VIICL 
 
 -fi^:-*Tfi— -. , , 
 
 ATT..V 

 
 1 
 
 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES 
 
 GIFT OF 
 
 i^atherine Burchell Siemon
 
 PROFESSOR MEIKLEJOHN'S SERIES 
 
 AN ATLAS 
 
 OF 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 
 
 TO BE USED Al>OXO ^VITH ALL (iRAMMAIlS 
 
 BY 
 
 EASTON S. VALENTINE, M.A. 
 
 SKCONl) KNGI.ISII MASTEli IN lllE MICH SCIIOOI, OK DINDEK 
 
 LONDON: SlMl'KIN, M A I! S II A I, J.. HAMILTON, K 1-, N T and CO., I.im. 
 ST. AN 1) i; I. WS, N.H. : I'ubl.sheil by A. M. IIOLDLN 
 
 lidinbHrnh ,■ T. is- A. Coustabie, Pnttltn ta Her Majesfy.
 
 PREFACE 
 
 
 lice 
 
 It is the purjjose of this hook to present in a series of Tables the 
 Parts of Speech, the Syntax and the Analj'sis of English Sentences, and 
 .thus to furnish a bird's-eye view of Grammar as taught in Schools. 
 Since each Table may be regarded as a map in which the learner has 
 constantly before him the relation of the part to the whole, the name 
 Atlas of Grammar may seem not inapplicable. 
 
 Clear mapping-out being thus the chief aim, details and exceptions 
 have been as far as possible avoided. But though mere word-lists of 
 irregularities in gender, number, comparison, conjugation, etc., must be 
 sought for in Grammars whose purpose is exhaustive treatment and not 
 pictorial design, the place of the most important exceptions has been 
 noted, and so noted as to make the learning of them easy. Throughout, 
 indeed, the object has been to make the eye assist both the understanding 
 and the memorj'. The fault of most Grammars — even of the best^for 
 school purposes, is that the pupil has too many explanations to read. 
 He mistakes the unimportant for the essential, faOs to distinguish between 
 what ha.s merely to be read, and what is meant to be committed to 
 memory ; in short, he cannot see the wood for trees. But, if such ex- 
 planations be given in class by the teacher, and the principles, as here 
 tabulated, be committed to memory by the pupil, a great gain will be 
 effected in time, in interest, and in firmness of gr;\.sp. Nor does the 
 \ise of this book restrict the teacher to a deductive method ; these tables 
 will prove useful as recapitulations of lessons in which the definitions 
 have been reached inductively. Time saved from mere book-work may 
 well be devoted to systematic practice, to which in importance it stands in 
 inverse ratio. A thorough-going set of Exerci.ses and Examination Papers 
 has been prepared to accompany Professor Meiklejohn's Grammar of the 
 English Tongue. 
 
 The Atlas of Grammar will perhaps be most effectively used if the 
 teacher wiU build up on the black-board the Table, or the part of the 
 Table, that forms the day's lesson, questioning and explaining as he goes 
 along. And it is thought not unreasonable to claim that the pupil who can 
 reproduce these Tables with intelligence will possess a very fair knowledge 
 of the leading principles of grammar. This book — which may be used 
 along with any Grammar — is adapted for (1) Junior Classes, the definitions 
 being simple and yet accurate ; (2) Senior Classes, where a rapid revisal of 
 the work of previous sessions is required ; (3) Students in Training 
 Colleges, for whom it is all-important to know how best to place on the 
 lilack-board a lesson in the subject they are teaching ; and (4) Candidates 
 for University local and prehminary examinations, or for the Civil Ser- 
 vice. 
 
 In preparing these Tables I have made constant use of such standard 
 Grammars as those of Abbott, Mason, Meiklejohn, and Morris. 
 
 I cannot conclude without acknowledging the kindly sympathy and 
 the valuable suggestions of many professional friends, and especially the 
 encouragement and ready help of Professor ^Meiklejohn, St. Andrews ; G. R. 
 Merry, Esq., LL.D., Rector, High School, Dundee ; J. B. Charles, Esq., 
 ^I.A., Head English Master, High School, Dundee ; and A. T. Watson, 
 Esq., M.A., Rector, Dumbarton Academy. 
 
 Any criticisms, suggestions, or corrections that readers of the Atlas of 
 Grammar may fovour me with will be highly valued. 
 
 EASTON S. VALENTINE. 
 
 July 1890. 
 
 80S924
 
 TABLE I 
 
 DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR 
 
 E, DefltnitloB. of Qramniar 
 
 Grammar is the science of language ; that is, the systematic statement of tlie facts and laws of words. 
 
 lie Divisions of Graniniap 
 
 Orthography ( = the Grammar of Letters) ; Etymology ( = the Grammar of Words) ; Syntax ( = the Grammar of Sentences). 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY 
 
 Orthography treats of sounds and their written signs — Letters. 
 
 The Alphabet is tlie complete collection of letters used in the language. [Greek a, ^ = Engli'ih a, b, (c).] 
 
 In an alphabet the rule ought to be, ( I ) One sound, one letter ; (2) One letter, one sound. 
 
 The English Alphabet is very inconsistent : e.(/. (1) There are 43 sounds but only 2G letters ; (2) Several letters hav^ more than one sound. 
 
 (cp. the long a sound ia/ate, sleigh, gauge, etc.) (cp. a ia/ather, want, all, favie, etc.) 
 
 
 TEST 
 
 /'SIMPLE VOWELS 
 
 HOW FORMED EXAMPLES 
 
 = the breath unchecked «. f. ', o, «, (w), 0/). 
 
 
 VOWELS : 
 
 pronounced without 
 aid of other letters 
 
 (Iieard in) 
 
 LETTERS 
 
 
 DIPHTHONGS 
 
 = two vowels sounded together "<>">. We. Mgh, m«(«, boy. 
 
 
 /-SPIRANTS 
 
 = the breath peuilij check, d r I . Tliroat (GDTTDRALS) ; A ; k,g. ^ 
 
 
 CONSONANTS 
 
 11 ('i, etc.) 
 pronounced only 
 
 with aid of vowels 
 
 2. Palate (PALATALS) : »■, y ; j, ch. 
 "'^'"1 3. Teeth (DENTALS) ; l,s,z;t, d, n. 
 
 
 ,MUTE3 
 (/.-, etc.) 
 
 = the breath tcholbj checked [i. Lips (LABIALS) ; /, v; p, b, m. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Etymology treats of (1) the Inflexion, (-) the Classification, (3) the Derivation of words. 
 
 [SYNTAX (c. Table X.).]
 
 TABLE II 
 
 PARTS OF SPEECH 
 
 There are eight classes of words or parts of speech. 
 
 AVol'ils are classified in English according to the duty that they perform in a sentence. 
 Tims, " iron" Jnay be nnnn, adj , or verb. 
 
 INTERRELATIONS OF thk CHIEF PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 ADJECTIVE 
 
 NOUN 
 
 (or PRONOUN) 
 
 ADVERB 
 
 VERB 
 
 THE RKM.MNING PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 (a) LINK AVORDS 
 
 PREPOSITION 
 
 CONJUNCTION 
 
 (//) extra-c;ra]mmati('al utteeanx'e. 
 
 INTERJECTION 
 
 Definitioiis of th© Parts of SpgeeJi 
 
 1. A Noun is a Ivor J used as a name. 
 
 2. A Pronoun is a word used for a noun. 
 
 3. An Adjective is a word usc<l with a noun. 
 
 I wli.-it a tiling does. 
 
 is a word tliat tells • wliat is done to a thing. 
 
 ( ill what state a thing exists. 
 
 ( when ? V 
 
 f where '' ' 
 T). An Adverb marks -', . . ' ,■ about a Verb, an Adj. or another Adv. 
 
 ■1. A Verb 
 
 (how ? i 
 Of. why? / 
 
 G. A Preposition is a word that joins words. 
 
 7. A Conjunction is a word that joins sentences. 
 
 8. An Interjection is 
 
 a mere exclamation.
 
 TABLE ITI 
 
 NOUNS 
 
 -^ 
 
 I, Defia£tioa 
 A Noun is a word used as a name. 
 
 II. Kisds Qt Nouns 
 
 I PROPER = a person's or place's own name : 
 
 N U N S -| I CLASS NAMES =the name of eacU individual in the same class of tliinf: 
 
 I. COMMON COLLECTIVE =the name of a coUection of individuals : 
 
 <- ABSTRACT = the name of a quality, an action, a state, a science : 
 
 Sliahespeare, London. 
 
 boy, tree, bread. 
 
 cnvalrij,jary. 
 
 whiteness, to plaij, sleqi, grammar. 
 
 in, iisfllexions of Nouns 
 
 Nouns are inflected (changed in form) to mark Gender, Number, Case. 
 
 (a) GENDER 
 
 The form of the Noun that indicites the Stale or the Female Sex. 
 
 MASCULINE 
 
 COMMON 
 
 {thither) 
 
 NEUTER 
 
 (.neither) 
 
 r-en-Bter viztn{-ihc.fox], tj>iitster. 
 
 Three ways of marking gender in English : — (I) Suffixes - -ess .o™tr,-<i. anrc, ii«ncss. 
 
 ^^ -Ine .a -trix Acroijie, U^fitia, tettatrix. 
 
 i' man- timn.Krvnnt, 
 maid- yitaiU-Krvant. 
 
 [Z) rrenxes -. ^'- fc'.joar. 
 
 ""^^ ific-goat. 
 
 I the 
 I etc. 
 
 (b) NUMBER 
 
 Tlie form of the noun that imlicates one or more thau one. 
 I 
 
 f/dther. 
 
 (3) Distinct Words - "CSfr. 
 
 V etc. tU. 
 
 The Plural is formed from the Sinsulai 
 
 SINGULAR (.'"'■ o'u)- PLURAL (/'"' ™o™ Ihon ojif). 
 
 (I) (iiriil ti.siuillj) by adding -s or -es. hooks, hrushes ; (■_') by adding -en, oxen ; 
 
 (:i) by vowel change, men.' 
 
 CO CASE 
 
 The form, or function, of the Xoun that shows relationship to other words in the sentence. 
 
 NAME OF TASE. | NOMINATIVE POSSESSIVE (rjenUU-e) 
 
 rsE OK CASE. Kuhjtct (if Veil.. , M.ivk.s ownership. 
 
 TKST tjt'EsTlo.v. who? what? whose ? of what ? 
 
 TERMINATION. | (lost). I 's, ', s' (oftfll). 
 
 I 
 
 OBJECTIVE {accusative) \ OBJECTIVE [dative) 
 
 Direct Object of Trans. Verb or Prcii, 
 
 whom ? what 7 
 
 (lost). 
 
 Indirect Object of Verb. 
 
 to, or for whom 7 or what 7 
 
 (lost). 
 
 NOM. OF ADDRESS {I'OCativf) 
 
 Aa inlcrjcctional use. 
 
 The Possessive Case i^ tbe only one inflected in modern Knglish nonns. 
 
 To form the Possessive Case adtl to the - 
 
 I Singular 'S (unless euphony forbids) : 
 
 's when the Plural ends in -en, or is formed by Vowel Change : 
 
 ( ^ 
 Plxiral ^ » ^viien the Plural ends in -a or -ci : 
 
 John's, C urns' s (Moses'). 
 
 cxen's, men's. 
 
 poets' , foxes' , ladies', thieve^'. 
 
 ■;: For rccvdiaritics in Ntimber, etc next page.
 
 Appendix to TABLE III 
 
 PECULIARITIES IN NUMBER 
 
 -a lias its own (sharp) soond 
 
 after 
 
 p, k, t ; th, t : 
 
 taps, books, cats ', baths, beliefs. 
 
 PLURALS IN -s 
 
 J 
 
 -a has the (flat) sound of z 
 
 after 
 
 b, ff, d ; dh ; m, n, 1, r : 
 
 sUibSt dogSj rods ; tnouths ; rams, pans, toils, stars. 
 
 PLURALS IN' -es 
 
 -(ve)3 
 
 Saxon words ending in 
 
 ■"-('Toror')+'w 
 
 change -f into -ve before -■ : 
 wolrw, yfives ; but bri^s, rooys. 
 
 -es 
 
 sometimes after -o 
 
 and after 
 
 ah, ch (soft), a, z, I, J : 
 
 heroes, churches, boxes, etc. 
 
 -(ie)s 
 
 -y after a consonant becomes -ie : 
 
 lad-ie-s ; 
 
 [but -y after a vowel remains] 
 
 toys. 
 
 TWO PLtmAlS 
 brothers ; brethren. 
 
 FALSE SINGTH^R 
 JKO. 
 
 4 
 
 FALSE fLUBAL 
 
 riehcs. 
 
 PLTmAL USED AS SINGTTLAB 
 news. 
 
 NO SIHGtTLAR 
 
 tongs. 
 
 i 
 
 SIKGITLAR OE PLTJIIAL 
 
 sheep. 
 
 f 
 
 NO PLTTRAL 
 
 shame. 
 
 CHANGE OF UEANINQ 
 
 spectacle, spectacles. 
 
 FOREIGN PLURAL 
 indkes. 
 
 NATURALISED PLURAL 
 
 indexes. 
 
 PLURALS OF COMPOUNDS 
 sons-in-Uiic, major-generah, m-.n-servants.
 
 TABLE IV 
 
 PRONOUNS 
 
 I, DefinitiQa 
 
 A Pronoun is a Mord used for a noun. 
 Many pronouns are n.sed as adjectives. 
 
 II, Kinds of Ffonouas 
 PRONOUNS 
 
 DEMONSTRATIVE 
 
 Point out definitely 
 the thing named 
 
 This, that, yon, 
 so, BQch, same. 
 
 For Persons or THings use | ^^\\ ^ ^^^^,j^ 
 
 (Tr7ta( hoy? tvliat paper ?) 
 
 
 PERSONAL 
 
 Xame the persor 
 
 
 1 
 
 speaking 
 Ist 
 
 I, we: 
 
 1 
 spoken to. 
 
 thou, yon ; 
 
 Spoken of. 
 
 Srd 
 he, 
 Ehe, they, 
 
 It. 
 
 INTERROGATIVE 
 
 Used in asking 
 questions 
 
 Who (-ever) ? what (-ever) ? 
 which (-ever)? 
 
 For Persons use who ? 
 
 RELATIVE 
 
 (1) Refer to noun already stated, 
 
 =^ ANTECEDENT 
 
 (2) Join sentences. 
 Who(-ever. -soever), what(-ever. -soever). 
 
 which, that, as, hat. 
 
 INDEFINITE 
 
 Do not ]mint out (iel'mitcly 
 the thing named 
 
 one, aaght, any, some, 
 other, etc. 
 
 T- ™.- fwhicli? 
 
 ^•"^^^^^"^nwliatUpron.). 
 
 What docs he sa>j ?) 
 
 HI, InfiLexigns of Hronouas 
 
 Pronouns, like Xouns, are inflected to mark Gender, Number, Case. 
 Pronouns retain case-endings ; Xouns (except in tlie Possessive Case) do not. 
 
 IVe Declensloa of Pronouns 
 
 FIRST PERSON 
 
 SECOND PERSON 
 
 THIRD PERSON 
 
 INTERROGATIVE AND RELATIVE 
 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 MASCHLINE FEMININE 
 
 NEDTER 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 ALL GENDERS 
 
 SINGULAR AND 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 MASCCLINE FEinNINE 
 
 NEUTER 
 
 XoM. 
 
 I 
 
 wo 
 
 thou 
 
 you, ye 
 
 he she 
 
 it 
 
 they 
 
 who who 
 
 what 
 
 PoiS. 
 
 mine, my 
 
 our, ours 
 
 thtoe, thy 
 
 your, youra 
 
 his her, hers 
 
 Its 
 
 their, theirs 
 
 whose whose 
 
 [whose 1 
 
 OliJ. 
 
 me 
 
 us 
 
 thee 
 
 you 
 
 him her 
 
 It 
 
 them 
 
 whom whom 
 
 what 
 
 DAT. 
 
 me 
 
 us 
 
 thee 
 
 you 
 
 him her 
 
 It 
 
 them 
 
 whom whom 
 
 
 
 Voc. 
 
 
 
 
 thou 
 
 you, ye 
 
 
 
 
 
 — - 
 
 

 
 TABLE V 
 
 ADJECTIVES 
 
 I, Defiaitioa 
 
 An Adjective is a word that goes with, (or qualifies) a Noun. 
 
 If it stands close to its noun, it is used attributively; if separated from it by "to be." etc., it is used predicatively. (f. Table XI.) 
 
 He Kinds Qf Adjectives 
 
 ,of what sort?=aajs. of QUALITY, including most adjectives and all participles : white .-nwir : the coming yi-ar, fallen hares. 
 
 TEST QCEsTiovs J '^"^ ™^'^'^' I- =adis. of QUANTITY, „ indefinite words and cardinal numbers : much .s-/!. <»■. some ror/i ; ten men. 
 
 I how many? • 
 
 Which? = DEMONSTRATIVE adjs. „ ordinal numbers, articles, adj. -pronoun.s : the first ;(?ac(' ; that /ioxsi;, my ^jc». 
 
 HI. InflexiQtts of Adjectives 
 
 111 0. E. Adjectives were inflected for Gender, Number, and Case. 
 This (pi. these), and that (pi. those), still have Numlier. Other adjectives are inflected for Comparison only. 
 
 COMPARISON 
 
 mere possession of the quality - POSITIVE 1 - 
 
 Degrees | possession of the quality in a higher degreel = COMPARATIVeI formed from the positive by adding -J'" IM orbyusi..«| ™°" 
 
 possessionortliequalityintliehlEhestdegrcc'-= SUPERLATIVE j IS 
 
 hard\, hanJtT. AarJest. litcnt. moTt rilrut. mostli/t^f. 
 
 ten\Jer, UnJcrtTt tcndcrett. bfau,ti'/ut. more WatttifttJ, molt b'^atitiful. 
 
 N.B.— Some aJJeetivcs .ire irregularly compared, e.g. jworf, txttcr, Uu; otliers, lv.-ca>isc o( tlicir meaning, cannot be compared, e.g. tiuare. 
 
 1 Tlie Comparative Degree is used when two thing* are comp.\re<l. 
 3 Tlie Superlaliro ., three ..
 
 TABLE VI 
 
 VERBS (i) 
 
 ♦^ 
 
 A Verb is a word that tells (1) what a thing does, (2) what is done to a tiling, {">) in what state a thing exists. 
 
 TRANSITIVE 
 
 (Object required) 
 
 ACTIVE 
 
 (to wrilc) 
 
 PASSIVE 
 (to he written') 
 
 II, Kinds of Verbs 
 
 APPOSITIONAL 
 
 (Comi'lement required) 
 ((0 le) 
 
 INTRANSITIVE 
 
 (No object required) 
 
 ACTIVE 
 
 (tomtt) 
 
 NEVTEB 
 
 ((0 shcp) 
 
 llle Inflexions of Verbs 
 
 VOICE 
 
 Active Passive 
 
 MOOD 
 
 TENSE 
 
 NUMBER 
 
 PERSON 
 
 CONJUGATION 
 
 I 
 
 I I r 
 
 Infinitive Present Past 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Indicative Subjunctive Iiniierativc Infinitive Present Past Future Singular Plural First Second Third Strong Weak 
 
 (a) VOICE 
 
 f (Active) -, 
 
 That form of the verb which shows whether the subject is (I) J the doer \ 
 
 l,(IIere the subject acts). J 
 
 (b) MOOD 
 
 The way, or mode, in which the action is stated. 
 
 .- (Passive) -, 
 
 ov(2) J the real object of the action ' 
 
 Ullt're the subject is acted upon), j 
 
 Verb Finite 
 
 (That part of the verb which is limited by Person and Number.) 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 (1) States a fact. 
 
 (2) Asks a direct question. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 Expresses doubt, possibility, wish, etc., 
 as a conception of the speaker. 
 
 Verb Infinite 
 
 (That part of the Verb which is unlimited by Person and Number.) 
 
 1 
 
 IMPERATIVE 
 
 Gives 
 a command. 
 
 I 
 INFINITIVE 
 
 Usually preceded by "to" 
 =Noun, Adjective, or Adverb. 
 
 GERUND 
 
 A nouu in -ing with verbal powers, 
 
 i.e. followed by an object. 
 
 (catchinff fish) 
 
 PARTICIPLE 
 
 A Verbal adjtcti\e. 
 
 SIMPLE COMPLEMENTAKT GEKtJNDIAL 
 
 The action is stated as Forms a complex object With a noun =au adjective 
 
 a noun, and is subject or or a complex subject With adjectives and verbs = an adverb 
 object of a verb 
 
 (To uw/fc is pleasant) (Hike a thief /o IcmujAO (a house /o k() 
 
 (I like (0 read) (The boy was ordered to go) (apples good to eat) 
 
 [ 1 
 
 PRESENT PASSIVE 
 
 An adjective in -Ing with verbal An a^ljocti^■o in -on, -ed, or -t. 
 jxfwers. 
 
 (The boy, seeing the dog, ran) (lirolen stones, lovetl ones)
 
 TABLE Vir 
 
 VERBS (ii) 
 
 «■ 
 
 (0) TENSE 
 
 Verl'S liave various forms to mark (1) the Tense (—time), (2) the State of the action. 
 
 TENSE= 
 
 STATE rTIME 
 
 PRESENT TIME 
 
 PAST TIME 
 
 FUTURE TIME 
 
 INDEFINITE STATE .... 
 
 (a) I take 
 
 (b) I am taken 
 
 (a) I tool! 
 
 (b) I was taken 
 
 (a) I shall take 
 
 (b) I shall be taken 
 
 IMPERFECT STATE .... 
 
 (a) I am taking (a) I was taking 
 
 (b) I am being taken (b) I was being taken 
 
 (a) I shall be taking 
 (b) 
 
 PERFECT STATE 
 
 (a) I have taken 
 
 (b) I have been taken 
 
 (a) I had taken 
 
 (b) I had been taken 
 
 (a) I shall have taken 
 
 (b) I shall have been taken 
 
 PERFECT +CONTINnOOS .... 
 
 (a) I liave been taking ' (a) I had been taking 
 
 (a) I .shall have been taking 
 
 EMPHATIC FORM 
 
 (a) I do take (a) I did take 
 
 
 NEQATITE FORM 
 
 (a) I do not take (a) I did not take 
 
 
 INTEBB0GAH7E FOEM .... 
 
 (a) Do I take? (a) Did I take? 
 
 
 (a) Active. (b) I'assive. 
 
 Auxiliaries 
 
 In tlie above table all tenses except "take" and "took" are formed by means of tlie Auxiliary ( = helping) verbs,— 
 
 Use - 
 
 BE, HAVE, SHALL, WILL, DO. 
 
 BE along with a participle for (a) Imperfect State, (b) Pasalve Voice. 
 
 SHALL (will) in the Future Tenses. 
 
 HAVE in the Perfect Tenses. 
 
 DO in Interrogative. Negative, an-l Emphatic Sentences. 
 
 (d) PERSON and (e) NUMBER 
 
 The form of the verb that shows whether the Subject is 
 
 ^ First, .Second, or Third Person (v. Pronouns), 
 \Singular or Plural Number (v. Nouits). 
 
 Old Forms still found 
 
 Forms now in vsr 
 
 Personal Endings 
 
 Singular | 
 
 I I I 
 
 12 3 
 
 -t - _ _ _ 
 
 (nrl) . 
 
 -St -th, -S _ _ _ 
 
 -St - _. _ _ 
 
 I'roin the above it will be seen tlmt there are few inflcxious of verbs in modern English. Indeed, itreng verbs have but ieven forms, and weak but six : 
 
 Strong verb: take, takest, taketh or Ukei ; took, tookit ; taking, takeo. 
 
 Wcakver}}; love, loveat, loveth or loves; loved, lovedat ; loving. 
 
 I Past)
 
 TABLE VIII 
 
 VERBS (iii) 
 
 (0 CONJUGATION 
 
 Tlie complete collection of the various forms of the Verb. 
 
 I 
 
 STRONG 
 
 (No letter added to form the past tense) 
 
 FORMATION 
 
 PRIKCIrA 
 PARTS 
 
 (Pres. Indie. 
 Past Indie. 
 Pass. Partic. 
 
 REGULAR 
 
 Past Indie. 
 \_Passive Partie. 
 
 Vowel change 
 no letter added 
 -en (frequently) 
 
 ( Xo vowel change 
 l.-(c)d or -t added 
 -(e)d or -t „ 
 
 rise love learn 
 
 rose loved, learned, learnt 
 
 risen loved, learned, learnt 
 
 (^ Vowel change 
 \-d or -t added 
 
 tell, teach 
 told, taught 
 told, taught 
 
 WEAK 
 
 (-ed, -d, or -t added to form the past tense) 
 
 IRREGTOAR 
 
 I" Vowel change 
 l-d or -t lost 
 
 feed set 
 
 fed ( = fed -de) set (-te) 
 fed ( = fed-cd) set (t-ed) 
 
 Contracted 
 
 build 
 
 have 
 
 had ( = haved) built ( = builded) 
 
 had ( = haved) built ( = builded) 
 
 SOME PECULIARITIES IX CONJUGATION. 
 
 PARTLY STRONG, PARTLY WEAK. 
 
 go gone 
 
 went 
 
 ONCE STRONG, KOW WEAK. 
 
 brew, brewed, brewed. 
 
 DEFECTIVE. 
 
 Bhall, should,   
 
 ONCE WEAK, NOW STBOSO. 
 
 Stick, stuck, stuck. 
 
 STRONG AND WEAK. 
 
 awake awoke awoke 
 awake awaked awaked.
 
 TABLE IX 
 
 ADVERBS 
 
 I, Pefinitioii 
 
 An Adverb is a word that goes with (or qualifies) a Verb, an Adjective, or another Adverb. 
 
 >',P.,— Tlte Verb. Adjective, or Adverb is qualified jw lo Time, Place, Manner, Canse, ct.-, 
 
 II, zcmd;s Qf Adverbs 
 
 , ! 
 
 I : , 1 
 
 TIME PLACE MANNER CAUSE 
 
 TE3T QUESTION > (whcnl) (where 7) (how?) (why?) 
 
 When, where, etc., are often called Relative Adverbs. They are partly conjunctive : e.g. I know the place where ( = iii which) he lived. 
 
 HI, Inflexion of Adverbs 
 COMPARISON 
 
 N.B. — Many Adverbs are not compared ; some are cumpared regularly ; others, irregularly. 
 I POSITIVE sweetly. 
 
 * Degrees - comparative 1 , ,^ ,. .,. , / more more sweetly. 
 
 1 - furincd from the positive liy using ; 
 
 I SUPERLATIVE ) I most iiicst sweetly. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS 
 
 r. Definition 
 
 By a Preposition a noun or a pronoun is joined to anotlier word. 
 
 II, Kinds of Prepositions 
 
 SIMPLE 
 
 (up) 
 
 COMPOUND 
 
 (oi'-er) 
 
 Hie Construction 
 
 Noun 
 (Pron.) 
 Adj. 
 Verb 
 Adv. J 
 
 Wheels within wheels. 
 Tlie distance from you to me. 
 + PREP. + Noun or (Pron.) The sun is darn to me. 
 
 He leaned on his stick. 
 Clearly to the point. 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS 
 
 le Definition 
 
 A Conjunction is a word that joins sentences. 
 
 He Kinds of Conjunctions 
 
 
 CO-ORDINATE 
 
 SUBORDINATE 
 
 
 join 
 
 
 join 
 
 
 Principal Sentences together. 
 
 riansos lo pr 
 
 ncipal sentences. 
 
 
 Ill, Minor Classes 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 t 
 
 
 1. 
 
 AND (Cumulative) 
 
 1. BECAUSE 
 
 (Reason, etc.) 
 
 2. 
 
 BUT (Adversative) 
 
 2. IF 
 
 (Condition, etc.) 
 
 3. 
 
 EITHER ... OR (Alternative) 
 
 3. THAT 
 
 (Purpose, etc.) 
 
 4. 
 
 THEREFORE (lUative) 
 
 J4. UNTIL 
 
 (Time) 
 
 INTERJECTIONS 
 
 An Interjection is a word that stands in no grammatical relation to oilier words in the sentence. It is a mere exclamation expressive of pain. 
 
 surprise, joy, or some snch emotion : e.g. ol» ! alas ! liurnili I 
 
 * r. Taulb V. 
 
 » These CotiJ unction "i are types of lar^c cUuwc* 
 
 ; CoujuDcUoiis Uko ontU, ere, etc, Are fcomctlmea vicweJ xs ii*rlly rBi:roMTiovs i»artly advckbs.
 
 TABLE X 
 
 SYNTAX (i) 
 
 Syntax (■■>. Greek word) means arrangement. The rules of Syntax state the relations that words bear to each other in a sentence, - 
 the Concord, or agreement, of some ; the Government, or influence that some exercise on otlicrs ; their Order, or sequence. 
 
 PREDICATIVE 
 
 (Vei'l) and .Subject). 
 
 The chief Combinations of words. 
 
 \ 
 
 ATTRIBUTIVE 
 
 (Noun and Adjective). 
 
 OBJECTIVE 
 
 (Verb and Object). 
 
 ADVERBIAL 
 
 (Adverb and Verb, etc.). 
 
 1. 
 
 The NOMINATIVE 
 
 The POSSESSIVE 
 
 .3. 
 The OBJECTIVE 
 
 £, Syntas of isfomns 
 
 (1) The SUBJECT of a Finite verb : Tlie .s«k rises. 
 
 (2) After TO BE and other Apposltional or Copulative Verbs (e.g. seem, remain, be-called, etc.): John is a mtrcliaul. 
 
 (.3) The Nominative in Apposition with another noun : Harold, tlie kinrj, died. It is true that he died. [Adjectival in character. ] 
 [Idiom : The island of Sieily = the Lsland Sicily ; manner of nian= (O.t) manner man.] 
 
 (J) The Norn. Absolute = - xoun + I'Ik't \fo^l°''i''idhynojiniteverh: 27(C.s-h« /»«n«(/)-i.s-cH,tliemistdispersed. [Adverbialin character. ] 
 (.')) The Nom. of Address = THE VOCATIVE /oHou'cd hy no finite verb : John, tell me the story. [Interjectlonal la character.] 
 
 qualifies a noun. N. B. The first of twopossessives joined by and drops the 's: Bryant and May's Matches. [ Adjectivalin character. ] 
 
 f {\) The OBJECT of Transitive Verl)s, jicrsonal or impersonal, finite or infinite: I see the man. Seeing my 
 
 J'riend, I ran forward. It grieves me. 
 
 (2) Two Accusatives after make, appoint, create, etc., ask, teach. Tlie king made him general. (The second 
 is called the factitive object.) 
 
 DIRECT ''"' '^^^ Retained Accusative after a passive verb. He was asked a ijiieslion (from : They asked him a question). 
 
 ( = .\CCUSATIVE) 1 W The Accusative and Infinitive or the Accusative and Participle : I heard her sing ; I saw him coming. 
 
 (~>) The Cognate Accusative after certain intransitive verbs used transitively : To dream a dream. 
 
 I'JI The Ace. in apposition with another ace. : He defeated Harold, king of England. [Adjectival in character.] 
 
 (7) The Accusative of Measurement : he walked a mile ; it weighed a pound. [Adverbial in character. ] 
 
 (.S) After Prepositions : in a momnil. 
 
 DIRECT and INDIRECT after the verbs GIVE, show, promise, lend, tell, etc. .She gave me a rose. 
 
 (X. B. — Either Dat. or Ace. may become tlie subject of tlie passive verb : / was given a rose, or A rose was given me.) 
 
 ,' (1) After certain impersonal verbs: it seems, ?nctliinks, it pleases: if you please ( = if it please you); woe 
 worth ( = be to) the dai/. 
 INDIRECT I \ ! J 
 
 -,(■-) After certain adjectives : near, nigh, next, like ; dear to, similar to, etc.; worth [iu " wortli one's while" 
 ( = DATIVE) { = an old genilire )]. 
 
 ^ (.'?) The Ethical Dative adds liveliness and interest to the statement: e.g. " he plucked me ope his doublet."
 
 J
 
 TABLE XI 
 
 SYNTAX (ii) 
 
 ii. Syntax of Pronouns 
 
 1. CONCORD. 1. Pronouns (personal or relative) agree with the nouns they represent in gender, number, and person; but their case depends on 
 
 the construction of the clause in which they stand. The man whom you see was there. Tlie man whose bag was lost 
 
 nom. (ihj. nom. po^, 
 
 came in. The man who had spoken, stepped forward. It is / who am in fault. 
 
 no)n. nu'ii. 
 
 2. Wlien two subjects are separated by or or nor, the verb agrees with the latter : neither you nor he ?'•«.< wrong. 
 
 (N.B. — This rule is not always adhered to. ) 
 
 2. USE OF CERTAIN PRONOUNS. 1. Who, that, which, what 
 
 which s 
 
 who 
 
 V 
 
 Use 
 
 what 
 t 
 
 -> that <- 
 
 2. Use as after such, same, so much, so great : They are such as they have ever been. 
 
 3. ,, hut = who + not ("The Negative Relative'): There was none hut saw him. 
 
 4. ,, what when no antecedent is expressed : I know what you mean. 
 
 5. ,, that to describe : The house that Jack built. Thelady that pitied the poor. 
 
 / = and he, \ 
 G. ,, who, which, to trive additional information { . .» ^ ): I knew that 
 
 " ' ' '^ \ =and It, etc.,/ 
 
 the man, who ( =and he) was ill, could not answer. 
 
 3. ORDER OF PEE.SONAL PIIGXOUNS. Sing. 2d, 3d, 1st:— You and I ; you and he ; he and I. 
 
 Plur. 1st, 2d, 3d : — We and you ; we and they ; you and they. 
 
 1. CONCORD. 
 
 Ilie Syntax of Adjectives 
 
 In O.K. adjs. agreed with their nouns in gender, number, and case. This (pi. these), and that (pi. those) still agree with 
 their nouns in number. Other adjs., if used in the plural, become nouns: goods. 
 
 2. USE OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 (I) attributive: when not separated from its noun by "to be," or other appositioual verb: The 'jood man comes; 
 he is a good man. 
 
 (■-') predicative : when used along with " to be," etc., to form the complement of a sentence: He is good. 
 
 N.B. — Certain adjs. are used predicatively only : well, afraid, mine, etc. (and very often), glad, sorry. 
 
 (3) factitive : the adjective that follows the object of MAKE (facio), etc.: They made us happy. 
 
 (4) as a noun : The good are not always happy. 
 (.")) as an adverb: Run quick {=quickly). [Explained by loss of the old adverbial termination -e: lirijhti: = hrightly,'] 
 
 3. USE OF COMPARISON. The Comparative is used for two (Of the two boys, John is the taller); the Superlative for more than two (the tallest of all). 
 
 (NoTK. — The "Superlative of pre-eminence" : truest friend = very true friend.)
 
 TABLE XII 
 
 SYNTAX (iii) 
 
 1. CONCORD. (1) A Finite Verb agrees -n-itli its Subject ( = Nom. Case) in number and person : He ivrites. They urite. 
 
 (2) Two singular nominatives joined by and require a plural \-erb : The captain and the mate were there. 
 N.B. — 1^ The capt.iin ("s wdl as his men) was there. 2'. The captain {ii:iih his men) was there. 
 
 (3) Two or more singular subjects joined by or or nor recjuire a singular verb : Either the captain or the mate was there. 
 X.B. — Either the captain or his men were there. 
 
 (4) A collective noun may take cither a singular or a plural verb according to its meaniu; 
 
 r Tlie crowd (one by one) have stoned the policemen. 
 ^ ' i The jury (as a body) has chosen a foreman. 
 
 (5) Eacli, every, either, neither (as prououns or as adjectives) require a singular verb : Each (boy) knows the rule. 
 •2. GOVERNMENT. Note carefully (c. Table X.) the cases governed by (1) Ordinary transitive verbs ; (2) MAKE, ASK, TEACH ; (.3) GIVE, etc. 
 
 3. USE OF THE MOODS. {>: Table VI.) 
 
 Notes ox the Scbju-nx'tive : («) The inflected subj. (now rare) is used after If; though ; (so) that, lest ; till, ere, etc. 
 
 (6) The clause introduced by such conjunctions is called the antecedent (subordinate) ; and usually comes first. 
 The sentence on which it depends is called the consequent (principal) ; and usually comes last. 
 
 ( (1) The Auxiliaries have, shall, will, do. 
 
 Note on the Infixitive : 
 
 The Infinitive without to occurs after - (2) may, can, must, let. 
 
 [ (3) see, hear, feel : bid, dare, make, etc. 
 
 i. SEQUENCE OF TENSES. (1) Contemporaneous actions should be expressed in the same tense. 
 
 N.B. — The HlBtoric Present (i.e. a. present tense to describe vividly a ]»ast event) may occasionally be used. 
 (2) Tlie verb in a dependent clause must have the tense of the verb in the principal sentence. 
 
 V. Syntax of Adverbs 
 
 vie Syntax; of Preposition^ 
 
 (n) Place the adverb as near as pes- > (a) All prepositions govern a noun or a pronoun in the objec- 
 
 sible to the word it modifies. 
 {Ii) Some adverbs seem to govern 
 prepositions. In reality they 
 govern the prepositional 
 phrase. 
 
 lie ran down to the sm. 
 
 tive case. 
 CO Prepositions usually precede the word they govern : some- 
 times they may come after the relative. 
 
 I did not know the gentleman that you spoke to. 
 
 (c) Certain verbs, nouns, adjectives, require special prepositions : 
 
 profit by, need of or for, dependent on. 
 
 viie Syntax of Conjunctions 
 
 "The Conjunction does not interfere with 
 the action of a transitive verb or a pre- 
 position, nor with the mood or the 
 tense of a verb." 
 They are like him and wr. 
 The boy neither ale, nor alloKcd his sister to 
 eat. 
 
 INTERJECTIONS have no syntax, that is, no grammatical connection with other words in the sentence.
 
 TABLE XIII 
 
 KINDS OF SENTENCES 
 
 It is usu:il to say that there are three kinds of sentences : Simple, Compound, and Complex. These, with their differences, are tabulated below. 
 But very commonly vre meet with sentences that are at once compound and complex ; with others that are contracted ; and with yet others that are 
 elliptical. Thus : — 
 
 Simple : The su7i rises. 
 
 Compound : One cometh and another gocth. 
 
 Complex : Tdl me, ifyoxt know. 
 
 Compound and Complex : Come and tell me when you su him. 
 
 Contracted (omitted part common to both) : Jam^s (went) and John went. 
 Elliptical (omitted part not common to both) : He is taller than I am (tatl). 
 
 
 SIMPLE. 
 
 COMPOUND. 
 
 COMPLEX. 
 
 FINITE VERBS 
 
 one. 
 
 at least two. 
 
 at lea.st two. 
 
 CLAUSES, 
 
 
 
 Two or more Coordinate (of equal rank). 
 
 One Principal, and at least one Subordinate 
 (dependent). 
 
 CONNECTIVES, 
 
 
 Coordinate Conjunctions. 
 
 1. AND, etc. (Cumulative). 
 
 2. BUT, etc. (Adversative). 
 
 3. EITHER... OR, etc. (Alternative). 
 
 4. THEREFORE, etc. (Illative). 
 
 Subordinate Conjunctions or Relative Words. 
 
 IF, Wlln, 
 THAT, <VBEX, 
 THOUGH, WHERE, 
 
 etc. etc. 
 
 CAUTIONS IX ANALYSIS. 
 
 A. Words omitted :— 
 
 (1) The subject : 
 
 (2) The predicate : 
 
 (3) After than and c 
 
 Go (thou). 
 
 James (wen!) and John went, lie is taller than I (am tall). 
 : lie looks as (he tcould look) if he were ill. 
 
 Supply all omitted words before attempting to analyse. 
 
 B. Relative sentences:— 
 
 (1) .Vre not always subordinate : /( was wet, which (=and this) was disappointing. 
 
 (2) If subordinate, they may be Noun clauses or vVdjective clauses: 
 
 / heard who spoke ( =noun). 
 
 The thief that stole the money vms caught ( =adj.). 
 
 (3) Tlie Relative Adverbs may introduce Noun or Adjective clauses : 
 
 / know where your book i5( = noun). 
 
 / saw th-- ..r,,,... uhrre the great traveller rcsb (=adj.).
 
 TABLE XIV 
 
 ANALYSIS 
 
 1. Language presents us not only with single words, but with various kinds of groups of words. 
 
 2. GROUPS OF WORDS with , 
 
 No Finite Verb = PHRASE 
 (Expressing a 
 meaning) 
 
 A Finite Verb = SENTENCE 
 {Expressing a 
 thought) 
 
 [ STATEMENT 
 f Principal 
 
 or - QUESTION 
 
 Independent [ COMMAND 
 
 Test: 
 
 Can generally stand alone, although preceded by 
 (coordinating) conjunction. 
 
 James came. Ami John went. 
 
 
 Dependent 
 
 r NOUN 
 
 or I Cannot generally stand alone, if preceded by 
 
 CLAUSE = -[ ADJECTIVE ]- (subordinating) conjunction. 
 
 James came, because John went. 
 
 [ ADVERB J 
 
 a mao that U wise. 
 
 a man of wlBdom [ clal'SE 
 
 3. Word, Phrase, Clause : Tlie same meaning may sometimes be expressed in three ways : a wUe man | phkase 
 
 WORD 
 
 4. A sentence, then, is a combination of words expressing a complete thought. 
 
 5. To analyse a sentence is to take it to pieces for the purpose of ascertaining how its parts are related. 
 
 G. Every sentence must consist of at least two parts : the thing spoken of ( = THE SUBJECT) ; what is said about it ( = THE PREDICATE). 
 
 7. In Analysis, Enlargement means the relation existing between Noun and Adjective ; and Extension, that between Verb and Adverb, etc. Wherever, 
 therefore, a noun occurs in tlie sentence there may be an enlargement ; and similarly there may be an extension of any verb, adjective, or 
 adverb.
 
 TABLE XV 
 
 
 
 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 
 
 
 
 LOGICAL 
 
 
 L(J(_;ICAL 
 
 
 
 S U h J 
 
 e c t 
 
 
 Predicate 
 
 
 
 EXLAROESrEXT 
 
 GRiMMATICAL 
 
 SUBJECT 
 
 GRAMMATICAL 
 
 PREDICATE 
 
 OBJECT or 
 COMPLEMENT 
 
 EXTENSIOX 
 
 
 ADJECTIVE or FOE-ADJECTIVE 
 
 NOUN or FOR.KOnN 
 
 riNIIE VERB 
 
 
 ADVERB or FOR-ADVERB 
 
 
 
 
 INCOMPLETE PREDICATE. 
 
 1 
 OBJECT. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 •1. oneaccr,- :•■. 
 
 
 
 ' 1. Adjective. 
 
 ' 1. Noun. 
 2 Pronoun. 
 
 
 Direct • 
 
 2. two accus. aftvr 
 
 MAKE, ASK, etc. 
 
 3. acc.+inf. 
 
 |- 1. Adverb . 
 
 1 2. Adjective used as Ad , 
 I verb. J 
 
 WORD 
 
 ■:. Possessive Case. 
 
 ' 3. Adjective used as Noun. 
 
 1. Transitive Verb. 
 
 
 .4. acc+partic. 
 
 
 . 3. Noun in Apposition. 
 
 4. Verbal Noun. 
   Gerund. 
 
 
 Direct ) 
 
 and Vs. after GIVE, etc. 
 
 Indirect) 
 
 
 
 
 
 _ .. (G. After .some Im- 
 
 [Indirect; personal Verbs. 
 
 
 
 ' 4. Adjective Phrase. 
 
 3. Participle   r 
 Participial Plirase. 
 
 6. Gerundial Infinitive. 
 
 ^ 7. Prepositional Phrase 
 
 '■'. Infinitive. 
 
 2. Appositional or 
 Copulative Verb. 
 
 [I'.g. TO BE (when not = to exist). ) 
 
 CON 
 
 A. Noun 
 ■J Adjecti 
 3. Adverb 
 .4. Phrase 
 
 1PLEMENT. 
 
 ■■;. Noun Phrase. 
 
 1. Participial Phrase 
 
 (esp. DomiD. absol.). 
 
 '. Gerundial Infinitive. 
 
 c. Adverb Phrase. 
 
 1 
 , 7. Prepositional Phrase, j 
 
 PHRASE 
 
 r For-Noun. 
 ve or For Adjective 
 or For-Adverb 
 (adverbial). 
 
 
 
 
 COMPLETE PREDICATE. 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 7. Quotation. 
 
 3. Intransitive Verb. 
 
 
 
 CLAUSE 
 
 ^. Adjective Clause. 
 
 i s Noun Clause. 
 
 
 
 s. Adverb Clause. 
 
 WORD 
 
 PHRASE 
 
 CLAUSE 
 
 A4J. Fhr. -.i hoy careless o/coyidu<-t. Prep. Phr. flowers in (/i(" U'ow/:.-. Noon Fhr. hand in, haiut. 
 
 Adj. ouoia : This is the house that Judc buitl. Nosn ClaoM : We know tluit this is true. 
 
 Adv. Phr. vcri/ well indeetl. Qnot. "lYo, sir/" he replied. 
 
 Adverb CUom : He spoke as a man should .«j)caA-.
 
 TABLE XVI 
 
 SCHEMES FOR ANALYSIS d) 
 
 Of the following schemes for aualysis, II. is superior to I. and ought to he adopted by at least advanced pupils ; III. and IV. 
 will often be found useful to show at a glance the inter-relation of the parts of a sentence. The comparative merits of the schemes 
 can best be shown b}' the working out of an example. 
 
 ' But know we not that he, who intermits 
 The appointed task and duties of the day, 
 Untunes full oft the pleasures of the day. 
 
 Checking the finer spirits that refuse 
 
 To flow, when purposes are lightly changed?" 
 
 ( Wordsworth.) 
 
 SCHEjME I. 
 
 SEXTEXCE 
 
 KIND OF SENTENCE 
 
 CONNECTIVE 
 
 ENLARGEMENT 
 OF SUBJECT 
 
 SUBJECT , 
 
 PREDICATE 
 
 ENLARGEMENT 
 OF OBJECT 
 
 ORIFCT EXTENSION OF 
 OBJECT PREDICATE 
 
 A. But know we not 
 
 Principal Sentence 
 
 But 
 
 
 we 
 
 
 
 : ..- .- ij :..: ,. , 'ion) . 
 1 1 
 
 B. that he untunes full oft 
 the pleasures of the 
 day checking the finer 
 si'irits 
 
 Subordinate 
 
 Noun Obj. of know in sen- 
 tence A 
 
 that 
 
 checking the finer 
 spirits 
 
 he 
 
 untunes 
 
 the 
 
 of the day 
 
 pleasures 
 
 1 
 full oft idegrce) 
 
 C. who intermits the ap- 
 pointed task (of the 
 day) 
 
 Subordinate 
 
 Adjective to he in sen- 
 tence B 
 
 who 
 
 
 who 
 
 intermits 
 
 the appointed 
 (of the day) 
 
 task 
 
 
 D. and (who intermits the 
 appointed) duties of 
 the day 
 
 Subordinate 
 
 Adjective to he in sen- 
 tence B. Co-ordinate 
 (cumulative) with C 
 
 and 
 
 
 (who) 
 
 (intermits) 
 
 (the appointed) 
 of the day 
 
 duties 
 
 
 E. that refuse to flow 
 
 Subordinate 
 
 Adjective to s^pirtfj in sen- 
 tence B 
 
 that 
 
 
 that   
 
 refuse 
 
 
 to flow 
 
 
 F. when purposes are 
 lightly changctl 
 
 Subordinate 
 
 Adverb {time) to ir/usc in 
 sentence E 
 
 v.-hvn 
 
 • 
 
 purposes 
 
 are changed 
 
 
 
 when {time) 
 liglitly (cause)
 
 TABLE XVII 
 
 SCHEMES 
 
 FOR ANALYSIS ") 
 
 
 SCHEME II. 
 
 (i) GENERAL ANALYSIS 
 
 
 (ii) DETAILED ANALYSIS 
 
 A. But know we not Principal Sentence. 
 
 
 (Sentence. B for example. ) 
 
 B. that he untunes full Subordinate Xouu Clause, 
 
 
 1. that connective. 6. the pleasures obj. (with attrib. of 3). 
 
 oft the pleasures, etc. obj. of l-now in A. 
 
 
 'J. he subj. of 3. 7. of the day prep, (adj.) phr. to 6. 
 
 etc. etc. 
 
 
 3. untunes pred. of 2. 8. checking partic. (adj.) to 2. 
 
 4. full adv. (f/(,7i-ff) to5. !l. the finer adjs. to 10. 
 
 
 
 .5. oft adv. (/(Wt)to3. 10. spirits obj. of 8. 
 
 SCHEME III. 
 
 
 SCHEME IV. 
 
 "MAPPING OUT" 
 
 
 TO EXHIBIT DEGREES OF SUBORDINATION 
 
 {Sentence B for exiunph. ) 
 
 
 Ijet P = principal sentence 
 
 Read a' = noun clause in the 
 
 full 
 1 
 
 
 n = noun clause 
 
 first degree of subordination, 
 
 (that) 
 
 e untunes oft 
 
 tlie \ the 
 
 
 a = adj. clause 
 a = ad^'. clause 
 
 etc. 
 
 chec 
 
 king spirits \pleasurea 
 
 
 Thus the Complex sentence of Scheme I. may be thus symbolically repre- 
 sented : 
 
 
 
 P, n', a= 
 
 finer of the day. 
 
 
 a= or even thus — 
 
 a=, 0? 
 
 The connections between principal sentences might be thus shown : 
 Let+ =AND, etc.,-=crT, etc., ^ =or, etc, .•.= therefore, etc.
 
 TABLE XVIII 
 
 
 SCH 
 
 * Contractions to be usc< 
 
 EME FOR PARSING 
 
 
 L in parsing. Short words like Noun, Verb^ should not be contracted. 
 
 
 NOUN 
 
 THE VERB FINITE 
 
 1. Kind: 
 
 *Prop., Com., Abstr., Coll. 
 
 1. Kind : Trans., Appos. (orCopul.), lutrans. 
 
 2. Number 
 
 Sing., Plur. 
 
 2. Conjugation : Weak, Strong. 
 
 3. Gender : 
 
 Maso., Feni., Com., Neut. 
 
 3. Voice : Act. , Pass. 
 
 4. Case : 
 
 Nom., Poss., Dir. Obj,, ludir. Obj., Nom. 
 
 4. Mood: Lidic., Imper., Subj. 
 
 
 of Addr. 
 
 _ J (a) Time: Prcs., Past, Put. 
 
 \ {h) State: Indef., Imperf., Perf. 
 
 5. Syntax : 
 
 .Subj. of , Obj. of , in apposit. 
 
 
 ■with , etc. 
 
 G. Person : 1st, 2nil, 3rJ. 
 7. Number: Sing., Plur. 
 
 
 PRONOUN 
 
 j" ((() Subj. (For every linite verb.) 
 
 S. Syntax : - ('O Objs. (For every trans, verb.) 
 
 V ('-■) Comple. (For every appos. verb.) 
 
 
 
 1. Kind: 
 
 Pers., l)em., Interrog. , P^el., Iiidef. 
 
 2. Person : 
 
 1st, 2na, 3rd. 
 
 9. Parts: I'res. Indio., Past Indie, I'ass. Partic. 
 
 3. Number 
 
 Sing., Plur. 
 
 
 4. Gender : 
 
 Maso., Fern., Com., Neut. 
 
 THE VERB INFINITE 
 
 5. Case : 
 
 Nom., Poss., Dir. Obj., Indir. Obj., Nom. 
 
 INFINITIVE 
 
 GERUND 
 
 PARTICIPLE 
 
 
 of Addr. 
 
 1. Kind: Trans. Appos. I titrans. 
 
 1. Kind: Trans. 
 
 1. Kind: Tnms. Appo.s. Intrans. 
 
 
 • (a) Subj. of , Ohj. of , in .appos. with 
 
 2. Cor^. : Weak, Strong. 
 
 •-'. Con]. : Weak, Strong. 
 
 2. ConJ. : Weak, Strong. 
 
 
 , etc. 
 
 ;!. Voice : Act., Pass. 
 
 3. Voice : Act. 
 
 3. Voice : Act., Pass. 
 
 C. Syntax : 
 
 • (1/) Antcced. . (For Relatives.) 
 
 (c) Attrib. of . (For rosses.sives and all adj. 
 
 ■1. InSnitivo Mood. 
 
 4. Genind. 
 
 4. Partic. 
 
 
 prons.) 
 
 ADJECTIVE 
 
 r (") Time : Prcs., rasi, 
 
 . Flit. 
 :>. Tense ; - 
 
 CO State : ;>;*■/, Imi>/., 
 
 I Per/., Prog. 
 
 5. Case : Nom., Obj. 
 
 /• (d) Time: Pres., Past, 
 
   ""'• 1 (?,) state: Indcf., 
 I imj)/.. Per/. 
 
 1. Kind: 
 
 Qual., Quant. (Numb.), Dem. 
 
 
 
 
 2. Degree : 
 
 Pos. , Compar. , Snperl. 
 
 r («) Noun. 
 •;. Used a3 - (1/) Adj. (Gcrundial). 
 [ (c) Adv. (Gerundial). 
 
 r (u) See Syntax of 
 fi. Syntax: .J Noun. 
 [ (6) Obj. 
 
 f (n) See Syntax of 
 
 3. Syntax : 
 
 Attrib. of , Predic. of , used fao- 
 
 C. Syntax:] Adj. 
 
 
 titively. 
 
 i (6) Obj. 
 
 
 
 I (d) See Syntax of Xoun, 
 r. Syntajt:- Adj., Adv. 
 I ((,) Obj. 
 
 
 
 
 ADVERB 
 
 
   
 
 1. Kind: 
 
 Time, Place, M.an., Deg., Cause, etc. 
 
 
 \ 
 
 2. Degree : 
 
 Pos., Compar., Superl. 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS 
 
 3. Syntax : 
 
 Qualif. . 
 
 1. Kind: Co-ord., Snlxird. 
 
 
 PREPOSITION 
 
 2. Syntax; Joining (subj. + verb) to (subj. + verb). 
 
 I . Syntax : 
 
 r {a) Gov. 
 
 l {Ij) Joining to . 
 
 INTERJECTIONS 
 
 I. Interjection, expressing suriuiso. iKiiii. etc.
 
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