VIICL
-fi^:-*Tfi— -. , ,
ATT..V
1
THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES
GIFT OF
i^atherine Burchell Siemon
PROFESSOR MEIKLEJOHN'S SERIES
AN ATLAS
OF
ENGLISH GRAMMAR
TO BE USED Al>OXO ^VITH ALL (iRAMMAIlS
BY
EASTON S. VALENTINE, M.A.
SKCONl) KNGI.ISII MASTEli IN lllE MICH SCIIOOI, OK DINDEK
LONDON: SlMl'KIN, M A I! S II A I, J.. HAMILTON, K 1-, N T and CO., I.im.
ST. AN 1) i; I. WS, N.H. : I'ubl.sheil by A. M. IIOLDLN
lidinbHrnh ,■ T. is- A. Coustabie, Pnttltn ta Her Majesfy.
PREFACE
lice
It is the purjjose of this hook to present in a series of Tables the
Parts of Speech, the Syntax and the Analj'sis of English Sentences, and
.thus to furnish a bird's-eye view of Grammar as taught in Schools.
Since each Table may be regarded as a map in which the learner has
constantly before him the relation of the part to the whole, the name
Atlas of Grammar may seem not inapplicable.
Clear mapping-out being thus the chief aim, details and exceptions
have been as far as possible avoided. But though mere word-lists of
irregularities in gender, number, comparison, conjugation, etc., must be
sought for in Grammars whose purpose is exhaustive treatment and not
pictorial design, the place of the most important exceptions has been
noted, and so noted as to make the learning of them easy. Throughout,
indeed, the object has been to make the eye assist both the understanding
and the memorj'. The fault of most Grammars — even of the best^for
school purposes, is that the pupil has too many explanations to read.
He mistakes the unimportant for the essential, faOs to distinguish between
what ha.s merely to be read, and what is meant to be committed to
memory ; in short, he cannot see the wood for trees. But, if such ex-
planations be given in class by the teacher, and the principles, as here
tabulated, be committed to memory by the pupil, a great gain will be
effected in time, in interest, and in firmness of gr;\.sp. Nor does the
\ise of this book restrict the teacher to a deductive method ; these tables
will prove useful as recapitulations of lessons in which the definitions
have been reached inductively. Time saved from mere book-work may
well be devoted to systematic practice, to which in importance it stands in
inverse ratio. A thorough-going set of Exerci.ses and Examination Papers
has been prepared to accompany Professor Meiklejohn's Grammar of the
English Tongue.
The Atlas of Grammar will perhaps be most effectively used if the
teacher wiU build up on the black-board the Table, or the part of the
Table, that forms the day's lesson, questioning and explaining as he goes
along. And it is thought not unreasonable to claim that the pupil who can
reproduce these Tables with intelligence will possess a very fair knowledge
of the leading principles of grammar. This book — which may be used
along with any Grammar — is adapted for (1) Junior Classes, the definitions
being simple and yet accurate ; (2) Senior Classes, where a rapid revisal of
the work of previous sessions is required ; (3) Students in Training
Colleges, for whom it is all-important to know how best to place on the
lilack-board a lesson in the subject they are teaching ; and (4) Candidates
for University local and prehminary examinations, or for the Civil Ser-
vice.
In preparing these Tables I have made constant use of such standard
Grammars as those of Abbott, Mason, Meiklejohn, and Morris.
I cannot conclude without acknowledging the kindly sympathy and
the valuable suggestions of many professional friends, and especially the
encouragement and ready help of Professor ^Meiklejohn, St. Andrews ; G. R.
Merry, Esq., LL.D., Rector, High School, Dundee ; J. B. Charles, Esq.,
^I.A., Head English Master, High School, Dundee ; and A. T. Watson,
Esq., M.A., Rector, Dumbarton Academy.
Any criticisms, suggestions, or corrections that readers of the Atlas of
Grammar may fovour me with will be highly valued.
EASTON S. VALENTINE.
July 1890.
80S924
TABLE I
DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR
E, DefltnitloB. of Qramniar
Grammar is the science of language ; that is, the systematic statement of tlie facts and laws of words.
lie Divisions of Graniniap
Orthography ( = the Grammar of Letters) ; Etymology ( = the Grammar of Words) ; Syntax ( = the Grammar of Sentences).
ORTHOGRAPHY
Orthography treats of sounds and their written signs — Letters.
The Alphabet is tlie complete collection of letters used in the language. [Greek a, ^ = Engli'ih a, b, (c).]
In an alphabet the rule ought to be, ( I ) One sound, one letter ; (2) One letter, one sound.
The English Alphabet is very inconsistent : e.(/. (1) There are 43 sounds but only 2G letters ; (2) Several letters hav^ more than one sound.
(cp. the long a sound ia/ate, sleigh, gauge, etc.) (cp. a ia/ather, want, all, favie, etc.)
TEST
/'SIMPLE VOWELS
HOW FORMED EXAMPLES
= the breath unchecked «. f. ', o, «, (w), 0/).
VOWELS :
pronounced without
aid of other letters
(Iieard in)
LETTERS
DIPHTHONGS
= two vowels sounded together "<>">. We. Mgh, m«(«, boy.
/-SPIRANTS
= the breath peuilij check, d r I . Tliroat (GDTTDRALS) ; A ; k,g. ^
CONSONANTS
11 ('i, etc.)
pronounced only
with aid of vowels
2. Palate (PALATALS) : »■, y ; j, ch.
"'^'"1 3. Teeth (DENTALS) ; l,s,z;t, d, n.
,MUTE3
(/.-, etc.)
= the breath tcholbj checked [i. Lips (LABIALS) ; /, v; p, b, m.
ETYMOLOGY
Etymology treats of (1) the Inflexion, (-) the Classification, (3) the Derivation of words.
[SYNTAX (c. Table X.).]
TABLE II
PARTS OF SPEECH
There are eight classes of words or parts of speech.
AVol'ils are classified in English according to the duty that they perform in a sentence.
Tims, " iron" Jnay be nnnn, adj , or verb.
INTERRELATIONS OF thk CHIEF PARTS OF SPEECH.
ADJECTIVE
NOUN
(or PRONOUN)
ADVERB
VERB
THE RKM.MNING PARTS OF SPEECH.
(a) LINK AVORDS
PREPOSITION
CONJUNCTION
(//) extra-c;ra]mmati('al utteeanx'e.
INTERJECTION
Definitioiis of th© Parts of SpgeeJi
1. A Noun is a Ivor J used as a name.
2. A Pronoun is a word used for a noun.
3. An Adjective is a word usc<l with a noun.
I wli.-it a tiling does.
is a word tliat tells • wliat is done to a thing.
( ill what state a thing exists.
( when ? V
f where '' '
T). An Adverb marks -', . . ' ,■ about a Verb, an Adj. or another Adv.
■1. A Verb
(how ? i
Of. why? /
G. A Preposition is a word that joins words.
7. A Conjunction is a word that joins sentences.
8. An Interjection is
a mere exclamation.
TABLE ITI
NOUNS
-^
I, Defia£tioa
A Noun is a word used as a name.
II. Kisds Qt Nouns
I PROPER = a person's or place's own name :
N U N S -| I CLASS NAMES =the name of eacU individual in the same class of tliinf:
I. COMMON COLLECTIVE =the name of a coUection of individuals :
<- ABSTRACT = the name of a quality, an action, a state, a science :
Sliahespeare, London.
boy, tree, bread.
cnvalrij,jary.
whiteness, to plaij, sleqi, grammar.
in, iisfllexions of Nouns
Nouns are inflected (changed in form) to mark Gender, Number, Case.
(a) GENDER
The form of the Noun that indicites the Stale or the Female Sex.
MASCULINE
COMMON
{thither)
NEUTER
(.neither)
r-en-Bter viztn{-ihc.fox], tj>iitster.
Three ways of marking gender in English : — (I) Suffixes - -ess .o™tr,-<i. anrc, ii«ncss.
^^ -Ine .a -trix Acroijie, U^fitia, tettatrix.
i' man- timn.Krvnnt,
maid- yitaiU-Krvant.
[Z) rrenxes -. ^'- fc'.joar.
""^^ ific-goat.
I the
I etc.
(b) NUMBER
Tlie form of the noun that imlicates one or more thau one.
I
f/dther.
(3) Distinct Words - "CSfr.
V etc. tU.
The Plural is formed from the Sinsulai
SINGULAR (.'"'■ o'u)- PLURAL (/'"' ™o™ Ihon ojif).
(I) (iiriil ti.siuillj) by adding -s or -es. hooks, hrushes ; (■_') by adding -en, oxen ;
(:i) by vowel change, men.'
CO CASE
The form, or function, of the Xoun that shows relationship to other words in the sentence.
NAME OF TASE. | NOMINATIVE POSSESSIVE (rjenUU-e)
rsE OK CASE. Kuhjtct (if Veil.. , M.ivk.s ownership.
TKST tjt'EsTlo.v. who? what? whose ? of what ?
TERMINATION. | (lost). I 's, ', s' (oftfll).
I
OBJECTIVE {accusative) \ OBJECTIVE [dative)
Direct Object of Trans. Verb or Prcii,
whom ? what 7
(lost).
Indirect Object of Verb.
to, or for whom 7 or what 7
(lost).
NOM. OF ADDRESS {I'OCativf)
Aa inlcrjcctional use.
The Possessive Case i^ tbe only one inflected in modern Knglish nonns.
To form the Possessive Case adtl to the -
I Singular 'S (unless euphony forbids) :
's when the Plural ends in -en, or is formed by Vowel Change :
( ^
Plxiral ^ » ^viien the Plural ends in -a or -ci :
John's, C urns' s (Moses').
cxen's, men's.
poets' , foxes' , ladies', thieve^'.
■;: For rccvdiaritics in Ntimber, etc next page.
Appendix to TABLE III
PECULIARITIES IN NUMBER
-a lias its own (sharp) soond
after
p, k, t ; th, t :
taps, books, cats ', baths, beliefs.
PLURALS IN -s
J
-a has the (flat) sound of z
after
b, ff, d ; dh ; m, n, 1, r :
sUibSt dogSj rods ; tnouths ; rams, pans, toils, stars.
PLURALS IN' -es
-(ve)3
Saxon words ending in
■"-('Toror')+'w
change -f into -ve before -■ :
wolrw, yfives ; but bri^s, rooys.
-es
sometimes after -o
and after
ah, ch (soft), a, z, I, J :
heroes, churches, boxes, etc.
-(ie)s
-y after a consonant becomes -ie :
lad-ie-s ;
[but -y after a vowel remains]
toys.
TWO PLtmAlS
brothers ; brethren.
FALSE SINGTH^R
JKO.
4
FALSE fLUBAL
riehcs.
PLTmAL USED AS SINGTTLAB
news.
NO SIHGtTLAR
tongs.
i
SIKGITLAR OE PLTJIIAL
sheep.
f
NO PLTTRAL
shame.
CHANGE OF UEANINQ
spectacle, spectacles.
FOREIGN PLURAL
indkes.
NATURALISED PLURAL
indexes.
PLURALS OF COMPOUNDS
sons-in-Uiic, major-generah, m-.n-servants.
TABLE IV
PRONOUNS
I, DefinitiQa
A Pronoun is a Mord used for a noun.
Many pronouns are n.sed as adjectives.
II, Kinds of Ffonouas
PRONOUNS
DEMONSTRATIVE
Point out definitely
the thing named
This, that, yon,
so, BQch, same.
For Persons or THings use | ^^\\ ^ ^^^^,j^
(Tr7ta( hoy? tvliat paper ?)
PERSONAL
Xame the persor
1
speaking
Ist
I, we:
1
spoken to.
thou, yon ;
Spoken of.
Srd
he,
Ehe, they,
It.
INTERROGATIVE
Used in asking
questions
Who (-ever) ? what (-ever) ?
which (-ever)?
For Persons use who ?
RELATIVE
(1) Refer to noun already stated,
=^ ANTECEDENT
(2) Join sentences.
Who(-ever. -soever), what(-ever. -soever).
which, that, as, hat.
INDEFINITE
Do not ]mint out (iel'mitcly
the thing named
one, aaght, any, some,
other, etc.
T- ™.- fwhicli?
^•"^^^^^"^nwliatUpron.).
What docs he sa>j ?)
HI, InfiLexigns of Hronouas
Pronouns, like Xouns, are inflected to mark Gender, Number, Case.
Pronouns retain case-endings ; Xouns (except in tlie Possessive Case) do not.
IVe Declensloa of Pronouns
FIRST PERSON
SECOND PERSON
THIRD PERSON
INTERROGATIVE AND RELATIVE
SINGULAR
PLURAL
SINGULAR
PLURAL
SINGULAR
MASCHLINE FEMININE
NEDTER
PLURAL
ALL GENDERS
SINGULAR AND
PLURAL
MASCCLINE FEinNINE
NEUTER
XoM.
I
wo
thou
you, ye
he she
it
they
who who
what
PoiS.
mine, my
our, ours
thtoe, thy
your, youra
his her, hers
Its
their, theirs
whose whose
[whose 1
OliJ.
me
us
thee
you
him her
It
them
whom whom
what
DAT.
me
us
thee
you
him her
It
them
whom whom
Voc.
thou
you, ye
— -
TABLE V
ADJECTIVES
I, Defiaitioa
An Adjective is a word that goes with, (or qualifies) a Noun.
If it stands close to its noun, it is used attributively; if separated from it by "to be." etc., it is used predicatively. (f. Table XI.)
He Kinds Qf Adjectives
,of what sort?=aajs. of QUALITY, including most adjectives and all participles : white .-nwir : the coming yi-ar, fallen hares.
TEST QCEsTiovs J '^"^ ™^'^'^' I- =adis. of QUANTITY, „ indefinite words and cardinal numbers : much .s-/!. <»■. some ror/i ; ten men.
I how many? •
Which? = DEMONSTRATIVE adjs. „ ordinal numbers, articles, adj. -pronoun.s : the first ;(?ac(' ; that /ioxsi;, my ^jc».
HI. InflexiQtts of Adjectives
111 0. E. Adjectives were inflected for Gender, Number, and Case.
This (pi. these), and that (pi. those), still have Numlier. Other adjectives are inflected for Comparison only.
COMPARISON
mere possession of the quality - POSITIVE 1 -
Degrees | possession of the quality in a higher degreel = COMPARATIVeI formed from the positive by adding -J'" IM orbyusi..«| ™°"
possessionortliequalityintliehlEhestdegrcc'-= SUPERLATIVE j IS
hard\, hanJtT. AarJest. litcnt. moTt rilrut. mostli/t^f.
ten\Jer, UnJcrtTt tcndcrett. bfau,ti'/ut. more WatttifttJ, molt b'^atitiful.
N.B.— Some aJJeetivcs .ire irregularly compared, e.g. jworf, txttcr, Uu; otliers, lv.-ca>isc o( tlicir meaning, cannot be compared, e.g. tiuare.
1 Tlie Comparative Degree is used when two thing* are comp.\re<l.
3 Tlie Superlaliro ., three ..
TABLE VI
VERBS (i)
♦^
A Verb is a word that tells (1) what a thing does, (2) what is done to a tiling, {">) in what state a thing exists.
TRANSITIVE
(Object required)
ACTIVE
(to wrilc)
PASSIVE
(to he written')
II, Kinds of Verbs
APPOSITIONAL
(Comi'lement required)
((0 le)
INTRANSITIVE
(No object required)
ACTIVE
(tomtt)
NEVTEB
((0 shcp)
llle Inflexions of Verbs
VOICE
Active Passive
MOOD
TENSE
NUMBER
PERSON
CONJUGATION
I
I I r
Infinitive Present Past
1
1
Indicative Subjunctive Iiniierativc Infinitive Present Past Future Singular Plural First Second Third Strong Weak
(a) VOICE
f (Active) -,
That form of the verb which shows whether the subject is (I) J the doer \
l,(IIere the subject acts). J
(b) MOOD
The way, or mode, in which the action is stated.
.- (Passive) -,
ov(2) J the real object of the action '
Ullt're the subject is acted upon), j
Verb Finite
(That part of the verb which is limited by Person and Number.)
INDICATIVE
(1) States a fact.
(2) Asks a direct question.
SUBJUNCTIVE
Expresses doubt, possibility, wish, etc.,
as a conception of the speaker.
Verb Infinite
(That part of the Verb which is unlimited by Person and Number.)
1
IMPERATIVE
Gives
a command.
I
INFINITIVE
Usually preceded by "to"
=Noun, Adjective, or Adverb.
GERUND
A nouu in -ing with verbal powers,
i.e. followed by an object.
(catchinff fish)
PARTICIPLE
A Verbal adjtcti\e.
SIMPLE COMPLEMENTAKT GEKtJNDIAL
The action is stated as Forms a complex object With a noun =au adjective
a noun, and is subject or or a complex subject With adjectives and verbs = an adverb
object of a verb
(To uw/fc is pleasant) (Hike a thief /o IcmujAO (a house /o k()
(I like (0 read) (The boy was ordered to go) (apples good to eat)
[ 1
PRESENT PASSIVE
An adjective in -Ing with verbal An a^ljocti^■o in -on, -ed, or -t.
jxfwers.
(The boy, seeing the dog, ran) (lirolen stones, lovetl ones)
TABLE Vir
VERBS (ii)
«■
(0) TENSE
Verl'S liave various forms to mark (1) the Tense (—time), (2) the State of the action.
TENSE=
STATE rTIME
PRESENT TIME
PAST TIME
FUTURE TIME
INDEFINITE STATE ....
(a) I take
(b) I am taken
(a) I tool!
(b) I was taken
(a) I shall take
(b) I shall be taken
IMPERFECT STATE ....
(a) I am taking (a) I was taking
(b) I am being taken (b) I was being taken
(a) I shall be taking
(b)
PERFECT STATE
(a) I have taken
(b) I have been taken
(a) I had taken
(b) I had been taken
(a) I shall have taken
(b) I shall have been taken
PERFECT +CONTINnOOS ....
(a) I liave been taking ' (a) I had been taking
(a) I .shall have been taking
EMPHATIC FORM
(a) I do take (a) I did take
NEQATITE FORM
(a) I do not take (a) I did not take
INTEBB0GAH7E FOEM ....
(a) Do I take? (a) Did I take?
(a) Active. (b) I'assive.
Auxiliaries
In tlie above table all tenses except "take" and "took" are formed by means of tlie Auxiliary ( = helping) verbs,—
Use -
BE, HAVE, SHALL, WILL, DO.
BE along with a participle for (a) Imperfect State, (b) Pasalve Voice.
SHALL (will) in the Future Tenses.
HAVE in the Perfect Tenses.
DO in Interrogative. Negative, an-l Emphatic Sentences.
(d) PERSON and (e) NUMBER
The form of the verb that shows whether the Subject is
^ First, .Second, or Third Person (v. Pronouns),
\Singular or Plural Number (v. Nouits).
Old Forms still found
Forms now in vsr
Personal Endings
Singular |
I I I
12 3
-t - _ _ _
(nrl) .
-St -th, -S _ _ _
-St - _. _ _
I'roin the above it will be seen tlmt there are few inflcxious of verbs in modern English. Indeed, itreng verbs have but ieven forms, and weak but six :
Strong verb: take, takest, taketh or Ukei ; took, tookit ; taking, takeo.
Wcakver}}; love, loveat, loveth or loves; loved, lovedat ; loving.
I Past)
TABLE VIII
VERBS (iii)
(0 CONJUGATION
Tlie complete collection of the various forms of the Verb.
I
STRONG
(No letter added to form the past tense)
FORMATION
PRIKCIrA
PARTS
(Pres. Indie.
Past Indie.
Pass. Partic.
REGULAR
Past Indie.
\_Passive Partie.
Vowel change
no letter added
-en (frequently)
( Xo vowel change
l.-(c)d or -t added
-(e)d or -t „
rise love learn
rose loved, learned, learnt
risen loved, learned, learnt
(^ Vowel change
\-d or -t added
tell, teach
told, taught
told, taught
WEAK
(-ed, -d, or -t added to form the past tense)
IRREGTOAR
I" Vowel change
l-d or -t lost
feed set
fed ( = fed -de) set (-te)
fed ( = fed-cd) set (t-ed)
Contracted
build
have
had ( = haved) built ( = builded)
had ( = haved) built ( = builded)
SOME PECULIARITIES IX CONJUGATION.
PARTLY STRONG, PARTLY WEAK.
go gone
went
ONCE STRONG, KOW WEAK.
brew, brewed, brewed.
DEFECTIVE.
Bhall, should,
ONCE WEAK, NOW STBOSO.
Stick, stuck, stuck.
STRONG AND WEAK.
awake awoke awoke
awake awaked awaked.
TABLE IX
ADVERBS
I, Pefinitioii
An Adverb is a word that goes with (or qualifies) a Verb, an Adjective, or another Adverb.
>',P.,— Tlte Verb. Adjective, or Adverb is qualified jw lo Time, Place, Manner, Canse, ct.-,
II, zcmd;s Qf Adverbs
, !
I : , 1
TIME PLACE MANNER CAUSE
TE3T QUESTION > (whcnl) (where 7) (how?) (why?)
When, where, etc., are often called Relative Adverbs. They are partly conjunctive : e.g. I know the place where ( = iii which) he lived.
HI, Inflexion of Adverbs
COMPARISON
N.B. — Many Adverbs are not compared ; some are cumpared regularly ; others, irregularly.
I POSITIVE sweetly.
* Degrees - comparative 1 , ,^ ,. .,. , / more more sweetly.
1 - furincd from the positive liy using ;
I SUPERLATIVE ) I most iiicst sweetly.
PREPOSITIONS
r. Definition
By a Preposition a noun or a pronoun is joined to anotlier word.
II, Kinds of Prepositions
SIMPLE
(up)
COMPOUND
(oi'-er)
Hie Construction
Noun
(Pron.)
Adj.
Verb
Adv. J
Wheels within wheels.
Tlie distance from you to me.
+ PREP. + Noun or (Pron.) The sun is darn to me.
He leaned on his stick.
Clearly to the point.
CONJUNCTIONS
le Definition
A Conjunction is a word that joins sentences.
He Kinds of Conjunctions
CO-ORDINATE
SUBORDINATE
join
join
Principal Sentences together.
riansos lo pr
ncipal sentences.
Ill, Minor Classes
t
t
1.
AND (Cumulative)
1. BECAUSE
(Reason, etc.)
2.
BUT (Adversative)
2. IF
(Condition, etc.)
3.
EITHER ... OR (Alternative)
3. THAT
(Purpose, etc.)
4.
THEREFORE (lUative)
J4. UNTIL
(Time)
INTERJECTIONS
An Interjection is a word that stands in no grammatical relation to oilier words in the sentence. It is a mere exclamation expressive of pain.
surprise, joy, or some snch emotion : e.g. ol» ! alas ! liurnili I
* r. Taulb V.
» These CotiJ unction "i are types of lar^c cUuwc*
; CoujuDcUoiis Uko ontU, ere, etc, Are fcomctlmea vicweJ xs ii*rlly rBi:roMTiovs i»artly advckbs.
TABLE X
SYNTAX (i)
Syntax (■■>. Greek word) means arrangement. The rules of Syntax state the relations that words bear to each other in a sentence, -
the Concord, or agreement, of some ; the Government, or influence that some exercise on otlicrs ; their Order, or sequence.
PREDICATIVE
(Vei'l) and .Subject).
The chief Combinations of words.
\
ATTRIBUTIVE
(Noun and Adjective).
OBJECTIVE
(Verb and Object).
ADVERBIAL
(Adverb and Verb, etc.).
1.
The NOMINATIVE
The POSSESSIVE
.3.
The OBJECTIVE
£, Syntas of isfomns
(1) The SUBJECT of a Finite verb : Tlie .s«k rises.
(2) After TO BE and other Apposltional or Copulative Verbs (e.g. seem, remain, be-called, etc.): John is a mtrcliaul.
(.3) The Nominative in Apposition with another noun : Harold, tlie kinrj, died. It is true that he died. [Adjectival in character. ]
[Idiom : The island of Sieily = the Lsland Sicily ; manner of nian= (O.t) manner man.]
(J) The Norn. Absolute = - xoun + I'Ik't \fo^l°''i''idhynojiniteverh: 27(C.s-h« /»«n«(/)-i.s-cH,tliemistdispersed. [Adverbialin character. ]
(.')) The Nom. of Address = THE VOCATIVE /oHou'cd hy no finite verb : John, tell me the story. [Interjectlonal la character.]
qualifies a noun. N. B. The first of twopossessives joined by and drops the 's: Bryant and May's Matches. [ Adjectivalin character. ]
f {\) The OBJECT of Transitive Verl)s, jicrsonal or impersonal, finite or infinite: I see the man. Seeing my
J'riend, I ran forward. It grieves me.
(2) Two Accusatives after make, appoint, create, etc., ask, teach. Tlie king made him general. (The second
is called the factitive object.)
DIRECT ''"' '^^^ Retained Accusative after a passive verb. He was asked a ijiieslion (from : They asked him a question).
( = .\CCUSATIVE) 1 W The Accusative and Infinitive or the Accusative and Participle : I heard her sing ; I saw him coming.
(~>) The Cognate Accusative after certain intransitive verbs used transitively : To dream a dream.
I'JI The Ace. in apposition with another ace. : He defeated Harold, king of England. [Adjectival in character.]
(7) The Accusative of Measurement : he walked a mile ; it weighed a pound. [Adverbial in character. ]
(.S) After Prepositions : in a momnil.
DIRECT and INDIRECT after the verbs GIVE, show, promise, lend, tell, etc. .She gave me a rose.
(X. B. — Either Dat. or Ace. may become tlie subject of tlie passive verb : / was given a rose, or A rose was given me.)
,' (1) After certain impersonal verbs: it seems, ?nctliinks, it pleases: if you please ( = if it please you); woe
worth ( = be to) the dai/.
INDIRECT I \ ! J
-,(■-) After certain adjectives : near, nigh, next, like ; dear to, similar to, etc.; worth [iu " wortli one's while"
( = DATIVE) { = an old genilire )].
^ (.'?) The Ethical Dative adds liveliness and interest to the statement: e.g. " he plucked me ope his doublet."
J
TABLE XI
SYNTAX (ii)
ii. Syntax of Pronouns
1. CONCORD. 1. Pronouns (personal or relative) agree with the nouns they represent in gender, number, and person; but their case depends on
the construction of the clause in which they stand. The man whom you see was there. Tlie man whose bag was lost
nom. (ihj. nom. po^,
came in. The man who had spoken, stepped forward. It is / who am in fault.
no)n. nu'ii.
2. Wlien two subjects are separated by or or nor, the verb agrees with the latter : neither you nor he ?'•«.< wrong.
(N.B. — This rule is not always adhered to. )
2. USE OF CERTAIN PRONOUNS. 1. Who, that, which, what
which s
who
V
Use
what
t
-> that <-
2. Use as after such, same, so much, so great : They are such as they have ever been.
3. ,, hut = who + not ("The Negative Relative'): There was none hut saw him.
4. ,, what when no antecedent is expressed : I know what you mean.
5. ,, that to describe : The house that Jack built. Thelady that pitied the poor.
/ = and he, \
G. ,, who, which, to trive additional information { . .» ^ ): I knew that
" ' ' '^ \ =and It, etc.,/
the man, who ( =and he) was ill, could not answer.
3. ORDER OF PEE.SONAL PIIGXOUNS. Sing. 2d, 3d, 1st:— You and I ; you and he ; he and I.
Plur. 1st, 2d, 3d : — We and you ; we and they ; you and they.
1. CONCORD.
Ilie Syntax of Adjectives
In O.K. adjs. agreed with their nouns in gender, number, and case. This (pi. these), and that (pi. those) still agree with
their nouns in number. Other adjs., if used in the plural, become nouns: goods.
2. USE OF ADJECTIVES.
(I) attributive: when not separated from its noun by "to be," or other appositioual verb: The 'jood man comes;
he is a good man.
(■-') predicative : when used along with " to be," etc., to form the complement of a sentence: He is good.
N.B. — Certain adjs. are used predicatively only : well, afraid, mine, etc. (and very often), glad, sorry.
(3) factitive : the adjective that follows the object of MAKE (facio), etc.: They made us happy.
(4) as a noun : The good are not always happy.
(.")) as an adverb: Run quick {=quickly). [Explained by loss of the old adverbial termination -e: lirijhti: = hrightly,']
3. USE OF COMPARISON. The Comparative is used for two (Of the two boys, John is the taller); the Superlative for more than two (the tallest of all).
(NoTK. — The "Superlative of pre-eminence" : truest friend = very true friend.)
TABLE XII
SYNTAX (iii)
1. CONCORD. (1) A Finite Verb agrees -n-itli its Subject ( = Nom. Case) in number and person : He ivrites. They urite.
(2) Two singular nominatives joined by and require a plural \-erb : The captain and the mate were there.
N.B. — 1^ The capt.iin ("s wdl as his men) was there. 2'. The captain {ii:iih his men) was there.
(3) Two or more singular subjects joined by or or nor recjuire a singular verb : Either the captain or the mate was there.
X.B. — Either the captain or his men were there.
(4) A collective noun may take cither a singular or a plural verb according to its meaniu;
r Tlie crowd (one by one) have stoned the policemen.
^ ' i The jury (as a body) has chosen a foreman.
(5) Eacli, every, either, neither (as prououns or as adjectives) require a singular verb : Each (boy) knows the rule.
•2. GOVERNMENT. Note carefully (c. Table X.) the cases governed by (1) Ordinary transitive verbs ; (2) MAKE, ASK, TEACH ; (.3) GIVE, etc.
3. USE OF THE MOODS. {>: Table VI.)
Notes ox the Scbju-nx'tive : («) The inflected subj. (now rare) is used after If; though ; (so) that, lest ; till, ere, etc.
(6) The clause introduced by such conjunctions is called the antecedent (subordinate) ; and usually comes first.
The sentence on which it depends is called the consequent (principal) ; and usually comes last.
( (1) The Auxiliaries have, shall, will, do.
Note on the Infixitive :
The Infinitive without to occurs after - (2) may, can, must, let.
[ (3) see, hear, feel : bid, dare, make, etc.
i. SEQUENCE OF TENSES. (1) Contemporaneous actions should be expressed in the same tense.
N.B. — The HlBtoric Present (i.e. a. present tense to describe vividly a ]»ast event) may occasionally be used.
(2) Tlie verb in a dependent clause must have the tense of the verb in the principal sentence.
V. Syntax of Adverbs
vie Syntax; of Preposition^
(n) Place the adverb as near as pes- > (a) All prepositions govern a noun or a pronoun in the objec-
sible to the word it modifies.
{Ii) Some adverbs seem to govern
prepositions. In reality they
govern the prepositional
phrase.
lie ran down to the sm.
tive case.
CO Prepositions usually precede the word they govern : some-
times they may come after the relative.
I did not know the gentleman that you spoke to.
(c) Certain verbs, nouns, adjectives, require special prepositions :
profit by, need of or for, dependent on.
viie Syntax of Conjunctions
"The Conjunction does not interfere with
the action of a transitive verb or a pre-
position, nor with the mood or the
tense of a verb."
They are like him and wr.
The boy neither ale, nor alloKcd his sister to
eat.
INTERJECTIONS have no syntax, that is, no grammatical connection with other words in the sentence.
TABLE XIII
KINDS OF SENTENCES
It is usu:il to say that there are three kinds of sentences : Simple, Compound, and Complex. These, with their differences, are tabulated below.
But very commonly vre meet with sentences that are at once compound and complex ; with others that are contracted ; and with yet others that are
elliptical. Thus : —
Simple : The su7i rises.
Compound : One cometh and another gocth.
Complex : Tdl me, ifyoxt know.
Compound and Complex : Come and tell me when you su him.
Contracted (omitted part common to both) : Jam^s (went) and John went.
Elliptical (omitted part not common to both) : He is taller than I am (tatl).
SIMPLE.
COMPOUND.
COMPLEX.
FINITE VERBS
one.
at least two.
at lea.st two.
CLAUSES,
Two or more Coordinate (of equal rank).
One Principal, and at least one Subordinate
(dependent).
CONNECTIVES,
Coordinate Conjunctions.
1. AND, etc. (Cumulative).
2. BUT, etc. (Adversative).
3. EITHER... OR, etc. (Alternative).
4. THEREFORE, etc. (Illative).
Subordinate Conjunctions or Relative Words.
IF, Wlln,
THAT, <VBEX,
THOUGH, WHERE,
etc. etc.
CAUTIONS IX ANALYSIS.
A. Words omitted :—
(1) The subject :
(2) The predicate :
(3) After than and c
Go (thou).
James (wen!) and John went, lie is taller than I (am tall).
: lie looks as (he tcould look) if he were ill.
Supply all omitted words before attempting to analyse.
B. Relative sentences:—
(1) .Vre not always subordinate : /( was wet, which (=and this) was disappointing.
(2) If subordinate, they may be Noun clauses or vVdjective clauses:
/ heard who spoke ( =noun).
The thief that stole the money vms caught ( =adj.).
(3) Tlie Relative Adverbs may introduce Noun or Adjective clauses :
/ know where your book i5( = noun).
/ saw th-- ..r,,,... uhrre the great traveller rcsb (=adj.).
TABLE XIV
ANALYSIS
1. Language presents us not only with single words, but with various kinds of groups of words.
2. GROUPS OF WORDS with ,
No Finite Verb = PHRASE
(Expressing a
meaning)
A Finite Verb = SENTENCE
{Expressing a
thought)
[ STATEMENT
f Principal
or - QUESTION
Independent [ COMMAND
Test:
Can generally stand alone, although preceded by
(coordinating) conjunction.
James came. Ami John went.
Dependent
r NOUN
or I Cannot generally stand alone, if preceded by
CLAUSE = -[ ADJECTIVE ]- (subordinating) conjunction.
James came, because John went.
[ ADVERB J
a mao that U wise.
a man of wlBdom [ clal'SE
3. Word, Phrase, Clause : Tlie same meaning may sometimes be expressed in three ways : a wUe man | phkase
WORD
4. A sentence, then, is a combination of words expressing a complete thought.
5. To analyse a sentence is to take it to pieces for the purpose of ascertaining how its parts are related.
G. Every sentence must consist of at least two parts : the thing spoken of ( = THE SUBJECT) ; what is said about it ( = THE PREDICATE).
7. In Analysis, Enlargement means the relation existing between Noun and Adjective ; and Extension, that between Verb and Adverb, etc. Wherever,
therefore, a noun occurs in tlie sentence there may be an enlargement ; and similarly there may be an extension of any verb, adjective, or
adverb.
TABLE XV
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES
LOGICAL
L(J(_;ICAL
S U h J
e c t
Predicate
EXLAROESrEXT
GRiMMATICAL
SUBJECT
GRAMMATICAL
PREDICATE
OBJECT or
COMPLEMENT
EXTENSIOX
ADJECTIVE or FOE-ADJECTIVE
NOUN or FOR.KOnN
riNIIE VERB
ADVERB or FOR-ADVERB
INCOMPLETE PREDICATE.
1
OBJECT.
r
•1. oneaccr,- :•■.
' 1. Adjective.
' 1. Noun.
2 Pronoun.
Direct •
2. two accus. aftvr
MAKE, ASK, etc.
3. acc.+inf.
|- 1. Adverb .
1 2. Adjective used as Ad ,
I verb. J
WORD
■:. Possessive Case.
' 3. Adjective used as Noun.
1. Transitive Verb.
.4. acc+partic.
. 3. Noun in Apposition.
4. Verbal Noun.
Gerund.
Direct )
and Vs. after GIVE, etc.
Indirect)
_ .. (G. After .some Im-
[Indirect; personal Verbs.
' 4. Adjective Phrase.
3. Participle r
Participial Plirase.
6. Gerundial Infinitive.
^ 7. Prepositional Phrase
'■'. Infinitive.
2. Appositional or
Copulative Verb.
[I'.g. TO BE (when not = to exist). )
CON
A. Noun
■J Adjecti
3. Adverb
.4. Phrase
1PLEMENT.
■■;. Noun Phrase.
1. Participial Phrase
(esp. DomiD. absol.).
'. Gerundial Infinitive.
c. Adverb Phrase.
1
, 7. Prepositional Phrase, j
PHRASE
r For-Noun.
ve or For Adjective
or For-Adverb
(adverbial).
COMPLETE PREDICATE.
r 7. Quotation.
3. Intransitive Verb.
CLAUSE
^. Adjective Clause.
i s Noun Clause.
s. Adverb Clause.
WORD
PHRASE
CLAUSE
A4J. Fhr. -.i hoy careless o/coyidu<-t. Prep. Phr. flowers in (/i(" U'ow/:.-. Noon Fhr. hand in, haiut.
Adj. ouoia : This is the house that Judc buitl. Nosn ClaoM : We know tluit this is true.
Adv. Phr. vcri/ well indeetl. Qnot. "lYo, sir/" he replied.
Adverb CUom : He spoke as a man should .«j)caA-.
TABLE XVI
SCHEMES FOR ANALYSIS d)
Of the following schemes for aualysis, II. is superior to I. and ought to he adopted by at least advanced pupils ; III. and IV.
will often be found useful to show at a glance the inter-relation of the parts of a sentence. The comparative merits of the schemes
can best be shown b}' the working out of an example.
' But know we not that he, who intermits
The appointed task and duties of the day,
Untunes full oft the pleasures of the day.
Checking the finer spirits that refuse
To flow, when purposes are lightly changed?"
( Wordsworth.)
SCHEjME I.
SEXTEXCE
KIND OF SENTENCE
CONNECTIVE
ENLARGEMENT
OF SUBJECT
SUBJECT ,
PREDICATE
ENLARGEMENT
OF OBJECT
ORIFCT EXTENSION OF
OBJECT PREDICATE
A. But know we not
Principal Sentence
But
we
: ..- .- ij :..: ,. , 'ion) .
1 1
B. that he untunes full oft
the pleasures of the
day checking the finer
si'irits
Subordinate
Noun Obj. of know in sen-
tence A
that
checking the finer
spirits
he
untunes
the
of the day
pleasures
1
full oft idegrce)
C. who intermits the ap-
pointed task (of the
day)
Subordinate
Adjective to he in sen-
tence B
who
who
intermits
the appointed
(of the day)
task
D. and (who intermits the
appointed) duties of
the day
Subordinate
Adjective to he in sen-
tence B. Co-ordinate
(cumulative) with C
and
(who)
(intermits)
(the appointed)
of the day
duties
E. that refuse to flow
Subordinate
Adjective to s^pirtfj in sen-
tence B
that
that
refuse
to flow
F. when purposes are
lightly changctl
Subordinate
Adverb {time) to ir/usc in
sentence E
v.-hvn
•
purposes
are changed
when {time)
liglitly (cause)
TABLE XVII
SCHEMES
FOR ANALYSIS ")
SCHEME II.
(i) GENERAL ANALYSIS
(ii) DETAILED ANALYSIS
A. But know we not Principal Sentence.
(Sentence. B for example. )
B. that he untunes full Subordinate Xouu Clause,
1. that connective. 6. the pleasures obj. (with attrib. of 3).
oft the pleasures, etc. obj. of l-now in A.
'J. he subj. of 3. 7. of the day prep, (adj.) phr. to 6.
etc. etc.
3. untunes pred. of 2. 8. checking partic. (adj.) to 2.
4. full adv. (f/(,7i-ff) to5. !l. the finer adjs. to 10.
.5. oft adv. (/(Wt)to3. 10. spirits obj. of 8.
SCHEME III.
SCHEME IV.
"MAPPING OUT"
TO EXHIBIT DEGREES OF SUBORDINATION
{Sentence B for exiunph. )
Ijet P = principal sentence
Read a' = noun clause in the
full
1
n = noun clause
first degree of subordination,
(that)
e untunes oft
tlie \ the
a = adj. clause
a = ad^'. clause
etc.
chec
king spirits \pleasurea
Thus the Complex sentence of Scheme I. may be thus symbolically repre-
sented :
P, n', a=
finer of the day.
a= or even thus —
a=, 0?
The connections between principal sentences might be thus shown :
Let+ =AND, etc.,-=crT, etc., ^ =or, etc, .•.= therefore, etc.
TABLE XVIII
SCH
* Contractions to be usc<
EME FOR PARSING
L in parsing. Short words like Noun, Verb^ should not be contracted.
NOUN
THE VERB FINITE
1. Kind:
*Prop., Com., Abstr., Coll.
1. Kind : Trans., Appos. (orCopul.), lutrans.
2. Number
Sing., Plur.
2. Conjugation : Weak, Strong.
3. Gender :
Maso., Feni., Com., Neut.
3. Voice : Act. , Pass.
4. Case :
Nom., Poss., Dir. Obj,, ludir. Obj., Nom.
4. Mood: Lidic., Imper., Subj.
of Addr.
_ J (a) Time: Prcs., Past, Put.
\ {h) State: Indef., Imperf., Perf.
5. Syntax :
.Subj. of , Obj. of , in apposit.
■with , etc.
G. Person : 1st, 2nil, 3rJ.
7. Number: Sing., Plur.
PRONOUN
j" ((() Subj. (For every linite verb.)
S. Syntax : - ('O Objs. (For every trans, verb.)
V ('-■) Comple. (For every appos. verb.)
1. Kind:
Pers., l)em., Interrog. , P^el., Iiidef.
2. Person :
1st, 2na, 3rd.
9. Parts: I'res. Indio., Past Indie, I'ass. Partic.
3. Number
Sing., Plur.
4. Gender :
Maso., Fern., Com., Neut.
THE VERB INFINITE
5. Case :
Nom., Poss., Dir. Obj., Indir. Obj., Nom.
INFINITIVE
GERUND
PARTICIPLE
of Addr.
1. Kind: Trans. Appos. I titrans.
1. Kind: Trans.
1. Kind: Tnms. Appo.s. Intrans.
• (a) Subj. of , Ohj. of , in .appos. with
2. Cor^. : Weak, Strong.
•-'. Con]. : Weak, Strong.
2. ConJ. : Weak, Strong.
, etc.
;!. Voice : Act., Pass.
3. Voice : Act.
3. Voice : Act., Pass.
C. Syntax :
• (1/) Antcced. . (For Relatives.)
(c) Attrib. of . (For rosses.sives and all adj.
■1. InSnitivo Mood.
4. Genind.
4. Partic.
prons.)
ADJECTIVE
r (") Time : Prcs., rasi,
. Flit.
:>. Tense ; -
CO State : ;>;*■/, Imi>/.,
I Per/., Prog.
5. Case : Nom., Obj.
/• (d) Time: Pres., Past,
""'• 1 (?,) state: Indcf.,
I imj)/.. Per/.
1. Kind:
Qual., Quant. (Numb.), Dem.
2. Degree :
Pos. , Compar. , Snperl.
r («) Noun.
•;. Used a3 - (1/) Adj. (Gcrundial).
[ (c) Adv. (Gerundial).
r (u) See Syntax of
fi. Syntax: .J Noun.
[ (6) Obj.
f (n) See Syntax of
3. Syntax :
Attrib. of , Predic. of , used fao-
C. Syntax:] Adj.
titively.
i (6) Obj.
I (d) See Syntax of Xoun,
r. Syntajt:- Adj., Adv.
I ((,) Obj.
ADVERB
1. Kind:
Time, Place, M.an., Deg., Cause, etc.
\
2. Degree :
Pos., Compar., Superl.
CONJUNCTIONS
3. Syntax :
Qualif. .
1. Kind: Co-ord., Snlxird.
PREPOSITION
2. Syntax; Joining (subj. + verb) to (subj. + verb).
I . Syntax :
r {a) Gov.
l {Ij) Joining to .
INTERJECTIONS
I. Interjection, expressing suriuiso. iKiiii. etc.
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