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5AN FRANCISCO 5TATE NORMAL SCHOOL . 
 
 BULLETIN No. 6 (New Series) 
 
 A COUR5L OF 5TUDY IN 
 GRAMMAR AND HANDBOOK 
 TO ACCOMPANY THE CALI- 
 FORNIA 5TATL 5LRIL5 TLXT 
 
 By FREDERIC BURK 
 
 AND 
 
 EFFIE B. McFADDEN 
 
 Supervisor of the Teaching of Grammar and Language, 
 5an Francisco State Normal School 
 
 SACRAMLNTO 
 W. W. SHANNON Superintendent of State Printing 
 
 1908 
 

 Copyright, 1908, by Fbedeeic Bubk. 
 Copyright, 1908, by Effie B, McFadden. 
 

 THE BANKRUPTCY OF GRAMMAR 
 INSTRUCTION. 
 
 The writers of this Bulletin belong to the class who are convinced that 
 grammar should be entirely removed from the course of study of the 
 elementary schools. The current reason which has been offered for the 
 teaching of English grammar is that it teaches the pupils ''to speak and 
 write the English language correctly." A century's experience of grammar 
 teaching has proved conclusively to those who take the trouble to read the 
 results of this experience that the promise has never been realized in any 
 practicable degree. Experience for a number of years with high school 
 graduates, who have not only passed through the grammar study of the 
 elementary schools, but also have had courses in the grammar of some dead 
 or foreign language in the high school, shows that less than ten per cent 
 have anything whatever to show for their grammar study except the decayed 
 remains of a few definitions, usually quite meaningless to them, and never 
 usable in the correction of errors in writing or speech. Not one in twenty 
 could offer intelligent grammatical reasons why the following current forms 
 of speech are incorrect : It don 't matter. Let the affair rest between you 
 and I. He done right. The rose smells sweet. Every one should hang up 
 their hats. Whom did you say called? If I was you I would not do it. 
 Neither of them answer. Each of the many officers in the various political 
 clubs who have votes to cast are directed to report to this office to take up 
 their duties. 
 
 If any one doubts this statement, the truth or falsity can be proved to 
 ample satisfaction by testing a few high school classes. The fact of the 
 matter is that our grammar teaching is a hopeless bankrupt, and is, there- 
 fore, a positive waste of time. Moreover, as taught, it is one of the studies 
 that deaden school life and tend to increase the number of pupils who leave 
 school because neither they nor their intelligent parents can find the use 
 of it. To that fretful argument which is always offered when this bank- 
 ruptcy is proved to one of its supporters, that the results would not be what 
 they are if we used proper methods of teaching, — it is useless to reply. 
 It is to be doubted that there are any successful methods, and if there are, 
 they are certainly impracticable, for otherwise, we would have found them 
 after a century's failure. Let us give it up. 
 
 There is really no necessity for teaching grammar. A large percentage 
 of people already write and speak with current accuracy. The charge 
 against the school graduate at present is not so much that he uses faulty 
 English, but that he does not know the grammatical reasons for the 
 
 (3) 
 
 174437 
 
corrections. His ear tells him, as a rule, that certain constructions are 
 faulty. In the direction of ear training to note language errors, is, there- 
 fore, the most promising field for school effort to correct the current errors. 
 Language drills, not word knowledge of abstract causes, is the point of 
 least resistance. Let us improve our language drills and abandon the 
 grammatical study. 
 
 It may, therefore, seem singular that the writers holding such views 
 should issue a Bulletin on Methodology in grammar teaching. We do not 
 offer this Bulletin as a cure for the failure of grammar teaching to reach its 
 impossible goals, but as a palliative in method. Whatever may be demon- 
 strated regarding the bankruptcy of grammar teaching, we may nevertheless 
 be sure that the sodden force of pedantic tradition is strong enough to hold 
 it in the curriculum for some school generations. The present problem, 
 whatever the ultimate solution, is to simplify the grammar course as much 
 as possible, to get it out of the wretched rut of memorizing definitions, to 
 provide a system of reviews which shall enable the pupil to remember the 
 constructions he has once learned, and finally, as far as possible, to provide 
 a series of application drills which shall make usable the few principles he 
 may have learned. 
 
 These are the moderate goals of this Bulletin as it has been worked out in 
 practice during the past five years in our Elementary School. 
 
 In revising the sentences and preparing the manuscript Miss Nettie B. 
 Duncan, assistant supervisor in the teaching of Grammar and Language, 
 has rendered invaluable assistance. 
 
 The Substitution of Drill Sentences for those of the Text. 
 
 The drill sentences of our text completely violate the fundamental and 
 vital canons of any successful grammar teaching, and for these reasons this 
 Course of Study supplies an entirely new set of sentences for analytical 
 drill. The canons violated are as follows : 
 
 I. The only sentences which can 'be successfully used for grammatical 
 analysis are those the meaning of which is perfectly understood hy pupils. 
 
 Grammatical understanding depends primarily upon the understanding 
 of the meaning of the sentence. If this sentence meaning is at all obscure 
 or foggy to the pupils it is manifestly useless to attempt to use such a 
 platform to reach the still more abstract grammatical relationship. It has 
 been the unfortunate custom of makers of grammar texts to use as their 
 sentence material, lines from literature, upon the theory that they can 
 teach literature while they are teaching grammar. Grammar is difficult 
 enough without any such added burden, and lines from literature, strained 
 through a grammar recitation, can never again be literature. This Course 
 of Study constructs, as drill material, sentences the meaning of which is 
 perfectly clear, and leaves the full energy of the child free to be centered 
 upon the grammatical relationships to be introduced. 
 
 (4) 
 
II. Only one new construction should he presented in a given exercise 
 and at no place in the hook should a sentence contain any construction which 
 had not heen previously learned, except the new one heing studied. 
 
 This canon requires that the sentences shall be very carefully graded, 
 beginning with a single construction and proceeding exercise by exercise 
 to introduce new types systematically, so that there shall never be in a 
 sentence, constructions with which the pupil is not familiar. It is the fault 
 of our State text, as with all others within the writers' knowledge, to offer 
 sentences, even in the beginning, containing any and all constructions, 
 under the theory that the pupil can select from the confusion just the 
 construction he is studying and can put the others upon the shelf until he 
 comes to them. This is impossible, and the whole matter becomes a buzzing 
 mystery. The Course of Study offers a perfectly graded series of exercises 
 so constructed that in each new exercise all the constructions are reviewed 
 except the one new type which is the object of study. The first introduced, 
 for the purpose of studying the subject and predicate, are sentences which 
 contain only subject and predicate, without any complements or modifiers 
 in the form of words or phrases. Next are introduced sentences with 
 subjects, predicates, and complements. Then follow sentences introducing 
 adjectives without any adverbs or other constructions. In this way the 
 exercises are systematically built up. The forms of the verb he are not 
 introduced until late; phrases do not appear until prepositions are studied; 
 conjunctions are kept back until simple sentences are completed. In this 
 manner, provided the reviews are maintained, there is no reason that 
 grammar at any point should be difficult. 
 
 III. A system of cumulative reviews should recur systematically, in 
 order to spike what has once heen learned. 
 
 It is a principle which we teachers are rather slow in learning that in all 
 memory drills, such as arithmetic combinations, spelling, language, and 
 grammar require, it is not sufficient to learn a thing well once, but the 
 drills must recur at intervals covering a long period of time. The sentences 
 of the Course of Study contain a third principle of special construction — 
 that of reviewing at intervals past constructions. Thus, for example, after 
 certain pronouns are learned, studied in Exercise 9, certain recurrent later 
 exercises in adjectives, adverbs, etc., will contain sentences which incorpo- 
 rate all of these pronouns. So, also, the types of adjectives will be found 
 regularly to recur in the later exercises in a way that they may be system- 
 atically reviewed. Thus each new construction is introduced in a separate 
 order and the subsequent exercises as systematically require reviews of 
 every construction once introduced at intervals. We term this a "cumula- 
 tive" review system, and it is employed in all the Courses of Study issued 
 by the Normal School. 
 
 CUMULATIVE REVIEW. 
 
 At the beginning of this Bulletin will be found questions numbered in 
 order and arranged in groups. The answers to these questions are not in 
 any sense definitions, nor will they help the child to understand any part 
 
 (5) 
 
of the contents of this book. They are simply brief statements of the facte 
 that the children have learned through giving the language forms in con- 
 nection with the sentences for perhaps several weeks. 
 
 This does not mean that they are not essential. In fact, the success of the 
 work depends largely upon their proper use. On account of their 
 importance they are placed first, and not as in many books last, where they 
 are seldom reached, and so altogether neglected. 
 
 Their use is to keep the language forms of the grammar content so familiar 
 that they become a matter of habit more than one of thought. To illustrate : 
 "Modifies a noun" has been so many times associated with adjectives, that 
 as soon as the first is noted the other follows as a matter of course. This 
 familiarity leaves the mind free to think out some additional fact, as. 
 ** completes the predicate," and so draw the conclusion — attribute comple- 
 ment. 
 
 Inasmuch as the answers to these questions form a summary of what has 
 gone before, they can not be used with any success until after the children 
 are perfectly familiar with the topic. In this case the repetition of the 
 answer will be merely so many words without any meaning. If at any time 
 the teacher finds that the child can not make the application of the answer 
 he has given to the sentence, she should stop the questions and go back to 
 the sentence work in that group. The devices for their use are many. 
 
 The class may be arranged in two sides. For each side one is chosen as 
 a tally-keeper. Questions are given turn about, a failure to answer correctly 
 being recorded. The side having the fewest points against it, wins. 
 
 Each question may be written on a card, and the cards passed to the 
 children. Each child in turn reads a question and answers it. 
 
 The questions may be put upon the board, a few at a time, until the list 
 is completed. The children answer the questions in writing. 
 
 An excellent device to keep the attention of the pupils and help them 
 recognize quickly the tense of a verb, is to print or write upon separate 
 cards in large enough letters so the whole class may see, the various signs of 
 the tenses. Hold one up before the class, then take it away quickly. Strive 
 to see how fast they can giye the tense. 
 
 After this add the proper form of the verb, and have the children give the 
 tense. This device may be used with profit for distinguishing active, 
 passive, and progressive voice, participles, and infinitives, the number of 
 pronouns, or their case, the form of the verb, etc. 
 
 GROUP I. 
 
 To be used every day after Exercise 26 is completed. 
 
 1. What words are nouns ? (Names.) 
 
 2. When is a word an adjective? (When it modifies a noun or pronoun.) 
 
 3. When is a word an adverb? (When it modifies a verb, adjective, or 
 other adverb.) 
 
 4. What part of speech are names? (Nouns.) Words that modify 
 
 (6) 
 
nouns? (Adjectives.) Words that modify verbs? (Adverbs.) That 
 modify adjectives? (Adverbs.) That modify adverbs? (Adverbs.) 
 
 5. What do we call the part of speech that modifies a noun? (Adjec- 
 tive.) That modifies a verb? (Adverbs.) 
 
 6. Name the offices in a sentence. (Predicate, subject, complement, 
 modifier.) 
 
 7. Name the office that tells what is done. (Predicate.) 
 
 8. What office answers the question who or what with the predicate? 
 (Subject.) 
 
 9. What office answers the question whom or what with the sul)ject and 
 predicate ? ( Complement. ) 
 
 10. Name the pronouns (omit after Exercise 27). 
 
 11. Name eight prepositions (omit after Exercise 27). 
 
 12. What is always named with a preposition? (Its object.) 
 
 GROUP II. 
 
 To be added after completing Exercise 27/. 
 
 13. Name the tenses of the indicative mode. (Present tense, past tense, 
 future tense, present perfect, past perfect, future perfect.) 
 
 14. What is the sign of the past tense? (It has no sign.) The future 
 tense? (Shall and will.) The past perfect tense? (Had.) The future 
 perfect? (Shall have and will have.) The present tense? (s.) The 
 present perfect tense? (Have and has.) 
 
 15. What is the sign of the present tense, third person, singular? (s.) 
 
 16. The present perfect, third, singular? (Has.) 
 
 17. How do you recognize the third person, singular, present tense of the 
 indicative mode? (By the sign s.) 
 
 18. What tense has no helpers or signs? (Past tense.) 
 
 19. In what tense of the indicative mode does the past form of the verb 
 occur? (Past tense.) The past participle? (In the present perfect tense, 
 in the past perfect tense, and in the future perfect tense.) The present 
 form? (In the present tense and in the future tense.) 
 
 20. Of what are the following the signs : has (present perfect tense), shall 
 (future tense), had (past perfect tense), will have (future perfect tense), 
 s (present tense), shall have (future perfect tense), will (future tense), 
 have (present perfect tense). 
 
 21. How do you form the present tense? (The present tense is formed 
 by using the present form of the given verb, except in the third person, 
 singular, where s is added.) The future tense? (The future tense is 
 formed by using the signs shall and will plus the present form of the 
 given verb.) The past perfect tense? (The past perfect tense is formed 
 by using the sign had plus the past participle of the given verb.) The 
 present perfect tense? (The present perfect tense is formed by using the 
 sign have plus the past participle of the given verb in all persons, except 
 the third, singular, where has is used.) The future perfect tense? (The 
 
 (7) 
 
future perfect tense is formed by using the helpers shall have and will 
 have plus the past participle of the given verb.) 
 
 GROUP m. 
 
 To be added after completing Exercise 21g. 
 
 22. Name the helpers of the potential mode. (May, can, must, might, 
 could, would, should, may have, can have, must have, might have, could 
 have, would have, should have.) Of the emphatic form. (Do, does, did.) 
 
 23. In what particular is the conjugation of the indicative mode different 
 from that of the subjunctive mode? (The third person, singular, present 
 indicative has the sign s, while the subjunctive has not.) 
 
 24. What are the usual signs of the subjunctive? (If, though, and lest.) 
 
 25. Of what are the following the signs: has (present perfect tense), can 
 (potential mode), shall have (future perfect tense), ing (present par- 
 ticiple), could (potential mode), had (past perfect tense), will (future 
 tense), did (emphatic form), having (perfect participle), must (potential 
 mode), to (infinitive), might (potential mode), shall (future tense), should 
 (potential mode), have (present perfect tense), will have (future perfect 
 tense), to have (infinitive), do (emphatic form), may (potential mode), 
 if (subjunctive mode), has (present perfect tense) ? 
 
 26. How do you form the present tense, subjunctive mode? (The present 
 tense, subjunctive mode is formed by using the present form of the verb 
 throughout.) The imperative mode? (The imperative mode is formed by 
 using the present form of the verb.) The infinitives? (The infinitives are 
 formed by using the signs to plus the present form of the given verb; or, 
 to have plus the past participle of the given verb.) The present participle! 
 (The present participle is formed by using the present form of the verb 
 plus the sign ing.) The emphatic form? (The emphatic form is made by 
 using the signs do, does, or did plus the present form of the given verb.) 
 
 27. What are the signs of the infinitives? {To and to have.) 
 
 28. What are the signs of the present and perfect participles? {Ing and 
 having.) 
 
 29. What is always the subject of a verb in the imperative mode? (You 
 understood.) 
 
 30. How is the present tense, emphatic formed? (The present tense, 
 emphatic is formed by using the sign do in all persons except the third, 
 singular, where does is used plus the present form of the verb.) 
 
 31. How is the past tense, emphatic formed? (The past tense, emphatic 
 is formed by using the sign did plus the present form of the verb.) 
 
 GROUP IV. 
 
 To be added after completing Exercise 35. 
 
 32. How many kinds of phrases are there? (Three.) 
 
 33. What are the names of the three kinds of phrases? (Prepositional 
 phrase, infinitive phrase, participial phrase.) 
 
 (8) 
 
34. How may a prepositional phrase be distinguished from a participial 
 phrase or an infinitive phrase? (A prepositional phrase is introduced by 
 a preposition, an infinitive phrase by an infinitive, and a participial phrase 
 by a participle.) 
 
 35. What must a prepositional phrase contain? (A preposition and its 
 object.) 
 
 36. What must an infinitive phrase contain? (An infinitive and its 
 object.) 
 
 37. What must a participial phrase contain? (A participle and its 
 object.) 
 
 38. In what ofiices may a participle be used? (Subject, complement, 
 modifier.) An infinitive? (Subject, complement, modifier.) 
 
 GROUP V. 
 
 To be added after completing Exercise 42. 
 
 39. Give the number of the following: is (singular), were (singular and 
 plural), has been (singular), are (singular and plural), was (singular). 
 
 40. What is a regular verb? (A regular verb is one that forms its past 
 form and past participle by adding d or ed to the present form.) 
 
 41. What two kinds of complements are there? (Object complements 
 and attribute complements.) 
 
 42. What parts of speech may be attribute complements? (Nouns, pro- 
 nouns, adjectives.) 
 
 43. Explain the distinction between object and attribute complements. 
 (An object complement answers the question what, and the attribute 
 complement answers the question what and modifies or means the same as 
 the subject.) 
 
 44. What is always the complement after the verb })e? (Attribute.) 
 
 GROUP VI. 
 
 To be added after completing Exercise 44. 
 
 45. Name the genders. (Masculine, feminine, neuter.) 
 
 46. How is the feminine gender usually formed? (By adding ess to the 
 masculine form.) 
 
 GROUP VII. 
 
 To be added after completing Exercise 55. 
 
 47. Write the following words in the plural: leaf, city, joy, foot, news, 
 shelf, liberty, goose, tooth, money, wolf, journey, loaf, athletics, half, thief, 
 s, sheep, calf, deer, beef, 8, trout, knife, Mr. Jones, negro. 
 
 48. Form the possessive singular of the following words: men, James, 
 woman, child, somebody else. 
 
 49. Form the possessive plural of the following words : fairy, child, man, 
 year, hero, chief, woman, misses, mouse. 
 
 (9) 
 
GROUP VIII. 
 
 To be added after completing Exercise 57. 
 
 50. What is the case of a pronoun which is subject of a sentence? (Nom- 
 inative case.) 
 
 51. What is the case of a pronoun which is the attribute complement? 
 (Nominative ca§e.) 
 
 52. In what offices may the nominative case be used? (Subject and 
 complement.) 
 
 53. Name the possessive pronouns. (My, mine, our, ours, your, yours, 
 his, her, hers, its, their, theirs.) 
 
 GROUP IX. 
 
 To be added after completing Exercise 61. 
 
 54. What is the case of a pronoun which is the object complement? 
 (Objective case.) Which is the object of a preposition? (Objective case.) 
 Which is the objective of an infinitive? (Objective case.) Which is the 
 object of a participle? (Objective case.) 
 
 55. What parts of speech take an object complement? (Verb, preposi- 
 tion, infinitive, participle.) 
 
 56. In what office may the objective case be used? (Complement of a 
 verb, preposition, infinitive, participle.) 
 
 57. What parts of speech may be object complements? (Noun, pronoun, 
 infinitive, participle.) 
 
 GROUP X. 
 
 To be added after completing Exercise 63. 
 
 58. How is the passive voice formed? (The passive voice is formed by 
 using some form of the verb be plus the past participle of the given verb.) 
 
 59. How is the progressive voice formed? (The progressive voice is 
 formed by using some form of the verb he plus the present participle of 
 the given verb.) 
 
 60. What participle is used in the passive voice? ^ (The past participle.) 
 
 61. What participle is used in the progressive voice? (The present 
 participle.) 
 
 62. How may you distinguish the active voice from the passive or pro- 
 gressive? (The active voice contains no form of the verb be. The passive 
 and progressive voices must contain some form of the verb be.) 
 
 63. How may you distinguish the passive voice from the progressive ? 
 (By the participle.) 
 
 64. How many infinitives are there in the active, passive, and progressive 
 voices? (Six.) 
 
 65. Name them. ( The present and perfect in the active voice ; the present 
 and perfect in the passive voice ; the present and perfect in the progressive 
 voice.) 
 
 (10) 
 
66. How many participles are there in the active, passive, and progressive 
 voices? (Six.) 
 
 67. Name them. (The present, past, and perfect in the active voice; 
 the present and perfect in the passive voice; the perfect in the progressive 
 voice.) 
 
 68. How is the present passive infinitive formed? (The present passive 
 infinitive is formed by iising the sign to plus the present form of the verb 
 he plus the past participle of the given verb.) 
 
 69. How is the perfect passive infinitive formed? (The perfect passive 
 infinitive is formed by using the sign to have plus the past participle of the 
 verb 6e plus the past participle of the given verb.) 
 
 70. How is the present progressive infinitive formed? (The present pro- 
 gressive infinitive is formed by using the sign to plus the present form of 
 the verb he plus the present participle of the given verb.) 
 
 71. The perfect progressive infinitive? (The perfect progressive infini- 
 tive is formed by using the sign to have plus the past participle of the 
 verb he plus the present participle of the given verb.) 
 
 72. How many participles are there in the active voice? Name them. 
 (Three: The present, past, and perfect.) 
 
 73. In the progressive voice? Give its name^ (One: The perfect 
 participle.) ■ ./ *• 
 
 74. How is the present participle passive voice formed? (The present 
 participle passive is formed by using heing plus the past participle of the 
 given verb.) 
 
 75. How is the perfect passive participle formed? (The perfect passive 
 participle is formed by using the sign having plus the past participle of the 
 verb he plus the past participle of the given verb.) 
 
 76. How is the perfect progressive parti c^le formed? (The perfect 
 progressive participle is formed by using the sign having plus the past 
 participle of the verb he plus the present participle of the given verb.) 
 
 Add Group XI after completing Exercise 86. 
 
 77. Name the conjunctions more commonly in use. (And, or, but, nor, 
 and correlative conjunctions both-and, either-or, neither-nor, whether-or, 
 not only-but also.) 
 
 78. What may conjunctions connect? (Words, phrases, or clauses.) 
 
 79. How may you distinguish a phrase from a clause? (A phrase con- 
 tains no predicate and a clause contains* both subject and predicate.) 
 
 80. How may you distinguish a simple sentence from a complex sentence ? 
 (In a simple sentence there is only one subject and one predicate, and in a 
 complex sentence there is always a dependent clause introduced either by a 
 relative pronoun or a conjunctive advei:b. 
 
 81. How may you distinguish a simple sentence from a compound 
 sentence? (Simple sentences can have only one subject and one predicate, 
 and compound sentences- must have at least two clauses connected by 
 conjunctions.) 
 
 82. What is meant by the antecedent of a relative pronoun? (The ante- 
 
 (11) 
 
cedent of a relative pronoun is the noun for which the relative pronoun 
 stands.) 
 
 83. Give the list of relative pronouns. ("Who, which, what, that.) 
 
 84. What parts of speech introduce dependent clauses? (Relative 
 pronouns, conjunctive adverbs.) 
 
 85. Name some common conjunctive adverbs. (When, while, as, because, 
 where.) 
 
 86. In what offices may a noun clause be used? (Subject and comple- 
 ment.) 
 
 87. A noun clause is generally introduced by what kind of word? (An 
 introductory word.) 
 
 88. How may you distinguish a compound sentence from a complex 
 sentence? (A compound sentence has at least two clauses connected by 
 conjunctions and in a complex sentence there is always a dependent clause 
 introduced either by a relative pronoun or a conjunctive adverb.) 
 
 Treatment of the Text, Pages 7 to 48. 
 
 It will be found best to teach the offices in a group by themselves and to 
 separate them entirely from the treatment of the parts of speech. Otherwise 
 the confusion between the offices and the parts of speech is constant and 
 pupils can not see clearly that if a word is a noun it can not be a verb, since 
 a word which is a noun can also be a subject. We must associate, at 
 first, the offices as definite places in the diagram, and having once established 
 this idea firmly in the pupil's mind, we are then ready to take up the 
 distinctions of the parts of speech as entirely different matters. The text 
 makes an error of method, in treating the predicate and subject, then inter- 
 polating the parts of speech and finally returning to the complement. 
 
 Omit on pages 7 and 8 the attempt to develop the definition that a 
 sentence is '*a complete expression of thought in words." Pupils may 
 memorize this definition, but they can not understand it so that they will use 
 their periods and capitals correctly. The definition is of no value in itself. 
 The feeling for a sentence can only be developed by composition. A gram- 
 matical knowledge of a sentence can only come after the pupil has learned 
 thoroughly phrases and clauses so that he may distinguish one from the 
 other and has thus become familiar with the various parts which go to make 
 up the parts of a sentence. The definition of a sentence can come only at 
 the end of a course in grammar, not at the beginning. 
 
 Omit the treatment of the different kinds of sentences, exclamatory, 
 interrogative, imperative, and declarative, upon pages 8 and 9. The only 
 use in recognizing these distinctions is for the purpose of the proper 
 punctuation marks. These can best and only be taught by language drills 
 and they have nothing to do with grammar. The mere definitions in them- 
 selves are bits of pedantry which have been kept in the school long enough. 
 The teacher should read the treatment of the subject and predicate upon 
 pages 10, 11, and 12, and in the teaching follow the Course of Study. 
 
 The treatment of interrogative and exclamatory sentences upon pages 12 
 and 13 should be omitted for reasons already given, so far as the names 
 
 (12) 
 
are concerned. The types of sentences themselves will be given later. It is 
 a serious blunder to introduce several varieties of sentences, and especially 
 difficult inversions and omissions which interrogative and imperative 
 sentences present, before one kind is thoroughly learned. Our first purpose 
 . is to become familiar with predicates and subjects — not with varieties of 
 sentences — and this can only be accomplished by thorough drill upon the 
 simplest forms. 
 
 Read pages 25 to 34, but there is little there that can be profitably taught 
 to pupils. It is not wise to introduce at this early stage any nouns except 
 those referring to objects. The classification as concrete and abstract nouns 
 is senseless, . as no grammatical errors arise from confusion of these 
 classifications. 
 
 It is lack of economy of time to attempt to teach pupils to recognize 
 pronouns by definition, and the method of memorizing them is easier and 
 more certain. After they are known it is easy to teach the standard 
 definition if this is desirable. 
 
 Omit the term "substantive," as it is a useless confusion and one which 
 pupils in the grammar schools never grasp. 
 
 The definition that a verb is a word which makes an assertion (page 30) 
 is useless, because pupils can not comprehend it in a practical manner, and 
 therefore do not apply it. It is better to teach first that a verb expresses 
 action (as most of them do), and when we later introduce verbs, such as is, 
 which do not express action, we can add to the definition. 
 
 Omit the treatment of the Grammatical Subject and Predicate, as pupils 
 in this early stage of grammatical knowledge will have more than they can 
 do to comprehend the verb as a single word. The introduction of such 
 distinctions so early simply confuses the mind and spreads a haze over the 
 subject, which prevents the grasp of simple constructions. 
 
 Treatment of the Text, Pages 49 to 93 (Part III). 
 
 The text in these pages is especially impossible from a teaching stand- 
 point. The author has most unfortunately inserted at this juncture a 
 number of confusing exceptions to usual constructions. 
 
 We should and must first thoroughly accustom pupils to common and 
 usual constructions before we undertake by contrast to make occasional 
 exceptions, such as factitive complements and indirect objects, compre- 
 hensible. Similarly, participial and infinitive constructions must not 
 precede a thorough treatment of the conjugation of the verb. The Course 
 of Study will omit factitive complements and indire(3t objects until the 
 end, and will insert them in a chapter devoted to special constructions. 
 Infinitives and participles will not be introduced until the conjugations 
 are learned. 
 
 Upon pages 49 to 50 the distinction between complete and incomplete 
 predication is unnecessary pedantry, and should be omitted. Upon page 51 
 the attribute complement can not be understood by pupils by means of an 
 abstract definition, and their treatment must be deferred until after the 
 conjugation of the verb 6e is learned. The same fact is true of copulative 
 
 (13) 
 
verbs, and the learning of this term is quite unnecessary. Factitive comple- 
 ments, indirect objects, infinitive and participles have already been 
 discussed, and for the reasons stated should be omitted for the present. 
 The remainder of the chapter plunges the pupil into hopelessly abstruse 
 constructions without any reason at this juncture. All should be postponed 
 until pupils can learn the simple and common constructions of the language. 
 
 The teacher should read carefully the pages 33 to 48. The paragraph 
 on Modifiers contains the keynote that a modifier is something which changes 
 the meaning of the word or idea which the modifier modifies. The defini- 
 tions of adjectives and adverbs given should be the objective goals, but they 
 should not be given first. 
 
 Omit on page 37 phrase modifiers, because we should take up prepositions 
 before phrases. Before pupils can recognize prepositions it is difficult for 
 them to understand a prepositional phrase, because we are attempting to 
 explain one unknown by reference to another unknown. After prepositions 
 are recognized it is easy to pass to phrases which contain prepositions, 
 nouns, and possibly adjectives. Take the . treatment of prepositions, but 
 omit for the present conjunctions and interjections. We can not properly 
 take up conjunctions until we reach compound constructions. The exercises 
 of the Course of Study contain no conjunctions until these constructions 
 are reached. Interjections also must be passed for the present, to be 
 introduced toward the close of the course ; they are rare and infrequent in 
 pupils' written composition. 
 
 Omit "Incomplete expressions of thought," upon pages 14, 15, and 16. 
 It is thoughtless upon the part of the authors to introduce these rare 
 varieties of the sentences before the common ones have become familiar. 
 Such a chapter belongs only in an appendix. 
 
 Omit for the same reason pages 17 to 25, covering the topics Subject and 
 Predicate out of Natural Order, Introductory Words, Words in Apposition, 
 and Compound Subject and Predicate. Each of these constructions will 
 be taken up in the Course of Study in its proper and systematic order. 
 
 Exercise 1. 
 
 To teach the predicate. 
 
 Write upon the board the sentence, "Dogs bark." Draw underneath it 
 
 an empty diagram thus : /\ and. write hark in the 
 
 predicate place, saying as you do so, "hark tells what is done. Therefore, 
 hark is the predicate. ' ' The purposes are to associate the word, predicate^ 
 with its specific place in the diagram and to teach this language form. 
 Explain that of the two places in the diagram the second one belongs to 
 the predicate and always is occupied by it: Manage to repeat two or three 
 times the language form, "bark tells what is done. Therefore, bark is the 
 predicate," for before we require the pupils to use it we should make it 
 as familiar as possible to the ear. 
 
 Write the second sentence upon the board, and if the pupils have given 
 interested attention, ask them to tell what word tells what is done, its name 
 and into what space in the diagram it should be placed. Proceed with the 
 
 (14) 
 
I 
 
 other sentences in the same way, using the language form as often as 
 possible. Before the lesson is over write the word predicate upon the 
 board and have the pupils spell it and pronounce it distinctly. This will 
 do very well for the first lesson. 
 
 At the next lesson use the same sentences, but make the aim direct to 
 teach the pupils to use the language form themselves. 
 
 Write a sentence, its diagram underneath, and then the language form. 
 With this before the pupils, lead them to use the same form in succeeding 
 sentences. Send the pupils to the board, dictate sentences and require them 
 to place the predicate in the diagram. Then either have them write the 
 language form or recite it orally. 
 
 Seat work: Write five or more sentences from the exercise upon the board, 
 and require pupils to write each, draw empty diagrams, insert predicate, 
 and write out in full the language form. 
 
 For the third lesson proceed as in the second lesson if the written seat 
 work of the previous lesson shows that the language form is not learned 
 to practical perfection. If all the class, however, clearly know the form, 
 pass to the teaching of the subject. 
 
 1. Dogs bark. 2. Bears growl. 3. Roosters crow. 4. Fish swim. 5. Fire 
 burns. 6. Grass grows. 7. Ships sail. 8, Winds blow. 9. Hens cackle. 
 10. Water boils. 11. Mules kick. 12. Balls bound. 13. Cats scratch. 
 14. Bees sting. 15. Frogs croak. 16. Lions roar. 17. Birds fly. 18. Flow- 
 ers bloom. 19. Snow melts. 20. Horses trot. 21. Dishes break. 22. Rab- 
 bits burrow. 23. Thread breaks. 24. Seeds sprout. 25. Branches bend. 
 26. Waves roll. 27. Gas burns. 28. Elephants trumpet. 29. Mice gnaw. 
 30. Paper tears. 
 
 Exercise lb. 
 
 To teach the subject. 
 
 Write upon the board the sentence, Dogs hark. Draw the diagram and 
 call upon some pupil to give the predicate and recite the language form. 
 Write the predicate in its place and the language form underneath. Below 
 this again write hark, placing what before it and a question mark after it, 
 thus, What hark? Call for volunteers to answer the question. Receiving the 
 answer, Dogs, write it in the subject space of the diagram saying, ^'What 
 hark? Dogs. Therefore, dogs is the subject." Go through the process 
 with one or two other sentences explaining that the subject is found by 
 prefixing what to the predicate and answering the question thus formed. 
 
 Repeat the language form as often as possible in order to familiarize the 
 class with it before calling upon pupils to recite it. 
 
 Seat work: 
 
 A second or third oral lesson will probably be necessary before this 
 language form is learned well enough for assignment as seat work. As soon 
 as possible, however, have the pupils write it. Using the sentences oi 
 Exercise 1, a portion of which should be written upon the board, require 
 this form of written work upon the pupils' papers: 
 
 (1.5) 
 
Dogs bark. Bark tells what is done, therefore hark is the predicate. 
 What bark? Dogs. Therefore, dogs is the subject. 
 
 Dogs /\ hark. 
 
 Do not pass to Exercise 2 until every pupil in the class can give and write 
 these language forms with practical perfection. 
 
 Caution: Be particularly careful in this and in all subsequent sentences 
 that the pupil writes the predicate first, before he writes the subject. Our 
 work is to establish by habit of procedure the way to disentangle the 
 elements of a sentence. These sentences are extremely easy, of course, and 
 the tendency to write the subject first will prevent the forming of the habit. 
 Consequently later, when involved sentences are introduced, mistakes will 
 constantly occur because the pupil will first look for the subject and guess 
 the wrong one. Consequently in the early stages extreme care must be 
 maintained that the pupil proceeds to disentagle the sentence in this order : 
 predicate, subject, complement. If he slurs the early process he will not be 
 acquiring this habit. 
 
 A second important caution to be made is that the teacher must never 
 permit a pupil to state that a given word is the predicate, and then proceed 
 to tell why it is, as "hark is the predicate, because it tells what is done." 
 Bark tells what is done, therefore hark is the predicate. This error of 
 method is responsible for the large share of difficulty in comprehending 
 grammatical relationships. It puts the cart before the horse. The necessary 
 order of thought is first to think what the given word does in the sentence, 
 and when this is discovered we give the proper name. If we permit the 
 error pupils acquire the habit of guessing the name without making any 
 effort to find the function or relationship of the word. It follows that the 
 pupil soon loses all comprehension that these are relationships, and that 
 success is wholly a matter of happy guesses. On the contrary, our whole 
 purpose is to compel his mind to focus itself upon the relationship, and 
 once this is discovered the naming follows as a simple matter of course. 
 Particularly is this error common in the teaching of the parts of speech. 
 
 Teachers ask, "What part of speech is ?" The child does not think, 
 
 but hazards a happy or unhappy guess, and then the teacher asks, ' * Why ? ' ' 
 A mad scramble for possible or impossible reasons follows, which in turn are 
 merely guesses. It would be better if teachers would reverse the order of 
 questioning and ask first what the word does. The naming of the class of 
 words which performs this service of course follows. Consequently through- 
 out this Course of Study the language forms invariably require the pupil 
 first to state the relationship, if there is any, and the name of the office or 
 part of speech follows as a consequence. Insist, therefore, from the 
 beginning in a rigid adherence to the order of the language forms. 
 
 (16) 
 
Exercise 2. 
 
 To find the subject when it refers to persons. 
 
 Proceed in the same manner orally as in the first lesson upon the subject 
 using who instead of what, explaining that when the subject refers to 
 persons the question is formed with who instead of what, and that what 
 refers only to animals and things. A little drill will soon bring to the 
 pupils a sense of the distinction. Give at least one day's drill upon the 
 sentences of Exercise 1, in which what is exclusively used. For seat work 
 use the same sentences that were used orally. 
 
 1. Boys climb. 2. Women sew. 3. Girls sing. 4. Men work. 5. Chil- 
 dren play. 6. Babies cry. 7. Pupils study. 8. Carpenters saw. 
 9. Soldiers fight. 10. Blacksmiths hammer. 
 
 Exercise 3. 
 
 To find the subject — miscellaneous sentences. 
 
 The purpose of Exercise 3 is to drill the pupils in determining whether 
 the question to be asked should contain who or what. It may not be neces- 
 sary to use all of these sentences, but if not pass to Exercise 4 whenever 
 the pupils can readily give and write the language forms. This will furnish 
 ample review for fixing the drill, provided in this exercise they have 
 actually mastered the forms. 
 
 1. Boys whistle. 2. Snakes crawl. 3. Bakers bake. 4. Stars twinkle. 
 5. Wood' burns. 6. Children scream. 7. Wasps sting. 8. Rivers flow. 
 9. Mary sings. 10. Boats upset. 11. Girls dance. 12. Merchants trade. 
 13. Horses neigh. 14. Monkeys climb. 15. Miners dig. 16. Farmers 
 plough. 17. Babies creep. 18. Ants crawl. 19. Swimmers dive. 
 20. Chickens peep. 21. Wolves howl. 22. Oil burns. 23. John rides. 
 24. Mary reads. 25. Lambs bleat. 26. Musicians play. 27. Sailors row. 
 28. Windows rattle. 29. Hunters shoot. 30. Ministers preach. 
 
 Exercise 4. 
 
 To teach the complement when it does not refer to persons. 
 
 When the class is able to analyze with some readiness sentences containing 
 only predicate and subject, we may add the complement, using the sentences 
 of Exercise 4. Write upon the board * ' Cows eat grass. ' ' Have some pupil 
 go through the language form as far as the predicate and subject are con- 
 cerned, placing the words properly in the diagram and extending a space 
 for the complement, thus, /\ | 
 
 Then write underneath the question formed by adding what to the 
 subject and predicate, thus ''Cows eat what?" Call upon some volunteer 
 to answer the question, and then write grass in the diagram, remarking 
 * * Cows eat what ? ' ' Grass. Therefore, grass is the complement. 
 
 Drill orally with these sentences requiring that pupils shall give the 
 complete forms, including those for predicate and subject as well as 
 complement. This complete form, using the sentence, "Cows eat grass," 
 2— o (17) 
 
is as follows: "Eat tells what is done. Therefore, eat is the predicate. 
 What eat ? Cows. Therefore, cows is the subject. Cows eat what ? Grass. 
 Therefore, grass is the complement. ' ' 
 
 Before the first lesson is completed teach the spelling of "complement" 
 (noting that it is not "compliment"), and its distinct pronunciation. 
 
 1. Cows eat grass. 2, Horses draw wagons. 3. Fire burns wood. 4. Cats 
 catch mice. 5. Girls sing songs. 6. Water boils eggs. 7. Dogs eat meat. 
 
 8. Boys play marbles. 9. Children play games. 10. Carpenters saw wood. 
 
 Exercise 5. 
 
 To find the complement when it refers to persons. 
 
 Develop the lesson as in the previous one, but explain that when the 
 complement refers to persons we must use whom, not what. Be especially 
 careful that the pupils use whom, not the ungrammatical form of who as 
 the object of a verb. 
 
 1. Tigers kill men. 2. Dogs frighten babies. 3. Flies annoy people. 
 
 4. Bloodhounds pursue criminals. 5. Jails contain criminals. 6. Trains 
 carry persons. 7. Menageries attract children. 8. Machinery interests 
 boys. * 9. Mothers love children. 10. Schools educate children. 
 
 Exercise 6. 
 
 To teach the language form when the sentence contains no complement. 
 
 This exercise is also a review of all previous language forms, viz., the 
 predicate, subject referring to persons, subject not referring to persons or 
 animals, complements referring to persons, and complements not referring 
 to persons. 
 
 Teach orally by the method previously illustrated, the following form, 
 using the first sentence, "Balloons rise. Rise tells what is done. Therefore, 
 rise is the predicate. What rise? Balloons. Therefore, balloons is the 
 subject. Balloons rise what? There is no answer. Therefore there is no 
 complement. ' ' 
 
 Do not permit pupils at any time, or in any sentence hereafter, to omit 
 asking the question form for the complement although there is no comple- 
 ment. Later in involved sentences, in constructions out of order, in which 
 the complement is a phrase or clause, it will at first glance seem as if there 
 is no complement, but by forming and answering the question, the comple- 
 ment will be found. In the simple sentences of these exercises it is of course 
 very manifest there is no complement, for there are no extra words, but 
 we have purposely selected sentences of this type in order easily to learn 
 the habit of asking the question. Your goal, therefore, is to instill the 
 habit of forming and answering the complement question with every 
 sentence. 
 
 1. Balloons rise. 2. Girls laugh. 3. Cooks bake. 4. Horses eat hay. 
 
 5. Men die. 6. Pupils study grammar. 7. Wood floats. 8. Ice melts. 
 
 9. Sharks capture sailors. 10. Iron sinks. 11. Hens lay eggs. 12. Milk 
 
 (18) 
 
sours. 13. Snakes swallow frogs. 14. Rain falls. 15. Leaves flutter. 
 16. Dogs obey masters. 17. Iron rusts. 18. Wood rots. 19. Trees bear 
 fruit. 20. Doors creak. 
 
 Exercise 7. 
 To introduce the term, office. 
 
 Experience shows that it is necessary to distinguish between the ' ' offices ' * 
 and **the parts of speech." Unless started properly pupils are forever 
 mixing the term, noun, with subject or complement. For this reason we 
 have first taken up the three offices, predicate, subject, and complement, 
 without introducing the distinctions of the parts of speech. As a further 
 preventive of confusion it is well to associate firmly the term, "office," with 
 a visual place in the diagram. 
 
 When the terms, predicate, subject, and complement, have been learned 
 concretely, the teacher should gradually familiarize the pupils with the 
 term * * office, ' ' at first using it herself and finally framing questions requir- 
 ing the pupil to use it. Place a blank diagram upon the board, thus, 
 
 A I 
 
 and require the pupils to point out the place of each office, or pointing to 
 each of these places ask, ' ' What is this office ? ' ' etc. Then have the pupils 
 memorize these offices. See that this term is thoroughly understood before 
 taking up the parts of speech. Use the sentences of Exercise 7 f5r drill in 
 the use of the term ' ' office. ' ' Later, when parts of speech are being learned, 
 pupils must be able to distinguish the questions, for example, in the sentence. 
 Cows eat grass. "What part of speech is cotvs, and what is the office of 
 cows?" It will be necessary to carry forward the review of this distinction 
 between office and parts of speech systematically for several months. At 
 least two lessons should be spent upon oral work to teach the term * * office. ' ' 
 For seat work assign a portion of the sentences and require complete written 
 analysis of each sentence. If the papers do not show that the pupils have 
 practically learned all the forms, do not pass to Exercise 8. If the sentences 
 of the exercise are not sufficient use sentences from previous exercises. 
 
 After the children have analyzed the sentences and are thoroughly familiar 
 with the predicate, subject, and complement in the sentences, the teacher 
 may give a drill by pointing to the word quickly, saying "office." The 
 child replies predicate, subject, complement. If a child hesitates, he is not 
 familiar enough with the analysis of the sentence, which should be sub- 
 stituted for the drill. ♦ 
 
 1. Pupils learn grammar. 2. Puppies play. 3. Grocers sell sugar. 
 4. Water gurgles. 5. Students read books. 6. Clouds 'disappear. 
 7. Thieves'rob people. 8. Grass withers. 9. Banks lend money. 10. Ships 
 carry coal. 11. Cats scratch children. 12. Babies delight grandmothers. 
 13. Bees make honey. 14. Turkeys strut. 15. Detectives catch rascals. 
 16. Volcanoes emit lava. 17, Indians hunt. 18. Camels carry loads. 
 19. Flags wave. 20. Doctors cure invalids. 
 
 (19) 
 
Exercise 8. 
 
 To teach the recognition of verbs and nouns as parts of speech. 
 
 In the following exercises we attempt merely to introduce to the pupils 
 certain very general characteristics of the parts of speech, verbs, nouns, and 
 pronouns. Later, more specific features and differentiations will be intro- 
 duced. The definitions will, therefore, be preliminary, and not true at all 
 times. We wish to make these terms familiar words, and we shall purposely 
 keep out of our exercises all special, complex, or exceptional forms, because 
 we wish to build first a conception which is usually true. The exceptions 
 can, later, be easily taught after the simple and usual conceptions have 
 become familiar. 
 
 Tell the class that you are now going to teach them something entirely 
 new about words ; that all the words in the language are classified into eight 
 parts of speech — verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, 
 conjunctions, and interjections. You will commence with verbs and nouns 
 and you will teach the others later. In all the sentences we have been using 
 there have been only two parts of speech, verbs and nouns, and we are now 
 going back over some of the sentences to pick out the verbs and nouns. 
 
 Write "verb" on the board and have pupils spell and pronounce it. Tell 
 them that it is very easy to recognize the verbs we have had because they 
 all express action ; that in the sentences we have had all the predicates are 
 the verbs', but that later we will have verbs which are not predicates and 
 also verbs which do not express action. From several sentences of Exer- 
 cise 4, already written upon the board, call for the verbs. Teach the pupils 
 
 to use this form: '' expresses action. Therefore, is a verb." 
 
 Assign as written seat work five or more sentences, requiring the pupils to 
 write the language form as many times. 
 
 For the second lesson, briefly review a few sentences, and if the pupils 
 can give the language form for the verbs, begin with nouns. Explain that 
 a noun is a name. In the sentence * ' Cows eat grass, ' ' cows is the name of a 
 certain kind of animal. The word which we speak or write for this kind of 
 an animal is a noun. The real cows are not on the board and are not nouns. 
 It is the name which we give that is the noun. 
 
 Go over this explanation something in this manner with one or two nouns, 
 and then teach the language form "Cows is a name. Therefore, cows is a 
 noun." For seat work give five sentences from Exercise 8 and require the 
 pupils to write out the language forms of both verbs and nouns. Also, as 
 a review of analysis by seat work, give at least one sentence from Exercise 8, 
 requiring the analysis to be written to be followed by a diagram. Take time 
 for this evjen if it is necessary to omit the advanced lesson on nouns. 
 
 In the second lesson review office as in Exercise 7. After pupils have 
 closely fixed in mind that office refers to the diagram place, ask the question 
 of the form "What is the office of cows? (from the sentence Coivs eat grass). 
 What part of speech is cows? What is the office of eat? What is the office 
 of grass? What part of speech is grass?" 
 
 Throughout subsequent work ask these forms of questions two or three 
 
 (20) 
 
times during each recitation, and if there is any disposition to confuse the 
 offices with parts of speech, use the drill with the empty diagram, as shown 
 in Exercise 7. 
 
 1. Idlers whittle wood. 2. "Winter brings rain. 3. California produces 
 oranges. 4. Indians tortured prisoners. 5. Columbus discovered America. 
 6. Italians enjoy music, 7. Beads delight savages. 8. Pictures amuse 
 children. 9. Egyptians preserved mummies. 10. Butterflies flutter. 
 11. Brothers protect sisters, 12. Soldiers rest. 13. Fulton invented steam- 
 boats. 14. Cortez conquered Mexico. 15, James met friends, 16. Wood- 
 cutters chop. 17. Dairymen make butter. 18. Spiders weave. 19. Tailors 
 sew cloth. 
 
 Exercise 9. 
 
 To teach the recognition of pronouns. 
 
 It is useless for pupils to attempt to learn the recognition of pronouns by 
 means of definitions. The popular definition does not mean much, and is 
 only occasionally true ; in the sentence / see you, I and you stand, not for 
 names, but for the external objects, and under our definition are in fact 
 nouns. The simpler and more direct method of learning pronouns is to 
 learn them as individuals and finally to memorize them. There are only 
 about twenty-nine common pronouns, and of these we can use at present only 
 twelve — I, me, we, us, you, he, she, him, her, it, they, and them. We must 
 omit possessives until after we have taken up modifiers; and the relatives, 
 who, which, that, and what, can not be introduced until we take up clauses, 
 for they only occur in dependent clauses. 
 
 Copy on the board Exercise 9a, with the pronouns. Explain to the pupils 
 that these words are called pronouns. Direct them, as seat work, to find 
 the pronouns in the sentences by reference to the list above and to write 
 them in a column as they occur. 
 
 Reviews : 
 
 Write out the analysis of the first three sentences in Exercise 9, which 
 constitute a complete review of all analysis. Write in separate columns the 
 nouns and verbs of the first ten sentences of Exercise 9&. 
 
 For the second lesson use the time for oral work in reviewing ' * office ' ' by 
 means of the diagram. For seat work require pupils to write in their 
 separate columns the nouns, verbs, and pronovins of the last ten sentences 
 of Exercise 9&. 
 
 For the ensuing lesson require each pupil at his seat to write the twelve 
 pronouns, and also to recite them orally. Do not forget to review office. 
 
 Pronouns — I, me, we, us, you, he, him, she, her, it, they, them. 
 
 (a) 1. I saw you, 2. You saw me. 3. He teazes us. 4. They stung 
 him. 5. She saved him. 6. He thanked her. 7, He ate apples. 8. We met 
 them. 9. It surprises me. 10. She told him. 11, He told her. 
 
 (&) 1, I see, 2. He sings songs. 3. Flowers please her. 4. They 
 played tennis. 5, It strengthens them. 6, She learned lessons. 7. Lions 
 
 (21) 
 
frighten me. 8. Monkeys amuse me. 9. We breathe air. 10. You drink 
 water. 11. Dogs chase them. 12. They catch rats. 13. We eat potatoes. 
 14. She prefers ice cream. 15. He laughs. 16. Flies bother us. 17. Stories 
 interest him. 18. I rode. 19. Medicine cured her. 20. Flies trouble them. 
 
 Exercise 10. 
 
 To teach adjectives ; review of pronouns, and the offices. 
 
 This also contains a complete review of pronouns, and all types of subjects 
 and complements and their language forms. 
 
 Write the sentence, "Wild birds fly," and have some volunteer analyze 
 it orally. The class will be unable to tell what to do with wild. Ask what 
 word wild tells about. When you secure the answer dwell upon the fact 
 for a time and make it clear by question and discussion that wild does not 
 tell about fly but about birds; it shows what kind of birds they are which 
 fly. Then ask what part of speech birds is, and upon being told that it is a 
 noun, say that then wild must be an adjective, for any word that tells about 
 a noun is an adjective. Be careful that the pupils do not get the notion 
 that it is an adjective because it tells what kind of bir^s, but simply because 
 it tells about a noun. Make this point perfectly clear. Illustrate with two 
 or three other sentences and lead to the language form, "Wild tells about 
 the noun, birds, therefore, wild is an adjective. ' ' Explain that words which 
 tell about pronouns are also adjectives, but words which tell about a verb or 
 any other part of speech except a noun or pronoun are never adjectives. 
 Explain that for some time their sentences will contain only adjectives 
 telling about nouns, but that later adjectives will be shown which tell about 
 pronouns. 
 
 Do not use the word "modify" for one or two lessons, except incidentally 
 to remark that such and such a word tells about or "modifies" the noun, 
 and therefore is an adjective. In this manner aim to associate the new term 
 with its real meaning. 
 
 Do not use the diagram for the present. In fact, it would be better never 
 to use the diagram as a means to explain parts of speech. It is the abstract 
 relationship of words, one to the other, in their meaning which is our goal, 
 and the diagram tends to distract the attention from this essential goal. 
 The diagram can only be safely introduced after adjective and adverbial 
 relations have been thoroughly learned, and reviewed for several weeks or 
 months. By that time, it is to be hoped, pupils will have acquired the 
 mental habit of looking first for the abstract relationship, and will use the 
 diagram merely as a written form of stating a fact already known. 
 
 Extreme care should be taken in method to make clear that a word is an 
 adjective because it modifies a noun or pronoun, not because it tells what 
 kind, how many, etc. In order to make it clear that an adjective modifies 
 a certain noun, it is well to require the pupils to tell in what way the 
 adjective modifies the noun ; thus, in the sentence, Wild birds fly, wild tells 
 what kind of birds. But for the first few lessons it will be best not to bring 
 forward this idea too strongly, and at all times never let the recitation take 
 
 (22) 
 
such form that there can be any confusion as to the real reason why a word 
 is an adjective, to wit : that it tells about or modifies some noun or pronoun. 
 When this point is clear it makes the relationship clearer by requiring the 
 pupils to explain (i. e. in terms of what hind, how many, pointing out, etc.) 
 just in what way a given adjective modifies the noun or pronoun in question. 
 
 For seat work of the first lesson have pupils write a list of all the nouns, 
 verbs, and pronouns found in the exercise, putting before each the number 
 of the sentence in which it is found. 
 
 For the second lesson lead up to the adjective language form ' ' Wild tells 
 about the noun, birds. Therefore, wild is an adjective." For seat work 
 give as many sentences as there may be time, and require pupils to write 
 out the language form for each word. If the papers are satisfactory pass 
 to the third lesson ; if not, take the time for further drill. 
 
 In the third lesson we must take up the diagramming, not for its own sake 
 but because we must have some handy form for review of analysis. Turn 
 to the State Text, page 32, and familiarize yourself with the system for 
 diagramming adjectives. Work with the class orally at first, then at the 
 board, where mistakes may be easily noted and corrected, until the system 
 of representing simple modifiers can be safely used. 
 
 For seat work require pupils first to write the sentence, then to write the 
 language form for the adjectives in the sentence, and last, to make a dia- 
 grammatic representation. Do not permit them to diagram without first 
 writing the language forms, for this error is lifting the lid to half the 
 diseases of grammar teaching. If diagramming is to be used at all it must 
 be used after all thinking possible has been done. Require that in at least 
 two sentences there shall be written a complete analysis, for we must keep 
 these language forms alive by frequent reviews. Probably two or three 
 lessons of this type can profitably be given at this point before passing to 
 Exercise 11. 
 
 After the diagrams have been learned tell the class you will now teach 
 them a new office, modifier. A modifier in a diagram is any word or group 
 of words which is placed under another word or group of words. Adjectives 
 are one kind of modifier, but later we will have modifiers of verbs, of 
 adjectives, and of other parts of speech. Show upon the diagram what we 
 mean by a modifier. Always drill the meaning with the diagram before the 
 class. Ask for review questions, what the four offices are, and have them 
 memorized — predicate, suoject, complement, and modifier. Constant review 
 is necessary to fix these distinctions. 
 
 (a) 1. Wild birds fly. 2. Young dogs bark. 3. Little babies drink 
 milk. 4. Hot water scalds. 5. Hungry cats catch mice. 6. Little boys 
 chased me. 7. We ate red berries. 8. They caught large fish. 9. Noisy 
 hens cackle. 10. She likes sweet honey. 
 
 (&) 1. Angry dogs growl. 2. Large tigers kill men. 3. I see white 
 clouds. 4. You study easy lessons. 5. He helped them. 6. Gentle cows 
 frighten her. 7. Small boys did it. 8. Green grass grows. 9. Tired men 
 enjoy rest. 10. We have pleasant weather. 11. Brave soldiers captured 
 
 (23) 
 
cities. 12. Barking dogs frighten skittish horses. 13. Little children like 
 candy. 14. Buzzing flies annoy us, 15. He reads interesting books. 
 16. She picked red roses. 17. "We drank fresh milk. 18. Old dogs sleep. 
 19. Trained elephants amuse me. 20. Large trees shade us, 21, They want 
 strong toys. 
 
 Exercise 11. 
 
 To teach the adjectives a, an, and the. 
 
 A, an, and the tell about names by pointing them out, rather than stating 
 color, size, kind, etc. Insist upon the regular language form for adjectives, 
 but after each has been taken, ask after the language form has been given, 
 
 in what way the {an or a) tells about . The answer should be: "It 
 
 points out . ' ' Do not use this question until you are sure the pupils 
 
 will not get the notion that these words are adjectives "because they 
 point out." 
 
 As an oral drill upon this exercise, write a, an, and the upon the board, 
 and ask pupils to tell which sentences contain them. 
 
 Review : 
 
 Give an oral drill upon these sentences and upon the parts of speech. 
 The pupil should be drilled to discover the predicate, subject, and comple- 
 ment, using the language forms, without other direction than to analyze the 
 sentence. This order of procedure should be maintained. But it is not 
 necessary nor desirable that he should also memorize an order of procedure 
 in giving the parts of speech. These matters should be brought out by 
 special questioning. Thus, taking Sentence 4 as a model, the pupil should 
 thus analyze : ' ' Catches tells what is done. Therefore, catches is the predi- 
 cate. What catches? Bird, Therefore, hird is the subject. Bird catches 
 what? Worm. Therefore, worm is the complement." 
 
 This is far enough. It has been an unfortunate custom to require the 
 pupil, without questioning, to take up in order the part of speech of the 
 subject, of the predicate, of the complement, modifiers of the subject, of the 
 predicate, etc. Thie drill necessary to teach this order is enormous, and 
 better results can be reached by leaving the remainder for special question- 
 ing. The teacher may now ask, " What does feirc? do in the sentence ? (Ans. 
 Bird is a name. Therefore, hird is a noun.) Of what is hird the name? 
 (Ans. Of an animal.) What shall you do with an? (Ans. An modifies hird. 
 Therefore, an is an adjective.) In what way does an modify hird? (Ans. It 
 points out hird.) What does eai'ly do? (Ans, Early tells about hird. 
 Therefore, early is an adjective.) In what way does early modify hird? 
 (Ans. Early tells what kind of hird it is)," etc. 
 
 For review of office ask pupils to name the office of each word in the 
 sentence. If there is any hesitancy, diagram the sentence, and have the 
 drill from the words in the diagram, and later from the sentence without 
 diagram. 
 
 The teacher should now use and encourage the use of the word "modify" 
 instead of ' ' tells about. ' ' Gradually introduce the use of it into the 
 
 (24) 
 
language forms, but not until by frequent use, by the teacher, it is entirely 
 familiar. 
 
 Unless the class shows readiness with these forms do not pass to the next 
 exercise until all the sentences have been analyzed. 
 
 Seat work: 
 
 Require analysis of a few sentences. Underline the nouns, verbs, and 
 adjectives in other sentences, with instructions for pupils to write what 
 each of these underlined words does in the sentence. The special questions 
 of the type illustrated should be reserved for oral work, as the labor of 
 writing it on the board is greater than the profit. 
 
 1. The rain fell: 2. The wind chills me. 3. The dog chased him. 4. An 
 early bird catches the worm, 5. They saw a snake. 6. We caught a fish. 
 7. An owl catches mice. 8. A strong horse draws a heavy load. 9. The 
 pretty robin sang a song. 10. A young man stopped the runaway horse. 
 11. She met an old man. 12. It rained. 13. The hot iron burned him. 
 14. The good man helped us. 15. I picked a blue flower. 16. A bright sun 
 cheered her. 17. He ate an apple. 18. The coof water refreshes you. 
 19. An old dog followed them. 
 
 Exercise 12. 
 
 To teach the adjectives this, that, these, and those; reviewing a, an, and the. 
 Develop, by questioning, the realization that these new words modify 
 nouns and consequently are adjectives. By special questioning bring out 
 the fact that they belong to the same class as a, an, and the, inasmuch as 
 they point out. Question especially upon the, an, and a as they occur. Send 
 the class to the board and have a few sentences diagrammed. If they make 
 few mistakes as a consequence, assign, as seat work, the diagramming of as 
 many sentences as possible. Since the oral work above has been given, it is 
 not necessary to require written analysis. Do not forget the review of office 
 as in Exercises 10 and 11. 
 
 1. That little pig ate an apple. 2. These hungry chickens want corn. 
 3. Those wicked men deserve severe punishment. 4. That man killed a 
 bear. 5. This boy learned a useful lesson. 6. That parrot wants a cracker. 
 7. These horses drew a heavy load. 8, I want those pencils. 
 
 Exercise 13. 
 
 To teach the adjectives all, any, many, every, no, some, and terms of numher. 
 In general, these adjectives modify by telling "how many." Require 
 complete oral analysis, and use special questioning for the modifiers. After 
 a pupil has used the regular language form, question him to bring out in 
 what way the adjective modifies the noun. 
 
 Seat work: 
 
 Require that the sentences which have been analyzed orally shall be 
 diagrammed. Also require that pupils shall select and write the list of 
 
 (25) 
 
pronouns which occur in the following list of words : the, me, some, you, a, 
 an, I, any, see, he, seven, them, girl, they, home, she, every, .it, walk, us, ran, 
 we, man, him, made, six, ask, her, no. 
 
 1. The boys played ball. 2. Four girls want that book. 3. Many animals 
 eat meat. 4. Some animals eat no meat. 5. Every child likes this candy. 
 6. All men die. 7. That boy broke those windows. 8. Three small children 
 sang some songs. 9. Any dog appreciates a kindness. 10, Those soldiers 
 raised an old tattered flag. 
 
 „ . Exercise 14. 
 
 Review: 
 
 Exercise 14 offers a general review of all types of adjectives introduced, 
 and also of pronouns and of analysis. Require oral analysis of each sen- 
 tence, with special questioning upon modifiers, and upon what each 
 expresses. Do not forget the review of office. 
 
 Seat work: 
 
 Require written analysis of any sentences with which the class seemed 
 weak in the oral recitation. 
 
 1. Those boys own some pretty, white rabbits. 2. We want these books. 
 3. You know this boy. 4. He ate an apple. 5. Some dogs chased him. 
 6. That boy took them. 7. They ran a race. 8. She called me. 9. Those 
 men thanked us. 10. This hard ball struck him. 11. It melted the ice. 
 12. These noisy children annoy her. 13. I have an orange. 14. Every boy 
 wanted that football. 15. Any person enjoys a good story. 16. This large 
 menagerie contains many wild animals. 17. All cattle eat hay. 18. No one 
 wants those worthless boxes. 19. Six pupils worked these difficult examples. 
 20. No monkey laughs. 
 
 To teach adverbs. 
 
 Since an adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or any other 
 adverb, we must take each construction separately, reviewing in advance 
 the construction already learned. We will commence with the case of 
 adverbs modifying verbs in Exercise 15. 
 
 Write the sentence The tame birds fly wildly, and after pupils have 
 analyzed the sentence as far as wildly, ask what the word is which it 
 modifies. Bring out by questioning that wildly changes the meaning of fly, 
 telling the manner of the flying. It does not modify birds, because the 
 sentence tells us that they were tame birds, not wild ones. Explain that 
 since wildly clearly tells about a verb (fly) it must be an adverb, for 
 adverbs are the parts of speech which modify verbs. Tell the class that 
 adverbs never modify nouns or pronouns, for words which do so, as we 
 have already learned, are adjectives. Illustrate with two or three other 
 sentences and lead up to the language form, "Wildly tells about (or 
 modifies) the verb, fly. Therefore, wildly is an adverb." After this form 
 has been recited ask such questions as, "^In what way does wildly modify 
 the verb?" (Ans. It tells how the birds fly.) Show the class that adverbs 
 are diagrammed exactly as adjectives. 
 
 (26) 
 
Seat work: 
 
 Assign for diagramming a sufficient number of the sentences which have 
 been analyzed. 
 
 1. The tame birds fly wildly. 2. The race horse trotted slowly. 3. The 
 class sing softly. 4. The heavy elephant lifted the child lightly. 5. The 
 express train climbed the hill slowly, 6. The pupils wrote neatly. 7. The 
 lamp burned dimly. 8. The injured man smiled cheerfully. 9. The cross 
 teacher sang sweetly. 10. The lively children played quietly. 
 
 Exercise 16. 
 
 To teach adverbs expressing time. 
 
 Exercise 16 introduces adverbs expressing time, and reviews the type 
 introduced in Exercise 15. Require the same language form. For special 
 questioning, lead pupils to explain that these adverbs * * tell when. ' ' Explain 
 that we have another form of modifier — the adverb. Show, by diagram, 
 that it has the same office as the adjective. For drills, require pupils to 
 give the office of each word in the sentence, using the diagram if at all 
 necessary. 
 
 Seat work: 
 
 Require pupils to make separate columns containing the adverbs, 
 adjectives, verbs, and nouns, placing before each the number of the sentence 
 in which it is found. 
 
 1. The postman came late. 2. California lions oftei^ kill sheep. 3. Raiu 
 soon fell. 4. Buffaloes formerly roamed the prairies. 5. These pupils no\\ 
 study grammar. 6. Fire seldom burns wet wood. 7. The letter never 
 came. 8. Foxes always avoid dogs. 9. This little pig greedily ate the food. 
 10. Then the stage came. 11. The man never returned. 12. Many men 
 die suddenly. 13. The carpenter works honestly. 14, You write well. 
 15. A serious earthquake once visited California. 16. No good child wilfully 
 disobeys parents. 17. She often loses books. 18. The sick man persistently 
 refused any medicine. 19. Six persons easily escaped. 20. The officer soon 
 found the lost child. 21. Richard almost won the race. 22. It happened 
 yesterday. 23. I hear you distinctly. 24. The boy entered quietly. 
 25, They came early. 
 
 Exercise 17. 
 
 To teach adverbs expressing place. ^ 
 
 With the pupils make no distinction as to adverbs of time, place, degree, 
 etc. These distinctions are of no value, as no mistakes grow out of their 
 confusion. But after the language form for the adverb has been given, 
 call upon pupils to tell in what way a given adverb modifies the verb, in 
 order to make the relationship clearer. Use, for seat work, written analysis 
 and questioning upon sentences and constructions in which the pupils have 
 shown weakness during the oral recitation. 
 
 (27) 
 
1. We live here. 2. The army moved forward. 3. They \Y6iit home. 
 
 4. Then they ran out. 5. The cow stood there. 6. We looked up. 7. An 
 old tree stands near. 8. Indians once lived here. 9. The bell rang loudly. 
 10. They then went in. 
 
 Exercise 18. 
 
 Adverbs modifying adjectives. 
 
 Pursue the same method as in previous lessons. The language form is : 
 modifies the adjective . Therefore, is an adverb. 
 
 Give oral drills upon the analysis and constructions of all adverbs, 
 adjectives, nouns, verbs, and pronouns found in the sentences. 
 
 For seat work assign for diagramming sentences or constructions which 
 have given trouble but which have been thoroughl;^ explained. 
 
 Do not forget to review office. 
 
 1. Very careful pupils make no blots. 2. He now suffers very little pain. 
 3. You misspelled too many words. 4. California once had some very large 
 farms. 5. I never read a more interesting book. 6. Quite accurate men 
 sometimes make mistakes. 7. We safely crossed the most dangerous place. 
 8. Too hasty people frequently apologize. 9. She now enjoys much better 
 health. 10. Cats make singularly quick movements. 11. Hawks have 
 remarkably keen eyesight. 
 
 Exercise 19. 
 
 Adverbs modifying adverbs. 
 
 The language form is: modifies the adverb . Therefore, 
 
 is an adverb. 
 
 1. Some hunters very often miss easy shots. 2. The visitor came too 
 early. 3. I play very quietly. 4. This machinery now runs quite easily. 
 
 5. The south wind almost always brings a rain. 6. The soldier escaped 
 quite remarkably. 7. They now visit us quite frequently. 8. A lazy horse 
 very seldom runs away. 9. We heard her quite distinctly. 10. They 
 walked too fast. 
 
 Exercise 20. 
 
 To review adverbs, adjectives, and pronouns. 
 
 For oral recitation, give complete analysis of each sentence, with special 
 questioning upon all parts of speech and upon what each expresses. 
 
 For seat work, require pupils to make separate columns of all the parts 
 of speech. 
 
 1. He once owned a very large grizzly bear. 2. She stood there. 3. They 
 urged us quite persistently. 4. I hardly believe it. 5. He recognized me 
 immediately. 6. The wolves continually drew nearer. 7. They lifted him 
 very gently. 8. This savage dog barked angrily. 9. These olives grew 
 here. 10. That book contains many very interesting stories. ]#1. Those 
 boats require especially strong oars. 12. No man ever escaped death. 
 13. Every star shone brightly. 14. We saw her distinctly. 15. Some 
 schools never have a spring vacation. 16. The poor man accepted any 
 
 (28) 
 
assistance gratefully. 17* The flames burst forth instantly. 18. Few plants 
 endure continual shade. 19. Some lands receive too much rain. 20. All 
 rivers flow downward. 
 
 m •.- Exercise 21. 
 
 The preposition. 
 
 It is useless folly to attempt to teach pupils to recognize prepositions by 
 comprehension of a definition. No one, pupil or teacher, ever actually 
 realized that prepositions "show relation." It is a pretty phrase, but we 
 mean nothing by it. Tlje simplest and shortest method of learning to 
 recognize prepositions is to learn that such words are prepositions as we 
 meet them individually in sentences, and then to memorize them. In 
 conformity with this plan, the exercises introduce the more common prepo- 
 sitions, one by one, in sentences, and by reviews the pupils will quickly 
 learn to remember that such words are prepositions. With few exceptions 
 words used as prepositions, conjunctions, interjections, and pronouns, 
 unlike words used as adverbs, verbs, and nouns, do not change their 
 classification. 
 
 To introduce the prepositions in and at. 
 
 Write upon the board the sentence, The girls in the yard jump rope. Do 
 not ask the pupils to analyze the sentence. They have not yet learned 
 phrases. Merely call their attention to the word in. Tell them it is called 
 a preposition, and teach the spelling of "preposition." Tell them also that 
 the noun yard, which comes after it, is the object of the preposition in. 
 Then ask volunteers to find a preposition in the second sentence. Ask what 
 is the object of the preposition in? Ask the question in this form because 
 we wish to familiarize the pupils with the language form "object of the 
 preposition ." 
 
 Treat sentences in this way until understood, and finally vary your 
 questions, asking, * ' What is the preposition in the sixth sentence ? " " What 
 is 'desk'?" (Expect the answer, "The noun desk is the object of the 
 preposition in.") Drill in this manner by the use of the ensuing exercise 
 
 until you teach the language form " is a preposition, having for its 
 
 object the noun . " 
 
 1. The girls in the yard jump rope. 2. The boy in the blue suit sells 
 papers. 3. The parrot in the cage wants a cracker. 4. The man in the store 
 sells oranges. 5. The cat jumped at the bird in the cage. 6. We bought 
 the candy in the store at the station. 7. The grocer delivered the apples 
 at the house. 8. He sold fruit in boxes. 9. The horse stopped at the 
 barn. 10. The lion in the cage roared at the children. 
 
 Exercise 22. 
 
 To introduce the prepositions into, on, and over. 
 
 Drill especially on the language form of prepositions, but also analyze 
 the sentences and question in review concerning the adverbs and adjectives. 
 Do not use term phrase, but require the pupils to tell the modifiers of the 
 object ^f the proposition. (29) 
 
For seat work, assign the task of picking out*a few prepositions, with 
 their objects, and of writing the language form. If there is time, require 
 the pupils to make two columns. The first should be headed * ' Prepositions, ' ' 
 and the other "Objects of Prepositions." Let them write under these head- 
 ings all the words in the lesson properly belonging under them. 
 
 The adjective the becomes by necessity so often repeated that drill upon 
 it becomes overdone. It is desirable never to question concerning it, and 
 teach pupils the habit of omitting reference to it, as otherwise much recita- 
 tion time is purely wasted. 
 
 1. The swimmer suddenly jumped into the water. 2. We cautiously 
 walked into the gloomy cave. 3. He wants that book on the table. 4. Many 
 frightened passengers on the ship behaved foolishly. 5. The cow jumped 
 over the moon. 6. The boys threw the ball over the fence. 7. The boy fell 
 into the water quite accidentally. 8. A pilot then came to the ship. 9. The 
 army secretly crossed over the river in boats at night. 10, We looked into 
 the shop windows. 
 
 Exercise 23. 
 
 To introduce the prepositions hy, to, and of ; review of previous prepositions 
 and also of pronouns. 
 For the oral recitation, follow the directions for Exercise 22. For seat 
 work, in addition to requirements similar to those for Exercise 22, direct the 
 pupils to make separate columns of pronouns and prepositions selected from 
 the following list of words: 
 
 then, at, you, by, into, too, she, they, to, in, I, quite, some, he, 
 him, over, every, at, on, all, we, us, of, no, any, her, very, me. 
 
 1. An old mill stood by the river. 2. They came by the rough wagon 
 road. 3. This kitten recently came to us. 4. The squirrel climbed to the 
 top of the tree. 5, I called the dog to me, 6. We finally discovered the 
 cause of the delay. 7, The hunter shot at them, 8, He sent the letter to 
 her by a messenger. 9. You told the truth of the unfortunate affair. 
 10. She threw a stone over the fence at the barking dog. 11. It drove him 
 into the barn. 
 
 Exercise 24. 
 
 To introduce the prepositions with, from, and for. 
 
 Proceed as in Exercise 22. 
 
 For seat work, if the language form is now learned, require pupils to 
 make a list of all prepositions found in Exercises 21, 22, 23, and 24, placing 
 the number of the sentence before each. 
 
 The term "prepositional phrase" may be introduced with this lesson, 
 for the pupils should now be familiar with the preposition itself and its 
 object. Teach that a prepositional phrase always begins with a preposition, 
 contains an object, and may also contain modifiers of this object. In the 
 first sentence the following should be the form: ''Came tells what is done. 
 Therefore, came is the predicate. Who came? He. Therefore, he is the 
 subject. He came what? There is no answer. Therefore, there is no 
 
 (30) 
 
complement. With us is a prepositional phrase, introduced by the preposi- 
 tion with, and having for its object the pronoun us." 
 
 1. He came with us. 2. She asked for you. 3. We rode with them into 
 the country. 4. They returned for it. 5. He hastened to her at the cry 
 of danger. 6. I carried him from the burning building. 7. The army 
 escaped from the dangerous ambuscade with very slight loss. 8. They 
 stopped for lunch at the quaint hotel in the village. 9. The messenger 
 brought a letter from the general to the colonel. 
 
 Exercise 25. 
 
 To introduce the prepositions behind, among, through, near, before, after, 
 between, under, toward, up, down, and above. 
 Proceed as in Exercise 24, reviewing use of the term "phrase." 
 For seat work, require in written form two columns, one containing 
 
 prepositions, and the other objects taken from all sentences treated orally. 
 
 1. The pencil lies behind the book. 2. The house stood among the trees. 
 3. The children looked through the telescope. 4. We live near the church. 
 5. The pupils arrived at school before noon. 6. The boys generally play 
 ball after school. 7. A modest violet grew in the garden among the daisies. 
 8. The father built a swing between two trees. 9. The tramp asked for 
 food. 10. Swallows usually build nests under the eaves of houses. 11. The 
 horse ran toward the barn. 12. Jack went up the hill. 13. The boat floated 
 noiselessly down the river. 14. The bird flew above the hunters across the 
 river. 15. The rat ran under the barn. 
 
 Exercise 26. 
 
 To review prepositions hitherto introduced. 
 Drill especially upon the term "prepositional phrase." 
 For seat work, require separate columns of the prepositions and pronouns 
 selected from the following list: 
 
 behind, me, all, too,- near, good, among, I, this, that, before, 
 every, between, then, us, up, we, this, under, any, you, no, 
 ask, down, after, them, above, good, run, toward, sit, they, 
 jump, with, girl, from, her, for, boy, he, man, in, to, and, 
 him, come, on, went, by, she, a, of, it, an, the, over, old, said, 
 into, baby, at. 
 It is not necessary that pupils should be able to recite prepositions from 
 memory, but they should know these words when they see them. 
 Do not forget the review of office. 
 
 1. She lives in that house with the tall chimneys. 2. The boy stood on 
 the burning deck. 3. This little girl sang for us. 4. The teacher sat 
 behind the desk. 5. We found those strawberries among some weeds on 
 the hill. 6. Birds fly through the air. 7. Many pupils easily write well in 
 copybooks. 8. The copybooks of a few pupils show extreme care. 9. Mary 
 played with the other children after supper. 10. They came promptly at 
 the appointed hour. 11. The hives of these bees stand under the apple tree 
 
 (31) 
 
near the barn. 12. The rabbit hopped over the fence into the briar patch. 
 13. John told the exact truth about the matter. 14. He thanked her 
 for it. 15. We sent the present to them by mail. 16. I received the gift 
 from him before Christmas. 17. The dog ran joyously down the road 
 toward me. 18. The steamer paddled up the river. 19. The stars twinkle 
 above us. 20. You fell down stairs. 
 
 Exercise 27. 
 
 This exercise introduces the formula for the construction of the various 
 words in the sentence. 
 
 The formula, which includes two things, part of speech and office, has 
 
 really been given when the pupil has said : The noun is object of the 
 
 preposition . 
 
 Now, we shall call for the construction of any word, expecting as an 
 answer : 
 
 ^ ( noun ) . (subject ) ■ .. 
 
 The { } IS the < , ^ > m the sentence. 
 
 i pronoun ^ i complement ^ 
 
 The verb is the predicate. 
 
 The adjective — modifies the noun . 
 
 The adverb modifies the verb — . 
 
 The adverb modifies the adjective . 
 
 The adverb modifies the adverb . 
 
 Treatment of the Text, Pages 49 to 93 (Part II). 
 
 The text in these pages is especially impossible from a teaching stand- 
 point. The author has most unfortunately inserted, after having taught 
 subject, predicate, and parts of speech, a number of confusing exceptions 
 to usual constructions. We should, and must, first thoroughly accustom 
 . pupils to common and usual constructions before we undertake by contrast 
 to make occasional exceptions, such as factitive complements, indirect 
 objects, etc., comprehensible. Similarly, participial and infinitive construc- 
 tions must not precede a thorough treatment of the conjugation of the verb. 
 The Course of Study will omit factitive complements and indirect objects 
 until the end, and will insert them in a chapter devoted to special 
 constructions. 
 
 Upon pages 49 to 50 the distinction between complete and incomplete 
 predication is unnecessary pedantry and should be omitted. Upon page 51 
 the attribute complement can not be understood by pupils by means of an 
 abstract definition, and its treatment must be deferred until after the 
 conjugation of the verb he is learned. The same fact is true of copulative 
 verbs, and the learning of this term is quite unnecessary. Factitive comple- 
 ments, indirect objects, infinitives, and participles have already been 
 discussed, and for the reasons stated should be omitted for the present. 
 The remainder of the chapter plunges the pupil into hopelessly abstruse 
 constructions without any reason at this juncture. All should be postponed 
 until pupils can learn the simple and common constructions of the language. 
 
 (32) 
 
CHART I. 
 
 CONJUGATION OF THE VLRB-SLL. 
 
 Present Form. 
 see 
 
 PRINCIPAL PART5. 
 
 Past Form. 
 saw 
 
 Indicative Mode — Active Voice. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Past Participle. 
 seen 
 
 Singular Number. 
 First Person. I see. 
 Second Person. You see. 
 Third Person. sees. 
 
 Plural Number. 
 First Person. We see. 
 Second Person. You see. 
 Third Person. see. 
 
 First Person. 
 Second Person. 
 Third Person. 
 
 First Person. 
 Second Person. 
 Third Person. 
 
 First Person. 
 Second Person. 
 Third Person. 
 
 I saw. 
 You saw. 
 saw. 
 
 I shall see. 
 You will see. 
 will see. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 First Person. 
 Second Person. 
 Third Person. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 First Person. 
 Second Person. 
 Third Person. 
 
 I have seen. 
 You have seen. 
 has seen. 
 
 Present Perfect Tense. 
 
 First Person. 
 Second Person. 
 Third Person. 
 
 Past Perfect Tense. 
 First Person. I had seen. First Person. 
 
 Second Person. 
 Third Person. 
 
 First Person. 
 Second Person. 
 Third Person. 
 3— G 
 
 You had seen. 
 had seen. 
 
 Second Person. 
 Third Person. 
 
 Future Perfect Tense. 
 
 I shall have seen. First Person. 
 You will have seen. Second Person. 
 
 will have seen. Third Person. 
 
 (33) 
 
 We saw. 
 You saw. 
 saw. 
 
 We shall see. 
 You will see. 
 will see. 
 
 We have seen. 
 You have seen. 
 have seen. 
 
 We had seen. 
 You had seen. 
 had seen. 
 
 We shall have seen. 
 You will have seen. 
 will have seen. 
 
Exercise 27a. 
 
 To teach the conjugation of a verb — -first step. 
 
 Our first step in teaching verbs is to train the ability to read, pronounce, 
 and spell the new terms used in the conjugation form — conjugation, prin- 
 cipal parts, present, past, indicative, mode, tense, person, perfect, singular, 
 plural, and such others which may prove stumbling blocks. Copy the first 
 chart upon the board, and with the pointer pronounce each, and have the 
 class in concert, and as individuals, pronounce them after you. Read in 
 this way the entire chart and incorporate the words in a spelling lesson. 
 For a written lesson, require the class to copy the chart, either from the 
 appendix or board, or such portion of it as time may permit. 
 
 Caution: In copying the chart upon the board, or in the copies which 
 pupils make, be careful that the exact form is preserved ; do not cut it into 
 two columns or permit any change in the arrangement. One central purpose 
 is to be established in the pupil's mind — a mental picture of the chart, and 
 if there is any change in the arrangement it will lead to confused and foggy 
 images. 
 
 Give every day the cumulative review, and use for a part of the written 
 and oral work a few sentences from Exercise 27 (1 and 2). 
 
 Exercise 27(1). 
 
 1. The wind frequently blows from the south in winter. 2. The whistles 
 blew promptly at noon. 3. The strong wind has blown off the church spire. 
 4. The school bell rang for the dismissal of the pupils. 5. The monitor 
 has rung the bell. 6. I shall ring the bell at the proper time. 7. We shall 
 go with you to the city to-morroAV. 8. The painters had "suddenly fallen 
 from the high building. 9. He fell into the water by accident. 10. The 
 waves broke over the disabled ship. 11. The ripe apples have fallen to the 
 ground. 12. You will fall upon that hard ground. 13. The boy has broken 
 the window with a stone. 14. That boy wrote the composition after school. 
 15. She has written three letters during the day to friends at home. 16. I 
 shall have written all the letters by dinner time. 17. She will tear the 
 dress upon that nail. 18. The dog has broken the chain. 19. The violent 
 gale tore the sail into strips. 20. We went through the tunnel at night. 
 21. He had gone before the arrival of the visitors. 22. Who goes there? 
 23. The monkey does that trick quite often. 24. He did it yesterday. 
 25. We have finally done the work without difficulty. 
 
 Exercise 27(2). 
 
 1. I now see the mistake in the example. 2. You see the snow on the 
 mountains. 3. He sees quite distinctly through the new spectacles. 4. I 
 saw him yesterday. 5. We shall see her to-morrow. 6. She has seen me at 
 school. 7. They had seen us before. 8. The children will have seen the 
 entire procession by noon. 9. John has seen it. 10. They have seen the 
 moon through a telescope. 11. The rats had already eaten into the cheese. 
 12. The old rosebush grew over the wall. 13. We shall eat sandwiches for 
 lunch. 14. The horse has eaten the leaves of the tree. 15. The dog will 
 
 (34) 
 
f ' 
 
 not eat sociablj^ with the cat. 16. That ivy vine has grown from the foot 
 of the wall to the roof of the house. 17. This pretty flower grows by the 
 roadside. 18. The dog ate the meat on a plate. 19. Flowers will not grow 
 in very dry soil. 20. Very hungry wolves have eaten men. 
 
 Exercise 27b. 
 
 To teach the conjugation — second step. 
 
 After the terms used in the conjugation are mastered, we are ready to 
 take the second step. This is to comprehend, in a limited way, what the 
 relation of the parts of the chart are to each other — that there are four 
 principal parts to the verb; that all the forms upon Chart I underneath 
 "Indicative Mode" belong to this mode; that the indicative mode has six 
 tenses; that each tense has two numbers, and each number three persons, 
 etc. As an introduction to the study, the teacher should make the explana- 
 tions from the copy upon the board, getting as much as possible from 
 questioning. Send individual pupils later to the board and require them to 
 point out the principal parts, to count them, name them, to point out the 
 indicative mode (requiring the pointer to pass over the entire mode, not 
 simply the name), to point out individual tenses as called for, and finally 
 any person, number, and tense, etc. The purpose is to fix a clear image 
 of the chart and its various parts. Drill upon this exercise until there is 
 the utmost readiness in finding any part called for. 
 
 For written work, require copying of the chart as in Exercise 27, and 
 be careful to look over the papers in order to weed out any errors of 
 spelling. ^ 
 
 However, do not spend too many lessons upon this exercise. We do not 
 require at this time that the pupils shall reduce the chart to perfect memory, 
 but simply to acquire a readiness in finding the various parts. 
 
 Exercise 27c. 
 
 To teach the conjugation — third step. C""^ ^ 
 
 Our third step is the realization that this chart may be adapted to all 
 verbs provided we know the principal parts. We shall do this by teaching 
 the pupils to construct, the principal part being given, the conjugation of 
 other verbs. The verbs of the first series are similar in conjugation form to 
 that of see; i. e., their past forms and past participles are not identical. 
 
 Erase from the chart upon the board all the forms of see, leaving merely 
 the skeleton. Have the pupils look at the conjugation of see. (If classes 
 are not provided individually with the appendix in separate binding, the 
 teacher, instead of making a skeleton by erasing the forms of see from the 
 board chart, should write a skeleton by the side of it.) If this oral lesson 
 is effective, the class may be assigned, as written work, the task of writing 
 the conjugation of another word, the principal parts being given them, with 
 the conjugation of see before them as a model. 
 
 Several lessons will be necessary and profitable for this exercise, and we 
 must take time for review. Exercise 27(1) furnishes a review of pronouns, 
 
 (35) 
 
adverbs, adjectives, prepositions, and prepositional phrases, A few sen- 
 tences should be given daily to review analysis and the language forms of 
 the parts of speech, even at the cost of advance progress. Exercise 27(2) 
 also contains see in all tenses, and some additional drill with eat and grow. 
 Write the principal parts of another verb from Series 1, for example, eat, 
 in the proper place in the skeleton chart. Then ask the pupils to look at the 
 present tense of the verb see and tell you which of the principal parts is 
 there used. Upon receiving the answer, "the present form," tell them we 
 must use, therefore, the present form of eat in the present tense, and 
 proceed to fill out the vacant spaces, receiving as much help as possible 
 from the class. Note and impress the fact that in the third person singular 
 **s" is added to the present form. Proceed in this manner to fill out the 
 entire skeleton, training the habit in the pupils to determine which of the 
 principal parts is used in a given tense by reference to the conjugation of 
 the verb see. Note and impress as you proceed, the words or letter which 
 we shall call "helpers" — s, shall, will, have, has, had, shall have, and 
 will have. 
 
 Verbs in Series 1 — Principal Parts. 
 
 Present form. 
 
 Past form. 
 
 Past participle. 
 
 eat 
 
 ate 
 
 eaten 
 
 grow 
 
 grew 
 
 grown 
 
 ring 
 
 rang 
 
 rung 
 
 blow 
 
 blew 
 
 blown 
 
 fall 
 
 fell 
 
 fallen 
 
 break 
 
 broke 
 
 broken 
 
 tear 
 
 tore 
 
 torn 
 
 write 
 
 wrote 
 
 written 
 
 go 
 
 went 
 
 gone 
 
 do 
 
 did 
 Exercise 27d. 
 
 done 
 
 After pupils have written conjugations from the model with a fair 
 comprehension of the construction, the various signs or helpers should be 
 thoroughly memorized, so that by then any construction may be instantly 
 recognized. In an oral way first, have the pupils, with the chart before 
 them, point out the helpers of the several tenses. As a written lesson, 
 require them to write these, first giving them in a column all the helpers. 
 The result should be something as follows : 
 
 s, first person, singular, present tense, indicative mode. 
 
 shall, first person, singular and plural, future tense, indicative 
 
 mode. 
 will, second and third persons, singular and plural, future 
 
 tense, indicative mode. 
 has^ third person, singular, present perfect tense, indicative 
 
 mode. 
 
 (36) 
 
have, first and second persons, singular and plural numbers, 
 
 present perfect tense, indicative mode. 
 had, first and second persons, singular and plural numbers, 
 
 past perfect tense, indicative mode. 
 shall have, first person, singular and plural numbers, future perfect 
 
 tense. 
 will have, second and third persons, singular and plural numbers, 
 
 future perfect tense. 
 
 Exercise 27e. 
 
 The complete chart should now be ready for memorizing. If these 
 exercises have been followed, the majority of the pupils will now have a 
 fairly clear visual image of the chart. Extra drill and review will further 
 fix it. There should be constantly recurrent oral recitation of the chart. 
 The following devices of written work may be used : Name the tenses of the 
 indicative mode in their order. In what tense do you find the present 
 form? The past form? The past participle? Name each of the helpers. 
 What entire tense has no helper? Write a skeleton of Chart I. 
 
 Erase the helpers from the skeleton diagram, and require pupils to 
 replace them. Write the helpers (s, shall, will, have, has, had, shall have, 
 and will have) in a column, and out of their regular order. Point to each, 
 asking for the tense. Train for ready, snappy answers. Also, write in 
 columns the helpers, together with the parts of the verb, and in the same 
 way have a quick drill upon the question of tense, e. g., has gone, shall eat, 
 blows, grew, will have seen, had broken, fell, have fallen, has torn, will have, 
 rang, had eaten, ate, will write, have grown, shall have grown, shall have 
 done, etc. 
 
 Do not neglect review of analysis and parts of speech, using Exercise 27 
 (land 2). 
 
 Use the cumulative review questions 1-21. 
 
 Exercise 27f. 
 
 The principal parts of all verbs must be memorized, and we may now, 
 commence with those of Series 1. Either time must be given from the school 
 or the lesson may be assigned as home work. As a written lesson, the class 
 should be required to write these principal parts from memory. Sentences 
 from Exercise 27(2), using forms of see, may be used requiring pupils to 
 tell what person, number, tense, and mode each form represents. 
 
 (37) 
 
CHART II. 
 
 Infinitives. 
 to see. 
 to have seen. 
 
 Participles. 
 Present, seeing. 
 Past. seen. 
 Perfect, having seen. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MODE. 
 
 Singular Number. Plural Number. 
 
 Second Person. (You) See. Second Person. (You) See. 
 
 First Person. 
 Second Person. 
 Third Person. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
 
 (If) I see. 
 (If) you see. 
 (If) see. 
 
 First Person. 
 Second Person. 
 Third Person. 
 
 (If) we see. 
 (If) you see. 
 (If) see. 
 
 POTENTIAL MODE. 
 
 Using may, can, must, might, could, would, or should as helpers. 
 
 First Person. 
 Second Person. 
 Third Person. 
 
 You 
 
 see. 
 — see. 
 see. 
 
 First Person. 
 Second Person. 
 Third Person. 
 
 We - 
 You 
 
 see. 
 
 - see. 
 
 - see. 
 
 Using may have, can have, must have, might have, could have, would 
 
 have, or should have as helpers. 
 
 First Person. I seen. First Person. 
 
 Second Person. You seen. Second Person. 
 
 Third Person. seen. Third Person. 
 
 We - 
 You 
 
 seen, 
 -seen, 
 -seen. 
 
 First Person. 
 Second Person. 
 Third Person. 
 
 First Person. 
 Second Person. 
 Third Person. 
 
 EMPHATIC FORM. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 I do see. 
 You d(^ see. 
 
 does see. 
 
 I did see. 
 You did see. 
 did see. 
 
 First Person. 
 Second Person. 
 Third Person. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 First Person. 
 Second Person. 
 Third Person. 
 (88) 
 
 We do see. 
 You do see. 
 do see. 
 
 We did see. 
 You did see. 
 did see. 
 
Exercise 27g. 
 
 We may take up Chart II as soon as pupils have completed the 
 memorizing stage in learning Chart I. It should be studied in the same 
 steps as in Chart I, though perhaps more rapidly. These steps (see Exer- 
 cises 27a to 21 e) were: (1) to learn the pronunciations and spelling of the 
 new terms ; (2) to understand the relationship of the parts ; (3) to construct 
 similar forms with other verbs, using this conjugation as a model; (4) the 
 memorizing of the chart as a visual image. 
 
 The points with which you will have the greatest difficulty, and which 
 therefore require special drill, are as follows : to remember the forms of the 
 two infinitives and three participles; to distinguish the present infinitive 
 from a prepositional phrase; to recognize that the only difference between 
 the subjunctive mode and the present tense of the indicative mode consists 
 of the omission of the s in the third person of the former. In order to avoid 
 the confusion of the present infinitive with the prepositional phrase, drill on 
 the explanation that in the infinitive to is always followed by a verb, while 
 in a phrase to is followed by a noun or a pronoun. Do not permit the pupils 
 to call the to of the infinitive a preposition, or still worse, the infinitive; 
 teach them that it is the helper or sign. 
 
 Have the helpers of the subjunctive mode memorized at once. 
 
 Exercise 27h. 
 
 Review: For each lesson some device for reviewing Chart I must be 
 employed. Some one of the devices mentioned in Exercise 27e will serve 
 the purpose. Use, as in the following list, by requiring pupils to write the 
 words in a column and after each to write the form which it is, thus : 
 
 broken — past participle of break, 
 ate — past form of eat. 
 
 Use Exercise 27(2) as a drill in ready recognition of the forms of the 
 special verbs of which the principal parts have been given : 
 
 broken blew tore . 
 
 do ' tear » grow 
 
 ate grown wrote 
 
 fallen break ^ gone ^ 
 
 go^ fell^ ring ' 
 
 grew eat' ^ written^ 
 
 blown broke went/^ 
 
 rang '^ done y fall ' 
 
 break write 
 
 rung 
 
 ^ gone v 
 
 Exercise 28. 
 
 This exercise may be used for review of analysis before Exercise 27 is 
 completed, inasmuch as the pupils must not be permitted to drop analysis 
 work altogether while studying the conjugations. 
 
 (39) 
 
1. The horse ate the lump of sugar from the hand of the little girl. 
 2. You have cheerfully done a great kindness, 3. A rosebush grew by the 
 side of the gate. 4. It has grown very rapidly. 5. She had suddenly gone 
 to the city. 6. We went over the hill into a very pretty valley. 7, During 
 the night the wind tore the yacht from the moorings. 8. By that time I 
 shall have written the letter. 9. Those ripe apples have fallen from the 
 tree. 10. He will probably go for the mail at an early hour. 11. The 
 puppy has seriously torn the dress of the little girl. 12. The whistle 
 promptly blew a shrill blast at the moment of the accident. 13. David has 
 rung the bell. 14. A sudden gust of wind blew the sail from the mast. 
 15. A pistol shot rang out sharply in the still night. 16. That rope will 
 surely break under so severe a strain. 17. Some seed fell by the wayside. 
 18. I did it. 19. You have done it. 20. Who goes there? 
 
 Exercise 29. 
 
 The verbs given in this list, together with those given in Exercise 27, 
 comprise those in the use of which errors most commonly occur. Conse- 
 quently, we need to drill upon the forms with thoroughness, especially those 
 most frequently the basis of error : 
 
 begun for began have gave for have given 
 
 have broke for have broken lay for lie 
 
 blowed for blew , laid for lay 
 
 growed for grew have laid for have lain 
 
 knowed for knew * loose for lose 
 
 throwed for threw have rode for have ridden 
 
 drawed for drew run for ran 
 
 dumb for climb set for sit 
 
 come for came have swam for have swum 
 
 drunk for drank have wore for have worn 
 
 Assign five to ten to be memorized for each lesson, either as home work 
 or as seat work. Have the principal parts recited orally, and, if well 
 learned, later have them given in written form. Give considerable driU 
 each day upon forming the conjugation of the principal parts, especially 
 in those parts that show weakness — most likely infinitives and participles; 
 drill especially upon these, and when the pupils seem to recognize them 
 readily, pass to Exercise 30 for sentence work. Give daily drills upon 
 recognition of helpers, putting the signs in a column, and requiring the 
 forms. Exercise 29(2) contains the principal parts in indiscriminate 
 order. It is intended that this should be copied upon the board. The 
 teacher calls upon a pupil, and pointing to the words, rapidly calls for 
 snappy drill. The teacher need not wait until all the verbs are given to 
 use this list, but she should construct a partial list from whatever portions 
 have been taught. Exercise 29(3) contains the infinitives and participles; 
 it should be used by a method similar to that of Exercise 29(2). 
 
 (40) 
 
Exercise 29(1). 
 
 Verbs in Series 2 — Principal Parts. 
 
 Present form. 
 
 Past form. 
 
 Past participle. 
 
 begin 
 
 began 
 
 begun 
 
 break 
 
 broke 
 
 broken 
 
 blow 
 
 blew 
 
 blown 
 
 grow 
 
 grew" 
 
 grown 
 
 know 
 
 knew 
 
 known 
 
 throw 
 
 threw 
 
 thrown 
 
 fly 
 
 flew 
 
 flown 
 
 draw 
 
 drew 
 
 drawn 
 
 climb 
 
 climbed 
 
 climbed 
 
 come 
 
 came 
 
 come 
 
 drink 
 
 drank 
 
 drunk or 
 drank 
 
 give 
 
 gave 
 
 given 
 
 lay 
 
 laid 
 
 laid 
 
 lie 
 
 lay 
 
 lain 
 
 lose 
 
 lost 
 
 lost 
 
 ride 
 
 rode 
 
 ridden 
 
 run 
 
 ran 
 
 run 
 
 set 
 
 set 
 
 set 
 
 sit 
 
 sat 
 
 sat 
 
 swim 
 
 swam or 
 swum 
 
 swum 
 
 wear 
 
 wore 
 
 worn 
 
 
 Exercise 29(2), 
 
 
 lost 
 
 lain 
 
 thrown 
 
 gave 
 
 grew 
 
 blew 
 
 sat 
 
 given 
 
 set 
 
 ridden 
 
 swam 
 
 known 
 
 drank 
 
 laid 
 
 begun 
 
 run 
 
 drunk 
 
 wore 
 
 came 
 
 broke 
 
 grown 
 
 sat 
 
 come 
 
 threw 
 
 drew 
 
 climbed 
 
 knew 
 
 worn 
 
 flew 
 
 blown 
 
 laid 
 
 drawn 
 
 lay 
 
 swum 
 
 began 
 
 broken 
 
 rode 
 
 flown 
 
 
 set 
 
 ran 
 
 
 (41) 
 
to give 
 
 blowing 
 
 worn 
 
 to have laid 
 
 ridden 
 
 knowing 
 
 having sat 
 
 to set 
 
 lost 
 
 to have worn 
 
 to lose 
 
 having swum 
 
 to sit 
 
 having began 
 
 drinking 
 
 Exercise 29(3). 
 
 coming 
 
 begun 
 
 growing 
 
 to lay 
 
 broken 
 
 to have known 
 
 known 
 
 climbing 
 
 to swim 
 
 to have given 
 
 to wear 
 
 having broken 
 
 to begin 
 
 having come 
 
 to ride 
 
 thrown 
 
 flying 
 
 to have grown 
 
 to lie 
 
 having laid 
 
 throwing 
 
 to have come 
 
 having drunk 
 
 to run 
 
 having lain 
 
 drawing 
 
 to have flown 
 
 to break 
 
 drawn 
 
 giving 
 
 Exercise 30. 
 
 This exercise should be begun before Exercise 29 is wholly finished, in 
 order to give review of analysis. For a full lesson, however, simply use the 
 exercise as one from which to discover and name the infinitives and to give 
 drills upon their conjugation forms. 
 
 As a second lesson explain that infinitives are forms of the verb, but 
 that also in sentences they are used as nouns and adjectives. Exercise 30 
 gives only illustrations of an infinitive filling the functions of a noun. 
 Have the sentences analyzed, and if the pupils follow the language forms 
 closely they should discover for themselves the offices which the infinitives 
 hold. Give help only as needed. Insistently make clear that an infinitive 
 always does two things — ^shows action and is used where a noun (name of 
 an action) or modifier (adjective or adverb) can be used. As you come to 
 the constructions teach that the infinitive may have an object. (Sen- 
 tences 6, 7, 8, and 9), or may have a modifier (Sentence 4) which must be 
 an adverb because an infinitive is a verb. 
 
 Difficulty will be met in the confusion of infinitives with prepositional 
 phrases introduced by to. Teach them that in the prepositional phrase the 
 object of to is always a noun or pronoun, while in the infinitive a verb 
 always follows the sign to. Exercise 31 is introduced especially as a drill 
 to explain this confusion until Exercise 32 is reached. 
 
 After the exercise has been analyzed another lesson may be given upon 
 the diagram forms which will be found in the text, pages 60 to 66. 
 
 Language form : To shows action and is used where a can 
 
 be used. Therefore, to is an infinitive. 
 
 1. To swim gives much pleasure. 2. The child asked to come. 3. The 
 horse began to drink, 4. To lie down after hard work gives rest. 5. He 
 wanted to read the book. 6. The man determined to swim the river. 7. We 
 had just begun to see light. 8. The little girl wished to play another game. 
 
 (42) 
 
9. The sailor attempted to save the drowning man. 10. We asked the 
 children to come. 
 
 . ^ . . -..^ Exercise 31. 
 
 The infinihve as a modifier. 
 
 As a first lesson, use the exercise and any succeeding ones as material for 
 drill in recognition of infinitives as modifiers. Thus, in the first sentence, 
 to ring the bell modifies time, telling what time. 
 
 Constantly use Exercise 29 as a review drill upon conjugation forms. 
 
 1. The time to ring the bell had come. 2. The determination to climb 
 the mountain gave new hope to the lost travelers. 3. The child ran to 
 overtake the mother. 4. The fox ran through the water to throw the dogs 
 from the trail. 5. The cows had come down to the stream to drink. 6. The 
 best place to fish lies over the mountain. 7. To throw accurately requires 
 much practice. 8. The visitors have climbed to the top of the mountain 
 to see the sunrise. 9. She wished to sit in the shade. 10. He set a trap 
 to catch mice. 11. Traveling offers many opportunities to increase 
 knowledge. 12. The pupils enjoy singing. 13. The teacher by insisting 
 upon neatness induced the pupils to write legibly. 
 
 Exercise 32. 
 
 The confusion between infinitives and prepositional phrases beginning 
 with to. 
 
 (See explanation in Exercise 30.) 
 
 1. Mary has gone to town to shop. 2. The boys have gone to the river 
 to swim. 3. She calls to the baby to take care. 4. We wanted to go to the 
 park. 5. Bert went to the pantry to eat pie. 6. We planned to go to 
 Chicago this summer. 7. She has gone to the store to buj'^ some candy. 
 8. Kay asked to go to the circus. 
 
 Exercise 33. 
 
 Introduction of participles, and review of infinitives. 
 
 A participle, as an infinitive, is a form of the verb and therefore usually 
 expresses action, but it also performs the functions of either an adjective 
 or a noun. Impress firmly that a participle has always two functions. If 
 it only expressed action, it would be simply a verb; but to this quality is 
 added another, either that of a noun (name) or adjective (modifier of a 
 noun). Exercise 33 offers sentences in which the participle plays the part 
 of a noun exclusively, and fills the office of subject, complement, and object 
 of a preposition. Teach that participles take objects and may have 
 modifiers, adjectives, or adverbs, accordingly as the participle is used as a 
 noun or as a modifier. 
 
 As a full lesson use the sentences merely as drill material for discovering 
 by the form, the participles. At a subsequent lesson proceed to analysis, 
 the recognition of the parts of speech, and the construction. 
 
 (4S) 
 
Language form : shows action and is used where a can be 
 
 used. Therefore, is a participle. 
 
 1. Singing interested the children. 2, Running strengthens the muscles. 
 3. She enjoys riding. 4. To know that lesson will require some memoriz- 
 ing. 5. By running fast John determined to win the race. 6. By climbing 
 the tree the cat escaped from the dog. 7. Cowboys learn to throw the lasso. 
 8. We sometimes injure a man by praising him. 9. We learn to do by 
 doing. 10. Catching a ball sometimes breaks fingers. 
 
 Exercise 34. 
 
 Participles as modifiers, and review of infinitives and participles as nouns. 
 
 The method should be the same as in Exercise 33. Diagramming should 
 be introduced to slight extent, using the forms of the text, pages 62 to 66. 
 Introduce with this lesson the terms "infinitive phrase" and ** participial 
 phrase." Explain that there are three kinds of phrases — prepositional, 
 infinitive, and participial. Each is named from the word which begins it; 
 thus, a prepositional phrase is introduced by a preposition, an infinitive 
 phrase by an infinitive, or a participial phrase by a participle. An infinitive 
 or a participial phrase contains, besides the infinitive or participle, an object 
 (noun or pronoun) with or without a modifier. Make clear at once that a 
 participle or an infinitive in itself does not constitute a phrase. Also, by 
 distinct pronunciation and spelling by the class, avoid the confusion of 
 the words "participial" and "participle." 
 
 In beginning phrases have the children use the following (using the first 
 sentence) : "Having eaten the lamb" is a phrase, introduced by the 
 participle having eaten. Therefore, it is a participial phrase. Having eaten 
 what? Lamb. Therefore, lamh is the object. The points out the word 
 lamh. Therefore, the is an adjective." 
 
 Later drop this form, and have the children say: "Having eaten the 
 lamb" is a participial phrase, introduced by the participle having eaten, 
 having for its object the noun lamb. 
 
 1. The king, sitting upon a high throne, wore a crown sparkling with 
 diamonds. 2. The ojBficer, riding a white horse, gave the signal to advance. 
 3. We saw some cows drinking from the river. 4. He cut the grass growing 
 by the roadside. 5. Drawing the sword, the captain plunged into the thick 
 of battle. 6. They lay do^Ti to sleep, completely worn out by the labor. 
 7. The child, beginning to tire of the toys, now wanted to blow soap 
 bubbles. 8. Having climbed the cliff, we came to a level plain reaching 
 back to the forest. 9. Lost in the woods, the babes had lain down to sleep. 
 
 10. The sick child having drunk the refreshing medicine soon sat up. 
 
 11. Little babies beginning to talk frequently say amusing things. 12. The 
 wind now blowing a perfect gale began to tear away the sails. 
 
 (44) 
 
I 
 
 Exercise 35. 
 
 General review of infinitives and participles. 
 
 Use as many or as few sentences as the class seem to require. 
 
 1. Having eaten the lamb the lion lay down to sleep. 2. The squirrel 
 having torn off the shell climbed the tree to eat the nut in safety. 3. Know- 
 ing the habits of the animal the trapper lay in wait to catch him. 4. Bent 
 with age the man tried to cross the street. 5. He did not care for swimming. 
 6. Giving alms indiscriminately frequently does injury. 7. A workman, 
 helping to build a new house, saw the driver of a large wagon trying to 
 back the horses into the yard. 8. Living in a large city offers many 
 opportunities to see wonderful things. 9. The carrier having distributed 
 the letters went back to the office to obtain another load. 10. To cross a 
 railroad track in front of a moving train invites the losing of life. 
 
 Exercise 36. 
 The imperative and potential modes. 
 
 Before taking up the sentences, the pupils should have reached a state of 
 ready recognition of the forms by means of their signs. The potential 
 signs should have been memorized. As a first lesson use the sentences 
 merely for recognition drill. As a second lesson enter upon analysis. All 
 verbs which belong to the lists given should be suggestions for review drills 
 upon their conjugation ; much of this can be given in written lessons. The 
 exercise also contains infinitives and participles, and each should be made 
 the opportunity for review drills; ask all the participles or infinitives of 
 the given verb, etc. 
 
 1. Drink the medicine. 2, Run into the yard. 3. Come. 4. You may 
 go to see her. 5. I can climb that tree by using a ladder. 6. Eat the bread 
 without complaining. 7. You must come to visit us soon. 8. Having 
 broken the window carelessly you must pay for it. 9. You may wear your 
 new hat to-morrow. 10. She can set the table tastefully. 11. Having begun 
 the work you must now finish it. 12. Go at once to help him. 13. He 
 might lose the opportunity by staying away. 14. By eating candy now 
 you might not have an appetite for dinner. 15. I could easily throw the 
 ball to you. 16. At the signal begin to sing. 17. George would not do 
 anything to hurt the feelings of a playmate. 18. Swimming would give 
 exercise. 19. Write the sentence without looking at the copy. 20. I can 
 hear the singing quite plainly. 21. Set the bowl of milk upon the table 
 without spilling. 22. Going at the present rate, to stop too quickly might 
 kill us. 23. You may go to see him now. 
 
 Exercise 37. 
 
 The emphatic and compound potential forms; and review of infinitives and 
 participles. 
 Treat these sentences as directed in Exercise 36. 
 
 1. I did not tell him to go. 2. I certainly did intend to come promptly. 
 3. I do not wish you to do that again. 4. You could finish the task in 
 
 (45) 
 
time by working rapidly. 5, Urging him at that time would have no 
 effect. 6. He does not wish to do it. 7. He could not possibly have arrived 
 at this time by walking. 8. The thief must have entered the house by 
 climbing through a window. 9. Watering the plants would have saved 
 them from dying. 10. We do hereby grant to you the right to use these 
 grounds. 11. She should have returned the book more promptly. 12. They 
 did really come after all. 13. Sit down. 14. He might at least have askeJ 
 the privilege. 15. They might have put out the fire without raising an 
 alarm. 
 
 Exercise 38. 
 
 The conjugation of the verb he. 
 
 Follow the plan of study for the conjugation of the verb. (See page 34.) 
 Note with the pupils the irregularities that are is the plural form of is, were 
 of was, and that in the subjunctive the third person singular is he. 
 
 Do not teach the verb he exclusively, day in and day out, but keep up 
 the review of analysis and drill upon parts of speech in sentences ; and upon 
 the principal parts of the irregular verbs forming conjugations from them. 
 
 Exercise 39. 
 
 Regular and irregular verhs. 
 
 Turn to the text (pages 190 to 192), and write from it the principal parts 
 of verbs in the list. If the pupils have texts, give them the task of hunting 
 for the verbs and writing the principal parts. Require the principal parts 
 to be memorized, being careful not to designate too many for a single lesson. 
 
 Having now learned the principal parts of the irregular verbs, we may 
 give some attention to the regular verbs. Write the principal parts of 
 climh, learn, await, and wreck upon the board. Explain that there are two 
 kinds of verbs, regular and irregular, that they have learned the principal 
 parts of some of the irregular verbs, but that a large proportion of the 
 verbs we use are regular; that the past tense and the past participle are 
 the same, and are always formed by adding d or ed to the present form. 
 After this explanation is understood, write a few other regular verbs upon 
 the board in the present form, and ask pupils to form the past form and 
 past participle. 
 
 For drills upon the principal parts of regular verbs use climh, learn, 
 await, and wreck. 
 
 After any group of principal parts has been learned, assign as written 
 work the construction of parts of the conjugation of these verbs, thus : 
 Write the present perfect tense of swim. 
 Write the past tense and past perfect of lay and lie. 
 Write the infinitives of huild. 
 Write the emphatic form of do. 
 Etc. 
 
 Arrange it so that a given lesson or two lessons will review aU the given 
 forms of the conjugation. 
 
 Principal parts, advance : learn, find, build, cry, catch, feed, sing. 
 
 Principal parts, review : lay, swim, lose, fight, know, lie, throw, sit, wear, 
 draw. (46) 
 
Exercise 40. 
 
 Irregular verb forms; review of participles and infinitives. 
 
 This exercise contains the verbs of which the principal parts were given 
 in Exercise 39. Therefore, do not take it up until Exercise 39 has been 
 finished. This exercise is also a special review of participles and infinitive 
 forms. To cover all of the ground, the following steps should be covered: 
 
 Step 1. Go over the sentences and have pupils name the infinitives and 
 participles in each sentence, telling what kind of infinitive or participle, 
 and the present form from which it is derived. Make this lesson an oppor- 
 tunity for drill upon the helpers, and require the principal parts of the 
 verbs in review to be given. 
 
 Step 2. Have each of the sentences analyzed, drilling upon all review 
 forms of phrases, prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, nouns, pronouns, offices 
 of object, or attribute complements, etc. 
 
 Step 3. As a written lesson, require pupils to write the principal parts 
 of all the verbs employed either as predicates, infinitives, or participles. 
 
 1. Having learned the lesson, the pupil laid the book upon the table. 
 2. Having found a suitable place near a river, the pioneer built a log house 
 for a home. 3. Having swum the river, the deer climbed the bank on the 
 other side. 4. The babes lost in the woods cried bitterly. 5. Having fought 
 in many battles, the soldier Jsnew no fear. 6. We found the ball lying in 
 the thick grass. 7. Laying the gun upon the ground, the hunter lay down 
 beside it. 8. Having thrown the ball, he caught it again. 9. We found 
 him feeding the chickens. 10. Sitting under the trees the children sang 
 several songs. 11. The child had finally lain down. 12. The road, worn 
 by travel, needs new gravel. 13. The log drawn by oxen broke the gate.. 
 
 Exercise 41. 
 Drill exercise in verb forms. 
 
 Have the pupils write these words in columns, and after each write the 
 mode, tense, participle, or infinitive form it represents. Or, give the exercise 
 as quick oral work. The words should be written on the board in columns, 
 then pointed to quickly, the children reciting one after .the other in turns, 
 or one child may recite any given number, say ten. Interest is added by 
 a child keeping track of the time, the point being to see who can do it 
 correctly in the least time. 
 
 was 
 
 being 
 
 had been 
 
 been 
 
 can be 
 
 are 
 
 be 
 
 may be 
 
 have been 
 
 could be 
 
 might have been 
 
 having been 
 
 is 
 
 were 
 
 am 
 
 must be 
 
 to be 
 
 should have been 
 
 will be 
 
 
 to have been 
 
 might be 
 
 can have been 
 
 
 (47) 
 
Exercise 42. 
 
 The attribute complement; review of conjugation of verh he. 
 
 As Step 1, go through the sentences orally, requiring pupils to tell what 
 tense and mode each form represents. As a second step, introduce the new 
 term "attribute" complement. Tell the pupils that heretofore all the 
 complements they have used have been "object" complements, and that 
 hereafter you wish them to call complements of the kind they have had 
 object complements. Tell them that th^ complement after a predicate 
 formed by any part of the verb be (and a few other verbs which we shall 
 later introduce) is always an attribute complement. Diagram one or two 
 sentences, and show them the distinguishing mark. 
 
 At a second or third lesson, after they have had some experience in 
 analyzing and diagramming attribute complements, explain the difference 
 between an object and attribute complement. Take the two sentences. 
 Tigers eat animals and Tigers are animals. Show that in the case of object 
 complements, the object complement is distinctly different from the subject, 
 while in the case of the attribute complement the subject and the noun 
 complement are identical. Secondly, using sentences in which the attribute 
 complement is- an adjective, show that in the case of object complements 
 they must be either a noun or a pronoun, while attribute complements may 
 be nouns, pronouns, or adjectives. Explain this until pupils can give the 
 distinction back clearly. 
 
 Language form — : answers the question what and modifies the 
 
 subject. Therefore, is an attribute complement, or answers 
 
 the question what and means the same as the subject. Therefore, is 
 
 the attribute complement. 
 
 1. I am happy. 2. He was hungry. 3. We shall be fortunate. 4. They 
 are sad. 5. He will be successful. 6. She was sick. 7. We were happy. 
 8. He is earnest. 9. They were very talkative. 10. You are right. 11. He 
 was cold. 12. We are warm. 13. You were tardy. 14. We have been 
 prompt. 15. The violet is blue. 16. The chickens will have been fed by 
 that time. 17. The soldiers were brave. 18. The bear had already been 
 captured. 19. I am here. 20. The water was cold. 21, The wood has been 
 cut. , 22. The bird is timid. 23. The fruit will be ripe. 24. You must be 
 successful. 25. Be quiet. 26. They might have been too late. 27. The 
 rose is red. 28. The child was cheerful. 29. The load may be too heavy. 
 30. The road has been very muddy for several days. 31. The children 
 being young were happy. 32. The hunters having been successful were 
 happy. 33. The cheese being mouldy was disagreeable to the mice. 34. The 
 flower is beautiful. 35. The day was cloudy. 36. The grapes were sour. 
 37. We are happy. 38. To read interesting books is entertaining. 
 39. Bathing in cold water is healthful. 40. Hunting was necessary to the 
 Indians. 41. To see is to believe. 42. To be right was the ambition of 
 President Lincoln. 43, All of us should try to be worthy of respect. 44. Be 
 good. 45. John has been late in arriving at school. 46. No one should be 
 guilty of telling an untruth. 47. They were present at the opening of 
 
 (48) 
 
school. 48. The boys' will be ready to play the game. 49. Having been 
 unfortunate he had been careless of life. 
 
 To teach gender. Exercise 42b. 
 
 Much time is necessary for review drill upon the conjugations, for, in 
 order to induce a thorough memory of the forms, the reviews must be 
 scattered over a considerable period of time. Much of this review drill 
 may be given in the form of written seat work, provided the pupils know 
 the conjugation forms well. Therefore, before passing to the passive and 
 progressive, we shall introduce the inflections of nouns, pronouns, adverbs, 
 and adjectives, using a part of each day's lesson for review drills. Never 
 sacrifice the review for the advance. 
 
 Turn to Part III, page 94, of the text. We may omit the treatment of 
 proper and common nouns and also subdivision upon capital letters, as the 
 distinction between common and proper nouns is unnecessary in terms of a 
 definition ; the use of capitals is the important thing, and this topic should 
 be treated in the language course (see Language Bulletin No. 1, New Series, 
 pages 3, 11, 21, 41, 43), where the method of instruction is given in detail. 
 
 The text makes too much of gender. Mistakes are rarely inade in gender, 
 but as a matter of common knowledge, quite apart from grammar, it is 
 well to understand the term. If it were true that people commonly made 
 the error of referring to males by she, or to females by he, then the impor- 
 tance assigned by the author to the subject would be justified. On the other 
 hand, as stated, the terms masculine, feminine, and neuter are in common 
 use, and we should give some time to their explanation. 
 
 Write upon the board a list of words, such as: "man," "girl," "house," 
 "rooster," "tree," "boy^" "woman," etc. 
 
 Draw from the pupils by questions that each of these has a sex meaning, 
 and this quality we call gender — masculine refers to males, feminine to 
 females, and neuter to words which stand for objects without sex. After 
 the distinction is understood, assign as a written lesson the terms on page 98 
 of the text (also the exercise), with which should be mixed a few neuter 
 nouns; require the pupils to classify the terms under the three genders. 
 As a second lesson, using the same list, draw from the pupils the fact that 
 ess is used most commonly as a sign of the feminine gender. 
 
 Omit the discussion upon the value of gender upon pages 98 to IQl, for 
 the reason as stated, that mistakes are not commonly made, and the exercises 
 are consequently unprofitable. For the same reason omit the treatment of 
 person, pages 101 to 103. Nouns really have no person. No errors are 
 possible in nouns, for they are not inflected. to show any distinction. Pro- 
 nouns alone are inflected to show person. 
 
 Omit the subdivision upon inflection. 
 
 4— G (49) 
 
Exercise 43. 
 
 Drill in conjugation of irregular verbs. 
 
 Follow the directions for Exercise 39. 
 
 Principal parts, advance : tell, show, drive, buy, chose. 
 
 Principal parts, review: catch, break, set, swim, eat, write, grow, go, do, 
 fall. 
 
 Exercise 44. 
 
 To teach gender; review of infinitives, participles, and conjugation. 
 
 After using the sentences in this exercise according to the directions in 
 Step 1, Exercise 40, insert a lesson requiring the pupils to go through the 
 sentences, picking out the nouns which show gender by their form. If the 
 feminine form is given, ask for the masculine form, and vice v6rsa. 
 
 Otherwise, follow the outline given in Exercise 40. 
 
 1. The lioness, caught in the trap, broke the bars of the cage. 2. The 
 heroine of the adventure must be very modest in telling about the bravery 
 shown by her. 3. The bridegroom has bought a handsome watch for the 
 bride. 4. To be a rich man should not be the only ambition of a young boy 
 choosing an occupation. 5. The drake having swum across the pond caught 
 some young frogs sitting upon a log. 6. To choose an heir to the fortune 
 from so many nephews had been no easy task for the old bachelor. 7. The 
 nieces having eaten lunch, wrote long letters to the aunt at home. 8. The 
 wife having grown weary of waiting for the husband, went home by train. 
 9. The sister of the sick man has done noble service. 10. The hen had fallen 
 from the perch. 
 
 Exercise 44(1). 
 
 To teach number. 
 
 "With the subject of number our text becomes profitable, for a large 
 percentage of language errors occur in the spelling of plural forms. But 
 do not follow the implied method of the text — to learn the rule first. Write 
 singular and plural of the words under each rule in parallel columns, and 
 draw from the pupils the manner in which the plurals are formed. Nor 
 is it necessary to drill upon the rules very much, as they would require 
 more time to reduce them to memory than can be profitably devoted to such 
 work. The important thing is, that the pupils should become unconsciously 
 familiar with the ways in which specific nouns do form their plurals — 
 "knife, knives; wife, wives; calf, calves," etc. After all is said, the learn- 
 ing of the plurals is reduced to a spelling lesson of certain definite words. 
 
 All the words upon pages 104 to 107 of the State Text should receive 
 thorough drill. But do not do unnecessary work. Perhaps the pupils may 
 already know the lesson. First, test them by giving a spelling lesson from 
 dictation, pronouncing or writing upon the board the singular form and 
 requiring the pupils to write the plural form. Let any errors be the 
 suggestion for thorough spelling drills. Use the terms singular and plural, 
 and lead the pupils to use them. 
 
 (50) 
 
The special rules for number (Subdivision 65, pages 107 to 110) should 
 receive thorough drill with the exception of V. 
 
 Subdivision 66 is important, though it is not necessary to have the words 
 memorized. The fact that there are such words, and a lesson upon them, 
 is sufficient, as errors are practically never made in their use. 
 
 Exercise 44(2). 
 
 A clear understanding of collective nouns (pages 111 to 113) is very 
 necessary, as there is much confusion regarding verb agreement with them 
 as subjects. At present we are not concerned with the syntactical question 
 of verb agreement, and we need not enter upon it. We wish the pupils 
 merely to understand that a collective noun represents a collection of objects 
 of one kind, and that it is singular or plural according to the idea in our 
 minds. When we say, ' * The class is studying grammar, ' ' we mean that the 
 class, just as a single body, is studying. In such a case class would be 
 singular. Yet we could think of the class as a number of separate persons, 
 and in this case "class" would be plural. Make explanations regarding 
 some of the words upon page 111, and then draw from the pupils similar 
 explanations until it is clear that the point is comprehended. 
 
 Exercise 45. 
 
 Drill in the conjugation of irregular verbs. 
 Follow the directions for Exercise 39. 
 
 Principal parts, advance : sell, fly, build, bring, cut, forsake, wear. 
 Principal parts, review: swim, drive, find, tear, grow, make. 
 Regular verbs: Plant, amuse, pursue, float, try. 
 
 Exercise 46. 
 
 To teach certain difficult plurals. 
 
 Follow the directions for Exercise 40, inserting after Step 1 a drill in 
 forming the singular forms of the plurals given, and the plurals of singular 
 forms discovered in each sentence. As a written lesson, pupils may be 
 required to do the same in written form. 
 
 1. The children have been in the garden planting seeds. 2. The butcher 
 has bought four beeves to sell to customers. 3. The kind fairies having 
 flown to the meadow built some beautiful air castle to amuse the children. 
 4. The negroes brought knives to cut the watermelons into halves. 5. The 
 herdsmen, hoping to find pasture, have driven the oxen over the hill into 
 the next valley. 6. The shepherds have found two young sheep forsaken 
 by unnatural mothers. 7. Three deer swam across the river to escape the 
 dogs pursuing them, 8. Torn by the bullets the old flag still floated in the 
 breeze. 9. The baby has worn holes in the shoes. 10. In the valleys of 
 California the farmers grow many kinds of fruit. 11, In writing the com- 
 position, try to make the I's with smaller loops, 
 
 (51) 
 
Exercise 47. 
 
 Drill in the conjugation of irregular verbs. 
 Follow directions for Exercise 39. 
 
 Principal parts, advance : dig, sleep, have, freeze, hang, drink, put, keep. 
 Regular verb: serve. 
 
 . . , -7 7, Exercise 48. 
 
 A special review of plurals. 
 
 Follow the directions for Exercise 40. 
 
 1. The feet of Chinese women are very small. 2. The mice, having dug 
 a hole into the cellar, ate the cheese. 3. Having found a good place to 
 sleep, the hunters cut small branches to serve for beds. 4. Birds have no 
 teeth. 5. Fighting duels was once common in France. 6. This country 
 should have more heroes of good citizenship. 7, The icicles frozen to the 
 eaves of the houses hung downward, making a beautiful spectacle. 8. The 
 deer driven from the mountains by the wolves have had little to eat during 
 this winter. 9. Drink three spoonfuls of this medicine before going to 
 bed. 10. The farmers in cold countries put potatoes into cellars during 
 the winter to keep them from freezing. 
 
 Exercise 49. 
 
 Drill in the conjugation of irregular verhs. 
 
 Follow the directions for Exercise 39. 
 
 Principal parts, advance: hold, hit, hurt, hear, leave, lend, let, make, 
 meet, pay, rise, say. 
 
 Regular verbs: post, pull, learn. 
 
 Exercise 50. 
 
 To review collective nouns, infinitives, and participles. 
 
 As a step to be inserted after Step 1, go through the sentences, asking 
 pupils to pick out the collective nouns and to tell why each is a collective 
 noun. Otherwise, follow the plan for Exercise 40. 
 
 1. The company of soldiers must keep sentinels posted to warn them of 
 danger. 2. The class, having held a meeting, hit upon the idea of a Satur- 
 day picnic. 3. To have teeth pulled hurts. 4. Children in school should 
 learn to be good citizens. 5. The tribe of Indians having found no game in 
 the valley, had left the place in disgust. 6. Pie should not have lent the 
 horse to strangers, 7. Let me see it. 8. The choir can make an appoint- 
 ment to meet me for rehearsal. 9. The audience had paid an admission fee 
 of one dollar to hear the celebrated lecturer. 10. The soldiers having fixed 
 bayonets drove the crowd beyond the lines. 11. The flock of wild geese 
 feeding in the marshes suddenly rose into the air at the report of the gun. 
 
 12. He had had an opportunity to say this in the political convention. 
 
 13. The group of children digging in the sand may have left these shovels 
 here. 
 
 (52) 
 
Exercise 51. 
 
 Drill in the conjugation of irregular verbs. 
 Follow directions for Exercise 39. 
 
 Principal parts, advance : sell, send, shine, shake, forbid, stand, sink. 
 Regular verbs : blind and brush. 
 
 Treatment of case, and parsing. 
 
 Regarding the treatment of case of nouns, we may omit all except the 
 possessive case, which is extremely important, as it is the source of the most 
 frequent errors in written composition. It is absurd to force a distinction 
 between the nominative and objective case, for the distinction is a purely 
 imaginary one, and error is impossible. It is one of the amusing stupidities 
 of English grammarians that because Latin nouns have case, they have 
 forced into English grammar, already complex enough, a distinction wholly 
 unnecessary, and at the same time very confusing. Our pronouns change 
 their form to express the nominative and objective cases, and we shall 
 there be obliged to deal with them. We may, therefore, omit entirely the 
 pages from 111 to 121, with parsing, a piece of antique pedantry which 
 has crept unfortunately into our text. The object of parsing is to furnish 
 drill upon the inflected forms, but to give it in the presented form requires 
 the pupil also to memorize the order of points named. Thus, our text 
 requires the order of class, gender, person, number, case, and syntax. The 
 order is useless, except as a prevention against omission. Yet the chief 
 effort of the drill is upon remembering this order. Besides, the person and 
 case (except the possessive) are useless distinctions, and the question of 
 gender is only important in the case of a very few nouns. In order to get 
 the most out of drill, we must have the attention focused upon the essential 
 point, and one only, or its force will be lost. We need to know the class, 
 number, and use of words; therefore, let us ask for these, one at a time, so 
 that the pupils' attention will be centered. Words peculiar as to gender 
 or number should be used as material for drill upon these peculiarities, 
 provided they are important, but each peculiarity should be the subject of 
 a special question, both for reasons of securing attention and of economy 
 of time. Thus, in the sentence, The herd of cattle frightened the countess, 
 the matter of the person or gender of herd is useless and nonsensical, but 
 it is a collective noun, and a special question to bring out its number is 
 useful as a drill upon recognition of collective nouns. Countess offers a 
 review drill upon the fact that this is a special word form to express gender, 
 and a question upon its gender is useful as a drill. It is useless to ask its 
 number or person, however. 
 
 Exercise 52. 
 
 Possessive nouns. 
 
 As written work have the pupils pick out and write in a column, first the 
 noun, the possessive of which is used, then the singular possessive, and in 
 the third column the possessive plural. 
 
 In other matters follow the directions of Exercise 40. 
 
 (53) 
 
For oral work the language form to be followed is as follows (using the 
 first sentence) : 
 
 ** Boy's," is a noun showing possession of hat. Therefore, ''boy's" is 
 in the possessive case. 
 
 1. The boy's hat must be in the yard. 2. The farmer has sold the cow's 
 calf. 3. The teacher could send some one to hang the children's cloaks 
 upon the pegs. 4. The sun's rays shone fiercely upon the hot desert, 
 blinding the traveler's eyes. 5. Having shaken the bottle the mischievous 
 boy threw away two teaspoonfuls of the baby's medicine. 6. He ought to 
 have learned the lesson from somebody else's book. 7. The Country Club's 
 rules forbade shooting deer during certain months of the year. 8. The 
 soldiers' guns stood in the rack. 9. Despite the captain's efforts the ship 
 sank. 10. The young birds hearing their mother's call flew to her. 
 11. Have the children 's clothes brushed. 
 
 Exercise 53. 
 
 Drill in the conjugation of irregular verbs. 
 
 Follow directions for Exercise 39. 
 
 Principal parts, advance: sleep, slide, speak, hear, ought, spring, sow, 
 spend, stand, swear, steal, stick, weep, win, teach, tell, take, think. 
 
 Regular verbs: loosen, crush, fix, hope. 
 
 Possessives. Exercise 54. 
 
 This lesson is a continuation of Exercise 52; follow the directions for 
 that exercise. 
 
 1. The mother, worn by two weeks' nursing of the sick child, now slept 
 soundly. 2. Huge rocks, loosened by the continuous rains, have slid down 
 the mountain, crushing the miners' cabins. 3. He ought to have had two 
 years' experience. 4. We spoke loudly to hear the echoes. 5. According 
 to the legend, men sprang from the dragon's teeth sown by Cadmon. 
 6. Good fairies have spent much time in undoing wicked fairies' mis- 
 chief. 7. The Indians' wretched captives now stood before the tribe's 
 chief. 8. The detectives found the thieves' plunder hidden in the women's 
 trunks. 9. The mice ought to have been more careful in stealing the cat's 
 food. 10. The witness has sworn to the statement, positively fixing the 
 suspect's identity. 11. The Indian's arrow, hitting the roof, stuck harm- 
 lessly into the wood. 12. By weeping the prisoner hopes to win the judge's 
 mercy. 13. The hero's motto, taught him at a mother's knee, had ever 
 been to tell the truth. 14. The general had thought to take the enemy's 
 fort. 15. The man's friends ought to have known better. 
 
 Exercise 55. 
 
 Drill in the conjugation of verbs: 
 Follow directions for Exercise 39. 
 
 Principal parts, advance : bear, beat, beseech, dwell, feel. 
 Principal parts, review : sing, let, go, give, put, see. 
 Eegular verb : yield. (54 j 
 
THE DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 The only parts of the text chapter upon pronouns which we may profitably 
 use are the declensions (pages 128 to 129), the list of compound pronouns 
 (page 129), the list of relative pronouns (who, which, that, what, and their 
 compounds). These portions should be thoroughly learned. 
 
 The declension should be so memorized that the place upon the page 
 where any word occurs may be instantly called into a mental picture. The 
 case terms, nominative, objective, and possessive, should be spelled, and 
 clearly pronounced by the class. The features with which we are chiefly 
 concerned are number and case, for upon these, errors most frequently 
 occur. After pupils have memorized the declensions as a whole, drill in 
 promiscuous order upon the board, and upon instant recognition of the 
 number and case of each word, until the goal is reached. Do not ask for 
 the case and number at the same time. With the pointer go through the 
 list calling only for number, then for case. To hold both requirements in 
 mind at the same time is unnecessary and confusing. 
 
 The name of the relative pronouns and the declension of who should be 
 similarly memorized. 
 
 It is not necessary to have the compound pronouns memorized, but simply 
 read over for recognition. Teach, however, that the forms "hisself" and 
 "theirselves" are incorrect. In the same way have the class read over the 
 list of adjective pronouns, but do not require them to be memorized, nor to 
 use the term, adjective pronouns. Simply call them pronouns. It is 
 unnecessary to teach the classification of pronouns as personal, interrogative, 
 and adjective. No mistakes occur which may be corrected by these classi- 
 fications, and their existence in the text is simply one of the unnecessary 
 pedantries which makes grammar complex and difficult, without adding to 
 its usefulness. The misuses of pronouns will be taken up later; as for the 
 present, we must concentrate our attention upon the mastery of forms ; until 
 these become thoroughly recognizable, it is useless to attempt correction 
 of errors. 
 
 (55) 
 
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 (56) 
 
Exercise 56. 
 Drill upon possessive pronouns; review of irregular verbs. 
 
 In the first sentence draw from the class that his shows possession of 
 burden. The language form to be used is '^His is a pronoun. His shows 
 possession of burden. Therefore, his is in the possessive case." 
 
 1. Each has borne his own burden. 2. To sing had been her delight. 
 3. Our boys have beaten in the race, winning the prize. 4. The captive 
 besought his captors to let him go. 5. They have dwelt upon their own 
 land. 6. Give me your promise. 7. I feel myself yielding. 8. My wish 
 is for you to put the little bird back into its nest. 9. Whose hat is this? 
 10. Whom did you see ? 
 
 Exercise 57. 
 
 Case of pronouns used as subjects and attributes. 
 
 Explain that whenever a pronoun is used as the subject of a sentence it 
 must be in the nominative case ; also that a pronoun, as an attribute comple- 
 ment, is in the nominative case. Proceed with the sentences as follows : 
 
 Step 1. Go through the sentences, orally, requiring the pupils to pick out 
 and name the pronouns, stating the case of each. 
 
 Step 2. Analyze the sentences, orally, asking for the principal parts of 
 all verbs, and a few portions of the conjugation. 
 
 Step 3. Give the case of the pronouns, using the following language form : 
 "iTe is a pronoun used as the subject. Therefore, He is in the nominative 
 case; or (Sentence 7) He is a pronoun, used as the attribute complement. 
 Therefore, he is in the nominative case." 
 
 Step 4. State the tense and mode of each verb form, and name the prin- 
 cipal parts. 
 
 1. He has fled to seek shelter. 2. Wearied by the long tramp, they now 
 flung themselves upon the ground to sleep. 3. Get the ball. 4. We have 
 never before heard such sweet singing. 5. I have ground the knife upon 
 the grindstone. 6. She knelt before his grave in prayer. 7. It is he. 8. It 
 was she. 9. He hit his mark. 10. It is I. 11. Who let my cat into the 
 house ? 
 
 To teach voice. ' Exercise 58. 
 
 We are now ready to complete the conjugation of verbs by a study of 
 the passive and progressive voices. Do not begin this study unless the 
 conjugation of the verb be and the recognition of the past and present 
 participles has become thoroughly reflex. If the point is reached the matter 
 will be extremely easy. If not, the result will be a hopeless confusion. 
 
 Treat the construction of passive and progressive voices in one lesson, 
 as the contrast will help rather than interfere. Write upon the board the 
 complete conjugation o£ the verb be. Then explain that you will now 
 construct the "progressive" voice (having the word spelled and pro- 
 nounced). Do so by simply writing the present participle of the verb see 
 after each form throughout. After the pupils have been questioned as to 
 
 (57) 
 
the name "progressive" and how it has been formed, erase the present 
 participles and explaining that you will now construct the "passive" voice, 
 write the past participle in the same way. Question as before. Then erase 
 the past participles, leaving the verb he, and question the class upon how 
 the progressive and passive voices were formed, aiming to associate ' * present 
 participle" with "progressive voice" and "past participle" with "passive 
 voice." Next write upon the board in columns the principal parts of 
 choose, catch, send, strike. By questioning, obtain directions as to how each 
 voice shall be formed, and permit pupils to construct them by writing 
 present or past participles, as the case may be, after the forms of the verb he. 
 In later written lessons, require certain portions of the passive or 
 progressive voices to be constructed, placing upon the board the principal 
 parts of the verbs to be used. Train the pupils first to write the conjugation 
 of the verb he in the given tense or other form, and later to write the 
 participle which forms the given voice. For oral drill repeatedly ask the 
 questions, "What participle do we use in forming the progressive voice?" 
 "What participles in forming the passive voice?" Pupils unless early 
 trained in the clear pronunciation and spelling of "passive," will confuse 
 the word with "past." Teachers should be careful to select for the con- 
 struction of passive voices only those verbs which permit such formation. 
 Verbs which do not take objects (intransitive verbs) do not usually form 
 passives ; for example, the verbs walk and weep can not be used as passives. 
 But a number of transitive verbs, such as huy, giving the form, "I am 
 bought," are ridiculous and should be avoided. The following verbs will, 
 however, serve as drill material : scratch, choose, forsake, forbid, teach, bite, 
 elect, awaken, call, burn, know, frighten, injure, rejoice, delight, comfort, 
 entertain. 
 
 Drill upon conjugations. 
 
 Principal parts, advance : seek, fling, get, grind, kneel, let. 
 Principal parts, review : sleep, have, hear, let. 
 Regular verb : weary. 
 
 Exercise 59. 
 
 Pronouns used as ohjects. 
 
 Follow the directions of Exercise 57. The language form for the 
 pronouns in the objective case should be (using Sentence 1) : "Her is a 
 pronoun used as the object of the verb, have seen. Therefore, her is in the 
 objective case." 
 
 1. We have seen her in the city. 2. They have sent him to find the 
 North Pole. 3. She knew them by sight. 4. Their ball might hit us. 5. It 
 might be he. 6. Do not forsake me. 7. That can not be she. 8. Where 
 may I find you? 9. Whom of his family do you know? 10. He laid it 
 upon her desk. 11. She has sought them in every place. 12. Having caught 
 the dog, they shut him in his kennel. 13. The bees will sting us. 14. You 
 are it. 15. Cutting a large slice of bread, she spread a thick layer of 
 jelly over it. 
 
 (58) 
 
T^ -7 7 -J.- Exercise 60. 
 
 Dnll upon conjugations. 
 
 Follow the directions for Exercise 39. 
 Principal parts, advance: shoe, forget, slay, wring, wind. 
 Principal parts, review : run, know, try, find, send, sit, build, see, ought, 
 sing. 
 
 Regular verbs: frighten, call, await, hope, wish. 
 
 ^ . 7 . .. Exercise 61. 
 
 Pronouns m objective case. 
 
 Follow the directions of Exercise 57. The language form for objective 
 
 pronouns used is: " is the object of (preposition, infinitive, or 
 
 participle) . Therefore, is in the objective case." 
 
 1. He swung the rope around her head merely to frighten her. 2. The 
 blacksmith skillfully shod the horse for him. 3. Calling to him the child 
 ran after him. 4. Knowing him so well, they can not have forgotten him 
 by this time. 5. They tried to find her. 6. Having sent him upon an 
 errand, she sat down to await his return. 7. He has built a house for 
 them, hoping to keep them near him. 8. We wished to see you yesterday. 
 9. They ought to have heard us calling. 10. David slew a lion. 11. She 
 wrung her hands in misery. 12. That is he singing to' himself. 13. The 
 road wound around the mountain on the other side from us. 
 
 Drill upon conjugations. iJixercise oz. 
 
 Follow directions for Exercise 39. 
 Principal parts, advance: spend, deal, forbid. 
 
 Principal parts, review: find, teach, put, think, cut, sell, send, throw, 
 build, catch, begin. 
 
 „ . 7 7 77 Exercise 63. 
 
 Review and drill upon voice. 
 
 Step 1. Have the pupils pick out the verbs in the passive and progressive 
 voices, naming the tense and explaining how each is constructed. Use the 
 following device frequently: Ask the pupil to change a given verb, which 
 occurs in the lesson, to voice other than which appears, keeping the same 
 tense. Thus, using Sentence 1, ask that was thrown be changed to the 
 active (threw) ; then to the progressive was throwing. Be careful, in asking 
 for the passive, that the verb has a passive. 
 
 Step 2. Analyze the sentences, and give special attention to the pronouns. 
 
 1. The rope was thrown to him. 2. Some difficulty had been found in 
 teaching them. 3. The bear has been put into a cage to keep her. 4. I 
 have been thinking of sending her to spend the winter with them. 5. We 
 were having a good time building little boats to sail in the bathtub. 6. The 
 thieves were caught stealing his bicycle. 7. We might now be beginning 
 to learn German. 8. The pie was cut into four pieces. 9. The horse will be 
 sold to him at a low figure. 10. We have been forbidden to go into the 
 street to play. 
 
 (50) 
 
r. J! J- ^- Exercise 64. 
 
 Degree of adjectives. 
 
 Write the sentence, ''John is tall, Frank is taller than John; but James 
 
 is tallest of the three. ' ' Draw from the class that there are here expressed 
 
 three degrees of height — tall, taller, and tallest. Illustrate with a few other 
 
 adjectives, hard, swift, strange, cheap, that the degrees are expressed by 
 
 er and est. Then write in column the comparison as follows : 
 
 Positive degree. Comparative degree. Superlative degree. 
 
 tall taller tallest 
 
 hard harder hardest 
 
 swift swifter swiftest 
 
 strange stranger strangest 
 
 cheap cheaper cheapest 
 
 Have the words positive, comparative, and superlative spelled and pro- 
 nounced. Tell the class that the comparative degree is usually formed by 
 adding er and the superlative by adding est. 
 
 As a written lesson require that pupils should write the adjectives of 
 Exercise 63 in a column, then write the comparatives and superlatives as 
 has been" illustrated. 
 
 Compare: strong, large, small, long, ripe, grand, short, young, easy, 
 happy. 
 
 Exercise 65. 
 
 Review of comparison of adjectives, case of pronouns and voice. 
 
 Step 1. Require the class, orally, to select the adjectives, name the degree 
 employed, and to compare them. 
 
 Step 2. Select the verbs, state the voice of each and how it is constructed 
 {i. e., the verb he in the past tense followed by the past participle of the 
 verb carry). 
 
 Step 3. Analyze the sentence Mdth observance of case of pronouns, infini- 
 tives, participles, etc., requiring review. 
 
 As written work, have the pupils write the verbs (except, of course, he, 
 which has no voice) in a column, and in second and third columns write 
 the verb in the two other voices, respectively, without changing the tense. 
 
 1. We saw the older birds feeding them. 2. I sent her to get for me some 
 larger pieces of cloth. 3. The smallest child was carried by the mother. 
 4. The tall apple tree growing near our barn is now bearing the sweetest 
 fruit. 5, They have asked us to meet her at the earliest train. 6. A 
 healthier location could not be found for her. 7, Our pine tree is growing 
 taller. 8. A fuller confession must be wrung from him. 9. They are 
 beginning to be frightened by the fierce growling of your largest dog. 
 .10. Bring your smallest hat to me. 11. The youngest boy in the class has 
 been chosen to go for you. 12. My father has bought a faster pony for me. 
 13. Texas is the largest state in the Union. 14. The swiftest runner will 
 be sent upon this errand for them. 15. Traveling is now easier. 16. John 
 has been helping his younger brother to carry their wood into the house. 
 
 (60) 
 
17. The ripest apples have fallen to the ground. 18. The largest pumpkins 
 in the state are grown by him. 19. Having known him so long we were 
 puzzled by his strange behavior. 
 
 Exercise 65b. 
 
 Comparison of irregular adjectives. 
 
 Assign the comparison of irregular adjectives (page 197 of text) for 
 memorizing by the pupils, omitting out, top, up, in, kinds. 
 
 Explain, in assigning the lesson, that a number of adjectives are com- 
 pared irregularly, and that these are the most common sources of error. 
 
 „ . .7.. Exercise 66. 
 
 tompanson of adjecuves. 
 
 Follow directions for Exercise 65. 
 
 1. The best compositions written by the older pupils have been hung 
 upon the wall by their teacher. 2. The men are now repairing the worst 
 street in our city. 3. Webster was regarded as the foremost orator of his 
 time in our country. 4. John being the strongest was the first to reach 
 the top. 5. We found him in the farthest room. 6. They were sitting 
 under the tree eating the ripest peaches. 7. The largest trout ever caught 
 in our lake was taken out by her last week. 8. We intend to send her to 
 the country next month. 9. William is now making more effort to write 
 neatly. 10. This is the last sentence in this exercise to be analyzed. 
 
 Exercise 66b. 
 
 Comparison by means of more, less, most, and least; also comparison of 
 adverbs. 
 
 Take up the forms of comparison requiring the use of more, less, most, 
 and least, and also the comparison of adverbs. Teachers should study care- 
 fully the material in the text covering these cases (pages 195 to 210). Do 
 not, however, introduce the forms of more and less, and of most and least, 
 under the terms of ascending and descending comparison. Simply treat 
 more and less as comparative signs. For drill, use the adjectives and 
 adverbs mentioned in the text, requiring as written work, after some oral 
 explanation and drill, the following forms : 
 
 Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 
 
 wisely more wisely most wisely 
 
 or or 
 
 less wisely least wisely 
 
 Exercise 67. 
 
 Review of comparison of adjectives and adverbs. 
 Follow the general directions for Exercise 64. 
 
 1. Mary, being the eldest in the family, is permitted to sit up later in the 
 evening. 2. To have told her sooner would have been cruel. 3. Tom, having 
 
 (61) 
 
earned more money, is going to buy a better bicycle. 4. In the race of the 
 younger boys, John ran the fastest. 5. She will be going to the city next 
 week to buy it. 6. Mary is now studying more earnestly. 7. I have 
 seldom seen a more beautiful sunset. 8. We next met them in Oakland. 
 
 9. They approached him less quietly. 10. The latest facts have been laid 
 before us for careful consideration. 11. He pleaded most earnestly to be 
 given his liberty. 12. These thoughts were uppermost in his memory. 
 13. She studies least persistently of any pupil in the class. 
 
 Exercise 68. 
 Conjunctions, compound subjects, and complements. 
 
 The conjunctions, and and or, together with the compound form of the 
 subject and complement, are introduced in this exercise. We wish the 
 pupils to learn the character of this new part of speech and to comprehend 
 the idea of a compound office. 
 
 Step 1. Write the first sentence upon the board and draw from the pupils 
 that and is used to "connect" man and hoy. Tell them that it is a new 
 part of speech and is called a "Conjunction." 
 
 Step 2. Run through the exercise, having the pupils pick out the ands, 
 using the language form. Similarly treat or. 
 
 Step 3. Analyze the sentences, repeating the language form of the con- 
 junctions as they occur. Drill upon the reviews of voice, principal parts, 
 comparison of adjectives, and adverbs, etc., as each appears. 
 
 The teacher should read the text upon the topic of conjunctions (pages 
 214 to 216). The classification of conjunctions is unnecessary, since no 
 errors are made by reason of ignorance of them. They are an unnecessary 
 burden of grammatical pedantry. It is sufficient to know that certain 
 words are conjunctions. 
 
 1. A man and a boy were hurt in the accident. 2. The girl and her 
 mother were known to many of us. 3. Eobert and his playmates are having 
 a most exciting game of ball in the vacant lot. 4. Mary 's mother and grand- 
 mother have gone to the city to buy a new dress for her. 5. The cat or 
 the dog must have been eating it. 6. We keep a horse and a cow. 7. It 
 must have been an owl or a bat flying in the dark. 8. They hung their hats 
 and cloaks in the hall. 9. Shall we study our grammar or our spelling? 
 
 10. The lion and the lamb lay down. 
 
 Exercise 69. 
 
 The compound predicates; review of conjunctions. 
 Follow the general directions of Exercise 68. 
 
 1. John's mother combed and brushed his hair. 2. The Spaniards 
 explored and conquered Mexico. 3. We have worked and proved all our 
 examples. 4. The men and boys cut and carried the wood to make the 
 bonfire. 5. The women and girls spread the lunch and afterwards washed 
 the dishes. 6. Squirrels or wood rats have dug these holes and made the 
 
 (62) 
 
mounds of earth. 7. Kind men and women have sent food and clothes to 
 the shipwrecked sailors. 8. You may stand or sit. 9. We must build a 
 fire or freeze to death. 10. You or I pick and cook the corn and tomatoes 
 for dinner. 
 
 Exercise 70. 
 
 Compound modifiers; review of principal parts, conjugation and voice. 
 
 Compound modifiers, in the form of adjectives, adverbs, and of nouns 
 and pronouns, as compound objects of infinitives and participles, are intro- 
 duced in the lesson. In all instances of pronouns, use the opportunity to 
 drill upon case; ask why each is in the case it is, and continually review 
 the principle that a pronoun is in the nominative case when it is the subject 
 and in the objective case when it is the object complement of a verb or the 
 object of a preposition, infinitive, or participle. Drill also upon all elements 
 in review — principal parts, conjugation, and especially voice. 
 
 1. She and he are coming with you and me to see the lion and the tiger. 
 2, We are setting a trap to catch a fox or a coon. 3. Leaving her and him 
 at their home, we next went to call upon the doctor and his wife. 4. Is 
 digging clams and oysters fishing or agriculture? 5. Spaditig or hoeing 
 in the garden will give strength and health to you and me. 6. You or I 
 must be bringing the wood and water. 7. He has tried seriously and 
 earnestly to live an upright and honest life before God and man. 8. Such 
 a dreadful and unexpected calamity could not happen to them or us. 
 9. The ship was driven fiercely and suddenly upon the rocky and treacher- 
 ous cliffs. 10. Having lost his friends and money, he is now seeking to 
 obtain a fresh foothold in a new and unknown land. 
 
 Exercise 71. 
 
 The conjunctions or and nor. 
 
 Phrases connected by and or or is the new construction in this exercise. 
 Carefully drill upon all reviews as directed in Exercise 70, 
 
 1. Troops were sent by land and by sea to prevent the enemy from 
 invading our country or attacking our cities. 2. The package will doubt- 
 less be brought to you or to me to-day or to-morrow. 3. After so much 
 hurry and hustle she should be glad to sit quietly on a chair or lie down 
 and rest for a while. 4. We shall soon begin to write our compositions 
 or study spelling. 5. You ought to know the poem and be able to recite it. 
 6. They have tried coaxing him and threatening him without avail. 7. He 
 came to see me and ask a favor, 8. She has had no opportunity to go to 
 school and obtain a sound and thorough education. 9. The ship, with 
 passengers and crew, has been lost. 10. To eat or to be eaten is the problem 
 of life for fish and for frogs. 11. Indians got their living chiefly by hunt- 
 ing and by fishing. 
 
 (63) 
 
Exercise 72. 
 
 The compound sentence; review of conjunctions. 
 
 It will assist in clearness to have the sentences diagrammed. Be careful 
 to keep up a review, especially of conjunctions, voice, principal parts of 
 verbs used, and case of pronouns. 
 
 1. I had a good and comfortable home, and the people were kind to me. 
 2. They have been trying to help us, but they have not succeeded in their 
 efforts. 3. Bees make wax rooms of beautiful form, and they feed their 
 little ones with great wisdom and care. 4. Give me liberty, or give me 
 death ! 5. You may look at the butterfly, but you must not touch it. 6. He 
 has not been seen by us or any one, nor has he sent any explanation of his 
 strange disappearance. 7. She did not see you or me, nor did she ask 
 for us. 8. Lincoln was assassinated, but his name and memory will ever 
 live in the hearts of our people. 9. He has won a reputation for wit, but 
 he is not very wise in some matters. 10. He has not been successful, nor, 
 in fact, has he tried to accomplish much. 
 
 Exercise 73. 
 
 The correlative conjunctions hoth-and, either-or, neither-nor, whether-or.. 
 not only-hut also. 
 Precede the lesson by an explanation that not only have we single words, 
 and, or, nor, and hut, but also we have two words acting as conjunctions. 
 Write the list above upon the board and encourage the pupils to find them 
 in sentences, and the parts which they connect. Do not teach the term 
 correlative nor any classification of conjunctions. To classify conjunctions 
 is superfluous. 
 
 1. Both you and he have had opportunities to travel, and to see strange 
 places and scenes. 2. John and Mary's mother will either take them into 
 the country or send them upon a sea voyage for their next vacation, 3. Not 
 only has he been chosen captain of the best baseball nine in the town, but 
 also he is the most studious pupil in school. 4. You neither help yourself 
 nor will you permit me to help you. 5. They have not yet decided whether 
 to send you or to send me. 6. Whether riding upon a horse or rowing in 
 a boat, John was always the most skillful among the boys. 7. Either we 
 must go back by the other road or we must swim the river. 8. Not onlj'' 
 did he wish to do the right thing, but also he wished to do it at the right 
 time. 
 
 Exercise 74. 
 
 The conjunctions and, hut, or, either-or, neither-nor, hoth-and, not only-hut 
 also, and whether-or. 
 These conjunctions should be memorized, and the term "clause," as 
 distinguished from a ' ' phrase, ' ' should be taught. Using the first sentence 
 for illustration, show that each of the two clauses contains a subject and a 
 predicate, but that the phrases (prepositional and infinitive) contain no 
 
 (64) 
 
predicate. Require the pupils in the other sentences to make this distinc- 
 tion. Teach also the distinction between a simple sentence (a sentence 
 which contains only one clause) and a compound sentence (one which has 
 at least two clauses connected by a conjunction) ; illustrate by the sentences 
 of this exercise. 
 
 1. I opened the gate, and the cattle and horses went at once to the 
 trough to drink water. 2, Columbus sought to discover a new and easier 
 route to India, but he found America. 3. Either we must irrigate and 
 cultivate this garden or w^e can expect neither vegetables nor berries. 4. I 
 do not know whether to go or to stay. 5. Both food and clothing were 
 bought for their long journey across the snow and ice of Alaska. 6. Mary 
 and John's teacher has not only taught them to read and to write but she 
 has also been giving them lessons in music and in drawing. 7. You may 
 either play ball in the vacant lot or you may play tennis upon the lawn. 
 
 8. Eating candy and drinking soda water are refreshing for the time, but 
 children sometimes indulge themselves too freely. 
 
 Exercise 75. 
 The dependent adjective clauses using who and that. 
 
 Develop the fact clearly by illustration that the dependent clause really 
 modifies a noun or a pronoun just as a word adjective does, but do not insist 
 too much upon the distinction between adjective and adverbial clauses. 
 Use the following language form for the clauses (illustrating by the first 
 sentence) : 
 
 "Who is driving a horse,'' contains a subject and predicate. Therefore, 
 ''who is driving a horse" is a clause. It modifies the noun man. Therefore, 
 it is a dependent clause. 
 
 1. The man who is driving the horse is my father. 2. The lady who is 
 crossing the street is my teacher. 3. I thanked the man who helped me. 
 4. The pupils who have learned their lesson thoroughly will be permitted 
 to read for a half hour. 5. The boy who broke the window ought to have 
 paid for it. 6. A dog that wags his tail will not bite. 7. This is the house 
 that Jack built. 8. This is the malt that lay in the house that Jack built. 
 
 9. These are the rats that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built. 
 
 10. Do not interrupt a man who is adding a column of figures. 11. It is 
 an ill wind that blows nobody any good. 12. The cat seizing the mouse in 
 its mouth sprang over the fence, but the dog was soon pursuing her again. 
 
 The term antecedent. 
 
 Make it perfectly clear that the ** antecedent " is the noun which precedes, 
 not the relative pronoun. Require the relative pronouns to be memorized. 
 Develop the language forms as follows: 
 
 "Who stands for the noun man. Therefore, who is a relative pronoun 
 and its antecedent is man. ' ' 
 
 This exercise especially reviews the uses of conjunctions. 
 5— G (65) 
 
1. The young and active boy who is playing ball is my brother. 2. John 
 and Henry, who are visiting us during their vacation, hunt or fish nearly 
 every day. 3. They found her playing by the creek which flows behind 
 the barn and chicken house. 4. The fishermen asked him to buy the fish 
 which they had caught in the lake and creek. 5. The tramp obtained not 
 only food, but also some old shoes which he put on. 6. The ring which her 
 father gave her is either too small for her finger or her finger is too large 
 for the ring. 7. You should be careful in picking roses from bushes that 
 have thorns. 8. He wanted either him or me to come to the meeting which 
 had been called. 9. He ought to have been more prompt in attending to 
 business which was both important and pressing. 10. The soldier whom 
 we met has fought in manj^ battles, and has won many medals for bravery. 
 
 The conjunctive adverb. ac 1 1 . 
 
 Develop by illustration that these clauses, introduced by conjunctive 
 adverbs, usually modify either a verb, adjective, or other adverb. Memorize 
 the conjunctive adverb after each lesson. The form for conjunctive adverbs 
 is as follows: 
 
 " W/iew John's carriage comes" modifies "may come," telling when "you 
 and she" may come. Therefore, "when John's carriage comes" is a 
 dependent clause. When is a conjunctive adverb introducing the dependent 
 clause. 
 
 1. You and she may come when John's carriage comes. 2. You and I 
 must go in when it grows chilly and dark. 3. The work will be done when 
 the sun sets. 4. It began to rain while we were without shelter or protec- 
 tion. 5. Both the wheat and the oats will be cut when the harvest time 
 comes. 6. Neither he nor I will stay while you are away. 7. We 
 finally found a path that led over the mountain. 8. We shall look for 
 shells and seaweed when the tide goes out farther. 9. When she saw her 
 mistake she was confused. 10. When you are quite ready give the signal. 
 
 11. When I have finished reading this book I would like to talk with you. 
 
 12. We must drive faster or we shall miss the train that takes us to the city. 
 
 Exercise 78. 
 
 The conjunctive advert); review of case of -pronouns. 
 
 Follow directions of Exercise 77. This exercise is also a special review 
 of the case of pronouns. If pupils show any weakness, put the declension 
 upon the board and spend a lessoja or so upon all the forms. 
 
 1. If you want me, call me. 2. I shall wait for her if she wants to go 
 with me. 3. To ask him when he is busy is useless. 4. You will find your 
 hat where you left it while you were playing with us. 5. By sending him 
 we shall be sure of a prompt delivery of our message to them, if he is not 
 detained. 6. I put my broom where I found it. 7. We had hoped to escape 
 the drenching rain which began to fall while we were waiting for a car. 
 
 (69) 
 
I 
 
 8. You may begin to read where James left off. 9. Where the water is 
 deep the fish are likely to be hidden. 10. I did as you directed me. 
 11. They built their new house where the old one originally stood. 12. He 
 who works honestly and fairly is entitled to his reward. 13. You must 
 not only work your examples correctly, but also write neatly. 
 
 A ' 1 £ • Exercise 79. 
 
 A special review of voice. 
 
 Review the construction of the three voices. For written work require 
 the three voices to be constructed, especially in the infinitive and parti- 
 cipial forms. Review conjunctive adverbs, following the directions in 
 Exercise 77. 
 
 1. You may do as I do. 2. You must swim as a frog swims. 3. When 
 the wind blows the cradle will rock. 4. He remained at home because at 
 was raining. 5. The child is crying because he has hurt himself. 6. While 
 I was lying under the tree trying to sleep, I was greatly annoyed by 
 mosquitoes. 7. Some of the apples are ripe and sound, but others are poor 
 and worm-eaten. 8. The orchard can not be plowed yet because no rain 
 has fallen. 9. The Eskimos live where it is exceedingly cold in winter. 
 10. If you worked as he does, more work would be accomplished. 11. They 
 have neither found him, nor has the slightest hint to the cause of his sudden 
 disappearance yet been discovered. 
 
 Exercise 80. 
 A review of simple, complex, and compound sentences and compound offices. 
 Drill especially" upon the essentials: that a simple sentence has but one 
 clause, that a compound sentence has at least two clauses connected by a 
 conjunction, and that in a complex sentence there is always a dependent 
 clause, usually introduced either by a relative pronoun or a conjunctive 
 adverb. Drill in review upon the memorized lists of the relative pronouns, 
 conjunctions, and the conjunctive adverbs which have been introduced. 
 
 1. The cow jumped over the moon, ^ 
 
 And the little dog laughed to see such fun. 
 And the dish ran away with the spoon. 
 
 2. We have tried to find a boy who would do promptly that which he 
 was told to do. 
 
 3. Old Mother Hubbard went to the cupboard 
 
 To get her poor dog a bone; 
 But when she got there, the cupboard was bare; 
 And so the poor dog had none. 
 
 4. Jack and Jill went up the -hill 
 
 To get a pail of water, 
 
 5. Jack fell down and broke his crown, 
 
 And Jill came tumbling after. 
 
 6. There was an old woman who lived in a shoe. 
 
 (67) 
 
^ 7. Little Miss Muffet sat on a tuffet 
 Eating her curds and whey. 
 8. Along came a spider, 
 And sat down beside her, 
 
 And frightened Miss Muffet away. 
 
 Exercises 81, 82, 83. 
 
 The use of dependent clauses introduced by conjunctive adverbs. 
 
 The list of words commonly employed as conjunctive adverbs — when, 
 where, for, while, because, so that, as, if, as if, as soon as, than, before, until, 
 after, unless, should be memorized, so that their presence will suggest to 
 the pupil's mind the existence of the dependent clause. Interlarded with 
 these complex sentences will be found simple and compound sentences, and 
 complex sentences with relative clauses, for review drill. 
 
 1, He made the short but dangerous trip because it was necessary. 
 2. Because the river was swift, John's mother would not permit him to 
 swim in it. 3. The Chinese built the high wall so that they might keep out 
 their enemies. 4. I will call you when breakfast is ready. 5. Do not go 
 now because you might be lost in the woods. 6. The rabbit hid in the brush 
 fence so that he could not be found. 7. Men may come and men may go, 
 but the river flows on forever. 8. The fox ran over the hill, and dodging 
 the dogs, returned to his old hiding place by the river. 9. We did not 
 want to go farther because we were so tired. 10. Horses have tails so they 
 may brush away flies and other annoying insects. 
 
 Exercise 82. 
 
 1. The fox lay in the road as if he were asleep or dead. 2. As soon as 
 he saw the dogs coming, he jumped up and ran into the brush. 3. While 
 the sun shines, we must hurry with our work because the time will come 
 when no man can work. 4, As soon as you have time carry the wood in. 
 5. I will do it now, for I will be busier later. 6. You can fool some of the 
 world for all of the time, and all of the world for some of the time ; but you 
 can not fool all of the world for all of the time. 7. He looked as if he 
 might be able to lift the moon. 8. You will feel better if you will drink 
 this medicine. 9. Come over as soon as you have finished your work. 
 10. Wear your overcoat so that you will not catch cold. 
 
 Exercise 83. 
 
 1. He is older than I. 2. Mary is taller than her brother. 3. You must 
 brush your hair more carefully before you go to school. 4. I received more 
 help than I had expected. 5. These apples are larger than those. 6. You 
 must be more prompt if you expect to retain your position. 7. They came 
 sooner than we expected. 8. Do not go farther into the water unless you 
 can swim. 9. He has caught larger fish than she. 10. Unless you are more 
 familiar with a gun than you seem, it would be safer for all of us if you 
 would put it down. 11. The boy who can run fastest will receive this medal. 
 
 (68) 
 
rpi,„ ^^,.^ r,i„.,cn Exercise 84. 
 
 1 he noun clause. 
 
 Insist that the pupil follows out his language form for discovering the 
 offices, and he can not fail to discover the noun clauses. 
 
 1. John said, "I will go to the city." 2. "I will go to the city," said 
 John. 3. I think it will soon rain. 4. We expect he will meet us at the 
 station. 5. We saw night was fast approaching. 6. '*Walk into my 
 parlor," said the spider to the fly. 7. The house which we just passed is 
 owned by my father. 8. Said the pieman to Simple Simon, *'Show me 
 first your penny." 9. Come back as soon as you can. 10. I thought you 
 would go. 11. We asked him to help us, but he refused. 
 
 Exercise 85. 
 
 The noun clause introduced by the introductory word that. 
 
 Make clear that this word is not a relative pronoun, because it has no 
 antecedent. 
 
 1. I know that you will come. 2. I dreamed that I dwelt in marble 
 halls. 3. She said that she would like to come. 4. That the world is round 
 has been proved. 5. "Do not give up the ship," said Perry. 6. The tired 
 soldier slept while he rode his horse along the road. 7. Mother did not 
 expect that we should return so soon as we did. 8. I did not know that 
 the man whom we met was your brother. 9. That we must breathe fresh 
 air is very necessary. 10. How they succeeded in climbing the steep rocks 
 is a mystery. 
 
 Exercise 86. 
 
 Review of the noun clause in connection with other kinds of clauses. 
 
 1. Columbus never knew that he had discovered a new continent. 2. He 
 thought he was right, but he was not quite sure. 3. I have learned my 
 spelling and my geography, but I forgot that I must work ten examples in 
 arithmetic. 4. Hearing that the bridge over the river was not safe we tool 
 another road to the city. 5. Knowing that you expected us we came 
 although it rained. 6. I came home early, fearing that you might be left 
 alone. 7. Try to throw the ball as I do. 8. He is more active than Will. 
 
 9. That it would rain was a condition which we had not anticipated. 
 
 10. John spends more money than he earns. 
 
 Exercise 87. 
 
 A general review of sentences. 
 
 1. * * I will go to the captain, ' ' said the sailor. 2. That you can not do the 
 trick is evident. 3. She said that she would like to come. 4. The world 
 will not anxiously inquire who you are. 5. We heard that he had gone to 
 the country, 6. His first thought was to see that others were made happy. 
 7. She never forgets to fill my seed-cup and my glass of water. 8. I 
 pretend that I am in the woods. 9. I was a wretched little bird when 
 Helen's mother bought me. 10. He swung the boxes back and forth until 
 I was sick and dizzy. 11. Soon, if the weather continues pleasant, we shall 
 
 (69) 
 
hear him sing. 12, Then the robin's great feast is over, and he leaves us 
 for the repast which is awaiting him in the South. 13. There was once a 
 boy whose eyes were so true, and whose hand was so steady, that he became 
 a very good marksman. 14. From morning till night she flew over fields 
 and woods, getting worms, and bugs, and seeds for her babies. 15. He 
 realizes that he has been fooled, and steals off through the forest. 16. When 
 the dogs are on their tracks, deer follow certain well-known paths leading 
 to the nearest water. 17. The savage Indians still live in wigwams made of 
 bark or brush and skins. 18. Here in the spring, in the broad Susquehanna, 
 are caught great hauls of shad and herring. 19. Before the Civil War, 
 negroes who were engaged in laying and drawing the long seines, used to 
 sing their weird songs while at their work. 20. The air, the earth, and the 
 water teem with plant life. 21. Four gray walls and four gray towers 
 overlook a space of flowers. 22. That we are never too old to learn is a 
 true saying. 23. He often wished that the wind might rave. 24. He whose 
 house is made of glass must not throw stones at another. 25. When school 
 commenced, Henry was in his seat. 26. No nation can be destroyed while 
 it possesses a good home life. 
 
 Exercise 88. 
 
 This is an exercise of general review, especially of infinitives, participles, 
 phrases, and case of pronouns. Begin with these constructions as they 
 appear in the declension and conjugation forms, and drill upon the method 
 of their construction. See to it that this fundamental work is thoroughly 
 done before proceeding to the sentences. Make use of every infinitive, 
 participle, and pronoun to review declension and conjugation of which each 
 is a part. Also, review all other constructions, such as mode forms, 
 adjectives, and adverbs as they occur. 
 
 1. I would do anything for the advantage of him or her. 2. The children 
 came to see them and us. 3. By urging him against his will, you will 
 accomplish nothing. 4. They and I went with Mary to visit her friend. 
 5. We ought to have helped you with your work. 6. Having prevented me 
 from doing my work, the baby was now happy to be the sole object of my 
 attention. 7. The men in the boat were observed to be hoisting a sail to 
 prevent themselves from being carried out to sea. 8. We ought to have 
 been working our examples. 9. To be caught in a trap so easily was a 
 surprise to the foolish young fox. 10. Being thus injured the man was 
 unable to send for help. 11. Having been nominated for the office, the 
 candidate made every effort to be elected. 12. She asked to be given 
 another opportunity. 13. The bird was pluming its feathers while it sat 
 upon a limb of the tree. 14. I have learned nothing concerning their 
 accident. 15. The explorers of the ancient ruins dug through old walls, 
 finding many curious ornaments besides jewels and old coins. 16. Except- 
 ing a few accidents the expedition was a success. 17. He fell off his horse 
 without hurting himself in the least. 18. The river steamer ran against 
 a mud bank. 19. We found many flowers along the roadside. 20. Around 
 the house, except in front, ran a low hedge. 
 
 (70) 
 
Exercise 89. 
 
 The kinds of sentences, relative pronouns, conjunctive adverbs, and con- 
 junctions are the special review of this exercise. The relatives' and the 
 conjunctions should be memorized, and the conjunctive adverbs should 
 receive such drill that they would be recognized by sight instantly, and 
 thus become a hint to the existence of dependent clauses. Do not waste time 
 upon insistent discussion of the distinction between adjective and adverbial 
 clauses, as no common errors are rooted in this distinction. 
 
 1. Having played on the way, Frank reached school after the bell had 
 been rung, 2. The children's friends had a merry time playing in the 
 garden as long as the weather was pleasant. 3. Frank's younger brother 
 does not play football so well as he did when he went to high school. 4. The 
 boys who laughed at the old woman were neither courteous nor kind, 5, The 
 regiment, as soon as its leader had been killed, turned and fled, leaving the 
 wounded to die on the field. 6. That old man not only saved his money, but 
 also tried to prevent others from unnecessary waste. 7. The dogs which 
 had been unchained were barking and growling at the two men entering 
 the big gate. 8. If I were you I should be ashamed of getting such a low 
 mark as that, 9. Even though I were the richest person in the state, I 
 would not waste my money so foolishly. 10, The children who had been 
 at the head in spelling worked hard in order that they might stay there 
 during the term. 11. To whom are you speaking? 12. I have not cared 
 to go on the water since my friend's mother and sister were drowned. 
 13, Mary's mother and father waited at the station until the train had 
 disappeared around the curve, 14. Joe and Tom are going to the circus, 
 but their brother was naughty and has to stay at home. 15. Before the 
 graduating class selected their pin they held a meeting and discussed several 
 designs. 16. We shall spend a day in the country next week, provided that 
 your mother will give her permission. 17. The boys and girls were laughing 
 and talking at the door. 18. That he had been here since you left is true, 
 but to keep him until you came was impossible. 19. He bought not only 
 apples, but also peaches. 20. Whom shall we follow since our leader failed ? 
 21, In order that he might help our country, Lafayette left France and 
 came to America. 22. As long as the river continues rising the flood can 
 not be stopped. 23. The boy who perseveres will surely succeed. 24. The 
 ring which was lost iLas been claimed by the owner, 25. As the train 
 approached the signal was given to close the gates. 26. I think that you 
 arrived immediately after he left home. 27. She stood at the window 
 pulling down the shade as I passed by. 28, That work will be finished as 
 soon as he can get the necessary materials. 29. The lady passed by before 
 I could remember her name. 30. That book which is lying on the table 
 has not been opened since I placed it there. 31. The customer will have to 
 wait until the grocer has time to attend to him. 32. We shall not put off 
 our trip unless it rains. 33. Provided that the goods which you intend to 
 send are well packed, no harm can be done to them. 34, Although the 
 harbor is fortified, it is wise to be cautious. 35. If she had been at home. 
 
it would have helped to make the matter clear. 36, The people trembled 
 for the safety of the ship lest it be wrecked. 37. Kindly write this letter 
 immediately in order that it may be ready to be sent away at mail time. 
 
 38. The man whom he sent for remained seated until he was called forward. 
 
 39. He went skating in the morning, and in the afternoon he took a walk 
 through the park, 40, The book can be taken from the library either to-day 
 or to-morrow, 41. In the battle neither the general nor his soldiers showed 
 fear. 42. He was not only a great soldier, but also a statesman. 43. He 
 will continue his work as soon as he returns from the country. * 44. Remind 
 me of the letter, lest I should forget to mail it. 45. Since you come to me 
 as a friend I will help you. 46. The president left before we had a chance 
 to see him. 47. The general, standing to the right, is the one who won the 
 victory. 48. The gentleman M^hom we admired has been given a better 
 position. 49. The horse that met with an accident is now lame. 50. The 
 cities which he visited are all in Spain. 51. The general started out to 
 besiege the town, but was stopped in his march. 52. He was not only 
 ambitious, but he also accomplished the things which he undertook. 
 53. After the fog had cleared the sun came out. 54. The man worked as 
 long as the day lasted. 55. The girl has been ill since she ate too much ice 
 cream. 56. School will not close until the rains make the roads impassable. 
 57, You may take any book except this one. 58. They were afraid lest 
 the moon fall upon them. 59. We hurried in order that we might reach 
 school in time. 60. Who wrote a composition on coal ? 61.1 wish that you 
 would do this for me. 62. The firemen came before the house was burned. 
 
 63. As soon as the rainy season comes the birds go to the southern lands. 
 
 64. I have read a great deal since I have joined the public library. 65. We 
 will go on a picnic Saturday, provided that it does not rain, 
 
 SPECIAL CONSTRUCTIONS. 
 Exercise 90 (a, b, c). 
 
 These three exercises take up the form of the appositive, exercise (o) 
 offering the types in which the appositive is a noun or pronoun; exercise 
 (&), in which the appositive is a phrase, and exercise (c), in which the 
 appositive is a clause. Make it clear, in exercise (a), that the appositive 
 is identical in meaning with the word with which it is in apposition and 
 there will then be little trouble to make the same fact clear with reference 
 to phrases and clauses. 
 
 (a) 1. John, the gardener, mowed the lawn. 2. Brown, the engineer of 
 the train, lost his life in the collision. 3. The poem. Snowbound, was read 
 mth much enjoyment by the class. 4. Dickens, the novelist, wrote the 
 charming story. Old Curiosity Shop. 5. I have taken my dress to Miss 
 Thomas, the dressmaker. 6. The party of tourists climbed Mount Shasta, 
 one of the highest peaks in California. 7. We sailed through Golden Gate, 
 the entrance to San Francisco bay. 8. It is I, your brother. 
 
 (&) 1. It is wrong to tell a lie. 2. It was my privilege to be present. 
 3. It was always his intention to do the right thing. 4. Victoria, Queen of 
 
 (72) 
 
England, reigned many years. 5. It is our duty to be cheerful at all times. 
 
 6. The pass was guarded by Leonidas, the King of the Spartans, with three 
 hundred brave soldiers. 7. It requires work to keep a room in order. 
 8, Come and stay with me, your old friend. 9. It is a pleasure to help a 
 willing pupil. 10. You yourselves must decide this question. 
 
 (c) 1. It was my wish that you should go with me. 2. It is hardly 
 fair that he should do this extra work. 3. I have asked Mr. White, a 
 neighbor, to assist. 4. It is probably not true that as many have been 
 killed as first reports would indicate. 5. We are trying to find Mr. Black, 
 the grocer. 6. It is time that something were done to remedy this trouble. 
 
 7. I believe it is a wise thing to cultivate the soil thoroughly before plant- 
 ing. 8. It was not the expectation of Columbus that he would discover a 
 new continent. 9. She spoke of her cousin, Mary, in the warmest terms 
 of affection. 10. It is my determination that I shall not return until I 
 have been successful. 11. Franklin, the philosopher and statesman, was 
 American minister to France. 12. Mr. Roberts, the teacher, gave this book, 
 a grammar, to Henry, his oldest pupil. 13. The poet, Spenser, lived and 
 wrote in the reign of Elizabeth. 14. The lamp of man's life has three 
 wicks, brain, blood, and breath. 15. It was one well known to him in 
 former days, a shepherd lad. 
 
 Exercises 91 and 92. 
 The factitive complement. 
 
 It is unfortunate to multiply special cases and new names. For this 
 reason it would be better, perhaps, unless local courses of study positively 
 require it, not to teach the name, but to treat factitive complement, when 
 a noun, as in apposition; in the case of adjectives and participles, treat 
 them merely as modifiers, for example, in the sentence. Paint the house red, 
 teach the pupils to regard red merely as an adjective modifier of house. 
 
 1. They proclaimed Alphonso king. 2. They named the city Rome. 
 3. The Americans elected Roosevelt president. 4. The engine has pumped 
 the well dry. 5. We are going to paint the house red. 6. Everybody 
 believed him an impostor. 7. The awful sight turned my blood cold. 8. It 
 is hard, under such circumstances, to keep quiet. 9. Such insults made him 
 very angry. 10. Keep the door locked. 11. I consider him honest. 
 12. Idleness makes a man poor. 13. Labor makes a man thrifty. 14. We 
 found him studious and attentive. 15. The doctor considers her very sick. 
 
 1. The boys themselves made John their captain. 2. The jury found the 
 prisoner guilty. 3. Running made us tired. 4. It was his idea that they 
 should make the slaves free. 5. Washington, our first president, made our 
 country respected by foreign nations. 6. It is a pleasure to help those 
 who help themselves. 7. They chose William umpire. 8. He was shot dead. 
 9. It is comfortable to feel that we are in no way to be blamed. 10. His 
 courage made the undertaking a complete success. 
 
 (78) 
 
The indirect object. Exercise 93. 
 
 Do not teach the term, indirect object, but train the pupils to supply 
 the missing prepositions forming prepositional phrases. A little practice 
 will make this device easy. 
 
 1. John wrote his mother a letter. 2. She gave him a book. 3. Will 
 you do me a favor? 4. Forgive us our debts as we forgive our debtors. 
 5. To eat much salt makes me thirsty. 6. He has already brought me a 
 book. 7. The gift of the flowers made the invalid happy. 8. The little 
 girl showed the doctor her sore finger. 9. We gave them food and clothing, 
 10. It is wise to be upon our guard. 
 
 Exercise 94. 
 
 '^ There" used as an introductory word or expletive. 
 
 There must be much drill upon this form or pupils will thoughtlessly 
 declare there is the subject. They must be drilled until they recognize by 
 sight this kind of special construction. Insist upon following the analysis 
 form for finding the subject. Teach that there in such a sentence is an 
 introductory word. 
 
 1. There is a delightful breeze. 2. There is to be a wedding next week, 
 to which we are all to be invited. 3. There will be an eclipse of the moon 
 to-night. 4. There was a certain rich man in Damascus. 5. There is no 
 one here. 6. There are many men in the plot. 7. There were giants in 
 those days. 8. There comes a time when we must die. 9. We heard there 
 was to be a picnic. 10. I want to go if there is time. 
 
 The word what. Exercise 95. 
 
 In the first sentence what may be classed as a pronoun, the object of the 
 verb mean in the noun clause, what you mean. The second and third 
 sentences offer similar constructions. In the fourth sentence what modifies 
 time as an adjective, pointing out time; the fifth sentence illustrates a 
 similar use. In the sixth sentence what is equivalent to that which, and of 
 these words that is the object of take, and which is a relative pronoun, 
 object of need and having for its antecedent that; the remainder of the 
 sentences belong to the last named type. 
 
 1. I wonder what you mean. 2. I know what you think. 3. What does 
 two times two make? 4. I inquired what time it was. 5. I see what kind 
 of a man he is. 6. Take what you need. 7. Do you remember what you 
 heard ? 8. What she earns nearly supports the entire family. 9. I thought 
 of what the old sailor had told me. 10. The fire destroyed what was in the 
 building. 11. A more honest man than he does not live. 
 
 (74) 
 
Exercise 96. 
 
 The use of a possessive pronoun or noun as the attribute violating the com- 
 mon requirement that the attribute must be in the nominative case. 
 The possessive can be treated as a modifier of a noun understood. The 
 tenth sentence really means, "The apple you have is John's apple." In 
 the case of the pronouns, the form mine is equivalent to my (house), his to 
 his (hat), theirs to their (papers), etc. It may be easier to treat the 
 construction in most cases, however, as an exception. 
 
 1. That tall white house on the corner is mine. 2. The hat on the last 
 hook in the hall is his. 3. The book was his. 4. The papers proved to be 
 theirs. 5. His brave deed made him famous. 6. You will find what you 
 are looking for in the library. 7. They told us the truth. 8. The janitor 
 swept the floor clean. 9. There are many pupils in this school. 10. The 
 apple you have is hers. 
 
 Exercise 97. 
 
 After the verbs please, let, make, and a few others, the sign of the infinitive 
 to is frequently omitted. 
 
 The construction should be explained and receive some drill to make it 
 familiar, as the form is a serious stumbling block to pupils. Please come 
 is equivalent to Please to come; Please let me come is equivalent to Please 
 to let me to come, etc. 
 
 1. Please come. 2. Let me go. 3. Please help me. 4. Let me see it. 
 
 5. Please tell me what you intend to do. 6. That makes me feel better. 
 7, I shall let him take the book when you have finished with it. 8. Make 
 him come in. 
 
 Interjections. Exercise 98. 
 
 It has been usual to make a special part of speech of interjections, and 
 they have consequently been thrown into unnecessary importance. It is 
 well to give a lesson or so upon them, using the term interjection. They 
 need no special language form. Simply name them. 
 
 1. Oh! Please come. 2. Alas! It is sad. 3. Hurrah! We have won. 
 4. Indeed! I can hardly believe it. 
 
 Exercise 99. 
 
 Review of special constructions. 
 
 1. It is unfortunate that Mr. Jones, the hatter, has failed in his business. 
 2. He made us keep silent. 3. Drill has made him efficient in his studies. 
 4. Please get me that hammer. 5. He generally finds what he looks for. 
 
 6. I like your hat better than hers. 7. Please let me hear from you. 8. It 
 is likely that he will come. 
 
 (75) 
 
FALSE SYNTAX. 
 
 The grammar texts of a generation ago placed emphasis on false syntax. 
 An immense amount of drill was given in the classroom upon the construc- 
 tion of faulty sentences provided by the text-books. The texts were filled, 
 not only with sentences in current use, but also with errors never made, 
 though they might be. The modern pedagogy invented a rule that a child 
 should never see a wrong form, and a wave of protest swept all of the 
 false syntax from grammar teaching. Children should never see nor hear 
 wrong forms. As well might we commence a campaign against drunkenness 
 by forbidding any illustrations of the evil of drunkenness in our campaign 
 literature, however manifest the evidences about us. Such a complete 
 removal of false syntax from the schoolroom drill was as manifestly absurd. 
 Clearly enough, we need not introduce new wrong forms to the pupils, as 
 the old grammarians did, but on the other hand, it is folly to avoid reference 
 to the errors which children daily hear and themselves use, if we hope to 
 educate them. It does not follow that **It ain't me" is incorrect merely 
 because "It isn't I" is correct. From the standpoint of the uninformed 
 both might be incorrect. 
 
 From this standpoint it is clear that we need drill in correction of the 
 errors which are in current use. Pupils need to learn that certain definite 
 constructions are wrong and to be drilled upon the grammatical reasons 
 to determine the error. S-uch classes of errors are given in this Bulletin. 
 
 Exercise 100. 
 
 Confusion of adjectives with adverbs. 
 
 The confusion of adjectives with adverbs is one of the most common with 
 which we have to contend. Success will mean that the pupils have clearly 
 mastered the following points, and it is uesless to proceed until they have 
 done so: (1) That adjectives can not modify verbs, adverbs, or other 
 adjectives, and that adverbs can not modify nouns or pronouns; (2) that 
 a number of words have adjective and adverbial form, the adverb usually 
 being formed from the adjective by adding ly; (3) that in the case of an 
 attribute complement the adjective modifies the subject, and if the word 
 modifies the verb, then it is an adverb. In the first sentence, for example, 
 the question to determine is whether the idea expressed by loud (or loudly) 
 affects the bell or the act of ringing. Therefore, the word must be an 
 adverb and must have the adverbial form loudly. Success will hinge upon 
 the teacher 's ability to focus the pupil 's attention upon the question whether 
 it is the subject or the predicate which is affected. 
 
 The following language form should be learned. The adjective loud is 
 here used to modify the meaning of the verb rang. Therefore, the sentence 
 is incorrect. Loud should be loudly, and the sentence should be, "The bell 
 rang loudly." * Indicates correct sentence. 
 
 1. The bell rang loud. 2. The girl sang sweet. 3. The sky looked clearly. 
 *4. The boy ran swiftly. 5. The clerk wrote rapid. 6. The train moves 
 
 (76) 
 
quick. 7. The balloon rose steady. 8. The post was placed firm in the 
 ground. 9, The water appears smoothly. 10. He did his work noble. 
 11. She looked comfortably. 12. The house was furnished comfortable. 
 *13. It was a comfortable looking chair. *14. He speaks very strangely. 
 15. She sings very nice. 16. She draws accurate. *17. The rose smells 
 sweet. 18. He writes good. 19. Eun home quick. *20. The house seems 
 very nice and comfortable. 
 
 Exercise 101. 
 Agreement of predicate with subject. 
 
 The most glaring and the most frequent class of error is the lack of 
 agreement of the predicate and the subject in number. However, the 
 blunder occurs most frequently in certain constructions: With you as the 
 subject and in the third person singular of the present and present perfect 
 tenses. It can not occur in most forms because the singular and plural are 
 identical. We, therefore, should centralize our drill upon the common 
 forms. 
 
 See to it, first, that the pupils know their conjugation forms, especially 
 know that the third person, singular, of the present tense ends in s, that has 
 and not have is used in the third person, singular, of the present perfect 
 tense ; that in the past tense of the verb, to be, was is used only in the first 
 and third persons of the singular number. Place is, are, was, and were upon 
 the board and drill to secure instantaneous recognition of the number 
 of each. 
 
 As a language form use the following: "The subject men is in the plural 
 number, but the predicate, was walking, is singular. It, therefore, does not 
 agree with rnen, the subject, which is in the plural number; was walking 
 should be in the plural number to agree with men. Therefore, was walki7ig 
 should be were walking, and the sentence should read. The men were 
 walking. ' ' 
 
 This language form can not be used in the case of you as a subject, 
 because you is really singular. The form for this should be simply : ' * The 
 predicate, was, does not agree Avith its subject you; was should be were, 
 and the sentence should read, "You were there." 
 
 1. The men was walking rapid. 2. They was right. 3. I is sick. 4. The 
 folks is in the country. 5. How many men was there ? 6. Was the girls in 
 the room? 7. All the women was on one side of the room. 8. She paints 
 very nice. *9. The cows were in the garden. 10. That makes me feel 
 good. 11. Was the children at school to-day? 12. That butter tastes 
 badly. 13. Was they looking good ? 14. You was there. *15. Was "as /'' 
 in the right place? 16. I feel pretty good this morning, 17. The desks 
 was scratched. *18. Are the men going? 19. Was you sick? 
 
 Doesn't and don't Exercise 102. 
 
 This type falls under the general principle treated in Exercise 2. Teach 
 first the conjugation of do in the present tense, and drill in the immediate 
 recognition that doesn't, equivalent to does not, is in the singular third 
 
 (77) 
 
person, and doesn't occur in all other persons nor in the plural number. 
 Use the same language form. 
 
 1. He don't see me. 2. She don't mean it. 3. It don't matter. 4. He 
 don't run fast. *5. I don't understand you. 6. Why don't he finish his 
 work more prompt? 7. That man don't like work. 8. Don't the teacher 
 know that you don't understand the example? 9. John doesn't go where 
 his mother don't want him to go. 10. Rain don't fall here very often. 
 11. This fish don't taste well. 12. The carpenter don't file his saw sharply. 
 
 « 
 
 Exercise 103. 
 Subjects connected by and. 
 
 Two or more singular subjects connected by the conjunction and are 
 plural in number, and require a verb in the plural number. 
 
 The error is not very frequent in occurrence. The trouble arises with 
 the use of a phrase modifying a singular subject which is introduced by 
 the preposition with, for example, Sentence 1. To distinguish these con- 
 fusing forms is the purpose of the exercise. 
 
 1. Mary with her friends were playing under the tree. 2. The ship 
 with all her passengers were lost. 3. The boy with his playmates have gone 
 upon a picnic. *4. The boy with his sisters has played around. 5. The 
 mother with the children were drowned. 6. Mary and Edith come home 
 early. *7. The dog and the cat play together. 8. Seven and eight is 
 fifteen. 9. The girl with her friends walk home every day. 10. The girl 
 and her friend walks home every day. 11. The name of the brothers who 
 were in the party of men were Smith. 12. He with others come prompt 
 every day. *13. The horse and cow have been sold cheaply. *14. Mr. Jones 
 together with many others has gone to the new gold fields. 15. The house 
 and the barn has been burned complete. *16. Four thousand dollars is the 
 price of the house and furnishings complete. 
 
 Exercise 104. 
 
 Subjects connected by or, either-or, and neither-nor. 
 
 Singular subjects connected by or, either-or, or neither-nor are singular, 
 and require a singular predicate. 
 
 This type needs to be brought in contrast with the forms of the preced- 
 ing type. 
 
 1. John or Frank have been here. 2. The boy or his friend are coming. 
 3. A horse or a cow have broken the fence. *4. A horse and a cow have 
 broken the fence. 5. Mary or her sister don't ask foolish questions. 
 6. The train with its passengers have gone over the embankment. 7. Rain 
 or bad weather don't prevent him from doing his work, *8. I don't know 
 whether apples or peaches have been planted in the garden. 9. Either the 
 captain or the lieutenant are going upon the important mission. 10. Neither 
 Mary nor Alice have come. 11. Either the dog or the cat have killed this 
 rat. 12. Neither the man nor the woman were hurt. 13. Was you the one 
 who broke the window ? 
 
 (78) 
 
Exercise 105. ^ 
 
 Subjects preceded by each, every, no. 
 
 Subjects preceded by each, every, and no are singular, and consequently 
 their predicates must be singular. 
 
 This rule of syntax is very frequently violated. Explain the rule to 
 pupils, and drill upon the sentence for clear recognition of the subject. 
 As a language form use the following : ' ' The predicate have does not agree 
 with its subject each which is singular. Therefore, have should be has, and 
 the sentence should read, etc. 
 
 1, Each of the boys have a new hat. *2. No one pays for his meal. 
 *3. Each of the dogs wears a collar. 4. Each of you are to receive a prize. 
 5. Every one of us remember the great earthquake. 6. Every one of the 
 men work hard. *7. Neither the apples nor the peaches taste good. *8. Each 
 of the boys with his sisters is going to give a party. 9. Every one of them 
 examples is wrong. 10, Every one of them feel good. 11. No one expect 
 to win the prize. *12. Either the lamp or the stove is smoking dreadfully. 
 13. No one among the boys are to leave. 
 
 Exercise 106. 
 
 Omission of predicate in dependent clauses. 
 
 Dependent clauses introduced by than, as, and a few other conjunctive 
 adverbs frequently omit the predicate. "He must be stronger than she" 
 is equivalent to "He must be stronger than she is." A common error 
 occurs in the use of the objective form for the nominative form necessary 
 for the subject. Drill in expanding the clause by the addition of the 
 subject understood, and upon the fact that the subject must be in the 
 nominative case. 
 
 1. He must be stronger than her. 2. That music sounds nicely. 3. Each 
 garden in the town look remarkable prettily at this season of the year. 
 4. Neither John or Henry write as good as her. 5. That sentence sounds 
 rightly. 6. Alice is a better student than him. 7. The trees and grass in 
 the fields is growing nice. *8. Neither of them has appeared comfortable. 
 9. John with all the other fishermen do not usually catch as many fish 
 as I. 10. Every pupil in the class work the examples correct. 11. They are 
 wiser than us. 12. Jennie does not seem so happily as me. 13. The cause 
 of all these troubles are yet to be found. 14. Many rooms in the house is 
 unfurnished. 15. All of us was at the picnic. 16. What sound have 'each 
 of the vowels? 17. There was seven books on the table. 18. We expected 
 that you was coming to see us. 19. What is the dimensions of the room? 
 20. In the menageries at Paris there was lions and tigers. 21. The regiment 
 consist of a thousand men. 22. The fruit on the trees in our neighbor's 
 orchards are ripe. *23. There is a flock of birds. 24. Were it he or she 
 whom you saw Avhen you were there? 25. Those boys on the sidewalk is 
 going home. 26. In the lake there was a good many shells. 27. Either the 
 captain or she start at daybreak for the trip. 28. Was you the one who 
 
 (79) 
 
made those boxes? 29. There is two subjects in the sentence. 30. The 
 consent of his father or mother were asked. *31. The cat and her kittens 
 were drowned. *32. There were a great many spectators. 33. The girl or 
 her sister are coming to-night. *34. There were twenty girls at the party. 
 35. The man and his dog is here. 36. The house and furniture was burned. 
 37. There was seven crows sitting on the fence. 38. Mary and her friends 
 is playing. 39. Either the girl or her sister go there. *40. The boy and his 
 playmate were lost. 41. Five and eight is thirteen. 42. What is the length 
 and breadth of this lot ? 43. He and she was standing in the yard. 
 
 Agreement of pronouns. i!*xercise 10/. 
 
 A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number. Teach this and 
 explain it. No singular pronoun can stand for a plural noun, nor can a 
 plural pronoun stand for a singular noun. 
 
 Use sentences to illustrate the different uses, and then put the incorrect 
 sentences on the board. 
 
 The most common violations of this rule seem to occur when the ante- 
 cedent is used with each, every, no, either-or, and neither-nor. The 
 
 language form to be followed should be as follows : ' * The pronoun 
 
 is plural in form. It must agree with its antecedent in number. 
 
 ■ is singular. Therefore, the pronoun should be and 
 
 the sentence should read ** ." 
 
 1. No one has done their w^ork. 2. Every man was expected to be in 
 their place. 3. Every child who has finished their work must hold up their 
 hands. *4. No man who had entered the army had lost his position. 5. No 
 one should ask many questions unless they do not understand. 6. Either 
 Alice or May must write their lesson. *7. Either the teacher or the pupil 
 must tell his story. 8. Either Mary or James must send their address. 
 9. Neither James nor Frank has lost their hats. *10. Neither the man nor 
 the woman had earned his wages. 11. Neither Alice nor Harry have 
 written their lessons. *12. Neither Mary nor James has gone to his home. 
 13. No one should lose their temper so easily. 14. Neither James nor Frank 
 had sent their letters. *15. Neither the teacher nor the child had found 
 his hat. 16. Neither Alice nor May had found their doll. *17. Each -of 
 the boys has lost his slate. 18. Each of the men lost their way. 19. Every 
 boy- sent their answer. 20. Let every child in the room hold up their hand. 
 21. 'Each of the messengers hurried to their work. 22. England expects 
 every man to do their duty. 23. Every one of us have lost their books. 
 *24. Each of the scholars lost his hat. 25. Each of the officers must send 
 their reports to headquarters. 26. Every girl gave their word. 27. I know 
 that every man will give their share. 28. Each boy threw down a flower as 
 they passed the grave. 
 
 (80) 
 
Exercise 108. 
 
 Case of pronouns as siibjects, attributes, and objects. 
 
 Pronouns used as subjects or as attribute complements must be in the 
 nominative case. 
 
 Pronouns used as objects of verbs, prepositions, infinitives, or participles 
 must be in the objective case. 
 
 The language forms should be as follows: ** (the pronoun in the 
 
 wrong case) is the subject (or attribute)." It must, therefore, be in the 
 
 nominative case. The objective form is here used. Therefore, 
 
 should be , and the sentence should read: '* 
 
 Or: 
 
 ** (the pronoun in the wrong case) is the object of the verb (prepo- 
 
 sition, infinitive, or participle) ." It must, therefore, be in the 
 
 objective case. The nominative form is here used. Therefore, 
 
 should be , and the sentence should read: ** ." 
 
 1. It is him. 2. It is her. *3. It is she. 4. It was us. 5. It was them. 
 6. It was her. 7. That was me who wrote the letter. 8. John said that it 
 was him. *9. I know that it was she. *10. John knew that it was you. 
 11. He called in a wee small voice, "It is me." 12. Did you think John 
 was me? 13. Suppose that person were me. 14. It is not me who you 
 ought to blame. 15. That was her who broke your window. 16. He called 
 out, "I am him." 17. It will be him who offers to do the work. *18. It 
 was they. 19. It will be her who gets the candy. 20. It must be him whom 
 you saw. 21, It never will be us. 22. It must never be them who make the 
 mistakes. 23. Who's there? It's me. 24. I wish to see Mr. Smith. Are 
 you him? 25. Do you know John Anson? Yes, that's him. 26. **I asked 
 to see your sons. Are these them?" "Yes, these are them.. Shall I tell 
 you their names?" 27. "It's her! There she is!" cried the children. 
 28. Yes, it was him, — the famous Admiral. 29. I wish it hadn't been me 
 that broke the window. 30. The best grammarians in the village are us 
 four girls. 31. Whom did you say it was ? *32. Whom would you like to 
 see? 33. Whom do you think he was? 34. Do you know whom he is? 
 35. Whom did you say it was that gave it to you ? 36. It was the girl whom 
 I thought it was. *37. Who did you say you thought it was ? 38. If there 
 were a rogue in the world it is me. 39. Either James or me must do the 
 work. 40. Such a man as him never could be president. 41. Either Prank 
 or him has been here. 42. Neither us nor she can walk. 43. Whom did you 
 say had finished the book? 44. He is taller than me. 45. She is not one 
 whom I thought would do this. 46. You and me will go together. 47. Is 
 James as old as me ? *48. Who do you think called upon me this morning ? 
 49. My brother is a better swimmer than him. 50. Neither she nor me 
 will go. 51. Neither John nor her has written. 52. I saw the woman whom 
 all said was beautiful. 53. He said that John and me were to go. 54. He 
 decided that James, him, and she should be permitted to go. 55. I wonder 
 if James and them are going. 56. Both Frank and him have written the 
 letters. *57. Who do you think has written to me? 58. Whom do you 
 
 6— G (81) 
 
believe has been here? 59. I wrote to Mr, Smith whom I believe lives on 
 Waller street. 60. I sent the letter to Nan whom I know is not well. 
 
 61. You gave the book to the boy whom you know don't deserve it. 
 
 62. Whom did you say lives in this house? *63. A person who I think was 
 Mr. Thompson came down the street. 64, Whom do you suppose is the 
 author of that book ? *65, It is hard to fight those who you know are right, 
 66, He came to see Frank and I, 67, They wrote a letter to Mary and I, 
 68. I met Frank and he on the way to school, *69, I gave the hat to you, 
 *70, She sent me to him and her, 71, Who did you call? 72, There goes 
 the man who we met yesterday, 73, Who do those pagans worship? 
 74. With who do you sit? *75. Do you know whom I fear? 76, Who did 
 your father take with him? *77, He will not tell whom he robbed, 78, I 
 know who you love, 79, Who do you think I saw? 80, They who are 
 industrious, time will reward, 81. Who do you think I met on my way 
 home? 82, Who are you determined to send on such a mission? 83. Our 
 father bought you and I a present. 84, The man who we had blamed is 
 very sick. *85. Him who lives on the corner, we blame. 86, Who shall I 
 send the book to? 87. The book is for James and I. *88. Whom is this 
 new slate for? 89, This is a matter for you and I to decide at once. 
 90. With respect to you and he, I think Mr. Flint's behavior was proper 
 enough. 91, Alice gave her slate to Frank and I. 92, I should like to 
 meet whoever this letter came from, 93, I spoke to several persons standing 
 near Mr, Patterson, but not he. 94, I am not sure who I should ask for, 
 95, Who did you get the hat for? *96, It is for you and him to decide, 
 97. Who have you written to? 98. There is a small likeness between the 
 poor Chinaman who works in the laundry, and he who rules a whole 
 province. 99. I send the letter to you and he. 100. There is some differ- 
 ence between Frank and I. *101. Whom did you save the lunch for? 
 102. Who did you make the book for ? 
 
 Exercise 109. 
 Errors in conjugation forms. 
 
 The errors represented in this exercise require for their correction a 
 thorough knowledge of the formation of the tenses, and of the principal 
 parts of certain verbs. A thorough review drill upon the construction of 
 each tense must precede any work with the sentences. Pupils must definitely 
 know the principal parts of the verbs treated, and also that the past tense 
 uses simply the past form, the present perfect tense uses the sign have and 
 the past participle of the verb in question. Drill home the fact, especially, 
 that the past form of the principal parts is used in the past tense of the 
 verb and never in any other tense. 
 
 1. I drunk all the water in that pitcher. 2. I seen him when he done it. 
 3. You done that yourself, 4, She cried when she begun to read the story, 
 5, She sung the old song for my mother, 6, He rung the bell, 7, She 
 rung the bell at nine and we come to school, 8, The bird begun to sing at 
 daylight and we seen him in the tree, 9, We run for a doctor when he 
 
 (82) 
 
done it. 10. He came to see me yesterday when he seen that I had done so 
 many brave deeds. 11. I had saw many pictures in the store. 12. James 
 had went to town. 13. He has came home for Christmas. 14. I had saw 
 the man on the wagon. *15. He has seen the animals many times. 16. The 
 boy has came to my house. 17. He has M^ent to the store for me. 18. He 
 drunk a pitcher of water. 19. The teacher rung the bell this morning. 
 20. She sung a new song last night. 21. I seen her when she sung the 
 song. 22. He come from a foreign land. 23. They seen many strange 
 sights. 24. I done it for you. 25. The boys run a race for a prize. 26. She 
 sung many pretty songs before I seen her. *27. She did the work before I 
 came. 28. You have came to a poor place. 29. James has went to many 
 towns. 30. I had saw the book in the store. 31. He had drank many glasses 
 of water. 32. She had broke many dishes before we seen her. 33. The bird 
 has flew to yonder bush. 34. He has ran many races. 35. The boy had 
 stole much money. 36. He had fell from a very tall tree. 37. You must 
 have did my work for it is all done. 38. He has began to write very well. 
 39. The teacher has gave us many poor marks. *40. The man has held the 
 championship of the state. 41. The girl has sang in many towns. 42. She 
 has wrote a new book, 43. The boy had threw a large stone. 44. The thief 
 had stole a new hat. 
 
 Use of the verb ought. Exercise 110. 
 
 The verb ought has no past participle. Therefore, since the past parti- 
 ciple is necessary for any of the perfect tenses, the verb ought can not be 
 used in any of the perfect tenses. The language form for correction should 
 be: Ought is here used as the past participle in the past perfect tense. 
 Since ought has no past participle it can not be used in the past perfect 
 tense. Therefore, we must use some other verb. The sentence might be 
 expressed by "He shouldn't do that." 
 
 The second error expressed in this exercise is that of the use of them as 
 an adjective in the place of those or these. Them can never be used as an 
 adjective. 
 
 1. He hadn't ought to do that. 2. The man had ought to know better. 
 3. I read them books already. 4. Them boys don't mean to do right, 
 5. You hadn't ought to chase them poor cats. *6. He ought to have gone 
 before he met those other men, 7. He don't know that he hadn't ought to 
 take them things. 
 
 Exercise 111. 
 
 Miscellaneous errors w review. 
 
 1, As I walked down the street I seen the man. 2. James did his work 
 more prompt than me. 3. Neither James nor Walter have did all their 
 work. *4. She rang the bell for those who were at a distance. 5. I saw 
 John and she going to the circus. 6. Let's you and me go home. *7. The 
 crow drank all the water in the vase. 8. When we saw the child he begun 
 to cry. 9. He had went dowTi the street just before you came. 10. She 
 
 (83) 
 
sung an entirely new song last night. 11. The hare run swift and escaped 
 the hunters who we saw pursuing it. 12. Was you ready when he come? 
 13. He don 't care who he hits. 14. He with his schoolmates are loitering by 
 the waj'^side. •IS, That ice cream tastes sour. 16. "Who do you mean to 
 call. 17. Either a gopher or a mole are working in the garden. *18, Do 
 good to those who hate you. 19. Each of them run more quick than me. 
 20. Don't she intend to see you and I? 21. Everybody tries to do their 
 duty. *22. Whom do you think I saw this morning? 23. Such a boy as 
 him ought to be punished. 24. He asked to see my mother or I. *25. Both 
 he and I are going. 26. Who did this letter come from? 27. I know that 
 he begun the work for me and you. 28. Each pupil in the class now sang 
 their song. 29. I like to see them squirrels. 30. Neither James nor me 
 have finished our work. 31. She whom I think lives here seems happily. 
 32. I seen him when he done it. 33. Neither Alice nor him have been in 
 the yard. 34. Mary whom I supposed lived in this town sings sweet. 
 35. Every one knew whom he was. 36. The boy with his dog seem to play 
 ball. 37. It don't matter if she does sing well. 38. Each of the boys whom 
 I know live on the south side. *39. Alice seems happy. 40. It was her 
 whom I thought it was. 41. Was the girls in the room? 42. James whom 
 I said was my brother has come home for Christmas. 43. Was you the one 
 who made the box ? 44. He sung slow and soft. 45. The King of France 
 or England were the one whom we thought should decide. 46. He done his 
 work good and ran quick to bring it home. 47. Him was the boy whom I 
 thought it was. 48. He sung the song slow when each one were asked to 
 sing them quick. 49. John, Frank, and me ran a race. 50. We expected 
 that you was coming to see us. 51. He don't go to school now. 52. There 
 was seven books on the table. 53. The train whistled loud and the girls 
 come into the bright lighted station room. 54. Time and tide waits for no 
 man. 55. Each day and each hour bring their portion of duty. *56. The 
 man who lives on Jones street is my cousin. 57. I done what I could. 
 58. There is many mistakes in my composition. 59. Where was you when 
 I called you? 60. Who did you mean when you said that? 61. Bring me 
 them tongs. 62. The man who you said you saw running rapid down the 
 street, done the work yesterday. 63. If I were her I should say less. 64. It 
 was him and me whom you said took the books. 65. Him that is diligent 
 will succeed. 66. Did you sleep good? *67. This should be well shaken. 
 68. He come and told me all he knowed about it. 69. The mule and the 
 horse was harnessed together. 70. Neither the aster nor the dahlia are culti- 
 vated for their fragrance. 71. Such a man as him could never be president. 
 72. Suppose the fortune of every one of us should depend on our winning 
 or losing a game of chess. 73. The noise of cataracts, storms, thunder, or 
 artillery cause wild animals to flee into the forest. 74. Neither of them are 
 remarkable for precision. 75. That night every man of the boat's crew, 
 save John, were down with raging fever. 76. A cargo of fine oranges from 
 the Southern States have just arrived. 77. Have the goods arrived in good 
 condition ? 78. Nobody should praise themselves. 79. Eun quick into the 
 house. 80. Whom do you think was with me yesterday ? *81. Who do you 
 
 (84) 
 
think lives on the new street ? 82. How can you tell who to trust ? 83. The 
 money was divided among the two brothers. 84. He and they we know, 
 but who are you? 85. Twelve months' interest were due. 86. The ship 
 with all her crew were lost. 87. Neither the army nor navy were repre- 
 sented. 88. There was many giants in those days. *89. A box of oranges 
 arrived yesterday from Florida. 90. Every twig, every leaf, and every 
 blade of grass teem with life. 91. He is older than me. 92. Where are 
 each of the boys to stand? 93. Has the second bell rang yet? 94. The 
 traveler who you saw took his seat beside the lady. 95. We had rode only 
 a short distance, when a dark cloud arose quick. *96. He knew who would 
 betray him. 97. He hadn't ought to ask such questions. 98. One or the 
 other have made a serious mistake. 99. That is very easy done. 100. He 
 suffered more than me. 101. Do you remember who we met yesterday? 
 102. The society at these places are always objectionable. 103. Who did 
 you send the letter to? 104. They came soon after you had went away. 
 105. Either you or I are to blame. 106. Every one must judge of their 
 own feelings. 107. Who should I meet the other day but my old friend 
 Jones. 108. They that are diligent I will reward. 109. The tall sunflower 
 and the little violet is turning its face to the sun. 110. One or the other 
 have made a serious mistake. 111. I have set in this position a long time. 
 112. He walked very gentle. 113. He appeared beautifully that evening. 
 114. Who have they at their place for pastor now? 115. The boys hurt 
 theirselves running too fast. 116. Her and I saw them. 117. May Jane 
 go with Mary and I ? 118. I have saw larger ones than that. 119. I have 
 did all my work. 120. He said you and me could go. 121. James and 
 John lost his book on their way home. 122. Who is that book written by? 
 
 ^ OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF 
 
 186) 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Numbers refer to exercises. 
 
 Adjectives, 10-13. 
 
 comparison, 64, 65&, 66, 66b, 67. 
 
 false syntax, 100. 
 
 review, as part of speech, 10, 20. 
 
 review, comparison, 65, 66, 67. 
 Adverbs, 15-19. 
 
 comparison, 06b, 67. 
 
 conjunctive, 77, 81, 82, 83, 78, 89. 
 
 false syntax, 100. 
 
 review, as part of speech, 20. 
 Agreement. 
 
 pronouns with antecedent, 107. 
 
 subject with predicate, 101. 
 Analysis, 28. 
 Antecedent, 76. 
 Apposition. 
 
 clause, 90(c). 
 
 phrase, 90(b). 
 
 noun or pronoun, 90(c). 
 Attribute complement. 
 
 difference between object and, 42. 
 
 false syntax, 108. 
 
 possessive form as, 96: 
 
 pronoun as, 57. 
 Be. 
 
 chart, p. 33. 
 
 conjugation, 38. 
 
 review, 42. 
 Case, p. 56. 
 
 possessive nouns and pronouns, 96. 
 
 possessive nouns, 52-54. 
 
 of pronouns as attribute and subject, 
 57. 
 
 pronouns, special, 108. 
 
 review, 78, 88. 
 Chart. 
 
 I, p. 33. 
 
 II, p. 38. 
 pronouns, p. 56. 
 
 Clause. 
 
 difference between phrase and, 74. 
 
 dependent, 75. 
 
 in apposition, 90(c). 
 
 noun, 84, 85. 
 
 omission of predicate in dependent, 
 106. 
 
 review, 80, 86, 89. 
 Collective nouns, 44(2), 50. 
 Comparison. 
 
 adjectives, 64, 65, 65b, 66, 66b, 67. 
 
 adverbs, 66b, 67. 
 
 Complement. 4, 5, 6. 
 
 difference between object and at- 
 
 attribute, 57, 96, 108. 
 tribute, 42. 
 
 factitive, 91, 92. 
 
 indirect object, 98. 
 
 pronoun as object, 59, 61, 108. 
 
 review, 65, 78, 88, 99. 
 Compound predicate, 69. 
 Compound sentence, 72, 80, 87. 
 Compound subject and complement, 68. 
 Conjugation. 
 
 chart I, p. 33. 
 
 chart II, p. 38. 
 
 directions for teaching, 27(a) (b) (c) 
 (ff){h). 
 
 drill in conjugation, 39, 43, 45, 47, 49, 
 51, 53, 55, 56, 58b, 60, 62, 64. 
 
 errors in conjugation forms, 109. 
 
 verb be, 38. 
 Conjunction, 68, 71. 
 
 correlative, 73, 74. 
 
 review, 69, 72, 89. 
 Conjunctive adverb, 77, 81, 82, 83, 78, 89. 
 Construction, 27. 
 Cumulative review, p. 5. 
 Declension of pronouns, p. 55. 
 Doesn't, don't, 102. 
 Either-or, 104. 
 Emphatic form, 37. 
 Factitive complement, 91, 92. 
 False syntax. 
 
 adjectives and adverbs, 100. 
 
 agreement of pronouns, 107. 
 
 agreement of subject with predicate, 
 101. 
 
 doesn't and don't, 102. 
 
 errors in conjugation forms, 109. 
 
 omission of predicate in dependent 
 clause, 106. 
 
 pronouns as subjects, attributes, ob- 
 jects, 108. 
 
 singular subjects connected by and, 
 103. 
 
 subjects connected by or, either-or, 
 etc., 104. 
 
 subjects preceded by each, every, no, 
 105. 
 
 review. 111. 
 Gender, 42b. 
 Imperative mode, 36. 
 
 (86) 
 
Indicative mode, chart, p. 33. 
 
 signs of, 27d. 
 Indirect object, 98. 
 Infinitive, 30. 
 modifier, 31. 
 
 and prepositional phrases, 32. 
 review, 33, 34, 35, 37, 40, 41, 42, 
 44, 50. 
 Interjection, 98. 
 Irregular adjectives, 656, 66. 
 Irregular verbs, 39, 43, 45, 47, 49, 51, 53, 
 55, 56, 586, 60, 62! 
 
 common errors in, 29, 109. 
 
 ought, 110. 
 
 series 1, p. 36. 
 
 series 2, exercise 29(1), p. 41. 
 Mode. 
 
 compound potential, 70. 
 
 imperative, 36. 
 
 indicative, 27(o) (6) (c) (d) (e) (f). 
 Nouns. 
 
 collective, 44(2), 60. 
 
 number, 44(1), 46, 48. 
 
 possessive, 52-54. 
 Office, 7. 
 Object, 5, 9, 61. 
 
 indirect, 93. 
 
 pronouns as, 59, 61. 
 Participle, 33. 
 
 as modifier; 34. 
 
 review, 35, 37, 40, 41, 44, 50, 88. 
 Phrase. 
 
 difference between clause and, 74. 
 
 in apposition, 906. 
 
 prepositional, 24. 
 
 prepositional distinguished from infini- 
 tive, 32. 
 Predicate, 1. 
 
 agreement of subject with, 101. 
 
 compound, 09. 
 
 omission of in dependent clause, 106. 
 Preposition, 21-26. 
 
 phrase, 24. 
 
 phrase distinguished from infinitive, 
 32. 
 
 review, 26. 
 Pronoun. 
 
 agreement, 107. 
 
 apposition, 90(a). 
 
 as object, 59, 61. 
 
 as subject and attribute, 57, 108. 
 
 chart of declension, p. 56. 
 
 declension, 55(6). 
 
 possessive, 56. 
 
 object, 108. 
 
 relative, 75, 76, 89. 
 
 review, 10, 14, 20, 23, 27(1) (2), 65, 
 78, 88, 89. 
 Relative pronouns, 75, 76, 89. 
 Review, special. 
 
 a, an, the, 12. 
 
 adjectives, 14, 20, 27(1) (2), 65, 67. 
 
 adverbs, 20, 27(1) (2), 30, 67, 89. 
 
 Review, special — Continued. 
 
 analysis, 14, 27(1) (2), 28. 
 
 clause, 86. 
 
 chart I, 27(A). 
 
 conjugation, 42, 70. 
 
 conjunctive adverbs, 89. 
 
 conjunctions, 69, 72, 89. 
 
 false syntax. 111. 
 
 infinitives, 29(2), 33, 34, 35, 37, 40, 
 
 41, 42, 44, 50. 
 irregular verbs, 39, 43, 45, 47, 49, 51, 
 
 53, 55. 
 mode, 41. 
 nouns. 
 
 collective, 50. 
 plurals, 48. 
 oflice, 10, 27(1) (2). 
 participle, 35, 37, 40, 41, 44, 50, 80. 
 phrases, 88. 
 
 preposition, 23, 26, 27(1) (2). 
 pronouns, 16, 20, 23, 27(1) (2), 65, 
 
 78, 88, 89. 
 sentences, 80, 87, 89. 
 special constructions, 99. 
 tense, 41. 
 
 voice, 63, 65, 70, 79. 
 Sentence. 
 
 complex, 80, 81, 82, 83. 
 compound, 72, 74. 
 review, 80, 87, 89. 
 Special constructions. 
 
 apposition, 90(a)(6)(c). 
 factitive complement, 91, 92. 
 indirect object, 93. 
 interjection, 98. 
 possessive as attribute, 96. 
 there, 94. 
 to, omitted, 97. 
 what, 95. , 
 Subject, 1, 2, 3. 
 compound, 68. 
 
 connected by or, either-or, etc., 104. 
 preceded by each, every, no, 105. 
 pronoun as, 57. 
 
 singular, connected by and, 103. 
 Tense. 
 
 signs of, 27(d). 
 There, 94. 
 
 To, omitted after certain verbs, 97. 
 Treatment of text, p. 12. 
 Verbs. 
 
 chart I, p. 33. 
 
 chart II, p. 38. 
 
 conjugation, directions for study of, 
 
 p. 34. 
 drill in regular and irregular verbs, 
 39, 43, 45, 47, 49, 51, 53, 55, 56, 
 586, 60, 62, 64. 
 irregular, series 1, p. 36; series 2, 
 p. 41. 
 Voice, 58. 
 
 review, 63, 70, 79. 
 What, 95. 
 
 (87) 
 
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