in front of the temple of Castor ; pro populo,
in presence of the people. So pro rostris, on [the front of] the rostra ;
pro contione, before the assembly (in a speech).
a. In various idiomatic uses: pro lege, in defence of the law; pro vitula,
instead of a heifer ; pro centum milibus, as good as a hundred thousand ; pro
rata parte, in due proportion; pro hac vice, /or this once; pro consule, in place
of consul; pro viribus, considering his strength; pro virili parte, to the best of
one's ability; pro tua prMentia, in accordance with your wisdom.
20. Propter, near, by, with the accusative.
propter te sedet, he sits next you. Hence, on account of (cf. all along of) :
as, — propter metum, i^rowgr^ /ear.
21. Secundum/ y^^s^ behind, following, with the accusative.
a. Literally: as, — ite secundum me (Plant.), go behind me; secundum litus,
near the shore; secundum fltimen, along the stream (cf. secundo flumine, down
stream).
b. Figuratively, according to: as, — secundum naturam, according to nature.
22. Sub, under, up to, with the accusative or the ablative.
1. Of motion, with the accusative : as, — sub montem succedere, to come close
to the hill.
a. Idiomatically: sub noctem, towards night ; sub Iticem, near daylight ; sub
haec dicta, at (following) these words.
2. Of rest, with the ablative : as, — sub love, in the open air (under the heaven,
personified as Jove) ; sub monte, at the foot of the hill.
a. Idiomatically : sub e5dem tempore, about the same time (just after it).
23. Subter, under, below, with the accusative (sometimes, in poetry,
the ablative).
subter togam (Liv.), under his mantle; but, — subter litore (Catull.), below
the shore.
24. Super,2 with the accusative or the ablative.
^ Old participle of sequor. * Comparative of sub.
136 PAliTICLES [^ 221
1. With the accusative, above, over, on, beyond, upon.
a. Of place : super vallum praecipitari (lug. 58), to be hurled over the ram-
part ; super laterCs coria indilcuntur (B.C. ii. 10), hides are dravm over the bricks;
super terrae tumulum statu! (Le^% ii. 65), to be placed on the mound of earth;
supnr Numidiam (Tug. 19), beyond Numidia.
b. Idiomatically or less exactly: vulnus super vulnus, wound upon wound;
super vinum (Q. C. viii. 4), over his wine.
2. With the ablative, concerning, about (the only use with this case in
prose).
hac super re, concerning this thing; super tali re, abo7d such an affair; lit-
teras super tanta re exspectare, to wait for a letter in a matter of such
importance.
a. Poetically, in other senses : llgna super foc5 largS reprinPns (Hor. Od. i.
0, 5), piling logs generously on the fire ; nocte super media (Aen. ix. 61), after
midnight.
25. Supra, on top of, above, with the accusative.
supra terram, on the surface of the earth. So also figuratively : as, — supra
banc memorlam, before our remembrance; supra mOreiii, more than
usual; suprii quod, besides.
26. Tenus (postpositive), as far as, up to, regularly with the abla-
tive, sometimes with the genitive (cf. § 359. b).
1. With the ablative : Tauro tenus, as far as Taurus; capulO tenus, up to the
hilt.
2. With the genitive : Cumarum tenus (Fam. viii. 1.2), as far as Cumae.
Note 1 . — Tenus is frequently connected with the feminine of an adjective pronoun,
making an adverbial phvaso: as, hactenus, hitherto; quatenus, so far as; de hac re
hactenus, so much, for t/i.at (about tills matter .so far).
NoTK 2, — Tenus was originally a neuter noun, meaning line or extent. In its use
with the genitive (mostly poetical) it may bo regarded as an adverbial accusative
(§.'^i)7.a).
27. Trans, across, over, through, hy, with the accusative.
a. Of motion: as, — trans inarc currunt, they run across the sea; trans flu-
men ferro, to carry over a river ; trans aethera, through the sky ; trans caput iace,
throw over your head.
b. Of rest : as, — trans Rhenum incolunt, they live across the Rhine.
28. Ultra, heyoiid (on the further side), with the accusative.
cis Padum ultraque, on this side of the Fo and beyond; ultra sum numcrum,
more than that number ; ultra fidem, incredible; ultra modum, immod-
erate.
Note. — vSomo adverbs ap])(>ar as prcjwHitions: as, iutus, insuper (see § 219).
For Prepositions in Compounds, soo ^ 207.
222-224] CONJUNCTIONS 137
CONJUNCTIONS
222. Conjunctions, like prepositions (of. § 210), are closely related to adverbs, and
are either petrified cases of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, or obscured phrases: as,
quort, an old accusative; dum, probably an old accusative (cf. turn, cum) ; vero, an old
neuter ablative of verus; nihilominus, none the less; proinde, Y\t. forward from there.
Mo.st conjunctions are connected with pronominal adverbs, whJch cannot always be re-
ferred to their original case-forms.
223. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or sentences. They
are of two classes, Coordinate and Subordinate : —
a. Coordinate, connecting coordinate or similar constructions (see § 278.
2. a). These are: —
1. Copulative or disjunctive, implying a connection or separation of thought
as well as of words: as, et, and; aut, or; neque, nor.
2. Adversative, implying a connection of words, but a contrast in thought :
as, sod, hut.
3. Causal, introducing a cause or reason : as, nam, for.
4. Illative, denoting an inference : as, igitur, therefore.
h. Subordinate, connecting a subordinate or independent clause with
that on which it depends (see § 278. 2. h). These are : —
1. Conditional, denoting a condition or hypothesis: as, si, if; nisi, unless.
2. Comparative, implying comparison as well as condition : as, ac si, as if.
3. Concessive, denoting a concession or admission : as, quamquam, although
(lit. however much it may be true that, etc.).
4. Temporal: as, postquam, after.
5. Consecutive, expressing result: as, ut, so that.
6. Final, expressing purpose : as, ut, in order that; ne, that not.
7. Causal, expressing cause : as, quia, because.
224. Conjunctions are more numerous and more accurately
distinguished in Latin than in English. The following list
includes the common conjunctions ^ and conjunctive phrases : —
COOKDINATE
a. Copulative and Disjunctive
et, -que, atque (ac), and.
et . . . et ; et . . . -que (atque); -que . . . et ; -que . . . -que (poetical), both . . . and.
etiam, quoque, neque non (necnon), quin etiam, itidem (item), also.
cum . . . turn ; tum . . . tum, both . . . and; not only . . . but also.
1 Some of these have been included in the classification of adverbs. See also list
of Correlatives, § 152
138 PARTICLES [§224
qua . . . qua, on the one hand . . . on the other hand.
modo . . . modo, now . . . now.
aut . . . aut ; vel . . . vel (-ve), either . . . or.
sive (seu) . . . sive, whether . . . or.
nee (neque) ... nee (neque); neque . , . nee ; nee . . . neque (rare), neither . . . nor.
et . . . neque, both . . . and not.
nee . . . et ; nee (neque) . . . -que, neither {both not) . . . and.
h. Adversative
sed, autem, verum, vero, at, atqui, hut.
tamen, attcimen, sed tamen, verum tamen, but yet, nevertheless.
nihilominus, none the less.
at vero, but in truth; enimvei-5, for in truth.
ceterum, on the other hand, but.
c. Causal
nam, namque, enim, etenim, for.
quapropter, quare, quamobrem, quocirea, unde, wherefore, whence.
d. Illative
ergo, igitur, itaque, ideo, ideireo, inde, proinde, therefore, accordingly.
Subordinate
a. Conditional
8i, if; sin, but if; nisi (ni), unless, if not; quod si, but if.
modo, dum, dummodo, si modo, if only, provided.
dummodo ne (dum ne, modo ne), ^provided only not.
h. Comparative
ut, uti, sicut, just as; velut, as, so as; prout, praeut, ceu, like as, according as.
tamquam (tanquam), quasi, ut si, ae si, velut, veluti, velut si, as if.
quam, atque (ac), as, than.
c. Concessive
etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, even if; quamquam (quanquam), although.
quamvis, quantumvis, quaralibet, quantumlibet, however much.
lieet (properly a verb), ut, eum (quom), though, suppose, luhereas.
d. Temporal
cum (quom), quando, when; ubi, ut, ivhen, as; cum primum, ut primum, ubi primum,
simul, simul ae, simul atque, as soon as; postquam (posteaquam), after.
prius .,. . quam, ante . . . quam, before; non ante . . . quam, not . . . until.
dum, usque dum, donee, quoad, until, as long as, while.
§§ 224-226] INTERJECTIONS 139
e. Consecutive and Final
ut (uti) , quo, so that J in order that.
ne, ut ne, lest {that . . . not, in order that not) ;-neve (neu), that not, nor.
quin (after negatives), quominus, but that (so as to prevent), that not.
f. Causal
quia, quod, quoniam (tquom-iam), quando, because.
cum (quom), since.
quandoquidem, si quidem, quippe, ut pote, since indeed, inasmuch as.
propterea . . . quod, for this reason . . . that.
On the use of Conjunctions, see §§ 323, 324.
INTERJECTIONS
225. Some Interjections are mere natural exclamations of feeling; others are
derived from inflected parts of speech, e.g. the imperatives em, lo (probably for erne,
take); age, come, etc. Names of deities occur in hercle, pol (from Pollux), etc. Many-
Latin interjections are borrowed from the Greek, as euge, euhoe, etc.
226. The following list comprises most of the Interjections in
common use : —
6, en, ecce, ehem, papae, vah (of astonishment).
16, evae, evoe, euhoe (of joy).
heu, eheu, vae, alas (of sorrow).
heus, eho, ehodum, ho (of calling) ; st, hist.
eia, euge (oi praise).
pro (of attestation) : as, pro pudor, shame I
140 FORMATION OF AVORDS [§§227-230
FORMATION OF WORDS
227. All formation of words is originally a process of composition. An element
significant in itself is added to another significant element, and thus the meaning of
the two is combined. No other combination is possible for the formation either of
inflections or of stems. Thus, in fact, ivords (since roots and stems are significant
elements, and so words) are first placed side by side, then brought under one accent,
and finally felt as one word. The gradual process is seen in sea voyage, sea-nymph,
seaside. But as all derivation, properly so called, appears as a combination of unin-
flected stems, every type of formation in use must antedate inflection. Hence words
were not in strictness derived either from nouns or from verbs, but from ste7ns which
were neither, because they were in fact both ; for the distinction between noun-stems
and verb-stems had not yet been made.
After the development of Inflection, however, th^t one of several kindred words
which seemed the simplest was regarded as the primitive form, and from this the other
words of the group were thought to be derived. Such supposed processes of formation
were then imitated, often erroneously, and in this way 7iew modes of derivation arose.
Thus new adjectives were formed from nouns, new nouns from adjectives, new adjec-
tives from verbs, and new verbs from adjectives and nouns.
In course of time the real or apparent relations of many words became confused,
so that nouns and adjectives once supposed to come from nouns were often assigned
to verbs, and others once supposed to come from verbs were assigned to nouns.
Further, since the language was constantly changing, many words went out of use,
and do not occur in the literature as we have it. Thus many Derivatives survive of
which the Primitive is lost.
Finally, since all conscious word-formation is imitative, intermediate steps in deriva-
tion were sometimes omitted, and occasionally apparent Derivatives occur for which
no proper Primitive ever existed.
ROOTS AND STEMS
228. Roots ^ are of two kinds : —
1. Verbal, expressing ideas of action or condition (sensible phenomena).
2. Pronominal, expressing ideas of position and direction.
From verbal roots come all parts of sj^eech except pronouns and certain
particles derived from pronominal roots.
229. Stems are either identical with roots or derived from them.
They are of two classes: (1) Noun-stems (including Adjective-
stems) and (2) Verb-stems.
Note. — Noun-stems and v^rb-stems were not originally different (see p. 163), and
in the consciousness of the Romans were often confounded; but in general they were
treated as distinct.
230. Words are formed by inflection : (1) from roots inflected
as stems; (2) from derived stems (see § 232).
1 For the distinction between Hoots and Stems, see §§ 24, 25.
§§231-233] PRIMARY SUFFIXES 141
231. A root used as a stem may appear —
a» With a short vowel : as, due-is (dux), dug ; nec-is (nex); i-s, i-d. So
in verbs : as, es-t, fer-t (cf. § 171. 2).
&. With a long vowel ^ : as, liic-is (lux), lug ; pac-is (pax). So in verbs ;
duc-o, i-s for f eis, from eo, ire ; fatur from fari.
c. With reduplication : as, fur-fur, mar-mor, mur-mur. So in verbs : as,
gi-gno (root gen), si-sto (root sta).
DERIVED STEMS AND SUFFIXES
232. Derived Stems are formed from roots or from other stems
by means of suffixes. These are : —
1. Primary : added to the root, or (in later times by analogy) to verb-
stems.
2. Secondary : added to a noun-stem or an adjective-stem.
Both primary and secondary suf&xes are for the most part pronominal
roots (§ 228. 2), but a few are of doubtful origin.
Note 1. — The distinction between primary and secondary suffixes, not being orig-
inal (see § 227) , is continually lost sight of in the development of a language. Suffixes
once primary are used as secondary, and those once secondary are used as primary.
Thus in hosticus (hosti + cus) the suffix -cus, originally ko- (see § 234. II. 12) primary, as
in paucus, has become secondary, and is thus regularly used to form derivatives; but
in pudlcus, apricus, it is treated as primary again, because these words were really or
apparently connected with verbs. So in English -able was borrowed as a primary
suffix {tolerable, eatable), but also makes forms like clubbable, salable; -some is prop-
erly a secondary suffix, as in toilsome, lonesome, but makes also such words as meddle-
some, venturesome.
Note 2. — It is the stem of the word, not the nominative, that is formed by the
derivative suf&x. For convenieuce, however, the nominative will usually be given.
Primary Suffixes
233. The words in Latin formed immediately from the root by
means of Primary Sufl&xes, are few. For —
1. Inherited words so formed were mostly further developed by the
addition of other suffixes, as we might make an adjective lone-iy-some-ish,
meaning nothing more than lone, lonely, or lonesome.
2. By such accumulation of suffixes, new compound suffixes were formed
which crowded out even the old types of derivation. Thus, —
1 The difference in vowel- quantity in the same root (as Due) depends on inherited
variations (see § 17. a).
142 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 233, 234
A word like mens, mentis, by the suifix on- (nom. -o), gave mentio, and this,
being divided into men + tio, gave rise to a new type of abstract nouns in -ti5:
as, lega-tio, embassy.
A word like auditor, by the suffix io- (nom. -ius), gave rise to adjectives like
auditor-ius, of which the neuter (auditorium) is used to denote the place where
the action of the verb is performed. Hence torio- (nom. -torium), n., becomes a
regular noun-suffix (§ 250. a).
So in English such a word as suffocation gives a suffix -ation, and with this is
made starvation^ though there is no such word as starvate.
234. Examples of primary stem-suffixes are : —
I. Vowel suffixes : —
1. 0- (m., n.), a- (f.), found in nouns and adjectives of the first two declen-
sions : as, sonus, ludus, vagus, toga (root teg).
2. i-, as in ovis, avis ; in Latin frequently changed, as in rupes, or lost, as in
scobs (scobis, root scab).
3. U-, disguised in most adjectives by an additional i, as in sua-vis (for tsuad-
vis, instead of tsua-dus, cf. ijdtjs), ten-uis (root tex in tendo), and remaining alone
only in nouns of the fourth declension, as acus (root ak, sharp, in acer, acies,
w/cus), pecu, genu.
n. Suffixes with a consonant : —
1. to- (m., n.), ta- (f.), in the regular perfect passive participle, as tectus,
tectum ; sometimes with an active sense, as in potus, pransus ; and found in a
few words not recognized as participles, as putus (cf. piirus), altus (alo).
2. ti- in abstracts and rarely in nouns of agency, as messis, vestis, pars,
mens. But in many the i is lost.
3. tu- in abstracts (including supines), sometimes becoming concretes, as
actus, luctus.
4. no- (m., n.), na- (f.), forming perfect participles in other languages, and in
Latin making adjectives of like participial meaning, which often become nouns,
as magnus, plenus, regnum.
5. ni-, in nouns of agency and adjectives, as ignis, segnis.
6. nu-, rare, as in manus, pinus, comu.
7. mo- (ma-), with various meanings, as in animus, almus, firmus, forma.
8. vo- (va-) (commonly uo-, ua-), with an active or passive meaning, as in
equus (equos), arvum, conspicuus, exiguus, vacivus (vacuus).
9. ro- (ra-), as in ager (stem ag-ro-), integer (cf. intactus), sacer, pleri-que (cf.
plenus, pletus).
10. lo- (la-), as in caelum (for tcaed-lum), chisel, exemplum, sella (for tsedla).
II. yo- (ya-), forming gerundives in other languages, and in Latin making
adjectives and abstracts, hicluding many of the first and fifth declensions, as
eximius, audacia, Florentia, pemicies.
12. ko- (ka-), sometimes primary, as in pauci (cf. TraOpos), locus (for stlocus).
In many cases the vowel of this termination is lost, leaving a consonant stem:
as, apex, cortex, loquax.
§§234-236] DERIVATION OF NOUNS 143
13. en- (on-, en-, on-), in nouns of agency and abstracts : as, aspergo, compago
(-inis), gero (-onis).
14. men-, expressing means, often passing into the action itself : as, agmen,
flumen, fulmen.
15. ter- (tor-, ter-, tor-, tr-), forming nouns of agency : as, pater (i.e. protector),
f rater (i.e. supporter), orator.
16. tro-, forming nouns of means: as, claustrum (claud), mulctrum (mulg).
17. es- (os-), forming names of actions, passing into concretes : as, genus
(generis), tempus (see § 15. 4). The infinitive in -ere (as in reg-ere) is a locative of
this stem (-er-e for t-es-i).
18. nt- (ont-, ent-), forming present active participles: as, legens, with some
adjectives from roots unknown : as, frequens, recens.
The above, with some suffixes given below, belong to the Indo-European
parent speech, and most of them were not felt as living formations in the
Latin.
Significant Endings
235. Both primary and secondary suffixes, especially in tlie
form of compound suffixes, were used in Latin with more or less
consciousness of their meaning. They may therefore be called
Significant Endings.
They form: (1) Nouns of Agency; (2) Abstract Nouns (in-
cluding Names of Actions) ; (3) Adjectives (active or passive).
Note. — There is really no difference in etymology between an adjective and a
noun, except that some formations are habitually used as adjectives and others as
nouns (§ 20. b. n. 2).
DERIVATION OF NOUNS
Nouns of Agency
236. Nouns of Agency properly denote the agent or doer of an
action. But they include many words in which the idea of agency
has entirely faded out, and also many words used as adjectives.
a, Nouns denoting the agent or doer of an, action are formed from roots
or verb-stems by means of the suffixes —
-tor (sor), M. ; -trix, f.
can-tor, can-trix, singer ; can-ere (root can), to sing.
vic-tor, vic-trix, conqueror (victorious) ; vinc-ere (vie), to conquer.
ton-sor (for ttond-tor), tons-trix (for
ttond-trix), hair-cutter ; tond-ere (tond as root), to shear.
peti-tor, candidate; pet-Sre (pet; peti- as stem), to seek.
144 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 236-238
By analogy -tor is sometimes added to noun-stems, but these may be stems
of lost verbs : as, via-tor, traveller, from via, wmj (but cf . the verb invio).
Note 1. — The termination -tor (-sor) has the same phonetic change as the supine
ending -turn (-sum), and is added to the sam-e form of root or verb-stem as that ending.
The stem-ending is tor- (§234. II. 15), which is shortened in the nominative.
Note 2. — The feminine form is always -trix. Masculines in -sor lack the feminine,
except expulsor (expultrix) and tonsor (tonstrix) .
6. t-, M. or F., added to verb-stems makes nouns in -es (-itis, -etis ; stem
it-, et-) descriptive of a character : —
prae-stes, -stitis, (verb-stem from root sta, stare, stand) ^ guardian.
teges, -etis (verb-stem tege-, cf. tego, cover), a coverer, a mat.
pedes, -itis (pes, ped-is, foot, and i, root of ire, go), foot-soldier.
c. -0 (genitive -onis, stem on-), m., added to verb-stems^ indicates a person
employed in some specific art or trade : —
com-bibo (bib as root in bib5, bibere, drink), a pot-companion.
gero, -onis (ges in gero, gerere, carry), a carrier.
Note. — This termination is also used to form many nouns descriptive of personal
characteristics (cf. §256).
Names of Actions and Abstract Nouns
237. Names of Actions are confused, through their termina-
tions, with real abstract nouns (names of qualities)^ and with con-
crete nouns denoting means and instrument.
They are also used to express the concrete result of an action
(as often in English).
Thus legi5 is literally the act of collecting, but comes to mean legion (the body
of soldiers collected) ; cf. levy iu English.
238. Abstract Nouns and Names of Actions are formed from
roots and verb-stems by means of the endings —
a. Added to roots or forms conceived as roots —
NoM. -or, M. -es, f. -us, n.
Gen. -oris -is -eris or -oris
Stem or- (earlier 6s-) i- er- (earlier ^/qS-}
tim-or, /ear ; timere, to fear.
am-or, love; amare, to love.
sed-es, seat; sedere, to sit.
caed-es, slaughter ; caedere, to kill.
genus, birth, race ; gen, to be born (root of gigno, bear).
1 So conceived, but perhaps this termination was originally added to noun-stems.
§§ 238, 239] NAMES OF ACTIONS AND ABSTRACT NOUNS 145
Note. — Many nouns of this class are formed by analogy from imaginary roots:
as facinus from a supposed root facin.
b. Apparently added to roots or verb-stems —
NoM. -io, F. -tio (-sio), f. -tura (-sura), f. -tus, m.
Gen. -ionis -tionis (-sionis) -tiirae (-surae) -tus (-sus)
Stem ion- tion- (sion-) tiira- (sura-) tu- (su-)
leg-io, a collecting {levy), a legion; legere, to collect.
reg-io, a direction, a region; regere, to direct.
voca-tio, a calling ; vocare, to call.
moli-tio, a toiling ; moliri, to toil.
scrip-tura, a writing ; scribere, to write.
sen-sus (for isent-tus), feeling ; sentire, to feel.
Note 1. — tio, -tura, -tus are added to roots or verb-stems precisely as -tor, with the
same phonetic change (cf . § 236. a. n. i). Hence they are conveniently associated with
the supine stem (see § 178) . They sometimes form nouns when there is no correspond-
ing verb in use : as, senatus, senate (cf. senex) ; mentio, mention (cf . mens) ; fetura, off-
spring {ct.ietus); litteratura, literature (cf. litterae); consulatus, consulship (cf. consul).
Note 2. — Of these endings, -tus was originally primary (cf . § 234. II. 3.) ; -16 is a com-
pound formed by adding on- to a stem ending in a vowel (originally i) : as, dicio (cf.
-dicus and dicis) ; -tio is a compound formed by adding on- to stems in ti- : as, gradatio
(cf. gradatim) ; -tiira is formed by adding -ra, feminine of -rus, to stems in tu-: as,
natiira from natus ; statura from status (cf . figiira, of like meaning, from a simple u-
stem, ffigu-s; and maturus, Matiita).
239. Nouns denoting acts^ or means and results of acts, are
formed from roots or verb-stems by the use of the suffixes —
-men, n.; -mentum, n.; -monium, n. ; -monia, f.
ag-men, line of march, band ; ag, root of agere, to lead.
regi-men, rule; \ . / \ ^ s: ^ j- j.
1 1 \ regi- (rage-), stem of regere, to direct.
regi-mentum, rule; J & \ & /' & ?
certa-men, contest, tattle ; certa-, stem of certare, to contend.
So colu-men, piZZar ; m5-men, movement; no-men, name; flu-men, stream.
testi-monium, testimony ; testari, to witness.
queri-monia, complaint; queri, to complain.
-monium and-mSnia are also used as secondary, forming nouns from other
nouns and from adjectives : as, sancti-monia, sanctity (sanctus, holy) ; matri-
monium, marriage (mater, mother).
Note. — Of these endings, -men is primary (cf . § 234. II. 14) ; -mentum is a compound
of men- and to-, and appears for the most part later in the language than -men : as,
momen, movement (Lucr.) ; momentum (later). So elementum is a development from
L-M-N-a, l-m-n's (letters of the alphabet) , changed to elementa along with other nouns
in -men. -monium and -monia were originally compound secondary suffixes formed
from mon- (a by-form of men-), which was early associated with mo-. Thus almus
146 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 239, 241
(stem almo-) , fostering ; Almon, a river near Rome; alimonia, support. But the last
was formed directly from alo when -monia had become established as a supposed
primary suffix.
240. Nouns denoting means or instrument are formed from roots
and verb-stems (rarely from noun-stems) by means of the neuter
suffixes —
-bulum, -culum, -brum, -crum, -trum
pa-bulum, /odder ; pascere, to feed.
sta-bulum, stall; stare, to stand.
vehi-culum, wagon ; vehere, to carry.
candela-brum, candlestick ; candela, candle (a secondary formation).
sepul-crum, tomb ; sepelire, to burg.
claus-trum (tclaud-trum), bar ; claudere, to shut.
axa.-tium, plough ; axaxe, to plough.
Note. trum (stem tro-) was an old formation from tor- (§234. II. 15), with the
stem suffix o-, and -clum (stem clo- for tlo-) appears to be related ; -culum is the same
as -clum; -bulum contains lo- (§ 234. II. 9, 10) and -brum is closely related.
a. A few masculines and feminines of the same formation occur as nouns
and adjectives : —
f a-bula, tale ; f ari, to speak.
ridi-culus, laughable; ridere, to laugh.
fa-ber, smith; facere, to make.
late-bra, hiding-place; latere, to hide.
tere-bra, auger ; terere, to bore.
mulc-tra, milk-pail ; mulgere, to milk.
241. Abstract Nouns, mosth/ from adjective-stems, rarely from
noun-stems, are formed by means of the secondary feminine suf-
fixes —
-ia (-ies), -tia (-ties), -tas, -tus, -tudo
audac-ia, boldness; audax, bold.
pauper-ies, poverty ; pauper, poor.
tristi-tia, sadness; tristis, sad.
segni-ties, laziness; segnis, lazy.
boni-tas, goodness; bonus, good.
senec-tus, age; senex, old.
magni-tud5, greatness; magnus, great.
1. In stems ending in o- or a- the stem-vowel is lost before -ia (as superb-iaj
and appears as i before -tas, -tus, -tia (as in boni-tas, above).
2. Consonant stems often insert 1 before -tas : as, loquax (stem loquac-),
loquaci-tas ; but hones-tas, maies-tas (as if from old adjectives in -es), uber-tas,
volup-tas. after i is changed to e : as, pius (stem pio-), pie-tas ; socius, socie- tas.
§241] NEUTER ABSTRACTS l¥l
a. In like manner -do and -go (f.) form abstract nouns, but are asso>
ciated with verbs and apparently added to verb-stems : —
cupi-do, desire, from cupere, to desire (as if from stem cupl-).
dulce-do, sweetness (cf. dulcis, sweet), as if from a stem dulce-, cf. dulce-sco.
iumba-g5, lumbago (cf. lumbus, loin), as if from flumbo, -are.
Note. — Of these, -ia is inherited as secondary (cf. § 234. II. 11). -tia is formed by
adding -ia to stems with a t-suffix : as, militia, from miles (stem milit-) ; molestia
from molestus ; dementia from Clemens ; whence by analogy, mali-tia, avari-tia. -tas
is inheritM, but its component parts, ta- + ti-, are found as suffixes in the same sense ;
as, senecta from senex; semen-tis from semen, -tiis is tu- + ti-, cf. servitu-do. -do and
-go appear only with long vowels, as from verb-stems, by a false analogy ; but -do is
do- + on- : as, cupidus, cupido ; gravidus, gravedo (cf . grave-sco) ; albidus, albedo (cf . al-
besco) ; formidus, hot, formido (cf. f ormidulosus) , {hot flash?) fear; -go is possibly co- +
5n-; cf. vorax, vorago, but cf. Cethegus. -tfldo is compounded of -do with tu-stems,
which acquire a long vowel from association with verb-stems in u- (cf. volumen, from
volvo) : as, consuetu-do, valetii-do, habitu-do, sollicitu-do ; whence servitud5 (cf . servitiis,
-tutis).
b. Neuter Abstracts, which easily pass into concretes denoting ojices
and groups, are formed from noun-stems and perhaps from verb-stems by
means of the suffixes —
-ium, -tium
hospit-ium, hospitality, an inn;"^ hospes (gen. hospit-is), a guest.
colleg-ium, colleagueship, a college ; coUega, a colleague.
auspic-ium, soothsaying, an omen; auspex (gen. auspic-is), a soothsayer.
gaud-ium, joy ; gaudere, to rejoice.
effug-ium, escape; effugere, to escape.
benefic-ium, a kindness ; benefacere, to benefit ; cf . beneficus.
desider-ium, longing ; desiderare, to miss, from tde-sides, oui
of place, of missing soldiers,
adverb-ium, adverb ; ad verbum, [added] to a verb.
interlun-ium, time of new moon ; inter lunas, between moons.
regifug-ium, jlight of the kings ; regis fuga, flight of a king.
servi-tium, slavery, the slave class; servus, a slave.
Vowel stems lose their vowel before -ium : as, colleg-ium, from coUega.
Note. ium is the neuter of the adjective suffix -ius. It is an inherited primary
suffix, but is used with great freedom as secondary, -tium is formed like -tia, by add-
ing -ium to stems with t : as, exit-ium, equit-ium (cf . exitus, equites) ; so, by analogy,
calvitium, servitium (from calvus, servus) .
c. Less commonly, abstract nouns (which usually become concrete) are
formed from noun-stems (confused with verb-stems) by means of the
suffixes —
^ The abstract meaning is put first
148 EORMATION OF WORDS [§§241-243
-nia, F. ; -nium, -lium, -cinium, n.
pecu-nia, money {chattels) ; pecu, cattle.
contici-nium, the hush of night; conticescere, to become still.
auxi-lium, help ; augere, to increase.
latro-cinium, robbery ; latro, robber (cf. latrocinot, rob, im-
plying an adjective flatrocinus).
For Diminutives and Patronymics, see §§ 243, 244.
DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES
242. Derivative Adjectives, which often become nouns, are
either Nominal (from nouns or adjectives) or Verbal (as from roots
or verb-stems).
Nominal Adjectives
243. Diminutive Adjectives are usually confined to one gen-
der, that of the primitive, and are used as Dimi7iutive Nouns.
They are formed by means of the suffixes —
-ulus (-a, -um), -olus (after a vowel), -cuius, -ellus, -illus
riv-ulus, a streamlet; rivus, a brook.
gladi-olus, a small sword ; gladius, a sword.
fili-olus, a little son; filius, a son.
fili-ola, a little daughter ; filia, a daughter.
atri-olum, a little hall; atrium, a hall.
homun-culus, a dwarf; homo, a man.
auri-cula, a little ear ; auris, an ear.
munus-culum, a little gift ; munus, n. , a gift.
codic-illi, writing -tablets ; codex, a block.
mis-ellus, rather wretched ; miser, wretched.
lib-ellus, a little book ; liber, a book.
aure-olus (-a, -um), golden; aureus (-a, -um), golden.
parv-olus (later parv-ulus), very small; parvus (-a, -um), little.
maius-culus, soynewhat larger; maior (old maids), greater.
Note 1. — These diminutive endings are all formed by adding -lus to various stems.
The formation is the same as that of -ulus in § 251. But these words became set-
tled as diminutives, and retained their connection with nouns. So in English the
diminutives whitish, reddish, are of the same formation as bookish and snappish.
-cuius comes from -lus added to adjectives in -cus formed from stems in n- and s-: as,
iuven-cus, Aurun-cus (cf. Auruncul^ius) , pris-cus, whence the cu becomes a part of the
termination, and the whole ending (-cuius) is used elsewhere, but mostly with n- and s-
stems, in accordance with its origin.
Note 2. — Diminutives are often used to express affection, pity, or contempt: as,
deliciolae, little pet ; muliercula, a poor (weak) woman j Graeculus, a iniserable Greek.
§§ 213-246] NOMINAL ADJECTIVES 149
«. -cio, added to stems in n-, has the same diminutive force, but is used
with masculines only : as, homun-cio, a dwarf (from homo, a man).
244. Patronymics, indicating descent or relationship, are formed
bj adding to proper names the suffixes —
-ades, -ides, -ides, -eus, m. ; -as, -is, -eis, f.
These words, originally Greek adjectives, have almost all become nouns
in Latin : —
Atlas: Atlanti-ades, Mercury; Atlant-ides (Gr. plur.), the Pleiads.
Scipio : Scipi-ades, son of Scipio.
Tyndareus : Tyndar-ides, Castor or Pollux, son of Tyndarus ; Tyndar-is,
Helen, daughter of Tyndarus.
Anchises : Anchisi-ades, ^neas, son of Anchises.
Theseus : Thes-ides, son of Theseus.
Tydeus : Tyd-ides, Biomedes, son of Tydeus.
Oileus : Aiax Oil-eus, son of Oileus.
Cisseus ; Cisse-is, Hecuba, daughter of Cisseus.
Thaumas : Thaumant-ias, Iris, daughter of Thaumas.
Hesperus : Hesper-ides (from Hesper-is, -idis), plur., the daughters of Hesperus^
the Hesperides.
245. Adjectives meaning/wZZ of, prone to, are formed from noun-
stems with the suffixes —
-osus, -lens, -lentus
fluctu-osus, billowy ; fluctus, a billow.
fonn-osus, beautiful; forma, beauty.
pericul-osus, dangerous; periculum, danger.
pesti-lens, pesti-lentus, pestilent ; pestis, pest.
vino-lentus, vin-osus, given to drink ; vinum, wine.
246. Adjectives meaning provided with are formed from nouns
by means of the regular participial endings —
-tus, -atus, -itus, -utus
funes-tus, deadly; funus (st. funer-, older fune/oS-), death.
hones-tus, honorable; honor, honor.
faus-tus (for t f aves-tus), /awraWe; f&vor, favor.
barb-atus, bearded ; barba, a beard.
turr-itus, turreted ; turris, a tower.
cora-ntus, horned ; cornn, a horn.
Note. — atus, -itus, -utus, imply reference to an imaginary verb-stem ; -tus is added
directly to nouns without any such reference.
150 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 247-249
247. Adjectives of various meanings, but signifying in gen-
eral made of or helo7iging to, are formed from noums by means of
the suffixes —
-eus, -ius, -aceus, -icius, -aneus (-neus), -ticus
aur-eus, golden; aurum, gold.
patr-ius, paternal ; pater, a father.
uxor-ius, uxorious ; uxor, a wife.
ros-aceus, of roses ; rosa, a rose.
later-icius, of brick ; later, a brick.
praesent-aneus, operating instantly ; praesens, present.
extr-aneus, external; extra, without.
subterr-aneus, subterranean ; sub terra, underground.
salig-neus, of willow; salix, willow.
vola-ticus, winged (volatus, a flight) ; volare, toflij.
domes-ticus, of the house, domestic; domus, a house.
silva-ticus, sylvan ; silva, a wood.
Note. ius is originally primitive (§ 234. II. 11) ; -eus corresponds to Greek -eios,
-eos, and has lost a y-sound (cf. yo-, § 234. II. 11) ; -icius and -aceus are formed by add-
ing -ius and -eus to stems in i-c-, a-c- (suffix ko-, §234. II. 12); -neus is no- + -eus
(§ 234. II. 4) ; -aneus is formed by adding -neus to a-stems ; -ticus is a formation with
-eus (cf. hosti-cus with silva-ticus), and has been affected by the analogy of participial
stems in to- (nominative -tus) .
248. Adjectives denoting pertaining to are formed from noun-
stems with the suffixes —
-alls, -aria, -elis, -His, -ulis
natur-alis, natural; natiira, nature.
^opul-a.ns,fellow-countryman; populus, a people.
patru-elis, cousin; patruus, uncle.
host-ilis, hostile ; hostis, an enemy.
cur-ulis, curule; currus, a chariot.
Note. —The suffixes arise from adding -lis (stem li-) to various vowel stems. The
long vowels are due partly to confusion between stem and suffix (cf. vita-lis, from
vita-, with reg-alis), partly to confusion with verb-stems: cf. Aprilis (aperire), ediilis
(edere), with senilis (senex). -ris is an inherited suffix, but in most of these formations
-aris arises by differentiation for -alis in words containing an 1 (as milit-aris) .
249. Adjectives with the sense of belonging to are formed by
means of the suffixes —
-anus, -enus, -mus; -as, -ensls ; -eus, -acus (-acus), -icus ; -€U8,
-eius, -icius
1. So from common nouns: —
mont-anus, of the mountains ; mons (stem monti-), mountain.
veter-anus, veteran; vetus (stem veter-), old,
anteluc-anus, before daylight; ante lucem, before light.
§§ 249, 250]
NOMINAL ADJECTIVES
151
terr-enus, earthly;
ser-enus, calm (of evening stillness) ;
coll-inus, of a hill ;
div-inus, divine;
libert-inus, of the class of freedmen ;
cui-as, of what country f
infim-as, of the lowest rank ;
for-ensis, of a market-place, or the Forum ;
civi-cus, civic, of a citizen ;
fullon-icus, of a fuller ;
mer-acus, pure ;
femin-eus, of a woman, feminine ;
lact-eus, milky ;
pleb-eius, of the commons, plebeian;
patr-icius, patrician ;
terra, earth.
serus, late.
coUis, hill.
divus, god.
libertus, one'' s freedman.
quis, who f
infimus, lowest.
forum, a market-place.
civis, a citizen.
fullo, a fuller.
merum, pure wine.
femina, a woman.
lac, milk (stem lacti-).
plebes, the commons.
pater, father.
2. But especially from proper nouns to denote belonging to or coming from :
Rom-anus, Boman; Roma, Rome.
Sull-ani, Sulla'' s veterans ; Sulla.
Cyzic-eni, Cyzicenes, people of Cyzicus ; Cyzicus.
Ligur-inus, of Liguria ; Liguria.
Ar-pm-3iS, of Arpinum ; Arpinum.
Sicili-ensis, Sicilian; Sicilia, Sicily.
ili-acus, Trojan (a Greek form) ; Ilium, Troy.
Platon-icus, Platonic; Plato.
Aquil-eius, a Roman name ; ) a 'i
Aquil-eia, a town in Italy ; ) •1 •
a. Many derivative adjectives witli these endings have by usage become
nouns : —
Silv-anus, u., a god of the woods ; silva, a wood.
membr-ana, f., sk'm; membrum, limb.
Aemili-anus, m., name of Scipio Africanus ; Aemilia (gens).
lanius, butcher.
tAufidius (Aufidus).
incola, an inhabitant.
caecus, bl'md.
ruo, fall (no noun existing).
doctor, teacher.
lani-ena, r., a butcher'' s stall ;
Aufidi-enus, m., a Eoman name;
inquil-inus, m., a lodger ;
Caec-ina, used as m., a Roman name ;
ru-ina, f., a fall;
doctr-ina, f., learning ;
Note. — Of these terraiuations, -anus, -enus, -inus are compounded from -nus added
to a stem- vowel : as, area, arcanus ; collis, colllnus. The long vowels come from a con-
fusion with verb-stems (as in ple-nus, finl-tus, tribu-tus), and from the noun-stem in a-:
as, arcanus. A few nouns occur of similar formation, as if from verb-stems in 6- and
U-: as, colonus (col5, cf. incola), patronus (cf. patro, -are), tribunus (cf. tribuo, tribus),
Portunus (cf. portus), Vacuna (cf. vaco, vacuus).
250. Other adjectives meaning in a general way belonging to
(especially of places and times) are formed with the suffixes —
152 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 250, 251
-ter (-tris), -ester (-estris), -timus, -nus, -emus, -urnus, -ternus (-turnus)
palus-ter, of the marshes ; palus, a marsh.
pedes-ter, of the foot-soldiers ; pedes, a footman.
semes-tris, lasting six months ; sex menses, six moidhs.
silv-ester, silv-estris, woody; silva, a wood.
fini-timus, neighboring^ on the borders ; finis, an end.
mari-timus, of the sea ; mare, sea.
ver-nus, vernal; ver, spring.
hodi-eraus, of to-day ; hodie, to-day.
di-urnus, daily ; dies, day.
hes-temus, of yesterday ; heri (old hesi), yesterday.
diu-turnus, lasting ; diu, long (in time).
Note. — Of these, -ester is formed by adding tri- (cf. tro-, § 234. II. IG) to stems in
t- or d-. Thus fpedet-tri- becomes pedestri-, and others follow the analogy, -nus is an
inherited suffix (§ 234. II. 4). -emus and -urnus are formed by adding -nus to s-steras:
as, diur-nus (for fdius-nus), and hence, by analogy, hodiemus (hodie). By an extension
of the same principle were formed the suffixes -ternus and -turnus from words like
paternus and nocturnus.
a. Adjectives meaning lelonging to are formed from nouns by means of
the suffixes —
-arius, -torius (-sorius)
ordin-arius, regular; ordo, rank, order.
argent-arius, of silver ov money ; argentum, silver.
extr-arius, stranger ; extra, outside.
meri-torius, profitable; meritus, earned.
devor-sorius, of an inn (cf . § 254. 5) ; devorsus, turned aside.
Note 1. — Here -ius (§ 234. II. 11) is added to shorter forms in -aris and -or : as, pecii-
liarius (from peculiaris) , bellatorius (from bellator) .
Note 2. — These adjectives are often fixed as nouns (see § 254).
Verbal Adjectives
251. Adjectives expressing the action of the verb as a quality
or tendency are formed from real or apparent verb-stems with the
suffixes —
-ax, -idus, -ulus, -vus (-uus, -Ivus, -tivus)
-Sx denotes 2i faulty or aggressive tendency; -tivus is oftener passive.
pfign-ax, jpwgrwaciows ; pugnare, to fight.
aud-ax, bold ; audere, to dare.
cup-idus, eager ; cupere, to desire.
bib-ulus, thirsty (as dry earth etc.) ; bibere, to drink.
proter-vus, violent, wanton ; proterere, to trample.
§§ 251-253] VERBAL ADJECTIVES 153
noc-uus (noc-ivus), hurtful, injurious; nocere, to do harm.
recid-ivus, restored ; recidere, to fall back.
cap-tivus, captive; m., a prisoner of war ; capere, to take.
Note. — Of these, -ax is a reduction of -acus (stem- vowel a- + -cus), become inde-
pendent and used with verb-stems. Similar forms in -Sx, -ox, -ix, and -Qx are found
or employed in derivatives: as, imbrex, m,, a rain-tile (from imber); senex, old (from
seni-s) ; ieiox,jierce (from ferus) ; atrox, savage (from ater, black) ; celox, f., a yacht
(cf. cello); felix, happy, originally /er^i^e (of. felo, suck); fiducia, f., confidence (as
from ffidux) ; cf. also victrix (from victor). So manducus, cheioing (from mando).
-idus is no doubt denominative, as in herbidus, grassy (from herba, herb) ; tumidus,
swollen (cf. tumu-lus, hill; tumul-tus, uproar); callidus, tough, cunning (cf. callum,
tough flesh) ; mucidus, slimy (cf . mucus, slime) ; tabidus, toasting (cf. tabes, wasting
disease). But later it was used to form adjectives directly from verb-stems.
-ulus is the same suffix as in diminutives, but attached to verb-stems. Cf . aemulus,
rivalling (cf. imitor and imago) ; sedulus, sitting by, attentive (cf. domi-seda, home-
staying, and sedo, set, settle, hence calm) ; pendulus, hanging (cf. pondo, ablative, in
weight ; perpendiculum, a plummet ; appendix, an addition) ; stragulus, covering (cf .
strages) ; legulus, a picker (cf. sacri-legus, a picker up of things sacred).
-vus seems originally primary (cf. § 234. II. 8), but -ivus and -tivus have become
secondary and are used with nouns: as, aestivus, of summer (from aestus, heat);
tempestivus, timely (from tempus) ; cf. domes-ticus (from domus).
252. Adjectives expressing passive qualities^ but occasionally
active, are formed by means of the suffixes —
-ills, -bills, -ius, -tills (-sills)
frag-ilis, frail ; frangere (frag), to break.
no-bilis, well known., famous ; noscere (gno), to know.
exim-ius, choice, rare (cf. e-greg-ius) ; eximere, to take out, select.
ag-ilis, active; agere, to drive.
hab-ilis, handy ; habere, to hold.
al-tilis, fattened (see note) ; alere, to nourish.
Note. — Of these, -ius is primary, but is also used as secondary (cf . § 241. h. n.) . -ills
is both primary (as in agilis, fragilis) and secondary (as in similis, like, cf . 6^o$^ ofxaKos^
English same) ; -bills is in some way related to -bulum and -brum (§ 240. n.) ; in -tills
and -silis, -lis is added to to- (so-) , stem of the perfect participle : as, fossilis, dug up
(from fossus, dug); volatilis, vnnged (from volatus, ^i^r/i^.
253. Verbal Adjectives that are Participial in meaning are
formed with the suffixes —
-ndus, -bundus, -cundus
a, -ndus (the same as the gerundive ending) forms a few active or reflex-
ive adjectives : —
secu-ndus, second (the following), favorable; sequl, to follow.
rotu-ndus, round (whirling) i ; rotate, to whirl.
1 Cf. volvendTS mensibus (Aen. 1. 260), in the revolving months; cf. oriundi ab Sabinis
(Liv. i. 17), sprung from the Sabines, where oriundi = orti.
154 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 253, 254
6. -bundus, -cundus, denote a continuance of the act or quality expressed
by the verb : —
vita-bundus, avoiding ; vitare, to shun.
treme-bundus, tremhling ; tremere, to tremble.
mori-bundus, dying, at the point of death ; moriri, to die.
fa-cundus, eloquent ; fari, to speak,
fe-cunius, fruitful ; root fe, nourish.
ira-cundus, irascible ; cf . irasci, to be angry.
Note. — These must have been originally nominal: as in the series, rubus, red
bush; rubidus (but no fnibicus), ruddy; Rubic5n, Red River (cf. Minio, a river of
Etruria; Minius, a river of Lusitania); rubicundus (as in averruncus, homun-culus) .
So turba, commotion; turbo, a top; turbidus, roily, etc. Cf. apexabo, longabo, gravedo,
dulcedo.
c. Here belong also the participial suffixes -minus, -mnus (cf. Greek
-/xevos), from which are formed a few nouns in which the participial force is
still discernible : — ^
fe-mina, woman (the nourisher) ; root fe, nourish.
alu-mnus, a foster-child, nursling ; alere, to nourish.
Nouns with Adjective Suffixes
254. Many fixed forms of the Nominal Adjective suffixes men-
tioned in the preceding sections, make Nouns more or less regu-
larly used in particula^r senses : —
1. -arius, person employed about anything : —
argent-arius, m., silversmith, broker, from argentum, silver.
Corinthi-arius, m. , worker in Corinthian bronze (sarcastic nickname of Augustus),
from (aes) Corinthium, Corinthian bronze.
centon-arius, m., ragman, from cento, patchwork.
2. -aria, thing connected with something : —
argent-aria, f., bank, from argentum, silver.
aren-ariae, f. plural, sandpits, from arena, sand.
Asin-aria, f., name of a play, from asinus, ass.^
3. -arium, place of a thing (with a few of more general meaning) : —
aer-arium, n. , treasury, from aes, copper.
tepid-arium, n., warm bath, from tepidus, warm.
sud-arium, n. , a towel, cf . sudo, -are, sweat.
sal-arium, n., salt money, salary, from sal, salt.
calend-arium, n., a note-book^ from calendae, calends.
' Cf , § 163. footnote 1 .
2 Probably an adjective with fabula, play, understood.
§254] NOUNS WITH ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES 155
4. -toria (-soria) : —
Agita-toria, f. , a play of Plautus, The Carter, from agitator,
vor-soria, f., a tack (nautical), from versus, a turn.
5. -torium (-sorium), place of action (with a few of more general meaning) :
devor-sorium, n. , an inn, as from devorto, turn aside.
audi-torium, n., a lecture-room, as from audio, hear.
ten-torium, n., a tent, as from tendo, stretch.
tec-torium, n., plaster, as from tego, tectus, cover.
por-torium, n., toll, cf. porto, carry, and portus, harbor.
6. -fle, animal-stall : —
bov-ile, N., cattle-stall, from bos, bovis, ox, cow.
ov-ile, N., sheepfold, from ovis, stem ovi-, sheep.
7. -al for -ale, thing connected with the primitive : —
capit-al, N., headdress, capital crime, from caput, head.
penetr-ale (especially in plural), n., inner apartment, cf. penetro, enter.
Saturn-alia, n. plural (the regular form for names of festivals), feast of Sat-
• urn, from Saturnus.
8. -etum, N. (cf. -atus, -iitus, see § 246. n.), -turn, jo/aceo/a thing, especially
with names of trees and plants to designate where these groio : —
querc-etum, n. , oak grove, from quercus, oak.
oliv-etum, n., olive grove, from oliva, an olive tree.
salic-tum, n., a willow thicket, from salix, a willow tree.
Argil-etum, n. , The Clay Pit, from argilla, clay.
9. -cus (sometimes with inserted i, -icus), -icus, in any one of the gen.
ders, with various meanings : —
vili-cus, M. , a steward, vili-ca, f. , a stewardess, from villa, farm-house.
fabr-ica, r., a workshop, from faber, workman.
am-icus, m., am-ica, f., friend, cf. amare, to love.
bubul-cus, M., ox-tender, from biib-ulus, diminutive, cf. bos, ox.
cant-icum, n. , song, from cantus, act of singing.
rubr-ica, r. , red paint, from ruber, red.
10. -€us, -ea, -eum, with various meanings : —
alv-eus, M., a trough, from alvus, the belly.
capr-ea, f., a wild she-goat, from caper, he-goat.
flamm-eum, n., a bridal veil, from flamma, flame, from its color.
11. -ter (stem tri-), -aster, -ester: —
eques-ter, m., knight, for fequet-ter.
sequ-ester, m., a stake-holder, from derivative of sequor, follow.
ole-aster, m. , wild olive, from olea, an olive tree.
156 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§256-259
IRREGULAR DERIVATIVES
255. The suffix -o (genitive -onis, stem 6n-), usually added to
verb-stems (see § 236. c), is sometimes used with noun-stems to
form nouns denoting 2^ossessed of. These were ©riginally adjec-
tives expressing quality or character, and hence often appear as
proper names : —
epulae, a feast; epul-6, a /easier.
nasus, a nose ; nas-o, with a large nose (also as a proper name),
volus (in bene-volus), wishing ; vol-5n8S (plural), volunteers,
frms, forehead ; front-o, big-head (also as a proper name).
curia, a curia ; curi-6, head of a curia (also as a proper name),
testis, a rope; resti-o, a rope-maker.
a. Rarely suffixes are added to compound sterns imagined, but not used
in their compound form : —
ad-verb-ium, adverb ; ad, <o, and verbum, verb., but without the intervening
tadverbus.
lati-f und-ium, large estate ; latus, wide., fundus, estate., but without the inter-
vening tlatifundus.
su-ove-taur-ilia, a sacrifice of a swine, a sheep, and a bull ; sus, swine, ovis,
sheep, taurus, bull, where the primitive would be impossible in Latin,
though such formations are common in Sanskrit.
DERIVATION OF VERBS
256. Verbs may be classed as Primitive or Derivative.
1. Primitive Verbs are those inherited by the Latin from the parent speech.
2. Derivative Verbs are those formed in the development of the Latin
as a separate language.
257. Derivative Verbs are of two main classes : —
1. Denominative Verbs, formed from nouns or adjectives.
2, Verbs apparently derived from the stems of other verbs.
Denominative Verbs
258. Verbs were formed in Latin from almost every form of
noun-stem and adjective-stem.
259. 1. Verbs of the First Conjugation are formed directly
from a-stems, regularly with a transitive meaning: as, fuga,
flight ; fugare, put to flight.
§§ 259-261] DENOMINATIVE VERBS 157
2. Many verbs of the First Conjugation are formed from o-
stems, changing the o- into a-. These are more commonly tran-
sitive : —
stimulo, -are, to incite, from stimulus, a goad (stem stimulo-).
aequo, -are, to make even, from aequus, even (stem aequo-).
hiberno, -are, to pass the winter, from hibernus, of the winter (stem hibemo-).
albo, -are, to whiten, from albus, white (stem albo-).
pio, -are, to expiate, from pius, piire (stem pio-).
novo, -are, to renew, from novus, new (stem novo-),
anno, -are, to arm, from arma, arms (stem armo-).
damno, -are, to injure, from damnum, injury (stem damno-).
3. A few verbs, generally intransitive, are formed by analogy
from consonant and i- or u-stems, adding a to the stem ; — ^
vigilo, -are, to watch, from vigil, awake.
exsulo, -are, to be in exile, from exsul, an exile.
auspicor, -ari, to take the auspices, from auspex (stem auspic-), augur.
pulvero, -are, to turn (anything) to dust, from pulvis (stem pulver-for pulvis-),
dust.
aestuo, -are, to surge, boil, from aestus (stem aestu-), tide, seething.
levo, -are, to lighten, from levis (stem levi-), light.
260. A few verbs of the Second Conjugation (generally in-
transitive) are recognizable as formed from noun-stems ; but most
are inherited, or the primitive noun-stem is lost: —
albeo, -ere, to be white, from albus (stem albo/e-)> white.
caneo, -ere, to be hoary, from canus (stem can<Ve-)» hoary,
clareo, -ere, to shine, from clarus, bright.
claudeo, -ere, to be lame, from claudus, la?ne.
algeo, -ere, to be cold, cf. algidus, cold.
261. Some verbs of the Third Conjugation in-u5,-uere, are formed
from noun-stems in u- and have lost a consonant i : —
statuo (for tstatu-yo), -ere, to set up, from status, position.
metuo, -ere, to fear, from metus, fear.
acuo, -ere, to sharpen, from acus, needle.
arguo, -ere, to clear up, from inherited stem targu-, bright (cf. dpyvpos).
Note. — Many verbs in u are inherited, being formed from roots in u; as, fluo,
fluere, flow ; so-lvo (for fse-luo, cf. XiJw), solvere, dissolve. Some roots have a parasitic
u : as, loquor, locutus, speak.
1 The type of all or most of the denominative formations in §§ 259-262 was inherited,
but the process went on in the development of Latin as a separate language.
158 FOKMATION OF WORDS [§§ 262, 263
262. Many i-verbs or verbs of the Fourth Conjugation are
formed from i-stems : —
molior, -iri, to toil^ from moles (-is), mass.
fini5, -ire, to bound, from finis, end.
sitio, -ire, to thirst, from sitis, thirst.
stabilio, -ire, to establish, from stabilis, stable.
a. Some arise by confusion from other stems treated as i-stems : —
bullio, -ire, to boil, from bulla (stem bulla-), bubble.
condio, -ire, to preserve, from condus (stem condo-), storekeeper.
insanio, -ire, to rave, from insanus (stem insano-), mad.
gestio, -ire, to show wild longing, from gestus (stem gestu-), gesture. •
Note. — Some of this form are of doubtful origin : as, ordior, begin, cf . ordo and
exordium. The formation is closely akin to that of verbs in -io of the third conjugar
tion (p. 102).
b. Some are formed with -io from consonant stems : —
custodiS, -ire,^o guard, from custos (stem custod-), guardian.
fulgurio, -ire, to lighten, from fulgur, lightning.
Note. — Here probably belong the so-called desideratives in-urio (see § 263, 4. n.).
Verbs from Other Verbs
263. The following four classes of verbs regularly derived
from other verbs have special meanings connected with their
terminations.
Note. — These classes are all really denominative in their origin, but the forma-
tions had become so associated with actual verbs that new derivatives were often
formed directly from verbs without the intervention of a noun-stem,
1. Inceptives or Inchoatives add -sco ^ to the present stem of verbs.
They denote the beginning of an action and are of the Third Conjuga-
tion. Of some there is no simple verb in existence : —
cale-sc6, grow warm, from caleo, be warm.
laba-sco, begin to totter, from labo, totter.
sci-sco, determine, from scio, know.
con-cupi-sco, conceive a desire for, from cupio, desire.
ale-SCO, grow, from alo, feed.
So ira-scor, get angry ; cf. ira-tus.
iuvene-sco, grow young ; cf, iuvenis, young man.
mite-sco, grow mild; cf. mitis, mild.
vespera-scit, it is getting late ; cf , vesper, evening.
1 For -SCO in primary formation, see § 176, b. 1.
§ 263] VERBS FROM OTHER VERBS 159
Note. — Inceptives properly have only the present stem, but many use the perfect
and supine systems of simple verbs: as, calesco, groio ivarm, calui; ardesco, blaze
forth, arsi; proflciscor, set out, profectus.
2. Intensives or Iteratives are formed from the Supine stem and end
in -to or -ito (rarely -so). They denote a, forcible or repeated action, but
this special sense often disappears. Those derived from verbs of
the First Conjugation end in -ito (not -ato).
iac-to, hurl, from iacio, throw.
dormi-to, he sleepy, from dormio, sleep.
vol-ito, Jlit, from volo, fly.
vendi-to, try to sell, from vendo, sell.
quas-s6, shatter, from quatio, shake.
They are of the first conjugation, and are properly denominative.
a. Compound suffixes -tito, -sito, are formed with a few verbs. These
are probably derived from other Iteratives ; thus, cantitd may come from
canto, iterative of cano, sing.
b. Another form of Intensives — sometimes called Meditatives, or verbs
of practice — ends in -esso (rarely -isso). These denote a certain energy or
eagerness of action rather than its repetition : —
cap-esso, lay hold on, from capio, take.
fac-esso, do (with energy), from facio, do.
pet-esso, pet-isso, seek (eagerly), from peto, seek.
These are of the third conjugation, usually having the perfect and
supine of the fourth : —
arcesso, arcessere, arcessivi, arcessitum, summon.
lacesso, lacessgre, lacessivi, lacessitum, provoke.
Note. — The verbs in -esso, -isso, show the same formation as levasso, impetrassere,
iudicassit, etc. (§ 183. 5), but its origin is not fully explained.
3. Diminutives end in -illo, and denote a feeble or pettj/ action : —
cav-illor, jest, cf . cavilla, raillery.
cant-illo, chirp or warble, from canto, sing.
Note. — Diminutives are formed from verb-stems derived from real or supposed
diminutive nouns.
4. Desideratives end in -turio (-surio), and express longing ot wish-
ing. They are of the fourth conjugation, and only two are in com-
mon use : —
par-turio, be in labor, from pario, bring forth.
e-surio (for ted-turi5), be hungry, from edo, eat.
Others are used by the dramatists.
Note. — Desideratives are probably derived from some noun of agency: as, emp-
turio, wish to buy, from emptor, buyer. Viso, go to see, is an inherited desiderative of
a different formation.
160 FORMATIOM OF WOKDS [§§ 264, 265
COMPOUND WORDS
264. A Compound Word is one whose stem is made up of two
or more simple stems.
a, A final stem-vowel of the first member of the compound usually dis-
appears before a vowel, and usually takes the form of i before a consonant.
Only the second member receives inflection.^
b. Only noun-stems can be thus compounded, A preposition, however,
often becomes attached to a verb.
265. New stems are formed by Composition in three ways : —
1. The second part is simply added to the first : —
su-ove-taurilia (sus, ovis, taurus), the sacrifice of a swine, a sheep, and a hull
(cf. § 255. a),
septen-decim (septem, decern), seventeen.
2. The first part modifies the second as an adjective or adverb
(Determinative Compounds) : —
lati-fundium (latus, fundus), a large landed estate.
omni-potens (omnis, potens), omnipotent.
3. The first part has the force of a case, and the second a verbal
force {Objective Compounds): —
agri-cola {ager^ field, tcola akin to colo, cultivate), a farmer.
armi-ger (anna, arms, tger akin to ger5, cari^), armor-bearer.
corni-cen (coma, horn, teen akin to cano, sing), horn-blower.
carni-fex (caxoj flesh, tfex akin to faci5, make), executioner.
a. Compounds of the above kinds, in which the last word is a noun,
may become adjectives, meaning j905sessec? o/the quality denoted: —
ali-pes (ala, wing, pes, foot), wing-footed.
magn-animus (magnus, great, animus, soul), great-souled.
an-ceps (amb-, at both ends, caput, head), double.
NoTK. — Many compounds of the above classes appear only in the form of some
further derivative, the proper compound not being found in Latin. .
1 The second part generally has its usual inflection ; but, as this kind of composi-
tion is in fact older than inflection, the compounded stem sometimes has an inflection
of its own (as, cornicen, -cinis; lucifer, -fori; iudex, -dicis), from stems not occurring in
Latin. Especially do compound adjectives in Latin take the form of i-stems: as,
animus, exanimis; norma, abnormis (see § 73). In composition, stems regularly have
their uninflected form: as, igni-spicium, divining by fire. But in o- and a-stems the
final vowel of the stem appears as i-, as in ali-pes (from ala, stem ala-) ; and i- is so
common a termination of compounded stems, that it is often added to stems which do
not properly have it: as, flori-comus, floiocr-croivned (from flos, flor-is, and coma, hair).
§§ 266, 267] SYI^TACTIC COMPOILNDS 161
Syntactic Compounds
266. In many apparent compounds, complete words — not
stems — have grown together in speech. These are not strictly
compounds in the etymological sense. They are called Syntac-
tic Compounds. Examples are ; —
a. Compounds of facio, facto, with an actual or formerly existing noun-
stem confounded with a verbal stem in e-. These are causative in force :
consue-facio, habituate (cf. c5nsue-sco, become accustomed).
cale-facio, cale-facto, to heat (cf. cale-sc5, grow warm).
h. An adverb or noun combined with a verb : —
bene-dico (bene, well^ dico, speak), to bless.
satis-facio (satis, enough, facio, do), to do enough (for).
c. Many apparent compounds of stems : —
fide-iubeo (fide, surety, iubeo, command), to give surety.
man-suetus (manul, to the hand, suetus, accustomed), tame.
Marci-por (Marci puer), slave of Marcus.
luppiter (flu, old vocative, and pater), father Jove.
anim-adverto (animum adverts), attend to, punish.
d* A few phrases forced into the ordinary inflections of nouns : —
pro-consul, proconsul (for pro consule, instead of a consul).
trium-vir, triumvir (singular from trium virorum).
septen-trio, the Bear, a constellation (supposed singular of septem triones,
the Seven Plough-Oxen).
In all these cases it is to be observed that words, not stems, are united.
267. Many syntactic compounds are formed by prefixing a
Particle to some other part of speech.
a. Prepositions are often prefixed to Verbs. In these compounds the
prepositions retain their original adverbial sense : —
a, ab, AWAY : a-mittere, to send away.
ad, TO, TOWARDS: af-ferre (ad-fero), to bring.
ante, before: ante-ferre, to prefer ; ante-cellere, to excel.
circum, around : circum-munire, to fortify completely.
com-, con- (cum), together or forcibly : c6n--ferre, to bring together ; col-
locare, to set firm.
de, DOWN, utterly : de-spicere, despise ; de-struere, destroy.
e, ex, out: ef-ferre (ec-iero), to carry forth, uplift.
in (with verbs), in, on, against : in-ferre, to bear against.
inter, between, to pieces : inter-rumpere, to interrupt.
ob, towards, to meet: of-ferre, to offer; ob-venire, to meet.
sub, UNDER, UP from UNDER: sub-struere, to build beneath; sub-ducere, toleadup,
super, upon, over and above : super-fluere, to overflow.
162 FOKMATION OF WORDS
Note 1. — In such compounds, however, the prepositions sometimes have theil
ordinary force as prepositions, especially ad, in, circum, trans, and govern the case of
a noun: as, transire flumen, to cross a river (see § 388. b).
Note 2. — Short a of the root is weakened to i before one consonant, to e before
two: as, facio, conficio, confectus; iacio, eici5, eiectus. But long a is retained: as,
peractus.
b. Verbs are also compounded with the following inseparable particles,
which do not appear as prepositions in Latin : —
amb- (am-, an-), aeood ; amb-ire, to go about (cf. d/iipl, about).
dis-, di-, ASUNDER, APART ! dis-cedeie, to depart (cf. duo, two) ; di-vid5re, to
divide.
per-, FORWARD; pci-tendere, to hold forth, predict (cf. ^orro, forth).
red-, re-, back, again: red-ire, to return; re-cludere, to open (from claudo,
shut) ; re-ficere, to repair (make again).
sed-, se-, apart: se-cerno, to separate; cf. sed-itio, a going apart, secession
(e5, ire, to go).
c. Many Verbals are found compounded with a preposition, like the
verbs to which they correspond : —
per-fuga, deserter; cf. per-fugi5.
tra-dux. vine-branch ; cf. tra-duco (trans-duco).
ad-vena, stranger; cf. ad-venio.
con-iux (con-iiinx), spouse; cf. con-iungo.
in-dex, pointer out; cf. in-dico.
prae-ses, guardian; cf. prae-sideo.
com-bibo, boon companion; cf. com-bibo, -ere.
d. An Adjective is sometimes modified by an adverbial prefix.
1. Of these, per- (less commonly prae-), very; sub-, somewhat ; in-, not, are
regular, and are very freely prefixed to adjectives : —
per-magnus, very large. in-nocuus, harmless.
per-pauci, very few. in-imicus, unfriendly.
sub-rusticus, rather clownish. in-sanus, insane.
sub-fuscus, darkish. in-finitus, boundless.
prae-longus, very long. iin-purus, impure.
Note. — Per and sub, in these senses, are also prefixed to verbs : as, per-terreo, terrify ;
sub-rideo, smile. In ignoscd, pardon, in- appears to be the negative prefix
2. The negative in- sometimes appears in combination with an adjective
that does not occur alone : —
in-ennis, unarmed (cf. arma, arms).
im-bellis, unwarlike (cf. bellum, war).
im-punis, without punishment (cf. poena, punishmeid).
in-teger, untouched, whole (cf. tango, to touch, root tag).
iD-vituSj unwilling (probably from root seen in vi-s, thou wishes£).
PART SECOND— SYNTAX
INTRODUCTORY NOTE
268. The study of formal grammar arose at a late period in the history of lan-
guage, and dealt with language as a fully developed product. Accordingly the terms
of Syntax correspond to the logical habits of thought and forms of expression that
had grown up at such a period, and have a logical as well as a merely grammatical
meaning. But a developed syntactical structure is not essential to the expression of
thought. A form of words — like 6 puerum pulchrum! oh! beautiful hoy — expresses
a thought and might even be called a sentence ; though it does not logically declare any-
thing, and does not, strictly speaking, make what is usually called a sentence at all.
At a very early period of spoken language, word-forms were no doubt significant
in themselves, without inflections, and constituted the whole of language, — just as to
a child the name of some familiar object will stand for all he can say about it. At a
somewhat later stage, such uninflected words put side by side made a rudimentary
form of proposition : as a child might sa.jjire bright ; horse run. With this began the
first form of logical distinction, that of Subject and Predicate ; but as yet there was no
distinction in form between noun and verb, and no fixed distinction in function. At a
later stage forms were differentiated in function and — by various processes of com-
position which cannot be fully traced — Inflections were developed. These served to
express person, tense, case, and other grammatical relations, and we have true Parts
of Speech.
Not until language reached this last stage was there any fixed limit to the asso-
ciation of words, or any rule prescribing the manner in which they should be combined.
But gradually, by usage, particular forms came to be limited to special functions (as
nouns, verbs, adjectives), and fixed customs arose of combining words into what we
now call Sentences. These customs are in part the result of general laws or modes of
thought (logic), resulting from our habits of mind {General Grammar); and in part
are what may be called By-Laws, established by custom in a given language {Particu-
lar Grammar), and making what is called the Syntax of that language.
In the fully developed methods of expression to which we are almost exclusively
accustomed, the unit of expression is the Sentence: that is, the completed statement,
with its distinct Subject and Predicate. Originally sentences were simple. But two
simple sentence-forms may be used together, without the grammatical subordination
of either, to express a more complex form of thought than could be denoted by one
alone. This is parataxis (arrangement side by side). Since, however, the two sen-
tences, independent in form, were in fact used to express parts of a complex whole
and were therefore mutually dependent, the sense of unity found expression in con-
junctions, which denoted the grammatical subordination of the one to the other. This
is hypotaxis (arrangement under, subordination) . In this way, through various stages
of development, which correspond to our habitual modes of thought, there were pro-
duced various forms of complex sentences. Thus, to express the complex idea / beseech
you to pardon me, the two simple sentence-forms quaeso and ignoscas were used side by
side, quaeso ignoscas ; then the feeling of grammatical subordination found expression
in a conjunction, quaeso ut ignoscas, forming a complex sentence. The results of these
processes constitute the subject-matter of Syntax.
163
164 SYNTAX: THE SENTENCE [§§269-272
THE SENTENCE
Kinds of Sentences
269. A Sentence is a form of words which contains a State-
ment, a Question, an Exclamation, or a Command.
a, A sentence in the form of a Statement is called a Declarative
Sentence : as, — canis currit, the dog runs.
b, A sentence in the form of a Question is called an Interroga-
tive Sentence: as, — canisne currit? does the dog run?
c, A sentence in the form of an Exclamation is called an Exclama-
tory Sentence : as, — quam celeriter currit canis ! hoivfast the dog runs !
d, A sentence in the form of a Command, an Exhortation, or an
Entreaty is called an Imperative Sentence : as, — i, curre per Alpis, goy
run across the Alps ; currat canis, let the dog run:
Subject and Predicate
270. Every sentence consists of a Subject and a Predicate.
The Subject of a sentence is the person or thing spohen of.
The Predicate is that which is said of the Subject.
Thus in canis currit, the dog runs, canis is the subject, and currit the predicate.
271. The Subject of a sentence is usually a Noun or Pronoun,
or some w^ord or group of words used as a Noun : —
equites ad Caesarem venerunt, the cavalry came to Ccesar.
humanum est errare, to err is human.
quaeritur num mors malum sit, the question is whether death is an evil.
a. But in Latin the subject is often implied in the termination of
the verb : —
sede-mus, we sit. curri-tis, you run. inqui-t, says he.
272. The Predicate of a sentence may be a Verb (as in canis
currit, the dog runs), or it may consist of some form of sum and
a Noun or Adjective which describes or defines the subject (as in
Caesar consul erat, Ccesar ivas consul).
Such a noun or adjective is called a Predicate Noun or Adjective,
and the verb sum is called the Copula (i.e. the connective).
Thus in the example given, Caesar is the subject, consul the predicate noun, and
erat the copula (see § 283).
§§ 273, 274] VERB AND OBJECT 165
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
273. Verbs are either Transitive or Intransitive.
1. A Transitive Verb has or requires a direct object to complete
its sense (see § 274) : as, — fratrem cecidit, he slew his brother.
2. An Intransitive Verb admits of no direct object to complete
its sense: —
cado, I fall (or am falling). sol lucet, tJie sun shines (or is shining).
Note 1. — Among transitive verbs Factitive Verbs are sometimes distinguished
as a separate class. These state an act which produces the thing expressed by the
word which completes their sense. Thus mensam fecit, 7ie made a table (which was
not in existence before), is distinguished from mensam percussit, Ae struck a table
(which already existed).
Note 2. — A transitive verb may often be used absolutely, i.e. without any object
expressed: as, — arat, he is ploughing, where the verb does not cease to be transitive
because the object is left indefinite, as we see by adding, — quid, what? agrum suum,
his land.
Note 3. — Transitive and Intransitive Verbs are often called Active and Neuter
Verbs respectively.
Object
274. The person or thing immediately affected by the action of
a verb is called the Direct Object.
A person or thing indirectly affected by the action of a verb
is called the Indirect Object.
Only transitive verbs can have a Direct Object ; but an Indirect
Object may be used with both transitive and intransitive verbs
(§§362,366): —
pater vocat filium (direct object), the father calls his son.
mihi (ind. obj.) agrum (dir. obj.) ostendit, he showed me afield.
mihi (ind. obj.) placet, it is pleasing to me.
Note. — The distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs is not a fixed dis-
tinction, for most transitive verbs may be used intransitively, and many verbs usually
intransitive may take a direct object and so become transitive (§ 388. a).
a. With certain verbs, the Genitive, Dative, or Ablative is used
where the English, from a difference in meaning, requires the direct
object (Objective) : —
hominem video, I see the man (Accusative).
homini servio, I serve the man (Dative, see § 367).
hominis misereor, I pity the man (Genitive, see § 354. a).
homine amico utor, I treat the man as a friend (Ablative, see § 410).
166 SYNTAX: THE SENTENCE [§§274-277
b. Many verbs transitive in Latin are rendered into English by .
an intransitive verb with, a preposition: —
petit aprum, he aims at the boar.
laudem affectat, he strives after praise.
curat valetudinem, he takes care of his health.
meum casum doluerunt, they grieved at my misfortune.
ridet nostram amentiam (Quinct. 55), he laughs at our stupidity.
275. When a transitive verb is changed from the Active to the
Passive voice, the Direct Object becomes the Subject and is put
in the Nominative case : —
Active: pater fllium vocat, the father calls his son.
Passive : filius a patre vocatur, the son is called by his father.
Active : lunam et stellas videmus, we see the moon and the stars.
Passive: luna et stellae videntur, the moon and stars are seen (appear).
Modification
276. A Subject or a Predicate may be modified by a single word,
or by a group of words (si phrase or a clause).
The modifying word or group of words may itself be modified in
the same way.
a. A single modifying word may be an adjective, an adverb, an
appositive (§ 282), or the oblique case of a noun.
Thus in the sentence vir fortis patienter fert, a brave man endures patiently,
the adjective fortis, brave, modifies the subject vir, man, and the adverb patienter,
patiently, modifies the predicate fert, endures.
h. The modifying word is in some cases said to limit the word
to which it belongs.
Thus in the sentence pueri patrem video, / see the boy^s father, the genitive
pueri limits patrem (by excluding any other father).
277. A Phrase is a group of words, without subject or predicate
of its own, which may be used as an Adjective or an Adverb.
Thus in the* sentence vir fuit summa nobilitate, he was a man of the highest
nobility, the words summa nobilitate, of the highest nobility, are used for the
adjective nobilis, noble (or nobihssimus, very noble), and are called an Adjective
Phrase.
So in the sentence magna celeritate venit, he came with great speed, the words
magna celeritate, with great speed, are used for the adverb celeriter, quickly (or
celerrime, very quickly), and are called an Adverbial Phrase.
§§ 278, 279] CLAUSES AND SENTENCES 167
Clauses and Sentences
278. Sentences are either Simple or Compound.
1. A sentence containing a single statement is called a Simple
Sentence.
2. A sentence containing more than one statement is called
a Compound Sentence, and each single statement in it is called
a Clause.
a. If one statement is simply added to another, the clauses are
said to be Coordinate. They are usually connected by a Coordinate
Conjunction (§ 223. a) ; but this is sometimes omitted: —
divide et impera, divide and control. But, —
veni, vidi, vici, I came^ I saw, I conquered.
h. If one statement modifies another in any way, the modifying
clause is said to be Subordinate, and the clause modified is called
the Main Clause.
This subordination is indicated by some connecting word, either
a Subordinate Conjunction (§ 223. h) or a Relative: —
oderint dum metuant. Id them hate so long as they fear.
servum misit quem secuin habebat, he sent the slave whom he had with him.
A sentence containing one or more subordinate clauses is some-
times called Complex.
Note. — A subordinate clause may itself be modified by other subordinate clauses.
279. Subordinate Clauses are of various kinds.
a, A clause introduced by a Eelative Pronoun or Eelative Adverb
is called a Eelative Clause : —
Mosa profluit ex monte Vosego, qui est in flnibus Lingonum (B. G. iv. 10),
the Meuse rises in the Vosges mountains, which are on the borders of the
Lingones.
For Relijtive Pronouns (or Relative Adverbs) serving to connect independent sen-
tences, see § 308. /.
b, A clause introduced by an Adverb of Time is called a Tem-
poral Clause : —
cum tacent, clamant (Cat. i. 21), while they are silent, they cry aloud.
homines aegri roorbo gravl, cum iactantur aestu febrique, si aquam gelidam
biberint, piimo relevari videntur (id. i. 31), men suffering with a severe
sickness, lohen they are tossing with the heat of fever, if they drink cold
water ^ seem at first to he relieoed.
168 SYNTAX: AGREEMENT [§§279-281
c. A clause containing a Condition, introduced by si, if (or some
equivalent expression), is called a Conditional Clause. A sentence
containing a conditional clause is called a Conditional Sentence.
Thus, si aquam gelidam biberint, primo relevari videntur (in 6, above) is a Con-
ditional Sentence, and si . . . biberint is a Conditional Clause.
d, A clause expressing the Purpose of an action is called a Final
Clause : —
edo ut vivam, I eat to live (that I may live).
misit legates qui dicereut, he sent ambassadors to say (who should say).
c. A clause expressing the E-esult of an action is called a Con-
secutive Clause : — ^
tarn longe aberam ut non viderem, I was too far away to see (so far away that
I did not see) .
AGEEEMENT
280. A word is said to agree with another when it is required
by usage to be in the same Gender, Number, Case, or Person.
The following are the general forms of agreement, sometimes
called the Four Concords : —
1. The agreement of the Noun in Apposition or as Predicate
(§§ 281-284).
2. The agreement of the Adjective with its Noun (§ 286).
3. The agreement of the Eelative with its Antecedent (§ 305).
4. The agreement of the Einite Verb with its Subject (§ 316).
a, A word sometimes takes the gender or number, not of the word
with which it should regularly agree, but of some other word implied
in that word.
This use is called Synesis, or construciid ad sensum (construction
according to sense).
AGREEMENT OF NOUNS
281. A noun used to describe another, and denoting the same
person or thing, agrees with it in Case.
The descriptive noun may be either an Appositive (§ 282) or a
Predicate noun (§ 283).
1 Observe that the classes defined in a-e are not mutually exclusive, but that a
single clause may belong to several of them at once. Thus a relative clause is
usually subordinate, and may be at the same time temporal or conditional; and
subordinate clauses may be coordinate with each other.
§282] APPOSITION 169
Apposition
282. A noun used to describe another, and standing in the same
part of the sentence with the noun described, is called an Apposi-
tive, and is said to be in ajjposition : —
externus timor, maximum concordiae vinculum, iungebat animos (Liv. ii. 39),
fear of the foreigner, the chief bond of harmony, united their hearts.
[Here the appositive belongs to the subject.]
quattuor hie primum omen equos vidi (Aen. iii. 537), I saw here four horses,
the first omen. [Here both nouns are in the predicate.]
litteras Graecas senex didici (Cat. M. 26), I learned Greek when an old man.
[Here senex, though in apposition with the subject of didici, really states
something further: viz., the time, condition, etc., of the act (Predicate
Apposition).]
a. Words expressing parts may be in apposition with a word
including the parts, or vice versa {Partitive Apposition) : —
Nee P. Popilius neque Q. Metellus, clarissiml viri atque amplissimi, vim
tribunlciam sustinere potuerunt (Clu. 95), neither Publius Popilius nor
Quintus Metellus, [both of them] distinguished and honorable men, could
withstand the power of the tribunes.
Gnaeus et Publius Scipiones, Cneius and Publius Scipio (the Scipios).
b. An Adjective may be used as an appositive: —
ea Sex. Koscium inopem recepit (Rose. Am. 27), she received Sextus Boscius
in his poverty (needy).
c. An -appositive generally agrees with its noun in Gender and
Number when it can : —
sequuntur natilram, optimam dticem (Lael. 19), they follow nature, the best
guide.
omnium doctrlnarum inventrices Athenas (De Or. i. 13), Athens, discoverer
of all learning.
Note. — But such agreement is often impossible : as, — olim truncus eram ficulnus,
inutile lignum (Hor. S. i. 8. 1), I once was a fig-tree trunk, a useless log.
d. A common noun in apposition with a Locative (§ 427) is put in
the Ablative, with or without the preposition in : —
Antiochiae, celebri quondam urbe (Arch. 4), at Antioch, once a famous city.
Albae constiterunt, in urbe munita (Phil, iv, 6), they halted at Alba, a forti-
fied town.
For a Genitive in apposition with a Possessive Pronoun or an Adjective, see § 302. e.
For the so-called Appositional Genitive, see § 343. d.
For the construction with nomen est, see § 373. a.
170 SYNTAX: AGREEMENT [§§283-286
Predicate Noun or Adjective
283. With sum and a few other intransitive or passive verbs, a
noun or an adjective describing or defining the subject may stand in
the predicate. This is called a Predicate Noun or Adjective.
The verb sum is especially coninion in this construction, and wheK
so used is called the copula (i.e. connective).
Other verbs which take a predicate noun or adjective are the so-
calkd copulative verhs signifying to become, to be made, to be named,
to appear, and the like.
284. A Predicate Noun or Adjective after the copula sum or a
copulative verb is in the same case as the Subject : —
pacis semper auctor fui (Lig. 28), 1 have alvjays been an adviser of peace.
quae pertinacia quibusdam, eadem alils constantia videri potest (]\Iarc. 31),
what may seem obstinacy to some, may seem to others consistency.
eius mortis sedetis ultores (Mil, 79), you sit as avengers of his death.
habeatur vir egregius Paulus (Cat. iv. 21), let Paulus be regarded as an
extraordinary man.
ego patronus exstiti (Rose. Am. 5), I have come forward as an advocate.
dicit non omnis bonos esse beatds, he says that not all good men are happy.
a, A predicate noun referring to two or more singular nouns is
in the plural : —
consules creantur Caesar et Servilius (B. C. iii. 1), CcBsar and Servilius are
elected consuls.
b. Sum in the sense of exist makes a complete predicate without a
predicate noun or adjective. It is then called the substantive verb : —
sunt viri fortes, there are (exist) brave men. [Cf . vixere fortes ante Agamem-
nona (Hor. Od. iv. 9. 25), brave men lived before Agamemnon.]
For Predicate Accusative and Predicate Ablative, see §§ 392, 415. n.
AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES
Attributive and Predicate Adjectives
285. Adjectives are either Attributive or Predicate.
1. An Attributive Adjective simply qualifies its noun without
the intervention of a verb or participle, expressed or implied: as,
— bonus imperator, a good commander; stellae lucidae, bright stars;-
verbum Graecum, a Greek zvord.
§§ 285, 286] AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES 171
2. All other adjectives are called Predicate Adjectives : —
stellae lucidae erant, the stars were bright.
sit Sclpio clarus (Cat. iv. 21), let Scipio be illustrious.
homines mitis reddidit (In v. i. 2), has rendered men mild.
tria praedia CapitonI propria traduntur (Rose. Am. 21), three farms are
handed over to Capita as his own.
consilium ceperunt plenum sceleris (id. 28), they formed a plan full of
villany.
Note. — A predicate adjective maybe used with sum or a copulative verb (§ 28.3) ; it
may have the construction of a predicate accusative after a verb of naming, calling, or
the like (§ 393. n.) ; or it may be used in apposition like a noun (§ 282. 6).
Rules of Agreement
286. Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles agree
with their nouns in Gender^ Number., and Case : —
vir fortis, a brave man.
ilia mulier, that ivoman.
urbium magnarum, of great cities.
cum ducentis militibus, with two hundred soldiers.
imperator victus est, the general was beaten.
secutae sunt tempestates, storms followed.
Note. — All rules for the agreement of adjectives apply also to adjective pronouns
and to participles.
a. With two or more nouns the adjective is regularly plural, but
often agrees with the nearest (especially when attributive) : —
Nisus et Euryalus primi (Aen. v. 294), Nisus and Euryalus first.
Caesaris omni et gratia et opibus fruor (Fam. i. 9. 21), I enjoy all Caesar'' s favor
and resources.
Note. — An adjective referring to two nouns connected by the preposition cum is
occasionally plural (synesis, § 280. a): as, — luba cum Labieno capti (B. Afr. 52), Juba
and Labienus were taken.
b. A collective noun may take an adjective of a different gender
and number agreeing with the gender and number of the individuals
implied (synesis, § 280. a): —
pars certare parati (Aen. v. 108), a part ready to contend.
coloniae aliquot deductae, Prisci Latin! appellati (Liv. i. 3), several colonies
were planted (led out) [of men] called Old Latins.
multitudo convict! sunt (Tac. Ann. xv. 44), a multitude were convicted.
magna pars raptae (id. i. 9), a large part [of the women] were seized.
Note. — A superlative in the predicate rarely takes the gender of a partitive geni-
tive by which it is limited: as, — velocissimum animalium delphinus est (Plin. N. H.
ix. 20), the dolphin is the swiftest [creature] of creatures.
172 SYNTAX: ADJECTIVES [§§287,288
287. One adjective may belong in sense to two or more nouns
of different genders. In such cases, —
1. An Attributive Adjective agrees with, the nearest noun: —
multae operae ac laboris, of much trouble and toil.
vita moresque mei, my life and character.
si res, si vir, si tempus ullum dignum fuit (Mil. 19), if any thing, if any
man, if any time was Jit.
2. A Predicate Adjective may agree with the nearest noun, if the
nouns form one connected idea : —
f actus est strepitus et admurmuratio (Verr. i. 45), a noise of assent was made
(noise and murmur).
Note. —This is only when the copula agrees with the nearest subject (§ 317. c).
3. But generally, a Predicate Adjective will be masculine, if nouns
of different genders mean living beings; neuter, if tilings without
life : —
uxor delude ac liberi amplexi (Li v. ii. 40), then his wife and children embraced
him.
labor (m.) voluptasque (f.) societate quadam inter se natural! sunt iuncta (n.)
(id. V. 4), labor and delight are bound together by a certain natural alli-
ance.
4. If nouns of different genders include both living beings and
things without life, a Predicate Adjective is sometimes masculine (or
feminine), sometimes neuter, and sometimes agrees in gender with
the nearest if that is plural : —
rex regiaque classis una profecti (Liv. xxi. 50), the king and the royal fleet set
out together.
natura inimica sunt libera civitas et rex (id. xliv. 24), by nature a free state
and a king are hostile.
legates sortesqne oraculi exspectandas (id. v. 15), that the ambassadors and
the replies of the oracle shoidd be waited for.
a. Two or more abstract nouns of the same gender may have a
Predicate Adjective in the neuter plural (cf. § 289. c): —
stultitia et temeritas et iniustitia . . . suntfugienda (Fin. iii. S9), folly, rash-
ness, and injustice are [things] to be shunned.
Adjectives used Substantively
288. Adjectives are often used as Nouns {suhstantivehj), the
masculine usually to denote men ov people in general of that kind,
the feminine women, and the neuter things : —
§§288,289] ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY 173
omnes, all men (everybody). omnia, all things (everything),
maiores, ancestors. minores, descendants.
Romani, Romans. barbari, barbarians.
liberta, a freediooman. Sabinae, the Sabine wives.
sapiens, a sage (philosopher). amicus, a friend.
boni, the good (good people). bona, goods, property.
Note. — The plural of adjectives, pronouns, and participles is very common in this
nse. The singular is comparatively rare except in the neuter (§ 289. a, c) and in words
that have become practically nouns.
a. Certain adjectives have become practically nouns, and are often
modified by other adjectives or by the possessive genitive : —
tuus vicinus proximus, Tjour next-door neighbor.
propinqui ceterl, his other relatives.
mens aequalis, a man of my own age.
§ius familiaris Catilina (Har. Resp. 5), his intimate friend Catiline.
Leptae nostri familiarissimus (Fam. ix. 13. 2), a very close friend of our friend
Lepta.
b. When ambiguity would arise from the substantive use of an
adjective, a noun must be added : —
boni, the good ; omnia, everything (all things) ; but, —
potentia omnium rerum, power over everything.
c. Many adjectives are used substantively either in the singular
or the plural, with the added meaning of some noun which is under-
stood from constant association : —
Africus [ventus], the southwest wind; lanuarius [mensis], January; vitu-
lina [caro], veal (calf's flesh) ; fera [bestia], a wild beast; patria [terra],
the fatherland ; Gallia [terra], GoM (the land of the Galli) ; hiberna
[castra], winter quarters ; triremis [navis], a three-banked galley, trireme;
argentarius [faber], a silversmith; regia [domus], the palace; Latinae
[feriae], the Latin festival.
Note. — These adjectives are specific in meaning, not generic like those in § 288.
They include the names of winds and months (§ 31).
For Nouns used as Adjectives, see § 321. c.
For Adverbs used like Adjectives, see § 321. d.
289. Neuter Adjectives are used substantively in the following
special senses : —
a. The neuter singular may denote either a single object or an
abstract quality : —
rapto vivere, to live by plunder. in arido, on dry ground.
honestum, an honorable act, or virtue (as a quality).
opus est maturato, there is need of haste. [Cf. impersonal passives, § 208. d.]
174 SYNTAX : ADJECTIVES . [§§ 289-291
b. The neuter plural is used to signify objects in general having
the quality denoted, and hence may stand for the abstract idea : —
honesta, honorable deeds (in general). praeterita, the past (lit., bygones'),
onines fortia laudant, all men praise bravery (brave things).
c. A neuter adjective may be used as an appositive or predicate
noun with a noun of different gender (cf. § 287. a) : —
triste lupus stabulls (Eel. iii. 80), the wolf [is] a grievous thing for the fold.
varium et mutabile semper femina (Aen. iv. 569), woman is ever a changing
and fickle thing.
malum milii videtur esse mors (Tusc. i. 9), death seems to me to be an evil.
d. A neuter adjective may be used as an attributive or a predicate
adjective with an infinitive or a substantive clause : —
istuc ipsum non esse (Tusc. i. 12), that very " not to be.''"'
humanum est errare, to err is human.
aliud est errare Caesarem nolle, aliud nolle misererl (Lig. 16), it is one tJiing
to be umvilling that CcBsar should err, another to be unwilling that he
should pity.
Adjectives with Adverbial Force
290. An adjective, agreeing with the subject or object, is often
used to qualify the action of the verb, and so has the force of an
adverb : —
primus venit, he ivas the first to come (came first).
nullus dubito, I no way doubt.
laeti audiere, they were glad to hear.
erat Romae frequens (Rose. Am. 16), he ivas often at Rome.
serus in caelum redeas (Hor. Od. i. 2. 45), mayst thou return late to heaven.
Comparatives and Superlatives
291. Besides their regular signification (as in English), the
forms of comparison are used as follows : —
a. The Comparative denotes a considerable or excessive degree of
a quality: as, — brevior, rather short ; audacior, too bold.
b. The Superlative (of eminence) often denotes a very high degree
of a quality without implying a distinct comparison : as, — mons
altissimus, a very high mountain.
Note. — The Superlative of Eminence is much used in complimentary references
to persons and may often be translated by the simple positive.
§§ 291-293] COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES 175
c. With quam, vel, or iinus the Superlative denotes the highest pos-
sible degree : —
quam plurimi, as many as possible.
quam maxime potest (maxime quam potest), as much as can be.
vel minimus, the very least.
yiv unus doctissimus, the one most learned man.
Note 1. — A high degree of a quality is also denoted by such adverbs as admodum,
valde, very, or by per or prae in composition (§ 267. d. 1): as, — valde malus, veiy bad =
pessimus; permagnus, very great; praealtus, very high (or deep).
Note 2. — A low degree of a quality is indicated by sub in composition : as, — sub-
riisticus, rather clownish , or by minus, not very ; minime, not at all ; parum, not enough ;
non satis, not much.
Note 3. — The comparative maiores (for miiores natii, greater by birth) has the spe-
cial signification of ancestors ; so minores often means descendants.
For the Superlative with quisque, see § 313. b. For the construction of a substantive
after a Comparative, see §§ 406, 407 ; for that of a clause, see § 535. c, 571. a. For the
Ablative of Degree of Difference with a Comparative (mult5 etc.), see § 414.
292. When two qualities of an object are compared, both adjec-
tives are in the Comparative : —
longior quam latior acies erat (Liv. xxvii. 48), the line was longer than it was
broad (or, rather long than broad).
verior quam gratior (id. xxii. 38), more true than agreeable.
Note. — So also with adverbs: as, — libentius quam verius (Mil. 78), with mort
freedom than truth.
a. Where magis is used, both adjectives are in the positive: —
disertus magis quam sapiens (Att. x. 1. 4), eloquent rather than wise.
clari magis quam honesti (lug. 8), more renowned than honorable.
Note. — A comparative and a positive, or even two positives, are sometimes con-
nected by quam. This use is rarer and less elegant than those before noticed : —
Claris maioribus quam vetustis (Tac. Ann. iv. 61), of a family moj^e famous than
old.
vehementius quam caute (Tac. Agr. 4), with more fury than good heed.
293. Superlatives (and more rarely Comparatives) denoting
order and succession — also medius, [ceterus], reliquus — usually
designate not what object., but what part of it, is meant : —
summus mons, the top of the hill.
in ultima platea, at the end of the place.
prior actio, the earlier part of an action.
reliqui captlvi, the rest of the prisoners.
in colle medio (B. G. i. 24), halfway up the hill (on the middle of the hill).
inter ceteram planitiem (lug. 92), in a region elsewhere level.
Note. — A similar use is found iu sera (multa) nocte, late at night, and the like. But
medium viae, the middle of the way ; multum diei, ?HWc/i of the day, also occur.
176 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§294,296
PRONOUNS
294. A Pronoun indicates some person or thing without either naming or describ-
ing it. Pronouns are derived from a distinct class of roots, which seem to have denoted
only ideas of place and direction (§ 228. 2), and from which nouns or verbs can very
rarely be formed. They may therefore stand for Nouns when the person or thing,
being already present to the senses or imagination, needs only to be pointed out, not
7iamed.
Some pronouns indicate the object in itself, without reference to its class, and have
no distinction of gender. These are Personal Pronouns. They stand syntactically
for Nouns, and have the same construction as nouns.
Other pronouns designate a particular object of a class, and take the gender of the
individuals of that class. These are called Adjective Pronouns. They stand for
Adjectives, and have the same construction as adjectives.
Others are used in both ways ; and, though called adjective pronouns, may also be
treated as personal, taking, however, the gender of the object indicated.
In accordance with their meanings and uses, Pronouns are classified as follows : —
Personal Pronouns (§ 295). Interrogative Pronouns (§ 333).
Demonstrative Pronouns (§296). Relative Pronouns (§303).
Reflexive Pronouns (§ 299). Indefinite Pronouns (§ 309).
Possessive Pronouns (§302).
Personal Pronouns
295. The Personal Pronouns have, in general, the same con-
structions as nouns.
a. The personal pronouns are not expressed as subjects, except for
distinction or emphasis : —
te voco, / call you. But, —
quis me vocat ? ego te voco, who is calling me? I (emphatic) am calling you.
b. The personal pronouns have ^wo forms for the genitive plural,
that in -um being used partitively (§ 346), and that in -i oftenest
objectively (§ 348) : —
m§,ior vestrum, the elder of you.
habetis ducem memorem vestri, oblitum sul (Cat. iv. 19), you have a leader
who thinks (is mindful) of you and forgets (is forgetful of) himself.
pars nostrum, apart (i.e. some) of us.
Note 1. — The genitives nostrum, vestrum, are occasionally used objectively (§ 348):
as, — cupidus vestrum (Verr. iii. 224:), fond of you ; custos vestrum (Cat. iii. 29), the guar-
dian of you (your guardian).
Note 2. — " One of themselves " is expressed by unus ex suis or ipsis (rarely ex se),
or iinus suorum.
c. The Latin has no personal pronouns of the third person except
the reflexive se. The want is supplied by a Demonstrative or Rela-
tive (§§ 296. 2, 308./).
§§ 296, 297] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 177
Demonstrative Pronouns
296. Demonstrative Pronouns are used either adjectively or
substantively.
1. As adjectives, they follow the rules for the agreement of adjec-
tives and are called Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives
(§§286,287): —
hoc proelio facto, after this battle was fought (this battle having been fought).
eodem proelio, in the same battle.
ex eis aedificils, out of those buildings.
2. As sabstantives, they are equivalent to personal pronouns. This
use is regular in the oblique cases, especially of is : —
Caesar et exercitus eius, Caisar and his army (not suus). [But, Caesar
exercitum suum dimisit, CoBsar disbanded his [own] army.]
SI obsides ab eis dentur (B, G. i. 14), if hostages should be given ^y them
(persons just spoken of).
hi sunt extra provinciam trans Rhodanum primi (id. i. 10), they (those just
mentioned) are the first [inhabitants] across the Rhone.
ille minimum propter adulescentiam poterat (id. i. 20), he (emphatic) had
very little power, on account of his youth.
a. An adjective pronoun usually agrees with an appositive or
predicate noun, if there be one, rather than with the word to which
it refers (cf. § 306): —
hie locus est tinus quo perfugiant ; hie portus, haec arx' haec ara sociorum
(Verr. v. 126), this is the only place to which they can flee for refuge; this
is the haven., this the citadel, this the altar of the allies.
rerum caput hoc erat, hie fons (Hor. Ep. i. 17. 45), this was the head of things,
this the source.
earn sapientiam interpretantur quam adhiic mortalis nemo est consecutus
[for id . . . quod] (Lael. 18), they explain that [thing] to be wisdom which
no man ever yet attained.
297. The main uses of hie, ille, iste, and is are the following: —
a. Hie is used of what is near the sx^eaker (in time, place, or
thought). It is hence called the demonstrative of the first j)er son.
It is sometimes used of the speaker himself; sometimes for "the
latter" of two persons or things mentioned in speech or writing;
more rarely for " the former," when that, though more remote on the
written page, is nearer the speaker in time, place, or thought. Often
it refers to that which has just been mentioned.
178 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§297,298
b. Ille is used of what is remote (in time, etc.) ; and is hence called
the demonstrative of the third ijerson.
It is sometimes used to mean " the former '' ; also (usually follow-
ing its noun) of what is famous or well-known ; often (especially the
neuter illud) to mean '' the following."
c. Iste is used of what is between the two others in remoteness :
often in allusion to the person addressed, — hence called the demon-
strative of the second person.
It especially refers to one's opponent (in court, etc.), and fre-
quently implies antagonism or contempt.
d. Is is a weaker demonstrative than the others and is especially
common as a personal pronoun. It does not denote any special object,
but refers to one just mentioned, or to be afterwards explained by a
relative. Often it is merely a correlative to the relative qui : —
venit mihi obviam tuus puer, is mihi litteras abs te reddidit (Att. ii. 1. 1),
your hoy met me, he delivered to me a letter from you.
eum quern, one whom.
eum consulem qui non dubitet (Cat. iv. 24), a consul who will not hesitate.
e. The pronouns hie, ille, and is are used to point in either direction,
back to something just mentioned or forward to something about to
be mentioned.
The neuter forms often refer to a clause, phrase, or idea : —
est illud quidem vel maximum, animum videre (Tusc. 1. 52), that is in truth
a very great thing, — to see the soul.
f. The demonstratives are sometimes used as pronouns of refer-
ence^ to indicate with emphasis a noun or phrase just mentioned : —
nullam virtus aliam mercedem deslderat praeter banc laudis (Arch. 28),
virtue wants no other reward except that [just mentioned] of praise.
Note. — But the ordinary English use of that of is hardly known in Latin. Com-
monly the genitive construction is continued without a pronoun, or some other con-
struction is preferred : —
cum el Siraonides artem memoriae poUiceretur : obllvionis, inquit, mallem (Fin. ii.
104), ivhen Simonides promised him the art of memory, "/ should prefer,"
said he, " [that] of forgetfulness."
Caesaris exercitus Pompeian5s ad Pharsalum vicit, the army of Csdsar defeated
that of Pompey (the Pompeians) at Pharsalus.
298. The main uses of idem and ipse are as follows : —
a. When a quality or act is ascribed with emphasis to a person
or thing already named, is or idem (often with the concessive quidem)
is used to indicate that person or thiner : —
§ 298] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 179
per unum servum et eum ex gladiatorio ludo (Att. i. 16. 5), by means of a
single slave, and that too one from the gladiatorial school.
vincula, et ea sempiterua (Cat. iv. 7), imprisonment, and that perpetual.
Ti. Gracchus regnum occupare conatus est, vel regnavit is quidem paucos
mensis (Lael. 41), Tiberius Gracchus tried to usurp royal power, or
rather he actually reigned a few months.
Note. — So rarely with ille : as, — nunc dextra ingeminans ictus, nunc ille sinistra
(Aen. V. 457), now dealing redoubled blows with his right hand, now (he) with his left.
[In imitation of the Homeric 6 7e: cf. Aen. v. 334; ix. 796.]
b. Idem, the same, is often used where the English requires an
adverb or adverbial phrase (also, too, yet, at the same time): —
oratio splendida et grandis et eadem in primis faceta (Brut. 273), an oration,
brilliant, able, and very witty too.
cum [haec] dicat, negat idem esse in Deo gratiam (N. D. i. 121), when he
says this, he denies also that there is mercy with God (he, the same man).
Note. — This is really the same use as in a above, but in this case the pronoun
cannot be represented by a pronoun in English.
c. The intensive ipse, self, is used with any of the other pronouns,
with a noun, or with a temporal adverb for the sake of emphasis : —
turpe mihi ipsi videbatur (Phil. i. 9), even to me (to me myself) it seemed
disgraceful.
id ipsum, that very thing ; quod ipsum, which of itself alone.
in eum ipsum locum, to that very place.
tum ipsum (Off. ii. 60), at that very time.
Note 1. — The emphasis of ipse is often expressed in English hjjust, very, mere, etc.
Note 2. — In English, the pronouns himself etc. are used both intensively (as, he
will come himself) and reflexively (as, he will kill himself) : in Latin the former would
be translated by ipse, the latter by se or sese.
d. Ipse is often used alone, substantively, as follows : —
1. As an emphatic pronoun of the third person : — ■
idque rei publicae praeclarum, ipsis gloriosum (Phil. ii. 27), and this was
splendid for the state, glorious for themselves.
omnes boni quantum in ipsis fuit (id. ii. 29), all good men so far as was in
their power (in themselves).
di capiti ipsius generique reservent (Aen. viii. 484), may the gods hold in
reserve [such a fate] to fall on his own and his son-in-law's head.
2. To emphasize an omitted subject of the first or second person : —
vobiscum ipsi recordamini (Phil. ii. 1), remember in your own minds (your-
selves with yourselves).
3. To distinguish the principal personage from subordinate persons : —
ipse dixit (cf. avrbs €<pa), he (the Master) said it.
Nomentanus erat super ipsum (Hor. S. ii. 8. 23), Nomentanus was above [the
host] himself [at table].
180 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§298-300
e. Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of a reflexive (see § 300. h).
f. Ipse usually agrees with the subject, even when the real empha-
sis in English is on a reflexive in the predicate : —
me ipse consolor (Lael. 10), I console myself. [Not me ipsum, as the Eng-
lish would lead us to expect.]
Reflexive Pronouns
299. The Reflexive Pronoun (se), and usually its corresponding
possessive (suus), are used in the predicate to refer to the subject
of the sentence or clause : —
se ex navi proiecit (B. G. iv. 25), he threw himself from the ship.
Dumnorigem ad se vocat (id. i. 20), he calls Dumnorlx to him.
sese castris tenebaut (id. iii. 24), they kept themselves in camp.
contemni se putant (Cat. M. 65), they think they are despised.
Caesar suas copias subdiicit (B. G. i. 22), Ccissar leads up his troops.
Caesar statuit sibi Rhenum esse transeuudum (id. iv. 16), Ccesar decided that
he must cross the Rhine (the Rhine must be crossed by himself).
a, For reflexives of the first and second persons the oblique cases
of the personal pronouns (mei, tui, etc.) and the corresponding pos-
ses sives (meus, tuus, etc.) are used : —
morti me obtuli (Mil. 94), I have exposed myself to death.
hinc te reglnae ad limina perfer (Aen. i. 389), do you go (bear yourself)
hence to the queen^s threshold.
quid est quod tantis nos in laboribus exerceamus (Arch. 28), what reason -'s
there why we should exert ourselves in so great toils ?
singulis vobis novenos ex turmis manipulisque vestri similes eligite (Liv.
xxi. 54), for each of you pick out from the squadrons and maniples nine
like yourselves.
300. In a subordinate clause of a complex sentence there is a
double use of Reflexives.
1. The reflexive may always be used to refer to the subject of its
own clause (Direct Reflexive) : —
iudicari potest quantum habeat in se boni constantia (B, G. i. 40), it can be
determined how much good firmness possesses (has in itself).
[Caesar] noluit eum locum vacare, ne GermanI e suls finibus translrent
(id. i. 28), Ccesar did not wish this place to lie vacant, for fear the Ger-
mans wc 'Id cj^oss over from their territories.
si qua significatio virtfltis eluceat ad quara se similis animus adplicet et
adiungat (Lael. 48), if any sign of virtue shine forth to which a similar
disposition may attach itself.
§300] REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS 181
2. If the subordinate clause expresses the words or thought of the
subject of the main clause, the reflexive is regularly used to refer to
that subject (Indirect Reflexive) : —
petienmt ut sibi liceret (B. G. 1. 30), they begged that it might he allowed
them (the petitioners).
Iccius nuntium mittit, nisi subsidium sibi submittatur (id. ii. 6), Iccius sends
a message that unless relief be furnished him, etc.
decima legio ei gratias egit, quod de se optimum itidicium fecisset (id. i. 41),
the tenth legion thanked hhn because [they said] he had expressed a high
opinion of them.
si obsides ab eis (the Helvetians) sibi (Csesar, who is the speaker) dentur, se
(C£esar) cum eis pacem esse facturum (id. i. 14), [Caesar said that] if
hostages were given him by them he would make peace with them. ■
Note. — Sometimes the person or thing to which the reflexive refers is not the
grammatical subject of the main clause, though it is in effect the subject of discourse :
Thus, — cum ipsi deo nihil minus gratum futurum sit quam non omnibus patere ad se
placandum viam (Legg. ii.25), since to God himself nothing will he less pleasing than
that the way to appease him should not he open to all men.
a. If the subordinate clause does not express the words or thought
of the main subj ect, the reflexive is not regularly used, though it is
occasionally found : —
sunt ita multi ut eos career capere non possit (Cat. ii. 22), they are so many
that the prison cannot hold them. [Here se could not be used ; so also
in the example following.]
ibi in proximis villis ita bipartite fuerunt, ut Tiberis inter eos et pons inter-
esset (id. iii. 5), there they stationed themselves in the nearest farm-
houses, in two divisions, in such a manner that the Tiber and the bridge
were between them (the divisions).
non fuit eo contentus quod ei praeter spem acciderat (Mpjiil. 25), he was not
content with that which had happened to him beyond his hope.
Compare ; qui fit, Maecenas, ut nemo, quam sibi sortem seu ratio dederit
seu fors obiecerit, ilia contentus vivat (Hor. S. i. 1. 1), how comes it,
Mcecenas, that nobody lives contented with that lot which choice has
assigned him or chance has thrown in his way ? [Here sibi is used to
put the thought into the mind of the discontented man.]
5. Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of an indirect reflexive,
either to avoid ambiguity or from carelessness ; and in later writers
is sometimes found instead of the direct reflexive : —
cur de sua virtute aut de ipsius diligentia desperarent (B. G. i. 40), why
■ (he asked) should they despair of their own courage or his diligence ?
omnia aut ipsos aut hostes populates (Q. C. iii. 5. 6), [they said that] either
they themselves or the enemy had laid all waste. [Direct reflexive. ]
182 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§ 300, 301
qui s6 ex his minus timidos existimari volebant, non se hostem vererl, sed
angustias itineris et magnitudinem silvaruni quae intercederent inter
ipsos (tlie persons referred to by se above) atque Ariovistum . . . timers
dicebant (B. G. i. 39), those of them who wished to he thought less timid
said they did not fear the enemy, but were afraid of the narrows and the
vast extent of the forests which were between themselves and Ariovistus.
audistis ntiper dicere legatos Tyndaritanos Mercurium qui sacris anuiver-.
sariis apud eos coleretur esse sublatum (Verr. iv. 84), you have just heard
the ambassadors from Tyndaris say that the statue of Mercury which was
worshipped with annual rites among them was taken away. [Here Cicero
wavers between apud eos colebatur, a remark of bis own, and apud se
coleretur, the words of the ambassadors. e5s does not strictly refer to
the ambassadors, but to the people — the TyndaritanL]
301. Special uses of the Reflexive are the following : —
a. The reflexive in a subordinate clause sometimes refers to the
subject of a suppressed main clause : —
Paetus omnis libros quos frater suus reliquisset mihi donavit (Att. ii. 1),
Pcetus gave me all the books which (as he said in the act of donation)
his brother had left him.
b. The reflexive may refer to any noun or pronoun in its own clause
which is so emphasized as to become the subject of discourse: —
Socratem Gives sul interf ecerunt, Socrates was put to death by his own fellow-
citizens.
qui poterat salus sua cuiquam non probari (Mil. 81), how can any one fail
to approve his own safety ? [In this and the preceding example the
emphasis is preserved in English by the change of voice.]
hunc si secGti erunt sui comites (Cat. ii. 10), this man, if his companions
follow him.
Note. — Occasionally the clause to which the reflexive really belongs is absorbed :
as, — studeo sanare sibi ipsos (Cat. ii. 17), / am anxious to cure these men for their oion
benefit (i.e. ut sani sibi sint),
c. Suus is used for one's own as emphatically opposed to that of
others, in any part of the sentence and with reference to any word
in it : —
suis flammis delete Fidenas (Liv. iv. 33), destroy Fidenm loith its own fires
(the fires kindled by that city, figuratively). [Cf. Cat. i. 32.]
d. The reflexive may depend upon a verbal noun or adjective: —
sui laus, self-praise.
habetis ducem memo rem vestri, oblitum sui (Cat. iv. 19), 7/ou have a leader
mindful of you, forgetful of himself.
perditi homines cum sui similibus servis (Phil. 1. 5), abandoned men with
slaves like themselves.
§§ 301, 302j POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS 183
e. The reflexive may refer to the subject implied in an infinitive
or verbal abstract used indefinitely : —
contentum suis rebus esse maximae sunt divitiae (Par. 51), the greatest
wealth is to be content with one''s own.
cui proposita sit conservatio sui (Fin. v. 37), one whose aim is self-preservation.
f. Inter se (nos, vos), among themselves (ourselves, yourselves), is
regularly used to express reciprocal action or relation : —
inter se confligunt (Cat. i. 25), contend with each other.
inter se continentur (Arch. 2), are joined to each other.
Possessive Pronouns
302. The Possessive Pronouns are derivative adjectives, which
take the gender, number, and case of the noun to which they
belong., not those of the possessor : —
haec ornamenta sunt mea (Val. iv. 4), these are my jewels, [mea is neuter
plural, though the speaker is a woman.]
mei sunt ordines, mea discriptio (Cat. M. 59), mine are the rows, mine the
arrangement, [mea is feminine, though the speaker is Cyrus.]
multa in nostro collegio praeclara (id. 64), [there are] many fine things in
our college, [nostro is neuter singular, though men are referred to.]
GermanI suas copias castris edtixerunt (B. G. i. 51), the Germans led their
troops out of the camp.
a. To express possession and similar ideas the possessive pro-
nouns are regularly used, not the genitive of the personal or refiexive
pronouns (§ 343. a) : —
domus mea, my house. [Not domus mei.]
pater noster, our father. [Not pater nostri.]
patrimonium tuum, your inheritance. [Not tui.]
Note 1. — Exceptions are rare in classic Latin, common in later writers. For
the use of a possessive pronoun instead of an Objective Genitive, see § 348. a.
Note 2. — The Interrogative Possessive cuius, -a, -um, occurs in poetry and early
Latin: as, — cuium pecus (Eel. iii. 1) , whose flock ? The genitive cuius is generally used
instead.
b. The possessives have often the acquired meaning of peculiar to,
favorable or propitious towards, the person or thing spoken of : —
[petere] ut sua dementia ac mansuetudine utatur (B. G. ii. 14), they asked
(they said) that he would shoio his [wonted] clemency and humanity.
ignorant! quem portum petat nullus suus ventus est (Sen. Ep. 71. 3), to
him who knows not what port he is bound to, no wind is fair (his own).
tempore tuo pugnasti (Liv. xxxviii. 45. 10), did you fight at a fit time?
Note. — This use is merely a natural development of the meaning of the possess-
ive, and the pronoun may often be rendered literally.
184 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§302,303
c. The possessives are regularly omitted (like other pronouns)
when they are plainly implied in the context : —
socium fraudavit, he cheated his imrtner. [socium suum would be distinctive,
his partner (and not another's) ; suum socium, emphatic, his own partner. ]
d. Possessive pronouns and adjectives impl3dng possession are
oiten used substantively to denote some special class or relation : —
nostri, our countrymen^ or men of our party.
suos continebat (B. G. i. 15), he held his men in check.
flamma extrema meorum (Aen. ii. 431), last flames of my countrymen.
SuUani, the veterans of Sulla''s army; Pompeiani, the partisans of Pompey.
Note. — There is no reason to suppose an .ellipsis here. The adjective becomes
a noun like other adjectives (see § 288).
e. A possessive pronoun or an adjective implying possession may
take an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number,
and case with an implied noun or pronoun : —
mea solius causa (Ter. Heaut. 129), for my sake only.
in nostro omnium fletu (Mil. 92), amid the tears of us all.
ex Anniana Milonis domo (Att. iv. 3. 3), out of Annius MiWs house. [Equiva-
lent to ex Anni Mil5nis domo.]
nostra omnium patria, the country of us all.
suum ipsius regnum, his own kingdom.
For the special reflexive use of the possessive suus, see §§ 299, 300.
Relative Pronouns
303. A Relative Pronoun agrees with some word expressed or implied either in
its own clause, or (ofteu) in the antecedent (demonstrative) clause. In the fullest con-
struction the antecedent is expressed in both clauses, with more commonly a corre-
sponding demonstrative to which the relative refers : as, — iter in ea loca facere coepit,
quibus in locis esse Germanos andiebat (B. G. iv. 7), he began to march into those
PLACES in which places. Ae heard the Germans were. But one of these nouns is com-
monly omitted.
The antecedent is in Latin very frequently (rarely in English) found in the relative
clause, but more commonly in the antecedent clause.
Thus relatives serve two uses at the same time : —
1. As Nouns (or Adjectives) in their own clause: as, — ei qui Alesiae obsldebantur
(B. G. vii. 77), those ivho xoere besieged at Alesia.
2. As Connectives : as, — T. Balventius, qui superiore anno primum pllum duxerat
(id. V. 35), Titus Balventius, who the year before had been a centurion of the first rank.
When the antecedent is in a different sentence, the relative is often equivalent
to a demonstrative with a conjunction : as, — quae cum ita sint (=et cum ea ita sint),
[and] since this is so.
The subordinating force did not belong to the relative originally, but was developed
from an interrogative or indefinite meaning specialized by use. But the subordinat-
ing and tlie later connective force were acquired by qui at such an early period that
the steps of the process cannot now be traced.
§§304-306] RELATIVE PRONOUNS 185
304. A Relative Pronoun indicates a relation between its own
clause and some substantive. This substantive is called the Ante-
cedent of the relative.
Thus, in the sentence —
eum nihil delectabat quod fas esset (Mil. 43), nothing pleased him which was
rights
the relative quod connects its antecedent nihil with the predicate fas
esset, indicating a relation betAveen the two.
305. A Relative agrees with its Antecedent in Grender and
Number; but its Case depends on its construction in the clause
in which it stands : —
ea dies quam constituerat venit (B. G. i. 8), that day which he had appointed
came.
pontem qui erat ad Genavam iubet rescindi (id. i. 7), he orders the bridge
vjhich was near Geneva to be cut down.
AduatucI, de quibus supra dixiinus, domum reverterunt (id, ii. 29), the
Aduatuci, of whom we have spoken above, returned home.
Note. — This rule applies to all relative words so far as they are variable in form:
as, qualis, quantus, quicumque, etc.
a. If a relative has two or more antecedents, it follows the rules
for the agreement of predicate adjectives (§§ 286, 287^ : —
filiurn et filiam, quos valde dilexit, uno tempore amisit, he lost at the same
time a son and a daughter whom he dearly loved.
grandes natu matres et parvull liberi, quorum iitrorumque aetas misericor-
diam nostram requirit (Verr. v. 129), aged matrons and little children,
whose time of life in each case demands our compassion.
otium atque divitiae, quae prima mortales putant (Sail. Cat. 36), idleness and
wealth, lohich men count the first (objects of desire),
eae fruges et fructus quos terra gignit (N. D. ii. 37), those fruits and crops
which the earth produces.
For the Person of the verb agreeing with the Relative, see § 316. a.
306. A Relative generally agrees in gender and number with an
appositive or predicate noun in its own clause, rather than with
an antecedent of different gender or number (cf. § 296. a): —
mare etiam quern Neptimum esse dicebas (N. D. iii. 62), the sea, too, which
you said was Neptune. [Not quod.]
Th6bae ipsae, quod Boeotiae caput est (Liv. xlii. 44), even Thebes, luhich is
the chief city of Bceotia. [Not quae.]
Note. — This rule is occasionally violated : as, — flumen quod appellatur Tamesis
(B. G. V. 11), a river which is called the Thames.
186 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§306,807
a, A relative occasionally agrees with its antecedent in case (by
attraction) : —
SI aliquid agas e5rum quorum consuesti (Fam. v. 14), if you should do some-
thing of what you are used to do. [For eorum quae.]
Note. — Occasionally the antecedent is attracted into the case of the relative: —
urbem quam statuo vestra est (Aen. i. 573), the city which I am founding is yours.
Naucratem, quern con venire volul, in navi non erat (PI. Am. 1009), Naucrates,
ivhom I loished to meet, was not on hoai-d the ship.
h, A relative may agree in gender and number with an implied
antecedent : —
quartum genus ... qui in vetere aere alieno vacillant (Cat. ii. 21), a fourth
class, who are staggering under old debts.
unus ex eo nuniero qui paratl erant (lug. 35), one of the number [of those]
who were ready.
coniuravere paucl, de qua [i.e. coniuratione] dicam (Sail. Cat. 18), a few
have conspired, of which [conspiracy] I will speak.
Note. — So regularly when the antecedent is implied in a possessive pronoun : as,
— nostra acta, quos tyrannos vocas (Vat. 29), the deeds of iis, whom you call tyrants.
[Here quos agrees with the nostrum (genitive plural) implied in nostra.]
Antecedent of the Relative
307. The Antecedent Noun sometimes appears in both clauses ;
but usually only in the one that precedes. Sometimes it is
wholly omitted.
a. The antecedent noun may be repeated in the relative clause : —
loci natiira erat haec quem locum nostri delegerant (B. G. ii. 18), the nature
of the ground which our men had chosen was this.
b. The antecedent noun may appear only in the relative clause,
agreeing with the relative in case : —
quas res in consulatii nostro gessimus attigit hic versibus (Arch. 28), he has
touched in verse the things which I did in my consulship.
quae prima innocentis mihi defensio est oblata suscepi (Sull. 92), I under-
took the first defence of an innocent man that was offered me.
Note. — In this case the relative clause usually comes first (cf. § 308. d) and a
demonstrative usually stands in the antecedent clause : —
quae pars civitatis calamitatem populo Romano intulerat, ea princeps poenas per-
solvit (B. G. i. 12), that part of the state which had brought disaster on the
Roman people was the first to pay the penalty.
quae gratia currum fuit vivis, eadem sequitur (Aen. vi. 653), the same pleasure
that they took in chariots in their lifetime follows them (after death).
qui fit ut nemo, quam sibi sortem ratio demerit, ilia contentus vivat (cf . Hor. S. i.
1. 1), horo does it happen that no one lives contented with the lot which choice
has assigned him?
§§ 307, 308] RELATIVE PRONOUNS 187
c. The antecedent may be omitted, especially if it is indefinite :
qui decimae legionis aquilam ferebat (B. G. iv. 25), [the man] who bore the
eagle of the tenth legion.
qui cognoscerent misit (id. i. 21), he sent [men] to reconnoitre.
d. The phrase id quod or quae res may be used (instead of quod
alone) to refer to a group of words or an idea : —
[obtrectatum est] Gablnio dicam anne Pompeio ? an utrlque — id quod est
verius? (Manil. 57), an affront has been offered — shall I say to Gabinius
or to Pompey f or — which is truer — to both f
multum sunt in venationibus, quae res vires alit (B. G. iv. 1), they spend
much time in hunting, which [practice] increases their strength.
Note. — But quod alone often occurs : as, — Cassius noster, quod mihi magflae volup-
tati fult, hostem reiecerat (Fam. ii. 10), our friend Cassius — which was a great satis-
faction to me — had driven hack the enemy.
e. The antecedent noun, when in apposition with the main clause,
or with some word of it, is put in the relative clause : —
firm! [amici], cuius generis est magna penuria (Lael. 62), steadfast friends,
a class of which there is great lack (of which class there is, etc.).
/. A predicate adj ective (especially a superlative) belonging to the
antecedent may stand in the relative clause : —
vasa ea quae pulcherrima apud eum viderat (Yerr. iv. 63) , those most beauti-
ful vessels which he had seen at his house. [Nearly equivalent to the
vessels of which he had seen some very beautiful ones. ]
Special Uses of the Relative
308. In the use of Relatives, the following points are to be
observed : —
a. The relative is never omitted in Latin, as it often is in Eng-
lish : —
liber quem mihi dedisti, the book you gave me.
is sum qui semper fui, I am the same man I always was.
eo in loco est de quo tibi loctitus sum, he is in the place I told you of.
&. When two relative clauses are connected by a copulative con-
junction, a relative pronoun sometimes stands in the first and a
demonstrative in the last : —
erat profectus obviam legionibus Macedonicis quattuor, quas sibi conciliare
pecunia cogitabat easque ad urbem adducere (Fam. xii. 23. 2), he had
set out to meet four legions from Macedonia, which he thought to vnn over
to himself by a gift of money and to lead (them) to the city.
188 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§ 308
c. A relative clause in Latin often takes tlie place of some other
construction in English, — particularly of a participle, an appositive,
or a noun of agency : —
leges quae nunc sunt, the existing laws (the laws which now exist).
Caesar qui Galliam vicit, Ccesar the conqueror of Gaul.
iusta gloria qui est fructus virtutis (Pison. 57), true glory [which is] tJie fruit
of virtue.
ills qui petit, the plaintiff {he who sues),
qui .legit, a reader (one who reads).
d. In formal or emphatic discourse, the relative clause usually
comes first, often containing the antecedent noun (cf. § 307. b) : —
quae pars civitatis Helvetiae insignem calamitatem populo Romano intulerat,
ea princeps poenas persolvit (B. G. i. 12), the portion of the Helvetian
state which had brought a serious disaster on the Roman people was the
first to pay the penalty.
Note. — In colloquial language, the relative clause in such cases often contains a
redundant demonstrative pronoun which logically belongs in the antecedent clause:
as, — ille qui consul te cavet, diiitiue uti bene licet partum bene (Plant. Rud. 1240) ,
he who is on his guard, he may long enjoy what he ?ias well obtained.
e. The relative with an abstract noun may be used in a parenthet-
ical clause to characterize a person^ like the English such : —
quae vestra prudentia est (Gael. 45), such is your loisdom. [Equivalent to
pr5 vestra prudentia.]
audisses comoedos vel lectorem vel lyristen, vel, quae mea liberalitas, onines
(Plin. Ep. i. 15), you would have listened to comedians, or a reader, or a
lyre-player, or — such is my liberality — to all of them.
/. A relative pronoun (or adverb) often stands at the beginning of
an independent sentence or clause, serving to connect it with the
sentence or clause that precedes : —
Caesar statuit exspectandam classem; quae ubi convenit (B. G. iii. 14),
Coesar decided that he must wait for the fleet; and when this had come
together, etc.
quae qui audiebant, and those who heard this (which things),
quae cum ita sint, and since this is so.
quorum quod simile factum (Cat. iv. 13), lohat deed of theirs like this?
quo cum venisset, and when he had come there (whither when he had come).
Note. — This arrangement is common even when another relative or an interrog-
ative follows. The relative may usually be translated by an English demonstrative,
with or without a7id.
g. A relative adverb is regularly used in referring to an antecedent
in the Locative case ; so, often, to express any relation of place instead
of the formal relative pronoun : —
§§308-310] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 189
mortuus Cfimis qu5 se contulerat (Liv, ii. 21), having died at Cumm, whither
he had retired. [Here in quam urbem might be used, but not in quas.]
locus quo aditus noii erat, a place to which (whither) there was no access.
regna unde genus ducis (Aen. v. 801), the kingdom from which you derive
your race.
unde petitur, the defendant (he from whom something is demanded).
h. The relatives qui, qualis, quantus, quot, etc. are often rendered
simply by as in English : —
idem quod semper, the same as always.
cum esset talis qualem te esse video (Mur. 32), since he was such a man as 1
see you are.
tanta dimicatio quanta numquam fait (Att. vii. 1. 2), such a fight as never
was before.
tot mala quot sidera (Ov. Tr. i. 5. 47), as many troubles as stars in the sky.
i. The general construction of relatives is found in clauses intro-
duced by relative adverbs : as, ubi, quo, unde, cum, quare.
Indefinite Pronouns
309. The Indefinite Pronouns are used to indicate that some
person or thing is meant, without designating what one.
310. Quis, quispiam, aliquis, quidam, are particular indefinites^ mean-
ing some., a certain^ any. Of these, quis, ayiy one, is least definite,
and quidam, a certain one., most definite ; aliquis and quispiam, some
one., stand between the two : —
dixerit quis (quispiam), some one may say.
aliqui philosophi ita putant, some philosophers think so. [quidam would mean
certain persons defined to the speaker's mind, though not named.]
habitant hie quaedam mulieres pauperculae (Ter. Ad. 647), some poor women
live here [i.e. some women he knows of; some women or other would
be aliquae or nescio quae].
a. The indefinite quis is rare except in the combinations si quis, if
any ; nisi quis, if om.y . . . not ; ne quis, lest any, in order that none ;
num quis (ecquis), ivhether any ; and in relative clauses.
b. The compounds quispiam and aliquis are often used instead of
quis after si, nisi, ne, and num, and are rather more emphatic : —
quid sT hoc quispiam voluit dens (Ter. Eun. 875), what if some god had
desired this f
nisi alicui suoruui negotium daret (Nep. Dion. 8. 2), unless he should employ
some one of his friends.
cavebat Pompeius omnia, ne aliquid vos timeretis (Mil. 66), Pompey took
every precaution, so that you might have no fear
190 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§311-313
311. In a, 2? articular negative aliquis (aliqui), some one (some)^ is
regularly used, where in a universal negative quisquam, aiit/ one,
or ullus, any, would be required : —
iustitia numquam nocet cuiquam (Fin. i. 50), justice never does harm to any-
body, [alicui would mean to somebody who possesses it.]
non sine aliquo metu, not without some fear. But, — sine ullo metii, without
any fear.
cum aliquid non habeas (Tusc. i. 88), when there is something you have not.
Note, — The same distinction holds between quis and aliquis on the one hand, and
quisquam (ullus) on the other, in conditional and other sentences when a negative is
expressed or suggested : —
si quisquam, ille sapiens fuit (Lael. 9), if any man was (ever) a sage, he was.
dum praesidia iilla fuerunt (Rose. Am. 126), ivhile there were any armed forces.
si quid in te peccavi (Att. iii. 15. 4), if I have done wrong towards you [in any
particular case (see § 310)].
312. Quivis or quilibet {any one you will), quisquam, and the cor-
responding adjective ullus, any at all, are general indefinites.
Quivis and quilibet are used chiefly in affirmative clauses, quisquam
and iillus in clauses where a universal negative is expressed or sug-
gested : —
non cuivis homini contingit adire Corinthum (Hor. Ep. 1. 17. 36), it is not every
man''s luck to go to Corinth. [n5n cuiquam would mean not any ??mn's.]
quemlibet mode aliquem (Acad. ii. 132), anybody you will, provided it be
somebody.
si quisquam est timidus, is ego sum (Fam. vi. 14. 1), if any man is timorous,
I am he.
SI tempus est iillum iiire hominis necandi (Mil. 9), if there is any occasion
whatever when homicide is justifiable.
Note. — The use of the indefinites is very various, and must be learned from the
Lexicon and from practice. The choice among them may depend merely on the point
of view of the speaker, so that they are often practically interchangeable. The differ-
ences are (with few exceptions) those of logic, not of syntax.
313. The distributives quisque {every), uterque {each of two), and
unus quisque {every single one) are used in general assertions : —
bonus liber melior est quisque quo maior (Plin. Ep. i. 20. 4), the larger a
good book is, the better (each good book is better in proportion, etc.).
ambo exercitus suas quisque abeunt domos(Liv. ii. 7. 1), both armies go
away, every man to his home.
uterque utrique erat exercitus in conspectu. (B. G. vii. 35), each army was
in sight of the other (each to each),
poniteante oculos unumquemque regum (Par. i. 11), set before your eyes each
of the kings.
§§ 313, 314] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 191
a, . Quisque regularly stands in a dependent clause, if there is one: —
quo quisque est sollertior, hoc docet iracundius (Rose. Com. 31), the keener-
witted a man is, the more impatiently he teaches.
Note. — Quisque is generally postpositive i : as, suum cuique, to every man his own.
&. Quisque is idiomatically used with superlatives and with ordinal
numerals : —
nobilissimus quisque, all the noblest (one after the other in the order of their
nobility). 2
primo quoque tempore (Rose. Am. 36), at the very first opportunity.
antlquissimum quodque tempus (B. G. i. 45), the most ancient times.
deeimus quisque (id. v. 52), one in ten.
Note 1. — Two superlatives with quisque imply a proportion : as, — sapientissimus
quisque aequissimo animo moritur (Cat. M. 83), the wisest men die with the greatest
equanimity.
Note 2. — Quotus quisque has the signification of how many, pray? often in a dis-
paraging sense {how few) : —
quotus enim quisque disertus? quotus quisque iuris peritus est (Plane. 62), for how
few are eloquent! how few are learned in the law I
quotus enim istud quisque fecisset (Lig. 26), /or how many would have done this?
[i.e. scarcely anybody would have done it].
314. Nemo, no one, is used of persons only —
1. As a substantive : —
neminem acctisat, he accuses no one.
2. As an adjective pronoun instead of nullus : —
vir nemo bonus (Legg. ii. 41), no good man.
Note. — Even when used as a substantive, nemo may take a noun in apposition;
as, — nemo scriptor, nobody [who is] a writer.
a, Nullus, no, is commonly an adjective; but in the genitive and
ablative singular it is regularly used instead of the corresponding
cases of nemo, and in the plural it may be either an adjective or a
substantive : —
niillum mittitur telum (B. C. ii. 13), not a missile is thrown.
niillo hoste prohibente (B. G. iii. 6), without opposition from the enemy.
nullius insector calamitatem (Phil. ii. 98), I persecute the misfortune of no one.
niillo adiuvante (id. x. 4), with the help of no one (no one helping).
nulli erant praedones (Flace. 28), there were no pirates.
nuUi eximentur (Pison. 94), none shall be taken away.
For non nemo, non nullus (non nulli), see § 326. a.
1 Tliat is, it does not stand first in its clause.
2 As, in taking things one by one off a pile, each thing is uppermost when you
take it.
192 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§315
Alius and Alter
315. Alius means simply other^ another (of an indefinite num-
ber); alter, the other (of two), often tiie second in a seiies ; , ceteri
and reliqui, all the rest, the others ; alteruter, one of the two : — ■
propterea quod aliud iter haberent nullum (B. G. i. 7), because (as they
said) they had no other way.
uni epistulae respond!, venio ad alteram (Fam. ii. 17. 6), one letter I have
answered, I come to the other.
alterum genus (Cat. ii. 19), the second class.
iecissem ipse me potius in profundum ut ceteros conservarem (Sest. 45), I
should have rather thrown myself into the deep to save the rest.
Servilius consul, reliquique magistratus (B. C. iii. 21), Servilius the consul
and the rest of the magistrates.
cum sit necesse alterum utrum vincere (Fam. vi. 3), since it must be that one
of the two should prevail.
Note. — Alter is often used, especially with negatives, in reference to an indefinite
number where one is opposed to all the rest taken singly : —
dum ne sit te ditior alter (Hor. S. i. 1. 40), so long as another is not richer than
you (lit. the other, there being at the moment only two persons considered) .
non ut magis alter, amicus (id. i. 5. 33), afnend such that no other is mo7'e so.
a. The expressions alter . . . alter, the one . . . the other, alius . . .
alius, one . . . another, may be used in pairs to denote eitlier division
of a group or reciprocity of action : —
alteri dimicaut, alter! victorem timent (Fam. vi. 3), one party fights, the
other fears the victor.
alteram alteri praesidio esse iusserat (B. C. iii. 89), he had ordered each (of
the two legions) to support the other.
alii gladiis adoriuntur, alii fragmentis saeptorum (Sest. 79), some make an
attack with swords, others loith fragments of the railings.
alius ex alio causam quaerit (B. G. vi. 87), they ask each other the reason.
alius alium percontamur (PI. Stich. 370), we keep asking each other.
b. Alius and alter are often used to express one as well as another
(the other^ of the objects referred to: —
alter consulum, one of the [two] consuls.
aliud est maledlcere, aliud accusare (Gael. 6), it is one thing to slander,
another to accuse.
c. Alius repeated in another case, or with an adverb from the same
stem, expresses briefly a double statement : —
alius aliud petit, one man seeks one thing, another another (another seeks
another thing),
iussit alios alibi fodere (Liv. xliv. 33), he ordered different persons to dig in
different places.
alii alio loco resistebant (B. C. ii. 39), some halted in on^ place, some in another.
§§ 316, 317] VERB AND SUBJECT 193
VERBS
Agreement of Verb and Subject
316. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Per-
son : —
ego statuo, I resolve. senatus decrevit, the senate ordered.
silent leges inter arma (Mil. 11), the laws are dumb in time of war.
Note. — In verb-forms containing a participle, the participle agrees with the sub-
ject in gender and number (§ 286): —
oratio est habita, the plea was delivered. bellum exortum est, a war arose.
a, A verb having a relative as its subject takes the person of the
expressed or implied antecedent : —
adsum qui feci (Aen. ix. 427), here am I who did it. ,
tu, qui scis, omnem diligentiam adhibebis (Att. v. 2. 3), you, who know^
will use all diligence.
videte quam despiciamur omnes qui sumus e mfmicipiis (Phil. iii. 15), see
how all of us are scorned who are from the free towns.
h. A verb sometimes agrees in number (and a participle in the verb-
form in number and gender) with an appositive or predicate noun : —
amantium irae amoris integratio est (Ter. And. 555), the quarrels of lovers
are the renewal of love.
non omnis error stultitia dicenda est (Div. ii. 90), not everij error should he
called folly.
Corinthus lumen Graeciae exstinctum est (cf. Manil. 11), Corinth^ the light
of Greece., is put out.
Double or Collective Subject
317. Two or more Singular Subjects take a verb in the Plural:
pater et avus mortui sunt, his father and grandfather are dead.
Note. — So rarely (by synesis, § 280. a) when to a singular subject is attached an
ablative with cum: as, — dux 'cum aliquot principibus capiuntur (Liv. xxi. 60), the
general and several leading men are taken.
a. When subjects are of different perso?is, the verb is usually in
the first person rather than the seco7id, and in the seco7id rather than
the third : —
si tu et Tullia valetis ego et Cicer5 valemus (Fam. xiv. 5), if you and Tullia
are well, Cicero and I are well. [Notice that the first person is also
first in order, not last, as by courtesy in English.]
Note. — In case of different genders a participle in a verb-form follows the rule for
predicate adjectives (see § 287. 2-4).
194 SYNTAX: VERBS [§317
h. If the subjects are connected by disjunctives (§ 223. a), or if
they are considered as a single whole, the verb is usually singular : —
quern neque fides neque ius iurandum neque ilium misericordia repressit
(Ter, Ad. 306), not faith, nor oath, nay, nor mercy, checked him.
senatus populusque Romanus intellegit (Fain. v. 8), the Roman senate and
people understand. [But, neque Caesar neque ego habiti essemus (id.
xi. 20), neither Ccesar nor I should have been considered.]
fama et vita innocentis defenditur (Rose. Am. 16), the reputation and life of an
innocent man are defended.
est in eo virtus et probitas et summum ofiBcium summaque observantia (Fam.
xiii. 28 a. 2), in him are to be found worth, uprightness, the highest sense
of duty, and the greatest devotion.
Note. — So almost always when the subjects are abstract nouns.
c. When a verb belongs to two or more subjects separately, it often
agrees with one and is understood with the others : —
intercedit M. Antonius Q. Cassius tribuni plebis (B. C. i. 2), Mark Antony
and Quintus Cassius, tribunes of the people, interpose.
hoc mihi et Peripatetic! et vetus Academia concedit (Acad. ii. 113), this both
the Peripatetic philosophers and the Old Academy grant me.
d. A collective noun commonly takes a verb in the singular ; but
the plural is often found with collective nouns when individuals are
thought of (§ 280. a) : —
(1) senatus haec intellegit (Cat. i. 2), the senate is aware of this.
ad hlberna exercitus redit (Liv. xxi, 22), the army returns to winter-quarters.
plebes a patribus secessit (Sail. Cat. 33), the plebs seceded from the patricians.
(2) pars praedas agebant (lug. 32), apart brought in booty.
cum tanta multitudo lapides conicerent (B. G. ii. 6), when such a crowd were
throwing stones.
Note 1. — The point of view may change in the course of a sentence : as, — equita-
tum omnem . . . quern habebat praemittit, qui videant (B. G. i. 15), he sent ahead all
the cavab^y he had, to see (who should see) .
Note 2. — The singular of a noun regularly denoting an individual is sometimes
used collectively to denote a group : as, Poenus, the Carthaginians; miles, the soldiery;
eques, the cavalry.
e. Quisque, each, and unus quisque, every single one, have very often
a plural verb, but may be considered as in partitive apposition with a
plural subject implied (cf. § 282. a): —
sibi quisque habeant quod suum est (PI. Cure. 180), let every one keep his
own (let them keep every man his own).
Note. — So also uterque, eacA (o/it«o), and the reciprocal phrases alius . . . alium,
alter . . . alterum (§315. a).
§§ 818, 319] OMISSION OF SUBJECT OR VERB 196
Omission of Subject or Verb
318. The Subject of the Verb is sometimes omitted : —
a. A Personal pronoun, as subject, is usually omitted unless em-
phatic : —
loquor, I speak. But, ego loquor, it is I that speak.
6. An indefinite subject is often omitted: — crederes, you would
have supposed ; putamus, we (people) think ; dicunt, ferunt, perhibent,
they say.
c, A passive verb is often used impersonally without a subject ex-
pressed or understood (§ 208. d)i —
diu atque acriter pugnatum est (B. G. i. 26), they fought long and vigorously.
319. The verb is sometimes omitted : —
a, Dico, facio, ago, and other common verbs are often omitted in
familiar phrases : —
quorsum haec [spectant], what does this aim at?
ex ungue leonem [cognosces], you will know a lion by his claw.
quid multa, what need of many words ? (why should I say much ?)
quid ? quod, what of this, that . . . ? (what shall I say of this, that . . . ?)
[A form of transition,]
Aeolus haec contra (Aen. i. 76), ^olus thus [spoke] in reply.
turn Cotta [inquit], then said Cotta.
di meliSra [duint] 1 (Cat. M. 47), Heaven forfend (may the gods grant better
things) !
unde [venis] et quo [tendis] ? (Hor. S. ii. 4. 1), where from and whither
hound? [Cf. id. i. 9. 62 for the full form.]
h. The copula sum is very commonly omitted in the present indica-
tive and present infinitive, rarely (except by late authors) in the sub-
junctive : —
tu coniunx (Aen. iv. 113), you [are] his wife.
quid ergo ? audacissimus ego ex omnibus (Rose. Am. 2), what then ? am I
the boldest of all ?
omnia praeclara rara (Lael. 79), all the best things are rare.
potest incidere saepe contentio et comparatio de duobus honestis utrum
honestius (Off. i. 152), there may often occur a comparison of two
honorable actions, as to which is the more honorable. [Here, if any
copula were expressed, it would be sit, but the direct question would
be complete without any.]
accipe quae peragenda prius (Aen, vi, 136), hear what is first to be accon^
plished. [Direct s quae peragenda prius ?]
196 syntax; particles [§§320,321
Particles
Adverbs
320. The proper function of Adverbs, as petrified case-forms, is to modify Verbs :
as, — celeriter ire, to go with speed. It is from this use that they derive their name
(adverbium, from ad, to, and verbum, verb; see § 241. 6). They also modify adjectives,
showing in what manner or degree the quality described is manifested: as, splendide
mendax, gloriously false. More rarely they modify other adverbs: as, nimis graviter,
too severely. Many adverbs, especially relative adverbs, serve as connectives, and
are hardly to be distinguished from conjunctions (see § 20. g. n.).i
321. Adverbs are used to modify Verbs, Adjectives, and other
Adverbs.
a. A Demonstrative or Kelative adverb is often equivalent to the
corresponding Pronoun with a preposition (see § 308. ff) : —
eo [ = in ea] imponit vasa (lug. 75), upon them (thither, thereon, on the
l»easts) he puts the camp-utensils.
eo mllites imponere (B. G. i. 42), to put soldiers upon them (the horses),
apud eos quo [ = ad quos] se contulit (Verr, iv. 38), among those to whom
(whither) he resorted.
qui eum necasset unde [ = quo] ipse natus esset (Rose. Am. 71), one who should
have killed his own father (him whence he had his birth).
o condiei5nes miseras administrandarum provinciarum ubi [ — in quibus]
severitas periculosa est (Flacc. 87), O ! wretched terms of managing the
provinces, where strictness is dangerous.
b. The participles dictum and factum^ when used as nouns, are regu-
larly modified by adverbs rather than by adjectives ; so occasionally
other perfect participles : —
praeclare facta (Nep. Timoth. 1), glorious deeds (things gloriously done),
multa facete dicta (Off. i. 104), many witty sayings.
c. A noun is sometimes used as an adjective, and may then be modi-
fied by an adverb : —
victor exercitus, the victorious army.
admodum puer, quite a hoy (young).
magis vir, more of a man (more manly).
populum late r6gem (Aen. i. 21), a people ruling far and ivide.
Note. — Very rarely adverbs are used with nouns which have no adjective force
but which contain a verbal idea: —
hinc abitio (Plaut. Rud. 503), a going away from here.
quid cogitem de obviam itione (Att. xiii. 50), what I think about going to meet
(him). [Pei-haps felt as a compound.]
' For the derivation and classification of adrerbs, see §§ 214-217.
§§ 321, 322] ADVERBS 197
d, A few adverbs appear to be used like adjectives. Such are
obviam, palam, sometimes contra^ and occasionally others : —
fit obviam Clodio (Mil. 29), he falls in with (becomes in the way of) Clodius.
[Cf. the adjective obvius : as, — si ille obvius ei futurus non erat (id. 47),
if he was not likely to fall in with hi^n.]
haec commemoro quae sunt palam (Pison. 11), I mention these facts, which
are well-known.
alia probfibilia, contra alia dicimus (Off. ii. 7), we call some things probable,
others the opposite (not probable). [In this use, contra contradicts a
previous adjective, and so in a manner repeats it.]
eri semper lenitas (Ter. And. 175), my master'' s constant (always) gentleness.
[An imitation of a Greek construction.]
Note. — In some cases one can hardly say whether the adverb is treated as an
adjective modifying the noun, or the noun modified is treated as an adjective (as in
c above).
For propius, pridie, palam, and other adverbs used as prepositions, see § 432.
322. The following adverbs require special notice : —
a, Etiam (et lam), also, even, is stronger than quoque, also, and
usually precedes the emphatic word, while quoque follows it : —
non verbis solum sed etiam vl (Verr. ii. 64), not only by words, but also by
force.
hoc quoque maleficium (Rose. Am. 117), this crime too.
b. Nunc ^ means definitely now, in the immediate present, and is
rarely used of the immediate past.
lam means now, already, at length, presently, and includes a refer-
ence to previous time through which the state of things described has
been or will be reached. It may be used of any time. With nega-
tives iam means (no) longer.
Turn, then, is correlative to cum, when, and may be used of any
time. Tunc, then, at that tiine, is a strengthened form of tum
(ftum-ce, cf . nunc) : —
ut iam antea dixi, as I have already said before.
si iam satis aetatis atque roboris haberet (Kosc". Am. 149), if he had attained
a suitable age and strength (lit. if he now had, as he will have by and by),
non est iam lenitati locus, there is no longer room for mercy.
quod iam erat mstitutum, which had come to be a practice (had now been
established),
nunc quideni deleta est, tunc florebat (Lael. 13), noio ('tis true) she [Greece]
is ruined, then she was in her glory.
tum cum regnabat, at the time when he reigned.
1 For fnum-ce ; cf. tunc (for ftum-ce).
198 SYNTAX: PARTICLES [§§322,323
c, Certo means certainly^ certe (usually) at least, at any rate: —
certo scio, I know for a certainty ; ego certe, I at least.
d, Primum means first {first in order, or for the first time), and
implies a series of events or acts. Primo means at first, as opposed
to afterwards, giving prominence merely to the difference of time : —
hoc primum sentio, this I hold in the first place.
aedis prim5 ruere rebamur, at first we thought the house was falling.
Note. — In enumerations, primum (or primo) is often followed by deinde, secondly, in
the next place, or by turn, thent or by both in succession. Deinde may be several times
repeated {secondly^ thirdly, etc.). The series is often closed by denique or postremo,
lastly , finally . Thus, — primum de genere belli, deinde de magnitudine, turn de im-
peratore deligendo (Manil. 6), first of the kind of war, next of its magnitude, then of
the choice of a commander.
e, Quidem, indeed, gives emphasis, and often has a concessive mean-
ing, especially when followed by sed, autem, etc. i —
hoc quidem videre licet (Lael. 54), this surely one may see. [Emphatic]
[securitas] specie quidem blanda, sed reapse multis locis repudianda (id. 47),
[tranquillity) in appearance., "'tis true, attractive, but in reality to be
rejected for many reasons. [Concessive.]
/. Ne . . . quidem means not even or not . . . either. The emphatic
word or words must stand between ne and quidem : ■ —
sed ne lugurtha quidem quietus erat (lug. 51), but Jugurtha was not quiet
either.
ego autem ne irasci possum quidem lis quos valdS am5 (Att. li. 19. 1), but 1
cannot even get angry with those whom I love very much.
Note. — Equidem has the same senses as quidem, but is in Cicero confined to the
first person. Thus, — equidem adprobabo (Fam. 11. 3. 2), I for my part shall approve.
CONJUNCTIONS i
323. Copulative and Disjunctive Conjunctions connect similar
constructions, and are regularly follovred by the same case or mood
that precedes them: —
scriptum senatui et populo (Cat. iii. 10), written to the senate and people.
ut eas [partis] sauares et confirmares (Mil. 68), that you might cure and
strengthen those parts.
neque niea prudentia neque hiimanls cSnsiliis frStus (Cat. ii. 29), relying
neither on my own foresight nor 07i human wisdom.
1 For the classification of conjunctions, see §§ 223, 224.
§ 323] CONJUNCTIONS 199
a. Conjunctions of Comparison (as ut, quam, tamquam, quasi) also
commonly connect similar constructions : —
bis igitm- quam physicis potius credendum existimas (Div. ii. 37), do you
think these are more to be trusted than the natural philosophers?
hominem callidiorem vidi neminem quam Phormionem (Ter. Pli. 591), a
shrewder man I never saw than Phormio (cf. § 407).
ut non omne vinuin sic non omnis natura vetustate coacescit (Cat. M. 65),
as every wine does not sour with age, so [does] not every nature.
in me quasi in tyrannum (Phil. xiv. 15), against me as against a tyrant.
b. Two or more coordinate words, phrases, or sentences are often
put together without the use of conjunctions (Asyndeton, § 601. c) :
omnes di, homines, all gods and men.
summi, medil, infimi, the highest, the middle class, and the lowest.
iOra, leges, agios, libertatem nobis reliquerunt (B. G. vii. 77), they have left
us our rights, our laws, our fields, our liberty.
c. lo Where there are more than two coordinate words etc., a con-
Junction, if used, is ordinarily used with all (or all except the first) : —
aut aere alieno aut magnitiidine tributorum aut iniuria potentiorum (B. G.
vi. 13), by debt, excessive taxation, or oppression on the part of the
powerful.
at sunt morosi et anxii et iracundi et difficiles senes (Cat. M. 65), but (you
say) old men are capricious, solicitous, choleric, and fussy.
2. But words are often so divided into groups fchat the members
of the groups omit the conjunction (or express it), while the groups
themselves express the conjunction (or omit it) : —
propudium illud et portentum, L. Ant5nius insigne odium omnium homi-
num (Phil. xiv. 8), that wretch and monster, Lucius Antonius, the abomi-
nation of all men.
utrumque egit graviter, auctoritate et offensione animi non acerba (Lael.
77), ^ acted in both cases with dignity, without loss of authority and
with no bitterness of feeling.
3. The enclitic -que is sometimes used with the last member of a
series, even when there is nO grouping apparent : —
voce voltu motuque (Brut. 110), by voice, expression, and gesture.
ctiram consilium vigilantiamque (Phil. vii. 20), care, wisdom, and vigilance.
quorum auctoritatem dignitatem voluntatemque defenderas (Fam, i. 7. 2),
whose dignity, honor, and loishes you had defended.
d. Two adjectives belonging to the same noun are regularly con
nected by a conjunction ^ —
multae et graves causae, many weighty reasons.
vir liber ac fortis (Rep. ii. 34), a free and brave man.
200 SYNTAX- PARTICLES [§§323,324
e. Often the same conjunction is repeated in two coordinate clauses •
et . . . et (-que . - - -que), hotk . . . and.
aut . . . aut, eithtr . . . or.
vel . . . vel, either . . . or. [Examples m § 324. e.]
sive (seu) . . . sive (seu), whether . . . or. [Examples in §824./.]
/. Many adverbs are similarly used in pairs, as conjimctions, partly
or wholly losing their adverbial force : —
nunc . . . nunc, turn . . . turn, iam , . iam, now , .. = now
modo . . . modo, now . . . now.
simul . . . simul, at the same time . , . at the same time.
qua . . . qua, now . . . now, both . . . and, alike [this] and [that],
modo ait modo negat (Ter. Eun. 714), noio he says yes, now no.
simul gratias agit, simul gratulatur (Q. C. vi. 7c 16), he thanks him and at
the same time congratulates him.
erumpunt saepe vitia amicorum turn in ipsos amicos turn in alienOs (Laei.
76), the. faults of friends sometimes break out, now against their friends
themselves, now against strangers.
qua marls qua feminas (PL Mil. 1113), both males and females.
g. Certain relative and demonstrative adverbs are used correlar
tively as conjunctions: —
ut (rel.) . . . ita, s!c (dem.), as {while) . . . so (yet).
tarn (dem.) . . . quam (rel.), so (as) ... as.
cum (rel.) . . . turn (dem.), while . o . so also; not only . . . but also.
324. The following Conjunctions require notice : —
a. Et, and, simply connects words or clauses ; -que covibines more
closely into one connected whole, -que is always enclitic to the word
connected or to the first or second of two or more words connected :
cum coniugibus et liberls, with [their] wives and children.
ferro Ignique, with fire and sword. [Not as separate things, but as the
combined means of devastation.]
aqua et ignl interdictus, forbidden the use of water and fire. [In a legal
formula, where they are considered separately.]
b, Atque (ac), and, adds with some emphasis or with some implied
reflection on the word added. Hence it is often equivalent to and so.
and yet, and besides, and then. But these distinctions depend very
much upon the feeling of the speaker, and are often untranslatable : —
omnia honesta atque inhonesta, everything honorable and dishonorable (too,
without the slightest distinction),
iisus atque disciplina, practice and theory beside (the more Important or less
expected).
atque ego credo, and yet I believe (for my part).
§ 324] CONJUNCTIONS 201
c, Atque (ac), in the sense of as, than, is also used after words of
comparison and likeness : —
simul atque, as soon as.
non secus (uon aliter) ac si, not otherwise tJian if.
pro eo ac debui, as was my duty (in accordance as I ought),
aeque ac tu, as much as you.
baud minus ac iussi f aciuiit, they do just as they are ordered*
For and not, see § 328. a.
d, Sed and the more emphatic verum or vero, hut, are used to intro-
duce something in opposition to what precedes, especially after iiQ^d,-
tives (not this . . . but something else). At (old form ast) introduces
with emphasis a new point in an argument, but is also used like the
others ; sometimes it means at least. At enim is almost always used
to introduce a supposed objection which is presently to be overthrown.
At is more rarely used alone in this sense.
Autem, however, now, is the weakest of the adversatives, and often
marks a mere transition and has hardly any adversative force percep-
tible. Atqui, ho2vever, now, sometimes introduces an objection and
sometimes a fresh step in the reasoning. Quod si, hut if, and if, now if,
is used to continue an argument.
Note. — Et, -que, and atque (ac) are sometimes used where the English idiom would
suggest but, especially when a negative clause is followed by an affirmative clause
continuing the same thought: as, — impetum hostes ferre non potuerunt ac terga
verterunt (B. G. iv. 35), the enemy could not stand the onset, but turned their backs.
e, Aut, or, excludes the alternative ; vel (an old imperative of volo)
and -ve give a choice between two alternatives. But this distinction
is not always observed : —
sed quis ego sum aut quae est in me facultas (Lael. 17), but who am I or
what special capacity have I f [Here vel could not be used, because in
fact a negative is implied and both alternatives are excluded.]
aut bibat aut abeat (Tusc. v. 118), let him drink or (if he won't do that, then
let him) quit. [Here vel would mean, let him do either as he chooses.]
vita talis fuit vel fortuna vel gloria (Lael. 12), his life was such either in
respect to fortune or fame (whichever way you look at it),
si propinquos habeant imbecilliores vel animo vel fortuna (id. 70), if they
have relatives beneath them either in spirit or in fortune (in either respect,
for example, or in both).
aut deorum aut regum filii (id. 70), sons either of gods or of kings. [Here
one case would exclude the other.] .
implicati vel usfi diuturno vel etiam officiis (id. 85), entangled either by
close intimacy or even by obligations. [Here the second case might
exclude the first.]
202 SYNTAX: THE SENTENCE [§324
/. Sive (seu) is properly used in disjunctive conditions (if either . . .
or if), but also with, alternative words and clauses, especially with
two names for the same thing : —
sive inridens sive quod ita putaret (De Or. i. 91), either laughingly or because
he really thought so.
sive deae seu sint volucres (Aen. iii. 262), whether they (the Harpies) are
goddesses or birds.
g, Vel, even^ for instance, is often used as an intensive particle with
no alternative force : as, — vel minimus, the very least.
h. Nam and namque, for, usually introduce a real reason, formally
expressed, for a previous statement; enim (always postpositive), a
less important explanatory circumstance put in by the way ; etenim
{for, you see ; for, you know ; for, mind you) and its negative neque
enim introduce something self-evident or needing no proof.
(ea vita) quae est sola vita nominanda. nam dum sumus incliisi in his
compagibus corporis, mtinere quodam necessitatis et gravi opere per-
fungimur; est enim animus caelestis, etc. (Cat. M. 77), (that life)
which alone deserves to be called life ; for so long as we are confined by
the body'^s frame, we perform a sort of necessary function and heavy
task. For the soul is from heaven.
harum trium sententiarum ntilli prorsus adsentlor. nee enim ilia prima
vera est (Lael. 57), for of course that first one isn''t true.
i. Ergo, therefore, is used of things proved formally, but often has
a weakened force. Igitur, then, accordingly, is weaker than ergo and
is used in passing from one stage of an argument to another. Itaque,
therefore, accordingly, and so, is used in proofs or inferences from the
nature of things rather than in formal logical proof. All of these are
often used merely to resume a train of thought broken by a digression
or parenthesis. Idcirco, for this reaso7i, on this account, is regularly
followed (or preceded) by a correlative (as, quia, quod, si, ut, ne), and
refers to the special point introduced by the correlative.
malum mihi videtur esse mors, est miserum igitur, quoniam malum, certe.
ergo et ei quibus evenit iam ut morerentur et ei quibus eventiirum est
miseri. mihi ita videtur. nemo ergo non miser. (Tusc. i. 9.) Death
seems to me to be an evil. '•It is wretched, then, since it is an evil. ' Certainly.
' Therefore, all those who have already died and who are to die hereafter are
wretched.'' So it appears to me. ' There is no one, therefore, who is not
wretched. '
quia natura mutari non potest, idcirco verae amicitiae sempiternae sunt
(Lael. 32), because nature cannot be changed, for this reason true friend-
ships are eternal.
§§324-326] NEGATIVE PARTICLES 203
j, Autem, enim, and vero are postpositive ^; so generally igitur and
often tamen.
Jc, Two conjunctions of similar meaning are often used together
for the sake of emphasis or to bind a sentence more closely to what
precedes : as, at vero, but in truth, hut surely, still, hoivever; itaque
ergo, accordingly then; namque, for ; et-enim, for, you see, for of
course (§ 324. A).
For Conjunctions introducing Subordinate Clauses, see Syntax.
Negative Particles ^
325. In the use of the Negative Particles, the following points
are to be observed : —
326. Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative : —
nemo non audiet, every one will hear (nobody will not hear).
n5n possum non confiterl (Fam. ix. 14. 1), I must confess.
ut . . . ne non timere quidem sine aliquo timore possimus (Mil. 2), so that we
cannot even be relieved of fear without some fear.
a. Many compounds or phrases of which non is the first part express
an indefinite affirmative : —
non ntillus, some; non niilll (=aliqui), some few.
non nihil (= aliquid), something.
non nemo (= aliquot), sundry persons.
non uumquam (= aliquotiens), sometimes.
h. Two negatives of which the second is non (belonging to the
predicate) express a univei^sal affirmative : —
nemo non, nullus non, nobody [does] not., i.e. everybody [does]. [Of. non
nemo, not nobody, i.e. somebody.]
nihil non, everything. [Cf. non nihil, something.]
numquam non, never not, i.e. always. [Cf. non numquam, sometimes.]
c. A statement is often made emphatic by denying its contrary
(Litotes, § 641) : — •
non semel ( = saepissime) , often enough (not once only).
non haec sine numine divom eveniunt (Aen. ii. 777), these things do not
occur ivithout the will of the gods.
haec non nimis exquiro (Att. vii. 18. 3), not very much, i.e. very little.
Note. — Compare non nullus, non nemo, etc., in a above.
1 That is, they do not stand first in their clause.
2 For a list of Negative Particles, see § 217. e.
204 SYNTAX: PARTICLES [§§327-329
327. A general negation is not destroyed —
1. By a following ne . . . quidem, not even, or non modo, not only : —
numquam tu non modo otium, sed ne bellum quidem nisi nefarium coneuplsti
(Cat. i. 25), not only have you never desired repose, hut you ham never
desired any war except one which was infamous.
2. By succeeding negatives each, introducing a separate subordi-
nate member : —
eaque nesciebant nee ubi nee qualia essent (Tusc. iii. 4), they knew not where
or of what kind these things were.
3. By neque introducing a coordinate member : —
nequeo satis mirari neque conicere (Ter. Eun. 547), I cannot wonder enough
nor conjecture.
328. The negative is frequently joined with a conjunction or
with an indefinite pronoun or adverb. Hence the forms of nega-
tion in Latin differ from those in English in many expressions : —
nulli (neutri) credo (not non credo ulli), I do not believe either (I believe
neither).
sine uUo periculo (less commonly cum nuUo), with no danger (without any
danger).
nihil umquam audlvl iticundius, I never heard anything more amusing.
Cf. neg5 haec esse vera (not dico non esse), I say this is not true (I deny, etc.).
a. In the second of two connected ideas, and not is regularly ex-
pressed by neque (nee), not by et nOn : —
hostes terga verterunt, neque prius fugere destiterunt (B. G. 1. 53), the enemy
turned and fled, and did not stop fleeing until, etc.
Note. — Similarly nee quisquam is regularly used for et nemo; neque Sllus for et
nuUus; nee umquam for et numquam; neve (neu), for et ne.
329. The particle immo, nai/, is used to contradict some part of
a preceding statement or question, or its form ; in the latter case,
the same statement is often repeated in a stronger form, so that
immo becomes nearly equivalent to yes {nay but^ nay rather): —
causa igitur non bona est? immo optima (Att. ix. 7. 4), is the cause then not
a good one ? on the contrary, the best.
a. Minus, less (especially with si, if, quo, in order that), and minimS,
least, often have a negative force : —
si minus possunt, if they cannot. [For quo minus, see § 558. 6.]
audacissimus ego ex omnibus? minime (Rose. Am. 2), am, I the boldest of
tJiem all ? by no means (not at all) .
§§330-332] FORMS OF INTERROGATION 205
QUESTIONS
Forms of Interrogation
330. Questions are either Direct or Indirect.
1. A Direct Question gives the exact words of the speaker : —
quid est ? what is it f ubi sum ? where am I?
2. An Indirect Question gives the substance of the question, adapted
to the form of the sentence in which it is quoted. It depends on a verb
or other expression of asking, doubting, knoiving, or the like : —
rogavit quid esset, he asked what it was. [Direct : quid est, what is it ?]
nescio ubi sim, I know not where I am. [Direct : ubi sum, lohere am If]
331. Questions in Latin are introduced by special interrogative
words, and are not distinguished by the order of words, as in
English.!
Note. — The form of Indirect Questions (in English introduced by whether, or by
an interrogative pronoun or adverb) is in Latin the same as that of Direct ; the differ-
ence being only in the verb, which in indirect questions is regularly in the Subjunc-
tive (§574).
332. A question of simple fact, requiring the answer 7/es or no,
is formed by adding the enclitic -ne to the emphatic word : —
tune id veritus es (Q. Fr. i. 8. 1), did you /ear that ?
hicine vir usquam nisi in patria morietur (Mil. 104), shall this man die any-
where hut in his native land ?
is tibi mortemne videtur aut dolorem timers (Tusc. v. 88), does he seem to
you to fear death or pain ?
a. The interrogative particle -ne is sometimes omitted : —
patera tua consilia non sentis (Cat. i. 1), do you not see that your schemes are
manifest f (you do not see, eh ?)
Note. — In such cases, as no sign of interrogation appears, it is often doubtful
whether the sentence is a question or an ironical statement.
b. When the enclitic -ne is added to a negative word, as in nonne,
an affirmative answer is expected. The particle num suggests a nega-
tive answer : —
nonne animadvertis (N. D. iii. 89), do you not observe?
num dubium est (Rose. Am. 107), there is no doubt, is there?
Note. —In Indirect Questions num commonly loses its peculiar force and means
simply whether.
1 For a list of Interrogative Particles, see § 217. d.
206 SYNTAX: QUESTIONS [§§332-335
c. The particle -ne often when added to the verb, less commonly
when added to some other word, has the force of nonne : —
meministine me in senatu dicere (Cat. i. 7), don^t you remember my saying
in the Senate ?
rectene interpreter sententiam tuam (Tusc. iii. 87), do I not rightly interpret
your meaning?
Note 1. — This was evidently the original meaning of -ne ; but in most cases the
negative force was lost and -ne was used merely to express a question. So the English
interrogative no ? shades off into eh ?
Note 2. — The enclitic -ne is sometimes added to other interrogative words : as,
utrumne, whether? anne, or; quantane (Hor. S. ii. 3. 2>H),how hig? quone malo (id. ii. 3.
295), hy what curse?
333. A question concerning some special circumstance is formed
by prefixing to the sentence an interrogative pronoun or adverb
as in English (§ 152) : —
quid exspectas (Cat. ii. 18), what are you looking forward to?
quo igitur haec spectant (Fam. vi. 6. 11), whither then is all this tending?
icare, ubi es (Ov. M. viii. 232), Icarus, where are you?
quod vectigal vobis ttitum fuit ? quem socium defendistis ? cui praesidio
classibus vestris fuistis ? (Manil. 32), what revenue has been safe for you ?
what ally have you defended ? whom have you guarded with your fleets ?
Note. — A question of this form becomes an exclamation by changing the tone of
the voice: as, —
qualis vir erat ! what a man he was !
quot calamitates passi sumus! how many misfortunes we have suffered!
quo studio consentiunt (Cat. iv. 15), with what zeal they unite!
a. The particles -nam (enclitic) and tandem may be added to inter-
rogative pronouns and adverbs for the sake of emphasis : —
quisnam est, pray who is it ? [quis tandem est ? would be stronger. ]
ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. i. 9), where in the world are we?
in qua tandem urbe hoc disputant (Mil. 7), in what city, pray, do they main-
tain this ?
Note — Tandem is sometimes added to verbs: —
ain tandem (Fam. ix. 21), you donH say so! (say you so, pray?)
itane tandem uxorem duxit Antipho (Ter. Ph. 231), so then, eh? Antipho's got
mairied.
Double Questions
334. A Double or Alternative Question is an inquiry as to
which of two or more supposed cases is the true one.
335. In Double or Alternative Questions, utrum ,or -ne, whether,
stands in the first member ; an, anne, o?-, annon, necne, or not^ in the
second ; and usually an in the third, if there be one : —
§335] DOUBLE QUESTIONS 207
utrum nescis, an pro nihilo id putas (Fam. x. 26), is it that you donH know,
or do you think nothing of it ?
vosne L. Domitium an vos Domitius desemit (B. C. ii. 32), did you desert
Lucius Domitius, or did Domitius desert yon ?
quaero servosne an liberos (Rose. Am. 74), 1 ask whether slaves or free.
utrum hostem an vos an fortunam utriusque populi ignoratis (Liv. xxi. 10),
is it the enemy, or yourselves, or the fortune of the two peoples, that you
do not know f
Note. — Anne for an is rare. Necne is rare in direct questions, but in indirect ques-
tions it is commoner ttian annon. In poetry -ne . . . -ne sometimes occurs.
a. The interrogative particle is often omitted in the first mem-
ber ; in which case an or -ne (anne, necne) may stand in the second: —
Gabinio dicam anne Pompeio an utrique (Manil. 57), shall I say to Gahinius,
or to Pompey, or to both f
sunt haec tua verba necne (Tusc. iii. 41), are these your words or not?
quaesivi a Catillna in conventu apud M. Laecam fuisset necne (Cat. ii. 13),
I asked Catiline whether he had been at the meeting at Marcus L(Bca''s
or not.
b. Sometimes the first member is omitted or implied, and an (anne)
alone asks the question, — usually with indignation or surprise : —
an tu miseros putas illos (Tusc. i. 13), what ! do you think thosemen wretched ?
an iste umquam de se bonam spem habuisset, nisi de vobis malam opinionem
animo imbibisset (Verr. i. 42), would he ever have had good hopes about
himself unless he had conceived an evil opinion of you ?
c. Sometimes the second member is omitted or implied, and utrum
may ask a question to which there is no alternative : —
utrum est in clarissimls civibus is, quern . . . (Flacc. 45), is he among the
noblest citizens, whom, etc.?
d. The following table exhibits the various forms of alternative
questions : —
utrum ... an ... an
utrum . . . annon (necne, see § 33& h.)
... an (anne)
-ne ... an
. . . -ne, necne
-ne . . . necne
-ne ... -ne
Note. — From double {alternative) questions must be distinguished those which are
in themselves single, but of which some detail is alternative. These have the common
disjunctive particles aut or vel (-ve). Thus, — quaero num iniuste aut improbe fecerit
(Off. iii. 54), I ask whether he acted unjustly or even dishonestly. Here there is no
double" question. The only inquiry is whether the man did either of the two things
supposed, not which of the two he did.
208 SYNTAX: QUESTIONS [§§336,337
Question and Answer
336. There is no one Latin word in common use meaning sim-
ply yes or no. In answering a question affirmatively^ the verb or
some other emphatic word is generally repeated ; in answering
negatively^ the verb, etc., with non or a similar negative : —
valetne, is he well? valet, yes (he is well).
eratne tecum, was he with youf non erat, no (he was not).
num quidnain novi? there is nothing new, is there? nihil sane, oh! nothing.
a. An intensive or negative particle, a phrase, or a clause is some^
times used to answer a direct question : —
1. For YES : —
vero, in truths true, no doubt, yes. ita vero, ce^-tainly (so in truth), etc.
etiam, even so, yes, etc. sane quidem, yes, no doubt, etc.
ita, so, true, etc. ita est, it is so, true, etc.
sane, surely, no doubt, doubtless, etc.
certe, certainly, unquestionably, etc.
factum, true, iVs a fact, youWe right, etc. (lit., it was done).
2. For NO : —
non, not so. null5 mods, by no means.
minime, not at all (lit., in the smallest degree, cf. § 329. a).
minime vero, no, not by any means; oh! no, etc.
non quidem, why, no; certainly not, etc.
non hercle v6ro, why, gracious, no ! (certainly not, by Hercules I)
Examples are : —
quidnam? an laudati5nes? ita, why, what? is it eulogies? just so.
aut etiam aut non respondere (Acad. ii. 104), to answer (categorically) ijes or no-
estue ut fertur forma? sane (Ter. Eun. 361), is she as handsome as they
say she is ? (is her heauty as it is said ?) oh! yes.
miser ergo Archelaus? certe si iniustus (Tusc. v. 35), was Archelaus wretched
then ? certainly, if he was unjust.
an haec contemnitis ? minime (De Or. ii. 295), do you despise these things f not
at all.
volucribusne et ferls? minime vero (Tusc. i. 104), to the birds and beasts?
why, of course not.
ex tui animi sententia tu uxorem habes ? non hercle, ex mei animi sententia
(De Or. ii. 260), Lord! no, etc.
337. In answering a double question, one member of the alterna-
tive, or some part of it, must be repeated : —
vidisti an de audita nuntias? — egomet vidi (Plant. Merc. 902), did you see
it or are you repeating something you have heard? — I saw it myself.
§838] CONSTRUCTION OF CASES 209
CONSTRUCTION OF CASES
338. The Cases of nouns express their relations to other words in the sentence.
The most primitive way of expressing such relations was by mere juxtaposition of uuin-
flected forms. From this arose in time composition, i.e. the growing together of steins,
by means of which a complex expression arises with its parts mutually dependent.
Thus such a complex as armi-gero- came to mean amn-hearing ; fidi-cen-, playing on the
lyre. Later, Cases were formed by means of suffixes expressing more definitely such
relations, and Syntax began. But the primitive method of composition still continues
to hold an important place even m the most highly developed languages.
Originally the Indo-European family of languages, to which Latin belongs, had at
least seven case-forms, besides the Vocative. But in Latin the Locative and the Instru-
mental were lost i except in a few words (where they remained without being recog-
nized as cases), and their functions were divided among the other cases.
The Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative express the simplest and perhaps the
earliest case-relations. The Nominative is the case of the Subject, and generally ends
in -s. The Vocative, usually without a termination, or like the Nominative (§ 38. a) ^
perhaps never had a suftix of its own.2 The Accusative, most frequently formed by the
sufidx -m, originally connected the noun loosely with the verb-idea, not necessarily
expressed by a verb proper, but as well by a noun or an adjective (see § 386).
The Genitive appears to have expressed a great variety of relations and to have
had no single primitive meaning ; and the same may be true of the Dative.
The other cases perhaps at first expressed relations of place or direction (to, from,
AT, with), though this is not clear in all instances. The earlier meanings, however,
have become confused with each other, and in many instances the cases are no longer
distinguishable in meaning or in form. Thus the Locative was for the most part lost
from its confusion with the Dative and Ablative ; and its function was often performed
by the Ablative, which is freely used to express the place where (§ 421), To indicate
the case-relations — especially those of place — more precisely, Prepositions (originally
adverbs) gradually came into use. The case-endings, thus losing something of their
significance, were less distinctly pronounced as time went on (see § 36, phonetic decay),
and prepositions have finally superseded them in the modern languages derived from
Latin. But in Latin a large and various body of relations was still expressed by ease-
forms. It is to be noticed that in their literal use cases tended to adopt the preposition,
and in fheiv figurative uses to retain the old construction. (See Ablative of Separation,
§§402-404; Ablative of Place and Time, §421 If.)
The word casus, case, is a translation of the Greek tttwo-is, a falling aioay (from the
erect position). The term irrQais was originally applied to the Oblique Cases (§ 35. g),
to mark them as variations from the Nominative which was called 6p6i^, erect (casus
rectus). The later name Noyninative (casus nomindtivus) is from nomino, and means
the naming case. The other case-names (except Ablative) are of Greek origin. The
name Genitive (casus genetivus) is a translation of yepiK-^ [vrQa-is], from y^vos (class),
and refers to the class to which a thing belongs. Dative (casus datlvus, from do) is
translated from ^otlkti, and means the case of giving. Accusative (accusdtlvus, from
acciiso) is a mistranslation of alrtariK-n (the case of causing), from alria, cause, and
meant to the Romans the case of accusing. The name Vocative (vocdtivus, from voco)
is translated from KXrjTiK-^ (the case of calling). The name Ablative (abldtivus, from
ablatus, aufero) means taking from. This case the Greek had lost.
1 Some of the endings, however, which in Latin are assigned to the dative and
ablative are doubtless of locative or instrumental origin (see p. 34, footnote).
* The e-vocative of the second declension is a form of the stem (§ 45. c).
210 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§389-341
NOMINATIVE CASE
339. The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative : —
Caesar Ehenum transire decreverat (B. G. iv. 17), CcBsar had determined to
cross the Rhine.
For the omission of a pronominal subject, see § 295.^.
a. The nominative may be used in exclamations : —
en dextra fidesque (Aen. iv. 597), lo, the faith and plighted wo7xl !
ecce tuae litterae de Varrone (Att. xiii. 16), lo and behold, your letters about
Varro !
Note. — But the accusative is more common (§ 397. d).
VOCATIVE CASE
340. The Vocative is the case of direct address : —
Tiberine pater, t6, sancte, precor (Liv. ii. 10), father Tiber, thee, holy one,
I pray.
res omnis mihi tecum erit, Hortensi (Verr. i. 33), my whole attention will be
devoted to you, Hortensius.
a. A noun in the nominative in apposition with the subject of
the imperative mood is sometimes used instead of the vocative : —
audi tu, populus Albanus (Liv. i. 24), hear, thou people of Alba.
b. The vocative of an adjective is sometimes used in poetry instead
of the nominative, where the verb is in the second person : — •
quo moriture ruis (Aen. x. 811), whither art thou rushing to thy doom?
censorem trabeate salutas (Pers. iii. 29), robed you salute the censor.
c. The vocative macte is used as a predicate in the phrase macte
esto (virtu te), success attend your (valor) : —
iuberem te macte virtiite esse (Liv. ii. 12), I should bid you go on and prosper
in your valor.
macte nova virtute puer (Aen. ix. 641), success attend your valor, boy!
Note. — As the original quantity of the final e in macte is not determinable, it may
be that the word was an adverb, as in bene est and the like.
GENITIVE CASE
341. The Genitive is regularly used to express the relation of
one noun to another. Hence it is sometimes called the adjective
case, to distinguish it from the Dative and the Ablative, which
may be called adverbial cases.
I. Genitive with Nouns:
§§341-343] POSSESSIVE GENITIVE 211
The uses of the Genitive may be classified as follows : —
1. Of Possession (§343).
2. Of Material (§ 344).
3. Of Quality (§ 345).
4. Of the Whole, after words designating a Part
(Partitive, § 346).
5. With Nouns of Action and Feeling (§ 348).
II. Genitive with Adjectives: ( J" ^f f ^^^f^^ Adjectives (or Verbals) (§ 349).
[ 2. Of Specification (later use) (§ 349. d).
m. Genitive with Verts: ( l' 9,1 Mem«7, Feeling etc. (§§ 350, 351 384)
\ 2. Of Accusing, etc. (Charge or Penalty) (§ 3o2).
GENITIVE WITH NOUNS
342. A noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning
the same person or thing, is put in the Genitive.
This relation is most frequently expressed in English by the prepo-
sition of, sometimes by the English genitive (or possessive) case : —
libri Ciceronis, the books of Cicero, or Cicero''s books.
inimici Caesaris, C(jesar''s enemies, or the enemies of CcBsar.
talentum auri, a talent of gold.
vir summae virtutis, a man of the greatest courage.
But observe the following equivalents : —
vacatio laboris, a respite from toil.
petitio consulatus, candidacy for the consulship.
regnum civitatis, royal power over the state.
Possessive Genitive
343. The Possessive Genitive denotes the person or thing to
which an object, quality, feeling, or action belongs: — .
Alexandri canis, Alexander's dog.
potentia Pompei (Sail. Cat. 19), Pompey''s power.
Ariovisti mors (B. G. v. 29), the death of Ariovistus.
perditorum temeritas (Mil. 22), the recklessness of desperate men.
Note 1. — The Possessive Genitive may denote (1) the actual owner (as in Alex-
ander's dog) or author (as in Cicero's writings), or (2) the person or thing that possesses
some feeling or quality or does some act (as in Cicero's eloquence, the strength of the
bridge, Catiline's evil deeds). In the latter use it is sometimes called the Subjective
Genitive ; but this term properly includes the possessive genitive and several other
genitive constructions (nearly all, in fact, except the Objective Genitive, § 347).
Note 2. — The noun limited is understood in a few expressions : —
ad Castoris [aedes] (Quinct. 17), at the [temple] of Castor. [Of. St. Paul's.]
Flaccus Claudi, Flaccus [slave] of Claudius.
Hectoris Andromache (Aen. iii. 319), Hector's [wife] Andromache.
212 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§343
a. For the genitive of possession a possessive or derivative adjec-
tive is often used, — regularly for the possessive genitive of the per-
sonal pronouns (§ 302. a) : —
liber meus, my book. [Not liber mei.]
aUena pericula, other men's dangers. [But also aliorum.]
Sullana tempora, the times of Sulla. [Oftener Sullae. J
b. The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, connected .
with its noun by a verb (Fredicate Genitive) : —
haec doraus est patris mei, this house is my father'' s.
iam me Pompei totum esse scis (Fam. ii. 13), you know I am now all for Pom-
pey (all Pompey's).
summa laus et tua et Bruti est (Fam. xii. 4. 2), the highest praise is due both
to you and to Brutus (is both yours and Brutus's).
compendi facere, to save (make of saving),
lucri facere, to get the benefit of (make of profit).
Note. — These genitives bear the same relation to the examples in § 343 that a
predicate noun hears to an appositive (§§ 282, 283).
c. An infinitive or a clause, when used as a noun, is often limited
by a genitive in the predicate : —
neque sui iudici [erat] discernere (B. C. i. 35), nor was it for his judgment to
decide (nor did it belong to his judgment),
cuiusvis hominis est errare (Phil. xii. 5), it is any man's [liability] to err.
negavit moris esse Graecorum, ut in convlvio virorum accumberent mulieres
(Verr. ii. 1. 66)^ he said it was not the custom of the Greeks for women to
appear as guests (recline) at the banquets of men.
sed timidi est optare necem (Ov. M. iv. 115), but His the coward's part to
wish for death.
stulti erat sperare, suadere impudentis (Phil. ii. 23), it vms folly (the part of
a fool) to hope, effrontery to urge.
sapientis est pauca loqui, it is wise (the part of a wise man) to say little.
[Not sapiens (neuter) est, etc.]
Note 1. — This construction is regnlar with adjectives of the third declension
instead of the neuter nominative (see the last two examples).
Note 2. — A derivative or possessive adjective may be used for the genitire in this
construction, and must be used for the genitive of a personal pronoun: —
mentiri non est meum [not mei], it is not for me to lie.
humanum [for hominis] est errare, it is man^s nature to err (to err is human).
d. A limiting genitive is sometimes used instead of a noun in appo-
sition {Appositional Genitive) (§ 282) : —
nomen insaniae (for nomen insania), the word madness.
oppidum Antiochiae (for oppidum Antiochia, the regular form), the city of
Antioch.
§§344-346] PARTITIVE GENITIVE 213
Genitive of Material
344. The Genitive may denote the Substance or Material of
which a thing consists (cf. § 403): —
taleutum ami, a talent of gold. flumina lactis, rivers of milk.
Genitive of Quality
345. The Genitive is used to denote Quality, but only when
the quality is modified by an adjective : —
vir summae virtutis, a man of the highest courage. [But not vir virtutis.]
magnae est deliberationis, it is an affair of great deliberation.
magni formica laboris (Hor. S. i. 1. 33), the ant [a creature] of great toil.
ille autem sui iudici (Nep. Att. 9), but he [a man] of independent (liis own)
judgment.
Note. — Compare Ablative of Quality (§ 415) . lu expressions of quality, the geni-
tive or the ablative may often be used indifferently : as, praestanti prudentia vir, a
man of surpassing wisdom ; maximi animi homo, a man of the greatest courage. In
classic prose, however, the genitive of quality is much less common than the abla-
tive; it is practically confined to expressions of measure or number, to a phrase with
eius, and to nouns modified by magnus, maximus, summus, or tantus. In general the
Genitive is used rather of essential, the Ablative of special or incidental characteristics.
a. The genitive of quality is found in the adjective phrases eius
modi, cuius modi (equivalent to talis, such ; qualis, of what sort): —
eius modi sunt tempestates consecutae, uti (B. G. iii. 29), such storms fol-
lowed, that, etc.
b. The genitive of quality, with numerals, is used to define meas-
ures of length, depth, etc. (Genitive of Measure): —
fossa trium pedum, a trench of three feet [in depth],
mtirus sedecim pedum, a wall of sixteen feet [high].
For the Genitive of Quality used to express indefinite value, see § 417.
Partitive Genitive
346. Words denoting a Part are followed by the Genitive of
the Whole to which the part belongs.
a. Partitive words, followed by the genitive, are —
1. Nouns or Pronouns (cf. also 3 below) : —
pars militum, part of the soldiers, quis nostrum, which of us f
nihil erat reliqui, there was nothing left.
nemo eorum (B. G. vii. 66), not a man of them.
magnam partem eorum interiecerunt (id. ii. 23) , they killed a large part of them.
214 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§346
2. Numerals, Comparatives, Superlatives, and Pronominal words like
alius, alter, nuUus, etc.: —
tinus tribunorum, one of the tribunes (see c below).
sapientum octavus (Hor. S. ii. 3. 29G), the eighth of the wise men.
milia passuum sescenta (B. G. iv. 3), six hundred miles (thousands of paces).
m§,ior fratrum, the elder of the brothers.
animalium fortiora, the stronger [of] animals.
Sueborum gens est longe maxima et bellicosissima Germanorum omnium
(B. G. iv. 1), the tribe of the Suevi is far the largest and most warlike of
all the Germans.
alter consulum, one of the [two] consuls.
naila earum (B.G. iv. 28), not one of them (the ships).
3. Neuter Adjectives and Pronouns, used as nouns : —
tantum spati, so much [of] space.
aliquid nummorum, a few pence (something of coins),
id loci (or locorum), that spot of ground; id temporis, at that time (§ 397. a).
plana urbis, the level parts of the town.
quid novi, ivhat news 1 (what of new ?)
paulum frumenti (B. C. i. 78), a Utile grain.
plus doldris (B. G. i. 20), more grief.
sui aliquid timoris (B. C. ii. 29), some fear of his own (something of his own fear).
Note 1. — In classic prose neuter adjectives (not pronominal) seldom take a parti-
tive genitive, except miiltum, tantum, quantum, and similar words.
Note 2. — The genitive of adjectives of the- third declension is rarely used parti-
tively : — nihil novi (genitive) , nothing new ; but, — nihil memorabile (nominative) , noth-
ing worth mention (not nihil memorabilis).
4. Adverbs, especially those of Quantity and of Place : —
parum oti, not much ease (too little of ease).
satis pecuniae, money enough (enough of money).
plurimum totlus Galliae equitatti valet (B. G. v. 3), is strongest, of all Gaul
in cavalry.
ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. i. 9), where in the loorld are we (where of
nations) ?
ubicumque terrarum et gentium (Verr. v. 143), wherever in the whole world.
res erat eo iam loci ut (Sest. 68), the business had now reached such a point
that^ etc.
eo miseriarum (lug. 14. 3), to that [pitch] of misery.
inde loci, next in order (thence of place). [Poetical.]
6. The poets and later writers often use the partitive genitive
after adjectives, instead of a noun in its proper case : —
sequimur te, sancte deorum ( Aen. iv. 570), we folloiv thee, holy deity. [For
sancte deus (§ 49. g. n.)]
nigrae lanarum (Plin. H. N. viii. 193), black wools. [For nigrae lanae.]
expediti militum (Li v. xxx. 9), ligM,-armed soldiers. [For expediti milites.]
hominum cunctos (Ov. M. iv. 631), all men. [For cunctos homines ; cf. e.]
§§346-348] • OBJECTIVE GENITIVE 215
c, Cardinal numerals (except milia) regularly take the Ablative
with e (ex) or de instead of the Partitive Genitive. So also quidam,
a certain one, commonly, and other words occasionally : —
unus ex tribunis, one of the tribunes. [But also, unus tribunorum (cf. a. 2).]
minumus ex iliis (lug, 11), the youngest of them.
medius ex tribus (ib.), the middle one of the three.
quidam ex militibus, certain of the soldiers.
unus de maltis (Fin. ii. 66), one of the many.
pauci de nostris cadunt (B. G. i. 15), a few of our men fall.
hominem de comitibus meis, a man of my companions.
d, TJterque, both (properly each), and quisque, each, with Nouns
are regularly used as adjectives in agreement, but with Pronouns
ta.ke a partitive genitive : — •
uterque consul, both the consuls; but, uterque nostrum, both of us.
unus quisque vestrum, each one of you.
utraque castra, both camps.
e, Numbers and words of quantity including the whole of any
thing take a case in agreement, and not the partitive genitive. So
also words denoting a part when only that part is thought of : —
nos omnes, all of us (we all). [Not omnes nostrum.]
quot sunt hostes, how many of the enemy are there f
cave inimicos, qui multi sunt, beware of your enemies., who are many.
multi milites, many of the soldiers.
nemo Romanus, not one Roman.
Objective Genitive
347. The Objective Genitive is used with Nouns, Adjectives,
and Verbs.
348. Nouns of action, agency, smd feeling govern the Genitive
of the Object : —
caritas tui, affection for you. desiderium oti, longing for rest.
vacatio muneris, relief from duty. gratia benefici, gratitude for kindness.
f uga malorum, refuge from disaster. precatio deorum, prayer to the gods.
contentio honorum, struggle for office, opinio virtutis, reputation for valor.
Note. — This usage is an extension of the idea of belonging to (Possessive Genitive).
Thus in the plirase odium Caesaris, hate of CsRsar, the hate in a passive sense belongs
to Caesar, as odium, though in its active sense he is the object of it, as hate (cf. a).
The distinction between the Possessive (subjective) and the Objective Genitive is very-
unstable and is often lost sight of. It is illustrated by the following example : the
phrase amor patris, love of a father, may mean love felt by a father, a father's love
(subjective genitive), or love towards a father (objective genitive).
216 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§348,349
«. The objective genitive is sometimes replaced by a possessive
pronoun or other derivative adjective : —
mea invidia, 7ny unpopularity (the dislike of which I am the object). [Cf.
odium mei (Har. Resp. 5), hatred of me.]
laudator meus (Att. i. 16. 5), my eulogist (one who praises me). [Cf. nostri
laudator (id. i. 14. 6).]
Clodianum crimen (Mil. 72), the murder of Clodius (the Clodian charge). [As
we say, t?ie Nathan juurder.]
metus hostilis (lug. 41), /ear of the enemy (hostile fear),
ea quae faciebat, tua se fidiicia facere dicebat (Verr. v. 176), what he was
doing, he said he did relying on you (with your reliance),
neque neglegentia tua, neque id odio fecit tuo (Ter. Ph. 1016), he did this
neither from neglect nor from hatred of you.
b. Rarely the objective genitive is used with a noun already lim-
ited by another genitive : —
animi multarum rerum percursio (Tusc. iv. 31), the mind^s traversing of many
things.
c, A noun with a preposition is often used instead of the objec-
tive genitive : —
odium in Antonium (Fam. x. 5. 3), hate of Antony.
merita eiga me (id. i. 1. 1), services to me.
meam in te pietatem (id. i. 9. 1), my devotion to you.
impetus in urbem (Phil. xii. 29), an attack on the city.
excessus e vita (Fin. iii. 60), departure from life. [Also, excessus vitae,
Tusc. i. 27.]
adoptio in Domitium (Tac. Ann. xii. 25), the adoption of Domitius. [A late
and bold extension of this construction.]
Note. — So also in late writers the dative of reference (cf. § 366. &): as, — longo
bello materia (Tac. H. i. 89), resources for a long war.
GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES
349. Adjectives requiring an object of reference govern the
Objective Genitive.
a. Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory, fulness, power,
sharing, guilt, and their opposites govern the genitive : —
avidi laudis (Manil. 7), greedy of praise.
fastldiosus litterarum, disdaining letters.
iuris perltus, skilled in law. [So also the ablative, lure, cf. § 418.]
memorem vestri, oblitum sui (Cat. iv. 19), mindful of you, forgetful of himself.
rationis et 6rati5nis expertes (Off. i. 50), devoid of sense and speech.
nostrae cousuetudiBis imperiti (B.G. iv. 22), unacquainted with our customs.
§349] GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES 217
plenus fidei, fvM of good faith.
omnis spei egenam (Tac. Ann. i. 53), destitute of all hope.
tempestatum potentem (Aen. i. 80), having sway over the storms.
impotens irae (Li v. xxix, 9, 9), ungovernable in anger.
coniurati5nis participes (Cat. iii. 14), sharing in the conspiracy.
affinis rei capitalis (Verr. ii. 2. 94), involved in a capital crime.
insons cuipae (Liv. xxii. 49), innocent of guilt.
b. Participles in -ns govern the genitive when they are used as
adjectives, i.e. when thej denote a constant disposition and not a
jparticidar act : —
si quern tui amantiorem cognovisti (Q. Fr. i. 1. 16), if you have become
acquainted with any one more fond of you.
multitudo insolens belli (B. C. ii. 36), a crowd unused to war.
erat lugurtha appetens gloriae militaris (lug. 7), Jugurtha wa^ eager for mili-
tary glory.
Note 1. — Participles in -ns, when used as participles, take the case regularly gov-
erned by the verb to which they belong: as, — Sp. Maelium regnum appetentem inter-
emit (Cat. M. 56), he put to death Spurius Mselius, who was aspiring to royal power.
Note 2. — Occasionally participial forms in -ns are treated as participles (see note 1)
even when they express a disposition or character: as, — virtus quam alii i^jsam tem-
perantiam dicunt esse, alii obtemperantem temperantiae praeceptis et earn subsequen-
tem (Tusc. iv. 30), observant of the teachings of temperance and obedient to her.
c. Verbals in -ax (§ 251) govern the genitive in poetry and later
Latin : —
iustum et tenacem propositi virum (Hor. Od. iii. 3), a man just and steadfast
to his purpose.
circus capaxpopuli (Ov. A. A. i. 136), a circus big enough to hold the people.
cibi vinique capacissimus (Liv. ix. 16. 13), a very great eater and drinker
(very able to contain food and wine).
d. The poets and later writers use the genitive with almost any
adjective, to denote that with reference to which the quality exists
( Genitive of Specification) : —
callidus rei militaris (Tac. H. ii. 32), skilled in soldiership.
pauper aquae (Hor. Od. iii. 30. 11), scant qf water.
notus animi paterni (id. ii. 2. 6), famed for a paternal spirit.
fessi rerum (Aen. i, 178), weary of toil.
integer vitae scelerisque piirus (Hor, Od. i. 22. 1), upright in life, and unstained
by guilt.
Note. — The Genitive of Specification is only an extension of the construction with
adjectives requiring an object of reference (§ o49). Thus callidus denotes knowledge ;
pauper, want ; piirus, innocence ; and so these words in a manner belong to the classes
under a.
For the Ablative of Specification, the prose construction, see § 418. For Adjectives
of likeness etc, with the Genitive, apparently Objective, see § 385, c For Adjectives
with animi (locative in origin), see § 358.
218 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§360
GENITIVE WITH VERBS
Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting
350. Verbs of remembering a.nd forgetting take either the Accu-
sative or the Genitive of the object : —
a, Memini takes the Accusative when it has the literal sense of
retaining in the mind what one has seen, heard, or learned. Hence
the accusative is used of persons whom one remembers as acquaint-
ances, or of things which one has experienced.
So obliviscor in the opposite sense, — to forget literally, to lose all
memory of 2. thing (very rarely, of a person).
Cinnam memini (Phil. v. 17), I remember Cinna.
utinam avum tuum meminisses (id. i. 34), oh! that you could remember your
grandfather ! (but lie died before you were born).
Postumium, cuius statuam in Isthmo meminisse te dicis (Att. xiii. 32), Postu-
mius, whose statue you say you remember (to have seen) on the Isthmus.
omnia meminit Siron Epicurl dogmata (Acad. ii. 106), Siron remembers all
the doctrines of Epicurus.
multa ab aliis audita meminerunt (De Or. ii. 355), they remember many things
that they have heard from others.
totam causam oblitus est (Brut. 217), he forgot the whole case.
hinc iam obliviscere Graios (Aen. ii. 148), from henceforth forget the Greeks
(i.e. not merely disregard them, but banish them from your mind, as if
you had never known them).
b. Memini takes the Genitive when it means to be rrdndfid xii
regardful of a person or thing, to think of somebody or something
(often with special interest or warmth of feeling).
So obliviscor in the opposite sense, — to disregard, or dismiss from
the mind, — and the adjective oblitus, careless or regardless.
ipse sui meminerat (Verr. ii. 136), he was mindful of himself (of his own
interests),
faciam ut huius loci dieique meique semper memineris (Ter. Eun. 801), I ivill
make you remember this place and this day and me as long as you live.
nee me meminisse pigebit Elissae, dum memor ipse mei (Aen. iv. 335), nor
shall I feel regret at the thought of Elissa, so long as I remember myself.
meminerint verecundiae (Off. i. 122), let them cherish modesty.
htimanae infirmitatis memini (Liv. xxx. 31. 6), I remember human weakness.
oblivisci temporum meorum, meminisse actionum (Fam. i. 9. 8), to disregard
my own interests, to be mindfid of the matters at issue.
nee tamen Epicuri licet oblivisci (Fin. v. 3), and yet I must not forget Epicurus.
obliviscere caedis atque incendiorum (Cat. i. 6), turn your mind from slaughter
and conflagrations (dismiss them from your thoughts).
§§ 350, 361] GENITIVE WITH VERBS 219
Note 1, — With both memini and obliviscor the personal and reflexive pronouns are
regularly in the Genitive ; neuter pronouns and adjectives used substantively are regu-
larly in the Accusative ; abstract nouns are often in the Genitive. These uses come
in each instance from the natural meaning of the verbs (as defined above) .
Note 2. — Memini in the sense of mention takes the Genitive : as, — eundem Achil-
1am cuius supra meminimus (B. C. iii. 108), that same Achillas whom I mentioned
above.
c, Reminiscor is rare. It takes the Accusative in the literal sense
of call to mind, recollect ; the Genitive in the more figurative sense
of be mindful of: —
dulcis moriens reminlscitur Argos (Aen. x. 782), as he dies he calls to mind
his beloved Argos.
reminisceretur et veteris incommodi popull RomanI et pristlnae virtiitis Helve-
tiorum (B. G. i. 13), let him remember both the former discomfiture of the
Boman people and the ancient valor of the Helvetians. [A warning, —
let him hear it in mind (and beware) ! ]
d. Recorder, recollect, recall, regularly takes the Accusative : —
recordare consensum ilium theatrl (Phil. i. 30), recall that unanimous agree-
ment of the [audience in the] theatre.
recordamini omnis civilis dissensiones (Cat. iii. 24), call to mind all the civil
wars.
Note. — Recorder takes the genitive once (Pison. 12) ; it is never used with a per-
sonal object, but may be followed by de with the ablative of the person or thing
(cf. §351. N.): —
de te recordor (Scaur. 49), I remember about you.
de illis (lacrimis) recordor (Plane. 104), / am reminded of those tears.
Verbs of Reminding
351. Verbs of reminding take with the Accusative of the per-
son a Genitive of the thing ; except in the case of a neuter pro-
noun, which is put in the accusative (cf. § 390. c).
So admoneo, commoneo, commonefaciS, commonefio. But moneo with
the genitive is found in late writers only.
Catillna admonebat alium egestatis, alium cupiditatis suae (Sail. Cat. 21),
Catiline reminded one of his poverty, another of his cupidity.
eos hoc moneo (Cat. ii. 20), I give them this warning.
quod vos lex commonet (Verr. iii. 40), that which the law reminds you of.
Note. — All these verbs often take de with the ablative, and the accusative of nouns
as well as of pronouns is sometimes used with them : —
saepius te admoneo de syngrapha Sittiana (Fam. viii. 4. 5) I remind you again and
again of Sittius's bond.
offlcium vostrum ut vos malo cogatis commonerier (Plant. Ps. 1.50), that you may
by misfortune force yourselves to be reminded of your duty.
220 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§352,353
Verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquitting
352. Verbs of accusing^ condemning^ and acquitting^ take the
Genitive of the Charge or Penalty ; —
arguit mg furti, he accuses me of theft.
peculatus damnatus (pecuniae ptiblicae damnatus) (Flacc. 43), condemned for
embezzlement.
video non te absoltitum esse improbitatis, sed illos damnatos esse caedis
(Verr. ii. 1. 72), I see, not that you were acquitted of outrage, hut that
they were condemned for homicide.
a. Peculiar genitives, under this construction, are —
capitis, as in damnare capitis, to sentence to death.
maiestatis [laesae], treason (crime against tlie dignity of the state),
repetundarum [rerum], extortion (lit. of an action for reclaiming money).
voti damnatus (or reus), bound [to the payment] of one''s vow, i.e. success-
ful in one's effort.
pecuniae (damnare, iudicare, see note).
dupli etc. , as in dupli condemnare, condemn to pay twofold.
Note. — The origin of these genitive constructions is pointed at by peciiniae dam-
nare (Gell. xx. 1. 38), to condemn to pay money, in a case of injury to the person;
quantae pecuniae iudicati essent (id.xx. 1.^1), hoio much money they were adjudged to pay ^
in a mere suit for debt; confessi aeris ac debit! iudicati (id. xx. 1. 42), adjudged to owe
an admitted sum due. These expressions show that the genitive of the penalty comes
from the use of the genitive of value to express a sum of money due either as a debt or as
a fine. Since in early civilizations all offences could be compounded by the payment of
fines, the genitive came to be used of other x>unishnients, not pecuniary. From this to
the genitive of the actual crime is an easy transition, inasmuch as there^4s^«lways^a
confusion between crime and penalty (ci. Eng. guilty of death). It is quite unnecessary-
to assume an ellipsis of crimine or iudicio.
353. Other constructions for the Charge or Penalty are —
1. The Ablative of Price : regularly of a definite amount of line,
and often of indefinite penalties (cl § 416) : —
Frusinates tertia parte agrl damnati (Liv. x. 1), the people of Frusino con-
demned [to forfeit] a third iiart of their land.
2. The Ablative with de, or the Accusative with inter, in idiomatic
expressions : — \ "
de alea, for gambling ; de anibitu, for bribery.
d6 pectiniis repetundls, of extortion (cf. § 352. a).
inter slcarios (Rose. Am. 90), as an assassin (among the assassins).
dS vi et maiestatis damnati (Phil, i. 21), convicted of assault and treason.
Note. — The accusative with ad and in occurs in later writers to express the pen-
alty: as, — ad mortem (Tac. Ann. xvi. 21), to death; ad (in) metaUa, to the mines.
§§ 354, 355] GENITIVE WITH VERBS 221
Verbs of Feeling
354. Many verbs of feeling take the Genitive of the object
which excites the feeling.
a. Verbs of pity^ as misereor and iniseresco, take the genitive : —
miseremini familiae, iudices, miseremini patris, miseremini fili (Flacc. 106),
have pity on the family, etc.
miserere animi noii digna ferentis (Aen. ii. 144), pity a soul that endures
unworthy things.
miserescite regis (id. viii. 573), pity the king. [Poetical.]
Note. — But miseror, commiseror, bewail, take the accusative: as, — communem
condicionem miserari (Mur. 55), bewail the common lot.
h. As impersonals, miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, taedet (or pertaesum
est), take the genitive of the cause of the feeling and the accusative
of t\iQ person affected: —
quos infamiae suae neque piidet neque taedet (Verr, i. 35), who are neither
ashamed nor weary of their dishonor.
me miseret parietum ipsorum (Pliil. ii. 69), I pity the very walls.
me civitatis morum piget taedetque (lug. 4), I am sick ami tired of the luays
of the state.
decemvirorum vos pertaesum est (Liv. iii. 67), you became tired of the decemvirs.
c. With miseret, paenitet, etc., the cause of the feeling may be ex-
|)ressed by an infinitive or a clause : —
neque me paenitet mortalls inimicitias habere (Rab. Post. 32), nor am I sorry
to have deadly enmities.
Qon dedisse istunc pudet ; me quia non accepi piget (PI. Pseud. 282), he is
ashamed not to have given; I am sorry because I have not received.
Note. — Miseret etc. are sometimes used personally with a neuter pronoun as sub-
ject: as, — non te haec pudent (Ter. Ad. 754), do not these things shame you?
Interest and Refert
355. The impersonals interest and refert take the Genitive of
the person (rarely of the thing) affected.
The subject of the verb is a neuter pronoun or a substantive
clause : —
Clodi intererat Milonem perlre (cf. Mil. 56), it was the interest of Clodius that
Milo should die.
aliquid quod illorum magis quam sua retulisse videretur (lug. Ill), something
which seemed to be more for their interest than his own.
video enim quid mea intersit, quid utriusque nostrum (Earn. vii. 23. 4),/ori
see what is for my good and for the good of us both.
222 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§355,356
a. Instead of the genitive of a personal pronoun the correspond-
ing possessive is used in the ablative singular feminine after interest
or refert : —
quid tua id refert? magni (Ter. Ph. 723), how does that concern yoaf much.
[See also the last two examples above.]
vehementer iiitererat vestra qui patres estis (Plin. Ep. iv. 13. 4), it would he
very much to your advantage., you who are fathers.
Note. — This is the only construction with refert in classic prose, except in one
passage in Sallust (see example above).
h. The accusative with ad is used with interest and refert to ex-
press the thing with reference to which one is interested : —
magni ad honorem nostrum interest (Fam. xvi. 1), it is of great consequence
to our honor.
refert etiam ad fructus (Varr. R. R. i. 16. 6), it makes a difference as to the crop.
Note 1. — Very rarely the person is expressed by ad and the accusative, or (with
refert) by the dative (probably a popular corruption) : —
quid id ad me aut ad meam rem refert (PI. Pers. 513), what difference does that
make to me or to my interests f
quid referat intra naturae finis viventi (Hor. S. i. 1. 49), what difference does it
make to me who live loithin the limits of natural desire 9
non referre dedecori (Tac. Ann. xv. 65), that it makes no difference as to the
disgrace.
Note 2. — The degree of interest is expressed by a genitive of value, an adverb,
or an adverbial accusative.
Verbs of Plenty and Want
356. Verbs of Plenty and Want sometimes govern the geni-
tive (of. § 409. a. N.) : —
convivium vicinorum compleo (Cat. M. 46, in the mouth of Cato), I Jill up the
banquet with my neighbors.
implentur veteris Bacchi pinguisque ferinae (Aen. 1. 215), they fill themselves
with old wine and fat venison.
ne quis auxili egeat (B. G. vi. 11), lest any require aid.
quid est quod defensionis indigeat (Rose. Am. 34), what is there thai needs
defence 1
quae ad consolandum m^ioris ingeni et ad ferendum singularis virtutis indi-
gent (Fam. vi. 4. 2), [sorrows] which for their comforting need more abil-
1 ity, and for endurance unusual courage.
T^OTE. — Verbs of plenty and want more commonly take the ablative (see §§ 409. a,
401), except egeo, which takes either case, and indigeo. But the genitive is by a Greek
idiom often used in poetry instead of the ablative with all words denoting separation
and want (cf. § .357. &. 3): —
abstiniito irarum (Hor. Od. iii. 27. 69), refrain from lorath.
operum solfitis (id. iii. 17. \^, free from toils.
desine mollium querellarum (id. ii. 9- 17), have done with weak complaints
§§357-359] PECULIAR GENITIVES 223
Genitive with Special Verbs
357. The Genitive is used with certain special verbs.
a. The genitive sometimes follows potior, get possession of: as
always in the phrase potiri rerum, to be master of affairs : —
illius regni potiri (Fam. i. 7. 5), to become master of that kingdom.
Cleanthes solem dominari et rerum potiri putat (Acad. ii. 126), Cleanthes
thinks the sun holds sway and is lord of the universe.
Note. — But potior usually takes the ablative (see §410).
b. Some other verbs rarely take the genitive —
1 . By analogy with those mentioned in § 354 : —
neque huiiis sis veritus feminae primariae (Ter. Ph. 971), and you had no
respect for this high-born lady.
2. As akin to adjectives which take the genitive : —
fastidit mei (Plant. Aul. 245), he disdains me. [Cf. fastidiosus.]
studet tui (quoted N. D. ill. 72), he is zealous for you. [Cf. studiosus.]
3. In imitation of the Greek: —
iustitiaene prius rairer, belllne laborum (Aen. xi. 126), shall I rather admire
his justice or his toils in war?
neque ille sepositi ciceris nee longae invidit avenae (Hor. S. ii. 6. 84), nor did
he grudge his garnered peas, etc. [But cf. invidus, parous.]
laborum decipitur (Hor. Od. ii. 13. 38), he is beguiled of his woes.
me laborum levas (PL Pud. 247), you relieve me of my troubles,
358. The apparent Genitive animi (really Locative) is used with
a few verbs and adjectives oi feeling and the like: —
Antipho me excruciat animi (Ter. Ph. 187), Antipho tortures my mind (me in
my mind),
qui pendet animi (Tusc. iv. 35), who is in suspense.
me animi fallit (Lucr. i. 922), my mind deceives me.
So, by analogy, desipiebam mentis (PI. Epid. 138), I was out of my head.
aeger animi, sick at heart; conftisus animi, disturbed in spirit.
sanus mentis aut animi (PI. Trin. 454), sound in mind or heart.
PECULIAR GENITIVES
359. Peculiar Genitive constructions are the following : —
a. A poetical genitive occurs rarely in exclamations, in imitation
of the Greek ( Genitive of Exclamation) : —
di immortales, mercimoni lepidi (PI. Most. 912), good heavens! what a charm-
ing bargain !
foederis heu taciti (Prop. iv. 7. 21), alas for the unspoken agreement!
224 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§359,360
b. The genitive is often used with the ablatives causa, gratia, for
the sake of; ergo, hecause of; and the indeclinable instar, like; also
v/ith pridie, the day before; postridie, the day after; tenus, as far as:
honoris causa, with due respect (for the sake of honor),
verbi gratia, for example.
eius legis ergo, on account of this law.
equus instai- montis (Aen. ii. 15), a horse huge as a mountain (the image of
a mountain),
laterum tenus (id. x. 210), as far as the sides.
Note 1. — Of these the genitive with causa is a development from the possessive
genitive and resembles that in nomen insaniae (§ S'i'S.d) . The others are of various origin.
Note 2. — In prose of the Republican Period pridie and postridie are thus used only
in the expressions pridie (postridie) eius diei, the day before (after) that (of. "the eve, the
morrow of that day"). Tacitus uses the construction with other words : as, — postridie
insidiarum, the day after the plot. For the accusative, see § 432. a. Tenus takes also
the ablative (p. 136).
DATIVE CASE
360. The Dative is probably, like the Genitive, a grammatical case, that is, it is
a form appropriated to the expression of a variety of relations other than that of the
direct object. But it is held by some to be a Locative with the primary meaning of
to or towards, and the poetic uses (like it clamor caelo, Aen. v. 451) are regarded as
survivals of the original use.
In Latin the Dative has two classes of meanings : —
1. The Dative denotes an object not as caused by the action, or directly affected by
it (like the Accusative), but as reciprocally sharing in the action or receiving it con-
sciously or actively. Thus in dedit puero librum, he gave the hoy a book, or fecit mihi
iniuriam, he did me a wrong, there is an idea of the boy's receiving the book, and of my
feeling the wrong. Hence expressions denoting persons, or things with personal
attributes, are more likely to be in the dative than those denoting mere things. So
in Spanish the dative is used whenever a person is the object of an action; yo veo al
hombre, I see [to] the man. This difference between the Accusative and the Dative
(i.e. between the Direct and the Indirect Object) depends upon the point of view implied
in the verb or existing in the mind of the writer. Hence Latin verbs of similar meaning
(to an English mind) often differ in the case of their object (see § 367. a).
2. The Dative is used to express the purpose of an action or that for which it .<ierves
(see § 382). This construction is especially used with abstract expressions, or those
implying an action.
These two classes of Datives approach each other in some cases and are occasion-
ally confounded, as in §§ 383, 384.
The uses of the Dative are the following: — •
1. Indirect Object (general / 1. With Transitives (^ 362).
12.
use): \ 2. With Intransitives (§§ 366-372).
' 1. Of Possession (with esse) (§ 373).
2. Of Agency (with Gerundive) (§ 374).
3. Of Reference (dattvus commodl) (§§ 376-381).
4. Of Purpose or End (predicate use) (§ 382).
I. 5. Of Fitness etc. (with Adjectives) (§§ 383, 384).
2. Special or Idiomatic Uses :
§§301-363] DATIVE OF INDIRECT OBJECT 225
INDIRECT OBJECT
361. The Dative is used to denote the object indirectly affected
by an action.
This is called the Indirect Object (§ 274). It is usually denoted
in English by the objective with to : —
cedite tempori, yield to the occasion.
provincia Ciceroni obtigit, the jjrovince fell by lot to Cicero.
inimicis non credimus, we do not trust [to] our enemies.
Indirect Object with Transitives
362. The Dative of the Indirect Object with the Accusative
of the Direct may be used with any transitive verb whose mean-
ing allows (see § 274) : —
do tibi librum, I give you a hook.
illud tibi aff irmo (Fain. i. 7. 5) , this I assure you.
commendo tibi eius omnia negotia (id. i. 8), I put all his affairs in your hands
(commit them to you),
dabis profecto misericordiae quod iracundiae negavisti (Deiot. 40), you will
surely grant to mercy what you refused to wrath.
litteras a tg mihi stator tuus reddidit (Fam. ii. 17), your messenger delivered
to me a letter from you.
a. Many verbs have both a transitive and an intransitive use, and
take either the Accusative with the Dative, or the Dative alone : —
mihi id aurum credidit (cf. Plant. Aul. 15), he trusted that gold to me.
equo ne credits (Aen. ii. 48), jput not your trust in the horse.
concessit senatus postulationi tuae (Mur. 47), the senate yielded to your demand.
concedere amicis quidquid veliat (Lael. 88), to grant to friends all they may
ivish.
363. Certain verbs implying motion vary in their construction
between the Dative of the Indirect Object and the Accusative
of the End of Motion (§§ 426, 427): —
1. Some verbs implying motion take the Accusative (usually with
ad or in) instead of the Indirect Object, when the idea of motion pre-
vails : —
litteras quas ad Pompeium scrips! (Att. iii. 8. 4), the letter which I have written
[and sent] to Pompey. [Cf. non quo habgrem quod tibi scriberem (id.
iv. 4 a), not that I had anything to write to you.']
226 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 363, 364
litterae extemplo Romam scrlptae (Liv. xli. 16), a letter was immediately writteri
[and sent] to Rome.
hostis in fugam dat (B. G. v. 51), he puts the enemy tojlight. [Cf. ut me dem
fugae (Att. vii. 23), to take tojlight.]
omnes rem ad Pompeium deferri volunt (Fam. i. 1), all wish the matter to be
put in the hands of Pompey (referred to Pompey).
2. On the other hand, many verbs of motion usually followed by
the Accusative with ad or in, take the Dative when the idea of motion
is merged in some other idea : —
mihi litteras mittere (Fam. vii. 12), to send me a letter.
eum librum tibi misi (id. vii. 19), 7 sent you that hook.
nee quicquam quod nou mihi Caesar detulerit (id. iv. 13), and nothing which
CcBsar did not communicate to me.
cfires ut mihi vehantur (id. viii. 4. 5), take care that they be conveyed to me.
cum alius alii subsidium ferrent (B. G. ii. 26), while one lent aid to another.
364. Certain verbs may take either the Dative of the person and
the Accusative of the thing, or (in a different sense) the Accusative
of the person and the Ablative of the thing ^: —
donat coronas suls, he presents wreaths to his men; or,
donat suos coronis, he presents his men with wreaths.
vincula exuere sibi (Ov. M. vii. 772), to shake off the leash (from himself).
omnis armis exuit (B. G. v. 51), Ae stripped them all of their arms.
Note 1. — InteTilcb, forbid, takes either (1) the Dative of the person and the Abla-
tive of the thing, or (2) in later writers, the Dative of the person and the Accusative of
the thing : —
aqua et igni alicui interdicere, to forbid one the v^e of fire and water. [The regular
formula for banishment.]
interdixit histrionibus scaenam (Suet. Dom. 7), he forbade the actors [to appear on]
the stage (he prohibited the stage to the actors) .
feminis (dat.) purpurae usu interdicemus (Liv. xxxiv. 7), shall we forbid women
the wearing of purple?
Note 2. — The Dative with the Accusative is used in poetry with many verbs of
preventing, protecting, and the like, which usually take the Accusative and Ablative.
Intercludo and prohibeo sometimes take the Dative and Accusative, even in prose : —
hisce omnis aditiis ad Sullara intercludere (Rose. Am. 110), to shut these men off
from all access to Sidla (close to them every approach). [Cf. uti commeatii
Caesarem intercliideret (B. G. i. 48), to shut Csesar off from supplies.]
hunc (oestrum) arcebis pecori (Georg. iii. 154), you shall keep this away from the
flock, [Cf. ilium arcuit Gallia (Phil. v. 37), he excluded hi7n from Gaul.]
solstitium pecori defendite (Eel. vii. 47) , keep the summer heat from the flock. [Cf .
utI se a contumeliis inimicorum defenderet (B. C. i. 22), to defend himself
from the slanders of his enejnies.]
1 Such are dono, impertio, induo, exuo, adsperg5, inspergS, circumdo and in poetry
accingOj implic6> and similar verbs.
§§ 365, 366] DATIVE OF INDIRECT OBJECT 227
365. Verbs which in the active voice take the Accusative and
Dative retain the Dative when used in the passive : —
nuntiabantur haec eadem Curioni (B. C. ii. 37), these same things were
announced to Curio. [Active : nuntiabant (quidam) haec eadem Curioni.]
nee docendi Caesaris propinquis eius spatium datur, nee tribunis plebis sui
peiicull deprecandi facultas tribuitur (id. i. 5), no time is given CcBsar's
relatives to inform him, and no opportunity is granted to the tribunes of
the plebs to avert danger from themselves.
provinciae privatis decernuntur (id. i. 6), provinces are voted to private
citizens.
Indirect Object with Intransitives
366. The Dative of the Indirect Object may be used with any
Intransitive verb whose meaning allows : —
cedant arma togae (Ptiil. ii. 20), let arms give place to the gown.
Caesari respondet, he replies to Coesar.
Caesari respondetur, a reply is given to Coisar (Caesar is replied to) . [Cf . § 372. ]
respond! maximis criminibus (Phil. ii. 36), I have answered the heaviest charges.
ut ita cuique eveniat (id. ii. 119), that it may so turn out to each.
Note 1. — Intransitive verbs have no Direct Object. The Indirect Object, there-
fore, in these cases stands alone as in the second example (but cf. § 362. a).
Note 2. — Cedo, yield, sometimes takes the Ablative of the thing along vrith the
Dative of the person : as, — cedere alicui possessione hortorum (cf. Mil. 75), to give up to
one the possession of a garden.
a. Many phrases consisting of a noun with the copula sum or a
copulative verb are equivalent to an intransitive verb and take a
kind of indirect object (cf. § 367. a. n.^): —
auctor esse alicui, to advise or instigate one (cf. persuaded).
quis huic rei testis est (Quinet. 37), who testifies (is witness) to this fact?
is finis populationibus fuit (Liv. ii. 30. 9), this put an end to the raids.
b. The dative is sometimes used without a copulative verb in a
sense approaching that of the genitive (cf. §§ 367. d, 377): —
legatus fratrl (Mur. 32), a lieutenant to his brother (i.e. a man assigned to his
brother),
ministri sceleribus (Tac. Ann. vi. 36), agents of crime. [Cf. seditionis minis-
tri (id. i. 17), agents of sedition.]
miseriis suis remedium mortem exspeetare (Sail. Cat. 40), to look for death
as a cure for their miseries. [Cf. solus mearum miseriarumst remedium
(Ter. Ad. 294).]
Note. — The cases in a and b differ from the constructions of § 367. a. N.2 and
§ 377 in that the dative is more closely connected in idea with some single word to
which it serves as an indirect obiect.
228 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§367
Indirect Object with Special Verbs
367. Many verbs signifying to favor^ help, please, trust, and
their contraries ; also to believe, persuade, command, obey, serve,
resist, envy, threaten, pardon, and spare,^ take the Dative : —
cur mihi invides, why do you envy me?
mihi parcit atque ignOscit, he spares and imrdons me.
ignosce patrio dol5ri (Liv. iii. 48), excuse a father^ s grief.
subveni patriae, opitulare conlegae (Fain. x. 10- 2), come to the aid of your
country, help your colleague.
mihi non displicet (Clu. 144), it does not displease me.
non omnibus servio (Att. xiii. 49), I am not a servant to every man.
non parcam operae (Fam. xiii. 27), I will spare no pains.
sic mihi persuasl (Cat. M. 78), so I have persuaded myself.
mihi Fabius debebit ignoscere si minus eius famae parcere videbor quam antea
consulul (Tull. 3), Fahiiis will have to pardon me if I seem to spare his
reputation less than I have heretofore regarded it.
huic legioni Caesar confidebat maxime (B. G. i. 40. 15), in this legion CcBsar
trusted most.
In these verbs the Latin retains an original intransitive meaning.
Thus : invidere, to envy, is literally to look askance at ; servire is to be
a slave to ; suadere is to make a thing pleasant (sweet) to,
a. Some verbs apparently of the same meanings take the Accusative.
Such are iuv5, adiuvo, help; laedo, injure; iubeo, order; deficid, fail;
delecto, please : —
hie pulvis oculum meum laedit, this dust hurts my eye. [Cf. multa oculis
nocent, many things are injurious to the eyes.]
NoTB 1. — Fido and confido take also the Ablative (§ 431) : as, — multura natura loci
confidebant (B. G. iii. 9), they had great confidence in the strength of their position.
Note 2. — Some common phrases regularly take the dative precisely like verbs of
similar meaning. Such are — praesto esse, he on hand (cf . adesse) ; morem gerere,
humor (cf. morigerari) ; gratum facere, do a favor (cf. gratiflcari) ; dicto audiens esse,
he obedient (cf. oboedire) ; cui fidem habebat (E. G. i. 19), in whom he had confidence
(cf. confidelxat).
So also many phrases where no corresponding verb exists. Such are — bene (male,
pulchre, aegre, etc.) esse, he ivell {ill, etc.) off; iniuriam facere, do injustice to ; diem
dicere, hring to trial (name a day for, etc.); agere gratias, express one's thanks;
habere gratiam,/ee^ thankful; referre gratiam, repay a favor; opus esse, be neces-
sary ; damnum dare, infiict an injury; acceptum (expensum) ferre (esse), credit
{charge); honorera habere, to pay honor to.
1 These include, among others, the following: adversor, cedo, credo, faveo, fido,
ignosco, impero, indulgeo, invideo, irascor, minitor, noceo, parco, pareo, placeo, resisto,
servio, studeo, suadeo (persuadeo), suscenseo, tempero (obtemperS).
§§ 367, 368] DATIVE WITH SPECIAL VERBS 229
6. Some verbs are used transitively with the Accusative or intran-
sitively with the Dative without perceptible difference of meaning.
Such are adulor, aemulor, despero, praestolor, medeor : —
adulatus est Antonio (Nep. Att. 8), he flattered Antony.
adulari Neronem (Tac. Ann. xvi. 19), to flatter Nero.
pacem non desperas (Att. viii. 15. 3), you do not despair of peace.
saluti desperare vetuit (Ciu. 68), he forbade him to despair of safety.
c. Some verbs are used transitively with the Accusative or intran-
sitively with the Dative with a difference of meaning : — ^
parti civium consulunt (Off. i. 85), they consult for a part of the citizens.
cum te consuluissem (Earn. xi. 29), when I had consulted you.
metuens pueris (Plant. Am. 1113), anxious for the children.
nee metuunt deos (Ter. Hec. 772), they fear not even the gods. [So also timeo.]
prospicite patriae (Cat. iv. 3), have regard for the state.
prospicere sedem senecttiti (Liv. iv. 49. 14), to provide a habitation for old age. ■
[So also provided.]
d. A few verbal nouns (as insidiae, ambush; obtemperatio, obedi-
ence) rarely take the dative like the corresponding verbs : —
insidiae consul! (Sail. Cat. 32), the plot against the consul (cf. insidior).
obtemperatio legibus (Legg. i. 42), obedience to the laws (cf. obtempero).
sibi ipsi responsio (De Or. iii. 207), an answer to himself (cf. responded).
Note. — In these cases the dative depends immediately upon the verbal force of the
noun and not on any complex idea (cf. § 366. a, b).
368. The Dative is used —
1. With the impersonal s libet (lubet), it pleases, and licet, it is
allowed : —
quod mihi maxime lubet (Earn. i. 8. 3), what most pleases me.
quasi tibi non liceret (id. vi. 8), as if you were not permitted.
2. With verbs compounded with satis, bene, and male : —
mihi ipse numquam satisfacio (Earn. i. 1), I never satisfy myself.
optimo vir5 maledicere (Deiot. 28), to speak ill of a most excellent man.
pulchrum est benefacere rei publicae (Sail. Cat. 3), it is a glorious thing to
benefit the state.
Note. — These are not real compounds, but phrases, and were apparently felt as
such by the Romans. Thus, — satis officio meo, satis illorum voluntati qui a me hoc
petiverunt factum esse arbitrabor (Verr. v. 130), I shall consider that enough has been
done for my duty, enough for the wishes of those who asked this of me.
1 See the Lexicon under caveo, convenio, cupio, insists, maneo, praeverto, recipio, rcr
riuntio, solvo, succedo.
230 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§368,869
3. With gratificor, gratulor, nubo, pennitto, plaudo, probo, studeo, sup-
plico, excello: —
Pompeio se gratificari putant (Fam. i. 1), they suppose they are doing Pompey
a service.
gratulor tibi, uii Balbe (id. vi. 12), I congratulate you, my dear Balbus.
tibi permitto respondere (N. D, iii. 4), I give you leave to answer.
mihi plaudo ipse doml (Hor. S. i. 1. 66), I applaud myself at home.
cum inimici M. Fontei vobis ac populo Romano minentur, amici ac propinqui
supplicent vobis (Font. 35), while the enemies of Marcus Fonteius are
threatening you and the Roman people too, while his friends and relatives
are beseeching you.
Note." — Misceo and iungo sometimes take the dative (see § 413. a. n.). Haereo usually
takes the ablative, with or without in, rarely the dative: as, — haerentem capiti coro-
nam (Hor. S. i. 10. 49), a wreath clinging to the head.
a. The dative is often used by the poets in constructions which
would in prose require a noun with a preposition. So especially
with verbs of contending (§ 413. b) : —
contendis Homero (Prop. i. 7. 3), you vie with Homer. [In prose : cum Homero.]
placitone etiam piignabis amori (Aen. iv. 38), will you struggle even against a
love that pleases you ?
tibi certat (Eel. v. 8), vies with you. [tecum.]
differt sermoni (Hor. S. i. 4. 48), differs from prose, [a sermone, § 401.]
lateri abdidit ensem (Aen. ii. 553), buried the sword in his side, [in latere,
§ 430. ]
For the Dative instead of ad with the Accusative, see § 428. h.
369. Some verbs ordinarily intransitive may have an Accusar
tive of the direct object along with the Dative of the indirect
(cf. § 362. a): —
cui cum rex crucem minaretur (Tusc. i. 102), and when the king threatened
him with the cross.
Cretensibus obsides imperavit (Manil. 35), he exacted hostages of the Cretans.
omnia sibi ignoscere (Yell. ii. 30), to pardon one''s self everything.
Ascanione pater Romanas invidet arces (Aen. iv. 234), does the father envy
Ascanius his Roman citadels 9 [With invideo this construction is poetic
or late.]
a. With the passive voice this dative may be retained : —
qui iam nunc sanguinem meum sibi indulgeri aequum censet (Li v. xl. 15. 16),
who even now thinks it right that my blood should be granted to him as a
favor.
singulis censoribus denarii trecenti imperati sunt (Verr. ii. 137), three hun-
dred denarii were exacted of each censor.
Scaevolae concessa est facundiae virtus (Quint, xii. 3. 9), to Scaevola has
been granted excellence in oratory.
§370] DATIVE WITH COMPOUNDS 231
Indirect Object with Compounds
370. Many verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob,
post, prae, pro, sub, super, and some with circum, admit the Dative
of the indirect object : —
neque enim adsentior eis (Lael. 13), for I do not agree with them.
quantum natura hominis pecudibus antecedit (Off. i. 105), so far as mart's
nature is superior to brutes.
si sibi ipse consentit (id. i. 6), if he is in accord with himself.
virtutes semper voluptatibus inhaerent (Fin. i. 68), virtues are always con-
nected with pleasures.
omnibus negotiis non interfuit solum sed praefuit (id. i, 6), he not only had
a hand in all matters, but took the lead in them.
tempestati obsequi artis est (Fam. i. 9. 21), it is a point of skill to yield to
the weather.
nee umquam succumbet inimicis (Deiot. 36), and lie will never yield to his
foes.
cum et Brutus cuilibet ducum praeferendus videretur et Vatlnius nulli non
esset postferendus (Veil. ii. 69), since Brutus seemed worthy of being put
before any of the generals and Vatlnius deserved to be put after all of them.
a. In these cases the dative depends not on the preposition, but
on the compound verb in its acquired meaning. Hence, if the acquired
meaning is not suited to an indirect object, the original construction
of tlie simple verb remains.
Thus in convocat su5s, he calls his men together, the idea of calling is not so
modified as to make an indirect object appropriate. So hominem interficere, to
make way with a man (kill him). But in praeficere imperat5rem bello, to put a
man as commander-in-chief in charge of a war, the idea resulting from the com-
position is suited to an indirect object (see also b, §§ 371, 388. 6).
Note 1. — Some of these verbs, being originally transitive, take also a direct object :
as, — ne offeramus nos periculls (Off. i. 83), that we may not expose ourselves to perils.
Note 2. — The construction of § 370 is not different in its nature from that of §§ 362,
366, and 367 ; but the compound verbs make a convenient group.
b. Some compounds of ad. ante, ob, with a few others, have acquired
a transitive meaning, and take the accusative (cf. § 388. b): — ^
nos oppugnat (Fam. i. 1), he opposes us.
quis audeat bene comitatum aggredi (Phil. xii. 25), who would dare encounter
a man well attended ?
munus obire (Lael. 7), to attend to a duty.
1 Such verbs are aggredior, adeo, antecedo, anteeo, antegredior, convenio, ineo, obeo,
ofiendo, oppiigno, praecedo, subeo.
232 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§370-373
c. The adjective obvius and the adverb obviam with a verb take
the dative : —
si ille obvius ei futurus non erat (Mil. 47), if he was not intending to get in
his loay.
mihi obviam venisti (Fam. 11. IG. 3), you came to meet me.
371. When place or motion is distinctly thought of, the verbs
mentioned in § 370 regularly take a noun with a preposition :
inhaeret in visceribus (Tusc. iv. 24), it remains fixed in the vitals.
homine coniuncto mecum (Tull. 4), a man united to me.
cum hoc concurrit ipse Eumenes (Nep. Euin. 4. 1), with him JEumenes him-
self engages in combat (runs together).
inserite oculos in curiam (Font. 43), fix your eyes on the senate-house.
ignis qui est ob 6s ofEusus (Tim. 14), the fire which is diffused before the sight.
oblcitur contra Istorum impetiis Macedonia (Font. 44), Macedonia is set to
withstand their attacks. [Cf. si quls vobis error obiectus (Caec. 5), if
any mistake has been caused you.]
in segetem flamma Incidit (Aen. li. 304), the fire falls upon the standing corn.
Note. — But the usage varies in different authors, in different words, and often in
the same word and the same sense. The Lexicon must be consulted for each verb.
372. Intransitive verbs that govern the dative are used wiper-
sonally in the passive (§ 208. cZ). The dative is retained (cf. § 365) :
cui parol potuit (Liv. xxi. 14), who could he spared?
non modo non invidetur illi aetati verum etiam fdvetur (Off. 11. 45), that age
(youth) not only is not envied, but is even favored.
tempori servlendum est(Fam. Ix. 7), we must serve the exigency of the occasion.
Note. — In poetry the personal construction is sometimes found : as, — ciir invideor
(Her. A. P. 56), why am I envied?
Dative of Possession
373. The Dative is used with esse and similar words to denote
Possession : —
est mihi domi pater (Eel. ill. 33), I have a father at home (there Is to me),
homini cum deo slmllitudo est (Legg. 1. 25), man has a likeness to God.
quibus opes nullae sunt (Sail. Cat. 37), [those] ivho have no wealth.
Note. — The Genitive or a Possessive with esse emphasizes tlae possessor; the
Dative, the fact of possession: as, — liber est mens, the book is mine (and no one's
else) ; est mihi liber, /have a book (among otlier things).
a. With nomen est, and similar expressions, the 7iame is often put
in the Dative by a kind of apposition with the person; but the
Nominative is also common : —
§§ 373-375] DATIVE OF THE AGENT 233
(1) cui Africans fuit cognomen (Liv. xxv. 2), whose (to whom) surname was
Africanus.
puero ab inopia Egerio inditum nomen (id. i. 34), the name Egerius was given
the boy from his poverty.
(2) puero nomen est Marcus, the boy''s name is Marcus (to the boy is, etc.).
cui nomen Arethusa (Verr. iv. 118), [a fount] called Arethusa.
Note. — In early Latin the dative is usual ; Cicero prefers the nominative, Livy the
dative ; Sallust uses the dative only. In later Latin the genitive also occurs (cf . § 343. d) :
as, — Q. Metello Macedonici nomen inditum est (Veil. i. 11), to Quintus Metellus the
name of Macedonicus was given.
h, Desum takes the dative; so occasionally absum (which regu-
larly has the ablative) : — ■
hoc tinum Caesari defuit (B.G. iv. 26), this only was lacking to Ccesar.
quid huic abesse poterit (De Or. i. 48), what can be wanting to him ?
Dative of the Agent
374. The Dative of the Agent is used with the Gerundive to
denote the person on whom^the necessity rests : —
haec v5bis provincia est defendenda (Manil. 14), this province is for you to
defend (to be defended by you).
mihi est pugnandum, I have to fight (i.e. the need of fighting is to me : of.
mihi est liber, I have a book, § 373. n.).
a. This is the regular way of expressing the agent with the Second
or Passive Periphrastic Conjugation (§ 196).
Note 1. — The Ablative of the Agent with ab (§ 405) is sometimes used with the Sec-
ond Periphrastic Conjugation when the Dative would be ambiguous or when a stronger
expression is desired : —
quibus est a vobis consulendum (Manil. 6), for whom you must consult. [Here two
datives, quibus and vobis, would have been ambiguous.]
rem ab omnibus vobis providendam (Kabir. 4), that the matter must be attended to
by all of you. [The dative might mean /or all of you.]
Note 2. — The Dative of the Agent is either a special use of the Dative of Posses-
sion or a development of the Dative of Reference (§ 37()).
375. The Dative of the Agent is common with perfect parti-
ciples (especially when used in an adjective sense), but rare with
other parts of the verb : —
mihi deliberatum et constitutum est (Leg. Agr. i. 25), I have deliberated and
resolved (it has been deliberated by me),
mihi res provisa est (Verr. iv. 91), the matter has been provided for by me.
sic dissimillimis bestiolis communiter cibus quaeritur (N. D. ii. 123), so by
very different creatures food is sought in common.
234 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§375-377
a. The Dative of the Agent is used by the poets and later writers
with almost any passive verb : —
neque cernitur ulii (Aen. i. 440), nor is seen by any.
felix est dicta sorori (Ov. Fast. iii. 1. 597), she was called happy by her sister,
Aelia Paetina Narcisso fovebatur (Tac. Ann. xii. 1), u3^lia Pcetina was
favored by Narcissus.
h. The dative of the person who sees or thinks is regularly used
after videor, seem : — •
videtur mihi, it seems (or seems good) to me.
dis aliter visum [est] (Aen. ii. 428), it seemed otherwise to the gods.
videor mihi perspicere ipslus animum (Fam. iv. 13. 5), I seem (to myself) to see
the soul of the man himself.
Note. — The verb probare, approve (originally a mercantile word), takes a Dative
of Reference (§ 376), which has become so firmly attached that it is often retained with
the passive, seemingly as Dative of Agent : —
haec sententia et illi et nobis probabatur (Fam. i. 7. 5), this view met both his
approval and mine (was made acceptable both to him and to me) .
hoc consilium plerisque non probabatur (B. C. i. 72), this plan was not approved by
the majority. [But also, consilium a cunctis probabatur (id. i. 74).]
Dative of Reference
376. The Dative often depends, not on any particular tvord^ but
on the general meaning of the sentence (Dative of liefer ence). .
The dative in this construction is often called the Dative of
Advantage or Disadvantage/ as denoting the person or thing for
whose benefit or to whose prejudice the action is performed.
tibi aras (Plant. Merc. 71), you plough for yourself.
tuas res tibi habeto (Plant. Trin. 266), keep your goods to yourself (formula
of divorce),
laudavit mihi f ratrem, he praised my brother (out of regard for me ; laudavit
fratrem meum would imply no such motive),
meritos mactavit honores, taurum Neptuno, taurum tibi, pulcher Apollo
(Aen. iii. 118), he offered the sacrifices due., a bull to Neptune., a bull to
thee, beautiful Apollo.
Note. — In this construction the meaning of the sentence is complete without the
dative, which is not, as in the preceding constructions, closely connected with any sin-
gle word. Thus the Dative of Reference is easily distinguishable in most instances
even when the sentence consists of only two words, as in the first example.
377. The Dative of Reference is often used to qualify a whole
idea, instead of the Possessive Genitive modifying a single word :
1 Datlvus commodl aut iyicommodl.
§§ 377-379] DATIVE OF REFERENCE 235
iter Poenis vel corporibus suis obstruere (Cat. M. 75), to block the march of
the Carthaginians even with their own bodies (to block, etc., for the dis-
advantage of, etc.).
se in conspectum nautis dedit (Verr. v. 86), he put himself in sight of the
sailors (he put himself to the sailors into sight).
versatur mihi ante oculos (id. v. 123), it comes before my eyes (it comes to me
before the eyes).
378. The Dative is used of the person from whose'j^om* of vieiv
an opinion is stated or a situation or a direction is defined.
This is often called the Dative of the Person Judging,^ but is
merely a weakened variety of the Dative of Eeference. It is used
1. Of the mental point of view (iii my opinion^ according to me,
etc.) : —
Plato mihi imus instar est centum milium (Brut. 191), in my opinion (to me)
Flato alone is worth a hundred thousand.
erit ille mihi semper deus (Eel. i. 7), he will always be a god to me (in my
regard),
quae est ista servitustam claro homini (Par. 41), ivhat is that slavery according
to the view of this distinguished man ?
2: Of the local point of view (as you go in etc.). In this use the
person is commonly denoted indefinitely by a participle in the dative
plural : —
oppidum primum Thessaliae venientibus ab Epiro (B. C. iii. 80), the first town
of Thessaly as you come from Epirus (to those coming, etc.).
laeva parte sinum intrant! (Liv. xxvi. 26), on the left as you sail up the gulf
(to one entering).
est urbe egressis tumulus (Aen. ii. 713), there is, as you come out of the city,
a mound (to those having come out).
Note. — The Dative of the Person Judging is (by a Greek idiom) rarely modified by
nolens, volens (participles of n51o, volo), or by some similar word: —
ut quibusque helium invltis ant cupientibus erat (Tac. Ann. i. 59), as each might
receive the war reluctantly or gladly.
ut militibus labos volentibus esset (lug. 100), that the soldiers might assume the
task loillingly.
379. The Dative of Reference is used idiomatically without
any verb in colloquial questions and exclamations : —
quo mihi fortunam (Hor. Ep. i. 5. 12), of what use to me is fortune?
unde mihi lapidem (Hor. S. ii. 7. 116), where can I get a stone?
quo tibi, Till! (id. i. 6. 24), what use for t/ou, Tillius?
1 Vatlvus iudicantis.
286 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§379-381
c/. The dative of reference is sometimes used after interjections:
ei (hei) mihi (Aen. ii. 274), ah me!
vae victis (Li v. v. 48), woe to the conquered.
em tibi, there, take that (there for you)! [Cf. § 380.]
Note. — To express fob — meaning instead of, in defence of, iti behalf of — the
ablative with pro is used: —
pro patria morl (Her. Od. iii. 2. 13), to die for one's country.
ego ibo pro te (Plant. Most. 1131), I will go instead of you.
Ethical Dative
380. The Dative of the Personal Pronouns is used to show a
certain interest felt by the person indicated.^
This construction is called the Ethical Da^tive.^ It is really a
faded variety of the Dative of Eeference.
quid mihi Celsus agit (Hor. Ep. i. 3. 15), pray what is Celsus doing ?
suo sibi servit patri (Plaut. Capt. 5), he serves his own father.
at tibi repente venit mihi Canlnius (Fara. ix. 2), but, look you, of a sudden
comes to me Caninius.
hem tibi talentum argenti (PI. True. 60), hark ye, a talent of silver.
quid tibi vis, what would you have (what do you wish for yourself) ?
Dative of Separation
381. Many verbs of taking away and the like take the Dative
(especially of a person) instead of the Ablative of Separation
(§ 401).
Such are compounds of ab, dg, ex, and a few of ad : —
aureum ei detraxit amiculum (N. D. iii. 83), he took from him his cloak of
gold.
hunc mihi terrorem eripe (Cat. i. 18), take from me this terror.
vitam adulescentibus vis aufert (Cat. M. 71), violence deprives young men of
life.
nihil enim tibi detraxit senatus (Fani. i. 5 n), for the senate has taken nothing
from you.
nee mihi hunc errorem extorquerl volo (Cat. JM. 85), nor do I wish this error
wrested from me.
Note. — The Dative of Separation is a variety of the Dative of Reference. It repre-
sents the action as done to the person or thing, and is thus more vivid than the Ablative.
1 Compare " I '11 rhyme you so eight years together." — As You Like It, iii. 2.
2 Datlvus ethicus.
§§ 381, S82] DATIVE OF THE PURPOSE OR END 287
a. The distinct idea of motion requires the ablative with a prep-
osition — thus generally with names of things (§ 426. 1) : —
ilium ex periculo eripuit (B. G. iv. 12), he dragged him out of danger.
Note. — Sometimes the dative of the person and the ablative of the thing with a
preposition are both used with the same verb : as, — mihi praeda de manibus eripitur
(Verr. ii. 1. 142), the booty is wrested from my hands.
Dative of the Purpose or End
382. The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End, often
with another Dative of the person or thing affected.
This use of the dative, once apparently general, remains in
only a few constructions, as follows : —
1. The dative of an abstract noun is used to show that /or which
a thing serves or which it accomplishes, often with another dative of
the person or thing affected : —
rei publicae cladi sunt (lug. 85. 43), they are ruin to the state (they are for a
disaster to the state),
magno usui nostris fuit (B. G. iv. 25), it was of great service to our men (to
our men for great use),
tertiam aciem nostris subsidiS misit (id. i. 52), he sent the third line as a relief
to our men.
suis saluti fuit (id. vii. 50), he was the salvation of his men.
evenit facile quod dis cordi esset (Liv. i. 39), that came to pass easily which
was desired by the gods (was for a pleasure [lit. heart] to the gods).
Note 1. — This construction is often called the Dative of Service, or the Double
Dative construction. The verb is usually sum. The noun expressing the end for
lohich is regularly abstract and singular in number and is never modified by an adjec-
tive, except one of degree (magnus, minor, etc.), or by a genitive.
Note 2. — The word frugi used as an adjective is a dative of this kind : —
cogis me dicere inimicum Frugi (Font. 39) , you compel me to call my enemy Honest.
homines satis fortes et plane frugi (Verr. iii. 67), men brave enough and thoroughly
honest. Cf. ero frugi bonae (Plant. Pseud. 468), I loill be good for some-
thing. [See § 122. &.]
2. The Dative of Purpose of concrete nouns is used in prose in a
few military expressions, and with freedom in poetry : —
locum castris deligit (B. G. vii. 16), he selects a site for a camp.
receptui canere, to sound a retreat (for a retreat),
receptui signura (Phil, xiii, 15), the signal for retreat.
optavit locum regno (Aen, iii. 109), he chose a place for a kingdom.
locum insidiis circumspectare (Liv. xxi. 53), to look about for a place for an
ambush. [Cf. locum seditionis quaerere (id. iii. 46).]
For the Dative of the Gerundive denoting Purpose, see § 505. 6.
238 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§383-385
Dative with Adjectives
383. The Dative is used after Adjectives or Adverbs, to denote
that to which the given quality is directed, for which it exists, or
towards ivhich it tends.
Note. — The dative with certain adjectives is in origin a Dative of Purpose or End.
384. The Dative is used vrith adjectives (and a few Adverbs) of
fitness, nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites : ^
nihil est tarn naturae aptum (Lael. 17), nothing is so fitted to nature.
nihil difficile amanti puto (Or. 33), I think nothing hard to a lover.
castris idoneum locum delegit (B. G. i. 49), he selected a place suitable for a
camp.
tribiini nobis sunt amici (Q. Fr. i. 2. 16) , the tribunes are friendly to us.
esse propitius potest nemini (N. D. i. 124), he can be gracious to nobody.
magnis autem viris prosperae semper omnes res (id. ii. 167), but to great men
everything is always favorable.
sedes huic nostro non importuna sermoni (De Or. iii. 18), a place not unsuit-
able for this conversation of ours.
cui fundo erat affinis M. Tullius (Tull. 14), to which estate Marcus Tullius was
next neighbor.
convenienter naturae vivere (Off. iii. 13), to live in accordance with nature
{ofioXoyov/j.^ vojs t^ (piLKrei).
Note 1. — So, also, in poetic and colloquial use, with idem : as, — invitum qui servat
idem facit occidenti (Hor. A. P. 467), he who saves a man against his will does the same
as one loho kills hhn.
Note 2. — Adjectives of likeness are often followed by atque (ac), as. So also
the adverbs aeque, pariter, similiter, etc. The pronouu idem has regularly atque or a
relative : —
si parera sapientiam habet ac formam (Plaut. Mil. 1251), if he has sense equal to
his beauty (like as his beauty),
te suspicor elsdem rebus quibus me ipsum commoverl (Cat. M. 1), I suspect you are
disturbed by the same things by which I am.
385. Other constructions are sometimes found where the dative
might be expected : — •
a. Adjectives of fitness or use take oftener the Accusative with ad
to denote the purpose or end ; but regularly the Dative oi persons : —
aptus ad rem m!litarem,,^i /or a soldier's duty.
locus ad insidias aptior (Mil. 53), a place fitter for lying in ivait.
nobis utile est ad hanc rem (cf. Ter. And. 287), it is of use to us for this thing.
1 Adjectives of this kind are accommodatus, aptus ; amicus, inimicus, infestus, invisus,
molestus ; idoneus. opportunus, proprius; iitilis, inutills; affinis, finitimus, propinquus,
vicinus ; par, dispar, similis, dissimilis ; iucundus, g:ratus ; notus, ignotus, and others.
§385] DATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES 239
b. Adjectives and nouns of inclination and the like may take the
Accusative with in or erga : —
comis in uxorem (Hor, Ep. ii. 2. 133), kind to his wife.
divlna bonitas erga homines (N. D. ii. 60), the divine goodness towards men.
de benevolentia quam quisque habeat erga nos (Off. i. 47), in regard to each
man's good will which he has towards us.
gratiorem me esse in te (Earn. xi. 10), that I am more grateful to you.
c. Some adjectives of likeness, nearness, belonging, and a few
others, ordinarily requiring the Dative, often take the Possessive
Genitive : — ^
quod ut illi proprium ac perpetuum sit . . . optare debetis (Manil. 48), which
you ought to pray may he secure (his own) and lasting to him. [Dative.]
fuit hoc quondam proprium populi Romani (id. 32), this.was once the peculiar
char oMeristic of the Boman people. [Genitive.]
cum utrique sis maxime necessarius (Att. ix. 7 a), since you are especially
hound to both. [Dative.]
procurator aeque utriusque necessarius (Quinct. 86), an agent alike closely
connected with hoth. [Genitive.]
1. The genitive is especially used with these adjectives when they are
used wholly or approximately as nouns : —
amicus Ciceroni, friendly to Cicero. But, Ciceronis amicus, a friend of Cicero ;
and even, Ciceronis amicissimus, a very great friend of Cicero.
creticus et eius aequalis paean (Or. 215), the cretic and its. equivalent thepcean.
hi erant affines istius (Verr. ii. 36), these were this man^ s fellows.
2. After similis, like, the genitive is more common in early writers.
Cicero regularly uses the genitive of persons, and either the genitive or the
dative of things. With personal pronouns the genitive is regular (mei, tui,
etc.), and also in veri similis, probable : —
domini similis es (Ter. Eun. 496), you We like your master (your master's lil?:6).
ut essemus similes deorum (N. D. i. 91), that loe might be like the gods.
est similis maiorum suom (Ter. Ad. 411), he's like his ancestors.
patris similis esse (Off. i. 121), to be like his father.
simia quam similis turpissima bestia nobis (N. D. i. 97, quoted from Enn.),
how like us is that wretched beast the ape !
si enim hoc illl simile sit, est illud huic (id. i. 90), for if this is like that, that
is like this.
Note. — The genitive in this construction is not objective like those in 5 .349. but
possessive (cf . § 343) .
For the Dative or Accusative with propior, proximus, propius, proxime, see § 432. a.
1 Such are aequalis, affinis, alienus, amicus, cognatus, communis, consanguineus, contra
rius, dispar, familiaris, finitimus, inimicus, necessarius, par, peculiaris, propinquus, proprius
(reguhirly genitive), sacer, similis, superstes, vicinus.
240 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§386,387
ACCUSATIVE CASE
386. The Accusative originally served to connect the noun more or less loosely
with the verb-idea, whether expressed by a verb proper or by a verbal noun or adjec-
tive. Its earliest use was perhaps to repeat the verb-idea as in the Cognate Accusative
{run a race, fight a battle, see § 390) . From this it would be a short step to the Factitive
Accusative (denoting the result of an act, as in make a table, drill a hole, cf. § 273. n.I).
From this last could easily come the common accusative (of Affecting, break a table,
plug a hole, see § 387. a) . Traces of all these uses appear in the language, and the loose
connection of noun with verb-idea is seen in the use of stems in composition (cf . § 265. 3) A
It is impossible, however, to derive the various constructions of the accusative with
certainty from any single function of that case.
The uses of the accusative may be classified as follows :
(1. Directly affected by the Action (§ 387. a),
o -^^e X i.^t- A ^- f Thing produced (§ 387. a) .
2. Effect of the Action -^ ^ *,^ . ,.^^ /zocJw
{ Cognate Accusative (§ 390) .
(1. Predicate Accusative (Of Naming etc.) (§ 393).
2. Of Asking or Teaching (§ 396) .
3. Of Concealing (§ 396. c).
1. Adverbial (§ 397. a).
2. Of Specification (Greek Accusative) (§ 397. b).
3. Of Extent and Duration (§§ 423, 425).
4. Of Exclamation (§ 397. d).
5. Subject of Infinitive (§ 397. e).
III. Idiomatic Uses:
Direct Object
387. The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the Ac-
cusative (§ 274).
a. The Accusative of the Direct Object denotes (1) that which is
directly affected, or (2) that which is caused or produced by the action
of the verb : —
(1) Brutus Caesarem interfecit, Brutus killed CcBsar.
(2) aedem facers, to make a temple. [Cf . proelium pugnare, to fight a battle,
§ 390.]
Note. — There is no definite line by which transitive verbs can be distinguished
from intransitive. Verbs which usually take a direct object (expressed or implied)
are called transitive, but many of these arc often used intJ^ansitively or absolutely.
Thus timeo, I fear, is transitive in the sentence inimicum timeo, I fear my enemy, but
Intransitive (absolute) in noli timere, don't be afraid. Again, many verbs are transi-
tive in one sense and intransitive in another: as, — Helvetios superavgrunt RomanT, the
Romans overcame the Helvetians ; but nihil superabat, nothing remained (was left over) .
So also many verbs commonly intransitive may be used transitively with a slight
change of meaning: as, — rides, yow are laughing; but mg rides, you're laughing at me.
1 Compare armiger, armor-bearer, with arma gerere, to bear arms ; fldicen, lyre-player,
with fldibus canere, to (play on) sing to the lyre. Compare also istanc tactio (Plaut.), the
[act of] touching her, with istanc tangere, to touch her (§ 388. d. N.^).
§§ 387, 888] ACCUSATIVE OF DIRECT OBJECT 241
ho The object of a transitive verb in the active voice becomes its
subject in the passive, and is put in the nominative (§ 275) : —
Brutus Caesarem interfecit, Brutus killed Ccesar.
Caesar a Bruto interfectus est, Coesar was killed by Brutus.
domum aedificat, he builds a house.
domus aedificatur, the house is building (being built).
388. Certain special verbs require notice.
a. Many verbs apparently intransitive, expressing feeling, take
an accusative, and may be used in the passive : • —
meum casum luctumque dolueruiit (Sest. 145), they grieved at my calamity
and sorrow.
si non Acrisium risissent luppiter et Venus (Hor. Od. iii. 10. 5), if Jupiter
and Venus had not laughed at Acrisius.
rldetur ab omni conventu (Hor. S. i. 7. 22), he is laughed at by the whole
assembly.
For the Cognate Accusative witli verbs of ta^te, smell, and the like, see § 390. a.
Note. — Some verbs commonly intransitive may be used transitively (especially in
poetry) from a similarity of meaning with other verbs that take the accusative ; —
gemens ignominiam (Georg. iii. 226), groaning at the disgrace. [Cf. doleo.]
festinare fugam (Aen. iv. 575), to hasten tlieir flight. [Cf. accelero.]
comptos arsit crinis (Hor. Od. iv. 9. 13), she burned loith love for his well-combed
locks. [Cf. adamo.]
b. Verbs of motion, compounds of circum, trans, and praeter, and
a few others, frequently become transitive, and take the accusative
(cf. §370. b):-~
mortem oblre, to die (to meet death).
consulatum ineunt (Li v. ii. 28), they enter upon the consulship.
ueminem couveni (Fam. ix. 14), I met no one.
si Insulam adisset (B. G. iv. 20), if he should go to the island.
transire flumen (id. ii. 23), to cross the river (cf. § 395).
elves qui circumstant senatum (Cat. i. 21), the citizens who stand about the
senate.
Note. — Among such verbs are some compounds of ad, in, per, and sub.
c. The accusative is used after the impersonals decet, dedecet, delec-
tat, iuvat, oportet, fallit, f ugit, praeterit : —
ita ut vos decet (Plant. Most. 729), so as befits you.
me pedibus delectat claudere verba (Hor. S. ii. 1. 28), my delight is (it
pleases me) to arrange words in measure.
nisi me fallit, unless I am mistaken (unless it deceives me),
itivit me tibi tuas litteras profuisse (Fam. v. 21. 8), it pleased me that your
literary studies had profited you.
te non praeterit (Fam. i. 8. 2), it does not escape your notice.
242 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§388-390
Note 1. — So after latet in poetry and post-classical prose: as, — latet plerosque
(Pliu. N. H. ii. 82), it is u7iknow7i to most persons.
Note 2. — These verbs are merely ordinary transitives with an idiomatic significa-
tion. Hence most of them are also used personally.
Note 3. — Decet and latet sometimes take the dative : —
ita nobis decet (Ter. Ad. 928), thus it befits us.
hostique Roma latet (Sil. It. xii. (314), and Rome lies hidden from the foe.
d, A few verbs in isolated expressions take the accusative from
a forcing of their meaning Such expressions are : —
ferire foedus, to strike a treaty (i.e. to sanction by striking down a victim),
vincere indicium (sp6nsi5nem, rem, h5c), to prevail on a trial, etc. [As if the
case were a diflBculty to overcome ; cf. vincere iter, Aen. vi, 688.]
aequor navigare (Aen. i. 67), to sail the sea. [As if it were transire, § 388. b.]
maria aspera iuro (id. vi. 351), I swear by the rough seas (cf, id. vi. 32-i).
[The accusative with verbs of swearing is chiefly poetic]
noctis dormire, to sleep [whole] nights (to spend in sleep).
Note 1. — These accusatives are of various kinds. The last example approaches
the cognate construction (cf. the second example under § 390).
Note 2. — In early and popular usage some nouns and adjectives derived from tran-
sitive verbs retain verbal force sufficient to govern the accusative : —
quid tibi istanc tactio est (Plant. Poen. 1308), what business have you to touch her?
[Cf . tang5.]
mirabundl bestiam (Ap. Met. iv. 16), full of wonder at the creature. [Cf. miror.]
vitabundus castra (Liv. xxv. 13), tiding to avoid the camp. [Cf. vito.]
389. Many verbs ordinarily transitive may be used absolutely^
having their natural object in the ablative with de (§ 273. N. 2): —
priusquam Pomponius de eius adventu cognosceret (B. C. iii. 101), before,
Pomponius could learn of his coming. [Cf. eius adventu cognito, his
arrival being discovered.]
For Accusative and Genitive after Impersonals, see § 354. b. For the Accusative
after the impersonal Gerundive with esse, see § 500. 3.
Cognate Accusative
390. An intransitive verb often takes the Accusative of a noun
of kindred meaning, usually modified by an adjective or in some
other manner.
This construction is called the Cognate Accusative or Accusative
of Kindred Signification : —
tiitiorem vitam vivere (Verr. ii. 118), to live a safer life.
tertiam iam aetatem hominum vivebat (Cat. M. 31), he was now living the
third generation of men.
servitutem servire, to be in slavery.
coire societatem, to [go together and] form an alliance.
§390J COGNATE ACCUSATIVE 243
a. Verbs of taste^ smelly and the like take a cognate accusative
of the quality : —
vinum redolens (Phil. ii. 63), smelling [of] wine.
herbam mella sapiunt (Plin. H. N. xi. 18), the honey tastes [of] grass.
olere malitiam (Rose. Com. 20), to have the odor of malice.
Cordubae natis poetis, pingue quiddam sonantibus atque peregrinum (Arch.
26), to poets born at Cordova, whose speech had a somewhat thick and
foreign accent.
b. The cognate accusative is often loosely used by the poets : —
huic error! similem [errorem] insanlre (Hor. S. ii. 3. 62), to suffer a delusion
like this.
saltare Cyclopa (id. i. 5. 63), to dance the Cyclops (represent in dancing).
Bacchanalia vivere (luv. ii. 3), to live in revellings.
Amaryllida resonare (Eel. i. 5), to reecho [the name of] Amaryllis.
intonuit laevum (Aen. ii. 693), it thundered on the left.
dulce ridentem, dulce loquentem (Hor. Od. i. 22. 23), sweetly smiling, sweetly
prattling.
acerba tuens (Aen, ix. 794), looking fiercely. [Cf. Eng. "to look daggers."]
torvum clamat (id. vii. 399), he cries harshly.
c- A neuter pronoun or an adjective of indefinite meaning is very
common as cognate accusative (cf. §§ 214. d, 397. a): —
Empedocles multa alia peccat (N. D. i. 29), Empedocles commits many other
errors.
ego illud adsentior Theophrasto (De Or. iii. 184), in this I agree with Theo-
phrastus.
multum te ista fefellit opinio (Verr, ii. 1. 88), you were much deceived in this
expectation (this expectation deceived you much) .
plus valeo, I have more strength.
plurimum potest, he is strongest.
quid me ista laedunt (Leg. Agr. ii. 32), what harm do those things do me ?
hoc te moneo, I give you this warning (cf. d. n. i).
id laetor, I rejoice at this (cf. d. n. i).
quid moror, why do I delay f
quae homines arant, navigant, aedificant (Sail. Cat. ii. 7), what men do in
ploughing, sailing, and building.
d. So in many common phrases : —
si quid ille se velit (B. G. i. 34), if he should want anything of him (if he
should want him in anything).
numquid, Geta, aliud me vis (Ter. Ph. 151), can I do anything more for you,
Geta (there is nothing you want of me, is there)? [A common form
of leave-taking.]
quid est quod, etc., why is it that, etc.? [Cf. hoc erat quod (Aen. ii. 664),
was it for this that, etc.?]
244 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§390-393
Note 1. — In these cases substantives with a definite meaning would bo in pome
other construction : —
in hoc eodem peccat, he errs in this same point.
bonis rebus laetarl, to rejoice at prosperity . [Also: in, de, or ex.]
de testaments monere, to remind one of the will. [Later ; genitive, § 351.]
offici admonere, to remind one of his duty. [Also: de officio,]
Note 2. — In some of these cases the connection of the accusative with the verb has
so faded out that the words have become real adverbs : as, — multum, plfls, piarimum ;
plerumque, /or the most part, generally; ceterum, cetera, /or the rest, otherwise, but;
l>nmviin, first; nihil, by no means, not at all; aliquid, someiohat ; qnii, why; fdcil^, easily.
So in the comparative of adverbs (§ 218). But the line cannot be sharply drawn, and
some of the examples under 6 may be classed as adverbial.
Two Accusatives
391. Some transitive verbs take a second accusative in addi-
tion to their Direct Object.
This second accusative is either (1) a Predicate Accusative or
(2) a Secondary Object.
Predicate Accusative
392. An accusative in the Predicate referring to the same per-
son or thing as the Direct Object, but not in apposition with it,
is called a Predicate Accusative.
393. Verbs of naming, choosing^ appointing, making, esteeming,
showing, and the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along
with the direct object : —
o Spartace, quem enim te potius appellem (Phil. xiii. 22), Spartaciis, for
what else shall I call you (than Spartacus) ?
Ciceronem consulem creare, to elect Cicero consul.
me augurem nominaverunt (Phil. ii. 4), they nominated me for augur.
cum gratias ageret quod se consulem fecisset (De Or. ii. 268), when he thanked
him because he had made him consul (supported his candidacy).
hominem prae se neminem putavit (Rose. Am. 135), he thought nobody a man
in comparison with himself.
ducem se praebuit (Vat. 33), he offered himself as a leader.
Note. — The predicate accusative may be an adjective: as, — homines mitis red-
didit et mansuetos (Inv. 1. 2), has made men mild and gentle.
a. In changing from the active voice to the passive, the Predicate
Accusative becomes Predicate Nominative (§ 284) : —
rex ab suis appellatur (B. G. viii. 4), /le is called king by his subjects. [Active :
sui eum regem appellant.]
§§ 394, 395] ACCUSATIVE OF THE SECONDARY OBJECT 245
Secondary Object
394. The Accusative of the Secondary Object is used (along
with the direct object) to denote something more remotely affected
by the action of the verb.
395. Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes
take (in addition to the direct object) a Secondary Object, origi-
nally governed by the preposition : —
Caesar Germanos flumen traicit (B. C. i. 83), Ccesar throws the Germans
across the river.
idem ius iurandum adigit Afranium (id. i. 76), he exacts the same oath from
Afranius.
quos Pompeius omnia sua praesidia circumduxit (id. iii. 61), whom Pompey
conducted through all his garrison.
Note 1. — This construction is common only with traduco, traici5, and transports.
The preposition is sometimes repeated with compounds of trans, and usually with
compounds of the other prepositions. The ablative is also used : —
donee res suas trans Halyn flumen traicerent (Liv. xxxviii. 25), till they should get
their possessions across the river Halys.
(exercitus) Pado traiectus Cremonam (id. xxi. 56), the army was conveyed across
the Po to Cj^emona (by way of the Po, § 429. a).
Note 2. — The secondary object may be retained with a passive verb : as, — Belgae
Rhenum traducti sunt (B. G. ii. 4), the Belgians were led over the Rhine.
Note 3. — The double construction indicated in § 395 is possible only when the force
of the preposition and the force of the verb are each distinctly felt in the compound,
the verb governing the direct, and the preposition the secondary object.
But often the two parts of the compound become closely united to form a transitive
verb of simple meaning. In this case the compound verb is transitive solely by virtue
of its prepositional part and can have but one accusative, — the same which was for-
merly the secondary object, but which now becomes the direct. So traicio comes to
mean either (1) to pierce (anybody) [by hurling] or (2) to cross (a river etc.): —
gladi6 hominem traiecit, he pierced the man with a sword. [Here iacio has lost
all transitive force, and serves simply to give the force of a verb to the mean-
ing of trans, and to tell the manner of the act.]
Rhodanum traiecit, he crossed the Rhone. [Here iacio has become simply a verb
of motion, and traicio is hardly distinguishable from transeo.]
In these examples hominem and Rhodanum, which would be secondary objects if traiecit
were used in its primary signiiication, have become the direct objects. Hence in the
passive construction they become the subjects and are put in the nominative : —
homo traiectus est gladio, the man was pierced with a sword.
Rhodanus traiectus est, the Rhone was crossed.
The poetical traiectus lora (Aen. ii. 273) , pierced with thongs, comes from a mixture of
two constructions : (1) eum traiecit lora, he rove thongs through him,^ and (2) eum
traiecit loris, he pierced him icith thongs. In putting the sentence into a passive form,
the direct object of the former (lora) is irregularly kept, and the direct object of the
latter (eum) is made the subject.
1 Perhaps not found in the active, but cf. traiecto fune (Aen. v. 488).
246 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§396
396. Some verbs of ashing and teaching may take two accusa-
tives, one of the Person (direct object)^ and the other of the Thing
{secondary object) : —
me sententiam rogavit, he asked me my opinion.
otium divos rogat (Hor. Od. ii. 16. 1), he prays the gods for rest.
haec praetorem postulabas (Tull. 39), you demanded this of the proetor.
aedilis populum rogare (Liv. vi. 42), to ask the people [to elect] oediles.
docere pueros elementa, to teach children their A B Cs.
Note. — This construction is found in classical authors with oro, posco, reposco, rogo,
interrogo, flagito, doceo.
a. Some verbs of asking take the ablative of the person with a
preposition instead of the accusative. So, always, peto (ab), quaero
(ex, ab, de); usually posco (ab), flagito (ab), postulo (ab), and occa-
sionally others : —
pacem ab Romanis petierunt (B. G. ii. 13), they sought peace from the Bomans.
quod quaesivit ex me P. Apuleius (Phil. vi. 1), what Pubiius Apuleius asked
of me.
h. With the passive of some verbs of asking or teaching, the^er-
son or the thing may be used as subject (cf. c. n. ^) : —
Caesar sententiam rogatus est, CcBsar was asked his opinion.
id ab eo flagitabatnr (B. C. i. 71), this was urgently demanded of him.
Note. — The accusative of the thing may be retained with the passive of rogo, and
of verbs of teaching, and occasionally with a few other verbs : —
fuerant hoc rogati (Gael. 64), they had been asked this.
poscor meum Laelapa (Ov. M. vii. 771), / am asked for my Lselaps.
Cicero cuncta edoctus (Sail. Cat. 45), Cicero, being informed of everything.
But with most verbs of asking in prose the accusative of the thing becomes the
subject nominative, and the accusative of the person is put in the ablative with a
preposition: as, — ne postulantur quidem vires a senectute (Cat. M. 34), strength is
not even expected of an old man (asked from old age) .
c. The verb celo, conceal^ may take two accusatives, and the usually
intransitive lateo, lie hid, an accusative of the person : —
non te celavi sermonem T. Ampi (Fam. ii. 16. 3), I did not conceal from you
the talk of Titus Ampius.
nee latuere doll fratrem lunonis (Aen. 1. 130), nor did the wiles of Juno
escape the notice of her brother.
Note 1. — The accusative of the person with lateo is late or poetical (§ 388. c. n. i).
Note 2. — All the double constructions indicated in § 396 arise from the waver-
ing meaning of the verbs. Thus doceo means both to show a thing, and to instruct
a person ; celo, to keep a person in the dark, and to hide a thing ; rogo, to question
a person, and to ask a question or a thing. Thus either accusative may be regarded
as the direct object, and so become the subject of the passive (cf. b above), but for
convenience the accusative of the thing is usually called secondary.
§ 397] IDIOMATIC USES OF THE ACCUSATIVE 247
Idiomatic Uses
397. The Accusative has the following special uses : —
a. The accusative is found in a few adverbial phrases (Adverbial
Accusative) : —
id temporis, at that time ; id (istiic) aetatis, at that age.
id (quod) genus, of that {what) sort (perliaps originally nominative).
meam vicem, on my part.
bonam partem, in a great measure ; maximam partem, for the most part.
virile (muliebre) secus, of the male {female) sex (probably originally in
apposition).
quod si, but if (as to wMch, if) ; quod nisi, if not. »
h. The so-called synecdochical or Greek Accusative, found in poetry
and later Latin, is used to denote the part affected : —
caput nectentur (Aen. v. 309), their heads shall he hound (they shall be bound
about the head).
ardentis ocul5s suffecti sanguine et igni (id. ii. 210), their glaring eyes blood-
shot and blazing with fire (suffused as to their eyes with blood and fire).
nuda genu (id, i. 320), with her knee hare (bare as to the knee).
femur tragula ictus (Li v. xxi. 7. 10), wounded in the thigh by a dart.
Note. — This construction is also called the Accusative of Specificatiouo
c. In many apparently similar expressions the accusative may be
regarded as the direct object of a verb in the middle voice (§ 156. a) :
Lniitile ferrum cingitur (Aen. ii. 510), he girds on the useless steel.
nodo sinus collecta fluentis (id. i. 320), having her flowing folds gathered in
a knot.
umeros insternor pelle leonis (id. ii. 722), I cover my shoulders with a lion'^s
skin.
protinus induitur faciem cultumque Dianae (Oy. M. ii. 425), forthwith she
assumes the shape and garb of Diana.
d. The Accusative is used in Exclamations : —
o f ortunatam rem publicam, O fortunate republic ! [Cf. o fortiinata mora
(Phil. xiv. 31), oh, happy death! (§339. a).]
o me infelicem (Mil. 102), oh., unhappy I !
me miserum, ah, wretched me !
en quattuor aras (Eel. v. 65), lo,four altars!
ellum (= em ilium), there he is ! [Cf. § 146. a. n. 2.]
eccos (= ecce eos), there they are, look at them!
pro deum fidem, good heavens (0 protection of the gods) I
hocine saeclum (Ter. Ad. 304), this generation!
huncine hominem (Verr. v. 62), this man, good heavens I
248 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§397,398
Note 1. — Such expressions usually depend upon some long-forgotten verb. The
substantive is commonly accompanied by an adjective. The use of -ne in some cases
suggests an original question, as in quid? what? why? tell me.
Note 2. — The omission of the verb has given rise to some other idiomatic accusa-
tives. Such are : —
salutem (sc. dicit) (in addressing a letter), greeting.
me dius fidius (sc. adiuvet), so help me heaven (the god of faith),
unde mihl lapidem (Hor. S. ii. 7. IIG), where can I get a stone?
quo mihi fortunam (Hor. Ep. i. 5. 12), of what use to me is fortune? [No verb
thought of.]
e. The subject of an infinitive is in the accusative : —
intellego te sapere (Fam. vii. 32. 3), I perceive that you are wise.
eas res iactarl nolebat (B. G. i. 18), he was unwilling that these matters should
«♦ be discussed.
Note. — This construction is especially common -with verbs of knowing, thinking,
telling, and perceiving (§580).
/, The accusative in later writers is sometimes used in apposition
with a clause : —
deserunt tribunal . . . manus intentantes, causam discordiae et initium armo-
rum (Tac. Ann. i. 27), they abandon the tribunal shaking their fists, —
a cause of dissension and the beginning of ^jimr.
Note. — This construction is an extension (under Greek influence) of a usage more
nearly within the ordinary rules, such as, — Eumenem prodidere Antiocho, pacis merce-
dem (Sail. Ep. Mith. 8), iheij betrayed Eumenes to Antiochus, theprice of peace. [Here
Eumenes may be regarded as the price, although the real price is the betrayal.]
For the Accusative of the End of Motion, see § 427. 2 ; for the Accusative of Dura-
tion of Time and Extent of Space, see §§ 423, 425 ; for the Accusative with Prepositions,
see § 220.
ABLATIVE CASE
398. Under th» name Ablative are included the meanings and, in part, the forms
of three cases, — the Ablative proper, expressing the relation from; the Locative,
IN ; and the Instrumental, with or by. These three cases were originally not wholly
distinct in meaning, and their confusion was rendered more certain (1) by the develop-
ment of meanings that approached each other and (2) by phonetic decay, by means of
which these cases have become largely identical in form. Compare, for the first, the
phrases a parte dextera, on the right; quam ob causam, from which cause; ad famam,
at (in consequence of) the report; and, for the second, the like forms of the dative
and ablative plural, the old dative in -e of the fifth declension (§ 90), and the loss of the
original -d of the ablative (§ 49. e; cf. §§ 43. n. i, 92./, 214. a. n.).
The relation of from includes separation, source, cause, agent, and comparison;
that of WITH or by, accompaniment, instrument, means, manner, quality, and pjice ;
that of IN or at, place, time, circumstance. This classification according to the
original cases (to which, however, too great a degree of certainty should not be
attached)! is set forth in the following table: —
1 Thus the Ablative of Cause may be, at least in part, of Instrumental origin, and
the Ablative Absolute appears to coml)ine the Instrumental and the Locative.
§§ 398-401] ABLATIVE OF SEPARATION 249
I. Ablative Proper {from)
{Separative):
II. Instrumental Ablative
{with):
1. Of Separation, Privation, and Want (§400).
2. Of Source (participles of origin etc.) (§403).
3. Of Cause (labor5, exsilio, etc.) (§404).
4. Of Agent (witli ab after Passives) (§ 405).
5. Of Comparison (than) (§40G).
1. Of Manner, Means, and Instrument (§408ff.).
2. Of Object of the Deponents utor etc. (§ 410).
3. Of Accompaniment (with cum) (§413).
4. Of Degree of Difference (§ 414) .
5. Of Quality (with Adjectives) (§415).
6. Of Price and Exchange (§ 416) .
7. Of Specification (§418).
8. Ablative Absolute (§419).
III. Locative Ablative {in, T 1. Of Place w;7iere (commonly with in) (§421). ,
on, at): \ 2. Of Time and Circumstance (§ 423).
399. The Ablative is used to denote the relations expressed in
English by the prepositions /rom; m, at; witli^ hy : —
liberare metu, to deliver from fear.
excultus doctrina, trained in learning.
hoc ipso tempore, at this eery time.
caecus avaritia, blind with avarice.
occisus gladio, slain hy the sword.
USES OF TEE ABLATIVE PROPER
Ablative of Separation
400. Words signifying Separation or Privation are followed by
the ablative.
401. Verbs meaning to remove^ setfree^ be absent^ deprive^ and
want^ take the Ablative (sometimes with ab or ex) : —
oculis se privavit (Fin. v. 87), he deprived himself of eyes.
omni Gallia Romanis interdicit (B, G. i. 46), he (Ariovistus) bars the Romans
from the whole of Gaul.
e! aqua et igni interdlcitur (Veil. ii. 45), he is debarred the use of fire and
water. [The regular formula of banishment.]
volaptatibus carere (Cat. M. 7), to lack enjoyments.
non egeo medicina (Lael. 10), I want no physic.
levamur superstitione, llberamur mortis metu (Fin. i. 63), we are relieved
from superstition, we are freed from fear of death.
soluti a ctipiditatibus (Leg. Agr. i. 27), freed from desires.
multos ex his incommodis peciinia se liberasse (Verr. v. 23), that many have
freed themselves by money from these inconveniences.
For the Genitive with verbs of separation and want, see § 35G. n.
250 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 402, 403
402. Verbs compounded with a, ab, de, ex, (1) take the simple
Ablative when u^Q(i figuratively ; but (2) when used literally to
denote actual separation or motion^ they usually require a prepo-
sition (§ 426. 1) : —
(1) conatu desistere (B. G. i. 8), to desist from the attempt.
desine communibus locis (Acad. ii. 80), quit commonplaces.
abire magistratu, to leave one^s office.
abstinere iniuria, to refrain from wrong.
(2) a proposito aberrare (Fin. v. 88), to wander from the point.
de provincia decedere (Verr. ii. 48), to withdraw from on£''s province.
ab lure abIre (id. ii. 114), to go outside of the law.
ex civitate excessere (B. G. vi. 8), they departed from the state. [But cf.
finibus suis excesserant (id. iv. 18), they had left their own territory. 1
a magno demissum nomen lulo (Aen. i. 288), a name descended (sent down)
from great lulus.
For the Dative used instead of the Ablative of Separation, see § 381. For the Abla-
tive of the actual place whence in idiomatic expressions, see §§ 427. 1, 428./.
a. Adjectives denoting freedom and wa7it are followed by the
ablative : —
urbs ntida praesidio (Att. vii. 13), the city naked of defence.
immunis militia (Liv. i. 43),/ree of military service.
plebs orba tribunis (Leg. iii. 9), the people deprived of tribunes.
Note. — A preposition sometimes occurs: —
a culpa vacuus (Sail. Cat. 14), free from blame. ~ ,
liberi a delicils (Leg. Agr. i. 27) , free fro7n luxuries.
Messana ab his rebus vacua atque nuda est (Verr. iv. 3), Messana is empty and
bare of these things.
For the Genitive with adjectives of want, see § 349. a.
Ablative of Source and Material
403. The Ablative (usually with a preposition) is used to denote
the Source from which anything is derived, or the Material of
which it consists : —
1. Source : —
Rhenus oritur ex Lepontiis (B. G. iv. 10), the Rhine rises in (from) the
country of the Lepontii.
ab his sermo oritur (Lael. 5), the conversation is begun by (arises from) them.
cuius rationis vim atque utilitatem ex illo caelesti Epicuri volumine accepi-
mus (N. T). i. 43), of this reasoning we have learned the power and
advantage from that divine book of Epicurus.
suavitatem odorum qui afiflarentur e floribus (Cat. M. 59), the sweetness of
the odors which breathed from the flowers.
§ 408] ABLATIVE OF SOURCE AND MATERIAL 251
2. Material: —
erat totus ex fraude et mendaciS f actus (Clu. 72), he was entirely made up of
fraud and falsehood.
valvas magnificentiores, ex auro atque ebore perfectiores (Verr. iv. 124),
more splendid doors, more finely wrought of gold and ivory.
factum de cautibus antrum (Ov. M. i, 576), a cave formed of rocks.
templum de marmore pouam (Georg. iii. 13), I'll build a temple of marble.
Note 1, — In poetry the preposition is often omitted.
Note 2. — The Ablative of Material is a development of the Ablative of Source.
For the Genitive of Material, see § 344.
a. Participles denoting birth or o^ngin are followed by the Abla-
tive of Source, generally without a preposition : — ^
love natus et Maia (N. D. iii. 66), son of Jupiter and Maia.
edite regibus (Hor. Od. i. 1. 1), descendant of kings.
quo sanguine cretus (Aen. ii. 74), born of what blood.
genitae Pandione (Ov. M. vi. 666), daughters of Pandion.
Note 1. — A preposition (ab, de, ex) is usually expressed with pronouns, with the
name of the mother, and often with that of other ancestors : —
ex me hic natus non est sod ex fratre meo (Ter. Ad. 40), this is not my son, but
my brother^ s (not born from me, etc.).
cum ex utraque [uxore] filius natus esset (De Or. i. 183), each wife having had
a son (when a son had been born of each wife).
Belus et omnes a Belo (Aen. i. 730), Belus and all his descendants.
Note 2. — Rarely, the place of birth is expressed by the ablative of source: as, —
desideravit C. Fleginatem Placentia, A. Granium Puteolis (B. C. iii. 71), he lost Cains
Fleginas of Placentia, Aulus Granius of Pifteoli.
Note 3. — The Roman tribe is regularly expressed by the ablative alone : as, —
Q. Verrem Romilia (Verr. i. 23), Quintus Verres of the Romilian tribe.
b. Some verbs may take the Ablative of Material without a prep-
osition. Such are constare, consistere, and contineri.^ But with con-
stare, ex is more common : —
domiis amoenitas non aedificio sed silva constabat (Nep. Att. 13), the chdrm
of the house consisted not in the buildings but in the woods.
ex animo constamus et corpore (Fin. iv. 19), we consist of soul and body.
vita corpore et spiritu continetur (Marc. 28), life consists of body and spirit.
c. The Ablative of Material without a preposition is used with
facere, fieri, and similar words, in the sense of do with, become of: —
quid hoc homine faciatis (Verr. ii. 1. 42), what are you going to do with this
man ?
quid Tulliola mea flet (Fam. xiv. 4. 3), what will become of my dear Tullia 1
quid te futurum est (Verr. ii. 166), v}hat will become of you?
1 As natus, satus, editus, genitus, ortus, prognatus, generatus, cretus, creatus, oriundus.
2 The ablati\e with consistere and cootiueri is probably locative in origin (cf. §431).
252 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 403, 404.
d. The Ahlative of Material with ex, and in poetry without a
preposition, sometimes depends directly on a noun : • —
non pauca pocula ex aurd (Verr. iv. 62), not a few cups of gold.
scopulis pendentibus antrum (Aen. i. 166), a cave of hanging rocks.
For Ablative of Source instead of Partitive Genitive, see § 346. c.
Ablative of Cause
404. The Ablative (with or without a preposition) is used to
express Cause : — ^
neglegentia plectimur (Lael, 85), we are chastised for negligence.
gubernatoris ars utilitate non arte laudatur (Fin. i. 42), the piloVs skill is
praised for its service, not its skill.
certis de causis, for cogent reasons.
ex vulnere aeger (Rep. ii. 38), disabled hy (from) a wound.
mare a sole lucet (Acad. ii. 105), the sea gleams in the sun (from the sun).
a. The Ablative of Cause without a preposition is used with laboro
(also with ex), exsilio, exsulto, triumpho, lacrimo, ardeo : —
doleo te aliis mails laborare (Fam. iv. 3), I am sorry that you suffer with
other ills. [Cf. ex aere alieuo laborare (B, C. iii. 22), to labor under
debt (from another's money).]
exsultare laetitia, triumphare gaudio coepit (Clu. 14), she began to exult in
gladness, and triumph in joy.
exsilui gaudio (Fam. xvi. 16), I jumped for joy. [Cf. lacrimo gaudid (Ter.
Ad. 409), I weep for joy .']
ardere dolore et ira (Att. ii. 19. 5), to be on fire with pain and anger.
For gaudeo and glorior, see § 431.
h. The motive which influences the mind of the person acting is
expressed by the ablative of cause ; the object exciting the emotion
often by ob ^ or propter with the accusative : —
non ob praedam aut spoliandi cupidine (Tac. H. i. 63), not for booty or through
lust of plunder.
amicitia ex se et propter s§ expetenda (Fin. ii. 83), friendship must be sought
of and for itself.
Note. — But these constructions are often confused: as, — parere legibus propter
metum (Par. 34), to obey the laws on account of fear. [Here metum is almost equiva-
lent to "the terrors of the laAV," and hence propter is used, thous:h the ablative would
be more natural.]
1 The cause, in the ablative, is originally source, as is shown by the use of ab, de,
ex ; hut when the accusative with ad, ob, is used, the idea of cause arises from nearness.
Occasionally it is difficult to distinguish between cause and means (which is the old
Instrumental case) or circumstance (which is either the Locative or the Instrumental).
2 Originally a mercantile use: cf. ob decern minSs, /or the price of ten minss.
\
§§ 404, 405] ABLATIVE OF AGENT 253
c. The ablatives causa and gratia^ for the sake of, are used with a
genitive preceding, or with a pronoun in agreement : —
ea causa, on account of this; qua gratia (Ter. Eun. 99), /or vjhat purpose f
mea causa, for my sake ; mea gratia (Plant.), for my sake.
ex mea et rei publicae causa, for my own sake and the republic'' s.
praedictionis causa (N. D. iii. 5), by way of prophecy.
exempli gratia (verbi gratia) , for example.
sul purgandi gratia, for the sake of clearing themselves.
Note. — But gratia with possessives in this use is rare.
Ablative of Agent
405. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is expressed by
the Ablative with a or ab : —
laudatur ab his, culpatur ab illis (Hor. S. i. 2. 11), he is praised by these,
blamed by those.
ab animo tno quidquid agitur id agitur a te (Tusc. i. 52), whatever is done by
your soul is done by yourself.
a filiis in iudicium vocatus est (Cat. M. 22), he ivas brought to trial by his sons.
cum a cuncto consessu plausus esset multiplex datus (id. 64), when great
applause had been given by the whole audience.
ne virtus ab audacia vinceretur (Sest. 92), that valor might not be overborne
by audacity. [Audacia is in a manner personified. ]
Note 1. — This construction is developed from the Ablative of Source. The agent
is conceived as the source or author of the action.
Note 2. — The ablative of the agent (which requires a or ab) must be carefully
distinguished from the ablative of instrument, which has no preposition (§ 409) . Thus
— occisus gladio, slain by a sword; but, occisus ab hoste, slain by an enemy.
Note 3. — The ablative of the agent is commonest with nouns denoting pe7'sons, but
it occurs also with names of things or qualities when these are conceived as performing
an action and so are partly or wholly personified, as in the last example under the rule.
a. The ablative of the agent with ab is sometimes used after intran-
sitive verbs that have a passive sense : —
perire ab hoste, to be slain by an enemy.
b. The personal agent, when considered as instrument or means,
is often expressed by per with the accusative, or by opera with a
genitive or possessive : —
ab exploratoribus certior f actus est (B. G. i. 21), he was informed by scouts (in
person). But, —
per exploratores Caesar certior f actus est (id. i. 12), Ccosar ivas informed by
(means of) scouts.
glautae opera Neptuni (Plant. Rud. 699), washed cleanby the services of Neptune.
non mea opera evenit (Ter. Hec. 228), it hasiiH happened through me (by my
exertions). [Cf. eius opera, B. G. v. 27.]
254 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§405-40;
Note 1. — The ablative of means or instrument is often used instead of the abla-
tive of agent, especially in military phrases: as, — haec excubitoribus teuebautur
(B. G. vii. 09), these (redoubts) loere held by means of sentinds.
Note 2. — An animal is sometimes regarded as the means or instrument, some-
times as the agent. Hence both the simple ablative and the ablative with ab occur : —
equo vehi, to ride on horseback (be conveyed by means of a horse). [Not ab equo.J
clipeos a muribus esse derosos (Div. i. 99), that the shields were gnawed by mice.
For the Dative of the Agent vf'ith. the Gerundive, see § 374.
Ablative of Comparison
406. The Comparative degree is often followed by the Abla-
tive ^ signifying than : —
Cato est Cicerone eloquentior, Cato is more eloquent than Cicero.
quid nobis duobus laboriosius est (Mil. 5), what more burdened with toil than
we two 1
villus argentum est auto, virtutibus aurum (Hor. Ep. i. 1. 52), silver is less
precious than gold, gold than virtue.
a. The idiomatic ablatives opinione, spe, solito, dicto, aequo, credi-
bili, aiid iusto are used after comparatives instead of a clause : —
celerius opinione (Fam. xiv. 2S), faster than one would think.
serius spe omnium (Liv. xxvi. 26), later than all hoped (than the hope of all),
amnis solit5 citatior (id. xxiii. 19. 11), a stream swifte)' than its wont.
gravius aequo (Sail. Cat. 51), more seriously than was right.
407. The comparative may be followed by quam, than. When
quam is used, the two things compared are put in the same case :
non callidior es quam hie (Rose. Am. 49), you are not more cunning than he.
c6nti5nibus accommodatior est quamiudiciis (Clu. 2), fitter for popular assem-
blies than for courts.
misericordia dignior quam contumelia (Pison. 32), more worthy of p)ity than of
disgrace.
a. The construction with quam is required when the first of the
things compared is not in the Nominative or Accusative.
Note 1. — There are several limitations on the use of the ablative of comparison,
even when the first of the things compared is in the nominative or accusative. Thus
the quam construction is regularly used (1) when the comparative is in agreement
with a genitive, dative, or ablative : as, — senex est eo meliore condicione quam adules-
cens (Cat. M. G8), an old man is in this respect in a better position than a young man ;
and (2) when the second member of the comparison is modified by a clause : as, — minor
fuit aliquanto is qui primus fabulara dedit quam ei qui, etc. (Brut. 73), he who first
presented a play loas somewhat younger than those ivho, etc.
1 This is a branch of the Ablative of Separation, The object with which anything
is compared is the starting-point /rom which we reckon. Thus, " Cicero is eloquent " ;
but, starting from him, we come to Cato, who is *' more so than he."
§407] ABLATIVE OF COMPARISON 255
Note 2. — The poets sometimes use the ablative of comparison where the prose
construction requires quam: as, — pane egeo iam mellitis potiore placentis (Hor. Ep.
i. 10. 11), I now vmnt bread better than honey-cakes.
Note 3. — Relative pronouns having a definite antecedent never take quam in this
construction, but always the ablative: as, — rex erat Aeneas nobis, quo iustior alter
nee, etc. (Aen. i. 644), Apneas was our king, than whom no other [was] more righteous.
b. In sentences expressing or implying a general negative the
ablative (rather than quam) is the regular construction when the first
member of the comparison is in the nominative or accusative : —
nihil detestabilius dedecore, nihil foedius servitute (Phil. iii. 36), nothing is
more dreadful than disgrace, nothing viler than slavery.
neminem esse cariorem te (Att. x. 8 a. 1), that no one is dearer than you.
c. After the comparatives plus, minus, amplius, longius, v^ithout
quam, a word of measure or number is often used, with no change in
its case : —
plus septingenti capti (Liv. xli. 12), more than seven hundred were taken.
[Nominative.]
plus tertia parte interfecta (B. G. iii. 6), more than a third part being slain.
[Ablative Absolute.]
aditus in latitudinem non amplius ducentorum pedum relinquebatur (id. ii.
29), an approach of not more than two hundred feet in width was left.
[Genitive of Measure: § 345. 6.]
Note. — The noun takes the case required by the context, without reference to the
comparative, which is in a sort of apposition : "seven hundred were taken [and] more."
d. Alius is sometimes followed by the ablative in poetic and collo-
quial use ; in formal prose it is followed by ac (atque), et, more rarely
by nisi, quam : — -
nee quicquara aliud libertate commiini (Fam. xi. 2), nothing else than the com-
mon liberty.
alius Lysippo (Hor. Ep. ii. 1. 240), another than Lysippus.
num aliud videtur esse ac meorum bonorum direptio (Dom. 51), does it seem
anything different from the plundering of my property ?
erat historia nihil aliud nisi annalium confectio (De Or. ii. 52), history was
nothing else but a compiling of records.
e. The comparative of an adverb is usually followed by quam, rarely
by the ablative except in poetry : —
tempus te citius quam oratio deficeret (Rose. Am. 89), time would fail you
sooner than words. But, —
cur olivum sanguine viperino cautius vitat (Hor. Od. i. 8. 9), why does he shun
oil more carefully than viper'' s blood ?
Note. — Prepositions meaning before or beyond (as ante, prae, praeter, supra) are
sometimes used with a comparative : as, — scelere ante alios immanior oninis (Aen. i.
^7), more monstrous in crime than all other men-
256 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§408,409
USES OF THE ABLATIVE AS INSTRUMENTAL
408. Means, Instrument, Manner, and Accompaniment are denoted by the Instru-
mental Ablative (see § ;^98), but some of these uses more commonly require a prepo-
sition. As they all come from one source (the old Instrumental Case) no sharp line
can be drawn between them, and indeed the Romans themselves can hardly have
thought of any distinction. Thus, in omnibus precibus orabaut, they entreated with
eve7i/ [kind of] prayer, the ablative, properly that of means, cannot be distinguished
from that of manner.
Ablative of Means or Instrument
409. The Ablative is used to denote the means or instrument
of an action : —
certantes pugnis, calcibus, unguibus, morsu denique (Tusc. v. 77), fighting
with fists J heels, nails, and even teeth.
cum pugnis et calcibus concisus esset (Verr. iii. 56), when he had heenimm-
melled with their fists and heels.
nieis laboribus iuteritu rem piiblicam llberavi (Sull. 33), by my toils I have
saved the state from ruin.
multae istarum arborum mea manu sunt satae (Cat. M. 59), many of those
trees were set out with my own hands.
VI victa vis, vel potius oppressa virtute audacia est (Mil. 30), violence was
overcome by violence, or rather^ boldness was put down by courage.
a. The Ablative of Means is used with verbs and adjectives of
filling, abounding, and the like : —
Deus bonis omnibus explevit mundum (Tim. 3), God ha^ filled the world with
all good things.
aggere et cratibus fossas explent (B. G. vii. 86), they fill up the ditches with
earth and fascines.
totum monlem hominibus complevit (id. i. 24), he filled the whole mountain
with men.
opimus praeda (Verr. ii. 1. 132), rich with spoils.
vita plena et conferta voluptatibus (Sest.23), lifefilled and crowded with delights.
Forum Appi differtum nautis (Hor. S. 1. 5. 4), Forum Appii crammed with
bargemen.
Note. — In poetry the Genitive is often used with these words. Compleo and impleo
sometimes take the genitive in prose (cf . § 356) ; so regularly plenus and (with personal
nouns) completus and ref ertus (§ 349. a) : —
omnia plena luctus et maeroris fuerunt.(Sest. 128), everything was full of grief
and mourning.
611am denariorum implere (Fam. ix. 18), to fill a pot with money. [Here evidently
colloquial, otherwise rare in Cicero.]
convivium vicinorum compleo (Cat. M. 4<), in the mouth of Cato), I fill up the ban-
quet with my neighbors.
cum completus mercatorum career esset (Verr. v. 147), lohen the prison was full of
trader^.
§§ 410, 411] ABLATIVE OF MEANS OR INSTRUMENT 257
410. The deponents utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, with several
of their compouncls,^ govern the Ablative : —
utar vestra benignitate (Arch. 18), 1 will avail myself of your kindness.
ita mihi salva re publica vobiscum perfrul liceat (Cat. iv. 11), so may I enjoy
with you the state secure and prosperous.
fungi inani munere (Aeu. vi. 885), to perform an idle service.
auro heros potitur (Ov. M. vii. 156), the hero takes the gold.
lacte et ferina came vescebantur (lug. 89), they fed on milk and game.
Note.— This is properly an Ablative of Means {instrumental) and the verbs are
really in the middle voice (§ 156. a). Thus utor Mith the ablative signifies I employ
myself (or avail myself) by means of, etc. But these earlier meanings disappeared
from the language, leaving the construction as we find it.
a. Potior sometimes takes the Genitive, as always in the phrase
potiri rerum, to get control or be Tnaster of affairs (§ 357. a) : —
totius Galliae sese potiri posse sperant (B. G. i. 3), they hope they can get
possession of the whole of Gaul.
Note 1. — In early Latin, these verbs are sometimes transitive and take the
accusative: —
functus est officium (Ter. Ph. 281), he performed the part, etc.
ille patria potitur commoda (Ter. Ad. 871), he enjoys his ancestral estate.
Note 2. — The Gerundive of these verbs is used personally in the passive as if the
verb were transitive (but cf. § 500. 3): as, — Heraclio omnia utenda ac possidenda tra-
diderat (Verr. ii. 46), he had given over everythiiig to Ileraclius for his use and posses-
sion (to be used and possessed).
411. opus and usus, signifying need, take the Ablative: — ^
magistratibus opus est (Leg. iii. 5), there is need of magistrates.
nuuc viribus usus (Aen. viii. 441), now there is need of strength.
Note. — The ablative with iisus is not common in classic prose.
a. With opus the ablative of a perfect participle is often found,
either agreeing with a noun or used as a neuter abstract noun : —
opus est tua exprompta malitia atque astutia (Ter. And. 723), I must have
your best cunning and cleverness set to work.
properato opus erat (cf. Mil. 49), there was need of haste.
Note 1. — So rarely with iisus in comedy: as, — quid istis usust conscriptis (PI.
Bacch. 749), what's the good of having them in writing?
Note 2. — The omission of the noun gives rise to complex constructions : as, — quid
opus factost (cf. B. G. i. 42), what must be done? [Cf. quid opus est fieri? with quo
facto opus est ?]
1 These are abiitor, deutor (very rare) , defungor, dgfnior, perfruor, perfungor.
2 This construction is properly an instrumental one, in which opus and usus mean
work and service, and the ablative expresses that with lohich the work is performed
or the service rendered. The noun usus follows the analogy of the verb utor, and the
a.blative with opus est appears to be an extension of that with iisus est.
258 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§411-413
b. Opus is often found in the predicate, Tvitli the tiling needed in
the nominative as subject: —
dux nobis et auctor opus est (Fam. ii. 6. 4), we need a chief and responsible
adviser (a chief, etc., is necessary for us),
si quid ipsi opus esset (B. G. i. 34), if he himself wanted anything (if any-
thing should be necessary for him).
quae opus sunt (Cato R. R. 14. 3), things which are required.
Ablative of Manner
412. The Manner of an action is denoted by the Ablative ; usu-
ally with cum, unless a limiting adjective is used with the noun :
cum celeritate venit, he came with speed. But, —
summa celeritate venit, he came with the greatest speed.
quid refert qua me ratione cogatis (Lael. 26), what difference does it make in
what way you compel me f
a. But cum is often used even when the ablative has a limiting
adj ective : —
quanto id cum periculo fecerit (B. G. i. 17), at what risk he did this.
non minore cum taedio recubant (Plin. Ep. ix. 17. 3), they recline with no less
weariness.
h. With such words of manner as modo, pacto, ratione, ritu, vi, via,
and with stock expressions which have become virtually adverbs (as
silentio, iure, iniuria), cum is not used : —
apis Matinae more modoque carmina fingo (Hor. Od. iv. 2. 28), in the style
and manner of a Matinian bee I fashion songs.
Note. — So in poetry the ablative of manner often omits cum: as, — insequitur cu-
mulo aquae mons (Aen. i. 105), a mountain of water foUoios in a mass. [Cf. murmure
(id. i. 124) ; rimis (id, i. 123),]
Ablative of Accompaniment
413. Accompaniment is denoted by the Ablative, regularly with
cum:
cum coniugibus ac liberis (Att. viii. 2. 3), with wives and children.
cum funditoribus sagittariisque flilmen transgress! (B. G. ii. 19), having
crossed the river with the archers and slingers.
quae supplicatio si cum ceteris conferatur (Cat. iii. 15), if this thanksgiving
be compared with others.
quae [lex] esse cum tel5 vetat (Mil. 11), the law which forbids [one] to go
armed (be with a weapon),
si secum suos eduxerit (Cat. i. 30), if he leads out with him his associates.
[For sfcum, see § 144. b. n.i.]
§§ 413, 414] ABLATIVE OF DEGREE OF DIFFERENCE 259
a. The ablative is used without cum in some military phrases, and
here and there by early writers : —
subsequebatur omnibus copiis (B. G. ii. 19), he followed close with all his
forces. [But also cum omnibus copiis, id. i. 26.]
hoc praesidio profectus est (Verr. ii. 1. 86), with this force he set out.
Note. — Misceo and iungo, with some of their compounds, and confundo take either
(1) the Ablative of Accompaniment with or without cum, or (2) sometimes the Dative
(mostly poetical or late) : —
mixta dolore voluptas (B. Al. 56), pleasure mingled with pain.
cuius auimumcum suo misceat (Lael. 81), whose soul he may mingle with his own.
fletumque cruori miscuit (Ov. M. iv. 140), and mingled tears with blood.
Caesar eas cohortis cum exercita su5 coniunxit (B. C. i. 18), Csesar united those
cohorts with his own army.
aer coniunctus terris (Lucr. v. 562) , air united with earth.
humano capiti cervicem equinam iimgere (Hor. A. P. 1), to join to a human head
a horse's neck.
h. Words of Contention and the like require cum : —
armis cum hoste certare (Off. iii. 87), to fight with the enemy in arms.
libenter liaec cum Q. Catulo disputarem (Manil. 66), I should gladly discuss
these matters with Quintus Catulus.
Note. — But words of contention may take the Dative in poetry (see § 368. a).
Ablative of Degree of Difference
414. With Comparatives and words implying comparison the
ablative is used to denote the Degree of Difference : —
quinque milibus passuum distat, it is five miles distant.
a milibus passnum circiter duobus (B. G. v. 32), at a distance of about two
miles. [For a as an adverb, see § 433. 3.]
aliquot ante annis (Tusc. 1. 4), several years before.
aliquanto post suspexit (Rep. vi. 9), a while after, he looked up.
multo me vigilare acrius (Cat. 1. 8), that I watch much more sharply.
nihilo erat ipse Cyclops quam aries prudentior (Tusc. v. 115), the Cyclops
himself was not a whit wiser than the ram.
a. The ablatives quo . . . eo (hoc), and quanto , . . tanto, are used
correlatively with comparatives, like the English the . . . the ^ : —
quo minus cupiditatis, eo plus auctoritatis (Liv. xxiv. 28), the less greed, the
more weight (by what the less, by that the more').
quanto erat gravior oppiignatio, tanto crebriores litterae mittebantur (B. G.
V. 45), the severer the siege was, the more frequently letters were sent.
1 In this phrase the is not the definite article but a pronominal adverb, being the
Anglo-Saxon thy, the instrumental case of the pronoun thset, that. This pronoun is
used both as relative {by which, by how much) and as demonstrative (by that, by so
much). Thus the . . = the corresponds exactly to quo . . , eo.
260 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§414,415
Note. — To this construction are doubtless to be referred all cases of quo and eo
(hoc) with a comparative, even when they have ceased to be distinctly felt as degree
of difference and approach the Ablative of Cause : —
eoque me minus paenitet (N. D. i. 8), and for that reason I regret less, etc. (by so
much the less I regret),
haec eo facilius faciebant, quod (B. G. iii. 12), this they did the more easily for this
reason, because, etc. [Of. hoc maiore spe, quod (id. iii. 9).]
6. The Ablative of Comparison (§ 406) and the Ablative of Degree
of Difference are sometimes used together with the same adjective : —
paulo miaus ducentis (B. C. iii. 28), a little less than two hundred.
patria, quae mihi vita mea multo est carior (Cat. i. 27), my country, which
is much dearer to me than life.
But the construction with quam is more common.
Ablative of Quality
415. The quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative with an
adjective or genitive modifier.
This is called the Descriptive Ablative or Ablative of Quality : — ^
animS meliore sunt gladiatores (Cat. ii, 26), the gladiators are of a better
mind.
quae cum esset civitfis aequissimo lure ac foedere (Arch. 6), as this ivas a
city with perfectly equal constitutional rights.
mulierem eximia pulchritudine (Verr. ii, 1. 64), a woman of rare beauty.
Aristoteles, vir summo ingenio, scientia, copia (Tusc. i. 7), Aristotle, a man of
the greatest genius, learning, and gift of expression.
de Domitio dixit versum Graecum eadem sententia (Deiot. 25), concerning
Domitius he recited a Greek line of the same tenor.
Note. — The Ablative of Quality (like the Genitive of Quality, § 345) modifies a sub-
stantive by describing it. It is therefore equivalent to an adjective, and may be either
attributive or predicate. In this it differs from other ablatives, which are equivalent
to adverbs.
a. In expressions of quality the Genitive or the Ablative may
often be used indifferently ; hut physical qualities are oftener denoted
by the Ablative (cf. § 345. n.) : —
capilld sunt promisso (B. G. v. 14), they have long hair.
ut capita opertd sit (Cat. M. 34), to have his head covered (to be with covered
head),
quam f uit inbecillus P. Af ricani f ilius, quam tenul aut nulla potius valetudine
(id. 35), hoiu lueak was the son of Africanus, of what feeble health, or
rather none at all !
1 It was originally instrumental and appears to have developed from accompani-
ment (§ 413) and manner (§ 412).
§§416,417] ABLATIVE OF PRICE 261
Ablative of Price
416. The price of a thing is put in the Ablative : —
agrum vendidit sestertium sex milibus, he sold the land for 6000 sesterces.
Antonius regna addlxit pecunia (Phil. vii. 15), Antony sold thrones for money.
logos ridicules : quis cena poscit (PL Stich. 221), jokes : who wants them fo7
(at the price of) a dinner f
magno illi ea ctinctatio stetit (Liv. ii. 36), that hesitation cost him dear.
Note. — To this head is to be referred the Ablative of the Penalty (§ 353. 1) .
417. Certain adjectives of quantity are used in the Genitive to
denote indefinite value. Such are magni, parvi, tanti, quanti, pluris,
minoris : —
mea magni interest, it is of great consequence to me.
illud parvi refert (Manil. 18), this is of small account.
est mihi tanti (Cat. ii. 15), it is worth the price (it is of so much).
Verresne tibi tanti fuit (Verr. ii. 1. 77), was Verves of so much account to
you ?
tantone minoris decumae venierunt (id. iii. 106), were the tithes sold for so
much less ?
ut te redimas captum quam queas minimo : si nequeas paululo, at quanti queas
(Ter. Eun. 74), to ransom yourself when captured, at the cheapest rate
you can ; if you canH for a small sum, then at any rate for what you can.
Note. — These are really Genitives of Quality (§ 345. b).
a. The genitive of certain colorless nouns is used to denote indefi-
nite value. Such are nihili (nili), iiothing; assis, a farthing (rare) ;
flocci (a lock of wool), a straw : —
nOn flocci faciO (Att. xiii. 50), 1 care not a straw. [Colloquial.]
utinam ego istuc abs te factum nili penderem (Ter. Eun. 94), that I cared
nothing for this being done by you ! [Colloquial.]
b. With verbs of exchanging, either the thing taken or the thing
given in exchange may be in the Ablative of Price. Such are muto,
commuto, permuto, verto : —
fidem suam et religionem peciinia commtitare (Clu. 129), to barter his faith
and conscience for money.
exsilium patria sede niutavit (Q. C. iii. 7. 11), he exchanged his native land
for exile (he took exile in exchange for his native land),
velox saepe Lucretilem mtitat Lycaeo Faunus (Hor. Od. i. 17. 1), nimble
Faunus often changes Lycoeus for Lucretilis. [He takes Lucretilis at
the price o/Lycseus, i.e. he goes from Lycseus to Lucretilis.]
vertere funeribus triumphos (id. i. 35. 4), to change the triumph to the funeral
train (exchange triumphs for funerals). [Poetical.]
262 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 417, 418
Note, — With verbs of exchanging cum is often used, perhaps with a different con-
ception of the action: as, — aries . . . cum croceo mutabit vellera luto (Eel. iv. 44), the
ram shall change his fleece /or [one dyed with] the yellow safron.
c. With verbs of buying and selling the simple Ablative of Price
must be used, except in the case of tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris : —
quanti earn emit? vili . . . quot minis? quadraginta minis (PL Epid. 51),
what did he buy her for ? Cheap. For how many minoe ? Forty.
Ablative of Specification
418. The Ablative of Specification denotes that in respect to
which anything is or is done : —
vlrtute praecedunt (B. G. i. 1), they excel in courage.
claudus altero pede (Nep. Ages. 8), lame of one foot.
lingua haesitantes, voce absoni (De Or. i. 115), hesitating in speech., harsh in
voice.
sunt enim homines non re sed nomine (Off. i. 105), /or they are men not in
fact., but in name.
maior natii, older; minor natu, younger (cf. § 131. c).
paulum aetate progress! (Cat. M. 33), somewhat advanced in age.
corpore senex esse poterit, animo numquam erit (id. 38), he may be an old man
in body, he never will be [old] at heart.
a. To this head are to be referred many expressions where the abla-
tive expresses that in accordance with which anything is or is done : —
meo iure, with perfect right; but, meo modo, in my fashion.
mea sententia, in my opinion; but also more formally, ex mea sententia.
[Here the sense is the same, but the first ablative is specification, the
second source.^
propinquitate conitinctos atque natura (Lael. 50), closely allied by kindred and
nature. [Here the ablative is not different in sense from those above,
but no doubt is a development of means-l
qui vincit viribus (id. 55), loho surpasses in strength. [Here it is impossible
to tell whether viribus is the means of the superiority or that in respect
to which one is superior. ]
Note. — As the Romans had no such categories as we make, it is impossible to
classify all uses of the ablative. The ablative of specification (originally instru-
mental) is closely akin to that of manner, and shows some resemblance to means and
cause.
For the Supine in -u as an Ablative of Specification, see § 510.
b. The adjectives dignus and indignus take the ablative : —
vir patre, avo, maioribus suTs dignissimus (Phil. iii. 25), a man most worthy
of his father, grandfather, and ancestors.
te omni honore indignissimum itidicavit (Vat. 39), he judged you entirely
unworthy of every honor.
§§ 418, 419] ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE 263
Note 1. — So the verb dignor in poetry and later prose : as, — hand equidem tali me
dignor honore (Aeu. i. 335), I do not deem myself lo or thy of such an honor.
Note 2. — Dignus and indignus sometimes take the genitive in colloquial usage and
in poetry : —
curam dignissimam tuae virtutis (Balbus in Att. viii. 15), care most worthy of
your noble character.
dignus salutis (Plant. Trin. 1153), worthy of safety.
magnorum hand umquam indignus avorum (Aen. xii. 649), never unworthy of my
great ancestors.
Ablative Absolute
419. A noun or pronoun, with a participle in agreement, may
be put in the Ablative to define the time or circumstances of an
action. This construction is called the Ablative Absolute : — ^
Caesar, acceptis litteris, nuntium inittit.(B, G. v. 46), having received the
letter, CcBsar sends a messenger (the letter having been received),
quibus rebus cognitis Caesar apud milites contionatur (B. C. 1. 7), having
learned this, CcBsar makes a speech to the soldiers.
fugato omnI equitatu (B. G. vii. 68), all the cavalry being put to flight.
interfecto Indutiomaro (id. vi. 2), upon the death of Indutiomarus.
nondum hieme confecta in finis Nerviorum contendit (id. vi. 3), though the
winter was not yet over, he hastened into the territory of the Nervii.
compressi [sunt] conattis nullo tumultu piiblice concitato (Cat. i. 11), the
attempts were put down without exciting any general alarm.
ne vobis quidem omnibus re etiam turn probata (id. ii, 4), since at that time
the facts were not yet proved even to all of you.
Note. — The ablative absolute is an adverbial modifier of the predicate. It is,
however, not grammatically dependent on any word in the sentence: hence its name
absolute (absolutus, i.e. free or unconnected) . A substantive in the ablative absolute
very seldom denotes a person or thing elsewhere mentioned in the same clause.
a. An adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the parti-
ciple in the Ablative Absolute construction : — ^
exigua parte aestatis reliqua (B. G. iv. 20), when but a small part of the sum-
mer was left (a small part of the summer remaining).
L. Domitio Ap. Claudio cousulibus (id. v. 1), in the consulship of Lucius Bomi-
tins and Appius Claudius (Lucius Domitius and Appius Claudius [being]
consuls). [The regular way of expressing a date, see § 424. g.]
nil desperandum Teucro duce et auspice Teucro (Hor. Od. i. 7. 27), there
should be no despair under Teucer's leadership and- auspices (Teucer
being leader, etc.).
1 The Ablative Absolute is perhaps of instrumental origin. It is, however, some-
times explained as an outgrowth of the locative, and in any event certain locative
constructions (oi place and time) must have contributed to its development.
2 The present participle of esse, wanting in Latin (§ 170. 6), is used in Sanskrit and
Greek as in English.
264 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§419,426
6. A plirase or clause, used substantively, sometimes occurs as
ablative absolute with a participle or an adjective : —
incerto quid peterent (Liv. xxviii. 36), as it was uncertain what they should
aim at (it being uncertain, etc.).
comperto vanum esse formldinem (Tac. Ann. i. 60), when it was found that
the alarm was groundless.
. cur praetereatur demonstrato (Inv. ii. 34), when the reason for omittiyig it has
been explained (why it is passed by being explained).
Note. — This construction is very rare except in later Latin.
c. A participle or an adjective is sometimes used adverbially in
the ablative absolute without a substantive : —
consulto (Off. i. 27), on purpose (the matter having been deliberated on),
mihi optato veneris (Att. xiii. 28. 3), you will come in accordance with my
wish.
sereno (Liv. xxxi. 12), under a clear sky (it [being] clear).
nee auspicato nee litato (id. v. 38), with no auspices or favorable sacrifice.
tranquillo, ut ^iunt, quilibet gubernator est (Sen. Ep. 85. 34), in good
weather, as they say, any man 's a pilot.
420. The Ablative Absolute often takes the place of a Sub-
ordinate Clause.
Thus it may replace —
1. A Temporal Clause (§ 541 ff.): —
patre interfecto, [his] father having been killed. [This corresponds to cum
pater interfectus esset, when his father had been killed.]
recentibus sceleris eius vestlgiis (Q. C. vii. 1. 1), while the traces of the crime
were fresh. [Cf . dum recentia sunt vestigia. ]
2. A Causal Clause (§ 540) : —
at ei qui Alesiae obsidebantur praeterita die qua auxilia su5rum exspecta-
verant, c6nsumpt5 omni frumento, concilio coficto consultabant (B. G.
vii. 77), but those who were under siege at Alesia, since the time, etc.,
had expired, and their grain had been exhausted, calling a council (see 5
below), consulted together. [Cf. cum dies praeterisset, etc.]
Dareus, desperata pace, ad reparandas virls intendit animum (Q. C. iv. 6. 1),
Darius, since he despaired of peace, devoted his energies to recruiting
his forces. [Cf. cum pacem desperaret.]
3. A Concessive Clause (§ 527) : —
at eo repugnante fiebat (consul), immo vero eo fiebat magis (Mil. 34), but
though he (Clodius) opposed, he (Milo) ivas likely to be elected consul;
nay, rather, etc.
turribus excitatis, tamen has altitudo puppium ex barbaris navibus supe-
rabat (B. G. iii. 14), although towers had been built up, still the high
stems of the enemy'' s shivs rose above them.
§§420-422] ABLATIVE OF PLACE 265
4. A Conditional Clause (§ 521): —
occurrebat ei, mancam et debilem praettiram futuram suam, consule Milone
(Mil. 25), it occurred to him that his proetorship would be maimed and
feeble^ if Milo were consul, [si Milo consul esset.]
qua (regione) subacta licebit decurrere in illud mare (Q. C. ix. 3. 13), if this
region is subdued, we shall be free to run down into that sea.
qua quidem detracta (Arch. 28), if this be taken away.
5. A Clause of Accompanying Circumstance : —
ego haec a Chrysogono mea sponte, remoto Sex. Roscio, quaero (Rose. Am.
130), of my own accord, without reference to Sextus Roscius (Sextus
Roscius being put aside), I ask these questions of Chrysogonus.
nee imperante nee sciente nee praesente domino (Mil. 2i9), without their master'' s
giving orders, or knowing it, or being present.
Note. — As the English Nominative Absolute is far less common than the Abla-
tive Absolute in Latin, a change of form is generally required in translation. Thus
the present participle is oftenest to be rendered in English by a relative clause with
when or while; and the perfect passive participle by the perfect active participle.
These changes may be seen in the following example : —
At illi, intermisso spatio, imprudenti- But they, having paused a space, while
bus nostrls atque occupdtls in miimtione our men were U7iaware and busied in for-
castrorum, subito se ex silvis eiecerunt ; tifying the camp, suddenly threw them-
impetuqae in eos facto qui erant in sta- selves out of the woods ; then, making an
tione pro castris conlocati, acriter pug- attack upon those who were on guard in
naverunt ; dudbusque missis subsidio front of the camp, they fought fiercely ;
cohortibus a Caesare, cum hae (perexi- and, though two cohorts had been sent by
guo intermisso loci spatio inter se) con- Caesar as reinforcements, after these had
stitissent, novo genere pugnae perterritls taken their position {leaving very little
nostrls, per medios audacissime perrupe- space of ground between them), as our
runt seque inde incolumis receperunt.— men were ak&med by the strange kind
Caesar, B. G. v. 15. of fighting, they dashed most daringly
through the midst of them and got off
safe.
For the Ablative with Prepositions, see § 220.
THE ABLATIVE AS LOCATIVE
Ablative of Place
421. The Locative Case was originally used (literally) to denote the p^ace where
and (figuratively) to denote the time when (a development from the idea of place) .
But this case was preserved only in names of towns and a few other words, and the
place lohere is usually denoted by the Ablative. In this construction the Ablative was,
no doubt, used at first without a preposition, but afterwards it became associated in
most instances with the preposition in.
422. In expressions of Time and Place the Latin shows a
variety of idiomatic constructions (Ablative, Accusative, and Loc-
ative), which are systematically treated in § 423 ff.
266 SYNTAX ; CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 423, 424
TIME AND PLACE
Time
423. Time when, or within which, is expressed by the Abla-
tive ; time how long by the Accusative.
1. Ablative : —
c5nstituta die, on the appointed day ; prima luce, at daybreak.
quota hora, at what o''clock? tertiavigilia, in the third watch.
tribus proximis annis (lug. 11), within the last three years.
diebus viginti quinque aggerem exstruxerunt (B. G. vii. 24), within twenty-
Jive days they finished building a mound.
2. Accusative : —
dies continuos trlginta, for thirty days together.
cum triduum iter fecisset (B. G. ii. 16), when he had marched three days.
Note. —The Ablative of Time is locative in its origin (§ 421) ; the Accusative is the
same as that of the extent of space (§ 425).
424. Special constructions of time are the following : — ^"
a. The Ablative of time ivithin which sometimes takes in, and the
Accusative of time how long per, for greater precision : —
in diebus proximis decern (lug. 28), within the next ten days.
ludl per decern dies (Cat. iii. 20), games for ten days.
h. Duration of time is occasionally expressed by the Ablative: —
milites quinque horis proelium sustinuerant (B. C. i. 47), the men had sus-
tained the fight five hours.
Note. — In this use the period of time is regarded as that within which the act is
done, and it is only implied that the act lasted through the period. Cf. inter annos
quattuordecim (B. G. i. 36) , for fourteen years.
c. Time during which or within which may. be expressed by the
Accusative or Ablative of a noun in the singular, with an ordinal
numeral : —
quints die, within [just] four days (lit. on the fifth day). [The Romans
counted both ends, see § 631. d.]
regnat iam sextum annum, he has reigned going on six years.
d. Many expressions have in Latin the construction of time when,
where in English the main idea is rather of place : —
pCigna CannensI (or, apud Cannas), in the fight at Cannoe.
ludis Romanis, at the Roman games.
omnibus Gallicis bellls, in all the. Gallic wars.
§§ 424, 425] TIME AND PLACE 267
e. In many idiomatic expressions of time, the Accusative with ad,
in, or sub is used. Such are the following : —
supplicatio decreta est in Kalendas lanuarias, a thanksgiving was voted for
the first of January.
convenerunt ad diem, they assembled on the [appointed] day.
ad vesperum, till evening ; sub vesperum, towards evening.
sub idem tempus, about the same time; sub noctem, at nightfall.
/. Distance of time before or after anything is variously expressed :
post (ante) tres annos, post tertium annum, tres post annos, tertiumpost
annum, tribus post annis, tertio post anno (§ 414), three years after.
tribus annis (tertio anno) post exsilium (postquam eiectus est), three years
after his exile.
his tribus proximis annis, within the last three years.
paucis annis, a few years hence.
abhinc annos tres (tribus annis), ante hos tres annos, three years ago.
triennium est cum (tres anni sunt cum), it is three years since.
octavo mense quam, the eighth month after (see § 434. n,).
g. In Dates the phrase ante diem (a. d.) with an ordinal, or the
ordinal alone, is followed by an accusative, like a preposition ; and
the phrase itself may also be governed by a preposition.
The year is expressed by the names of the consuls in the ablative
absolute, usually without a conjunction (§ 419. a): —
is dies erat a. d. v. Kal. Apr. (quintum Kalendas Aprilis) L. Pisone A. Gabinio
cQnsulibus (B. G. i. 6), that day loas the 6th before the calends of April
(March 28), in the consulship of Piso and Gabinius.
in a. d. v. Kal. Nov. (Cat. i. 7), to the Uh day before the calends of November
(Oct. 28).
XV. Kal. Sextilis, the 16th day before the calends of August (July 18). [Full
form: quinto decimo die ante Kalendas.]
For the Koman Calendar, see § 631,
Extent of Space
425. Extent of Space is expressed by the Accusative : — •
fossas quindecim pedes latas (B. G. vii 72), trenches fifteen feet broad.
progressus milia passuum circiter duodecim (id. v. 9)", having advanced about
twelve miles.
in omni vita sua quemque a recta conscientia transversum unguem non
oportet discedere (quoted in Att. xiii. 20), in all one''s life, one should
not depart a naiVs breadth from straightforward conscience.
Note. — This Accusative denotes the ohject through or over which the action takes
place, and is kindred with the Accusative of the End of Motion (§ 427. 2).
268 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§425,426
a. Measure is often expressed by the Genitive of Quality (§ 345. h) ■
vallum duodecim pedum (B. G. vii. 72), a rampart of twelve fed, (in height),
h. Distance when considered as extent of space is put in the Accu-
sative; when considered as degree of difference^ in the Ablative
(§414):-
milia passuum tria ab eSrum castris castra ponit (B. G. i. 22), he pitches his
camp three miles from their camp.
quinque dierum iter abest (Liv. xxx. 29), it is distant five days'' march.
triginta mllibus passuum infra eum locum (B. G. vl. 35), thirty miles below
that place (below by thirty miles).
Relations of Place
426. Relations of Place ^ are expressed as follows : —
1. The place from whichj by the Ablative with ab, de, or ex.
2. The place to which (or end of motion) ^ by the Accusative with
ad or in.
3. The place where^ by the Ablative with in {Locative Ablative),
Examples are : —
1. Place from which : —
a septentrione, from the north.
cum a v5bis discessero (Cat. M. 79), when I leave you,
de provincia decedere, to come away from one'' s province.
de monte, down from the mountain.
negotiator ex Africa (Verr. ii. 1. 14), a merchant from Africa.
ex Britannia obsides miserunt (B. G. iv. 38), they sent hostages from Britain.
Mosa profluit ex monte Vosego (id. iv. 10), the Meuse (flows from) rises in
the Vosges mountains.
2. Place to which (end of motion'): —
nocte ad Nervios pervenerunt (B. G. ii. 17), they came by night to theNeroii.
adibam ad istum fundum (Caec. 82), I was going to that estate.
in Africam navigavit, he sailed to Africa ; in Italiam profectus, gone to Italy.
legatum in Trever5s mittit (B. G. iii. 11), he sends his lieutenant into the
[country of the] Treveri.
1 Originally all these relations were expressed by the cases alone. The accusative,
in one of its oldest functions, denoted the end of motion ; the ablative, in its proper
meaning of separation, denoted the place from ivhich, and, in its locative function, the
place where. The prepositions, originally adverbs, were afterwards added to define
more exactly the direction of motion (as in to upward, toward its), and by long asso-
ciation became indispensable except as indicated below.
§§ 426, 427] RELATIONS OF PLACE 269
3. Place where: —
in hac urbe vitam degit, he passed his life in this city.
si in Gallia remanerent (B. G. iv. 8), if they remained in Gaul.
dum haec in Venetis geruntur (id. ill. 17), while this was going on among the
Veneti.
oppidum in insula positum (id. vii. 58), a town situated on an island.
427. With names of towns and small islands, and with domus
and rus, the Relations of Place are expressed as follows : —
1. The 2^ lace from la hick, by the Ablative without a preposition. .
2. The place to which, by the Accusative without a preposition.
3. The place where, by the Locative.^
Examples are : —
1 . Place from which : —
Roma profectus, having set out from Rome; Roma abesse, to be absent from
Rome.
domo abire, to leave home; rure reversus, having returned from the country.
2. Place to which: —
cum Romam sexto die Mutina venisset (Fam. xi. 6. 1), when he had come to
Rome from Modena in Jive days (on tlie sixth day).
Dels Rhodum navigare, to sail from JDelos to Rhodes.
riis ibo, I shall go into the country.
domum iit, he went home.^ [So, suas demos abire, to go to their homes."]
3. Place where (or at which): —
Romae, at Rome (Roma). Athenis, at Athens (Athenae).
Rhodi, at Rhodes (Rbodus). Lanuvi, at Lanuvium.
Sami, at Samos. Cypri, at Cyprus.
Tiburi or Tibure, at Tibur. Ciiribus, at Cures.
Philippis, at Philippi. Capreis, at Capri (Capreae).
domi (rarely domui), at home. riiri, in the country.
a. The Locative Case is also preserved in the following nouns,
which are used (like names of towns) without a preposition : —
belli, militiae (in contrast to domi), abroad, in military service.
humi, on the ground. vesperi (-e), in the evening.
foris, out of doors. anirai (see § 358).
heri (-e), yesterday. temperi, betimes.
Cf. infelici arbori (Liv. i. 26), on the ill-omened (barren) tree; terra marique,
by land and sea.
1 The Locative has in the singular of the first and second declensions the same form
as the Genitive, in the plural and in the third declension the same form as the Dative
or Ablative. (See p. 34, footnote.)
2 The English home in this construction is, like domum, an old accusative of the
eyid of motion.
270 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§428
428. Special uses of ^lace from which, to which, and where are
the following : —
a. With names of towns and small islands ab is often used tc
denote from the vicinity of, and ad to denote towards, to the neigltbor-
hood of: —
ut a Mutina discederet (Phil. xiv. 4), that he should retire from Modena
(which he was besieging).
erat a Gergovia despectus in castra (B. G. vii. 45), there was from about
Gergovia a view into the camp.
ad Alesiam proficiscuntur (id. vii. 76), they set out for Alesia.
ad Alesiam perveniunt (id. vii. 79), they arrive at Alesia (i.e. in the neighbor-
hood of the town).
D. Laelius cum classe ad Brundisium venit (B. C. iii. 100), Dechnus LcbHus
came to Brundisium with a fleet (arriving in the harbor).
b. The general words urbs, oppidum, insula require a preposition
to express the place from which, to which, or where : —
ab (ex) urbe, from the city. in urbe, in the city.
ad urbem, to the city. Romae in urbe, in the city of Rome.
in urbem, into the city. Roma ex urbe, from the city of Borne.
ad urbem Romam (Romam ad urbem), to the city of Rome.
c. With the name of a country, ad denotes to the borders ; in with
the accusative, into the country itself. Similarly ab denotes away
from the outside ; ex, out of the interior.
Thus ad Italiam pervenit would mean he came to the frontier, regardless of
the destination ; in italiam, he went to Italy, i.e. to a place within it, to Rome,
for instance.
So ab Italia profectus est would mean he came away from the frontier, regard-
less of the original starting-point; ex Italia, h^ came from Italy, from within, as
from Rome, for instance.
d. With all names of places at, meaning near (not in), is expressed
by ad or apud with the accusative.
piigna ad Cannas, the fight at Cannae.
conchas ad Caietam legunt (De Or. ii. 22), at Caieta (along the shore),
ad (apud) inferos, in the world below (near, or among, those below),
ad foris, at the doors. ad ianuam, at the door.
Note 1. — In the neighborhood of may be expressed by circa with the accusative;
among, by apud with the accusative : —
apud Graecos, among the Greeks. apud me, at my house.
apud Solensis (Leg. ii. 41), at Soli. cire^ Capuam, round about Capua.
Note 2. — In citing an author, apud is regularly used ; in citing a particular work,
in. Thus, — apud Xenophontem, in Xenophon; but, in Xenophontis Oeconomico, in
Xenophon's (Economicus.
§428] RELATIONS OF PLACE 271
e. Large islands, and all places when thought of as a territory and
not as a locality ^ are treated like names of countries : —
in Sicilia, in Sicily.
in Ithaca lepores illati moriuntur (Plin. H. N. viii. 226), in Ithaca hares, when
carried there, die. [Ulysses lived at Ithaca would require Ithacae.]
/. The Ablative without a preposition is used to denote the place
from tvhich in certain idiomatic expressions : —
cessisset patria (Mil. 68), he ivoiild have left his country.
patria pellere, to drive out of the country.
manu mittere, to emancipate (let go from the hand).
g. The poets and later writers often omit the preposition with the
place from which or to which when it would be required in classical
prose : — ■
manis Acheronte remissos (Aen. v. 99), the spirits returned from Acheron.
Scythia profecti (Q. C. iv. 12. 11), setting outfr m Scythia.
Italiam Laviuiaque venit litora (Aen. i. 2), he came to Italy and the Lavinian
shores.
terram Hesperiam venies (id. ii. 781 _ , you shall come to the Hesperian land.
Aegyptum proficlscitur (Tac. Ann. ii. 59), he sets out for Egypt.
h. In poetry the place to which is often expressed by the Dative,
occasionally also in later prose : —
it clamor caelo (Aen. v. 451), a shout goes up to the sky.
facilis descensus Averno (id. vi. 126), easy is the descent to Avernus.
diadema capiti reponere iussit (Val. Max. v. 1. 9), ^e ordered him to put back
the diadem on his head.
i. The preposition is not used with the supine in -um (§ 509) and
in the following old phrases : —
exsequias ire, to go to the funeral. Infitias Ire, to resort to denial.
pessum ire, to go to ruin. pessum dare, to ruin (cf. perdo).
venum dare, to sell (give to sale). [Hence vendere.]
Yennm Ire, to be sold (go to S2i\e). [Hence venire.]
foras (used as adverb), out: as, — foras egredl, to go out of doors.
suppetias advenire, to come to one's assistance.
J, When two or more names of place are used with a verb of motion,
each must be under its own construction : —
quadriduo quo haec gesta sunt res ad Chrysogonum in castra L. Sullae Vola-
terras defertur (Rose. Am. 20), within four days after this was done, the
matter was reported to Chrysogonus in Sulla^s camp at Volaterrce.
Note. — The accusative with or without a preposition is often used in Latin when
motion to a place is implied but not expressed in English (see k,tf.).
272 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§428,429
k, Domum denoting the place to which, and the locative domi, may
be modified by a possessive pronoun or a genitive : —
domum regis (Deiot. 17), to the king''s house. [But also in M. Laecae domum
(Cat. i. 8), to Marcus LcBca^s fiouse.]
domi meae, at my house ; domi Caesaris, at Ccesar^s house.
domi suae vel alienae, at his own or another'' s house.
Note. — At times when thus modified, and regularly when otherwise modified, in
domum or in domo is used : —
in domum privatam conveniunt (Tac. H. iv. 55) , they come together in a private house .
in Marci Crassi castissima domo (Gael. 9), in the chaste home of MarciLS Crassus.
[Cf. ex Anniana Milonis domo, § 302. e.]
429. The place where is denoted by the Ablative without a
preposition in the following instances : —
1. Often in indefinite words, such as loco, parte, etc. : —
quibus loco positis (De Or. ill. 153), when these are set in position.
qua parte belli vicerant (Liv. xxi. 22) , the branch of warfare in which they
were victorious.
locis certis horrea constituit (B. C. iii. 32), he established granaries in par-
ticular places.
2. Frequently with nouns which are qualified by adjectives (regu-
larly when lotus is used) : —
media urbe (Liv. i. 33), in the middle of the city.
tota Sicilia (Verr. iv. 51), throughout Sicily (in the whole of Sicily),
tola Tarracina (De Or. ii. 240), in all Tarracina.
ctincta Asia atque Graecia (Manil. 12), throughout the whole of Asia and
Greece too.
3. In many idiomatic expressions which have lost the idea of place ;
pendemus animis (Tusc. i. 96), we are in suspense of mind (in our minds),
socius periculis vobiscum adero (lug. 85. 47), I will be present with you, a
companion in dangers.
4. Freely in poetry : —
litore curvo (Aen. iii. 16), on the winding shore.
antro seclusa relinquit (id. iii. 446), she leaves them shut up in the cave.
Epiro, Hesperia (id. iii. 603), in Epirus, in Hespei'ia.
premit altum corde dolorem (id. i. 209), he keeps down the pain deep in his heart.
a. The ivay by which is put in the Ablative without a preposition :
via breviore equites praemisl (Fam. x. 9), J sent forward the cavalry by a
shorter road.
Aegaeo man traiecit (Liv. xxxvii. 14), he crossed by way of the ^^gean Sea.-
provehimur pelago (Aen. iii. 506), we sail forth over the sea.
Note. — In this use the toay by which is conceived as the means of passage.
§§429-431] RELATIONS OF PLACE 273
h. Position is frequently expressed by the Ablative with ab (rarely
ex), properly meaning /ro/zi; — ^
a tergo, in the rear ; a sinistra, on the left hand. [Cf . hinc, on this side. ]
a parte Pompeiana, on the side of Pompey.
ex altera parte, on the other side.
magna ex parte, in a great degree {from, i.e. in, a great part).
430. Verbs of placing^ though implying motion, take the con-
struction of the place where : —
Such are pono, loco, colloco, statuo, constituo, etc. : —
qui in sede ac domo collocavit (Par. 25), who put [one] into his place and
home.
statuitur eques Romanns in Aproni convivio (Verr. iii. 62), a Roman knight
is brought into a banquet of Aproiiius.
insula Delos in Aegaeo mari posita (Manil. 55), the island of Belos, situated in
the ^gean Sea.
si in tino Pompeid omnia poneretis (id. 59), if you made everything depend on
Pompey alone.
Note, — Compounds of pono take various constructions (see the Lexicon under
each word) .
431. Several verbs are followed by the Ablative.
These are acquiesce, delector, laetor, gaudeo, glorior, nitor, sto, maneo,
fido, confido, consisto, contineor.
nSminibus veterum gloriantur (Or. 169), they glory in the names of the ancients.
[Also, de divitiis (in virtute, circa rem, aliquid, haec) gloriarl.]
spe niti (Att. iii. 9), to rely on hope.
prudentia fidens (Off. i. 81), trusting in inudence.
Note. — The ablative with these verbs sometimes takes the preposition in (but
fIdo in is late), and the ablative with them is probably locative. Thus, — in quibus
causa nititur (Gael. 25), on whom the case depends.
With several of these verbs the neuter Accusative of pronouns is often found. For
fido and confido with the Dative, see § 367.
a. The verbals fretus, contentus, and laetus take the Locative Abla-
tive : —
fretus gratia Brut! (Att. v. 21. 12), relying on the favor of Brutus.
laetus praeda, rejoicing in the booty.
contentus softe, content with his lot. [Possibly Ablative of Cause.]
non fuit contentus gloria (Dom. 101), he was not content with the glory.
Note.— So intentus. rarely: as.— aliqufl negotio intentus (Sail. Cat. 2), intent
on some occupation.
1 Apparently the direction whence the sensuous impression comeSo
274 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§432
SPECIAL USES OF PREPOSITIONS i
Adverbs and Prepositions
432. Certain Adverbs and Adjectives are sometimes used as
Prepositions : —
a. The adverbs pridie, postridie, propius, proxime, less frequently the
adjectives propior and proximus, may be followed by the Accusative : —
pridie Nonas Maias (Att. ii. 11), the day before the Nones of May (see § 631).
postridie ludos (Att. xvi. 4), the day after the games.
propius periculum (Liv. xxi. 1), nearer to danger.
propior montem (lug. 49), nearer the hill.
proximus mare oceanum (B. G. iii. 7), nearest the ocean.
Note. — Pridie and postridie take also the Genitive (§ 359. b) . Propior, propius, proxi-
mus, and proximo, take also the Dative, or the Ablative with ab : —
propius Tiberi quam Thermopylis (Nep. Hann. 8), nearer to the Tiber than to Ther-
mopylae.
Sugambri qui sunt proximi Rheno (B. G. vi. 35), the Sugambri, who are nearest
to the Rhine.
proximus a postremo (Or. 217), next to the last.
b. Usque sometimes takes the Accusative, but usque ad is much
more common : —
terminos iisque Libyae (lust. i. 1. 5), to the bounds of Libya.
usque ad castra hostium (B. G. i. 51), to the enemy's camp.
c. The adverbs palam, procul, simul, may be used as prepositions
and take the Ablative : —
rem creditorl palam populo solvit (Liv. vi. 14), he paid the debt to his creditor
in the presence of the people.
baud procul castris in modum municipi exstructa (Tac. H. iv. 22), not far
from the camp, built up like a town.
simul nobis habitat barbarus (Ov. Tr. v. 10. 29), close among us dwells the
barbarian.
Note. — But simul regularly takes cum ; procul is usually followed by ab in classic
writers ; and the use of palam as a preposition is comparatively late.
d. The adverb clam is found in early Latin with the Accusative,
also once with the Genitive and once in classical Latin with the
Ablative : —
clam matrem suam (PI. Mil. 112), unknown to his mother.
clam patris (id. Merc. 43), without his father'' s knoioledge.
clam vobis (B. C. ii. 32. 8), without your knowledge.
1 For a list of Prepositions with their ordinary uses, see § 221.
§§433-435] ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS 275
433. Prepositions often retain their original meaning as Ad-
verbs : —
1. Ante and post in relations of time : —
quos paulo ante diximus (Brut. 32), whom I mentioned a little while ago.
post tribus diebus, three days after (cf. § 424. /).
2. Adversus, circiter, prope : —
nemo adversus ibat (Liv. xxxvii. 13. 8), no one went out in opposition.
circiter pars quarta (Sail. Cat. 56), about the fourth part.
prope exanimatus, nearly lifeless.
3. A or ab, off, in expressions of distance, with the Ablative of
Degree of Difference (§ 414) : —
a milibus passuum circiter duobus Romanorum adventum exspectabant
(B. G. V. 32), at a distance of about two miles (about two miles off) they
awaited the approach of the Romans.
4. In general, prepositions ending in -a : —
Aeolus haec contra (Aen. i. 76), thus ^olus in reply.
forte fuit iuxta tumulus (id. iii. 22), there happened to be a mound close by.
434. Some Prepositions and Adverbs which imply comparison
are followed, like comparatives, by quam, which may be separated
by several words, or even clauses.
Such words are ante, prius, post, postea, pridie, postridie ; also magis
and prae in compounds : —
neque ante dimlsit eum quam fidem dedit (Liv. xxxix. 10), nor did he let him
go until he gave a pledge.
post diem tertium quam dixerat (Mil. 44), the third day after he said it.
Cato ipse iam servire quam pugnare mavult (Att. vii. 15), Cato himself by this
time had rather be a slave than fight.
Gallorum quam Romanorum imperia praeferre (B. G. i. 17), [they] prefer the
rule of Gauls to that of Romans.
, Note. — The ablative of time is sometimes followed by quam in the same way
(§ 424./) : as, — octavo mense quam (Liv. xxi. 15), within eight months after, etc.
435. The following Prepositions sometimes come after their
nouns : ad, citra, circum, contra, de, e (ex), inter, iuxta, penes, propter,
ultra ; so regularly tenus and versus, and occasionally others : —
[tisus] quem penes arbitrium est et ius et norma loquendl (Hor. A. P. 72),
custom, under whose control is the choice, right, and rule of speech.
cuius a me corpus est crematum, quod contra decuit ab illo meum (Cat. M.
84), vihose body I burned [on the funeral pile], while on the contrary
(contrary to which) mine should have been burned by him.
276 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§436
SYNTAX OF THE VERB
MOODS AND TENSES
436. The Syntax of the Verb relates chiefly to the use of the Moods (which express
the manner in which the action is conceived) and the Tenses (which express the time of
the action). There is no difference in origin between mood and tense ; and hence the
uses of mood and tense frequently cross each other. Thus the tenses sometimes have
modal significations (compare indicative in apodosis, § 517. c ; future for imperative,
§ 449. 6); and the moods sometimes express time (compare subjunctive in future con-
ditions, § 516. &, and notice the want of a future subjunctive).
The parent language had, besides the Imperative mood, two or more forms with
modal signification. Of these, the Subjunctive appears with two sets of termina-
tions, -a-m, -a-s, in the present tense (moneam, dicam), and -e-m, -e-s, in the present
(amem) or other tenses (essem, dixissem). The Optative was formed by ie-, i-, with the
present stem (sim, duim) or the perfect (dixerim). (See details in §§ 1G8, 1G9.)
Each mood has two general classes or ranges of meaning. The uses of the Sub-
junctive may all be classed under the general ideas of will or desire and of action
vividly conceived ; and the uses of the Optative under the general ideas of wish and
of action vaguely conceived.
It must not be supposed, however, that in any given construction either the sub-
jimctive or the optative was deliberately used because it denoted conception or possi-
bility. On the contrary, each construction has had its own line of development from
more tangible and literal forms of thought to more vague and ideal; and by this
process the mood used came to have in each case a special meaning, which was after-
wards habitually associated with it in that construction. Similar developments have
taken place in English. Thus, the expression I would do this has become equivalent
to a mild command, while by analysis it is seen to be the apodosis of a present condi-
tion contrary to fact (§ 517) : if I loere you, etc. By further analysis, / would do is
seen to have meant, originally, / should have wished (or I did wish) to do.
In Latin, the original Subjunctive and the Optative became confounded in meaning
and in form, and were merged in the Subjunctive, at first in the present tense. Then
new tense-forms of the subjunctive were formed,i and to these the original as well as
the derived meanings of both moods became attached (see § 438). All the independent
uses of the Latin subjunctive are thus to be accounted for.
The dependent uses of the subjunctive have arisen from the employment of some
independent subjunctive construction in connection with a main statement. Most fre-
quently the main statement is prefixed to a sentence containing a subjunctive, as
a more complete expression of a complex idea (§ 268). Thus a question implying a
general negative (quin rogem? why shouldn't I ask?) might have the general nega-
tive expressed in a prefixed statement (nulla causa est, there is no reason) ; or abeat,
let him go away, may be expanded into sine abeat. When such a combination comes
into habitual use, the original meaning of the subjunctive partially or wholly dis-
appears and a new meaning arises by implication. Thus, in misit legatos qui dicerent,
he sent ambassadors to say (i.e. who should say), the original hortatory sense of the
subjunctive is partially lost, and the mood becomes in part an expression of purpose.
Similar processes may be seen in the growth of Apodosis. Thus, tolle banc opinionem,
luctum sustuleris, remove this notion, you will have done away with grief (i.e. if you
remove, etc.).
1 For the signification of the tense-endings, see §§ 168, 169.
§§ 436, 437]
INDICATIVE MOOD
277
II. Subjunctive;
Independent
Uses ;
Dependent
Uses ;
1. Conditions
The Infinitive is originally a verbal noun (§ 451), modifying a verb like other nouns :
volo videre, lit. '* I wish for-seeing " : compare English "what went ye out for to see ? "
But in Latin it has been surprisingly developed, so as to have forms for tense, and some
proper modal characteristics, and to be used as a substitute for finite moods.
The other noun and adjective forms of the verb have been developed in various
ways, which are treated under their respective heads below.
The proper Verbal Constructions may be thus classified : —
I. Indicative: Direct Assertion or Question (§437).
1. Exhortation or Command (§439).
2. Concession (§440).
3. Wish (§441).
4. Question of Doubt etc. (§444).
5. Possibility or Contingency (§446).
Future (less vivid) (§ 516. 6, c).
Contrary to Fact (§ 517).
2. Purpose (with ut, ne) (§531).
3. Characteristic (Relative Clause) (§535).
4. Result (with ut, ut non) (§537).
5. Time (with cum) (§546).
6. Intermediate (Indirect Discourse) (§592).
7. Indirect Questions or Commands (§§ 574,
588).
1. Direct Commands (often Subjunctive) (§448).
2. Statutes, Laws, and Wills (§449. 2).
3. Prohibitions (early or poetic use) (§ 450. a).
a. Subject of esse and Impersonal Verbs (§§ 452, 454).
b. Objective r 1. Complementary Infinitive (§ 456) .
Construe- \ 2. Indirect Discourse (with Subject Accusative)
(§580).
Purpose (poetic or Greek use) (§ 460) .
Exclamation (with Subject Accusative)
(§462).
Historical Infinitive (§ 463) .
IIL Imperative ;
IV. Infinitive:
tions :
c. Idiomatic
MOODS
INDICATIVE MOOD
437. The Indicative is the mood of direct assertions or ques-
tions when there is no modification of the verbal idea except that
of time.
a. The Indicative is sometimes used where the English idiom
would suggest the Subjunctive : —
longum est, it would be tedious [if, etc.]; satins erat, itioould have been bet-
ter [if, etc.]; persequi possum, I might follow up [in detail].
Note. — Substitutes for the Indicative are (1) the Historical Infinitive (§463), and
(2) the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse (§580).
For the Indicative in Conditions, see §§ 515, 516 ; for the Indicative in implied Com-
mands, see § 449. 6.
278 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§438,439
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
438. The Subjunctive in general expresses the verbal idea with
some modification 1 such as is expressed in English by auxiliaries,
by the infinitive, or by the rare subjunctive (§ 157. h).
a. The Subjunctive is used independently to express —
1. An Exhortation or Command {Hortatory Subjunctive: § 439).
2. A Concession {Concessive Subjunctive: §440).
3. A Wish {Optative Subjunctive: §441).
4. A Question of Doubt etc. (^Deliberative Subjunctive : § 444).
5. A Possibility or Contingency {Potential Subjunctive : § 446).
For the special idiomatic uses of the Subjunctive in Apodosis, see § 514.
6. The Subjunctive is used in dependent clauses to express —
1. Condition: future or contrary to fact (§§ 516. 6, c, 517).
2. Purpose {Final, § 531).
3. Characteristic (§ 535).
4. Result (^Consecutive, § 537).
5. Time {Temporal, § 546).
6. Indirect Question (§ 574).
c. The Subjunctive is also used with Conditional Particles of Com
parison (§ 524), and in subordinate clauses in the Indirect Discourse
(§ 580).
Subjunctive in Independent Sentences
Hortatory Subjunctive
439. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used in the present tense
to express an exhortation or a command. The negative is ne.
hos latrones interficiamus (B. G. vii. 38), let us kill these robbers.
caveant intemperantiam, meminerint verecundiae (Off. i. 122), let them shun
excess and cherish modesty.
Note 1. — The hortatory subjunctive occurs rarely in the perfect (except in pro-
hibitions: §450) : as, — Epicurus hoc viderit (Acad. ii. 19), let Epicurus look to this.
Note 2. — The term hortatory subjunctive is sometimes restricted to the first per-
son plural, the second and third persons beinji: designated as the jussive subjunctive;
but the constructions are substantially identical.
1 These modifications are of various kinds, each of which has had its own special
development (cf. § 4136). The subjunctive in Latin has also many idiomatic uses (as in
clauses of Result and Time) where the English does not modify the verbal idea at all,
but expresses it directly. In such cases the Latin merely takes a different view of
the action and has developed the construction differently from the English.
§§439,440] HORTATORY SUBJUNCTIVE 279
Note 3. — Once in Cicero and occasionally in the poets and later writers the nega-
tive with the hortatory subjiuictive is non : as, — a legibus non recedamus (Clu. 155), let
us not abandon the laws.
a. The Second Person of the hortatory subjunctive is used only
of an indefinite subject, except in prohibitions, in early Latin, and in
poetry : — •
iuiurias fortunae, quas ferre nequeas, def ugiendo relinquas (Tusc. v. 118), the
wrongs of fortune, which you cannot bear, leave behind by flight.
exoriare aliquis ultor (Aen. iv. 625), rise, sojjie avenger.
isto bono utare dum adsit, cum absit ne requiras (Cat. M. 33), use this bless-
ing while it is present; when it is wanting do not regret it.
doceas iter et sacra ostia pandas (Aen. vi. 109), show us the way and lay open
the sacred portals.
For Negative Commands (prohibitions), see §450.
6. The Imperfect and Pluperfect of the hortatory subjunctive
denote an nnfiilfilled obligation in jDast time : —
moreretur, inquies (Rab. Post. 29), he should have died, you will say.
potius doceret (Off. ill. 88), he should rather have taught.
ne poposcisses (Att. ii. 1. 3), you should not have asked.
saltern aliquid de pondere detraxisset (Fin. iv. 57), at least he should have
taken something from the weight.
Note 1. — In this construction the Pluperfect usually differs from the Imperfect
only in more clearly representing the time for action as momentary or as past.
Note 2. — This use of the subjunctive is carefully to be distinguished from the
potential use (§ 446) . The difference is indicated by the translation, should or ought
(not would or might).
440. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used to express a conces-
sion.^ The Present is used for present time, the Perfect for past.
The negative is ne.
sit fur, sit sacrilegus: at est bonus imperator (Verr. v. 4), grant he is a
thief, a godless wretch : yet he is a good general.
fuerit alils ; tibi quando esse coepit (Verr. ii. 1. 37), suppose he was [so] to
others ; when did he begin to be to you f
nemo is umquam fnit: ne fuerit (Or. 101), there never was such a one [you
will say] : granted (let there not have been),
ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est (Tusc. ii. 14), granted that
pain is not the greatest evil, at least it is an evil.
Note. — The concessive subjunctive with quamvis and licet is originally hortatory
(§527. a, 6).
For other methods of expressing Concession, see § 527.
For the Hortatory Subjunctive denoting a Proviso, see § 528. a.
1 Many scholars regard the concessive subjunctive as a development of the Optative
Subjunctive in a wish.
280 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 441, 442
Optative Subjunctive
441. The Optative Subjunctive is used to express a Wish. The
present tense denotes the wish as possible, the imperfect as ^mae-
complished in present time, the pluperfect as unaccomplished in
past time. The negative is ne : —
ita vivam (Att. v. 15), as true as I live, so may I live.
ne vivam si scio (id. iv. 16. 8), I wish I may not live if I know.
dl te perduint (Deiot. 21), the gods confound thee!
valeant, valeant elves mei ; sint iiicolumes (Mil. 93), farewell, farewell to my
fellow-citizens; may they be secure from harm.
di facerent sine patre forem (Ov. M. viii. 72), would that the gods allowed me
to he without a father (but they do not) 1
a. The perfect subjunctive in a wish is archaic : —
dl faxint (Fam. xiv. 3. 3), may the gods grant.
quod di omen averterint (Phil. xii. 14, in a religious formula), and may the
gods avert this omen.
442. The Optative Subjunctive is often preceded by the par-
ticle utinam ; so regularly in the imperfect and pluperfect ; —
falsus utinam vates sim (Liv. xxi. 10. 10), I wish I may be a false prophet.
utinam Clodius viveret (Mil. 103), would that Clodius were now alive.
utinam me mortuum vidisses (Q. Fr. i. 3. 1), would you had seen me dead.
utinam ne vere scriberem (Fam. v. 17. 3), would that I were not writing the
truth.
Note. — Utinam non is occasionally used instead of utinam ne; as, — utinam sus-
ceptus non essem (Att. ix. 9. 3), would that I had not been born.
a. In poetry and old Latin uti or ut often introduces the optative
subjunctive ; and in poetry si or 6 si with the subjunctive sometimes
expresses a wish : —
ut pereat positum roblgine telum (Hor. S. ii, 1. 43), may the weapon unused
perish with rust.
6 si angulus ille accedat (id. ii. 6. 8), if that corner might only be added!
si nunc se nobis ille aureus ramus ostendat(Aen. vi. 187), if now that golden
branch would only show itself to us !
Note 1. — The subjunctive with uti (ut) or utinam was originally deliberative,
meaning how may I, etc. (§ 444). The subjunctive with si or 5 si is a protasis (§ 512. a),
the apodosis not being expressed.
Note 2. — The subjunctive of wish without a particle is seldom found in the imper-
fect or pluperfect except by sequence of tenses in Indirect Discourse (§ 585): as, — ac
venerata Ceres, ita culmo surgeret alto (Hor. S. ii. 2. 124), and Ceres worshipped [with
libations] that so she might rise with tall stalk. [In addressing the goddess directly
the prayer would be : ita surgas.]
§§442-444] DELIBERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 281
h, Velim and vellem, and their compounds, with a subjunctive or
infinitive, are often equivalent to an optative subjunctive : —
velim tibi persuadeas (Fam. ix. 13. 2), I should like to have you believe (I
should wish that you would persuade yourself).
dg Menedemo vellem verum fuisset, de regina velim verum sit (Att. xv. 4. 4),
about Menedemus I wish it had been true; about the queen I wish it may be.
nollem accidisset tempus (Fam. iii. 10. 2), I wish the time never had come.
mallem Cerberum metueres (Tusc. i. 12), I had rather have had you afraid
of Cerberus (I should have preferred that you feared Cerberus).
Note. — Velim etc., In this use, are either potential subjunctives, or apodoses with
the protasis omitted (§ 447. 1. N.). Tlie thing wished may be regarded as a substantive
clause used as object of the verb of wishing (§ 565. N.i).
Deliberative Subjunctive
443. The Subjunctive was used in sentences of interrogative form, at first when
the speaker wished information in regard to the will or desire of the person addressed.
The mood was therefore hortatory in origin. But such questions when addressed by
the speaker to himself, as if asking his own advice, become deliberative or, not infre-
quently, merely exclamatory. In such cases the mood often approaches the meaning
of the Potential (see § 445) . In these uses the subjunctive is often called Deliberative
or Dubitative.
444. The Subjunctive is used in questions implying (1) doubt,
indignation, or (2) an impossibility of the thing's being done.
The negative is non.
quid agam, iudices? quo me vertam (Verr. v. 2), what am I to do, judges?
whither shall I turn ?
etiamne earn salutem (PI. Rud. 1275), shall I greet her ?
quid hoc homine facias? quod supplicium dignum libidini gius invenias (Verr.
ii. 40), what are you to do with this man? what fit penalty can you devise
for his wantonness ?
an ego non venirem (Phil. ii. 3), what, should I not have come ?
quid dicerem (Att. vi. 3. 9), what was I to say ?
quis enim celaverit Ignem (Ov. H. xv. 7), who could conceal the flame?
Note. — The hortatory origin of some of these questions is obvious. Thus, — quid
faciamus?=:faciamus [aliquid], quid? let us do — vjhat:? (Compare the expanded form
quid vis faciamus ? what do you wish us to do ?) Once established, it was readily trans-
ferred to the past: quid faciam? lohat am I to do? quid facerem? lohat was I to do?
Questions implying impossibility, however, cannot be distinguished from Apodosis
(cf.§517).
a* In many cases the question has become a mere exclamation,
rejecting a suggested possibility :
mihi umquam bonorum praesidium defuturura putarem (Mil. 94), could I
think that the defence of good men would ever fail me !
Note. — The indicative is sometimes used in deliberative questions : as, — quid ago,
what am I to do ?
282 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§445-447
Potential Subjunctive
445. Of the two principal uses of the Subjunctive in independent sentences (cf.
§436), the second, or Potential Subjunctive,i is found in a variety of sentence-forms
having as their common element the fact that the mood represents the action as merely
conceived or possible, not as desired (hortatory, optative) or real {indicative) . Some
of these uses are very old and may go back to the Indo-European parent speech, but
no satisfactory connection between the Potential and the Hortatory and Optative
Subjunctive has been traced. There is no single English equivalent for the Potential
Subjunctive; the mood must be rendered, according to circumstances, by the auxi^
iaries loould, should, may, might, can, could.
446. The Potential Subjunctive is used to suggest an action
as possible or conceivable. The negative is non.
In this use the Present and the Perfect refer without distinction to
the immedisite future ; the Imperfect (occasionally the Perfect) to 2yast
time ; the Pluperfect (which is rare) to what might have happened.
447. The Potential Subjunctive has the following uses : —
1. In cautious or modest assertions in the first person singular of
expressions of saying, thinking, or icishing (present or perfect) : —
pace tua dixerim (Mil. 103), I would say by your leave.
baud sciam an (Lael. 51), I should incline to think.
in velim sic existimes (Fam. xii. 6), I should like you to think so.
certum affirmfire non ausim (Liv. ill. 23), I shoidd not dare to assert as sure.
Note. — Vellem, nollem, or mallem expressing an unfulfilled wish in present time
may be classed as independent potential subjunctive or as the apodosis of an unex-
pressed condition (§521): as — vellem adesset M. Antonius (Phil. i. 16), I could wish
Antony were here.
2. In the indefinite second person singular of verbs of saying, think-
ing, and the like (present or imperfect) : —
credas non de puero scriptum sed a puero (Plin. Ep. iv. 7. 7), you would
think that it ivas written not about a boy but by a boy.
crederes victos (Liv. ii. 43. 9), you would have thought them conquered.
reos diceres (id. ii. 35. 5), you looidd have said they were culprits.
videres susurros (Hor. S. ii. 8. 77), you might have seen them whispering (lit.
whispers).
frets assimilare possis (Ov. M. v. 0), you might compare it to a sea.
3. With other verbs, in all persons, when some word or phrase in
the context implies that the action is expressed as merely possible or
conceivable : —
1 The name Potential Subjunctive is not precisely descriptive, but is fixed in
grammatical usage.
§§ 447, 448] IMPERATIVE MOOD 283
nil ego contulerim iucimdo sanus amico (Hor, S. i. 5. 44), when in my senses
I should compare nothing with an interesting friend.
fortunam citius reperias quam retineas (Pub. Syr. 168), you may sooner find
fortune than keep it.
aliquis dicat (Ter. And. 640), somebody may say.
Note. — In this use the suhjunctive may be regarded as the apodosis of an unde-
veloped protasis. When the conditional idea becomes clearer, it finds expression in
a formal protasis, and a conditional sentence is developed.
a. Forsitan, perhaps, regularly takes the Potential Subjunctive
except in later Latin and in poetry, where the Indicative is also
common : —
forsitan quaeratis qui iste terror sit (Rose. Am. 6), you may perhaps inquire
what this alarm is.
forsitan temere fecerim (id. 31), perhaps I have acted rashly.
Note. — The subjunctive clause with forsitan (=fors sit an) was originally an Indi-
rect Question: it would be a chance whether, etc.
b. Fortasse, perhaps, is regularly followed by the Indicative ; some-
times, however, by the Subjunctive, but chiefly in later Latin: —
quaeres fortasse (Earn. xv. 4. 13), perhaps you will ask.
Note.— Other expressions for perhaps are (1) forsan (chiefly poetical; construed
with the indicative or the subjunctive, more commonly the indicative), fors (rare and
poetical; construed with either the indicative or the subjunctive). Forsit (or fors sit)
occurs once (Hor. S. i. 6. 49) and takes the subjimctive. Fortasse is sometimes followed
by the infinitive with subject accusative in Plautus and Terence. Fortassis (rare ; con-
strued like fortasse) and fortasse an (very rare; construed with the subjunctive) are
also found.
IMPERATIVE MOOD
448. The Imperative is used in Commands and Entreaties : —
consulite vobis, prospicite patriae, conservate vos (Cat. iv. 3), have a care for
yourselves, guard the country, preserve yourselves.
die, Marce Tuili, sententiam, Marcus Tullius, state your opinion.
te ipsum concute (Hor. S. i. 3. 35), examine yourself.
Vive, valeque (id. ii. 5. 110), farewell, bless you (live and be well) !
miserere anim! nondigna ferentis (Aen. ii. 144:), pity a soul bearing undeserved
.misfortune.
a. The third person of the imperative is antiquated or poetic : —
ollls salus popull suprema lex est5 (Legg. iii. 8), the safety of the people shall
be their first law.
itista imperia sunt5, eisque cives raodeste parents (id. iii. 6), let there be law-
ful authorities, and let the citizens strictly obey them.
Note. — In prose the Hortatory Subjunctive is commonly used instead (§ 439).
284 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§449
449. The Future Imperative is used in commands, etc., where
there is a distinct reference to future time : —
1. In connection with some adverb or other expression that indi-
cates at what time in the future the action of the imperative shall take
2)lace. So especially with a future, a future perfect indicative, or
(in poetry and early Latin) with a present imperative : —
eras petito, dabitur (PL Merc. 769), ask to-morrow [and] it shall be given.
cum valetudini consulueris, turn c5nsulito navigation! (Fam. xvi. 4. 3), when
you have attended to your health, then look to your sailing.
Phyllida mitte mihi, mens est natalis, lolla ; cum faciam vitula pro frugibus,
ipse venito (Eel. iii. 76), send Phyllis to me, it is my birthday, lollas;
when I [shall] sacrifice a heifer for the harvest, come yourself.
die quibus in terrls, etc., et Phyllida solus habeto (id. iii. 107), tell in whai
lands, etc., and have Phyllis for yourself.
2. In general directions serving for all time, as Precepts, Statutes,
and Wills : —
is iuris civilis cilstos esto (Legg. iii. 8), let him (the praetor) be the guardian
of civil right.
Borea flante, ne arato, semen ne iacito (Plin. H. N. xviii. 334), when the north
wind blows, plough not nor sow your seed.
a. The verbs scio, memini, and habeo (in the sense of consider) regu-
larly use the Future Imperative instead of the Present : —
filiolo me auctum scito (Att. i. 2), learn thai, I am blessed with a little boy.
sic habeto, mi Tiro (Fam. xvi. 4. 4), so understand it, my good Tiro.
de palla memento, ainabo (PI. Asin. 939), remember, dear, about the gown.
h. The Future Indicative is sometimes used for the imperative ;
|and quin (why not ?) with the Present Indicative may have the force
(of a command : —
si quid acciderit novl, fades ut sciam (Fam. xiv. 8), you wiU let me know if
anything new happens.
quin accipis (Ter. Haut. 832), here, take it (why not take it?).
c. Instead of the simple Imperative, cura ut, fac (fac ut), or velim,
followed by the subjunctive (§ 565), is often used, especially in col-
loquial language : —
cura ut Romae sis (Att. i. 2), take care to be at Borne.
fac ut valetudinem cures (Fam. xiv. 17), see that you take care of your heatth.
domi adsltis facite (Ter. Eun. 506), be at home, do.
eum mihi velim mittas (Att. viii. 11), I wish you would send it to me.
For commands in Indirect Discourse, see § 588.
For the Imperative with the force of a Conditional Clause, see § 521= 6.
§450] PROHIBITION (NEGATIVE COMMAND) 285
Prohibition (Negative Command)
450. Prohibition is regularly expressed in classic prose (1) by
noli with the Infinitive, (2) by cave with the Present Subjunctive,
or (3) by ne with the Perfect Subjunctive : — ^
(1) noli putare (Lig. 33), do not suppose (be unwilling to suppose).
noli impudens esse (Fam. xii. 30. 1), don't he shameless.
nolite cogere socios (Verr. ii. 1. 82), do not compel the allies.
(2) cave putes (Att. vii. 20), don't suppose (take care lest you suppose),
cave ignoscas (Lig. 14), do not pardon.
cave festlnes (Fam. xvi. 12. 6), do not be in haste.
(3) ne necesse habueris (Att. xvi. 2. 5), do not regard it as necessary.
ne sis admiratus (Fam. vii. 18. 3), do not he surprised.
hoc facito; hoc ne feceris (Div. ii. 127), thoushalt do this, thou shall not do that.
ne Apellae quidem dixeris (Fam. vii. 25. 2), do not tell Apella even.
ne vos quidem mortem timueritis (Tusc. i. 98), nor must you fear death.
All three of these constructions are well established in classic prose. The first,
which is the most ceremonious, occurs oftenest ; the third, though not discourteous, is
usually less formal and more peremptory than the others.
Note 1. — Instead of noli the poets sometimes use other imperatives of similar
meaning (cf . § 457. a) : —
parce pias scelerare maniis (Aen. iii. 42), /orftear to defile your pious hands.
cetera mitte loqui (Hor. Epod. 13. 7), /or&ear to say the rest.
fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. i. 9. 13), do not inquire.
Note 2. — Cave ne is sometimes used in prohibitions ; also vide ne and (colloquially)
fac ne : as, — fac ne quid aliud cures (Fam. xvi. 11), see that you attend to nothing else.
Note 3. — The present subjunctive with ne and the perfect with cave are found in
old writers ; ne with the present is common in poetry at all periods : —
ne exspectetis (PI. Ps. 1234), do not wait.
ne metuas (Mart. Ep. i. 70. 13), do not fear.
cave quicquam responderis (PL Am. 608), do not make any reply.
Note 4. — Other negatives sometimes take the place of ne: —
nihil ignoveris (Mur. 65), grant no pardon (pardon nothing),
nee mihi illud dixeris (Fin. i. 25), and do not say this to me.
Note 5. — The regular connective, and do not, is neve.
a. The Present Imperative with ne is used in prohibitions by early
writers and the poets : —
ne time (PI. Cure. 520), don't he afraid.
nimium ne crede colori (Eel. ii. 17), trust not too much to complexion.
equo ne credite (Aen. ii. 48), trust not the horse.
h. The Future Imperative with ne is used in prohibitions in laws
and formal precepts (see § 449. 2).
1 In prohibitions the subjunctive with ne is hortatory; that with cave is an object
clause (cf. §§ 450. n. 2, 565. n. i);
286 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 451, 452
INFINITIVE MOOD
45 1 . The Infinitive is properly a noun denoting tlie action of the verb abstractly.
It differs, however, from other abstract nouns in the following points: (1) it often
admits the distinction of tense; (2) it is modified by adverbs, not by adjectives; (3) it
governs the same case as its verb ; (4) it is limited to special constructions.
The Latin Infinitive is the dative or locative case of such a noupi and was origi-
nally used to denote Purpose ; but it has in many constructions developed into a sub-
stitute for a finite verb. Hence the variety of its use.
In its use as a verb, the Infinitive may take a Subject Accusative (§ 397. e), origi-
nally the object of another verb on which the Infinitive depended. Thus iubeo te valere
is literally / command you for being well (cf. substantive clauses, § 562. n.).
Infinitive as Noun
452. The Infinitive, with or without a subject accusative, may
be used with est and similar verbs (1) as the Subject, (2) in Appo-
sition with the subject, or (3) as a Predicate Nominative.^
1. As Subject: —
dolere malum est (Fin. v. 84), to suffer pain is an evil.
bellum est sua vitia nosse (Att. ii. 17), ifs a fine thing to know one^s own
faults.
praestat componere fluctus (Aen. i. 135), it is better to calm the waves.
2. In Apposition with the Subject : —
proinde quasi iniiiriam facere id demum esset imperio uti (Sail. Cat. 12),
just as if this and this alone, to commit injustice., were to use power.
[Here facere is in apposition with id.]
3. As Predicate Nominative : —
id est convenienter natiirae vivere (Fin. iv. 41), that is to live in conformity
with nature. [Cf. uti in the last example.]
Note 1. — An infinitive may be used as Direct Object in connection with a Predi-
cate Accusative (§ 393), or as Appositive with such Direct Object: —
istuc ipsum non esse cum fueris miserrimum puto (Tusc. i. 12), /or I think this
very thing most wretched, not to be lohen one has been. [Here istuc ipsum
belongs to the noun non esse.]
miserari, invidere, gestire, laetari, haec omnia morbos Graeci appellant (id. iii. 7),
to feel pity, envy, desire, joy, — all these things the Greeks call diseases.
[Here the infinitives are in apposition with haec]
1 The ending -6 (amare, monere, regere, audire) was apparently locative, the ending -i
(amari, moneri, regi, audiri) apparently dative ; but this difference of case had no signifi-
cance for Latin syntax. The general Latin restriction of the i-infinitives to the passive
was not a primitive distinction, but grew up in the course of time.
2 In these constructions the abstract idea expressed by the infinitive is represented
as having so7ne quality or belonging to some thing.
§§ 452-454] INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT OF IMPERSONALS 287
Note 2. — An Appositive or Predicate noun or adjective used with an infinitive in
any of these constructions is put in the Accusative, whether the infinitive has a sub-
ject expressed or not. Thus, — non esse cupidum pecunia est (Par. 51), to he free from
desires (not to be desirous) is money in hand. [No Subject Accusative.]
a. The infinitive as subject is not common except with est and
similar verbs. But sometimes, especially in poetry, it is used as the
subject of verbs which are apparently more active in meaning : —
quos omnis eadem cupere, eadera odisse, eadem metuere, in imum coegit
(lug. 31), all of whom the fact of desiring, hating, and fearing the same
things has united into one.
ingenuas didicisse fideliter artis emoUit mores (Ov. P. 11. 9. 4S), faithfully to
have learned liberal arts softens the manners.
posse loqui eripitur (Ov. M. 11. 483), the power of speech is taken away.
453. Rarely the Infinitive is used exactly like the Accusative
of a noun : —
beate vivere alli in alio, vos in voluptate ponitis (Fin. 11. 86), a happy life
different [philosophers] base on different things, you on pleasure.
quam multa . . . f aclmus causa amicorum, precari ab indlgno, supplicate, etc.
(Lael. 57), hovj many things we do for our friends'^ sake, ask favors from
an unworthy person, resort to entreaty, etc.
nihil exploratum habeas, ne amare quldem aut amari (Id. 97), you have noth-
ing assured, not even loving and being loved.
Note. — Many complementary and other constructions approach a proper accusa-
tive use of the infinitive, but their development has been different from that of the
examples above. Thus, — avaritia . . . superbiam, crudelitatem, deos neglegere, omnia
venalia habere edocuit (Sail. Cat. 10), avarice taught pride, cruelty, to neglect the gods,
and to hold everything at a price.
Infinitive as Apparent Subject of Impersonals
454. The Infinitive is used as the apparent Subject with many
impersonal verbs and expressions :
Such are libet, licet, oportet, decet, placet, visum est, pudet, piget,
necesse est, opus est, etc. : —
llbet mlhl considerate (Quinct. 48), it suits me to consider.
necesse est mori (Tusc. ii. 2), it is necessary to die.
quid attinet glorlose loqui nisi constanter loquare (Fin. 11. 89), what good does
it do to talk boastfully unless you speak consistently f
neque me vixisse paenltet (Id. 84), I do not feel sorry to have lived.
gubemare me taedebat (Att. il. 7. 4), J was tired of being pilot.
Note. — This use is a development of the Complementary Infinitive (§456); but
the infinitives approach the subject construction and may be conveniently regarded as
the subjects of the impersonals.
288 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§455
455. With impersonal verbs and expressions that take the In-
finitive as an apparent subject, the personal subject of the action
may be expressed —
1. By a Dative, depending on the verb or verbal phrase : —
rogant ut id sibi facere liceat (B. G. i. 7), they ask that it be allowed them to
do this.
non lubet enim mihi deplorare vitam (Cat. M. 84), for it does not please me
to lament my life.
visum est mihi de senectiite aliquid conscribere ( id. 1), it seemed good to
me to write something about old age.
quid est tarn secundum naturam quam senibus emori (id. 71), what is so
much in accordance with nature as for old men to die ?
exstingui homini suo tempore optabile est (id. 85), for a man to die at the
appointed time is desirable.
2. By an Accusative expressed as the subject of the infinitive or
the object of the impersonal : —
si licet vivere eum quern Sex. Naevius non volt (Quinct. 94), if it is allovjed
a man to live against the will of Sextus NcBvius.
nonne oportuit praescisse me ante (Ter. And. 239), ought I not to have known
beforehand f
oratorem irasci minime decet (Tusc. iv. 54), it is particularly unbecoming for
an orator to lose his temper.
puderet me dicere (N. D. i. 109), I should be ashamed to say.
consilia ineunt quorum eos in vestlgio paenitere necesse est (B. G. iv. 5), they
form plans for which they must at once be sorry.
Note. — Libet, placet, and visum est take the dative only; oportet, pudet, piget, and
generally decet, the accusative only ; licet and necesse est take either case.
a. A predicate noun or adjective is commonly in the Accusative ;
but with licet regularly, and with other verbs occasionally, the Dative
is used : —
expedit bonas esse vobis (Ter. Haut. 388), it is for your advantage to be good.
licuit esse 6ti6s5 Themistocli (Tusc. i. 33), Themistocles might have been inac-
tive (it was allowed to Themistocles to be inactive),
mihi neglegenti esse non licet (Att. i. 17. 6), I must not be negligent. [But
also neglegentem. ]
our his esse liberos non licet (Flacc. 71), why is it not allowed these men to
be free 1
non est onmibus stantibus necesse dicere (Marc. 33), it is not necessary for
all to speak standing.
Note. —When the subject is not expressed, as being indefinite (one, anybody), a
predicate noun or adjective is regularly in the accusative (cf. §4.-52. 3. n."^): as. —
vel pace vol hello clarum fieri licet (Sail. Cat. 3),- one can become illustrious either in
peace or in war-
§§ 456, 467] COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE 289
Complementary Infinitive
456. Verbs which imply another action of the same subject to
complete their meaning take the Infmitive without a subject
accusative.
Such are verbs denoting to he able, dare, ^mdertake, remember, for-
get, be accustomed, begin, continue, cease, hesitate, learn, know how,
fear, and the like : —
hoc queo dicere (Cat. M. 32), this I can say.
mitto quaerere (Rose. Am. 53), I omit to ask.
vereor laudare praesentem (N. D. i. 58), I fear to praise a man to his face.
oro ut matures venire (Att. iv. 1), I beg you will make haste to come.
oblivisci non possum quae volo (Ein. ii. 104), I cannot forget that which 1
wish.
desine id me docere (Tusc. ii. 29), cease to teach me that.
dicere solebat, he used to say.
audeo dicere, I venture to say.
loqui posse coepi, I began to be able to speak.
Note. — The peculiarity of the Complementary Infinitive construction is that no
Subject Accusative is in general admissible or conceivable. But some infinitives
usually regarded as objects can hardly be distinguished from this construction when
they have no subject expressed. Thus vol5 dicere and volo me dicere mean the same
thing, I ivish to speak, but the latter is object-infinitive, while the former is not
apparently different in origin and construction from queo dicere (complementary infin-
itive), and again volo eum dicere, / wish him to speak, is essentially different from
either (cf. §563. b).
457. Many verbs take either a Subjunctive Clause or a Com-
plementary Infinitive, without difference of meaning.
Such are verbs signifying willingness, necessity, propriety, resolve,
command, prohibition, effort, and the like (cf. § 563) : —
decernere optabat (Q. C. ill. 11. 1), he was eager to decide.
optavit ut tolleretur (Off. iii. 94), he was eager to be taken up.
oppugnare contendit (B. G. v. 21), he strove to take by storm.
contendit ut caperet (id,, v. 8), he strove to take.
bellum gerere constituit (id. iv. 6), he decided to carry on war.
constitueram ut manerem (Att. xvi. 10. 1), I had decided to remain.
Note 1, — For the infinitive with subject accusative used with some of these verbs
instead of a compleme7itary infinitive, see § 503.
Note 2. — Some verbs of these classes never take the subjunctive, but are identi-
cal in meaning with others which do : —
eos quos tutari debent deserunt (Off. 1. 28), they forsake those whom they ought to
protect.
aveo pugnare (Att. ii. 18. 3), /'m anxious to fight.
290 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§457-460
a. In poetry and later writers many verbs may have the infini-
tive, after the analogy of verbs of more literal meaning that take
it in prose : —
furit te reperire (Hor. Od. i. 15. 27), he rages to find thee. [A forcible way
of saying cupit (§§457, 563. 6).]
saevit exstinguere nomen (Ov. M. i. 200), he rages to blot out the name.
fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. i. 9. IS), forbear to ask (cf. § 450. n. i).
parce pias scelerare manus (Aen. iii. 42), forbear to defile your pious hands.
458. A Predicate Noun or Adjective after a complementary
infinitive takes the case of the subject of the main verb : —
fierique studebam gius prudentia doctior (Lael. 1), I was eager to become
more wise through his wisdom.
scio quam soleas esse occupatus (Fam. xvi. 21. 7), J know how busy you
usually are (are wont to be).
brevis esse laboro, obsciirus fio (Hor. A. P. 25), I struggle to be brief, I become
obscure.
Infinitive virith Subject Accusative
459. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is used with verbs
and other expressions of knowing., thinking, telling, and perceiving
(Indirect Discourse, § 579) : —
dicit montem ab bostibus teneri (B. G. i. 22), he says that the hill is held by
the enemy. [Direct : mons ab bostibus tenetur.]
Infinitive of Purpose
460. In a few cases the Infinitive retains its original meaning
of Purpose.
a. The infinitive is used in isolated passages instead of a subjunc-
tive clause after habeo, do, ministro : —
tantum babeO polliceri (Fam. i. 5 a. 3), so much I have to promise. [Here
the more formal construction would be quod pollicear.]
ut lovi bibere ministraret (Tusc. i. 65), to sei-ve Jove with wine (to drink),
nieridie bibere dato (Cato R. R. 89), give (to) drink at noonday.
h. Paratus, suetus, and their compounds, and a few other partici-
ples (used as adjectives), take the infinitive like the verbs from which
they come : —
id quod parilti sunt facere (Quint. 8), that which they are ready to do.
adsuefacti superari (B. G. vi. 24), used to being conquered.
currii succedere suetl (Aen. iii. 541), used to being harnessed to the chariot.
cOpias bellare c5nsuetas (B. Afr. 73), forces accustomed to fighting.
§§ 460, 461] PECULIAR INFINITIVES 291
Note. — In prose these words more commonly take the Gerund or Gerundive con*
struction (§ 503 ff.) either in tiie genitive, the dative, or the accusative with ad: —
insuetus navigandi (B. G. v. 6), unused to making voyages.
alendis liberls sueti (Tac. Ann. xiv. 27), accustomed to supporting children.
corpora insueta ad onera portanda (B. C. i. 78), bodies unused to carry burdens.
c. The poets and early writers often use the infinitive to express
purpose when there is no analogy with any prose construction : —
fUius Intro lit videre quid agat (Ter. Hec. 345), your son has gone in to see what
he is doing. [In prose : the supine visum.]
non ferro Libycos populate Penatis venimus (Aen. i. 627), we have not come
to lay waste with the sword the Libyan homes.
loricam donat habere virS (id. v. 262), he gives the hero a breastplate to wear.
[In prose: habendam.]
Note. — So rarely in prose writers of the classic period.
For the Infinitive used instead of a Substantive Clause of Purpose, see § 457.
For tempus est abire, see § 504. n. 2.
Peculiar Infinitives
461. Many Adjectives take the Infinitive in poetry, following a
Greek idiom : —
diirus componere versiis (Hor. S. 1. 4. 8), harsh in composing verse.
cantari dignus (Eel. v. 64), worthy to be sung. [In prose: qui cantetur.]
fortis tractate serpentis (Hor. Od. i. 37. 26), brave to handle serpents.
cantare periti (Eel. x. 32), skilled in song.
faciles aurem praebete (Prop. ill. 14. 15), ready to lend an ear.
nescia vinci pectora (Aen. xii. 627), hearts not knowing how to yield.
te videte aegroti (Plaut. Trin. 75), sick of seeing you.
a, Earely in poetry the infinitive is used to express result: —
fingit equum docilem magister ite viam qua monstret eques (Hor. Ep. i. 2. 64),
the trainer makes the horse gentle so as to go in the road the rider points
out
hie levare . . . pauperem laboribus vocatus audit (Hor. Od. ii. 18. 38), he,
when called, hears, so as to relieve the poor man of his troubles.
Note. — These poetic constructions were originally regular and belong to the Infin-
itive as a noun in the Dative or Locative case (§ 451). They had been supplanted,
however, by other more formal constructions, and were afterwards restored in part
through Greek influence.
6. The infinitive occasionally occurs as a pure noun limited by a
demonstrative, a possessive, or some other adjective: —
hoc non dolere (Fin. ii. 18), this freedom from pain. [Cf. totum hOc heate
vivere (Tusc. v. 33), this whole matter of the happy life.]
nostrum vivete (Pers. i. 9), our life (to live).
scire tuum (id. i. 27), your knowledge (to know).
292 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 462, 463
Exclamatory Infinitive -
462. The Infinitive, with Subject Accusative,^ may be used in
Exclamations (of. § 397. (^) : —
te in tantas aerumnas propter mg incidisse (Fam. xiv. 1), alas, that you
should have fallen into such grief for me !
mene incepto desistere victam (Aen. i. 37), what ! I beaten desist from my
purpose f
Note 1. — The interrogative particle -ne is often attached to the emphatic word (as
in the second example).
Note 2. — The Present and the Perfect Infinitive are used in this construction with
their ordinary distinction of time (§ 486) .
a, A subjunctive clause, with or without ut, is often used ellip-
tically in exclamatory questions. The question may be introduced
by the interrogative -ne : —
quamquam quid loquor? te ut ulla res frangat (Cat. i. 22), yet why do I
speak ? [the idea] that anything should bend you !
egone ut te interpellem (Tusc. ii. 42), what, I interrupt you ?
ego tibi irascerer (Q. Fr. i. 3), I angry with you f
Note. — The Infinitive in exclamations usually refers to something actually oc-
curring; the Subjunctive, to something contemplated.
Historical Infinitive
463. The Infinitive is often used for the Imperfect Indicative
in narration, and takes a subject in the Nominative : —
turn Catilina polliceri novas tabulas (Sail. Cat. 21), then Catiline promised
abolition of debts (clean ledgers).
ego instate ut uiihi responderet (Verr. ii. 188), I kept urging him to answer me.
pai's cedere, alii insequi ; neque signa neque ordines observare ; ubi quemque
periculum ceperat, ibi resistere ac propulsare ; arma, tela, equi, viri,
hostes atque elves permixti; nihil consilio neque imperio agi; fors
omnia regere (lug. 51), a part give way, others press on ; they hold neither
to standards nor ranks; where danger overtook them, there each would
stand and fight ; arms, weapons, horses, men, foe and friend, mingled
in confusion; nothing went by counsel or command; chance ruled all.
Note. — This construction is not strictly historical, but rather descriptive, and is
never used to state a mere historical fact. It is rarely found in subordinate clauses.
Though occurring in most of the writers of all periods, it is most frequent in the his-
torians Sallust, Livy, Tacitus. It does not occur in Suetonius.
1 This construction is elliptical ; that is, the thought is quoted in Indirect Discourse,
though no verb of saying etc. is expressed or even, perhaps, implied (compare the
French dire que). Passages like hancine ego ad rem natam miseram me memorabo?
(Plant. Rud. 188) point to the origin of the construction.
I
464, 465] TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE 293
TENSES
464. The number of possible Tenses is very great. For in each of the three times,
Present, Past, and Future, an action may be represented as going on, completed, or
beginning; as habitual or isolated; as defined in time or indefinite (aoristic) ; as
determined with reference to the time of the speaker, or as not itself so determined
but as relative to some time which is determined ; and the j)ast and future times may
be near or remote. Thus a scheme of thirty or more tenses might be devised.
But, in the development of forms, which always takes place gradually, no language
finds occasion for more than a small part of these. The most obvious distinctions,
according to our habits of thought, appear in the following scheme : —
1. Definite (fixing the time of the action) 2. Indefinite
INCOMPLETE COMPLETE NARRATIVE
Present: a. I am writing. d. I have written. g. I write.
* Past: b. I was writing. e. I had written. h. I wrote.
Future: c. I shall be loritirig. f. I shall have icritten. i. I shall lorite.
Most languages disregard some of these distinctions, and some make other distinc-
tions not here given. The Indo-European parent speech had a Present tense to express
a and g, a Perfect to express d, an Aorist to express h, a Future to express c and i, and
an Imperfect to express b. The Latin, however, confounded the Perfect and Aorist
in a single form (the Perfect scripsi), thus losing all distinction of form between d and
h, and probably in a great degree the distinction of meaning. The nature of this con-
fusion may be seen by comparing dixi, dicavi, and didici (all Perfects derived from the
same root, Die), with ^dei^a, Skr. adiksham, dideixo-, Skr. didega. Latin also devel-
oped two new forms, those for e (scripseram) and/ (scripsero), and thus possessed six
tenses, as seen in § 154. c.
The lines between these six tenses in Latin are not hard and fast, nor are they pre-
cisely the same that we draw in English. Thus in many verbs the form corresponding
to / have written (cT) is used for those corresponding to lam writing (a) and I write (g)
in a slightly dififerent sense, and the form corresponding to / had written (e) is used in
like manner for that corresponding to I was writing (6). Again, the Latin often uses
the form for / shall have written (/) instead of that for I shall write (i). Thus, novi, I
have learned, is used for / know; constiterat, he had taken his position, for he stood;
cognovero, I shall have learned, for I shall be aware. In general a writer may take his.
own point of view.
TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
Incomplete Action
PRESENT TENSE
465. The Present Tense denotes an action or state (1) as now
taking place or existing, and so (2) as incomplete in present time,
or (3) as indefinite, referring to no particular time, but denoting a
general truth : —
294 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 465, 466
senatus haec intellegit, consul videt, hie tamen vivit (Cat. i. 2), the senate
knows this^ the consul sees it, yet this man lives.
tibi concedo meas sedis (Div. i. 104), I give you my seat (an offer wbich may
or may not be accepted).
exspecto quid veils (Ter, And, 34), 1 await your 'pleasure (what you wish),
tu actionem instituis, ille aciem instruit (Mur. 22), you arrange a case, he
arrays an army. [The present is here used of regular employment.']
minora di neglegunt (N. D. iii. 86), the gods disregard trifles. [General
truth.]
obsequium amicos, Veritas odium parit (Ter. And. 68), flattery gains fi^iends,
truth hatred. [General truth. ]
Note. — The present of a general truth is sometimes called the Gnomic Present.
a. The present is regularly used in quoting writers whose works
are extant : —
Epicurus vero ea dicit (Tusc. ii. 17), but Epicurus says such things.
apud ilium Ulixes lamentatur in volnere (id. ii. 49), in Mm (Sophocles)
Ulysses laments over his wound.
Polyphemum Homerus cum ariete colloquentem facit (id. v. 115), Homer
brings in (makes) Polyphemus talking with his ram.
Present with iam diu etc.
466. The Present with expressions of duration of time (espe-
cially iam diu, iam dudum) denotes an action continuing in the pres-
ent, but begun in the past (cf. § 471. 5).
In this use the present is commonly to be rendered by the perfect
in English : —
iam diii ignoro quid agas (Earn. vii. 9), for a long time I have not known what
you were doing.
te iam dudum hortor (Cat. i. 12), I have long been urging you.
patimur multos iam annos (Verr. v. 126), we suffer now these many years.
[The Latin perfect would imply that we no longer suffer.']
anni sunt octo cum ista causa versatur (cf. Clu. 82), it is now eight years
that this case has been in hand.
annum iam audis Cratippum (Off. i. 1), for a year you have been a hearer of
Cratippus.
adhuc Plancius me retinet (Fam. xiv. 1. 3), so far Plancius has kept me here.
Note 1. — The difference in the two idioms is that the English states the beginning
and leaves the continuance to be inferred, while the Latin states the continuance and
leaves the beginning to be inferred. Compare he has long suffered (and still suffers)
with he still suffers {and has suffered long).
Note 2. — Similarly the Present Imperative with iam dudum indicates that the
action commanded ought to have been done or was wished for long ago (cf. the Per-
fect Imperative in Greek): as, — iam dudmn sumite poenas (Aen. ii. 103), exact the
penalty long delayed.
!
§§467-469] PRESENT TENSE 295
Conative Present
467. The Present sometimes denotes an action attempted or
begun in present time, but never completed at all ( Conative Pres-
ented. §471. (?): —
iam iamque manu tenet (Aen. ii. 530), and now, even now, he attempts to
grasp him.
densos fertur in hostis (id. ii. 511), he starts to rush into the thickest of the foe.
decerno qulnquaginta dierum supplicationes (Phil. xiv. 29), I move for fifty
days'' thanksgiving. [Cf . senatus decrevit, the senate ordained. ]
Present for Future
• 468. The Present, especially in colloquial language and poetry,
is often used for the Future ; —
imusne sessum (De Or. iii. 17), shall we take a seat ? (are we going to sit ?)
hodie uxorem duels (Ter. And. 321), are you to be married to-day ?
quod si fit, pereo funditus (id. 244), if this happens, I am utterly undone.
ecquid me adiuvas (Clu. 71), won''t you give me a little help ?
in iiis voco te. non eo. non is (PI. Asin. 480), I summon you to the court.
I wonH go. You won't f
Note. — Eo and its compounds are especially frequent in this use (cf. lohere are
you going to-morrow? and the Greek elfii in a future sense). Verbs of necessity,
possibility, loish, and the like (as possum, volo, etc.) also have reference to the future.
For other uses of the Present in a future sense, see under Conditions (§ 516. a. n.),
antequam and priusquam (§ 551. c), dum (§ 553. N.2), and § 444. a. n.
Historical Present
469. The Present in lively narrative is often used for the His-
torical Perfect : —
affertur niintius Syracusas j curritur ad praetorium ; Cleomenes in publico
esse non audet ; includit se domi (Verr. v. 92), the news is brought to Syra-
cuse ; they run to headquarters ; Cleomenes does not venture to be abroad ;
he shuts himself up at home.
Note. — This usage, common in all languages, comes from imagining past events
as going on before our eyes (repraesentdtio, § 585. b. n.).
For the Present Indicative with dum, while, see § 556.
a. The present may be used for the perfect in a summary enumera-
tion of past events (^Annalistic Present) : —
Roma interim crescit Albae minis : duplicatur civium numerus ; Caelius
additur urbi mons (Liv. i. 30), Bovie meanwhile grows as a result of the
fall of Alba: the number of citizens is doubled; the Codian hill is added
to the town.
296 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 470, 471
IMPERFECT TENSE
470. The Imperfect denotes an action or a state as continued
or repeated in past time : — •
liunc audiebant antea (Manil. 13), they used to hear of him before.
[Socrates] ita censebat itaque disseruit (Tusc. i. 72), Socrates thought so (habit-
ually), and so he spoke (then),
prudens esse putabatur (Lael. 6), he was (generally) thought wise. [The per-
fect would refer to some particular case, and not to a state of things. ]
iamque rubescebat Aurora (Aen. iii. 521), and now the dawn was blushing.
ara vetus stabat (Ov. M. vi. 326), an old altar stood there.
Note. — The Imperfect is a descriptive tense and denotes an action conceived as
in progress or a state of things as actually observed. Hence in many verbs it does
not differ in meaning from the Perfect. Thus rex erat and rex fuit may often be us«d
indifferently ; but the former describes the condition while the latter only states it.
The English is less exact in distinguishing these two modes of statement. Hence the
Latin Imperfect is often translated by the English Preterite : —
Haedui graviter ferebant, neque legatos ad Caesarem mittere audebant (B. G. v.
6), the Hsedui were displeased, and did not dare to send envoys to Csesar.
[Here the Imperfects describe the state of things.] But, —
id tulit factum graviter Indutiomarus (id. v. 4), Indutiomarus was displeased at
this action. [Here the Perfect merely states the fact.]
aedificia vicosque habebant (id. iv. 4), they had buildings and villages.
471. The Imperfect represents a present tense transferred to
past time. Hence all the meanings which the Present has derived
from the continuance of the actioji belong also to the Imperfect in
reference to past time.
a. The Imperfect is used in descriptions : —
erant omnino itinera duo . . . mons altissimus impendebat (B. G. i. 6), there
were in all two ways . . . a very high mountain overhung.
b. With lam diu, lam dudum, and other expressions of duration of
time, the Imperfect denotes an action continuing in the past but be-
gun at some previous time (cf. § 466).
In this construction the Imperfect is rendered by the English Plu-
perfect : —
iam dudum flebam (Ov. M. iii. 656), I had been weeping for a long time.
copias quas diii comparabant (Fam. xi. 13. 6), the forces which they had long
been getting ready.
c. The Imperfect sometimes denotes an action as begun (Inceptive
Imperfect), or as attempted or only intended (Conative Imperfect; cf.
§467): —
§ 471] IMPERFECT TENSE 297
in exsilium eiciebam quern iam ingressum esse in bellum videbam (Cat. ii.
14), ivas I trying to send into exile one who I saw had already gone
into war f
hunc igitur diem sibi proponeus Milo, cruentis manibus ad ilia augusta cen-
turiarum auspicia veniebat (Mil. 43), was Milo coming (i.e. was it likely
that he would come), etc. ?
si licitum esset veniebant (Verr. v. 129), they were coming if it had been allowed
(they were on the point of coming, and would have done so if, etc.).
Note. — To this head may be referred the imperfect with iam, denoting the begin-
ning of an action or state: as, — iamque arva tenebant ultima (Aen. vi. 477), ajid now
they were just getting to the farthest fields.
d. The Imperfect is sometimes used to express a surprise at the
present discovery of a fact already existing : —
o tti quoque aderas (Ter. Ph. 858), oA, you are here too !
ehem, tun hic eras, mi Phaedria (Ter. Eun. 86), what! you here, PhcBdriaf
a miser! quanta laborabas Charybdi (Hor. Od. i. 27. 19), unhappy hoy, what
a whirlpool you are struggling in [and I never knew it] !
e. The Imperfect is often used in dialogue by the comic poets
where later writers would employ the Perfect : —
ad amicum Calliclem quoi rem aibat mandasse hic suam (PI. Trin. 956), to
his friend Callicles, to whom, he said, he had intrusted his property.
praesagibat mi animus frustra me ire quom exibam domo (PL Aul. 178), 77iy
mind mistrusted when I went from home that I went in vain.
Note. — So, in conversation the imperfect of verbs of saying (cf . as I was a-saying)
is common in classic prose : —
at medic! quoque, ita enim dicebas, saepe falluntur (N. D. iii. 15), hut physicians
also, — for that is what you were saying just now, — are often mistaken.
haec mihi fere in mentem veniebant (id. ii. 67, 168), this is about what occurred
to me, etc. [In a straightforward narration this would be venerunt.]
/. The Imperfect with negative words often has the force of the
English auxiliary could or would : —
itaque (Damocles) nee pulchros illos ministratores aspiciebat (Tusc. v. 62),
therefore he could not look upon those beautiful slaves. [In this case did
not would not express the idea of continued p)revention of enjoyment by
the overhanging svv^ord.]
nee enim dum eram vobiscum animum meum videbatis (Cat. M. 79), for, you
know, while I was with you, you could not see my soul. [Here the Per-
fect would refer only to one moment]
Lentulus satis erat fortis orator, sed cogitandi non ferebat laborem (Brut. 268),
Lentulus loas bold enough as an orator, but could not endure the exertion
of thinking hard.
For the Epistolary Imperfect, see § 479 ; for the Imperfect Indicative in apodosis
contrary to fact, see § 517. h, c.
298 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 472, 473
FUTURE TENSE
472. The Future denotes an action or state that will occur
hereafter.
a. The Tiiture may have the force of an Imperative (§ 449. h).
b. The Future is often required in a subordinate clause in Latin
where in English futurity is sufficiently expressed by the main clause :
cum aderit videbit, when he is there he will see (cf. § 547).
sanabimur si volemus (Tusc. iii. 13), we shall be healed if we wish (cf. § 516. a).
Note. — But the Present is common in future protases (§516. a n ).
Completed Action
PERFECT tense
Perfect Definite and Historical Perfect
473. The Perfect denotes an action either as 7iow completed
{Perfect Definite), or as having taken place at some undefined point
of past time [Historical or Aoristic Perfect).
The Perfect Definite corresponds in general to the English Perfect
with have; the Historical Perfect to the English Preterite (or Past) :
(1) ut ego feci, qui Graecas litteriis senex didici (Cat. M. 26), as I have done,
who have learned Greek in my old age.
diuturni silenti finem hodiernus dies attulit (Marc. 1), this day has put an
end to my long-continued silence.
(2) tantum bellum extrema hieme apparavit, ineunte vere suscepit, media
aestate confecit (Manil. 35), so great a war he made ready for at the end
of winter, undertook in early spring, and finished by midsummer.
Note. — The distinction between these two uses is represented by two forms in
most other Indo-European languages, but was almost if not wholly lost to the minds
of the Romans. It must be noticed, however, on account of the marked distinction
in English and also because of certain differences in the sequence of tenses.
a. The Indefinite Present, denoting a customary action or a general
truth (§ 465), often has the Perfect in a subordinate clause referring
to time antecedent to that of the main clause : —
qui in compedibus corporis semper fuerunt, etiam cum soliiti sunt tardius
ingrediuntur (Tusc. i. 75), they who have always been in the fetters of the
body, even when released move more slowly.
simul ac mihi coUibitum est, praesto est imago (N. D. i. 108), as soon as I
have taken a fancy, the image is before my eyes.
§§473-476] PERFECT TENSE 299
haec morte effugiuntur, etiam si non evenerunt, tamen quia possunt evenire
(Tusc. i. 86), these things are escaped by death even if they have not [yet]
happened, because they still may happen.
Note. — This use of the perfect is especially common in the protasis of General
Conditions in i)resent time (§ 518. 6).
474. The Perfect is sometimes used emphatically to denote that
a thing or condition of things that once existed no longer exists :
fuit ista quondam in hac re piibllca virtiis (Cat. i. 3), there was once such vir-
tue in this commonwealth.
habuit, non habet (Tusc. i. 87), he had, he has no longer.
filium habeo . . . immo hatmi ; nunc liabeam necne incertumst (Ter. Haut.
93), I have a son, no, I had one; whether I have now or not is uncertain.
fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium (Aen. ii. 325), we have ceased to be Trojans, Troy is
no more.
Special Uses of the Perfect
475. The Perfect is sometimes used of a general truth, espe-
cially with negatives ( Gnomic Perfect) : —
qui studet contingere metam multa tulit fecitque (Hor. A. P. 412), he who
aims to reach the goal, first bears and does many things.
non aeris acervus et auri deduxit corpore febris (id. Ep. i. 2. 47), the pile of
brass and gold removes not fever from the frarne.
Note. — The gnomic perfect strictly refers to past time ; hut its use implies that
something which never did happen in any known case never does happen, and never
will (cf. the English "Faint heart never v^ on fair lady") ; or, without a negativ^e,
that what has once happened will always happen under similar circumstances.
a. The Perfect is often used in expressions containing or implying
a negation, where in affirmation the Imperfect would be preferred : —
dicebat melius quam scripsit Hortensius (Or. 132), Hortensius spoke better
than he wrote. [Here the negative is implied in the comparison : com-
pare the use of quisquam, ullus, etc. (§§ 311, 312), and the French ne
after comparatives and superlatives. ]
476. The completed tenses of some verbs are equivalent to the
incomplete tenses of verbs of kindred meaning.
Such are the preteritive verbs odi, I hate; memini, I remember; novi,
I know ; consuevi, I am accustomed,^ with others used preteritively,
as venerat (= aderat, he teas at hand, etc.), constiterunt, they stand firm
(have taken their stand), and many inceptives (see § 263. 1) : —
1 Cf. detestor, reminiscor, scio, soleo.
300 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§476-478
qui diesaestus maximos efficere consuevit (B. G. iv. 29), which day generally
makes the highest tides (is accustomed to make),
cuius splendor obsoievit (Quinct. 69), whose splendor is now all faded.
Note. — Many other verbs are occasionally so used : as, — dum oculos certamen
averterat (Liv. xxxii. 24), while the contest had turned their eyes (kept them turned).
[Here averterat = tenebat.]
PLUPERFECT TENSE
477. The Pluperfect is used (1) to denote an action or state
completed in past time ; or (2) sometimes to denote an action in
indefinite time, but prior to some past time referred to : —
(1) loci natura erat haec, quern locum nostri castrls delegerant (B. G. ii. 18),
this was the nature of the ground which our men had chosen for a camp.
Viridovix summam imperi tenebat eiirum omnium civitatum quae defece-
rant (id. iii. 17), Viridovix held the chief command of all those tribes which
had revolted.
(2) neque vero cum aliquid mandaverat confectum putabat (Cat. iii. 16), hut
when he had given a thing in charge he did not look on it as done.
quae si quando adepta est id quod ei fuerat concupitum, tum fert alacritatem
(Tusc. iv. 15), if it (desire) ever has gained what it had [previously]
desired, then it produces joy.
For the Epistolary Pluperfect, see § 479.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
478. The Future Perfect denotes an action as completed in the
future : —
ut sementem feceris, ita metes (De Or. ii. 261), as you sow (shall have sown),
so shall you reap.
carmina turn melius, cum venerit ipse, canemus (Eel. ix. 67), then shall we
sing our songs better, when he himself has come (shall have come),
si illius iusidiae clariores hilc luce fuerint, tum denique obsecrabo (Mil. 6),
wJien the plots of that man have been shown to be as clear as daylight,
then, and not till then, shall I conjure you.
ego certe meum officium praestitero (B. G. iv. 25), I at least shall have done
my duty (i.e. when the time comes to reckon up the matter, I shall be
found to have done it, whatever the event).
Note. — Latin is far more exact than English in distinguishing between mere
future action and action completed in the future. Hence the Future Perfect is much
commoner in Latin than in English. It may even be used instead of the Future, from
the fondness of the Romans for representing an action as completed : —
quid inventum sit paulo post videro (Acad. ii. 70), wJiat has been found out I shall
see presently.
qui Antonium oppresserit bellum taeterrimum confecerit (Fam. x. 19), whoever
crushes (shall have crushed) Antony will finish (will have finished) a most
loathsome war.
§§ 479-481] TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE 301
EPISTOLARY TENSES
479. In Letters, the Perfect Historical or the Imperfect may
be used for the present, and tlie Pluperfect for any past tense, as
if the letter were dated at the time it is supposed to be received: —
neque tamen, haec cum scribebam, eram nescius quantis oneribus premerere
(Earn. V. 12. 2), nor while I write this am I ignorant under what burdens
you are loeighed down.
ad tuas omnis [epistulas] rescripseram pridie (Att. ix. 10. 1), I answered all
your letters yesterday.
cum quod scrlberem ad te nihil haberem, tamen has dedi litteras (Att. ix. 16),
though I have nothing to write to you., still I write this letter.
Note. — In this use these tenses are called the Epistolary Perfect, Imperfect, and
Pluperfect. The epistolary tenses are not employed with any uniformity, but only
when attention is particularly directed to the time of writing (so especially scribebam,
dabam, etc.).
TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE
480. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Independent Clauses de-
note time in relation to the time of the speaker.
The Present always refers to future (or indefinite) time^ the Im-
perfect to either past or present., the Perfect to either future or
past., the Pluperfect always to past.
481. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses were
habitually used in certain fixed connections with the tenses of the
main verb.
These connections were determined by the time of the main
verb and the time of the dependent verb together. They are
known, collectively, as the Sequence of Tenses.
Note. — The so-called Sequence of Tenses is not a mechanical law. Each tense
of the subjunctive in dependent clauses (as in independent) originally denoted its
own time in relation to the time of the speaker, though less definitely than the corre-
sponding tenses of the indicative. Gradually, however, as the complex sentence was
more strongly felt as a unit, certain types in which the tenses of the dependent
clause seemed to accord with those of the main clause were almost unconsciously
regarded as regular, and others, in which there was no such agreement, as excep-
tional. Thus a pretty definite system of correspondences grew up, which is codi-
fied in the rules for the Sequence of Tenses. Tliese, however, are by no means
rigid. They do not apply with equal stringency to all dependent constructions, and
they were frequently disregarded, not only when their strict observance would have
obscured the sense, but for the sake of emphasis and variety, or merely from care-
302 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 482, 483
Sequence of Tenses
482. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses fol-
low special rules for the Sequence of Tenses.
With reference to these rules all tenses when used in independ-
ent clauses are divided into two classes, — Primary -dud Secondary.
1. Primary. — The Primary Tenses include all forms that express
present or future time. These are the Present, Future, and Future
Perfect Indicative, the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, and the
Present and Future Imperative.
2. Secondary. — The Secondary Tenses include all forms that re-
fer to past time. These are the Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect
Indicative, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, and the His-
torical Infinitive.
Note. — To these may be added certain forms less commonly used in independent
clauses : — (1) Primary : Present Infinitive in Exclamations ; (2) Secondary : Perfect
Infinitive in Exclamations (see §§462, 485. a. N.).
The Perfect Definite is sometimes treated as primary (see §485. a).
For the Historical Present, see § 485. e ; for the Imperfect Subjunctive in Apodosis,
see § 485. h.
483. The following is the general rule for the Sequence of
Tenses: — ^
In complex sentences a Primary tense in the main clause is
followed by the Present or Perfect in the dependent clause, and
a Secondary tense by the Imperfect or Pluperfect : —
Primary Tenses
rogo, I ask^ am asking '\ quid facias, what you are doing, i' -^ -
rogabo, I shall ask I quid feceris, what you did, ivere doing, i^\
rogavi (sometimes), I have asked \ have done, have been doing.
quid facturus sis, what you will do. ''-'■ ^ ' )-
ut nos moneat, to warn us.
ut nos moneas, to warn us.
quasi oblitus sit, as if he had forgotten.
I
1 The term is sometimes extended to certain relations between the tenses of sub-
ordinate verbs in the indicative and those of the main verb. These relations do not
differ in principle from those which we are considering; but for convenience the term
Sequence of Tenses is in this book restricted to subjunctives, in accordance with the
usual practice.
rogavero,
I shall have asked
scribit,
he writes
scribet.
he will write
scribe (scribito),
write
BCribit,
he writes
§§483^85] SEQUENCE OF TENSES 303
Secondary Tenses
rogabam, I asked, loas asking ^ quid faceres, what you were doing.
. . T 7 ^ I, 7 J cruid fecisses, what you had done, had
rogavi, I asked, have asked } , -, . '
been doing.
rogaveram, I had asked J quid facturus esses, what you would do.
scripsit, he wrote ut nos moneret, to warn us.
scripsit, he wrote quasi oblitus esset, as if he had forgotten.
484. In applying the rule for the Sequence of Tenses, observe —
(1) Whether the main verb is (a) primary or (b) secondary.
(2) Whether the dependent verb is to denote completed action (i.e.
past with reference to the main verb) or incomplete action (i.e. pres-
ent or future with reference to the main verb). Then —
a. If the leading verb is primary, the dependent verb must be in
the Present if it denotes incomplete action, in the Perfect if it denotes
completed action.
b. If the leading verb is secondary, the dependent verb must be in
the Imperfect if it denotes incomplete action, in the Pluperfect if it
denotes completed action : — •
(1) He writes [primary] to warn [incomplete action] us, scribit ut nos moneat.
I ask [primary] what you were doing [now past], rogo quid feceris.
(2) He wrote [secondary] to warn [incomplete] us, scripsit ut nos moneret.
r asked [secondary] what you were doing [incomplete], rogavi quid faceres.
c. Kotice that the Future Perfect denotes action completed (at
the time referred to), and hence is represented in the Subjunctive by
the Perfect or Pluperfect : —
He shows that if they come (shall have come), many will perish, demonstrat, si
veDerint, nmltos interituros.
He showed that if they should come (should have come), maw/ would perish,
demonstravit, si venissent, multos interituros.
485. In the Sequence of Tenses the following special points
are to be noted : —
a. The Perfect Indicative is ordinarily a secondary tense, but
allows the primary sequence when the present time is clearly in the
writer's mind : —
ut satis esset praesid! provisum est (Cat. ii. 26), provision has been made that
there should be ample guard. [Secondary sequence.]
adduxi hominem in quo satisfacere exteris nationibus possetis (Verr. i. 2), I
have brought a man in whose person you can make satisfaction to foreign
nations. [Secondary sequence.]
304 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§485
est enim res iam in eum locum adducta, ut quamquam multum intersit inter
eorum causas qui dimicant, tamen inter victorias non multum interfu-
turum putem (Fam. v. 21. 3), for affairs have been brought to such a pass
that, though there is a great difference between the causes of those who are
fighting, still I do not think there will be much difference between their vic-
tories. [Primary sequence.]
ea adhibita doctrina est quae vel vitiosissimam nattiram excolere possit (Q. Fr.
i. 1. 7), such instruction has been given a^ can train even the faultiest
nature. [Primary sequence.]
Note. — The Perfect Infinitive in exclamations follows the same rule : ~
quemquamne fuisse tarn sceleratum qui hoc fingeret (Phil. xiv. 14), was any one so
abandoned as to imagine this? [Secondary.]
adeon rem redisse patrem ut extimescam (Ter. Ph. 153) , to think that things have
come to such a pass that I should dread my father! [Primary.]
b. After a primary tense the Perfect Subjunctive is regularly used to
denote any past action. Thus the Perfect Subjunctive may represent —
1. A Perfect Definite: —
non dubito quin omnes tui scripserint (Fam. v. 8), 7 do not doubt that all
your friends have written. [Direct statement : scripserunt. ]
qua re non ignoro quid accidat in ultimis terrls, cum audierim in Italia que-
rellas civium (Q. Fr. i. 1. 33), therefore I know well what happens at the
ends of the eaiih, when I have heard in Italy the complaiixts of citizens.
[Direct statement : audivi. ]
2. A Perfect Historical : —
me autem hic laudat quod rettulerim, non quod patefecerim (Att. xii. 21), me
he praises because I brought the matter [before the senate], not because I
brought it to light. [Direct statement : rettulit.]
3. An Imperfect : —
si forte ceciderunt, tum intellegitur quam fuerint inopes amicorum (Lael. 53),
if perchance they fall (have fallen), then one can see how poor they were
in friends. [Direct question : quam inopes erant ?]
qui status rerum fuerit cum has litteras dedi, scire poteris ex C. Titio Stra-
bone (Fam. xii. 6), what the condition of affairs was when I ivrote this
letter, you can learn from Strabo. [Direct question: qui status erat?]
quam civitati carus fuerit maerore funeris indicatum est (Lael. 11), hoio dear
he was to the state has been shoivn by the grief at his funeral. [Direct
question : quam carus erat ?]
ex epistulis intellegi licet quam frequens fuerit Platonis auditor (Or. 15), it
may be understood from his letters how constant a hearer he was of Plato.
[Direct question : quam frequens erat ?]
Note. — Thus the Perfect Subjunctive may represent, not only a Perfect Definite
or a Perfect Historical of a direct statement or question, hut an Imperfect as well.
This comes from the want of any special tense of the subjunctive for continued past
action after a primary tense. Thus, miror quid fecerit may mean (1) I wonder what he
has donCf (2) Iioonder vjhat he did (hist, perf.), or (3) I wonder what he was doing.
§485] SEQUENCE OF TENSES 305
c. In clauses of Eesiilt, the Perfect Subjunctive is regularly (the
Present rarely) used after secondary tenses : —
Hortensius ardebat dicendi cupiditate sic ut in nuUo umquam flagrantius
stiidium viderim (Brut. 302), Hortensius was so hot with desire of speak-
ing that I have never seen a more burning ardor in any man.
[Siciliam Verres] per triennium ita vexavit ac perdidit ut ea restitui in anti-
quum statuni ntillo modo possit (Verr. i. 12),'/o** three years Verres so
racked and ruined Sicily that she can in no way be restored to her former
state. [Here the Present describes a state of things actually existing.]
videor esse cdnsecutus ut n5n possit Dolabella in Italiam pervenire (Fam.
xii. 14. 2), I seem to have brought it about that Dolabella cannot come into
Italy.
Note 1. — This construction emphasizes the result ; the regular sequence of tenses
would subordinate it.
Note 2. — There is a special fondness for the Perfect Subjunctive to represent a
Perfect Indicative : —
Thorius erat ita non superstitiosus ut ilia pliirima in sua patria et sacrificia et
fana contemneret ; ita non timidus ad mortem ut in acie sit ob rem publicam
interfectus (Fin. ii. 63), Thorius loas so little superstitious that he despised
[contemnebat] the many sacrifices and shrines in his country ; so little timor-
ous about death that he was killed [interfectus est] ^?^ battle, in defence of
the state.
d. A general truth after a past tense follows the sequence of tenses :
ex his quae tribuisset, sibi quam mtitabilis asset reputabat (Q. C. iii. 8. 20),
from what she (Fortune) had bestowed on him, he reflected how inconstant
she is. [Direct : mutabilis est. ]
ibi quantam vim ad stimulandos animos Ira haberet apparuit (Li v. xxxiii. 37),
here it appeared what power anger has to goad the mind. [Direct : habet. ]
Note. — In English the original tense is more commonly kept.
e. The Historical Present (§ 469) is sometimes felt as a primary,
sometimes as a secondary tense, and accordingly it takes either the
primary or the secondary sequence : —
rogat ut curet quod dixisset (Quinct. 18), he asks him to attend to the thing he
had spoken of. [Both primary and secondary sequence. ]
Note. — After the historical present, the subjunctive with cum temporal must
follow the secondary sequence : —
quo cum venisset cogn5scit (B. C. i. 34), when he had come there he learns.
cum esset pugnatum horis quinque, nostrique gravius premerentur, impetum in
cohortis faciunt (id. i. 46), tohen they had fought for five hours, and our
me7i were pretty hard pressed, they make an attack on the cohorts.
/. The Historical Infinitive regularly takes the secondary se-
quence : —
interim cotidie Caesar Haeduos frtimentum, quod assent polliciti, flagitare
(B. G. i. 16), meanwhile Coesar demanded of the Hoedui every day the grain
which they had promised.
306 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§485
g. The Imperfect and Pluperfect in conditions contrary to fact
(§ 517) and in the Deliberative Subjunctive (§ 444) are not affected
by the sequence of tenses : —
quia tale sit, ut vel si ignorarent id homines vel si obmutuissent (Fin. ii. 49),
because it is such that even if men were ignorant of it, or had been
silent about it.
quaero a te cur C. Cornelium non defenderem (Vat. 5), I ask you why I was
not to defend Caius Cornelius? [Direct: cur non defenderem?]
h. The Imperfect Subjunctive in present conditions contrary to
fact (§517) is regularly followed by the secondary sequence : —
si alii consules assent, ad te potissimum, Paule, mitterem, ut eos mihi quam
amicissimos redderes (Fam. xv, 13. 3), if there were other consuls, I should
send to you, Paulus, in preference to all, that you might make them as
friendly to me as possible.
si solos eos diceres miseros quibus moriendum esset, neminem exciperes
(Tusc. i. 9), if you were to call only those wretched who must die, you
would except no one.
i. The Present is sometimes followed by a secondary sequence,
seemingly because the writer is thinking of past time : —
sed si res coget, est quiddam tertium, quod neque Selicio nee mihi displice-
bat: ut neque iacere rem pateremur, etc. (Fam. i. 5 a. 3), but if the case
shall demand, there is a third [course] which neither Selicius nor myself
disapproved, that we should not allow, etc. [Here Cicero is led by the
time of displicebat.]
sed tamen ut scires, haec tibi scribo (Fam. xiii. 47), but yet that you may know, I
ivrite thus. [As if he had used the epistolary imperfect scribebam (§ 479).]
cuius praecepti tanta vis est ut ea non homini cuipiam sed Delphico deo
tribueretur (Legg. i. 58), such is the force of this precept, that it was
ascribed not to any man, but to the Delphic god. [The precept was an
old one.]
J, When a clause depends upon one already dependent, its se-
quence may be secondary if the verb of that clause expresses past
time, even if the main verb is in a primary tense : —
sed tamen qua re accident ut ex meis superioribus litteris id suspicarere nescio
(Fam. ii. 16), but yet how it happened that you suspected this from my
previous letter, I donH know.
tantum profecisse videmur ut a Graecis n6 verborum quidem c6pia vincere-
mur (N. D. i. 8), we seem to have advanced so far that even in abundance
of words we are not surpassed by the Greeks.
Note. — So regularly after a Perfect Infinitive which depends on a primary ten^e
(§585, a).
486] TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE 30?
TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE
486. Except in Indirect Discourse, only tiie Present and Per-
fect Infinitives are used.
The Present represents the action of the verb as in progress with-
out distinct reference to time, the Perfect as completed.
For the Tenses of the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse see § 584.
a. With past tenses of verbs of 7iecessity, propriety, and possibility
(as debui, oportuit, potui), the Present Infinitive is often used in
Latin where the English idiom prefers the Perfect Infinitive : —
numne, si Coriolanus habuit amicos, ferre contra patriam arrna illi cum
Coriolano debuerunt (Lael. 36), if Coriolanus had friends, ought they to
have borne arms with him against their fatherland f
pecunia, quam his oportuit civitatibus pro frumento dari (Verr. ill. 174),
money which ought to have been paid to these states for grain,
consul esse qui potui, nisi eum vltae cursum tenuissem a pueritia (Rep. i. 10),
how could I have become consul had I not from boyhood followed that
course of life f
6. With verbs of necessity, propriety, and possibility, the Perfect
Infinitive may be used to emphasize the idea of completed action : —
tametsi statim vicisse debeo (Rose. Am. 73), although I ought to win my case
at once (to be regarded as having won it),
bellum quod possumus ante hiemem perfecisse (Li v. xxxvii. 19. 5), a war
which we can have completed before winter.
nil ego, si peccem, possum nescisse (Ov. H. xvi. 47), if I should go wrong,
I cannot have done it in ignorance (am not able not to have known).
Note. — With the past tenses of these verbs the perfect infinitive is apparently-
due to attraction : —
quod iam pridem factum esse oportuit (Cat. i. 5), (a thing) which ought to have
been done long ago.
haec facta ah illo oportebat (Ter. Haut. 536), this ought to have been done by him.
turn decuit metuisse (Aen. x. 94), then was the time to fear (then you should have
feared) .
c. In archaic Latin and in legal formulas the Perfect Active Infini-
tive is often used with nolo or volo in prohibitions : —
Chaldaeum nequem consuluisse velit (Cato R. R. v. 4), let him not venture to
have consulted a soothsayer.
nolito devellisse (PI. Poen. 872), do not have them plucked.
nequis humasse velit Aiacem (Hor. S. ii. 3. 187), let no one venture to have
buried Ajax.
NEiQvis EORVM BACANAL HABViSE VELET (S. C. de Bac. 1), let no One of them
venture to have had a place for Bacchanalian worship.
308 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§486
d. With verbs of tvishing^ the Perfect Passive Infinitive (com-
monly without esse) is often used emphatically instead of the Present:
doraestica cura te levatum volo (Q. Fr. iii. 9. 3), I wish you relieved of private
care.
illos monitos volo (Cat. ii. 27), I wish them thoroughly warned.
qui illam [patriam] exstinctam cupit (Fin. iv. 6G), who is eager for h&t utter
destruction.
illud te esse admonitum volo (Gael, 8), I wish you to be well advised of this.
qui se at) omnibus desertos potius quam abs te defenses esse malunt (Caeoil.
21), who prefer to be deserted by all rather than to be defended by you.
Note. — The participle in this case is rather in predicate agreement (with or with-
out esse) than used to form a strict perfect infinitive, though the full form can hardly
be distinguished from that construction.
e. In late Latin, and in poetry (often for metrical convenience),
rarely in good prose, the Perfect Active Infinitive is used emphatically
instead of the Present, and even after other verbs than those of wish-
ing : —
nSm5 eorum est qui nSn perlsse te cupiat (Verr. ii. 149), there is no one of
them who is not eager for your death.
baud equidem premendo alium me extuliase velim (Liv. xxii. 59. 10), 1
would not by crushing another exalt myself.
sunt qui nolint tetigisse (Hor. S. i. 2. 28), there are those who would not touch.
commisisse cavet (Hor. A. P. 168), he is canitious of doing.
nunc quem tetigisse timerent, anguis eras (Ov. M. viii. 738), again you be-
came a serpent which they dreaded to touch.
fratresque tendentes opaco Pelion imposuisse Olympo (Hor. Od. iii. 4. 51),
and the brother's striving to set Pelion on dark Olympus.
/. After verbs of feeling the Perfect Infinitive is used, especially
by the poets, to denote a completed action.
So also with satis est, satis habeo^ melius est, contentus sum, and in
a few other cases where the distinction of time is important : —
non paenitebat intercapedinem scribendi fecisse (Fam. xvi. 21), I was not
sorry to have made a respite of writing.
pudet me non praestitisse (id. xiv. 8), I am ashamed not to Aove shown.
sunt quos pulverem Olympicum coUegisse iuvat (Hor. Od. i. 1, 3), some
delight to have stirred up the dust at Olympia.
quiesse erit melius (Liv. iii. 48), it will be better to have kept quiet.
ac si quis amet scripsisse (Hor. S. i. 10. 60), than if one should choose to have
written.
id solum dixisse satis habeo (Veil. ii. 124), I am content to have said only
this.
1 Volo, and less frequently nolo, malo, and cuitio.
§§ 487-490]
PARTICIPLES
309
I. Participles:
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FOEMS OF THE VERB
487. The several Noun and Adjective forms associated with the verb are employed
as follows:—!
f 1. Attributive (§494).
2. Simple Predicate (§495).
3. Periphrastic Perfect (passive) (§495. n.).
4. Predicate of Circumstance (§ 49(5).
5. Descriptive (Indirect Discourse) (§497d).
1, Periphrastic with esse (§498. a).
2. Periphrastic with fui (= Pluperfect Subjunc-
tive) (§498. b).
1. As Descriptive Adjective (§500. 1).
2. Periphrastic with esse (§500. 2).
3. Of Purpose with certain verbs (§ 500. 4).
1. Genitive as Subjective or Objective Genitive (§504).
2. Dative, with Adjectives (of Fitness), Nouns, Verbs (§505).
3. Accusative, with certain Prepositions (§ 506).
4. Ablative, of Means, Comparison, or with Prepositions (§ 507).
1. Accusative Supine (in -um), with Verbs of Motion (§509).
2. Ablative Supine (in -u), chiefly with Adjectives (§510).
II.
Gerund or
Gerundive :
Present and
Perfect :
b. Future
c. Gerundive
III. Supine:
PARTICIPLES
488. The Participle expresses the action of the verb in the form
of an Adjective, but has a partial distinction of tense and may
govern a case.
Note. — Thus the participle combines all the functions of an adjective with some
of the functions of a verb. As an Adjective, it limits substantives and agrees with
them in gender, number, and case (§286). As a Verb, it has distinctions of time
(§ 489) and often takes an object.
Distinctions of Tense in Participles
489. Participles denote time as present, past, or future with
respect to the time of the verb in their clause.
Thus the Present Participle represents the action as in progress at
the time indicated by the tense of the verb, the Perfect as completed,
and the Future as still to take place.
490. The Present Participle has several of the special uses of
the Present Indicative. Thus it may denote —
1. An action continued in the present but begun in the past (§ 466) :
quaerenti mihi iam diu certa res nulla veniebat in mentem (Fam. iv. 13),
though I had long sought, no certain thing came to my mind.
1 For the Syntax of the Infinitive, see §§ 451 ff., 486.
310 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§490-493
2. Attempted action (§ 467) : —
C. Flaminio restitit agrum Picentera dividenti (Cat. M, 11), he resisted Fla-
minius when attempiing to divide the Picene territory.
3. Barely (in poetry and later Latin) futurity or purpose, with a
verb of motion : —
Eurypylum scitantem oracula mittimus (Aen. ii. 11-1), we send Eurypylus to
consult the oracle. [Cf. § 468.]
491. The Perfect Participle of a few deponent verbs is used
nearly in the sense of a Present.
Such are, regularly, ratus, solitus, veritus ; commonly, arbitratus,
fisus, ausus, secutus, and occasionally others, especially in later
writers : —
rem incredibilem rati (Sail. Cat. 48), thinking the thing incredible.
insidias veritus (B. G. ii. 11), fearing an ambuscade.
cohortatus mllites docuit (B. C. iii. 80), encouraging the men, he showed.
iratus dlxisti (Mur, 62), you spoke in a passion.
ad piignam congressi (Li v. iv. 10), meeting in fight.
492. The Latin has no Present Participle in the passive.
The place of such a form is supplied usually by a clause with dum
or cum : —
obiere dum calciantur raatiitino duo Caesares (Plin. N. H. vii. 181), two
Caesars died while having their shoes put on in the morning.
meque ista delectant cum Latlne dicuntur (Acad. i. 18), those things please
me when they are spoken in Latin.
Note. — These constructions are often used when a participle might be employed : —
die, hospes, Spartae nos te hie vidisse iacentis, dum Sanctis patriae legibus obse-
quimur (Tusc. i. 101), tell it, stranger, at Sparta, that you .saw v^ lying here
obedient to our country's sacred laios. [Here dum obsequimur is a transla-
tion of the Greek present participle ireLdb^xevoi.']
dum [Ulixes] sibi, dum sociis reditum parat (Hor. Ep. i. 2. 21), Ulysses, white
securing the return of himself and his companions. [In Greek : dpt^/jLevos.]
493. The Latin has no Perfect Participle in the active voice.
The deficiency is supplied —
1. In deponents by the perfect passive form with its regular active
meaning : —
nam singulas [navis] nostri consectati expugnaverunt (B. G. iii. 15), /or our
men, having overtaken them one by one, captured them by boarding.
Note. — The perfect participle of several deponent verbs may be either active or
passive in meaning (§ 190. b).
§§493-495] USES OF PARTICIPLES 311
2. In other verbs, either by the perfect passive participle in the
ablative absolute (§ 420. n.) or by a temporal clause (especially with
cum or postquam) : —
itaque convocatis centurionibus milites certiores facit (B. G. iii. 5), and so,
having called the centurions together, he informs the soldiers (the centu-
rions having been called together).
cum venisset animadvertit collem (id. vii. 44), having come (when he had
come), he noticed a hill.
postquam id animum advertit copias suas Caesar in proximum collem subducit
(B, G. i. 24), having observed this (after he had observed this) CcBsar
led his troops to the nearest hill.
Uses of Participles
494. The Present and Perfect Participles are sometimes used
as attributives, nearly like adjectives : —
aeger et flagrans animus (Tac. Ann. iii. 54), his sick and passionate mind.
cum antlquissimam sententiam tum comprobatam (Div. i. 11), a view at once
most ancient and well approved.
signa numquam fere mentientia (id. i. 15), signs hardly ever deceitful.
auspiciis utuntur coactis (id. i. 27), they use forced auspices.
a. Participles often become complete adjectives, and may be com-
pared, or used as nouns : —
quo mulieri esset res cautior (Caec. 11), that the matter might he more secure
for the woman.
in illls artibus praestantissimus (De Or. i. 217), preeminent in those arts.
sibi indulgentes et corpori deservientes {J^^gg,- i. 89), the self-indulgent, and
slaves to the body (indulging themselves and serving the body),
recte facta paria essedebent (Par. 22), right deeds (things rightly done) ought
to be like in value (see § 321. b).
male parta male dllabuntur (Phil. ii. 65), ill got, ill spent (things ill acquired
are ill spent),
consuetudo valentis (De Or. ii. 18G), the habit of a man in health.
495. Participles are often used as Predicate Adjectives. As
such they may be joined to the subject by esse or a copulative verb
(see § 283) : —
Gallia est divisa (B. G. i. 1), Gaul is divided.
locus qui nunc saeptus est (Li v. i. 8), the place which is now enclosed.
videtis ut senectfis sit operosa et semper agens aliquid et moliens (Cat. M. 26),
you see how busy old age is, always aiming and trying at something.
nemo adhuc convenire me voluit cui fuerim occupatus (id. 32), nobody
hitherto has [ever] wished to converse with me, to whom I have been
312 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 495, 496
NoTK. — From this predicate use arise the compound tenses of the passive, — the
participle of comjjleted action with the incomplete tenses of esse developing the idea
of past time : as, interfectus est, he was (or has been) killed, lit. he is having-heen-killed
(i.e. already slain).
The perfect participle used with fui etc. was perhaps originally an intensified expres-
sion in the popular language for the perfect, pluperfect, etc.
At times these forms indicate a state of affairs no longer existing: —
cotem quoque eodem loco sitam fuisse memorant (Liv. i. 3G. 5), they say that a
whetstone was (once) deposited in this same place. [At the time of writing
it was no longer there.]
arma quae fixa in parietibns fuerant, humi inventa sunt (Div. 1. 74), the arms
which had been fastened on the walls were found upon the ground.
But more frequently they are not to be distinguished from the forms vv^ith sum etc.
The construction is found occasionally at all periods, but is most common in Livy
and later writers.
496. The Present and Perfect Participles are often used as a
predicate, where in English a phrase or a subordinate clause would
be more natural.
In this use the participles express time, cause, occasion, condition,
concession, characteristic (or descriptiori), manner, means, attendant
circumstances : —
volventes hostllia cadavera amicum reperiebant (Sail. Cat. 61), while rolling
over the corpses of the enemy they found a friend. [Time.]
paululum commoratus, signa canere iubet (id. 59), after delaying a little whiles
he orders them to give the signal. [Time.]
longius prosequi veritus, ad Ciceronem pervenit (B. G. v. 52), because he
feared to follow further, he came to Cicero. [Cause.]
qui sclret laxas dare iussus habenas (Aen. i. 63), who might know hoiv to
give them loose rein when bidden. [Occasion.]
damnatum poenam sequi oportebat (B. G. i. 4), if condemned, punishment
must overtake him. [Condition.]
saluteui insperantibus reddidisti (Marc. 21), you have restored a safety for
which we did not hope (to [us] not hoping). [Concession.]
Dardanius caput ecce puer delectus (Aen. x. 133), the Trojan boy ivith his
head uncovered. [Description.]
nee trepides in iisum poscentis aevi panca (Hor. Od. ii. 11. 5), be not anxious
for the needs of age that demands little. [Characteristic]
incitati fuga niontis altissimos petebant (B. C. iii. 93), in headlong flight they
made for the highest mountains. [Manner.]
mllites sublevati alii ab alils magnam partem itineris conficerent (id. i. 68),
the soldiers, helped up by each other, accomplished a considerable part of
the route. [Means.]
hoc laudans, Pompeins idem iuravit (id. iii. 87), approving this, Pompey took
the same oath. [Attendant Circumstance.]
aut sedens aut ambulans disputabam (Tusc. i. 7), J conducted the discussion
either sitting or walking. [Attendant Circumstance.]
§§ 496, 497] USES OF PARTICIPLES 313
NoTtt 1. — These uses are especially frequent in the Ablative Absolute (§ 420).
Note 2. — A coordinate clause is sometimes compressed into a perfect participle : —
instructos ordines in locum aequum deducit (Sail. Cat. 59), he draws up the lines,
and leads them to level ground.
ut hos traductos necaret (B. G. v. 6), that he might carry them, over and put them
to death.
Note 3. — A participle with a negative often expresses the same Idea which in
English is given hj without and a verbal noun: as, — miserum est nihil prSflcientem
angi (N. D. iii. 14), it is wretched to vex oneself without effecting anything.
Note 4. — Acceptum and expensum as predicates with ferre and referre are book-
keeping terms: as, — quas pecunias ferebat eis expensas (Verr. ii. 170), what sums he
charged to them.
497. A noun and a passive participle are often so united that
the participle and not the noun contains the main idea : — ^
ante conditam condendamve urbem (Liv. Pref.), before the city was built or
building.
illi libertatem imminutam civium Romanorum non tulerunt ; vos ereptam
vitam neglegetis (Manil. 11), they did not endure the infringement of the
citizens' liberty ; will you disregard the destruction of their lives ?
post natos homines (Brut. 224), since the creation of man.
iam a condita urbe (Phil. ill. 9), even from the founding of the city.
a. The perfect participle with a noun in agreement, or in the
neuter as an abstract noun, is used in the ablative with opus, need
(cf. §411. a): —
opus facto est viatico (PL T.rin. 887), tJiere is need of laying in provision.
maturato opus est (Liv. viii. 13. 17), there is need of haste.
b. The perfect participle with habeo (rarely with other verbs) has
almost the same meaning as a perfect active, but denotes the contin-
ued effect of the action of the verb : — ^
Mem quam habent spectatam iam et diu cognitam (Caecil. 11), my fidelity,
which they have proved and long known.
cohortls in acie lxxx constitutas habebat (B. C. iii. 89), he had eighty cohorts
stationed in line of battle.
nefarios duces captos iam et comprehensos tenetis (Cat. iii. 16), you have now
captured the infamous leaders and hold them in custody.
c. A verb of effecting or the like may be used in combination with
the perfect participle of a transitive verb to express the action of that
verb more forcibly : —
1 Compare the participle in indirect discourse in Greek (Goodwin's Greek Grammar.
§ L588) ; and the English " 'T was at the royal feast /or Persia won " (Dryden), i.e. for
the conquest of Persia.
2 The perfect with have, in modern langunges of Latin stock, has grown out of this
use of habeo.
314 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§497-499
praefectos su5s multl missos fecerunt (Verr. iii. 134), many discharged their
officers (made dismissed).
hie transactum reddet omne (PL Capt. 345), he will get it aU done (restore it
finished).
ademptum tibi iam faxo omiiem metum (Ter. Haut. 341), I icill relieve you
of all fear (make it taken away),
illam tibi incensam dabo (Ter. Ph. 974), I will make her angry with you.
Note. — Similarly volo (with its compounds) and cupio with a perfect participle
without esse (cf. § 486. d).
d. After verbs denoting an action of the senses the present partici-
ple in agreement with the object is nearly equivalent to the infinitive
of indirect discourse (§ 580), but expresses the action more vividly :
ut eum nemo umquam in equ5 sedentem viderit (Verr. v. 27), so that no one
ever saw him sitting on a horse. [Cf. Tusc. iii. 31.]
Note. — The same construction is used after facio, induce, and the like, with the
name of an author as subject: as, — Xenophon facit Socratem disputantem (N..D. i.
31), Xenophon represents Socrates disputing.
Future Participle (Active)
498. The Future Participle (except futurus and venturus) is
rarely used in simple agreement with a noun, except by poets
and later writers.
a. The future participle is chiefly used with the forms of esse
(often omitted in the infinitive) in the Active Periphrastic Conjuga-
tion (see § 195) : —
morere, Diagora, ndn enim in caelum adscensurus es (Tusc. i. Ill), die,
Biagoras, for you are not likely to rise to heaven.
sperat adulescens diu se victurum (Cat. M. 68), the young man hopes to live
long (that he shall live long),
neque petiturus umquam consulatum videretur (Off. iii. 79),.a?id did not seem
likely ever to be a candidate for the consulship.
h. With the past tenses of esse in the indicative, the future parti-
ciple is often equivalent to the pluperfect subjunctive (§ 517. d).
For futurum fuisse, see § 589. b.
499. By later writers and the poets the Future Participle is
often used in simple agreement with a substantive to express —
1. Likelihood or certainty : —
rem ausus pliis famae habituram (Liv. ii. 10), having dared a thing which would
have more repute.
§§ 499, 500] GERUNDIVE 316
2. Purpose, intention, or readiness : —
ggreditur castrls Romanus vallum invasurus (Liv. iii. 60. 8), the Roman comes
out of the camp with the intention of attacking the rampart.
disperses per agros mllites equitibus invasurls (id. xxxi. 36), while the horse
were readij to attack the soldiers scattered through the fields.
si periturus abis (Aen. ii. 675), if you are going away to perish.
3. Apodosis : —
dedit mihi quantum maximum potuit, daturus amplius si potuisset (Plin. Ep.
iii. 21. 6), he gave me as much as he could, ready to give me more if he
had been able. [Here daturus is equivalent to dedisset.]
Gerundive (Future Passive Participle)
Note. — The participle in -dus, commonly called the Gerundive, has two distinct
uses : —
(1) Its predicate and attribute use as Participle or Adjective (§ 500).
(2) Its use with the meaning of the Gerund (§ 503). This may he called its gerun-
dive use.
500. The Gerundive when used as a Participle or an Adjective
is always passive, denoting necessity, obligation, or propriety.
In this use of the Gerundive the following points are to be
observed : —
1. The gerundive is sometimes used, like the present and perfect
participles, in simple agreement with a noun : —
f ortem et conservandum virum (Mil. 104) , a brave man, and worthy to be pre-
served.
gravis initiria facta est et non ferenda (Flacc. 84), a grave and intolerable
wrong has been done.
2. The most frequent ifee of the gerundive is with the forms of esse
in the Second (or passive) Periphrastic Conjugation (see § 196) : —
non agitanda res erit (Verr. v. 179), will not the thing have to be agitated?
3. The neuter gerundive of both transitive and intransitive verbs
may be used impersonally in the second periphrastic conjugation.
With verbs that take the dative or ablative, an object may be ex-
pressed in the appropriate case ; with transitive verbs, an object in
the accusative is sometimes found : —
tempori serviendum est (Fam. ix. 7. 2), one mu^t obey the time.
Iggibus parendum est, the laws must be obeyed.
utendum exercitati5nibus modicis (Cat. M. 36), ive must use moderate exercise.
agitandumst vigilias (PL Trin. 869), I have got to stand guard.
via quam nobis ingrediendum sit (Cat. M. 6), the way we have to enter.
316 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§500-503
4. After verbs signifying to give, deliver, ar/ree for, have, receive,
undertake, demand,^ a gerundive in agreement with the object is used
to express purpose : —
redemptor qui columnam illam conduxerat faciendam (Div. ii. 47), t?te con-
tractor who Imd undertaken to make that column. [The regular construc-
tion with this class of verbs.]
aedem Castoris habuit tuendam (Verr. ii. 1. 150), he had the temple of Castor
to take care of.
navis atque onera adservanda curabat (id. v. 146), he took care that the ships
and cargoes should be kept.
GERUND
501. The Gerund is the neuter of the Gerundive, used sub-
stantively in the Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative.
502. The Gerund expresses an action of the verb in the form
of a verbal noun.
As a noun the gerund is itself governed by other words ; as a
ve7'b it may take an object in the proper case : —
ars bene disserendi et vera ac falsa diiudicandi (De Or. ii. 157), the art of dis-
coursing well, and distinguishing the true and the false.
Note. — The Nominative of the gerund is supplied by the Infinitive. Thus in the
example above, the verbal nouns discoursing and distinguishing, if used in the nomi-
native, would be expressed by the infinitives disserere and diiudicare.
The Gerund is the neuter of the gerundive used impersonally, but retaining the
verbal idea sufficiently to govern an object. It may therefore be regarded as a noun
(of. maturato opus est, §497. a) with a verbal force (cf. istanc tactio, p. 240, footnote).
GERUND AND GERUNDIVE
503. When the Gerund would have an object in the Accusa-
tive, the Gerundive 2 is generally used instead. The gerundive
agrees with its noun, which takes the case that the gerund would
have had : —
paratiores ad omnia pericula subeunda (B. G. 1. 5), readier to undergo all
dangers. [Here subeunda agrees with pericula, which is itself governed
by ad. The (inadmissible) construction with the gerund would be ad
subeundum pericula ; ad governing the gerund, and the gerund governing
the accusative pericula.] For details, see §§ 504-507.
1 Such verbs are accipio, adnoto, attribuo, conduco, euro, denoto, deposco, do, divide,
dono, edico, edoceo, fero, habeo, loco, mando, obicio, permitto, peto, pono, praebeo, propono,
relinquo, rogo, suscipio, trado, voveo.
2 The gerundive construction is probably the original one.
§§ 503, 504] GENITIVE OF GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 317
Note 1. — In this use the gerund and the gerundive are translated iu the same
way, but have really a different coustraction. The gerundive is a, passive participle,
and agrees with its noun, though in translation we change the voice, just as we may
translate vigiliae agitandae sunt {guard must be kept) by I must stand guard.
Note 2. — In the gerundive construction the verbs iitor, fruor, etc., are treated like
transitive verbs governing the accusative, as they do in early Latin (§ 410. a. n. i) : as,
— ad perfruendas voiuptates (Off. i. 2b), for enjoying pleasures.
a. The f ollov/ing examples illustrate the parallel constructions of
Gerund and Gerundive : —
Gen. consilium j , , . • •, r « design of talcing the city.
Dat. dat operarn \ . , ,. [ Ae attends to tillinq the fields.
^ \ agns colenais j ^f j
. . X J r mihi parendum ] ., (to obey me.
Ace. veniunt ad -^ _ ^ , > they come < . ,
( pacem petendam J [to seek peace.
Abl. terit tempus -I .^ ,. ^ " ,. [ he spends time in writina letters.
{ scribendis epistulis J
Note 1. — The gerund with a direct object is practically limited to the Genitive and
the Ablative (without a preposition) ; even iu these cases the gerundive is commoner.
Note 2. — The gerund or gerundive is often found coordinated with nominal con-
structions, and sometimes even in apposition with a noun : —
(1) in foro, in curia, in amicorum periculis propulsandis (Phil. vii. 7), in the forum,
in the senate-house, in defending my friends in jeopardy.
(2) ad res diversissimas, parendum atque imperandum (Liv. xxi. ^),for the most
zoidely different things, obeying and commanding.
Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive
504. The Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive is used after
nouns or adjectives, either as subjective or objective genitive : —
Vivendi finis est optimus (Cat. M. 72), it is the best end of living. [Sub-
jective.]
neque consili habendi neque arma capieadi spatio dato (B. G. iv. 14), time being
given neither for forming plans nor for taking arms. [Obj active. ]
non tarn commutandarum quam evertendarum rerum cupidos (Off. ii. 3), desir-
ous not so much of changing as of destroying the state. [Objective.]
Note 1. — In these uses the gerund and the gerundive are about equally common.
Note 2. — In a few phrases the Infinitive is used with nouns which ordinarily
have the genitive of the gerund or gerundive: as,— tempus est abire, it is time to go.
a. The genitive of the gerund sometimes takes a direct object, espe-
cially a neuter pronoun or a neuter adjective used substantively : —
nulla causa itista cuiquam esse potest contra patriam arma capiendi (Phil. ii.
53), no one can have a just cause for taking up arms against his country.
artem vera ac falsa diiudicandi (De Or. ii. 157), the art of distinguishing true
from false.
318 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 504, 505
Note 1. —The genitive of the gerund or gerundive is used (especially in later Latin)
as a predicate genitive. When so used it often expresses purpose ; —
quae postquam gloriosa modo neque belli patrandi cognovit (lug. 88), lohen he
perceived that these were only brilliant deeds and not likely to end the war.
Aegyptum proficiscitur cognoscendae antiquitatis (Tac. Ann. ii. 59), he sets out for
Egypt to study old times.
b. The genitive of the gerund or gerundive with causa or gratia
expresses purpose (§ 533. b) : —
pabulandi aut frumentandi causa progress! (B. C. i. 46), having advanced for
the purpose of collecting fodder or supplies.
vitandae suspicionis causa (Cat. i. 19), in order to avoid suspicion.
simulandi gratia (lug. 37), in order to deceive.
exercendae memoriae gratia (Cat. M. 38), for the sake of training the meniory.
c. The genitive of the gerund is occasionally limited by a noun or
pronoun (especially a personal pronoun in the plural) in the objective
genitive instead of taking a direct object : —
reiciendl trium iudicum potestas (Verr. ii. 77), the power of challenging three
jurors (of the rejecting of three jurors).
sui colligendi facultas (B. G. ill. 6), the opportunity to recover themselves.
Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive
505. The Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used in a few
expressions after verbs : — ^
diem praestitit open faciendd (Verr. ii. 1. 148), he appointed a day for doing the
work.
praeesse agro colendo (Rose. Am. 50), to take charge of cultivating the land.
esse solvendo, to be able to pay (to be for paying).
Note. — The dative of the gerund with a direct object is never found in classic
Latin, but occurs twice in Plautus.
a. The dative of the gerund and gerundive is used after adjec-
tives,^ especially those which denote Jit?iess or adapt ability : —
genus armorum aptum tegendis corporibus (Liv. xxxii. 10), a sort of armor
suited to the defence of the body. »
reliqua tempora demetendis fructibus et percipiendis accommodata sunt (Cat. M.
70), the other seasons are fitted to reap and gather in the harvest.
perferendis milituui mandatis idoneus (Tac. Ann. i. 23), suitable for carrying
out the instructions of the soldiers.
Note. — This construction is very common in Livy and later writers, infrequent
in classical prose.
1 Such are praeesse, operam dare, diem dicere, locum capere.
2 Such are accommodatus, aptus, ineptus, bonus, habilis, idoneus, par, utilis, inutilis.
But the accusative with ad is common with most of these (cf. § 385. a).
§§505-507] ABLATIVE OF GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 319
h. The dative of the gerund and gerundive is used in certain legal
phrases after nouns meaning officers, offices, elections, etc., to indicate
the function or scope of the office etc. : —
comitia consulibus rogandis (Div. i. 33), elections for nominating consuls.
triumvir coloniis deducundis (lug. 42), a triumvir for 'planting colonies.
triumviri rei publicae constituendae (title of the Triumvirate), triumvirs (a com-
mission of three) for settling the government.
Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive
506. The Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used
after the preposition ad, to denote Purpose (cf. § 533): —
me vocas ad scribendum (Or. 34), you summon me to write.
vivis non ad deponendam sed ad confirmandam audaciam (Cat. i. 4), you live
not to put off hut to confirm your daring.
nactus aditus ad ea c5nanda (B. C. i. 31), having found means to undertake
these things. •
Note 1. — Other prepositions appear in this construction ; inter and ob a few times,
circa, in, ante, and a few others very rarely: as, inter agendum (Eel. lx. 24), while
driving.
Note 2. — The Accusative of the gerund with a preposition never takes a direct
object in classic Latin.
Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive
507. The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used (1)
to express manner} means., cause, etc.; (2) after Comparatives;
and (3) after the propositions ab, de, ex, in, and (rarely) pro : —
(1) multa pollicendo persuadet (lug. 46), he persuades by large promises.
Latine loquendo cuivis par (Brut. 128), equal to any man in speaking Latin.
his ipsis legendis (Cat. M. 21), by reading these very things.
obsciiram atque humilem conciendo ad se multitiidinem (Li v. i. 8), calling to
them a mean and obscure multitude.
(2) ntillum oflBcium referenda gratia magis necessarium est (Off. i. 47), no duty
is more important than repaying favors.
(3) in re gerenda versari (Cat. M. 17), to be employed in conducting affairs.
Note 1. — The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is also very rarely used
with verbs and adjectives: as, — nee continuando abstitit magistratu (Liv. ix. 34), he
did not desi,stfrom continuing his magistracy.
Note 2. — The ablative of the gerund rarely takes a direct object in classic prose.
1 In this use the ablative of the gerund is, in later writers nearly, and in medieeval
writers entirely, equivalent to a present participle : as, — cum una dierum flendo sedis-
set, quidam miles generosus iuxta earn equitando venit (Gesta Romanorum, 66 [58]),
as one day she sat vjeeping, a certain knight came riding by (compare § 507, fourth
example) . Hence come the Italian and Spanish forms of the present participle (as man-
dando, esperando), the true participial form becoming an adjective in those languages.
320 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§8 508-510
SUPINE
508. The Supine is a verbal abstract of the fourth declension (§ 94. b), having no
distinction of tense or person, and limited to two uses. (1) The form in -urn is the
Accusative of the end of motion (§ 428. i) . (2) The form in -ii is usually Dative of pw?--
pose (§ 382), but the Ablative was early confused with it.
509. The Supine in -um is used after verbs of motion to express
purpose. It may take an object in the proper case : —
quid est, imusne sessum ? etsi admonitum venimus te, non flagitatum (De Or.
ill. 17), how now, shall ive be seated? though we have come to remind, not
to entreat you.
nuptum dare (collocare), to give in marriage.
venerunt questum initirias (Liv. iii. 25), they came to complain of wrongs.
Note 1. — The supine in -um is especially common witheo, and with the passive
infinitive Iri forms the future infinitive passive : —
fuere cives qui rem publicam perditum irent (Sail. Cat. 36), there were citizens who
went about to ruin the republic.
si sciret se trucidatum iri (Div. ii. 22), if he (Pompey) had known that he ivcts
going to be murdered. [Rare except in Cicero. For the more usual way of
expressing the future passive infinitive, see § 569. 3. a.]
Note 2. — The supine in -um is occasionally used when motion is merely implied.
510. The Supine in -u ^ is used with a few adjectives and with
the nouns fas, nefas, and opus, to denote an action in reference to
which the quality is asserted : —
rem non modo visu foedam, sed etiam auditu (Phil. ii. 63), a thing not only
shocking to see, but even to hear of.
quaerunt quid optimum factu sit (Verr. ii. 1. 68), they ask what is best to do.
si hoc fas est dictu (Tusc. v. 38), if this is lawful to say.
videtis nefas esse dictu miseram fuisse talem senectiitem (Cat. M. 13), you
see it is a sin to say that such an old age loas wretched.
Note 1, — The supine in -u is thus in appearance an Ablative of Specification (§ 418).
Note 2. — The supine in -u is found especially with such adjectives as indicate an
effect on the senses or the feelings, and those which denote ease, difficulty, and the
like. But with facilis, difflcilis, and iucundus, ad with the gerund is more common : —
nee visu facilis nee dictu adfabilis ulli (Aen. iii. 621), he is not pleasant for any
man to look at or address.
difficilis ad distinguendum similitiido (De Or. ii. 212), a likeness difficult to dis-
tinguish.
Note 3. —With all these adjectives the poets often use the Infinitive in the same
sense: as, — faciles aurem praebere (Prop. ii. 21. 15), indulgent to lend an ear.
Note 4. — The supine in -ii with a verb is extremely rare: as, — pudet dictii (Tac.
Agr. 32), it is a shame to tell. [On the analogy of pudendum dictu.]
1 The only common supines in -ii are auditii, dictu, factu, inventu, memoratu, natu,
visii. In classic use this supine is found in comparatively few verbs, It is nevei
followed by an obiect-case.
511] CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 321
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
611. The Conditional Sentence differs from other complex sentences in this, that
the form of the main clause (apodosis) is determined ia some degree by the nature
of the subordinate clause (protasis) upon the truth of which the whole statement
depends. Like all complex sentences, however, the Conditional Sentence has arisen
from the use of two independent sentence-forms to express the parts of a thought
vv'hidi was too complicated to be fully expressed by a simple sentence. But because
the thoughts thus expressed are in reality closely related, as parts of a single whole, the
sentences which represent them are also felt to be mutually dependent, even though
the relation is not expressed by any connecting word. Thus, Speak the word : my ser-
vant shall be healed is a, simpler and an earlier form of expression than If thou speak
the word, etc.
The Conditional Particles were originally pronouns without conditional mean-
ing; thua, si, if, is a weak demonstrative of the same origin as sic, so (sl-ce like
hi-ce, see § 215. 5), and had originally the meaning of in that way, or iri some way.
Its relative sense (if) seems to have come from its use with sic to make a pair of correla-
tives : thus . . . thus (see § 512. b).
In its origin the Conditional Sentence assumed one of two forms. The condition
was from the first felt to be a condition, not a fact or a command ; but, as no special
sentence-form for a condition was in use, it employed for its expression either a state-
ment of /ac^ (with the Indicative) or a form of mild command (the Subjunctive).
From the former have come all the uses of the Indicative in protasis ; from the latter
all the uses of the Subjunctive in protasis. The Apodosis has either (1) the Indicative,
expressing the conclusion as a fact, and the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, express-
ing it originally as future — and hence more or less doubtful — or (2) the Imperfect
and Pluperfect Subjunctive expressing it Q,&futurum in praeterito,^ and so unfulfilled
in the present or past. Thus, — rides, maiore cacbiono concutitur, you laugh, he shakes
with more boisterous laughter, is the original form for the Indicative in protasis and
apodosis; si rides originally means merely you laugh in some way or other, and so,
later, ip you laugh. So rogSs Arlst5nem, neget, ask Aristo, he would say no, is the
original form of the subjunctive in protasis and apodosis; si roges would mean ask in
S07ne way or other. In si rogares, negaret, the Imperfect rogares transfers the command
of roges to past time,^ with the meaning suppose you had asked, and si would have the
same meaning- as before ; while negaret transfers the future idea of ueget to past time,
and means he was going to deny. Now the stating of this supposition at all gives
rise to the implication that it is untrue in point o//acf, — because, if it were true,
there would ordinarily be no need to state it as a supposition : for it would then be a
simple fact, and as such would be putln the indicative.^ Such a condition or conclusion
1 Th^, futurum in praeterito is a tense future relatively to a time absolutely pa^t.
It denotes a future act transferred to the point of view of past time, and hence is
naturally expressed by a past tense of the Subjunctive: thus dixxsset, he would have
said = dictunis fuit, he was about to say [but did not]. As that which looks towards
the future from some point in the past has a natural limit in present time, such a
tense (the imperfect subjunctive) came naturally to be used to express apf'esent con-
dition purely ideal, that is to say, contrary to fact.
2 Compare potius diceret, he should rather have said (§ 439. b).
3 There are, however, some cases in which this implication does not arise: as, —
deciens centena dedisses, nil erat in loculis (Hor. S. i. 3. 15), if you 'd given him a mil-
lion, there was nothing in his coffers.
322 SYNTAX: CONDITIOXAJL SENTENCES [§§511,512
(originally past, meaning suppose you had asked [yesterday], he was going to deny)
came to express an unfulfilled condition in the present: suppose (or if) you were
now asking, he would [nowj deny — just as in English ought, which originally meant
owed,^ has come to express a present obligation.
For the classification of Conditional Sentences, see § 513.
PEOTASIS AKD APODOSIS
512. A complete Conditional S.entence consists of two clauses,
the Protasis and the Apodosis.
The clause containing the coiuJition is called the Protasis ;
the clause containing the conclusion is called the Apodosis : —
si qui exire volant [protasis], conivere possum [apodosis] (Cat. ii. 27), if
any wish to depart, I can keep my eyes shut.
si est in exsilio [protasis], quid amplius postulatis [apodosis] (Lig. 13), if
Mis in exile, what more do you ask?
It should be carefully noted that the Apodosis is the 771am clause
and the Protasis the dependent clause.
a. The Protasis is regularly introduced by the conditional particle
si, ij\ or one of its compounds.
Note. — These compounds are sin, nisi, etiam si, etsi, tametsi, tamenetsi (see Condi-
tional and Concessive Particles, p. 138). An Indefinite Relative, or any relative or
concessive word, may also serve to introduce a conditional clause : see Conditional
Relative Clauses (§§519, 542) ; Concessive Clauses (§527).
h. The Apodosis is often introduced by some correlative word 01
phiase: as, ita, turn (rarely sic), or ea condicione etc.: —
ita enim senectOs honesta est, si se ipsa defendit (Cat. M. 38), on this condi-
tion is old age honorable, if it defends itself.
si quidem me amaret, turn istuc prodesset (Ter. Eun. 4-46), if he loved me,
then this would be profitable.
sic scribes aliquid, si vacabis (Att. xii. 38. 2), if you are (shall be) at leisure,
then you will write something.
c. The Apodosis is the principal clause of the conditional sen-
tence, but may at the same time be subordinate to some other
clause, and so appear in the form of a Participle, an Infinitive, or
a Phrase : —
sepultiira quoque prohibituri, ni rex humari iussisset (Q. C. viii. 2. 12), intend-
ing also to deprive him of burial, unless the king had ordered him to be
interred.
1 " There was a certain lender which ought him five hundred pieces." — Tyndale's
New Testament,
§§512-514] CLASSIFICATION OF CONDITIONS 323
quod si praeterea nemo sequatur, tamen se cum sola decima legion e iturum
[esse] (B. G. i. 40. 14), hut if no one else should follovj, he would go with
the tenth legion alone.
si quos adversum proelium commoveret, hos reperire posse (id. 40. 8), if the
loss of a battle alarmed any, they might find, etc.
Note. — When the Apodosis itself is in Indirect Discourse, or in any other depend-
ent construction, the verb of the Protasis is regularly in the Subjunctive (as in the above
examples, see § 589).
classificatio:n" of coistditions ^
513. Conditions are either (1) Particular or (2) General.
1. A Particular Condition refers to a definite act or series of acts
occurring at some definite time.
2. A General Condition refers to any one of a class of acts wliicli
may occur (or may have occurred) at any time.
514. The principal or typical forms of Conditional Sentences
may be exhibited as follows : —
PARTICULAR CONDITIONS
A. Seviple Conditions (nothing implied as to fulfilment)
I. Present Time
Present Indicative in both clauses: —
si adest, bene est, if he is [now] here, it is well.
2. Past Time
Imperfect or Perfect Indicative in both clauses: —
si aderat, bene erat, if he was [then] here, it was well.
si adfuit, bene f uit, if he has been [was] here, it has been [was] weU.
B. FuTUKE Conditions (as yet unfulfilled)
I. More Vivid
a. Future Indicative in both clauses : —
si aderit, bene erit, if he is (shall be) here, it will be well.
h. Future Perfect Indicative in protasis, Future Indicative in
apodosis: —
si adfuerit, bene erit, if he is (shall have been) here, it will [then] be well.
324 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§514
2. Less Vivid
a. Present Subjunctive in both clauses: —
si adsit, bene sit, if he should be {or were to be) /tere, it would be welL
b. Perfect Subjunctive in protasis, Present Subjunctive in apod-
osis: —
si adfuerit, bene sit, if he should be (should have been) here, it would [then]
be well.
C. Conditions Contrary to Fact
I. Present Time
Imperfect Subjunctive in both clauses: —
si adesset, bene esset, if he were [now] here, it wouM be well (but he is not here).
2. Past Time
Pluperfect Subjunctive in both clauses: —
81 adfuisset, bene faisset, if he had [then] been here, it would have been well
(but he was not here).
Note. — The use of tenses in Protasis is very loose in English. Thus if he is
alive now is a present condition, to he expressed in Latin by the Present Indicative;
if he is alive next year is a future condition, expressed in Latin by the Future
Indicative. Again, if he ivere here now is a present condition contrary to fact,
and would be expressed by the Imperfect Subjunctive ; if he were to see me thus
is a FUTURE condition less vivid, to be expressed by the Present Subjunctive; and so
too, if you advised him, he would attend may be future less vivid.i
D. GENERAL CONDITIONS
General Conditions do not usually differ in form from Particular
Conditions (A, B, and C), but are sometimes distinguished in the
cases following : —
I, Present General Condition (Indefinite Time)
a. Present Subjunctive second person singular (Indefinite Subject)
in protasis, Present Indicative in apodosis: —
si hoc dicas, creditur, if any one [ever] says this, it is [always] believed.
b. Perfect Indicative in protasis, Present Indicative in apodosis:
si quid dixit, creditur, if he [e\"er] says anything, it is [always] belieoed.
1 In most English verbs the Preterite (or Past) Subjunctive is identical in form
with the Preterite Indicative. Thus in such a sentence as if he loved his father, he
would not say tJiis, the verb loved is really a Preterite Subjunctive, though this does
not appear from the inflection. In the verb to be, however, the Subjunctive were has
been preserved and differs in form from the indicative was.
§§ 514, 515] SIMPLE PRESENT AND PAST CONDITIONS 325
2. Past General Condition (Repeated Action in Past Time)
a. Pluperfect Indicative in protasis, Imperfect Indicative in apod-
osis : —
si quid dixerat, credebatur, if he [ever] said anything, it was [always] believed.
b. Imperfect Subjunctive in protasis, Imperfect Indicative in apod-
osis : —
si quid diceret, credebatur, // he [ever] said anything, it was [always]
believed (= whatever he said was always believed). i
PARTICULAR CONDITIONS
Simple Present and Past Conditions — Nothing Implied
515. In the statement of Present and Past conditions whose
falsity is NOT implied^ the Present and Past tenses of the Indica-
tive are used in both Protasis and Apodosis : —
si tu exercitusque valetis, bene est (Fam. v. 2), if you and the army are well,
it is well. [Present Condition.]
haec igitur, si Romae es ; sin abes, aut etiam si ades, haec negotia sic se habent
(Att. V. 18), this, then, if you are at Rome; but if you are away — or even
if you are there — these matters are as follows. [Present Condition.]
si Caesarem probatis, in me offenditis (B, C. ii. 82. 10), if you favor CcBsar,
you find fault with me. [Present Condition.]
si qui magnis ingeniis in eo genere exstiterunt, non satis Graecorum gloriae
responderunt (Tusc. i. 8), if any have shown themselves of great genius in
that department, they have failed to compete with the glory of the Greeks.
[Past General Condition, not distinguished in form from Particular.]
accepi Roma sine epistula tua fasciculum litterarum in quo, si modo valuisti
et Romae fuisti, Philotimi duco esse culpam non tuam (Att, v. 17), I have
received from Rome a bundle of letters without any from you, which, pro-
vided you have been well and at Rome, I take to be the fault of Philotimus,
not yours. [Mixed : Past condition and Present conclusion.]
quas litteras, si Romae es, videbis putesne reddendas (id. v. 18), as to this
letter, if you are at Rome, you will see whether in your opinion it ought
to be delivered. [Mixed : Present and Future.]
si nemo impetravit, adroganter rogo (Lig. 30), if no one has succeeded in obtain-
ing it, my request is presumptuous. [Past and Present.]
1 Cf . the Greel^ forms corresponding to the various types of conditions : —
A. 1. et Itpdacrei toOto, koKCos e^ei. 2. et ^Trpaa<r€ toOto, koKQs efxei'.
B. 1. iav irpdacrri tovto, KaXQs ^^ei. 2. el irpdacoL tovto, /caXtSs &v ^xoi.
C. 1. et e7rpaT<re tovto, koKCHs hv efxev. 2. el eirpa^e tovto, koXQs hv ^<Tx^v,
D. \. idv Ti5 K\<TrT'Q, KoXdj^erai.. 2. etris acX^tttoi, iKo\d^€To.
326 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§§515,516
a. In these conditions the apodosis need not always be in the In-
dicative, but may assume any form, according to the sense : —
si placet . . . videamus (Cat. M. 45), if you please, let us see. [Hortatory
Subjunctive, §439.].
si nondum satis cernitis, recordamini (Mil. 61), if you do not yet see clearly^
recollect. [Imperative.]
si quid habes certius, velim scire (Att. iv. 10), if you have any trustworthy
information^ I should like to know it. [Subjunctive of Modesty, § 447. 1.]
Note. — Although the /orm of these conditions does not imply anything as to the
truth of the supposition, the sense or the context may of course have some such impli-
cation : —
nolite, si in nostro omnium fletii niillam lacrimam aspexistis Milonis, hoc minus
ei parcere (Mil. 92), do not, if amid the weeping of us all you have seen no
tear [in the eyes] of Mllo, spare him the less for that.
petimus a vobis, indices, si qua divina in tantis ingeniis commendatio debet
esse, ut eum in vestram accipiatis fidem (Arch. 31), we ask you, judges,
if there ought to he anything in such genius to recommend it to u^ as
by a recommendation of the gods, that you receive him under your pro-
tection.
In these two passages, the protasis really expresses cause : but the cause is put by
the speaker in the form of a non-committal condition. His hearers are to draw the
inference for themselves. In this way the desired impression is made on their minds
more effectively than if an outspoken causal clause had been used.
Future Conditions
516. Future Conditions may be more vivid or less vivid.
1. In a more vivid future condition the protasis makes a distinct
supposition of a future case, the apodosis expressing what will he the
logical result.
2. In a less vivid future condition, the supposition is less distinct,
the apodosis expressing what would be the result in the case supposed.
a. In the 7nore vivid future condition the Future Indicative is used
in both protasis and apodosis : —
sanabimur, si volemus (Tusc. iii. 13), we shall be healed if we wish.
quod si legere aut audire voletis, . . . reperietis (Cat. M. 20), if you will
[shall wish to] read or hear, you will find.
Note. — In English the protasis is usually expressed by the Present Indicative,
rarely by the Future with shall. Often in Latin the Present Indicative is found in
the protasis of a condition of this kind (cf. § 408) : —
si vincimus, omnia nobis tuta erunt ; sin metu cesserimus, eadem ilia advorsa fient
(Sail. Cat. 58), if loe conquer, all things will he safe for us; hut if we yield
through fear, those same things will become hostile.
si pereo, hominum inanibus periisse iuvabit (Aen. iii. .606), if I perish, it will be
pleasant to have perished at the hands of men.
§516] FUTURE CONDITIONS 327
h. In the less vivid future condition the Present Subjunctive is
used in both protasis and apodosis : —
haec si tecum patria loquatur, nonne impetrare debeat (Cat. i. 19), if your
country should thus speak with you, ought she not to prevail?
quod si quis deus mihi largiatur, . . . valde recusem (Cat. M. 83), but if some
god were to grant me this, I should stoutly refuse.
Note. — The Present Subjunctive sometimes stands in protasis with the Future
(or the Present) Indicative in apodosis from a change in the point of view: i
si diligenter attendamus, intellegemus (InVo ii, 44), if we attend (should attend)
carefully, we shall understand.
nisi hoc dicat, "lure feci," non habet defensionem (id. 1. 18), unless he should
say this, "I acted Justifiably," he has no defence.
c. If the conditional act is regarded as completed before that of the
apodosis begins, the Future Perfect is substituted for the Putui-.e
Indicative in protasis, and the Perfect Subjunctive for the Present
Subjunctive : —
sin cum potuero nou venero, tum erit inimicus (Att. ix. 2 a. 2), hut if I do not
come when I can, he will he unfriendly.
si a corona relictus sim, non queam dicere (Brut. 192), if I should he deserted
hy the circle of listeners, I should not he able to speak.
Note. — The Future Perfect is often used in the apodosis of a future condition:
as, — vehementer mihi gratum feceris, si hunc adulescentem hiiraanitate tua compre-
henderis (Fam. xiii. 15), you will do (will have done) me a great favor, if you receive
this young man with your usual courtesy.
d> Any form denoting or implying future time may stand in the
apodosis of a future condition. So the Imperative, the participles in
-dus and -rus, and verbs of necessity ^ possibility, and the like ; —
alius finis c5nstituendus est, si prius quid maxime reprehendere Scipio solitus
sit dixero (Lael. 59), another limit must he set, if I first state what Scipio
loas wont most to find fault with.
si me praeceperit fatum, vos mandasse memento (Q. C. Ix, 6. 26), if fate cuts
me off too soon, do you remember that I ordered this.
nisi oculis videritis insidias Miloni a Clodio factas, nee deprecaturi sumus nee
postulaturi (Mil. 6), unless you see with your own eyes the plots laid against
Milo by Clodius, I shall neither beg nor demand, etc.
non possum istum accusare, si cupiam (Verr. iv. ^1), I cannot accuse him, if
I should (so) desire.
1 It often depends entirely upon the view of the writer at the moment, and not
upon the nature of the condition, whether it shall be stated vividly or not ; as in the
proverbial *' If*the sky falls, we shall catch larks " the impossible condition is iron-
ically put in the vivid form, to illustrate the absurdity of some other supposed condt
tion stated by some one else.
328 SYNTAX : CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§§ 516, 517
e. Rarely the Perfect Indicative is used in apodosis with a Pres-
ent or even a Future (or Future Perfect) in protasis, to represent the
conclusion rhetorically as already accomplished : —
si hoc bene fixum in animS est, vicistis (Liv. xxi. 44), if this is well fixed in
your minds, you have conquered. [For you will have conquered.]
si euudein [animum] habueritis, vicimus (id. xxi. 43), if you shall have kept
the same spirit, we have conquered.
f, A future condition is frequently thrown back into past time,
without implying that it is contrary to fact (§ 517). In such cases
the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive may be used : —
non poterat, nisi decertare vellet (B. C. iii. 44), he was not able, unless he
wished to fight.
tumulus apparuit, ... si luce palara iretur hostis praeventtirus erat (Liv.
xxii. 24), a hill appeared . . . if they should go openly by daylight, the
enemy would prevent. [The first two appear like Indirect Discourse,
but are not. An observer describing the situation in the first example
as present would say non potest nisi velit (see d), and no indirect dis-
course would be thought of.]
Caesar si peteret, . . . non quicquam proficeret (Hor. S. i. 3. 4), if even Ccesar
were to as/c, he would gain nothing. [Here the construction is not con-
trary to fact, but is simply si petat, non proficiat, thrown into past time.]
Conditions Contrary to Fact
517. In the statement of a supposition impliedly false., the Im-
perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used in both protasis and
apodosis.^ The Imperfect refers to present time., the Pluperfect
to past: —
si viveret, verba eius audiretis (Rose. Com. 42), if he were living, you vjould
hear his words. [Present.]
nisi tu amisisses, numquam recepissem (Cat. M. 11), unless you had lost it, I
should not have recovered it. [Past.]
8l meum consilium valuisset, tii hodie egeres, r?8 ptiblica non tot duces ami-
sisset (Phil. ii. 37), if my judgment had prevailed [as it did not], you
would this day be a beggar, and the republic would not have lost so many
leaders. [Mixed Present and Past.]
1 The implication of falsity, in this oonstrnction, is not inherent in the subjunc-
tive ; but comes from the transfer of a future condition to past time. Thus the time
for the happening of the condition has, at the moment of writing, already passed ; so
that, if the condition remains a condition, it must be contrary to fact.* So past forms
of the indicative implying a future frequently take the place of the subjunctive in
apodosis in this construction (see c, d, below, and §511).
§517] CONDITIONS CONTRARY TO FACT
a. In conditions contrary to fact the Imperfect often refers to^as^
time^ both in protasis and apodosis, especially when a repeated or con-
tinued action is denoted, or when the condition if true would still exist :
si nihil litteris adiuvarentur, numquam se ad earum stiidium contulissent
(Arch. 16), if they had not been helped at all hy literature^ they never
would have given their attention to the study of it, [Without the condi-
tion, adiuvabantur. ]
hie si mentis esset suae, ausus esset ediicere exercitum (Pison. 50), if he were
of sane mind, would he have dared to lead out the army f [Here esset
denotes a continued state, past as well as present.]
non concidissent, nisi illud receptaculum classibus nostris pateret (Verr. ii.
3), [the power of Carthage] would not have fallen, unless that station had
been [constantly] open to our fleets. [Without the condition, patgbat.]
b. In the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact the past tenses
of the Indicative may be used to express what was intended, or likely,
or already begun. In this use, the Imperfect Indicative corresponds
in time to the Imperfect Subjunctive, and the Perfect or Pluperfect
Indicative to the Pluperfect Subjunctive : —
si licitum esset, matres veniebant (Verr. v. 129), the mothers were coming if
it had been allowed.
in amplexus flliae ruebat, nisi lict5res obstitissent (Tac. Ann. xvi. 82), he was
about rushing into his daughter'' s arms, unless the Victors had opposed.
iam tuta tenebam, ni gens crudelis ferrS invasisset (Aen. vi. 858), I was just
reaching a place of safety, had not the fierce people attacked me.
Note 1. — Here the apodosis may he regarded as elliptical. Thus, — matres venie-
bant (et venissent), the matrons were coming (and would have kept on) if, etc.
Note 2. — With paene (and sometimes prope), almost, tlie Perfect Indicative Is used
in the apodosis of a past condition contrary to fact : as, — pons iter paene hostibus
dedit, ni unus vir fuisset (Liv. ii. 10), the bridge had almost given a passage to, the
foe, if it had not been for one hero.
c. Verbs and other expressions denoting necessity, prajMety, possi-
bility, duty, when used in the apodosis of a condition contrary to
fact, may be put in the Imperfect or Perfect Indicative.
Such are oportet, decet, debeo, possum, necesse est, opus est, and the Sec^
ond Periphrastic Conjugation : — ^
non potuit fieri sapiens, nisi natus esset (Fin. ii. 103), he could not have become
a sage, if he had not been born.
si prlvatus esset h5c tempore, tamen is erat deligendus (Manil. 50), if he were
at this time a private citizen, yet he ought to be appointed.
1 Observe that all these expressions contain the idea of futurity (cf . p. 328, footnote).
Thus, decet me [hodie] ire eras, means it is proper for me [to-day] to go to-morroio ;
and, decebat me [heri] ire hodig, it was proper for me [yesterday] to go to-day, usually
with the implication that / have not gone as I was bound to do.
330 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§517
quod esse caput debebat, si probarl posset (Fin. iv. 23), what ought' to he the
main point, if it could be proved.
si ita putasset, certe optabilius Miloni fuit (Mil. 31), if he had thought so, surely
it would have been preferable for Milo.
Note 1. — In Present conditions the Imperfect Subjunctive (opprteret, possem, etc.)
is the rule, the Indicative being rare ; in Past conditions both the Subjunctive (usually-
Pluperfect) and the Indicative (usually Perfect) are common.
For par erat, melius fuit, and the like, followed by the infinitive, see § 521. n.
Note 2. — The indicative construction is carried still further in poetry: as, — si
non alium iactaret odorem, laurus erat (Georg. ii. 133), it were a laurel, hut for giving
out a different odor.
d. The participle in -urus with eram or fui may take the place of
an Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in the apodosis of a condi-
tion contrary to fact : —
quid enim futurum fuit [= fuisset], si . . . (Liv. ii. 1), what would have hap-
pened if, etc.
relicturl agros erant, nisi ad eos Metellus litteras misisset (Verr. iii. 121), they
would have abandoned their fields, if Metellus had not sent them a letter.
neque ambigitur quin ... id facturus fuerit, si . . . (Liv. ii. 1), nor is there
any question that he would have done it, if, etc. [Direct : fecisset.]
adeo parata seditio fuit ut Othonem rapturi fuerint, ni incerta noctis timuis-
sent (Tac. H. i. 26), so far advanced was the conspiracy that they would
have seized upon Otho, had they not feared the hazards of the night. [In
a main clause: rapuissent, ni timuissent.]
e. The Present Subjunctive is sometimes used in poetry in the
protasis and apodosis of conditions contrary to fact : —
ni comes admoneat, inruat (Aen. vi. 293), had not his companion warned him,
he would have rushed on. [Cf. tu si hie sis, aliter sentias (Ter. And. 310),
if you were in my place, you would think diff'erently.]
Note 1. — This is probably a remnant of an old construction (see next note).
Note 2. — In old Latin the Present Subjunctive (as well as the Imperfect) is used
in present conditions contrary to fact and the Imperfect (more rarely the Pluperfect)
in past conditions of the same kind. Thus it appears that the Imperfect Subjunctive,
like the Imperfect Indicative, once denoted past time, even in conditional sentences.
Gradually, however, in conditional sentences, the Present Subjunctive was restricted
to the less vivid future and the Imperfect (in the main) to the present contrary to fact,
while the Pluperfect was used in past conditions of this nature. The old construction,
however, seems to have been retained as an archaism in poetry.
/. In Plautus and Terence absque mg (te, etc.) is sometimes used to
introduce conditions contrary to fact : —
absque te asset, hodig nusquam viverem (PI. Men. 1022), if it were not for
you, I should not be alive to-day.
absque eo esset, recte ego mihi vidissem (Ter. Ph. 188), if it had not been for
him, I should have looked out for myself.
§518] GENERAL CONDITIONS 331
GENERAL CONDITIONS
518. General Conditions (§ 513. 2) have usually the same forms
as Particular Conditions. But they are sometimes distinguished
in the following cases : —
a. The Subjunctive is often used in the second person singular, to
denote the act of an indefinite subject {you = any one). Here the
Present Indicative of a general truth may stand in the apodosis : —
vita humana prope uti ferruin est : si exerceas, conteritur ; si non exerceas,
tamen robigo interficit (Cato de M.), human life is very like iron: if
you use it, it wears away; if you don't use it, rust still destroys it.
virttitem necessario gloria, etiamsi tii id non agas, consequitur (Tusc. i. 91),
glory necessarily follows virtue, even if that is not one''s aim.
si prohibita imptine transcenderis, neque metus ultra neque pudor est (Tac.
Ann. iii. 54), if you once overstep the bounds with impunity, there is no
fear or shame any more.
b. In a general condition in present time, the protasis often takes
the Perfect Indicative, and the apodosis the Present Indicative. For
past time, the Pluperfect is used in the protasis, and the Imperfect in
the apodosis : —
si quos aliqua parte membrorum infttilis notaverunt, necari iubent (Q. C. ix.
1. 25), if they [ever] mark any infirm in any part of their limhs, they
[always] order them to he put to death. [Present. ]
si a persequendo hostis deterrere nequiverant, ab tergo circumveniebant (lug.
50), if [ever] they were unable to prevent the enemy from pursuing, they
[always] surrounded them in the rear. [Past.]
c. In later writers (rarely in Cicero and Caesar), the Imperfect and
Pluperfect Subjunctive are used in protasis, with the Imperfect In-
dicative in apodosis, to state a repeated or customary action in past
time {Iterative Subjunctive): —
si quis a domino prehenderetur, concursti militum eripiebatur (B. C. iii. 110),
if any (runaway) was arrested by his master, he was (always) rescued by
a mob of soldiers.
accGsatores, si facultas incideret, poenis adficiebantur (Tac. Ann. vi. 30), the
accusers, whenever opportunity offered, were visited with punishment.
si quis coUegam appellasset, ab eo ita discedebat ut paeniteret non prioris
decreto stetisse (Liv. iii. 36. 8), if any one appealed to a colleague, he
[always] caine off in such case that he repented not having submitted to
the decree of the former decemvir. [Cf. Socrates, quam se cumque in
partem dedisset, omnium fuit facile princeps (De Or. iii. 60), in whatever
direction Socrates turned himself, he was (always) easily the foremost (if
in any, etc.).]
332 SYNTAX : CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§§ 519, 520
Conditional Relative Clauses
519. A clause introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Relative
Adverb may express a condition and take any of the construc-
tions of Protasis^ (§ 514): —
qui enim vitiis modum adponit, is partem suscipit vitiorum (Tusc. iv. 42), he
who [only] sets a limit to faults^ takes up the side of the faults. [= si
quis adponit. Present, nothing implied.]
qui mentlri solet, peierare consuevit (Rose. Com. 46), whoever is in the habit of
lying, is accustomed to swear falsely. [ = si quis solet. Present, nothing
implied.]
quicquid potuit, potuit ipsa per se (Leg. Agr. 1. 20), whatever power she had,
she had by herself. [= si quid potuit. Past, nothing implied.]
quod qui faciet, non aegrittidine solum vacabit, sed, etc. (Tusc. iv. 38), and
he who does (shall do) this, will be free not only^ etc. [ = si quis faciet.
Future, more vivid.]
quisquis hue venerit, vapulabit (PI. Am. 309), whoever comes here shall get a
thrashing. [= si quis venerit. Puture, more vivid.]
quo voles, sequar (Clu. 71), whithersoever you wish (shall wish), I vjlll follow.
[= si quo voles. Future, more vivid.]
philosophia, cui qui pareat, omne tempus aetatis sine molestia possit degere (Cat.
M. 2), philosophy, lohich if any one should obey, he would be able to spend
his whole life without vexation. [== si quis pareat. Future, less vivid.]
quaecumque vos causa htic attuUsset, laetarer (De Or. ii. 15), I should be glad,
whatever cause had brouglit you here (i.e. if any other, as vv^ell as the one
which did). [= si . . . attulisset. Contrary to fact.]
The relative in this construction is always indefinite in meaning^
and very often in /orwi.
520. The special constructions of General Conditions are some-
times found in Conditional Relative Clauses : —
1. The Second Person Singular of the Subjunctive in the protasis
with the Indicative of a general truth in the apodosis (§ 518. a) : —
bonus tantum modo segnior fit ubi neglegas, at malus improbior (lug, 31. 28),
a good man merely becomes less diligent lohen you don-t watch him, but a
bad man becomes more shameless. [Present General Condition.]
2. The Perfect or Phiperfect Indicative in the protasis and the
Present or Imperfect Indicative in the apodosis (§ 518. b) : —
cum hue veni, hoc ipsum nihil agere me delectat (De Or. ii. 24), whenever I
come here, this very doing nothing delights me (whenever I have come,
etc.). [Present General Condition.]
1 As in the Greek os hv. Hrav, etc. • and in stntntes in English, where the phrases
if any person shall and whoever shall are used indifferently.
§§ 620, 521] CONDITION DISGUISED 333
cum rosam vlderat, turn incipere ver arbitrabatur (Verr. v. 27), wheneoer he
saw (had seen) a rose, then he thought spring was beginning. [Past
General Condition.!
-" •
3. In later writers (rarely in Cicero and Caesar) the Imperfect or
Pluperfect Subjunctive in the protasis and the Imperfect Indicative
in the apodosis (§ 518. c) : —
ubi imbecillitas materiae postulare videretur, pllae interpouuntur (B. C. ii.
16), wherever the weakness of the timber seemed to require, piles were put
betioeen. [Past General Condition : interpouuntur = interpSnebantur. ]
quocumque se intulisset, victoriam secum trahebat (Liv. vi. 8), wherever he
advanced, he carried victory with him. [Past General Condition.]
Condition Disguised
521. In many sentences properly conditional, the Protasis is
not expressed by a conditional clause, but is stated in some other
form of words or implied in the nature of the thought.
a. The condition may be implied in a Clause, or in a Participle,
Noun, Adverb, or some other word or phrase : —
facile me paterer — illo ipso iudice quaerente — pro Sex. Roscio dicere (Rose.
Am. 85), I should readily allow myself to speak for Roscius if that very
judge were conducting the trial. [Present contrary to fact : si quaereret,
paterer.]
non mihi, nisi admonitS, venisset in mentem (De Or. ii. 180), it would not have
come into my mind unless [I had been] reminded. [Past contrary to
fact: nisi admonitus essem.]
nulla alia gens tanta mole cladis non obruta esset (Liv. xxii. 54), there is no
other people that would not have been crushed by such a weight of disaster.
[Past contrary to fact : si alia fuisset.]
nemo umquara sine magna spe immortalitatis se pro patria offerret ad mortem
(Tusc. i. 32), no one, without great hope of immortality, would ever expose
himself to death for his country. [Present contrary to fact : nisi magnam
spem haberet.]
quid himc paucorum annorum accessiS iuvare potuisset (Lael. 11), what good
could the addition of a few years have done him (if they had been added) ?
[Past contrary to fact : si accessissent.]
quid igitur mihi ferarum laniatus oberit nihil sentienti (Tusc. i. 104), what
harm will the mangling by wild beasts do me if I donH feel anything
(feeling nothing) ? [Future more vivid : si nihil sentiam.]
incitata semel proclivi labuntur sustinerique nGllo modo possunt (id. iv. 42),
if once given a push, they slide down rapidly and can in no way be
checked. [Present General : si incitata sunt.]
334 SYNTAX : CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§§ 521, 522
Note. — In several phrases denoting necessity, proprieUj, or the like, the Imper-
fect, Perfect, or Pluperfect Indicative of esse is used in the apodosis of a condition
contrary to fact, the protasis being implied in a subject infinitive (cf . 517. c) : —
quanto tnelius fuerat promissum non esse servatum (Off. iii. 94), hoio much better
would it have been if the promise had not been kept ! [promissum . . .
servatum = 81 promissum non esset servatum.]
mori praeclarum fuit (Att. viii. 2. 2), it would have been honorable to die.
sed erat aequius Triarium aliquid de dissensione nostra iiidlcare (Fin. ii. 119), but it
would be more equitable if Triarius passed judgment on our dispute. [Tri-
arium iudicare = si Triarius iudicaret.]
satius fuit amittere milites (Inv. ii. 73), it would have been better to lose the soldiers.
[amittere = si amisisset.]
6. The condition may be contained in a wish ( Optative Subjunctive) y
or expressed as an exhortation or command (Hortatory Subjunctive
or Imperative) : —
utinam quidem fuissem 1 molestus nobis non esset (Fam. xii. 3), I wish I
had been [chief] : he would not now be troubling us (i.e. if I had been).
[Optative Subjunctive.]
nattiram expellas furca, tamen usque recurret (Hor. Ep. i. 10. 24), drive out
nature with a pitchfork., still she will ever return. [Hortatory.]
roges enim Aristonem, neget (Fin. iv. 69), for ask Aristo, he would deny.
manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria (Cat. M. 22),
old men keep their mental powers, only let them keep their zeal and dili-
gence (§ 528. N.). [Hortatory.]
tolle banc opinionem, Itictum sustuleris (Tusc. i. 30), remove this notion, and
you will have done away with grief. [Imperative.]
Note. — The so-called Concessive Subjunctive with ut and ne often has the force
of protasis (§ 527. a. n.) : as, — ut enim rationem Plato nullam adferret, ipsa auctoritate
me frangeret (Tusc. i. 49), even if Plato gave no reasons, [still] he would overpower
me by his mere authority.
c. E-arely the condition takes the form of an independent clause:
rides : maiore cacliinno concutitur (luv. iii. 100), you laugh; he shakes with
louder laughter {= if you laugh, he shakes).
commove: senties (Tusc. iv. 54), stir him up, [and] youHlfind, etc.
d§ paupertate agitur: multl patientes pauperes commemorantur (id. iii. 57),
we speak of poverty; many patient poor are mentioned.
For Conditional Relative Clauses, see §§ 519, 520.
Condition Omitted
522. The Protasis is often wholly omitted, but may be inferred
from the course of the argument : —
poterat Sextilius impune negare : quis enim redargueret (Fin. ii. 55), Sextilius
might have denied with impunity; for who would prove him wrong (if he
had denied)?
§§522,523] COMPLEX CONDITIONS 335
a. In expressions signifying necessity, propriety, and the like, the
Indicative may be used in the apodosis of implied conditions, either
future or contrary to fact : —
quod contra decuit ab illo meum [corpus cremari] (Cat. M. 84), whereas on
the other hand mine ought to have been burnt hy him.
nam nos decebat domum lugere ubi esset aliquis in lucem editus (Tusc. i.
115), for it were fitting for us to mourn the house where a man has been
born (but we do not),
quanto melius fuerat (Off. iii. 94), how much better it would have been.
illud erat aptius, aequ'um cuique concedere (Fin. iv. 2), it would be more Jit
ting to yield each one his rights.
ipsum enim exspectare magnum fuit (Phil. ii. 103), would it have been a great
matter to wait for the man himself?
longum est ea dicere, sed . . . (Sest. 12), it would be tedious to tell, etc.
[Future.]
Note 1. — In tbis construction, the Imperfect Indicative refers to present time;
the Pluperfect to simple past time, like the Perfect. Thus oportebat means it ought
to be [now], but is not; oportuerat means it ought to have been, but was not.
Note 2. — In many cases it is impossible to say whether a protasis was present
to the mind of the speaker or not (see third example above).
Complex Conditions
523. Either the Protasis or the Apodosis may be a complex idea
in which the main statement is made with expressed or implied
qualifications. In such cases the true logical relation of the
parts is sometimes disguised : —
si quis horum dixisset ... si verbum de re ptiblica fecisset . . . multa pltira
dixisse quam dixisset putaretur (Rose. Am. 2), if any of these had spoken,
in case he had said a word about politics he would be thought to have said
much more than he did say. [Here the apodosis of dixisset is the whole
of the following statement (si . . . putaretur), which is itself conditioned
by a protasis of its own : si verbum, etc.].
quod si in hoc mundo fieri sine deo non potest, ne in sphaera quidem eosdem
mottis sine divino ingenio potuisset imitarl (Tusc. i. 63), now if that can-
not be done in this universe without divine agency, no more could [Archi-
medes] in his orrery have imitated the same revolutions without divine
genius. [Here si potest (a protasis with nothing implied) has for its
apodosis the whole clause which follows, but potuisset has a contrary-
to-fact protasis of its own implied in sine . . . ingenio.]
peream male si non optimum erat (Hor. S. ii. 1. 6), confound me (may I
perish wretchedly) if it wouldn't be better. [Here peream is apodosis to
the rest of the sentence, while the true protasis to optimum erat, contrary
to fact, is omitted.]
336 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§624
Clauses of Comparison (Conclusion Omitted)
524. Conditional Clauses of Comparison take the Subjunctive,
usually in the Present or Perfect unless the sequence of tenses
requires the Imperfect or Pluperfect.
Such clauses are introduced by the comparative particles tamquam,
tamquam si, quasi, ac si, ut si, velut si (later velut), poetic ceu (all mean-
ing as if), and by quam si (than if) : —
tamquam clausa sit Asia (Fam. xii. 9), as if Asia luere closed.
tamquam si claudus sim (PI. Asin. 427), just as if I were lame.
ita lios [houores] petuiit, quasi honeste vixerint (lug. 85), they seek them
(ofiQces) just as if they had lived honorably.
quasi verO non specie visa iudicentur (Acad. ii. 58), as if forsooth visible things
wei'e not judged by their appearance.
similiter facis ac si me roges (N. D. iii. 8), you do exactly as if you asked me.
crtidelitatem horrerent velut si coram adesset (B. G. i. 32), they dreaded his
cruelty (they said), as if he were present in person.
hie ingentem ptignam cernimus ceu cetera nusquam bellaforent (Aen. ii. 438),
here we saw a great battle, as if there were no fighting elsewhere. [But
sometimes with the indicative in poetry, as id. v. 88.]
magis a me abesse videbare quam si domi esses (Att. vi. 5), you seemed to
be absent from me more than if you were at home.
Note 1. — These subjunctive clauses are really future conditions with apodosis
implied in the particle itself. Thus in tamquam si claudus sim the protasis is introduced
by si, and the apodosis implied in tamquam.
Note 2. — The English idiom would lead us to expect the Imperfect and Pluperfect
Subjunctive (contrary to fact) with these particles; but the point of view is different
in the two languages. Thus the second example above is translated Jw5< asif Iicere
lame, — as if it were a present condition contrary to fact; but it really means jv^t as
[it would be] if I should [at some future time] be lame, and so is a less vivid future
condition requiring the Present Subjunctive. Similarly quasi honeste vixerint, as ij
they had lived honorably, is really as [they would do in the future] if they should have
lived honorably and so requires the Perfect Subjunctive (§ 516. c).
a. Even after a primary tense, the Imperfect or Pluperfect Sub-
junctive (contrary to fact) is often used in conditional clauses of
comparison : —
aeque a te peto ac si mea negotia essent (Fam. xiii. 43), I entreat you as much
■ as if it were my own business.
§ius negotium sic velim suscipias ut si asset res mea (id. vii. 20. 1), I would
have you undertake his business as though it were my affair.
Note. — The practice differs with the different particles. Thus in Cicero a clause
with tamquam or quasi almost always observes the sequence of tenses, but with quam ei
the Imperfect or Pluperfect is the rule
§ 526] USE OF si' AND ITS COMPOUNDS 337
Use of St and its Compounds
525. The uses of some of the more common Conditional Parti-
cles may be stated as follows : —
a. Si is used for affi,rmative, nisi (ni) and si non for negative con-
ditions.
1. With nisi (generally unless) the apodosis is stated as universalis/ true
except in the single case supposed, in which case it is (impliedly) not true : —
nisi Conon adest, maereo, unless Conon is here, I mourn (i.e. I am always in
a state of grief except in the single case of Conon's presence, in which
case I am not).
2. With si non (if not) the apodosis is only stated as true in the (negative)
case supposed, but as to other cases no statement is made : —
SI Conon non adest, maereo, if Conon is not here, I mourn (i.e. I mourn in
the single case of Conon's absence, nothing being said as to other cases
in which I may or may not mourn).
Note. — It often makes no difference in which of these forms the condition is
stated.
3. Sometimes nisi si, except if, unless, occurs : —
noli putSre me ad quemquam longiores epistulas scribere, nisi si quis ad me
plura scrlpsit (Fam. xiv. 2), . . . except in case one writes more to me.
Note. — TTi is an old form surviving in a few conventional phrases and reappear-
ing in poets and later writers.
6, Nisi vero and nisi forte regularly introduce an objection or excep-
tion ii'oiiically, and take the Indicative : —
nisi vero L. Caesar crudelior visus est (Cat. iv. 13), unless indeed Lucius
Ccesar seemed too cruel.
nisi forte volumus Epiciireoruin opinionem sequi (Fat. 37), unless, to be sure,
we choose to follow the notion of the Epicureans.
Note. — This is the regvilar way of introducing a reductio ad abs^rdum in Latin.
Nisi alone is sometimes used in this sense: as,— nisi unum hoc faciam ut in puteo
cenam coquant <P1. Aul. 965), unless I do this one thing, [make them] cook dinner
in the welL
c, Sive (sen) . , . sive (seu), whether . . . or, introduce a condition
in the form of an alternative. They may be used with any form of
coYidition, or with different forms in the two members. Often also
they are used without a verb : —
nam illo loco libentissime soleo uti, sive quid mecum ipse cogito, sive quid
scribo aut lego (Legg. ii. \),forI enjoy myself most in that place, whether
I am thinking by myself, or am either writing or reading.
Note. — Sive , . . seu and seu . . . sive are late or noetic.
338 SYNTAX : CONCESSIVE CLAUSES [§§ 525-527
d. Sin, but if, often introduces a supposition contrary to one that
precedes : —
accusator ilium defendet si poterit; sin minus poterit, negabit (Inv. ii. 88),
the accuser will defend him if he can ; but if he cannot, he will deny.
e. Nisi is often used loosely by the comic poets in the sense of only
when a negative (usually nescio) is expressed, or easily understood, in
the main clause : —
nescio : nisi me dixisse nemini certo scio (Ter. Pli. 952), I don^t know : only
I am sure that I have n'i told anybody.
■ CONCESSIVE CLAUSES
526. The concessive idea is rattier vague and general, and takes a variety of forms,
each of whicli has its distinct history. Sometimes concession is expressed hy the Hor-
tatory Subjunctive in a sentence grammatically independent (§440), biit it is more
frequently and more precisely expressed by a dependent clause introduced by a con-
cessive particle. The concessive force lies chiefly in the Conjunctions (which are
indefinite or conditional in origin), and is often made clearer by an adversative par-
ticle (tamen, certe) in the main clause. As the Subjunctive may be used in independ-
ent clauses to express a concession, it is also employed in concessive clauses, and
somewhat more frequently than the indicative.
527. The Particles of Concession (meaning although, granting
that) are quamvis, ut, licet, etsi, tametsi, etiam si, quamquam, and cum.
Some of these take the Subjunctive, others the Indicative, ac-
cording to the nature of the clause which each introduces.
a, Quamvis and ut take the Subjunctive : —
quamvis ipsi infantes sint, tamen . . . (Or. 76), however incapable of speaking
they themselves may be, yet., etc.
quamvis scelerati illi fuissent (De Or. i. 230), however guilty they might have
been.
quamvis comis in amlcis tuendis fuerit (Fin. ii. 80), amiable as he may have
been in keeping his friends.
ut neminem alium rogasset (Mil. 46), even if he had asked no other.
ut enim non efficias quod vis, tamen mors ut malum non sit efficies (Tusc. 1.
16), for even if you do not accomplish what you wish, still you will prove
that death is not an evil.
ut rationem Plato niillam adferret (id. i. 49), though Plato adduced no reasons.
Note. — Quamvis means literally as much as you wUl. Thus in the first example
above, let them he as incapable as you will, still, etc. The subjunctive with quamvis
is hortatory, like that with ne (§ 440) ; that with ut (ut non) is of uncertain origin.
b. Licet, although, takes the Present or Perfect Subjunctive : —
licet omnes mihi terr5res periculaque impendeant (Bosc. Am. 31), though aJJ
terrors aind perils should menace me.
§ 627] CONCESSIVE CLAUSES
Note. — Licet is properly a verb in the present tense, meaning it is granted. Hence
the subjuuctive is by the sequence of tenses limited to the Present and Perfect. The
concessive clause with licet is hortatory in origin, but may be regarded as a substan-
tive clause serving as the subject of the impersonal verb (§ 565. N.i).
c, Etsi, etiam si, tametsi, eve^i if, take the same constructions as si
(see § 514) : —
etsi abest mattiritas, tamen non est iniitile (Fam. vi. 18. 4), though ripeness
of age is wanting^ yet it is not useless, etc.
etsi numquam dubium fuit, tamen perspicio (id. v. 19), although it has never
been doubtful, yet I perceive, etc.
etsi statueram (id. v. 5) , though I had determined.
etsi nihil aliud abstulissetis, tamen contentos vos esse oportebat (Sull. 90),
even if you had taken away nothing else, you ought to have been satisfied.
etiam si quod scribas non habebis, scribito tamen (Fam. xvi. 26), even if you
[shall] have nothing to write, still write.
sed ea tametsi vos parvi pendebatis (Sail. Cat. 52. 9), but although you regarded
those things as of small account.
Note 1. — Tametsi with the subjunctive is very rare.
Note 2. — A protasis with si often has a concessive force: as, — ego, si essent ini-
micitiae mihi cum C. Caesare, tamen hoc tempore rei publicae consulere . . . deberem
(Prov. Cons. 47), as for me, even if I had private quarrels with Csesar, it would still
be my duty to serve the best interests of the state at this crisis.
d, Quamquam, although, introduces an admitted fact and takes the
Indicative : —
omnibus — quamquam ruit ipse suis cladibus — pestem denHntiat (Phil. xiv.
8), though he is breaking down under his disasters, still he threatens all
with destruction.
Note. — ^ Quamquam more commonly means and yet, introducing a new ptoposition
in the indicative; as, — quamquam haec quidem lam tolerabilia videbantur, etsi, etc.
(Mil. 76), and yet these, in truths seemed now bearable, though, etc.
e, The poets and later writers frequently use quamvis and quam-
quam like etsi, connecting them with the Indicative or the Subjunc-
tive, according to the nature of the condition : —
quamquam moveretur (Li v. xxxvi. 34), although he was moved.
Pollio amat nostram, quamvis est rustica, musam (Eel. iii. 84), Pollio loves
my muse, though she is rustic.
quamvis perveneras (Liv. ii. 40), though pou had come.
/. Ut, as, with the Indicative, may be equivalent to a concession :
verum ut errare potuisti, sic decipi te non potuisse quis non videt (Fam. x.
20. 2), suppose you could have been mistaken, who does not see that you
cannot have been deceived in this way ?
For cum concessive, see § 549 ; for qui concessive, see § 535. e. For concession ex-
pressed by the Hortatory Subjunctive (negative ne), see § 440c
340 SYNTAX: CLAUSES OF PROVISO [§§628-531
CLAUSES OF PROVISO
528. Dum, modo, dummodo, and tantum ut, introducing a Proviso^
take the Subjunctive. The negative with these particles is ne:
oderint dum metuant (Off. i. 97), let them hate, if only they fear.
valetudo modo bona sit (Brut. 64), provided the health be good.
dummodo inter me atque te miirus intersit (Cat. i. 10), provided only the wall
(of the city) is between us.
tantum ut sciant (Att. xvi. 11. 1), provided only they know.
modo ne sit ex pecudum genere (Off. i. 105), provided [in pleasure] he he
not of the herd of cattle.
id faciat saepe, dum ne lassus fiat (Cato R. R. v. 4), let him do this often,
provided he does not get tired.
dummodo ea (severitas) ne varietur (Q. Fr. i. 1. 20), provided only it (strictness)
be not allowed to swerve.
tantum ne noceat (Ov. M. ix. 21), only let it do no harm.
Note, — The Subjunctive with modo is hortatory or optative; that with dum and
dummodo, a development from the use of the Subjunctive with dum in temporal clauses,
§ 553 (compare the colloquial so long as my health is good, I don't care).
a. The Hortatory Subjunctive without a particle sometimes ex-
presses a proviso : —
sint Maecenates, non deerunt Marongs (Mart. viii. 66. 5), so there be Maece-
nases., Virgils will not be lacking.
b. The Subjunctive with ut (negative ne) is sometimes used to de-
note a proviso, usually with ita in the main clause : —
probata condicio est, sed ita ut ille praesidia deduceret (Att. vii. 14. 1), the
terms were approved, but only on condition that he should withdraw the
garrisons.
Note. — This is a development of the construction of Characteristic or Result.
For a clause of Characteristic expressing Proviso, see § 535. d.
CLAUSES OF PURPOSE (FINAL CLAUSES)
529. The Subjunctive in the clause of Purpose is hortatory in origin, coming
through a kind of indirect discourse construction (for which see §592). Thus, leisit
legates qui dicerent means he sent ambassadors loho should say, i.e. loho icere directed
to say ; in the direct orders the verb would be dicite, which would become dicant in the
Indirect Discourse of narrative (§ 588) or dicerent in the past (cf . hortatory subjunctive
in past tenses, §439. h). The Subjunctive with ut and ne is, in general, similar in
origin.
530. A clause expressing purpose is called a Final Clause.
531. Final Clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut (uti),
negative ne (ut ne), or by a Relative Pronoun or Adverb : —
§531] CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 341
1. Pure Clauses of Purpose, with ut (uti) or ne (ut ne), express the
purpose of the main verb in the form of a modifying clause: —
ab aratro abduxerunt Cincinnatum, ut dictator esset (Fin. ii. 12), they brought
Cincinnatus from the jilough that he might he dictator.
ut sint auxilio suis, subsistunt (B. C. i. 80), they halt in order to support (be
an aid to) their oivn men.
ne milites oppidum inramperent, portas obstruit (id. i. 27), he barricaded the
gates., in order that the soldiers might not break into the town.
scalas parari iubet, ne quam facultatem dimittat (id. i. 28), he orders scaling-
ladders to be got ready, in order not to let slip any opportunity.
at ne sit impiine (Mil. 81), that it be not loith impunity.
Note 1. — Sometimes the conjunction has a correlative (ideo, idcirco, eo consilio, etc.)
in the main clause (cf . § 561. a) : —
legum idcirco servi sumus, ut liberi simus (Clu. 146), /or this reason we are subject
to the laws, that we may be free.
copias transduxit eo consilio, ut castellum expugnaret (cf. B. G. ii. 9), he led the
troops across with this design — to storm the fort.
Note 2, — Ut non sometimes occurs in clauses of purpose when non belongs to some
particular word : as, — ut plura non dicam (Manil. 44), to avoid unnecessary talk.
2. Eelative Clauses of Purpose are introduced by the relative pro-
noun qui or a relative adverb (ubi, unde, quo, etc.). The antecedent
is expressed or implied in the main clause : —
mittitur L. Decidius Saxa qui loci naturam perspiciat (B. C. i. 66), Lucius
Decidius Saxa is sent to examine the ground (who should examine, etc.).
scribebat orationes quas alii dicerent (Brut. 206), he lurote speeches for other
men to deliver.
60 exstincto fore unde discerem neminem (Cat. M. 12), that when he loas dead
there would be nobody from whom (whence) I coidd learn.
huic ne ubi consisteret quidem contra te locum reliquisti (Quinct. 73), you
have left him no ground even to make a stand against you.
habebam qu5 confugerem (Fam. iv. 6. 2), I had [a retreat] whither I might flee.
Note. — In this construction qui = ut is (etc.), ubi = ut ibi, and so on (§ 537. 2).
a. The ablative quo (= ut eo) is used as a conjunction in final
clauses which contain a comparative : —
comprimere eorum audaciam, quo facilius ceterorum animi frangerentur
(Fam. XV. 4. 10), to repress their audacity, that the spirit of the others
might be broken more easily (by which the more easily),
libertate iisus est, quo impiinius dicax esset (Quinct. 11), he took advantage
of liberty, that he might bluster with more impunity.
Note. — Occasionally quo introduces a final clause that does not contain a compara-
tive : as, — L, Sulla exercitum, quo sibi fidum faceret, luxuriose habuerat (Sail. Cat. 11),
Lucius Sidla had treated the army luxurioudy, in order to make it devoted to him.
For quominus (=ut eo minus) after \erbs of hindering, see §558. b.
342 SYNTAX: CLAUSES OF PURPOSE [§§532,533
532. The principal clause, on winch a final clause depends, is
often to be supplied from the context : —
ac ne longum sit . . . iussimus (Cat. iii. 10), and, not to he tedious, we ordered^
etc. [Strictly, in order not to he tedious, I say we ordered.']
sed ut ad Dionysium redeamus (Tusc. v. 63), hut to return to Bionysius.
sed ut eodem revertar, causa haec fuit timoris (Fam. vi. 7. 3), hut, to return
to the same point, this was the cause of fear.
satis inconsiderati fuit, ne dicam audacis (Phil. xiii. 12), it was the act of one
rash enough, not to say daring.
Note 1. — By a similar ellipsis the Subjunctive is used withnedum (sometimes ne),
still less, not to mention that : —
nedum salvi esse posslmus (Clu. 95), much less could we be safe.
nedum isti non statim conqulsituri sint aliquid sceleris et flagiti (Leg. Agr. ii. 97),
far more will they hunt up at once some sort of crime and scandal.
nedum in mari et via sit facile (Fam. xvi. 8), still less is it easy at sea and on a
journey.
quippe secundae res sapientium animos f atlgant ; ne ill! corruptis moribus vic-
toriae temperarent (Sail. Cat. 11) , for prosperity overmo.scers the soul even
of the wise; much less did they ivith their corrupt tnoralsput any check on
victory.
Note 2. — With nedum the verb itself is often omitted: as, — aptius humanitati
tuae quam tota Peloponnesus, nedum Patrae (Fam. vli. 28. 1), fitter for your refine-
ment than all Peloponnesus, to say nothing of Patrse.
For Substantive Clauses involving purpose, see §§ 563-566.
533. The Purpose of an action is expressed in Latin in various
ways ; but never (except in idiomatic expressions and rarely in
poetry) by the simple Infinitive as in English (§ 460).
The sentence, they came to seek peace, may be rendered —
(1) venerunt ut pacem peter6nt. [Final clause with ut (§ 531. 1).]
(2) venerunt qui pacem peterent. [Final clause with Relative (§ 531. 2).]
(3) [venerunt ad petendum pacem.] Not found with transitive verbs (§ 500,
N. 2), but cf. ad pSrendum senatui. [Gerund with ad (§ 506).]
(4) venerunt ad petendam pacem. [Gerundive with ad (§ 506).]
(5) venerunt pacem petendi causa (gratia). [Gen. of Gerund with causa
(§504.6).]
(6) venerunt pacis petendae causa (gratia). [Gen. of Gerundive with causa
(§504.6).]
(7) venerunt pacem petiturl. [Future participle (§ 499. 2); in later writers.]
(8) venerunt pacem petltum. [Supine in -um (§ 509).]
These forms are not used indifferently, but —
a. The usual way of expressing purpose is by ut (negative ne),
unless the purpose is closely connected with some one word, in which
case a relative is more common: —
§§533-635] CLAUSES OE CHARACTERISTIC 343
legates ad Dumnorigem mittunt, ut eO deprecatore a Sequanis impetrarent
(B. G. i. 9), they send envoys to Dumnorix, in order through his interces-
sion to obtain (this favor) from the Sequani.
milites nilsit ut eos qui fugerant persequerentur (id*, v. 10), he sent the sol-
diers to follow up those who had fled.
Ctirio praeinittit equites qui.primum impetum sustineant (B. C. ii. 26), Curio
sends forward cavalry to withstand the first attack. ■
b. The Gerund and Gerundive constructions of purpose are usually
limited to short expressions, where the literal translation, though not
the English idiom, is nevertheless not harsh or strange.
c. The Supine is used to express purpose only with verbs of motion,
and in a few idiomatic expressions (§ 509).
d. The Future Participle used to express purpose is a late con-
struction of inferior authority (§ 499. 2).
For the poetical Infinitive of Purpose, see § 460. c. For the Present Participle in
a sense approaching that of purpose, see § 490. 3.
CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC
534. The relative clause of Characteristic with the Subjunctive is a development
peculiar to Latin. A relative clause in the Indicative merely states something as a
fact which is true of the antecedent; a characteristic clause (in the Subjunctive)
defines the antecedent as a person or thing of such a character that the statement
made is true of him or it and of all others belonging to the same class. Thus, — non
potest exercitum is continere imperator qui se ipse non continet (indicative) means simply,
that commander who does not (as a fact) restrain himself cannot restrain his army ;
whereas non potest exercitum is continere imperator qui se ipse non contineat (subjunctive)
would mean, that commander who is not such a man as to restrain himself, etc.,
that is, who is not characterized by self-restraint.
This construction has its origin in the potential use of the subjunctive (§445).
Thus, in the example just given, qui se ipse non contineat would mean literally, who
would not restrain himself (in any supposable case), and this potential idea passes
over easily into that of general quality or characteristic. The characterizing force
is most easily felt when the antecedent is indefinite or general. But this usage is
extended in Latin to cases which differ but slightly from statements of fact, as in
some of the examples below.
The use of the Subjunctive to express Result comes from its use in Clauses of
Characteristic. Thus, n5n sum ita hebes ut haec dicam means literally, / am not dull
in the manner (degree) in which I should say this, hence, I am not so dull as to say
this. Since, then, the characteristic often appears in the form of a supposed result,
the construction readily passes over into Pure Result, with no idea of characteristic ;
as, — tantus in curia clamor factus est ut populus concurreret (Verr. ii. 47), such an outcry
was made in the senate-house that the people hurried together.
535. A Relative Clause with the Subjunctive is often used to
indicate a characteristic of the antecedent, especially where the
antecedent is otherwise undefined : —
344 SYNTAX: CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC [§535
neque enim tu is es qui nescias (Fam. v. 12. 6), for you are not such a one as
not to know. [Here is is equivalent to such, and is defined only by the
relative clause that follows.]
multa dicunt quae'vix intellegam (Fin. iv. 2), they say many things which
(such as) I hardly understand.
paci quae nihil habitura sit insidiarum semper est consulcndum (Off. i. 85),
we must always aim at a peace which shall have no plots.
a, A Eelative Clause of Characteristic is used after general expres-
sions of existence or non-existence, including questions which imply
a negative.
So especiaUy with sunt qui, there are [some] who ; quis est qui, who
is there who ? —
sunt qui discessum animi a corpore putent esse mortem (Tnsc. i. 18), there are
some who think that the departure of soul from body constitutes death.
erant qui censerent (B. C. ii. 30), there were some who were of the opinion, etc.
erant qui Helvidium miserarentur (Tac. Ann. xvi. 29), there were some who
pitied Helmdius. [Cf. est cum (n. 3, below).]
quis est qui id nun maximis efferat laudibus (Lael. 24), who is there that does
not extol it with the highest praise ?
nihil video quod timeam (Fam. ix. 16. 3), I see nothing to fear.
nihil est quod adventum nostrum extimescas (Fam. ix. 26. 4), there is no rea-
son why you should dread my coming.
unde agger comportarl posset nihil erat reliquum (B. C. ii. 15), there was noth-
ing left from which an embankment could be got together.
Note 1. — After general negatives like nemo est qui, the Subjunctive is regular;
after genei'al affirmatives like sunt qui, it is the prevailing construction, but the Indic-
ative sometimes occurs; after mult! (non nuUi, quidam) sunt qui, and similar expres-
sions in which the antecedent is partially defined, the choice of mood depends on the
shade of meaning which the writer wishes to express : —
sunt bestiae quaedam in quibus inest aliquid simile virtiitis (Fin. v. 38), there are
certain animals in lohich there is something like virtue.
But, — invent! multi sunt qui \atam i^rofundere pro patria parati essent (Off. i. 84),
ma7iy were found of such a character as to be ready to give their lives for
their country.
Note 2. — Characteristic clauses with sunt qui etc. are sometimes called Relative
Clauses with an Indefinite Antecedent, but are to be carefully distinguished from the
Indefinite Relative in protasis (§ 520).
Note 3. — The phrases est cum, fuit cum, etc. are used like est qui, sunt qui: as,—
ac fuit cum mihi quoque initium requiescendi fore iustum arbitrarer (De Or. i. 1), and
there was a time lohen I thought a beginning of rest would be justifiable on my part.
h, A Eelative Clause of Characteristic may follow unus and solus :
nil admlrari prope res est una solaque quae possit facere et servare beatum
(Hor. Ep. i. 6. 1), to wonder at nothing is almost the sole and only thing
that can make and keep one happy.
solus es cuius in victoria ceciderit nemo nisi armatus (Deiot. 34), you are the
only man in whose victory no one has fallen unless armed.
§535] CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC 345
c. A clause of Eesult or Characteristic with quam ut, quam qui
(rarely with quam alone), may be used after comparatives : —
Canachi signa rigidiora sunt quam ut imitentur veritatem (Brut. 70), the statues
of Canachus are too stiff to represent nature (stiffer than that they should).
maiores arbores caedebant quam quas ferre miles posset (Li v. xxxiii. 5), they cut
trees too large for a soldier to carry (larger than what a soldier could carry).
Note. — This construction corresponds in sense to the English too . . . to.
d, A relative clause of characteristic may express restriction or
proviso (cf . § 528. h) : —
quod sciam, so far as I know (lit. as to what I know).
Catonis orationes, quas quidem invenerim (Brut. 65), the speeches of Cato, at
least such as I have discovered.
servns est nemo, qui modo tolerabili condicione sit servitutis (Cat. iv. 16),
there is not a slave, at least in any tolerable condition of slavery.
€, A Eelative Clause of Characteristic may express cause or conces-
S1071 : —
peccasse mihi videor qui a te discesserim (Eam. xvi. 1), I seem to myself to
have done wrong because I have left you. [Causal. ]
virum simplicem qui nos nihil celet (Or. 230), O guileless man, who hides noth-
ing from us ! [Causal . ]
egomet qui sero Graecas litteras attigissem, tamen complures Athenis dies
sum commoratus (De Or. i. 82), I myself though I began Greek literature
late, yet, etc. (lit. [a man] who, etc.). [Concessive.]
Note 1. — In this use the relative is equivalent to cum is etc. It is often preceded
by ut, utpote, or quippe : —
nee consul, ut qui id ipsum quaesisset, moram certaminl fecit (Liv. xlii. 7), nor
did the consul delay the fight, since he had sought that very thing (as [being
one] who had sought, etc.).
Liicius, f rater eius, utpote qui peregre depugnarit, familiam diicit (Phil. v. 30),
Lucius, his brother, leads his household, inasmuch as he is a man who has
fought it out abroad.
convivia cum patre non inibat, quippe qui ne in oppidum quidem nisi perraro
veniret (Rose. Am. 52), he did not go to dinner parties with his father, since
he did not even come to town except very rarely.
Note 2. — The Relative of Cause or Concession is merely a variety of the Charac-
teristic construction. The quality expressed by the Subjunctive is connected with the
action of the main verb either as cause on account of lohich (since) or as hindrance
in spite of which (although).
/. Dignus, indignus, aptus, idoneus take a subjunctive clause with
a relative (rarely ut). The negative is non : —
digna in quibus elaborarent (Tusc. i. 1), (things) worth spending their toil on
(worthy on which they should, etc.).
digna res est ubi tu nervos intendas tuos (Ter. Eun. ^\2),the affair is worthy
of your stretching your sinews (worthy wherein you should, etc.).
846 SYNTAX: -CLAUSES OF RESULT [§§635-537
idoneus qui impetret (Manil. 67), fit to obtain.
indigni ut redimeremur (Liv. xxii. 59. 17), unworthy to be ransomed.
Note 1. — This construction is sometimes explained as a relative clause of purpose,
but it is more closely related to characteristic.
Note 2. — With dignus etc., the poets often use the Infinitive : —
fons rivo dare nomen idoneus (Hor. Ep. i. 16. 12), a source fit to give a name to a
stream.
aetas mollis et apta regi (Ov. A. A. i. 10), a time of life soft and easy to be guided.
vivere dignus eras (Ov. M. x. 633), you were worthy to live.
CLAUSES OF RESULT (CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES)
536. The Subjunctive in Consecutive Clauses is a development of the use of that
mood in Clauses of Characteristic (as explained in § 534).
537. Clauses of Result take the Subjunctive introduced by ut, so
that (negative, ut non), or by a relative pronoun or relative adverb.
1. Pure Clauses of Eesult, with ut or ut non, express the result of
the main verb in the form of a modifying clause : —
tanta vis probitatis est ut earn in hoste diligamus (Lael. 29), so great is the
power of goodness that we love it even in an enemy.
pugnatur acriter ad novissimum agmen, adeo ut paene terga convertant
(B. C. i. 80), there is sharp fighting in the rear, so (to such a degi-ee) that
they almost take flight.
multa rumor adfingebat, ut paene bellum confectum videretur (id. i. 53),
rumor added many false reports, so that the war seemed almost ended.
2. Relative Clauses of Result are introduced by the relative pro-
noun qui or a relative adverb (ubi, unde, quo, etc.). The antecedent is
expressed or implied in the main clause.
The Relative in this construction is equivalent to ut with the corre-
sponding demonstrative : — qui = ut is (etc.), ubi = ut ibi, and so on :
nam est innocentia affectio talis animi quae noceat nemini (Tusc. iii. 16), for
innocence is such a quality of mind as to do harm to no one.
sunt aliae causae quae plane efficiant (Top. 59) , there are other causes such as
to bring to j^ass.
nulla est celeritas quae possit cum animi celeritate contendere (Tusc! i. 43),
there is no swiftness which can compare with the swiftness of the mind.
quis navigavit qui non se mortis periculo committeret (Manil. 31), who went to
sea who did not incur the peril of death ?
Note 1.— Since the relative clause of Result is a development from the relative
clause of Characteristic (§ 534) , no sharp line can be drawn between the two construc-
tions. In doubtful cases, it is better to attempt no distinction or to describe the clause
as one of Characteristic.
Note 2. — Clauses of Result are often introduced by such correlative words as tarn,
talis, tantus, ita, sic, adeo, iisque eo, which belong to the main clause.
§§ 537, 538] CLAUSES OF RESULT 347
a, A Negative Eesult is introduced by ut non, ut ngmo, qui non, etc.,
not by ne ; —
inultis gravibusque volneribus confectus ut iam se sustinere non posset (B. G.
ii. 25), wse(f up with many severe wounds so that he could no longer stand.
tanta vi in Pompei equites impetum f ecerunt ut eorum nemo consisteret (B.C.
iii. 93), they attacked Pompey^s cavalry with such vigor that not one o/
them stood his ground.
nemo est tarn senex qui se annum non putet posse vivere (Cat. M. 24), nobody
is so old as not to think that he can live a year.
Note. — When the result implies an effect intended (not a simple purpose), ut ne
or ne is sometimes used as being less positive than ut non : — [librum] ita corrigas ne
mihi noceat (Caecina, Fam. vi. 7. G), correct the hook so that it may not hurt me.
b, Frequently a clause of result or characteristic is used in a re-
strictive sense, and so amounts to a Proviso (of. § 535. d) : —
hoc ita est utile ut ne plane inludamur ab accusatoribiis (Rose. Am. 55), this
is so far useful that we are not utterly mocked by the accusers (i.e. useful
only on this condition, that, etc.).
nihil autem est molestum quod non desideres (Cat. M. 47), but nothing is
troublesome which (= provided that) you do not miss.
c, Tbe clause of result is sometimes expressed in English by the
Infinitive with to or so as to or an equivalent : —
tam longe aberam ut non viderem, I was too far away to see (so far that I
did not see ; cf. § 535. c).
Note. —Result is never expressed by the Infinitive in Latin except by the poets in
a few passages (§ 461. a).
538. The constructions of Purpose and Eesult are precisely
alike in the affirmative (except sometimes in tense sequence,
§ 485. c) ; but, in the negative. Purpose takes ne, Result ut non
etc. : —
custoditus est ne effugeret, he was guarded in order that he might not escape.
custoditus est ut non effugeret, he was guarded so that he did not escape.
So in negative Purpose clauses ne quis, ne quid, ne ullus, ne quo, ne
quando, necubi, etc. are almost always used ; in negative Eesult clauses,
ut nemo, ut nihil, ut nullus, etc. : —
(1) cernere ne quis eos, neu quis contingere posset (Aen. i. 413), that no one
might see them, no one touch them. [Purpose. ]
ne quando liberls proscrlptorum bona patria reddantur (Rose. Am. 145), lest
at some time the patrimony of the proscribed should be restored to their
children.
ipse ne quo inciderem, reverti Formias (Att. viii. 3. 7), that I might not come
upon him anywhere, I returned to FormicB.
348 SYNTAX: CAUSAL CLAUSES [§§638-540
dispositis exploratoribus necubi RomanI copias traducerent (B. G. vii. 35),
having stationed scouts here and there in order that the Romans might
not lead their troops across anywhere.
(2) multi ita sunt imbecilli sciics ut nullum ofBci mfmus exf-^equi possint (Cat.
M. 35), many old men are so feeble that they cannot perform any duty to
society. [Result.]
qui summum boiium sic Instituit ut nihil habeat cum virtufce coniunctum
(Off. i. 5)^ who has so settled the highest good that it has nothing in com-
mon with virtue.
For clauses of Result or Characteristic with quin, see § 559. For Substantive Clauses
of Result, see §§ 567-571.
CAUSAL CLAUSES
539. Causal Clauses take either the Indicative or the Subjunctive, according to
their construction ; the idea of cause being contained, not in the mood itself, but in
the form of the argument (by implication), in an antecedent of causal meaning (like
propterea), or in the connecting particles.
Quod is in origin the relative pronoun (stem quo-) used adverbially in the accusative
neuter (cf . § 214. d) and gradually sinking to the position of a colorless relative con-
junction (cf. English that and see §222). Its use as a causal pariicle is an early
special development. Quia is perhaps an accusative plural neuter of the relative stem
qui-, and seems to have developed its causal sense more distinctly than quod, and at
an earlier period. It is used (very rarely) as an interrogative, why ? (so in classical
Latin with nam only), and may, like quando, have developed from an interrogative to
a relative particle.
Quoniam (for quom lam) is also of relative origin (quom being a case-form of the
pronominal stem quo-) . It occurs in old Latin in the sense of when (cf . quom, cum) ,
from which the causal meaning is derived (cf . cum causal). The Subjunctive with quod
and quia depends on the principle of Informal Indirect Discourse (§ 592).
Quando is probal)ly the interrogative quam {hoio ?) compounded with a form of the
pronominal stem do- (of. dum, do-nec) . It originally denoted time (first interrogatively,
then as a relative), and thus came to signify cause. Unlike quod and quia, it is not
used to state a reason in informal indirect discourse and therefore is never followed
by the Subjunctive.
540. The Causal Particles quod and quia take the Indicative,
when the reason is given on the authority of the writer or
speaker; the Subjunctive, when the reason is given on the
authority of another : —
1. Indicative : —
cum tibi agam gratias quod me vivere coegisti (Att. iii. 3), when I may thank
you that you have forced me to live.
CUT igitur pacem nolo ? quia turpis est (Phil. vii. 9), why then do I not wish
for peace ? Because it is disgraceful.
ita fit ut adsint propterea quod olificium sequuntur, taceant autem quia perl-
culuui vitant (Rose. Ara. 1), so it happens that they attend because they
follow duty, but are silent because they seek to avoid danger,
540] CAUSAL CLAUSES 349
2. Subjunctive : —
mihi gratulabare quod audisses me meam pristinam dignitatem obtinere
(Fam. iv. 14. 1), you congratulated me because [as you said] you had
heard that I had regained my former dignity. ■
noctu. ambulabat Themistocles quod somnum capere non posset (Tusc, iv. 44),
Themistocles used to walk about at night because [as lie said] he could not
mea mater irata est quia non redierim (PI. Cist. 101), my mother is angry
because I didnH return.
Note 1. — Quod introduces either a/aci or a statement, and accordingly takes either
the Indicative or the Subjunctive. Quia regularly introduces a fact; hence it rarely
takes the Subjunctive. Quoniam, inasmuch as, since, when now, noio that, has refer-
ence to motives, excuses, justifications, and the like and takes the Indicative.
Note 2. — Under this head what the speaker himself thought under other circum-
stances may have the Subjunctive (§592. 3. n.) : as, — ego laeta visa sum quia soror
venisset (PI. Mil. 387), 1 seemed (in my dream) glad because my sister had come.
So with quod even a verb of saying may be in the Subjunctive: as, — rediit quod
se oblitum nescio quid diceret (Off. i. 40), he returned because he said he had forgotten
something.
Note 3. — Won quod, non quia, nSn quo, introducing a reason expressly to deny it, take
the Subjunctive ; but the Indicative sometimes occurs when the statement is in itself
triie, though not the true reason. In the negative, non quin (with the Subjunctive)
may be used in nearly the same sense as non quod non. After a comparative, quam
quo or quam quod is used : —
pugiles ingemescunt, non quod doleant, sed quia profundenda voce omne corpus
intenditur (Tusc. li. 50), boxers groan, not because they are in pain, but
because by giving vent to the voice the whole body is put in a state of
tension.
n5n quia rectior ad Alpis via asset, sed credens (Liv. xxi. 31. 2), not because the
route to the Alps ivas more direct, but believing, etc.
non quIn pari virtute et voluntate alii fuerint, sed tantam causam non habuerunt
(Phil. vii. 6), not that there were not others of equal courage and good-will,
but they had not so strong a reason.
haec amore magis impulsus scribenda ad te putavi, quam quo te arbitrarer monitis
et praeceptis egere (Fam. x. 3. 4), this I thought I ought to lorite to you,
rather from the impulse of (prompted by) affection than because I thought
that you needed advice and suggestion.
a. Quoniam and quando, since, introduce a reason given on the
authority of the writer or speaker, and take the Indicative : —
locus est a me, quoniam ita Murena voluit, retractandus (Mur. 54), I must
review the point, since Murena has so wished.
quand5 ita vis, dl bene vortant (PI. Trin. 573), since you so wish, may the
gods bless the undertaking.
quando ad maiora nati sumus (Fin. v. 21), since we are born for greater things.
Note. — The Subjunctive with quoniam is unclassical. Quando, since, in the causal
sense, is mostly archaic or late. Quando, when, is used as interrogative, relative, and
indefinite : as, — quando ? hodie, lohen ? to-day ; si quando, if ever.
350 SYNTAX: TEMPORAL CLAUSES [§§540-542
h. Causal clauses introduced "by quod, quia, quoniam, and quando
take the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse, like any other dependent
clause (see § 580).
c, A Relative, when used to express cause, regularly takes the Sub-
junctive (see § 535. e).
d. Cum causal takes the Subjunctive (see § 549).
For Substantive Clauses with quod, see § 572.
TEMPORAL CLAUSES
641. Temporal Clauses are introduced by particles which are almost all of rela-
tive origin. They are construed like other relative clauses, except where they have
developed into special idiomatic constructions.^
For list of Temporal Particles, see p. 138.
Temporal Clauses may be classified as follows : —
I. Conditional Relative Clauses: ubi, ut, cum, quando, in Protasis (§542),
II. Clauses with postquam, ubi, etc. (Indicative), (§543).
III. Clauses with cum ( J' ^^^ ^^^P^^^ (§§ ^^^6^^).
I 2. Cum causal or concessive (§ 549).
IV. Clauses with antequam and priusquam (Indicative or Subjunctive) (§551).
V. Clauses with dum, donee, and quoad (Indicative or Subjunctive) (§§ 552-556).
Conditional Relative Clauses
542. The particles ubi, ut, cum, quando, either alone or com-
pounded with -cumque, may be used as Indefinite Relatives (in the
sense of whenever)^ and have the constructions of Protasis (cf.
§514):-
cum id malum negas esse, capior (Tiisc. ii. 29), whenever you (the indi-
vidual disputant) deny it to he an evil, I am misled. [Present general
condition.]
quod profecto cum me nulla vis cogeret, facere non auderem (Phil. v. 51),
which I would surely not venture to do, as long as no force compelled me.
[Present, contrary to fact: cf. § 517.]
cum videas eds dolore non frangi, debeas existimare, etc. (Tusc. ii. QQ), when
you see that those are not broken by pain, you ought to infer, etc. [Pres-
ent general condition : cf. § 518. a.]
cum rosam viderat, turn incipere ver arbitrabatur ( Verr. v. 27) , whenever he saw
a rose he thought spring had begun. [Past general condition : cf . § 518. b. ]
id ubi dixisset, hastam in finis eorum emittebat (Liv. 1. 32. 13), when he had
said this, he would cast the spear into their territories. [Past General
Condition, repeated action : see § 518. c]
1 With all temporal particles tlie Subjunctive is often found depending on some
other principle of construction. (See Intermediate Clauses. § 591.)
§ 543] POSTQUAM, UBI, ETC. 351
Temporal Clauses with postquam, ubi, etc.
543. The particles postquam (posteaquam), ubi, ut (ut primum, ut
semel), simul atque (simul ac, or simul alone), take the Indicative
(usually in the perfect or the historical present) : —
milites postquam victoriam adept! sunj, nihil reliqui victis fecere (Sail. Cat. 11),
when the soldiers had won the victory, they left nothing to the vanquished.
posteaquam forum attigisti, nihil fecisti nisi, etc. (Fam. xv. 16. 3), since you
came to the forum, you have done nothing excevt, etc.
ubi omnis idem sentire intellexit, posterum diem ptignae con.stituit (B. G.
iii. 23), when he understood that all agreed (thought the same thing), he
appointed the next day fdr the battle.
Catillna, ubi eos convenisse videt, secedit (Sail. Cat. 20), when Catiline sees
that they have come together, he retires.
Pompeius ut equitatum suum pulsum vidit, acie excessit (B. C. iii. 94), when
Pompey saw his cavalry beaten, he left the field.
ut semel e Piraeeo eloquentia evecta est (Brut. 51), as soon as eloquence had
set sail from the Piraeus.
nostri simul in arido constiterunt, in hostis impetum fecerunt (B, G. iv. 26),
our men, as soon as they had taken a position on dry ground, made an
attack on the enemy.
simul atque introductus est, rem confecit (Clu. 40), as soon as he was brought
in, he did the job.
a. These particles less commonly take the Imperfect or Pluperfect
Indicative. The Imperfect denotes a past state of things ; the Plu-
perfect, an action completed in past time : —
postquam struct! utrimque stabant, duces in medium procedunt (Liv. i.
23), when they stood in array on both sides, the generals advance into
the midst.
P. Africanus posteaquam bis consul et censor fuerat (Caecil. 69), when Afri-
canus had been (i.e. had the dignity of having been) twice consul and
censor.
postquam id difficilius visum est, neque facultas perficiendi dabatur, ad Pom-
peium trilnsierunt (B. C. iii. 60), when this seemed too hard, and no means
of effecting it were given, they passed over to Pompey.
post diem quintum quam iterum barbarl male pugnaverant [= victi sunt],
legatl a Boccho veniunt (Tug. 102), the fifth day after the barbarians were
beaten the second time, envoys come from Bocchus.
haec iuventutem, ubi familiares opes defecerant, ad facinora incendebant
(Sail. Cat. 13), lohen their inherited resources had given out, etc.
ubi pericula virtiite propulerant (id. 6), when they had dispelled the dangers by
their valor.
For the use of ubi, ut, either alone or compounded with -cumque, as Indefinite Rela-
tives, see § 542.
352 syntax : temporal clauses [§§ 544, 545
Uses of Cum
544. The conjunction cum (quom) is a case-form of the relative pronoun qui. It
inherits from qui its subordinating force, and in general shares its constructions.
But it was early specialized to a temj)oral meaning (cf . turn, dum) , and its range of usage
was therefore less wide than that of qui ; it could not, for example, introduce clauses
of purpose or of result.
With the Indicative, besides the simple expression of definite time (corresponding to
simple relative clauses with the Indicative), it has a few special uses, — conditional,
explicative, cum inversmn — all easily derived from the temporal use.
With the Subjunctive, cum had a development parallel to that of the qui-clause of
Characteristic, — a development not less extensive and equally peculiar to Latin.
From defining the time the cum-clause passed over to the description of the time by
means of its attendant circumstances of cause or concession (cf. since, while).
In particular, cum with the Subjunctive was used in narrative (hence the past
tenses. Imperfect and Pluperfect) as a descriptive clause of time. As, however, the
present participle in Latin is restricted in its use and the perfect active participle is
almost wholly lacking, the historical or narrative cum-clause came into extensive use
to supply the deficiency. In classical writers the narrative cum-clause (with the Sub-
junctive) has pushed back the defining clause (with the Imperfect or Pluperfect Indica-
tive) into comparative iufrequency, and is itself freely used where the descriptive or
characterizing force is scarcely perceptible (cf- the qui-clause of Characteristic, §534).
Cum Temporal
545. A temporal clause with cum, ivJien^ and some past tense of
the Indicative dates or defines the time at which the action of the
main verb occurred : —
eo [lituo] regiones direxit tum cum urbem condidit (Div. i. 30), he traced with
it the quarters [of the sky] at the time he founded the city.
cum occiditur Sex. Roscius, ibidem fuerunt servl (Rose. Am. 120), when
Boscius was slain, the slaves were on the spot, [occiditur is historical
present.]
quem quidem cum ex urbe pellebam, hoc providebam animo (Cat. iii. 16),
when I was trying to force him (conative imperfect) from the city, 1
looked forward to this.
fulgentis gladios hostiuiu videbant Decii cum in aciem eorum inruebant (Tusc.
ii. 59), the Decii saw the flashing swords of the enemy when they rushed
upon their line.
tum cum in Asia res magnas permulti amiserant (Manil. 19), at that time,
when many had lost great fortunes in Asia.
Note 1. — This is the regular use with all tenses in early Latin, and at all times
with the Perfect and the Historical Present (as with postquam etc.). With the Imper-
fect and Pluperfect the Indicative use is (in classical Latin) much less common than
the Subjunctive use defined below (§540).
Note 2. — This construction must not be confused with that of cum, lohenever, In
General Conditions (§ 542).
§ 545, 646] CUM TEMPORAL S5S
a. When the time of the main clause and that of the temporal
clause are absolutely identical, cum takes the Indicative in the same
tense as that of the main verb ; —
maxima sum laetitia adfectus cum audivi consulem te factum^ esse (Fam.
XV. 7), I was very much pleased when I heard that you had been elected
consul.
546. A temporal clause with cum and the Imperfect or Pluper-
fect Subjunctive describes the circumstances that accompanied or
preceded the action of the main verb : —
cum essem otiosus in Tusculano, accepi tuas litteras (Fam. ix. 18. 1), when I
was taking my ease in my house at I'uscidum, I received your letter.
cum servili bello premeretur (Manil. 30), when she (Italy) was under the load
of the Servile War.
cum id nuntiatum esset, maturat (B. G. i. 7), when this had been reported, he
made (makes) haste.
cum ad Cybistra quinque dies essem moratus, regem Ariobarzanem insidiis
libera vi (Fam. xv. 4. 6), after remaining at Cybistra for five days, I freed
King Ariobarzanes from plots.
is cum ad me Laodiceam venisset mecumque ego eum vellem, repente per-
cussus est atrocissimis litterls (id. ix. 25. 3), when Tie had come to me at
Laodicea and I wished him to remain with me, he was suddenly, etc.
Note 1. — This construction is very common in narrative, and cum in this use is often
called narrative cum.
Note 2. — Cum with the Imperfect or Pluperfect Inclicative does not (like cum with
the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive) describe the time by its circumstances; it
defines the time of the main verb by denoting a coexistent state of things (Imperfect
Indicative) or a result attained when the action of the main verb took place (Pluper-
fect). Thus the construction is precisely that of postquam etc. (§ 543. a).
Note 3. — The distinction between the uses defined in §§545, 546, may be illustrated
by the following examples: (1) He had a fever when he was in Spain (Shakspere).
Here the wAen-clause defines the time when Caesar had the fever, — namely, in the year
of his Spanish campaign (b.c. 49). In Latin we should use cum with the Imperfect
Indicative. (2) Columbus discovered America when he was seeking a new route to '
India; here the z^Aew-clause does not define or date the time of the discovery; it
merely describes the circumstances imder v/hich America was discovered, — namely,
In the course of a voyage undertaken for another puriwse. In Latin we should use the
Imperfect Subjunctive.
Note 4. — The distinction explained in Note 3 is unknown to early Latin. In
Plautus quom always has the Indicative imless the Subjunctive is required for some
other reason.
a. When the principal action is expressed in the form of a tem-
poral clause with cum, and the definition of the time becomes the
main clause, cum takes the Indicative.
Here the logical relations of the two clauses are inverted ; hence
cum is in this use called cum inversum : —
354 SYNTAX : TEMPORAL CLAUSES [§§ 540-549
dies nondum decern intercesserant, cum ille alter fllius infans necatur (Clu.
28), ten days had not yet passed, when the other infant son was killed.
[Instead of when ten days had not yet passed, etc.]
iamque lux apparebat cum procedit ad mllites (Q. C. vii. 8. 3), and day was
already dawning when he appears before the soldiers.
hoc facere noctu apparabant, cum matres familiae repente in publicum pro-
currerunt (B. G. vii. 26), they were preparing to do this by night, when the
women suddenly ran out into the streets.
547. Present time with cum temporal is denoted by the Pres-
ent Indicative ; future time, by the Future or Future Perfect
Indicative : —
incidunt tempera, cum ea, quae maxime videntur digna esse iusto homine.
fiunt contraria (Off. i. 31), times occur when those things which seem
especially worthy of the upright man, become the opposite.
non dubitabo dare operam ut te videam, cum id satis commode facere potero
(Fam. xiii. \), I shall not hesitate to take pains to see you, when I can do
it conveniently.
longum illud tempus cum non ero (Att. xii. 18), that long time when I shall
be no more.
cum veneris, cognosces (Fam. v. 7. 3), when you come (shall have come),
you will find out.
548. Cum, whefiever, takes the construction of a relative clause
in a general condition (see § 542).
For present time, either the Present or the Perfect Indicative is
used ; for past time, regularly the Pluperfect Indicative.
For est cum etc., see § 535. a. n. 8.
Cum Causal or Concessive
' 549. Cum causal or concessive takes the Subjunctive : —
id difficile non est, cum tantum equitatu valeamus (B. C. iii. 8G), this is not
difficult since we are so strong in cavalry. [Causal.]
cum solitudo Insidiarum et metus plena sit, ratio ipsa monet amicitias com-
parare (Fin. i. BQ), since solitude is full of treachery and fear, reason it-
self prompts us to contract friendships. [Causal.]
cum primi ordines concidissent, tamen acerrime reliqui resistebant (B. G.
vii. 62), though the first ranks had fallen, still the others resisted vigor-
ously. [Concessive.]
brevi spatio legiones numero hominum expleverat, cum initio non amplius
duobus milibus habuisset (Sail. Cat. 56), in a short time he had filled
out the legions with their complement of men, though at the start he had
not had more than two thousand. [Concessive.]
§§ 549-551] ANTEQUAM AND PBIUSQUAM 355
Cum causal may usually be translated by since; cum concessive by
although or ivhile; either, occasionally, by when.
Note 1. — Cum in these uses is often emphasized by ut, utpote, quippe, praesertim:
as, — nee reprehendo: quippe cum ipse istam reprehensionem nou fugerim (Att. x. 3 a),
I find 710 fault ; since I myself did not escape that blame.
Note 2. — These causal and concessive uses of cum are of relative origin and are
parallel to qui causal and concessive (§535. e). The attendant circumstances are re-
garded as the cause of the action, or as tending to hinder it.
Note 3. — In early Latin cum (quom) causal and concessive usually takes the Indic-
ative: as, — quom tua res distrahitur, utinam videam (PL Trin. 617), since your prop-
erty is being torn in pieces, that I may see, etc.
a. Cum with, the Indicative frequently introduces an explanatory
statement, and is sometimes equivalent to quod, on the ground that: —
cum tacent, clamant (Cat. 1. 21), when they are silent^ they cry out (i.e. their
silence is an emphatic expression of their sentiments).
gratulor tibi cum tantum vales apud Dolabellam (Fam. ix. 14. 3), I congratu-
late you that you are so strong with Dolabella.
Note. — This is merely a special use of cum temporal expressing coincident time
(§545. a).
b. Cum . . . tum, signifying both . . . and, usually takes the Indica-
tive ; but when cum approaches the sense of while or though, the Sub-
junctive is used (§ 549) : —
cum multa non probo, tum illud in primis (Fin. i. 18), while there are many
things I do not approve, there is this in chief. [Indicative.]
cum difficile est, tum ne aequum quidem (Lael. 26), not only is it difficult
but even unjust.
cum res tota ficta sit puerlliter, tum ne efficit quidem quod vult (Fin. i. 19),
while the whole thing is childishly got up, he does not even make his point
(accomplish what he wishes). [Subjunctive ; approaching cum causal.]
Antequatn and Priusquant
550. Antequam and priusquam, before, introduce Clauses of Time which resemble
those with cum temporal in their constructions. Priusquam consists of two parts (often
written separately and sometimes separated by other words), the comparative adverb
prius, sooner {before), which really modifies the main verb, and the relative particle
quam, than, which introduces the subordinate clause. The latter is therefore a rela-
tive clause, and takes the Indicative or the Subjunctive (like other relative clauses)
according to the sense intended. The Subjunctive with priusquam is related to that of
purpose (§ 529) and is sometimes called the Anticipatory or Prospective Subjunctive.
Antequam, like priusquam, consists of two words, the first of which is the adverb ante,
before, modifying the main verb. Its constructions are the same as those of priusquam,
but the latter is commoner in classic prose.
551. Antequam and priusquam take sometimes the Indicative^
sometimes the Subjunctive.
S56 SYNTAX : TEMPORAL CLAUSES [§ 551
a. With antequam or priusquam the Perfect Indicative stafps a
fact in past time : —
antequam tuas leg! litteras, hominem ire cupiebam (Att. ii. 7. 2), before I
read your letter^ I wished the man to go.
neque ante dimisit eum quam fidem dedit adulescens (Liv. xxxix. 10), and
she did not let the young man go till he pledged his faith.
neque prius fugere destiterunt quam ad flumeu pervenerunt (B. G. i. 53), nor
did they stop running until they reached the river.
Note. — The Perfect Indicative in this construction is regular when the main
clause is negative and the main verb is in an historical tense. The Imperfect Indicative
is rare; the Pluperfect Indicative, very rare. The Perfect Subjunctive is rare and
ante-classical, except in Indirect Discourse.
6, With antequam or priusquam the Imperfect Subjunctive is com-
mon when the subordinate verb implies purpose or expectancy in past
time, or when the action that it denotes did not take place : —
ante pugnarl coeptum est quam satis instrueretur acies (Liv. xxii. 4. 7), the
fight was begun before the line could be properly formed.
priusquam tu suum sibi venderes, ipse possedit (Phil. ii. 96), before you could
sell him his ovm property^ he took possession of it himself.
priusquam telum abici posset aut nostri propius accederent, omnis Vaii acies
terga vertit (B. C. ii. 34), before a weapon could be thrown or our men
approached nearer, the whole line about Varus took flight.
Note 1. — The Pluperfect Subjunctive is rare, except in Indirect Discourse by se-
quence of tenses for the Future Perfect Indicative (§ 484. c): as, — antequam homines
nefarii de meo adventu audire potuissent, in Macedoniam perrexi (Plane. 98), before
those evil men could learn of my coining, I arrived in Macedonia.
Note 2. — After an historical present the Present Subjunctive is used instead of the
Imperfect: as, — neque ab eo prius Domitia.nl milites discedunt quam in couspectum
Caesaris deducatur (B. C. i. 22), and the soldiers of Domitius did (do) not leave him
until he was (is) conducted into Cxsar' s presence. So, rarelj^ the Perfect Subjunctive
(as B. G. ill. 18).
c. Antequam and priusquam, when referring to future time, take the
Present or Future Perfect Indicative ; rarely the Present Subjunctive:
priusquam de ceteris rebus respondeo, de amicitia pauca dlcam (Phil. ii. 3),
before I reply to the rest, I laill say a little about friendship.
non dgfatigabor antequam illorum aiicipites vias percepero (De Or. iii. 145),
I shall not weary till I have traced out their doubtful ways.
antequam veniat litteras mittet (Leg. Agr. ii. 53), before he comes, he will send
a letter.
Note 1. — The Future Indicative is very rare.
Note 2. — In a few cases the Subjunctive of present general condition is found with
antequam and priusquam (cf. §518. a): as, — in omnibus negotiis priusquam aggrediare,
adhibenda est praeparatio diligens (Off. i. 73), in all undertakings, before you proceed
to action, careful preparation must be used.
§§ 552-564] BUM, BONEG, AND QUOAD 357
Dutn^ Donee, and Quoad
552. As an adverb meaning/or a time, awhile, dum is found in old Latin, chiefly
as an enclitic (cf. vixdum, nondum). Its use as a conjunction comes either through
correlation (cf. cum . . , turn, si . . . sic) or through substitution for a conjunction, as
in the English the moment I saw it, I understood. Quoad is a compound of the rela-
tive quo, up to lohich point, with ad. The origin and early history of donee are unknown.
553. Dum and quoad, U7itil^ take the Present or Imperfect Sub-
junctive in temporal clauses implying intention or expectancy : —
exspectas fortasse dum dicat (Tusc. ii. 17), you are waiting perhaps for him
to say (until he say). [Dum is especially commo3:t after exspecto.]
dum reliquae naves convenireut, ad horam nonam exspectavit (B. G. iv. 23),
he waited till the ninth hour for the rest of the ships to join him.
comitia dilata [sunt] dum lex ferretur (Att. iv. 17. 8), the election was post-
poned until a law should be passed.
an id exspectamus, quoad ne vestigium quidem Asiae civitatum atque urbium
relinquatur (Phil. xi. 25), shall we wait for this until not a trace is left of
the states and cities of Asia f
Epaminondas exercebatur plurimum luctando ad eum finem quoad stans
complecti posset atque contendere (Nep. Epam. 2), Epaminondas trained
himself in wrestling so far as to be able (until he should be able) to grapple
standing and fight (in that way).
Note 1. — Donee is similarly used in poetry and later Latin: as, — et duxit longe
donee curvata coirent inter se capita (Aen. xi. 860), and drew it (the bow) until the
curved tips touched each other.
Note 2. — Dum, until, may be used with the Present or Future Perfect Indicative
to state a future fact when there is no idea of intention or expectancy ; but this con-
struction is rare in classic prose. The Future is also found in early Latin. Donee, until,
is similarly used, in poetry and early Latin, with the Present and Future Perfect Indica-
tive, rarely with the Future : —
ego in Arcano opperior dum ista cognoseo (Att. x. 3), 7 am waiting in the villa at
ArcsB until I find this out. [This is really dum, wJiile.]
mihi usque curae erit quid agas, dum quid egeris sciero (Fam. xii. 19. 3), I shall
always feel anxious as to what you are doing, until I actually know (shall
have known) what you have done.
delicta maiorum lues donee templa refeeeris (Hor. Od. iii. 6. 1), you shall suffer for
the sins of your ancestors until you rebuild the temples.
ter centum regnabitur annos, dSnee geminam partii dabit Ilia prolem (Aen. i. 272),
sway shall he held for thrice a hundred years, until Mia shall give birth to
twin offspring.
554. Donee and quoad, until, with the Perfect Indicative denote
an actual fact in past time : —
donee rediit silentium fuit (Liv, xxiii. 31. 9), there was silence until he returned.
lisque eo timui donee ad reiciendos indices venimus (Yerr. ii. 1. 17), I ivas
anxious until the moment when we came to challenge the jurors.
Komae fuerunt quoad L. Metellus in provinciam profectus est (id. ii. 62),
they remained at Home until Lucius Metellus set out for the province.
358 SYNTAX: TEMPORAL CLAUSES [§§554-556
Note. — Dum, until, with the Perfect Indicative is rare: as, — mansit in condi-
cioue usque ad eum linem dum iudices reiecti sunt (Verr. i. 16), lie remained true to the
agreement until the Jurors were challenged.
555. Dum, donee, and quoad, as long as^ take the Indicative : —
dum anima est, spes esse dicitur (Att. ix. 10. 3), as long as there is life, there
is said to be hope.
dum praesidia ulla fuerunt, in Sullae praesidiis fuit (Rose. Am. 126), so long
as there were any garrisons, he was in the garrisons of Sulla.
dum longius a munllione aberant Galli, plus multitudine teloruin proficietant
(B. G. vii. 82), so long as the Gauls were at a distance from the fortifica-
tions, they had the advantage because of their rnissiles.
donee gratus eram tibi, Persarum vigui rege beatior (Hor. Od. iii. 9. 1), as
long as I enjoyed thy favor, I flourished happier than the king of the
Persians.
quoad potuit fortissime restitit (B, G. iv. 12), he resisted bravely as long as
he could.
Note 1. — Donee in this use is confined to poetiy and later writers.
Note 2. — Quam diu, as long as, takes the Indicative only: as, — se oppldotam diu
tenuit quam diu in provincia Parthi fuerunt (Fam. xii. 19. 2), he kept himself within the
town as long as the Parthians were in the province.
556. Dum, while^t regularly takes the Present Indicative to de-
note continued action in past time.
In translating, the English Imperfect must generally be used : —
dum haec geruntur, Caesarl ntintiatum est (B. G. i. 46), while this was going
on, a message was brought to Ccesar.
haec dum aguntur, interea Cleomenes iam ad Elori lltus pervenerat (Verr. v.
91), while this was going on, Cleomenes meanwhile had come down to the
coast at Elorum.
hoc dum narrat, forte audivi (Ter. Haut. 272), I happened to hear this while
she was telling it.
Note. — This construction is a special use of the Historical Present (§ 469).
a. A past tense with dum (usually so long as) makes the time em-
phatic by contrast ; but a few irregular cases of dum with a past tense
occur where no contrast is intended :
nee enim dum eram vobiscum, animum meum videbatis (Cat. M. 79), for
while I was with you, you could not see my soul. [Here the time when
he was alive is contrasted with that after his death.]
coorta est piigna, par dum constabant ordines (Liv. xxii. 47), a conflict began,
well matched as long as the ranks stood firm.
But, — dum oculos hostium certamen averterat (id. xxxii. 24), while the
struggle kept the eyes of the enemy turned away.
dum unum adscendere gradum conatus est, venit in periculum (Mur. 55),
while he cUtempted to climb one step [in rank] he fell into danger.
§§ 566-558] CLAUSES WITH QUIN AND QUOMINUS 359
Note. — In later writers, dum sometimes takes the Subjunctive when the classical
usage would require the Indicative, and donee, until, is freely used in this manner
(especially by Tacitus) : —
dum ea in Samnio gereientur, in Etruria interim helium ingens concitur (Liv. x.
18), while this was being done in Samnium, meanwhile a great war was
stirred up in Etruria.
ilia quidem dum te fugeret, hydrum non vidit (Georg. iv. ^57), while she was fleeing
from you she did not see the serpent.
dum per vicos deportaretur, condormiebat (Suet. Aug. 78), while he was being car-
ried through the streets he used to fall dead asleep.
Rhenus servat nomen et violentiam cursiis (qua Germaniam praevehitur) donee
Oceano misceatur (Tac. Ann. ii. 6), the Rhine keeps its name and rapid course
(where it borders Germany) until it mingles with the ocean.
temporibusque AugustI dicendis non defuere decora ingenia donee gliscente adii-
latione deterrerentur (id. i. 1), for describing the times of Augustus there
was no lack of talent until it was frightened away by the increasing servility
of the age.
For dum, provided that, see § 528.
Clauses with QuTn and QuOminus
557. The original meaning of quin is how not? why not? (qui-ne), and when
used with the Indicative or (rarely) with the Subjunctive it regularly implies a general
negative. Thus, quIn ego hoc rogem? why shouldn't I ask this? implies that there is
no reason for not asking. The implied negative was then expressed in a main clause,
like nulla causa est or fieri non potest. Hence come the various dependent construc-
tions introduced by quin.
Quominus is really a phrase (quo minus), and the dependent constructions which it
introduces have their origin in the relative clause of purpose with quo and a com-
parative (see § 531. a).
558. A subjunctive clause with quin is used after verbs and
other expressions of hindering., resistmg., refusing., doubting., de-
laying^ and the like, when these are negatived., either expressly or
by implication : —
non humana ulla neque divina obstant quin socios aniTcos trahant exscindant
(Sail. Ep. Mith. 17), no human or divine laws prevent them from taking
captive and exterminating their friendly allies.
ut ne Suessiones quidem deterrere potuerint quin cum his consentirent (B. G.
ii. 3), that they were unable to hinder even the Suessiones from making
common cause with them.
non posse milites continer! quin in urbem inrumperent (B. C. ii. 12), that the
soldiers could not be restrained from bursting into the city.
non recusat quin iudices (Deiot. 43), he does not object to your judging.
neque recusare quia armis contendant (B. G. iv. 7), and that they did not
refuse to fight.
praeterlre non potui quin scriberem ad te (Caesar ap. Cic. Att. ix. 6 a), I could
not neglect to write to you.
860 SYNTAX: DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS [§668
Treveri totius hiemis nullum tempus intermlserunt quin legates mitterent
(B. G. V, 55), the Treveri let no part of the winter pass without sending
ambassadors. [Cf. B. G. v. 53; B. C. i. 78.]
non cuuctaiidum existimavit quin pugna decertaret (B. G. iii. 23), he thought
he ought not to delay risking a decisive battle.
paulum afuit quin Varum interficeret (B. C. ii. 35), he just missed killing
Varus (it lacked little but that he should kill).
Deque multum afuit quin castris expellerentur (id. ii. 35), they came near being
driven out of the camp.
facere non possum quin cotidie ad te mittam (Att. xii. 27. 2), I cannot help
sending to you every day.
fieri niillo modo poterat quin CleomenI parceretur (Verr, v. 104), it was out
of the question that Cleomenes should not be spared.
ut effici non possit quin eos oderim (Phil. xi. 36), so that nothing can prevent
my hating them.
a, Quin is especially common with non dubito, J do not doubt, non
est dubium, there is no doubt, and similar expressions : —
non dubitabat quin ei crederemus (Att. vi. 2. 3), he did not doubt that we
believed him.
illud cave dubites quin ego omnia faciam (Fam. v. 20. 6), do not doubt that
I will do all.
quis ignorat quin tria Graecorum genera sint (Flacc. 64), who is ignorant
that there are three races of Greeks ?
non erat dubium quin Helvetii plurimum possent (cf. B. G. i. 3), there was no
doubt that the Helvetians were most powerful.
Deque Caesarem fef ellit quin ab iis cohortibus initium victoriae oriretur (B. C.
iii. 94), and it did not escape Caesar's notice that the beginning of the vic-
tory came from those cohorts.
Note 1. — Dubito without a negative is regularly followed by an Indirect Ques-
tion ; so sometimes non dubito and the like : —
nou nulli dubitant an per Sardiniam veniat (Fam. ix. 7), some doubt whether he
is coming through Sardinia.
dubitate, si potestis, a quo sit Sex. Roscius occisus (Rose. Am. 78), doubt, if you
can, by whom Sextus Roscius was murdered.
dubitabam tu has ipsas litteras essesne accepturus (Att. xv. 9), I doubt whether
you will receive this very letter. [Epistolary Imperfect (§ 479).]
quails sit futurus, ne vos quidem dubitatis (B. C. ii. 32), and what it (the outcome)
iviU be, you yourselves do not doubt.
n5n dubito quid sentiant (Fam. xv. 9), I do not doubt what they think.
dubium illi non erat quid futurum esset (id. viii. 8. 1), it was not doubtful to him
what was going to happen.
Note 2. — Non dubito in the sense of I do not hesitate commonly takes the Infini-
tive, but sometimes quin with the Subjunctive : —
nee dubitare ilium appellare sapientem (Lael . 1) , and not to hesitate to call him a sage.
dubitandum non existimavit quin proflcisceretur (B. G. ii. 2), he did not think he
ought to hesitate to set out.
quid dubitas uti temporis opportunitate (B. C. ii. 34), why do you hesitate to take
advantage of the favorable moment? [A question implying a negative.]
§§ 558, 559] CLAUSES WITH QUiN AND QUOMINUS 361
b. Verbs of hindering and refusing often take tlie subjunctive with
ne or quOminus (= ut eo minus), especially when the verb is not nega-
tived : —
plura ne dicam tuae me lacrimae impediunt (Plane. 104), your tears prevent
me from speaking further.
nee aetas impedit quominus agri colendi studia teneamus (Cat. M. 60), nor
does age prevent us from retaining an interest in tilling the soil.
nihil impedit quominus id faeere possimus (Fin. i. 33), nothing hinders us
from being able to do that.
obstitisti ne transire copiae possent (Yerr. v. 5), you opposed the passage of
the troops (opposed lest the troops should cross).
Note. — Some verbs of hindering may take the Infinitive : —
nihil obest dicere (Fam. ix. 13. 4), there is nothing to prevent my saying it.
prohibet accedere (Caec. 46), prevents him from approaching.
559. A clause of Result or Characteristic may be introduced by
quin after a general negative, where quin is equivalent to qui (quae,
quod) non: —
1. Clauses of Result : —
nemo est tam fortis quin [= qui non] rei novitate perturbetur (B. G. vi, 39),
no one is so brave as not to be disturbed by the unexpected occurrence.
nemo erat adeo tardus quin putaret (B. C. i. 69), no one was so slothful as not
to think, etc.
quis est tam demens quin sentiat (Balb. 43), who is so senseless as not to
think, etc.?
nil tam difficilest quin quaerendS investigari possiet (Ter. Haut. 675), noth-
ing ''s so hard but search will find it out (Herrick).
2. Clauses of Characteristic : —
nemo nostrum est quin [ = qui non] sciat (Rose. Am. 65), there is no one of
us who does not know.
nemo fuit militum quin vulneraretur (B. C. iii. 53), there was not one of the
soldiers who was not wounded.
ecquis fuit quin lacrimaret (Verr. v. 121), was there any one who did not shed
tears ?
quis est quin intellegat (Fin. v. 64), who is there who does not understand f
horum nihil est quin [ = quod non] intereat (N. D. iii. 30), there is none of
these (elements) ivhich does not perish.
nihil est illorum quin [ = quod'non] ego illi dixerim (PL Bac. 1012), there is
nothing of this that I have not told him.
NoTB. — Quin sometimes introduces a pure clause of result with the sense of ut n5n :
as,— numquam tam male est Siculis quin aliquid facete et commode dicant (Verr. iv.
95), things are never so bad with the Sicilians but that they have something pleasant
or loitty to say.
For quin in independent constructions, see § 449. b.
362 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§560-563
SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES
560. A clause which is used as a noun may be called a Substantive Clause, as
certain relative clauses are sometimes called adjective clauses. But in practice the
term is restricted to clauses which represent a nominative or an accusative case, the
clauses which stand for au ablative being sometimes called adverbial clauses.
Even with this limitation the term is not quite precise (see p. 367, footnote 1) . The
fact is rather that the clause and the leading verb are mutually complementary ; each
reinforces the other. The simplest and probably the earliest form of such sentences
is to be found in the paratactic use (see § 268) of two verbs like volo abeas, dicamus
censeo, adeam optimum est. From such verbs the usage spread by analogy to other
verbs (see lists on pp. 363, 367, footnotes), and the complementary relation of the
clause to the verb came to resemble the complementary force of the accusative, espe-
cially the accusative of cognate meaning (§ 390) .
561. A clause used as a noun is called a Substantive Clause.
a, A Substantive Clause may be used as the Subject or Object of
a verb, as an Appositive, or as a Predicate Nominative or Accusative.
Note 1. — Many ideas which in English take the form of an abstract noun may be
rendered by a Substantive clause in Latin. Thus, he demanded an investigation may
be postulabat ut quaestio haberetur. The common English expression for with the
infinitive also corresponds to a Latin substantive clause: as, — it remains for me to
speak of the piratic war, reliquum est ut de bello dicam piratico.
Note 2. — When a Substantive Clause is used as subject, the verb to which it is
subject is called impersonal, and the sign of the construction in English is commonly
the so-called expletive it.
562. Substantive Clauses are classified as follows : —
1. Subjunctive Clauses ( a. Of purpose {command, wish, fear) (§§ 563, 564).
(ut, ne, utnon, etc.). | b. Oi result (happen, effect, etc.) (§568).
2. Indicative Clauses with quod : Fact, Specification, Feeling (§ 572).
3. Indirect Questions: Subjunctive, introduced by an Interrogative Word
(§§ 573-576).
4. Infinitive Clauses ( ^- ff 'J^' ^^ ordering, wishing, etc. (§ 563).
1 6. Indirect Discourse (§579 ff.).
Note. — The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is not strictly a clause, but in Latin
it has undergone so extensive a development that it may be so classed. The uses of
the Infinitive Clause are of two kinds : (1) in constructions in which it replaces a sub-
junctive clause with ut etc. ; (2) in the Indirect Discourse. The first class will be dis-
cussed in connection with the appropriate subjunctive constructions (§563) ; for Indirect
Discourse, see § 579 ff .
Substantive Clauses of Purpose
563. Substantive Clauses of Purpose with ut (negative ne) are
used as the object of verbs denoting an action directed toward the
future.
§663] SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 363
Such are, verbs meaning to admonish, ask, bargain, command, de-
cree, determine, permit, persuade, resolve, urge, and ivish : — ^
monet ut omnes susplciones vitet (B. G. i. 20), he warns him to avoid all
suspicion.
hortatur eos ne animo deficiant (B. C. i. 19), he urges them not to lose heart.
te rogo atqne oro ut eum iuves (Fain. xiii. 66), I beg and pray you to aid hipi.
his uti conquirerent imperavit (B. G. i. 28), he ordered them to search.
persuadet Castico ut regnuin occuparet (id. i. 3), he persuades Casticus to
usurp royal power.
suis imperavit ne quod omnlno telum reicerent (id. i. 46), he ordered his men
not to throw back any weapon at all.
Note. — With any verb of these classes the poets may use the Infinitive instead of
an object clause : —
hortamur fan (Aen. ii. 74), we urge [him] to speak.
ne quaere doceri (id. vi. 614), seek not to he told.
temptat praevertere (id. i. 721), she attempts to turn, etc.
For the Subjunctive without ut with verbs of commanding, see § 565. a.
a. lubeo, order, and veto, forbid, take the Infinitive with Subject
Accusative : —
Labienum iugum mentis ascendere iubet (B. G. i. 21), he orders Labienus to
ascend the ridge of the hill.
liberos ad se adduci iussit (id. ii. 5), he ordered the children to be brought to him.
ab opere legates discedere vetuerat (id. ii. 20), he had forbidden the lieutenants
to leave the work.
vetuere [bona] reddi (Liv. ii. 5), they forbade the return of the goods (that the
goods be returned).
Note. — Some other verbs of commanding etc. occasionally take the Infinitive : —
pontem imperant fieri (B. C. i. 61), they order a bridge to he huilt.
res monet cavere (Sail. Cat. 52. 3), the occasion warns us to he on our guard.
b. Verbs of ivishing take either the Infinitive or the Subjunctive.
With volo (nolo, malo) and cupio the Infinitive is commoner, and
the subject of the infinitive is rarely expressed when it would be the
same as that of the main verb.
With other verbs of ivishing the Subjunctive is commoner when
the subject changes, the Infinitive when it remains the same.
1. Subject of dependent verb same as that of the verb of wishing: —
augur fieri volui (Fam. xv. 4. 13), I wished to be made augur.
cupio vigiliam meam tibi tradere (id. xi. 24), I am eager to hand Over my watch
to you.
1 Such verbs or verbal phrases are id ago, ad id veni5, caveo (ne), censeo, cogo, con-
cede, constituo, euro, decerno, edico, flagito, hortor, impero, insto, mando, metuo (ne),
moneo, negotium do, operam do, oro, persuaded, peto, postulo, praecipio, precor, pronuntio,
quaero, rogo, scisco, timeo (ne), vereor (ne), video, volo.
364 SYNTAX : SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§ 563
iudicein me esse, non doctorem volo (Or. 117), I wish to he a judge, not a
teacher.
me Caesaris militem dici volui (B. C. ii. 32. 13), I wished to be called a soldier
of Ccesar.
cupio me esse clementem (Cat. i. 4), I desire to be merciful [But regularly,
cupio esse clemens (see § 457).]
omnis homines, qui sese student praestare ceteris animalibus (Sail. Cat. 1),
all men who wish to excel other living creatures.
2. Subject of dependent verb different from that of the verb of wishing :
volo te scire (Fam. ix. 24. 1), I wish you to know.
vim volumus exstingui (Sest. 92), we wish violence to be put down.
te tua frui virtute cupimus (Brut. 331), we wish you to reap the fruits of your
virtue.
cupi5 ut impetret (PI. Capt, 102), I wish he may get it.
numquam optabo ut audiatis (Cat. ii. 15), I will never desire that you shall
hear.
For volo and its compounds with the Subjunctive without ut, see § 565.
c. Verbs of permitting take either the Subjunctive or the Infini-
tive. Patior takes regularly the Infinitive vs^ith Subject Accusative ;
so often sino : —
permisit ut faceret (De Or. ii. 366), permitted him to make.
concedo tibi ut ea praetereas (Rose. Am. 54), I allow you to pass by these
matters.
tabernacula statui passus non est (B. C. i. 81), he did not allow tents to be
pitched.
vinum importari non sinunt (B. G. iv. 2), they do not allow wine to be imported.
d» Verbs of determiriing, decreeing, resolving, bargaining, take
either the Subjunctive or the Infinitive: —
constituerant ut L. Bestia quereretur (Sail. Cat. 43), they had determined that
Lucius Bestia should complain.
proelio supersedere statuit (B. G. ii. 8), he determined to refuse battle.
de bonis regis quae reddi censuerant (Li v. ii. 5), about the king''s goods, which
they had decreed should be restored.
decernit uti consules dilectum habeant (Sail. Cat. 34), decrees that the consuls
shall hold a levy.
edicts ne quis iniussu pugnaret (Liv. v. 19), having commanded that none
should fight without orders.
Note 1. — Different verbs of these classes with the same meaning vary in their
construction (see the Lexicon). For verbs of bargaining etc. with the Gerundive, see
§ 500. 4.
Note 2. — Verbs of decreeiiig and voting often take the Infiuitive of the Second
Periphrastic conjugation: — Regulus captives reddendos [esse] non censuit (Off. i. 39),
Eegulus voted that the captives should not be returned. [He said, in giving his formal
opinion : captivi non reddendi sunt.]
§§ 503-666] SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OE PURPOSE 865
e. Verbs of caution and effort take the Subjunctive with ut. But
Conor, try, commonly takes the Complementary Infinitive : —
cura ut quam priinum intellegam (Fam. xiii. 10. 4), Ut me know as soon as pos-
sible (take care that I may understand),
dant operam ut habeant (Sail, Cat. 41), they take pains to have (give their
attention that, etc.).
impellere uti Caesar nominaretur (id. 49), to induce them to name CcBsar (that
Cajsar should be named),
conatus est Caesar reficere pontis (B. C. i. 50), Cmsar tried to rebuild the bridges.
Note 1. — Conor si also occurs (as B. G. i. 8) ; cf. miror si etc., §572. b. n.
Note 2. — Ut ne occurs occasionally with verbs of caution and effort (cf. §531): —
cura et provide ut nequid ei desit (Att. xi. 3. 3), take care and see that he lacks nothing.
For the Subjunctive with quin and quominus with verbs of hindering etc., see § 558.
564. Verbs of fearing take the Subjunctive, with ne affirma-
tive and ne non or ut negative.
In this use ne is commonly to be translated by that, ut and ne non
by that not : —
timeo ne Verres fecerit (Verr. v. 8), I fear that Verres has done, etc.
ne animum offenderet verebatur (B. G. i. 10), he feared that he should hurt
the feelings, etc.
ne exheredaretur veritus est (Rose. Am. 58), he feared that he should be dis-
inherited.
orator metu5 ne languescat senectiite (Cat. M. 28), I fear the orator grows
feeble from old age.
vereor ut tibi possim concedere (De Or. i. 35), I fear that I cannot grant you.
haud sane perlculum est ne non mortem optandam putet (Tusc. v. 118), there
is no danger that he will not think death desirable.
Note. — The subjunctive in ne-clauses after a verb of fearing is optative in origin.
To an independent ne-sentence, as ne accidat, 7nay it not happen, a verb may be prefixed
(cf. § 560), making a complex sentence. Thus, vide ne accidat ; oro ne accidat ; cavet ne
accidat ; when the prefixed verb is one of fearing, timeo ne accidat becomes let it not hap-
pen, but I fear that it may. The origin of the ut-clause is similar.
565. Volo and its compounds, the impersonals licet and oportet,
and the imperatives die and fac often take the Subjunctive with-
out ut : —
volo ames (Att. ii. 10), I wish you to love.
quam vellem me invitasses (Fam. x. 28. 1), how I wish you had invited me!
mallem Cerberum metueres (Tusc. i. 12), I had rather you feared Cerberus.
sint enim oportet (id. i. 12), for they must exist.
queramur licet (Caec. 41), ive are allowed to complain.
fac diligas (Att. iii. 13. 2), do love! [A periphrasis for the imperative dflige,
love (cf. §449. c).]
die exeat, tell him to go out
366 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§565,566
Note 1. — In such cases there is no ellipsis of ut. The expressions are idiomatic
remnants of an older construction in which the subjunctives were hortatory or optative
and thus really independent of the verb of wishing etc. In the classical period, how-
ever, they were doubtless felt as subordinate. Compare the use of cave and the sub-
junctive (without ne) in Prohibitions (§ 450), which appears to follow the analogy of fac.
Note 2. — Licet may take (1) the Subjunctive, usually without ut; (2) the simple
Infinitive; (3) the Infinitive with Subject Accusative; (4; the Dative and the Infini-
tive (see § 455. 1). Thus, / may go is licet earn, licet ire, licet me ire, or licet mihi ire.
For licet in concessive clauses, see § 527. h.
Note 3. — Oportet may take (1) the Subjunctive without ut; (2) the simple Infini-
tive ; (3) the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. Thus / must go is oportet earn, oportet
ire, or oportet me ire.
a. Verbs of commanding and the like often take the subjunctive
without ut : —
huic mandat Remos adeat (B. G. iii. 11), he orders him to visit the Eemi.
rogat finem facial (id. i. 20), he asks him to cease.
Mnesthea vocat, classein aptent socil (Aen. iv. 289), he calls Mnestheus [and
orders that] his comrades shall make ready the fleet.
Note. — The subjunctive in this construction is the hortatory subjunctive used to
express a command in Indirect Discourse (§ 588) .
Substantive Clauses of Purpose with Passive Verbs
566. A Substantive Clause used as the object of a verb becomes
the subject when the verb is put in the passive (Impersonal Con-
struction) : —
Caesar ut cognosceret postulatum est (B, C. i. 87), CcBsar was requested to
make an investigation (it was requested that Csesar should make an
investigation),
si erat Heraclio ab senatu mandatum ut emeret (Verr. iii. 88), if Heraclius
had been instructed by the senate to buy.
si persnasum erat Cluvio ut mentiretur (Rose. Com. 51), if Cluvius had been
persuaded to lie.
puts concedi nobis oportere ut Graeco verbo utamur (Fin. iii. 15), I think
we must be allowed to use a Greek word.
ne quid els noceatur a Caesare cavetur (B. C. i. 86), Ccesar takes care that no
harm shall be done them (care is taken by Caesar lest, etc.).
a. With verbs of admonishing, the personal object becomes the
subject and the object clause is retained : —
admoniti sumus ut caveremus (Att. viii. 11 d. 3), we were warned to be careful.
cum moneretur ut cautior asset (Div. 1. 51), when he was advised to be more
cautious.
moneri vlsus est ne id faceret (id. 56), he seemed to be warned not to do it.
§§ 566-568] SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF RESULT 367
h. Some verbs that take an infinitive instead of a subjunctive
are used impersonally in the passive, and the infinitive becomes the
subject of the sentence : —
loqui non conceditur (B. G. vi. 20), it is not allowed to speak.
c. With iubeo, veto, and cogo, the subject accusative of the infinitive
becomes the subject nominative of the main verb, and the infinitive is
retained as complementary {Fersonal Construction) : —
adesse iubentur postrldie (Verr. ii. 41), they are ordered to be present on the
follovnng day.
ire in exsilium iussus est (Cat. ii. 12), he was ordered to go into exile.
Simonides vetitus est navigare (Div. ii. 134), Simonides was forbidden to sail.
Mandubii exire coguntur (B. G. vii. 78), the Mandubii are compelled to go out.
Substantive Clauses of Result (Consecutive Clauses)
567. Clauses of Result may be used substantively, (1) as the object of facio etc.
(§ 508) ; (2) as the subject of these same verbs iu the passive, as well as of other verJxs
and verbal phrases (§ 569) ; (3) in apposition with another substantive, or as predicate
nominative etc. (see §§ 570, 571) .1
568. Substantive Clauses of Result with ut (negative ut non)
are used as the object of verbs denoting the aecompUshment of
an effort.'^
Such are especially facio and its compounds (efficio, conficio, etc.) : —
eflficiam ut intellegatis (Clu. 7), I will make you understand (lit. effect that
you, etc.). [So, faciam ut intellegatis (id. 9).]
commeatus ut portarl possent efficiebat (B. G. ii. 5), made it possible that
supplies could he brought.
perfeci ut e regno ille discederet (Fam. xv. 4. 6), I brought about his departure
from the kingdom.
quae libertas ut laetior asset regis superbia fecerat (Liv. ii. 1), the arrogance
of the king had made this liberty more welcome.
gvincunt Instando ut litterae darentur (id. ii. 4), by insisting they gain their
point., — that letters should be sent. [Here evincunt = efficiunt.]
1 In all these cases the clause is not strictly subject or object. The main verb orig-
mally conveyed a meaning sufficient in itself, and the result clause was merely com-
plementary. This is seen by the frequent use of ita and the like with the main verb
(ita accidit ut, etc.). In like manner purpose clauses are only apparently subject or
object of the verb with which they are connected.
2 Verbs and phrases taking an ut-clause of result as subject or object are accedit,
accidit, additur, altera est res, committo, consequor, contingit, efficio, evenit, facio, fit, fieri
potest, fore, impetro, integrum est, mos est, munus est, necesse est, prope est, rectum est,
relinquitur, reliquum est, restat, tanti est, tantum abest, and a few others.
368 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§568-571
Note 1. — The expressions facere ut, committere ut, with the subjunctive, often form
a periphrasis for tlie simple verb: as, — invitus feci ut Flaniinium e seuatu eicerem
(Cat. M. 42), it was with reluctance that I expelled Flaminius from the senate.
569. Substantive Clauses of Result are used as the subject of
the following : —
1. Of passive verbs denoting the accomplishment of an effort : —
impetratum est ut in senatti recitarentur (litterae) (B. C. i. \), they succeeded
in having the letter read in the senate (it was brought about that, etc.).
ita efficitur ut omne corpus mortale sit (N. D. ill. SO), it therefore is made
out that every body is mortal.
2. Of Impersonals meaning it happens, it remains, it follows, it is
necessary, it is added, and the like (§ 568, footnote) : —
accidit ut asset luna plena (B. G. iv. 29), it happened to be full moon (it hap-
pened that it was, etc.). [Here ut asset is subject of accidit.]
reliquum est ut officiis certemus inter nos (Fam. vii. 31), it remains for us to
vie with each other in courtesies.
restat ut hoc dubitemus (Rose. Am. 88), it is left for us to doubt this.
sequitur ut doceam (N. D. ii. 81), the next thing is to show (it follows, etc.).
Note 1. — The infinitive sometimes occurs: as, — nee enim acciderat mihi opus
esse (Fam. vi. 11. l),/or it had'not happened to be necessary to me.
Note 2. — Necesse est often takes the subjunctive without ut : as, — concedas necesse
est (Rose. Am. 87), you must grant.
3. Of est in the sense of it is the fact that, etc. (mostly poetic): —
est ut viro vir latius ordinet arbusta (Hor. Od. iii. 1. 9), it is the fact that one
man plants his vineyards in wider rows than another.
a. Fore (or futurum esse) ut with a clause of result as subject is
often used instead of the Future Infinitive active or passive; so
necessarily in verbs which have no supine stem : —
spero fore ut contingat id nobis (Tusc. i. 82), I hope that loill be our happy lot.
cum vidgrem fore ut non possam (Cat. ii. 4), when I saw that I should not be able.
570. A substantive clause of result may be in apposition with
another substantive (especially a neuter pronoun): —
illud etiam restiterat, ut te in ius educarant (Quinct. 33), this too remained —
for them to drag you into court.
571. A substantive clause of result may serve as predicate
nominative after mos est and similar expressions : —
est mos hominum, ut nolint eundem pluribus rebus excellere (Brut. .84), it is
the way of men to be unwilling for one maji to excel in several things.
§§ sn, 572] iNBICATlVE WITH QtfOJb 869
a. A result clause, with or without ut, frequently follows quam
after a comparative (but see § 583. c) : —
Canachi signa rigidiora sunt quam ut imitentur veritatem (Brut. 70), the statues
of Canachus are too stiff to represent nature (stiff er than that they should) .
perpessus est omnia potius quam indicaret (Tusc. ii. 52), he endured all rather
than betray, etc. [Regularly without ut except in Livy.]
6. The phrase tantum abest, it is so far [from being the case],
regularly takes two clauses of result with ut: one is substantive^ the
subject of abest ] the other is adverbial, correlative with tantum: —
tantum abest ut nostra mireraur, ut usque eo diflBciles ac morosi simus, ut
nobis non satis faciat ipse Demosthenes (Or. 104), so far from admiring
my own works^ I am difficult and captious to that degree that not Demos-
thenes himself satisfies me. [Here the first ut-clause is the subject of
abest (§ 569. 2); the second, a result* clause after tantum (§ 537); and
the third, after usque eo.]
c, Karely, a thoKgJit or an idea is considered as a result, and is
expressed by the subjunctive with ut instead of the accusative and
infinitive (§ 580). In this case a demonstrative usually precedes :
praeclarum illud est, ut eos . . . amemus (Tusc. iii. 73), this is a noble thing,
that we should love, etc.
verl simile non est ut ille anteponeret (Verr. iv. 11), it is not likely that he
preferred.
For Relative Clauses with quin after verbs of hindering etc., see § 558.
Indicative with Quod
572. A peculiar form of Substantive Clause consists of quod
(in the sense of tliat.^ the fact that) with the Indicative.
The clause in the Indicative with quod is used when the state-
ment is regarded as a fact : —
alterum est vitium, quod quidam nimis magnum studium conferunt (Off. i. 19),
it is another fault that some bestow too much zeal, etc. [Here ut conferant
could be used, meaning that some should bestow ; or the accusative and
infinitive, meaning to bestow (abstractly) ; quod makes it a fact that men
do bestow, etc.]
inter inanimum et animal hoc maxime interest, quod animal agit aliquid
(Acad. ii. 37), this is the chief difference between an inanimate object and
an animal, that an animal aims at something.
quod rediit nobis mlrabile videtur (Off. iii. Ill), that he (Regulus) returned
seems wonderful to us.
accidit perincommode quod eum nusquam vidisti (Att. i. 17. 2)., it happened
very unluckily that you nowhere saw him.
bio SYNTAX : SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§ 672, 573
opportunissiina res accidit quod German! venerunt (B. G. iv. 13), a very for-
tunate thing happened, (namely) that the Germans came.
praetereo quod earn sibi domiim sedemque delegit (Clu. 188), I pass over the
fact that she chose that house and home for herself.
mitto quod possessa per vim (Flacc. 79), I disregard the fact that they were
seized by violence.
Note. — Like other substantive clauses, the clause with quod may be used as sub-
iect, as object, as appositive, etc., but it is commonly either the subject or in apposi-
tion with the subject.
a, A substantive clause with quod sometimes appears as an accu-
sative of specification, corresponding to the English whereas or as
to the fact that : —
quod mihi de nostro statu gratularis, minime mlramur te tuis praeclaris operi-
bus laetari (Fam. i. 7. 7), as to your congratulating me on our condition,
we are not at all surprised that you are pleased with your own noble works.
quod de domo scribis, ego, etc. (Fam. xiv. 2. 3), as to what you write of the
house, I, etc.
6, Verbs oi feeling and the expressio7i of feeling take either quod
(quia) or the accusative and infinitive (Indirect Discourse) : —
quod scribis . . . gaudeo (Q. Fr. ill. 1. 9), I am glad that you write.
facio libenter quod earn non possum praeterire (Legg. i. 63), I am glad that I
cannot pass it by.
quae perfecta esse vehementer laetor (Rose. Am. 136), I greatly rqjoice that
this is finished.
qui quia non habuit a me turmas equitum fortasse suscenset (Att. vi. 3. 5), who
perhaps feels angry that he did not receive squadrons of cavalry from me.
moleste tuli te senatu! gratias non egisse (Fam. x. 27. 1), I was displeased
that you did not return thanks to the senate.
Note. — Miror and similar expressions are sometimes followed by a clause with si.l
This is apparently substantive, but really protasis (cf. §563. e. K. i). Thus, — miror
si quemquam amicum habere potuit (Lael.54), Iwonder if he could ever have a friend.
[Originally, If this is so, I wonder at it.l
Indirect Questions
573. An Indirect Question is any sentence or clause which is
introduced by an interrogative word (pronoun, adverb, etc.), and
which is itself the subject or object of a verb, or depends on any
expression implying uncertainty or doubt.
In grammatical form, exclamatory sentences are not distin-
guished from interrogative (see the third example below)«
1 Cf . the Greek edvu.&^ia tl
§§ 574, 575] INDIRECT QUESTIONS 371
574. An Indirect Question takes its verb in the Subjunctive ;
quid ipse sentiam exponam (Div. i. 10), I will explain what I think. [Direct:
quid sentio ?]
id possetne fieri consuiuit (id. i. 32), he consulted whether it could be done.
[Direct: potestne?]
quam sis audax omnes intellegere potuerunt (Rose. Am. 87), all could under-
stand how bold you are. [Direct : quam es audax I]
doleam necne doleam nihil interest (Tusc. ii. 29), it is of no account whether I
suffer or not. [Double question.]
quaesivi a Catillna in conventii apud M. Laecam fuisset necne (Cat. ii. 13), /
asked Catiline whether he had been at the meeting at Marcus Loeca''s or
not. [Double question.]
rogat me quid sentiam, he asks me what I think. [Cf. rogat me sententiam, he
asks me mij opinion.']
hoc dubium est, uter nostrum sit inverecundior (Acad. ii. 126), this is doubt-
ful., which of us two is the less modest.
incerti quatenus Volero exerceret victoriam (Liv. ii. 55), uncertain how far
Volero would push victory. [As if dubitantes quatenus, etc.]
Note. — An Indirect Question may be the subject of a verb (as in the fourth exam-
ple), the direct object (as in the first), the secondary object (as in the sixth), an apposi-
tive (as in the seventh),
575. The Sequence of Tenses in Indirect Question is illus-
trated by the following examples : —
dico quid faciam, I tell you what I am doing.
dico quid facturus sim, I tell you what I will (shall) do.
dico quid fecerim, I tell you what I did (have done, was doing).
' 'dixi quid facerem, I told you what I was doing.
dixi quid fecissem, I told you what I had done (had been doing).
dixi quid facturus essem, I told you what I would (should) do (was going to do),
dixi quid facturus fuissem, I told you what I would (should) have done.
a. Indirect Questions referring to future time take the subjunG-
tive of the First Periphrastic Conjugation : —
prospicio qui concursus futuri sint (Caecil. 42), I foresee what throngs there
will be. [Direct : qui erunt ?]
quid sit futurum eras, fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. i. 9. 13), forbear to ask what will
be on the morrow. [Direct : quid erit or futurum est ?]
posthac non scribam ad te quid facturus sim, sed quid fecerim (Att. x. 18),
hereafter I shall not write to you what I am going to do, but what I have
done. [Direct : quid facies (or facturus eris) ? quid fecisti ?]
Note. — This Periphrastic Future avoids the ambiguity which would be caused by
using the Present Subjunctive to refer to future time in such clauses.
b. The Deliberative Subjunctive (§ 444) remains unchanged in an
Indirect Question, except sometimes in tense i —
372 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§675,576
qu5 me vertam nescio (Clu. 4), I do not know which way to turn. [Direct:
quo me vertam ?]
neqiie satis constabat quid agerent (B. G. iii. 14), and it was not very clear what
they were to do. [Direct : quid agamus ?]
nee quisquam satis certum habet, quid aut speret aut timeat (Liv. xxii, 7. 10),
nor is any one well assured what he shall hope or fear. [Here the future
participle with sit could not be used.]
incerto quid peterent aut vitarent (id. xxviii. 36. 12), since it was doubtful
(ablative absolute) what they should seek or shun.
c. Indirect Questions often take the Indicative in early Latin and
in poetry : —
vineam quo in agro conseri oportet sic observato (Cato K. R. 6. 4), in what
soil a vineyard should he set you must observe thus.
d, NesciS quis, when used in an indefinite sense (somebody or other),
is not followed by the Subjunctive.
So also nescio quo (unde, etc.), and the following idiomatic phrases
which are practically adverbs : —
mirum (nimirum) quam, marvellously (marvellous how),
mirum quantum, tremendously (marvellous how much),
immane quantum, monstrously (monstrous how much),
sane quam, immensely.
valde quam, enormously.
Examples are: —
qui istam nescio quam indolentiam magnopere laudant (Tusc. iii. 12), who
greatly extol that freedom from pain., whatever it is.
mirum quantum profuit (Liv. ii. 1), it helped prodigiously.
ita fato nescio quo contigisse arbitror (Fam. xv. 13), I think it happened so
by some fatality or other.
nam suos valde quam paucos habet (id. xi. 13 a. 3), /or he has uncommonly
few of his own.
sane quam sum gavlsus (id. xi, 13 a, 4), I was immensely glad.
immane quantum discrepat (Hor. Od. i. 27. 5), is monstrously ai, variance.
576. In colloquial usage and in poetry the subject of an In-
direct Question is often attracted into the main clause as object
{Accusative of Anticipatioii) : —
nosti Marcellum quam tardus sit (Fam. viii. 10, 3), you know how slow Mar-
cellus is. [For nostI quam tardus sit Marcellus. Cf. " I know thee who
thou art."]
Cf. potestne igitur earum return, qua re futiirae sint, iilla esse praesensio (Div.
ii. 15), can there be, then, any foreknowledge as to those things, why they
will occur? [A similar use of the Objective Genitive.]
§§ 576, 577] INDIRECT DISCOURSE 373
Note. — In some cases the Object of Anticipation becomes the Subject by a change
of voice, and an apparent mixture of relative and interrogative constructions is the
result : —
quidam saepe in parva pecunia perspiciuntur quam sint leves (Lael. 63), it is often
seen, in a trifling matter of money, how unprincipled some people are (some
people are often seen through, how unprincipled they are) .
quern ad modum Pompeium oppiignarent a me indicati sunt (Leg. Agr. i. 5), ^^ has
been shown by me in what way they attacked Pompey (they have been shown
by me, how they attacked).
a. An indirect question is occasionally introduced by si in the
sense of whether (like if in English, cf. § 572. b. n.): —
circumfunduntur hostes si quem aditum reperire possent (B. G. vi. 37), the
enemy pour round [to see] if they can find entrance.
visam si domi est (Ter. Haut. 170), I will go see if he is at home.
Note. — This is strictly a Protasis, but usually no Apodosis is thought of, and the
clause is virtually an Indirect Question.
For the Potential Subjunctive with forsitan (originally an Indirect Question), see
§ 447. a.
INDIRECT DISCOURSE
577. The use of the Accusative and Infinitive in Indirect Discourse (ordtio ohllqua)
is a comparatively late form of speech, developed in the Latin and Greek only, and
perhaps separately in each of them. It is wholly wanting in Sanskrit, but some forms
like it have grown up in English and German.
The essential character of Indirect Discourse is, that the language of some other
person than the writer or speaker is compressed into a kind of Substantive Clause, the
verb of the main clause becoming Infinitive, while modifying clauses, as well as all
hortatory forms of speech, take the Subjunctive. T\iq person of the verb necessarily
conforms to the new relation of persons.
The construction of Indirect Discourse, however, is not limited to reports of the
language of some person other than the speaker ; it may be used to express what any
one — whether the speaker or some one else — says, thinks, ov perceives, whenever that
which is said, thought, ov perceived is capable of being expressed in the form of a com-
plete sentence. For anything that can be said etc. can also he reported indirectly as
well as directly.
The use of the Infinitive in the main clause undoubtedly comes from its use as a
case-form to complete or modify the action expressed by the verb of saying and its
object together. This object in time came to be regarded as, and in fact to all intents
became, the subject of the infinitive. A transition state is found in Sanskrit, which,
though it has no indirect discourse proper, yet allows an indirect predication after verbs
of saying and the like by means of a predicative apposition, in such expressions as
" The maids told the king [that] his daughter [was] bereft of her senses."
The simple form of indirect statement with the accusative and infinitive was after-
wards amplified by introducing dependent or modifying clauses ; and in Latin it became
a common construction, and could be used to report whole speeches etc., which in other
languages would have the direct form. (Compare the style of reporting speeches in
English, where only the person and tense are changed.)
The Subjunctive in the subordinate clauses of Indirect Discourse has no significance
except to make more distinct the fact that these clauses are subordinate ; consequently
no direct connection has been traced between them and the uses of the mood in simple
374 SYNTAX : SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§ 577-580
sentences. It is probable that the subjunctive in indirect questions (§ 574) , in informal
indirect discourse (§ 592) , and in clauses of the integral part (§ 5'Jo) represents the
earliest steps of a movement by which the subjunctive became in some degree a mood
of subordination.
The Subjunctive standing for hortatory forms of speech in Indirect Discourse is
simply the usual hortatory subjunctive, with only a change of person and tense (if
necessary), as in the reporter's style.
578. A Direct Quotation gives the exact words of the original
speaker or writer (Ordtio Recta).
An Indirect Quotation adapts the words of the speaker or
writer to the construction of the sentence in which they are
quoted (Ordtio Obliqua).
Note. — The term Indirect Discourse (oratio obliqua) is used in two senses. In
the wider sense it includes all clauses — of whatever kind — which express the words
or thought of any person indirectly, that is, in a form different from that in which the
person said the words or conceived the thought. In the narrower sense the term Indi-
rect Discourse is restricted to those cases in which some complete proposition is cited
in the form of an Indirect Quotation, which may be extended to a narrative or an
address of any length, as in the speeches reported by Caesar and Livy. In this book
the term is used in the restricted sense.
Formal Indirect Discourse
579. Verbs and other expressions of knowing, thinking, telling,
and perceiving} govern the Indirect Discourse.
Note. — Inquam, said I (etc.) takes the Direct Discourse except in poetry.
Declaratory Sentences in Indirect Discourse
580. In Indirect Discourse tlie 7yiain clause of a Declaratory
Sentence is put in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. All
subordinate clauses take the Subjunctive : —
scio me paene incredibilem rem polliceri (B. C. ill. 86), I know thai, I am
promising an almost incredible thing. [Direct : polliceor.]
non arbitror te ita sentire (Fam. x. 20. 2), I do not suppose that you feel
thus. [Direct: sentls.]
spero me liberatum [esse] de metti (Tusc. ii. 67), I trust I have been freed
from fear. [Direct : liberatus sum.]
1 Such are: (1) knowing, scio, cognosco, compertum habeo, etc.; (2) thinking, puto,
existimo, arbitror, etc. ; (3) telliiig, dico, niintio, refero, polhceor, promitto, certiorem facio,
etc. ; (4) perceiving, senti5, comperio, video, audi5, etc. So in general any woi'd that
denotes thought or mental and visual perception or their expression may govern the
Indirect Discourse.
§680] INDIRECT DISCOURSE 375
[dicit] esse non nullos quorum auctoritas plurimum valeat (B. G. i. 17), he
says there are some, whose influence most prevails. [Direct: sunt non
nulli . . . valet.]
nisi iurasset, scelus se facturum [esse] arbitrabatur (Verr. ii. 1. 123), he
thought he should incur guilt, unless he should take the oath. [Direct :
nisi iuravero, faciam.] i
a. The verb of saying etc. is often not expressed, but implied in
some word or in the general drift of the sentence : —
consulis alterius nomen invisum civitati fuit : nimium Tarquinios regno
adsuesse; initium a Prisco factum; regnasse dein Ser. Tullium, etc.
(Liv. ii. 2), the name of the other consul was hateful to the state; the Tar-
quins (they thought) had become too much accustomed to royal power, etc.
[Here invisum imphes a thought, and this thought is added in the
form of Indirect Discourse.]
orantes ut urbibus saltern — iam enim agros deploratos esse — opem senatus
ferret (id. xli. 6), praying that the senate would at least bring aid to the
cities — for the fields [they said] were already given up as lost.
b. The verb nego, deni/, is commonly used in preference to dico with
a negative : —
[Stoici] negant quidquam [esse] bonum nisi quod honestum sit (Fin. ii. 68),
the Stoics assert that nothing is good but what is right.
c. Verbs of promising, lioping, expecting, threatening, swearing,
and the like, regularly take the construction of Indirect Discourse,
contrary to the English idiom : —
minatur sese abire (PI. Asin. 604), he threatens to go away. [Direct: abeo,
I am going away. ]
sperantse maximum frtictum esse captures (Lael. 79), they hope to gain the
utmost advantage. [Direct: capiemus.]
sperat se absolutum iri (SuU. 21), he hopes that he shall be acquitted. [Direct :
absolvar. ]
quem inimicissimum futurum esse promitto ac spondeo (Mur. 90), who I
promise and warrant will be the bitterest of enemies. [Direct: erit.]
dolor fortitudinem se debilitaturum minatur (Tusc. v. 76), pain threatens to
wear down fortitude. [Direct: debilitabo.]
■confldo me quod velim facile a te impetraturum (Fam. xi. 16. 1), I trust 1
shall easily obtain from you what I wish. [Direct : • quod volo, impe-
trabo.]
Note. — These verbs, however, often take a simple Complementary Infinitive (§ 466).
So regularly in early Latin (except spero) : — i
pollicentur obsidos dare (B. G. iv. 21), they promise to give hostages.
promisi dolium viui dare (PL Cist. 542), I promised to give ajar of wine.
1 Compare the Greek aorist infinitive after similar verbs.
37G SYNTAX : SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§ 680, 581
d. Some verbs and expressions may be used either as verbs of
saying, or as verbs of commanding, effecting, and the like. These
take as their object either an Infinitive with subject accusative or a
Substantive clause of Purpose or Eesult, according to the sense.
1 . Infinitive with Subject Accusative (Indirect Discourse) : —
laudem sapientiae statuo esse maximam (Earn. v. 13), I hold that the glory of
wisdom is the greatest. [Indirect Discourse.]
res ipsa monebat tempus esse (Att. x, 8. 1), the thing itself warned that it
was time. [Cf. monere ut, warn to do something.]
fac mihi esse persuasum (N. D. i. 75), suppose that I am, persuaded of that
[Cf. facere ut, bring it about that.']
hoc volunt persuadere, non interire animas (B. G. vi. 14), they wish to con-
vince that souls do not perish.
2. Subjunctive (Substantive Clause of Purpose or Result): —
statuunt ut decern milia liominum mittantur (B. G. vii. 21), they resolve that
10,000 men shall be sent. [Purpose clause (cf. § 563).]
huic persuadet uti ad hostis transeat (id. iii. 18), he persuades him to pass
over to the enemy.
Pompeius suis praedlxerat ut Caesaris impetum exciperent (B. C. iii. 02),
Pompey had instructed his men beforehand to await Ccesar''s attack.
dentintiavit ut essent animo parati (id. iii. 86), he bade them be alert and
steadfast (ready in spirit).
Note. — The infinitive with subject accusative in this construction is Indirect Dis-
course, and is to be distinguished from the simple infinitive sometimes found with these
verbs instead of a subjunctive clause (§ 563. d).
581. The Subject Accusative of the Infinitive is regularly ex-
pressed in Indirect Discourse, even if it is wanting in the direct :
orator sura, I am an orator ; dicit se esse oratorem, he says he is an orator.
Note 1. — But the subject is often omitted if easily understood : —
ign5scere imprudentiae dixit (B. G. iv. 27), he said he pardoned their rashness.
eadem ab aliis quaerit : reperit esse vera (id. i. 18), he inquires about these same
things from others; he finds that they are true.
Note 2. — After a relative, or quam (than), if the verb would be the same as that of
the main claiise, it is usually omitted, and its subject is attracted into tlie accusative : —
te suspicor elsdem rebus quibus me ipsum coramoveri (Cat. M. 1), / suspect that
you are disturbed by the same things as 1.
coufido tamen haec quoque tibi non minus grata quam ipsos libros futura (Plin,
Ep. iii. 5. 20), 7 trust that these facts too loill be no less pleasing to you than
the books themselves.
Note 3. — In poetry, by a Greek idiom, a Predicate Noun or Adjective in the indi-
rect discourse sometimes agrees with the subject of the main verb: — ^
vir bonus et sapiens ait esse paratus (Hor. Ep. i. 7. 22), a good and ivise man says
he is prepared, etc. [In prose : ait se esse paratum.]
sensit medios delapsus in hostis (Aen. ii. 377), he found himself fallen among the
foe. [In prose: se esse delapsum.]
§§ 682, 583] INDIRECT DISCOURSE 377
582. When the verb of saying etc. is passive^ the construction
may be either Personal or Impersonal. But the Piersonal con-
struction is more common and is regularly used in the tenses of
incomplete action : —
beate vixisse videor (Lael. 16), J seem to have lived happily.
Epaminondas fidibus praeclare cecinisse dicitur (Tusc. i. 4), Epaminondas is
said to have played excellently on the lyre.
multi idem facturi esse dicuntur (Fam. xvi. 12. 4), many are said to be about
to do the same thing. [Active : dicunt multos facturos (esse).]
primi traduntur arte quadam verba vinxisse (Or. 40), they first are related to
have joined words with a certain skill.
Bibulus audiebatur esse in Syria (Att. v. 18), it was heard that Bibulus was in
Syria (Bibulus v^as heard, etc.). [Direct: Bibulus est.]
ceterae Illyrici legiones secutiirae sperabantur (Tac. H. ii. 74), the rest of the
legions of Illyricum were expected to follow.
videmur enim quietiiri fuisse, nisi essemus lacessiti (De Or. ii. 280), it seems
that we should have kept quiet., if we had not been molested (we seem, etc.).
[Direct: quiessemus . . . nisi essemus lacessiti.]
Note, — The poets and later writers extend the personal use of the passive to verbs
which are not properly verba sentiendi etc. : as, — colligor dominae placuisse (Ov. Am.
ii. 6. 61), it is gathered [from this memorial] that I pleased my mistress.
a. In the compound tenses of verbs of saying etc., the impersonal
construction is more common, and with the gerundive is regular : —
traditum est etiam Homerum caecum fUisse (Tusc. v. 114), it is a tradition^
too, that Homer was blind.
ubi tyrannus est, ibi non vitiosam, sed dicendum est plane ntillam esse rem
publicam (Rep. iii. 43), where there is a tyrant, it must be said, not that
the commonwealth is evil, but that it does not exist at all.
Note. — An indirect narrative begun in the personal construction may be continued
with the Infinitive and Accusative (as De Or. ii. 299; Liv. v. 41. 9).
Subordinate Clauses in Indirect Discourse
583. A Subordinate Clause merely explanatory^ or containing
statements which are regarded as true independently of the quo-
tation, takes the Indicative : —
quis neget haec omnia quae videmus de5rum potestate administrarl (Cat. iii.
21), who can deny that all these things we see are ruled by the power of
the gods ?
cuius ingenio putabat ea quae gesserat posse celebrari (Arch. 20), by whose
genius he thought that those deeds which he had done could be celebrated.
[Here the fact expressed by quae gesserat, though not explanatory, is
felt to be true without regard to the quotation: quae gessisset would
mean, what Marius claimed to have done.]
378 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§583,584
Note. — Such a clause in the indicative is not regarded as a part of the Indirect
Discourse ; but.it often depends merely upon the feeling of the writer whether he shall
use the Judicative or the Subjunctive (of. §§ 591-593).
a, A subordinate clause in Indirect Discourse occasionally takes
the Indicative when the fact is emphasized : —
factum eius hostis periculum . . . cum, Cimbris et Teutonis . . . pulsis, non
minorem laudem exercitus quaui ipse imperator meritus videbatur (B. G.
i. 40), that a trial of this enemy had been made when, on the defeat of the
Cimbri and Teutonic the army seemed to have deserved no less credit than
the commander himself.
h. Clauses introduced by a relative which is equivalent to a
demonstrative with a conjunction are not properly subordinate, and
hence take the Accusative and Infinitive in Indirect Discourse (see
§308./): —
Marcellus requlsisse dicitur Archimedem ilium, quern cum audisset inter-
fectum permoleste tulisse (Verr. iv. 131), Marcellus is said to have sought
for Archimedes, and when he heard that he was slain, to have been greatly
distressed, [quern = et eum.]
censent iinum quemque nostrum mundi esse partem, ex quo [= et ex eo]
illud natiira consequi (Fin. iii. 64), they say that each one of us is a part
of the universe, from which this naturally follows.
Note. — Really subordinate clauses occasionally take the accusative and infinitive;
as, — quem ad modum si non dedatur obses pro rupto foedus se habiturum, sic deditam
inviolatam ad suos remissurum (Liv. ii. 13), [he says] as in case the hostage is not
given up he shall consider the treaty as broken, so if given up he will return her
unharmed to her friends.
c. The infinitive construction is regularly continued after a com-
parative with quam : —
addit se prius occisum Irl ab eo quam me violatum iri (Alt. ii. 20. 2), he adds
that he himself will be killed by him, before I shall be injured.
nonne adfirmavi quidvis me potius perpessuruni quam ox Italia exiturum
(Fam. ii. 16. 3), did I not assert that I would endure anything rather
than leave Italy ?
Note. — The subjunctive with or without ut also occurs with quam (see 5 535. c).
Tenses of the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse
584. The Present, the Perfect, or the Future Infinitive ^ is used
in Indirect Discourse, according as the time indicated is prese7it,
jiast^ OY future with reference to the verb of saying etc. by which
the Indirect Discourse is introduced : —
1 For various ways of expressing the Future Infinitive, see § 164. 3. c.
§§ 584, 585] TENSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 379
cado, lam falling.
dicit se cadere, he says he is falling.
dixit se cadere, he said he was falling.
cadebam, I was falling; cecidi, I fell, have fallen;
cecideram, I had fallen.
dicit se cecidisse, he says he was falling, fdl, has fallen, had fallen.
dixit se cecidisse, he said he fell, had fallen.
cadam, I shall fall.
dicit se casurum [esse] , he says he shall fall.
dixit se casurum [esse], he said he should fall.
cecidero, I shall have fallen.
dicit fore ut ceciderit [rare], he says he shall have fallen.
dixit fore ut cecidisset [rare], he said he should have fallen.
a. All varieties of past time are usually expressed in Indirect
Discourse by the Perfect Infinitive, wMch may stand for the Imper-
fect, the Perfect, or the Pluperfect Indicative of the Direct.
Note. — Continued or repeated action in past time is sometimes expressed by the
Present Infinitive, which in sucli cases stands for the Imperfect Indicative of the Direct
Discourse and is often called the Imperfect Infinitive.
This is the regular construction after memini when referring to a matter of actual
experience or observation : as, — te memini haec dicere, / remember your saying this
(that you said this). [Direct : dixisti or dicebas.]
h. The present infinitive posse often has a future sense : ■ —
totius Galliae sese potiri posse sperant (B. G. i. 3), they hope that they shall
he able to get possession of all Gaul.
Tenses of the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse
585. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse fol-
low the rule for the Sequence of Tenses (§ 482). They depend for
their sequence on the verb of saying etc. by which the Indirect
Discourse is introduced.
Thus in the sentence, dixit se Romam iturum ut consulem videret, he said he
should go to Rome in order that he might see the consul, videret follows the sequence
of dixit without regard to the Future Infinitive, iturum [esse], on which it directly
depends.
Note. — This rule applies to the subjunctive in subordinate cla"uses, to that which
stands for the imperative etc. (see examples, § 588), and to that in questions (§ 586).
a, A subjunctive depending on a Perfect Infinitive is often in the
Imperfect or Pluperfect, even if the verb of saying etc. is in a pri-
mary tense (cf. § 485. j); so regularly when these tenses would have
been used in Direct Discourse : —
380 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§585,586
Tarquinium dixisse ferunt turn exsulantem se intellexisse quos fidos amicos
habuisset (Lael. 53), they tell us that Tarquin said that then in his exile
he had found out what faithful friends he had had. [Here the main verb
of saying, ferunt, is primary, but the time is carried back by dixisse and
intellexisse, and the sequence then becomes secondary.]
tantum profecisse videmur ut a Graecis ne verborum quidem copia vinceremur
(N. D. i. 8), we seem to have advanced so far that even in abundance of
words we are not surpassed by the Greeks.
Note 1. — The proper sequence may be seen, in each case, by turning the Perfect
Infinitive into that tense of the Indicative which it represents. Thus, if it stands for
an imperfect or an historical perfect, the sequence will be secondary ; if it stands for
a perfect definite, the sequence may be either primary or secondary (§ 485. a).
Note 2. — The so-called imperfect infinitive after memini (§584. a. n.) takes the
secondary sequence: as, — ad me adire quosdam memini, qui dicerent (Fam. iii. 10. 6), I
remember that some persons visited me, to tell me, etc.
h. The Present and Perfect Subjunctive are often used in depend-
ent clauses of the Indirect Discourse even when the verb of saying
etc. is in a secondary tense : —
dicebant . . . totidem Nervios (pollicerl) qui longissimg absint (B. G. ii. 4),
they said that the Nervii, who live farthest off, promised as many.
Note. — This construction comes from the tendency of language to refer all time
in narration to the time of the speaker {repraesentatio) . In the course of a long pas-
sage in the Indirect Discourse the tenses of the subjunctive often vary, sometimes fol-
lowing the sequence, and sometimes affected by repraesentatio. Examples may be
seen in B. G. i. 13, vii. 20, etc.
Certain constructions are never affected by repraesentatio. Such are the Imperfect
and Pluperfect Subjunctive with cum temporal, antequam, and priusquam.
Questions in Indirect Discourse
586. A Question in Indirect Discourse may be either in the
Subjunctive or in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative.
A real question^ asking for an answer, is generally put in the
Subjunctive ; a rhetorical question, asked for effeot and implying
its own answer, is put in the Infinitive : —
quid sibi vellet ? ctir in suas posscssiones veniret (B. G. i. 44), what did he
want? why did he come into his territories? [Real question. Direct:
quid vis ? cur venis ?]
num recentiura iniuriarum memoriam [se] dcponere posse (id. i. 14), could
he lay a^ide the memory of recent wrongs? [Rhetorical Question.
Direct : num possum ?]
quem signum daturum fugientibus ? quern ausurum Alexandre succedere (Q. C.
iii. 5. 7), who will give the signal on the retreat? who will dare succeed
Alexander? [Rhetorical. Direct: quis dabit . . . audebit.]
§§586-589] COMMANDS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 381
Note 1. — No sharp line can be drawn between the Subjunctive and the Infinitive
in questions in the Indirect Discourse. Whether the question is to be regarded as
rhetorical or real often depends merely on the writer's point of view : —
utrum partem regni petiturum esse, an totum erepturuia (Liv. xlv. 19. 15), will you
ask part of the regal poioer (he said) , or seize the lohole ?
quid tandem praetoii faciendum fuisse (id. xxxi. 48), what, pray, ought aprxtor to
have done ?
quid repente factum [esse] cur, etc. (id. xxxiv. 5i), what had suddenly happened,
that, etc.?
Note 2. — Questions coming immediately after a verb of asking are treated as Indi-
rect Questions and take the Subjunctive (see § 574). This is true even when the verb
of asking serves also to introduce a passage in the Indirect Discourse. The question
may be either real or rhetorical. See quaesivit, etc. (Liv. xxxvii. 15).
For the use of tenses, see § 585.
587. A Deliberative Subjunctive (§ 444) in the Direct Dis-
course is always retained in the Indirect : —
cur aliquos ex suls amitteret (B. C. i. 72), why (thought he) fthould he lose
some of his men ? [Direct : cur amittam ?]
Commands in Indirect Discourse
588. All Imperative forms of speech take the Subjunctive in
Indirect Discourse : —
reminisceretur veteris incommodi (B. G. i. 13), remember (said he) the ancient
disaster. [Direct: reminiscere.]
finem facial (id. i. 20), let him make an end. [Direct: fac]
ferrent opem, adiuvarent (Liv. ii. 6), let them bring aid, let them help.
a. This rule applies not only to the Imperative of the direct dis-
course, but to the Hortatory and the Optative Subjunctive as well.
Note 1. — Though these subjunctives stand for independent clauses of the direct
discourse, they follow the rule for the sequence of tenses, being in fact dependent on
the verb of saying etc. (cf. §§ 483, 585).
Note 2. — A Prohibition in the Indirect Discourse is regularly expressed by ne with
the present or imperfect subjunctive, even when noli with the infinitive would be used
in the Direct: as, — ne pejturbarentur (B. G. vii. 29), do not (he said) be troubled.
[Direct: nolite perturbari. But sometimes nollet is found in Indirect Discourse.]
Conditions in Indirect Discourse
589. Conditional sentences in Indirect Discourse are expressed
as follows : —
1. The Protasis, being a subordinate clause, is always in the
Subjunctive.
2. The JV podosis, if independent and not hortatory or optative,
is always in some form of the Infinitive.
382 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§689
a. The Present Subjunctive in the apodosis of less vivid future
conditions (§ 516. h) becomes the Future Infinitive like the Futui-e
Indicative in the apodosis of more vivid future conditions.
Thus there is no distinction between more and less vivid future
conditions in the Indirect Discourse. *
Examples of Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse are —
1. Simple Present Condition (§515): —
(dixit) si ipse populo Romano non praescriberet quern ad modum suo iure
titeretur, non oportere sese a populo R5mano in suo iure impediri (B. G,
1. 36), lie said that if he did not dictate to the Roman peojjle how they
should use their rights, he ought not to be interfered with by the Roman
'people in the exercise of his rights. [Direct : si non praescribd . . . non
oportet.]
praedicavit ... si pace titi velint, iniquum esse, etc. (id. i. 44), he assei'ted
that if they wished to enjoy peace, it was unfair, etc. [Direct: si volunt
. . , est. Present tense kept by repraesentdtio (§ 685. b. n.).]
2. Simple Past Condition (§ 515): —
non dicam ne illud quidem, si maxime in culpa fuerit Apollonius, tamen in
hominem lionestissimae civitatis honestissimum tain graviter aniinad-
verti, causa indicta, non oportuisse (Verr. v. 20), I will not say this
either, that, even if Apollonius was very greatly in fault, still an honorable
man from an honorable state ought not to have been punished so severely
without having his case heard. [Direct: si fuit . . . non oportuit.]
3. Future Conditions (§ 516): —
(dixit) quod si praeterea nemo sequatur, tamen se cum sola decimalegione
iturum (B. G. i. 40), but if nobody else should follow, still he would go
withthe tenth legion alone. [Direct : si sequetur . . . ibo. Present tense
by repraesentatio (§ 585. b. n.).]
Haeduls se obsides reddittirum non esse, neque eis . . . bellum illaturum, si
in eo manerent, quod convenisset, stipendiumque quotannis penderent :
si id non fecissent, longe els fraternum nomen populi R^mani afutu-
rum (id. i. 36), he said that he would not give up the hostages to the
Haedui, but would not make war upon them if they observed the agreement
which had been made, and paid tribute yearly ; but that, if they should
not do this, the name of brothers to the Roman people would be far from
aiding them. [Direct : reddam . . . inferam ... si manebunt . . . pen-
dent : si non f ecerint . . . aberit. ]
id Datames ut audivit, sensit, si in turbam exisset ab homine tam necessa-
rio se relictum, futurum [esse] ut ceteri consilium sequantur (Nep. Dat.
6), when Datames heard this, he saw that, if it should get abroad that he
had been abandoned by a man so closely connected with him, everybody
else would follow his example. [Direct : si exierit . . . sequentur. ]
§589] CONDITIONS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 383
(putaverunt) nisi me civitate expulissent, obtinere se non posse licentiam
cupiditatum suarum (Att. x. 4), they thought that unless they drove me
out of the state, they could not have free play for their desires. [Direct .-
nisi (Ciceronem) expulerimus, obtinere non poterimus.]
b. In changing a Condition contrary to fact (§ 517) into the Indi-
rect Discourse, the following points require notice : —
1. The Protasis always remains unchanged in tense.
2. The Apodosis, if active, takes a peculiar infinitive form, made by com-
bining the Participle in -iirus with fuisse.
3. If the verb of the Apodosis \.s passive or has no supine stem, the pe-
riphrasis futunim fuisse ut (with the Imperfect Subjunctive) must be used.
4. An Indicative in the Apodosis becomes a Perfect Infinitive.
Examples are : —
nee se superstitem filiae futiirum fuisse^ nisi spem iilciscendae mortis eius
in auxilio commilitonum habuisset (Liv. iii. 50. 7), and that he should
not now he a survivor, etc., unless he had had hope, etc. [Direct: n5n
superstes essem, nisi habuissem.}
illud Asia cogitet, ntillam a se neque belli externi n.eque discordiarum do-
mesticarum calamitatem afuturam fuisse, si hoc imperio non teneretur
(Q. Fr. i. 1, 34), let Asia (personified) think of this, that no disaster, etc.,
would not be hers, if she were not held by this government. [Direct s
abesset, si non tenerer.]
quid inimlcitiarum creditis [me] exceptiirum fuisse, si insontls lacessissem
(Q. C. vi. 10. 18), what enmities do you think I should have incurred, if
I had wantonly assailed the innocent ? [excepissem ... si lacessissem.]
invitum se dicere, nee dictiirum fuisse, ni caritas rei^ piiblicae vinceret (Liv.
ii. 2), that he spoke unwillingly and should not have spoken, did not love
for the state prevail. [Direct: nee dixissem . . . ni vinceret.]
nisi eo teinpore quidam nuntii de Caesaris victoria . . . essent allati, existi-
mabant plerique futurum fuisse uti [oppidum] amitteretur (B. C. iii. 101),
most people thought that unless at that time reports of Caesaris victory
had been brought, the town would have been lost. [Direct: nisi essent
allati . . . amissum esset.]
quorum si aetas potuisset esse longinquior, futurum fuisse ut omnibus per-
feetis artibus hominum vita erudiretur (Tuse. iii. 69), if life could have
been longer, human existence would have been embellished by every art in
its perfection. [Direct: si potuisset . . . erudita esset.]
■^^ at plerique existimant, si acrius insequi voluisset, bellum eo die potuisse
finire (B. C. iii. 51), but most people think that, if he had chosen to follow
up the pursuit more vigorously, he could have ended the war on that day.
[Direct: si voluisset . . . potuit.]
^- Caesar respondit ... si alicuius iniuriae sibi conscius fuisset, non fuisse dif-
ficile cavere (B. G. i. 14), CcBsar replied that if [the Roman people] had
been aware of any wrong act, it would not have been hard for them to takf
precautions. [Direct: si fuisset, non difficile fuit (§ 517. c).]
384 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§689-691
Note 1. — In Indirect Discourse Present Conditions contrary to fact are not dis-
tinguished in the apodosis from Past Conditions contrary to fact, but the protasis may
keep them distinct.
Note 2. — The periphrasis f uturum f uisse ut is sometimes used from choice when
there is no necessity for resorting to it, but not in Caesar or Cicero.
Note 3. — Very rarely the Future Infinitive is used in the Indirect Discourse to ex-
press the Apodosis of a Present Condition contrary to fact. Only four or five examples
of this use occur in classic authors ; as, — Titurius clamabat si Caesar adesset neque
Carnutes, etc., neque Eburones tanta cum contemptione nostra ad castra ventures esse
(B. G. V. 29), Titurius cried out that if Csesar were present, neither would, the Car-
nutes, etc., nor would the Eburones be coming to our camp with such contempt.
[Direct: si adesset . . . venirent.]
590. The following example illustrates some of the foregoing
principles in a connected address : —
INDIRECT DISCOURSE DIRECT DISCOURSE
Si pacem populus Romanus cum Si pacem populus Romanus cum
Helvetiis faceret, in earn partem ituros Helvetils faciei, in earn partem ibunt
atque ibi futures Helvetios, ubi eos atque ibi erunt Helvetii, ubi eos tii
Caesar constituisset atque esse voluis- constitueris atque esse volueris : sin
set : sin bello persequi perseveraret, bello persequi perseverabis, reminiscere
reminisceretur et veteris incommodi [inquit] et veteris incommodi populi
populi Romani, et pristinae virtutis Roman!, et pristinae virttitis Helve-
Helvetiorum. Quod improviso tinum tiorum. Quod improviso tinum pagum
pagum adortus esset, cum ei qui fliimen adortus es, cum ei qui flumen transie-
transissent suls auxilium ferre non pes- rant suls auxilium ferre non possent, ne
sent, ne ob earn rem aut suae magno ob eam rem aut tuae magno opere vir-
opere virtiiti tribueret, -fiut ipsos despi- tut! tribueris, aut nos despexeris : nos
ceret : se ita a patribus maioribusque ita a patribus m§,ioribusque nostris didi-
suis didicisse, ut magis virtute quam cimus, ut magis virtute quam dolo con-
dolo contendereut, aut insidiis niteren- tendamus, aut insidiis nitamur. Qua re
tut. Qua re ne committeret, ut is locus noli committere, ut hie locus ubi consti-
ubi constidssent ex calamitate populi timus ex calamitate populi Romani et
Romani et interneclone exercitus no- internecione exercitus nomen capiat,
men caperet, aut nemoriam proderet. aut memoriam prodat.
— B. G. i. 13.
Intermediate Clauses
591. A Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive —
1. When it expresses the thought of some other person than the
speaker or writer (Informal Indirect Discourse), or
2. When it is an integral part of a Subjunctive clause or equivar
lent Infinitive (Atti-actioii)}
'• See note on Indirect Discourse (§ 577).
§ 692] INFORMAL INDIRECT DISCOURSE 386
Informal Indirect Discourse
592. A Subordinate Clause takes the Subjunctive when it
expresses the thought of some other person than the writer or
speaker : —
1. When the clause depends upon another containing a wish, a
command, or a question, expressed indirectly, though not strictly in
the form of Indirect Discourse : —
animal sentit quid sit quod deceat (Off. i. 14), an animal feels what it is that
is Jit.
huic imperat quas possit adeat civitates (B. G. iv. 21), he orders him to visit
what states he can.
hunc sibi ex animo scrupulum, qui se dies noctlsque stimulat ac pungit, ut
evellatis postulat (Rose. Am. 6), he begs you to pluck from his heart this
doubt that goads and stings him day and night. [Here the relative
clause is not a part of the Purpose expressed in evellatis, but is an
assertion made by the subject of postulat.]
2. When the main clause of a quotation is merged in the verb of
sayiiig, or some modifier of it : —
si quid de his rebus dlcere vellet, feci potestatem (Cat. iii. 11), if he wished
to say anything about these matters.^ I gave him a chance.
tulit de caede quae in Appia via facta esset (Mil. 15), he passed a law con-
cerning the ynurder which (in the language of the bill) took place in the
Appian Way.
nisi restituissent statuas, vehementer minatur (Verr. ii. 162), he threatens them
violently unless they should restore the statues. [Here the main clause,
"that he will inflict punishment," is contained in minatur.]
ils auxilium suum pollicitus si ab Suebis premerentur (B. G. iv. 19), he
promised them his aid if they should be molested by the Suevi. [= polli-
citus se auxilium laturum, etc.]
prohibitio tollendi, nisi pactus esset, vim adhibebat paction! (Verr. iii. 37),
the forbidding to take away unless he came to terms gave force to the
bargain.
3. When a reason or an explanatory fact is introduced by a rela
tive or by quod (rarely quia) (see § 540) : —
Paetus omnis libros qu5s f rater suus reliquisset mihi donavit (Att. ii. 1. 12),
Pcetus presented to me all the books which (he said) his brother had left.
Note. — Under this head even what the speaker himself thought under other cir-
cumstances may have the Subjunctive. So also with quod even the verb of saying may
be in the Subjunctive (§ 540. n. 2). Here belong also non quia, non quod, introducing a
reason expressly to deny it. (See § 540. n. ^.)
386 SYNTAX : INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES
[§ 593
Subjunctive of Integral Part (Attraction)
593. A clause depending upon a Subjunctive clause or an
equivalent Infinitive will itself take the Subjunctive if regarded
as an integral part of that clause : — ^
imperat, dum res iudicetur, hominem adservent : cum itidicata sit, ad se ut
addticant (Verr. iii. 55), he orders tliem^ till the affair should be decided,
to keep the man; when it is judged, to bring him, to him.
etenim quis tam dissoluto animo est, qui haec cum videat, tacere ac neglegere
possit (Rose. Am. 32), /or who is so reckless of spirit that, vihen he sees
these things, he can keep silent and pass them by ?
mos est Athenis laudari in contione eos qui sint in proelils interfecti (Or.
151), it is the custom at Athens for those to be publicly eulogized who
have been slain in battle. [Here laudari is equivalent to ut laudentur.]
a. But a dependent clause may be closely connected grammatically
with a Subjunctive or Infinitive clause, and still take the Indicative,
if it is not regarded as a necessary logical part of that clause : —
quodam modo postulat ut, quern ad modum est, sic etiam appelletur, tyrannus
(Att. X. 4. 2), in a manner he demands that as he is, so he may be called,
a tyrant.
nattira fert ut els faveamus qui eadem pericula quibus nos perfuncti sumus
ingrediuntur (Mur. 4), nature prompts us to feel friendly towards those
who are entering on the same dangers which we have passed through.
ne hostes, quod tantum multittidine poterant, suos circumvenire possent
(B. G. ii. 8), lest the enemy, because they were so strong in numbers, should
be able to surround his men.
si mea in te essent officia solum tanta quanta magis a te ipso praedicarl
quam a me ponderarl solent, verecundius a te . . . peterem (Fam. ii. 6),
if my good services to you were only so great as they are wont rather to
be called by you than to be estimated by me, I should, etc.
Note 1. — The use of the Indicative in such clauses sometimes serves to emphasize
the fact, as true independently of the statement contained in the subjunctive or infini-
tive clause. But in many cases no such distinction is perceptible.
Note 2. — It is often difficult to distinguish between Informal Indirect Discourse
and the Integral Part: Thus in imperavit ut ea fierent quae opus essent, essent may
stand for sunt, and then will be Indirect Discourse, being a part of the thought, but
not a part of the order ; or it may stand for erunt, and then will be Integral Part, being
a part of the order itself. The difficulty of making the distinction in such cases is
evidence of the close relationship between these two constructions.
1 The subjunctive in this use is of the same nature as the subjunctive in the main
clause. A dependent clause in a clause of purpose is really a part of the purpose, as
is seen from the use of should and other auxiliaries in English. In a result clause this
is less clear, but the result construction is a branch of the characteristic (§ 534) , to
which category the dependent clause in this case evidently belongs when it takes the
subjunctivBo
594] SYNTAX: IMPORTANT RULES 387
594. IMPORTANT RULES OF SYNTAX
1. A noun used to describe another, and denoting the same person or
thing, agrees with it in Case (§ 282).
2. Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles agree vyith their
nouns in Gender, Number, and Case (§ 286).
3. Superlatives (more rarely Comparatives) denoting order and succes-
sion — also medius, (ceterus), reliquus — usually designate not what
object, but what part of it, is meant (§ 293).
4. The Personal Pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural, that
in -um being used' pariitively, and that in -i oftenest objectively
(§ 295. b).
5. The Reflexive Pronoun (se), and usually the corresponding possessive
(suus), are used in the predicate to refer to the subject of the sen-
tence or clause (§ 299).
6. To express Possession and similar ideas the Possessive Pronouns
must be used, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive pro-
nouns (§ 302. a).
7. A Possessive Pronoun or an Adjective implying possession may take
an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number, and
case with an implied noun or pronoun (§ 302. e).
8. A Relative Pronoun agrees with its Antecedent in Gender and Num-
ber, but its Case depends on its construction in the clause in
which it stands (§ 305).
9. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Person (§ 316).
10. Adverbs are used to modify Yerbs, Adjectives, and other Adverbs
(§ 321).
11. A Question of simple fact, requiring the answer yes or no, is formed
by adding the enclitic -ne to the emphatic word (§ 332).
12. When the enclitic -ne is added to a negative word, — as in nonne, —
an affirmative answer is expected. The particle num suggests a
negative answer (§ 332. &).
18. The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative (§ 339).
14. The Vocative is the case of direct address (§ 340).
15. A noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning the same
person or thing, is put in the Genitive (§ 342).
16. The Possessive Genitive denotes the person or thing to which an
object, quality, feeling, or action belongs (§ 343).
388 SYNTAX : IMPORTANT RULES [§ 594
17. The genitive may denote the Substance or Material of which a
thing consists (§ 344).
18. The genitive is used to denote Quality, but only when the quality is
modified by an adjective (§ 345).
19. Words denoting a part are followed by the Genitive of the lohole to
which the part belongs {Partitive Genitive, § 346).
20. Nouns of action, agency, and feeling goYeTn the Genitive of the object
{Objective Genitive, § 348).
21. Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory, fulness, power, sharing,
guilt, and their opposites ; participles in -ns when used as adjectives;
and verbals in -ax, govern the Genitive (§ 349. a, b, c).
22. Verbs of remembering and forgetting take either the Accusative or
the Genitive of the object (§ 350).
23. Verbs of reminding take with the Accusative of the person a Genitive
of the thing (§ 351).
24. Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting take the Genitive of
the charge oi penalty (§ 352).
25. The Dative is used of the object indirectly affected by an action
{Indirect Object, § 361).
26. Many verbs signifying to favor, help, please, trust, and their contraries ;
also, to believe, persuade, comynand, obey, serve, resist, envy, threaten,
pardon, and spare, take the Dative (§ 367).
27. Many verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae,
pro, sub, super, and some with circum, admit the Dative of the
indirect object (§ 370).
28. The Dative is used with esse and similar words to denote Possession
(§ 373).
29. The Dative of the Agent is used with the Gerundive, to denote the
person on whom the necessity rests (§ 374).
30. The Dative often depends, not on any particular word, but on the
general meaning of the sentence {Dative of Reference, § 376).
31. Many verbs of taking away and the like take the Dative (especially
of a person) instead of the Ablative of Separation (§ 381).
32. The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End, often with another
Dative of the person or thing aifected (§ 382).
33. The Dative is used with adjectives (and a few adverbs) of fitness,
nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites (§ 384).
594] SYNTAX: IMPOETANT RULES 389
34. The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the Accusative
(§ 387).
35. An intransitive verb often takes the Accusative of a noun of kindred
meaning, usually modified by an adjective or in some other man-
ner {^Cognate Accusative, § 390).
36. Verbs of Jiaming, choosing^ appointing, making, esteeming, showing, and
the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along with the direct
object (§ 393).
37. Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes take (in
addition to the direct object) a Secondary Object, originally gov-
erned by the preposition (§ 394).
38. Some verbs of asking and teaching may take two Accusatives, one of
the Person, and the other of the Thing (§ 396).
39. The subject of an Infinitive is in the Accusative (§ 397. e).
40. Duration of Time and Extent of Space are expressed by the Accusa-
tive (§§ 424. c, 425).
41. Words signifying separation or privation are followed by the Abla-
tive (^Ablative of Separation, § 400).
42. The Ablative, usually with a preposition, is used to denote the source
from which anj^thing is derived or the material of which it consists
(§ 403).
43. The Ablative, with or without a preposition, is used to express cause
(§ 404).
44. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is expressed by the Abla-
tive with a or ab (§ 405).
45. The Comparative degree is often follow^ed by the Ablative signifying
than (§ 406).
46. The Comparative may be followed by quam, than. When quam is
used, the two things compared are put in the same case (§ 407).
47. The Ablative is used to denote the means or instrument of an action
(§ 409).
48. The deponents, utor, fnior, fungor, potior, and vescor, with several of
their compounds, govern the Ablative (§ 410).
49. Opus and usus, signifying need, are followed by the Ablative (§ 411).
50. The manner of an action is denoted by the Ablative, usually with
cum unless a limiting adjective is used with the noun (§ 412).
390 SYNTAX: IMPORTANT RULES [§594
51. Accompaniment is denoted by the Ablative, regularly with cum
(§ 413).
52. With Comparatives and words implying comparison the Ablative is
used to denote the degree of difference (§ 414).
53. The quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative with an adjective
or genitive Modifier (§ 415).
54. The price of a thing is put in the Ablative (§ 416),
55. The Ablative of Specification denotes that in respect to which any-
thing is or is done (§ 418).
56. The adjectives dignus and indignus take the Ablative (§ 418. h).
57. A noun or pronoun, with a participle in agreement, may be put in
the Ablative to define the time or circumstances of an action
(Ablative Absolute,-^ 419).
An adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the participle in the
ablative absolute construction (§ 419. a) .
58. Time when, or within which, is denoted by the Ablative ; time how
long by the Accusative (§ 423).
59. Relations of Place are expressed as follows: —
1. T\iQ place from which, by the Ablative with ab, de, ex.
2. The place to which (or end of motion'), by the Accusative with
ad or in.
3. The place where, by the Ablative with in {Locative Ablative).
(§ 426.)
60. With names of towns and small islands, and with domus and riis, the
relations of place are expressed as follows : —
1. The place from which, by the Ablative without a preposition.
2. T\iQ place to vjhich, by the Accusative without a preposition.
3. The place where, by the Locative. (§ 427.)
61. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used in the present tense to express
an exhortation, a command, or a concession (§§ 439, 440).
62. The Optative Subjunctive is used to express a tvish. The present
tense denotes the wish as possible, the imperfect as unaccomplished
in present time, the pluperfect as unaccomplished in past time
(§ 441).
63. The Subjunctive is used in questions implying (1) doxdit, indignation,
or (2) an impossibility of the thing's being done {Deliberative Sub-
junctive, § 444).
594] SYNTAX. IMPORTANT RULES 391
64. The Potential Subjunctive is used to suggest an action as possible or
conceivable (§ 446).
65. The Imperative is used in commands and entreaties (§ 448).
66. Prohibition is regularly expressed in classic prose (1) by noli with the
Infinitive, (2) by cave with the Present Subjunctive, (3) by ne with
the Perfect Subjunctive (§ 450).
67. The Infinitive, with or without a subject accusative, may be used
with est and similar verbs (1) as the Subject, (2) in Apposition with
the subject, or (3) as a Predicate Nominative (§ 452).
68. Verbs which imply another action of the same subject to complete their
meaning take the Infinitive without a subject accusative (^Comple-
mentary Infinitive, § 456).
69. The Infinitive, with subject accusative, is used with verbs and other
expressions of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving (Indirect
Discourse, see § 459).
70. The Infinitive is often used for the Imperfect Indicative in narration,
and takes a subject in the Nominative (Historical Infinitive, § 463).
71. Sequence of Tenses. In complex sentences, a primary tense in
the main clause is followed by the Present or Perfect Subjunctive
in the dependent clause ; a secondary tense by the Imperfect or
■ Pluperfect (§ 483).
72. Participles denote time as present, past, or future with respect to the
time of the verb in their clause (§ 489).
73. The Gerund and the Gerundive are used, in the oblique cases, in
many of the constructions of nouns (§§ 501-507).
74. The Supine in -um is used after verbs of motion to express Purpose
(§ 509).
75. The Supine in -u is used with a few adjectives and with the nouns
fas, nefas, and opus, to denote Specification (§ 510).
76. Dum, modo, dummodo, and tantum ut, introducing a Proviso, take
the Subjunctive (§ 528).
77. Final clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut (uti), negative
ne (ut ne), or by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb (§ 531).
78. A Relative Clause with the Subjunctive is often used to indicate a
characteristic of the antecedent, especially where the antecedent is
otherwise undefined (§ 535).
79. Dignus, indignus, aptus, and idoneus, take a Subjunctive clause with
a relative (rarely with ut) (§ 535./). •
392 SYNTAX: IMPORTANT RULES [§ 6&4
80. Claiises of Result take the Subjunctive introduced by ut, so that
(negative, ut non), or by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb
(§ 537).
81. The Causal Particles quod, quia, and quoniam take the Indicative
when the reason is given on the authority of the writer or speaker ;
the Subjunctive when the reason is given on the authority of
another (§ 540).
82. The particles postquam (posteaquam), ubi, ut (i^ primum, ut semel),
simul atque (simul ac, or simul alone) take the Indicative (usually
in the perfect or the historical present) (§ 543).
83. A Temporal clause with cum, wheUf and some past tense of the Indica-
tive dates or defines the time at which the action of the main verb
occurred (§ 545).
84. A Temporal clause with cum and the Imperfect or Pluperfect Sub-
junctive describes the circumstances that accompanied or preceded
the action of the main verb (§ 546).
85. Cum Causal or Concessive takes the Subjunctive (§ 549).
For other concessive particles, see § 527.
86. In Indirect Discourse the main clause of a Declaratory Sentence is
put in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. All subordinate
clauses take the Subjunctive (§ 580).
87. The Present, the Perfect, or the Future Infinitive is used in Indirect
Discourse, according as the time indicated is present, past, or future
with reference to the verb of saying etc. by which the Indirect Dis-
course is introduced (§ 584).
88. In Indirect Discourse a real question is generally put in the Subjunc-
tive; a rhetorical question in the Infinitive (§ 586).
89. All Imperative forms of speech take the Subjunctive in Indirect
Discourse (§ 688).
90. A Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive when it expresses the
thought of some other person than the writer or speaker (^Informal
Indirect Discourse, § 592).
91. A clause depending on a Subjunctive clause or an equivalent Infini-
tive will itself take the Subjunctive if regarded as an integral part
of that clause (Attraction, § 593).
For Prepositions and their cases, see §§ 220, 221.
For Conditional Sentences, see § 512 ff . (Scheme in § 614.)
For ways of expressing Purpose, see § 533.
§§595-597] ORDER OE WORDS 393
ORDER OF WORDS
595. Latin differs from English in having more freedom in the
arrangement of words for the purpose of showing the relative
importance of the ideas in a sentence.
596. As in other languages, the Subject tends to stand first, the
Predicate last. Thus, — •
Pausanias Lacedaemonius magnus homO sed varius in omni genere vltae fuit
(Nep. Paus. 1), Pausanias the Lacedoe.monian was a great man, but in-
consistent in the whole course of his life.
Note. — This happens because, from the speaker's ordinary point of view, the sub-
ject of his discourse is the most important thing in it, as singled out from all other
things to be spoken of.
a. There is in Latin, however, a special tendency to place the verb itself
last of all, after all its modifiers. But many writers purposely avoid the
monotony of this arrangement by putting the verb last but one, followed
by some single word of the predicate.
597. In connected discourse the word most prominent in the
speaker's mind comes first, and so on in order of prominence.
This relative prominence corresponds to that indicated in Eng-
lish by a graduated stress of voice (usually called emphasis).
a. The difference in emphasis expressed by difference in order of words
is illustrated in the following passages : —
apud Xenophontem autem moriens Cyrus maior haec dicit (Cat. M. 79), in
Xenophon too^ on kis death-bed Cyrus the elder utters these words.
Cyrus quidem haec moriens ; nos, si placet, nostra videamus (id. 82), Cyrus,
to be sure, utters these words on his death-bed; let us, if you please^ con-
sider our own case.
Cynls quidem apud Xenophontem eo sermone, quem moriens ha or.;: i\A.
30), Cyrus, to be sure, in Xenophon, in that speech which he utiereJ on
his death-bed.
Note. — This stress or emphasis, however, in English does not necessarily show
any violent contrast to the rest of the words in the sentence, but is infinitely varied,
constantly increasing and diminishing, and often so subtle as to be unnoticed except
in careful study. So, as a general rule, the precedence of words in a Latin sentence
is not mechanical, but corresponds to the prominence which a good speaker would
mark by skilfully managed stress of voice. A Latin written sentence, therefore, has
all the clearness and expression which could be given to a spoken discourse by the best
actor in English. Some exceptions to the rule will be treated later.
The first chapter of Caesar's Gallic War, if rendered so as to bring
out as far as possible the shades of emphasis, would run thus : —
394 ORDER OF WORDS [§ 59?
GAUL,i in the widest sense, is di- Gallia est omnis divisa in partis
vided^ into three parts,^ which are tris, quarum unam incolunt Belgae,
inhabited^ (as follows): one^ by the aliain Aqultani, tertiam qui ipsorum
Belgians, another^ by the Aquitani, lingua Celtae, nostra Galli appellan-
the third by a people called in their tur. Hi omnes lingua, institutis, legi-
own'' language Celts, in ours Gauls. bus inter se differunt. Gallos ab
These » in their language,^ institutions, Aquitanis Garumna fltimen, a Belgis
and laws are all of them lo different. Matrona et Sequana dividit. Horum
The GAULS" (proper) are separated 12 omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae, prop-
from the Aquitani by the river Garonne, terea quod a cultu atque htimanitate
from the Belgians by the Marne and
Seine. Of these i^ (tribes) the brav-
est of alli** are the Belgians, for the
reason that they, live farthest ^^ away
1 GAUL : emphatic as the subject of discourse, as with a title or the like.
2 Divided : opposed to the false conception (implied in the use of omnis) that the
country called Gallia by the Romans is one. This appears more clearly from the fact
that Oaesar later speaks of the Galli in a narrower sense as distinct from the other two
tribes, who with them inhabit Gallia in the wider sense.
8 Parts : continuing the emphasis begim in divisa. Not three parts as opposed to
any other number, but into parts at all.
4 Inhubited : emphatic as the next subject, " TTie inhabitants of these parts are, etc."
6 One : given more prominence than it otherwise would have on account of its close
connection with quarum.
6 Another, etc. : opposed to one.
^ Their own, ours : strongly opposed to each other.
8 These (tribes) : the main subject of discourse again, collecting under one head
the names previously mentioned.
9 Language, etc. ; these are the most prominent ideas, as giving the striking points
wl a distinguish the tribes. The emphasis becomes natural in English if we say
" tucse have a different language, different institutions, different laivs."
10 All of them: the emphasis on all marks the distributive character of the adjec-
tive, as if it were ^' every one has its own, etc."
11 GAULS : emphatic as referring to the Gauls proper in distinction from the other
^■v'bes.
'2 Separated : though this word contains an indispensable idea in the connection, yet
:ias a subordinate position. It is not emphatic in Latin, as is seen from the fact that
XV cannot be made emphatic in English. The sense is: The Gauls lie between the
AqvA.tani on the one side, and the Belgians on the other.
13 Of THESE : the subject of discourse.
14 All : emphasizing the superlative idea in " bravest " ; they, as Gauls, are assumed
to be warlike, but the most so of all of tliem are the Belgians.
15 Farthest away: one might expect absunt (are away) to have a more emphatic
place, but it is dwarfed in importance by. the predominance of the main idea, the effemi-
nating influences from which the Belgians are said to be free. It is not that they live
farthest off' that is insisted on, but that the civilization of the Province etc., which
would soften them, comes less in tbeir way. It is to be noticed also that absunt has
already been anticipated by the construction of cultd and still more by longissime, so
that when it comes it amounts only to a formal part of the sentence. Thus, — " because
the civilization etc. of the Province (which would soften them) is farthest from them."
5 597]
ORDER OF WORDS
395
from the civilization and refinement
of the Province, and because they are
LEAST 1 of all of them subject to the
visits of traders,^ and to the (conse-
quent) importation of such things as ^
tend to soften'*' their warlike spirit;
and are also nearest ^ to the Germans,
who live across the Rhine,^ and with
whom they are incessantly '^ at war.
For the same reason the Helvetians, as
well, are superior to all the other Gauls
in valor, because they are engaged in
almost daily battles with the Germans,
either defending their own boundaries
from them, or themselves making war
on those of the Germans. Of all this
country, one part — the one which,
as has been said, the Gauls (proper)
occupy — BEGINS at the river Rhone.
Its boundaries are the river Garonne,
the ocean, and the confines of the Bel-
gians. It even reaches on the side
of the Sequani and Helvetians the river
Rhine. Its general direction is towards
the north. The Belgians begin at
the extreme limits of Gaul ; they reach
provinciae longissime absunt, minime-
que ad eos mercatores saepe comme-
ant atque ea quae ad effeminandos
animos pertinent important, proximi-
que sunt Germanis, qui trans Rhenum
incolunt, quibuscum continenter hel-
ium gerunt. Qua de causa Helvetii
quoque reliquos Gallos virtute praece-
dunt, quod fere cotldianis proeliis cum
Germanis contendunt, cum aut suis
f inibus eos prohibent, aut ipsi in eorum
finibus bellum gerunt. Eorum una
pars, quam Gallos obtinere dictum
est, initium capit a flumine Rhodano ;
continetur Garumna flumine, Oceano,
finibus Belgarum ; attingit etiam ab
Sequanis et Helvetils flumen Rhenum ;
vergit ad septentriones. Belgae ab
extremis Galliae finibus oriuntur:
pertinent ad inferiorem partem flu-
minis Rheni ; spectant in s*^ptentrio-
nem et orientem solem. Aquitania
a Garumna flumine ad_ Pyrenaeos
mentis et eam partem Oceani quae
est ad Hispaniam pertinet; spectat
inter occasum solis et septentriones.
(on this side) as far as the lower part
of the Rhine. They spread to the northward and eastward.
Aquitania extends from the Garonne to the Pyrenees, and that part o '" he
ocean that lies towards Spain. It runs off westward and northward.
b. The more important word is never placed last for emphasis. The
apparent cases of this usage (when the emphasis is not misconceived) are
cases where a word is added as an afterthought, either real or affected, and
so has its position not in the sentence to which it is appended, but, as it
were, in a new one.
1 Least : made emphatic here by a common Latin order, the chiasmus (§ 598. /) .
2 Traders : the fourth member of the chiasmus, opposed to cultu and humanitate.
s Such things as : the importance of the nature of the importations overshadows the
fact that they are imported, which fact is anticipated in traders.
4 Soften : cf . what is said in note 15, p. 394. They are brave because they have
less to .soften them, their native barbarity being taken for granted.
5 Nearest : the same idiomatic prominence as in note 1 above, but varied by a special
usage combining chiasmus and anaphora (§ 598./).
6 Across the Rhine : i.e. and so are perfect savages.
^ Incessantly : the continuance of the warfare becomes the all-important idea, as
if it were " and not a day passes in which they are not at war with them."
396 ORDER OF WORDS [§ 598
598. The main rules for the Order of Words are as follows : —
a. In any phrase the determining and most significant word comes
first : —
1. Adjective and Noun : —
omnis homines decet, every man ought (opposed to some who do not).
Lucius Catilina nobili genere natus fuit, magna vi et anirai et corporis,
sed ingetiio malo pravoque (Sail. Cat. 5), Lucius Catiline was born of a
NOBLE family, with great force of mind and body, but with a nature
that was evil and depraved. [Here the adjectives in the first part are
the emphatic and important words, no antithesis between the nouns
being as yet thought of ; but in the second branch the noun is meant
to be opposed to those before mentioned, and immediately takes the
prominent place, as is seen by the natural English emphasis, thus mak-
ing a chiasmusA]
.2. Word with modifying case : —
quid magis Epamlnondam, Thebanorum imperatorem, quam vlctoriae ThS-
banorum consulere decuit (In v. i. 69), what should Epaminondas, com-
mander of the Thebans, have aimed at more than the victory of the
Thebans ?
lacrima nihil citius arescit (id. i. 109), nothing dries quicker than a tear.
nemo fere laudis cupidus (De Or. i. 14), hardly any one desirous of glory
(cf. Manil. 7, avidi laudis, eager /or glory).
h, Numeral adjectives, adjectives of quantity, demonstrative, relative,
and interrogative pronouns and adverbs, tend to precede the word or words
to which they belong : —
r*:um aliqua perturbatione (Off. i. 137), with some disturbance.
hoc iino praestamus (De Or. i. 32), in this one thing we excel.
ceterae fere artes, the other arts.
Note. — This happens because such words are usually emphatic; but often the
words connected with them are more so, and in such cases the pronouns etc. yield the
emphatic place : —
causa aliqua (De Or. i. 250), some case.
stilus ille tuus (id. i. 257), that well-known style of yours (in an antithesis; see
passage). [lUe is idiomatic in this sense and position.]
R5mam quae apportata sunt (Verr. iv. 121), what were carried to Rome (in contrast
to what remained at Syracuse) .
c. When sum is used as the Substantive verb (§ 284. 6), it regularly
stands first, or at any rate before its subject : —
est virl magni piinire sontis (Off. i. 82), it is the duty of a great man to pun-
ish the guilty.
1 So called from the Greek letter X (chi), on account of the criss-cross arrangement
of the words. Thus, ^x^ (see / below) .
§598J ORDER OF WORDS 397
d. The verb may come first, or have a prominent position, either (1)
because the idea in it is emphatic ; or (2) because the predication of the
whole statement is emphatic ; or (3) the tense only may be emphatic : —
(1) dicebat idem Gotta (Off. ii. 59), Cotia used to say the same thing (opposed
to others' boasting).
idem fecit adulescens M. Antonius (id. ii. 49), the same thing was done by
Mark Antony in his youth. [Opposed to dixi just before.]
facis amice (Lael. 9), you act kindly. [Cf. amice facis, you are very kind
(you act kindly).]
(2) propensior benignitas esse debebit in calamitosos nisi forte erunt digni
calami tate (Off. ii. 62), liberality ought to be readier toward the unfortu-
nate unless perchance they really deserve their misfortune.
praesertim cum scribat (Panaetius) (id. iii. 8), especially when he does say
(in liis books). [Opposed to sometliing omitted by him.]
(3) fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium (Aen. ii. 325), loe have ceased to be Trojans, Troy
is now no more.
loquor autem de communibus amicitiis (Off. iii. 45), but I am speaking now
of common friendships.
e» Often the connection of two emphatic phrases is brought about by
giving the precedence to the most prominent part of each and leaving the
less prominent parts to follow in inconspicuous places : — •
plures Solent esse causae (Off. i. 28), there are usually several reasons.
quos amisimus civis, eos Martis vis perculit (Marc. 17), v; hat fellow-citizens
we have lost, have been stricken down by the violence of war.
maximas tibi omnes gratias agimus (id. 33), we all render you the warmest
thanks.
haec res tinius est propria Caesaris (id. 11), this exploit belongs to CcBsar
ALONE.
obiurgationes etiam non numquam incidunt necessariae (Off. i. 136), occa-
sions for rebuke also sometimes occur which are unavoidable.
f. Antithesis between two pairs of ideas is indicated by placing the pairs
either (1) in the same order {anaphora') or (2) in exactly the opposite order
{chiasmus) : —
(1) rerum copia verborum copiam gignit (De Or. iii. 125), abundance of mat-
ter produces copiousness of expression.
(2) leges supplicio improbos afificiunt, defendunt ac tuentur bonos (Legg. ii.
13), the laws visit punishments upon the wicked, but the good they
defend and protect.
Note. — Chiasmus is very common in Latin, and often seems in fact the more inarti-
ficial construction. In an artless narrative one might hear, "The women were all
droioned, they saved the men."
non igitur utilitatem amicitia sed utilitas amicitiam consecuta est (Lael. 51), it is
not then that friendship has follov^ed upon advantage, hut advantage upon
friendship. [Here the chiasmus is only grammatical, the ideas being in the
parallel order.] (See also p. 395 : longissime, minime, proximi.)
898 ORDER OF WORDS [§§ 698, 599
g, A modifier of a phrase or some part of it is often embodied within
the phrase (cf . a) : —
de commtini hominum memoria (Tusc. i. 59), in regard to the universal
memory of man.
h, A favorite order with the poets is the interlocked, by which the attri-
bute of one pair comes between the parts of the other (synchysis) : —
et superiecto pavidae natarunt aequore dammae (Hor. Od. i. 2. 11).
Note. — This is often joined with chiasmus: as, — arma nondum expiatis uncta
cruoribus (id. ii. 1. 5).
i. Frequently unimportant words follow in the train of more emphatic
ones with which they are grammatically connected, and so acquire a promi-
nence out of proportion to their importance : —
dictitabat se hortulos aliquos emere velle (Off. iii. 58), he gave out that he
wanted to buy some gardens. [Here aliquds is less emphatic than emere,
but precedes it on account of the emphasis on hortulos.]
J, The copula is generally felt to be of so little importance that it may
come in anywhere where it sounds well; but usually under cover of more
emphatic words : —
consul ego quaesivl, cum vos mihi essetis in cCnsilio (Rep. iii. 28), as consul
I held an investigation in which you attended me in council.
falsum est id totum (id. ii. 28), that is all false.
k. Many expressions have acquired an invariable order : —
res ptiblica ; populus Romanus ; honoris causa ; pace tanti virl.
Note. — These had, no doubt, originally an emphasis which required such an
arrangement, but in .the course of time have changed their shade of meaning. Thus,
senatus populusque Romanus originally stated with emphasis the official bodies, but
became fixed so as to be the only permissible form of expression.
I, The Romans had a fondness for emphasizing persons, so that a name
or a pronoun often stands in an emphatic place : —
[dixit] venalis quidem se hortos n6n habere (Off. iii. 58), [said] that he didnH
have any gardens for sale, to be sure.
m. Kindred words often come together (^fgura etymologicd) : —
ita sensim sine sensti aetas senescit (Cat. M. 38), thus gradually, without
being perceived, man^s life grows old.
Special Rules
599. The following are special rules of arrangement : —
a. The negative precedes the word it especially affects ; but if it belongs
to no one word in particular, it generally precedes the verb ; if it is espe-
cially emphatic, it begins the sentence. (See example, 598./. n.)
§§599-601] STRUCTURE OF THE PERIOD 399
b* Itaque regularly comes first in its sentence or clause; enim, autem,
vero, quoque, never first, but usually second, sometimes third if the second
word is emphatic ; quidem never first, but after the emphatic word ; igitur
usually second ; ne . . . quidem include the emphatic word or words.
c, Inquam, inquit, are always used parenthetically, following one or more
words. So often credo, opinor, and in poetry sometimes precor.
d, (1) Prepositions (except tonus and versus) regularly precede their
nouns ; (2) but a monosyllabic preposition is often placed between a noun
and its adjective or limiting genitive : —
quem ad modum ; quam ob rem ; magno cum metti ; omnibus cum copiis ;
nulla in re (cf. § 598. i).
e, In the arrangement of clauses, the Relative clause more often comes
first in Latin, and usually contains the antecedent noun : —
quos amisimus civis, eos Martis vis perculit (Marc. 17), those citizens whom
we have lost, etc.
/. Personal or demonstrative pronouns tend to stand together in the
sentence : —
cum vos mihi essgtis in consilio (Rep. iii. 28), when you attended me in
counsel.
Structure of the Period
600. Latin, unlike modem languages, expresses the relation of words to each other
by inflection rather than by position. Hence its structure not only admits of great
variety in the arrangement of words, but is especially favorable to that form of sen-
tence which is called a Period. In a period, the sense is expressed by the sentence as a
whole, and is held in suspense till the delivery of the last word.
An English sentence does not often exhibit this form of structure. It was imitated,
sometimes with great skill and beauty, by many of the earlier writers of English prose ;
but its effect is better seen in poetry, as in the following passage : —
High on a throne of royal state, which far
Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind,
Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold,
Satan exalted sat. — Paradise Lost, ii. 1-5.
But in argument or narrative, the best English writers more commonly give short
clear sentences, each distinct from the rest, and saying one thing by itself. In Latin,
on the contrary, the stoiy or argument is viewed as a whole ; and the logical relation
among all its parts is carefully indicated.
601. In the structure of the Period, the following rules are to
be observed : —
a. In general the main subject or object is put in the main clause, not
m a subordinate one : —
Hannibal cum recensuisset auxilia Gades profectus est (Liv. xxi. 21), vjhen
Bannihal had reviewed the auxiliaries, he set out for Cadiz.
400 ORDER OF WORDS [§601
Volsci exiguam spem in armis, alia undique abscissa, cum tentassent, prae-
ter cetera adversa, loco quoque iniquo ad pUgnam congress!, iniquiore
ad fugam, cum ab omul parte caederentur, ad preces a certamine versi
dedito imperatore traditisque armis, sub iugum missi, cum singulis
vestimentis, ignominiae cladisque pleni dimittuntur (Li v. iv. 10). [Here
the main fact is the return of the Volscians. But the striking circum-
stances of the surrender etc. , which in English would be detailed in a
number of brief independent sentences, are put into the several subor-
dinate clauses within the main clause so that the passage gives a com-
plete picture in one sentence.]
6. Clauses are usually arranged in the order of prominence in the mind
of the speaker ; so, usually, cause before result ; purpose, manner, and the
like, before the act.
Co In coordinate clauses, the copulative conjunctions are frequently
omitted {asyndeton). In such cases the connection is made clear by some
antithesis indicated by the position of words.
d. A change of subject, when required, is marked by the introduction
of a pronoun, if the new subject has already been mentioned. But such
change is often purposely avoided by a change in structure, — the less
important being merged in the more important by the aid of participles
or of subordinate phrases : —
quern ut barbarl incendium effugisse viderunt, tells eminus missis inter-
fecerunt (Nep. Ale. 10), when the barbarians saw that he had escaped,
THEY threw darts at him at long range and killed him.
celeriter confecto negotio, in hiberna legiones reduxit (B. G. vi. 3), the mat-
ter was soon finished, and he led the legions, etc.
e. So the repetition of a noun, or the substitution of a pronoun for it,
is avoided unless a different case is required : —
dolorem sinonpotuero frangere occultabo (Phil. xii. 21), if I cannot conquer
the pain, I will hide it. [Cf . if I cannot conquer I will hide the pain.]
f. The Romans were careful to close a period with an agreeable succes-
sion of long and short syllables. Thus, —
quod scis nihil prodest, quod nescis multum obest (Or. 166), what you know
is of no use, what you do not know does great harm.
Note. — In rhetorical writing, particularly in oratory, the Romans, influenced by
their study of the Greek orators, gave more attention to this matter than in other
forms of composition. Quintilian (ix. 4. 72) lays down the general rule that a clause
should not open with the beginning of a verse or close with the end of one.
§§602,603] QUANTITY OF VOWELS 40l
PROSODY
QUANTITY
602. The poetry of the Indo-European people seems originally to have been some-
what like our own, depending on accent for its metre and disregarding the natural
quantity of syllables. The Greeks, however, developed a form of poetry which, like
music, pays close attention to the natural quantity of syllables ; and the Romans bor-
rowed their metrical forms in classical times from the Greeks. Hence Latin poetry
does not depend, like ours, upon accent and rhyme; but is measured, like musical
strains, by the length of syllables. Especially does it differ from our verse in not
regarding the prose accent of the words, but substituting for that an entirely differ-
ent system of metrical accent or ictus (see § 611. a). This depends upon the character
of the measure used, falling at regular intervals of time on a long syllable or its equiva-
lent. Each syllable is counted as either long or short in Quantity ; and a long syllable
is generally reckoned equal in length to two short ones (for exceptions, see § 608. c-e) .
The quantity of radical (or stem) syllables — as of short a in pater or of long a in
mater — can be learned only by observation and practice, unless determined by the
general rules of quantity. Most of these rules are only arbitrary formulas devised to
assist the memory ; the syllables being long or short because the ancients pronounced
them so. The actual practice of the Romans in regard to the quantity of syllables is
ascertained chiefly from the usage of the poets ; but the ancient grammarians give some
assistance, and in some inscriptions long vowels are distinguished in various ways, —
by the apex, for instance, or by doubling (§ 10. e. n.).
Since Roman poets borrow very largely from the poetry and mythology of the
Greeks, numerous Greek words, especially proper names, make an important part of
Latin poetry. These words are generally employed in accordance with the Greek,
and not the Latin, laws of quantity. Where these laws vary in any important point,
the variations will be noticed in the rules below.
GENERAL RULES
603. The following are General Rules of Quantity (cf . § § 9-1 1 ) :
Quantity of Vowels
a. Vowels. A vowel before another vowel or h is short : as, via, traho.
Exceptions. — 1. In the genitive form -ius, i is long: as, utrius, nullius. It
is, however, sometimes short in verse (§ 113. c).
2. In the genitive and dative singular of the fifth declension, e is long between
two vowels : as, diei; otherwise usually short, as in fidei, rei, spSi.
Note. — It was once long in these also : as, plenu^ fidei (Ennius, at the end of a hex-
ameter). A is also long before i in the old genitive of the first declension: as, aulai.
3. In the conjugation of fi5, 1 is long except when followed by er. Thus, fio,
fiebam, fiam, but fieri, fierem ; so also fit (§ 606. a. 3).
4. In many Greek words the vowel in Latin represents a long vowel or diph-
thong, and retains its original long quantity : as, Troes (T/owes), Thalia {Qa\€ia)r
heroas (^pwas), aer (drjp).
402 PROSODY: QUANTITY [§603
Note. — But many Greek words are more or less Latinized in this respect: as,
Icademia, ohoria, Malea, platea.
5. In dius, in Iheu usually, and sometimes in Diana and ohe, the first vowel is
long.
h. Diphthongs. A Diphthong is long : as, foedus, cui,^ aula.
Exception. — The preposition prae in compounds is generally shortened before
a vowel: as, prae-ustis (Aen. vii. 524), prae-eunte (id. v. 186).
Note. — U following q, s, or g, does not make a diphthong with a following vowel
(see § 5. N. 2). For ^-io, ma-ior, pe-ior, etc., see § 11. d and n.
c. Contraction. A vowel formed by contraction (crasis) is long : as, nil,
from nihil ; cog5 for fco-agS ; mal5 for ma-volo.
Note.— Two vowels of different syllables may be^un together without full con-
traction {synizesis, § 642) : as, deinde (for deinde), meos (for meos) ; and often two
syllables are united by Synseresis (§ 642) without contraction : as when parietibus is
pronounced paryetibus.
d. A vowel before ns, nf, gn, is long : as, insto, infans, signunio
Quantity of Syllables
e» A syllable is long if it contains a long vowel or a diphthong : as,
ca-rus, o-men, foe-dus.
/. Position. A syllable is long by position if its vowel, though short, is
followed by two consonants or a double consonant : as, adventus, cortex.
But if the two consonants are a mute followed by 1 or r the syllable may
be either long or short {common) ; as, alacris or alacris ; patris or patris.
Vowels should be pronounced long or short in accordance with their nat-
ural quantity without regard to the length of the syllable by position.
Note 1. — The rules of Position do not, in general, apply to final vowels before a
word beginning with two consonants.
Note 2. — A syllable is long if its vowel is followed by consonant i (except in
biiugis, quadriiugis) : see § 11. d.
Note 3. — Compounds of iacio, though written with one i, commonly retain the
long vowel of the prepositions with which they are compounded, as if before a con-
sonant, and, if the vowel of the preposition is short, the first syllable is long by posi-
tion on the principle of § 11. e.
obicis host! (at the end of a hexameter, Aen. iv. 549).
inicit et saltu (at the beginning of a hexameter, Aen. ix. 552).
proice tela manu (at the beginning of a hexameter, Aen. vi. 836).
Later poets sometimes shorten the preposition in trisyllabic forms, and preposi-
tions ending in a vowel are sometimes contracted as if the verb began with a vowel;
(1) cur an|nos obilcis (Claud, iv C. H. 2t>4).
(2) reicg cajpellas (Eel. iii. 96, at end).
Note 4. — The y or w sound resulting from synveresis (§ 642) has the effect of a con-
sonant in making position: as, abietis (abyetis), fluviorum {fluvyoi-um) . Conversely,
when the semivowel becomes a vowel, position is lost: as, sililae, for silvae.
i Rarely dissyllabic ciH (as Mart. i. 104. 22)
5 604] FINAL SYLLABLES 403
FINAL SYLLABLES
604. The Quantity of Final Syllables is as follows : —
a. Monosyllables ending in a vowel are long : as, me, tu, hi, ne.
1. The attached particles -ne, -quS, -ve, -ce, -ptS, and re- (red-) are short; se-
(sed-) and di- are long. Thus, secedit, seditio, exercitumque reducit, dimitto. But
re- is often long in religio (relligid), retuli (rettuli), repuli (reppuli).
&. Nouns and adjectives of one syllable are long : as, sol, os (oris), bos,
par, vas (vasis), ver, vis.
Exceptions. — cor, fel, lac, mel, os (ossis), vas (vadis), vir, tot, qu5t.
c. Most monosyllabic Particles are short : as, an, m, cis, nee. But eras,
cur, en, non, quln, sin — with adverbs in e : as, hie, hiie, sic — are long.
d. Final a in words declined by cases is short, except in the ablative sin-
gular of the first declension ; in all other words final a is long. Thus, eS
Stella (nominative), eum ea stella (ablative) ; friistra, voca (imperative),
postea, triginta.
Exceptions. — eiS, itS, quia, puta (suppose) ; and, in late use, triginta etc.
e. Final e is short : as in niibe, ducite, saepe.
Exceptions. — Final e is long — 1. In adverbs formed from adjectives of the
first and second declension, with others of like form : as, alte, longe, misere, aperte,
saepissime. So fere, ferme.
But it is short in bene, mal5 ; infeme, supemS.
2. In nouns of the fifth declension: as, fide (also fame), facie, hodie, quare
(qua re).
3. In Greek neuters plural of the second declension : as, cete ; and in some
other Greek words : Phoebe, Circe, Andromache, etc.
4. In the imperative singular of the second conjugation : as, vide.
But sometimes cave, habS, tac§, vale, vide (cf. §629. b. 1).
/. Final i is long : as in turri, fill, audi.
Exceptions. — Final i is common in mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi ; and short in nisi,
quasi, sicuti, cui (when making two syllables), and in Greek vocatives : as, Alexi.
gr. Final o is common : but long in datives and ablatives ; also in nouns
of the third declension. It is almost invariably long in verbs before the
time of Ovid.
Exceptions. — cit5, mod5 (dummodo), imm5, profecto, eg6, du6, cedo (the impera-
tive); so sometimes octo, ilico, etc., particularly in later writers.
h. Final u is long. Final y is short.
i. Final as, es, os, are long ; final is, us, ys, are short ; as, nefas, rupes,
servos (accusative), honos ; hostis, amiciis, Teth^s.
404 PROSODY: QUANTITY [§§604-606
Exceptions. — 1. as is short in Greek plural accusatives : as, lampadas ; and
in an^s.
2. es is short in the nominative of nouns of the third declension (lingual) hav-
ing a short vowel in the stem i : as, miles (-itis), obsSs (-Wis), — except abies, aries,
paries, pes ; in the present of esse (es, ades) ; in the preposition penes, and in the
plural of Greek nouns : as, heroes, lampades.
3. OS is short in compos, impos ; in the Greek nominative ending : as, barbitos ;
in the old nominative of the second declension : as, servos (later servus).
4. is in plural cases is long : as in bonis, nobis, vobis, omnis (accusative plural).
5. is is long in the verb forms fis, sis, vis (with quivis etc.), velis, malis, nolis,
edis ; in the second person singular of the present indicative active in the fourth
conjugation: as, audis ; and sometimes in the forms in -eris (future perfect indica-
tive or perfect subjunctive).
6. us is long in the genitive singular and nominative, accusative, and vocative
plural of the fourth declension ; and in nouns of the third declension having u
(long) in the stem: as, virtus (-utis), incus (-udis). But pecus, -udis.
J, Of other final syllables, those ending in a single consonant are short.
Thus, amat, amatiir ; donee, fac, procul, iubar.
Exceptions. — hie (also hie) ; allee ; the ablatives illoc, etc. ; certain adverbs in
-c : as, illic, istiic ; lien, and some Greek nouns : as, aer, aether, crater.
Perfects and Perfect Participles
605. Perfects and Perfect Participles of two syllables have the
first syllable long: as, iuvi, iutum (iiavo), vidi, visum (video); fugi
(fugio); veni (venio).
Exceptions. — bibi, dedi, fidi, scidi, stSti, stiti, tuli ; citum, dStum, itum, litum,
quitum, ratum, rutum, satum, situm, statum. In some compounds of sto, statum
is found (long), as praestatum.
a. In reduplicated perfects the vowel of the reduplication is short ; the
vowel of the following syllable is, also, usually short: as, cecidi (cado),
didici (disco), piipugi (pungo), cuciirri (curro), tetSndi (tendo), m5m6rdi (mor-
deo). But cecidi from caedo, pepedi from pedo.
Derivatives
606. Rules for the Quantity of Derivatives are : —
a. Forms from the same stem have the same quantity : as, Sm5, Sma-
visti; genus, generis.
Exceptions. — 1. bos, lar, mas, par, pes, sal, — also arbos, — have a long vowel
in the nominative, though the stem-vowel is short (cf. genitive bovis etc.).
1 The quantity of the stem-vowel mav be seen in the genitive singular.
§§ 606, 607] RHYTHM 405
2. Nouns in -or, genitive -oris, have the vowel shortened before the final r : as,
hoEor. (But this shortening is comparatively late, so that in early Latin these
nominatives are often found long.)
3. Verb-forms with vowel originally long regularly shorten it before final m,
r, ort: as, amem, amer, dicerer, amet (compare amemus), diceret, audit, fit.
Note. — The final syllable in t of the perfect was long in old Latin, but is short in
the classic period.
4. A few long stem-syllables are shortened : as, acer, acerbus. So de-igro and
pe-iero, weakened from iuro.
h. Forms from the same root often show inherited variations of vowel
quantity (see § 17) : as, dico (of. maledicus) ; duco (dux, diacis) ; fido (perfidus) ;
vox, vocis (v5co); lex, legis (leg5).
c. Compounds retain the quantity of the words which compose them :
as, oc-cido (cado), oc-cido (caedo), in-iquus (aequus).
Note. — Greek words compounded with irpb have o short : as, prSpheta, prologus.
Some Latin compounds of pro have o short : as, proficiscor, profiteor. Compounds with
ne vary : as, nefas, nego, nequeo, nequam.
RHYTHM
607. The essence of Rhythm in poetry is the regidar recurrence of syllables
pronounced wath more stress than those intervening. To produce this effect in its
perfection, precisely equal times should occur between the recurrences of the stress.
But, in the application of rhythm to words, the exactness of these intervals is sacri-.
ficed somewhat to the necessary length of the words; and, on the other hand, the
words are forced somewhat in their pronunciation, to produce more nearly the proper
intervals of time. In different languages these adaptations take place in different
degrees ; one language disregarding more the intervals of time, another the pronun-
ciation of the words.
The Greek language early developed a very strict rhythmical form of poetry, in
which the intervals of time were all-important. The earliest Latin, on the other hand,
— as in the Saturnian and Fescennine verse, —was not so restricted. But the purely
metrical forms were aftei-wards adopted from the Greek, and supplanted the native
forms of verse. Thus the Latin poetry with which we have to do follows for the most
part Greek rules, which require the formal division of words (like music) into measures
of equal times, technically called Feet. The strict rhythm was doubtless more closely
followed in poetry that was sung than in that which was declaimed or intoned. In
neither language, however, is the time perfectly preserved, even in single measures ;
and there are some cases in which the regularity of the time between the ictuses is
disturbed.
The Greeks and Romans distinguished syllables of two kinds in regard to the time
required for their pronunciation, a long syllable having twice the metrical value of a
short one. But it must not be supposed that all long syllables were of equal length,
or even that in a given passage each long had just twice the length of the contiguous
shorts. The ratio was only approximate at best, though necessarily more exact in
singing than in recitation. Nor are longs and shorts the only forms of syllables that
are found. In some cases a long syllable was protracted, so as to have the time of
three or even of four shorts, and often one long or two shorts were pronounced in less
than their proper time, though they were perhaps distinguishable in time from one
406 PROSODY : RHYTHM [§§ 607, 608
short (see §608. c, d). Sometimes a syllable naturally short seems to have been
slightly prolonged, so as to represent a long, though in most (not all) cases the appar-
ent irregularity can be otherwise explained. In a few cases, also, a pause takes the
place of one or more syllables to fill out the required length of the measure. This
could, of course, take place only at the end of a word: hence the importance of
Caesura and Diaeresis in prosody (§ 611. b, c).
Measures
608. Rhythm consists of the division of musical sound into
equal intervals of time called Measures or Feet.
The most natural division of musical time is into measures con-
sisting of either two or three equal parts. But the ancients also
distinguished measures of five equal parts.
Note. — The divisions of musical time are marked by a stress of voice on one or
the other part of the measure. This stress is called the Ictus (beat), or metrical accent
(see §611. a).
a, The unit of length in Prosody is one short syllable. This is called
a Mora. It is represented hy the sign v^, or in musical notation by the
eighth note or quaver (P).
b, A long syllable is regularly equal to tvro morse, and is represented
by the sign _, or by the quarter note or crotchet (i*).
c, A long syllable may be protracted, so as to occupy the time of three
or four morse. Such a syllable, if equal to three moras, is represented
by the sign l_ (or dotted quarter i**) ; if equal to four, by i_i (or the half
note or minim, f^).
d, A long syllable may be contracted, so as to take practically the time
of a short one. Such a syllable is sometimes represented by the sign >.
e, A short syllable may be contracted so as to occupy less than one mora.
/. A pause sometimes occurs at the end of a verse or a series of verses,
to fill up the time. A pause of one mora in a measure is indicated by the
sign A ; one of two morae by the sign A .
g. One or more syllables are sometimes placed before the proper begin-
ning of the measure. Such syllables are called an Anacriisis or prelude.'^
The anacrusis is regularly equal to the unaccented part of the measure.
1 The same thing occurs in modern poetry, and in modern music any unaccented
syllables at the beginning are treated as an anacrusis, i.e. they make an incomplete
measure before the first bar. This was not the case in ancient music. The ancients
seem to have treated any unaccented syllable at the beginning as belonging to the fol-
lowing accented ones, so as to make with them a foot or measure. Thus it would seem
that thei*e was an original form of Indo-European poetry which was iambic in its
structure, or which, at least, accented the second syllable rather than the first.
§609] MEASURES 407
609. The feet most frequently employed in Latin verse, to-
gether with their musical notation, are the following ; —
a. Triple or Unequal Measures (|)^
1. Trochee (^ . =pp:as,..,..
2. Iambus (w — = I* I*) • ^-s, duces.
3. Tribrach 2 (w v.^* w = |* ^ I*) : as, hommis.
b. Double or Equal Measures (|)
1. Dactyl (_ w w = I* I* I*) : as, cdnsulis.
2. Anapaest (^ w _ = I* j* i*) : as, monXtos.
3. Spondee ( = i* i*) : as, reges.
c. Six-timed Measures (f)
1. Tonic a mdiore ( \j \j =^ j* j* j*) : as, confecerat.
2. Ionic a minore (w w ~ I* 1^ I* (*) • ^^' retulissent.
3. Choriambns (_ ^ ^ _ = ^ (• |* i*) : as, contulerant.
do Quinary or Hemiolic * Measures (f)
1. Cretic (_ w _ =j* I* j*): as, consuUs.
2. PfEon j)rlmus (_ w v^ w = I* j* I* |*) : as, consuKbus.
3. PcTon quartus (www ~ I* I* I* I*)' ^^j ?^?nm.
4. Bacchms (w =i* i* i*): as, amlcos.
1 Called diplasic, the two parts (Thesis and Arsis) being in the ratio of 2 to 1.
2 Not found as a fundamental foot, but only as the resolution of a Trochee or Iambus.
8 Called hemiolic, the two parts being in the ratio of 1 to Ih, or of 2 to 3.
408 PROSODY: RHYTHM [§609
Note. — Several compound feet are mentioned by the grammarians, viz. Pyrrhic
{kj w); Amphibrach {\j w); Antibacchlus ( w); ProceleiLsmatic (w w v./ w);
the Molossus ( ); the 2d and 3d Paeon, having a long syllable in the 2d or 3d
place, with three short ones ; 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th Epitritus, having a short syllable in
the 1st, 2d, 3d, or 4th place, with three long ones.
Irrational Feet
e. Feet with these apparent quantities do not always occupy equal time,
but may be contracted or prolonged to suit the series in which they occur.
They are then called irrational, because the thesis and arsis do not have
their normal ratio.^ Such are : —
Irrational Spondee :
(in place of a Tro
(in place of an Iambus
Cyclic Dactyl (in place of a Trochee) :
(in place of a Trochee) -1 > 1 ' \\
_£- v.yvy or
x}.}-o^-:.}S
Cyclic Anapaest (in place of an Iambus) :
v^ _^ or w w-^ = J$ ^^ ^L or J J^ J.
The apparent dactyl > v5 \-/, as a substitute for an iambus, and the
apparent anapaest w w >, as a substitute for a trochee, occur frequently
in the dramatic writers.
Note. — Narrative poetry was written for rhythmical recitation, or chant, with
instrumental accompaniment; and Lyrical poetry for rhythmical melody, or singing.
It must be borne in mind that in ancient music — which in this differs widely from
modern — the rhythm of the melody was identical with the rhythm of the text. The
lyric poetry was to be sung ; the poet was musician and composer, as well as author.
To this day a poet is said conventionally to " sing."
Thus a correct understanding of the rhythmical structure of the verse gives us the
time, though not the tune, to which it was actually sung. The exact time, however,
as indicated by the succession of long and short syllables, was varied according to
certain laws of so-called " Rhythmic," as will be explained below. In reading ancient
verse it is necessary to bear in mind not only the varif. tious in the relative length of
syllables, but the occasional pause necessary to fill out the measure ; and to remember
that the rhythmical accent is the only one of importance, though the words should be
distinguished carefully, and the sense preserved. Poetry should not be scanned, but
read metrically.
1 It seems probable that both thesis and arsis of an irrational foot were affected by
the necessity of preserving the rhythmical time of the foot.
§§ 610, 611] THE MUSICAL ACCENT 409
Substitution
610. In many cases measures of the same time may be substi-
tuted for each other, a long syUable taking the place of two short
ones, or two short syllables the place of a long one.
In the former case the measure is said to be contracted; in the
latter, to be resolved : —
a, A Spondee ( ) may take the place of a Dactyl (_ w v^) or an
Anapaest (w w ); and a Tribrach (v^ w w) may take the place of a
Trochee (_ v^) or an Iambus (w _). The optional substitution of one
long syllable for two short ones is represented by the sign xj^.
h. When a long syllable having the Ictus (§ 611. a) is resolved, the
ictus properly belongs to both the resulting short syllables ; but for con-
venience the mark of accent is placed on the first : —
mine ex|periar | sftn<^ a|ceto j tibi cor | acr« in | p^ct6|rg. — PI. Bac. 405.
>!^w >\J-s^\Ji. >\6^^\-L>\-L^\^h
The Musical Accent
611. That part of the measure which receives the stress of voice
(the musical accent) is called the Thesis ; the unaccented part is
called the Arsis.^
a. The stress of voice laid upon the Thesis is called the Ictus (beat).
It is marked thus : _L w w .
b. The ending of a word within a measure is called Caesura. When
this coincides with a rhetorical pause, it is called the Cgesura of the verse,
and is of main importance as affecting the melody or rhythm.
c. The coincidence of the end of a word with that of a measure is
called Diaeresis.
1 The Thesis signifies properly the putting doivn (9i<ns, from rWtjixi, put, place) of
the foot in beating time, in the march or dance (" downward beat "), and the Arsis the
raising (dp<ns, from aeipoi, raise) of the foot (" upward beat"). By the Latin gram-
marians these terms were made to mean, respectively, the ending and the beginning of
a measure. By a misunderstanding which has prevailed till recently, since the time of
Beutley, their true signification has been reversed. They will here be used in accord-
ance with their ancient meaning, as has now become more common. This metrical
accent, recurring at regular intervals of time, is what constitutes the essence of the
rhythm of poetry as distinguished from prose, and should be constantly kept in mind.
The error mentioned arose from applying to trochaic and dactylic verse a definition
which was true only of iambic or anapaestic.
410 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§612
VERSIFICATION
THE VERSE
612. A single line of poetry — that is, a series of feet set in a
recognized order — is called a Verse. ^
Note. — Most of the common verses originally consisted of two series (hemistichs) ,
but the joint between them is often obscured. It is marked in Iambic and Trochaic
Tetrameter by the Diseresis, in Dactylic Hexameter by the Csssura.
a. A verse lacking a syllable at the end is called Catalectic, that is, hav-
ing a pause to fill the measure ; when the end syllable is not lacking, the
verse is called Acatalectic, and has no such pause.
b. A final syllable, regularly short, is sometimes lengthened before a
pause : 2 it is then said to be long by Diastole : —
nostror"'" obruimur, — oriturque miserrima caedes. — Aen. ii. 411.
c. The last syllable of any verse may be indifferently long or short
(syllaba anceps).
Scansion and Elision
d. To divide the verse into its appropriate measures, according to the
rules of quantity and versification, is called scanning or scansion (scansio,
a climbing or advance by steps, from scando).
Note. — In reading verse rhythmically, care should be taken to preserve the meas-
ure or time of the syllables, but at the same time not to destroy or confuse the words
themselves, as is often done in scanning.
e. In scanning, a vowel or diphthong at the end of a word (unless an
interjection) is partially suppressed when the next word begins with a vowel
or with h. This is called Elision (bruising).^
In reading it is usual entirely to suppress elided syllables. Strictly, how-
ever, they should be sounded lightly.
1 The word Verse (versus) signifies a turning back, i.e. to begin again in like
manner, as opposed to Prose (prorsus or prSversus) , which means straight ahead.
2 This usage is. comparatively rare, most cases where it appears to be found being
caused by the retention of an originally long quantity
8 The practice of Elision is followed in Italian and French poetry, and is sometimes
adopted in English, particularly in the older poets: —
T' inveigle and invite th' unwary sense. — Cootms 538.
In early Latin poetry a final syllable ending in s often loses this letter even before a
consonant (cf. § 15. 7) : —
senio confectu* quiescit. — Enn. (Cat. M. 14).
§§612-615] DACTYLIC HEXAMETER 411
Note. — Elision is sometimes called by the Greek name Synaloepha {smearing).
Rarely a syllable is elided at the end of a verse when the next verse begins with a
vowel; this is called Synapheia {binding).
/• A final m, with the preceding vowel, is suppressed in like manner
;^when the next word begins with a vowel or h: this is called Ecthlipsis
(squeezing out) : —
monstr""* horrend""*, inform*, ingens, cui lumen ademptum.
— Aen. ill. 658.
Note 1. — Final m has a feeble nasal sound, so that its partial suppression before
the initial vowel of the following wcrd was easy.
Note 2. — The monosyllables do, dem, spe, spem, sim, sto, stem, qui (plural), and
jionosyllabic interjections are never elided ; nor is an iambic word elided in dactylic
verse. Elision is often evaded by skilful collocation of words.
g. Elision is sometimes omitted when a word ending in a vowel has a spe-
cial emphasis, or is succeeded by a pause. This omission is called Hiatus
(gaping).
Note. — The final vowel is sometimes shortened in such cases.
FORMS OF VERSE
613. A verse receives its name from its dominant or funda-
mental foot : as, Dactylic.) Iambic, Trochaic^ Anajjcestic '; and from
the number of measures (single or double) which it contains:
as, Hexameter., Tetrameter., Trimeter., Dimeter.
Note. — Trochaic, Iambic, and Anapsestic verses are measured not by single feet,
but by pairs {dipodia), so that six Iambi make a Trimeter.
614. A Stanza, or Strophe, consists of a definite number of
verses ranged in a fixed order.
Many stanzas are named after some eminent poet: as, Sapphic
(from Sappho), Alcaic (from Alcaeus), Archilochian (from Archilo-
chus), Horatian (from Horace), and so on.
Dactylic Verse
Dactylic Hexameter
615. The Dactylic Hexameter, or Heroic Verse, consists theo
retically of six dactyls. It may be represented thus : —
irc/irc/iricrirc/irc/irM
412 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§615
Note, — The last foot is usually said to be a spondee, but is in reality a trochee
standing for a dactyl, since the final syllable is not measured.
a. For any foot, except the fifth, a spondee may be substituted.
6, Rarely a spondee is found in the fifth foot ; the verse is then called
spondaic and usually ends with a word of four syllables.
Thus in Eel. iv. 49 the verse ends with incrementum.
c. The hexameter has regularly one principal ccesura — sometimes two —
almost always accompanied by a pause in the sense.
1, The principal caesura is usually after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis)
of the third foot^ dividing the verse into two parts in sense and rhythm. See
examples in d.
2. It may also be after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis) of the fourth foot.
In this case there is often another caesura in the second foot, so that the verse
is divided into three parts: —
parte f6;r6x 1| arldensqu^ ociillis || et | slbila \ c611a. — Aen. v. 277.
Note. — Often the only indication of the principal among a number of caesuras is
the break in the sense.
A cgesura occurring after the first syllable of a foot is called masculine. A caesura
occurring after the second syllable of a foot is called feminine (as in the fifth foot of
the third and fourth verses ind). A caesura may also be found in any foot of the verse,
but a proper csesural pause could hardly occur in the first or sixth.
When the fourth foot ends a word, the break (properly a diaeresis) is sometimes
improperly called bucolic csBSura, from its frequency in pastoral poetry.
d. The first seven verses of the ^neid, divided according to the fore-
going rules, will appear as follows. The principal caesura in each verse is
marked by double lines : —
ArmS vTlrumque ca|no || Tro|iae qui | priratis ab \ oris
Ttali|am fa|to profulgus || Lalvlni3,que | venit
litorS., I mult""* iljl^ et ter|ris 1| iacjtatus 6t ] alto
vi supe|rum || saejvae mem6|rem Iu|nonis 6b [ irS,m ;
muM quo|qu^ et bel|lo pas|sus 1| dum | conder6t | urbem,
infer [retquS d6|os Latijo, || genus ( unde Laltlnum,
Alba|niquS pS,ltres, || atjqu^ altae | moenia | Romae.
1. The feminine ccesura is seen in the following: —
Dis genilti p6tii|ere : || te|nent medi|* omnm| silvae. — Aen. vi. 131.
Note. —The Hexameter is thus illustrated in English verse : —
Over the sea, past Crete, on the Syrian shore to the southward,
Dwells in the well-tilled lowland a dark-haired ^thiop people,
Skilful with needle and loom, and the arts of the dyer and carver.
Skilful, but feeble of heart ; for they know not the lords of Olympus,
Lovers of men ; neither hroad-browed Zeus, nor Pallas Athene^,
Teacher of wisdom to heroes, bestower of might in the battle ;
Share not the cunning of Hermes, nor list to the songs of Apollo,
Fearing the stars of the sky, and the roll of the blue salt water.
— Kingsley'8 Andromeda.
§§ 616, 617] ELEGIAC STANZA 413
Elegiac Stanza
616. The Elegiac Stanza consists of two verses, — a Hexame-
ter followed by a Pentameter.^
The Pentameter verse is the same as the Hexameter, except that it
omits the last half of the third foot and of the sixth foot : —
rLrirLnrnrc/ircrif
a. The Pentameter verse is therefore to be scanned as two half -verses, the
second of which always consists of two dactyls followed by a single syllable.
b. The Pentameter has no regular Caesm-a; but the first half-verse
must always end with a word (diceresis, § 611. c), which is followed by a
pause to complete the measure.^
c. The following verses will illustrate the forms of the Elegiac Stanza : —
cum subit I illi|us || tris|tissima | noctis i|mago
qua mihi | supre|mum a || tempus in | urbe fujit, A
cum repe[to noc|tem j] qua j tot mihi | cara re|liqui,
labitur | ex ocullls A |i nunc quoque | gutta mejis. A
iam prope | lux adejrat || qua | me dis|cedere | Caesar
finibus I extre|mae A || iussSrat | Aus6ni|ae. A
— Ov. Trist. i. 3.
Note. — The Elegiac Stanza differs widely in character from hexameter verse (of
which it is a mere modification) by its division into Distichs, each of which must have
its own sense complete. It is employed in a great variety of compositions, — epistolary,
amatory, and mournful, — and was especially a favorite of the poet Ovid. It has been
Illustrated in English verse, imitated from the German: —
In the Hex|ameter \ rises |1 the | fountain's | silvery | column ;
In the Pen|tameter | aye |1 falling in | melody | back.
Other Dactylic Verses
. 617. Other dactylic verses or half- verses are occasionally used
by the lyric poets.
1 Called pentameter by the old grammarians, who divided it, formally, into five
feet (two dactyls or spondees, a spondee, and two anapaests), as follows: —
ll_v^w|_v^w|_||_|wv^_I^v^_||
2 The time of this pause, however, may be filled by the protraction of the preced
ing syllable : —
414 PEOSODY : VERSIFICATION [§§ 617, 618
a. The Dactylic Tetrameter alternates with the hexameter, forming the
Alcmanian Strophe, as follows : —
o for|tes pg|iorSque | passi
mecum | saepe vi|ri, |1 nunc ] vino | pellltg | curas;
eras in [gens ite|rabimus | aequor.
— Hor. Od. i, 7 (so 28; Ep. 12).
b. The Dactj^lic Penthemim (five half -feet) consists of half a pentame-
ter verse. It is used in combination with the Hexameter to form the First
Archilochian Strophe: —
diffu|gere ni|ves, || redejunt lam [ gramma | campis,
arb6ri|busque c6|mae ;
mutat I terra vi|ces || et | decres|centia | ripas
flumina | praeterejunt. — Hor. Od. iv. 7.
For the Fourth Archilochian Strophe (Archilochian heptameter, alternating with
iambic trimeter catalectic), see §626. 11.
lAMjiic Verse
Iambic Trimeter
618. The Iambic Trimeter is the ordinary verse of dramatic
dialogue. It consists of three measures, each containing a double
iambus (iambic dipody). The caesura is usually in the third foot.
Note. — The sign ^ -L denotes possible substitution of an Irrational spondee ( >— )
for an iambus {^JL).
a. The Iambic Trimeter is often used in lyric poetry (1) as an inde-
pendent system, or (2) alternating with the Dimeter to form the Iambic
Strophe, as follows : —
(1) lam i^"^ ^ffTca[ci || do mSntis | sci^ntia^
suppl^x et olro || regn3, p6r | Pros^rpina^,
pgr 6t Dlajnae || non mov6n|da numin^,
per drtque lfb|ros || carminum | val^ntium
defixa ca6|lo || devocalrg sider^,
Canidia, par|ce |1 vociIdus | tandem sScris,
citiimque r^t|ro || r^tro s61|ve turbmem. — Hor. Epod. 17.
The last two lines may be thus translated, to show the movement
in English : —
Oh ! stay, Canidia, stay thy rites of sorcery,
Thy charm unbinding backward let thy swift wheel fly 1
§618] IAMBIC TRIMETER 415
. (2) beatus il|le || qui procul | negotiis,
ut prfsca gens j mortalium,
patdrna rdjra || bubus 6x|erc6t siiis,
soltitus 6m|ni fenore ;
neqa^ dxcitajtur || classico | mil^s truci,
nequ^ hdrret i|ratum mare. — Hor. Epod. 2.
h. In the stricter form of Iambic Trimeter an irrational spondee ( > JL)
or its equivalent (a cyclic anapaest w v_/-^ or an apparent dactyl > w w,
§ 609. e) may be regularly substituted for the first iambus of any dipody.
A tribrach (w v^ w) may stand for an iambus anywhere except in the
last place. In the comic poets any of these forms or the proceleusmatic
(wvy \j \^) may be substituted in any foot except the last: — ^
o. lucis al|me rector || ^t | caeli decus !
qu* alt^rna cur|rti spatia || flam|mifer^ d,mbiens,
illustre la^jtis j| ^xseris | terris caput.
— Sen. Here. Fur. 592-94.
quid qua^ris? dnjnos || sdxagmjta natus es.
— Ter. Haut. 62.
homo s«"*: huma|m I| nil a m^ ali|enum puto.
vel me m6ne|r^ hoc || v^l perc6n|tari puta.
— id. 77, 78.
c. The Choliambic (lame Iambic) substitutes a trochee for the last
iambus : —
aeque ^st bea|tus || ac p6e|ma cum scribit:
tarn gaiidet in ] se, || tamque se lp|se mlratur.
— Catull. xxiii. 15, 16.
Note. — The verse may also be regarded as trochaic with anacrusis : as, —
d. The Iambic Trimeter Catalectic is represented as follows : —
II d -A w ^ I ^ II -^ w -^ I ^ iZ ^ II
It is used in combination with other measures (see § 626. 11), and is
shown in the following : —
Vulcanus ar|dens || urit 6f|ficmas. — Hor. Od. i. 4.
or in English : —
On purple peaks a deeper shade descending. — Scott.
1 The greater freedom of substitution in the comedy is due to the fact that the verse
is regarded as made up of separate feet rather than of dipodies.
416 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§619
Other Iambic Measures
619. Other forms of Iambic verse are the following : —
a. The Iambic Tetrameter Catalectic (Septenarius). This consists of
seven and a half iambic feet, with diaeresis after the fourtli and with the
same substitutions as in Iambic Trimeter : —
j^am idclrc^ arc^s[sor, nuptias |1 quod m^ adparajri sensit.
quTbus qui'dem quam f acillS potuerat [ | quigsci s* hie | quiesset !
— Ter. And. 690, 691.
The metrical scheme of these two verses may be represented as follows : —
Its movement is like the following : — •
In g6od king Charles's g61den days, when Idyalty no harm meant.
— Vicar of Bray.
b. The Iambic Tetrameter Acatalectic (^Octonarius). This consists of
eight full iambic feet with the same substitutions as in Iambic Trimeter.
Like the Septenarius it is used in lively dialogue : —
dic^t earn dare | nos Ph6rmi6|ni I| nuptum ne ] suscenseat;
et magis ess* All""* idoneiim, [[ qu* ipsi sit fami|liiri6r.
— Ter. Ph. 720, 721.
The metrical scheme of these two verses may be represented as follows : —
c. The Iambic Dimeter. This may be either acatalectic or catalectic.
1. The Iambic Dimeter Acatalectic consists of four iambic feet. It is used
in combination with some longer verse (see § 618. a).
2. The Iambic Dimeter Catalectic consists of three and a half iambic feet.
It is used only in choruses : —
quonam cru^njta Ma^nSs,
praec^ps amoire sa^vo,
rapitiir quod lm| potent!
f acinus parat | furore ? — Sen. Med. 850-853.
Note. — Owing to the fact that in modern music each measure begins with a down-
ward beat, some scholars regard all these forms of Iambic verse as Trochaic verse
with anacrusis (§ 6X8. c N.).
§620] TROCHAIC VERSE 417
Trochaic Verse
620. The most common form of Trochaic verse is the Tetram-
eter Catalectic {Septendrius), consisting of four dipodies, the last
of which lacks a syllable. There is regularly diaeresis after the
fourth foot : —
\\j:.^s.^\j-^^^\\j:.^j_^\j_^_Lh\\
In musical notation : —
'rAn^:v:^:\^:^^
ad t^ advenio, sp^m, salAtem, || consili"^", auxili"*" i^xpeteiis.
— Ter. And. 319.
In English verse : —
T^ll me n6t in mournful numbers || life is but an ^mpty dredm.
— Longfellow.
a. In the stricter form of the Septenarius substitutions are allowed
only in the even feet, but in comedy the tribrach \j \j kj, ox an irrational
•spondee J- >, cyclic dactyl _L wv^, or apparent anapaest w w >, may be
substituted for any of the first six feet ; a tribrach for the seventh : —
itid^'"' habdt petajs^"^ ac vestitum : || tarn consimilist | dtqu^ ego.
sura, pes, sta|tura, tonsus, || oculi, nasum, | v^l labra,
malae, m^ntum, | barba, cdllus; || totus ! qufd ver|bis opiist?
SI tergum ci|catric6sum, || nihil hoc similist | similius.
— PI. Am. 443-446.
The metrical scheme of these four verses is as follows : —
\\^!J^J^^J-^^\-L>J->\\J-> v^w>|Xw -iLA||
\\-L>J_>\j.^_L>\\J.> _L> l^wJlAll
h. The Trochaic Tetrameter Acatalectic (^Octonarius), consisting of four
complete dipodies, occurs in the lyrical parts of comedy.
Substitutions as in the Septenarius are allowed except in the last foot.
c. Some other forms of trochaic verse are found in the lyric poets, in
combination with other feet, either as whole lines or parts of lines : —
non Sbiir ne|qu^ aiireum. [Dimeter Catalectic]
med renl|det in domO | lS,cundr. [Iambic Trimeter Catalectic]
— Hor. Od. ii. 18.
418 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§§621-623
Mixed Measures
621. Different measures may be combined in the same verse in two different
ways. Either (1) a series of cue kind is simply joined to a series of another kind
(compare the changes of rhythm not uncommon in modern music) ; or (2) single feet
of other measures are combined with the prevailing measures, in which case these odd
feet are adapted by changing their quantity so that they become irrational (see § G09. e) .
When enough measures of one kind occur to form a series, we may suppose a
change of rhythm; when they are isolated, we must suppose adaptation. Of the
indefinite number of possible combinations but few are found in Latin poetry.
622. The following verses, combining different rhythmical
series, are found in Latin lyrical poetry: —
1. Greater Archilochian (Dactylic Tetrameter ; Trochaic Tripody) : —
\\^^\J.^\J.^\J-^\\J-^\-L^\J.^\\
sdlvitur 1 acris hij^ms grajta vic6 H veris | ^t ra|v6nl. — Hor. Od. i. 4.
Note. — It is possible that the dactyls were cyclic ; but the change of measure
seems more probable.
2. Verse consisting of Dactylic Trimeter catalectic (Dactylic Penihemim) ;
iambic Dimeter : —
scribere | v6rsicull6s 1| amore p^rjculsiim gravi. — Hor. Epod. 11. 2.
Logacedic Verse
623. Trochaic verses, containing in regular prescribed positions
irrational measures or irrational feet (cf. § 609. e), are called Loga-
cedic. The principal logaoedic forms are —
1. Logaoedic Tetrapody (four feet) : Glyconic.
2. Logaoedic Tripody (three feet) : Pherecratic (often treated as a
syncopated Tetrapody Catalectic).
3. Logaoedic Dipody (two feet) ; this may be regarded as a short Phere-
cratic.
Note. — This mixture of irrational measures gives an effect approaching that oi
prose: hence the name Logaoedic (koyos, doidr}). These measures originated in the
Greek lyric poetry, and were adopted by the Romans. All the Roman lyric metres not
belonging to the regular iambic, trochaic, dactylic, or Ionic systems, were constructed
on the basis of the three forms given above : viz., Logaoedic systems consisting respec-^
tively of four, three, and two feet. The so-called Logaoedic Pentapody consists of five
Jteetj but is to be ree^arded as composed of two of the others.
§§ 624, 625] LOGACEDIC VERSE 419
624. Each logaoedic form contains a single dactyl,^ which may
be either in the first, second, or third place. The verse may be
catalectic or acatalectic : —
Glycol
lie
Pherecratic
i- II-
ii. II
iii. II
-^ ^ \ JL w 1
-^ w 1^ w 1
-^ wl-£-(w)|l
1 Aw|-^(w)||
^ wl^(w)ll
II-
11
II
II-
^ w 1-C w 1-1.(^)11 or
-^ w 1^ v^ \lL\J- A
-^^\ ^(w)||
Note. — The shorter Pherecratic (dipody) {-L>\j \ J-kj),M catalectic, appears to
be a simple Choriambus ( — w w | A ) ; and, in general, the effect of the logaoedic
forms is Choriambic. In fact, they were so regarded by the later Greek and Latin
metricians, and these metres have obtained the general name of Choriambic. But
they are not true choriambic, though they may very likely have been felt to be such
by the composer, who imitated the forms without much thought of their origin. They
may be read (scanned) , therefore, on that principle. But it is better to read them as
logaoedic measures ; and that course is followed here.
625. The verses constructed upon the several Logaoedic forms
or models are the following : —
1. Glyconic (^Second Gly conic, catalectic) : —
^•-^"rrirtr
Romae j principis | urbi|um.
In English : —
Edrms more r^al than Ifving md,n. — Shelley.
Note. — In this and most of the succeeding forms the foot preceding the dactyl is
always irrational in Horace, consisting of an irrational spondee ( >).
2. Aristophanic {First Pherecratic) : —
"^-i^-'-^TTrirrirri
t^mperat [ora ] frenis. — Hor. Od. i, 8.
Note. — It is very likely that this was made equal in time to the preceding by
protracting the last two syllables : —
^^'^-i^-'-^"rnrTrirrir^''T^i
\j-Kj\lL\J.h
rTrmnr^i
*
1 Different Greek poets adopted fixed types in regard to the place of the dactyls,
and so a large number of verses arose, each following a strict law, which were imi-
tated by the Romans as distinct metres.
420 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§625
3. Adbnic (First Pherecratic, shortened) ; —
T^rrtiit I lirbern. -- Hor.
Or perhaps : —
4. Pherecratic (Second Pherecratic) i —
crds dOndberis ha^do. — Hor.,
Often scanned as follows ? —
5. Lesser Asclepiadic (Second Pherecratic with syncope and First Phere^
cratic catalectic) : —
\\ JL > \ ^ ^ \lL \\ -<y yy ] -L ^ \ ^ A \\
Maecenas atavis editS regibus. — Hor.
6. Greater Asclepiadic (the same as 5, with a syncopated Logaoedic Dipody
interposed) : —
II ->! > I -<^ v^ I L^ i| -C w j iZ II -<^ w I JL w ! M A II
tu ne quaMerfs — scire nefas — qu^m mlhi, qu^m tibi. — Hor.
7. Lesser Sapphic (Logaoedic Pentapody, with dactyl in the third place) : —
fntgg^r vlta^ sc616rfaqu6 ptirus. — Hor.
Or in English : — •
Brilliant h6pes, all w6ven in gdrgeous tfesties. — Longfellow.
8. Greater Sapphic (Third Gly conic; First Pherecratic): —
||JLw|^>!-Ov^|!Z||-C|^v^|tZ|oA|!
t^ deos or6 SybSrfn |I cur pr6p6ras Smandd. — Hor.
9. Lesser Alcaic (Logaoedic Tetrapody^ two irrational dactyls, two
trochees) : —
^ \\-i..j\-A^Kj\-L^\J-^\\
v(rg!nibiis puerisque cdnto. — Hor
§§ 625, 626] METRES OF HORACE 421
10. ^Greater Alcaic (Logaoedic Pentapody, catalectic, with anacrusis, and
dactyl in the third place, — compare Lesser Sapphic) : —
\\^\J.^\JL>\\-^^\J.^\6h\\
j^g^Mwi ^^ tenacem |[ propositi virum. — Hor.
Note. — Only the above logaosdic forms are employed by Horace.
11. Phalsecean (Logaoedic Pentapody, with dactyl in the second place) : —
||^>|-Cw|-£wl-^w|Xc7||
qua^nam te mala m6ns, mis^lll Raitidi,
agit pra^cipit^"* in meos lambos? — Catull. xl.
In English : —
Gdrgeous flowerets in the sunlight shining. — Longfellow.
12. Glyconic Pherecratic (Second Glyconic with syncope, and Second
Pherecratic) : —
11 -^ d i -<. w I ^ w I iZ II JL ^ I -^. y I Li I ^ A 11
6 ColOnia qua^ ciipfs |1 p6ntg ludere Idngo. — Catull. xvii,
METRES OF HORACE
626. The Odes of Horace include nineteen varieties of stanza.
These are : —
1. Alcaic, consisting of two Greater Alcaics (10), one Trochaic Dimeter
with anacrusis, and one Lesser Alcaic (9)^ : —
iust^"* 4t tenacem || propositi viriim
non civi'""* ardor || prava iubdntiiim,
non viiltus Instantis tyranni
m^nte quatft solida, nequ^ Aiister. — Od. iii. 3.
(Foundjn Od. 1. 9, 16, 17, 26, 27, 29, 31, 34, 35, 37 ; 11. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17,
19, 20; m. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 17, 21, 23, 26, 29; iv. 4, 9, 14, 15.)
Note. — The Alcaic Strophe is named after the Greek poet Alcseus of Lesbos, and
was a special favorite with Horace, of whose Odes thirty-seven are in this form. It
is sometimes called the Horatian Stanza.
2. Sapphic (minor), consisting of three Lesser Sapphics (7) and one
Adonic (3) : — ^ ,
iam satfe terns || nivis atque dirae
grandinfe mlsit I| pater 6t rub^nte
d^xterd sacras || iaculatus arcis
• terruit lirbem. — Od. i. 2.
(Found in Od. i. 2, 10, 12, 20. 22, 25, 30, 32, 38 ; ii. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 10 ; iii. 8, 11, 14, 18
20j 22, 27 ; iv. 2, 6, 11; Carm. Saec.)
i The figures refer to the foregoing hst (§ 625).
422 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§626
Note. — The Sapphic Stanza is named after the poetess Sappho of Lesbos, and
was a great favorite with the ancients. It is used by Horace in twenty-five Odes —
more frequently than any other except the Alcaic.
3. Sapphic (major), consisting of one Aristophanic (2) and one Greater
Sapphic (8) ; —
Lydia die, per 6mni9
t6 de^s oro, Sybarfn |j cur properas amand6. — Od. i. 8.
4._Asclepiadean I (minor), consisting of Lesser Asclepiadics (5) : —
^xSgi monument""* II a^re per^nnius
regalique sitd 1| pyramid"'"' altius. — Od. iii. 30.
(Found in Od. i. 1; iii. 30; iv. 8.)
5. Asclepiadean II, consisting of one Glyconic (1) and one Lesser
Asclepiadic (5) : — ^ ^
navis qua^ tibi creditiim
debes V^rgiliiim, |I finibus Atticis
r6ddas Incolumem, prec6r,
^t serves animad || dimidiiim mea6. — Od. i. 3.
(Found in Od. i. 3, 13, 19, 36; iii. 9, 15, 19, 24, 25, 28; iv. i, 3.)
6. Asclepiadean III, consisting of three Lesser Asclepiadics (5) and one
(rlyconic (1) : — ^ ,
qufe desiderio || sft pudor aiit modiis
tarn carl capitis? 1| praecipe lugubrfe
cantiis, Melpomene, || cui liquidam pat^r
vocem cTim cithara dedit. — Od. i, 24.
(Found in Od. i. 6, 15, 24, 33; ii. 12; iii. 10, 16; iv. 5, 12.)
7. Asclepiadean IV, consisting of two Lesser Asclepiadics (5), one
Pherecratic (4), and one Glyconic (1) : —
6 f5ns Bandusia^ II spl^ndididr vitro,
diilcl digne mero, || non sine fl6ribus,
eras donaberis ha^dO
cuf frons tiirgida c6rnibus. — Od. iii. 13.
(Found in Od. i. 5, 14, 21, 23; iii 7, 13; iv. 13.)
8. Asclepiadean V (major), consisting of Greater Asclepiadics (6) : —
tu n6 qua^sierls, I| scire nefasl |1 qu^m mihi, qu^m tibi
finein dl dederfnt, || Ledconoe, |I n^c Babylonios
t^ntarls numer6s. — Od. i. 11.
(Found in Od. i. 11, 18; iv. 10.)
9. Aicmanian, consisting of Dactylic Hexameter (§ 615) alternating
with Tetrameter (§ 617. a). (Od. i 7, 28 ; Epod, 12.)
§626] METRES OF HORACE 423
10. Archilochian T, consisting of a Dactylic Hexameter alternating with
a Dactylic Penthemim (see § 617. b). (Od. iv. 7.)
11. Archilochian IV, consisting of a Greater Archilochian (Jieptameter,
§ 622. 1), followed by Iambic Trimeter Catalectic (§ 618. d). The stanza
consists of two pairs of verses : —
s61vitur acris hi^ms grata vice || Veris ^t Favoni,
trahuntque siccas || machinal carinas;
dc neque iam stabulis gaud^t pecus, || aut arator fgni,
nee piata cams || albicant prumls. — ^Od. i. 4.
12. Iambic Trimeter alone (see § 618). (Epod. 17.)
13. Iambic Strophe (see § 618. a). (Epod. 1-10.)
14. Dactylic Hexameter alternating with Iambic Dimeter : —
n6x erat, ^t caelo || fulgebat luna sereno
int^r minora sidera,
cum tti, magnorum |1 num^n laesdra deorum,
in v^rba idrabas mea. — Epod. 16. (So in Epod. 14.)
15. Dactylic Hexameter with Iambic Trimeter (§ 618); —
dltera idm teritur || bellis civflibus a^tas,
suis et Ipsa Roma j] viribus ruit. — Epod. 16.
16. Verse of Four Lesser Ionics (§ 609. c. 2): —
miserar^"* est | nequ^ amori | dare liidum | neque dulcl
mala vino | laver^ aut exlanimari | metuentis. — Od. iii. 12.
17. Iambic Trimeter (§ 618); Dactylic Penthemim (§ 617. &); Iambic
Pettf, nihfl me I| sicut ante4 iuvat
scribere v^rsiculds || amore pdrculsum gravi. — Epod. 11.
18. Dactylic Hexameter; Iambic Dimeter; Dactylic Penthemim (§ 617. l):
h6rrida t^mpestas || caelum contraxit, et fmbres
nivesque deduciint lov^m ; || nunc mare, mine siliia^ . . .
—Epod. 13.
19. Trochaic Dimeter, Iambic Trimeter, each catalectic (see § 620. c).
INDEX TO THE METRES OF HORACE
Lib. I
1. Maecenas atavis : 4. 8. Lydiadic: 3.
2. Jam satis terns : 2. 9. Vides ut alta, : 1.
3. Sic te diva: 5. 10. Mercuri facunde nepOs : 2.
4. Solvitur ficris hiems: 11. 11. Tu ne quaesieris: 8.
5. Quismulta: 7. 12. Quemvirum: 2.
6. Scribens Vario : 6. 13. Cum tu Lydia : 5.
7. Laudabunt alii : 9. 14. Onavis: 7.
424
PROSODY: VERSIFICATION
62G
15. Pastor cum traheret : 0.
16. O matre pulchra : 1.
17. Velox ainoenuiu : 1.
18. Nullam Vare: 8.
19. Mater saeva : 5.
20. Vilepotabis: 2.
21. Diauam tenerae: 7.
22. Integer \itae : 2.
23. Vitas inuleo: 7.
24. Quis desiderio : 6.
25. Parcius iunctas: 2.
26. Musis amicus : 1.
Natis in usum: 1.
Te maris: 9.
Icci beatis: 1.
6 Venus : 2.
Quid dedicatum: 1.
Posciraur: 2.
Albi ne doleas: G.
Parous deorum: 1.
Odiva: 1.
Et ture : 5.
Nunc est bibendum :
Persicos odi : 2.
Lib. II
1. Motum ex Metello : 1.
2. Nullus argents : 2.
3. Aequam memento : 1.
4. Ne sit ancillae : 2.
5. Nondum subacta : 1,
6. Septimi Gades: 2.
7. O saepe mecum : 1.
8. Ulla si iuris : 2.
9. Non semper imbres : 1.
10. Rectius vives : 2.
11. Quid bellieosus : 1.
12. No lis louga: 6.
13. Ille et nefasto : 1.
14. Eheu fugaces: 1.
15. lam pauca: 1.
16. Otium divos : 2.
17. Cur me querellis : 1.
18. Nonebur: 19.
19. Bacchum in remotis : Ic
20. Non usitata: 1.
Lib. Ill
1. Odi profenum: 1.
2. Angustam amice : 1.
3. lustum et tenacem : 1.
4. Descende caelo : 1.
5. Caelo tonantem : 1.
6. Delicta maiorum : 1.
7. Quidfles: 7,
8. Martiis caelebs : 2.
9. Donee gratus: 5.
10. Extremum Tanain : 6.
11. Mercuri nam te : 2.
12. Miserarum est : 16.
13. O fons Bandusiae : 7.
14. Herculis ritu : 2.
15. Uxor pauperis : 5.
16. Inclusam Danaen: 6.
17. Aeli vetusto: 1.
18. Faune nympbfirum : 2.
19. Quantum distet : 5.
20. Non vides: 2,
21. Onata mecum: 1.
22. Montium cu stos : 2.
23. Caelo supinas: 1.
24. Intactis opulentior : 5.
25. Quo me Bacche : 5.
26. Vixi puellis : 1.
27. Impios parrae : 2.
28. Festo quid: 5.
29. Tyrrbena regum : 1.
30. Exegi monumeutum : 4.
Lib. IV
1. Intermissa Venus : 5.
2. Pindarum qnisquis: 2.
3. Quern tu Melpomene : 5.
4. Qualem ministrum : 1.
5. Di vis orte bonis : 6.
6. Dive quera pr5les ; 2.
7. Diffugere nives : 10.
8 Dona rem patents : 4.
9. Ne forte credas: 1.
10. O crudelis adhuc: 8.
11. Est mibi nonum : 2.
12. lam veris comites: 6.
13. Audivere Lyce : 7.
14. Quae cura patrum : 1.
15. Phoebus volentem : 1.
Carmen Saeculdre : 2.
§§ 626-628] MISCELLANEOUS 425
Epodes
1. Ibis Liburnis : 13. 10. Malasoluta: 13.
2. Beatusille: 13. 11. Petti nihil: 17.
3. Parentis olim : 13. 12. Quid tibi vis : 9.
4. Lupis et agnis : 13. 13. Iloi-rida tempestas : 18.
5. At o deorum : 13. 14. Mollis inertia : 14.
6. Quid immerentis : 13. 15. Noxerat: 14.
7. Quo quo scelesti : 13. 16. Altera iam: 15.
8. Rogare longo: 13. 17. Iam iam efiticaci: 12.
9. Quaiido repostum : 13.
627. Other lyric poets use other combinations of the above
mentioned verses : —
a, Glyconics with one Pherecraiic (both imperfect) : —
Diajna^ siimus | fn fidg
puel[l"^ ^t ptie|r* Integrl :
Dialnara, puelr* fntegrf
pueljladque ca|ua|mus. — Catull. xxxiv.
h, Sapphics, in a series of single lines, closing with an Adonic:—-
An majgis dllri tremujere | Manes
H^rcujl^'" ? ^t vilsiim canis | infelrorum
fugit I abrup|tis trepi|dus cajtenis ?
fallilmiir : laejlB venit | ^cce j vultii,
qu^m tuilit Poe|as ; humelrisque | tela
gfetat I ^t no|tas p6pu|lfs pha|r6tras
H^rculis I heres. — Sen. Here. Oet. 1600-1606.
c. Sapphics followed by Glyconics^ of indefinite number (id. Here. Fur.
830-874, 875-894).
MISCELLANEOUS
628. Other measures occur in various styles of poetry.
a. Anapaestic (§ 609. b. 2) verses of various lengths are found in dramatic
poetry. The spondee, dactyl, or proceleusmatic may be substituted for the
anapaest:— ^^^ h5m6st [ omnF"* hSmilnum pra^|cipu6s
v61iipta|tTbus gau|dnsqu^ an|tep6tens.
ita c6mlm6da qua^ | ciipP e]venmnt,
quod ago I siibit, ^dlseciii ] sequitfir:
ita gaiildium siiplpeditat. — PL Trin. 1115-1119.
b, Bacchiac (§ 609. d. 4) verses (five-timed) occur in the dramatic poets, —
very rarely in Terence, more commonly in Plautus, — either in verses of two
feet (Dimeter) or of fom- (Tetrameter). They are treated very freely, as are
426 PROSODY : VERSIFICATION [§§ 628, 629
all measures in early Latin. The long syllables may be resolved, or the
molossus (three longs) substituted : —
multas res | simit^ in | me6 cor|de v(5rso,
mult^"* in. co|gitando | dolor^"^ in|dipisc6r.
egom^t me | cog^ 4t malcer^ ^t dejfatfgo;
mS,gister | mih* ^xer|cit6r am mus mine est.
— PI. Trin. 223-226.
c. Cretic measures (§ 609. d. 1) occur in the same manner as the Bac-
chiac, with the same substitutions. The last foot is usually incomplete : —
amor amijcus mThi | ne fiias | umqnam.
his ego I d^ artibus | gratiam | fS-cio.
nil eg*' is|t6s moror | fadceos | mores, —id. 267, 293, 297.
d, Saturnian Verse. In early Latin is found a rude form of verse, not
borrowed from the Greek like the others, but as to the precise nature of
which scholars are not agreed.^
1. According to one view the verse is based on quantity, is composed of
six feet, and is divided into two parts by a caesura before the fourth thesis.
Each thesis may consist of a long syllable or of two short ones, each arsis
of a short syllable, a long syllable, or two short syllables ; but the arsis,
except at the beginning of the verse and before the caesura, is often entirely
suppressed, though rarely more than once in the same verse : —
dabunt malum Met^Ili || Na^vio poetae.
2. According to another theory the Saturnian is made up, without regard
to quantity, of alternating accented and unaccented syllables ; but for any
unaccented syllable two may be substituted, and regularl}^ are so substituted
in the second foot of the verse : —
dabunt malum Metdlli || Na^vio poStae.
EARLY PROSODY
629. The prosody of the earlier poets differs in several re-
spects from that of the later.^
a. At the end of words s, being only feebly sounded, does not make
position with a following consonant; it sometimes disappeared altogether.
This usage continued in all poets till Cicero's time (§ 15. 7).
1 The two principal theories only are given. There are numerous variations, par-
ticularly of the second theory here stated.
2 Before the Latin language was used in literature, it had become much changed
by the loss of final consonants and the shortening of final syllables under the influence
of accent. In many cases this change was still in progress in the time of the early
poets. This tendency was arrested by the study of grammar and by literature, but
Sihows itself again in the Romance languages.
§629] EARLY PROSODY - 427
b. A long syllable immediately preceded or followed by the ictus may
be shortened (iambic shortening^ : —
1. In a word of two syllables of which the first is short (this effect remained in
a few words like puts, cave, vale, vide, ego, modo, duo^): —
abi (Ter. Ph. 59); bom (id. 616) ; homo suavis (id. 411).
2. If it is either a monosyllable or the first syllable of a word which is pre-
ceded by a short monosyllable : —
sed has tabellas (PI. Pers. 195) ; quid hic nunc (id. Epid. 157) ; per mplu-
vium (Ter. Ph. 707) ; eg^ ost^nderem (id. 793).
3. "When preceded by a short initial syllable in a word of more than three
syllables : —
veniistatis (Ter. Hec. 848) ; senectutem (id. Ph. 434) ; Syracusas (PI. Merc.
37) ; amicitia (id. Ps. 1263).
c. In a few isolated words position is often disregarded.^ Such are ille,
immo, inde, iste, 6mnis, nempe, quippe, unde.
d. The original long quantity of some final syllables is retained.
1. The ending -or is retained long in nouns with long stem-vowel (original r-
stems or original s-stems) : —
m6do quom diet* in m^ Ingerebas 6dium nOn uxor eram (PI. Asin. 927).
Ita m* in p^ctor^ atque c6rde facit amor inc^ndium (id. Merc. 500).
atque quanto n6x fuisti 16ngi6r hac prdxuma (id. Am. 648).
2. The termination -es (-itis) is sometimes retained long, as in miles, superstes.
3. All verb-endings in -r, -s, and -t may be retained long where the vowel is
elsewhere long in inflection : —
r^gredior audisse me (PI. Capt. 1023); atqu^ ut qui fueris et qui nunc (id.
248); me nominat haec (id. Epid. iv. 1. 8); faciat ut semper (id. Poen.
ii. 42); infuscabat, amabo (cretics, id. Cist. i. 21); qui amet (id. Merc.
1021) ; ut fit in b^llo capitur alter filius (id. Capt. 25); tibi sit ad me
revisas (id. True. ii. 4. 79).
e. Hiatus (§ 612. g) is allowed somewhat freely, especially at a pause
in the sense, or when there is a change of speaker.^
1 Cf. ambo (also a dual, p. 59, footnote), in which the 6 is retained because of the
length of the first syllable.
'^ Scholars are not yet agreed upon the principle or the extent of this irregularity.
3 The extent of this license is still a question among scholars ; but in the present
sUte of texts it must sometimes be allowed.
428 MISCELLANEOUS [§§ 630, B31
MISCELLANEOUS
Reckoning of Time
630. The Roman Year was designated, in earlier times, by the names of the
Consuls ; but was afterwards reckoned from the building of the City {ah urbe conditd,
anno urbis condUae), the date of which was assigned by Varro to a period correspond-
ing with B.C. 753. In order, therefore, to reduce Roman dates to those of the Christian
era, the year of the city is to be subtracted from 754: e.g. a.u.c. 691 (the year of
Cicero's consulship) corresponds to b.c. (33.
Before Caesar's reform of the Calendar (b.c. 46), the Roman year consisted of 355
days: March, May, Quintilis (July), and October having each 31 days, February hav-
ing 28, and each of the remainder 29. As this calendar year was too short for the
solar year, the Romans, in alternate years, at the discretion'of the poiitijices, inserted
a month of varying length (mensis inter col dr is) after February 23, and omitted the
rest of February. The " Julian year," by Caesar's reformed Calendar, had 365 days,
divided into months as at present. Every fourth year the 24th of February (vi. Kal.
Mart.) was counted twice, giving 29 days to that month : hence the year was called
bisseztilis. The month Quintilis received the name lulius (July), in honor of Julius
Caesar; and Sextilis was called Augustus (August), in honor of his successor. The
Julian year (see below) remained unchanged till the adoption of the Gregorian Calen-
dar (a.d. 1582), which omits leap-year three times in every four hundred years.
631. Dates, according to the Roman Calendar, are reckoned
as follows: —
a» ThQ first day of the month was called Kalendae (^Calends).
Note. — Kalendae is derived from calare, to call, — the Calends being the day on
which the pontiffs publicly announced the New Moon in the Comitia Caldta. This
they did, originally, from actual observation.
b. On the fifteenth day of March, May, July, and October, but the thir-
teenth of the other months, were the Idus (Ides), the day of Full Moon.
c. On the seventh day of March, May, July, and October, but the fifth
of the other months, were the Nonae (Nones or ninths).
d. From the three points thus determined, the days of the month were
reckoned backwards as so many days before the Nones, the Ides, or the
Calends. The point of departure was, by Roman custom, counted in the
reckoning, the second day being three days before, etc. This gives the fol-
lowing rule for determining the date : —
If the given date be Calends, add tivo to the number of days in the month pre-
ceding, — if Nones or Ides, add one to that of the day on which they fall, — and
from the number thus ascertained subtract the given date. Thus, —
VIII. Kal. Feb. (31 -f 2 - 8) = Jan. 25.
IV. Non. Mar. (7 -f- 1 - 4) = Mar. 4.
IV. Id. Sept. (13 -h 1 - 4) = Sept. 10.
§§ 631, 632]
CALENDAR
429
Note. — The name of the month appears as an adjective in agreement with Kalen-
dae, Nonae, Idus.
For peculiar constructions in dates, see § 424. g.
e. The days of the Roman month by the Julian Calendar, as thus ascer-
tained, are given in the following table : —
January
February
March
April
1. Kal. Ian. Kal. Feb.
Kal. Marti ae
Kal. Apriles
2. IV. Nou. Ian. iv. Non. Feb.
VI. Non. Mart.
IV. Non. Apr.
3. III. "
III. "
V. " "
III. "
4. prid."
" prid." "
IV. " "
prid."
5. NoN. Ian. Non. Feb.
III. "
Non. APRiLfis
6. VIII. Id
. Ian. VIII. id. Feb.
prid."
vm. id. Apr.
7. vn. "
" VII. " "
NoN. Martiae
VII. " "
8. VI. "
VI. " "
VIII. id. Mart.
VI. " "
9. V. "
V. " "
VII. " "
V. " "
10. IV. "
" IV. " "
VI. " "
IV. " "
11. III. "
III. " "
V. " "
III. " "
12. prid. "
prid. " "
IV. "
prid. " "
13. IdusU
LN. iDiJs Feb.
III. "
Idus Apriles.
14. XIX. K.
il. Feb. XVI. Kal. Martias
prid. " "
XVIII. Kal. Maias
15. xvm. '
' " XV. " "
ioiis Martiae
xvn. " •♦
16. XVII. '
' " XIV. "
XVII. Kal. Aprilis.
XVI. "
17. XVI. '
. << XIII. " "
XVI. *
XV. " "
18. XV. '
' " XII. "
XV. '
XIV.
19. XIV. '
' " XI. " "
XIV. '
XIII.
20. XIII.
' " X. " "
XIII. '
XII. " "
21. XII.
' " IX. "
XII.
XI.
22. XI.
' " vni. " "
XI. *
X.
23. X.
' " VII. "
X. '
IX. " "
24. ES. '
5 " VI. " "
IX. '
VIII. " "
25. vm. '
' " V.
vm. '
VII.
26. VII. '
' " IV. "
VII. '
VI.
27. VI.
' " III. " "
VI. '
V.
28. V.
* " prid. " "
V.
IV.
29. IV.
' " [prid. Kal. Mart, in
IV. '
III.
30. ni. '
' " leap-year, the vi.
III.
prid. "
31. prid. '
' " Kal. (24th) being
prid. '
(So June, Sept.,
(So Au
g., Dec.) counted twice.]
(So May
, July, Oct.)
Nov.)
Note. — Observe that a date before the Julian Reform (b.c. 46) is to be found not
by the above table, but by taking the earlier reckoning of the number of days in the
month.
Measures of Value, etc.
632. The money of the Komans was in early times wholly of cop-
per. The unit was the as, which was nominally a pound in weight, but
actually somewhat less. It was divided into twelve unciae (ounces).
430 MISCELLANEOUS [§§ 632-636
In the third century b.c. the as was gradually reduced to one-half
of its original value. In the same century silver coins were intro-
duced, — the denarius and the sestertius. The denarius = 10 asses ;
the sestertius = 2^ asses.
633. The Sestertius was probably introduced at a time when the
as had been so far reduced that the value of the new coin (2-^ asses)
was equivalent to the original value of the as. Hence, the Sester-
tius (usually abreviated to U % or HS) came to be used as the unit
of value, and nummus, coin, often means simply sestertius. As the
reduction of the standard went on, the sestertius became equivalent
to 4 asses. Gold was introduced later, the aureus being equal to
100 sesterces. The approximate value of these coins is seen in the
following table : —
2^ asses = 1 sestertius or nummus, value nearly 5 cents (2^d.).
10 asses or 4 sestertii = 1 denarius . " " 20 " (10 d.).
1000 sestertii = 1 sestertium ..." " $50.00 (£10).
Note. — The word sestertius is a shortened form of semis-tertius, the third one, a
half. The abbreviation ++& or HS = duo et semis, two and a half.'
634. The sestertium (probably originally the genitive plural of ses-
tertius depending on mille) was a sum of money, not a coin ; the word
is inflected regularly as a neuter noun : thus, tria sestertia=: $150.00.
When sestertium is combined with a numeral adverb, centena milia,
hundreds of thousands, is to be understood : thus deciens sestertium
(deciens hs) — deciens centena milia sestertium = $50,000. Sestertium in
this combination may also be inflected : deciens sestertii, sestertio, etc.
In the statement of large sums sestertium is often omitted as well
as centena milia: thus sexagiens (Rose. Am. 2) signifies, sexagiens
[centena milia sestertium] = 6,000,000 sesterces = $300,000 (nearly).
635. In the statement of sums of money in Eoman numerals, a
line above the number indicates thousands ; lines above and at the
sides also, hundred-thousands. Thus hs dc = 600 sgstertii; hs dc =
600,000 sestertii, or 600 sestertia; hs [dc] = 60,000,000 sestertii, or
60,000 sestertia.
636. The Eoman Measures of Length are the following: —
12 inches (unciae) = 1 Roman Foot (pes; 11.65 English inches).
1^ Feet = 1 Cubit (cubitum). — 2^ Feet = 1 Step (gradus).
5 Feet = 1 Pace {passus). — 1000 Paces {mllle passuum) = 1 Mile.
§§636-638] MEASURES OF WEIGHT AND CAPACITY 431
The Roman mile was equal to 4850 English feet.
The iiigerum, or unit of measure of land, was an area of 240 (Roman)
feet long and 120 broad; a little less than | of an English acre.
637. The Measures of Weight are —
12 unciae (ounces) = one pound {libra, about | lb. avoirdupois).
Fractional parts (weight or coin) are —
j^^, uncia. y\, quincunx. |, dodrdns.
I, sextans.
I, quadrdns.
A, triens.
The Talent (talentum) was a Greek weight (rdXavTov) = 60 librae.
638. The Measures of Capacity are —
12 cyathl = 1 sextdrius (nearly a pint).
16 sextdrii = 1 modius (peck).
6 sextdrii = 1 congius (3 quarts, liquid measure).
8 congii = 1 amphora (6 gallons).
I, semis.
f, dextans.
1^2, septunx.
}l, deunx.
|, bes or bessis.
if, as.
432 GLOSSARY [§§ 639, 640
GLOSSAET
OF TERMS USED IN GRAMMAR, RHETORIC, AND PROSODY
639. Many of these terms are pedantic names given by early grammarians to forms
of speech used naturally by writers who were not conscious that they were using fig-
ures at all — as, indeed, they were not. Thus when one says, "It gave me no little
pleasure," he is unconsciously using litotes; when he says, "John went up the street,
James down," antithesis; when he says, "High as the sky," hyperbole. Many were
given under a mistaken notion of the nature of the usage referred to. Thus med and
ted (§ 143. a. n.) were supposed to owe their d to paragoge, siimpsi its p to epenthesis.
Such a sentence as " See my coat, how well it fits ! " was supposed to be an irregularity
to be accounted for by prolepsis.
Many of these, however, are convenient designations for phenomena which often
occur ; and most of them have an historic interest, of one kind or another.
640. Grammatical Terms
Anacoluthon: a change of construction in the same sentence, leaving the
first part broken or unfinished.
Anastrophe: inversion of the usual order of words.
Apodosis: the conclusion of a conditional sentence (see Protasis).
Archaism: an adoption of old or obsolete forms.
Asyndeton: omission of conjunctions (§ 323.6).
Barbarism: adoption of foreign or unauthorized forms.
Brachylogy : brevity of expression.
Crasis: contraction of two vowels into one (§ 15. 3).
Ellipsis: omission of a word or words necessary to complete the sense.
Enallage: substitution of one word or form for another.
Epenthesis: insertion of a letter or syllable.
Hellenism: use of Greek forms or constructions.
Hendiadys (%v 8ta Svotv) : the use of two nouns, with a conjunction, instead
of a single modified noun.
Hypallage: interchange of constructions.
Hysteron proteron: a reversing of the natural order of ideas.
This term was applied to cases where the natural sequence of events is violated in
language because the later event is of more importance than the earlier and so comes
first to the mind. This was supposed to be an artificial embellishment in Greek, and
so was imitated in Latin. It is still found in artless narrative ; cf . " Bred and Born in
a Brier Bush " (Uncle Remus).
Metathesis: transposition of letters in a word.
Paragoge : addition of a letter or letters to the end of a word.
Parenthesis : insertion of a phrase interrupting the construction.
§§ 640, 641] RHETORICAL FIGURES 433
Periphrasis: a roundabout way of expression {circumlocution).
Pleonasm: the use of needless words.
Polysyndeton: the use of an unnecessary number of copulative conjunctions.
Prolepsis : the use of a word in the clause preceding the one where it would
naturally appear (anticipation').
Protasis: a clause introduced by a conditional expression (if, when, whoever),
leading to a conclusion called the Apodosis (§ 512).
Syncope: omission of a letter or syllable from the middle of a word.
Synesis (constructio ad sensum) : agreement of words according to the sense,
and not the grammatical form (§ 280. a).
Tmesis : the separation of the two parts of a compound word by other words
(cutting) .
This term came from the earlier separation of prepositions (originally adverbs) f rbm
the verbs with which they were afterwards joined ; so in per ecastor scitus puer, a very
fine hoy, egad! As this was supposed to be intentional, it was ignorantly imitated in
Latin ; as in cere- comminuit -brum (Ennius) .
Zeugma : the use of a verb or an adjective with two different words, to
only one of which it strictly applies (yoking).
641. Rhetorical Figures
Allegory: a narrative in which abstract ideas figure as circumstances, events,
or persons, in order to enforce some moral truth.
Alliteration: the use of several words that begin with the same sound.
Analogy: argument from resemblances.
Anaphora: the repetition of a word at the beginning of successive clauses
(§598./).
Antithesis: opposition, or contrast of parts (for emphasis : § 598./).
Antonomasia: use of a proper for a common noun, or the reverse : —
sint Maecenates, non deertyit, Flacce, Marones, so there he patrons (like Mae-
cenas), poets (like Virgil) will not he lacking, Flaccus (Mart. viii. 56. 5).
ilia furia et pestis, that fury and plague (i.e. Clodius); Homeromastix, scourge
of Homer (i.e. Zoilus).
Aposiopesis: an abrupt pause for rhetorical effect.
Catachresis : a harsh metaphor (abusio, misuse of words).
Chiasmus: a reversing of the order of words in corresponding pairs of phrases
(§ 598./).
Climax: a gradual increase of emphasis, or enlargement of meaning.
Euphemism : the mild expression of a painful or repulsive idea : —
si quid ei accident, if anything happens to him (i.e. if he dies).
•
Euphony: the choice of words for their agreeable sound.
Hyperbaton: violation of the usual order of words.
434 GLOSSARY [§§ 641, 642
Hyperbole: exaggeration for rhetorical effect.
Irony: the use of words which naturally convey a sense contrary to what is
meant.
Litotes: the affirming of a thing by denying its contrary (§ 326. c).
Metaphor: the figurative use of words, indicating an object by some
resemblance.
Metonymy: the use of the name of one thing to indicate some kindred thing.
OnomatopcEia: a fitting of sound to sense in the use of words.
Oxymoron : the use of contradictory words in the same phrase : —
insaniens sapientia, foolish wisdom.
Paronomasia: the use of words of like sound.
Prosopopoeia: personification.
Simile: a figurative comparison (usually introduced by like, or as).
Synchysis: the interlocked order (§ 598. h).
Synecdoche: the use of the name of a part for the whole, or the reverse.
642. Terms of Prosody
Acatalectic : complete, as a verse or a series of feet (§ 612. o).
Anaclasis: breaking up of rhythm by substituting different measures.
Anacrusis: the unaccented syllable or syllables preceding a verse (§ 608. g).
Antistrophe: a series of verses corresponding to one which has gone before
(cf. strophe).
Arsis: the unaccented part of a foot (§ 611).
Basis: a single foot preceding the regular movement of a verse.
Ccesura: the ending of a word within a metrical foot (§611. b).
Catalectic : see Catalexis.
Catalexis: loss of a final syllable (or syllables) making the series eatalectic
(incomplete, § 612. a).
Contraction: the use of one long syllable for two short (§ 610).
Conception: shortening of a long syllable, for metrical reasons.
Diceresis: the coincidence of the end of a foot with the end of a word
within the verse (§ 611. c).
Dialysis: the use of i (consonant) and v as vowels (siliia = silva, § 603./. n. ^).
Diastole: the lengthening of a short syllable by emphasis (§ 612. b).
Dimeter: consisting of two like measures.
Dipody: consisting of two like feet.
Distich: a system or series of two verses.
Ecthlipsis: the suppression of a final syllable in -m before a word beginning
with a vowel (§612./).
Elision: the cutting off of a final before a following initial vowel (§ 612. e).
Hepiameter: consisting of seven feet.
§642] TERMS OP PROSODY 435
Hexameter : consisting of six measures.
Hexapody: consisting of six feet.
Hiatus: the meeting of two vowels without contraction or elision (§ 612. g\.
Ictus: the metrical accent (§ 611. a).
Irrational: not conforming strictly to the unit of time (§609. e).
Logacedic: varying in rhythm, making the effect resemble prose (§ 623).
Manometer: consisting of a single measure.
Mora: the unit of time, equal to one short syllable (§ 608. a).
Pentameter: consisting of five measures.
Pentapody : consisting of five feet.
Penthemimeris: consisting of five Jialf-feet.
Protraction: extension of a syllable beyond its normal length (608. c).
Resolution: the use of two short syllables for one long (§ 610).
Strophe: a series of verses making a recognized metrical whole (stanza),
which may be indefinitely repeated.
Synceresis: i (vowel) and u becoming consonants before a vowel (§ 603.
C. N.,/. N.4).
Synalcepha: the same as elision (§ 612. e. n%).
Synapheia: elision betw^een Wo verses (§ 612. e. n.).
Syncope: loss of a short vowel.
Synizesis: the running together of two vowels without full contraction (§ 603.
C. N.).
Systole: shortening of a syllable regularly long.
Tetrameter : consisting of four measures.
Tetrapody: consisting of four feet.
Tetrastich: a system of four verses.
Thesis: the accented part of a foot (§ 611).
Trimeter: consisting of three measures.
Tripody: consisting of three feet.
Tristich: a system of three verseSc
INDEX OF YEEBS
Regular verbs of the First, Second, and Fourth Conjugations are given only in
special cases. Compounds are usually omitted when they are conjugated like the
simple verbs. The figures after the verbs indicate the conjugation. References are
to sections. For classified lists of important verbs see §209 (First Conjugation),
§ 210 (Second Conjugation), § 211 (Third Conjugation), §212 (Fourth Conjugation),
§§ 190, 191 (Deponents), § 192 (Semi-Deponents).
ab-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. n.
ab-eo, see eo.
ab-icio, 3, -ieci, -iectum [iacio].
ab-igo, 3, -egi, -actum [ago].
ab-nuo, 3, -nui, — .
ab-oleo, 2, -evi, -itum.
ab-olcsco, 3, -evi, — [aboleo].
ab-ripio, 3, -ripui, -reptum [rapio].
abs-condo, 3, -di (-didi), -ditum [coado].
ab-sisto, 3, -stiti, — .
ab-sum, abesse, afui, (afuturus)«
ac-cendo, 3, -cendi, -censum.
accerso, see arcesso.
ac-cidit (impers.), 207, 208. c.
ac-cido, 3, -cidi, — [cado].
ac-cido, 3, -cidi, -eisum [caedo].
ac-cio, 4, reg. [cio].
ac-cipio, 3, -cepi, -ceptum [capio].
ac-colo, 3, ~ui, — .
ac-credo, see credo.
ac-cumbo, 3, -culmi, -itum.
ac-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum.
acesco, 3, -acui, — [co-].
ac-quiro, 3, -quisivi, -quisitum [quaero].
acuo, 3, -ui, -utum, 174, 17(5. d.
ad-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. n.
ad-eo, see eo.
ad-hibeo, 2, -ui, -itum [habeo].
ad-igo, 3, -egi, -actum [ago].
ad-imo, .3, -emi, -emptuni [emo].
ad-ipiscor, -i, -eptus.
ad-nuo, 3, -nui, — .
ad-oleo, 2, -ui, — .
ad-olesco, 3, -evi, -ultum.
ad-sentior, -iri, -sensus.
ad-sideo, 2, -sedi, -sessum [sedeo].
ad-sido, 3, -sedi, — .
ad-spergo, 3, -spersi, -spersum [spargo].
ad-sto, 1, -stiti, — .
ad-sum, -esse, -fui, (-futurus).
af-f-ari, aff&tus, 206. c.
af-fero, -ferre, attuli, alia turn.
af-fi«i6, 3, -feci, -fectum [facio].
af-fligo, 3, -xi, -ctum.
ag-gredior, -i, -gressus [gradior].
agnosco, 3, -ovi, aguitum [nosco].
ago, 3, egi, actum. [For regular comps.
see ab-igo ; for others, see cogo, circum-
per-.]
aio, defect., 206. a,
albeo, 2, -ui, — .
alesco, 3, -ui, -alitum.
algeo, 2, alsi, — .
algesco, 3, alsi, — .
al-lego, 3, -egi, -ectum.
al-licio, 3, -lexi, — .
alo, 3, alui, altum (alitum).
amb-igo, 3, — , — [ago].
ambio, -ire, -ii (-ivi), -itum (ambibat)
203. d.
araicio, 4, amixi (-cui), amictum.
amo, 180, 184; amarim, amasse, amas
sem, 181. a; amassis, 183. 5.
ango, 3, anxi, — .
ante-cello, 3, — , — .
ante-sto, 1, -steti, — .
anti-sto, 1, -steti, — .
aperio, 4, aperui, apertum.
apiscor, -i, aptus [ad-ipiscor].
ap-pello, 3, -puli, -pulsum.
ap-peto, 3, -petivi (-ii), -itum.
ap-primo, 3, -pressi, -pressum [premo],
arceo, 2, -ui, — [co-erceo].
arcesso (accerso), 3, -ivi, arcessitum.
ardeo, 2, arsi, (arsiirus).
ardesco, 3, arsi, — .
areo, 2, — , — .
aresco, 3, -arui, — .
arguo, 3, -ui, -litum.
ar-rigo, 3, -rexi, -rectum [rego].
ar-ripio, 3, -ui, -reptum [rapio].
a-scendo, 3, -di, -scensum [scando].
a-spergo, see ad-spergo.
a-spiKO, 2>, 'Oxi, -ectum [-spicio].
at-tendo, 3, -di, -turn,
at-tineo, 2, -tinui, -tentum [teneo].
436
n^DEX OF VERBS
437
at-tingo, 3, -tigi, -tactuin [tango].
alrtollo, 3, — , — [tollo].
audeo, audere, ausus, 192 (ausim, 183, 3;
sodes, 13. N.).
audio, 4, audivi, auditum, 187 (contracted
forms, 181. b).
au-fero, -ferre, abstuli, ablatunic
augeo, 2, auxi, auctum.
ausim, see audeo.
ave (have), avete, aveto, 206. g.
aveo, 2, — , — .
balbfitio, 4, — , — ,
batuo, 3, -ui, — .
bibo, 3, bibi, (potum).
bullio, 4, rag. (bullo, -are) [e-bullio].
cado, 3, cecidi, casum [ac-, con-, oc-cido],
178. b.
caecutio, 4, — , — .
•caedo, 3, cecidi, caesum [ac-, oc-cido, etc.],
cale-facio, like facio, 269. a.
cale-facto, 1, — , — , 266. «.
caleo, 2, -ui, (caliturus).
calesco, 3, -ui, — .
calleo, 2, -ui, — o
calveo, 2, — , — c
candeo, 2, -ui, — .
candesco, 3, -candui, — -
caneo, 2, -ui, — .
canesco, 3, canui, — .
cano, 3, cecini, — [con-cino].
cantillo, 1, reg., 263. 3.
capesso, 3, capessivi, — , 263. 2. 6 (in-
cipisso, 3, — , — ).
capio, 3, cepi, captum [ac-cipio etc. ; also
ante-capio], 188.
careo, 2, -ui, (-iturus).
carpo, 3, -psi, -ptum, 177. b [de-cerpo].
caveo, 2, ca^i, cautum.
cavillor, -ari, -atus, 263. 3.
cedo (imperative), cedite (cette), 206. g,
cedo, 3, cessi, cessum.
-cello (only in comj)., see per-cello, ex-
cello, ante-cello, prae-cello).
-cendo, 3, -cendi, -censum (only in comp.,
as in-cendo).
censeo, 2, -ui, censum.
cerno, 3, crevi, -cretum.
cieo ^(-cio), ciere (-cire), civi, cTtum
(-citum) [ac-cio, con-, ex-cio].
cingo, 3, cins, cinctum.
-cio, see cieo.
circum-do, -dare, -dedi, -dritum, 209. a. n.
circum-sisto, 3, -steti (-stiti), — .
circum-spicio, 3, -ex5, -ectum.
circum-sto, 1, -stitI (-steti), — .
clango, 3, — , — .
claresco, 3, clarui, — .
ciaudeo, 2, — , — , see claudo (limjp)^
claudo (limp), 3, — , — .
claudo {dose), 3, clausi, clausum [ex-
clude].
clueo, 2, — , — .
co-emo, 3, -emi, -emptum.
coepi, -isse, coepturus, 205.
co-erceo, 2, -ui, -itum [arceo].
co-gnosco, 3, -gnovi, -gnitum [nosco].
cogo, 3, coegi, coactum, 15. 3 [ago].
col-lido, 3, -lisi, lisum [laedo].
col-ligo, 3, -legi, -lectum.
col-luceo, 2, — , — [luceo].
colo, 3, colui, cultum [ex-, ac-, in-].
comburo, 3, -ussi, -ustum [uro].
com-edo, 3 (esse), -edi, -esum (-estum).
com-miniscor, -i, -mentus.
como, 3, compsi, comptum.
com-pello, 3, -puli, -pulsum.
com-perco, 3, -persi, — [parco].
comperio, 4, -peri, compertum.
comperior, -iri, compertus, 191. n.
com-pesco, 3, -cm, — .
com-pingo, 3, -pegi, -pactum [pango].
com-pleo, 2, -evi, -etum.
com-primo, 3, -pressi, -pressum [premo].
com-pungo, 3, -punxi, -punctum [pungo.].
con-cido, 3, -cidi, — [cado].
con~cido, 3, -cTdi, -cisum [caedo].
con-cino, 3, -ui, — [cano].
con-cipio, 3, -cepi, -ceptum [capio].
con-cio (-cieo), 4 (2), -civi, -citum (-citum).
con-cludo, 3, -clusi, -cliisum [claudo].
con-cupisco, 3, -cupivi, -cupitum.
con-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri) , -cursum.
con-cutio, 3, -cussi, -cussum [quatioj.
con-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. N.
co-necto, 3, -nexui, -nexum, 16.
con-fercio, 4, — , -fertum [farcio].
con-fero, -ferre, -tuli, collatum.
con-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectum [facio].
con-fit, defect., 204. c.
con-fiteor, -eri, -fessus [fateor].
con-fringo, 3, -fregi, -fractum [frango].
con-gruo, 3, -ui, — [-gruo].
con-icio, 3, -ieci, -iectum, 6. d [iacio].
co-nitor, -i, -nisus (-nixus), 16.
co-niveo, 2, -nivi (-nixi), — , 16.
con-quiro, 3, -quisivi, -quisitum [quaero].
con-sisto, 3, -stiti, — .
con-spergo, 3, -spersi, -spersum [spargo].
con-spicio, 3, -spexi, -si>ectum, 174.
con-stitu5, 3, -ui, -stitutura [statuo].
con-sto, 1, -stiti (-stfi turns) (constat, 207).
con-sue-facio, like facio, 266. a.
con-suesco, 3, -evi, -etum (consuerat,
181. a).
con-sulo, 3, -ui, -sultum.
con-tendo, 3, -tendi, -tentum.
con-ticesco, 3, -ticui, — .
con-tineo, 2, -tinui, -tentum [teneo].
con-tingo, 3, -tigi, -tactum [tango] (con-
tingit, impers., 208. c).
438
INDEX OF VEKBS
con-tundo, 3, -tudl, -tusum [tundo].
coquo, 3, coxl, coctuiu.
cor-rigo, 3, -rexi, -rectum [rego].
cor-ripio, 3, -ripui, -reptum [rapio].
cor-ruo, 3, -ui, — [ruoj.
crebresco, 3, -crebrul, — [in-, per-].
credo, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. N. [-do].
crepo, 1, -ui (-crepavi), -crepitum.
cresco, 3, creyl, cretum, 176. h. 1.
crocio, 4, — , — .
crudesco, 3, -crudui, — [re-].
cubo, 1, -ui (cubavl), -cubitum.
cudo, 3, -cudi, -cusum [in-cudo].
-cumbo [cub] (see ac-cumbo ; compounds
with de-, ob-, pro-, re-, and sub-, lack
the p.p.).
cupio, 3, cuplvi, cupitum, 174.
-cupisco, 3, see con-cupisco.
curro, 3, cucurrl, cursum [in-curro].
debeo, 2, -ui, -itum, 15. 3.
de-cerpo, 3, -cerpsi, -cerptum [carpo].
decet (impers.), decere, decuit, 208. c.
de-cipio, 3, -cepi, -ceptum [capio].
de-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum.
de-do, 3, -didi,_-ditum [do], 209. a. n.
de-fendo, 3, -_di, -fensum, 178. 6. n. i.
de-fetiscor, -i, -fessus.
de-fit, defect., 204. c.
dego, 3, — , — [ago].
delectat (impers.), 208. c.
deleo, 2, -evi, -etura.
de-libuo, 3, -libui, -libutum.
de-ligo, 3, -leg!, -lectum [lego] .
demo, 3, dempsi, demptum.
de-pello, 3, -pull, -pulsum.
de-prirao, 3, -pressi, -pressum [premo].
depso, 3, -sui, -stum.
de-scendo, 3, -di, -scensum [scandoj.
de-silio, 4, -silul (-silii), [-sultum] [salio].
de-sino, 3, -sii (-sivi), -situm [sino].
de-sipio, 3, — , — [sapio].
de-sisto, 3, -stiti, -stitum [sisto].
de-spicio, 3, -spexi, -spectum.
de-spondeo, 2, -dI,_-sponsum [spondeo].
de-struo, 3, -struxi, -structum.
de-sum, -esse, -fui, (-futurus) [sum].
de-tendo, 3, [-di], -sum.
de-tineo, 3, -ui, -tentum [teneo].
de-vertor, -I, — .
dico, 3, dixi, dictum, p. 87, footnote 4
(dixti, 181. 6. N. 2; die, 182).
dif-fero, -ferre, distuli, dilfitum [fero].
dif-fiteor, -en, — [fateor].
dl-gnosco, 3, -gnovi, — [ndsco].
dl-ligo, 3, -lexi, -lectum [lego],
di-luo, 3, -lui, -latum [luo].
di-mico, 1, -avi, -atum.
di-nosco, see dl-gnosco.
dir-ibeo, 2, — , -itum [habeo].
dir-imo, 3, -end, -emptum [emo].
di-ripio, 3, -ripui, -reptum [rapio].
di-ruo, 3, -rui, -rutum [ruo].
disco [dic], 3, didici, — . [So compounds.]
dis-crepo, 1, -ui or -avi, — .
dis-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum.
dis-icio, 3, dis-ieci, -iectum [iacio].
dis-pando, 3, — , -ppusiim (-pessum) [pan-
do].
dis-sideo, 2, -sedi, — [sedeo].
dis-silio, 4, -ui, — .
dis-tendo, 3, -di, -turn.
di-stinguo, 3, -stinxi, -stmctum.
di-sto, 1, — , — .
ditesco, 3, — ^, — .
di-vido, 3, -visi, -visum.
do [da] (give), dare, dedi, datum, 174,
176. e, 202, 209. a. n. (duim, perduim,
183. 2).
-do [dha] iptit) , 3, -didi, -ditum (only iii
comp. , see ab-do, credo, vendo) , 209. a. n .
doceo, 2, -ui, doctum.
doleo, 2, -ui, (-iturus).
-dolesco, 3, -dolui, — [con-].
domo, 1, -ui, -itum.
-dormisco, 3, -dormivi, — [con-].
diico, 3, duxi, ductum (due, 182).
dulcesco, 3, — , — .
duresco, 3, durui, — .
e-bullio, 4, ebullii, — .
edo (eat), 3, edere (esse), edi, esum, 201.
e-do (put forth), 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. n.
ef-fero, -ferre, extuli, elatum.
ef-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectum [facio].
egeo, 2, -ui, — .
e-icio, 3, -ieci, -iectum [iacio].
e-licio, 3, -uI, -citum.
e-ligo, 3, -legi, -lectum [lego].
e-mico, 1, -micui, -miciitum.
e-mineo, 2,_-ui, — [-mineo].
emo, 3, emi, emptum, 15. 11 [ad-, dir-imo,
co-emo] .
e-neco, 1, -ui (-avi), -nectum (-atum) [neco] .
ens, see sum.
eo, ire, ii (Ivi), itum, 203 (itum est, 203. a;
iri, id. ; itur, impers., 208. d; ad-eo, ad-
eor, in-eo, 203. a ; ambio, 203. d ; prod-
eo, -ire, -ii, -itum, 203. e). See veneo.
e-rigo, 3, -rexi, -rectum.
escit, escunt (see sum), 170. b. n.
esurio, 4, — , esuriturus, 263. 4.
e-vado, 3, -vasi, -vasum (evasti, 181. b. N.2).
e-vanesco, 3, evanui, — .
e-venit (impers.), 207, 208. c.
e-vilesco, 3, -vilui, — .
ex-cello, 3, -eel lui, -celsum.
ex-cio (-cieo), 4 (2), -ivi (-ii), -Ttum (-itum),
ex-cipio, 3, -cepi,_-ceptum [capio].
ex-cludo, 3, -clusi, -clusum [claudo].
ex-colo, 3, -ui, -enltum [colo].
ex-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum
INDEX OF VERBS
439
ex-erceo, 2, -cui, -citum [arceo].
ex-inio, 3, -emi, -emptum [emo],
ex-olesco, 3, -olevi, -oletum.
ex-pello, 3, -puK, -pulsum.
ex-perglscor, 3, -pei-rectus.
ex-perior, 4, -pertiis.
ex-pleo, 2, -evi, -etiiin.
ex-plico, 1, (unfold), -nl, -itum; (explain),
-avT, -atum.
ex-plodo, 3, -si, -sum [plaud5].
ex-pungo, 3, -i)unxi, -puuctum.
ex-(s)ilio, 3, -ui (-ii), — [salio].
ex-sisto, 3, -stiti, -stitiim.
ex-stinguo, 3, -stiuxi, -stinctum.
ex-sto, 1, — , (-staturus).
ex-teudo, 3, -di, -turn (-sum),
exuo, 3, -ui, -utum.
facesso, 3, facessiAa (facessi), facessitum,
263. 2, b.
facio, 3, feci, factum,_204 (fac, 182; faxo,
-Im, 183. 3 ; cou-ficio aud other comjDS.
in -licio, 204. a; bene-facio etc., 204. b;
con-sue-facio, cale-facio, cale-facto, 26f3.
a),
-facto, 1 (in compounds), 26G. a.
fallo, 3,fefelli,falsum, 177. c, 178. 6. n.4,
farcio, 4, farsi, fartum [re-fercio].
fateor, -eri, fassus [con-fiteor],
fatisco, 3, — _, — .
faveo, 2, favi, fautura.
-fendo, 3, -fendi, -feusum, see defends,
ferio, 4, — , — .
fero, ferre, tuli, latum, 176. d. N. i, 200
(fer, 182) [af-, au-, con-, dif-, ef-, in-,
of-, re-, suf-fero].
ferveo, 2, fervi (ferbui), — ; also, fervo, 3.
fervesco, 3, -fervi (-ferbui), — .
fido, fidere, fisus, 192 [con-fido].
figo, 3, fixi, fixum.
findo [fid], 3, fidi, fissum, 176. c. 2,
177. c. N.
fingo [fig], 3, finxi, fictura, 177. 6. u.
fio, fieri, factus, 204 (see facio) (fit, im-
pers., 208. c; confit, defit, infit, effieri,
interfieri, iuterfiat, superfit, 204. c).
flecto, 3, fiexi, flaxum.
fleo, 2, -evi, -etum, 176. e (flestis, 181. a),
-fligo, only in comp., see af-fligo,
floreo, 2, -ui, — .
florescQ, 3. florui, — .
fluo, 3, fluxi, fluxum, 261. Nc
fodio, 3, fodi, fossum.
[for], fan, fatus, 179. a, 206. c (af-fari, pro-
fatus, prae-, inter-fatur, etc., 206. c).
fore, forem, etc., see sura,
foveo, 2s ioxli fotnm.
frango [frag], 3, fregi, fractum, 176. 6. 1
[per-f ringo] .
fremo, 3, fremui, — .
frendo, 3, — , fresum (fressum).
frico, 1, -ui, frictum (fricatum).
frigeo, 2, — , — .
frigesco, 3, -frixi, — [per-, re-]o
frigo, 3, frixi, frictum.
frondeo, 2, — , — .
fruor, -i, fructus.
fuam, -as, etc. (see sum), 170. b. N.
fugio, 3, fugi, (fuglturus).
fulcio, 4, fulsi, fultum.
fulgeo, 2, -si, — .
fulgo, 3, — , — .
fulgurat (impers.),"208. a.
fundo [fud], 3, fudi, fusum, 176. 6. 1.
fungor, -i, functus.
furo, 3, — , — .
fuvimus, fuvisset (see sum), 170. 6. n.
gannio, 4, — , — .
gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus, 192.
-gemisco, 3, -gemui, — .
gemo, 3, gemui, — .
gero, 3, gessi, gestum.
gestio, 4, -ivi, — , 262. a.
gigno [gen], 3, genui, genitum, 176. c. 1
glisco, 3, — , — .
glubo, 3, — , — .
gradior, -i, gressus [ag-gredior].
grandinat (impers.)p 208. a.
-gruo, 3, see con-, in-gruo.
habeo, 2, -ui, -itum [in-hibeo,' debeo
dir-ibeo].
haereo, 2, haesi, haesum.
haeresco, 3, — , — .
haurio, 4, liausi, haustum (hausurus).
have, see ave.
hebeo, 2, — , — .
hebesco, 3, — , — .
hinnio, 4, — , — .
hirrio, 4, — , — .
hisco,_3, — , — [de-hiscoj.
horreo, 2, horrui, — .
horresco, 3, -horrui, — .
ico, 3, ici, ictum.
ignosco, 3, -novi, -notum [nosco].
il-licio, 3, -lexi, -lectum [-licio].
il-lido, 3, -lisi, -lisum [laedo].
imbuo, 3, -ui, -utum.
im-mineo, 2, — , — [-mineo].
im-pell6_, 3, -puli, -pulsum [pello].
im-petro, 1, reg. (-assere, 183. 5).
im-pingo, 3, -pegi, -pactum [pang6].
im-pleo, 2, -evi, -etum.
im-plico, 1, -avi (-ui), -atum (-itum),
in-ceudo, 3, -di, -sum.
in-cesso, 3, incessi^a, — .
in-cido, 3, -cidi, (-casurus) [cado].
in-cido, 3, -cidi, -cisum [caedo].
in-cipio, 3, -cepi, -ceptum [capio].
in-cludo, 3, -si, -sum [claudo].
140
INDEX OF VERBS
in-col6, 3, -colui, — [col5].
in-crepo, 1, -ui (-avi), -itum.
in-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum
in-cutio, 3, -cussi, -cussum.
iud-igeo, 2, -ui, — [egeoj.
ind-ipiscor, 3, -eptus [apiscor].
iu-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. n,
iudulgeo, 2, iudulsi, induitum.
induo, 3, -ui, -utum.
iueptio, 4, — , — ,
iu-fero, -ferre, -tuli, illatum.
in-fit, see fio.
in-gredior, 3, -gressus [gradior].
iu-gruo, 3, -ui, — [-gi'uoj .
in-hibeo, 2, -ui,_-ituni [habeojo
in-olesco, 3, -olevi, — .
inquam, defect., 206. b.
in-quiro, 3, -quisivi, -quisitum [quaero].
in-sideo, 2, -sedi, -sessum [sedeo].
in-sido, 3, -sedi, -sessum.
in-silio, 3, -ui, [-sultumj [salioj,
in-sisto, 3, -stiti, — ,
in-spicio, 3, -spexi, -spectum.
in-stituo, 3, -ui, -utum [statuo].
in-sto, 1, -stiti, (-staturus).
intel-lego, 3, -lexi, -lectum.
inter-do, -dare, -dedi, -datum, 209. a. n.
inter-est, -esse, -fuit (impers.), 208. b.
inter-fatur, see for.
inter-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectum [facio].
iater-sto, 1, -steti, — , 209. a. n.
in-tueop, -eri, -tu.\tus [tueorj.
irascor, -i, iratus.
ir-ruo, 3, -rui, — [ruo].
iaceo, 2, -ui, — .
iacio, 3, ieci, iactum [ab-icio, etc. ; dis-
icio, porr-icio].
iubeo, 2, iussi, iussum (iusso, 183. 3).
iudico, 1, reg. (-assit, 183. 5).
iimgo, 3, iunxi, iunctum.
iuvenesco, 3, — , — .
iuvo (ad-), 1, iuvi, iiitmn (-aturus).
labasco, 3, — , — .
labor, -i, lapsus.
lacesso, 3, lacessivi, lacessitum, 263. 6.
laedo, 3, laesi, laesum [il-lido].
lambo, 3, — , — .
langueo, 2, langui, — .
languesco, 3, langui, — ,
latoo, 2, -ui, — .
latesco, 3, -litui, — [de-litesco] .
lavo, 3, lavi, lautum (lotum) (also reg. of
1st conj.).
lego, 3, legi, loctum [for compounds see
211. e, footnote, also de-ligo, di-ligo,
intel-lego, ueglego].
Iev5, 1, reg. (-asso, 183. 5).
libet (lubet), -ere, -uit, 208. c (libitum est ;
libens).
liceo, 2, licui, — .
licet, -ere, licuit, (-iturum), 207, 208. c
(licitum est, licens).
-licio, 3 [for Iacio, only in comp. ; see al
licio, e-licio, pel-licio].
lino [li], 3, levi (livi), litum.
liuquo [lic], 3, -liqui, -lictum.
liqueo, 2, liqui (iicui), — .
liquesco^ 3, -licui, — .
liquor, -i, — .
liveo, 2, — , — .
loquor, -i, locutus, 261. N.
luceo, 2, luxT, — .
lucesco (-Cisco;, 3, -luxi, — [il-].
ilido, 3, lusi, lusum.
lugeo, 2, luxi, — .
luo, 3, lui, -latum [de-luo, solvo].
madeo, 2, madui, — .
madesco, 3, madui, — .
maereo, 2, — , — .
malo, malle, malui, — , 199 (mavolo, ma-
velim, mavellem, id. k.).
maudo, 3, raaudi, mansum.
maneo, 2, mansi, mansum [per-maneo].
mansuesco, see -suesco.
marcesco, 3, -marcui, — [e-].
maturesco, 3, maturui, — .
medeor, -eri, — .
memini, defect., 205.
mereo or mereor, merere or -eri, meritus
190.5'.
mergo, 3, mersi, mersum.
metior, -iri, mensus.
meto, .3, messui, -messum.
metuo, 3, -ui, -utum.
mico, 1, micui, — .
-mineo, 2, -ui, — [e-, im-, pro-mineo].
-miuiscor, -i, -mentus [com-, re-],
rainuo, 3, -ui, -iitum.
miror, mirari, miratus.
misceo, 2, -cui, mixtum (mistum).
misereor, -en, miseritus (raisertus), 208.
6. X.
miseret, impers., 208. 6.
mitesco, 3, — , — .
mitto, 3, misi, missum, 176. d. n. 2.
molior, -iri, -itus.
molo, 3, molui, molitum.
moneo, 2, -ui, -itum, 185.
mordeo, 2, momordi, morsum.
morior, -i (-iri), mortuus (moriturus).
moveo, 2, movi, motum (commorat, 181. &).
mulceo, 2, mulsi, mulsum.
mulgeo, 2, -si, mulsum.
muttio, 4, -ivi, — .
nanciscor, -i, nactus (nanctus) .
nascor, -i, natus.
neco, 1, -avi (-ui), -atum, 209, footnote 2
[e-neco].
INDEX OF VEKBS
441
necto [nec], 3, nexi (nexui)^ nexum.
neglego, 3, neglexi, -lectmn, 211. e. foot-
note 2.
neo, 2, nevi, — .
nequeo, defect., 206. d.
nigresco, 3, nigrui, — .
ningit, 3, ninxit (impers.), 208. a.
niteo, 2, — , — .
nitesco, 3, nituT, — .
nitor, -1, nisus (nixus).
-niveo, 2, -nivi (-nixi), — .
no, 1, navi, — ^ 179. a.
noceo, 2, nocui, — .
nolo, nolle, nolui, — , 199 (nevis, nevolt,
id. N.).
nosco [gnoI , 3, novi, notum [ag-, cog-, di(g)-;
ig-uosco], 205. b. N. 2 (nosse, 181. a).
notesco, 3, -ni, — .
nubo, 3, nupsi, nuptum.
-nuo, 3, -nui, — [ab-, ad-nuo]c
©b-do, 3, -didi, -ditura, 209. a. n.
ob-liviscor, -i, oblitus.
ob-mutesco, 3, -mutui, — .
ob-sideo, 2, -sedl, -sessum [sideo].
ob-sldo, 3, — , — .
ob-sisto, 3, -stitT, -stitum.
ob-solesco, 3, -evl, -etum.
ob-sto, 1, -stiti, (-staturus) .
ob-tineo, 2, -ui, -tentum [teneo].
ob-tingit (impers.), 208. c.
ob-tundo, 3, -tudi, -tiisum (-tunsum).
ob-venit (impers.), 208. c.
oc-callesco, 3, -callul, — .
oc-cido, 3, -cidi, - casum [cado].
oc-cido, 3, -cidi, -cisum [caedoj.
oc-cino, 3, -cinui, — [cano]»
oc-cipio, 3, -cepi, -ceptum.
occulo, 3, occulul, occultum.
oc-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum.
odi, odisse, osurus (perosus), 205.
of-fero, -ferre, obtuli, oblatum.
-oleo (grow) [see ab-, ad-].
oleo (smell), 2, olui, — .
operio, 4, operui, opertum.
oportet, -ere, -uit (impers.), 208. c.
op-pango, 3, -peg!, -pactum [pango].
opperior, -iri, oppertus.
op-primo, 3, -pressi, -pressum [premo] .
ordior, -iri, orsus.
orior (3d), -iri, ortus (oritiirus) (so
comps.), 174, 191.
os-tendo, 3, -tend!, -tentum.
ovare, ovatus, defect., 206./.
paciscor, -!, pactus.
paenitet (impers.), -ere, -uit, 208. b
(-turus, -tendus, id. n.).
palleo, 2, pallul, — .
pallesco, 3, pallui, — .
pando, 3j pandi, pansum (passum) [dis-J.
pango [pag], 3, pepigi (-pegi), pactum
[im-pingo; op-pango].
parco, 3, peperci (parsi) , (parsurus).
pareo, 2, -ui, paritum (late),
pario, 3, peperi, partum (pariturus)
[com-, re-perio].
partior, -iri, -itus, 190.
parturio, 4, — , --.
pasco, 3, pavi,_ pastum,
pateo, 2, patui, — .
patior, -i, passus [per-petior]-,
paveo, 2, pavi, — .
pavesco, 3, -pavi, — [ex-]o
pecto, 3, pexi, pexum.
pel-licio, 3, -lexi, -lectum [-licio],
pello, 3, pepuli, pulsum, 176. d. n. 2, 178.
&. N.4 [ap-peilo, com-pello, etc.],
pendeo, 2, pependi, -pensum.
pendo, 3, pependi, pensum.
per-ago, 3, -egi, -actum,
per-cello, 3, -culi, -culsum.
per-cio, see cio ; p^p. -citus.
per-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum.
per-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. n.
per-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectum [facio].
per-fringo, 3, -fregi, -fractum [frango].
pergo, 3, perrexi, perrectum.
per-lego, 3, -legi, -lectum [lego],
per-osus, see odi,
per-petior, -i, -pessus.
per-quiro, 3, -quisiyi, -quisitum [quaero].
per-spicio, 3, -spexi, -spectum.
per-sto, 1, -stiti, — .
per-tineo, 2, -ui, — [teneo].
per-tundo, 3, -tudi, -tusum.
pessum-db, like do, 209. a. n., 428. L
petesso (petisso), 3, — , — , 263. 2. 6.
peto, 3, petivi (-ii), petitum, 177./.
piget (impers.), -ere, piguit, 208. 6 (pigi-
tum est, id. n.).
ping5 [pig], 3, pinxi, pictum.
pinso, 3, -si, pins- (pinstum, pistum).
piso, 3, pisivi (-ii)_, pistum (see pinso).
placeo, 2, -ui, -itum (placet, impers.,
208. c).
plango, 3, planxi, planctum.
plaudo, 3, plausi, plausum [ex-plodo, etc. ;
ap-plaudo].
plecto, 3, plexi, plexum, 174, 176. b. 1.
-plector, -i, -plexus,
-pleo, 2, -plevi, -i)letum (only in comps.,
ascom-pleo).
plico, 1, -plicui (-plicavi), -plicitum (-pli-
catum) .
pluit, 3, pluit (pluvit), 174, 208. a (pluunt.
id.N.).
poUeo, 2, — , — .
polluo, 3, -ui, -iitum [luo].
pono, 3, posui, positum.
porr-icio, 3, — , -rectum [iacio].
por-rigo (porgo), 3, -rexi, -rectum.
442
IKDEX OF VERBS
posco, 3, poposci, — (so comps.).
possideo, 2, -sedi, -sessum [sedeo].
possido, 3, -sedi, -sessum,
possum, posse, potui, — , 198. b (potis sum,
pote sum, possiem, poterint, potisit,
potestur, possitur, id., footnote).
potior, -iri, potitus.
poto, 1, -avi, -atum (potum).
praebeo, 2, -ui, -itum [habeo],
prae-cello, 3, — , — [-cello].
prae-cino, 3, -cinui, — [cano].
prae-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum.
prae-iatur, 206. c.
prae-lego, 3, -legi, -lectum [lego],
prae-sagio, 4, -ivi, — .
prae-sens, 170. b (see sum),
prae-sideo, 2, -sedi, — [sedeo].
prae-sto, 1, -stiti, -stitum (-statum) (prae-
stat, impers., 208^ c).
prae-sum, -esse, -fui, (-futiirus).
prandeo, 2, prandi, pransum.
prehendo (prendo), 3, -di, preliensum
(pre n sum),
premo, 3, pressi, pressum [re-primo].
prendo, see prehendo.
pro-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum.
prod-eo, 4, -ii, -itum, 203. e.
prod-igo, 3, -egi, -actum [ago],
pro-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. N.
pro-fatus, 206. c.
pro-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectum.
pro-ficiscor, -i, pi-ofectus.
pro-fiteoi% -eri, -fessus.
pro-mineo, -ere, -ui, — .
promo, 3, -mpsi, -raptum, 15. 3.
pro-silio, 3, -ui (-ivi), — [salio].
pro-sura, prodesse, profui (-futurus), 198.
a.
pro-tendo, 3, -di, -tentus (-sus).
psallo, 3, -i, — .
pubesco, 3, pubui, — .
pudet (impers.), pudere, piiduit or pudi-
tum est, 208. b (pudendus, id. n.).
puerasco, 3, — , — .
pungo [pug] ,3, pupugi, punctum [com-],
putesco, 3, putui, — .
quaero, 3, quaesivi, quaesitum [re-quiro]
(cf. quaeso).
quaeso, 3, defect., 206. e (cf. quaero).
quasso, 1, reg., 263. 2.
quatio, 3, -cussi, quassum [con-cutio].
queo, quire, quivi, quitus, 206. d (quitur,
etc., id. N.) ; cf. nequeo.
queror, -i, questus.
quiesco, 3, quievi, quietum.
rabo (rabio), 3, — , — .
rado, 3, rasi, rasum.
rapio, 3, rapui, raptum (erepscmus, 181. b.
N.2 [ab-ripio etc.].
re-cido, 3, reccidi, (recasurus) [cado].
re-cido, 3, -cidi, -cisum [caedo].
re-cipio, 3, -cepi, -ceptum [capio] (recepso
183. 3).
re-cludo, 3, -si, -sum.
red-do, 3, reddidi, redditum, 209. a. n.
red-igo, 3, -egi, -actum [ago].
red-imo, 3, -emi, -emptum.
re-fello, 3, -felli, — [fallo].
re-fercio, 4, -fersi, -fertum [farcio].
re-fero, -ferre, rettuli, relatum [fero].
re-fert, -ferre, -tulit (impers.), 208. c.
re-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectum.
rego, 3, rexi, rectum [ar-rigo etc. ; pergo
surgo].
re-linquo, 3, -liqui, -lictum [linquo].
re-miniseor, -i, — .
renideo, 2, — , — .
reor, reri, ratus.
re-pello, 3, reppuli (repuli), repulsum.
reperio, 4, repperi, repertum.
repo, 3, repsi, — .
re-i)rimo, 3, -pressi, -pressum [premo].
re-quiro, 3, -sivT, -situm [quaero].
re-sideo, 2, -sedi, — .
re-silio, 4, -ui (-ii), — .
re-sipisco, 3, -sipivi, — [sapio].
re-sisto, 3, -stiti, — .
re-spergo, 3, -si, -sum [spargo].
re-spondeo, 2, -di, -sponsum [spondeo].
re-stat (impers.), 208. c.
re-sto, 1, -stiti, — , 209. a. n.
re-tendo, 3, -di, -turn (-sum),
re-tiueo, 2, -tinui, -tentum [teneo].
re-tundo, 3, rettudi, retunsum (-tilsum).
re-vertor, -i, re versus, 191 (reverti, -eram,
id. N.).
rideo, 2, risi, -risum.
rigeo, 2, rigui, — .
rigesco, 3, rigui, — .
ringor, 3, rictus,
rodo, 3, rosi, rosum.
rubeo, 2, — , — .
rubesco, 3, rubui, — .
rudo, 3, rudivi, — .
rumpo [rup], 3, rupi, ruptum.
ruo, 3, rui, rutum (ruiturus), 176. e [di-,
cor-].
saepio, 4, saepsi, saeptum.
sagio, 4, see prae-sagio.
salio, 4, sakii (salii), [saltum] [dc-silio].
salve, salvere, 206. g.
saucio [sac], 4, sanxi, sanctum, 177. 6. n,
sanesco, 3, -sanui, — [con-].
sapio, 3, sapii^ — .
sarcio, 4, sar.si, sartum.
satis-<io, -dare, -dedi, -datum, 200. a. n.
scabo, 3, scabi, — ,
scalpo, 3, scalpsi, scalptum.
scando,3, -scendi,-scensum [a-scendo,etc.J.
INDEX OF VERBS
443
scateo (scats), -ere or -6re, — , — .
scaturio, 4, — , — .
scin' ( = scisue), 13. n. (see scio).
scindo [scid], 3, scidi, scissum, 177. c. n.
scio, 4, -ivi, scitum (scin', 13. n.).
scisco, 3, scivi, scitum.
scribo, 3, scripsi, scriptiim, 178. 6. n.i.
sculpo, 3, sculpsi, sculptum.
se-cerno, 3, -crevi, -cretum.
seco, 1, -ui, sectum (also secaturus).
sedeo, 2, sedi, sessuin [ad-, pos-sideo,
etc. ; super-sedeo] .
se-ligo, 3, -legi, -lectum [lego] .
seuesco, 3, -senui, — .
sentio, 4, sensi, sensum.
sepelio, 4, sepelivi, sepultum.
sequor, -i, secutus, 190.
sero (entioirie), 3,_serui, sertum.
sero (soiv), 3, sevi, satum.
serpo, 3, serpsi^ — .
sido, 3, sidi (-sedi), -sessum.
sileo, 2, -ui, — .
singultio, 4, -ivi, — .
sino, 3, sivi, situm (siris, etc., 181. 6. n.I).
sisto [sta], 3, stiti, statum.
sitio, 4, -ivi, — .
sodes ( = si audes), 13. n.
soleo, solere, solitus, 192.
solvo, 3, solvi, solutum, 177. e, 261. n.
sono, 1, -ui, -itum (-aturus).
sorbeo, 2, sorbui (rarely sorpsi) , — .
spargo, 3, sparsi, sparsum [ad-spergo].
sperno, 3, sprevi, spretum, 177. a. n.
-spicio, 3, -spexi, -spectum.
splendeo, 2, -ui, — .
spondeo, 2, spopondi, sponsum [re-],
spuo, 3, -spui, — .
squaleo, 2, — , — .
statuo, 3, -ui, -iitum, 176. d [con-stituo] .
sterno, 3, stravi, stratum, 177. a. n.
sternuo, 3, sternui, — .
sterto, 3, -stertui, — .
-stinguo, 3, -stmxi, -stinctum (in comp.,
as ex-) .
sto, stare, steti, -statum (-stit-), 209. a,
and N.
strepo, 3, strepui, — .
strideo, 2, stridi, — .
strido, 3, stridi, -— .
stringo, 3, strmxi, strictum.
struo, 3, struxi, striictum.
studeo, 2, -ui, — .
stupeo, 2, stupui, — .
stupe SCO, 3, -stupui, — .
suadeo, 2, suasi, suasura.
sub-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 200. a. N.
sub-igo, 3, -egi^ -actum [ago] .
suc-cido, 3, -cldi, -— [cado].
suc-cido, 3, -cidi, -cisum [c-aedo].
suc-curro, 3, -curri, -cursum.
suesco, 3, suevi, suetum.
suf-fero, sufferre, sustuli, sublatum.
suf-ficio, 3, -feci,_ -fectus [facio].
suf-fodio, 3, -fodi, -fossum.
sug-gero, 3, -gessi, -gestum.
sugo, 3, suxi, suetum.
sultis ( = SI vultis), 13. n.
sum, esse, fui, (futurus), 170; fui (forem,
fore, 170. a; fsons, -sens, ens, id. b;
fuvimus, fuvisset, siem, fuam, fuas,
escit, escunt, id. b. n.; bomost, etc.,
13. N.).
sumo, 3, sumpsi, siimptum, 15. 11.
suo, 3, sui, sutum.
super-do, -dare, -dedi, -datum, 209. a. n.
super-fit, defect., 204. c.
super-fluo, 3, — , — [fluo].
super-sto, 1, -steti, — .
super-sum, see sum (superest, impers.,
208. c).
surdesco, 3, surdui, — .
surgo (sur-rigo), 3, surrexi, surrectum.
sur-ripio, 3, -ui (surpui), -rep turn [rapio].
tabeo, 2, -ui, — .
tfibesco, 3, tabui, — .
taedet (impers.), -ere, taeduit, pertaesum
est, 208. b.
tango [tag], 3, tetigi, tactum, 176. c. 2
[con-tingo] .
tego, 3, texi, tectum, 186.
temno, 3, -tempsi, -temptum, 176. 6. 1.
tendo [ten], 3, tetendi, tentum.
teneo, 2, tenui, -tentum [con-tineo, etc.].
tepesco, 3, tepui, — .
tergeo, 2, tersi, tersum.
tergo, 3, tersi, tersum.
tero, 3, trivi,_ tritum.
texo, 3, texui, textum.
timeo, 2, -ui, — .
-timesco, 3, -timui, — .
tingo (tinguo) , 3^ tinxi, tmctum,178. 6. N.2.
tollo, 3, sustuli, sublatum, 211. /. n.
[at-tollo].
tondeo, 2, -totondi (-tondi) , tonsum, 177. c.
tono, 1, -ui, -tonitum (-tonatum).
torpeo, 2, — , — .
torqueo, 2, torsi, tortum.
torreo, 2, torrui, tostum.
tra-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. N.
traho, 3, traxi, tractum (traxe, 181 . 5. N. 2).
trans-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum.
tremo, 3, tremui, — .
tribuo, 3, tribui, tributum.
trudo, 3, trusi, trusum.
tueor, -eri, tuitus (tutus, adj.).
tumeo, 2, — , — .
tumesco, 3, -tumni, — [in-],
tundo [tud], 3, tutudi, tunsum (-tiisum)
[ob-tundo] .
turgeo, 2, tursi, — .
tussio, 4. — , — .
444
INDEX OF VERBS
ulciscor, -1, ultus.
ungo (-uo), 3^ unxT, unctum.
urgeo, 2, ursi, — .
uro, 3, ussi, ustum (so comps,, cf. also
comburo) .
utor, -i, usus.
vacat (impers.), 208. c.
vado, 3, -vasi, -vasum.
vagioj 4, -ii, — .
valeo, 2, -ui, (-iturus).
vale SCO, 3, -ui, — .
vauesco, 3^ -vanui, — [e-].
veho, 3, vexl, vectum.
vello (vollo), 3, vein (-vulsi), vulsum.
vendo, 3, -didi, -ditum, ^428. i.
veneo (be sold), 4, -ii, -itum, 428. i.
venio {come), 4, veni, ventum, 19, 174.
venum-do,-dare, -dedi, -datum, 209. a. n.,
428. i.
vereor, -eri, -itus, 190.
vergo, 3, — , — .
verro (vorro), 3, -verri, versum.
verto (vorto), 3, verti, versum, 178. 6. n. i
(vertor, mid., 156. a. N.).
vescor, -i, — .
vesperascit (impers.), 208. a, 203. 1.
veterasco, 3, vetemvi, — .
veto, 1, -ui, -itum.
video, 2, vidi, visum.
videor (seem), -eri, visus (videtur, im-
pers., 208. c).
vieo, 2, [vievi], -etum.
vigeo, 2, -ui, — .
vin' (= visne, see volo) .
vincio, 4, ^inxi, vinctura.
vinco [vie], 3, vici, victum.
vireo, 2, -ui, — .
viso [vid], 3, visi, — , 263. 4. N.
vivisco, 3^ -vixi, — , [re-].
vivo, 3, vixi, victum (vixet,_181. b. n. 2).
volo, velle, volui, 199 (sultis, 13. n.,
199. N.; vin', 13. N.).
volvo, 3, volvi, volutum.
vomo, 3, vomui, — .
voveo, 2, vovi, votum.
INDEX OP WORDS AND SUBJECTS
Note. — The numerical references are to sections, with a few exceptions in which the
page (p.) is referred to. The letters and some numerals refer to subsections. The
letter n. signifies Note; ftn., footnote. Abl. = ablative; ace. = accusative; adj.=
adjective; adv. = adverb or adverbial; apod.=:apodosis; app.=appositive or appo-
sition ; cf. = compare ; comp. = compound or composition ; compar. = comparative or
comparison; conj.=conjugation or conjunction; constr.=rconstruction ; dat.r=dative;
gen. = genitive ; gend. = gender; imv. = imperative ; ind. disc. = indirect discourse;
loc.= locative; nom.= nominative; prep. = preposition ; subj. = subject; subjv. =
subjunctive ; vb. = verb ; w. = with. (Other abbreviations present no difficulty.)
A, quantity oi unal, 604. d.
a, ace. of Greek nouns in, 81. 2; as nom.
ending, decl. Ill, gend., 84-87.
a, in decl. I, 37; stem- vowel of conj. I,
171, 174, 179. a, 259; in subjunctive,
179 ; preps, in -a, adv. use of, 433. 4.
a-, primary suffix, 234. I. 1.
a (ab, abs), use, 220. h, 221. 1, 429. 6 ; com-
pounded with vbs., 267. a; w. abl. of
agent, 405 ; w. place from which, 426. 1 ;
w. names of towns, 428. a; expressing
position, 429. h ; as adv. expressing dis-
tance, w. abl. of degree of difterence,
433. 3; in comps., w. dat., 381; in
comps., w. abl., 402; w. abl. of ger-
und, 507.
a parte, 398, 429. 6.
ab and au in aufero, 200. a. n.
Abbreviations of prsenomens, 108. c.
Ability, verbs of, constr., 456; in apod.,
517. c.
Ablative, defined, 35. e; in -abus, 43.
e; in -d, 43. n.i, 49. e, 80. ftn., 92./;
of i-steras, decl. Ill, 74. e; rules of
form, 76 ; nouns ha^sing abl. in -i, 76. a,
b ; of decl. IV, in -ubus, 92. c ; abl. used
as supine, 94. b ; of adjs., decl. Ill, 121.
a. 1-4 ; preps, followed by, 220. b ; ad-
verbial forms of, 214. e, cf . 215. 4.
Ablative, Syntax, 398-420; classifica-
tion and meaning, 398, 399. Separation,
400; w.vbs. of freedom, 401; w. comps.,
402; w. adjs. of freedom etc., 402. a.
Source and material, 403; w. partici-
ples, id. a; w. constare etc., id. b; w.
facere, id. c; w. nouns, id. d. Cause,
404; causa, gratia, id. c. Agent, 405;
means for agent, 405. 6. N. i. Compari-
son, 400; opinione, spe, etc., id. a; w.
alius, 407. dj w. advs., id. e. Means,
409; w. dono etc., 364; w. utor, fruor,
etc., 410; w. opus and usus, 411. Man-
ner, 412. Accompaniment, 413. Degree
of difference, 414; quo . . . eo, 414.
a. Quality, 415 ; price, 416 ; charge or
penalty, 353. 1. Specification, 418 ; w.
dignus etc., id. 6. Abl. Absolute, 419;
adverbial use, id. c; replacing subord.
clauses, 420; supplying place of perf.
act. part., 493. 2. Place, 422, 426. 3; w.
vbs. and fretus, 431 and a. Abl. of
time, 423; of time w. quam, 434. N. ; of
place from which, 426. 1 ; names of
towns, domus, rus, 427. 1 ; ex urbe Roma,
428. b. Locative abl., 426. 3; way by
which, 429. a ; w. transitive compounds,
395. N.i; time within which, 424. c;
duration of time, id. 6. Abl, w. preps.,
220. b, 221, 430, 435 ; w. ex for part, gen.,
346. c ; w. pro (in defence of) , 379. n. ;
w. palam etc., 432. c; abl. of gerund,
507; equiv. to pres. part., id. ftn.
Ablaut, 17 ; in decl. II, 45. c.
Abounding, words of, w. abl., 409. a; w.
gen., 356.
Absence, vbs. of, w. abl., 401.
Absolute case, see Abl. Absolute.
Absolute use of vb., 273. 2. n. 2, 387. n.
absque me etc., in PI. and Ter., 517./.
Abstract nouns, gend., 32; in plur., 100.
c ; endings, 238 ; w. neut. adj., 287. 4. a,
289 ; abstract quality denoted by neut.
adj., 289. a.
absum, constr., 373. 6.
-abus, in dat. and abl. plur., decl. I, 43. e.
ac, see atque.
ac si, w. subjv., 524.
Acatalectic verse, 612. a.
445
446
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
accedit ut, 569. 2.
Accent, rules of, 12 ; effect in modifying
vowels, p. 27. ftn. 1 ; in decl. II, 49. b;
in comps. of facio, 204. b ; musical, 611,
acceptum, 496. n.^.
accidit_, synopsis, 207 ; constr., 569. 2,
accingo, constr., 364.
accommodatus, w. dat. of gerund etc.,
505. a.
A-ccoinpaniment, abl. of, 413.
Accomplishment, vbs. of, w. subjv., 568.
Accusative, defined, 35. d; in -m and
-s, 38. c ; in -im, decl. Ill, 75. a, 6 ; in
-is (plur.), 77; in -a, 81. 2; ace. of
decl. IV, used as supine, 94. b ; nent.
ace. used as adv., 214. d, of. 215. 1 ; fern,
used as adv., id. 2. ^v
Accusative, Syntax, 386-397 (see 338) ;
■w. vbs. of remembering, 350 and a, c,
d ; and gen. w. vbs. of reminding, 351 ;
w. impersonals, 354. b, 388. c, 455. 2 ; w.
ad with interest and refert, 355. 6; w.
dat., 362; w. compounds of ad, ante,
Ob, 370. 6 ; vbs. varying between ace.
of end of motion and dat., 363; w. ad
for dat., 385. a ; after propioretc, 432. a ;
direct object, 274, 387; w. iuvo etc.,.
367. a; ace. or dat. w. vbs., 367» b, ci
ace. w. vbs. oi feeling and taste, 388. a;
390. a; w. comps. of circum and trana,
388. 6; cognate ace, 390; adverbial use
of, 390. c, d and n.2, 397. a; two accu-
satives, 391 ; pred. ace, 392-3 ; second-
ary object, 394-5; ace. w. pass, of vbs.
of asking etc., 396. 6. n. ; synecdochical
ace. (of specification), 397. b; in excla-
mations, id, d; duration and extent,
423, 425 ; end of motion, 426. 2 ; names/
of towns, domus, rus, 427. 2; Romam
ad urbem, 428. b ; ace. w. ante diem, 424.
gr; w. preps., 220. a,c; w. ad or in to
denote penalty, 353. 2. n.; w. pridie,
propius, etc., 342. a; ace. of gerund,
506; of anticipation, 576; subj. of inf.,
397. e, 452, 455. 2, 459 ; as pred. after inf.,
455. a; subj. in ind. disc, 579, 581.
Accusing and acquitting, vbs. of, constr.,
352.
acer, decl., 115; compar., 125.
-aceus, adj. ending, 247.
acies, dec!., 98. a.
acquiesce, w. abl., 431.
Actions, names of, 237 ; nouns of action
w. gen., S48.
Active voice, 154. a, 156 ; change to pass.,
275.
A"ts, nouns denoting, 2.39.
-acus (-acus), adj. ending, 249.
acus, gend., 90. Exc.
ad, use, 220. a, 221.2; incomp.,16, 267. a;
w. acCo to denote penalty, 353. 2. n.;
in comps., w. dat., 370, 381; in comps..
w. ace, 370. b ; w. ace, with adjs., 385.
a; end of motion, 426. 2, of. 363; w.
names of towns, 428. a; w. names of
countries, 428. c ; meaning near, 428. d ;
in expressions of time, 424. e ; following
its noun, 435 ; w. gerund, 506.
additur, constr., 568.
adeo (verb), constr., 370. b.
adeo ut, 537. 2. N. '^.
-ades, patronymic ending, 244.
adiuvo, w. ace, 367. a.
Adjective pronouns, see Pronouns.
Adjectives. Definition, 20. b ; formed
like nouns, 109; a- and o-stems, 110-
112. Declension. 110-122 ; decl, I and
II, 110-113; decl. Ill, 114-121; decl.
III, three terminations, 115 ; one termi-
nation, 117, 118; variable, indeclinable,
defective, 122. Comparison, 123-131;
decl. of comparative, 120. Numeral
adjs., 132-137; derivative adjs., 242-255.
Adjectives, Syntax. Mase adjs,, 122.
d', adjs. of com. gend., id,; as advs,,
214. d, e (cf. 218), 290; adj. as app,,
282. 6 ; as nouns, 288, 289 ; nouns used
as adjs., 321. c; advs, used as adjs.,
321, d; participles used as adjs., 494,
Agreement of adjs,, 286, 287 ; attribute
and predicate, 287; use of neut. adjs.,
289. Adjs, w. adverbial force, 290. Two
comparatives w. quam, 292. Adj. pro-
nouns, 296-298. Gen. of adjs. of decl.
Ill instead of nom., 343. c. n. i. Adjs.
w. part, gen., 346. 2; w. dat., 383; w.
acc.,388. d, K.2; w. inf., 461; w. supine
in -u, 510, Position of adjs., 598, a, 6.
Adjective phrase, 277.
admodum, use, 291. c. N. i.
admoneo, constr., 351.
Admonishing, vbs. of, constr., 663.
Adonic verse, 625. 3.
adspergo, constr., 364.
adiilor, constr., 367. 6.
Adverbial ace, 390. b, c, d, and n. 2, 397. a.
Adverbial conjunctions, 20. g. n.
Adverbial phrases, 216, 277.
Adverbs, defined, 20. e; formed from
*adjs., 214 and c, d, e, 218 ; case-forms or
phrases, 215 ; comparison of advs., 218 ;
numeral advs., 138. Classification of
advs., 217 ; correlative forms of advs.
of place, 217. n.
Adverbs, Syntax, 321. Advs, used as
adjs,, 321. d; adjs. w. adverbial force,
290; adverbial abl. abs., 419, c. Special
uses, 322, 326, Advs. w. nouns, 321. c.
N. ; correlative advs. used as conjs., 323.
/, g ; part. gen. w. advs., 346. a. 4 ; dat.
w. advs., 384 ; compar. of adv. followed
by quam, 406; adv. as protasis, 521. a
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
447
ALdversative conjunctions, 223. a. 2, 224.
L h.
adversus, 219; w. ace, 220. a; as adv.,
433. 2.
ae, diphthong, 2 ; sound of, 6. n. s, 8.
aedes, sing, and phir., 107. a,
aeger, decl., 112. a.
aemulor, constr., 367. 6.
Aeneades, decl., 44.
Aeneas, decl., 44.
aequalis, decl., 76, a. 2; constr. w. gen.,
385. c and 1.
aeque ac, 384. n. 2.
aequo (abl.), w. compar., 406. a.
aequor, decl., 64.
aer, use of plur., 100. 6.
aes, use of plur., 100. h.
aetas, decl., 72.
aether, decl., 81.
Affecting, ace. of, 386.
affinis, decl., 76. 6. 2 ; constr. w. gen., 385.
c and 1.
Affirmative, expressed by two negatives,
326; nonne expecting affirm, answer,
332. h ; ways of saying yes, 336 and a.
Agency, nouns of, 236 ; rel. clause equiv-
alent to, 308. c.
Agent, dat. of, w. gerundives, 374; w.
perf. parts., 375; abl. of, 405; agent
regarded as means, id. 6; animal as
agent, id. n.2.
ager, decl., 47.
aggredior, constr., 370. 6.
Agnomen, 108. a. n.
ago, forms of, omitted, 319. a.
Agreeing, verbs of, w. gerundive, 500. 4.
Agreement, 280; of nouns, 281; in app.,
282; in predicate, 283; of^adjs., 286;
of demonstrative pronoims,'296; of pos-
sessive pronouns, 302; of relatives,
305, 306 ; of verbs, 316, 317.
-ai for -ae, decl. I, 43. a; 603. a. 2. n.
-aia, nouns in, decl., 43. e. N. 2.
aio, pronounced ai-io, 6. c.
-aius, names in, decl., 49./; -aius in Pros-
ody, 603./. N. 2.
-al, ending, 254. 7; noims in, 68. ftn. 1.
~al and -ar, neuters in (decl. Ill), 65. 6,
76. a. 3.
alacer, decl., 115. a; compar., 131. 6.
albus, not compared, 131. d.
Alcaic verse, 625. 9, 10.
Alcmanian strophe, 617. a.
-ale, noun ending, 254. 7 ; list of nouns
in, 68. ftn. 2.
alienus, for possessive gen. of alius, 113. d,
343. a.
aliquis (-qui), decl., 151. e; meaning, 310,
311.
aliquot, indeclinable, 122. 6,
-alls, -aris, adj. endiugS; 248.
alius, decl., 113; gen., id. c, cf. 343; com-
pounds, 113. e; alius w. abl., ac, nisi,
quam, 407. d.
alius . . . alius, 315. a.
Alphabet, 1 ; vowels and diphthongs, 1, 2 ;
consonants, 3, 4 ; early forms of letters,
1. a and n., 6. a, h.
alter, decl., 113. h; gen and comps., id.
c, e; use, 315; reciprocal use. 145. c
315. a.
alter . . . alter, 315. a.
altera est res ut, 568. ftn. 2.
alteruter, decl., 113. e; use, 315.
Although, how expressed, 527, 535. e.
alvos (alvus), gend., 48. Exc.
am-, see amb-.
-am, adv. ending, 215. 2.
amb- (am-, an-), inseparable prefix, 267. h.
ambages, decl., 78. 1.
ambo, decl., p. 59. ftn. ; 6 in, p. 427. ftn. 1.
amens, decl., 121. a. 3.
amplius, without quam, 407. c.
amussim, ace, 75. a. 3, 103. 6. 4.
an-, see amb-.
an, anne, annon, in double questions, 335.
Anacrusis, 608. g.
Anapaest, 609. 6. 2; anapaestic verse, 613.
G28. a.
Anaphora, 598./.
anceps, decl., 121. a. 3.
Ancbises, decl., 44.
Andromache, decl., 44.
-aneus, adj. ending, 247.
animal, decl., 69.
Animals, gend. of names of, 32, 34 and
N. ; regarded as means or agent, 405. 6.
N.2.
animi (loc), w. adjs., 358; w. vbs., id.
annalis, decl., 76. a. 2.
Annalistic present, 469. a.
Answers, forms of, 336, 337.
ant-, ent-, stem-endings, 83, e.
ante, 220. a ; uses, 221. 3 ; compounded w.
vbs., 267. a; in compounds, w. dat,,
370, w. ace, id. b; adverbial use of,
433. 1 ; followed by quam, 434.
ante diem, 424. g.
Antecedent, its use w. relative, 305-307 ;
undefined, constr., 535. See Indefinite
antecedent.
antecedo, constr., 370. 6.
anteeo, constr., 370 6.
antegredior, constr., 370. h.
Antepenult, defined, 12, ftn,
antequam, 550, 551 ; in ind. disc, 585. 6. Nc
Antibacchlus, 609. d. n.
Anticipation, ace. of, 576 ; becomes nom.,
id. N,
Antithesis, 598./.
anus, gend., 90. Exc.
-anus, adjs. in, 249,
448
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
Aorist ( = hist. perf.), 161. 2, 473.
apage, 206. g.
apertus, compar. of, 124. a.
Apex, 10. N.
apis, decl., 78. 2.
Apodosis, defined, 512; introduced by
correl., id. &; may be subord., id. c;
forms of, 514, 515 ff. ; potential siibjv,,
447.3.N. ; sub jv. of modesty, 447.1; vbs.
of necessity etc., 522. a ; complex apod.,
523; apod, omitted, 524; apod, in ind.
disc, 589. 2. See Conditional Sen-
tences.
Appointing, vbs. of, constr., 393.
Apposition, see Appositive.
Appositive, defined, 282; agreement of,
281, 282. c; w. loc, id. d; gen. as app.
to possessive, 302. e ; gen. used for app.,
343. d ; so dat., 373. a ; rel. clause equiv-
alent to app., 308. c ; ace. as app. to a
clause, 397. /; app. instead of voc,
340. a; app. in connection with inf.,
452 and N.2.
aptus ad, 385. a; aptus w. dat. of gerund
etc., 505. a. ftn. 2; aptus qui, 535./.
apud, 220. a; use, 221.4; in quoting, 428.
d. N.2.
aqualis, decl., 76. a. 2.
-ar, nom. ending, decl. Ill, 68. a, 65. 6,
76. a. 2; 68. ftn. 1 ; gend., 87«
arbor (-6s), decl., 62. n.2.
arceo, constr., 364. N. 2.
Arcliilochian verse, 622.,
arctus, gend., 48. Exc,
ardeo, w. abl., 404. a.
-aria, suffix, 254. 2.
-aris, adj. ending, 248.
Aristophanic verse, 625. 2,
-arium, noun ending, 2.54. 3.
-arius, adj. ending, 250. a; noun ending,
254. 1.
Arrangement of words, 595-601.
Arsis and thesis, 611 and ftn.
Arts, names of, decl. I, 44^
artus, decl., 92. c.
as, value of, 632; gen. of, 417. a.
-Ss, in ace. plur. of Greek nouns, 81. 5.
-as, old gen. ending, 43. 6 ; Greek nom.
ending, 83. e; patronymic, 244; gend.
of nouns in, 86 6; -as, -atis, see at-;
adjs. in -as, 249.
Asclepiadic verse, 625. 5, 6.
Asking, vbs. of, w. two ace, 306; w. abl.,
396. a; w. subjunctive clause, 5(i3.
Aspirates, 4 and ftn. 2.
Assertions, direct, in indie, 1.57. a.
Assimilation of consonants, 15. 6, 10 ; in
prefixes, 16.
-asso, -asLere, in fut. perf., 183. 5.
ast, 324. d.
-aster, as noun ending. 2.54= 11-
Asyndeton, 323. 6, 601. c.
At, meaning near, 428. d.
at, use, 324. d ; ai. enim, id. ; at vero, 324. k
at-, patrial stem-ending, 71. 5; decl., 78-
3, 121. a. 4.
ater, decl., 112. a; not compared, 131. d
and N.
Athematic verbs, 174. 2.
Athos, decl., 52.
Atlas, decl., 82, 83. e.
atque (ac) , use, 324. 6, c ; after adjs. of like-
ness, 384. N. 2 ; after aUus, 407. d.
atqui, use, 324. d.
atrox, decl., 117. a.
Attraction of case of relative, 306. a ; of
case of antecedent, id. n. ; of subject in
ind. disc, 581. N.2.
Attraction, subjunctive of, 591. 2, 593.
Attributive adjective defined, 285. 1 ;
number, 286. a; takes gend. of near-
est noun, 287. 1.
-atus, adj. ending, 246.
audacter, compar., 218.
aula, deck, 44.
aureus, not compared, 131. d.
ausus as pres. part., 491.
aut, use, 324. e, 335. d. n.
autem, use, 324. d,j, 599. 6.
Author w. apud, 428. d. n. 2.
Authority in Prosody, 602.
avis, deck, 76. h. 1.
-ax, verbal adj. ending, 251; adjs. in,
w. gen., 349. c.
baccar, deck, 76. a. 3.
Bacchiac verse, 628. 6,
Bacchius, 609. d.
Baiae, deck, 43. e. n. 2.
-bam, tense-ending, 168. b.
Bargaining, vbs. of, constr., 563; gerun-
dive, 500. 4; clause, 563. d.
Base, 27.
basis, deck, 82.
Beginning, vbs. of, constr., 456.
Believing, vbs. of, w. dat., 367.
belli, loc. use of, 427. a.
bellum, deck, 46.
bellus, compar., 131. a.
Belonging, adjs. of, w. gen., 385. c.
bene, comparison, 218; in phrase com-
pounds, 12. a. Exc. 1, 266. 6; com-
pounds of, constr., 3()8. 2.
Benefiting, vbs. of, constr., 367.
-ber, names of months in, deck, 115. a.
bicolor, deck, 122. a.
bicorpor, 119. N.
-bills, verbal adj. ending, 252.
Birds, gend. of names of, 32.
Birth or origin, nouns of, derivation, 244;
participles of, w. abk, 403. a.
-bo, tense-ending, 168. c.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
449
Bo!, decl., 49./.
bonus, decl., 110; compar. , 129 ; w. dat. of
genind etc, 605. a. tin.
bos, decl., 79 and b.
bri-, stems ending in, 66; adjs. in, 115. a.
-brum, suffix, 240.
-bulum, suffix, 240.
-bundus, verbals in, 253. 6 ; w. ace, 388. d.
_N. 2,
>>uris, decl., 75. a. 1.
Buying, vbs. of, constr. with, 417. c.
C for g, in early use and as abbreviation,
1. a andN. ; for qu, 6. a, b; quantity of
final syllables ending in, 604.^*.
caedes, decl., 78. 2.
caeles, decl., 121. a. 4.
caelum, w. masc. plur., 106. 6.
Caere, decl., 70. 6. n."^-
caesius, compar., 131. u.
Caesura, 611. b ; masc. and fem., 615. c. n. ;
bucolic csesura, id.
Calendar, Romau, 631.
Calends, 631. a.
calx, decl., 103. g.2.
campester, decl., 115. a.
Can, how expressed in Lat., 157. b.
canalis, decl., 76. b. 2.
canis, decl. and stem, 62. n. 3, 76. b. n. 3,
78.1.
CAP, root, 56. a.
Capacity, measures of, 638.
capitis, genitive, w. verbs of accusing,
352. a.
caput, decl., 59.
Capys, decl., 82.
carbasus, gend., 48. Exc; plnr., 106. 6.
Cardinal numbers, 132 ; inflection of, 134.
a-c; use of et with, 135. a, b ; replaced
by distributives, 137. b,d; w. ex or par-
titive genitive, 346. c.
care, compar., 218.
caro, decl., 79.
carus, compar., 124.
Case-constructions, 338.
Case-endings, 27. a ; final vowels in, 38. g ;
table, 39.
Case-forms, words defective in, 103.
Cases, denned, 35 ; position of modifying
case, 598. 2 ; agreement in, 281 ; origin
and meaning of, 338 ; case of rel. pron.,
305, 306. a; same case after as before
certain conjs., 323. a. Construction of
Cases, 338-435; Genitive, 342-359;
Dative, 360-380; Accusative, 386-397;
Vocative, 340 ; Ablative, 398-420 ; time
and place, 423-431; cases w. preps.,
220, 426. ftn.
cassem, decl., 103./- 3.
castrum, castra, 107.
Catalectic verse, 612. a.
causa, w. gen., 359. b, 404. c; w. gen. of
gerund, 504. b.
Causal clauses, 539, 540; w. indie, or
subjv., quod, quia, 540 ; w, indie, quoni-
ara, quando, 540. a; w. qui, 535. e; w. cum,
540. d; non quia, non quod, etc., in the
denial of a reason, 540. n.3; causal
clause replaced by part., 496; by abl.
abs., 420. 2,
Causal conjunctions, 223. a. 3, 6. 7, 224. II.
/; particles, 539, 540.
Cause, abl. of, 404.
Cause, advs. of, 217. c.
Caution and effort, verbs of, constr.,
563. e.
cave, in prohibitions, 450 (2) and n. 2;
ne omitted after, 565. n. i.
caveo, constr., 563.
-ce, enclitic, 146. n. i and a. n. i.
Ceasing, verbs of, w. complem. inf., 456.
cedo, constr., 366. N.2.
celeber, decl., 115. a.
celer, forms, 115. a. n. 2.
celo, w. ace, 396. c.
Celtiber, decl., 50. c.
censeo, constr., 563 and d.
certe, certo, use, 322. c ; in answers, 336. a.
cete, Greek plur., 48. a. n.
cetera, 111. 6; adverbial use, 390. d. N.^;
-us, use, 293; -i, use, 315.
ceu, use, 524.
-ceus, adj. ending, 247.
Characteristic, clauses of, 634, 635 ; pro-
viso, 535. c?; cause or concession, id. e;
of result or characteristic, 559.
Characteristic, expr. by participle, 496.
Characteristic vowel, 37.
Charge and penalty, gen. of, 352.
Chias7nus, 598. /and n.
Choliambic trimeter, 618. c.
Choosing, vbs. of, w. two aces., 393.
Choriambic verse, 624. n.
Choriambus, 609. c.
ci and ti, interchange of, 6. n. i.
-cinium, noun ending, 241. c.
-cio, diminutive ending, 243. a.
cip-, stems in, decl. Ill, 56, a.
circa, circum, circiter, use, 220. a, 221. 5-7;
as advs., 433. 2.
circa, w. gerund, 606. N. 1.
circum, compounds w. vbs., 267. a; dat.
w. such comps., 370; ace, 388. 6.
circumdo, constr., 364.
Circumstances of action, 419, 420. 6*
participle implying, 496.
cis, citerior, 130. a.
Cities, gend. of names of, 32 and a. See
Locative.
citra, after its noun, 435.
clades, decl., 78. 2.
clam, constr., 432, d
450
INDEX OF WOliDS AND SUBJECTS
Classes, names of, gend. of, 30. a. n.S;
used in plur., 101. .'5,
Clauses, defined, kinds of, 278, 279; re-
placed by abl. abs., 420; used as
nouns, 343. c; dependent, syntax of,
519-593; conditional rel., 279. c, 519;
final, 279. d, 529-533; consecutive,
536, 537; causal, 539, 540; temporal,
543-556; substantive, 562-588; infini-
tive clauses, 452, 562. N. ; substantive
clauses of purpose, 563; of result, 567,
568; indie, w. quod, 572; indirect ques-
tions, 573-575; ind. disc, 578-593.
clavis, decl., 76. 6. 1.
Close syllables, 7. n. 2.
coepi, 205.
Cognate ace, 214. d. n., 390.
Cogndmen, 108.
Collective noun with sing, or plur. vb.,
317. d.
colus, gend., 90; decl., 105. a.
com- (con-j, compounded w. vbs., 16, 267.
a; such may take dat., 370.
Combinations of words, 13.
cometes, decl., 44.
comitium, comitia, 107.
Command, see Imperative ; in hortatoiy
subjv., 439.
Commanding, vbs. of, w. dat., 367; w.
inf., 563. a; w. subjv., 563 (cf. 580. a).
Commands, expressed by imv., 448; for
condition, 521. b; in iud. disc, 588; in
informal ind. disc, 592. 1.
commiseror, w. ace, 354. a. N.
cominitto ut, 568 and N. i.
Common gender, 34; adjs. of, 122. d.
Common syllables, 11. c, 603./.
commonefacio, -flo, constr., 351.
commoneo, constr., 351.
communis, w. gen., .385. c.
commut5, constr., 417. h.
Comparative conjunctions, 223. 6.2, 224.
II. b ; in conditions, 524.
Comparative suffix, 124. ftn. ; of advs.,
214. b. N.
Comparatives, decl., 120; stem, id. 6;
neut. sing, of compar. adj. used as adv.,
218 ; meaning of, 291 ; two compara-
tives, 292; compar. and positive w.
quam, id. a. N. ; abl. w. compar., 40(5;
quam w. compar., 407. a; compar. w.
quam (ut), quam qui, 53.5. c, 571. a.
Comparison, conjunctions of, .323. a.
Comparison, particles of, tamquam, quasi,
etc., constr., 524.
Comparison of adjs., 123 ff. ; irregular,
129 ; defective, 130, 1.31 ; w. magis and
maxime, 128; of advs., 218; preposi-
tions implying, w. quam, 407. e. N., 434.
Complementary infinitive, 45<>; has no
subject, id. n. ; pred. noun or adj. after,
4.58; inf. partly subject, partly comple-
mentary, 454 ; by analogy, 457. a.
compleo, constr., :356, 409. n.
Completed action, tenses of, 160. b ; how
formed, 179./, g\ use of, 473 ff.
Complex conditional sentences, 523.
Complex sentence, 278. 6.
complures, compluria, 120. c.
compos, decl., 121. a. 4, b. 1.
Composition, all word-formation a pro-
cess of, 227 ; comp. to express relations
of words, .3.38, 386. See Comp. words.
Compound sentence, defined, 278. 2.
Compound stems, imaginary, 255. a.
Compound suffixes, 2^. 2, 2.;5.
Compound verbs, 267 ; coiaps. of facio,
204. a, b.
Compound words, assimilation in, 15. 6,
16; defined, 264; how formed , 265-267.
Compounds of preps., w. dat., AlO; of ab,
de, ex, 381; w. ace, 388. 6, 395; quan-
tity of, 606. c.
con-, see com-.
Conative present, 467; imperfect, 471. c.
concede, constr., 563 and c.
Concession, hortatory subjv. of, 440 (cf.
526) ; particles of, 527 ; quamvis, ut, 527.
a; licet, id. b ; etsi etc., id. c ; cum, 549;
quamquam, 527. d, e ; quamvis, w. indic-
ative, 527. e ; vbs. of, w. ut, 527. /;
abl. abs. for concessive clause, 420. 3;
concession implied in part., 496; qui
concessive, 535. e.
Concessive clauses, see Concession.
Concessive conjunctions, 223. b. 3, 224,
II. c; particles, use of, 527.
Conclusion, see Apodosis.
Concords, the four, 280.
concors, decl., 119, 121. a. 3.
Condemning, vbs. of, constr., 352.
Conditional clauses, defined, 279. c.
Conditional conjunctions, 223. 6. 1, 224.
II. a, 525.
Conditional Particles, 524, 525.
Conditional sentences, defined, 279. c;
development, 511 ; protasis and apodo-
sis, 512; classification, 514; Presentand
Past, nothing implied, 515 ; Future con-
ditions, 516; fut. more vivid, id. 2. a;
f ut. less vivid, id. 2. b ; perf . indie, in
fut. cond., id. e ; Contrary to fact, 517 ;
indie, in contrary to fact condition, id.
b, cf. c and notes; in old Latin, id.
e. N.2; General condition, 518; condi-
tion disguised, 521 ; as part, etc., id.
a; as exhortation or command, id. b. ;
protasis omitted, 522; Potential Subjv.,
446; Subjv. of Modesty, 447. 1; vbs.
of necessity etc., 522. a; complex
conditions, 523 ; clauses of Comparison
(conclusion omitted), 524; Concessive
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
451
clauses, 527; Proviso, 5'28; use of si
aud its comps., 525 ; conditional relative
clauses, 519 ; temporal, 542, 551. c. n. - ;
conditional sentences in ind. disc, 589.
confido, constr., 431 and n. i.
Conjugation, detined, 22. Conjugation
of verbs, 171-193; how distinguished,
171 ; regular forms of, 173 ; mixed
forms, id. ; parallel forms, 189 ; stem-
vowels of conjugations, 171-178; stems
of the four conjugations, how modified,
179 ; paradigms of the four regular con-
jugations, 184-212.
Conjunctions, defined, 20. g; classes of,
223 ; list of, 224. Syntax, 323. a, 324.
a-k, 539, 540. notes; correlative use,
323. g ; conjs. repeated, id. e ; omitted,
id. b ; used together, 324. k.
Conjunctive adverbs, 20. g. n.
Conjunctive phrases, 224.
Connectives, relatives used as, 308./.
Conor, w. inf., 563. e. ; conor si, id. n. i.
Consecutive clauses, defined, 279. e ; uses,
536-538; clauses of result or charac-
teristic, 559.
Consecutive conjunctions, 223. &. 5, 224.
II. e.
consequor ut, 568.
consistere, w. abl., 403. b. ftn. 2, 431.
Consonant stems of nouns, decl. Ill, 50-
64; cons, stems of adjs., 117; case-
forms, 121 ; of verbs, 259. a. 3.
Consonant suffixes (primary), 234. II.
Consonants, classification, 3; changes,
14-19 ; insertion, 15. 11 ; transposition,
177. a. N. ; dissimilation, 15. 6 ; assimila-
tion, id. 16; pronunciation, 8 and n.,
11. b. N.
consors, decl., 121. a. 3.
c5nstare, w. abl., 403. b.
constituS, constr., 563. d.
Constructio ad sensuin, see Synesis.
Constructions of cases, 338-435 (see under
Abl. etc.).
consuevi, use, 476.
consul, decl., 62.
cousularis, decl., 76. a. 2.
consulo, w. dat. or ace, 367. c.
Contention, words of, constr., 368. a,
413. b.
contentus, w. abl., 431. a; w. perf. inf.,
486./.
contineri, w. abl., 403. b. ftn.
contingit ut, 568.
Continued action, tenses of, 160, 161.
Continuing, vbs, of, w. complementary
inf., 456.
contra, use, 220. a, 221. 8, 321. d; as adv.,
43;3. 4; position, 435,
Contracted forms, vin', scin', 13. n. ; gen.
in -i, dat. and abl. in -is, 49. a, 6.
Contracting, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 500. 4.
Contraction of vowels, 15. 3; quantity,
10. c ; in prosody, 603. c ; of syllables,
608. d.
Contrary to fact conditions, 517 ; in ind.
disc, 589. b.
convenio, w. ace, 370. b.
Coordinate conjunctions, 223. a, 224.
a-d; coord, clauses, 278. a; coord,
words without conj., 323. b; w. conj.,
id. c.
Copula, 272, 283 ; position of, 598. j.
Copulative conjunctions, 223. a. 1, 224. I.
a ; constr. after, 323 ; omission of, 323. b.
Copulative verbs, 272, 283.
cor, decl., 59, 60. b, 103. g. 2.
corpus, decl., 64.
Correlatives, 152, 323. g; rendered by
the . . . the, 414. a; advs. of place, 217.
a; conjs., 323./, g.
cos, decl., 103. g. 2.
Countries, names of, gend., 32; as end of
motion, and place from which, 428. c.
Crasls, 603. c.
creber, decl., 112. a.
credibili, w. comparative, 406. a.
credo, position of, 599. c.
Cretic foot, 609. d ; verse, 628. c.
Crime or charge, gen. of, 352.
-crum, noun ending, 240.
crux, decl., 103. g. 2.
cucumis, decl., 75. a.
ciiias, cuius, 145. 6, 151. h.
cuicui modi, 151. b. N.
ciiius modi, 345. a.
-culum, noun suffix, 240.
-cuius, dim. ending, 243.
cum, quom (conj.), form, 544; meaning,
544 ff. ; cum . . . tum, 323. g, 549. b ; se-
quence, 485. e. N. ; w. clause for part.,
492, 493. 2 ; temporal, 545-548 ; causal
or concess., 549 ; in ind. disc, 585. 6. n. ;
cum {whenever), 545. N.2, 548.
cum (prep.), 220. 6; in comp., see com-;
joined as enclitic with pronouns, 143. f,
150. d ; use of, 221. 9 ; w. plur. adj., 286.
a. N. ; w. plur. verb, 317. n. ; w. abl.
of manner, 412; w. abl. of accom-
paniment, 413; w. words of conten-
tion, 413. 6; w. words of exchange,
417. b. N.
-cumque, added to relatives, 151. a and
N. ; temporal particles w., 542.
-cundus, verbal adj. ending, 253 and 6.
cupio, constr., 563. 6.
euro, constr., 563; cura (imv.), use, 449. c.
-cus, suffix, 232. N., 249.
Customary action, 470, 618. c.
D changed to s, 15. 5 ; -d, old abl. ending,
decl. I. 43. N. 1 ; decl. U, 49. e ; decl. Ill,
452
l^DEX OF \\\»1U)S AND t^lBJEC^^
p. 3A. ftn. : decl. IV. 92,/: med. ted. 143.
a. N. : s^. 144. b. n. * : -^ iu ad\-s. orisri-
nally -ed. '214. a. x.; -d as ueut. prou.
oiiviiuir. 113. b: loss of -d, oi^.
Dactyl. \W. b: oyclio. id. f.
Daotylio verse, olo: he^sametex. tUo ; ele-
giac stanza. ol6: other fonus, 617.
-'.:un. adverbial ending. '215. 6.
. imnAs. indecl. adj.. 1±2. b.
aps. defect.. 103. h. ±
DariuiT. vbs. of. vr. coiupl. inf.. 456.
Dates, how expressed. 4'J4. p. ivU.
Dative detiu^. ;>3. c: in -ai. decl. I. 4o.
ti : in -dbus. deol. I. id. e : in -is for -us.
decl. n. 49./: in-abus. deol. IV, iW. c;
iu -i i,of uQus etc."). 113.
DAirsE. Suntaj-. .y6(X^'S5. Indirect ob-
iect. 361; w. trausitives. 362: vr. vl>s.
implying motion. ;^>;>: use of dono etc.,
364 ; m pviss.. 365 : vr. iutrau&itives. 366 :
w. phrases, id. a; like iren.. id. 6; w.
iutransitives. verbs meaning ratvr etc.,
;V7 ; similar vbs. vr. a^v. id. a : vbs.
having dat. or ace. id. b. c: w. verbal
nouns^ id. d: w. libet and licet, 368. 1 ;
w. comps. of satis, bene, male, id. 2:
poetic use. id. a: intrans. vbs. w, ace.
and dat., 36^^: w. comps. of preps, ad.
ante, etc., 370: vr. passive used impe>
sonally, 372. Of Possession, 373: vr.
n6men*est. id. a; vr, desom and absum,
id. 6. Of the Agent. 374. 375. Of Ref-
erence, 376, 3. ( : of the i>e'*son jnlring,
378; used idio " il
dat., 380. Of> r-
pose. 382:^ w. a ., . ^v.
adjs. of dtness etc., 384, .^vv); gen. or
dat. w. similis. 385. c 2, With vrords
of contention ^x)etic^ . 413. 6. x. Of End
of Motion. 428. h : w. indn.. 455. 1 : dat.
of -^^ru-i. 50o. a.
■ nodi aut incommodi. 376.
>. "221. 10; incomp. vr. vbs.,
-.-...;. a comp. vr. vl>s., w. djit., 381:
ih comp. w. vbs., w. abl.. 402: w. abl.
instead of p^irt. gen.. .Ui?. o: vr. vbs. of
reminding. 351. jf. : w abl. to denote
the crime. .>\v 2: w. place fromvrhich.
426. 1 : position of d5, 4v>5 : de w. abl.
of irerund, 507.
de,^.. de^'V 4'^ r.
u ,"""■■ ■
; vr. perf.inf.,id.6.
" iind N.*.
deoet, w. ace.. 386. c; w. dat., id. N.*;
in ,npo«l.. 517. c
'^ ■ 2l>9. a; how ex-
:>80.
- -: chancteristics
of, 37; cener.il lules for. 38; termi-
nations. •^^. Of Nouns, I. 4(M4; II,
45-52; m, 53-67: IV. S6-IU: V. 96-98;
deol. V compared witii I. 98. c Of
Adjs., deol. I-U, K>9-113; decl. III.
114-122 ; of compcirati ves, 120 ; of par-
ticiples. 109. 117. 6.
Decreeing, vbs. of, 5tv>. d.
d?di. quantity of penult. 605. Ere.
Defective adjectives. 111. 6, 122. c
Defective comparison. 130.
•Detective nouns, A^KV^; of decl. IV, v,
o; of decl. V. i^. a.
Detective verbs. 205-206.
defici5. coustr., 367. a.
Dednite perfect, 161. 1, 473; sequence •
485. a.
defit. 2i>4. c.
degener. 119, x., 121. a. 3.
Degree, adverbs of. 217. c.
Degree of difference, abl. of. 414; dis-
tance expressed by. 425. 6.
Degrees of C<»miviri*son, 123.
demde. df nique. in euimierationa. 322. d. s.
dclectat. coustr.. 388. c.
delecto, w. ace., 3i>7. a,
delector, w. abl.. 431.
Deliberative subjunctive. 4-»., i-r^ . i^.
indir. questions. 575. 6 ; iuiud. disc., 587.
delicium. -ia. -iae. 106. b.
Delivering, vbs. of, w. gerimdLve, 500. 4.
Delos. dec!.. 52.
delphin, decl., 83. a.
-dem. adverbial ending. 215. 6.
Demanding, vbs. oi. vr. g^rv.n-.^'ve.SOO. ^
Demonstrative advor", - - larives .
323. g; equivalent .. prou.
w. prep.. 321. a. l\^ . . r. b.
Demonstrative pronouns. 146; decl.. I'
formation, id. x. i. Si/niax, 2iX>-2.
of 1st person. 297. a : of 2d pers.. id. c :
of 3d pers.. id. 6 : supply place of j>ers.
prons. of 3d pens., 2v^^ c: in relative
clause. 308. d. x. Position, 598. b.
denaxius, value of, ti32.
Denominative verbs, 2r>8-262.
Dependent clauses, subjv. used in, 438. b.
De^vnent verbs defined, 156. 6; how
conjug:'»tei.l. 190: paradigms, id.: i>arii-
ciples^ id. a; tut. inf.. id. o: used re-
liexiveJy. id. e: in pjissive sense, id./:
list of irregular deponent verbs. 191 ;
defective dept^>neuts, id. i: ; semi-depo-
nents. 192.
Depriving, constr. w. vbs. of, 401.
Derivation of worvls. 227-267.
Derivative forms of nouns. 2;V-241; of
adjs.. 242-25o: of vbs,, 258-263.
Deri>-ative verl>s. defined. 257.
Deri>-atives, quantity of, d06.
-des. nouns in. 244.
Description, imperf. used in, 471. a.
Descxiption implied in paxt., 496.
INDEX OF WOUDS AND SUBJECTS
453
Descriptive abl., see Abl. of quality,
tdeses, decl., 121. a. 4.
Desiderative verbs (in -urio), 2(j3. 4.
Desire, adjs. of, w. goii., 349. a.
despero, constr., o()7. 6.
deterior, compar. of, i;30. a.
Determinative compounds, 205. 2.
Determining, vbs. of, constr., 503. d.
. deus, decl., 49. g.
dexter, decl., 111. a; compar., 129.
di-, see dis-.
Dian-esis, Oil. c.
Diastole, 012. 6.
die, imperotive, 182.
dicionis, defect., 103. e.
dico, forms of, omitted, 319. a.
diets, w. comp., 400. a.
-dicus, adjs. in, comparison of, 127.
Dido, decl., 82.
diem dicere, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505.
dies, decl., 90; gender, 97. a; gen. form
dii, 98. N.
Difference, abl. of degree of, 414.
difficilis, comparison, 126; constr., 510.
N.2.
dignor, w. abl., 418. 6. n. l.
dignus, w. abl., 418. 6 ; w. relative clause,
535./.
Dimeter, iambic verse, 619. c. ,
Diminutive endings, w. nouns and adjec-
tives, 243 ; verbs, 203. 3.
din-, stem-ending, 01. 2.
Diphthongs, 2; sound of, 8; quantity,
10. 6, 003. h.
Diptotcs, 103. c.
Direct object, 274, 387.
Direct question, deliued, 330. 1.
Dli'ect quotation, 578. n.
Direct reflexive, 300. 6.
dis- (dl-), inseparable prefix, 267. 6.
Disjunctive conjunctions, 224. I. a; case
of noun after, 323.
Dissimilation, 15. 6.
dissimilis, comp., 120.
Distance, ace. or a])l., 425. h; of time,
424./.
Distributive numerals, 136 ; use, 137.
Distributive pronouns, 313
diu, compar., 218. a.
dives, decl., 119, 121. 6.
divum (divora), for deorura, 49. g. N.
-do, adverbial ending, 215. 6.
-do, nouns in , from st. din-, 01 . 2 ; gend. , 86.
do, conj., 202; w. inf., 460. a.
doceo, constr., 396 and c. n. 2.
domi, locative, 427. 3.
domum, 427. 2; domo, id. 1.
domus, gend., 90. Exc. ; decl., 93; double
stem of, id. : locative form, 93. n. i.
donee, w. ind. or subjv., 653 n. i, ^, 554,
555.
dono, double constr. of, 364.
dos, decl., 71. 0.
Double consonants, 4, 11. 6.
Doul)le questions, 334; answers to, 337.
Doubting, vbs. of, constr., 658.
Dital forms, p. 59. ftn.
Diibitative subjv., see Deliberative.
dubito an, 331. N. ; non dubito quin, 558. a;
non dubito, w. inf., id. N. '■^; without
neg., id. n. i.
diic, imperative, 182.
dum, derivation, 215. 6; w. past, id. a;
w. clause for pres. and perf. part., 492,
493. 2; introducing a proviso, 528; as
adv., 652 ; until, w. pres. or impf . subjv.
denoting intention or expectancy, 653 ;
w. pres. or fut! perf. indie, to state
future fact, id. n.'-^; w. perf. indie,
554. N. ; as long as, w. indie, 555 (cf.
556. a) ; lohile, w. pres. indie, 556; w.
past indie, id. a.
dummodo, 628.
duo, decl., 134. 6.
dupli, w. vbs. of condemning, 352. a.
Duration, ace of, 423; abl. of, 424. b.
-dus, participle in, see Gerundive.
Duty, vbs. of, in apod., 517. c.
dux, decl., 67.
E, variant of 5 as stem- vowel of decl. II,
46. c and n. ; in voc, id. ; abl. of neuters
in, decl. Ill, 76. a. 3; gend. of neuters
in, decl. Ill, 87 ; abl. in, of adjs. of two
and three terminations, 116, n., 117, 121.
a ; stem-vowel, conj. Ill, 171, 174. 1, 179.
c; final, quantity of, 604. e.
e, for ae (oe), 6. n. 8 ; in Greek voc, 81. 3 ;
in stem of decl. V, 98 ; in gen. of decl. V,
98. d. N. ; in dat,, id. ; in stem of conj.
II, 171, 179. b ; -e as adv. ending, 214. a, c.
e (preposition), see ex.
eae, old dat. fem. of is, 146. n. ».
Early forms of alphabet, 1. a and N., 6.
a, b; of prosody, 629.
ecce (cecum etc.), 146. a. n.2.
ecquis, decl., 161./; use, 310. a.
Ecthlipsis, 612./.
edico, constr., 503. d.
edo (eat), conj., 201.
Effecting, vbs. of, w. perf. part., 497- c ; w
ut-clause, 580. d.
efficio ut, 568.
effieri, 204. c.
effigies, decl., 98. a.
Effort, vbs. of, w. ut-clause, 663. e.
egens, decl., 118.
egeo, constr., 366 and n.
ego, decl., 143.
ei, diphthong, 2; sound of, 8.
-313 for -is in plur. of decl. I, 43. e. n.2,
-eis, patronymic, 244.
454
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
-eius, adj. ending, 249; in prosody, 11. d,
603./. N. 2.
-gius, names in, decl., 49. /.
eiusmodi, 14G, h, 345. a.
Electra, decl., 44.
Elegiac stanza, 616.
-elis, adj. ending, 248.
Elision, 612. e.
Ellipsis, 640.
ellumetc, 146. a. N.2.
-ellus, diminutive ending, 243.
eluvies, decl., 98. a.
em, combined w. prons (ellum etc.), J46
a.N.2.
Emphas's, 597.
en- (on-, en-, 6n-),primary suffix, 234. II. 13.
Enclitics, accent, 12. a ; quantity, 604. a.
1 ; cum, 143./, 150. h,d; -met, -te, -pte,
143. d and n.; -pse, 146. n. 5", 8; -ce, id.
a. N. 1 ; -que, see under that word.
End of motion, ace. of, 426. 2; w. vbs.
that also take dat., 363 ; dat. of, 428. h ;
two or more places as end of motion,
428. i.
Endings, signification of, 235-263; end-
ings of verb, 165. 2, 166. See Personal
endings, and Terminations.
English method of pronunciation, 8. N.
English words cognate with Lat., 18, 19.
enim, use, 324. h; position, 324. j, 599. 6.
■ensimus (or -esimus), numeral adj. end-
ing, 133. N. 1.
-ensis, gentile ending, 249.
Enumeration, primum . . . deinde, 322. d. n,
-enus, adj. ending, 249.
Envy, vbs. of, w. dat., 367.
eo, used w. supine in -um, 428. i, 509. n. i.
eo, used w. quo, 414. a; w. compar., id. ;
approaching abl. of cause, id. n.
eo consilio ut, 531. 1. N. i.
Epicene nouns, 34. n.
Epistolary,tenses, 479.
epitome, decl., 44.
epulum, plur. -ae, 106. 6.
equester, decl., 115 a.
equidem, 322. /. N.
er- for es-, primary suffix, 234. II. 17.
er-, stem-ending, 63. Exc. 2.
-er, nom. ending, decl. II, 45-47; decl.
Ill, 61. 4, 65. a; gend., 85; -er, adjs. in,
111, 112, 115; compar. of these, 125.
erga, w. ace. after adjs., 385. h.
ergo, use, 324 i; w. gen., 359. 6.
-erim, -er5, as tense-ending, 169. c, d.
-ernus, adj . ending, 250.
ero-, noun stems in, decl. II, 60; ero-, adj.
stems in. 111. a. n.
ES, root of esse, 15. 4; 170. h. n.
es- (OS-), primary suffix, 234. II. 17.
-es, in nom. plur. of Greek nouns, 81. 4;
gend. of nouns in, 85
-es, gen. of Greek nouns in, decl. 11, 52. a ,
gen. ending, decl. V, 98. n.
-es, list of nouns in, p. 30. ftn. 2; gend.,
86; formation, 238. a.
esse, conj., 170; foi-ms of, in other lan-
guages, id. 6. N. ; compounds of, 198;
case after, 284; dat. of poss. w., 373;
future part. w. (first periph. conj.),
498. a, 6 ; position of forms of, 598. c,j.
est, united with other words, 13. n. ; est
qui etc., 535. a ; est cum, 535. a. N. 3 ; est
ut, 569. 3.
Esteeming, vbs. of, constr., 393.
-ester (-estris), adj. ending, 250; a noun-
ending, 254. 11.
estur, essetur. pass, forms of edo, 201. a.
et, use, 324. a ; et . . . et, 323. e ; et re-
peated or omitted, 323. c.
et, -que, or atque translated 6wi, 324. d. n.
etenim, use, 324. h, k.
Ethical dative, 380.
etiam, u-e, .322. a; in answers, 336. a. 1.
etiam si, concessive, 527. c.
etsi, use, 527. c.
-etum, noun ending, 254. 8.
-eus, Greek names in, 52. e ; -eus, patro-
nymic ending, 244: adj. ending, 247,
249, 254. 10.
evenit ut, 568. ftn. 2.
ex (e), 220. h ; use, 221. 11 ; in compovmds,
267. a, 402; abl. w., instead of part,
gen., 346. c: in vbs. w. dat., 381; w.
prons. etc., 403. a. N. ^ ; to express place
from which, 426. 1 ; expressing posi-
tion, 429. 6 ; after its noun, 435 ; w. abl.
of gerund. 5C7.
excello, w. dat., 368. 3.
Exchanging, vbs. of, 417. 6.
Exclamation , form of, 333. n. ; nom. in,
339. a; aw^ in, 397. d', w. infin., 462.
Exclamatory questions, 462. a.
Exclamatory sentences, 269. c: nom. in,
339. a; gen. in, a59. a; ace. in, 397. d.
Existence general expressions of, 535. a
exlex, deiect , 122. c.
Expecting, hoping, etc., vbs. of, w. ind.
disc. 580. c; w. complem. inf.. id. N.
expensum, 496. n. 4.
exsilio, w. a j1., 404. a.
exspes, defect., 122. c.
exsulto, w. abl., 404. a.
exteri, use, 130. 6.
exterior, 130. h
extremus, form, 130. a. ftn. 2.
exuo, constr., 364.
F, original sound of, 1. 6. N.
faber/decl., 112. a.
fac, imv., 182, 204; fac (ut), w. subjv.
449. c ; fac ne, in prohibition, 450. n. 2,
faciSs, decl., 98. a.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
455
facilis, compar., 126; w. supine, 510. n.2.
facio, accent of comps. of, 12. a. Exc;
forms of, omitted, ol9. a; w. abl., 403.
c; w. names of authors, 497. d. n. ;
facere ut, 568. N. l.
Factitive ace, 386; verbs, 273. n.^.
-facto, in compounds, 266. a.
faenebris, decl., 115. N. K
faex, decl., 103. g. 2.
fallit, w. ace, 388. c.
falsus, compar., 131. a.
fames, abl. of, 76. 6. N.l, 98. cZ.
familiaris, decl., 76. h. 2.
familias, in pater familias etc., 43, h.
fas, indecl., 103. a; w. supine in -u, 510.
faux, decl., 101. n.i, 103./. 4,
Favor, vbs. of, w. dat., 367.
fax, decl., 103. p-. 2. sCf
Fearing, vbs. of, w. inf., 456; w. ne, ne
non, ut, 564.
febris, decl., 75. 6, 76. h. 1,
Feeling, nouns of, w. gen., 348; imper-
sonal vbs. of, 208. h, 354. h ; animi w.
vbs. and adjs. of, 358; gen. w. vbs.
of, 354; ace. w. vbs. of, 388. a; quod-
clause w. vbs. of, 572. 6,
Feet in Prosody, 608-610^
felix, compar., 124.
Feminine, rule for gend., 32.
femur, decl., 105. g,
-fer, comps. of, 50; decl., 111. a.
fer, imperative, 182.
fero, cou]'., 200; acceptum (expensum) ferre,
496. N. 4 ; comps. of, 200. a.
ferre, ferrem, for fferse etc., p. 110. ftn. 3.
Festivals, plural names of, 101. 2 ; in -alia,
254. 7.
-ficus, adjs. in, comparison of, 127. a.
fides, decl., 96.
fido (confido) , semi-deponent, 192 ; W. dat.,
367; w. abl., 431.
fidus, compar., 131. a.
fieri, constr. w. abl., 403. c.
Fifth Declension, 95-97.
Figura etymologica, 598. m,
filia, decl., 43. e; filius, voc, 49. c.
Filling, vs^ords of, w. abl.. 409. a ; w. gen.,
• id. N.
Final Clauses, defined, 279. d; constr. of,
530-532; as subst. clauses, 563.
Final conjunctions, 223. 6. 6, 224. II. e.
Final syllables, rules of quantity, 604;
vowels, id. a-h,
finis, decl., 76. b.
Finite verb, defined, 154. n.; subj. of,
339.
fio, conj., 204; in compounds, id. 6; de-
fective compounds of, id. c; quantity
of i in, 603. a. 3.
First Conjugation, prin. parts, 173; pres.
fiteiTi. ]i()\v loruied, 176. a; formation,
179. a, 259; paradigms, 184; vbs. of,
209; vbs. of, how formed, 259.
First Declension, 40-42.
fisus, as pres. part., 491.
fit ut, 568. ftn. 2, 569. 2.
Fitness, adjs. of, w. dat., 384, 385. a.
flagito, constr., 563.
flocci, gen. of value, 417. a.
For, when expressed by pro, 379. n.
foras, 103. c. 4, 215. 3.
fore, 170. a; perf. part, w., 164. c. n.; fore
ut, 569. a.
forem, 170. a.
fores, plur. only, 101.4, 103. c. 4.
Forgetting, vbs. of, 350 ; w. mf ., 456.
foris (locative), 103. c. 4, 215. 4, 427. a.
Formation of words, 227-267o
Forms of the verb, 180 ff.
fors, forte, 103. c. 1.
forsan, 447. b. N.
forsitan (fors sit an), 216. N.; w. subj v.,
447. a.
fortasse, 447. 6.
Fourth Conjugation, prin. parts, 173;
pres. stem, how formed, 176. a, 179. d;
paradigm, 187; list of vbs., 212; vbs.,
how formed, 262.
Fourth Declension, 88-94.
Fractional expressions, 135. e, 637.
fraus, decl., 71. 6.
Freedom, adjs. of, w. abl., 402. a; vbs.
of, 401.
French, derivations through, 19. n. 2.
Frequentative verbs, 263. 2.
fretus, w. abl., 431. a.
Fricatives, 4. 5.
frugi, defect, noun, 103./. 1; as adj., 122.
b; compar., 129; constr., 382. 1. n. 2.
fruor, fungor, w. abl., 410; w. ace, id. a.
N. 1 ; gerundive, 503. k. 2.
fugit, w. ace, 388. c.
fui, derivation of, 170. 6. N.
Fulness, adjs. of, 349. a.
funebris, decl., 115. N.i.
fungor, see fruor.
Future conditions, 516; in ind. disc,
589. a.
Future tense, use, 472; of inf. pass.,
how formed, 203. a; of imv., 449; ind.
for imv., id. 6; in indirect questions,
575.
Future Infinitive, how formed, 164. 3.
6, c, 193. N. ; expressed with fore or
futurum esse, 569. a; (rarely) in con-
trary to fact conditions in ind. disc,
589. b. N. 3.
Future Participle, use, 158. b, 489, 498,
517. d; fut. pass, part., 500.
Future Perfect tense, suffix of, 169. c;
use of, 478; represented in subjv., 484.-
c: in conditions, 516. c
456
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
futurum esse ut, see fore ut ; futurum fuisse
ut, 589. h. 3 and N. 2.
Futurum in praeterito, 611. ftn, 1.
G (the character), 1. a and N.
Gaines, plur. names of, 101. 2.
gaudeo, conj., 192; w. abl., 431; w. quod
or ind. disc, 572. b.
Gems, gend. of, 32 and b, 48= Exc.
Gender, kinds of, 30; general rules for,
31-34; common, epicene, 34; change
of gend., p. 18. ftn. ; nouns, decl. I,
gend., 42 ; decl. II, 48 ; nouns, decl. Ill,
gend. according to endings, 84-87; of
nouns, decl. lY, 90, 91; decl. V, 97;
Syntax: agreement in gend., 280; of
appositives, 282. c; of adjs., 286; adjs.
w. nouns of different genders, 287 (cf.
289. c) ; of rel., 306. b.
General conditions, defined, 513. 2 ; constr.
of, 618 ; relatives in, 520.
General truths after past tense (in
sequence of tenses), 485. d; in pres.,
465 ; in general condition, 618. a.
Genitive, defined, 35. 6; terminations
of, 37; plur. in -um, 38./; gen. in -ai
and -as, decl. I, 43. a, b; in -i for -ii,
decl. II, 49. 6 ; in -i of proper nouns of
decl. Ill, 52. a; gen, plur. in -iim (-om),
for-orum, 49. d; -um for -ium, decl. Ill,
78; -OS for -is, 81. 1 ; gen- plur. in -um,
92. 6 ; in -i or -ft for -ei, decL V, 98. n. ;
gen. plur. wanting, 103. g.2; of adjs. in
-ius, 113 ; gen. plur. in -ium or-um, 121. b.
Genitive, Syntax, 342-356 ; general use,
342. Subjective gen., 343. N: i. Posses-
sive gen., 343; in app. w. poss. pron.,
302. e; compared w. dat., 373. n. ; gen.
in predicate, 343. 6, c; gen. of adj.
for neut. nom., 343. c. n. i ; gen. of sub-
stance or material, 344; for app., 343.
d; gen. of quality, 345. Partitive, 346.
Objective, 347 ff.; w. adjs., 349, 385.
c; w. vbs. of memory, 350; charge
and penalty, 352; of feeling, 354; w.
impers., miseret etc., 354. &; w. refert
and interest, 355 ; of plenty and want,
356 ; of exclamation, 359. a ; w. potior,
357. a ; w. other vbs., id. 6 ; w. egeo and
indigeo, 356. n. ; gen. for abl., id. ; gen.
replaced by dat., 366. b ; of value, 417 ;
gen. of gerundive, 604.
genius, voc. of, 49. c.
Gens, or family, names, 108.
Gentile adjectives, 244.
gentilis, 76. a. 2.
genu, decl., 89; gend., 91.
genus, decl., 64.
-ger, compounds of, 60; decl., 111. a.
Gerund, form, 155. &; meaning, 159. a;
gerundive used instead, 503. Syntax,
602-507; gen. of, 604; w. direct obj..
id. a ; pred. use, purpose, id. a. n. i ; w
obj. gen., id. c; dat. of, 605; in law
phrases etc., id. b ; ace. of, 506 and n.i ;
abl. of, 507; gerund coordinated w.
nominal constr. and in app., 503. a.
N.2; w. direct obj,, 503. a. n. i.
Gerundive, meaning and form, 155. a and
ftn. 3, 158. d ; in -endus or -undus, p. 89.
ftn. 1 ; of dep. vb., 190. d ; use as part,
or adj., 500; of iitor, id- 3; to denote'
purposeaftercertainvbs.,id.4; used for
gerund, 603. Gerundive constructions
in cases, gen., 504 ; dat., 605 ; ace, 506 ;
abl., 607. Impersonal w, esse, w. ace,
600. 3,
gibber, decl.. 111. a.
gin-, stem-ending, 61. 2.
Giving, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 600. 4.
glaber, decl., 112. a.
•glacies, decl,, 98. a.
glis, decl., 71. 6.
glorior, w. abl., 431.
Glyconic verse, 623. 1, 624, 625. 1, 12.
Gnomic perfect, 476.
-go, nouns in, from stem gin-, 61. 2;
gend., 86.
gracilis, decl., 122. «; compar. 126.
Grammar, how developed, 268.
Grammatica,l gender, 30. b.
gratia, w. gen., 369. 6, 404. c; w. gen. of
gerund, 533.
gratificor, w. dat., 368. 3.
gratulor, w. dat., id.
Greek accusative {synecdochical) , 397. 6.
Greek forms compared w. Latin, pp. 13,
14, 19, 26, 65, 68, 76, 80, 83, 126, 142,
143, 160, 163.
Greek nouns, decl. I, 44; decl. II, 52;
decl. Ill, 81, 82, 83.
Greek proper names, quantity of^N603, 4.
Groups of words, conjunctions w., 323. c.
grus, decl,, 79. «.
Guilt, adjs. of, w. gen., 349. a.
H (breathing), 4; omitted in spelling
6. d. N. 2 ; in prosody, 603. a, 612. e.
habeo, w. infinitive, 4G0. a; w. perfect^
participle, 497. b; future imperative'
habet5 in sense of consider, 449, a.
habilis, w. dat. of gerund etc., 606. a. ftn.
hactenus, 221. 26. n. i.
Hadria, gen., 4^2. Exc.
haeo for hae, 146. n. 2.
haere5, w. abl., 368. 3. n.
Happening, vbs. of, constr., 669, 2.
Have, pert', w,, origin, 497. b. ftn.
have (ave), defective verb, 206. g.
Having, vbs. of, w. gerund., 500. 4.
hebes, decl., 86. a; compar., 124.
Help, vbs. of, w. dat., 367,
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
457
Hemiolic measures, 609. d.
Heroic verse. 616.
heros, decl., 82.
Hesitation, clauses of, w. quin, 558, 559;
vbs. of, constr., 456.
Heteroclite nouns, 105 ; adjs., 122. a.
Heterogeneous nouns, 106.
Hexameter verse, 615.
Hiatus, 612. g.
Hiber, decL, 50. c.
hibus, 146. N. 2.
hie, 146, N. 1; decL, 146; use, 297. a, e,/;
quantity, 604. J, Exc.
Hidden quantity, 11./ and N.
hiemps (for liiems), 15. 11.
hilaris (-us), 122. a.
Himself (ipse, se), 298. c. N. 2.
Hindering, vbs. of, with ne or quominus,
or inf., 558. b and n.
Hindrance, vbs. of, w. quominus, 558. 6 ;
w. negatives, followed by quin, 558,
559.
Historical infinitive, 463 ; takes secondary
sequence, 485. /.
Historical perfect, 161. 2, 473.
Historical present, 469 ; foilo^ved by pri-
mary or secondary tenses, 485. e.
hodie, loc. form, 98. b, 215. 5.
honor (-os), decl., 62. N.2.
Hoping, verbs of, with ind. disc, 680. c;
w. complem. inf., id. n.
Horace, metres of, 626.
horizon, decl., 83. d.
Hortatory subjunctive, 439; in conces-
sion, 440 ; in proviso, 528 ; in obligation,
439. 6; w. force of protasis, 521. 6.
hortor, constr., 563.
hospes, decl., 121. a. 4.
hospita (fern, of hospes), 121. e.
hiiiusmodi, 146. b.
humi, 49. a ; locative use of, 427. a.
humilis, compar., 126.
Hundreds, how declined, 134. c.
Hypotaxis, 268.
I, as vowel and as cons.. 1, 10; i as tran-
sient sound between cons, i and a pre-
ceding vowel, 6. c (cf. 11. e).
i-, primary suffix, 234. I. 2.
i, for e in conj. H, 179. 6. 2 ; for -5 in conj.
HI, id. c. 1; lost in vbs. in -io of conj.
HI, id. and e ; inserted in vb. stem, 176.
6.2.
-i in Greek voc, 82.
-i, (single) in gen. of nouns in -ius (-ium),
49. b ; in gen. of nouns in -es, 52. a ; in
abl. of decl. HI, 76 ; in loc. of decl, HI,
p. 34. ftn. 1 ; in gen., decl. IV, 92. a ; in
gen., dat., decl. V, 98. d. n. ; in dat. of
unus etc., 113 ; in pres. pass, inf., p. 286
ftn. 1 ; in perfect. 163. ftn. 3
i-stems, decl. HI, 66-78; confused, 73;
signs of, 74; in adj., 117; cases retain-
ing -i, cf. 74, 76, 114, 116. n. ; i-stems in
vbs., 179. d.
-ia, ending of abstract nouns, 241.
-la, nom. and ace, plur. decl. Ill, 74. b ; of
adjs., 116, 117.
-ia for -ies, decl. V, 98. c.
iacio, comps. of, 6. d, 603./. N.8.
iam, derivation, 215. 6; use, 322. b; w.
impf., 471. c. N.
Iambic verse, 613; trimeter, 618; other
forms, 619.
Iambus, 609. a. 2.
iamdiu, w. pres., 466; w. impf., 471. 6.
iamdiidum, w. pres., 466; w. impf. 471. 6;
w. imperative, 466. n. 2.
-ibam for -iebam, conj. IV, 183. 1.
-ibo for -iam, 183. 1.
ibus, 146. N. 8.
-icius, 247.
Ictus, 608. N., 611. a.
-icus, 249.
id-, stem-ending, 83. 6.
id genus, 397. a.
id quod, 307. d.
id temporis, 346. 3, 397. a.
idcirco, as correl., 324. i ; w. final clause,
531. 1. N.i.
idem, decl., 146; derivation, 146. N.9; w.
dat., 384. N. 1 ; w. atque or r^l., id. n. 2 ;
used em.phatically, 298. a; equiv. to
adv., id. b.
Ides (13th or 15th of month), how reck-
oned, 631. 6.
-ides (-ides), in patronymics, 244.
idoneus, compar., 128; w. dat. of gerund
etc., '505. a. ftn. 2.
idoneus qui, 535. /.
-idus, verbal adj. ending, 251.
idus, decl. IV, gender, 90. Exc. (See Ides.)
-ie, in voc. of adjs. in -ius, 110. a.
iecur, decl., forms from different stems,
79. c, 105. g.
iens (part, of eo), decl., 119.
-ier in inf. pass., 183. 4.
-ies, noun ending, 241 ; in decl. V = -ia,
decl. I, 98. c.
igitur, meaning, 324. i; position, id. J.
ignis, decl., 76. b. 1.
-ii (or -i), in gen., decl. II, 49. b and ftn.-
of adjs., 110. a.
ii, iis, for i,is, from is, 146.
-ile, noun ending, 254. 6.
-ills, -bilis, verbal adj. ending, 252.
-ills, nominal adj, ending, 248.
Illative conjunctions, 223. a. 4, 224. I. d.
ille, forms, 146. n. *, 6 ; decl., 146; use,
297. b, e ; combined w, -ce, 146. a. n. i.
illic, decl., 146. a.
-illo, vbs. ending in, 263. 3.
458
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
illus, diminutive ending, 243.
illustris, decl., 115. n. i.
-Im, ace. ending, decl. Ill, 7^76.
-im, in pres. subjv., 183. 2.
imber, decl., 66, 67, 76. 6.
immane quantum, 575. d.
immo, how used, 329.
Imperative mood, 154. b ; how used, 157.
c; terminations, 163.6, 179. e; die, due,
fae, f er, 182 ; some vbs. used chiefly in,
206. g; w. iam dudum, 466. n. 2; in
commands, 448 ; 3dpers., 448. a; forms
in ind. disc, 588; fut., 449 and a;
various periphrases for imv., 449, c;
imperative as protasis, 521. b.
Imperative Senterce, 269. d.
Imperfect tense, defined, 160. a, 471 ; use_,
470 ; in descriptions, id. a ; w. iam diu
etc., id. b ; inceptive and conative, id. c ;
w. iam, id. n. ; of surprise, id. d ; in
dialogue, id. e; = could, etc., id./;
epistolary, 479 and n. ; represented by
perf. subjv., 485. 6. 3; imperf. subjv.,
sequence, id. g, h, 584. a and n.
impero, constr., 563.
Impersonal construction of pass. w. infin.
clause, 566. 6, 582 and a.
Impersonal verbs, synopsis of, 207 ; classi-
fied, 208; passive of intransitives, id.
d, 372; impersonals, miseret etc., w.
gen., 354, b ; libet, licet, w. dat., 368. 1 ;
ace. w. deeet etc. , 388. c.
impertio, constr., 364.
impetro, constr., 563, 568. ftn. 2,
impetus, defect., 103. d.
impleo, constr., 409. a. N.
implico, constr., 364.
impono, constr., 430.
imus, 130. a. n. 2.
in-, neg. prefix, 267. d. 1.
in-, stem-euding, 61. 2; in-, 83. a.
in, prep., use, 220. c, 221. 12; comp. w.
vbs., 267. a; in, w. ace. or abl., 259. e
(cf. 430) ; w. ace, penalty, 353. 2. n. ;
vbs. comp. with, w. dat., 370 ; in w. ace,
w. adjs., 385. 6 ; in citations, 428. d. n. 2 ;
place where, 426. 3; in idioms of time,
424. e; w. abl. of gerund, 507.
Inceptive or Inchoative verbs, 263. 1.
Inclination, adjs. of, constr., 384, 385. 6.
inclutus, compar., 131. a.
Incomplete action, tenses of. See Con-
tinued action.
Indeclinable nouns, gender of, 33; list
of, 103. a; adjectives, 122. 6.
Indefinite antecedent, relative with, w.
subjv., 535, a and n. ^.
Indefinite pronouns, dec!., 148-151. Syn-
tax, 309-315; indefinite relative may
introduce conditional clause, 512. n.,
519.
Indefinite subject omitted, 318. b ; use c.
2d person forj^39. a; in general con
ditious, 518. atlicet ciarum fieri, 455. n.
Indefinite value, 417 and a.
Indicative mood, 154. b : how used, 157. a,
437; for Eng. subjv., id. a; in apod, of
conditions contrary to fact, 517. b, c,
522. a ; in causal clauses, 540 ; in clause
with quod, 572; in deliberative ques-
tions, 444. a. N.
indigeo, w. gen., 356. N.
indignus,w. abl., 418. b;w. qui and subjv.,
535./.
Indirect Discourse, origin etc., 577;
list of verbs that take ind. disc.,^x*i^
ftn. ; dire t and indir. quotation, 578./
Moods in ind. disc, 580; verb of say-
ing implied, id. a. Subj, ace, 580.
Subord. clause when explanatory, 583;
clauses w. rel. which is equivalent to
demonstr., id. 6. Tenses of inf. in ind.
disc, 584; tenses of subjv., 585; subjv.
depending on perf. inf., id. a; pres.
and perf. after secondary tense {reprae-
sentdtio), id. b. Conditional sentences
in ind. disc, 689 ; questions, 586 ; delib-
erative subjv., 587; commands, 588;
prohibition, id. N. 2. Informal ind.
disc, 591. 1, 592.
Indirect object, 274, 361, 362, 366, 367.
Indirect Questions, defined, 330, 331 ; Syn-
tax, 331. N., 332. 6. N., 573-575; fut.
tense in, 575. a; deliberative subjv. in,
id. 6; indie in (early Lat.), id. c; num
in, 332. b. N.
Indirect quotation, 578.
Indirect reflexive, 300. 2 and^^.
Indo-European, 14, 18, 19. \
indued, w. names of authors, 497\(Z. N.
induo, double constr. of, 364.
ineo, constr., 370. b.
ineptus, constr., 505. a. ftn.
inermis or -us, 122. a.
infera, defect.. 111. 6, cf. p 56. ftn. 2;
compar., 130. 6.
inferi, meaning in plur., 130. b.
inferior, comparison, 130. 6.
Infinitive Clauses, as subj. or obj., 452;
w. pass, vbs., 582 and a. See also In-
direct Discourse. Cf . also 459.
Infinitive Mood, 154. b and ftn. ; tenses
of, 164. 3. b, 486 ; how used, 157. d ; pass.
in -ier, 183. 4; fut. inf. of deponents,
190. c; subject in ace, 397. e.
Infinitive Mood, Syntax, 451-463 ; used
as subject, 452; complementary inf.,
456 ; vbs. having subjv. or inf., 457 (cf .
563); inf. for obj. clause, 563. n. ; w.
subject ace, 459; case of predicate
noun, 581 and n. 3 ; iuL of purpose, 460 ;
w. adjs., in poetry, 461 ; of result, id. a;
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
469
as pure noun, id. &; in exclamations,
462 (sequence, 482. n.). Historical inf.,
463. Tenses of inf., 486; jrerf. instead
of pres., id. d, e; fore ut etc., for fut,
inf., 569. a. Inf. in ind. disc, 579;
tenses, 584.
Infinitive used as noun, gender, 33; w,
gen., 343. c. (See also Infinitive Mood,
Syntax.)
infltias, defect., 103. h. 6; use, 428. L
Inflection, defined, 21; terminations of,
id. 6; how modified, 28; of decl. and
conj., 22.
Influence, vbs. of, w. ut-clause, 563.
Informal Indirect Discourse, 691, 592.
infra, use, 220. a, 221. 13.
ingens, decl., 121. a. 3; compar., 131. b.
iniuria, as abl.'of manner, 412. be
Iniussu, defect., 94. c.
inops, decl., 121. a. 3, &. 1.
inquam, inquit, 206. b ; position of, 599. c.
Inseparable particles, 267. 6.
Insertion of consonants (p in sumpsi),
15. 11, 639.
insidiae, dat. w., 867. d.
inspergo, constr., 364.
instar, indecl., 103. a; w. gen., 359. 6
insto, constr., 563.
Instrument, abl. of, 409.
Instrumental case, 35. N. (of. 338, 398);
as adv., 215. 4; source of several abL
constructions, 408.
insulam, ad, 428. a.
integer, decl., 112. a.
Integral part, subjv. of, 591, 593.
integrum est ut, 568.
Intensive pronoun, 146. n. 7, 8, 298. c-f.
Intensive vbs., 263. 2 and b.
inter, use, 220. a, 221. 14 ; in comp., 267. a ;
vbs. comp. w. , 370 ; position, 435 ; inter se
(reciprocal), 145. c, 301./; inter sicarios,
353. 2; inter, w. gerund, 606 and N. K
intercludo, constr., 364 and n. 2.
interdico, constr., 364. N. l.
interest, constr., 365; w. ad, id. b; how
to express degree of interest, id. n. 2.
interior, compar., 130. a.
Interjections, defined, 20; list, 226; w.
dat., 379. a.
Interlocked order of words, 598. h.
Intermediate clauses, Syntax of, 691-
593.
Interrogative ad vs., use, 333; position,
598. 6.
Interrogative particles, list of, 217 d;
use, 331-333.
Interrogative pronouns, 148-151; use,
333; position, 598. b.
Interros:ative sentences, 269. b ; forms of,
330-336.
intra (interior), 130. a; derivation, 215. 4.
Intransitive verbs, 273. 2, 274. n. ; used
impersonally in pass., 208. d; dat. w.,
366 ff. ; used transitively, w. ace. and
dat., 369 (cf . 388. a. n.) ; w. cognate ace,
390 ; having passive sense, w. ab, 405. a.
-inus, adj. ending, 249.
inutilis, w. dat. of gerund etc., 506. a.
invictus, compar., 131. a.
invitus, compar., 131. a.
-io, noim ending, 238. 6 ; gend., 86.
-io, vbs. in, conj. Ill, 176. b. 2; forms
of, 179. c, e; paradigm, 188; conj. IV,
179. d; derivation, 262.
locus, plur. in -i or -a, 106. b.
Ionic measure, 609. c ; verse, 626. 16.
ip-, stem-ending, 56. a.
ipse, formation, 146. n. 7, 8 ; decl., 146 ; use,
298. c; used instead of reflexive, 300. b.
in, in fut. inf. pass., 203. a.
Ironical statement not different in form
from question, 332. a. n.
Irrational measures, 609. e, 623. k.
-is-, -iss-, -sis-, dropped in perf ., 181. 6. n.2.
is, decl., 146; use, 152, 297. d. e; used
emphatically, 298. a; used instead of
reflexive, 300. b.
-is, nom. ending, gend., 86; -is, patro-
nymic, 244.
-is, for -iis in decl. I. 43. e. N.2; nom. and
ace. plur., decl. HI, 77 (cf. 73) ; of adjs.,
117, 121. c ; Greek nom. ending, 83. b.
-is, nouns in, see it-.
Islands, names of, loc, use, 427. 3, 428. e ;
from which, 427. 1 ; to which, id. 2.
-isse, -issem, vb. ending, see 181. 6.
-isso, vbs. ending in, 263. b.
iste, shortened to ste, 146. n. 5; decl., 146 ;
use, 297. c,
istic, decl., 146. a.
It, as sign of Impersonals, 207. ftn.
■ it- as stem-ending, 58. 6; decl., 78, 121. cr. 4.
ita, correl. with ut, 323. g; in answers,
336. a; ita ut, 537. 2. N. 2.
itaque, accent, 12. a; compared with
ergo, 324. i ; used with ergo, id. k ; posi-
tion of, 599. b.
iter, stem of, 79. c.
Iterative subjunctive, 518. c.
Iterative verbs (-t5, -ito, -so), 263. 2.
-ito, vbs. in, 263. 2.
-itus, adj. ending, 246.
iubar, decl., 76. a. 3.
iubeo, w. ace, 367. a; w. inf., 663. a; in
pass., 666. c.
iucundus, constr., 510. N. 2.
iugerum, defect. 103. d. 3; decl., 105. 6;
measure, 636.
-ium, gen. plur., decl. Ill, 74. a; of adjs.
114. a, 117, 121. b.
-ium, noun ending, 241. b.
iungo, w. abl. or dat.. 368. 3. n., 413. n.
460
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
luppiter, stem and decl., 79 and b ; plural,
100. a ; deriyation, 266. c.
-ius, adjs. in, gen., voc. of, 110. a; forma-
tion of adjs. in, 247, 252. n.
ius (broth), decl., 103. g. 1.
-ius, gen. sing, ending, 113; quantity, id.
c, 603. a. Exc. 1.
iussu, defect., 94. c, 103. 6. 5.
iusto, w. compar., 406. a.
iuvat, w. ace, 388. c.
iuveuis, decl., 62. N.3, 78. 1; masc. adj.,
122. d\ compar., 131. c.
iuv5, w. aec, 367. a.
iuxta, position, 435.
-iv-, in perl, 211. d.
-ivus, verbal adj. ending, 251. N.
J (the character), 5 n. i; Eng. sound, id.
Julian Calendar, 630, 631. e.
K, supplanted by C, 1. a. N.
kalendae, 631. a.
Kindred forms, Latin and English, 18, 19.
Kindred signification, ace. of, 390,
Knowing, vbs. of, w. ace. and inf., 459.
Knowledge, adjs. of, w. gen., 349. a.
ko-(ka-), primai-y tuffix, 234. II. 12.
L, nouns in -1, gend., 87; adj. stems in
1-, 117. a.
Labials, 4. 2 ; stems, decl. Ill, 56 and a.
lab5ro, w. abl., 404. a.
lacus, decl., 89 ; dat. and abl. plur. in-ubus,
92. c.
laedo, w. ace, 367. a.
laetor, laetus, w. abl., 431.
lampas, decl., 82.
lateo, w. ace, 396. c.
latet, w. ace, 388. e. N.i.
latifundium, 285. 2.
latus, part., derivation, 200. ftn. 2.
Learning, vbs. of, w. inf., 456.
Length, expressed by gen., 345. 6.
-lens, -lentus, adj. endings, 245.
leo, decl., 62.
Letters, classification of, 1-5.
levis, decl., 116; compar., 124.
leviter, compar., 218.
liber, adj., decl., 50, 111. o.
Liber, decl., 50.
Uberi, noun, 50, 101. 3.
libet, impers., 208. c. N. ; w. dat., 368. 1.
licet, impers., synopsis, 207 ; use, 208. c.
N. ; w. dat., 368. 1 ; w. predicate dat.,
455. 1; w. subjv., meaning although^
527. 6 ; licet earn, licet me ire, licet mihi
Ire, 5(35 and n. 2,
Likeness, adjs. of, w. dat., 384; w. gen.,
385. c.
Limiting word, meaning of, 270. b.
Liusuals, 4. 3 ; stems in, decl. Ill, 68. a.
Unter, decl., 66.
Liquids, 3, 4 ; stems in, decl. Ill, 61-64.
-lis, adjs. in, compar,, 126.
Litotes, 326. c.
-lium, noun ending, 241. c.
11-, as stem ending, 62. n. i.
10- (la-), primary sufiix, 234. II. 10.
Locative abl., 426. 3; idiomatic use,
429. 3; adverbial forms, 215. 5.
Locative, defined, 35. h, p. 34. ftn. (cf.
360) ; in abl., 398, 421 ; of decl, I, 43. c ;
decl. II, 49. a; decl. Ill, 80; decl. IV
(domi), 93. N. i ; decl. V, 98. b ; as adv.,
215, 5; w. abl. in apposition, 282, d;
relative adv. used to refer to, 308. g\
animi, 358 ; loe used to express where,
426. 3; forms (domi etc.), 427. a.
loco, abl. without prep,, 429. 1.
loco, vb,, constr., 430.
locum capere, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505.
locus, plur. -i or -a, 106. b.
Logaoedic Verse, 623-625.
Long and Short, see Quantity.
longius, without quam, 407, c.
ludicer, decl., 112. a.
lues, defect., 103. d. 1.
lux, decl., 103. g. 2.
M, final, elision of, 612. a. N.,/; inserted
in verb root, 176, c. 2.
-m, sign of ace, 338; omitted in inscrip-
tions, 46. N. 1.
macer, decl., 112. a.
macte virtute, use and constr., 340. c
and N.
magis, as sign of comparV^128; comps.
of, w. quam, 434.
magni, gen. of value, 417.
magnus, comparison, 129.
maiestatis, w. words of accusing etc.
352. a.
Main clause, defined, 278. 6.
maior natu, 131. c.
maiores, signification of, 101. 3 (cf. 102. 2),
291. c. N. 3.
Making, vbs. of, constr., 393.
male, compar., 218; compounds of, w.
dat., 368. 2.
malo, conj., 199.
malus, compar., 129.
mando, constr., 563.
mane, defect, noun, 76. N. i, 103. b. 5.
maneo, w. abl., 431.
Manner, advs. of, 217. c ; abl. of, 412 and
b ; hard to distinguish from abl. of speci-
fication, 418. a, N ; manner implied in
participle, 496.
mansuetus, 266. c.
manus, decl., 89; gend., 90. Exc
mare, decl., 76. a. 3, 78.
mari, loc, 427. a.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
461
«as, decl., 71. 6.
Masculine, rule for gender, 31.
Masculine adjs., 122. d.
Masculine caesura, 615. c. n.
Material, adjectives denoting, 247 ; gen.
of, 344 ; abl. of, 403 and b, c, d.
maxime, as sign of superl., 128.
May, how expressed in Latin, 157. 6.
m6 dius fidius, o97. d. N. ^.
Means, nouns denoting, 239 ; abl. of, 408,
409 ; participle implying means, 49G.
Measure, gen. ot, 345. h (cf. 425. a).
Measures in Prosody, 608-610 ; names of,
609 ; contracted or resolved, 610.
Measures of value, 632-035; of length,
636 ; of weight, 637 ; of capacity, 638.
medeor, w. dat. or ace, 367. 6.
mediocris, decl., 115. a. n. i.
Meditative verbs, 263. 2. h.
medius {middle part of), 293.
melior, decl., 120.
melius est, w. infin. 486./.
memini, conj., 205; in pres. sense, id. 0,
476 ; imperative of, 449. a ; memini w.
ace. or gen., 350. a, 6; w. pres. inf.,
584. a and n.
memor, decl., 121. a. 3.
Memory, adjs. of, constr., 349. a; vbs. of,
constr., 350.
men-, primary suffix, 234. II. 14.
-men, -mentum, noun endings, 239.
mensis, decl., 78. 2.
meridies, gend., 97.
-met (enclitic), 143. d.
Metathesis, 640 (cf. 177. a. n.).
Metre, see Prosody^
metuo, w. dat. or ace, 367. c; w. subjv.,
564.
meus, voc. mi, 110. a. N. ; syntax of,
302. a, 343. a.
Middle voice, 397. c, 410. N.
Mile, 636.
miles, decl., 57.
Military expressions, dat. In, 382. 2 ; abl.
of means instead of agent, 405. 6. n. i ;
abl. of accomp. without cum, 413. a.
militiae (locative), 427. a.
mille (milia), decl. and constr., 134. d.
-mini, as personal ending, p. 76. ftn. 1.
minlme, compar., 218. a\ use, 291. c. N. 2;
"W. neg. force, 392. a ; in answer {no) , 336.
a. 2.
minlstro, w. infin., 460. a.
minor natii, 131. c.
minoris, gen. of value, 417 and c.
minorgs, signification, 291. c. N. '.
-minus, -mnus, verbal adjective endings,
253. c.
minus, compar., 218. a; use, 291. c. N.2;
w. si and quo, = not, 329. a ; constr.
without quam, 407. c.
miror si, 572, b. N. .
mirum quam (quantum), w. indicative
675. d. i
mis, tis, 143. a. n.
misceo, w. abl. or dat., 368. 3. n., 413. a. n,
miser, decl., Ill; compar., 126.
misere, compar., 218.
misereor, w. gen., 354. a.
miseresc5, w. gen., 354. a.
miseret, 208. 6; w. gen. and ace, 354. 6;
other constr,, id. n.
miseror, w, ace, 354. a. n.
Mixed i-stems, 70-72.
-mnus, see -minus.
mo- (ma-), primary suffix, 234. II. 7.
Modesty, subjunctive of, 447. 1.
Modification of subj. or pred., 276.
Modifiers, position of, 596-699 ; of nega-
tive, 699. a.
modo (mode ne) with subiv. of proviso,
528.
modo . . , modo, 323. /.
modo as abl. of manner, 412. 6.
molaris, decl., 76. a. 2.
moneo, conj., 185 ; constr., 351, 390. d. N. i.
-monium, -monia, noun endings, 239.
Monoptotes, 103, 6.
Monosyllables, quantity, 604. a-c.
Months, gend. of names of, 31 and n. ;
decl. of names of in -ber, 115. a ; names
of, 630; divisions of in Roman Calen-
dar, 631.
Moods, names and uses of, 164, 157 ; note
on origin and nature of, 436; syntax
of, 264-275, 437-463.
Moods in temporal clauses, how distin-
guished, 645, 546 and notes.
Mora, in Prosody, 608. a.
morigerus, decl., 111. a, n.
mos est ut, 568.
Mother, name of, w. prep., 403, a. N. i.
Motion, how expressed, 363, 331. a, 402;
indicated by compounds, 388. 6; im-
plied, 428. J. N.
Motion, end of, see End of Motion.
Motive, how expressed, 404. 6.
Mountains, names of, gend., 31 and 6.
Mulciber, decl., 60. c.
muliebris, decl., 116. a. n. l,
multa nocte, 293. n.
Multiplication by distributives, 137. c.
Multiplicatives, 139.
multum (-6), compar., 218. a.
multus, compar., 129.
munus, decl., 105. g\ munus est ut, 668.
mils, decl., 71. 6.
musica (-e), decl., 44.
Musical accent, 611.
mutate, constr., 417. b.
Mutes, 4 ; mute stems, decl. Ill, 56-64.
mythos, decl., 52.
462
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
N, 4; as final letter of stem (leon-), 61. 1 ;
preceding stem vowel of vb.,176. 6.1;
inserted in verb root (tango), 17(3. c. 2,
177. 6. N.
nais, decl., 82.
-nam (enclitic) , in questions, 333. a.
nam, namque, use, 324. h, k.
Names of men and women, 108.
Naming, vbs. of, w. two aces., 393.
Nasals, 4, 6 ; inserted in verb root, 176. c. 2.
natalis, decl., 76. h. 2.
natu (maior, minor), 131. c.
natus etc., Wo abl. of source, 403. a.
navis, decl., 76. 6. 1.
-nd, -nt, vowel short before, 10. e.
-ndus, verbal adj. ending, 253. a; gerun-
dive in, 158. d.
-ne (enclitic), use in questions, 332. a-c\
w. force of n5nne, 332. c ; orig. mean-
ing, id. N. 1 ; in double questions, 335 ;
in exclamatory questions, 462. a ; quan-
tity, 604. a. 1.
ne, neg. of hortatory subjv., 439; in pro-
hibitions, 450. 3 ; in concessions, 527. a ;
w. subjv. of proviso, 528. 6; in final
clauses, 531;=nedum, 532, n. i; in
substantive clauses, w. vbs. of hinder-
ing, 558. 6; of fearing, 564; omitted
after cave, 565. n. i.
ne non, w. vbs. of fearing, 564.
ne . . . quidem, use, 322./; after non, 327.
1 ; after non modo, 217. e ; position of,
599. 6.
Nearness, adjs. of, w. dat., 384; w. gen.,
385. c.
nee enim, 324. h.
necesse, indecl., 103. N. i ; necesse est ut,
568, 569. 2. n. 2.
Necessity, vbs. of, w. perf. pass, inf.,
486. d\ in apod., 517. c, 522. a; w. ut-
clause, 569. 2.
necne in double questions, 335 and n.
nedum, 532. N. i, 2.
nefas, indecl., 103. a; w. supine in-ii, 510.
Negation, perfect preferred in, 475. a.
Negative answers, 332. b, 336 and a. 2.
Negative particles, list of, 217. e; use
of, 325 ; two negatives, 326 ; neg. form
different from English, 328 ; neg. con-
dition, 525. a ; neg. proviso, 528 ; neg.
purpose, 531; neg. result, 538, 508;
position of, 599. a.
nego, better than dico . . . non, 328, 580. 6.
negotium do ut, 563. ftn. 2.
nemo, use of, 314 ; gen. and abl. sing, re-
placed by niillius and nuUo, 314. a ; nem5
non, 326. h ; nemo est qui, 535. a. n. i.
neque (nee), and not, 328. a; neque enim,
use, 324. h ; neque after a neg., 327. 2, 3.
nequam, indecl., 122. 6; compar. of, 129.
nequeo. conj.. 206. d.
nequis, decl., 310. a.
nescio an, 575. d.
nescio quis, as indefinite without subjv..
575. d.
-neus, adj. ending, 247.
Neuter ace. as adv., 214. d, cf. 6. n.
Neuter adjs., special uses of, 289.
Neuter gender, general rule for, 33 ; cases
alike In, 38. 6 ; endings of decl. Ill, 87.
Neuter pron. as cognate ace, 390. c.
Neuter verbs, see Intransitive Verbs.
neve, connective in prohibitions, 450. n. 6,
nex, decl., 103. g. 2.
ni-, primary suffix, 234. II. 5.
ni, nisi, 512, N ; use of, 525. a.
-uia, -nium, noun endings, 241. c.
niger, decl., 112; distinct f rom ater, 131.
d. N.
nihil, indecl,, 103, a; contr, to nil, 603. c,
nihili, gen. of value, 417. a.
nihil! and nihilo, 103. a. n. 2.
nimirum quam,as indefinite without subjv, ,
575, d.
ningit, 208, a.
nisi and si non, 525. a; nisi si, id. 3;
nisi vero (forte), id, 6.
nitor, w. abl,, 431,
nix (stem and decl.), 79. d\ plur., 100. h.
No, in answers, how expressed, 336. a. 2.
no- (na-), primary suffix, 234. II. 4.
no-, verb suffix, i76. 6.1.
noli, in prohibitions, 450. (1) and n . i.
nolo, conj., 199; part. w. dat. of the per-
son judging,^ 378. n. ; w. perf. act. inf.
in prohibition§^-486. c. ; w. perf. pass,
inf, (or part.), id.^-and n.
Nomen, denoting gens, 108.
nomen, decl., 64.
nomen est, w. pred. nom. or dat., 373, a;
w. gen,, id. n.
Nominal adjs., 243-254.
NoMiNATR'E defined, 35. a; nom. suffix,
338; neut. plur, nom, and ace, alike,
38. 6; in decl. II, 45, a; in decl. Ill,
56, 58, 61, 66, 79 ; of neuters, i-stems,
68. a ; in u-stems, decl. IV, 88 ; in e-
stems, decl, V, 95.
Nominative, Syntax (see 338) : in pred-
icate, 283, 284; verb-agreement with,
316; as subject, 339; in exclamations,
339. a (cf , 397. d) ; used for vocative,
340. a ; w. opus in predicate, 411. 6 ;
nom, of gerund supplied by inf,, 502, n.
non, derivation, 215, 1; compounds of,
326, a, 6 ; in answers, 336, a. 2,
non dubito quin, 558. a ; non dubito w. inf.,
id. N. 2; w. indir. quest., id. N. i.
non modo, after a negative, 327. 1.
non modo . . . ne . . . quidem, 217. e.
non nemo, non nullus, etc., 326. a.
non quia (quod, quo, quin) etc., 540. N. 3.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
463
n5n satis, 291. c. n. 2.
Nones (nonae), 631. c.
nonne, in questions, 332. 6.
nos, decl., 143; for ego, 143. a.
noster, for poss. gen., 302. a.
nostri, as objective gen., 143. c, 295. 6.
nostrum, as partitive gen., 143, h, 295. 6;
as objective gen., 295. h. n. 1.
Noun and adj. forms of vb., 106.
Noun stem, treated as root, 176. d.
Nouns defined, 20. a; indecl., gend., 33;
decl. of, 37-95 ; derivative forms of, 235-
241; used as adjectives, 321. c; rule of
agreement, 281 ; w. part, gen., 346. a. 1 ;
w. obj. gen., 348; governing ace, 388.
d. N. 2 ; noun as protasis, 521. a.
Nouns of agency, 235 ; formation, 236.
novendecim, 133. N. 2.
nox, decl., 72.
ns, nf, gn, quantity of preceding vowel,
10. d, 603. d.
-ns, as adjective ending, 118; participles
in, decl., 119, 121. 6.2; w. gen., 349. b\
w. ace, id. N. 1, 2.
nt- (ont-, ent-) , primary suifix, 234. II. 18,
nt-, stems in, decl., 121. a. 4.
nu-, primary suffix, 234. II. 6.
nubes, decl., 72.
nubo, w. dat., 368. 3.
nullus; decl., 113; use, 314. a; cf. nemo,
num, force of, .332. 6; in indirect ques-
tions, id. N.
Number, 35; nouns, defect, in, 99, 100,
101, 103./, g; variable in, 107; pecul-
iar uses, 101. N. 1, 317. d. n. 2 ; number
in vbs., 154. e; agreement in, 280; vr.
appositives, 282. a ; "W. adjs., 286 and h ;
w. vbs., 316, 317. d.
Numeral advs., 138.
Numerals, 132-139; cardinals and ordi-
nals, 132, 133 ; distributives, 136 ; advs.,
138; others, 139. Position of numeral
adjs., .598. h.
numquis, 149. 6, 310. a.
nunc, compared w. iam, 322. 6.
nunc . . . nunc, 323. /.
nurus, gend., 90.
-nus, adj. ending, 250,
for u after u or v, 6, a, 6 ; in decl. II,
46. N. 1.
0- (a-), primary suffix, 234. 1. 1.
-0 in nom., 61. 1; gend., 86; in fern. abl.
of Greek adjs.. 111. 6. n.
-o, -onis, noun ending, 236. c, 255.
6 si, w. subjv. of wish, 442. a and n. K
o-stems, decl. II, 45; in adjs., 111-113;
vbs. from o-stems, 259. 2.
Ob, use, 220. a, 221, 15; in comp., 267. a;
in comp. w. vbs., w. dat., 370 ; to express
cause, 404, h ; w. gerund, 606 and n. 1,
obeo, constr., 370. b
Obeying, vbs. of, 367 ; w, ace., id. a.
Object cases, 274. a.
Object clauses, infin., 452 ; subjv., 561-568.
Object defined, 274; becomes subj. ol
pass., 275, 387. &; ace. of direct w.
dat. of indir. obj., 362; secondary
obj., 394; obj. of anticipation, 576.
Objective case expressed in Latin by gen.,
dat., ace, or abl., 274. a.
Objective compounds, 265. 3.
Objective genitive, mei etc., 143. c; de-
fined, 348. N.; w. nouns, 348; w. adjs.,
349.
Obligation, unfulfilled, hortatory subjv..
439. h.
Oblique cases, 35. g ; origin of names of,
338.
obliviscor, w. ace. or gen., 350. a, h.
obvius (obviam), derivation, 216 and n.;
obviam as apparent adj., 321. d ; w. dat.,
370. c.
Occasion, expressed by participle, 496.
ocior, compar., 130.
octodecim, 133. n. 2,
odi, conj., 205; w. meaning of present, 476.
-oe, for -i in nom. plur., decl. 11, 52. d.
offendo, constr., 370. b.
-oius, names in, 49. /.
Old forms of pronouns: mis, tis, 143. a.
N. ; med, ted, id.
oUus (ille), 146. n. 4.
-olus, diminutive ending, 243.
Omission, of possessive, 302. c; of ante-
cedent, 307. c.
omnes; nos omnes (instead of omnes nos-
trum), 346. e.
6n-, stem-ending, 83. c.
-on, Greek ending, decl. II, 52.
on-, stem-ending, 61. 1, 234. II. 13.
-on, gen. plur., decl. II, 52. c.
-on, nom. ending, 83. c, d.
ont-, nom. -on, 83. d.
Open syllables, 7. n. 2.
opera, w. gen., 405. h.
operam do, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505;
w. subjv., 563.
Operations of nature, 208. a.
opinione, w. compar., 406. a.
opinor, position of, 599. c.
oportet, 208. c; w. ace, 388. c; in apod.,
517. c; imperfect refers to present,
plupf. to past, 522. a. n. ^ ; w. subjv. or
inf., 665 and N. 3.
oportuit, w. pres. inf,, 486. a; w. perf.
inf., id, h.
oppidum, ad, 428, h.
oppagno, w. ace, 370. h,
ops, defect., 10-3./. 1.
Optative, derivation, and comparisoc
w. subjv., 436.
464
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
Optative forms in the vb., 168. e. n.2,
169. d.
Optative subjv. (loish), 441; w. utinam
etc., 442; velim etc. w. subjv., equiv.
to, id. b.
optimates, 71. 5, 101. 3.
opus, indecl., 103. a; opus and usus, w.
abl., 411; as pred. nom., id. 6; w.
participle, 497. a; w. supine in -u, 510.
or-, stem-ending, decl. Ill, 63. Exc. 2.
-or, noun ending, 238. a.
-or or -OS, nom. ending, 62. n. ^ ; gend., 85.
Ordtio obliqua, see Indirect Discourse.
Order of words, 595-601.
Ordinal Numbers, 132-135; decl., 134. e;
use of et with, 135. a, b.
oro, constr., 563.
Orpheus, decl., 52. e.
OS-, stem of comparatives, 120. 6.
-OS for -us, in nom. sing., decl. II, 46, n. i ;
as Greek ending, 52 ; as gen. ending in
Greek nouns, decl. Ill, 81. 1.
OS, ossis, stem, 79.
-6s, nom. ending, 62. n. 2; gend., 85.
OS, oris, decl., 103. g. 2.
-osus, -lens, -lentus, adj. endings, 245.
ovat (defective), 206./.
ovis, decl., 76. b. 1.
P, parasitic after m (sumpsi) , 15. 11.
pacts, as abl. of manner, 412. 6.
paene, in apod., 517. 6. n. 2.
paenitet, 208. b ; constr., 354. 6, c.
Paeon, 609. d.
palam, as apparent adj., 321. d; w. abl.,
432. c.
Palatals, 4.
paluster, decl., 115. a.
Panthus, vocative of, 52. 6.
par, decl., 119, 121. a. 3; w. gen., 385. c;
w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. ftn. 2.
Parallel verb forms, 189.
Parataxis, 268.
paratus, w. infin., 460. 6.
Pardoning, vbs. of, w. dat., 367.
Parisyllabic nouns of decl. Ill, 65. a.
pariter, use, 384. n. 2.
parte, locative use, without prep., 429. 1.
partem, adverbial use, 397. a.
particeps, decl., 121. a. 4, b.
Pajrticiples, defined, 20. 6. n. A; com-
parison of, 124. a; number of, 1.55. a;
how used, 158.
Participles, Syntax, 488-.500; agree-
ment, 286 and n. ; clause equivalent to
part., 308. c ; parts, in -ns, used as adjs.,
w. gen., 349. 6; parts, in flbl. absolute,
419; meaning and form, 488; tenses,
489-493; present in special use, 490;
pres. pass, part., how supplied, 492;
pert act., how supplied, 493 ; parts, of
deponent vbs., 190. a, b, 491, 493 ; adjec-
tive use, 494 ; as nouns, id . a ; predicate
use, 495, 496 ; w. opus, 497. a ; perf . w.
habeo, id. 6 ; present w. facio, id. c; fut-
ure part., 498; w. past tenses of esse,
498. 6 ; poetic and late use, 499 ; gerund-
ive, use as part, or adj., 500; part, as
protasis, 521. a.
Particles defined, 23; forms and classifi-
cation, 213; note on formation, 21.j.
216; interrogative, 217. d; negative,
id. e, 325; in comps., 267. Syntax, 321-
336 ; use of interrogative particles, 332.
a-c; conditional particles, 512. a and
N., 525 ; particles of comparison, 524.
Particular conditions defined, 513.
partior, conj., 190.
Partitive apposition, 282. a.
Partitive genitive, 346; nostrum etc., 143.
b ; neut. adjs. with, 346. 3 and n. i.
Partitive numerals, 139. c.
Parts of Speech, 20.
partus, decl., 92. c.
parum, compar., 218. a ; meaning, 291. c.
N.2.
parvi, gen. of value, 417.
parvus, compar., 129.
Passive voice, 154. a; origin, 163. ftn. 2,
208. d. N. ; signification, 156 ; reflexive
meaning, id. a ; deponents, 156. b ? com-
pleted tenses, how formed, 179. g;
passivkused impersonally, 203. a, 208.
e?, 372 (ct. 566, 582. a).
pater families, decl., 43. b.
patiens, compar., 124. a.
patior, constr., 563. c.
Patrials in -as, decl., 71. 5, 121. a. 4.
Patronymics (-ades, -ides, -eus, etc.), 244.
pauper, decl., 121. a. 4.
pax, decl., 103. g. 2.
pecu, gend., 91; decl., 105./.
pecuniae, gen., w. vbs. of accusing, 352.
a and n.
pedester, decl., 115. a.
pelagus (plur. pelage) , gend. of, 48. a.
pelvis, decl., 76. b. 1.
Penalty, gen. of, 352 and n. ; abl. of,
353. 2.
Penates, decl., 71. 5 (cf. 101. 3).
penes, following noun, 435.
Pentameter verse, 616.
Penult, defined, 12.
penus, gend., 90. Exc. ; decl., 105. c.
per, prep., 220. a; use, 221. 16; w. ace.
of agent, 405. b. Adverbial prefix, w.
adis., 267. d. 1 (cf. 291. c. n. i) ; w. vbs.,
26t. d. N.
Perceiving, vbs. of, constr., 459.
perendie (loc), 98. 6, 215. 5.
Perfect participle, two uses, 158. c. 1, 2;
of deponents, 190. b\ used as nonii,
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
465
retains adv., 321. 6; dat. of agent w.,
375 ; abl. w. opus and usus, 411. a, 497. a.
Perfect Tense distinguished from im-
perf., 161, 471 ; perf. def. and perf . hist.,
161, 473 ; personal endings, 163. a, 169.
a ; origin of i and s in, 163. ftn, 3 ; stem,
how formed, 177, 179 ; perf. subjv., suf-
fixes of, 169. d; of conj. I, 179. a. 2;
contracted perf ., 181. a, 6; perf. subjv.
in -Sim, 183. 3; irreg. forms of conj. I,
209. a; of conj. II, 210. c; various, of
conj. Ill, 211; of conj. IV, 212.
Perfect Tense, Syntax. Perf. Ind.,
use, 473; in general conditions, id. a,
518. 6 ; gnomic perf., 475 ; in fut. condi-
tions, 516. e. Perf. Subjv., hortatory,
439 and n. i ; optative, 441. a ; potential,
j44Sj in prohibitions, 450 (3) ; in fut. con-
ditions, 616. c. Perf. Inf., in exclama-
tions, 462 and n. 2 ; w. debeo etc., 486. b ;
w. nolo or vol5 in prohibition, id. c ; pass,
w. volo etc., id. d; instead of the pres.
inf., id. e ; w. vbs. of feeling etc., id./;
in ind. disc, 584. a and n. Sequence of
Tenses, perf. ind., 485. a; peri, subjv.,
id. b, c, 585. a.
Pericles, decl., 82.
Period, 600, 601.
Periphrastic conjugations, 158. 6. n., d.
N. ; paradigms, 195, 196; periphrastic
forms in conjugation, 193; use in con-
trary to fact apodosis, 617. d; in ind.
questions, 575. a.
Perniission, vbs. of, constr., 663. c.
permuto, w. abl., 417. 6.
pernox, decl., 122. c.
perpes, decl., 121. a. 3.
Person, 154. d; agreement, 280; of vbs.,
316 and a ; w. different persons, 317. a ;
order of the three persons, id.
Personal constr. of passive w. infinitive,
582.
Personal endings, 163 and ftn. 1.
Personal pronouns, 142, 143, 2^, 295; re-
duplicated forms, 143. e; Syntax, 295;
omitted, id. a, 318, a ; gen. plur., 295. 6 ;
3d pers., id. c ; position of personal and
demonstrative, 599./.
persuadeo, constr., 563.
Persuading, vbs. of, w. dat., 367.
pertaesum est, 354. 6.
pes, comps. of, decl., 121.6. 1.
Pet names, gend., 30. a. n.^.
peto w. ab, 396. a ; w. subjv., 563.
ph only in Greek words, 4. 1. ftn. 2;
sound of, 8.
Phalsecian verse, 625. 11.
Pherecratic verse, 623. 2, 624, 625. 2, 4, 12.
Phonetic variations, 14-19; phonetic
decay, id. ; vowels, 15, 17 ; consonants,
15. 4-17.
Phrase, defined, 277.
Phrases, neut., 33; phrases and clauses
grown into advs., 216; adverbial
phrases, 277 ; phrases limited by gen.,
343. c; phi-ase or clause in abl. abs.,
419. b.
Physical qualities, abl., 415. a.
piger, decl., 112. a.
piget, constr., 354. 6.
Pity, vbs. of, constr., 354. a.
plus, compar., 128. n., 131. a.
pix, decl., 103. g. 2.
Place, advs. of, 217. a; relations of, re-
quire prep., 381. a, 426; place of birth,
abl., 403. a. N.2; place where, 426. 3,
427. 3 ; place to or from which, 426. 1,2;
prep., when omitted, 426. ftn., 427. 1, 2.
a, 429. a ; locative case, 427. 3. a, 428. k.
Placing, vbs. of, constr., 430.
Plants, gend. of names of, 32 and 6;
decl. of plant names in -us, 105. a.
plaudo, w. dat., 368. 3.
Plautus, absque me etc. , 517./; use of quom
w. indie, 546. n.*, 549. n.3; prosodial
forms, 620. a, 628. b, 629.
Pleasing, vbs. of, constr., 367.
plebes, decl., 98. d.
Plenty, vbs. of, constr., 356, 409. a.
plenus, constr., 409. n.
-plex, numeral adjs. in, 139.
pluit (impers.), 208. a; used personally,
id. N.
Pluperfect Indicative, suffixes of, 169. 6 ;
use of, 477 ; epistolary, 479 ; pluperf .
indie, in conditions cont. to fact, 517. b ;
in general conditions, 518. 6. Pluperf.
Subjv., suffixes of, 169. e; hortatory,
439. b ; optative, 441 ; potential, 446 ; in
conditions, 517 (sequence, 485. g).
Plural, wanting in decl. V, 98. a; used
in sense different from sing., 100. a-c,
107 ; plur. alone used, 101. n.i ; plur. ace.
used as advs., 215. 3 ; neut. plur. of adjs.,
289. b.
Plur cilia tantum, 101.
pluris, gen. of value, 417 and c.
plus, decl., 120 and c; compar., 129; with-
out quam, 407. c.
poema, dec!., 60. a.
poenitet, see paenitet.
pond5, defect., 103. b. 5.
pono, w. abl., 430.
por-, prefix, 267. b.
porticus, gend., 90. Exc.
portus, decl., 92, c.
Position, expressed by ab, ex, 429. &.
Position in Prosody, 11. b, 603./; does not
affect final vowel, 603./. n. i.
posse, as fut. inf., 584. 6.
Possession, how expressed, 302, a; dat.
of, 373; compared w. gen., id. n.
466
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
Possessive compounds, 265. a.
Possessive genitive, oio and a-c; dat. of
reference used instead, 377.
Possessive pronouns, 145; agreement,
302 ; iusteadof gen., id. a ; special mean-
ings, id. 6; omission, id. c; used sub-
stantively, id. d\ w. gen. in app., id. e;
used for gen., 343. a; for obj. gen.,
.'M8. a.
Possibility, vbs. of, in apodosis, 517. c.
possum, in apodosis, 517. c.
post, adverbial use of, 433. 1 ; with quam,
434.
post, vbs. comp. w., with dat., 370.
postera, defect., 111. &; compar., 130. 6;
posteri, id.
posterior, 130. 6.
Postpositive conjunctions, 324. J.
postquam (posteaquam) , in temporal
clauses, 543.
postremo, in enumerations, 322. d. n.
postridie, w. gen., 359. 6; w. ace, 432. a;
w. quam, 434.
postulo ab, 396. a ; postulo ut, 563.
Potential mood, how expressed in Latin,
1.57. 6.
Potential subjunctive, 445-447.
potior (adj.), compar., 130.
potior (verb), w. gen., 357. a, 410. a; w.
abl., 410; w. ace, id. n. i; gerundive,
503. N. 2.
potis, pote, 122. 6.
potius, compar., 218. a.
potui, w. pres. infin., 486. a.
Practice, vbs. of, 263. h.
prae, 220. 6 ; use, 221. 17 ; in comp.,"291. c.
N. 1 ; in comps. , w. dat. , 370 ; in compar. ,
w. quam, 434; quantity of, in comps.,
603. h. Exc.
praecedo, constr., 370.
praeceps, decl., 119, 121. a. 3.
praecipio, constr., 563.
Praenomen, 108 ; abbreviations, id. c.
praepes, decl., 121. b. 1.
praestolor, constr., 367. 6.
praesum, w. dat. of gerund etc., 605.
praeter, use, 21?0. a, 221. 18.
praeterit, w. acfe,, 388. c.
preci, defect., m/. 2.
precor, constr., 563.
Predicate, defined, 270; modified, 276;
pred. noun or adj., 272, 283; case, 284;
pred. noun referring to two or more
sing, nouns, id. a; adjective, 285. 2,
286. a; agreement in, 287. 1-3; in rel.
clause, 306; pred. adj. in neut. plur.,
287. 4. a; pred. adj. in relative clause,
307./; pred. gen., 343. 6, c; pred. ace,
392, 393; adj. as pred. ace, id. n. ; pred.
ace becomes pred, nom. in the pass.,
Id. a ; predicate use of participles, 496.
Predicate noun or adj. after inf., 452. n. 2
455. a and N., 458. 581. N. 3. ■
Prepositions, assimilation of, 16 ; defined,
20./; derivation of, 219; list of preps,
w. ace, 220. a; w. abl., id. h ; w. either,
id. c ; idiomatic uses, 221 ; comp. w. vbs.
and adjs., 267. a, c; noun w. prep., in-
stead of obj. gen., 348. c; in comp. w.
vbs., w. dat., 370, 381; ace in comp.,
395; w. abl. of separation, 401; prep,
omitted in relations of place. 427. 1, 2,
429 and a; use of, 220, 221, 429. h, 430,
432-435 ; preps, following the noun, 435;
usual position of, 599. d. (See 338.)
Present participle, decl., 119; use, 158. a.
Present stem, how formed, 168, 174 ; from
root, 176.
Present subjunctive in -im, 183. 2.
Present tense, w. iam diu etc., 466; cona-
tive, 467 ; for fut., 468 ; historical, 469 ;
annalistic, id. a ; w. dum, 556 ; in quo-
tations, 465. a ; sequence, 483, 485. e, i ;
pres. inf. w. potui etc., 486. a ; participle,
489, 490, 492, 494, 496. Pres. inf. in ind.
disc, referring to past time, 584. a and n.
Preteririve verbs, 205. n. 2, 476.
Preventing, vbs. of, constr., 364. N.2.
Price, abl. or gen., 416.
pridie, form, 98. 6 ; w. gen., 359. 6 ; w. ace,
432. a\ w. quam, 434.
Primary suffixes, defined, 233.
Primary tenses, 482. 1, 483.
primipilaris, decl., 76. a. 2. "^
Primitive verbs, 256.
primo, primum, meanings, 322. d and N.
primoris, defect., 122. c.
primus, form, 130. ftn. 2.
princeps, decl., 121. a. 4.
Principal parts of verb, 172, 173.
prior, compar., 130. a.
prius, w. quam, 434; priusquam in tem-
poral clause, 650, 551; in ind. disc,
585. h. N.
Privation expressed by abl., 400.
pro, 220. 6; use, 221. 19; in comps., w.
dat.-, 370; to express /o?*, 379. n.
probo, w. dat., 368, 375. 6. n.
Proceleusmatic, 609. n.
procerus, decl.. 111. a. n.
procul, w. abl., 432. c.
prohibeS, constr. of, 364. n. 2.
Prohibitions, 450; in ind. disc, 588. N. 2.
Promising etc., vbs. of, 580. c.
Pronominal roots, 228, 232; as primary
suffixes, id.
Pronouns defined, 20. c; decl. of, 140-
151; personal, 142,143; reflexive, 144;
gen., how used, 143. c, 302. a; demon-
strative, 146; relative, 147; interrog
and indef , 148-151 , pron. contained in
verb ending- J.63., ftn. 1: 271. a.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
467
Pronouns, Syntax, 294-315; Personal,
295; Demoustrative, 296-298; idem,
298. a, b; ipse, id. o-/; Reflexive, 299;
Possessive, 302 ; Relative, 303-308 ; In-
definite, 309-314. Prons. w. part, gen.,
346. a. 1. Relative in protasis, 519.
Position of prons., 598. e, l.
Pronunciation, Roman method, 8; Eng-
lish method, 8. n.
pronuntio, constr., 563.
prope, comr)ar.,130; use, 220. a; in apod.,
517. b. N. 2.
prope est ut, 568.
Proper names, 108; plur., 99. 1, 101. 1.
Proper nouns, 20. a.
properus, decl., 111. a. n.
propinquus, w. gen., 385, c.
propior (propius), compar., 130. a; constr.,
432. a and n.
Proportional numerals, 139. a.
Propriety, vbs. of, in apod., 517. c, 522. a.
proprius, w. gen., 385. c.
propter, use, 220. a, 221. 20; position, 435;
denoting motive, 404. 6.
Prosody, 602; rules and definitions,
603-606 ; early peculiarities, 629.
prosper(-us), decl.. 111. a.
prospicio, w. dat. or ace, 367. c.
Protasis (see Conditional Sentences), 512
ff. ; loose use of tenses in Eng., 614. C.
N. ; relative in prot., 519; temporal par-
ticles in, 542; antequam, priusquam, in,
551. c. N.2; prot. in ind. disc, 589. 1.
Protecting, vbs. of, constr., 364. n.2.
Protraction of long syllables, 608. c.
provideo, w. dat. or ace, 367. c.
Proviso, subjv. used in, 528. a and b ; in-
troduced by modo etc., 528; hortatory
subjv. expressing, id. a; subjv, w. ut
(or ne), id. b; characteristic clause ex-
pressing, 535. d.
proxime, constr., 432. a.
proximus, constr., 432. a.
-pse, -pte (enclitic), 143. d. n., 145. a, 146.
N. 7, 8,
pubes, decl., 105. e, 121. d.
pudet, 208. 6 ; constr., 354. b, c, and n.
puer, decl. 47 (cf. 50. a).
pulcher, decl., 112. a.
Punishment, abl. of, 353. 1.
puppis, decl., 75. b, 76. 6. 1.
Purpose, dat. .of, 382; infin. of, 460;
expressed by gerundive after certain
vbs., 500. 4; by gerund or gerundive
as predicate gen,, .504. a. n. i ; ways
of expressing, 533. Clauses of, 279. d ;
defined and classified, 529 ff. ; use of
quo in, 531. a ; main clause omitted, 532 ;
nedum, id.> n. i, 2. Substantive clauses
of, used after certain vbs., 563; of
wishing, id. b i of permitting, id. c ; of
determining, id. d; of caution etc., id,
e ; of fearing, 564.
Purpose or end, dat. of, 382.
puter, decl., 115. a.
qua . . . qua, 323./.
quadrupes, decl., 121. &. 1.
quae res (or id quod), 307. d.
quaere, constr. (ex or de), 396. a ; w. subjv.,
563.
quaeso, conj., 206. e.
qualis, 151. "i.
Qualities (abstract), gend., 32.
Qualities of an object compared, 292.
Quality, adjs. of, 251 ; gen. of, 345, 415. a ;
to denote indef . value, 417 and a ; abl.
of, 415 (cf. 345. N.).
quam, derivation of, 215. 2; with super-
lative, 291. c; w. compar. and positive
or w. two positives, 292. a. n. ; cor-
relative w. tarn, 323. g; w. compar.,
407. a, e ; after alius, id. a ; w. compar.
of advs., 434; w. ante, post, id.; w.
subjv. after compar., 535. c; followed
by result clause, 571. a; in indirect
questions, 575. d; in ind. disc, 581.
N.,2, 583. c.
quam diu, 555. N. 2.
quam ob causam, 398.
quam qui, quam ut, w. subjv., 535. c.
quam si, 524.
quamquam, use, 527. d; introducing a
proposition = and yet, id. n. ; w.
subjv , id. e.
quamvis, use, 527. a; subjv. or. ind. w.,
440. N., 527. a, e.
quando (interrog.), derivation and mean-
ing, 215. 6, 539 ; causal (since) , 540. a and
N. ; indef., id. ; temporal, 542.
quanti, gen. of price, 417.
Quantity, gen. of adjs. of, denoting price,
417.
Quantity in Prosody, marks of, 10. e;
nature of, 602; general rules of, 9-11,
603; final syllables, 604; perf. and
perf. parts., 605; derivatives, 606.
quanto, w. tanto, 414. a.
quantum (with minun), in indirect ques-
tions, 575. d.
quantus, 151. i.
quasi, with primary tenses, 524. n. 2,
quasso (intensive), 263. 2.
-que (enclitic), added to indefinites, 151.
g; as conj., use, 323. c. 3, 324. a; quan-
tity, 604. a. 1,
queo (defective), 206, d.
ques, old nom. plur., 150. c.
Questions, direct, in indie, 157. a, 330-
335 ; indirect, 330. 2, 331. N. ; double
questions, 334; question and answer,
336 ; result clause in exclam. questions,
468
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
462. a; mood in indir. question, 674;
in ind. disc, 586 ; in informal ind. disc,
592. 1.
qui (adverbial); 150. b.
qui (relative), decL, 147; (interrog. and
indef.), 148 and 6; in compounds, 151;
qui = ut is, w. subjv., 631. 2. N.,537. 2;
qui causal and concessive, 535. e.
quia, derivation etc., 539; use, 540, N.i;
causal, id. ; w. vbs. of feeling, £72. b ;
in intermediate clauses, 592. 3.
quicum, 150. 6.
quicumque, decl., 151. a,
quid, in exclamations, 397. d. n. i.
quidam, decl., 151. c; meaning of, 310;
w. ex, 346. c.
quidem, use, 322. e ; w. is or idem, 298. a ;
position of, 599. 6.
quilibet, decl., 151. c; use, 312.
quin, w. indie equiv. to command, 449. b ;
in result clause (—qui non), 558, 559;
w. vbs. of hindering, 558; non dubito
quin, 558. a.
Quinary or bemiolic measures, 609r d.
quinquatrus, gender, 90; plural only,
101. 2.
quippe, w. relative clause, 635. e, N ^ ; w^
cum, 549. N. 1.
Quirites, 101. 3.
quia, decl., 148, 149; distinguished from
qui in use, id. b and n. ; compounds of
(aliquis etc.), 151. d-f, 310 and b; quis
w. si, num, ne, 310. a ; indef. use of, 310,
quis est qui, 535. a.
quis, dat. or abl. plur., 150. c.
quisnam, 148. e.
quispiam, 151. c^; use of, 310 and b.
qv^equam, decl., 151. d; use, 311, 312.
quisque, form and decl., 151. g; use in
general assertions, 313; in dependent
clause, id. a ; w. superlative, id. b ; w.
plur. vb., 317. e.
quisquis, decl., 151. b.
quivis, decl., 151. c; use, 312.
quo-, stems in, 46. n. 2.
quo, approaching abl. of cause, 414. a. n.
quo in final clauses (— ut eo) w. subjv.,
531. a; non quo, 540. n. s.
quo . . . eo, 414. a; to denote deg. of
difference, id.
quoad (intention etc.), 553; (fact), 554;
{a)84ong as), 555.
quod for id quod, 307. d. N.
quod (conj.), 540. N. i; mood with, 540;
in ind. disc, id. 6; subst. clause with,
572; as ace of specification, id. a; w.
vbs. of feeling, id. b ; quod in interme-
diate clauses, 592. 3 and n.
quod sciam (proviso), 535. d.
quod si, use, 324. d, 397. a.
quom (see cum), 6 b, 539- No
quominus ( — ut eo minus), w. vbs. of hin-
dering, 558. 6.
quoniam, origin, 539; meaning and use
540. 1. N. 1 and a.
quoque, use, 322. a ; position, 599. 6
quot, indeclinable, 122. 6; correl., 152.
Quotation, forms of, w. apud and in,
428. d. N. 2; direct and indir., 678.
quotus quisque, 313. b. N,2.
quu- (cu-), 6. 6<
quum (conj.), 6. 6 (see cum).
R substituted for s between two vowels,
15. 4 and n. ; r- in adj. stems, 117. a;
rr- in noun stems, 62. n. i.
radix, decl., 57.
rastrum, plur. in -a and -i, 106. b.
ratione, as abl. of manner, 412. &.
ratus, as pres. part., 491.
ravis, decl., 75. a. 2.
re- or red- (prefix), 267. 6.
reapse, 146. n. ^,
Receiving, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 500. 4.
Reciprocal {each other) ^ how expressed,
145. «, 301./.
recordor}, w. ace, 350. d; w. gen., id. n.*,
w. de, id, N.
rectum/est ut, 568,
red-, s^e re-.
Reduplication, 177. c, 231. c; list of vbs.,
211. b : lost in fidi etc., id./, ftn. 3 ; rule
for quantity, 605. a.
Reference, object of, 349.
Reference, pronouns of, 297./; commonly
omitted, id. n ; dative of, 376 ; gen. of
specification, 349. d.
refert, w. gen. or possessive adj., 355 and
a; other constr., id. b.
Reflexive pronouns, 144 ; Syntax of, 298.
c. N. 2, 299-301 ; of :^t and 2d persons,
299. a.
Reflexive verbs (deponent or passive),
190. e, 208. d, n. ; use of passive, 156. a;
w. object ace, 39ir. c.
Refusing, vbs. of, w. quominus, 558. b.
Regular verbs, 171-189.
Relationship, nomis of, 244.
Relative adverbs, used correlatively, 152 ;
demon, for rel., 308. b ; used to connect
independent sentences, id./; referring
to loc, id. g; = pronoun w. prep., 321.
a ; used in relative clauses of purpose,
531.2; result, 537. ;?.
Relative clauses, defined, 279. a ; w. rel.
advs.5 308. z; conditional, 519; final,
531, 533; characteristic, 535; consecu-
tive, 537; causal, 540. c; temporal,
541, 542; rel. clauses in ind. disc, 591;
position of rel. clause, 599. e.
Relative pronouns, decl., 147; forms, how
distinguished from interrogative and
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
469
indef., 148. b and n. ; comps. of, 151,
310 and a, b. Syntax, 303-308; rules
of agreement, 30o, 306 ; w. two antece-
dents, 305. a; rel. in agreement w. app.
etc., 306; use of the antecedent, 307;
special uses of rel., 308; never omitted
in Lat., id. a; relatives as connectives,
id./; pers. of vb. agreeing w., 316. a;
abl. of rel. after compar., 407. a. n. S;
position, 599. e.
relinquitur ut, 568.
reliquum est ut, 568.
reliquus, use, 293 ; reliqui, use, 315.
-rem, verb ending, 168. /.
Remembering, vbs. of, w. ace. or gen.,
350; w. inf., 456.
Reminding, vbs. of, constr., 351.
reminiscor, w. ace. or gen., 350. c.
Removing, vbs. of, w. abl., 401.
Repeated action as general condition,
518. c.
repetundarum, 352. a.
Repraesentdtio, 469. n. : in ind. disc,
585. b and n.
requies, decl., 98. d, 105. e.
res, decl., 96.
Resisting, vbs. of, constr., 367, 558.
Resolution of syllables in Prosody, 610.
Resolving, vbs. of, constr. (subjv. or inf.),
563. d.
restat, w. ut, 569. 2.
restis, decl., 75. 6.
Restriction in subjunctive clause, 535. d.
Result, clauses of, 279. e, 534 ; sequence of
tenses in, 485. c; inf. of, 461. a. Sub-
junctive w. relatives or ut, 537; nega-
tive result w. ut non etc., id. a, 538;
result clause equivalent to proviso, 537.
6; w. quin, 558; w. quominus, id. 6.
Subst. clauses of result after facio etc.,
568; as subject, 569; in app. w. noun,
670; as pred. nom., 571; after quam,
id. a; tantum abest ut, id. 6; thought
as result, id. c.
Result, nouns denoting, 239.
rete, decl., 76. a. 3. — -^
rex, decl., 57-
Rhetorical questions in ind. disc, 586.
Rhotacism, 16. 4.
Rhythm, development of, 607 ; nature of,
608.
Rhythmical reading, 612. d~ N,
ri-, adj. stems in, 115. a.
ritu, abl. of manner, 412. b.
rivalis, decl., 76. 6. 2.
Rivers, gender of names of, 31. 1 and a.
ro- (ra-), primary suffix, 234. II. 9.
ro-stems, decl. II, 45. 6 ; adj. stems, 111,
112.
rogo, constr. of, .396 and 6. n., c N. 2; w.
subjv., 563.
Roman method of pronunciation, 8.
Root, defined, 25, 228; consciousness of
roots lost in Lat., 25. n.; of vbs., 117.
1 ; noun stem treated as root, 176. d ;
roots ending in vowel, id. e ; root used
as stem, id. d. n. i and e, 231,
ros, decl., 103. g. 2.
rr-, as stem ending, 62. n. h
it-, stems in, decl., 121. a. 4.
ruber, decL, 112. a.
ruri, locative, 80, 427. 3.
rus, decl., 103. g. 1; constr., 427. 1, 2, 3.
S changed to r, 15. 4 and n., 62. n. 2 ; sub-
stituted for d or t, 15. 5 ; s- as stem end-
ing, 79. e ; of adjs., 119. isr. ; of compars.,
120. b ; of perf. stem, 177. b ; list of vbs.
of conj. Ill, w. perf. in s, 211. a; s sup-
pressed in verb forms, 181. 6. n. 2 ; in
early Lat., 629. a.
-s as sign of noml, 45, 46, 56, 95, 117. a,
338 ; -s omitted in inscriptions, 46. n. i ;
-s, noun ending, decl. Ill, gend., 86.
sacer, decl., 112. a; comp., 131. a.
saepe, compar., 218. a.
sal, decl., 103. g. 2.
Salamis, decl., 83. a.
saluber, decl., 115. a.
salutem, 397. d. n. 2.
salve, defect., 206. g.
sane quam, 675. d.
Sanskrit forms, see 25. ftn. 2, 170. 6. n.
sapiens, decl., 76. b. 2.
Sapphic verse, 625. 7, 8.
satias, decl., 98. d.
satis, compar., 218. a; compounds of, w,
dat., 368. 2; non satis, 291. c. N.2;
satis est (satis habeo), w. perf. infin.,
486./.
satur, genitive of, 50. 6; decl., 111. a;
compar., 131. 6.
Saturnian verse, 628. d.
Saying, vbs. of, constr., 459 ; in passive,
582.
so preceding stem- vowel of verb, 176. 6. 1,
scaber, decl., 112. a.
Scanning, 612. d, 609. e, N.
scilicet, derivation, 216. n.
scin, contracted form for scisne, 13. N.
scio, imperative of, 449. a.
Scipiades, 44. 6. n.
scisco, constr., 563.
scito, scitote, imv. forms, 182. a, 449. a.
-SCO (inceptive), vbs. ending in, 263. 1.
se- or sed-, inseparable prefix, 267. 6.
se, reflexive, decl., 144. &; use, 299-301;
inter se, 145. c.
Second Conjugation, prin. parts, 173:
I>res. stem, how formed, 176. a \ forma
tion of, 179. 6; paradigm, 185; vbs. ot
210; from noun stems, 260.
470
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
Second Declension, nouns, 45-47 ; accent
of gen. and voc. of nouns in -ius, 12.
Exc. 2.
Secondary object, 394.
Secondary suffixes, defined, 232.
Secondary tenses, 482. 2 ; rule for use of,
483; perf. def. more commonly sec-
ondary, 485. a; perf. subjv. in clauses
of result used after, id. c; hist, pres.,
id. e; imperf. and pluperf. subjv., id.
g, h ; present used as if secondary, by
synesis, id. i.
secundum, prep., 220. a; use, 221. 21.
secundus, derivation, 132. ftn.
securis, decl., 75. 6, 76. a. 1.
secus (adv.), compar., 218. a.
secus, iudecl. noun, 103. a ; use, 397. a.
secutus (as pres. part.), 491.
sed-, see se-.
sed compared with verum etc., 324. d.
sedes, decl., 78. 1.
sedile, decl., 69.
Selling, vbs. of, 417. c.
sementis, decl., 75. b, 76. b. 1.
Semi-deponents, 192.
semineci, defect., 122. c.
Semi- vowels, 1 and v (u), 5.
senati, senatuos, forms of gen. in decl.
IV, 92. a, e.
senex, decl., 79 and c; adj. masc, 122. d;
comparison, 131. c.
Sentence, development, 268 ; defined, 269 ;
simple or compound, 278 ; incomplete,
318, 319.
Separation, dat. of, after comps. of ab,
de, ex, and a few of ad, 381 ; abl. of, 400 ;
gen. for abl., 356. n., 357. b. 3.
Sequence of tenses, 482-485 ; in ind. disc,
585; in conditional sentences in ind.
disc, 589. b.
sequester, decl., 105. b.
sequitur, w. ut, 569. 2.
sequor, conj., 190.
sera nocte, 293. N.
series, decl., 98. a.
Service, adjs. of, w. dat., 384.
Service, dat. of, .382. n. i.
Serving, vbs. of, w. dat., 367.
servus (servos), decl., 46.
sestertium, sestertius, 632-634; how writ-
ten in cipher, fi.'^o.
seu (sive), 324./, 525. c.
Sharing, adjs. of, w. gen., 349. a.
Should (auxiliary), how expressed in Lat.,
157. 6. ftn. 2.
Showing, vbs. of, w. two aces., 393.
si, 511 ; w. subjv. of wish, 442. a and N. ^ ;
si and its compounds, use, 512. a. n.,
525; si non distinguished from nisi, id.
a. 1 ; miror si, 572. b. N. ; si = whether,
576. a.
Sibilants, 4.
sic, correl,, w. ut, 323. g, .537. 2. n^: w
si, 512. 6.
siem (sim), 170. 6. n.
Significant endings, 23.5-253.
Signs of mood and tense, 169. ftn.
silentio, without preposition, 412. b.
-silis, adj. ending, 252.
Silvester, decl., 115. a.
-Sim, old form of perf. subjv., 183. 3.
similis, comparison, 126; w. gen. and
dat., 385. c. 2.
similiter, use, 384. n. 2.
Simois, decl., 82.
Simple sentences, 278. 1.
simul, simul atque (ac), 543.
simul . . . simul, 323./.
simul w. abl., 432. c.
sin, 512. a. n.
Singular, nouns defect, in, 103,/.
Singuldria tantum, 99.
sinister, decl., 112. a.
sino, constr., 563. c.
-sio, novtn ending, 238. b.
-sis-, dropped in perf., 181. 6. N. 2.
sitis, decl., 67 (cf. 75. a. 2).
sive (seu) . . . sive, use, 324./, 525. c.
Smell, vbs. of, w. ace, 390. a.
-so, old form of fut. perfect, 183. 3.
-so, vbs. in, 263. 2.
socrus, gend., 90. Exc.
sodes (si audes), 13. N., 192. a.
sol, decl., 103. g. 2.
soleo, semi-dep., 192.
soli to, w. compars., 406. a.
solitus, as pres. part., 491.
solus, decl., 113; w. relative clause of
characteristic, 535. 6.
Sonants, 3.
sons, as participle of esse, 170. 6.
-sor, see -tor.
Soracte, decl., 76. 6. n. 2.
sordem, defect., 103./ 3.
-soria, noun ending, 254. 4 ; -sorium, noun
ending, 254. 5; -sorius, adj. ending,
250. a.
Sdspita, fem. adj. form, 121. e.
Sounds, see Pronunciation.
Source, expressed by abl., 403.
Space, extent of, expressed by ace, 425.
Sparing, vbs. of, with dat., 367.
spe, w. compars., 406. a.
Special verb forms, 181, 182.
species, decl., 98. a.
Specification, gen. of, w. adjs., 349. d'
ace of, 397. 6 and n. ; abl. of, 418.
specus, gend., 90. Exc.
Spelling, variations of, 6.
spes, 98. a and ftn.
Spirants, 4.
Spondaic verse, 615. b.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
471
Spondee, 609. 6. 3.
spontis, -e. defect., 103. c. 2.
Stanza or Strophe, 814.
status, w. vbs. of placing, 430 ; w. inf. or
subjv., 563. d.
Statutes, fut. imv. in, 449. 2.
ste for iste etc., 146. N.^
Stella, deel., 41.
Stem building, 25. n.
Stems, defined, 24; classified, 229; how
formed from root, 26, 230-232; how
found in nouns, 37. a; a-stems, decl.
I, 40; adjs., 110; o-stems, decl. II, 45;
adjs. 110 ; in decl. Ill, mute stems, 56-
60; liquid and nasal stems, 61-64;
i-stems, 65-69; mixed i-stems, 70-72;
u-stems, decl. IV, 88, 89; in tu-, 94;
of vb., 165. 1 ; present, perfect, and
supine, 164. Pres. stem, how formed,
175, 176 ; perf . stem, 177 ; supine stem,
178. Tenses arranged by stems, synop-
sis, 180.
sto, w. abl., 431.
strigilis, decl., 76. b. 1.
strix, decl., 71. 6.
Structure of Latin sentences, 600, 601 „
strues, decl., 78. 2.
studeo, w. dat,, 368. 3.
suadeo, w. dat., 367.
sub-, in comp., w. adjs., 267. d. 1, 291. c.
N.2; w. vbs., 267. a and d. n.
sub. use, 220. c, 221. 22; in comps., w^
dat., 370; of time, 424. e.
subeo, w. ace, 370. 6.
Subject, 268 ; defined, 270 ; how expressed,
271 and a; modified, 276; vb. agrees
w., 316 ; two or more subjs., 317 ; subj.
omitted, 318; accusative, 459; in ind
disc, .580; position of subject, 596.
Subject clauses (inf.), 452. 1; (subjv.),
566,, 567, 569, 571. b.
Subjective gen., defined, 343. N. i; use,
343.
Subjunctive mood, 154. 6 ; how used and
translated, 157. 6. ftn. 2; tenses how
used, 162; vowel of pres. subjv., 179. a.
1, b. 1, c. 1, d. Classification of uses,
438; hortatory subjv., 439, 440; optative
subjv., 441 , 442 ; deliberative, 443, 444 ;
potential subj v., 445, 446 ; subjv , of mod-
esty, 447. 1; tenses of subjv., 480-485;
dependent clauses, 481 ; subjv. in ind.
disc, 680; in informal ind. disc, 592;
of integral part, 693^
suboles, decl., 78. 2.
Subordinate clauses, defined, 278, b ; use,
519-593; in ind. disc, 579-593.
Subordinate conjs., 223. b, 224. II. a-f.
Substance, gen. of, 344; abl. of, 403.
Substantive clauses, 560-572 ; nature and
classes of. 560 (of. 561, 662) ; daases of
purpose, 563-566; of result, 567-571;
mdic. w. quod, 572; indirect questions,
573-576; adj. w. subst. clauses, 289. d;
inf. clauses, 452.
Substantive use of adjs., 288 ; of posses-
sive prons., 302. d.
Substantive verb (esse), 272, 284. 6.
subter, use, 220. c, 221. 23.
suetus, w. inf., 460. b.
Suffixes, 232; primary, list of, 233, 234;
significant, 235-255.
sui, decl., 144. 6; use, 299, 300; w. gen.
of gerund, 504. c.
sum, conj., 170; as copula, 284; as sub-
stantive verb, id. 6; omitted, 319. 6;
w. dat. of possession, 373 ; position, 598.
cj.
summus, form, 130. a. ftn. 2; (top of),
293.
sunt qui, 535. a.
suovetaurilia, 265. 1.
supellex, decl., 79. c.
super, use, 220. c, 221. 24; in comps., 267.
a; in comps., w. dat., 370.
supera, defect.. 111. b (cf. 130. a. N.2);
comp., 130. 6; superi, id.
superior, compar., 130. b.
Superlative, suffix, 124. ftn. ; in -rimus,
125; of adjs. in -lis, 126; w. maxime,
128; takes gend. of partitive, 286. 6.
N. ; of eminence, 291. b ; w. quam, vel,
or iinus, id. c; denoting order, succes-
sion, 293; w. quisque, 313. 6.
superstes, decl., 121. a. 4.
Supine, noun of decl. IV, 94. b, 159. 6 ;
stem, 164. 3 ; formation, 178, 179. a-d
(cf. 164. ftn.) ; irregular forms of, conj.
I, 209; conj. II, 210; allied with forms
in -tor, 236. a. n. i ; Supine in -urn, use
of, 509; in -u, 510; as abl. of specifica-
tion, 610. N. 1.
supplex, decl., 121. b. 1,
supplies, w. dat., 368. 3.
supra, use, 220. a, 221. 25.
-sura, noun ending, 238, b.
Surds, 3.
-surio, vbs. in, 263. 4.
-sus, phonetic form of -tus, 94 ; noun
ending, 238. b.
siis, decl., 79 and a.
suus, use, 299.
Swearing, vbs. of, constr., 388. d, 580. c.
Syllables, rules for division of, 7; open
etc., id. N.2; long and short, 603. e, /
and notes.
Synaeresis, 603. c. n.,/. n. •*, 642.
Synaloepha, 612. e. n., 642.
Synchysis, 598. h, 641.
Syncope, 640.
Synecdoche, defined, 641.
Synecdochical ace, 397. b.
472
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
Synesis, 280, a> in gend. and number,
286. b ; in sequence of tenses, 485. i.
Synizesis, 603. c. n., 642.
Synopsis of tenses (amo), 180; of imper-
sonal vbs., 207.
Syntactic compounds, 267.
Syntax, 268-601 ; historical development
of, 268. Important rules of Syntax, 694.
T changed to s, 15. 5, 178: t preceding
stem-vowel of vb., 176. 6. 1; t- (s-),
supine stem-ending, 178, 179. a. 2, h. 2,
c. 2, d.
taedet, impersonal, 208. 6; constr., 354.
h, c and n.
taeter, decl., 112. a.
Taking away, vbs., of, 381o
Talent, value of, 637.
talis, 151. i, 152.
tahs ut etc., 537. n. 2.
tam, correl. w. quam, 323. gr; correl. w.
ut, 537. N. 2.
tamen, as correl., 527. c ; position of,
324. i.
tametsi, concessive use, 527. c and n. i.
tamquam, in conditional clauses, 524 ; w.
primary tenses, id. n. i.
tandem, in questions, 333. a and N.
tanti, gen. of value, 417 and c; tanti est
ut, 568.
tanto following quanto, 414. a.
tantum, w. subj. of proviso, 528.
tantum abest ut, 571. h.
tantus, 151. i, 152; taatus ut, 537, N. 2.
-tas, -tia, noun endings, 241,
Taste, vbs. of, w. ace., 3$K). a.
-te (enclitic), 143. d and n.
Teaching, vbs. of (two aces.), 396.
tego, conj., 186.
Telling, vbs. of, constr., 459.
Temporal clauses, defined, 279. 6, 541-^
556; as protasis, 542 ; w. postquam etc.,
543 ; w. cum, 514-549 ; w. antequam and
priusquam, 550, 551; w. dum, donee,
quoad, 552-556; replaced by abl. abs.,
420.
Temporal numerals, 139. 6 ; conjunctions,
224. II. d.
tempus est abire, 504. n. 2.
Tendency, adjs. denoting, 251.
tener, decl., ill. a.
Tenses, 154. c; of passive voice, 156; of
participles, 158; classification, mean-
ing, and use, 160-162; of the ind., 160,
161; of the subj v., 162; endings, 166;
of completed action, formation of, 179.
/, g; synopsis of, 180.
Tenses, Syntax, 464-486; classified, 464;
of ind., 465-479; Present tense, 465-459 ;
Imperfect, 470, 471; Future, 472; of
Completed action, 473-478; Epistolary
tenses, 479 ; of subj v., 480, 481 ; sequence
of, 482-485; tenses of the inf., 486; tense
emphatic, 598. d. (3) ; tenses of inf. in
ind. disc, 584; tenses of subjv. in ind.
disc, 585; affected by repraesentatio,
id. b and n. ; in condition in ind. disc,
589. Notes on origin of syntax, 436, 464.
tonus, constr., w. gen., 359. t>; w. abl,,
221. 26; position, 435, 599. d.
ter- (tor-, ter-, t5r-, tr-), primary sufiix,
2.34. II. 15.
-ter, adv. ending, 214. 6, c.
Terence, absque me etc., 517. f ; prosodial
forms, 628. b, 629.
teres, decl., 121. a. 3; compar., 131. 6.
-terior, ending, p. 56. ftn. 2.
Terminations of inflection, meaning of,
21. 6; terminations of nouns, 39; of
verbs, 166. (See Endings.)
-terniis, as adj. ending, 250.
terra marique, 427. a.
terreater, decl., 115. a.
-teru^, ending, p. 56. ftn. 2.
Teti/ameter, Iambic, 619. a.
Thsin, how expressed, 406.
That of, not expressed in Lat., 297./. N.
The'T'as correlative, 414. a and ftn.
Thematic verbs, 174. 1.
Thematic vowel %» 174. 2. 1.
Thesis and Arsis, 611.
Thinking, vbs. of, constr. w. ace and
inf., 459.
Third conj., of vbs., prin. parts, 173 ; pres.
stem, how formed, 176; formation, id.,
179. c ; paradigm, 186 ; in -io, paradigm,
188 ; list of vbs., w. principal parts, 211 ;
derivation of vbs. in -uo, 261.
Third declension, of nouns, 53-87 ; mute
stems, 56-60; liquid stems, 61-64; i-
stems, 65-78; pure i-stems, 66--69;
mixed i-stems, 70-78; peculiar forms,
79; loc, 80; Greek nouns, 81-«3; rules
of gend., 84-87.
Though, see Although.
Thought, considered as result, 571. c.
Threatening, vbs. of, 367, 580. c.
ti-, primary sufiix, 234. II. 2.
-tia (-ties), noun ending, 241.
-ticus, adj. ending, 247.
tlgris, decl., 82.
-tills, adj. ending, 252.
-tim, advs. in, 75. a. 3, 215. 2.
Time (see Temporal Clauses), 465 fif., 481,
rA5, 546.
Time, abl. abs. to denote, 419, 420. 1 ; time
when,^23; duration of time, 424. 6; time
during or within which, w. ordinal, id.
c; distance of time, id./; corresponding
to Eng. place, id. d.
Time, advs. of, 217. b.
Time, mode oi reckoning, 630.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
473
timeo, w. dat. or ace, 367. c; w. subjv.,
564.
-timus, adj. ending, 130. a. ftn. 2, 250.
-tio, noun ending, 233. 2, 238. b.
-ti5 (-sio), -tura, -tus (-tutis)^ noun end-
ings, 238. 6.
"tlum, noun ending, 241. b. n.
-tivus, verbal adj. ending^ 251.
to- (ta-), primary suffix, 234. 11. 1.
-to, -ito, intensive or iterative vbs. in,
263. 2.
Too ... to, 535. c. N.
-tor (-sor), -trix, nouns of agency in, 236»
a; used as adjs., 321. c.
-toria, noun ending, 254. 4.
-torium, noun ending, 233. 2, 254. 5.
-torius, adj. ending, 233. 2; as noun end-
ing, 250. a.
tot, indeclinable, 122. 6; correl., 152.
totidem, indeclinable, 122. 6.
totus, decl., 113 ; nouns w., in abl. witbout
prep, (place where), 429. 2.
Towns, names of, gend., 32 and a, 48.
Exc. ; names of towns in -e, decl., 76.
N. 2 ; locative of, 427. 3 ; as place from
wbicb, id. 1 ; as place to whicb, id. 2.
tr-, stems in (pater etc.), 61. 4.
traicio, constr., 395. N, 1,3; traiectus lora,
id. N.3.
trans, 220. a; use, 221. 27; comps. of, w.
ace, 388. 6; w. two aces., 395.
Transitive verbs, 273. 1, 274 ; absolute use,
273. N.2; how translated, 274. 6; w.
dat., 362.
Transposition of vowels, 177. a. n.
Trees, names of, gend., 32.
ties, decl., 134. b.
trl-, stem-ending of nouns, 66; of adjs.,
115. a.
Tribe, abl. of, 403. a. n. 3.
Tribrach, 609. a. 3.
tribulis, decl., 76. a. 2.
tribus, gend., 90. Exc; decl., 92. c.
tridens, decl., 76. 6. 2.
Trimeter, Iambic, 618.
Triptotes, 103. d.
triremis, decl., 76. 6. 2.
-tris, adj. ending, 250.
triumphs, w. abl., 404. a.
-trix, see -tor.
tro-, primary suffix, 234. 16.
-tro, advs. in, 215. 4.
Trochaic verse, 613, 620. .
Trochee, 609. a. 1 ; irrational, id. e, 623
and N.
-trum, noun ending, 240.
Trusting, vbs. of, constr., 367.
tu-, primary suffix, 234. II. 3.
-tu, -su, supine endings, 159. 6.
"i, decl., 143 (see tute, tutimet).
udo, -tus, noun endings, 241.
tuli (tetuli), 200; derivation, id. ftn. 2;
quantity, 605. Exc.
-turn, -sum, supine endings, 159. 6.
turn, tunc, meaning, 217. 6; correl. w.
cum, 323. g.
turn . . . tum, 323./.
-tura, -tus, noun ending, 238. 6.
-turio, desiderative vbs. in, 263. 4.
-turnus, adj. ending, 250.
-turris, decl., 67 (cf. 75, b).
-tus, adj. ending, 246 ; noun ending, 94, 241,
-tus, adv. ending, 215. 6.
tussis, decL, 75, a. 2.
tute, 143. d\ tutimet, id.
Two accusatives, 391.
Two datives, 382. 1.
U (v) , as consonant, 5 ; after g, q, 8, id. n. 2 ;
not to follow u or v, 6. a, 6 ; u for e in
conj. Ill, 179. c. 1.
U-, primary suffix, 234. 1. 3.
u-stems, of nouns, decl. Ill, 79 and a;
decl. IV, 88 ; of vbs., 174, 176. d, 259. 3.
uber, decl., 119.
ubi, derivation, 215. 5 ; in temporal
clauses, 542, 643.
-ubus, in dat. and abl. plur., decl. R
92. c.
-uis (-uos), in gen., decl. IV, 92. e.
-iilis, adj. ending, 248.
iillus, decl., 113; use, 311, 812.
ulterior, compar., 130. a.
ultra, 220= a; use, 221. 28; following
noun, 435.
-ulus, diminutive ending, 243; verbal adj.
ending, 251.
-um for -arum, 43. d; for -orum, 49. d;
-um in gen. plur. of personal prons., 295.
6; -um for -ium, decl. Ill, 78; in gen.
plur. of adjs., 121. 6 ; for -uum, decl. IV,
92.6.
Undertaking, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 500. 4.
unt-, stem-ending, 83. e.
unus, decl., 113; meaning, 134. a: w.
super!., 291. c.
iinus qui, w. subjv., 535. 6.
unus quisque, decl., 151. g\ use, 313.
U0-, suffix, see vo-.
-u6, vbs. in, 261.
-uos, see -uis.
-ur, nouns in, 87.
urbs, decl., 72; use in relations of place,
428. 6.
Urging, vbs. of, with ut, 563.
-urlo, desiderative vbs. in, 263. 4.
-umus, adj . ending, 250.
-urus, fut. part, in, 158. b, 498; w. fui,
498. b, 517. d] in ind. questions, 675. a;
-urus fuisse, in ind. disc, 589. b. 3.
-us, nom. ending, in decl. II, 46 ; -us for -er
in Greek nouns, decl. II, 52. b ; -us, nom.
474
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
ending in decl. Ill, 63. Exc. 2; gend.,
87; decl. IV, 88; gend., 90; neut.
ending, 23S. a.
-us, Greek nom. ending, 83. e.
Use, adjs. of, constr., 385. a.
usque, w. ace., 432. h.
iisus {need), w. abl., 411.
ut (uti), correlative w. ita, sic, .323. g; to
denote concession, 440, 527. a; ut {as)
w. ind. equiv. to concession, 527./; w.
optative subjv., 442. a; used ellipti-
cally in exclamations, 4G2. a ; in clauses
of purpose, 531; ut ne, id., 563. e. N.2;
ut non, 531. 1. n.2; of result, 537; ut
non etc., 538 ; ut temporal, 542, 543 ; vbs.
foil, by clauses w. ut, 563, 568 ; omis-
sion after certain vbs., 565 and notes,
569. 2. N. 2 ; w. vbs. of fearing, 564 and n.
ut, utpote, quippe, w. relative clause, 535.
e. N. 1 ; w. cum, 549. n. i.
■xt primum, 543.
ut semel, 543.
ut si, constr., 524.
uter, decl., 66.
uterque, form and decl., 151, gr, use, 313;
constr. in agreement and as partitive,
346. d.
utilis, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. a
utinam, w. subjv. of wish, 442.
utor etc., w. abl., 410; w. ace, id. a. n. i;
gerundive u^e of, 500. 3, 503. n. 2.
utpote qui, 535. e. N. i.
utrum ... an, 335 and d.
-utus, adj. ending, 246.
-uus, verbal adj. ending, 251.
V (u), 1. &, 5 and n.I; suffix of perf.,
177. a, 179. a, 2, 6. 2, d\ suppressed in
perf., 181 ; list of vbs. in conj. Ill w. v
in perf., 211. c; v often om. in perf. of
eo and its comps., 203. b.
vafer, decl., 112. a; compar., 131. a.
valde, use, 291. c. n. i ; valde quam, 575. d.
Value, gen. of indefinite, 417.
Value, measures of, 632-^38.
vannus, gend., 48. Exc.
vapulo, neutral passive, 192. 6.
Variable nouns, 104-106 (cf. 98. c, d);
adjs., 122. a.
Variations, see Phonetic Variations.
Variations of spelling, 6.
vas, decl., 103. g. 2.
vas, decl., 79. e, 105. 6.
vates, decl., 78. 1.
-ve, vel, use, 324. e, 335. d. n.
vel (see -ve), w. superl., 291. c.
Velars, p. 2. ftn. 3.
vellm, vellera, subjv. of modesty, 447. 1. n.
velim, vellem, w. subjv. (=:opt.). 442. 6,
(=imY.), 449. c.
velut. velut si, 624
veneo (venum eo), 192. 6, 428. i.
venerat = aderat, 476.
Verba sentiendl et deddrandl, 397. e;
459, 579 ; passive use of, 582 ; in poeta
and later writers, id. n.
Verbal adjs., 251-253; in -ax, w, gen.,
349. c.
Verbal nouns w. ^at., 367. d.
Verbal nouns and adjs. w. reflexive,
301. d.
Verbal roots, 228. 1.
Verbs, defined, 20. d; inflection, 153,
154; noun and adj. forms of, 155;
signification of forms, 156-162; per-
sonal endings, 163; the three stems,
164; forms of the vb., 164-166 (notes
on origin and hist, of vb. forms, ICA.
ftn., 168, 169) ; table of endings, 166;
influence of imitation, 169. ftn. ; reg-
ular vbs., 171-189; the four conjuga-
tions, 171-173; prin. parts -of, 172;
jbixed vbs., 173. a; deponents, 190,
/191; semi-deponents, 192; periphrastic
forms, 193-196 ; irregular vbs., 197-204 ;
defective, 205, 206; impersonal, 207,
208. Classified lists of yJjs.,.-209-212.
Derivation of vbs., 256-263; comp.
vbs., 267; vowels in comp. vbs., id. a.
N. 2. Index of vbs., pp. 437 if.
Verbs, Syntax. Subject implied in end-
ing, 271. a; rules of agreement, 316-
319; vb. omitted, 319; rules of syn-
tax, 437-593. Cases w. vbs., see under
Accusative etc. Position of vb., 596, '
598. d, j. (See under the names of the
Moods etc.)
vereor, w. gen., 357. b. 1; w. subjv., 564^
veritus, as pres. part., 491.
vero, 324. d,j; in answers, 336. a. 1; pO'
sition of, 699. b.
Verse, 612.
Versification, 612-629; forms of verse,
613.
versus, position of, 599. d.
verto, constr., 417. 6.
veru, gend., 91.
verum or vero, use, 324. d,j.
vescor, w. abl., 410; w. ace, id. a. N.I;
gerundive, 500. 3, 503. n. 2.
vesper, decl., 50. 6.
vesper! (loc), 50. 6, 427. a.
vester, decl., 112. a, 145.
vestrl as obj. gen., J43. e, 295. 6.
vestrum as part, gen., 143. 6, 295. b (fit
N.2).
veto, w. ace. and inf., 563. a.
vetus, decl., 119, 121. d; compar., 125.
via, abl. of manner, 412. b.
vicem, adverbial use of, 397. a.
vicinus, w. gen., 385. c
vicis, decl., 103. h. 1,
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
475
ndelicet, derivation, 216.
video ut, 563.
videor, w. dat., 375. 6.
vin' (visne), 13. n.
vir, decl., 47, 50. 6.
Virgo, decl., 62.
virus, gender of, 48. a.
vis, stem, 71. 6; decl., 79.
viscera, 101. K i.
viso, 263. 4. N.
vo- (va-), primary suffix, 234. II. 8.
vocalis, decl., 76. 6. 2.
Vocative, defined, 35./; form, 38. a; in
-i of nouns in -ius, decl. II, 49. c; of
Greek nouns, id. c. n. ; of adjs. in -ius,
110. a. Syntax, 340.
Voices, 154. a, 156; middle voice, id. a.
N., 163. ftn. 2, 190. e.
voio and comps., conj., 199; part, of, w.
dat. of the person judging, 378. n. ; w.,
inf., 456 and n, ; w. perf. act. inf. in
prohibitions, 486. c; w. perf. part., 486.
d and n., 497. c. n. ; w. subjv. or inf.,
563. 6.
volucer, decl., 115. a.
volucris, decl., 78.
,-volus, adj. in, comp., 127.
vos, 143 and a.
voster etc., see vester.
voti damnatus, 352. a.
Vowel changes, 15. 1-3 ; vowel variations,
17.
Vowel roots of verbs, 179. a-c.
Vowel stems of verbs, 259-262.
Vowel suffixes (primary), 234. 1.
Vowels, 1; pronunciation, 8; long and
short, 10; contraction, 15. 3; quantity
of final vowels in case-endings, 38. g ;
vowel modified in noun stems, decl.
111, 56, a; lengthened in root, 177. d.
231. 6 ; list of vbs. w. vowel lengthen-
ing in perf., conj. Ill, 211. e.
vulgus (volgus), gend., 48. a.
-vus, verbal adj. ending, 251.
W, not in Latin alphabet, 1 ; sound of, 1.
b. N.
Want, words of, w. abl., 401 ; w. gen., 356.
Way by which (abl.) , 429. a.
Weight, measures of, 637.
Whole, gen. of, 346 ; numbers expressing
the whole, id. e.
Wills, fut. imv. in, 449. 2.
Winds, gender of names of, 31.
Wish, expressed by subjv., 441 ; as a con-
dition, 521. 6; wish in informal ind.
disc, 592. 1.
Wishing, vbs. of, w. inf., 486. d (cf. 457) ;
w. subst. clause of purpose, 563. b ; w.
ace. and inf., id. ' .
Without, w. verbal noun, 496. n. 3.
Women, names of, 108. b and ftn.
Words and Forms, 1-267.
Words, formation of, 227-267; arrange-
ment of, 595-601.
Would (Eng. auxiliary), how expressed
in Lat., 157. 6.
X, nom. ending, 56; gend., 86; x from s,
in vbs., 211. a.
Y, of Greek origin, 1. n. i.
Year, 630; months of, 630, 631; date,
424. g.
-y%-, suffix, 174.
Yes, in Latin, 336.
yo- (ya-), primary suffix, 234. II. 11.
-ys, nom. ending, 82 ; quantity, 604. i.
Z, of Greek origin. 1. a. k.
LATIN AUTHOES AN"D THEIE WORKS
CITED Ij^ this book
Note. — In the citations the names Caesar, Cicero, Sallust (with lugvrtha), and
Virgil are not generally given. Thus, " B. G^.^^'^efers^to Caesar's Bellura GaUicum;
" Fam." to Cicero's letters ad Familiares; " lug." to Sallust's lugurtha; " Aen." to
Virgil's ^7ieid, etc.
Ap., Apuleius (a.d. 125-?) :
Met., Metamorphoses.
, B. Afr., Bellum Afri-
cum.
Cfesar (b.c. 100-44):
B. C, Bellum Civile.
B. G., Bellum GaUi-
cum.
Cato (B.C. 234-149):
de M., de Moribus.
R. R., de Re Rustica.
CatulL, Catullus (b.c. 87-
54h
Cic, Cicero (b.c. 106-43):
Acad., Academica.
Ad Her., [ad Heren-
nium\.
Arch., pro ArcJiia.
Att., ad Atticum.
Balb., pro Balbo.
Bint., Brutus de Claris
Oratorihus.
Caec, pro Caecina.
Caecil., Divinatio in
Caedlium.
Cael., pro M. Caelio.
Cat., in Catilinam.
Cat. M., Cato Maior {de
Senectute).
Clu., pro Cluentio.
Deiot., pro Deiotaro.
De Or., de Oratore.
Div., de Divinatione.
Dora., pro Domo Sua.
Fam., ad Familiares.
Fat., de Fato.
Fin., de Finihus.
Flacc, pro Flacco.
Font., pro M. Fonteio.
Har. Resp. , de Haruspi-
cum Responsis.
Inv., de Inventione
Rhetorica.
Cic. Lael., Laelius {de Ami-
citia) .
Leg. Agr., de Lege
Agraria.
Legg., de Legibus.
Lig., pro Ligario.
Manil., pro Lege Ma-
nilia.
Mare., pro Marcello.
Mil., pro Milone.
Mur., pro Murena.
N. D., de Natura De-
orum.
Off., de Offlciis.
Or., Orator.
Par., Paradoxa.
Fart. Or., de Partitione
Oratoria.
Phil., Philippicae.
Plane, pro Plancio.
Pison., in Pisonem.
Prov. Cons., de Provin-
ciis Consularibus.
Q, Fr., ad Q. Fratrem.
Quinct., pro Quinctio.
Rabir., pro Rablrio.
Rab. Post., pro Rabirio
Postumo.
Rep., de Re Publica.
Rose. Am., pro Roscio
Amerino.
Rose. Com., pro Roscio
Comoedo.
Scaur., pro Scauro.
Sest., pro Sestio.
Sull., pro Sidla.
Tim., Timaeus {de Uni-
verso) .
Top., Topica.
Tull., pro Tidlio.
Tusc, Tusculanae Dis-
putationes.
Vat., in Vatinium,
476
Cic. Verr., in Verrem.
Claud., Claudianus (abt.
A.D. 400) :
iv C. H., de Quarto
Consulatu Honorii.
Enn., Ennius (b.c. 23if-
169).
Cell., A. Gellius (d. a.d.
175).
Hirtius (d. b.c. 43) :
? B. Al., Bellum Alex-
andrinum.
Hor., Horace (b.c. 65-8):
A. P., de Arte Poetica.
C. S., Carmen Saccu-
lar e.
Ep., Epistles.
Epod. Epodes.
Od. Odes.
S. Satires.
lust., Justinus (abt. a.d.
150).
luv., Juvenal (abt. a.d. 60-
140).
Liv.,Livy(B.c.59-A.D.17).
Lucr., Lucretius (b.c. 96-
55).
Mart., Martial (a.d. 43-
? 104) :
Ep., Epigrams.
Nep., Nepos (b.c. 99-24):
Ages., Agesilaus.
Ale, Aldbiades.
Att., Atticus.
Dat., Datames.
Dion, Dion.
Epam., Epaminondas
Eum., Eumenes.
Hann., Hannibal.
Milt., Miltiades.
Pans., Pausanias.
Them., Themistodes.
Timoth., Timotheus.
LIST OF AUTHORS CITED
477
Ov ,Ovid (B.C.43-A.D.17):
A. A., Ars Amatoria.
F., Fasti.
H., Ueroides.
M., Metamorphoses.
Pont., Epistulae ex
Ponto.
Trist., Tristia.
Pers., Persius (a.d. 34-62) :
Sat., Satires.
Phaed., Phaedrus (abt.
A.D. 40).
PI., Plautus (B.C. 254-184) :
Am., Amphitruo.
Asin., Asinaria.
Aul., Aulularia.
Bac, Baechides.
Capt., Captivi.
Cist., Cistellaria.
Cure, Curculio.
Epid., Epidicus.
Men., Menaechmi.
Merc, Mercator.
Mil., Miles Gloriosus.
Most., Mostellaria.
Pers., Persa.
Poen., Poenulus.
Ps., Pseudolus.
Rud., Rudens.
Stieh., Stichus.
Trin., Trinmnmus.
True, Truculentus.
Plin., Pliny, senior (a.d.
23-79) :
H. N., Historia Natu-
ralis.
Plin., Pliny, junior (a.d.
62-113) :
Ep., Epistles.
Prop., Propertius (b.c. 49-
15).
Pub. Syr., Publilius Syrus *
(abt. B.C. 44).
Q. C, Q. Curtius (abt. a.d.
50).
Quint., Quiutilian (abt.
A.D. 35-95).
Sail., Sallust (b.c. 86-34) :
Cat., Catilina.
Ep. Mith., Epistula
Mithridatis.
lug., lugurtha.
, S. C. de Bac, Senatus
Consulturn de Baccha-
nalihus (b.c. 186).
Sen., Seneca (b.c. 4-a.d.
65):
Dial., Dialogues.
Ep., Epistles.
Here Fur., Hercules
Furens.
Here. Get., Hercules
Oetaeus.
Med., Medea.
Sen.Q.N., Quaestiones Na-
turales.
Sil., Silius Italicus (abt.
A.D. 25-101).
Suet., Suetonius (abt. a.d.
75-160) :
Aug., Augustus.
Dom., JDomitianus.
Galb., Galba.
Tac, Tacitus (abt. a.d.
55-120) :
Agr., Agricola.
Ann., Annales.
H., Historiae.
Ter., Terence (d. b.c. 159) :
Ad., Adelphi.
And., Andria.
Eun., Eunuchus.
Haut., Hautojitimorvr
menos.
Hec, Hecyra.
Ph., Phormio.
Val., Valerius Maximus
(abt. A.D. 26).
Varr., Varro (b.c. 116-27) :
R. R., de Re Rustica.
Veil., Velleius Paterculus
(abt. B.C. 19-A.D. 31).
V^erg., Virgil (b.c. 70-19).
Aen., JEneid.
Eel., Eclogues.
Georg., Georgics.
ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S LATIN GRAMMAR
PARALLEL REFERENCES
Old
New
1
1
1. a
2
2-4
3-5
6 (p. 4)
10
1, a and n.
7
6.a,b
8-11
14-19
10. 6
15. 2
11. a. 1
15. 4
11. a. 2
15. 5
11. c
15. 11
11. e
15. 6
11. e. 3 and n.
16
12
6
12. Or-C
6. N. 1-3
13
13
13. 6, c
13. N.
14
7
14. b
7. N.l
14. c
7. 6
14. («
14. e
7. N. 2
15
18
15 (p. 10)
19 and n. i
16
8
16. N. 4
11. b. N.
17. a-c
17. N.
8. N.
18
9-11
18. a-c
10. a-c
18. d
11.6
18. e
11. c
18./
10. e
19. a, 6
12
19. c
12. a
19. d 1-3
12. a. Exc.
20
21
21
24
Old
22
23
24
25
25. e
25. f-i
26
27
28
28. a
28. 6. N.
29. 1
29.2
29. a
29. 6
29. c
30
30. a
30. b
31
31. /l. N.
32. ftn. 1
32
33
34
35
36
36./
37
37. a, b
38
39
39. a
39. b
40
40. d
40. e-g
41
6, N.
b
New
25
26
28
20
20. b. N. 1
20. e~k
22
23
29
30
30. a and n. 3
31
32
31. a,
32. a,
33
34
34. N.
35
27. a.
36
37
38
39
40-42
43
43. N. i
44
44. 6, a
45-47
48
48. Exc.
48 a.
49
49. c and n.
49. d, g, e
50
470
480
ALLEN AND GKEENOUGH'S LATIN GRAMMAR
Old
41. d, e
42
43
3d dec!.
44-50
44
45
46
47
47. a
47. b
47. c
48
48. a
48. 6
48. c
48. tZ
48. e
49, 50
51-54
51. b
51. c
52
53. a, 6
53. c
54
54. 1, 2
54. 3
54. ftn. 2
55
56
57
57. c-e
58
59
60,61
62
62. a
62. N.
63,64
63. a-e
63./
.63. g-i
64
65
66,67
68
68. N.
69
69. b
70
70. a
New
50. c
70.
b
51
70.
c
52
70.
d
53-55
70.
e
56-64
70./
56, 58
70.
g
56. a
70.
h
57,59
71
67. a
71.
a
70
71.
b
60. a
72
62. N. 3
73
61, 62. N. 1, 2, 63
74.
a
61. 1
74.
b
61. 2, 3, 63. 1
74.
c
61. 4
74.
d
62. N. 2, 63. 2
74.
ftn.
62. N. 2
75
62-64
76
65-73
76.
1
66
76.
2,3
68
76.
a~c
67,69
77
65. 1. a
77.
1-4
65. 1. b
77.
2. a-f
70-72
77.
3. a-e
71. 1-4, 6
77.
4. a-c
7L 5
77.
5. a-d
73
77.
6. a-c
74
77.
7. a-c
76
78
76
78.
1
76. N. 1-3
78.
1. e
77
78.
!•/
78
78.
2
79
79
80
79.
b
p. 34. ftn.
79.
c
80. ftn.
79.
d
81-83
80 and a
83. a-e
80.
b-d
81
P.
47, top
82
81
82
82
84-87
82.
a
82.
b
88, 89
82.
c
82.
d
90
83
91
83.
ftn. 2
92
83.
a
92. a, c
83.
b
New
92. b
92. c
92. d
93
93. N. 1
92./
94
94. b
94. c
95, 96
97 and a
98. X.
98. c
98. b
98. a
98. d
99, 100
101, 102
101. 1, 2
101. 3, 4
102. 1-3
103
103. a-d
103. b. 1-6
103. c
103. d. 1-3
103. / 1-4
103. g. 1-3
103. h.1,2
104
105
105. e, /
105. flr
106
107
317. d. X. 2
101. N. 1
101. N.2
108
108. a-c
109
110
111, 112
111. a. N.
111. a
112. a
111. b
113
113.6
113. a
113. c-e
PARALLEL REFERENCES 481
Old New Old New
84 114-116
84. a 115. a
84. a. N. 115. a. n. i
84. 6 116. N.
84. c 115. N. 2
85 117-119
85. h 119
85. c 121. e
86 120
86. a 120. h
86. 6 120. c
87 121
87. h 121. a. 4
87. c, d • 121. 6, c
87. e 121. d
87. / 122. a-c
88 122
as. a 288, 289
88. 6 122.- d
88. c 321. c
88. d 214. d, e
89 123, 124
89. a 125 and a
89. 6 126
89. c 127
89. d 128
89. e 124. a
89. / 243
90 129
91 130, 131
91. c 131. c
91. d 1 130. a
91. d. 2 131. a
91. d 3 131. h
91. (Z. N. 131. d
92 218 and a
93. a, 6 , 291. a-c
•93. c 313. 6
93. d^g 291. c. n. 1-3
94 132-134
94. N. 133. N. 1
94. a 134. a
94. 6, c 134. 6 and n.
94. c. 2d par. 133. n. 2
94. d-/ 134. c-e
95 136, 137
95. a-d 137. a-d
96 138
96. N. 138. a
97 139
97. d 135. e
97. e 139. d
98
140-145
98. a
142
98. 6
143. a
98. c
143. a. N.
98. 2
144
98.3
145
99. a
302. a
99. &, c
143. 6, c
99. d
145. c
99. e
143. /
99./
143. d and n.
100, 101
146
100. ftn.
146. N. 1
100. a
146. N. 4, 6
100. h
146. N. 5
100. c
146. N. 7-9
P. 67, top
146. a
101. a
146. N. 2
101. h
146. N. 6
101. c
146. N. 3
101. d
146. a. N. 2
P. 67. ftn.
146. a. >. 1
102
297, 298
102. e
298. c
102. e. N.
298. c. K. 2
102. /
297. e
103
147
104
148-150
104. N.
150
104. h-e
150. a-d
104./
544
105
151
105. d
149, 151. e, /, 310. a
105. d. N.
310.6
105. e
151.^
105. e, quotus
quisque
313. b. N. 2
105. / f7
151. A, i
105. h
311
105. i
148. c, 151./
106
152
106. b
308. h
106. c
414. a
107
323. ^
108
154
109
155
110
154. c
110. a
480, 484. c, 575. fl
110. b
164. 3. a
110. c
154. c
110. d
164. 3. 6, c and n.
111
156
482
ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S LATIN GRAMilAJl
Old
New
Old
New
112
157
130
209
112. b. X.
157. b. ftn.
2d conj.
185
113
158
131
210
113. h. 2
499. 2
3d conj.
186
113. e-g
494, 495
Verbs in -id
188
114
159
132
211
115
160-162
132./. N.
211. ftn. 3
115. a. 1
472. b
4th conj.
187
llo. a. 2
466, 467. b
133
212
115. h
471
134
189
115. c
161
135
190
115. d
162
135. A
191
116
163
135. i
191. a
117
165
136
192 •
117. y. 2
p. 81. ftiL
137
197
118
166
137. a
198
118. y.
p. 76. ftn.
137. y.
p. 109. ftn.
119, 120
170
138
199
119. a
170. b
139
200
119. h
170. b. y.
139. ftn.
200. ftn. 2
119. h. N.
170. a
140
201
120. N-.
170. y.
141
203
121
164
141. c
203. d
121. Or^
164. 1-3
141. d
203. e
122
171-173
142
204
122. a
171
143
205
122. b
172
143. y.
205. 6, y. V
122. c
173
144
206
122. d
173. a
144. d-f
206. e-g
122. N.
174
144.^
206. d
123
175, 176
145
207
123. a
176. a
146
208
123. 6
174. 1
146. d. ftn.
208. d. N.
123. c
176. c
147
193
123. d
176. d
147. c. 1
203. a
123. e
176. d. y. I
147. c. 2
170. a
123./
176. e
147. c. 3
509. a.
124
177
P. 119. Note. 1. h
168. b
125
178
P. 119. Note. 1. c
168. c, d
125. y. 1
178. y. 3
P. 120. Note. 1. d
168. e
125. y. Q
178. y. 3
P. 120. Note. 1. €
168. /
126
179
P. 120. Note. 1./
p. 286. ftn. 1
127
180
P. 120. Note. 2
169
128
181
P. 121. Note. 3
p. 77. ftn. 1
128. a. 1
181. a
P. 122, top
213
128. a. 2
181. b
148
214
128. h
181. b. y.2
148. y.
215, 216
128. c
182
148. N. a-ij
215. 1-6
128. d
182. a
148. N. e
216. a and y
128. e
183
149
217
Ist ooni:
184
150
386
129
1^-196
161
tts
PARALLEL REFERENCES 483
Old New Old New
151. d
322. d and n.
164. h
250. a
151. e
322. e, /
164. i
254
P. 127. ftn.
219
164. k
245
152
220
164. ^
251
153
221. 1-28
164. 771
252
154
223
164. n
253. c
154. N. 1
222
164.
253. a
154. N. 2
224
164. p
253. 6
155
224
164.*g, r
255 and a
156
324. h
165
266
156. a
324. a, b
165. 2
257
156. a. 3d par.
328. a
166
258
156. a. 4th par.
324. c
166. a. 1
259. 1
156. h
324. d
166. b
260
156. c
324. e-gr
166. ;
261
156. d, e
324. h, i
166. d
262. a, 6
156./
540. N. 1-3
167
263
156. gr
539. 540. a. n.
167. a
263. 1
156. h. 1
323. fir
167. b and n.
263. 2 and a
156. A. 2
323. e
167. c
263. 2. 6
156. i
527. c, d
167. d, e
263. 3, 4
156. A:
324. j
168
264
Interjections
225, 226
168. a-c
265. 1-3
P. 140. Note
227
168. d
265. a
157
228
169
266
157. N.
229. N.
170
267
158
230, 231
170. a. N.
267. N. 2
158. 1. a, b
231. a, b
170. c
267. d. 1, 2
158. 1. c
231. c
170. d
267. c
159
232
P. 163
268
160
233
171
269
160. a, 6
233. 1, 2
172
270
160. c
234
172. N.
272
160. c. 2. a-€
234. IL 1-18
172, N. 2d par.
284. 6
161
235
173. 1
839
162
236
173. 2
897. e
163
237
174
271
163. 1. a
238. a
174. 2
271. a
163. c
239
175
273
163. d
240 and a
175. a
273. 2
163. d. N.
240. N.
176.6
273. 1
163. 2
241. 1, 2 and a
176
283
163. /,sr
241. 6, c
176. b
284
164
242
177
274
164. a
248
177. a
275
164. a. B.
243. a
177.6
274. a
164.6
244
177. c
274. 6
164. c
249
178
276
164. d
248
179
277
164. €
260
180
278. 1, 2
164./
246
180. c~e
279. a-€
164. g
247
180./
808./
484
ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S LATIN GRAMMAR
Old
New
181, 182
280
183
281
184
282
184. b
282. c
184. c
282. d
184. d, e
302. e
185
283. 284
186. a, b
285. 1, 2
186. 6. 2, 3
285. N.
186. c
282. b, c
186. d
286. a
187
287
187. a
287. 1, 2
187. b
287. 3
187. 6. N.
287. 4
187. c
287. 4. a
187. (Z, e
286. 6, N.
188. a-c
288. a~c
188. R.
288. N.
188. d, e
321. c, d
189
289
190
343. a
190. a
302. d
191
290
192
292
192.6
292. a. N.
193
293
P. 178. Note
294
194
295
194. b. N.
295. b. N.
195
296 and 2
195. 2
296. 1
195. a
297./
195. b
297. b. N.
195. c
298. a
195. d
296. a
195. e, /
298. 6, c
195. /. R.
298. c. N.
195. g
298. d 1
195. h, i
298. d. 2,
195. A;
298. e
195. I
298./
196
299
196. a
300
196. a. 2. N.
300. b
196. 6
301. a
196. c
301. 6
196. d-/
301. dr-f
196. gr
301. c
196. h
299. a
196. i
300. b
197
302
Old
197. /
P. 186. Note
P. 186, bottom
198
199
200
200. d
200. e
201. a, 6, c
201. c?
201. e-h
202
202. a
202. b
202. c
202. d
202. e
202. /
nullus
203
203. a
203. c. N.
204
205
205. c and 1
205. c. 2
205. d
206
206. c
206. c. 1
206. c. 2
207
207. N. 2, 3
207. 6
207. c
207. cZ
208
208. b. 1-3
208. c
208. d
208. e
209
209. a
209. 6
209. c
209. d
209. e
210
210. a
210. 6-(?
210. d. R.
210. e
New
N.
PARALLEL REFERENCES 485
Old New Old New
210. e.
R.
333. N.
225. e
365
210./
333. a
226
366
210. /.
R.
331. N., 332. 6. N.
227
367
211
334, 335
227. N. 2
367. a. N. 2
21L R.
335. N.
227. c. N.
367. a. N. 1
212
336
227.6
368
212. 6
337
227./
369
212. 6.
R.
335. d. N.
228
870
F. 205.
Note
338
228. N. 1
370. a
P. 206.
Note
341
228. a, h
370. 6, c
213
342
228. c
371
213. 1,
2 and n.
343. N. 1, 348. N.
229
881
214 and a. 1
343
229. c
368. a
214. a.
2
343. a
230
372
214. h
343. N. 2
231
373
214. c
343. 6
231. R.
373. N.
214. c.
R.
343. 6. N.
231. a
373. b
214. d
343. c
231. 6, c
873. a
214. d.
R.
343. c. N. 1
232
874
214. d.
N.
343. c. N. 2
232. N.
374. a and n. i
214. e
344
232. a
875
214./
343. («
232. 6, c
875. a, 6
214. g
359.6
233
882
215
345
233. a
882. 1 and n. i
216
346
233. 6
382. 2
216. R.
346. N. 2
234
883
P. 211,
top
347
234. a
884
217
348
234. h-d
885. a-c
218
349
234. e
432. a
218. h
349. c
235
376
218. c
349. d
235. a
377
218. c.
R.
358
235. 6
878. 1, 2
219
350
235. c
878. 2. N.
219. h
350. d
235. d
879
219. c
351
235. e
379. a
220
352
236
380
220. h
353
236. R.
879. N.
220. &.
3
353. 2. N.
P. 235. Note
386
220. h.
N.
352. N.
237
387
221
354
237. a
387.6
221. d
354. c. N.
237. 6, d~f
388. a-d and n.
222
355
237. c
390. a
223
356
237. r/
500. 3
223. a
357
237. 'h
389
223. c
358
238
390
223. d
359
238. a, h
390. b-d
223. e
359. b
238. c
388. d
P. 218.
Note
360
238. c. N.
890. d N. 1
224
361
239
891
225
362
239. 1
392
225. 6,
c
363, 369
239. 1. a, N. 1
393, N.
225. d
364
239. a. N. 2
393. Q
486
ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S LATIN GRAMMAR
Old
Nei
Old
239. R.
395. N. 3
249.
b
410. a. N. 1
239. 2
394
249.
b. N.
410. a. N. 2
239. 2. b
395 and r.
250
414
239. c
396
250.
r. and N.
414. a and n.
239. c. N. 1, 2
396. a, b
250.
a
414. b
239. c. R.
396. b. N.
251
415
239. d
396. c
262
416
240. a
390. c, d and n. 2
252.
a
417
240. 6
397. a
252.
b-d
417. a-c
240. c, d
397. 6, d
253
418
240. c. N.
397. c
253.
N.
418. a and n.
240. e
423, 425
253.
a
510. N. I
240. /, g
397. e,/
P. 260. Note
421
241
340
254
426.3
241. c
339. a
254.
a
429. 3
241. d
340. c
254.
6. 1
431
242
399
254.
6.2
431. a
242. N.
398
254.
&. 2.
R.
431. a. N. 1
243
400
255
419
243. a
401
255.
d
420
243. 6
402
256
423
243. d
402. a
256.
a, b
424. a, b
243. e
411
257
425
243. c. N.
411. a
258
426. 1, 2
243. e. R.
411. b
258.
2. N.
1
428. h
243./
356
258.
2. N.
2
428. c
243. /. R.
356. N.
258.
a
427. 1
244
403
258.
a. N.
1
428. a
244. a. R.
403. a. N. 1
258.
a. N.
2
428./
244. 6
403. a. N. 2, 3
258.
a. N.
3
428. g
244. c-e
403. 6-(f
258.
b
427. 2
245
404
258.
b. N.
1
428. A;
245. a. 1 and n.
2 418. 6
258.
b. N.
2
428. a
245. a. 2
404. a
258.
6. N.
3
428. 6
246
405
258.
b. N.
5
428. gr
246. R.
405. N. :^
258.
6. R.
428. i
246. b. N.
405. b.y. !
258.
c. 1
426.3
247
406
258.
c. 2
427. 3
247. a, c-e
407 and a, c-e
258.
c. 2.
R.
428. e
247. a. R.
407. a. N. 3
258.
C. N.
1
428. d and n.
247. 6
406. a
258.
d
427. a
P. 253. Note
408
258.
e
428. A;
248
412
258.
/. 1-3
429. 1-4
248. N.
412. a
258.
g
429. a
248. R.
412. 6 and n.
259
424
248. a
413
259.
a
424. d
248. a. N.
413. a
259.
b
424. e
248. a. R.
413. N.
259.
c
424. c
248. c. 1
409
259.
d
424./
248. c. 2
409. a
259.
e
424.gr
248. c. 2. R.
409. a. N.
259.
428. j. N.
249
410
259.
h
428. j
PARALLEL REFERENCES 487
Old New Old New
27L c 458
27L c. N. 455. 2. a
272 ' 459
272. R. 561. a
272. a. 1 455
272. a. 2 456. a
272. 6 581. N. 3
273 460
273. c 457. a
273. d 461
273. e 460. c
273. g 461. a
273. h 461. 6
274 462
275 463
P. 291. Note 464
276 465
276. a 466
276. b 467
276. c 468
276. d 469
276. e 556
276. e. N. 556. a
276. / 465. a
277 470
277. R. 471
277. a-g 471. a-/
278 472
279 473
279. a 474
279. 6 473. a
279. c 475
279. d 475. a
279. e 476
279. R. 476. N.
280 477
281 478
281. R. 478.
282 479
283 480
284 481
285 482
286 483
286. N. 483. ftn.
286. R., (a), (6) 484, a-c
287 485
287. c. R. 485. c. n. i
287. f-i 485. g-j
288. c and a 486 and a
288. d, R. 486. 6, d, e
288. e 486. /
288. / 569. a
260
220
260. a
430
260. 6
429. 6
260. c
221. 24
260. d
221. 23
260. e
221. 26
?,61
432
261. a. N.
432. b
261. 6
432. c
261. c
432. d
261. d
433
262 and n. i
434
263. N.
435
P. 274. Note
436
264
437
264. a
465 ff.
264. h
437. a
265
438
266 and r.
439
266. h
450. (3) and n, 3
266. c
440
266. d
528. a
266. e
439. b
266. e. R.
439. 6. N. 2
266. e. K.
439. 6. N. 1
267
441
267. h
442
267. h. N. 1
442. a and n. i
267. c
442. b
268
444
268. R.
444. N.
269
448
269. N.
450. a, b
269. a
450
269. a. 2. N.
450. N, 1
269. a. 3. N.
450. N. 4
269. 6. N.
450. N. 3
269. c
448. a
269. d. 1, 3
449. 1, 2
269. e-cy
449. a-c
269. h
588
269. i
521. N.
P. 283. Note
451
270
452
270. a. 1, 2
452. a
270.6
454
270. 6. N. 1
454. N.
270. c
463
271
466
271. a
457
271. a. N. 1
563. b. 1
271. 6
563. a
488 ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S LATIN-GRAJ^JMAR
Old
New-
Old
New
P. 306, mid.
487
308.
b and r.
517. b
289
488
309
518
290
489
309.
b
518. c
290. a
490
309.
c
518. b
290. b
491
310
521
290. c
492
311
522
290. d
493
311.
a
445, 446
291
494
311.
a. N. I
447. 2
291. b
495
311.
a. N. 2
446
291. b. R.
495. N.
311.
a. N. 3
447. a
292
496
811.
a. R.
447. 3. N.
292. R.
496. N. 1, 2
311.
b
447. 1
292. N. 1, 2
496. N. 3, 4
311.
c
522. a
292. a
497
311.
R.
522. N. 1
292. b-e
497. a-d
311.
C. N.
522. X. 2
292. b. N.
411. a. N. 2
311.
d
523
293
498
312
524
293. 6
499
312.
R., N.
524. N. 2, 1
293. c
498. b
813
526, 527
294
500
313.
d
549
294. a-d
500. 1-4
313.
d. N.
549. N. 3
295
502
813.
e
527. d
295. R.
502. N.
313./
527. d. N.
296
503
313.
9
527. e
296. R.
503. N. 2
813.
h
535. e
297
601, 502
313.
i
440
298
504
814
528
298. N.
504. N. 2
314.
b
528. a
298. R.
504. a. N. I
315
525
298. a
504. c
815.
a. 1
525. a
298. b
504. N. 1
815.
a. 2
525. a. 3. N.
298. c
504. b
315.
d
525. e
299
505. a
816
519
299. a
505
816.
a
620
300
506 and n. I
317
529, 530
300. N.
506. N. 2
817:
2d par.
531
301
507
817.
3
563
301. R.
503. a. N. 2
817.
a
531. 1. N. 1
302. headn.
508
817.
b
531. a
302
509
817.
b. N. 1
558. b
302. R.
509. N. 1
817.
6. N. 2
531. a. N.
303
510
817.
c
532
303. N. R.
510. N. 1-3
817.
C. R.
532. N.
P. 320. Note
511
817.
C. N. R.
531. 2. N. 2
304
512
318
533
304. d
513
P. 343. Note
534
305
514
819
536, 537
305. R.
514. C. N.
319.
3
568
306
515
319.
3. N. and r.
537. 2. N. 1,
307
516
319.
c
558. b
307. 6. R, c. R
616. b. N. c. N.
819.
d
558, 559
308
617
819.
d. r.
688
PARALLEL REFERE^XES 489
Old New Old New
320
635
831. i. N. 1
665. N. 3
320. /. N.
535. /. N. 2
331. i. N. 3
565. N. 2
P. 348, mid. n.
539
P. 362, bottom, n. 567
321
640
332
568
32L N. 3
640. a
832. a
569
32 L R.
540. N. 3
832. h
571. a
321. o-c
540. h-d
832. c
462. a
P. 349, bottom, n.
541
332. d
571. h
322
642
832. c
568. N. I
322. R.
535. a. N. 3
832./
571. c
323
645, 546
832. ^r
558
324
643
832. g. R.
558. a
325
645-548
832. g. N. 2
658. a. N. 2
325. a
545
832. h
680. d
325. a. N.
646. N. 4
833
672
325. h
646. a
333. 6. R.
672. 6. N.
325. c
647
834
673-575
326 and r.
649
384. c
676
326. a. R.
549. a. N.
334. c. R.
576. N.
327
650, 551
334. d, e
675. c, d
327. a
551. c
834./
676. a
327. h
651. c. N. 2
834. g
447. a, 5
328
652, 55S
P. 369. Note
577
328. 2
554, 555
885
578
328. 2. N. 1
655. N. 2
335. R.
578. N.
328. a
656
336. 1
579
328. a. N.
556. a. N. 1
836.2
580
328. K.
656. a. N. 1
336. 2. N. 2
680. a
328. R.
656. a. N. 2
836. 2. N. 3
680. c
329
560, 561
836. a. 1
681
329. N.
661. N. 1
836. a. R.
681. N. 2
329. R.
661. N. 2
836. a. 2
682
329. (classification) 562
836. a. 2. N. 2
682. a. N. 2
330
452
836.6
683
330. B.
459
836. c
683. 6
330. B. 2, 3
663. a, 6
836. c. N. 2
683. c
330. R.
662. N.
836. (f
583. a
330. a, 6
582
836. A
584
330. a. 2
566. 6
336. A. N. 1
684. a and n
330. 6. 2
666. c
336. B
685
330. c
682. a
836. B. N. 2
685. a
330. d
682. N.
836. B. a
585.6
330. e
579. ftn. 1
837
689
330. /
580. c
838
586
331 and h. n.
563 and b
838. a
687
331. e. 2
558. 6
839
588
331./
564
339. R.
588. a
331. /. ftn.
564. N.
P. 378, mid.
590
331. /. R.
565, a, 569. 2. n. 2
840
691
331.^
563. N.
341
592
331. h
500
341. h^l
592. 1-g
331. i 565 341. r. 592. n.
490
ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S LATIN GRAM^MAR
Old
New
Old
New
342 693
342. ftn. 2d par. 593. n. 2
P. 381 ff. 594
P. 386, top. Note 595
343 596 and a
344 597
344. R. 597. a. n. 9
P. 389, top. R. 597. b
P. 389, top. a 598. a
345 599
345. a 699. d
345. d 599. a
P. 392. Note 600
346 601
P. 394. Note 602
347 603
347. d 603. /
347. d. N. 1, 2 603. /. N. 2, 3
347. d. R. 603. /. N. 4
347. e. R. 603. /. n. l
348 604
348. 1-10 604. a-j
348. 9. Exc. 604. L 1-6
349-351
351. b 605
352, 353
354 606
354. d 606. c. n.
P. 402. Note 607
355. R. 608. N.
356 609
356. e 309. n.
356. / 609. e
357 610
357. b
357. c 610. b
858 611
359 612
359. 6, c 612. d, e
359. b. R. 612. d!. n.
359. c. R. 612. e. n.
359. d and r 612. /. n. i, a
.359. e 612. gr
359. /, '/ 612. b
860
613
360. R.
613. N.
361
614
362
616
362. a
615. a, 6
362. a.
N.
615. N.
862. b and r.
615. c and n.
862. c
615. d
363
616
364
617
365
618
366
619
367
620
367.6
620. c
P. 414,
mid. Note
621
868
622
369
623
370
624
371
625
872
626
873
627 .
874
628
875
629
875. 6,
c, e
629. b. 1-3
375. d
629. c
875. e
629. b 3
875./
375. g
629. d
375. g.
3-5
629. d. IS
875. h
629. e
P. 425.
Note
630
376
631
377
682
378
683
379
634
380
686
881
636
882
687
888
638
884
— _-
P. 429 2J3
689
386
640
886
387
641
842
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