IVAJl f UMIiS V %nnm t rmmMi»rrmm wu mi, »'» m»iin M«u«»w T IK «MMMMSMM«Mi ii—iiian ■MHMWK* » — |M ■.■■!! HI £x Libris C. K. OGDEN WtRtVIS^ES *ND FOSSIL RESINS I^INGMM CLM\K F.L.S., F^&S. frc IlkQlrateA by James ^ c 5^ /(£)'' CONTENTS Part I.— VARNISH. Definition. — Etymology. — Early origin. — Wrappings of Egyptian Mummies. — Paintings at Thebes. — Biblical reference. — Schools of Painting. — First great artists. — A Varnish invented by Apelles. — Ancient Asian Varnishes. — Roman knowledge of same. — Paintings in Ruins of Pompeii. — Preparation of ancient pictures. — Character of protective Varnish. — Losses to Art by destruction of Greek Republics. Probable discovery of Varnish. — Demand created. — Growth and commercial extension. Japanese Lacquer. — Introduction of ware to Europe. — Antiquity of this art. — Material employed. — How the trade was developed. — Law relating thereto. — Mr. Quin's paper. — Account and history of the industry. — Differences of sap. — Use. — Transparent lacquers. — How probably produced. — Characteristics of lacquer. — Suggested reasons. — Collection of lacquer, and implements used in its application. — Mr. Hikorokuro's essay. — Chemical composition. — Analysis of lacquer. — Mr. S. Ishimatsu's methods of separation. — Communication by Professor Roscoe. — Specific gravity. — Composition. — Mr. J. Takayama's analysis. — Urishic Acid. — Mean result of analyses. — Time and mode of collection of juice. — Average yield. — Method of preparation of lacquer. — Fine and common cabinet work. — Japanese lacquer unsuitable for European use. — Probable large future consumption of European Varnishes in Japan and China. Modern Varnish Making.— Its requirements and objects — The desideratum. — Necessity of practical experience.- — Misleading published workshop recipes. — Extent of the trade. — Quantity of Fossil and Semi-fossil Resins consumed. — Sources of the supply. — Development since 17th century. Amber impracticable for Varnish purposes. — Its early commercial repute. — Probable use by Violin makers. — Modern Violin Varnish. — Expert opinion. — Magnetic qualities ami sounding properties. — The old Italian Varnishes. — An authoritative argu- ment upon the supposed lost art. — The same contravened. — A personal operative 2008135 knowledge. — Probable transmission. — Cremona Varnish successfully imitated. — An expert's opinion thereon. — Difficulty and danger attending the process. — Laboratory work. — Comparison by practical application upon instruments. — The late Mr. Charles Reade's views. — The same refuted. — Production of certain Varnishes still personal. — Black Japan. — Laboratory experiments upset. — Intimate tricky acquaintance with raw material. — Difficulty in obtaining uniformity. — Consequent largely discontinued use abroad. — Comparison of position with Cremona Varnish. Literature of the subject. — Continental Works. — Extracts and comments. Patents : Review of. — Bessemer Gold Paint. — Melting Gum by steam vapours or gas. — Patents for Machinery and Plant. — Stoutening Linseed Oil by air-blowing. — Opinions as to merits. Recent extension of the trade. — High esteem of English Varnish. — Extracts from Neil's "Art of making Copal and Spirit Varnishes," 1832. — Scale of manufacture then. — Purchase and preparation of Gum for melting. — Comparison with present methods and requirements. — Position of the trade now. — Difficulty of establishing a Brand. — Reasons. — How attainable. — Ingredients : Fossil and Semi-fossil Resins. — Peculiarities. — Sources of. — Imports : quantities. — Whence derived. — Copals : original country of supply conjectured. — Their familiar names. Part II.— RESINS. Amber. — Physical and chemical properties. — Philomel's opinion. — Pliny's theory. — Hoffman's proof. — Distribution. — Principal sources of supply. — How fished from the sea. — Amber mines. — How worked. — Collection and sale. — Price. — Geological association. — Undoubted vegetable origin. — Imbedded Insects. — Their probable period discussed. — Exact description. — Electrical qualities. — Derivation of name. — Ancient myths and modern poetry. — Specific gravity and melting point. — Dry distillation. — Distinctive characteristics. Animis : Zanzibar. — Tree yielding same. — " Sandarusi," the old, " Chakazi," the new Gum. — Field of supply. — Where, and how found. — Peculiarity of surface. — " Gooseskin." — How caused. — Cleaning and sorting. — Value. — Fracture. — Specific gravity. - Melting point. Madagascar Animi. — Source of supply. — Melting point. — Specific gravity. Demarara Animi. — Tree yielding same. — Whence collected. — Beauty of the cleaned Gum. — Insects. — Size of pieces. — Largest specimen described. — Appearance deceptive. — Value. — Price declining. — Reason. — Destructive distillation. — Specific gravity. — Melting point. — Opinion as to merit. Copals : West Coast. — Similarity to Animis. — Benguela and Angola — Doubtful botanical source. — Native names. — Collecting districts. — Markets. — Copalliferous Zone geographically and geologically defined. — Gradual physical alteration. — Indrifting of sand. — Extinction of vegetation. — The Boabab {Adansonia digitata). — Peculiar dis- tribution. — Probable source. — Opinion of authorities. — Copals ascribable to limited sub-division of vegetable kingdom. — Scientific investigation on the subject. — Detailed arguments. — Excerpts. — Dr. DanielPs views considered. — Native opinion. — Dr. Welwitsch's researches. — His theories examined. — Conclusions. — Method of collection and sale. — Depth at which Resin is found. — Cleaning and sorting. — Size. — Coating and incrustation. — Facets. — Value in practical use. — Melting point. — Specific gravity. Sierra Leone Copals. — Importance of. — Early knowledge. — Mistaken char- acter. — Use in 1 8th century. — First exports. — Quantities. — Producing district. — Collection from trees. — Botanical source. — Description of tree. — Habitat. — Native name. — Use. — Time of gathering, and methods. — Coating. — Cause of. — Mode of cleaning in lixivium. Pebble Copal. — How found and collected. — Value. — Increase of imports. — Older Gum. — Melting point. — Color. — Acid. — Practical value for Varnish purposes. — Specific gravity. — Market price. Accra, Congo, Gaboon, and Loango Copals. — Other African fields of supply. — Ogea Gum. — Native use. — Where found. — Quality and value. — Botanical derivation. — Discovery of Copal Forest by Mr. Heathcote. — Report thereon. — Geographical position. — Botanical source of its Resin. — Native name. — Melting point. South American Copals. — Undeveloped fields. — Shipments irregular.— Quality varied. — Mixed character. — Recent Gums. — Botanical sources. Manila Copals. — Peculiarities of appearance. — Character. — Difficulties in distinguishing. — Care necessary in use. — Opinions upon soft and hard varieties. — Tricky nature. — Trouble in distillation. — Port of shipment. — Districts of supply. — Best and worst descriptions. — Principal consuming countries. — Amsterdam sales. — Mode of packing. — Sorting and cleaning. — Accurate scheduling. — Scant information as to pro- ducing districts. —Probable mode of collecting. — Melting point. — Specific gravity. — Crop Gums. — Objections to. — Probable botanical sources. Kauri. — Country of supply. — Recent origin of the trade. — Importance of same. — Increasing demand.— Probable early exhaustion of known fields. — Resin from living trees, — Worthlessness of same. — Suggested export tax. — Remarkable peculiarity of this Resin. — Consequent value for Varnish making. — Competition of Manila Copals. — Objections in practical use. — Botanical source. — Producing province. — Existing forests. — Partly matured Gum. — Range in value. — Diversity of quality. — Accurate classification in marks or brands. — Varieties in colour. — Where and how found. — Size of pieces. — Comparison with early shipments. — The Gum digging- industry. — The old Maori collectors. — The Whites now engaged.- Method of collection. — Transportation. — Cost. — Sorting, packing and branding. —Tenure of Maori lands. — Royalty exacted. — Auctions of leases of Government lands. — Principal supplying districts. — Ground in which different qualities are found. — Annual value of collection. — Universal use. — This demand explained. — Practical reason therefor. — Quantity of exports. — America the principal market. — Range of specific gravity. — Loss in distillation. -Melting point. Gi"M Damar. — The several varieties. — The most valuable, and why. — Botanical source. — Melting point. — Specific gravity. — Dark and Black Damar. — Method of collecting. — Botanical source. — Native uses. Mastic- — Botanical origin. — How gathered. — Best qualities.- — Producing country. — Use in Turkey. — Other sources of supply. — Quality. — Employment for Picture Varnish.— Why so used. Bastard Animis and Copals. — Fault with first shipments of Resin. — Reasons. — Suggestions. — Analyses of Fossil Resins. — Unverdorben's researches. — Ure's ultimate constituents. — Kane's three degrees. — Dr. Edmund J. Mills' formula;. — The Potash absorption of Resins. — Conclusions. t^B) Y Varnish, is understood any liquid substance, the 'Jin) diffusion of which, over solid bodies, gives to their surface a certain brilliancy, by the combined effect of reflection and refraction of the rays of light. The etymology of the word is somewhat obscure, some derive it from the Latin Vitrinire — to glaze, and Vitrum — glass ; but the more probable root is Vermis ros, signifying the vernal dew, — hence the French word Vermis. It is difficult to trace the period when Varnish first became a known article in commerce, although it is of necessity allied to the art of painting. The manufacture, as now understood in Europe, is of comparatively modern date ; but a crude know- ledge of the article must have been existent at a very early period, for so-called Varnishes have been taken from the wrappers of Egyptian Mummies, though these were more probably pre- pared resins or natural balsams. Even as early as the 19th century h.c. the walls and temples of Thebes were decorated with paintings. Ezekiel (who prophesied about 600 years b.c.) also refers to paintings in Jerusalem "after the manner of the Babylonians and Chaldeans;" works which were doubtless protected by some substance of the character of Varnish. The chief Schools of Painting in the classic era were those of Sicyon, Corinth, Athens and Rhodes. The first great artist known to history was Polygnotus of Athens, who painted the Lesche or Public Hall of Delphi about 450 b.c; yet although Pliny seems to prefer the works of Apollodorus, the most celebrated painter of ancient days was without doubt Apelles (about 350 b.c.) who united the fine coloring of the Ionian with the accurate drawing of the Sicyonic schools, and some of whose paintings were placed in Diana's Temple at Ephesus. Pliny states that Apelles invented a Varnish the composition of which was known only to himself; and it is also certain that the Varnishes which had been made for many centuries by the inhabitants of the Eastern parts of Asia, were in part known to, and employed by the Romans. The Ruins of Pompeii remove all doubt as to the use which the ancients made of oil painting for decorative purposes. The works of Apelles and of those who preceded him disappeared with the period which saw them produced, and there is no monument in existence to enable us to solve the question as to whether the preservation of the coloring matter employed by these early painters was attribu- table to Varnish or any substance of a similar nature. It is, however, generally acknowledged that the majority of these paintings were executed in a kind of distemper on boards (Tabula) and fixed with some preparation of Var- nish in which oil formed a conspicuous constituent. These great artists, who added lustre to the age of Pericles and Socrates, combined grace of disposition with brightness of coloring, and pro- duced master- pieces, which although existing only in the descriptions trans- mitted to us, show how great were the losses to Art which followed the destruction of the Greek Republics. It may readily be believed that the discovery of Varnish was the fruit of repeated trials, and though those who made it had continually in their hands the essential materials, yet there was still a motive wanting — that of sus- tained demand — which was however soon created among peaceable and industrious nations by a taste for luxury, and extended by commercial intercourse. The Japanese, as is well-known, are celebrated for the peculiar _ --■_ '. Enamel ^Varnish so largely used in their lacquer industry, and it is most probable that the exquisite gloss of the Chinese and Japanese work brought over by the Jesuit Missionaries of Ni W_ ^s."'^ the 15th or i6th < entury, induced European ^^p** artists to make attempts to imitate it. W^' There is no doubt that Varnishing has been practised from a very early period in Japan, but the material employed has no resemblance to European Varnish, being in fact, the crude sap of the Rhus vernicifera or lacquer tree, plantations of which were officially established in Japan during the reign of the Emperor Mommu a.d. 701 to 704. An edict was at that time issued that each farmer employing six hands should plant 80 lacquer trees on 'jl^W his grounds, one employing four j§£ hands 70, and so on, and also that ^^ffllr® '^% t ^ ie annua l taxes should be paid in lacquer. This law led to the founding of plantations in every village. Mr. J. J. Ouin read a very interesting treatise upon this subject before the Asiatic Society of Japan, on October 1 2th, 1880, which is to be found in the Transactions of that Society, published at Yokohama by Messrs. Lane, Crawford & Co. RHUS VERNICIFERA. An exhaustive account is given of the whole history of the lacquer industry, together with detailed descriptions of the methods of application, and sundry recipes for the making of the different varieties. As there is some difficulty now in procuring Mr. Ouin's paper, it may be of interest J&M$ to give a brief summary of his in- formation upon the question. lie states that it is doubtful if the art existed previous to the time ot^j the Emperor Jimmu, B.C. 560-581, i.e. during the ages spoken of as the times of the Gods ; but it is mentioned in the old records that during the reign of the Emperor Koan, who ascended the throne B.c. 392, a person named Mitsu-ne- no-Sukune was the first on whom the office of " Chief of the Imperial Lacquer Department" was conferred; but though this title existed, it is unfortunately not known what articles were manufactured. The next notice of interest on lacquer is in the reign of the Emperor Ko-toku a.d. 645. In his time lacquered articles were received by the Government in lieu of taxes, and an order issued that in future the <><><><><><><>■><><><><► <>0 ■»«><><»■» •:*:♦ 4> <>0«> 4> <►<><>•<><><> <><><>■<> <><><>• <-<►<><>■ joints of the Imperial coffins should be covered with lacquer. In this reign too, rules were established respecting a cere- monial head covering, and mention is made of the pendant being stiffened with lacquer. In a.d. 673-686, a workman whose name has not been preserved, invented the manufacture of red lacquer and presented a set of shelves to the Emperor. Between the years a.d. 782 and 806 the taste &; for this ware spread throughout the country, and \J^ in the following reign the Lacquer Department was incorporated with the Takumiriyd, which answers to the Public Works Department of the present day. On account of the luxurious habits of the Kuges at Kioto during the years a.d. 950 to 1 1S5, the lacquer trade of that city throve vigor- ously, and the fame of the Kioto ware was such, that wealthy persons and admirers of artistic furniture, induced numbers of Kioto workmen to settle in their provinces, the results of this migration tending greatly to the diffusion and still further develop- ment of the industry. During this period also, a number of priests and officials became extremely expert in working lacquer, and it is said sold articles of their own manufacture in considerable quantities. Between a.d. 1368- 1392 two retainers of the Ashikaga family built castles at Sakai, which locality prospered greatly ; numerous makers in lacquer were attracted there, and the ware made subsequently acquired a high reputation. /HP* l£S About the year a.d. 1500 Chinese patterns J^\ MKlU'&M and modes of working, and several of their methods of applying lacquer, were introduced, including that of embossing in red and black lacquers. During the first three quarters of the 16th Century Japan was a constant scene of civil wars, which naturally caused commerce to six [^ jk decline, until the advent of TaikG Hideyoshi, l&i JH wno con q u ered the whole country. The peace- s' ful times which followed enabled the lacquer trade to revive again. It continued to prosper ||j during the reign of the Emperor Go-Yozei, a.d. 15 87-16 1 1, and from %?f = that date until now the industry has increased and flourished in a manner formerly unknown. It seems that the sap obtained ||r? from the young trees is used for the first applications, and that from the old ones for the finishing coats — ls well as in the manufacture of transparent lacquers. The manner in which this article is treated to make it transparent is not divulged ; we should say, however, that it is probably accomplished either by filtration through charcoal, or by treatment with weak acid. All these lacquers turn black on exposure to the air, probably by the absorp- tion of oxygen ; and it is curious that they will not dry nor harden properly in the open air, the process in vogue requiring a damp close atmosphere, otherwise the lacquer runs, and remains sticky or " tacky." A very complete set of Japanese lacquers, and of the implements \ \ J A- used in their appli- cation, together with m) partly finished and finished examples of work are exhibited in Museum No. i in the Royal Gardens, Kew. This collection was got together by Mr. Ouin expressly for Kew, and served to illustrate his paper, which was ultimately printed in the form of a Consular Report to the Foreign Office. 9 A very elaborate essay on the chemical composition of these lacquers, which formed one of the Prize Essays of the Edinburgh International Forestry Exhibition, 1884, was written by Mr. Hikorokuro Yoshida, Chemist to the Imperial Geological Survey of Japan. He treats of the analysis of lacquer in a most exhaustive manner, following the methods of separation employed by Mr. S. Ishimatsu of the Tokio University, who embodied the results of his investigations in a paper communicated to the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society by Professor Roscoe (February 18th, 1879). The pure Yoshino lacquer, which is the best, has a specific gravity of roo20 at 20 C, and the following composition : — Urushic Acid - - - - 85-15 Gum Arabic - - - - - 3*15 Nitrogenous Matter ... 2-28 Water and Volatile Matter - - 9/4 2 IOO'OO Mr. J. Takayma's analysis of a sample bought at Tokio gives, however, a rather different result, as under : — Urushic Acid - Gum Arabic - Nitrogenous Matter Oil - Water and Volatile Matter - IOO'OO It is recognised that the higher the percentage of Urushic Acid 10 64-07 6-05 3'43 0-23 26*22 the lacquer contains, the better is the quality. analyses of this acid give a mean result of : — Carbon - Hydrogen ------ Oxygen Dried at no° C. 77'05 g'oi »3'94 iocroo The collection of the juice takes place between the months of June and November ; shallow cuts about an inch apart, upon alternate sides, are made in the stems of the trees, and from these incisions the crude lacquer flows. The average annual yield from each tree is about 400 grammes, but the quantity and the quality much depend upon the age of the tree and the time of year at which it is tapped. The mode of preparation is thus described : — " To be made a Varnish, the lacquer juice is first strained " through linen, to get rid of bark, dust and other impurities. "Afterwards it is thoroughly stirred in large shallow dishes and " placed in the sun for several days, to remove superfluous moisture. " The refined juice is then mixed with various substances, such as " oil, fine clay, body pigment, metallic dusts, &c, according to the " ware for which it is intended." The best Cabinets require from ten to twelve coats of lacquer, and these have to be elaborately rubbed down, treated, and finally polished with oil by the fineer, while for even the commonest description of work some three or four coats are necessary. 1 1 The extraordinary conditions of application which these Japanese lacquers require, render it highly improbable that they will ever be used tor European work ; and it is not at all unlikely, that in course of time, both Japan and China will become large consumers of European Varnishes. The art of Varnish making, as understood in Europe, consists of discovering and practically applying certain formulae of composition, the results ol which unite the essential characteristics which constitute high-class quality, viz. : — brilliancy, transparency and durability. When a manufacturer has successfully and with regularity accomplished this desideratum, he endeavours to keep his knowledge, and the means employed, profoundly secret. A thoroughly practical experience is absolutely of primary importance, for the volumes of so-called workshop recipes etc., that have been written on the subject are not only useless for the object sought to be attained, but are often purposely misleading. The manufacture of Varnish in the present day is conducted on so vast a scale that the Eossil and Semi-fossil Resins, which form its base, are brought from every quarter of the globe to feed the requirements of the trade — about 3.000 tons being yearly consumed in England alone. By far the larger portion of this — Gum Kauri — comes from our Colony of New Zealand. The remainder is shipped from different points of the East and West Coasts of Africa, Ijp the Philippine Islands, Brazil &c., under the names ''^-- =of Animi and Copal. 12 NIL jiy r» =r»r Of all these products, although they ^now constitute such an important branch of trade, we do not believe one was commercially known in the 17th Century, and many were unheard of even 50 years ago. Notwithstanding the scientific and practical knowledge of the present day, and the experience gained by the use of the heterogeneous varieties of Resins mentioned, it is admitted that Amber cannot practically be used in the manufacture of Varnish ; in fact, for that purpose, there is no market for it at all in this country. On the other hand, Amber has been known from time immemorial ; it has a name in most of the civilised languages, the one in our own — = Electrum, or Amber— being derived from the Greek. Certain it is that Amber was a recognised commercial article in the 1 6th Century, and was in point of fact, collected in sufficient quantities on the shores of the Adriatic Sea to justify the assumption that it was used for a purpose other than that of ornamentation. This purpose was probably the manufacture of Varnish for Violins, that mystic process, the supposed lost secret of which, is often so pathetically deplored. Most if not all, modern Violins are finished with a Varnish prepared from a tender Gum dissolved in alcohol, in the preparation of which, there never was nor ever will be, either secret or difficulty. Some experts hold, and we think rightly, that the use of spirit Varnishes upon the instruments detracts from their sounding properties. It is possible too that the peculiar magnetic qualities present in Amber, exercised some influence in producing the marvellous tones possessed by the Violins of the old masters. A late writer gives the following as his opinion upon the subject of Italian Varnishes : — " To account for its sudden disappearance and total loss is indeed not easy. "After 1760, or even at an ealier date, all trace of it is obliterated. The demand " for it was quite sufficient to prevent the supply dying out, had it been possible. "The problem of its sudden disappearance may perhaps be accounted for, " without over-stepping the bounds of possibility, if we suppose that the Varnish " was composed of a peculiar Gum quite common in those days, extensively used 14 " for other purposes besides the varnishing of Violins, an "thereby caused to be a marketable article. "Suddenly, we will suppose, the demand for its "supply ceased, and the commercial world troubled no more about the matter; " the natural consequence would be non-production. " It is well-known that there are numerous instances of commodities once " in frequent supply and use, but now entirely obsolete and extinct." We think that the foregoing speculations upon the loss of the art, although within the bounds of possibility, are outside those of probability. Knowing, as we do, that the melting of Amber Gum in either fixed or volatile oils, is not only difficult but extremely dangerous, it can be readily understood how the secret died with each master, who had personally to superintend the manufacture of his Varnish. The formula [more or less correct) was proba- bly transmitted, and hence it is that we have different results in the Violin Varnish of that immediate period, which would scarcely have been possi- ble had the Varnish been made from a Gum or Resin simply dissolved in alcohol. A few years ago a well-known enthusiast in Violins and their build, requested us to try some experiments with a view, as far as possible, of imitating the old Cremona Varnish, and after considerable difficulty we succeeded in producing a pure Amber Varnish which seemed to give the satisfaction desired. The following is an extract from one of his letters : — "q/A September, 1880. 011 very much for the sample of Violin Varnish forwarded 'eeks since. I have tried it on a piece of maple the same as used backs of violins, and the result is in every way most satisfactory. compared it with two of the last examples of Varnishing-, iolin by Bergonzi, and a 'Cello' by Montagnana, both f Stradivarius, I, as well as a friend who is an excellent , think it quite as brilliant as either of the Varnishes on struments named. " I have no doubt whatever that this is the same as used the Cremona masters. I have two finished with spirit 'Varnish according to Reade's system, but they will not ar comparision with the Amber Varnish." Again on the 5th January following, he wrote : — " I shall bring an unvarnished instrument and " perhaps a finished one with me. A friend who has "examined most of Mr. Hart's instruments and many 16 ^i^" ' fej<0 /OT\vra i ' "others, pro- "nounces this " the in-trument " finished with the " Amber Varnish) " to be much "superior to all "the English y "makers, and in ' every way to that of " the 'renowned' copies of Italian f ^^^^^^{'^Jf/ '"' "makers by Vuillaume." Notwithstanding- the gratifying results of this experience the constant personal attention required, and the many difficulties con- tinually encountered in dealing with Amber, not the least of which is the great liability of this Gum to fire under heat, effectually preclude any attempt to manufacture outside the laboratory, and render the making of Amber Varnish too troublesome for anyone but an enthusiast or a Violin maker. The late Mr. Charles Reade — an acknowledged authority on the subject— in a letter to the Pall Mall Gazelle, dated 31st August, 1872, suggests the following hypothesis : — " Surely Amber is too dear a Gum, and too impracticable for two hundred fiddle " makers to have used in Italy. Till fused by dry heat it is no more soluble in " Varnish than Quartz is, and who can fuse it ? Copal is inclined to melt, but Amber " to burn, catch fire, do anything but melt. I tried more than one chemist in the "fusing of Amber; it came out of their hands a dark brown opaque substai 17 " rather burnt than fused. When really Fused it is a dark olive gnen as clear as crystal ; " yet I never knew but one man who could bring it to this, and he had special " machinery invented by himself for it, in spite of which he nearly burnt his house " down at it one day." This extract really summarises Mr. Reade's views against the Amber theory; there is however little difficulty in refuting- his propositions As a matter of fact, the dark and smaller pieces of this Gum (which are unsuitable for ornaments etc.) as well as the choppings, sweepings and dust, have always been, more or less, a drug in the market. A few years ago, we remember one lot of Amber, about 50 tons in weight, offered in London, being actually unsaleable at ^"20 a ton ; this parcel too was of a quality, which in Kauri or Copal would have commanded a ready sale at much higher rates. It is obvious therefore that price is not the obstacle to its adoption as a current Varnish Gum ; the true objection is rather to be found in the acknowledged impracticability of its employment for Varnish purposes in anything like com- mercial quantities. With reference to the chemist's experi- C ment, as there is no color approaching it in this Resin, we may safely assume that the dark olive green spoken of, resulted from the action of the Succinic acid con- tained in the Gum, upon the copper vessel used : it may be added that such a mis- chance could only happen to a novice. Q pj Notwithstanding that the individual '- ■■'Vc^SV*--'? h' s house about his ears in the attempt, we /.i pj iNoiwunsuinuing mac me muiviuuai „o ^""" C'vJ mentioned by Mr. Reade so nearly burnt CVTc5^\ Q^~Cil— maintain that Amber can be melted in > .. oil by heat; and on this point 'Jri'^jyct? we claim to speak with some qP) t -^j authority, for the writer has him- self repeatedly accomplished it. silised Amber. Although science is unable to fix period of these insects, Bernard de Jussieu has stated that they do not belong to our continent, or era ; while Professor Zadbach, of Konigsberg, very practically informs us that the trees yielding the Resin must have grown upon the green sandbeds of the Cretacean formation, which then formed the shores of the estuaries where the lower division of the tertiary accumulated. Amber may be described as a bituminous ^/@\ substance, dry, brittle and inflammable. Being igfthard it is susceptible of a fine polish, and when rubbed on a soft body it exhibits electric JMM**^ ; _ properties, hence its Greek derivation Electron ; 32 another and older name for it was Karabe\ originally Persian, and signifying- " attractor of straws." Books of most periods refer to its many supposed qualities ; it was intermingled with the myths and religions of the Greeks, and even in modern times, is poetically described as a concretion of birds' tears. "Around thee shall glisten the loveliest Amber That ever the sorrowing sea bird hath wept." (Tom Moore's "Fire Worshippers." ') It has a specific gravity very little heavier than water, but a high melting point— not becoming wholly fluid under 6oo° Fah. Subject to dry distillation it yields large quantities of acid and a highly inflammable gas. peculiarities which as we have seen already prevent its use in quantities sufficiently large for practical Varnish making. .V, Of the Animis, the most noted and valuable is that exported from Zanzibar. The exact genus and species of the tree yielding this Resin remained for a long time a matter of considerable doubt, but is now proved to be the Trachylobium verrucosum, which is closely allied to the genus Hymenaa. Burton, Kirk and Stanley have all written detailed descriptions of the finding of this Gum, and it was generally assumed that the ripe old kind, called " Sandarusi " by the natives of the Coast, was the product of extinct trees, but Sir John Kirk attributes it to the same species that afford the " Chakazi " or new Resin ; the living trees yielding which, both Burton and Welwitsch report as probably existing in the interior. The fields from which the older Resin is collected lie some 30 miles inland — from Ras Gomani, in south latitude 30 , to Ras Delgado, in south latitude io° 41' — the Gum is always found overlaid 34 with vestiges of decayed vegetation, usually some four feet beneath the surface, and associated with a red sandy soil. The finest quality is dug up by the Wawandi tribe from the banks of the river of that name; its surface is strongly marked with regular indentations and elevations, giving rise to the trade term of " goose skin," an appearance which, according to Professor Wiesner, is caused by the contraction of the internal mass; while others assert that owing to the Gum being chiefly found in sand}- soil, the impressions which the term suggests, are formed by the grains of sand. The whole trade seems to be in the hands of a few important local houses, who thoroughly clean and sort the different qualities. In the London Market the value ranges from £200 to ^"350 per ton. Animi breaks with an even half dull fracture, and has neither smell nor taste; the specific gravity is ro68: the melting point about 450° Fahr. Small and irregular supplies, known by the name of Madagascar Animi, closely resembling the Zanzibar kind in character, reach this country from Mozambique. They are i mixed in quality 03 \ ^A ( 4>k and very roughly cleaned ; consequently they have a much lower value, although the melting point and specific gravity are almost identical. These Gums probably have their origin from the same species of trees. Of late years considerable shipments of a so-called Animi have been received from Demerara. This Fossil Resin, the exudation of the locust tree Hymenaa Courbaril of British Guiana, is evidently collected from the old roots and trunks of trees of a much earlier period. When well cleaned from dirt and oxidation it has a very handsome appearance : lumps of io or 12 lbs. brilli- antly clear, and containing large numbers of ants and other insects, are frequently met with. BRANCH OF HYMEN** COURBARIL WITH ENLARGED* POD .ABOUT ONE-FIFTH NATURAL SIZE). The writer has one mass of this Resin weighing nearly 60 lbs., which must originally have fallen upon a nest or colony of ants, there being thousands of these insects and numberless pieces of bark embedded in it ; it contains also very many bubbles of air and water that reflect the light like molten silver. These peculiarities and the fact that it is by far the largest piece of Animi Gum yet discovered gives an interest to this particular specimen that is unique. Demerara Animi, though pleasing to the eye, does not command the ready sale its appearance would suggest, and the price is therefore gradually declining. For some time the cleaned higher grades were sold at from £200 to £240 per ton, the value of the Resin in practical 36 use being then insufficiently ascertained ; at the present time, however, the same qualities would sell at very little more than half these figures. The reason is, that in destructive distillation this Gum breaks up into light spirits and gases, leaving only a small portion of solid matter to assimilate with Linseed Oil in the formation of Varnish. As might be expected it has a comparatively light specific gravity, viz., i "030. The melting point, however, is about 450 , and excepting that it is a weak Gum, we think well of its practical utility, and regret that larger and more regular supplies are not forthcoming. 37 The term Copal, as already mentioned, is the generic name given originally to all Fossil Resins, and consequently those kinds shipped from the West Coast of Africa, south of jgi Guinea, bear this designation, although as a matter of fact they are, | g in character, far more close- ly allied to 3. the Animis of the East Coast. Benguela and Angola Copals, so-called because shipped from the Portuguese Colonies of these names, are the most valuable of the AYest Coast varieties. Their botanical source is still a matter of some doubt, although many endeavours have been made to trace and verify it. There is very little doubt, however, that they are furnished by species of Copaifera. 38 These Resins are known to the natives as " Ocote cocoto " or " Mucocoto," and are collected principally bv the Bunda Negroes in certain parts of the Angola, Benguela and Congo Districts, whence they are carried to the markets of Ambriz. Loando, Novo Rodondo, Benguela &c. In this region of Tropical Africa, eaving the low-lying Atlantic shore and penetrating due east, directly towards the interior, the ground gradually rises to the first terraces of a range of mountains, which run fairly parallel to "^•^ the coast. Shortly before these are reached a hilly tract of country occurs. It is curious but nevertheless true, that Copal is found in this littoral alone, and more largely in the hilly track immediately west of the mountains than elsewhere. The littoral extends some 700 miles in length, from the River Zaire on the north, to Cunene on the south, while as to width, it narrows to a few miles or broadens out to 50 or more, according as the mountains locally approach or recede from the coast line. This Copalliferous zone is as clearly marked botanically and geologically as we have seen it to be geographically, for while primeval forest clothes the slopes and valleys of the mountain range, and a rich 39 tropical vegetation flourishes on the banks of the rivers running thence to the coast, only the hardier members of this luxuriant flora — and they only as scattered specimens, stunted and dwarfed — contrive to eke out an existence there. The whole region, except where traversed by valleys carrying the rivers, is in fact, an arid desolate sandy waste. There is good reason to suppose this was not always so, but that a flora similar to that of the river banks has been gradually blotted out through the indrifting, by the wind, of sand from the sea shore. This work of extinction has also doubtless been largely assisted by the excessive drought — for the loose sandy soil is capable of retaining little or no moisture — and as a consequence many plants and shrubs cease to give out either blossom or fruit, and therefore lose their power of re-production. Only one tree — the Baobab {Adansonia digitata) — appears to be able to withstand the severe conditions imposed by nature, but this thrives there in full splendour, both singly and in groups. 40 Its presence under these conditions is most important, for it seems that the geographical distribution of the Baobab marks out the region within which these Copals occur; and this is true also as to altitude, Copal being never found above 3,500 feet, at which height the Adaiisonia is very rarely seen. Owing to the very great obscurity which enshrouds the botanical source of these Benguela and Angola Copals, it remains an open problem whether the plant which is or was their source, is extinct or not. That they are the product of a tree or shrub is certain ; that this plant is to be referred to the Sub-order Casalpiniecc of the Natural Order Leguminosce is very probable, and thus the particular species which produces, or in a past epoch produced the Copal, belongs to the genus Copaijera, is highly possible. It may be mentioned that Copaifera tm I \ Guibourtiana — a species named after M. ~\ r ^V s Guibourt, the distinguished French Phar- macist, and described by Dr. Daniell as j^V Guibourtia copalli/era — is known to be the \V source of Sierra Leone Copal ; that Hymencea Courbaril furnishes that of South America, that Trachylobiam verrucosum yields that from Madagascar and also the true Zan- zibar Animi. 4i BRANCH OF TRACHVLOBIUM VERRUCOSUM WITH FRUITS ABOUT HALF NATURAL SIZE. Imperfect and unscientific as much of the evidence unfortunately is, concerning the origin of the Copals, it yet seems to point pretty clearly to a certain limited sub-division of the vegetable kingdom as the fans et origo of Copal. The derivation of the Copals of Western Africa has especially excited the attention of many travellers and scientists, and amongst these the names of Dr. Welwitsch and Sir John Kirk are particularly prominent. Oliveira Pimental speaks of Hytnencea verrucosa — or Trachylobium verrucosum, under which name it is now known — as the Copal yielding tree, and Daniell regards Hymenoca Courbaril as the origin of some of the softer kinds. Ladislaus Magyar asserts that Acacia nilotica — \ recent authorities cons only a variety of A. arabica — produces Copal, apparently having confounded Copal with some kind of Gum Arabic. Dr. Klotsch who, with Kirk, main- tains that the East Coast (Zanzibar) Animi is the product of Trachylobium A/ossatti- \ bicense, endeavours to prove that all African Copal is to be ascribed to this tree or T. Hornemanianum. As these two species have 42 Laaisiaus luagyar asserts \\p> %» -which the most tt4j (^&Sj£%i onsider at most ^ ;^^ y , v ^y BRANCH OF COPAIFERA GUIBOURTIANA since been united under T. verrucosum, referred to above, the opinions of these two authorities are confirmed so far as Zanzibar Animi is concerned, but as neither of these occur on the West Coast and as most of the African Copal comes from thence, it is evident that no true solution of the question is thus offered. As has been already stated, Daniell refers Copal to the Guibourtia copallifera or Copaifera Guibour liana, so far at any rate as that produced in Northern Guinea is concerned, and further says : — " The exudation from the bark of the tree at first " consists of soft white tears, which gradually conjoin into " isolated masses, and rapidly indurate upon exposure to the " atmosphere. Their white hue imperceptibly passes into the " intermediate tints of green, lemon, and finally terminates in " yellow. The nodules are mostly effused in a pure and translucent state but soon become enveloped by a white bloom similar to that on certain kinds of plums. The tree, independently of the ordinary Copal, affords other inferior sorts gathered from the trunks and branches of young or immature productions. It is not improbable that different species of Guibourtia may yield this Resin, which " however at present remain undiscovered." . . " Considerable " quantities, the accumulations of years, are regularly washed " out of the mountain slopes during the rainy season, while a " moderate quantity is collected from the trees themselves." Daniell gives also the following account of these particular kinds: — " These exudations are thrown out not only from the trunk but from the roots of " trees also, if the reports of negro traders can be credited ; for no Copalliferous trees " exist in the region where Copal is mostly collected, the Resin being dug out of the " ground. The natives also assert that they sometimes meet with vestiges of roots 43 " from which they detach the excretion." — ' Daniell's : " Some Observations on Copals, &c.' " — Pharmaceutical Journal, 1857. — Vol. XVI, p. 423. While admitting that Daniell is right in claiming that Sierra Leone Copals are traceable to Copaifera Guibouriiana, it is evident that he can indicate no botanical source for these Angola and Benguela products, nor does he seem, notwithstanding his residence in the district, to have had any practical acquaintance with the matter, for a microscopical examination of the roots to which, as he says, the natives find Copal adherent, might have indicated the tree which yielded the Gum. The natives themselves are of opinion that Copal is still produced by certain trees, but that it is necessary for the Resin to mature, during a period of many years, buried under the soil, to acquire its characteristic appearance and properties. No traveller has, however, apparently succeeded in securing specimens of the virgin product which this hy- pothesis necessitates, nor are the Coast Traders — some of whom believe this account — able to show any samples of immature Copal. On two occasions Welwitsch investigated this local statement. On the first of these, he was taken to a group of trees (of the natural order Combretacea:) yielding a blackish gum — not even resinous. His conductors however 44 assured him that this substance, buried, would in time metamorphose into Copal. Botanically, such a source is extremely improbable. It is much to be regretted that Welwitsch did not follow up further his second venture. On this occasion he was shewn a tree (which turned out to be a new species of Leguminosce, viz., Cynometra laxijlord) by Gum g-atherers who had just been collecting Copal from the ground in the immediate vicinity. Unable to find any vestige of Resin on the tree then, it does not appear that he ever visited it at another season. This is particularly tantalizing, for he tells us that trees of this species only occur locally, but always in large numbers and covering con- siderable tracts of country, and it is very suggestive that these forests must be in proximity to that part of the littoral where, as we have seen, Copals are chiefly found. Welwitsch, however, is I hi ■■ t. m*# ^ wedded to the idea that Copal is a verit- J^s. able Fossil fillip I, • Kesin, main- taining that the trees which were its source, are, as Copal producers for ever passed away, and that either they are totally extinct, or exist II s only in a dwarfed and effete posterity. 45 As evidence of this, he points to the great resemblance of these Copals to Amber ; to the surface modification of original facets of the Gums, and to the fact that the Resin is excavated from a depth of several feet. He goes on to say : — " If we consider the large quantity of Copal gathered in Angola and all along " the Coast of Tropical West Africa, we are led naturally to the conclusion that the " trees yielding it could not be scarce if still in existence, but ought to be abundant " and widely distributed, and that the Copal Resin produced by them must be " enormous and could not well escape observation." — Observations on Gum Copal. — F. Welwitsch, M.D., Pnc. Linn. Soc. Vol. IX. Although this reasoning of Welwitsch's looks at first sight very convincing, it is really not so. In Southern Guinea the Copal yielding tree perhaps never occurs in the exact locality where Copal itself is found, but to infer from this that the tree is extinct is obviously inadmissible. For this conclusion to be accepted an exhaustive search of the ground, in the lower forest covered zone, and a thorough investigation of all the Resin-bearing species therein, would have to be accomplished. That the Copal yielding tree has been driven back towards the interior by the encroachments of the sand drifts is pretty evident ; that it may still exist further inland, and its Copal be maturing in the sub-soil, is at any rate possible. Very interesting in this connection are Daniell's remarks on the Sierra Leone Guibourlia : — " The geological changes which have taken place in Southern Guinea, con- " sequent upon that in-drifting of sea sand, which takes place along the greater part 46 " of the West African shore, seem to have made greater way here than in the Sierra " Leone district. It is therefore likely that the former condition of S. Guinea — that is " to say the condition of things which obtained in S. Guinea when its Copal was formed " and the Copal Trees still existed — is represented, at the present day, by the present " geological and botanical conditions of the Sierra Leone district." With our present knowledge we can only positively say these Benguela and Angola Copals are Resins originally produced by a Leguminous tree, altered chemically by long exposure in the earth, and to this may be added, that it is possible the producing tree or trees still exist. These Gums are collected by the natives, and disposed of by them to European traders. The work is carried on in a kind of partnership. Prospecting parties provided with crude digging implements, and sacks made of the Raphia leaves or of the bark of the Adansouia, set out towards the f^^t?* M^f^^ mountain range and prod the ground, ?"^^7>— ?? ___ sometimes to a depth of 10 or 12 feet, until Copal is found ; such pieces as are laid bare by the heavy rainfalls or earth slips are also picked up. The diggers remain out several weeks at a time, and are often separated for days. When the ground has been thoroughly searched the finds are all put together, cleaned, sorted, and brought down to the port for sale or barter. 47 From this coast, pieces larger than from half pound to one pound in weight are = seldom met with. The Gum is generally very equally covered with a thick white weather worn coating, and one particular description of Angola always has a fiery red incrustation — probably due to oxidation and the character of the soil in which the Resin has been embedded. All have pronounced facets — reminding one of the " goose skin" of the Zanzibar Animi — with deep furrows : the coating in many instances is so hard that it can only be removed with a knife, or sharp instrument. We consider them excellent in practical use, and the nearest in value to the Zanzibar kind of all the Fossil Resins known. They have a high melting point, ranging from 425 to 475° Fahr., and a specific gravity of 1 -068. 48 Sierra Leone Copal — by far the most important commercially, of the West Coast varieties — was known as far back as 1678, when Barbot visited that coast and found SDme fragments on the beach; it is however evident that its character was not then understood, for he described it as "Ambergris." In the latter part of the 1 8th century it was in limited use among some hospitals for the fumigation of sick wards, and in the composition of ointments and plaisters for medical purposes. The Sierra Leone Company, shortly after the establishment of 49 their factories in 1794, commenced the regular exportation of this Resin, but the quantities shipped jl to England for the first 30 years of this centurv ,^8>ar? ■sal were exceedingly small, varying from ,3 to 10 tons per annum. The principal producing district is com- paratively a limited one, extending about 200 miles north and west of Sierra Leone. Unlike the majority of the Varnish Gums, it is now-s^ regularly taken directly from the tree, and *" r -=--, is unquestionably the natural exudation from the bark of the Copaifera Guibourtiana. This tree possesses a dark and luxuriant foliage and flourishes in elevated mountainous localities. The Resin, called by the inhabitants of the hilly districts Kobo," is used by them, as well as by the natives of Timmel and Sherbro, as a remedy for sores and ulcerations, and also as a water- tight glazing for the interior of earthen pots etc. The annual gathering of the crop or new Gum takes place about the end of March, before the rainy season sets in. The bark is extensively cut and slashed and the Gum 50 &>&ik^. which flows from the incisions thus made, is afterwards collected. Con- siderable quantities are also taken from the base and roots of the trees. A strong crust or coating-— probably the result of moist heat setting up oxidation — is found on the old Gum, and is extremely diffi- cult to remove, although, on the Coast before shipment, some rough attempt is made at cleaning, by agitation in a lixivium prepared with the ashes of dry plantain and other stems. A species of Copal from Sierra Leone, known here as Pebble Copal, is gathered from the beds of rivers, the Gum being regularly washed down from mountain slopes by the heavy periodical rains. That Sierra Leone Copal is generally considered a \ilk/g^ valuable Gum, is shewn by the im- ' ports, which have steadily increased till, as we ^ have before stated, they now amount It is to be regretted that fields of earlier origin are not more diligently searched for, as with larger and more regular supplies the consumption would doubtless considerablv increase. 5i The melting point — about 360 Fahr. — we do not consider a high one, but from its extremely pale colour and freedom from acid, this Resin is particularly adapted tor some special descriptions of Varnish. It is also useful at times when employed in conjunction with some of the older and harder kinds of Animi. The specific gravity is about ro68, and the value from £60 to £120 per ton. Besides the West African varieties already mentioned, there are other descriptions which reach England from time to time, such as Accra, Congo, Gaboon, and Loango Copals, but they are so little known, and are received by manufacturers with such caution and suspicion, that a fair market is hardly open to them ; and it is conse- quently difficult to describe these Gums accurately, or to fix their commercial value with anything like precision. That there are large districts in Africa containing deposits of Fossil Resin which are still untouched, is a fact beyond doubt, as on several occasions specimens of new finds have been sent to the writer for examination and opinion as to their practical utility and commercial value. Sir Alfred Moloney, the present Governor of Lagos, has given particulars of an extensive district, yielding quantities of Fossil Resin named Ogea. The natives of >j Yoruba use it sparingly for % fires and lights, and powdered, on the body as a perfume. 2==" Quantities are found under 52 the surface of swamp land, probably the accumulations of an earlier age. A parcel of some ten tons of a Fossil Resin, previously unknown to commerce, recently came upon the market, and passed into the hands of the writer. We strongly incline to the opinion that it was this Ogea Gum. The consignment in question arrived in such a crude, dirty and dusty state, as to be of mere nominal value; but as the Gum is extremely hard, there can be no doubt, were it roughly cleaned, sorted, and above all, sifted, that with anything like regular supplies, it would command a ready sale at remunerative prices. Professor Oliver, of Kew Gardens, declares the tree producing this Resin to be a Daniellia, but although unable to fix the exact species, says it is certainly not D. thurifera. In the Transactions of the Linnasan Society, vol. 20, page 404, " Notes on some new economic products by W. Thiselton Dyer, F.R.S., F.L.S., &c," there is an interesting account of the discover}* of a considerable tract of Copal forest, some 200 miles long, by Mr. James Heathcote, of Inhambane, East Africa (who was at the time searching for the body of the late Captain Wybrant), particulars of which were communicated to the Secretary of State in a despatch dated June 1 ith, 1882, from H. G. O'Neill, H.M. Consul for Mozambique. Mr. Heathcote collected six tons of this Gum, but we never heard what became of it ; certainly it never reached England as Inhambane oo Copal, but may possibly have been imported under the name of Madagascar or Mozambique Animi, which more familiar guise would render the sale easier. Samples at the time were officially sent from Kew Gardens to the writer, who after subjecting them to practical tests, came to the conclusion that the Gum is allied to a species of Accra Copal, an opinion which was confirmed by the authorities at Kew, and also by Sir John Kirk, who pointed out the entire absence of the characteristic "goose skin," of the Zanzibar Animi, and that the odour was entirely different. From the leaves and bark, which _ «* accompanied the Gum, Professsor Oliver | was enabled to fix the species as Copaifera L " Gorskiana. We made the melting point about 337 Fah. The native name given to the Gum is " Stakate," and " Staka," and the Zulu name " Inthlaka." Unfortunately this field of supply is some ioo miles inland, in a belt running parallel to the coast — midway between it and the first range of mountains— a distance which, owing to difficulty of transport, prevents it at present being profitably opened up. V BRANCH OF COPAIFERA GORSKIANA. 54 ayyjr, -w. Fifty years ago the Kauri Gum of New Zealand was, for practical purposes, unknown ; it therefore says much for the enterprise of our Colonists that they have brought to such perfection, in so comparatively short a time the collecting, cleaning, and sorting of this important produce, as to command a supremacy of the market. There is however, we fear, a shadow to this pleasant picture, and as it is sometimes well to anticipate disasters, it behoves those interested to consider what the position will be when the Kauri fields begin to give out : for the excessive production, stimulated by the ever increasing demand, is, without doubt, rapidly exhausting the known sources of supply, and although unquestionably the living tree still exudes Resin, this cannot for very many years, be successfully utilised. If it were not akin to heresy in these days to make such a proposition, one would be inclined to suggest that the Colonists should place an export tax on the Gum. No other Fossil Resin could take its place, from a peculiarity which it possesses (entirely its own) of 59 THE KAURI TREE {Dammara .-lustra/is/' assimilating- with oil more readily, and at an easier temperature, than any other Gum — not excepting- even those of a lower melting point. The Manila Copals it is true, enter largely into competition with Kauri, but as we have already stated, they are treacherous in use and mostly contain strong acids and other objectionable substances, thereby upsetting all theory and practice, and resulting often in injury to the manufactured article, and consequent regret to those who employ them. Kauri Resin originally exuded from the Pine Tree of New Zealand (Dammara aits/ra/is), and is at present found solely in the province of Auckland, in open bush land, where no vestige of the original trees remain ; in other parts of the Colony living forests of the Coniferse still exist, and the trees, when tapped, produce sap of a soft, spongy character, resembling crude or Venice Tur- pentine ; qualities are also found, evidently in a semi-matured state, varying between the sap and the hard Gum, which product may in course of time ripen into Copal of practical utility. The range of value in Kauri is perhaps wider than in any other kind of Resin. The quality too is very diversified ; this, thirty years ago, was not so pronounced, the Gum at that time being shipped in a partially rough and unpicked state, whereas now every varietv and size from dust upwards is classified and sold under some particular BRANCH AND CONE OF DAMMARA AUSTRAUS- 61 mark or brand, so that consumers are enabled to choose qualities at prices from ^20 to ,£300 per ton. There is great variety of color — from dark, almost black Gum, that has evidently been subject in times gone by to the action of forest or bush fires — to clear white, invaluable for certain descriptions of Varnishes. The Gum is found a few feet under ground. Diggers explore by probing with an iron rod until they strike a deposit. The pieces collected vary in size from that of small pebbles to large flint stones, and occasionally, though seldom, lumps up to 50 pounds are found. Years ago larger masses were less rare, and the writer has three specimens, imported some 25 years since, which weigh about 450 pounds, one alone being 220 pounds — probably the largest ever discovered. The Gum digging industry was originally exclusively in the hands of the Maoris, who brought their produce into Auckland to exchange and barter for other goods, but now some thousands of Whites are engaged in this occupation, which, in fact, serves as a kind of refuge for the destitute and broken down. Camps are formed by a party of some half-dozen or so, who scour the immediate district and bring their finds to a central store, kept often by an agent of some Auckland merchant ; the collecting proceeds till the particular field is exhausted, or change \ of season stops work. 62 The cost of carriage is at times a considerable item, as the Gum is frequently carried for some miles on the backs of the diggers to the store, and then conveyed by pack horses to the nearest spot on the coast, whence it is generally taken by boats to some port and shipped to Auckland. Although some storekeepers sort their Gum in a rough way before dispatch, it is invariably most carefully sifted, cleaned and scraped by the merchants at Auckland, and there packed in strong cases made of the Kauri pine, each containing about 2^ cwt., branded according to quality, and shipped to England or the United States. The Maoris still hold the best fields, and only on rare occasions let them to Europeans ; when they do, a royalty of £2 to £3 per ton on the Gum found is the customary tax, and the leases seldom run beyond three or four years. Government lands are free, or at least the free exploiting of them has never yet been questioned, but upon a lease being demanded of any Government ground, public notice thereof is advertised, and the title put up to auction to be sold to the highest bidder. The most extensive fields are in the district of Kaipara, whence quite one fourth of the whole supply is derived. The quality some- what varies, poor weak Gum being found in the swamps, and the stronger kind in the fern-lands. Altogether up to the present time some 14 or 15 districts in the province of Auckland are being worked under lease and otherwise, by Gum diggers ; the annual collections represent an approximate value of from £400,000 to £500,000. Kauri is extensively employed by the leading manufacturers in 63 every country where Varnish is made. This universal favor we by no means attribute to the superior results to be obtained by its use, but rather to the fact, to which we have already alluded, that it is easier to manipulate — that is. it unites with Linseed Oil quicker, and at a lower temperature— than any other Resin. It is probable that the essential oil it contains acts in the fusing process as a solvent ; hence less heat being necessary, carbonisation is minimised, and a relatively paler Varnish is the product. The exports from New Zealand amount already to about 8,000 tons a year, of which quantity more than half is consumed in the United States of America. The specific gravity ranges from rojo to ro8o, and the loss in distillation by the process of manufacture into Varnish, from 15 to 25 per cent. ; the melting point is fairly high, varying from 380 Fahr. to 460 Fahr. 64 >.-. i .-. i~T~ i3 The White Damars of Batavia and Sumatra, which are employed only in the manufacture of colorless spirit or turpentine Varnishes, are commercially of three varieties, viz. : — the Batavian from Java, and \y~*\\ the Singapore and Padang from Sumatra. The Batavian obtains the V :W highest value, on account of its perfect color, and especially its (T'JHf freedom from yielding a milky solution when dissolved, a fault inherent in the other kinds. Thev are all exudations of the Dammar a orientalis. the trees being regularly cut for supplies. Their melting point is about j^" 260 Fahr, and specific gravity about i - 8o. Besides these White Damars, y ,',' there are several descriptions of dark and black Damar collected W^'^^r^m India, the producing trees of which are tapped by BRANCH OF SHOREA R06USTA. vertical incisions in the bark close to the base of the trunk, fire being then set to the tree, and the Resin allowed to melt and accumulate. 65 BRANCH AND CONE OF OAMMARA ORIENTALIS. These Gums are obtained from the Sal tree (Skorea robusta), the Piney Varnish tree (Vateria ij| tndica) and probably other allied Vt> plants. The Black or Kola Damar is collected chiefly in the Tinni- velly district, from the Canarium strictum. All are of a very low melting- point, freely soluble in turpentine, and consequently useless for the manufacture of oil Varnish indeed they are commercially unknowr in Europe, where they would only have the value of common resin. The natives of India, however, largely employ these Damars in the manufacture of bottle wax, and low grade turpentine Varnishes. BRANCH OF CANARIUM STRICTUM. 66 Strictly speaking, neither Mastic nor the Damars can be placed in the category of Fossil or Semi-Fossil Resins, but as they are indispensable for certain special purposes, they are worthy of mention amongst the Varnish Gums. Mastic, the exudation of the Mastic or Lentisk tree {Pistachia lentiscus, natural order Perebinthasa) is. in fact, a recent or crop Gum. It oozes from cuts made in the bark, and upon exposure hardens in tears upon the stem. The best and palest qualities come from the Island of Chios. Considerable quantities of the finest description are consumed in Turkey and the East, where it is used, by mastication, for the purpose of beautifying the teeth. Small parcels also reach this country from Morocco and other places in the Mediterranean, but the quality is generally inferior and yellowish. It is in limited demand in Europe for making a colorless Varnish employed by artists to preserve oil paintings etc., and as the Resin is readily soluble in alcohol or turpentine, its Varnish can be with facility- removed, when discolored by age or dirt. 67 Although small shipments of so-called Bastard Animis and Copals occasionally arrive from districts new to the English markets, the foregoing constitute practically the list of Resins used in the manufacture of oil and turpentine Varnishes. The almost invariable mistake with first consignments of any new description, is that the Resin is either collected from the trees them- selves, or from the immediate surface, instead of being sought for some few feet beneath the ground. Consequently we receive new and soft Gums, useless for Varnish making and practically valueless, in lieu of the hard and fossilized kinds, for which there is always a demand. The Fossil Resins have been subjected to analysis by many Chemists, with varying results. Unverdorben professed to detect no less than five distinct varieties in the East African species, and according to Ure the ultimate constituents of Copal are : — Carbon, 79-89; Hydrogen, 9-00; Oxygen, in; whilst Kane, in dividing them into three degrees, gives the following as the relative constituents of each : — New Copal- - - C40 H31 O3 Fossilized Copal - C40 H32 O Animi- - - C40 H33 O 68 A more recent authority, however, is Dr. Edmund J. Mills, F.R.S., who states that : — " Whatever the proximate composition of the natural Resins may be, they are in " effect a series of polymers of a body C20 H30 O2 ; a formula that does not admit of "further division." — Journal of the Society Chemical Industry, April, 1886. In the same paper Dr. Mills gives the results of some interesting experiments in the Potash absorption of Resins, a subject well worthy of further research. Generally, we are inclined to think that the degree of hardness \ should be the principal consideration in estimating W the commercial value of all Resins, and as a rule it ?■§* may be taken that the higher the melting point, the older and more fossilized is the Gum. We cannot conclude these re- marks on the Fossil Resins without expressing our thanks to Mr. John R. Jackson, Curator of the Museums at the Royal Gardens, Kew, who has kindly furnished us with such information on the subject as the Gardens afford. 69 'Wjk ; *if- -te^C&Sfc i^wni»«wt«ni*iwiM»»>ui«a .... MMMprt^WMtfiWWiWiWi— tuaiiwiwi'iw