THE 
 
 TURKISH PEOPLE 
 
 THEIR SOCIAL LIFE, RELIGIOUS 
 
 BELIEFS AND INSTITUTIONS 
 
 AND DOMESTIC LIFE 
 
 BY 
 
 LUCY M. J. GARNETT 
 
 WITH TWENTY-ONE ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 METHUEN & CO. 
 
 36 ESSEX STREET W.C. 
 
 LONDON 
 
First Published in igog 
 
TO 
 
 THE MEMORY OF 
 THE FATHER OF THE TURKISH CONSTITUTION 
 
 MIDHAT PASHA 
 
 STATESMAN, PATRIOT AND MARTYR 
 
 THIS VOLUME IS REVERENTLY 
 DEDICATED 
 
 252352 
 
CONTENTS 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 PAGE 
 
 THE ORIGIN OF THE OSMANLI TURKS xi 
 
 PART I 
 
 SOCIAL LIFE 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 THE TURKS OF THE CAPITAL 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 OFFICIAL AND MILITARY TURKS 24 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 DENIZENS OF THE PALACES 4 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 PROVINCIAL AND COUNTRY FOLK 63 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 HOLIDAY LIFE 78 
 
 PART II 
 
 RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND INSTITUTIONS 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 MOSQUES AND THEIR GUARDIANS .103 
 
 vii 
 
viii THE TURKISH PEOPLE 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 PACK 
 
 BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS 114 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 FASTS, FEASTS, AND PILGRIMAGE 143 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS l6o 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 MYSTICISM AND FREETHOUGHT 184 
 
 PART III 
 DOMESTIC LIFE 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 THE HAREM SYSTEM 211 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 FAMILY CEREMONIES (l) BIRTH AND CIRCUMCISION CERE- 
 MONIES 227 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 FAMILY CEREMONIES (2) MARRIAGE CEREMONIES . . .237 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 
 FAMILY CEREMONIES (3) FUNERAL CEREMONIES . . . 249 
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 
 TURKISH HOMES AND HOME LIFE 258 
 
 CONCLUSION 
 
 THE FUTURE OF THE OSMANLI TURKS 286 
 
 GLOSSARY 293 
 
 INDEX 295 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 SULTAN MOHAMMED v Frontispiece 
 
 FACING PAGE 
 
 A KONAK ON THE BOSPHORUS. NOW THE "SUMMER PALACE" 
 
 OF THE FRENCH EMBASSY 2 
 
 AT THE BATHS OF YENI KAPLIDJAH (BROUSSA) . . .12 
 
 ITINERANT VENDORS, COURTYARD OF VALIDE MOSQUE, 
 
 STAMBOUL 14 
 
 ARTILLERY OF THE FIRST BRIGADE 3 2 
 
 PALACE OF DOLMA-BAKTCHE 42 
 
 THE SULTAN'S VICTORIA 44 
 
 H.I.H. PRINCE SELIM EFFENDI, ELDEST SON OF THE SULTAN 62 
 
 A CHANDLER'S SHOP AT AIDIN (ASIA MINOR) .... 63 
 
 TURKISH PEASANTS 75 
 
 THE "GREAT MOSQUE" AT BROUSSA 103 
 
 INTERIOR OF THE SULEYMANISH MOSQUE . . . . 106 
 
 A STREET FOUNTAIN (SEBIL) IN STAMBOUL . . . . IOQ 
 
 A PRELIMINARY TO PRAYER . . . . . . , . Il6 
 
 LAMBS FOR THE SACRIFICE 147 
 
 STUDENTS AT THE TURKISH AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL, SALONICA 176 
 
 DERVISHES OF THE MEVLEVI ORDER 2OO 
 
 WHERE THE SWEETS ARE MADE AND SOLD .... 230 
 A TURKISH STREET IN AIDIN, ASIA MINOR . . . .258 
 
 A TURKISH LADY IN YASHMAK AND FERADJEH . . . 272 
 
 SULTAN ABDUL HAMID II. . 2Q2 
 
 ix 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 THE ORIGIN OF THE OSMANLI TURKS 
 
 THE national Turkish traditions preserved by the 
 Persian historians Rashid-ed-Din and Jowaini 
 from Uigurian books, now lost, point to the region 
 watered by the Selenga and its affluents, the 
 Orkhon and the Tugela, as the primitive seat of the 
 Turkish people. But already as early as the sixth 
 century A.D. the Turks had their traditional hero in 
 Khan Disabul, the " Master of the Seven Races, and Lord 
 of the Seven Climates of the World," who exchanged 
 embassies with Justinian, and whose friendship the Roman 
 Emperor desired in order that in the words of his 
 Ambassador to the Golden Mountain "a strict alliance, 
 without envy or deceit, might for ever be maintained 
 between the two most powerful nations of the earth." 1 
 Somewhere about the second decade of the thirteenth 
 century, the little Turkish tribe destined in due course 
 to found the Ottoman Empire was driven by invading 
 Mongols from its original home, and, passing through 
 Persia, entered Armenia under the leadership of Suleyman 
 Shah, its hereditary chief. His son and successor, Erto- 
 ghrul, while wandering with his warriors over those wide 
 Asian lands, came one day upon two armies engaged in 
 desperate conflict. Riding at once to the assistance of 
 what appeared to be the weaker party, their assailants 
 a horde of Mongols who had invaded the territories of 
 Ala-ed-Din, Sultan of Konieh, the ancient Iconium 
 
 1 Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire^ vol. v. 
 pp. 178-181. 
 
 xi 
 
xii THE TURKISH PEOPLE 
 
 were put to flight. In reward for this signal service, the 
 Seljukian Prince conferred upon Ertoghrul, as a military 
 fief, a considerable tract of land, comprising within its 
 limits the towns of Sugut and Eski Shehir. His son 
 Othman or Osman, surnamed " The Bonebreaker," having 
 while still young won from the Greeks for his Suzerain 
 several important towns, was rewarded for this service 
 with the title of " Bey," along with the symbols pertaining 
 to that military rank the drum and horse-tailed standard. 
 In 1300 the Seljukian Kingdom fell to pieces, ten separate 
 principalities taking its place, all of which were eventually 
 merged in that of Osman, originally the least important 
 among them ; and from this time may be dated the rise 
 of the Ottoman Empire. 
 
 The use of the name " Turks " has never been limited 
 in a clear and definite way by European writers. By 
 Byzantine authors it was generally used in a collective 
 sense to indicate certain races of Central and South- 
 western Asia ; while at the present day Europeans 
 restrict this term to the Osmanlis, who themselves scorn- 
 fully repudiate it ; their nation, as they hold, having ceased 
 to be Turkish either in blood or in culture. As Mr. Stuart- 
 Glennie has remarked in his essay on "The Ethnography 
 of Turkey," 1 " No Liberal assumption except that perhaps 
 as to the universal ' subjection of women ' is in such utter 
 contradiction to historical facts as the assumption that 
 the Osmanlis are Turks in the sense in which that term, 
 as likewise that of Turanian, is ordinarily used namely, 
 to designate not only a non-Aryan, but a Coloured Race." 
 For it is very doubtful whether even the small original 
 following of the Central Asian chief, Suleyman Shah, 
 were save perhaps in their lowest ranks what is now 
 commonly understood by the terms Turk, Tartar, and 
 Turanian ; and it is, on the other hand, extremely probable 
 that this small original tribe of westward wandering 
 Osmanlis belonged to that non-Semitic and non-Aryan, 
 " Archaian " white race which recent ethnological research 
 has shown to have been that of the founders of the 
 
 1 Introductory Chapter to The Women and Folklore of Turkey^ 
 vol. i., 1890. 
 
INTRODUCTION xiii 
 
 Chaldean and Egyptian civilisations, and to be still, as it 
 has from the earliest times been, widely distributed over 
 Central Asia. And with reference to such a descent the 
 Crescent symbol of the Osmanlis is very significant, 
 connected, as it seems to be, with the Moon-god of the 
 Chaldeans, masculine also in Turkish, and of whose wide- 
 spread worship topographical traces may be found from 
 Arabia to Asia Minor. It is also noteworthy that, rich 
 as Ottoman literature is in tales, there is found in it no 
 tradition, or trace even, connecting the Osmanlis with the 
 Tartar race. 
 
 But whether originally a purely white race or not, 
 the Osmanli Turks, since their appearance on the historic 
 arena in the thirteenth century, have developed into the 
 great nation they now constitute by admixture during 
 more than six centuries with the best white blood both 
 of Asia and of Europe. This admixture has been effected 
 in various ways, not the least important having been the 
 establishment in the reign of Orchan of the Janissary 
 Corps (1365). This corps was originally, and until 1672 
 exclusively, composed of Christian boys, a certain number 
 of whom were every year forcibly recruited from among 
 the subject populations ; and during the years of their 
 training as soldiers not only were they carefully instructed 
 in the tenets of Islam, but also to a certain extent, and 
 in their more popular aspect, in the doctrines of the 
 Bektashi Order of Dervishes in which all were enrolled 
 as lay members, this Corps having at its formation received 
 the blessing of its founder, Hadji Bektash, of Khorassan, 
 poet and philosopher, fanatic and fighting monk. After 
 a certain number of years of service in the armies of the 
 Sultans, the Janissaries left the ranks to settle on the 
 lands granted as a reward for their long and faithful 
 services, married the daughters of their Moslem neigh- 
 bours, and brought up their children as Osmanlis. The 
 spoils of the cities and provinces, overrun by Turkish 
 armies or raided by Mediterranean Corsairs, included both 
 youths and maidens, the latter being destined to people 
 the harems of their captors, those among the former for- 
 tunate enough to escape labour at the oar in the war-galleys 
 
xiv THE TURKISH PEOPLE 
 
 of their masters being purchased by Moslem households 
 for the service of the selamlik. Many of those who had 
 thus entered Moslem society through the gate of slavery 
 subsequently rose to high positions in the State ; and 
 the condition of bondage not being in Moslem countries 
 either permanent or hereditary, their origin was speedily 
 lost sight of, and their descendants helped to swell the 
 ranks of the Osmanli nation. 
 
 In the copious ballad literature of the Modern Greeks 
 are to be found numerous episodes reminiscent of all these 
 methods of recruitment. These old popular songs, which 
 have been orally transmitted during centuries from one 
 generation to another, contain in many cases the actual 
 individual expression of the grief of those thus ruthlessly 
 torn from home and friends and faith, and of the sorrow 
 of their bereaved relatives. One unhappy woman of 
 Epirus cries 
 
 " O cruel Sultan, cursed be thou, yea, be thou thrice accursed, 
 For all the evil thou hast wrought, the ill thou still art working ! 
 Thou send'st and biddest forth the priests, the notables, the elders, 
 The Tax of Children to collect, to make them Janissaries. 
 Fond mothers weep their sons beloved, and sisters brothers cherished. 
 And I'm with burning grief consumed, and all my life must sorrow 
 Last year my little son they took, this year they take my brother ! " x 
 
 In another ballad a Greek captive, released on the 
 defeat of the Turks by Don John of Austria at the naval 
 battle of Lepanto (1574), thus briefly relates to his 
 deliverers the story of his captivity 
 
 " A four days' bridegroom only I, when Turks a captive took me, 
 And ten long years I've passed since then on Barbary's soil in 
 
 durance, 
 
 Ten walnut trees I planted there, within my prison dreary, 
 Of all of them I ate the fruit, but never found I freedom." 2 
 
 Not always, however, as reluctant recruits do the sons 
 of the rayahs appear to have joined the ranks of the " New 
 Troop." In a song from North Eubcea a woman boasts 
 that she has among other kindred of note a "Janissary 
 brother-in-law, who lures away the youngsters." And it 
 
 1 Greek Folkpoesy, vol. i. p. 281. 2 Ibid., p. 283. 
 
INTRODUCTION xv 
 
 is, I believe, a matter of historical fact that, tempted by 
 the privileges enjoyed by members of this corps, parents of 
 Christian boys not infrequently intrigued to get their sons 
 included among the numbers levied. And though many 
 Christian maidens as, for instance, Despo of Liakata 1 - 
 no doubt went often unwillingly enough to be the brides 
 of their Moslem over-lords, there were exceptions then, 
 as in modern times ; and an underlying expression of 
 satisfaction at their future prospects is occasionally allowed 
 to appear, as in a Cretan ballad which describes the 
 abduction by a Turkish ship's crew of a Priest's daughter, 
 who, after begging her father to keep for himself the 
 money he had raised as her ransom, thus naively adds 
 
 " And I on costly carpets tread, on golden chair I seat me, 
 And wipe the tears that dim mine eyes with gold-embroidered 
 kerchief." 2 
 
 It must not, however, be supposed that the recruitment 
 from the neighbouring Aryan and Caucasian populations 
 has been entirely, or even mainly, the result of the capture 
 and enslavement of their men and women, and the forcible 
 annual enlistment during three centuries of so many 
 hundred thousands of the sons of the subject Christians 
 as Janissaries. For such was the condition of security 
 established by the Emir Orkhan in his dominions that 
 many Asiatic subjects of the Byzantine Caesars fled to 
 him for the protection their own rulers could not, or would 
 not, afford them, and abjuring their Christian Faith, were 
 speedily merged into the Osmanli nation. And the 
 numbers of the Osmanlis were also during its early 
 history frequently and importantly augmented by the 
 voluntary submission and conversion to Islam of inde- 
 pendent Asian Princes and Chieftains who, fired with 
 
 1 The daughter of a wealthy sheep-farmer belonging to the Aspro- 
 potamos district of Epirus, who with her four brothers figures frequently 
 in folksong. While washing by the riverside she had been seen and 
 carried off by Ali Pasha, the tyrant of Joannina, to his palace on the 
 lake of that name, where she is said to have died of grief within fifteen 
 days. So great, however, was the Pasha's regard for his unwilling 
 bride, that at her death he conferred many honours and benefits on 
 her family. 
 
 2 Greek Folkpoesy^ vol. i. p. 261. 
 
xvi THE TURKISH PEOPLE 
 
 admiration of the Turkish Emirs as Orkhan and his sons 
 were then styled freely enlisted themselves and their 
 followers under the banner of the Crescent. Nor only in 
 Asia and during the earlier period of Turkish Conquests. 
 For in the Balkan Peninsula there was at one time, owing 
 to preparation by the widespread Protestantism of the 
 Paulicians, such a disposition to embrace Islam that had 
 it not been for the intervention of the Great White Tzar 
 of the North to whom the Christians of South-Eastern 
 Europe looked for the preservation of their menaced 
 national freedom almost all the Peninsula might have 
 been converted to the larger Protestantism of Islam. And 
 thus in the Balkans, as in the Islands of the -/Egean, the 
 Moslem section of the population, generally referred to as 
 " Turks," are of the purest Aryan, or, at least, white blood 
 of the country. 
 
THE TURKISH PEOPLE 
 
 PART I 
 SOCIAL LIFE 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 THE TURKS OF THE CAPITAL 
 
 ONE of the predominating instincts of the Osmanli 
 Turks has ever been a passion for the pic- 
 turesque in nature, a love of splendid sites, 
 sparkling seas, leafy shades, cool fountains, and wide 
 horizons ; and this instinct has led them, wherever they 
 have settled, to choose for their abodes the most charming 
 situations, commanding views unrivalled in grandeur and 
 beauty. At Broussa, until 1453 the Turkish Capital, the 
 quarter of the ruling race spreads over the lower slopes 
 of the Bithynian Olympus ; at Smyrna it lies beneath 
 the ruined walls and towers of the ancient citadel on 
 Mount Pagus, the scene of the martyrdom of St. Polycarp 
 and of countless sieges and sanguinary struggles with 
 invading hosts. At Salonica, equally, the streets of the 
 Turkish quarter extend from the new street opened out 
 
OF THE CAPITAL 
 
 by Midhat Pasha more than thirty years ago, and named 
 after him, to the northern walls and the castle of the 
 " Seven Towers " at the summit of the hill on the slopes 
 of which the city is built ; while at Constantinople not 
 only are the seven hills of Stamboul almost entirely 
 occupied by the homes of the Osmanlis, but they have 
 also appropriated many a fair spot on the shores both of 
 the Bosphorus and of the Sea of Marmora. 
 
 The streets of a Turkish quarter are often, owing to 
 their elevated situation, steep, and also for the most part 
 winding and narrow. The pavement, if any there be, is 
 of cobble-stones sloping towards a gutter in the centre of 
 the roadway, which is usually ankle-deep in dust in dry, 
 and a rushing torrent in rainy weather. In other respects, 
 however, the streets are, generally speaking, cleaner than 
 those of the Christian and Jewish mahallas, partly owing 
 to the natural drainage consequent on their elevated 
 situation, partly to the greater space available in their 
 courtyards and gardens for the bestowal of refuse, and 
 also to the presence in their streets of the pariah dogs who 
 act as scavengers, and, though considered unclean animals 
 and not admitted to the houses of Moslems, are protected 
 and treated with kindness by them. Kindness to animals, 
 I may here remark, is a leading trait in Turkish character ; 
 and one may often see in the streets, under a house wall, 
 rude little temporary shelters constructed of boards and 
 carpeted with straw for the accommodation of a canine 
 mother and her brood of woolly pups, who speedily 
 become the pets and proteges of the whole mahalla. 
 
fi 
 
 h 
 
 W o 
 
 H 
 
THE TURKS OF THE CAPITAL 3 
 
 Life in the Capital and in the large seaport cities of 
 the Levant presents certain aspects not discoverable in the 
 towns of the interior, where the population, though always 
 composed of two or more nationalities, is of a less cos- 
 mopolitan character, and where social conditions generally 
 are less affected by European influence. But even in 
 these great cities the difference, so far at least as the vast 
 mass of Turkish inhabitants are concerned, is superficial 
 and external rather than essential. For all the various 
 nationalities, Moslem, Christian, and Jewish, of which 
 these cosmopolitan populations are made up, live in 
 separate quarters of the cities, and their members, after 
 transacting business with each other during the day 
 honestly or otherwise according to their several codes of 
 commercial morality retire at sunset into worlds totally 
 different and divided from each other by impassable 
 barriers of language, religion, and tradition, national 
 aspiration, and social custom ; the life and thought of a 
 mere fraction of each section of the native races being at 
 all influenced by those of the foreigners with whom they 
 come into daily contact. At Smyrna and Salonica the 
 Osmanlis form but a comparatively small section of the 
 population ; in the Capital, however, they are exceedingly 
 numerous, peopling almost the whole of Stamboul as well 
 as many of the suburbs on both sides of the Bosphorus. 
 And notwithstanding the heterogeneous character of its 
 inhabitants generally, one can never here lose sight of the 
 fact that the Turks are the ruling race, and that Con- 
 stantinople is the capital of the Moslem world. According 
 
4 THE TURKS OF THE CAPITAL 
 
 to an Albanian adage, "to find a representative Turk 
 one must go to Stamboul, and to find a true Albanian to 
 Elbassan." The term " Koniar Turk" a Turk from 
 Konieh, the ancient Iconium is, however, most frequently 
 used by Greeks and others to indicate a thoroughbred 
 Osmanli. Pride of race is, it must be admitted, excessive 
 in the Turks, and the habit of domination has been 
 developed by their position as a ruling people surrounded 
 by subject nationalities. Though as mentioned in the 
 introduction to a great extent of the same blood, they as 
 a nation display a somewhat overweening sense of their 
 superiority to the subject races, having few interests or 
 aspirations in common with them, seldom acquiring their 
 languages, or attempting to understand their manners and 
 customs, which they may be said to regard generally with 
 a somewhat contemptuous toleration. 
 
 The social organisation of the Osmanlis themselves is, 
 on the other hand, distinctly opposed to the principles of 
 aristocracy and hereditary rank. A Sultan's daughters 
 marry subjects, the connections even of the Imperial family 
 do not form a noble or privileged class, and such Imperial 
 descent is, in a few generations, practically lost sight of. 
 The division of estates between all children of one father, 
 female as well as male, and the Oriental propensity of the 
 Government to confiscate any considerable accumulation 
 of riches, have also constituted effectual barriers to the 
 transmission to descendants of family position and 
 affluence. In Asia Minor, however, there may still be 
 found a certain number of families constituting a kind of 
 
THE TURKS OF THE CAPITAL 5 
 
 landed gentry whose ancestors for the most part con- 
 verted Moslems of non-Turkish origin were at the Con- 
 quest allowed to retain their lands, holding them as 
 military fiefs. And previous to the introduction in 1867 
 of the present centralising administration the country 
 districts in certain 'provinces were ruled either by such 
 Turkish feudatories, or, as in Albania and Kurdistan, by 
 tribal chieftains, whose loyalty to the Porte was most 
 easily secured by allowing them entire freedom in dealing 
 with their own vassals. With the exception of these 
 provincial families, in which the title of Bey is hereditary, 
 the Ottomans have never had an aristocracy properly so 
 called, all the Moslem subjects of the Sultan, whether 
 born freemen or emancipated slaves, being virtually on 
 a level beneath him. There is accordingly nothing in the 
 social system of Turkey to prevent the poorest Osmanli 
 from attaining the highest dignity, that of Grand Vizier. 
 On the other hand, a deposed Minister may descend to an 
 inferior employment without losing caste, forfeiting any 
 of his civil rights, or becoming less eligible for office when 
 Fortune's wheel may again have revolved in his favour, 
 and to the Oriental mind there is consequently nothing 
 extraordinary in Joseph's having risen from the position 
 of a slave to that of Grand Vizier of the King of 
 Egypt, nor is the marriage of a handsome and adven- 
 turous " widow's son," or other hero of fairy tale, with a 
 king's daughter; and the Oriental possessor of wit and 
 audacity may indeed say with Pistol, " The world's mine 
 oyster ! " 
 
6 THE TURKS OF THE CAPITAL 
 
 A still further proof of the absence from their institu- 
 tions of class divisions is offered by the absence of Turkish 
 family names. The names of men are, as a rule, Biblical 
 or historical, and in order to differentiate one Ali or 
 Mehmet from another, a nickname is frequently bestowed 
 denoting some personal peculiarity, physical or moral, 
 such as "Bajuksis (Short-legged) Ali Pasha," "Buyuk 
 (Big) Mehmet Agha," Kuchuk (Little) Selim Effendi," 
 " Chapgun (Scamp) Ali Bey." The only Turkish title 
 which carries with it any definite rank and precedence is 
 that of Pasha, being conferred personally by the Sultan 
 on the man whom he so "delighteth to honour." Bey 
 and Effendi are merely conventional designations, as 
 indefinite as our "Esquire" has come to be, the former 
 being generally applied to high Government officials, 
 colonels, and distinguished persons, including foreigners, 
 and also to their sons. Effendi has the same signification 
 as the French Monsieur, and is applied indiscriminately to 
 Princes of the Royal house, to Mollahs and Sheikhs, to 
 women, and even to native Christians. It is also used in 
 conjunction with the other titles, a gentleman being 
 addressed as Bey Effendi, or Pasha Effendi, and a lady 
 as Hannm Effendi. Agha is applied to petty officers and 
 respectable elderly Turks, and Tchelebi (" gentleman ") to 
 persons of the better class generally, whether Christian or 
 Moslem. But notwithstanding this absence of hereditary 
 rank and class distinction perhaps because of it every 
 Osmanli is both by nature and tradition an aristocrat, and 
 the same dignity of bearing and courtesy of manner may 
 
THE TURKS OF THE CAPITAL 7 
 
 be met with in the hovel of the peasant as in the konak of 
 the Pasha. 
 
 A noteworthy characteristic of Turkish town life is its 
 extreme sobriety and consequent orderliness. Notwith- 
 standing the mixture of races and the scarcity of police- 
 men, street brawls or disturbances of any kind are of rare 
 occurrence, and native Christians or foreign sailors are 
 usually found to be responsible for them ; foot passengers 
 make way for each other in the narrow and crowded 
 streets and bazars with extreme good nature and mutual 
 compliments ; the heavily laden hamal and the driver of 
 cart or carriage utters continually his warning cry of 
 " Varda ! " and there is little of the coarseness and vulgar 
 brutality common in Western cities. In social relations, 
 generally, a rigid system of etiquette is observed by the 
 Osmanlis, and respect is instinctively paid by those of a 
 lower to those of a higher rank. A Turk when visiting 
 another knows the precise distance from the door at which 
 his friend should meet him, the special words which his 
 rutbe social or official standing entitles him to be greeted 
 with, and the exact distance from his host on the divan at 
 which he should take his seat. A host may relax the 
 rules of etiquette towards his guests should they be of 
 lower official rank than himself; but a guest has not this 
 privilege, and any breach of the rules of etiquette on 
 either part, if apparently intentional, is considered an 
 affront. The conditions of public safety vary, however, 
 greatly according to locality. In Asiatic Smyrna, for 
 instance, and also to a certain extent in Constantinople, 
 
8 THE TURKS OF THE CAPITAL 
 
 foreign ladies could, even forty years ago, traverse the 
 streets with safety, or travel in the Bosphorus steamers ; 
 while in European Salonica, even under normal conditions, 
 no lady, foreign or native, might venture abroad, sive 
 perhaps in one or two streets of the Frank quarter, 
 without the escort of a gentleman or manservant, for 
 fear of molestation at the hands of the Albanians and 
 other lawless denizens of the Macedonian " hinterland ; " 
 the long-horned draught buffaloes and files of Jew-driven 
 pack animals with their unwieldy burdens, here con- 
 stituting also another source of danger to pedestrians. 
 By night public safety is, in many localities, still entrusted 
 to the bektchi a counterpart of our own obsolete watch- 
 man who, lantern in hand, goes his round between 
 sunset and sunrise, giving to evildoers chivalrous warning 
 of his approach by striking his iron-shod staff at intervals 
 on the pavement. Many of the streets are but inadequately 
 lighted at night, if lighted at all, and it is consequently 
 customary for every one when out of doors after sunset to 
 carry a lighted lantern, and any individual encountering a 
 police patrol, or passing a guard-house without this token 
 of his honesty of purpose, will hardly avoid getting into 
 difficulties. 
 
 Alike in the Capital and the provincial cities or 
 townships, the bazars form the chief centre of commercial 
 life. The term "bazar," however, though derived from a 
 Turkish word signifying "to bargain," is applied by the 
 Turks only to such market-places as the Baluk-Basar, or 
 fish-market ; the term tcharshi being generally applied to 
 
THE TURKS OF THE CAPITAL 9 
 
 streets the shops in which are devoted exclusively to the 
 manufacture or sale of one kind of goods ; while the same 
 term, or that of bezesten, is applied to the vast walled and 
 roofed-in enclosures which constitute the great emporiums 
 in the East. The most familiar examples of these are the 
 Bezesten, or Grand Bazar of Stamboul, and the Misr 
 Tcharshi, or Cairene Bazar. This Grand Bazar forms, as 
 it were, a city within a city, containing arcaded streets, 
 tortuous and mysterious lanes and alleys, squares and 
 fountains, all enclosed within high protecting walls, and 
 covered by a vaulted roof studded with hundreds of 
 cupolas, through which penetrates a subdued light more 
 favourable, it must be admitted, to the vendor than to the 
 purchaser. Here, as elsewhere, each commodity has its 
 special habitat. In one quarter are found embroideries in 
 gold and silver, brocades and damasks, with gauzes of 
 silk, cotton, and linen from the looms of Broussa ; in 
 another are displayed specimens of all the rugs and 
 carpets woven in nomad tent, in village home, and in 
 town factory between Smyrna and Samarcand ; while, in 
 a third, footgear of every description, from a waterman's 
 boot to a Sultana's slipper, may be purchased ; in a fourth 
 the jewellers and dealers in pearls and precious stones 
 conceal, rather than display, in diminutive shops their 
 valuable stock-in-trade; while a fifth will be found 
 devoted to small arms calculated to appeal to the fancy 
 of every Turkish subject between the Highlands of 
 Kurdistan and the mountains of Albania. 
 
 The khans, or caravanserais, which throughout the 
 
10 THE TURKS OF THE CAPITAL 
 
 East supply to native travellers the place of inns or 
 hostelries, have little in common with such in the 
 European acceptation of the term, as they furnish neither 
 food nor attendance to those making use of them. The 
 Capital contains a considerable number of khans ; one 
 or more may be found in every large town ; while others 
 are met with at various points on the great highways of 
 the interior. Not a few owe their origin to the muni- 
 ficence of the pious, this provision for the accommodation 
 of the weary wayfarer being included in the list of 
 "good works" required of Moslems. Among such may 
 be mentioned the "Lady's Khan" on the road between 
 loannina and Mezzovo, built, together with the beautiful 
 fountain near it, by the widow of a famous Suleyman Pasha, 
 and the "Khan of the Valide" in Stamboul, adjoining 
 the mosque of that name, founded by the able Regent 
 Tarkhan Sultana, mother of Mohammed IV. The archi- 
 tecture of this latter vast caravanserai, which is considered 
 a sort of model for such edifices, is quite monastic in 
 character. A great arched gateway gives access to a 
 quadrangle containing a tree-shaded fountain and sur- 
 rounded by stables and storehouses for merchandise, 
 above which extend three superimposed cloistered 
 galleries on which open all the cell-like apartments. 
 These lodgings contain no furniture, as all Oriental 
 travellers carry with them their own bedding, rugs, and 
 utensils, and the charge made for accommodation is corre- 
 spondingly small. The further wants of the guests are 
 easily supplied at the coffee-stall and cook-shop on the 
 
THE TURKS OF THE CAPITAL 11 
 
 premises, or in the numerous establishments of the kind 
 with which the neighbourhood abounds. In this and the 
 other large caravanserais at Stamboul, as also at Smyrna 
 and Salonica, may be found collected a motley throng 
 of strangers, pilgrims, and traders, together with the 
 donkeys and mules, horses and camels, on which they 
 and their varied merchandise have been transported 
 from the far borders of the Ottoman Empire, European, 
 Asiatic, and African. And, from time immemorial, these 
 hostelries have constituted important centres, not of trade 
 only, but also for the exchange of news and ideas, and 
 occur frequently in Oriental folk-tales. \S 
 
 Coffee and tobacco are, in the Western mind, indis- 
 solubly associated with the traditional Turk ; and these 
 luxuries, despite the fulminations hurled against them 
 in past centuries by ascetic moralists, have become for 
 the inhabitants of Turkey generally not only the indis- 
 pensable adjuncts of civility and hospitality, but almost 
 the necessaries of existence. Coffee and cigarettes indeed 
 appear to constitute an integral part of every business 
 transaction and every social or official interview ; and so 
 many cups of the fragrant beverage must perforce be 
 partaken of in the course of a day that their consumption 
 must inevitably have injurious consequences but for the 
 special method of preparation which seems to render it 
 at the same time stimulant and innocuous. So con- 
 tinuous is the demand for freshly made "creaming" 
 coffee, that kahfents are found 'on every hand in crowded 
 streets, by suburban roadsides, on boat-piers and in 
 
12 THE TURKS OF THE CAPITAL 
 
 market-places, wherever, in a word, men resort for 
 business or relaxation. Many are mere wooden shanties 
 shaded by an awning or vine-covered trellis, in front 
 of, or under which the contemplative Orientals sit con- 
 tentedly on rush-bottomed stools, a cup in one hand and 
 the mouthpiece of narghile or stem of tchibouk in the 
 other, for hours together. These coffee-houses, together 
 with the public baths, in default of clubs or " institutes," 
 have from time immemorial formed throughout the East 
 the chief centres of union and conversation for the middle 
 and lower classes, the men's baths being open in the 
 evening as well as during the day. In both of these 
 resorts those who can read impart to their unlettered 
 neighbours the news of the day no longer, happily, as 
 in former years, suppressed or distorted by Press censor- 
 ship discuss political and social questions, and make 
 acquaintance with their fellow-citizens. Turks of the 
 lower class resort to the kahfene in the early morning 
 for a cheering cup and soothing narghile before betaking 
 themselves to their daily avocations, and repair to them 
 again at intervals during the day as opportunity may 
 offer. Most unpretentious and by no means very inviting 
 in appearance are these kakfenes, and few can boast of 
 any arrangements for the comfort of those who frequent 
 them, the best being furnished only with mats, rugs, 
 and cushions, placed on a raised platform surrounding 
 the interior. The Turks are naturally gregarious and 
 socially inclined, and the harem system on which their 
 homes are organised not offering facilities especially 
 
THE TURKS OF THE CAPITAL 13 
 
 among the lower middle and labouring classes for 
 social intercourse, a club of some kind has always 
 formed a necessary element of urban life. And one 
 of the most striking features of Constantinople under 
 the new regime has been the establishment of numerous 
 bond fide clubs to meet the requirements of every class 
 and profession. 
 
 Personal cleanliness among Moslems certainly comes 
 "next to godliness," being enjoined by the Sheriat, or 
 Sacred Law; and to the regular and careful ablutions 
 requisite for the maintenance of the condition of legal 
 purity in which certain religious acts may alone be per- 
 formed as also no doubt to their habitual temperance, 
 are probably due the comparative freedom of the Turks 
 from many of the ailments which afflict their Christian and 
 Jewish neighbours. Several hammams t as Turkish baths 
 are termed, are to be found in every large town, and in 
 the Capital they are very numerous. A few the mineral 
 baths at Broussa, for instance, and some of the older ones 
 at Stamboul present fine examples of this species of 
 architecture, and are much resorted to by all classes. 
 The charges made to all are extremely moderate, and 
 for the use of the poor there are numerous minor baths 
 attached to mosques and other pious foundations at which 
 they may perform their ablutions gratuitously. 
 
 Nowhere perhaps in the world is itinerant commerce 
 carried on to such an extent as in the streets of the 
 Turkish Capital, where almost every edible and potable 
 is hawked or exposed for sale in the public thoroughfares, 
 
14 THE TURKS OF THE CAPITAL 
 
 the courtyards of the very mosques not being sacred 
 from the intrusion of detachments of the "thousands of 
 people who gain a living by selling all sorts of things " 
 to use the words of a Turkish chronicler of the seventeenth 
 century drinks, sweets, sherbets, cakes, pistachio nuts, 
 and what not where stalls with their protecting white 
 umbrellas encumber, uninterfered with, the precincts of 
 many a noble djami. And to this facility for carrying 
 on petty commerce may no doubt be attributed, in some 
 degree, the notable absence of the acute and squalid 
 poverty of Western cities ; for any man with a shilling 
 of capital seems able to turn a sufficiency of honest 
 pennies daily to provide himself and his family with the 
 necessaries of life. The stock-in-trade, for instance, of a 
 kahvedji consists but of half a dozen rush-bottomed stools 
 and brass ibriks y in which coffee is both boiled and served, 
 together with a few cups and glasses ; and quite a number 
 of coffee vendors may apparently, without any unfriendly 
 rivalry, eke out a living on some favourite lounging place 
 in a frequented spot, under spreading plane or sheltering 
 wall. And of this, a little incident that occurred during 
 my last visit to Constantinople, afforded a practical 
 illustration. After visiting the stately mosque of Sultan 
 Bayazid in Stamboul, my friends and I seated ourselves 
 on some stools standing outside its courtyard gate, and 
 called for coffee to a Turk a few yards away, whose 
 cotton handkerchief tucked apronwise into his girdle 
 denoted his calling. He, however, courteously informed 
 us that his domain did not extend to the steps of the 
 
THE TURKS OF THE CAPITAL 15 
 
 mosque. A second kahvedji, who then came up, likewise 
 smilingly explained that only the stools on the opposite 
 side of the doorway belonged to him ; and after dis- 
 patching a boy in hot haste to summon his absent fellow- 
 tradesman, he begged us not to change our places, as his 
 neighbour would instantly return and supply our wants 
 affording a notable example of the prevailing courtesy 
 of manners above referred to. 
 
 A conspicuous figure among this itinerant population 
 is the saka. Pure water being highly prized by the 
 abstemious Osmanlis, its distribution to the thirsty is 
 accounted one of the most meritorious among the " good 
 works " prescribed by the religion of Islam, and the saka 
 is employed by charitable persons to carry water into 
 much frequented thoroughfares for the benefit of the 
 public, to whom he offers the welcome draught with the 
 words, " We give thee to drink of the Kevser's spring " 
 Kevser signifying the "Water of Life." The water is 
 usually carried by the saka on his back in a great 
 leathern jack, which in hot weather is often covered with 
 green leaves and branches; and some have an arrange- 
 ment of pipes and taps by which the water can be 
 drawn off with ease into the cups fitted into a metal 
 receptacle strapped round the waist. Another class of 
 sakas who supply water to householders in the Capital 
 from springs in the suburbs famous for their purity, carry 
 their jacks slung on either side of a pack-horse. All 
 sakas, Christian as well as Moslem, enjoy a high degree 
 of consideration, their persons being regarded as in a 
 
16 THE TURKS OF THE CAPITAL 
 
 manner sacred, any offence offered to a member of this 
 fraternity being deemed an insult to the whole quarter 
 in which he pursues his avocation. The sakas form one 
 of the Esnaf s^ or Guilds, in which members of the various 
 trades, crafts, and callings are severally enrolled, irre- 
 spective of race and religion, for their mutual protection 
 and support. These Guilds, though now diminished in 
 number owing to the disappearance of many once flourish- 
 ing industries, still constitute an important feature of 
 urban industrial life, especially at Constantinople, where 
 representatives of all the various crafts and callings 
 practised in the Empire are to be found. Each Esnaf 
 has here one or more Lonjas Lodges, or Clubs in 
 every quarter of the city and suburbs, presided over by 
 several officers called respectively, according to their 
 rank, Sheikhs, Naibs, Oustas, and Kiayas, or Priors, Sub- 
 Priors, Superintendents, and Inspectors, who are annually 
 elected by the members from among its own master- 
 craftsmen, these officers being formally recognised by 
 the Government, which holds them responsible for the 
 good behaviour of their fellow-guildsmen. Some Esnaf s 
 
 possess considerable revenues, and a few enjoy peculiar 
 
 t 
 
 privileges granted by royal charter in bygone centuries 
 in return for services rendered at some important crisis. 
 Among these are the shoemakers, who, it is said, have 
 special officers empowered to judge and punish all 
 offenders belonging to their fraternity without the inter- 
 position of the legal authorities, this extraordinary privi- 
 lege having been conferred upon them in the sixteenth 
 
THE TURKS OF THE CAPITAL 17 
 
 century by Suleyman "the Magnificent." Some Esnafs 
 are composed entirely of Moslems, certain callings being 
 exclusively in the hands of the ruling race, others 
 entirely of Christians. Many, however, include adherents 
 of both creeds ; and, as members of the same Esnaf, 
 Christians and Moslems, allied by an esprit de corps, and 
 also, of course, by trade interests, pull together much 
 better and evince mutually a greater liberality of feeling 
 than is displayed generally in the social relations of 
 Moslems and Christians. 
 
 Though it is a matter of historical fact that certain of 
 these Guilds had already been long established among the 
 Greek, Venetian, Genoese, and other Christian nationalities 
 inhabiting Constantinople and the other great cities of 
 the Levant at the time of the Turkish Conquest, their 
 Moslem members assign to them an Oriental, and probably 
 much more ancient origin than can be historically verified. 
 The merchants, for instance, maintain that their Esnaf 
 was incorporated in the lifetime of the Prophet, who 
 himself followed the calling of a trader, and thus became 
 the patron of merchants. For, as with the Guilds of 
 Western Europe, every trade has its own patron saint, 
 the majority of them being the prophets and holy men 
 who figure alike in the Old Testament and the Koran, 
 each of whom, according to Moslem tradition, invented 
 or excelled in the craft or calling placed under his 
 protection. Thus Adam, besides being the patron of the 
 tailors' Guild, is also that of the bakers* ; and among 
 other patron saints of Esnafs, Abraham, as the traditional 
 
18 THE TURKS OF THE CAPITAL 
 
 builder of the holy Kaaba at Mekka, is the protector of 
 masons ; Cain, of the sextons, and also of all those who 
 shed blood in their callings ; Enoch, of the scribes ; Noah, 
 of the shipbuilders ; David, of armourers and smiths 
 generally ; Joseph, of the watch- and clock-makers ; and 
 the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus who are included by 
 the Moslems in the roll of holy men watch, somewhat 
 paradoxically, together with Jonah, over the sailors, 
 especially those who navigate the Black Sea. The 
 more eminent among the " Companions of the Prophet " 
 also afford their protection to numerous Guilds ; Selman, 
 one of the two to whom the Prophet promised a greeting 
 in Paradise, being the patron of the barbers, as it was his 
 privilege to shave the Servant of Allah. 
 
 Every Esnaf has its own special traditional laws and 
 usages which are no less strictly observed and enforced 
 than is its kanoun, or written constitution ; and the social 
 customs and mode of life of the members of these various 
 Guilds afford in many instances curious and interesting 
 illustrations of manners among the labouring classes. In 
 a city so watergirt as Constantinople, there is naturally 
 a considerable section of the population whose avocations 
 are those of boatmen or fishermen. The fish-market of the 
 Turkish Capital is, perhaps, second to none in the world in 
 the abundance and variety of the finny tribe taken with 
 net or line by the fishers- of the Black Sea, the Sea of 
 Marmora, the Golden Horn, and the Bosphorus. In the 
 more sheltered reaches of these waters may often be 
 seen rude little constructions of wood perched on high 
 
THE TURKS OF THE CAPITAL 19 
 
 platforms, from which the fishers watch and manipulate 
 their lines ; and the crimson glow of their pitch-pine fires 
 lighted at night on the high prows of the fishing-boats, 
 and the drumming of the fishers' bare feet on the hollow 
 fore and aft decks, produce during the small hours a 
 weird, if not disquieting, effect on the stranger housed 
 for the first time in these regions. Steamboats have long 
 plied up and down the Bosphorus, and zigzag between 
 the European and Asiatic suburbs of the Capital. So 
 great, however, is the demand for means of communication 
 between the European and Asian suburbs that they have 
 not appreciably diminished the 'number of kaiks and other 
 oared craft in which one may be conveyed in more 
 leisurely fashion from shore to shore, and the Guild of 
 boatmen consequently remains not less important than 
 of yore. The ranks of this Esnaf are largely recruited 
 from among the Turkish, Greek, and Armenian youths, 
 who come in great numbers from Asia Minor to seek 
 their fortune in the Capital. Half a dozen or more of 
 these bekiars, or " bachelors," as they are termed, live in 
 common in some humble lodging, paying a fixed sum per 
 day or per week to an old man who acts as their steward 
 and cook, and also as mentor and arbiter in the disputes 
 that may be expected to arise occasionally in such a 
 mixed household. Their relations with the master kaikdji, 
 to whom they serve a long apprenticeship, are also of 
 a quite filial character. Many waterside mansions have 
 their own private boats and boatmen ; and quite a number 
 of the latter are attached to the service of the royal 
 
20 THE TURKS OF THE CAPITAL 
 
 palaces. These are all Moslems, and constitute a 
 splendidly muscular set of fellows, with shaven polls, who 
 are apparently impervious to weather, their attire consist- 
 ing only of short, full, white Turkish breeches, red girdle, 
 and shirt of Broussa gauze, which, worn open in front, 
 leaves their broad, brawny chests completely exposed. 
 A crew of about a dozen propel the State kaiks lightly 
 built, flat-bottomed, double-prowed craft, some twenty 
 feet long and three to four feet wide at a splendid pace 
 from one shore of the Bosphorus to the other, a mode 
 of traversing this wonderful waterway which may also 
 be enjoyed by Europeans who have obtained the firman, 
 or permission, requisite for visiting the Imperial palaces. 
 Many other callings, the exercise of which requires muscle 
 rather than skill that, for instance, of the hamal, or porter 
 are organised on similar lines to those just named ; and 
 a young kaikdji or hamal, on emerging from the grade of 
 apprentice, is recommended by the master under whom 
 he has served his time to the Prior of his particular Lodge 
 of the Guild to which he belongs, his admittance being 
 attended with certain traditional ceremonies, and the 
 payment of the customary fees. 
 
 Another striking characteristic of Turkish urban life 
 is the strict specialisation of each particular branch of 
 industry or commerce, and the absence of the middle-man 
 in the generality of transactions connected with supplying 
 the necessaries of existence. Save in the " Frank " or 
 European quarters of Smyrna and the Capital, there are 
 as yet no " Stores," or general shops, in which goods of 
 
THE TURKS OF THE CAPITAL 21 
 
 various kinds are collected ; and the native Osmanli 
 requiring a pair of shoes goes to the working shoemaker 
 for them, and the housewife in want of a new saucepan, 
 kettle, or coffee-pot, sends her husband or servant to the 
 street of the bakirdjiler, or coppersmiths where, amid the 
 deafening tap-tap of a hundred hammers on the resound- 
 ing metal, he makes his selection, and, the requisite 
 amount of chaffering accomplished and the " last price " 
 paid, carries off the purchase. For in Turkey, it may 
 be mentioned, it is not customary for tradesmen to send 
 goods home, nor save perhaps in the case of certain 
 comestibles even to wrap their wares in paper. The 
 Oriental accordingly, if unaccompanied by a servant, 
 deposits his small purchases in a handkerchief, bundle- 
 wrap, or basket, according to its nature, and for the 
 transport of weighty articles a hamal will be available, 
 whose sturdy legs are capable of supporting anything 
 that can be fastened on their leathern saddles, from a 
 cask of oil or wine to a wardrobe. 
 
 In a country so destitute of good country roads and 
 level streets as Turkey, locomotion is naturally performed 
 to a great extent on horse-, mule-, and donkey-back. At 
 various points in Constantinople, Smyrna, and other towns 
 one may see a number of these animals, and especially the 
 last-named, furnished with saddlery more or less Orientally 
 ornate in character, waiting for hire. This method of 
 locomotion is also not infrequently resorted to by Turkish 
 women who, seated astride on the high carpet- or pack- 
 saddles, with their white-stockinged, yellow-shod feet 
 
22 THE TURKS OF THE CAPITAL 
 
 thrust into roomy shovel stirrups, look like animated 
 bundles of bedding. In addition to being splendid horse- 
 men, the Turks also possess great skill as drivers ; and up, 
 or down, the worst paved and steepest of the thoroughfares 
 of the Capital and its suburbs the native Jehu will not 
 hesitate to drive his brakeless brougham or heavy landau 
 and pair ; nor will he ever allow his fares to alight and 
 walk while the willing horses are struggling, mostly on 
 their haunches, down what appears to those behind them 
 a declivity the foot of which can hardly be reached without 
 mishap. " Carriage exercise," indeed, in the cities of the 
 Levant, constitutes only too frequently the most active 
 exercise imaginable. 
 
 The Moslem era used by the Turks dates from the 
 Flight (Hejrd) of Mohammed from Mekka to Medina on 
 the night of the I5th-i6th July, 622 A.D. The national 
 calendar is lunar, the year being divided into twelve 
 months consisting alternately of twenty-nine and thirty 
 days, and comprising therefore only 354 days ; and 
 no complementary days being added to adjust this 
 calendar in accordance with astronomical events, it 
 naturally follows that both national anniversaries and 
 religious festivals make, in the course of every thirty-three 
 years, the round of the seasons. The peasantry, however, 
 in their reckoning of time, adhere for ordinary puposes to 
 the ancient and more convenient Oriental practice of 
 dividing the year into two seasons, Summer and Winter, 
 the former being inaugurated by the great Nature-festival 
 of Khidr-Elie, equivalent to our St. George's Day, and the 
 
THE TURKS OF THE CAPITAL 23 
 
 latter by that of Kassim, held late in the Autumn. The 
 hours of the day are still, in ancient Oriental fashion, 
 reckoned by the Turks from sunset to sunset, which is 
 estimated with more or less exactitude. Many of the 
 watches now used in Turkey are made with two dials, one 
 for Turkish and the other for European time, the former, 
 to be correct, requiring daily regulation ; and one may 
 occasionally hear the seemingly odd question asked, " At 
 what time is noon to-day ? " In Turkey, however, few 
 people require to catch trains or steamboats ; time-tables 
 are also as often ignored as consulted ; and punctuality is 
 not a virtue cultivated by the Oriental. On the majority 
 of Turkish railways there is but one train a day up and 
 down the line, and intending passengers will arrive at the 
 station when they may happen to be ready, and, seated on 
 their baggage, patiently wait for the next train. Inshallah 
 (Allah permitting), he will ultimately arrive at his 
 destination. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 OFFICIAL AND MILITARY TURKS 
 
 THE upper classes of Osmanli society at the present 
 day may be said to consist almost entirely of the 
 families of Government officials and military men, 
 as there seems to be no career open to a Turkish youth of 
 good family but the Army or the Civil Service, and almost 
 every member of the jeunesse doree of Stamboul who has 
 not selected the Army as his profession, looks forward to a 
 post in one of the numerous Government offices. For the 
 Turks, generally speaking, have not hitherto shown them- 
 selves active or intelligent as business men, and venture 
 little into speculative commercial or financial transactions, 
 which they appear to regard somewhat in the light of 
 games of chance which are forbidden by their religion. 
 To the restrictions placed especially of late years upon the 
 free action of all Moslem subjects of the Sultan may also 
 be attributed their abandonment to foreigners of both the 
 import and export trade of their country, no Osmanlis 
 being at liberty to form or join a company or to move 
 freely from one part of the Empire to another for business 
 purposes ; and a military or official career has con- 
 sequently as apparently desired by the powers that be 
 
 24 
 
OFFICIAL AND MILITARY TURKS 25 
 
 remained the only alternative of the present generation. 
 The national movements among the subject races of 
 Turkey during the past century having, on the other hand, 
 inspired the Porte with a growing distrust of members of 
 these nationalities as State officials, their employment in 
 such capacities has yearly diminished, and more posts in 
 the higher Government departments have of late been filled 
 by Moslems of Turkish, Albanian, and Circassian descent 
 than perhaps ever since the Conquest. The country has 
 nominally a Civil Service entered by examination from 
 the Government colleges, open to all Turkish subjects, and 
 offering regular promotion. But, like many other Turkish 
 institutions of recent date, it has remained merely nominal, 
 and appointments have continued to be made by the time- 
 honoured process termed hatir, or " favour," important 
 posts being obtainable only through influence in Yildiz 
 Kiosk. And though a Board was constituted some years 
 ago with the title of "Commission for the Selection of 
 Functionaries," it was never allowed to do more than 
 " recommend " candidates for vacant posts, and its recom- 
 mendations generally received but scant attention. Posts 
 in the Government service have continued to be treated, 
 as of yore, as objects of commercial speculation, the 
 favourites at Yildiz Kiosk whose own tenure of offices 
 was always more or less precarious finding it to their 
 interest not only to sell them to the highest bidder, but 
 also to sell them as frequently as possible. 
 
 The late sudden transition from a despotic to a 
 constitutional form of government must of necessity 
 
26 OFFICIAL AND MILITARY TURKS 
 
 bring about in the near future many important changes 
 in the organisation of the various State departments. 
 The Sublime Porte and the Seraskierate, or War Office, 
 have already ceased to be, as they for many years past 
 have been, merely the nominal seats of Government, and 
 ministers now themselves control their respective depart- 
 ments instead of being the mere mouthpieces of an 
 arbitrary Padishah. But the Oriental modes of pro- 
 cedure which have been the growth of centuries and 
 are the outcome of the Oriental attitude of mind cannot 
 be changed by the declaration of a Constitution, and 
 in the conduct of public affairs what has been will, in 
 all probability, long continue to be. 
 
 The Sublime Porte in Stamboul constitutes the 
 central seat of Government for the Empire, and here is 
 also located the Seraskierate, or War Office. The great 
 vestibule of the former, which corresponds to the " Salle 
 des Pas Perdus" of the French Senate House and the 
 Lobby of the House of Commons, presents a strange 
 contrast to both, being usually crowded with a motley 
 throng representative of all the races and classes of 
 the Empire, among whom circulate begging Dervishes, 
 Kahfedjis, itinerant vendors of various wares, and perhaps 
 a deli, or madman, real or feigned, whose sallies serve 
 to pass the long hours of waiting. Matted corridors, 
 along which the humbler natives glide with bare or 
 merely stockinged feet, carrying their dusty or muddy 
 shoes, lead to the various bureaus. In the office of 
 the head of a department there is a perpetual coming 
 
OFFICIAL AND MILITARY TURKS 27 
 
 and going. The portttre a rug lined with leather which 
 screens the doorway is raised a dozen times an hour, 
 and visitors or petitioners enter unannounced, salaam to 
 the great man from the doorway, salaam again on 
 approaching him, and a third time before taking a 
 seat, if invited to do so. Oriental etiquette necessitates 
 between equals the interchange of polite phrases before 
 the subject-matter of the visit is entered upon, thus 
 prolonging every interview ; and it is hardly to be 
 wondered at that under such a system an army of 
 functionaries is found necessary to transact the busi- 
 ness of every department. In each of the subordinate 
 bureaus may be seen a dozen or so of clerks seated, 
 in all kinds of attitudes, on sofas and armchairs 
 covered with rich stuffs worn to shabbiness by the 
 constant friction of boots and shoes. In front of each 
 is a little stand holding the Turkish inkpot, sand-sifter, 
 reed-pens, ashtrays, and, at frequent intervals, the in- 
 evitable coffee cup. The kyatib, when he happens to 
 be occupied, holds his paper in his left hand supported 
 on his upraised knee while inscribing on it, with his 
 pen held vertically, the graceful Arabic characters used 
 by the Turks, writing from right to left. 
 
 But although the Sublime Porte and its dependencies 
 possess such large clerical staffs, admittance to a depart- 
 ment of the public service by no means implies that a 
 young hopeful enters at once upon regular duties with a 
 fixed salary and expectation of certain future promotion. 
 Things have not hitherto been managed in such prosaic 
 
28 OFFICIAL AND MILITARY TURKS 
 
 fashion in Turkey. The bureau to which a budding 
 Civil servant is attached constitutes for him, at the outset 
 at least, merely a resort in the nature of a club in the 
 society of whose members he may be said to graduate 
 socially while waiting for a salaried appointment. Here 
 he learns to despise the costume of his forefathers and 
 to become anxious about the fit of a frock coat of the 
 latest Paris cut, to assume the airs of a man about town* 
 and possibly adds to the cognomen of Ali, Achmet, or 
 Mehmet, which has hitherto served to identify him, 
 another appellation for future official use. The heads of 
 the various departments of State have of course special 
 functions, which they perform with the assistance of such 
 among their subordinates as they may think proper to 
 employ. There seems, however, hardly enough work 
 to go round, and a considerable number of the aspirants 
 to bureaucratic employment pass their time during office 
 hours in receiving visitors, gossiping, smoking, and coffee 
 drinking. At the War Office the plethora of officials is 
 even more remarkable ; at the Admiralty somewhat less so 
 which, considering the condition hitherto of the Turkish 
 Navy, is hardly surprising ; the only department of State 
 distinguished by any degree of order and imposing gravity 
 being the semi-ecclesiastical one presided over by the 
 Sheikh-ul-Islam, the Ulema who compose its official 
 staff still retaining, with their ample turbans and patri- 
 archal robes, the dignified appearance and manners usually 
 associated with this Oriental costume. 
 
 While young men of family who have not made the 
 
 > 
 
OFFICIAL AND MILITARY TURKS 29 
 
 Army their vocation thus aspire to high Civil posts, those 
 of more humble birth seek employment in the household 
 of some official of high rank, taking places formerly rilled 
 by male slaves, such as coffee-maker, pipe-bearer, or body 
 servant ; and from the eagerness displayed for this kind of 
 occupation has sprung one of Turkey's greatest misfortunes, 
 every holder of an important office being hedged around 
 by barriers composed of successive grades of parasitic 
 underlings through whom a suppliant could pass only with 
 one key bakshish. Orientals, it may here be remarked, 
 do not look upon the offering and acceptance of bakshish 
 as bribery. For under the disorganised and corrupt 
 administration which has so long prevailed officials could 
 only live by having recourse to this system, to live on 
 their salaries being next to impossible, as, in the first 
 place, they are generally inadequate, and, in the second, 
 they are always in arrear. Even the most honestly 
 disposed official has consequently been compelled, in 
 order to support himself and family, to supplement his 
 meagre and irregularly paid salary by this ancient and 
 approved method. It may here be remarked parentheti- 
 cally that the absence of punctuality in paying salaries, 
 or wages, is characteristic not of the Turks only, but of 
 Orientals generally. Domestic servants, for instance, are 
 engaged at a yearly wage and are fed and clothed by 
 their employers. Their wages are not, however, paid to 
 them at any stated period, but are as a rule allowed to 
 accumulate in the master's hands and are only drawn on 
 leaving. As savings banks are not yet common in Turkey, 
 
30 OFFICIAL AND MILITARY TURKS 
 
 this practice, when the employer is honest, has no doubt its 
 advantages. In the case of military officers and Govern- 
 ment employees, however, who have themselves and their 
 families to support, this irregularity in the payment of 
 salaries often entails great hardships, and I have personally 
 known heads of households holding the rank of Pasha, 
 and consequently entitled to high pay, at a loss how to 
 meet their butcher's and baker's bills. 
 
 The methods of the Turkish Paymaster-General's 
 Office are also peculiar. Both salaries and other claims 
 on the State are paid by means of havales or orders on 
 some provincial treasury. After much petitioning, an 
 official may receive such an order for the sum due to him, or 
 perhaps only a part of it. This order does not, however, 
 bear the name of any special treasury, so the recipient 
 takes it to a saraf, or professional discounter, from whom 
 he may perhaps receive a third or half its value. For 
 not only this functionary, but also the provincial governor 
 on whose treasury it is made payable, and the financial 
 authorities of the province through whose hands the 
 havale must pass before final payment in full by the 
 Treasury, will all make their own profit out of the re- 
 maining half, or third, of the sum of which the unfortunate 
 officer is thus mulcted. Stories are rife in the country, 
 and especially in the Capital, of enormous bribes being 
 received and vast sums appropriated by dishonest officials ; 
 but somehow few seem to be much the richer for 
 these transactions. Exaggeration is a foible peculiarly 
 Oriental, and even a bakshish running into four figures 
 
OFFICIAL AND MILITARY TURKS 31 
 
 does not amount to much when perhaps two-thirds of it 
 have to be distributed among subordinates and others 
 who are parties to the transaction. 
 
 Since the destruction in 1826 of the Janissaries by 
 Sultan Mahmoud II., "The Reformer" a measure forced 
 upon him by the dangerously hostile attitude of this 
 formidable but reactionary corps the organisation of the 
 Turkish Army has undergone radical changes, the re- 
 formed system on which the Army of the present day 
 is based having been initiated sixteen years later. The 
 Empire was then, as now, divided into seven military 
 districts, three in Europe and four in Asia, each of which 
 furnishes an Army Corps for the defence of the Father- 
 land, recruitment being effected by conscription. Under 
 this system all Moslem men are, nominally at least, liable 
 to be called upon to serve their country in the field, non- 
 Moslem subjects of the Sultan paying a tax in lieu of 
 military service. Wealthy Moslems may, however, by 
 paying a fine of 50 and providing a substitute, evade 
 this patriotic duty, and young men whose labour con- 
 stitutes the sole support of their parents may also claim 
 complete exemption. Very curiously there are certain 
 localities of the Empire the Capital, Scutari in Albania, 
 and the Yemen residence in which confers freedom from 
 the conscription. Members also of the learned professions, 
 theological, legal, and medical, together with students pre- 
 paring to enter them, are everywhere excluded from the 
 number available for military service ; and many young 
 men who have no vocation for the study of the Sfteriat, 
 
32 OFFICIAL AND MILITARY TURKS 
 
 or Sacred Law, endeavour to pass at least the preliminary 
 examination in Arabic and other subjects which entitles 
 them to this privilege, even if they subsequently adopt 
 another career. Half a century ago, notwithstanding 
 these numerous exemptions, the burden of this blood- 
 tax fell lightly enough on the population generally, seeing 
 that the Moslem subjects in the Empire could be com- 
 puted at a figure approaching 20 millions. With the 
 shrinkage of the Empire, however, since 1876, the recruits 
 are now drawn chiefly from among the seven million 
 or so of Moslems inhabiting European Turkey, Asia 
 Minor, and Syria, and military service is yearly becoming 
 a heavier burden to the agricultural population who are 
 now chiefly called upon to fill the ranks. The vast 
 number of men thus enabled to claim exemption con- 
 stitutes a serious blot on an otherwise admirable system, 
 and calls loudly for reform. Since the establishment of 
 the Constitution, non-Moslems are, in some localities, being 
 called upon to bear their part in the defence of the 
 Empire of which they are subjects. Whether this scheme 
 will prove to work satisfactorily, remains of course to 
 be seen. Possibly, however, the recruits drawn from the 
 Christian and Jewish races will be organised into separate 
 corps, officered by their own co-religionists. 
 
 In Asia Minor this obligatory military service con- 
 stitutes a more grievous burden than elsewhere. For 
 as the Moslem population in Europe (exclusive of the 
 exempted cities) numbers less than a million and a half 
 of souls, a considerable proportion of the recruits annually 
 
OFFICIAL AND MILITARY TURKS 33 
 
 required for the three nominally European Army Corps 
 have to be sought beyond the confines of their own 
 strategic circles ; and accordingly, out of the forty-eight 
 recruiting districts into which the Empire is now divided, 
 no fewer than forty are situated in Asia, these districts 
 being called upon to supply 53 regiments of cavalry, 
 315 regiments of infantry of various classes, and 276 
 batteries of artillery, horse, field, heavy, and mountain. 
 
 For the purposes of conscription a register of births 
 in each recruiting district is kept at the battalion head- 
 quarters, annual returns of births being made by the 
 municipal officials of provincial towns and the headmen 
 of villages. As each youth arrives at the age for service, 
 his number is drawn according to rule, and if he cannot 
 claim exemption under any of the foregoing pretexts, he 
 is either sent to the military depot for training, or, should 
 there be at the moment no vacancies for service with 
 the colours, he is at once passed, without training, into 
 the second-class reserve. Cavalry, Artillery, and Engineers 
 are recruited indiscriminately from all the various districts, 
 each centre furnishing a certain proportion to each arm. 
 On completing his nine years of service in the Nizam y as 
 the regular Army is termed, a soldier returns to his 
 home as a Redif, or first-class Reservist, being attached 
 to the battalion of his district, and still liable to be called 
 out for active service in such cases of emergency as have 
 recently arisen in Macedonia and on the Persian frontier. 
 Of these regimental districts of Redifs there are no fewer 
 than 384, each under the command of a major with a 
 p 
 
84 OFFICIAL AND MILITARY TURKS 
 
 small permanent staff ; and as arms, accoutrements, and 
 equipment are stored at the battalion headquarters, and 
 the Redif brigades are always complete as to their cadres, 
 a body of highly trained and seasoned men can, on an 
 order for mobilisation being received from the War Office, 
 be despatched without delay from each district. 
 
 As to the Mustafiz, or Reservists of the second class, 
 ten divisions of this body are attached to each of the 
 five Army Corps, having their headquarters at Constanti- 
 nople, Adrianople, Salonica, Erzinghian, and Damascus. 
 They, however, are only liable to be called upon for active 
 service in the event of grave national danger, and as 
 they possess no military qualifications beyond regimental 
 organisation, their lack of training renders them unavail- 
 able as a fighting contingent. But as hewers of wood and 
 drawers of water, and in similar subordinate capacities, 
 they no doubt form a valuable asset to the regular army 
 during a campaign. The officers of the Reserve consist 
 largely of men who have risen from the ranks through 
 the intermediate grades. They are said to make excellent 
 company commanders, owing to their possessing in a 
 marked degree the affection and confidence of their 
 subordinates, but lack of education renders the majority 
 unfit for superior commands. Examinations for promo- 
 tion have recently been introduced into the Turkish 
 Army, but the numbers who can profit by such facilities 
 for advancement are limited. Books on military subjects 
 are not easily obtainable in the remoter provincial towns, 
 and officers whose regiments are quartered far from the 
 
OFFICIAL AND MILITARY TURKS 35 
 
 Capital, however ambitious of promotion, have few oppor- 
 tunities of keeping abreast of the times in military 
 matters. At such great centres as Constantinople, Smyrna, 
 and Salonica, however, the Military clubs, which number 
 among their patrons and benefactors the Sultan and 
 other members of the Imperial family, offer all these 
 facilities; for neither the Military nor the hitherto less 
 numerous Naval clubs are in any sense political, their 
 primary object being, in common with the generality of 
 such institutions in Turkey, study, self-improvement, and 
 social intercourse. 
 
 The rations to which officers are entitled are valued 
 at 1 Turkish (about iSs.) per unit, this being the sum 
 which a lieutenant can draw in lieu. Senior officers 
 receive in an increasing rate up to the maximum of 
 twenty-four rations, the allowance of a Field Marshal. 
 Officers receive the same pay in all arms, and are entitled 
 in addition to receive rations and forage for their horses 
 as well as a liberal outfit in the matter of kit and 
 uniform, graduated according to rank, each officer accord- 
 ing to his grade having the right to a certain number 
 of soldier servants for whom he also draws rations and 
 forage. The rate of officers' pay is low, according to 
 our notions. But, on the other hand, they receive their 
 uniforms from the Government as well as their rations; 
 they are not, as a rule, addicted to expensive habits, 
 being accustomed to a simple life ; and even for those 
 who are married and have to provide houses for their 
 families, living in Turkey is cheap, especially in the 
 
36 OFFICIAL AND MILITARY TURKS 
 
 provinces. Few complaints are therefore heard on the 
 score of pay. The real hardship has consisted in the fact 
 that regimental, as well as civil, pay has for many years 
 past been always in arrear. Nor have the higher fared 
 in this respect better than the lower grades of officers 
 and civilians. The rations supplied to the men are of 
 good quality and ample in quantity, a Turkish soldier 
 being said to fare far better in barracks than ever in 
 his village home, for he is entitled to an oka 1 of bread 
 and half an oka of meat, with certain quantities of rice, 
 vegetables, and cooking butter per diem. The barracks 
 in which the regimental officers and men are housed are, 
 on the whole, sufficiently spacious and airy, and not- 
 withstanding the frequent defects in the sanitary arrange- 
 ments the troops are, generally speaking, strong and 
 healthy. Barrack life is no doubt in many respects 
 trying for the sons of the soil who form the majority 
 of the recruits. But taken as a whole, the physique of 
 the Turkish Army is indeed magnificent, and in march- 
 ing and staying powers the rank-and-file are admitted 
 by competent authorities to be second to those of no 
 other country. Accustomed to frugal fare and a total 
 abstainer from strong drink, the Turkish soldier, when 
 on active service, like his remote nomadic forbears of 
 Central Asia, is ever ready at the bugle call to strike 
 or pitch his tent, saddle or unsaddle his charger, and 
 hang his camp kettle wherever he may happen to bivouac. 
 Content with the simplest fare, he takes his frugal meal 
 1 An oka is equivalent to about 2 Ibs. 12 ozs. 
 
OFFICIAL AND MILITARY TURKS 37 
 
 seated on the ground, bears with infinite patience the 
 toils of march and the pains of privations, and obeys 
 with unquestioning alacrity the orders of his superiors. 
 Though often in rags and shoeless as I have myself 
 seen them on their arrival at the coast towns for tranship- 
 ment after a long campaign on the frontiers of the 
 Empire with months of pay in arrear, their behaviour is 
 blameless, and their discipline perfect. And with the 
 sound of the sunrise and sunset gun from citadel or 
 warship there ever rises enthusiastically from a thousand 
 throats the loyal cry, Padishahim chok yashar ! " Long 
 live our Padishah ! " The requirements of the soldiery 
 being so easily satisfied, and those of their officers being 
 proportionately modest, the commissariat of the Turkish 
 Army during a campaign is simple to arrange, and to 
 this fact is chiefly due its extreme mobility in the field. 
 The Transport service has certainly often proved lament- 
 ably defective ; but efforts are now being made to bring 
 it up to modern requirements. Owing to the absence of 
 good roads, it is, however, impossible for commissariat 
 waggons to be used, and pack animals are consequently 
 the usual mode of conveyance for all the necessaries of 
 an army. 
 
 In the opinion of English and other European military 
 men who have had opportunities for observing the 
 difference, an immense improvement has taken place in 
 the Turkish Army since the Russo-Turkish war of thirty 
 years ago, some indeed going so far as to assert that 
 the chief factor making for peace in South Eastern 
 
38 OFFICIAL AND MILITARY TURKS 
 
 Europe has been rather the Turkish Army than that 
 somewhat fictitious entity known as the "European 
 Concert." At the time of the Crimean War, Turkey 
 could only with difficulty send 100,000 trained soldiers 
 to the front. Now she has at her disposal nearly ten 
 times that number, and at the present moment has 
 some 200,000 engaged in active operations in Macedonia 
 and on the Eastern frontiers of the Empire. The Trans- 
 port service has also been completely reorganised since 
 1897. It now possesses thirty-four well-found vessels, 
 and the harbours at Haidar Pasha the Asiatic port of 
 the Capital at Salonica, and at Beyrout have been 
 greatly improved. Owing to the state of unrest which 
 has for so many years past prevailed in Macedonia, 
 and to the disturbed state of Yemen and the Persian 
 frontier, a large proportion of troops of all arms have 
 seen active service, and a considerable proportion of the 
 Reserves were at the front in the Turco-Greek war. 
 
 With regard to the medical requirements of the 
 Army, each Army Corps headquarters has its own 
 hospital, as have also most of the divisional centres, the 
 majority having hospital accommodation for from 300 to 
 500 patients. The Military hospitals in the Capital, and 
 also at Adrianople, are large and well equipped, the 
 former containing no fewer than 4000 beds and the 
 latter 1200; and the Hamidieh Hospital above Pera 
 so named after its founder and patron the Sultan, who 
 maintains it at his own personal expense is considered 
 one of the most complete and up-to-date institutions of 
 
OFFICIAL AND MILITARY TURKS 39 
 
 its kind in Europe. Each Infantry regiment has also 
 on its rolls twelve medical officers, three for each 
 battalion, under a surgeon-major, who is attached to the 
 regimental staff; while Cavalry regiments have four 
 medical officers, batteries of Artillery one, and Engineer 
 battalions three, veterinary officers being also attached 
 to all mounted corps. A considerable proportion of 
 military medical officers are either foreigners or non- 
 Moslem Turkish subjects, who are equally eligible with 
 Osmanlis for the highest posts. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 DENIZENS OF THE PALACES 
 
 ESKI SERAI the Old Palacethe ancestral home 
 of the Ottoman Sultans during four hundred years, 
 so charmingly situated on the triangular point of land 
 washed by the waters of the Golden Horn, the Bosphorus, 
 and the Sea of Marmora, was unfortunately in great 
 part destroyed by fire about fifty years ago. It had, 
 however, previously been more or less abandoned as a 
 place of residence since the time of Mahmoud II., who, 
 together with his successors, preferred the modern palaces 
 they had caused to be erected on the immediate shores of 
 the Bosphorus to this somewhat gloomy abode with, its 
 high enclosing walls, its dungeons, and its gilded bowers, 
 tainted with the fratricidal crimes of their ancestors. At 
 the time of its destruction Eski Serai was occupied by the 
 numerous harem of the defunct Sultan Abdul Medjid, 
 some members of which, according to common report, 
 finding existence here insupportable after their accustomed 
 freedom under that mild and indulgent Padishah, on two 
 occasions (1863 and 1865) purposely set fire to it, in order 
 to obtain a more congenial place of residence. 
 
 The ancient throne-room, together with other interesting 
 
 40 
 
DENIZENS OF THE PALACES 41 
 
 State apartments, was, however, fortunately saved, and the 
 walls of the Imperial demesne still enclose in addition a 
 number of the elegant detached buildings termed " kiosks," 
 many of which still serve their original purposes. Among 
 these is the Sultan's treasure-house, in which are kept a 
 variety of valuable and interesting objects, including bowls 
 of uncut gems, ancient Imperial costumes and jewelled 
 arms, and perhaps most interesting of all the golden 
 throne and footstool set with pearls and rubies, taken by 
 Sultan Selim I. from the Persians in 1514. There is also 
 the " Kiosk of Bagdad," so called from the model in that 
 city from which it was copied, which is esteemed the finest 
 existing specimen of Turkish decorative art, the artistic 
 blending of colour being strikingly successful. Both the 
 inner and the outer walls are covered with beautifully 
 patterned blue and white tiles, the doors and shutters are of 
 walnut-wood inlaid with ivory and mother-of-pearl, and the 
 carpets, draperies, and divan stuffs are most elaborate and 
 costly. The friezes in this kind of wall decoration, which 
 is found in other buildings forming part of the Serai as 
 also in some of the mosques of Stamboul, consist of 
 
 " Soft Persian sentences in lilac letters, 
 From poets, or the moralists, their betters," 
 
 the Arabic characters composing them being peculiarly 
 adapted to arrangement in conventional patterns most 
 artistic in their general effect. 
 
 In the course of the past century " the European with 
 the Asian shore" have been "sprinkled with palaces" by 
 
42 DENIZENS OF THE PALACES 
 
 the later wearers of the sword of Osman, and especially 
 by the extravagant, luxury-loving Sultans Abdul Medjid 
 and his son Abdul Aziz. And besides palaces proper 
 there are Yahlis and Kiosks, elegant villas, ancient and 
 modern, occupying elevated and picturesque spots over- 
 looking the winding and swiftly rushing Bosphorus, and 
 embowered amid flowers and foliage. The three splendid 
 waterside palaces of Dolma Baktche", Tcheragan, and 
 Begler-Bey have not, however, been favourite abodes of 
 the reigning Sultan, who has for many years past resided 
 exclusively at the less pretentious Yildiz Kiosk the " Kiosk 
 of the Star " situated on the summit of the hill behind 
 Dolma Baktche". Around this once modest villa have, 
 however, now grown up a vast assemblage of buildings, 
 the whole being surrounded on every side by extensive 
 wooded grounds forming a sort of park enclosed within 
 high walls. These are flanked at intervals by ugly yellow 
 barracks, in which are quartered the troops of the 
 Imperial bodyguard, Arabian, Albanian, and Kurdish, 
 who watch over each other while watching over the 
 safety of the mighty Padishah. Beyond these walls again 
 the hills and valleys are occupied by an outer circle of 
 block-houses and sentry-boxes, extending down to the 
 shore of the Bosphorus, where stretches the long frontage 
 of the palace in which the deposed ex-Sultan, poor mad 
 Murad EfFendi, lived for thirty years the solitary existence 
 of a strictly guarded captive. 
 
 Like the abodes of private individuals, and in common 
 with the other Imperial palaces, Yildiz Kiosk is divided 
 
DENIZENS OF THE PALACES 43 
 
 into haremlik and selamlik, the buildings which crown 
 the hill constituting the latter, in which the Court 
 functionaries and their attendants have their quarters ; 
 while the edifice containing the Sultan's private apart- 
 ments forms the mabeyn, as the connecting neutral 
 ground between these two divisions of a residence is 
 termed. The ladies of the harem are accommodated in a 
 mansion connected with the mabeyn by a long corridor, 
 and agreeably situated in the Imperial demesne, being 
 surrounded by delightful flower gardens, artificial lakes, 
 and woods intersected with winding paths leading to 
 various pleasure kiosks. In the Imperial park are also 
 situated the Sultan's private theatre and various detached 
 pavilions and villas. One of the latter, styled the palace 
 Merassim, has been specially erected and furnished for 
 the reception of foreign visitors of high rank, in order 
 that the Commander of the Faithful might be able to 
 fulfil all the duties of hospitality and courtesy to his 
 occasional Royal guests without going beyond the walls 
 of his private domain. 
 
 Ancient custom and established precedent, however, 
 require the Padishah on certain occasions to do violence 
 to his desire for seclusion and to show himself to his 
 loyal subjects, one of these occasions being the weekly 
 function termed the Selamlik, from selam, "salutation." 
 For many centuries past it has been customary for 
 Turkish Sultans to proceed in state to one of the 
 principal mosques of the Capital for the performance 
 of the midday prayers on Friday, the Moslem Day of 
 
44 DENIZENS OF THE PALACES 
 
 Rest, and no consideration of any kind has been allowed 
 to prevent the present sovereign fulfilling this religious 
 obligation, his failure to show himself on this day being 
 , calculated to create rumours of his illness or death, and 
 "' subsequent political complications. And however indis- 
 posed the Padishah may be, at the important hour he 
 is invariably reported by his courtiers to be in the best 
 of health, and nerves himself for his weekly public 
 appearance. But even in this particular, Sultan Abdul 
 Hamid has deviated from the habits of his ancestors, 
 and, instead of making a weekly progress on horseback 
 through the streets of his Capital, amid the acclamations 
 of loyal subjects, has performed the Friday namaz in 
 the private Hamidieh Mosque, built by himself in the 
 palace precincts. This ceremony of the Selamlik presents 
 a most animated and striking spectacle which is regularly 
 witnessed by ambassadors and other foreigners of dis- 
 tinction from the windows of a pavilion erected at the gate 
 leading into the palace grounds. On the other side is a 
 railed-in enclosure, surrounding the mosque, which is new 
 and white, and of a pseudo-Oriental and somewhat rococo 
 style of architecture. During the forenoon on Fridays the 
 roads surrounding the mosque are gradually lined with 
 troops belonging to the first and second Army divisions. 
 First come the battalions of the Albanian or Arab 
 Zouaves with their quaintly twisted red turbans, and 
 take up their positions near the palace gates ; the Marines 
 arrive next, and are followed by battalions of Anatolian 
 Infantry, who form in lines several deep on either side of 
 
DENIZENS OF THE PALACES 45 
 
 the roadway, while Cavalry regiments take up their 
 positions behind them, flanked again by gendarmes in 
 couples. The Turkish populace, composed largely of 
 women and children, occupies every available inch of the 
 roadway on the lower side of the mosque, eager for a 
 glimpse of their Padishah as he passes down the sloping 
 drive between the palace gates and those of the mosque ; 
 but it is now impossible to approach and present petitions 
 personally, as in previous reigns had always been the 
 privilege of subjects during a Sultan's weekly Friday 
 progress to and from the mosque. Strains of military 
 music fill the air ; officers in smart well-fitting uniforms 
 ride to and fro on beautiful Arabs ; well - appointed 
 carriages pass conveying high civil functionaries to the 
 mosque or members of the various foreign Embassies 
 and Legations to the pavilion. Presently broughams 
 arrive from the palace bearing uniform-clad princes and 
 white-veiled princesses ; and lastly, driven very slowly 
 in a smart landau, appears the Padishah himself. A 
 bugle sounds, and simultaneously from a thousand throats 
 the cry of Padishahim chok yashar ! " Long live our 
 Padishah ! " thrice repeated, greets the Commander of 
 the Faithful. Salaaming continually in acknowledg- 
 ment of the cheers and salutes, Abdul Hamid passes 
 down the road and through the gates to the curved and 
 carpeted stairway leading to his private entrance and 
 divan khan/, or reception room, a passing glimpse only 
 being meanwhile caught of him a figure of medium 
 height in simple fez and undress uniform, a pale and 
 
46 DENIZENS OF THE PALACES 
 
 somewhat sad, yet keen and dignified face, with longish 
 hooked nose and well-trimmed grey beard and moustache. 
 On alighting, the Sultan is received and surrounded by 
 a little crowd of obsequiously bowing dignitaries, civil 
 and military, and having mounted the short flight of 
 steps, he, before entering, courteously turns to acknow- 
 ledge with the military salute the homage of his troops 
 and subjects, who again cry in response, " Long live our 
 Padishah ! " 
 
 Half an hour or so elapses, during which the waiting 
 multitude or at least that section of it sufficiently well 
 placed has leisure to contemplate the wide view of the 
 Bosphorus and Stamboul extending below to the south ; 
 to admire the half-dozen superb saddle-horses which have 
 been led behind the Imperial carriage ; and to watch the 
 regimental sakas, or water-carriers, distribute the contents 
 of their leathern jacks among the soldiery. Presently the 
 battalions are called to attention, form again into line, and 
 march past the northern side of the mosque before the 
 Sultan, who is stationed at a window of the divan khane. 
 A stir follows at the door, the Padishah emerges, and now, 
 seated in a victoria drawn by a pair of spirited greys, the 
 reins of which he himself holds, again passes, closely sur- 
 rounded by staff officers on horseback and running foot- 
 men in the Imperial red and gold livery, and disappears 
 through the gates of Yildiz Kiosk. 
 
 Besides the Friday Selamlik there are also five other 
 annual occasions on which the Sultan is required to show 
 himself in public. These are the ceremonies connected 
 
DENIZENS OF THE PALACES 47 
 
 respectively with the opening of the Greater and the 
 Lesser Bairam ; the veneration in mid-Ramazan of that 
 sacred relic, the Prophet's Mantle, which is kept in the 
 Old Serai together with his standard, his staff, and sword 
 and bow ; the Mevlud, or Birthday of the Prophet ; and 
 the departure of the Caravan of Pilgrims to Mekka, all of 
 which are elsewhere described. 
 
 The Commander of the Faithful is no Roi faineant. 
 Like the humblest of his subjects, he rises with the sun 
 all the year round, often commencing his morning's work 
 at five o'clock after partaking with his first cigarette of a 
 cup of coffee prepared in his study by the chief coffee- 
 maker. For the Sultan is a great smoker and coffee- 
 drinker, and is never, it is said, without a cigarette made 
 in his presence by his tchiboukdji between his fingers ; 
 and when he takes walking or riding exercise about the 
 palace grounds he is followed everywhere by his kahvtdji- 
 bashi, or chief coffee-maker, who carries the paraphernalia 
 requisite for preparing at a moment's notice a cup of his 
 favourite beverage. Abdul Hamid, like most of his 
 ancestors, has also his little superstitions ; and as it was 
 once prophesied to him by a Gypsy that he would reign as 
 long as he continued to drink the water from the springs 
 of Kiathane* in the valley of the "Sweet Waters of 
 Europe," his daily supplies are regularly brought thence 
 in sealed jars, and no other water passes his lips. The 
 Sultan is most abstemious in his habits. At about six 
 o'clock he partakes of a light breakfast of eggs and milk ; 
 at ten o'clock he indulges in a rather more substantial 
 
48 DENIZENS OF THE PALACES 
 
 dejeuner^ and, like the rest of his subjects, dines at sunset. 
 The Imperial dinner, usually eaten in solitary state and 
 served with great ceremonial, consists of a number of 
 courses all of a very simple character, and in obedience 
 to the advice of his physician, as also of St. Paul, he 
 occasionally takes, "for his stomach's sake," a little 
 brandy, champagne, or punch ; but, of course, as a rigid 
 Moslem, no "wine." During the lifetime of the Valid 
 Sultan, as had been customary in previous reigns, the 
 dishes for the Imperial table were invariably prepared in 
 the kitchen of the Empress Mother's establishment and 
 sent in sealed napkins to the mabeyn. The mother of his 
 Majesty Abdul Hamid having, however, long since been 
 summoned away by the "Cupbearer of the Sphere" to 
 " the goodly plains in the Garden of Eden," prepared " for 
 all resigned and believing women," the Padishah guards 
 against the possibility of poison by having for the service 
 of his own table a private kitchen fortified against access 
 from without by barred windows and a massive door. 
 When the Sultan intimates to his attendants that he 
 wishes to dine, a table is placed before him laid for one, 
 and the bread, water, and dishes, all severally enveloped 
 in napkins sealed by the Kilerdji, or chief steward, are 
 carried in solemn procession from the kitchen by a number 
 of lackeys, any persons whom the Sultan's dinner may 
 encounter on its passage to the Presence habitually doing 
 homage to it by bowing low with their hands clasped on 
 their stomachs. The seals are broken in the Sultan's 
 presence, and the dishes placed in succession on the 
 
DENIZENS OF THE PALACES 49 
 
 table by the Kilerdji, who may possibly should his 
 Imperial master be suddenly seized with an apprehension 
 of poison be commanded to partake of the viands him- 
 self; and to the same motive is also attributed his habit 
 of feeding several cats from his table. After partaking 
 of one or two of the dishes placed before him, the Sultan, 
 as a mark of royal favour, names those of his courtiers and 
 ministers to whom he wishes the rest to be conveyed. 
 And in the midst of the great military display awaiting 
 the Sultan's appearance at the gates of Yildiz Kiosk on 
 Fridays, it is rather curious to see palace attendants 
 sallying forth bearing dishes enveloped in white napkins 
 tied at the four corners, destined for the Court dignitaries 
 their Imperial master thus delights to honour. 
 
 The intervals between these simple Royal repasts are 
 occupied chiefly with the transaction of State business. 
 Every Sultan of Turkey has been, theoretically at least, 
 an autocratic ruler, but the degree of power exerted by 
 each of the descendants of Osman has varied according to 
 the vigour of his character and the social and political 
 conditions of his time. The present reign has, however, 
 witnessed the most remarkable union of all the conditions 
 requisite for real autocracy a prince who " scorns delights, 
 and spends laborious days " an extension of the telegraph 
 system throughout the Empire, and, until the proclamation 
 of the Constitution last year, an absence of all elements 
 capable of thwarting or resisting the sovereign will. 
 Many as have no doubt been the tyrannical acts of Abdul 
 Hamid, the degree of progress attained by Turkey as an 
 
50 DENIZENS OF THE PALACES 
 
 Empire during the past thirty years is mainly due to the 
 unflagging industry of her ruler, who may be literally said 
 to work night and day. The supreme head of the military 
 forces of the country, all who have been brought into 
 personal contact with him pay tribute to his knowledge 
 of military affairs, the minutest detail of which does not 
 escape his keen interest. And critical as the state of 
 Turkey undoubtedly now is, it is certainly far less so than 
 when, in 1876, he was suddenly and unexpectedly called 
 upon to ascend the throne. War with a great Power was 
 then impending, the Treasury was well-nigh empty, and 
 the State saddled with a debt of over two hundred millions, 
 a national debt now reduced by the Sultan's exertions 
 to less than eighty millions, notwithstanding the payment 
 to Russia of nearly ten millions of war indemnity. 
 
 Strenuous worker though he habitually is, the Sultan 
 has, however, his occasional hours of relaxation, his 
 favourite diversions being drawing, painting, wood-carving, 
 and chemical experiments. An expert marksman, he keeps 
 his hand in by regular target practice and firing at glass 
 balls and other moving objects. Report says that fear of 
 assassination incited the Padishah to attain this proficiency 
 in the use of firearms, and that he always carries a pistol 
 on his person. In his partiality for dramatic and operatic 
 representations Abdul Hamid resembles his father Abdul 
 Medjid ; and to the little theatre in the palace grounds 
 are permanently attached a company of light comedians 
 and an operatic troupe, whose rehearsals the Padishah 
 often supervises in person. The foreign troupes which 
 
DENIZENS OF THE PALACES 51 
 
 periodically make the tour of the Levant are also often 
 "commanded" to give performances here to which high 
 officials or Royal guests are sometimes invited. The 
 Sultan, however, as well as the ladies of his family and 
 their attendants seated in the Royal boxes, are concealed 
 from view by gilded lattices and vouchsafe no audible sign 
 of approval or the reverse, though courteous messages, 
 usually accompanied by presents or decorations, may be 
 sent to the leading artistes after the performance. The 
 floor of the auditorium is occupied only by foreign visitors 
 and palace functionaries, an arrangement which must have 
 a somewhat chilling effect on actors accustomed to a 
 crowded house. The Sultan has also, like all Orientals, 
 a weakness for mechanical toys and shows of all sorts, and 
 cinematographs, phonographs, pianolas, musical boxes, and 
 other products of Western civilisation, as well as the native 
 Oriental shows described in a subsequent chapter, are in 
 great favour at the Kiosk. A genuine Turk also in his 
 kindness of and interest in animals, the Sultan has 
 tenanted his park with numbers of wild creatures which 
 he delights to feed with his own hands. And in addition 
 to the multitude of birds of many species which enliven 
 the hills and vales, large numbers of pigeons and parrots 
 including a collection presented to the Sultan by the 
 Mikado build and breed in the Imperial demesne ; while 
 well-appointed kennels to which a veterinary hospital is 
 also attached a great innovation are tenanted by 
 favourite dogs of various breeds. The Royal stables con- 
 tain nearly a hundred and fifty horses, including some 
 
52 DENIZENS OF THE PALACES 
 
 valuable thoroughbred saddle-horses reserved for his 
 Majesty's own use, his favourite being a white Arab, 
 "Azyl" by name. Half a dozen of these beautiful 
 creatures are on Fridays led behind their master's carnage 
 by grooms dressed in the handsome Imperial livery. 
 Attached to the stables is a riding school for the use 
 of the young princes, whose equestrian exercises are 
 occasionally supervised by their Imperial father from a 
 glazed gallery overlooking the ring. 
 
 As has been remarked in a previous chapter, Oriental 
 sentiment is opposed to the formation of an aristocratic 
 class occupying an intermediate position between the 
 Sovereign and the people ; even the connexions of the 
 Imperial family forming no such noble or privileged 
 class. With the exception of the Sultan's sons, the 
 male members of the Imperial family, including the 
 Heir apparent who, according to the Turkish law of 
 succession, is the senior among his relatives have 
 hitherto led dull useless lives of compulsory seclusion 
 in separate palaces ; and but a limited number of 
 persons belonging to collateral branches of the dynasty 
 which has reigned for five centuries at Constantinople 
 appear to exist in the country. Under the new regime, 
 however, these princes of the Imperial house are able 
 to enter the Services and play their part in social life. 
 One may, for instance, now read in the Constantinople 
 papers that Lieutenant Prince Burhaneddin Effendi has 
 presented a piano and the sum of 300 to the naval 
 club of which he is the honorary president, or that 
 
DENIZENS OF THE PALACES 53 
 
 S. A. I. Youssouf Izzedin Effendi has graciously accorded 
 his patronage to the concert to be given under the 
 auspices of the Armenian Benevolent Society. It is also 
 no longer an act of the majesty as formerly, to enumerate 
 the sons and daughters of the Sultan, whose olive branches 
 are sufficiently numerous, and Turkish almanacks may 
 now venture to publish such information to the world 
 without being promptly suppressed. The daughters of 
 Sultans, who also bear the title of " Sultan " there being 
 in Turkish no feminine form of complimentary titles 
 assume, in virtue of their Royal birth, precedence of their 
 husbands, and have in many cases treated with scorn the 
 conventional restraints imposed by Oriental custom on 
 their sex. The sons of these princesses have, however, 
 hitherto in common with other scions of the family of 
 the Padishah, been ineligible for the higher civil and 
 military offices, the whole system of the Imperial harem 
 appearing to have been, like the Turkish social system, 
 framed with the view of preventing the formation of a 
 hereditary aristocratic class in the nation. 
 
 The household of Sultan Abdul Hamid, large as it 
 may appear, is organised on a quite modest scale 
 compared with that of his brother and predecessor 
 Abdul Aziz, at whose deposition in 1876, no fewer than 
 three thousand persons were dismissed from the palace 
 of Dolma Baktche" ; and it was computed that less than 
 one-third of these were women, the rest being function- 
 aries, menials, and hangers-on of every degree. The 
 Imperial harem, however, still contains many hundreds of 
 
54 DENIZENS OF THE PALACES 
 
 women, who form a society apart from the rest of the 
 population, live their own life, and have their own code 
 of traditions, manners, customs, and etiquette. They may 
 also be said to have their own peculiar dialect, for the 
 speech of the Serailis as the denizens of this strange 
 abode are termed differs in pronunciation and expression 
 from that of the outer world ; and their extraction can 
 always be at once detected by this peculiarity. But large 
 as is the number of women thus brought together under 
 one roof, so complete is the organisation of the whole, 
 and so absolute the discipline, that there is no confusion 
 or disorder, each member of the household having her 
 assigned position and functions. The Serai possesses a 
 sort of constitution of its own, having its own customary 
 laws unwritten, it is true, but none the less rigidly 
 enforced its high dignitaries, and its intermediary and 
 lower ranks. The titular head of this feminine Court 
 is the Validt Sultan, the mother of the reigning Sultan, 
 next to whom ranks the mother of the eldest son the 
 Kliastki Sultan, and after her the second, third, and 
 fourth Kadin EfTendis, should there be so many. To 
 each of these ladies is assigned a daira, or establish- 
 ment, which comprises an allowance in money, a suite 
 of apartments, and a train of female slaves and eunuchs. 
 The chief female officials of the Queen Mother's Court 
 are twelve in number, each of these Ladies of the 
 Household, or kalfas, as they are called, having under 
 her an assistant and six or more pupils, who are all 
 designated according to their several departments. The 
 
DENIZENS OF THE PALACES 55 
 
 datras of the other ladies are formed on the same 
 model, but the number of attendants composing them 
 varies according to the rank of the Kadin Effendi. 
 
 On the accession of a new Sultan, the various ladies 
 of the deceased, or deposed, Sultan's harem are, together 
 with their personal attendants, removed to one of the 
 smaller palaces in order to make room for the household 
 of the young Padishah, whose mother is immediately 
 elevated to the rank of Valide Sultan, and at once 
 invested with almost Imperial dignity. The new Sultan 
 now requires all the persons composing his household, from 
 his wives down to the lowest menials, to take an oath 
 of obedience to his Mother, who is henceforth only 
 addressed or referred to as "The Crown of Veiled 
 Heads," a title with which every petition to her must 
 begin. No one may venture to appear before her unless 
 an audience has previously been asked for and granted, 
 or sit uninvited in her presence, and all stand before her 
 in the Oriental posture of respect arms crossed on the 
 breast and heads bent, and accompany every reply with 
 a lowly reverence and the words " Our Lady." Nor may 
 any one of the inmates of the Serai, whatever her rank, 
 leave her own apartments without her permission, or 
 address any request to the Sultan, save through her. 
 Such supreme authority naturally entails much responsi- 
 bility and duties sufficiently arduous. Of these a Valide 
 is, however, in great part relieved by her Hasnadar Ousta, 
 or "First Lady of the Treasury," and also by the chief 
 eunuch, known as the Kizler Bey or Kizler Agha " Bey," 
 
56 DENIZENS OF THE PALACES 
 
 or "Agha of the Women," through whom all intercourse 
 with the outer world is carried on. This functionary, 
 under the old rfgime, ranked next to the Grand Vizier, 
 and, in the Serai the Hasnadar ranks next to the Empress 
 Mother herself. She is generally, on being appointed to 
 this important post, a woman of middle age, who has 
 been brought up in the daira of the Valide, and whose 
 seniority, coupled with her devotion to the interests of her 
 mistress, has entitled her to this important post. Her 
 office gives her absolute authority in every matter with 
 which the Valide does not choose to concern herself 
 personally ; and should the latter die before her Imperial 
 son, the Hasnadar Ousta succeeds during the whole of his 
 lifetime to her position and prerogatives, and ever since 
 the death of the late Valide* Sultan, the harem of Yildiz 
 Kiosk has thus been ruled over by her " First Lady of the 
 Treasury." 
 
 Slaves for the service of the palace are, as a rule, 
 purchased as children in order that they may be suitably 
 trained for the positions they will be required to occupy. 
 Abyssinians and Negresses, as also white girls who give 
 no promise of future beauty, are placed under the care 
 of kalfas, or " matrons," who bring them up as cooks, 
 housemaids, bath-women, laundry maids, etc. The finer 
 specimens of humanity, who may be called upon to fill 
 high positions, are taught elegance of deportment, dancing, 
 singing and music, by the various Ladies of the House- 
 hold, and initiated into all the graceful formalities of 
 Oriental etiquette and deportment. A certain number 
 
DENIZENS OF THE PALACES 57 
 
 who may be destined for such posts as those of Secretary, 
 or " Lady Chaplain " whose duties comprise reading the 
 Koran aloud and imparting religious instruction are also 
 taught to read fluently and write with elegance. There 
 is thus always on hand a supply of these aldiks, or pupil- 
 slaves, ready to fill any vacancies that may occur in 
 the various establishments which constitute the Imperial 
 harem. Separated for ever from her own kindred, the 
 slave child becomes the adopted daughter of the kalfa 
 who has purchased her for the service of her department, 
 and who is at the same time her mistress and instructor. 
 Each kalfa takes a pride in the appearance and the 
 efficiency of her pupils, watches over their interests with 
 the utmost vigilance, and, should marriage with an out- 
 sider be the Kismet of any one of them as not infre- 
 quently happens does all in her power to secure for 
 her adopted child as good a match as possible. Slaves 
 both, the kalfa and the alaik look to each other for 
 mutual support, and the affection that arises between them 
 is a touching proof of the need of the human heart for 
 sympathy and love ; and even when removed by marriage 
 to another sphere, a girl of slave origin maintains the same 
 intimate relations with her adopted mother, who will on 
 her side make use of her position in the Serai to forward 
 the interests of her former pupil. 
 
 The kalfas are generally those slaves who, having 
 neither attracted the notice of the Sultan, nor been given 
 in marriage to a subject, have attained their position 
 by right of seniority. Some may still look forward to 
 
58 DENIZENS OF THE PALACES 
 
 matrimony, but the majority, contented with the life which 
 has become habitual to them, and devoted to their respec- 
 tive mistresses, look for their only promotion within the 
 walls of the Serai. It is these old serailis who are the 
 faithful guardians of all the palace traditions and usages, 
 which they cherish with jealous conservatism and, in their 
 turn, transmit to their successors in office. The denizens 
 of the Serai, however, even when not given in marriage 
 to outsiders, are by no means, as is generally supposed, 
 imprisoned for life within the palace precincts. Many 
 of their amusements, indeed, lie outside its walls, for 
 Sultanas and their ladies-in-waiting, like the generality 
 of uncultured women in all countries, find their chief 
 distractions in their toilettes, in visits, and drives and 
 excursions. Pilgrimages to the shrines of Moslem Saints, 
 and attendance at the services in Dervish Tekkehs, vary 
 their mundane pursuits, and are made the opportunity 
 of atoning for some of their sins by pious gifts and alms- 
 deeds. Each lady has usually her favourite Sheikh and 
 her favourite shrine, to whom and to which she periodi- 
 cally makes offerings, either in money or in the shape 
 of rich shawls and draperies for the tombs of the departed 
 Saints. In their excursions beyond the palace precincts, 
 the Ladies of the Imperial harem are, however, invariably 
 attended by negro eunuchs resplendent in frock coats, 
 light trousers, kid gloves, and diamond jewellery. For 
 these gentry, though valued chiefly for their size and 
 ugliness, are preposterously vain, and their owners gladly 
 gratify the amiable weaknesses of such generally attached 
 
DENIZENS OF THE PALACES 59 
 
 and trustworthy servants. Mounted on prancing Arabs, 
 they ride on either side of the smart closed broughams, 
 through the windows of which a passing glimpse may be 
 caught of a filmy white yashmak^ athwart which dark eyes 
 peer curiously at the denizens of the strange outside world 
 whom they may encounter on the way to one of the 
 fashionable resorts of Turkish holiday-makers. 
 
 The above described elaborate organisation of the 
 Imperial household was by no means of Turkish origin, 
 but was evidently copied in great measure, together with 
 other social institutions, from that of the Court of 
 Byzantium to which the Turkish Sultans served them- 
 selves heirs, the practice of making Sultanas of slave 
 women having apparently been introduced about that 
 period. For the earlier rulers of Turkey, who contented 
 themselves with the unassuming title of Emir, or " Prince," 
 were in the habit of contracting legal marriages with 
 free women. Orkhan, for instance, wedded the daughter 
 of John VI. of Byzantium ; Bayazid I., before his 
 accession, espoused the daughter of the Asian Prince 
 Jacob of Kermian, who brought him for dowry Kutayia 
 and other important territories situated in the former 
 Seljukian Kingdom ; while six years later his father 
 Murad I., and two of his brothers wedded on the same 
 day three Byzantine princesses, their espousals being 
 celebrated with great pomp and splendour on the plain 
 of Yeni-Shehir in Asia Minor, in the presence of the 
 Army there encamped. And later Ottoman legists, 
 while seeking to guard against female influence at the 
 
60 DENIZENS OF THE PALACES 
 
 Imperial Court by limiting the wives of Sultans to slave 
 women, would appear to have overlooked the fact that a 
 Sultan is after all but a man, and consequently liable 
 to be influenced by any woman, whatever her origin, 
 clever enough to gain ascendancy over him. It is related 
 that one of the "four rules of conduct" given by the 
 famous Vizier Mohammed Kiupruli, when on his death- 
 bed, to the young Sultan Mohammed IV. was " never to 
 listen to the counsels of women." Yet the great Kiupruli 
 himself owed his long maintenance in office to the able 
 Valide Sultan Tarkhan, and his son and successor in the 
 Vizierate owed the freedom of action which he enjoyed 
 under the same prince to the patronage of Mohammed's 
 favourite wife. The rdle played by the women of the 
 Serai in Turkish history has, indeed, been by no means 
 unimportant. To give a few instances only the Sultana 
 Safiye", a lady of Venetian extraction, exercised for some 
 twenty years of the lifetime of her incapable consort, 
 Sultan Murad III., a predominant sway in the govern- 
 ment, and ruled generally in the Court and Councils of 
 her son Mohammed III. The mother of Mustapha I. 
 exercised supreme authority in his name. And when his 
 successor Murad IV. mounted the throne at the age of 
 twelve, the Valide" Mahpeiker, a slave of Greek extraction, 
 became regent. She appears to have been a woman of 
 remarkable talent and energy, and both were taxed to 
 the uttermost to combat the dangers and disasters that 
 clouded the dawn of her son's sovereignty. A Venetian 
 Ambassador who met this princess when she was about 
 
DENIZENS OF THE PALACES 61 
 
 forty-five years of age, described her as "virtuous, wise, 
 prudent, and liberal, loving pious works." 
 
 The present Sultan is, however, by no means, as so 
 many of his predecessors have been, and as he is by some 
 foreign writers reported to be, under the influence of the 
 women of his harem, those most hostile to his rule 
 admitting the irreproachability of his private life. He has 
 now but one wife living, is somewhat advanced in years, 
 and has moreover for many years past been too com- 
 pletely engrossed with affairs of State to concern himself 
 with the affairs of the haremlik, the conduct of which is 
 left in the hands of the functionaries above mentioned. 
 
 The harems of the Imperial Serais have, however, 
 always constituted a perfect hot-bed of intrigue, which 
 indeed forms the main occupation of the generality of 
 their inhabitants. The law of primogeniture not being 
 recognised in the succession to the throne, each prince 
 born in the Serai has the chance of becoming Sultan in 
 his turn ; and every mother of a son being in consequence 
 an aspirant for supreme power in the harem, she, together 
 with all the members of her daira, makes the event of his 
 succession the supreme object of her life, working day and 
 night for its accomplishment. As the Sultan is styled the 
 " Lion of Lions," each prince is called by his mother and 
 her attendants "My Lion," and is worshipped by the 
 whole of her miniature Court. There are consequently 
 in the Imperial palaces as many coteries as there are 
 Kadin Effendis and dctiras, each of which forms a centre 
 having ramifications extending beyond the walls of the 
 
62 DENIZENS OF THE PALACES 
 
 Serai. For the brothers and other male relatives of a 
 reigning Sultan or rather the respective mothers of these 
 princes being always in quest of partisans, the Valide 
 Sultan or her representative is on her side vigilantly 
 occupied in safeguarding the interests of her Imperial son. 
 The possible successors to Sultan Abdul Hamid are 
 somewhat numerous, as they include besides his own six 
 sons the eldest of whom he himself desires should be 
 the next to gird the sword of Osman his half-brother 
 Reshid Effendi, the legitimate heir, whose claim is sup- 
 ported by the reactionary party, and ether scions of the 
 Imperial House. Each of these possible future claimants 
 to the throne has his following as well among the inmates 
 of the palace both male and female as in the Army and 
 thoughout the Empire generally. The Padishah is sixty- 
 seven years of age, and in the natural course of events the 
 Osmanli nation will ere long be called upon to make choice 
 of a new ruler. A strong man is wanted at this crisis of 
 Turkish history ; and, if report says true, such a successor 
 may be found among the princes of the Royal house 
 other than those above mentioned, whose candidature 
 would be strongly supported by leading members of the 
 progressive party. 
 
H.I.H. PRINCE SELIM EFFENDI, ELDEST SON OF THE SULTAN 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 PROVINCIAL AND COUNTRY FOLK 
 
 ALTHOUGH Smyrna, Salonica, and also to a 
 certain extent Adrianople, since its connexion 
 by rail with Central Europe, present many 
 features in common with the Capital, the manners and 
 customs and even the languages of the non-Turkish 
 element of the towns of the interior, where Turkish 
 influences chiefly predominate, are considerably affected 
 by those of the ruling race. Many provincial towns of 
 European Turkey present, indeed, features far more 
 characteristically Oriental than are to be found on the 
 Eastern shores of the JEgean Sea. The same system 
 of administration obtains, of course, in the remoter 
 provinces as in the cities, the higher judicial Courts being 
 supplemented by the local Medjliss, or Town Council, 
 comprised of the representatives of the various com- 
 munities, Christian, Jewish, and Moslem, which usually 
 make up the population of a township, and the Konak, 
 or Government House, forms the centre of municipal 
 life. A provincial konak is, generally speaking, a many- 
 windowed, barrack-like edifice, coloured red or yellow 
 without, whitewashed within, and approached by a spacious 
 
 63 
 
64 PROVINCIAL AND COUNTRY FOLK 
 
 courtyard on either side of the great roofed gateway of 
 which sit, on rush-bottomed stools, a couple of stalwart 
 ZaptiehSj as the Turkish armed police are termed. 
 The internal arrangements are those of most Oriental 
 houses a wide central hall, or corridor, on which all 
 the rooms open, the upper floor, or floors, being precisely 
 similar in plan. Over the doorways are inscribed the names 
 of the various departments " Secretary," " Treasurer," 
 "Keeper of Archives," etc. ; and among the motley throng 
 loitering in the courtyard and entrance hall during office 
 hours may always be found a heterogeneous collection 
 of litigants, witnesses, and petitioners, servants, soldiers, 
 and loafers, varying in race according to province, and 
 clad in garments denoting every degree of Eastern 
 civilisation, from sheepskin cap and jacket to fez and 
 frock coat. The new Constitution, young as it is yet, 
 has already worked important changes in the adminis- 
 tration of justice ; but things move slowly in the East, 
 and time-honoured abuses are not abolished in a day. 
 The majority of the frequenters of a provincial konak 
 may still be divided into two classes those who seek 
 to gain some unfair advantage over their fellows, and 
 those who would avert, or seek redress for, some act of 
 injustice or spoliation. Here will be a group of Turkish 
 peasants, ragged probably, but dignified, discussing the 
 justice of a sentence just announced, adverse to their 
 village and in favour of the beylikdji^ or tax-farmer, 
 whose demands they have appealed against. And outside 
 the door of another office may stand a party of flock-masters 
 
PROVINCIAL AND COUNTRY FOLK 65 
 
 having a triangular dispute with the forest inspectors 
 and the inhabitants of a village, both parties claiming 
 rights over some neighbouring pasturages which the 
 shepherds have been in the habit of renting from the 
 former. Formerly, almost every village in Turkey had 
 its own common and forest in which the peasant pro- 
 prietors had the right to cut wood, burn charcoal, and 
 rent the pasturage annually to the nomad herdsmen 
 and shepherds a great resource for the peasantry, though 
 most destructive to the forests. All this was, however, 
 changed when what is known as the Vilayet system 
 was organised, and the forests and the pasturages were 
 placed under Government supervision. But though the 
 laws regulating the new arrangement were excellent on 
 paper, the acts of injustice and the abuses connected with 
 their administration have proved most prejudicial to the 
 rural population. 
 
 Upstairs in a large scantily furnished room the 
 Governor holds his court, seated if an "old-fashioned" 
 Turk cross-legged in an angle of the divan which 
 furnishes three sides of the apartment. Accommodated on 
 either side of him their rank being easily ascertained 
 by their proximity to the great man and the degree of 
 ease in the posture they assume are a number of indi- 
 viduals, some in turbans and flowing robes, others in 
 semi-European garb, members of the Medjliss, or Municipal 
 Council, magnates, officials, and others. The Jewish 
 doctor, for instance, sits at a distance on the extreme 
 edge of the divan, with his hands on his stomach, speaks 
 
66 PROVINCIAL AND COUNTRY FOLK 
 
 only when spoken to, and with a deferential salaam ; 
 the Greek dragoman occupies an uncomfortable corner 
 of his rush-seated chair near the door, from which he 
 rises and salaams obsequiously every time the Vali 
 Pasha addresses him ; and these subordinates are served 
 by the bare-footed attendants with coffee only, though 
 cigarettes or tchibouks will also be handed to the Kadi, 
 or Judge, and to the other magnates seated on the great 
 man's right and left. In the small towns and villages of 
 Turkey, the immediate supreme authority is, however, 
 vested in the Kodjabashi Headman, or Mayor who 
 settles petty disputes and is held responsible for the 
 good behaviour of his township. It is also his business, 
 as, save in large towns inns are non-existent, to provide 
 lodging for travellers, and to arrange for the accommo- 
 dation of troops and zaptiehs armed police passing 
 through on their way from one town to another. The 
 office of Kodjabashi naturally entails considerable responsi- 
 bility upon its holder, and under the social and political 
 conditions which have so long obtained in Turkey is 
 frequently one of no little difficulty. It has, however, no 
 doubt its compensations, and places its possessor in a 
 position superior to that of his fellows. 
 
 An ill-paved and often mud-pooled market-place 
 usually occupies the centre of Turkish villages and small 
 towns, and here the peasants collect from the neighbour- 
 ing country with their sheep and cattle, and their carts 
 and beasts of burden laden with produce of all kinds 
 for sale or barter. Bulgarian weavers come, too, with 
 
PROVINCIAL AND COUNTRY FOLK 67 
 
 rolls of cloth, and Gypsies with pots and pans, sieves, 
 coarse baskets, and other articles for domestic use. 
 Surrounding the square are the bakals, or chandlers' 
 shop, the butchers' stall, and, of course, the shanty which 
 does duty as a cafl, at which the market-folk refresh 
 themselves in frugal fashion and hear the news of the 
 country side, perhaps also some faint echo of political 
 events from the nearest city. Close by, in a Turkish 
 village, stands the little white-washed mosque with its 
 cypress-shadowed cemetery. At one end of the green 
 is the threshing-floor, generally of beaten earth, but some- 
 times paved with flags, used by all the villagers in turn, 
 and on feast days by the youth for their wrestling 
 matches; and at the other end is the village well, to 
 which the maidens come towards sunset carrying on their 
 shoulders the large red earthen water-jars, unchanged in 
 shape since the days of Homer. 
 
 A considerable proportion of the agricultural land of 
 Asia Minor is held and cultivated by peasant proprietors ; 
 and in other parts of Turkey are also to be found a con- 
 siderable number of so-called " Head villages," or " Free 
 villages," the lands adjoining which are owned and tilled 
 by small farmers. In Macedonia and Thrace, however, 
 landed property is less equally divided, great areas being 
 united in large estates called tchiftliks, owned either by 
 native Beys, or by absentee landlords who reside in the 
 towns and cities, leaving the management of their estates 
 to an agent called the Soubashi. The large estates 
 belonging to absentee landlords are cultivated to a great 
 
68 PROVINCIAL AND COUNTRY FOLK 
 
 extent on what is called in France the Mttayer system 
 that is, the landlord provides the seed corn in the first 
 instance, while the peasant, who also finds his own yoke 
 of oxen or buffaloes, performs all the labour. When the 
 harvest has been reaped, the seed for the next season 
 set aside, and the tithe deducted, the remainder of the 
 produce is shared with the proprietor. If equitably 
 carried out, this arrangement proves, as in other countries, 
 by no means an unfavourable one for the yeradji, as the 
 peasants working under this system are called. In 
 Turkey, however, " might " is but too often " right," and 
 the tiller of the soil frequently gets a quite inadequate 
 return for his labour. One serious grievance of the farmer 
 is that when the grain has been cut he may not remove 
 it from the field until the tithe collector has been pleased 
 to come and inspect the crop, no matter what weather 
 may threaten, or what depredations be committed by the 
 immense flocks of birds that are robbing the peasant of 
 his profit. The computation of shares is also too often 
 very unfairly made. A certain number of sheaves, forty 
 perhaps, of the finest and heaviest, are threshed separately, 
 and the seed for the next year, the tithes, and the land- 
 lord's share are deducted according to this standard, 
 which often leaves the yeradji an unfairly small portion 
 of the produce. The soubashi is also entitled to receive 
 six measures each of barley and wheat for every head 
 of cattle possessed by the peasant; and among other 
 burdens which press hardly upon him are the Govern- 
 ment taxes, the conscription, the frequent quartering in 
 
PROVINCIAL AND COUNTRY FOLK 69 
 
 his cottage especially if near a high-road of zaptiehs 
 and soldiers, and the obligation of performing statute 
 labour whenever called upon, often with disastrous results 
 to farm labour and damage to carts and implements. 
 The small agriculturist in Turkey is, indeed, perhaps the 
 most highly taxed individual in the world. His taxes 
 may also be demanded at any time during the year, and 
 perhaps more than once. The Imperial taxes are also 
 for the most part farmed, and the expenses of their 
 collection, to say nothing of the tax-farmer's profit, is 
 added to the burden of the peasant. As to their assess- 
 ment, the system pursued is a masterpiece of simplicity. 
 The question is not how much such and such a village 
 ought to pay, according to the number of adult males it 
 may contain, but how much it can pay, rich villages being 
 called upon to make up the deficit of those in less pros- 
 perous circumstances. This point settled by the powers 
 that be, the village council responsible for the payment 
 of the lump sum meet to apportion to each householder 
 of the community his share of the common burden. 
 Seated cross-legged on a mat or on rush-bottomed stools 
 under a leafy plane tree, or in the shadow of the mosque, 
 the village fathers and their scribes, in coarse baggy 
 breeches of brown homespun, brightly coloured shirts and 
 ample waist-shawls, discuss the financial position of their 
 neighbours and allot to each what they consider his 
 rightful portion of the tax. The council is, however, 
 collectively responsible for the taxes due from each house- 
 holder, and bound to make up all deficits. 
 
70 PROVINCIAL AND COUNTRY FOLK 
 
 Native farming is still for the most part conducted 
 according to most primitive methods and with the aid 
 of implements the most archaic. The ground is broken 
 to-day, as it was two thousand years ago, by the clumsy 
 one-handled wooden Pelasgian plough drawn by a yoke 
 or team of buffaloes, and in some places the grain is 
 merely scattered over the stubble and ploughed in, 
 threshing and winnowing being performed in equally 
 primitive fashion. Agriculture is consequently, notwith- 
 standing the great fertility of soil and the favourable 
 climatic conditions, which allow of the cultivation of the 
 products of both the old and the new world, and a 
 coast-line of noo miles in extent, in a most back- 
 ward state. The explanation of this is hardly to be 
 found in any peculiarity of the Ottoman character which, 
 though warlike and pastoral, is also essentially agri- 
 cultural, but rather in a variety of causes, the chief of 
 which consists in the forms of land tenure, other con- 
 tributing causes being the lack of scientific knowledge, 
 of capital, and, owing to the conscription, of labour. 
 Deficiency in means of communication is also another 
 cause, for there are no great waterways as in Russia ; 
 railways as yet are only in their infancy, and leave 
 untouched great tracts of land over which "the ship of 
 the desert " still swings his slow way to the ports of the 
 ./Egean, laden with great bales of produce from the 
 interior, raw cotton and wool, vallonia, jute, hemp, hides, 
 and cereals. Large tracts of land in Asia Minor remain 
 uncultivated, or have fallen out of cultivation, the quantity 
 
PROVINCIAL AND COUNTRY FOLK 71 
 
 of corn grown being, it is computed, but a tenth of what 
 the country might yield, if properly worked. Nor is 
 any regular system of rotation of crops observed by the 
 peasants, though on large estates the ordinary rule for 
 rich lands is two crops of wheat to one of oats, then 
 fallow one or more years, after which wheat, followed 
 by sesame, is again sown. In Macedonia, where arable 
 land abounds, it is allowed to lie fallow more frequently. 
 The only dressing the fields owned by natives receive is 
 the treading of the sheep in spring and autumn ; but 
 the soil is naturally so fertile, and the crops ripen so 
 early, especially in the southern provinces, that a bad 
 harvest is of rare occurrence. Occasionally, however, 
 occurs a long drought, when the crops in the great open 
 plains perish for want of moisture, and the cattle die by 
 hundreds unless driven off in time and sold much under 
 their value to those living in more fortunate localities. 
 At such times it is customary for both Moslems and 
 Christians to invoke the aid of the celestial powers by 
 special ceremonies, as in former days the pagan rain-god 
 was propitiated in the same localities in times of drought. 
 With the Turks all the children attending the mektebs, 
 or parish schools, march in procession, headed by their 
 hodjas, through the streets of the towns to the open plain, 
 where, after spreading their carpets, they offer up prayers 
 interspersed with many prostrations. After continuing 
 this religious exercise for nearly an hour, the children 
 fall into rank again, wailing, as they trail slowly back 
 to the town, a monotonous and weirdly melancholy chant. 
 
72 PROVINCIAL AND COUNTRY FOLK 
 
 Silk culture, as a village industry, is carried on to 
 a considerable extent both in European and Asiatic 
 Turkey. When operations are on a large scale the silk- 
 worm nurseries are often, for greater convenience, located 
 in the mulberry plantations, which not infrequently extend 
 over several acres. This profitable industry of rearing 
 and feeding the silkworms begins as soon as the trees 
 are in full leaf, and lasts for about two months. The 
 work connected with it, tedious and laborious as it is, 
 is generally undertaken by the women. Tobacco also is 
 extensively grown in Macedonia, Thrace, and elsewhere, 
 and its cultivation and manufacture afford employment 
 to both peasants and townsfolk, especially in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Drama and Cavalla, where Moslems and 
 Christians of both sexes may be seen squatting side by 
 side in the factories of the tobacco merchants, native 
 and foreign, where the leaves of the fragrant weed are 
 dried, sorted, and otherwise manipulated before being 
 packed in bales for exportation. For poverty is a more 
 potent factor than even racial and religious prejudice, 
 and the harvesting of any important product tobacco, 
 grapes, olives, etc. brings together a heterogeneous crowd 
 of labourers having nothing in common but dire necessity. 
 
 The residences of the large landed proprietors vary 
 considerably in style of construction, some being simple 
 and unpretentious, though spacious, edifices in the style of 
 the old konaks in Stamboul, while others are in the form 
 of solidly built, quadrangular towers several stories high, 
 having windows only in the upper floors, and these 
 
PROVINCIAL AND COUNTRY FOLK 73 
 
 defended by massive iron bars and strong shutters 
 domestic fortresses which have frequently been called 
 upon to withstand the attacks of brigands and other 
 assailants. A high wall of masonry roofed with tiles 
 encloses the garden, orchard, and farmyard, the first of 
 which, even on a tchiftlik of the better class, usually 
 presents an ill-kept, if luxuriant, aspect, while the last 
 abounds with reeking dunghills and mud-pools amid 
 which fowls, ducks, geese, and dogs disport themselves. 
 These country konaks are, as a rule, but scantily 
 furnished, especially when the proprietor is non-resident. 
 For in that case the bedding, carpets, and household 
 necessaries generally are brought from town when he 
 and his family visit the estate in summer; and it is 
 astonishing to see with how little luggage a Turkish 
 family travels and makes itself comfortable on such 
 occasions. Each person will bring merely one or two 
 bokchas, or bundle-wraps the primitive portmanteaux 
 containing his or her wearing apparel ; while the articles 
 fcr general use will comprise a few lamps and candlesticks, 
 a couple of brass jugs and basins, which in the morning 
 and at meal-times make the round of the household, some 
 copper cooking vessels, a coffee service, and a modest 
 service of glass and crockery. In some districts the 
 ladies and their female attendants make use for travelling 
 of a contrivance similar to the cacolet of the Basque pro- 
 vinces. A kind of pannier-seat is attached to either side 
 of the saddle of a mule or horse, and the fair occupants 
 are screened from the rays of the sun and the gaze of 
 
74 PROVINCIAL AND COUNTRY FOLK 
 
 the vulgar by semicircular tilts or awnings which sway 
 balloon-like with the motion of the steed as he staggers 
 along under the weight of his double burden. Travelling 
 is indeed, in Turkey, no very pleasant matter, the roads 
 are generally in a deplorable state, knee-deep in dust in 
 summer, and in winter full of treacherous mud-filled holes ; 
 and in mountainous districts the torrent beds often con- 
 stitute the only highway. Bridges over the great rivers 
 are few and far between, and frequently out of repair ; 
 and fording, though easy enough in the dry season, offers 
 considerable dangers when the streams are swollen after 
 rain. 
 
 The way in which an absentee proprietor spends his 
 time when on an occasional visit to his estate naturally 
 depends upon his pecuniary means and personal tastes. 
 A sportsman will occasionally have a hunting or coursing 
 party, or go out with his sons, guests, and servants for 
 a day's expedition in quest of more distant game deer 
 and boar on the hills, or snipe and quail in the marshlands. 
 His duties as landlord are confined to regulating accounts 
 with his agent, hearing and deciding cases between that 
 functionary and the tenants, giving instructions for future 
 farming operations, and last, but not least, to realising the 
 profits. As to improving the soil, introducing modern 
 and labour-saving machinery, building model cottages and 
 otherwise ameliorating the moral and material condition 
 of his tenants these are things which have not so far 
 been considered necessary by a Turkish landed proprietor. 
 In the mean time, the Bey's womenkind contrive to amuse 
 
PROVINCIAL AND COUNTRY FOLK 75 
 
 themselves in their own fashion during their annual 
 villeggiatura. Turkish women are passionately fond of 
 the open air, and when in the country spend a great part 
 of every day in roaming about freely in the most negligt 
 of costumes, picnicking, singing and amusing themselves 
 according to their wont. Included in the " house party " 
 are generally a number of relatives or hangers-on, who lend 
 willing aid in preparing the stores of winter provisions to 
 be carried back to town by the family. These comprise 
 tomato sauce and pickles of various kinds; a v kind of 
 molasses made from grape juice, used in the confection 
 of the commoner kinds of preserves for household con- 
 sumption ; macaroni pastes for soups and other dishes ; 
 fruit syrups for making sherbets ; and the great variety of 
 elegant and carefully prepared sweets which are served to 
 harem visitors on great occasions. For the kiler, as a 
 Turkish storeroom for provisions is called, is a very 
 important department of every Oriental household. Here, 
 besides the above-mentioned confections, oil and honey 
 are stored in great jars of red earthenware, which recall 
 those in which the " Forty Thieves " were hidden, together 
 with sacks of rice, flour, nuts, and dried fruit of all kinds 
 for winter consumption. 
 
 Whatever may be the opinion of European travellers 
 and residents in Turkey as to the character of its towns- 
 people, all who have ever come into personal contact with 
 the Turkish peasantry have been unanimous in praise of 
 their simple honesty and sobriety, their passive content- 
 ment and dignified resignation to the will of Allah and 
 
76 PROVINCIAL AND COUNTRY FOLK 
 
 their Padishah, and their passionate attachment to the 
 land which has been bought by the blood of their fore- 
 fathers. Physically, a Turkish peasant is well built, healthy, 
 and, owing no doubt to his habitual abstemiousness, 
 possesses remarkable powers of endurance. With him 
 days and seasons succeed each other in a dull round of 
 laborious and frugal monotony ; for, unlike his Christian 
 neighbours, he has no weekly dance, no frequently re- 
 curring village feast, and but little music to vary the 
 uniformity of his life. His cup of coffee, taken before 
 the labours of the day begin and at their close, and his 
 poor tchibouk at intervals, constitute for him all the luxuries 
 of life. His cottage, often a mere mud hovel, though 
 clean, is comfortless enough, cold in winter and hot in 
 summer, and contains little in the way of furniture beyond 
 a scanty supply of bedding and a few rugs, stools, and 
 cooking utensils. Turkish villages, indeed, throughout 
 the Empire wear a much more impoverished and much 
 less animated aspect than do those of their Christian 
 neighbours. For a Turkish peasant's wife and daughters 
 take, as a rule, a less active part in field and farm work 
 than do the Christian peasant women, and are never seen, 
 like them, spinning, knitting, and sewing at their cottage 
 doors. As mentioned in a previous chapter, the abolition 
 of the feudal system, and also of the Janissary corps, at 
 the beginning of last century, and the placing of the army 
 on a European footing, created a demand for soldiers 
 from the peasant class unknown in previous centuries ; 
 while, owing to the method pursued in levying conscripts, 
 
PROVINCIAL AND COUNTRY FOLK 77 
 
 the agricultural communities labour under the permanent 
 disadvantage of being deprived of the co-operation of a 
 considerable proportion of their younger and more ener- 
 getic members. And when, in time of war, the majority 
 of the able-bodied are, as reservists, also called to the 
 colours, the situation becomes one of real hardship. The 
 old men, the raw boys, and the women unused to labour 
 and consequently incapable of coping with it struggle on 
 for a time as best they can, often finding themselves at 
 length compelled to abandon their holdings and take 
 refuge in some neighbouring town or larger village. Thus 
 deserted, their little homesteads too often built merely 
 of mud and wattle, thatched with reeds fall into ruin, 
 and their untilled fields either pass into the hands of 
 Christian or Jewish mortgagees, or are added to the vast 
 waste-lands of the Empire. The larger villages will also, 
 there is grave reason to fear, in time share the fate of the 
 hamlets unless the new administration speedily introduces 
 such radical changes as will permanently ameliorate the 
 condition of the peasantry, who constitute morally and 
 physically the backbone of the Turkish nation. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 HOLIDAY LIFE 
 
 THERE is perhaps hardly a town in Turkey which 
 does not possess in its immediate neighbourhood 
 one or more picturesque spots to which its in- 
 habitants resort on Friday, the Moslem Day of Rest, and 
 on other festive days, and round about the Capital may be 
 found many such. Among the most frequented in the 
 vicinity of Constantinople are, on the European side, the 
 "Sweet Waters of Europe," the Forest of Belgrade 
 near Buyukddre", and the Vale of Lindens ; and on the 
 opposite shore, the " Sweet Waters of Asia," the " Sultan's 
 Valley," and Merdevenkeui. The "Sweet Waters of 
 Europe " is the foreign designation of the charming valley 
 to the west of the Capital, watered by the river Barbyses, 
 which here meanders among green meadows and shady 
 trees before losing itself in the waters of the Golden Horn. 
 Rustic wooden bridges span the stream at intervals ; in 
 the neighbourhood elegant villas are dotted about ; while 
 among the meadows may be found a number of verandah - 
 shaded kahfints, whose customers, seated in the pleasant 
 shade by the cool flowing water, watch the performances of 
 the various jugglers, mountebanks, showmen, and strolling 
 
 78 
 
HOLIDAY LIFE 79 
 
 players, who never fail to present themselves. Among 
 them will probably be Kara Guez a kind of Chinese 
 shadow-play and also plays by Marionettes both of 
 which, it must be admitted, usually leave much to be 
 desired in the matter of decency. Egyptian musicians 
 with rebeck and flute fill the air with their strange melodies, 
 often harsh and discordant, occasionally tuneful, but 
 always melancholy. Gypsies wander from one group of 
 holiday makers to another with bears or monkeys, whose 
 performances they accompany with excruciating sounds 
 from drum, tambourine, bag-pipe, and reed-pipe, while 
 their women execute unwearyingly their wild nautch-like 
 pantomimic dances. Dancing, it may here be remarked, 
 though a favourite recreation of all the Christian nation- 
 alities, as also of the Albanians, Kurds, and other races 
 professing the creed of Islam, is not indulged in personally 
 by the sedate Osmanlis, who consider such exercises 
 beneath their dignity, and prefer to see slave girls and 
 Gypsy women clance for their amusement. Swinging 
 boats and rotary horses, barrel organs, and cinemato- 
 graphs have also been introduced into Turkey, and may 
 be found as far east as Mosul. The hours passed at the 
 kahfints in these popular holiday resorts are also 
 frequently beguiled with various sedentary games such as 
 draughts, dominoes, and backgammon. Cards are seldom 
 resorted to, games of hazard being forbidden to Moslems. 
 Nor can gambling be said to be at all a popular vice in 
 the country, the stakes played for among the Christian 
 populace seldom rising above the price of a glass of raki 
 
80 HOLIDAY LIFE 
 
 or cube of rahat lokoum. When lack of piastres, or groosh, 
 as the natives term this modest coin, or lack of sufficient 
 leisure makes any of these resorts inaccessible, the Turk 
 betakes himself contentedly to the nearest cemetery where, 
 seated on a fallen turbaned tombstone under the shade of 
 the tall cypresses, he may enjoy with his fellows the 
 amenities of conversation flavoured with " the inevitable, 
 the eternal, the universal cigarette." 
 
 In addition to the holidays observed by the nation 
 generally, every Trade Guild observes a special annual 
 festival in honour of its patron saint, the expenses of 
 which are defrayed either by subscription among the 
 guildsmen themselves, or from the corporation funds. This 
 festival usually takes the form of a picnic at one of the 
 above-mentioned resorts, and to the substantial and even 
 sumptuous repast provided on such occasions are usually 
 invited friends of members of the Guild, irrespective of 
 creed ; and any stranger who may happen to pass the 
 spot chosen for the festivities is also hospitably enter- 
 tained by the revellers. The amusements indulged in 
 after the conclusion of the midday repast include besides 
 the usual variety of juggling and acrobatic performances, 
 wrestling matches between the guildsmen, and, for the 
 Christians and Albanians, their national dances, during 
 the execution of which their Turkish fellow-craftsmen, 
 seated on rush-bottomed stools in front of a rustic coffee- 
 house, one hand occupied with the beads of their rosary, 
 and the other with a short-stemmed tchibouk, cigarette, 
 or bubbling narghileh, according to their calling, enjoy 
 
HOLIDAY LIFE 81 
 
 their kaif in more passive fashion. Disputes are of rare 
 occurrence at these al fresco gatherings, and the greatest 
 harmony prevails. " Strict, stern, stony decorum " is, 
 indeed, according to a recent traveller in Turkey, "the 
 keynote to all Turkish fetes'' And certainly a total 
 absence of anything approaching to vulgarity or rowdyism 
 is noticeable in Oriental merry-makings generally, whatever 
 the class of those who participate in them. 
 
 Here and there among these holiday crowds may be 
 seen the picturesque figure of a Turkish musician and 
 story-teller in the immemorial costume of his profession, 
 which, together with its repertory of song and stories, is 
 handed down from generation to generation of the same 
 family. These will include mythical stories extolling the 
 magical exploits of King David and King Solomon ; 
 religious and semi-religious legends connected with the 
 Prophet and the saints of Islam ; charming animal tales, 
 and fables with a moral application ; besides satirical 
 stories relating to the impostures of pseudo-saintly 
 dervishes, the rapacity of Mollahs, and the corruption 
 of Kadis, together with comic and humorous anecdotes 
 innumerable. Many of these tales also, like those of the 
 " Thousand and One Nights," deal with Peris and Djins 
 the race of beings created before Adam, and to which his 
 second wife, Lilith, is held to have belonged with wicked 
 magicians, enchanted princesses, and valiant and ready- 
 witted heroes. No allusion is, however, to be found in 
 them to the original home of the Turkish race in Central 
 Asia. Such a total absence of any legends connected 
 G 
 
82 HOLIDAY LIFE 
 
 with the former habitat of the Turks is, however, only 
 what one might expect to find on consideration of the 
 history of the Osmanli nation. For as pointed out in 
 the Introduction the original small band which invaded 
 Asia Minor in the thirteenth century has for the last 
 six hundred years been increased, first, by the adherence 
 and conversion of whole populations, and, secondly, by 
 intermarriage in every succeeding generation with the 
 best blood both of South-Eastern Europe and Asia Minor. 
 The women belonging to all the surrounding peoples 
 Kurdish, Georgian, Circassian, Byzantine-Greek, Armenian, 
 Slav, and even Venetian and Genoese naturally brought 
 with them into the harems of the Osmanlis their own 
 folk-lore which, gradually falling under the influence of 
 Moslem ideas, has attained its present distinctive character. 
 A proportion of tales of the humorous class have for 
 their hero Nasr-ed-Din Hodja, a semi-mythical Turkish 
 parson, who became a sort of Court-jester to the terrible 
 Timour the Tartar during his invasion and occupation of 
 Asia Minor. Many of these stories are, however, pre- 
 sumably of much greater antiquity than the end of the 
 fourteenth and the beginning of the fifteenth century, the 
 date assigned to this famous Oriental wit. In character 
 they are most varied ; some are proverbial or didactic ; 
 the weaknesses and shortcomings of the female sex form 
 the subject of others ; while in yet another class the 
 honesty and integrity of the Hodja himself are more than 
 questionable. Domestic and social manners and customs 
 are admirably depicted in many ; and underlying the 
 
HOLIDAY LIFE 83 
 
 majority is a vein of the fine irony peculiar to Orientals, 
 though very frequently the point lies entirely in a subtle 
 play upon words impossible to reproduce in another 
 language. Much of this popular literature has still only 
 an oral existence, though during the last century a con- 
 siderable portion has been collected in book form ; and 
 it is said that the volumes in which are related the 
 exploits of the famous Hodja have, next to the Koran, 
 more readers than any other class of literature. Almost 
 every witty or comic anecdote is, indeed, fathered upon 
 this parson-buffoon, who has become a sort of type 
 personifying the humorous side of the national character. 
 The two following, which I have often heard related, but 
 which have not hitherto, I believe, appeared in English, 
 may serve as specimens. 
 
 THE HODJA'S WAGER 
 
 One day, as the Hodja was sitting with his gossips, 
 he was twitted with being a man fond of ease and comfort 
 and lacking powers of endurance. Resenting the insinua- 
 tion, Nasr-ed-Din wagered a supper that he would remain 
 for a whole night on the terrace of his house without fire 
 or light. The wager was accepted, and the Hodja per- 
 formed his vigil, and claimed the forfeit, 
 
 "Oh, but," objected his friends, "thou wert not altogether 
 without fire or light, for there was a fire on the mountain 
 all the time." 
 
 The Hodja submitted, and after a few days invited 
 
84 HOLIDAY LIFE 
 
 his friends to supper at his house. Towards sunset the 
 company assembled at the mosque parsonage, and after 
 performing the Namaz with their host, seated themselves 
 on the divan till the meal should be ready. Half an hour 
 passed, an hour, but still the sofra^ or dinner-tray, was 
 not brought in. Hunger finally got the better of good 
 manners, and one of the guests ventured to suggest that 
 the usual supper-hour was past. 
 
 " Have patience, my souls, I beg, the pilaf will very 
 shortly be ready," was the reply of the smiling host, who, 
 according to his wont, had meanwhile been entertaining 
 his guests with anecdotes and sallies of wit. But after 
 another hour of polite endurance, one hardier, or hungrier, 
 than the rest, exclaimed 
 
 " Hodja, I am beginning to think that you are playing 
 us a trick, and that there is no pilaf at all cooking 
 for us ! " 
 
 "By Allah! thou misjudgest me! Come into the 
 kitchen then, my soul, and see for thyself if the pilaf 
 is not cooking," exclaimed the host. Leading the way, 
 he pointed triumphantly to the copper pilaf-cauldron 
 which was suspended from a rafter, while on the floor 
 below it stood the brazier of charcoal embers. 
 
 " But, Hodja ! Art mad ? How can the pilaf cook at 
 that distance from the fire ? " 
 
 " Quite as easily as I could warm myself the other 
 night by the fire on the mountain opposite," dryly quoth 
 Nasr-ed-Din Hodja. 
 
HOLIDAY LIFE 85 
 
 THE HODJA AND THE OLD-CLOTHES MAN 
 
 One day Nasr-ed-Din Hodja, finding that his every- 
 day pelisse had grown the worse for wear, sold it to 
 a Jew, but forgot to take out of the lining a gold 
 piece which he had sewn there for safety. During the 
 night, however, he remembered the oversight, and 
 next morning went to demand back his coat from the 
 dealer. 
 
 "A bargain is a bargain," replied the eskedji; "what 
 I have bought I have bought." 
 
 So the Hodja bided his time. After a while he had 
 another pelisse to dispose of, but before taking it to 
 the Jew, he carefully stitched a five-para piece a 
 coin worth about a farthing into the lining. While 
 examining the garment, the purchaser felt the coin, 
 and thinking it was another gold piece, he paid a 
 fair price for the pelisse. On the following morning the 
 Hodja was strolling past his shop when the Jew called to 
 him 
 
 " Hodja Effendi, I paid thee too much for that 
 pelisse; take it back and pay me the money I gave 
 thee." 
 
 " A bargain is a bargain," replied the Hodja ; " what 
 I have sold I have sold." 
 
 But the Jew was angry and insisted, and finally 
 demanded that the question should be settled before 
 the Kadi. 
 
86 HOLIDAY LIFE 
 
 "By all means," replied Nasr-ed-Din. "But as you 
 see, I am without a pelisse, and it were unseemly to 
 go before the judge save in my best." 
 
 " I will lend thee a handsome one, so thou come 
 with me at once to the Kadi" 
 
 So the pair went off together to the Court, and the 
 Jew laid his case before the Kadi. When he had done 
 so, the Hodja gave the judge his version of the matter, 
 and then exclaimed 
 
 "See you, my Lord, the wickedness and dishonesty 
 of this man. By Allah ! it has no bounds. He will next 
 tell your worship that the pelisse on my back belongs 
 to him!" 
 
 " So it does, by Allah ! " exclaimed the other. Upon 
 which the Kadi bade the attendants turn him out for 
 an impudent cheat and impostor ; and Nasr-ed-Din 
 Hodja went home chuckling to tell his wife the story of 
 the eskedji's discomfiture. 
 
 The numerous and various stories about King or, 
 as he is more generally termed, " Saint " Solomon, to 
 be found in Oriental folk-literature, are considered by 
 scholars to be reminiscences, not of the vaunted Son of 
 David, but rather of the Chaldean " King of the Gods," 
 the wise Ea, one of whose names, Sallimanu, was adopted 
 by the Hebrew prince, whose proper name was Jedidiah. 1 
 In the story of "Why the Swallow's Tail is Forked," we 
 
 1 Compare Sayce, Religion of the Ancient Babylonians, pp. 57, 
 58 ; and 2 Sam. xii. 24, 25. 
 
HOLIDAY LIFE 87 
 
 find illustrated one set of the wonderful powers attributed 
 to this monarch. 
 
 A long, a very long time ago, Solomon, the Son of 
 David, reigned over all things. This powerful King 
 understood the languages of all mortals, the voices of 
 the forest beasts and the cries of the smaller animals, 
 the hiss of the serpents, the warblings of birds, the 
 hum of insects, the speech of the lofty trees and the 
 whisper of the woodland flowerets, the roar of the mighty 
 ocean, and the murmur of river stream and summer breeze. 
 
 To each creature Solomon had assigned his fitting 
 food. To some he had given the flesh of weaker animals ; 
 to others the herbs of the field, or the fruits of the trees. 
 But to the Serpent the Son of David had said 
 
 " Thou shalt be nourished with the blood of Man." 
 
 And the Serpent, therefore, hiding in the bushes and 
 long grasses, lay in wait for Man and seized upon him 
 in order to drain his blood. But Mankind protested so 
 loudly against this evil that the sound at length reached 
 the ears of the great King, and he asked of Man, "Why 
 dost thou complain ? " 
 
 " O King, the Serpent lives on our blood ; our race 
 will soon disappear ! " 
 
 " Go in peace, I will bear in mind thy prayer." 
 
 The great Solomon reflected long. At last he sum- 
 moned all living creatures to assemble in the middle of 
 a great plain. The Lion, the Tiger and the Elephant, the 
 Wolf, the Horse and the Camel, the Eagle, the Vulture 
 
88 HOLIDAY LIFE 
 
 and the Ostrich, and thousands and thousands of the 
 birds and animals came together at the bidding of the 
 King. Solomon sat on his throne, and thus addressed 
 them 
 
 " I have called you together that I may hear your 
 complaints. Speak ! " 
 
 Man first approached the throne, made his obeisance, 
 and said 
 
 "O King, I ask that the Serpent may be assigned 
 as his food the blood of some other animal." 
 
 " And why?" 
 
 " Because I am the first of created Beings." 
 
 At this the assembly began to protest, with roars, 
 growls and howls, yelps, barks, and screams. 
 
 " Be silent," commanded Solomon. " Let the Mosquito, 
 the smallest of animals, find out whose blood is the most 
 delicate in all creation. Whosesoever it may be, even to 
 that of Man, I mean to give it to the Serpent. A year 
 from to-day ye will meet me in this place to hear the 
 decision of the Mosquito." 
 
 The animals dispersed, and during the year the little 
 insect visited them all in turn and tasted their blood. As 
 he was on his way back to the assembly of King Solomon, 
 he overtook the Swallow, whom he saluted. 
 
 " Peace be also upon thee," replied the Swallow. " Thou 
 art welcome, friend Mosquito. Whither fliest so swiftly ? " 
 
 " I go to the Great Assembly." 
 
 "In truth. Well, whose blood hast thou found most 
 delicate?" 
 
HOLIDAY LIFE 89 
 
 "That of Man." 
 
 "That of ?" 
 
 The Mosquito, who thought the Swallow had not 
 heard, opened his mouth to repeat the words ; but this 
 was but a ruse on the part of the Swallow, who fell upon 
 him and tore out his tongue. Furious, the Mosquito 
 pursued his way, always closely followed by the Swallow, 
 and finally arrived in the presence of King Solomon. 
 
 "Well," said the Son of David, "hast thou indeed 
 tasted the blood of every animal ? " 
 
 The insect made a sign in the affirmative. 
 
 " Which then is the most delicate ? " 
 
 Great was the embarrassment of the Mosquito, who, 
 now that he was tongueless, could no longer speak. 
 
 " Ksss ! Kssssss I Kssssssss ! " repeated the insect 
 in a frenzy. 
 
 Solomon was greatly puzzled, until the Swallow 
 presented himself before the throne. 
 
 " O King ! " he said, " O King, the Mosquito has been 
 stricken dumb. But on the road hither, he confided to 
 me the result of his year's experiences." 
 
 " Speak, then ! " 
 
 " O King, the Frog is the animal whose blood is the 
 most exquisite that is what the Mosquito would say." 
 
 "Ksss! Kssssss! Kssssssss !" gurgled again the 
 insect, beside himself with impotent rage. 
 
 " It is well," observed Solomon. " From this day forth 
 the Serpent will feed on the blood of the Frog. Man may 
 now live in peace." And he dismissed the assembly. 
 
90 HOLIDAY LIFE 
 
 But the Serpent was by no means satisfied with this 
 judgment ; and as the Swallow dived past him still 
 chuckling over the successful part she had played on 
 behalf of Man, who shelters her nest under the eaves of 
 his dwelling the reptile darted upon her. But the bird, 
 aware in time of his intention, gave him a smart blow with 
 her wings, and the Serpent succeeded only in seizing her 
 by the middle of the tail. And since that time the 
 Swallow's tail has been forked, and the Serpent has lived 
 on the blood of the Frog. 
 
 The moral of the following story of "Saint Solomon 
 and the Sparrow " will, no doubt, be appreciated by others 
 than Orientals. 
 
 There was once in the blessed service of Saint Solomon 
 on whom be peace ! a little cock-sparrow, whose lively 
 tricks and gambols were even pleasing to this Sultan. 
 One day Saint Solomon saw not the Sparrow by 
 him, and he commanded the Simurgk (a mythical bird 
 frequently referred to by Oriental Poets) to go fetch the 
 Sparrow wherever he might be. Now for many days 
 previously the Sparrow had not visited his mate, and she 
 had upbraided him, saying, " For this long time thou hast 
 left me, and hast been with Solomon. Dost thou then 
 love him more than me, or dost thou fear him ? 
 Tell me !" 
 
 "By Allah!" replied the Sparrow, "I would not 
 exchange thee for the world ! I am come but once on 
 
HOLIDAY LIFE 91 
 
 earth and shall not come again. I go to Solomon for 
 diversion I have no fear of him." 
 
 While he was thus talking with many such vauntings 
 and boastings, the Simurgh arrived in haste, and hearing 
 him, said harshly, " Up, up ! Let us be off, for Saint 
 Solomon is asking for thee." 
 
 Then the Sparrow, being with his mate, plucked up 
 courage and replied, " Off with thee, I will not go ! " 
 
 Said the Simurgh, "But I will indeed take thee 
 with me." 
 
 " Off with thee ! " cried again the Sparrow, " or I will 
 seize and rend thee in twain ! " 
 
 Quoth the Simurgh, " I will not go without thee." 
 
 Yet the Sparrow heeded him not ; and the Simurgh 
 waited awhile, but in vain. So he said again, " O my 
 life, give me an answer ! " 
 
 " I tell thee to begone," replied the Sparrow. " If thou 
 speak to me again my heart will bid me do somewhat to 
 thee ! But no ! I would not slay thee. Yet begone, or 
 I shall do thee some hurt, and then will I go to Solomon's 
 Palace, and smite it with my foot, and overturn it from 
 its foundations, and pull it down on his head. So away, 
 fool, return the road thou earnest. Thou chatterest here 
 and sayest not, * This is the Sparrow's harem ; he is ill,' " 
 and he gave the Simurgh a kick. The noble bird felt it 
 not ; but he flew thence and reported to Saint Solomon 
 the audacious words of the Sparrow. 
 
 " Where was the Sparrow when he spoke thus ? " 
 asked Solomon. 
 
92 HOLIDAY LIFE 
 
 " With his mate," replied the Simurgh. 
 
 " Then," quoth Saint Solomon on whom be peace ! 
 "there was no harm in his thus boasting and bragging 
 in his own house and before his wife. Though every 
 stone of this my palace was raised by the toil of those 
 many Djins, yet wonder not at his saying, when beside 
 his wife, that he could shatter it with one foot -for a man 
 should be a hero to his own household? 
 
 So this was pleasing to Saint Solomon on whom be 
 peace! and when the Sparrow again returned, he made 
 him one of his boon companions. 1 
 
 The fatalistic notion of Kismet alluded to in the 
 following chapter finds its illustration in such stories as 
 that of 
 
 THE WOODCUTTER AND FORTUNE 
 
 In the Island of Mitylene there once lived a wood- 
 cutter with his wife and two children. All the stock-in- 
 trade the poor man possessed was his axe, billhook, and 
 pair of mules. Every morning at break of day, this 
 woodman arose and went into the woods to fell trees. 
 Having laden his mules with faggots and logs, he set off 
 to sell them in the neighbouring town. Thus he had 
 lived for a score of years; Fortune had for him no 
 favours ; and to-morrow found him no richer than yester- 
 day. Weary at last of such a life, and seeing no hope 
 
 1 Adapted from The Tales of the Forty Viziers. 
 
HOLIDAY LIFE 93 
 
 of any betterment of his lot, the woodcutter at last lost 
 heart altogether. "What," said he to himself, "is the 
 use of all this toiling and moiling ? If I were to lie in 
 bed from morning till night, perhaps Fortune might 
 take pity on me, and come to me whilst I slept it shall 
 be so ; I will go no more to the forest." 
 
 So on the following day the good man remained in 
 bed. His wife, finding that he did not get up as usual, 
 left her work and came to wake him. 
 
 "Come, husband," she cried, "it is time to rise the 
 cock crowed long ago." 
 
 " What sayest thou ? for what is it time ? " 
 
 " It is time for thee to go forth to cut wood." 
 
 "Yea, truly to earn what will keep us but for the 
 day, such is our wretched lot ! " 
 
 " But what canst thou do, my poor husband ? We 
 must needs submit to our fate, and Fortune has never 
 yet come our way." 
 
 "Well, wife, I for one am weary of the caprices of 
 Fortune. Should she wish to find me, she will seek me 
 here in my poor hut. But I go not to the wood to-day." 
 
 "Come, come, my poor husband, are you mad? Do 
 you think Fortune will come to you if you do not run 
 after her? Come now, get up, take your axe and bill- 
 hook to the forest, or we shall all die of hunger you 
 know we have food only for the day." 
 
 " I care not. I will neither get up nor go to the 
 forest, and nothing shall move me. Leave me in peace, 
 wife." 
 
94 HOLIDAY LIFE 
 
 In vain the poor woman wept and entreated ; her good- 
 man would lie abed and wait for Fortune to come to him. 
 
 * 
 
 By-and-by a man came from a neighbouring village, 
 knocked at the door, and greeted him. 
 
 " Peace be with you, Yussuf. Luckily for me you are 
 not yet gone forth. I have a load to remove, and I want 
 you to bring your mules and help me with the job." 
 
 "I am sorry to refuse you, neighbour, but to-day 
 I have sworn to lie in bed, and for no one will I break 
 my oath." 
 
 " Then let me take the mules and I will pay you hire 
 for them ; " and to this the woodman agreed. 
 
 Now the villager had found in his field a buried 
 treasure which he wished to remove at once to his house. 
 He took the mules to the place, loaded them, and was 
 leading them homewards when he saw coming along the 
 road a party of zdptiehs (armed police). Well knowing 
 that treasure-trove is the property of the Sultan, and that 
 to appropriate it is punishable with death, the peasant 
 ran off, abandoning the mules, who, left to their own 
 devices, forthwith made their way back to their stable 
 with their loads. The good wife, seeing the beasts enter 
 the courtyard staggering under the weight of the sacks, 
 ran to inform her husband. 
 
 " Eftendi, Effendi, get up, get up at once, the mules 
 have come back alone laden with sacks so heavy that 
 they are ready to drop." 
 
 w O wife, have I not told thee that I rise not to-day ? 
 Cease, I prithee, from troubling me." 
 
HOLIDAY LIFE 95 
 
 So the goodwife, left to herself, went back to the 
 yard, and set about cutting the cords which bound the 
 sacks to the pack-saddles. Down they fell with a bang 
 and burst open, when a stream of coins gold sequins, 
 silver beshliks and medjidiehs, and copper piastres rang 
 merrily over the stones. For the sacks were brimming 
 with them, and to right and left the courtyard was strewn 
 with a carpet more precious by far than the carpets of 
 Smyrna or the Indies. 
 
 " Inshallah, a treasure!" she cried, and ran again to 
 her husband's bedside. 
 
 " Effendi, Effendi, you were right not to go to the 
 forest to-day, but to wait at home for Fortune. But get 
 up now, for she has come ! Our mules have returned 
 laden with treasure. All the gold of the world is in 
 our courtyard. We are richer than the richest ! " 
 
 At this the woodman jumped up from his couch and 
 hurried to the courtyard, where he stood for a moment 
 dazzled by the glitter of the sequins and gold pieces. 
 
 "You see, my dear wife," he finally exclaimed, "how 
 right I was to stay in bed and wait for Fortune ! So 
 capricious is she that if you run after her you will never 
 catch her; but give up the chase, and she will come 
 to you ! " 
 
 Tales of a religious character also find ready listeners. 
 Many of these are connected with the miraculous appear- 
 ances and disappearances of that saintly and mysterious 
 being known as Khidhr or Khidhr-Elias, about whom more 
 
96 HOLIDAY LIFE 
 
 will be said in the next chapter. One of these stories relates 
 that a pious Turk, who earnestly desired to see Khidhr, 
 and had with that object frequented for thirty-nine days 
 the mosque of Ayia Sofia, a favourite resort of the Saint, 
 met on the morning of the fortieth day in the courtyard 
 a stranger, who said to him 
 
 "The mosque is not yet open, why comest thou to 
 disturb the sleep of its keepers ? " 
 
 " I come to seek Khidhr," was the reply. 
 
 " Dost thou know him ? " 
 
 " I know him not." 
 
 " Then follow me, and I will show him to thee." 
 
 Khidhr for it was indeed he whom the True Believer 
 had met went on before him, and the pious man observed 
 that his feet left an imprint even on stones. 
 
 " Dost thou know what Khidhr can do ? " asked the 
 Stranger. 
 
 " No," replied the pious man. 
 
 " Khidhr can thrust his finger into stone even as I do." 
 
 His finger entered the stone as he spoke, and the stone 
 " perspired " 1 abundantly. " When thou seest a man who 
 does wonders such as these, say to thyself, 'This is 
 Khidhr ! ' and hold him fast." 
 
 " I will not fail," he replied, and his companion 
 disappeared. 
 
 1 Stones into which Khidhr- Elias has thrust his finger are believed 
 to cure those afflicted with profuse perspiration. The patient inserts 
 his finger in the cavity, strokes with it his forehead and eyes, and, it 
 is asserted, " goes away cured." 
 
HOLIDAY LIFE 97 
 
 The pious man entered the mosque and related his 
 adventure to the guardians. 
 
 "Twas Khidhr himself!" they cried. "If thou see 
 him again, fail not to hold him fast, and let him go only 
 when he has fulfilled thy desire." 
 
 The man performed his devotions in the mosque for 
 another forty days, and on the morning of the fortieth he 
 met a stranger who accosted him as the other had done. 
 
 " I would see Khidhr," he again replied. 
 
 " What seekest thou from him ? " asked the Stranger. 
 
 Then the pious man concluded that this was indeed 
 Khidhr, and he seized and held him fast. 
 
 " I am not Khidhr," said the Stranger. 
 
 " Yea, thou art he ! " 
 
 " I am not. Suffer me to go on my way, and I will 
 show thee Khidhr." 
 
 " Yea, thou art indeed Khidhr," insisted the pious man. 
 " Fulfil my desire, or I will proclaim aloud who thou art, 
 and others will then likewise seize and hold thee." 
 
 " I tell thee again I am not he whom thou seekest. 
 Thou wilt see Khidhr on Friday in the mosque at the 
 hour of the noontide Namaz. HE who shall place himself 
 on thy right hand at the moment the public prayers begin 
 will be Khidhr hold him fast." So saying, the Stranger 
 disappeared. 
 
 Friday came, and the True Believer repaired to the 
 mosque of Ayia Sofia for the morning prayer. 
 
 Just as the service was beginning, a man, dressed as an 
 Usher of the Sublime Porte, placed himself on his right. 
 
98 HOLIDAY LIFE 
 
 As they came out of the mosque the pious man seized the 
 Usher, saying 
 
 " Thou art Khidhr ! I will not let thee go ! " 
 
 The Usher stoutly denied that he was other than his 
 dress betokened him, and did his best to get away from 
 the pious man. A long struggle ensued. The two men 
 wrestled, fell, and rose again, until they came to the 
 cemetery outside the Adrianople Gate of the city. The 
 window of a turbe 1 stood open, and the Usher climbed 
 through it, closely followed by the pious man who still 
 held on to his clothing, and, after various turns, they came 
 into a splendid subterranean hall. Round it were ranged 
 forty sheepskin mats, thirty-eight of which were occupied 
 by venerable-looking men. The Usher was the chief 
 of the Forty, one of whom had just died, and the pious 
 man was allowed to take his place. 
 
 " Thou mayst seat thee on any mat thou wilt save that 
 which is reserved to me," said the Usher, who was the 
 Sheikh of the Forty, as he and his companions prepared 
 to go out on the morrow. 
 
 The pious man obeyed, and remained in the under- 
 ground dwelling for eight days, during which he was left 
 alone from morning until sunset. But on the eighth day 
 the True Believer, moved by curiosity, seated himself on 
 the sheepskin of the Chief. Suddenly he saw as in one 
 glance the whole world with everything in and upon it, 
 even to the innermost thoughts of men, and was filled 
 
 1 See Chapter X. Many famous Dervishes are buried in this 
 cemetery. 
 
HOLIDAY LIFE 99 
 
 with wonder and delight. 1 As the hour for the return of 
 the Thirty-nine approached he took another seat, where 
 they found him. 
 
 " What hast thou done ? " they demanded in voices of 
 thunder. 
 
 " I have done nought." 
 
 " Yea, thou didst sit in the forbidden seat ! " 
 
 " Nay, I did not." 
 
 But scarcely had he said the words than the hall 
 became dark, and he found himself again in the cemetery 
 outside the Adrianople Gate. 
 
 Of the various manly sports in which the Osmanlis of 
 former centuries, from Sultans downwards, may be said to 
 have excelled among which were tennis and quoits, 
 leaping, wrestling, and throwing the djereed the two last 
 only appear to be practised at the present day. Wrestling 
 has indeed remained a popular pastime with all nationali- 
 ties and creeds, Turks and Kurds, Greeks and Armenians, 
 Bulgarians and Gypsies freely entering the lists often the 
 village threshing floor against each other, and continuing 
 for hours the contest which is watched by a large crowd 
 of spectators, undemonstrative for the most part, but none 
 the less deeply interested and critical. The game of 
 djereed is more exciting, and, I believe, now peculiar to 
 Asia Minor, the land par excellence of legendary champions 
 and deeds of " derring-do " celebrated in ballad and story ; 
 at all events I have never seen or heard of it in European 
 
 1 This is a very common occurrence in Eastern folk-tale. 
 
100 HOLIDAY LIFE 
 
 Turkey. It is played on horseback, and affords oppor- 
 tunities for the display of all those equestrian tricks on 
 which Osmanli horsemen pride themselves. The number 
 of players, perhaps twenty on each side, armed with djereeds 
 long, heavy, spear-like sticks, or rather poles take up 
 positions about fifty yards from each other on some open 
 space, preferably at the foot of a rising ground, from which 
 the game can be watched without danger to the spec- 
 tators. The game is opened by one of the horsemen, who 
 dashes forward and hurls his djereed at an opponent, who 
 in his turn endeavours to intercept him before he can 
 return to his place. It is then the turn of the other side. 
 Sometimes a player mounted on an exceptionally swift 
 horse will, instead of returning to his place in the lists 
 after making his throw, create a diversion by riding off to 
 a distance, when several of the other side pursue him and 
 endeavour to overtake him. A player who has got rid of 
 all his djereeds is at liberty to appropriate any found lying 
 on the ground, which he contrives to do without dismount- 
 ing, dexterously bending down and snatching up a weapon 
 as his steed gallops past it. The rules of the game are 
 strictly observed, and no unfairness or unnecessary rough- 
 ness is permitted. The poles, which should not be aimed 
 at the head of an opponent, may be dodged by any of the 
 expedients at the command of expert horsemen, some 
 appearing to leave their saddles when ducking to avoid a 
 flying djereed. As inevitable in a game of this description, 
 there are frequent mishaps and collisions, and horses and 
 men may occasionally be seen struggling together on the 
 
HOLIDAY LIFE 101 
 
 ground in dangerous confusion. In Asia Minor young men 
 forming part of the procession when a bride is being con- 
 veyed to her new home, carry djereeds and vie with 
 each other in feats of horsemanship and agility as they 
 alternately hurl forward and catch the weapon. 
 
 Not only, however, has the old Turkish love of racing 
 and hunting been revived in a remarkable manner during 
 the last few months, but a perfect craze for athletics as 
 practised in England has also manifested itself in the 
 Capital, where various clubs have already sprung into 
 existence devoted to the furtherance of sport and athletic 
 games. This movement is in great part a result of the 
 reaction against the to Englishmen almost unimagin- 
 able restrictions placed by the late Government on both 
 individual and social liberty, and especially as regarded 
 public assemblies even pictorial representations of crowds 
 having for years past been prohibited by the Press 
 Censor ! Not a week now passes without a football match 
 in which Turks, Greeks, and Armenians jostle each other 
 in good-fellowship, and almost every evening the Turkish 
 Eustace Miles Captain Selim Serri Bey lectures to the 
 enthusiastic youth of the Capital at one or other of the 
 athletic clubs which have been established by him in 
 Pera and Stamboul. Foreign cricket clubs have long 
 existed in the country, and it is confidently anticipated 
 that this game will, in its due season, become as popular 
 as the winter game has lately been. It is also more than 
 probable that Turkish horses and jockeys will ere long 
 be seen on French and English racecourses. Splendid 
 
102 HOLIDAY LIFE 
 
 horsemen the Osmanlis have ever been, and cavalry officers 
 now vie with each other in long rides and forced marches, 
 covering, for instance, even such long distances as lie 
 between Adrianople and the Capital no slight feat con- 
 sidering the state of country roads in Turkey during the 
 winter season. The hunting club lately founded in Con- 
 stantinople, to which foreigners are also eligible as 
 members, owes its origin to the initiative and enthusiastic 
 support of a Turkish military man, General Izzet Fuad 
 Pasha, renowned for his knowledge of horses and every- 
 thing pertaining to them. 
 
PART II 
 
 RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND 
 INSTITUTIONS 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 MOSQUES AND THEIR GUARDIANS 
 
 THE most ancient and at the same time some of the 
 most beautiful of the Moslem places of worship 
 were originally Christian Churches which were 
 converted to their present use at the Conquest. One of 
 these, a rotondo at Salonica, is indeed of earlier date, having 
 been a pagan temple dedicated to the Kabeirian deities 
 once worshipped in these regions before its dedication, 
 early in the Christian era, to St. George. The crosses of 
 these Byzantine churches were everywhere replaced by the 
 Crescent, the symbol of the conquering Osmanlis; and 
 their frescoes and mosaics representing saints, angels, and 
 other members of the Christian spiritual hierarchy, were 
 concealed from view by a thick coat of whitewash. Few 
 other modifications were, however, found necessary to 
 meet the requirements of the simple form of Mohammedan 
 worship beyond the substitution of the mihrab as the 
 shallow semicircular recess indicating the direction of 
 
 103 
 
104 MOSQUES AND THEIR GUARDIANS 
 
 Mekka is termed for . the Sanctuary of the Eastern 
 Church guarded by the "Golden Gates." The direction 
 of Mekka being south-easterly, this orientation produces 
 a somewhat discordant effect on Europeans, as the 
 prayer mats and carpets are all arranged askew, and the 
 worshippers on them stand in lines oblique to the axis of 
 the building. The principal external additions to the 
 Byzantine form of architecture are the minarets, which 
 may be one, two, four, or even six in number, as at the 
 great Mosque of Sultan Achmed L, who is said to have 
 worked with his own hands at its erection. Previously to 
 this date, the holy Kaaba at Mekka had been the only 
 mosque with six minarets, and to silence the outcry made 
 by the guardians of this Moslem Holy of Holies, Sultan 
 Achmed offered to build a seventh minaret for the 
 Kaaba. 
 
 The Byzantine churches were indeed practically 
 adopted as the architectural model for the numerous 
 mosques subsequently erected by the Conquerors in all 
 parts of the Empire, as. many as 230, large and small, now 
 existing in the Capital alone. The great Cathedral Church 
 originally founded by Constantine in the fourth century and 
 rebuilt and dedicated by Justinian in the sixth century to 
 the " Holy Wisdom," is now, under its Turkish designation 
 of Ayia Sofia Djamisi y the chief Mosque of Stamboul ; and 
 subsequently erected mosques are designed on a similar 
 general plan. In front is a noble forecourt planted with 
 trees ; at the rear of the edifice is a spacious garden ; 
 and the whole is surrounded by a great walled-in space 
 
MOSQUES AND THEIR GUARDIANS 105 
 
 inclosing the various institutions connected with the mosque 
 the Mekteb, or primary school, the Medresseh, or theo- 
 logical college, the Imaret, or kitchen for the poor, the 
 Library, Bath, and Hospital, and the Khan, or Guest-house, 
 in which strangers and travellers are accommodated. A 
 description of the beautiful mosque known as the Suley- 
 manieh may here serve to illustrate the arrangements of 
 mosques generally. This " Imperial " djami was built in 
 the sixteenth century with materials taken from the Church 
 of St. Euphemia at Chalcedon. The stately rectangular 
 forecourt by which the Suleymanieh is approached is 
 surrounded by cloisters roofed with a number of cupolas 
 resting on pillars of porphyry, granite, and marble, under 
 which, on three of its sides, are benches also of marble, 
 for the occupation of the meditative Osmanli public, while 
 in the centre a dome supported on slender pillars protects 
 the ablutionary fountain around which the pigeons and other 
 birds perpetually coo, twitter, and preen themselves. At 
 each corner a tall, slender minaret, surrounded by balconies, 
 lifts its pointed leaden roof to the sky, those at the outer 
 corners being not only of different design but shorter than 
 the others, an arrangement which produces a good effect. 
 
 The Mosque itself is nearly square. Its internal con- 
 struction rests on four great piers ; the screen of windows 
 on each side under the great lateral arches of the dome 
 being supported on four monolithic shafts of great beauty ; 
 and the interior decorations generally are marked by a 
 wealth of artistic detail. Walls and pillars are veneered 
 with rare coloured marbles, and the stained glass windows, 
 
106 MOSQUES AND THEIR GUARDIANS 
 
 two of which are spoils of the Persian wars, and the 
 rest the work of a native artist-craftsman, glow with rich 
 and varied colour. The mihrdb is of pure white sculp- 
 tured marble bordered with exquisite blue-and-white tiles. 
 The marble mimber, or pulpit, with its straight, steep 
 staircase, is decorated with delicately sculptured tracery, 
 as is also the screen of the maksura, the tribune appro- 
 priated to the use of the Sultan. Great pillar-shaped 
 candelabra stand on either side of the mihrdb ; others 
 of different form, and hung with countless tiny oil lamps, 
 are suspended from the ceiling, while here and there are 
 affixed to the walls great circular discs emblazoned in 
 Arabic characters with the names of Mohammed, Ali 
 the First Khalif, and his immediate successors. There 
 are no seats, but the floors are covered with clean matting. 
 Entering from the bustle and glare of the crowded streets 
 into the cool dim quiet of these beautiful buildings at 
 the hour of noontide prayer, the contrast is most striking 
 and impressive; and it is at such moments that some- 
 thing of the deep mystery of Oriental life may perhaps 
 occasionally, if transiently, be understood by the foreigner. 
 In the cool gloom or what appears gloom after the sun- 
 pervaded air withoutMoslems of all races, ages, and 
 conditions, from the jetty Nubian to the fair blue-eyed 
 Anatolian Turk, are ranged in rows facing the mihrab, 
 and alternately stand erect, kneel, and prostrate them- 
 selves while accomplishing the simple form of worship 
 described in the following chapter. 
 
 The spacious gardens at the rear of the mosques, 
 
INTERIOR OF THE SULEYMANIEH MOSQUE 
 
MOSQUES AND THEIR GUARDIANS 107 
 
 peaceful, picturesque, cypress-shaded spots, usually con- 
 tain the tomb of the founder and his family, and are 
 sometimes fairly rilled with tombstones of all descriptions, 
 which fall away from the perpendicular at every angle 
 amid a riot of roses and flowering shrubs. In that 
 attached to the Suleymanieh rise the two noble turbehs, 
 or mausoleums, erected by this Sultan, under the larger of 
 which he himself lies with two of his successors and 
 various members of his family, while the second covers 
 the remains of his beloved Khurrem " the Joyous One " 
 who, having entered the Serai as a Russian slave, was 
 elevated to the exceptional rank of legal wife of the mighty 
 Suleyman. In this garden lies also Ali Pasha, the famous 
 reforming Grand Vizier of Sultan Abdul Aziz, together 
 with other men of note and power in their brief day. 
 Turbehs like these of Suleyman and his Consort are 
 richly decorated, and in them may be found choice speci- 
 mens of the beautifully inscribed tiles elsewhere mentioned. 
 Over the actual graves stand wooden catafalques termed 
 simply stmduk " boxes," varying in size with the worldly 
 rank and importance of the deceased, and draped with 
 palls of velvet or with costly Eastern shawls, all of 
 which were conveyed to Medina and laid upon the 
 Prophet's tomb there before being applied to their 
 present purpose. These turbehs rank in religious 
 estimation as mosques, fatihas chapters from the Koran 
 used as prayers for the dead being daily read in them 
 by the Sheikh in charge, a folding book-rest of beautiful 
 workmanship for holding the illuminated copy of the 
 
108 MOSQUES AND THEIR GUARDIANS 
 
 Sacred Book being part of the appointments of the 
 edifice. 
 
 The endowments of the larger mosques were formerly 
 very considerable ; but owing to various causes the revenues 
 of many have of late years been considerably diminished. 
 The Suleymanieh is, however, said still to possess property 
 the revenues from which amount to nearly 3000 a year, 
 devoted chiefly to the support of the various educational 
 and charitable dependencies above enumerated. The 
 revenues of the mosques generally, out of which are also 
 of course paid the salaries of their guardians, consists in 
 the rents derived from the class of landed property termed 
 vakouf that is, " dedicated to Allah " which include all 
 real property the proceeds of which are applied to the 
 support of such religious and charitable institutions, as 
 also to the maintenance of aqueducts and street fountains. 
 No official report is available of the extent of these vakouf 
 lands, but it is estimated at as much as two-thirds of the 
 whole area of the country. For at the Conquest numerous 
 grants of large tracts of land were made as endowments 
 not only of mosques and their dependencies, but also of 
 the monastic establishments of the Dervishes who accom- 
 panied the victorious armies into the battlefield. To 
 these original endowments private munificence has also 
 constantly and richly added ; for the piety, as well as the 
 vanity, of Moslems has ever incited to the erection and 
 endowment of religious and beneficent institutions, both 
 as a religious duty well pleasing to Allah, and also 
 as the surest method of obtaining the praise of their 
 
MOSQUES AND THEIR GUARDIANS 109 
 
 contemporaries and of posterity. Such acts of munificence 
 were formerly very frequent on the part of private indi- 
 viduals, though in more recent times they have been practised 
 chiefly by members of the Imperial family and by grandees 
 of the Empire. Church lands have also been very largely 
 increased from a third source. As such estates, together 
 with the tenants living on them, enjoy special privileges, 
 a Moslem freeholder or, for that matter, a Christian 
 worried by tax-gatherers or creditors, would sell his land 
 to the "Dean and Chapter" of a mosque for a merely 
 nominal sum, while at the same time retaining the right 
 of hereditary lease and becoming tenant at a fixed rent, a 
 transaction by which both he and the mosque were the 
 gainers, and only the Government and its corrupt officials 
 the losers. For the trustees of the mosque receive a large 
 interest for their trifling investment of capital, and are also 
 entitled to the reversion, in default of direct heirs ; while 
 the tenant on land which has thus become vakouf pays no 
 taxes, and is secure from extortion by Government officials , 
 as also from persecution on the part of private creditors. 
 This system is, however, now menaced with reform. 
 
 The distribution of water being, as elsewhere men- 
 tioned, accounted by Mohammedans one of the most 
 important among the " good works " which form such an 
 integral part of their religion, drinking fountains are 
 everywhere found attached to mosques. A sebil, as such 
 fountains are termed, is usually situated in the forecourt 
 of the mosque, and consists of a cistern surrounded on the 
 inner side by a wall of sculptured marble, and on the 
 
110 MOSQUES AND THEIR GUARDIANS 
 
 street side by a screen or grating of gilded bronze, often 
 of beautiful design, resting on a low wall of masonry, and 
 having at its base small semicircular openings through 
 which the brass drinking cups filled by the attendants are 
 passed to the thirsty public standing without. The roof 
 is in the form of a low dome, and the wide extending 
 eaves, boarded beneath, give to these little edifices, which 
 are also usually shaded by waving trees, a most pleasing 
 and picturesque appearance. Water is indeed, to the 
 Oriental, the symbol of life, and the words of the Koran, 
 " By water all things live," may be found inscribed on 
 the majority of the principal fountains of Stamboul. 
 
 The important body of Moslem legists termed col- 
 lectively Ulema, of which the Sheikh-ul-Islam is the head, 
 comprises in its ranks the guardians of the mosques and 
 those charged with the conduct of public worship in them, 
 as well as the higher administrations of the Sheriat, or 
 Sacred Law, on which, notwithstanding the establishment 
 early in the last century of a system of Common Law, the 
 judicial system of Turkey is still based. It must, however, 
 be borne in mind that the Ulema do not constitute a 
 sacerdotal caste, or even an ecclesiastical body in the 
 Christian acceptation of those terms. There is, indeed, 
 no country in Europe in which the clerical element 
 exercises so little and the legal so great authority; and 
 yet spiritual and temporal functions are strangely and 
 inextricably interwoven in the conduct of internal affairs 
 in Turkey. The Sheikh-ul-Islam, though the highest 
 ecclesiastical dignitary, without whose sanction no Imperial 
 
MOSQUES AND THEIR GUARDIANS 111 
 
 decree can . be issued, is at the same time but an official 
 whose appointment and dismissal are equally in the hands 
 of the Sultan, his importance being due rather to his legal 
 standing as judge of the highest Court of Appeal than to 
 his religious office. For though on occasions of ceremony 
 he appears at the head of the Ulema, he in no sense 
 possesses the religious authority of a Christian archbishop, 
 and various holders of this high office have been regarded 
 with popular contempt as mere subservient tools of a 
 tyrannical Padishah. The Mollahs, or Doctors of Law, 
 preach sermons in the mosques on special occasions, and 
 the Imams in their religious capacity lead the prayers in 
 the mosques and conduct funerals ; but it is as legal 
 functionaries that they attest marriage and other contracts 
 and accompany police officers when making domiciliary 
 visits for unless preceded by the Imam of the parish no 
 police officer may cross the threshold of a Moslem dwelling. 
 The Khatibs and Hodjas also assist in leading the 
 prayers at the midday Friday service, the chief religious 
 event of the week ; the Miiezzim chants five times daily 
 from the lofty balcony of the minaret the Ezan y or call to 
 prayer ; and the Kaims perform the lower offices in the 
 sacred edifice. 
 
 All the members of this numerous Ulema class, from 
 the highest to the lowest, have passed some years as 
 Softas, or undergraduates, in the Theological Colleges. 
 As a body these Softas exercise considerable public 
 influence, and have almost invariably taken a prominent 
 part in revolutions and other political events. Generally 
 
112 MOSQUES AND THEIR GUARDIANS 
 
 speaking, they have hitherto been regarded as the most 
 fanatical section of the population, hostile to every innova- 
 tion or attempt at reform ; and the authorities have on 
 occasion not scrupled to make use of their agency for the 
 purpose of awakening that spirit of savage bigotry which, 
 save when so stirred, slumbers peacefully enough in the 
 heart of the Turkish peasant and artisan. In modern 
 times an energetic Sultan has, on the other hand, more 
 than once found it expedient to disperse some of these 
 communities and close their colleges, and the present 
 Sultan, in the late pursuance of his policy of suppression, 
 on more than one occasion adopted measures calculated 
 to prevent any collective action against his government 
 on the part of this redoubtable corporation. In carrying 
 out the revolution of last summer, the "Young Turks" 
 appear, however, to have obtained the ready and energetic 
 support and co-operation of a large section of this sup- 
 posed reactionary element, which, although it had upheld 
 Midhad Pasha in proposing his short-lived Constitution of 
 1876, subsequently petitioned the Grand Vizier against the 
 clauses extending citizenship to the Christian elements of 
 the population. 
 
 As just observed, the actual ministers of public worship, 
 such as the Imams, who pronounce the public prayers, the 
 HodjaSyMuezzims, and others, constitute but a subordinate 
 section of the Ulema. The Imams, who form the nearest 
 approach to a beneficed clergy, pass an examination, 
 and are appointed to their office by the Sheikh-ul-Islam. 
 Imperial mosques such as Ayia Sofia, the Suleymanieh, 
 
MOSQUES AND THEIR GUARDIANS 113 
 
 the Achmedieh, etc., have several Imams, to the chief 
 of whom are subordinate all the others, as also the 
 guardians of the mosques of inferior rank. An Imam is 
 required to marry, and may bequeath his office to his son 
 who, if unlettered, appoints a deputy to perform his duties. 
 This lower class of the Ulema, who, like the Softas, are 
 distinguished by a white turban bound round the fez, and 
 by wearing the old Turkish dress, are drawn from the 
 lower middle class of Turkish society, and exercise little 
 or no influence, intellectual or other, in their parishes. An 
 Imam or Hodja lives rent free in a house attached to the 
 mosque, and receives a small annual stipend, which he is 
 able to supplement by the fees received for teaching in the 
 Mekteb, or elementary school, and for issuing licences, 
 officiating at circumcisions, weddings and funerals, and 
 for washing the dead. The Imam of a village mosque 
 occupies a position somewhat superior to that of the 
 Christian or secular priests who provide for the religious 
 needs of the Greek, Armenian, and Bulgarian peasantry, 
 he having generally received a fair education, according to 
 Turkish ideas, in the Medresseh of a provincial town, and 
 his mosque generally possessing an adequate endowment 
 bequeathed by some pious departed Moslem. Generally, 
 however, a village Imam or Hodja has to combine in his 
 own person all the above enumerated offices, religious and 
 legal, which in a town mosque are performed by half a 
 dozen functionaries belonging to different grades. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS 
 
 " T N what consists Islamism ? " Mohammed was asked 
 by the Angel Gabriel, in the guise of a Bedouin. 
 
 "In professing," replied the Prophet, "that there 
 is but one God and that I am His Prophet ; in observing 
 strictly the hours of prayer ; in giving alms ; in fasting 
 during the month of Ramazan ; and in making the 
 pilgrimage to Mekka." 
 
 " It is so, in truth," responded Gabriel, making himself 
 known. 
 
 These main tenets of Mohammedanism are figuratively 
 termed the " Five Pillars of Practice," and comprise all 
 that is of supreme importance in the religion of Islam. 
 The Moslem confession of faith is thus expressed, "I 
 believe in Allah and His Angels and His Prophets, in 
 the predestination of good and evil by Allah, and in the 
 resurrection after death. I bear witness that there is no 
 God but Allah, and I testify that Mohammed is His 
 servant and His Prophet." 
 
 The term Moslem signifies "resigned" resigned to 
 the mysterious decrees of an irresponsible Ruler who, 
 though He has revealed a certain moral Law for the 
 
 114 
 
BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS 115 
 
 guidance of His creatures, is Himself above all law and 
 morality. This view of the Almighty as "the only 
 potentate, Lord of Lords, and King of Kings," recurs all 
 through the Koran, and is curiously illustrated by the 
 formula of devotion, termed the namaz, instituted by 
 Mohammedy In Islam there is, properly speaking, no 
 ritual, no sacrifice of horned beasts as in Judaism, nor of 
 the Mass, as in Christianism ; there is also a marked 
 absence of sacerdotalism, for the Ulema form no spiritual 
 hierarchy, and the Imam, who is also a legal functionary, 
 lays claim to no priestly rank, but merely for convenience 
 sake leads the collective devotions of the congregation in 
 ,the mosque. The mosque itself is indeed merely a con- 
 venience, for so long as the worshipper's face is turned 
 towards Mekka the namaz may be equally well recited 
 elsewhere in the privacy of the harem, in the public 
 thoroughfares, or in the Council chamber. 
 
 This obligatory form of devotion, which is performed 
 five times daily, consists merely of two or more repetitions 
 of a ceremony called the rikat, or " prostration," which is 
 little more than the recitation in various prescribed 
 attitudes of certain formulae, such as " God is most Great ! " 
 " We give praise unto Allah ! " A few minutes before the 
 hour of each of these prayers a servant of the mosque, 
 called the M^^,ezzim y generally chosen for his vocal abilities, 
 ascends the spiral staircase of the minaret and, emerging 
 on its lofty circular balcony, chants in Arabic the ezan> 
 or call to prayer " Allahn Akbar / " (repeated four times). 
 " God is most Great ! Come to prayer ! Prayer is better 
 
116 BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS 
 
 than sleep ! (for the sunrise ezan only). There is no God 
 save Allah ! He giveth life and dieth not ! My sins are 
 great, greater is Allah's mercy ! I extol His perfections ! 
 Allahu Akbar God is most Great ! " This act of worship 
 is invariably preceded by ablution, as prayer must be 
 made in a state of "legal purity," and for this facilities 
 are offered by the fountains with which the courtyard of 
 every mosque is supplied. This ablution is called the 
 abtest, and consists in washing the hands and forearms, 
 the face and feet in running water. When water is not 
 procurable, the abtest may be made with sand, gravel, or 
 dust. Prayer-carpets are used when possible in order to 
 guard against any impurity on the spot where prayer is 
 offered. The observance of the Moslem Day of Rest 
 Friday is unattended by any special Sabbatarian rites 
 beyond the public midday service in the mosques. The 
 provision markets are in full swing, and itinerant vendors 
 of refreshments are everywhere seeking custom. Here a 
 kahvedji has installed his charcoal brazier under the 
 shadow of a sculptured and gilded fountain, and is busy 
 preparing and distributing to his customers cups of 
 fragrant coffee. Close by a simitjdi has halted, and 
 removes from his head to the tripod stand carried in his 
 hand the circular tray piled with ring-shaped fancy bread 
 fresh from the oven ; and over the way, seated on rush- 
 bottomed stools, a row of burly Turks of the labouring 
 class are passively smoking their wooden tchibouks or 
 narghilts, while awaiting their turn at the hands of the 
 open-air barber. As the hour of noon approaches, the 
 
BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS 117 
 
 MuezzMs cry floats melodiously down to the True 
 Believers who are already making their way to the 
 mosque. Crossing the harem, as the enclosing spacious 
 courtyard is termed, they perform the customary ablution 
 at the bird-haunted fountain in its midst, and discarding 
 their shoes in the marble-paved and pillared vestibule, 
 pass into the sanctuary. Here, side by side, irrespective 
 of rank, in rows facing the kibleh the niche in the 
 south-eastern wall indicating the direction of Mekka sit 
 the variously garbed worshippers, some still wearing the 
 ample turban and flowing robe of their forefathers ; others 
 in tightly buttoned uniform or official frock coat and 
 scanty fez ; sons of toil in coarse baggy breeches and 
 short jacket ; and dervishes of every grade and order, 
 from the decorous Mevlevi in his sugar-loaf hat and 
 mantle of fine cloth, to the shaggy-haired and ragged 
 Kalenderi or Bektashi with staff and begging-bowl. No 
 female form is visible, as any women who may be present 
 are concealed behind the carved and gilded screen of the 
 gallery, which is approached by a separate entrance. 
 The Moslem's public worship is peculiar in the absence of 
 all elaborate ceremonial or sacramental rite in which 
 priest and people take different parts. The Imam stands 
 alone facing the kibleh with his back to the congregation, 
 who, led by him, perform simultaneously the prescribed 
 gestures with the precision of soldiers at drill. ' First he 
 places his thumbs behind his ears with the fingers ex- 
 tended while he ejaculates, "God is most Great," then 
 with his hands folded on his stomach and with downcast 
 
118 BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS 
 
 eyes he recites a collect and the fatiha, the Moslem 
 equivalent of the Lord's Prayer": "Praise be to Allah, 
 Lord of the Universe, the Merciful, the Compassionate 
 Lord of the Day of Judgment ; Thee only do we worship ; 
 to Thee do we cry for help ; guide us in the right way 
 in the way of those whom Thou hast laden with Thy 
 blessings, and not in the way of those who have en- 
 countered Thy wrath, or have gone astray." Other 
 passages from the Koran may follow, after which the 
 Imam inclines himself, placing his hands on his knees, 
 with the words "God is most Great! I praise Allah!" 
 three times repeated. Rising, he exclaims, " God hears 
 those who praise Him ! O Lord, Thou art praised ! " 
 and then falling on his knees, " God is most Great ; " 
 he next prostrates himself with his forehead touching 
 the ground, repeating thrice, "I extol Thee, O God." 
 This formula of recitation and posture constitutes 
 what is termed a rikat, the ordinary midday prayers 
 consisting of ten, and on Friday of twelve rikats. At 
 the conclusion of the namaz, the worshippers stand 
 erect, with outstretched arms and extended palms, as if 
 to receive the promised blessing from on high. Most 
 impressive is the simple faith, reverence, and absorbed 
 devotion with which this service of worship is performed 
 by the mixed congregation, composed chiefly of the 
 working classes, in Turkey the most devout section of 
 the population. There is no sermon on week-days, but 
 after the Friday namaz the Mollah ascends the pulpit, and 
 delivers a discourse. Save, however, when the Mollah has 
 
BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS 119 
 
 some special message to deliver, this is hardly a sermon 
 in our sense of the word, being largely addressed to the 
 Deity, and including prayers for the protection and 
 triumph of Islam, followed by mention of the early Khalifs 
 and companions of the Prophet, each name being greeted 
 by the congregation with the words, "May he find 
 acceptance with Allah ! " To say of a man that he 
 performs his namaz five times daily is the highest praise 
 that can be awarded, and Moslems who are themselves 
 careless in this matter, respect the punctiliousness of the 
 devout who, in the fulfilment of their religious duties, 
 disdain concealment, reck not of ridicule or comment, and 
 believe too utterly themselves to care if others disbelieve. 
 
 The fatalistic notion of kismet inculcated by the 
 doctrine of predestination above mentioned importantly 
 influences Turkish thought and action or inaction as 
 it assumes that all events affecting mankind are absolutely 
 pre-ordained by Allah, who has written them down in 
 "the preserved Tablets," delivered to the Angels on the 
 " Night of Destiny." * Many people beside Turks are 
 fatalists, but they consult a doctor when they are ill, 
 and take other ordinary precautions against disaster. In 
 the opinion of old-fashioned Moslems, however, all such 
 precautions are vain; if it is their kismet that calamity 
 shall overtake them, overtake them it will, and what, then, 
 is the good of troubling oneself with efforts to avert it ? 
 That fortune helps those who help themselves is a doctrine 
 incomprehensible to Orientals. Whatever energy a man 
 1 See p. 146. 
 
120 BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS 
 
 may display, kismet will override his endeavours, or 
 crown his supineness with equally unmerited and unex- 
 pected prosperity ; and many are the folk-tales, some not 
 without humour, illustrating and confirming popular 
 belief in this great factor in human affairs, one of which 
 will be found in the preceding chapter. The effects of 
 such a mental attitude are naturally far-reaching. For 
 not only are lives constantly sacrificed and wealth and 
 happiness missed by this fatal principle of passivity, 
 but the whole character of the nation is enfeebled. 
 Neglect of all sanitary precautions not to say hostility 
 towards them is one important result of kismet. Owing 
 to its geographical position, Turkey is especially liable to 
 epidemics, which, among so passive a population, naturally 
 create terrible havoc. Quarantine regulations are certainly 
 now officially observed at Constantinople and the other 
 large seaports. But in the towns of the interior the 
 Moslem population manifest the greatest dislike to such 
 sanitary regulations, which they regard as profane inter- 
 ference with the will of Allah, and do their best to avoid 
 carrying out. 
 
 The religious laws by which men are ruled in Moslem 
 countries aimed at the establishment of a certain degree 
 of equality among a people by lessening the sufferings 
 of the poor. Thus while Christians merely pray for " Peace 
 on earth and good-will among men," Mohammed, being 
 eminently a practical reformer, made it incumbent on 
 his followers not merely to give of their superfluity to the 
 poor, but to share with them a considerable proportion of 
 
BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS 
 
 their worldly goods. Salaam aleikttm, " Peace be to thee," 
 is the Moslem's greeting to his fellow, and in no more 
 practical way than by such self-denying alleviation of 
 the miseries of the less fortunate can men be made 
 brothers, and be literally "at peace" with each other. 
 That the merely secular laws by which the West has been 
 governed have fallen lamentably short of such happy 
 results is abundantly proved by the growth in all European 
 countries of Socialism and Nihilism. Almsgiving, which 
 includes also hospitality, being thus one of the "Pillars 
 of Practice " of the religion of Islam, though more 
 especially exercised during religious festivals and on the 
 occasion of family ceremonies, is practised by Moslems 
 whenever opportunity occurs. An Arabic proverb says, 
 "Whoso visits a living person and eats nothing at his 
 house, might as well visit the tomb of a dead man." 
 And the following may serve as a specimen of the many 
 charming parables and stories in which this virtue of 
 hospitality is inculcated : 
 
 In the days of the Prophet there lived at Mekka 
 a man who had a wife and two children, and this poor 
 family for a whole week had had nothing to eat, when 
 one day they received some victuals not enough, how- 
 ever, to satisfy a single hungry person ; and at the same 
 time a stranger arrived and demanded hospitality. Then 
 the goodman said to his wife, " Praised be Allah who 
 gives us His blessing by sending this guest! What is 
 there to put before him ? " 
 
BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS 
 
 " There is barely enough for one," replied the woman. 
 
 " Then have the goodness to put the children to bed, 
 for our guest must eat what food we have. As soon as 
 it is dark do thou light the lamp and bring in the supper 
 at the same time. Then must thou upset the lamp and 
 say, 'The lamp went out in falling; I will relight it,* 
 and I will say, * No, let us sit down ; we can sup without 
 a light. 1 Then in the darkness we can put our hands 
 into the dish, and our guest will think that we are eating, 
 and will not perceive that he alone eats." 
 
 And so they did. The stranger passed the night, and 
 when morning dawned he rose and departed. The good- 
 man, after performing his ablution, betook himself to the 
 noble mosque, where he beheld the Prophet on whom be 
 peace! seated with his back against the pulpit; and as 
 the pious man approached him Mohammed exclaimed, 
 " Happy art thou, for Gabriel has promised to thee and 
 thy wife blessings innumerable." 
 
 As formerly in the Christian monasteries of the West, 
 so now in the Dervish Tekkelis of the East, the traveller is 
 sure of finding food and shelter ; Imarets, or almshouses, 
 founded by private charity, are of ancient institution in 
 the Empire ; and general almsgiving is so largely practised 
 that, notwithstanding the absence of anything in the shape 
 of poor-law relief, there exists save in times of scarcity, 
 as unfortunately at present no such squalid destitution 
 as disgraces the large cities of Europe and the United 
 States. Blind Bartimaeus and Lazarus still sit by the 
 
BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS 123 
 
 wayside begging, and the True Believer fulfils the precepts 
 of his religion by supplying the wants of these afflicted 
 ones, and of the fatherless and the widow. . 
 
 It is important to note that Mohammed, in announcing 
 his mission as the Prophet of God, connected himself with 
 the past as the last of the Prophets. The Moslem hierarchy 
 of inspired Seers begins with Adam, and includes the 
 patriarchs Noah and Abraham, as well as the greater 
 Jewish Prophets and Jesus, each successive one being 
 esteemed greater than his predecessor. But in addition 
 to this historical hierarchy of Prophets, there exists, in 
 Moslem belief, another of an entirely mythical character 
 a succession of saintly men unto whom the Will of Allah 
 is revealed, and through whose instrumentality the destinies 
 of mankind are governed. Supreme among these Saints of 
 the Moslem Calendar is Khidhr, the mythical personage 
 already referred to, who from time immemorial, and in 
 various forms, has filled a prominent place in the religions 
 of the world. This Protean Saint, or Demi-God, appears 
 also to be identical with the Prophet Elijah, or Elias, as 
 well as with the Christian hero St. George, who, in his 
 turn, has been identified with Horus. Khidhr is held to 
 have had his original abode in the terrestrial Paradise 
 which contained a Tree of Life and a Fountain of Life, 
 and, having eaten of the fruit of the one, and drunk of 
 the water of the other, he became immortal. 1 As the 
 
 1 This " Water," " Fountain," " Stream," or " River of Life," 
 believed to exist in a Land of Darkness in the extreme East, is an 
 Oriental myth alluded to in Rev. xxii. I, and often made use of by 
 
BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS 
 
 wisest of created beings, he was consulted by Moses, who, 
 accompanied by Joshua, journeyed to a place where two 
 rivers meet, or, according to other writers, to an " Isle of 
 the Isles of the Sea," where they found the sage from 
 whom Moses received the " Secret of Secrets." Khidhr 
 is also credited in Moslem belief with having led the 
 Israelites out of Egypt and guided them through the Red 
 Sea and the Desert, taking the place of the " pillars of 
 cloud and of fire " in the Biblical account of this incident, 
 Moslems also hold that Khidhr-Elias, as he is often 
 termed, though really one single individual, has a dual 
 personality. He is regarded as the special protector of 
 travellers, being invoked under the former name by those 
 journeying on the sea, and under the latter by those 
 journeying on land. Both parts of this dual personage 
 are believed to be perpetually wandering over the world, 
 Khidhr on the sea, and Elias on the land, and to meet 
 once a year at Moona, near Mekka, on the day of " the 
 Station of the Pilgrims." He is thus connected with 
 St. Nicholas, who performs the same good offices for the 
 Greeks, and is the special patron of sailors. 1 St. Nicholas 
 is also further confounded with"H\*oe, with Ali, the nephew 
 of the Prophet, and with Phineas, the immortal hero of 
 Talmudic legend, who is held to have performed twelve 
 
 Turkish and Persian poets. It frequently occurs also in the folk-tales 
 of the Christian as well as the Moslem races of South-Eastern Europe. 
 1 A Greek couplet says of this Saint 
 
 " He to our aid comes on the sea, 
 And on the land works wondrously." 
 
BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS 125 
 
 miracles, and, according to this authority, is destined, like 
 Elias, to play an important part at the end of the world. 
 This belief would appear to be illustrated in the question 
 addressed to Jesus by His disciples, " Why say the Scribes 
 that Elias must first come?" and in His answer that 
 " Elias is come already, and they knew him not ; " 1 as also 
 in the popular Eastern belief in the periodic incarnation 
 of this mythical personage. Numerous instances are 
 recorded in Moslem literature and legend of the sudden 
 appearances and disappearances of Khidhr-Elias. By 
 many he is held to be always visibly present somewhere 
 on the earth, and, like his prototype the Tishbite, is often 
 " carried by the Spirit of the Lord " from place to place. 
 Could he be recognised, a knowledge of the secret of 
 immortality might be demanded of him ; but it is only a 
 saintly man who can distinguish Khidhr from another. 
 A Moslem desirous of an interview with this mysterious 
 being must, according to popular belief, perform his namaz 
 during forty consecutive days under the central dome of 
 St. Sophia at Constantinople, and on the fortieth day he 
 is certain to be rewarded with a sight of Khidhr. Evliya 
 Effendi, the seventeenth-century Turkish traveller and 
 author, asserts in his Travels that " Thousands of pious 
 men have here enjoyed the happiness of conversing with 
 that great Prophet." A specimen of the strange and 
 fantastic legends current in Stamboul of the adventures 
 of those who have undertaken this quest, has already been 
 given in the preceding chapter. 
 
 1 St. Matt. xvii. 10, 12. 
 
126 BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS 
 
 Various European writers, from Montesquieu down- 
 wards, have assumed and asserted though on what 
 authority it would be difficult to ascertain that the 
 religion of Islam denies to woman the possession 
 of a soul and, consequently, admission to Paradise. 1 
 Although such an assertion could not honestly be 
 made by any one acquainted either with Islamic 
 religious books or religious thought, this assumed 
 Moslem debasement of women has been eagerly seized 
 upon by the " Subjection of Women " theorists ; and 
 it may not, therefore, be superfluous to point out 
 briefly how utterly at variance with facts is such an 
 assumption. In the first place, the Koran is most 
 explicit on this point, and numerous texts, of which 
 the following may serve as examples, promise the joys 
 of Paradise to all " true Moslems " irrespective of 
 sex. 
 
 "God has promised to believers, men and women, 
 gardens beneath which rivers flow, to dwell therein for 
 ever, and goodly places in the Garden of Eden." 2 
 
 "The Gardens of Eden, into which they shall enter 
 
 1 Many instances might be adduced of this prevailing vulgar 
 misconception. I will, however, only give here the latest that 
 has come to my notice. In her recent article on " Woman's 
 Place in the World" (North American Review}^ the Duchess 
 of Marlborough informs her readers that "the Mohammedan 
 religion degraded women even lower [Pthan primitive man], con- 
 signing her, as far as psychic qualities are concerned, to the 
 level of the beasts, forbidding her for ever the hope of future 
 salvation." 
 
 2 Koran, chap. ix. v. 73. 
 
BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS 127 
 
 with the righteous amongst their fathers and their wives 
 and their seed." l 
 
 "Verily men resigned and women resigned, and 
 believing men and believing women, and devout men 
 and devout women, and truthful men and truthful women 
 and patient men and patient women, and humble men 
 and humble women, and almsgiving men and almsgiving 
 women, and fasting men and fasting women, . . . and men 
 who remember God much and women who remember 
 Him God has prepared for them forgiveness and a 
 mighty reward." 2 
 
 " Enter into paradise, ye and your wives, happy." 3 
 The Hadith, or " Traditional Sayings " of Mohammed, 
 also record that the Prophet of Islam imparted to his 
 followers his divinely acquired knowledge that certain of 
 their deceased friends had been rewarded for their faith 
 by admission to Paradise. Among them, he said, was his 
 departed wife and first convert, Khadija, whom he had 
 been "commanded to gladden with the good tidings 
 of a chamber of hollow pearl in which is no clamour and 
 no fatigue " * surely a delightful vision of the " rest that 
 remaineth for the people of God." And in the following 
 little elegy on a Sultana who died in the bloom of youth, 
 the poet Fazil admirably depicts the Oriental belief in 
 both physical and spiritual consciousness after death : 
 
 1 Koran, chap. xiii. v. 23. 2 Ibid., chap, xxxiii. v. 35. 
 
 3 Ibid., chap. xiii. v. 70. Other similar passages may also be 
 found in chaps, ix. v. 66 ; xxx. v. 56 ; xviii. v. 5 ; vii. v. 12, etc. 
 
 4 Redhouse, The Mesnevi^ p. 1 1, quoting from Wustenfeld's Ibmt- 
 Hishan, vol. i. p. 156. 
 
128 BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS 
 
 " Ah ! thou'st laid her low, yet flushed with life, Cupbearer of the 
 
 Sphere ! l 
 Scarce the cup of joy was tasted when the bowl of Fate brimmed 
 
 o'er. 
 
 Cradle her, O Earth ! full gently ; smile on her, O Trusted One ! 2 
 For a wide world's King this Fair Pearl as his heart's own darling 
 
 wore." 3 
 
 If further evidences were necessary to prove that the 
 slavish subjection of women which is generally assumed 
 to be inseparable from Mohammedanism, was neither 
 preached nor practised by the Prophet, it may be found 
 also in the honour and regard paid by him to his wives, 
 and especially to Khadija and A'isha. The latter had 
 been married to him at the age of nine, and was the 
 favourite wife of Mohammed, who had taken the greatest 
 pains with her education. She was esteemed the most 
 polished and learned of Arab women, and after enjoying 
 for eleven years the confidence and affection of her illus- 
 trious] husband, was, on his death, honoured by the True 
 Believers with the title of " Prophetess " and " Mother of 
 the Faithful." A'isha lived in virtuous and honourable 
 widowhood for forty-eight years, during which, having 
 been the most intimate confidante of the Prophet, she 
 was consulted in all difficulties that arose after his death 
 in points of religion and law. A large proportion of the 
 "Traditional Sayings" were indeed, according to the 
 Moslem doctors, compiled from her replies, which were 
 based on the opinion she had heard him express. After 
 
 1 The poetical name given by Moslems to Death. 
 
 2 The Angel Gabriel. 
 
 3 Gibb, Ottoman Poems^ Appendix. 
 
BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS 129 
 
 uttering the names of A'isha and other saintly women, 
 Moslems invariably add, " May they find acceptance with 
 Allah ! " Although regular attendance at public worship 
 on the Day of Rest is not required of Moslem, any more 
 than it is of Christian or Jewish women in the East, all 
 the usual ordinances of their religion performance of the 
 five daily namaz with their accompanying ablutions, fast- 
 ing, pilgrimage, and "good works" generally are as obli- 
 gatory for Moslem women as they are for Moslem men. 
 Children of both sexes are taught their prayers at the age 
 of seven ; and the honourable title of Hafiz is conferred 
 on any Moslem who may have committed to memory the 
 whole of the Koran, a by no means unusual feat, it would 
 seem, if we are to credit the seventeenth-century traveller 
 and author Evliya Efifendi, who records that the city of 
 Angora at the time of his visit to it contained no fewer 
 than two thousand boys and girls who were Hafiz}- 
 
 The Osmanlis have many graceful folk-beliefs con- 
 nected with animals, most of which possess also some 
 religious significance. According to one of these, the 
 stork goes every autumn on a pilgrimage to the holy 
 Kaaba at Mekka, and hence it is called Bdba Hadji 
 "Father Pilgrim." This bird, they say, builds his nest 
 only on the mosques and other edifices of the True 
 Believers, avoiding the Christian churches and quarters. 
 When the Father Pilgrim returns in spring to his nest on 
 their house-top or cypress tree, the women and children 
 look anxiously to see what he carries in his beak if a bit 
 1 Narrative of Travels, Book II. p. 231. 
 
130 BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS 
 
 of glass, it is a good sign, the year will be free from plague 
 and famine, and every one will be happy and prosperous ; 
 if a bit of rag, it will be a year of sickness ; if an ear of 
 corn, the harvest will be abundant. If the stork arrives 
 with his beak pointed skywards, it signifies that he is dis- 
 satisfied with men, and will not deign to look at them ; 
 if, on the contrary, his beak is pointed earthwards, and 
 towards the dwellings of men, they say that he murmurs, 
 " Salaam aleikoum ! " " Peace be with you ! " And the pious 
 Moslems exclaim in reply, " Aleikoumi es Salaam ! Khosh 
 gueldiniz, Hadji Baba" " On thee be peace, welcome Father 
 Pilgrim ! " Another popular belief connected with animals 
 is that in the promised admission to Paradise of the follow- 
 ing twelve animals which are found mentioned in Moslem 
 Holy Writ or Traditional lore as connected with the 
 histories of Prophets and other famous personages. Among 
 these are the whale which swallowed Jonah ; the asses on 
 which the Prophet and the Queen of Sheba respectively 
 rode ; Solomon's ant and Belki's cuckoo ; Ishmail's ram 
 and Abraham's calf ; Moses' ox and the dog of the " Seven 
 Sleepers of Ephesus." 
 
 Superstition plays an important part in the lives of the 
 Turkish people, every ailment or misfortune being ascribed 
 to the baneful effects of an " Evil Eye " or to the influence 
 of witchcraft, and even the educated classes have difficulty 
 in completely throwing off the beliefs inculcated with 
 their nurses' milk. As an illustration of this it may be 
 recalled that among the members of the " Camarilla " dis- 
 missed from the Palace at the recent revolution was the 
 
BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS 131 
 
 Sultan's Astrologer, a Dervish Sheikh, whose prognosti- 
 cations, inspired no doubt by his confreres, were often 
 effectual in influencing the actions of his Padishah. Not 
 the least superstitious are naturally the women, for whom 
 every trivial event of the day possesses a significance 
 prophetic of good or foreboding evil. It would be a 
 stupendous task to collect all the folk beliefs and supersti- 
 tions of the Osmanlis, so intimately connected are they 
 with every detail of domestic life and with every varying 
 circumstance, and a European is, indeed, as a rule, made 
 aware of their existence only by inadvertently transgress- 
 ing them. There are no laws in Turkey which interfere 
 with the time-honoured calling of the Witch, and in every 
 part of the Empire she and her magical powers are held 
 in high esteem, not only by the Turks, but also by their 
 Christian and Jewish neighbours. To the Witch-wife 
 repair love-sick maidens and jealous wives, childless 
 women and mothers with ailing children, seekers of lost 
 or stolen property, and for each of her clients the wise 
 woman has a specific. Fortune-telling is also largely 
 practised by the Witch, and is performed by means of 
 cards, or a tray of dried beans, coins, beads, and other 
 small objects which are manipulated according to some 
 traditional formula. I once formed one of a party of 
 Europeans at a Witch's fortune-telling at Salonica. Her 
 cottage was approached through a tidily swept little court- 
 yard, and the room in which the stances were held was 
 comfortably enough furnished in native fashion with rugs 
 and divan. The old woman squatted on her heels on the 
 
BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS 
 
 floor, the implements of her trade before her on a sofra 
 the low circular tray-stand used by the Turks in lieu of 
 table. One by one we also, at her invitation, sat on the 
 rug at her side until three or four of our number had been 
 told their future, and had added a piece of silver to those 
 on her tray. The " Spay-wife," however, was keen enough 
 to perceive that she had no credulous Orientals to deal 
 with, and presently she summarily dismissed us. When 
 the courtyard gate was re-opened we found gathered out- 
 side in the street a motley group of Jews, Greeks, and 
 Moslems, awaiting their turn to consult the Witch, whose 
 fame was evidently great in this Macedonian capital. 
 
 A considerable branch of the Witch's trade consists 
 in providing love-spells and potions, and occasionally, it 
 may be added, spells of a less innocent character. Persons 
 believing themselves to be suffering from the effects of magic 
 for a hint is generally conveyed to the subject of a spell 
 must naturally have recourse to the Witch to remove 
 it. Her skill is also resorted to when ordinary measures 
 apparently fail to exorcise that most dreaded of all 
 mysterious powers the " Evil Eye." For, notwithstanding 
 all precautions, persons are often found to be suffering 
 from the effects of the enviously malignant gaze of some 
 evilly disposed neighbour. As elsewhere mentioned, 1 fumi- 
 gations are in some cases made for the purpose of dispelling 
 this baneful influence. It would, however, be difficult to 
 enumerate all the magical practices which are had recourse 
 to with this object, as they are as numerous as are the 
 
 1 See p. 231. 
 
BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS 133 
 
 preservatives against the dreaded fena guez. Among the 
 latter I may, however, mention the bunches of charms 
 consisting of gold coins, horn-shaped bits of coral, and 
 blue glass, turquoise ornaments, engraved bloodstones and 
 cornelians, cloves of garlic sewn in silk, and other small 
 objects which are tied to the caps or hung round the necks 
 of children, and also ornament the headstalls of horses, 
 mules, and donkeys ; and the horseshoes, boars' tusks, and 
 hares' heads hung on the walls of houses and other 
 buildings. Blue glass bracelets are also frequently worn 
 for the same purpose ; and when they get broken, as, 
 considering the material of which they are made, is certain 
 sooner or later to happen, the accident is attributed to the 
 fena guez having luckily fallen upon them instead of upon 
 their wearers. Some individuals are quite notorious for 
 their power of "casting the Evil Eye," any person or 
 object of which they may speak with commendation being 
 certain to come to grief in some way or other, and on this 
 account they even enjoy a certain amount of consideration, 
 as their neighbours are very fearful of in any way offending 
 them. Red-haired persons are more particularly suspected 
 of this proclivity, and blue or gray eyes, being somewhat 
 rare in the East, are considered specially baneful. The 
 latter defect in my personal appearance, indeed, caused me 
 on more than one occasion to be accused of exercising this 
 spell. 
 
 The supernatural beings with whom the Osmanlis 
 terrify themselves and their children have by no means 
 the variety of those of their neighbours belonging to other 
 
134 BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS 
 
 nationalities, and fall, for the most part, under the de- 
 nomination either of Djins or Peris. Under this term are, 
 however, popularly classed Supernals generally, including 
 the Tellestims which haunt ancient buildings and guard 
 buried treasures, besides other uncanny beings whose 
 propensities resemble those of the goblins and pixies of 
 Western Europe. Some houses are believed to be haunted 
 by Djins of the last-named description who are called Ev- 
 Sahibi " Lords of the House." If these are good Djins, 
 they bring all kinds of prosperity to their hosts ; and no 
 matter how idle or extravagant the goodwife may be, 
 everything goes well with the household. The Ev-Sahibi 
 are popularly said to be clothed in bridal garments edged 
 with tiny bells, the tinkling of which announces their 
 passage through the house, and they sometimes allow 
 themselves to be perceived by those whom they specially 
 honour with their favour. The malevolent Ev-Sakibi, on 
 the other hand, are most mischievous in disposition, and 
 destroy the property of the family, besides annoying its 
 members with intolerable nocturnal noises. In common 
 with other magical beings, these Djins have the power of 
 assuming any shape they please, from that of a shadowy 
 being of colossal proportions, or a beautiful youth or 
 maiden, down to that of a cat or dog, or even a pitcher or 
 broom. Both the good Djins } or Peris, who serve Allah, 
 and the evil Djins, the followers of Eblis, the Spirit of 
 Darkness, are believed to have been created before man, 
 Adam having, according to Oriental legend, married as 
 his second wife a woman belonging to this race, whose 
 
BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS 135 
 
 name was JLilith. The evilly disposed Djins were cast 
 out from heaven with Eblis, whose rebellion against the 
 Most High consisted in his refusal to pay hornage to the 
 newly created Adam, when so commanded \>y his Creator. 
 Djins are popularly held to be of both r exes, and appear 
 also to propagate their kind. One oi their propensities 
 is to carry off by night the clothes of humans especially 
 the gala dresses of women to wear at their nocturnal 
 revels. And if such a garment appears to its owner to be 
 rapidly losing its freshness, she concludes that the Djins 
 have taken a fancy to it, and regrets not having had it 
 " blessed " by some holy man before wearing it which 
 precaution would have rendered it safe from the depreda- 
 tions of these uncanny folk. 
 
 The magical practices of the Osmanlis, though derived 
 in great part from legendary lore, are also borrowed to a 
 considerable extent from so-called "Occult Science." 
 Not only all classes of Turks save perhaps the most 
 " advanced " section but also the lower classes among 
 their neighbours of other races, Christian and Jewish as 
 well as Moslem, credit the professional wizards and 
 witches, and especially the dervishes, who are the chief 
 exponents of this "science," with the possession of an 
 extraordinary degree of magical power. As sickness as 
 well as every other calamity is usually attributed to the 
 influence of a magical spell, when any one falls ill the 
 women of the family for it need hardly be said that 
 the firmest believers in this mode of spiritual cure are of 
 the female sex send for some saintly Sheikh in order 
 
lis 
 
 BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS 
 
 that I?e may remove the spell, or avert its maleficent 
 influence*. This holy man, whose breath, sanctified by the 
 constant repetition of the name of the Deity, has acquired 
 a supernatural healing power, proceeds to make a series 
 of breathings on the head and the afflicted parts of the 
 sufferer, accompanied by the imposition of his hands. 
 These concluded, he produces a tiny scroll of paper 
 inscribed with some words from the Koran, and orders 
 it either to be swallowed by the patient or soaked in 
 water and the liquid to be drunk, or perhaps to be worn 
 on the person for a given number of days. The efficacy 
 of these little scrolls can only be relied upon according 
 to the Sheikhs who prescribe them if administered with 
 their own hands. But whatever the success, or lack of 
 success, of these strange remedies, nothing shakes the 
 faith in them of the meek-minded. If they fail, it is from 
 a want of faith on the part of the recipient. The holy 
 man in any case receives a fee for his services either in 
 coin or kind ; and if a speedy recovery follow his visit this 
 will be proportionately liberal. The words used as exor- 
 cisms and counterspells are, for the most part, taken from 
 the two chapters of the Koran relating to witchcraft and 
 malevolence l 
 
 " Say, I fly for refuge unto the Lord of the Daybreak, 
 that he may deliver me from the mischief of these things 
 
 1 Chaps, cxiii. and cxiv. Compare Cymbeline^ act ii. scene 2 
 
 " To your protection I commend me, Gods ! 
 From fairies, and the tempters of the night 
 Guard me, beseech ye ! " 
 
BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS 137 
 
 which he hath created, and from the mischief of the night 
 when it cometh on, and from the mischief of women 
 blowing on knots, and from the mischief of the envious," 
 etc. 
 
 Moslem commentators relate that the reason for the 
 revelation of the above chapter of the Koran and the 
 one following it was that a Jew named Lobeid had, with 
 the assistance of his daughters, bewitched Mohammed 
 himself by tying with evil intent eleven knots in a 
 cord which they hid in a well. The Prophet falling ill in 
 consequence, this chapter and the following were revealed, 
 the Angel Gabriel acquainting him with the use he was to 
 make of them, and telling him where the cord was hidden. 
 The cord being found and brought to Mohammed by AH 
 his nephew, he repeated these chapters over it ; at every 
 verse a knot was loosed, and on finishing the recitation, 
 he found himself set free from the charm. Knots are also 
 tied with good intent, as I have myself witnessed. It 
 was by the tomb of St. Demetrius in the fine basilica 
 of that name at Salonica, converted into a mosque at 
 the conquest by the Turks of that city. St. Demetrius 
 belongs to the class of saints termed by the Greeks 
 myroblutai, whose relics exude a sweet savour ; 1 and the 
 
 1 An odoriferous unguent (nfyov) is supposed to exude from the 
 bones of certain saints who from this circumstance are called pvpopxtrai. 
 Of these St. Nicholas is one ; another is one of the companions of 
 St. Clara, buried in the little convent of St. Damiano near Assisi ; a 
 third is St. Catherine. Referring to the relics of the last named in 
 Mount Sinai, Sir John Mandeville wrote : " The Prelate of the Monkes 
 schewethe the Relykes to the Pilgrymes ; and with an instrument of 
 
138 BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS 
 
 Dervish guardian of his tomb, taking from under the slab 
 a piece of cord, proceeded to tie knots in it for the benefit 
 of a young matron of our party, a knot for each relative of 
 the first degree of herself and her husband. This he 
 directed her to wear, girdlewise, round her waist whenever 
 assailed by any of the ills to which female flesh is especi- 
 ally heir, when the results would be in a word magical ! 
 Calculations intended as charms or talismans are made, 
 among other methods, by cabalistic calculations based on 
 the numerical value of the letters comprising the name of 
 the person interested. In a divination for the purpose of 
 fortune-telling, these numerical values are multiplied and 
 divided, and their cubes and squares added and subtracted 
 according to some conventional formula, to obtain a result, 
 odd or even, odd being considered lucky, and even the 
 reverse. Some of the charms purchased from these 
 diviners are believed to possess, like the magical objects 
 of folk-tales, the power of compelling visits from bene- 
 ficent Djins, who cure the suffering in body, ease the 
 troubled in mind, and grant the wishes of the invokers. 
 The sacred and mysterious character attributed by 
 Orientals to the letters of the alphabet has given rise to 
 the notion that Allah has appointed to each its special 
 attendant Djin, who may be invoked singly or in company 
 with his fellows. In order to secure the presence 
 
 Sylver he frotethe the Bones : and thanne ther gothe out a lytylle 
 Oyle, as thoughe it were in a manner swatynge, that is nouther like to 
 Oyle ne to Bawme ; but it is fulle swete of smelle " (quoted by 
 Mr. Athelstan Riley in Mount Athos, p. 127 n.). 
 
BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS 139 
 
 invisible, of course of these " Slaves of the Letter," the 
 calculations must be drawn up at special phases of the 
 moon and positions of the stars, on certain days and at 
 stated hours. Texts from the Koran, or invocations of 
 the Prophet or the Khalif Ali, engraved on stones brought 
 from the Holy Cities of Islam or from the vicinity of the 
 tombs of the sainted dead, are also worn on the person as 
 charms. In former centuries it was customary to inscribe 
 over the gates of conquered cities, and on such public 
 edifices as fountains and mosques, "talismans" in verse, 
 composed by the eminent dervishes always to be found 
 with the armies of the conquering Sultans ; and some of 
 these may still be seen on ancient edifices at Constanti- 
 nople and at various towns of Asia Minor. When the 
 assistance of the " Slaves of the Letter " is invoked for the 
 purpose of inspiring an indifferent person with the tender 
 passion, the Djins summoned devise in council a series of 
 influences which will compel the person in question to obey 
 their behests. The only means of resisting their influence 
 lies in procuring a counter-charm composed of letters that 
 will ensure the attendance of another set of Djins who 
 will either overcome the first, or compel them to agree to 
 a compromise, and thus release the victim from the power 
 of the spell. 
 
 In Asiatic Turkey, during the long winter nights 
 between the 27th November and the 5th January (Old 
 Style), when elemental spirits are generally supposed to be 
 especially alert, uncanny beings called Fishoti are believed 
 to haunt the abodes of men ; and throughout this period 
 
140 BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS 
 
 infants and children of tender age must be specially 
 guarded against the malevolence of these nocturnal 
 visitants. If a window should after sunset happen to be 
 left the least bit open, or a door ajar, the Fishoti will enter 
 and call the inmates by their names. Woe to him who 
 should be so imprudent as to answer, for the Djin would 
 then tear out his tongue and carry it off, shrieking mean- 
 while with demoniacal laughter. After the 5th January, 
 however, the Fishoti ceases from troubling, being, it is 
 supposed, frightened away to his desert haunts by the 
 bonfires lighted by the Christians on that date in honour 
 of St. John. As the word Fishoti has no meaning in any 
 of the languages of the present inhabitants of these regions, 
 it is supposed to be, together with the superstition attached 
 to it, a survival from some other race formerly inhabiting 
 Eastern Asia Minor. 
 
 Perhaps, however, the most gruesome among Oriental 
 superstitions is belief in the existence of Vampires. This 
 notion, which is common to all the races of South-Eastern 
 Europe, has been traced by scholars to an Asiatic origin, 
 as, in the great Chaldean Epic of the third millennium 
 B.C., Istar in Hades gives utterance to the threat, " I will 
 cause the dead to rise and devour the living." For the 
 Vampire is no nebulous "ghost," but the actual resusci- 
 tated body of a man the Vurkolak is generally, if not 
 invariably, of the masculine sex supposed to be possessed- v 
 of the power of emerging from his grave in the dead of / 
 night, when he roams abroad, revelling in blood. The 
 causes of vampirism are various, and among them are the 
 
BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS 141 
 
 following: The fact either of having perpetrated, or of 
 having been the victim of, the crime of murder ; having 
 grievously wronged some person who has died resenting 
 the wrong ; or having been made the subject of a curse, 
 lay or ecclesiastical. Vampirism is also held to be 
 hereditary in certain families, the unfortunate members 
 of which are naturally regarded with aversion, and shunned 
 by their neighbours. Their services may, however, be 
 requisitioned when there is a vampire to be " laid," as 
 they have the reputation of possessing special powers in 
 that direction. It is popularly believed that a vampire, 
 like a ghost, must return to his grave before cockcrow, and 
 if possible he will be tracked to it by such of his neighbours 
 as are found bold enough for the exploit, accompanied, 
 probably, both by Moslem Hodja and Christian Priest ; 
 and the various exorcisms to which recourse is had will 
 probably be effectual in putting an end to the nocturnal 
 wanderings of the ghoul. Many vampire panics are no 
 doubt attributable to rumours set on foot by persons who 
 profit by such superstitions, and the following is, I think, 
 a case in point. Some years ago the whole population 
 of Adrianople was thrown into a state of commotion by 
 the reported nightly appearance of a spectre in an elevated 
 part of the town known as Kyik, inhabited both by Turks 
 and Greeks. This spectre was represented as a Vurkolak 
 by persons who affirmed that they had seen it lurking 
 in the shadows a long, lank object with a cadaverous 
 visage, clad in a winding-sheet. Priest and Hodja strove 
 in vain during a fortnight to exorcise the wanderer by 
 
BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS 
 
 their prayers and incantations ; and finally a rumour was 
 circulated that the only person possessed of the power 
 of freeing the city from this haunting spectre was a 
 Turkish djindji> or magician, famous for his influence over 
 apparitions, who lived in a distant town, and who would 
 consequently require a substantial fee for his services. 
 Seven hundred piastres about 6 sterling were, how- 
 ever, speedily raised by the panic-stricken townsfolk. 
 The djindji came, and the Vurkolak was put to flight. 1 
 Should all exorcisms prove futile, as sometimes happens, 
 the people of the neighbourhood proceed by daylight to 
 the grave of the reputed vampire, and either drive a stake 
 through the heart of the undissolving corpse, or disinter 
 and consume it with fire. 2 
 
 1 See Lady Blunt's The People of Turkey. (Murray, 1878.) 
 
 2 Pashley's Travels in Crete contains (p. 226) a graphic account of 
 this last method of disposing of a vampire. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 FASTS, FEASTS, AND PILGRIMAGE 
 
 THE annual fasts observed by Moslems are seven in 
 number, the most important being the month- 
 long fast of Ramazan. This period of abstinence 
 is held to be of divine institution, and its observance is 
 therefore compulsory for all True Believers over the age 
 of fourteen-, travellers and the sick being alone exempt. 
 Ramazan is celebrated in the ninth month of the Moham- 
 medan year, during the whole of which food, drink, and 
 tobacco are rigidly abstained from between sunrise and 
 sunset. The year consisting, as previously mentioned, of 
 twelve lunar months only, the fast makes in the course 
 of time the round of the seasons. To the wealthy this 
 annual period of penitence offers no great hardship, as 
 they merely turn night into day, and official duties are 
 reduced to a minimum in the departments of State. 
 But to the labouring section of the population, who are 
 the most punctilious in the performance of religious 
 observances, Ramazan, especially when it falls in summer, 
 constitutes a period of real penance and mortification of 
 the flesh. For Moslems generally this fast constitutes a 
 sort of revival time, during which Western innovations, 
 
144 FASTS, FEASTS, AND PILGRIMAGE 
 
 wherever adopted, are for the time being abandoned, and 
 the simpler native customs reverted to. Services are held 
 every evening in the mosques, hospitality is largely 
 exercised, and the poor are loaded with benefits in 
 response to the exhortation of the Muezzim, who concludes 
 the usual call to prayer with the words, " Give food, all ye 
 Faithful, unto the orphan and the indigent, the wayfarer 
 and the bondsman, for His sake, saying, We feed you for 
 Allah's sake, and we desire no word of thanks from you, 
 nor any recompense." Much time is also devoted during 
 this season to religious observances and devotional acts, 
 many devout persons of both sexes habitually secluding 
 themselves for a part of each day, either at home or in the 
 mosques, and especially during the last ten days of the 
 fast abstaining from all worldly conversation. An hour 
 or so before dawn the " awakeners " a Hodja carrying a 
 small hemispherical drum, accompanied by a boy with a 
 lantern go through the streets of the quarter to warn 
 those who sleep that it is time to partake of the sahor, the 
 last meal eaten before sunrise. Stopping before every 
 house occupied by Moslems, the Hodja chants the follow- 
 ing phrases : " He prospereth who saith, ' There is no God 
 save Allah ! Mohammed, the Guide, is the Prophet of 
 Allah ! ' " preluded and followed by four rhythmical taps 
 on the drum ; after which he passes on with the greeting, 
 " The happiest of nights unto thee, O Ali ! " or whatever 
 may be the name of the householder. The meal par- 
 taken of, coffee-drinking and smoking fill up the brief 
 interval until the boom of cannon announces sunrise, when 
 
FASTS, FEASTS, AND PILGRIMAGE 145 
 
 the mouth is rinsed with water and " sealed " until 
 evening. 
 
 Shortly before sunset the last namaz of the day is per- 
 formed either in public or private, previously to which the 
 women of the household will have made preparations for 
 the if tar, as the evening meal eaten during Ramazan is 
 termed. It is usual to serve first a variety of hors 
 d'ceuvres, together with goblets of iced fruit sherbet, and 
 each person begins operations with the word Bismillah 
 "In the name of Allah " uttered as he helps himself to 
 an olive, some special merit attaching to breaking the fast 
 with that edible. After the mezzliks, as these trifles are 
 collectively named, have been sparingly partaken of, the 
 party sit down to the if tar, at which long, flat, unleavened 
 cakes, plentifully besprinkled with sesame seed, are sub- 
 stituted for bread, and the usual courses are supplemented 
 by various dainties prepared only at this season. It is 
 also customary to present plates of these Ramazan dainties 
 to Christian neighbours with whom a Turkish family 
 may be on visiting terms, as well as to poor Moslem 
 households. Shortly afterwards the service of devotion 
 known as the Terraweh is performed either in private or in 
 the mosque. In the reign of Abdul Aziz it was customary 
 for the Moslems of Stamboul of both sexes to repair in 
 great numbers after this service to the wide esplanade in 
 front of the Suleymanieh mosque, which, at that hour, 
 would be crowded with elegant equipages containing 
 Turkish hanums, or high dignitaries of State, and also 
 with throngs of pedestrians of every rank a gathering 
 
146 FASTS, FEASTS, AND PILGRIMAGE 
 
 which partook somewhat of a carnival character, petty 
 missiles being thrown and other liberties indulged in at 
 the expense of the occupants of the carriages which would 
 not at any other time have been ventured on. The stricter 
 regime of the present reign, however, long ago put an end 
 to all such nocturnal assemblies ; and it remains to be 
 seen whether advantage will be taken of the unwonted 
 liberty conferred by the Constitution to revive them. 
 
 On the twenty-seventh day of Ramazan is celebrated 
 the anniversary of the " Night of Power," or, as it is also 
 termed, the "Excellent Night," in which the Koran is 
 said to have been sent down by Allah from the " Upper " 
 to the "Lower Heaven," whence it was revealed in portions 
 to the Prophet by the Angel Gabriel. During certain 
 hours of this night, which is also called the "Night of 
 Destiny," it is popularly believed that the waters of the 
 sea become sweet; that the whole animal and vegetable 
 creations prostrate themselves in humble adoration before 
 Allah ; and that the destinies of men for the coming year 
 are revealed to the Recording Angels. The conclusion of 
 Ramazan is celebrated by the three days' festival of 
 Bairam, also called by names signifying respectively the 
 " Breaking of the Fast " and the " Feast of Alms/' during 
 which no work of any kind is done. On the first day 
 of Bairam, every well-to-do person makes a present 
 to his children, his slaves, and his subordinates, besides 
 giving liberally to the poor. In the mornings the streets 
 are thronged with people in holiday costume, who go 
 from house to house paying complimentary visits to 
 
FASTS, FEASTS, AND PILGRIMAGE 147 
 
 friends and official superiors; and after attending the 
 midday namaz in the mosques, the whole Moslem popu- 
 lation abandons itself to decorous amusement. 
 
 A still more important festival than the " Breaking of 
 the Fast " is the Qurban Bairam, or " Feast of Sacrifice," 
 which takes place during the season of the pilgrimage 
 to Mekka described in the course of this chapter, its 
 observance forming part of the rites of the pilgrims while 
 at the Holy City. It is commemorative of Abraham's 
 sacrifice, Ishmael being substituted for Isaac in the 
 Mohammedan version of the story. For a week or more 
 prior to this festival the market-place of every town and 
 Turkish village throughout the Empire is occupied by 
 flocks of sheep and lambs, and in the Capital the wide open 
 space in front of the beautiful mosque of Bayazid presents 
 at this season a particularly picturesque and interesting 
 spectacle. For here are gathered countless flocks, chiefly 
 of the broad-tailed Karamanian breed, prospective victims 
 for the traditional sacrifice, tended by a variety of wild- 
 looking nomads in shaggy sheepskin coats Vlachs from 
 the Balkans, and Kurds, Yuruks, and Turcomans from 
 the hills and plains of Asia Minor. Among them wander 
 Moslem townsmen of all ranks, and each householder who 
 can afford the outlay purchases a lamb for the sacrifice. 
 Until its day of doom the poor victim is made a play- 
 thing of by the children, who dye its fleece with henna or 
 cochineal, and cover its budding horns with gold-leaf. 
 When on the morn of the festival the pet is no longer to 
 be found in courtyard or garden, the disconsolate babies 
 
148 FASTS, FEASTS, AND PILGRIMAGE 
 
 are told that it has " been sent to the hills to eat grass, or 
 it would die, poor thing." The flesh is divided into three 
 portions, one of which is given to the poor, the second to 
 widowed or other relations, the remaining third being 
 eaten by the household. The rejoicings connected with 
 this festival last four days. New garments are donned in 
 its honour by both sexes and all classes, and gifts and 
 almsgiving are the order of the day. These mild festivals 
 are also punctuated with the spasmodic firing of volleys of 
 small arms by the youth of the quarter this being the 
 Oriental equivalent of squibs and crackers the sound of 
 which seldom fails to create a certain amount of un- 
 easiness among their Christian neighbours, varying in 
 degree according to the political atmosphere of the 
 moment. For in the history of their own times many have 
 had tragical experience of how " great events from little 
 causes spring." Quantities of cheap toys are, during the 
 three days of Bairam, exhibited for sale in the public 
 thoroughfares, and every one calling on friends and 
 neighbours to wish them a "Happy Bairam" will be 
 laden with such offerings for the children, sure to be 
 found with their male relations in the selamlik on these 
 occasions. 
 
 Traditional custom has made it imperative for the 
 reigning Sultan to "open the Bairam" each year in 
 person. At an early hour accordingly, the Padishah, 
 attended by the highest dignitaries of State, Civil and 
 Military, repairs to the mosque, the roadway being lined 
 with troops who greet his appearance with loyal and 
 
FASTS, FEASTS, AND PILGRIMAGE 149 
 
 enthusiastic cries of " Long live our Padishah ! " echoed 
 by the throng of spectators in their rear. A levee is 
 subsequently held by the Sultan, at which a vast throng, 
 consisting of Ministers and high officials, assemble to 
 pay their homage to the " Shadow of Allah ; " and the 
 various foreign ambassadors, and other members of the 
 corps diplomatique, together with any other foreigners 
 of distinction who may be visiting the Turkish Capital, 
 attend to offer their congratulations on this auspicious 
 occasion. During former reigns this State opening of 
 the Bairam always took place at one of the so-called 
 " Imperial " mosques in Stamboul such as Ayia Sof/a, the 
 Suleymanieh, or the Achmedieh, when multitudes of the 
 Faithful would assemble in the streets and squares to 
 greet their Sovereign. And it is hoped that Sultan 
 Abdul Hamid, freed from the baneful misrepresentations 
 of the "Camarilla" who have so long surrounded him, 
 and convinced of the loyalty of his subjects of all creeds, 
 will for the future abandon the semi-private ceremony in 
 the Hamidieh mosque attached to his palace, and resume 
 the time-honoured customs in this respect of his illustrious 
 predecessors. 
 
 The Mevlud, or Birthday of the Prophet, and the 
 " Feast of the Holy Mantle," are also important Moslem 
 festivals. On the latter occasion it is customary for the 
 Sultan to proceed in state to the " Old Serai " at the east- 
 ward point of Stamboul, washed on one side by the waters 
 of the Sea of Marmora and on the other by those of the 
 Golden Horn. For in the private mosque enclosed with 
 
150 FASTS, FEASTS, AND PILGRIMAGE 
 
 other storied buildings within the encircling walls of this 
 ancient home of the Dynasty of Osman, is enshrined this 
 sacred relic, which, at the conclusion of the midday namaz, 
 the Padishah, in his capacity of Khalif, or "Successor," 
 unfolds with great solemnity from its forty silken wrappers. 
 The Prophet's mantle, which is displayed to the select 
 company of high officials who have the honour of accom- 
 panying their Sovereign, is said to be merely a small 
 fragment of cloth of a greenish colour. The mosques and 
 public buildings are illuminated on the eve of all these 
 festivals, the day being reckoned by Moslems, as by 
 Orientals generally, from sunset to sunset. Very charm- 
 ing is the effect of the myriads of tiny oil-lamps circling 
 the tali minarets, outlining the domes and cupolas, and 
 hanging in fairy-like festoons from point to point. 
 Occasionally, too, the banks of the Bosphorus present 
 an endless range of lambent flames, interspersed with 
 fanals, or cressets, with here and there on prominent 
 headlands a blazing bonfire ; these myriad points of light, 
 reflected and multiplied in the broad rushing current, 
 producing an effect at once mysterious and enchanting. 
 
 As mentioned in a previous chapter, pilgrimage to the 
 Holy Cities of Islam is one of the Five Pillars of Practice 
 of the Mohammedan religion. It is indeed considered the 
 supreme act in the life of a True Believer, its due per- 
 formance entitling him to a variety of spiritual blessings 
 in the life to come, and for the rest of his life on earth to 
 the appellation of Hadji, and to accomplish it the pious 
 shrink from no privation and fear no peril. Plundered by 
 
FASTS, FEASTS, AND PILGRIMAGE 151 
 
 brigand bands and slain by Arab tribesmen, tossed on 
 stormy waters in unseaworthy craft, their bones have for 
 thirteen centuries past whitened the desert tracks and 
 their bodies fed the fishes. The distance lying between 
 his home and the Holy Cities has never been regarded by 
 the True Believer as an unsurmountable obstacle to his 
 visiting them, and attaining his most fervent desire to 
 behold the Holy Kaaba before he dies ; and should he 
 chance to perish by the way, he dies resigned to the decree 
 of Kismet, for he has at least the merit of being on the 
 road to that sacred spot. Never has danger diminished 
 pilgrims' zeal, and every year an increasing multitude 
 "arriving," to use the Prophet's words, "on foot, and on 
 every lean camel, by every distant road" has gathered 
 to hear the sermon on Mount Arafat and take part in the 
 time-honoured ceremony of casting stones at the devil in 
 the Valley of Moona. Now, however, that the Pilgrims' 
 Railway reaches Medina, the' Prophet's burial-place, the only 
 perilous stage of the journey for pilgrims from the West 
 will be that between this city and Mekka ; and the devout 
 Turk will, ere long, when the intervening 285 miles of rail 
 are completed, be able to take the train at Haidar Pasha 
 on the Eastern shore of the Bosphorus, at Damascus, or at 
 Haifa on the Syrian coast, and while still following more 
 or less the Old Pilgrims' Road proceed direct to the 
 birthplace of the Prophet. 
 
 A complete pilgrimage includes, in addition to Mekka, 
 visits to the Prophet's tomb at Medina, to the shrines of 
 the Saints at Damascus and Jerusalem ; and also to the 
 
152 FASTS, FEASTS, AND PILGRIMAGE 
 
 tombs of Mohammed's grandsons, Hassan and Hussein, at 
 Kerbeleh near Bagdad. Only dervishes and the most 
 zealous, however, aim at becoming such complete pilgrims, 
 the majority being satisfied with having accomplished this 
 religious duty in the obligatory degree. The three lunar 
 months of Ska wal, Dhulkaade> &&&Dhulhajja are dedicated 
 to the pilgrimage which culminates in the rites appointed 
 for the tenth day of the last-named month, after the per- 
 formance of which a pilgrim is entitled to style himself 
 Hadji. Previously to leaving home with this pious object, 
 a Moslem is required to set his worldly affairs in order, 
 pay any outstanding debts, and make suitable provision 
 for the maintenance of his family during his absence. 
 It has hitherto been customary for pilgrims from Con- 
 stantinople and the neighbourhood to assemble fourteen 
 days before the festival of the Qurban Bairam "The 
 Feast of Sacrifice" in one of the large open spaces of 
 Stamboul, where a procession is formed. This comprises 
 a number of camels with gorgeously ornamented saddles 
 bearing the coffers containing the Sultan's gifts to the 
 holy shrines, together with the alms and presents of his 
 well-to-do subjects for the religious trustees of their 
 respective families in the cities of Mekka and Medina. 
 Other camels carry a kind of palanquin covered with 
 costly silken stuffs in which lady pilgrims will perform 
 part of the journey. A company of picturesquely garbed 
 Arabs who accompany the Caravan exhibit at every halt- 
 ing-place, to the accompaniment of kettledrums, feats of 
 swordsmanship to the crowds of spectators which surround 
 
FASTS, FEASTS, AND PILGRIMAGE 153 
 
 and follow the procession and its military escort through 
 the streets and across the long bridge spanning the Golden 
 Horn on its way to Yildiz Kiosk, where the pilgrims salute 
 the Sultan before embarking. The best view of this quaint 
 procession is obtained as it mounts the steep road leading 
 to the palace, now lined with troops of the Imperial guard. 
 The rising ground on either side has the appearance of a 
 flower garden, covered as it is with the variously hued cloaks 
 and white headgear of thousands of Turkish women of the 
 lower orders. The Sultan, himself unseen, is believed to 
 be at one of the windows of Yildiz Kiosk to receive the 
 salutation of the departing pilgrims, who, after offering up 
 in unison a prayer for the success of their undertaking, 
 retrace their steps to the quay, whence they embark for 
 the Asiatic shore. Before the construction of the existing 
 railway the pilgrim caravan, after crossing the Bosphorus, 
 made the long journey to Arabia by land ; at Damascus it 
 was joined by thousands of pilgrims from Africa, Asia 
 Minor, and Syria, and thence, under the command of a 
 special official styled the " Steward of the Offerings," and 
 escorted by troops, it began its long journey across the 
 desert to the Holy Cities. 
 
 The ihram, the " sacred habit " of the pilgrims, is 
 donned just before setting foot on the holy soil surround- 
 ing the shrines of Islam, its adoption being preceded by 
 special ablutions and various prescribed formulas of 
 prayers and prostration. It consists of two white wrappers 
 of thin woollen stuff, each woven in one piece without 
 seam or hem ; one envelops the shoulders, leaving the 
 
154 FASTS, FEASTS, AND PILGRIMAGE 
 
 arms bare ; the other is fastened round the waist and falls 
 to the ankles. On the feet is worn a kind of sandal, a 
 mere sole of leather secured by a thong passing between 
 the first and second and the fourth and fifth toes. While 
 wearing the ihram a pilgrim must refrain from shaving, 
 neither must he trim his beard or nails. It is now incum- 
 bent on him to follow with the greatest strictness the 
 three leading principles of Moslem religious practice, 
 namely, prayer, fasting, and almsgiving. "Prayer/' said 
 the Prophet, " carries us halfway to God ; fasting brings 
 us to the door of His palace; almsgiving procures our 
 admittance." The rosary so often seen in the hands of 
 a Moslem is never absent from that of a pilgrim when 
 wearing the ihram, and it behoves him to be especially 
 punctilious in the performance of the five daily namaz 
 with their preceding ablutions. Additional acts of devo- 
 tion are also customary during the four days preceding 
 the Hadj-day, these being generally performed during 
 the hours of night, and accompanied by prostrations 
 and other "prayerful exercises." "The odour of the 
 mouth of him that fasteth is more acceptable to Allah 
 than the odour of musk." Not only the mouth, however, 
 but all the other members are required to practise absti- 
 nence during these holy days the ear must refuse to 
 listen to slander, the tongue refrain from the utterance of 
 any words save those of a pure and holy character, the 
 hands from touching that which is another's, the feet from 
 straying into forbidden places, and the eyes from looking 
 upon a woman. And the almsgiving incumbent upon a 
 
FASTS, FEASTS, AND PILGRIMAGE 155 
 
 pilgrim of means includes, besides the legal alms which 
 range, according to circumstances, from two and a half to 
 twenty per cent, of his possessions the giving largely to 
 the poor and neeay of his camels, kine, and sheep, and of 
 his provisions, coin, and marketable wares. 
 
 For pilgrims who have made part of their journey by 
 sea, it is at Jeddah that their worst perils begin to assail 
 them. The natives plunder them to the best of their 
 ability, from the boatmen who convey them from the 
 steamer to the Bedouin camel- and donkey-drivers in 
 whose company they traverse the intervening miles of 
 desert. 1 Caravans consisting of from five hundred to two 
 thousand camels start daily from this port for Mekka 
 during the pilgrimage season until a week before the 
 Great Day of the Hadj, travelling by night for the most 
 part. On arriving at their destination the pilgrims 
 anxiously await the commencement of the Hadj, the date 
 of which is decided by the moon being seen on rising at 
 a certain spot for, the Moslem year being, as previously 
 observed, lunar, all religious events vary with every suc- 
 ceeding year. The welcome tidings announced, the 
 pilgrims spend the morrow in visiting the mosque and 
 the Kaaba, offering prayers at this and the various 
 other holy places during nearly the whole of the day ; 
 
 1 The Constantinople journal Stamboul reports (February 16, 1909) 
 that a pilgrim steamer having lately grounded in the Suez Canal, its 
 passengers, who numbered nearly a thousand, were, in consequence of 
 the exactions of the Hedjaz population, found to be in such a destitute 
 condition that the charitable governor of Suez caused money and 
 provisions to be distributed among them. 
 
156 FASTS, FEASTS, AND PILGRIMAGE 
 
 partaking of the water of the Zemzem and kissing the 
 Black Stone of the Kaaba also constituting part of this 
 ceremonial, which is performed fasting. The Kaaba is a 
 square temple constructed of unhewn stones into one wall 
 of which is built the famous Black Stone, a meteorite, said 
 to have originally been white, and to have descended from 
 heaven. According to Moslem tradition, this temple is 
 the most ancient House of God, having been built by 
 Adam and restored by Abraham, as the Zemzem is 
 probably the most ancient spring of which any record 
 exists. Its discovery in the desert led to the foundation 
 of the City of Mekka, and for centuries past it has been 
 one of the most venerated objects in the Mohammedan 
 world, the virtues attributed to its waters being doubtless 
 due to the mineral salts with which they are strongly 
 impregnated. 
 
 At sunset the fast is broken, the ensuing night being 
 passed chiefly in prayer and devotional exercises. On 
 the following day a vast procession sets out for Mount 
 Arafat, on a certain spot on the lower slopes of which 
 eminence a sheep or goat is sacrificed by each Hadji who 
 can afford it, the wealthy giving to others of their abun- 
 dance for this pious purpose. The plain at the foot of 
 Mount Arafat presents on this day the appearance of a 
 vast camp, being covered with thousands of tents belong- 
 ing to pilgrims of the better class gathered here from all 
 quarters of the world for the fulfilment of one of the most 
 sacred rites of their common Faith. Their sacrificial 
 offering made, the pilgrims resume their way to Moona, 
 
FASTS, FEASTS, AND PILGRIMAGE 157 
 
 where the festival of the Qurban Bairam is celebrated. 
 In the valley of Moona is a rough stone structure 
 called the " House of the Devil," at which it is obli- 
 gatory on all pilgrims to cast stones in order to deter 
 the Father of Evil from approaching this assembly of the 
 Faithful. This festival marks the formal termination of 
 the pilgrimage, the newly made Hadjis being now at 
 liberty to set out on their return journey, though the 
 more devout will not rest satisfied without having also 
 visited the City of Medina and performed their devotions 
 at the tomb of the great founder of the Faith they profess. 
 
 This religious duty of pilgrimage, it may here be re- 
 marked, is as binding on women as on men. An adult 
 woman must, however, be at least nominally married 
 before setting out, and be accompanied either by her 
 husband or some near male relative who has a right to 
 see her unveiled, while young girls can only go when 
 accompanied by both parents. When their male com- 
 panions don the " sacred habit," the women are even more 
 hermetically shrouded in their cloaks and veils than 
 ordinarily, it being lawful for the palms of their hands 
 alone to be visible to the other sex. 
 
 Should any person desirous of accomplishing this 
 religious duty be prevented by bodily infirmity, or other 
 cause, from accomplishing it in his own person, as may 
 not unfrequently happen, it may be performed by deputy. 
 In order that the full merit of the act may accrue to 
 himself, such a person must, however, defray all the 
 expenses incidental to the pilgrimage, and at the same 
 
158 FASTS, FEASTS, AND PILGRIMAGE 
 
 time satisfy the religious authorities who sanction the 
 transaction that the funds have been honestly and honour- 
 ably acquired this being a sine qud non for permission to 
 set out on pilgrimage. Aged or dying persons who have 
 not performed the pilgrimage also repeatedly leave testa- 
 mentary instructions to the same effect. This practice 
 was curiously illustrated in the case of Khamko, the re- 
 doubtable mother of the still more redoubtable AH Pasha 
 of loannina, who, in a codicil to her will, directed that such 
 a deputy should be sent on her part to lay offerings on the 
 tomb of the Prophet and pray for the repose of her soul. 
 It was, however, found on inquiry that the lands directed 
 to be sold for this purpose had been taken by force or 
 fraud from their original owner, a Christian ; and the 
 pilgrimage was consequently disallowed by the religious 
 authorities. 
 
 In addition to this obligatory pilgrimage, Moslems, 
 and especially Moslem women, make frequent visitations 
 to the shrines of famous saints, who are for the most part 
 the deceased sheikhs of dervish orders. Ziarets, as these 
 lesser pilgrimages are termed, are generally undertaken in 
 fulfilment of a vow, or for relief from sickness or other 
 distress, in obedience to the traditional sayings of the 
 Prophet, " If thou art perplexed in thine affairs, go seek 
 assistance from the inhabitants of the tombs," and "If 
 thine heart be oppressed with sorrow, go seek consolation 
 at the graves of holy men." They are usually made on the 
 Mevlud y or annual feast day of the saint should not the 
 circumstances demand immediate recourse to his good 
 
FASTS, FEASTS, AND PILGRIMAGE 159 
 
 offices when it is customary for suppliants or visitors to 
 bring with them, in addition to gifts in coin or kind, a 
 lamb or fowl for sacrifice, the flesh of which constitutes 
 the perquisite of the guardian of the turbeh, generally 
 a dervish. Benefits which are believed to have resulted 
 from the intercession of the saint are gratefully acknow- 
 ledged by wealthy recipients with gifts of rich shawls as 
 coverings for the sunduk, or catafalque, which stands over 
 the resting-place of the holy dead. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS 
 
 FOREIGNERS coming for the first time into contact 
 with Osmanlis belonging to the higher classes of 
 society, are often surprised to find how high a 
 degree of education and culture has beeWfttained by both 
 men and women. In official circles at least the generality 
 of men speak French, and many read, if they do not speak, 
 English ; while in every large town there will probably be 
 found more Turks well acquainted with a foreign language 
 than would be met with in a corresponding class in any 
 Western country. It must not, however, be supposed that 
 a proportionately high level of instruction exists among the 
 Moslem subjects of the Sultan generally. For, as will be 
 evident from even a cursory survey of present methods, 
 the establishment of a less antiquated system of primary 
 national education constitutes one of the most pressing needs 
 of the Turkish people. At the present day in educational, 
 as in other departments in Turkey, two distinct systems exist 
 side by side, the Ancient, instituted at the Conquest and 
 common to all Moslem countries, and the Modern, initiated 
 in the earlier half of the last century, and greatly developed 
 during the last forty years. The educational establishments 
 
 160 
 
INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS 161 
 
 belonging to the first class comprise the Mahallah 
 Mektebs, or parish schools, and the Medressehs^ or Mosque 
 Colleges, both supported by the funds of the mosques of 
 which they are for the most part dependencies. Though 
 now left so far behind, there is perhaps no country in 
 Europe in which primary education was provided for at 
 so early a date as in Turkey, and so many induce- 
 ments held out to poor parents to allow their children 
 to participate in its benefits. The Mektebs afford 
 primary instruction to children of both sexes over eight 
 years of age, for which a nominal annual fee is some- 
 times paid, tlfl^Jh at some of the better endowed 
 parish schools each pupil is entitled to receive two 
 suits of clothing a year, while at others the benefactions 
 of pious donors provide in addition free meals and pocket- 
 money. The Hod/as, or masters of these parish schools, 
 are at the same time functionaries of the mosques to which 
 they are attached, and the instruction given by them is 
 chiefly of a religious character, though elementary lessons 
 in reading and writing have of late years been added to 
 the curriculum. Squatting in rows on the matted floor, 
 the children learn partly from their books, but chiefly by 
 rote, reciting the lesson in unison, while the Hodja, who 
 sits cross-legged at a low desk, expounds to them the 
 doctrines of the Koran which, being invariably used in 
 Arabic, naturally present considerable difficulties to the 
 infant mind. Inattentive pupils receive severe corporal 
 punishment, and are further disgraced by having also the 
 felakka, a kind of hobble, attached to one of their ankles. 
 M 
 
162 INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS 
 
 In former centuries the Moslem population of Turkey 
 was divided into two distinct classes, the Ulema, or learned, 
 and the unlettered, the former comprising only the graduates 
 of the Medresseks, from whose ranks came those who were 
 at the same time the exponents of religious dogma and the 
 administrators of the law of the land, there being at that 
 time no secular system of jurisprudence, as at present. 
 The changes in the legal administration effected during 
 the past century have, however, deprived the Mosque 
 Colleges of their former importance, and their graduates 
 now consist chiefly of those who aspire to become per- 
 manent members of the Ulema, functionaries of the 
 mosques, professors in their turn in the Medressehs, or 
 legal practitioners in what may be termed the Ecclesiastical 
 Courts of which the Sheikh-ul-Islam is the head. These 
 Medressehs resemble in some respects the Universities of 
 Continental Europe as they existed in mediaeval days, and, 
 as already observed, owe their origin to the munificence of 
 Sultans and grandees of former centuries, whose endow- 
 ments of the mosques supported also their educational 
 and charitable foundations attached to them, the lectures 
 being very frequently given in the mosque itself. The 
 revenues of the majority of these religious foundations 
 have, however, of late years, owing to changes in their 
 administration, greatly diminished ; and the students who 
 in olden days invariably received, in addition to free 
 quarters, certain daily rations from the college kitchen 
 and oil for their lamps, now enjoy such free commons 
 only on special days, and even the fabric of many of these 
 
INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS 163 
 
 ancient edifices can hardly be saved from ruin. The 
 residential quarters occupied by the students are usually 
 built in the form of a quadrangle surrounding a courtyard, 
 and the arrangements are quite mediaeval in character, 
 several youths often occupying one apartment in which 
 they study, sleep, and do their own frugal cooking. The 
 latest freshman is also required to " fag " for the tutor who 
 supervises the studies of the class to which he belongs. 
 Very poor are many of these youthful students of the 
 Sacred Law ; but living is fortunately still cheap in Turkey, 
 and from 12s. to 15^. per month suffices for their sub- 
 sistence. In the Capital alone there are said to be no 
 fewer than a hundred of these Medressehs, and one or 
 more may be found in every provincial town. At the 
 present day, however, the main subjects of study in the 
 Medressehs may be classed under the two heads of 
 " Theology " and " Language," the former including, besides 
 knowledge of the Koran and Moslem Law, the Hadis, or 
 Traditions, with the Commentaries thereon, and the latter 
 comprising grammar, rhetoric, poetry, and calligraphy. 
 The number of Softas accommodated in the Medressehs 
 of the Capital at the present day is estimated at about 
 six thousand, the majority of whom are quite impecu- 
 nious ; and in such great religious centres as Konieh, 
 the ancient Iconium, they are also very numerous. The 
 diminished revenues of the religious foundations no longer 
 affording maintenance to students at the Medressehs as 
 heretofore, many undergraduates during the month of 
 Ramazan make tours among the provincial towns and 
 
164 INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS 
 
 villages, where they preach or do special duty in the 
 mosques, returning equipped with funds derived from fees 
 and alms sufficient to enable them to continue their frugal 
 college life. 
 
 The instruction afforded in the Mosque Schools and 
 Colleges at the present day, being of so restricted and 
 conservative character, is, it must be admitted, hardly calcu- 
 lated to advance the cause of general enlightenment in the 
 Ottoman Empire. But limited though their curriculum 
 now is, and antiquated as their methods undoubtedly are, 
 these Medressehs constituted in former days important 
 centres of learning, as they then afforded not only theo- 
 logical teaching but also instruction in all the branches of 
 knowledge then available. And seeing that the numerous 
 poets, historians, and philosophers, of whose literary 
 eminence Turkey can rightly boast, were, during many 
 centuries, graduates of the Medressehs, it must be admitted 
 that they have in the past done good service and more 
 than justified their existence. Few Europeans are, indeed, 
 aware of the literary wealth to which the Turkish people 
 can lay claim, or have any idea of the high degree of 
 culture that has prevailed during the centuries of the 
 Ottoman dominion. Many of the ablest rulers of Turkey, 
 for instance, were wont to find in poetic composition 
 distraction and solace amid the great enterprises that 
 signalised their respective reigns, and displayed a degree 
 of taste and ability that would have made the literary 
 reputation of private individuals. Out of the thirty- 
 four Sultans of the House of Osman, no fewer than 
 
INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS 165 
 
 twenty-one have been men of letters, and eleven of these are 
 adjudged by posterity to have been poets of distinction 
 a record surely unparalleled in the annals. of any European 
 Dynasty. Following their example, not only princes of 
 the blood such as, for instance, the gifted and unfortunate 
 Djem Shah 1 but also Viziers, Muftis, and more or less 
 the whole lettered class of the nation added to their 
 functions, civil, military, and political, the cult of the 
 poetic muse. 
 
 It is, I believe, generally admitted that climate and 
 scenery exert an important influence on character and 
 intellect, as well as on sentiment and belief. And the 
 serene spirit of Islam, combined with the clear blue skies, 
 the soft sun-pervaded atmosphere, the flowery and fruitful 
 plains, and the grand grouping of mountain, stream, and 
 sea in the fair regions occupied by the Turkish people, 
 may be said to have given to their national poetry a 
 character at once mystically religious and languorously 
 romantic. With the establishment in the fifteenth century 
 of the native language as a legitimate medium of literary 
 expression instead of, as previously, the acquired Persian 
 verse-writing became general, and never since has the 
 
 1 Djem Shah was a younger brother of Sultan Bayazid II., with 
 whom he claimed to share the sovereignty of Turkey. Defeated in 
 battle, he took refuge with the Knights of Rhodes, who transferred him 
 to one after another of their Commanderies in Europe. On March I3th, 
 1489, Prince Djem was imprisoned in the Vatican by Pope Alexander VI., 
 and six years later, on being compulsorily handed over to Charles VI II. 
 of France, he died at Naples, it was believed of poison, which had 
 been previously administered to him by this Borgian Pope. 
 
166 INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS 
 
 land of the Sultans lacked poets to sing the prowess of 
 Moslem arms, the beauties and mysteries of Nature, and 
 the charms of harem huris. The names of quite an 
 extraordinary number of writers both of verse and prose 
 are consequently to be found in Ottoman biographical 
 dictionaries ; but no work exists, I believe, in any language 
 giving a complete history of the literature of this nation. 
 Persian had been the Court language of the Seljukian 
 Sultans who, before coming into Asia Minor, had over- 
 run Persia, the less civilised race adopting the language 
 and culture of the more civilised people they subjugated, 
 and Persian became also the literary language of the 
 Osmanli Turks on their becoming heirs to the Seljukian 
 kingdom. 
 
 One of the chief peculiarities of Ottoman, as of Persian 
 poems is, it may here be remarked, that they almost 
 invariably contain concealed beneath their literal meaning 
 an esoteric and spiritual signification. A certain number 
 of famous poems may, indeed, be read for the most part for 
 what they appear on the surface to be religious or moral 
 works. But to those who possess the key to their hidden 
 meaning, many constitute spiritual allegories representing 
 the yearning of the soul of man for union with the Deity, 
 or its love of and quest for the highest type of spiritual 
 beauty and virtue. The Ghazels, or Odes, present the 
 same characteristic as the longer poems. Though on the 
 surface either mere bacchanalian verses or voluptuous 
 love-songs, the initiated can recognise in their symbolic 
 imagery the fervent outpourings of hearts ecstasied, or, 
 
i 
 
INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS 167 
 
 as they express it, " intoxicated " with spiritual love. For 
 every word in these effusions has its accepted mystical 
 signification. The " Fair One " for whom sighs the Lover, 
 Man, is the Deity, the "Beloved" whom he entreats to 
 throw off the veil that conceals her perfect beauty from 
 his sight. The " Ruby Lip " signifies the unspoken, but 
 heard and understood communications of the Divinity ; 
 ''Nestling in the Fair One's tresses," comprehension of 
 His hidden attributes ; the " Embrace " is the revelation 
 to man of the Divine Mysteries ; " Separation," or 
 " Absence " from the " Loved One/' is the non-attain- 
 ment of Oneness with the Deity ; " Wine " is the 
 Divine Love ; the " Cupbearer " is the spiritual in- 
 structor, the " giver of the goblet of celestial aspiration " ; 
 the " Zephyr " is the breathing of the Spirit ; the " Taper " 
 the heavenly light kindling the torch in the heart of the 
 Lover, Man. And so on through every detail. This pecu- 
 liarity of Ottoman poetry is no doubt largely due to the 
 fact that of the long line of poets who have during the past 
 six centuries contributed to the treasure-house of Ottoman 
 literature not a few of the most famous names have been 
 those of Dervishes. So great, indeed, during several 
 centuries was the influence exercised on literary taste by 
 the Dervish Schools that every poet endeavoured to give 
 a mystical turn to his or her effusions. 
 
 From the first half of the fourteenth century onwards 
 Persian began to be abandoned for literary purposes in 
 favour of native Turkish. Both the prose and verse 
 productions in that language, previous to the end of the 
 
168 INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS 
 
 following century, are, however, adjudged by critics to be 
 for the most part somewhat rude and uncouth, though 
 one of the earliest Turkish writers who flourished in 
 the reign of Orchan was of such eminence that he is to 
 this day styled "The Father of Ottoman Literature." 
 Oriental writers have always affected anonymity, and 
 this author wrote under the takhullus, or pen-name of 
 A'ashik " the Loving " to which name, according to the 
 custom of those times, was added the title of " Pasha," to 
 denote his high rank among scholars. This honorific 
 title, together with such others as Sheikh, Emir, Hunkiar, 
 Shah, and Sultan, are often found affixed to the names of 
 Turkish poets and men of letters. Among A'ashik's 
 numerous productions is an " Ode to Culture," from which 
 the following lines, literally translated, have been taken : 
 
 " Empty form is nothing more than body without soul 
 Structure in the world is of the great world-soul's design. 
 Culture vivifies the world ; else would there be but soulless form, 
 Knowledge is the breath of soul, and soul of all the souls. 
 Wanting knowledge, soul is dead, and like unto the dead. 
 Knowledge giveth to the Sultans empire over human souls. 
 Knowledge wanting, life is wanting, this my word is truth indeed." 
 
 A'ashik Pasha was, however, chiefly eminent as a 
 mystic, having been a member of the Mevlevi, or " Whirl- 
 ing" Order of Dervishes, which has produced so many 
 poets of distinction, its founder Jelalu'd Din, who wrote 
 in Persian his famous Mesnevi, being deemed by Orientals 
 a very "prince among poets." A'ashik's principal work 
 is a long mystical poem known as the A'ashik Pasha 
 Divani. It consists of rhymed couplets, the following 
 
INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS 169 
 
 translated lines from which may give some idea of the 
 character and sentiment of the Turkish poetry of that 
 period : 
 
 " All the Universe, one mighty sign, is shown ; 
 God hath myriads of creative acts unknown : 
 None hath seen them, of the races djin and men, 
 None hath news brought from that realm far off from ken. 
 Never shall thy mind in reason reach that strand, 
 Nor can tongue the King's name utter of that land. 
 Since 'tis His each nothingness with life to invest 
 Toil nor pain attendeth ever His behest. 
 Eighteen thousand worlds from end to end 
 Do not with Him one Atom's worth transcend. l 
 
 Another work of this literary period is the Mukkam- 
 mediyya of Mohammed Yazedji Oglou (Mohammed the 
 Son of the Scribe), who flourished in the first half of the 
 fifteenth century. In this work, which consists of 9109 
 couplets, is comprised the whole doctrine of Islam as well 
 as the history of the Prophet. The description of the 
 creation of the celestial Paradise concludes with these 
 lines 
 
 ' All these glories, all these honours, all these blessings of delight, 
 All these wondrous mercies surely for his sake He did prepare 2 
 Through His love unto Mohammed, He the universe hath framed ; 
 Happy, for his sake, the naked and the hungry enter there. 
 O Thou perfectness of Potence ! O Thou God of Awful Might ! 
 O Thou Majesty of Glory ! O Thou King of Perfect Right ! " 
 
 1 Translated by Mr. Gibb in his Ottoman Poems. I have ventured 
 to make some verbal alterations in the eighth line, which Mr. Gibb 
 has rendered 
 
 " Trouble is there ne'er at His behest." 
 
 2 The love of the Deity for Mohammed forms a frequent theme of 
 Moslem writers. 
 
170 INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS 
 
 Mohammed II., the Conqueror of Constantinople, 
 appears to have been, like so many others of his House, 
 a great patron of men of letters. The poet Sati was given 
 by him a post at the Court as Laureate with the obligation 
 of composing annually three khasidas poems on special 
 subjects one in honour of the Great Bairam, or Feast of 
 Sacrifice, another for the Lesser Bairam, or Feast of Alms, 
 and a third for the Spring Festival at which the Oriental 
 New Year is also inaugurated. 
 
 Notwithstanding the acknowledged ability of a few of 
 these earlier writers in Turkish, the true classical period of 
 Ottoman literature is held to have commenced only with 
 the accession to the throne in 1520 of Suleyman "The 
 Magnificent," and to have terminated two centuries later. 
 Under the rule of this able Sultan "sword and pen," it 
 was customary to say, " were never dry," for no less keenly 
 did he fight the foe abroad than foster the arts at home. 
 A golden age for Turkish scholarship and poetry was 
 indeed inaugurated in this reign. Among poets Baki 
 composed his charming lyrics, Fazli earned undying fame 
 with his famous mystical allegory, "The Rose and the 
 Nightingale," and Khalil surpassed all rivals in elegiac 
 verse; while the prose writers of the period, historians, 
 theologians, legists, and romancists, were as numerous as 
 they were distinguished. To about the middle of this 
 classical period belongs the eminent prose writer Hadji 
 Khalifa, one of the most famous men of letters Turkey has 
 ever produced, who left behind him at his death in 1658 a 
 great variety of works on history, biography, chronology, 
 
INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS 171 
 
 geography, and other subjects. This important literary 
 period may be said to have closed with Nedim, who 
 flourished at the beginning of the eighteenth century, and 
 is held by critics to stand alone among Ottoman poets, his 
 verse being characterised by a joyousness and sprightli- 
 ness which clearly distinguish it from the work of any 
 previous singer. His ghazels are not only written with 
 extreme elegance and finish, but contain an extraordinary 
 variety of graceful and original ideas, and the words 
 he made use of invariably appear to have been most 
 happily chosen with a view to harmony and cadence. His 
 khasidas are also esteemed almost equal to his sonnets, 
 being less artificial and less dependent on fantastic 
 conceits than is usually found in this class of poetic 
 composition. 
 
 The Post-classical Period, which may be said to have 
 endured until about the middle of last century, produced 
 a variety of poets of distinction, the productions of each 
 of whom possessed a style as original and peculiar to 
 himself as in the case of the most eminent among their 
 predecessors. Among these may be instanced Ghalib, 
 whose Magnum Opus, " Beauty and Love," an allegorically 
 mystical romance, is full of tender sentiment and shows 
 a high degree of imaginative power. And among prose 
 authors of this time may be mentioned such names as 
 Rashid, the Imperial historiographer; Asim the philo- 
 logist, who translated into Turkish two great lexicons, one 
 from Arabic and the other from Persian ; and of writers 
 in a lighter vein, Kani the humorist. 
 
172 INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS 
 
 The reign of Mohammed II., "The Reformer," con- 
 stitutes the great transitional period of Ottoman literature, 
 as it does also of Ottoman history. For during this 
 reign, in which the West entered on the latest stage of its 
 struggle with the East, we find the first indications of the 
 successive changes which have during the past ninety 
 years completely revolutionised Turkey. In the works of 
 writers belonging to the first half of the nineteenth century 
 the old Persian manner still predominates, and only an 
 occasional attempt at composition in the new style is 
 discernible. Pre-eminent among the poets of this time 
 were Fazil Bey, Izzet Mollah, Pertev Pasha, and Wasif, 
 the last named having broken new ground in a not 
 entirely unsuccessful attempt to throw off ancient con- 
 ventions by writing verse in the vernacular of the Capital. 
 The more intimate relations cultivated with Europe from 
 which naturally resulted acquisition of the French language 
 and study of its literature, combined with the steady 
 progress of the reforming tendency initiated under 
 Mohammed II., resulted in the latter half of the century 
 in the birth of a new literary school, whose aim was the 
 substitution of truth and simplicity for the ancient inflated 
 and grandiloquent style of diction. The first clear note 
 of change is to be found in the political writings of Reshid 
 and of Akif Pashas ; but the man to whom more than to 
 any other this literary revolution owed its success was 
 Shinasi Effendi, who applied the modern method of com- 
 position to poetry as well as to prose. This important 
 innovation though not, however, established without 
 
INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS 173 
 
 violent opposition from literary conservatives is at the 
 present day alone used by writers of repute, anything 
 now written according to the ancient Persian standards of 
 composition being merely as a sort of scholarly tour de 
 force. The whole tone, sentiment, and form of Ottoman 
 literature has consequently changed ; poetical forms 
 hitherto unknown have been adopted from European 
 prosodies, and a form of literature altogether new to the 
 East the drama has arisen. Thousands of new words 
 have during this period been adopted, or adapted, from 
 other languages to express the wants of modern civilisa- 
 tion ; and the language has been thereby so much 
 enriched, simplified, and modernised, that many of the 
 numerous novels, scientific books, and periodicals which 
 are now published in Turkish may be said to be quite 
 on a par with similar contemporary productions in 
 Western Europe. 
 
 Nor are the names of women absent from this long 
 and brilliant list of Turkish writers. During the centuries 
 when European culture was a sealed book to them, the 
 fair denizens of the harem not infrequently found its 
 calm undisturbed life conducive to poetic composition ; 
 and from the fifteenth century onwards a daughter of 
 the Osmanlis has from time to time delighted her con- 
 temporaries with her pen, and given evidence of a degree 
 of talent entitling her to rank with the literary celebrities 
 of her day. And how generously recognised and acknow- 
 ledged by their countrymen were the poetic attainments 
 of these ladies may be gathered from the following 
 
174 INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS 
 
 extracts from Turkish biographers. Kimali Zade, writing 
 in the sixteenth century, thus extols in figuratively 
 Oriental language the gifted Zeyneb, the earliest Turkish 
 poetess of whom any record exists. " The learning and 
 poetic talent of this Bride are not covered and concealed 
 by the curtain of secrecy and the veil of bashfulness ; but 
 the rosiness of her beauty, and the down and mole of her 
 comeliness are beheld and admired by the world, and 
 are the object of the gaze of every man and woman." 
 The same writer applies to her an Arabic couplet which 
 may be thus rendered 
 
 " Her woman's sex dims not the sun's effulgent ray ; 
 Though masculine the Moon, he lighteth not the day." l 
 
 And Latifi, the poet biographer and critic, speaks of 
 her as "an exceptional woman." "May Allah," he con- 
 tinues, "veil her shortcomings. She was a noble 
 daughter, a chaste and virtuous maiden, endowed with 
 many agreeable mental qualities. Learned men marvelled 
 at her understanding. Her father, when he saw sparkle 
 the rare jewels of her talent, supplied her with masters in 
 the arts and sciences, and placed in her hands the Persian 
 and Arabic poets." In his Teskera, Latifi appends to a 
 ghazel by this lady the following appreciative reply : 
 
 " Hurt, again our feast as shining Paradise array ! 
 With thy sweet lip the beaker fill brim high with Kevser's spray 2 
 O Sufi, if thy cell be dark and gloomy be thy heart, 
 Come then, and with the winecup's lamp light it with radiance gay ; 
 
 1 In the Arabic as in the German language the Moon is masculine 
 and the Sun feminine. 2 See p. 15. 
 
INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS 175 
 
 Heap up like aloes-wood the flames of love within thy breast ; 
 From thine own breath to all earth's senses odours sweet convey. 
 O Zephyr ! shouldst thou pass the home of her we love so well, 
 Full many blessings bear to her from us who her obey." l 
 
 Equally appreciative are the notices found in literary 
 biographies of other Osmanli poetesses of the classic 
 period who concealed their identity under the pen-names 
 of Mihri ("Follower of Love"), Sidqi ("Sincerity"), and 
 Fitnet (" Restlessness ") respectively, as also of Hibetulla 
 Sultana, sister of Mohammed II., and Leyla Hanum, who 
 belonged to the first half of the last century, such facts 
 surely contributing to prove the willingness in every age 
 of men even when " Unspeakable Turks " not only to 
 recognise and appreciate the possession of talent by 
 women, but also to concede to them every facility for 
 higher education whenever a sincere desire for it has 
 been manifested. 
 
 Thus far as to indigenous Turkish education and 
 culture. Let us now give a glance at what has of later 
 years been borrowed from European methods and organ- 
 ised on modern lines. In addition to the parish mektebs 
 above mentioned, there are now to be found in all the 
 cities and larger towns of Turkey, State-supported primary 
 schools called Rushdiyeh, to which boys are admitted 
 gratuitously and taught, besides reading and writing, such 
 usual elementary subjects as arithmetic, Turkish history, 
 and geography. In the Idadiyek, or secondary schools, 
 
 1 Gibb, Ottoman Poems. 
 
176 INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS 
 
 which are also State-supported, but as yet very inadequate 
 in number, older boys receive more specialised instruction 
 while qualifying for admission to one of the modern 
 Superior Schools and Colleges modelled on the system of 
 the educational institutions of France and Germany, in 
 which all the subjects necessitated by modern require- 
 ments are taught. Among the latter are Military Schools 
 and Colleges, a Naval College, Medical Colleges civil 
 and military, besides various institutions specially devoted 
 to the training of civil servants, lawyers, civil engineers, 
 etc., and a Lyceum organised in imitation of such estab- 
 lishments as they exist in France. In the last, founded 
 in 1869 by the joint efforts of Ali and Fuad Pashas, the 
 great reforming statesmen, it was proposed to afford a 
 liberal education to all subjects of the Sultan throughout 
 the Empire, irrespective of race and creed. Notwith- 
 standing the difficulties which naturally arose in connexion 
 with organising a system of instruction which should take 
 account of the prejudices of members of three different 
 religious systems, the Lycte was opened with some 350 
 students belonging to seven different sects, and in two 
 years' time the attendance was doubled. Instruction was 
 imparted in French by French professors, and every 
 facility was afforded for the acquisition of both classical 
 and modern languages. Though the proposed provincial 
 branches were never established, the original institution 
 has continued to prosper, some of the most eminent 
 contemporary Osmalis having received part of their 
 education in its class-rooms. 
 
INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS 177 
 
 In no department of education is the progress made 
 of late years more apparent than in the Military Colleges, 
 their present state of efficiency being due in great 
 measure to the personal interest and supervision of the 
 Sultan. Elementary military education is afforded in the 
 thirty-six State-provided schools known as Mekteb-i- 
 Rushdiyeh to boys between the ages of ten and fourteen, 
 who, on passing into the Idadiyeh, or Secondary schools, 
 have already attained a fair degree of proficiency in the 
 French language, and in certain military subjects. The 
 system of education pursued in the seven Idddiyeh military 
 schools is especially adapted for youths intending to make 
 the army their profession ; and after three years or so 
 of further study, if they can satisfy the examiners, the 
 pupils may enter one of the six superior Military Colleges, 
 those possessing any special aptitude for mathematics 
 entering the Artillery Academy on the banks of the 
 Golden Horn. In these higher colleges the course of 
 study pursued is purely professional and lasts for three 
 or four years, the graduates being then gazetted lieutenants 
 iu the army corps to which their college is attached. Ten 
 per cent, of the cadets of each year are, however, retained 
 for a further three years' course of study, at the end of 
 which those who have successfully passed the examiners 
 are gazetted to the Staff of the Army as captains. The 
 drawback to this system is that the Staff officers are 
 entirely ignorant of regimental work, and consequently 
 unable to cope with the many difficulties which confront 
 the regimental officer as well in peace as during a campaign. 
 
 N 
 
178 INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS 
 
 Considerable progress has also been made in the 
 department of Medical Science during the present reign. 
 As mentioned in a previous chapter, there is a Naval and 
 Military Medical College in the Capital devoted solely to 
 the training of medical officers for the united services, and 
 the Civil Medical College at Stamboul affords instruction 
 to 1 200 students preparing for a medical career, open to 
 all Ottoman subjects without distinction of race or creed. 
 Its teaching staff include a number of fully qualified 
 German professors. The training obtainable here being 
 much appreciated, the College is usually filled to over- 
 crowding with eager students. The course of study lasts 
 six years, at the end of which period the most promising 
 graduates are sent to France or Germany for further 
 instruction, or to attend post-graduate courses in special 
 departments of medical science. 
 
 Save, however, in these two branches of medical and 
 military science, intellectual progress had, under the late 
 Palace System, become completely paralysed. Prominent 
 literary men were forced into exile, numerous printing 
 and publishing offices closed, and newspapers and periodi- 
 cals suppressed, the few that continued to be issued being 
 strictly prohibited from publishing any news of a political 
 or national character, or indeed any information whatever 
 of national interest. The people generally were in con- 
 sequence entirely without precise information of what was 
 taking place either at home or abroad, and the wildest 
 rumours were often current in the cafes and bazars of 
 the Capital. This dearth of news was, however, evidently 
 
INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS 179 
 
 equalled by the desire for it. For, on the morrow of the 
 Proclamation of the Constitution, not only was every 
 suppressed newspaper resuscitated,ibut a number of new 
 journals appeared in the Capital and elsewhere. So great 
 indeed was the immediate demand that the supply fell 
 far short of it, and the fortunate possessor of a copy of 
 the Serbesti or the Sabak might have been seen on these 
 eventful days surrounded by an excited group eager to 
 share in the unwonted privilege of a free Press. Another 
 notable and highly satisfactory result of the new regime 
 has been a wide demand for books of an educational and 
 scientific character, a corresponding feature being an 
 immensely increased demand on the part of the Turkish 
 youth for admittance into the various educational establish- 
 ments, many of which are already overcrowded. Every 
 College has also now its Club established for the purposes 
 of study, debate, and mutual help, one of the best being 
 a sort of " Old Boys' " Club founded by former pupils 
 of the Mulkieh Superior School, which has a membership 
 of 1600, and possesses commodious premises near the 
 Sublime Porte. 
 
 In the department of female education a great advance 
 may be looked for in the near future. An Imperial 
 Lyceum for girls is now in process of establishment 
 under the immediate patronage of his Majesty the Sultan, 
 who has not only placed a palace at Candilli at the 
 disposal of the Committee of Administration, composed 
 of ministers, deputies, and eminent educationalists, but 
 has also generously offered to defray all the expenses 
 
180 INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS 
 
 of its furnishing and equipment. The Consulting Com- 
 mittee will be composed of Turkish ladies, and his 
 Majesty has expressed the wish that his daughter, the 
 Princess Nai'le Sultana, should be nominated as its President. 
 Harem restraints have hitherto naturally prevented girls 
 over twelve continuing to attend school, as on attaining 
 that age custom forbids them to go abroad save under 
 the wing of their mother or a female attendant of mature 
 years. In this particular, however, as also in others 
 affecting the welfare and intellectual progress of women, 
 and with it that of the nation generally, many modifica- 
 tions and ameliorations will doubtless by degrees be found 
 possible, and brought into operation. A considerable 
 number of Turkish girls of the better class have during 
 the last half-century been educated at home by foreign 
 governesses, and have become proficient in European lan- 
 guages, accomplishments, and general culture ; day-schools 
 for girls of the middle classes exist in all the cities and 
 larger towns, and are well attended ; and where statistics 
 are available, it appears that as many girls as boys receive 
 instruction in the elementary parish mektebs. 
 
 Printing, I may mention in conclusion, was not intro- 
 duced into Turkey until the year 1728, the first printed 
 book published having been a Turkish translation of an 
 Arabic dictionary. To this day, however, the Turks pre- 
 fer a beautiful manuscript to a printed book. They have, 
 indeed, always cultivated and esteemed calligraphy more 
 than Europeans, and even more than any other Orientals 
 except, perhaps, the Persians. Copying books, as a trade, 
 
INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS 181 
 
 has not even yet completely died out, as with us ; fer 
 books of a religious character have only of recent years 
 been allowed to be printed ; and the Koran is still always 
 used in manuscript. Letter writing has, however, remained 
 an art not understood of the vulgar. Even among those 
 who can read few are able to write, and for their con- 
 venience the professional scribe still sits at the street 
 corners, ready to set down in literary Turkish the simple 
 messages of his customers to friends at a distance, who in 
 their turn will probably have recourse to the erudition of 
 the village Imam for the deciphering of the missive. The 
 trade of the seal-engraver, who, like the scribe, is invariably 
 a Moslem, also continues as flourishing as when the art of 
 writing was less common, Orientals generally considering 
 a seal preferable to a written signature, their argument 
 being that any one may imitate a man's handwriting, but 
 no one but himself can be in possession of his seal. The 
 Turks, however, in common with Orientals generally, are 
 not afflicted with the cacoethes scribendi, neither social, 
 intellectual, nor commercial activity being so great as 
 to call for a frequent exchange of written communica- 
 tions ; and it is still customary, not only among the 
 Turks, but also among the better classes of Christians, 
 to send both business and social messages by word of 
 mouth. 
 
 Native Turkish music, it must be admitted, is still very 
 primitive in character. The airs are generally either wild an d 
 plaintive, or sentimental and melancholy, presenting little 
 variety and in common with the folk-music of Southern 
 
182 INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS 
 
 Europe generally they are invariably pitched in a minor 
 key. The popular idea of singing in the country among 
 all races I once heard not inaptly characterised by a 
 Roumanian as "pirouetting around a single note." The 
 repetition of the Turkish words " Aman Aman /" which 
 may be translated as "Oh dear!" or "Have pity!" 
 appear sufficient to express the sentimental feelings of the 
 lower classes of the population ; and the muleteer on the 
 road, the fisherman in his boat, or the town 'prentice taking 
 his kaif at a coffee-house by the seashore, will, for hours 
 together, make nasal excursions up and down the scale 
 from the keynote on which he enunciates his Aman, 
 Aman ! The wild native marches, as played by military 
 bands, are, however, not unpleasing; but both military 
 bands and barrel-organs now produce for the most part airs 
 from French and Italian light opera, and "La fille de 
 Madame Angot" in particular appeared at one time to 
 have a greater vogue in Turkey than even in her native 
 land. This year has, however, seen the inauguration at 
 Stamboul of a National Conservatoire of Music which, sup- 
 ported as it is fortunate enough to be by the patronage 
 of Prince Ziaeddin EfTendi, has, it may be hoped, a pros- 
 perous future before it. 
 
 The musical instruments in ordinary use among the 
 populace are the rebeck, or lute, the kanoun, a kind of 
 zither, the reed flute, and the small hemispherical drum. 
 But the favourite instrument of the Oriental rustic gene- 
 rally is the bagpipe not the complicated instrument, be it 
 understood, of the Scottish Highlanders, but a much more 
 
INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS 183 
 
 primitive one made from the skin of a sheep fitted with a 
 mouthpiece and a single reed pipe by means of which the 
 notes are produced. The inflated skin is held against the 
 chest of the player, who moves his fingers over the holes, 
 producing sounds discordant enough to Western ears, but 
 pleasing in the extreme to the unsophisticated Turk, as 
 also to the Arab, Bulgarian, or Armenian, especially when 
 accompanied, as is generally the case, by the equally 
 primitive doubana, or native drum. 
 
T 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 MYSTICISM AND FREETHOUGHT 
 
 i HE Mystics of Islam are to be found in the con- 
 ventual establishments of the Dervish Orders who 
 constitute the monks and saints of the Moslem 
 world. Monasticism is, however, not only contrary to 
 the spirit of Islam, but was explicitly forbidden by its 
 founder. But so attractive to the Oriental mind has 
 always been a life passed in retirement from the world 
 for the purpose of contemplative devotion, that this 
 natural tendency proved stronger than the injunctions 
 of the Prophet ; and very early in the history of this 
 religion societies were formed and by no less eminent 
 persons than Mohammed's nephew Ali and his friend 
 and father-in-law Abu Bekr for the purposes of mystic 
 meditation and beneficence. Mysticism, being in prin- 
 ciple rather a mode of practising religion than a religion 
 in itself, adapts itself to all dogmas ; and the earlier 
 members of these fraternities invariably took a vow of 
 fidelity to the doctrines of the Prophet and continued 
 to perform their duties as citizens. It was not long, 
 however, before many of the followers of these first 
 Khalifs abandoned the rules of the original fraternities. 
 
 184 
 
MYSTICISM AND FREETHOUGHT 165 
 
 And the great religious movement of the ninth century, 
 which shook Islam to its foundations and resulted in 
 the formation of a multitude of new sects within that 
 creed, gave birth also to the system of religious philo- 
 sophy known as Sufiism, which enters so largely into 
 the mystical doctrines professed by the Dervishes gene- 
 rally. In the thirteenth century twelve Orders were 
 recognised, but the number of these mystics rapidly 
 increased during the next two centuries in all the Asiatic 
 countries which had come under the influence of Islam. 
 
 The founders, at least, of these early Dervish Societies 
 were evidently men of great learning and wide culture, 
 as well as of saintly life. Under Orchan, the first Turkish 
 Emir the title of Sultan was not assumed until much 
 later they spread themselves over Asia Minor ; and 
 after the conquest of Broussa, this prince, who attributed 
 his extraordinary successes to the presence in his armies 
 of these holy men, founded and endowed for them con- 
 vents and colleges throughout his dominions, at the head 
 of which he placed the most distinguished of their Sheikhs 
 or Priors, conferring upon them the honourable title of 
 Pasha, joined to such names as A'ashik ("The Loving") 
 or Miichliz (" The Sincere "). The slopes of the Bithynian 
 Olympus, which had long been the resort of Christian 
 hermits and cenobites, were now also taken possession 
 of by these Moslem recluses who there established them- 
 selves among the flocks of the Turcoman nomads ; and 
 the coolness and quiet of the retreats which had favoured 
 the holy idleness of Christian monks now charmed the 
 
186 MYSTICISM AND FREETHOUGHT 
 
 reveries of Moslem poets and the meditations of Sufi 
 philosophers. The honoured tombs of the more famous 
 among them may still be seen at the foot of the mountain 
 on which their peaceful days were passed, or in the 
 vicinity of the schools in which they studied and taught. 
 And in the nineteenth century, as in the days of Orchan, 
 their influence has been made use of by Sultans and 
 generals to excite the zeal and courage of their troops 
 in battle. Whenever a military campaign has been 
 organised, a number of Sheikhs and others from nearly all 
 the Orders have hastened to join the army. Commanding 
 officers gladly engage their services and treat them with 
 every respect and consideration, as their presence in the 
 camp where they spend whole days and nights fasting 
 in their tents while offering supplications and making 
 vows for the success of the arms of the True Believers 
 maintains a most desirable religious enthusiasm among 
 the troops. On the eve of an action, the Dervishes roam 
 excitedly through the camp, rehearsing the benefits 
 promised by the Prophet to all who fight for the Faith 
 of Islam, or who die in arms, and seek by their own 
 religious enthusiasm to rouse the zeal and animate the 
 courage of the soldiery. During a battle their voices 
 may be heard above the din of war, shouting, " O 
 Victors!" (Ya Ghazi) "O Martyrs!" (Ya Shahid) "Ya 
 Allah!" or Ya Hoo!" ("O Him"). If they fancy the 
 Holy Standard, the Mantle of the Prophet, to be in 
 danger, they crowd round the sacred relic to strengthen 
 the lines of the officers stationed as its guard, and not 
 
MYSTICISM AND FREETHOUGHT 187 
 
 only sustain their efforts, but themselves perform prodigies 
 of valour. A Dervish of high renown in his day, Ak 
 Shemsi 'd-Din by name, is said to have foretold to 
 Mohammed "The Conqueror" the day and hour of 
 the fall of Constantinople. Together with seventy-seven 
 other "distinguished and holy men beloved of Allah," 
 he accompanied the Sultan to that memorable siege. 
 The deeds of valour achieved by these enthusiasts, and 
 the miracles performed in answer to their prayers are 
 recorded and, it need hardly be added, exaggerated 
 by Moslem chroniclers; and the tombs of many are to 
 this day places of pilgrimage for the True Believers. 
 
 Nor were the Dervish Orders held in less honour by 
 succeeding Sultans. After the capture of the Byzantine 
 Capital and the consolidation of the Empire, their poets 
 and writers remained in high favour at Court, and there 
 we^e" few Padishahs who were not enrolled as members 
 of one or more of the Orders. The long reign of Bayazid 
 II. (1481-1512) also bears traces of the influence of mystic 
 philosophy on the Court. The most renowned Dervish 
 of that time, the Sheikh Jasi, had, when about to start 
 on a pilgrimage to Mekka, foretold to Bayazid, then 
 governor of Amasia, that on his return from the Holy 
 City he would find that prince on the throne : and it 
 fell out even as he had predicted. This eminent man 
 received the titles of " Sheikh of Sultans " and " Sultan 
 of Sheikhs," and his cell was the meeting-place of all 
 the dignitaries of the Empire. The Turkish writers 
 Seadeddin and Ali narrate the biographies of thirty 
 
188 MYSTICISM AND FREETHOUGHT 
 
 eminent Sheikhs who flourished in the reign of this 
 Sultan, called by many Ottoman historians " Bayazid the 
 Sufi." The influence of the Dervish society by which 
 this Sultan surrounded himself may also be seen in his 
 poetry, which breathes a spirit of mysticism markedly 
 absent from the writings of his talented but unhappy 
 brother, Prince Djem, and his son, Selim I. 
 
 Although the Dervish Orders of Turkey have always 
 outwardly professed adherence to the orthodox Sunni 
 sect, many points in their doctrines would seem to lend 
 colour to the accusation of being heterodox Shias^ so 
 frequently brought against them by their secular opponents 
 the Ulema. The Skias, as is well known, trace the Khali- 
 fate, or succession to the authority of the Prophet, through 
 Ali, his nephew and son-in-law, while the Sunnis maintain 
 its descent through the Ommiade Khalifs to the successive 
 representatives of the Ottoman Dynasty. But notwith- 
 standing the persistent hostility of the Orthodox, it does 
 not appear that, previous to the sixteenth century, the 
 Orders were ever subjected to active persecution. For so 
 long as the substance of the doctrines held by the higher 
 grades of these mystics was kept secret, the denunciations 
 by the legists of their ascetic practices, their vows, the 
 dancing and other peculiar exercises performed in their 
 Tekkehs, their pretensions to miraculous gifts, and claims 
 to direct communion with the Deity, had but little effect. 
 But as the influence and prestige of the Dervishes in- 
 creased, many of the Orders relaxed by degrees the 
 prudence and severity of their original rules, and allowed 
 
MYSTICISM AND FREETHOUGHT 189 
 
 much of their doctrine to become publicly known. Their 
 enemies were now enabled to make definite and serious 
 charges against them. They were accused of attempting 
 to make innovations in the dogmas of Islam ; of following 
 practices forbidden by the Koran; of denying the very 
 existence of a personal God ; of teaching disrespect for all 
 established institutions ; and of setting at nought all laws, 
 both human and Divine. Their religious exercises were 
 denounced as profane acts ; and it was asserted that all 
 kinds of abominable practices were indulged in by them 
 in the seclusion of their monasteries. The general 
 tendency of the Dervish institutions appeared to the 
 Ulema to threaten also the introduction into Islam of 
 something analogous to the "Holy Priesthood" and 
 "Apostolic Succession" of the Romish Church ideas 
 utterly at variance with the spirit of the Koran. An 
 alleged discovery that gave a still greater shock to the 
 Orthodox mind was that the Dervishes concluded some 
 of their prayers by anathematising the Ommiade Khalifs, 
 and glorifying the Khalif Ali ; and, consequently, that, 
 though nominally Sunnis, they virtually belonged to the 
 heterodox sect of the Shias. 
 
 There seems, however, little reason to doubt that 
 whenever overt hostility has been manifested against the 
 Dervish Orders by the Sultan and his ministers, it has 
 invariably been prompted by political, rather than religious 
 motives. For notwithstanding the odium cast upon these 
 Mystics by the Legists, no active measures, as above 
 remarked, appear to have been taken against them by the 
 
190 MYSTICISM AND FREETHOUGHT 
 
 Government until the beginning of the sixteenth century, 
 when political events caused them to be looked upon as 
 a possible source of danger to the State. A new dynasty 
 had been founded in Persia at this period on the basis of 
 religion. The Sufi Philosophy had always been popular 
 in that country ; and Persia was at the same time the 
 stronghold of the Shia heresy and of the Dervish frater- 
 nities. A Dervish Sheikh, named Eidar, who traced his 
 descent from the Khalif Ali, having gained a great reputa- 
 tion for sanctity, and a numerous following of disciples 
 and adherents, assumed the title of Sufi par excellence^ and 
 declared himself to have been commissioned by Allah to 
 work a religious reformation. Sheikh Eidar perished in 
 the attempt ; but his young son Ismail was protected by 
 his faithful disciples, who took refuge with him in Ghilan, 
 and carefully trained him in his father's principles. In 
 1501, at the head of a numerous body of partisans, Ismail 
 revived the claims of Sheikh Eidar, and gradually over- 
 coming all opposition, he at length became the Founder 
 of the Sufi Dynasty, and the ruler of an extensive Empire. 
 His doctrines gained also many adherents in the Asiatic 
 provinces of the Ottoman Empire, where Selim I. took 
 early and vigorous measures to suppress this new heretical 
 sect. For, as Church and State are, in Islam, identical, 
 a blow aimed at the one menaces equally the other ; 
 and the great schism of the Sunnis and Shias is not a 
 mere diversity of opinion purely religious and theoretic, 
 but also a practical political dispute concerning the suc- 
 cession to the Khalifate, the headship of the Moslem 
 
MYSTICISM AND FREETHOUGHT 191 
 
 Church. Sultan Selim, whose inquisitorial talents are 
 celebrated by Ottoman historians, organised a system of 
 secret police, by means of which he caused to be made 
 out a list of all his subjects belonging to this sect. Their 
 number amounted to 70,000, 40,000 of whom were 
 massacred, the rest being imprisoned or exiled. In 
 Damascus a few hours sufficed for the extermination of 
 the whole community of schismatic Mohammedans. The 
 Persian monarch shortly afterwards declared war against 
 the destroyer of his co-religionists, and a sanguinary 
 campaign ensued. The Ottoman Dervishes in European 
 Turkey, whose Shia tendencies were more than suspected, 
 were, very naturally, also looked upon with disfavour 
 during the course of these events, the Ulema making the 
 best of this favourable opportunity by exciting the minds 
 as well of the populace as of the authorities against their 
 rivals. 
 
 A new Order, created about the beginning of the 
 sixteenth century by a certain Sheikh Hamza, and called 
 after him the Hamzavi, appears to have been from its 
 very foundation held in bad repute, and Sheikh Hamza 
 was arrested and subsequently executed under zfetva of 
 the Grand Mufti, the ostensible charge against him being 
 that he omitted to repeat at his devotions the full number 
 of the I sma-i- Sheriff or " praises of the Prophet." He was 
 naturally regarded by the rest of the Dervishes as a 
 martyr, and his reputation for piety and extraordinary 
 powers still survives in the Capital. Another Sheikh of 
 the same Order was put to death shortly afterwards on an 
 
192 MYSTICISM AND FREETHOUGHT 
 
 accusation of heterodoxy, together with forty of his 
 disciples, who, it is said, voluntarily gave themselves up to 
 the authorities. And so great was the effervescence of the 
 Orthodox under several succeeding reigns, and particularly 
 in that of Mohammed IV., that the Ulema and other 
 rigid Mohammedans even ventured to propose the exter- 
 mination of all the Orders, the confiscation of their 
 revenues, and the destruction of their monasteries. An 
 attempt was, indeed, made by the Grand Vizier of that 
 Sultan, Achmet Kiupruli, to suppress the Mevlevi, Khal- 
 vetti, Djelvetti) and Shemshi Orders. Like all former 
 and subsequent attempts, however, it succeeded but 
 partially, as the Government was overawed by the Janis- 
 series, whose intimate connexion with the Bektashi Order 
 made them the allies of the Dervishes generally ; and the 
 Porte feared to do anything that might arouse the resent- 
 ment of this formidable military force. The action of the 
 Sultan, too, seems to have been but half-hearted. For it 
 is recorded that even Selim I. whom Mouradja D'Ohsson 
 describes as "poet, parricide, and fratricide, mystic, tyrant 
 and conqueror" 1 made pilgrimages to the tombs of 
 deceased, and to the cells of living Sheikhs of repute ; and 
 that he raised at Damascus a mosque over the grave of 
 the eminent saint, Muhajjin-el-Arabi. Suleyman I. also 
 built at Konieh, in honour of Jelalu-'d-Din, the founder of 
 the Mevlevi Order, a mosque, a tekkeh, and public alms- 
 kitchen. At Sidi Ghazi he erected a great establishment 
 with a tekkeh and college for the Bektashis ; and he also 
 
 1 Histoire de V Empire Ottomane^ Part I. p. 377. 
 
MYSTICISM AND FREETHOUGHT 193 
 
 repaired the tekkeh covering the tomb of Abdul Kadr 
 Ghilani, the sainted founder of the Kadiri Order, thus 
 drawing upon himself the benedictions of three influential 
 fraternities. 
 
 After this stormy period the Orders appear to have 
 enjoyed a long interval of freedom from persecution. 
 For the Turkish author, Evliya Effendi, writing towards 
 the end of the seventeenth century, makes no mention 
 of the existence of any ill-feeling towards the Dervishes, 
 with whom he was closely connected during his long 
 and adventurous life. The massacre of the Janissaries 
 by Sultan Mahmoud, "The Reformer," in the beginning 
 of last century, was, however, followed by the persecution 
 of the Bektashi Dervishes, who were accused of having 
 been concerned in the revolts that followed the suppres- 
 sion of this military branch of the Order, and consequently 
 of high treason against the State ; and the Grand Mufti 
 and the chief Legists agreed with the Sultan that a severe 
 sentence should be passed upon this Brotherhood. Its 
 three principal Sheikhs were consequently publicly exe- 
 cuted ; the Order was declared abolished ; many of its 
 tekkehs were destroyed ; and its members generally were 
 banished from the capital, those who remained being 
 compelled to abandon their distinctive dress. 1 
 
 This determined action on the part of the Government 
 spread consternation among the Dervish Orders through- 
 out the Empire. Their members feared for the moment 
 that they, like the Bektashis, were all doomed to destruction 
 
 1 Ubicini, Lettres sur la Turquie, vol. i. p. 107. 
 O 
 
194 MYSTICISM AND FREETHOUGHT 
 
 or dispersion ; and, to quote a contemporary chronicler, 
 "They remained motionless, expecting their last day, 
 devoured by anguish, and with their backs resting 
 against the wall of stupefaction." But here Sultan 
 Mahmoud paused in his work of destruction. " Though " 
 as recorded by the historian of the massacre of 
 the Janissaries "he had not feared to open with the 
 sword a road for public happiness by cutting down the 
 thorny bushes that obstructed his progress and tore his 
 Imperial mantle," he hesitated to decree the entire de- 
 struction of institutions which had enjoyed the respect 
 and devotion of his predecessors and of Moslems generally 
 for upwards of a thousand years. This "hesitation," is, 
 however, not so surprising when we learn the fact, of 
 which Ubicini appears to have been ignorant, that Sultan 
 Mahmoud was himself an affiliated member of the Mevlevi 
 fraternity of Pera, and frequently visited it ; and that he 
 also honoured with his presence the meetings of a Nakshi- 
 bendi fraternity established in the suburb of Foundoukli. 
 
 The Dervishes, however, on finding that the blow 
 dealt at the Bektashis was not followed by the suppres- 
 sion or even persecution of the other Orders, soon re- 
 covered from their consternation ; and the more fanatical 
 among them set on foot a secret agitation with the object 
 of inciting the populace against a Sultan who had dared 
 to raise his hand against the "chosen of Allah." In 1837 
 Mahmoud narrowly escaped falling a victim to the frenzied 
 zeal of one of these ascetics. As he was crossing the 
 Bridge of Galata, surrounded by his escort, a long-haired 
 
MYSTICISM AND FREETHOUGHT 195 
 
 cenobite, commonly known in the Capital as " The Hairy 
 Sheikh" (Sheikh Satchlti), darted from among the by- 
 standers, and seizing the bridle of the Sultan's horse, 
 exclaimed, " Giaour Padishah (Infidel Sultan) ! Art 
 thou not yet satiated with abominations? Thou shalt 
 answer to Allah for thy impieties. Thou destroy est the 
 institutions of thy Brethren ; thou ruinest Islam ; and 
 drawest down the wrath of Allah on thyself and on the 
 Nation ! " The Sultan, fearing that popular feeling might 
 be roused against himself by the ascetic's denunciations, 
 commanded his guards to remove the madman from 
 his path. " Madman ! " echoed the infuriated Dervish. 
 "Sayest thou that I am mad? The spirit of Allah, 
 which inspires me, and which I must obey, has com- 
 manded me to declare His truth, and promised me the 
 reward of the Faithful ! " The fanatic was, however, 
 seized and put to death without delay. His body was 
 given up to his brethren, who buried it with the honours 
 due to a martyr ; and on the following day a report was 
 circulated that the watchers had seen a Nur 9 or super- 
 natural light, hovering over the grave of the Sheikh a 
 convincing proof of the favour with which Allah had 
 regarded his action. It needed, however, a bold reformer 
 to put a noisy fanatic to death, and the majority of 
 Sultans and statesmen have contented themselves with 
 exiling to some remote part of the Empire a Dervish 
 whose influence on the populace they had cause to fear. 
 
 Whenever, on the other hand, public hostility has 
 been excited against the Dervish Orders it has had its 
 
196 MYSTICISM AND FREETHOUGHT 
 
 foundation in the horror with which the orthodox Sunni 
 Mohammedans regard the Shut heresy, and this hostility 
 seems never to have been very general, nor of long con- 
 tinuance. Those whose religious principles and devotion 
 to the purity of the creed of Islam has incited them to 
 combat the growing power of the Dervishes have invari- 
 ably been, in their turn, combated by other principles 
 drawn from the same source. For the majority of the 
 Turkish nation has always regarded the Dervishes, their 
 Sheikhs, and, above all, the Founders of the Orders, as 
 the beloved Sons of Heaven, and in intimate relations 
 with spiritual powers. These opinions have for basis the 
 tradition that the different Orders originated, as above 
 mentioned, in the two congregations of Abu Bekr and 
 Ali, and that the grace which these had received from 
 the Prophet, both as his relatives and Vicars, has been 
 miraculously transmitted through the series of Sheikhs 
 who, from age to age, have governed the monastic 
 societies. It is also popularly believed that the legion 
 of saints constituting the Mohammedan spiritual hier- 
 archy, alluded to in a previous chapter as perpetually 
 existing among mankind, is to be found among the 
 members of the Dervish fraternities. Consequently, to 
 condemn, persecute, and destroy them, as was the unani- 
 mous cry of the Legists, would have been to call down 
 upon the whole nation the wrath of all the holy saints 
 who have ever lived. 
 
 Even the less enthusiastic did not dare openly to 
 declare themselves hostile to the Dervishes. Moslems 
 
MYSTICISM AND FREETHOUGHT 197 
 
 generally respect what is beyond their comprehension ; 
 and they hold this mixture of religious practices and 
 profane exercises to be a mystery which True Believers 
 should treat with silent unquestioning reverence. The 
 superstitious ideas which these ascetics have the talent 
 of perpetuating in their nation have always served as their 
 shield. So persistent, too, is this influence of, and venera- 
 tion for, the spiritual character of the more eminent among 
 the Sheikhs, that even those Osmanlis whose education 
 and intercourse with Europeans might be supposed to 
 have freed them from national superstitions are often 
 found to be still under the influence of the ideas inculcated 
 in early youth. 
 
 From the earliest times to the present, the most general 
 and, at the same time, most harmless weapon used against 
 the Dervishes has been that of ridicule. Turkish and 
 Persian literature teems with satires in proverb and story 
 on their peculiarities of dress and practice. Even the 
 mystic Sadi does not spare them in his epigrams, though 
 his satires are chiefly directed against those who are 
 Dervishes in outward appearance only, and not in heart. 
 For instance, he writes 
 
 " Of what avail is frock, or rosary, 
 Or clouted garment ? Keep thyself but free 
 From evil deeds, it will not need for thee 
 To wear the cap of felt, a Dervish be 
 In heart, and wear the cap of Tartary." 
 
 A humorous story is current in the Capital of a Dervish 
 who, when on his pilgrimage to the holy cities, had the 
 misfortune to lose by death his ass, a gift from his Sheikh, 
 
198 MYSTICISM AND FREETHOUGHT 
 
 the guardian of a shrine. He buried the animal by the 
 roadside, and giving out that a deceased companion was 
 the occupant of the recently made grave, soon obtained 
 from the charitable passers-by sufficient funds to erect a 
 turbeh over it, of which he constituted himself the guardian. 
 Years passed. The tnrbeh became a famous place of 
 pilgrimage ; miracles were performed at it, and the fame 
 of the rival shrine reached the ears of the old Sheikh, who 
 had heard no news of his disciple since his departure, and 
 lamented him as dead. One day, accordingly, he locked 
 up his turbeh in order to pay a visit to his brother Sheikh. 
 He was hospitably received, and recognised the rival 
 turbedji as his former disciple. When evening came, and 
 the last of the pilgrims visiting the shrine had departed, 
 the old Sheikh asked with much curiosity who was the 
 saint buried below, as he knew of none formerly residing 
 in that part of the country. After some hesitation, Sheikh 
 Ali confessed that his dead ass was the only occupant of 
 the tomb. As his Superior did not seem much disturbed 
 by the announcement, the younger Dervish ventured to 
 inquire who the saint might have been who was buried 
 under his master's turbeh; and learnt at length that it 
 was no other than the parent of his own sainted donkey. 
 
 The most wildly fanatical of these ascetics are found 
 among the wandering Dervishes, who, by their prophecies 
 and adjurations, often excite the Moslem population 
 against their Christian neighbours. Shortly before the 
 outbreak of the troubles in Bulgaria in 1876, one of these 
 zealots completely terrorised the Christian inhabitants of 
 
MYSTICISM AND FREETHOUGHT 199 
 
 Adrianople. He knocked at one door after another in 
 the Christian quarter, forced his way in when they were 
 opened, and declared to the startled inmates that Allah 
 had revealed to him His desire that the infidels of the 
 town should be destroyed within three days after Easter. 
 He finally reached the house of the Bishop, to whom he 
 repeated his menacing prophecy. The reverend gentle- 
 man, apprehensive of the possible consequences to his 
 flock of these "revelations," went at once to inform the 
 Governor-General of the incident. The Dervish was sent 
 for, asked if he had said what was reported of him, and 
 what he meant by it. The wily ascetic merely shrugged 
 his shoulders innocently, and replied that, as he was in 
 his hal t or state of ecstasy, when he made the declaration, 
 he was not responsible for anything he might have uttered. 
 The Governor-General deemed it prudent to send him out 
 of the town under escort, with orders for his conveyance 
 to Broussa. The Dervish, however, managed to elude the 
 vigilance of his guards perhaps with their connivance 
 and continued his fanatical mission in other parts of the 
 province. 
 
 The monastic establishments of the Dervish Orders, 
 called by the various names of tekkehs, khanakahs, and 
 zanriyehS) but more commonly by the first, and the 
 tiirbehS) or shrines of their Saints, are at the present day 
 as numerous in European as in Asiatic Turkey. In Con- 
 stantinople and its environs, many of the Orders possess 
 several establishments ; and every town contains the 
 monastery and shrine of one or more of their communities. 
 
200 MYSTICISM AND FREETHOUGHT 
 
 The tekkehs occupy, for the most part, picturesque and 
 commanding situations, sometimes in the middle of towns 
 or cities, but more frequently in their suburbs. The build- 
 ings are grouped round the sem'a khaneh the hall in 
 which the brethren meet for their collective devotions and 
 religious exercises a square building of whitewashed 
 masonry, with a tiled and domed roof. The interior arrange- 
 ments vary according to the Order, but are always marked 
 by extreme simplicity. In the halls of the Mevlevi 
 and Rufdtthe so-called "Whirling" and "Howling" 
 Dervishes a circular space in the centre is railed off 
 from the rest of the floor, which is covered with matting 
 for the accommodation of the spectators ; and when there 
 is no gallery for the women, part of this space is partitioned 
 off for their use. The only attempts at mural decoration 
 are tablets inscribed with texts from the Koran, verses 
 from the poets, the sacred names of Allah, of the Prophet, 
 the Khalif Ali, etc. As in the regular mosques, the 
 direction of Mekka is indicated by a niche in the wall, 
 surmounted by the name of the Pir, or founder of the 
 Order, by the Moslem profession of faith previously men- 
 tioned, or the word Bismillah "In the name of God." 
 In a corner is usually a catafalque covering the tomb of 
 a departed Sheikh, covered with costly carpets and rich 
 draperies, the pious offerings of those who have there 
 sought and found healing benefit or other boon. 
 
 The courtyard surrounding the sanctuary gives access to 
 the cells of the brethren and the apartments of their Sheikh, 
 the convent kitchen and offices. The cells vary in number 
 
MYSTICISM AND FREETHOUGHT 201 
 
 according to the Order, and form a quadrangle of low 
 buildings, with a roof sloping to the front, and covering a 
 broad verandah, into which all the doors and windows open. 
 Beyond are flower and fruit gardens, shaded by cypress, 
 mulberry, and plane trees, the haunts of storks and pigeons ; 
 and, enclosed by the arched gateway and tile-topped 
 walls, are cisterns and fountains of sparkling water furnished 
 with iron ladles for the use of the thirsty. Sometimes, 
 as within the precincts of the convent outside the Vardar 
 gate of Salonica, there are also cool, shady cloisters, and 
 raised terraces and kiosks, commanding magnificent views 
 of mountain, plain, and sea. And here, when the evening 
 shadows are lengthening, the mystics, in their picturesque 
 and symbolic attire, may be seen pacing tranquilly to and 
 fro ; or, seated on the broad wooden benches, meditatively 
 passing through their fingers the brown beads of their 
 long tesbehs, or rosaries, on their faces that expression of 
 perfect repose which indifference to the world and its 
 doings alone can give. 
 
 Though all the Dervish Orders, in accordance with 
 their principle of poverty, are considered mendicant, few 
 are so in reality, for most monasteries possess vakottf, or 
 landed property bequeathed to them by pious persons. 
 The revenues from these endowments are applied chiefly to 
 the support of the monastic Dervishes, though the wants 
 of a needy lay brother may occasionally be relieved from 
 them. The monasteries vary greatly in point of wealth, 
 and the more prosperous are expected to assist others less 
 largely endowed. The Mevlevi Order is the most popular 
 
202 MYSTICISM AND FREETHOUGHT 
 
 one might even say the most fashionable of all, and 
 has, ever since its foundation, included among its members 
 men of high rank. The late Sultan Abdul Aziz was, 
 for instance, a lay brother, and occasionally, it is said, 
 took part in the religious exercises at one of the Mevlevi 
 convents in Constantinople. This Order is, consequently, 
 very prosperous, and its monasteries and shrines surpass 
 those of all other Orders. The Monastery of its General, 
 at Konieh (Iconium), in Asia Minor, possesses consider- 
 able lands bequeathed as vakouf by the old Seljukian 
 Sultans, these bequests being ratified by subsequent 
 princes. Murad IV., too, when marching against Persia 
 in 1634, bestowed many favours and distinctions upon the 
 "Sheikh of Sheikhs," as their Grand Master is termed, 
 and endowed his community as a perpetual vakouf, with 
 the proceeds of the kharateh the poll-tax imposed on 
 the non-Moslem inhabitants of the city in lieu of military 
 service. 
 
 Notwithstanding, however, these substantial endow- 
 ments, the Dervishes have never, like the Monastic Orders 
 of Christendom, departed from the original principles of 
 their Founders. Their manner of living is still as frugal 
 as was that of the original Twelve Orders, and the 
 architecture of their convents is marked by extreme 
 simplicity, both of form and material, any ornamental 
 articles they may contain being the gifts of the pious. 
 
 The brethren resident in the well-endowed tekkehs 
 are supplied with food and lodging only, their frugal 
 repasts being usually served to them in their cells and 
 
MYSTICISM AND FREETHOUGHT 203 
 
 eaten in solitude, though on certain occasions the 
 brethren dine together in the common-room. Each 
 Dervish is accordingly required to provide himself with 
 clothing and other necessaries, and to follow some trade 
 or profession. Those who are calligraphists occupy them- 
 selves in making copies of the Koran which is always 
 used by Moslems in manuscript form, and of other books 
 of a religious character. Should any of these recluses 
 be entirely without private resources, an allowance from 
 his Sheikh, or a pension from some wealthy individual, 
 will supply his modest needs. Many Moslems also reserve 
 their alms exclusively for the Dervishes, and make it their 
 duty to seek out those of high reputation for sanctity, 
 visit them frequently, and supply their wants. Others, 
 again, in the hope of drawing upon themselves, their 
 families, and their fortunes, the blessing of heaven, 
 lodge and board in their houses such among these holy 
 men as may lack the necessaries of life. Should a con- 
 vent possess surplus revenue, it is, after relieving the 
 wants of other less well-endowed communities, given 
 directly to the poor in the shape of alms, or employed in 
 the foundation of almshouses, schools, or public baths, 
 such charitable institutions often constituting the depen- 
 dencies of tekkeks as of mosques. In accordance with 
 their principle of poverty, the Dervish Orders are all, 
 nominally at least, mendicant, and dependent for their 
 daily sustenance on " what Allah may send them." Yet 
 the solicitation of alms is equally forbidden by their rule. 
 For though some members of the Bektashi Order certainly 
 
204 MYSTICISM AND FREETHOUGHT 
 
 frequent the public thoroughfares, and the doors of the 
 charitable, soliciting alms with the words, "Something 
 for : the love of Allah," the better sort deprecate mendi- 
 cancy, and support themselves by handicraft trades, and 
 also by fashioning, in imitation of their learned founder, 
 Hadji Bektash, small articles of wood and horn. They 
 also carve in greenstone, jade, and other substances, the 
 fastenings used by Dervishes generally for the belts and 
 collars of their garments, besides a variety of symbolic 
 objects used or worn on the person by members of their 
 own Order. 
 
 The holy mendicants wild-eyed, shaggy-haired, and 
 ragged, so frequently met with in the streets of Eastern 
 cities are for the most part Kalenderi the " Kalenders " 
 of the Arabian Nights and other wandering fakirs 
 belonging to none of the established Orders. The 
 rule of this Brotherhood for, not being descended from 
 either of the two original congregations, they are not, 
 strictly speaking, an Order requires its members to 
 subsist entirely upon alms, to wander perpetually, and 
 for the most part barefoot, and to practise the severest 
 asceticism. For thus alone, according to Sheikh Yussuf, 
 its Founder, is to be attained " that state of ecstasy, of 
 light, and of perfect sanctity, which is the portion of 
 every true Kalender, and which alone can render him 
 worthy of that high designation." This same title of 
 Kalender> it may be remarked, is also given to Dervishes 
 of all Orders who are distinguished among their brethren 
 for superior spirituality. It is this class of " enlightened " 
 
MYSTICISM AND FREETHOUGHT 205 
 
 beings which has produced so many dangerous fanatics 
 in every age of Mohammedanism. From it have come the 
 assassins of Sultans, Viziers, and grandees of the Empire, 
 and all the " inspired " impostors who, under the title of 
 Mahdi, have misled thousands, and desolated whole coun- 
 tries by their supposed prophecies and divine revelations. 
 
 A celibate Sheikh resides permanently in the convent, 
 but one who is married visits it only periodically, his 
 authority during his absence being vested in a deputy 
 called the Naib. Twelve being the sacred number of the 
 Bektashi Order, Twelve Initiates constitute a Bektashi 
 Congregation of Elders, under whose guidance the novices 
 pass through the preliminary stages. Certain rules were, 
 in the early history of Moslem mysticism, drawn up for 
 the admission of new members into a Brotherhood ; and 
 though subsequently elaborated by some of the Orders, 
 these original rules still form the basis of the ceremony 
 of initiation generally. A neophyte of the Mevlevi, as 
 also of the Bektashi Order, is required to perform a novi- 
 tiate of 1001 consecutive days, during which, whatever his 
 worldly rank, he performs the menial offices of the tekkeh, 
 and holds himself the subordinate of every other member 
 of the community. During this period he also attends 
 the services in the sem'a khaneh, and receives instruction 
 from one of the Elders. The formalities observed in the 
 reception of new members by the Bektashi Order are 
 perhaps the most peculiar and elaborate. On the expira- 
 tion of the probationary period, a candidate is recom- 
 mended to the Sheikh by two initiates of the Community, 
 
206 MYSTICISM AND FREETHOUGHT 
 
 who are called his " Interpreters ; " and on the evening 
 appointed for the ceremony of initiation for the services 
 of the Bektashi Order are always held by night the 
 neophyte takes with him to the convent a sheep and a 
 small sum of money. The sheep is sacrificed on the 
 threshold of the tekkeh, part of its wool is twisted into 
 a rope, the rest being preserved to be made later on into 
 a girdle for his use. If the candidate desires to take the 
 vow of celibacy, he is stripped naked ; but if he proposes, 
 as in the generality of cases, to take merely the ordinary, 
 or secular vow, his breast only is bared. With the rope 
 round his neck, he is led by his "interpreters," one of 
 whom carries a curiously shaped symbol termed the tebber, 
 into the hall of the tekkeh. The Sheikh and the twelve 
 Elders are already seated around the hall on their sheep- 
 skin mats, and before each of them stands a lighted 
 candle. In the posture of abject humility called by the 
 special term of buyun kesmek his arms folded across his 
 breast, his hands on his shoulders, his great toes crossed, 
 and his body inclined towards the Sheikh he takes his 
 place on a dodecagonal stone called the maidan tash> while 
 one of the " interpreters " announces to the Sheikh that 
 he has brought to him a slave, and begs that he may be 
 accepted. Various collects and litanies are recited by the 
 Sheikh and the postulant in turn, at the conclusion of 
 which the following exhortation is addressed to the latter : 
 " Eat nothing forbidden ; speak no falsehood ; quarrel 
 with none ; be kind to your inferiors ; overlook the faults 
 of others, and conceal them. If you cannot do this with 
 
MYSTICISM AND FREETHOUGHT 207 
 
 your hand, do it with your skirts, your tongue, and your 
 heart." 
 
 The novice then kisses the hand of the Sheikh, who 
 continues 
 
 "If thou now accept me as thy father, I accept thee 
 as my son. Be hereafter the pledge of Allah breathed in 
 thy right ear." He then repeats after his Sheikh the 
 words, " Mohammed is my leader, and Ali is my guide." 
 The Sheikh asks, " Dost thou accept me as thy guide 
 (meaning as the representative of Ali) ? " to which he 
 responds, " I accept thee as my guide ; " and the Sheikh 
 adds, "Then I accept thee as my son." The postulant 
 now approaches the Sheikh, before whom he first bows 
 low and then prostrates himself, touching the floor with 
 his forehead. Kneeling opposite to him so closely that 
 their knees touch, the Sheikh takes the postulant's right 
 hand in his, and the thumbs of both are raised to repre- 
 sent the Arabic letter A /if. The latter places his ear to 
 the mouth of the Sheikh, who imparts to him in a whisper 
 the Ikranameh, or secret vows of the Order. 
 
 The disciple does not, however, even after this formal 
 reception into it, become at once a full member of the 
 Order. This grade is only reached after, it may be, years 
 of further probation, and its attainment depends upon the 
 proofs he is able to give of his progress in spirituality. 
 His final admission to full brotherhood is usually deter- 
 mined by a revelation from the Pir> or from Ali, received 
 simultaneously by himself and his Sheikh. While passing 
 through these intermediate stages, the aspirant is under 
 
208 MYSTICISM AND FREETHOUGHT 
 
 the guidance of the Sheikh, or of an initiate who has 
 himself reached the highest degree. During the first 
 stage, which is termed Sheriat, or " The Law," the disciple 
 observes all the usual rites of Moslem worship, obeys all 
 the commands and precepts of the Koran like any other 
 True Believer, and is treated by the Brethren of the Com- 
 munity as an uninitiated outsider. He is taught at the 
 same time to concentrate his thoughts so completely on 
 his " guide," as to become eventually absorbed in him as 
 a spiritual link with the supreme object of all devotion. 
 This "guide" must be the neophyte's shield against all 
 worldly thoughts and desires ; his spirit must aid him 
 in all his efforts, accompany him wherever he may be, 
 and be ever present to his mental vision. Such a frame 
 of mind is termed "annihilation into the Murshid" and 
 the guide discovers, by means of his own visions, the 
 degree of spirituality to which his disciple has attained, 
 and to what extent his soul has become absorbed into 
 his own. 
 
 The Murld now enters upon what, in Dervish phrase- 
 ology? is called "The Path." During this period, which 
 forms in reality the transition from outward to hidden 
 things, the disciple is familiarised with the philosophical 
 and poetical writings of the great Sufi doctors, which 
 form the chief subject of the lectures and studies of the 
 Order. He is taught to substitute spiritual for ritual 
 worship, and led by degrees to abandon the dogmas and 
 formulas of Islam as necessary only for the unenlightened 
 masses. This method is, however, pursued with great 
 
MYSTICISM AND FREETHOUGHT 209 
 
 tact and caution ; for a disciple is not released from the 
 usual observances of religion until he has given proofs of 
 sincere piety, virtue, and exceptional spirituality. This 
 period is consequently one of extreme asceticism ; and a 
 Dervish at this stage of his training passes most of his 
 time in solitary contemplation, endeavouring to detach 
 his mind from all visible objects in order to attain the 
 desired union with the Deity, his guide meanwhile im- 
 parting to him his own mystical philosophy as he finds 
 him capable of receiving it. If the disciple's religious 
 feelings appear to be shocked by any maxim to which 
 he has given utterance, a Jesuitical expedient known as 
 the ketman supplies him with a double sense which 
 enables him at once to convince his disciple of the ground- 
 lessness of his objections. If, on the contrary, a "guide" 
 finds his disciple's theological digestion robust, his advance 
 on " The Path " will be correspondingly rapid. He is now 
 supposed to come under the spiritual influence of the Pir> 
 or Founder of the Order, in whom he in turn becomes 
 spiritually absorbed to such a degree as to be virtually one 
 with him, acquiring his attributes and power of performing 
 supernatural acts. Not every Dervish, however, attains 
 even this degree of spirituality ; and the highest, in which 
 the mystic believes himself to have become absorbed in 
 the Deity, is reached only by the favoured few. It is 
 during the forty days' fast performed in the solitude of 
 his cell at this period of his training that the disciple has 
 the visions which, interpreted by his guide, announce the 
 distance he has travelled on " The Path." The Pilgrimage 
 
210 MYSTICISM AND FREETHOUGHT 
 
 is forthwith undertaken, in which it is incumbent on him 
 to visit not only the Holy Cities of Islam, but also, at 
 Bagdad and Damascus, the Shrines of the most renowned 
 Dervish Saints. 
 
 The attainment of a high degree of sanctity being thus 
 the aim of every true Dervish, he seeks, in order to attain 
 this, to lead a life of sinless retirement from the world, 
 and spends his days and nights in prayer and meditation. 
 Fully impressed with the possibility of ultimately attain- 
 ing intimate divine communion, the ardent aspirant looks 
 upon every mundane interest as unworthy of considera- 
 tion ; his mind becomes more and more completely- 
 absorbed in mystic contemplation; and as the result of 
 his constant invocation of the name of the Deity, he hears, 
 even when in the midst of a noisy crowd, no other sound 
 but Allah! Allah! unless, indeed, it be some divine 
 command addressed to him in return. The more desti- 
 tute a Dervish is of worldly goods, the fewer are his ties 
 to earth ; the more emaciated his body with privation and 
 fasting, the greater his advance in spirituality ; the ills of 
 existence affect him not, and death has for him no terrors. 
 His solitude is cheered by the presence of angelic visitors, 
 who impart to him wondrous things hidden from the ken 
 of ordinary mortals ; or they are the bearers of direct 
 messages from the Deity, who thus makes known to His 
 servants His holy will concerning men. And when com- 
 manded to do so, the Dervish fearlessly denounces, in the 
 Name of Allah, the great ones of the earth who, by their 
 misdeeds, have incurred the divine displeasure. 
 
PART III 
 DOMESTIC LIFE 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 THE HAREM SYSTEM 
 
 THE Social, rather than Religious, Law which lies at 
 the root of the Harem system enjoins that no free 
 woman or girl over twelve years of age must 
 appear unveiled before a man outside the prohibited 
 degrees of relationship. As among the Osmanlis first 
 cousins may marry, the circle of male relatives possessing 
 the privilege of access to a harem is thus strictly limited 
 to fathers and grandfathers, brothers and uncles of its 
 female inmates. Inseparable, therefore, from the harem 
 system is the institution of domestic slavery, for to slave 
 women, who are the absolute property of their owners, 
 the above restrictions do not apply. The demand for 
 slaves for the service of Turkish households is practically 
 perennial, seeing that, instead of forming a permanent 
 class or caste in the country, the vast majority of those 
 who have entered it as bondmen and women obtain, in 
 a few years, their freedom. Slavery, however, as now 
 
 211 
 
THE HAREM SYSTEM 
 
 practised in Turkey, is in direct contravention of the law 
 of Islam, which only recognises as legitimate property 
 non-Moslems who have fallen as spoils of war into the 
 power of the True Believers. For the vast majority of the 
 slaves brought to Turkey at the present day are drawn 
 from the Circassian race, who profess the creed of Islam, 
 and their purchase and sale are, consequently, illegal 
 acts which the Sheikh-ul-Islam himself would have some 
 difficulty in justifying. Purchasers, however, get over 
 this difficulty by asking no questions as to the pro- 
 venance of the girls and children offered for sale by the 
 dealers, and absolve their conscience with the convenient 
 formula, "Theirs be the sin." The slave-market in 
 Constantinople has, in deference to European opinion, 
 long ago been closed ; but the demand for slave women 
 being undiminished, the only consequence of the enact- 
 ment against slavery has been enormously to increase 
 the horrors of the traffic in its initial stage. For the 
 Circassian women and girls who, purchased from their 
 kindred, are not generally unwilling emigrants instead 
 of travelling to their destination as formerly with but 
 little discomfort, are now usually conveyed across the 
 stormy Black Sea in the depth of winter when the Rus- 
 sian cruisers are withdrawn, and many of the wretched 
 little vessels in which they are embarked are never 
 heard of again. The result of Europe's humanitarian 
 endeavours to " suppress the slave-trade " is consequently 
 not only to increase to a horrible degree the sufferings 
 of those it is desired to benefit, but also to subject a still 
 
THE HAREM SYSTEM 213 
 
 greater number to such sufferings, as, in order to allow 
 for losses by the way, the number originally recruited is 
 largely in excess of the demands of the market 
 
 Once safely landed, the slaves are dispersed to the 
 houses of the various dealers to whom they have been 
 consigned ; and when recovered from the effects of the 
 journey, they are disposed of either to the Imperial 
 Palace or to private persons. As the Sultan's household 
 is said to contain even in its present reduced state, over 
 a thousand persons, all of slave origin, a certain pro- 
 portion of these immigrants are destined to keep up the 
 number of these Palace inmates. Negresses and others 
 who excel rather in strength of muscle than in beauty of 
 form and feature are purchased for the menial labour of 
 a household, those more highly gifted by nature being 
 reserved for higher duties. Since the abolition of the 
 slave-market, private trade in slaves has become much 
 more general and widespread than formerly, this traffic 
 being often carried on by ladies of high rank, some of 
 whom are themselves emancipated slaves. On being 
 informed of the arrival in the capital of a fresh batch of 
 girls, these ladies either drive to the slave- dealer's 
 establishment, or have the human chattels brought to 
 their konaks for inspection. Children of from six to ten 
 years of age are most sought after by these amateurs, who 
 pay considerable sums for them in the expectation of 
 realising a large profit when the girls are grown up. 
 The selection made, and the bargaining concluded, the girl 
 is taken to her new home and placed under the care of a 
 
214 THE HAREM SYSTEM 
 
 kalfa, or head servant, who carefully trains her for the 
 position she will probably be called upon to occupy. 
 Should she be endowed with personal charms, this may 
 be that of odalisk, or even wife, of some grandee, or she 
 may be presented to the Sultan by her mistress, or sold 
 for that purpose to some other person anxious to acquire 
 Palace influence. Many of these amateur slave-dealers 
 are the wives of Ministers and other State or Palace 
 functionaries, who vie with each other in having the most 
 beautiful and expensively dressed girls in their harems. 
 For a lady with slaves to dispose of naturally dresses 
 them well and otherwise makes the most of their personal 
 charms in order to attract customers. When the mistress 
 and her daughters go out walking, driving, or shopping, 
 calling, picnicking, or to the public baths, a number of 
 slaves invariably share the treat. And it is no doubt 
 greatly owing to this custom of including some of the 
 slaves of the household in every pleasure party, or out- 
 door excursion, that misconceptions have arisen in the 
 minds of foreigners as to the general practice of polygamy. 
 A carriage or carriages filled with smartly dressed Turkish 
 hanums or what appear to the inexperienced eye as such 
 are by the tourist put down as the wives or odalisks of 
 one Pasha, while, as a matter of fact, they are his wife's 
 private property, over whom, consequently, he has no 
 rights whatever. I remember, indeed, in the early days 
 of my residence in Turkey, being myself considerably 
 puzzled as to the status of the half-dozen or so richly 
 dressed young women who arrived with a Pasha's lady to 
 
THE HAREM SYSTEM 215 
 
 pay an afternoon call or rather a three hours' visitation 
 and who, on arriving, divested themselves, according to 
 custom, of their outdoor cloaks and veils. 
 
 Domestic slavery, accordingly, as practised in Moslem 
 Turkey, it need hardly be said, differs widely from the 
 same institution as it existed until recently in Christian 
 America. In Islam, slaves are protected by many humane 
 laws ; they are, on the whole, treated quite paternally ; 
 and not being looked down upon as a class apart, are 
 speedily absorbed into the free and native population. 
 Food of an inferior quality is not deemed by Moslems 
 " good enough for servants ; " but, according to the com- 
 mand of the Prophet, a slave fares as well as her owners. 
 Whatever her faults and shortcomings, she may not be 
 sent adrift into the wide world, her owner being respon- 
 sible for her maintenance. At the end of seven years' 
 servitude she can claim her liberty, and generally obtains 
 with it a trousseau and a husband. Occasionally, of 
 course, a slave may fall into bad hands, and be resold 
 before the expiry of the seven years, in order that her 
 owner may not lose the purchase-money ; or may become 
 the property of persons of violent temper and cruel 
 character, who take advantage of her helpless position 
 and ill treat her. 
 
 Female slaves have, however, on the whole, little to 
 complain of. The good fortune of those gifted with per- 
 sonal attractions is assured from the outset, as many 
 Turks prefer, for various reasons, to marry women who 
 have been brought up as slaves. For marriage with a 
 
216 THE HAREM SYSTEM 
 
 free woman as will be seen in a subsequent chapter is 
 an expensive matter for a young bridegroom and his 
 parents, owing to the lavish outlay in presents and enter- 
 tainments obligatory on such occasions. Consequently, if 
 a father cannot afford to marry his son to a maiden of his 
 own social standing, he purchases for him a slave girl who 
 has been brought up in some great lady's harem, and no 
 expense is incurred beyond the purchase-money. A slave, 
 having no position of her own, is likely to be submissive 
 and obedient to, and anxious to please her lord and 
 master ; she has no troublesome pretensions or caprices, 
 and no interfering relatives to take her part against him 
 should any disagreement arise. A free woman, on the 
 other hand, is by no means always disposed to have, 
 according to her own expression, " neither mouth nor 
 tongue," but is fully aware of her rights, and capable of 
 asserting them ; and the moral support afforded by her 
 family gives her an assurance which her husband often 
 finds extremely inconvenient. Should a slave bear a child 
 to her master, she cannot be resold, but has the right to 
 bring up under its father's roof her offspring, which is con- 
 sidered legitimate, and may inherit the family property in 
 equal shares with the children of a free wife, should there 
 be any. The distinctive provisions of the Moslem Social 
 and Marriage Laws, indeed, ensure that there shall be no 
 relations whatever between men and women whether 
 free women or slave women in which the latter, from the 
 very fact of such relations, shall not have enforceable legal 
 rights for herself and her children. In all probability her 
 
THE HAREM SYSTEM 217 
 
 owner will, in course of time, set her free and marry his 
 child's mother, in which case she assumes the social 
 status, and is invested with all the rights and privileges 
 of a free-born Osmanli matron. 
 
 Nor are these rights and privileges inconsiderable, but 
 compare favourably with those enjoyed by women gene- 
 rally in Christian Europe. As a daughter, an Osmanli 
 woman is entitled, on the decease of her father, to inherit 
 his property in common with her brothers in a proportion 
 determined by law according to the number of his chil- 
 dren. As a wife, she retains the uncontrolled possession 
 both of the wealth which may have been hers before 
 marriage and of that which may subsequently accrue to 
 her. She can inherit property without the intervention 
 of trustees, and dispose of it as she pleases during her 
 lifetime or by Will. No doctrine of "coverture" exists 
 for her ; she can sue or be sued independently of her 
 husband ; sue or be sued by him ; and plead her own 
 cause personally in the Courts of Justice. But, whether a 
 Turkish wife be or be not an heiress, her husband is 
 equally bound to support her and her slaves according 
 to her rank and his means, and also, to quote from the 
 Hedaya} " to provide a separate apartment for his wife's 
 habitation, to be solely and exclusively appropriated by 
 her, because this is essentially necessary to her, and is 
 therefore her due, the same as her maintenance." 
 
 As to the much-discussed question of the custody of 
 children, this was settled for Moslems at the outset by 
 
 1 The Hedaya, or " Guide," is a Commentary on Moslem Law. 
 
218 THE HAREM SYSTEM 
 
 Mohammed, who decreed that a son must remain with 
 his mother so long as her care is necessary to his well- 
 being, and a daughter until she arrives at puberty. And 
 in the case of a child born after the separation of its 
 parents, should the mother nurse it, the father is required 
 to pay her for so doing, and also, if wealthy, " to expend 
 proportionately for the maintenance of the mother and 
 nurse out of his plenty." On the death of a mother the 
 right of custody reverts to her female relatives, the child's 
 maternal grandmother having a prior right, and after her, 
 failing a sister of suitable age, its aunts. 
 
 A husband might appear, at first sight, to possess great 
 privileges in the matter of divorce, for he has merely to say 
 to his wife in a moment of anger, " Cover thy face, thy 
 nekyah is in thine hand ! " and the separation is legally 
 effected. Women are, however, on the other hand, safe- 
 guarded against a too arbitrary exercise of this prerogative 
 by certain wise regulations which to a great extent modify, 
 in practice, such facilities. In the first place, there is the 
 religious restriction " The curse of Allah," said the Pro- 
 phet, "rests on him who, without just cause, repudiates his 
 wife ; " in the second, the social restriction for parents 
 would hesitate to give their daughters to a man who had 
 thus acted ; and thirdly, a serious obstacle to a hasty 
 divorce is offered by the nekyah the settlement upon the 
 wife of a considerable sum of money, varying naturally 
 according to social position, payable to her in the event 
 of such dismissal from her husband's roof. So essential, 
 indeed, to a Moslem marriage is such a dower considered, 
 
THE HAREM SYSTEM 219 
 
 that even were mention of it omitted from a marriage 
 contract, the law would presume it by virtue of the con- 
 tract itself. Being a civil act, consisting of a proposal on 
 one side and an acceptance on the other, and rendered 
 legal by the presence of two witnesses, a Moslem marriage 
 can also be dissolved by the contracting parties by three 
 several methods of procedure. If a couple, for instance, 
 are not on good terms, and all the attempts at reconcilia- 
 tion made by their friends prove fruitless, a divorce by 
 mutual consent is pronounced, and the woman returns to 
 her father's house, taking with her, besides the nekyak, 
 everything she brought with her, or has become possessed 
 of since her marriage. If a man divorce his wife without 
 her consent, she leaves his house equally well provided. 
 And a hamtm can, on her side, obtain release from a dis- 
 tasteful union, with payment of the nekyah, for various 
 reasons, among which are the husband's desertion, cruelty, 
 or neglect to maintain her in the degree of comfort to 
 which she is by law and custom entitled. If, however, a 
 wife, without such adequate reason, and contrary to the 
 desire of her husband, quit his roof and demand a divorce, 
 she very properly obtains it only by forfeiting the nekyah. 
 Divorce being thus a simple process for a husband 
 with money at his command for payment of the nekyah, 
 a conjugal quarrel may easily end in a pronouncement 
 of divorce, when the lady will immediately leave the 
 abode of her irate spouse. Reflection, however, and the 
 intervention of relatives and friends, may lead him to 
 regret his hasty action, and a second marriage will follow 
 
220 THE HAREM SYSTEM 
 
 the reconciliation of the parties. But this privilege has 
 also its limitations. For after a third divorce, the parties 
 may not again contract marriage, unless the lady has 
 in the mean time entered into a formal legal union with 
 another man. And great is the consternation and gossip 
 in the harems of the neighbourhood, when it is reported 
 that quick-tempered Achmet Bey has pronounced "the 
 threefold divorce," and his pretty but provoking wife 
 has returned for the third time to the paternal roof. 
 This difficulty may be, and usually is, got over by 
 marriage with, and subsequent speedy divorce from, 
 some elderly and impecunious individual, who receives 
 a fee for his good offices in the matter. There is always, 
 however, a certain amount of risk in such a procedure, 
 as the husband pro tern, cannot be forced to liberate the 
 lady should he be minded to retain her as his wife. 
 Indeed, I once heard of a case in which, the hanum being 
 a woman of independent means, the temporary make- 
 believe husband chose to be a husband in permanence, 
 and no power on earth could release the unhappy woman 
 from her intolerable position. The fact, however, that 
 
 the words, "May I divorce my wife if " constitute 
 
 to Moslems the most solemn and binding of oaths, is 
 sufficient evidence of how repugnant to them is the use, 
 and still more the abuse, of their privileges in this 
 respect. 
 
 Notwithstanding the fact that the law of Islam 
 allows a man to marry as many as four wives, and to 
 be the owner of an unlimited number of slave women, 
 
THE HAREM SYSTEM 
 
 an Osmanli household is by no means composed as is 
 popularly supposed in the West of a large number of 
 women, all of whom stand in wifely relations to their 
 lord and master. Indeed, as a matter of fact, at the 
 present day among Turks of the industrial classes one 
 wife is the rule, and among those of the upper classes 
 more than one wife is the exception.\ And thus it has, 
 apparently, always more or less been among Moslems 
 generally. For the Khalif Ali, the nephew and son-in- 
 law of the Prophet, married a second wife only after 
 the death of his beloved Fatima ; and if we search the 
 biographies of the eminent philosophers, theologians, 
 historians, and poets, who flourished in the palmy days 
 of the Ottoman Empire, we shall find that very few 
 of them took advantage of their privileges in this respect. 
 For in addition to the numerous other considerations 
 which render a plurality of wives undesirable, there is 
 the very serious obstacle of expense. A second wife 
 means an extra apartment, or suite of apartments, an 
 extra slave, or train of slaves, according to her rank in 
 life for each hamtm must have her own special 
 attendants and an extra allowance of pin money, as 
 a Turkish bride rarely brings a dowry to her husband. 
 There is, besides, no great superabundance of women 
 in the country, notwithstanding the continual influx of 
 slaves, and every mother of a marriageable girl naturally 
 prefers to see her daughter become a Bask Kadin, or chief 
 wife, as she thus would take rank before successive wives. 
 Lack of progeny by the first spouse is most frequently 
 
222 THE HAREM SYSTEM 
 
 the reason of a Turk's incurring this extra expense, and 
 also the risk of having his domestic peace disturbed by 
 taking a second. He may, of course, if so disposed, 
 divorce the first ; but, as above remarked, divorce for 
 such a reason alone would not only entail social odium, 
 but he would in that case be obliged to pay to the 
 discarded wife the sum stipulated in the marriage 
 contract. >/ 
 
 Two wives, indeed, seem to be the extreme limit 
 nowadays; and only once during my long residence in 
 different parts of the Ottoman Empire had I the oppor- 
 tunity of visiting a harem containing even this number. 
 It was during a brief visit made from Smyrna to the 
 ancient and picturesque town of Magnesia Magnesia 
 under Sipylus in Asia Minor, and the harem in question 
 was that of the Sheikh, or Prior, of the "Dancing" 
 Dervishes, whose office is, when possible, hereditary. The 
 first wife, to whom he had been married a dozen years 
 or so, was childless, and the Ikindji Kadin was a bride 
 of a few weeks only. After having been courteously 
 received in the selamlik of the tekkeh by Sheikh AH, 
 we were conducted to the courtyard gate of the haremlik. 
 This was opened to us by an old woman, who, while we 
 entered, kept her face concealed with what seemed to us 
 unnecessary care from the gaze of any chance male 
 passers-by, and then conducted us up an outside stair- 
 case to a broad covered balcony on which all the principal 
 rooms opened. Over the doors hung the carpet porttires 
 so common in Turkish houses ; and raising one of these, 
 
THE HAREM SYSTEM 223 
 
 she held it back while we entered the divan khant, or 
 sitting-room. A pretty and pleasant young woman with 
 blue eyes and brown hair hanging below her waist in 
 two thick plaits, uncurled herself from the divan and 
 salaamed low in acknowledgment of the greeting of the 
 doyenne of our party; but, divining with ready tact that 
 we other Europeans were unaccustomed to the per- 
 formance of this graceful Oriental salute, she offered 
 her hand to each in turn, and begged us to be seated. 
 This lady was the Sheikh's second wife ; but in a few 
 minutes the Bash Kadin entered a tall, dark, imperious 
 looking dame, just beginning to lose the freshness of 
 youth, with heavy black eyebrows artificially extended 
 until they met over her aquiline nose. Both ladies were 
 dressed in trailing intaries, or house-dresses of cashmere- 
 patterned stuff worn under short cloth jackets lined with 
 fur, the season being winter ; a kerchief of coloured muslin 
 being so adjusted as to form a sort of little cap sur- 
 mounting their simple coiffure. Half an hour is the 
 minimum time in which a Turkish visit can be paid. But 
 as soon as etiquette permitted which was not, of course, 
 until sweets and coffee had been served and partaken 
 of we rose to take our leave. 
 
 Slaves, however, whether male or female, are by no 
 means always compelled to wait seven years before 
 receiving their freedom and its attendant advantages. 
 For it being considered by Moslems a pious and meri- 
 torious act to free a slave, Osmanli men and women 
 frequently, either in their Wills or on their death-beds, 
 
THE HAREM SYSTEM 
 
 bequeath their liberty to the slaves of the household. 
 A male slave thus set free becomes, so far as civil rights 
 are concerned, the equal of his former owner, and may 
 aspire to the highest offices of State; while his wife, 
 whatever her origin, can claim the status of a hanum. 
 In former centuries, indeed, many an officer in high rank 
 and Minister of State has been of slave origin. It is also 
 a very common practice for childless couples and widows 
 to enfranchise and adopt as their heirs slave children to 
 whom they have taken a fancy. I was some years ago 
 in the habit of meeting a lady, a Circassian by birth, who, 
 brought to Constantinople as a mere infant, had herself 
 been purchased and adopted by a lady of high rank ; and 
 when left in middle age a childless widow, she in her turn 
 enfranchised and adopted two little girls of her own race, 
 whom she brought up and found husbands for. 
 
 In former centuries the slaves, both male and female, 
 brought into the Turkish slave-market were drawn from 
 a great variety of races arid nationalities, European and 
 Asiatic ; but at the present day the white slaves are brought 
 chiefly from Circassia, the rest being Yezidis from Kurdi- 
 stan, or Georgians though, since the occupation by Russia 
 of that former happy hunting-ground of the slave-dealer, this 
 traffic has only been carried on clandestinely. The traffic 
 in white male slaves has of late years become compara- 
 tively insignificant, free men, both Moslem and Christian, 
 being now employed in the service of the selamlik in the 
 capacities of cook, pipe-bearer, coffee-maker, and body- 
 servant, as well as in the stables as coachmen and grooms. 
 
THE HAREM SYSTEM 225 
 
 A considerable number of negroes, as also of Abyssinians 
 and other Africans of both sexes, are, however, still 
 annually smuggled into the country. 
 
 Circassian women who have passed through the 
 slavery stage are said to evince a certain racial sympathy 
 for each other, and also to be very charitable to those who 
 have been less fortunate than themselves. The discovery 
 that an acquaintance is also of slave origin forms imme- 
 diately a bond of union between two women. This race 
 feeling is not, however, perpetuated in their offspring, who 
 are, of course, Osmanlis. It is only the negresses who 
 always remain a class apart, and fall not infrequently into 
 penury and want. As a rule, however, they are themselves 
 chiefly to blame for their misfortunes. For, after they 
 have been freed and married, it not infrequently happens 
 that their ungoverned tempers cause them to quarrel with, 
 and separate from, their husbands, when they are obliged 
 to support themselves as best they can by hawking 
 parched peas and such trifles about the streets. The 
 quarter inhabited by the negro population is squalid and 
 miserable in the extreme, being a mere collection of 
 wretched tumble-down hovels. The thousands upon 
 thousands of negroes and negresses who have, since the 
 Turkish Conquest, been brought into the country, might 
 lead us to expect to find a considerable admixture of 
 black blood in the lower classes especially of the popu- 
 lation. That is, however, not the case. Though negresses 
 and Abyssinians marry both whites and men of their 
 own race, the climate does not seem favourable to the 
 Q 
 
THE HAREM SYSTEM 
 
 propagation of the coloured races, and the few negro or 
 mulatto children who come into the world seldom survive 
 infancy. 
 
 Low, however, in the social scale as are the negresses 
 of Turkey, there exists among them an esprit de corps 
 which has led to the formation in the Capital of a society 
 for mutual aid and protection, not only against the tyranny 
 of masters and mistresses, but in sickness and other 
 accidents of life. This association constitutes also a centre 
 of reunion for the observation of those superstitious 
 heathen rites which its members have brought with them 
 from their native land, and still cherish, notwithstanding 
 their profession of the Faith of Islam. The society 
 possesses a number of local lodges, each under the 
 direction of a president, called the Kolbashi, who, while 
 acting as the priestess of their strange cult, manages also 
 the property of the community which has been amassed 
 little by little from the contributions regularly made by 
 its members. From this fund she is expected to purchase 
 the freedom of negress slaves who are on bad terms with 
 their owners, as also to receive in her house freed women 
 who are sick or without employment. Men of negro race 
 are also entitled to receive assistance from this association, 
 but they take no part in the rites and ceremonies of 
 which the lodges are periodically the scene. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 FAMILY CEREMONIES (1) BIRTH AND 
 CIRCUMCISION CEREMONIES 
 
 IT is a noteworthy fact that the more secluded the 
 domestic life of a people, the greater the publicity 
 given to such family events as births, marriages, and 
 deaths. The Turks form no exception to this rule, the 
 celebration of all these family happenings being made 
 the occasion of much display and large accompanying 
 hospitality. 
 
 The anticipated arrival of a "little stranger" is an- 
 nounced to the neighbourhood by the arrival of the Ebt 
 Kadin the Turkish Wise Woman preceded by a hamal 
 bearing on his porter's saddle the emblems of her calling. 
 As soon as a baby is born its mother is placed on a state 
 bedstead, used only on such special occasions, which is 
 spread with elaborately embroidered and fringed sheets of 
 native gauze and covered with quilts of satin encrusted 
 with needlework in gold and silver thread. At the head 
 are piled half a dozen long narrow silken pillows enclosed 
 in " slips " matching the sheets. Round the lady's head is 
 bound a crimson kerchief to which is attached a bunch of 
 charms, a gauze veil of the same hue being thrown loosely 
 
 227 
 
228 BIRTH AND CIRCUMCISION CEREMONIES 
 
 over them the whole coiffure being designed to keep the 
 Peris at a distance. For although these imaginary beings 
 are not, like the Nereids of Modern Greek mythology, 
 credited with the power of carrying off bodily new-born 
 infants, their baleful influence is none the less to be care- 
 fully guarded against, and the mother and babe should 
 never be left alone for a minute until after the bath 
 ceremony has taken place. If, as among the poor, this is 
 sometimes unavoidable, a broom to which a head of garlic 
 has been tied is placed by the bedside to keep away 
 uncanny visitors. 
 
 In the mean time the baby has been dressed. But no 
 dainty layette, like that which awaits the arrival of a " little 
 stranger" in the West, has been prepared for the little 
 Osmanli, however wealthy his parents may be. His small 
 body is at once tightly swathed in cotton bandages under 
 a libarde, or gown of quilted cotton stuff; and various 
 quilted wrappers bound one over another convert the poor 
 mite into a shapeless bundle, its head being covered with 
 a little cap of red silk from which hangs a tassel of seed 
 pearls and a bunch of amulets coral horns, turquoises, or 
 pieces of blue glass, etc. to ward off, besides the Peris, the 
 " Evil Eye," as much dreaded in Turkey as * in Southern 
 Italy. Its toilette completed, the baby is laid on a 
 handsome quilt in the walnut-wood cradle, and over it is 
 spread a large square of crimson gauze. 
 
 When all these arrangements are complete, the happy 
 father enters to congratulate his wife, and confer upon the 
 baby the name by which it is henceforth to be distinguished. 
 
BIRTH AND CIRCUMCISION CEREMONIES 229 
 
 Carrying the infant outside the door of the natal chamber, 
 its sire repeats a prayer, invoking the blessing of Allah on 
 his offspring, and then pronounces three times in its ear 
 the name chosen for it. Should he be unacquainted with 
 the formula, the parish priest is called in to assist him 
 in the performance of this duty. The Moslem equivalent 
 for the rite of baptism is of course circumcision, but this 
 may be, and often is, deferred for many years. 
 
 Among the many restrictions to which the mother is 
 subjected by custom and the EM as the Turkish Mrs. 
 Gamp is termed is that of refraining from pure water either 
 for drinking or ablutionary purposes. If thirsty, she may 
 partake of " sherbet " made from sugar-candy and spices, 
 or a tisane of lime-flowers or maiden-hair fern. Little rest 
 is allowed her, for, as soon as the event is made known, 
 her chamber is crowded with friends and neighbours who 
 hasten to offer their felicitations, and sit for hours dis- 
 cussing the sweets, coffee, and other refreshments which it 
 is customary to offer on these occasions. On the third 
 day a djemiet, or formal reception, is held by the mother, 
 for which invitations have been issued on the preceding 
 day, conveyed verbally by an old woman whose profession 
 is that of musdadji, or "bringer of tidings," and accom- 
 panied by bottles of the above-described "sherbet." 
 " Open house " is also kept on this day, and all visitors, 
 whether invited or not, are hospitably received, but with 
 this difference the bidden guests sit down to luncheon, 
 while the unbidden are regaled only with light refresh- 
 ments. Hired musicians receive at the door of the 
 
230 BIRTH AND CIRCUMCISION CEREMONIES 
 
 haremlik and escort upstairs the more distinguished 
 guests, who arrive in parties preceded by servants carrying 
 baskets of sweets prettily decorated with flowers, enve- 
 loped in gauze, and tied with ribbons. If the father holds 
 an official post, it is customary for his fellow officials and 
 subordinates to send with the baskets of sweets more or 
 less valuable presents. Among the poorer classes, how- 
 ever, gifts of coffee, sugar, cakes, etc., are, on these 
 occasions, brought by the visitors in order to lessen for 
 the family the expense of the customary hospitality. 
 After divesting themselves of their out-of-door veils and 
 cloaks in an anteroom, according to Turkish custom when 
 paying calls, the visitors .are ushered with ceremonious 
 formality into the state bed-chamber. " Maskallah in 
 the name of Allah long-lived and happy may it be ! " 
 exclaim the matrons in turn to the happy mother, who 
 kisses their hands in acknowledgment of their good 
 wishes. Little or no notice is, however, taken of the 
 infant personally, as its near relatives are best pleased 
 when its presence is altogether ignored, and so spared the 
 risk of the " Evil Eye " being cast upon it. Should, how- 
 ever, feminine curiosity and interest in babies prove too 
 strong to allow of the " little stranger's " being entirely 
 neglected, the Jianums, after feigning to spit on it to avert 
 the " Evil Eye," conceal their private approval under such 
 disparaging remarks as " Nasty ugly little thing," to show 
 their good will. For, in the East, it is most unadvisable 
 openly to express admiration for either persons or things, 
 as any future accident or misfortune is certain to be 
 
', 
 
BIRTH AND CIRCUMCISION CEREMONIES 
 
 attributed to the malice or ill-will underlying the honeyed 
 words of commendation. 
 
 But amulets, spittings, and abusive epithets notwith- 
 standing, it is considered expedient to make doubly sure 
 that no ill effects of the dreaded " Evil Eye " have been 
 left behind. So no sooner has the last guest departed 
 than the Ebe Kadin, assisted by the women of the house- 
 hold, proceeds to ascertain this by the following process. 
 A handful of cloves are procured and thrown singly on 
 the hot embers of the mangal, or charcoal brazier, one for 
 each visitor. If the clove explodes with a report, it is 
 held to be proof positive that the person named with it 
 has cast the nazar on mother or child or, it may be, on 
 both. As an immediate exorcism, snips of their hair are 
 placed on the charcoal embers, and the supposed sufferers 
 are fumigated with the smoke arising therefrom. This is 
 followed by spittings, blowings, prayers, and divers mys- 
 terious incantations which are persisted in until a fit of 
 yawning announces that the spell has been removed. An 
 old woman is, however, next despatched on some pretext 
 or other to the dwelling of the person suspected, with the 
 object of surreptitiously obtaining possession of some 
 scrap of her clothing with which to make a further fumi- 
 gation ; and this successfully accomplished, the minds of 
 the mother and her friends are, for the time being at 
 least, set at rest. 
 
 Among the poorer classes, the bath ceremony usually 
 takes place on the fourth day after the birth of a child, 
 but with the wealthy it is often deferred until the eighth 
 
BIRTH AND CIRCUMCISION CEREMONIES 
 
 day. On the occasion of the birth of a first-born, great 
 formality is derigueur. If the ceremony takes place in the 
 private hammam usually attached to the haremlik division 
 of a mansion, a number of friends are invited to join in 
 the ablutions, and partake of luncheon and other refresh- 
 ments ; if at the public baths, the invited kanums, accom- 
 panied by their attendants bearing the bath requisites in 
 boktchctS) or bundle-wraps, assemble at the house, and, pre- 
 ceded by the Wise Woman carrying the baby, walk in 
 procession to the baths. After being formally divested of 
 her garments in the saouklik^ or "cool room," the mother 
 is enveloped in a silken bath-wrap, and, shod with a pair of 
 high pattens of walnut-wood inlaid with silver, is led to 
 the hot chamber, supported on one side by the Hammamdji 
 Hamnn, or Head Bathwoman, and on the other side by a 
 relative, and followed by the rest of the company. The 
 baby is first taken in hand, and after it has been well 
 rubbed and scrubbed, the Wise Woman turns her atten- 
 tion to the mother. Before commencing operations, how- 
 ever, she throws a bunch of keys into the marble basin, 
 mutters a spell of a religious character, and then blows 
 three times into the water. These preliminary precautions 
 taken against the Peris who especially haunt the waters, 
 the usual ablutionary routine is proceeded with by the 
 company generally. At its conclusion the mother is 
 placed in a reclining position on the raised marble slab 
 in the centre of the apartment, and her body thickly plas- 
 tered over with a sort of ointment composed of honey and 
 various aromatic condiments, held to possess strengthening 
 
BIRTH AND CIRCUMCISION CEREMONIES 233 
 
 and recuperating properties. This is left on for about an 
 hour, the tedium of the process being enlivened by the 
 ladies of the company with songs and conversation, and 
 every now and again they transfer with their forefingers 
 some of the spicy compound to their mouths, it being con- 
 sidered lucky to get a taste of it. When what remains 
 of the unguent after the hamims have thus regaled them- 
 selves has been washed off, the mother is wrapped in her 
 havlu, or robe of Turkey towelling, the fringed borders of 
 which are worked in gold thread, and conducted back to 
 the spacious " cool room." The Hanums seat themselves 
 cross-legged on the raised and cushioned platform sur- 
 rounding this apartment ; but before taking her own place 
 the hostess proceeds to kiss in turn the hands of all the 
 elderly ladies present, the salute being acknowledged with 
 the good wish, " May it be to your health." Refresh- 
 ments are offered at intervals during these ceremonies, 
 which occupy the greater part of the day. 
 
 The circumcision of a boy is made the occasion of 
 another important family ceremony called the Sunnet 
 dughun, the festivities with which it is celebrated extend- 
 ing over a whole week. Hospitable on all occasions, the 
 Turks are pre-eminently so on this, when it is held to be 
 a religious duty to show special attention and regard to 
 the poor and needy. Consequently, people of the labour- 
 ing class who cannot themselves afford the expense of 
 a Stmnet dughun for their boys, defer the rite until they 
 hear that the son of some grandee in their neighbourhood 
 is about to be circumcised, when they send in the names 
 
234 BIRTH AND CIRCUMCISION CEREMONIES 
 
 of their boys with the request that they may be allowed 
 to participate. The rich man, if a good Moslem, will 
 grant such permission to as many of the sons of his poor 
 neighbours as his means allow of, such acts of piety being 
 held well pleasing unto Allah. When a circumcision 
 ceremony takes place in the Imperial Palace, custom 
 requires that the Padishah should place no limit on the 
 number of participants. As the head of the house in 
 which a Sunnet dughun is celebrated is in duty bound 
 to furnish each candidate for initiation with a complete 
 outfit, and defray all other attendant expenses, it is often 
 an exceedingly expensive affair for a man of rank ; and 
 even among the middle classes, who limit the festivities 
 to one day, the obligatory minimum expenditure is 
 seldom under 10. 
 
 The formalities begin on a Monday, when the boys 
 are sent to the Public Baths, their heads being then shaven 
 for the first time, with the exception of a tuft of hair left 
 on the crown, which is plaited with tinsel thread. . The 
 grandee's son is richly dressed, his coat and fez being 
 studded with pearls, the number of ornaments considered 
 necessary for this important occasion being so great that 
 they have in part to be borrowed from relatives and 
 friends, even the humblest urchin being bedecked with 
 gold and gems. Their ablutions performed and gala 
 clothes donned, the boys leave the baths escorted by a 
 number of old ladies to make a round of calls at the 
 houses of their friends, whom they formally invite to 
 the dughun festivities. In the afternoon, and also on the 
 
BIRTH AND CIRCUMCISION CEREMONIES 235 
 
 morrow, a series of entertainments is given in the selamlik 
 of the mansion, Wednesday and Thursday being reserved 
 for the subsequent festivities in the karemlik, which are 
 enlivened by music and a variety of amusements. On 
 Thursday morning the women of the household busy 
 themselves in preparing couches for the boys, who mean- 
 time, mounted on gaily caparisoned horses led by grooms, 
 and accompanied by the Hodja, or family tutor, the 
 barber, and a crowd of male relatives, make a progress 
 through the streets of the quarter. 
 
 On returning to the house of festivity, the children 
 are received at the door of the selamlik by their respective 
 fathers. As the horse of the young bey is brought to 
 the mounting-block, and his father is about to help him 
 to dismount, his hand is stayed by the Hodja with the 
 words, " With what gift has my lord endowed his son ? " 
 The father mentions the destined present, which may be 
 landed property or some object of value, according to 
 his means, and then lifts him down from his horse. For 
 the other boys is also claimed and received a gift from 
 their next-of-kin, or, failing these, from their entertainer, 
 who is held to occupy for the occasion a father's place. 
 
 The rite of circumcision is performed in the selamlik 
 on the morning of Friday, and this accomplished, the boys 
 are again consigned to the care of the women, who place 
 them on the couches previously prepared, and make every 
 effort to amuse and distract them. They are also visited 
 during the day by their female relatives, who bring money 
 and other gifts, not only to the children, but also to the 
 
236 BIRTH AND CIRCUMCISION CEREMONIES 
 
 barber and the musdadji who has announced to the 
 mother of each boy the completion of the sacred rite. 
 On the following morning the children are removed to 
 their respective homes, but the entertainments are pro- 
 longed for another couple of days, during which liberal 
 hospitality is offered to the poor. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 FAMILY CEREMONIES (2) MARRIAGE 
 CEREMONIES 
 
 IN common with all Moslems, the Turks hold the 
 estate of marriage in great esteem. For it is re- 
 lated in the Hadith, or "Traditions," that Mo- 
 hammed said, "When the servant of Allah marries he 
 perfects half of his religion." 1 Early marriages are, con- 
 sequently, for this as well as for other reasons, the rule 
 among the Osmanlis, the patriarchal customs alluded to 
 in a previous chapter making it unnecessary for a youth to 
 wait until he has a home of his own before taking a wife. 
 Formerly, youths of eighteen were married to girls of from 
 twelve to fifteen ; but nowadays such very youthful couples 
 are seldom met with, though at a friend's house I once saw 
 a bride of twelve who was the wife of a Turkish orderly in 
 the service of the Pasha, my friend's husband. 
 
 When, accordingly, it has been decided by the family 
 council that the time has arrived for a youth to marry, his 
 mother, if she has not already chosen a bride for him, 
 
 1 It is also related that the Prophet, being informed that a certain 
 man was unmarried, asked him, " Art thou sound and healthy ? " "I 
 am," replied the bachelor. " Then," said the Friend of Allah, " thou 
 art one of the brothers of the devil " (Mishkat, bk. xiii. ch. i). 
 
 237 
 
238 MARRIAGE CEREMONIES 
 
 makes inquiries among her friends and of the old women 
 brokers who act also as koulavouz or " go-betweens " in 
 matters matrimonial as to families having pretty and 
 marriageable daughters. This ascertained, she drives to 
 each harem in turn, accompanied by one or more near 
 relatives and the koulavouz. Introductions are unneces- 
 sary, but the object of the visit is mentioned to the slave 
 who, on their entering, comes forward to remove, according 
 to custom, the outdoor veils and cloaks of the visitors. 
 The lady of the house, informed of this, hastens to receive 
 her guests with all honour, and should there be more than 
 one daughter, the eldest proceeds to dress and adorn her- 
 self for inspection for among the Turks, as with their 
 Greek neighbours, daughters are married according to 
 seniority. The two mothers meanwhile exchange conven- 
 tional compliments until the portihe is raised and the 
 maiden enters, and after saluting the strangers by kissing 
 their hands, she offers to each in turn a cup of coffee from 
 the tray which has been brought in at the same time by 
 a slave. While this is being partaken of, she stands in 
 modest attitude, and after receiving the empty cups 
 salaams and vanishes. 
 
 " MasJiallah ! What a beauty ! Your daughter, Hanum 
 Effendi, is like a full moon ! " So the visitors, whatever 
 their private opinion, are required by etiquette to exclaim, 
 follow, and then the chief Giierudji, or 
 ex P a ^ a ^ e on * ne good qualities of 
 the woulcpbe bridegroom, mentions the amount of the 
 nekyah, or settlements, he or his family are prepared to 
 
MARRIAGE CEREMONIES 239 
 
 offer, makes inquiries as to the girl's age and fortune, if 
 any, and finally departs with the conventional remark that, 
 should Kismet have decreed it, they will become better 
 acquainted. It is considered no slight if nothing further 
 comes of the visit of inspection, which is allowed to be, in 
 legal phrase, " without prejudice." After some half-dozen 
 harems have been thus visited, the lady returns home to 
 describe the damsels to her husband and son ; and, the 
 selection made, intermediaries are despatched to the family 
 of the fortunate maiden to settle the preliminaries. ^^^ 
 Meanwhile, though the youth may not, of course, see 
 the maiden unveiled, she, on her side, is naturally anxious 
 to see her future husband, and an opportunity for this is 
 usually arranged by the respective mothers in the course 
 of a drive abroad, when he will be found at some spot 
 previously agreed upon. Boy and girl friendships, how- 
 ever, not infrequently survive the intervening years of 
 separation, and, developing into a warmer feeling, end in 
 happy marriages. For in the young, romance is stronger 
 than social and religious conventionalities, and love can 
 surmount even the barriers of harem restraint. When the 
 parties to the contract are mutually satisfied, the customary 
 betrothal gifts a silver jewel-box, hand-mirror, and other 
 toilet requisites are sent to the bride, who in her turn 
 presents the bridegroom with a jewelled snuff-box, cash- 
 mere shawl, etc. His mother then visits the bride, taking 
 with her some yards of red silk and a basket of bonbons. 
 The former is spread on the floor in front of the divan, 
 and on it the bride stands when she approaches to kiss 
 
240 MARRIAGE CEREMONIES 
 
 the hand of her future mother-in-law, who presents her 
 with the sweets and her blessing. Half a bonbon bitten 
 in two by the girl's pearly teeth is conveyed back to the 
 bridegroom, presumably as a first love-token. A few days 
 later the aghirlik, a sum of money which is practically the 
 bridegroom's contribution to the expenses of the wedding 
 festivities, is sent to the maiden's father ; and eight days 
 after this betrothal is followed by the legal marriage. 
 
 According to the law of Islam, marriage is not a 
 religious, but a civil contract, the validity of which con- 
 sists in its being attested by at least two witnesses. The 
 ceremony takes place in the house of the bride's father, 
 in the selamlik of which the amount of the nekyah the 
 before-mentioned sum to be paid to the bride in the event 
 of divorce is finally discussed and formally agreed to. 
 The contract drawn up and attested, the bridegroom stands 
 up and thrice proclaims his desire to wed the daughter of 
 Selim Effendi, or AH Bey, as the case may be. There- 
 upon the Imdm, who is present in his legal capacity, 
 proceeds with the maiden's father to the door of com- 
 munication with the women's apartments, behind which 
 the bride and her friends are assembled, and after declaring 
 the amount of the nekyah offered, asks the maiden if she 
 is willing to wed So-and-so. When the question has been 
 thrice asked and thrice affirmatively answered, the Imam 
 returns to the selamlik, the contract is formally signed and 
 witnessed, and the parties are legally man and wife. But 
 before the young couple may see or hold any communication 
 with each other, this Legal Sanction must be supplemented 
 
MARRIAGE CEREMONIES 
 
 by the Social Sanction, which is manifested by public par- 
 ticipation in the various ceremonies and festivities which 
 precede the transfer of a bride from her father's roof to 
 her new home, such festivities being termed collectively 
 the dughun. Some months may, however, pass before the 
 dughun can take place, as elaborate preparations must be 
 made for its due celebration, according to the social position 
 and wealth of the contracting families. The wedding-dress, 
 together with sundry accessories which it is customary for 
 the bridegroom to furnish, are sent with great ceremony 
 to the home of the bride a week before the date fixed 
 for the commencement of the dughun. The rest of her 
 trousseau is provided by her parents, as also is the 
 " plenishing " of household linen and bedding. To these 
 are added a supply of ^kitchen utensils, all of copper ; 
 furniture for two rooms covered with costly material ; a 
 handsome brass mangal, or brazier and stand ; various 
 articles of walnut-wood inlaid with mother-of-pearl, ivory, 
 or silver, such as dinner-trays and stands, dustpans, bath- 
 pattens, etc. 
 
 The wedding festivities extend over a week, and how- 
 ever ill a father can afford the expenses inseparable from 
 their due celebration, custom compels him to incur them. 
 Such festivities are, in fact, the delight of the general run 
 of Osmanli women, and it is a point of honour with a 
 mother to celebrate her daughter's dughun with as great % 
 tclat as possible. Like the Sunnet dughun above described, 
 it begins on a Monday, when a number of relatives and 
 friends assemble at the bride's home to escort the trousseau 
 R 
 
MARRIAGE CEREMONIES 
 
 and plenishing to the bridegroom's abode. The luggage 
 is carried on the backs of porters under the supervision of 
 the ancient go-between, who is responsible for its safe 
 delivery, the former receiving at the hands of the bride- 
 groom's mother, in addition to their fee, a chevrek, or em- 
 broidered napkin. The ladies follow on foot or in carriages, 
 according to the distance, and after partaking of coffee and 
 sweets, proceed to decorate the apartments destined for 
 the bride's special occupation. Some fasten strings along 
 the walls, on which they display the various articles of the 
 trousseau^ together with the cashmere shawls and Persian 
 prayer-carpets, the embroidered sheets and pillow-slips, 
 towels and bundle-wraps, all disposed with a view to artistic 
 effect. In one corner of the room a canopy is constructed of 
 gauzes, embroideries, and crape flowers, beneath which the 
 jewels and other objects of value are arranged on a table 
 under glass shades, while garlands of similar flowers are 
 suspended along the four walls. This satisfactorily com- 
 pleted, the party turn their attention to the second apart- 
 ment, where they set out the furniture and bedding, the 
 stools of inlaid wood, the hoshaf tray, with its service of 
 crystal bowl and ivory spoons, the candelabra, and the 
 household requisites before mentioned. 
 
 On Tuesday the bride is taken with great ceremony to 
 the public bath, the fees for the whole party being, on 
 this occasion, paid by the bridegroom. When ready to 
 leave the inner hot chamber, the maiden, wearing of course 
 only her bath robe, is led by her mother three times round 
 the central platform, on which the guests are seated, and 
 
MARRIAGE CEREMONIES 243 
 
 kisses the hand of each hanum in acknowledgment of the 
 customary formula of congratulation and good wishes. 
 The clothes she dons after this ablution, and wears until 
 arrayed in her bridal finery, should not, according to 
 traditional custom, belong to her, but be borrowed for the 
 occasion. 
 
 Early in the afternoon of Wednesday the bridegroom's 
 lady relatives proceed in a body to the home of the bride, 
 preceded by the go-between, who announces with great 
 formality their arrival. The bride's mother and all her 
 assembled friends hasten to the foot of the staircase, and 
 forming a double row in the entrance hall, the first couple 
 place each a hand under the arms of the bridegroom's 
 mother, supporting her as she ascends the stairs, the rest 
 following suit with the other guests. 1 The new arrivals, 
 after having been divested of their outdoor garb, are 
 conducted to a room set apart for their reception it 
 being contrary to etiquette on this day for the two sets 
 of guests to mingle around which they seat themselves 
 on the divan and are served with unsweetened coffee and 
 cigarettes. An hour later sweetened coffee is handed 
 round ; and as soon as the cups have been removed the 
 bride enters, still wearing her borrowed garments ; and 
 supported on either side by a matron who has been only 
 once married, she makes the tour of the room, kissing 
 the hands of all present, beginning with her Kain Valid^ 
 or mother-in-law, and not omitting the youngest girl 
 
 1 A survival of the ancient Oriental practice of carrying upstairs 
 distinguished guests or persons of high rank. 
 
244 MARRIAGE CEREMONIES 
 
 present. A chair is then placed for her close to this 
 lady, on which she remains seated for a few minutes 
 during which this lady transfers some sugar-stick from 
 her mouth to that of her daughter-in-law, a custom which, 
 together with the half sugar-plum sent to the bridegroom 
 at the betrothal, would seem to be a survival of the 
 ancient and widespread marriage-rite of food-sharing. 
 After having been entertained for some time by the 
 performances of musicians and dancing girls, the bride- 
 groom's mother and her party take their leave, receiving 
 at the same time an invitation to return in the evening 
 for the Khena ceremony. The bride then again comes 
 forward and conducts the guests to the foot of the stair- 
 case, where they throw over her a shower of small coins, 
 which are forthwith scrambled for by the beggars, children, 
 and hangers-on always to be found in great numbers at 
 the door of a haremlik during the progress of a dughtm. 
 
 When the company are again assembled in the evening, 
 a taper is handed to each of the younger members of the 
 party, who, led by the bride and escorted by the musicians 
 and dancing girls, descend to the garden. Winding in a 
 long and wavy line, now between the fragrant flower-beds, 
 and now in the shadow of the trees and -shrubs, their rich 
 dresses, bright jewels, fair faces, and floating hair fitfully 
 lighted by the flickering tapers, their feet moving to the 
 rhythm of the tinkling castanets and wild strains of the 
 dusky-hued Gypsy girls, one might imagine them a troop 
 of Peris engaged in their nocturnal revels. Returning to 
 the house, the bride, divested of her gay attire, enters the 
 
MARRIAGE CEREMONIES 245 
 
 reception-room, holding her left arm across her brow, and 
 seats herself on a stool in the centre of the apartment. 
 The fingers of her right hand are then covered thickly 
 with henna paste, on which the bridegroom's mother sticks 
 a gold coin, the other guests following suit. This hand, 
 covered with a silken bag, is now held across her face, 
 while the left hand is similarly plastered and decorated 
 by the bride's mother and friends. When the maiden's 
 toes have also been similarly treated, the ceremony is 
 terminated with a wild pantomimic dance by the Gypsy 
 performers, at the conclusion of which these women fall 
 into exaggerated postures before the principal ladies in 
 order to receive their guerdon, which is looked for as 
 much from the guests as from the hostess. The bride is 
 then left to repose until the henna is considered to have 
 stained her fingers to the requisite amber hue, when it 
 is washed off. If left on too long the skin assumes a 
 blackish hue, which would be considered a bad augury 
 for her wedded life. 
 
 The bride is usually conducted to her new home on 
 the morning of Thursday, accompanied by an immense 
 concourse, the women in carriages and the men on horse- 
 back, and preceded by music. But before leaving the 
 paternal roof a touching little ceremony takes place in 
 private : the bride's father, in the presence only of her 
 mother and sisters, girding his daughter with the "wedding 
 girdle." While performing this traditional farewell ob- 
 servance, the paterfamilias is, as a rule, deeply affected, 
 and weeps in company with his wife and children. The 
 
246 MARRIAGE CEREMONIES 
 
 departing bride falls at his feet and kisses them and his 
 hands. He raises and presses her to his breast, and after 
 winding the girdle about her waist, gives her his paternal 
 blessing. Arrived at her new home, the bride is received 
 at the haremlik entrance by the bridegroom, who conducts 
 her upstairs through the crowd of guests there assembled 
 the ladies on this occasion dispensing with their veils 
 on the pretext that the only man present is too pre- 
 occupied to look at them ! to the seat of honour in the 
 bridal chamber, and then rejoins his male guests in the 
 selamlik. The bride's veil is now raised, and she and 
 her trousseau remain for some hours on view, not only to 
 the invited guests, but to all the women of the neighbour- 
 hood who flock in to gaze on the poor girl, the festivities 
 being continued in both divisions of the house until 
 evening. 
 
 After the customary evening prayers have been per- 
 formed in the selamlik, the parish Imam, who forms one 
 of the company on such occasions, invokes a benediction 
 on the young couple ; and at its conclusion the bride- 
 groom hurries towards the door leading to the haremlik, 
 followed by his friends, who administer smart blows on 
 his back and also throw at him with no gentle hand the 
 shoes of which a supply will always be found in the 
 entrance hall. 1 The door at last shut between the happy 
 man and his pursuers, he is led upstairs to the bridal 
 
 1 This attack on the bridegroom would seem to be a survival of 
 the custom of Bride-capture still simulated, if not actually practised, 
 at the present day in Asia Minor by the Tartar, Circassian, and other 
 tribesmen. 
 
MARRIAGE CEREMONIES 247 
 
 chamber by the old koulavouz, who, on this occasion, acts 
 as mistress of the ceremonies to the young couple. The 
 bride rises from her seat as he enters, steps forward and 
 kisses his hand. Her bridal veil of crimson silk is spread 
 on the floor, and on it the husband kneels as he offers 
 a brief prayer, the wife standing meanwhile on its edge. 
 Bride and bridegroom are then seated side by side on the 
 divan, and the koulavouz shows them in a mirror the 
 reflection of their united faces, expressing at the same 
 time a pious wish for the continuance of their present 
 harmonious union. After serving the couple with coffee, 
 she withdraws to make preparations for their supper. The 
 hour of this meal will, however, depend on the humour 
 of the bride, whose shyness, or obstinacy, must be over- 
 come to the extent at least of inducing her to speak to 
 the bridegroom an indispensable preliminary to his 
 assuming any authority over her. Oriental brides are 
 recommended by experienced matrons not to respond 
 too readily to the advances of their husbands, who are 
 occasionally compelled to have recourse to stratagem in 
 order to obtain their supper. Once a word has been 
 vouchsafed, the husband makes a signal, and the meal 
 is served. 
 
 On the following morning, the couple enter, hand in 
 hand, the principal reception-room of the house, where all 
 the bridegroom's family await them, anxious to ascertain 
 " whether their stars have met," which the women at least 
 have no difficulty in discovering from the expression of 
 their respective countenances. Both salute the heads of 
 
248 MARRIAGE CEREMONIES 
 
 the family by kissing their hands, and receive from them 
 in return the customary presents. At noon a repast 
 termed the "feast of sheep's trotters," from the dish 
 specially offered to the bride and bridegroom on this 
 occasion is served to numerous guests both in the 
 haremlik and selamlik ; and the two subsequent days are 
 also devoted to harem festivities, during which the bride, 
 in her wedding array, sits in state to receive the con- 
 gratulatory visits of all the matrons included in the 
 visiting lists of both families. 
 
 In the case, however, of a widow, or woman who has 
 been divorced, these elaborate formalities are dispensed 
 with ; and, as previously mentioned, no dughtm is con- 
 sidered necessary at the wedding of a woman of slave 
 origin. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 FAMILY CEREMONIES (3) FUNERAL 
 CEREMONIES 
 
 THE divine calm of the Moslem spirit the spirit of 
 profound and complete resignation to the Will 
 of Allah is on no occasion more strongly mani- 
 fested by the Osmanlis than in the presence of death. 
 The pious Mohammedan may, indeed, be said to have ever 
 present to his mind the termination of earthly existence 
 and the life beyond ; he considers himself but camped in 
 this world, as his nation has been said to be but camped 
 in Europe ; and he regards the joys and allurements of 
 earthly existence as but illusions and shadows in com- 
 parison with the everlasting delights which await him 
 in Paradise. Kismet, which determines the events of a 
 person's life, and Edjel, his " appointed time," are decreed 
 by Allah, who has inscribed them in invisible characters 
 on the brow of every human being. 1 The ill-fated 
 Sultan Abdul Aziz, in the brief interval between his 
 deposition and death in 1876, is reported to have 
 traced with his finger on a dust-covered table in his 
 
 1 Compare the Koran, Sura, Ivii. v. 19. 
 249 
 
250 FUNERAL CEREMONIES 
 
 prison-house some Turkish lines which may be thus 
 
 translated 
 
 " Man's destiny is Allah's will, 
 And power is given by Him alone ; 
 My fate is written on my brow, 
 I humbly bend before His throne." 
 
 This unquestioning submission to the decrees of Fate 
 renders death terrible to Moslems only in the abstract, 
 and when viewed from a distance, In polite society it is 
 never alluded to save under some poetical name, such as 
 the " Cupbearer of the Sphere," and prefaced by the words 
 " Far be it from you " ; and the common people before 
 uttering the word invariably spit an action which has 
 much the same signification. 
 
 Such a fatalistic view of life and death causes the 
 Osmanli populace to regard the medical art with scant 
 respect. If a person believes himself to have heard the 
 call " Return? 1 he will die, doctors and " charmers " not- 
 withstanding ; and if the " appointed time " has not yet 
 arrived, he will recover so why trouble him with drugs ? 
 When the " Cupbearer of the Sphere " is believed to be 
 at hand, the relations of the moribund gather round the 
 
 1 An allusion to the verse of the Koran, which says, "O thou 
 comforted soul ! Return unto thy Lord, well pleased, and well pleased 
 with " (Sura^ Ixxxix. 28). In an elegy by the eighteenth-century poetess 
 Leyla Hanum on the untimely death of her friend the foster-sister of 
 Sultan Mahmoud II. the following lines occur, referring also to this 
 verse : 
 
 " Though her Kind Friend (i.e. Allah) never parted from her eyes, 
 
 sweet gentle beam, 
 Still did she to God her soul yield and the call Return obey." 
 
 (Gibb, Ottoman Poems.} 
 
FUNERAL CEREMONIES 251 
 
 couch, weeping silently, or reciting prayers to keep away 
 the evil spirits believed to be ever on the alert to harass 
 and torment a departing soul. If the dying person be 
 conscious, and able to speak, kelal t or free forgiveness of 
 all injuries, is requested and granted on both sides. Pious 
 bequests, too, are often made on death-beds and slaves set 
 free, charity of this kind having been specially commended 
 by the Prophet. 
 
 The wailing of the women commences as soon as the 
 last breath has been drawn. Those most affected by the 
 sad event beat their breasts and tear their hair in a pas- 
 sionate outburst of genuine grief. As soon, however, as 
 this first expression of sorrow has exhausted itself, pre- 
 parations are commenced for performing the last rites to 
 the dead, and invitations are at once issued for the funeral, 
 which takes place either on the same or on the following 
 day. When the eyes of the dead have been closed and 
 the chin has been bandaged, the body is placed, covered 
 only with a sheet, on the ratiat latak, or " Couch of Ease," 
 a kind of stretcher on which, in the case of a man, it is 
 borne to the courtyard of the house to be washed by the 
 Imdm and his subordinates ; but for a woman these last 
 ablutions are performed in private by "washers" of her 
 own sex. As a peculiarly sacred character is attached to 
 this ablutionary rite, great reverence is invariably observed 
 in carrying out every detail of the ceremony. The body 
 is kept covered as much as possible, and handled with 
 great gentleness and care, as any rough or disrespectful 
 usage may, it is believed, draw upon the offending washer 
 
252 FUNERAL CEREMONIES 
 
 the "wrath of the dead." l For the traditions of Mohammed, 
 as well as the works of Moslem doctors, teach that a dead 
 body is conscious of pain, and great care is consequently 
 taken to avoid undue pressure while washing a corpse. 
 Seven balls of cotton wool enveloped in calico, over which 
 warm water is poured, are successively used for this pur- 
 pose ; and the dead Moslem has thus performed for him 
 for the last time the obtest the ablution which ensures his 
 being buried in a state of " legal purity." These forma- 
 lities accomplished, seven hundred drachms of cotton are 
 weighed out, small portions of which are placed under the 
 armpits and between the fingers and toes, and with the 
 remainder the body over which a sleeveless gown called 
 the kaflet has been drawn is enveloped ; pepper and 
 other spices being then' placed in its folds and rose-water 
 sprinkled. When the shroud has been bound over all the 
 corpse is reverently lifted, by means of slings passed under 
 it, into the temporary coffin. 
 
 These observances concluded, and the hour fixed for 
 the funeral arrived, the door of the chamber of death is 
 thrown open, and the guests enter, preceded by the Imam. 
 The latter, addressing those present, says, " O congrega- 
 tion, what do you consider this man's (or woman's) life to 
 have been ? " " Good," is invariably the response. " Then 
 give helal to him." The helal given, the coffin draped 
 
 1 A story related by the Turkish author, Evliya Effendi, in his 
 Narrative of Travel^ curiously illustrates this popular belief. A sub- 
 ordinate washer, having somewhat roughly manipulated the body of 
 a holy Sheikh, received a vigorous kick from the insulted corpse, and 
 shortly afterwards sickened and died. 
 
FUNERAL CEREMONIES 253 
 
 with rich shawls and stuffs, and bearing, for a man, his 
 turban or fez on a projection at the head, and, for a 
 woman, her chimber, or coif is raised on the shoulders of 
 four or more men, and borne to the cemetery, followed by 
 a long procession of male mourners, clad in their ordinary 
 attire. It being considered a meritorious act to carry a 
 dead body even for a short distance, forty paces only 
 absolving the performer from a mortal sin, the bearers 
 at a Moslem funeral are consequently relieved at short 
 intervals by others desirous of obtaining the benefits con- 
 ferred by the performance of this religious duty. No lugu- 
 brious chants, no noisy demonstrations of woe, such as often 
 attend the obsequies of Eastern Christians and Jews, mark 
 the progress of the Moslem to his last resting-place. In 
 reverent silence the procession takes its way to the mosque, 
 where the first part of the burial service which is very 
 beautiful and impressive is read. 
 
 " Earth to earth " burial is customary with the Turks, 
 whose graves are orientated, like the holy places of their 
 mosques, in the direction of the Kaaba at Mekka. On 
 arriving at the cemetery, the coffin is accordingly placed 
 by the side of the grave, the lid removed, and the body, 
 gently lifted out by six persons by means of the bands 
 before mentioned, is laid in the grave. When the re- 
 mainder of the prayers and passages from the Koran con- 
 stituting the burial service have been recited, two or three 
 boards are fixed in the earth above the corpse, the grave 
 is filled in, and the mourners return home. The Imam, 
 however, remains for a time beside the grave, in order, it 
 
254 FUNERAL CEREMONIES 
 
 is said, to prompt the deceased in his replies to the 
 " Questioners " the two angels Mounkir and Nekir, who, 
 according to Moslem belief, enter the grave with the dead 
 to interrogate him concerning his faith. 1 If the dead has 
 been a devout Moslem, his reply will be, " My God is 
 Allah ; my Prophet, Mohammed ; my religion, Islam ; and 
 my Kibla, the Ka'aba." If, however, he has been but an 
 indifferent follower of the Prophet, he will not be able to 
 remember the formula of his creed. In the former case 
 the angels give the dead a foretaste of the delights of 
 Paradise ; while in the latter they afflict him with divers 
 torments. 
 
 The aspect of the great cemeteries on the outskirts 
 of the Capital and the larger cities is indeed calculated 
 to inspire supernatural terrors. Groves of tall, gloomy 
 cypresses of incalculable age overshadow the vast areas 
 
 1 According to a belief common to many Oriental races, the soul 
 retains after death some mysterious connexion with the body, which 
 cannot be buried without it. This belief may be illustrated by the 
 following little Dervish story. As the corpse of Kera Kadin, the 
 saintly wife of the illustrious founder of the Mevlevi Order of Der- 
 vishes, was being carried to the grave followed by an immense 
 concourse of the Brotherhood, the bearers suddenly found themselves 
 unable for a time to proceed an occurrence which greatly exercised 
 the minds of the " Brethren of Love." A holy man of the Order, 
 however, received the explanation that same night in a dream. At 
 the spot at which the procession had been brought to a standstill, a 
 man and a woman had, on the preceding day, been stoned to death 
 for adultery, and the lady's soul had left her body in order to inter- 
 cede for them with the All Merciful. Their forgiveness obtained, her 
 spirit had returned to earth and the bearers were enabled to proceed 
 with her body. From the "Acts of the Adepts," in the Mesnevi 
 (Redhouse's Translation). 
 
FUNERAL CEREMONIES 255 
 
 occupied by the bodies of the Faithful for no two bodies 
 are buried in one grave casting deep shadows even at 
 noonday ; and as far as the eye can reach in any direction 
 is an interminable array of grey headstones, standing erect, 
 slanting or lying prone. If gloomy in the brilliant Eastern 
 noonday, it is in the twilight weirdly uncanny, and by 
 night a place of fearsome horror, peopled with ghouls and 
 vampires ; and a Moslem would rather face death by knife, 
 pistol, or poison than put himself in the way of encounter- 
 ing these gruesome denizens of the cities of the dead. 
 
 The tombstones placed at the head of a grave are 
 usually four or five feet in height, either cylindrical or flat, 
 and tapering towards the base, which causes them after a 
 time to lean in all directions, giving to a cemetery a 
 somewhat fantastic appearance. Round the cylinder or on 
 the flat surface is finely engraved a long inscription, often 
 touched up with gold, consisting of an invocation to Allah 
 or a passage from the Koran, followed by a summary 
 account of the life of the deceased, prominence being 
 given to the spiritual side. The more ancient headstones 
 of men's graves are surmounted by carved representations 
 of turbans ; but since the use of the simpler fez has become 
 general, this has been substituted, painted crimson, and with 
 a dark blue tassel. The headstones of women and girls are 
 often finished at the top with some conventional design of 
 which the sunflower forms a favourite example, and the 
 inscriptions which follow the invocation to the " Abiding 
 One " * are, with few exceptions, in verse. 
 
 1 One of the thousand and one " Beautiful Names " of the Deity. 
 
256 FUNERAL CEREMONIES 
 
 On the occasion of the death of a person in good 
 circumstances, gifts are made to the poor from among his 
 or her personal effects, and money is also distributed as 
 alms to the needy of the neighbourhood. Three days 
 afterwards, a large batch of loukmd a kind of dough-nut 
 or beignet is made, plates of which are sent round to the 
 houses of friends, the poor also receiving their share of 
 these funeral cates, in return for which their prayers are 
 requested for the soul of the departed. This ceremony is 
 repeated on the seventh and fortieth days after the funeral, 
 and on the latter occasion a dole of loaves is added. 
 Prayer for the dead is, indeed, considered by Moslems a 
 religious duty of the highest importance. On the tomb- 
 stones in Turkish cemeteries may often be found engraved 
 appeals to the passers-by to offer on behalf of the occupant 
 of the grave a Fatiha, or recitation of the opening Chapter 
 of the Koran a passage which may be deemed the Moslem 
 equivalent for the Christian Paternoster a customary act 
 with all True Believers on visiting the tombs of departed 
 friends or the shrines of the saintly dead. 
 
 No external signs of mourning are used, or periods 
 of seclusion observed by Osmanlis after the death of a 
 relative. Female friends pay visits of condolence to the 
 harem ; and the ladies, after acknowledging the customary 
 expressions of sympathy and good wishes for their future 
 exemption from bereavement, speak calmly and resignedly 
 of the departed. Excessive sorrow for children is con- 
 sidered by Moslems to be not only sinful, but detrimental 
 to the repose of their souls and their happiness in Paradise. 
 
FUNERAL CEREMONIES 257 
 
 It is, however, on the other hand, esteemed an act of filial 
 duty to mourn constantly for lost parents, and to pray un- 
 ceasingly for their forgiveness and acceptance with Allah. 
 As mentioned elsewhere, prayers and almsgiving are con- 
 sidered by Moslems most beneficial to the souls of the 
 departed. It is also customary to read or recite daily 
 passages from the Koran on their behalf. At the conclu- 
 sion of the Khotba, the sermon or address delivered in 
 every Cathedral Mosque on Fridays after the congrega- 
 tional service, a collect is recited praying for the bestowal 
 of the Divine mercy and grace on Fatima, the daughter of 
 the Prophet and Ancestress of all his descendants ; on 
 Khadija and A'isha and the remainder of his wives ; and 
 on "all resigned and believing women, living or dead." 
 It is also customary for Moslems to conclude their namaz, 
 or daily devotions, with a prayer for the forgiveness of the 
 sins of the suppliant and his or her " two parents." 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 TURKISH HOMES AND HOME LIFE 
 
 AS observed in a previous chapter, almost every 
 Turkish dwelling, even the poorest, has its en- 
 closed courtyard, and often a garden with over- 
 shadowing mulberry, acacia, cypress, and plane tree. Each 
 house, too, is completely detached, so that a considerable 
 space of ground may be occupied, even within city^walls, 
 by a somewhat sparse population. The houses of rich 
 and poor alike are chiefly wooden or half-timbered con- 
 structions, and to this fact are mainly due the disastrous 
 conflagrations that have from time to time devastated the 
 cities of the ^Egean. Latticed blinds of unpainted wood 
 invariably cover the lower half of the streetward windows 
 of the haremlik, thus distinguishing Moslem abodes from 
 those of their Christian neighbours. A middle-class 
 Turkish dwelling is generally surrounded on three sides 
 by garden and courtyard, the fourth abutting on the street 
 over which the upper story projects a couple of feet or so. 
 The plastered walls are coloured a deep ochre or terra- 
 cotta, which contrasts warmly and pleasantly with the 
 unpainted woodwork of the window-sashes and lattices. 
 Within the high, tile-topped walls of the courtyard, vines 
 
 258 
 
TURKISH HOMES AND HOME LIFE 259 
 
 and creepers clothe the supports of the outside staircase 
 and landing leading to the living-rooms above, and in the 
 garden beyond bloom in a luxuriant confusion little 
 troubled by the unmethodic mind of an Oriental gardener, 
 the rose and jasmine, tuberose and carnation, orange and 
 pomegranate, side by side with the leek, bringal, tomato, 
 and egg-plant, melon, cabbage, and parsley. Two rooms 
 on the ground floor, having a separate entrance from the 
 street, constitute the selamlik. 
 
 Turkish konaks t as the mansions of families of position 
 are termed, vary, however, considerably according to the 
 taste, wealth, and rank of their owners ; according to 
 whether situated in, or near the Capital, or in the pro- 
 vinces ; and also to the date of their construction. All 
 are, however, roofed with red tiles, and stand either amid 
 gardens, or on the banks of the rushing Bosphorus. Those 
 of the latter which are at all of ancient date are, in common 
 with the humbler abodes above described, built entirely of 
 wood, with the exception of the marble pillars of the 
 facade, which have probably been appropriated from the 
 ruins of some ancient edifice. These old konaks, with 
 their projecting upper stories and irregular outlines, their 
 elegant kiosks and terraces, bright colouring and verdant 
 setting, are most picturesque in appearance. The lattices 
 of unpainted wood screening the windows of the haremliks 
 are constructed with circular openings through which 
 the hanumsy themselves unseen, may gaze from their 
 cushioned divans on the ever-changing scene below kazks, 
 steamers, and sailing craft of all nations, borne on the 
 
260 TURKISH HOMES AND HOME LIFE 
 
 rapid current flowing between the Euxine and the Sea of 
 Marmora. A towing-path only a few yards wide separates 
 the houses from this wonderful waterway, and is here and 
 there raised, bridgewise, to form a Watergate through which 
 the kaiks reach a staircase in the basement of the house. 
 
 Generally speaking, however, a Turkish konak is, 
 whether situated in the Capital or the provinces, an irregu- 
 larly built, rambling edifice of two stories, divided internally 
 into two establishments the haremlik and the selamlik. 
 The former and larger division contains the private apart- 
 ments of the family, and in the latter are the rooms used 
 by its male members for the transaction of business, for 
 formal receptions, and general hospitality. An apartment 
 termed the mabeyn an Arabic word signifying " a space 
 between two objects " serves to connect the two divisions 
 of the mansion, the keys of the communicating doors being 
 naturally kept by the master ; but a kind of buttery-hatch 
 in the form of a revolving cupboard, called the dulap, serves 
 for all verbal communication between the two departments, 
 and also for the transmission of provisions into, and of 
 dishes from, the haremlik kitchen when a meal has to be 
 served in the selamlik, and no second cook is kept for this 
 department. The haremlik has its entrance from a separate 
 courtyard, or garden, the front door opening into a large 
 hall which gives access to rooms on each side, and occupies 
 the whole depth of the building. One of these rooms is 
 the kahveh odjak, or " coffee hearth," where an old woman 
 may always be found presiding over a wide, low charcoal 
 brazier, ready to prepare at a moment's notice the fragrant 
 
TURKISH HOMES AND HOME LIFE 261 
 
 beverage so beloved of Orientals ; the others are used as 
 storerooms and sleeping apartments for the inferior slaves. 
 The kitchen, which is very spacious, is usually an out- 
 building. One side of it is occupied by the great arched 
 cooking stove, with its rows of little grates, on which the 
 contents of the brightly burnished copper pans simmer 
 over charcoal embers, fanned with a turkey's wing by the 
 fat negress cook. 
 
 A wide, uncarpeted, but well-scrubbed staircase leads 
 from the entrance hall to the upper floor, the centre of 
 which is generally occupied by a spacious ante-room, on 
 which all the other rooms open. In some of the older 
 houses the divan kkant, or state reception-room, contains 
 at one end a recess, the floor of which is raised, dais-wise, 
 a foot or more above the level of the rest of the apartment. 
 A low divan furnishes its three sides, and in the most 
 comfortable corner, which is the habitual seat of the house- 
 mistress, is a pile of flat rectangular cushions, and here 
 may also be found her circular silver hand-mirror and inlaid 
 jewel-box. If the divan khane has not such a recess, one 
 end and half the two adjoining sides are usually occupied 
 by a continuous sofa, the fourth wall being furnished with 
 a marble-topped " console " table surmounted by a mirror 
 and candelabra, and flanked on either side by shelves in 
 niches containing porcelain rose-water sprinklers, crystal 
 sherbet goblets, and other objects both useful and orna- 
 mental. A few common chairs stand stiffly against the 
 wall in every space left vacant, one or two inlaid walnut- 
 wood tray-stools being placed here and there near the 
 
262 TURKISH HOMES AND HOME LIFE 
 
 divan to hold cigarette boxes, ash-trays, and other trifles. 
 The walls are usually whitewashed, those of the principal 
 rooms having, perhaps, a frieze painted in distemper, with 
 designs of foliage and animals, representations of the human 
 form being forbidden by the Koran. The ceilings, which 
 are uniformly of wood, are often ornamented with ara- 
 besque work in intricate and delicate patterns. ^/ 
 
 Bedsteads are not used by the Turks, the bedding being 
 stowed away by day in large cupboards, and the couches 
 spread at night on the divans or on the carpeted floor 
 of each room. Such bedroom furniture as washstands, 
 dressing-tables, and wardrobes are dispensed with in old- 
 fashioned dwellings. Turks prefer to wash in running 
 water, and there is a small washing-room with a hole in 
 the marble floor to carry off the waste. Should the hamim 
 desire to wash her hands and face only, a slave brings to 
 her the brass jug and basin, and pours the water from the 
 former over her hands ; and for ablutions on a larger scale 
 she will resort either to the public baths or to her private 
 kammam, a Turkish bath on a small scale being an indis- 
 pensable adjunct of a Moslem house of any importance. 
 Bathing accommodation of some kind may, indeed, be 
 found in the most modest dwelling, even if but a tiny 
 cabinet furnished with a drain for carrying off the water 
 after use. The ladies of the family "do their hair," or 
 have it done for them by their slave-maids, as they sit 
 cross-legged on the divan ; and as to their " frocks and 
 frills," the old carved and inlaid walnut-wood chests and 
 coffers in the treasure-room suffice to store their gauzes 
 
TURKISH HOMES AND HOME LIFE 263 
 
 and brocades, silks and embroideries. Here, also, may often 
 be found priceless treasures in metal, porcelain, glass, and 
 gems, which, were they displayed in the reception-rooms, 
 would greatly add to their cheerfulness. Such, however, 
 save in dwellings into which European ideas and customs 
 have penetrated, is not the practice of the Osmanlis. 
 
 The warming apparatus most commonly used is the 
 mangal, a wide, shallow brass or copper pan containing 
 charcoal embedded in wood ashes. This is placed on a 
 stand of wrought metal or polished wood, from two to three 
 feet square, and a few inches high, which occupies the 
 centre of the room. The old-fashioned tandur y also, though 
 fallen into disuse in the European provinces, may still often 
 be met with in Asia Minor, even in the houses of foreigners. 
 It consists of a four-legged, square deal table, having a 
 shelf covered with tin a few inches from the floor, in the 
 centre of which is placed a pan of charcoal enclosed in a 
 metal screen. Over all is thrown a large, thickly wadded 
 quilt, which the ladies for this is an eminently feminine 
 luxury seated on two sides of the tandur in an angle of 
 the divan, draw over their knees. The use of American 
 stoves is, however, increasing year by year, and the pic- 
 turesqueness of many old konaks as also of humbler 
 dwellings is often destroyed by unsightly black stove- 
 pipes, which emerge from the windows or walls and climb 
 up to the eaves. The partiality of the Osmanlis for light 
 and fresh air leads them to construct their houses with a 
 superfluity of windows, the space between , the lights and 
 the upper story seldom exceeding a few inches ; and as 
 
264 TURKISH HOMES AND HOME LIFE 
 
 they are often ill-constructed, and warped by sun and 
 storm, the wind and wet enter in all directions. Within, 
 their unpainted ugliness is only partially disguised by 
 scrimpy curtains, most commonly of cheap and gaudy 
 cretonne with the edges " pinked " ! 
 
 Such a mansion as I have above described is a fair 
 specimen of the average dwelling of a Turkish family of 
 good position, as well in the Capital and suburbs as in the 
 provinces, unless exceptionally wealthy, or infected with 
 the d la Franka mania for imitating European manners 
 and customs. There are, however, in Constantinople and 
 its suburbs a considerable number of new houses, hand- 
 somely and solidly built, and in outward appearance dis- 
 tinguishable from the dwellings of foreigners only by the 
 lattice-protected windows of their haremliks. The disposal 
 of the rooms is naturally that best suited to Osmanli 
 customs, and the furniture a compromise between Eastern 
 and Western styles. Native costume and native furniture, 
 no less than native architecture and art, however rich and 
 varied in colour and material, never offend a cultured eye 
 when used in accordance with time-honoured custom, as 
 evidenced by our appreciation of Oriental embroideries, 
 carpets, and textile fabrics generally. But the Oriental 
 mind seems, as a rule, to become confused when it endea- 
 vours to assimilate its own notions of luxury and magnifi- 
 cence to those suggested by the civilisation of the West. 
 The highest developments of art are brought into close 
 contact with objects of the most tasteless construction, 
 and magnificence is thrown into strong and unpleasing 
 
TURKISH HOMES AND HOME LIFE 265 
 
 relief by juxtaposition with tawdriness ; and this chaotic 
 state of mind not infrequently finds expression in combi- 
 nations of material and colour calculated to harrow the 
 soul of the least aesthetic Western. Crimson is trimmed 
 with scarlet, and pink with violet ; shabby chintz hangs 
 side by side with rich brocade and velvet ; and a cheap 
 rug "made in Germany," and representing a dog or lion, 
 is spread side by side with a silken carpet of almost 
 priceless value. 
 
 From the description above given of Osmanli homes it 
 will, however, I trust, be sufficiently evident that a harem, 
 or rather haremlik, far from meriting the epithets of 
 "detestable prison" 1 and "place of degradation," often 
 
 1 For instance, in Forty Days in the East, the author (E. H. 
 Mitchell) says, " A visit to a harem was said to be a desirable con- 
 clusion to our sojourn in the East, but I, for one, declined to enter 
 such a place of degradation. Were it possible by such a visit to help 
 our poor sisters out of their slavery, I should only have been too thank- 
 ful to make it ; but to go and see them penned up in their detestable 
 prison," etc. The late M. Servan de Sugny, too, who, as an Oriental 
 scholar, might have been expected to know better, would appear to 
 have imagined that the Osmanlis are in the habit of loading their 
 women with chains and keeping them in dungeons, when he wrote, 
 " Le croirait-on ? Les femmes memes, dans ce pays ou le sexe est 
 reduit au plus affreux, au plus ddgradant esclavage, des femmes ont ose 
 saisir d'une main meurtrie de fers la lyre du poete," etc. La Muse 
 Ottomane, Preface, p. xv. It is not, however, surprising that such 
 popular misconceptions of harem life persist in the West when one 
 finds even professedly serious publications illustrated by fancy repre- 
 sentations which would have been practically out of date a century 
 ago. See, for instance, the frontispiece to Harmsworth's History 
 of the World, Part 24. The authors of the chapters illustrated are, 
 perhaps, however, as little responsible for this, as I myself was for 
 the frontispiece to my last published book, which represents a so- 
 
TURKISH HOMES AND HOME LIFE 
 
 applied to such abodes by superficial travellers, is, as a 
 rule, the most cheerful and commodious division of a 
 house. For the term harem (in Arabic haram) simply 
 means " a sacred enclosure," the same term being applied 
 to the sanctuaries of Islam. The haremlik is conse- 
 quently the sanctum sanctorum, the place safe from all in- 
 trusion, into which even the husband refrains from entering 
 if one or more pairs of overshoes at the door of the 
 divan khant announces that his wife has guests divested, 
 according to custom, of their outdoor garments. And I 
 will now attempt to give some account of the daily life 
 led by the denizens of these, to many, mysterious abodes. 
 As with Oriental nations generally, the mother occupies 
 the most honourable position among a man's female 
 relatives. Osmanli women are most indulgent mothers, 
 especially to their sons, who naturally in early youth take 
 advantage of their devotion. Arrived, however, at years 
 of discretion, a young Turk, realising the Prophet's sym- 
 bolical saying that "Paradise is under the feet of the 
 mother," becomes in his turn her devoted slave. Debarred 
 by custom from intercourse with all women not closely 
 connected with him by ties of blood, a man's mother and 
 grandmother, sisters and aunts, are consequently his only 
 female friends ; and to this fact may, no doubt, be traced 
 the strong affection which exists between mother and son, 
 brother and sister. The harem has, indeed, been termed, 
 
 called "Turkish Lady" in an attitude which no decent Osmanli 
 woman would think of assuming in the presence of a photographer, 
 and smoking a narghilek a practice quite at variance with feminine 
 custom. 
 
TURKISH HOMES AND HOME LIFE 267 
 
 and perhaps not without truth, " the sanctuary of family 
 happiness." For the wife and daughters, having no out- 
 side interests, use their utmost efforts to make home 
 pleasant to their male relatives. The relations between 
 the various members of an Osmanli household, and the 
 deference from younger people towards their seniors 
 required by family etiquette, may appear somewhat curious 
 to Europeans. They are, however, the necessary outcome 
 of the patriarchal system which has obtained among all 
 the nationalities of Turkey, and has only of recent years 
 been to a certain extent abandoned by the Christian 
 element in the seaboard towns of the JEgean. According 
 to the customary laws of this ancient social system, if a 
 man's widowed mother reside permanently under his roof, 
 which is not unusual, his wife's position in the house is 
 but secondary, and she is required to defer to her mother- 
 in-law in all things. Hand-kissing being the usual mode 
 of respectful greeting, the wife kisses the hand of her Kain 
 Valid^ as also that of her husband, on the occasion of 
 any family event, or any anniversary, and also on special 
 Moslem holidays, such as the opening of the Bairam 
 festival. The wife may not seat herself at table before 
 her husband's mother has taken her place, nor be the first 
 to help herself to the dishes, nor may she smoke a cigarette 
 in the presence of " the first lady " until invited by her to 
 do so. It no doubt often happens that a good deal of 
 friction exists between two women occupying these relative 
 positions. But the prescribed etiquette is none the less 
 observed, and the young hanum probably consoles herself 
 
268 TURKISH HOMES AND HOME LIFE 
 
 with the reflection that at some future date their observ- 
 ance will be to her own advantage. 
 
 According to Islamic law, the care and maintenance of 
 indigent parents, and especially of mothers and grand- 
 mothers, is incumbent on Moslems ; and it would be 
 difficult to find in Islamiyeh a parallel to cases of common 
 occurrence in England, in which a progenitor of a family 
 numbering perhaps from fifty to a hundred souls, is de- 
 pendent for his or her subsistence on public charity. In 
 all matters of etiquette indeed, whether family or social, pre- 
 cedence depends on seniority. If, for example, a married 
 Turk has a sister residing in his harem, the elder of the 
 two would enjoy precedence of the other ; and similarly 
 if he has three children, the eldest and the youngest being 
 boys and the second a girl, the girl must defer to her 
 elder brother, while the younger boy, spoilt and indulged 
 though he may be, must give way to her in everything that 
 affects their common interests. Nor do the youthful 
 members of a family presume to sit cross-legged before 
 their elders. In the selamlik too, similar etiquette is 
 required of boys ; and in the presence of guests they speak 
 only when specially addressed. 
 
 As above remarked, the only persons of the male sex 
 besides the master who are permitted to enter the haremlik 
 are his sons, his wife's father, and her brothers. In the 
 large cities, however, some members of the " advanced " 
 class of society also admit their own brothers and, pos- 
 sibly, even more distant relations ; while a few may intro- 
 duce to their wives and daughters, in addition to the 
 
TURKISH HOMES AND HOME LIFE 269 
 
 above, their more intimate male friends. But in house- 
 holds belonging to the old regime, which constitute the 
 bulk of the population, no male relation of the master is 
 allowed access to the harem after attaining puberty if out- 
 side the prohibited degrees of consanguinity, a restriction 
 which inexorably and eternally separates first cousins of 
 different sexes, however close their childish intimacy may 
 have beenunless, of course, a marriage between them 
 should subsequently be arranged. 
 
 Daily life in the harem is consequently no doubt some- 
 what monotonous ; but it is quite erroneous to suppose that 
 an Osmanli woman of the better class has no duties or occu- 
 pations beyond a certain amount of servile attendance on 
 her Bluebeard of a husband, and that she passes her days 
 reclining on a divan, " eating sweets and playing with her 
 jewels." For, having so few interests outside her home, 
 the hanum is very domesticated, and no accomplishments 
 are so much appreciated in a marriageable maiden as 
 proficiency in the domestic arts. Needlework especially 
 is held in great estimation, and for many years before 
 marriage a girl finds occupation for her leisure hours in 
 embroidering the sheets, towels, quilts, napkins, and other 
 articles which will later on figure in her trousseau and deck 
 the bridal chamber. Like all Orientals, the Osmanli 
 matron is an early riser, and after partaking of a cup of 
 coffee and a cigarette, she is ready to wait upon her 
 husband. She places his slippers by the side of his couch, 
 and holds his pelisse ready, and as soon as he is comfort- 
 ably seated on the divan, after making his morning toilet 
 
270 TURKISH HOMES AND HOME LIFE 
 
 and performing the first of the namaz or five daily prayers 
 previously mentioned, she pours out his coffee from the 
 little ibrik in which it has been brought in by a slave, 
 places the cup in the silver zarf, and hands it to him. The 
 hanum also fills his tchibouk, should he prefer one to the 
 more fashionable cigarette, hands him the amber mouth- 
 piece, and then proceeds to light the fragrant finely 
 shredded Latakia by placing on the bowl with a tiny pair 
 of tongs an ember of glowing charcoal. She remains in 
 attendance, seated on a cushion at his feet, while the slaves 
 roll up the bedding and stow it away in the wall-cupboards. 
 The children then troop in, uncombed and unwashed, in 
 their quaint night-gear wide trousers and quilted jackets 
 of coloured cotton to kiss the hand of their sire and be 
 caressed by both parents. No nursery breakfast, however, 
 awaits them ; and they presently begin to clamour for 
 pence with which to purchase their morning meal. The 
 ten and twenty para-pieces distributed, the children 
 scamper down to the courtyard gate near which they are 
 almost sure to find the simitdji, or vendor of ring-shaped 
 cakes covered with sesame seeds ; or, if he is not in sight, 
 they make their way to the nearest chandler's shop, where 
 they have their choice of halvd a sweetstuff made from 
 sesame seed and honey, cheese, or fruit, as a relish to their 
 bread. After this irregular meal the boys and girls over 
 eight years old are tidied up and sent, escorted by a male 
 servant from the selamlik y to the parish mekteb y where the 
 children of rich and poor meet on a common footing. The 
 babies meanwhile roam freely about the haremlik attended 
 
TURKISH HOMES AND HOME LIFE 271 
 
 by the dadi, a slave who performs, after a fashion, the duties 
 of nursemaid. 
 
 The effendi finally makes his outdoor toilet and departs 
 to his day's avocations, leaving the womenkind to follow 
 their own devices for the rest of the day. For the hanum 
 is perfect mistress of her time, as of her property. She 
 will probably first inspect with her negress cook the pro- 
 visions for the day brought in by the ayvas often an 
 Armenian and passed into the haremlik through the 
 dulap the revolving cupboard before mentioned. For the 
 domestic economy of the natives of Turkey generally is of 
 a somewhat " hand-to-mouth " character, so far as fresh 
 provisions are concerned ; and accounts are settled daily 
 between the mistress and the ayvas, either at the dttlap, or 
 the kitchen door, behind which the lady sits with a muslin 
 kerchief thrown over her head, this transaction appearing 
 usually to necessitate prolonged argument conducted, on 
 one side at least, in language more forcible than polite. 
 If any special culinary treat in th^ way of pickling, 
 cake-making, or preserving is in the day's domestic pro- 
 gramme, the hanum will remain in the kitchen to super- 
 intend or assist in the operation ; on washing and ironing 
 days, too, she and her daughters will take a more or less 
 active part with the slaves in the day's work. In 
 the Capital, however, such domestic occupations are 
 being gradually abandoned by the younger and more 
 fashionable hanums and their daughters, who, emulating 
 the pursuits of the foreign ladies with whom they now 
 come more into contact, prefer to occupy their time in 
 
272 TURKISH HOMES AND HOME LIFE 
 
 learning foreign languages and acquiring foreign accom- 
 plishments. 
 
 Paying and receiving calls, attending dughtms, pro- 
 menading, driving, shopping, and going to the public baths 
 are the chief outdoor amusements of the general run of 
 Osmanli women. Before setting out with any of these 
 objects, a hanum must, however, first obtain her husband's 
 permission. If the ejjendi is inclined to be jealous and 
 strict, he may object to his family being much out of doors, 
 and permission may sometimes be refused. But in the 
 majority of households this is merely a polite formality, 
 and leave for an expedition is granted as soon as requested. 
 When a walk or drive is proposed, the children clamour 
 to accompany their mother ; and scarcely is this question 
 settled by dint of coaxing and distribution of pence, than 
 another arises among the slaves as to whose turn it is to 
 be of the party a question seldom settled without tears, 
 entreaties, and even little quarrels and disturbances. At 
 last the mistress herself selects her party, and the important 
 business of the toilet commences. Oriental women are 
 much addicted to the use of cosmetics, and faces are 
 blanched and rouged, eyebrows and lashes touched up 
 with surmth, and numerous other little coquetries resorted 
 to, which, toned down by the semi-transparent yashmak, 
 are calculated to "put beholders in a tender taking." 
 Then follows a scramble for seats in the carriage, or 
 carriages. The hanums, of course, take their places first, 
 and the slaves, regardless of comfort, pack themselves 
 together, and even sit on each others' knees if necessary; 
 
A TURKISH LADY IN YASHMAK AND FERADJEH 
 
 V 
 
TURKISH HOMES AND HOME LIFE 273 
 
 It is indeed curious to see how many can be thus accom- 
 modated in one vehicle. Whatever the object of the outing 
 may have been, the party will not remain out of doors 
 after sunset, but will endeavour to be back in time to 
 receive their menkind on their return from the day's 
 occupations. An Osmanli, it may here be remarked, never, 
 under any circumstances, goes abroad in company with 
 his harem, though little girls, before adopting theyas/tma&, 
 may constantly be seen in public with their fathers, and 
 are allowed free access to the selamlik. But the veil once 
 donned, a girl enters the ranks of womanhood, and is 
 thenceforward subjected to all the restrictions of the harem. 
 And the reason of this separation of the sexes out of doors 
 is sufficiently obvious. For a father or brother could not 
 frequent the public promenades in company with his female 
 relations without bringing them directly under the notice 
 of his friends and acquaintances, and thus infringing the 
 fundamental principle of the harem. 
 
 Going to the bath is made by Osmanli women the 
 occasion of great festivity and ceremony. A complete 
 outfit of garments for each lady is carried by a slave tied 
 up in a square boktcha, or bundle-wrapper the primitive 
 and universal portmanteau made without of silk, and 
 often richly embroidered ; these garments being donned 
 after the bath, together with their possessor's most hand- 
 some jewels, for the admiration and perhaps envy of 
 the other ladies they may meet at this favourite rendezvous. 
 Other slaves carry, in addition to fruits and refreshments 
 of all kinds, a variety of rugs, bath- wraps, brass basins, and 
 
274 TURKISH HOMES AND HOME LIFE 
 
 the multitude of to the uninitiated mysterious articles 
 considered necessary for the due performance of this im- 
 portant ablutionary rite. And at the hammam the ladies, 
 with their children and attendants, remain for the best 
 part of the day, eating and drinking, singing, frolicking, 
 and gossiping in the intervals of the oft-repeated soapings, 
 rinsings and rubbings, the applications to the hair of crushed 
 laurel berries, and to the nails of henna, and other toilet 
 details impossible to describe. 
 
 The Osmanlis indulge in but two meals a day the 
 karvaltu, which is eaten about eleven o'clock, and the 
 yemek, partaken of about sunset, and varying accordingly 
 between five o'clock in winter and eight in summer. Men 
 whose vocations take them away from home, rarely return 
 for the early meal, but eat their kebabs and pilaf at one 
 of the numerous cookshops to be found in all business 
 centres ; so it is to the karvaltu that ladies generally invite 
 their friends, there being also the additional reason that 
 Moslem women rarely go abroad after nightfall. Some- 
 times large luncheon parties are given, at which the most 
 rigid etiquette is observed. The hostess leads the way to 
 the dining-room where, in old-fashioned households, the 
 covers are laid on sofras circular tables, or rather stands, 
 raised only some eight inches from the floor, and accom- 
 modating at the most half a dozen persons. If the guests 
 are numerous, there will be several sofras, at which they 
 are distributed according to their rank. At a genuinely 
 Turkish table the covers consist merely of a spoon and 
 portion of bread. Round the raised leather pad, which 
 
TURKISH HOMES AND HOME LIFE 275 
 
 occupies the centre, are grouped small saucers containing 
 hors d'oeuvre olives, cubes of water-melon or cucumber, 
 radishes, anchovies, etc. As the ladies seat themselves 
 cross-legged on the low cushions disposed around the sofra, 
 slaves approach bearing water, soap, and towels. One holds 
 the leyen, or basin, made with a little stand in the centre 
 to hold the ball of soap, and a " well " into which the used 
 water disappears through perforations ; another pours water 
 on the hands from an elegantly shaped brass ibrik; while 
 a third tenders the embroidered towel with which to dry 
 them. Other towels with ends embroidered in coloured 
 silks and gold thread the chevreh of which the East has 
 of late years been almost emptied by the demand for them 
 in the West are distributed as table napkins, and the 
 repast commences. A tureen of soup, very thick, rich, and 
 nourishing, is first placed on the sofra. With a wave of 
 her hand, and a polite " Boyournu Effendi? the hostess 
 invites the principal guest to dip in her spoon. If, how- 
 ever, all her guests are of inferior rank to herself, she takes 
 precedence, and the first spoonful. When the spoons have 
 returned a few times to the tureen, it is removed and re- 
 placed with a number of other dishes in succession. The 
 hors cFoeuvres, with various sweets and fruits, fill up the 
 intervals between the courses until the pilaf is placed on 
 the sofra. This national dish is composed chiefly of rice 
 and butter, and is, like the others, eaten with the fingers 
 which may sound a difficult feat. But "practice makes 
 perfect," and it is surprising to see with what neatness 
 and dexterity the loose grains of rice can be picked up 
 
276 TURKISH HOMES AND HOME LIFE 
 
 by two henna-stained fingers and a thumb, and conveyed 
 to the mouth. The last dish, the hochaf, consists of stewed 
 fruits cooled with ice, served in a crystal bowl, and eaten 
 with long spoons of ivory. Water, and occasionally sherbet 
 the latter, however, not an effervescing drink, but made 
 from fresh fruits are the only beverages partaken of in 
 the haremlik, and these are not placed on the table, but 
 handed by the attendants as required. At the conclusion 
 of the repast the ley en and ibrik are again carried round, 
 and the party adjourn to the divan khant. After a short 
 interval, during which the ladies place themselves on the 
 divan still, however, observing the rules of precedence 
 a kalfa, or head servant, enters, bearing on a tray draped 
 with a richly embroidered crimson napkin, the coffee-pot, 
 tiny porcelain cups, and zarfs, as the cupholders in gold 
 or silver are called. She is followed by a troop of slave- 
 girls, who advance in turn to the tray, pour out a cup of 
 coffee, place it in the zarf, and present it to the guests, 
 according to their rank, which it is their duty previously 
 to ascertain, those of equal rank being served simultaneously. 
 Tchibouk-smoking has gone out of fashion among Osmanli 
 ladies, and with it, of course, the ancient ceremonial of pipe 
 distributing and lighting. Cigarettes are now handed on 
 a tray to each lady separately, and when she has adjusted 
 one in her amber mouthpiece, another slave approaches 
 with a glowing charcoal ember on a little brass dish from 
 which to light it. When all the cigarettes are alight, the 
 slaves retire to the lower end of the apartment where, 
 ranged in a line, they stand with arms crossed on their 
 
TURKISH HOMES AND HOME LIFE 277 
 
 bosoms and eyes modestly cast down until their services 
 are again required to remove the coffee cups. In the 
 interval they are, however, furtively taking mental notes 
 of the dress, conversation, and manners of the guests, who 
 should the hostess have brought up in her harem girls 
 for sale on their side submit this galaxy of beauty to a 
 critical inspection, and make their remarks on the girls 
 individually with an outspokenness that would both astonish 
 and amuse more reserved Europeans. Some of the hanwns 
 have, perhaps, been commissioned by their brothers or sons 
 to select wives or odalisks for them during visits to the 
 harems of friends for such transactions naturally require 
 the co-operation of the ladies of the family and may 
 return home with a favourable description of some girl 
 who has taken their fancy. An offer of purchase may in 
 that case be made for the damsel to her owner, who names 
 her price ; and this agreed to, the slave is transferred to 
 her new home, probably as a kitaletli that is, one sold 
 with the stipulation that she will in due course be set free 
 and married. 
 
 Should, however, the day's programme include none 
 of the above-mentioned distractions, the monotony of 
 harem life may, at any moment, be broken by various 
 incidents as, for instance, the arrival of a female broker 
 with jewels, articles of dress, or home-made cosmetics and 
 perfumes for sale, and gossip unlimited. These itinerant 
 vendors, who are chiefly old women, are quite an insti- 
 tution in Moslem society, and, under the cloak of their 
 calling, which gives them easy access to harems, they act 
 
278 TURKISH HOMES AND HOME LIFE 
 
 as agents not only in affairs matrimonial, but also in 
 clandestine intrigues of every description. In Turkish 
 folk-literature, indeed, an " old woman " invariably appears 
 as the deus ex inachina of a romance or tragedy. And 
 should the family possess daughters of a marriageable 
 age, the portress may at any moment announce the visit 
 of a party of Guerudjis, or " Viewers," which, as described 
 in a previous chapter, is calculated to cause lively and 
 more or less lasting excitement in the breasts of the fair 
 denizens of the haremlik. For every Turkish girl, whether 
 handsome or "homely," has a right to look forward to 
 marriage as her destiny ; and an " old maid " is hardly to 
 be found among the Osmanlis, so rarely does it happen 
 that a husband cannot be found for a girl of marriageable 
 age. Good looks naturally add to their owner's value in 
 the marriage market ; but even the most unprepossessing 
 or deformed spinster, if she belong to a family of position, 
 need not despair, as she will at the worst be bestowed on 
 some impecunious but aspiring "youth, to the furtherance 
 of whose ambitious schemes the patronage of her father 
 is necessary ; and many a high official has owed his 
 success in life to the influential connexions of an uncomely 
 spouse. 
 
 With regard to the dress of Osmanli women, the 
 incongruities noticeable in the furniture of the majority 
 of the better class houses prevail to an even greater 
 extent in the dress of the generality of the ladies who 
 inhabit them. Out of doors, of course, the yashmak and 
 feradjt the veil and cloak are still worn as full dress, 
 
TURKISH HOMES AND HOME LIFE 279 
 
 and also, on less formal occasions, the mahrema, a more 
 complete disguise, which may perhaps be best described as 
 a scanty double petticoat made of a variety of materials 
 from checked or striped printed cotton to rich brocaded 
 silk the upper one drawn hood-wise over the head, and 
 fastened under the chin, the face being completely hidden 
 by a kerchief of dark-coloured silk or muslin. But with 
 regard to indoor dress it would be difficult to say what is, 
 or is not, worn at the present day by Osmanli women of 
 the upper and wealthier classes, the majority having during 
 the past thirty years gradually discarded their graceful 
 and picturesque national costumes in favour of what are 
 but too often ludicrous and lamentable travesties of 
 Parisian fashions. The ancient indoor dress of an Osmanli 
 lady, which may still occasionally be seen in the remoter 
 provinces, is extremely handsome a sleeved gown of 
 white silk gauze, edged with silk point lace, and a skalvar, 
 or full trousers, of red silk worn under a yelek, a sort of 
 long coat tight-fitting above the waist, and buttoned from 
 the bosom to below the girdle, but open on each side 
 from the hip downwards, and trailing a few inches on the 
 floor. For full dress, another yelek, wider and looser, is 
 worn, also open at the sides and trailing, the sleeves of 
 both garments being rather tight-fitting, but open for 
 some six inches at the wrists, where they are often shaped 
 en sabot. This outer robe is usually of some rich material 
 worked round the borders, or all over, with elaborate 
 trailing patterns in coloured silks, or in gold and silver 
 thread, to which pearls are sometimes added. The head- 
 
280 TURKISH HOMES AND HOME LIFE 
 
 dress is a little round flat cap, covered with pearls and 
 precious stones or with embroidery and gold braid. The 
 bridal dresses of women of the middle and lower classes 
 are still made on this model, the materials depending on 
 the wealth of the bridegroom. 
 
 The everyday dress of women and children of the 
 middle and lower classes generally is of brightly printed 
 cottons, made up in winter into quilted jackets and other 
 garments, which are worn over full trousers of the same 
 material. Before going abroad a Turkish woman tucks 
 up her skirts about her waist as high as possible, and 
 secures them there with one of the large squares of 
 printed muslin that serve her for so many purposes. 
 Having thus made a shapeless bundle of herself, she 
 throws over all her mahrema, puts on her yellow babouches 
 and black overshoes, and sallies forth. Owing to the 
 disposition of her primitive " dress suspender " and to her 
 heavy footwear, the gait, when in their outdoor gear, of 
 Osmanli women belonging to the middle and lower classes 
 is, as a rule, the reverse of graceful, presenting as it does a 
 peculiar combination of waddle and shuffle. 
 
 In concluding this brief survey of the home life and 
 social status of Osmanli women, I may remark that the 
 seclusion of women which accompanies the harem system 
 is by no means, as generally assumed, a proof of their 
 supposed " degraded position," but is, on the contrary, in 
 great part the outcome of the regard entertained for them 
 by the men of their nation. Surrounded as they have 
 
TURKISH HOMES AND HOME LIFE 281 
 
 always been by people of alien races and religions, in no 
 other way than by restricting them when at home to the 
 inviolable karemlik, and by hiding their charms from the 
 public gaze when abroad under disguising veil and cloak, 
 could they be shielded from the impertinent curiosity to 
 say the least of the mixed horde, Christian, Moslem, 
 and Jew, who throng the streets of their cities and towns. 
 For the same reason similar customs were formerly, and 
 in some parts of the Empire still are, observed by the 
 women of the Christian population, Armenian and Greek. 
 And, as a matter of fact, the outdoor disguise of a Turkish 
 woman renders her perfectly safe from insult or moles- 
 tation, whether on foot in the streets, in tram or train, or 
 on the deck of the Bosphorus steamboats, and whatever 
 the provocation she may give. 
 
 The keen interest taken by Osmanli women in late 
 events, and especially in the incidents attending the 
 elections of members to, and the ceremony of the opening 
 of the Turkish Parliament, has been the subject of much 
 comment among those foreigners in Constantinople who 
 are unaware of the extent to which the ideas of political 
 liberty and intellectual progress have taken hold of women 
 belonging to the upper classes. Crowds of cloaked and 
 veiled figures gathered in the streets to witness the 
 Sultan's procession to this important function, and it was 
 remarked that many ladies installed at the windows of 
 houses on the line of route had not only ventured to 
 remove the obstructing latticed blinds, but in many cases to 
 appear at their open casements in ordinary European attire. 
 
282 TURKISH HOMES AND HOME LIFE 
 
 Few foreigners are, however, aware how important a 
 part was played by Osmanli ladies in the preparations for 
 the bloodless revolution of last July. Taking full advan- 
 tage of the immunity from molestation or impertinent 
 curiosity which is the privilege of women of their race, 
 and also of the absolute anonymity conferred by their 
 disguising veils and cloaks, the wives, mothers, and sisters 
 of the leaders of the movement in different parts of the 
 Empire were able to act freely as their emissaries and 
 go-betweens, bearing from harem to harem, and from city 
 to city, compromising papers which a man could have 
 carried only at the risk of his life. And, very naturally, 
 Osmanli women of the upper classes are now demand- 
 ing removal by the new Party of Reform of some at 
 least of the irksome social restrictions by which they are 
 hampered, and many important changes may be anti- 
 cipated as soon as the political and financial situation 
 may permit the new Government to give its attention 
 to social reforms. As Prince Saba-ed-Din is reported to 
 have remarked when addressing an audience of Turkish 
 ladies at Constantinople in September last, the religion 
 of Islam was not responsible for their lack of social 
 freedom, and that the establishment of a constitutional 
 form of government would have an important effect for 
 them also as women ; and he urged them in the mean time 
 to be moderate in their demands, and wait for their fulfil- 
 ment with calmness and patience. With regard to their 
 legal status, Turkish women, as above pointed out, already 
 possess all the legal, personal, and proprietary rights 
 
TURKISH HOMES AND HOME LIFE 283 
 
 necessary to give them a social position equal, if not 
 superior to that of European women generally. And the 
 objection to their emancipation from harem restraints being 
 consequently one of custom and prejudice, rather than 
 of religious law the seclusion and veiling of women 
 being immemorial social usages borrowed from other 
 Oriental races, and not institutions peculiarly Moslem 
 no religious law would therefore be contravened by a 
 change in these merely social customs. 
 
 This question of female emancipation is indeed one 
 which will, in all probability, have to be faced by the 
 Turkish Government in the near future, and some members 
 of the "Young Turkey" Party are frankly in favour of 
 according to the women of their nation all the social and in- 
 dustrial freedom enjoyed by their Christian sisters. Serious 
 difficulties of all kinds stand, however, in the way of this 
 very desirable reform, and one of the most important of 
 these is the fact that the abolition of the harem system 
 must necessarily entail the abolition of that of domestic 
 slavery, its inseparable adjunct. All kinds of restrictions, 
 legal and customary, which now make for morality in the 
 family relations of the Turks would, under the new condi- 
 tions, be thrown aside, and the result in the opinion of those 
 competent to judge would inevitably be, for a generation 
 at least, great social laxity. For if, as is the case, only 
 a very small minority of Turkish women are as yet fitted 
 by education for such new conditions, the same is true 
 of Turkish men. And in a city like Constantinople, the 
 centre of a great military system, suddenly to set free 
 
284 TURKISH HOMES AND HOME LIFE 
 
 from authority and make responsible for their own main- 
 tenance thousands of ignorant women hitherto protected 
 and maintained in private households, and for the most 
 part unaccustomed to any but the most desultory house- 
 hold duties, would be to create a social evil now happily 
 non-existent. A change so far-reaching in its conse- 
 quences could, indeed, only take place without great 
 resulting evil to the nation at large if prepared for by 
 such organisation for the wage-employment of the eman- 
 cipated as one can hardly yet expect to see carried out 
 in Turkey. 
 
 Difficult of realisation as such a measure of reform 
 is of itself, some of its advocates among the " Young 
 Turkey" enthusiasts, with whom I have discussed the 
 question, appeared to me to complicate it unnecessarily 
 by proposing that Osmanli women should be at once 
 placed, as to employment in factories, shops, etc., on a 
 level with their self-supporting sisters in the West ; surely 
 a case of " more haste, less speed ! " For the Armenian 
 and Greek women of Turkey, many of whom are now 
 at liberty to follow various industries and professions, 
 enjoyed at the beginning of last century far less personal 
 liberty than their Moslem sisters, and the gradual change 
 in their position has been chiefly due to the spread of 
 education and liberal ideas during the past century among 
 the men of these Christian nationalities. Economic con- 
 ditions also differ widely in East and West ; and were 
 domestic slavery abolished, domestic service would afford 
 quite sufficient employment for Turkish women of the 
 
TURKISH HOMES AND HOME LIFE 285 
 
 lower class ; while for those belonging to the educated 
 classes, there would be little necessity for their becoming 
 bread-winners, save, perhaps, as teachers. For, as early 
 marriage is customary for Turks of both sexes, old 
 bachelors being almost as rare as old maids, all native 
 girls would naturally marry under the new rtgime as they 
 have done under the old. In the original Turkish Consti- 
 tution, as drafted by Midhat Pasha in 1876, the abolition 
 of slavery was advocated, but to this and other clauses the 
 Sultan refused his assent. Were, however, the slave-trade 
 made illegal in Turkey, the abolition of the present system 
 of domestic slavery would naturally and gradually follow. 
 All adults now in a state of bondage would in due course 
 receive their manumission, and all children might be freed 
 within a certain number of years, during which their 
 services would in some measure recoup their owners for 
 the expense of their purchase and maintenance. The 
 harem system thus greatly modified, if not abolished, 
 women of slave origin would no doubt be for a time 
 available as domestic servants, being gradually replaced 
 by the daughters of the working classes, to whom such 
 employment should prove an immense boon, limited as 
 have hitherto been their wage-earning opportunities. And 
 a probable and very desirable result of this economic 
 change would also be the raising of the age of marriage 
 for girls. 
 
CONCLUSION 
 THE FUTURE OF THE OSMANLI TURKS 
 
 IT is impossible, however, that such economic and social 
 changes as I have just hinted at should take place 
 without being both preceded and accompanied by 
 political changes, and changes, indeed, issuing in hardly 
 less than a complete reconstitution of the Ottoman Nation- 
 ality. It seems desirable, therefore, to say something of 
 the probable character of these political changes. But as 
 I cannot pretend to any degree of authority on such a 
 subject, I shall confine myself to indicating briefly certain 
 large views and assured forecasts which, though published 
 thirty years ago, are so remarkably verified in present 
 conditions that one may have some confidence in their 
 further and complete verification. In 1879, when Mr. 
 Stuart-Glennie published his Europe and Asia, the Eastern 
 Question was still regarded as it had long been in England, 
 as also in Europe generally namely, as simply a Turco- 
 Russian Question, dividing men into Philo-Turks and 
 Philo-Russians. The general point of view, however, 
 from which that book was written was " that the Eastern 
 Question could not be adequately treated, save as the 
 question of a readjustment of the relations of Europe and 
 
 286 
 
THE FUTURE OF THE OSMANLI TURKS 287 
 
 Asia to each other, and of both to Africa a readjustment 
 involving that of the States of Europe to each other and 
 that of the States of Asia." l But since at least the Russo- 
 Japanese War of 1904, few would probably deny that the 
 Eastern Question is now evidently what it really, though 
 not so evidently, was at the time of the Turco-Servian and 
 Russo-Turkish Wars such a general question of the 
 readjustment of the relations of Europe and Asia as should 
 raise politicians quite above either merely Turkish or 
 Russian partisanship. And hence, as remarked thirty 
 years ago in Europe and Asia, the Future of the Osmanli 
 Turks must be now more generally recognised as inex- 
 tricably connected with all the great movements of the 
 time, both Asiatic and European. 
 
 To gain some definite foothold in taking so wide a 
 view of the Eastern Question, Mr. Stuart-Glennie attempted 
 to discover and demonstrate historically a Law of the 
 Development of Nationalities. As to that great generalisa- 
 tion it is not for me to say anything. But it led its author 
 to a forecast of that renaissance of the Ottoman nationality 
 which has been declared by review writers ignorant of, 
 or ignoring his work to have been "wholly unforeseen," 
 though acknowledged to have been the greatest of the poli- 
 tical events of IQO8. 2 And even more assured appeared to 
 be the rebirth of the European Nationalities as indepen- 
 dent, though federated, States. This, however, necessarily 
 involved the withdrawal of Turkish government from 
 
 1 Europe and Asia, Preface. 
 
 2 See, for instance, Fortnightly Review, September, 1908. 
 
288 THE FUTURE OF THE OSMANLI TURKS 
 
 Europe, though Constantinople might remain the Ottoman 
 capital. Yet it will probably now be recognised by all 
 duly acquainted with the strength of the Nationalist 
 aspirations of the various Balkan peoples, that the first 
 point clear in the Future of the Osmanli Turks is what 
 already, after the last Russo-Turkish War, the more far- 
 seeing of the Commanders in that war did not hesitate 
 privately to admit would sooner or later be found necessary 
 withdrawal from their European Provinces. And, to 
 illustrate this, I may say that in an interview with the 
 Commander-in-Chief in Macedonia, within the ancient 
 walls of the seaward fortress of Salonica, Mr. Stuart- 
 Glennie, having ventured to state his main conclusions in 
 Europe and Asia with respect to the Future of the 
 Osmanlis, was surprised and delighted by His Excellency's 
 response : " I entirely agree with you ! " 
 
 The Pasha with whom I also was acquainted, and 
 whom I greatly esteemed then further said, " After that 
 War, had I been Sultan, I would have endeavoured to 
 arrange for our gradual withdrawal in the course of a 
 certain number of years from all our European Provinces. 
 The very desirable result for us would have been the setting 
 by the ears of Austria and Russia, and, sooner or later, of 
 probably all the European Powers. In the mean time, 
 instead of wasting the flower of the Osmanlis of Anatolia 
 in the vain attempt to retain provinces which cannot be 
 permanently, or, indeed, much longer retained, without a 
 lavish expenditure of blood and treasure, we should have 
 consolidated ourselves in Asia Minor, and recovered, 
 
THE FUTURE OF THE OSMANLI TURKS 289 
 
 perhaps, our natural frontier of the Caucasus. Our 
 Nationality thus consolidated, futile would have been the 
 dreams of European Protectorates over our Syrian, Arabian, 
 and African Provinces. And our Khalifs temporal 
 sovereignty would have thus been immensely strengthened, 
 instead of being, as seems but too probable, fatally ex- 
 hausted." 
 
 The time, however, was not yet. And the intimate 
 connexion between the problems of the Near East and 
 the events of the Further East, insisted on thirty years 
 ago in Europe and Asia, cannot but be now recognised if 
 one considers how immensely more favourable to a re- 
 naissance of the Ottoman Nationality are the political 
 conditions which have followed the Russo-Japanese War 
 and that Russian Revolution which, though suppressed, 
 has been by no means crushed. In a moment of wild 
 enthusiasm members of the diverse nationalities of the 
 Balkan Peninsula may have embraced each other as newly 
 enfranchised " Ottomans." But that can only remind us 
 of similar scenes in the great French Revolution, when 
 the cry was Fraternite ou la Mort ! and any hope of even 
 a partial union of the Balkan populations as Ottoman 
 subjects can now be hardly even a diplomatic pretence. 
 Conditions, however, are altogether different in Asia Minor. 
 There, the only Christians having National Churches are 
 Greeks and Armenians. But the Greeks are not only 
 chiefly to be found in the cities, and particularly in Smyrna, 
 but belong to what is already a free Nationality ; and they 
 can, therefore, remain Hellenes if they do not care to be 
 u 
 
290 THE FUTURE OF THE OSMANLI TURKS 
 
 naturalised as Ottomans. And though the Armenians are 
 very numerous in the Eastern Highlands of Asia Minor, 
 in no province or vilayet do they constitute the majority 
 of the population. They are also, like the Osmanlis, an 
 essentially Asiatic people, and have been not inaptly 
 termed "but baptized Turks." Notwithstanding this, 
 however, the characteristic financial and administrative 
 capacities of the Armenians constitute a felicitous com- 
 plement to the political and martial virtues predominating 
 in the Osmanlis. The Armenians also have been estab- 
 lished in most of their present seats from time immemo- 
 rial, while the Turks are, in Asia Minor, comparatively 
 but new-comers, dating back, in this their new home, 
 to but the beginning of the thirteenth century. But 
 each is as necessary to the independent existence and 
 free development of the other as are the English of 
 Southern, and the Scots of Northern Britain. And one 
 is glad to see that this is now being more and more fully 
 recognised. 1 
 
 These, then, are the first two points that may now, 
 with more definite evidence than in 1879, be predicted as 
 to the future of the Osmanli Turks withdrawal from the 
 
 1 For instance, in a " Lettre d'Erzeroum" published in the Constan- 
 tinople journal Stamboul, February 18, 1909, and delivered as I write 
 these lines, it is reported that, " Les Comites Arme'niens de'clarent 
 formellement que si la Turquie leur accordait de sa propre volont6 
 1'autonomie ils ne pourraient pas 1'accepter ; car I'Arme'nie dtant 
 entoure'e d'e'le'ments ennemis, vu sa position gdographique, elle ne 
 pourrait nullement se protdger. Tous les Arme'niens ont compris 
 parfaitement bien que leur salut est de s'accorder avec les turcs et de 
 protdger ensemble la Turquie, le Vatan [fatherland] de tous." 
 
THE FUTURE OF THE OSMANLI TURKS 291 
 
 government of their European Provinces, a withdrawal 
 which those who have any intimate knowledge of the 
 Osmanlis cannot doubt will be at once dignified and 
 honourable ; and the territorial consolidation and constitu- 
 tional development of their Nationality in the immemorial 
 homeland of such constituents of it as the Armenians, 
 Kurds, and Circassians, the homeland also of the Osmanlis 
 themselves for the last seven hundred years. But if thus 
 consolidated, another feature will, as already hinted at, 
 certainly mark the future of the Osmanlis a renovation 
 of their rule over the great Empire that will still remain 
 to them, an Empire extending from the Caucasus and 
 the Caspian to the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean. 
 The renovation of this Empire Abdul Hamid II. has 
 assured by his quiet pushing on, for so many years, 
 of the construction of his splendidly statesmanlike rail- 
 way from Constantinople to Mekka. Of this and its 
 probable effects much might be said. But here I shall 
 only point out that it, in a manner, forces the friendship 
 of Great Britain. Russia's and Germany's ambitions will 
 be effectively baulked by the consolidation and develop- 
 ment of the Ottoman Nationality in Asia Minor, and 
 by the more enlightened government of its Asiatic and 
 African Empire. Not so, however, the just ambition of 
 Great Britain the ambition to retain her Eastern Empire, 
 and give even fuller freedom to its subjects, of whom a 
 larger number are Moslems than those who acknowledge 
 the temporal as well as the spiritual sovereignty of the 
 Khalif. And the admiration and respect which Britons 
 
292 THE FUTURE OF THE OSMANLI TURKS 
 
 who have had any real knowledge of the Turks have ever 
 been disposed to feel for them will, granting such a consoli- 
 dation of their Nationality and renovation of their Empire, 
 be supported by economic and political reasons sub- 
 stantially contributing to an enduring alliance. 
 
 That consolidation and that renovation can, however, 
 be worked out only against antagonisms both from within 
 and from without of the most serious character. Im- 
 mensely can Great Britain aid in smoothing the way of 
 the Constitutional Party amid both classes of obstacles. 
 Thus that friendly alliance with the Turkish People which 
 was only interrupted by the absolutism of Abdul Hamid 
 would be renewed. And it must be admitted that the 
 conduct of the " Young Turks " in the whole of the 
 proceedings connected with and subsequent to the Revo- 
 lution of July, 1908, certainly justifies all the aid that can 
 possibly be afforded them in the great task they have 
 undertaken. What will be the ultimate fate of Abdul 
 Hamid, and what manner of man the new Sultan pro- 
 claimed by the Parliamentary Party will show himself, it 
 is impossible as yet to conjecture. But however great the 
 political changes may be, it will certainly be long before 
 any considerable changes take place in the Social, 
 Religious, and Domestic Life of the Turkish People 
 described in the foregoing pages. 
 
SULTAN ABDUL HAMID II 
 
GLOSSARY OF TURKISH WORDS USED 
 IN THE TEXT 
 
 Agha, a title. 
 Ala'ik, a young slave. 
 
 Bakshish^ a bribe. 
 
 Bektchi, a watchman. 
 
 Beshlik, a coin of 5 piastres, value 
 
 about id. 
 
 Bey, a title of rank. 
 Bismillah, " In the Name of Allah." 
 Boktcha, a bundle-wrap. 
 
 Ddira, an establishment. 
 
 Divan-khane, reception-room. 
 
 Djami, a mosque. 
 
 Djemiet, period of festivity. 
 
 Djereed, a spear. 
 
 Djin, a demon. 
 
 Dughun, wedding or other festivities. 
 
 Effendi, a title of courtesy. 
 
 Emir, a prince. 
 
 Eskedji, a dealer in cast-off clothing. 
 
 Esnaf, a trade guild. 
 
 Ezan, the call to prayer. 
 
 Fatiha, the Moslem " Lord's Prayer." 
 Fenaguez, the "Evil Eye." 
 Feradjeh, Turkish lady's cloak. 
 Fetva, a legal decree. 
 
 Ghazel, a sonnet. 
 
 Groosh, piastres, a coin worth about 
 
 fladis, the Moslem traditions. 
 
 Hadji, a pilgrim. 
 
 Hafiz, one who knows the Koran by 
 
 heart. 
 
 Hamal, a porter. 
 Hammam, a Turkish bath. 
 Hanum, a Turkish lady. 
 Haremlik, the women's apartments. 
 Hodja, a tutor. 
 Hoshaf, stewed fruit. 
 
 Ihram, the sacred habit worn by 
 
 pilgrims. 
 Imam, a priest. 
 Imaret, an almshouse. 
 Inshallah, " God willing." 
 Intarie t a house-dress. 
 
 Kadi, a judge. 
 Kahvedji, a coffee-maker. 
 A'fli/J ease, enjoyment. 
 Ka'ikdji, a boatman. 
 Kalfa, a head servant. 
 Khan, a hostelry, a royal title. 
 Khasida, a verse-form. 
 Khotba, the Friday sermon. 
 
 or Kibleh, the direction of 
 Mekka. 
 
 , a storeroom. 
 Kismet, fate, destiny. 
 Konak, a mansion. 
 
 &, basin and jug. 
 
 293 
 
294 
 
 GLOSSARY OF TURKISH WORDS 
 
 Mahalla, a street, a quarter. 
 Mangal, a warming apparatus. 
 Medjidieh, a dollar. 
 Medjliss, a town council. 
 Medresseh, a theological college. 
 Mekteb, a parish school. 
 Mezzlik, hors d'ceuvres. 
 Mikrab, alcove in a mosque indi- 
 
 cating the direction of Mekka. 
 Mimber, pulpit in a mosque. 
 Mollah, a dean. 
 Mrisdadji, a " news-bringer." 
 
 Namaz, daily prayers. 
 Narghileh) a water-pipe. 
 
 Para, the fortieth part of a piastre. 
 
 Pasha, a title of rank. 
 
 Peri, a supernal being. 
 
 Plr, the founder of a Dervish Order. 
 
 a kind of spirit. 
 Redif, a Reservist. 
 Rut be, social rank. 
 
 Saka, a water-carrier. 
 Saraf, a money-changer. 
 7, a fountain. 
 
 Selamlik, a ceremony, the men's 
 
 apartments. 
 Serai, a palace. 
 
 Seraili, slave belonging to a palace. 
 Sheik, a prior. 
 S^m or Sheriat, the Holy Law of 
 
 Islam. 
 
 Shia, a Mohammedan schismatic. 
 .50/nz, a tray-stand. 
 50/ta, a theological student. 
 Sttnni, an orthodox Moslem. 
 
 Tandiir, a warming apparatus. 
 Tcharshi, a bazar or market. 
 Tchelebi, "gentleman." 
 Tchibouk, a Turkish pipe. 
 Tchiboukdji, a pipe-bearer. 
 Tchiftlik, a country estate. 
 Turbeh, a mausoleum. 
 
 Ulema, Moslem Legists. 
 
 Vakouf, Church property. 
 Vurkulak, a vampire. 
 
 Yahli, a villa. 
 
 Yashmak, veil of a Turkish lady. 
 
 Zaptieh, armed policeman. 
 
INDEX 
 
 ABLUTIONS, religious, 116 
 Almsgiving, 120 
 Almshouses, 105, 122 
 Amusements, 78 
 Army, the, 33 
 
 B AIR AM Festivals, 148 
 Bakshish, 29 
 
 Baths, Turkish, 231, 242, 273 
 Bazars and markets, 8, 9 
 Birth ceremonies, 227 
 Boatmen, 19 
 
 CALLIGRAPHY, 180 
 Cemeteries, 254 
 Children, custody of, 218 
 Circassian slaves, 225, 277 
 Circumcision ceremonies, 233 
 Civil service, 26 
 Cleanliness, 13 
 Clubs, military and naval, 35 
 
 ,, educational, 179 
 Coffee-houses, 79 
 Conscription, 31 
 Conservatoire of Music, 183 
 
 DERVISH monasteries, 199 
 Orders, the, 184 
 Divination, 138 
 Divorce, 218 
 DJEM SHAH, 165 
 Djereed, game of, IOO 
 Djins and Peris, 134 
 Domestic slavery, 211 
 Dress, 64, 278 
 
 EDUCATION, 160, 175 
 Etiquette, 7, 268 
 Evil Eye, the, 130 
 EVLIYA EFFENDI, 129 
 
 FARMING, 70 
 Feast of Sacrifice, the, 147 
 Fountains, 109 
 Funeral ceremonies, 249 
 Furniture, 264 
 
 GOVERNMENT officials, 24 
 
 Hafez, 129 
 
 Hamals, 20 
 
 Harem, 265, 283 
 
 Heirs to the throne, 62 
 
 Hodja, the, and Old-Clothes Man, 85 
 
 Holy Mantle, Feast of the, 149 
 
 Home life, 269 
 
 Hospitality, 121 
 
 Hospitals, 38 
 
 Houses, 258 
 
 IMPERIAL consorts, 59 
 
 family, the, 52 k 
 palaces, 40 
 ,, recreations, 50 
 
 Industries, specialisation of, 20 
 
 Islam, creed of, 114 
 
 Itinerant commerce, 13 
 
 JANISSARIES, destruction of, 31 
 
 Kalenders, 204 
 Khans, 9 
 
 295 
 
296 
 
 INDEX 
 
 KHIDHR-ELIAS, 95, 123 
 Kismet, 119, 239, 249 
 
 LADY slave-dealers, 213 
 Locomotion, means of, 21 
 
 MAGICAL practices, 135 
 Manumission of slaves, 223 
 Marriage ceremonies, 237 
 settlements, 218 
 Meals, 274 
 Medjliss, the, 65 
 Moslem calendar, 22 
 
 clergy, no 
 Mosque colleges, 162 
 Mosques, 103 
 Music, 181 
 Musical instruments, 182 
 
 NASR-ED-DlN HODJA, 82 
 
 Negro slaves, 225 
 
 PARISH schools, 160 
 
 Paymaster-General's office, 30 
 
 Peasant proprietors, 67 
 
 Peasantry, 75 
 
 Pilgrimage, 152 
 
 Poetry, 165 
 
 Poetesses, 173 
 
 Polygamy, 220 
 
 Prayers for the dead, 256 
 
 Pride of race, 4 
 
 Provincial life, 63 
 
 Public worship, 117 
 
 Ramazan, 143 
 
 SACRED habit, the, 153 
 
 St. Demetrius, 137 
 
 St. Nicholas, 124 
 
 " St. Solomon and the Sparrow," 90 
 
 Selamlik, ceremony of the, 43 
 
 Serailis, 54 
 
 Silk culture, 72 
 
 Slaves, female, 211, 277 
 
 Sobriety, 4, 36 
 
 Social organisation, 4 
 
 Soft as, in 
 
 Solomon in folk-tale, 86 
 
 Story legends, 129 
 
 Story-telling, 81 
 
 SULTAN ABDUL HAMID II., 47 
 
 SULTAN MOHAMMED V., 292 
 
 TALISMANS, 139 
 Taxation, 68 
 Tchiftliks, 68 
 Titles and nicknames, 6 
 Tobacco, ii 
 
 ,, culture, 72 
 Trade guilds, 16, 80 
 Turkish language, the, 167 
 
 ,, literature, 169 
 
 ,, quarter, the, 2 
 
 ,, villages, 66 
 
 villeggiatara, 70 
 
 ,, watchman, 8 
 
 Ulema, no, 162 
 
 Valide Sultanas, $4, 60 
 Vampirism, 140 
 Village headmen, 66 
 
 WAR Office, the, 28 
 
 Water-carriers, 15 
 
 Wedding ceremonies, 237 
 
 " Why the Swallow's Tail is forked," 
 
 87 
 
 Witches and fortune-tellers, 131 
 Wives of Mohammed, 128 
 Women, respect for, 280 
 
 ,, seclusion of, 211, 268, 282 
 
 ,, status of, 217 
 
 ,, Paradise promised to, 126 
 " Wood-cutter and Fortune," the, 92 
 
 YILDIZ Kiosk, 42 
 
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20 
 
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34 
 
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FICTION 
 
 35 
 
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 Moore (Arthur). THE KNIGHT PUNC- 
 
 T1LIOUS. 
 
 Nesbit, E. (Mrs. Bland). THE LITER* 
 
 ARY SENSE. 
 
 Norris (W. E.). AN OCTAVE. 
 MATTHEW AUSTIN. 
 THE DESPOTIC LADY. 
 Oliphant(Mrs.). THE LADY'S WALK. 
 SIR ROBERT'S FORTUNE. 
 THE TWO MARY'S. 
 Pendered (M. L.). AN ENGLISHMAN. 
 Penny (Mrs. Frank). A MIXED MAR- 
 
 AGE. 
 Phillpotts (Eden). THE STRIKING 
 
 HOURS. 
 FANCY FREE. 
 Pryce (Richard). TIME AND THE 
 
 WOMAN. 
 Randall (John). AUNT BETHIA'S 
 
 BUTTON. 
 Raymond (Walter). FORTUNE'S DAR. 
 
 Rayner (Olive Pratt). ROSALBA. 
 Rhys (Grace). THE DIVERTED VIL- 
 
 LAGE. 
 Rickert (Edith). OUT OF THE CYPRESS 
 
 SWAMP. 
 
 Roberton(M. H.). A GALLANT QUAKER. 
 Russell, (W. Clark). ABANDONED. 
 Saunders (Marshall). ROSE A CHAR. 
 
 LITTE. 
 
 Sergeant (Adeline). ACCUSED AND 
 
 ACCUSER. 
 
 BARBARA'S MONEY. 
 THE ENTHUSIAST. 
 A GREAT LADY. 
 THE LOVE THAT OVERCAME. 
 THE MASTER OF BEECHWOOD. 
 UNDER SUSPICION. 
 THE YELLOW DIAMOND. 
 THE MYSTERY OF THE MOAT. 
 Shannon (W. P.). JIM TWELVES. 
 Stephens (R. N.). AN ENEMY OF THE 
 
 KING. 
 
 Strain (E. H.). ELMSLIE'S DRAG NET. 
 Stringer (Arthur). THE SILVER POPPY. 
 Stuart (Esme). CHRISTALLA. 
 A WOMAN OF FORTY. 
 Sutherland (Duchess of). ONE HOUR 
 
 AND THE NEXT. 
 
 Swan (Annie). LOVE GROWN COLD. 
 Swift (Benjamin). SORDON. 
 SIREN CITY. 
 Tanqueray (Mrs. B. M.). THE ROYAL 
 
 QUAKER. 
 Thompson (Vance). SPINNERS OF 
 
 LIFE. 
 Trafford-Taunton (Mrs.E.W.). SILENT 
 
 DOMINION. 
 
 Upward (Allen). ATHELSTANE FORD. 
 Waineman (Paul). A HEROINE FROM 
 
 FINLAND. 
 
 BY A FINNISH LAKE. 
 Watson (H. B. Marriott). THE SKIRTS 
 
 OF HAPPT CHANCE. 
 'Zack.' TALBSOFDUNSTABLEWEIR. 
 
FICTION 
 
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40 
 
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 NORTH AND SOUTH. 
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 NO TALES. 
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 TORY OF JOSHUA DAVIDSON. 
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 ONE ANOTHER'S BURDENS. 
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 JACOB FAITHFUL. 
 Marsh (Richard). THE TWICKENHAM 
 
 PEERAGE. 
 THE GODDESS. 
 
 THE JOSS. 
 
 A METAMORPHOSIS. 
 
 Mason (A. E. W.). CLEMENTINA. 
 
 Mathers (Helen). HONEY. 
 
 GRIFF OF GRIFFITHSCOURT. 
 
 SAM'S SWEETHEART. 
 
 Meade (Mrs. L. T.). DRIFT. 
 
 Mitford (Bertram). THE SIGN OF THE 
 SPIDER. 
 
 Montresor (F. P.). THE ALIEN. 
 
 Morrison (Arthur). THE HOLE IN 
 THE WALL. 
 
 Nesbit(E-). THE RED HOUSE. 
 
 Morris (W. E.). HIS GRACE. 
 
 GILES INGILBY. 
 
 THE CREDIT OF THE COUNTY. 
 
 LORD LEONARD. 
 
 MATTHEW AUSTIN. 
 
 CLARISSA FURICSA. 
 
 Oliphant (Mrs.). THE LADY'S WALK. 
 
 SIR ROBERT'S FORTUNE. 
 
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 MEN, 
 
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 LAVILETTES. 
 
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 OF A THRONE. 
 
 I CROWN THEE KING. 
 
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 CHILDREN OF THE MIST. 
 
 'Q.' THE WHITE WOLF. 
 
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 LOST PROPERTY. 
 
 GEORGE AND THE GENERAL. 
 
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 SEA. 
 
 ABANDONED. 
 
 MY DANISH SWEETHEART. 
 HIS ISLAND PRINCESS. 
 Sergeant (Adeline) THE MASTER OF 
 
 BEECHWOOD. 
 BARBARA'S MONEY. 
 THE YELLOW DIAMOND. 
 THE LOVE THAT OVERCAME. 
 Surtees (R. S.). HANDLEY CROSS. 
 
 Illustrated. 
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 ASK MAMMA. Illustrated. 
 Walford (Mrs. L. B.). MR. SMITH. 
 COUSINS. 
 
 THE BABY'S GRANDMOTHER. 
 Wallace (General Lew). BEN-HUR. 
 THE FAIR GOD. 
 Watson (H. B. Marriot). THE ADVEN- 
 
 TURERS. 
 
 Weekes (A. B.). PRISONERS OF WAR. 
 White (Percy). A PASSIONATE 
 PILGRIM. 
 

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