^ i C3^ c^ ^^ Univer dcJJA LIBRARY OF THB siTY OF California. GIFT OF • Vo^fc %r^».A/Sju. i ! ^Class Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in 2008 witii funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation littp://www.arcliive.org/details/courseofstudyingOOburkricli 5AN FRANCISCO 5TATE NORMAL SCHOOL . BULLETIN No. 6 (New Series) A COUR5L OF 5TUDY IN GRAMMAR AND HANDBOOK TO ACCOMPANY THE CALI- FORNIA 5TATL 5LRIL5 TLXT By FREDERIC BURK AND EFFIE B. McFADDEN Supervisor of the Teaching of Grammar and Language, 5an Francisco State Normal School SACRAMLNTO W. W. SHANNON Superintendent of State Printing 1908 Copyright, 1908, by Fbedeeic Bubk. Copyright, 1908, by Effie B, McFadden. THE BANKRUPTCY OF GRAMMAR INSTRUCTION. The writers of this Bulletin belong to the class who are convinced that grammar should be entirely removed from the course of study of the elementary schools. The current reason which has been offered for the teaching of English grammar is that it teaches the pupils ''to speak and write the English language correctly." A century's experience of grammar teaching has proved conclusively to those who take the trouble to read the results of this experience that the promise has never been realized in any practicable degree. Experience for a number of years with high school graduates, who have not only passed through the grammar study of the elementary schools, but also have had courses in the grammar of some dead or foreign language in the high school, shows that less than ten per cent have anything whatever to show for their grammar study except the decayed remains of a few definitions, usually quite meaningless to them, and never usable in the correction of errors in writing or speech. Not one in twenty could offer intelligent grammatical reasons why the following current forms of speech are incorrect : It don 't matter. Let the affair rest between you and I. He done right. The rose smells sweet. Every one should hang up their hats. Whom did you say called? If I was you I would not do it. Neither of them answer. Each of the many officers in the various political clubs who have votes to cast are directed to report to this office to take up their duties. If any one doubts this statement, the truth or falsity can be proved to ample satisfaction by testing a few high school classes. The fact of the matter is that our grammar teaching is a hopeless bankrupt, and is, there- fore, a positive waste of time. Moreover, as taught, it is one of the studies that deaden school life and tend to increase the number of pupils who leave school because neither they nor their intelligent parents can find the use of it. To that fretful argument which is always offered when this bank- ruptcy is proved to one of its supporters, that the results would not be what they are if we used proper methods of teaching, — it is useless to reply. It is to be doubted that there are any successful methods, and if there are, they are certainly impracticable, for otherwise, we would have found them after a century's failure. Let us give it up. There is really no necessity for teaching grammar. A large percentage of people already write and speak with current accuracy. The charge against the school graduate at present is not so much that he uses faulty English, but that he does not know the grammatical reasons for the (3) 174437 corrections. His ear tells him, as a rule, that certain constructions are faulty. In the direction of ear training to note language errors, is, there- fore, the most promising field for school effort to correct the current errors. Language drills, not word knowledge of abstract causes, is the point of least resistance. Let us improve our language drills and abandon the grammatical study. It may, therefore, seem singular that the writers holding such views should issue a Bulletin on Methodology in grammar teaching. We do not offer this Bulletin as a cure for the failure of grammar teaching to reach its impossible goals, but as a palliative in method. Whatever may be demon- strated regarding the bankruptcy of grammar teaching, we may nevertheless be sure that the sodden force of pedantic tradition is strong enough to hold it in the curriculum for some school generations. The present problem, whatever the ultimate solution, is to simplify the grammar course as much as possible, to get it out of the wretched rut of memorizing definitions, to provide a system of reviews which shall enable the pupil to remember the constructions he has once learned, and finally, as far as possible, to provide a series of application drills which shall make usable the few principles he may have learned. These are the moderate goals of this Bulletin as it has been worked out in practice during the past five years in our Elementary School. In revising the sentences and preparing the manuscript Miss Nettie B. Duncan, assistant supervisor in the teaching of Grammar and Language, has rendered invaluable assistance. The Substitution of Drill Sentences for those of the Text. The drill sentences of our text completely violate the fundamental and vital canons of any successful grammar teaching, and for these reasons this Course of Study supplies an entirely new set of sentences for analytical drill. The canons violated are as follows : I. The only sentences which can 'be successfully used for grammatical analysis are those the meaning of which is perfectly understood hy pupils. Grammatical understanding depends primarily upon the understanding of the meaning of the sentence. If this sentence meaning is at all obscure or foggy to the pupils it is manifestly useless to attempt to use such a platform to reach the still more abstract grammatical relationship. It has been the unfortunate custom of makers of grammar texts to use as their sentence material, lines from literature, upon the theory that they can teach literature while they are teaching grammar. Grammar is difficult enough without any such added burden, and lines from literature, strained through a grammar recitation, can never again be literature. This Course of Study constructs, as drill material, sentences the meaning of which is perfectly clear, and leaves the full energy of the child free to be centered upon the grammatical relationships to be introduced. (4) II. Only one new construction should he presented in a given exercise and at no place in the hook should a sentence contain any construction which had not heen previously learned, except the new one heing studied. This canon requires that the sentences shall be very carefully graded, beginning with a single construction and proceeding exercise by exercise to introduce new types systematically, so that there shall never be in a sentence, constructions with which the pupil is not familiar. It is the fault of our State text, as with all others within the writers' knowledge, to offer sentences, even in the beginning, containing any and all constructions, under the theory that the pupil can select from the confusion just the construction he is studying and can put the others upon the shelf until he comes to them. This is impossible, and the whole matter becomes a buzzing mystery. The Course of Study offers a perfectly graded series of exercises so constructed that in each new exercise all the constructions are reviewed except the one new type which is the object of study. The first introduced, for the purpose of studying the subject and predicate, are sentences which contain only subject and predicate, without any complements or modifiers in the form of words or phrases. Next are introduced sentences with subjects, predicates, and complements. Then follow sentences introducing adjectives without any adverbs or other constructions. In this way the exercises are systematically built up. The forms of the verb he are not introduced until late; phrases do not appear until prepositions are studied; conjunctions are kept back until simple sentences are completed. In this manner, provided the reviews are maintained, there is no reason that grammar at any point should be difficult. III. A system of cumulative reviews should recur systematically, in order to spike what has once heen learned. It is a principle which we teachers are rather slow in learning that in all memory drills, such as arithmetic combinations, spelling, language, and grammar require, it is not sufficient to learn a thing well once, but the drills must recur at intervals covering a long period of time. The sentences of the Course of Study contain a third principle of special construction — that of reviewing at intervals past constructions. Thus, for example, after certain pronouns are learned, studied in Exercise 9, certain recurrent later exercises in adjectives, adverbs, etc., will contain sentences which incorpo- rate all of these pronouns. So, also, the types of adjectives will be found regularly to recur in the later exercises in a way that they may be system- atically reviewed. Thus each new construction is introduced in a separate order and the subsequent exercises as systematically require reviews of every construction once introduced at intervals. We term this a "cumula- tive" review system, and it is employed in all the Courses of Study issued by the Normal School. CUMULATIVE REVIEW. At the beginning of this Bulletin will be found questions numbered in order and arranged in groups. The answers to these questions are not in any sense definitions, nor will they help the child to understand any part (5) of the contents of this book. They are simply brief statements of the facte that the children have learned through giving the language forms in con- nection with the sentences for perhaps several weeks. This does not mean that they are not essential. In fact, the success of the work depends largely upon their proper use. On account of their importance they are placed first, and not as in many books last, where they are seldom reached, and so altogether neglected. Their use is to keep the language forms of the grammar content so familiar that they become a matter of habit more than one of thought. To illustrate : "Modifies a noun" has been so many times associated with adjectives, that as soon as the first is noted the other follows as a matter of course. This familiarity leaves the mind free to think out some additional fact, as. ** completes the predicate," and so draw the conclusion — attribute comple- ment. Inasmuch as the answers to these questions form a summary of what has gone before, they can not be used with any success until after the children are perfectly familiar with the topic. In this case the repetition of the answer will be merely so many words without any meaning. If at any time the teacher finds that the child can not make the application of the answer he has given to the sentence, she should stop the questions and go back to the sentence work in that group. The devices for their use are many. The class may be arranged in two sides. For each side one is chosen as a tally-keeper. Questions are given turn about, a failure to answer correctly being recorded. The side having the fewest points against it, wins. Each question may be written on a card, and the cards passed to the children. Each child in turn reads a question and answers it. The questions may be put upon the board, a few at a time, until the list is completed. The children answer the questions in writing. An excellent device to keep the attention of the pupils and help them recognize quickly the tense of a verb, is to print or write upon separate cards in large enough letters so the whole class may see, the various signs of the tenses. Hold one up before the class, then take it away quickly. Strive to see how fast they can giye the tense. After this add the proper form of the verb, and have the children give the tense. This device may be used with profit for distinguishing active, passive, and progressive voice, participles, and infinitives, the number of pronouns, or their case, the form of the verb, etc. GROUP I. To be used every day after Exercise 26 is completed. 1. What words are nouns ? (Names.) 2. When is a word an adjective? (When it modifies a noun or pronoun.) 3. When is a word an adverb? (When it modifies a verb, adjective, or other adverb.) 4. What part of speech are names? (Nouns.) Words that modify (6) nouns? (Adjectives.) Words that modify verbs? (Adverbs.) That modify adjectives? (Adverbs.) That modify adverbs? (Adverbs.) 5. What do we call the part of speech that modifies a noun? (Adjec- tive.) That modifies a verb? (Adverbs.) 6. Name the offices in a sentence. (Predicate, subject, complement, modifier.) 7. Name the office that tells what is done. (Predicate.) 8. What office answers the question who or what with the predicate? (Subject.) 9. What office answers the question whom or what with the sul)ject and predicate ? ( Complement. ) 10. Name the pronouns (omit after Exercise 27). 11. Name eight prepositions (omit after Exercise 27). 12. What is always named with a preposition? (Its object.) GROUP II. To be added after completing Exercise 27/. 13. Name the tenses of the indicative mode. (Present tense, past tense, future tense, present perfect, past perfect, future perfect.) 14. What is the sign of the past tense? (It has no sign.) The future tense? (Shall and will.) The past perfect tense? (Had.) The future perfect? (Shall have and will have.) The present tense? (s.) The present perfect tense? (Have and has.) 15. What is the sign of the present tense, third person, singular? (s.) 16. The present perfect, third, singular? (Has.) 17. How do you recognize the third person, singular, present tense of the indicative mode? (By the sign s.) 18. What tense has no helpers or signs? (Past tense.) 19. In what tense of the indicative mode does the past form of the verb occur? (Past tense.) The past participle? (In the present perfect tense, in the past perfect tense, and in the future perfect tense.) The present form? (In the present tense and in the future tense.) 20. Of what are the following the signs : has (present perfect tense), shall (future tense), had (past perfect tense), will have (future perfect tense), s (present tense), shall have (future perfect tense), will (future tense), have (present perfect tense). 21. How do you form the present tense? (The present tense is formed by using the present form of the given verb, except in the third person, singular, where s is added.) The future tense? (The future tense is formed by using the signs shall and will plus the present form of the given verb.) The past perfect tense? (The past perfect tense is formed by using the sign had plus the past participle of the given verb.) The present perfect tense? (The present perfect tense is formed by using the sign have plus the past participle of the given verb in all persons, except the third, singular, where has is used.) The future perfect tense? (The (7) future perfect tense is formed by using the helpers shall have and will have plus the past participle of the given verb.) GROUP m. To be added after completing Exercise 21g. 22. Name the helpers of the potential mode. (May, can, must, might, could, would, should, may have, can have, must have, might have, could have, would have, should have.) Of the emphatic form. (Do, does, did.) 23. In what particular is the conjugation of the indicative mode different from that of the subjunctive mode? (The third person, singular, present indicative has the sign s, while the subjunctive has not.) 24. What are the usual signs of the subjunctive? (If, though, and lest.) 25. Of what are the following the signs: has (present perfect tense), can (potential mode), shall have (future perfect tense), ing (present par- ticiple), could (potential mode), had (past perfect tense), will (future tense), did (emphatic form), having (perfect participle), must (potential mode), to (infinitive), might (potential mode), shall (future tense), should (potential mode), have (present perfect tense), will have (future perfect tense), to have (infinitive), do (emphatic form), may (potential mode), if (subjunctive mode), has (present perfect tense) ? 26. How do you form the present tense, subjunctive mode? (The present tense, subjunctive mode is formed by using the present form of the verb throughout.) The imperative mode? (The imperative mode is formed by using the present form of the verb.) The infinitives? (The infinitives are formed by using the signs to plus the present form of the given verb; or, to have plus the past participle of the given verb.) The present participle! (The present participle is formed by using the present form of the verb plus the sign ing.) The emphatic form? (The emphatic form is made by using the signs do, does, or did plus the present form of the given verb.) 27. What are the signs of the infinitives? {To and to have.) 28. What are the signs of the present and perfect participles? {Ing and having.) 29. What is always the subject of a verb in the imperative mode? (You understood.) 30. How is the present tense, emphatic formed? (The present tense, emphatic is formed by using the sign do in all persons except the third, singular, where does is used plus the present form of the verb.) 31. How is the past tense, emphatic formed? (The past tense, emphatic is formed by using the sign did plus the present form of the verb.) GROUP IV. To be added after completing Exercise 35. 32. How many kinds of phrases are there? (Three.) 33. What are the names of the three kinds of phrases? (Prepositional phrase, infinitive phrase, participial phrase.) (8) 34. How may a prepositional phrase be distinguished from a participial phrase or an infinitive phrase? (A prepositional phrase is introduced by a preposition, an infinitive phrase by an infinitive, and a participial phrase by a participle.) 35. What must a prepositional phrase contain? (A preposition and its object.) 36. What must an infinitive phrase contain? (An infinitive and its object.) 37. What must a participial phrase contain? (A participle and its object.) 38. In what ofiices may a participle be used? (Subject, complement, modifier.) An infinitive? (Subject, complement, modifier.) GROUP V. To be added after completing Exercise 42. 39. Give the number of the following: is (singular), were (singular and plural), has been (singular), are (singular and plural), was (singular). 40. What is a regular verb? (A regular verb is one that forms its past form and past participle by adding d or ed to the present form.) 41. What two kinds of complements are there? (Object complements and attribute complements.) 42. What parts of speech may be attribute complements? (Nouns, pro- nouns, adjectives.) 43. Explain the distinction between object and attribute complements. (An object complement answers the question what, and the attribute complement answers the question what and modifies or means the same as the subject.) 44. What is always the complement after the verb })e? (Attribute.) GROUP VI. To be added after completing Exercise 44. 45. Name the genders. (Masculine, feminine, neuter.) 46. How is the feminine gender usually formed? (By adding ess to the masculine form.) GROUP VII. To be added after completing Exercise 55. 47. Write the following words in the plural: leaf, city, joy, foot, news, shelf, liberty, goose, tooth, money, wolf, journey, loaf, athletics, half, thief, s, sheep, calf, deer, beef, 8, trout, knife, Mr. Jones, negro. 48. Form the possessive singular of the following words: men, James, woman, child, somebody else. 49. Form the possessive plural of the following words : fairy, child, man, year, hero, chief, woman, misses, mouse. (9) GROUP VIII. To be added after completing Exercise 57. 50. What is the case of a pronoun which is subject of a sentence? (Nom- inative case.) 51. What is the case of a pronoun which is the attribute complement? (Nominative ca§e.) 52. In what offices may the nominative case be used? (Subject and complement.) 53. Name the possessive pronouns. (My, mine, our, ours, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, their, theirs.) GROUP IX. To be added after completing Exercise 61. 54. What is the case of a pronoun which is the object complement? (Objective case.) Which is the object of a preposition? (Objective case.) Which is the objective of an infinitive? (Objective case.) Which is the object of a participle? (Objective case.) 55. What parts of speech take an object complement? (Verb, preposi- tion, infinitive, participle.) 56. In what office may the objective case be used? (Complement of a verb, preposition, infinitive, participle.) 57. What parts of speech may be object complements? (Noun, pronoun, infinitive, participle.) GROUP X. To be added after completing Exercise 63. 58. How is the passive voice formed? (The passive voice is formed by using some form of the verb be plus the past participle of the given verb.) 59. How is the progressive voice formed? (The progressive voice is formed by using some form of the verb he plus the present participle of the given verb.) 60. What participle is used in the passive voice? ^ (The past participle.) 61. What participle is used in the progressive voice? (The present participle.) 62. How may you distinguish the active voice from the passive or pro- gressive? (The active voice contains no form of the verb be. The passive and progressive voices must contain some form of the verb be.) 63. How may you distinguish the passive voice from the progressive ? (By the participle.) 64. How many infinitives are there in the active, passive, and progressive voices? (Six.) 65. Name them. ( The present and perfect in the active voice ; the present and perfect in the passive voice ; the present and perfect in the progressive voice.) (10) 66. How many participles are there in the active, passive, and progressive voices? (Six.) 67. Name them. (The present, past, and perfect in the active voice; the present and perfect in the passive voice; the perfect in the progressive voice.) 68. How is the present passive infinitive formed? (The present passive infinitive is formed by iising the sign to plus the present form of the verb he plus the past participle of the given verb.) 69. How is the perfect passive infinitive formed? (The perfect passive infinitive is formed by using the sign to have plus the past participle of the verb 6e plus the past participle of the given verb.) 70. How is the present progressive infinitive formed? (The present pro- gressive infinitive is formed by using the sign to plus the present form of the verb he plus the present participle of the given verb.) 71. The perfect progressive infinitive? (The perfect progressive infini- tive is formed by using the sign to have plus the past participle of the verb he plus the present participle of the given verb.) 72. How many participles are there in the active voice? Name them. (Three: The present, past, and perfect.) 73. In the progressive voice? Give its name^ (One: The perfect participle.) ■ ./ *• 74. How is the present participle passive voice formed? (The present participle passive is formed by using heing plus the past participle of the given verb.) 75. How is the perfect passive participle formed? (The perfect passive participle is formed by using the sign having plus the past participle of the verb he plus the past participle of the given verb.) 76. How is the perfect progressive parti c^le formed? (The perfect progressive participle is formed by using the sign having plus the past participle of the verb he plus the present participle of the given verb.) Add Group XI after completing Exercise 86. 77. Name the conjunctions more commonly in use. (And, or, but, nor, and correlative conjunctions both-and, either-or, neither-nor, whether-or, not only-but also.) 78. What may conjunctions connect? (Words, phrases, or clauses.) 79. How may you distinguish a phrase from a clause? (A phrase con- tains no predicate and a clause contains* both subject and predicate.) 80. How may you distinguish a simple sentence from a complex sentence ? (In a simple sentence there is only one subject and one predicate, and in a complex sentence there is always a dependent clause introduced either by a relative pronoun or a conjunctive advei:b. 81. How may you distinguish a simple sentence from a compound sentence? (Simple sentences can have only one subject and one predicate, and compound sentences- must have at least two clauses connected by conjunctions.) 82. What is meant by the antecedent of a relative pronoun? (The ante- (11) cedent of a relative pronoun is the noun for which the relative pronoun stands.) 83. Give the list of relative pronouns. ("Who, which, what, that.) 84. What parts of speech introduce dependent clauses? (Relative pronouns, conjunctive adverbs.) 85. Name some common conjunctive adverbs. (When, while, as, because, where.) 86. In what offices may a noun clause be used? (Subject and comple- ment.) 87. A noun clause is generally introduced by what kind of word? (An introductory word.) 88. How may you distinguish a compound sentence from a complex sentence? (A compound sentence has at least two clauses connected by conjunctions and in a complex sentence there is always a dependent clause introduced either by a relative pronoun or a conjunctive adverb.) Treatment of the Text, Pages 7 to 48. It will be found best to teach the offices in a group by themselves and to separate them entirely from the treatment of the parts of speech. Otherwise the confusion between the offices and the parts of speech is constant and pupils can not see clearly that if a word is a noun it can not be a verb, since a word which is a noun can also be a subject. We must associate, at first, the offices as definite places in the diagram, and having once established this idea firmly in the pupil's mind, we are then ready to take up the distinctions of the parts of speech as entirely different matters. The text makes an error of method, in treating the predicate and subject, then inter- polating the parts of speech and finally returning to the complement. Omit on pages 7 and 8 the attempt to develop the definition that a sentence is '*a complete expression of thought in words." Pupils may memorize this definition, but they can not understand it so that they will use their periods and capitals correctly. The definition is of no value in itself. The feeling for a sentence can only be developed by composition. A gram- matical knowledge of a sentence can only come after the pupil has learned thoroughly phrases and clauses so that he may distinguish one from the other and has thus become familiar with the various parts which go to make up the parts of a sentence. The definition of a sentence can come only at the end of a course in grammar, not at the beginning. Omit the treatment of the different kinds of sentences, exclamatory, interrogative, imperative, and declarative, upon pages 8 and 9. The only use in recognizing these distinctions is for the purpose of the proper punctuation marks. These can best and only be taught by language drills and they have nothing to do with grammar. The mere definitions in them- selves are bits of pedantry which have been kept in the school long enough. The teacher should read the treatment of the subject and predicate upon pages 10, 11, and 12, and in the teaching follow the Course of Study. The treatment of interrogative and exclamatory sentences upon pages 12 and 13 should be omitted for reasons already given, so far as the names (12) are concerned. The types of sentences themselves will be given later. It is a serious blunder to introduce several varieties of sentences, and especially difficult inversions and omissions which interrogative and imperative sentences present, before one kind is thoroughly learned. Our first purpose . is to become familiar with predicates and subjects — not with varieties of sentences — and this can only be accomplished by thorough drill upon the simplest forms. Read pages 25 to 34, but there is little there that can be profitably taught to pupils. It is not wise to introduce at this early stage any nouns except those referring to objects. The classification as concrete and abstract nouns is senseless, . as no grammatical errors arise from confusion of these classifications. It is lack of economy of time to attempt to teach pupils to recognize pronouns by definition, and the method of memorizing them is easier and more certain. After they are known it is easy to teach the standard definition if this is desirable. Omit the term "substantive," as it is a useless confusion and one which pupils in the grammar schools never grasp. The definition that a verb is a word which makes an assertion (page 30) is useless, because pupils can not comprehend it in a practical manner, and therefore do not apply it. It is better to teach first that a verb expresses action (as most of them do), and when we later introduce verbs, such as is, which do not express action, we can add to the definition. Omit the treatment of the Grammatical Subject and Predicate, as pupils in this early stage of grammatical knowledge will have more than they can do to comprehend the verb as a single word. The introduction of such distinctions so early simply confuses the mind and spreads a haze over the subject, which prevents the grasp of simple constructions. Treatment of the Text, Pages 49 to 93 (Part III). The text in these pages is especially impossible from a teaching stand- point. The author has most unfortunately inserted at this juncture a number of confusing exceptions to usual constructions. We should and must first thoroughly accustom pupils to common and usual constructions before we undertake by contrast to make occasional exceptions, such as factitive complements and indirect objects, compre- hensible. Similarly, participial and infinitive constructions must not precede a thorough treatment of the conjugation of the verb. The Course of Study will omit factitive complements and indire(3t objects until the end, and will insert them in a chapter devoted to special constructions. Infinitives and participles will not be introduced until the conjugations are learned. Upon pages 49 to 50 the distinction between complete and incomplete predication is unnecessary pedantry, and should be omitted. Upon page 51 the attribute complement can not be understood by pupils by means of an abstract definition, and their treatment must be deferred until after the conjugation of the verb 6e is learned. The same fact is true of copulative (13) verbs, and the learning of this term is quite unnecessary. Factitive comple- ments, indirect objects, infinitive and participles have already been discussed, and for the reasons stated should be omitted for the present. The remainder of the chapter plunges the pupil into hopelessly abstruse constructions without any reason at this juncture. All should be postponed until pupils can learn the simple and common constructions of the language. The teacher should read carefully the pages 33 to 48. The paragraph on Modifiers contains the keynote that a modifier is something which changes the meaning of the word or idea which the modifier modifies. The defini- tions of adjectives and adverbs given should be the objective goals, but they should not be given first. Omit on page 37 phrase modifiers, because we should take up prepositions before phrases. Before pupils can recognize prepositions it is difficult for them to understand a prepositional phrase, because we are attempting to explain one unknown by reference to another unknown. After prepositions are recognized it is easy to pass to phrases which contain prepositions, nouns, and possibly adjectives. Take the . treatment of prepositions, but omit for the present conjunctions and interjections. We can not properly take up conjunctions until we reach compound constructions. The exercises of the Course of Study contain no conjunctions until these constructions are reached. Interjections also must be passed for the present, to be introduced toward the close of the course ; they are rare and infrequent in pupils' written composition. Omit "Incomplete expressions of thought," upon pages 14, 15, and 16. It is thoughtless upon the part of the authors to introduce these rare varieties of the sentences before the common ones have become familiar. Such a chapter belongs only in an appendix. Omit for the same reason pages 17 to 25, covering the topics Subject and Predicate out of Natural Order, Introductory Words, Words in Apposition, and Compound Subject and Predicate. Each of these constructions will be taken up in the Course of Study in its proper and systematic order. Exercise 1. To teach the predicate. Write upon the board the sentence, "Dogs bark." Draw underneath it an empty diagram thus : /\ and. write hark in the predicate place, saying as you do so, "hark tells what is done. Therefore, hark is the predicate. ' ' The purposes are to associate the word, predicate^ with its specific place in the diagram and to teach this language form. Explain that of the two places in the diagram the second one belongs to the predicate and always is occupied by it: Manage to repeat two or three times the language form, "bark tells what is done. Therefore, bark is the predicate," for before we require the pupils to use it we should make it as familiar as possible to the ear. Write the second sentence upon the board, and if the pupils have given interested attention, ask them to tell what word tells what is done, its name and into what space in the diagram it should be placed. Proceed with the (14) I other sentences in the same way, using the language form as often as possible. Before the lesson is over write the word predicate upon the board and have the pupils spell it and pronounce it distinctly. This will do very well for the first lesson. At the next lesson use the same sentences, but make the aim direct to teach the pupils to use the language form themselves. Write a sentence, its diagram underneath, and then the language form. With this before the pupils, lead them to use the same form in succeeding sentences. Send the pupils to the board, dictate sentences and require them to place the predicate in the diagram. Then either have them write the language form or recite it orally. Seat work: Write five or more sentences from the exercise upon the board, and require pupils to write each, draw empty diagrams, insert predicate, and write out in full the language form. For the third lesson proceed as in the second lesson if the written seat work of the previous lesson shows that the language form is not learned to practical perfection. If all the class, however, clearly know the form, pass to the teaching of the subject. 1. Dogs bark. 2. Bears growl. 3. Roosters crow. 4. Fish swim. 5. Fire burns. 6. Grass grows. 7. Ships sail. 8, Winds blow. 9. Hens cackle. 10. Water boils. 11. Mules kick. 12. Balls bound. 13. Cats scratch. 14. Bees sting. 15. Frogs croak. 16. Lions roar. 17. Birds fly. 18. Flow- ers bloom. 19. Snow melts. 20. Horses trot. 21. Dishes break. 22. Rab- bits burrow. 23. Thread breaks. 24. Seeds sprout. 25. Branches bend. 26. Waves roll. 27. Gas burns. 28. Elephants trumpet. 29. Mice gnaw. 30. Paper tears. Exercise lb. To teach the subject. Write upon the board the sentence, Dogs hark. Draw the diagram and call upon some pupil to give the predicate and recite the language form. Write the predicate in its place and the language form underneath. Below this again write hark, placing what before it and a question mark after it, thus, What hark? Call for volunteers to answer the question. Receiving the answer, Dogs, write it in the subject space of the diagram saying, ^'What hark? Dogs. Therefore, dogs is the subject." Go through the process with one or two other sentences explaining that the subject is found by prefixing what to the predicate and answering the question thus formed. Repeat the language form as often as possible in order to familiarize the class with it before calling upon pupils to recite it. Seat work: A second or third oral lesson will probably be necessary before this language form is learned well enough for assignment as seat work. As soon as possible, however, have the pupils write it. Using the sentences oi Exercise 1, a portion of which should be written upon the board, require this form of written work upon the pupils' papers: (1.5) Dogs bark. Bark tells what is done, therefore hark is the predicate. What bark? Dogs. Therefore, dogs is the subject. Dogs /\ hark. Do not pass to Exercise 2 until every pupil in the class can give and write these language forms with practical perfection. Caution: Be particularly careful in this and in all subsequent sentences that the pupil writes the predicate first, before he writes the subject. Our work is to establish by habit of procedure the way to disentangle the elements of a sentence. These sentences are extremely easy, of course, and the tendency to write the subject first will prevent the forming of the habit. Consequently later, when involved sentences are introduced, mistakes will constantly occur because the pupil will first look for the subject and guess the wrong one. Consequently in the early stages extreme care must be maintained that the pupil proceeds to disentagle the sentence in this order : predicate, subject, complement. If he slurs the early process he will not be acquiring this habit. A second important caution to be made is that the teacher must never permit a pupil to state that a given word is the predicate, and then proceed to tell why it is, as "hark is the predicate, because it tells what is done." Bark tells what is done, therefore hark is the predicate. This error of method is responsible for the large share of difficulty in comprehending grammatical relationships. It puts the cart before the horse. The necessary order of thought is first to think what the given word does in the sentence, and when this is discovered we give the proper name. If we permit the error pupils acquire the habit of guessing the name without making any effort to find the function or relationship of the word. It follows that the pupil soon loses all comprehension that these are relationships, and that success is wholly a matter of happy guesses. On the contrary, our whole purpose is to compel his mind to focus itself upon the relationship, and once this is discovered the naming follows as a simple matter of course. Particularly is this error common in the teaching of the parts of speech. Teachers ask, "What part of speech is ?" The child does not think, but hazards a happy or unhappy guess, and then the teacher asks, ' * Why ? ' ' A mad scramble for possible or impossible reasons follows, which in turn are merely guesses. It would be better if teachers would reverse the order of questioning and ask first what the word does. The naming of the class of words which performs this service of course follows. Consequently through- out this Course of Study the language forms invariably require the pupil first to state the relationship, if there is any, and the name of the office or part of speech follows as a consequence. Insist, therefore, from the beginning in a rigid adherence to the order of the language forms. (16) Exercise 2. To find the subject when it refers to persons. Proceed in the same manner orally as in the first lesson upon the subject using who instead of what, explaining that when the subject refers to persons the question is formed with who instead of what, and that what refers only to animals and things. A little drill will soon bring to the pupils a sense of the distinction. Give at least one day's drill upon the sentences of Exercise 1, in which what is exclusively used. For seat work use the same sentences that were used orally. 1. Boys climb. 2. Women sew. 3. Girls sing. 4. Men work. 5. Chil- dren play. 6. Babies cry. 7. Pupils study. 8. Carpenters saw. 9. Soldiers fight. 10. Blacksmiths hammer. Exercise 3. To find the subject — miscellaneous sentences. The purpose of Exercise 3 is to drill the pupils in determining whether the question to be asked should contain who or what. It may not be neces- sary to use all of these sentences, but if not pass to Exercise 4 whenever the pupils can readily give and write the language forms. This will furnish ample review for fixing the drill, provided in this exercise they have actually mastered the forms. 1. Boys whistle. 2. Snakes crawl. 3. Bakers bake. 4. Stars twinkle. 5. Wood' burns. 6. Children scream. 7. Wasps sting. 8. Rivers flow. 9. Mary sings. 10. Boats upset. 11. Girls dance. 12. Merchants trade. 13. Horses neigh. 14. Monkeys climb. 15. Miners dig. 16. Farmers plough. 17. Babies creep. 18. Ants crawl. 19. Swimmers dive. 20. Chickens peep. 21. Wolves howl. 22. Oil burns. 23. John rides. 24. Mary reads. 25. Lambs bleat. 26. Musicians play. 27. Sailors row. 28. Windows rattle. 29. Hunters shoot. 30. Ministers preach. Exercise 4. To teach the complement when it does not refer to persons. When the class is able to analyze with some readiness sentences containing only predicate and subject, we may add the complement, using the sentences of Exercise 4. Write upon the board * ' Cows eat grass. ' ' Have some pupil go through the language form as far as the predicate and subject are con- cerned, placing the words properly in the diagram and extending a space for the complement, thus, /\ | Then write underneath the question formed by adding what to the subject and predicate, thus ''Cows eat what?" Call upon some volunteer to answer the question, and then write grass in the diagram, remarking * * Cows eat what ? ' ' Grass. Therefore, grass is the complement. Drill orally with these sentences requiring that pupils shall give the complete forms, including those for predicate and subject as well as complement. This complete form, using the sentence, "Cows eat grass," 2— o (17) is as follows: "Eat tells what is done. Therefore, eat is the predicate. What eat ? Cows. Therefore, cows is the subject. Cows eat what ? Grass. Therefore, grass is the complement. ' ' Before the first lesson is completed teach the spelling of "complement" (noting that it is not "compliment"), and its distinct pronunciation. 1. Cows eat grass. 2, Horses draw wagons. 3. Fire burns wood. 4. Cats catch mice. 5. Girls sing songs. 6. Water boils eggs. 7. Dogs eat meat. 8. Boys play marbles. 9. Children play games. 10. Carpenters saw wood. Exercise 5. To find the complement when it refers to persons. Develop the lesson as in the previous one, but explain that when the complement refers to persons we must use whom, not what. Be especially careful that the pupils use whom, not the ungrammatical form of who as the object of a verb. 1. Tigers kill men. 2. Dogs frighten babies. 3. Flies annoy people. 4. Bloodhounds pursue criminals. 5. Jails contain criminals. 6. Trains carry persons. 7. Menageries attract children. 8. Machinery interests boys. * 9. Mothers love children. 10. Schools educate children. Exercise 6. To teach the language form when the sentence contains no complement. This exercise is also a review of all previous language forms, viz., the predicate, subject referring to persons, subject not referring to persons or animals, complements referring to persons, and complements not referring to persons. Teach orally by the method previously illustrated, the following form, using the first sentence, "Balloons rise. Rise tells what is done. Therefore, rise is the predicate. What rise? Balloons. Therefore, balloons is the subject. Balloons rise what? There is no answer. Therefore there is no complement. ' ' Do not permit pupils at any time, or in any sentence hereafter, to omit asking the question form for the complement although there is no comple- ment. Later in involved sentences, in constructions out of order, in which the complement is a phrase or clause, it will at first glance seem as if there is no complement, but by forming and answering the question, the comple- ment will be found. In the simple sentences of these exercises it is of course very manifest there is no complement, for there are no extra words, but we have purposely selected sentences of this type in order easily to learn the habit of asking the question. Your goal, therefore, is to instill the habit of forming and answering the complement question with every sentence. 1. Balloons rise. 2. Girls laugh. 3. Cooks bake. 4. Horses eat hay. 5. Men die. 6. Pupils study grammar. 7. Wood floats. 8. Ice melts. 9. Sharks capture sailors. 10. Iron sinks. 11. Hens lay eggs. 12. Milk (18) sours. 13. Snakes swallow frogs. 14. Rain falls. 15. Leaves flutter. 16. Dogs obey masters. 17. Iron rusts. 18. Wood rots. 19. Trees bear fruit. 20. Doors creak. Exercise 7. To introduce the term, office. Experience shows that it is necessary to distinguish between the ' ' offices ' * and **the parts of speech." Unless started properly pupils are forever mixing the term, noun, with subject or complement. For this reason we have first taken up the three offices, predicate, subject, and complement, without introducing the distinctions of the parts of speech. As a further preventive of confusion it is well to associate firmly the term, "office," with a visual place in the diagram. When the terms, predicate, subject, and complement, have been learned concretely, the teacher should gradually familiarize the pupils with the term * * office, ' ' at first using it herself and finally framing questions requir- ing the pupil to use it. Place a blank diagram upon the board, thus, A I and require the pupils to point out the place of each office, or pointing to each of these places ask, ' ' What is this office ? ' ' etc. Then have the pupils memorize these offices. See that this term is thoroughly understood before taking up the parts of speech. Use the sentences of Exercise 7 f5r drill in the use of the term ' ' office. ' ' Later, when parts of speech are being learned, pupils must be able to distinguish the questions, for example, in the sentence. Cows eat grass. "What part of speech is cotvs, and what is the office of cows?" It will be necessary to carry forward the review of this distinction between office and parts of speech systematically for several months. At least two lessons should be spent upon oral work to teach the term * * office. ' ' For seat work assign a portion of the sentences and require complete written analysis of each sentence. If the papers do not show that the pupils have practically learned all the forms, do not pass to Exercise 8. If the sentences of the exercise are not sufficient use sentences from previous exercises. After the children have analyzed the sentences and are thoroughly familiar with the predicate, subject, and complement in the sentences, the teacher may give a drill by pointing to the word quickly, saying "office." The child replies predicate, subject, complement. If a child hesitates, he is not familiar enough with the analysis of the sentence, which should be sub- stituted for the drill. ♦ 1. Pupils learn grammar. 2. Puppies play. 3. Grocers sell sugar. 4. Water gurgles. 5. Students read books. 6. Clouds 'disappear. 7. Thieves'rob people. 8. Grass withers. 9. Banks lend money. 10. Ships carry coal. 11. Cats scratch children. 12. Babies delight grandmothers. 13. Bees make honey. 14. Turkeys strut. 15. Detectives catch rascals. 16. Volcanoes emit lava. 17, Indians hunt. 18. Camels carry loads. 19. Flags wave. 20. Doctors cure invalids. (19) Exercise 8. To teach the recognition of verbs and nouns as parts of speech. In the following exercises we attempt merely to introduce to the pupils certain very general characteristics of the parts of speech, verbs, nouns, and pronouns. Later, more specific features and differentiations will be intro- duced. The definitions will, therefore, be preliminary, and not true at all times. We wish to make these terms familiar words, and we shall purposely keep out of our exercises all special, complex, or exceptional forms, because we wish to build first a conception which is usually true. The exceptions can, later, be easily taught after the simple and usual conceptions have become familiar. Tell the class that you are now going to teach them something entirely new about words ; that all the words in the language are classified into eight parts of speech — verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. You will commence with verbs and nouns and you will teach the others later. In all the sentences we have been using there have been only two parts of speech, verbs and nouns, and we are now going back over some of the sentences to pick out the verbs and nouns. Write "verb" on the board and have pupils spell and pronounce it. Tell them that it is very easy to recognize the verbs we have had because they all express action ; that in the sentences we have had all the predicates are the verbs', but that later we will have verbs which are not predicates and also verbs which do not express action. From several sentences of Exer- cise 4, already written upon the board, call for the verbs. Teach the pupils to use this form: '' expresses action. Therefore, is a verb." Assign as written seat work five or more sentences, requiring the pupils to write the language form as many times. For the second lesson, briefly review a few sentences, and if the pupils can give the language form for the verbs, begin with nouns. Explain that a noun is a name. In the sentence * ' Cows eat grass, ' ' cows is the name of a certain kind of animal. The word which we speak or write for this kind of an animal is a noun. The real cows are not on the board and are not nouns. It is the name which we give that is the noun. Go over this explanation something in this manner with one or two nouns, and then teach the language form "Cows is a name. Therefore, cows is a noun." For seat work give five sentences from Exercise 8 and require the pupils to write out the language forms of both verbs and nouns. Also, as a review of analysis by seat work, give at least one sentence from Exercise 8, requiring the analysis to be written to be followed by a diagram. Take time for this evjen if it is necessary to omit the advanced lesson on nouns. In the second lesson review office as in Exercise 7. After pupils have closely fixed in mind that office refers to the diagram place, ask the question of the form "What is the office of cows? (from the sentence Coivs eat grass). What part of speech is cows? What is the office of eat? What is the office of grass? What part of speech is grass?" Throughout subsequent work ask these forms of questions two or three (20) times during each recitation, and if there is any disposition to confuse the offices with parts of speech, use the drill with the empty diagram, as shown in Exercise 7. 1. Idlers whittle wood. 2. "Winter brings rain. 3. California produces oranges. 4. Indians tortured prisoners. 5. Columbus discovered America. 6. Italians enjoy music, 7. Beads delight savages. 8. Pictures amuse children. 9. Egyptians preserved mummies. 10. Butterflies flutter. 11. Brothers protect sisters, 12. Soldiers rest. 13. Fulton invented steam- boats. 14. Cortez conquered Mexico. 15, James met friends, 16. Wood- cutters chop. 17. Dairymen make butter. 18. Spiders weave. 19. Tailors sew cloth. Exercise 9. To teach the recognition of pronouns. It is useless for pupils to attempt to learn the recognition of pronouns by means of definitions. The popular definition does not mean much, and is only occasionally true ; in the sentence / see you, I and you stand, not for names, but for the external objects, and under our definition are in fact nouns. The simpler and more direct method of learning pronouns is to learn them as individuals and finally to memorize them. There are only about twenty-nine common pronouns, and of these we can use at present only twelve — I, me, we, us, you, he, she, him, her, it, they, and them. We must omit possessives until after we have taken up modifiers; and the relatives, who, which, that, and what, can not be introduced until we take up clauses, for they only occur in dependent clauses. Copy on the board Exercise 9a, with the pronouns. Explain to the pupils that these words are called pronouns. Direct them, as seat work, to find the pronouns in the sentences by reference to the list above and to write them in a column as they occur. Reviews : Write out the analysis of the first three sentences in Exercise 9, which constitute a complete review of all analysis. Write in separate columns the nouns and verbs of the first ten sentences of Exercise 9&. For the second lesson use the time for oral work in reviewing ' * office ' ' by means of the diagram. For seat work require pupils to write in their separate columns the nouns, verbs, and pronovins of the last ten sentences of Exercise 9&. For the ensuing lesson require each pupil at his seat to write the twelve pronouns, and also to recite them orally. Do not forget to review office. Pronouns — I, me, we, us, you, he, him, she, her, it, they, them. (a) 1. I saw you, 2. You saw me. 3. He teazes us. 4. They stung him. 5. She saved him. 6. He thanked her. 7, He ate apples. 8. We met them. 9. It surprises me. 10. She told him. 11, He told her. (&) 1, I see, 2. He sings songs. 3. Flowers please her. 4. They played tennis. 5, It strengthens them. 6, She learned lessons. 7. Lions (21) frighten me. 8. Monkeys amuse me. 9. We breathe air. 10. You drink water. 11. Dogs chase them. 12. They catch rats. 13. We eat potatoes. 14. She prefers ice cream. 15. He laughs. 16. Flies bother us. 17. Stories interest him. 18. I rode. 19. Medicine cured her. 20. Flies trouble them. Exercise 10. To teach adjectives ; review of pronouns, and the offices. This also contains a complete review of pronouns, and all types of subjects and complements and their language forms. Write the sentence, "Wild birds fly," and have some volunteer analyze it orally. The class will be unable to tell what to do with wild. Ask what word wild tells about. When you secure the answer dwell upon the fact for a time and make it clear by question and discussion that wild does not tell about fly but about birds; it shows what kind of birds they are which fly. Then ask what part of speech birds is, and upon being told that it is a noun, say that then wild must be an adjective, for any word that tells about a noun is an adjective. Be careful that the pupils do not get the notion that it is an adjective because it tells what kind of bir^s, but simply because it tells about a noun. Make this point perfectly clear. Illustrate with two or three other sentences and lead to the language form, "Wild tells about the noun, birds, therefore, wild is an adjective. ' ' Explain that words which tell about pronouns are also adjectives, but words which tell about a verb or any other part of speech except a noun or pronoun are never adjectives. Explain that for some time their sentences will contain only adjectives telling about nouns, but that later adjectives will be shown which tell about pronouns. Do not use the word "modify" for one or two lessons, except incidentally to remark that such and such a word tells about or "modifies" the noun, and therefore is an adjective. In this manner aim to associate the new term with its real meaning. Do not use the diagram for the present. In fact, it would be better never to use the diagram as a means to explain parts of speech. It is the abstract relationship of words, one to the other, in their meaning which is our goal, and the diagram tends to distract the attention from this essential goal. The diagram can only be safely introduced after adjective and adverbial relations have been thoroughly learned, and reviewed for several weeks or months. By that time, it is to be hoped, pupils will have acquired the mental habit of looking first for the abstract relationship, and will use the diagram merely as a written form of stating a fact already known. Extreme care should be taken in method to make clear that a word is an adjective because it modifies a noun or pronoun, not because it tells what kind, how many, etc. In order to make it clear that an adjective modifies a certain noun, it is well to require the pupils to tell in what way the adjective modifies the noun ; thus, in the sentence, Wild birds fly, wild tells what kind of birds. But for the first few lessons it will be best not to bring forward this idea too strongly, and at all times never let the recitation take (22) such form that there can be any confusion as to the real reason why a word is an adjective, to wit : that it tells about or modifies some noun or pronoun. When this point is clear it makes the relationship clearer by requiring the pupils to explain (i. e. in terms of what hind, how many, pointing out, etc.) just in what way a given adjective modifies the noun or pronoun in question. For seat work of the first lesson have pupils write a list of all the nouns, verbs, and pronouns found in the exercise, putting before each the number of the sentence in which it is found. For the second lesson lead up to the adjective language form ' ' Wild tells about the noun, birds. Therefore, wild is an adjective." For seat work give as many sentences as there may be time, and require pupils to write out the language form for each word. If the papers are satisfactory pass to the third lesson ; if not, take the time for further drill. In the third lesson we must take up the diagramming, not for its own sake but because we must have some handy form for review of analysis. Turn to the State Text, page 32, and familiarize yourself with the system for diagramming adjectives. Work with the class orally at first, then at the board, where mistakes may be easily noted and corrected, until the system of representing simple modifiers can be safely used. For seat work require pupils first to write the sentence, then to write the language form for the adjectives in the sentence, and last, to make a dia- grammatic representation. Do not permit them to diagram without first writing the language forms, for this error is lifting the lid to half the diseases of grammar teaching. If diagramming is to be used at all it must be used after all thinking possible has been done. Require that in at least two sentences there shall be written a complete analysis, for we must keep these language forms alive by frequent reviews. Probably two or three lessons of this type can profitably be given at this point before passing to Exercise 11. After the diagrams have been learned tell the class you will now teach them a new office, modifier. A modifier in a diagram is any word or group of words which is placed under another word or group of words. Adjectives are one kind of modifier, but later we will have modifiers of verbs, of adjectives, and of other parts of speech. Show upon the diagram what we mean by a modifier. Always drill the meaning with the diagram before the class. Ask for review questions, what the four offices are, and have them memorized — predicate, suoject, complement, and modifier. Constant review is necessary to fix these distinctions. (a) 1. Wild birds fly. 2. Young dogs bark. 3. Little babies drink milk. 4. Hot water scalds. 5. Hungry cats catch mice. 6. Little boys chased me. 7. We ate red berries. 8. They caught large fish. 9. Noisy hens cackle. 10. She likes sweet honey. (&) 1. Angry dogs growl. 2. Large tigers kill men. 3. I see white clouds. 4. You study easy lessons. 5. He helped them. 6. Gentle cows frighten her. 7. Small boys did it. 8. Green grass grows. 9. Tired men enjoy rest. 10. We have pleasant weather. 11. Brave soldiers captured (23) cities. 12. Barking dogs frighten skittish horses. 13. Little children like candy. 14. Buzzing flies annoy us, 15. He reads interesting books. 16. She picked red roses. 17. "We drank fresh milk. 18. Old dogs sleep. 19. Trained elephants amuse me. 20. Large trees shade us, 21, They want strong toys. Exercise 11. To teach the adjectives a, an, and the. A, an, and the tell about names by pointing them out, rather than stating color, size, kind, etc. Insist upon the regular language form for adjectives, but after each has been taken, ask after the language form has been given, in what way the {an or a) tells about . The answer should be: "It points out . ' ' Do not use this question until you are sure the pupils will not get the notion that these words are adjectives "because they point out." As an oral drill upon this exercise, write a, an, and the upon the board, and ask pupils to tell which sentences contain them. Review : Give an oral drill upon these sentences and upon the parts of speech. The pupil should be drilled to discover the predicate, subject, and comple- ment, using the language forms, without other direction than to analyze the sentence. This order of procedure should be maintained. But it is not necessary nor desirable that he should also memorize an order of procedure in giving the parts of speech. These matters should be brought out by special questioning. Thus, taking Sentence 4 as a model, the pupil should thus analyze : ' ' Catches tells what is done. Therefore, catches is the predi- cate. What catches? Bird, Therefore, hird is the subject. Bird catches what? Worm. Therefore, worm is the complement." This is far enough. It has been an unfortunate custom to require the pupil, without questioning, to take up in order the part of speech of the subject, of the predicate, of the complement, modifiers of the subject, of the predicate, etc. Thie drill necessary to teach this order is enormous, and better results can be reached by leaving the remainder for special question- ing. The teacher may now ask, " What does feirc? do in the sentence ? (Ans. Bird is a name. Therefore, hird is a noun.) Of what is hird the name? (Ans. Of an animal.) What shall you do with an? (Ans. An modifies hird. Therefore, an is an adjective.) In what way does an modify hird? (Ans. It points out hird.) What does eai'ly do? (Ans, Early tells about hird. Therefore, early is an adjective.) In what way does early modify hird? (Ans. Early tells what kind of hird it is)," etc. For review of office ask pupils to name the office of each word in the sentence. If there is any hesitancy, diagram the sentence, and have the drill from the words in the diagram, and later from the sentence without diagram. The teacher should now use and encourage the use of the word "modify" instead of ' ' tells about. ' ' Gradually introduce the use of it into the (24) language forms, but not until by frequent use, by the teacher, it is entirely familiar. Unless the class shows readiness with these forms do not pass to the next exercise until all the sentences have been analyzed. Seat work: Require analysis of a few sentences. Underline the nouns, verbs, and adjectives in other sentences, with instructions for pupils to write what each of these underlined words does in the sentence. The special questions of the type illustrated should be reserved for oral work, as the labor of writing it on the board is greater than the profit. 1. The rain fell: 2. The wind chills me. 3. The dog chased him. 4. An early bird catches the worm, 5. They saw a snake. 6. We caught a fish. 7. An owl catches mice. 8. A strong horse draws a heavy load. 9. The pretty robin sang a song. 10. A young man stopped the runaway horse. 11. She met an old man. 12. It rained. 13. The hot iron burned him. 14. The good man helped us. 15. I picked a blue flower. 16. A bright sun cheered her. 17. He ate an apple. 18. The coof water refreshes you. 19. An old dog followed them. Exercise 12. To teach the adjectives this, that, these, and those; reviewing a, an, and the. Develop, by questioning, the realization that these new words modify nouns and consequently are adjectives. By special questioning bring out the fact that they belong to the same class as a, an, and the, inasmuch as they point out. Question especially upon the, an, and a as they occur. Send the class to the board and have a few sentences diagrammed. If they make few mistakes as a consequence, assign, as seat work, the diagramming of as many sentences as possible. Since the oral work above has been given, it is not necessary to require written analysis. Do not forget the review of office as in Exercises 10 and 11. 1. That little pig ate an apple. 2. These hungry chickens want corn. 3. Those wicked men deserve severe punishment. 4. That man killed a bear. 5. This boy learned a useful lesson. 6. That parrot wants a cracker. 7. These horses drew a heavy load. 8, I want those pencils. Exercise 13. To teach the adjectives all, any, many, every, no, some, and terms of numher. In general, these adjectives modify by telling "how many." Require complete oral analysis, and use special questioning for the modifiers. After a pupil has used the regular language form, question him to bring out in what way the adjective modifies the noun. Seat work: Require that the sentences which have been analyzed orally shall be diagrammed. Also require that pupils shall select and write the list of (25) pronouns which occur in the following list of words : the, me, some, you, a, an, I, any, see, he, seven, them, girl, they, home, she, every, .it, walk, us, ran, we, man, him, made, six, ask, her, no. 1. The boys played ball. 2. Four girls want that book. 3. Many animals eat meat. 4. Some animals eat no meat. 5. Every child likes this candy. 6. All men die. 7. That boy broke those windows. 8. Three small children sang some songs. 9. Any dog appreciates a kindness. 10, Those soldiers raised an old tattered flag. „ . Exercise 14. Review: Exercise 14 offers a general review of all types of adjectives introduced, and also of pronouns and of analysis. Require oral analysis of each sen- tence, with special questioning upon modifiers, and upon what each expresses. Do not forget the review of office. Seat work: Require written analysis of any sentences with which the class seemed weak in the oral recitation. 1. Those boys own some pretty, white rabbits. 2. We want these books. 3. You know this boy. 4. He ate an apple. 5. Some dogs chased him. 6. That boy took them. 7. They ran a race. 8. She called me. 9. Those men thanked us. 10. This hard ball struck him. 11. It melted the ice. 12. These noisy children annoy her. 13. I have an orange. 14. Every boy wanted that football. 15. Any person enjoys a good story. 16. This large menagerie contains many wild animals. 17. All cattle eat hay. 18. No one wants those worthless boxes. 19. Six pupils worked these difficult examples. 20. No monkey laughs. To teach adverbs. Since an adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or any other adverb, we must take each construction separately, reviewing in advance the construction already learned. We will commence with the case of adverbs modifying verbs in Exercise 15. Write the sentence The tame birds fly wildly, and after pupils have analyzed the sentence as far as wildly, ask what the word is which it modifies. Bring out by questioning that wildly changes the meaning of fly, telling the manner of the flying. It does not modify birds, because the sentence tells us that they were tame birds, not wild ones. Explain that since wildly clearly tells about a verb (fly) it must be an adverb, for adverbs are the parts of speech which modify verbs. Tell the class that adverbs never modify nouns or pronouns, for words which do so, as we have already learned, are adjectives. Illustrate with two or three other sentences and lead up to the language form, "Wildly tells about (or modifies) the verb, fly. Therefore, wildly is an adverb." After this form has been recited ask such questions as, "^In what way does wildly modify the verb?" (Ans. It tells how the birds fly.) Show the class that adverbs are diagrammed exactly as adjectives. (26) Seat work: Assign for diagramming a sufficient number of the sentences which have been analyzed. 1. The tame birds fly wildly. 2. The race horse trotted slowly. 3. The class sing softly. 4. The heavy elephant lifted the child lightly. 5. The express train climbed the hill slowly, 6. The pupils wrote neatly. 7. The lamp burned dimly. 8. The injured man smiled cheerfully. 9. The cross teacher sang sweetly. 10. The lively children played quietly. Exercise 16. To teach adverbs expressing time. Exercise 16 introduces adverbs expressing time, and reviews the type introduced in Exercise 15. Require the same language form. For special questioning, lead pupils to explain that these adverbs * * tell when. ' ' Explain that we have another form of modifier — the adverb. Show, by diagram, that it has the same office as the adjective. For drills, require pupils to give the office of each word in the sentence, using the diagram if at all necessary. Seat work: Require pupils to make separate columns containing the adverbs, adjectives, verbs, and nouns, placing before each the number of the sentence in which it is found. 1. The postman came late. 2. California lions oftei^ kill sheep. 3. Raiu soon fell. 4. Buffaloes formerly roamed the prairies. 5. These pupils no\\ study grammar. 6. Fire seldom burns wet wood. 7. The letter never came. 8. Foxes always avoid dogs. 9. This little pig greedily ate the food. 10. Then the stage came. 11. The man never returned. 12. Many men die suddenly. 13. The carpenter works honestly. 14, You write well. 15. A serious earthquake once visited California. 16. No good child wilfully disobeys parents. 17. She often loses books. 18. The sick man persistently refused any medicine. 19. Six persons easily escaped. 20. The officer soon found the lost child. 21. Richard almost won the race. 22. It happened yesterday. 23. I hear you distinctly. 24. The boy entered quietly. 25, They came early. Exercise 17. To teach adverbs expressing place. ^ With the pupils make no distinction as to adverbs of time, place, degree, etc. These distinctions are of no value, as no mistakes grow out of their confusion. But after the language form for the adverb has been given, call upon pupils to tell in what way a given adverb modifies the verb, in order to make the relationship clearer. Use, for seat work, written analysis and questioning upon sentences and constructions in which the pupils have shown weakness during the oral recitation. (27) 1. We live here. 2. The army moved forward. 3. They \Y6iit home. 4. Then they ran out. 5. The cow stood there. 6. We looked up. 7. An old tree stands near. 8. Indians once lived here. 9. The bell rang loudly. 10. They then went in. Exercise 18. Adverbs modifying adjectives. Pursue the same method as in previous lessons. The language form is : modifies the adjective . Therefore, is an adverb. Give oral drills upon the analysis and constructions of all adverbs, adjectives, nouns, verbs, and pronouns found in the sentences. For seat work assign for diagramming sentences or constructions which have given trouble but which have been thoroughl;^ explained. Do not forget to review office. 1. Very careful pupils make no blots. 2. He now suffers very little pain. 3. You misspelled too many words. 4. California once had some very large farms. 5. I never read a more interesting book. 6. Quite accurate men sometimes make mistakes. 7. We safely crossed the most dangerous place. 8. Too hasty people frequently apologize. 9. She now enjoys much better health. 10. Cats make singularly quick movements. 11. Hawks have remarkably keen eyesight. Exercise 19. Adverbs modifying adverbs. The language form is: modifies the adverb . Therefore, is an adverb. 1. Some hunters very often miss easy shots. 2. The visitor came too early. 3. I play very quietly. 4. This machinery now runs quite easily. 5. The south wind almost always brings a rain. 6. The soldier escaped quite remarkably. 7. They now visit us quite frequently. 8. A lazy horse very seldom runs away. 9. We heard her quite distinctly. 10. They walked too fast. Exercise 20. To review adverbs, adjectives, and pronouns. For oral recitation, give complete analysis of each sentence, with special questioning upon all parts of speech and upon what each expresses. For seat work, require pupils to make separate columns of all the parts of speech. 1. He once owned a very large grizzly bear. 2. She stood there. 3. They urged us quite persistently. 4. I hardly believe it. 5. He recognized me immediately. 6. The wolves continually drew nearer. 7. They lifted him very gently. 8. This savage dog barked angrily. 9. These olives grew here. 10. That book contains many very interesting stories. ]#1. Those boats require especially strong oars. 12. No man ever escaped death. 13. Every star shone brightly. 14. We saw her distinctly. 15. Some schools never have a spring vacation. 16. The poor man accepted any (28) assistance gratefully. 17* The flames burst forth instantly. 18. Few plants endure continual shade. 19. Some lands receive too much rain. 20. All rivers flow downward. m •.- Exercise 21. The preposition. It is useless folly to attempt to teach pupils to recognize prepositions by comprehension of a definition. No one, pupil or teacher, ever actually realized that prepositions "show relation." It is a pretty phrase, but we mean nothing by it. Tlje simplest and shortest method of learning to recognize prepositions is to learn that such words are prepositions as we meet them individually in sentences, and then to memorize them. In conformity with this plan, the exercises introduce the more common prepo- sitions, one by one, in sentences, and by reviews the pupils will quickly learn to remember that such words are prepositions. With few exceptions words used as prepositions, conjunctions, interjections, and pronouns, unlike words used as adverbs, verbs, and nouns, do not change their classification. To introduce the prepositions in and at. Write upon the board the sentence, The girls in the yard jump rope. Do not ask the pupils to analyze the sentence. They have not yet learned phrases. Merely call their attention to the word in. Tell them it is called a preposition, and teach the spelling of "preposition." Tell them also that the noun yard, which comes after it, is the object of the preposition in. Then ask volunteers to find a preposition in the second sentence. Ask what is the object of the preposition in? Ask the question in this form because we wish to familiarize the pupils with the language form "object of the preposition ." Treat sentences in this way until understood, and finally vary your questions, asking, * ' What is the preposition in the sixth sentence ? " " What is 'desk'?" (Expect the answer, "The noun desk is the object of the preposition in.") Drill in this manner by the use of the ensuing exercise until you teach the language form " is a preposition, having for its object the noun . " 1. The girls in the yard jump rope. 2. The boy in the blue suit sells papers. 3. The parrot in the cage wants a cracker. 4. The man in the store sells oranges. 5. The cat jumped at the bird in the cage. 6. We bought the candy in the store at the station. 7. The grocer delivered the apples at the house. 8. He sold fruit in boxes. 9. The horse stopped at the barn. 10. The lion in the cage roared at the children. Exercise 22. To introduce the prepositions into, on, and over. Drill especially on the language form of prepositions, but also analyze the sentences and question in review concerning the adverbs and adjectives. Do not use term phrase, but require the pupils to tell the modifiers of the object ^f the proposition. (29) For seat work, assign the task of picking out*a few prepositions, with their objects, and of writing the language form. If there is time, require the pupils to make two columns. The first should be headed * ' Prepositions, ' ' and the other "Objects of Prepositions." Let them write under these head- ings all the words in the lesson properly belonging under them. The adjective the becomes by necessity so often repeated that drill upon it becomes overdone. It is desirable never to question concerning it, and teach pupils the habit of omitting reference to it, as otherwise much recita- tion time is purely wasted. 1. The swimmer suddenly jumped into the water. 2. We cautiously walked into the gloomy cave. 3. He wants that book on the table. 4. Many frightened passengers on the ship behaved foolishly. 5. The cow jumped over the moon. 6. The boys threw the ball over the fence. 7. The boy fell into the water quite accidentally. 8. A pilot then came to the ship. 9. The army secretly crossed over the river in boats at night. 10, We looked into the shop windows. Exercise 23. To introduce the prepositions hy, to, and of ; review of previous prepositions and also of pronouns. For the oral recitation, follow the directions for Exercise 22. For seat work, in addition to requirements similar to those for Exercise 22, direct the pupils to make separate columns of pronouns and prepositions selected from the following list of words: then, at, you, by, into, too, she, they, to, in, I, quite, some, he, him, over, every, at, on, all, we, us, of, no, any, her, very, me. 1. An old mill stood by the river. 2. They came by the rough wagon road. 3. This kitten recently came to us. 4. The squirrel climbed to the top of the tree. 5, I called the dog to me, 6. We finally discovered the cause of the delay. 7, The hunter shot at them, 8, He sent the letter to her by a messenger. 9. You told the truth of the unfortunate affair. 10. She threw a stone over the fence at the barking dog. 11. It drove him into the barn. Exercise 24. To introduce the prepositions with, from, and for. Proceed as in Exercise 22. For seat work, if the language form is now learned, require pupils to make a list of all prepositions found in Exercises 21, 22, 23, and 24, placing the number of the sentence before each. The term "prepositional phrase" may be introduced with this lesson, for the pupils should now be familiar with the preposition itself and its object. Teach that a prepositional phrase always begins with a preposition, contains an object, and may also contain modifiers of this object. In the first sentence the following should be the form: ''Came tells what is done. Therefore, came is the predicate. Who came? He. Therefore, he is the subject. He came what? There is no answer. Therefore, there is no (30) complement. With us is a prepositional phrase, introduced by the preposi- tion with, and having for its object the pronoun us." 1. He came with us. 2. She asked for you. 3. We rode with them into the country. 4. They returned for it. 5. He hastened to her at the cry of danger. 6. I carried him from the burning building. 7. The army escaped from the dangerous ambuscade with very slight loss. 8. They stopped for lunch at the quaint hotel in the village. 9. The messenger brought a letter from the general to the colonel. Exercise 25. To introduce the prepositions behind, among, through, near, before, after, between, under, toward, up, down, and above. Proceed as in Exercise 24, reviewing use of the term "phrase." For seat work, require in written form two columns, one containing prepositions, and the other objects taken from all sentences treated orally. 1. The pencil lies behind the book. 2. The house stood among the trees. 3. The children looked through the telescope. 4. We live near the church. 5. The pupils arrived at school before noon. 6. The boys generally play ball after school. 7. A modest violet grew in the garden among the daisies. 8. The father built a swing between two trees. 9. The tramp asked for food. 10. Swallows usually build nests under the eaves of houses. 11. The horse ran toward the barn. 12. Jack went up the hill. 13. The boat floated noiselessly down the river. 14. The bird flew above the hunters across the river. 15. The rat ran under the barn. Exercise 26. To review prepositions hitherto introduced. Drill especially upon the term "prepositional phrase." For seat work, require separate columns of the prepositions and pronouns selected from the following list: behind, me, all, too,- near, good, among, I, this, that, before, every, between, then, us, up, we, this, under, any, you, no, ask, down, after, them, above, good, run, toward, sit, they, jump, with, girl, from, her, for, boy, he, man, in, to, and, him, come, on, went, by, she, a, of, it, an, the, over, old, said, into, baby, at. It is not necessary that pupils should be able to recite prepositions from memory, but they should know these words when they see them. Do not forget the review of office. 1. She lives in that house with the tall chimneys. 2. The boy stood on the burning deck. 3. This little girl sang for us. 4. The teacher sat behind the desk. 5. We found those strawberries among some weeds on the hill. 6. Birds fly through the air. 7. Many pupils easily write well in copybooks. 8. The copybooks of a few pupils show extreme care. 9. Mary played with the other children after supper. 10. They came promptly at the appointed hour. 11. The hives of these bees stand under the apple tree (31) near the barn. 12. The rabbit hopped over the fence into the briar patch. 13. John told the exact truth about the matter. 14. He thanked her for it. 15. We sent the present to them by mail. 16. I received the gift from him before Christmas. 17. The dog ran joyously down the road toward me. 18. The steamer paddled up the river. 19. The stars twinkle above us. 20. You fell down stairs. Exercise 27. This exercise introduces the formula for the construction of the various words in the sentence. The formula, which includes two things, part of speech and office, has really been given when the pupil has said : The noun is object of the preposition . Now, we shall call for the construction of any word, expecting as an answer : ^ ( noun ) . (subject ) ■ .. The { } IS the < , ^ > m the sentence. i pronoun ^ i complement ^ The verb is the predicate. The adjective — modifies the noun . The adverb modifies the verb — . The adverb modifies the adjective . The adverb modifies the adverb . Treatment of the Text, Pages 49 to 93 (Part II). The text in these pages is especially impossible from a teaching stand- point. The author has most unfortunately inserted, after having taught subject, predicate, and parts of speech, a number of confusing exceptions to usual constructions. We should, and must, first thoroughly accustom . pupils to common and usual constructions before we undertake by contrast to make occasional exceptions, such as factitive complements, indirect objects, etc., comprehensible. Similarly, participial and infinitive construc- tions must not precede a thorough treatment of the conjugation of the verb. The Course of Study will omit factitive complements and indirect objects until the end, and will insert them in a chapter devoted to special constructions. Upon pages 49 to 50 the distinction between complete and incomplete predication is unnecessary pedantry and should be omitted. Upon page 51 the attribute complement can not be understood by pupils by means of an abstract definition, and its treatment must be deferred until after the conjugation of the verb he is learned. The same fact is true of copulative verbs, and the learning of this term is quite unnecessary. Factitive comple- ments, indirect objects, infinitives, and participles have already been discussed, and for the reasons stated should be omitted for the present. The remainder of the chapter plunges the pupil into hopelessly abstruse constructions without any reason at this juncture. All should be postponed until pupils can learn the simple and common constructions of the language. (32) CHART I. CONJUGATION OF THE VLRB-SLL. Present Form. see PRINCIPAL PART5. Past Form. saw Indicative Mode — Active Voice. Present Tense. Past Participle. seen Singular Number. First Person. I see. Second Person. You see. Third Person. sees. Plural Number. First Person. We see. Second Person. You see. Third Person. see. First Person. Second Person. Third Person. First Person. Second Person. Third Person. First Person. Second Person. Third Person. I saw. You saw. saw. I shall see. You will see. will see. Past Tense. First Person. Second Person. Third Person. Future Tense. First Person. Second Person. Third Person. I have seen. You have seen. has seen. Present Perfect Tense. First Person. Second Person. Third Person. Past Perfect Tense. First Person. I had seen. First Person. Second Person. Third Person. First Person. Second Person. Third Person. 3— G You had seen. had seen. Second Person. Third Person. Future Perfect Tense. I shall have seen. First Person. You will have seen. Second Person. will have seen. Third Person. (33) We saw. You saw. saw. We shall see. You will see. will see. We have seen. You have seen. have seen. We had seen. You had seen. had seen. We shall have seen. You will have seen. will have seen. Exercise 27a. To teach the conjugation of a verb — -first step. Our first step in teaching verbs is to train the ability to read, pronounce, and spell the new terms used in the conjugation form — conjugation, prin- cipal parts, present, past, indicative, mode, tense, person, perfect, singular, plural, and such others which may prove stumbling blocks. Copy the first chart upon the board, and with the pointer pronounce each, and have the class in concert, and as individuals, pronounce them after you. Read in this way the entire chart and incorporate the words in a spelling lesson. For a written lesson, require the class to copy the chart, either from the appendix or board, or such portion of it as time may permit. Caution: In copying the chart upon the board, or in the copies which pupils make, be careful that the exact form is preserved ; do not cut it into two columns or permit any change in the arrangement. One central purpose is to be established in the pupil's mind — a mental picture of the chart, and if there is any change in the arrangement it will lead to confused and foggy images. Give every day the cumulative review, and use for a part of the written and oral work a few sentences from Exercise 27 (1 and 2). Exercise 27(1). 1. The wind frequently blows from the south in winter. 2. The whistles blew promptly at noon. 3. The strong wind has blown off the church spire. 4. The school bell rang for the dismissal of the pupils. 5. The monitor has rung the bell. 6. I shall ring the bell at the proper time. 7. We shall go with you to the city to-morroAV. 8. The painters had "suddenly fallen from the high building. 9. He fell into the water by accident. 10. The waves broke over the disabled ship. 11. The ripe apples have fallen to the ground. 12. You will fall upon that hard ground. 13. The boy has broken the window with a stone. 14. That boy wrote the composition after school. 15. She has written three letters during the day to friends at home. 16. I shall have written all the letters by dinner time. 17. She will tear the dress upon that nail. 18. The dog has broken the chain. 19. The violent gale tore the sail into strips. 20. We went through the tunnel at night. 21. He had gone before the arrival of the visitors. 22. Who goes there? 23. The monkey does that trick quite often. 24. He did it yesterday. 25. We have finally done the work without difficulty. Exercise 27(2). 1. I now see the mistake in the example. 2. You see the snow on the mountains. 3. He sees quite distinctly through the new spectacles. 4. I saw him yesterday. 5. We shall see her to-morrow. 6. She has seen me at school. 7. They had seen us before. 8. The children will have seen the entire procession by noon. 9. John has seen it. 10. They have seen the moon through a telescope. 11. The rats had already eaten into the cheese. 12. The old rosebush grew over the wall. 13. We shall eat sandwiches for lunch. 14. The horse has eaten the leaves of the tree. 15. The dog will (34) f ' not eat sociablj^ with the cat. 16. That ivy vine has grown from the foot of the wall to the roof of the house. 17. This pretty flower grows by the roadside. 18. The dog ate the meat on a plate. 19. Flowers will not grow in very dry soil. 20. Very hungry wolves have eaten men. Exercise 27b. To teach the conjugation — second step. After the terms used in the conjugation are mastered, we are ready to take the second step. This is to comprehend, in a limited way, what the relation of the parts of the chart are to each other — that there are four principal parts to the verb; that all the forms upon Chart I underneath "Indicative Mode" belong to this mode; that the indicative mode has six tenses; that each tense has two numbers, and each number three persons, etc. As an introduction to the study, the teacher should make the explana- tions from the copy upon the board, getting as much as possible from questioning. Send individual pupils later to the board and require them to point out the principal parts, to count them, name them, to point out the indicative mode (requiring the pointer to pass over the entire mode, not simply the name), to point out individual tenses as called for, and finally any person, number, and tense, etc. The purpose is to fix a clear image of the chart and its various parts. Drill upon this exercise until there is the utmost readiness in finding any part called for. For written work, require copying of the chart as in Exercise 27, and be careful to look over the papers in order to weed out any errors of spelling. ^ However, do not spend too many lessons upon this exercise. We do not require at this time that the pupils shall reduce the chart to perfect memory, but simply to acquire a readiness in finding the various parts. Exercise 27c. To teach the conjugation — third step. C""^ ^ Our third step is the realization that this chart may be adapted to all verbs provided we know the principal parts. We shall do this by teaching the pupils to construct, the principal part being given, the conjugation of other verbs. The verbs of the first series are similar in conjugation form to that of see; i. e., their past forms and past participles are not identical. Erase from the chart upon the board all the forms of see, leaving merely the skeleton. Have the pupils look at the conjugation of see. (If classes are not provided individually with the appendix in separate binding, the teacher, instead of making a skeleton by erasing the forms of see from the board chart, should write a skeleton by the side of it.) If this oral lesson is effective, the class may be assigned, as written work, the task of writing the conjugation of another word, the principal parts being given them, with the conjugation of see before them as a model. Several lessons will be necessary and profitable for this exercise, and we must take time for review. Exercise 27(1) furnishes a review of pronouns, (35) adverbs, adjectives, prepositions, and prepositional phrases, A few sen- tences should be given daily to review analysis and the language forms of the parts of speech, even at the cost of advance progress. Exercise 27(2) also contains see in all tenses, and some additional drill with eat and grow. Write the principal parts of another verb from Series 1, for example, eat, in the proper place in the skeleton chart. Then ask the pupils to look at the present tense of the verb see and tell you which of the principal parts is there used. Upon receiving the answer, "the present form," tell them we must use, therefore, the present form of eat in the present tense, and proceed to fill out the vacant spaces, receiving as much help as possible from the class. Note and impress the fact that in the third person singular **s" is added to the present form. Proceed in this manner to fill out the entire skeleton, training the habit in the pupils to determine which of the principal parts is used in a given tense by reference to the conjugation of the verb see. Note and impress as you proceed, the words or letter which we shall call "helpers" — s, shall, will, have, has, had, shall have, and will have. Verbs in Series 1 — Principal Parts. Present form. Past form. Past participle. eat ate eaten grow grew grown ring rang rung blow blew blown fall fell fallen break broke broken tear tore torn write wrote written go went gone do did Exercise 27d. done After pupils have written conjugations from the model with a fair comprehension of the construction, the various signs or helpers should be thoroughly memorized, so that by then any construction may be instantly recognized. In an oral way first, have the pupils, with the chart before them, point out the helpers of the several tenses. As a written lesson, require them to write these, first giving them in a column all the helpers. The result should be something as follows : s, first person, singular, present tense, indicative mode. shall, first person, singular and plural, future tense, indicative mode. will, second and third persons, singular and plural, future tense, indicative mode. has^ third person, singular, present perfect tense, indicative mode. (36) have, first and second persons, singular and plural numbers, present perfect tense, indicative mode. had, first and second persons, singular and plural numbers, past perfect tense, indicative mode. shall have, first person, singular and plural numbers, future perfect tense. will have, second and third persons, singular and plural numbers, future perfect tense. Exercise 27e. The complete chart should now be ready for memorizing. If these exercises have been followed, the majority of the pupils will now have a fairly clear visual image of the chart. Extra drill and review will further fix it. There should be constantly recurrent oral recitation of the chart. The following devices of written work may be used : Name the tenses of the indicative mode in their order. In what tense do you find the present form? The past form? The past participle? Name each of the helpers. What entire tense has no helper? Write a skeleton of Chart I. Erase the helpers from the skeleton diagram, and require pupils to replace them. Write the helpers (s, shall, will, have, has, had, shall have, and will have) in a column, and out of their regular order. Point to each, asking for the tense. Train for ready, snappy answers. Also, write in columns the helpers, together with the parts of the verb, and in the same way have a quick drill upon the question of tense, e. g., has gone, shall eat, blows, grew, will have seen, had broken, fell, have fallen, has torn, will have, rang, had eaten, ate, will write, have grown, shall have grown, shall have done, etc. Do not neglect review of analysis and parts of speech, using Exercise 27 (land 2). Use the cumulative review questions 1-21. Exercise 27f. The principal parts of all verbs must be memorized, and we may now, commence with those of Series 1. Either time must be given from the school or the lesson may be assigned as home work. As a written lesson, the class should be required to write these principal parts from memory. Sentences from Exercise 27(2), using forms of see, may be used requiring pupils to tell what person, number, tense, and mode each form represents. (37) CHART II. Infinitives. to see. to have seen. Participles. Present, seeing. Past. seen. Perfect, having seen. IMPERATIVE MODE. Singular Number. Plural Number. Second Person. (You) See. Second Person. (You) See. First Person. Second Person. Third Person. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. (If) I see. (If) you see. (If) see. First Person. Second Person. Third Person. (If) we see. (If) you see. (If) see. POTENTIAL MODE. Using may, can, must, might, could, would, or should as helpers. First Person. Second Person. Third Person. You see. — see. see. First Person. Second Person. Third Person. We - You see. - see. - see. Using may have, can have, must have, might have, could have, would have, or should have as helpers. First Person. I seen. First Person. Second Person. You seen. Second Person. Third Person. seen. Third Person. We - You seen, -seen, -seen. First Person. Second Person. Third Person. First Person. Second Person. Third Person. EMPHATIC FORM. Present Tense. I do see. You d(^ see. does see. I did see. You did see. did see. First Person. Second Person. Third Person. Past Tense. First Person. Second Person. Third Person. (88) We do see. You do see. do see. We did see. You did see. did see. Exercise 27g. We may take up Chart II as soon as pupils have completed the memorizing stage in learning Chart I. It should be studied in the same steps as in Chart I, though perhaps more rapidly. These steps (see Exer- cises 27a to 21 e) were: (1) to learn the pronunciations and spelling of the new terms ; (2) to understand the relationship of the parts ; (3) to construct similar forms with other verbs, using this conjugation as a model; (4) the memorizing of the chart as a visual image. The points with which you will have the greatest difficulty, and which therefore require special drill, are as follows : to remember the forms of the two infinitives and three participles; to distinguish the present infinitive from a prepositional phrase; to recognize that the only difference between the subjunctive mode and the present tense of the indicative mode consists of the omission of the s in the third person of the former. In order to avoid the confusion of the present infinitive with the prepositional phrase, drill on the explanation that in the infinitive to is always followed by a verb, while in a phrase to is followed by a noun or a pronoun. Do not permit the pupils to call the to of the infinitive a preposition, or still worse, the infinitive; teach them that it is the helper or sign. Have the helpers of the subjunctive mode memorized at once. Exercise 27h. Review: For each lesson some device for reviewing Chart I must be employed. Some one of the devices mentioned in Exercise 27e will serve the purpose. Use, as in the following list, by requiring pupils to write the words in a column and after each to write the form which it is, thus : broken — past participle of break, ate — past form of eat. Use Exercise 27(2) as a drill in ready recognition of the forms of the special verbs of which the principal parts have been given : broken blew tore . do ' tear » grow ate grown wrote fallen break ^ gone ^ go^ fell^ ring ' grew eat' ^ written^ blown broke went/^ rang '^ done y fall ' break write rung ^ gone v Exercise 28. This exercise may be used for review of analysis before Exercise 27 is completed, inasmuch as the pupils must not be permitted to drop analysis work altogether while studying the conjugations. (39) 1. The horse ate the lump of sugar from the hand of the little girl. 2. You have cheerfully done a great kindness, 3. A rosebush grew by the side of the gate. 4. It has grown very rapidly. 5. She had suddenly gone to the city. 6. We went over the hill into a very pretty valley. 7, During the night the wind tore the yacht from the moorings. 8. By that time I shall have written the letter. 9. Those ripe apples have fallen from the tree. 10. He will probably go for the mail at an early hour. 11. The puppy has seriously torn the dress of the little girl. 12. The whistle promptly blew a shrill blast at the moment of the accident. 13. David has rung the bell. 14. A sudden gust of wind blew the sail from the mast. 15. A pistol shot rang out sharply in the still night. 16. That rope will surely break under so severe a strain. 17. Some seed fell by the wayside. 18. I did it. 19. You have done it. 20. Who goes there? Exercise 29. The verbs given in this list, together with those given in Exercise 27, comprise those in the use of which errors most commonly occur. Conse- quently, we need to drill upon the forms with thoroughness, especially those most frequently the basis of error : begun for began have gave for have given have broke for have broken lay for lie blowed for blew , laid for lay growed for grew have laid for have lain knowed for knew * loose for lose throwed for threw have rode for have ridden drawed for drew run for ran dumb for climb set for sit come for came have swam for have swum drunk for drank have wore for have worn Assign five to ten to be memorized for each lesson, either as home work or as seat work. Have the principal parts recited orally, and, if well learned, later have them given in written form. Give considerable driU each day upon forming the conjugation of the principal parts, especially in those parts that show weakness — most likely infinitives and participles; drill especially upon these, and when the pupils seem to recognize them readily, pass to Exercise 30 for sentence work. Give daily drills upon recognition of helpers, putting the signs in a column, and requiring the forms. Exercise 29(2) contains the principal parts in indiscriminate order. It is intended that this should be copied upon the board. The teacher calls upon a pupil, and pointing to the words, rapidly calls for snappy drill. The teacher need not wait until all the verbs are given to use this list, but she should construct a partial list from whatever portions have been taught. Exercise 29(3) contains the infinitives and participles; it should be used by a method similar to that of Exercise 29(2). (40) Exercise 29(1). Verbs in Series 2 — Principal Parts. Present form. Past form. Past participle. begin began begun break broke broken blow blew blown grow grew" grown know knew known throw threw thrown fly flew flown draw drew drawn climb climbed climbed come came come drink drank drunk or drank give gave given lay laid laid lie lay lain lose lost lost ride rode ridden run ran run set set set sit sat sat swim swam or swum swum wear wore worn Exercise 29(2), lost lain thrown gave grew blew sat given set ridden swam known drank laid begun run drunk wore came broke grown sat come threw drew climbed knew worn flew blown laid drawn lay swum began broken rode flown set ran (41) to give blowing worn to have laid ridden knowing having sat to set lost to have worn to lose having swum to sit having began drinking Exercise 29(3). coming begun growing to lay broken to have known known climbing to swim to have given to wear having broken to begin having come to ride thrown flying to have grown to lie having laid throwing to have come having drunk to run having lain drawing to have flown to break drawn giving Exercise 30. This exercise should be begun before Exercise 29 is wholly finished, in order to give review of analysis. For a full lesson, however, simply use the exercise as one from which to discover and name the infinitives and to give drills upon their conjugation forms. As a second lesson explain that infinitives are forms of the verb, but that also in sentences they are used as nouns and adjectives. Exercise 30 gives only illustrations of an infinitive filling the functions of a noun. Have the sentences analyzed, and if the pupils follow the language forms closely they should discover for themselves the offices which the infinitives hold. Give help only as needed. Insistently make clear that an infinitive always does two things — ^shows action and is used where a noun (name of an action) or modifier (adjective or adverb) can be used. As you come to the constructions teach that the infinitive may have an object. (Sen- tences 6, 7, 8, and 9), or may have a modifier (Sentence 4) which must be an adverb because an infinitive is a verb. Difficulty will be met in the confusion of infinitives with prepositional phrases introduced by to. Teach them that in the prepositional phrase the object of to is always a noun or pronoun, while in the infinitive a verb always follows the sign to. Exercise 31 is introduced especially as a drill to explain this confusion until Exercise 32 is reached. After the exercise has been analyzed another lesson may be given upon the diagram forms which will be found in the text, pages 60 to 66. Language form : To shows action and is used where a can be used. Therefore, to is an infinitive. 1. To swim gives much pleasure. 2. The child asked to come. 3. The horse began to drink, 4. To lie down after hard work gives rest. 5. He wanted to read the book. 6. The man determined to swim the river. 7. We had just begun to see light. 8. The little girl wished to play another game. (42) 9. The sailor attempted to save the drowning man. 10. We asked the children to come. . ^ . . -..^ Exercise 31. The infinihve as a modifier. As a first lesson, use the exercise and any succeeding ones as material for drill in recognition of infinitives as modifiers. Thus, in the first sentence, to ring the bell modifies time, telling what time. Constantly use Exercise 29 as a review drill upon conjugation forms. 1. The time to ring the bell had come. 2. The determination to climb the mountain gave new hope to the lost travelers. 3. The child ran to overtake the mother. 4. The fox ran through the water to throw the dogs from the trail. 5. The cows had come down to the stream to drink. 6. The best place to fish lies over the mountain. 7. To throw accurately requires much practice. 8. The visitors have climbed to the top of the mountain to see the sunrise. 9. She wished to sit in the shade. 10. He set a trap to catch mice. 11. Traveling offers many opportunities to increase knowledge. 12. The pupils enjoy singing. 13. The teacher by insisting upon neatness induced the pupils to write legibly. Exercise 32. The confusion between infinitives and prepositional phrases beginning with to. (See explanation in Exercise 30.) 1. Mary has gone to town to shop. 2. The boys have gone to the river to swim. 3. She calls to the baby to take care. 4. We wanted to go to the park. 5. Bert went to the pantry to eat pie. 6. We planned to go to Chicago this summer. 7. She has gone to the store to buj'^ some candy. 8. Kay asked to go to the circus. Exercise 33. Introduction of participles, and review of infinitives. A participle, as an infinitive, is a form of the verb and therefore usually expresses action, but it also performs the functions of either an adjective or a noun. Impress firmly that a participle has always two functions. If it only expressed action, it would be simply a verb; but to this quality is added another, either that of a noun (name) or adjective (modifier of a noun). Exercise 33 offers sentences in which the participle plays the part of a noun exclusively, and fills the office of subject, complement, and object of a preposition. Teach that participles take objects and may have modifiers, adjectives, or adverbs, accordingly as the participle is used as a noun or as a modifier. As a full lesson use the sentences merely as drill material for discovering by the form, the participles. At a subsequent lesson proceed to analysis, the recognition of the parts of speech, and the construction. (4S) Language form : shows action and is used where a can be used. Therefore, is a participle. 1. Singing interested the children. 2, Running strengthens the muscles. 3. She enjoys riding. 4. To know that lesson will require some memoriz- ing. 5. By running fast John determined to win the race. 6. By climbing the tree the cat escaped from the dog. 7. Cowboys learn to throw the lasso. 8. We sometimes injure a man by praising him. 9. We learn to do by doing. 10. Catching a ball sometimes breaks fingers. Exercise 34. Participles as modifiers, and review of infinitives and participles as nouns. The method should be the same as in Exercise 33. Diagramming should be introduced to slight extent, using the forms of the text, pages 62 to 66. Introduce with this lesson the terms "infinitive phrase" and ** participial phrase." Explain that there are three kinds of phrases — prepositional, infinitive, and participial. Each is named from the word which begins it; thus, a prepositional phrase is introduced by a preposition, an infinitive phrase by an infinitive, or a participial phrase by a participle. An infinitive or a participial phrase contains, besides the infinitive or participle, an object (noun or pronoun) with or without a modifier. Make clear at once that a participle or an infinitive in itself does not constitute a phrase. Also, by distinct pronunciation and spelling by the class, avoid the confusion of the words "participial" and "participle." In beginning phrases have the children use the following (using the first sentence) : "Having eaten the lamb" is a phrase, introduced by the participle having eaten. Therefore, it is a participial phrase. Having eaten what? Lamb. Therefore, lamh is the object. The points out the word lamh. Therefore, the is an adjective." Later drop this form, and have the children say: "Having eaten the lamb" is a participial phrase, introduced by the participle having eaten, having for its object the noun lamb. 1. The king, sitting upon a high throne, wore a crown sparkling with diamonds. 2. The ojBficer, riding a white horse, gave the signal to advance. 3. We saw some cows drinking from the river. 4. He cut the grass growing by the roadside. 5. Drawing the sword, the captain plunged into the thick of battle. 6. They lay do^Ti to sleep, completely worn out by the labor. 7. The child, beginning to tire of the toys, now wanted to blow soap bubbles. 8. Having climbed the cliff, we came to a level plain reaching back to the forest. 9. Lost in the woods, the babes had lain down to sleep. 10. The sick child having drunk the refreshing medicine soon sat up. 11. Little babies beginning to talk frequently say amusing things. 12. The wind now blowing a perfect gale began to tear away the sails. (44) I Exercise 35. General review of infinitives and participles. Use as many or as few sentences as the class seem to require. 1. Having eaten the lamb the lion lay down to sleep. 2. The squirrel having torn off the shell climbed the tree to eat the nut in safety. 3. Know- ing the habits of the animal the trapper lay in wait to catch him. 4. Bent with age the man tried to cross the street. 5. He did not care for swimming. 6. Giving alms indiscriminately frequently does injury. 7. A workman, helping to build a new house, saw the driver of a large wagon trying to back the horses into the yard. 8. Living in a large city offers many opportunities to see wonderful things. 9. The carrier having distributed the letters went back to the office to obtain another load. 10. To cross a railroad track in front of a moving train invites the losing of life. Exercise 36. The imperative and potential modes. Before taking up the sentences, the pupils should have reached a state of ready recognition of the forms by means of their signs. The potential signs should have been memorized. As a first lesson use the sentences merely for recognition drill. As a second lesson enter upon analysis. All verbs which belong to the lists given should be suggestions for review drills upon their conjugation ; much of this can be given in written lessons. The exercise also contains infinitives and participles, and each should be made the opportunity for review drills; ask all the participles or infinitives of the given verb, etc. 1. Drink the medicine. 2, Run into the yard. 3. Come. 4. You may go to see her. 5. I can climb that tree by using a ladder. 6. Eat the bread without complaining. 7. You must come to visit us soon. 8. Having broken the window carelessly you must pay for it. 9. You may wear your new hat to-morrow. 10. She can set the table tastefully. 11. Having begun the work you must now finish it. 12. Go at once to help him. 13. He might lose the opportunity by staying away. 14. By eating candy now you might not have an appetite for dinner. 15. I could easily throw the ball to you. 16. At the signal begin to sing. 17. George would not do anything to hurt the feelings of a playmate. 18. Swimming would give exercise. 19. Write the sentence without looking at the copy. 20. I can hear the singing quite plainly. 21. Set the bowl of milk upon the table without spilling. 22. Going at the present rate, to stop too quickly might kill us. 23. You may go to see him now. Exercise 37. The emphatic and compound potential forms; and review of infinitives and participles. Treat these sentences as directed in Exercise 36. 1. I did not tell him to go. 2. I certainly did intend to come promptly. 3. I do not wish you to do that again. 4. You could finish the task in (45) time by working rapidly. 5, Urging him at that time would have no effect. 6. He does not wish to do it. 7. He could not possibly have arrived at this time by walking. 8. The thief must have entered the house by climbing through a window. 9. Watering the plants would have saved them from dying. 10. We do hereby grant to you the right to use these grounds. 11. She should have returned the book more promptly. 12. They did really come after all. 13. Sit down. 14. He might at least have askeJ the privilege. 15. They might have put out the fire without raising an alarm. Exercise 38. The conjugation of the verb he. Follow the plan of study for the conjugation of the verb. (See page 34.) Note with the pupils the irregularities that are is the plural form of is, were of was, and that in the subjunctive the third person singular is he. Do not teach the verb he exclusively, day in and day out, but keep up the review of analysis and drill upon parts of speech in sentences ; and upon the principal parts of the irregular verbs forming conjugations from them. Exercise 39. Regular and irregular verhs. Turn to the text (pages 190 to 192), and write from it the principal parts of verbs in the list. If the pupils have texts, give them the task of hunting for the verbs and writing the principal parts. Require the principal parts to be memorized, being careful not to designate too many for a single lesson. Having now learned the principal parts of the irregular verbs, we may give some attention to the regular verbs. Write the principal parts of climh, learn, await, and wreck upon the board. Explain that there are two kinds of verbs, regular and irregular, that they have learned the principal parts of some of the irregular verbs, but that a large proportion of the verbs we use are regular; that the past tense and the past participle are the same, and are always formed by adding d or ed to the present form. After this explanation is understood, write a few other regular verbs upon the board in the present form, and ask pupils to form the past form and past participle. For drills upon the principal parts of regular verbs use climh, learn, await, and wreck. After any group of principal parts has been learned, assign as written work the construction of parts of the conjugation of these verbs, thus : Write the present perfect tense of swim. Write the past tense and past perfect of lay and lie. Write the infinitives of huild. Write the emphatic form of do. Etc. Arrange it so that a given lesson or two lessons will review aU the given forms of the conjugation. Principal parts, advance : learn, find, build, cry, catch, feed, sing. Principal parts, review : lay, swim, lose, fight, know, lie, throw, sit, wear, draw. (46) Exercise 40. Irregular verb forms; review of participles and infinitives. This exercise contains the verbs of which the principal parts were given in Exercise 39. Therefore, do not take it up until Exercise 39 has been finished. This exercise is also a special review of participles and infinitive forms. To cover all of the ground, the following steps should be covered: Step 1. Go over the sentences and have pupils name the infinitives and participles in each sentence, telling what kind of infinitive or participle, and the present form from which it is derived. Make this lesson an oppor- tunity for drill upon the helpers, and require the principal parts of the verbs in review to be given. Step 2. Have each of the sentences analyzed, drilling upon all review forms of phrases, prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, nouns, pronouns, offices of object, or attribute complements, etc. Step 3. As a written lesson, require pupils to write the principal parts of all the verbs employed either as predicates, infinitives, or participles. 1. Having learned the lesson, the pupil laid the book upon the table. 2. Having found a suitable place near a river, the pioneer built a log house for a home. 3. Having swum the river, the deer climbed the bank on the other side. 4. The babes lost in the woods cried bitterly. 5. Having fought in many battles, the soldier Jsnew no fear. 6. We found the ball lying in the thick grass. 7. Laying the gun upon the ground, the hunter lay down beside it. 8. Having thrown the ball, he caught it again. 9. We found him feeding the chickens. 10. Sitting under the trees the children sang several songs. 11. The child had finally lain down. 12. The road, worn by travel, needs new gravel. 13. The log drawn by oxen broke the gate.. Exercise 41. Drill exercise in verb forms. Have the pupils write these words in columns, and after each write the mode, tense, participle, or infinitive form it represents. Or, give the exercise as quick oral work. The words should be written on the board in columns, then pointed to quickly, the children reciting one after .the other in turns, or one child may recite any given number, say ten. Interest is added by a child keeping track of the time, the point being to see who can do it correctly in the least time. was being had been been can be are be may be have been could be might have been having been is were am must be to be should have been will be to have been might be can have been (47) Exercise 42. The attribute complement; review of conjugation of verh he. As Step 1, go through the sentences orally, requiring pupils to tell what tense and mode each form represents. As a second step, introduce the new term "attribute" complement. Tell the pupils that heretofore all the complements they have used have been "object" complements, and that hereafter you wish them to call complements of the kind they have had object complements. Tell them that th^ complement after a predicate formed by any part of the verb be (and a few other verbs which we shall later introduce) is always an attribute complement. Diagram one or two sentences, and show them the distinguishing mark. At a second or third lesson, after they have had some experience in analyzing and diagramming attribute complements, explain the difference between an object and attribute complement. Take the two sentences. Tigers eat animals and Tigers are animals. Show that in the case of object complements, the object complement is distinctly different from the subject, while in the case of the attribute complement the subject and the noun complement are identical. Secondly, using sentences in which the attribute complement is- an adjective, show that in the case of object complements they must be either a noun or a pronoun, while attribute complements may be nouns, pronouns, or adjectives. Explain this until pupils can give the distinction back clearly. Language form — : answers the question what and modifies the subject. Therefore, is an attribute complement, or answers the question what and means the same as the subject. Therefore, is the attribute complement. 1. I am happy. 2. He was hungry. 3. We shall be fortunate. 4. They are sad. 5. He will be successful. 6. She was sick. 7. We were happy. 8. He is earnest. 9. They were very talkative. 10. You are right. 11. He was cold. 12. We are warm. 13. You were tardy. 14. We have been prompt. 15. The violet is blue. 16. The chickens will have been fed by that time. 17. The soldiers were brave. 18. The bear had already been captured. 19. I am here. 20. The water was cold. 21, The wood has been cut. , 22. The bird is timid. 23. The fruit will be ripe. 24. You must be successful. 25. Be quiet. 26. They might have been too late. 27. The rose is red. 28. The child was cheerful. 29. The load may be too heavy. 30. The road has been very muddy for several days. 31. The children being young were happy. 32. The hunters having been successful were happy. 33. The cheese being mouldy was disagreeable to the mice. 34. The flower is beautiful. 35. The day was cloudy. 36. The grapes were sour. 37. We are happy. 38. To read interesting books is entertaining. 39. Bathing in cold water is healthful. 40. Hunting was necessary to the Indians. 41. To see is to believe. 42. To be right was the ambition of President Lincoln. 43, All of us should try to be worthy of respect. 44. Be good. 45. John has been late in arriving at school. 46. No one should be guilty of telling an untruth. 47. They were present at the opening of (48) school. 48. The boys' will be ready to play the game. 49. Having been unfortunate he had been careless of life. To teach gender. Exercise 42b. Much time is necessary for review drill upon the conjugations, for, in order to induce a thorough memory of the forms, the reviews must be scattered over a considerable period of time. Much of this review drill may be given in the form of written seat work, provided the pupils know the conjugation forms well. Therefore, before passing to the passive and progressive, we shall introduce the inflections of nouns, pronouns, adverbs, and adjectives, using a part of each day's lesson for review drills. Never sacrifice the review for the advance. Turn to Part III, page 94, of the text. We may omit the treatment of proper and common nouns and also subdivision upon capital letters, as the distinction between common and proper nouns is unnecessary in terms of a definition ; the use of capitals is the important thing, and this topic should be treated in the language course (see Language Bulletin No. 1, New Series, pages 3, 11, 21, 41, 43), where the method of instruction is given in detail. The text makes too much of gender. Mistakes are rarely inade in gender, but as a matter of common knowledge, quite apart from grammar, it is well to understand the term. If it were true that people commonly made the error of referring to males by she, or to females by he, then the impor- tance assigned by the author to the subject would be justified. On the other hand, as stated, the terms masculine, feminine, and neuter are in common use, and we should give some time to their explanation. Write upon the board a list of words, such as: "man," "girl," "house," "rooster," "tree," "boy^" "woman," etc. Draw from the pupils by questions that each of these has a sex meaning, and this quality we call gender — masculine refers to males, feminine to females, and neuter to words which stand for objects without sex. After the distinction is understood, assign as a written lesson the terms on page 98 of the text (also the exercise), with which should be mixed a few neuter nouns; require the pupils to classify the terms under the three genders. As a second lesson, using the same list, draw from the pupils the fact that ess is used most commonly as a sign of the feminine gender. Omit the discussion upon the value of gender upon pages 98 to IQl, for the reason as stated, that mistakes are not commonly made, and the exercises are consequently unprofitable. For the same reason omit the treatment of person, pages 101 to 103. Nouns really have no person. No errors are possible in nouns, for they are not inflected. to show any distinction. Pro- nouns alone are inflected to show person. Omit the subdivision upon inflection. 4— G (49) Exercise 43. Drill in conjugation of irregular verbs. Follow the directions for Exercise 39. Principal parts, advance : tell, show, drive, buy, chose. Principal parts, review: catch, break, set, swim, eat, write, grow, go, do, fall. Exercise 44. To teach gender; review of infinitives, participles, and conjugation. After using the sentences in this exercise according to the directions in Step 1, Exercise 40, insert a lesson requiring the pupils to go through the sentences, picking out the nouns which show gender by their form. If the feminine form is given, ask for the masculine form, and vice v6rsa. Otherwise, follow the outline given in Exercise 40. 1. The lioness, caught in the trap, broke the bars of the cage. 2. The heroine of the adventure must be very modest in telling about the bravery shown by her. 3. The bridegroom has bought a handsome watch for the bride. 4. To be a rich man should not be the only ambition of a young boy choosing an occupation. 5. The drake having swum across the pond caught some young frogs sitting upon a log. 6. To choose an heir to the fortune from so many nephews had been no easy task for the old bachelor. 7. The nieces having eaten lunch, wrote long letters to the aunt at home. 8. The wife having grown weary of waiting for the husband, went home by train. 9. The sister of the sick man has done noble service. 10. The hen had fallen from the perch. Exercise 44(1). To teach number. "With the subject of number our text becomes profitable, for a large percentage of language errors occur in the spelling of plural forms. But do not follow the implied method of the text — to learn the rule first. Write singular and plural of the words under each rule in parallel columns, and draw from the pupils the manner in which the plurals are formed. Nor is it necessary to drill upon the rules very much, as they would require more time to reduce them to memory than can be profitably devoted to such work. The important thing is, that the pupils should become unconsciously familiar with the ways in which specific nouns do form their plurals — "knife, knives; wife, wives; calf, calves," etc. After all is said, the learn- ing of the plurals is reduced to a spelling lesson of certain definite words. All the words upon pages 104 to 107 of the State Text should receive thorough drill. But do not do unnecessary work. Perhaps the pupils may already know the lesson. First, test them by giving a spelling lesson from dictation, pronouncing or writing upon the board the singular form and requiring the pupils to write the plural form. Let any errors be the suggestion for thorough spelling drills. Use the terms singular and plural, and lead the pupils to use them. (50) The special rules for number (Subdivision 65, pages 107 to 110) should receive thorough drill with the exception of V. Subdivision 66 is important, though it is not necessary to have the words memorized. The fact that there are such words, and a lesson upon them, is sufficient, as errors are practically never made in their use. Exercise 44(2). A clear understanding of collective nouns (pages 111 to 113) is very necessary, as there is much confusion regarding verb agreement with them as subjects. At present we are not concerned with the syntactical question of verb agreement, and we need not enter upon it. We wish the pupils merely to understand that a collective noun represents a collection of objects of one kind, and that it is singular or plural according to the idea in our minds. When we say, ' * The class is studying grammar, ' ' we mean that the class, just as a single body, is studying. In such a case class would be singular. Yet we could think of the class as a number of separate persons, and in this case "class" would be plural. Make explanations regarding some of the words upon page 111, and then draw from the pupils similar explanations until it is clear that the point is comprehended. Exercise 45. Drill in the conjugation of irregular verbs. Follow the directions for Exercise 39. Principal parts, advance : sell, fly, build, bring, cut, forsake, wear. Principal parts, review: swim, drive, find, tear, grow, make. Regular verbs: Plant, amuse, pursue, float, try. Exercise 46. To teach certain difficult plurals. Follow the directions for Exercise 40, inserting after Step 1 a drill in forming the singular forms of the plurals given, and the plurals of singular forms discovered in each sentence. As a written lesson, pupils may be required to do the same in written form. 1. The children have been in the garden planting seeds. 2. The butcher has bought four beeves to sell to customers. 3. The kind fairies having flown to the meadow built some beautiful air castle to amuse the children. 4. The negroes brought knives to cut the watermelons into halves. 5. The herdsmen, hoping to find pasture, have driven the oxen over the hill into the next valley. 6. The shepherds have found two young sheep forsaken by unnatural mothers. 7. Three deer swam across the river to escape the dogs pursuing them, 8. Torn by the bullets the old flag still floated in the breeze. 9. The baby has worn holes in the shoes. 10. In the valleys of California the farmers grow many kinds of fruit. 11, In writing the com- position, try to make the I's with smaller loops, (51) Exercise 47. Drill in the conjugation of irregular verbs. Follow directions for Exercise 39. Principal parts, advance : dig, sleep, have, freeze, hang, drink, put, keep. Regular verb: serve. . . , -7 7, Exercise 48. A special review of plurals. Follow the directions for Exercise 40. 1. The feet of Chinese women are very small. 2. The mice, having dug a hole into the cellar, ate the cheese. 3. Having found a good place to sleep, the hunters cut small branches to serve for beds. 4. Birds have no teeth. 5. Fighting duels was once common in France. 6. This country should have more heroes of good citizenship. 7, The icicles frozen to the eaves of the houses hung downward, making a beautiful spectacle. 8. The deer driven from the mountains by the wolves have had little to eat during this winter. 9. Drink three spoonfuls of this medicine before going to bed. 10. The farmers in cold countries put potatoes into cellars during the winter to keep them from freezing. Exercise 49. Drill in the conjugation of irregular verhs. Follow the directions for Exercise 39. Principal parts, advance: hold, hit, hurt, hear, leave, lend, let, make, meet, pay, rise, say. Regular verbs: post, pull, learn. Exercise 50. To review collective nouns, infinitives, and participles. As a step to be inserted after Step 1, go through the sentences, asking pupils to pick out the collective nouns and to tell why each is a collective noun. Otherwise, follow the plan for Exercise 40. 1. The company of soldiers must keep sentinels posted to warn them of danger. 2. The class, having held a meeting, hit upon the idea of a Satur- day picnic. 3. To have teeth pulled hurts. 4. Children in school should learn to be good citizens. 5. The tribe of Indians having found no game in the valley, had left the place in disgust. 6. Pie should not have lent the horse to strangers, 7. Let me see it. 8. The choir can make an appoint- ment to meet me for rehearsal. 9. The audience had paid an admission fee of one dollar to hear the celebrated lecturer. 10. The soldiers having fixed bayonets drove the crowd beyond the lines. 11. The flock of wild geese feeding in the marshes suddenly rose into the air at the report of the gun. 12. He had had an opportunity to say this in the political convention. 13. The group of children digging in the sand may have left these shovels here. (52) Exercise 51. Drill in the conjugation of irregular verbs. Follow directions for Exercise 39. Principal parts, advance : sell, send, shine, shake, forbid, stand, sink. Regular verbs : blind and brush. Treatment of case, and parsing. Regarding the treatment of case of nouns, we may omit all except the possessive case, which is extremely important, as it is the source of the most frequent errors in written composition. It is absurd to force a distinction between the nominative and objective case, for the distinction is a purely imaginary one, and error is impossible. It is one of the amusing stupidities of English grammarians that because Latin nouns have case, they have forced into English grammar, already complex enough, a distinction wholly unnecessary, and at the same time very confusing. Our pronouns change their form to express the nominative and objective cases, and we shall there be obliged to deal with them. We may, therefore, omit entirely the pages from 111 to 121, with parsing, a piece of antique pedantry which has crept unfortunately into our text. The object of parsing is to furnish drill upon the inflected forms, but to give it in the presented form requires the pupil also to memorize the order of points named. Thus, our text requires the order of class, gender, person, number, case, and syntax. The order is useless, except as a prevention against omission. Yet the chief effort of the drill is upon remembering this order. Besides, the person and case (except the possessive) are useless distinctions, and the question of gender is only important in the case of a very few nouns. In order to get the most out of drill, we must have the attention focused upon the essential point, and one only, or its force will be lost. We need to know the class, number, and use of words; therefore, let us ask for these, one at a time, so that the pupils' attention will be centered. Words peculiar as to gender or number should be used as material for drill upon these peculiarities, provided they are important, but each peculiarity should be the subject of a special question, both for reasons of securing attention and of economy of time. Thus, in the sentence, The herd of cattle frightened the countess, the matter of the person or gender of herd is useless and nonsensical, but it is a collective noun, and a special question to bring out its number is useful as a drill upon recognition of collective nouns. Countess offers a review drill upon the fact that this is a special word form to express gender, and a question upon its gender is useful as a drill. It is useless to ask its number or person, however. Exercise 52. Possessive nouns. As written work have the pupils pick out and write in a column, first the noun, the possessive of which is used, then the singular possessive, and in the third column the possessive plural. In other matters follow the directions of Exercise 40. (53) For oral work the language form to be followed is as follows (using the first sentence) : ** Boy's," is a noun showing possession of hat. Therefore, ''boy's" is in the possessive case. 1. The boy's hat must be in the yard. 2. The farmer has sold the cow's calf. 3. The teacher could send some one to hang the children's cloaks upon the pegs. 4. The sun's rays shone fiercely upon the hot desert, blinding the traveler's eyes. 5. Having shaken the bottle the mischievous boy threw away two teaspoonfuls of the baby's medicine. 6. He ought to have learned the lesson from somebody else's book. 7. The Country Club's rules forbade shooting deer during certain months of the year. 8. The soldiers' guns stood in the rack. 9. Despite the captain's efforts the ship sank. 10. The young birds hearing their mother's call flew to her. 11. Have the children 's clothes brushed. Exercise 53. Drill in the conjugation of irregular verbs. Follow directions for Exercise 39. Principal parts, advance: sleep, slide, speak, hear, ought, spring, sow, spend, stand, swear, steal, stick, weep, win, teach, tell, take, think. Regular verbs: loosen, crush, fix, hope. Possessives. Exercise 54. This lesson is a continuation of Exercise 52; follow the directions for that exercise. 1. The mother, worn by two weeks' nursing of the sick child, now slept soundly. 2. Huge rocks, loosened by the continuous rains, have slid down the mountain, crushing the miners' cabins. 3. He ought to have had two years' experience. 4. We spoke loudly to hear the echoes. 5. According to the legend, men sprang from the dragon's teeth sown by Cadmon. 6. Good fairies have spent much time in undoing wicked fairies' mis- chief. 7. The Indians' wretched captives now stood before the tribe's chief. 8. The detectives found the thieves' plunder hidden in the women's trunks. 9. The mice ought to have been more careful in stealing the cat's food. 10. The witness has sworn to the statement, positively fixing the suspect's identity. 11. The Indian's arrow, hitting the roof, stuck harm- lessly into the wood. 12. By weeping the prisoner hopes to win the judge's mercy. 13. The hero's motto, taught him at a mother's knee, had ever been to tell the truth. 14. The general had thought to take the enemy's fort. 15. The man's friends ought to have known better. Exercise 55. Drill in the conjugation of verbs: Follow directions for Exercise 39. Principal parts, advance : bear, beat, beseech, dwell, feel. Principal parts, review : sing, let, go, give, put, see. Eegular verb : yield. (54 j THE DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. The only parts of the text chapter upon pronouns which we may profitably use are the declensions (pages 128 to 129), the list of compound pronouns (page 129), the list of relative pronouns (who, which, that, what, and their compounds). These portions should be thoroughly learned. The declension should be so memorized that the place upon the page where any word occurs may be instantly called into a mental picture. The case terms, nominative, objective, and possessive, should be spelled, and clearly pronounced by the class. The features with which we are chiefly concerned are number and case, for upon these, errors most frequently occur. After pupils have memorized the declensions as a whole, drill in promiscuous order upon the board, and upon instant recognition of the number and case of each word, until the goal is reached. Do not ask for the case and number at the same time. With the pointer go through the list calling only for number, then for case. To hold both requirements in mind at the same time is unnecessary and confusing. The name of the relative pronouns and the declension of who should be similarly memorized. It is not necessary to have the compound pronouns memorized, but simply read over for recognition. Teach, however, that the forms "hisself" and "theirselves" are incorrect. In the same way have the class read over the list of adjective pronouns, but do not require them to be memorized, nor to use the term, adjective pronouns. Simply call them pronouns. It is unnecessary to teach the classification of pronouns as personal, interrogative, and adjective. No mistakes occur which may be corrected by these classi- fications, and their existence in the text is simply one of the unnecessary pedantries which makes grammar complex and difficult, without adding to its usefulness. The misuses of pronouns will be taken up later; as for the present, we must concentrate our attention upon the mastery of forms ; until these become thoroughly recognizable, it is useless to attempt correction of errors. (55) 3 o ,£3 Z O z O a < O CO uJ o o O o .o s- is 3 o o • 3 £ »H o CO z u >; u o 01 J3 P5 td j^ ^ 0] ;h CO S o o s O ■M P O S o DS >J -^ K 3 > < c si 3 o o Si o a> A M o v. 5h -M (56) Exercise 56. Drill upon possessive pronouns; review of irregular verbs. In the first sentence draw from the class that his shows possession of burden. The language form to be used is '^His is a pronoun. His shows possession of burden. Therefore, his is in the possessive case." 1. Each has borne his own burden. 2. To sing had been her delight. 3. Our boys have beaten in the race, winning the prize. 4. The captive besought his captors to let him go. 5. They have dwelt upon their own land. 6. Give me your promise. 7. I feel myself yielding. 8. My wish is for you to put the little bird back into its nest. 9. Whose hat is this? 10. Whom did you see ? Exercise 57. Case of pronouns used as subjects and attributes. Explain that whenever a pronoun is used as the subject of a sentence it must be in the nominative case ; also that a pronoun, as an attribute comple- ment, is in the nominative case. Proceed with the sentences as follows : Step 1. Go through the sentences, orally, requiring the pupils to pick out and name the pronouns, stating the case of each. Step 2. Analyze the sentences, orally, asking for the principal parts of all verbs, and a few portions of the conjugation. Step 3. Give the case of the pronouns, using the following language form : "iTe is a pronoun used as the subject. Therefore, He is in the nominative case; or (Sentence 7) He is a pronoun, used as the attribute complement. Therefore, he is in the nominative case." Step 4. State the tense and mode of each verb form, and name the prin- cipal parts. 1. He has fled to seek shelter. 2. Wearied by the long tramp, they now flung themselves upon the ground to sleep. 3. Get the ball. 4. We have never before heard such sweet singing. 5. I have ground the knife upon the grindstone. 6. She knelt before his grave in prayer. 7. It is he. 8. It was she. 9. He hit his mark. 10. It is I. 11. Who let my cat into the house ? To teach voice. ' Exercise 58. We are now ready to complete the conjugation of verbs by a study of the passive and progressive voices. Do not begin this study unless the conjugation of the verb be and the recognition of the past and present participles has become thoroughly reflex. If the point is reached the matter will be extremely easy. If not, the result will be a hopeless confusion. Treat the construction of passive and progressive voices in one lesson, as the contrast will help rather than interfere. Write upon the board the complete conjugation o£ the verb be. Then explain that you will now construct the "progressive" voice (having the word spelled and pro- nounced). Do so by simply writing the present participle of the verb see after each form throughout. After the pupils have been questioned as to (57) the name "progressive" and how it has been formed, erase the present participles and explaining that you will now construct the "passive" voice, write the past participle in the same way. Question as before. Then erase the past participles, leaving the verb he, and question the class upon how the progressive and passive voices were formed, aiming to associate ' * present participle" with "progressive voice" and "past participle" with "passive voice." Next write upon the board in columns the principal parts of choose, catch, send, strike. By questioning, obtain directions as to how each voice shall be formed, and permit pupils to construct them by writing present or past participles, as the case may be, after the forms of the verb he. In later written lessons, require certain portions of the passive or progressive voices to be constructed, placing upon the board the principal parts of the verbs to be used. Train the pupils first to write the conjugation of the verb he in the given tense or other form, and later to write the participle which forms the given voice. For oral drill repeatedly ask the questions, "What participle do we use in forming the progressive voice?" "What participles in forming the passive voice?" Pupils unless early trained in the clear pronunciation and spelling of "passive," will confuse the word with "past." Teachers should be careful to select for the con- struction of passive voices only those verbs which permit such formation. Verbs which do not take objects (intransitive verbs) do not usually form passives ; for example, the verbs walk and weep can not be used as passives. But a number of transitive verbs, such as huy, giving the form, "I am bought," are ridiculous and should be avoided. The following verbs will, however, serve as drill material : scratch, choose, forsake, forbid, teach, bite, elect, awaken, call, burn, know, frighten, injure, rejoice, delight, comfort, entertain. Drill upon conjugations. Principal parts, advance : seek, fling, get, grind, kneel, let. Principal parts, review : sleep, have, hear, let. Regular verb : weary. Exercise 59. Pronouns used as ohjects. Follow the directions of Exercise 57. The language form for the pronouns in the objective case should be (using Sentence 1) : "Her is a pronoun used as the object of the verb, have seen. Therefore, her is in the objective case." 1. We have seen her in the city. 2. They have sent him to find the North Pole. 3. She knew them by sight. 4. Their ball might hit us. 5. It might be he. 6. Do not forsake me. 7. That can not be she. 8. Where may I find you? 9. Whom of his family do you know? 10. He laid it upon her desk. 11. She has sought them in every place. 12. Having caught the dog, they shut him in his kennel. 13. The bees will sting us. 14. You are it. 15. Cutting a large slice of bread, she spread a thick layer of jelly over it. (58) T^ -7 7 -J.- Exercise 60. Dnll upon conjugations. Follow the directions for Exercise 39. Principal parts, advance: shoe, forget, slay, wring, wind. Principal parts, review : run, know, try, find, send, sit, build, see, ought, sing. Regular verbs: frighten, call, await, hope, wish. ^ . 7 . .. Exercise 61. Pronouns m objective case. Follow the directions of Exercise 57. The language form for objective pronouns used is: " is the object of (preposition, infinitive, or participle) . Therefore, is in the objective case." 1. He swung the rope around her head merely to frighten her. 2. The blacksmith skillfully shod the horse for him. 3. Calling to him the child ran after him. 4. Knowing him so well, they can not have forgotten him by this time. 5. They tried to find her. 6. Having sent him upon an errand, she sat down to await his return. 7. He has built a house for them, hoping to keep them near him. 8. We wished to see you yesterday. 9. They ought to have heard us calling. 10. David slew a lion. 11. She wrung her hands in misery. 12. That is he singing to' himself. 13. The road wound around the mountain on the other side from us. Drill upon conjugations. iJixercise oz. Follow directions for Exercise 39. Principal parts, advance: spend, deal, forbid. Principal parts, review: find, teach, put, think, cut, sell, send, throw, build, catch, begin. „ . 7 7 77 Exercise 63. Review and drill upon voice. Step 1. Have the pupils pick out the verbs in the passive and progressive voices, naming the tense and explaining how each is constructed. Use the following device frequently: Ask the pupil to change a given verb, which occurs in the lesson, to voice other than which appears, keeping the same tense. Thus, using Sentence 1, ask that was thrown be changed to the active (threw) ; then to the progressive was throwing. Be careful, in asking for the passive, that the verb has a passive. Step 2. Analyze the sentences, and give special attention to the pronouns. 1. The rope was thrown to him. 2. Some difficulty had been found in teaching them. 3. The bear has been put into a cage to keep her. 4. I have been thinking of sending her to spend the winter with them. 5. We were having a good time building little boats to sail in the bathtub. 6. The thieves were caught stealing his bicycle. 7. We might now be beginning to learn German. 8. The pie was cut into four pieces. 9. The horse will be sold to him at a low figure. 10. We have been forbidden to go into the street to play. (50) r. J! J- ^- Exercise 64. Degree of adjectives. Write the sentence, ''John is tall, Frank is taller than John; but James is tallest of the three. ' ' Draw from the class that there are here expressed three degrees of height — tall, taller, and tallest. Illustrate with a few other adjectives, hard, swift, strange, cheap, that the degrees are expressed by er and est. Then write in column the comparison as follows : Positive degree. Comparative degree. Superlative degree. tall taller tallest hard harder hardest swift swifter swiftest strange stranger strangest cheap cheaper cheapest Have the words positive, comparative, and superlative spelled and pro- nounced. Tell the class that the comparative degree is usually formed by adding er and the superlative by adding est. As a written lesson require that pupils should write the adjectives of Exercise 63 in a column, then write the comparatives and superlatives as has been" illustrated. Compare: strong, large, small, long, ripe, grand, short, young, easy, happy. Exercise 65. Review of comparison of adjectives, case of pronouns and voice. Step 1. Require the class, orally, to select the adjectives, name the degree employed, and to compare them. Step 2. Select the verbs, state the voice of each and how it is constructed {i. e., the verb he in the past tense followed by the past participle of the verb carry). Step 3. Analyze the sentence Mdth observance of case of pronouns, infini- tives, participles, etc., requiring review. As written work, have the pupils write the verbs (except, of course, he, which has no voice) in a column, and in second and third columns write the verb in the two other voices, respectively, without changing the tense. 1. We saw the older birds feeding them. 2. I sent her to get for me some larger pieces of cloth. 3. The smallest child was carried by the mother. 4. The tall apple tree growing near our barn is now bearing the sweetest fruit. 5, They have asked us to meet her at the earliest train. 6. A healthier location could not be found for her. 7, Our pine tree is growing taller. 8. A fuller confession must be wrung from him. 9. They are beginning to be frightened by the fierce growling of your largest dog. .10. Bring your smallest hat to me. 11. The youngest boy in the class has been chosen to go for you. 12. My father has bought a faster pony for me. 13. Texas is the largest state in the Union. 14. The swiftest runner will be sent upon this errand for them. 15. Traveling is now easier. 16. John has been helping his younger brother to carry their wood into the house. (60) 17. The ripest apples have fallen to the ground. 18. The largest pumpkins in the state are grown by him. 19. Having known him so long we were puzzled by his strange behavior. Exercise 65b. Comparison of irregular adjectives. Assign the comparison of irregular adjectives (page 197 of text) for memorizing by the pupils, omitting out, top, up, in, kinds. Explain, in assigning the lesson, that a number of adjectives are com- pared irregularly, and that these are the most common sources of error. „ . .7.. Exercise 66. tompanson of adjecuves. Follow directions for Exercise 65. 1. The best compositions written by the older pupils have been hung upon the wall by their teacher. 2. The men are now repairing the worst street in our city. 3. Webster was regarded as the foremost orator of his time in our country. 4. John being the strongest was the first to reach the top. 5. We found him in the farthest room. 6. They were sitting under the tree eating the ripest peaches. 7. The largest trout ever caught in our lake was taken out by her last week. 8. We intend to send her to the country next month. 9. William is now making more effort to write neatly. 10. This is the last sentence in this exercise to be analyzed. Exercise 66b. Comparison by means of more, less, most, and least; also comparison of adverbs. Take up the forms of comparison requiring the use of more, less, most, and least, and also the comparison of adverbs. Teachers should study care- fully the material in the text covering these cases (pages 195 to 210). Do not, however, introduce the forms of more and less, and of most and least, under the terms of ascending and descending comparison. Simply treat more and less as comparative signs. For drill, use the adjectives and adverbs mentioned in the text, requiring as written work, after some oral explanation and drill, the following forms : Positive. Comparative. Superlative. wisely more wisely most wisely or or less wisely least wisely Exercise 67. Review of comparison of adjectives and adverbs. Follow the general directions for Exercise 64. 1. Mary, being the eldest in the family, is permitted to sit up later in the evening. 2. To have told her sooner would have been cruel. 3. Tom, having (61) earned more money, is going to buy a better bicycle. 4. In the race of the younger boys, John ran the fastest. 5. She will be going to the city next week to buy it. 6. Mary is now studying more earnestly. 7. I have seldom seen a more beautiful sunset. 8. We next met them in Oakland. 9. They approached him less quietly. 10. The latest facts have been laid before us for careful consideration. 11. He pleaded most earnestly to be given his liberty. 12. These thoughts were uppermost in his memory. 13. She studies least persistently of any pupil in the class. Exercise 68. Conjunctions, compound subjects, and complements. The conjunctions, and and or, together with the compound form of the subject and complement, are introduced in this exercise. We wish the pupils to learn the character of this new part of speech and to comprehend the idea of a compound office. Step 1. Write the first sentence upon the board and draw from the pupils that and is used to "connect" man and hoy. Tell them that it is a new part of speech and is called a "Conjunction." Step 2. Run through the exercise, having the pupils pick out the ands, using the language form. Similarly treat or. Step 3. Analyze the sentences, repeating the language form of the con- junctions as they occur. Drill upon the reviews of voice, principal parts, comparison of adjectives, and adverbs, etc., as each appears. The teacher should read the text upon the topic of conjunctions (pages 214 to 216). The classification of conjunctions is unnecessary, since no errors are made by reason of ignorance of them. They are an unnecessary burden of grammatical pedantry. It is sufficient to know that certain words are conjunctions. 1. A man and a boy were hurt in the accident. 2. The girl and her mother were known to many of us. 3. Eobert and his playmates are having a most exciting game of ball in the vacant lot. 4. Mary 's mother and grand- mother have gone to the city to buy a new dress for her. 5. The cat or the dog must have been eating it. 6. We keep a horse and a cow. 7. It must have been an owl or a bat flying in the dark. 8. They hung their hats and cloaks in the hall. 9. Shall we study our grammar or our spelling? 10. The lion and the lamb lay down. Exercise 69. The compound predicates; review of conjunctions. Follow the general directions of Exercise 68. 1. John's mother combed and brushed his hair. 2. The Spaniards explored and conquered Mexico. 3. We have worked and proved all our examples. 4. The men and boys cut and carried the wood to make the bonfire. 5. The women and girls spread the lunch and afterwards washed the dishes. 6. Squirrels or wood rats have dug these holes and made the (62) mounds of earth. 7. Kind men and women have sent food and clothes to the shipwrecked sailors. 8. You may stand or sit. 9. We must build a fire or freeze to death. 10. You or I pick and cook the corn and tomatoes for dinner. Exercise 70. Compound modifiers; review of principal parts, conjugation and voice. Compound modifiers, in the form of adjectives, adverbs, and of nouns and pronouns, as compound objects of infinitives and participles, are intro- duced in the lesson. In all instances of pronouns, use the opportunity to drill upon case; ask why each is in the case it is, and continually review the principle that a pronoun is in the nominative case when it is the subject and in the objective case when it is the object complement of a verb or the object of a preposition, infinitive, or participle. Drill also upon all elements in review — principal parts, conjugation, and especially voice. 1. She and he are coming with you and me to see the lion and the tiger. 2, We are setting a trap to catch a fox or a coon. 3. Leaving her and him at their home, we next went to call upon the doctor and his wife. 4. Is digging clams and oysters fishing or agriculture? 5. Spaditig or hoeing in the garden will give strength and health to you and me. 6. You or I must be bringing the wood and water. 7. He has tried seriously and earnestly to live an upright and honest life before God and man. 8. Such a dreadful and unexpected calamity could not happen to them or us. 9. The ship was driven fiercely and suddenly upon the rocky and treacher- ous cliffs. 10. Having lost his friends and money, he is now seeking to obtain a fresh foothold in a new and unknown land. Exercise 71. The conjunctions or and nor. Phrases connected by and or or is the new construction in this exercise. Carefully drill upon all reviews as directed in Exercise 70, 1. Troops were sent by land and by sea to prevent the enemy from invading our country or attacking our cities. 2. The package will doubt- less be brought to you or to me to-day or to-morrow. 3. After so much hurry and hustle she should be glad to sit quietly on a chair or lie down and rest for a while. 4. We shall soon begin to write our compositions or study spelling. 5. You ought to know the poem and be able to recite it. 6. They have tried coaxing him and threatening him without avail. 7. He came to see me and ask a favor, 8. She has had no opportunity to go to school and obtain a sound and thorough education. 9. The ship, with passengers and crew, has been lost. 10. To eat or to be eaten is the problem of life for fish and for frogs. 11. Indians got their living chiefly by hunt- ing and by fishing. (63) Exercise 72. The compound sentence; review of conjunctions. It will assist in clearness to have the sentences diagrammed. Be careful to keep up a review, especially of conjunctions, voice, principal parts of verbs used, and case of pronouns. 1. I had a good and comfortable home, and the people were kind to me. 2. They have been trying to help us, but they have not succeeded in their efforts. 3. Bees make wax rooms of beautiful form, and they feed their little ones with great wisdom and care. 4. Give me liberty, or give me death ! 5. You may look at the butterfly, but you must not touch it. 6. He has not been seen by us or any one, nor has he sent any explanation of his strange disappearance. 7. She did not see you or me, nor did she ask for us. 8. Lincoln was assassinated, but his name and memory will ever live in the hearts of our people. 9. He has won a reputation for wit, but he is not very wise in some matters. 10. He has not been successful, nor, in fact, has he tried to accomplish much. Exercise 73. The correlative conjunctions hoth-and, either-or, neither-nor, whether-or.. not only-hut also. Precede the lesson by an explanation that not only have we single words, and, or, nor, and hut, but also we have two words acting as conjunctions. Write the list above upon the board and encourage the pupils to find them in sentences, and the parts which they connect. Do not teach the term correlative nor any classification of conjunctions. To classify conjunctions is superfluous. 1. Both you and he have had opportunities to travel, and to see strange places and scenes. 2. John and Mary's mother will either take them into the country or send them upon a sea voyage for their next vacation, 3. Not only has he been chosen captain of the best baseball nine in the town, but also he is the most studious pupil in school. 4. You neither help yourself nor will you permit me to help you. 5. They have not yet decided whether to send you or to send me. 6. Whether riding upon a horse or rowing in a boat, John was always the most skillful among the boys. 7. Either we must go back by the other road or we must swim the river. 8. Not onlj'' did he wish to do the right thing, but also he wished to do it at the right time. Exercise 74. The conjunctions and, hut, or, either-or, neither-nor, hoth-and, not only-hut also, and whether-or. These conjunctions should be memorized, and the term "clause," as distinguished from a ' ' phrase, ' ' should be taught. Using the first sentence for illustration, show that each of the two clauses contains a subject and a predicate, but that the phrases (prepositional and infinitive) contain no (64) predicate. Require the pupils in the other sentences to make this distinc- tion. Teach also the distinction between a simple sentence (a sentence which contains only one clause) and a compound sentence (one which has at least two clauses connected by a conjunction) ; illustrate by the sentences of this exercise. 1. I opened the gate, and the cattle and horses went at once to the trough to drink water. 2, Columbus sought to discover a new and easier route to India, but he found America. 3. Either we must irrigate and cultivate this garden or w^e can expect neither vegetables nor berries. 4. I do not know whether to go or to stay. 5. Both food and clothing were bought for their long journey across the snow and ice of Alaska. 6. Mary and John's teacher has not only taught them to read and to write but she has also been giving them lessons in music and in drawing. 7. You may either play ball in the vacant lot or you may play tennis upon the lawn. 8. Eating candy and drinking soda water are refreshing for the time, but children sometimes indulge themselves too freely. Exercise 75. The dependent adjective clauses using who and that. Develop the fact clearly by illustration that the dependent clause really modifies a noun or a pronoun just as a word adjective does, but do not insist too much upon the distinction between adjective and adverbial clauses. Use the following language form for the clauses (illustrating by the first sentence) : "Who is driving a horse,'' contains a subject and predicate. Therefore, ''who is driving a horse" is a clause. It modifies the noun man. Therefore, it is a dependent clause. 1. The man who is driving the horse is my father. 2. The lady who is crossing the street is my teacher. 3. I thanked the man who helped me. 4. The pupils who have learned their lesson thoroughly will be permitted to read for a half hour. 5. The boy who broke the window ought to have paid for it. 6. A dog that wags his tail will not bite. 7. This is the house that Jack built. 8. This is the malt that lay in the house that Jack built. 9. These are the rats that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built. 10. Do not interrupt a man who is adding a column of figures. 11. It is an ill wind that blows nobody any good. 12. The cat seizing the mouse in its mouth sprang over the fence, but the dog was soon pursuing her again. The term antecedent. Make it perfectly clear that the ** antecedent " is the noun which precedes, not the relative pronoun. Require the relative pronouns to be memorized. Develop the language forms as follows: "Who stands for the noun man. Therefore, who is a relative pronoun and its antecedent is man. ' ' This exercise especially reviews the uses of conjunctions. 5— G (65) 1. The young and active boy who is playing ball is my brother. 2. John and Henry, who are visiting us during their vacation, hunt or fish nearly every day. 3. They found her playing by the creek which flows behind the barn and chicken house. 4. The fishermen asked him to buy the fish which they had caught in the lake and creek. 5. The tramp obtained not only food, but also some old shoes which he put on. 6. The ring which her father gave her is either too small for her finger or her finger is too large for the ring. 7. You should be careful in picking roses from bushes that have thorns. 8. He wanted either him or me to come to the meeting which had been called. 9. He ought to have been more prompt in attending to business which was both important and pressing. 10. The soldier whom we met has fought in manj^ battles, and has won many medals for bravery. The conjunctive adverb. ac 1 1 . Develop by illustration that these clauses, introduced by conjunctive adverbs, usually modify either a verb, adjective, or other adverb. Memorize the conjunctive adverb after each lesson. The form for conjunctive adverbs is as follows: " W/iew John's carriage comes" modifies "may come," telling when "you and she" may come. Therefore, "when John's carriage comes" is a dependent clause. When is a conjunctive adverb introducing the dependent clause. 1. You and she may come when John's carriage comes. 2. You and I must go in when it grows chilly and dark. 3. The work will be done when the sun sets. 4. It began to rain while we were without shelter or protec- tion. 5. Both the wheat and the oats will be cut when the harvest time comes. 6. Neither he nor I will stay while you are away. 7. We finally found a path that led over the mountain. 8. We shall look for shells and seaweed when the tide goes out farther. 9. When she saw her mistake she was confused. 10. When you are quite ready give the signal. 11. When I have finished reading this book I would like to talk with you. 12. We must drive faster or we shall miss the train that takes us to the city. Exercise 78. The conjunctive advert); review of case of -pronouns. Follow directions of Exercise 77. This exercise is also a special review of the case of pronouns. If pupils show any weakness, put the declension upon the board and spend a lessoja or so upon all the forms. 1. If you want me, call me. 2. I shall wait for her if she wants to go with me. 3. To ask him when he is busy is useless. 4. You will find your hat where you left it while you were playing with us. 5. By sending him we shall be sure of a prompt delivery of our message to them, if he is not detained. 6. I put my broom where I found it. 7. We had hoped to escape the drenching rain which began to fall while we were waiting for a car. (69) I 8. You may begin to read where James left off. 9. Where the water is deep the fish are likely to be hidden. 10. I did as you directed me. 11. They built their new house where the old one originally stood. 12. He who works honestly and fairly is entitled to his reward. 13. You must not only work your examples correctly, but also write neatly. A ' 1 £ • Exercise 79. A special review of voice. Review the construction of the three voices. For written work require the three voices to be constructed, especially in the infinitive and parti- cipial forms. Review conjunctive adverbs, following the directions in Exercise 77. 1. You may do as I do. 2. You must swim as a frog swims. 3. When the wind blows the cradle will rock. 4. He remained at home because at was raining. 5. The child is crying because he has hurt himself. 6. While I was lying under the tree trying to sleep, I was greatly annoyed by mosquitoes. 7. Some of the apples are ripe and sound, but others are poor and worm-eaten. 8. The orchard can not be plowed yet because no rain has fallen. 9. The Eskimos live where it is exceedingly cold in winter. 10. If you worked as he does, more work would be accomplished. 11. They have neither found him, nor has the slightest hint to the cause of his sudden disappearance yet been discovered. Exercise 80. A review of simple, complex, and compound sentences and compound offices. Drill especially" upon the essentials: that a simple sentence has but one clause, that a compound sentence has at least two clauses connected by a conjunction, and that in a complex sentence there is always a dependent clause, usually introduced either by a relative pronoun or a conjunctive adverb. Drill in review upon the memorized lists of the relative pronouns, conjunctions, and the conjunctive adverbs which have been introduced. 1. The cow jumped over the moon, ^ And the little dog laughed to see such fun. And the dish ran away with the spoon. 2. We have tried to find a boy who would do promptly that which he was told to do. 3. Old Mother Hubbard went to the cupboard To get her poor dog a bone; But when she got there, the cupboard was bare; And so the poor dog had none. 4. Jack and Jill went up the -hill To get a pail of water, 5. Jack fell down and broke his crown, And Jill came tumbling after. 6. There was an old woman who lived in a shoe. (67) ^ 7. Little Miss Muffet sat on a tuffet Eating her curds and whey. 8. Along came a spider, And sat down beside her, And frightened Miss Muffet away. Exercises 81, 82, 83. The use of dependent clauses introduced by conjunctive adverbs. The list of words commonly employed as conjunctive adverbs — when, where, for, while, because, so that, as, if, as if, as soon as, than, before, until, after, unless, should be memorized, so that their presence will suggest to the pupil's mind the existence of the dependent clause. Interlarded with these complex sentences will be found simple and compound sentences, and complex sentences with relative clauses, for review drill. 1, He made the short but dangerous trip because it was necessary. 2. Because the river was swift, John's mother would not permit him to swim in it. 3. The Chinese built the high wall so that they might keep out their enemies. 4. I will call you when breakfast is ready. 5. Do not go now because you might be lost in the woods. 6. The rabbit hid in the brush fence so that he could not be found. 7. Men may come and men may go, but the river flows on forever. 8. The fox ran over the hill, and dodging the dogs, returned to his old hiding place by the river. 9. We did not want to go farther because we were so tired. 10. Horses have tails so they may brush away flies and other annoying insects. Exercise 82. 1. The fox lay in the road as if he were asleep or dead. 2. As soon as he saw the dogs coming, he jumped up and ran into the brush. 3. While the sun shines, we must hurry with our work because the time will come when no man can work. 4, As soon as you have time carry the wood in. 5. I will do it now, for I will be busier later. 6. You can fool some of the world for all of the time, and all of the world for some of the time ; but you can not fool all of the world for all of the time. 7. He looked as if he might be able to lift the moon. 8. You will feel better if you will drink this medicine. 9. Come over as soon as you have finished your work. 10. Wear your overcoat so that you will not catch cold. Exercise 83. 1. He is older than I. 2. Mary is taller than her brother. 3. You must brush your hair more carefully before you go to school. 4. I received more help than I had expected. 5. These apples are larger than those. 6. You must be more prompt if you expect to retain your position. 7. They came sooner than we expected. 8. Do not go farther into the water unless you can swim. 9. He has caught larger fish than she. 10. Unless you are more familiar with a gun than you seem, it would be safer for all of us if you would put it down. 11. The boy who can run fastest will receive this medal. (68) rpi,„ ^^,.^ r,i„.,cn Exercise 84. 1 he noun clause. Insist that the pupil follows out his language form for discovering the offices, and he can not fail to discover the noun clauses. 1. John said, "I will go to the city." 2. "I will go to the city," said John. 3. I think it will soon rain. 4. We expect he will meet us at the station. 5. We saw night was fast approaching. 6. '*Walk into my parlor," said the spider to the fly. 7. The house which we just passed is owned by my father. 8. Said the pieman to Simple Simon, *'Show me first your penny." 9. Come back as soon as you can. 10. I thought you would go. 11. We asked him to help us, but he refused. Exercise 85. The noun clause introduced by the introductory word that. Make clear that this word is not a relative pronoun, because it has no antecedent. 1. I know that you will come. 2. I dreamed that I dwelt in marble halls. 3. She said that she would like to come. 4. That the world is round has been proved. 5. "Do not give up the ship," said Perry. 6. The tired soldier slept while he rode his horse along the road. 7. Mother did not expect that we should return so soon as we did. 8. I did not know that the man whom we met was your brother. 9. That we must breathe fresh air is very necessary. 10. How they succeeded in climbing the steep rocks is a mystery. Exercise 86. Review of the noun clause in connection with other kinds of clauses. 1. Columbus never knew that he had discovered a new continent. 2. He thought he was right, but he was not quite sure. 3. I have learned my spelling and my geography, but I forgot that I must work ten examples in arithmetic. 4. Hearing that the bridge over the river was not safe we tool another road to the city. 5. Knowing that you expected us we came although it rained. 6. I came home early, fearing that you might be left alone. 7. Try to throw the ball as I do. 8. He is more active than Will. 9. That it would rain was a condition which we had not anticipated. 10. John spends more money than he earns. Exercise 87. A general review of sentences. 1. * * I will go to the captain, ' ' said the sailor. 2. That you can not do the trick is evident. 3. She said that she would like to come. 4. The world will not anxiously inquire who you are. 5. We heard that he had gone to the country, 6. His first thought was to see that others were made happy. 7. She never forgets to fill my seed-cup and my glass of water. 8. I pretend that I am in the woods. 9. I was a wretched little bird when Helen's mother bought me. 10. He swung the boxes back and forth until I was sick and dizzy. 11. Soon, if the weather continues pleasant, we shall (69) hear him sing. 12, Then the robin's great feast is over, and he leaves us for the repast which is awaiting him in the South. 13. There was once a boy whose eyes were so true, and whose hand was so steady, that he became a very good marksman. 14. From morning till night she flew over fields and woods, getting worms, and bugs, and seeds for her babies. 15. He realizes that he has been fooled, and steals off through the forest. 16. When the dogs are on their tracks, deer follow certain well-known paths leading to the nearest water. 17. The savage Indians still live in wigwams made of bark or brush and skins. 18. Here in the spring, in the broad Susquehanna, are caught great hauls of shad and herring. 19. Before the Civil War, negroes who were engaged in laying and drawing the long seines, used to sing their weird songs while at their work. 20. The air, the earth, and the water teem with plant life. 21. Four gray walls and four gray towers overlook a space of flowers. 22. That we are never too old to learn is a true saying. 23. He often wished that the wind might rave. 24. He whose house is made of glass must not throw stones at another. 25. When school commenced, Henry was in his seat. 26. No nation can be destroyed while it possesses a good home life. Exercise 88. This is an exercise of general review, especially of infinitives, participles, phrases, and case of pronouns. Begin with these constructions as they appear in the declension and conjugation forms, and drill upon the method of their construction. See to it that this fundamental work is thoroughly done before proceeding to the sentences. Make use of every infinitive, participle, and pronoun to review declension and conjugation of which each is a part. Also, review all other constructions, such as mode forms, adjectives, and adverbs as they occur. 1. I would do anything for the advantage of him or her. 2. The children came to see them and us. 3. By urging him against his will, you will accomplish nothing. 4. They and I went with Mary to visit her friend. 5. We ought to have helped you with your work. 6. Having prevented me from doing my work, the baby was now happy to be the sole object of my attention. 7. The men in the boat were observed to be hoisting a sail to prevent themselves from being carried out to sea. 8. We ought to have been working our examples. 9. To be caught in a trap so easily was a surprise to the foolish young fox. 10. Being thus injured the man was unable to send for help. 11. Having been nominated for the office, the candidate made every effort to be elected. 12. She asked to be given another opportunity. 13. The bird was pluming its feathers while it sat upon a limb of the tree. 14. I have learned nothing concerning their accident. 15. The explorers of the ancient ruins dug through old walls, finding many curious ornaments besides jewels and old coins. 16. Except- ing a few accidents the expedition was a success. 17. He fell off his horse without hurting himself in the least. 18. The river steamer ran against a mud bank. 19. We found many flowers along the roadside. 20. Around the house, except in front, ran a low hedge. (70) Exercise 89. The kinds of sentences, relative pronouns, conjunctive adverbs, and con- junctions are the special review of this exercise. The relatives' and the conjunctions should be memorized, and the conjunctive adverbs should receive such drill that they would be recognized by sight instantly, and thus become a hint to the existence of dependent clauses. Do not waste time upon insistent discussion of the distinction between adjective and adverbial clauses, as no common errors are rooted in this distinction. 1. Having played on the way, Frank reached school after the bell had been rung, 2. The children's friends had a merry time playing in the garden as long as the weather was pleasant. 3. Frank's younger brother does not play football so well as he did when he went to high school. 4. The boys who laughed at the old woman were neither courteous nor kind, 5, The regiment, as soon as its leader had been killed, turned and fled, leaving the wounded to die on the field. 6. That old man not only saved his money, but also tried to prevent others from unnecessary waste. 7. The dogs which had been unchained were barking and growling at the two men entering the big gate. 8. If I were you I should be ashamed of getting such a low mark as that, 9. Even though I were the richest person in the state, I would not waste my money so foolishly. 10, The children who had been at the head in spelling worked hard in order that they might stay there during the term. 11. To whom are you speaking? 12. I have not cared to go on the water since my friend's mother and sister were drowned. 13, Mary's mother and father waited at the station until the train had disappeared around the curve, 14. Joe and Tom are going to the circus, but their brother was naughty and has to stay at home. 15. Before the graduating class selected their pin they held a meeting and discussed several designs. 16. We shall spend a day in the country next week, provided that your mother will give her permission. 17. The boys and girls were laughing and talking at the door. 18. That he had been here since you left is true, but to keep him until you came was impossible. 19. He bought not only apples, but also peaches. 20. Whom shall we follow since our leader failed ? 21, In order that he might help our country, Lafayette left France and came to America. 22. As long as the river continues rising the flood can not be stopped. 23. The boy who perseveres will surely succeed. 24. The ring which was lost iLas been claimed by the owner, 25. As the train approached the signal was given to close the gates. 26. I think that you arrived immediately after he left home. 27. She stood at the window pulling down the shade as I passed by. 28, That work will be finished as soon as he can get the necessary materials. 29. The lady passed by before I could remember her name. 30. That book which is lying on the table has not been opened since I placed it there. 31. The customer will have to wait until the grocer has time to attend to him. 32. We shall not put off our trip unless it rains. 33. Provided that the goods which you intend to send are well packed, no harm can be done to them. 34, Although the harbor is fortified, it is wise to be cautious. 35. If she had been at home. it would have helped to make the matter clear. 36, The people trembled for the safety of the ship lest it be wrecked. 37. Kindly write this letter immediately in order that it may be ready to be sent away at mail time. 38. The man whom he sent for remained seated until he was called forward. 39. He went skating in the morning, and in the afternoon he took a walk through the park, 40, The book can be taken from the library either to-day or to-morrow, 41. In the battle neither the general nor his soldiers showed fear. 42. He was not only a great soldier, but also a statesman. 43. He will continue his work as soon as he returns from the country. * 44. Remind me of the letter, lest I should forget to mail it. 45. Since you come to me as a friend I will help you. 46. The president left before we had a chance to see him. 47. The general, standing to the right, is the one who won the victory. 48. The gentleman M^hom we admired has been given a better position. 49. The horse that met with an accident is now lame. 50. The cities which he visited are all in Spain. 51. The general started out to besiege the town, but was stopped in his march. 52. He was not only ambitious, but he also accomplished the things which he undertook. 53. After the fog had cleared the sun came out. 54. The man worked as long as the day lasted. 55. The girl has been ill since she ate too much ice cream. 56. School will not close until the rains make the roads impassable. 57, You may take any book except this one. 58. They were afraid lest the moon fall upon them. 59. We hurried in order that we might reach school in time. 60. Who wrote a composition on coal ? 61.1 wish that you would do this for me. 62. The firemen came before the house was burned. 63. As soon as the rainy season comes the birds go to the southern lands. 64. I have read a great deal since I have joined the public library. 65. We will go on a picnic Saturday, provided that it does not rain, SPECIAL CONSTRUCTIONS. Exercise 90 (a, b, c). These three exercises take up the form of the appositive, exercise (o) offering the types in which the appositive is a noun or pronoun; exercise (&), in which the appositive is a phrase, and exercise (c), in which the appositive is a clause. Make it clear, in exercise (a), that the appositive is identical in meaning with the word with which it is in apposition and there will then be little trouble to make the same fact clear with reference to phrases and clauses. (a) 1. John, the gardener, mowed the lawn. 2. Brown, the engineer of the train, lost his life in the collision. 3. The poem. Snowbound, was read mth much enjoyment by the class. 4. Dickens, the novelist, wrote the charming story. Old Curiosity Shop. 5. I have taken my dress to Miss Thomas, the dressmaker. 6. The party of tourists climbed Mount Shasta, one of the highest peaks in California. 7. We sailed through Golden Gate, the entrance to San Francisco bay. 8. It is I, your brother. (&) 1. It is wrong to tell a lie. 2. It was my privilege to be present. 3. It was always his intention to do the right thing. 4. Victoria, Queen of (72) England, reigned many years. 5. It is our duty to be cheerful at all times. 6. The pass was guarded by Leonidas, the King of the Spartans, with three hundred brave soldiers. 7. It requires work to keep a room in order. 8, Come and stay with me, your old friend. 9. It is a pleasure to help a willing pupil. 10. You yourselves must decide this question. (c) 1. It was my wish that you should go with me. 2. It is hardly fair that he should do this extra work. 3. I have asked Mr. White, a neighbor, to assist. 4. It is probably not true that as many have been killed as first reports would indicate. 5. We are trying to find Mr. Black, the grocer. 6. It is time that something were done to remedy this trouble. 7. I believe it is a wise thing to cultivate the soil thoroughly before plant- ing. 8. It was not the expectation of Columbus that he would discover a new continent. 9. She spoke of her cousin, Mary, in the warmest terms of affection. 10. It is my determination that I shall not return until I have been successful. 11. Franklin, the philosopher and statesman, was American minister to France. 12. Mr. Roberts, the teacher, gave this book, a grammar, to Henry, his oldest pupil. 13. The poet, Spenser, lived and wrote in the reign of Elizabeth. 14. The lamp of man's life has three wicks, brain, blood, and breath. 15. It was one well known to him in former days, a shepherd lad. Exercises 91 and 92. The factitive complement. It is unfortunate to multiply special cases and new names. For this reason it would be better, perhaps, unless local courses of study positively require it, not to teach the name, but to treat factitive complement, when a noun, as in apposition; in the case of adjectives and participles, treat them merely as modifiers, for example, in the sentence. Paint the house red, teach the pupils to regard red merely as an adjective modifier of house. 1. They proclaimed Alphonso king. 2. They named the city Rome. 3. The Americans elected Roosevelt president. 4. The engine has pumped the well dry. 5. We are going to paint the house red. 6. Everybody believed him an impostor. 7. The awful sight turned my blood cold. 8. It is hard, under such circumstances, to keep quiet. 9. Such insults made him very angry. 10. Keep the door locked. 11. I consider him honest. 12. Idleness makes a man poor. 13. Labor makes a man thrifty. 14. We found him studious and attentive. 15. The doctor considers her very sick. 1. The boys themselves made John their captain. 2. The jury found the prisoner guilty. 3. Running made us tired. 4. It was his idea that they should make the slaves free. 5. Washington, our first president, made our country respected by foreign nations. 6. It is a pleasure to help those who help themselves. 7. They chose William umpire. 8. He was shot dead. 9. It is comfortable to feel that we are in no way to be blamed. 10. His courage made the undertaking a complete success. (78) The indirect object. Exercise 93. Do not teach the term, indirect object, but train the pupils to supply the missing prepositions forming prepositional phrases. A little practice will make this device easy. 1. John wrote his mother a letter. 2. She gave him a book. 3. Will you do me a favor? 4. Forgive us our debts as we forgive our debtors. 5. To eat much salt makes me thirsty. 6. He has already brought me a book. 7. The gift of the flowers made the invalid happy. 8. The little girl showed the doctor her sore finger. 9. We gave them food and clothing, 10. It is wise to be upon our guard. Exercise 94. '^ There" used as an introductory word or expletive. There must be much drill upon this form or pupils will thoughtlessly declare there is the subject. They must be drilled until they recognize by sight this kind of special construction. Insist upon following the analysis form for finding the subject. Teach that there in such a sentence is an introductory word. 1. There is a delightful breeze. 2. There is to be a wedding next week, to which we are all to be invited. 3. There will be an eclipse of the moon to-night. 4. There was a certain rich man in Damascus. 5. There is no one here. 6. There are many men in the plot. 7. There were giants in those days. 8. There comes a time when we must die. 9. We heard there was to be a picnic. 10. I want to go if there is time. The word what. Exercise 95. In the first sentence what may be classed as a pronoun, the object of the verb mean in the noun clause, what you mean. The second and third sentences offer similar constructions. In the fourth sentence what modifies time as an adjective, pointing out time; the fifth sentence illustrates a similar use. In the sixth sentence what is equivalent to that which, and of these words that is the object of take, and which is a relative pronoun, object of need and having for its antecedent that; the remainder of the sentences belong to the last named type. 1. I wonder what you mean. 2. I know what you think. 3. What does two times two make? 4. I inquired what time it was. 5. I see what kind of a man he is. 6. Take what you need. 7. Do you remember what you heard ? 8. What she earns nearly supports the entire family. 9. I thought of what the old sailor had told me. 10. The fire destroyed what was in the building. 11. A more honest man than he does not live. (74) Exercise 96. The use of a possessive pronoun or noun as the attribute violating the com- mon requirement that the attribute must be in the nominative case. The possessive can be treated as a modifier of a noun understood. The tenth sentence really means, "The apple you have is John's apple." In the case of the pronouns, the form mine is equivalent to my (house), his to his (hat), theirs to their (papers), etc. It may be easier to treat the construction in most cases, however, as an exception. 1. That tall white house on the corner is mine. 2. The hat on the last hook in the hall is his. 3. The book was his. 4. The papers proved to be theirs. 5. His brave deed made him famous. 6. You will find what you are looking for in the library. 7. They told us the truth. 8. The janitor swept the floor clean. 9. There are many pupils in this school. 10. The apple you have is hers. Exercise 97. After the verbs please, let, make, and a few others, the sign of the infinitive to is frequently omitted. The construction should be explained and receive some drill to make it familiar, as the form is a serious stumbling block to pupils. Please come is equivalent to Please to come; Please let me come is equivalent to Please to let me to come, etc. 1. Please come. 2. Let me go. 3. Please help me. 4. Let me see it. 5. Please tell me what you intend to do. 6. That makes me feel better. 7, I shall let him take the book when you have finished with it. 8. Make him come in. Interjections. Exercise 98. It has been usual to make a special part of speech of interjections, and they have consequently been thrown into unnecessary importance. It is well to give a lesson or so upon them, using the term interjection. They need no special language form. Simply name them. 1. Oh! Please come. 2. Alas! It is sad. 3. Hurrah! We have won. 4. Indeed! I can hardly believe it. Exercise 99. Review of special constructions. 1. It is unfortunate that Mr. Jones, the hatter, has failed in his business. 2. He made us keep silent. 3. Drill has made him efficient in his studies. 4. Please get me that hammer. 5. He generally finds what he looks for. 6. I like your hat better than hers. 7. Please let me hear from you. 8. It is likely that he will come. (75) FALSE SYNTAX. The grammar texts of a generation ago placed emphasis on false syntax. An immense amount of drill was given in the classroom upon the construc- tion of faulty sentences provided by the text-books. The texts were filled, not only with sentences in current use, but also with errors never made, though they might be. The modern pedagogy invented a rule that a child should never see a wrong form, and a wave of protest swept all of the false syntax from grammar teaching. Children should never see nor hear wrong forms. As well might we commence a campaign against drunkenness by forbidding any illustrations of the evil of drunkenness in our campaign literature, however manifest the evidences about us. Such a complete removal of false syntax from the schoolroom drill was as manifestly absurd. Clearly enough, we need not introduce new wrong forms to the pupils, as the old grammarians did, but on the other hand, it is folly to avoid reference to the errors which children daily hear and themselves use, if we hope to educate them. It does not follow that **It ain't me" is incorrect merely because "It isn't I" is correct. From the standpoint of the uninformed both might be incorrect. From this standpoint it is clear that we need drill in correction of the errors which are in current use. Pupils need to learn that certain definite constructions are wrong and to be drilled upon the grammatical reasons to determine the error. S-uch classes of errors are given in this Bulletin. Exercise 100. Confusion of adjectives with adverbs. The confusion of adjectives with adverbs is one of the most common with which we have to contend. Success will mean that the pupils have clearly mastered the following points, and it is uesless to proceed until they have done so: (1) That adjectives can not modify verbs, adverbs, or other adjectives, and that adverbs can not modify nouns or pronouns; (2) that a number of words have adjective and adverbial form, the adverb usually being formed from the adjective by adding ly; (3) that in the case of an attribute complement the adjective modifies the subject, and if the word modifies the verb, then it is an adverb. In the first sentence, for example, the question to determine is whether the idea expressed by loud (or loudly) affects the bell or the act of ringing. Therefore, the word must be an adverb and must have the adverbial form loudly. Success will hinge upon the teacher 's ability to focus the pupil 's attention upon the question whether it is the subject or the predicate which is affected. The following language form should be learned. The adjective loud is here used to modify the meaning of the verb rang. Therefore, the sentence is incorrect. Loud should be loudly, and the sentence should be, "The bell rang loudly." * Indicates correct sentence. 1. The bell rang loud. 2. The girl sang sweet. 3. The sky looked clearly. *4. The boy ran swiftly. 5. The clerk wrote rapid. 6. The train moves (76) quick. 7. The balloon rose steady. 8. The post was placed firm in the ground. 9, The water appears smoothly. 10. He did his work noble. 11. She looked comfortably. 12. The house was furnished comfortable. *13. It was a comfortable looking chair. *14. He speaks very strangely. 15. She sings very nice. 16. She draws accurate. *17. The rose smells sweet. 18. He writes good. 19. Eun home quick. *20. The house seems very nice and comfortable. Exercise 101. Agreement of predicate with subject. The most glaring and the most frequent class of error is the lack of agreement of the predicate and the subject in number. However, the blunder occurs most frequently in certain constructions: With you as the subject and in the third person singular of the present and present perfect tenses. It can not occur in most forms because the singular and plural are identical. We, therefore, should centralize our drill upon the common forms. See to it, first, that the pupils know their conjugation forms, especially know that the third person, singular, of the present tense ends in s, that has and not have is used in the third person, singular, of the present perfect tense ; that in the past tense of the verb, to be, was is used only in the first and third persons of the singular number. Place is, are, was, and were upon the board and drill to secure instantaneous recognition of the number of each. As a language form use the following: "The subject men is in the plural number, but the predicate, was walking, is singular. It, therefore, does not agree with rnen, the subject, which is in the plural number; was walking should be in the plural number to agree with men. Therefore, was walki7ig should be were walking, and the sentence should read. The men were walking. ' ' This language form can not be used in the case of you as a subject, because you is really singular. The form for this should be simply : ' * The predicate, was, does not agree Avith its subject you; was should be were, and the sentence should read, "You were there." 1. The men was walking rapid. 2. They was right. 3. I is sick. 4. The folks is in the country. 5. How many men was there ? 6. Was the girls in the room? 7. All the women was on one side of the room. 8. She paints very nice. *9. The cows were in the garden. 10. That makes me feel good. 11. Was the children at school to-day? 12. That butter tastes badly. 13. Was they looking good ? 14. You was there. *15. Was "as /'' in the right place? 16. I feel pretty good this morning, 17. The desks was scratched. *18. Are the men going? 19. Was you sick? Doesn't and don't Exercise 102. This type falls under the general principle treated in Exercise 2. Teach first the conjugation of do in the present tense, and drill in the immediate recognition that doesn't, equivalent to does not, is in the singular third (77) person, and doesn't occur in all other persons nor in the plural number. Use the same language form. 1. He don't see me. 2. She don't mean it. 3. It don't matter. 4. He don't run fast. *5. I don't understand you. 6. Why don't he finish his work more prompt? 7. That man don't like work. 8. Don't the teacher know that you don't understand the example? 9. John doesn't go where his mother don't want him to go. 10. Rain don't fall here very often. 11. This fish don't taste well. 12. The carpenter don't file his saw sharply. « Exercise 103. Subjects connected by and. Two or more singular subjects connected by the conjunction and are plural in number, and require a verb in the plural number. The error is not very frequent in occurrence. The trouble arises with the use of a phrase modifying a singular subject which is introduced by the preposition with, for example, Sentence 1. To distinguish these con- fusing forms is the purpose of the exercise. 1. Mary with her friends were playing under the tree. 2. The ship with all her passengers were lost. 3. The boy with his playmates have gone upon a picnic. *4. The boy with his sisters has played around. 5. The mother with the children were drowned. 6. Mary and Edith come home early. *7. The dog and the cat play together. 8. Seven and eight is fifteen. 9. The girl with her friends walk home every day. 10. The girl and her friend walks home every day. 11. The name of the brothers who were in the party of men were Smith. 12. He with others come prompt every day. *13. The horse and cow have been sold cheaply. *14. Mr. Jones together with many others has gone to the new gold fields. 15. The house and the barn has been burned complete. *16. Four thousand dollars is the price of the house and furnishings complete. Exercise 104. Subjects connected by or, either-or, and neither-nor. Singular subjects connected by or, either-or, or neither-nor are singular, and require a singular predicate. This type needs to be brought in contrast with the forms of the preced- ing type. 1. John or Frank have been here. 2. The boy or his friend are coming. 3. A horse or a cow have broken the fence. *4. A horse and a cow have broken the fence. 5. Mary or her sister don't ask foolish questions. 6. The train with its passengers have gone over the embankment. 7. Rain or bad weather don't prevent him from doing his work, *8. I don't know whether apples or peaches have been planted in the garden. 9. Either the captain or the lieutenant are going upon the important mission. 10. Neither Mary nor Alice have come. 11. Either the dog or the cat have killed this rat. 12. Neither the man nor the woman were hurt. 13. Was you the one who broke the window ? (78) Exercise 105. ^ Subjects preceded by each, every, no. Subjects preceded by each, every, and no are singular, and consequently their predicates must be singular. This rule of syntax is very frequently violated. Explain the rule to pupils, and drill upon the sentence for clear recognition of the subject. As a language form use the following : ' ' The predicate have does not agree with its subject each which is singular. Therefore, have should be has, and the sentence should read, etc. 1, Each of the boys have a new hat. *2. No one pays for his meal. *3. Each of the dogs wears a collar. 4. Each of you are to receive a prize. 5. Every one of us remember the great earthquake. 6. Every one of the men work hard. *7. Neither the apples nor the peaches taste good. *8. Each of the boys with his sisters is going to give a party. 9. Every one of them examples is wrong. 10, Every one of them feel good. 11. No one expect to win the prize. *12. Either the lamp or the stove is smoking dreadfully. 13. No one among the boys are to leave. Exercise 106. Omission of predicate in dependent clauses. Dependent clauses introduced by than, as, and a few other conjunctive adverbs frequently omit the predicate. "He must be stronger than she" is equivalent to "He must be stronger than she is." A common error occurs in the use of the objective form for the nominative form necessary for the subject. Drill in expanding the clause by the addition of the subject understood, and upon the fact that the subject must be in the nominative case. 1. He must be stronger than her. 2. That music sounds nicely. 3. Each garden in the town look remarkable prettily at this season of the year. 4. Neither John or Henry write as good as her. 5. That sentence sounds rightly. 6. Alice is a better student than him. 7. The trees and grass in the fields is growing nice. *8. Neither of them has appeared comfortable. 9. John with all the other fishermen do not usually catch as many fish as I. 10. Every pupil in the class work the examples correct. 11. They are wiser than us. 12. Jennie does not seem so happily as me. 13. The cause of all these troubles are yet to be found. 14. Many rooms in the house is unfurnished. 15. All of us was at the picnic. 16. What sound have 'each of the vowels? 17. There was seven books on the table. 18. We expected that you was coming to see us. 19. What is the dimensions of the room? 20. In the menageries at Paris there was lions and tigers. 21. The regiment consist of a thousand men. 22. The fruit on the trees in our neighbor's orchards are ripe. *23. There is a flock of birds. 24. Were it he or she whom you saw Avhen you were there? 25. Those boys on the sidewalk is going home. 26. In the lake there was a good many shells. 27. Either the captain or she start at daybreak for the trip. 28. Was you the one who (79) made those boxes? 29. There is two subjects in the sentence. 30. The consent of his father or mother were asked. *31. The cat and her kittens were drowned. *32. There were a great many spectators. 33. The girl or her sister are coming to-night. *34. There were twenty girls at the party. 35. The man and his dog is here. 36. The house and furniture was burned. 37. There was seven crows sitting on the fence. 38. Mary and her friends is playing. 39. Either the girl or her sister go there. *40. The boy and his playmate were lost. 41. Five and eight is thirteen. 42. What is the length and breadth of this lot ? 43. He and she was standing in the yard. Agreement of pronouns. i!*xercise 10/. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number. Teach this and explain it. No singular pronoun can stand for a plural noun, nor can a plural pronoun stand for a singular noun. Use sentences to illustrate the different uses, and then put the incorrect sentences on the board. The most common violations of this rule seem to occur when the ante- cedent is used with each, every, no, either-or, and neither-nor. The language form to be followed should be as follows : ' * The pronoun is plural in form. It must agree with its antecedent in number. ■ is singular. Therefore, the pronoun should be and the sentence should read ** ." 1. No one has done their w^ork. 2. Every man was expected to be in their place. 3. Every child who has finished their work must hold up their hands. *4. No man who had entered the army had lost his position. 5. No one should ask many questions unless they do not understand. 6. Either Alice or May must write their lesson. *7. Either the teacher or the pupil must tell his story. 8. Either Mary or James must send their address. 9. Neither James nor Frank has lost their hats. *10. Neither the man nor the woman had earned his wages. 11. Neither Alice nor Harry have written their lessons. *12. Neither Mary nor James has gone to his home. 13. No one should lose their temper so easily. 14. Neither James nor Frank had sent their letters. *15. Neither the teacher nor the child had found his hat. 16. Neither Alice nor May had found their doll. *17. Each -of the boys has lost his slate. 18. Each of the men lost their way. 19. Every boy- sent their answer. 20. Let every child in the room hold up their hand. 21. 'Each of the messengers hurried to their work. 22. England expects every man to do their duty. 23. Every one of us have lost their books. *24. Each of the scholars lost his hat. 25. Each of the officers must send their reports to headquarters. 26. Every girl gave their word. 27. I know that every man will give their share. 28. Each boy threw down a flower as they passed the grave. (80) Exercise 108. Case of pronouns as siibjects, attributes, and objects. Pronouns used as subjects or as attribute complements must be in the nominative case. Pronouns used as objects of verbs, prepositions, infinitives, or participles must be in the objective case. The language forms should be as follows: ** (the pronoun in the wrong case) is the subject (or attribute)." It must, therefore, be in the nominative case. The objective form is here used. Therefore, should be , and the sentence should read: '* Or: ** (the pronoun in the wrong case) is the object of the verb (prepo- sition, infinitive, or participle) ." It must, therefore, be in the objective case. The nominative form is here used. Therefore, should be , and the sentence should read: ** ." 1. It is him. 2. It is her. *3. It is she. 4. It was us. 5. It was them. 6. It was her. 7. That was me who wrote the letter. 8. John said that it was him. *9. I know that it was she. *10. John knew that it was you. 11. He called in a wee small voice, "It is me." 12. Did you think John was me? 13. Suppose that person were me. 14. It is not me who you ought to blame. 15. That was her who broke your window. 16. He called out, "I am him." 17. It will be him who offers to do the work. *18. It was they. 19. It will be her who gets the candy. 20. It must be him whom you saw. 21, It never will be us. 22. It must never be them who make the mistakes. 23. Who's there? It's me. 24. I wish to see Mr. Smith. Are you him? 25. Do you know John Anson? Yes, that's him. 26. **I asked to see your sons. Are these them?" "Yes, these are them.. Shall I tell you their names?" 27. "It's her! There she is!" cried the children. 28. Yes, it was him, — the famous Admiral. 29. I wish it hadn't been me that broke the window. 30. The best grammarians in the village are us four girls. 31. Whom did you say it was ? *32. Whom would you like to see? 33. Whom do you think he was? 34. Do you know whom he is? 35. Whom did you say it was that gave it to you ? 36. It was the girl whom I thought it was. *37. Who did you say you thought it was ? 38. If there were a rogue in the world it is me. 39. Either James or me must do the work. 40. Such a man as him never could be president. 41. Either Prank or him has been here. 42. Neither us nor she can walk. 43. Whom did you say had finished the book? 44. He is taller than me. 45. She is not one whom I thought would do this. 46. You and me will go together. 47. Is James as old as me ? *48. Who do you think called upon me this morning ? 49. My brother is a better swimmer than him. 50. Neither she nor me will go. 51. Neither John nor her has written. 52. I saw the woman whom all said was beautiful. 53. He said that John and me were to go. 54. He decided that James, him, and she should be permitted to go. 55. I wonder if James and them are going. 56. Both Frank and him have written the letters. *57. Who do you think has written to me? 58. Whom do you 6— G (81) believe has been here? 59. I wrote to Mr, Smith whom I believe lives on Waller street. 60. I sent the letter to Nan whom I know is not well. 61. You gave the book to the boy whom you know don't deserve it. 62. Whom did you say lives in this house? *63. A person who I think was Mr. Thompson came down the street. 64, Whom do you suppose is the author of that book ? *65, It is hard to fight those who you know are right, 66, He came to see Frank and I, 67, They wrote a letter to Mary and I, 68. I met Frank and he on the way to school, *69, I gave the hat to you, *70, She sent me to him and her, 71, Who did you call? 72, There goes the man who we met yesterday, 73, Who do those pagans worship? 74. With who do you sit? *75. Do you know whom I fear? 76, Who did your father take with him? *77, He will not tell whom he robbed, 78, I know who you love, 79, Who do you think I saw? 80, They who are industrious, time will reward, 81. Who do you think I met on my way home? 82, Who are you determined to send on such a mission? 83. Our father bought you and I a present. 84, The man who we had blamed is very sick. *85. Him who lives on the corner, we blame. 86, Who shall I send the book to? 87. The book is for James and I. *88. Whom is this new slate for? 89, This is a matter for you and I to decide at once. 90. With respect to you and he, I think Mr. Flint's behavior was proper enough. 91, Alice gave her slate to Frank and I. 92, I should like to meet whoever this letter came from, 93, I spoke to several persons standing near Mr, Patterson, but not he. 94, I am not sure who I should ask for, 95, Who did you get the hat for? *96, It is for you and him to decide, 97. Who have you written to? 98. There is a small likeness between the poor Chinaman who works in the laundry, and he who rules a whole province. 99. I send the letter to you and he. 100. There is some differ- ence between Frank and I. *101. Whom did you save the lunch for? 102. Who did you make the book for ? Exercise 109. Errors in conjugation forms. The errors represented in this exercise require for their correction a thorough knowledge of the formation of the tenses, and of the principal parts of certain verbs. A thorough review drill upon the construction of each tense must precede any work with the sentences. Pupils must definitely know the principal parts of the verbs treated, and also that the past tense uses simply the past form, the present perfect tense uses the sign have and the past participle of the verb in question. Drill home the fact, especially, that the past form of the principal parts is used in the past tense of the verb and never in any other tense. 1. I drunk all the water in that pitcher. 2. I seen him when he done it. 3. You done that yourself, 4, She cried when she begun to read the story, 5, She sung the old song for my mother, 6, He rung the bell, 7, She rung the bell at nine and we come to school, 8, The bird begun to sing at daylight and we seen him in the tree, 9, We run for a doctor when he (82) done it. 10. He came to see me yesterday when he seen that I had done so many brave deeds. 11. I had saw many pictures in the store. 12. James had went to town. 13. He has came home for Christmas. 14. I had saw the man on the wagon. *15. He has seen the animals many times. 16. The boy has came to my house. 17. He has M^ent to the store for me. 18. He drunk a pitcher of water. 19. The teacher rung the bell this morning. 20. She sung a new song last night. 21. I seen her when she sung the song. 22. He come from a foreign land. 23. They seen many strange sights. 24. I done it for you. 25. The boys run a race for a prize. 26. She sung many pretty songs before I seen her. *27. She did the work before I came. 28. You have came to a poor place. 29. James has went to many towns. 30. I had saw the book in the store. 31. He had drank many glasses of water. 32. She had broke many dishes before we seen her. 33. The bird has flew to yonder bush. 34. He has ran many races. 35. The boy had stole much money. 36. He had fell from a very tall tree. 37. You must have did my work for it is all done. 38. He has began to write very well. 39. The teacher has gave us many poor marks. *40. The man has held the championship of the state. 41. The girl has sang in many towns. 42. She has wrote a new book, 43. The boy had threw a large stone. 44. The thief had stole a new hat. Use of the verb ought. Exercise 110. The verb ought has no past participle. Therefore, since the past parti- ciple is necessary for any of the perfect tenses, the verb ought can not be used in any of the perfect tenses. The language form for correction should be: Ought is here used as the past participle in the past perfect tense. Since ought has no past participle it can not be used in the past perfect tense. Therefore, we must use some other verb. The sentence might be expressed by "He shouldn't do that." The second error expressed in this exercise is that of the use of them as an adjective in the place of those or these. Them can never be used as an adjective. 1. He hadn't ought to do that. 2. The man had ought to know better. 3. I read them books already. 4. Them boys don't mean to do right, 5. You hadn't ought to chase them poor cats. *6. He ought to have gone before he met those other men, 7. He don't know that he hadn't ought to take them things. Exercise 111. Miscellaneous errors w review. 1, As I walked down the street I seen the man. 2. James did his work more prompt than me. 3. Neither James nor Walter have did all their work. *4. She rang the bell for those who were at a distance. 5. I saw John and she going to the circus. 6. Let's you and me go home. *7. The crow drank all the water in the vase. 8. When we saw the child he begun to cry. 9. He had went dowTi the street just before you came. 10. She (83) sung an entirely new song last night. 11. The hare run swift and escaped the hunters who we saw pursuing it. 12. Was you ready when he come? 13. He don 't care who he hits. 14. He with his schoolmates are loitering by the waj'^side. •IS, That ice cream tastes sour. 16. "Who do you mean to call. 17. Either a gopher or a mole are working in the garden. *18, Do good to those who hate you. 19. Each of them run more quick than me. 20. Don't she intend to see you and I? 21. Everybody tries to do their duty. *22. Whom do you think I saw this morning? 23. Such a boy as him ought to be punished. 24. He asked to see my mother or I. *25. Both he and I are going. 26. Who did this letter come from? 27. I know that he begun the work for me and you. 28. Each pupil in the class now sang their song. 29. I like to see them squirrels. 30. Neither James nor me have finished our work. 31. She whom I think lives here seems happily. 32. I seen him when he done it. 33. Neither Alice nor him have been in the yard. 34. Mary whom I supposed lived in this town sings sweet. 35. Every one knew whom he was. 36. The boy with his dog seem to play ball. 37. It don't matter if she does sing well. 38. Each of the boys whom I know live on the south side. *39. Alice seems happy. 40. It was her whom I thought it was. 41. Was the girls in the room? 42. James whom I said was my brother has come home for Christmas. 43. Was you the one who made the box ? 44. He sung slow and soft. 45. The King of France or England were the one whom we thought should decide. 46. He done his work good and ran quick to bring it home. 47. Him was the boy whom I thought it was. 48. He sung the song slow when each one were asked to sing them quick. 49. John, Frank, and me ran a race. 50. We expected that you was coming to see us. 51. He don't go to school now. 52. There was seven books on the table. 53. The train whistled loud and the girls come into the bright lighted station room. 54. Time and tide waits for no man. 55. Each day and each hour bring their portion of duty. *56. The man who lives on Jones street is my cousin. 57. I done what I could. 58. There is many mistakes in my composition. 59. Where was you when I called you? 60. Who did you mean when you said that? 61. Bring me them tongs. 62. The man who you said you saw running rapid down the street, done the work yesterday. 63. If I were her I should say less. 64. It was him and me whom you said took the books. 65. Him that is diligent will succeed. 66. Did you sleep good? *67. This should be well shaken. 68. He come and told me all he knowed about it. 69. The mule and the horse was harnessed together. 70. Neither the aster nor the dahlia are culti- vated for their fragrance. 71. Such a man as him could never be president. 72. Suppose the fortune of every one of us should depend on our winning or losing a game of chess. 73. The noise of cataracts, storms, thunder, or artillery cause wild animals to flee into the forest. 74. Neither of them are remarkable for precision. 75. That night every man of the boat's crew, save John, were down with raging fever. 76. A cargo of fine oranges from the Southern States have just arrived. 77. Have the goods arrived in good condition ? 78. Nobody should praise themselves. 79. Eun quick into the house. 80. Whom do you think was with me yesterday ? *81. Who do you (84) think lives on the new street ? 82. How can you tell who to trust ? 83. The money was divided among the two brothers. 84. He and they we know, but who are you? 85. Twelve months' interest were due. 86. The ship with all her crew were lost. 87. Neither the army nor navy were repre- sented. 88. There was many giants in those days. *89. A box of oranges arrived yesterday from Florida. 90. Every twig, every leaf, and every blade of grass teem with life. 91. He is older than me. 92. Where are each of the boys to stand? 93. Has the second bell rang yet? 94. The traveler who you saw took his seat beside the lady. 95. We had rode only a short distance, when a dark cloud arose quick. *96. He knew who would betray him. 97. He hadn't ought to ask such questions. 98. One or the other have made a serious mistake. 99. That is very easy done. 100. He suffered more than me. 101. Do you remember who we met yesterday? 102. The society at these places are always objectionable. 103. Who did you send the letter to? 104. They came soon after you had went away. 105. Either you or I are to blame. 106. Every one must judge of their own feelings. 107. Who should I meet the other day but my old friend Jones. 108. They that are diligent I will reward. 109. The tall sunflower and the little violet is turning its face to the sun. 110. One or the other have made a serious mistake. 111. I have set in this position a long time. 112. He walked very gentle. 113. He appeared beautifully that evening. 114. Who have they at their place for pastor now? 115. The boys hurt theirselves running too fast. 116. Her and I saw them. 117. May Jane go with Mary and I ? 118. I have saw larger ones than that. 119. I have did all my work. 120. He said you and me could go. 121. James and John lost his book on their way home. 122. Who is that book written by? ^ OF THE UNIVERSITY OF 186) INDEX. Numbers refer to exercises. Adjectives, 10-13. comparison, 64, 65&, 66, 66b, 67. false syntax, 100. review, as part of speech, 10, 20. review, comparison, 65, 66, 67. Adverbs, 15-19. comparison, 06b, 67. conjunctive, 77, 81, 82, 83, 78, 89. false syntax, 100. review, as part of speech, 20. Agreement. pronouns with antecedent, 107. subject with predicate, 101. Analysis, 28. Antecedent, 76. Apposition. clause, 90(c). phrase, 90(b). noun or pronoun, 90(c). Attribute complement. difference between object and, 42. false syntax, 108. possessive form as, 96: pronoun as, 57. Be. chart, p. 33. conjugation, 38. review, 42. Case, p. 56. possessive nouns and pronouns, 96. possessive nouns, 52-54. of pronouns as attribute and subject, 57. pronouns, special, 108. review, 78, 88. Chart. I, p. 33. II, p. 38. pronouns, p. 56. Clause. difference between phrase and, 74. dependent, 75. in apposition, 90(c). noun, 84, 85. omission of predicate in dependent, 106. review, 80, 86, 89. Collective nouns, 44(2), 50. Comparison. adjectives, 64, 65, 65b, 66, 66b, 67. adverbs, 66b, 67. Complement. 4, 5, 6. difference between object and at- attribute, 57, 96, 108. tribute, 42. factitive, 91, 92. indirect object, 98. pronoun as object, 59, 61, 108. review, 65, 78, 88, 99. Compound predicate, 69. Compound sentence, 72, 80, 87. Compound subject and complement, 68. Conjugation. chart I, p. 33. chart II, p. 38. directions for teaching, 27(a) (b) (c) (ff){h). drill in conjugation, 39, 43, 45, 47, 49, 51, 53, 55, 56, 58b, 60, 62, 64. errors in conjugation forms, 109. verb be, 38. Conjunction, 68, 71. correlative, 73, 74. review, 69, 72, 89. Conjunctive adverb, 77, 81, 82, 83, 78, 89. Construction, 27. Cumulative review, p. 5. Declension of pronouns, p. 55. Doesn't, don't, 102. Either-or, 104. Emphatic form, 37. Factitive complement, 91, 92. False syntax. adjectives and adverbs, 100. agreement of pronouns, 107. agreement of subject with predicate, 101. doesn't and don't, 102. errors in conjugation forms, 109. omission of predicate in dependent clause, 106. pronouns as subjects, attributes, ob- jects, 108. singular subjects connected by and, 103. subjects connected by or, either-or, etc., 104. subjects preceded by each, every, no, 105. review. 111. Gender, 42b. Imperative mode, 36. (86) Indicative mode, chart, p. 33. signs of, 27d. Indirect object, 98. Infinitive, 30. modifier, 31. and prepositional phrases, 32. review, 33, 34, 35, 37, 40, 41, 42, 44, 50. Interjection, 98. Irregular adjectives, 656, 66. Irregular verbs, 39, 43, 45, 47, 49, 51, 53, 55, 56, 586, 60, 62! common errors in, 29, 109. ought, 110. series 1, p. 36. series 2, exercise 29(1), p. 41. Mode. compound potential, 70. imperative, 36. indicative, 27(o) (6) (c) (d) (e) (f). Nouns. collective, 44(2), 60. number, 44(1), 46, 48. possessive, 52-54. Office, 7. Object, 5, 9, 61. indirect, 93. pronouns as, 59, 61. Participle, 33. as modifier; 34. review, 35, 37, 40, 41, 44, 50, 88. Phrase. difference between clause and, 74. in apposition, 906. prepositional, 24. prepositional distinguished from infini- tive, 32. Predicate, 1. agreement of subject with, 101. compound, 09. omission of in dependent clause, 106. Preposition, 21-26. phrase, 24. phrase distinguished from infinitive, 32. review, 26. Pronoun. agreement, 107. apposition, 90(a). as object, 59, 61. as subject and attribute, 57, 108. chart of declension, p. 56. declension, 55(6). possessive, 56. object, 108. relative, 75, 76, 89. review, 10, 14, 20, 23, 27(1) (2), 65, 78, 88, 89. Relative pronouns, 75, 76, 89. Review, special. a, an, the, 12. adjectives, 14, 20, 27(1) (2), 65, 67. adverbs, 20, 27(1) (2), 30, 67, 89. Review, special — Continued. analysis, 14, 27(1) (2), 28. clause, 86. chart I, 27(A). conjugation, 42, 70. conjunctive adverbs, 89. conjunctions, 69, 72, 89. false syntax. 111. infinitives, 29(2), 33, 34, 35, 37, 40, 41, 42, 44, 50. irregular verbs, 39, 43, 45, 47, 49, 51, 53, 55. mode, 41. nouns. collective, 50. plurals, 48. oflice, 10, 27(1) (2). participle, 35, 37, 40, 41, 44, 50, 80. phrases, 88. preposition, 23, 26, 27(1) (2). pronouns, 16, 20, 23, 27(1) (2), 65, 78, 88, 89. sentences, 80, 87, 89. special constructions, 99. tense, 41. voice, 63, 65, 70, 79. Sentence. complex, 80, 81, 82, 83. compound, 72, 74. review, 80, 87, 89. Special constructions. apposition, 90(a)(6)(c). factitive complement, 91, 92. indirect object, 93. interjection, 98. possessive as attribute, 96. there, 94. to, omitted, 97. what, 95. , Subject, 1, 2, 3. compound, 68. connected by or, either-or, etc., 104. preceded by each, every, no, 105. pronoun as, 57. singular, connected by and, 103. Tense. signs of, 27(d). There, 94. To, omitted after certain verbs, 97. Treatment of text, p. 12. Verbs. chart I, p. 33. chart II, p. 38. conjugation, directions for study of, p. 34. drill in regular and irregular verbs, 39, 43, 45, 47, 49, 51, 53, 55, 56, 586, 60, 62, 64. irregular, series 1, p. 36; series 2, p. 41. Voice, 58. review, 63, 70, 79. What, 95. (87) ..^ IS DOT ON THE LAST DATE THIS BOOK M^^j, 3^j,o^ — r~„c Z5 CENTS AN INITIAL F'NE OF „ ^^ „^ DAY AND TO $10 ^^^^^__ OVERDUE. ,««rtR SEP 11 1947 ^ 1 ■ 9Sep'49Mv; 19 M JUN 10 1W1 FEB 18 1943 OCT 11 ^^ MARi 5CP7 1954 or 22May'58WJ REC'D UD MftY 8 «B8 REC'D LD REC'D LO MAR 11 1 73 -5 W%' 5 V7443? ■r-y <;.■*- t-c^-u / ■i*.' ^>