i >,*i ♦ ■ ■1:]-;:: t ■ ■ f Ml m^ ALLEN AND GREENOUqH.'§: - NEW LATIN GRAMMAR FOR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES FOUNDED ON COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR EDITED BY J. B. GREENOUGH G. L. KITTREDGE A. A. HOWARD BENJ. L. D'OOGE GINN AND COMPANY BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON ATLANTA • DALLAS • COLUMBUS • SAN FRANCISCO ~|30 Entered at Stationers' Hall Copyright, 1888, by JAMES B. GREENOUGH and J. H. ALLEN Copyright, 1903, by GINN AND COMPANY Copyright, 1916, by GEORGE L. KITTREDGE ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 620.4 C.INN AXD COMPANY • PKO- PRIHTORS • BOSTON • U.S.A. PREFACE The present book is a careful revision of the edition of 1888. This revision was planned and actually begun in the lifetime of Professor Greenough and has been carried out in accordance with principles that met with his full approval. The renum- bering of the sections has made it possible to improve the arrangement of material in many particiilars and to avoid a cer- tain amount of repetition which was inevitable in the former edition. Thus, without increasing the size of the volume, the editors have been able to include such new matter as the advance in grammatical science has afforded. The study of historical and comparative syntax has been pursued with considerable vigor during the past fifteen years, and the well-established results of this study have been inserted in their appropriate places. In general, however, the principles and facts of Latin syntax, as set forth by Professor Greenough, have stood the test both of scientific criticism and of practical use in the class-room, and accordingly the many friends of Allen and Greenough's Gram, mar will not find the new edition strange or unfamiliar in its method or its contents. The editors have seen no occasion to change long-settled nomenclature or to adopt novel classifica- tions when the usual terms and categories have proved satis- factory. On the other hand, they have not hesitated to modify either doctrines or forms of statement whenever improvement seemed possible. In the matter of " hidden quantity" the editors have been even more conservative than in the former revision. This subject is one of great difficulty, and the results of the most recent investi- gations are far from harmonious. In many instances the facts IV PREFACE are quite undiscoverable, and, in general, the phenomena are of comparatively slight interest except to special students of the arcana of philology. No vowel has been marked long unless the evidence seemed practically decisive. The editors have been fortunate in securing the advice and assistance of Professor E. S. Sheldon, of Harvard University, for the first ten pages, dealing with phonetics and phonology. They are equally indebted to Professor E. P. Morris, of Yale Univer- sity, who has had the kindness to revise the notes on historical and comparative syntax. Particular acknowledgment is also due to Mr. M. Grant Daniell, who has cooperated in the revision throughout, and whose accurate scholarship and long experience as a teacher have been of the greatest service at every point. September 1, 1903. CO^^TENTS PAET I — WORDS AND FORMS PAGE Letters and Sounds • • • 1-10 Alphabet ; Classification of Sounds 1-3 pithography, Syllables, Pronunciation 3-5 Quantity and Accent 5-7 Combinations ; Phonetic Changes 7-10 Words and their Forms . 11-16 Parts of Speech 11, 12 Inflection; Root, Stem, and Base 12-1-4 Gender, Number, and Case 1-4-16 Declension of Nouns 16-45 General Rules of Declension 17 First Declension 18-20 Second Declension 20-24 Third Declension 24-37 ' Mute Stems 25, 26 Liquid and Nasal Stems 27, 28 Pure i-Stems *. 29,30 Mixed i-Stems •. •. • 30, 31 Irregular Nouns 33, 34 Greek Nouns 34-36 Rules of Gender 36, 37 Fourth Declension 37-39 Fifth Declension 39, 40 Defective and Variable Nouns 40-44 Names of Persons 45 Inflection of Adjectives 46-62 First and Second Declensions 46-49 Third Declension 49-54 Comparison 55-57 Numerals 58-62 Inflection of Pronouns 63-71 Personal, Reflexive, Possessive, Demonstrative 63-67 Relative, Interrogative, Indefinite 68-71 Con-elatives (Pronouns and Adverbs) 71 Conjugation of Verbs 72-125 Inflection 72 Signification: Voice, Mood, Tense 73-75 |*ersonal Endings 76, 77 VI CONTENTS PAGE Forms : Stem and Verb-Endings 77-81 The Verb Sum 81-83 Regular Verbs 84-103 The Four Conjugations ; Principal Parts 84, 85 Formation of the Three Stems 85-89 Synopsis of the Verb 90 Peculiarities of Conjugation 91 First Conjugation , . . 92-95 Second Conjugation 96, 97 Third Conjugation 98, 99 Fourth Conjugation 100, 101 Verbs in -16 of the Third Conjugation 102, 103 Deponent Verbs 103-106 Periphrastic Conjugations . 106-108 Irregular Verbs 108-115 Defective Verbs ' 116-119 Impersonal Verbs 119, 120 Classified Lists of Verbs » 121-125 Particles 126-139 Adverbs 126-130 Prepositions 130-136 Conjunctions 137-139 Interjections 139 Formation of "Words .,...' 140-162 Roots and Stems 140, 141 Suffixes: Primary; Significant Endings 141-143 Derivation of Nouns 143-148 Derivation of Adjectives 148-154 Nouns w^ith Adjective Suffixes ; Irregular Derivatives .... 154-156 Derivation of Verbs 156-159 Compound Words 160-162 PART II — SYNTAX * Introductory Note 163 The Sentence 164-208 Definitions : Subject and Predicate, Modification, etc 164-168 Agreement : the Four Concords 168 Nouns : Apposition ; Predicate Agreement 168-170 Adjectives . . . , 170-175 Rules of Agreement 171, 172 Special Uses 172-175 Pronouns 176-192 Personal and Demonstrative 176-180 Reflexive 180-183 Possessive 183, 184 co:ntents yu PAGE Relative ,...,....». 184-189 Indefinite 189-191 Alius and alter « . . 192 VfcRBS 193-195 Verb and Subject, Incomplete Sentences 193-195 Particles : Adverbs, Conjunctions, Negatives 196-204 Questions . . . . , 205-208 Construction of Cases 209-275 Introductory Note 209 Nominative Case 210 Vocative Case - 210 Genitive Case 210-224 Genitive with Nouns 211-216 Possessive Genitive 211,212 Genitive of Material, of Quality , . . . 213 Partitive Genitive 213-215 Objective Genitive 215, 216 Genitive with Adjectives 216, 217 Genitive with Verbs 218-223 Verbs of Kemembering and Forgetting .,.,,... 218, 219 Verbs of Reminding , 219 Verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquitting 220 Verbs of Feeling , 221 Interest and refert . . . . , 221,222 Verbs of Plenty and Want ; Special Verbs 222, 223 Peculiar Genitives : Exclamatory, etc 223, 224 Dative Case 224-239 Indirect Object with Transitives 225-227 Indirect Object with Intransitives 227-232 Dative cf Possession , 232, 233 Dative of the Agent 233, 234 Dative of Reference 234-236 Ethical Dative 236 Dative of Separation 236, 237 Dative of the Purpose or End 237 Dative with Adjectives 238, 239 Accusative Case 240-248 Direct Object 240-242 Cognate Accusative 242-244 Two Accusatives , . . . 244-246 Idiomatic and Special Uses 247, 248 Ablative Case 248-265 of the Ablative Proper 249-255 Ablative of Separation 249, 250 Ablative of Source and Materia,! 260-252 Ablative of Cause 252, 253 Vlil CONTENTS PAGE Ablative ol Agent , 25;3, 254 Ablative of Comparison 254, 255 Uses of the Ablative as Instrumental 256-265 Ablative of Means or Instrument 256-258 Ablative of Manner 258 Ablative of Accompaniment 258, 259 Ablative of Degree of Difference 259, 260 Ablative of Quality , » 260 Ablative of Price . 261,262 Ablative of Specification 262, 263 Ablative Absolute 263-265 Uses of the Ablative as Locative 265 l^MB AND Place . 266-273 Special Uses of Prepositions .'^74, 275 Syntax >p thb Verb . , 276-386 Mood* , , . . o 276-293 Introductory Note 276,277 Indicative Mood 277 SeBJUNCTivE IN Independent Sentences 278-283 Hortatory Subjunctive . , . , 278, 279 Hortatory Subjunctive in Concessions 279 Optative Subjunctive . ,. 280, 281 Deliberative Subjunctive 281 Potential Subjunctive . , 282, 283 Imperative Mood 283-285 Prohibition (Negative Command) 285 Infinitive Mood 286-292 Infinitive as Noun 286,287 Infinitive with Impersonals . , 287, 288 Complementary Infinitive 289, 290 Infinitive witli Subject Accusative 290 Infinitive of Purpose ; Peculiar Infinitives 290, 291 Exclamatory Infinitive 292 Historical Infinitive 292 Tenses ...... 293-308 Introductory Note 293 Tenses op the Indicative 293-301 Present Tense 293-295 Imperfect Tense 296-297 Future Tense 298 Perfect Tense . , 298-300 Pluperfect Tense 800 Future Perfect Tense 300 Epistolary Tenses 301 Tenses of the Subjunctive 801-306 Sequence of Tenses 802-306 CONTENTS ix PAGE Tenses of the Infinitive ....,.....,.., 307, 308 Participles 809-316 Distinctions of Tense , , 309-311 Uses of Participles 311-314 Future Active Participle . » 314, 315 Gerundive (Future Passive Participle) 315, 316 Gerund and Gerundive 816-319 iSupiNE o . . . 320 Conditional Sentences . 321-888 Introductory Note 321 . 322 Protasis and Apodosis 822, 323 Classificatiou of Conditions 828-325 Simple Present and Past Conditions . 825, 826 Future Conditions 826-328 Conditions Contrary to Fact . 328-330 General Conditions . 331 Conditional Relative Clauses . 882, 333 Condition Disguised 883, 834 Condition Omitted 334, 335 Complex Conditions 835 Clauses of Comparison (Conclusion Omitted) 836 Use of Si and its Compounds 337, 388 Concessive Clauses 338,839 Clauses of Proviso 840 Clauses op Purpose (Final Clauses) 340-843 Clauses of Characteristic 848-346 Clauses of Result (Consecutive Clauses) 346-348 Causal Clauses , 348-350 Temporal Clauses 350-359 Ubi, ut, cum, quando, as Indefinite Relatives 850 Postquam, ubi, ut, simul atque 851 Cum Temporal 852-854 Cum Causal or Concessive 854, 855 Antequam and priusquam 355, 856 Dum, donee, and quoad 357-359 Clauses with quin and quominus 359-361 Substantive Clauses 862-384 Introductory Note 362 Substantive Clauses of Purpose and Infinitive Clauses .... 362-367 Substantive Clauses of Result (Consecutive Clauses) 367-869 Indicative with quod 369, 370 Indirect Questions 870-373 Indirect Discourse < 873-384 Introductory Note , 873, 374 Declaratory Sentences 874-877 Subordinate Clauses .... 377, 378 X CONTENTS PAGE Tenses of the Infinitive 378, 379 Tenses of the Subjunctive 379,380 Questions in Indirect Discourse 380, 381 Commands in Indirect Discourse 381 Conditions in Indirect Discourse 381-384 ^TERMEDIATE CLAUSES 384-386 Informal Indirect Discourse 385 Subjunctive of Integral Part (Attraction) 386 Important Rules of Syntax 387-392 Order of Words 393-400 General Rules 393-398 Special Rules 398, 399 Structure of the Period 399, 400 PEOSODY Quantity 401-405 Rhythm , 405-409 Introductory Note 405, 400 Measures of Rhythm ; Feet 406-409 The Musical Accent ; Csesura ; Diaeresis 409 Versification 410-426 The Verse; Scansion and Elision 410,411 Dactylic Verse 411-414 Dactylic Hexameter 411,412 Elegiac Stanza ; Other Dactylic Verses 413,414 Iambic Verse 414-416 Iambic Trimeter 414, 415 Other Iambic Measures 416 Trochaic Verse , . . 417 Mixed Measures 418 Logaoedic Verse 418-421 Metres of Horace 421-425 Index to the Metres of Horace 423-425 Other Lyric Poets 425 Miscellaneous Measures 425, 426 Early Prosody 426, 427 Miscellaneous • 428-431 Reckoning of Time 428, 429 Measures of Value, Length, and Capacity 429-431 Glossary of Terms 432-435 Index of Verbs 436-444 Index of Words and Subjects 445-475 Latin Authors and their Works , 476, 477 Parallel References ..... » 479-490 ALLEN AND GKEENOUGH'S NEW LATIN GRAMMAR XI LATIE^ GRAMMAR Latin Grammar is usually treated under three heads: 1. Words and Forms; 2. Syntax; 3. Prosody. Syntax tl^eats of the functioil of words when Joined together as ^arts of the sentence $ Prosody of their arrange- ment in metrical composition. PART FIRST— WORDS AND FORMS THfe ALPHABET 1. The Latin Alphabet is the same as the English (which is in fact borrowed from it) except that it does not contain J, U, and W. Note 1. — The Latin alphabet was borrowed in very early times from a Greek alphabet (though not from that most familiar to us) and did not at first contain the letters G and Y. It consisted "of capital letters only, and the small letters with ^hich we are familiar did not come into general use until the close of the eighth century of our era. Note 2. — The Latin names of the consonants were as follows : — B, be (pronounced bay); 0, ce (pronounced kay}; i>, de '{day); F, ef-; G, ge igay); H, ha; K, ka; L, el; M, em; 'S,en; 'P,pe{pay); <),qu(k6o); R, ery S,es; T, te(tay); X,ix; Z,zeta(the Greek name, pronounced dzayta). The sound of each vovtel was used as its name. a. The character € originally meant G, a value always retained in the abbreviations <5. (fot GSfaft) and €ft. '(for G^aeas). Note. — In early Latin C came also to be used for K, and K disappeared except be- fore a in a few words, as Kal. (Kalendae), Karthago. Thus there was no distinction iri writing between the sounds of g and k. Later this defect was remedied by forming (from C) the new character G. This took the alphabetic place formerly occupied by Z, which had gone out of use. In Cicero's time (see N. D. ii. 93), Y (originally a form of V) and Z were introduced from the ordinary Greek alphabet to represent sounds in words derived from the Greek, and they were put at the end of the Latin alphabet. h, I and V were used both as vowels and as consonants (see § 5). Note. — V originally denoted the vowel sound u (pd), and F stood for the sound of our consonant w. When F acCfuited the value of our f, V came to be used for the sound of w as well ^s for the vowel u. In this book i is used for both vowel and consonant i, u for vowel u, and V for consonant ti : — ifis, vir, iuvenis. 1 ^A WOkDS AND PORMS [§§2-4 Classification of Sounds 2. The simple Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y. The Diphthongs are ae, au, ei, eu, oe, ui, and, in early Latin, ai, oi, ou. In the diphthongs both vowel sounds are heard, one fol- lowing the other in the same syllable. 3. Consonants are either voiced (sonant) or voiceless (surd). Voiced consonants are pronounced with the same vocal murmur that is heard in vowels ; voiceless consonants lack this murmur. 1. The voiced consonants are b, d, g, 1, r, m, n, z, consonant i, v. 2. The voiceless consonants are p, t, c (k, q), f, h, s, x. 4. Consonants are further classified as in the following table : Labials Dentals Palatals ' Voiced (mediae) b d g Mutes Voiceless (tenues) P t c (k, q) Aspirates ph th ch Nasals m n n (before c, g, q) Liquids l,r Fricatives (Spirants) V s, z Sibilants 8, Z Semivo wels V consonant i Double consonants are x (= cs) and z (= dz) ; h is merely a breathing. 1. Mutes are pronounced by blocking entirely, for an instant, the passage of the breath through the mouth, and then allowing it to escape with an explosion (distinctly heard before a following vowel). Between the explosion and the vowel there may be a slight puff of breath (h), as in the Aspirates (ph, th, ch),2 2. Labials are pronounced with the lips, or lips and teeth. 3. Dentals (sometimes called Linguals) are pronounced with the tip of the tongue touching or approaching the upper front teeth. 4. Palatals are pronounced with a part of the upper surface of the tongue touching or approaching the palate.s 5. Fricatives (or Spirants) are consonants in which the breath passes continuously through the mouth with audible friction. 6. Nasals are like voiced mutes, except that the mouth remains closed and the breath passes through the nose. 1 Strictly a lahio-dental, pronounced with the under lip touching the upper teeth. 3 The aspirates are almost wholly confined to words borrowed from the Greek. In early Latin such borrowed sounds lost their aspiration and became simply p, t, c. 3 Palatals are often classed as (1) velars, pronounced with the tongue touching or ris- ing toward the soft palate (in the back part of the mouth) , and (2) palatals, in which the tongue touches or rises toward the hard palate (farther forward in the mouth) . Compare the initial consonants in key and cool, whispering the two words, and it will be observed that before e and i the k is sounded farther forward in the mouth than before a, o. or u. §§ 5, 6] ORTHOGRAPHY 3 5. The vowels i and u serve as consonants when pronounced rapidly before a vowel so as to stand in the same syllable.^ Con- sonant i has the sound of English consonant y; consonant u (v) that of English consonant w. Consonant i and u (v) are sometimes called Semivowels. Note 1. — The Latin alphabet did not distinguish between the vowel and consonant sounds of i and u, but used each letter (I and V) with a double value. In modern books i and u are often used for the vowel sounds, j and v for the consonant sounds ; but in printing in capitals J and U are avoided : — I V LIVS (lulius) . The characters J and U are only slight modifications of the characters I and V. The ordinary English sounds of j and V did not exist in classical Latin, but consonant u perhaps approached English v in the pronunciation of some persons. Note 2. — In the combinations qu, gu, and sometimes su, u seems to be the conso- nant (w) . Thus, aqua, anguis, consuetus (compare English quart, anguish, suave) . In these combinations, however, u is reckoned neither as a vowel nor as a consonant.^ ORTHOGRAPHY 6. Latin spelling varied somewhat with the changes in the language and was never absolutely settled in all details. Thus, we find lubet, vort5, as earlier, and libet, verto, as later forms. Other variations are optumus and optimus, gerundus and gerendus. The spelling of the first century of our era, known chiefly from inscriptions, is tolerably uniform, and is commonly used in modern editions of the classics. a. After v (consonant u), o was anciently used instead of u (voltus, servos), and this spelling was not entirely given up until the middle of the first century of o\ir era. 6. The older quo became cu in the Augustan period ; in the second cen- tury of our era the spelling quu established itself in some words : — cum, older quom ;3 equos, ecus, later equus ; sequontur, secuntur, later sequuntur ; similarly exstinguont, exstingunt, later exstinguunt. Note. — In most modern editions the spelling quu is adopted, except in cum. c. Between consonant i and a preceding a, e, o, or u, an i was developed as a transient sound, thus producing a diphthong ai, ei, etc., before the con- sonant i. In such cases but one i was written : as, aid (for fai-io), mains (for fmai-ius), peius (for fpei-ius). 1 Compare the English word Indian as pronounced in two syllables or in three. 2 In such words it is possible that the preceding consonant was labialized and that no distinct and separate consonant u was heard. ' The spelliDg quum is very late and without authority. 4 WORDS AND FORMS [§§ 6-8 d. Similarly in compounds of iacio but one i was written (as, con-icio, not con-iicio); but the usual pronunciation probably showed consonant i followed by vowel i (see § 11. e). Note. — Some variations are due to later changes in Latin itself, and these are not now recognized in classical texts. 1. Unaccented ti and ci, when followed by a vowel, came to be pronounced alike ; hence nuntio was later spePed with a c and dicio with a t. 2. The sound of h was after a time lost and hence this letter was often omitted (as, arena for harena) or mistakenly written (as, humor for umor) . 3. The diphthong ae early in the time of the Empire acquired the value of long open e (about like English e in there) , and similarly oe after a time became a long close e (about like the English ey in they) ; and so both were often confused in spelling with e : as, eoena or caeaa for the correct form cena. Syllables ; 7. Every Latin word has as many syllables as it has vowels or ' diphthongs : — a-6i-e, mo-ne, fi-li-us, fe-ro-ci-ta-te. a. In the division of words into syllables a single consonant (including consonant i and v) between two vowels is written and pronounced with the following vowel. Ddtibled consonants are separated : — pa-ter, mi-li-tes, in-iiJ-ri-a, di-vi-d5 ; mit-to, tol-16. Note 1. — Some extend the rule for single consonants to any consonant group (as sp, St, gn) that can begin a word. In this book, dix-it, sax-um, etc. are preferred to di-xit, sa-xum ; the pronunciation was probably dic-sit, sac-sum. Note 2. — A syllable ending with a vowel or diphthong is called open: all others are called close. Thus in pa-ter the first syllable is open, the second close. b. In compounds the parts are separated : — ab-est, ob-latus, dis-cemo, du-plex, di-sto. Pronunciation 8. The so-called Roman Pronunciation of Latin aims to repre- sent approximately the pronunciation of classical times. Vowels : a as in father; ^ as in idea. § as eh? (prolonged), or a in date; S as eh? (clipped) or e in net. I as in machine; 1 as in holiest or sit. o as in holy; 6 as in obey. u as 00 in boot; H as oo in foot. y between u and i (French u or German ii). Diphthongs : ae like ay; ei as in eight; oe like oy in hoy; eu as eh'oo; au.like ow in now; ui as oo'ee. ^§8-10] PRONUNCIATION AND QUANTITY 6 Consonants are the same as in English, except that — c and g are as in come^ get, never as in cityj gem. s as in sea, lips, never as in ease. Consonant i is like y in young; v (consonant u) like w in toing. n in the combinations ns and nf probably indicates nasalization of the preceding vowel, which was also lengthened ; and final m in an unaccented syllable probably had a similar nasalizing effect on the preceding vowel. ph, th, ch, are properly like p, t, k, followed by h (which may, for con- venience, be neglected) ; but ph probably became like (or nearly like) f soon after the classical period, and may be so pronounced to distinguish it from p. z is as dz in adze. bs is like ps ; bt is like pt. Note. — Latin is sometimes pronounced with the ordinary English sounds of the letters. The English pronunciation should be used in Roman names occurring in •English (as, Julius Caesar) ; and in familiar quotations, as, e pluribus unutn ; viva voce; vice versa; a fortiori; veni, vidi, vici, etc. Quantity 9. The Quantity of a Vowel or a Syllable is the time occupied in pronouncing it. Two degrees of Quantity are recognized, — long and short. a. In syllables, quantity is measured from the beginning of the vowel or diphthong to the end of the syllable. 10. Vowels are either long or short Bt/ nature^ and are pro- nounced accordingly (§8). a, A vowel before another vowel or h is short : as in via, nihil. b, A diphthong is long : as in aedes, foedus. So, also, a vowel derived from a diphthong ; as in excludo (from fex-claudo). c, A vowel formed by contraction is long: as in nU (from nihil). d, A vowel before ns, nf, gn, is long : as in constans, inferd, magnus. Note. — But the quantity of the vowel hefore gn is not certain in all cases. e, A vowel before nd, nt, is regularly short : as in amandus, amant. In this book all vowels known to be long are marked (a, e, etc.), and short vowels are left unmarked (a, e, etc.). Vowels marked with both signs at once (a, e, etc.) occur sometimes as long and sometimes as short. Note. — The Romans sometimes marked vowel length by a stroke above the letter (called an apex), as, A ; and sometimes the vowel was doubled to indicate length. An r made higher than the other letters was occasionally used for i. But none of these devices came into general use. 6 WORDS AND FORMS L§ ^1 11. The Quantity of the Syllable is important for the position of the accent and in versification. a. A syllable containing a long vowel or a diphthong is said to be long by nature : as, ma-ter, aes, au-la-. b, A syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants (except a mute before 1 or r) or by a double consonant (x, z) is said to be long hy position, but the vowel is pronounced short : as, est, ter-ra, sax-um, Me-zen-tius. Note. — "When a consonant is doubled the pronunciation should show this dis- tinctly. Thus in mit-to both t's should be pronounced as in out-talk (not merely a single t as in better). c, A syllable containing a short vowel followed by a mute before 1 or r is properly short, but may be used as long in verse. Such a syllable is said to be common. Note 1. — In syllables long by position, but having a short vowel, the length is partly due to the first of the consonants, which stands in the same syllable with the vowel. In syllables of " common " quantity (as the first syllable of patrem) the ordi- nary pronunciation was pa-trem, but in verse pat-rem was allowed so that the syllable could become long. Note 2. — In final syllables ending with a consonant, and containing a short vowel, the quantity in verse is determined by the following word : if this begins with a vowel the final consonant is joined to it in pronunciation ; if it begins with a consonant the syllable is long by position. Note 3. — In rules for quantity h is not counted as a consonant, nor is the appar- ently consonantal u in qu, gu, su (see § 5. n. 2). d, A syllable whose vowel is a, e, o, or u, followed by consonant i, is long whether the vowel itself is long or short : as, a-io, ma-ior, pe-ius. In such cases the length of the syllable is indicated in this book by a circumflex on the vowel. Note. — The length of a syllable before consonant i is due to a transitional sound (vowel i) which forms a diphthong with the preceding vowel: as, a-i5 (for t3^i-io)j mS-ior (for fmal-ior). See § 6. c. e. In some compounds of iaci5 (as, in-icio) the consonant i of the simple verb was probably pronounced (though not written). Thus the first syl- lable was long by position : as, in-icio (for in-iicio). See % Q. d. In such cases the length of the syllable is not indicated in this book by a circumflex on the vowel. /. When a syllable is long by position the quantity of the vowel is not always determinable. The vowel should be pronounced short unless it is known to be long. Note. — The quantity of a vowel under these circumstances is said to be hidden. It is often determined with a greater or less degree of certainty by inscriptional evi- dence (see § 10. N.) or by other means. In this book, the quantity of all such vowels known to be long is marked. 12-14] ACCENT Accent 12. Words of two syllables are accented on the first syllable : as, Ro'ma, fi'des, tan'go. Words of more than two syllables are accented on the Penult ^ if that is long (as, ami'cus, mone'tur, contin'git) ; otherwise on the Antepenult (as, do'minus, a'lScris, dissocia'bilis). a. When an enclitic is joined to a word, the accent falls on the syllable next before the enclitic, whether long or short : as, dea'que, amare've, tibi'ne, ita'que (and . . . so), as distinguished from i'taque (therefore). So (accord- ing to some) ex'inde, ec'quando, etc. Exceptions : 1. Certain apparent compounds of facio retain the accent of the simple verb : as, benef a'cit, calef a'cit (see § 266. a) . Note. — These were not true compounds, but phrases. 2. In the second declension the genitive and vocative of nouns in -ius and the genitive of those in -ium retaui the accent of the nominative : as, Come'li, Vergi'li, inge'ni (see § 49. c). 3. Certain words which have lost a final vowel retain the accent of the com- plete words : as, illi'c for illi'ce, produce for produce, sati'n for sati'sne. Combinations 13. In some cases adjacent words, being pronounced together, are written as one : — unusquisque (unus quisque), siquis (si quis), quare (qua re), quamobrem (quam ob rem ; cf . quas ob res), respublica (res publica), iusiurandum (ius iurandum), paterfamilias (pater familias). Note. — Sometimes a slight change in pronimciation resulted, as, especially in the old poets, before est in homost (homo est) , periculumst (periculum est) , ausust (ausus est) , qualist (qualis est). Similarly there occur vin*, scin' for visne, scisne, sis (si vis), sodes (si audes), sultis (si vultis). Compare in English somebody, to breakfast; he 's, I've, thou 'rt. Phonetic Changes 14. Latin, the language of the ancient Romans, was properly, as its name implies, the language spoken in the plain of Latium, lying south of the Tiber, which was the first territory occupied and governed by the Romans. It is a descendant of an early form of speech commonly called Indo-European (by some Indo-Germanic) , from which are also descended most of the important languages now in use in Europe, including among others English, German, the Slavic and the Celtic languages, and further some now or formerly spoken- in Asia, as Sanskrit, Persian, Armenian. Greek likewise 1 The Penult is the last syllable but one ; the Antepenult, the last but two. 8 WORDS AND FORMS [§§ 14, 16 belongs to the same family. The Romance (or Romanic) languages, of which the most important are Italian, French, Provencal, Spanish, Portuguese, and Roumanian, are modern descendants of spoken Latin. The earliest known forms of Latin are preserved in a few inscriptions. These in- crease in number as we approach the time when the language began to be used in litera- ture; thaLlSj aliouj; b,c. 250. , It is the comparatively stable language of the classical period (b.c. 80-a.d. 14) that is ordinarily meant when we speak of Latin, and it is mainly this that is described in this book. 15. Among the main features in the changes of Latin from the earliest stages of the language as we know it up to the forms of classical Latin may be mentioned the following ; — Vowel Changes 1. The old diphthong ai became the classical ae (aedHis for old aidilis), old oi became oe or u (unus for old oinos), and old ou became u (diic5 for old douco). 2. In compound verbs the vowel a of the simple verb often appears as i or e, and ae similarly appears as i : — facio, factum, but c6nfici5, confectum ; caed5, but occido, and similarly cecidi, perfect of caed5 (cf. cado, occido ; cecidi, perfect of cado). Note. — This change is commonly ascribed to an accentuation on the first syl- lable, which seems to have been the rule in Latin before the rule given above (see § 12) became established. The original Indo-European accent, however, was not limited by either of these principles ; it was probably a musical accent so-called, consisting in a change of pitch, and not merely in a more forcible utterance of the accented syllable. 3. Two vowels coming together are often contracted : — cogo for tco-ago; promo for tpro-em5; nil for nihil; debeo for tde-hibeo (tde-habe5). Consonant Changes 4. An old s regularly became r between two vowels (rhotacisrn), passing first through the sound of (English) z : — eram (cf. est); generis, genitive of genus. i Note. — Final s sometimes became r by analogy: as, honor (older honos), from the analogy of honoris, etc. 5. A dental (t, d) often became s, especially when standing next to t, d, or 8 : as, equestris for fequettris, casus for fcadtus (cf . 6, below). 6. Many instances of assimilation, partial or complete, are found : — cessi for tced-sl ; summus for tsupmus ; scriptus for scribtus (b unvoicing to p before the voiceless t); and in compound verbs (see § 16). 1 A similar change can ho seen in English; as, loere (cf. was), lorn (cf. lose). §§ 15-17] VOWEL VARIATIONS 9 Dissimilation, the opposite kind of change, prevented in some cases the repetition of the same sound in succcessive syllables : — Thus, parilia for pamia(from Pale§) ; meridies for jmedidiesj naturalis with suffix -alis (after r), but populayis with -aris (after 1). 7. Final s was in early Latin not always pronounced : as, plenu(s) fidM. Note. — Traces of this pronunciation existed in Cicero's time. He speaks of the omis- sion of final s hef ore a word beginning with a consonant as ' ' countrified ' ' (subrusticum) . 8. A final consonant often disappears : as, virg5 for f virg5n ; lag for flact ; cor for f cord. 9. G, c, and h unite with a following s to form x : as, rex for fregs ; dux for f dues ; traxi for f trahsi.^ 10. G and h before t become c : as, rectum for fregtum ; actum for fagtum ; tractum for ftrahtum.^ 11. Between m and s or m and t, a p is often developed : as, siimpsi for f sumsi ; emptum for f emtum. 16. In compounds with prepositions the final consonant in the preposition was often assimilated to the following consonant, but usage varied considerably. There is good authority for many complete or partial assimilations ; as, for ad, aoc-, agg-, app-, att-, instead of adc-, adg-, etc. Before a labial consonant we find com- (comb-, comp-, comm-), hut con:^ is the form before c, d, f, g, cons, i, q, s, t, cons, v ; we find conl- or coll-, conr- or corr-; co- in conecto, coniveo, conitor, conubium. In usually changes to ira- before p, b, m. Ob and sub may assimilate b to a following c, f, g, or p ; before s and t the pronunciation of prepositions ending in b doubtless had p ; surr-, summ-, occur for subr-, subm-. The inseparable amb- loses b before a consonant. Circum often loses its m before i. The s of dis becomes r before a vowel and is assimi- lated to a following f ; sometimes this prefix appears as di-. Instead of ex we find ef- before f (also ecf-) . The d of red and sed is generally lost before a consonant. The preposition is better left unchauged in most other cases. VQwel Variations 17. The parent language showed great variation in the vowel sounds of kindred words.^ a. This variation is often called by the German name Ablaut. It has left considerable traces in the forms of Latin words, appearing sometimes as a diiference of quantity in the same vowel (as, u, u ; e, e), sometimes as a difference in the vowel itself (as, f , o ; i, ae) : * — tego, I cover, toga, a robe ; pend5, 1 weigh, pondus, weight; fidee, faith, fidus, faithful, foedus, a treaty ; miser, wretched, maestus, sad ; dare, to give, donum, a gift; regS, I rule, rex, a king; dux, a leader, duco (for older douco), I lead. Compare English drive, drove (drave), driven ; bind, bound, band ; sing, sang, sung ; etc. 1 Really for ftraglisi. The h of traho represents an older palatal sound (see § 19) . 2 Really for ftraghtum. These are cases of partial assimilation (cf . 6, above) . 8 This variation was not without regularity, but was confined within definite limits. ^ In Greek, however, it is more extensively preserved. 10 WORDS AND FORMS [§§ 18, 19 Kindred Forms 18. Both Latin and English have gone through a series of phonetic changes, dif- ferent in the two languages, but following definite laws in each. Hence both pre- serve traces of the older speech in some features of the vowel system, and both show certain correspondences in consonants in words which each language has inherited from the old common stock. Only a few of these correspondences can be mentioned here. 19. The most important correspondences in consonants between Latin and English, in cognate words, may be seen in the following table: — ! Latin English p : pater f : foAher^ earlier fader ^ f from bh : fero, f rater b : to bear, brother b " " lubet, libet v, f : love, Hef t : tu, tenuis th : thou, thin ^ d: duo, dent- t: two, tooth f from dh : f acio di do d " " medius d: mid b " " ruber d: red c : cord-, comu h : heart, horn qu : quod wh : what g : genus, gustus c, k, ch : kin, choose h (from gh): hortus, haedus y, g: yard, goat cons, i : iugum y : yoke V : ventus, ovis w : wind, ewe V from gv : vivus (for tgvivos), 1 , • ? .- /r J. .-N t qu, c, k: quick, come vemo (for tgvemio). J Note 1. — Sometimes a consonant lost in Latin is still represented in English: as, niv- (for fsniv-), Eng. snow ; anser (for fhanser), Eng. goose. Note 2. — From these cases of kindred words in Latin and English must be care- fully distinguished those cases in which the Latin word has been taken into English either directly or through some one of the modern descendants of Latin, especially French. Thus facio is kindred with Eng. do, but from the Latin participle (factum) of this verb comes "Eng. fact, and from the French descendant (fait) of factum comes Eng. feat. 1 The Indo-European parent speech had amoug its consonants voiced aspirates (bh, dh, gh). All these suffered change in Latin, the most important results being, for bh, Latin f, b (English has b, v, or f) ; for dh, Latin f, b, d (English has d) ; for gh, Latin h, g (English has y, g). The other mutes suffered in Latin much less change, while in English, as in the other Germanic languages, they have all changed consid- erably in accordance with wh9,t has been called Grimm's Law for the shifting of mutes. 2 The th in father is a late development. The older iorm fader seems to show an exception to the rule that English th corresponds to Latin t. The primitive Germanic form was doubtless in accordance with this rule, but, on account of the position of the accent, which in Germanic was not originally on the first syllable in this word, the consonant underwent a secondary change to d. 3 But to the group st of Latin corresponds also English st ; as in Latin sto, English stand. §20] THE PARTS OF SPEECH 11 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 20. Words are divided into eight Parts of Speech: Nouns, Adjectives (including Participles), Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections. a, A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea : as, Caesar ; Roma, Rome ; domus, a house ; virtus, virtue. Names of particular persons and places are called Proper Nouns ; other nouns are called Common. Note. — An Abstract Noim is the name of a quality or idea : as, audacia, boldness ; senectus, old age. A Collective Noun is the name of a group, class, or the like : as, turba, crowd; exercitus, army. b, An Adjective is a word that attributes a quahty : as, bonus, good; fortis, bi'ave, strong. Note 1. — A Participle is a word that attributes quality like an adjective, but, being derived from a verb, retains in some degree the power of the verb to assert: as, — Caesar consul creatus, Csesar having been elected consul. Note 2. — Etymologically there is no difference between a noun and an adjective, both being formed alike. So, too, all names originally attribute quality, and any com- mon name can still be so used. Thus, King William distinguishes this WiUiam from other Williams, by the attribute of royalty' expressed in the name king. c, A Pronoun is a word used to distinguish a person, place, thing, or idea without either naming or describing it : as, is, he ; qui, who ; nos, we. Nouns and pronouns are often called Substantives. d, A Verb is a word which is capable of asserting something : as, sum, / am ; amat, he loves. Note. — In all modern speech the verb is usually the only word that asserts any- thing, and a verb is therefore supposed to be necessary to complete an assertion. Strictly, however, any adjective or noun may, by attributing a quality or giving a name, make a complete assertion. In the infancy of language there could have been no other means of asserting, as the verb is of comparatively late development. e, An Adverb is a word used to express the time, place, or manner of an assertion or attribute : as, splendide mendax, gloriously false ; hodie natus est, he was born to-day. Note. — These same functions are often performed by cases (see §§ 214-217) of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, and by phrases or sentences. In fact, all adverbs were originally cases or phrases, but have become specialized by use. /. A Preposition is a word which shows the relation between a noun or pronoun and some other word or words in the same sentence : as, per agros it, he goes over the fields ; e pliiribus iinum, one out of many. Note. — Most prepositions are specialized adverbs (cf. § 219). The relations ex- pressed by prepositions were earlier expressed by case-endings. 12 WORDS AND FORMS [§§ 20-22 gr. A Conjunction is a word which connects words, or groups of words, without affecting tlieh' grammatical relations : as, et, and ; sed, but. Note. — Some adrerbs are also used as connectives. These are called Adverbial Conjunctions or Conjunctive (Relative) Adverbs: as, ubi, where f donee, untU. ho Interjections are mere exclamations and are not strictly to be classed as parts of speech. Thus, — heus, Tialloo ! 5, oh ! Note. — Interjections sometimes express an emotion which affects a person or thing mentioned, and so have a grammatical connection like other words : as, vae victis, woe to the conqitered (alas fpr the conquered) 1 INFLECTION 21. Latin is an inflected language. Inflection is a change made in the form of a word to show its grammatical relations. a. Inflectional changes sometimes take place in the body of a word, or at the beginning, but oftener in its termination ; -^ vox, a voice ; vocis, of a voice ; voco, I call ; vocat, he ealls ; vocet, let him call ; vocavit, he has called^ tangit, he touches^ tetigit, he touched. h. Terminations of inflection had originally independent meanings which are now obscured. They correspond nearly to the use of prepositions, auxiliaries, and personal pronouns in English. Thus, in vocat, the termination is equivalent to he or she; in vocis, to the preposition of; and in vocet the change pf vowel signifies a change of mood. c. Inflectional changes in the body of a verb usually denote relations of tense or mood, and often correspond to the use of auxiliary verbs in Eng- lish:— f rangit, he breaks or is breaking ; fregit, he broke or has broken ; mordet, he bites; momordit, he bit,'^ 22. The inflection of Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Par- ticiples to denote gender, number, and case is caUed Declension, and these parts of speech are said to be declined. . The inflection of Verbs to denote voice, mood, tense, number, and person is called Conjugation, and the verb is said to be con- jugated. Note. — Adjectives are often said to have inflections of comparison. These are, however, properly stem-formations made by derivation (p. 55, footnote), 1 The only proper inflections of verbs are those of the personal endings ; and the changes here referred to are strictly changes of stem, but have become a part of the system of inflections. §§23-25] ROd^r, STEM, AND BASE 18 23. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections are not inflected and are called Particles. Note. — The term Particle is sometimes limited to such words as num, -ne, an (inter- rogative), non, ne (negative), si (conditional), etc., which are used simply to indicate the form or construction of a sentence Root, Stem, and Base 24. The body of a word, to which the terminations are attached, is called the Stem. The Stem contains the idea of the word without relations ; but, except in the first part of a compound (as, arti-fex, artificer), it cannot ordinarily be used without some te:rmination to express them.i Thus the stem voc- denotes voice; y/ith -s added it becomes vox, a voice or the voice, as the subject or agent of an action ; with -is it becomes vocis, and signifies of a voice. Note. — The stem is in many forms so united with the termination that a compari- son with other forms is necessary to determine it. 25. A Root is the simplest form attainable by analysis of a word into its component parts. Such a form contains the main idea of the word in a very general sense, and is common also to other words either in the same language or in kin- dred languages.2 Thus the root of the stem voc- is voc, which does not mean to call, or I call, or calling, but merely expresses vaguely the idea of calling, and cannot be used as a part of speech without terminations. With a- it becomes voca-, the stem of vocare (to call) ; with av- it is the stem of vocavit (he called) ; with ato- it becomes the stem of vocatus (called) ; with ation- it becomes the stem of vocationis (of a calling). With its vowel lengthened it becomes the stem of vox, v6c-is (a voice : that by which we call). This stem voc-, with -alls added, means belonging to a voice ; with -iila, a little voice. Note. — In inflected languages, words are built up from Roots, which at a very early time were used alone to express ideas, as is now done in Chinese. Roots are modified into Stems, which, by inflection, become fully formed words. The process by which roots are modified, in the various forms of derivatives and compounds, is called Stem-building. The whole of this process is ori.sinally one of composition, by which significant endings are added one after another to forms capable of pronunciation and conveying a meaning. Roots had long ceased to be recognized as such before the Latin existed as a sepa^ rate language. Consequently the forms which we assume as Latin roots never really existed in Latin, but are the representatives of forms used earlier. 1 Another exception is the imperative second person singular in -e (as, rege). 2 For example, the root sta is found in the Sanskrit tishthdmi, Greek ia-TTjfj.i, Latin sistere aad stare, German ftc^en, and Ilngiish stand. 14 WORDS AND FORMS [§§26-30 26. The Stem maybe the same as the root: as in due-is, q/" a leader^ fer-t, he hears; but it is more frequently formed from the root — 1. By changing or lengthening its vowel : as in scob-s, sawdust (scab, shave)', reg-is, of a king (reg, direct); voc-is, of a voice (voc, call). 2. By the addition of a simple suffix (originally another root) ; as in fuga-. stem of fuga, Jlight (fug + a-) ; regi-s, you rule (reg + stem-ending %-) ; sini-t, he allows (si + nVo")-^ 3. By two or more of these methods : as in duci-t, he leads (dug + stem- ending %-). 4. By derivation and composition, following the laws of development peculiar to the language. (See §§ 227 ff.) 27. The Base is that part of a word which is unchanged in inflection : as, serv- in servus ; mens- in mgnsa ; ign- in ignis. a» The Base and the Stem are often identical, as in many consonant stems of nouns (as, reg- in reg-is). If, however, the stem ends in a vowel, the latter does not appear in the base, but is variously combined with the inflectional termination. Thus the stem of servus is servo-; that of mensa, mensa- ; that of ignis, igni-. 28. Inflectional terminations are variously modified by com- bination with the final vowel or consonant of the Stem, and thus the various forms of Declension and Conjugation (see §§ 36, 164) developed. GENDER 29. The Genders distinguished in Latin are three : Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. 30. The gender of Latin nouns is either natural or grammatical. a, Natural Gender is distinction as to the sex of the object denoted : as, puer (m.), boy; puella (f.), girl; rex (m.), king; regina (f.), queen. Note 1. — Many nouns have both a masculine and a feminine form to distinguish sex: as, cervus, cerva, stag, doe; cliens, clienta, client; victor, victrix, conqueror. Many designations of persons (as nauta, sailor) usually though not necessarily male are always treated as masculine. Similarly names of tribes andpeop^e* are masculine : as, Romani, the Romans; Persae, the Persians. Note 2. — A few neuter nouns are used to designate persons as belonging to a class : as, mancipium tuum, your slave (your chattel). Many pet names of girls and boys are neuter in form : as, Paegnium, Glycerium. Note 3. — Names of classes or collections of persons may be of any gender: as, exercitus (m.), acies (f.), and agmen (n.), army; operae (f. plur.), loorkmen; c5piae (f. plur.), troops; senatus (m.), senate; cohors (f.), cohort; concilium (n.), council. 1 These suflfixes are Indo-European stem-endings. §§ 30-34] GENERAL RULES OF GENDER 15 b. Grammatical Gender is a formal distinction as to sex where no actual sex exists in the object. It is shown by the form of the adjective joined with the noun: as, lapis magnus (m.), a great stone; manus mea (f.), my hand. General Rules of Gender 31. Names of Male beings, and of Kivers, Winds, Months, and Mountains, are maseulme: — pater, father; luhus, Julius; Tiberis, the Tiber; auster, south wind; lanua- rius, January ; Apenninus, the Apennines. Note. — Names of Months are properly adjectives, the masculine noun mensis, month, being understood : as, lanuarius, January. a» A few names of Rivers ending in -a (as, Allia), with the Greek names Lethe and Styx, are feminine ; others are variable or uncertain. &. Some names of Mountains are feminine or neuter, taking the gender of their termination : as, Alpes (f.), the Alps; Soracte (n.). 32. Names of Female beings, of Cities, Countries, Plants, Trees, and Gems, of many Animals (especially Birds), and of most ab- stract Qualities, d^vQ feminine : — mater, mother; lulia, Julia; Roma, Rome; Italia, Italy ; rosa, rose; pinus, pine; sapphirus, sapphire; anas, duck; Veritas, truth. a. Some names of Towns and Countries are masculine : as, Sulmo, Gabii (plm\) ; or neuter, as, Tarentum, Illyricum. b, A few names of Plants and Gems follow the gender of their termina- tion : as, centaureum (n.), centaury; acanthus (m.), bearsfoot ; opalus (m.), opal. Note.' — The gender of most of the above may also be recognized by the termina- tions, according to the rules given under the several declensions. The names of Roman women were usually feminine adjectives denoting their gens or house (see § 108. b). 33. Indeclinable nouns, infinitives, terms or phrases used as nouns, and words quoted merely for their form, are neuter : — fas, right; nihil, nothing; gummi, gum; scire tuum, your knowledge (to know) ; triste vale, a sad farewell ; hoc ipsum diu, this very " long.''"' 34. Many nouns may be either masculine or feminine, accord- ing to the sex of the object. These are said to be of Common Gender: as, exsul, exile; bos, ox or cow; yarens^ parent. Note. — Several names of animals have a grammatical gender, independent of sex. These are called epicene. Thus lepus, hare, is always masculine, and vulpes, fox, is always feminine. 16 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§36-37 NUMBER AND CASE 35. Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, and Participles are declined in two Numbers, singular and plural; and in six Cases, nomina- tive^ genitive^ dative^ accusative^ ablative, vocative, a» The Nominative is the case of the Subject of a sentence. h. The Genitive may generally be translated by the English Possessive, or by the Objective with the preposition of. c. The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object (§ 274). It may usually be translated by the Objective with the preposition to ov for. d. The Accusative is the case of the' Direct Object of a verb (§ 274). It is used also with many of the prepositions. e. The Ablative may usually be translated by the Objective with from, by, with, in, or at. It is often used with prepositions. /. The Vocative is the case of Direct Address. g. All the cases, except the nominative and vocative, are used as object- cases ; and are sometimes called Oblique Cases (pasus ohhqui). h. In names of towns and a few other words appear traces of another case (the Locative), denoting the place where : as, Romae, at Rome ; ran, in the country. Note. — Still another case, the Instrumental, appears in a few adverbs (§ 215. 4). DECLENSION OF NOUNS 36. Declension is produced by adding terminations originally significant to differ- ent forms of stems, vowel or consonant. The various phonetic corruptions in the lan- guage have given rise to the several declensions. Most of the case-endings, as given in Latin, contain also the final letter of the stem. Adjectives are, in general, declined like nouns, and are etyraologically to be classed with them ; but they have several peculiarities of inflection (see § 109 ff .) . 37. Nouns are inflected in five Declensions, distinguished by the final letter {characteristic) of the Stem, and by the case-ending of the Genitive Singular. Decl. 1 Characteristic a Gen. Sing, ae 2 6 1 3 i or a Consonant is 4 ii us 5 e ei a. The Stem of a noun may be found, if a consonant stem, by omitting the case-ending ; if a vowel stem, by substituting for the case-ending the characteristic vowel. §§ 38, 39] CASE-ENDINGS OF THE FIVE DECLENSIONS 17 38. The following are General Rules of Declension : — a. The Vocative is always the same as the Nominative, except in the singular of nouns and adjectives in -us of the second declension, which have -e in the vocative. It is not included in the paradigms, unless it differs from the nominative. h. In neuters the Nominative and Accusative are always alike, and in the plural end in -a. c. The Accusative singular of all masculines and feminines ends in -m ; the Accusative plural in -s. dm In the last three declensions (and in a few cases in the others) the Dative singular ends in -i. e. The Dative and Ablative plural are always alike. /. The Genitive plural always ends in -um. g» Final -1, -o, -u of inflection are always long ; final -a is short, except in the Ablative singular of the first declension ; final -e is long in the first and fifth declensions, short in the second and third. Final -is and -us are long in plural cases. Case-endings of the Five Declensions 39. The regular Case-endings of the several declensions are the following: —1 Decl. I Decl. II Decl. Ill Decl. IV Decl. V Singular f. m. n. m.,f. n. m. n. f. f -US -um -s -us -u -es NoM. -a \ [ (modified stem) Gen, -ae -i -is -us -ei (-e) Dat. -ae -5 -I -ui (-ii) -u -el (-e) Ace. -am -um -um -ettt("im) (likenom.) -um -u -em Abl. -a -6 -e (-i) -u -e Voc. -a -e -um (likenom.) -us -u -ea Plural N.V. -ae -i -a -es -a, -la -us -ua -es Gen. -arum -orum -um, -ium -uum -erum D.Ab. -is -is -ibus -ibus (-ubus) -ebus Ace. -as -OS -a -es (-is) -a, -la -us -ua -es 1 For ancient, rare, and Greek forms (which are here omitted), see under tiie several declensions. 18 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§40-43 FIRST DECLENSION (a-STEMS) 40. The Stem of nouns of the First Declension ends in a-. The Nominative ending is -a (the stem-vowel shortened), except in Greek nouns. 41. Latin nouns of the First Declension are thus declined : — OASE-ENDINGS -a -ae -ae -am -a -ae -arum -IS a. The Latin has no article ; hence stella may mean a star, the star, or simply star. Gender in the First Declension 42. Nouns of the first declension are Feminine. Exceptions : Nouns masculine from their signification : as, nauta, sailor. So a few family or personal names: as, Murena, Dolabella, Scaevolai; also, Hadria, the Adriatic. Case-Forms in the First Declension 43. a. The genitive singular anciently ended in -ai (dissyllabic), which is occasionally found : as, aulai. The same ending sometimes occurs in the- dative, but only as a diphthong. 1 Scaevola is really a feminine adjective, used as a noun, meaning little left hand; but, being used as the name of a man (originally a nickname), it becailie masculine. Original genders are often thus changed by a change in the sense of a noun. Stella, F., star Stem stella- SlNGULAR NOM. Stella a Star Gen. stellae of a star Bat. stellae to ov for a star Ago. stellam a star Abl. Stella with, from, by, etc. a star Plural NOM. stellae stars Gen. stellarum of stars DAT. stellTfl to or for stars Acc. Stellas stars Abl. stellis with, from, hy, etc. stars §§ 43, 44] FIRST DECLENSION (^-STEMS) 19 h. An old genitive in -as is preserved in the M^ord familias, often used in the combinations pater (mater, filius, filia) familias, father, etc., of a family (plur. patres familias or familiarum). c. The Locative form for the singular ends in -ae ; for the plural in -is (cf . p. o4, footnote): as, Romae, at Rome ; Athenis, at Athens. d. The genitive plural is sometimes found in -um instead of -arum, espe- cially in Greek patronymics, as, Aeneadum, sons of jEneas, and in compounds with -cola and -gena, signifying dwelling and descent : as, caelicolum, celes- tials ; Troiugenum, sons of Troy ; so also in the Greek nouns amphora and drachma. e. The dative and ablative plural of dea, goddess, filia, daughter, end in an older form -abus (deabus, filiabus) to distinguish them from the corre- sponding cases of deus, god, and filius, son (deis, filiis). So rarely with other words, as, liberta, freed-woman ; mula, she-mule ; equa, mare. But, except when the two sexes are mentioned together (as in formulas, documents, etc.), the form in -is is preferred in all but dea and filia. Note 1. — The old ending of the ablative singular (-ad) is sometimes retained in early Latin: as, praidad, booty (later, praeda). Note 2. — In the dative and ablative plural -eis for -is is sometimes found, and -iis (as in taeniis) is occasionally contracted to -is (taenis) ; so regularly in words in -aia (as, BaisfromBaiae). Greek Nouns of the First Declension 44. Many nouns of the First Declension borrowed from the Greek are entirely Latinized (as, aula, court) i but others retain traces of their Greek case-forms in the singular. Electra, f. synopsisj F. art of music, f. NOM. Electra (-a) epitome musica (-e) Gen. Electrae epitomes miisicae (-es) Dat. Electrae epitomae musicae Ace. Electram (-an) epitomen miisicam (-en) Abl. Electra epitome miisica (-e) Andromache, f. jEneas, m. Persian, M. NoM. Andromache (-a) Aeneas Perses (-a) Gen. Andromaches (-ae) Aeneae Persae DAT. Andromachae Aeneae Persae Ace. Andromachen (-am) Aenean (-am) Persen (-am) Abl. Andromache (-a) Aenea Perse (-a) Voc. Andromache (-a) Aenea (-a) Persa 20 DECLENSION OE NOUNS [§§44-46 Anchises, m. son of ^Eneas, M. comet, M. NOM. Anchisgs Aeneades (-a) cometes (-a) Gen. Anchisae* Aeneadae cometae DAT. Anchisae Aeneadae cometae Ace. AncliTsen (-am) Aeneaden cometgn (-am) Abl. Anchise (-a) Aeneade (-a) cometa (-e) Yog. Anchise (-a, -a) Aeneade (-a) cometa There are (besides proper names) about thirty-five of these words, several being names of plants or arts : as, crambe, cabbage ; musice, music. Most have also regular Latin forms: as, cometa; but the nominative sometimes has the a long. a. Greek forms are found only in the singular; the plural, when it occurs, is regular : as, cometae, -arum, etc. h. Many Greek nouns vary between the first, the second, and the third declensions : as, Bootae (genitive of Bootes, -is), Thucydidas (accusative plu- ral of Thiicydides, -is). See § 52. a and § 81. Note. — The Greek accusative Scipiadam, from Scipiades, descendant of the Scipios, is found in Horace. SECOND DECLENSION (. 32 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§75-78 a. The accusative in -im is found exclusively — 1. In Greek nouns and in names of rivers. 2. In buris, cucumis, ravis, sitis, tussis, vis. 3. In adverbs in -tim (being accusative of nouns in -tis), as, partim ; and in amussim. h. The accusative in -im is found sometimes in febris, puppis, restis, turris, seciiris, sementis, and rarely in many other words. 76. The regular form of the Ablative singular of i-stems would be -i : as, sitis, siti ; but in most nouns this is changed to -e. a. The ablative in -i is found exclusively — 1. In nouns having the accusative in -im (§ 75) ; also secfiris. 2. In the following adjectives used as nouns : aequalis, annalis, aqualis, con- sularis, gentilis, molaris, primipllaris, tribulis. 3. In neuters in -e, -al, -at . except baccar, iubar, rete, and sometimes mare. h. The ablative in -i is found sometimes — 1. In avis, clavis, febris, finis, ignis,^ imber, lux, navis, ovis, pelvis, puppis, sementis, strigilis, turris, and occasionally in other words. 2. In the following adjectives used as nouns ; affinis, bipennis, canalis, famili- aris, natalis, rivalis, sapiens, tridens, triremis, vocalis. Note 1. — The ablative of fames is always fame (§ 105. e). The defective mane has sometimes mani (§ 103. 6. n.) as ablative. Note 2. — Most names of towns in -e (as, Praeneste, Tergeste) and Soracte, a moun- tain, have the ablative in -e. Caere has Caerete. Note 3. — Canis and iuvenis have cane, iuvene. 77. The regular Nominative plural of i-stems is -es,^ but -is is occasionally found. The regular Accusative plural -is is common, but not exclusively used in any word. An old form for both cases is -eis (diphthong). 78. The following have -um (not -ium) in the genitive plural: 1. Always, — canis, iuvenis,^ ambages, mare (once only, otherwise want- ing), volucris ; regularly, sedes, vates. 2. Sometimes, — apis, caedes, clades, mensis, strues, suboles. 3. Very rarely, — patrials in -as, -atis; -is, -itis ; as, Arpinas, Arpinatum; Samnis, Samnitum. 1 Always in the formula aqua et Igni interdici (§ 401). 2 The Indo-European ending of the nominative plural, -5s (preserved in Greek in consonant stems, as 6pTv^, Bprvy-es), contracts with a stem-vowel and gives -es in the Latin i-declension (cf. the Greek plural ^ets). This -es was extended to consonant gtems in Latin, • Canis and iuv«Jis are really n-steras. 79] TfflRD DECLENSION: IRREGULAR NOUNS 33 Irregular Nouns of the Third Declension 79. In many nouns the stem is irregularly modified in the nomi- native or other cases. Some peculiar forms are thus declined : — bos, c. senex, m. caro, F. OS, N. VIS, F. ox, cow old man Sing flesh ULAR bone force NOM. bos senex caro OS vis Gen. b6\is senis carnis ossis vis (rare) Dat. bovi seni carni ossi vi (rare) Ace. bovem senem carnen] L OS vim Abl. bove sene carne osse vi cattle Plural strength NOM. boves senes carries ossa virgs Gen. bourn senum cariiium ossium virium Dat. bobus (bubus) senibus carnibus ossibus viribus Ace. bovgs sengs carnes ossa viris (-gs) Abl. bobus (bubus) senibus carnibus ossibus vii'ibus sus, c. luppiter, M. nix, F. iter, N. swine Jupiter snow march Singular NOM, sus luppiter ' I nix iter Gen. suis lovis nivis itineris Dat. sui lovi nivi itineri Ace. suem lovem nivem iter Abl. sue love nive itinere Plural NOM sugs nives itinera Gen. suum nivium itinerum Dat, subus (suibus) nivibus itineribua Ace. sues nives \ itinera Abl, subus (suibus) nivibus itineribus 1 Also lupiter. 34 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§ ?y-81 a. Two vowel-stems in u-, grii- and su-, which follow the third declension, add s in the nominative, and are inflected like mute stems : griis has also a nominative gruis ; siis has both suibus and subus in the dative and ablative plural, griis has only gruibus. h. In the stem bov- (bou-) the diphthong ou becomes 6 in the nominative (bos, bSvis). In nav- (nau-) an 1 is added (navis, -is), and it is declined like turris (§ 67). In ISv- (= Zevs) the diphthong (ou) becomes u in lii-piter (for -pater), genitive ISvis, etc. ; but the form luppiter is preferred. c. In iter, itineris (n.), iecur, iecinoris (iecoris) (n.), supellex, supellectilis (f.), the nominative has been formed from a shorter stem; in senex, senis, from a longer ; so that these words show a combination of forms from two distinct stems. d. In nix, nivis the nominative retains a g from the original stem, the g uniting with s, the nominative ending, to form x. In the other cases the stem assumes the form niv- and it adds i in the genitive pluraL e. Vas (n.), vasis, keeps s throughout ; plural vasa, vasorum. A dative plural vasibus also occurs. There is a rare singular vasum. The Locative Case 80. The Locative form for nouns of the third declension ends in the singular in -i or -e, in the plural in -ibus i as, riiri, in the country; Carthagini or Carthagine, at Carthage; Trallibus, at Tralles} Greek Nouns of the Third Declension 81. Many nouns originally Greek — mostly proper names — retain Greek forms of inflection. So especially — 1. Genitive singular in -os, as, tigridoSc 2. Accusative singular in -a, as, aethera. 3. Vocative singular like the stem, as, Pericle, Orpheu, Atla. 4. Nominative plural in -es, as, heroes. 5. Accusative plural in -as, as, herdas. 1 The Indo-European locative singular ended in -i, which became -5 in Latin. Thus the Latin ablative in -e is, historically considered, a locative. The Latin ablative in -i (from -id) was an analogical formation (cf . -a from -ad, -o from -od), properly belong- ing to i-stemso With names of towns and a few other words, a locative function was ascribed to forms in -i (as, Carthagini), partly on the analogy of the real locative of o-stems (as, Corinthi, § 49. a) ; but forms in -e also survived in this use. The plural -bus is properly dative or ablative, but in forms like Trallibus it has a locative func- tionc Cf . Philippis (§ 49, a), in which the ending -is is, historically considered, eithei locative, or instrumental, or both, and Athenis (§ 43. c), in which the ending is formed on the analogy of o-stems. S§ »2, 83] THIRD DECLENSION: GREEK NOUNS 36 82. Some of these forms are seen in the following examples : — NOM. Gen. DAT. Ace. Abl. herds, m., hero iampas, f., torch basis, f., base Stem hero- Stem lampad- Stem basi- SlNGULAR Iampas lampados lampadi lampada lampade tigris, c, tiger nais, f., naiad Stem { ^}^^^' Stem naid- Nom. Gen. D.,A.i Ace. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Abl. Voc. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Abl. Voc. heros herois heroi heroa heroe basis baseos basi basin r tigrid- l tigri- tigris nais tigris (-idos) naidos tigri naidi tigrin(-ida) naida tigri(-ide) naide Plural herogs lampadgs bases tigres naidgs heroum larapadum basiiim(-e6n) tigrium naidum heroibus lampadibus basibus tigribus naidibus heroSs lampad&s basis (-eis) tigris (-idSs) naidSs Dido Didoiiis(Didus) Didoni(Dld6) Didonem(-6) Didone(-6) Dido Orpheus Orphei(-e6s) Orphei(-e6) Orphea(-um) Orpheo Orpheu Proper Names Simois Simoeiitis Simoenti Simoenta Simoente Simois Pericles Periclis(-i) Pericli(-i) Periclem(-ea, -en) Pericle Pericles (-e) Capys Capyos Capyl Capyn Capye Capy Paris Paridis Paridi fParidem, Parini(-in) Paride, Pari Pari Note. — The regular Latin forms may be used for most of the above. 83. Other peculiarities are the following : — a, Delphinus, -i (m.), has also the form delphin, -mis ; Salamis, -is (f.), has ace. Salamina.' h. Most stems in id- (nom. -is) often have also the forms of i-stems : as, tigris, gen. -idis (-idos) or -is ; ace. -idem (-ida) or -im (-in) ; abl. -ide or -i. But many, including most feminine proper names, have ace. -idem (-ida), abL -ide, — not -im or -i. (These stems are irregular also in Greek.) 1 Dative, hSroisin (onee only). 36 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§83-86 c. Stems in on- sometimes retain -n in the nominative : as, Agamem- non (or Agamemno), genitive -8nis, accusative -6na. d. Stems in ont- form the nominative in -on: as, horizon, Xenophon; but a few are occasionally Latinized into on- (nom. -o) : a.s, Draco, -onis ; Antipho, -onis. e. Like Simois are declined stems in ant-, ent-, and a few in unt- (nomi- native in -as, -is, -iis) : as. Atlas, -antis ; Trapezus, -iintis. /. Some words fluctuate between different declensions : as Orpheus be- tween the second and the third. g, -on is found in the genitive plural in a few Greek titles of books : as, Metamorphoseon, of the Metamorphoses (Ovid's well-known poem); Georgicon, of the Georgics (a poem of Virgil). Gender in the Third Declension 84. The Gender of nouns of this declension must be learned by practice and from the Lexicon. Many are masculine or femi- nine by nature or in accordance with the general rules for gen- der (p. 15). The most important rules for the others, with their principal exceptions, are the following : — * 85. Masculine are nouns in -or, -os, -er, -gs (gen. -itis), -ex (gen. -ids); as, color, flos, imber, gurges (gurgitis), vertex (verticis). Exceptions are the following: — a. Feminine are arbor ; cos, dos ; linter. h. Neuter are ador, aequor, cor, marmor ; 6s (oris) ; also os (ossis) ; cadaver, iter, tiiber, uber, ver; and names of plants and trees in -er: as, acer, papaver. 86. Feminine are nouns in-o,-as,-es, -is, -us, -x, and in -s preceded by a consonant : as, legio, civitas, nubes, avis, virtus, arx, urbs. The nouns in -6 are mostly those in -do and -go, and abstract and collec- tive nouns in -io. Exceptions are the following : — a. Masculine are leo, leonis; ligo, onis ; sermo, -onis; also cardo, harpagd, margo, 5rd5, turbo ; and concrete nouns in -io : as, pugio, uni5, papilio ; ^ acinaces, aries, celes, lebes, paries, pes ; 1 Some nouns of doubtful or variable gender are omitted, 2 Many nouns in -6 (gen. -onis) are masculine by signification: as, gero, carrier; restio, ropemaker ; and family names (originally nicknames) : as, Cicero, Kaso. See §5 236. c, 255. FOURTH DECLENSION 37 Nouns in -nis and -guis ; as, ignis, sanguis ; also axis, caulis, coUis, cucumis, ensis, fascis, foUis, fustis, lapis, mensis, orbis, piscis, postis, pulvis, vomis ; mus; calix, fornix, grex, phoenix, and nouns in -ex (gen. -icis) (§ 85) ; dens, f5ns, mons, pons. Note, — Some nouns in -is and -ns which are masculine were originally adjectives or participles agreeing with a masculine noun: as, Aprilis (sc. mensis), m., April; oriens (so. sol), m., the east; annalis (sc. liber), m., the year-book. b* Neuter are vas (vasis) ; cms, iiis, piis, rus, tiis. 87. Neuter are nouns in -a, -e, -1, -n, -ar, -ur, -iis : as, poema, mare, animal, nomen, calcar, robur, corpus ; also lac and caput. Exceptions are the following : — a» Masculine are sal, s51, pecten, vultur, lepus. b. Feminine is pecus (gen. -udis). FOURTH DECLENSION 88. The Stem of nouns of the Fourth Declension ends in u-. This is usually weakened to i before -bus. Masculine and Femi- nine nouns form the nominative by adding s ; Neuters have for nominative the simple stem, but with u (long). 89. Nouns of the Fourth Declension are declined as follows : manus, f., hand lacus, M., lake genu, N., knee Stem manu- Stem lacu- Stem genu- Singular 4 DASE-ENDIN63 . CASE-ENDINGS NOM. manus lacus -US genu »U Gen. manus lacus -US genus -US Dat. manui(-u) lacuT(-fl) -ui(.u) • genu -u Ace. manum lacum -um genu -u Abl. manu lacu -u Plural genu -u NOM. manfls lacus -us genua -ua Gen. manuTim lacuum -uum genuuKi -uum Dat. manibus lacubus -ibus(-ubus) genibus -ibus Ace. manus lacus -us genua -ua Abl. manibus lacubus -ibus(-ubus) genibus -ibu9 38 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§ 90-93 Gender in the Fourth Declension 90. Most nouns of the Fourth Declension in -us are Masculine. Exceptions : The following are Feminine : acus, anus, colus, domus, idus (plural), manus, nurus, porticus, quinquatrus (plural), socrus, tribus, with a few names of plants and trees. Also, rarely, penus, specus. 91. The only Neuters of the Fourth Declension are comu, genu, pecu (§ 105./), veru.^ Case-Forms in the Fourth Declension 92. The following peculiarities in case-forms of the Fourth Declension require notice : — a. A genitive singular in -i (as of the second declension) sometimes occurs in nouns in -tus : as, senatus, genitive senati (regularly senatus). b. In the genitive plural -uum is sometimes pronounced .as one sylla- ble, and may then be written -um : as, currum (Aen. vi. 653) for curruum. c. The dative and ablative plural in -iibus are retained in partus and tribus; so regularly in artus and lacus, and occasionally in other words; portus and specus have both -ubus and -ibus. d. Most names of plants and trees, and colus, distaff] have also forms of the second declension : as, f icus, ^/ig, genitive ficus or fici. e. An old genitive singular in -uis or -uos and an old genitive plural in -uom occur rarely : as, senatuis, senatuos ; fluctuom. /. The ablative singular ended anciently in -iid (cf. § 43. n. 1): as, magistratiid. 93. Domus (f.), house^ has two stems ending in u- and o-. Hence it shows forms of both the fourth and second declensions : Singular Plural NOM. domus domus Gen. domus (domi, loc.) domuum (domorum) DAT. domui (domo) domibus Ace. domum domos (domus) Abl. domo (domu) domibus Note 1. — The Locative is domi (rarely domui), at home. Note 2. — The Genitive domi occurs in Plautus ; domorum is late or poetic. 1 A few other neuters of this declension are mentioned by the ancient grammarians as occurring in certain cases. §§ 94-96] FIFTH DECLENSION (^-STEMS) 39 94. Most nouns of the Fourth Declension are formed from verb-stems, or roots, by means of the suffix -tus (-bUs) (§ 238. h) : cantus, song, can, cano, sing; casus (for fcad-tus), chance, cad, csido, fall; exsulatus, exile, from exsulo, to be an exile (exsul), a. Many are formed either from verb-stems not in use, or by analogy: consulatus (as if from fconsulo, -are), senatus, incestus. b. The accusative and the dative or ablative of nouns in -tus (-sus) form the Supines of verbs (§ 159. &): as, spectatum, petitum; dictu, visu. c» Of many verbal derivatives only the ablative is used as a noun : as, iussu (meo), by {my') command; so iniussu (populi), without (the people's) order. Of some only the dative is used : as, divisui. FIFTH DECLENSION (^-STEMS) 95. The Stem of nouns of the Fifth Declension ends in e-, which appears in all the cases. The Nominative is formed from the stem by adding s. 96. Nouns of the Fifth Declension are declined as follows : — res, r., thing dies, M., day fides, r. , faith Stem re- Stem die- SlNGULAR Stem fide- CASE-ENDING 1 NOM. res dies fides. -es Gen. r^i diei (die) fidgl -ei(-e) Dat. rei diei (die) fidei -ei (-e) Ace. rem diem fidem -em Abl. re die Plural fide -e NOM. res dies -es Gen. rerum dierum -erum DAT. rebus diebus -ebus Ace. res dies -es Abl. rebus diebus -ebus ]VfOTE. — The e of the stem is shortened in the genitive and dative singular of fides, spes, res, but in these it is found long in early Latin. In the accusative singular e is always short. 40 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§97-99 Gender in the Fifth Declension 97. All nouns of the Fifth Declension are Feminine, except dies (usually M.), day^ and meridies (M.), noon. a. Dies is sometimes feminine in the singular, especially in phrases indi- cating a fixed ti me, and regularly feminine when used of time in general : as, constituta die, on a set day; longa dies, a long time. Case-Forms in the Fifth Declension 98. The following peculiarities require notice : — a. Of nouns of the fifth declension, only dies and res are declined through- out. Most want the plural, which is, however, found in the nominative or accusative in acies, effigies, eluvies, facies, glacies, series, species, spes.^ h. The Locative form of this declension ends in -e. It is found only in certain adverbs and expressions of time : — hodie, to-day; die quarto (old, quarti), the fourth day ; perendie, day after to-morrow ; pridie, the day before. c. The fifth declension is closely related to the first, and several nouns have forms of both : as, materia, -ies ; saevitia, -ies. The genitive and dative in -ei are rarely found in these words. d. Some nouns vary between the fifth and the third declension : as, requies, saties (also satias, genitive -atis), plebes (also plebs, genitive plebis), fames, genitive famis, ablative fame. Note. — In the genitive and dative -ei (-§!) was sometimes contracted into -€i: as, tribunus pleb^, tribune of the people (plebes). Genitives in -i and -e also occur: as, dii (Aen. 1. 636), plebi-scitum, acie (B. G. ii. 23). A few examples of the old geni- tive in -es are found (of. -as in the first declension, § 43. 6) . The dative has rarely -e, and a form in -i is cited. DEFECTIVE NOUNS Nouns wanting in the Plural 99. Some nouns are ordinarily found in the Singular number only {singuldria taiitum). These are — 1. Most proper names: as, Caesar, Ccesar; Gallia, Gaul. 2. Names of things not counted, but reckoned in mass : as, aurum, gold: aer, air; triticum, tvheat. 3. Abstract nouns: as, ambitio, ambition; fortitude, courage; calor, heat, 1 The forms facitnim, specierum, spcciebus, sperum, spebus, are cited by grammarians, also speres, speribus, and some of these occur in hite authors. §§ iOO-102] DEFECTIVE :N0UNS . , 41 100. Many of these nouns, however, are used in the plural in some other sense. a. The plural of a proper name may be applied to two or more persons or places, or even things, and so become strictly common : — duodecim Caesares, the twelve Ccesars. Galliae, the two Gauls (Cis- and Iransalpine). Castores, Castor and Pollux ; loves, images of Jupiter. b. The plural of names of things reckoned in mass may denote particular objects: as, aera, bronze utensils, nives, snoioflakes; or different kinds of a thing : as, aeres, airs (good and bad). c. The plural of abstract nouns denotes occasions or instances of the quality, or the like : — quaedam escellentiae, some cases of superiority ; otia, periods of rest ; calores, frigora, times of heat and cold. Nouns wanting in the Singular 101. Some nouns are commonly or exclusively found in the Plural {plUrdlia tantum). Such are — 1. Many names of towns : as, Athenae (^^Aens), Thurii, Philippi, Veil. 2. Names of festivals and games : as, Olympia, the Olympic Games; Baccha- nalia, feast of Bacchus ; Quinquatrus, festival of Minerva ; ludi Romani, the Roman Games. 3. Names of classes: as, optimates, i^e upper classes; maiores, ancestors; liberi, children; penates, household gods; Quirites, citizens (oi Rome). 4. Words plural by signification; as, arma, weapons; artns, joints ; divi- tiae, riches; scalae, stairs; yalvae, folding-doors ; fores, double-doors ; angustiae, a narrow pass (narrows) ; moenia, city walls. Note 1. — Some words, plural by signification in Latin, are translated by English nouns iu the singular number : as, delicia.e, delight, darling; i3iUCQs, throat; Mes, lyre (also singular in poetry) ; insidiae, ambush; cervices, neck; visceTa., flesh. Note 2. — The poets often use the plural number for the singular, sometimes for metrical reasons, sometimes from a mere fashion : as, ora (for os), the face ; sceptra (for sceptrum), sceptre; silentia (for silentium) , sUence. 102. Some nouns of the above classes (§ 101. 1-4), have a corre- sponding singular, as noun or adjective, often in a special sense : 1. As noun, to denote a single object: as, Bacchanal, a spot sacred to Bacchus; optimas, an aristocrat. 2. As adjective : as, Cato Maior, Cato the Elder. 3. In a sense rare, or found only in early Latin: as, scala, a ladder; valva, a door; artus, a Joint. 42 DECLENSION OF NOUNS . [§103 Nouns Defective in Certain Cases 103. Many nouns are defective in case-forms : ^ — a. Indeclinable nouns, used only as nominative and accusative singular, fas, nefas, instar, nihil, opus (need), secus. Note 1. — The indeclinable adjective necesse is used as a nominative or accusative. Note 2. — The genitive nihili and the ablative nihilo (from nihilum, nothing) occur. b. Nouns found in one case only (monoptotes) : — 1. In the nominative singular: glos (f.). 2. In the genitive singular : dicis, nauci (n. ). 3. In the dative singular : divisui (m.) (cf. § 94. c). 4. In the accusative singular : amussim (m.) ; venum (dative veno in Tacitus). 5. In the ablative singular: pondo (n.) ; mane (n.) ; astu (m.), by craft; iussu, iniussij, natii, and many other verbal nouns in -us (m.) (§ 94. c). Note. — Mane is also used as an indeclinable accusative, and an old form mam is used as ablative. Pondo with a numeral is often apparently equivalent to pounds. A nominative singular astus and a plural astus occur rarely in later writers. 6. In the accusative plural : infitias. c. Nouns found in two cases only (diptotes): — 1. In the nominative and ablative singular : fors, forte (f.). 2. In the genitive and ablative singular : spontis (rare), sponte (f.). 3. In the accusative singular and plural : dicam, dicas (f.)-. 4. In the accusative and ablative plural: foras, foris (f.) (cf. fores), used as adverbs. ' d» Nouns found in three cases only (triptotes) : — 1. In the nominative, accusative, and ablative singular ; impetus, -um, -u (m. )2 ; lues, -em, -e (f.). 2. In the nominative, accusative, and dative or ablative plural : grates, -ibus (f). 3. In the nominative, genitive, and dative or ablative plural : iugera, -um, -ibus (n.) ; but iugerum, etc., in the singular (cf. § 105. b). e. Nouns found in four cases only (tetraptotes) : — In the genitive, dative, accusative, ablative singular: dicionis, -T, -em, -e (f.). /. Nouns declined regularly in the plural, but defective in the singidar : — 1. Nouns found in the singular, in genitive, dative, accusative, ablative: frijgis, •i, -em, -e (f.) ; opis, -i (once only), -em, -e (f. ; nominative Ops as a divinity). 2. Nouns found in the dative, accusative, ablative: preci, -em, -e (f.). 3. Nouns found in the accusative and ablative : cassem, -e (f.) ; sordem, -e (f.). 4. Nouns found in the ablative only : ambage (r.) ; fauce (f.) ; obice (c). g. Nouns regular in the singular, defective in the plural : — 1 Some early or late forms and other rarities are omitted. 2 The dative singular impetui and the ablative plural impetibus occur once each. §§ 103-105] VARIABLE NOUNS 43 1. The following neuters have in the plural the nominative and accusative only : fel (fella), far (farra), hordeum (hordea), ius, broth (iura), mel (mella), murmur (murmura), pus (pura), rus (rura), tus or thus (tura). Note. — The neuter ius, right, has only iura in classical writers, but a very rare geni- tive plural iurum occurs in old Latin. 2. calx, cor, cos, crux, fax, faex, lanx, lux, nex, 6s (6ris),i os (ossis),^ pax, pix, ros, sal, sol, vas (vadis), want the genitive plural. 3. Most nouns of the fifth declension want the whole or part of the plural (see § 98. a). h, Kouns defective in both singular and plural : — 1. Noun found in the genitive, accusative, ablative singular; nominative, accusative, dative, ablative plural : vicis, -em, -e ; -es, -ibus. 2. Noun found in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular; genitive plural wanting: dapis, -i, -em, -e; -es, -ibus.^ VARIABLE KOUNS 104. Many nouns vary either in Declension or in Gender. 105. Nouns that vary in Declension are called heter oolites.^ a. Colus (f.), distaff; domus (f.), house (see § 93), and many names of plants in -us, vary between the Second and Fourth Declensions. b. Some nouns vary between the Second and Third : as, iiigerum, -i, -o, ablative -o or -e, plural -a, -um, -ibus ; Mulciber, genitive -beri and -beris ; sequester, genitive -tri and -tris ; vas, vasis, and (old) vasum, -i (§ 79. e). c. Some vary between the Second, Third, and Fourth : as, penus, penum, genitive penl and penoris, ablative penu. d. Many nouns vary between the First and Fifth (see § 98. c). e. Some vary between the Third and Fifth. Thus, — requies has geni- tive -etis, dative wanting, accusative -etem or -em, ablative -e (once -ete) ; fames, regularly of the third declension, has ablative fame (§ 76. n. 1), and pubes (m.) has once dative pube (in Plautus). /. Pecus varies between the Third and Foui-th, having pecoris, etc., but also nominative pecii, ablative pecii ; plural pecua, genitive pecuum. gr. Many vary between different stems of the same declension : as, femur (n.), genitive -oris, also -inis (as from ffemen); iecur (n.), genitive iecinoris, iocinoris, iecoris ; miinus (n.), plural miinera and munia. 1 The ablative plural oribus is rare, the classical idiom being in ore omnium, in every- body's mouth, etc., not in cribus omnium. 2 The genitive plural ossium is late ; ossuura (from ossua, plural of a neuter u-stem) is early and late. 3 An old nominative daps is cited. 4 That is, "iiouns of different inflections" (erepos, another, and kXiVw, to inflect). 44 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§ 106, 107 106. Nouns that vary in Gender are said to be heterogeneous.'^ a* The following have a masculine form in -us and a neuter in -um : balteus, caseus, clipeus, collum, cingulum, pileus, tergum, vallum, with many others of rare occurrence. h. The following have in the Plural a different gender from that of the Singular : — balneae (f.), baths (an establishment). cael5s (m. ace, Lucr.). carbasa (n.) (-orum), sails. deliciae (f.), pet. epulae {v.)^ feast. freni (m.) or frena (n.), a bridle. ioca (n.), ioci {m.), jests. loca (n.), loci (m., usually topics, passages in books). rastri (m.), rastra (n.), rakes. balneum (n.), bath; caelum (n.), heaven; carbasus (f.), a sail; delicium (n.), pleasure. epulum (n.), feast ; frenum (n.), a bit; iocus (m.), a jest; locus (m.), place; rastrum (n.), a rake; Note, — Some of tbese nouns are heteroclites as well as heterogeneous. 107. Many nouns are found in aedes, -is (f.), temple; aqua (f.), water ; auxilium (n.), help; bonum (n.), a good; career (m.), dungeon; castrum {s.), fort; comitium (n.), 2^lcLce of assembly ; copia (f.), plenty ; fides (f.), harp-string; finis (m.), end; fortuna (f.), fortune ; gratia (f.), favor (rarely, thanks); hortus (m,), a garden; impedimentum (n.) hindrance; littera (f.), letter (of alphabet) ; locus (m.), place [plural loca (n.)] ; ludus (m.), sport; mos (m.), habit, custom; natalis (m.), birthday ; opera (f.), work; [ops,] opis (F.), help (§ 103./. 1); pars (f.), part; rostrum (n.), beak of a ship; sal (m. or n.), salt; tabella (f.), tablet; the Plural in a peculiar sense: — aedes, -ium, house. * aquae, mineral springs, a watering-place. auxilia, auxiliaries. bona, goods, property. carceres, barriers (of race-course). castra, camp. comitia, an election (town-meeting). copiae, stores, troops. fides, lyre. fines, bounds, territories. fortunae, possessions. gratiae, thanks (also, the Graces). horti, pleasure-grounds. impedimenta, baggage. litterae, epistle, literature. loci,2 topics, places in books. ludi, public games. mores, character. natales, descent, origin. operae, day-laborers ("hands"). opes, resources, wealth. partes, part (on the stage), party. rostra, speaker'' s platform . sales, witticisms. tabellae, documents, records. 1 That is, "of different genders" (?repos, another, and yhos^ gender). 2 In early writers the re;rular plural. § 108] NAMES OF PERSONS 45 NAMES OF PERSONS 108. A Roman had regularly three names: — (1) the praenomen, or personal name ; (2) the nomen, or name of the gens or house ; (3) the cognomen, or family name : — Thus in Marcus TuUius Cicero we have — Marcus, the praendmen, hke our Christian or given name ; Tullius, the nomen, properly an adjective denoting of the Tullian gens (or house) whose original head was a real or supposed Tullus ; Cicero, the cognomen, or family name, often in origin a nickname, — in this case from cicer, a vetch, or small pea. Note. — When two persons of the same family are mentioned together, the cogno- men is usually put in the plural : as, Piiblius et Servius Sullae. a, A fourth or fifth name was sometimes given as a mark of honor or distinction, or to show adoption from another gens. Thus the complete name of Scipio the Younger was Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Aemilianus : Africanus, from his exploits in Africa ; Aemilianus, as adopted from the ^milian gens.^ Note. — The Romans of the classical period had no separate name for these addi- tions, but later grammarians invented the word agnomen to express them. h. Women had commonly in classical times no personal names, but were known only by the nomen of their gens. Thus, the wife of Cicero was Terentia, and his daughter Tullia. A second daughter would have been called Tullia secunda or minor, a third daughter, Tullia tertia, and so on. c. The commonest prsenomens are thus abbreviated : — A. Aulus. L. Lucius. Q. Quintus. App. (Ap.) Appius. M. Marcus. Set. Servius. C. (G.) Gains {Caius) (cf. § 1. a). M'. Manius. Sex. (S.) Sextus. Cn. (Gn.) Gnaeus (Cneius). Mam. Mamercus. Sp. Spurius. D. Decimus. N. (Num.) Numerius T. Titus. K. Kaeso (Caeso). P. Publius. Ti. (Tib.) Tiberius. Note 1. — In the abbreviations C. and Cn., the initial character has the value of G (§l.a). 1 In stating officially the full name of a Roman it was customary to include the praenomina of the father, grandfather, and great-grandfather, together with the name of the tribe to which the individual belonged. Thus in an inscription we find M. TVL- LIVS M. F. M. N. M. PR. COR. CICERO, i.e. Marcus Tullius Marclfilius Marc! nepos Marc! pro- nepos Cornelia tribii Cicero. The names of grandfather and great-grandfather as well as that of the tribe are usually omitted in literature. The name of a wife or daughter is usually accompanied by that of the husband or father in the genitive: as, Postumia Servi Sulpici! (Suet. lul. 50), Postumia, wife of Servius Sulpicius; Caecilia Metelli (Div. i. 104), Caecilia, daughter of Metellus. 46 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES 109, 110 ADJECTIVES 109. Adjectives and Participles are in general formed and de- clined like Nouns, differing from them only in their use. 1. In accordance -with their use, they distinguish gender by different forms in the same word, and agree with their nouns in gender, number^ and case. Thus, — bonus puer, the good boy. bona puella, the good girl. bonum donum, the good gift. 2. In their inflection they are either (1) of the First and Second Declen- sions, or (2) of the Third Declension. FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS {d- AND ove; superior, Ai^r^er; supremus or summus, Mgr/iesi. But the plurals, exteri, foreigners; inferi, the gods below ; poster!, posterity ; superi, the heavenly gods, are common. NoTB. — The superlative postumus has the special sense of last-born, and was a well- known surname. 131. Several adjectives lack the Comparative or tlie Superla- tive : — a. The Comparative is rare or wanting in the following: — bellus, inclutus (or inclitus), novus, caesius, invictus, plus, falsus, invitus, sacer, fidus (with its compounds), meritus, vafer. b. The Superlative is wanting in many adjectives in -ilis or -bilis (as, agilis, probabilis), and in the following : — actuosus ' exilis procllvis surdus agrestis ingens propinquus tacitumus alacer ieiunus satur tempestivus arcanus longinquus segnis teres caecus obliquus serus vicinus diutumus opimus supinus c. From iuvenis, youth, senex, old man (cf. § 122. d), are formed the com- paratives iiinior, younger, senior, older. For these, however, minor natu and maior natii are sometimes used (natii being often omitted). The superlative is regularly expressed by minimus and maximus, with or without natu. Note. — In these phrases natu is ablative of specification (see § 418). il. Many adjectives (as aureus, golden) are from their meaning incapable of comparison. Note. — But each language has its own usage in this respect. Thus, niger, glossy black, and candidus, shining white, are compared ; but not ater or albus, meaning abso- lute dead black or white (except that Plautus once has atrior). 68 NUMERALS [§§ 132, 133 NUMERALS 132. The Latin Numerals may be classified as follows : — I. Numeral Adjectives : 1. Cardinal Numbers, answering the question how many? as, unus, one; duo, two, etc. 2. Ordinal Numbers,^ adjectives derived (in most cases) from the Cardi- nals, and answering the question which in order"? as, primus, ^rs« ; secun- dus, second, etc. 3. Distributive Numerals, answering the question how many at a time ? as, singuli, one at a time ; bini, two hy two, etc. II. Numeral Adverbs, answering the question how often ? as, semel, once; bis, twice, etc. Cardinals and Ordinals 133. These two series are as follows : — CARDINAL ORDINAL ] ROMAN NUMERALS 1. unus, una, tinum, one primus, -a, -um, ^rs^ I 2. duo, duae, duo, two secundus (alter), second II 3. tres, tria, three tertius, third III 4. quattuor quartus nil or IV 5. quinque quintus V 6. sex sextus VI 7. septem Septimus VII 8. octo octavus VIII 9. novem nonus vim or IX 10. decern decimus X 11. undecim undecimus XI 12. duodecim duodecimus XII 13. tredecim (decem (et) tres) tertius decimus (decimus (et) tertius ;) XIII 14. quattuordecim quartus decimus xiiii or XIV 15. quindecim quintus decimus XV 10. sedecim sextus decimus XVI 17. septendecira Septimus decimus XVII 18. duodeviginti (octodecim) duodevicensimus (octavus decimus) XVIII 1 The Ordinals (except secundus, tertius, octavus, n5nus) are formed by means of suf- fixes related to tho.se used in the superlative and in part identical with them. Thus, decimus (compare the form infimus) m;iy he regarded as the last of a series of ten ; pri- mus is a superlative of a stem akin to pro ; the forms in -tus (quartus, quintus, sextus) may be compared -with the corresponding: Greek forms in ~tos, and with superlatives in -i "tVo"' 6cV„-. §§ 176, 177 J PERFECT STEM 87 d» In some verbs the present stem is formed from a noun-stem in u- ; as, statu-e-re (statu-s), aestu-a-re (aestu-s); cf. acuo, acuere.^ Note 1. — A few isolated forms use the simple root as a present stem: as, fer-re, fer-t ; es-se ; vel-le, vul-t. These are counted as irregular. Note 2. — In some verbs the final consonant of the root is doubled before the stem- vowel: a'^, pell-i-tis (pel), mitt-i-tis (mit). e. Some verbs have roots ending in a vowel. In these the present stem is generally identical with the root ; as, da-mus (da), fle-mus (stem fle-, root form unknown). 2 But others, as rui-mus (ru), are formed with an addi- tional vowel according to the analogy of the verbs described in d. Note. — Some verbs of this class reduplicate the root: as, si-st-e-re (sta, cf. stare). Perfect Stem 177. The Perfect Stem is formed as follows : — a. The suffix v (u) is added to the verb-stem ; as, voca-v-i, audi-v-i ; or to the root : as, son-u-i (sona-re, root son), mon-u-i (mone-re, mon treated as a root). 2 Note. — In a few verbs the vowel of the root is transposed and lengthened: as, stra-v-i (sterno, star), spre-v-i (sperno, spar). &. The suffix s is added to the root : as, carp-s-i (carp), tex-i (for teg-s-i, teg).^ Note. — The modifications of the present stem sometimes appear in the perfect: as, finx-i (fig, present stem finge-), sanx-i (sac, present stem sanci-). c. The root is reduplicated by prefixing the first consonant — generally with e, sometimes with the root-vowel : as, ce-cid-i (cad5, cad), to-tond-i (tondeo, tond). Note. — Infid-I (for ffe-fid-i, flnd-o), scid-i (for fsci-scid-i, scindo), the reduplication has been lost, leaving merely the root. d. The root vowel is lengthened, sometimes with vowel change : as, leg-i (leg-o), em-i (em-6), vid-i (vid-e-o), fug-i (fug-i-o), eg-i (ag-o). e. Sometimes the perfect stem has the same formation that appears in the present tense : as, vert-i (vert-o), solv-i (solv-6). /. Sometimes the perfect is formed from a lost or imaginary stem : as, peti-v-i (as if from fpeti-5, fpeti-re, pet). 1 These are either old formations in -y Vq- in which the y has disappeared after the u (as, statuo for jstatu-yo) or later imitations of such forms. 2 In some of the verbs of this class the present srem was originally identical with the root ; in others the ending -y Vo- was added, but has been absorbed by contraction. 3 The v-perfect is a form of uncertain origin peculiar to the Latin. ^ The s-perfect is in origin an aorist. Thus, dix-i (for jdics-i) corresponds to the Greek aorist ^-5ei^-o (for te-5ciKo--a). 88 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§§ 178, 179 Supine Stem 178. The Supine Stem may be found by dropping -um from the Supine. It is formed by adding t (or, by a phonetic change, s) — a. To the present stem : as, ama-t-um, dele-t-um, audl-t-um. &. To the root, with or without i: as, cap-t-um (capio, cap), moni-t-um (moneo, mon used as root), cas-um (for fcad-t-um, cad), lec-t-um (leg). Note 1. — By phonetic change dt and tt become s (defensum, versum for fde-fend- t-um, fvert-t-um) ; bt becomes pt (scrip-t-um for fscrib-t-um) ; gt becomes ct (rec-t-um for treg-t-um).i Note 2. — The modifications of the present stem sometimes appear in the supine : as, tinc-t-um (tingo, tig) , ten-s-um for ftend-t-um (ten-d-o, ten) . Note 3. — The supine is sometimes from a lost or imaginary verb-stem : as, peti-t-um (as if from fpeti-o, fpeti-re, pet) . Note 4. — A few verbs form the supine stem in s after the analogy of verbs in d and t: as, fal-s-um (fallo), pul-s-um (pello). »■ Forms of Conjugation 179. The forms of the several conjugations from which, by adding the verb-endings in § 166, all the moods and tenses can be made are as follows : — «. The First Conjugation includes all verbs which add a- to the roou to form the present stem : "- as, ama-re ; with a few whose root ends iu a (ffor, fa-ri; flo, fla-re; no, na-re; sto, sta-re). 1. The stem-vowel a- is lost before -o : as, am5 = •fama-(y)6 ; and in the present subjunctive it is changed to e : as, ame-s, ame-mus. 2. The perfect stem regularly adds v, the supine stem t, to the present stem : as, ama-v-i, ama-t-um. For exceptions, see § 209. a. b. The Second Conjugation 'includes all verbs which add e- to the root to form the present stem : as, mone-re ; with a few whose root ends in e ; as, fle-o, fle-re ; ne-6, ne-re ; re-or, re-ri (cf. § 176. e). 1. In the present subjunctive a is added to the verb-stem : as, mone-a-s, mone-a-mus (cf. § 168. e). 2. A few verbs form the perfect stem by adding v (u), and the supine stem by adding t, to the present stem : as, dele-v-i, dele-t-um. But most form the perfect stem by adding v (u) to the root, and the supine stem by adding t to a weaker form of the present stem, ending in i : as, mon-u-i, moni-t-um. For listS; see § 210. 1 For these modifications of the supine stem, see § 15. 5, 6, 10. 2 The present stem is thus the verb-stem. For excei^tions, see § 209. a. §179] FORMS OF CONJUGATION 89 c. The Third Conjugation includes all verbs (not irregular, see § 197) which add e- to the root to form the present stem : as, tege- re, cape-re ; with a few whose root ends in e : as, se-re-re for fse-se-re (reduplicated from se, cf. satuni). 1. The stem-vowel e is regularly lost before -5, and becomes u^ before -nt and i before the other endings of the indicative and imperative: as, teg-o, tegi-t, tegu-nt ; in the imperfect indicative it becomes e : as, tege- bam, tege-bas, etc. ; in the future, e : as, tege-s (except in the first person singular, tega-m, tega-r) ; in the present subjunctive, a : as, tega-s. Verbs in -io lose the i before a consonant and also before i, i, and e (except in the future, the participle, the gerund, and the gerundive). Thus, — capi-at, capi-unt, capi-ebat, capi-es, capi-et, capi-ent; but, cap-it (not fcapi-it), cap-eret. 2. All varieties of perfect and supine stems are found in this conjuga- tion. See lists, § 211. The perfect is not formed from the present stem, but from the root. d. The Fourth Conjugation includes all verbs which add i- to the root to form the present stem : as, audi-re.^ In these the perfect and supine stems regularly add v, t, to the verb-stem : as, audi-v-i, audi- t-urn.^ Endings like those of the third conjugation are added in the third person plural of the present (indicative and imperative), in the imperfect and future indicative, and in the present subjunctive : as, audi-unt, audi-ebat, audi-etis, audi-at, the i being regularly short before a vowel. e. The Present Imperative Active (second person singular) is the same as the present stem : as, ama, mone, tege, audi. But verbs in -io of the third conjugation omit i: as, cape (not fcapie). /. The tenses of completed action in the Active voice are all regu- larly formed by adding the tense-endings (given in § 166) to the perfect stem : as, amav-i, amav-eram, amav-ero, amav-erim, amav-issem, amav-isse. g. The tenses of completed action in the Passive voice are formed by adding to the perfect participle the corresponding tenses of con- tinued action of the verb esse : as, perfect amatus sum ; pluperfect amatus eram, etc. 1 The gerundive varies between -endus and -undus, 2 A few are formed from noun-stems, as fini-re (from fini-s), and a few roots perhaps end in 1 ; but these are not distinguishable in form. 3 For exceptions, see § 212. b. 90 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§180 Synopsis of the Verb 180. The following synopsis shows the forms of the verb ar- ranged according to the three stems (§ 164). Amo, a regular verb of the first conjugation, is taken as a type. Principal Parts : Active, amo, amare, amavi, amatum. Passive, amor, amari, amatus sum. Present stem ama- Perfect stem amav- Supine stem amat- ACTIVE PASSIVE Present stem, ama- INDIOATIVE Pres. Imperf. Fut. amo ama-bam ama-bo amo-r ama-bar ama-bor Pres. Imperf. ame-m ama-rem SUBJUNCTI\^ ame-r ama-rer Pres. Fut. ama ama-to IMPERATIVE ama-re ama-tor Pres. ama-re INFINITIVE ama-ri Pres. ama-ns PARTICIPLE Gerundive ama-ndus GEKUND ama-ndi Perfect stem, amav- Perf. amav-i Plupekf. amav-eram Fht. Perf. amav-ero INDICATIVE Supine stem, amSt- amat-us sum amat-us eram amat-us ero Perf. Pluperf. amav-erim amav-issem SUBJUNCTI^^ amat-us sim amat-us essem Perf. amav-isse INFINITIVE Supine stem, amat- Perf. Fut. INFINITIVE amat-urus esse amat-us esse amat-um iri F(TT. amat-urus PARTICIPLE Perf. amSt-us SUPINE amat-iim amat-ii §§ 181-1881 TECULIAKl riKt^ OF CONJUGATION 91 Peculiarities of Conjugation 181. In tenses formed upon the Perfeei Stem, v between two vowels is often lost and emit raet ion takes plaee. a, Vcriccts in -avl, -ovi. -ovi. of ton oontvaot tho t\Yo vowols into a. e. 5, rospoctivoly : as. amasso lor amavisse ; amarim tor amaverim ; amassem for amavissem ; consuorat lor consiieverat : flestis for llevistis; nosse for novisse. So in porfocts in -vi. uhoro tho v is a part of tho jnvsont stoni : as. commorat for commoverat. NoTK. — The first ihtsoti of tho povfivt iudioativo i,as. amrivi) is novor ootitraotod, the thinl verj' raroly. h» Perfoot^ in -ivi rogularly omit v, but raroly contraot tho vowels ox- oopt boforo st and ss, and vory raroly in tho third porson porfoct : — audienvm for audiveram ; audisse for audivisso ; audisti for audivisti ; abiit for abivit ; abierunt for abiveruut. NoTK 1. — Tho fi>vnis siris. sirit. siiitis. sirint. for sivcris oto. (from siveio or siverim), are arohaio. NoTK 2. — In many forms from tlio porfoot stom is, iss. sis. aro lost in liUo mnniKM*. ■\YhoT\ s vroiilil bo ropoatod if thoy A\oro retained : as. dixtl for dixisti (x — cs); tifixo for traxisse ; fvasti for f vasisti ; vixot for vixisset ; Pri^psomus for CrSpsissf mus ; docosse for dScessisse, Those forms belonix to ari-haio and oolUHjuial us;u;e. 182. Four verbs, — dicO, dijc5, faciS, ferS, — with tbeir eompounds, drop the vowel-termination of the Imperative, making die, due, fSe, f6r; but eomponnds in -liciO retain it, as, confice. Note. — Tho imperative forms dioo. duco, laoo (never fero). oeenr in early T.atin, a. For the iniporativo of scio. tho future form scito is always used in tho singular, and scitote usually in tho plural, 183. The following aneient fm-ms are found eliietlv in poetry: 1. Tn the fourth conjuuation. -ibam, -ibo, for -iebam, -iain (futuroV Those forms aro rogidar in eo. (jo (^ '20'r\). L\ In tho present subjunetivo. -im : as in duim, perduim, retained in religious formulas and often in eomody. This form is regular in sum and volo and their com]HMnuls (§§ 170, 100). ;>. Tn tho perftH't subjunetivo and future porfoet indieative. -sim. -s5 : as, faxim. faxo. iusso, recepso (— fecerim ete.") ; ausim ( - ausus simV •t. In the [>assive intinitive, -ier : as. vocarier for vocari; agier for ai,i. r>. A form in -asso. -assere is fi"»und used as a futurt^ ]>erfeot : as. amassis, from amo ; levasso. from levo ; impetrassere, from impetro ; ifidicassit, from iudico (of. § l-H);>. '2. h. n.). 92 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§184 FIRST CONJUGATION (a-STEMS) — ACTIVE VOICE 184. The First Conjugation includes all verbs which add a- to the root to form the present stem, with a few whose root ends in a-. The verb amo, love, is conjugated as follows : — Principal Parts : Present Indicative amo, Present Infinitive amare. Perfect Indicative amavi, Supine amatum. Present stem ama- Perfbct stem amav- SupiNE STEM amat- INDICATIVE Present SUBJUNCTIVE amo,^ / love, am loving, do love amem ^ amas, thou lovest (you love) ames amat, Jie (she, it) loves amet amamus, we love am emus amatis, you love ametis amant, they love Imperfect ament amabam, I loved, was loving, did love amarem amabas, you loved amares aniabat, he loved amaret amabamus, we loved amaremus am abatis, you loved amaretis amabant, they loved amarent Future amabo, / shall love amabis, you ivill love aniabit, he will love amabimus, toe shall love amabitis, you will love amabunt, they will love 1 The stem-vowel a- is lost before -6, and in the Present Subjunctive becomes e-. 2 The translation of the Subjunctive varies widely according to the construction- Hence no translation of this mood is given in the paradigms. 184] FIRST CONJUGATION I INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE Perfect aniavl, / loved, have loved aniaverim amavisti, you loved amaveris amavit, he loved amaverit amavimus, we loved amaverimus amavistis, you loved amaveritis amaverunt (-ere), they loved amaverint Pluperfect amaveram, / had loved aniavissem amaveras, you had loved amavisses amaverat, he had loved amavisset araaveramus, we had loved amavissemua amaveratis^ you had loved " amavissetis amaverant, they had loved amavissent Future Perfect Singular Plural amavero, / shall have loved amaverimus, we shall have loved amaveris, you will have loved amaveritis, you ivill have loved amaverit, he will have loved amaverint, they will have loved IMPERATIVE Present ama, love thou amate, love ye Future amato, thou shall love amatote, ye shall love amato, he shall love amanto, they shall love INFINITIVE Present amare, to love Perfect amavisse or amasse, to have loved Future amaturus esse, to be about to love PARTICIPLES Present amans, -antis, loving Future amaturus, -a, -um, about to love GERUND Genitive amandi, of loving Accusative amandum, loving Dative amando, for loving Ablative amando, by loving SUPINE amatum, to love amatu, to love 94 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§184 FIRST CONJUGATION (^Z-STEMS) — PASSIVE VOICE Principal Parts : Present Indicative amor, Present Infinitive aman. Perfect Indicative amatus sum.^ Present stem ama- SupiNE STEM amSt- ESTDICATIVE Present amor,^ / am loved, being loved amaris (-re), you are loved amatur, he is loved amamur, ive are loved amamini, you are loved amantur, they are loved SUBJUNCTIVE amer^ ameris (-re) ametur amemur amemini amentur Imperfect amabar, I was loved, being loved amarer amabaris (-re), you were loved amareris (-re) amabatur,- he was loved amaretur amabamur, we were loved amaremur amabamini, you were loved amaremini amabantur, they were loved amarentur Future amabor, / shall be loved amaberis (-re), you will be loved amabitur, he will be loved amabimur, we shall be loved amabimini, you icill be loved amabuntur, they will be loved 1 Fui, fuisti, etc., are sometimes used instead of sum, es, etc. ; so also fueram instead of eram and fuero instead of ero. Similarly in the Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive fuerim, fueris, etc. are sometimes used instead of slm, sis, etc., and fuissem instead of essem. 2 The stem-vowel a- is lost before -or, and in the Present Subjunctive becomes e-. * The translation of the Subjunctive varies widely according to the construction. Hence no translation of this mood is given in the paradigms. §184] FIRST CONJUGATION 95 INDICATIVE amatus sum,^ / was loved amatus es, you were loved amatus est, he was loved amati sumus, we were loved amati estis, you ivere loved araati sunt, thev were loved Perfect SUBJUNCTIVE amatus sim^ amatus sis amatus sit amati simus amati sitis amati sint Pluperfect amatus eram,* / had been loved amatus eras, you had been loved amatus erat, he had been loved amati eramus, we had been loved amati eratis, you had been loved amati erant, they had been loved amatus essem^ amatus esses amatus esset amati essemus amati essetis amati essent Future Perfect Singular amatus ero,^ / shall have been loved amatus eris, you will have, etc. amatus erit, he will have, etc. Plural amati erimus, we shall have, etc. amati eritis, you will have, etc. amati erunt, they will have, etc. IMPERATIVE Present amSre, he thou loved amamini, be ye loved Future amator, thou shalt be loved . amator, he shall he loved amantor, they shall he loved INFINITIVE Present amari, to be loved Perfect amatus esse, to have been loved Future amatum iri, to he about to be'loved PARTICIPLES Perfect amatus, -a, -um, loved (beloved, or having been loved) Future (Gerundive) amandus, -a, -um, to-be-loved (lovely) 1 See page 94, footnote 1. 96 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§186 SECOND CONJUGATION (e-STEMS) 185. The Second Conjugation includes all verbs which add e- to the root to form the present stem, with a few whose root ends m e-. Principal Parts: Active, moneo, monere, monui, monitum; Passive, moneor, moneri, monitus sum. Present stem mone- Perfect stem monu- SupiNE STEM monit- ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE Present moneo, / warn moneam mones, you warn moneas monet, he warns moneat monemua raonetis monent moneamus moiieatifi moneant indicatht: subjunctive Present moneor moneris (-re) monetur monemur monemini monentur monear ^ monearis (-re) moneatur moneamur moneamini moneantur Imperfect monebam monebas monebat monebamus monebatis monebant monerem moneres moneret moneremuB mcneretis raonerent Imperfect monebar monerer monebaris (-re) monereris (-re) monebatur moneretur monebamur moneremur monebamini moneremini monebantur monerentur Future monebo monebis monebit monebimua monebitis monebunt Future monebor moneberis (-re) monebitur monebimur monebimini monebuntur See § 179. b. 1. §185] SECOND CONJUGATION 91 Active Voice INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE Perfect monui monuerim monuisti monueris monuit monuerit monuimus monuerimus monuistis monueritis monuerunt (-re) monuerint Pluperfect monueram monueras monuerat monueramus monueratis monuerant monuissem monuisses mormisset monuissemus monuissetis moDuissent Future Perfect monuero monueris monuerit monuerimus monueritis monuerint Passive Voice INDICATIVE subjunctive Perfect monitus sum ^ monitus sim ^ monitus es monitus est moniti sumus moniti estis moniti sunt monitus sis monitus sit moniti simus moniti sitis moniti sint Pluperfect monitus eram ^ monitus esseni ' monitus eras monitus erat moniti eramus moniti eratis moniti erant monitus esses monitus esset moniti essemus moniti essetis moniti essent Future Perfect monitus ero ^ monitus eris monitus erit moniti erimus moniti eritis moniti erunt Singular Present mone Future moneto moneto IMPERATIVE Plural * Singular monete Present monere monetote Future monetor monento monetor Plural monemini monentor Present monere Perfect monuisse Future moniturus esse INFINITIVE moneri monitus esse monitum iri PARTICIPLES Present monens, -entis Perfect monitus, -a, -um Future moniturus, -a, -um Gerundive monendus, -a,-um GERUND SUPINE monendi, -do, -dum, -do monitum, monitu 1 See footnote 1 on page 94. 98 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§186 THIRD CONJUGATION (^-STEMS) 186. The Third Conjugation includes all verbs (not irregular, see § 197) which add e- to the root to form the present stem, with a few whose root ends in e-. Principal Parts : Active, tego, tegere, texi, tectum ; Passive, tegor, tegi, tectus sum. Present stem tege- Perf ECT STEM tex- 1 Supine stem tect- ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE Present Present teg6,2 I cover tegis, you cover tegit, he covers tegam 2 tegas tegat tegor 2 tegar ^ tegeris (-re) tegaris (-re) tegitur tegatur tegimus tegitis tegunt tegamus tegatis tegant tegimur tegam ur tegimini tegamim teguntur tegantur Imperfect Imperfect tegebam tegebas tegebat tegerem tegeres tegeret tegebar tegerer tegebaris (-re) tegereris (-re) tegebatur tegeretur tegebamus tegebatis tegebant tegeremus tegeretis tegerent tegebamui tegeremur tegebamini tegeremin! tegebantui tegerentur Future Future tegam ^ teges teget ' tegar '-^ teggris (-re) teggtur tegemus teggtis tegent teggmur tegemini tegentur 1 The perfect stem in this conjugation is always formed from the root; tSx- ig foi teg-s- (see § 15. 9) . 2 See § 179. c. 1. § 186] THIRD CUJSJUGATION Active Voice INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE Perfect texi texerim texisti texeris texit texerit teximus texerimus texistis texeritis texerunt (-re) texerint Pluperfect texeram texissem texeras texisses texerat texisset texeramus texissemus texeratis texissetis texerant texissent Future Perfect texero texeriB texerit texerimus texeritis texerint Passive Voice INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE Perfect tectus sum ^ tectus es tectus est tecti sumus tecti estis tecti sunt tectus sim ^ tectus SIS tectus sit tecti simus tecti sitis tecti sint Pluperfect tectus eram ^ tectus eras tectus erat tecti eramus tecti eratis tecti erant tectus essem ^ tectus esses tectus esset tecti essemus tecti essetis tecti essent Future Perfect tectus ero -^ tectus eris tectus erit tecti erimus tecti eritis tecti erunt imperative Present Future Present Perfect Future Present Future Plural tegite tegitote tegunto Singular tege tegito tegito tegere texisse tectums tegens, -entis tectiirus, -a, -um GERUND tegendi, -do, -dum, -do Singular tegere tegitor tegitor infinitive tegi tectus esse tectum iri participles Perfect Gerundive supine tectum, tectu Plural tegimini teguntor tectus, -a, -um tegendus (-undus) 1 See footnote 1 on page 94o 100 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§187 FOURTH CONJUGATION (/-STEMS) 187. The Fourth Conjugation includes all verbs which add i- to the root to form the present stem. Principal Parts: Active, audio, audire, audivi, auditum ; Passive, audior, audiri, auditus sum. Present stem audi- Perfect stem audiv- SupiNE stem audit- ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE Present Present audio, / hear audis, you hear audit, he hears audiam ^ audias audiat audior audiris (-re) auditur audiar ^ audiaris (-re) audiatur audimus audrtis audiunt audiamus audiatis audiaut audimur audimini audiuntur audiamur audiamini audiantur Imperfect Imperfect audiebam ^ audiebas audirem audires audiebar ^ audiebaris (-re) audirer audireris (-re) audiebamus audiremus audiebatis audire tis audiebant audirent audiebatur audiretur audiebamur audiremur audiebamini audiremini audiebantur audirentur Future Future audiam ^ audies audiet audiemus audietis audient audiar ^ audieris (-re) audietur audiemur audiemini audientur I See § 179. d. §187] FOUKTH CONJUGATION 101 Active Voice INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE Perfect audivi audiverim audivisti audiveris audivit audiverit Passive Voice INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE Perfect auditus sum ^ auditus sim ^ auditus es auditus sis auditus est auditus sit audivimus audiverimus audivistis audiveritis audiveruat (-re) audiverint auditi sumus auditi estis auditi sunt auditi simus auditi sitis auditi sint Pluperfect audiveram audivissem audiveras audivisses audiverat audivisset Pluperfect auditus eram ^ auditus esseni ^ auditus eras auditus' esses auditus erat auditus esset audiveramus audivissemus audiveratis audivissetis audiverant audivissent auditi eramus auditi eratis auditi erant auditi essemus auditi essetis auditi essent Future Perfect audivero audiveris audiverit Future auditus ero ^ auditus eris auditus erit Perfect audiverimus audiveritis audiverint auditi erimus auditi eritis auditi erunt Singular Plural Present audi audite Fttttire auditd auditote [MPERATIVE Singular audire auditor auditor Plural audimini audits audiunto audiuntor Present audire Perfect audivisse Future auditurus esse INFINITIVE audiri auditus esse auditum iri PARTICIPLES Present audiens, -ientis Perfect auditus, -a, -um Future auditurus, -a, -um Gerundive audiendus, -a, -um GERUND audlendi, -do, -dum, -do SUPINE auditum, audltu I See footnote 1, p. 94. 102 CGNJTTGATIOI^ OF THE VERB [§188 VERBS IN Ho OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION 188. Verbs of the Third Conjugation in -io have certain forms of the present stem like the fourth conjugation. They lose the i of the stem before a consonant and also before i, i, and g (except in the future, the participle, the gerund, and the gerundive).^ Verbs of this class are conjugated as follows : — Principal Parts: Active^ capio, capere, cepi, captum; Passive, capior, capi, captus sum. Present stem capie- (cape-) Perfect stem c§p- Supine stem capt- ACTIVE VOICE indicative subjunctive Present capio, / take capiam PASSIVE VOICE indicative subjunctive Present capis, you take capias capit, he takes capiat capimus capiamus capitis capiatis capiunt capiant Imperfect capiebam caperem Future capiam capies capiet, etc. Perfect cepi ceperim Pluperfect ceperam cepissem Future Perfect cepero capior caperis (-re) capitur capimur capimini capiuntur capiar capiaris (-re) capiatur capiamur capi5mim capiantur Imperfect capiebar caperer Future capiar capieris (-re) capietur, etc. Perfect captus sum captus sim Pluperfect captus eram captus essem Future Perfect captus ero 1 This is a practical working rule. The actual explanation of the forms of such verbs is not fully understood. 188-190] DEPONENT VERBS 103 Active Voice Present Singular Plural cape capite Future capito capitote capito capiunto Present capere Perfect cepisse Future capturus Passive Voice IMPERATIVE Present Singular Plural capere capimini Future capitor capitor capiuntor INFmiTIVE capl captus esse captum iri PARTICIPLES Present capiens, -ientis Perfect captus, -a, -um Future capturus, -a, -um Gerundive capiendus, -a, -um GERUND SUPINE capiendi, -do, -dum, -do captum, -tu Parallel Forms 189. Many verbs have more than one set of forms, of which only one is generally found in classic use : — lavo, lavare or lavere, wash (see § 211. e). scateo, scatere or scatere, gush forth. ludifico, -are, or ludificor, -ari, ynock. fulgo, fulgere, or fulgeo, fulgere, shine. DEPONENT VERBS 190. Deponent Verbs have the forms of the Passive Voice, with an active or reflexive signification : — {First conjugation : mlror, mirari, miratus, admire. Second conjugation : vereor, vererl, veritus, /ear. Third conjugation : sequor, sequi, secutus, follow. Fourth conjugation : partior, partiri, partitus, share. 104 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§ 190 INDICATIVE Pres. miror miraris (-re) miratur miramur miramini mirantur Impf. mirabar FuT. mirabor Perf. miratus sum Plup. miratus eram F. P. miratus ero vereor vereris (-re) veretur vergmur veremini verentur verebar verebor veritus sum veritus eram veritus ero sequor sequeris (-re) sequitur sequimur sequimini sequuntur sequebar sequar secutus sum secutus eram secutus ero partior partiris (-re) partitur partimur partimiiii partiuntur partiebar partiar partitus sum partitus eram partitus ero SUBJUNCTIVE Pres. mirer Impf. mirarer Perf. miratus sim Plup. miratus essem verear vererer veritus sim veritus essem sequar sequerer sectitus sim secutus essem partiar partirer partitus sim partitus essem IMPERATIVE Pres. mirare verere sequere partire Put. mirator veretor sequitor INFINITIVE partitor Pres. mirari vereri sequi partiri Perf. miratus esse veritus esse secutus esse partitus esse Fdt. miraturus esse veriturus esse secuturus esse PARTICIPLES partiturus esse Pres. mirans verens sequens partiens FuT. miraturus veriturus secuturus partiturus Perf. miratus veritus secutus partitus Ger. mirandus verendus sequendus partiendus GERUND miran^, -6, etc. verendi, etc. sequendi, etc. partiendi, etc. SUPINE miratum, -tu veritum, -tu secutum, -tu partitum, -tu §§ 190, 191] DEPONENT VERBS 105 a. Deponents have the participles of both voices : — sequens, following. secuturus, oJbout to follow, secntus, having followed. sequendus, to be followed. b. The perfect participle generally has an active sense, but in verbs otherwise deponent it is often passive : as, mercatus, bought ; adeptus, gained (or having gained^. c. The future infinitive is always in the active form : thus, sequor has seciitunis (-a, -um) esse (not secutum iri). d. The gerundive, being passive in meaning, is found only in transitive verbs, or intransitive verbs used impersonally : — hoc confitendum est, this must he acknowledged. moriendum est omnibus, all must die. e. Most deponents are intransitive or reflexive in meaning, correspond- ing to what in Greek is called the Middle Voice (§ 156. a. n.). /. Some deponents are occasionally used in a passive sense : as, criminor, / accuse, or / am accused. g. About twenty verbs have an active meaning in both active and passive forms : as, mere5 or mereor, / deserve. 191. More than half of all deponents are of the First Conju- gation, and all of these are regular. The following deponents are irregular : — adsentior, -iri, adsensus, assent. obliviscor, -i, oblitus, forget. apiscor, (-ip-), -i, aptus(-eptus), get. opperior, -iri, oppertus, await. defetiscor, -i, -fessus, faint. ordior, -iri, orsus, begin. expergiscor, -i, -perrectus, rouse. orior, -iri, ortus (oriturus), rise (3d experior, -iri, expertus, try. conjugation in most forms). fateor, -eri, fassus, confess. paciscor, -i, pactus, bargain. fruor, -i, fructus (fruitus), enjoy. patior (-petior), -i, passus (-pessus), fungor, -i, functus, fulfil. suffer. gradior (-gredior), -i, gressus, step. -plector, -i, -plexus, clasp. irascor, -i, iratus, be angry. proficiscor, -i, profectus, set out. labor, -i, lapsus, fall. ' queror, -i, questus, complain. loquor, -i, locutus, speak. reor, reri, ratus, think. metior, -iri, mensus, medsure. reverter, -i, reversus, return. -miniscor, -i, -mentus, think. ringor, -i, rictus, snarl. morior,-i(-iri), mortuus (moriturus), die. sequor, -i, secutus, follow. nanciscor, -i, nactus (nanctus) , find. tueor, -eri, tuitus (tutus), defend. nascor, -i, natus, be born. ulclscor, -i, ultus, avenge. nitor, -i, nisus (nixus), strive. utor, -i, usus, use, employ. Note. — The deponent comperior, -iri, compertus, is rarely found for comperio, -ire. Reverter, until the time of Augustus, had regularly the active forms in the perfect sys- tem, reverti, reverteram, etc. 100 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [|| 191-1 {^ a. The ioVkjy^iy^^ depKjnentB Lave no Bupine stem : — d^otor, -ti, t'/r/i tt«ieai. difiteor, -*ri, cierty. renuiusoor, -L, coW to mt/uf. fatitcor, -i, gapt. vetow, -L /eed wjcK/n, Bqoor, -L, m-eK (JDtrarig.). yf/TK. — 'Dffjj'jnffnin ar*; really pasjsjve ^w rxiiddle) vffrbs "whose a>ri:ve voice has djsaj^jeared. TJifiTH ij» hardjy one Uxat dc»es Dot show bigns of having been luad in tbe active at tome p»kKl of the langaage. Semi-Deponents 192. A ffiw v*;rbf> h-avirjg uo peHeot bi^jj] aif: r^-gujar j;j me present, but appear in the ten.ses of completed action as deponents. These are called Semi-deponents. They are : — aude*, andfre, aufus, dare. i;ande$, gand^e, givieus- rejc/tce. fido, fidfre. fitui, (n/^, toled, tolfre, »olittJS, '>e v.JC/ztt. a. Frorrj attd«>5 there is an old perfecrt f; ausim. The forrn s5des f^yr 61 audegj, an (/tc/u trt/f, is freqtLent i: atistis aud rare el»evrher'r. 6. The active forr/j» vapulo. vapalare, he Ji/jgytd, and veneo, v&oirc, 6e «oW (contrafrted from r^zram ire, ^^ to jta^e), have a passive r/ieaning, and are RometiTues called neutral pmnves. To these may be added fieii, fo 2»e ma/«'NJUGATIOWS 193. A P'tripbra.^ix'^; ff/rrja, a« t>;t; narrjf; j'j^jfratie*, i» a " roandaV/nt way of ipeaV fag." In th*; wJ'j»-^-t »«^;rTji!!ie, all Ter>>-r>>ira:-»''> r/,rj>::-tinsr rjf Tyartidfhra«tic Forra*. llx*; T'r^.>^ ' !. atid the Perfef-i J'artidple with »tJiB i» ixi':)'- sojo, rraro. eV:.). Hfitxtsft itMi Utnu Periphra.>;t ; - >. .y v»rr>>-phra*e« c-r^n «i*tiB4{ »^ the FtJtore Af.-tjvt : vrjth wm. Jffyre. — The Ftjttjr^: Pa>.- ' ; • .r, ;.> «.".iT -j )rj. ffirrxj«'J from the infinite |«l#l«ve '>f 05, y«>, Ti>,t:,'j jrr;;^-rv>nsil)y vritb tht: »rjj>;rj<' jn -Ufli, toay aJ«/> >>e r-la««ed *; periphrastic fona 'J IJttfy. ay . 194- There afSHwo Periphrastic Conjugations, known resptr- vfi]y au tFie Firnt (or Active) and the Second (or Passive). a. The FJr»t Perjphra»tic Co^ the F^t^re Active J'articiple with the irrrm^ of ram, ;* or irderuhd ^cXhon, b0 The f>e'>r>nd Feriphr^istie Conjugation f-Ajmhinf» the Gertindive with the ff/rrrm of raoL, and denotes fjUi^atwrt, neceneity, fjr prrjffrifiiy. c. 77^e jA'7:;.hra*tixr ffirrn.* are mfUif^d regalarly throngliout tl*e Indiea -.^ inU ,Su>>j«octiire »]id in the Vr^mtii aad Perfect Infinitive. ^ 1*^ 196] THE PERIPHRASTIC CONOTTGATIOJff lOT Imfe^fstt PfixnoCT PLrF^jtF'E'CT PlXrtHFECT Sri5:."rrVi''T'JT2r Pii^ES«:srr l-^rc. ^1-1 -ic„ - c^iwiviut se- ise. The Seeond Peiipbi^ti^ 1 IKT'-. - PiR¥:s«xr au«uidik< - ■ ', -iT>i:«f ^ itimni Frrr^is auBftajEo:i> ; :t'i PlEHFliCr Aia^-" ^ ~ - .-^ fe* Umi U fe. Jkmi Pi.cr«:s:F«\rT f,--- FrttTiiE PlEXFSVT ''7H^ PlRS:SKVT >\ :". '", ^ "V ■ y I*F«XF«xrT P>E*r«cr Pnrp«ir«vr P*r<«vT »iiiatstar as prcjwHitions: as, iutus, insuper (see § 219). For Prepositions in Compounds, soo ^ 207. 222-224] CONJUNCTIONS 137 CONJUNCTIONS 222. Conjunctions, like prepositions (of. § 210), are closely related to adverbs, and are either petrified cases of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, or obscured phrases: as, quort, an old accusative; dum, probably an old accusative (cf. turn, cum) ; vero, an old neuter ablative of verus; nihilominus, none the less; proinde, Y\t. forward from there. Mo.st conjunctions are connected with pronominal adverbs, whJch cannot always be re- ferred to their original case-forms. 223. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or sentences. They are of two classes, Coordinate and Subordinate : — a. Coordinate, connecting coordinate or similar constructions (see § 278. 2. a). These are: — 1. Copulative or disjunctive, implying a connection or separation of thought as well as of words: as, et, and; aut, or; neque, nor. 2. Adversative, implying a connection of words, but a contrast in thought : as, sod, hut. 3. Causal, introducing a cause or reason : as, nam, for. 4. Illative, denoting an inference : as, igitur, therefore. h. Subordinate, connecting a subordinate or independent clause with that on which it depends (see § 278. 2. h). These are : — 1. Conditional, denoting a condition or hypothesis: as, si, if; nisi, unless. 2. Comparative, implying comparison as well as condition : as, ac si, as if. 3. Concessive, denoting a concession or admission : as, quamquam, although (lit. however much it may be true that, etc.). 4. Temporal: as, postquam, after. 5. Consecutive, expressing result: as, ut, so that. 6. Final, expressing purpose : as, ut, in order that; ne, that not. 7. Causal, expressing cause : as, quia, because. 224. Conjunctions are more numerous and more accurately distinguished in Latin than in English. The following list includes the common conjunctions ^ and conjunctive phrases : — COOKDINATE a. Copulative and Disjunctive et, -que, atque (ac), and. et . . . et ; et . . . -que (atque); -que . . . et ; -que . . . -que (poetical), both . . . and. etiam, quoque, neque non (necnon), quin etiam, itidem (item), also. cum . . . turn ; tum . . . tum, both . . . and; not only . . . but also. 1 Some of these have been included in the classification of adverbs. See also list of Correlatives, § 152 138 PARTICLES [§224 qua . . . qua, on the one hand . . . on the other hand. modo . . . modo, now . . . now. aut . . . aut ; vel . . . vel (-ve), either . . . or. sive (seu) . . . sive, whether . . . or. nee (neque) ... nee (neque); neque . , . nee ; nee . . . neque (rare), neither . . . nor. et . . . neque, both . . . and not. nee . . . et ; nee (neque) . . . -que, neither {both not) . . . and. h. Adversative sed, autem, verum, vero, at, atqui, hut. tamen, attcimen, sed tamen, verum tamen, but yet, nevertheless. nihilominus, none the less. at vero, but in truth; enimvei-5, for in truth. ceterum, on the other hand, but. c. Causal nam, namque, enim, etenim, for. quapropter, quare, quamobrem, quocirea, unde, wherefore, whence. d. Illative ergo, igitur, itaque, ideo, ideireo, inde, proinde, therefore, accordingly. Subordinate a. Conditional 8i, if; sin, but if; nisi (ni), unless, if not; quod si, but if. modo, dum, dummodo, si modo, if only, provided. dummodo ne (dum ne, modo ne), ^provided only not. h. Comparative ut, uti, sicut, just as; velut, as, so as; prout, praeut, ceu, like as, according as. tamquam (tanquam), quasi, ut si, ae si, velut, veluti, velut si, as if. quam, atque (ac), as, than. c. Concessive etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, even if; quamquam (quanquam), although. quamvis, quantumvis, quaralibet, quantumlibet, however much. lieet (properly a verb), ut, eum (quom), though, suppose, luhereas. d. Temporal cum (quom), quando, when; ubi, ut, ivhen, as; cum primum, ut primum, ubi primum, simul, simul ae, simul atque, as soon as; postquam (posteaquam), after. prius .,. . quam, ante . . . quam, before; non ante . . . quam, not . . . until. dum, usque dum, donee, quoad, until, as long as, while. §§ 224-226] INTERJECTIONS 139 e. Consecutive and Final ut (uti) , quo, so that J in order that. ne, ut ne, lest {that . . . not, in order that not) ;-neve (neu), that not, nor. quin (after negatives), quominus, but that (so as to prevent), that not. f. Causal quia, quod, quoniam (tquom-iam), quando, because. cum (quom), since. quandoquidem, si quidem, quippe, ut pote, since indeed, inasmuch as. propterea . . . quod, for this reason . . . that. On the use of Conjunctions, see §§ 323, 324. INTERJECTIONS 225. Some Interjections are mere natural exclamations of feeling; others are derived from inflected parts of speech, e.g. the imperatives em, lo (probably for erne, take); age, come, etc. Names of deities occur in hercle, pol (from Pollux), etc. Many- Latin interjections are borrowed from the Greek, as euge, euhoe, etc. 226. The following list comprises most of the Interjections in common use : — 6, en, ecce, ehem, papae, vah (of astonishment). 16, evae, evoe, euhoe (of joy). heu, eheu, vae, alas (of sorrow). heus, eho, ehodum, ho (of calling) ; st, hist. eia, euge (oi praise). pro (of attestation) : as, pro pudor, shame I 140 FORMATION OF AVORDS [§§227-230 FORMATION OF WORDS 227. All formation of words is originally a process of composition. An element significant in itself is added to another significant element, and thus the meaning of the two is combined. No other combination is possible for the formation either of inflections or of stems. Thus, in fact, ivords (since roots and stems are significant elements, and so words) are first placed side by side, then brought under one accent, and finally felt as one word. The gradual process is seen in sea voyage, sea-nymph, seaside. But as all derivation, properly so called, appears as a combination of unin- flected stems, every type of formation in use must antedate inflection. Hence words were not in strictness derived either from nouns or from verbs, but from ste7ns which were neither, because they were in fact both ; for the distinction between noun-stems and verb-stems had not yet been made. After the development of Inflection, however, th^t one of several kindred words which seemed the simplest was regarded as the primitive form, and from this the other words of the group were thought to be derived. Such supposed processes of formation were then imitated, often erroneously, and in this way 7iew modes of derivation arose. Thus new adjectives were formed from nouns, new nouns from adjectives, new adjec- tives from verbs, and new verbs from adjectives and nouns. In course of time the real or apparent relations of many words became confused, so that nouns and adjectives once supposed to come from nouns were often assigned to verbs, and others once supposed to come from verbs were assigned to nouns. Further, since the language was constantly changing, many words went out of use, and do not occur in the literature as we have it. Thus many Derivatives survive of which the Primitive is lost. Finally, since all conscious word-formation is imitative, intermediate steps in deriva- tion were sometimes omitted, and occasionally apparent Derivatives occur for which no proper Primitive ever existed. ROOTS AND STEMS 228. Roots ^ are of two kinds : — 1. Verbal, expressing ideas of action or condition (sensible phenomena). 2. Pronominal, expressing ideas of position and direction. From verbal roots come all parts of sj^eech except pronouns and certain particles derived from pronominal roots. 229. Stems are either identical with roots or derived from them. They are of two classes: (1) Noun-stems (including Adjective- stems) and (2) Verb-stems. Note. — Noun-stems and v^rb-stems were not originally different (see p. 163), and in the consciousness of the Romans were often confounded; but in general they were treated as distinct. 230. Words are formed by inflection : (1) from roots inflected as stems; (2) from derived stems (see § 232). 1 For the distinction between Hoots and Stems, see §§ 24, 25. §§231-233] PRIMARY SUFFIXES 141 231. A root used as a stem may appear — a» With a short vowel : as, due-is (dux), dug ; nec-is (nex); i-s, i-d. So in verbs : as, es-t, fer-t (cf. § 171. 2). &. With a long vowel ^ : as, liic-is (lux), lug ; pac-is (pax). So in verbs ; duc-o, i-s for f eis, from eo, ire ; fatur from fari. c. With reduplication : as, fur-fur, mar-mor, mur-mur. So in verbs : as, gi-gno (root gen), si-sto (root sta). DERIVED STEMS AND SUFFIXES 232. Derived Stems are formed from roots or from other stems by means of suffixes. These are : — 1. Primary : added to the root, or (in later times by analogy) to verb- stems. 2. Secondary : added to a noun-stem or an adjective-stem. Both primary and secondary suf&xes are for the most part pronominal roots (§ 228. 2), but a few are of doubtful origin. Note 1. — The distinction between primary and secondary suffixes, not being orig- inal (see § 227) , is continually lost sight of in the development of a language. Suffixes once primary are used as secondary, and those once secondary are used as primary. Thus in hosticus (hosti + cus) the suffix -cus, originally ko- (see § 234. II. 12) primary, as in paucus, has become secondary, and is thus regularly used to form derivatives; but in pudlcus, apricus, it is treated as primary again, because these words were really or apparently connected with verbs. So in English -able was borrowed as a primary suffix {tolerable, eatable), but also makes forms like clubbable, salable; -some is prop- erly a secondary suffix, as in toilsome, lonesome, but makes also such words as meddle- some, venturesome. Note 2. — It is the stem of the word, not the nominative, that is formed by the derivative suf&x. For convenieuce, however, the nominative will usually be given. Primary Suffixes 233. The words in Latin formed immediately from the root by means of Primary Sufl&xes, are few. For — 1. Inherited words so formed were mostly further developed by the addition of other suffixes, as we might make an adjective lone-iy-some-ish, meaning nothing more than lone, lonely, or lonesome. 2. By such accumulation of suffixes, new compound suffixes were formed which crowded out even the old types of derivation. Thus, — 1 The difference in vowel- quantity in the same root (as Due) depends on inherited variations (see § 17. a). 142 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 233, 234 A word like mens, mentis, by the suifix on- (nom. -o), gave mentio, and this, being divided into men + tio, gave rise to a new type of abstract nouns in -ti5: as, lega-tio, embassy. A word like auditor, by the suffix io- (nom. -ius), gave rise to adjectives like auditor-ius, of which the neuter (auditorium) is used to denote the place where the action of the verb is performed. Hence torio- (nom. -torium), n., becomes a regular noun-suffix (§ 250. a). So in English such a word as suffocation gives a suffix -ation, and with this is made starvation^ though there is no such word as starvate. 234. Examples of primary stem-suffixes are : — I. Vowel suffixes : — 1. 0- (m., n.), a- (f.), found in nouns and adjectives of the first two declen- sions : as, sonus, ludus, vagus, toga (root teg). 2. i-, as in ovis, avis ; in Latin frequently changed, as in rupes, or lost, as in scobs (scobis, root scab). 3. U-, disguised in most adjectives by an additional i, as in sua-vis (for tsuad- vis, instead of tsua-dus, cf. ijdtjs), ten-uis (root tex in tendo), and remaining alone only in nouns of the fourth declension, as acus (root ak, sharp, in acer, acies, w/cus), pecu, genu. n. Suffixes with a consonant : — 1. to- (m., n.), ta- (f.), in the regular perfect passive participle, as tectus, tectum ; sometimes with an active sense, as in potus, pransus ; and found in a few words not recognized as participles, as putus (cf. piirus), altus (alo). 2. ti- in abstracts and rarely in nouns of agency, as messis, vestis, pars, mens. But in many the i is lost. 3. tu- in abstracts (including supines), sometimes becoming concretes, as actus, luctus. 4. no- (m., n.), na- (f.), forming perfect participles in other languages, and in Latin making adjectives of like participial meaning, which often become nouns, as magnus, plenus, regnum. 5. ni-, in nouns of agency and adjectives, as ignis, segnis. 6. nu-, rare, as in manus, pinus, comu. 7. mo- (ma-), with various meanings, as in animus, almus, firmus, forma. 8. vo- (va-) (commonly uo-, ua-), with an active or passive meaning, as in equus (equos), arvum, conspicuus, exiguus, vacivus (vacuus). 9. ro- (ra-), as in ager (stem ag-ro-), integer (cf. intactus), sacer, pleri-que (cf. plenus, pletus). 10. lo- (la-), as in caelum (for tcaed-lum), chisel, exemplum, sella (for tsedla). II. yo- (ya-), forming gerundives in other languages, and in Latin making adjectives and abstracts, hicluding many of the first and fifth declensions, as eximius, audacia, Florentia, pemicies. 12. ko- (ka-), sometimes primary, as in pauci (cf. TraOpos), locus (for stlocus). In many cases the vowel of this termination is lost, leaving a consonant stem: as, apex, cortex, loquax. §§234-236] DERIVATION OF NOUNS 143 13. en- (on-, en-, on-), in nouns of agency and abstracts : as, aspergo, compago (-inis), gero (-onis). 14. men-, expressing means, often passing into the action itself : as, agmen, flumen, fulmen. 15. ter- (tor-, ter-, tor-, tr-), forming nouns of agency : as, pater (i.e. protector), f rater (i.e. supporter), orator. 16. tro-, forming nouns of means: as, claustrum (claud), mulctrum (mulg). 17. es- (os-), forming names of actions, passing into concretes : as, genus (generis), tempus (see § 15. 4). The infinitive in -ere (as in reg-ere) is a locative of this stem (-er-e for t-es-i). 18. nt- (ont-, ent-), forming present active participles: as, legens, with some adjectives from roots unknown : as, frequens, recens. The above, with some suffixes given below, belong to the Indo-European parent speech, and most of them were not felt as living formations in the Latin. Significant Endings 235. Both primary and secondary suffixes, especially in tlie form of compound suffixes, were used in Latin with more or less consciousness of their meaning. They may therefore be called Significant Endings. They form: (1) Nouns of Agency; (2) Abstract Nouns (in- cluding Names of Actions) ; (3) Adjectives (active or passive). Note. — There is really no difference in etymology between an adjective and a noun, except that some formations are habitually used as adjectives and others as nouns (§ 20. b. n. 2). DERIVATION OF NOUNS Nouns of Agency 236. Nouns of Agency properly denote the agent or doer of an action. But they include many words in which the idea of agency has entirely faded out, and also many words used as adjectives. a, Nouns denoting the agent or doer of an, action are formed from roots or verb-stems by means of the suffixes — -tor (sor), M. ; -trix, f. can-tor, can-trix, singer ; can-ere (root can), to sing. vic-tor, vic-trix, conqueror (victorious) ; vinc-ere (vie), to conquer. ton-sor (for ttond-tor), tons-trix (for ttond-trix), hair-cutter ; tond-ere (tond as root), to shear. peti-tor, candidate; pet-Sre (pet; peti- as stem), to seek. 144 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 236-238 By analogy -tor is sometimes added to noun-stems, but these may be stems of lost verbs : as, via-tor, traveller, from via, wmj (but cf . the verb invio). Note 1. — The termination -tor (-sor) has the same phonetic change as the supine ending -turn (-sum), and is added to the sam-e form of root or verb-stem as that ending. The stem-ending is tor- (§234. II. 15), which is shortened in the nominative. Note 2. — The feminine form is always -trix. Masculines in -sor lack the feminine, except expulsor (expultrix) and tonsor (tonstrix) . 6. t-, M. or F., added to verb-stems makes nouns in -es (-itis, -etis ; stem it-, et-) descriptive of a character : — prae-stes, -stitis, (verb-stem from root sta, stare, stand) ^ guardian. teges, -etis (verb-stem tege-, cf. tego, cover), a coverer, a mat. pedes, -itis (pes, ped-is, foot, and i, root of ire, go), foot-soldier. c. -0 (genitive -onis, stem on-), m., added to verb-stems^ indicates a person employed in some specific art or trade : — com-bibo (bib as root in bib5, bibere, drink), a pot-companion. gero, -onis (ges in gero, gerere, carry), a carrier. Note. — This termination is also used to form many nouns descriptive of personal characteristics (cf. §256). Names of Actions and Abstract Nouns 237. Names of Actions are confused, through their termina- tions, with real abstract nouns (names of qualities)^ and with con- crete nouns denoting means and instrument. They are also used to express the concrete result of an action (as often in English). Thus legi5 is literally the act of collecting, but comes to mean legion (the body of soldiers collected) ; cf. levy iu English. 238. Abstract Nouns and Names of Actions are formed from roots and verb-stems by means of the endings — a. Added to roots or forms conceived as roots — NoM. -or, M. -es, f. -us, n. Gen. -oris -is -eris or -oris Stem or- (earlier 6s-) i- er- (earlier ^/qS-} tim-or, /ear ; timere, to fear. am-or, love; amare, to love. sed-es, seat; sedere, to sit. caed-es, slaughter ; caedere, to kill. genus, birth, race ; gen, to be born (root of gigno, bear). 1 So conceived, but perhaps this termination was originally added to noun-stems. §§ 238, 239] NAMES OF ACTIONS AND ABSTRACT NOUNS 145 Note. — Many nouns of this class are formed by analogy from imaginary roots: as facinus from a supposed root facin. b. Apparently added to roots or verb-stems — NoM. -io, F. -tio (-sio), f. -tura (-sura), f. -tus, m. Gen. -ionis -tionis (-sionis) -tiirae (-surae) -tus (-sus) Stem ion- tion- (sion-) tiira- (sura-) tu- (su-) leg-io, a collecting {levy), a legion; legere, to collect. reg-io, a direction, a region; regere, to direct. voca-tio, a calling ; vocare, to call. moli-tio, a toiling ; moliri, to toil. scrip-tura, a writing ; scribere, to write. sen-sus (for isent-tus), feeling ; sentire, to feel. Note 1. — tio, -tura, -tus are added to roots or verb-stems precisely as -tor, with the same phonetic change (cf . § 236. a. n. i). Hence they are conveniently associated with the supine stem (see § 178) . They sometimes form nouns when there is no correspond- ing verb in use : as, senatus, senate (cf. senex) ; mentio, mention (cf . mens) ; fetura, off- spring {ct.ietus); litteratura, literature (cf. litterae); consulatus, consulship (cf. consul). Note 2. — Of these endings, -tus was originally primary (cf . § 234. II. 3.) ; -16 is a com- pound formed by adding on- to a stem ending in a vowel (originally i) : as, dicio (cf. -dicus and dicis) ; -tio is a compound formed by adding on- to stems in ti- : as, gradatio (cf. gradatim) ; -tiira is formed by adding -ra, feminine of -rus, to stems in tu-: as, natiira from natus ; statura from status (cf . figiira, of like meaning, from a simple u- stem, ffigu-s; and maturus, Matiita). 239. Nouns denoting acts^ or means and results of acts, are formed from roots or verb-stems by the use of the suffixes — -men, n.; -mentum, n.; -monium, n. ; -monia, f. ag-men, line of march, band ; ag, root of agere, to lead. regi-men, rule; \ . / \ ^ s: ^ j- j. 1 1 \ regi- (rage-), stem of regere, to direct. regi-mentum, rule; J & \ & /' & ? certa-men, contest, tattle ; certa-, stem of certare, to contend. So colu-men, piZZar ; m5-men, movement; no-men, name; flu-men, stream. testi-monium, testimony ; testari, to witness. queri-monia, complaint; queri, to complain. -monium and-mSnia are also used as secondary, forming nouns from other nouns and from adjectives : as, sancti-monia, sanctity (sanctus, holy) ; matri- monium, marriage (mater, mother). Note. — Of these endings, -men is primary (cf . § 234. II. 14) ; -mentum is a compound of men- and to-, and appears for the most part later in the language than -men : as, momen, movement (Lucr.) ; momentum (later). So elementum is a development from L-M-N-a, l-m-n's (letters of the alphabet) , changed to elementa along with other nouns in -men. -monium and -monia were originally compound secondary suffixes formed from mon- (a by-form of men-), which was early associated with mo-. Thus almus 146 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 239, 241 (stem almo-) , fostering ; Almon, a river near Rome; alimonia, support. But the last was formed directly from alo when -monia had become established as a supposed primary suffix. 240. Nouns denoting means or instrument are formed from roots and verb-stems (rarely from noun-stems) by means of the neuter suffixes — -bulum, -culum, -brum, -crum, -trum pa-bulum, /odder ; pascere, to feed. sta-bulum, stall; stare, to stand. vehi-culum, wagon ; vehere, to carry. candela-brum, candlestick ; candela, candle (a secondary formation). sepul-crum, tomb ; sepelire, to burg. claus-trum (tclaud-trum), bar ; claudere, to shut. axa.-tium, plough ; axaxe, to plough. Note. trum (stem tro-) was an old formation from tor- (§234. II. 15), with the stem suffix o-, and -clum (stem clo- for tlo-) appears to be related ; -culum is the same as -clum; -bulum contains lo- (§ 234. II. 9, 10) and -brum is closely related. a. A few masculines and feminines of the same formation occur as nouns and adjectives : — f a-bula, tale ; f ari, to speak. ridi-culus, laughable; ridere, to laugh. fa-ber, smith; facere, to make. late-bra, hiding-place; latere, to hide. tere-bra, auger ; terere, to bore. mulc-tra, milk-pail ; mulgere, to milk. 241. Abstract Nouns, mosth/ from adjective-stems, rarely from noun-stems, are formed by means of the secondary feminine suf- fixes — -ia (-ies), -tia (-ties), -tas, -tus, -tudo audac-ia, boldness; audax, bold. pauper-ies, poverty ; pauper, poor. tristi-tia, sadness; tristis, sad. segni-ties, laziness; segnis, lazy. boni-tas, goodness; bonus, good. senec-tus, age; senex, old. magni-tud5, greatness; magnus, great. 1. In stems ending in o- or a- the stem-vowel is lost before -ia (as superb-iaj and appears as i before -tas, -tus, -tia (as in boni-tas, above). 2. Consonant stems often insert 1 before -tas : as, loquax (stem loquac-), loquaci-tas ; but hones-tas, maies-tas (as if from old adjectives in -es), uber-tas, volup-tas. after i is changed to e : as, pius (stem pio-), pie-tas ; socius, socie- tas. §241] NEUTER ABSTRACTS l¥l a. In like manner -do and -go (f.) form abstract nouns, but are asso> ciated with verbs and apparently added to verb-stems : — cupi-do, desire, from cupere, to desire (as if from stem cupl-). dulce-do, sweetness (cf. dulcis, sweet), as if from a stem dulce-, cf. dulce-sco. iumba-g5, lumbago (cf. lumbus, loin), as if from flumbo, -are. Note. — Of these, -ia is inherited as secondary (cf. § 234. II. 11). -tia is formed by adding -ia to stems with a t-suffix : as, militia, from miles (stem milit-) ; molestia from molestus ; dementia from Clemens ; whence by analogy, mali-tia, avari-tia. -tas is inheritM, but its component parts, ta- + ti-, are found as suffixes in the same sense ; as, senecta from senex; semen-tis from semen, -tiis is tu- + ti-, cf. servitu-do. -do and -go appear only with long vowels, as from verb-stems, by a false analogy ; but -do is do- + on- : as, cupidus, cupido ; gravidus, gravedo (cf . grave-sco) ; albidus, albedo (cf . al- besco) ; formidus, hot, formido (cf. f ormidulosus) , {hot flash?) fear; -go is possibly co- + 5n-; cf. vorax, vorago, but cf. Cethegus. -tfldo is compounded of -do with tu-stems, which acquire a long vowel from association with verb-stems in u- (cf. volumen, from volvo) : as, consuetu-do, valetii-do, habitu-do, sollicitu-do ; whence servitud5 (cf . servitiis, -tutis). b. Neuter Abstracts, which easily pass into concretes denoting ojices and groups, are formed from noun-stems and perhaps from verb-stems by means of the suffixes — -ium, -tium hospit-ium, hospitality, an inn;"^ hospes (gen. hospit-is), a guest. colleg-ium, colleagueship, a college ; coUega, a colleague. auspic-ium, soothsaying, an omen; auspex (gen. auspic-is), a soothsayer. gaud-ium, joy ; gaudere, to rejoice. effug-ium, escape; effugere, to escape. benefic-ium, a kindness ; benefacere, to benefit ; cf . beneficus. desider-ium, longing ; desiderare, to miss, from tde-sides, oui of place, of missing soldiers, adverb-ium, adverb ; ad verbum, [added] to a verb. interlun-ium, time of new moon ; inter lunas, between moons. regifug-ium, jlight of the kings ; regis fuga, flight of a king. servi-tium, slavery, the slave class; servus, a slave. Vowel stems lose their vowel before -ium : as, colleg-ium, from coUega. Note. ium is the neuter of the adjective suffix -ius. It is an inherited primary suffix, but is used with great freedom as secondary, -tium is formed like -tia, by add- ing -ium to stems with t : as, exit-ium, equit-ium (cf . exitus, equites) ; so, by analogy, calvitium, servitium (from calvus, servus) . c. Less commonly, abstract nouns (which usually become concrete) are formed from noun-stems (confused with verb-stems) by means of the suffixes — ^ The abstract meaning is put first 148 EORMATION OF WORDS [§§241-243 -nia, F. ; -nium, -lium, -cinium, n. pecu-nia, money {chattels) ; pecu, cattle. contici-nium, the hush of night; conticescere, to become still. auxi-lium, help ; augere, to increase. latro-cinium, robbery ; latro, robber (cf. latrocinot, rob, im- plying an adjective flatrocinus). For Diminutives and Patronymics, see §§ 243, 244. DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES 242. Derivative Adjectives, which often become nouns, are either Nominal (from nouns or adjectives) or Verbal (as from roots or verb-stems). Nominal Adjectives 243. Diminutive Adjectives are usually confined to one gen- der, that of the primitive, and are used as Dimi7iutive Nouns. They are formed by means of the suffixes — -ulus (-a, -um), -olus (after a vowel), -cuius, -ellus, -illus riv-ulus, a streamlet; rivus, a brook. gladi-olus, a small sword ; gladius, a sword. fili-olus, a little son; filius, a son. fili-ola, a little daughter ; filia, a daughter. atri-olum, a little hall; atrium, a hall. homun-culus, a dwarf; homo, a man. auri-cula, a little ear ; auris, an ear. munus-culum, a little gift ; munus, n. , a gift. codic-illi, writing -tablets ; codex, a block. mis-ellus, rather wretched ; miser, wretched. lib-ellus, a little book ; liber, a book. aure-olus (-a, -um), golden; aureus (-a, -um), golden. parv-olus (later parv-ulus), very small; parvus (-a, -um), little. maius-culus, soynewhat larger; maior (old maids), greater. Note 1. — These diminutive endings are all formed by adding -lus to various stems. The formation is the same as that of -ulus in § 251. But these words became set- tled as diminutives, and retained their connection with nouns. So in English the diminutives whitish, reddish, are of the same formation as bookish and snappish. -cuius comes from -lus added to adjectives in -cus formed from stems in n- and s-: as, iuven-cus, Aurun-cus (cf. Auruncul^ius) , pris-cus, whence the cu becomes a part of the termination, and the whole ending (-cuius) is used elsewhere, but mostly with n- and s- stems, in accordance with its origin. Note 2. — Diminutives are often used to express affection, pity, or contempt: as, deliciolae, little pet ; muliercula, a poor (weak) woman j Graeculus, a iniserable Greek. §§ 213-246] NOMINAL ADJECTIVES 149 «. -cio, added to stems in n-, has the same diminutive force, but is used with masculines only : as, homun-cio, a dwarf (from homo, a man). 244. Patronymics, indicating descent or relationship, are formed bj adding to proper names the suffixes — -ades, -ides, -ides, -eus, m. ; -as, -is, -eis, f. These words, originally Greek adjectives, have almost all become nouns in Latin : — Atlas: Atlanti-ades, Mercury; Atlant-ides (Gr. plur.), the Pleiads. Scipio : Scipi-ades, son of Scipio. Tyndareus : Tyndar-ides, Castor or Pollux, son of Tyndarus ; Tyndar-is, Helen, daughter of Tyndarus. Anchises : Anchisi-ades, ^neas, son of Anchises. Theseus : Thes-ides, son of Theseus. Tydeus : Tyd-ides, Biomedes, son of Tydeus. Oileus : Aiax Oil-eus, son of Oileus. Cisseus ; Cisse-is, Hecuba, daughter of Cisseus. Thaumas : Thaumant-ias, Iris, daughter of Thaumas. Hesperus : Hesper-ides (from Hesper-is, -idis), plur., the daughters of Hesperus^ the Hesperides. 245. Adjectives meaning/wZZ of, prone to, are formed from noun- stems with the suffixes — -osus, -lens, -lentus fluctu-osus, billowy ; fluctus, a billow. fonn-osus, beautiful; forma, beauty. pericul-osus, dangerous; periculum, danger. pesti-lens, pesti-lentus, pestilent ; pestis, pest. vino-lentus, vin-osus, given to drink ; vinum, wine. 246. Adjectives meaning provided with are formed from nouns by means of the regular participial endings — -tus, -atus, -itus, -utus funes-tus, deadly; funus (st. funer-, older fune/oS-), death. hones-tus, honorable; honor, honor. faus-tus (for t f aves-tus), /awraWe; f&vor, favor. barb-atus, bearded ; barba, a beard. turr-itus, turreted ; turris, a tower. cora-ntus, horned ; cornn, a horn. Note. — atus, -itus, -utus, imply reference to an imaginary verb-stem ; -tus is added directly to nouns without any such reference. 150 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 247-249 247. Adjectives of various meanings, but signifying in gen- eral made of or helo7iging to, are formed from noums by means of the suffixes — -eus, -ius, -aceus, -icius, -aneus (-neus), -ticus aur-eus, golden; aurum, gold. patr-ius, paternal ; pater, a father. uxor-ius, uxorious ; uxor, a wife. ros-aceus, of roses ; rosa, a rose. later-icius, of brick ; later, a brick. praesent-aneus, operating instantly ; praesens, present. extr-aneus, external; extra, without. subterr-aneus, subterranean ; sub terra, underground. salig-neus, of willow; salix, willow. vola-ticus, winged (volatus, a flight) ; volare, toflij. domes-ticus, of the house, domestic; domus, a house. silva-ticus, sylvan ; silva, a wood. Note. ius is originally primitive (§ 234. II. 11) ; -eus corresponds to Greek -eios, -eos, and has lost a y-sound (cf. yo-, § 234. II. 11) ; -icius and -aceus are formed by add- ing -ius and -eus to stems in i-c-, a-c- (suffix ko-, §234. II. 12); -neus is no- + -eus (§ 234. II. 4) ; -aneus is formed by adding -neus to a-stems ; -ticus is a formation with -eus (cf. hosti-cus with silva-ticus), and has been affected by the analogy of participial stems in to- (nominative -tus) . 248. Adjectives denoting pertaining to are formed from noun- stems with the suffixes — -alls, -aria, -elis, -His, -ulis natur-alis, natural; natiira, nature. ^opul-a.ns,fellow-countryman; populus, a people. patru-elis, cousin; patruus, uncle. host-ilis, hostile ; hostis, an enemy. cur-ulis, curule; currus, a chariot. Note. —The suffixes arise from adding -lis (stem li-) to various vowel stems. The long vowels are due partly to confusion between stem and suffix (cf. vita-lis, from vita-, with reg-alis), partly to confusion with verb-stems: cf. Aprilis (aperire), ediilis (edere), with senilis (senex). -ris is an inherited suffix, but in most of these formations -aris arises by differentiation for -alis in words containing an 1 (as milit-aris) . 249. Adjectives with the sense of belonging to are formed by means of the suffixes — -anus, -enus, -mus; -as, -ensls ; -eus, -acus (-acus), -icus ; -€U8, -eius, -icius 1. So from common nouns: — mont-anus, of the mountains ; mons (stem monti-), mountain. veter-anus, veteran; vetus (stem veter-), old, anteluc-anus, before daylight; ante lucem, before light. §§ 249, 250] NOMINAL ADJECTIVES 151 terr-enus, earthly; ser-enus, calm (of evening stillness) ; coll-inus, of a hill ; div-inus, divine; libert-inus, of the class of freedmen ; cui-as, of what country f infim-as, of the lowest rank ; for-ensis, of a market-place, or the Forum ; civi-cus, civic, of a citizen ; fullon-icus, of a fuller ; mer-acus, pure ; femin-eus, of a woman, feminine ; lact-eus, milky ; pleb-eius, of the commons, plebeian; patr-icius, patrician ; terra, earth. serus, late. coUis, hill. divus, god. libertus, one'' s freedman. quis, who f infimus, lowest. forum, a market-place. civis, a citizen. fullo, a fuller. merum, pure wine. femina, a woman. lac, milk (stem lacti-). plebes, the commons. pater, father. 2. But especially from proper nouns to denote belonging to or coming from : Rom-anus, Boman; Roma, Rome. Sull-ani, Sulla'' s veterans ; Sulla. Cyzic-eni, Cyzicenes, people of Cyzicus ; Cyzicus. Ligur-inus, of Liguria ; Liguria. Ar-pm-3iS, of Arpinum ; Arpinum. Sicili-ensis, Sicilian; Sicilia, Sicily. ili-acus, Trojan (a Greek form) ; Ilium, Troy. Platon-icus, Platonic; Plato. Aquil-eius, a Roman name ; ) a 'i Aquil-eia, a town in Italy ; ) •1 • a. Many derivative adjectives witli these endings have by usage become nouns : — Silv-anus, u., a god of the woods ; silva, a wood. membr-ana, f., sk'm; membrum, limb. Aemili-anus, m., name of Scipio Africanus ; Aemilia (gens). lanius, butcher. tAufidius (Aufidus). incola, an inhabitant. caecus, bl'md. ruo, fall (no noun existing). doctor, teacher. lani-ena, r., a butcher'' s stall ; Aufidi-enus, m., a Eoman name; inquil-inus, m., a lodger ; Caec-ina, used as m., a Roman name ; ru-ina, f., a fall; doctr-ina, f., learning ; Note. — Of these terraiuations, -anus, -enus, -inus are compounded from -nus added to a stem- vowel : as, area, arcanus ; collis, colllnus. The long vowels come from a con- fusion with verb-stems (as in ple-nus, finl-tus, tribu-tus), and from the noun-stem in a-: as, arcanus. A few nouns occur of similar formation, as if from verb-stems in 6- and U-: as, colonus (col5, cf. incola), patronus (cf. patro, -are), tribunus (cf. tribuo, tribus), Portunus (cf. portus), Vacuna (cf. vaco, vacuus). 250. Other adjectives meaning in a general way belonging to (especially of places and times) are formed with the suffixes — 152 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 250, 251 -ter (-tris), -ester (-estris), -timus, -nus, -emus, -urnus, -ternus (-turnus) palus-ter, of the marshes ; palus, a marsh. pedes-ter, of the foot-soldiers ; pedes, a footman. semes-tris, lasting six months ; sex menses, six moidhs. silv-ester, silv-estris, woody; silva, a wood. fini-timus, neighboring^ on the borders ; finis, an end. mari-timus, of the sea ; mare, sea. ver-nus, vernal; ver, spring. hodi-eraus, of to-day ; hodie, to-day. di-urnus, daily ; dies, day. hes-temus, of yesterday ; heri (old hesi), yesterday. diu-turnus, lasting ; diu, long (in time). Note. — Of these, -ester is formed by adding tri- (cf. tro-, § 234. II. IG) to stems in t- or d-. Thus fpedet-tri- becomes pedestri-, and others follow the analogy, -nus is an inherited suffix (§ 234. II. 4). -emus and -urnus are formed by adding -nus to s-steras: as, diur-nus (for fdius-nus), and hence, by analogy, hodiemus (hodie). By an extension of the same principle were formed the suffixes -ternus and -turnus from words like paternus and nocturnus. a. Adjectives meaning lelonging to are formed from nouns by means of the suffixes — -arius, -torius (-sorius) ordin-arius, regular; ordo, rank, order. argent-arius, of silver ov money ; argentum, silver. extr-arius, stranger ; extra, outside. meri-torius, profitable; meritus, earned. devor-sorius, of an inn (cf . § 254. 5) ; devorsus, turned aside. Note 1. — Here -ius (§ 234. II. 11) is added to shorter forms in -aris and -or : as, pecii- liarius (from peculiaris) , bellatorius (from bellator) . Note 2. — These adjectives are often fixed as nouns (see § 254). Verbal Adjectives 251. Adjectives expressing the action of the verb as a quality or tendency are formed from real or apparent verb-stems with the suffixes — -ax, -idus, -ulus, -vus (-uus, -Ivus, -tivus) -Sx denotes 2i faulty or aggressive tendency; -tivus is oftener passive. pfign-ax, jpwgrwaciows ; pugnare, to fight. aud-ax, bold ; audere, to dare. cup-idus, eager ; cupere, to desire. bib-ulus, thirsty (as dry earth etc.) ; bibere, to drink. proter-vus, violent, wanton ; proterere, to trample. §§ 251-253] VERBAL ADJECTIVES 153 noc-uus (noc-ivus), hurtful, injurious; nocere, to do harm. recid-ivus, restored ; recidere, to fall back. cap-tivus, captive; m., a prisoner of war ; capere, to take. Note. — Of these, -ax is a reduction of -acus (stem- vowel a- + -cus), become inde- pendent and used with verb-stems. Similar forms in -Sx, -ox, -ix, and -Qx are found or employed in derivatives: as, imbrex, m,, a rain-tile (from imber); senex, old (from seni-s) ; ieiox,jierce (from ferus) ; atrox, savage (from ater, black) ; celox, f., a yacht (cf. cello); felix, happy, originally /er^i^e (of. felo, suck); fiducia, f., confidence (as from ffidux) ; cf. also victrix (from victor). So manducus, cheioing (from mando). -idus is no doubt denominative, as in herbidus, grassy (from herba, herb) ; tumidus, swollen (cf. tumu-lus, hill; tumul-tus, uproar); callidus, tough, cunning (cf. callum, tough flesh) ; mucidus, slimy (cf . mucus, slime) ; tabidus, toasting (cf. tabes, wasting disease). But later it was used to form adjectives directly from verb-stems. -ulus is the same suffix as in diminutives, but attached to verb-stems. Cf . aemulus, rivalling (cf. imitor and imago) ; sedulus, sitting by, attentive (cf. domi-seda, home- staying, and sedo, set, settle, hence calm) ; pendulus, hanging (cf. pondo, ablative, in weight ; perpendiculum, a plummet ; appendix, an addition) ; stragulus, covering (cf . strages) ; legulus, a picker (cf. sacri-legus, a picker up of things sacred). -vus seems originally primary (cf. § 234. II. 8), but -ivus and -tivus have become secondary and are used with nouns: as, aestivus, of summer (from aestus, heat); tempestivus, timely (from tempus) ; cf. domes-ticus (from domus). 252. Adjectives expressing passive qualities^ but occasionally active, are formed by means of the suffixes — -ills, -bills, -ius, -tills (-sills) frag-ilis, frail ; frangere (frag), to break. no-bilis, well known., famous ; noscere (gno), to know. exim-ius, choice, rare (cf. e-greg-ius) ; eximere, to take out, select. ag-ilis, active; agere, to drive. hab-ilis, handy ; habere, to hold. al-tilis, fattened (see note) ; alere, to nourish. Note. — Of these, -ius is primary, but is also used as secondary (cf . § 241. h. n.) . -ills is both primary (as in agilis, fragilis) and secondary (as in similis, like, cf . 6^o$^ ofxaKos^ English same) ; -bills is in some way related to -bulum and -brum (§ 240. n.) ; in -tills and -silis, -lis is added to to- (so-) , stem of the perfect participle : as, fossilis, dug up (from fossus, dug); volatilis, vnnged (from volatus, ^i^r/i^. 253. Verbal Adjectives that are Participial in meaning are formed with the suffixes — -ndus, -bundus, -cundus a, -ndus (the same as the gerundive ending) forms a few active or reflex- ive adjectives : — secu-ndus, second (the following), favorable; sequl, to follow. rotu-ndus, round (whirling) i ; rotate, to whirl. 1 Cf. volvendTS mensibus (Aen. 1. 260), in the revolving months; cf. oriundi ab Sabinis (Liv. i. 17), sprung from the Sabines, where oriundi = orti. 154 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 253, 254 6. -bundus, -cundus, denote a continuance of the act or quality expressed by the verb : — vita-bundus, avoiding ; vitare, to shun. treme-bundus, tremhling ; tremere, to tremble. mori-bundus, dying, at the point of death ; moriri, to die. fa-cundus, eloquent ; fari, to speak, fe-cunius, fruitful ; root fe, nourish. ira-cundus, irascible ; cf . irasci, to be angry. Note. — These must have been originally nominal: as in the series, rubus, red bush; rubidus (but no fnibicus), ruddy; Rubic5n, Red River (cf. Minio, a river of Etruria; Minius, a river of Lusitania); rubicundus (as in averruncus, homun-culus) . So turba, commotion; turbo, a top; turbidus, roily, etc. Cf. apexabo, longabo, gravedo, dulcedo. c. Here belong also the participial suffixes -minus, -mnus (cf. Greek -/xevos), from which are formed a few nouns in which the participial force is still discernible : — ^ fe-mina, woman (the nourisher) ; root fe, nourish. alu-mnus, a foster-child, nursling ; alere, to nourish. Nouns with Adjective Suffixes 254. Many fixed forms of the Nominal Adjective suffixes men- tioned in the preceding sections, make Nouns more or less regu- larly used in particula^r senses : — 1. -arius, person employed about anything : — argent-arius, m., silversmith, broker, from argentum, silver. Corinthi-arius, m. , worker in Corinthian bronze (sarcastic nickname of Augustus), from (aes) Corinthium, Corinthian bronze. centon-arius, m., ragman, from cento, patchwork. 2. -aria, thing connected with something : — argent-aria, f., bank, from argentum, silver. aren-ariae, f. plural, sandpits, from arena, sand. Asin-aria, f., name of a play, from asinus, ass.^ 3. -arium, place of a thing (with a few of more general meaning) : — aer-arium, n. , treasury, from aes, copper. tepid-arium, n., warm bath, from tepidus, warm. sud-arium, n. , a towel, cf . sudo, -are, sweat. sal-arium, n., salt money, salary, from sal, salt. calend-arium, n., a note-book^ from calendae, calends. ' Cf , § 163. footnote 1 . 2 Probably an adjective with fabula, play, understood. §254] NOUNS WITH ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES 155 4. -toria (-soria) : — Agita-toria, f. , a play of Plautus, The Carter, from agitator, vor-soria, f., a tack (nautical), from versus, a turn. 5. -torium (-sorium), place of action (with a few of more general meaning) : devor-sorium, n. , an inn, as from devorto, turn aside. audi-torium, n., a lecture-room, as from audio, hear. ten-torium, n., a tent, as from tendo, stretch. tec-torium, n., plaster, as from tego, tectus, cover. por-torium, n., toll, cf. porto, carry, and portus, harbor. 6. -fle, animal-stall : — bov-ile, N., cattle-stall, from bos, bovis, ox, cow. ov-ile, N., sheepfold, from ovis, stem ovi-, sheep. 7. -al for -ale, thing connected with the primitive : — capit-al, N., headdress, capital crime, from caput, head. penetr-ale (especially in plural), n., inner apartment, cf. penetro, enter. Saturn-alia, n. plural (the regular form for names of festivals), feast of Sat- • urn, from Saturnus. 8. -etum, N. (cf. -atus, -iitus, see § 246. n.), -turn, jo/aceo/a thing, especially with names of trees and plants to designate where these groio : — querc-etum, n. , oak grove, from quercus, oak. oliv-etum, n., olive grove, from oliva, an olive tree. salic-tum, n., a willow thicket, from salix, a willow tree. Argil-etum, n. , The Clay Pit, from argilla, clay. 9. -cus (sometimes with inserted i, -icus), -icus, in any one of the gen. ders, with various meanings : — vili-cus, M. , a steward, vili-ca, f. , a stewardess, from villa, farm-house. fabr-ica, r., a workshop, from faber, workman. am-icus, m., am-ica, f., friend, cf. amare, to love. bubul-cus, M., ox-tender, from biib-ulus, diminutive, cf. bos, ox. cant-icum, n. , song, from cantus, act of singing. rubr-ica, r. , red paint, from ruber, red. 10. -€us, -ea, -eum, with various meanings : — alv-eus, M., a trough, from alvus, the belly. capr-ea, f., a wild she-goat, from caper, he-goat. flamm-eum, n., a bridal veil, from flamma, flame, from its color. 11. -ter (stem tri-), -aster, -ester: — eques-ter, m., knight, for fequet-ter. sequ-ester, m., a stake-holder, from derivative of sequor, follow. ole-aster, m. , wild olive, from olea, an olive tree. 156 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§256-259 IRREGULAR DERIVATIVES 255. The suffix -o (genitive -onis, stem 6n-), usually added to verb-stems (see § 236. c), is sometimes used with noun-stems to form nouns denoting 2^ossessed of. These were ©riginally adjec- tives expressing quality or character, and hence often appear as proper names : — epulae, a feast; epul-6, a /easier. nasus, a nose ; nas-o, with a large nose (also as a proper name), volus (in bene-volus), wishing ; vol-5n8S (plural), volunteers, frms, forehead ; front-o, big-head (also as a proper name). curia, a curia ; curi-6, head of a curia (also as a proper name), testis, a rope; resti-o, a rope-maker. a. Rarely suffixes are added to compound sterns imagined, but not used in their compound form : — ad-verb-ium, adverb ; ad, white. caneo, -ere, to be hoary, from canus (stem canH),how hig? quone malo (id. ii. 3. 295), hy what curse? 333. A question concerning some special circumstance is formed by prefixing to the sentence an interrogative pronoun or adverb as in English (§ 152) : — quid exspectas (Cat. ii. 18), what are you looking forward to? quo igitur haec spectant (Fam. vi. 6. 11), whither then is all this tending? icare, ubi es (Ov. M. viii. 232), Icarus, where are you? quod vectigal vobis ttitum fuit ? quem socium defendistis ? cui praesidio classibus vestris fuistis ? (Manil. 32), what revenue has been safe for you ? what ally have you defended ? whom have you guarded with your fleets ? Note. — A question of this form becomes an exclamation by changing the tone of the voice: as, — qualis vir erat ! what a man he was ! quot calamitates passi sumus! how many misfortunes we have suffered! quo studio consentiunt (Cat. iv. 15), with what zeal they unite! a. The particles -nam (enclitic) and tandem may be added to inter- rogative pronouns and adverbs for the sake of emphasis : — quisnam est, pray who is it ? [quis tandem est ? would be stronger. ] ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. i. 9), where in the world are we? in qua tandem urbe hoc disputant (Mil. 7), in what city, pray, do they main- tain this ? Note — Tandem is sometimes added to verbs: — ain tandem (Fam. ix. 21), you donH say so! (say you so, pray?) itane tandem uxorem duxit Antipho (Ter. Ph. 231), so then, eh? Antipho's got mairied. Double Questions 334. A Double or Alternative Question is an inquiry as to which of two or more supposed cases is the true one. 335. In Double or Alternative Questions, utrum ,or -ne, whether, stands in the first member ; an, anne, o?-, annon, necne, or not^ in the second ; and usually an in the third, if there be one : — §335] DOUBLE QUESTIONS 207 utrum nescis, an pro nihilo id putas (Fam. x. 26), is it that you donH know, or do you think nothing of it ? vosne L. Domitium an vos Domitius desemit (B. C. ii. 32), did you desert Lucius Domitius, or did Domitius desert yon ? quaero servosne an liberos (Rose. Am. 74), 1 ask whether slaves or free. utrum hostem an vos an fortunam utriusque populi ignoratis (Liv. xxi. 10), is it the enemy, or yourselves, or the fortune of the two peoples, that you do not know f Note. — Anne for an is rare. Necne is rare in direct questions, but in indirect ques- tions it is commoner ttian annon. In poetry -ne . . . -ne sometimes occurs. a. The interrogative particle is often omitted in the first mem- ber ; in which case an or -ne (anne, necne) may stand in the second: — Gabinio dicam anne Pompeio an utrique (Manil. 57), shall I say to Gahinius, or to Pompey, or to both f sunt haec tua verba necne (Tusc. iii. 41), are these your words or not? quaesivi a Catillna in conventu apud M. Laecam fuisset necne (Cat. ii. 13), I asked Catiline whether he had been at the meeting at Marcus L(Bca''s or not. b. Sometimes the first member is omitted or implied, and an (anne) alone asks the question, — usually with indignation or surprise : — an tu miseros putas illos (Tusc. i. 13), what ! do you think thosemen wretched ? an iste umquam de se bonam spem habuisset, nisi de vobis malam opinionem animo imbibisset (Verr. i. 42), would he ever have had good hopes about himself unless he had conceived an evil opinion of you ? c. Sometimes the second member is omitted or implied, and utrum may ask a question to which there is no alternative : — utrum est in clarissimls civibus is, quern . . . (Flacc. 45), is he among the noblest citizens, whom, etc.? d. The following table exhibits the various forms of alternative questions : — utrum ... an ... an utrum . . . annon (necne, see § 33& h.) ... an (anne) -ne ... an . . . -ne, necne -ne . . . necne -ne ... -ne Note. — From double {alternative) questions must be distinguished those which are in themselves single, but of which some detail is alternative. These have the common disjunctive particles aut or vel (-ve). Thus, — quaero num iniuste aut improbe fecerit (Off. iii. 54), I ask whether he acted unjustly or even dishonestly. Here there is no double" question. The only inquiry is whether the man did either of the two things supposed, not which of the two he did. 208 SYNTAX: QUESTIONS [§§336,337 Question and Answer 336. There is no one Latin word in common use meaning sim- ply yes or no. In answering a question affirmatively^ the verb or some other emphatic word is generally repeated ; in answering negatively^ the verb, etc., with non or a similar negative : — valetne, is he well? valet, yes (he is well). eratne tecum, was he with youf non erat, no (he was not). num quidnain novi? there is nothing new, is there? nihil sane, oh! nothing. a. An intensive or negative particle, a phrase, or a clause is some^ times used to answer a direct question : — 1. For YES : — vero, in truths true, no doubt, yes. ita vero, ce^-tainly (so in truth), etc. etiam, even so, yes, etc. sane quidem, yes, no doubt, etc. ita, so, true, etc. ita est, it is so, true, etc. sane, surely, no doubt, doubtless, etc. certe, certainly, unquestionably, etc. factum, true, iVs a fact, youWe right, etc. (lit., it was done). 2. For NO : — non, not so. null5 mods, by no means. minime, not at all (lit., in the smallest degree, cf. § 329. a). minime vero, no, not by any means; oh! no, etc. non quidem, why, no; certainly not, etc. non hercle v6ro, why, gracious, no ! (certainly not, by Hercules I) Examples are : — quidnam? an laudati5nes? ita, why, what? is it eulogies? just so. aut etiam aut non respondere (Acad. ii. 104), to answer (categorically) ijes or no- estue ut fertur forma? sane (Ter. Eun. 361), is she as handsome as they say she is ? (is her heauty as it is said ?) oh! yes. miser ergo Archelaus? certe si iniustus (Tusc. v. 35), was Archelaus wretched then ? certainly, if he was unjust. an haec contemnitis ? minime (De Or. ii. 295), do you despise these things f not at all. volucribusne et ferls? minime vero (Tusc. i. 104), to the birds and beasts? why, of course not. ex tui animi sententia tu uxorem habes ? non hercle, ex mei animi sententia (De Or. ii. 260), Lord! no, etc. 337. In answering a double question, one member of the alterna- tive, or some part of it, must be repeated : — vidisti an de audita nuntias? — egomet vidi (Plant. Merc. 902), did you see it or are you repeating something you have heard? — I saw it myself. §838] CONSTRUCTION OF CASES 209 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES 338. The Cases of nouns express their relations to other words in the sentence. The most primitive way of expressing such relations was by mere juxtaposition of uuin- flected forms. From this arose in time composition, i.e. the growing together of steins, by means of which a complex expression arises with its parts mutually dependent. Thus such a complex as armi-gero- came to mean amn-hearing ; fidi-cen-, playing on the lyre. Later, Cases were formed by means of suffixes expressing more definitely such relations, and Syntax began. But the primitive method of composition still continues to hold an important place even m the most highly developed languages. Originally the Indo-European family of languages, to which Latin belongs, had at least seven case-forms, besides the Vocative. But in Latin the Locative and the Instru- mental were lost i except in a few words (where they remained without being recog- nized as cases), and their functions were divided among the other cases. The Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative express the simplest and perhaps the earliest case-relations. The Nominative is the case of the Subject, and generally ends in -s. The Vocative, usually without a termination, or like the Nominative (§ 38. a) ^ perhaps never had a suftix of its own.2 The Accusative, most frequently formed by the sufidx -m, originally connected the noun loosely with the verb-idea, not necessarily expressed by a verb proper, but as well by a noun or an adjective (see § 386). The Genitive appears to have expressed a great variety of relations and to have had no single primitive meaning ; and the same may be true of the Dative. The other cases perhaps at first expressed relations of place or direction (to, from, AT, with), though this is not clear in all instances. The earlier meanings, however, have become confused with each other, and in many instances the cases are no longer distinguishable in meaning or in form. Thus the Locative was for the most part lost from its confusion with the Dative and Ablative ; and its function was often performed by the Ablative, which is freely used to express the place where (§ 421), To indicate the case-relations — especially those of place — more precisely, Prepositions (originally adverbs) gradually came into use. The case-endings, thus losing something of their significance, were less distinctly pronounced as time went on (see § 36, phonetic decay), and prepositions have finally superseded them in the modern languages derived from Latin. But in Latin a large and various body of relations was still expressed by ease- forms. It is to be noticed that in their literal use cases tended to adopt the preposition, and in fheiv figurative uses to retain the old construction. (See Ablative of Separation, §§402-404; Ablative of Place and Time, §421 If.) The word casus, case, is a translation of the Greek tttwo-is, a falling aioay (from the erect position). The term irrQais was originally applied to the Oblique Cases (§ 35. g), to mark them as variations from the Nominative which was called 6p6i^, erect (casus rectus). The later name Noyninative (casus nomindtivus) is from nomino, and means the naming case. The other case-names (except Ablative) are of Greek origin. The name Genitive (casus genetivus) is a translation of yepiK-^ [vrQa-is], from y^vos (class), and refers to the class to which a thing belongs. Dative (casus datlvus, from do) is translated from ^otlkti, and means the case of giving. Accusative (accusdtlvus, from acciiso) is a mistranslation of alrtariK-n (the case of causing), from alria, cause, and meant to the Romans the case of accusing. The name Vocative (vocdtivus, from voco) is translated from KXrjTiK-^ (the case of calling). The name Ablative (abldtivus, from ablatus, aufero) means taking from. This case the Greek had lost. 1 Some of the endings, however, which in Latin are assigned to the dative and ablative are doubtless of locative or instrumental origin (see p. 34, footnote). * The e-vocative of the second declension is a form of the stem (§ 45. c). 210 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§389-341 NOMINATIVE CASE 339. The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative : — Caesar Ehenum transire decreverat (B. G. iv. 17), CcBsar had determined to cross the Rhine. For the omission of a pronominal subject, see § 295.^. a. The nominative may be used in exclamations : — en dextra fidesque (Aen. iv. 597), lo, the faith and plighted wo7xl ! ecce tuae litterae de Varrone (Att. xiii. 16), lo and behold, your letters about Varro ! Note. — But the accusative is more common (§ 397. d). VOCATIVE CASE 340. The Vocative is the case of direct address : — Tiberine pater, t6, sancte, precor (Liv. ii. 10), father Tiber, thee, holy one, I pray. res omnis mihi tecum erit, Hortensi (Verr. i. 33), my whole attention will be devoted to you, Hortensius. a. A noun in the nominative in apposition with the subject of the imperative mood is sometimes used instead of the vocative : — audi tu, populus Albanus (Liv. i. 24), hear, thou people of Alba. b. The vocative of an adjective is sometimes used in poetry instead of the nominative, where the verb is in the second person : — • quo moriture ruis (Aen. x. 811), whither art thou rushing to thy doom? censorem trabeate salutas (Pers. iii. 29), robed you salute the censor. c. The vocative macte is used as a predicate in the phrase macte esto (virtu te), success attend your (valor) : — iuberem te macte virtiite esse (Liv. ii. 12), I should bid you go on and prosper in your valor. macte nova virtute puer (Aen. ix. 641), success attend your valor, boy! Note. — As the original quantity of the final e in macte is not determinable, it may be that the word was an adverb, as in bene est and the like. GENITIVE CASE 341. The Genitive is regularly used to express the relation of one noun to another. Hence it is sometimes called the adjective case, to distinguish it from the Dative and the Ablative, which may be called adverbial cases. I. Genitive with Nouns: §§341-343] POSSESSIVE GENITIVE 211 The uses of the Genitive may be classified as follows : — 1. Of Possession (§343). 2. Of Material (§ 344). 3. Of Quality (§ 345). 4. Of the Whole, after words designating a Part (Partitive, § 346). 5. With Nouns of Action and Feeling (§ 348). II. Genitive with Adjectives: ( J" ^f f ^^^f^^ Adjectives (or Verbals) (§ 349). [ 2. Of Specification (later use) (§ 349. d). m. Genitive with Verts: ( l' 9,1 Mem«7, Feeling etc. (§§ 350, 351 384) \ 2. Of Accusing, etc. (Charge or Penalty) (§ 3o2). GENITIVE WITH NOUNS 342. A noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning the same person or thing, is put in the Genitive. This relation is most frequently expressed in English by the prepo- sition of, sometimes by the English genitive (or possessive) case : — libri Ciceronis, the books of Cicero, or Cicero''s books. inimici Caesaris, C(jesar''s enemies, or the enemies of CcBsar. talentum auri, a talent of gold. vir summae virtutis, a man of the greatest courage. But observe the following equivalents : — vacatio laboris, a respite from toil. petitio consulatus, candidacy for the consulship. regnum civitatis, royal power over the state. Possessive Genitive 343. The Possessive Genitive denotes the person or thing to which an object, quality, feeling, or action belongs: — . Alexandri canis, Alexander's dog. potentia Pompei (Sail. Cat. 19), Pompey''s power. Ariovisti mors (B. G. v. 29), the death of Ariovistus. perditorum temeritas (Mil. 22), the recklessness of desperate men. Note 1. — The Possessive Genitive may denote (1) the actual owner (as in Alex- ander's dog) or author (as in Cicero's writings), or (2) the person or thing that possesses some feeling or quality or does some act (as in Cicero's eloquence, the strength of the bridge, Catiline's evil deeds). In the latter use it is sometimes called the Subjective Genitive ; but this term properly includes the possessive genitive and several other genitive constructions (nearly all, in fact, except the Objective Genitive, § 347). Note 2. — The noun limited is understood in a few expressions : — ad Castoris [aedes] (Quinct. 17), at the [temple] of Castor. [Of. St. Paul's.] Flaccus Claudi, Flaccus [slave] of Claudius. Hectoris Andromache (Aen. iii. 319), Hector's [wife] Andromache. 212 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§343 a. For the genitive of possession a possessive or derivative adjec- tive is often used, — regularly for the possessive genitive of the per- sonal pronouns (§ 302. a) : — liber meus, my book. [Not liber mei.] aUena pericula, other men's dangers. [But also aliorum.] Sullana tempora, the times of Sulla. [Oftener Sullae. J b. The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, connected . with its noun by a verb (Fredicate Genitive) : — haec doraus est patris mei, this house is my father'' s. iam me Pompei totum esse scis (Fam. ii. 13), you know I am now all for Pom- pey (all Pompey's). summa laus et tua et Bruti est (Fam. xii. 4. 2), the highest praise is due both to you and to Brutus (is both yours and Brutus's). compendi facere, to save (make of saving), lucri facere, to get the benefit of (make of profit). Note. — These genitives bear the same relation to the examples in § 343 that a predicate noun hears to an appositive (§§ 282, 283). c. An infinitive or a clause, when used as a noun, is often limited by a genitive in the predicate : — neque sui iudici [erat] discernere (B. C. i. 35), nor was it for his judgment to decide (nor did it belong to his judgment), cuiusvis hominis est errare (Phil. xii. 5), it is any man's [liability] to err. negavit moris esse Graecorum, ut in convlvio virorum accumberent mulieres (Verr. ii. 1. 66)^ he said it was not the custom of the Greeks for women to appear as guests (recline) at the banquets of men. sed timidi est optare necem (Ov. M. iv. 115), but His the coward's part to wish for death. stulti erat sperare, suadere impudentis (Phil. ii. 23), it vms folly (the part of a fool) to hope, effrontery to urge. sapientis est pauca loqui, it is wise (the part of a wise man) to say little. [Not sapiens (neuter) est, etc.] Note 1. — This construction is regnlar with adjectives of the third declension instead of the neuter nominative (see the last two examples). Note 2. — A derivative or possessive adjective may be used for the genitire in this construction, and must be used for the genitive of a personal pronoun: — mentiri non est meum [not mei], it is not for me to lie. humanum [for hominis] est errare, it is man^s nature to err (to err is human). d. A limiting genitive is sometimes used instead of a noun in appo- sition {Appositional Genitive) (§ 282) : — nomen insaniae (for nomen insania), the word madness. oppidum Antiochiae (for oppidum Antiochia, the regular form), the city of Antioch. §§344-346] PARTITIVE GENITIVE 213 Genitive of Material 344. The Genitive may denote the Substance or Material of which a thing consists (cf. § 403): — taleutum ami, a talent of gold. flumina lactis, rivers of milk. Genitive of Quality 345. The Genitive is used to denote Quality, but only when the quality is modified by an adjective : — vir summae virtutis, a man of the highest courage. [But not vir virtutis.] magnae est deliberationis, it is an affair of great deliberation. magni formica laboris (Hor. S. i. 1. 33), the ant [a creature] of great toil. ille autem sui iudici (Nep. Att. 9), but he [a man] of independent (liis own) judgment. Note. — Compare Ablative of Quality (§ 415) . lu expressions of quality, the geni- tive or the ablative may often be used indifferently : as, praestanti prudentia vir, a man of surpassing wisdom ; maximi animi homo, a man of the greatest courage. In classic prose, however, the genitive of quality is much less common than the abla- tive; it is practically confined to expressions of measure or number, to a phrase with eius, and to nouns modified by magnus, maximus, summus, or tantus. In general the Genitive is used rather of essential, the Ablative of special or incidental characteristics. a. The genitive of quality is found in the adjective phrases eius modi, cuius modi (equivalent to talis, such ; qualis, of what sort): — eius modi sunt tempestates consecutae, uti (B. G. iii. 29), such storms fol- lowed, that, etc. b. The genitive of quality, with numerals, is used to define meas- ures of length, depth, etc. (Genitive of Measure): — fossa trium pedum, a trench of three feet [in depth], mtirus sedecim pedum, a wall of sixteen feet [high]. For the Genitive of Quality used to express indefinite value, see § 417. Partitive Genitive 346. Words denoting a Part are followed by the Genitive of the Whole to which the part belongs. a. Partitive words, followed by the genitive, are — 1. Nouns or Pronouns (cf. also 3 below) : — pars militum, part of the soldiers, quis nostrum, which of us f nihil erat reliqui, there was nothing left. nemo eorum (B. G. vii. 66), not a man of them. magnam partem eorum interiecerunt (id. ii. 23) , they killed a large part of them. 214 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§346 2. Numerals, Comparatives, Superlatives, and Pronominal words like alius, alter, nuUus, etc.: — tinus tribunorum, one of the tribunes (see c below). sapientum octavus (Hor. S. ii. 3. 29G), the eighth of the wise men. milia passuum sescenta (B. G. iv. 3), six hundred miles (thousands of paces). m§,ior fratrum, the elder of the brothers. animalium fortiora, the stronger [of] animals. Sueborum gens est longe maxima et bellicosissima Germanorum omnium (B. G. iv. 1), the tribe of the Suevi is far the largest and most warlike of all the Germans. alter consulum, one of the [two] consuls. naila earum (B.G. iv. 28), not one of them (the ships). 3. Neuter Adjectives and Pronouns, used as nouns : — tantum spati, so much [of] space. aliquid nummorum, a few pence (something of coins), id loci (or locorum), that spot of ground; id temporis, at that time (§ 397. a). plana urbis, the level parts of the town. quid novi, ivhat news 1 (what of new ?) paulum frumenti (B. C. i. 78), a Utile grain. plus doldris (B. G. i. 20), more grief. sui aliquid timoris (B. C. ii. 29), some fear of his own (something of his own fear). Note 1. — In classic prose neuter adjectives (not pronominal) seldom take a parti- tive genitive, except miiltum, tantum, quantum, and similar words. Note 2. — The genitive of adjectives of the- third declension is rarely used parti- tively : — nihil novi (genitive) , nothing new ; but, — nihil memorabile (nominative) , noth- ing worth mention (not nihil memorabilis). 4. Adverbs, especially those of Quantity and of Place : — parum oti, not much ease (too little of ease). satis pecuniae, money enough (enough of money). plurimum totlus Galliae equitatti valet (B. G. v. 3), is strongest, of all Gaul in cavalry. ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. i. 9), where in the loorld are we (where of nations) ? ubicumque terrarum et gentium (Verr. v. 143), wherever in the whole world. res erat eo iam loci ut (Sest. 68), the business had now reached such a point that^ etc. eo miseriarum (lug. 14. 3), to that [pitch] of misery. inde loci, next in order (thence of place). [Poetical.] 6. The poets and later writers often use the partitive genitive after adjectives, instead of a noun in its proper case : — sequimur te, sancte deorum ( Aen. iv. 570), we folloiv thee, holy deity. [For sancte deus (§ 49. g. n.)] nigrae lanarum (Plin. H. N. viii. 193), black wools. [For nigrae lanae.] expediti militum (Li v. xxx. 9), ligM,-armed soldiers. [For expediti milites.] hominum cunctos (Ov. M. iv. 631), all men. [For cunctos homines ; cf. e.] §§346-348] • OBJECTIVE GENITIVE 215 c, Cardinal numerals (except milia) regularly take the Ablative with e (ex) or de instead of the Partitive Genitive. So also quidam, a certain one, commonly, and other words occasionally : — unus ex tribunis, one of the tribunes. [But also, unus tribunorum (cf. a. 2).] minumus ex iliis (lug, 11), the youngest of them. medius ex tribus (ib.), the middle one of the three. quidam ex militibus, certain of the soldiers. unus de maltis (Fin. ii. 66), one of the many. pauci de nostris cadunt (B. G. i. 15), a few of our men fall. hominem de comitibus meis, a man of my companions. d, TJterque, both (properly each), and quisque, each, with Nouns are regularly used as adjectives in agreement, but with Pronouns ta.ke a partitive genitive : — • uterque consul, both the consuls; but, uterque nostrum, both of us. unus quisque vestrum, each one of you. utraque castra, both camps. e, Numbers and words of quantity including the whole of any thing take a case in agreement, and not the partitive genitive. So also words denoting a part when only that part is thought of : — nos omnes, all of us (we all). [Not omnes nostrum.] quot sunt hostes, how many of the enemy are there f cave inimicos, qui multi sunt, beware of your enemies., who are many. multi milites, many of the soldiers. nemo Romanus, not one Roman. Objective Genitive 347. The Objective Genitive is used with Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs. 348. Nouns of action, agency, smd feeling govern the Genitive of the Object : — caritas tui, affection for you. desiderium oti, longing for rest. vacatio muneris, relief from duty. gratia benefici, gratitude for kindness. f uga malorum, refuge from disaster. precatio deorum, prayer to the gods. contentio honorum, struggle for office, opinio virtutis, reputation for valor. Note. — This usage is an extension of the idea of belonging to (Possessive Genitive). Thus in the plirase odium Caesaris, hate of CsRsar, the hate in a passive sense belongs to Caesar, as odium, though in its active sense he is the object of it, as hate (cf. a). The distinction between the Possessive (subjective) and the Objective Genitive is very- unstable and is often lost sight of. It is illustrated by the following example : the phrase amor patris, love of a father, may mean love felt by a father, a father's love (subjective genitive), or love towards a father (objective genitive). 216 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§348,349 «. The objective genitive is sometimes replaced by a possessive pronoun or other derivative adjective : — mea invidia, 7ny unpopularity (the dislike of which I am the object). [Cf. odium mei (Har. Resp. 5), hatred of me.] laudator meus (Att. i. 16. 5), my eulogist (one who praises me). [Cf. nostri laudator (id. i. 14. 6).] Clodianum crimen (Mil. 72), the murder of Clodius (the Clodian charge). [As we say, t?ie Nathan juurder.] metus hostilis (lug. 41), /ear of the enemy (hostile fear), ea quae faciebat, tua se fidiicia facere dicebat (Verr. v. 176), what he was doing, he said he did relying on you (with your reliance), neque neglegentia tua, neque id odio fecit tuo (Ter. Ph. 1016), he did this neither from neglect nor from hatred of you. b. Rarely the objective genitive is used with a noun already lim- ited by another genitive : — animi multarum rerum percursio (Tusc. iv. 31), the mind^s traversing of many things. c, A noun with a preposition is often used instead of the objec- tive genitive : — odium in Antonium (Fam. x. 5. 3), hate of Antony. merita eiga me (id. i. 1. 1), services to me. meam in te pietatem (id. i. 9. 1), my devotion to you. impetus in urbem (Phil. xii. 29), an attack on the city. excessus e vita (Fin. iii. 60), departure from life. [Also, excessus vitae, Tusc. i. 27.] adoptio in Domitium (Tac. Ann. xii. 25), the adoption of Domitius. [A late and bold extension of this construction.] Note. — So also in late writers the dative of reference (cf. § 366. &): as, — longo bello materia (Tac. H. i. 89), resources for a long war. GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES 349. Adjectives requiring an object of reference govern the Objective Genitive. a. Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory, fulness, power, sharing, guilt, and their opposites govern the genitive : — avidi laudis (Manil. 7), greedy of praise. fastldiosus litterarum, disdaining letters. iuris perltus, skilled in law. [So also the ablative, lure, cf. § 418.] memorem vestri, oblitum sui (Cat. iv. 19), mindful of you, forgetful of himself. rationis et 6rati5nis expertes (Off. i. 50), devoid of sense and speech. nostrae cousuetudiBis imperiti (B.G. iv. 22), unacquainted with our customs. §349] GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES 217 plenus fidei, fvM of good faith. omnis spei egenam (Tac. Ann. i. 53), destitute of all hope. tempestatum potentem (Aen. i. 80), having sway over the storms. impotens irae (Li v. xxix, 9, 9), ungovernable in anger. coniurati5nis participes (Cat. iii. 14), sharing in the conspiracy. affinis rei capitalis (Verr. ii. 2. 94), involved in a capital crime. insons cuipae (Liv. xxii. 49), innocent of guilt. b. Participles in -ns govern the genitive when they are used as adjectives, i.e. when thej denote a constant disposition and not a jparticidar act : — si quern tui amantiorem cognovisti (Q. Fr. i. 1. 16), if you have become acquainted with any one more fond of you. multitudo insolens belli (B. C. ii. 36), a crowd unused to war. erat lugurtha appetens gloriae militaris (lug. 7), Jugurtha wa^ eager for mili- tary glory. Note 1. — Participles in -ns, when used as participles, take the case regularly gov- erned by the verb to which they belong: as, — Sp. Maelium regnum appetentem inter- emit (Cat. M. 56), he put to death Spurius Mselius, who was aspiring to royal power. Note 2. — Occasionally participial forms in -ns are treated as participles (see note 1) even when they express a disposition or character: as, — virtus quam alii i^jsam tem- perantiam dicunt esse, alii obtemperantem temperantiae praeceptis et earn subsequen- tem (Tusc. iv. 30), observant of the teachings of temperance and obedient to her. c. Verbals in -ax (§ 251) govern the genitive in poetry and later Latin : — iustum et tenacem propositi virum (Hor. Od. iii. 3), a man just and steadfast to his purpose. circus capaxpopuli (Ov. A. A. i. 136), a circus big enough to hold the people. cibi vinique capacissimus (Liv. ix. 16. 13), a very great eater and drinker (very able to contain food and wine). d. The poets and later writers use the genitive with almost any adjective, to denote that with reference to which the quality exists ( Genitive of Specification) : — callidus rei militaris (Tac. H. ii. 32), skilled in soldiership. pauper aquae (Hor. Od. iii. 30. 11), scant qf water. notus animi paterni (id. ii. 2. 6), famed for a paternal spirit. fessi rerum (Aen. i, 178), weary of toil. integer vitae scelerisque piirus (Hor, Od. i. 22. 1), upright in life, and unstained by guilt. Note. — The Genitive of Specification is only an extension of the construction with adjectives requiring an object of reference (§ o49). Thus callidus denotes knowledge ; pauper, want ; piirus, innocence ; and so these words in a manner belong to the classes under a. For the Ablative of Specification, the prose construction, see § 418. For Adjectives of likeness etc, with the Genitive, apparently Objective, see § 385, c For Adjectives with animi (locative in origin), see § 358. 218 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§360 GENITIVE WITH VERBS Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting 350. Verbs of remembering a.nd forgetting take either the Accu- sative or the Genitive of the object : — a, Memini takes the Accusative when it has the literal sense of retaining in the mind what one has seen, heard, or learned. Hence the accusative is used of persons whom one remembers as acquaint- ances, or of things which one has experienced. So obliviscor in the opposite sense, — to forget literally, to lose all memory of 2. thing (very rarely, of a person). Cinnam memini (Phil. v. 17), I remember Cinna. utinam avum tuum meminisses (id. i. 34), oh! that you could remember your grandfather ! (but lie died before you were born). Postumium, cuius statuam in Isthmo meminisse te dicis (Att. xiii. 32), Postu- mius, whose statue you say you remember (to have seen) on the Isthmus. omnia meminit Siron Epicurl dogmata (Acad. ii. 106), Siron remembers all the doctrines of Epicurus. multa ab aliis audita meminerunt (De Or. ii. 355), they remember many things that they have heard from others. totam causam oblitus est (Brut. 217), he forgot the whole case. hinc iam obliviscere Graios (Aen. ii. 148), from henceforth forget the Greeks (i.e. not merely disregard them, but banish them from your mind, as if you had never known them). b. Memini takes the Genitive when it means to be rrdndfid xii regardful of a person or thing, to think of somebody or something (often with special interest or warmth of feeling). So obliviscor in the opposite sense, — to disregard, or dismiss from the mind, — and the adjective oblitus, careless or regardless. ipse sui meminerat (Verr. ii. 136), he was mindful of himself (of his own interests), faciam ut huius loci dieique meique semper memineris (Ter. Eun. 801), I ivill make you remember this place and this day and me as long as you live. nee me meminisse pigebit Elissae, dum memor ipse mei (Aen. iv. 335), nor shall I feel regret at the thought of Elissa, so long as I remember myself. meminerint verecundiae (Off. i. 122), let them cherish modesty. htimanae infirmitatis memini (Liv. xxx. 31. 6), I remember human weakness. oblivisci temporum meorum, meminisse actionum (Fam. i. 9. 8), to disregard my own interests, to be mindfid of the matters at issue. nee tamen Epicuri licet oblivisci (Fin. v. 3), and yet I must not forget Epicurus. obliviscere caedis atque incendiorum (Cat. i. 6), turn your mind from slaughter and conflagrations (dismiss them from your thoughts). §§ 350, 361] GENITIVE WITH VERBS 219 Note 1, — With both memini and obliviscor the personal and reflexive pronouns are regularly in the Genitive ; neuter pronouns and adjectives used substantively are regu- larly in the Accusative ; abstract nouns are often in the Genitive. These uses come in each instance from the natural meaning of the verbs (as defined above) . Note 2. — Memini in the sense of mention takes the Genitive : as, — eundem Achil- 1am cuius supra meminimus (B. C. iii. 108), that same Achillas whom I mentioned above. c, Reminiscor is rare. It takes the Accusative in the literal sense of call to mind, recollect ; the Genitive in the more figurative sense of be mindful of: — dulcis moriens reminlscitur Argos (Aen. x. 782), as he dies he calls to mind his beloved Argos. reminisceretur et veteris incommodi popull RomanI et pristlnae virtiitis Helve- tiorum (B. G. i. 13), let him remember both the former discomfiture of the Boman people and the ancient valor of the Helvetians. [A warning, — let him hear it in mind (and beware) ! ] d. Recorder, recollect, recall, regularly takes the Accusative : — recordare consensum ilium theatrl (Phil. i. 30), recall that unanimous agree- ment of the [audience in the] theatre. recordamini omnis civilis dissensiones (Cat. iii. 24), call to mind all the civil wars. Note. — Recorder takes the genitive once (Pison. 12) ; it is never used with a per- sonal object, but may be followed by de with the ablative of the person or thing (cf. §351. N.): — de te recordor (Scaur. 49), I remember about you. de illis (lacrimis) recordor (Plane. 104), / am reminded of those tears. Verbs of Reminding 351. Verbs of reminding take with the Accusative of the per- son a Genitive of the thing ; except in the case of a neuter pro- noun, which is put in the accusative (cf. § 390. c). So admoneo, commoneo, commonefaciS, commonefio. But moneo with the genitive is found in late writers only. Catillna admonebat alium egestatis, alium cupiditatis suae (Sail. Cat. 21), Catiline reminded one of his poverty, another of his cupidity. eos hoc moneo (Cat. ii. 20), I give them this warning. quod vos lex commonet (Verr. iii. 40), that which the law reminds you of. Note. — All these verbs often take de with the ablative, and the accusative of nouns as well as of pronouns is sometimes used with them : — saepius te admoneo de syngrapha Sittiana (Fam. viii. 4. 5) I remind you again and again of Sittius's bond. offlcium vostrum ut vos malo cogatis commonerier (Plant. Ps. 1.50), that you may by misfortune force yourselves to be reminded of your duty. 220 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§352,353 Verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquitting 352. Verbs of accusing^ condemning^ and acquitting^ take the Genitive of the Charge or Penalty ; — arguit mg furti, he accuses me of theft. peculatus damnatus (pecuniae ptiblicae damnatus) (Flacc. 43), condemned for embezzlement. video non te absoltitum esse improbitatis, sed illos damnatos esse caedis (Verr. ii. 1. 72), I see, not that you were acquitted of outrage, hut that they were condemned for homicide. a. Peculiar genitives, under this construction, are — capitis, as in damnare capitis, to sentence to death. maiestatis [laesae], treason (crime against tlie dignity of the state), repetundarum [rerum], extortion (lit. of an action for reclaiming money). voti damnatus (or reus), bound [to the payment] of one''s vow, i.e. success- ful in one's effort. pecuniae (damnare, iudicare, see note). dupli etc. , as in dupli condemnare, condemn to pay twofold. Note. — The origin of these genitive constructions is pointed at by peciiniae dam- nare (Gell. xx. 1. 38), to condemn to pay money, in a case of injury to the person; quantae pecuniae iudicati essent (id.xx. 1.^1), hoio much money they were adjudged to pay ^ in a mere suit for debt; confessi aeris ac debit! iudicati (id. xx. 1. 42), adjudged to owe an admitted sum due. These expressions show that the genitive of the penalty comes from the use of the genitive of value to express a sum of money due either as a debt or as a fine. Since in early civilizations all offences could be compounded by the payment of fines, the genitive came to be used of other x>unishnients, not pecuniary. From this to the genitive of the actual crime is an easy transition, inasmuch as there^4s^«lways^a confusion between crime and penalty (ci. Eng. guilty of death). It is quite unnecessary- to assume an ellipsis of crimine or iudicio. 353. Other constructions for the Charge or Penalty are — 1. The Ablative of Price : regularly of a definite amount of line, and often of indefinite penalties (cl § 416) : — Frusinates tertia parte agrl damnati (Liv. x. 1), the people of Frusino con- demned [to forfeit] a third iiart of their land. 2. The Ablative with de, or the Accusative with inter, in idiomatic expressions : — \ " de alea, for gambling ; de anibitu, for bribery. d6 pectiniis repetundls, of extortion (cf. § 352. a). inter slcarios (Rose. Am. 90), as an assassin (among the assassins). dS vi et maiestatis damnati (Phil, i. 21), convicted of assault and treason. Note. — The accusative with ad and in occurs in later writers to express the pen- alty: as, — ad mortem (Tac. Ann. xvi. 21), to death; ad (in) metaUa, to the mines. §§ 354, 355] GENITIVE WITH VERBS 221 Verbs of Feeling 354. Many verbs of feeling take the Genitive of the object which excites the feeling. a. Verbs of pity^ as misereor and iniseresco, take the genitive : — miseremini familiae, iudices, miseremini patris, miseremini fili (Flacc. 106), have pity on the family, etc. miserere animi noii digna ferentis (Aen. ii. 144), pity a soul that endures unworthy things. miserescite regis (id. viii. 573), pity the king. [Poetical.] Note. — But miseror, commiseror, bewail, take the accusative: as, — communem condicionem miserari (Mur. 55), bewail the common lot. h. As impersonals, miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, taedet (or pertaesum est), take the genitive of the cause of the feeling and the accusative of t\iQ person affected: — quos infamiae suae neque piidet neque taedet (Verr, i. 35), who are neither ashamed nor weary of their dishonor. me miseret parietum ipsorum (Pliil. ii. 69), I pity the very walls. me civitatis morum piget taedetque (lug. 4), I am sick ami tired of the luays of the state. decemvirorum vos pertaesum est (Liv. iii. 67), you became tired of the decemvirs. c. With miseret, paenitet, etc., the cause of the feeling may be ex- |)ressed by an infinitive or a clause : — neque me paenitet mortalls inimicitias habere (Rab. Post. 32), nor am I sorry to have deadly enmities. Qon dedisse istunc pudet ; me quia non accepi piget (PI. Pseud. 282), he is ashamed not to have given; I am sorry because I have not received. Note. — Miseret etc. are sometimes used personally with a neuter pronoun as sub- ject: as, — non te haec pudent (Ter. Ad. 754), do not these things shame you? Interest and Refert 355. The impersonals interest and refert take the Genitive of the person (rarely of the thing) affected. The subject of the verb is a neuter pronoun or a substantive clause : — Clodi intererat Milonem perlre (cf. Mil. 56), it was the interest of Clodius that Milo should die. aliquid quod illorum magis quam sua retulisse videretur (lug. Ill), something which seemed to be more for their interest than his own. video enim quid mea intersit, quid utriusque nostrum (Earn. vii. 23. 4),/ori see what is for my good and for the good of us both. 222 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§355,356 a. Instead of the genitive of a personal pronoun the correspond- ing possessive is used in the ablative singular feminine after interest or refert : — quid tua id refert? magni (Ter. Ph. 723), how does that concern yoaf much. [See also the last two examples above.] vehementer iiitererat vestra qui patres estis (Plin. Ep. iv. 13. 4), it would he very much to your advantage., you who are fathers. Note. — This is the only construction with refert in classic prose, except in one passage in Sallust (see example above). h. The accusative with ad is used with interest and refert to ex- press the thing with reference to which one is interested : — magni ad honorem nostrum interest (Fam. xvi. 1), it is of great consequence to our honor. refert etiam ad fructus (Varr. R. R. i. 16. 6), it makes a difference as to the crop. Note 1. — Very rarely the person is expressed by ad and the accusative, or (with refert) by the dative (probably a popular corruption) : — quid id ad me aut ad meam rem refert (PI. Pers. 513), what difference does that make to me or to my interests f quid referat intra naturae finis viventi (Hor. S. i. 1. 49), what difference does it make to me who live loithin the limits of natural desire 9 non referre dedecori (Tac. Ann. xv. 65), that it makes no difference as to the disgrace. Note 2. — The degree of interest is expressed by a genitive of value, an adverb, or an adverbial accusative. Verbs of Plenty and Want 356. Verbs of Plenty and Want sometimes govern the geni- tive (of. § 409. a. N.) : — convivium vicinorum compleo (Cat. M. 46, in the mouth of Cato), I Jill up the banquet with my neighbors. implentur veteris Bacchi pinguisque ferinae (Aen. 1. 215), they fill themselves with old wine and fat venison. ne quis auxili egeat (B. G. vi. 11), lest any require aid. quid est quod defensionis indigeat (Rose. Am. 34), what is there thai needs defence 1 quae ad consolandum m^ioris ingeni et ad ferendum singularis virtutis indi- gent (Fam. vi. 4. 2), [sorrows] which for their comforting need more abil- 1 ity, and for endurance unusual courage. T^OTE. — Verbs of plenty and want more commonly take the ablative (see §§ 409. a, 401), except egeo, which takes either case, and indigeo. But the genitive is by a Greek idiom often used in poetry instead of the ablative with all words denoting separation and want (cf. § .357. &. 3): — abstiniito irarum (Hor. Od. iii. 27. 69), refrain from lorath. operum solfitis (id. iii. 17. \^, free from toils. desine mollium querellarum (id. ii. 9- 17), have done with weak complaints §§357-359] PECULIAR GENITIVES 223 Genitive with Special Verbs 357. The Genitive is used with certain special verbs. a. The genitive sometimes follows potior, get possession of: as always in the phrase potiri rerum, to be master of affairs : — illius regni potiri (Fam. i. 7. 5), to become master of that kingdom. Cleanthes solem dominari et rerum potiri putat (Acad. ii. 126), Cleanthes thinks the sun holds sway and is lord of the universe. Note. — But potior usually takes the ablative (see §410). b. Some other verbs rarely take the genitive — 1 . By analogy with those mentioned in § 354 : — neque huiiis sis veritus feminae primariae (Ter. Ph. 971), and you had no respect for this high-born lady. 2. As akin to adjectives which take the genitive : — fastidit mei (Plant. Aul. 245), he disdains me. [Cf. fastidiosus.] studet tui (quoted N. D. ill. 72), he is zealous for you. [Cf. studiosus.] 3. In imitation of the Greek: — iustitiaene prius rairer, belllne laborum (Aen. xi. 126), shall I rather admire his justice or his toils in war? neque ille sepositi ciceris nee longae invidit avenae (Hor. S. ii. 6. 84), nor did he grudge his garnered peas, etc. [But cf. invidus, parous.] laborum decipitur (Hor. Od. ii. 13. 38), he is beguiled of his woes. me laborum levas (PL Pud. 247), you relieve me of my troubles, 358. The apparent Genitive animi (really Locative) is used with a few verbs and adjectives oi feeling and the like: — Antipho me excruciat animi (Ter. Ph. 187), Antipho tortures my mind (me in my mind), qui pendet animi (Tusc. iv. 35), who is in suspense. me animi fallit (Lucr. i. 922), my mind deceives me. So, by analogy, desipiebam mentis (PI. Epid. 138), I was out of my head. aeger animi, sick at heart; conftisus animi, disturbed in spirit. sanus mentis aut animi (PI. Trin. 454), sound in mind or heart. PECULIAR GENITIVES 359. Peculiar Genitive constructions are the following : — a. A poetical genitive occurs rarely in exclamations, in imitation of the Greek ( Genitive of Exclamation) : — di immortales, mercimoni lepidi (PI. Most. 912), good heavens! what a charm- ing bargain ! foederis heu taciti (Prop. iv. 7. 21), alas for the unspoken agreement! 224 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§359,360 b. The genitive is often used with the ablatives causa, gratia, for the sake of; ergo, hecause of; and the indeclinable instar, like; also v/ith pridie, the day before; postridie, the day after; tenus, as far as: honoris causa, with due respect (for the sake of honor), verbi gratia, for example. eius legis ergo, on account of this law. equus instai- montis (Aen. ii. 15), a horse huge as a mountain (the image of a mountain), laterum tenus (id. x. 210), as far as the sides. Note 1. — Of these the genitive with causa is a development from the possessive genitive and resembles that in nomen insaniae (§ S'i'S.d) . The others are of various origin. Note 2. — In prose of the Republican Period pridie and postridie are thus used only in the expressions pridie (postridie) eius diei, the day before (after) that (of. "the eve, the morrow of that day"). Tacitus uses the construction with other words : as, — postridie insidiarum, the day after the plot. For the accusative, see § 432. a. Tenus takes also the ablative (p. 136). DATIVE CASE 360. The Dative is probably, like the Genitive, a grammatical case, that is, it is a form appropriated to the expression of a variety of relations other than that of the direct object. But it is held by some to be a Locative with the primary meaning of to or towards, and the poetic uses (like it clamor caelo, Aen. v. 451) are regarded as survivals of the original use. In Latin the Dative has two classes of meanings : — 1. The Dative denotes an object not as caused by the action, or directly affected by it (like the Accusative), but as reciprocally sharing in the action or receiving it con- sciously or actively. Thus in dedit puero librum, he gave the hoy a book, or fecit mihi iniuriam, he did me a wrong, there is an idea of the boy's receiving the book, and of my feeling the wrong. Hence expressions denoting persons, or things with personal attributes, are more likely to be in the dative than those denoting mere things. So in Spanish the dative is used whenever a person is the object of an action; yo veo al hombre, I see [to] the man. This difference between the Accusative and the Dative (i.e. between the Direct and the Indirect Object) depends upon the point of view implied in the verb or existing in the mind of the writer. Hence Latin verbs of similar meaning (to an English mind) often differ in the case of their object (see § 367. a). 2. The Dative is used to express the purpose of an action or that for which it . and similar verbs. §§ 365, 366] DATIVE OF INDIRECT OBJECT 227 365. Verbs which in the active voice take the Accusative and Dative retain the Dative when used in the passive : — nuntiabantur haec eadem Curioni (B. C. ii. 37), these same things were announced to Curio. [Active : nuntiabant (quidam) haec eadem Curioni.] nee docendi Caesaris propinquis eius spatium datur, nee tribunis plebis sui peiicull deprecandi facultas tribuitur (id. i. 5), no time is given CcBsar's relatives to inform him, and no opportunity is granted to the tribunes of the plebs to avert danger from themselves. provinciae privatis decernuntur (id. i. 6), provinces are voted to private citizens. Indirect Object with Intransitives 366. The Dative of the Indirect Object may be used with any Intransitive verb whose meaning allows : — cedant arma togae (Ptiil. ii. 20), let arms give place to the gown. Caesari respondet, he replies to Coesar. Caesari respondetur, a reply is given to Coisar (Caesar is replied to) . [Cf . § 372. ] respond! maximis criminibus (Phil. ii. 36), I have answered the heaviest charges. ut ita cuique eveniat (id. ii. 119), that it may so turn out to each. Note 1. — Intransitive verbs have no Direct Object. The Indirect Object, there- fore, in these cases stands alone as in the second example (but cf. § 362. a). Note 2. — Cedo, yield, sometimes takes the Ablative of the thing along vrith the Dative of the person : as, — cedere alicui possessione hortorum (cf. Mil. 75), to give up to one the possession of a garden. a. Many phrases consisting of a noun with the copula sum or a copulative verb are equivalent to an intransitive verb and take a kind of indirect object (cf. § 367. a. n.^): — auctor esse alicui, to advise or instigate one (cf. persuaded). quis huic rei testis est (Quinet. 37), who testifies (is witness) to this fact? is finis populationibus fuit (Liv. ii. 30. 9), this put an end to the raids. b. The dative is sometimes used without a copulative verb in a sense approaching that of the genitive (cf. §§ 367. d, 377): — legatus fratrl (Mur. 32), a lieutenant to his brother (i.e. a man assigned to his brother), ministri sceleribus (Tac. Ann. vi. 36), agents of crime. [Cf. seditionis minis- tri (id. i. 17), agents of sedition.] miseriis suis remedium mortem exspeetare (Sail. Cat. 40), to look for death as a cure for their miseries. [Cf. solus mearum miseriarumst remedium (Ter. Ad. 294).] Note. — The cases in a and b differ from the constructions of § 367. a. N.2 and § 377 in that the dative is more closely connected in idea with some single word to which it serves as an indirect obiect. 228 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§367 Indirect Object with Special Verbs 367. Many verbs signifying to favor^ help, please, trust, and their contraries ; also to believe, persuade, command, obey, serve, resist, envy, threaten, pardon, and spare,^ take the Dative : — cur mihi invides, why do you envy me? mihi parcit atque ignOscit, he spares and imrdons me. ignosce patrio dol5ri (Liv. iii. 48), excuse a father^ s grief. subveni patriae, opitulare conlegae (Fain. x. 10- 2), come to the aid of your country, help your colleague. mihi non displicet (Clu. 144), it does not displease me. non omnibus servio (Att. xiii. 49), I am not a servant to every man. non parcam operae (Fam. xiii. 27), I will spare no pains. sic mihi persuasl (Cat. M. 78), so I have persuaded myself. mihi Fabius debebit ignoscere si minus eius famae parcere videbor quam antea consulul (Tull. 3), Fahiiis will have to pardon me if I seem to spare his reputation less than I have heretofore regarded it. huic legioni Caesar confidebat maxime (B. G. i. 40. 15), in this legion CcBsar trusted most. In these verbs the Latin retains an original intransitive meaning. Thus : invidere, to envy, is literally to look askance at ; servire is to be a slave to ; suadere is to make a thing pleasant (sweet) to, a. Some verbs apparently of the same meanings take the Accusative. Such are iuv5, adiuvo, help; laedo, injure; iubeo, order; deficid, fail; delecto, please : — hie pulvis oculum meum laedit, this dust hurts my eye. [Cf. multa oculis nocent, many things are injurious to the eyes.] NoTB 1. — Fido and confido take also the Ablative (§ 431) : as, — multura natura loci confidebant (B. G. iii. 9), they had great confidence in the strength of their position. Note 2. — Some common phrases regularly take the dative precisely like verbs of similar meaning. Such are — praesto esse, he on hand (cf . adesse) ; morem gerere, humor (cf. morigerari) ; gratum facere, do a favor (cf. gratiflcari) ; dicto audiens esse, he obedient (cf. oboedire) ; cui fidem habebat (E. G. i. 19), in whom he had confidence (cf. confidelxat). So also many phrases where no corresponding verb exists. Such are — bene (male, pulchre, aegre, etc.) esse, he ivell {ill, etc.) off; iniuriam facere, do injustice to ; diem dicere, hring to trial (name a day for, etc.); agere gratias, express one's thanks; habere gratiam,/ee^ thankful; referre gratiam, repay a favor; opus esse, be neces- sary ; damnum dare, infiict an injury; acceptum (expensum) ferre (esse), credit {charge); honorera habere, to pay honor to. 1 These include, among others, the following: adversor, cedo, credo, faveo, fido, ignosco, impero, indulgeo, invideo, irascor, minitor, noceo, parco, pareo, placeo, resisto, servio, studeo, suadeo (persuadeo), suscenseo, tempero (obtemperS). §§ 367, 368] DATIVE WITH SPECIAL VERBS 229 6. Some verbs are used transitively with the Accusative or intran- sitively with the Dative without perceptible difference of meaning. Such are adulor, aemulor, despero, praestolor, medeor : — adulatus est Antonio (Nep. Att. 8), he flattered Antony. adulari Neronem (Tac. Ann. xvi. 19), to flatter Nero. pacem non desperas (Att. viii. 15. 3), you do not despair of peace. saluti desperare vetuit (Ciu. 68), he forbade him to despair of safety. c. Some verbs are used transitively with the Accusative or intran- sitively with the Dative with a difference of meaning : — ^ parti civium consulunt (Off. i. 85), they consult for a part of the citizens. cum te consuluissem (Earn. xi. 29), when I had consulted you. metuens pueris (Plant. Am. 1113), anxious for the children. nee metuunt deos (Ter. Hec. 772), they fear not even the gods. [So also timeo.] prospicite patriae (Cat. iv. 3), have regard for the state. prospicere sedem senecttiti (Liv. iv. 49. 14), to provide a habitation for old age. ■ [So also provided.] d. A few verbal nouns (as insidiae, ambush; obtemperatio, obedi- ence) rarely take the dative like the corresponding verbs : — insidiae consul! (Sail. Cat. 32), the plot against the consul (cf. insidior). obtemperatio legibus (Legg. i. 42), obedience to the laws (cf. obtempero). sibi ipsi responsio (De Or. iii. 207), an answer to himself (cf. responded). Note. — In these cases the dative depends immediately upon the verbal force of the noun and not on any complex idea (cf. § 366. a, b). 368. The Dative is used — 1. With the impersonal s libet (lubet), it pleases, and licet, it is allowed : — quod mihi maxime lubet (Earn. i. 8. 3), what most pleases me. quasi tibi non liceret (id. vi. 8), as if you were not permitted. 2. With verbs compounded with satis, bene, and male : — mihi ipse numquam satisfacio (Earn. i. 1), I never satisfy myself. optimo vir5 maledicere (Deiot. 28), to speak ill of a most excellent man. pulchrum est benefacere rei publicae (Sail. Cat. 3), it is a glorious thing to benefit the state. Note. — These are not real compounds, but phrases, and were apparently felt as such by the Romans. Thus, — satis officio meo, satis illorum voluntati qui a me hoc petiverunt factum esse arbitrabor (Verr. v. 130), I shall consider that enough has been done for my duty, enough for the wishes of those who asked this of me. 1 See the Lexicon under caveo, convenio, cupio, insists, maneo, praeverto, recipio, rcr riuntio, solvo, succedo. 230 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§368,869 3. With gratificor, gratulor, nubo, pennitto, plaudo, probo, studeo, sup- plico, excello: — Pompeio se gratificari putant (Fam. i. 1), they suppose they are doing Pompey a service. gratulor tibi, uii Balbe (id. vi. 12), I congratulate you, my dear Balbus. tibi permitto respondere (N. D, iii. 4), I give you leave to answer. mihi plaudo ipse doml (Hor. S. i. 1. 66), I applaud myself at home. cum inimici M. Fontei vobis ac populo Romano minentur, amici ac propinqui supplicent vobis (Font. 35), while the enemies of Marcus Fonteius are threatening you and the Roman people too, while his friends and relatives are beseeching you. Note." — Misceo and iungo sometimes take the dative (see § 413. a. n.). Haereo usually takes the ablative, with or without in, rarely the dative: as, — haerentem capiti coro- nam (Hor. S. i. 10. 49), a wreath clinging to the head. a. The dative is often used by the poets in constructions which would in prose require a noun with a preposition. So especially with verbs of contending (§ 413. b) : — contendis Homero (Prop. i. 7. 3), you vie with Homer. [In prose : cum Homero.] placitone etiam piignabis amori (Aen. iv. 38), will you struggle even against a love that pleases you ? tibi certat (Eel. v. 8), vies with you. [tecum.] differt sermoni (Hor. S. i. 4. 48), differs from prose, [a sermone, § 401.] lateri abdidit ensem (Aen. ii. 553), buried the sword in his side, [in latere, § 430. ] For the Dative instead of ad with the Accusative, see § 428. h. 369. Some verbs ordinarily intransitive may have an Accusar tive of the direct object along with the Dative of the indirect (cf. § 362. a): — cui cum rex crucem minaretur (Tusc. i. 102), and when the king threatened him with the cross. Cretensibus obsides imperavit (Manil. 35), he exacted hostages of the Cretans. omnia sibi ignoscere (Yell. ii. 30), to pardon one''s self everything. Ascanione pater Romanas invidet arces (Aen. iv. 234), does the father envy Ascanius his Roman citadels 9 [With invideo this construction is poetic or late.] a. With the passive voice this dative may be retained : — qui iam nunc sanguinem meum sibi indulgeri aequum censet (Li v. xl. 15. 16), who even now thinks it right that my blood should be granted to him as a favor. singulis censoribus denarii trecenti imperati sunt (Verr. ii. 137), three hun- dred denarii were exacted of each censor. Scaevolae concessa est facundiae virtus (Quint, xii. 3. 9), to Scaevola has been granted excellence in oratory. §370] DATIVE WITH COMPOUNDS 231 Indirect Object with Compounds 370. Many verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, pro, sub, super, and some with circum, admit the Dative of the indirect object : — neque enim adsentior eis (Lael. 13), for I do not agree with them. quantum natura hominis pecudibus antecedit (Off. i. 105), so far as mart's nature is superior to brutes. si sibi ipse consentit (id. i. 6), if he is in accord with himself. virtutes semper voluptatibus inhaerent (Fin. i. 68), virtues are always con- nected with pleasures. omnibus negotiis non interfuit solum sed praefuit (id. i, 6), he not only had a hand in all matters, but took the lead in them. tempestati obsequi artis est (Fam. i. 9. 21), it is a point of skill to yield to the weather. nee umquam succumbet inimicis (Deiot. 36), and lie will never yield to his foes. cum et Brutus cuilibet ducum praeferendus videretur et Vatlnius nulli non esset postferendus (Veil. ii. 69), since Brutus seemed worthy of being put before any of the generals and Vatlnius deserved to be put after all of them. a. In these cases the dative depends not on the preposition, but on the compound verb in its acquired meaning. Hence, if the acquired meaning is not suited to an indirect object, the original construction of tlie simple verb remains. Thus in convocat su5s, he calls his men together, the idea of calling is not so modified as to make an indirect object appropriate. So hominem interficere, to make way with a man (kill him). But in praeficere imperat5rem bello, to put a man as commander-in-chief in charge of a war, the idea resulting from the com- position is suited to an indirect object (see also b, §§ 371, 388. 6). Note 1. — Some of these verbs, being originally transitive, take also a direct object : as, — ne offeramus nos periculls (Off. i. 83), that we may not expose ourselves to perils. Note 2. — The construction of § 370 is not different in its nature from that of §§ 362, 366, and 367 ; but the compound verbs make a convenient group. b. Some compounds of ad. ante, ob, with a few others, have acquired a transitive meaning, and take the accusative (cf. § 388. b): — ^ nos oppugnat (Fam. i. 1), he opposes us. quis audeat bene comitatum aggredi (Phil. xii. 25), who would dare encounter a man well attended ? munus obire (Lael. 7), to attend to a duty. 1 Such verbs are aggredior, adeo, antecedo, anteeo, antegredior, convenio, ineo, obeo, ofiendo, oppiigno, praecedo, subeo. 232 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§370-373 c. The adjective obvius and the adverb obviam with a verb take the dative : — si ille obvius ei futurus non erat (Mil. 47), if he was not intending to get in his loay. mihi obviam venisti (Fam. 11. IG. 3), you came to meet me. 371. When place or motion is distinctly thought of, the verbs mentioned in § 370 regularly take a noun with a preposition : inhaeret in visceribus (Tusc. iv. 24), it remains fixed in the vitals. homine coniuncto mecum (Tull. 4), a man united to me. cum hoc concurrit ipse Eumenes (Nep. Euin. 4. 1), with him JEumenes him- self engages in combat (runs together). inserite oculos in curiam (Font. 43), fix your eyes on the senate-house. ignis qui est ob 6s ofEusus (Tim. 14), the fire which is diffused before the sight. oblcitur contra Istorum impetiis Macedonia (Font. 44), Macedonia is set to withstand their attacks. [Cf. si quls vobis error obiectus (Caec. 5), if any mistake has been caused you.] in segetem flamma Incidit (Aen. li. 304), the fire falls upon the standing corn. Note. — But the usage varies in different authors, in different words, and often in the same word and the same sense. The Lexicon must be consulted for each verb. 372. Intransitive verbs that govern the dative are used wiper- sonally in the passive (§ 208. cZ). The dative is retained (cf. § 365) : cui parol potuit (Liv. xxi. 14), who could he spared? non modo non invidetur illi aetati verum etiam fdvetur (Off. 11. 45), that age (youth) not only is not envied, but is even favored. tempori servlendum est(Fam. Ix. 7), we must serve the exigency of the occasion. Note. — In poetry the personal construction is sometimes found : as, — ciir invideor (Her. A. P. 56), why am I envied? Dative of Possession 373. The Dative is used with esse and similar words to denote Possession : — est mihi domi pater (Eel. ill. 33), I have a father at home (there Is to me), homini cum deo slmllitudo est (Legg. 1. 25), man has a likeness to God. quibus opes nullae sunt (Sail. Cat. 37), [those] ivho have no wealth. Note. — The Genitive or a Possessive with esse emphasizes tlae possessor; the Dative, the fact of possession: as, — liber est mens, the book is mine (and no one's else) ; est mihi liber, /have a book (among otlier things). a. With nomen est, and similar expressions, the 7iame is often put in the Dative by a kind of apposition with the person; but the Nominative is also common : — §§ 373-375] DATIVE OF THE AGENT 233 (1) cui Africans fuit cognomen (Liv. xxv. 2), whose (to whom) surname was Africanus. puero ab inopia Egerio inditum nomen (id. i. 34), the name Egerius was given the boy from his poverty. (2) puero nomen est Marcus, the boy''s name is Marcus (to the boy is, etc.). cui nomen Arethusa (Verr. iv. 118), [a fount] called Arethusa. Note. — In early Latin the dative is usual ; Cicero prefers the nominative, Livy the dative ; Sallust uses the dative only. In later Latin the genitive also occurs (cf . § 343. d) : as, — Q. Metello Macedonici nomen inditum est (Veil. i. 11), to Quintus Metellus the name of Macedonicus was given. h, Desum takes the dative; so occasionally absum (which regu- larly has the ablative) : — ■ hoc tinum Caesari defuit (B.G. iv. 26), this only was lacking to Ccesar. quid huic abesse poterit (De Or. i. 48), what can be wanting to him ? Dative of the Agent 374. The Dative of the Agent is used with the Gerundive to denote the person on whom^the necessity rests : — haec v5bis provincia est defendenda (Manil. 14), this province is for you to defend (to be defended by you). mihi est pugnandum, I have to fight (i.e. the need of fighting is to me : of. mihi est liber, I have a book, § 373. n.). a. This is the regular way of expressing the agent with the Second or Passive Periphrastic Conjugation (§ 196). Note 1. — The Ablative of the Agent with ab (§ 405) is sometimes used with the Sec- ond Periphrastic Conjugation when the Dative would be ambiguous or when a stronger expression is desired : — quibus est a vobis consulendum (Manil. 6), for whom you must consult. [Here two datives, quibus and vobis, would have been ambiguous.] rem ab omnibus vobis providendam (Kabir. 4), that the matter must be attended to by all of you. [The dative might mean /or all of you.] Note 2. — The Dative of the Agent is either a special use of the Dative of Posses- sion or a development of the Dative of Reference (§ 37()). 375. The Dative of the Agent is common with perfect parti- ciples (especially when used in an adjective sense), but rare with other parts of the verb : — mihi deliberatum et constitutum est (Leg. Agr. i. 25), I have deliberated and resolved (it has been deliberated by me), mihi res provisa est (Verr. iv. 91), the matter has been provided for by me. sic dissimillimis bestiolis communiter cibus quaeritur (N. D. ii. 123), so by very different creatures food is sought in common. 234 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§375-377 a. The Dative of the Agent is used by the poets and later writers with almost any passive verb : — neque cernitur ulii (Aen. i. 440), nor is seen by any. felix est dicta sorori (Ov. Fast. iii. 1. 597), she was called happy by her sister, Aelia Paetina Narcisso fovebatur (Tac. Ann. xii. 1), u3^lia Pcetina was favored by Narcissus. h. The dative of the person who sees or thinks is regularly used after videor, seem : — • videtur mihi, it seems (or seems good) to me. dis aliter visum [est] (Aen. ii. 428), it seemed otherwise to the gods. videor mihi perspicere ipslus animum (Fam. iv. 13. 5), I seem (to myself) to see the soul of the man himself. Note. — The verb probare, approve (originally a mercantile word), takes a Dative of Reference (§ 376), which has become so firmly attached that it is often retained with the passive, seemingly as Dative of Agent : — haec sententia et illi et nobis probabatur (Fam. i. 7. 5), this view met both his approval and mine (was made acceptable both to him and to me) . hoc consilium plerisque non probabatur (B. C. i. 72), this plan was not approved by the majority. [But also, consilium a cunctis probabatur (id. i. 74).] Dative of Reference 376. The Dative often depends, not on any particular tvord^ but on the general meaning of the sentence (Dative of liefer ence). . The dative in this construction is often called the Dative of Advantage or Disadvantage/ as denoting the person or thing for whose benefit or to whose prejudice the action is performed. tibi aras (Plant. Merc. 71), you plough for yourself. tuas res tibi habeto (Plant. Trin. 266), keep your goods to yourself (formula of divorce), laudavit mihi f ratrem, he praised my brother (out of regard for me ; laudavit fratrem meum would imply no such motive), meritos mactavit honores, taurum Neptuno, taurum tibi, pulcher Apollo (Aen. iii. 118), he offered the sacrifices due., a bull to Neptune., a bull to thee, beautiful Apollo. Note. — In this construction the meaning of the sentence is complete without the dative, which is not, as in the preceding constructions, closely connected with any sin- gle word. Thus the Dative of Reference is easily distinguishable in most instances even when the sentence consists of only two words, as in the first example. 377. The Dative of Reference is often used to qualify a whole idea, instead of the Possessive Genitive modifying a single word : 1 Datlvus commodl aut iyicommodl. §§ 377-379] DATIVE OF REFERENCE 235 iter Poenis vel corporibus suis obstruere (Cat. M. 75), to block the march of the Carthaginians even with their own bodies (to block, etc., for the dis- advantage of, etc.). se in conspectum nautis dedit (Verr. v. 86), he put himself in sight of the sailors (he put himself to the sailors into sight). versatur mihi ante oculos (id. v. 123), it comes before my eyes (it comes to me before the eyes). 378. The Dative is used of the person from whose'j^om* of vieiv an opinion is stated or a situation or a direction is defined. This is often called the Dative of the Person Judging,^ but is merely a weakened variety of the Dative of Eeference. It is used 1. Of the mental point of view (iii my opinion^ according to me, etc.) : — Plato mihi imus instar est centum milium (Brut. 191), in my opinion (to me) Flato alone is worth a hundred thousand. erit ille mihi semper deus (Eel. i. 7), he will always be a god to me (in my regard), quae est ista servitustam claro homini (Par. 41), ivhat is that slavery according to the view of this distinguished man ? 2: Of the local point of view (as you go in etc.). In this use the person is commonly denoted indefinitely by a participle in the dative plural : — oppidum primum Thessaliae venientibus ab Epiro (B. C. iii. 80), the first town of Thessaly as you come from Epirus (to those coming, etc.). laeva parte sinum intrant! (Liv. xxvi. 26), on the left as you sail up the gulf (to one entering). est urbe egressis tumulus (Aen. ii. 713), there is, as you come out of the city, a mound (to those having come out). Note. — The Dative of the Person Judging is (by a Greek idiom) rarely modified by nolens, volens (participles of n51o, volo), or by some similar word: — ut quibusque helium invltis ant cupientibus erat (Tac. Ann. i. 59), as each might receive the war reluctantly or gladly. ut militibus labos volentibus esset (lug. 100), that the soldiers might assume the task loillingly. 379. The Dative of Reference is used idiomatically without any verb in colloquial questions and exclamations : — quo mihi fortunam (Hor. Ep. i. 5. 12), of what use to me is fortune? unde mihi lapidem (Hor. S. ii. 7. 116), where can I get a stone? quo tibi, Till! (id. i. 6. 24), what use for t/ou, Tillius? 1 Vatlvus iudicantis. 286 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§379-381 c/. The dative of reference is sometimes used after interjections: ei (hei) mihi (Aen. ii. 274), ah me! vae victis (Li v. v. 48), woe to the conquered. em tibi, there, take that (there for you)! [Cf. § 380.] Note. — To express fob — meaning instead of, in defence of, iti behalf of — the ablative with pro is used: — pro patria morl (Her. Od. iii. 2. 13), to die for one's country. ego ibo pro te (Plant. Most. 1131), I will go instead of you. Ethical Dative 380. The Dative of the Personal Pronouns is used to show a certain interest felt by the person indicated.^ This construction is called the Ethical Da^tive.^ It is really a faded variety of the Dative of Eeference. quid mihi Celsus agit (Hor. Ep. i. 3. 15), pray what is Celsus doing ? suo sibi servit patri (Plaut. Capt. 5), he serves his own father. at tibi repente venit mihi Canlnius (Fara. ix. 2), but, look you, of a sudden comes to me Caninius. hem tibi talentum argenti (PI. True. 60), hark ye, a talent of silver. quid tibi vis, what would you have (what do you wish for yourself) ? Dative of Separation 381. Many verbs of taking away and the like take the Dative (especially of a person) instead of the Ablative of Separation (§ 401). Such are compounds of ab, dg, ex, and a few of ad : — aureum ei detraxit amiculum (N. D. iii. 83), he took from him his cloak of gold. hunc mihi terrorem eripe (Cat. i. 18), take from me this terror. vitam adulescentibus vis aufert (Cat. M. 71), violence deprives young men of life. nihil enim tibi detraxit senatus (Fani. i. 5 n), for the senate has taken nothing from you. nee mihi hunc errorem extorquerl volo (Cat. JM. 85), nor do I wish this error wrested from me. Note. — The Dative of Separation is a variety of the Dative of Reference. It repre- sents the action as done to the person or thing, and is thus more vivid than the Ablative. 1 Compare " I '11 rhyme you so eight years together." — As You Like It, iii. 2. 2 Datlvus ethicus. §§ 381, S82] DATIVE OF THE PURPOSE OR END 287 a. The distinct idea of motion requires the ablative with a prep- osition — thus generally with names of things (§ 426. 1) : — ilium ex periculo eripuit (B. G. iv. 12), he dragged him out of danger. Note. — Sometimes the dative of the person and the ablative of the thing with a preposition are both used with the same verb : as, — mihi praeda de manibus eripitur (Verr. ii. 1. 142), the booty is wrested from my hands. Dative of the Purpose or End 382. The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End, often with another Dative of the person or thing affected. This use of the dative, once apparently general, remains in only a few constructions, as follows : — 1. The dative of an abstract noun is used to show that /or which a thing serves or which it accomplishes, often with another dative of the person or thing affected : — rei publicae cladi sunt (lug. 85. 43), they are ruin to the state (they are for a disaster to the state), magno usui nostris fuit (B. G. iv. 25), it was of great service to our men (to our men for great use), tertiam aciem nostris subsidiS misit (id. i. 52), he sent the third line as a relief to our men. suis saluti fuit (id. vii. 50), he was the salvation of his men. evenit facile quod dis cordi esset (Liv. i. 39), that came to pass easily which was desired by the gods (was for a pleasure [lit. heart] to the gods). Note 1. — This construction is often called the Dative of Service, or the Double Dative construction. The verb is usually sum. The noun expressing the end for lohich is regularly abstract and singular in number and is never modified by an adjec- tive, except one of degree (magnus, minor, etc.), or by a genitive. Note 2. — The word frugi used as an adjective is a dative of this kind : — cogis me dicere inimicum Frugi (Font. 39) , you compel me to call my enemy Honest. homines satis fortes et plane frugi (Verr. iii. 67), men brave enough and thoroughly honest. Cf. ero frugi bonae (Plant. Pseud. 468), I loill be good for some- thing. [See § 122. &.] 2. The Dative of Purpose of concrete nouns is used in prose in a few military expressions, and with freedom in poetry : — locum castris deligit (B. G. vii. 16), he selects a site for a camp. receptui canere, to sound a retreat (for a retreat), receptui signura (Phil, xiii, 15), the signal for retreat. optavit locum regno (Aen, iii. 109), he chose a place for a kingdom. locum insidiis circumspectare (Liv. xxi. 53), to look about for a place for an ambush. [Cf. locum seditionis quaerere (id. iii. 46).] For the Dative of the Gerundive denoting Purpose, see § 505. 6. 238 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§383-385 Dative with Adjectives 383. The Dative is used after Adjectives or Adverbs, to denote that to which the given quality is directed, for which it exists, or towards ivhich it tends. Note. — The dative with certain adjectives is in origin a Dative of Purpose or End. 384. The Dative is used vrith adjectives (and a few Adverbs) of fitness, nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites : ^ nihil est tarn naturae aptum (Lael. 17), nothing is so fitted to nature. nihil difficile amanti puto (Or. 33), I think nothing hard to a lover. castris idoneum locum delegit (B. G. i. 49), he selected a place suitable for a camp. tribiini nobis sunt amici (Q. Fr. i. 2. 16) , the tribunes are friendly to us. esse propitius potest nemini (N. D. i. 124), he can be gracious to nobody. magnis autem viris prosperae semper omnes res (id. ii. 167), but to great men everything is always favorable. sedes huic nostro non importuna sermoni (De Or. iii. 18), a place not unsuit- able for this conversation of ours. cui fundo erat affinis M. Tullius (Tull. 14), to which estate Marcus Tullius was next neighbor. convenienter naturae vivere (Off. iii. 13), to live in accordance with nature {ofioXoyov/j.^ vojs t^ (piLKrei). Note 1. — So, also, in poetic and colloquial use, with idem : as, — invitum qui servat idem facit occidenti (Hor. A. P. 467), he who saves a man against his will does the same as one loho kills hhn. Note 2. — Adjectives of likeness are often followed by atque (ac), as. So also the adverbs aeque, pariter, similiter, etc. The pronouu idem has regularly atque or a relative : — si parera sapientiam habet ac formam (Plaut. Mil. 1251), if he has sense equal to his beauty (like as his beauty), te suspicor elsdem rebus quibus me ipsum commoverl (Cat. M. 1), I suspect you are disturbed by the same things by which I am. 385. Other constructions are sometimes found where the dative might be expected : — • a. Adjectives of fitness or use take oftener the Accusative with ad to denote the purpose or end ; but regularly the Dative oi persons : — aptus ad rem m!litarem,,^i /or a soldier's duty. locus ad insidias aptior (Mil. 53), a place fitter for lying in ivait. nobis utile est ad hanc rem (cf. Ter. And. 287), it is of use to us for this thing. 1 Adjectives of this kind are accommodatus, aptus ; amicus, inimicus, infestus, invisus, molestus ; idoneus. opportunus, proprius; iitilis, inutills; affinis, finitimus, propinquus, vicinus ; par, dispar, similis, dissimilis ; iucundus, g:ratus ; notus, ignotus, and others. §385] DATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES 239 b. Adjectives and nouns of inclination and the like may take the Accusative with in or erga : — comis in uxorem (Hor, Ep. ii. 2. 133), kind to his wife. divlna bonitas erga homines (N. D. ii. 60), the divine goodness towards men. de benevolentia quam quisque habeat erga nos (Off. i. 47), in regard to each man's good will which he has towards us. gratiorem me esse in te (Earn. xi. 10), that I am more grateful to you. c. Some adjectives of likeness, nearness, belonging, and a few others, ordinarily requiring the Dative, often take the Possessive Genitive : — ^ quod ut illi proprium ac perpetuum sit . . . optare debetis (Manil. 48), which you ought to pray may he secure (his own) and lasting to him. [Dative.] fuit hoc quondam proprium populi Romani (id. 32), this.was once the peculiar char oMeristic of the Boman people. [Genitive.] cum utrique sis maxime necessarius (Att. ix. 7 a), since you are especially hound to both. [Dative.] procurator aeque utriusque necessarius (Quinct. 86), an agent alike closely connected with hoth. [Genitive.] 1. The genitive is especially used with these adjectives when they are used wholly or approximately as nouns : — amicus Ciceroni, friendly to Cicero. But, Ciceronis amicus, a friend of Cicero ; and even, Ciceronis amicissimus, a very great friend of Cicero. creticus et eius aequalis paean (Or. 215), the cretic and its. equivalent thepcean. hi erant affines istius (Verr. ii. 36), these were this man^ s fellows. 2. After similis, like, the genitive is more common in early writers. Cicero regularly uses the genitive of persons, and either the genitive or the dative of things. With personal pronouns the genitive is regular (mei, tui, etc.), and also in veri similis, probable : — domini similis es (Ter. Eun. 496), you We like your master (your master's lil?:6). ut essemus similes deorum (N. D. i. 91), that loe might be like the gods. est similis maiorum suom (Ter. Ad. 411), he's like his ancestors. patris similis esse (Off. i. 121), to be like his father. simia quam similis turpissima bestia nobis (N. D. i. 97, quoted from Enn.), how like us is that wretched beast the ape ! si enim hoc illl simile sit, est illud huic (id. i. 90), for if this is like that, that is like this. Note. — The genitive in this construction is not objective like those in 5 .349. but possessive (cf . § 343) . For the Dative or Accusative with propior, proximus, propius, proxime, see § 432. a. 1 Such are aequalis, affinis, alienus, amicus, cognatus, communis, consanguineus, contra rius, dispar, familiaris, finitimus, inimicus, necessarius, par, peculiaris, propinquus, proprius (reguhirly genitive), sacer, similis, superstes, vicinus. 240 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§386,387 ACCUSATIVE CASE 386. The Accusative originally served to connect the noun more or less loosely with the verb-idea, whether expressed by a verb proper or by a verbal noun or adjec- tive. Its earliest use was perhaps to repeat the verb-idea as in the Cognate Accusative {run a race, fight a battle, see § 390) . From this it would be a short step to the Factitive Accusative (denoting the result of an act, as in make a table, drill a hole, cf. § 273. n.I). From this last could easily come the common accusative (of Affecting, break a table, plug a hole, see § 387. a) . Traces of all these uses appear in the language, and the loose connection of noun with verb-idea is seen in the use of stems in composition (cf . § 265. 3) A It is impossible, however, to derive the various constructions of the accusative with certainty from any single function of that case. The uses of the accusative may be classified as follows : (1. Directly affected by the Action (§ 387. a), o -^^e X i.^t- A ^- f Thing produced (§ 387. a) . 2. Effect of the Action -^ ^ *,^ . ,.^^ /zocJw { Cognate Accusative (§ 390) . (1. Predicate Accusative (Of Naming etc.) (§ 393). 2. Of Asking or Teaching (§ 396) . 3. Of Concealing (§ 396. c). 1. Adverbial (§ 397. a). 2. Of Specification (Greek Accusative) (§ 397. b). 3. Of Extent and Duration (§§ 423, 425). 4. Of Exclamation (§ 397. d). 5. Subject of Infinitive (§ 397. e). III. Idiomatic Uses: Direct Object 387. The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the Ac- cusative (§ 274). a. The Accusative of the Direct Object denotes (1) that which is directly affected, or (2) that which is caused or produced by the action of the verb : — (1) Brutus Caesarem interfecit, Brutus killed CcBsar. (2) aedem facers, to make a temple. [Cf . proelium pugnare, to fight a battle, § 390.] Note. — There is no definite line by which transitive verbs can be distinguished from intransitive. Verbs which usually take a direct object (expressed or implied) are called transitive, but many of these arc often used intJ^ansitively or absolutely. Thus timeo, I fear, is transitive in the sentence inimicum timeo, I fear my enemy, but Intransitive (absolute) in noli timere, don't be afraid. Again, many verbs are transi- tive in one sense and intransitive in another: as, — Helvetios superavgrunt RomanT, the Romans overcame the Helvetians ; but nihil superabat, nothing remained (was left over) . So also many verbs commonly intransitive may be used transitively with a slight change of meaning: as, — rides, yow are laughing; but mg rides, you're laughing at me. 1 Compare armiger, armor-bearer, with arma gerere, to bear arms ; fldicen, lyre-player, with fldibus canere, to (play on) sing to the lyre. Compare also istanc tactio (Plaut.), the [act of] touching her, with istanc tangere, to touch her (§ 388. d. N.^). §§ 387, 888] ACCUSATIVE OF DIRECT OBJECT 241 ho The object of a transitive verb in the active voice becomes its subject in the passive, and is put in the nominative (§ 275) : — Brutus Caesarem interfecit, Brutus killed Ccesar. Caesar a Bruto interfectus est, Coesar was killed by Brutus. domum aedificat, he builds a house. domus aedificatur, the house is building (being built). 388. Certain special verbs require notice. a. Many verbs apparently intransitive, expressing feeling, take an accusative, and may be used in the passive : • — meum casum luctumque dolueruiit (Sest. 145), they grieved at my calamity and sorrow. si non Acrisium risissent luppiter et Venus (Hor. Od. iii. 10. 5), if Jupiter and Venus had not laughed at Acrisius. rldetur ab omni conventu (Hor. S. i. 7. 22), he is laughed at by the whole assembly. For the Cognate Accusative witli verbs of ta^te, smell, and the like, see § 390. a. Note. — Some verbs commonly intransitive may be used transitively (especially in poetry) from a similarity of meaning with other verbs that take the accusative ; — gemens ignominiam (Georg. iii. 226), groaning at the disgrace. [Cf. doleo.] festinare fugam (Aen. iv. 575), to hasten tlieir flight. [Cf. accelero.] comptos arsit crinis (Hor. Od. iv. 9. 13), she burned loith love for his well-combed locks. [Cf. adamo.] b. Verbs of motion, compounds of circum, trans, and praeter, and a few others, frequently become transitive, and take the accusative (cf. §370. b):-~ mortem oblre, to die (to meet death). consulatum ineunt (Li v. ii. 28), they enter upon the consulship. ueminem couveni (Fam. ix. 14), I met no one. si Insulam adisset (B. G. iv. 20), if he should go to the island. transire flumen (id. ii. 23), to cross the river (cf. § 395). elves qui circumstant senatum (Cat. i. 21), the citizens who stand about the senate. Note. — Among such verbs are some compounds of ad, in, per, and sub. c. The accusative is used after the impersonals decet, dedecet, delec- tat, iuvat, oportet, fallit, f ugit, praeterit : — ita ut vos decet (Plant. Most. 729), so as befits you. me pedibus delectat claudere verba (Hor. S. ii. 1. 28), my delight is (it pleases me) to arrange words in measure. nisi me fallit, unless I am mistaken (unless it deceives me), itivit me tibi tuas litteras profuisse (Fam. v. 21. 8), it pleased me that your literary studies had profited you. te non praeterit (Fam. i. 8. 2), it does not escape your notice. 242 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§388-390 Note 1. — So after latet in poetry and post-classical prose: as, — latet plerosque (Pliu. N. H. ii. 82), it is u7iknow7i to most persons. Note 2. — These verbs are merely ordinary transitives with an idiomatic significa- tion. Hence most of them are also used personally. Note 3. — Decet and latet sometimes take the dative : — ita nobis decet (Ter. Ad. 928), thus it befits us. hostique Roma latet (Sil. It. xii. (314), and Rome lies hidden from the foe. d, A few verbs in isolated expressions take the accusative from a forcing of their meaning Such expressions are : — ferire foedus, to strike a treaty (i.e. to sanction by striking down a victim), vincere indicium (sp6nsi5nem, rem, h5c), to prevail on a trial, etc. [As if the case were a diflBculty to overcome ; cf. vincere iter, Aen. vi, 688.] aequor navigare (Aen. i. 67), to sail the sea. [As if it were transire, § 388. b.] maria aspera iuro (id. vi. 351), I swear by the rough seas (cf, id. vi. 32-i). [The accusative with verbs of swearing is chiefly poetic] noctis dormire, to sleep [whole] nights (to spend in sleep). Note 1. — These accusatives are of various kinds. The last example approaches the cognate construction (cf. the second example under § 390). Note 2. — In early and popular usage some nouns and adjectives derived from tran- sitive verbs retain verbal force sufficient to govern the accusative : — quid tibi istanc tactio est (Plant. Poen. 1308), what business have you to touch her? [Cf . tang5.] mirabundl bestiam (Ap. Met. iv. 16), full of wonder at the creature. [Cf. miror.] vitabundus castra (Liv. xxv. 13), tiding to avoid the camp. [Cf. vito.] 389. Many verbs ordinarily transitive may be used absolutely^ having their natural object in the ablative with de (§ 273. N. 2): — priusquam Pomponius de eius adventu cognosceret (B. C. iii. 101), before, Pomponius could learn of his coming. [Cf. eius adventu cognito, his arrival being discovered.] For Accusative and Genitive after Impersonals, see § 354. b. For the Accusative after the impersonal Gerundive with esse, see § 500. 3. Cognate Accusative 390. An intransitive verb often takes the Accusative of a noun of kindred meaning, usually modified by an adjective or in some other manner. This construction is called the Cognate Accusative or Accusative of Kindred Signification : — tiitiorem vitam vivere (Verr. ii. 118), to live a safer life. tertiam iam aetatem hominum vivebat (Cat. M. 31), he was now living the third generation of men. servitutem servire, to be in slavery. coire societatem, to [go together and] form an alliance. §390J COGNATE ACCUSATIVE 243 a. Verbs of taste^ smelly and the like take a cognate accusative of the quality : — vinum redolens (Phil. ii. 63), smelling [of] wine. herbam mella sapiunt (Plin. H. N. xi. 18), the honey tastes [of] grass. olere malitiam (Rose. Com. 20), to have the odor of malice. Cordubae natis poetis, pingue quiddam sonantibus atque peregrinum (Arch. 26), to poets born at Cordova, whose speech had a somewhat thick and foreign accent. b. The cognate accusative is often loosely used by the poets : — huic error! similem [errorem] insanlre (Hor. S. ii. 3. 62), to suffer a delusion like this. saltare Cyclopa (id. i. 5. 63), to dance the Cyclops (represent in dancing). Bacchanalia vivere (luv. ii. 3), to live in revellings. Amaryllida resonare (Eel. i. 5), to reecho [the name of] Amaryllis. intonuit laevum (Aen. ii. 693), it thundered on the left. dulce ridentem, dulce loquentem (Hor. Od. i. 22. 23), sweetly smiling, sweetly prattling. acerba tuens (Aen, ix. 794), looking fiercely. [Cf. Eng. "to look daggers."] torvum clamat (id. vii. 399), he cries harshly. c- A neuter pronoun or an adjective of indefinite meaning is very common as cognate accusative (cf. §§ 214. d, 397. a): — Empedocles multa alia peccat (N. D. i. 29), Empedocles commits many other errors. ego illud adsentior Theophrasto (De Or. iii. 184), in this I agree with Theo- phrastus. multum te ista fefellit opinio (Verr, ii. 1. 88), you were much deceived in this expectation (this expectation deceived you much) . plus valeo, I have more strength. plurimum potest, he is strongest. quid me ista laedunt (Leg. Agr. ii. 32), what harm do those things do me ? hoc te moneo, I give you this warning (cf. d. n. i). id laetor, I rejoice at this (cf. d. n. i). quid moror, why do I delay f quae homines arant, navigant, aedificant (Sail. Cat. ii. 7), what men do in ploughing, sailing, and building. d. So in many common phrases : — si quid ille se velit (B. G. i. 34), if he should want anything of him (if he should want him in anything). numquid, Geta, aliud me vis (Ter. Ph. 151), can I do anything more for you, Geta (there is nothing you want of me, is there)? [A common form of leave-taking.] quid est quod, etc., why is it that, etc.? [Cf. hoc erat quod (Aen. ii. 664), was it for this that, etc.?] 244 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§390-393 Note 1. — In these cases substantives with a definite meaning would bo in pome other construction : — in hoc eodem peccat, he errs in this same point. bonis rebus laetarl, to rejoice at prosperity . [Also: in, de, or ex.] de testaments monere, to remind one of the will. [Later ; genitive, § 351.] offici admonere, to remind one of his duty. [Also: de officio,] Note 2. — In some of these cases the connection of the accusative with the verb has so faded out that the words have become real adverbs : as, — multum, plfls, piarimum ; plerumque, /or the most part, generally; ceterum, cetera, /or the rest, otherwise, but; l>nmviin, first; nihil, by no means, not at all; aliquid, someiohat ; qnii, why; fdcil^, easily. So in the comparative of adverbs (§ 218). But the line cannot be sharply drawn, and some of the examples under 6 may be classed as adverbial. Two Accusatives 391. Some transitive verbs take a second accusative in addi- tion to their Direct Object. This second accusative is either (1) a Predicate Accusative or (2) a Secondary Object. Predicate Accusative 392. An accusative in the Predicate referring to the same per- son or thing as the Direct Object, but not in apposition with it, is called a Predicate Accusative. 393. Verbs of naming, choosing^ appointing, making, esteeming, showing, and the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along with the direct object : — o Spartace, quem enim te potius appellem (Phil. xiii. 22), Spartaciis, for what else shall I call you (than Spartacus) ? Ciceronem consulem creare, to elect Cicero consul. me augurem nominaverunt (Phil. ii. 4), they nominated me for augur. cum gratias ageret quod se consulem fecisset (De Or. ii. 268), when he thanked him because he had made him consul (supported his candidacy). hominem prae se neminem putavit (Rose. Am. 135), he thought nobody a man in comparison with himself. ducem se praebuit (Vat. 33), he offered himself as a leader. Note. — The predicate accusative may be an adjective: as, — homines mitis red- didit et mansuetos (Inv. 1. 2), has made men mild and gentle. a. In changing from the active voice to the passive, the Predicate Accusative becomes Predicate Nominative (§ 284) : — rex ab suis appellatur (B. G. viii. 4), /le is called king by his subjects. [Active : sui eum regem appellant.] §§ 394, 395] ACCUSATIVE OF THE SECONDARY OBJECT 245 Secondary Object 394. The Accusative of the Secondary Object is used (along with the direct object) to denote something more remotely affected by the action of the verb. 395. Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes take (in addition to the direct object) a Secondary Object, origi- nally governed by the preposition : — Caesar Germanos flumen traicit (B. C. i. 83), Ccesar throws the Germans across the river. idem ius iurandum adigit Afranium (id. i. 76), he exacts the same oath from Afranius. quos Pompeius omnia sua praesidia circumduxit (id. iii. 61), whom Pompey conducted through all his garrison. Note 1. — This construction is common only with traduco, traici5, and transports. The preposition is sometimes repeated with compounds of trans, and usually with compounds of the other prepositions. The ablative is also used : — donee res suas trans Halyn flumen traicerent (Liv. xxxviii. 25), till they should get their possessions across the river Halys. (exercitus) Pado traiectus Cremonam (id. xxi. 56), the army was conveyed across the Po to Cj^emona (by way of the Po, § 429. a). Note 2. — The secondary object may be retained with a passive verb : as, — Belgae Rhenum traducti sunt (B. G. ii. 4), the Belgians were led over the Rhine. Note 3. — The double construction indicated in § 395 is possible only when the force of the preposition and the force of the verb are each distinctly felt in the compound, the verb governing the direct, and the preposition the secondary object. But often the two parts of the compound become closely united to form a transitive verb of simple meaning. In this case the compound verb is transitive solely by virtue of its prepositional part and can have but one accusative, — the same which was for- merly the secondary object, but which now becomes the direct. So traicio comes to mean either (1) to pierce (anybody) [by hurling] or (2) to cross (a river etc.): — gladi6 hominem traiecit, he pierced the man with a sword. [Here iacio has lost all transitive force, and serves simply to give the force of a verb to the mean- ing of trans, and to tell the manner of the act.] Rhodanum traiecit, he crossed the Rhone. [Here iacio has become simply a verb of motion, and traicio is hardly distinguishable from transeo.] In these examples hominem and Rhodanum, which would be secondary objects if traiecit were used in its primary signiiication, have become the direct objects. Hence in the passive construction they become the subjects and are put in the nominative : — homo traiectus est gladio, the man was pierced with a sword. Rhodanus traiectus est, the Rhone was crossed. The poetical traiectus lora (Aen. ii. 273) , pierced with thongs, comes from a mixture of two constructions : (1) eum traiecit lora, he rove thongs through him,^ and (2) eum traiecit loris, he pierced him icith thongs. In putting the sentence into a passive form, the direct object of the former (lora) is irregularly kept, and the direct object of the latter (eum) is made the subject. 1 Perhaps not found in the active, but cf. traiecto fune (Aen. v. 488). 246 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§396 396. Some verbs of ashing and teaching may take two accusa- tives, one of the Person (direct object)^ and the other of the Thing {secondary object) : — me sententiam rogavit, he asked me my opinion. otium divos rogat (Hor. Od. ii. 16. 1), he prays the gods for rest. haec praetorem postulabas (Tull. 39), you demanded this of the proetor. aedilis populum rogare (Liv. vi. 42), to ask the people [to elect] oediles. docere pueros elementa, to teach children their A B Cs. Note. — This construction is found in classical authors with oro, posco, reposco, rogo, interrogo, flagito, doceo. a. Some verbs of asking take the ablative of the person with a preposition instead of the accusative. So, always, peto (ab), quaero (ex, ab, de); usually posco (ab), flagito (ab), postulo (ab), and occa- sionally others : — pacem ab Romanis petierunt (B. G. ii. 13), they sought peace from the Bomans. quod quaesivit ex me P. Apuleius (Phil. vi. 1), what Pubiius Apuleius asked of me. h. With the passive of some verbs of asking or teaching, the^er- son or the thing may be used as subject (cf. c. n. ^) : — Caesar sententiam rogatus est, CcBsar was asked his opinion. id ab eo flagitabatnr (B. C. i. 71), this was urgently demanded of him. Note. — The accusative of the thing may be retained with the passive of rogo, and of verbs of teaching, and occasionally with a few other verbs : — fuerant hoc rogati (Gael. 64), they had been asked this. poscor meum Laelapa (Ov. M. vii. 771), / am asked for my Lselaps. Cicero cuncta edoctus (Sail. Cat. 45), Cicero, being informed of everything. But with most verbs of asking in prose the accusative of the thing becomes the subject nominative, and the accusative of the person is put in the ablative with a preposition: as, — ne postulantur quidem vires a senectute (Cat. M. 34), strength is not even expected of an old man (asked from old age) . c. The verb celo, conceal^ may take two accusatives, and the usually intransitive lateo, lie hid, an accusative of the person : — non te celavi sermonem T. Ampi (Fam. ii. 16. 3), I did not conceal from you the talk of Titus Ampius. nee latuere doll fratrem lunonis (Aen. 1. 130), nor did the wiles of Juno escape the notice of her brother. Note 1. — The accusative of the person with lateo is late or poetical (§ 388. c. n. i). Note 2. — All the double constructions indicated in § 396 arise from the waver- ing meaning of the verbs. Thus doceo means both to show a thing, and to instruct a person ; celo, to keep a person in the dark, and to hide a thing ; rogo, to question a person, and to ask a question or a thing. Thus either accusative may be regarded as the direct object, and so become the subject of the passive (cf. b above), but for convenience the accusative of the thing is usually called secondary. § 397] IDIOMATIC USES OF THE ACCUSATIVE 247 Idiomatic Uses 397. The Accusative has the following special uses : — a. The accusative is found in a few adverbial phrases (Adverbial Accusative) : — id temporis, at that time ; id (istiic) aetatis, at that age. id (quod) genus, of that {what) sort (perliaps originally nominative). meam vicem, on my part. bonam partem, in a great measure ; maximam partem, for the most part. virile (muliebre) secus, of the male {female) sex (probably originally in apposition). quod si, but if (as to wMch, if) ; quod nisi, if not. » h. The so-called synecdochical or Greek Accusative, found in poetry and later Latin, is used to denote the part affected : — caput nectentur (Aen. v. 309), their heads shall he hound (they shall be bound about the head). ardentis ocul5s suffecti sanguine et igni (id. ii. 210), their glaring eyes blood- shot and blazing with fire (suffused as to their eyes with blood and fire). nuda genu (id, i. 320), with her knee hare (bare as to the knee). femur tragula ictus (Li v. xxi. 7. 10), wounded in the thigh by a dart. Note. — This construction is also called the Accusative of Specificatiouo c. In many apparently similar expressions the accusative may be regarded as the direct object of a verb in the middle voice (§ 156. a) : Lniitile ferrum cingitur (Aen. ii. 510), he girds on the useless steel. nodo sinus collecta fluentis (id. i. 320), having her flowing folds gathered in a knot. umeros insternor pelle leonis (id. ii. 722), I cover my shoulders with a lion'^s skin. protinus induitur faciem cultumque Dianae (Oy. M. ii. 425), forthwith she assumes the shape and garb of Diana. d. The Accusative is used in Exclamations : — o f ortunatam rem publicam, O fortunate republic ! [Cf. o fortiinata mora (Phil. xiv. 31), oh, happy death! (§339. a).] o me infelicem (Mil. 102), oh., unhappy I ! me miserum, ah, wretched me ! en quattuor aras (Eel. v. 65), lo,four altars! ellum (= em ilium), there he is ! [Cf. § 146. a. n. 2.] eccos (= ecce eos), there they are, look at them! pro deum fidem, good heavens (0 protection of the gods) I hocine saeclum (Ter. Ad. 304), this generation! huncine hominem (Verr. v. 62), this man, good heavens I 248 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§397,398 Note 1. — Such expressions usually depend upon some long-forgotten verb. The substantive is commonly accompanied by an adjective. The use of -ne in some cases suggests an original question, as in quid? what? why? tell me. Note 2. — The omission of the verb has given rise to some other idiomatic accusa- tives. Such are : — salutem (sc. dicit) (in addressing a letter), greeting. me dius fidius (sc. adiuvet), so help me heaven (the god of faith), unde mihl lapidem (Hor. S. ii. 7. IIG), where can I get a stone? quo mihi fortunam (Hor. Ep. i. 5. 12), of what use to me is fortune? [No verb thought of.] e. The subject of an infinitive is in the accusative : — intellego te sapere (Fam. vii. 32. 3), I perceive that you are wise. eas res iactarl nolebat (B. G. i. 18), he was unwilling that these matters should «♦ be discussed. Note. — This construction is especially common -with verbs of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving (§580). /, The accusative in later writers is sometimes used in apposition with a clause : — deserunt tribunal . . . manus intentantes, causam discordiae et initium armo- rum (Tac. Ann. i. 27), they abandon the tribunal shaking their fists, — a cause of dissension and the beginning of ^jimr. Note. — This construction is an extension (under Greek influence) of a usage more nearly within the ordinary rules, such as, — Eumenem prodidere Antiocho, pacis merce- dem (Sail. Ep. Mith. 8), iheij betrayed Eumenes to Antiochus, theprice of peace. [Here Eumenes may be regarded as the price, although the real price is the betrayal.] For the Accusative of the End of Motion, see § 427. 2 ; for the Accusative of Dura- tion of Time and Extent of Space, see §§ 423, 425 ; for the Accusative with Prepositions, see § 220. ABLATIVE CASE 398. Under th» name Ablative are included the meanings and, in part, the forms of three cases, — the Ablative proper, expressing the relation from; the Locative, IN ; and the Instrumental, with or by. These three cases were originally not wholly distinct in meaning, and their confusion was rendered more certain (1) by the develop- ment of meanings that approached each other and (2) by phonetic decay, by means of which these cases have become largely identical in form. Compare, for the first, the phrases a parte dextera, on the right; quam ob causam, from which cause; ad famam, at (in consequence of) the report; and, for the second, the like forms of the dative and ablative plural, the old dative in -e of the fifth declension (§ 90), and the loss of the original -d of the ablative (§ 49. e; cf. §§ 43. n. i, 92./, 214. a. n.). The relation of from includes separation, source, cause, agent, and comparison; that of WITH or by, accompaniment, instrument, means, manner, quality, and pjice ; that of IN or at, place, time, circumstance. This classification according to the original cases (to which, however, too great a degree of certainty should not be attached)! is set forth in the following table: — 1 Thus the Ablative of Cause may be, at least in part, of Instrumental origin, and the Ablative Absolute appears to coml)ine the Instrumental and the Locative. §§ 398-401] ABLATIVE OF SEPARATION 249 I. Ablative Proper {from) {Separative): II. Instrumental Ablative {with): 1. Of Separation, Privation, and Want (§400). 2. Of Source (participles of origin etc.) (§403). 3. Of Cause (labor5, exsilio, etc.) (§404). 4. Of Agent (witli ab after Passives) (§ 405). 5. Of Comparison (than) (§40G). 1. Of Manner, Means, and Instrument (§408ff.). 2. Of Object of the Deponents utor etc. (§ 410). 3. Of Accompaniment (with cum) (§413). 4. Of Degree of Difference (§ 414) . 5. Of Quality (with Adjectives) (§415). 6. Of Price and Exchange (§ 416) . 7. Of Specification (§418). 8. Ablative Absolute (§419). III. Locative Ablative {in, T 1. Of Place w;7iere (commonly with in) (§421). , on, at): \ 2. Of Time and Circumstance (§ 423). 399. The Ablative is used to denote the relations expressed in English by the prepositions /rom; m, at; witli^ hy : — liberare metu, to deliver from fear. excultus doctrina, trained in learning. hoc ipso tempore, at this eery time. caecus avaritia, blind with avarice. occisus gladio, slain hy the sword. USES OF TEE ABLATIVE PROPER Ablative of Separation 400. Words signifying Separation or Privation are followed by the ablative. 401. Verbs meaning to remove^ setfree^ be absent^ deprive^ and want^ take the Ablative (sometimes with ab or ex) : — oculis se privavit (Fin. v. 87), he deprived himself of eyes. omni Gallia Romanis interdicit (B, G. i. 46), he (Ariovistus) bars the Romans from the whole of Gaul. e! aqua et igni interdlcitur (Veil. ii. 45), he is debarred the use of fire and water. [The regular formula of banishment.] volaptatibus carere (Cat. M. 7), to lack enjoyments. non egeo medicina (Lael. 10), I want no physic. levamur superstitione, llberamur mortis metu (Fin. i. 63), we are relieved from superstition, we are freed from fear of death. soluti a ctipiditatibus (Leg. Agr. i. 27), freed from desires. multos ex his incommodis peciinia se liberasse (Verr. v. 23), that many have freed themselves by money from these inconveniences. For the Genitive with verbs of separation and want, see § 35G. n. 250 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 402, 403 402. Verbs compounded with a, ab, de, ex, (1) take the simple Ablative when u^Q(i figuratively ; but (2) when used literally to denote actual separation or motion^ they usually require a prepo- sition (§ 426. 1) : — (1) conatu desistere (B. G. i. 8), to desist from the attempt. desine communibus locis (Acad. ii. 80), quit commonplaces. abire magistratu, to leave one^s office. abstinere iniuria, to refrain from wrong. (2) a proposito aberrare (Fin. v. 88), to wander from the point. de provincia decedere (Verr. ii. 48), to withdraw from on£''s province. ab lure abIre (id. ii. 114), to go outside of the law. ex civitate excessere (B. G. vi. 8), they departed from the state. [But cf. finibus suis excesserant (id. iv. 18), they had left their own territory. 1 a magno demissum nomen lulo (Aen. i. 288), a name descended (sent down) from great lulus. For the Dative used instead of the Ablative of Separation, see § 381. For the Abla- tive of the actual place whence in idiomatic expressions, see §§ 427. 1, 428./. a. Adjectives denoting freedom and wa7it are followed by the ablative : — urbs ntida praesidio (Att. vii. 13), the city naked of defence. immunis militia (Liv. i. 43),/ree of military service. plebs orba tribunis (Leg. iii. 9), the people deprived of tribunes. Note. — A preposition sometimes occurs: — a culpa vacuus (Sail. Cat. 14), free from blame. ~ , liberi a delicils (Leg. Agr. i. 27) , free fro7n luxuries. Messana ab his rebus vacua atque nuda est (Verr. iv. 3), Messana is empty and bare of these things. For the Genitive with adjectives of want, see § 349. a. Ablative of Source and Material 403. The Ablative (usually with a preposition) is used to denote the Source from which anything is derived, or the Material of which it consists : — 1. Source : — Rhenus oritur ex Lepontiis (B. G. iv. 10), the Rhine rises in (from) the country of the Lepontii. ab his sermo oritur (Lael. 5), the conversation is begun by (arises from) them. cuius rationis vim atque utilitatem ex illo caelesti Epicuri volumine accepi- mus (N. T). i. 43), of this reasoning we have learned the power and advantage from that divine book of Epicurus. suavitatem odorum qui afiflarentur e floribus (Cat. M. 59), the sweetness of the odors which breathed from the flowers. § 408] ABLATIVE OF SOURCE AND MATERIAL 251 2. Material: — erat totus ex fraude et mendaciS f actus (Clu. 72), he was entirely made up of fraud and falsehood. valvas magnificentiores, ex auro atque ebore perfectiores (Verr. iv. 124), more splendid doors, more finely wrought of gold and ivory. factum de cautibus antrum (Ov. M. i, 576), a cave formed of rocks. templum de marmore pouam (Georg. iii. 13), I'll build a temple of marble. Note 1, — In poetry the preposition is often omitted. Note 2. — The Ablative of Material is a development of the Ablative of Source. For the Genitive of Material, see § 344. a. Participles denoting birth or o^ngin are followed by the Abla- tive of Source, generally without a preposition : — ^ love natus et Maia (N. D. iii. 66), son of Jupiter and Maia. edite regibus (Hor. Od. i. 1. 1), descendant of kings. quo sanguine cretus (Aen. ii. 74), born of what blood. genitae Pandione (Ov. M. vi. 666), daughters of Pandion. Note 1. — A preposition (ab, de, ex) is usually expressed with pronouns, with the name of the mother, and often with that of other ancestors : — ex me hic natus non est sod ex fratre meo (Ter. Ad. 40), this is not my son, but my brother^ s (not born from me, etc.). cum ex utraque [uxore] filius natus esset (De Or. i. 183), each wife having had a son (when a son had been born of each wife). Belus et omnes a Belo (Aen. i. 730), Belus and all his descendants. Note 2. — Rarely, the place of birth is expressed by the ablative of source: as, — desideravit C. Fleginatem Placentia, A. Granium Puteolis (B. C. iii. 71), he lost Cains Fleginas of Placentia, Aulus Granius of Pifteoli. Note 3. — The Roman tribe is regularly expressed by the ablative alone : as, — Q. Verrem Romilia (Verr. i. 23), Quintus Verres of the Romilian tribe. b. Some verbs may take the Ablative of Material without a prep- osition. Such are constare, consistere, and contineri.^ But with con- stare, ex is more common : — domiis amoenitas non aedificio sed silva constabat (Nep. Att. 13), the chdrm of the house consisted not in the buildings but in the woods. ex animo constamus et corpore (Fin. iv. 19), we consist of soul and body. vita corpore et spiritu continetur (Marc. 28), life consists of body and spirit. c. The Ablative of Material without a preposition is used with facere, fieri, and similar words, in the sense of do with, become of: — quid hoc homine faciatis (Verr. ii. 1. 42), what are you going to do with this man ? quid Tulliola mea flet (Fam. xiv. 4. 3), what will become of my dear Tullia 1 quid te futurum est (Verr. ii. 166), v}hat will become of you? 1 As natus, satus, editus, genitus, ortus, prognatus, generatus, cretus, creatus, oriundus. 2 The ablati\e with consistere and cootiueri is probably locative in origin (cf. §431). 252 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 403, 404. d. The Ahlative of Material with ex, and in poetry without a preposition, sometimes depends directly on a noun : • — non pauca pocula ex aurd (Verr. iv. 62), not a few cups of gold. scopulis pendentibus antrum (Aen. i. 166), a cave of hanging rocks. For Ablative of Source instead of Partitive Genitive, see § 346. c. Ablative of Cause 404. The Ablative (with or without a preposition) is used to express Cause : — ^ neglegentia plectimur (Lael, 85), we are chastised for negligence. gubernatoris ars utilitate non arte laudatur (Fin. i. 42), the piloVs skill is praised for its service, not its skill. certis de causis, for cogent reasons. ex vulnere aeger (Rep. ii. 38), disabled hy (from) a wound. mare a sole lucet (Acad. ii. 105), the sea gleams in the sun (from the sun). a. The Ablative of Cause without a preposition is used with laboro (also with ex), exsilio, exsulto, triumpho, lacrimo, ardeo : — doleo te aliis mails laborare (Fam. iv. 3), I am sorry that you suffer with other ills. [Cf. ex aere alieuo laborare (B, C. iii. 22), to labor under debt (from another's money).] exsultare laetitia, triumphare gaudio coepit (Clu. 14), she began to exult in gladness, and triumph in joy. exsilui gaudio (Fam. xvi. 16), I jumped for joy. [Cf. lacrimo gaudid (Ter. Ad. 409), I weep for joy .'] ardere dolore et ira (Att. ii. 19. 5), to be on fire with pain and anger. For gaudeo and glorior, see § 431. h. The motive which influences the mind of the person acting is expressed by the ablative of cause ; the object exciting the emotion often by ob ^ or propter with the accusative : — non ob praedam aut spoliandi cupidine (Tac. H. i. 63), not for booty or through lust of plunder. amicitia ex se et propter s§ expetenda (Fin. ii. 83), friendship must be sought of and for itself. Note. — But these constructions are often confused: as, — parere legibus propter metum (Par. 34), to obey the laws on account of fear. [Here metum is almost equiva- lent to "the terrors of the laAV," and hence propter is used, thous:h the ablative would be more natural.] 1 The cause, in the ablative, is originally source, as is shown by the use of ab, de, ex ; hut when the accusative with ad, ob, is used, the idea of cause arises from nearness. Occasionally it is difficult to distinguish between cause and means (which is the old Instrumental case) or circumstance (which is either the Locative or the Instrumental). 2 Originally a mercantile use: cf. ob decern minSs, /or the price of ten minss. \ §§ 404, 405] ABLATIVE OF AGENT 253 c. The ablatives causa and gratia^ for the sake of, are used with a genitive preceding, or with a pronoun in agreement : — ea causa, on account of this; qua gratia (Ter. Eun. 99), /or vjhat purpose f mea causa, for my sake ; mea gratia (Plant.), for my sake. ex mea et rei publicae causa, for my own sake and the republic'' s. praedictionis causa (N. D. iii. 5), by way of prophecy. exempli gratia (verbi gratia) , for example. sul purgandi gratia, for the sake of clearing themselves. Note. — But gratia with possessives in this use is rare. Ablative of Agent 405. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is expressed by the Ablative with a or ab : — laudatur ab his, culpatur ab illis (Hor. S. i. 2. 11), he is praised by these, blamed by those. ab animo tno quidquid agitur id agitur a te (Tusc. i. 52), whatever is done by your soul is done by yourself. a filiis in iudicium vocatus est (Cat. M. 22), he ivas brought to trial by his sons. cum a cuncto consessu plausus esset multiplex datus (id. 64), when great applause had been given by the whole audience. ne virtus ab audacia vinceretur (Sest. 92), that valor might not be overborne by audacity. [Audacia is in a manner personified. ] Note 1. — This construction is developed from the Ablative of Source. The agent is conceived as the source or author of the action. Note 2. — The ablative of the agent (which requires a or ab) must be carefully distinguished from the ablative of instrument, which has no preposition (§ 409) . Thus — occisus gladio, slain by a sword; but, occisus ab hoste, slain by an enemy. Note 3. — The ablative of the agent is commonest with nouns denoting pe7'sons, but it occurs also with names of things or qualities when these are conceived as performing an action and so are partly or wholly personified, as in the last example under the rule. a. The ablative of the agent with ab is sometimes used after intran- sitive verbs that have a passive sense : — perire ab hoste, to be slain by an enemy. b. The personal agent, when considered as instrument or means, is often expressed by per with the accusative, or by opera with a genitive or possessive : — ab exploratoribus certior f actus est (B. G. i. 21), he was informed by scouts (in person). But, — per exploratores Caesar certior f actus est (id. i. 12), Ccosar ivas informed by (means of) scouts. glautae opera Neptuni (Plant. Rud. 699), washed cleanby the services of Neptune. non mea opera evenit (Ter. Hec. 228), it hasiiH happened through me (by my exertions). [Cf. eius opera, B. G. v. 27.] 254 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§405-40; Note 1. — The ablative of means or instrument is often used instead of the abla- tive of agent, especially in military phrases: as, — haec excubitoribus teuebautur (B. G. vii. 09), these (redoubts) loere held by means of sentinds. Note 2. — An animal is sometimes regarded as the means or instrument, some- times as the agent. Hence both the simple ablative and the ablative with ab occur : — equo vehi, to ride on horseback (be conveyed by means of a horse). [Not ab equo.J clipeos a muribus esse derosos (Div. i. 99), that the shields were gnawed by mice. For the Dative of the Agent vf'ith. the Gerundive, see § 374. Ablative of Comparison 406. The Comparative degree is often followed by the Abla- tive ^ signifying than : — Cato est Cicerone eloquentior, Cato is more eloquent than Cicero. quid nobis duobus laboriosius est (Mil. 5), what more burdened with toil than we two 1 villus argentum est auto, virtutibus aurum (Hor. Ep. i. 1. 52), silver is less precious than gold, gold than virtue. a. The idiomatic ablatives opinione, spe, solito, dicto, aequo, credi- bili, aiid iusto are used after comparatives instead of a clause : — celerius opinione (Fam. xiv. 2S), faster than one would think. serius spe omnium (Liv. xxvi. 26), later than all hoped (than the hope of all), amnis solit5 citatior (id. xxiii. 19. 11), a stream swifte)' than its wont. gravius aequo (Sail. Cat. 51), more seriously than was right. 407. The comparative may be followed by quam, than. When quam is used, the two things compared are put in the same case : non callidior es quam hie (Rose. Am. 49), you are not more cunning than he. c6nti5nibus accommodatior est quamiudiciis (Clu. 2), fitter for popular assem- blies than for courts. misericordia dignior quam contumelia (Pison. 32), more worthy of p)ity than of disgrace. a. The construction with quam is required when the first of the things compared is not in the Nominative or Accusative. Note 1. — There are several limitations on the use of the ablative of comparison, even when the first of the things compared is in the nominative or accusative. Thus the quam construction is regularly used (1) when the comparative is in agreement with a genitive, dative, or ablative : as, — senex est eo meliore condicione quam adules- cens (Cat. M. G8), an old man is in this respect in a better position than a young man ; and (2) when the second member of the comparison is modified by a clause : as, — minor fuit aliquanto is qui primus fabulara dedit quam ei qui, etc. (Brut. 73), he who first presented a play loas somewhat younger than those ivho, etc. 1 This is a branch of the Ablative of Separation, The object with which anything is compared is the starting-point /rom which we reckon. Thus, " Cicero is eloquent " ; but, starting from him, we come to Cato, who is *' more so than he." §407] ABLATIVE OF COMPARISON 255 Note 2. — The poets sometimes use the ablative of comparison where the prose construction requires quam: as, — pane egeo iam mellitis potiore placentis (Hor. Ep. i. 10. 11), I now vmnt bread better than honey-cakes. Note 3. — Relative pronouns having a definite antecedent never take quam in this construction, but always the ablative: as, — rex erat Aeneas nobis, quo iustior alter nee, etc. (Aen. i. 644), Apneas was our king, than whom no other [was] more righteous. b. In sentences expressing or implying a general negative the ablative (rather than quam) is the regular construction when the first member of the comparison is in the nominative or accusative : — nihil detestabilius dedecore, nihil foedius servitute (Phil. iii. 36), nothing is more dreadful than disgrace, nothing viler than slavery. neminem esse cariorem te (Att. x. 8 a. 1), that no one is dearer than you. c. After the comparatives plus, minus, amplius, longius, v^ithout quam, a word of measure or number is often used, with no change in its case : — plus septingenti capti (Liv. xli. 12), more than seven hundred were taken. [Nominative.] plus tertia parte interfecta (B. G. iii. 6), more than a third part being slain. [Ablative Absolute.] aditus in latitudinem non amplius ducentorum pedum relinquebatur (id. ii. 29), an approach of not more than two hundred feet in width was left. [Genitive of Measure: § 345. 6.] Note. — The noun takes the case required by the context, without reference to the comparative, which is in a sort of apposition : "seven hundred were taken [and] more." d. Alius is sometimes followed by the ablative in poetic and collo- quial use ; in formal prose it is followed by ac (atque), et, more rarely by nisi, quam : — - nee quicquara aliud libertate commiini (Fam. xi. 2), nothing else than the com- mon liberty. alius Lysippo (Hor. Ep. ii. 1. 240), another than Lysippus. num aliud videtur esse ac meorum bonorum direptio (Dom. 51), does it seem anything different from the plundering of my property ? erat historia nihil aliud nisi annalium confectio (De Or. ii. 52), history was nothing else but a compiling of records. e. The comparative of an adverb is usually followed by quam, rarely by the ablative except in poetry : — tempus te citius quam oratio deficeret (Rose. Am. 89), time would fail you sooner than words. But, — cur olivum sanguine viperino cautius vitat (Hor. Od. i. 8. 9), why does he shun oil more carefully than viper'' s blood ? Note. — Prepositions meaning before or beyond (as ante, prae, praeter, supra) are sometimes used with a comparative : as, — scelere ante alios immanior oninis (Aen. i. ^7), more monstrous in crime than all other men- 256 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§408,409 USES OF THE ABLATIVE AS INSTRUMENTAL 408. Means, Instrument, Manner, and Accompaniment are denoted by the Instru- mental Ablative (see § ;^98), but some of these uses more commonly require a prepo- sition. As they all come from one source (the old Instrumental Case) no sharp line can be drawn between them, and indeed the Romans themselves can hardly have thought of any distinction. Thus, in omnibus precibus orabaut, they entreated with eve7i/ [kind of] prayer, the ablative, properly that of means, cannot be distinguished from that of manner. Ablative of Means or Instrument 409. The Ablative is used to denote the means or instrument of an action : — certantes pugnis, calcibus, unguibus, morsu denique (Tusc. v. 77), fighting with fists J heels, nails, and even teeth. cum pugnis et calcibus concisus esset (Verr. iii. 56), when he had heenimm- melled with their fists and heels. nieis laboribus iuteritu rem piiblicam llberavi (Sull. 33), by my toils I have saved the state from ruin. multae istarum arborum mea manu sunt satae (Cat. M. 59), many of those trees were set out with my own hands. VI victa vis, vel potius oppressa virtute audacia est (Mil. 30), violence was overcome by violence, or rather^ boldness was put down by courage. a. The Ablative of Means is used with verbs and adjectives of filling, abounding, and the like : — Deus bonis omnibus explevit mundum (Tim. 3), God ha^ filled the world with all good things. aggere et cratibus fossas explent (B. G. vii. 86), they fill up the ditches with earth and fascines. totum monlem hominibus complevit (id. i. 24), he filled the whole mountain with men. opimus praeda (Verr. ii. 1. 132), rich with spoils. vita plena et conferta voluptatibus (Sest.23), lifefilled and crowded with delights. Forum Appi differtum nautis (Hor. S. 1. 5. 4), Forum Appii crammed with bargemen. Note. — In poetry the Genitive is often used with these words. Compleo and impleo sometimes take the genitive in prose (cf . § 356) ; so regularly plenus and (with personal nouns) completus and ref ertus (§ 349. a) : — omnia plena luctus et maeroris fuerunt.(Sest. 128), everything was full of grief and mourning. 611am denariorum implere (Fam. ix. 18), to fill a pot with money. [Here evidently colloquial, otherwise rare in Cicero.] convivium vicinorum compleo (Cat. M. 4<), in the mouth of Cato), I fill up the ban- quet with my neighbors. cum completus mercatorum career esset (Verr. v. 147), lohen the prison was full of trader^. §§ 410, 411] ABLATIVE OF MEANS OR INSTRUMENT 257 410. The deponents utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, with several of their compouncls,^ govern the Ablative : — utar vestra benignitate (Arch. 18), 1 will avail myself of your kindness. ita mihi salva re publica vobiscum perfrul liceat (Cat. iv. 11), so may I enjoy with you the state secure and prosperous. fungi inani munere (Aeu. vi. 885), to perform an idle service. auro heros potitur (Ov. M. vii. 156), the hero takes the gold. lacte et ferina came vescebantur (lug. 89), they fed on milk and game. Note.— This is properly an Ablative of Means {instrumental) and the verbs are really in the middle voice (§ 156. a). Thus utor Mith the ablative signifies I employ myself (or avail myself) by means of, etc. But these earlier meanings disappeared from the language, leaving the construction as we find it. a. Potior sometimes takes the Genitive, as always in the phrase potiri rerum, to get control or be Tnaster of affairs (§ 357. a) : — totius Galliae sese potiri posse sperant (B. G. i. 3), they hope they can get possession of the whole of Gaul. Note 1. — In early Latin, these verbs are sometimes transitive and take the accusative: — functus est officium (Ter. Ph. 281), he performed the part, etc. ille patria potitur commoda (Ter. Ad. 871), he enjoys his ancestral estate. Note 2. — The Gerundive of these verbs is used personally in the passive as if the verb were transitive (but cf. § 500. 3): as, — Heraclio omnia utenda ac possidenda tra- diderat (Verr. ii. 46), he had given over everythiiig to Ileraclius for his use and posses- sion (to be used and possessed). 411. opus and usus, signifying need, take the Ablative: — ^ magistratibus opus est (Leg. iii. 5), there is need of magistrates. nuuc viribus usus (Aen. viii. 441), now there is need of strength. Note. — The ablative with iisus is not common in classic prose. a. With opus the ablative of a perfect participle is often found, either agreeing with a noun or used as a neuter abstract noun : — opus est tua exprompta malitia atque astutia (Ter. And. 723), I must have your best cunning and cleverness set to work. properato opus erat (cf. Mil. 49), there was need of haste. Note 1. — So rarely with iisus in comedy: as, — quid istis usust conscriptis (PI. Bacch. 749), what's the good of having them in writing? Note 2. — The omission of the noun gives rise to complex constructions : as, — quid opus factost (cf. B. G. i. 42), what must be done? [Cf. quid opus est fieri? with quo facto opus est ?] 1 These are abiitor, deutor (very rare) , defungor, dgfnior, perfruor, perfungor. 2 This construction is properly an instrumental one, in which opus and usus mean work and service, and the ablative expresses that with lohich the work is performed or the service rendered. The noun usus follows the analogy of the verb utor, and the a.blative with opus est appears to be an extension of that with iisus est. 258 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§411-413 b. Opus is often found in the predicate, Tvitli the tiling needed in the nominative as subject: — dux nobis et auctor opus est (Fam. ii. 6. 4), we need a chief and responsible adviser (a chief, etc., is necessary for us), si quid ipsi opus esset (B. G. i. 34), if he himself wanted anything (if any- thing should be necessary for him). quae opus sunt (Cato R. R. 14. 3), things which are required. Ablative of Manner 412. The Manner of an action is denoted by the Ablative ; usu- ally with cum, unless a limiting adjective is used with the noun : cum celeritate venit, he came with speed. But, — summa celeritate venit, he came with the greatest speed. quid refert qua me ratione cogatis (Lael. 26), what difference does it make in what way you compel me f a. But cum is often used even when the ablative has a limiting adj ective : — quanto id cum periculo fecerit (B. G. i. 17), at what risk he did this. non minore cum taedio recubant (Plin. Ep. ix. 17. 3), they recline with no less weariness. h. With such words of manner as modo, pacto, ratione, ritu, vi, via, and with stock expressions which have become virtually adverbs (as silentio, iure, iniuria), cum is not used : — apis Matinae more modoque carmina fingo (Hor. Od. iv. 2. 28), in the style and manner of a Matinian bee I fashion songs. Note. — So in poetry the ablative of manner often omits cum: as, — insequitur cu- mulo aquae mons (Aen. i. 105), a mountain of water foUoios in a mass. [Cf. murmure (id. i. 124) ; rimis (id, i. 123),] Ablative of Accompaniment 413. Accompaniment is denoted by the Ablative, regularly with cum: cum coniugibus ac liberis (Att. viii. 2. 3), with wives and children. cum funditoribus sagittariisque flilmen transgress! (B. G. ii. 19), having crossed the river with the archers and slingers. quae supplicatio si cum ceteris conferatur (Cat. iii. 15), if this thanksgiving be compared with others. quae [lex] esse cum tel5 vetat (Mil. 11), the law which forbids [one] to go armed (be with a weapon), si secum suos eduxerit (Cat. i. 30), if he leads out with him his associates. [For sfcum, see § 144. b. n.i.] §§ 413, 414] ABLATIVE OF DEGREE OF DIFFERENCE 259 a. The ablative is used without cum in some military phrases, and here and there by early writers : — subsequebatur omnibus copiis (B. G. ii. 19), he followed close with all his forces. [But also cum omnibus copiis, id. i. 26.] hoc praesidio profectus est (Verr. ii. 1. 86), with this force he set out. Note. — Misceo and iungo, with some of their compounds, and confundo take either (1) the Ablative of Accompaniment with or without cum, or (2) sometimes the Dative (mostly poetical or late) : — mixta dolore voluptas (B. Al. 56), pleasure mingled with pain. cuius auimumcum suo misceat (Lael. 81), whose soul he may mingle with his own. fletumque cruori miscuit (Ov. M. iv. 140), and mingled tears with blood. Caesar eas cohortis cum exercita su5 coniunxit (B. C. i. 18), Csesar united those cohorts with his own army. aer coniunctus terris (Lucr. v. 562) , air united with earth. humano capiti cervicem equinam iimgere (Hor. A. P. 1), to join to a human head a horse's neck. h. Words of Contention and the like require cum : — armis cum hoste certare (Off. iii. 87), to fight with the enemy in arms. libenter liaec cum Q. Catulo disputarem (Manil. 66), I should gladly discuss these matters with Quintus Catulus. Note. — But words of contention may take the Dative in poetry (see § 368. a). Ablative of Degree of Difference 414. With Comparatives and words implying comparison the ablative is used to denote the Degree of Difference : — quinque milibus passuum distat, it is five miles distant. a milibus passnum circiter duobus (B. G. v. 32), at a distance of about two miles. [For a as an adverb, see § 433. 3.] aliquot ante annis (Tusc. 1. 4), several years before. aliquanto post suspexit (Rep. vi. 9), a while after, he looked up. multo me vigilare acrius (Cat. 1. 8), that I watch much more sharply. nihilo erat ipse Cyclops quam aries prudentior (Tusc. v. 115), the Cyclops himself was not a whit wiser than the ram. a. The ablatives quo . . . eo (hoc), and quanto , . . tanto, are used correlatively with comparatives, like the English the . . . the ^ : — quo minus cupiditatis, eo plus auctoritatis (Liv. xxiv. 28), the less greed, the more weight (by what the less, by that the more'). quanto erat gravior oppiignatio, tanto crebriores litterae mittebantur (B. G. V. 45), the severer the siege was, the more frequently letters were sent. 1 In this phrase the is not the definite article but a pronominal adverb, being the Anglo-Saxon thy, the instrumental case of the pronoun thset, that. This pronoun is used both as relative {by which, by how much) and as demonstrative (by that, by so much). Thus the . . = the corresponds exactly to quo . . , eo. 260 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§414,415 Note. — To this construction are doubtless to be referred all cases of quo and eo (hoc) with a comparative, even when they have ceased to be distinctly felt as degree of difference and approach the Ablative of Cause : — eoque me minus paenitet (N. D. i. 8), and for that reason I regret less, etc. (by so much the less I regret), haec eo facilius faciebant, quod (B. G. iii. 12), this they did the more easily for this reason, because, etc. [Of. hoc maiore spe, quod (id. iii. 9).] 6. The Ablative of Comparison (§ 406) and the Ablative of Degree of Difference are sometimes used together with the same adjective : — paulo miaus ducentis (B. C. iii. 28), a little less than two hundred. patria, quae mihi vita mea multo est carior (Cat. i. 27), my country, which is much dearer to me than life. But the construction with quam is more common. Ablative of Quality 415. The quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative with an adjective or genitive modifier. This is called the Descriptive Ablative or Ablative of Quality : — ^ animS meliore sunt gladiatores (Cat. ii, 26), the gladiators are of a better mind. quae cum esset civitfis aequissimo lure ac foedere (Arch. 6), as this ivas a city with perfectly equal constitutional rights. mulierem eximia pulchritudine (Verr. ii, 1. 64), a woman of rare beauty. Aristoteles, vir summo ingenio, scientia, copia (Tusc. i. 7), Aristotle, a man of the greatest genius, learning, and gift of expression. de Domitio dixit versum Graecum eadem sententia (Deiot. 25), concerning Domitius he recited a Greek line of the same tenor. Note. — The Ablative of Quality (like the Genitive of Quality, § 345) modifies a sub- stantive by describing it. It is therefore equivalent to an adjective, and may be either attributive or predicate. In this it differs from other ablatives, which are equivalent to adverbs. a. In expressions of quality the Genitive or the Ablative may often be used indifferently ; hut physical qualities are oftener denoted by the Ablative (cf. § 345. n.) : — capilld sunt promisso (B. G. v. 14), they have long hair. ut capita opertd sit (Cat. M. 34), to have his head covered (to be with covered head), quam f uit inbecillus P. Af ricani f ilius, quam tenul aut nulla potius valetudine (id. 35), hoiu lueak was the son of Africanus, of what feeble health, or rather none at all ! 1 It was originally instrumental and appears to have developed from accompani- ment (§ 413) and manner (§ 412). §§416,417] ABLATIVE OF PRICE 261 Ablative of Price 416. The price of a thing is put in the Ablative : — agrum vendidit sestertium sex milibus, he sold the land for 6000 sesterces. Antonius regna addlxit pecunia (Phil. vii. 15), Antony sold thrones for money. logos ridicules : quis cena poscit (PL Stich. 221), jokes : who wants them fo7 (at the price of) a dinner f magno illi ea ctinctatio stetit (Liv. ii. 36), that hesitation cost him dear. Note. — To this head is to be referred the Ablative of the Penalty (§ 353. 1) . 417. Certain adjectives of quantity are used in the Genitive to denote indefinite value. Such are magni, parvi, tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris : — mea magni interest, it is of great consequence to me. illud parvi refert (Manil. 18), this is of small account. est mihi tanti (Cat. ii. 15), it is worth the price (it is of so much). Verresne tibi tanti fuit (Verr. ii. 1. 77), was Verves of so much account to you ? tantone minoris decumae venierunt (id. iii. 106), were the tithes sold for so much less ? ut te redimas captum quam queas minimo : si nequeas paululo, at quanti queas (Ter. Eun. 74), to ransom yourself when captured, at the cheapest rate you can ; if you canH for a small sum, then at any rate for what you can. Note. — These are really Genitives of Quality (§ 345. b). a. The genitive of certain colorless nouns is used to denote indefi- nite value. Such are nihili (nili), iiothing; assis, a farthing (rare) ; flocci (a lock of wool), a straw : — nOn flocci faciO (Att. xiii. 50), 1 care not a straw. [Colloquial.] utinam ego istuc abs te factum nili penderem (Ter. Eun. 94), that I cared nothing for this being done by you ! [Colloquial.] b. With verbs of exchanging, either the thing taken or the thing given in exchange may be in the Ablative of Price. Such are muto, commuto, permuto, verto : — fidem suam et religionem peciinia commtitare (Clu. 129), to barter his faith and conscience for money. exsilium patria sede niutavit (Q. C. iii. 7. 11), he exchanged his native land for exile (he took exile in exchange for his native land), velox saepe Lucretilem mtitat Lycaeo Faunus (Hor. Od. i. 17. 1), nimble Faunus often changes Lycoeus for Lucretilis. [He takes Lucretilis at the price o/Lycseus, i.e. he goes from Lycseus to Lucretilis.] vertere funeribus triumphos (id. i. 35. 4), to change the triumph to the funeral train (exchange triumphs for funerals). [Poetical.] 262 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 417, 418 Note, — With verbs of exchanging cum is often used, perhaps with a different con- ception of the action: as, — aries . . . cum croceo mutabit vellera luto (Eel. iv. 44), the ram shall change his fleece /or [one dyed with] the yellow safron. c. With verbs of buying and selling the simple Ablative of Price must be used, except in the case of tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris : — quanti earn emit? vili . . . quot minis? quadraginta minis (PL Epid. 51), what did he buy her for ? Cheap. For how many minoe ? Forty. Ablative of Specification 418. The Ablative of Specification denotes that in respect to which anything is or is done : — vlrtute praecedunt (B. G. i. 1), they excel in courage. claudus altero pede (Nep. Ages. 8), lame of one foot. lingua haesitantes, voce absoni (De Or. i. 115), hesitating in speech., harsh in voice. sunt enim homines non re sed nomine (Off. i. 105), /or they are men not in fact., but in name. maior natii, older; minor natu, younger (cf. § 131. c). paulum aetate progress! (Cat. M. 33), somewhat advanced in age. corpore senex esse poterit, animo numquam erit (id. 38), he may be an old man in body, he never will be [old] at heart. a. To this head are to be referred many expressions where the abla- tive expresses that in accordance with which anything is or is done : — meo iure, with perfect right; but, meo modo, in my fashion. mea sententia, in my opinion; but also more formally, ex mea sententia. [Here the sense is the same, but the first ablative is specification, the second source.^ propinquitate conitinctos atque natura (Lael. 50), closely allied by kindred and nature. [Here the ablative is not different in sense from those above, but no doubt is a development of means-l qui vincit viribus (id. 55), loho surpasses in strength. [Here it is impossible to tell whether viribus is the means of the superiority or that in respect to which one is superior. ] Note. — As the Romans had no such categories as we make, it is impossible to classify all uses of the ablative. The ablative of specification (originally instru- mental) is closely akin to that of manner, and shows some resemblance to means and cause. For the Supine in -u as an Ablative of Specification, see § 510. b. The adjectives dignus and indignus take the ablative : — vir patre, avo, maioribus suTs dignissimus (Phil. iii. 25), a man most worthy of his father, grandfather, and ancestors. te omni honore indignissimum itidicavit (Vat. 39), he judged you entirely unworthy of every honor. §§ 418, 419] ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE 263 Note 1. — So the verb dignor in poetry and later prose : as, — hand equidem tali me dignor honore (Aeu. i. 335), I do not deem myself lo or thy of such an honor. Note 2. — Dignus and indignus sometimes take the genitive in colloquial usage and in poetry : — curam dignissimam tuae virtutis (Balbus in Att. viii. 15), care most worthy of your noble character. dignus salutis (Plant. Trin. 1153), worthy of safety. magnorum hand umquam indignus avorum (Aen. xii. 649), never unworthy of my great ancestors. Ablative Absolute 419. A noun or pronoun, with a participle in agreement, may be put in the Ablative to define the time or circumstances of an action. This construction is called the Ablative Absolute : — ^ Caesar, acceptis litteris, nuntium inittit.(B, G. v. 46), having received the letter, CcBsar sends a messenger (the letter having been received), quibus rebus cognitis Caesar apud milites contionatur (B. C. 1. 7), having learned this, CcBsar makes a speech to the soldiers. fugato omnI equitatu (B. G. vii. 68), all the cavalry being put to flight. interfecto Indutiomaro (id. vi. 2), upon the death of Indutiomarus. nondum hieme confecta in finis Nerviorum contendit (id. vi. 3), though the winter was not yet over, he hastened into the territory of the Nervii. compressi [sunt] conattis nullo tumultu piiblice concitato (Cat. i. 11), the attempts were put down without exciting any general alarm. ne vobis quidem omnibus re etiam turn probata (id. ii, 4), since at that time the facts were not yet proved even to all of you. Note. — The ablative absolute is an adverbial modifier of the predicate. It is, however, not grammatically dependent on any word in the sentence: hence its name absolute (absolutus, i.e. free or unconnected) . A substantive in the ablative absolute very seldom denotes a person or thing elsewhere mentioned in the same clause. a. An adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the parti- ciple in the Ablative Absolute construction : — ^ exigua parte aestatis reliqua (B. G. iv. 20), when but a small part of the sum- mer was left (a small part of the summer remaining). L. Domitio Ap. Claudio cousulibus (id. v. 1), in the consulship of Lucius Bomi- tins and Appius Claudius (Lucius Domitius and Appius Claudius [being] consuls). [The regular way of expressing a date, see § 424. g.] nil desperandum Teucro duce et auspice Teucro (Hor. Od. i. 7. 27), there should be no despair under Teucer's leadership and- auspices (Teucer being leader, etc.). 1 The Ablative Absolute is perhaps of instrumental origin. It is, however, some- times explained as an outgrowth of the locative, and in any event certain locative constructions (oi place and time) must have contributed to its development. 2 The present participle of esse, wanting in Latin (§ 170. 6), is used in Sanskrit and Greek as in English. 264 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§419,426 6. A plirase or clause, used substantively, sometimes occurs as ablative absolute with a participle or an adjective : — incerto quid peterent (Liv. xxviii. 36), as it was uncertain what they should aim at (it being uncertain, etc.). comperto vanum esse formldinem (Tac. Ann. i. 60), when it was found that the alarm was groundless. . cur praetereatur demonstrato (Inv. ii. 34), when the reason for omittiyig it has been explained (why it is passed by being explained). Note. — This construction is very rare except in later Latin. c. A participle or an adjective is sometimes used adverbially in the ablative absolute without a substantive : — consulto (Off. i. 27), on purpose (the matter having been deliberated on), mihi optato veneris (Att. xiii. 28. 3), you will come in accordance with my wish. sereno (Liv. xxxi. 12), under a clear sky (it [being] clear). nee auspicato nee litato (id. v. 38), with no auspices or favorable sacrifice. tranquillo, ut ^iunt, quilibet gubernator est (Sen. Ep. 85. 34), in good weather, as they say, any man 's a pilot. 420. The Ablative Absolute often takes the place of a Sub- ordinate Clause. Thus it may replace — 1. A Temporal Clause (§ 541 ff.): — patre interfecto, [his] father having been killed. [This corresponds to cum pater interfectus esset, when his father had been killed.] recentibus sceleris eius vestlgiis (Q. C. vii. 1. 1), while the traces of the crime were fresh. [Cf . dum recentia sunt vestigia. ] 2. A Causal Clause (§ 540) : — at ei qui Alesiae obsidebantur praeterita die qua auxilia su5rum exspecta- verant, c6nsumpt5 omni frumento, concilio coficto consultabant (B. G. vii. 77), but those who were under siege at Alesia, since the time, etc., had expired, and their grain had been exhausted, calling a council (see 5 below), consulted together. [Cf. cum dies praeterisset, etc.] Dareus, desperata pace, ad reparandas virls intendit animum (Q. C. iv. 6. 1), Darius, since he despaired of peace, devoted his energies to recruiting his forces. [Cf. cum pacem desperaret.] 3. A Concessive Clause (§ 527) : — at eo repugnante fiebat (consul), immo vero eo fiebat magis (Mil. 34), but though he (Clodius) opposed, he (Milo) ivas likely to be elected consul; nay, rather, etc. turribus excitatis, tamen has altitudo puppium ex barbaris navibus supe- rabat (B. G. iii. 14), although towers had been built up, still the high stems of the enemy'' s shivs rose above them. §§420-422] ABLATIVE OF PLACE 265 4. A Conditional Clause (§ 521): — occurrebat ei, mancam et debilem praettiram futuram suam, consule Milone (Mil. 25), it occurred to him that his proetorship would be maimed and feeble^ if Milo were consul, [si Milo consul esset.] qua (regione) subacta licebit decurrere in illud mare (Q. C. ix. 3. 13), if this region is subdued, we shall be free to run down into that sea. qua quidem detracta (Arch. 28), if this be taken away. 5. A Clause of Accompanying Circumstance : — ego haec a Chrysogono mea sponte, remoto Sex. Roscio, quaero (Rose. Am. 130), of my own accord, without reference to Sextus Roscius (Sextus Roscius being put aside), I ask these questions of Chrysogonus. nee imperante nee sciente nee praesente domino (Mil. 2i9), without their master'' s giving orders, or knowing it, or being present. Note. — As the English Nominative Absolute is far less common than the Abla- tive Absolute in Latin, a change of form is generally required in translation. Thus the present participle is oftenest to be rendered in English by a relative clause with when or while; and the perfect passive participle by the perfect active participle. These changes may be seen in the following example : — At illi, intermisso spatio, imprudenti- But they, having paused a space, while bus nostrls atque occupdtls in miimtione our men were U7iaware and busied in for- castrorum, subito se ex silvis eiecerunt ; tifying the camp, suddenly threw them- impetuqae in eos facto qui erant in sta- selves out of the woods ; then, making an tione pro castris conlocati, acriter pug- attack upon those who were on guard in naverunt ; dudbusque missis subsidio front of the camp, they fought fiercely ; cohortibus a Caesare, cum hae (perexi- and, though two cohorts had been sent by guo intermisso loci spatio inter se) con- Caesar as reinforcements, after these had stitissent, novo genere pugnae perterritls taken their position {leaving very little nostrls, per medios audacissime perrupe- space of ground between them), as our runt seque inde incolumis receperunt.— men were ak&med by the strange kind Caesar, B. G. v. 15. of fighting, they dashed most daringly through the midst of them and got off safe. For the Ablative with Prepositions, see § 220. THE ABLATIVE AS LOCATIVE Ablative of Place 421. The Locative Case was originally used (literally) to denote the p^ace where and (figuratively) to denote the time when (a development from the idea of place) . But this case was preserved only in names of towns and a few other words, and the place lohere is usually denoted by the Ablative. In this construction the Ablative was, no doubt, used at first without a preposition, but afterwards it became associated in most instances with the preposition in. 422. In expressions of Time and Place the Latin shows a variety of idiomatic constructions (Ablative, Accusative, and Loc- ative), which are systematically treated in § 423 ff. 266 SYNTAX ; CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 423, 424 TIME AND PLACE Time 423. Time when, or within which, is expressed by the Abla- tive ; time how long by the Accusative. 1. Ablative : — c5nstituta die, on the appointed day ; prima luce, at daybreak. quota hora, at what o''clock? tertiavigilia, in the third watch. tribus proximis annis (lug. 11), within the last three years. diebus viginti quinque aggerem exstruxerunt (B. G. vii. 24), within twenty- Jive days they finished building a mound. 2. Accusative : — dies continuos trlginta, for thirty days together. cum triduum iter fecisset (B. G. ii. 16), when he had marched three days. Note. —The Ablative of Time is locative in its origin (§ 421) ; the Accusative is the same as that of the extent of space (§ 425). 424. Special constructions of time are the following : — ^" a. The Ablative of time ivithin which sometimes takes in, and the Accusative of time how long per, for greater precision : — in diebus proximis decern (lug. 28), within the next ten days. ludl per decern dies (Cat. iii. 20), games for ten days. h. Duration of time is occasionally expressed by the Ablative: — milites quinque horis proelium sustinuerant (B. C. i. 47), the men had sus- tained the fight five hours. Note. — In this use the period of time is regarded as that within which the act is done, and it is only implied that the act lasted through the period. Cf. inter annos quattuordecim (B. G. i. 36) , for fourteen years. c. Time during which or within which may. be expressed by the Accusative or Ablative of a noun in the singular, with an ordinal numeral : — quints die, within [just] four days (lit. on the fifth day). [The Romans counted both ends, see § 631. d.] regnat iam sextum annum, he has reigned going on six years. d. Many expressions have in Latin the construction of time when, where in English the main idea is rather of place : — pCigna CannensI (or, apud Cannas), in the fight at Cannoe. ludis Romanis, at the Roman games. omnibus Gallicis bellls, in all the. Gallic wars. §§ 424, 425] TIME AND PLACE 267 e. In many idiomatic expressions of time, the Accusative with ad, in, or sub is used. Such are the following : — supplicatio decreta est in Kalendas lanuarias, a thanksgiving was voted for the first of January. convenerunt ad diem, they assembled on the [appointed] day. ad vesperum, till evening ; sub vesperum, towards evening. sub idem tempus, about the same time; sub noctem, at nightfall. /. Distance of time before or after anything is variously expressed : post (ante) tres annos, post tertium annum, tres post annos, tertiumpost annum, tribus post annis, tertio post anno (§ 414), three years after. tribus annis (tertio anno) post exsilium (postquam eiectus est), three years after his exile. his tribus proximis annis, within the last three years. paucis annis, a few years hence. abhinc annos tres (tribus annis), ante hos tres annos, three years ago. triennium est cum (tres anni sunt cum), it is three years since. octavo mense quam, the eighth month after (see § 434. n,). g. In Dates the phrase ante diem (a. d.) with an ordinal, or the ordinal alone, is followed by an accusative, like a preposition ; and the phrase itself may also be governed by a preposition. The year is expressed by the names of the consuls in the ablative absolute, usually without a conjunction (§ 419. a): — is dies erat a. d. v. Kal. Apr. (quintum Kalendas Aprilis) L. Pisone A. Gabinio cQnsulibus (B. G. i. 6), that day loas the 6th before the calends of April (March 28), in the consulship of Piso and Gabinius. in a. d. v. Kal. Nov. (Cat. i. 7), to the Uh day before the calends of November (Oct. 28). XV. Kal. Sextilis, the 16th day before the calends of August (July 18). [Full form: quinto decimo die ante Kalendas.] For the Koman Calendar, see § 631, Extent of Space 425. Extent of Space is expressed by the Accusative : — • fossas quindecim pedes latas (B. G. vii 72), trenches fifteen feet broad. progressus milia passuum circiter duodecim (id. v. 9)", having advanced about twelve miles. in omni vita sua quemque a recta conscientia transversum unguem non oportet discedere (quoted in Att. xiii. 20), in all one''s life, one should not depart a naiVs breadth from straightforward conscience. Note. — This Accusative denotes the ohject through or over which the action takes place, and is kindred with the Accusative of the End of Motion (§ 427. 2). 268 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§425,426 a. Measure is often expressed by the Genitive of Quality (§ 345. h) ■ vallum duodecim pedum (B. G. vii. 72), a rampart of twelve fed, (in height), h. Distance when considered as extent of space is put in the Accu- sative; when considered as degree of difference^ in the Ablative (§414):- milia passuum tria ab eSrum castris castra ponit (B. G. i. 22), he pitches his camp three miles from their camp. quinque dierum iter abest (Liv. xxx. 29), it is distant five days'' march. triginta mllibus passuum infra eum locum (B. G. vl. 35), thirty miles below that place (below by thirty miles). Relations of Place 426. Relations of Place ^ are expressed as follows : — 1. The place from whichj by the Ablative with ab, de, or ex. 2. The place to which (or end of motion) ^ by the Accusative with ad or in. 3. The place where^ by the Ablative with in {Locative Ablative), Examples are : — 1. Place from which : — a septentrione, from the north. cum a v5bis discessero (Cat. M. 79), when I leave you, de provincia decedere, to come away from one'' s province. de monte, down from the mountain. negotiator ex Africa (Verr. ii. 1. 14), a merchant from Africa. ex Britannia obsides miserunt (B. G. iv. 38), they sent hostages from Britain. Mosa profluit ex monte Vosego (id. iv. 10), the Meuse (flows from) rises in the Vosges mountains. 2. Place to which (end of motion'): — nocte ad Nervios pervenerunt (B. G. ii. 17), they came by night to theNeroii. adibam ad istum fundum (Caec. 82), I was going to that estate. in Africam navigavit, he sailed to Africa ; in Italiam profectus, gone to Italy. legatum in Trever5s mittit (B. G. iii. 11), he sends his lieutenant into the [country of the] Treveri. 1 Originally all these relations were expressed by the cases alone. The accusative, in one of its oldest functions, denoted the end of motion ; the ablative, in its proper meaning of separation, denoted the place from ivhich, and, in its locative function, the place where. The prepositions, originally adverbs, were afterwards added to define more exactly the direction of motion (as in to upward, toward its), and by long asso- ciation became indispensable except as indicated below. §§ 426, 427] RELATIONS OF PLACE 269 3. Place where: — in hac urbe vitam degit, he passed his life in this city. si in Gallia remanerent (B. G. iv. 8), if they remained in Gaul. dum haec in Venetis geruntur (id. ill. 17), while this was going on among the Veneti. oppidum in insula positum (id. vii. 58), a town situated on an island. 427. With names of towns and small islands, and with domus and rus, the Relations of Place are expressed as follows : — 1. The 2^ lace from la hick, by the Ablative without a preposition. . 2. The place to which, by the Accusative without a preposition. 3. The place where, by the Locative.^ Examples are : — 1 . Place from which : — Roma profectus, having set out from Rome; Roma abesse, to be absent from Rome. domo abire, to leave home; rure reversus, having returned from the country. 2. Place to which: — cum Romam sexto die Mutina venisset (Fam. xi. 6. 1), when he had come to Rome from Modena in Jive days (on tlie sixth day). Dels Rhodum navigare, to sail from JDelos to Rhodes. riis ibo, I shall go into the country. domum iit, he went home.^ [So, suas demos abire, to go to their homes."] 3. Place where (or at which): — Romae, at Rome (Roma). Athenis, at Athens (Athenae). Rhodi, at Rhodes (Rbodus). Lanuvi, at Lanuvium. Sami, at Samos. Cypri, at Cyprus. Tiburi or Tibure, at Tibur. Ciiribus, at Cures. Philippis, at Philippi. Capreis, at Capri (Capreae). domi (rarely domui), at home. riiri, in the country. a. The Locative Case is also preserved in the following nouns, which are used (like names of towns) without a preposition : — belli, militiae (in contrast to domi), abroad, in military service. humi, on the ground. vesperi (-e), in the evening. foris, out of doors. anirai (see § 358). heri (-e), yesterday. temperi, betimes. Cf. infelici arbori (Liv. i. 26), on the ill-omened (barren) tree; terra marique, by land and sea. 1 The Locative has in the singular of the first and second declensions the same form as the Genitive, in the plural and in the third declension the same form as the Dative or Ablative. (See p. 34, footnote.) 2 The English home in this construction is, like domum, an old accusative of the eyid of motion. 270 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§428 428. Special uses of ^lace from which, to which, and where are the following : — a. With names of towns and small islands ab is often used tc denote from the vicinity of, and ad to denote towards, to the neigltbor- hood of: — ut a Mutina discederet (Phil. xiv. 4), that he should retire from Modena (which he was besieging). erat a Gergovia despectus in castra (B. G. vii. 45), there was from about Gergovia a view into the camp. ad Alesiam proficiscuntur (id. vii. 76), they set out for Alesia. ad Alesiam perveniunt (id. vii. 79), they arrive at Alesia (i.e. in the neighbor- hood of the town). D. Laelius cum classe ad Brundisium venit (B. C. iii. 100), Dechnus LcbHus came to Brundisium with a fleet (arriving in the harbor). b. The general words urbs, oppidum, insula require a preposition to express the place from which, to which, or where : — ab (ex) urbe, from the city. in urbe, in the city. ad urbem, to the city. Romae in urbe, in the city of Rome. in urbem, into the city. Roma ex urbe, from the city of Borne. ad urbem Romam (Romam ad urbem), to the city of Rome. c. With the name of a country, ad denotes to the borders ; in with the accusative, into the country itself. Similarly ab denotes away from the outside ; ex, out of the interior. Thus ad Italiam pervenit would mean he came to the frontier, regardless of the destination ; in italiam, he went to Italy, i.e. to a place within it, to Rome, for instance. So ab Italia profectus est would mean he came away from the frontier, regard- less of the original starting-point; ex Italia, h^ came from Italy, from within, as from Rome, for instance. d. With all names of places at, meaning near (not in), is expressed by ad or apud with the accusative. piigna ad Cannas, the fight at Cannae. conchas ad Caietam legunt (De Or. ii. 22), at Caieta (along the shore), ad (apud) inferos, in the world below (near, or among, those below), ad foris, at the doors. ad ianuam, at the door. Note 1. — In the neighborhood of may be expressed by circa with the accusative; among, by apud with the accusative : — apud Graecos, among the Greeks. apud me, at my house. apud Solensis (Leg. ii. 41), at Soli. cire^ Capuam, round about Capua. Note 2. — In citing an author, apud is regularly used ; in citing a particular work, in. Thus, — apud Xenophontem, in Xenophon; but, in Xenophontis Oeconomico, in Xenophon's (Economicus. §428] RELATIONS OF PLACE 271 e. Large islands, and all places when thought of as a territory and not as a locality ^ are treated like names of countries : — in Sicilia, in Sicily. in Ithaca lepores illati moriuntur (Plin. H. N. viii. 226), in Ithaca hares, when carried there, die. [Ulysses lived at Ithaca would require Ithacae.] /. The Ablative without a preposition is used to denote the place from tvhich in certain idiomatic expressions : — cessisset patria (Mil. 68), he ivoiild have left his country. patria pellere, to drive out of the country. manu mittere, to emancipate (let go from the hand). g. The poets and later writers often omit the preposition with the place from which or to which when it would be required in classical prose : — ■ manis Acheronte remissos (Aen. v. 99), the spirits returned from Acheron. Scythia profecti (Q. C. iv. 12. 11), setting outfr m Scythia. Italiam Laviuiaque venit litora (Aen. i. 2), he came to Italy and the Lavinian shores. terram Hesperiam venies (id. ii. 781 _ , you shall come to the Hesperian land. Aegyptum proficlscitur (Tac. Ann. ii. 59), he sets out for Egypt. h. In poetry the place to which is often expressed by the Dative, occasionally also in later prose : — it clamor caelo (Aen. v. 451), a shout goes up to the sky. facilis descensus Averno (id. vi. 126), easy is the descent to Avernus. diadema capiti reponere iussit (Val. Max. v. 1. 9), ^e ordered him to put back the diadem on his head. i. The preposition is not used with the supine in -um (§ 509) and in the following old phrases : — exsequias ire, to go to the funeral. Infitias Ire, to resort to denial. pessum ire, to go to ruin. pessum dare, to ruin (cf. perdo). venum dare, to sell (give to sale). [Hence vendere.] Yennm Ire, to be sold (go to S2i\e). [Hence venire.] foras (used as adverb), out: as, — foras egredl, to go out of doors. suppetias advenire, to come to one's assistance. J, When two or more names of place are used with a verb of motion, each must be under its own construction : — quadriduo quo haec gesta sunt res ad Chrysogonum in castra L. Sullae Vola- terras defertur (Rose. Am. 20), within four days after this was done, the matter was reported to Chrysogonus in Sulla^s camp at Volaterrce. Note. — The accusative with or without a preposition is often used in Latin when motion to a place is implied but not expressed in English (see k,tf.). 272 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§428,429 k, Domum denoting the place to which, and the locative domi, may be modified by a possessive pronoun or a genitive : — domum regis (Deiot. 17), to the king''s house. [But also in M. Laecae domum (Cat. i. 8), to Marcus LcBca^s fiouse.] domi meae, at my house ; domi Caesaris, at Ccesar^s house. domi suae vel alienae, at his own or another'' s house. Note. — At times when thus modified, and regularly when otherwise modified, in domum or in domo is used : — in domum privatam conveniunt (Tac. H. iv. 55) , they come together in a private house . in Marci Crassi castissima domo (Gael. 9), in the chaste home of MarciLS Crassus. [Cf. ex Anniana Milonis domo, § 302. e.] 429. The place where is denoted by the Ablative without a preposition in the following instances : — 1. Often in indefinite words, such as loco, parte, etc. : — quibus loco positis (De Or. ill. 153), when these are set in position. qua parte belli vicerant (Liv. xxi. 22) , the branch of warfare in which they were victorious. locis certis horrea constituit (B. C. iii. 32), he established granaries in par- ticular places. 2. Frequently with nouns which are qualified by adjectives (regu- larly when lotus is used) : — media urbe (Liv. i. 33), in the middle of the city. tota Sicilia (Verr. iv. 51), throughout Sicily (in the whole of Sicily), tola Tarracina (De Or. ii. 240), in all Tarracina. ctincta Asia atque Graecia (Manil. 12), throughout the whole of Asia and Greece too. 3. In many idiomatic expressions which have lost the idea of place ; pendemus animis (Tusc. i. 96), we are in suspense of mind (in our minds), socius periculis vobiscum adero (lug. 85. 47), I will be present with you, a companion in dangers. 4. Freely in poetry : — litore curvo (Aen. iii. 16), on the winding shore. antro seclusa relinquit (id. iii. 446), she leaves them shut up in the cave. Epiro, Hesperia (id. iii. 603), in Epirus, in Hespei'ia. premit altum corde dolorem (id. i. 209), he keeps down the pain deep in his heart. a. The ivay by which is put in the Ablative without a preposition : via breviore equites praemisl (Fam. x. 9), J sent forward the cavalry by a shorter road. Aegaeo man traiecit (Liv. xxxvii. 14), he crossed by way of the ^^gean Sea.- provehimur pelago (Aen. iii. 506), we sail forth over the sea. Note. — In this use the toay by which is conceived as the means of passage. §§429-431] RELATIONS OF PLACE 273 h. Position is frequently expressed by the Ablative with ab (rarely ex), properly meaning /ro/zi; — ^ a tergo, in the rear ; a sinistra, on the left hand. [Cf . hinc, on this side. ] a parte Pompeiana, on the side of Pompey. ex altera parte, on the other side. magna ex parte, in a great degree {from, i.e. in, a great part). 430. Verbs of placing^ though implying motion, take the con- struction of the place where : — Such are pono, loco, colloco, statuo, constituo, etc. : — qui in sede ac domo collocavit (Par. 25), who put [one] into his place and home. statuitur eques Romanns in Aproni convivio (Verr. iii. 62), a Roman knight is brought into a banquet of Aproiiius. insula Delos in Aegaeo mari posita (Manil. 55), the island of Belos, situated in the ^gean Sea. si in tino Pompeid omnia poneretis (id. 59), if you made everything depend on Pompey alone. Note, — Compounds of pono take various constructions (see the Lexicon under each word) . 431. Several verbs are followed by the Ablative. These are acquiesce, delector, laetor, gaudeo, glorior, nitor, sto, maneo, fido, confido, consisto, contineor. nSminibus veterum gloriantur (Or. 169), they glory in the names of the ancients. [Also, de divitiis (in virtute, circa rem, aliquid, haec) gloriarl.] spe niti (Att. iii. 9), to rely on hope. prudentia fidens (Off. i. 81), trusting in inudence. Note. — The ablative with these verbs sometimes takes the preposition in (but fIdo in is late), and the ablative with them is probably locative. Thus, — in quibus causa nititur (Gael. 25), on whom the case depends. With several of these verbs the neuter Accusative of pronouns is often found. For fido and confido with the Dative, see § 367. a. The verbals fretus, contentus, and laetus take the Locative Abla- tive : — fretus gratia Brut! (Att. v. 21. 12), relying on the favor of Brutus. laetus praeda, rejoicing in the booty. contentus softe, content with his lot. [Possibly Ablative of Cause.] non fuit contentus gloria (Dom. 101), he was not content with the glory. Note.— So intentus. rarely: as.— aliqufl negotio intentus (Sail. Cat. 2), intent on some occupation. 1 Apparently the direction whence the sensuous impression comeSo 274 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§432 SPECIAL USES OF PREPOSITIONS i Adverbs and Prepositions 432. Certain Adverbs and Adjectives are sometimes used as Prepositions : — a. The adverbs pridie, postridie, propius, proxime, less frequently the adjectives propior and proximus, may be followed by the Accusative : — pridie Nonas Maias (Att. ii. 11), the day before the Nones of May (see § 631). postridie ludos (Att. xvi. 4), the day after the games. propius periculum (Liv. xxi. 1), nearer to danger. propior montem (lug. 49), nearer the hill. proximus mare oceanum (B. G. iii. 7), nearest the ocean. Note. — Pridie and postridie take also the Genitive (§ 359. b) . Propior, propius, proxi- mus, and proximo, take also the Dative, or the Ablative with ab : — propius Tiberi quam Thermopylis (Nep. Hann. 8), nearer to the Tiber than to Ther- mopylae. Sugambri qui sunt proximi Rheno (B. G. vi. 35), the Sugambri, who are nearest to the Rhine. proximus a postremo (Or. 217), next to the last. b. Usque sometimes takes the Accusative, but usque ad is much more common : — terminos iisque Libyae (lust. i. 1. 5), to the bounds of Libya. usque ad castra hostium (B. G. i. 51), to the enemy's camp. c. The adverbs palam, procul, simul, may be used as prepositions and take the Ablative : — rem creditorl palam populo solvit (Liv. vi. 14), he paid the debt to his creditor in the presence of the people. baud procul castris in modum municipi exstructa (Tac. H. iv. 22), not far from the camp, built up like a town. simul nobis habitat barbarus (Ov. Tr. v. 10. 29), close among us dwells the barbarian. Note. — But simul regularly takes cum ; procul is usually followed by ab in classic writers ; and the use of palam as a preposition is comparatively late. d. The adverb clam is found in early Latin with the Accusative, also once with the Genitive and once in classical Latin with the Ablative : — clam matrem suam (PI. Mil. 112), unknown to his mother. clam patris (id. Merc. 43), without his father'' s knoioledge. clam vobis (B. C. ii. 32. 8), without your knowledge. 1 For a list of Prepositions with their ordinary uses, see § 221. §§433-435] ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS 275 433. Prepositions often retain their original meaning as Ad- verbs : — 1. Ante and post in relations of time : — quos paulo ante diximus (Brut. 32), whom I mentioned a little while ago. post tribus diebus, three days after (cf. § 424. /). 2. Adversus, circiter, prope : — nemo adversus ibat (Liv. xxxvii. 13. 8), no one went out in opposition. circiter pars quarta (Sail. Cat. 56), about the fourth part. prope exanimatus, nearly lifeless. 3. A or ab, off, in expressions of distance, with the Ablative of Degree of Difference (§ 414) : — a milibus passuum circiter duobus Romanorum adventum exspectabant (B. G. V. 32), at a distance of about two miles (about two miles off) they awaited the approach of the Romans. 4. In general, prepositions ending in -a : — Aeolus haec contra (Aen. i. 76), thus ^olus in reply. forte fuit iuxta tumulus (id. iii. 22), there happened to be a mound close by. 434. Some Prepositions and Adverbs which imply comparison are followed, like comparatives, by quam, which may be separated by several words, or even clauses. Such words are ante, prius, post, postea, pridie, postridie ; also magis and prae in compounds : — neque ante dimlsit eum quam fidem dedit (Liv. xxxix. 10), nor did he let him go until he gave a pledge. post diem tertium quam dixerat (Mil. 44), the third day after he said it. Cato ipse iam servire quam pugnare mavult (Att. vii. 15), Cato himself by this time had rather be a slave than fight. Gallorum quam Romanorum imperia praeferre (B. G. i. 17), [they] prefer the rule of Gauls to that of Romans. , Note. — The ablative of time is sometimes followed by quam in the same way (§ 424./) : as, — octavo mense quam (Liv. xxi. 15), within eight months after, etc. 435. The following Prepositions sometimes come after their nouns : ad, citra, circum, contra, de, e (ex), inter, iuxta, penes, propter, ultra ; so regularly tenus and versus, and occasionally others : — [tisus] quem penes arbitrium est et ius et norma loquendl (Hor. A. P. 72), custom, under whose control is the choice, right, and rule of speech. cuius a me corpus est crematum, quod contra decuit ab illo meum (Cat. M. 84), vihose body I burned [on the funeral pile], while on the contrary (contrary to which) mine should have been burned by him. 276 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§436 SYNTAX OF THE VERB MOODS AND TENSES 436. The Syntax of the Verb relates chiefly to the use of the Moods (which express the manner in which the action is conceived) and the Tenses (which express the time of the action). There is no difference in origin between mood and tense ; and hence the uses of mood and tense frequently cross each other. Thus the tenses sometimes have modal significations (compare indicative in apodosis, § 517. c ; future for imperative, § 449. 6); and the moods sometimes express time (compare subjunctive in future con- ditions, § 516. &, and notice the want of a future subjunctive). The parent language had, besides the Imperative mood, two or more forms with modal signification. Of these, the Subjunctive appears with two sets of termina- tions, -a-m, -a-s, in the present tense (moneam, dicam), and -e-m, -e-s, in the present (amem) or other tenses (essem, dixissem). The Optative was formed by ie-, i-, with the present stem (sim, duim) or the perfect (dixerim). (See details in §§ 1G8, 1G9.) Each mood has two general classes or ranges of meaning. The uses of the Sub- junctive may all be classed under the general ideas of will or desire and of action vividly conceived ; and the uses of the Optative under the general ideas of wish and of action vaguely conceived. It must not be supposed, however, that in any given construction either the sub- jimctive or the optative was deliberately used because it denoted conception or possi- bility. On the contrary, each construction has had its own line of development from more tangible and literal forms of thought to more vague and ideal; and by this process the mood used came to have in each case a special meaning, which was after- wards habitually associated with it in that construction. Similar developments have taken place in English. Thus, the expression I would do this has become equivalent to a mild command, while by analysis it is seen to be the apodosis of a present condi- tion contrary to fact (§ 517) : if I loere you, etc. By further analysis, / would do is seen to have meant, originally, / should have wished (or I did wish) to do. In Latin, the original Subjunctive and the Optative became confounded in meaning and in form, and were merged in the Subjunctive, at first in the present tense. Then new tense-forms of the subjunctive were formed,i and to these the original as well as the derived meanings of both moods became attached (see § 438). All the independent uses of the Latin subjunctive are thus to be accounted for. The dependent uses of the subjunctive have arisen from the employment of some independent subjunctive construction in connection with a main statement. Most fre- quently the main statement is prefixed to a sentence containing a subjunctive, as a more complete expression of a complex idea (§ 268). Thus a question implying a general negative (quin rogem? why shouldn't I ask?) might have the general nega- tive expressed in a prefixed statement (nulla causa est, there is no reason) ; or abeat, let him go away, may be expanded into sine abeat. When such a combination comes into habitual use, the original meaning of the subjunctive partially or wholly dis- appears and a new meaning arises by implication. Thus, in misit legatos qui dicerent, he sent ambassadors to say (i.e. who should say), the original hortatory sense of the subjunctive is partially lost, and the mood becomes in part an expression of purpose. Similar processes may be seen in the growth of Apodosis. Thus, tolle banc opinionem, luctum sustuleris, remove this notion, you will have done away with grief (i.e. if you remove, etc.). 1 For the signification of the tense-endings, see §§ 168, 169. §§ 436, 437] INDICATIVE MOOD 277 II. Subjunctive; Independent Uses ; Dependent Uses ; 1. Conditions The Infinitive is originally a verbal noun (§ 451), modifying a verb like other nouns : volo videre, lit. '* I wish for-seeing " : compare English "what went ye out for to see ? " But in Latin it has been surprisingly developed, so as to have forms for tense, and some proper modal characteristics, and to be used as a substitute for finite moods. The other noun and adjective forms of the verb have been developed in various ways, which are treated under their respective heads below. The proper Verbal Constructions may be thus classified : — I. Indicative: Direct Assertion or Question (§437). 1. Exhortation or Command (§439). 2. Concession (§440). 3. Wish (§441). 4. Question of Doubt etc. (§444). 5. Possibility or Contingency (§446). Future (less vivid) (§ 516. 6, c). Contrary to Fact (§ 517). 2. Purpose (with ut, ne) (§531). 3. Characteristic (Relative Clause) (§535). 4. Result (with ut, ut non) (§537). 5. Time (with cum) (§546). 6. Intermediate (Indirect Discourse) (§592). 7. Indirect Questions or Commands (§§ 574, 588). 1. Direct Commands (often Subjunctive) (§448). 2. Statutes, Laws, and Wills (§449. 2). 3. Prohibitions (early or poetic use) (§ 450. a). a. Subject of esse and Impersonal Verbs (§§ 452, 454). b. Objective r 1. Complementary Infinitive (§ 456) . Construe- \ 2. Indirect Discourse (with Subject Accusative) (§580). Purpose (poetic or Greek use) (§ 460) . Exclamation (with Subject Accusative) (§462). Historical Infinitive (§ 463) . IIL Imperative ; IV. Infinitive: tions : c. Idiomatic MOODS INDICATIVE MOOD 437. The Indicative is the mood of direct assertions or ques- tions when there is no modification of the verbal idea except that of time. a. The Indicative is sometimes used where the English idiom would suggest the Subjunctive : — longum est, it would be tedious [if, etc.]; satins erat, itioould have been bet- ter [if, etc.]; persequi possum, I might follow up [in detail]. Note. — Substitutes for the Indicative are (1) the Historical Infinitive (§463), and (2) the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse (§580). For the Indicative in Conditions, see §§ 515, 516 ; for the Indicative in implied Com- mands, see § 449. 6. 278 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§438,439 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 438. The Subjunctive in general expresses the verbal idea with some modification 1 such as is expressed in English by auxiliaries, by the infinitive, or by the rare subjunctive (§ 157. h). a. The Subjunctive is used independently to express — 1. An Exhortation or Command {Hortatory Subjunctive: § 439). 2. A Concession {Concessive Subjunctive: §440). 3. A Wish {Optative Subjunctive: §441). 4. A Question of Doubt etc. (^Deliberative Subjunctive : § 444). 5. A Possibility or Contingency {Potential Subjunctive : § 446). For the special idiomatic uses of the Subjunctive in Apodosis, see § 514. 6. The Subjunctive is used in dependent clauses to express — 1. Condition: future or contrary to fact (§§ 516. 6, c, 517). 2. Purpose {Final, § 531). 3. Characteristic (§ 535). 4. Result (^Consecutive, § 537). 5. Time {Temporal, § 546). 6. Indirect Question (§ 574). c. The Subjunctive is also used with Conditional Particles of Com parison (§ 524), and in subordinate clauses in the Indirect Discourse (§ 580). Subjunctive in Independent Sentences Hortatory Subjunctive 439. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used in the present tense to express an exhortation or a command. The negative is ne. hos latrones interficiamus (B. G. vii. 38), let us kill these robbers. caveant intemperantiam, meminerint verecundiae (Off. i. 122), let them shun excess and cherish modesty. Note 1. — The hortatory subjunctive occurs rarely in the perfect (except in pro- hibitions: §450) : as, — Epicurus hoc viderit (Acad. ii. 19), let Epicurus look to this. Note 2. — The term hortatory subjunctive is sometimes restricted to the first per- son plural, the second and third persons beinji: designated as the jussive subjunctive; but the constructions are substantially identical. 1 These modifications are of various kinds, each of which has had its own special development (cf. § 4136). The subjunctive in Latin has also many idiomatic uses (as in clauses of Result and Time) where the English does not modify the verbal idea at all, but expresses it directly. In such cases the Latin merely takes a different view of the action and has developed the construction differently from the English. §§439,440] HORTATORY SUBJUNCTIVE 279 Note 3. — Once in Cicero and occasionally in the poets and later writers the nega- tive with the hortatory subjiuictive is non : as, — a legibus non recedamus (Clu. 155), let us not abandon the laws. a. The Second Person of the hortatory subjunctive is used only of an indefinite subject, except in prohibitions, in early Latin, and in poetry : — • iuiurias fortunae, quas ferre nequeas, def ugiendo relinquas (Tusc. v. 118), the wrongs of fortune, which you cannot bear, leave behind by flight. exoriare aliquis ultor (Aen. iv. 625), rise, sojjie avenger. isto bono utare dum adsit, cum absit ne requiras (Cat. M. 33), use this bless- ing while it is present; when it is wanting do not regret it. doceas iter et sacra ostia pandas (Aen. vi. 109), show us the way and lay open the sacred portals. For Negative Commands (prohibitions), see §450. 6. The Imperfect and Pluperfect of the hortatory subjunctive denote an nnfiilfilled obligation in jDast time : — moreretur, inquies (Rab. Post. 29), he should have died, you will say. potius doceret (Off. ill. 88), he should rather have taught. ne poposcisses (Att. ii. 1. 3), you should not have asked. saltern aliquid de pondere detraxisset (Fin. iv. 57), at least he should have taken something from the weight. Note 1. — In this construction the Pluperfect usually differs from the Imperfect only in more clearly representing the time for action as momentary or as past. Note 2. — This use of the subjunctive is carefully to be distinguished from the potential use (§ 446) . The difference is indicated by the translation, should or ought (not would or might). 440. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used to express a conces- sion.^ The Present is used for present time, the Perfect for past. The negative is ne. sit fur, sit sacrilegus: at est bonus imperator (Verr. v. 4), grant he is a thief, a godless wretch : yet he is a good general. fuerit alils ; tibi quando esse coepit (Verr. ii. 1. 37), suppose he was [so] to others ; when did he begin to be to you f nemo is umquam fnit: ne fuerit (Or. 101), there never was such a one [you will say] : granted (let there not have been), ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est (Tusc. ii. 14), granted that pain is not the greatest evil, at least it is an evil. Note. — The concessive subjunctive with quamvis and licet is originally hortatory (§527. a, 6). For other methods of expressing Concession, see § 527. For the Hortatory Subjunctive denoting a Proviso, see § 528. a. 1 Many scholars regard the concessive subjunctive as a development of the Optative Subjunctive in a wish. 280 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 441, 442 Optative Subjunctive 441. The Optative Subjunctive is used to express a Wish. The present tense denotes the wish as possible, the imperfect as ^mae- complished in present time, the pluperfect as unaccomplished in past time. The negative is ne : — ita vivam (Att. v. 15), as true as I live, so may I live. ne vivam si scio (id. iv. 16. 8), I wish I may not live if I know. dl te perduint (Deiot. 21), the gods confound thee! valeant, valeant elves mei ; sint iiicolumes (Mil. 93), farewell, farewell to my fellow-citizens; may they be secure from harm. di facerent sine patre forem (Ov. M. viii. 72), would that the gods allowed me to he without a father (but they do not) 1 a. The perfect subjunctive in a wish is archaic : — dl faxint (Fam. xiv. 3. 3), may the gods grant. quod di omen averterint (Phil. xii. 14, in a religious formula), and may the gods avert this omen. 442. The Optative Subjunctive is often preceded by the par- ticle utinam ; so regularly in the imperfect and pluperfect ; — falsus utinam vates sim (Liv. xxi. 10. 10), I wish I may be a false prophet. utinam Clodius viveret (Mil. 103), would that Clodius were now alive. utinam me mortuum vidisses (Q. Fr. i. 3. 1), would you had seen me dead. utinam ne vere scriberem (Fam. v. 17. 3), would that I were not writing the truth. Note. — Utinam non is occasionally used instead of utinam ne; as, — utinam sus- ceptus non essem (Att. ix. 9. 3), would that I had not been born. a. In poetry and old Latin uti or ut often introduces the optative subjunctive ; and in poetry si or 6 si with the subjunctive sometimes expresses a wish : — ut pereat positum roblgine telum (Hor. S. ii, 1. 43), may the weapon unused perish with rust. 6 si angulus ille accedat (id. ii. 6. 8), if that corner might only be added! si nunc se nobis ille aureus ramus ostendat(Aen. vi. 187), if now that golden branch would only show itself to us ! Note 1. — The subjunctive with uti (ut) or utinam was originally deliberative, meaning how may I, etc. (§ 444). The subjunctive with si or 5 si is a protasis (§ 512. a), the apodosis not being expressed. Note 2. — The subjunctive of wish without a particle is seldom found in the imper- fect or pluperfect except by sequence of tenses in Indirect Discourse (§ 585): as, — ac venerata Ceres, ita culmo surgeret alto (Hor. S. ii. 2. 124), and Ceres worshipped [with libations] that so she might rise with tall stalk. [In addressing the goddess directly the prayer would be : ita surgas.] §§442-444] DELIBERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 281 h, Velim and vellem, and their compounds, with a subjunctive or infinitive, are often equivalent to an optative subjunctive : — velim tibi persuadeas (Fam. ix. 13. 2), I should like to have you believe (I should wish that you would persuade yourself). dg Menedemo vellem verum fuisset, de regina velim verum sit (Att. xv. 4. 4), about Menedemus I wish it had been true; about the queen I wish it may be. nollem accidisset tempus (Fam. iii. 10. 2), I wish the time never had come. mallem Cerberum metueres (Tusc. i. 12), I had rather have had you afraid of Cerberus (I should have preferred that you feared Cerberus). Note. — Velim etc., In this use, are either potential subjunctives, or apodoses with the protasis omitted (§ 447. 1. N.). Tlie thing wished may be regarded as a substantive clause used as object of the verb of wishing (§ 565. N.i). Deliberative Subjunctive 443. The Subjunctive was used in sentences of interrogative form, at first when the speaker wished information in regard to the will or desire of the person addressed. The mood was therefore hortatory in origin. But such questions when addressed by the speaker to himself, as if asking his own advice, become deliberative or, not infre- quently, merely exclamatory. In such cases the mood often approaches the meaning of the Potential (see § 445) . In these uses the subjunctive is often called Deliberative or Dubitative. 444. The Subjunctive is used in questions implying (1) doubt, indignation, or (2) an impossibility of the thing's being done. The negative is non. quid agam, iudices? quo me vertam (Verr. v. 2), what am I to do, judges? whither shall I turn ? etiamne earn salutem (PI. Rud. 1275), shall I greet her ? quid hoc homine facias? quod supplicium dignum libidini gius invenias (Verr. ii. 40), what are you to do with this man? what fit penalty can you devise for his wantonness ? an ego non venirem (Phil. ii. 3), what, should I not have come ? quid dicerem (Att. vi. 3. 9), what was I to say ? quis enim celaverit Ignem (Ov. H. xv. 7), who could conceal the flame? Note. — The hortatory origin of some of these questions is obvious. Thus, — quid faciamus?=:faciamus [aliquid], quid? let us do — vjhat:? (Compare the expanded form quid vis faciamus ? what do you wish us to do ?) Once established, it was readily trans- ferred to the past: quid faciam? lohat am I to do? quid facerem? lohat was I to do? Questions implying impossibility, however, cannot be distinguished from Apodosis (cf.§517). a* In many cases the question has become a mere exclamation, rejecting a suggested possibility : mihi umquam bonorum praesidium defuturura putarem (Mil. 94), could I think that the defence of good men would ever fail me ! Note. — The indicative is sometimes used in deliberative questions : as, — quid ago, what am I to do ? 282 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§445-447 Potential Subjunctive 445. Of the two principal uses of the Subjunctive in independent sentences (cf. §436), the second, or Potential Subjunctive,i is found in a variety of sentence-forms having as their common element the fact that the mood represents the action as merely conceived or possible, not as desired (hortatory, optative) or real {indicative) . Some of these uses are very old and may go back to the Indo-European parent speech, but no satisfactory connection between the Potential and the Hortatory and Optative Subjunctive has been traced. There is no single English equivalent for the Potential Subjunctive; the mood must be rendered, according to circumstances, by the auxi^ iaries loould, should, may, might, can, could. 446. The Potential Subjunctive is used to suggest an action as possible or conceivable. The negative is non. In this use the Present and the Perfect refer without distinction to the immedisite future ; the Imperfect (occasionally the Perfect) to 2yast time ; the Pluperfect (which is rare) to what might have happened. 447. The Potential Subjunctive has the following uses : — 1. In cautious or modest assertions in the first person singular of expressions of saying, thinking, or icishing (present or perfect) : — pace tua dixerim (Mil. 103), I would say by your leave. baud sciam an (Lael. 51), I should incline to think. in velim sic existimes (Fam. xii. 6), I should like you to think so. certum affirmfire non ausim (Liv. ill. 23), I shoidd not dare to assert as sure. Note. — Vellem, nollem, or mallem expressing an unfulfilled wish in present time may be classed as independent potential subjunctive or as the apodosis of an unex- pressed condition (§521): as — vellem adesset M. Antonius (Phil. i. 16), I could wish Antony were here. 2. In the indefinite second person singular of verbs of saying, think- ing, and the like (present or imperfect) : — credas non de puero scriptum sed a puero (Plin. Ep. iv. 7. 7), you would think that it ivas written not about a boy but by a boy. crederes victos (Liv. ii. 43. 9), you would have thought them conquered. reos diceres (id. ii. 35. 5), you looidd have said they were culprits. videres susurros (Hor. S. ii. 8. 77), you might have seen them whispering (lit. whispers). frets assimilare possis (Ov. M. v. 0), you might compare it to a sea. 3. With other verbs, in all persons, when some word or phrase in the context implies that the action is expressed as merely possible or conceivable : — 1 The name Potential Subjunctive is not precisely descriptive, but is fixed in grammatical usage. §§ 447, 448] IMPERATIVE MOOD 283 nil ego contulerim iucimdo sanus amico (Hor, S. i. 5. 44), when in my senses I should compare nothing with an interesting friend. fortunam citius reperias quam retineas (Pub. Syr. 168), you may sooner find fortune than keep it. aliquis dicat (Ter. And. 640), somebody may say. Note. — In this use the suhjunctive may be regarded as the apodosis of an unde- veloped protasis. When the conditional idea becomes clearer, it finds expression in a formal protasis, and a conditional sentence is developed. a. Forsitan, perhaps, regularly takes the Potential Subjunctive except in later Latin and in poetry, where the Indicative is also common : — forsitan quaeratis qui iste terror sit (Rose. Am. 6), you may perhaps inquire what this alarm is. forsitan temere fecerim (id. 31), perhaps I have acted rashly. Note. — The subjunctive clause with forsitan (=fors sit an) was originally an Indi- rect Question: it would be a chance whether, etc. b. Fortasse, perhaps, is regularly followed by the Indicative ; some- times, however, by the Subjunctive, but chiefly in later Latin: — quaeres fortasse (Earn. xv. 4. 13), perhaps you will ask. Note.— Other expressions for perhaps are (1) forsan (chiefly poetical; construed with the indicative or the subjunctive, more commonly the indicative), fors (rare and poetical; construed with either the indicative or the subjunctive). Forsit (or fors sit) occurs once (Hor. S. i. 6. 49) and takes the subjimctive. Fortasse is sometimes followed by the infinitive with subject accusative in Plautus and Terence. Fortassis (rare ; con- strued like fortasse) and fortasse an (very rare; construed with the subjunctive) are also found. IMPERATIVE MOOD 448. The Imperative is used in Commands and Entreaties : — consulite vobis, prospicite patriae, conservate vos (Cat. iv. 3), have a care for yourselves, guard the country, preserve yourselves. die, Marce Tuili, sententiam, Marcus Tullius, state your opinion. te ipsum concute (Hor. S. i. 3. 35), examine yourself. Vive, valeque (id. ii. 5. 110), farewell, bless you (live and be well) ! miserere anim! nondigna ferentis (Aen. ii. 144:), pity a soul bearing undeserved .misfortune. a. The third person of the imperative is antiquated or poetic : — ollls salus popull suprema lex est5 (Legg. iii. 8), the safety of the people shall be their first law. itista imperia sunt5, eisque cives raodeste parents (id. iii. 6), let there be law- ful authorities, and let the citizens strictly obey them. Note. — In prose the Hortatory Subjunctive is commonly used instead (§ 439). 284 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§449 449. The Future Imperative is used in commands, etc., where there is a distinct reference to future time : — 1. In connection with some adverb or other expression that indi- cates at what time in the future the action of the imperative shall take 2)lace. So especially with a future, a future perfect indicative, or (in poetry and early Latin) with a present imperative : — eras petito, dabitur (PL Merc. 769), ask to-morrow [and] it shall be given. cum valetudini consulueris, turn c5nsulito navigation! (Fam. xvi. 4. 3), when you have attended to your health, then look to your sailing. Phyllida mitte mihi, mens est natalis, lolla ; cum faciam vitula pro frugibus, ipse venito (Eel. iii. 76), send Phyllis to me, it is my birthday, lollas; when I [shall] sacrifice a heifer for the harvest, come yourself. die quibus in terrls, etc., et Phyllida solus habeto (id. iii. 107), tell in whai lands, etc., and have Phyllis for yourself. 2. In general directions serving for all time, as Precepts, Statutes, and Wills : — is iuris civilis cilstos esto (Legg. iii. 8), let him (the praetor) be the guardian of civil right. Borea flante, ne arato, semen ne iacito (Plin. H. N. xviii. 334), when the north wind blows, plough not nor sow your seed. a. The verbs scio, memini, and habeo (in the sense of consider) regu- larly use the Future Imperative instead of the Present : — filiolo me auctum scito (Att. i. 2), learn thai, I am blessed with a little boy. sic habeto, mi Tiro (Fam. xvi. 4. 4), so understand it, my good Tiro. de palla memento, ainabo (PI. Asin. 939), remember, dear, about the gown. h. The Future Indicative is sometimes used for the imperative ; |and quin (why not ?) with the Present Indicative may have the force (of a command : — si quid acciderit novl, fades ut sciam (Fam. xiv. 8), you wiU let me know if anything new happens. quin accipis (Ter. Haut. 832), here, take it (why not take it?). c. Instead of the simple Imperative, cura ut, fac (fac ut), or velim, followed by the subjunctive (§ 565), is often used, especially in col- loquial language : — cura ut Romae sis (Att. i. 2), take care to be at Borne. fac ut valetudinem cures (Fam. xiv. 17), see that you take care of your heatth. domi adsltis facite (Ter. Eun. 506), be at home, do. eum mihi velim mittas (Att. viii. 11), I wish you would send it to me. For commands in Indirect Discourse, see § 588. For the Imperative with the force of a Conditional Clause, see § 521= 6. §450] PROHIBITION (NEGATIVE COMMAND) 285 Prohibition (Negative Command) 450. Prohibition is regularly expressed in classic prose (1) by noli with the Infinitive, (2) by cave with the Present Subjunctive, or (3) by ne with the Perfect Subjunctive : — ^ (1) noli putare (Lig. 33), do not suppose (be unwilling to suppose). noli impudens esse (Fam. xii. 30. 1), don't he shameless. nolite cogere socios (Verr. ii. 1. 82), do not compel the allies. (2) cave putes (Att. vii. 20), don't suppose (take care lest you suppose), cave ignoscas (Lig. 14), do not pardon. cave festlnes (Fam. xvi. 12. 6), do not be in haste. (3) ne necesse habueris (Att. xvi. 2. 5), do not regard it as necessary. ne sis admiratus (Fam. vii. 18. 3), do not he surprised. hoc facito; hoc ne feceris (Div. ii. 127), thoushalt do this, thou shall not do that. ne Apellae quidem dixeris (Fam. vii. 25. 2), do not tell Apella even. ne vos quidem mortem timueritis (Tusc. i. 98), nor must you fear death. All three of these constructions are well established in classic prose. The first, which is the most ceremonious, occurs oftenest ; the third, though not discourteous, is usually less formal and more peremptory than the others. Note 1. — Instead of noli the poets sometimes use other imperatives of similar meaning (cf . § 457. a) : — parce pias scelerare maniis (Aen. iii. 42), /orftear to defile your pious hands. cetera mitte loqui (Hor. Epod. 13. 7), /or&ear to say the rest. fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. i. 9. 13), do not inquire. Note 2. — Cave ne is sometimes used in prohibitions ; also vide ne and (colloquially) fac ne : as, — fac ne quid aliud cures (Fam. xvi. 11), see that you attend to nothing else. Note 3. — The present subjunctive with ne and the perfect with cave are found in old writers ; ne with the present is common in poetry at all periods : — ne exspectetis (PI. Ps. 1234), do not wait. ne metuas (Mart. Ep. i. 70. 13), do not fear. cave quicquam responderis (PL Am. 608), do not make any reply. Note 4. — Other negatives sometimes take the place of ne: — nihil ignoveris (Mur. 65), grant no pardon (pardon nothing), nee mihi illud dixeris (Fin. i. 25), and do not say this to me. Note 5. — The regular connective, and do not, is neve. a. The Present Imperative with ne is used in prohibitions by early writers and the poets : — ne time (PI. Cure. 520), don't he afraid. nimium ne crede colori (Eel. ii. 17), trust not too much to complexion. equo ne credite (Aen. ii. 48), trust not the horse. h. The Future Imperative with ne is used in prohibitions in laws and formal precepts (see § 449. 2). 1 In prohibitions the subjunctive with ne is hortatory; that with cave is an object clause (cf. §§ 450. n. 2, 565. n. i); 286 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 451, 452 INFINITIVE MOOD 45 1 . The Infinitive is properly a noun denoting tlie action of the verb abstractly. It differs, however, from other abstract nouns in the following points: (1) it often admits the distinction of tense; (2) it is modified by adverbs, not by adjectives; (3) it governs the same case as its verb ; (4) it is limited to special constructions. The Latin Infinitive is the dative or locative case of such a noupi and was origi- nally used to denote Purpose ; but it has in many constructions developed into a sub- stitute for a finite verb. Hence the variety of its use. In its use as a verb, the Infinitive may take a Subject Accusative (§ 397. e), origi- nally the object of another verb on which the Infinitive depended. Thus iubeo te valere is literally / command you for being well (cf. substantive clauses, § 562. n.). Infinitive as Noun 452. The Infinitive, with or without a subject accusative, may be used with est and similar verbs (1) as the Subject, (2) in Appo- sition with the subject, or (3) as a Predicate Nominative.^ 1. As Subject: — dolere malum est (Fin. v. 84), to suffer pain is an evil. bellum est sua vitia nosse (Att. ii. 17), ifs a fine thing to know one^s own faults. praestat componere fluctus (Aen. i. 135), it is better to calm the waves. 2. In Apposition with the Subject : — proinde quasi iniiiriam facere id demum esset imperio uti (Sail. Cat. 12), just as if this and this alone, to commit injustice., were to use power. [Here facere is in apposition with id.] 3. As Predicate Nominative : — id est convenienter natiirae vivere (Fin. iv. 41), that is to live in conformity with nature. [Cf. uti in the last example.] Note 1. — An infinitive may be used as Direct Object in connection with a Predi- cate Accusative (§ 393), or as Appositive with such Direct Object: — istuc ipsum non esse cum fueris miserrimum puto (Tusc. i. 12), /or I think this very thing most wretched, not to be lohen one has been. [Here istuc ipsum belongs to the noun non esse.] miserari, invidere, gestire, laetari, haec omnia morbos Graeci appellant (id. iii. 7), to feel pity, envy, desire, joy, — all these things the Greeks call diseases. [Here the infinitives are in apposition with haec] 1 The ending -6 (amare, monere, regere, audire) was apparently locative, the ending -i (amari, moneri, regi, audiri) apparently dative ; but this difference of case had no signifi- cance for Latin syntax. The general Latin restriction of the i-infinitives to the passive was not a primitive distinction, but grew up in the course of time. 2 In these constructions the abstract idea expressed by the infinitive is represented as having so7ne quality or belonging to some thing. §§ 452-454] INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT OF IMPERSONALS 287 Note 2. — An Appositive or Predicate noun or adjective used with an infinitive in any of these constructions is put in the Accusative, whether the infinitive has a sub- ject expressed or not. Thus, — non esse cupidum pecunia est (Par. 51), to he free from desires (not to be desirous) is money in hand. [No Subject Accusative.] a. The infinitive as subject is not common except with est and similar verbs. But sometimes, especially in poetry, it is used as the subject of verbs which are apparently more active in meaning : — quos omnis eadem cupere, eadera odisse, eadem metuere, in imum coegit (lug. 31), all of whom the fact of desiring, hating, and fearing the same things has united into one. ingenuas didicisse fideliter artis emoUit mores (Ov. P. 11. 9. 4S), faithfully to have learned liberal arts softens the manners. posse loqui eripitur (Ov. M. 11. 483), the power of speech is taken away. 453. Rarely the Infinitive is used exactly like the Accusative of a noun : — beate vivere alli in alio, vos in voluptate ponitis (Fin. 11. 86), a happy life different [philosophers] base on different things, you on pleasure. quam multa . . . f aclmus causa amicorum, precari ab indlgno, supplicate, etc. (Lael. 57), hovj many things we do for our friends'^ sake, ask favors from an unworthy person, resort to entreaty, etc. nihil exploratum habeas, ne amare quldem aut amari (Id. 97), you have noth- ing assured, not even loving and being loved. Note. — Many complementary and other constructions approach a proper accusa- tive use of the infinitive, but their development has been different from that of the examples above. Thus, — avaritia . . . superbiam, crudelitatem, deos neglegere, omnia venalia habere edocuit (Sail. Cat. 10), avarice taught pride, cruelty, to neglect the gods, and to hold everything at a price. Infinitive as Apparent Subject of Impersonals 454. The Infinitive is used as the apparent Subject with many impersonal verbs and expressions : Such are libet, licet, oportet, decet, placet, visum est, pudet, piget, necesse est, opus est, etc. : — llbet mlhl considerate (Quinct. 48), it suits me to consider. necesse est mori (Tusc. ii. 2), it is necessary to die. quid attinet glorlose loqui nisi constanter loquare (Fin. 11. 89), what good does it do to talk boastfully unless you speak consistently f neque me vixisse paenltet (Id. 84), I do not feel sorry to have lived. gubemare me taedebat (Att. il. 7. 4), J was tired of being pilot. Note. — This use is a development of the Complementary Infinitive (§456); but the infinitives approach the subject construction and may be conveniently regarded as the subjects of the impersonals. 288 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§455 455. With impersonal verbs and expressions that take the In- finitive as an apparent subject, the personal subject of the action may be expressed — 1. By a Dative, depending on the verb or verbal phrase : — rogant ut id sibi facere liceat (B. G. i. 7), they ask that it be allowed them to do this. non lubet enim mihi deplorare vitam (Cat. M. 84), for it does not please me to lament my life. visum est mihi de senectiite aliquid conscribere ( id. 1), it seemed good to me to write something about old age. quid est tarn secundum naturam quam senibus emori (id. 71), what is so much in accordance with nature as for old men to die ? exstingui homini suo tempore optabile est (id. 85), for a man to die at the appointed time is desirable. 2. By an Accusative expressed as the subject of the infinitive or the object of the impersonal : — si licet vivere eum quern Sex. Naevius non volt (Quinct. 94), if it is allovjed a man to live against the will of Sextus NcBvius. nonne oportuit praescisse me ante (Ter. And. 239), ought I not to have known beforehand f oratorem irasci minime decet (Tusc. iv. 54), it is particularly unbecoming for an orator to lose his temper. puderet me dicere (N. D. i. 109), I should be ashamed to say. consilia ineunt quorum eos in vestlgio paenitere necesse est (B. G. iv. 5), they form plans for which they must at once be sorry. Note. — Libet, placet, and visum est take the dative only; oportet, pudet, piget, and generally decet, the accusative only ; licet and necesse est take either case. a. A predicate noun or adjective is commonly in the Accusative ; but with licet regularly, and with other verbs occasionally, the Dative is used : — expedit bonas esse vobis (Ter. Haut. 388), it is for your advantage to be good. licuit esse 6ti6s5 Themistocli (Tusc. i. 33), Themistocles might have been inac- tive (it was allowed to Themistocles to be inactive), mihi neglegenti esse non licet (Att. i. 17. 6), I must not be negligent. [But also neglegentem. ] our his esse liberos non licet (Flacc. 71), why is it not allowed these men to be free 1 non est onmibus stantibus necesse dicere (Marc. 33), it is not necessary for all to speak standing. Note. —When the subject is not expressed, as being indefinite (one, anybody), a predicate noun or adjective is regularly in the accusative (cf. §4.-52. 3. n."^): as. — vel pace vol hello clarum fieri licet (Sail. Cat. 3),- one can become illustrious either in peace or in war- §§ 456, 467] COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE 289 Complementary Infinitive 456. Verbs which imply another action of the same subject to complete their meaning take the Infmitive without a subject accusative. Such are verbs denoting to he able, dare, ^mdertake, remember, for- get, be accustomed, begin, continue, cease, hesitate, learn, know how, fear, and the like : — hoc queo dicere (Cat. M. 32), this I can say. mitto quaerere (Rose. Am. 53), I omit to ask. vereor laudare praesentem (N. D. i. 58), I fear to praise a man to his face. oro ut matures venire (Att. iv. 1), I beg you will make haste to come. oblivisci non possum quae volo (Ein. ii. 104), I cannot forget that which 1 wish. desine id me docere (Tusc. ii. 29), cease to teach me that. dicere solebat, he used to say. audeo dicere, I venture to say. loqui posse coepi, I began to be able to speak. Note. — The peculiarity of the Complementary Infinitive construction is that no Subject Accusative is in general admissible or conceivable. But some infinitives usually regarded as objects can hardly be distinguished from this construction when they have no subject expressed. Thus vol5 dicere and volo me dicere mean the same thing, I ivish to speak, but the latter is object-infinitive, while the former is not apparently different in origin and construction from queo dicere (complementary infin- itive), and again volo eum dicere, / wish him to speak, is essentially different from either (cf. §563. b). 457. Many verbs take either a Subjunctive Clause or a Com- plementary Infinitive, without difference of meaning. Such are verbs signifying willingness, necessity, propriety, resolve, command, prohibition, effort, and the like (cf. § 563) : — decernere optabat (Q. C. ill. 11. 1), he was eager to decide. optavit ut tolleretur (Off. iii. 94), he was eager to be taken up. oppugnare contendit (B. G. v. 21), he strove to take by storm. contendit ut caperet (id,, v. 8), he strove to take. bellum gerere constituit (id. iv. 6), he decided to carry on war. constitueram ut manerem (Att. xvi. 10. 1), I had decided to remain. Note 1, — For the infinitive with subject accusative used with some of these verbs instead of a compleme7itary infinitive, see § 503. Note 2. — Some verbs of these classes never take the subjunctive, but are identi- cal in meaning with others which do : — eos quos tutari debent deserunt (Off. 1. 28), they forsake those whom they ought to protect. aveo pugnare (Att. ii. 18. 3), /'m anxious to fight. 290 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§457-460 a. In poetry and later writers many verbs may have the infini- tive, after the analogy of verbs of more literal meaning that take it in prose : — furit te reperire (Hor. Od. i. 15. 27), he rages to find thee. [A forcible way of saying cupit (§§457, 563. 6).] saevit exstinguere nomen (Ov. M. i. 200), he rages to blot out the name. fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. i. 9. IS), forbear to ask (cf. § 450. n. i). parce pias scelerare manus (Aen. iii. 42), forbear to defile your pious hands. 458. A Predicate Noun or Adjective after a complementary infinitive takes the case of the subject of the main verb : — fierique studebam gius prudentia doctior (Lael. 1), I was eager to become more wise through his wisdom. scio quam soleas esse occupatus (Fam. xvi. 21. 7), J know how busy you usually are (are wont to be). brevis esse laboro, obsciirus fio (Hor. A. P. 25), I struggle to be brief, I become obscure. Infinitive virith Subject Accusative 459. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is used with verbs and other expressions of knowing., thinking, telling, and perceiving (Indirect Discourse, § 579) : — dicit montem ab bostibus teneri (B. G. i. 22), he says that the hill is held by the enemy. [Direct : mons ab bostibus tenetur.] Infinitive of Purpose 460. In a few cases the Infinitive retains its original meaning of Purpose. a. The infinitive is used in isolated passages instead of a subjunc- tive clause after habeo, do, ministro : — tantum babeO polliceri (Fam. i. 5 a. 3), so much I have to promise. [Here the more formal construction would be quod pollicear.] ut lovi bibere ministraret (Tusc. i. 65), to sei-ve Jove with wine (to drink), nieridie bibere dato (Cato R. R. 89), give (to) drink at noonday. h. Paratus, suetus, and their compounds, and a few other partici- ples (used as adjectives), take the infinitive like the verbs from which they come : — id quod parilti sunt facere (Quint. 8), that which they are ready to do. adsuefacti superari (B. G. vi. 24), used to being conquered. currii succedere suetl (Aen. iii. 541), used to being harnessed to the chariot. cOpias bellare c5nsuetas (B. Afr. 73), forces accustomed to fighting. §§ 460, 461] PECULIAR INFINITIVES 291 Note. — In prose these words more commonly take the Gerund or Gerundive con* struction (§ 503 ff.) either in tiie genitive, the dative, or the accusative with ad: — insuetus navigandi (B. G. v. 6), unused to making voyages. alendis liberls sueti (Tac. Ann. xiv. 27), accustomed to supporting children. corpora insueta ad onera portanda (B. C. i. 78), bodies unused to carry burdens. c. The poets and early writers often use the infinitive to express purpose when there is no analogy with any prose construction : — fUius Intro lit videre quid agat (Ter. Hec. 345), your son has gone in to see what he is doing. [In prose : the supine visum.] non ferro Libycos populate Penatis venimus (Aen. i. 627), we have not come to lay waste with the sword the Libyan homes. loricam donat habere virS (id. v. 262), he gives the hero a breastplate to wear. [In prose: habendam.] Note. — So rarely in prose writers of the classic period. For the Infinitive used instead of a Substantive Clause of Purpose, see § 457. For tempus est abire, see § 504. n. 2. Peculiar Infinitives 461. Many Adjectives take the Infinitive in poetry, following a Greek idiom : — diirus componere versiis (Hor. S. 1. 4. 8), harsh in composing verse. cantari dignus (Eel. v. 64), worthy to be sung. [In prose: qui cantetur.] fortis tractate serpentis (Hor. Od. i. 37. 26), brave to handle serpents. cantare periti (Eel. x. 32), skilled in song. faciles aurem praebete (Prop. ill. 14. 15), ready to lend an ear. nescia vinci pectora (Aen. xii. 627), hearts not knowing how to yield. te videte aegroti (Plaut. Trin. 75), sick of seeing you. a, Earely in poetry the infinitive is used to express result: — fingit equum docilem magister ite viam qua monstret eques (Hor. Ep. i. 2. 64), the trainer makes the horse gentle so as to go in the road the rider points out hie levare . . . pauperem laboribus vocatus audit (Hor. Od. ii. 18. 38), he, when called, hears, so as to relieve the poor man of his troubles. Note. — These poetic constructions were originally regular and belong to the Infin- itive as a noun in the Dative or Locative case (§ 451). They had been supplanted, however, by other more formal constructions, and were afterwards restored in part through Greek influence. 6. The infinitive occasionally occurs as a pure noun limited by a demonstrative, a possessive, or some other adjective: — hoc non dolere (Fin. ii. 18), this freedom from pain. [Cf. totum hOc heate vivere (Tusc. v. 33), this whole matter of the happy life.] nostrum vivete (Pers. i. 9), our life (to live). scire tuum (id. i. 27), your knowledge (to know). 292 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 462, 463 Exclamatory Infinitive - 462. The Infinitive, with Subject Accusative,^ may be used in Exclamations (of. § 397. (^) : — te in tantas aerumnas propter mg incidisse (Fam. xiv. 1), alas, that you should have fallen into such grief for me ! mene incepto desistere victam (Aen. i. 37), what ! I beaten desist from my purpose f Note 1. — The interrogative particle -ne is often attached to the emphatic word (as in the second example). Note 2. — The Present and the Perfect Infinitive are used in this construction with their ordinary distinction of time (§ 486) . a, A subjunctive clause, with or without ut, is often used ellip- tically in exclamatory questions. The question may be introduced by the interrogative -ne : — quamquam quid loquor? te ut ulla res frangat (Cat. i. 22), yet why do I speak ? [the idea] that anything should bend you ! egone ut te interpellem (Tusc. ii. 42), what, I interrupt you ? ego tibi irascerer (Q. Fr. i. 3), I angry with you f Note. — The Infinitive in exclamations usually refers to something actually oc- curring; the Subjunctive, to something contemplated. Historical Infinitive 463. The Infinitive is often used for the Imperfect Indicative in narration, and takes a subject in the Nominative : — turn Catilina polliceri novas tabulas (Sail. Cat. 21), then Catiline promised abolition of debts (clean ledgers). ego instate ut uiihi responderet (Verr. ii. 188), I kept urging him to answer me. pai's cedere, alii insequi ; neque signa neque ordines observare ; ubi quemque periculum ceperat, ibi resistere ac propulsare ; arma, tela, equi, viri, hostes atque elves permixti; nihil consilio neque imperio agi; fors omnia regere (lug. 51), a part give way, others press on ; they hold neither to standards nor ranks; where danger overtook them, there each would stand and fight ; arms, weapons, horses, men, foe and friend, mingled in confusion; nothing went by counsel or command; chance ruled all. Note. — This construction is not strictly historical, but rather descriptive, and is never used to state a mere historical fact. It is rarely found in subordinate clauses. Though occurring in most of the writers of all periods, it is most frequent in the his- torians Sallust, Livy, Tacitus. It does not occur in Suetonius. 1 This construction is elliptical ; that is, the thought is quoted in Indirect Discourse, though no verb of saying etc. is expressed or even, perhaps, implied (compare the French dire que). Passages like hancine ego ad rem natam miseram me memorabo? (Plant. Rud. 188) point to the origin of the construction. I 464, 465] TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE 293 TENSES 464. The number of possible Tenses is very great. For in each of the three times, Present, Past, and Future, an action may be represented as going on, completed, or beginning; as habitual or isolated; as defined in time or indefinite (aoristic) ; as determined with reference to the time of the speaker, or as not itself so determined but as relative to some time which is determined ; and the j)ast and future times may be near or remote. Thus a scheme of thirty or more tenses might be devised. But, in the development of forms, which always takes place gradually, no language finds occasion for more than a small part of these. The most obvious distinctions, according to our habits of thought, appear in the following scheme : — 1. Definite (fixing the time of the action) 2. Indefinite INCOMPLETE COMPLETE NARRATIVE Present: a. I am writing. d. I have written. g. I write. * Past: b. I was writing. e. I had written. h. I wrote. Future: c. I shall be loritirig. f. I shall have icritten. i. I shall lorite. Most languages disregard some of these distinctions, and some make other distinc- tions not here given. The Indo-European parent speech had a Present tense to express a and g, a Perfect to express d, an Aorist to express h, a Future to express c and i, and an Imperfect to express b. The Latin, however, confounded the Perfect and Aorist in a single form (the Perfect scripsi), thus losing all distinction of form between d and h, and probably in a great degree the distinction of meaning. The nature of this con- fusion may be seen by comparing dixi, dicavi, and didici (all Perfects derived from the same root, Die), with ^dei^a, Skr. adiksham, dideixo-, Skr. didega. Latin also devel- oped two new forms, those for e (scripseram) and/ (scripsero), and thus possessed six tenses, as seen in § 154. c. The lines between these six tenses in Latin are not hard and fast, nor are they pre- cisely the same that we draw in English. Thus in many verbs the form corresponding to / have written (cT) is used for those corresponding to lam writing (a) and I write (g) in a slightly dififerent sense, and the form corresponding to / had written (e) is used in like manner for that corresponding to I was writing (6). Again, the Latin often uses the form for / shall have written (/) instead of that for I shall write (i). Thus, novi, I have learned, is used for / know; constiterat, he had taken his position, for he stood; cognovero, I shall have learned, for I shall be aware. In general a writer may take his. own point of view. TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE Incomplete Action PRESENT TENSE 465. The Present Tense denotes an action or state (1) as now taking place or existing, and so (2) as incomplete in present time, or (3) as indefinite, referring to no particular time, but denoting a general truth : — 294 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 465, 466 senatus haec intellegit, consul videt, hie tamen vivit (Cat. i. 2), the senate knows this^ the consul sees it, yet this man lives. tibi concedo meas sedis (Div. i. 104), I give you my seat (an offer wbich may or may not be accepted). exspecto quid veils (Ter, And, 34), 1 await your 'pleasure (what you wish), tu actionem instituis, ille aciem instruit (Mur. 22), you arrange a case, he arrays an army. [The present is here used of regular employment.'] minora di neglegunt (N. D. iii. 86), the gods disregard trifles. [General truth.] obsequium amicos, Veritas odium parit (Ter. And. 68), flattery gains fi^iends, truth hatred. [General truth. ] Note. — The present of a general truth is sometimes called the Gnomic Present. a. The present is regularly used in quoting writers whose works are extant : — Epicurus vero ea dicit (Tusc. ii. 17), but Epicurus says such things. apud ilium Ulixes lamentatur in volnere (id. ii. 49), in Mm (Sophocles) Ulysses laments over his wound. Polyphemum Homerus cum ariete colloquentem facit (id. v. 115), Homer brings in (makes) Polyphemus talking with his ram. Present with iam diu etc. 466. The Present with expressions of duration of time (espe- cially iam diu, iam dudum) denotes an action continuing in the pres- ent, but begun in the past (cf. § 471. 5). In this use the present is commonly to be rendered by the perfect in English : — iam diii ignoro quid agas (Earn. vii. 9), for a long time I have not known what you were doing. te iam dudum hortor (Cat. i. 12), I have long been urging you. patimur multos iam annos (Verr. v. 126), we suffer now these many years. [The Latin perfect would imply that we no longer suffer.'] anni sunt octo cum ista causa versatur (cf. Clu. 82), it is now eight years that this case has been in hand. annum iam audis Cratippum (Off. i. 1), for a year you have been a hearer of Cratippus. adhuc Plancius me retinet (Fam. xiv. 1. 3), so far Plancius has kept me here. Note 1. — The difference in the two idioms is that the English states the beginning and leaves the continuance to be inferred, while the Latin states the continuance and leaves the beginning to be inferred. Compare he has long suffered (and still suffers) with he still suffers {and has suffered long). Note 2. — Similarly the Present Imperative with iam dudum indicates that the action commanded ought to have been done or was wished for long ago (cf. the Per- fect Imperative in Greek): as, — iam dudmn sumite poenas (Aen. ii. 103), exact the penalty long delayed. ! §§467-469] PRESENT TENSE 295 Conative Present 467. The Present sometimes denotes an action attempted or begun in present time, but never completed at all ( Conative Pres- ented. §471. (?): — iam iamque manu tenet (Aen. ii. 530), and now, even now, he attempts to grasp him. densos fertur in hostis (id. ii. 511), he starts to rush into the thickest of the foe. decerno qulnquaginta dierum supplicationes (Phil. xiv. 29), I move for fifty days'' thanksgiving. [Cf . senatus decrevit, the senate ordained. ] Present for Future • 468. The Present, especially in colloquial language and poetry, is often used for the Future ; — imusne sessum (De Or. iii. 17), shall we take a seat ? (are we going to sit ?) hodie uxorem duels (Ter. And. 321), are you to be married to-day ? quod si fit, pereo funditus (id. 244), if this happens, I am utterly undone. ecquid me adiuvas (Clu. 71), won''t you give me a little help ? in iiis voco te. non eo. non is (PI. Asin. 480), I summon you to the court. I wonH go. You won't f Note. — Eo and its compounds are especially frequent in this use (cf. lohere are you going to-morrow? and the Greek elfii in a future sense). Verbs of necessity, possibility, loish, and the like (as possum, volo, etc.) also have reference to the future. For other uses of the Present in a future sense, see under Conditions (§ 516. a. n.), antequam and priusquam (§ 551. c), dum (§ 553. N.2), and § 444. a. n. Historical Present 469. The Present in lively narrative is often used for the His- torical Perfect : — affertur niintius Syracusas j curritur ad praetorium ; Cleomenes in publico esse non audet ; includit se domi (Verr. v. 92), the news is brought to Syra- cuse ; they run to headquarters ; Cleomenes does not venture to be abroad ; he shuts himself up at home. Note. — This usage, common in all languages, comes from imagining past events as going on before our eyes (repraesentdtio, § 585. b. n.). For the Present Indicative with dum, while, see § 556. a. The present may be used for the perfect in a summary enumera- tion of past events (^Annalistic Present) : — Roma interim crescit Albae minis : duplicatur civium numerus ; Caelius additur urbi mons (Liv. i. 30), Bovie meanwhile grows as a result of the fall of Alba: the number of citizens is doubled; the Codian hill is added to the town. 296 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 470, 471 IMPERFECT TENSE 470. The Imperfect denotes an action or a state as continued or repeated in past time : — • liunc audiebant antea (Manil. 13), they used to hear of him before. [Socrates] ita censebat itaque disseruit (Tusc. i. 72), Socrates thought so (habit- ually), and so he spoke (then), prudens esse putabatur (Lael. 6), he was (generally) thought wise. [The per- fect would refer to some particular case, and not to a state of things. ] iamque rubescebat Aurora (Aen. iii. 521), and now the dawn was blushing. ara vetus stabat (Ov. M. vi. 326), an old altar stood there. Note. — The Imperfect is a descriptive tense and denotes an action conceived as in progress or a state of things as actually observed. Hence in many verbs it does not differ in meaning from the Perfect. Thus rex erat and rex fuit may often be us«d indifferently ; but the former describes the condition while the latter only states it. The English is less exact in distinguishing these two modes of statement. Hence the Latin Imperfect is often translated by the English Preterite : — Haedui graviter ferebant, neque legatos ad Caesarem mittere audebant (B. G. v. 6), the Hsedui were displeased, and did not dare to send envoys to Csesar. [Here the Imperfects describe the state of things.] But, — id tulit factum graviter Indutiomarus (id. v. 4), Indutiomarus was displeased at this action. [Here the Perfect merely states the fact.] aedificia vicosque habebant (id. iv. 4), they had buildings and villages. 471. The Imperfect represents a present tense transferred to past time. Hence all the meanings which the Present has derived from the continuance of the actioji belong also to the Imperfect in reference to past time. a. The Imperfect is used in descriptions : — erant omnino itinera duo . . . mons altissimus impendebat (B. G. i. 6), there were in all two ways . . . a very high mountain overhung. b. With lam diu, lam dudum, and other expressions of duration of time, the Imperfect denotes an action continuing in the past but be- gun at some previous time (cf. § 466). In this construction the Imperfect is rendered by the English Plu- perfect : — iam dudum flebam (Ov. M. iii. 656), I had been weeping for a long time. copias quas diii comparabant (Fam. xi. 13. 6), the forces which they had long been getting ready. c. The Imperfect sometimes denotes an action as begun (Inceptive Imperfect), or as attempted or only intended (Conative Imperfect; cf. §467): — § 471] IMPERFECT TENSE 297 in exsilium eiciebam quern iam ingressum esse in bellum videbam (Cat. ii. 14), ivas I trying to send into exile one who I saw had already gone into war f hunc igitur diem sibi proponeus Milo, cruentis manibus ad ilia augusta cen- turiarum auspicia veniebat (Mil. 43), was Milo coming (i.e. was it likely that he would come), etc. ? si licitum esset veniebant (Verr. v. 129), they were coming if it had been allowed (they were on the point of coming, and would have done so if, etc.). Note. — To this head may be referred the imperfect with iam, denoting the begin- ning of an action or state: as, — iamque arva tenebant ultima (Aen. vi. 477), ajid now they were just getting to the farthest fields. d. The Imperfect is sometimes used to express a surprise at the present discovery of a fact already existing : — o tti quoque aderas (Ter. Ph. 858), oA, you are here too ! ehem, tun hic eras, mi Phaedria (Ter. Eun. 86), what! you here, PhcBdriaf a miser! quanta laborabas Charybdi (Hor. Od. i. 27. 19), unhappy hoy, what a whirlpool you are struggling in [and I never knew it] ! e. The Imperfect is often used in dialogue by the comic poets where later writers would employ the Perfect : — ad amicum Calliclem quoi rem aibat mandasse hic suam (PI. Trin. 956), to his friend Callicles, to whom, he said, he had intrusted his property. praesagibat mi animus frustra me ire quom exibam domo (PL Aul. 178), 77iy mind mistrusted when I went from home that I went in vain. Note. — So, in conversation the imperfect of verbs of saying (cf . as I was a-saying) is common in classic prose : — at medic! quoque, ita enim dicebas, saepe falluntur (N. D. iii. 15), hut physicians also, — for that is what you were saying just now, — are often mistaken. haec mihi fere in mentem veniebant (id. ii. 67, 168), this is about what occurred to me, etc. [In a straightforward narration this would be venerunt.] /. The Imperfect with negative words often has the force of the English auxiliary could or would : — itaque (Damocles) nee pulchros illos ministratores aspiciebat (Tusc. v. 62), therefore he could not look upon those beautiful slaves. [In this case did not would not express the idea of continued p)revention of enjoyment by the overhanging svv^ord.] nee enim dum eram vobiscum animum meum videbatis (Cat. M. 79), for, you know, while I was with you, you could not see my soul. [Here the Per- fect would refer only to one moment] Lentulus satis erat fortis orator, sed cogitandi non ferebat laborem (Brut. 268), Lentulus loas bold enough as an orator, but could not endure the exertion of thinking hard. For the Epistolary Imperfect, see § 479 ; for the Imperfect Indicative in apodosis contrary to fact, see § 517. h, c. 298 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 472, 473 FUTURE TENSE 472. The Future denotes an action or state that will occur hereafter. a. The Tiiture may have the force of an Imperative (§ 449. h). b. The Future is often required in a subordinate clause in Latin where in English futurity is sufficiently expressed by the main clause : cum aderit videbit, when he is there he will see (cf. § 547). sanabimur si volemus (Tusc. iii. 13), we shall be healed if we wish (cf. § 516. a). Note. — But the Present is common in future protases (§516. a n ). Completed Action PERFECT tense Perfect Definite and Historical Perfect 473. The Perfect denotes an action either as 7iow completed {Perfect Definite), or as having taken place at some undefined point of past time [Historical or Aoristic Perfect). The Perfect Definite corresponds in general to the English Perfect with have; the Historical Perfect to the English Preterite (or Past) : (1) ut ego feci, qui Graecas litteriis senex didici (Cat. M. 26), as I have done, who have learned Greek in my old age. diuturni silenti finem hodiernus dies attulit (Marc. 1), this day has put an end to my long-continued silence. (2) tantum bellum extrema hieme apparavit, ineunte vere suscepit, media aestate confecit (Manil. 35), so great a war he made ready for at the end of winter, undertook in early spring, and finished by midsummer. Note. — The distinction between these two uses is represented by two forms in most other Indo-European languages, but was almost if not wholly lost to the minds of the Romans. It must be noticed, however, on account of the marked distinction in English and also because of certain differences in the sequence of tenses. a. The Indefinite Present, denoting a customary action or a general truth (§ 465), often has the Perfect in a subordinate clause referring to time antecedent to that of the main clause : — qui in compedibus corporis semper fuerunt, etiam cum soliiti sunt tardius ingrediuntur (Tusc. i. 75), they who have always been in the fetters of the body, even when released move more slowly. simul ac mihi coUibitum est, praesto est imago (N. D. i. 108), as soon as I have taken a fancy, the image is before my eyes. §§473-476] PERFECT TENSE 299 haec morte effugiuntur, etiam si non evenerunt, tamen quia possunt evenire (Tusc. i. 86), these things are escaped by death even if they have not [yet] happened, because they still may happen. Note. — This use of the perfect is especially common in the protasis of General Conditions in i)resent time (§ 518. 6). 474. The Perfect is sometimes used emphatically to denote that a thing or condition of things that once existed no longer exists : fuit ista quondam in hac re piibllca virtiis (Cat. i. 3), there was once such vir- tue in this commonwealth. habuit, non habet (Tusc. i. 87), he had, he has no longer. filium habeo . . . immo hatmi ; nunc liabeam necne incertumst (Ter. Haut. 93), I have a son, no, I had one; whether I have now or not is uncertain. fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium (Aen. ii. 325), we have ceased to be Trojans, Troy is no more. Special Uses of the Perfect 475. The Perfect is sometimes used of a general truth, espe- cially with negatives ( Gnomic Perfect) : — qui studet contingere metam multa tulit fecitque (Hor. A. P. 412), he who aims to reach the goal, first bears and does many things. non aeris acervus et auri deduxit corpore febris (id. Ep. i. 2. 47), the pile of brass and gold removes not fever from the frarne. Note. — The gnomic perfect strictly refers to past time ; hut its use implies that something which never did happen in any known case never does happen, and never will (cf. the English "Faint heart never v^ on fair lady") ; or, without a negativ^e, that what has once happened will always happen under similar circumstances. a. The Perfect is often used in expressions containing or implying a negation, where in affirmation the Imperfect would be preferred : — dicebat melius quam scripsit Hortensius (Or. 132), Hortensius spoke better than he wrote. [Here the negative is implied in the comparison : com- pare the use of quisquam, ullus, etc. (§§ 311, 312), and the French ne after comparatives and superlatives. ] 476. The completed tenses of some verbs are equivalent to the incomplete tenses of verbs of kindred meaning. Such are the preteritive verbs odi, I hate; memini, I remember; novi, I know ; consuevi, I am accustomed,^ with others used preteritively, as venerat (= aderat, he teas at hand, etc.), constiterunt, they stand firm (have taken their stand), and many inceptives (see § 263. 1) : — 1 Cf. detestor, reminiscor, scio, soleo. 300 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§476-478 qui diesaestus maximos efficere consuevit (B. G. iv. 29), which day generally makes the highest tides (is accustomed to make), cuius splendor obsoievit (Quinct. 69), whose splendor is now all faded. Note. — Many other verbs are occasionally so used : as, — dum oculos certamen averterat (Liv. xxxii. 24), while the contest had turned their eyes (kept them turned). [Here averterat = tenebat.] PLUPERFECT TENSE 477. The Pluperfect is used (1) to denote an action or state completed in past time ; or (2) sometimes to denote an action in indefinite time, but prior to some past time referred to : — (1) loci natura erat haec, quern locum nostri castrls delegerant (B. G. ii. 18), this was the nature of the ground which our men had chosen for a camp. Viridovix summam imperi tenebat eiirum omnium civitatum quae defece- rant (id. iii. 17), Viridovix held the chief command of all those tribes which had revolted. (2) neque vero cum aliquid mandaverat confectum putabat (Cat. iii. 16), hut when he had given a thing in charge he did not look on it as done. quae si quando adepta est id quod ei fuerat concupitum, tum fert alacritatem (Tusc. iv. 15), if it (desire) ever has gained what it had [previously] desired, then it produces joy. For the Epistolary Pluperfect, see § 479. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE 478. The Future Perfect denotes an action as completed in the future : — ut sementem feceris, ita metes (De Or. ii. 261), as you sow (shall have sown), so shall you reap. carmina turn melius, cum venerit ipse, canemus (Eel. ix. 67), then shall we sing our songs better, when he himself has come (shall have come), si illius iusidiae clariores hilc luce fuerint, tum denique obsecrabo (Mil. 6), wJien the plots of that man have been shown to be as clear as daylight, then, and not till then, shall I conjure you. ego certe meum officium praestitero (B. G. iv. 25), I at least shall have done my duty (i.e. when the time comes to reckon up the matter, I shall be found to have done it, whatever the event). Note. — Latin is far more exact than English in distinguishing between mere future action and action completed in the future. Hence the Future Perfect is much commoner in Latin than in English. It may even be used instead of the Future, from the fondness of the Romans for representing an action as completed : — quid inventum sit paulo post videro (Acad. ii. 70), wJiat has been found out I shall see presently. qui Antonium oppresserit bellum taeterrimum confecerit (Fam. x. 19), whoever crushes (shall have crushed) Antony will finish (will have finished) a most loathsome war. §§ 479-481] TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE 301 EPISTOLARY TENSES 479. In Letters, the Perfect Historical or the Imperfect may be used for the present, and tlie Pluperfect for any past tense, as if the letter were dated at the time it is supposed to be received: — neque tamen, haec cum scribebam, eram nescius quantis oneribus premerere (Earn. V. 12. 2), nor while I write this am I ignorant under what burdens you are loeighed down. ad tuas omnis [epistulas] rescripseram pridie (Att. ix. 10. 1), I answered all your letters yesterday. cum quod scrlberem ad te nihil haberem, tamen has dedi litteras (Att. ix. 16), though I have nothing to write to you., still I write this letter. Note. — In this use these tenses are called the Epistolary Perfect, Imperfect, and Pluperfect. The epistolary tenses are not employed with any uniformity, but only when attention is particularly directed to the time of writing (so especially scribebam, dabam, etc.). TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE 480. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Independent Clauses de- note time in relation to the time of the speaker. The Present always refers to future (or indefinite) time^ the Im- perfect to either past or present., the Perfect to either future or past., the Pluperfect always to past. 481. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses were habitually used in certain fixed connections with the tenses of the main verb. These connections were determined by the time of the main verb and the time of the dependent verb together. They are known, collectively, as the Sequence of Tenses. Note. — The so-called Sequence of Tenses is not a mechanical law. Each tense of the subjunctive in dependent clauses (as in independent) originally denoted its own time in relation to the time of the speaker, though less definitely than the corre- sponding tenses of the indicative. Gradually, however, as the complex sentence was more strongly felt as a unit, certain types in which the tenses of the dependent clause seemed to accord with those of the main clause were almost unconsciously regarded as regular, and others, in which there was no such agreement, as excep- tional. Thus a pretty definite system of correspondences grew up, which is codi- fied in the rules for the Sequence of Tenses. Tliese, however, are by no means rigid. They do not apply with equal stringency to all dependent constructions, and they were frequently disregarded, not only when their strict observance would have obscured the sense, but for the sake of emphasis and variety, or merely from care- 302 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 482, 483 Sequence of Tenses 482. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses fol- low special rules for the Sequence of Tenses. With reference to these rules all tenses when used in independ- ent clauses are divided into two classes, — Primary -dud Secondary. 1. Primary. — The Primary Tenses include all forms that express present or future time. These are the Present, Future, and Future Perfect Indicative, the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, and the Present and Future Imperative. 2. Secondary. — The Secondary Tenses include all forms that re- fer to past time. These are the Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect Indicative, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, and the His- torical Infinitive. Note. — To these may be added certain forms less commonly used in independent clauses : — (1) Primary : Present Infinitive in Exclamations ; (2) Secondary : Perfect Infinitive in Exclamations (see §§462, 485. a. N.). The Perfect Definite is sometimes treated as primary (see §485. a). For the Historical Present, see § 485. e ; for the Imperfect Subjunctive in Apodosis, see § 485. h. 483. The following is the general rule for the Sequence of Tenses: — ^ In complex sentences a Primary tense in the main clause is followed by the Present or Perfect in the dependent clause, and a Secondary tense by the Imperfect or Pluperfect : — Primary Tenses rogo, I ask^ am asking '\ quid facias, what you are doing, i' -^ - rogabo, I shall ask I quid feceris, what you did, ivere doing, i^\ rogavi (sometimes), I have asked \ have done, have been doing. quid facturus sis, what you will do. ''-'■ ^ ' )- ut nos moneat, to warn us. ut nos moneas, to warn us. quasi oblitus sit, as if he had forgotten. I 1 The term is sometimes extended to certain relations between the tenses of sub- ordinate verbs in the indicative and those of the main verb. These relations do not differ in principle from those which we are considering; but for convenience the term Sequence of Tenses is in this book restricted to subjunctives, in accordance with the usual practice. rogavero, I shall have asked scribit, he writes scribet. he will write scribe (scribito), write BCribit, he writes §§483^85] SEQUENCE OF TENSES 303 Secondary Tenses rogabam, I asked, loas asking ^ quid faceres, what you were doing. . . T 7 ^ I, 7 J cruid fecisses, what you had done, had rogavi, I asked, have asked } , -, . ' been doing. rogaveram, I had asked J quid facturus esses, what you would do. scripsit, he wrote ut nos moneret, to warn us. scripsit, he wrote quasi oblitus esset, as if he had forgotten. 484. In applying the rule for the Sequence of Tenses, observe — (1) Whether the main verb is (a) primary or (b) secondary. (2) Whether the dependent verb is to denote completed action (i.e. past with reference to the main verb) or incomplete action (i.e. pres- ent or future with reference to the main verb). Then — a. If the leading verb is primary, the dependent verb must be in the Present if it denotes incomplete action, in the Perfect if it denotes completed action. b. If the leading verb is secondary, the dependent verb must be in the Imperfect if it denotes incomplete action, in the Pluperfect if it denotes completed action : — • (1) He writes [primary] to warn [incomplete action] us, scribit ut nos moneat. I ask [primary] what you were doing [now past], rogo quid feceris. (2) He wrote [secondary] to warn [incomplete] us, scripsit ut nos moneret. r asked [secondary] what you were doing [incomplete], rogavi quid faceres. c. Kotice that the Future Perfect denotes action completed (at the time referred to), and hence is represented in the Subjunctive by the Perfect or Pluperfect : — He shows that if they come (shall have come), many will perish, demonstrat, si veDerint, nmltos interituros. He showed that if they should come (should have come), maw/ would perish, demonstravit, si venissent, multos interituros. 485. In the Sequence of Tenses the following special points are to be noted : — a. The Perfect Indicative is ordinarily a secondary tense, but allows the primary sequence when the present time is clearly in the writer's mind : — ut satis esset praesid! provisum est (Cat. ii. 26), provision has been made that there should be ample guard. [Secondary sequence.] adduxi hominem in quo satisfacere exteris nationibus possetis (Verr. i. 2), I have brought a man in whose person you can make satisfaction to foreign nations. [Secondary sequence.] 304 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§485 est enim res iam in eum locum adducta, ut quamquam multum intersit inter eorum causas qui dimicant, tamen inter victorias non multum interfu- turum putem (Fam. v. 21. 3), for affairs have been brought to such a pass that, though there is a great difference between the causes of those who are fighting, still I do not think there will be much difference between their vic- tories. [Primary sequence.] ea adhibita doctrina est quae vel vitiosissimam nattiram excolere possit (Q. Fr. i. 1. 7), such instruction has been given a^ can train even the faultiest nature. [Primary sequence.] Note. — The Perfect Infinitive in exclamations follows the same rule : ~ quemquamne fuisse tarn sceleratum qui hoc fingeret (Phil. xiv. 14), was any one so abandoned as to imagine this? [Secondary.] adeon rem redisse patrem ut extimescam (Ter. Ph. 153) , to think that things have come to such a pass that I should dread my father! [Primary.] b. After a primary tense the Perfect Subjunctive is regularly used to denote any past action. Thus the Perfect Subjunctive may represent — 1. A Perfect Definite: — non dubito quin omnes tui scripserint (Fam. v. 8), 7 do not doubt that all your friends have written. [Direct statement : scripserunt. ] qua re non ignoro quid accidat in ultimis terrls, cum audierim in Italia que- rellas civium (Q. Fr. i. 1. 33), therefore I know well what happens at the ends of the eaiih, when I have heard in Italy the complaiixts of citizens. [Direct statement : audivi. ] 2. A Perfect Historical : — me autem hic laudat quod rettulerim, non quod patefecerim (Att. xii. 21), me he praises because I brought the matter [before the senate], not because I brought it to light. [Direct statement : rettulit.] 3. An Imperfect : — si forte ceciderunt, tum intellegitur quam fuerint inopes amicorum (Lael. 53), if perchance they fall (have fallen), then one can see how poor they were in friends. [Direct question : quam inopes erant ?] qui status rerum fuerit cum has litteras dedi, scire poteris ex C. Titio Stra- bone (Fam. xii. 6), what the condition of affairs was when I ivrote this letter, you can learn from Strabo. [Direct question: qui status erat?] quam civitati carus fuerit maerore funeris indicatum est (Lael. 11), hoio dear he was to the state has been shoivn by the grief at his funeral. [Direct question : quam carus erat ?] ex epistulis intellegi licet quam frequens fuerit Platonis auditor (Or. 15), it may be understood from his letters how constant a hearer he was of Plato. [Direct question : quam frequens erat ?] Note. — Thus the Perfect Subjunctive may represent, not only a Perfect Definite or a Perfect Historical of a direct statement or question, hut an Imperfect as well. This comes from the want of any special tense of the subjunctive for continued past action after a primary tense. Thus, miror quid fecerit may mean (1) I wonder what he has donCf (2) Iioonder vjhat he did (hist, perf.), or (3) I wonder what he was doing. §485] SEQUENCE OF TENSES 305 c. In clauses of Eesiilt, the Perfect Subjunctive is regularly (the Present rarely) used after secondary tenses : — Hortensius ardebat dicendi cupiditate sic ut in nuUo umquam flagrantius stiidium viderim (Brut. 302), Hortensius was so hot with desire of speak- ing that I have never seen a more burning ardor in any man. [Siciliam Verres] per triennium ita vexavit ac perdidit ut ea restitui in anti- quum statuni ntillo modo possit (Verr. i. 12),'/o** three years Verres so racked and ruined Sicily that she can in no way be restored to her former state. [Here the Present describes a state of things actually existing.] videor esse cdnsecutus ut n5n possit Dolabella in Italiam pervenire (Fam. xii. 14. 2), I seem to have brought it about that Dolabella cannot come into Italy. Note 1. — This construction emphasizes the result ; the regular sequence of tenses would subordinate it. Note 2. — There is a special fondness for the Perfect Subjunctive to represent a Perfect Indicative : — Thorius erat ita non superstitiosus ut ilia pliirima in sua patria et sacrificia et fana contemneret ; ita non timidus ad mortem ut in acie sit ob rem publicam interfectus (Fin. ii. 63), Thorius loas so little superstitious that he despised [contemnebat] the many sacrifices and shrines in his country ; so little timor- ous about death that he was killed [interfectus est] ^?^ battle, in defence of the state. d. A general truth after a past tense follows the sequence of tenses : ex his quae tribuisset, sibi quam mtitabilis asset reputabat (Q. C. iii. 8. 20), from what she (Fortune) had bestowed on him, he reflected how inconstant she is. [Direct : mutabilis est. ] ibi quantam vim ad stimulandos animos Ira haberet apparuit (Li v. xxxiii. 37), here it appeared what power anger has to goad the mind. [Direct : habet. ] Note. — In English the original tense is more commonly kept. e. The Historical Present (§ 469) is sometimes felt as a primary, sometimes as a secondary tense, and accordingly it takes either the primary or the secondary sequence : — rogat ut curet quod dixisset (Quinct. 18), he asks him to attend to the thing he had spoken of. [Both primary and secondary sequence. ] Note. — After the historical present, the subjunctive with cum temporal must follow the secondary sequence : — quo cum venisset cogn5scit (B. C. i. 34), when he had come there he learns. cum esset pugnatum horis quinque, nostrique gravius premerentur, impetum in cohortis faciunt (id. i. 46), tohen they had fought for five hours, and our me7i were pretty hard pressed, they make an attack on the cohorts. /. The Historical Infinitive regularly takes the secondary se- quence : — interim cotidie Caesar Haeduos frtimentum, quod assent polliciti, flagitare (B. G. i. 16), meanwhile Coesar demanded of the Hoedui every day the grain which they had promised. 306 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§485 g. The Imperfect and Pluperfect in conditions contrary to fact (§ 517) and in the Deliberative Subjunctive (§ 444) are not affected by the sequence of tenses : — quia tale sit, ut vel si ignorarent id homines vel si obmutuissent (Fin. ii. 49), because it is such that even if men were ignorant of it, or had been silent about it. quaero a te cur C. Cornelium non defenderem (Vat. 5), I ask you why I was not to defend Caius Cornelius? [Direct: cur non defenderem?] h. The Imperfect Subjunctive in present conditions contrary to fact (§517) is regularly followed by the secondary sequence : — si alii consules assent, ad te potissimum, Paule, mitterem, ut eos mihi quam amicissimos redderes (Fam. xv, 13. 3), if there were other consuls, I should send to you, Paulus, in preference to all, that you might make them as friendly to me as possible. si solos eos diceres miseros quibus moriendum esset, neminem exciperes (Tusc. i. 9), if you were to call only those wretched who must die, you would except no one. i. The Present is sometimes followed by a secondary sequence, seemingly because the writer is thinking of past time : — sed si res coget, est quiddam tertium, quod neque Selicio nee mihi displice- bat: ut neque iacere rem pateremur, etc. (Fam. i. 5 a. 3), but if the case shall demand, there is a third [course] which neither Selicius nor myself disapproved, that we should not allow, etc. [Here Cicero is led by the time of displicebat.] sed tamen ut scires, haec tibi scribo (Fam. xiii. 47), but yet that you may know, I ivrite thus. [As if he had used the epistolary imperfect scribebam (§ 479).] cuius praecepti tanta vis est ut ea non homini cuipiam sed Delphico deo tribueretur (Legg. i. 58), such is the force of this precept, that it was ascribed not to any man, but to the Delphic god. [The precept was an old one.] J, When a clause depends upon one already dependent, its se- quence may be secondary if the verb of that clause expresses past time, even if the main verb is in a primary tense : — sed tamen qua re accident ut ex meis superioribus litteris id suspicarere nescio (Fam. ii. 16), but yet how it happened that you suspected this from my previous letter, I donH know. tantum profecisse videmur ut a Graecis n6 verborum quidem c6pia vincere- mur (N. D. i. 8), we seem to have advanced so far that even in abundance of words we are not surpassed by the Greeks. Note. — So regularly after a Perfect Infinitive which depends on a primary ten^e (§585, a). 486] TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE 30? TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE 486. Except in Indirect Discourse, only tiie Present and Per- fect Infinitives are used. The Present represents the action of the verb as in progress with- out distinct reference to time, the Perfect as completed. For the Tenses of the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse see § 584. a. With past tenses of verbs of 7iecessity, propriety, and possibility (as debui, oportuit, potui), the Present Infinitive is often used in Latin where the English idiom prefers the Perfect Infinitive : — numne, si Coriolanus habuit amicos, ferre contra patriam arrna illi cum Coriolano debuerunt (Lael. 36), if Coriolanus had friends, ought they to have borne arms with him against their fatherland f pecunia, quam his oportuit civitatibus pro frumento dari (Verr. ill. 174), money which ought to have been paid to these states for grain, consul esse qui potui, nisi eum vltae cursum tenuissem a pueritia (Rep. i. 10), how could I have become consul had I not from boyhood followed that course of life f 6. With verbs of necessity, propriety, and possibility, the Perfect Infinitive may be used to emphasize the idea of completed action : — tametsi statim vicisse debeo (Rose. Am. 73), although I ought to win my case at once (to be regarded as having won it), bellum quod possumus ante hiemem perfecisse (Li v. xxxvii. 19. 5), a war which we can have completed before winter. nil ego, si peccem, possum nescisse (Ov. H. xvi. 47), if I should go wrong, I cannot have done it in ignorance (am not able not to have known). Note. — With the past tenses of these verbs the perfect infinitive is apparently- due to attraction : — quod iam pridem factum esse oportuit (Cat. i. 5), (a thing) which ought to have been done long ago. haec facta ah illo oportebat (Ter. Haut. 536), this ought to have been done by him. turn decuit metuisse (Aen. x. 94), then was the time to fear (then you should have feared) . c. In archaic Latin and in legal formulas the Perfect Active Infini- tive is often used with nolo or volo in prohibitions : — Chaldaeum nequem consuluisse velit (Cato R. R. v. 4), let him not venture to have consulted a soothsayer. nolito devellisse (PI. Poen. 872), do not have them plucked. nequis humasse velit Aiacem (Hor. S. ii. 3. 187), let no one venture to have buried Ajax. NEiQvis EORVM BACANAL HABViSE VELET (S. C. de Bac. 1), let no One of them venture to have had a place for Bacchanalian worship. 308 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§486 d. With verbs of tvishing^ the Perfect Passive Infinitive (com- monly without esse) is often used emphatically instead of the Present: doraestica cura te levatum volo (Q. Fr. iii. 9. 3), I wish you relieved of private care. illos monitos volo (Cat. ii. 27), I wish them thoroughly warned. qui illam [patriam] exstinctam cupit (Fin. iv. 6G), who is eager for h&t utter destruction. illud te esse admonitum volo (Gael, 8), I wish you to be well advised of this. qui se at) omnibus desertos potius quam abs te defenses esse malunt (Caeoil. 21), who prefer to be deserted by all rather than to be defended by you. Note. — The participle in this case is rather in predicate agreement (with or with- out esse) than used to form a strict perfect infinitive, though the full form can hardly be distinguished from that construction. e. In late Latin, and in poetry (often for metrical convenience), rarely in good prose, the Perfect Active Infinitive is used emphatically instead of the Present, and even after other verbs than those of wish- ing : — nSm5 eorum est qui nSn perlsse te cupiat (Verr. ii. 149), there is no one of them who is not eager for your death. baud equidem premendo alium me extuliase velim (Liv. xxii. 59. 10), 1 would not by crushing another exalt myself. sunt qui nolint tetigisse (Hor. S. i. 2. 28), there are those who would not touch. commisisse cavet (Hor. A. P. 168), he is canitious of doing. nunc quem tetigisse timerent, anguis eras (Ov. M. viii. 738), again you be- came a serpent which they dreaded to touch. fratresque tendentes opaco Pelion imposuisse Olympo (Hor. Od. iii. 4. 51), and the brother's striving to set Pelion on dark Olympus. /. After verbs of feeling the Perfect Infinitive is used, especially by the poets, to denote a completed action. So also with satis est, satis habeo^ melius est, contentus sum, and in a few other cases where the distinction of time is important : — non paenitebat intercapedinem scribendi fecisse (Fam. xvi. 21), I was not sorry to have made a respite of writing. pudet me non praestitisse (id. xiv. 8), I am ashamed not to Aove shown. sunt quos pulverem Olympicum coUegisse iuvat (Hor. Od. i. 1, 3), some delight to have stirred up the dust at Olympia. quiesse erit melius (Liv. iii. 48), it will be better to have kept quiet. ac si quis amet scripsisse (Hor. S. i. 10. 60), than if one should choose to have written. id solum dixisse satis habeo (Veil. ii. 124), I am content to have said only this. 1 Volo, and less frequently nolo, malo, and cuitio. §§ 487-490] PARTICIPLES 309 I. Participles: NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FOEMS OF THE VERB 487. The several Noun and Adjective forms associated with the verb are employed as follows:—! f 1. Attributive (§494). 2. Simple Predicate (§495). 3. Periphrastic Perfect (passive) (§495. n.). 4. Predicate of Circumstance (§ 49(5). 5. Descriptive (Indirect Discourse) (§497d). 1, Periphrastic with esse (§498. a). 2. Periphrastic with fui (= Pluperfect Subjunc- tive) (§498. b). 1. As Descriptive Adjective (§500. 1). 2. Periphrastic with esse (§500. 2). 3. Of Purpose with certain verbs (§ 500. 4). 1. Genitive as Subjective or Objective Genitive (§504). 2. Dative, with Adjectives (of Fitness), Nouns, Verbs (§505). 3. Accusative, with certain Prepositions (§ 506). 4. Ablative, of Means, Comparison, or with Prepositions (§ 507). 1. Accusative Supine (in -um), with Verbs of Motion (§509). 2. Ablative Supine (in -u), chiefly with Adjectives (§510). II. Gerund or Gerundive : Present and Perfect : b. Future c. Gerundive III. Supine: PARTICIPLES 488. The Participle expresses the action of the verb in the form of an Adjective, but has a partial distinction of tense and may govern a case. Note. — Thus the participle combines all the functions of an adjective with some of the functions of a verb. As an Adjective, it limits substantives and agrees with them in gender, number, and case (§286). As a Verb, it has distinctions of time (§ 489) and often takes an object. Distinctions of Tense in Participles 489. Participles denote time as present, past, or future with respect to the time of the verb in their clause. Thus the Present Participle represents the action as in progress at the time indicated by the tense of the verb, the Perfect as completed, and the Future as still to take place. 490. The Present Participle has several of the special uses of the Present Indicative. Thus it may denote — 1. An action continued in the present but begun in the past (§ 466) : quaerenti mihi iam diu certa res nulla veniebat in mentem (Fam. iv. 13), though I had long sought, no certain thing came to my mind. 1 For the Syntax of the Infinitive, see §§ 451 ff., 486. 310 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§490-493 2. Attempted action (§ 467) : — C. Flaminio restitit agrum Picentera dividenti (Cat. M, 11), he resisted Fla- minius when attempiing to divide the Picene territory. 3. Barely (in poetry and later Latin) futurity or purpose, with a verb of motion : — Eurypylum scitantem oracula mittimus (Aen. ii. 11-1), we send Eurypylus to consult the oracle. [Cf. § 468.] 491. The Perfect Participle of a few deponent verbs is used nearly in the sense of a Present. Such are, regularly, ratus, solitus, veritus ; commonly, arbitratus, fisus, ausus, secutus, and occasionally others, especially in later writers : — rem incredibilem rati (Sail. Cat. 48), thinking the thing incredible. insidias veritus (B. G. ii. 11), fearing an ambuscade. cohortatus mllites docuit (B. C. iii. 80), encouraging the men, he showed. iratus dlxisti (Mur, 62), you spoke in a passion. ad piignam congressi (Li v. iv. 10), meeting in fight. 492. The Latin has no Present Participle in the passive. The place of such a form is supplied usually by a clause with dum or cum : — obiere dum calciantur raatiitino duo Caesares (Plin. N. H. vii. 181), two Caesars died while having their shoes put on in the morning. meque ista delectant cum Latlne dicuntur (Acad. i. 18), those things please me when they are spoken in Latin. Note. — These constructions are often used when a participle might be employed : — die, hospes, Spartae nos te hie vidisse iacentis, dum Sanctis patriae legibus obse- quimur (Tusc. i. 101), tell it, stranger, at Sparta, that you .saw v^ lying here obedient to our country's sacred laios. [Here dum obsequimur is a transla- tion of the Greek present participle ireLdb^xevoi.'] dum [Ulixes] sibi, dum sociis reditum parat (Hor. Ep. i. 2. 21), Ulysses, white securing the return of himself and his companions. [In Greek : dpt^/jLevos.] 493. The Latin has no Perfect Participle in the active voice. The deficiency is supplied — 1. In deponents by the perfect passive form with its regular active meaning : — nam singulas [navis] nostri consectati expugnaverunt (B. G. iii. 15), /or our men, having overtaken them one by one, captured them by boarding. Note. — The perfect participle of several deponent verbs may be either active or passive in meaning (§ 190. b). §§493-495] USES OF PARTICIPLES 311 2. In other verbs, either by the perfect passive participle in the ablative absolute (§ 420. n.) or by a temporal clause (especially with cum or postquam) : — itaque convocatis centurionibus milites certiores facit (B. G. iii. 5), and so, having called the centurions together, he informs the soldiers (the centu- rions having been called together). cum venisset animadvertit collem (id. vii. 44), having come (when he had come), he noticed a hill. postquam id animum advertit copias suas Caesar in proximum collem subducit (B, G. i. 24), having observed this (after he had observed this) CcBsar led his troops to the nearest hill. Uses of Participles 494. The Present and Perfect Participles are sometimes used as attributives, nearly like adjectives : — aeger et flagrans animus (Tac. Ann. iii. 54), his sick and passionate mind. cum antlquissimam sententiam tum comprobatam (Div. i. 11), a view at once most ancient and well approved. signa numquam fere mentientia (id. i. 15), signs hardly ever deceitful. auspiciis utuntur coactis (id. i. 27), they use forced auspices. a. Participles often become complete adjectives, and may be com- pared, or used as nouns : — quo mulieri esset res cautior (Caec. 11), that the matter might he more secure for the woman. in illls artibus praestantissimus (De Or. i. 217), preeminent in those arts. sibi indulgentes et corpori deservientes {J^^gg,- i. 89), the self-indulgent, and slaves to the body (indulging themselves and serving the body), recte facta paria essedebent (Par. 22), right deeds (things rightly done) ought to be like in value (see § 321. b). male parta male dllabuntur (Phil. ii. 65), ill got, ill spent (things ill acquired are ill spent), consuetudo valentis (De Or. ii. 18G), the habit of a man in health. 495. Participles are often used as Predicate Adjectives. As such they may be joined to the subject by esse or a copulative verb (see § 283) : — Gallia est divisa (B. G. i. 1), Gaul is divided. locus qui nunc saeptus est (Li v. i. 8), the place which is now enclosed. videtis ut senectfis sit operosa et semper agens aliquid et moliens (Cat. M. 26), you see how busy old age is, always aiming and trying at something. nemo adhuc convenire me voluit cui fuerim occupatus (id. 32), nobody hitherto has [ever] wished to converse with me, to whom I have been 312 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 495, 496 NoTK. — From this predicate use arise the compound tenses of the passive, — the participle of comjjleted action with the incomplete tenses of esse developing the idea of past time : as, interfectus est, he was (or has been) killed, lit. he is having-heen-killed (i.e. already slain). The perfect participle used with fui etc. was perhaps originally an intensified expres- sion in the popular language for the perfect, pluperfect, etc. At times these forms indicate a state of affairs no longer existing: — cotem quoque eodem loco sitam fuisse memorant (Liv. i. 3G. 5), they say that a whetstone was (once) deposited in this same place. [At the time of writing it was no longer there.] arma quae fixa in parietibns fuerant, humi inventa sunt (Div. 1. 74), the arms which had been fastened on the walls were found upon the ground. But more frequently they are not to be distinguished from the forms vv^ith sum etc. The construction is found occasionally at all periods, but is most common in Livy and later writers. 496. The Present and Perfect Participles are often used as a predicate, where in English a phrase or a subordinate clause would be more natural. In this use the participles express time, cause, occasion, condition, concession, characteristic (or descriptiori), manner, means, attendant circumstances : — volventes hostllia cadavera amicum reperiebant (Sail. Cat. 61), while rolling over the corpses of the enemy they found a friend. [Time.] paululum commoratus, signa canere iubet (id. 59), after delaying a little whiles he orders them to give the signal. [Time.] longius prosequi veritus, ad Ciceronem pervenit (B. G. v. 52), because he feared to follow further, he came to Cicero. [Cause.] qui sclret laxas dare iussus habenas (Aen. i. 63), who might know hoiv to give them loose rein when bidden. [Occasion.] damnatum poenam sequi oportebat (B. G. i. 4), if condemned, punishment must overtake him. [Condition.] saluteui insperantibus reddidisti (Marc. 21), you have restored a safety for which we did not hope (to [us] not hoping). [Concession.] Dardanius caput ecce puer delectus (Aen. x. 133), the Trojan boy ivith his head uncovered. [Description.] nee trepides in iisum poscentis aevi panca (Hor. Od. ii. 11. 5), be not anxious for the needs of age that demands little. [Characteristic] incitati fuga niontis altissimos petebant (B. C. iii. 93), in headlong flight they made for the highest mountains. [Manner.] mllites sublevati alii ab alils magnam partem itineris conficerent (id. i. 68), the soldiers, helped up by each other, accomplished a considerable part of the route. [Means.] hoc laudans, Pompeins idem iuravit (id. iii. 87), approving this, Pompey took the same oath. [Attendant Circumstance.] aut sedens aut ambulans disputabam (Tusc. i. 7), J conducted the discussion either sitting or walking. [Attendant Circumstance.] §§ 496, 497] USES OF PARTICIPLES 313 NoTtt 1. — These uses are especially frequent in the Ablative Absolute (§ 420). Note 2. — A coordinate clause is sometimes compressed into a perfect participle : — instructos ordines in locum aequum deducit (Sail. Cat. 59), he draws up the lines, and leads them to level ground. ut hos traductos necaret (B. G. v. 6), that he might carry them, over and put them to death. Note 3. — A participle with a negative often expresses the same Idea which in English is given hj without and a verbal noun: as, — miserum est nihil prSflcientem angi (N. D. iii. 14), it is wretched to vex oneself without effecting anything. Note 4. — Acceptum and expensum as predicates with ferre and referre are book- keeping terms: as, — quas pecunias ferebat eis expensas (Verr. ii. 170), what sums he charged to them. 497. A noun and a passive participle are often so united that the participle and not the noun contains the main idea : — ^ ante conditam condendamve urbem (Liv. Pref.), before the city was built or building. illi libertatem imminutam civium Romanorum non tulerunt ; vos ereptam vitam neglegetis (Manil. 11), they did not endure the infringement of the citizens' liberty ; will you disregard the destruction of their lives ? post natos homines (Brut. 224), since the creation of man. iam a condita urbe (Phil. ill. 9), even from the founding of the city. a. The perfect participle with a noun in agreement, or in the neuter as an abstract noun, is used in the ablative with opus, need (cf. §411. a): — opus facto est viatico (PL T.rin. 887), tJiere is need of laying in provision. maturato opus est (Liv. viii. 13. 17), there is need of haste. b. The perfect participle with habeo (rarely with other verbs) has almost the same meaning as a perfect active, but denotes the contin- ued effect of the action of the verb : — ^ Mem quam habent spectatam iam et diu cognitam (Caecil. 11), my fidelity, which they have proved and long known. cohortls in acie lxxx constitutas habebat (B. C. iii. 89), he had eighty cohorts stationed in line of battle. nefarios duces captos iam et comprehensos tenetis (Cat. iii. 16), you have now captured the infamous leaders and hold them in custody. c. A verb of effecting or the like may be used in combination with the perfect participle of a transitive verb to express the action of that verb more forcibly : — 1 Compare the participle in indirect discourse in Greek (Goodwin's Greek Grammar. § L588) ; and the English " 'T was at the royal feast /or Persia won " (Dryden), i.e. for the conquest of Persia. 2 The perfect with have, in modern langunges of Latin stock, has grown out of this use of habeo. 314 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§497-499 praefectos su5s multl missos fecerunt (Verr. iii. 134), many discharged their officers (made dismissed). hie transactum reddet omne (PL Capt. 345), he will get it aU done (restore it finished). ademptum tibi iam faxo omiiem metum (Ter. Haut. 341), I icill relieve you of all fear (make it taken away), illam tibi incensam dabo (Ter. Ph. 974), I will make her angry with you. Note. — Similarly volo (with its compounds) and cupio with a perfect participle without esse (cf. § 486. d). d. After verbs denoting an action of the senses the present partici- ple in agreement with the object is nearly equivalent to the infinitive of indirect discourse (§ 580), but expresses the action more vividly : ut eum nemo umquam in equ5 sedentem viderit (Verr. v. 27), so that no one ever saw him sitting on a horse. [Cf. Tusc. iii. 31.] Note. — The same construction is used after facio, induce, and the like, with the name of an author as subject: as, — Xenophon facit Socratem disputantem (N..D. i. 31), Xenophon represents Socrates disputing. Future Participle (Active) 498. The Future Participle (except futurus and venturus) is rarely used in simple agreement with a noun, except by poets and later writers. a. The future participle is chiefly used with the forms of esse (often omitted in the infinitive) in the Active Periphrastic Conjuga- tion (see § 195) : — morere, Diagora, ndn enim in caelum adscensurus es (Tusc. i. Ill), die, Biagoras, for you are not likely to rise to heaven. sperat adulescens diu se victurum (Cat. M. 68), the young man hopes to live long (that he shall live long), neque petiturus umquam consulatum videretur (Off. iii. 79),.a?id did not seem likely ever to be a candidate for the consulship. h. With the past tenses of esse in the indicative, the future parti- ciple is often equivalent to the pluperfect subjunctive (§ 517. d). For futurum fuisse, see § 589. b. 499. By later writers and the poets the Future Participle is often used in simple agreement with a substantive to express — 1. Likelihood or certainty : — rem ausus pliis famae habituram (Liv. ii. 10), having dared a thing which would have more repute. §§ 499, 500] GERUNDIVE 316 2. Purpose, intention, or readiness : — ggreditur castrls Romanus vallum invasurus (Liv. iii. 60. 8), the Roman comes out of the camp with the intention of attacking the rampart. disperses per agros mllites equitibus invasurls (id. xxxi. 36), while the horse were readij to attack the soldiers scattered through the fields. si periturus abis (Aen. ii. 675), if you are going away to perish. 3. Apodosis : — dedit mihi quantum maximum potuit, daturus amplius si potuisset (Plin. Ep. iii. 21. 6), he gave me as much as he could, ready to give me more if he had been able. [Here daturus is equivalent to dedisset.] Gerundive (Future Passive Participle) Note. — The participle in -dus, commonly called the Gerundive, has two distinct uses : — (1) Its predicate and attribute use as Participle or Adjective (§ 500). (2) Its use with the meaning of the Gerund (§ 503). This may he called its gerun- dive use. 500. The Gerundive when used as a Participle or an Adjective is always passive, denoting necessity, obligation, or propriety. In this use of the Gerundive the following points are to be observed : — 1. The gerundive is sometimes used, like the present and perfect participles, in simple agreement with a noun : — f ortem et conservandum virum (Mil. 104) , a brave man, and worthy to be pre- served. gravis initiria facta est et non ferenda (Flacc. 84), a grave and intolerable wrong has been done. 2. The most frequent ifee of the gerundive is with the forms of esse in the Second (or passive) Periphrastic Conjugation (see § 196) : — non agitanda res erit (Verr. v. 179), will not the thing have to be agitated? 3. The neuter gerundive of both transitive and intransitive verbs may be used impersonally in the second periphrastic conjugation. With verbs that take the dative or ablative, an object may be ex- pressed in the appropriate case ; with transitive verbs, an object in the accusative is sometimes found : — tempori serviendum est (Fam. ix. 7. 2), one mu^t obey the time. Iggibus parendum est, the laws must be obeyed. utendum exercitati5nibus modicis (Cat. M. 36), ive must use moderate exercise. agitandumst vigilias (PL Trin. 869), I have got to stand guard. via quam nobis ingrediendum sit (Cat. M. 6), the way we have to enter. 316 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§500-503 4. After verbs signifying to give, deliver, ar/ree for, have, receive, undertake, demand,^ a gerundive in agreement with the object is used to express purpose : — redemptor qui columnam illam conduxerat faciendam (Div. ii. 47), t?te con- tractor who Imd undertaken to make that column. [The regular construc- tion with this class of verbs.] aedem Castoris habuit tuendam (Verr. ii. 1. 150), he had the temple of Castor to take care of. navis atque onera adservanda curabat (id. v. 146), he took care that the ships and cargoes should be kept. GERUND 501. The Gerund is the neuter of the Gerundive, used sub- stantively in the Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative. 502. The Gerund expresses an action of the verb in the form of a verbal noun. As a noun the gerund is itself governed by other words ; as a ve7'b it may take an object in the proper case : — ars bene disserendi et vera ac falsa diiudicandi (De Or. ii. 157), the art of dis- coursing well, and distinguishing the true and the false. Note. — The Nominative of the gerund is supplied by the Infinitive. Thus in the example above, the verbal nouns discoursing and distinguishing, if used in the nomi- native, would be expressed by the infinitives disserere and diiudicare. The Gerund is the neuter of the gerundive used impersonally, but retaining the verbal idea sufficiently to govern an object. It may therefore be regarded as a noun (of. maturato opus est, §497. a) with a verbal force (cf. istanc tactio, p. 240, footnote). GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 503. When the Gerund would have an object in the Accusa- tive, the Gerundive 2 is generally used instead. The gerundive agrees with its noun, which takes the case that the gerund would have had : — paratiores ad omnia pericula subeunda (B. G. 1. 5), readier to undergo all dangers. [Here subeunda agrees with pericula, which is itself governed by ad. The (inadmissible) construction with the gerund would be ad subeundum pericula ; ad governing the gerund, and the gerund governing the accusative pericula.] For details, see §§ 504-507. 1 Such verbs are accipio, adnoto, attribuo, conduco, euro, denoto, deposco, do, divide, dono, edico, edoceo, fero, habeo, loco, mando, obicio, permitto, peto, pono, praebeo, propono, relinquo, rogo, suscipio, trado, voveo. 2 The gerundive construction is probably the original one. §§ 503, 504] GENITIVE OF GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 317 Note 1. — In this use the gerund and the gerundive are translated iu the same way, but have really a different coustraction. The gerundive is a, passive participle, and agrees with its noun, though in translation we change the voice, just as we may translate vigiliae agitandae sunt {guard must be kept) by I must stand guard. Note 2. — In the gerundive construction the verbs iitor, fruor, etc., are treated like transitive verbs governing the accusative, as they do in early Latin (§ 410. a. n. i) : as, — ad perfruendas voiuptates (Off. i. 2b), for enjoying pleasures. a. The f ollov/ing examples illustrate the parallel constructions of Gerund and Gerundive : — Gen. consilium j , , . • •, r « design of talcing the city. Dat. dat operarn \ . , ,. [ Ae attends to tillinq the fields. ^ \ agns colenais j ^f j . . X J r mihi parendum ] ., (to obey me. Ace. veniunt ad -^ _ ^ , > they come < . , ( pacem petendam J [to seek peace. Abl. terit tempus -I .^ ,. ^ " ,. [ he spends time in writina letters. { scribendis epistulis J Note 1. — The gerund with a direct object is practically limited to the Genitive and the Ablative (without a preposition) ; even iu these cases the gerundive is commoner. Note 2. — The gerund or gerundive is often found coordinated with nominal con- structions, and sometimes even in apposition with a noun : — (1) in foro, in curia, in amicorum periculis propulsandis (Phil. vii. 7), in the forum, in the senate-house, in defending my friends in jeopardy. (2) ad res diversissimas, parendum atque imperandum (Liv. xxi. ^),for the most zoidely different things, obeying and commanding. Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive 504. The Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive is used after nouns or adjectives, either as subjective or objective genitive : — Vivendi finis est optimus (Cat. M. 72), it is the best end of living. [Sub- jective.] neque consili habendi neque arma capieadi spatio dato (B. G. iv. 14), time being given neither for forming plans nor for taking arms. [Obj active. ] non tarn commutandarum quam evertendarum rerum cupidos (Off. ii. 3), desir- ous not so much of changing as of destroying the state. [Objective.] Note 1. — In these uses the gerund and the gerundive are about equally common. Note 2. — In a few phrases the Infinitive is used with nouns which ordinarily have the genitive of the gerund or gerundive: as,— tempus est abire, it is time to go. a. The genitive of the gerund sometimes takes a direct object, espe- cially a neuter pronoun or a neuter adjective used substantively : — nulla causa itista cuiquam esse potest contra patriam arma capiendi (Phil. ii. 53), no one can have a just cause for taking up arms against his country. artem vera ac falsa diiudicandi (De Or. ii. 157), the art of distinguishing true from false. 318 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 504, 505 Note 1. —The genitive of the gerund or gerundive is used (especially in later Latin) as a predicate genitive. When so used it often expresses purpose ; — quae postquam gloriosa modo neque belli patrandi cognovit (lug. 88), lohen he perceived that these were only brilliant deeds and not likely to end the war. Aegyptum proficiscitur cognoscendae antiquitatis (Tac. Ann. ii. 59), he sets out for Egypt to study old times. b. The genitive of the gerund or gerundive with causa or gratia expresses purpose (§ 533. b) : — pabulandi aut frumentandi causa progress! (B. C. i. 46), having advanced for the purpose of collecting fodder or supplies. vitandae suspicionis causa (Cat. i. 19), in order to avoid suspicion. simulandi gratia (lug. 37), in order to deceive. exercendae memoriae gratia (Cat. M. 38), for the sake of training the meniory. c. The genitive of the gerund is occasionally limited by a noun or pronoun (especially a personal pronoun in the plural) in the objective genitive instead of taking a direct object : — reiciendl trium iudicum potestas (Verr. ii. 77), the power of challenging three jurors (of the rejecting of three jurors). sui colligendi facultas (B. G. ill. 6), the opportunity to recover themselves. Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive 505. The Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used in a few expressions after verbs : — ^ diem praestitit open faciendd (Verr. ii. 1. 148), he appointed a day for doing the work. praeesse agro colendo (Rose. Am. 50), to take charge of cultivating the land. esse solvendo, to be able to pay (to be for paying). Note. — The dative of the gerund with a direct object is never found in classic Latin, but occurs twice in Plautus. a. The dative of the gerund and gerundive is used after adjec- tives,^ especially those which denote Jit?iess or adapt ability : — genus armorum aptum tegendis corporibus (Liv. xxxii. 10), a sort of armor suited to the defence of the body. » reliqua tempora demetendis fructibus et percipiendis accommodata sunt (Cat. M. 70), the other seasons are fitted to reap and gather in the harvest. perferendis milituui mandatis idoneus (Tac. Ann. i. 23), suitable for carrying out the instructions of the soldiers. Note. — This construction is very common in Livy and later writers, infrequent in classical prose. 1 Such are praeesse, operam dare, diem dicere, locum capere. 2 Such are accommodatus, aptus, ineptus, bonus, habilis, idoneus, par, utilis, inutilis. But the accusative with ad is common with most of these (cf. § 385. a). §§505-507] ABLATIVE OF GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 319 h. The dative of the gerund and gerundive is used in certain legal phrases after nouns meaning officers, offices, elections, etc., to indicate the function or scope of the office etc. : — comitia consulibus rogandis (Div. i. 33), elections for nominating consuls. triumvir coloniis deducundis (lug. 42), a triumvir for 'planting colonies. triumviri rei publicae constituendae (title of the Triumvirate), triumvirs (a com- mission of three) for settling the government. Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive 506. The Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used after the preposition ad, to denote Purpose (cf. § 533): — me vocas ad scribendum (Or. 34), you summon me to write. vivis non ad deponendam sed ad confirmandam audaciam (Cat. i. 4), you live not to put off hut to confirm your daring. nactus aditus ad ea c5nanda (B. C. i. 31), having found means to undertake these things. • Note 1. — Other prepositions appear in this construction ; inter and ob a few times, circa, in, ante, and a few others very rarely: as, inter agendum (Eel. lx. 24), while driving. Note 2. — The Accusative of the gerund with a preposition never takes a direct object in classic Latin. Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive 507. The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used (1) to express manner} means., cause, etc.; (2) after Comparatives; and (3) after the propositions ab, de, ex, in, and (rarely) pro : — (1) multa pollicendo persuadet (lug. 46), he persuades by large promises. Latine loquendo cuivis par (Brut. 128), equal to any man in speaking Latin. his ipsis legendis (Cat. M. 21), by reading these very things. obsciiram atque humilem conciendo ad se multitiidinem (Li v. i. 8), calling to them a mean and obscure multitude. (2) ntillum oflBcium referenda gratia magis necessarium est (Off. i. 47), no duty is more important than repaying favors. (3) in re gerenda versari (Cat. M. 17), to be employed in conducting affairs. Note 1. — The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is also very rarely used with verbs and adjectives: as, — nee continuando abstitit magistratu (Liv. ix. 34), he did not desi,stfrom continuing his magistracy. Note 2. — The ablative of the gerund rarely takes a direct object in classic prose. 1 In this use the ablative of the gerund is, in later writers nearly, and in medieeval writers entirely, equivalent to a present participle : as, — cum una dierum flendo sedis- set, quidam miles generosus iuxta earn equitando venit (Gesta Romanorum, 66 [58]), as one day she sat vjeeping, a certain knight came riding by (compare § 507, fourth example) . Hence come the Italian and Spanish forms of the present participle (as man- dando, esperando), the true participial form becoming an adjective in those languages. 320 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§8 508-510 SUPINE 508. The Supine is a verbal abstract of the fourth declension (§ 94. b), having no distinction of tense or person, and limited to two uses. (1) The form in -urn is the Accusative of the end of motion (§ 428. i) . (2) The form in -ii is usually Dative of pw?-- pose (§ 382), but the Ablative was early confused with it. 509. The Supine in -um is used after verbs of motion to express purpose. It may take an object in the proper case : — quid est, imusne sessum ? etsi admonitum venimus te, non flagitatum (De Or. ill. 17), how now, shall ive be seated? though we have come to remind, not to entreat you. nuptum dare (collocare), to give in marriage. venerunt questum initirias (Liv. iii. 25), they came to complain of wrongs. Note 1. — The supine in -um is especially common witheo, and with the passive infinitive Iri forms the future infinitive passive : — fuere cives qui rem publicam perditum irent (Sail. Cat. 36), there were citizens who went about to ruin the republic. si sciret se trucidatum iri (Div. ii. 22), if he (Pompey) had known that he ivcts going to be murdered. [Rare except in Cicero. For the more usual way of expressing the future passive infinitive, see § 569. 3. a.] Note 2. — The supine in -um is occasionally used when motion is merely implied. 510. The Supine in -u ^ is used with a few adjectives and with the nouns fas, nefas, and opus, to denote an action in reference to which the quality is asserted : — rem non modo visu foedam, sed etiam auditu (Phil. ii. 63), a thing not only shocking to see, but even to hear of. quaerunt quid optimum factu sit (Verr. ii. 1. 68), they ask what is best to do. si hoc fas est dictu (Tusc. v. 38), if this is lawful to say. videtis nefas esse dictu miseram fuisse talem senectiitem (Cat. M. 13), you see it is a sin to say that such an old age loas wretched. Note 1, — The supine in -u is thus in appearance an Ablative of Specification (§ 418). Note 2. — The supine in -u is found especially with such adjectives as indicate an effect on the senses or the feelings, and those which denote ease, difficulty, and the like. But with facilis, difflcilis, and iucundus, ad with the gerund is more common : — nee visu facilis nee dictu adfabilis ulli (Aen. iii. 621), he is not pleasant for any man to look at or address. difficilis ad distinguendum similitiido (De Or. ii. 212), a likeness difficult to dis- tinguish. Note 3. —With all these adjectives the poets often use the Infinitive in the same sense: as, — faciles aurem praebere (Prop. ii. 21. 15), indulgent to lend an ear. Note 4. — The supine in -ii with a verb is extremely rare: as, — pudet dictii (Tac. Agr. 32), it is a shame to tell. [On the analogy of pudendum dictu.] 1 The only common supines in -ii are auditii, dictu, factu, inventu, memoratu, natu, visii. In classic use this supine is found in comparatively few verbs, It is nevei followed by an obiect-case. 511] CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 321 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 611. The Conditional Sentence differs from other complex sentences in this, that the form of the main clause (apodosis) is determined ia some degree by the nature of the subordinate clause (protasis) upon the truth of which the whole statement depends. Like all complex sentences, however, the Conditional Sentence has arisen from the use of two independent sentence-forms to express the parts of a thought vv'hidi was too complicated to be fully expressed by a simple sentence. But because the thoughts thus expressed are in reality closely related, as parts of a single whole, the sentences which represent them are also felt to be mutually dependent, even though the relation is not expressed by any connecting word. Thus, Speak the word : my ser- vant shall be healed is a, simpler and an earlier form of expression than If thou speak the word, etc. The Conditional Particles were originally pronouns without conditional mean- ing; thua, si, if, is a weak demonstrative of the same origin as sic, so (sl-ce like hi-ce, see § 215. 5), and had originally the meaning of in that way, or iri some way. Its relative sense (if) seems to have come from its use with sic to make a pair of correla- tives : thus . . . thus (see § 512. b). In its origin the Conditional Sentence assumed one of two forms. The condition was from the first felt to be a condition, not a fact or a command ; but, as no special sentence-form for a condition was in use, it employed for its expression either a state- ment of /ac^ (with the Indicative) or a form of mild command (the Subjunctive). From the former have come all the uses of the Indicative in protasis ; from the latter all the uses of the Subjunctive in protasis. The Apodosis has either (1) the Indicative, expressing the conclusion as a fact, and the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, express- ing it originally as future — and hence more or less doubtful — or (2) the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive expressing it Q,&futurum in praeterito,^ and so unfulfilled in the present or past. Thus, — rides, maiore cacbiono concutitur, you laugh, he shakes with more boisterous laughter, is the original form for the Indicative in protasis and apodosis; si rides originally means merely you laugh in some way or other, and so, later, ip you laugh. So rogSs Arlst5nem, neget, ask Aristo, he would say no, is the original form of the subjunctive in protasis and apodosis; si roges would mean ask in S07ne way or other. In si rogares, negaret, the Imperfect rogares transfers the command of roges to past time,^ with the meaning suppose you had asked, and si would have the same meaning- as before ; while negaret transfers the future idea of ueget to past time, and means he was going to deny. Now the stating of this supposition at all gives rise to the implication that it is untrue in point o//acf, — because, if it were true, there would ordinarily be no need to state it as a supposition : for it would then be a simple fact, and as such would be putln the indicative.^ Such a condition or conclusion 1 Th^, futurum in praeterito is a tense future relatively to a time absolutely pa^t. It denotes a future act transferred to the point of view of past time, and hence is naturally expressed by a past tense of the Subjunctive: thus dixxsset, he would have said = dictunis fuit, he was about to say [but did not]. As that which looks towards the future from some point in the past has a natural limit in present time, such a tense (the imperfect subjunctive) came naturally to be used to express apf'esent con- dition purely ideal, that is to say, contrary to fact. 2 Compare potius diceret, he should rather have said (§ 439. b). 3 There are, however, some cases in which this implication does not arise: as, — deciens centena dedisses, nil erat in loculis (Hor. S. i. 3. 15), if you 'd given him a mil- lion, there was nothing in his coffers. 322 SYNTAX: CONDITIOXAJL SENTENCES [§§511,512 (originally past, meaning suppose you had asked [yesterday], he was going to deny) came to express an unfulfilled condition in the present: suppose (or if) you were now asking, he would [nowj deny — just as in English ought, which originally meant owed,^ has come to express a present obligation. For the classification of Conditional Sentences, see § 513. PEOTASIS AKD APODOSIS 512. A complete Conditional S.entence consists of two clauses, the Protasis and the Apodosis. The clause containing the coiuJition is called the Protasis ; the clause containing the conclusion is called the Apodosis : — si qui exire volant [protasis], conivere possum [apodosis] (Cat. ii. 27), if any wish to depart, I can keep my eyes shut. si est in exsilio [protasis], quid amplius postulatis [apodosis] (Lig. 13), if Mis in exile, what more do you ask? It should be carefully noted that the Apodosis is the 771am clause and the Protasis the dependent clause. a. The Protasis is regularly introduced by the conditional particle si, ij\ or one of its compounds. Note. — These compounds are sin, nisi, etiam si, etsi, tametsi, tamenetsi (see Condi- tional and Concessive Particles, p. 138). An Indefinite Relative, or any relative or concessive word, may also serve to introduce a conditional clause : see Conditional Relative Clauses (§§519, 542) ; Concessive Clauses (§527). h. The Apodosis is often introduced by some correlative word 01 phiase: as, ita, turn (rarely sic), or ea condicione etc.: — ita enim senectOs honesta est, si se ipsa defendit (Cat. M. 38), on this condi- tion is old age honorable, if it defends itself. si quidem me amaret, turn istuc prodesset (Ter. Eun. 4-46), if he loved me, then this would be profitable. sic scribes aliquid, si vacabis (Att. xii. 38. 2), if you are (shall be) at leisure, then you will write something. c. The Apodosis is the principal clause of the conditional sen- tence, but may at the same time be subordinate to some other clause, and so appear in the form of a Participle, an Infinitive, or a Phrase : — sepultiira quoque prohibituri, ni rex humari iussisset (Q. C. viii. 2. 12), intend- ing also to deprive him of burial, unless the king had ordered him to be interred. 1 " There was a certain lender which ought him five hundred pieces." — Tyndale's New Testament, §§512-514] CLASSIFICATION OF CONDITIONS 323 quod si praeterea nemo sequatur, tamen se cum sola decima legion e iturum [esse] (B. G. i. 40. 14), hut if no one else should follovj, he would go with the tenth legion alone. si quos adversum proelium commoveret, hos reperire posse (id. 40. 8), if the loss of a battle alarmed any, they might find, etc. Note. — When the Apodosis itself is in Indirect Discourse, or in any other depend- ent construction, the verb of the Protasis is regularly in the Subjunctive (as in the above examples, see § 589). classificatio:n" of coistditions ^ 513. Conditions are either (1) Particular or (2) General. 1. A Particular Condition refers to a definite act or series of acts occurring at some definite time. 2. A General Condition refers to any one of a class of acts wliicli may occur (or may have occurred) at any time. 514. The principal or typical forms of Conditional Sentences may be exhibited as follows : — PARTICULAR CONDITIONS A. Seviple Conditions (nothing implied as to fulfilment) I. Present Time Present Indicative in both clauses: — si adest, bene est, if he is [now] here, it is well. 2. Past Time Imperfect or Perfect Indicative in both clauses: — si aderat, bene erat, if he was [then] here, it was well. si adfuit, bene f uit, if he has been [was] here, it has been [was] weU. B. FuTUKE Conditions (as yet unfulfilled) I. More Vivid a. Future Indicative in both clauses : — si aderit, bene erit, if he is (shall be) here, it will be well. h. Future Perfect Indicative in protasis, Future Indicative in apodosis: — si adfuerit, bene erit, if he is (shall have been) here, it will [then] be well. 324 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§514 2. Less Vivid a. Present Subjunctive in both clauses: — si adsit, bene sit, if he should be {or were to be) /tere, it would be welL b. Perfect Subjunctive in protasis, Present Subjunctive in apod- osis: — si adfuerit, bene sit, if he should be (should have been) here, it would [then] be well. C. Conditions Contrary to Fact I. Present Time Imperfect Subjunctive in both clauses: — si adesset, bene esset, if he were [now] here, it wouM be well (but he is not here). 2. Past Time Pluperfect Subjunctive in both clauses: — 81 adfuisset, bene faisset, if he had [then] been here, it would have been well (but he was not here). Note. — The use of tenses in Protasis is very loose in English. Thus if he is alive now is a present condition, to he expressed in Latin by the Present Indicative; if he is alive next year is a future condition, expressed in Latin by the Future Indicative. Again, if he ivere here now is a present condition contrary to fact, and would be expressed by the Imperfect Subjunctive ; if he were to see me thus is a FUTURE condition less vivid, to be expressed by the Present Subjunctive; and so too, if you advised him, he would attend may be future less vivid.i D. GENERAL CONDITIONS General Conditions do not usually differ in form from Particular Conditions (A, B, and C), but are sometimes distinguished in the cases following : — I, Present General Condition (Indefinite Time) a. Present Subjunctive second person singular (Indefinite Subject) in protasis, Present Indicative in apodosis: — si hoc dicas, creditur, if any one [ever] says this, it is [always] believed. b. Perfect Indicative in protasis, Present Indicative in apodosis: si quid dixit, creditur, if he [e\"er] says anything, it is [always] belieoed. 1 In most English verbs the Preterite (or Past) Subjunctive is identical in form with the Preterite Indicative. Thus in such a sentence as if he loved his father, he would not say tJiis, the verb loved is really a Preterite Subjunctive, though this does not appear from the inflection. In the verb to be, however, the Subjunctive were has been preserved and differs in form from the indicative was. §§ 514, 515] SIMPLE PRESENT AND PAST CONDITIONS 325 2. Past General Condition (Repeated Action in Past Time) a. Pluperfect Indicative in protasis, Imperfect Indicative in apod- osis : — si quid dixerat, credebatur, if he [ever] said anything, it was [always] believed. b. Imperfect Subjunctive in protasis, Imperfect Indicative in apod- osis : — si quid diceret, credebatur, // he [ever] said anything, it was [always] believed (= whatever he said was always believed). i PARTICULAR CONDITIONS Simple Present and Past Conditions — Nothing Implied 515. In the statement of Present and Past conditions whose falsity is NOT implied^ the Present and Past tenses of the Indica- tive are used in both Protasis and Apodosis : — si tu exercitusque valetis, bene est (Fam. v. 2), if you and the army are well, it is well. [Present Condition.] haec igitur, si Romae es ; sin abes, aut etiam si ades, haec negotia sic se habent (Att. V. 18), this, then, if you are at Rome; but if you are away — or even if you are there — these matters are as follows. [Present Condition.] si Caesarem probatis, in me offenditis (B, C. ii. 82. 10), if you favor CcBsar, you find fault with me. [Present Condition.] si qui magnis ingeniis in eo genere exstiterunt, non satis Graecorum gloriae responderunt (Tusc. i. 8), if any have shown themselves of great genius in that department, they have failed to compete with the glory of the Greeks. [Past General Condition, not distinguished in form from Particular.] accepi Roma sine epistula tua fasciculum litterarum in quo, si modo valuisti et Romae fuisti, Philotimi duco esse culpam non tuam (Att, v. 17), I have received from Rome a bundle of letters without any from you, which, pro- vided you have been well and at Rome, I take to be the fault of Philotimus, not yours. [Mixed : Past condition and Present conclusion.] quas litteras, si Romae es, videbis putesne reddendas (id. v. 18), as to this letter, if you are at Rome, you will see whether in your opinion it ought to be delivered. [Mixed : Present and Future.] si nemo impetravit, adroganter rogo (Lig. 30), if no one has succeeded in obtain- ing it, my request is presumptuous. [Past and Present.] 1 Cf . the Greel^ forms corresponding to the various types of conditions : — A. 1. et Itpdacrei toOto, koKCos e^ei. 2. et ^Trpaa Any form denoting or implying future time may stand in the apodosis of a future condition. So the Imperative, the participles in -dus and -rus, and verbs of necessity ^ possibility, and the like ; — alius finis c5nstituendus est, si prius quid maxime reprehendere Scipio solitus sit dixero (Lael. 59), another limit must he set, if I first state what Scipio loas wont most to find fault with. si me praeceperit fatum, vos mandasse memento (Q. C. Ix, 6. 26), if fate cuts me off too soon, do you remember that I ordered this. nisi oculis videritis insidias Miloni a Clodio factas, nee deprecaturi sumus nee postulaturi (Mil. 6), unless you see with your own eyes the plots laid against Milo by Clodius, I shall neither beg nor demand, etc. non possum istum accusare, si cupiam (Verr. iv. ^1), I cannot accuse him, if I should (so) desire. 1 It often depends entirely upon the view of the writer at the moment, and not upon the nature of the condition, whether it shall be stated vividly or not ; as in the proverbial *' If*the sky falls, we shall catch larks " the impossible condition is iron- ically put in the vivid form, to illustrate the absurdity of some other supposed condt tion stated by some one else. 328 SYNTAX : CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§§ 516, 517 e. Rarely the Perfect Indicative is used in apodosis with a Pres- ent or even a Future (or Future Perfect) in protasis, to represent the conclusion rhetorically as already accomplished : — si hoc bene fixum in animS est, vicistis (Liv. xxi. 44), if this is well fixed in your minds, you have conquered. [For you will have conquered.] si euudein [animum] habueritis, vicimus (id. xxi. 43), if you shall have kept the same spirit, we have conquered. f, A future condition is frequently thrown back into past time, without implying that it is contrary to fact (§ 517). In such cases the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive may be used : — non poterat, nisi decertare vellet (B. C. iii. 44), he was not able, unless he wished to fight. tumulus apparuit, ... si luce palara iretur hostis praeventtirus erat (Liv. xxii. 24), a hill appeared . . . if they should go openly by daylight, the enemy would prevent. [The first two appear like Indirect Discourse, but are not. An observer describing the situation in the first example as present would say non potest nisi velit (see d), and no indirect dis- course would be thought of.] Caesar si peteret, . . . non quicquam proficeret (Hor. S. i. 3. 4), if even Ccesar were to as/c, he would gain nothing. [Here the construction is not con- trary to fact, but is simply si petat, non proficiat, thrown into past time.] Conditions Contrary to Fact 517. In the statement of a supposition impliedly false., the Im- perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used in both protasis and apodosis.^ The Imperfect refers to present time., the Pluperfect to past: — si viveret, verba eius audiretis (Rose. Com. 42), if he were living, you vjould hear his words. [Present.] nisi tu amisisses, numquam recepissem (Cat. M. 11), unless you had lost it, I should not have recovered it. [Past.] 8l meum consilium valuisset, tii hodie egeres, r?8 ptiblica non tot duces ami- sisset (Phil. ii. 37), if my judgment had prevailed [as it did not], you would this day be a beggar, and the republic would not have lost so many leaders. [Mixed Present and Past.] 1 The implication of falsity, in this oonstrnction, is not inherent in the subjunc- tive ; but comes from the transfer of a future condition to past time. Thus the time for the happening of the condition has, at the moment of writing, already passed ; so that, if the condition remains a condition, it must be contrary to fact.* So past forms of the indicative implying a future frequently take the place of the subjunctive in apodosis in this construction (see c, d, below, and §511). §517] CONDITIONS CONTRARY TO FACT a. In conditions contrary to fact the Imperfect often refers to^as^ time^ both in protasis and apodosis, especially when a repeated or con- tinued action is denoted, or when the condition if true would still exist : si nihil litteris adiuvarentur, numquam se ad earum stiidium contulissent (Arch. 16), if they had not been helped at all hy literature^ they never would have given their attention to the study of it, [Without the condi- tion, adiuvabantur. ] hie si mentis esset suae, ausus esset ediicere exercitum (Pison. 50), if he were of sane mind, would he have dared to lead out the army f [Here esset denotes a continued state, past as well as present.] non concidissent, nisi illud receptaculum classibus nostris pateret (Verr. ii. 3), [the power of Carthage] would not have fallen, unless that station had been [constantly] open to our fleets. [Without the condition, patgbat.] b. In the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact the past tenses of the Indicative may be used to express what was intended, or likely, or already begun. In this use, the Imperfect Indicative corresponds in time to the Imperfect Subjunctive, and the Perfect or Pluperfect Indicative to the Pluperfect Subjunctive : — si licitum esset, matres veniebant (Verr. v. 129), the mothers were coming if it had been allowed. in amplexus flliae ruebat, nisi lict5res obstitissent (Tac. Ann. xvi. 82), he was about rushing into his daughter'' s arms, unless the Victors had opposed. iam tuta tenebam, ni gens crudelis ferrS invasisset (Aen. vi. 858), I was just reaching a place of safety, had not the fierce people attacked me. Note 1. — Here the apodosis may he regarded as elliptical. Thus, — matres venie- bant (et venissent), the matrons were coming (and would have kept on) if, etc. Note 2. — With paene (and sometimes prope), almost, tlie Perfect Indicative Is used in the apodosis of a past condition contrary to fact : as, — pons iter paene hostibus dedit, ni unus vir fuisset (Liv. ii. 10), the bridge had almost given a passage to, the foe, if it had not been for one hero. c. Verbs and other expressions denoting necessity, prajMety, possi- bility, duty, when used in the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact, may be put in the Imperfect or Perfect Indicative. Such are oportet, decet, debeo, possum, necesse est, opus est, and the Sec^ ond Periphrastic Conjugation : — ^ non potuit fieri sapiens, nisi natus esset (Fin. ii. 103), he could not have become a sage, if he had not been born. si prlvatus esset h5c tempore, tamen is erat deligendus (Manil. 50), if he were at this time a private citizen, yet he ought to be appointed. 1 Observe that all these expressions contain the idea of futurity (cf . p. 328, footnote). Thus, decet me [hodie] ire eras, means it is proper for me [to-day] to go to-morroio ; and, decebat me [heri] ire hodig, it was proper for me [yesterday] to go to-day, usually with the implication that / have not gone as I was bound to do. 330 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§517 quod esse caput debebat, si probarl posset (Fin. iv. 23), what ought' to he the main point, if it could be proved. si ita putasset, certe optabilius Miloni fuit (Mil. 31), if he had thought so, surely it would have been preferable for Milo. Note 1. — In Present conditions the Imperfect Subjunctive (opprteret, possem, etc.) is the rule, the Indicative being rare ; in Past conditions both the Subjunctive (usually- Pluperfect) and the Indicative (usually Perfect) are common. For par erat, melius fuit, and the like, followed by the infinitive, see § 521. n. Note 2. — The indicative construction is carried still further in poetry: as, — si non alium iactaret odorem, laurus erat (Georg. ii. 133), it were a laurel, hut for giving out a different odor. d. The participle in -urus with eram or fui may take the place of an Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in the apodosis of a condi- tion contrary to fact : — quid enim futurum fuit [= fuisset], si . . . (Liv. ii. 1), what would have hap- pened if, etc. relicturl agros erant, nisi ad eos Metellus litteras misisset (Verr. iii. 121), they would have abandoned their fields, if Metellus had not sent them a letter. neque ambigitur quin ... id facturus fuerit, si . . . (Liv. ii. 1), nor is there any question that he would have done it, if, etc. [Direct : fecisset.] adeo parata seditio fuit ut Othonem rapturi fuerint, ni incerta noctis timuis- sent (Tac. H. i. 26), so far advanced was the conspiracy that they would have seized upon Otho, had they not feared the hazards of the night. [In a main clause: rapuissent, ni timuissent.] e. The Present Subjunctive is sometimes used in poetry in the protasis and apodosis of conditions contrary to fact : — ni comes admoneat, inruat (Aen. vi. 293), had not his companion warned him, he would have rushed on. [Cf. tu si hie sis, aliter sentias (Ter. And. 310), if you were in my place, you would think diff'erently.] Note 1. — This is probably a remnant of an old construction (see next note). Note 2. — In old Latin the Present Subjunctive (as well as the Imperfect) is used in present conditions contrary to fact and the Imperfect (more rarely the Pluperfect) in past conditions of the same kind. Thus it appears that the Imperfect Subjunctive, like the Imperfect Indicative, once denoted past time, even in conditional sentences. Gradually, however, in conditional sentences, the Present Subjunctive was restricted to the less vivid future and the Imperfect (in the main) to the present contrary to fact, while the Pluperfect was used in past conditions of this nature. The old construction, however, seems to have been retained as an archaism in poetry. /. In Plautus and Terence absque mg (te, etc.) is sometimes used to introduce conditions contrary to fact : — absque te asset, hodig nusquam viverem (PI. Men. 1022), if it were not for you, I should not be alive to-day. absque eo esset, recte ego mihi vidissem (Ter. Ph. 188), if it had not been for him, I should have looked out for myself. §518] GENERAL CONDITIONS 331 GENERAL CONDITIONS 518. General Conditions (§ 513. 2) have usually the same forms as Particular Conditions. But they are sometimes distinguished in the following cases : — a. The Subjunctive is often used in the second person singular, to denote the act of an indefinite subject {you = any one). Here the Present Indicative of a general truth may stand in the apodosis : — vita humana prope uti ferruin est : si exerceas, conteritur ; si non exerceas, tamen robigo interficit (Cato de M.), human life is very like iron: if you use it, it wears away; if you don't use it, rust still destroys it. virttitem necessario gloria, etiamsi tii id non agas, consequitur (Tusc. i. 91), glory necessarily follows virtue, even if that is not one''s aim. si prohibita imptine transcenderis, neque metus ultra neque pudor est (Tac. Ann. iii. 54), if you once overstep the bounds with impunity, there is no fear or shame any more. b. In a general condition in present time, the protasis often takes the Perfect Indicative, and the apodosis the Present Indicative. For past time, the Pluperfect is used in the protasis, and the Imperfect in the apodosis : — si quos aliqua parte membrorum infttilis notaverunt, necari iubent (Q. C. ix. 1. 25), if they [ever] mark any infirm in any part of their limhs, they [always] order them to he put to death. [Present. ] si a persequendo hostis deterrere nequiverant, ab tergo circumveniebant (lug. 50), if [ever] they were unable to prevent the enemy from pursuing, they [always] surrounded them in the rear. [Past.] c. In later writers (rarely in Cicero and Caesar), the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used in protasis, with the Imperfect In- dicative in apodosis, to state a repeated or customary action in past time {Iterative Subjunctive): — si quis a domino prehenderetur, concursti militum eripiebatur (B. C. iii. 110), if any (runaway) was arrested by his master, he was (always) rescued by a mob of soldiers. accGsatores, si facultas incideret, poenis adficiebantur (Tac. Ann. vi. 30), the accusers, whenever opportunity offered, were visited with punishment. si quis coUegam appellasset, ab eo ita discedebat ut paeniteret non prioris decreto stetisse (Liv. iii. 36. 8), if any one appealed to a colleague, he [always] caine off in such case that he repented not having submitted to the decree of the former decemvir. [Cf. Socrates, quam se cumque in partem dedisset, omnium fuit facile princeps (De Or. iii. 60), in whatever direction Socrates turned himself, he was (always) easily the foremost (if in any, etc.).] 332 SYNTAX : CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§§ 519, 520 Conditional Relative Clauses 519. A clause introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb may express a condition and take any of the construc- tions of Protasis^ (§ 514): — qui enim vitiis modum adponit, is partem suscipit vitiorum (Tusc. iv. 42), he who [only] sets a limit to faults^ takes up the side of the faults. [= si quis adponit. Present, nothing implied.] qui mentlri solet, peierare consuevit (Rose. Com. 46), whoever is in the habit of lying, is accustomed to swear falsely. [ = si quis solet. Present, nothing implied.] quicquid potuit, potuit ipsa per se (Leg. Agr. 1. 20), whatever power she had, she had by herself. [= si quid potuit. Past, nothing implied.] quod qui faciet, non aegrittidine solum vacabit, sed, etc. (Tusc. iv. 38), and he who does (shall do) this, will be free not only^ etc. [ = si quis faciet. Future, more vivid.] quisquis hue venerit, vapulabit (PI. Am. 309), whoever comes here shall get a thrashing. [= si quis venerit. Puture, more vivid.] quo voles, sequar (Clu. 71), whithersoever you wish (shall wish), I vjlll follow. [= si quo voles. Future, more vivid.] philosophia, cui qui pareat, omne tempus aetatis sine molestia possit degere (Cat. M. 2), philosophy, lohich if any one should obey, he would be able to spend his whole life without vexation. [== si quis pareat. Future, less vivid.] quaecumque vos causa htic attuUsset, laetarer (De Or. ii. 15), I should be glad, whatever cause had brouglit you here (i.e. if any other, as vv^ell as the one which did). [= si . . . attulisset. Contrary to fact.] The relative in this construction is always indefinite in meaning^ and very often in /orwi. 520. The special constructions of General Conditions are some- times found in Conditional Relative Clauses : — 1. The Second Person Singular of the Subjunctive in the protasis with the Indicative of a general truth in the apodosis (§ 518. a) : — bonus tantum modo segnior fit ubi neglegas, at malus improbior (lug, 31. 28), a good man merely becomes less diligent lohen you don-t watch him, but a bad man becomes more shameless. [Present General Condition.] 2. The Perfect or Phiperfect Indicative in the protasis and the Present or Imperfect Indicative in the apodosis (§ 518. b) : — cum hue veni, hoc ipsum nihil agere me delectat (De Or. ii. 24), whenever I come here, this very doing nothing delights me (whenever I have come, etc.). [Present General Condition.] 1 As in the Greek os hv. Hrav, etc. • and in stntntes in English, where the phrases if any person shall and whoever shall are used indifferently. §§ 620, 521] CONDITION DISGUISED 333 cum rosam vlderat, turn incipere ver arbitrabatur (Verr. v. 27), wheneoer he saw (had seen) a rose, then he thought spring was beginning. [Past General Condition.! -" • 3. In later writers (rarely in Cicero and Caesar) the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in the protasis and the Imperfect Indicative in the apodosis (§ 518. c) : — ubi imbecillitas materiae postulare videretur, pllae interpouuntur (B. C. ii. 16), wherever the weakness of the timber seemed to require, piles were put betioeen. [Past General Condition : interpouuntur = interpSnebantur. ] quocumque se intulisset, victoriam secum trahebat (Liv. vi. 8), wherever he advanced, he carried victory with him. [Past General Condition.] Condition Disguised 521. In many sentences properly conditional, the Protasis is not expressed by a conditional clause, but is stated in some other form of words or implied in the nature of the thought. a. The condition may be implied in a Clause, or in a Participle, Noun, Adverb, or some other word or phrase : — facile me paterer — illo ipso iudice quaerente — pro Sex. Roscio dicere (Rose. Am. 85), I should readily allow myself to speak for Roscius if that very judge were conducting the trial. [Present contrary to fact : si quaereret, paterer.] non mihi, nisi admonitS, venisset in mentem (De Or. ii. 180), it would not have come into my mind unless [I had been] reminded. [Past contrary to fact: nisi admonitus essem.] nulla alia gens tanta mole cladis non obruta esset (Liv. xxii. 54), there is no other people that would not have been crushed by such a weight of disaster. [Past contrary to fact : si alia fuisset.] nemo umquara sine magna spe immortalitatis se pro patria offerret ad mortem (Tusc. i. 32), no one, without great hope of immortality, would ever expose himself to death for his country. [Present contrary to fact : nisi magnam spem haberet.] quid himc paucorum annorum accessiS iuvare potuisset (Lael. 11), what good could the addition of a few years have done him (if they had been added) ? [Past contrary to fact : si accessissent.] quid igitur mihi ferarum laniatus oberit nihil sentienti (Tusc. i. 104), what harm will the mangling by wild beasts do me if I donH feel anything (feeling nothing) ? [Future more vivid : si nihil sentiam.] incitata semel proclivi labuntur sustinerique nGllo modo possunt (id. iv. 42), if once given a push, they slide down rapidly and can in no way be checked. [Present General : si incitata sunt.] 334 SYNTAX : CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§§ 521, 522 Note. — In several phrases denoting necessity, proprieUj, or the like, the Imper- fect, Perfect, or Pluperfect Indicative of esse is used in the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact, the protasis being implied in a subject infinitive (cf . 517. c) : — quanto tnelius fuerat promissum non esse servatum (Off. iii. 94), hoio much better would it have been if the promise had not been kept ! [promissum . . . servatum = 81 promissum non esset servatum.] mori praeclarum fuit (Att. viii. 2. 2), it would have been honorable to die. sed erat aequius Triarium aliquid de dissensione nostra iiidlcare (Fin. ii. 119), but it would be more equitable if Triarius passed judgment on our dispute. [Tri- arium iudicare = si Triarius iudicaret.] satius fuit amittere milites (Inv. ii. 73), it would have been better to lose the soldiers. [amittere = si amisisset.] 6. The condition may be contained in a wish ( Optative Subjunctive) y or expressed as an exhortation or command (Hortatory Subjunctive or Imperative) : — utinam quidem fuissem 1 molestus nobis non esset (Fam. xii. 3), I wish I had been [chief] : he would not now be troubling us (i.e. if I had been). [Optative Subjunctive.] nattiram expellas furca, tamen usque recurret (Hor. Ep. i. 10. 24), drive out nature with a pitchfork., still she will ever return. [Hortatory.] roges enim Aristonem, neget (Fin. iv. 69), for ask Aristo, he would deny. manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria (Cat. M. 22), old men keep their mental powers, only let them keep their zeal and dili- gence (§ 528. N.). [Hortatory.] tolle banc opinionem, Itictum sustuleris (Tusc. i. 30), remove this notion, and you will have done away with grief. [Imperative.] Note. — The so-called Concessive Subjunctive with ut and ne often has the force of protasis (§ 527. a. n.) : as, — ut enim rationem Plato nullam adferret, ipsa auctoritate me frangeret (Tusc. i. 49), even if Plato gave no reasons, [still] he would overpower me by his mere authority. c. E-arely the condition takes the form of an independent clause: rides : maiore cacliinno concutitur (luv. iii. 100), you laugh; he shakes with louder laughter {= if you laugh, he shakes). commove: senties (Tusc. iv. 54), stir him up, [and] youHlfind, etc. d§ paupertate agitur: multl patientes pauperes commemorantur (id. iii. 57), we speak of poverty; many patient poor are mentioned. For Conditional Relative Clauses, see §§ 519, 520. Condition Omitted 522. The Protasis is often wholly omitted, but may be inferred from the course of the argument : — poterat Sextilius impune negare : quis enim redargueret (Fin. ii. 55), Sextilius might have denied with impunity; for who would prove him wrong (if he had denied)? §§522,523] COMPLEX CONDITIONS 335 a. In expressions signifying necessity, propriety, and the like, the Indicative may be used in the apodosis of implied conditions, either future or contrary to fact : — quod contra decuit ab illo meum [corpus cremari] (Cat. M. 84), whereas on the other hand mine ought to have been burnt hy him. nam nos decebat domum lugere ubi esset aliquis in lucem editus (Tusc. i. 115), for it were fitting for us to mourn the house where a man has been born (but we do not), quanto melius fuerat (Off. iii. 94), how much better it would have been. illud erat aptius, aequ'um cuique concedere (Fin. iv. 2), it would be more Jit ting to yield each one his rights. ipsum enim exspectare magnum fuit (Phil. ii. 103), would it have been a great matter to wait for the man himself? longum est ea dicere, sed . . . (Sest. 12), it would be tedious to tell, etc. [Future.] Note 1. — In tbis construction, the Imperfect Indicative refers to present time; the Pluperfect to simple past time, like the Perfect. Thus oportebat means it ought to be [now], but is not; oportuerat means it ought to have been, but was not. Note 2. — In many cases it is impossible to say whether a protasis was present to the mind of the speaker or not (see third example above). Complex Conditions 523. Either the Protasis or the Apodosis may be a complex idea in which the main statement is made with expressed or implied qualifications. In such cases the true logical relation of the parts is sometimes disguised : — si quis horum dixisset ... si verbum de re ptiblica fecisset . . . multa pltira dixisse quam dixisset putaretur (Rose. Am. 2), if any of these had spoken, in case he had said a word about politics he would be thought to have said much more than he did say. [Here the apodosis of dixisset is the whole of the following statement (si . . . putaretur), which is itself conditioned by a protasis of its own : si verbum, etc.]. quod si in hoc mundo fieri sine deo non potest, ne in sphaera quidem eosdem mottis sine divino ingenio potuisset imitarl (Tusc. i. 63), now if that can- not be done in this universe without divine agency, no more could [Archi- medes] in his orrery have imitated the same revolutions without divine genius. [Here si potest (a protasis with nothing implied) has for its apodosis the whole clause which follows, but potuisset has a contrary- to-fact protasis of its own implied in sine . . . ingenio.] peream male si non optimum erat (Hor. S. ii. 1. 6), confound me (may I perish wretchedly) if it wouldn't be better. [Here peream is apodosis to the rest of the sentence, while the true protasis to optimum erat, contrary to fact, is omitted.] 336 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§624 Clauses of Comparison (Conclusion Omitted) 524. Conditional Clauses of Comparison take the Subjunctive, usually in the Present or Perfect unless the sequence of tenses requires the Imperfect or Pluperfect. Such clauses are introduced by the comparative particles tamquam, tamquam si, quasi, ac si, ut si, velut si (later velut), poetic ceu (all mean- ing as if), and by quam si (than if) : — tamquam clausa sit Asia (Fam. xii. 9), as if Asia luere closed. tamquam si claudus sim (PI. Asin. 427), just as if I were lame. ita lios [houores] petuiit, quasi honeste vixerint (lug. 85), they seek them (ofiQces) just as if they had lived honorably. quasi verO non specie visa iudicentur (Acad. ii. 58), as if forsooth visible things wei'e not judged by their appearance. similiter facis ac si me roges (N. D. iii. 8), you do exactly as if you asked me. crtidelitatem horrerent velut si coram adesset (B. G. i. 32), they dreaded his cruelty (they said), as if he were present in person. hie ingentem ptignam cernimus ceu cetera nusquam bellaforent (Aen. ii. 438), here we saw a great battle, as if there were no fighting elsewhere. [But sometimes with the indicative in poetry, as id. v. 88.] magis a me abesse videbare quam si domi esses (Att. vi. 5), you seemed to be absent from me more than if you were at home. Note 1. — These subjunctive clauses are really future conditions with apodosis implied in the particle itself. Thus in tamquam si claudus sim the protasis is introduced by si, and the apodosis implied in tamquam. Note 2. — The English idiom would lead us to expect the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive (contrary to fact) with these particles; but the point of view is different in the two languages. Thus the second example above is translated Jw5< asif Iicere lame, — as if it were a present condition contrary to fact; but it really means jv^t as [it would be] if I should [at some future time] be lame, and so is a less vivid future condition requiring the Present Subjunctive. Similarly quasi honeste vixerint, as ij they had lived honorably, is really as [they would do in the future] if they should have lived honorably and so requires the Perfect Subjunctive (§ 516. c). a. Even after a primary tense, the Imperfect or Pluperfect Sub- junctive (contrary to fact) is often used in conditional clauses of comparison : — aeque a te peto ac si mea negotia essent (Fam. xiii. 43), I entreat you as much ■ as if it were my own business. §ius negotium sic velim suscipias ut si asset res mea (id. vii. 20. 1), I would have you undertake his business as though it were my affair. Note. — The practice differs with the different particles. Thus in Cicero a clause with tamquam or quasi almost always observes the sequence of tenses, but with quam ei the Imperfect or Pluperfect is the rule § 526] USE OF si' AND ITS COMPOUNDS 337 Use of St and its Compounds 525. The uses of some of the more common Conditional Parti- cles may be stated as follows : — a. Si is used for affi,rmative, nisi (ni) and si non for negative con- ditions. 1. With nisi (generally unless) the apodosis is stated as universalis/ true except in the single case supposed, in which case it is (impliedly) not true : — nisi Conon adest, maereo, unless Conon is here, I mourn (i.e. I am always in a state of grief except in the single case of Conon's presence, in which case I am not). 2. With si non (if not) the apodosis is only stated as true in the (negative) case supposed, but as to other cases no statement is made : — SI Conon non adest, maereo, if Conon is not here, I mourn (i.e. I mourn in the single case of Conon's absence, nothing being said as to other cases in which I may or may not mourn). Note. — It often makes no difference in which of these forms the condition is stated. 3. Sometimes nisi si, except if, unless, occurs : — noli putSre me ad quemquam longiores epistulas scribere, nisi si quis ad me plura scrlpsit (Fam. xiv. 2), . . . except in case one writes more to me. Note. — TTi is an old form surviving in a few conventional phrases and reappear- ing in poets and later writers. 6, Nisi vero and nisi forte regularly introduce an objection or excep- tion ii'oiiically, and take the Indicative : — nisi vero L. Caesar crudelior visus est (Cat. iv. 13), unless indeed Lucius Ccesar seemed too cruel. nisi forte volumus Epiciireoruin opinionem sequi (Fat. 37), unless, to be sure, we choose to follow the notion of the Epicureans. Note. — This is the regvilar way of introducing a reductio ad abs^rdum in Latin. Nisi alone is sometimes used in this sense: as,— nisi unum hoc faciam ut in puteo cenam coquant 4). (2) reicg cajpellas (Eel. iii. 96, at end). Note 4. — The y or w sound resulting from synveresis (§ 642) has the effect of a con- sonant in making position: as, abietis (abyetis), fluviorum {fluvyoi-um) . Conversely, when the semivowel becomes a vowel, position is lost: as, sililae, for silvae. i Rarely dissyllabic ciH (as Mart. i. 104. 22) 5 604] FINAL SYLLABLES 403 FINAL SYLLABLES 604. The Quantity of Final Syllables is as follows : — a. Monosyllables ending in a vowel are long : as, me, tu, hi, ne. 1. The attached particles -ne, -quS, -ve, -ce, -ptS, and re- (red-) are short; se- (sed-) and di- are long. Thus, secedit, seditio, exercitumque reducit, dimitto. But re- is often long in religio (relligid), retuli (rettuli), repuli (reppuli). &. Nouns and adjectives of one syllable are long : as, sol, os (oris), bos, par, vas (vasis), ver, vis. Exceptions. — cor, fel, lac, mel, os (ossis), vas (vadis), vir, tot, qu5t. c. Most monosyllabic Particles are short : as, an, m, cis, nee. But eras, cur, en, non, quln, sin — with adverbs in e : as, hie, hiie, sic — are long. d. Final a in words declined by cases is short, except in the ablative sin- gular of the first declension ; in all other words final a is long. Thus, eS Stella (nominative), eum ea stella (ablative) ; friistra, voca (imperative), postea, triginta. Exceptions. — eiS, itS, quia, puta (suppose) ; and, in late use, triginta etc. e. Final e is short : as in niibe, ducite, saepe. Exceptions. — Final e is long — 1. In adverbs formed from adjectives of the first and second declension, with others of like form : as, alte, longe, misere, aperte, saepissime. So fere, ferme. But it is short in bene, mal5 ; infeme, supemS. 2. In nouns of the fifth declension: as, fide (also fame), facie, hodie, quare (qua re). 3. In Greek neuters plural of the second declension : as, cete ; and in some other Greek words : Phoebe, Circe, Andromache, etc. 4. In the imperative singular of the second conjugation : as, vide. But sometimes cave, habS, tac§, vale, vide (cf. §629. b. 1). /. Final i is long : as in turri, fill, audi. Exceptions. — Final i is common in mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi ; and short in nisi, quasi, sicuti, cui (when making two syllables), and in Greek vocatives : as, Alexi. gr. Final o is common : but long in datives and ablatives ; also in nouns of the third declension. It is almost invariably long in verbs before the time of Ovid. Exceptions. — cit5, mod5 (dummodo), imm5, profecto, eg6, du6, cedo (the impera- tive); so sometimes octo, ilico, etc., particularly in later writers. h. Final u is long. Final y is short. i. Final as, es, os, are long ; final is, us, ys, are short ; as, nefas, rupes, servos (accusative), honos ; hostis, amiciis, Teth^s. 404 PROSODY: QUANTITY [§§604-606 Exceptions. — 1. as is short in Greek plural accusatives : as, lampadas ; and in an^s. 2. es is short in the nominative of nouns of the third declension (lingual) hav- ing a short vowel in the stem i : as, miles (-itis), obsSs (-Wis), — except abies, aries, paries, pes ; in the present of esse (es, ades) ; in the preposition penes, and in the plural of Greek nouns : as, heroes, lampades. 3. OS is short in compos, impos ; in the Greek nominative ending : as, barbitos ; in the old nominative of the second declension : as, servos (later servus). 4. is in plural cases is long : as in bonis, nobis, vobis, omnis (accusative plural). 5. is is long in the verb forms fis, sis, vis (with quivis etc.), velis, malis, nolis, edis ; in the second person singular of the present indicative active in the fourth conjugation: as, audis ; and sometimes in the forms in -eris (future perfect indica- tive or perfect subjunctive). 6. us is long in the genitive singular and nominative, accusative, and vocative plural of the fourth declension ; and in nouns of the third declension having u (long) in the stem: as, virtus (-utis), incus (-udis). But pecus, -udis. J, Of other final syllables, those ending in a single consonant are short. Thus, amat, amatiir ; donee, fac, procul, iubar. Exceptions. — hie (also hie) ; allee ; the ablatives illoc, etc. ; certain adverbs in -c : as, illic, istiic ; lien, and some Greek nouns : as, aer, aether, crater. Perfects and Perfect Participles 605. Perfects and Perfect Participles of two syllables have the first syllable long: as, iuvi, iutum (iiavo), vidi, visum (video); fugi (fugio); veni (venio). Exceptions. — bibi, dedi, fidi, scidi, stSti, stiti, tuli ; citum, dStum, itum, litum, quitum, ratum, rutum, satum, situm, statum. In some compounds of sto, statum is found (long), as praestatum. a. In reduplicated perfects the vowel of the reduplication is short ; the vowel of the following syllable is, also, usually short: as, cecidi (cado), didici (disco), piipugi (pungo), cuciirri (curro), tetSndi (tendo), m5m6rdi (mor- deo). But cecidi from caedo, pepedi from pedo. Derivatives 606. Rules for the Quantity of Derivatives are : — a. Forms from the same stem have the same quantity : as, Sm5, Sma- visti; genus, generis. Exceptions. — 1. bos, lar, mas, par, pes, sal, — also arbos, — have a long vowel in the nominative, though the stem-vowel is short (cf. genitive bovis etc.). 1 The quantity of the stem-vowel mav be seen in the genitive singular. §§ 606, 607] RHYTHM 405 2. Nouns in -or, genitive -oris, have the vowel shortened before the final r : as, hoEor. (But this shortening is comparatively late, so that in early Latin these nominatives are often found long.) 3. Verb-forms with vowel originally long regularly shorten it before final m, r, ort: as, amem, amer, dicerer, amet (compare amemus), diceret, audit, fit. Note. — The final syllable in t of the perfect was long in old Latin, but is short in the classic period. 4. A few long stem-syllables are shortened : as, acer, acerbus. So de-igro and pe-iero, weakened from iuro. h. Forms from the same root often show inherited variations of vowel quantity (see § 17) : as, dico (of. maledicus) ; duco (dux, diacis) ; fido (perfidus) ; vox, vocis (v5co); lex, legis (leg5). c. Compounds retain the quantity of the words which compose them : as, oc-cido (cado), oc-cido (caedo), in-iquus (aequus). Note. — Greek words compounded with irpb have o short : as, prSpheta, prologus. Some Latin compounds of pro have o short : as, proficiscor, profiteor. Compounds with ne vary : as, nefas, nego, nequeo, nequam. RHYTHM 607. The essence of Rhythm in poetry is the regidar recurrence of syllables pronounced wath more stress than those intervening. To produce this effect in its perfection, precisely equal times should occur between the recurrences of the stress. But, in the application of rhythm to words, the exactness of these intervals is sacri-. ficed somewhat to the necessary length of the words; and, on the other hand, the words are forced somewhat in their pronunciation, to produce more nearly the proper intervals of time. In different languages these adaptations take place in different degrees ; one language disregarding more the intervals of time, another the pronun- ciation of the words. The Greek language early developed a very strict rhythmical form of poetry, in which the intervals of time were all-important. The earliest Latin, on the other hand, — as in the Saturnian and Fescennine verse, —was not so restricted. But the purely metrical forms were aftei-wards adopted from the Greek, and supplanted the native forms of verse. Thus the Latin poetry with which we have to do follows for the most part Greek rules, which require the formal division of words (like music) into measures of equal times, technically called Feet. The strict rhythm was doubtless more closely followed in poetry that was sung than in that which was declaimed or intoned. In neither language, however, is the time perfectly preserved, even in single measures ; and there are some cases in which the regularity of the time between the ictuses is disturbed. The Greeks and Romans distinguished syllables of two kinds in regard to the time required for their pronunciation, a long syllable having twice the metrical value of a short one. But it must not be supposed that all long syllables were of equal length, or even that in a given passage each long had just twice the length of the contiguous shorts. The ratio was only approximate at best, though necessarily more exact in singing than in recitation. Nor are longs and shorts the only forms of syllables that are found. In some cases a long syllable was protracted, so as to have the time of three or even of four shorts, and often one long or two shorts were pronounced in less than their proper time, though they were perhaps distinguishable in time from one 406 PROSODY : RHYTHM [§§ 607, 608 short (see §608. c, d). Sometimes a syllable naturally short seems to have been slightly prolonged, so as to represent a long, though in most (not all) cases the appar- ent irregularity can be otherwise explained. In a few cases, also, a pause takes the place of one or more syllables to fill out the required length of the measure. This could, of course, take place only at the end of a word: hence the importance of Caesura and Diaeresis in prosody (§ 611. b, c). Measures 608. Rhythm consists of the division of musical sound into equal intervals of time called Measures or Feet. The most natural division of musical time is into measures con- sisting of either two or three equal parts. But the ancients also distinguished measures of five equal parts. Note. — The divisions of musical time are marked by a stress of voice on one or the other part of the measure. This stress is called the Ictus (beat), or metrical accent (see §611. a). a, The unit of length in Prosody is one short syllable. This is called a Mora. It is represented hy the sign v^, or in musical notation by the eighth note or quaver (P). b, A long syllable is regularly equal to tvro morse, and is represented by the sign _, or by the quarter note or crotchet (i*). c, A long syllable may be protracted, so as to occupy the time of three or four morse. Such a syllable, if equal to three moras, is represented by the sign l_ (or dotted quarter i**) ; if equal to four, by i_i (or the half note or minim, f^). d, A long syllable may be contracted, so as to take practically the time of a short one. Such a syllable is sometimes represented by the sign >. e, A short syllable may be contracted so as to occupy less than one mora. /. A pause sometimes occurs at the end of a verse or a series of verses, to fill up the time. A pause of one mora in a measure is indicated by the sign A ; one of two morae by the sign A . g. One or more syllables are sometimes placed before the proper begin- ning of the measure. Such syllables are called an Anacriisis or prelude.'^ The anacrusis is regularly equal to the unaccented part of the measure. 1 The same thing occurs in modern poetry, and in modern music any unaccented syllables at the beginning are treated as an anacrusis, i.e. they make an incomplete measure before the first bar. This was not the case in ancient music. The ancients seem to have treated any unaccented syllable at the beginning as belonging to the fol- lowing accented ones, so as to make with them a foot or measure. Thus it would seem that thei*e was an original form of Indo-European poetry which was iambic in its structure, or which, at least, accented the second syllable rather than the first. §609] MEASURES 407 609. The feet most frequently employed in Latin verse, to- gether with their musical notation, are the following ; — a. Triple or Unequal Measures (|)^ 1. Trochee (^ . =pp:as,..,.. 2. Iambus (w — = I* I*) • ^-s, duces. 3. Tribrach 2 (w v.^* w = |* ^ I*) : as, hommis. b. Double or Equal Measures (|) 1. Dactyl (_ w w = I* I* I*) : as, cdnsulis. 2. Anapaest (^ w _ = I* j* i*) : as, monXtos. 3. Spondee ( = i* i*) : as, reges. c. Six-timed Measures (f) 1. Tonic a mdiore ( \j \j =^ j* j* j*) : as, confecerat. 2. Ionic a minore (w w ~ I* 1^ I* (*) • ^^' retulissent. 3. Choriambns (_ ^ ^ _ = ^ (• |* i*) : as, contulerant. do Quinary or Hemiolic * Measures (f) 1. Cretic (_ w _ =j* I* j*): as, consuUs. 2. PfEon j)rlmus (_ w v^ w = I* j* I* |*) : as, consuKbus. 3. PcTon quartus (www ~ I* I* I* I*)' ^^j ?^?nm. 4. Bacchms (w =i* i* i*): as, amlcos. 1 Called diplasic, the two parts (Thesis and Arsis) being in the ratio of 2 to 1. 2 Not found as a fundamental foot, but only as the resolution of a Trochee or Iambus. 8 Called hemiolic, the two parts being in the ratio of 1 to Ih, or of 2 to 3. 408 PROSODY: RHYTHM [§609 Note. — Several compound feet are mentioned by the grammarians, viz. Pyrrhic {kj w); Amphibrach {\j w); Antibacchlus ( w); ProceleiLsmatic (w w v./ w); the Molossus ( ); the 2d and 3d Paeon, having a long syllable in the 2d or 3d place, with three short ones ; 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th Epitritus, having a short syllable in the 1st, 2d, 3d, or 4th place, with three long ones. Irrational Feet e. Feet with these apparent quantities do not always occupy equal time, but may be contracted or prolonged to suit the series in which they occur. They are then called irrational, because the thesis and arsis do not have their normal ratio.^ Such are : — Irrational Spondee : (in place of a Tro (in place of an Iambus Cyclic Dactyl (in place of a Trochee) : (in place of a Trochee) -1 > 1 ' \\ _£- v.yvy or x}.}-o^-:.}S Cyclic Anapaest (in place of an Iambus) : v^ _^ or w w-^ = J$ ^^ ^L or J J^ J. The apparent dactyl > v5 \-/, as a substitute for an iambus, and the apparent anapaest w w >, as a substitute for a trochee, occur frequently in the dramatic writers. Note. — Narrative poetry was written for rhythmical recitation, or chant, with instrumental accompaniment; and Lyrical poetry for rhythmical melody, or singing. It must be borne in mind that in ancient music — which in this differs widely from modern — the rhythm of the melody was identical with the rhythm of the text. The lyric poetry was to be sung ; the poet was musician and composer, as well as author. To this day a poet is said conventionally to " sing." Thus a correct understanding of the rhythmical structure of the verse gives us the time, though not the tune, to which it was actually sung. The exact time, however, as indicated by the succession of long and short syllables, was varied according to certain laws of so-called " Rhythmic," as will be explained below. In reading ancient verse it is necessary to bear in mind not only the varif. tious in the relative length of syllables, but the occasional pause necessary to fill out the measure ; and to remember that the rhythmical accent is the only one of importance, though the words should be distinguished carefully, and the sense preserved. Poetry should not be scanned, but read metrically. 1 It seems probable that both thesis and arsis of an irrational foot were affected by the necessity of preserving the rhythmical time of the foot. §§ 610, 611] THE MUSICAL ACCENT 409 Substitution 610. In many cases measures of the same time may be substi- tuted for each other, a long syUable taking the place of two short ones, or two short syllables the place of a long one. In the former case the measure is said to be contracted; in the latter, to be resolved : — a, A Spondee ( ) may take the place of a Dactyl (_ w v^) or an Anapaest (w w ); and a Tribrach (v^ w w) may take the place of a Trochee (_ v^) or an Iambus (w _). The optional substitution of one long syllable for two short ones is represented by the sign xj^. h. When a long syllable having the Ictus (§ 611. a) is resolved, the ictus properly belongs to both the resulting short syllables ; but for con- venience the mark of accent is placed on the first : — mine ex|periar | sftn<^ a|ceto j tibi cor | acr« in | p^ct6|rg. — PI. Bac. 405. >!^w >\J-s^\Ji. >\6^^\-L>\-L^\^h The Musical Accent 611. That part of the measure which receives the stress of voice (the musical accent) is called the Thesis ; the unaccented part is called the Arsis.^ a. The stress of voice laid upon the Thesis is called the Ictus (beat). It is marked thus : _L w w . b. The ending of a word within a measure is called Caesura. When this coincides with a rhetorical pause, it is called the Cgesura of the verse, and is of main importance as affecting the melody or rhythm. c. The coincidence of the end of a word with that of a measure is called Diaeresis. 1 The Thesis signifies properly the putting doivn (9i— ) for an iambus {^JL). a. The Iambic Trimeter is often used in lyric poetry (1) as an inde- pendent system, or (2) alternating with the Dimeter to form the Iambic Strophe, as follows : — (1) lam i^"^ ^ffTca[ci || do mSntis | sci^ntia^ suppl^x et olro || regn3, p6r | Pros^rpina^, pgr 6t Dlajnae || non mov6n|da numin^, per drtque lfb|ros || carminum | val^ntium defixa ca6|lo || devocalrg sider^, Canidia, par|ce |1 vociIdus | tandem sScris, citiimque r^t|ro || r^tro s61|ve turbmem. — Hor. Epod. 17. The last two lines may be thus translated, to show the movement in English : — Oh ! stay, Canidia, stay thy rites of sorcery, Thy charm unbinding backward let thy swift wheel fly 1 §618] IAMBIC TRIMETER 415 . (2) beatus il|le || qui procul | negotiis, ut prfsca gens j mortalium, patdrna rdjra || bubus 6x|erc6t siiis, soltitus 6m|ni fenore ; neqa^ dxcitajtur || classico | mil^s truci, nequ^ hdrret i|ratum mare. — Hor. Epod. 2. h. In the stricter form of Iambic Trimeter an irrational spondee ( > JL) or its equivalent (a cyclic anapaest w v_/-^ or an apparent dactyl > w w, § 609. e) may be regularly substituted for the first iambus of any dipody. A tribrach (w v^ w) may stand for an iambus anywhere except in the last place. In the comic poets any of these forms or the proceleusmatic (wvy \j \^) may be substituted in any foot except the last: — ^ o. lucis al|me rector || ^t | caeli decus ! qu* alt^rna cur|rti spatia || flam|mifer^ d,mbiens, illustre la^jtis j| ^xseris | terris caput. — Sen. Here. Fur. 592-94. quid qua^ris? dnjnos || sdxagmjta natus es. — Ter. Haut. 62. homo s«"*: huma|m I| nil a m^ ali|enum puto. vel me m6ne|r^ hoc || v^l perc6n|tari puta. — id. 77, 78. c. The Choliambic (lame Iambic) substitutes a trochee for the last iambus : — aeque ^st bea|tus || ac p6e|ma cum scribit: tarn gaiidet in ] se, || tamque se lp|se mlratur. — Catull. xxiii. 15, 16. Note. — The verse may also be regarded as trochaic with anacrusis : as, — d. The Iambic Trimeter Catalectic is represented as follows : — II d -A w ^ I ^ II -^ w -^ I ^ iZ ^ II It is used in combination with other measures (see § 626. 11), and is shown in the following : — Vulcanus ar|dens || urit 6f|ficmas. — Hor. Od. i. 4. or in English : — On purple peaks a deeper shade descending. — Scott. 1 The greater freedom of substitution in the comedy is due to the fact that the verse is regarded as made up of separate feet rather than of dipodies. 416 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§619 Other Iambic Measures 619. Other forms of Iambic verse are the following : — a. The Iambic Tetrameter Catalectic (Septenarius). This consists of seven and a half iambic feet, with diaeresis after the fourtli and with the same substitutions as in Iambic Trimeter : — j^am idclrc^ arc^s[sor, nuptias |1 quod m^ adparajri sensit. quTbus qui'dem quam f acillS potuerat [ | quigsci s* hie | quiesset ! — Ter. And. 690, 691. The metrical scheme of these two verses may be represented as follows : — Its movement is like the following : — • In g6od king Charles's g61den days, when Idyalty no harm meant. — Vicar of Bray. b. The Iambic Tetrameter Acatalectic (^Octonarius). This consists of eight full iambic feet with the same substitutions as in Iambic Trimeter. Like the Septenarius it is used in lively dialogue : — dic^t earn dare | nos Ph6rmi6|ni I| nuptum ne ] suscenseat; et magis ess* All""* idoneiim, [[ qu* ipsi sit fami|liiri6r. — Ter. Ph. 720, 721. The metrical scheme of these two verses may be represented as follows : — c. The Iambic Dimeter. This may be either acatalectic or catalectic. 1. The Iambic Dimeter Acatalectic consists of four iambic feet. It is used in combination with some longer verse (see § 618. a). 2. The Iambic Dimeter Catalectic consists of three and a half iambic feet. It is used only in choruses : — quonam cru^njta Ma^nSs, praec^ps amoire sa^vo, rapitiir quod lm| potent! f acinus parat | furore ? — Sen. Med. 850-853. Note. — Owing to the fact that in modern music each measure begins with a down- ward beat, some scholars regard all these forms of Iambic verse as Trochaic verse with anacrusis (§ 6X8. c N.). §620] TROCHAIC VERSE 417 Trochaic Verse 620. The most common form of Trochaic verse is the Tetram- eter Catalectic {Septendrius), consisting of four dipodies, the last of which lacks a syllable. There is regularly diaeresis after the fourth foot : — \\j:.^s.^\j-^^^\\j:.^j_^\j_^_Lh\\ In musical notation : — 'rAn^:v:^:\^:^^ ad t^ advenio, sp^m, salAtem, || consili"^", auxili"*" i^xpeteiis. — Ter. And. 319. In English verse : — T^ll me n6t in mournful numbers || life is but an ^mpty dredm. — Longfellow. a. In the stricter form of the Septenarius substitutions are allowed only in the even feet, but in comedy the tribrach \j \j kj, ox an irrational •spondee J- >, cyclic dactyl _L wv^, or apparent anapaest w w >, may be substituted for any of the first six feet ; a tribrach for the seventh : — itid^'"' habdt petajs^"^ ac vestitum : || tarn consimilist | dtqu^ ego. sura, pes, sta|tura, tonsus, || oculi, nasum, | v^l labra, malae, m^ntum, | barba, cdllus; || totus ! qufd ver|bis opiist? SI tergum ci|catric6sum, || nihil hoc similist | similius. — PI. Am. 443-446. The metrical scheme of these four verses is as follows : — \\^!J^J^^J-^^\-L>J->\\J-> v^w>|Xw -iLA|| \\-L>J_>\j.^_L>\\J.> _L> l^wJlAll h. The Trochaic Tetrameter Acatalectic (^Octonarius), consisting of four complete dipodies, occurs in the lyrical parts of comedy. Substitutions as in the Septenarius are allowed except in the last foot. c. Some other forms of trochaic verse are found in the lyric poets, in combination with other feet, either as whole lines or parts of lines : — non Sbiir ne|qu^ aiireum. [Dimeter Catalectic] med renl|det in domO | lS,cundr. [Iambic Trimeter Catalectic] — Hor. Od. ii. 18. 418 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§§621-623 Mixed Measures 621. Different measures may be combined in the same verse in two different ways. Either (1) a series of cue kind is simply joined to a series of another kind (compare the changes of rhythm not uncommon in modern music) ; or (2) single feet of other measures are combined with the prevailing measures, in which case these odd feet are adapted by changing their quantity so that they become irrational (see § G09. e) . When enough measures of one kind occur to form a series, we may suppose a change of rhythm; when they are isolated, we must suppose adaptation. Of the indefinite number of possible combinations but few are found in Latin poetry. 622. The following verses, combining different rhythmical series, are found in Latin lyrical poetry: — 1. Greater Archilochian (Dactylic Tetrameter ; Trochaic Tripody) : — \\^^\J.^\J.^\J-^\\J-^\-L^\J.^\\ sdlvitur 1 acris hij^ms grajta vic6 H veris | ^t ra|v6nl. — Hor. Od. i. 4. Note. — It is possible that the dactyls were cyclic ; but the change of measure seems more probable. 2. Verse consisting of Dactylic Trimeter catalectic (Dactylic Penihemim) ; iambic Dimeter : — scribere | v6rsicull6s 1| amore p^rjculsiim gravi. — Hor. Epod. 11. 2. Logacedic Verse 623. Trochaic verses, containing in regular prescribed positions irrational measures or irrational feet (cf. § 609. e), are called Loga- cedic. The principal logaoedic forms are — 1. Logaoedic Tetrapody (four feet) : Glyconic. 2. Logaoedic Tripody (three feet) : Pherecratic (often treated as a syncopated Tetrapody Catalectic). 3. Logaoedic Dipody (two feet) ; this may be regarded as a short Phere- cratic. Note. — This mixture of irrational measures gives an effect approaching that oi prose: hence the name Logaoedic (koyos, doidr}). These measures originated in the Greek lyric poetry, and were adopted by the Romans. All the Roman lyric metres not belonging to the regular iambic, trochaic, dactylic, or Ionic systems, were constructed on the basis of the three forms given above : viz., Logaoedic systems consisting respec-^ tively of four, three, and two feet. The so-called Logaoedic Pentapody consists of five Jteetj but is to be ree^arded as composed of two of the others. §§ 624, 625] LOGACEDIC VERSE 419 624. Each logaoedic form contains a single dactyl,^ which may be either in the first, second, or third place. The verse may be catalectic or acatalectic : — Glycol lie Pherecratic i- II- ii. II iii. II -^ ^ \ JL w 1 -^ w 1^ w 1 -^ wl-£-(w)|l 1 Aw|-^(w)|| ^ wl^(w)ll II- 11 II II- ^ w 1-C w 1-1.(^)11 or -^ w 1^ v^ \lL\J- A -^^\ ^(w)|| Note. — The shorter Pherecratic (dipody) {-L>\j \ J-kj),M catalectic, appears to be a simple Choriambus ( — w w | A ) ; and, in general, the effect of the logaoedic forms is Choriambic. In fact, they were so regarded by the later Greek and Latin metricians, and these metres have obtained the general name of Choriambic. But they are not true choriambic, though they may very likely have been felt to be such by the composer, who imitated the forms without much thought of their origin. They may be read (scanned) , therefore, on that principle. But it is better to read them as logaoedic measures ; and that course is followed here. 625. The verses constructed upon the several Logaoedic forms or models are the following : — 1. Glyconic (^Second Gly conic, catalectic) : — ^•-^"rrirtr Romae j principis | urbi|um. In English : — Edrms more r^al than Ifving md,n. — Shelley. Note. — In this and most of the succeeding forms the foot preceding the dactyl is always irrational in Horace, consisting of an irrational spondee ( >). 2. Aristophanic {First Pherecratic) : — "^-i^-'-^TTrirrirri t^mperat [ora ] frenis. — Hor. Od. i, 8. Note. — It is very likely that this was made equal in time to the preceding by protracting the last two syllables : — ^^'^-i^-'-^"rnrTrirrir^''T^i \j-Kj\lL\J.h rTrmnr^i * 1 Different Greek poets adopted fixed types in regard to the place of the dactyls, and so a large number of verses arose, each following a strict law, which were imi- tated by the Romans as distinct metres. 420 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§625 3. Adbnic (First Pherecratic, shortened) ; — T^rrtiit I lirbern. -- Hor. Or perhaps : — 4. Pherecratic (Second Pherecratic) i — crds dOndberis ha^do. — Hor., Often scanned as follows ? — 5. Lesser Asclepiadic (Second Pherecratic with syncope and First Phere^ cratic catalectic) : — \\ JL > \ ^ ^ \lL \\ -! > I -<^ v^ I L^ i| -C w j iZ II -<^ w I JL w ! M A II tu ne quaMerfs — scire nefas — qu^m mlhi, qu^m tibi. — Hor. 7. Lesser Sapphic (Logaoedic Pentapody, with dactyl in the third place) : — fntgg^r vlta^ sc616rfaqu6 ptirus. — Hor. Or in English : — • Brilliant h6pes, all w6ven in gdrgeous tfesties. — Longfellow. 8. Greater Sapphic (Third Gly conic; First Pherecratic): — ||JLw|^>!-Ov^|!Z||-C|^v^|tZ|oA|! t^ deos or6 SybSrfn |I cur pr6p6ras Smandd. — Hor. 9. Lesser Alcaic (Logaoedic Tetrapody^ two irrational dactyls, two trochees) : — ^ \\-i..j\-A^Kj\-L^\J-^\\ v(rg!nibiis puerisque cdnto. — Hor §§ 625, 626] METRES OF HORACE 421 10. ^Greater Alcaic (Logaoedic Pentapody, catalectic, with anacrusis, and dactyl in the third place, — compare Lesser Sapphic) : — \\^\J.^\JL>\\-^^\J.^\6h\\ j^g^Mwi ^^ tenacem |[ propositi virum. — Hor. Note. — Only the above logaosdic forms are employed by Horace. 11. Phalsecean (Logaoedic Pentapody, with dactyl in the second place) : — ||^>|-Cw|-£wl-^w|Xc7|| qua^nam te mala m6ns, mis^lll Raitidi, agit pra^cipit^"* in meos lambos? — Catull. xl. In English : — Gdrgeous flowerets in the sunlight shining. — Longfellow. 12. Glyconic Pherecratic (Second Glyconic with syncope, and Second Pherecratic) : — 11 -^ d i -<. w I ^ w I iZ II JL ^ I -^. y I Li I ^ A 11 6 ColOnia qua^ ciipfs |1 p6ntg ludere Idngo. — Catull. xvii, METRES OF HORACE 626. The Odes of Horace include nineteen varieties of stanza. These are : — 1. Alcaic, consisting of two Greater Alcaics (10), one Trochaic Dimeter with anacrusis, and one Lesser Alcaic (9)^ : — iust^"* 4t tenacem || propositi viriim non civi'""* ardor || prava iubdntiiim, non viiltus Instantis tyranni m^nte quatft solida, nequ^ Aiister. — Od. iii. 3. (Foundjn Od. 1. 9, 16, 17, 26, 27, 29, 31, 34, 35, 37 ; 11. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20; m. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 17, 21, 23, 26, 29; iv. 4, 9, 14, 15.) Note. — The Alcaic Strophe is named after the Greek poet Alcseus of Lesbos, and was a special favorite with Horace, of whose Odes thirty-seven are in this form. It is sometimes called the Horatian Stanza. 2. Sapphic (minor), consisting of three Lesser Sapphics (7) and one Adonic (3) : — ^ , iam satfe terns || nivis atque dirae grandinfe mlsit I| pater 6t rub^nte d^xterd sacras || iaculatus arcis • terruit lirbem. — Od. i. 2. (Found in Od. i. 2, 10, 12, 20. 22, 25, 30, 32, 38 ; ii. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 10 ; iii. 8, 11, 14, 18 20j 22, 27 ; iv. 2, 6, 11; Carm. Saec.) i The figures refer to the foregoing hst (§ 625). 422 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§626 Note. — The Sapphic Stanza is named after the poetess Sappho of Lesbos, and was a great favorite with the ancients. It is used by Horace in twenty-five Odes — more frequently than any other except the Alcaic. 3. Sapphic (major), consisting of one Aristophanic (2) and one Greater Sapphic (8) ; — Lydia die, per 6mni9 t6 de^s oro, Sybarfn |j cur properas amand6. — Od. i. 8. 4._Asclepiadean I (minor), consisting of Lesser Asclepiadics (5) : — ^xSgi monument""* II a^re per^nnius regalique sitd 1| pyramid"'"' altius. — Od. iii. 30. (Found in Od. i. 1; iii. 30; iv. 8.) 5. Asclepiadean II, consisting of one Glyconic (1) and one Lesser Asclepiadic (5) : — ^ ^ navis qua^ tibi creditiim debes V^rgiliiim, |I finibus Atticis r6ddas Incolumem, prec6r, ^t serves animad || dimidiiim mea6. — Od. i. 3. (Found in Od. i. 3, 13, 19, 36; iii. 9, 15, 19, 24, 25, 28; iv. i, 3.) 6. Asclepiadean III, consisting of three Lesser Asclepiadics (5) and one (rlyconic (1) : — ^ , qufe desiderio || sft pudor aiit modiis tarn carl capitis? 1| praecipe lugubrfe cantiis, Melpomene, || cui liquidam pat^r vocem cTim cithara dedit. — Od. i, 24. (Found in Od. i. 6, 15, 24, 33; ii. 12; iii. 10, 16; iv. 5, 12.) 7. Asclepiadean IV, consisting of two Lesser Asclepiadics (5), one Pherecratic (4), and one Glyconic (1) : — 6 f5ns Bandusia^ II spl^ndididr vitro, diilcl digne mero, || non sine fl6ribus, eras donaberis ha^dO cuf frons tiirgida c6rnibus. — Od. iii. 13. (Found in Od. i. 5, 14, 21, 23; iii 7, 13; iv. 13.) 8. Asclepiadean V (major), consisting of Greater Asclepiadics (6) : — tu n6 qua^sierls, I| scire nefasl |1 qu^m mihi, qu^m tibi finein dl dederfnt, || Ledconoe, |I n^c Babylonios t^ntarls numer6s. — Od. i. 11. (Found in Od. i. 11, 18; iv. 10.) 9. Aicmanian, consisting of Dactylic Hexameter (§ 615) alternating with Tetrameter (§ 617. a). (Od. i 7, 28 ; Epod, 12.) §626] METRES OF HORACE 423 10. Archilochian T, consisting of a Dactylic Hexameter alternating with a Dactylic Penthemim (see § 617. b). (Od. iv. 7.) 11. Archilochian IV, consisting of a Greater Archilochian (Jieptameter, § 622. 1), followed by Iambic Trimeter Catalectic (§ 618. d). The stanza consists of two pairs of verses : — s61vitur acris hi^ms grata vice || Veris ^t Favoni, trahuntque siccas || machinal carinas; dc neque iam stabulis gaud^t pecus, || aut arator fgni, nee piata cams || albicant prumls. — ^Od. i. 4. 12. Iambic Trimeter alone (see § 618). (Epod. 17.) 13. Iambic Strophe (see § 618. a). (Epod. 1-10.) 14. Dactylic Hexameter alternating with Iambic Dimeter : — n6x erat, ^t caelo || fulgebat luna sereno int^r minora sidera, cum tti, magnorum |1 num^n laesdra deorum, in v^rba idrabas mea. — Epod. 16. (So in Epod. 14.) 15. Dactylic Hexameter with Iambic Trimeter (§ 618); — dltera idm teritur || bellis civflibus a^tas, suis et Ipsa Roma j] viribus ruit. — Epod. 16. 16. Verse of Four Lesser Ionics (§ 609. c. 2): — miserar^"* est | nequ^ amori | dare liidum | neque dulcl mala vino | laver^ aut exlanimari | metuentis. — Od. iii. 12. 17. Iambic Trimeter (§ 618); Dactylic Penthemim (§ 617. &); Iambic Pettf, nihfl me I| sicut ante4 iuvat scribere v^rsiculds || amore pdrculsum gravi. — Epod. 11. 18. Dactylic Hexameter; Iambic Dimeter; Dactylic Penthemim (§ 617. l): h6rrida t^mpestas || caelum contraxit, et fmbres nivesque deduciint lov^m ; || nunc mare, mine siliia^ . . . —Epod. 13. 19. Trochaic Dimeter, Iambic Trimeter, each catalectic (see § 620. c). INDEX TO THE METRES OF HORACE Lib. I 1. Maecenas atavis : 4. 8. Lydiadic: 3. 2. Jam satis terns : 2. 9. Vides ut alta, : 1. 3. Sic te diva: 5. 10. Mercuri facunde nepOs : 2. 4. Solvitur ficris hiems: 11. 11. Tu ne quaesieris: 8. 5. Quismulta: 7. 12. Quemvirum: 2. 6. Scribens Vario : 6. 13. Cum tu Lydia : 5. 7. Laudabunt alii : 9. 14. Onavis: 7. 424 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION 62G 15. Pastor cum traheret : 0. 16. O matre pulchra : 1. 17. Velox ainoenuiu : 1. 18. Nullam Vare: 8. 19. Mater saeva : 5. 20. Vilepotabis: 2. 21. Diauam tenerae: 7. 22. Integer \itae : 2. 23. Vitas inuleo: 7. 24. Quis desiderio : 6. 25. Parcius iunctas: 2. 26. Musis amicus : 1. Natis in usum: 1. Te maris: 9. Icci beatis: 1. 6 Venus : 2. Quid dedicatum: 1. Posciraur: 2. Albi ne doleas: G. Parous deorum: 1. Odiva: 1. Et ture : 5. Nunc est bibendum : Persicos odi : 2. Lib. II 1. Motum ex Metello : 1. 2. Nullus argents : 2. 3. Aequam memento : 1. 4. Ne sit ancillae : 2. 5. Nondum subacta : 1, 6. Septimi Gades: 2. 7. O saepe mecum : 1. 8. Ulla si iuris : 2. 9. Non semper imbres : 1. 10. Rectius vives : 2. 11. Quid bellieosus : 1. 12. No lis louga: 6. 13. Ille et nefasto : 1. 14. Eheu fugaces: 1. 15. lam pauca: 1. 16. Otium divos : 2. 17. Cur me querellis : 1. 18. Nonebur: 19. 19. Bacchum in remotis : Ic 20. Non usitata: 1. Lib. Ill 1. Odi profenum: 1. 2. Angustam amice : 1. 3. lustum et tenacem : 1. 4. Descende caelo : 1. 5. Caelo tonantem : 1. 6. Delicta maiorum : 1. 7. Quidfles: 7, 8. Martiis caelebs : 2. 9. Donee gratus: 5. 10. Extremum Tanain : 6. 11. Mercuri nam te : 2. 12. Miserarum est : 16. 13. O fons Bandusiae : 7. 14. Herculis ritu : 2. 15. Uxor pauperis : 5. 16. Inclusam Danaen: 6. 17. Aeli vetusto: 1. 18. Faune nympbfirum : 2. 19. Quantum distet : 5. 20. Non vides: 2, 21. Onata mecum: 1. 22. Montium cu stos : 2. 23. Caelo supinas: 1. 24. Intactis opulentior : 5. 25. Quo me Bacche : 5. 26. Vixi puellis : 1. 27. Impios parrae : 2. 28. Festo quid: 5. 29. Tyrrbena regum : 1. 30. Exegi monumeutum : 4. Lib. IV 1. Intermissa Venus : 5. 2. Pindarum qnisquis: 2. 3. Quern tu Melpomene : 5. 4. Qualem ministrum : 1. 5. Di vis orte bonis : 6. 6. Dive quera pr5les ; 2. 7. Diffugere nives : 10. 8 Dona rem patents : 4. 9. Ne forte credas: 1. 10. O crudelis adhuc: 8. 11. Est mibi nonum : 2. 12. lam veris comites: 6. 13. Audivere Lyce : 7. 14. Quae cura patrum : 1. 15. Phoebus volentem : 1. Carmen Saeculdre : 2. §§ 626-628] MISCELLANEOUS 425 Epodes 1. Ibis Liburnis : 13. 10. Malasoluta: 13. 2. Beatusille: 13. 11. Petti nihil: 17. 3. Parentis olim : 13. 12. Quid tibi vis : 9. 4. Lupis et agnis : 13. 13. Iloi-rida tempestas : 18. 5. At o deorum : 13. 14. Mollis inertia : 14. 6. Quid immerentis : 13. 15. Noxerat: 14. 7. Quo quo scelesti : 13. 16. Altera iam: 15. 8. Rogare longo: 13. 17. Iam iam efiticaci: 12. 9. Quaiido repostum : 13. 627. Other lyric poets use other combinations of the above mentioned verses : — a, Glyconics with one Pherecraiic (both imperfect) : — Diajna^ siimus | fn fidg puel[l"^ ^t ptie|r* Integrl : Dialnara, puelr* fntegrf pueljladque ca|ua|mus. — Catull. xxxiv. h, Sapphics, in a series of single lines, closing with an Adonic:—- An majgis dllri tremujere | Manes H^rcujl^'" ? ^t vilsiim canis | infelrorum fugit I abrup|tis trepi|dus cajtenis ? fallilmiir : laejlB venit | ^cce j vultii, qu^m tuilit Poe|as ; humelrisque | tela gfetat I ^t no|tas p6pu|lfs pha|r6tras H^rculis I heres. — Sen. Here. Oet. 1600-1606. c. Sapphics followed by Glyconics^ of indefinite number (id. Here. Fur. 830-874, 875-894). MISCELLANEOUS 628. Other measures occur in various styles of poetry. a. Anapaestic (§ 609. b. 2) verses of various lengths are found in dramatic poetry. The spondee, dactyl, or proceleusmatic may be substituted for the anapaest:— ^^^ h5m6st [ omnF"* hSmilnum pra^|cipu6s v61iipta|tTbus gau|dnsqu^ an|tep6tens. ita c6mlm6da qua^ | ciipP e]venmnt, quod ago I siibit, ^dlseciii ] sequitfir: ita gaiildium siiplpeditat. — PL Trin. 1115-1119. b, Bacchiac (§ 609. d. 4) verses (five-timed) occur in the dramatic poets, — very rarely in Terence, more commonly in Plautus, — either in verses of two feet (Dimeter) or of fom- (Tetrameter). They are treated very freely, as are 426 PROSODY : VERSIFICATION [§§ 628, 629 all measures in early Latin. The long syllables may be resolved, or the molossus (three longs) substituted : — multas res | simit^ in | me6 cor|de v(5rso, mult^"* in. co|gitando | dolor^"^ in|dipisc6r. egom^t me | cog^ 4t malcer^ ^t dejfatfgo; mS,gister | mih* ^xer|cit6r am mus mine est. — PI. Trin. 223-226. c. Cretic measures (§ 609. d. 1) occur in the same manner as the Bac- chiac, with the same substitutions. The last foot is usually incomplete : — amor amijcus mThi | ne fiias | umqnam. his ego I d^ artibus | gratiam | fS-cio. nil eg*' is|t6s moror | fadceos | mores, —id. 267, 293, 297. d, Saturnian Verse. In early Latin is found a rude form of verse, not borrowed from the Greek like the others, but as to the precise nature of which scholars are not agreed.^ 1. According to one view the verse is based on quantity, is composed of six feet, and is divided into two parts by a caesura before the fourth thesis. Each thesis may consist of a long syllable or of two short ones, each arsis of a short syllable, a long syllable, or two short syllables ; but the arsis, except at the beginning of the verse and before the caesura, is often entirely suppressed, though rarely more than once in the same verse : — dabunt malum Met^Ili || Na^vio poetae. 2. According to another theory the Saturnian is made up, without regard to quantity, of alternating accented and unaccented syllables ; but for any unaccented syllable two may be substituted, and regularl}^ are so substituted in the second foot of the verse : — dabunt malum Metdlli || Na^vio poStae. EARLY PROSODY 629. The prosody of the earlier poets differs in several re- spects from that of the later.^ a. At the end of words s, being only feebly sounded, does not make position with a following consonant; it sometimes disappeared altogether. This usage continued in all poets till Cicero's time (§ 15. 7). 1 The two principal theories only are given. There are numerous variations, par- ticularly of the second theory here stated. 2 Before the Latin language was used in literature, it had become much changed by the loss of final consonants and the shortening of final syllables under the influence of accent. In many cases this change was still in progress in the time of the early poets. This tendency was arrested by the study of grammar and by literature, but Sihows itself again in the Romance languages. §629] EARLY PROSODY - 427 b. A long syllable immediately preceded or followed by the ictus may be shortened (iambic shortening^ : — 1. In a word of two syllables of which the first is short (this effect remained in a few words like puts, cave, vale, vide, ego, modo, duo^): — abi (Ter. Ph. 59); bom (id. 616) ; homo suavis (id. 411). 2. If it is either a monosyllable or the first syllable of a word which is pre- ceded by a short monosyllable : — sed has tabellas (PI. Pers. 195) ; quid hic nunc (id. Epid. 157) ; per mplu- vium (Ter. Ph. 707) ; eg^ ost^nderem (id. 793). 3. "When preceded by a short initial syllable in a word of more than three syllables : — veniistatis (Ter. Hec. 848) ; senectutem (id. Ph. 434) ; Syracusas (PI. Merc. 37) ; amicitia (id. Ps. 1263). c. In a few isolated words position is often disregarded.^ Such are ille, immo, inde, iste, 6mnis, nempe, quippe, unde. d. The original long quantity of some final syllables is retained. 1. The ending -or is retained long in nouns with long stem-vowel (original r- stems or original s-stems) : — m6do quom diet* in m^ Ingerebas 6dium nOn uxor eram (PI. Asin. 927). Ita m* in p^ctor^ atque c6rde facit amor inc^ndium (id. Merc. 500). atque quanto n6x fuisti 16ngi6r hac prdxuma (id. Am. 648). 2. The termination -es (-itis) is sometimes retained long, as in miles, superstes. 3. All verb-endings in -r, -s, and -t may be retained long where the vowel is elsewhere long in inflection : — r^gredior audisse me (PI. Capt. 1023); atqu^ ut qui fueris et qui nunc (id. 248); me nominat haec (id. Epid. iv. 1. 8); faciat ut semper (id. Poen. ii. 42); infuscabat, amabo (cretics, id. Cist. i. 21); qui amet (id. Merc. 1021) ; ut fit in b^llo capitur alter filius (id. Capt. 25); tibi sit ad me revisas (id. True. ii. 4. 79). e. Hiatus (§ 612. g) is allowed somewhat freely, especially at a pause in the sense, or when there is a change of speaker.^ 1 Cf. ambo (also a dual, p. 59, footnote), in which the 6 is retained because of the length of the first syllable. '^ Scholars are not yet agreed upon the principle or the extent of this irregularity. 3 The extent of this license is still a question among scholars ; but in the present sUte of texts it must sometimes be allowed. 428 MISCELLANEOUS [§§ 630, B31 MISCELLANEOUS Reckoning of Time 630. The Roman Year was designated, in earlier times, by the names of the Consuls ; but was afterwards reckoned from the building of the City {ah urbe conditd, anno urbis condUae), the date of which was assigned by Varro to a period correspond- ing with B.C. 753. In order, therefore, to reduce Roman dates to those of the Christian era, the year of the city is to be subtracted from 754: e.g. a.u.c. 691 (the year of Cicero's consulship) corresponds to b.c. (33. Before Caesar's reform of the Calendar (b.c. 46), the Roman year consisted of 355 days: March, May, Quintilis (July), and October having each 31 days, February hav- ing 28, and each of the remainder 29. As this calendar year was too short for the solar year, the Romans, in alternate years, at the discretion'of the poiitijices, inserted a month of varying length (mensis inter col dr is) after February 23, and omitted the rest of February. The " Julian year," by Caesar's reformed Calendar, had 365 days, divided into months as at present. Every fourth year the 24th of February (vi. Kal. Mart.) was counted twice, giving 29 days to that month : hence the year was called bisseztilis. The month Quintilis received the name lulius (July), in honor of Julius Caesar; and Sextilis was called Augustus (August), in honor of his successor. The Julian year (see below) remained unchanged till the adoption of the Gregorian Calen- dar (a.d. 1582), which omits leap-year three times in every four hundred years. 631. Dates, according to the Roman Calendar, are reckoned as follows: — a» ThQ first day of the month was called Kalendae (^Calends). Note. — Kalendae is derived from calare, to call, — the Calends being the day on which the pontiffs publicly announced the New Moon in the Comitia Caldta. This they did, originally, from actual observation. b. On the fifteenth day of March, May, July, and October, but the thir- teenth of the other months, were the Idus (Ides), the day of Full Moon. c. On the seventh day of March, May, July, and October, but the fifth of the other months, were the Nonae (Nones or ninths). d. From the three points thus determined, the days of the month were reckoned backwards as so many days before the Nones, the Ides, or the Calends. The point of departure was, by Roman custom, counted in the reckoning, the second day being three days before, etc. This gives the fol- lowing rule for determining the date : — If the given date be Calends, add tivo to the number of days in the month pre- ceding, — if Nones or Ides, add one to that of the day on which they fall, — and from the number thus ascertained subtract the given date. Thus, — VIII. Kal. Feb. (31 -f 2 - 8) = Jan. 25. IV. Non. Mar. (7 -f- 1 - 4) = Mar. 4. IV. Id. Sept. (13 -h 1 - 4) = Sept. 10. §§ 631, 632] CALENDAR 429 Note. — The name of the month appears as an adjective in agreement with Kalen- dae, Nonae, Idus. For peculiar constructions in dates, see § 424. g. e. The days of the Roman month by the Julian Calendar, as thus ascer- tained, are given in the following table : — January February March April 1. Kal. Ian. Kal. Feb. Kal. Marti ae Kal. Apriles 2. IV. Nou. Ian. iv. Non. Feb. VI. Non. Mart. IV. Non. Apr. 3. III. " III. " V. " " III. " 4. prid." " prid." " IV. " " prid." 5. NoN. Ian. Non. Feb. III. " Non. APRiLfis 6. VIII. Id . Ian. VIII. id. Feb. prid." vm. id. Apr. 7. vn. " " VII. " " NoN. Martiae VII. " " 8. VI. " VI. " " VIII. id. Mart. VI. " " 9. V. " V. " " VII. " " V. " " 10. IV. " " IV. " " VI. " " IV. " " 11. III. " III. " " V. " " III. " " 12. prid. " prid. " " IV. " prid. " " 13. IdusU LN. iDiJs Feb. III. " Idus Apriles. 14. XIX. K. il. Feb. XVI. Kal. Martias prid. " " XVIII. Kal. Maias 15. xvm. ' ' " XV. " " ioiis Martiae xvn. " •♦ 16. XVII. ' ' " XIV. " XVII. Kal. Aprilis. XVI. " 17. XVI. ' . << XIII. " " XVI. * XV. " " 18. XV. ' ' " XII. " XV. ' XIV. 19. XIV. ' ' " XI. " " XIV. ' XIII. 20. XIII. ' " X. " " XIII. ' XII. " " 21. XII. ' " IX. " XII. XI. 22. XI. ' " vni. " " XI. * X. 23. X. ' " VII. " X. ' IX. " " 24. ES. ' 5 " VI. " " IX. ' VIII. " " 25. vm. ' ' " V. vm. ' VII. 26. VII. ' ' " IV. " VII. ' VI. 27. VI. ' " III. " " VI. ' V. 28. V. * " prid. " " V. IV. 29. IV. ' " [prid. Kal. Mart, in IV. ' III. 30. ni. ' ' " leap-year, the vi. III. prid. " 31. prid. ' ' " Kal. (24th) being prid. ' (So June, Sept., (So Au g., Dec.) counted twice.] (So May , July, Oct.) Nov.) Note. — Observe that a date before the Julian Reform (b.c. 46) is to be found not by the above table, but by taking the earlier reckoning of the number of days in the month. Measures of Value, etc. 632. The money of the Komans was in early times wholly of cop- per. The unit was the as, which was nominally a pound in weight, but actually somewhat less. It was divided into twelve unciae (ounces). 430 MISCELLANEOUS [§§ 632-636 In the third century b.c. the as was gradually reduced to one-half of its original value. In the same century silver coins were intro- duced, — the denarius and the sestertius. The denarius = 10 asses ; the sestertius = 2^ asses. 633. The Sestertius was probably introduced at a time when the as had been so far reduced that the value of the new coin (2-^ asses) was equivalent to the original value of the as. Hence, the Sester- tius (usually abreviated to U % or HS) came to be used as the unit of value, and nummus, coin, often means simply sestertius. As the reduction of the standard went on, the sestertius became equivalent to 4 asses. Gold was introduced later, the aureus being equal to 100 sesterces. The approximate value of these coins is seen in the following table : — 2^ asses = 1 sestertius or nummus, value nearly 5 cents (2^d.). 10 asses or 4 sestertii = 1 denarius . " " 20 " (10 d.). 1000 sestertii = 1 sestertium ..." " $50.00 (£10). Note. — The word sestertius is a shortened form of semis-tertius, the third one, a half. The abbreviation ++& or HS = duo et semis, two and a half.' 634. The sestertium (probably originally the genitive plural of ses- tertius depending on mille) was a sum of money, not a coin ; the word is inflected regularly as a neuter noun : thus, tria sestertia=: $150.00. When sestertium is combined with a numeral adverb, centena milia, hundreds of thousands, is to be understood : thus deciens sestertium (deciens hs) — deciens centena milia sestertium = $50,000. Sestertium in this combination may also be inflected : deciens sestertii, sestertio, etc. In the statement of large sums sestertium is often omitted as well as centena milia: thus sexagiens (Rose. Am. 2) signifies, sexagiens [centena milia sestertium] = 6,000,000 sesterces = $300,000 (nearly). 635. In the statement of sums of money in Eoman numerals, a line above the number indicates thousands ; lines above and at the sides also, hundred-thousands. Thus hs dc = 600 sgstertii; hs dc = 600,000 sestertii, or 600 sestertia; hs [dc] = 60,000,000 sestertii, or 60,000 sestertia. 636. The Eoman Measures of Length are the following: — 12 inches (unciae) = 1 Roman Foot (pes; 11.65 English inches). 1^ Feet = 1 Cubit (cubitum). — 2^ Feet = 1 Step (gradus). 5 Feet = 1 Pace {passus). — 1000 Paces {mllle passuum) = 1 Mile. §§636-638] MEASURES OF WEIGHT AND CAPACITY 431 The Roman mile was equal to 4850 English feet. The iiigerum, or unit of measure of land, was an area of 240 (Roman) feet long and 120 broad; a little less than | of an English acre. 637. The Measures of Weight are — 12 unciae (ounces) = one pound {libra, about | lb. avoirdupois). Fractional parts (weight or coin) are — j^^, uncia. y\, quincunx. |, dodrdns. I, sextans. I, quadrdns. A, triens. The Talent (talentum) was a Greek weight (rdXavTov) = 60 librae. 638. The Measures of Capacity are — 12 cyathl = 1 sextdrius (nearly a pint). 16 sextdrii = 1 modius (peck). 6 sextdrii = 1 congius (3 quarts, liquid measure). 8 congii = 1 amphora (6 gallons). I, semis. f, dextans. 1^2, septunx. }l, deunx. |, bes or bessis. if, as. 432 GLOSSARY [§§ 639, 640 GLOSSAET OF TERMS USED IN GRAMMAR, RHETORIC, AND PROSODY 639. Many of these terms are pedantic names given by early grammarians to forms of speech used naturally by writers who were not conscious that they were using fig- ures at all — as, indeed, they were not. Thus when one says, "It gave me no little pleasure," he is unconsciously using litotes; when he says, "John went up the street, James down," antithesis; when he says, "High as the sky," hyperbole. Many were given under a mistaken notion of the nature of the usage referred to. Thus med and ted (§ 143. a. n.) were supposed to owe their d to paragoge, siimpsi its p to epenthesis. Such a sentence as " See my coat, how well it fits ! " was supposed to be an irregularity to be accounted for by prolepsis. Many of these, however, are convenient designations for phenomena which often occur ; and most of them have an historic interest, of one kind or another. 640. Grammatical Terms Anacoluthon: a change of construction in the same sentence, leaving the first part broken or unfinished. Anastrophe: inversion of the usual order of words. Apodosis: the conclusion of a conditional sentence (see Protasis). Archaism: an adoption of old or obsolete forms. Asyndeton: omission of conjunctions (§ 323.6). Barbarism: adoption of foreign or unauthorized forms. Brachylogy : brevity of expression. Crasis: contraction of two vowels into one (§ 15. 3). Ellipsis: omission of a word or words necessary to complete the sense. Enallage: substitution of one word or form for another. Epenthesis: insertion of a letter or syllable. Hellenism: use of Greek forms or constructions. Hendiadys (%v 8ta Svotv) : the use of two nouns, with a conjunction, instead of a single modified noun. Hypallage: interchange of constructions. Hysteron proteron: a reversing of the natural order of ideas. This term was applied to cases where the natural sequence of events is violated in language because the later event is of more importance than the earlier and so comes first to the mind. This was supposed to be an artificial embellishment in Greek, and so was imitated in Latin. It is still found in artless narrative ; cf . " Bred and Born in a Brier Bush " (Uncle Remus). Metathesis: transposition of letters in a word. Paragoge : addition of a letter or letters to the end of a word. Parenthesis : insertion of a phrase interrupting the construction. §§ 640, 641] RHETORICAL FIGURES 433 Periphrasis: a roundabout way of expression {circumlocution). Pleonasm: the use of needless words. Polysyndeton: the use of an unnecessary number of copulative conjunctions. Prolepsis : the use of a word in the clause preceding the one where it would naturally appear (anticipation'). Protasis: a clause introduced by a conditional expression (if, when, whoever), leading to a conclusion called the Apodosis (§ 512). Syncope: omission of a letter or syllable from the middle of a word. Synesis (constructio ad sensum) : agreement of words according to the sense, and not the grammatical form (§ 280. a). Tmesis : the separation of the two parts of a compound word by other words (cutting) . This term came from the earlier separation of prepositions (originally adverbs) f rbm the verbs with which they were afterwards joined ; so in per ecastor scitus puer, a very fine hoy, egad! As this was supposed to be intentional, it was ignorantly imitated in Latin ; as in cere- comminuit -brum (Ennius) . Zeugma : the use of a verb or an adjective with two different words, to only one of which it strictly applies (yoking). 641. Rhetorical Figures Allegory: a narrative in which abstract ideas figure as circumstances, events, or persons, in order to enforce some moral truth. Alliteration: the use of several words that begin with the same sound. Analogy: argument from resemblances. Anaphora: the repetition of a word at the beginning of successive clauses (§598./). Antithesis: opposition, or contrast of parts (for emphasis : § 598./). Antonomasia: use of a proper for a common noun, or the reverse : — sint Maecenates, non deertyit, Flacce, Marones, so there he patrons (like Mae- cenas), poets (like Virgil) will not he lacking, Flaccus (Mart. viii. 56. 5). ilia furia et pestis, that fury and plague (i.e. Clodius); Homeromastix, scourge of Homer (i.e. Zoilus). Aposiopesis: an abrupt pause for rhetorical effect. Catachresis : a harsh metaphor (abusio, misuse of words). Chiasmus: a reversing of the order of words in corresponding pairs of phrases (§ 598./). Climax: a gradual increase of emphasis, or enlargement of meaning. Euphemism : the mild expression of a painful or repulsive idea : — si quid ei accident, if anything happens to him (i.e. if he dies). • Euphony: the choice of words for their agreeable sound. Hyperbaton: violation of the usual order of words. 434 GLOSSARY [§§ 641, 642 Hyperbole: exaggeration for rhetorical effect. Irony: the use of words which naturally convey a sense contrary to what is meant. Litotes: the affirming of a thing by denying its contrary (§ 326. c). Metaphor: the figurative use of words, indicating an object by some resemblance. Metonymy: the use of the name of one thing to indicate some kindred thing. OnomatopcEia: a fitting of sound to sense in the use of words. Oxymoron : the use of contradictory words in the same phrase : — insaniens sapientia, foolish wisdom. Paronomasia: the use of words of like sound. Prosopopoeia: personification. Simile: a figurative comparison (usually introduced by like, or as). Synchysis: the interlocked order (§ 598. h). Synecdoche: the use of the name of a part for the whole, or the reverse. 642. Terms of Prosody Acatalectic : complete, as a verse or a series of feet (§ 612. o). Anaclasis: breaking up of rhythm by substituting different measures. Anacrusis: the unaccented syllable or syllables preceding a verse (§ 608. g). Antistrophe: a series of verses corresponding to one which has gone before (cf. strophe). Arsis: the unaccented part of a foot (§ 611). Basis: a single foot preceding the regular movement of a verse. Ccesura: the ending of a word within a metrical foot (§611. b). Catalectic : see Catalexis. Catalexis: loss of a final syllable (or syllables) making the series eatalectic (incomplete, § 612. a). Contraction: the use of one long syllable for two short (§ 610). Conception: shortening of a long syllable, for metrical reasons. Diceresis: the coincidence of the end of a foot with the end of a word within the verse (§ 611. c). Dialysis: the use of i (consonant) and v as vowels (siliia = silva, § 603./. n. ^). Diastole: the lengthening of a short syllable by emphasis (§ 612. b). Dimeter: consisting of two like measures. Dipody: consisting of two like feet. Distich: a system or series of two verses. Ecthlipsis: the suppression of a final syllable in -m before a word beginning with a vowel (§612./). Elision: the cutting off of a final before a following initial vowel (§ 612. e). Hepiameter: consisting of seven feet. §642] TERMS OP PROSODY 435 Hexameter : consisting of six measures. Hexapody: consisting of six feet. Hiatus: the meeting of two vowels without contraction or elision (§ 612. g\. Ictus: the metrical accent (§ 611. a). Irrational: not conforming strictly to the unit of time (§609. e). Logacedic: varying in rhythm, making the effect resemble prose (§ 623). Manometer: consisting of a single measure. Mora: the unit of time, equal to one short syllable (§ 608. a). Pentameter: consisting of five measures. Pentapody : consisting of five feet. Penthemimeris: consisting of five Jialf-feet. Protraction: extension of a syllable beyond its normal length (608. c). Resolution: the use of two short syllables for one long (§ 610). Strophe: a series of verses making a recognized metrical whole (stanza), which may be indefinitely repeated. Synceresis: i (vowel) and u becoming consonants before a vowel (§ 603. C. N.,/. N.4). Synalcepha: the same as elision (§ 612. e. n%). Synapheia: elision betw^een Wo verses (§ 612. e. n.). Syncope: loss of a short vowel. Synizesis: the running together of two vowels without full contraction (§ 603. C. N.). Systole: shortening of a syllable regularly long. Tetrameter : consisting of four measures. Tetrapody: consisting of four feet. Tetrastich: a system of four verses. Thesis: the accented part of a foot (§ 611). Trimeter: consisting of three measures. Tripody: consisting of three feet. Tristich: a system of three verseSc INDEX OF YEEBS Regular verbs of the First, Second, and Fourth Conjugations are given only in special cases. Compounds are usually omitted when they are conjugated like the simple verbs. The figures after the verbs indicate the conjugation. References are to sections. For classified lists of important verbs see §209 (First Conjugation), § 210 (Second Conjugation), § 211 (Third Conjugation), §212 (Fourth Conjugation), §§ 190, 191 (Deponents), § 192 (Semi-Deponents). ab-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. n. ab-eo, see eo. ab-icio, 3, -ieci, -iectum [iacio]. ab-igo, 3, -egi, -actum [ago]. ab-nuo, 3, -nui, — . ab-oleo, 2, -evi, -itum. ab-olcsco, 3, -evi, — [aboleo]. ab-ripio, 3, -ripui, -reptum [rapio]. abs-condo, 3, -di (-didi), -ditum [coado]. ab-sisto, 3, -stiti, — . ab-sum, abesse, afui, (afuturus)« ac-cendo, 3, -cendi, -censum. accerso, see arcesso. ac-cidit (impers.), 207, 208. c. ac-cido, 3, -cidi, — [cado]. ac-cido, 3, -cidi, -eisum [caedo]. ac-cio, 4, reg. [cio]. ac-cipio, 3, -cepi, -ceptum [capio]. ac-colo, 3, ~ui, — . ac-credo, see credo. ac-cumbo, 3, -culmi, -itum. ac-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum. acesco, 3, -acui, — [co-]. ac-quiro, 3, -quisivi, -quisitum [quaero]. acuo, 3, -ui, -utum, 174, 17(5. d. ad-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. n. ad-eo, see eo. ad-hibeo, 2, -ui, -itum [habeo]. ad-igo, 3, -egi, -actum [ago]. ad-imo, .3, -emi, -emptuni [emo]. ad-ipiscor, -i, -eptus. ad-nuo, 3, -nui, — . ad-oleo, 2, -ui, — . ad-olesco, 3, -evi, -ultum. ad-sentior, -iri, -sensus. ad-sideo, 2, -sedi, -sessum [sedeo]. ad-sido, 3, -sedi, — . ad-spergo, 3, -spersi, -spersum [spargo]. ad-sto, 1, -stiti, — . ad-sum, -esse, -fui, (-futurus). af-f-ari, aff&tus, 206. c. af-fero, -ferre, attuli, alia turn. af-fi«i6, 3, -feci, -fectum [facio]. af-fligo, 3, -xi, -ctum. ag-gredior, -i, -gressus [gradior]. agnosco, 3, -ovi, aguitum [nosco]. ago, 3, egi, actum. [For regular comps. see ab-igo ; for others, see cogo, circum- per-.] aio, defect., 206. a, albeo, 2, -ui, — . alesco, 3, -ui, -alitum. algeo, 2, alsi, — . algesco, 3, alsi, — . al-lego, 3, -egi, -ectum. al-licio, 3, -lexi, — . alo, 3, alui, altum (alitum). amb-igo, 3, — , — [ago]. ambio, -ire, -ii (-ivi), -itum (ambibat) 203. d. araicio, 4, amixi (-cui), amictum. amo, 180, 184; amarim, amasse, amas sem, 181. a; amassis, 183. 5. ango, 3, anxi, — . ante-cello, 3, — , — . ante-sto, 1, -steti, — . anti-sto, 1, -steti, — . aperio, 4, aperui, apertum. apiscor, -i, aptus [ad-ipiscor]. ap-pello, 3, -puli, -pulsum. ap-peto, 3, -petivi (-ii), -itum. ap-primo, 3, -pressi, -pressum [premo], arceo, 2, -ui, — [co-erceo]. arcesso (accerso), 3, -ivi, arcessitum. ardeo, 2, arsi, (arsiirus). ardesco, 3, arsi, — . areo, 2, — , — . aresco, 3, -arui, — . arguo, 3, -ui, -litum. ar-rigo, 3, -rexi, -rectum [rego]. ar-ripio, 3, -ui, -reptum [rapio]. a-scendo, 3, -di, -scensum [scando]. a-spergo, see ad-spergo. a-spiKO, 2>, 'Oxi, -ectum [-spicio]. at-tendo, 3, -di, -turn, at-tineo, 2, -tinui, -tentum [teneo]. 436 n^DEX OF VERBS 437 at-tingo, 3, -tigi, -tactuin [tango]. alrtollo, 3, — , — [tollo]. audeo, audere, ausus, 192 (ausim, 183, 3; sodes, 13. N.). audio, 4, audivi, auditum, 187 (contracted forms, 181. b). au-fero, -ferre, abstuli, ablatunic augeo, 2, auxi, auctum. ausim, see audeo. ave (have), avete, aveto, 206. g. aveo, 2, — , — . balbfitio, 4, — , — , batuo, 3, -ui, — . bibo, 3, bibi, (potum). bullio, 4, rag. (bullo, -are) [e-bullio]. cado, 3, cecidi, casum [ac-, con-, oc-cido], 178. b. caecutio, 4, — , — . •caedo, 3, cecidi, caesum [ac-, oc-cido, etc.], cale-facio, like facio, 269. a. cale-facto, 1, — , — , 266. «. caleo, 2, -ui, (caliturus). calesco, 3, -ui, — . calleo, 2, -ui, — o calveo, 2, — , — c candeo, 2, -ui, — . candesco, 3, -candui, — - caneo, 2, -ui, — . canesco, 3, canui, — . cano, 3, cecini, — [con-cino]. cantillo, 1, reg., 263. 3. capesso, 3, capessivi, — , 263. 2. 6 (in- cipisso, 3, — , — ). capio, 3, cepi, captum [ac-cipio etc. ; also ante-capio], 188. careo, 2, -ui, (-iturus). carpo, 3, -psi, -ptum, 177. b [de-cerpo]. caveo, 2, ca^i, cautum. cavillor, -ari, -atus, 263. 3. cedo (imperative), cedite (cette), 206. g, cedo, 3, cessi, cessum. -cello (only in comj)., see per-cello, ex- cello, ante-cello, prae-cello). -cendo, 3, -cendi, -censum (only in comp., as in-cendo). censeo, 2, -ui, censum. cerno, 3, crevi, -cretum. cieo ^(-cio), ciere (-cire), civi, cTtum (-citum) [ac-cio, con-, ex-cio]. cingo, 3, cins, cinctum. -cio, see cieo. circum-do, -dare, -dedi, -dritum, 209. a. n. circum-sisto, 3, -steti (-stiti), — . circum-spicio, 3, -ex5, -ectum. circum-sto, 1, -stitI (-steti), — . clango, 3, — , — . claresco, 3, clarui, — . ciaudeo, 2, — , — , see claudo (limjp)^ claudo (limp), 3, — , — . claudo {dose), 3, clausi, clausum [ex- clude]. clueo, 2, — , — . co-emo, 3, -emi, -emptum. coepi, -isse, coepturus, 205. co-erceo, 2, -ui, -itum [arceo]. co-gnosco, 3, -gnovi, -gnitum [nosco]. cogo, 3, coegi, coactum, 15. 3 [ago]. col-lido, 3, -lisi, lisum [laedo]. col-ligo, 3, -legi, -lectum. col-luceo, 2, — , — [luceo]. colo, 3, colui, cultum [ex-, ac-, in-]. comburo, 3, -ussi, -ustum [uro]. com-edo, 3 (esse), -edi, -esum (-estum). com-miniscor, -i, -mentus. como, 3, compsi, comptum. com-pello, 3, -puli, -pulsum. com-perco, 3, -persi, — [parco]. comperio, 4, -peri, compertum. comperior, -iri, compertus, 191. n. com-pesco, 3, -cm, — . com-pingo, 3, -pegi, -pactum [pango]. com-pleo, 2, -evi, -etum. com-primo, 3, -pressi, -pressum [premo]. com-pungo, 3, -punxi, -punctum [pungo.]. con-cido, 3, -cidi, — [cado]. con~cido, 3, -cTdi, -cisum [caedo]. con-cino, 3, -ui, — [cano]. con-cipio, 3, -cepi, -ceptum [capio]. con-cio (-cieo), 4 (2), -civi, -citum (-citum). con-cludo, 3, -clusi, -cliisum [claudo]. con-cupisco, 3, -cupivi, -cupitum. con-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri) , -cursum. con-cutio, 3, -cussi, -cussum [quatioj. con-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. N. co-necto, 3, -nexui, -nexum, 16. con-fercio, 4, — , -fertum [farcio]. con-fero, -ferre, -tuli, collatum. con-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectum [facio]. con-fit, defect., 204. c. con-fiteor, -eri, -fessus [fateor]. con-fringo, 3, -fregi, -fractum [frango]. con-gruo, 3, -ui, — [-gruo]. con-icio, 3, -ieci, -iectum, 6. d [iacio]. co-nitor, -i, -nisus (-nixus), 16. co-niveo, 2, -nivi (-nixi), — , 16. con-quiro, 3, -quisivi, -quisitum [quaero]. con-sisto, 3, -stiti, — . con-spergo, 3, -spersi, -spersum [spargo]. con-spicio, 3, -spexi, -si>ectum, 174. con-stitu5, 3, -ui, -stitutura [statuo]. con-sto, 1, -stiti (-stfi turns) (constat, 207). con-sue-facio, like facio, 266. a. con-suesco, 3, -evi, -etum (consuerat, 181. a). con-sulo, 3, -ui, -sultum. con-tendo, 3, -tendi, -tentum. con-ticesco, 3, -ticui, — . con-tineo, 2, -tinui, -tentum [teneo]. con-tingo, 3, -tigi, -tactum [tango] (con- tingit, impers., 208. c). 438 INDEX OF VEKBS con-tundo, 3, -tudl, -tusum [tundo]. coquo, 3, coxl, coctuiu. cor-rigo, 3, -rexi, -rectum [rego]. cor-ripio, 3, -ripui, -reptum [rapio]. cor-ruo, 3, -ui, — [ruoj. crebresco, 3, -crebrul, — [in-, per-]. credo, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. N. [-do]. crepo, 1, -ui (-crepavi), -crepitum. cresco, 3, creyl, cretum, 176. h. 1. crocio, 4, — , — . crudesco, 3, -crudui, — [re-]. cubo, 1, -ui (cubavl), -cubitum. cudo, 3, -cudi, -cusum [in-cudo]. -cumbo [cub] (see ac-cumbo ; compounds with de-, ob-, pro-, re-, and sub-, lack the p.p.). cupio, 3, cuplvi, cupitum, 174. -cupisco, 3, see con-cupisco. curro, 3, cucurrl, cursum [in-curro]. debeo, 2, -ui, -itum, 15. 3. de-cerpo, 3, -cerpsi, -cerptum [carpo]. decet (impers.), decere, decuit, 208. c. de-cipio, 3, -cepi, -ceptum [capio]. de-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum. de-do, 3, -didi,_-ditum [do], 209. a. n. de-fendo, 3, -_di, -fensum, 178. 6. n. i. de-fetiscor, -i, -fessus. de-fit, defect., 204. c. dego, 3, — , — [ago]. delectat (impers.), 208. c. deleo, 2, -evi, -etura. de-libuo, 3, -libui, -libutum. de-ligo, 3, -leg!, -lectum [lego] . demo, 3, dempsi, demptum. de-pello, 3, -pull, -pulsum. de-prirao, 3, -pressi, -pressum [premo]. depso, 3, -sui, -stum. de-scendo, 3, -di, -scensum [scandoj. de-silio, 4, -silul (-silii), [-sultum] [salio]. de-sino, 3, -sii (-sivi), -situm [sino]. de-sipio, 3, — , — [sapio]. de-sisto, 3, -stiti, -stitum [sisto]. de-spicio, 3, -spexi, -spectum. de-spondeo, 2, -dI,_-sponsum [spondeo]. de-struo, 3, -struxi, -structum. de-sum, -esse, -fui, (-futurus) [sum]. de-tendo, 3, [-di], -sum. de-tineo, 3, -ui, -tentum [teneo]. de-vertor, -I, — . dico, 3, dixi, dictum, p. 87, footnote 4 (dixti, 181. 6. N. 2; die, 182). dif-fero, -ferre, distuli, dilfitum [fero]. dif-fiteor, -en, — [fateor]. dl-gnosco, 3, -gnovi, — [ndsco]. dl-ligo, 3, -lexi, -lectum [lego], di-luo, 3, -lui, -latum [luo]. di-mico, 1, -avi, -atum. di-nosco, see dl-gnosco. dir-ibeo, 2, — , -itum [habeo]. dir-imo, 3, -end, -emptum [emo]. di-ripio, 3, -ripui, -reptum [rapio]. di-ruo, 3, -rui, -rutum [ruo]. disco [dic], 3, didici, — . [So compounds.] dis-crepo, 1, -ui or -avi, — . dis-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum. dis-icio, 3, dis-ieci, -iectum [iacio]. dis-pando, 3, — , -ppusiim (-pessum) [pan- do]. dis-sideo, 2, -sedi, — [sedeo]. dis-silio, 4, -ui, — . dis-tendo, 3, -di, -turn. di-stinguo, 3, -stinxi, -stmctum. di-sto, 1, — , — . ditesco, 3, — ^, — . di-vido, 3, -visi, -visum. do [da] (give), dare, dedi, datum, 174, 176. e, 202, 209. a. n. (duim, perduim, 183. 2). -do [dha] iptit) , 3, -didi, -ditum (only iii comp. , see ab-do, credo, vendo) , 209. a. n . doceo, 2, -ui, doctum. doleo, 2, -ui, (-iturus). -dolesco, 3, -dolui, — [con-]. domo, 1, -ui, -itum. -dormisco, 3, -dormivi, — [con-]. diico, 3, duxi, ductum (due, 182). dulcesco, 3, — , — . duresco, 3, durui, — . e-bullio, 4, ebullii, — . edo (eat), 3, edere (esse), edi, esum, 201. e-do (put forth), 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. n. ef-fero, -ferre, extuli, elatum. ef-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectum [facio]. egeo, 2, -ui, — . e-icio, 3, -ieci, -iectum [iacio]. e-licio, 3, -uI, -citum. e-ligo, 3, -legi, -lectum [lego]. e-mico, 1, -micui, -miciitum. e-mineo, 2,_-ui, — [-mineo]. emo, 3, emi, emptum, 15. 11 [ad-, dir-imo, co-emo] . e-neco, 1, -ui (-avi), -nectum (-atum) [neco] . ens, see sum. eo, ire, ii (Ivi), itum, 203 (itum est, 203. a; iri, id. ; itur, impers., 208. d; ad-eo, ad- eor, in-eo, 203. a ; ambio, 203. d ; prod- eo, -ire, -ii, -itum, 203. e). See veneo. e-rigo, 3, -rexi, -rectum. escit, escunt (see sum), 170. b. n. esurio, 4, — , esuriturus, 263. 4. e-vado, 3, -vasi, -vasum (evasti, 181. b. N.2). e-vanesco, 3, evanui, — . e-venit (impers.), 207, 208. c. e-vilesco, 3, -vilui, — . ex-cello, 3, -eel lui, -celsum. ex-cio (-cieo), 4 (2), -ivi (-ii), -Ttum (-itum), ex-cipio, 3, -cepi,_-ceptum [capio]. ex-cludo, 3, -clusi, -clusum [claudo]. ex-colo, 3, -ui, -enltum [colo]. ex-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum INDEX OF VERBS 439 ex-erceo, 2, -cui, -citum [arceo]. ex-inio, 3, -emi, -emptum [emo], ex-olesco, 3, -olevi, -oletum. ex-pello, 3, -puK, -pulsum. ex-perglscor, 3, -pei-rectus. ex-perior, 4, -pertiis. ex-pleo, 2, -evi, -etiiin. ex-plico, 1, (unfold), -nl, -itum; (explain), -avT, -atum. ex-plodo, 3, -si, -sum [plaud5]. ex-pungo, 3, -i)unxi, -puuctum. ex-(s)ilio, 3, -ui (-ii), — [salio]. ex-sisto, 3, -stiti, -stitiim. ex-stinguo, 3, -stiuxi, -stinctum. ex-sto, 1, — , (-staturus). ex-teudo, 3, -di, -turn (-sum), exuo, 3, -ui, -utum. facesso, 3, facessiAa (facessi), facessitum, 263. 2, b. facio, 3, feci, factum,_204 (fac, 182; faxo, -Im, 183. 3 ; cou-ficio aud other comjDS. in -licio, 204. a; bene-facio etc., 204. b; con-sue-facio, cale-facio, cale-facto, 26f3. a), -facto, 1 (in compounds), 26G. a. fallo, 3,fefelli,falsum, 177. c, 178. 6. n.4, farcio, 4, farsi, fartum [re-fercio]. fateor, -eri, fassus [con-fiteor], fatisco, 3, — _, — . faveo, 2, favi, fautura. -fendo, 3, -fendi, -feusum, see defends, ferio, 4, — , — . fero, ferre, tuli, latum, 176. d. N. i, 200 (fer, 182) [af-, au-, con-, dif-, ef-, in-, of-, re-, suf-fero]. ferveo, 2, fervi (ferbui), — ; also, fervo, 3. fervesco, 3, -fervi (-ferbui), — . fido, fidere, fisus, 192 [con-fido]. figo, 3, fixi, fixum. findo [fid], 3, fidi, fissum, 176. c. 2, 177. c. N. fingo [fig], 3, finxi, fictura, 177. 6. u. fio, fieri, factus, 204 (see facio) (fit, im- pers., 208. c; confit, defit, infit, effieri, interfieri, iuterfiat, superfit, 204. c). flecto, 3, fiexi, flaxum. fleo, 2, -evi, -etum, 176. e (flestis, 181. a), -fligo, only in comp., see af-fligo, floreo, 2, -ui, — . florescQ, 3. florui, — . fluo, 3, fluxi, fluxum, 261. Nc fodio, 3, fodi, fossum. [for], fan, fatus, 179. a, 206. c (af-fari, pro- fatus, prae-, inter-fatur, etc., 206. c). fore, forem, etc., see sura, foveo, 2s ioxli fotnm. frango [frag], 3, fregi, fractum, 176. 6. 1 [per-f ringo] . fremo, 3, fremui, — . frendo, 3, — , fresum (fressum). frico, 1, -ui, frictum (fricatum). frigeo, 2, — , — . frigesco, 3, -frixi, — [per-, re-]o frigo, 3, frixi, frictum. frondeo, 2, — , — . fruor, -i, fructus. fuam, -as, etc. (see sum), 170. b. N. fugio, 3, fugi, (fuglturus). fulcio, 4, fulsi, fultum. fulgeo, 2, -si, — . fulgo, 3, — , — . fulgurat (impers.),"208. a. fundo [fud], 3, fudi, fusum, 176. 6. 1. fungor, -i, functus. furo, 3, — , — . fuvimus, fuvisset (see sum), 170. 6. n. gannio, 4, — , — . gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus, 192. -gemisco, 3, -gemui, — . gemo, 3, gemui, — . gero, 3, gessi, gestum. gestio, 4, -ivi, — , 262. a. gigno [gen], 3, genui, genitum, 176. c. 1 glisco, 3, — , — . glubo, 3, — , — . gradior, -i, gressus [ag-gredior]. grandinat (impers.)p 208. a. -gruo, 3, see con-, in-gruo. habeo, 2, -ui, -itum [in-hibeo,' debeo dir-ibeo]. haereo, 2, haesi, haesum. haeresco, 3, — , — . haurio, 4, liausi, haustum (hausurus). have, see ave. hebeo, 2, — , — . hebesco, 3, — , — . hinnio, 4, — , — . hirrio, 4, — , — . hisco,_3, — , — [de-hiscoj. horreo, 2, horrui, — . horresco, 3, -horrui, — . ico, 3, ici, ictum. ignosco, 3, -novi, -notum [nosco]. il-licio, 3, -lexi, -lectum [-licio]. il-lido, 3, -lisi, -lisum [laedo]. imbuo, 3, -ui, -utum. im-mineo, 2, — , — [-mineo]. im-pell6_, 3, -puli, -pulsum [pello]. im-petro, 1, reg. (-assere, 183. 5). im-pingo, 3, -pegi, -pactum [pang6]. im-pleo, 2, -evi, -etum. im-plico, 1, -avi (-ui), -atum (-itum), in-ceudo, 3, -di, -sum. in-cesso, 3, incessi^a, — . in-cido, 3, -cidi, (-casurus) [cado]. in-cido, 3, -cidi, -cisum [caedo]. in-cipio, 3, -cepi, -ceptum [capio]. in-cludo, 3, -si, -sum [claudo]. 140 INDEX OF VERBS in-col6, 3, -colui, — [col5]. in-crepo, 1, -ui (-avi), -itum. in-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum in-cutio, 3, -cussi, -cussum. iud-igeo, 2, -ui, — [egeoj. ind-ipiscor, 3, -eptus [apiscor]. iu-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. n, iudulgeo, 2, iudulsi, induitum. induo, 3, -ui, -utum. iueptio, 4, — , — , iu-fero, -ferre, -tuli, illatum. in-fit, see fio. in-gredior, 3, -gressus [gradior]. iu-gruo, 3, -ui, — [-gi'uoj . in-hibeo, 2, -ui,_-ituni [habeojo in-olesco, 3, -olevi, — . inquam, defect., 206. b. in-quiro, 3, -quisivi, -quisitum [quaero]. in-sideo, 2, -sedi, -sessum [sedeo]. in-sido, 3, -sedi, -sessum. in-silio, 3, -ui, [-sultumj [salioj, in-sisto, 3, -stiti, — , in-spicio, 3, -spexi, -spectum. in-stituo, 3, -ui, -utum [statuo]. in-sto, 1, -stiti, (-staturus). intel-lego, 3, -lexi, -lectum. inter-do, -dare, -dedi, -datum, 209. a. n. inter-est, -esse, -fuit (impers.), 208. b. inter-fatur, see for. inter-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectum [facio]. iater-sto, 1, -steti, — , 209. a. n. in-tueop, -eri, -tu.\tus [tueorj. irascor, -i, iratus. ir-ruo, 3, -rui, — [ruo]. iaceo, 2, -ui, — . iacio, 3, ieci, iactum [ab-icio, etc. ; dis- icio, porr-icio]. iubeo, 2, iussi, iussum (iusso, 183. 3). iudico, 1, reg. (-assit, 183. 5). iimgo, 3, iunxi, iunctum. iuvenesco, 3, — , — . iuvo (ad-), 1, iuvi, iiitmn (-aturus). labasco, 3, — , — . labor, -i, lapsus. lacesso, 3, lacessivi, lacessitum, 263. 6. laedo, 3, laesi, laesum [il-lido]. lambo, 3, — , — . langueo, 2, langui, — . languesco, 3, langui, — , latoo, 2, -ui, — . latesco, 3, -litui, — [de-litesco] . lavo, 3, lavi, lautum (lotum) (also reg. of 1st conj.). lego, 3, legi, loctum [for compounds see 211. e, footnote, also de-ligo, di-ligo, intel-lego, ueglego]. Iev5, 1, reg. (-asso, 183. 5). libet (lubet), -ere, -uit, 208. c (libitum est ; libens). liceo, 2, licui, — . licet, -ere, licuit, (-iturum), 207, 208. c (licitum est, licens). -licio, 3 [for Iacio, only in comp. ; see al licio, e-licio, pel-licio]. lino [li], 3, levi (livi), litum. liuquo [lic], 3, -liqui, -lictum. liqueo, 2, liqui (iicui), — . liquesco^ 3, -licui, — . liquor, -i, — . liveo, 2, — , — . loquor, -i, locutus, 261. N. luceo, 2, luxT, — . lucesco (-Cisco;, 3, -luxi, — [il-]. ilido, 3, lusi, lusum. lugeo, 2, luxi, — . luo, 3, lui, -latum [de-luo, solvo]. madeo, 2, madui, — . madesco, 3, madui, — . maereo, 2, — , — . malo, malle, malui, — , 199 (mavolo, ma- velim, mavellem, id. k.). maudo, 3, raaudi, mansum. maneo, 2, mansi, mansum [per-maneo]. mansuesco, see -suesco. marcesco, 3, -marcui, — [e-]. maturesco, 3, maturui, — . medeor, -eri, — . memini, defect., 205. mereo or mereor, merere or -eri, meritus 190.5'. mergo, 3, mersi, mersum. metior, -iri, mensus. meto, .3, messui, -messum. metuo, 3, -ui, -utum. mico, 1, micui, — . -mineo, 2, -ui, — [e-, im-, pro-mineo]. -miuiscor, -i, -mentus [com-, re-], rainuo, 3, -ui, -iitum. miror, mirari, miratus. misceo, 2, -cui, mixtum (mistum). misereor, -en, miseritus (raisertus), 208. 6. X. miseret, impers., 208. 6. mitesco, 3, — , — . mitto, 3, misi, missum, 176. d. n. 2. molior, -iri, -itus. molo, 3, molui, molitum. moneo, 2, -ui, -itum, 185. mordeo, 2, momordi, morsum. morior, -i (-iri), mortuus (moriturus). moveo, 2, movi, motum (commorat, 181. &). mulceo, 2, mulsi, mulsum. mulgeo, 2, -si, mulsum. muttio, 4, -ivi, — . nanciscor, -i, nactus (nanctus) . nascor, -i, natus. neco, 1, -avi (-ui), -atum, 209, footnote 2 [e-neco]. INDEX OF VEKBS 441 necto [nec], 3, nexi (nexui)^ nexum. neglego, 3, neglexi, -lectmn, 211. e. foot- note 2. neo, 2, nevi, — . nequeo, defect., 206. d. nigresco, 3, nigrui, — . ningit, 3, ninxit (impers.), 208. a. niteo, 2, — , — . nitesco, 3, nituT, — . nitor, -1, nisus (nixus). -niveo, 2, -nivi (-nixi), — . no, 1, navi, — ^ 179. a. noceo, 2, nocui, — . nolo, nolle, nolui, — , 199 (nevis, nevolt, id. N.). nosco [gnoI , 3, novi, notum [ag-, cog-, di(g)-; ig-uosco], 205. b. N. 2 (nosse, 181. a). notesco, 3, -ni, — . nubo, 3, nupsi, nuptum. -nuo, 3, -nui, — [ab-, ad-nuo]c ©b-do, 3, -didi, -ditura, 209. a. n. ob-liviscor, -i, oblitus. ob-mutesco, 3, -mutui, — . ob-sideo, 2, -sedl, -sessum [sideo]. ob-sldo, 3, — , — . ob-sisto, 3, -stitT, -stitum. ob-solesco, 3, -evl, -etum. ob-sto, 1, -stiti, (-staturus) . ob-tineo, 2, -ui, -tentum [teneo]. ob-tingit (impers.), 208. c. ob-tundo, 3, -tudi, -tiisum (-tunsum). ob-venit (impers.), 208. c. oc-callesco, 3, -callul, — . oc-cido, 3, -cidi, - casum [cado]. oc-cido, 3, -cidi, -cisum [caedoj. oc-cino, 3, -cinui, — [cano]» oc-cipio, 3, -cepi, -ceptum. occulo, 3, occulul, occultum. oc-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum. odi, odisse, osurus (perosus), 205. of-fero, -ferre, obtuli, oblatum. -oleo (grow) [see ab-, ad-]. oleo (smell), 2, olui, — . operio, 4, operui, opertum. oportet, -ere, -uit (impers.), 208. c. op-pango, 3, -peg!, -pactum [pango]. opperior, -iri, oppertus. op-primo, 3, -pressi, -pressum [premo] . ordior, -iri, orsus. orior (3d), -iri, ortus (oritiirus) (so comps.), 174, 191. os-tendo, 3, -tend!, -tentum. ovare, ovatus, defect., 206./. paciscor, -!, pactus. paenitet (impers.), -ere, -uit, 208. b (-turus, -tendus, id. n.). palleo, 2, pallul, — . pallesco, 3, pallui, — . pando, 3j pandi, pansum (passum) [dis-J. pango [pag], 3, pepigi (-pegi), pactum [im-pingo; op-pango]. parco, 3, peperci (parsi) , (parsurus). pareo, 2, -ui, paritum (late), pario, 3, peperi, partum (pariturus) [com-, re-perio]. partior, -iri, -itus, 190. parturio, 4, — , --. pasco, 3, pavi,_ pastum, pateo, 2, patui, — . patior, -i, passus [per-petior]-, paveo, 2, pavi, — . pavesco, 3, -pavi, — [ex-]o pecto, 3, pexi, pexum. pel-licio, 3, -lexi, -lectum [-licio], pello, 3, pepuli, pulsum, 176. d. n. 2, 178. &. N.4 [ap-peilo, com-pello, etc.], pendeo, 2, pependi, -pensum. pendo, 3, pependi, pensum. per-ago, 3, -egi, -actum, per-cello, 3, -culi, -culsum. per-cio, see cio ; p^p. -citus. per-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum. per-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. n. per-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectum [facio]. per-fringo, 3, -fregi, -fractum [frango]. pergo, 3, perrexi, perrectum. per-lego, 3, -legi, -lectum [lego], per-osus, see odi, per-petior, -i, -pessus. per-quiro, 3, -quisiyi, -quisitum [quaero]. per-spicio, 3, -spexi, -spectum. per-sto, 1, -stiti, — . per-tineo, 2, -ui, — [teneo]. per-tundo, 3, -tudi, -tusum. pessum-db, like do, 209. a. n., 428. L petesso (petisso), 3, — , — , 263. 2. 6. peto, 3, petivi (-ii), petitum, 177./. piget (impers.), -ere, piguit, 208. 6 (pigi- tum est, id. n.). ping5 [pig], 3, pinxi, pictum. pinso, 3, -si, pins- (pinstum, pistum). piso, 3, pisivi (-ii)_, pistum (see pinso). placeo, 2, -ui, -itum (placet, impers., 208. c). plango, 3, planxi, planctum. plaudo, 3, plausi, plausum [ex-plodo, etc. ; ap-plaudo]. plecto, 3, plexi, plexum, 174, 176. b. 1. -plector, -i, -plexus, -pleo, 2, -plevi, -i)letum (only in comps., ascom-pleo). plico, 1, -plicui (-plicavi), -plicitum (-pli- catum) . pluit, 3, pluit (pluvit), 174, 208. a (pluunt. id.N.). poUeo, 2, — , — . polluo, 3, -ui, -iitum [luo]. pono, 3, posui, positum. porr-icio, 3, — , -rectum [iacio]. por-rigo (porgo), 3, -rexi, -rectum. 442 IKDEX OF VERBS posco, 3, poposci, — (so comps.). possideo, 2, -sedi, -sessum [sedeo]. possido, 3, -sedi, -sessum, possum, posse, potui, — , 198. b (potis sum, pote sum, possiem, poterint, potisit, potestur, possitur, id., footnote). potior, -iri, potitus. poto, 1, -avi, -atum (potum). praebeo, 2, -ui, -itum [habeo], prae-cello, 3, — , — [-cello]. prae-cino, 3, -cinui, — [cano]. prae-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum. prae-iatur, 206. c. prae-lego, 3, -legi, -lectum [lego], prae-sagio, 4, -ivi, — . prae-sens, 170. b (see sum), prae-sideo, 2, -sedi, — [sedeo]. prae-sto, 1, -stiti, -stitum (-statum) (prae- stat, impers., 208^ c). prae-sum, -esse, -fui, (-futiirus). prandeo, 2, prandi, pransum. prehendo (prendo), 3, -di, preliensum (pre n sum), premo, 3, pressi, pressum [re-primo]. prendo, see prehendo. pro-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum. prod-eo, 4, -ii, -itum, 203. e. prod-igo, 3, -egi, -actum [ago], pro-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. N. pro-fatus, 206. c. pro-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectum. pro-ficiscor, -i, pi-ofectus. pro-fiteoi% -eri, -fessus. pro-mineo, -ere, -ui, — . promo, 3, -mpsi, -raptum, 15. 3. pro-silio, 3, -ui (-ivi), — [salio]. pro-sura, prodesse, profui (-futurus), 198. a. pro-tendo, 3, -di, -tentus (-sus). psallo, 3, -i, — . pubesco, 3, pubui, — . pudet (impers.), pudere, piiduit or pudi- tum est, 208. b (pudendus, id. n.). puerasco, 3, — , — . pungo [pug] ,3, pupugi, punctum [com-], putesco, 3, putui, — . quaero, 3, quaesivi, quaesitum [re-quiro] (cf. quaeso). quaeso, 3, defect., 206. e (cf. quaero). quasso, 1, reg., 263. 2. quatio, 3, -cussi, quassum [con-cutio]. queo, quire, quivi, quitus, 206. d (quitur, etc., id. N.) ; cf. nequeo. queror, -i, questus. quiesco, 3, quievi, quietum. rabo (rabio), 3, — , — . rado, 3, rasi, rasum. rapio, 3, rapui, raptum (erepscmus, 181. b. N.2 [ab-ripio etc.]. re-cido, 3, reccidi, (recasurus) [cado]. re-cido, 3, -cidi, -cisum [caedo]. re-cipio, 3, -cepi, -ceptum [capio] (recepso 183. 3). re-cludo, 3, -si, -sum. red-do, 3, reddidi, redditum, 209. a. n. red-igo, 3, -egi, -actum [ago]. red-imo, 3, -emi, -emptum. re-fello, 3, -felli, — [fallo]. re-fercio, 4, -fersi, -fertum [farcio]. re-fero, -ferre, rettuli, relatum [fero]. re-fert, -ferre, -tulit (impers.), 208. c. re-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectum. rego, 3, rexi, rectum [ar-rigo etc. ; pergo surgo]. re-linquo, 3, -liqui, -lictum [linquo]. re-miniseor, -i, — . renideo, 2, — , — . reor, reri, ratus. re-pello, 3, reppuli (repuli), repulsum. reperio, 4, repperi, repertum. repo, 3, repsi, — . re-i)rimo, 3, -pressi, -pressum [premo]. re-quiro, 3, -sivT, -situm [quaero]. re-sideo, 2, -sedi, — . re-silio, 4, -ui (-ii), — . re-sipisco, 3, -sipivi, — [sapio]. re-sisto, 3, -stiti, — . re-spergo, 3, -si, -sum [spargo]. re-spondeo, 2, -di, -sponsum [spondeo]. re-stat (impers.), 208. c. re-sto, 1, -stiti, — , 209. a. n. re-tendo, 3, -di, -turn (-sum), re-tiueo, 2, -tinui, -tentum [teneo]. re-tundo, 3, rettudi, retunsum (-tilsum). re-vertor, -i, re versus, 191 (reverti, -eram, id. N.). rideo, 2, risi, -risum. rigeo, 2, rigui, — . rigesco, 3, rigui, — . ringor, 3, rictus, rodo, 3, rosi, rosum. rubeo, 2, — , — . rubesco, 3, rubui, — . rudo, 3, rudivi, — . rumpo [rup], 3, rupi, ruptum. ruo, 3, rui, rutum (ruiturus), 176. e [di-, cor-]. saepio, 4, saepsi, saeptum. sagio, 4, see prae-sagio. salio, 4, sakii (salii), [saltum] [dc-silio]. salve, salvere, 206. g. saucio [sac], 4, sanxi, sanctum, 177. 6. n, sanesco, 3, -sanui, — [con-]. sapio, 3, sapii^ — . sarcio, 4, sar.si, sartum. satis->uris, decl., 75. a. 1. Buying, vbs. of, constr. with, 417. c. C for g, in early use and as abbreviation, 1. a andN. ; for qu, 6. a, b; quantity of final syllables ending in, 604.^*. caedes, decl., 78. 2. caeles, decl., 121. a. 4. caelum, w. masc. plur., 106. 6. Caere, decl., 70. 6. n."^- caesius, compar., 131. u. Caesura, 611. b ; masc. and fem., 615. c. n. ; bucolic csesura, id. Calendar, Romau, 631. Calends, 631. a. calx, decl., 103. g.2. campester, decl., 115. a. Can, how expressed in Lat., 157. b. canalis, decl., 76. b. 2. canis, decl. and stem, 62. n. 3, 76. b. n. 3, 78.1. CAP, root, 56. a. Capacity, measures of, 638. capitis, genitive, w. verbs of accusing, 352. a. caput, decl., 59. Capys, decl., 82. carbasus, gend., 48. Exc; plnr., 106. 6. Cardinal numbers, 132 ; inflection of, 134. a-c; use of et with, 135. a, b ; replaced by distributives, 137. b,d; w. ex or par- titive genitive, 346. c. care, compar., 218. caro, decl., 79. carus, compar., 124. Case-constructions, 338. Case-endings, 27. a ; final vowels in, 38. g ; table, 39. Case-forms, words defective in, 103. Cases, denned, 35 ; position of modifying case, 598. 2 ; agreement in, 281 ; origin and meaning of, 338 ; case of rel. pron., 305, 306. a; same case after as before certain conjs., 323. a. Construction of Cases, 338-435; Genitive, 342-359; Dative, 360-380; Accusative, 386-397; Vocative, 340 ; Ablative, 398-420 ; time and place, 423-431; cases w. preps., 220, 426. ftn. cassem, decl., 103./- 3. castrum, castra, 107. Catalectic verse, 612. a. causa, w. gen., 359. b, 404. c; w. gen. of gerund, 504. b. Causal clauses, 539, 540; w. indie, or subjv., quod, quia, 540 ; w, indie, quoni- ara, quando, 540. a; w. qui, 535. e; w. cum, 540. d; non quia, non quod, etc., in the denial of a reason, 540. n.3; causal clause replaced by part., 496; by abl. abs., 420. 2, Causal conjunctions, 223. a. 3, 6. 7, 224. II. /; particles, 539, 540. Cause, abl. of, 404. Cause, advs. of, 217. c. Caution and effort, verbs of, constr., 563. e. cave, in prohibitions, 450 (2) and n. 2; ne omitted after, 565. n. i. caveo, constr., 563. -ce, enclitic, 146. n. i and a. n. i. Ceasing, verbs of, w. complem. inf., 456. cedo, constr., 366. N.2. celeber, decl., 115. a. celer, forms, 115. a. n. 2. celo, w. ace, 396. c. Celtiber, decl., 50. c. censeo, constr., 563 and d. certe, certo, use, 322. c ; in answers, 336. a. cete, Greek plur., 48. a. n. cetera, 111. 6; adverbial use, 390. d. N.^; -us, use, 293; -i, use, 315. ceu, use, 524. -ceus, adj. ending, 247. Characteristic, clauses of, 634, 635 ; pro- viso, 535. c?; cause or concession, id. e; of result or characteristic, 559. Characteristic, expr. by participle, 496. Characteristic vowel, 37. Charge and penalty, gen. of, 352. Chias7nus, 598. /and n. Choliambic trimeter, 618. c. Choosing, vbs. of, w. two aces., 393. Choriambic verse, 624. n. Choriambus, 609. c. ci and ti, interchange of, 6. n. i. -cinium, noun ending, 241. c. -cio, diminutive ending, 243. a. cip-, stems in, decl. Ill, 56, a. circa, circum, circiter, use, 220. a, 221. 5-7; as advs., 433. 2. circa, w. gerund, 606. N. 1. circum, compounds w. vbs., 267. a; dat. w. such comps., 370; ace, 388. 6. circumdo, constr., 364. Circumstances of action, 419, 420. 6* participle implying, 496. cis, citerior, 130. a. Cities, gend. of names of, 32 and a. See Locative. citra, after its noun, 435. clades, decl., 78. 2. clam, constr., 432, d 450 INDEX OF WOliDS AND SUBJECTS Classes, names of, gend. of, 30. a. n.S; used in plur., 101. .'5, Clauses, defined, kinds of, 278, 279; re- placed by abl. abs., 420; used as nouns, 343. c; dependent, syntax of, 519-593; conditional rel., 279. c, 519; final, 279. d, 529-533; consecutive, 536, 537; causal, 539, 540; temporal, 543-556; substantive, 562-588; infini- tive clauses, 452, 562. N. ; substantive clauses of purpose, 563; of result, 567, 568; indie, w. quod, 572; indirect ques- tions, 573-575; ind. disc, 578-593. clavis, decl., 76. 6. 1. Close syllables, 7. n. 2. coepi, 205. Cognate ace, 214. d. n., 390. Cogndmen, 108. Collective noun with sing, or plur. vb., 317. d. colus, gend., 90; decl., 105. a. com- (con-j, compounded w. vbs., 16, 267. a; such may take dat., 370. Combinations of words, 13. cometes, decl., 44. comitium, comitia, 107. Command, see Imperative ; in hortatoiy subjv., 439. Commanding, vbs. of, w. dat., 367; w. inf., 563. a; w. subjv., 563 (cf. 580. a). Commands, expressed by imv., 448; for condition, 521. b; in iud. disc, 588; in informal ind. disc, 592. 1. commiseror, w. ace, 354. a. N. cominitto ut, 568 and N. i. Common gender, 34; adjs. of, 122. d. Common syllables, 11. c, 603./. commonefacio, -flo, constr., 351. commoneo, constr., 351. communis, w. gen., .385. c. commut5, constr., 417. h. Comparative conjunctions, 223. 6.2, 224. II. b ; in conditions, 524. Comparative suffix, 124. ftn. ; of advs., 214. b. N. Comparatives, decl., 120; stem, id. 6; neut. sing, of compar. adj. used as adv., 218 ; meaning of, 291 ; two compara- tives, 292; compar. and positive w. quam, id. a. N. ; abl. w. compar., 40(5; quam w. compar., 407. a; compar. w. quam (ut), quam qui, 53.5. c, 571. a. Comparison, conjunctions of, .323. a. Comparison, particles of, tamquam, quasi, etc., constr., 524. Comparison of adjs., 123 ff. ; irregular, 129 ; defective, 130, 1.31 ; w. magis and maxime, 128; of advs., 218; preposi- tions implying, w. quam, 407. e. N., 434. Complementary infinitive, 45<>; has no subject, id. n. ; pred. noun or adj. after, 4.58; inf. partly subject, partly comple- mentary, 454 ; by analogy, 457. a. compleo, constr., :356, 409. n. Completed action, tenses of, 160. b ; how formed, 179./, g\ use of, 473 ff. Complex conditional sentences, 523. Complex sentence, 278. 6. complures, compluria, 120. c. compos, decl., 121. a. 4, b. 1. Composition, all word-formation a pro- cess of, 227 ; comp. to express relations of words, .3.38, 386. See Comp. words. Compound sentence, defined, 278. 2. Compound stems, imaginary, 255. a. Compound suffixes, 2^. 2, 2.;5. Compound verbs, 267 ; coiaps. of facio, 204. a, b. Compound words, assimilation in, 15. 6, 16; defined, 264; how formed , 265-267. Compounds of preps., w. dat., AlO; of ab, de, ex, 381; w. ace, 388. 6, 395; quan- tity of, 606. c. con-, see com-. Conative present, 467; imperfect, 471. c. concede, constr., 563 and c. Concession, hortatory subjv. of, 440 (cf. 526) ; particles of, 527 ; quamvis, ut, 527. a; licet, id. b ; etsi etc., id. c ; cum, 549; quamquam, 527. d, e ; quamvis, w. indic- ative, 527. e ; vbs. of, w. ut, 527. /; abl. abs. for concessive clause, 420. 3; concession implied in part., 496; qui concessive, 535. e. Concessive clauses, see Concession. Concessive conjunctions, 223. b. 3, 224, II. c; particles, use of, 527. Conclusion, see Apodosis. Concords, the four, 280. concors, decl., 119, 121. a. 3. Condemning, vbs. of, constr., 352. Conditional clauses, defined, 279. c. Conditional conjunctions, 223. 6. 1, 224. II. a, 525. Conditional Particles, 524, 525. Conditional sentences, defined, 279. c; development, 511 ; protasis and apodo- sis, 512; classification, 514; Presentand Past, nothing implied, 515 ; Future con- ditions, 516; fut. more vivid, id. 2. a; f ut. less vivid, id. 2. b ; perf . indie, in fut. cond., id. e ; Contrary to fact, 517 ; indie, in contrary to fact condition, id. b, cf. c and notes; in old Latin, id. e. N.2; General condition, 518; condi- tion disguised, 521 ; as part, etc., id. a; as exhortation or command, id. b. ; protasis omitted, 522; Potential Subjv., 446; Subjv. of Modesty, 447. 1; vbs. of necessity etc., 522. a; complex conditions, 523 ; clauses of Comparison (conclusion omitted), 524; Concessive INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 451 clauses, 527; Proviso, 5'28; use of si aud its comps., 525 ; conditional relative clauses, 519 ; temporal, 542, 551. c. n. - ; conditional sentences in ind. disc, 589. confido, constr., 431 and n. i. Conjugation, detined, 22. Conjugation of verbs, 171-193; how distinguished, 171 ; regular forms of, 173 ; mixed forms, id. ; parallel forms, 189 ; stem- vowels of conjugations, 171-178; stems of the four conjugations, how modified, 179 ; paradigms of the four regular con- jugations, 184-212. Conjunctions, defined, 20. g; classes of, 223 ; list of, 224. Syntax, 323. a, 324. a-k, 539, 540. notes; correlative use, 323. g ; conjs. repeated, id. e ; omitted, id. b ; used together, 324. k. Conjunctive adverbs, 20. g. n. Conjunctive phrases, 224. Connectives, relatives used as, 308./. Conor, w. inf., 563. e. ; conor si, id. n. i. Consecutive clauses, defined, 279. e ; uses, 536-538; clauses of result or charac- teristic, 559. Consecutive conjunctions, 223. &. 5, 224. II. e. consequor ut, 568. consistere, w. abl., 403. b. ftn. 2, 431. Consonant stems of nouns, decl. Ill, 50- 64; cons, stems of adjs., 117; case- forms, 121 ; of verbs, 259. a. 3. Consonant suffixes (primary), 234. II. Consonants, classification, 3; changes, 14-19 ; insertion, 15. 11 ; transposition, 177. a. N. ; dissimilation, 15. 6 ; assimila- tion, id. 16; pronunciation, 8 and n., 11. b. N. consors, decl., 121. a. 3. c5nstare, w. abl., 403. b. constituS, constr., 563. d. Constructio ad sensuin, see Synesis. Constructions of cases, 338-435 (see under Abl. etc.). consuevi, use, 476. consul, decl., 62. cousularis, decl., 76. a. 2. consulo, w. dat. or ace, 367. c. Contention, words of, constr., 368. a, 413. b. contentus, w. abl., 431. a; w. perf. inf., 486./. contineri, w. abl., 403. b. ftn. contingit ut, 568. Continued action, tenses of, 160, 161. Continuing, vbs, of, w. complementary inf., 456. contra, use, 220. a, 221. 8, 321. d; as adv., 43;3. 4; position, 435, Contracted forms, vin', scin', 13. n. ; gen. in -i, dat. and abl. in -is, 49. a, 6. Contracting, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 500. 4. Contraction of vowels, 15. 3; quantity, 10. c ; in prosody, 603. c ; of syllables, 608. d. Contrary to fact conditions, 517 ; in ind. disc, 589. b. convenio, w. ace, 370. b. Coordinate conjunctions, 223. a, 224. a-d; coord, clauses, 278. a; coord, words without conj., 323. b; w. conj., id. c. Copula, 272, 283 ; position of, 598. j. Copulative conjunctions, 223. a. 1, 224. I. a ; constr. after, 323 ; omission of, 323. b. Copulative verbs, 272, 283. cor, decl., 59, 60. b, 103. g. 2. corpus, decl., 64. Correlatives, 152, 323. g; rendered by the . . . the, 414. a; advs. of place, 217. a; conjs., 323./, g. cos, decl., 103. g. 2. Countries, names of, gend., 32; as end of motion, and place from which, 428. c. Crasls, 603. c. creber, decl., 112. a. credibili, w. comparative, 406. a. credo, position of, 599. c. Cretic foot, 609. d ; verse, 628. c. Crime or charge, gen. of, 352. -crum, noun ending, 240. crux, decl., 103. g. 2. cucumis, decl., 75. a. ciiias, cuius, 145. 6, 151. h. cuicui modi, 151. b. N. ciiius modi, 345. a. -culum, noun suffix, 240. -cuius, dim. ending, 243. cum, quom (conj.), form, 544; meaning, 544 ff. ; cum . . . tum, 323. g, 549. b ; se- quence, 485. e. N. ; w. clause for part., 492, 493. 2 ; temporal, 545-548 ; causal or concess., 549 ; in ind. disc, 585. 6. n. ; cum {whenever), 545. N.2, 548. cum (prep.), 220. 6; in comp., see com-; joined as enclitic with pronouns, 143. f, 150. d ; use of, 221. 9 ; w. plur. adj., 286. a. N. ; w. plur. verb, 317. n. ; w. abl. of manner, 412; w. abl. of accom- paniment, 413; w. words of conten- tion, 413. 6; w. words of exchange, 417. b. N. -cumque, added to relatives, 151. a and N. ; temporal particles w., 542. -cundus, verbal adj. ending, 253 and 6. cupio, constr., 563. 6. euro, constr., 563; cura (imv.), use, 449. c. -cus, suffix, 232. N., 249. Customary action, 470, 618. c. D changed to s, 15. 5 ; -d, old abl. ending, decl. I. 43. N. 1 ; decl. U, 49. e ; decl. Ill, 452 l^DEX OF \\\»1U)S AND t^lBJEC^^ p. 3A. ftn. : decl. IV. 92,/: med. ted. 143. a. N. : s^. 144. b. n. * : -^ iu ad\-s. orisri- nally -ed. '214. a. x.; -d as ueut. prou. oiiviiuir. 113. b: loss of -d, oi^. Dactyl. \W. b: oyclio. id. f. Daotylio verse, olo: he^sametex. tUo ; ele- giac stanza. ol6: other fonus, 617. -'.:un. adverbial ending. '215. 6. . imnAs. indecl. adj.. 1±2. b. aps. defect.. 103. h. ± DariuiT. vbs. of. vr. coiupl. inf.. 456. Dates, how expressed. 4'J4. p. ivU. Dative detiu^. ;>3. c: in -ai. decl. I. 4o. ti : in -dbus. deol. I. id. e : in -is for -us. decl. n. 49./: in-abus. deol. IV, iW. c; iu -i i,of uQus etc."). 113. DAirsE. Suntaj-. .y6(X^'S5. Indirect ob- iect. 361; w. trausitives. 362: vr. vl>s. implying motion. ;^>;>: use of dono etc., 364 ; m pviss.. 365 : vr. iutrau&itives. 366 : w. phrases, id. a; like iren.. id. 6; w. iutransitives. verbs meaning ratvr etc., ;V7 ; similar vbs. vr. a^v. id. a : vbs. having dat. or ace. id. b. c: w. verbal nouns^ id. d: w. libet and licet, 368. 1 ; w. comps. of satis, bene, male, id. 2: poetic use. id. a: intrans. vbs. w, ace. and dat., 36^^: w. comps. of preps, ad. ante, etc., 370: vr. passive used impe> sonally, 372. Of Possession, 373: vr. n6men*est. id. a; vr, desom and absum, id. 6. Of the Agent. 374. 375. Of Ref- erence, 376, 3. ( : of the i>e'*son jnlring, 378; used idio " il dat., 380. Of> r- pose. 382:^ w. a ., . ^v. adjs. of dtness etc., 384, .^vv); gen. or dat. w. similis. 385. c 2, With vrords of contention ^x)etic^ . 413. 6. x. Of End of Motion. 428. h : w. indn.. 455. 1 : dat. of -^^ru-i. 50o. a. ■ nodi aut incommodi. 376. >. "221. 10; incomp. vr. vbs., -.-...;. a comp. vr. vl>s., w. djit., 381: ih comp. w. vbs., w. abl.. 402: w. abl. instead of p^irt. gen.. .Ui?. o: vr. vbs. of reminding. 351. jf. : w abl. to denote the crime. .>\v 2: w. place fromvrhich. 426. 1 : position of d5, 4v>5 : de w. abl. of irerund, 507. de,^.. de^'V 4'^ r. u ,"""■■ ■ ; vr. perf.inf.,id.6. " iind N.*. deoet, w. ace.. 386. c; w. dat., id. N.*; in ,npo«l.. 517. c '^ ■ 2l>9. a; how ex- :>80. - -: chancteristics of, 37; cener.il lules for. 38; termi- nations. •^^. Of Nouns, I. 4(M4; II, 45-52; m, 53-67: IV. S6-IU: V. 96-98; deol. V compared witii I. 98. c Of Adjs., deol. I-U, K>9-113; decl. III. 114-122 ; of compcirati ves, 120 ; of par- ticiples. 109. 117. 6. Decreeing, vbs. of, 5tv>. d. d?di. quantity of penult. 605. Ere. Defective adjectives. 111. 6, 122. c Defective comparison. 130. •Detective nouns, A^KV^; of decl. IV, v, o; of decl. V. i^. a. Detective verbs. 205-206. defici5. coustr., 367. a. Dednite perfect, 161. 1, 473; sequence • 485. a. defit. 2i>4. c. degener. 119, x., 121. a. 3. Degree, adverbs of. 217. c. Degree of difference, abl. of. 414; dis- tance expressed by. 425. 6. Degrees of C<»miviri*son, 123. demde. df nique. in euimierationa. 322. d. s. dclectat. coustr.. 388. c. delecto, w. ace., 3i>7. a, delector, w. abl.. 431. Deliberative subjunctive. 4-»., i-r^ . i^. indir. questions. 575. 6 ; iuiud. disc., 587. delicium. -ia. -iae. 106. b. Delivering, vbs. of, w. gerimdLve, 500. 4. Delos. dec!.. 52. delphin, decl., 83. a. -dem. adverbial ending. 215. 6. Demanding, vbs. oi. vr. g^rv.n-.^'ve.SOO. ^ Demonstrative advor", - - larives . 323. g; equivalent .. prou. w. prep.. 321. a. l\^ . . r. b. Demonstrative pronouns. 146; decl.. I' formation, id. x. i. Si/niax, 2iX>-2. of 1st person. 297. a : of 2d pers.. id. c : of 3d pers.. id. 6 : supply place of j>ers. prons. of 3d pens., 2v^^ c: in relative clause. 308. d. x. Position, 598. b. denaxius, value of, ti32. Denominative verbs, 2r>8-262. Dependent clauses, subjv. used in, 438. b. De^vnent verbs defined, 156. 6; how conjug:'»tei.l. 190: paradigms, id.: i>arii- ciples^ id. a; tut. inf.. id. o: used re- liexiveJy. id. e: in pjissive sense, id./: list of irregular deponent verbs. 191 ; defective dept^>neuts, id. i: ; semi-depo- nents. 192. Depriving, constr. w. vbs. of, 401. Derivation of worvls. 227-267. Derivative forms of nouns. 2;V-241; of adjs.. 242-25o: of vbs,, 258-263. Deri>-ative verl>s. defined. 257. Deri>-atives, quantity of, d06. -des. nouns in. 244. Description, imperf. used in, 471. a. Descxiption implied in paxt., 496. INDEX OF WOUDS AND SUBJECTS 453 Descriptive abl., see Abl. of quality, tdeses, decl., 121. a. 4. Desiderative verbs (in -urio), 2(j3. 4. Desire, adjs. of, w. goii., 349. a. despero, constr., o()7. 6. deterior, compar. of, i;30. a. Determinative compounds, 205. 2. Determining, vbs. of, constr., 503. d. . deus, decl., 49. g. dexter, decl., 111. a; compar., 129. di-, see dis-. Dian-esis, Oil. c. Diastole, 012. 6. die, imperotive, 182. dicionis, defect., 103. e. dico, forms of, omitted, 319. a. diets, w. comp., 400. a. -dicus, adjs. in, comparison of, 127. Dido, decl., 82. diem dicere, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. dies, decl., 90; gender, 97. a; gen. form dii, 98. N. Difference, abl. of degree of, 414. difficilis, comparison, 126; constr., 510. N.2. dignor, w. abl., 418. 6. n. l. dignus, w. abl., 418. 6 ; w. relative clause, 535./. Dimeter, iambic verse, 619. c. , Diminutive endings, w. nouns and adjec- tives, 243 ; verbs, 203. 3. din-, stem-ending, 01. 2. Diphthongs, 2; sound of, 8; quantity, 10. 6, 003. h. Diptotcs, 103. c. Direct object, 274, 387. Direct question, deliued, 330. 1. Dli'ect quotation, 578. n. Direct reflexive, 300. 6. dis- (dl-), inseparable prefix, 267. 6. Disjunctive conjunctions, 224. I. a; case of noun after, 323. Dissimilation, 15. 6. dissimilis, comp., 120. Distance, ace. or a])l., 425. h; of time, 424./. Distributive numerals, 136 ; use, 137. Distributive pronouns, 313 diu, compar., 218. a. dives, decl., 119, 121. 6. divum (divora), for deorura, 49. g. N. -do, adverbial ending, 215. 6. -do, nouns in , from st. din-, 01 . 2 ; gend. , 86. do, conj., 202; w. inf., 460. a. doceo, constr., 396 and c. n. 2. domi, locative, 427. 3. domum, 427. 2; domo, id. 1. domus, gend., 90. Exc. ; decl., 93; double stem of, id. : locative form, 93. n. i. donee, w. ind. or subjv., 653 n. i, ^, 554, 555. dono, double constr. of, 364. dos, decl., 71. 0. Double consonants, 4, 11. 6. Doul)le questions, 334; answers to, 337. Doubting, vbs. of, constr., 658. Dital forms, p. 59. ftn. Diibitative subjv., see Deliberative. dubito an, 331. N. ; non dubito quin, 558. a; non dubito, w. inf., id. N. '■^; without neg., id. n. i. diic, imperative, 182. dum, derivation, 215. 6; w. past, id. a; w. clause for pres. and perf. part., 492, 493. 2; introducing a proviso, 528; as adv., 652 ; until, w. pres. or impf . subjv. denoting intention or expectancy, 653 ; w. pres. or fut! perf. indie, to state future fact, id. n.'-^; w. perf. indie, 554. N. ; as long as, w. indie, 555 (cf. 556. a) ; lohile, w. pres. indie, 556; w. past indie, id. a. dummodo, 628. duo, decl., 134. 6. dupli, w. vbs. of condemning, 352. a. Duration, ace of, 423; abl. of, 424. b. -dus, participle in, see Gerundive. Duty, vbs. of, in apod., 517. c. dux, decl., 67. E, variant of 5 as stem- vowel of decl. II, 46. c and n. ; in voc, id. ; abl. of neuters in, decl. Ill, 76. a. 3; gend. of neuters in, decl. Ill, 87 ; abl. in, of adjs. of two and three terminations, 116, n., 117, 121. a ; stem-vowel, conj. Ill, 171, 174. 1, 179. c; final, quantity of, 604. e. e, for ae (oe), 6. n. 8 ; in Greek voc, 81. 3 ; in stem of decl. V, 98 ; in gen. of decl. V, 98. d. N. ; in dat,, id. ; in stem of conj. II, 171, 179. b ; -e as adv. ending, 214. a, c. e (preposition), see ex. eae, old dat. fem. of is, 146. n. ». Early forms of alphabet, 1. a and N., 6. a, b; of prosody, 629. ecce (cecum etc.), 146. a. n.2. ecquis, decl., 161./; use, 310. a. Ecthlipsis, 612./. edico, constr., 503. d. edo (eat), conj., 201. Effecting, vbs. of, w. perf. part., 497- c ; w ut-clause, 580. d. efficio ut, 568. effieri, 204. c. effigies, decl., 98. a. Effort, vbs. of, w. ut-clause, 663. e. egens, decl., 118. egeo, constr., 366 and n. ego, decl., 143. ei, diphthong, 2; sound of, 8. -313 for -is in plur. of decl. I, 43. e. n.2, -eis, patronymic, 244. 454 INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS -eius, adj. ending, 249; in prosody, 11. d, 603./. N. 2. -gius, names in, decl., 49. /. eiusmodi, 14G, h, 345. a. Electra, decl., 44. Elegiac stanza, 616. -elis, adj. ending, 248. Elision, 612. e. Ellipsis, 640. ellumetc, 146. a. N.2. -ellus, diminutive ending, 243. eluvies, decl., 98. a. em, combined w. prons (ellum etc.), J46 a.N.2. Emphas's, 597. en- (on-, en-, 6n-),primary suffix, 234. II. 13. Enclitics, accent, 12. a ; quantity, 604. a. 1 ; cum, 143./, 150. h,d; -met, -te, -pte, 143. d and n.; -pse, 146. n. 5", 8; -ce, id. a. N. 1 ; -que, see under that word. End of motion, ace. of, 426. 2; w. vbs. that also take dat., 363 ; dat. of, 428. h ; two or more places as end of motion, 428. i. Endings, signification of, 235-263; end- ings of verb, 165. 2, 166. See Personal endings, and Terminations. English method of pronunciation, 8. N. English words cognate with Lat., 18, 19. enim, use, 324. h; position, 324. j, 599. 6. ■ensimus (or -esimus), numeral adj. end- ing, 133. N. 1. -ensis, gentile ending, 249. Enumeration, primum . . . deinde, 322. d. n, -enus, adj. ending, 249. Envy, vbs. of, w. dat., 367. eo, used w. supine in -um, 428. i, 509. n. i. eo, used w. quo, 414. a; w. compar., id. ; approaching abl. of cause, id. n. eo consilio ut, 531. 1. N. i. Epicene nouns, 34. n. Epistolary,tenses, 479. epitome, decl., 44. epulum, plur. -ae, 106. 6. equester, decl., 115 a. equidem, 322. /. N. er- for es-, primary suffix, 234. II. 17. er-, stem-ending, 63. Exc. 2. -er, nom. ending, decl. II, 45-47; decl. Ill, 61. 4, 65. a; gend., 85; -er, adjs. in, 111, 112, 115; compar. of these, 125. erga, w. ace. after adjs., 385. h. ergo, use, 324 i; w. gen., 359. 6. -erim, -er5, as tense-ending, 169. c, d. -ernus, adj . ending, 250. ero-, noun stems in, decl. II, 60; ero-, adj. stems in. 111. a. n. ES, root of esse, 15. 4; 170. h. n. es- (OS-), primary suffix, 234. II. 17. -es, in nom. plur. of Greek nouns, 81. 4; gend. of nouns in, 85 -es, gen. of Greek nouns in, decl. 11, 52. a , gen. ending, decl. V, 98. n. -es, list of nouns in, p. 30. ftn. 2; gend., 86; formation, 238. a. esse, conj., 170; foi-ms of, in other lan- guages, id. 6. N. ; compounds of, 198; case after, 284; dat. of poss. w., 373; future part. w. (first periph. conj.), 498. a, 6 ; position of forms of, 598. c,j. est, united with other words, 13. n. ; est qui etc., 535. a ; est cum, 535. a. N. 3 ; est ut, 569. 3. Esteeming, vbs. of, constr., 393. -ester (-estris), adj. ending, 250; a noun- ending, 254. 11. estur, essetur. pass, forms of edo, 201. a. et, use, 324. a ; et . . . et, 323. e ; et re- peated or omitted, 323. c. et, -que, or atque translated 6wi, 324. d. n. etenim, use, 324. h, k. Ethical dative, 380. etiam, u-e, .322. a; in answers, 336. a. 1. etiam si, concessive, 527. c. etsi, use, 527. c. -etum, noun ending, 254. 8. -eus, Greek names in, 52. e ; -eus, patro- nymic ending, 244: adj. ending, 247, 249, 254. 10. evenit ut, 568. ftn. 2. ex (e), 220. h ; use, 221. 11 ; in compovmds, 267. a, 402; abl. w., instead of part, gen., 346. c: in vbs. w. dat., 381; w. prons. etc., 403. a. N. ^ ; to express place from which, 426. 1 ; expressing posi- tion, 429. 6 ; after its noun, 435 ; w. abl. of gerund. 5C7. excello, w. dat., 368. 3. Exchanging, vbs. of, 417. 6. Exclamation , form of, 333. n. ; nom. in, 339. a; aw^ in, 397. d', w. infin., 462. Exclamatory questions, 462. a. Exclamatory sentences, 269. c: nom. in, 339. a; gen. in, a59. a; ace. in, 397. d. Existence general expressions of, 535. a exlex, deiect , 122. c. Expecting, hoping, etc., vbs. of, w. ind. disc. 580. c; w. complem. inf.. id. N. expensum, 496. n. 4. exsilio, w. a j1., 404. a. exspes, defect., 122. c. exsulto, w. abl., 404. a. exteri, use, 130. 6. exterior, 130. h extremus, form, 130. a. ftn. 2. exuo, constr., 364. F, original sound of, 1. 6. N. faber/decl., 112. a. fac, imv., 182, 204; fac (ut), w. subjv. 449. c ; fac ne, in prohibition, 450. n. 2, faciSs, decl., 98. a. INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 455 facilis, compar., 126; w. supine, 510. n.2. facio, accent of comps. of, 12. a. Exc; forms of, omitted, ol9. a; w. abl., 403. c; w. names of authors, 497. d. n. ; facere ut, 568. N. l. Factitive ace, 386; verbs, 273. n.^. -facto, in compounds, 266. a. faenebris, decl., 115. N. K faex, decl., 103. g. 2. fallit, w. ace, 388. c. falsus, compar., 131. a. fames, abl. of, 76. 6. N.l, 98. cZ. familiaris, decl., 76. h. 2. familias, in pater familias etc., 43, h. fas, indecl., 103. a; w. supine in -u, 510. faux, decl., 101. n.i, 103./. 4, Favor, vbs. of, w. dat., 367. fax, decl., 103. p-. 2. sCf Fearing, vbs. of, w. inf., 456; w. ne, ne non, ut, 564. febris, decl., 75. 6, 76. h. 1, Feeling, nouns of, w. gen., 348; imper- sonal vbs. of, 208. h, 354. h ; animi w. vbs. and adjs. of, 358; gen. w. vbs. of, 354; ace. w. vbs. of, 388. a; quod- clause w. vbs. of, 572. 6, Feet in Prosody, 608-610^ felix, compar., 124. Feminine, rule for gend., 32. femur, decl., 105. g, -fer, comps. of, 50; decl., 111. a. fer, imperative, 182. fero, cou]'., 200; acceptum (expensum) ferre, 496. N. 4 ; comps. of, 200. a. ferre, ferrem, for fferse etc., p. 110. ftn. 3. Festivals, plural names of, 101. 2 ; in -alia, 254. 7. -ficus, adjs. in, comparison of, 127. a. fides, decl., 96. fido (confido) , semi-deponent, 192 ; W. dat., 367; w. abl., 431. fidus, compar., 131. a. fieri, constr. w. abl., 403. c. Fifth Declension, 95-97. Figura etymologica, 598. m, filia, decl., 43. e; filius, voc, 49. c. Filling, vs^ords of, w. abl.. 409. a ; w. gen., • id. N. Final Clauses, defined, 279. d; constr. of, 530-532; as subst. clauses, 563. Final conjunctions, 223. 6. 6, 224. II. e. Final syllables, rules of quantity, 604; vowels, id. a-h, finis, decl., 76. b. Finite verb, defined, 154. n.; subj. of, 339. fio, conj., 204; in compounds, id. 6; de- fective compounds of, id. c; quantity of i in, 603. a. 3. First Conjugation, prin. parts, 173; pres. fiteiTi. ]i()\v loruied, 176. a; formation, 179. a, 259; paradigms, 184; vbs. of, 209; vbs. of, how formed, 259. First Declension, 40-42. fisus, as pres. part., 491. fit ut, 568. ftn. 2, 569. 2. Fitness, adjs. of, w. dat., 384, 385. a. flagito, constr., 563. flocci, gen. of value, 417. a. For, when expressed by pro, 379. n. foras, 103. c. 4, 215. 3. fore, 170. a; perf. part, w., 164. c. n.; fore ut, 569. a. forem, 170. a. fores, plur. only, 101.4, 103. c. 4. Forgetting, vbs. of, 350 ; w. mf ., 456. foris (locative), 103. c. 4, 215. 4, 427. a. Formation of words, 227-267o Forms of the verb, 180 ff. fors, forte, 103. c. 1. forsan, 447. b. N. forsitan (fors sit an), 216. N.; w. subj v., 447. a. fortasse, 447. 6. Fourth Conjugation, prin. parts, 173; pres. stem, how formed, 176. a, 179. d; paradigm, 187; list of vbs., 212; vbs., how formed, 262. Fourth Declension, 88-94. Fractional expressions, 135. e, 637. fraus, decl., 71. 6. Freedom, adjs. of, w. abl., 402. a; vbs. of, 401. French, derivations through, 19. n. 2. Frequentative verbs, 263. 2. fretus, w. abl., 431. a. Fricatives, 4. 5. frugi, defect, noun, 103./. 1; as adj., 122. b; compar., 129; constr., 382. 1. n. 2. fruor, fungor, w. abl., 410; w. ace, id. a. N. 1 ; gerundive, 503. k. 2. fugit, w. ace, 388. c. fui, derivation of, 170. 6. N. Fulness, adjs. of, 349. a. funebris, decl., 115. N.i. fungor, see fruor. Future conditions, 516; in ind. disc, 589. a. Future tense, use, 472; of inf. pass., how formed, 203. a; of imv., 449; ind. for imv., id. 6; in indirect questions, 575. Future Infinitive, how formed, 164. 3. 6, c, 193. N. ; expressed with fore or futurum esse, 569. a; (rarely) in con- trary to fact conditions in ind. disc, 589. b. N. 3. Future Participle, use, 158. b, 489, 498, 517. d; fut. pass, part., 500. Future Perfect tense, suffix of, 169. c; use of, 478; represented in subjv., 484.- c: in conditions, 516. c 456 INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS futurum esse ut, see fore ut ; futurum fuisse ut, 589. h. 3 and N. 2. Futurum in praeterito, 611. ftn, 1. G (the character), 1. a and N. Gaines, plur. names of, 101. 2. gaudeo, conj., 192; w. abl., 431; w. quod or ind. disc, 572. b. Gems, gend. of, 32 and b, 48= Exc. Gender, kinds of, 30; general rules for, 31-34; common, epicene, 34; change of gend., p. 18. ftn. ; nouns, decl. I, gend., 42 ; decl. II, 48 ; nouns, decl. Ill, gend. according to endings, 84-87; of nouns, decl. lY, 90, 91; decl. V, 97; Syntax: agreement in gend., 280; of appositives, 282. c; of adjs., 286; adjs. w. nouns of different genders, 287 (cf. 289. c) ; of rel., 306. b. General conditions, defined, 513. 2 ; constr. of, 618 ; relatives in, 520. General truths after past tense (in sequence of tenses), 485. d; in pres., 465 ; in general condition, 618. a. Genitive, defined, 35. 6; terminations of, 37; plur. in -um, 38./; gen. in -ai and -as, decl. I, 43. a, b; in -i for -ii, decl. II, 49. 6 ; in -i of proper nouns of decl. Ill, 52. a; gen, plur. in -iim (-om), for-orum, 49. d; -um for -ium, decl. Ill, 78; -OS for -is, 81. 1 ; gen- plur. in -um, 92. 6 ; in -i or -ft for -ei, decL V, 98. n. ; gen. plur. wanting, 103. g.2; of adjs. in -ius, 113 ; gen. plur. in -ium or-um, 121. b. Genitive, Syntax, 342-356 ; general use, 342. Subjective gen., 343. N: i. Posses- sive gen., 343; in app. w. poss. pron., 302. e; compared w. dat., 373. n. ; gen. in predicate, 343. 6, c; gen. of adj. for neut. nom., 343. c. n. i ; gen. of sub- stance or material, 344; for app., 343. d; gen. of quality, 345. Partitive, 346. Objective, 347 ff.; w. adjs., 349, 385. c; w. vbs. of memory, 350; charge and penalty, 352; of feeling, 354; w. impers., miseret etc., 354. &; w. refert and interest, 355 ; of plenty and want, 356 ; of exclamation, 359. a ; w. potior, 357. a ; w. other vbs., id. 6 ; w. egeo and indigeo, 356. n. ; gen. for abl., id. ; gen. replaced by dat., 366. b ; of value, 417 ; gen. of gerundive, 604. genius, voc. of, 49. c. Gens, or family, names, 108. Gentile adjectives, 244. gentilis, 76. a. 2. genu, decl., 89; gend., 91. genus, decl., 64. -ger, compounds of, 60; decl., 111. a. Gerund, form, 155. &; meaning, 159. a; gerundive used instead, 503. Syntax, 602-507; gen. of, 604; w. direct obj.. id. a ; pred. use, purpose, id. a. n. i ; w obj. gen., id. c; dat. of, 605; in law phrases etc., id. b ; ace. of, 506 and n.i ; abl. of, 507; gerund coordinated w. nominal constr. and in app., 503. a. N.2; w. direct obj,, 503. a. n. i. Gerundive, meaning and form, 155. a and ftn. 3, 158. d ; in -endus or -undus, p. 89. ftn. 1 ; of dep. vb., 190. d ; use as part, or adj., 500; of iitor, id- 3; to denote' purposeaftercertainvbs.,id.4; used for gerund, 603. Gerundive constructions in cases, gen., 504 ; dat., 605 ; ace, 506 ; abl., 607. Impersonal w, esse, w. ace, 600. 3, gibber, decl.. 111. a. gin-, stem-ending, 61. 2. Giving, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 600. 4. glaber, decl., 112. a. •glacies, decl,, 98. a. glis, decl., 71. 6. glorior, w. abl., 431. Glyconic verse, 623. 1, 624, 625. 1, 12. Gnomic perfect, 476. -go, nouns in, from stem gin-, 61. 2; gend., 86. gracilis, decl., 122. «; compar. 126. Grammar, how developed, 268. Grammatica,l gender, 30. b. gratia, w. gen., 369. 6, 404. c; w. gen. of gerund, 533. gratificor, w. dat., 368. 3. gratulor, w. dat., id. Greek accusative {synecdochical) , 397. 6. Greek forms compared w. Latin, pp. 13, 14, 19, 26, 65, 68, 76, 80, 83, 126, 142, 143, 160, 163. Greek nouns, decl. I, 44; decl. II, 52; decl. Ill, 81, 82, 83. Greek proper names, quantity of^N603, 4. Groups of words, conjunctions w., 323. c. grus, decl,, 79. «. Guilt, adjs. of, w. gen., 349. a. H (breathing), 4; omitted in spelling 6. d. N. 2 ; in prosody, 603. a, 612. e. habeo, w. infinitive, 4G0. a; w. perfect^ participle, 497. b; future imperative' habet5 in sense of consider, 449, a. habilis, w. dat. of gerund etc., 606. a. ftn. hactenus, 221. 26. n. i. Hadria, gen., 4^2. Exc. haeo for hae, 146. n. 2. haere5, w. abl., 368. 3. n. Happening, vbs. of, constr., 669, 2. Have, pert', w,, origin, 497. b. ftn. have (ave), defective verb, 206. g. Having, vbs. of, w. gerund., 500. 4. hebes, decl., 86. a; compar., 124. Help, vbs. of, w. dat., 367, INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 457 Hemiolic measures, 609. d. Heroic verse. 616. heros, decl., 82. Hesitation, clauses of, w. quin, 558, 559; vbs. of, constr., 456. Heteroclite nouns, 105 ; adjs., 122. a. Heterogeneous nouns, 106. Hexameter verse, 615. Hiatus, 612. g. Hiber, decL, 50. c. hibus, 146. N. 2. hie, 146, N. 1; decL, 146; use, 297. a, e,/; quantity, 604. J, Exc. Hidden quantity, 11./ and N. hiemps (for liiems), 15. 11. hilaris (-us), 122. a. Himself (ipse, se), 298. c. N. 2. Hindering, vbs. of, with ne or quominus, or inf., 558. b and n. Hindrance, vbs. of, w. quominus, 558. 6 ; w. negatives, followed by quin, 558, 559. Historical infinitive, 463 ; takes secondary sequence, 485. /. Historical perfect, 161. 2, 473. Historical present, 469 ; foilo^ved by pri- mary or secondary tenses, 485. e. hodie, loc. form, 98. b, 215. 5. honor (-os), decl., 62. N.2. Hoping, verbs of, with ind. disc, 680. c; w. complem. inf., id. n. Horace, metres of, 626. horizon, decl., 83. d. Hortatory subjunctive, 439; in conces- sion, 440 ; in proviso, 528 ; in obligation, 439. 6; w. force of protasis, 521. 6. hortor, constr., 563. hospes, decl., 121. a. 4. hospita (fern, of hospes), 121. e. hiiiusmodi, 146. b. humi, 49. a ; locative use of, 427. a. humilis, compar., 126. Hundreds, how declined, 134. c. Hypotaxis, 268. I, as vowel and as cons.. 1, 10; i as tran- sient sound between cons, i and a pre- ceding vowel, 6. c (cf. 11. e). i-, primary suffix, 234. I. 2. i, for e in conj. H, 179. 6. 2 ; for -5 in conj. HI, id. c. 1; lost in vbs. in -io of conj. HI, id. and e ; inserted in vb. stem, 176. 6.2. -i in Greek voc, 82. -i, (single) in gen. of nouns in -ius (-ium), 49. b ; in gen. of nouns in -es, 52. a ; in abl. of decl. HI, 76 ; in loc. of decl, HI, p. 34. ftn. 1 ; in gen., decl. IV, 92. a ; in gen., dat., decl. V, 98. d. n. ; in dat. of unus etc., 113 ; in pres. pass, inf., p. 286 ftn. 1 ; in perfect. 163. ftn. 3 i-stems, decl. HI, 66-78; confused, 73; signs of, 74; in adj., 117; cases retain- ing -i, cf. 74, 76, 114, 116. n. ; i-stems in vbs., 179. d. -ia, ending of abstract nouns, 241. -la, nom. and ace, plur. decl. Ill, 74. b ; of adjs., 116, 117. -ia for -ies, decl. V, 98. c. iacio, comps. of, 6. d, 603./. N.8. iam, derivation, 215. 6; use, 322. b; w. impf., 471. c. N. Iambic verse, 613; trimeter, 618; other forms, 619. Iambus, 609. a. 2. iamdiu, w. pres., 466; w. impf., 471. 6. iamdiidum, w. pres., 466; w. impf. 471. 6; w. imperative, 466. n. 2. -ibam for -iebam, conj. IV, 183. 1. -ibo for -iam, 183. 1. ibus, 146. N. 8. -icius, 247. Ictus, 608. N., 611. a. -icus, 249. id-, stem-ending, 83. 6. id genus, 397. a. id quod, 307. d. id temporis, 346. 3, 397. a. idcirco, as correl., 324. i ; w. final clause, 531. 1. N.i. idem, decl., 146; derivation, 146. N.9; w. dat., 384. N. 1 ; w. atque or r^l., id. n. 2 ; used em.phatically, 298. a; equiv. to adv., id. b. Ides (13th or 15th of month), how reck- oned, 631. 6. -ides (-ides), in patronymics, 244. idoneus, compar., 128; w. dat. of gerund etc., '505. a. ftn. 2. idoneus qui, 535. /. -idus, verbal adj. ending, 251. idus, decl. IV, gender, 90. Exc. (See Ides.) -ie, in voc. of adjs. in -ius, 110. a. iecur, decl., forms from different stems, 79. c, 105. g. iens (part, of eo), decl., 119. -ier in inf. pass., 183. 4. -ies, noun ending, 241 ; in decl. V = -ia, decl. I, 98. c. igitur, meaning, 324. i; position, id. J. ignis, decl., 76. b. 1. -ii (or -i), in gen., decl. II, 49. b and ftn.- of adjs., 110. a. ii, iis, for i,is, from is, 146. -ile, noun ending, 254. 6. -ills, -bilis, verbal adj. ending, 252. -ills, nominal adj, ending, 248. Illative conjunctions, 223. a. 4, 224. I. d. ille, forms, 146. n. *, 6 ; decl., 146; use, 297. b, e ; combined w, -ce, 146. a. n. i. illic, decl., 146. a. -illo, vbs. ending in, 263. 3. 458 INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS illus, diminutive ending, 243. illustris, decl., 115. n. i. -Im, ace. ending, decl. Ill, 7^76. -im, in pres. subjv., 183. 2. imber, decl., 66, 67, 76. 6. immane quantum, 575. d. immo, how used, 329. Imperative mood, 154. b ; how used, 157. c; terminations, 163.6, 179. e; die, due, fae, f er, 182 ; some vbs. used chiefly in, 206. g; w. iam dudum, 466. n. 2; in commands, 448 ; 3dpers., 448. a; forms in ind. disc, 588; fut., 449 and a; various periphrases for imv., 449, c; imperative as protasis, 521. b. Imperative Senterce, 269. d. Imperfect tense, defined, 160. a, 471 ; use_, 470 ; in descriptions, id. a ; w. iam diu etc., id. b ; inceptive and conative, id. c ; w. iam, id. n. ; of surprise, id. d ; in dialogue, id. e; = could, etc., id./; epistolary, 479 and n. ; represented by perf. subjv., 485. 6. 3; imperf. subjv., sequence, id. g, h, 584. a and n. impero, constr., 563. Impersonal construction of pass. w. infin. clause, 566. 6, 582 and a. Impersonal verbs, synopsis of, 207 ; classi- fied, 208; passive of intransitives, id. d, 372; impersonals, miseret etc., w. gen., 354, b ; libet, licet, w. dat., 368. 1 ; ace. w. deeet etc. , 388. c. impertio, constr., 364. impetro, constr., 563, 568. ftn. 2, impetus, defect., 103. d. impleo, constr., 409. a. N. implico, constr., 364. impono, constr., 430. imus, 130. a. n. 2. in-, neg. prefix, 267. d. 1. in-, stem-euding, 61. 2; in-, 83. a. in, prep., use, 220. c, 221. 12; comp. w. vbs., 267. a; in, w. ace. or abl., 259. e (cf. 430) ; w. ace, penalty, 353. 2. n. ; vbs. comp. with, w. dat., 370 ; in w. ace, w. adjs., 385. 6 ; in citations, 428. d. n. 2 ; place where, 426. 3; in idioms of time, 424. e; w. abl. of gerund, 507. Inceptive or Inchoative verbs, 263. 1. Inclination, adjs. of, constr., 384, 385. 6. inclutus, compar., 131. a. Incomplete action, tenses of. See Con- tinued action. Indeclinable nouns, gender of, 33; list of, 103. a; adjectives, 122. 6. Indefinite antecedent, relative with, w. subjv., 535, a and n. ^. Indefinite pronouns, dec!., 148-151. Syn- tax, 309-315; indefinite relative may introduce conditional clause, 512. n., 519. Indefinite subject omitted, 318. b ; use c. 2d person forj^39. a; in general con ditious, 518. atlicet ciarum fieri, 455. n. Indefinite value, 417 and a. Indicative mood, 154. b : how used, 157. a, 437; for Eng. subjv., id. a; in apod, of conditions contrary to fact, 517. b, c, 522. a ; in causal clauses, 540 ; in clause with quod, 572; in deliberative ques- tions, 444. a. N. indigeo, w. gen., 356. N. indignus,w. abl., 418. b;w. qui and subjv., 535./. Indirect Discourse, origin etc., 577; list of verbs that take ind. disc.,^x*i^ ftn. ; dire t and indir. quotation, 578./ Moods in ind. disc, 580; verb of say- ing implied, id. a. Subj, ace, 580. Subord. clause when explanatory, 583; clauses w. rel. which is equivalent to demonstr., id. 6. Tenses of inf. in ind. disc, 584; tenses of subjv., 585; subjv. depending on perf. inf., id. a; pres. and perf. after secondary tense {reprae- sentdtio), id. b. Conditional sentences in ind. disc, 689 ; questions, 586 ; delib- erative subjv., 587; commands, 588; prohibition, id. N. 2. Informal ind. disc, 591. 1, 592. Indirect object, 274, 361, 362, 366, 367. Indirect Questions, defined, 330, 331 ; Syn- tax, 331. N., 332. 6. N., 573-575; fut. tense in, 575. a; deliberative subjv. in, id. 6; indie in (early Lat.), id. c; num in, 332. b. N. Indirect quotation, 578. Indirect reflexive, 300. 2 and^^. Indo-European, 14, 18, 19. \ indued, w. names of authors, 497\(Z. N. induo, double constr. of, 364. ineo, constr., 370. b. ineptus, constr., 505. a. ftn. inermis or -us, 122. a. infera, defect.. 111. 6, cf. p 56. ftn. 2; compar., 130. 6. inferi, meaning in plur., 130. b. inferior, comparison, 130. 6. Infinitive Clauses, as subj. or obj., 452; w. pass, vbs., 582 and a. See also In- direct Discourse. Cf . also 459. Infinitive Mood, 154. b and ftn. ; tenses of, 164. 3. b, 486 ; how used, 157. d ; pass. in -ier, 183. 4; fut. inf. of deponents, 190. c; subject in ace, 397. e. Infinitive Mood, Syntax, 451-463 ; used as subject, 452; complementary inf., 456 ; vbs. having subjv. or inf., 457 (cf . 563); inf. for obj. clause, 563. n. ; w. subject ace, 459; case of predicate noun, 581 and n. 3 ; iuL of purpose, 460 ; w. adjs., in poetry, 461 ; of result, id. a; INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 469 as pure noun, id. &; in exclamations, 462 (sequence, 482. n.). Historical inf., 463. Tenses of inf., 486; jrerf. instead of pres., id. d, e; fore ut etc., for fut, inf., 569. a. Inf. in ind. disc, 579; tenses, 584. Infinitive used as noun, gender, 33; w, gen., 343. c. (See also Infinitive Mood, Syntax.) infltias, defect., 103. h. 6; use, 428. L Inflection, defined, 21; terminations of, id. 6; how modified, 28; of decl. and conj., 22. Influence, vbs. of, w. ut-clause, 563. Informal Indirect Discourse, 691, 592. infra, use, 220. a, 221. 13. ingens, decl., 121. a. 3; compar., 131. b. iniuria, as abl.'of manner, 412. be Iniussu, defect., 94. c. inops, decl., 121. a. 3, &. 1. inquam, inquit, 206. b ; position of, 599. c. Inseparable particles, 267. 6. Insertion of consonants (p in sumpsi), 15. 11, 639. insidiae, dat. w., 867. d. inspergo, constr., 364. instar, indecl., 103. a; w. gen., 359. 6 insto, constr., 563. Instrument, abl. of, 409. Instrumental case, 35. N. (of. 338, 398); as adv., 215. 4; source of several abL constructions, 408. insulam, ad, 428. a. integer, decl., 112. a. Integral part, subjv. of, 591, 593. integrum est ut, 568. Intensive pronoun, 146. n. 7, 8, 298. c-f. Intensive vbs., 263. 2 and b. inter, use, 220. a, 221. 14 ; in comp., 267. a ; vbs. comp. w. , 370 ; position, 435 ; inter se (reciprocal), 145. c, 301./; inter sicarios, 353. 2; inter, w. gerund, 606 and N. K intercludo, constr., 364 and n. 2. interdico, constr., 364. N. l. interest, constr., 365; w. ad, id. b; how to express degree of interest, id. n. 2. interior, compar., 130. a. Interjections, defined, 20; list, 226; w. dat., 379. a. Interlocked order of words, 598. h. Intermediate clauses, Syntax of, 691- 593. Interrogative ad vs., use, 333; position, 598. 6. Interrogative particles, list of, 217 d; use, 331-333. Interrogative pronouns, 148-151; use, 333; position, 598. b. Interros:ative sentences, 269. b ; forms of, 330-336. intra (interior), 130. a; derivation, 215. 4. Intransitive verbs, 273. 2, 274. n. ; used impersonally in pass., 208. d; dat. w., 366 ff. ; used transitively, w. ace. and dat., 369 (cf . 388. a. n.) ; w. cognate ace, 390 ; having passive sense, w. ab, 405. a. -inus, adj. ending, 249. inutilis, w. dat. of gerund etc., 506. a. invictus, compar., 131. a. invitus, compar., 131. a. -io, noim ending, 238. 6 ; gend., 86. -io, vbs. in, conj. Ill, 176. b. 2; forms of, 179. c, e; paradigm, 188; conj. IV, 179. d; derivation, 262. locus, plur. in -i or -a, 106. b. Ionic measure, 609. c ; verse, 626. 16. ip-, stem-ending, 56. a. ipse, formation, 146. n. 7, 8 ; decl., 146 ; use, 298. c; used instead of reflexive, 300. b. in, in fut. inf. pass., 203. a. Ironical statement not different in form from question, 332. a. n. Irrational measures, 609. e, 623. k. -is-, -iss-, -sis-, dropped in perf ., 181. 6. n.2. is, decl., 146; use, 152, 297. d. e; used emphatically, 298. a; used instead of reflexive, 300. b. -is, nom. ending, gend., 86; -is, patro- nymic, 244. -is, for -iis in decl. I. 43. e. N.2; nom. and ace. plur., decl. HI, 77 (cf. 73) ; of adjs., 117, 121. c ; Greek nom. ending, 83. b. -is, nouns in, see it-. Islands, names of, loc, use, 427. 3, 428. e ; from which, 427. 1 ; to which, id. 2. -isse, -issem, vb. ending, see 181. 6. -isso, vbs. ending in, 263. b. iste, shortened to ste, 146. n. 5; decl., 146 ; use, 297. c, istic, decl., 146. a. It, as sign of Impersonals, 207. ftn. ■ it- as stem-ending, 58. 6; decl., 78, 121. cr. 4. ita, correl. with ut, 323. g; in answers, 336. a; ita ut, 537. 2. N. 2. itaque, accent, 12. a; compared with ergo, 324. i ; used with ergo, id. k ; posi- tion of, 599. b. iter, stem of, 79. c. Iterative subjunctive, 518. c. Iterative verbs (-t5, -ito, -so), 263. 2. -ito, vbs. in, 263. 2. -itus, adj. ending, 246. iubar, decl., 76. a. 3. iubeo, w. ace, 367. a; w. inf., 663. a; in pass., 666. c. iucundus, constr., 510. N. 2. iugerum, defect. 103. d. 3; decl., 105. 6; measure, 636. -ium, gen. plur., decl. Ill, 74. a; of adjs. 114. a, 117, 121. b. -ium, noun ending, 241. b. iungo, w. abl. or dat.. 368. 3. n., 413. n. 460 INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS luppiter, stem and decl., 79 and b ; plural, 100. a ; deriyation, 266. c. -ius, adjs. in, gen., voc. of, 110. a; forma- tion of adjs. in, 247, 252. n. ius (broth), decl., 103. g. 1. -ius, gen. sing, ending, 113; quantity, id. c, 603. a. Exc. 1. iussu, defect., 94. c, 103. 6. 5. iusto, w. compar., 406. a. iuvat, w. ace, 388. c. iuveuis, decl., 62. N.3, 78. 1; masc. adj., 122. d\ compar., 131. c. iuv5, w. aec, 367. a. iuxta, position, 435. -iv-, in perl, 211. d. -ivus, verbal adj. ending, 251. N. J (the character), 5 n. i; Eng. sound, id. Julian Calendar, 630, 631. e. K, supplanted by C, 1. a. N. kalendae, 631. a. Kindred forms, Latin and English, 18, 19. Kindred signification, ace. of, 390, Knowing, vbs. of, w. ace. and inf., 459. Knowledge, adjs. of, w. gen., 349. a. ko-(ka-), primai-y tuffix, 234. II. 12. L, nouns in -1, gend., 87; adj. stems in 1-, 117. a. Labials, 4. 2 ; stems, decl. Ill, 56 and a. lab5ro, w. abl., 404. a. lacus, decl., 89 ; dat. and abl. plur. in-ubus, 92. c. laedo, w. ace, 367. a. laetor, laetus, w. abl., 431. lampas, decl., 82. lateo, w. ace, 396. c. latet, w. ace, 388. e. N.i. latifundium, 285. 2. latus, part., derivation, 200. ftn. 2. Learning, vbs. of, w. inf., 456. Length, expressed by gen., 345. 6. -lens, -lentus, adj. endings, 245. leo, decl., 62. Letters, classification of, 1-5. levis, decl., 116; compar., 124. leviter, compar., 218. liber, adj., decl., 50, 111. o. Liber, decl., 50. Uberi, noun, 50, 101. 3. libet, impers., 208. c. N. ; w. dat., 368. 1. licet, impers., synopsis, 207 ; use, 208. c. N. ; w. dat., 368. 1 ; w. predicate dat., 455. 1; w. subjv., meaning although^ 527. 6 ; licet earn, licet me ire, licet mihi Ire, 5(35 and n. 2, Likeness, adjs. of, w. dat., 384; w. gen., 385. c. Limiting word, meaning of, 270. b. Liusuals, 4. 3 ; stems in, decl. Ill, 68. a. Unter, decl., 66. Liquids, 3, 4 ; stems in, decl. Ill, 61-64. -lis, adjs. in, compar,, 126. Litotes, 326. c. -lium, noun ending, 241. c. 11-, as stem ending, 62. n. i. 10- (la-), primary sufiix, 234. II. 10. Locative abl., 426. 3; idiomatic use, 429. 3; adverbial forms, 215. 5. Locative, defined, 35. h, p. 34. ftn. (cf. 360) ; in abl., 398, 421 ; of decl, I, 43. c ; decl. II, 49. a; decl. Ill, 80; decl. IV (domi), 93. N. i ; decl. V, 98. b ; as adv., 215, 5; w. abl. in apposition, 282, d; relative adv. used to refer to, 308. g\ animi, 358 ; loe used to express where, 426. 3; forms (domi etc.), 427. a. loco, abl. without prep,, 429. 1. loco, vb,, constr., 430. locum capere, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. locus, plur. -i or -a, 106. b. Logaoedic Verse, 623-625. Long and Short, see Quantity. longius, without quam, 407, c. ludicer, decl., 112. a. lues, defect., 103. d. 1. lux, decl., 103. g. 2. M, final, elision of, 612. a. N.,/; inserted in verb root, 176, c. 2. -m, sign of ace, 338; omitted in inscrip- tions, 46. N. 1. macer, decl., 112. a. macte virtute, use and constr., 340. c and N. magis, as sign of comparV^128; comps. of, w. quam, 434. magni, gen. of value, 417. magnus, comparison, 129. maiestatis, w. words of accusing etc. 352. a. Main clause, defined, 278. 6. maior natu, 131. c. maiores, signification of, 101. 3 (cf. 102. 2), 291. c. N. 3. Making, vbs. of, constr., 393. male, compar., 218; compounds of, w. dat., 368. 2. malo, conj., 199. malus, compar., 129. mando, constr., 563. mane, defect, noun, 76. N. i, 103. b. 5. maneo, w. abl., 431. Manner, advs. of, 217. c ; abl. of, 412 and b ; hard to distinguish from abl. of speci- fication, 418. a, N ; manner implied in participle, 496. mansuetus, 266. c. manus, decl., 89; gend., 90. Exc mare, decl., 76. a. 3, 78. mari, loc, 427. a. INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 461 «as, decl., 71. 6. Masculine, rule for gender, 31. Masculine adjs., 122. d. Masculine caesura, 615. c. n. Material, adjectives denoting, 247 ; gen. of, 344 ; abl. of, 403 and b, c, d. maxime, as sign of superl., 128. May, how expressed in Latin, 157. 6. m6 dius fidius, o97. d. N. ^. Means, nouns denoting, 239 ; abl. of, 408, 409 ; participle implying means, 49G. Measure, gen. ot, 345. h (cf. 425. a). Measures in Prosody, 608-610 ; names of, 609 ; contracted or resolved, 610. Measures of value, 632-035; of length, 636 ; of weight, 637 ; of capacity, 638. medeor, w. dat. or ace, 367. 6. mediocris, decl., 115. a. n. i. Meditative verbs, 263. 2. h. medius {middle part of), 293. melior, decl., 120. melius est, w. infin. 486./. memini, conj., 205; in pres. sense, id. 0, 476 ; imperative of, 449. a ; memini w. ace. or gen., 350. a, 6; w. pres. inf., 584. a and n. memor, decl., 121. a. 3. Memory, adjs. of, constr., 349. a; vbs. of, constr., 350. men-, primary suffix, 234. II. 14. -men, -mentum, noun endings, 239. mensis, decl., 78. 2. meridies, gend., 97. -met (enclitic), 143. d. Metathesis, 640 (cf. 177. a. n.). Metre, see Prosody^ metuo, w. dat. or ace, 367. c; w. subjv., 564. meus, voc. mi, 110. a. N. ; syntax of, 302. a, 343. a. Middle voice, 397. c, 410. N. Mile, 636. miles, decl., 57. Military expressions, dat. In, 382. 2 ; abl. of means instead of agent, 405. 6. n. i ; abl. of accomp. without cum, 413. a. militiae (locative), 427. a. mille (milia), decl. and constr., 134. d. -mini, as personal ending, p. 76. ftn. 1. minlme, compar., 218. a\ use, 291. c. N. 2; "W. neg. force, 392. a ; in answer {no) , 336. a. 2. minlstro, w. infin., 460. a. minor natii, 131. c. minoris, gen. of value, 417 and c. minorgs, signification, 291. c. N. '. -minus, -mnus, verbal adjective endings, 253. c. minus, compar., 218. a; use, 291. c. N.2; w. si and quo, = not, 329. a ; constr. without quam, 407. c. miror si, 572, b. N. . mirum quam (quantum), w. indicative 675. d. i mis, tis, 143. a. n. misceo, w. abl. or dat., 368. 3. n., 413. a. n, miser, decl., Ill; compar., 126. misere, compar., 218. misereor, w. gen., 354. a. miseresc5, w. gen., 354. a. miseret, 208. 6; w. gen. and ace, 354. 6; other constr,, id. n. miseror, w, ace, 354. a. n. Mixed i-stems, 70-72. -mnus, see -minus. mo- (ma-), primary suffix, 234. II. 7. Modesty, subjunctive of, 447. 1. Modification of subj. or pred., 276. Modifiers, position of, 596-699 ; of nega- tive, 699. a. modo (mode ne) with subiv. of proviso, 528. modo . . , modo, 323. /. modo as abl. of manner, 412. 6. molaris, decl., 76. a. 2. moneo, conj., 185 ; constr., 351, 390. d. N. i. -monium, -monia, noun endings, 239. Monoptotes, 103, 6. Monosyllables, quantity, 604. a-c. Months, gend. of names of, 31 and n. ; decl. of names of in -ber, 115. a ; names of, 630; divisions of in Roman Calen- dar, 631. Moods, names and uses of, 164, 157 ; note on origin and nature of, 436; syntax of, 264-275, 437-463. Moods in temporal clauses, how distin- guished, 645, 546 and notes. Mora, in Prosody, 608. a. morigerus, decl., 111. a, n. mos est ut, 568. Mother, name of, w. prep., 403, a. N. i. Motion, how expressed, 363, 331. a, 402; indicated by compounds, 388. 6; im- plied, 428. J. N. Motion, end of, see End of Motion. Motive, how expressed, 404. 6. Mountains, names of, gend., 31 and 6. Mulciber, decl., 60. c. muliebris, decl., 116. a. n. l, multa nocte, 293. n. Multiplication by distributives, 137. c. Multiplicatives, 139. multum (-6), compar., 218. a. multus, compar., 129. munus, decl., 105. g\ munus est ut, 668. mils, decl., 71. 6. musica (-e), decl., 44. Musical accent, 611. mutate, constr., 417. b. Mutes, 4 ; mute stems, decl. Ill, 56-64. mythos, decl., 52. 462 INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS N, 4; as final letter of stem (leon-), 61. 1 ; preceding stem vowel of vb.,176. 6.1; inserted in verb root (tango), 17(3. c. 2, 177. 6. N. nais, decl., 82. -nam (enclitic) , in questions, 333. a. nam, namque, use, 324. h, k. Names of men and women, 108. Naming, vbs. of, w. two aces., 393. Nasals, 4, 6 ; inserted in verb root, 176. c. 2. natalis, decl., 76. h. 2. natu (maior, minor), 131. c. natus etc., Wo abl. of source, 403. a. navis, decl., 76. 6. 1. -nd, -nt, vowel short before, 10. e. -ndus, verbal adj. ending, 253. a; gerun- dive in, 158. d. -ne (enclitic), use in questions, 332. a-c\ w. force of n5nne, 332. c ; orig. mean- ing, id. N. 1 ; in double questions, 335 ; in exclamatory questions, 462. a ; quan- tity, 604. a. 1. ne, neg. of hortatory subjv., 439; in pro- hibitions, 450. 3 ; in concessions, 527. a ; w. subjv. of proviso, 528. 6; in final clauses, 531;=nedum, 532, n. i; in substantive clauses, w. vbs. of hinder- ing, 558. 6; of fearing, 564; omitted after cave, 565. n. i. ne non, w. vbs. of fearing, 564. ne . . . quidem, use, 322./; after non, 327. 1 ; after non modo, 217. e ; position of, 599. 6. Nearness, adjs. of, w. dat., 384; w. gen., 385. c. nee enim, 324. h. necesse, indecl., 103. N. i ; necesse est ut, 568, 569. 2. n. 2. Necessity, vbs. of, w. perf. pass, inf., 486. d\ in apod., 517. c, 522. a; w. ut- clause, 569. 2. necne in double questions, 335 and n. nedum, 532. N. i, 2. nefas, indecl., 103. a; w. supine in-ii, 510. Negation, perfect preferred in, 475. a. Negative answers, 332. b, 336 and a. 2. Negative particles, list of, 217. e; use of, 325 ; two negatives, 326 ; neg. form different from English, 328 ; neg. con- dition, 525. a ; neg. proviso, 528 ; neg. purpose, 531; neg. result, 538, 508; position of, 599. a. nego, better than dico . . . non, 328, 580. 6. negotium do ut, 563. ftn. 2. nemo, use of, 314 ; gen. and abl. sing, re- placed by niillius and nuUo, 314. a ; nem5 non, 326. h ; nemo est qui, 535. a. n. i. neque (nee), and not, 328. a; neque enim, use, 324. h ; neque after a neg., 327. 2, 3. nequam, indecl., 122. 6; compar. of, 129. nequeo. conj.. 206. d. nequis, decl., 310. a. nescio an, 575. d. nescio quis, as indefinite without subjv.. 575. d. -neus, adj. ending, 247. Neuter ace. as adv., 214. d, cf. 6. n. Neuter adjs., special uses of, 289. Neuter gender, general rule for, 33 ; cases alike In, 38. 6 ; endings of decl. Ill, 87. Neuter pron. as cognate ace, 390. c. Neuter verbs, see Intransitive Verbs. neve, connective in prohibitions, 450. n. 6, nex, decl., 103. g. 2. ni-, primary suffix, 234. II. 5. ni, nisi, 512, N ; use of, 525. a. -uia, -nium, noun endings, 241. c. niger, decl., 112; distinct f rom ater, 131. d. N. nihil, indecl,, 103, a; contr, to nil, 603. c, nihili, gen. of value, 417. a. nihil! and nihilo, 103. a. n. 2. nimirum quam,as indefinite without subjv, , 575, d. ningit, 208, a. nisi and si non, 525. a; nisi si, id. 3; nisi vero (forte), id, 6. nitor, w. abl,, 431, nix (stem and decl.), 79. d\ plur., 100. h. No, in answers, how expressed, 336. a. 2. no- (na-), primary suffix, 234. II. 4. no-, verb suffix, i76. 6.1. noli, in prohibitions, 450. (1) and n . i. nolo, conj., 199; part. w. dat. of the per- son judging,^ 378. n. ; w. perf. act. inf. in prohibition§^-486. c. ; w. perf. pass, inf, (or part.), id.^-and n. Nomen, denoting gens, 108. nomen, decl., 64. nomen est, w. pred. nom. or dat., 373, a; w. gen,, id. n. Nominal adjs., 243-254. NoMiNATR'E defined, 35. a; nom. suffix, 338; neut. plur, nom, and ace, alike, 38. 6; in decl. II, 45, a; in decl. Ill, 56, 58, 61, 66, 79 ; of neuters, i-stems, 68. a ; in u-stems, decl. IV, 88 ; in e- stems, decl, V, 95. Nominative, Syntax (see 338) : in pred- icate, 283, 284; verb-agreement with, 316; as subject, 339; in exclamations, 339. a (cf , 397. d) ; used for vocative, 340. a ; w. opus in predicate, 411. 6 ; nom, of gerund supplied by inf,, 502, n. non, derivation, 215, 1; compounds of, 326, a, 6 ; in answers, 336, a. 2, non dubito quin, 558. a ; non dubito w. inf., id. N. 2; w. indir. quest., id. N. i. non modo, after a negative, 327. 1. non modo . . . ne . . . quidem, 217. e. non nemo, non nullus, etc., 326. a. non quia (quod, quo, quin) etc., 540. N. 3. INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 463 n5n satis, 291. c. n. 2. Nones (nonae), 631. c. nonne, in questions, 332. 6. nos, decl., 143; for ego, 143. a. noster, for poss. gen., 302. a. nostri, as objective gen., 143. c, 295. 6. nostrum, as partitive gen., 143, h, 295. 6; as objective gen., 295. h. n. 1. Noun and adj. forms of vb., 106. Noun stem, treated as root, 176. d. Nouns defined, 20. a; indecl., gend., 33; decl. of, 37-95 ; derivative forms of, 235- 241; used as adjectives, 321. c; rule of agreement, 281 ; w. part, gen., 346. a. 1 ; w. obj. gen., 348; governing ace, 388. d. N. 2 ; noun as protasis, 521. a. Nouns of agency, 235 ; formation, 236. novendecim, 133. N. 2. nox, decl., 72. ns, nf, gn, quantity of preceding vowel, 10. d, 603. d. -ns, as adjective ending, 118; participles in, decl., 119, 121. 6.2; w. gen., 349. b\ w. ace, id. N. 1, 2. nt- (ont-, ent-) , primary suifix, 234. II. 18, nt-, stems in, decl., 121. a. 4. nu-, primary suffix, 234. II. 6. nubes, decl., 72. nubo, w. dat., 368. 3. nullus; decl., 113; use, 314. a; cf. nemo, num, force of, .332. 6; in indirect ques- tions, id. N. Number, 35; nouns, defect, in, 99, 100, 101, 103./, g; variable in, 107; pecul- iar uses, 101. N. 1, 317. d. n. 2 ; number in vbs., 154. e; agreement in, 280; vr. appositives, 282. a ; "W. adjs., 286 and h ; w. vbs., 316, 317. d. Numeral advs., 138. Numerals, 132-139; cardinals and ordi- nals, 132, 133 ; distributives, 136 ; advs., 138; others, 139. Position of numeral adjs., .598. h. numquis, 149. 6, 310. a. nunc, compared w. iam, 322. 6. nunc . . . nunc, 323. /. nurus, gend., 90. -nus, adj. ending, 250, for u after u or v, 6, a, 6 ; in decl. II, 46. N. 1. 0- (a-), primary suffix, 234. 1. 1. -0 in nom., 61. 1; gend., 86; in fern. abl. of Greek adjs.. 111. 6. n. -o, -onis, noun ending, 236. c, 255. 6 si, w. subjv. of wish, 442. a and n. K o-stems, decl. II, 45; in adjs., 111-113; vbs. from o-stems, 259. 2. Ob, use, 220. a, 221, 15; in comp., 267. a; in comp. w. vbs., w. dat., 370 ; to express cause, 404, h ; w. gerund, 606 and n. 1, obeo, constr., 370. b Obeying, vbs. of, 367 ; w, ace., id. a. Object cases, 274. a. Object clauses, infin., 452 ; subjv., 561-568. Object defined, 274; becomes subj. ol pass., 275, 387. &; ace. of direct w. dat. of indir. obj., 362; secondary obj., 394; obj. of anticipation, 576. Objective case expressed in Latin by gen., dat., ace, or abl., 274. a. Objective compounds, 265. 3. Objective genitive, mei etc., 143. c; de- fined, 348. N.; w. nouns, 348; w. adjs., 349. Obligation, unfulfilled, hortatory subjv.. 439. h. Oblique cases, 35. g ; origin of names of, 338. obliviscor, w. ace. or gen., 350. a, h. obvius (obviam), derivation, 216 and n.; obviam as apparent adj., 321. d ; w. dat., 370. c. Occasion, expressed by participle, 496. ocior, compar., 130. octodecim, 133. n. 2, odi, conj., 205; w. meaning of present, 476. -oe, for -i in nom. plur., decl. 11, 52. d. offendo, constr., 370. b. -oius, names in, 49. /. Old forms of pronouns: mis, tis, 143. a. N. ; med, ted, id. oUus (ille), 146. n. 4. -olus, diminutive ending, 243. Omission, of possessive, 302. c; of ante- cedent, 307. c. omnes; nos omnes (instead of omnes nos- trum), 346. e. 6n-, stem-ending, 83. c. -on, Greek ending, decl. II, 52. on-, stem-ending, 61. 1, 234. II. 13. -on, gen. plur., decl. II, 52. c. -on, nom. ending, 83. c, d. ont-, nom. -on, 83. d. Open syllables, 7. n. 2. opera, w. gen., 405. h. operam do, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505; w. subjv., 563. Operations of nature, 208. a. opinione, w. compar., 406. a. opinor, position of, 599. c. oportet, 208. c; w. ace, 388. c; in apod., 517. c; imperfect refers to present, plupf. to past, 522. a. n. ^ ; w. subjv. or inf., 665 and N. 3. oportuit, w. pres. inf,, 486. a; w. perf. inf., id, h. oppidum, ad, 428, h. oppagno, w. ace, 370. h, ops, defect., 10-3./. 1. Optative, derivation, and comparisoc w. subjv., 436. 464 INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS Optative forms in the vb., 168. e. n.2, 169. d. Optative subjv. (loish), 441; w. utinam etc., 442; velim etc. w. subjv., equiv. to, id. b. optimates, 71. 5, 101. 3. opus, indecl., 103. a; opus and usus, w. abl., 411; as pred. nom., id. 6; w. participle, 497. a; w. supine in -u, 510. or-, stem-ending, decl. Ill, 63. Exc. 2. -or, noun ending, 238. a. -or or -OS, nom. ending, 62. n. ^ ; gend., 85. Ordtio obliqua, see Indirect Discourse. Order of words, 595-601. Ordinal Numbers, 132-135; decl., 134. e; use of et with, 135. a, b. oro, constr., 563. Orpheus, decl., 52. e. OS-, stem of comparatives, 120. 6. -OS for -us, in nom. sing., decl. II, 46, n. i ; as Greek ending, 52 ; as gen. ending in Greek nouns, decl. Ill, 81. 1. OS, ossis, stem, 79. -6s, nom. ending, 62. n. 2; gend., 85. OS, oris, decl., 103. g. 2. -osus, -lens, -lentus, adj. endings, 245. ovat (defective), 206./. ovis, decl., 76. b. 1. P, parasitic after m (sumpsi) , 15. 11. pacts, as abl. of manner, 412. 6. paene, in apod., 517. 6. n. 2. paenitet, 208. b ; constr., 354. 6, c. Paeon, 609. d. palam, as apparent adj., 321. d; w. abl., 432. c. Palatals, 4. paluster, decl., 115. a. Panthus, vocative of, 52. 6. par, decl., 119, 121. a. 3; w. gen., 385. c; w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. ftn. 2. Parallel verb forms, 189. Parataxis, 268. paratus, w. infin., 460. 6. Pardoning, vbs. of, w. dat., 367. Parisyllabic nouns of decl. Ill, 65. a. pariter, use, 384. n. 2. parte, locative use, without prep., 429. 1. partem, adverbial use, 397. a. particeps, decl., 121. a. 4, b. Pajrticiples, defined, 20. 6. n. A; com- parison of, 124. a; number of, 1.55. a; how used, 158. Participles, Syntax, 488-.500; agree- ment, 286 and n. ; clause equivalent to part., 308. c ; parts, in -ns, used as adjs., w. gen., 349. 6; parts, in flbl. absolute, 419; meaning and form, 488; tenses, 489-493; present in special use, 490; pres. pass, part., how supplied, 492; pert act., how supplied, 493 ; parts, of deponent vbs., 190. a, b, 491, 493 ; adjec- tive use, 494 ; as nouns, id . a ; predicate use, 495, 496 ; w. opus, 497. a ; perf . w. habeo, id. 6 ; present w. facio, id. c; fut- ure part., 498; w. past tenses of esse, 498. 6 ; poetic and late use, 499 ; gerund- ive, use as part, or adj., 500; part, as protasis, 521. a. Particles defined, 23; forms and classifi- cation, 213; note on formation, 21.j. 216; interrogative, 217. d; negative, id. e, 325; in comps., 267. Syntax, 321- 336 ; use of interrogative particles, 332. a-c; conditional particles, 512. a and N., 525 ; particles of comparison, 524. Particular conditions defined, 513. partior, conj., 190. Partitive apposition, 282. a. Partitive genitive, 346; nostrum etc., 143. b ; neut. adjs. with, 346. 3 and n. i. Partitive numerals, 139. c. Parts of Speech, 20. partus, decl., 92. c. parum, compar., 218. a ; meaning, 291. c. N.2. parvi, gen. of value, 417. parvus, compar., 129. Passive voice, 154. a; origin, 163. ftn. 2, 208. d. N. ; signification, 156 ; reflexive meaning, id. a ; deponents, 156. b ? com- pleted tenses, how formed, 179. g; passivkused impersonally, 203. a, 208. e?, 372 (ct. 566, 582. a). pater families, decl., 43. b. patiens, compar., 124. a. patior, constr., 563. c. Patrials in -as, decl., 71. 5, 121. a. 4. Patronymics (-ades, -ides, -eus, etc.), 244. pauper, decl., 121. a. 4. pax, decl., 103. g. 2. pecu, gend., 91; decl., 105./. pecuniae, gen., w. vbs. of accusing, 352. a and n. pedester, decl., 115. a. pelagus (plur. pelage) , gend. of, 48. a. pelvis, decl., 76. b. 1. Penalty, gen. of, 352 and n. ; abl. of, 353. 2. Penates, decl., 71. 5 (cf. 101. 3). penes, following noun, 435. Pentameter verse, 616. Penult, defined, 12. penus, gend., 90. Exc. ; decl., 105. c. per, prep., 220. a; use, 221. 16; w. ace. of agent, 405. b. Adverbial prefix, w. adis., 267. d. 1 (cf. 291. c. n. i) ; w. vbs., 26t. d. N. Perceiving, vbs. of, constr., 459. perendie (loc), 98. 6, 215. 5. Perfect participle, two uses, 158. c. 1, 2; of deponents, 190. b\ used as nonii, INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 465 retains adv., 321. 6; dat. of agent w., 375 ; abl. w. opus and usus, 411. a, 497. a. Perfect Tense distinguished from im- perf., 161, 471 ; perf. def. and perf . hist., 161, 473 ; personal endings, 163. a, 169. a ; origin of i and s in, 163. ftn, 3 ; stem, how formed, 177, 179 ; perf. subjv., suf- fixes of, 169. d; of conj. I, 179. a. 2; contracted perf ., 181. a, 6; perf. subjv. in -Sim, 183. 3; irreg. forms of conj. I, 209. a; of conj. II, 210. c; various, of conj. Ill, 211; of conj. IV, 212. Perfect Tense, Syntax. Perf. Ind., use, 473; in general conditions, id. a, 518. 6 ; gnomic perf., 475 ; in fut. condi- tions, 516. e. Perf. Subjv., hortatory, 439 and n. i ; optative, 441. a ; potential, j44Sj in prohibitions, 450 (3) ; in fut. con- ditions, 616. c. Perf. Inf., in exclama- tions, 462 and n. 2 ; w. debeo etc., 486. b ; w. nolo or vol5 in prohibition, id. c ; pass, w. volo etc., id. d; instead of the pres. inf., id. e ; w. vbs. of feeling etc., id./; in ind. disc, 584. a and n. Sequence of Tenses, perf. ind., 485. a; peri, subjv., id. b, c, 585. a. Pericles, decl., 82. Period, 600, 601. Periphrastic conjugations, 158. 6. n., d. N. ; paradigms, 195, 196; periphrastic forms in conjugation, 193; use in con- trary to fact apodosis, 617. d; in ind. questions, 575. a. Perniission, vbs. of, constr., 663. c. permuto, w. abl., 417. 6. pernox, decl., 122. c. perpes, decl., 121. a. 3. Person, 154. d; agreement, 280; of vbs., 316 and a ; w. different persons, 317. a ; order of the three persons, id. Personal constr. of passive w. infinitive, 582. Personal endings, 163 and ftn. 1. Personal pronouns, 142, 143, 2^, 295; re- duplicated forms, 143. e; Syntax, 295; omitted, id. a, 318, a ; gen. plur., 295. 6 ; 3d pers., id. c ; position of personal and demonstrative, 599./. persuadeo, constr., 563. Persuading, vbs. of, w. dat., 367. pertaesum est, 354. 6. pes, comps. of, decl., 121.6. 1. Pet names, gend., 30. a. n.^. peto w. ab, 396. a ; w. subjv., 563. ph only in Greek words, 4. 1. ftn. 2; sound of, 8. Phalsecian verse, 625. 11. Pherecratic verse, 623. 2, 624, 625. 2, 4, 12. Phonetic variations, 14-19; phonetic decay, id. ; vowels, 15, 17 ; consonants, 15. 4-17. Phrase, defined, 277. Phrases, neut., 33; phrases and clauses grown into advs., 216; adverbial phrases, 277 ; phrases limited by gen., 343. c; phi-ase or clause in abl. abs., 419. b. Physical qualities, abl., 415. a. piger, decl., 112. a. piget, constr., 354. 6. Pity, vbs. of, constr., 354. a. plus, compar., 128. n., 131. a. pix, decl., 103. g. 2. Place, advs. of, 217. a; relations of, re- quire prep., 381. a, 426; place of birth, abl., 403. a. N.2; place where, 426. 3, 427. 3 ; place to or from which, 426. 1,2; prep., when omitted, 426. ftn., 427. 1, 2. a, 429. a ; locative case, 427. 3. a, 428. k. Placing, vbs. of, constr., 430. Plants, gend. of names of, 32 and 6; decl. of plant names in -us, 105. a. plaudo, w. dat., 368. 3. Plautus, absque me etc. , 517./; use of quom w. indie, 546. n.*, 549. n.3; prosodial forms, 620. a, 628. b, 629. Pleasing, vbs. of, constr., 367. plebes, decl., 98. d. Plenty, vbs. of, constr., 356, 409. a. plenus, constr., 409. n. -plex, numeral adjs. in, 139. pluit (impers.), 208. a; used personally, id. N. Pluperfect Indicative, suffixes of, 169. 6 ; use of, 477 ; epistolary, 479 ; pluperf . indie, in conditions cont. to fact, 517. b ; in general conditions, 518. 6. Pluperf. Subjv., suffixes of, 169. e; hortatory, 439. b ; optative, 441 ; potential, 446 ; in conditions, 517 (sequence, 485. g). Plural, wanting in decl. V, 98. a; used in sense different from sing., 100. a-c, 107 ; plur. alone used, 101. n.i ; plur. ace. used as advs., 215. 3 ; neut. plur. of adjs., 289. b. Plur cilia tantum, 101. pluris, gen. of value, 417 and c. plus, decl., 120 and c; compar., 129; with- out quam, 407. c. poema, dec!., 60. a. poenitet, see paenitet. pond5, defect., 103. b. 5. pono, w. abl., 430. por-, prefix, 267. b. porticus, gend., 90. Exc. portus, decl., 92, c. Position, expressed by ab, ex, 429. &. Position in Prosody, 11. b, 603./; does not affect final vowel, 603./. n. i. posse, as fut. inf., 584. 6. Possession, how expressed, 302, a; dat. of, 373; compared w. gen., id. n. 466 INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS Possessive compounds, 265. a. Possessive genitive, oio and a-c; dat. of reference used instead, 377. Possessive pronouns, 145; agreement, 302 ; iusteadof gen., id. a ; special mean- ings, id. 6; omission, id. c; used sub- stantively, id. d\ w. gen. in app., id. e; used for gen., 343. a; for obj. gen., .'M8. a. Possibility, vbs. of, in apodosis, 517. c. possum, in apodosis, 517. c. post, adverbial use of, 433. 1 ; with quam, 434. post, vbs. comp. w., with dat., 370. postera, defect., 111. &; compar., 130. 6; posteri, id. posterior, 130. 6. Postpositive conjunctions, 324. J. postquam (posteaquam) , in temporal clauses, 543. postremo, in enumerations, 322. d. n. postridie, w. gen., 359. 6; w. ace, 432. a; w. quam, 434. postulo ab, 396. a ; postulo ut, 563. Potential mood, how expressed in Latin, 1.57. 6. Potential subjunctive, 445-447. potior (adj.), compar., 130. potior (verb), w. gen., 357. a, 410. a; w. abl., 410; w. ace, id. n. i; gerundive, 503. N. 2. potis, pote, 122. 6. potius, compar., 218. a. potui, w. pres. infin., 486. a. Practice, vbs. of, 263. h. prae, 220. 6 ; use, 221. 17 ; in comp.,"291. c. N. 1 ; in comps. , w. dat. , 370 ; in compar. , w. quam, 434; quantity of, in comps., 603. h. Exc. praecedo, constr., 370. praeceps, decl., 119, 121. a. 3. praecipio, constr., 563. Praenomen, 108 ; abbreviations, id. c. praepes, decl., 121. b. 1. praestolor, constr., 367. 6. praesum, w. dat. of gerund etc., 605. praeter, use, 21?0. a, 221. 18. praeterit, w. acfe,, 388. c. preci, defect., m/. 2. precor, constr., 563. Predicate, defined, 270; modified, 276; pred. noun or adj., 272, 283; case, 284; pred. noun referring to two or more sing, nouns, id. a; adjective, 285. 2, 286. a; agreement in, 287. 1-3; in rel. clause, 306; pred. adj. in neut. plur., 287. 4. a; pred. adj. in relative clause, 307./; pred. gen., 343. 6, c; pred. ace, 392, 393; adj. as pred. ace, id. n. ; pred. ace becomes pred, nom. in the pass., Id. a ; predicate use of participles, 496. Predicate noun or adj. after inf., 452. n. 2 455. a and N., 458. 581. N. 3. ■ Prepositions, assimilation of, 16 ; defined, 20./; derivation of, 219; list of preps, w. ace, 220. a; w. abl., id. h ; w. either, id. c ; idiomatic uses, 221 ; comp. w. vbs. and adjs., 267. a, c; noun w. prep., in- stead of obj. gen., 348. c; in comp. w. vbs., w. dat., 370, 381; ace in comp., 395; w. abl. of separation, 401; prep, omitted in relations of place. 427. 1, 2, 429 and a; use of, 220, 221, 429. h, 430, 432-435 ; preps, following the noun, 435; usual position of, 599. d. (See 338.) Present participle, decl., 119; use, 158. a. Present stem, how formed, 168, 174 ; from root, 176. Present subjunctive in -im, 183. 2. Present tense, w. iam diu etc., 466; cona- tive, 467 ; for fut., 468 ; historical, 469 ; annalistic, id. a ; w. dum, 556 ; in quo- tations, 465. a ; sequence, 483, 485. e, i ; pres. inf. w. potui etc., 486. a ; participle, 489, 490, 492, 494, 496. Pres. inf. in ind. disc, referring to past time, 584. a and n. Preteririve verbs, 205. n. 2, 476. Preventing, vbs. of, constr., 364. N.2. Price, abl. or gen., 416. pridie, form, 98. 6 ; w. gen., 359. 6 ; w. ace, 432. a\ w. quam, 434. Primary suffixes, defined, 233. Primary tenses, 482. 1, 483. primipilaris, decl., 76. a. 2. "^ Primitive verbs, 256. primo, primum, meanings, 322. d and N. primoris, defect., 122. c. primus, form, 130. ftn. 2. princeps, decl., 121. a. 4. Principal parts of verb, 172, 173. prior, compar., 130. a. prius, w. quam, 434; priusquam in tem- poral clause, 650, 551; in ind. disc, 585. h. N. Privation expressed by abl., 400. pro, 220. 6; use, 221. 19; in comps., w. dat.-, 370; to express /o?*, 379. n. probo, w. dat., 368, 375. 6. n. Proceleusmatic, 609. n. procerus, decl.. 111. a. n. procul, w. abl., 432. c. prohibeS, constr. of, 364. n. 2. Prohibitions, 450; in ind. disc, 588. N. 2. Promising etc., vbs. of, 580. c. Pronominal roots, 228, 232; as primary suffixes, id. Pronouns defined, 20. c; decl. of, 140- 151; personal, 142,143; reflexive, 144; gen., how used, 143. c, 302. a; demon- strative, 146; relative, 147; interrog and indef , 148-151 , pron. contained in verb ending- J.63., ftn. 1: 271. a. INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 467 Pronouns, Syntax, 294-315; Personal, 295; Demoustrative, 296-298; idem, 298. a, b; ipse, id. o-/; Reflexive, 299; Possessive, 302 ; Relative, 303-308 ; In- definite, 309-314. Prons. w. part, gen., 346. a. 1. Relative in protasis, 519. Position of prons., 598. e, l. Pronunciation, Roman method, 8; Eng- lish method, 8. n. pronuntio, constr., 563. prope, comr)ar.,130; use, 220. a; in apod., 517. b. N. 2. prope est ut, 568. Proper names, 108; plur., 99. 1, 101. 1. Proper nouns, 20. a. properus, decl., 111. a. n. propinquus, w. gen., 385, c. propior (propius), compar., 130. a; constr., 432. a and n. Proportional numerals, 139. a. Propriety, vbs. of, in apod., 517. c, 522. a. proprius, w. gen., 385. c. propter, use, 220. a, 221. 20; position, 435; denoting motive, 404. 6. Prosody, 602; rules and definitions, 603-606 ; early peculiarities, 629. prosper(-us), decl.. 111. a. prospicio, w. dat. or ace, 367. c. Protasis (see Conditional Sentences), 512 ff. ; loose use of tenses in Eng., 614. C. N. ; relative in prot., 519; temporal par- ticles in, 542; antequam, priusquam, in, 551. c. N.2; prot. in ind. disc, 589. 1. Protecting, vbs. of, constr., 364. n.2. Protraction of long syllables, 608. c. provideo, w. dat. or ace, 367. c. Proviso, subjv. used in, 528. a and b ; in- troduced by modo etc., 528; hortatory subjv. expressing, id. a; subjv, w. ut (or ne), id. b; characteristic clause ex- pressing, 535. d. proxime, constr., 432. a. proximus, constr., 432. a. -pse, -pte (enclitic), 143. d. n., 145. a, 146. N. 7, 8, pubes, decl., 105. e, 121. d. pudet, 208. 6 ; constr., 354. b, c, and n. puer, decl. 47 (cf. 50. a). pulcher, decl., 112. a. Punishment, abl. of, 353. 1. puppis, decl., 75. b, 76. 6. 1. Purpose, dat. .of, 382; infin. of, 460; expressed by gerundive after certain vbs., 500. 4; by gerund or gerundive as predicate gen,, .504. a. n. i ; ways of expressing, 533. Clauses of, 279. d ; defined and classified, 529 ff. ; use of quo in, 531. a ; main clause omitted, 532 ; nedum, id.> n. i, 2. Substantive clauses of, used after certain vbs., 563; of wishing, id. b i of permitting, id. c ; of determining, id. d; of caution etc., id, e ; of fearing, 564. Purpose or end, dat. of, 382. puter, decl., 115. a. qua . . . qua, 323./. quadrupes, decl., 121. &. 1. quae res (or id quod), 307. d. quaere, constr. (ex or de), 396. a ; w. subjv., 563. quaeso, conj., 206. e. qualis, 151. "i. Qualities (abstract), gend., 32. Qualities of an object compared, 292. Quality, adjs. of, 251 ; gen. of, 345, 415. a ; to denote indef . value, 417 and a ; abl. of, 415 (cf. 345. N.). quam, derivation of, 215. 2; with super- lative, 291. c; w. compar. and positive or w. two positives, 292. a. n. ; cor- relative w. tarn, 323. g; w. compar., 407. a, e ; after alius, id. a ; w. compar. of advs., 434; w. ante, post, id.; w. subjv. after compar., 535. c; followed by result clause, 571. a; in indirect questions, 575. d; in ind. disc, 581. N.,2, 583. c. quam diu, 555. N. 2. quam ob causam, 398. quam qui, quam ut, w. subjv., 535. c. quam si, 524. quamquam, use, 527. d; introducing a proposition = and yet, id. n. ; w. subjv , id. e. quamvis, use, 527. a; subjv. or. ind. w., 440. N., 527. a, e. quando (interrog.), derivation and mean- ing, 215. 6, 539 ; causal (since) , 540. a and N. ; indef., id. ; temporal, 542. quanti, gen. of price, 417. Quantity, gen. of adjs. of, denoting price, 417. Quantity in Prosody, marks of, 10. e; nature of, 602; general rules of, 9-11, 603; final syllables, 604; perf. and perf. parts., 605; derivatives, 606. quanto, w. tanto, 414. a. quantum (with minun), in indirect ques- tions, 575. d. quantus, 151. i. quasi, with primary tenses, 524. n. 2, quasso (intensive), 263. 2. -que (enclitic), added to indefinites, 151. g; as conj., use, 323. c. 3, 324. a; quan- tity, 604. a. 1, queo (defective), 206, d. ques, old nom. plur., 150. c. Questions, direct, in indie, 157. a, 330- 335 ; indirect, 330. 2, 331. N. ; double questions, 334; question and answer, 336 ; result clause in exclam. questions, 468 INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 462. a; mood in indir. question, 674; in ind. disc, 586 ; in informal ind. disc, 592. 1. qui (adverbial); 150. b. qui (relative), decL, 147; (interrog. and indef.), 148 and 6; in compounds, 151; qui = ut is, w. subjv., 631. 2. N.,537. 2; qui causal and concessive, 535. e. quia, derivation etc., 539; use, 540, N.i; causal, id. ; w. vbs. of feeling, £72. b ; in intermediate clauses, 592. 3. quicum, 150. 6. quicumque, decl., 151. a, quid, in exclamations, 397. d. n. i. quidam, decl., 151. c; meaning of, 310; w. ex, 346. c. quidem, use, 322. e ; w. is or idem, 298. a ; position of, 599. 6. quilibet, decl., 151. c; use, 312. quin, w. indie equiv. to command, 449. b ; in result clause (—qui non), 558, 559; w. vbs. of hindering, 558; non dubito quin, 558. a. Quinary or bemiolic measures, 609r d. quinquatrus, gender, 90; plural only, 101. 2. quippe, w. relative clause, 635. e, N ^ ; w^ cum, 549. N. 1. Quirites, 101. 3. quia, decl., 148, 149; distinguished from qui in use, id. b and n. ; compounds of (aliquis etc.), 151. d-f, 310 and b; quis w. si, num, ne, 310. a ; indef. use of, 310, quis est qui, 535. a. quis, dat. or abl. plur., 150. c. quisnam, 148. e. quispiam, 151. c^; use of, 310 and b. qv^equam, decl., 151. d; use, 311, 312. quisque, form and decl., 151. g; use in general assertions, 313; in dependent clause, id. a ; w. superlative, id. b ; w. plur. vb., 317. e. quisquis, decl., 151. b. quivis, decl., 151. c; use, 312. quo-, stems in, 46. n. 2. quo, approaching abl. of cause, 414. a. n. quo in final clauses (— ut eo) w. subjv., 531. a; non quo, 540. n. s. quo . . . eo, 414. a; to denote deg. of difference, id. quoad (intention etc.), 553; (fact), 554; {a)84ong as), 555. quod for id quod, 307. d. N. quod (conj.), 540. N. i; mood with, 540; in ind. disc, id. 6; subst. clause with, 572; as ace of specification, id. a; w. vbs. of feeling, id. b ; quod in interme- diate clauses, 592. 3 and n. quod sciam (proviso), 535. d. quod si, use, 324. d, 397. a. quom (see cum), 6 b, 539- No quominus ( — ut eo minus), w. vbs. of hin- dering, 558. 6. quoniam, origin, 539; meaning and use 540. 1. N. 1 and a. quoque, use, 322. a ; position, 599. 6 quot, indeclinable, 122. 6; correl., 152. Quotation, forms of, w. apud and in, 428. d. N. 2; direct and indir., 678. quotus quisque, 313. b. N,2. quu- (cu-), 6. 6< quum (conj.), 6. 6 (see cum). R substituted for s between two vowels, 15. 4 and n. ; r- in adj. stems, 117. a; rr- in noun stems, 62. n. i. radix, decl., 57. rastrum, plur. in -a and -i, 106. b. ratione, as abl. of manner, 412. &. ratus, as pres. part., 491. ravis, decl., 75. a. 2. re- or red- (prefix), 267. 6. reapse, 146. n. ^, Receiving, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 500. 4. Reciprocal {each other) ^ how expressed, 145. «, 301./. recordor}, w. ace, 350. d; w. gen., id. n.*, w. de, id, N. rectum/est ut, 568, red-, s^e re-. Reduplication, 177. c, 231. c; list of vbs., 211. b : lost in fidi etc., id./, ftn. 3 ; rule for quantity, 605. a. Reference, object of, 349. Reference, pronouns of, 297./; commonly omitted, id. n ; dative of, 376 ; gen. of specification, 349. d. refert, w. gen. or possessive adj., 355 and a; other constr., id. b. Reflexive pronouns, 144 ; Syntax of, 298. c. N. 2, 299-301 ; of :^t and 2d persons, 299. a. Reflexive verbs (deponent or passive), 190. e, 208. d, n. ; use of passive, 156. a; w. object ace, 39ir. c. Refusing, vbs. of, w. quominus, 558. b. Regular verbs, 171-189. Relationship, nomis of, 244. Relative adverbs, used correlatively, 152 ; demon, for rel., 308. b ; used to connect independent sentences, id./; referring to loc, id. g; = pronoun w. prep., 321. a ; used in relative clauses of purpose, 531.2; result, 537. ;?. Relative clauses, defined, 279. a ; w. rel. advs.5 308. z; conditional, 519; final, 531, 533; characteristic, 535; consecu- tive, 537; causal, 540. c; temporal, 541, 542; rel. clauses in ind. disc, 591; position of rel. clause, 599. e. Relative pronouns, decl., 147; forms, how distinguished from interrogative and INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 469 indef., 148. b and n. ; comps. of, 151, 310 and a, b. Syntax, 303-308; rules of agreement, 30o, 306 ; w. two antece- dents, 305. a; rel. in agreement w. app. etc., 306; use of the antecedent, 307; special uses of rel., 308; never omitted in Lat., id. a; relatives as connectives, id./; pers. of vb. agreeing w., 316. a; abl. of rel. after compar., 407. a. n. S; position, 599. e. relinquitur ut, 568. reliquum est ut, 568. reliquus, use, 293 ; reliqui, use, 315. -rem, verb ending, 168. /. Remembering, vbs. of, w. ace. or gen., 350; w. inf., 456. Reminding, vbs. of, constr., 351. reminiscor, w. ace. or gen., 350. c. Removing, vbs. of, w. abl., 401. Repeated action as general condition, 518. c. repetundarum, 352. a. Repraesentdtio, 469. n. : in ind. disc, 585. b and n. requies, decl., 98. d, 105. e. res, decl., 96. Resisting, vbs. of, constr., 367, 558. Resolution of syllables in Prosody, 610. Resolving, vbs. of, constr. (subjv. or inf.), 563. d. restat, w. ut, 569. 2. restis, decl., 75. 6. Restriction in subjunctive clause, 535. d. Result, clauses of, 279. e, 534 ; sequence of tenses in, 485. c; inf. of, 461. a. Sub- junctive w. relatives or ut, 537; nega- tive result w. ut non etc., id. a, 538; result clause equivalent to proviso, 537. 6; w. quin, 558; w. quominus, id. 6. Subst. clauses of result after facio etc., 568; as subject, 569; in app. w. noun, 670; as pred. nom., 571; after quam, id. a; tantum abest ut, id. 6; thought as result, id. c. Result, nouns denoting, 239. rete, decl., 76. a. 3. — -^ rex, decl., 57- Rhetorical questions in ind. disc, 586. Rhotacism, 16. 4. Rhythm, development of, 607 ; nature of, 608. Rhythmical reading, 612. d~ N, ri-, adj. stems in, 115. a. ritu, abl. of manner, 412. b. rivalis, decl., 76. 6. 2. Rivers, gender of names of, 31. 1 and a. ro- (ra-), primary suffix, 234. II. 9. ro-stems, decl. II, 45. 6 ; adj. stems, 111, 112. rogo, constr. of, .396 and 6. n., c N. 2; w. subjv., 563. Roman method of pronunciation, 8. Root, defined, 25, 228; consciousness of roots lost in Lat., 25. n.; of vbs., 117. 1 ; noun stem treated as root, 176. d ; roots ending in vowel, id. e ; root used as stem, id. d. n. i and e, 231, ros, decl., 103. g. 2. rr-, as stem ending, 62. n. h it-, stems in, decl., 121. a. 4. ruber, decL, 112. a. ruri, locative, 80, 427. 3. rus, decl., 103. g. 1; constr., 427. 1, 2, 3. S changed to r, 15. 4 and n., 62. n. 2 ; sub- stituted for d or t, 15. 5 ; s- as stem end- ing, 79. e ; of adjs., 119. isr. ; of compars., 120. b ; of perf. stem, 177. b ; list of vbs. of conj. Ill, w. perf. in s, 211. a; s sup- pressed in verb forms, 181. 6. n. 2 ; in early Lat., 629. a. -s as sign of noml, 45, 46, 56, 95, 117. a, 338 ; -s omitted in inscriptions, 46. n. i ; -s, noun ending, decl. Ill, gend., 86. sacer, decl., 112. a; comp., 131. a. saepe, compar., 218. a. sal, decl., 103. g. 2. Salamis, decl., 83. a. saluber, decl., 115. a. salutem, 397. d. n. 2. salve, defect., 206. g. sane quam, 675. d. Sanskrit forms, see 25. ftn. 2, 170. 6. n. sapiens, decl., 76. b. 2. Sapphic verse, 625. 7, 8. satias, decl., 98. d. satis, compar., 218. a; compounds of, w, dat., 368. 2; non satis, 291. c. N.2; satis est (satis habeo), w. perf. infin., 486./. satur, genitive of, 50. 6; decl., 111. a; compar., 131. 6. Saturnian verse, 628. d. Saying, vbs. of, constr., 459 ; in passive, 582. so preceding stem- vowel of verb, 176. 6. 1, scaber, decl., 112. a. Scanning, 612. d, 609. e, N. scilicet, derivation, 216. n. scin, contracted form for scisne, 13. N. scio, imperative of, 449. a. Scipiades, 44. 6. n. scisco, constr., 563. scito, scitote, imv. forms, 182. a, 449. a. -SCO (inceptive), vbs. ending in, 263. 1. se- or sed-, inseparable prefix, 267. 6. se, reflexive, decl., 144. &; use, 299-301; inter se, 145. c. Second Conjugation, prin. parts, 173: I>res. stem, how formed, 176. a \ forma tion of, 179. 6; paradigm, 185; vbs. ot 210; from noun stems, 260. 470 INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS Second Declension, nouns, 45-47 ; accent of gen. and voc. of nouns in -ius, 12. Exc. 2. Secondary object, 394. Secondary suffixes, defined, 232. Secondary tenses, 482. 2 ; rule for use of, 483; perf. def. more commonly sec- ondary, 485. a; perf. subjv. in clauses of result used after, id. c; hist, pres., id. e; imperf. and pluperf. subjv., id. g, h ; present used as if secondary, by synesis, id. i. secundum, prep., 220. a; use, 221. 21. secundus, derivation, 132. ftn. securis, decl., 75. 6, 76. a. 1. secus (adv.), compar., 218. a. secus, iudecl. noun, 103. a ; use, 397. a. secutus (as pres. part.), 491. sed-, see se-. sed compared with verum etc., 324. d. sedes, decl., 78. 1. sedile, decl., 69. Selling, vbs. of, 417. c. sementis, decl., 75. b, 76. b. 1. Semi-deponents, 192. semineci, defect., 122. c. Semi- vowels, 1 and v (u), 5. senati, senatuos, forms of gen. in decl. IV, 92. a, e. senex, decl., 79 and c; adj. masc, 122. d; comparison, 131. c. Sentence, development, 268 ; defined, 269 ; simple or compound, 278 ; incomplete, 318, 319. Separation, dat. of, after comps. of ab, de, ex, and a few of ad, 381 ; abl. of, 400 ; gen. for abl., 356. n., 357. b. 3. Sequence of tenses, 482-485 ; in ind. disc, 585; in conditional sentences in ind. disc, 589. b. sequester, decl., 105. b. sequitur, w. ut, 569. 2. sequor, conj., 190. sera nocte, 293. N. series, decl., 98. a. Service, adjs. of, w. dat., 384. Service, dat. of, .382. n. i. Serving, vbs. of, w. dat., 367. servus (servos), decl., 46. sestertium, sestertius, 632-634; how writ- ten in cipher, fi.'^o. seu (sive), 324./, 525. c. Sharing, adjs. of, w. gen., 349. a. Should (auxiliary), how expressed in Lat., 157. 6. ftn. 2. Showing, vbs. of, w. two aces., 393. si, 511 ; w. subjv. of wish, 442. a and N. ^ ; si and its compounds, use, 512. a. n., 525; si non distinguished from nisi, id. a. 1 ; miror si, 572. b. N. ; si = whether, 576. a. Sibilants, 4. sic, correl,, w. ut, 323. g, .537. 2. n^: w si, 512. 6. siem (sim), 170. 6. n. Significant endings, 23.5-253. Signs of mood and tense, 169. ftn. silentio, without preposition, 412. b. -silis, adj. ending, 252. Silvester, decl., 115. a. -Sim, old form of perf. subjv., 183. 3. similis, comparison, 126; w. gen. and dat., 385. c. 2. similiter, use, 384. n. 2. Simois, decl., 82. Simple sentences, 278. 1. simul, simul atque (ac), 543. simul . . . simul, 323./. simul w. abl., 432. c. sin, 512. a. n. Singular, nouns defect, in, 103,/. Singuldria tantum, 99. sinister, decl., 112. a. sino, constr., 563. c. -sio, novtn ending, 238. b. -sis-, dropped in perf., 181. 6. N. 2. sitis, decl., 67 (cf. 75. a. 2). sive (seu) . . . sive, use, 324./, 525. c. Smell, vbs. of, w. ace, 390. a. -so, old form of fut. perfect, 183. 3. -so, vbs. in, 263. 2. socrus, gend., 90. Exc. sodes (si audes), 13. N., 192. a. sol, decl., 103. g. 2. soleo, semi-dep., 192. soli to, w. compars., 406. a. solitus, as pres. part., 491. solus, decl., 113; w. relative clause of characteristic, 535. 6. Sonants, 3. sons, as participle of esse, 170. 6. -sor, see -tor. Soracte, decl., 76. 6. n. 2. sordem, defect., 103./ 3. -soria, noun ending, 254. 4 ; -sorium, noun ending, 254. 5; -sorius, adj. ending, 250. a. Sdspita, fem. adj. form, 121. e. Sounds, see Pronunciation. Source, expressed by abl., 403. Space, extent of, expressed by ace, 425. Sparing, vbs. of, with dat., 367. spe, w. compars., 406. a. Special verb forms, 181, 182. species, decl., 98. a. Specification, gen. of, w. adjs., 349. d' ace of, 397. 6 and n. ; abl. of, 418. specus, gend., 90. Exc. Spelling, variations of, 6. spes, 98. a and ftn. Spirants, 4. Spondaic verse, 615. b. INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 471 Spondee, 609. 6. 3. spontis, -e. defect., 103. c. 2. Stanza or Strophe, 814. status, w. vbs. of placing, 430 ; w. inf. or subjv., 563. d. Statutes, fut. imv. in, 449. 2. ste for iste etc., 146. N.^ Stella, deel., 41. Stem building, 25. n. Stems, defined, 24; classified, 229; how formed from root, 26, 230-232; how found in nouns, 37. a; a-stems, decl. I, 40; adjs., 110; o-stems, decl. II, 45; adjs. 110 ; in decl. Ill, mute stems, 56- 60; liquid and nasal stems, 61-64; i-stems, 65-69; mixed i-stems, 70-72; u-stems, decl. IV, 88, 89; in tu-, 94; of vb., 165. 1 ; present, perfect, and supine, 164. Pres. stem, how formed, 175, 176 ; perf . stem, 177 ; supine stem, 178. Tenses arranged by stems, synop- sis, 180. sto, w. abl., 431. strigilis, decl., 76. b. 1. strix, decl., 71. 6. Structure of Latin sentences, 600, 601 „ strues, decl., 78. 2. studeo, w. dat,, 368. 3. suadeo, w. dat., 367. sub-, in comp., w. adjs., 267. d. 1, 291. c. N.2; w. vbs., 267. a and d. n. sub. use, 220. c, 221. 22; in comps., w^ dat., 370; of time, 424. e. subeo, w. ace, 370. 6. Subject, 268 ; defined, 270 ; how expressed, 271 and a; modified, 276; vb. agrees w., 316 ; two or more subjs., 317 ; subj. omitted, 318; accusative, 459; in ind disc, .580; position of subject, 596. Subject clauses (inf.), 452. 1; (subjv.), 566,, 567, 569, 571. b. Subjective gen., defined, 343. N. i; use, 343. Subjunctive mood, 154. 6 ; how used and translated, 157. 6. ftn. 2; tenses how used, 162; vowel of pres. subjv., 179. a. 1, b. 1, c. 1, d. Classification of uses, 438; hortatory subjv., 439, 440; optative subjv., 441 , 442 ; deliberative, 443, 444 ; potential subj v., 445, 446 ; subjv , of mod- esty, 447. 1; tenses of subjv., 480-485; dependent clauses, 481 ; subjv. in ind. disc, 680; in informal ind. disc, 592; of integral part, 693^ suboles, decl., 78. 2. Subordinate clauses, defined, 278, b ; use, 519-593; in ind. disc, 579-593. Subordinate conjs., 223. b, 224. II. a-f. Substance, gen. of, 344; abl. of, 403. Substantive clauses, 560-572 ; nature and classes of. 560 (of. 561, 662) ; daases of purpose, 563-566; of result, 567-571; mdic. w. quod, 572; indirect questions, 573-576; adj. w. subst. clauses, 289. d; inf. clauses, 452. Substantive use of adjs., 288 ; of posses- sive prons., 302. d. Substantive verb (esse), 272, 284. 6. subter, use, 220. c, 221. 23. suetus, w. inf., 460. b. Suffixes, 232; primary, list of, 233, 234; significant, 235-255. sui, decl., 144. 6; use, 299, 300; w. gen. of gerund, 504. c. sum, conj., 170; as copula, 284; as sub- stantive verb, id. 6; omitted, 319. 6; w. dat. of possession, 373 ; position, 598. cj. summus, form, 130. a. ftn. 2; (top of), 293. sunt qui, 535. a. suovetaurilia, 265. 1. supellex, decl., 79. c. super, use, 220. c, 221. 24; in comps., 267. a; in comps., w. dat., 370. supera, defect.. 111. b (cf. 130. a. N.2); comp., 130. 6; superi, id. superior, compar., 130. b. Superlative, suffix, 124. ftn. ; in -rimus, 125; of adjs. in -lis, 126; w. maxime, 128; takes gend. of partitive, 286. 6. N. ; of eminence, 291. b ; w. quam, vel, or iinus, id. c; denoting order, succes- sion, 293; w. quisque, 313. 6. superstes, decl., 121. a. 4. Supine, noun of decl. IV, 94. b, 159. 6 ; stem, 164. 3 ; formation, 178, 179. a-d (cf. 164. ftn.) ; irregular forms of, conj. I, 209; conj. II, 210; allied with forms in -tor, 236. a. n. i ; Supine in -urn, use of, 509; in -u, 510; as abl. of specifica- tion, 610. N. 1. supplex, decl., 121. b. 1, supplies, w. dat., 368. 3. supra, use, 220. a, 221. 25. -sura, noun ending, 238, b. Surds, 3. -surio, vbs. in, 263. 4. -sus, phonetic form of -tus, 94 ; noun ending, 238. b. siis, decl., 79 and a. suus, use, 299. Swearing, vbs. of, constr., 388. d, 580. c. Syllables, rules for division of, 7; open etc., id. N.2; long and short, 603. e, / and notes. Synaeresis, 603. c. n.,/. n. •*, 642. Synaloepha, 612. e. n., 642. Synchysis, 598. h, 641. Syncope, 640. Synecdoche, defined, 641. Synecdochical ace, 397. b. 472 INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS Synesis, 280, a> in gend. and number, 286. b ; in sequence of tenses, 485. i. Synizesis, 603. c. n., 642. Synopsis of tenses (amo), 180; of imper- sonal vbs., 207. Syntactic compounds, 267. Syntax, 268-601 ; historical development of, 268. Important rules of Syntax, 694. T changed to s, 15. 5, 178: t preceding stem-vowel of vb., 176. 6. 1; t- (s-), supine stem-ending, 178, 179. a. 2, h. 2, c. 2, d. taedet, impersonal, 208. 6; constr., 354. h, c and n. taeter, decl., 112. a. Taking away, vbs., of, 381o Talent, value of, 637. talis, 151. i, 152. tahs ut etc., 537. n. 2. tam, correl. w. quam, 323. gr; correl. w. ut, 537. N. 2. tamen, as correl., 527. c ; position of, 324. i. tametsi, concessive use, 527. c and n. i. tamquam, in conditional clauses, 524 ; w. primary tenses, id. n. i. tandem, in questions, 333. a and N. tanti, gen. of value, 417 and c; tanti est ut, 568. tanto following quanto, 414. a. tantum, w. subj. of proviso, 528. tantum abest ut, 571. h. tantus, 151. i, 152; taatus ut, 537, N. 2. -tas, -tia, noun endings, 241, Taste, vbs. of, w. ace., 3$K). a. -te (enclitic), 143. d and n. Teaching, vbs. of (two aces.), 396. tego, conj., 186. Telling, vbs. of, constr., 459. Temporal clauses, defined, 279. 6, 541-^ 556; as protasis, 542 ; w. postquam etc., 543 ; w. cum, 514-549 ; w. antequam and priusquam, 550, 551; w. dum, donee, quoad, 552-556; replaced by abl. abs., 420. Temporal numerals, 139. 6 ; conjunctions, 224. II. d. tempus est abire, 504. n. 2. Tendency, adjs. denoting, 251. tener, decl., ill. a. Tenses, 154. c; of passive voice, 156; of participles, 158; classification, mean- ing, and use, 160-162; of the ind., 160, 161; of the subj v., 162; endings, 166; of completed action, formation of, 179. /, g; synopsis of, 180. Tenses, Syntax, 464-486; classified, 464; of ind., 465-479; Present tense, 465-459 ; Imperfect, 470, 471; Future, 472; of Completed action, 473-478; Epistolary tenses, 479 ; of subj v., 480, 481 ; sequence of, 482-485; tenses of the inf., 486; tense emphatic, 598. d. (3) ; tenses of inf. in ind. disc, 584; tenses of subjv. in ind. disc, 585; affected by repraesentatio, id. b and n. ; in condition in ind. disc, 589. Notes on origin of syntax, 436, 464. tonus, constr., w. gen., 359. t>; w. abl,, 221. 26; position, 435, 599. d. ter- (tor-, ter-, t5r-, tr-), primary sufiix, 2.34. II. 15. -ter, adv. ending, 214. 6, c. Terence, absque me etc., 517. f ; prosodial forms, 628. b, 629. teres, decl., 121. a. 3; compar., 131. 6. -terior, ending, p. 56. ftn. 2. Terminations of inflection, meaning of, 21. 6; terminations of nouns, 39; of verbs, 166. (See Endings.) -terniis, as adj. ending, 250. terra marique, 427. a. terreater, decl., 115. a. -teru^, ending, p. 56. ftn. 2. Teti/ameter, Iambic, 619. a. Thsin, how expressed, 406. That of, not expressed in Lat., 297./. N. The'T'as correlative, 414. a and ftn. Thematic verbs, 174. 1. Thematic vowel %» 174. 2. 1. Thesis and Arsis, 611. Thinking, vbs. of, constr. w. ace and inf., 459. Third conj., of vbs., prin. parts, 173 ; pres. stem, how formed, 176; formation, id., 179. c ; paradigm, 186 ; in -io, paradigm, 188 ; list of vbs., w. principal parts, 211 ; derivation of vbs. in -uo, 261. Third declension, of nouns, 53-87 ; mute stems, 56-60; liquid stems, 61-64; i- stems, 65-78; pure i-stems, 66--69; mixed i-stems, 70-78; peculiar forms, 79; loc, 80; Greek nouns, 81-«3; rules of gend., 84-87. Though, see Although. Thought, considered as result, 571. c. Threatening, vbs. of, 367, 580. c. ti-, primary sufiix, 234. II. 2. -tia (-ties), noun ending, 241. -ticus, adj. ending, 247. tlgris, decl., 82. -tills, adj. ending, 252. -tim, advs. in, 75. a. 3, 215. 2. Time (see Temporal Clauses), 465 fif., 481, rA5, 546. Time, abl. abs. to denote, 419, 420. 1 ; time when,^23; duration of time, 424. 6; time during or within which, w. ordinal, id. c; distance of time, id./; corresponding to Eng. place, id. d. Time, advs. of, 217. b. Time, mode oi reckoning, 630. INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 473 timeo, w. dat. or ace, 367. c; w. subjv., 564. -timus, adj. ending, 130. a. ftn. 2, 250. -tio, noun ending, 233. 2, 238. b. -ti5 (-sio), -tura, -tus (-tutis)^ noun end- ings, 238. 6. "tlum, noun ending, 241. b. n. -tivus, verbal adj. ending^ 251. to- (ta-), primary suffix, 234. 11. 1. -to, -ito, intensive or iterative vbs. in, 263. 2. Too ... to, 535. c. N. -tor (-sor), -trix, nouns of agency in, 236» a; used as adjs., 321. c. -toria, noun ending, 254. 4. -torium, noun ending, 233. 2, 254. 5. -torius, adj. ending, 233. 2; as noun end- ing, 250. a. tot, indeclinable, 122. 6; correl., 152. totidem, indeclinable, 122. 6. totus, decl., 113 ; nouns w., in abl. witbout prep, (place where), 429. 2. Towns, names of, gend., 32 and a, 48. Exc. ; names of towns in -e, decl., 76. N. 2 ; locative of, 427. 3 ; as place from wbicb, id. 1 ; as place to whicb, id. 2. tr-, stems in (pater etc.), 61. 4. traicio, constr., 395. N, 1,3; traiectus lora, id. N.3. trans, 220. a; use, 221. 27; comps. of, w. ace, 388. 6; w. two aces., 395. Transitive verbs, 273. 1, 274 ; absolute use, 273. N.2; how translated, 274. 6; w. dat., 362. Transposition of vowels, 177. a. n. Trees, names of, gend., 32. ties, decl., 134. b. trl-, stem-ending of nouns, 66; of adjs., 115. a. Tribe, abl. of, 403. a. n. 3. Tribrach, 609. a. 3. tribulis, decl., 76. a. 2. tribus, gend., 90. Exc; decl., 92. c. tridens, decl., 76. 6. 2. Trimeter, Iambic, 618. Triptotes, 103. d. triremis, decl., 76. 6. 2. -tris, adj. ending, 250. triumphs, w. abl., 404. a. -trix, see -tor. tro-, primary suffix, 234. 16. -tro, advs. in, 215. 4. Trochaic verse, 613, 620. . Trochee, 609. a. 1 ; irrational, id. e, 623 and N. -trum, noun ending, 240. Trusting, vbs. of, constr., 367. tu-, primary suffix, 234. II. 3. -tu, -su, supine endings, 159. 6. "i, decl., 143 (see tute, tutimet). udo, -tus, noun endings, 241. tuli (tetuli), 200; derivation, id. ftn. 2; quantity, 605. Exc. -turn, -sum, supine endings, 159. 6. turn, tunc, meaning, 217. 6; correl. w. cum, 323. g. turn . . . tum, 323./. -tura, -tus, noun ending, 238. 6. -turio, desiderative vbs. in, 263. 4. -turnus, adj. ending, 250. -turris, decl., 67 (cf. 75, b). -tus, adj. ending, 246 ; noun ending, 94, 241, -tus, adv. ending, 215. 6. tussis, decL, 75, a. 2. tute, 143. d\ tutimet, id. Two accusatives, 391. Two datives, 382. 1. U (v) , as consonant, 5 ; after g, q, 8, id. n. 2 ; not to follow u or v, 6. a, 6 ; u for e in conj. Ill, 179. c. 1. U-, primary suffix, 234. 1. 3. u-stems, of nouns, decl. Ill, 79 and a; decl. IV, 88 ; of vbs., 174, 176. d, 259. 3. uber, decl., 119. ubi, derivation, 215. 5 ; in temporal clauses, 542, 643. -ubus, in dat. and abl. plur., decl. R 92. c. -uis (-uos), in gen., decl. IV, 92. e. -iilis, adj. ending, 248. iillus, decl., 113; use, 311, 812. ulterior, compar., 130. a. ultra, 220= a; use, 221. 28; following noun, 435. -ulus, diminutive ending, 243; verbal adj. ending, 251. -um for -arum, 43. d; for -orum, 49. d; -um in gen. plur. of personal prons., 295. 6; -um for -ium, decl. Ill, 78; in gen. plur. of adjs., 121. 6 ; for -uum, decl. IV, 92.6. Undertaking, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 500. 4. unt-, stem-ending, 83. e. unus, decl., 113; meaning, 134. a: w. super!., 291. c. iinus qui, w. subjv., 535. 6. unus quisque, decl., 151. g\ use, 313. U0-, suffix, see vo-. -u6, vbs. in, 261. -uos, see -uis. -ur, nouns in, 87. urbs, decl., 72; use in relations of place, 428. 6. Urging, vbs. of, with ut, 563. -urlo, desiderative vbs. in, 263. 4. -umus, adj . ending, 250. -urus, fut. part, in, 158. b, 498; w. fui, 498. b, 517. d] in ind. questions, 675. a; -urus fuisse, in ind. disc, 589. b. 3. -us, nom. ending, in decl. II, 46 ; -us for -er in Greek nouns, decl. II, 52. b ; -us, nom. 474 INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS ending in decl. Ill, 63. Exc. 2; gend., 87; decl. IV, 88; gend., 90; neut. ending, 23S. a. -us, Greek nom. ending, 83. e. Use, adjs. of, constr., 385. a. usque, w. ace., 432. h. iisus {need), w. abl., 411. ut (uti), correlative w. ita, sic, .323. g; to denote concession, 440, 527. a; ut {as) w. ind. equiv. to concession, 527./; w. optative subjv., 442. a; used ellipti- cally in exclamations, 4G2. a ; in clauses of purpose, 531; ut ne, id., 563. e. N.2; ut non, 531. 1. n.2; of result, 537; ut non etc., 538 ; ut temporal, 542, 543 ; vbs. foil, by clauses w. ut, 563, 568 ; omis- sion after certain vbs., 565 and notes, 569. 2. N. 2 ; w. vbs. of fearing, 564 and n. ut, utpote, quippe, w. relative clause, 535. e. N. 1 ; w. cum, 549. n. i. ■xt primum, 543. ut semel, 543. ut si, constr., 524. uter, decl., 66. uterque, form and decl., 151, gr, use, 313; constr. in agreement and as partitive, 346. d. utilis, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. a utinam, w. subjv. of wish, 442. utor etc., w. abl., 410; w. ace, id. a. n. i; gerundive u^e of, 500. 3, 503. n. 2. utpote qui, 535. e. N. i. utrum ... an, 335 and d. -utus, adj. ending, 246. -uus, verbal adj. ending, 251. V (u), 1. &, 5 and n.I; suffix of perf., 177. a, 179. a, 2, 6. 2, d\ suppressed in perf., 181 ; list of vbs. in conj. Ill w. v in perf., 211. c; v often om. in perf. of eo and its comps., 203. b. vafer, decl., 112. a; compar., 131. a. valde, use, 291. c. n. i ; valde quam, 575. d. Value, gen. of indefinite, 417. Value, measures of, 632-^38. vannus, gend., 48. Exc. vapulo, neutral passive, 192. 6. Variable nouns, 104-106 (cf. 98. c, d); adjs., 122. a. Variations, see Phonetic Variations. Variations of spelling, 6. vas, decl., 103. g. 2. vas, decl., 79. e, 105. 6. vates, decl., 78. 1. -ve, vel, use, 324. e, 335. d. n. vel (see -ve), w. superl., 291. c. Velars, p. 2. ftn. 3. vellm, vellera, subjv. of modesty, 447. 1. n. velim, vellem, w. subjv. (=:opt.). 442. 6, (=imY.), 449. c. velut. velut si, 624 veneo (venum eo), 192. 6, 428. i. venerat = aderat, 476. Verba sentiendl et deddrandl, 397. e; 459, 579 ; passive use of, 582 ; in poeta and later writers, id. n. Verbal adjs., 251-253; in -ax, w, gen., 349. c. Verbal nouns w. ^at., 367. d. Verbal nouns and adjs. w. reflexive, 301. d. Verbal roots, 228. 1. Verbs, defined, 20. d; inflection, 153, 154; noun and adj. forms of, 155; signification of forms, 156-162; per- sonal endings, 163; the three stems, 164; forms of the vb., 164-166 (notes on origin and hist, of vb. forms, ICA. ftn., 168, 169) ; table of endings, 166; influence of imitation, 169. ftn. ; reg- ular vbs., 171-189; the four conjuga- tions, 171-173; prin. parts -of, 172; jbixed vbs., 173. a; deponents, 190, /191; semi-deponents, 192; periphrastic forms, 193-196 ; irregular vbs., 197-204 ; defective, 205, 206; impersonal, 207, 208. Classified lists of yJjs.,.-209-212. Derivation of vbs., 256-263; comp. vbs., 267; vowels in comp. vbs., id. a. N. 2. Index of vbs., pp. 437 if. Verbs, Syntax. Subject implied in end- ing, 271. a; rules of agreement, 316- 319; vb. omitted, 319; rules of syn- tax, 437-593. Cases w. vbs., see under Accusative etc. Position of vb., 596, ' 598. d, j. (See under the names of the Moods etc.) vereor, w. gen., 357. b. 1; w. subjv., 564^ veritus, as pres. part., 491. vero, 324. d,j; in answers, 336. a. 1; pO' sition of, 699. b. Verse, 612. Versification, 612-629; forms of verse, 613. versus, position of, 599. d. verto, constr., 417. 6. veru, gend., 91. verum or vero, use, 324. d,j. vescor, w. abl., 410; w. ace, id. a. N.I; gerundive, 500. 3, 503. n. 2. vesper, decl., 50. 6. vesper! (loc), 50. 6, 427. a. vester, decl., 112. a, 145. vestrl as obj. gen., J43. e, 295. 6. vestrum as part, gen., 143. 6, 295. b (fit N.2). veto, w. ace. and inf., 563. a. vetus, decl., 119, 121. d; compar., 125. via, abl. of manner, 412. b. vicem, adverbial use of, 397. a. vicinus, w. gen., 385. c vicis, decl., 103. h. 1, INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 475 ndelicet, derivation, 216. video ut, 563. videor, w. dat., 375. 6. vin' (visne), 13. n. vir, decl., 47, 50. 6. Virgo, decl., 62. virus, gender of, 48. a. vis, stem, 71. 6; decl., 79. viscera, 101. K i. viso, 263. 4. N. vo- (va-), primary suffix, 234. II. 8. vocalis, decl., 76. 6. 2. Vocative, defined, 35./; form, 38. a; in -i of nouns in -ius, decl. II, 49. c; of Greek nouns, id. c. n. ; of adjs. in -ius, 110. a. Syntax, 340. Voices, 154. a, 156; middle voice, id. a. N., 163. ftn. 2, 190. e. voio and comps., conj., 199; part, of, w. dat. of the person judging, 378. n. ; w., inf., 456 and n, ; w. perf. act. inf. in prohibitions, 486. c; w. perf. part., 486. d and n., 497. c. n. ; w. subjv. or inf., 563. 6. volucer, decl., 115. a. volucris, decl., 78. ,-volus, adj. in, comp., 127. vos, 143 and a. voster etc., see vester. voti damnatus, 352. a. Vowel changes, 15. 1-3 ; vowel variations, 17. Vowel roots of verbs, 179. a-c. Vowel stems of verbs, 259-262. Vowel suffixes (primary), 234. 1. Vowels, 1; pronunciation, 8; long and short, 10; contraction, 15. 3; quantity of final vowels in case-endings, 38. g ; vowel modified in noun stems, decl. 111, 56, a; lengthened in root, 177. d. 231. 6 ; list of vbs. w. vowel lengthen- ing in perf., conj. Ill, 211. e. vulgus (volgus), gend., 48. a. -vus, verbal adj. ending, 251. W, not in Latin alphabet, 1 ; sound of, 1. b. N. Want, words of, w. abl., 401 ; w. gen., 356. Way by which (abl.) , 429. a. Weight, measures of, 637. Whole, gen. of, 346 ; numbers expressing the whole, id. e. Wills, fut. imv. in, 449. 2. Winds, gender of names of, 31. Wish, expressed by subjv., 441 ; as a con- dition, 521. 6; wish in informal ind. disc, 592. 1. Wishing, vbs. of, w. inf., 486. d (cf. 457) ; w. subst. clause of purpose, 563. b ; w. ace. and inf., id. ' . Without, w. verbal noun, 496. n. 3. Women, names of, 108. b and ftn. Words and Forms, 1-267. Words, formation of, 227-267; arrange- ment of, 595-601. Would (Eng. auxiliary), how expressed in Lat., 157. 6. X, nom. ending, 56; gend., 86; x from s, in vbs., 211. a. Y, of Greek origin, 1. n. i. Year, 630; months of, 630, 631; date, 424. g. -y%-, suffix, 174. Yes, in Latin, 336. yo- (ya-), primary suffix, 234. II. 11. -ys, nom. ending, 82 ; quantity, 604. i. Z, of Greek origin. 1. a. k. LATIN AUTHOES AN"D THEIE WORKS CITED Ij^ this book Note. — In the citations the names Caesar, Cicero, Sallust (with lugvrtha), and Virgil are not generally given. Thus, " B. G^.^^'^efers^to Caesar's Bellura GaUicum; " Fam." to Cicero's letters ad Familiares; " lug." to Sallust's lugurtha; " Aen." to Virgil's ^7ieid, etc. Ap., Apuleius (a.d. 125-?) : Met., Metamorphoses. , B. Afr., Bellum Afri- cum. Cfesar (b.c. 100-44): B. C, Bellum Civile. B. G., Bellum GaUi- cum. Cato (B.C. 234-149): de M., de Moribus. R. R., de Re Rustica. CatulL, Catullus (b.c. 87- 54h Cic, Cicero (b.c. 106-43): Acad., Academica. Ad Her., [ad Heren- nium\. Arch., pro ArcJiia. Att., ad Atticum. Balb., pro Balbo. Bint., Brutus de Claris Oratorihus. Caec, pro Caecina. Caecil., Divinatio in Caedlium. Cael., pro M. Caelio. Cat., in Catilinam. Cat. M., Cato Maior {de Senectute). Clu., pro Cluentio. Deiot., pro Deiotaro. De Or., de Oratore. Div., de Divinatione. Dora., pro Domo Sua. Fam., ad Familiares. Fat., de Fato. Fin., de Finihus. Flacc, pro Flacco. Font., pro M. Fonteio. Har. Resp. , de Haruspi- cum Responsis. Inv., de Inventione Rhetorica. Cic. Lael., Laelius {de Ami- citia) . Leg. Agr., de Lege Agraria. Legg., de Legibus. Lig., pro Ligario. Manil., pro Lege Ma- nilia. Mare., pro Marcello. Mil., pro Milone. Mur., pro Murena. N. D., de Natura De- orum. Off., de Offlciis. Or., Orator. Par., Paradoxa. Fart. Or., de Partitione Oratoria. Phil., Philippicae. Plane, pro Plancio. Pison., in Pisonem. Prov. Cons., de Provin- ciis Consularibus. Q, Fr., ad Q. Fratrem. Quinct., pro Quinctio. Rabir., pro Rablrio. Rab. Post., pro Rabirio Postumo. Rep., de Re Publica. Rose. Am., pro Roscio Amerino. Rose. Com., pro Roscio Comoedo. Scaur., pro Scauro. Sest., pro Sestio. Sull., pro Sidla. Tim., Timaeus {de Uni- verso) . Top., Topica. Tull., pro Tidlio. Tusc, Tusculanae Dis- putationes. Vat., in Vatinium, 476 Cic. Verr., in Verrem. Claud., Claudianus (abt. A.D. 400) : iv C. H., de Quarto Consulatu Honorii. Enn., Ennius (b.c. 23if- 169). Cell., A. Gellius (d. a.d. 175). Hirtius (d. b.c. 43) : ? B. Al., Bellum Alex- andrinum. Hor., Horace (b.c. 65-8): A. P., de Arte Poetica. C. S., Carmen Saccu- lar e. Ep., Epistles. Epod. Epodes. Od. Odes. S. Satires. lust., Justinus (abt. a.d. 150). luv., Juvenal (abt. a.d. 60- 140). Liv.,Livy(B.c.59-A.D.17). Lucr., Lucretius (b.c. 96- 55). Mart., Martial (a.d. 43- ? 104) : Ep., Epigrams. Nep., Nepos (b.c. 99-24): Ages., Agesilaus. Ale, Aldbiades. Att., Atticus. Dat., Datames. Dion, Dion. Epam., Epaminondas Eum., Eumenes. Hann., Hannibal. Milt., Miltiades. Pans., Pausanias. Them., Themistodes. Timoth., Timotheus. LIST OF AUTHORS CITED 477 Ov ,Ovid (B.C.43-A.D.17): A. A., Ars Amatoria. F., Fasti. H., Ueroides. M., Metamorphoses. Pont., Epistulae ex Ponto. Trist., Tristia. Pers., Persius (a.d. 34-62) : Sat., Satires. Phaed., Phaedrus (abt. A.D. 40). PI., Plautus (B.C. 254-184) : Am., Amphitruo. Asin., Asinaria. Aul., Aulularia. Bac, Baechides. Capt., Captivi. Cist., Cistellaria. Cure, Curculio. Epid., Epidicus. Men., Menaechmi. Merc, Mercator. Mil., Miles Gloriosus. Most., Mostellaria. Pers., Persa. Poen., Poenulus. Ps., Pseudolus. Rud., Rudens. Stieh., Stichus. Trin., Trinmnmus. True, Truculentus. Plin., Pliny, senior (a.d. 23-79) : H. N., Historia Natu- ralis. Plin., Pliny, junior (a.d. 62-113) : Ep., Epistles. Prop., Propertius (b.c. 49- 15). Pub. Syr., Publilius Syrus * (abt. B.C. 44). Q. C, Q. Curtius (abt. a.d. 50). Quint., Quiutilian (abt. A.D. 35-95). Sail., Sallust (b.c. 86-34) : Cat., Catilina. Ep. Mith., Epistula Mithridatis. lug., lugurtha. , S. C. de Bac, Senatus Consulturn de Baccha- nalihus (b.c. 186). Sen., Seneca (b.c. 4-a.d. 65): Dial., Dialogues. Ep., Epistles. Here Fur., Hercules Furens. Here. Get., Hercules Oetaeus. Med., Medea. Sen.Q.N., Quaestiones Na- turales. Sil., Silius Italicus (abt. A.D. 25-101). Suet., Suetonius (abt. a.d. 75-160) : Aug., Augustus. Dom., JDomitianus. Galb., Galba. Tac, Tacitus (abt. a.d. 55-120) : Agr., Agricola. Ann., Annales. H., Historiae. Ter., Terence (d. b.c. 159) : Ad., Adelphi. And., Andria. Eun., Eunuchus. Haut., Hautojitimorvr menos. Hec, Hecyra. Ph., Phormio. Val., Valerius Maximus (abt. A.D. 26). Varr., Varro (b.c. 116-27) : R. R., de Re Rustica. Veil., Velleius Paterculus (abt. B.C. 19-A.D. 31). V^erg., Virgil (b.c. 70-19). Aen., JEneid. Eel., Eclogues. Georg., Georgics. ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S LATIN GRAMMAR PARALLEL REFERENCES Old New 1 1 1. a 2 2-4 3-5 6 (p. 4) 10 1, a and n. 7 6.a,b 8-11 14-19 10. 6 15. 2 11. a. 1 15. 4 11. a. 2 15. 5 11. c 15. 11 11. e 15. 6 11. e. 3 and n. 16 12 6 12. Or-C 6. N. 1-3 13 13 13. 6, c 13. N. 14 7 14. b 7. N.l 14. c 7. 6 14. (« 14. e 7. N. 2 15 18 15 (p. 10) 19 and n. i 16 8 16. N. 4 11. b. N. 17. a-c 17. N. 8. N. 18 9-11 18. a-c 10. a-c 18. d 11.6 18. e 11. c 18./ 10. e 19. a, 6 12 19. c 12. a 19. d 1-3 12. a. Exc. 20 21 21 24 Old 22 23 24 25 25. e 25. f-i 26 27 28 28. a 28. 6. N. 29. 1 29.2 29. a 29. 6 29. c 30 30. a 30. b 31 31. /l. N. 32. ftn. 1 32 33 34 35 36 36./ 37 37. a, b 38 39 39. a 39. b 40 40. d 40. e-g 41 6, N. b New 25 26 28 20 20. b. N. 1 20. e~k 22 23 29 30 30. a and n. 3 31 32 31. a, 32. a, 33 34 34. N. 35 27. a. 36 37 38 39 40-42 43 43. N. i 44 44. 6, a 45-47 48 48. Exc. 48 a. 49 49. c and n. 49. d, g, e 50 470 480 ALLEN AND GKEENOUGH'S LATIN GRAMMAR Old 41. d, e 42 43 3d dec!. 44-50 44 45 46 47 47. a 47. b 47. c 48 48. a 48. 6 48. c 48. tZ 48. e 49, 50 51-54 51. b 51. c 52 53. a, 6 53. c 54 54. 1, 2 54. 3 54. ftn. 2 55 56 57 57. c-e 58 59 60,61 62 62. a 62. N. 63,64 63. a-e 63./ .63. g-i 64 65 66,67 68 68. N. 69 69. b 70 70. a New 50. c 70. b 51 70. c 52 70. d 53-55 70. e 56-64 70./ 56, 58 70. g 56. a 70. h 57,59 71 67. a 71. a 70 71. b 60. a 72 62. N. 3 73 61, 62. N. 1, 2, 63 74. a 61. 1 74. b 61. 2, 3, 63. 1 74. c 61. 4 74. d 62. N. 2, 63. 2 74. ftn. 62. N. 2 75 62-64 76 65-73 76. 1 66 76. 2,3 68 76. a~c 67,69 77 65. 1. a 77. 1-4 65. 1. b 77. 2. a-f 70-72 77. 3. a-e 71. 1-4, 6 77. 4. a-c 7L 5 77. 5. a-d 73 77. 6. a-c 74 77. 7. a-c 76 78 76 78. 1 76. N. 1-3 78. 1. e 77 78. !•/ 78 78. 2 79 79 80 79. b p. 34. ftn. 79. c 80. ftn. 79. d 81-83 80 and a 83. a-e 80. b-d 81 P. 47, top 82 81 82 82 84-87 82. a 82. b 88, 89 82. c 82. d 90 83 91 83. ftn. 2 92 83. a 92. a, c 83. b New 92. b 92. c 92. d 93 93. N. 1 92./ 94 94. b 94. c 95, 96 97 and a 98. X. 98. c 98. b 98. a 98. d 99, 100 101, 102 101. 1, 2 101. 3, 4 102. 1-3 103 103. a-d 103. b. 1-6 103. c 103. d. 1-3 103. / 1-4 103. g. 1-3 103. h.1,2 104 105 105. e, / 105. flr 106 107 317. d. X. 2 101. N. 1 101. N.2 108 108. a-c 109 110 111, 112 111. a. N. 111. a 112. a 111. b 113 113.6 113. a 113. c-e PARALLEL REFERENCES 481 Old New Old New 84 114-116 84. a 115. a 84. a. N. 115. a. n. i 84. 6 116. N. 84. c 115. N. 2 85 117-119 85. h 119 85. c 121. e 86 120 86. a 120. h 86. 6 120. c 87 121 87. h 121. a. 4 87. c, d • 121. 6, c 87. e 121. d 87. / 122. a-c 88 122 as. a 288, 289 88. 6 122.- d 88. c 321. c 88. d 214. d, e 89 123, 124 89. a 125 and a 89. 6 126 89. c 127 89. d 128 89. e 124. a 89. / 243 90 129 91 130, 131 91. c 131. c 91. d 1 130. a 91. d. 2 131. a 91. d 3 131. h 91. (Z. N. 131. d 92 218 and a 93. a, 6 , 291. a-c •93. c 313. 6 93. d^g 291. c. n. 1-3 94 132-134 94. N. 133. N. 1 94. a 134. a 94. 6, c 134. 6 and n. 94. c. 2d par. 133. n. 2 94. d-/ 134. c-e 95 136, 137 95. a-d 137. a-d 96 138 96. N. 138. a 97 139 97. d 135. e 97. e 139. d 98 140-145 98. a 142 98. 6 143. a 98. c 143. a. N. 98. 2 144 98.3 145 99. a 302. a 99. &, c 143. 6, c 99. d 145. c 99. e 143. / 99./ 143. d and n. 100, 101 146 100. ftn. 146. N. 1 100. a 146. N. 4, 6 100. h 146. N. 5 100. c 146. N. 7-9 P. 67, top 146. a 101. a 146. N. 2 101. h 146. N. 6 101. c 146. N. 3 101. d 146. a. N. 2 P. 67. ftn. 146. a. >. 1 102 297, 298 102. e 298. c 102. e. N. 298. c. K. 2 102. / 297. e 103 147 104 148-150 104. N. 150 104. h-e 150. a-d 104./ 544 105 151 105. d 149, 151. e, /, 310. a 105. d. N. 310.6 105. e 151.^ 105. e, quotus quisque 313. b. N. 2 105. / f7 151. A, i 105. h 311 105. i 148. c, 151./ 106 152 106. b 308. h 106. c 414. a 107 323. ^ 108 154 109 155 110 154. c 110. a 480, 484. c, 575. fl 110. b 164. 3. a 110. c 154. c 110. d 164. 3. 6, c and n. 111 156 482 ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S LATIN GRAMilAJl Old New Old New 112 157 130 209 112. b. X. 157. b. ftn. 2d conj. 185 113 158 131 210 113. h. 2 499. 2 3d conj. 186 113. e-g 494, 495 Verbs in -id 188 114 159 132 211 115 160-162 132./. N. 211. ftn. 3 115. a. 1 472. b 4th conj. 187 llo. a. 2 466, 467. b 133 212 115. h 471 134 189 115. c 161 135 190 115. d 162 135. A 191 116 163 135. i 191. a 117 165 136 192 • 117. y. 2 p. 81. ftiL 137 197 118 166 137. a 198 118. y. p. 76. ftn. 137. y. p. 109. ftn. 119, 120 170 138 199 119. a 170. b 139 200 119. h 170. b. y. 139. ftn. 200. ftn. 2 119. h. N. 170. a 140 201 120. N-. 170. y. 141 203 121 164 141. c 203. d 121. Or^ 164. 1-3 141. d 203. e 122 171-173 142 204 122. a 171 143 205 122. b 172 143. y. 205. 6, y. V 122. c 173 144 206 122. d 173. a 144. d-f 206. e-g 122. N. 174 144.^ 206. d 123 175, 176 145 207 123. a 176. a 146 208 123. 6 174. 1 146. d. ftn. 208. d. N. 123. c 176. c 147 193 123. d 176. d 147. c. 1 203. a 123. e 176. d. y. I 147. c. 2 170. a 123./ 176. e 147. c. 3 509. a. 124 177 P. 119. Note. 1. h 168. b 125 178 P. 119. Note. 1. c 168. c, d 125. y. 1 178. y. 3 P. 120. Note. 1. d 168. e 125. y. Q 178. y. 3 P. 120. Note. 1. € 168. / 126 179 P. 120. Note. 1./ p. 286. ftn. 1 127 180 P. 120. Note. 2 169 128 181 P. 121. Note. 3 p. 77. ftn. 1 128. a. 1 181. a P. 122, top 213 128. a. 2 181. b 148 214 128. h 181. b. y.2 148. y. 215, 216 128. c 182 148. N. a-ij 215. 1-6 128. d 182. a 148. N. e 216. a and y 128. e 183 149 217 Ist ooni: 184 150 386 129 1^-196 161 tts PARALLEL REFERENCES 483 Old New Old New 151. d 322. d and n. 164. h 250. a 151. e 322. e, / 164. i 254 P. 127. ftn. 219 164. k 245 152 220 164. ^ 251 153 221. 1-28 164. 771 252 154 223 164. n 253. c 154. N. 1 222 164. 253. a 154. N. 2 224 164. p 253. 6 155 224 164.*g, r 255 and a 156 324. h 165 266 156. a 324. a, b 165. 2 257 156. a. 3d par. 328. a 166 258 156. a. 4th par. 324. c 166. a. 1 259. 1 156. h 324. d 166. b 260 156. c 324. e-gr 166. ; 261 156. d, e 324. h, i 166. d 262. a, 6 156./ 540. N. 1-3 167 263 156. gr 539. 540. a. n. 167. a 263. 1 156. h. 1 323. fir 167. b and n. 263. 2 and a 156. A. 2 323. e 167. c 263. 2. 6 156. i 527. c, d 167. d, e 263. 3, 4 156. A: 324. j 168 264 Interjections 225, 226 168. a-c 265. 1-3 P. 140. Note 227 168. d 265. a 157 228 169 266 157. N. 229. N. 170 267 158 230, 231 170. a. N. 267. N. 2 158. 1. a, b 231. a, b 170. c 267. d. 1, 2 158. 1. c 231. c 170. d 267. c 159 232 P. 163 268 160 233 171 269 160. a, 6 233. 1, 2 172 270 160. c 234 172. N. 272 160. c. 2. a-€ 234. IL 1-18 172, N. 2d par. 284. 6 161 235 173. 1 839 162 236 173. 2 897. e 163 237 174 271 163. 1. a 238. a 174. 2 271. a 163. c 239 175 273 163. d 240 and a 175. a 273. 2 163. d. N. 240. N. 176.6 273. 1 163. 2 241. 1, 2 and a 176 283 163. /,sr 241. 6, c 176. b 284 164 242 177 274 164. a 248 177. a 275 164. a. B. 243. a 177.6 274. a 164.6 244 177. c 274. 6 164. c 249 178 276 164. d 248 179 277 164. € 260 180 278. 1, 2 164./ 246 180. c~e 279. a-€ 164. g 247 180./ 808./ 484 ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S LATIN GRAMMAR Old New 181, 182 280 183 281 184 282 184. b 282. c 184. c 282. d 184. d, e 302. e 185 283. 284 186. a, b 285. 1, 2 186. 6. 2, 3 285. N. 186. c 282. b, c 186. d 286. a 187 287 187. a 287. 1, 2 187. b 287. 3 187. 6. N. 287. 4 187. c 287. 4. a 187. (Z, e 286. 6, N. 188. a-c 288. a~c 188. R. 288. N. 188. d, e 321. c, d 189 289 190 343. a 190. a 302. d 191 290 192 292 192.6 292. a. N. 193 293 P. 178. Note 294 194 295 194. b. N. 295. b. N. 195 296 and 2 195. 2 296. 1 195. a 297./ 195. b 297. b. N. 195. c 298. a 195. d 296. a 195. e, / 298. 6, c 195. /. R. 298. c. N. 195. g 298. d 1 195. h, i 298. d. 2, 195. A; 298. e 195. I 298./ 196 299 196. a 300 196. a. 2. N. 300. b 196. 6 301. a 196. c 301. 6 196. d-/ 301. dr-f 196. gr 301. c 196. h 299. a 196. i 300. b 197 302 Old 197. / P. 186. Note P. 186, bottom 198 199 200 200. d 200. e 201. a, 6, c 201. c? 201. e-h 202 202. a 202. b 202. c 202. d 202. e 202. / nullus 203 203. a 203. c. N. 204 205 205. c and 1 205. c. 2 205. d 206 206. c 206. c. 1 206. c. 2 207 207. N. 2, 3 207. 6 207. c 207. cZ 208 208. b. 1-3 208. c 208. d 208. e 209 209. a 209. 6 209. c 209. d 209. e 210 210. a 210. 6-(? 210. d. R. 210. e New N. PARALLEL REFERENCES 485 Old New Old New 210. e. R. 333. N. 225. e 365 210./ 333. a 226 366 210. /. R. 331. N., 332. 6. N. 227 367 211 334, 335 227. N. 2 367. a. N. 2 21L R. 335. N. 227. c. N. 367. a. N. 1 212 336 227.6 368 212. 6 337 227./ 369 212. 6. R. 335. d. N. 228 870 F. 205. Note 338 228. N. 1 370. a P. 206. Note 341 228. a, h 370. 6, c 213 342 228. c 371 213. 1, 2 and n. 343. N. 1, 348. N. 229 881 214 and a. 1 343 229. c 368. a 214. a. 2 343. a 230 372 214. h 343. N. 2 231 373 214. c 343. 6 231. R. 373. N. 214. c. R. 343. 6. N. 231. a 373. b 214. d 343. c 231. 6, c 873. a 214. d. R. 343. c. N. 1 232 874 214. d. N. 343. c. N. 2 232. N. 374. a and n. i 214. e 344 232. a 875 214./ 343. (« 232. 6, c 875. a, 6 214. g 359.6 233 882 215 345 233. a 882. 1 and n. i 216 346 233. 6 382. 2 216. R. 346. N. 2 234 883 P. 211, top 347 234. a 884 217 348 234. h-d 885. a-c 218 349 234. e 432. a 218. h 349. c 235 376 218. c 349. d 235. a 377 218. c. R. 358 235. 6 878. 1, 2 219 350 235. c 878. 2. N. 219. h 350. d 235. d 879 219. c 351 235. e 379. a 220 352 236 380 220. h 353 236. R. 879. N. 220. &. 3 353. 2. N. P. 235. Note 386 220. h. N. 352. N. 237 387 221 354 237. a 387.6 221. d 354. c. N. 237. 6, d~f 388. a-d and n. 222 355 237. c 390. a 223 356 237. r/ 500. 3 223. a 357 237. 'h 389 223. c 358 238 390 223. d 359 238. a, h 390. b-d 223. e 359. b 238. c 388. d P. 218. Note 360 238. c. N. 890. d N. 1 224 361 239 891 225 362 239. 1 392 225. 6, c 363, 369 239. 1. a, N. 1 393, N. 225. d 364 239. a. N. 2 393. Q 486 ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S LATIN GRAMMAR Old Nei Old 239. R. 395. N. 3 249. b 410. a. N. 1 239. 2 394 249. b. N. 410. a. N. 2 239. 2. b 395 and r. 250 414 239. c 396 250. r. and N. 414. a and n. 239. c. N. 1, 2 396. a, b 250. a 414. b 239. c. R. 396. b. N. 251 415 239. d 396. c 262 416 240. a 390. c, d and n. 2 252. a 417 240. 6 397. a 252. b-d 417. a-c 240. c, d 397. 6, d 253 418 240. c. N. 397. c 253. N. 418. a and n. 240. e 423, 425 253. a 510. N. I 240. /, g 397. e,/ P. 260. Note 421 241 340 254 426.3 241. c 339. a 254. a 429. 3 241. d 340. c 254. 6. 1 431 242 399 254. 6.2 431. a 242. N. 398 254. &. 2. R. 431. a. N. 1 243 400 255 419 243. a 401 255. d 420 243. 6 402 256 423 243. d 402. a 256. a, b 424. a, b 243. e 411 257 425 243. c. N. 411. a 258 426. 1, 2 243. e. R. 411. b 258. 2. N. 1 428. h 243./ 356 258. 2. N. 2 428. c 243. /. R. 356. N. 258. a 427. 1 244 403 258. a. N. 1 428. a 244. a. R. 403. a. N. 1 258. a. N. 2 428./ 244. 6 403. a. N. 2, 3 258. a. N. 3 428. g 244. c-e 403. 6-(f 258. b 427. 2 245 404 258. b. N. 1 428. A; 245. a. 1 and n. 2 418. 6 258. b. N. 2 428. a 245. a. 2 404. a 258. 6. N. 3 428. 6 246 405 258. b. N. 5 428. gr 246. R. 405. N. :^ 258. 6. R. 428. i 246. b. N. 405. b.y. ! 258. c. 1 426.3 247 406 258. c. 2 427. 3 247. a, c-e 407 and a, c-e 258. c. 2. R. 428. e 247. a. R. 407. a. N. 3 258. C. N. 1 428. d and n. 247. 6 406. a 258. d 427. a P. 253. Note 408 258. e 428. A; 248 412 258. /. 1-3 429. 1-4 248. N. 412. a 258. g 429. a 248. R. 412. 6 and n. 259 424 248. a 413 259. a 424. d 248. a. N. 413. a 259. b 424. e 248. a. R. 413. N. 259. c 424. c 248. c. 1 409 259. d 424./ 248. c. 2 409. a 259. e 424.gr 248. c. 2. R. 409. a. N. 259. 428. j. N. 249 410 259. h 428. j PARALLEL REFERENCES 487 Old New Old New 27L c 458 27L c. N. 455. 2. a 272 ' 459 272. R. 561. a 272. a. 1 455 272. a. 2 456. a 272. 6 581. N. 3 273 460 273. c 457. a 273. d 461 273. e 460. c 273. g 461. a 273. h 461. 6 274 462 275 463 P. 291. Note 464 276 465 276. a 466 276. b 467 276. c 468 276. d 469 276. e 556 276. e. N. 556. a 276. / 465. a 277 470 277. R. 471 277. a-g 471. a-/ 278 472 279 473 279. a 474 279. 6 473. a 279. c 475 279. d 475. a 279. e 476 279. R. 476. N. 280 477 281 478 281. R. 478. 282 479 283 480 284 481 285 482 286 483 286. N. 483. ftn. 286. R., (a), (6) 484, a-c 287 485 287. c. R. 485. c. n. i 287. f-i 485. g-j 288. c and a 486 and a 288. d, R. 486. 6, d, e 288. e 486. / 288. / 569. a 260 220 260. a 430 260. 6 429. 6 260. c 221. 24 260. d 221. 23 260. e 221. 26 ?,61 432 261. a. N. 432. b 261. 6 432. c 261. c 432. d 261. d 433 262 and n. i 434 263. N. 435 P. 274. Note 436 264 437 264. a 465 ff. 264. h 437. a 265 438 266 and r. 439 266. h 450. (3) and n, 3 266. c 440 266. d 528. a 266. e 439. b 266. e. R. 439. 6. N. 2 266. e. K. 439. 6. N. 1 267 441 267. h 442 267. h. N. 1 442. a and n. i 267. c 442. b 268 444 268. R. 444. N. 269 448 269. N. 450. a, b 269. a 450 269. a. 2. N. 450. N, 1 269. a. 3. N. 450. N. 4 269. 6. N. 450. N. 3 269. c 448. a 269. d. 1, 3 449. 1, 2 269. e-cy 449. a-c 269. h 588 269. i 521. N. P. 283. Note 451 270 452 270. a. 1, 2 452. a 270.6 454 270. 6. N. 1 454. N. 270. c 463 271 466 271. a 457 271. a. N. 1 563. b. 1 271. 6 563. a 488 ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S LATIN-GRAJ^JMAR Old New- Old New P. 306, mid. 487 308. b and r. 517. b 289 488 309 518 290 489 309. b 518. c 290. a 490 309. c 518. b 290. b 491 310 521 290. c 492 311 522 290. d 493 311. a 445, 446 291 494 311. a. N. I 447. 2 291. b 495 311. a. N. 2 446 291. b. R. 495. N. 311. a. N. 3 447. a 292 496 811. a. R. 447. 3. N. 292. R. 496. N. 1, 2 311. b 447. 1 292. N. 1, 2 496. N. 3, 4 311. c 522. a 292. a 497 311. R. 522. N. 1 292. b-e 497. a-d 311. C. N. 522. X. 2 292. b. N. 411. a. N. 2 311. d 523 293 498 312 524 293. 6 499 312. R., N. 524. N. 2, 1 293. c 498. b 813 526, 527 294 500 313. d 549 294. a-d 500. 1-4 313. d. N. 549. N. 3 295 502 813. e 527. d 295. R. 502. N. 313./ 527. d. N. 296 503 313. 9 527. e 296. R. 503. N. 2 813. h 535. e 297 601, 502 313. i 440 298 504 814 528 298. N. 504. N. 2 314. b 528. a 298. R. 504. a. N. I 315 525 298. a 504. c 815. a. 1 525. a 298. b 504. N. 1 815. a. 2 525. a. 3. N. 298. c 504. b 315. d 525. e 299 505. a 816 519 299. a 505 816. a 620 300 506 and n. I 317 529, 530 300. N. 506. N. 2 817: 2d par. 531 301 507 817. 3 563 301. R. 503. a. N. 2 817. a 531. 1. N. 1 302. headn. 508 817. b 531. a 302 509 817. b. N. 1 558. b 302. R. 509. N. 1 817. 6. N. 2 531. a. N. 303 510 817. c 532 303. N. R. 510. N. 1-3 817. C. R. 532. N. P. 320. Note 511 817. C. N. R. 531. 2. N. 2 304 512 318 533 304. d 513 P. 343. Note 534 305 514 819 536, 537 305. R. 514. C. N. 319. 3 568 306 515 319. 3. N. and r. 537. 2. N. 1, 307 516 319. c 558. b 307. 6. R, c. R 616. b. N. c. N. 819. d 558, 559 308 617 819. d. r. 688 PARALLEL REFERE^XES 489 Old New Old New 320 635 831. i. N. 1 665. N. 3 320. /. N. 535. /. N. 2 331. i. N. 3 565. N. 2 P. 348, mid. n. 539 P. 362, bottom, n. 567 321 640 332 568 32L N. 3 640. a 832. a 569 32 L R. 540. N. 3 832. h 571. a 321. o-c 540. h-d 832. c 462. a P. 349, bottom, n. 541 332. d 571. h 322 642 832. c 568. N. I 322. R. 535. a. N. 3 832./ 571. c 323 645, 546 832. ^r 558 324 643 832. g. R. 558. a 325 645-548 832. g. N. 2 658. a. N. 2 325. a 545 832. h 680. d 325. a. N. 646. N. 4 833 672 325. h 646. a 333. 6. R. 672. 6. N. 325. c 647 834 673-575 326 and r. 649 384. c 676 326. a. R. 549. a. N. 334. c. R. 576. N. 327 650, 551 334. d, e 675. c, d 327. a 551. c 834./ 676. a 327. h 651. c. N. 2 834. g 447. a, 5 328 652, 55S P. 369. Note 577 328. 2 554, 555 885 578 328. 2. N. 1 655. N. 2 335. R. 578. N. 328. a 656 336. 1 579 328. a. N. 556. a. N. 1 836.2 580 328. K. 656. a. N. 1 336. 2. N. 2 680. a 328. R. 656. a. N. 2 836. 2. N. 3 680. c 329 560, 561 836. a. 1 681 329. N. 661. N. 1 836. a. R. 681. N. 2 329. R. 661. N. 2 836. a. 2 682 329. (classification) 562 836. a. 2. N. 2 682. a. N. 2 330 452 836.6 683 330. B. 459 836. c 683. 6 330. B. 2, 3 663. a, 6 836. c. N. 2 683. c 330. R. 662. N. 836. (f 583. a 330. a, 6 582 836. A 584 330. a. 2 566. 6 336. A. N. 1 684. a and n 330. 6. 2 666. c 336. B 685 330. c 682. a 836. B. N. 2 685. a 330. d 682. N. 836. B. a 585.6 330. e 579. ftn. 1 837 689 330. / 580. c 838 586 331 and h. n. 563 and b 838. a 687 331. e. 2 558. 6 839 588 331./ 564 339. R. 588. a 331. /. ftn. 564. N. P. 378, mid. 590 331. /. R. 565, a, 569. 2. n. 2 840 691 331.^ 563. N. 341 592 331. h 500 341. h^l 592. 1-g 331. i 565 341. r. 592. n. 490 ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S LATIN GRAM^MAR Old New Old New 342 693 342. ftn. 2d par. 593. n. 2 P. 381 ff. 594 P. 386, top. Note 595 343 596 and a 344 597 344. R. 597. a. n. 9 P. 389, top. R. 597. b P. 389, top. a 598. a 345 599 345. a 699. d 345. d 599. a P. 392. Note 600 346 601 P. 394. Note 602 347 603 347. d 603. / 347. d. N. 1, 2 603. /. N. 2, 3 347. d. R. 603. /. N. 4 347. e. R. 603. /. n. l 348 604 348. 1-10 604. a-j 348. 9. Exc. 604. L 1-6 349-351 351. b 605 352, 353 354 606 354. d 606. c. n. P. 402. Note 607 355. R. 608. N. 356 609 356. e 309. n. 356. / 609. e 357 610 357. b 357. c 610. b 858 611 359 612 359. 6, c 612. d, e 359. b. R. 612. d!. n. 359. c. R. 612. e. n. 359. d and r 612. /. n. i, a .359. e 612. gr 359. /, '/ 612. b 860 613 360. R. 613. N. 361 614 362 616 362. a 615. a, 6 362. a. N. 615. N. 862. b and r. 615. c and n. 862. c 615. d 363 616 364 617 365 618 366 619 367 620 367.6 620. c P. 414, mid. Note 621 868 622 369 623 370 624 371 625 872 626 873 627 . 874 628 875 629 875. 6, c, e 629. b. 1-3 375. d 629. c 875. e 629. b 3 875./ 375. g 629. d 375. g. 3-5 629. d. IS 875. h 629. e P. 425. Note 630 376 631 377 682 378 683 379 634 380 686 881 636 882 687 888 638 884 — _- P. 429 2J3 689 386 640 886 387 641 842 RETURN MOFFin LIBRARY RETURN CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT T O— ► 2Q2 Main Library LOAN PERIOD 1 HOME USE 3 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS Renewals and Recharges may be made 4 days prior to the due dat( Books may be Renewed by calling 642-3405 DUE AS STAMPED BELOW MAR 1 1997 JAN RECEIVED DEC 1 7 19S8 CIRCULATION DEfT. FORM NO. DD6 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY BERKELEY, CA 94720 y