'iir-^m 
 
THE ROBERT E. , COWAN. COLLECTION 
 i'Ki;sKNT);n to TIIK r . 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 C, P. HUNTINGTON . 
 
 oJUNE, 18Qf, 
 
 Accession V^o.Y^ Y0(o Class Np,,--:..., 
 
 :^>^-'- 
 
 ^1 v- 
 
 •AN.'.*' 
 
 ^' /•.. 
 
 ■<X- 
 
^9W:' 
 
 
 ^rr ^ 
 
 ■• 
 
 ~ ■^'fc>- 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■F<*^ 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 ^yj 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 • . 
 
 
 • \ T'^^ 
 
 ^ '"'^ 
 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 .•^v 
 
 #••*. 
 
 
 ?V-; 
 
 
 'It^ -"Is: 
 
A CONTRIBUTION 
 
 TM THK THF.OKY OF 
 
 CHEMICAL AFFINITY. 
 
 A PAPER 
 
 All Al TlIK FIi;>T ANNlAl. MEKriN(, uF THE 
 
 CALIFORNIA SCIENCE ASSOCIATION, 
 
 AT SANTA CRUZ. DECEMBER 28. 1894. 
 
 DR. OEO. RYBURN. 
 
 SACRAMENTO: 
 D. JOHNSTON & CO., PRINTERS AND PUBIJSHKRS. 
 
A CONTRIBUTION 
 
 TO THE THEORY OF 
 
 CHEMICAL AFFINITY. 
 
 A PAPER 
 
 READ AT THE FIRST ANNUAL MEETING OF THE 
 
 CALIFORNIA SCIENCE ASSOCIATION, 
 
 AT SANTA CRUZ. DECEMBER 28. 1894. 
 
 
 DR. GKO. RYBURN. 
 
 SACRAMKNTO: 
 D. JOHNSTON & CO., PRINTERS AND PUBUSHERS. 
 
 1895- 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 
 in 2008 with funding from 
 
 Microsoft Corporation 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/contributiontothOOpyburich 
 
A CONTRIBUTION TO THE THEORY OF CHEMICAL AFFINITY. 
 
 In this paper I propose to affirm and demonstrate the following- 
 propositions, viz. : 
 
 First. — That chemical affinity* is determined by the compatibility, or 
 accordance, of the motions proper to the respective atoms or molecules 
 under consideration; and that affinity is directly as compatibility. By 
 compatibility of motions, I mean such correspondence between the 
 respective periods of oscillation, and between the respective figures of 
 the paths in space traveled by a given point in the vibrating atoms, as 
 renders it easy or possible for them to coalesce and oscillate together 
 with a compound motion. 
 
 Seco7id.— That chemical attraction in fact, is referable lo the mechanical 
 principle : " Motion in the line of least resistance" ; and is the result of 
 the motion of contiguous, and accordantly- vibrating atoms or molecules 
 along paths of least resistance in the surrounding ether — paths formed 
 by the coalescence or composition of the several ether-waves accom- 
 panying the attracting atoms. f 
 
 If we mix intimately a given quantity of sodium chloride in watery 
 solution with an equivalent quantity of silver nitrate, likewise in watery 
 solution, we shall obtain a solid precipitate of silver chloride in a solution 
 of sodium nitrate. 
 
 Or, if we take a watery solution containing both silver and copper 
 nitrates, and add to this a sufficient quantity of sodium chloride in 
 solution, we shall find on examination that every atom of the silver has 
 been picked out from the mixture and separated by precipitation in the 
 form of silver chloride. 
 
 *By afl&nity is here denoted latent attraction, attraction hi posse, the capability 
 of attracting or of being attracted. 
 
 fl use the word "accompanying" rather than "caused by" the attracting 
 atoms, for the reason that it may possibly become a question whether the 
 initiative lies with the ether, or with the atom. 
 
What are we to think of the so called "cause" of these reactions? 
 What is the condition, or what the conditions of the ultimate particles 
 — atoms or molecules — underlying and prompting this change of asso- 
 ciates? To say that chemical affinity is the cause; that the chlorine 
 atoms — at first associated in these experiments with those of sodium — 
 have an inherently stronger attraction for silver than for sodium; and 
 that the molecules of the nitric acid radical — which we found associated 
 with silver atoms — have naturally a greater attraction for sodium than 
 for silver, and conversely; and that in obeying these stronger attractions, 
 which is the law of their several beings, the decompositions and recon- 
 structions recited are accomplished; is not to explain, but to relate the 
 facts of the case; it is equivalent to saying that copper is red because 
 of its inherent quality of redness. The real question, is why has the 
 chlorine atom a greater attraction for the silver atom than for that of 
 sodium? What property, state or condition of the chlorine atom, which 
 is appreciable by our senses or mind, determines its stronger attraction 
 for silver, and its weaker attraction for sodium, and conversely? 
 
 This thesis has for its object to answer these questions. 
 
 We have here, appm^ently, a case wliere the atoms involved in the 
 reactions are conscious entities, which know and are known by each 
 other; a case where, in associating to build up molecular structures, 
 they reciprocally prefer this atom to that, and choose out from a mixed 
 aggregation of atoms or molecules those of one kind in preference to 
 those of another. Is it that the fundamental elements and raw material, 
 so to speak, of intelligence, viz. : consciousness, the power of knowing, 
 and the power of volition, are inherent in the raw material or stuff of 
 the Universe?'!^ 
 
 We are reminded here of Tyndall's celebrated declaration, in the 
 nature of a confession, made in his Belfast address, twenty years ago, 
 before the British Association for the Advancement ot Science: "Believ- 
 ing, as I do, in the continuity of nature, I cannot stop abruptly where 
 our microscopes cease to be of use. Here the vision of the mind 
 authoritatively supplements the vision of the eye. By an intellectual 
 necessity, I cross the boundary of the experimental evidence, and dis- 
 cern in that matter — which we in our ignorance of its latent powers, 
 and notwithstanding our professed reverence for its creator, have 
 hitherto covered with opprobrium — the promise and potency of all ter- 
 restrial life." 
 
 *Par parenthesis, it may here be affirmed that Intelligence, in its ultimate 
 analysis is nothing more nor less than sensitiveness to, and capability of being 
 *'moved" by the motions — molar and molecular — of other bodies (the nofi ego)\ 
 and the process of ratiocination consists of consciousness in series, of the ratios 
 between the different kinds and degrees of motion affecting us. 
 
Suppose, in illustration, that, among ourselves, men and women, we 
 have in each of two adjoining halls, a company composed of several 
 couples; these in one hall consisting of two men, while those in the other 
 consist of two women; suppose the wall between the halls to be removed, 
 and the two companies to mingle with each other: presto, the couples 
 fall apart, and thereupon fall again into couples — this time, however, 
 consisting each of a man and woman. What should we say — what do 
 we say of such a happening? This, viz., that the men and women con- 
 cerned were possessed of at least intelligence enough to recognize the 
 difference between men and women; and that they choose, each the 
 other sex as an associate in preference to their own sex. Making due 
 allowance for the fact that, being human, we can understand and sym- 
 pathize with the feelings and motives leading to the changes last recited; 
 while we cannot definitely realize the elementary sources of action in the 
 atomic changes heretofore described, the cases appear to be precisely 
 parallel. 
 
 Taking this illustration for what it is worth, however, and returning to 
 our atoms and molecules; it will readily be perceived that the hypothesis 
 of conscious selection appears to involve the absurdity spoken of by 
 Newton in relation to gravity, viz., action at a distance; for, although the 
 distances between and separating atoms and molecules are small beyond 
 comprehension, they are nevertheless just as real as the equally incom- 
 prehensible distances separating us from the fixed stars, or those inter- 
 vening between the planets and the sun. 
 
 Observe, however, Newton's words are these: "That gravity should 
 be innate, inherent, and essential to matter, so that one body may act 
 upon another at a distance through a vacuum, without the mediation of 
 anything else by and through which their action and force may be con- 
 veyed from one to another, is to me so great an absurdity," etc. Now, 
 action at a distance through a vacuum without the mediation of any- 
 thing else, seems to have constituted the gravayne^i of the absurdity; 
 but at this time we postulate an all-pervading ether between one body 
 and another, and between one atom and another, and surrounding all 
 atoms. 
 
 In point of fact, then, whatever may be the worth or unworth of this 
 hypothesis of conscious and intelligent atoms, it does not even by impli- 
 cation involve the absurdity of action at a distance; it takes into account 
 that, between atoms as between stars, there is a medium of communica- 
 tion, the ether; it postulates just such action between atoms and mole- 
 cules, as all bodies, and we ourselves, severally exert on each other. 
 Do bodies of sensible dimensions ever come into actual contact? and 
 yet they unmistakably act on each other, as we see in the example of 
 the blacksmith's hammer shaping a piece of iron on an anvil. But 
 
observe: according^ to the molecular theory and its corollaries, there is 
 no actual contact. The surfaces of all solid bodies present, instead of 
 an unbroken front of "stuff," only a superficial array of atoms, vibrating 
 molecules, with spaces between; therefore two such bodies, when in 
 so-called contact, can only be as near to each other as the repulsion 
 between the moving molecules or their respective surfaces will permit. 
 Observe, too, that although in discussing the kinetic theory of gases, 
 we speak in a rough way, of collisions between the atoms or molecules 
 constituting a gas; yet in strictness, no one with a competent faculty of 
 thinking will contend that in such collisions the atoms come into true 
 contact — that is, a contact which excludes an atmosphere of ether. 
 
 Here may be permitted a digression, to speak of repulsion as the 
 opposite of attraction. The repulsion between atoms when they come 
 into close, so-called contact, which prevents them touching, and pushes 
 them away, can be nothing else than the elasticity of the film or atmos- 
 phere of ether surrounding each. This atmosphere being subjected by 
 the moment of the approaching atoms, to pressure, is rendered so fefise 
 as to obstruct farther movement in that direction. 
 
 In demonstrating the initial propositions of this thesis, however, we 
 are not greatly concerned with the acceptance or rejection of this 
 hypothesis of consciousness and intelligence in the atom; all that is 
 demanded at this stage of the argument is, motion of the atom as an 
 essential tnode of its existence; arid for every different ki?id of atom and 
 molecule a differeiit motiojt. 
 
 So far as we have learned hitherto, all the sensible qualities (except- 
 ing, />^r/^^/^, gravity) of bodies seem to depend finally upon motion 
 — the motion of their several constituent particles reacting on ether- 
 waves set in motion by particles in the sun or other radiating body. 
 Before this audience, it is unnecessary to particularize, farther, than to 
 mention color, fluidity, solidity, sonority, transparency, diathermancy, 
 etc. Even odors and sapidity appear to come within the generaliza- 
 tion. In saying, however, that the sensible qualities of things depend 
 on and are expressions of atomic and molecular motion, we shall do well 
 to bear in mind that these motions (of solid particles) are communi- 
 cated to us and to each other by means of etherial undulations or waves. 
 These ether-waves, flowing outward from their source, impinge and 
 break on the molecules constituting our bodies and modify thus their 
 motions in various ways. Thus only is consciousness excited in us, 
 and the varied and varying character of our consciousness is the expres- 
 sion and effect of the various and varying rhythm and mode of the 
 impinging waves, which, in this way and that, modify the motions of 
 our individual molecules. 
 
 What is an ether-wave? It can only be that it consists of a differen- 
 
tiation of the etherial substance in a definite direction, a rhythmic dis- 
 turbance of its homog^eneity by the formation of volumes or spheres of 
 tension in alternation with volumes or spheres of laxity, tension and 
 laxity successively changing places or regularly succeeding in lines 
 radiating from its source, in a manner analagous to sound-waves, which 
 consist of alternate successive spheres of condensation and rarefaction 
 in the gaseous atmosphere or other conducting medium. 
 
 Now the motions of the atoms of the several elementary substances, 
 differing as they do one from the other, differ, it is fair to assume, in at 
 least two respects, viz., first in their rates or periods of vibration, that 
 is, in the frequency with which, in a given time, they change shape by 
 the back and forward swinging of their proper substance; and second in 
 their mode or path of vibration, that is, in the figures which a point in 
 their respective surfaces describes in space during a complete vibration. 
 The term vibration is here used in the most general sense to designate 
 any and every form of recurring or cyclic movement, reciprocating mo- 
 tion in straight lines, rotation, revolution, and every conceivable com- 
 pound of two or more of these. 
 
 We can study molecular motions under the three known conditions 
 of matter: gaseous, liquid and solid. A rapid glance at the facts in- 
 volved in chemical reactions, both synthetic and analytic under these 
 several conditions, will discover indications which, while not conclusive 
 on the subject, tend strongly to support the proposition that combining 
 attractions depend on compatibility of motions as herein affirmed. 
 
 The molocules of matter in a gaseous state may be regarded as in a 
 semi- chaotic condition with a tendency to separate, rather than to 
 aggregate; their excursive motions in more or less straight lines are 
 immeasurably greater in extent than any proper self centred vibratory 
 movements they may execute. Moreover, as the direction of their 
 excursion lines is determined largely by impact and reflection, the ele- 
 ment of accident or irregularity is more or less involved. These condi- 
 tions cannot a priori be considered favorable to composition or coales- 
 cence of varying motions. And as a matter of fact, mixed gases do not 
 combine easily nor rapidly (and sometimes they refuse to combine) 
 under ordinary conditions. The oxygen and nitrogen of our atmos- 
 phere remain constantly and persistently distinct, except as a result of 
 the special action of outside agents, as e. g. an electric discharge, etc., 
 Chlorine and hydrogen gases, while they do slowly and gradually com- 
 bine even in the dark, need the influence of the sun's rays, or those of 
 the electric light, to produce a rapid union; so with oxygen and hydro- 
 gen; and many others might be cited. Observe that in all these cases 
 the special agent — the critical factor — determining the union, is some 
 
mode of motion introduced; some etherial wave-force adding to or 
 changing in some way the motions of one or both of the combining 
 molecules. 
 
 In the solid state, too, the conditions favorable to molecular changes^ 
 either of combination or decomposition, are absent in sti*ll greater degree; 
 the distances between atom and atom or between molecule and molecule 
 being inconsiderable when compared with the line or orbit of vibration 
 and size of particles. As a matter of fact, the solid state does not present 
 many striking examples of chemical reaction except at the surface. In 
 this state, inasmuch as amplitude of vibration is reduced to a low degree^ 
 the introduction of diverse elements is not easy. Even when such 
 rough mechanical mixture as we can secure by trituration is made, the 
 distance separating the little masses of the mixture are immeasurably 
 larger than those necessary for atomic combination. At the surfaces 
 where the molecules are free in some cases to make limited excursions 
 into the vaporous or gaseous atmosphere surrounding them; and the 
 atmosphere is perhaps condensed, combinations take place easily 
 enough in some cases; iron rust, silver sulphuret, copper oxides and 
 carbonates, and others will at once suggest themselves as examples. 
 
 With substances in liquid solution, or rendered fluid by heat, the 
 conditions favoring chemical changes seem to be the best possible. 
 The most unfettered motion in every direction throughout the mass; 
 nothing in the way of accident (as in gases) to disturb the natural and 
 proper rhythm of the atoms or molecules. The waves formed in the 
 ether pervading the intermolecular spaces of a mixture in solution of 
 compatible atoms, present to the eye of the imagination a picture of the 
 most beautiful and regular, though intricate tracery. Along these 
 variously curving lines, paths of least resistance, it is possible, and de- 
 lightful to the philosophic mind, to picture the atoms having pffinity, 
 moving and uniting with their complimentary atoms to form molecules, 
 which, continuing to swing with the double or multiple force and com- 
 posite motion, speed along the etherial paths in figures of still greater 
 intricacy and beauty. 
 
 Hastening to a conclusion of this attempt to sketch a theory of 
 chemical attraction ; let me say that, as we judge of the truths of 
 hypotheses largely by their correspondence with other accepted hy- 
 potheses, and by the number of phenomena which they "explain" or 
 bring under a broader generalization; I shall attempt to show such cor- 
 respondence and such power in this. Only a few of the phenomena in 
 the domain of chemistry, which, by this theory are shown to be regular, 
 while formerly considered anomalous, can be indicated. And first 
 catalysis, or the action of presence, e. g. manganese dioxide, used in 
 the reaction for procuring oxygen from potassium chlorate. Here*^ 
 
although the manganese oxide is entirely unchanged, its presence renders 
 the liberation of oxygen easy and copious at about 200° F., where in its 
 absence a heat sufficient to melt the chlorate would be required. An- 
 other example is found in the case of sulphuric acid, used with heat, to 
 -effect the metamorphosis of starch into glucose. These examples, it is 
 true, are instances of decomposition, and only inversely related to attrac- 
 tion; but they show the power of ether- waves, complementary to the 
 atomic motions of contiguous bodies, to afifect the strength of existmg 
 attractions — they are cases of the inverse of the proposition to be demon- 
 strated. Second, the influence or condition called the nascent state on 
 chemical combination, e. g. the easy combination of carbon and nitro- 
 gen with hydrogen, when liberated simultaneously in the destructive 
 distillation, or spontaneous decay of organic matter; in contrast to the 
 fact that they do not combine when mixed in the gaseous state. The 
 considerations adduced herein when treating of the obstacles presented 
 by mixed gases to cheinical union, on the one hand; and the fact that 
 the atom of nitrogen, e. g. must have a slightly different rate and figure 
 of vibration from the molecule of the same substance in a gaseous con- 
 dition; lead us to see that, while the atom may very easily combine 
 with carbon and hydrogen, the molecule, from its different rate and 
 mode, and therefore different wave, may and does not. 
 
 The explanation which Liebig suggested as the cause and nature of 
 fermentation is in point here. He imagined that when certain ferments 
 {by which, however, he did not mean the same thing as Pasteur describes 
 under that name) in the act of undergoing change (decomposition) were 
 in contact with neutral ternary compounds of slight stability {because built 
 tip of many atoms and therefore having a highly complex motion ajid 
 wave figure — G. P.) as sugar, the molecular disturbance of the decom- 
 posing ferment was propagated (by ether waves — G P.) to the sug^ar, 
 and wrought destruction of the equilibrium of forces (destruction of the 
 special composite motion — G. P.) to which it owed its being. 
 
 Third, the action of light (ether- waves) on the combination of atoms, 
 e. g. in plants, etc., and on the decomposition of certain salts. Fourth, 
 going outside of chemistry and taking an example from zoologv, it ex- 
 plains the order and the reason therefor in which birds of passage — ducks 
 and geese — arrange themselves in flight, viz., in lines oblique to the 
 line of progress. Certain points in the air-wave caused by the move- 
 ments of the leader are more fitted to sustain the succeeding bird in its 
 flight, e. g. the crest rather than the trough of the wave. Doubtless 
 the same condition of affairs, substituting ether-wave for air-wave, de- 
 termines the various forms of crystallization assumed by different sub- 
 stances. 
 
 There are other chemical facts which will probably be illustrated and 
 
more or less explained by this theory: some of the phenomena of 
 thermal chemistry and some phenomena connected with contraction of 
 bulk in combining- elements. 1 am not sure but the matter of attrac- 
 tion, of gravitation will ultimately be found related to this hypothesis. 
 
 Finally, while analogies — correspondences in nature in various de- 
 partments — require to be carefully handled, if we would adhere to stricdy 
 scientific methods; nevertheless the appeal to analogies may be useful in^ 
 illustrating and corroborating inductions already drawn from facts in 
 other fields. Now, what, in fact, is the foundation and "cause" of 
 affinities and attractions among human beings and the lower animals ? 
 Compatability and accordance of movements! That is to say, conduct 
 on the part of two or more individuals which will harmonize and fit 
 together. The tendency of all of us lo move in lines of least resistance 
 causes us to be attracted towards those who are in sympathy with us, 
 and whose movements are therefore synchronous and of like form to, 
 and harmonize with ours, instead of i)eing obstructive. It was forbidden 
 by a wise law giver to yoke the ox and the ass together, and why? 
 Because their movements in walking and pulling are totally unconform- 
 able, inconsistent, and will not combine; they are heteromorphous as 
 well as unsynchronous, and therefore destructive to each other's 
 efficiency. 
 
tt>»i)Vii,»''i'l*.>.* .*.'