LESSONS 0]::^''t)'BJE,dts, GRADUATED SERIES; DESIGNED FOR Cljitorm kMm t\)t ^tB at M'< u)i imxtm pars : CONTAINING, ALSO, INFORMATIOx\ ON COMMON OBJECTS. ARRANGED By E. a. SITELDOT^, 8UPT. PUBLIC SCHOOLS, OSWKGO, N Y., WTlUtU OF ELEMENTARY INBTKUCTION, SBADINO BUOK AND ClIAl'.To, ET(J., ET(;. NEW YORK: SCRIBNER, ARMSTRONG *t CO., LB l C' Entered, according to Act of Concress. in the year 1863, by • \^HAKCE8 hCUIBNEB, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, for the 3oBtLern District of New York. EDUCATION UEI.*i'l'# Trow's Printing and Bookbinding Co., PRINTERS AND BOOKBINDERS, 205-213 /iast \ith St., NBW YORK. :-iy"^. PEEFACE The fourteenth edition of " Lessons on Objects " was published in London in 1855, under the auspices of the Home and Colonial Training Institution, and underwent at that time a thorough revision. In this American edition many changes have been made in the arrangement of the Lessons. Some of the terms have been modified, others left out al- together. A number of the lessons have been omit- ted and others substituted in their place, and much information on common objects has been added. In the original work there were but few Model Lessons ; in this, a large additional number have been inserted. These have been taken from " Manual of Elementary In- struction," '' Model Lessons," and '* Notes and Sketches of Lessons," all London publications. The arrange- ment of the Steps correspond to the arrangement in the " Manual of Elementary Instruction." The first three steps are designed for the first three years of the child's school life, or for the Primary Schools. The fourth and fifth steps are adapted to the junior or intermediate grade, or for pupils from ten to fourteen years of age. The Models given are designed to aid the teacher in the preparation of her lessons, as suggestions in re- 54 1224 PREFACE. gard to the proper method of arranging and present- ing them, and not as forms to be implicitly or blindly followed. In cases where lists of the names of the qualities of objects are given, it is not essential that the children should be led to the discovery of all the qualities named. As the object of these Lessons is to cultivate the senses, to awaken and quicken observation, and lead the children to observe carefully everything in nature about them that comes within the range of the senses, it is important as far as possible to give the children a good deal of latitude, and let the discoveries be their own, except as they may be guided in part by the teacher. So that if they should leave out in their in- vestigations some qualities named, and put in others not named, it is not a matter of importance, provided they are correct as far as they go, and accuracy of ohserva^ tion is cultivated. It should be added, that as the ideas are clearly developed, the giving of terms to express these ideas is d ^signed as a preparation for '' Language Lessons," and to give the children a vocabulary by which they are enabled to express the observations they are continually making oir the objects of the external world. Thus observation gjid language are both culti- vated. We cannot do better here than insert the Preface to the Fourteenth London Edition, PREFACE TO THE FOURTEENTH LONDON EDITION. When this work was first presented to tlio public, nearly tliiitj' years since, the idea of systematically using the material world as one of the means of educating the minds of children, was so novel and untried a thing in England, that the title " Lessons on Ob- jects " excited many a smile, and the success of the little volume was deemed to be, at best, very dubious. The plain sound sense of the plan, however, soon recommended it to our teachers, and they discovered that reading, writing, and arithmetic, do not form the sole basis of elementary education, but that the objects and actions of every-day life should have a very prominent place in their programme. In spito of the ominous forebodings which attended the first introduction of this little volume, the public has given a decided sanction to the system of teaching it, and the degree in which it has in consequence modified books for the young and the practice of elementary instruction, can scarcely be calculated. Successive editions of the Lessons have issued rapidly from the press, hitherto without any alteration ; but it is now thought desira- ble to profit by the experience gained by the introduction of such a course of instruction, and to make a few changes and additions. As the work is much used in institutions for the training of Teach- 6 PREFACE. ers, the following account of the plan of the whole course is given as a guide in the use of the lessons, and a help in carrying out the idea. Those who fall into a mechanical way of giving such in- struction, and do not perceive the principle involved, completely defeat its intention, and they had far better keep to old plans and old books. The work contains progressive series of lessons, the prevailing aim be"ng to exercise the faculties of children according to their natural order of development, aiming also at their harmonious cultivation.* The first series chiefly exercises the perceptive faculties, arresting attention on qualities discoverable by the senses ; and then furnishing a vocabulary to clothe the ideas, and so fixing them in the mind, where they will be ready for reproduction when the faculty of conception begins to act. The second and third se- ries, in addition to this, exercise the conceptive powers in recalling the impressions made upon the senses by external objects, when they are removed from observation — also in leading from what has become known to what is unknown. In the fourth series, the children are exercised in tracing resemblances and differences, in drawing comparisons and recognizing analogies, thereby cultivat- ing the power of arranging and classifying. In the fifth series, the reason and judgment are brought into activity ; in tracing the connection between cause and efiect, be- tween use and adaptation ; latfguage or the power of expression is cultivated ; the ideas developed in the lessons of the previous series are expressed either in simple words or short sentences ; but throughout this series the pupils are required to put down all the knowledge they acquire, in the form of consecutive nar- rntive. This plan promotes fixedness of attention during the giv- ing of the lesson, a clear apprehension of facts and truths, and facility in arranging and expressing what has been acquired. * See " Home Education," p. 198. PREFACE. 7 An objection has been made to these Lessons, that thej put fine words into children's mouths, and give them an air of ped- antry — but the evil in reality is the effect of the ignorance that has hitherto prevailed as to the properties of the most common things by which we are surrounded, and the consequent poverty of the poor man's language. When the love of knowledge is excited, and the habit of intelligent observation cultivated, words and phrases are required to define accurately what so often other- wise remains vague impressions on the mind; consequently a more extended vocabulary is requisite, and when no simple and common words can be found to express (for instance, such very important and common qualities as opacity and transparency), the only terms our language affords must be used, and the reproach of pedantry be risked. Teachers making use of these Lessons are earnestly advised to vead carefully the introduction to a series before they commence the lessons which it contains, and to endeavor to understand, and then to act np to the principles and aim set forth. They should guard against mere mechanical work, or allowing this in their pupils; the latter, after having heard a few names, will often, without thought or observation, apply them indiscriminately. Neither should the lessons be slavishly followed in all that is set down ; they should rather be used as affording suggestive hints ; and variety should be sought for — the children often themselves indicate what their minds require. ELIZABETH MAYO. Eampstead^ July^ 1855. CONTENTS. Page Hints on Sketch Writing 11 FIRST STEP. Introductory RciDark ^ 20 Lesson 1. A Biskrt, for its parts 25 2. A Ne -dl •, fo;' ts parts 25 3. A Penknife, for its parts.. .26 4. A Chair, for its ])art.s 27 6. A Watch, for its parts 28 6. A Pig 29 7. APe ,cil 30 8. Milk 32 9. A Feather 33 10. Loaf Sugar 36 11. Fint 38 12. Woo! 39 13. A Piece of Bark 40 14. A Rook 41 15. A Pin 42 16. A Cube of Wood 42 17. A Thimble 43 18. AK.y 43 19. ACup 44 20. A Pair of Scissors 45 2L A Bird 45 22. All Orange 46 SECOND STEP. Xntroductory Remarks 47 Lc«8on 1. India Uu'bcr 47 2. A Piece of Sponge 48 " 3. Whalebone 49 4. A I^iccoof Glas.s 51 6. A Piece of Slate 62 6. Leather 53 7. LoafSiigar 56 8. A P eco of Gum Arabic... 57 9. A Piece of Sponge 57 10. Wool : 58 11. Water 58 12. A Piece of Wax 68 13. Camphor 69 14. Bread 59 Page Lesson 15. Sealing Wax GO 16. Whalebone 60 17. Ginger 61 18. Blotting P;iper 61 19. A Piece of Willow 61 20. M Ik 62 2L Rce 62 22. Sa t 62 23. Horn 03 24. Ivo ry 63 25. Oak Bark 04 26. U cut Lead Pencil 64 27. A Wax Candle 65 28. APen 60 THIRD STEP. Introductory Remarks 68 Lesson 1. Chalk 68 2. Coal 70 3. A Match 72 4. A Rose Leaf 75 5. Hoiey Comb 78 6. A Butterfly 80 7. Recapitulaiion 84 8. Masi'acre of Children of Bethlehiiiie 346 70. Alumine or Argil 348 Pasre Lesson 71. Alum 366 72. Emery 352 73. Rotten Stone ai-d Tri- poli 353 74. Pumice Stone 354 75. Slate 355 S'diciotis Minerals. Lesson 76. Siind and Sandstone 356 77. Glass 358 78. Mica 364 79. Granite 365 Inflammable Minerals. Lesson 80. Sulphur 366 81. I'umbago 369 82. Coal 371 Saline Minerals. 83. Salt..,.^ 374 84. Soda 379 Manufactured Articles. Lesson 85. Pc^rcelain 381 86. Needles 882 87. Nails 385 88. Knives 387 89. Scissors 389 »0. Steel Pens 390 91. Lime 391 92. Brags 393 93. Puis 394 94. Pewter 397 Glossary 390 LESSOlSrS ON OBJECTS. HINTS ON SKETCH WRITING * There is, perhaps, no practice better adapted to insure effective oral teaching, than diligent preparation of the les- sons which the teacher intends to give her pupils. The recent impulse imparted to popular education, while it has directed attention to this important subject, has shown, also, how much it has been neglected. This fact, with the difficulties attending first attempts at the practice, renders it desirable to furnish a few hints to teachers and students, which may help them in this branch of their work, and lead to its better appreciation. Experience daily proves that an unprepared lesson, or what may be termed extempore teaching, is sure to be vague, diffuse, and shallow ; and on the other hand, that a well-prepared lesson is generally clear, to the point, and given with spirit and effect. If, with all the advantages of well-disciplined minds, those who instruct adults find careful preparation indis- pensable, far more so must it be to those who have to * Taken from ^^ Notes and Sketches of Lessons.'" 12 " ' ' ' ' ' "^INT^S ON SKETCH WRITING. teach children, and who in many cases are very deficient in mental culture. An accurate knowledge of her subject gives self-posses- sion and composure to the teacher; enables her to attend to the effect of the lesson on the minds of the children ; prevents tedious repetition, and important omissions; and gives her such a power over the children as to produce a consciousness that the teacher is guiding them, not they her. Success is then sure to follow, in winning their atten- tion, and eliciting their inquiries and remarks. Moreover, the teacher who has diligently acquired, thoroughly di- gested, and suitably arranged her matter, will not easily be seduced from her subject by incidental association or irrelevant questioning; she readily detects the one, and discourages the other. Drawing up sketches also affords much salutary mental discipline to the teacher herself. She is practised in ana- lyzing subjects of instruction ; and then, in reconstructing them on the principles of good teaching. She learns to view the lesson as a whole, to see the prominent bearings of the subject, and to grasp and retain them firmly while working them out. Again : if a teacher can overcome her natural love of ease, and once make up her mind to the practice of prepar- ing sketches of lessons, it will not only tend to cultivate and discipline her mind, but greatly contribute to the pleasure of her daily occupation, economizing at once time and labor. She will enjoy the interesting work of deter- mininijj the end to be aimed at, of seeking the means of its attainment, and then of watching its success. Further; HINTS OX SKETCH WEITIXG. 13 If, after having prepared the sketch, the teacher takes care, at the close of the day, to enter that sketch in a hook, and to notice the omissions made, and other incidents connected with the lesson as given, she will at the end of a single twelvemonth find her task greatly lightened, and her work with every new class of children comparatively easy. Her pupils withal, by the help of a systematic and regular course of well premeditated and prepared instruction, will have their minds properly exercised, and make solid prog- ress : the same lesson will not, as is now often the case, be repeated within too short a space of time ; and when it is again given, it will have the full benefit of the teacher's experience and correction. It may seem very trite to say that, in order to prepare a good sketch of a lesson, a teacher should thoroughly ac- quaint herself with the subject, both in itself and in its different bearings on relative subjects; yet much vagueness on the part of the teacher, and much inattention on the part of the children, are owing to the neglect of a truth so obvious. Whatever may be the skill of the teacher, with- out proper and ample materials, no valuable result will be produced. In a Scripture lesson, the meaning of the passage select- ed should be carefully studied ; the parallel passages and texts consulted ; every reference to places, manners, cus- toms, &c., clearly understood ; that the teacher may come forward with a mind enriched with knowledge, an^l a heart imbued with religious feeling. In secular instruction, the best information should be obtained from books and actual observation. The points 14 HINTS ON SKETCH WRITING. to which to lead the pupils should be determined, whether relating to historical facts, to utility, or to the connecting dependence of one part of the subject on another. Truth, thus acquired by search, will be valued and remembered, the harmony and dependence between various truths per- ceived, and its existence become a reality to them. It is of great importance that teachers should be well supplied with concordances, commentaries, and other books of reference. The scanty library of many of our teachers, • while the mechanic is so well supplied with choice tools of every kind, is enough to make those deeply mourn who wish well to the cause of education. The expenditure on this account would be richly repaid in the enhanced usefulness of the teacher. Assuming that good and sufficient matter has been col- lected, the next point is to determine what the special subject^ or leading idea^ of the lesson shall be. In order to do this, in a Scripture lesson, for example, the teacher should ascer- tain the current of thought that runs through the passage, the particular truth it teaches, and the practical application of which it is susceptible. The advantages of attention to this rule in religious instructidn, are strikingly expressed by Inglis, in the " Sabbath School." He says, " A person, when he has settled the subject of his lesson in this way, has before his eyes a definite purpose to serve. Instead of occupying himself with unconnected explanations, pious, but pointless reflections, and hap-hazard questions, he tries, we shall say, on that day and by that one lesson, to con- vince the children — of the value of their souls ; or, of the evils of liypocrisy ; or, of tlie holiness of God ; or, of the HINTS ON SKETCH WRITING. 15 happiness of heaven ; something at least tangible and im- portant. Instead of wandering at random wherever the impulse of association or the answers of the children may lead him, his subject is a helm to his thoughts, and guides them steadily to the point. He tries to lodge one or two great truths in the minds of his scholars ; and this distinct- ness of purpose gives method and clearness to every part of the lesson. Both teacher and scholars know where they are, and what they are about." In preparing the sketch of a lesson on a secular subject, the teacher should in like manner, so far as is practicable, confine herself to a single point, — or at most, a few points, toward which the whole instruction should tend, as rays to a centre. Her attention should not be directed to what she can or might say on the subject, but to supply what is most suited to the children's minds and acquirements, to their present and future wants ; and what they can well receive and digest. The plan^ or method of the lesson, is another very im- portant consideration. The information which the teacher has collected is placed in her own mind in the order in which she has acquired it, and not in that in which it should be imparted to the children. She has, therefore, tc endeavor to throw herself into the minds of her pupils ; to realize to herself their actual state, and to consider what is known, that she may obtain a firm footing from whence to proceed to that which is unknown and new. She has also to analyze her subject, that she may commence with what is simple and elementary, and so to arrange her points that she may proceed, by a series of well-graduated steps, to 16 HINTS ON SKETCH WRITING. that which is more diftlcult, or is complex in its character. The ideas presented or gathered from the subject will then be received in their right order, their suitable connection felt, and the whole will be adjusted satisfactorily in the mind. She has, moreover, to determine how she should present her subject so as to seize that point of view which is most suitable, and likely to excite the greatest degree of interest and healthy exercise in her class, — varying this, in ^different sketches, that she may not continue in a hackneyed course, or put the children's minds in trammels. Teachers are very apt to adopt some model in their teaching, and to wear it threadbare. They, in consequence, lose freedom of mind themselves, and their pupils become weary of travel- ling always by the same road. It is better to make a few .xiistakes (by which, indeed, they gain experience), than lose their energy and independence of thought. In drawing out the heads, it is of great importance that a proportionate degree of attention be paid to each, that too much be not given to the subordinate, while the pnn- cipal are left indefinite and incomplete. Care should also be taken that the heads are not too numerous: minute divisions impoverish the subject, and diminish its effect. They should also be marked by clear, distinct, and broad lines. Teachers who endeavor to take a comprehensive view of their subject, will succeed far better than those who bring to it a critical, fanciful spirit. It is hardly necessary to point out that there is a great difference between a sketch designed simply for the teach- er's use, and one written for the inspection of others ; the object of the one is simply to suggest, that of the other to HINTS ON SKETCH WRITING. 11 inform. In general, the former contains only the memoranda of what the teacher intends to bring before the children, in the order it is to be given ; while the latter should contain more or less of the teacher's method of giving the lesson, and greater fulness of information. To a teacher of long experience, who has in her owti mind a well-acquired method, memoranda may be sufficicut ; still, method must be attended to in preparation, though it may not be essential to exhibit it in notes for her own use. She should not only know that a lesson requires reasoning, description, illustration, and application, but her own mind should be made up as to how a point is to be reasoned out, described, illustrated, or applied. The character of the matter is important, and the arrangement of it necessary ; but the method of presenting it to the children is as impor- tant as either ; for, as the late Dr. Mayo has well said, " it is as important how children learn, as what they learn." But for students in a training school, who prepare sketches for their own improvement and the inspection of others (and it is to this class that these hints may be considered more immediately applicable), it is requisite to state in the sketch the method as well as the matter of the lesson. In' formation may be nicely put together, but more is needed to insure a good lesson — the manner in which children's minds are to be exercised upon it ; this should, therefore, be stated in the sketch. It is easy enough to collect infor- mation from books, but not so easy to show how such information is to be used as a means of developing the minds of the pupils ; and this is what ought to be done by a good teacher. 18 HINTS ON SKETCH WRITING. Method and order should by no means be confounded ; —-order has to do with the arrangement of the mformation, the raw material, as it were, of the lesson ; method, with the moulding and fashioning which it undergoes in the hands of the teacher, constituting the manner in which it should be presented to the children, so as to exercise their mental powers at the right time, and in due proportion. Order deals, as we have seen, with the information — the subject matter of the lesson ; method, with the mind, the development and furnishing of which is the object of the instruction. Thus, order is more concerned with the in- strument used ; method, with the end to be attained. And while order is method to a certain extent, method includes more than mere order. In addition, therefore, to information and order, a stu- dent's sketch should show how it is proposed to introduce what is general and abstract ; to help to the conception of what is absent ; to illustrate what is not understood ; to re- solve the complex into its simple elements ; and to fix in the memory that which is received by the understanding. In fine, the sketch should contain the skeleton, or outline, of the lesson, showing the prineipal points on which it is in- tended to exercise the children's attention, and the manner in which the subject should be treated, so as to secure their interest, and fix the ideas clearly and thoroughly in their minds. A teacher, in the selection of her subject, may have a general aim ; thus, in a Bible lesson, to produce a religious impression ; in a lesson on an object, to call out observation ; in a lesson on number, to cultivate accuracy and draw forth HINTS ON SKETCH WEITING. 19 power ; in a lesson on an animal, to exhibit the wisdom and goodness displayed in its structure, and thus to draw forth admiration and love toward the Divine Creator. But, in the treatment of the particular lesson, there should, we repeat, be one, or at most two or three prominent points put down in the sketch, which should be natural, simple, and striking ; it should be the special aim of the teacher to w^ork them out. The sketch should declare the plan by which the children are to be conducted to these points : thus, in a lesson on an object, it should show how any par- ticular idea is to be developed, or how the children are to be led to discover the fitness of the object for its use ; in a lesson in natural history, how an animal's organization is adapted to its habits ; on number, by what steps the chil- dren are to be induced to draw conclusions for themselves; in a Bible lesson, how it is purposed to produce an impres- sion, and to bring a truth or precept within the sphere of the children's perception and self-application. With respect to the details of information, a sketch, whether drawn up by a teacher for her own use in the school, or by a student in training,* should contain what may be called suggestive hints of the subject of the lesson. It should equally avoid detailed information, on the one hand ; and on the other, mere general notices, such as con- stitute a table of contents, or heading of a chapter. In the former case the document would present the appearance of a depository of information, rather than a sketch ; and the * For examples of these two kinds of sketches, or rather of memo- randa and sketch, see the memoranda and the sketch for lessons on th« Mole, p. , Fourth Step. 20 Hi]!n:s on sketch WRirrNa teacher would herself be in danger of presenting it in a book form, — of becoming a lecturer instead of a teacher ; while a sketch, if of too general a character, would either do injustice to the knowledge of the teacher, or produce a vague and superficial lesson. The general style of a sketch should be pithy, pointed, and condensed, in order that its different parts may catch the eye. To effect this, the use of the ellipsis will con- tribute. Questions may also often be used in a sketch with effect ; they aid in giving point and expression, and indicate method in the very shortest way. But it requires considei*- able judgment and experience to frame questions properly for such a purpose, and with due regard to the character of a sketch, avoiding, on the one hand, the minuteness re- quired in a lesson, and on the other, the generality of mere heads. The following example is faulty, inasmuch as the questions change by their directness and specialty the char- acter of a sketch ; while from their paucity they fail as to a lesson : — " I will question the children on the most im- portant points in the -narrative as I proceed ; as, whom Abraham sent to fetch Rebecca? at what place the servant stopped? who came to the well while he was there ? how did Rebecca treat him ? what disposition did she manifest?" Compare this with the following extract from a sketch on " the Goodness of God, shown in the different Seasons of the Year : " — " Draw from the children a descnption of this season (winter). What do they observe out of doors ? trees without leaves, gardens without flowers, frost, snow, wind, fogs, cloudj, &c. How do they feel ? What do they lik« to have on ? What difference do they find indoors ?— • HINTS ON SKETCH WRITING. 21 fires required, windows shut, &c." Here questions are used to elicit what may be called classes of answers^ to form connecting links, and also to indicate the method of the teacher ; not one of them is of that isolated or detailed character which marks each question in the first extract. The title of the lesson should always be stated in a clear, bold hand, at the top of the sketch ; next, the class of chil- dren for whom it is prepared, as this information is neces- sary to the determining the suitability in the mode of treating the subject; then, the point of view, or the ideas to be developed : but when the point is contained in. the title of the lesson, as in a lesson on grammar or number, it should not be repeated. It also gives great neatness to a sketch to mark the heads in Roman numerals, and the sub- divisions in the Arabic. A margin should be left, and the heads or leading ideas stated therein ; this, besides improv- ing the appearance of the sketch, enables both the teacher and others to see at a glance the matter and order of the lesson. A legible handwriting and neatness of execution should by no means be neglected in a sketch. These minor points may appear trivial, but they are not unimportant ; attention to them will promote self-possession when giving the lesson, and tend to form beneficial habits. FIKST STEP. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS FOR THE DIRECTION OF THE TEACHER. To lead children to observe with attention the objects which surround them, and then to describe with accuracy the impressions they convey, appears to be the first step in the business of education. As the period of childhood is characterized by the cease- less activity of the perceptive faculties, it is clear that with them intellectual education should commence. The devel- opment of these powers gives animation to the dull, and precision to the lively, while it promotes that clearness of apprehension which is the solid basis of after attainment, and without which our judgments are unsound, and our reasonings inconclusive. As the sphere of observation is enlarged, and the pages of history or the fields of science are explored, the mind, accustomed to accurate investiga- tion, will not rest content with less than satisfactory evi- dence, either in morals or in science. The present work consists of five series of lessons, each of which increases in difiiculty as the pupil advances. The order observed in them is the result of some experience, INTEODUCTORY REMARKS. 23 and of several trials, which have produced a strong convic- tion of the importance and value of a methodical arrange- ment, and of a very gradual progression. It is therefore recommended that no step iu the course should be alto- gether omitted, though the age and talents of the children must regulate the time bestowed on each. It is very important, that in all instruction, some definite object should be proposed, and that every step should have a tendency toward the end in view. Thus in the series under consideration, the development of the perceptive faculties is aimed at, and each sense is called into action, that all may be strengthened by exercise, and their judg- ments corrected. By linking also the ideas gained to ap- propriate words, a ready command of language may be acquired. A few lessons fully drawn out are given in each step, as a specimen of the manner in w^hich the others should be given. It would have extended the volume to an unneces- sary length, and filled it with needless repetitions, had each been made out with equal minuteness. Information is not given in the preliminary set, as the end proposed is to ex- cite the mental powers of the children to activity, and not to furnish them with knowledge. It may perhaps be necessary to guard against the error of expecting, in a work like the present, anything more than hints as to the mode of arranging and imparting knowledge. Teachers ought to be well informed, in order to meet the inquiries which the active minds of children continually suggest. Their questions will generally point out the best mode of treating a subject, or of leading them 24 FIRST STEP. to the discovery of any truth. Precise, unvarying rules may be laid down for mechanical operations ; but mind alone can act upon mind, and bring it into vigorous exercise ; and all instruction must be dry and uninteresting, which has not undergone some modification from the person by whom it is communicated. There are several faults into which teachers are likely to fall ; one is that of telling too much, for though the in- formation may be received with pleasure, and appear to profit, yet under such a mode of instruction, the pupils' minds remain almost passive, and they acquire a habit of receiving impressions from others, at a time when they ought to be gaining mental power by the exertion of their own faculties. Another mistake is that of giving a term before the pupil has felt his want of it.* When the idea of any quality has been formed in his mind, Avithout his being able to express it, the name given under such circum- stances fixes it on the memory : thus, when a child observes that whalebone, after having been bent, returns to its orig- inal position, he may be told that this property which he has discovered is called elastic. In the First Step the children are led to discern and name the several parts of an object, as also to the distinct perception of some of the more obvious qualities, without * The writer desires particularly to enforce this remark, having in on* or two instances seen the lessons altogether misused. Thus the qualities were told, and the explanation of the terms given, instead of the object being presented to the children that they might make their own observa- tions upon it, and learn from the teacher how to express qualities uleaily discerned by them, although unknown by uam«. A BASKET, FOR ITS PARTS. 25 the communication of a term by which to express such per- ception, except in those cases where the term is famihar. LESSON I. A BASKET, FOR ITS PARTS. Require the children to name the object, and to tell its use — as to hold potatoes, peas, bread, tea, sugar, books, work, paper, &c. ; and then to point out its parts, as the lid, the handles, the sides, the bottom, the inside, the outside, and the edges ; to describe the use of the lid — to cover the things contained in the basket, and to prevent them being seen ; and to tell also the use of the sides and of the bot- tom. What would happen if the basket had no lid ? The things it contained would be seen, and the dust would get in. "What would happen if it had no handle ? It could not be conveniently held. Show me how you would be obliged to hold it if it had no handle. Would you like to have to hold it in that way ? What would happen if there were no sides to the basket ? The thhigs it contained would fall out sidewise. What would happen if there were no bottom to the basket ? They would fall downward, nor would the basket stand safely. Then make the children repeat to- gether the names of the various parts of a basket. " The basket has a lid, a handle," &c. LESSON IL A NEEDLE, FOR ITS PARTS. The children to give the name, and tell how the nee- "ile is used : What persons use needles ? What men use 26 FIBST STEP. — ^LESSON III. them? Desire a child to touch some part of the needW; ask the name of that part of it, and let all repeat the word together. When all the parts have been discovered, the children repeat together — " A needle has an eye, a point, and a shank." Question them as to where the eye is, where the point, and where the shank. All repeat : " The eye is at one end of the needle, the point is at the other end of it, and the shank is between the eye and the poinf Ask the use of the eye, and what is put through it. Thread, cotton, silk, or worsted. What is the act of putting any one of these through the eye of the needle called ? What is the use of the point ? what should the point be ? When is a needle a bad one ? When the point is blunt. What is the use of the shank ? It gives a part by which to hold the needle, and also to hold the stitches we take up. Conclude by simultaneous recapitulation of the parts of a needle : " A needle has," &c. LESSON IIL A PENKNIFE, FOR ITS PARTS. The teacher calls upon the^children to name the object, and then desires a child to point to some part of the knife ; supposing this to be the blade, the children should learn the name ; if they do not know it, the letter B is then written on the slate, and the children taught to understand that B stands for the word blade ; then they should be required to point to the other parts of the knife, as the handle, the rivets, &c., and to tell their names, or to learn them if they do not know them; repeating the names of the A CHAIR, FOE ITS PARTS. 27 several parts of the knife, as indicated by the letters on the slate. The teacher is next to touch the different parts of the knife, and as this is done to require the children to give the name of each part, as the edge of the blade, the point, the handle, the rivets, the hinge, &c. Holdmg up the knife, the teacher then asks the children how the blade is placed with respect to the handle ? whether it is always in the same position ? how it is placed when the knife is used ? and how when it is put into the pocket ? where the point is ? and where the rivets, &c. ? how many parts has the knife ? the children now to refer to the slate, and to mention, as they count the number, what each let- ter stands for. The use of the knife might be here spoken of, and when a penknife is used in preference to any other knife ; have they ever seen any person make a pen with such a knife as that before them ? The object is now to be withdrawn, and the teacher is to desire the children to name the parts of it from memory, one child only being at first allowed to speak, and then all : " The knife has a blade, — ^the knife has a handle," &c. If they mistake, the board is to be referred to, and the teacher is to question them as to what each letter stands for. They might also describe the position of the parts, first one of them doing so, and then, simultaneously, all. LESSON IV. A CHAIR, FOR ITS PARTS. The children to name the object, then to tell its use, — - to sit on ; then to point out its parts, as the back, the seat, 28 FIRST STEP. — ^LESSON IV. the legs, and the bars ; then to tell the use of the several parts, as the back, for the sitter to lean against ; of the seat, for him to sit on ; of the legs, to support the chair ; of the cross-bars, to give strength and firmness to the whole. What would be the consequence had the chair no back ? "We could not so well rest on it when tired. Of its having no seat ? There would be nothing to sit upon. Of its having no legs? The seat would be on the floor. What would happen were there no bars ? The chair would soon fall to pieces. Of which of the parts is there one only ? Of the seat and of the back. How many legs are there ? Why four legs ? How many bars are there ? Which parts are upright? Which parts are level? Repeat together the names of the several parts of a chair. LESSON V. A WATCH, FOE ITS PAETS. The teacher, holding up a watch, asks. What is this ? It is a watch. Now look well at it, and tell me the name of some part of it. The hands. Yes. Tell me another part. The glass. All repeat, — " The watch has hands and it has a glass." Find another part. The rim. Is there any part of the watch which you cannot see when I hold it up ? Yes, the inside. If you will think a little you will be able to tell me some other part. The outside. All repeat, " The watch has an outside and an inside." You have told me the watch has hands ; where do they meet ? In the middle. In the middle of what ? In the middle of the fece. In telling me this you have mentioned two other THE PIG. 29 parts of the watch. The watch has a face, and there is a small hole in the middle of it. Now tell me how many hands the watch has ? Two. Are they alike ? No. How are they unlike ? One of them is long, the other is short. Say, " The watch has two hands, one of them long and the other short." Can you find out anything more about the face ? There are little figures round the edge of it. Re- peat together, " The face has figures round it." Tell me some other part which you have named? The glass. How many glasses has the watch ? Only one. And what does th glass cover? It covers the face. Say, "The watch has a glass, which covers the face." Well, now you have been looking at the watch, and have told me several parts of it which you have found out by looking at it, who among you can tell me when a watch is near, even if it be not in sight ? I can. It ticks. What is the use of a watch ? It tells us what time it is. Yes, and there is something else which tells the time ; what is it ? A clock. Now let us sing about the clock : "The neat little clock, in the comer it stands." LESSON VI. THE PIG. I. Show the children the picture of a pig. Let them name and point to all its parts ; as the head, eyes, ears, nose, mouth, neck, legs, tail, &c. Tell them that the nose and mouth together are called the snout. Ask whether they have seen a pig. If like the one before them. The differ- 80 FIRST STEP. — ^LESSON VII. ence. What they have seen pigs doing? Their color, shape, &c. Where pigs Uve ? If they have ever seen a sty ? What they eat out of? &c., &c. Thus leading them to talk familiarly and to say all they can about pigs. II. Speak of the use of the pig to man. What it's flesh is called ? If tcey have ever tasted it ? III. Who made ihe pig ? How we should feel toward God, who has given at> tliis useful animal. How it should be treated ; givmg some examples which have come under their notice of cruelty to the pig ; appealing to the children if this conduct is right, or pleasing to God. How God would regard such children. How all animals which God has made should be treated, and if they would like to be treated cruelly themselves. By these and similar questions exciting humane feelings toward animals. LESSON VII. A PENCIL, TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OP ITS PARTS AND THEIR USES. The children repeat together : This is a pencil. Who can tell the use of a pencil ? - It is used for writing. What do you mean by writing ? Look at me. The teacher makes some unmeaning marks on paper, and asks : Is this writing? No. The teacher next forms some letters or words, on the board, and asks : Is this writing ? Yes, it is. Now you can tell me when we wHte with a pencil When we use it to make words. Do any of you know any other iise of a pencil ? Some child will perhaps say : It is used A PENCIL. 31 to draw with. Repeat together: '^ A pencil is used to write with and to draw with.'''* If you wished to write or draw, could you do so if you had a pencil alone, and nothing more? No. Right; you must have paper, or Bomethmg to write or draw upon. Now look well at the pencil, and tell me if it is everywhere alike, as this piece of chalk is? What can any of you see? The wood of the pencil. What more ? The lead of it. The wood is not then the whole of the pencil ? what is it ? It is a part of it. And what is the lead ? The lead is also a part of the pencil. What can you say the pencil has? The pencil has parts. Try and find some other parts. Call a child to touch some part of the pencil ; he will most likely touch the ends ; the children may not know how to call them ; they may be told they are the ends of the pencil, and then repeat together: The pencil has ends. How many ends has a pencil? Two. Before any one can use the pencil for writing, what must be done to one of the ends? It must be cut. What do we form when we cut it? We form a point. What more do you see on the pencil? Some words. That is the maker's name. Now repeat together the parts a pen- cil has. A pencil has wood, &c. What is the use of the lead? What would be the consequence if there were no lead in the pencil? What is the use of the wood ? What do you think would be the consequence if the pencil were all lead? Yes; one disadvantage would be that it would blacken our fingers. Now tell me where the lead is. Repeat together: " The lead runs along the middle of the pencil." Where is 32 FIRST STEP. — LESSON VIII. the wood ? Repeat together : " The wood is round tht lead:'' Where is the point ? Repeat together : " The point is at one end of tJie penciV* LESSON VIII. MILK. What is this in the glass ? Milk. Where do we get milk ? It comes from the cow. How can you tell that this is milk and not water ? By its being white. Is there any other reason for your saying that it is not water ? We cannot see through it. Repeat together : " Milk is white, and we cannot see through it?"* Taste it. It is very nice. What kind of taste has it ? It has a sweet taste. Repeat : " Milk has a nice sweet taste.^^ You have told rae in what it is unlike water, now find out something in which it is like water ; now look at rae (the teacher pours out a little of the milk in drops) ; it will wet anything ; it forms itself in drops. We call those things which make others wet, and form themselves into drops, liquids. What then is milk? Milk is a liquid. Tell me some other liquids. Water, beer, ifec. What use do we make of milk ? We drink it. Why are little children fed upon milk ? To make them grow. Yes; and because it makes them grow it is said to be nourishing. Tell me some other things that are nour- ishing. Do you know any other animal besides the cow that gives milk ? Yes, the ass and the goat. I think you can bU tell me why God gave animals milk. Yes, Ho gives it A FEATHER. 33 to them to be food for their young. Why is milk so suit- able for the food of young animals ? Because it is so nour- ishing. How kind it is in God to give animals such nice nourishing food for their young, to keep the little things alive till they have teeth to bite the grass ! What is the young of the cow called ? A calf Now repeat all you know about milk. " MilTc comes from the cow. God gives it to the cow to feed the young calf when it has not teeth to bite the grass. Milk is white^ and we cannot see through it y it tastes nice and sweet y it is a liquid^ and snakes very nourishing food, LESSON IX. A FEATHER. What is this ? A feather. Whence does it come ? It comes from off a bird. How do you think a bird would feel without its feathers? Very cold. Of what use then are feathers to birds ? They keep them warm. What do we wear to keep us warm ? Coats, frocks, aprons, &c. Do you know one word by which to speak of all these to- gether ? Yes ; clothing. Yes, and feathers are the cloth- ing of birds. Now look at this feather (the teacher throws it up in the air) ; what do you see ? It flies about. If I throw this cent in the air, will it do the same? No, teacher, it. will fall to the ground at once. Why does the feather float in the air, and the cent fall to the ground ? Because the feather is light, and the cent is heavy. I wish some of the older children to tell me why a covering so light as feathers is best suited to birds ? 2* 84 FIBST STJSP. — LESSON IX. Because they have to fly in the air. Yes ; and if they had very heavy clothing they would fall down. We see then that the great God who is in heaven cares even for the little birds. He tells us in His Holy Word, that not even a sparrow falls to the ground without His knowing it ; and if He observes all that the little birds do, and takes such care of them, do you think He will ever forget you or me ? Oh no, dear children ! He knows everything you do, and everything that happens to you ; and, in the same chapter of the Bible in which He speaks of His care of the sparrows, He says, much more will he take care of His children ; you shall learn this verse, and I hope, when you see the little birds flying about so happily, you will remember that God, who takes such care of them, will never forget you. But now examine the feather, and tell me what colors you see in it. Part of it is white^ and part of it is brown. Here is another feather ; what color is it ? It is green. What then do you perceive as to the color of feathers. They difler. You may say, then, feathers are of different colors. Pass the feather round, and try to find out more about it. It is soft. Is every part of the feather soft ? No, not the part in the middle. And what '^of that ? It is hard. That hard part of the feather is called the shaft. What can you say of the shaft ? It is hard. All repeat : tfie shaft of tht feather is hard. What other difference is there between the shaft of the feather and the downy part of it ? ♦ The shaft shines, and the downy part does not. What do you call things that shine ? Bright. And things that do not * As feathers vary very much, the qualities will, of courae, depead opon the particular specimen chosen for the lesson. A FEATHER. 35 shine ? Dull. Then the shaft of the feather is bright., and the down is duU. What other difference do you perceive ? Feel the feather. We cannot easily bend the shaft. Do any of you know what we call things that cannot be easily bent ? I think you must have heard ; but attend, and try and remember what I say to you : things that cannot easily be bent are said to be stiff. Tell me some things that are stiff? Wood, slate. And what can you say of the shaft of the feather ? It is stiff. Yes, the shaft is stiff., you cannot easily 5ewc? it ; but the down you can easily bend. Hold up the feather to the light ; we can see through it. Can you see through the feather itself? No, but between the parts of it. But if I put all the parts of the feather close together, what do you find then ? We cannot see through it. And now you shall tell me what aro^the uses of feathers? They are used for beds. Why do they make nice beds ? Because they are soft. Why are they a suitable clothing for birds? Because they are light. Feathers then are useful to us because they are soft ; they are useful to birds because they are ligh% and keep them warm. Did you ever see a slender piece of wood, pointed at one end, with three feathers fastened on the other end ? Yes, teacher. What is it called? An arrow. Why were the feathers put on the wood ? To make the arrow fly in a straight line. Well ; you shall now repeat all that you have said about feathers : " Feathers are the clothing of birds ; God has given birds a very light clothing, that they may the more easily fly in the air ; God takes care of the birds, much 36 FIBST STEP. — LESSON X, more will He take care of us ; feathers are of various col- ors ; the shaft of the feather is hard^ bright y and stiff ; the downy part is soft and dvU^ and we can easily bend it ; we cannot see through the feather / feathers are used for stuffing beds, because they are softy and for arrows, to make them fly in a straight line.''^ LESSON X. LOAF SUGAR. You can all tell me what this is. Yes. It is sugar. What kind of sugar is it ? White sugar. Those who can tell me what sugar is, hold up their hands. You remember where the lead comes from ? Out of the earth. And the feather ? From off -the bird. Now I will tell you about sugar; it is made from the juice that is pressed out of the stem of a plant. Here is the picture of the plant. The plant is called the sugarcane, and a very nice juice, which contains the sugar, is pressed out from the stem. Look at the people in this picture. Are they like me ? No, teach- er, they are very dark. Some day we will talk about the countries in which the sugar-cane grows, and where the dark-colored people live. Now, you must tell me all you can yourselves find out about the sugar. It is sweet. You all know that. Repeat : " Sugar is sweet.'*'* Look, I put a piece of the sugar into some water ; what do you perceive ? It dissolves. Look again: I hold it to the flame of the candle. It melts. What then can you say of sugar ? It dissolves in water and it melts in fire. Repeat ; " JSugar LOAF SUGAR. 37 dissolves in water and melts in fireP * Now in what do lead and sugar differ ? They both melt in fire, but the sugar alone dissolves in water. Now look at the sugar, and feel of it, and tell me anything you find out. It is hard. What more ? It is white. Is all sugar white ? No, some sugar is brown. Look at this piece of sugar again. It is bright. Is it bright in the same way that lead is bright ? No, little bits of the sugar are bright. Yes, it appears like a number of little bright sparks ; it is said to be sparkling. What can you say of sugar ? It is spark- ling. Repeat together: " White sugar is sparkling?'' Well, try again. It is in a lump. Is all sugar the same? No, brown sugar is not in a lump as this is. Did you ever see an uncut piece of white sugar in a grocer's shop? What was its shape ? Round. Was it all the way up the same size ? No, it became smaller and smaller, till it end- ed in a rounded point. What is the use of sugar ? To sweeten tea. What more ? To sweeten puddings ; to sweeten our food. Now repeat the heads of the lesson; " Sugar is made from the juice of sugar-cane ; it is very sweet ; it melts in fire and dissolves in water. Loaf sugar is white, hard, and sparkling y sugar is used to sweeten our food:'* * The teacher should have a clear perception of the difference be- tween the melting or fusion of a solid substance and the dissolving of substances. 88 FIRST STEP. LESSON XI. LESSON XL FLINT. What is this ? A flint. What is a flint ? A sort of stone. Where do we find stones ? In the earth. Look at it ; what can you say of it ? It is black. The teacher holds up the flint. What do you all say of the color of the flint ? It is black. Repeat together : " Tlie flint is hlack?'' What more do you see ? It shines. All of you repeat : " The flint shines^ Do you think a piece of flint would make a good window ? No. Why not ? We could not see through it. All repeat : " We cannot see through flinty Tell me some other things through which you cannot see. The walls, the slates, &c. Now pass the flint round and feel of it. What now can you say of it ? It is hard ; it is cold. Kepeat together : " The flint is hard and cold?"* What more do you observe ? It is smooth. Repeat : " The flint is smooth.^^ Feel the edges. They are sharp. Repeat : " The edges of the fli?it are sharp.''"' The teacher strikes a piece of --flint and a piece of steel to- gether. What am I doing ? Striking the flint and steel together. What do you see ? Sparks of fire. What pro- duced the sparks? The striking the flint and steel to- gether. Repeat together : " Flint strikes fire with steeV Now repeat all that has been said about flint : '-''Flint is a stone; it comes out of the earth; it is black ; we cannot see through it ; when we touch it we feel that it is cold^ hard^ smooth^ and sharp at the edges ; a?id it is used to strike fire.'*'* WOOL. 39 LESSON xn. WOOL. What is this ? Wool. Where does wool come from ? It comes from off the sheep's back. What is a sheep ? An animal. What is wool then ? Part of- an animal. Of what use is the wool to the sheep ? It keeps it warm. Can the sheep make its own wool ? 'No. Who gave the little sheep this warm clothing ? God. Yes, God gave the sheep this warm clothing, because it could not make cloth- ing for itself Now pass this wool round the class : look at it, and feel it, and tell me what you can find out about it. It is soft. Repeat : " Wool is sofV It is all hairs. Yes. Repeat then : " JFool is formed of hairs^ Feel it again. It is dry. Repeat : " Wool is dry?"* What more ? It is warm. Does it feel warm, as fire does ? No. What do you mean then ? That anything made of wool keeps us warm. Re- peat : " Wool keeps us warm.'''* Yes, it keeps us warm, be- cause it prevents the warmth of our bodies from passing away from us. Who can tell me what wool is used for? To make stockings and flannel. What do you call that very thick flannel which you have on your beds ? Blanket. Do you kpow any kind of clothes which are made of wool. Yes, our fathers' coats. And what have some persons on their floors to keep their feet warm? Carpets. Carpets are made of wool. Now repeat all you have said of wool : " Wool come* 40 FIRST STEP. — LESSON XIH. from off the sheep* s hack ; it is the clothing which God gives the sheep to keep it warm ; wool is soft, dry^ and made up of hairs ; it keeps us warm / it is made into stockings, fannel, blankets, and carpets,'*'* LESSON XIII. A PIECE OF BARK. "What is this? A piece of bark. All look at it. Where do we find bark? On trees. On what part of trees? On the stem. On which part of the stem? Look and see. (The teacher brings in a piece of the stem of a tree on which the bark still remains.) On the outside. Repeat together : " Bark is the outer part of the stems of trees.'*'* Look at the bark ; what do you perceive ? It is hrown. Repeat : " Bark is hrown.'*'* Look again ; is it like glass ? No, we cannot see through it. What can you SAy of it then? We cannot see through bark. Compare it with glass. It does not shine. When anything does not shine at all, it is said to be dull ; what is the bark ? It is dull. Repeat : " The hark is dulV* Show me some things in the room tha'tf are dull. Now feel of the bark. It is rough. And what more ? It is dry. Now look (th^ teacher separates the fibres), it has strings or hairs. These strings or hairs are called fibres, and we say the bark is fibrous. Repeat : " The hark is fibrous.'*'* Some plants have very fibrous stems, and are very useful to us on this account ; here are some of the fibres of hemp ; and here are some of flax, which supplies much of our clothing. I think you A BOOK. 41 can find out something more if you feel the bark agaia Yes ; it is hard. Now repeat all you have said : " Barh is the outside covering of the stems of trees ; it is brown ; loe cannot se6 through it ; it is roughs dull^ dry^ hard^ and fibrous:^ LESSON XIV. A BOOK. In the following lessons, tenns expressing qualities that may be developed are given. The lessons may be carried out on the same general plan as the preceding. In no case should a term be given before the idea is developed, and the necessity for it is felt. Where the quality is not appa- rent to the sensef , it must be brought out by experiment. Parts. The outside. The leaves. inside. pages. edges. margin. corners. beginning. binding. type. paper. letters. back. numbers. sides. stops. top. words. bottom. sentences. title page. syllables. preface. lettering. introduction. stitching. contents. lines. end. paragraphs. i2 riEST STEP. — ^LESSON XV. The children should determine the position of the dif* ferent parts, their form and uses. T-ESSON XV. A PIN. Parts. Qualities, The head. It is hard. shank. white. point. bright. solid. smooth. The head is round. The point is sharp. The shank is straight. tapering. Use. — To keep together for a time parts of dress, &t. LESSON XVI. A CUBE OP WOOD. The cube will convey to the children a good idea of a surface ; but as some confusion is likely to arise in their minds, when they are informed that what bounds every part of an object, and can be felt or seen, is the surface^ and then, when they find that the surface is divided into parts, to be told that these divisions are caUed surfaces, it is therefore necessary to give them a name for the divisions of the surface — that oi faces has been adopted. A sphere may be shown as an example of an undivided surface, and by comparing it with the cube, a clear idea of what is meant by surface and faces may be elicited. A THIMBLE. '. Parts. Qualities. The surface. It is hard. faces. light. edges. solid. corners. brown. smooth. dull. burns with a flame. The faces are flat. square. The edges are straight. The corners are sharp. LESSON XVII. A THIMBLE. Parts. Qualities. The inside. It is hollow. outside. silver. top. full of little holes. bottom. white. rim. bright. border. hard. curved. The inside is smooth. The outside is rough. 43 Use. — ^To preserve the middle finger from being pricked in working. LESSON xvin A KEY. Parts. The ring, barrel. Qualities. It is hard, steel. i4 PIEST STEP. — ^LESSON XVIII. Parts. Qualities, The wards. The bright. grooves. smooth. edges. stiff. surface. liable to rust. corners. Part of the barrel is hollow. The barrel is in the form of a cylinder. The ring is curved. Places locked up by a key. — Doors, gates, boxes, desks, portmanteaus, trunks, portfolios, tea chests, closets, drawers, cabinets, &c. LESSON XIX. A CUF »^ Parts. Qualities. The bowl. It is hollow. handle. hard. upper rim. curved. lower rim. glossy. bottom. smooth. inside. glazed. outside.* ^ thin. edges. TK5: rim is circular. surface. * From the examination of such an object as a cup, glass, any vessel, or a box, children may be led to discriminate clearly the difference be- tween outside and surface, and to see that the former is the opposite to the inside, while the latter is the boundary of every part of an object A PAIR or SCISSORS. 45 LESSON XX. A PAIR OF SCISSORS. Parts. Qualities. Ihe limbs. It is steel. bows. bright. blades. hard. shanks. cold. rivets. solid. pivot. The blades are pointed. points. One face is flat. surface. The other curved. faces. The front edge sharp. The back blunt. The bows are curved. Tho cLiMren should name the kind of materials which sjssors will cut, and point out the different manner in which knives and scissors cut. LESSON XXI. A BIRD. Parts. The head, body, wings, legs. ^ beak. The qualities would Principal depend on the kind parts. of bird chosen for the lesson. eyes. nostrils. neck. a FIRST STEP. — ^LESSON XXn. Parts, Parts, The feathers. The skin. bones. feet. claws. joints. LESSON XXII. AN ORANGE. Parts, Qualities, The peel. It is reddish yellow, oi rind of the peel. orange color, white of the peel. in the form of a ball. juice. rough on the outside. pulp. The pulp is juicy. seeds. soft. eye. cooling. divisions. sweet when ripe. membrane. vegetable. inside. solid. outside. It has a sweet smelL surface. .^ PIECE OF INDIA EUBBKE, 47 SECOND STEP. In this Step the children continue to be exercised on the more obvious qualities, and the sj^ecific term by which to express the quality is given. LESSON I. A. PIECE OF INDIA RUBBER, TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF ONE KIND OF ELASTICITY. Present the India rubber, and ask its name ; then call a child to try and see what he can do to it. He can bend it and stretch it. Then call the children's attention to the shape and size of the India rubber, and to the child when stretching it, asking them what he is doing to it, and what change they notice in it when he is stretching it ? It be- comes longer. Then tell the child to let go the end he has pulled out, calling on the children to observe what happens to the India rubber. It returns to its shape. What was done to the India rubber ? How did it appear while it was being stretched? What happened to it when let go? Now what have you particularly observed in India rubber ? India rubber will stretch when pulled out, and returns to 48 SECOND STEP. ^LESSON U. ' its place when let go. Children, repeat this together. Do you know how to describe this property of India rubber ? It is said to be elastic. Repeat this word together. When are things said to be elactic ? Tell me something that is elastic. Why do you say that India rubber is elastic ? Call upon a child to name that property of India rubber which has been illustrated in the lesson, and then all repeat the name of the property together. LESSON II. A PIECE OF SPONGE, TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF ONE KIND OF ELASTICITY. The name of the object first to be determined ; then a child is to be asked to try what can be done to it, when it will be found that it can be pressed close together. Ask how the sponge appears when it is pressed tightly. It ap- pears much smaller than before. Then tell the child to let it go, bidding all observe ; the sponge returns to its former shape and size. One child is now to describe that which they have all observed to occur, both when the sponge was pressed, and when the pressure was removed ; then all re- peat together : " Sponge can be pressed into a small spaccj but returns to its own shape and size when no longer pressed^ Do you recollect something else, that after you have stretched it out, comes back to its shape when you let it go? What did you say that the India rubber was? In what are the India rubber and the sponge alike? They both return to their size and shape when you leave them WHALEBONE. 49 to themselves. Was the same done to both ? What was the difference ? The India rubber was stretched, the sponge was pressed. In what were they alike ? They both returned to their shape when left to themselves. What did we say the India rubber was? The sponge is also elastic. Now what things are elastic ? Why is the India rubber said to be elastic ? Why is sponge said to be elastic ? The children to be questioned as to the dif- ferent ways in which things return to their shape or size, till they gain the clear idea " that those things are said to he elastic^ which, when their shape or size has been changed by force^ rrturn to it if left to themselves.'^'' They should repeat this together several times. The children then to say what is one of the most striking qualities of a sponge. LESSON III. WHALEBO'^E, TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF ONE KIND OP ELASTICITY. See that the children know what the object is ; and then call one cf them to try and see what he can do to it ; he will find that he can bend it ; tell him to let go one end of it, and bid the others observe what happens; after this, question them concerning its returning to its former shape. What kind of a line was it before it was bent ? What when you bent it ? What was it when you let one end of it go ? Then give a child a piece of cloth ; tell him to bend it ; then tell him to let go of one end of it, and see whether it will do as the whalebone did, telling him also to state 3 60 SECOND STEP. — LESSON III. what he sees. The cloth remains bent, but what did you observe in the whalebone? After bending it, it returned to its own shape. What then can you say of whalebone ? It can be bent, and on being let go, returns to its own shape. Anything which has this property which you have observed is said to be elastic. Repeat this word to- gether. What is whalebone ? Why is whalebone said to be elastic ? Let the children be required to say what other things they have learned about, which are elastic, and describe in what respect their elasticity differs from that of whalebone. One of these, when stretched^ returns to its former shape ; another, when compressedy returns to its former shape ; and whalebone, when hent^ returns to its former shape. In what were they all alike ? They all take their own shape when left to themselves. What can you say of all ? They are all elastic. Let the children next give the reason for their calling India rubber elastic, and then be told to repeat to- gether : " India rubber is said to be elastic, because, after being stretched out, it goes back to its own shape when left to itself." Let another of them say why sponge is said to be elastic, and then let all .repeat together : " Sponge is said to be elastic, because, after having been compressed, it takes its own shape and size when left to itself." An- other should say in what manner whalebone is elastic, and then all repeat together : ^' Wficdebone is elastic, because, when it has been bent, it goes back to its own shape when left to itself." A. PIECE OF GLASS. 5) LESSON IV. A PIECE OF GLASS, TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF TRANS- PAKENCY. . The teacher is to show the children a piece of glass, and to lead them to observe its transparency ; preparing them for this by holding a pebble, or any similar object, behind the black board or the slate, and asking them what she has in her hand ; this they will not be able to tell ; the object should then be withdrawn from behind the board, and held behind the glass, and the same question asked, which they will now be able to answer. She may then ask them why they could not tell her what she had in her hand when she held it behind the slate, and why they could tell her what it was when she held it behind the glass. Then they should be asked what they can say of the glass, and repeat to- gether ; " We can see through the glass." The teacher asks the children what they have observed in glass, and says : Now I will tell you what we call that quality which you have observed. When we can see through a thing we say it is transparent ; repeat this word together. What is glass ? Why do we say it is trans- parent ? What can you say of water ? When are things called transparent ? Desire the children also to mention some other things that they can see through, and what they can say of them ; the word transparent is then writ- ten on the board, and they learn to spell it. 62 SECOND STEP. LESSON V. LESSON V. A PIECE OF SLATE, TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF OPACITY, What is this? A piece of slate. Repeat together: " This is slate.'*'* Which of you can tell me in what part of a house slate is sometimes used? (Show of hands.) Yes; in the roof. It does well for covering the roof; but what would you say to making the windows of slate? Why would it not do as well as glass ? We could not see through it. Let us try whether we can see anything through slate. The teacher holds it up, and puts several things behind it, which of course cannot be seen. What then can you say of slate ? Why would it not do for win- dows ? We should not be able to see through it. But more than that. Suppose the windows of this room to be of slate instead of glass, what would the room be ? It would be dark. What is it that comes into the room through the glass ? Light. What then is it that does not come through slate ? Not even light can be seen through slate. What can you say of slate ? We cannot see through slate. Now that you have 'observed this quality in slate I will tell you what such things are said to be. Tell me again what this quality is which you have observed in slate. That we cannot see through it ; we cannot even see light through it. Such things are said to be opaque. Re- peat this word together. Now repeat together : " Slate is opaque?'* Tell me something else that is opaque. Why are wood, stone, and such like things, said to be opaque ? What do you say wood is ? Repeat together : " Wood is LEATHER. 53 opaque^'''' &c. When is anything said to be opaque ? The word must now be written on the board, and the children should learn to spell it. Now repeat together that quality of slate which you have now noticed. " Slate is opaque:'* LESSON VI. LEATHER. What is this? It is leather. What is leather? It is the skin of animals. Name some animals, the skins of which are used for leather. The cow, the horse, the calf, the sheep, and the dog. Does the skin of these animals look like this leather? No. What is the difference? Their skins are covered with hair. What has been done to them in making the leather ? The Hair has been scraped off. Yes ; and the skin has been cleaned and smoothed. How do we get paper ? It is made of rags. Is leather made by man, as paper is ? No. But has he nothing to do to the skin of the animal in order to make it into leather ? Yes ; it is prepared by him for use. This is a piece of the skin of a horse. What has been done to it ? It has been prepared. Now look at it and tell me what you see in it. It is black. Yes ; this side of it is black; but this is brown. And what side would you call that which is black ? The upper side. And what that which is brown ? The under side. Then how should you describe this piece of leather? The upper side of it is black, and the under side brown. Look at it again. We cannot see through it. You have learned the term for 64 SECOND STEP. LESSON VI. this, have you not ? Yes ; it is opaque. (The teacher writes the word on the board, and the children spell it.) Tell me some things which are opaque. Stone, wood, slate. What are all these ? Look at the leather again. It is dull. Ob- serve both sides of it. The upper side is rather bright ; the under side is dull. Now you have said that this leather is black and bright on the upper side, and brown and dull on the under side, and that it is opaque. How did you find out these qualities ? Yes, by your sight. Now, take the leather in your hand, and tell me wliat you observe. It is thin. But if you compare it with the paper, what would you say ? It is not so thin as the paper. What more do you notice when you feel of it ? It is smooth. Compare the two sides. The upper side is the smoother. Try again what you can do with it. We can easily bend it. What could you do with the paper ? Fold it up. Can you do the same with the leather ? No ; we can bend it ; on this account it is said to he flexible. When do we call a thing flexible ? When we can easily bend it. What can you do with the paper besides bending and fold- ing it ? We can tear it. Try to tear the leather. We cannot do so. Why ? Because it is tough. Take it in your hand again, and try if you can say anything more of it. It is light. Now, you have told me that this leather is thirty smooth^ flexible^ tough, and light ; how did you dis- cover these qualities ? By our hands. Yes, by feeling or touch. Now shut your eyes, and I will hold the leather near you, but without letting you sec it or touch it ; what can you tell me about it now ? It has a smell. Whatever has LEATHER. ' ^ 55 a smell is said to be odorous. What then is leather ? It is odorous. How did you find out that it was odorous ? By the nose. In what manner ? By smelling it. You found out some qualities in this leather by the eye. Yes. In what way ? By looking at it. And some qualities you found out by the hand. Yes. How did you do tliis ? We touched it. And you found out that it was odorous by the 7iose. In what manner ? We smelled of it. Are you now wearing anything made of leather ? Yes, shoes. Why is leather fit for shoes ? It is strong. Yes, it is strong or durable. Why does your mother, in wet weather, wish you to have a good pair of leather shoes in which there are no holes ? That our feet may be kept dry. Then the water does not come through leather. It is wa- terproof. Why then is leather fit for shoes ? Because it is durable and waterproof. You have before mentioned some other qualities which make leather fit for shoes; you would not like, I should think, to wear iron shoes ? Why not? Because they would be so heavy. Leather then is fit for shoes because it is light. Why would wooden shoes be unpleasant to wear ? They would hurt the feet. Why does leather not hurt the feet ? It bends to the shape of the foot. Yes ; it is flexible. Now, I will show you something more in the leather ; see, I put it in the fire ; it frizzles up. What did you no- tice in the paper when put into the fire ? It was soon burned up. And what do you observe in the leather ? It has a very unpleasant smell when burning. This is what happens to animal substances when you burn them ; they frizzle up, and give out a disagreeable odor. 66 SECOND STEP. — ^LESSON VH. Now, repeat together all that has been said about leather : " Leather is the skin of an animal.'''' What is done to it ? It is prepared. " Leather, then, is the pre- pared skin of an animal. By the eye, or by the sense of sight, we find out that it is black and bright on the up- per side, brown and dull on the under surface, and that it is opaque ; by our hands, or by the sense of feeling, we find that it is thin, tough, flexible, and smooth / by the nose, or by the sense of smell, we find that it is odorous. When we put it into the fire it frizzles up, and gives oif a disagreeable odor : it is fit for shoes, because it is lasting, thin, light, flexible, and waterproofs LESSON VII. LOAF SUGAR. Ideas to be developed by this lesson — soluble, fusible^ brittle* Qualities of Loaf Sugar. It is soluble. It is white, fusible.* sparkling, brittle. '- solid. hard. opaque, sweet. Use. — ^To sweeten our food. * The difference between fusibility and solubility may be rendered ob vious to the children, by dissolving one piece of sugar in water, and hold ing another over the candle. It is better that such simple experiment « should be performed in their presence, than that a mere description of tba operation should be given. ▲ PIECE OF GUM A E ABIC. §7 LESSON vm. ^ A PIECE OF GUM ARABIC. Ideas to be developed by this lesson — semi'transparent^ adhesive. Qualities of Gum Arabic. It is hard. It is soluble in water. bright. adhesive when melted yellow. soUd. semi-transparent. Use. — ^To unite light and thin substances. LESSON IS. SPONGE. Ideas to be developed by this lesson--^orow5, absorbe*^ Qualities of /Sponge. It is porous. It is elastic. absorbent.* dull. soft. flexible. tough. light brown. opaque. Use. — For washing. * The quality of absorbing will be made obvious to the class by show ing that the sponge sucks up any liquid. It possesses this quality in coor sequence of its being full of pores. The use to which an object is applied, often leads to the observation of the quality upon which the use ia de« pendent. 3* 58 SECOND STEP. — LESSON X. LESSON X. WOOL. Qualities of Wool, It is soft. It is tough, absorbent. durable, white. flexible. elastic. opaque. dry. light. Uses. — For making cloth, flannels, blankets, carpets, stockings, &c. LESSON XL WATEE. Ideas to be developed by this lesson — colorless, re- flectivei inodorous^ cleansing. Qualities of Water. It is liquid. It is inodorous, reflective. transparent, glassy. ^ cleansing, colorless. ' ' Uses. — ^To cleanse ; to fertilize ; to drink ; for cooking purposes. LESSON XII. A PIECE OP WAX. This substance is here introduced, because it possesses many of the qualities already noticed. CAMPHOR. 59 Qualities of Wax. It is solid. It is sticky, opaque. yellowish, dull. , hard, tough. odorous, fusible. smooth. Use. — To make candles and tapers. LESSON xm. CAMPHOR. Ideas to be developed by this lesson — aromaticy stimu* kiting^ inflammable^ soluble in spirits. Qualities of Camphor. It is aromatic. It is soluble in spirits, stimulating. hard, white. solid, semi-transparent. very inflammable, bright. light. Uses. — ^For medicine ; to prevent the taking of disease ; to preserve cabinets from small insects. LESSON XIV. BREAD. Ideas to be developed by this lesson — edible^ whole* some^ nutritious, moist. Qualities of Bread. Xt is porous. It is opaque, absorbent. solid. 66 SECOND STEP. — ^LESSON XV. Qualities of Bread. It is wholesome. The crumb is moist, nutritious. The crust is hard, edible. brittle. The crumb is yelld^wrish white. brown, soft, when new. Use, — ^To nourish. LESSo:Nr XV. SEALING WAX. Idea to be developed by this lesson — impressible. Qualities of Sealing Wax. It is hard. It is smooth, bright. colored* brittle. inflammable, fusible. odorous, opaque. When fused it is soft, soluble in spirits. impressible, light. adhesive, solid. Use, — ^To seal letters. LESSON XVI. WHALEBONE. Idea to be developed by this \e%%on— fibrous. Qualities of Whalebone. It is elastic, durable, hard. It is fibrous, opaque, stiff. Uses, — ^As a stiffener ; for whips, &Q. * The color will be determined by the epecimen presentee^ GIIfGEB. 61 LESSON XYII. GINGER. Ideas to be developed by this lesson-^ungentj medici* nal^ jagged. Qualities of Ginger, It is pungent. It is tough, dull. opaque, hard. wholesome. dry. medicinal, fibrous. jagged, aromatic. light brown. Uses, — ^To flavor food ; for medicine. LESSON XVIII. BLOTTING PAPER. Ideas to be developed by this lesson— ^mtoA, pliable^ artificial. Qualities of Blotting Paper. It is absorbent. It is pliable, porous. dull, soft. inflammable, thin. easily torn, pinkish. artificial. Use. — ^To suck up superfluous ink. LESSON XIX. A PIECE OF WILLOW. Qualities of Willow. It is hard. It is fibrous, inflammable. dull. 62 SECOND STEP. — LESSON XI. Qucdities of Willow, It is opaque. It is flexible, solid. white, elastic. odorous. LESSON XX. MILK. Idea to be developed — greasy. Qualities of Milk. It is white. - is greasy, liquid. nutritiouw. opaque. sweet, wholesome. Uses. — ^To make cheese, butter, puddings; to drink j food for young animals. LESSON XXL EICE. Qualities of Bice. It is white. It is solid. hard. porous. opaque. ^ absorbent. smooth. ♦""^ wholesome, stiff. . .nutritious. bright. Use. — ^To nourish. LESSON xxn. SALT. Ideas to be developed by this lesson — grarmlous^ sapid, ^iney preservative. A HORN. 63 Qualities of Salt. It is white. It is hard, sparkling. opaque, granulous. soluble, sapid, or has a taste. fusible, salt, or saline. preservative. Uses. — ^To flavor food ; to preserve from putrefaction ; to manure land. LESSON XXI] A HOEN. Qualities of a Horn, It is hard. It is tapering, dull. opaque, uneven. stiff, hollow. yellowish brown, odorous when burnt. fibrous. Uses. — ^To make combs, glue, lanterns ; handles to knives and forks. LESSON XXIV. IVORY. Qualities of Ivory. It is hard. It is opaque, white. solid, smooth. durable, bright. W SECOND STEP. — ^LESSON XXV. LESSON XXV. ▲ PIECE OF THE BARK OF THE OAK TREE. Idea to be developed by this lesson — astringent. Qualities of BarJc. is brown. It is 5 stiff. rough on the outside. solid. smooth on the inside. durable. opaque. fibrous. dry. dull. inflammable. astringent.* Uses. — ^To guard the tree from injury ; for tanning. LESSON XXVL AN UNCUT LEAD PENCIL. From this object the children may become acquainted with the cylinder ; for they will not fail to observe that the ends are flat, and that the other face is curved. Idea to be developed by this lesson — cylindrical. Parts. Qualities. The surface. It is hard. faces. odorous. ends. long. * The children may be made to understand the quality of astringency, by drawing their attention to the contracting effect produced in the mouth by eatmg a choke cherry or piece of alum. A WAX CANDT.E. 66 Parts, Qualities, The lead. It is solid. wood opaque. inflammable. dry. brown. One face is curved. The ends are flat. circular. The form is cylindrical. The lead is gray. brittle. friable. bright. Us£S. — For writing, drawing, &c. Let the children point out on what occasion a pencil is preferable to a pen, and vice versa. In this lesson, and others, the conceptive faculty may be exercised, by requiring the children to recall to their minds some object in which they had observed before the quality of inflammability ; also that of friability. LESSON XXVIL A WAX CANDLE. This object recalls the idea of the cylinder^ obtained in a previous lesson, and presents the peculiar parts of the candle itself Parts. Qualities. The wick. It is cylinder, wax. hard. ee SECOND STEP. LESSON XXVIH. Parts. Qualities, The surface. It is opaque. faces. yellowish white. ends. The wax is sticky. edges. fusible. top. The wick is inflammable. bottom. tough. middle. white. fibrous. flexible. Use. — ^To give light. The children should be asked, What must be done be- fore the candle gives light ? What becomes of the wick ? What of the wax ? LESSON XXVIII. A PEN. A pen presents many different parts ; the qualities of some of these are opposite to the qualities of others. Ideas to be developed by this lesson — angular^ grooved^ spongy. Parts. Qualities. The quill. The quill is transparent, shaft. cylindrical, feather. hollow, laminae. bright, pith. hard, nib. elastic, split. yellowish, shoulders. horny. A PEN. Farts. Qualities. "he surface. The shaft is opaque. faces. angular. skin. solid. groove. white. inside. stiff. outsida hard. grooved. The pith is white. spongy. porous. elastic. soft. 87 68 THIRD STEP.— -LESSON THIED STEP. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS FOR THE DIRECTION OF THE TEACHER. In this series the children may be led to the observation of qualities which cannot be discerned merely by the senses. Thus by showing them at the same time wool and woollen cloth, and questioning them as to the difference of the two, they will readily conceive the ideas of natural and artificial. In this manner they may be led to remark the distinction between foreign and native ; exotic and indi- genous ; animal^ vegetable, mineral, dtc. At this Step the conceptive powers should be more de- cidedly called into exercise ; the way for this is prepared by the clearness and vividness of the ideas obtained through the careful cultivation of perception. LESSON L CHALK. What is this ? A piece of chalk. Where do we get chalk ? Out of the earth. What are those places called out of which chalk is taken ? Chalk pits. God has placed CHALK. 69 a great deal of chalk in the earth in some countries, so that it rises up and forms low, rounded hills. Where have you ever seen a hill ? Chalk, you say, comes out of the earthy dug from chalk pits. Paper, you remember, is made by man — leather is prepared by man, but chalk is neitlier made nor prepared by man ; and it is therefore said to be a natural substance. Why is chalk said to be natural? Because it is neither made nor prepared by man. Why do you think that this is chalk? It is white. Yes, chalk is white, but milk is white also ; how then do you know chalk from milk? Milk is liquid. Yes, the chalk does not flow or form itself into drops ; it is in a solid lump. Chalk is solido Why do we call it solid? Because it does not form drops, but is found in a lump. Now look at this lump of sugar ; this, like the chalk, is white and solid ; how do we know it from the chalk ? It is sparkling. Yes, and the chalk is dull. Now you have seen that the chalk is white, solid, and dull. Look at it again. We cannot see through it. What then can you say of it ? It is opaque. Thus by the sense of sight you dis- cover that chalk is white, solid, dull, and opaque. Now feel the chalk. It feels very dry. Rub it. It. crumbles. Into what condition does it crumble? That of a powder. Chalk is dri/ and crumbling. What hap- pens when I draw the chalk across the slate ? Some of the chalk remains on the slate, and leaves a mark. That is because the chalk is crumbling. What quality of chalk makes it useful to us ? That of its being crumbling. Who gave it this most useful quality ? God. Yes ; God, who made the chalk, made it of a crumbling nature. ^ 70 THIRD STEP. ^LESSON U, And now tell me another sense by which we find out a quality, in addition to those of sight and touch ? The sense of smell. Well, smell of the chalk. It has no smell ; it is inodorous. How do you find out that sugar is sweet ? By tasting it. But as chalk is not meant to be eaten, you need not taste it, though you may put it to your tongue, and tell me what you observe. It sticks to the tongue. Yes; repeat together: " Chalk sticks to the tongue^ Where have you seen chalk used? To write on the black board. Now all of you repeat everything you have learned, about chalk. " Chalk is dug out of chalk pits. There is so much chalk in the earth in some countries, that it forms hiUs, Chalk is a natural substance, of great use to man. When we look at chalk we find that it is white., solid^ dull, and opaque; by feeling it we find that it is dri/ and sticks to the tongue ; it is a*umhling, and therefore useful for writiiig with ; it is inodorous ; and it is used for writing on the black board." LESSON n. COAL. I hold in my hand a piece of a natural substance, and I wish you to tell me what it is ? But first tell me what I mean by a natural substance ? That which is not made by man. The natural substance which I hold in my hand was dug out of the earth ; it is black, and very useful to man ; guess what it is. Yes, it is a piece of coal. Why did you COAL. VI tuink it to be coal ? Because you said that it was black, and that it came out of the earth, and was useful to man. What quaUty of coal is it which makes it so useful to man? Its being so inflammable. How is it that this quaUty of coal makes it so useful ? Because we can cook our food, and warm our rooms with it. Yes ; how sad it would have been last wmter, if there had not been coals for fires. Who made coals inflammable ? God. How very good is our Heavenly Father in giving to diflferent things differing quahties, that they may be of varied use to man ! He has caused some to be liquid, that we may drink them / some to be wholesome, that we may be nourished by them ; some to be crumbling, that we may write with them ; and some to be inflammable, that we may be warmed by them. Now examine this piece of coal. It is very bright, and it is opaque. Repeat together : " Coal is very bright^ and it is opaque?'' Feel it. It is hard, solid, and brittle. Re- peat together: "Coal \s hard^ solid, brittle.'*^ Sometimes, teacher, there are little bright yellow patches in the coal. Yes, those are little bits of iron ; and we sometimes find pieces of slate in the coal, and then we say it is not good, it will not burn well. What use do we make of coal ? We cook our food and warm our rooms with it. What other use is made of coal ? Gas is made from it. What is the use of gas ? To light the streets. What other use is made of coal ? It is used in producing steam. What does steam come from ? From boiling water. What makes the water boil so as to be- come steam ? The fire. And what makes the best fire ? Coal. If we cannot get coal, what could we use instead of 72 THIRD STEP. ^LESSON III. it? Wood. And what must we do to get wood? We must cut down our trees. Now repeat together your les- son tipon coal ; " Coal is a natural substance dug out of the earth / it is very useful to man^ because it is very inflam- mahle. It is blacky bright^ brittle, hard^ and opaque. It is useful for cooking our food and warming our rooms y for making gas, and producing steam, and also for many other purposes." LESSON m. A MATCH. Do you know what this is ? Yes, teacher, it is a match. Are matches found ready made ? No. How do we get them? They are made by some person. Tell me then what the different parts of a match are. The sulphur and the wood. And where is the sulphur put ? At the end of the match. How many ends has the match ? Two. Do you observe any other parts ? The sides. Then the parts of a match are, the wood, the sulphur, the ends, the sides. And now tell me what is sulphur? Where does it come from ? It comes out of the earth. Who can tell me what we call things which are dug out of the earth, but which do not grow out of it ? Stones. No ; we do not call everything dug out of the earth stone ; I think some of you will recollect a very useful thing, which, though it is dug out of the earth, we do not call a stone ; what is it ^ Yes, coal. But you would not call coal a stone, would you, or sulphur ? No ; but everything that is dug out of the earth may be called a mineral. What then is a min- eral ? And now tell me what sulphur is. It ii a mineral A MATCH. 73 Why is sulphur said to be a mineral ? Name any other minerals you know. Now look carefully at the sulphur, and tell me some- thing about it. It is yellow. Yes ; all of you repeat to- gether : " Sulphur is yellowP See, I put some of it to a lighted candle. It is on fire. What do you say those things are that readily take fire ? They are inflammable. Sulphur is inflammable. Did you notice anything more in the sulphur when it took fire ? The flame was very blue. Repeat : " Sulphur burns with a hlae flameP I think you can find out something more by my having set the sulphur on fire. It gives off a very unpleasant smell. What are those things called tliat give out a smell? Sulphur is odov' ous. By what did you find out that sulphur was odorous? By the nose. What use did you make of your noses then? We smelled with them. By what did you find out that sul- phur was yellow ? By the eye. What use did you make of your eyes then ? We saw w^ith them. There is some- thing more that the fire does to the sulphur ; what is it ? The fire melts it. Repeat : " Sulphur melts w^hen heated." What is the quality that makes sulphur useful to us ? Its being inflammable. Of what is the greater part of this match made ? Of wood. You have told me that sulphur is a mineral, be- cause it is found in the earth ; now what is wood ? It is a 'vegetable. Yes ; all repeat together : " Wood is vegetable:^ What is it taken from ? A tree. What kind of wood is this ? It is pine. Yes ; and here is a picture of the pine tree. Now examine this piece of wood, and tell me something 4 74 THIRD ST£P. LESSON III. about it. It is hard ; it is dry ; it is opaque ; in color it is yellowish white. Repeat these qualities of wood all to- gether: "Pine wood is hard, dry, opaque, dull; the color is yellowish white." Now I will put a bit of it to the flame of this candle. It has taken fire : it is inflammable. What difierence did you observe between the sulphur and wood when put into the flame ? The sulj^hur took fire sooner, and burned with a blue flame. Yes ; and it also melted into drops ; but what does wood become when it has been burned ? It becomes ashes. Now think a little and try to find out why both sulphur and wood are required in ordei to make a good match ? The sulphur is used in a matcr because it takes fire so quickly. And what of the wood ? How long did the sulphur burn ? It burned but a very short time. It would not burn long enough to enable any one to light a candle or fire from it ; but the wood burns a much longer time ; so we have the sulphur because it takes fire quickly, and sets fire to the wood ; and the wood, be- cause it bums much longer, and enables us to Ught a fire or candle without hurry. Now you shall repeat all you have said about the match, . " A match is made of wood and sulphur. The sulphur is placed at one end ; it is a mineral substayice^ and comes out of the earth ; it is yellow ; it is very inflammable^ burning with a blue flame ; it also melts inflre^ and is very odorous. Wood is a vegetable substance^ and comes from a tree called a pine tree. The wood is inflammable^ but it does not bum SLway so fast as the sulphur; it burns to ashes ; its color is yellowish white ; it is hardj dry, dull, and opaqugj'^ A ROSE LEAF. 7S LESSON IV. A HOSE LEAF. What is this? It is a leaf. Where are leaves found? On plants and trees. What leaves do cows and horses eat ? Those of the grass. What leaves do we sometimes eat ? Cabbage leaves and spinach, &c. Do you know a word by which you can at once speak of trees, and grass, and cab- bages ? What is one of the largest vegetables you have ever seen ? An elm tree. Tell me the name of a smaller one. Wheat. Tell me of one we often eat. Lettuce. What are all these called ? Vegetables. Where do vege- tables come from ? They grow out of the ground. If I had a piece of land without any vegetables growing upon it, what must I do to raise some ? You must sow some seed in it. Where must I put the seed ? In the earth. If I were to sow some grass seed, what would follow ? Some grass would spring up. And what would it be at first ? Very small. If it were healthy, would it continue so small ? No. What would it do ? It would grow. If I were to put an acorn in the ground, what would happen ? A little root would burst out of it and go down into the groundj and a little green shoot would come up and put out some little leaves. Yes, and at first it would be very small; but it would grow, so that in many years it would become a great oak. But would the same occur if I buried a piece of flint or coal in the earth ? No. These do not grow out of the earth as vegetables do. Now you know the difference between a mineral and a 16 THIRD STEP. — ^LESSON IV. vegetable. Look at this leaf, and tell me its different parts. By what part do I hold it ? The stalk. What does the stalk bear ? The leaf. The stalk that bears a leaf is called the leaf stalk : what is this ? A leaf stalk. Find out some of the parts of the leaf. The edge. Here are two leaves, one from a rose tree, the other from the plant on which the lily grows ; what difference do you observe in the edges of them ? The rose leaf has little points, which the lily leaf has not. Yes ; the points are called teeth, because they are like the sharp pointed teeth of some animals ; and an edge^ that has such points, is said to be toothed. What is this edge ? It is toothed. Why is it said to be toothed ? Be- cause it has points like the teeth of some animals. Find out some other parts of this leaf. There is a line down the middle of it. Yes ; that line is called the mid- rib. See whether the midrib is the same on both sides of the leaf. It sinks in on one side and stands out on the other. Which of you can tell me what they call the hol- low line made by the plough in a ploughed field ? A fur- row. And what do they call the raised part on each side of it ? A ridge. What is the midrib like on this side of the leaf? A furrow. And on this side it is like a ridge, Now you see there are two sides or surfaces to the leaf; by what names would you distinguish them ? When the luaf is on the tree, which side is uppermost ? This, therefore, is called the upper side / and what would you call the other ? The under side. Look carefully at the leaf again. There are other lines upon it. Where do these lines spring from ? From the midrib. And where do they end ? In the edge. These lines are called the veins / in A EOSE LEAF. 77 what are they like the midrib ? They sink in like furrows on the upper side of the leaf, and rise up like ridges on the under surface of it. Do you see any other part. The end. The point or end is opposite to the stalk. Now tell me some of the qualities of the leaf; what can you say of it ? It is green ; it is rather bright. Look again, and see if both sides are bright. No ; the under side is dull. Here^are several leaves ; what difference do you observe in their upper and under surfaces? The upper surface is the brighter. Feel of the rose leaf. It is thin ; it is soft. Anything more ? It bends easily. What do you say of a thing which bends easily ? It is pliable. What can you then say of this leaf? It is pliable. What more do you notice when you feel of it ? It is light and smooth. What is its shape ? It is round. (The teacher draws a correct circle on the black board.) What, is it like this in shape ? No, not quite I will dravv the shape of an Ggg ; which is it more like ? It is more like the shape of the eg^. We call the shape of an Qgg oval ; what would you say is the shape of this leaf? It is oval. Now you must let me hear you all together repeat the heads of this lesson on the rose leaf. " A rose leaf is a veg- etable substance ; it grows on a leaj stalk ; it has a toothed edge ; it has a midrib^ which is like a farroio on the up2)er side, and like a ridge on the under side ; it has also many veins, which are like furrows on the upper side, and like ridges on the under side. Its color is green ; its shape is oval. To the touch it is thin, soft^ smooth / it is pliable ; the upper side is rather bright, and the under side is dulV V8 THIRD STEP. ^LESSON V. LESSON V HONEY COMB. What is this ? A piece of honey comb. Where does it come from ? A bee hive. Who placed it in the hive ? The bees made it there. Can you tell me how the bees made it? No, I am sure you cannot. iThey have no hands, nor tools, yet see how beautifully it is made ; not one of you could form such a piece of comb. Where did the bees learn how to make the comb ? Yes ; God taught them, and enabled them to do it well. He has taught all animals to do whatever is necessary to their comfort. Now look at the honey comb, and tell me what you see. It is full of holes. The holes are called cells. What parts do you see in the cells ? What do we call that part of this room in which the windows are, and where the door is ? The sides. Well, see what the cells have ? They have sides. Count how many sides each cell has. Yes ; each cell has six sides. Look again at the room, and tell me what you call those parts of it in which the sides meet each other. The corners. And what has' 'each cell ? It has corners. How many corners has each cell ? — count them. Six. Re- peat : " Each cell has six corners^ When you look into the cell, what part of it do you see? The bottom, or floor of it. And what is the other end called ? The top. What is there round the top ? An edge. Now try to find out some qualities of the honey comb ; you may take it in your fingers. It is very light and sticky. Now look at it. It is dull. It is yellow. Hold it up HONEY COMB. 79 to the light. Is it transparent, or is it quite opaque? What do you observe? We see the light through it. When you see light through a substance it is said to be translucent. Why is this honey comb said to be translu- cent ? Because we can see the light through it. Now look at it as I press it in my fingoi-s. I have crushed it ; it is brittle. Now I put it into the flame of a candle ; it melts. When does it melt ? When it is heated. It is fusible. What use does the bee make of the cells ? It stores up honey in them. And where does the bee get the honey ? From flowers. Yes; in summer the bee collects honey, which it stores up in some of the cells ; but it also uses others of the cells for another purpose; the young bees are kept in them, and these are fed and watched by the old bees till they get their wings, and then they fly, and begin to work themselves. And what do we make of the honey comb ? We melt it down into wax. And what use do we make of the wax? We make candles of wax. Yes; and we rub furniture with it, to make it bright. I should think that some of you have seen wax used for other purposes be- side these. Yes, teacher, my mother uses it. What does she use wax for ? She rubs her thread with it to make it firm and strong. Now repeat all you know about the honey comb. " Honey comb is made by hees^ who put into it the honey they get from, flowers. It is formed of a number of little cells^ each of which has six sides, and six corners, a bottom, or floor, and a to2:> with an edge. Wax is very light, thin, and sticky / its color is light yellow ; it is dull / it is transluce7it ; it is brittle, and melts when heated. We 80 THIRD STEP. LESSON VI. use it to make candles and to polish furniture y it is used to strengthen thread.^"* LESSON VI. A BUTTERFLY. What is this ? It is a butterfly. What is a butterfly ? An insect. What is an insect ? It is neither a vegetable nor a mineral ; it is an cmimal. Now examine the butterfly, and tell me its different parts. It has wings. How many wings has a butterfly ? Four. Wliat difference do you observe in these four wings ? Two of them are large and two are small. What can it do with its wings ? It can fly. Where are the wings placed? Two on each side of the body. In what position are the wings when the insect is flying ? Are they in the direction of the walls of the room, or of the ceiling ? They are in the direction of the ceil- ing.* In what other direction does the butterfly some- times place its wings ? It sometimes puts them upright, so that they touch each other ; but when it flies they are always spread open. If you had a piece Of thin paper, which you wished to float on the air, would you roll it up, or spread it out ? I should spread it out. Yes ; then the air would support it. What does the butterfly do that is like this ? f It opens its wings and spreads them out. * If the children have learned the difference between the horizontal and vertical position, they may here apply their knowledge. f The youngest children should be led to the observation of facts. The reasoning upon thciu, and drawing conclusions from them, is the work of a later period. A BUTTEEFLT. 81 What more do you observe in the butterfly's wings? They are beautifully marked. See, I rub the wings with my finger. What do you perceive ? The color comes off. There is a kind of down upon the wings which is easily rubbed off. Repeat together : " The butterfly has four wings^ two of them are large and two small. They are placed on either side of the body. When it flies the wings are spread out; when at rest, they are often upright. They are covered with beautifully colored down., which is very easily rubbed off.'''' Now what other part do you observe in the butterfly ? The legs. How many legs has a butterfly ? It has six legs. Where are they placed ? Underneath the body. What can the butterfly do with its legs ? It can walk. Does it use them much in walking ? No. AYhat do you generally see a butterfly doing ? Flying about. And when it is not flying, what is it doing? It is standing. What does it stand upon ? Its legs. When we ourselves walk or move along we bend our legs ; what do we call that part where the lag bends? We cafl it a joint. And what can the butterfly do with its legs ? It can bend them. What then must it have upon its legs ? Joints. Repeat together what you know of the butterfly's legs : "The butterfly has six legs placed under its body ; the legs have Joi?its / it uses its legs chiefly to stand upon?'' Now find out another part of the butterfly. Its body. What sort of a bodylias it ? It is long and small. You may call it slender. Where is the body placed ? Be- tween the wings. What more do you observe in it ? It is covered with hairs. Repeat together : " The body of the 4* 82 TUIKD STEP. LESSON VI. butterfly is slender and covered with hairs ; it is placed between its wings?'* What other part do you see ? The head. And what has the butterfly upon its head ? It has horns. How many ? Two. What sort of horns are they ? They are long. And what more ? Fine. What do you observe as to the ends of these ? They are thick. The horns of the butterfly always end in thick knobs. What more do you see on the head ? Eyes. How many ? Two. What is the use of the eyes ? They are to see with. Look again at the head ; there are some things that stick out. These are called feelers ; most insects have four feelers. Look, here is something which I draw out from between the feelers. What is it like ? It is like a rolled up hair. This is the butterfly's mouth, and it is called a trunk. Which of you can tell me what butterflies feed upon ? Honey. And w^here do they find honey? In flowers. Yes ; generally at the bottom of the flowers. Could they get at it if they had mouths like yours and mine ? No. What then is the particular use of such a m"mith as this to a butterfly ? To get at the honey at the bottom of the flowers. Yes, the butterfly darts its trunk into the flowers, and as it is hollow, it can suck up the sweet honey through it. What pleasure you will now have in observing a but- terfly, and in thinking that God has given it just such a mouth as an insect which feeds on honey needs, while ours is the best for us ! Now repeat together the names of the parts of the butterfly's head : " The butterfly has two eyes on its head^ and two horns^ which are long^ each ending in a knob. It has four feelers / between two of which ig A BUTTEKFLY 83 placed its mouthy which is a long curled-up trunJc y it darts this trunk into flowers to get at the honey P The children's remarks upon the color and marks of the butterfly must be determined by the particular species of that brought before them. The teacher should lead them to admire its beauty, and to observe the happy life it seems to lead, and then draw attention to the sin of teasing a little creature which God has formed to be happy, and of injur- ing that which God has made so beautiful. No opportu- nity should be lost of endeavoring to counteract that pro- pensity to cruelty which is so common in children ; this evil disposition springs generally from a love of showing power ; they should therefore be encouraged to exercise any power God may have bestowed, in increasing the hap- pntess of all His creatures. They should .be early trained to feel that they are accountable for every faculty they possess, even for their power over the most insignificant insect. In what kind of weather do butterflies come out ? In fine sunshiny weather. How do they employ themselves ? In flying about and gathering honey. Would it be right in us to imitate the butterfly ? No ; because God has given us all work to do, and tells us in His Word to be as industrious as the ant. The life of the butterfly is short, it needs but to provide for the present day ; but we should labor while we have youth and strength, that we may not be a burden to others when we become old. Now repeat together all that we have said of the but- terfly. " The butterfly is an insefit : it has four wings^ two of which are large and two are small ; when it flies these 84 THIRD STEP. LESSON VII. are sjyread out y they are covered with beautiful down^ which is easily nibbed off : between the wings is the hody.^ which is long and slender^ and covered with soft hairs ; under its body are six legs^ which hawQ joints / it does not use its legs much in walking^ bat chiefly in standing : upon the head there are two loiig horns^ with knobs at the end ; two eyes ; four feelers ; between two of the feelers is placed the mouthy which is a long^ hollow trunk, curled up when not in use ; it darts this trunk into flowers^ to get at the honey ^ upon which it feeds." LESSON VII. RECAPITULATION. Here are the four objects upon which you have had les- sons this week. What are they ? A match, a leaf, a piece of honey comb, and a butterfly. Which of these is made by man ? The match. What things must the person have who would make a match ? Suljihur and wood. What kind of a substance is sulphur? It is a mineral substance. And what is wood ? It is a vegetable substance. Upon what other vegetable substance have you had a lesson ? A leaf Are the leaf and the wood whole vegetables ? No ; they are but parts of vegetables. The butterfly is a whole animal. Tell me the name of another animal. A dog. I will write the names of these two animals on the board — butterfly, dog. Now, tell me the names of two whole veg' etables, that I may write them down also. A rose tree, wheat. Now of two minerals. Sulphur and flint. We have now two animals^ two vegetables^ and two minerals. EECAPITULATIOX. 85 Now tell me what can the butterfly do ? It can fly.* What can the dog do ? It can run. Can the dog fly, or the butterfly run ? No. But can you not find out some- thing that we can say is done by both of them, when the one flies and the other runs ? They both move. In what manner does the butterfly move ? It flies from flower to flower. Whom does the butterfly please in thus flying from flower to flower ? Itself The butterfly flies about when- ever it pleases. And when the dog runs about or lies down to sleep, whom is he pleasing ? Himself. Then the dog moves about whenever he pleases ; what then can you say that both these animals do? They move about as they please. But now think a little about these vegetables, and tell me how in this respect they differ from the animals. The vegetables cannot move about. Did you never see a tree move ? Yes ; when the wind blows. In what then is its moving difierent from the moving of an animal ? The ani- mal moves about when and where it likes, but the tree does not move from place to place ; its branches move when the wind blows them. But think what vegetables do. If I wished to have a crop of wheat in my field, what must I do ? Sow some seed. Yes ; I must put the little seed into the ground ; and what then ? It Avill spring up. And what will it become at last ? Wheat. Yes ; a plant of wheat with a stem^ and leaves^ and a head. But what must have happened to the vegetable when, from being a little seed, * Of course it is impossible to anticipate the exact answers of children, but the points here dwelt upon are those to which the teacher should direct observation by questions. 86 THIED STEP. — LESSON VIII. it has become a large plant ? It must have grown. What then do vegetables do? They grow. Yes; vegetables grow. Do animals also grow? Yes. Tell me how you know that animals grow. We had a little kitten, which is now a great cat. What can you say of animals? That they grow, and move about where they please. What can you say of vegetables ? That they grow. But now think about minerals ; supposing I put this piece of flint into the ground, as I might a seed ; if I came in a fortnight, might I expect to see any part of it above the earth ? No. Why not ? If I had put in a seed I should expect to see a little shoot coming up. Yes ; be- cause the vegetable grows, but the mineral does not grow. Well, then, you have found out that animals grow, and move about as they please / vegetables grow / minerals neither grow nor move from place to place. LESSON vm. SKETCH OF A LESSON ON THE MASSACRE OF THE CHILDREN OF BHTHLEHEM. Intended for Children of nine or ten years of age. L Picture examined. — Get the children to examine the picture, telling what they see ; as, a man, a woman, a child. The man looks strong and fierce, holds a knife or dagger in one hand, a child in the other by one of its legs. The in- fant seems frightened ; its mouth is open ; it is crying. The woman is kneeling at the feet of the man, stretching out her arras toward the child ; she looks frightened and im- MASSACRE OF THE CHILDREN OP BETHLEHEM. 87 ploring. What does this mean? What does it appear the man is about to do with the infant ? Why is the woman so imploring ? Thus introduced, endeavor to make the children picture to themselves the distressing scene recorded in Matthew ii, 16-18; how wretched the poor mothers must have been to see their helpless infants torn from them, and murdered be- fore their eyes, by brutal men sent for that purpose — and probably in every house a murder; expressed in the lan- guage of Jeremiah, ''lamentation, and weeping, and great mourning." II. Narrative told. — Here read or detail to the children the circumstances that led to this general massacre of poor unoffending babes ; questioning them, to ascertain that they are following the teacher. The wise men's visit — they apply to Herod for information as to the birthplace of the King of Israel, who hears them with astonishment — he consults tho scribes, who point out Bethlehem as the place of Messiah's birth — he is moved with jealousy, fearing that his throne will be taken from him — under a mask of hypocrisy he di- rects the wise men to find out the new-bom Prince, and requests them to return to him with tidings, that he may go and worship Him also — an angel tells them to return to their own country another way — Herod's disappointment — he orders the slaughter of all the children of a certain age, both in Bethlehem and the neighborhood, that among them the . Saviour might fall — with fearful exactness his com- mands were carried out — an example of which we see in the picture before us. III. Gods Providence. — Lead the children to coi^sidei 88 THIRD STEP. LESSON VIII. how God overruled Herod's wicked design, and preserved the infant Jesus. What did Herod think he had done ? Defeated the indications of the star, and accompUshed his own will in opposition to that of the Almighty. But had he done so ? Remark that whatever crafty, cruel devices were in his heart, the counsel of the Lord must stand. This event formed another accomplishment of the words of the prophet Jeremiah (xxxi, 15-17). Thus, also, the date of Christ's birth was publicly marked, and all others who could have pretended to be the Messiah, as having been born at Bethlehem about the same time, were cut off. Load the children next to see that Joseph knew neither the danger the Child was in, nor, if he had known it, was he aware of any way to escape ; but an angel appears and tells him of both. **Take the young Child by night, and flee into Egypt." Thus the inflxnt Jesus was rescued. How vain is it for man to contend against the Almighty ! IV. Practical application. — ^Direct the children, by questions, to observe the main ideas in the preceding parts of the lesson, and to make a threefold apphcation: 1st, What the cruelty of Herod suggests. 2d, What the work- ings of God's providence. 3il, The preservation of the in- fant Jesus. 1st. From the cruelty of Herod we learn to what lengths wicked men will go when they give way to evil passions, and how guarded we should be against envy and jealousy. 2d. From the working of God's overruling providence, we see how He can thwart and baffle the wicked designs of men, and make their wrath to praise Him. But can tho A QUILL. 88 Messiah, Who is to be the consolation of Israel, be intro- duced with all this lamentation ? Yes ; 1st, for so it was foretold ; and 2d, if we look further, we shall find that the weeping in Ramah was but a forerunner to the greatest joy; for it follows: "Thy work shall be rewarded, and there is hope in thy end ; " " Unto them a child was born," sufficient to repair their losses. 3d. From the preservation of the Saviour, we learn the security of God's people, which may be also seen in the case of David, who said : " I will not be afraid of ten thousands of people that have set themselves against me round about." LESSON IX A QUILL. This subject is taken as it brings up many terms pre- viously developed. Parts, ( Qualities. The quill. It is long. shaft. stiff. ends. useful. feather. natural. laminae. animal substance inside. The barrel is transparent. outside. hard. groove. elastic. surface. bright. faces. yellowish. pith. cylindrical. skin. hollow, light. The shaft is feathered. 90 THIBD STEP. LESSON X. QualUies, The shaft is white, stiflf. hard, opaque, solid, angular, grooved. Children may be led to remark the difference which fire produces on animal and vegetable substances, both as to appearance and smell. The t iacher now requires the class to give an explana^ tion in their own words of the terms they have used. LESSON X. A PENNY. Idea to be developed in L this lesson — metallic. Parts. Qualities, The surface. It is round. faces. flat. edges. mineral. milling. metallic. impression. opaque. image. bright. superscription. reddish white. date. fusible. hard. artificial.* heavy. durable. uneven. * The class should be led to remark that, though the workmanship ia artiSciaL the substance is natural. MUST^ED SEED. 91 LESSON XI. MTISTAKD SEED. Ideas to be developed by this lesson — indigenous^ pul- verable^ spherical. Qualities. t is pungent. It is dull. yellow. opaque. hard. dry. pulverable. natural. indigenous. vegetable. spherical. solid. stimulating. LESSON XII. AN APPLE. Idea to be developed- —membranaceous. ( Qualities. It is spherical. The seeds are brown on the odorous. outside when colored. ripe. opaque. white in the in- natural. side. vegetable. hard. juicy. The core is merabranace- hard. ous. solid. stiff. pleasant. yellow. The eye is dry. hard. brown semi-transpa- shrivelled. rent. 92 THIRD STEP. — LESSON XIIL LESSON xm. GLASS OF A WATCH. The ideas to be developed by this lesson — concave and convex. Farts,* Qualities. It is artificial, transparent, brittle, bright, thin, hard, clear, curved. ' The upper face is convex. The under face concave. The edge circular. Uses. — ^To preserve the hands of the watch froi^ being injured, and to keep the works from dust. LESSON XIV. BROWN SUGAR. The idea to be developed by this lesson — native. Qualities. It is brown. It is useful. granulous. vegetable substance, sweet. artificial, soluble. native, fusible. sticky. opaque. moist. * The children should be psked whether there are any parts to this ob- ject peculiar to it ; and when, as in the watch glaas, there are not, the naming of the parts had better be omitted. AN ACORN. 93 Use. — ^To sweeten our food. Obtained from the sugar cane, which is cultivated in the East and West Indies, and some of the Southern States. LESSON XV. AN ACORN. Ideas to be developed — oval^ scaly. Parts, Qualities, The cup. It is vegetable. berry. natural. nut. hard. point of the nut. green. scar. opaque. scales. The nut is oval. surface. bright. edges. solid. The cup is dull. The inside is concave. smooth. The outside is rough. brownish. scaly. The edge is circular. LESSON XVI. A PIECE OF HONEY COMB. Ideas to be developed — compressible^ hexagonal^ reg* ular. Parts. Qualities. The cells. It is natural. divisions. animal production. 04 t TUIED STEP.- —LESSON XVII. Parts. Qualities, The edges. It is light. base of cells. fusible. comers. sticky. surface. dull. faces. semi-transparent yellowish. thin. compressible. brittle. The cells are hexagonal. • regular. hollow. LESSON XVII. REFINED SUGAR. The ideas to be developed by this lesson — crystaUine, amorphous, refined. Parts, Qualities, The surface. It is white. edges. middle. crystals. grains. pores. sweet, sparkling, crystalline, solid. ,5 fusible, soluble. shapeless or amorphous, hard. refined. nutritious. crumbUng. opaque, artificial. vegetable substance brittle. A CORK. 95 Brought from the East and West Indies or the Southern States in its raw state. Refined by sugar bakers, and sold by grocers in loaves of a conical form. LESSON XYIII. A CORK. Parts. Qualities, The ends. It is light. surface- compressible. faces. elastic. edge»- . opaque. dry. light brown. solid. porous, smoothc cylindrical, dull. inflammable, vegetable. The form is artificial. The substance is natural. Uses. — ^To stop bottles, to buoy people up in the water. Children to determine what qualities fit it for its use. LESSON XIX. GLUE. Idea to be developed — tenacious. Qualities, It is translucent. When melted, it is tough, mahogany brown. Adhesive. 96 THIRD STEP. LESSON XX. Qualities. It is hard. When melted, it is sticky, solid. elastic, animal substance. tenacious, artificial. LESSON XX. PACKTHREAD. Ideas to be developed — twisted^ slender. Qualities. It is dry. It is durable. dull. light brown. twisted. vegetable substance. flexible. inflammable. tough. soft. opaque. slender. fibrous. solid. artificial. rough. LESSON XXL HONEV. Qualities. It is sweet. It is a vegetable substance fluid. natural. thick. nourishing. liquid. healing. yellow. opaque. sticky. LESSON XXII BUTTER CUP. Parts. Qualities. The petals. It is vegetable. margins ' or edges. concavt. A LADY BIRD. 97 Parts. Qualities. The cup. It is natural, leaflets of cup. odorous, stamens. The petals are yellow, pistils. glossy in the inside, stalk. dull on the outside, place of insertion. circular, inside. pointed at the place of outside. insertion, surface. striped. opaque. pliable. The leaflets are greenish. thin. membranaceous. semi-transparent. pointed. The stalk is green. grooved. angular. stiff. fibrous. LESSON XXIII. A LADY BIRD. Ideas to be developed — hemispherical^ fragile^ jointed. Parts. Qualities. The head. It is animal, eyes. natural, feelers or palpi. hemispherical, horns, or antennae. The wing cases are red. wings. spotted, wing cases, or elytra. bright, thorax. hard. 5 98 THIRD STEP. ^LESSON XXIV. Parts. Qualities, The legs. The wing cases are brittle. body. opaque. back. stiff. spots. The outside is convex. surface. The inside is concave. claws. One margin straight. The other curved. The wings are membranaceouai pliable. thin. transparent. fragile. The body is oval. black. The legs are jointed. short. black. LESSON XXIV. AN OYSTER. Ideas to be developed— manwe, pearly, irregulafr. Parts, ,- Qualities, The valves. It is animal. hinge. opaque. outside. marine. inside. natural. margin. The valves are circular. impressions. hard. moUusk. stiff. scales or laminae. pulverable. The outside is rough. scaly or laminated A FIR CONE. 99 Qualities. The outside is irregular. dull. dingy brown. uneven. The inside is pearly. bright. smooth. slightly concave. The mollusk is soft. edible. nutritious. cold. smooth. slippery. LESSON XXV. A FIR CONE. Ideas to be developed — conical, tiled or imbricated^ keeled. Parts, Qualities, The scales. It is brown, seeds. opaque, top. hard, place of insertion. vegetable, fibres. natural, surface. conical, stalk. tiled or imbricated. inflammable, odorous. The scales are stifi*. dull. The outside is light brown. 100 THIRD STEP. — ^LESSON XXVI. Qualities, The outside is pointed at the top. rough. irregularly conicaL The inside of scales is chestnut color, shaded, keeled. LESSON XXVI. FUR. ideas to be developed — tubular ^ inanimate* Parts. Qualities. The skin. It is an animal substance, hair. It is hairy, surface. inanimate, points of hair. The hairs are flexible. slender, soft, tubular, straight. The hairs are pointed. The skin is stiflT. The color and other peculiarities to be decided by the specimen presented. LESSON XXVII. A LAUREL LEAP. Parts. Qualities. The upper face. It is oval, under face. smooth, edge or margin. pointed, point or termination. vegetable. A NEEDLE. y ' , > , ... ,»,10 Parts. Qualities, The veins. It is odorous. midrib. opaque. base. bitter. stalk. stiff. long. The rib is straight. raised, or keeled on the under side. grooved on the upper side. The veins are curved. The margin is curved. slightly toothed. The upper face is bright. The under face is dull. LESSON xxvm. A NEEDLE. Parts, Qualities, The eye. It is a mineral. shank. metallic. point. artificial. opaque. bright. tapering. pointed. slender. useful. gray or steel color. hard. brittle. solid. steel. ' "' ; ; ; thiilo step. — ^lesson xxix. Made of steel, which is a preparation of iron, having been subjected to great extremes of heat and cold. LESSON XXIX. A PLANT AND A STONE. To develop the ideas of organs^ organized^ and inor- ganized. To give the class an idea of organized and inorganized, a plant and a stone may be shown ; and questions given, such as the following : Teacher. — If I put these two into the earth, and visit them in a month, what great difference might I expect to perceive in them ? Children. — ^The plant will have grown ; the stone will have remained of the same size. Teacher. — How did the plant increase ? Children. — It absorbed moisture. Teacher. — By what means ? Children. — Through its roots and pores. Teacher. — ^Did this nourish only the roots ? Children, — No. Teacher. — ^You are right ; the sap was produced which circulated through the plant by means of vessels. Now those parts of vegetables and animals which do something are called organs ? What do animals hear with ? What do they smell with ? What do they see with ? What do they taste with ? What then may you call the ears, noses, ayes, and mouths of animals ? Children. — Organs. A BELL. 103 Teacher. — Name some other organs of animals. Children. — Hands, feet, heart, and veins. Teacher. — Name some of the organs of vegetables. Children. — Roots, stems, leaves, and pores. Teacher. — ^A body possessing organs is called organized. Kame some organized bodies. Children. — A tree, an insect. Teacher. — Bodies that do not possess any organs are called inorganized. Name some morganized bodies or substances. Children. — ^A stone, water, sugar, lead, and salt. The teacher names miscellaneous substances, and the children decide whether they are organized or inorganized. She then calls upon the children to name all the organized bodies they can think of, which are written on the board in one column. Another column may be made in the same way of inor- ganized substances. Qualities of Stone. It is hard. It is cold, inorganized. opaque, mineral. solid, natural. irregular in form, or amor- phous. LESSON XXX. A BELL. Ideas to be developed in this lesson — sonorous and the peculiar parts. Parts. Qualities. The barrel. It is metallic. 104 THIRD STEP. — ^LESSON XXXI. ^arts. Qualities. The ears, cannon. ^ It is artificial handle, I hard. according j elastic. to the sort. J sonorous, clapper. cold. nm. hollow. surface. inside. concave. heavy. outside. rim circular. clapper spherical. Different kinds of bells. Souse bells, pulled by wires passing from one part of a house to another part where they are rung. Church bells, suspended at the upper part of the building, pulled by ropes ; — when there are several bells lDf different tones, they form a peal or chime ; — when one is rung slowly, it is said to be tolled. Hand bells, swung by the hand — some used in houses, some by milkmen, &c. Cow bells, hung on the neck of a cow. Uses of Bells. — To give notice of different things — in the house, of different people arriving, servants wanted — in a church, the time of divine service is marked, deaths and funerals announced by tolling, marriages and happy events by a peal The cow bell is used to tell where the cow is. Horse bells to give warning to people on the street of the approach of a sleigh. LESSON XXXI. A WHEEL. Ideas to be developed in this Xq^sou— circular, diverg- ing, and the peculiar parts. A WHEEL. 106 Parts, Qualities, The nave. The rim is circular.* box. divided, spokes. wooden, arm of the axletree. thick. linchpin. The tire is circular, rim composed of felloes. entire, tire or band. iron, rivets. thin, centre. The spokes are straight;, circumference. equal m length, wooden. diverging from the nave. The relative position and proportion of the different, parts should form a part of the exercise. The nave is in the centre ; the spokes diverge from the nave to the rim, and are all of equal length, if not, the rim would not form a perfect circle ; the tire is outside the rim, and forms, of course, a larger circle than the rim which it encloses ; the arm of the axle fits into the box *. the felloes are parts of a circle, and are joined together, forming the rim.f The children should alsa be led, as an additional exer- cise, to see the use and adaptation of the different parts. The box to receive the arm of the axletree upon which the * The children will probably say, round. They should be led to see that this is a very indefinite term, which they apply to a ball as well as to a shilling ; their observatiozi should be directed by questions to the per- ception of how a sphere and a circle differ, and the term circular, given and applied to the wheel before them, and to absent objects of » similar bhapw. -j- These parts are meiwloncd in 1 Kings, vii. 33. 6* 106 THIRD STEP. LESSON XXXU. wheels turn — the spokes to keep the rim in its circular form and to unite the nave and the rim — the tire to keep all the parts in their place, and to give strength ; the tire is put on when the iron is expanded by great heat, and being suddenly cooled, it contracts, and this binds the whole firmly together. The linchpin passes through the arm of the axle- tree, and keeps it fixed in the box. The use of wheels is, by their rotary motion, to impel carriages of different kinds; the children might name the various vehicles in which they are used ; they might also be led to see that no other form than that of a circle would answer for a wheel. LESSO>" XXXII. An exercise which gives a pleasing variety to lessons on objects, and which calls out thought and conception — con- sists in the teacher, instead of presenting an object for ex- amination, giving the children a description of one, and requiring them from the qualities attributed to it to dis- cover what it is. Some judgment is necessary in giving such a lesson, that the children may be led to correct their hasty conclusions, and to see that it is not one quality which decides what a material is, but the combination of several. An example is given, to help the teacher in carrying out the idea. Teacher, — I will tell you the qualities of something I am thinking about, and you must try and find out what it is. It is white and natural. Children,— M:\\\i ? Tcac/ier, — ^No ; it is solid. FIKE. 107 Children.— Chalk ? Teacher, — No ; it is vegetable and odorous. Children. — ^A white lily ? Teacher. — No ; for it is friable and highly inflammable. Now repeat the qualities I have mentioned and think what substance possesses them all. White, natural, solid, vege- table substance, odorous, and highly inflammable. Children will not fail to find out that it must be cam- phor, having in the third Step had a lesson on this object. It will be obvious that the qualities first mentioned are common to many substances, without suflSciently distin- guishing any one. The children's conception is therefore engaged m callmg up in their minds a variety of objects familiar to them. The art of the teacher is to keep at first in the background distinguishing qualities, so as more thoroughly to stimulate the conception, and in the end to lead the children to see more clearly the peculiar and dis^ tinguishing qualities of the substance. LESSON XXXIII. FIRE. Ideas to be developed — consuming^ purifying^ ascend- ing. Qualities. It is bright. It is purifying, reddish yellow. hot. spreading. The flames are pointed, consuming. ascending, drying. How produced and fed. — Fire can be produced by fric- tion ; rubbing two pieces of wood or stone briskly togeth- 108 THIKD STEP. LESSON XXXIII. er ; the collision of flint and steel occasions sparks that will set fire to any inflammable material ; but lucifer matches, which are tipped with a very combustible substance, are now generally used to produce fire. The fuel that feeds fire is either coal, wood, or peat. Effects of fire. — Some substances, as coal, wood, &c., it consumes, reducing them to ashes. Some, as butter, metals, &c., it melts or changes from solids to liquids. Some, as water, quicksilver, &c., it changes into steam, or vapor. Some substances, as dough, clay, &c., it hardens. It expands bodies, penetrating through their particles and loosening them. Some substances, as metals, it refines, driving away impurities. Uses. — 1. In domestic life. It warms our houses and gives light to us when the natural light of day is removed. It cooks our food, thus enabling us to profit by the animals and vegetables which God has given us. 2. In manufactures. By fire, metals are fitted for va- rious purposes. Glass, porcelain, brick making, indeed all our manufactures, require the aid of fire. It is also fire that furnishes us with the steam that enables us to travel with such rapidity by sea and^land, and which lights our streets and houses at night. An emblem.'^ — ^There are many instances in the Bible of fire being used as an emblem. Thus God is spoken of as a " consuming fire." His wrath, when kindled by sin, destroys like fire. Our Saviour is compared to the refiner's fire, purifying His people, purging them from the dross of sin, as fire acts upon metals. * An cml)lem is a picture which represents one thing to the eye and another to the understanding. AN ANCHOR. 109 LESSON^ XXXIV. AN ANCHOR. Parts. Qualities, The shank. It is iron. cross-bar or stock. heavy. arms. hard. flukes. cold. ring. opaque. - metallic. The shank is perpendicular to the beai The beam is straight. horizontal to the shank. smaller at the ends. sometimes h*on. sometimes wooden. The arms are curved. The flukes are pointed. sharp. The rinj? is circular. The largest kind of anchor is called the sheet anchor, and is only used in times of great danger or in heavy gales. The anchor is an instrument of iron attached by a cable, which passes through the ring to the bows of ships ; when the latter are to remain stationary, the anchor is let down or cast into the water, and is thrown by the stock into such a position that one of the flukes is sure to enter the ground perpendicularly ; this keeps the vessel fixed, for any strain acting nearly horizontally would rather tend to root the arm deeper in its moorings. This operation is called ca^t- 110 THIRD STEP. ^LESSON XXXV. ing anchor^ and the ship is then said to be riding at an« chor y when the anchor is heaved up, the expression used is weighing anchor. When the anchor finds good moorings and takes firm hold, the vessel is in safety ; it cannot be driven to and fro by the storm, or dashed against rocks by the hurricane. When the children clearly understand what an anchor is, and the oflSce it performs, they should be led to trace the analogy between hope and an anchor. The former is thrown out from us, and is fixed upon something, and if it has a firm grasp it will keep us steady ; we shall remain un- shaken, whatever may assail, as long as the anchor of hope retains its hold. The children should be referred to Heb. vi., where the anchor is used as the emblem of hope, which is described as having entered into that within the veil, that is, into the Holy of Holies, the type of Heaven, where our great High Priest is for us entered ; anchored on Him, the rock of our salvation, we shall be kept immovably fixed amidst all the trials and temptations of life. We often speak of a person or thing being our sheet anchor, which means that on which we altogether depend as our last and best resource. LESSON XXXV. A BALANCE. Paris. The lever, or beam. The qualities depend pivot or fulcrum. upon the kind of scales. balance used in the chains connecting the lesson. scales with tlie beam. A BALAI^CE. Ill The balance is an instrument used to ascertain the ex- act weight of anything. It is most essential in trade ; without such a help barter and exchange would be guess- work, and dishonest dealings could not be easily detected. When one scale perfectly balances the other, what is held in each is equal in weight, and if in one scale standard weights are placed, the substance in the other can be accu- rately determined. The children should endeavor to find out why the balance is employed as the emblem of justice, and why, whenever justice is represented as a person, she always holds a pair of scales in her hand. They will be able to trace the analogy between testing a substance as to its weight in scales and the exercise of justice, w^hich consists in impartially weighing conduct or opinions against a law- ful standard, in order to arrive at a just and right judg- ment. They will also understand the metaphor used to set forth the conduct of Belshazzar : "Thou art weighed in the balance, and art found wanting." His life and char- acter were in one scale, God's holy law and requirements in the other, and the former fell short — was altogether de- ficient. At this step some exercises would be well introduced on the connection of diiferent qualities. The children will easily be led to discover that all absorbent objects are po- rous, that all brittle substances are hard, that all adhesive ones are tenacious, all sonorous ones are elastic ; that to be malleable and ductile they must be tenacious, their particles cohering ; to be elastic, an object must be either exten- sible, flexible, or compressible. 112 THIRD STEP. LESSON XXXV. Children may also with profit exercise their conceptive powers in drawing, out of the treasures of their memory, examples of objects in which any particular quality is found, and classifying them according to the different degree in which they possess the quality. Thus objects may be re- membered, furnishing a regular gradation from the most impenetrable opacity to the clearest transparency; the same may be done with hard and soft — ^from soft as butter to as hard as flint, &g. INTEODUCTOEY EEMAKKS. 113 FOURTH STEP INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. The chief aim proposed iu this Step is, to exercise the children in composing, arranging, and classifying objects, and in tracing analogies ; thus developing a higher faculty than that of simply observing their qualities. The com- plex operation of connecting things by their points of re- semblance, and at the same time of distinguishing them individually by their points of dissimilarity, prepares for one of the highest exercises of our reason ; yet it may be carried on in children at a much earlier period than is usually imagined, if they are trained to arrange their ideas. With this view the spices, liquids, and metals have been chosen as forming .a connected series of objects.* The different woods, grains, &c., are good subjects for similar instruction. In the early lessons, the perceptions simply exercised the intuitive faculties, which, being stimulated and direct- ed, furnish the mind with ideas. At this point, the process commences of regarding them, not simply, but in series and relationship, and lessons are given to cultivate the discern- ment of analogies between physical and moral or spiritual * A few lessons on Animals, as also in Geography, have been added. 1 1 4 FOURTH STEP. — ^LESSON I. qualities. The information given should be reproduced by the children on their slates or on paper.* epiCES. LESSON I. PEPPER. Qualities of Pepper, It is hard. It is dry. vegetable. dull, foreign, t sapid, tropical production. pungent, wrinkled. odorous, spherical. aromatic, rough. wholesome, black. stimulating, preservative. * The leading qualities of the objects are still put down in connection with each lesson, for the convenience of the teacher, if she finds it desirable to use any of them. As fast, however, as the children become suflBciently familiar with any particular quality, and the term expressing it, it is better not to continue to repeat it, but only call out those qualities that awaken new thoughts and require new terms, or that are peculiarly characteristic of the object. This remark applies to previous as well as succeeding les- sons. No good can result by the constant repetition of qualities and terms already familiar to the children. f Teacher. — If it comes from a foreign country, how do we get it? Children. — It comes in a ship. Teacher. — This is called importing ; and sending out of our own coun- try is called exporting. What do we call this exchange of production ? Children. — Trade or commerce. leacher. — And what are the people called who carry it on ? ClvUdren, — Merchants. NUTMEG. 115 The pepper plant is a creeping shrub, much resembling the vine, and is often called the pepper vine. It is gener- ally planted near some thorny bush, among the branches of which it entwines itself like ivy. It produces berries in clusters : if the fruit is intended for black pepper, it is not allowed to ripen, but is collected while green, and rubbed by the hands or feet, till the seeds, several of which are contained in each berry, are separated. These are exposed on mats to the rays of the sun during the day, and are col- lected at night in jars, to preserve them from the dew. When the berries are intended to be converted into white pepper, they are allowed to ripen, and they then become red. They are rubbed in a basket, the pulp is removed by washing, and the seeds, which are white, are dried. LESSON II. NUTMEG. Qualities of Nutmeg, sapid. It is foreign. hard. tropical production. oval. pungent. dingy brown. preservative. dull. pulverable. opaque. agreeable to the taste. dry. aromatic. vegetable. odorous. natural. Surface uneven. The nutmeg is the kernel of a fruit which is the pro^ icfuce of a tree resembling our cherry tree, both in size and growth. It is found in the East Indies. The external covering of the fruit is a husk ; this opens when ripe, and 116 FOURTH STEP. — ^LESSON H. displays a thin scarlet membrane, called mace ; this being carefully removed, there still remains a woody shell which surrounds the nutmeg. The nuts are first dried in the sun, and then placed on a frame of bamboos over a slow fire, until the kernels, on being shaken, rattle in their shells. REMARKS OK WORDS. Teacher. — ^Why is nutmeg said to be odorous ? Children. — Because it has a smell. Teacher, — Why aromatic ? Children. — Because it has that pungent smell distin- guished by the name aromatic. Teacher. — Are all things that are aromatic also odorous? Children. — Yes. Teacher. — Are all things that are odorous also aromatic? Children. — No. Teacher. — Is an onion odorous? Children. — Yes. Teacher. — Are these smells alike ? Children. — No. Teacher. — Which of these terms includes every kind of wnell? Children, — Odorous. Teacher. — If you were to put all odorous substances into one class, and all aromatic into another, what would you say of the two classes ? Children. — ^That the class containing all odorous object^j would be much the largest; it would include the aroraatio substances. Teach&r. — A term which includes all the varieties of one MACS. 117 kind or quality of substance, is called a generic term, while that which marks one of the species, is called a specific term. Which is the generic term, odorous or aro- matic ? Children. — Odorous. Teacher. — Why is this a generic term ? Children. — Because it includes every variety of odors. Teacher. — What kind of term is aromatic ? Children. — A specific term. Teacher.— '^\^.^ ? Children. — Because it applies only to one particular kind of smell. Give examples of generic terms and of a specific term applicable to each of them. Children. — Odorous, fragrant ; colored, red ; foreign, Chinese production. The class should determine, in succeeding lessons, what terms are generic and what specific. LESSON m. MACE. Qualities of Mace. It is pungent. It is natural. agreeable to the taste. inflammable, aromatic. medicinal, orange red. dry. dull. pulverable. opaque. membranaceous, thin. preservative, fibrous. imported. 118 FOURTH STEP. — LESSON m. It is brittle. It is sapid. foreign. stimulating. tropical. Mace is the covering between the shell of the nutm«j and its external husk. EEMARKS ON WORDS. Teacher, — " Foreign." Should you call mace a foreign production if you were in the place where it grows ? Children, — No. It is only foreign to the countries where it does not grow. Teacher, — Where would you call it pungent and aro- matic ? Children, — Everywhere. Teacher, — Can it be mace without being foreign ? Children, — Yes. Teacher, — Can it 5e mace without being pimgent and aromatic ? Children . — No. Teacher. — Which then of these qualities belong to mace as mace ? Children. — ^Pungent and aroinatic. Those qualities which determine anything to he what it is, are called essential. Qualities which are not essential are called accidental. What qualities of mace are essential ? What qualities of mace are accidental ? Why are pungent and aromatic said to be essential qualities ? Why is it that its being foreign is said to be accidental ? LESSON^ IV. CINNAMON Qualities of Cinnamon, " It is light brown, and gives name to a color, thin. It is inflammable. brittle. dry. preservative, aromatic. vegetable, natural. pungent. agreeable to tie tasts. opaque. hard. foreign, hght. pulverabla medicinal. sweet. stimulating. Cinnamon is in the inner bark of the branches of a kind of laurel tree, growing m Ceylon and Malabar. The branches of three years old are selected as furnishing the best cinnamon; the outside bark is scraped off; the branch- es are then ripped up lengthways with a knife, and the in- ner bark is gradually loosened, till it can be entirely taken off. Exposure to the sun causes it to curl up. The pieces of bark so curled are called quills, and the smaller ones art inserted into the larger. LESSON V. GINGER. Qualities of Ginger, It is fibrous. It is solid, knotty. hard, sapid. preservative. 120 FOURTH STEP. ^LESSON VI. Qualities. Qualities, It is rough. It is light. jagged. yellowish brown. vegetable. pulverable. tropical. medicinal. foreign. stimulating. aromatic. wholesome. pungent. opaque. dry. inflammable. dull. Ginger is the root of a plant resembling a reed, whicB grows both in the East and West Indies. The root does not strike to any considerable depth in the earth, but spreads out far in every direction. When first dug up, it is soft, and eaten by the Indians as a salad. If intended for exportation, it is placed in bundles, and dried in the sun. LESSON VI ATJ.SPICE. Parts. The skin. It Qualities. is aromatic. seeds. odorous. partition of seed vessel.^ point of insertion. pungent. spherical. brown. speckled. organized. natural. • vegetable. dry. opaque. tropical dull A CLOVE. Qualities. Qualities, \i is stimulating. It is hard. inflammable. friable. sapid. wrinkled. conservative. 121 Alls^jice or pimento is the dried berry of a species of myrtle^ indigenous in the West Indies ; it is a most beauti- ful and fragrant tree, producing numerous bunches of white flowers, to which succeed the berries ; these are gathered by the hand and spread out in the sun to dry. In this operation they lose their former color, and become brown. When the seeds rattle in the shell, they are known to be sufficiently dry, and are packed in bags for exportation. The flavor of pimento is considered to unite that of the other spices ; henct ihe name of allspice. LESSON yii. Parts. A CLOVE. Qualities. The calyx or cup. tube. It is aromatic, odorous. leaflets of cut?. points of leaflets, bud. •dges. pungent. brown. organized, natural. vegetable. dry. opaque. tropical. imported. dull. 122 FOURTH STEP. — LESSON vn. Qualities, It is stimulating. The bud is spherical hard. The tube is long, inflammable. The leaflets are pointed, preservative. Cloves are the unexpanded flower buds and calyx ol' a species of laurel which grows in the West Indies. At a certain season of the year, the clove tree produces a pro' fusion of flowers in clusters ; they are gathered before the flower opens, when the four points of the calyx project, and the petals are folded one over the other, forming a bud about the size of a pea. After they are gathered, they are exposed for some time to the smoke of a wood fire, and then to the rays of the sun. At the conclusion of the lesson on spices, the chil- dren should be called upon to mention those qualities which they have found common to all ; as aromatic, pun- gent, dry, tropical, stimulating, vegetable. Then let some other similar substance be presented to them, such as mustard. Teacher. — Is this a spice ? Children, — No. .^' Teacher— Why not ? Children. — It has not the qualities of a spice. Teacher. — If I showed you a substance with which you were not previously acquainted, and you found that it pos* sessed the essential qualities of the spices you have exam* ined, what would you consider it to be? Children. — A spice. Teacher. — To what then do you apply the term spice ? A CLOVE. 123 Children, — To a set of natural productions possessing certain qualities. Teacher. — When a number of things are arranged to- gether, each having similar qualities, what would you call the collection ? What would you call a number of boys who are placed together because they are nearly equal in knowledge ? Children. — A class. Teacher. — -What, then, would you call a collection of substances that possess the same (qualities ? Children. — A class. Teacher. — ^What may you call all substances which are aromatic, pungent, tropical, &c. ? Children. — A class. Teacher — And ^hat is the name of that class ? Children. — Spice. Teacher. — What, then, does the term spice express ? Children. — ^A class of substances, possessing the quali- ties aromatic, pungent, &c. Teacher. — ^Tell me all the substances belonging to that class. Children. — ^Pepper, nutmeg, mace, cinnamon, ginger, allspice, cloves. Teacher. — Are all the substances of this class alike in all respects? Children. — Xo. Teacher. — How can you tell one spice from another ? Children. — By each having some qualities peculiar to itself Teacher. — Name something in each spice which distin- guishes it. 124 FOURTH STEP. — LESSON VIII. Children. — Ginger is a root ; pepper is a seed ; nutmeg is a kernel ; mace is the membranaceous covering of that kernel ; cinnamon is a bark ; pimento is a seed vessel ; the clove is a cup and flower bud. ON LIQUIDS. LESSON vm. WATER. Qualities of Water, It is fluid. It is wholesome, transparent. tasteless, clear. cold, colorless. inodorous, liquid. natural, useful. • solvent, bright. refreshing, incompressible, except penetrating, by immense power. cleansing, eflective. cooling, drinkable. fertilizing. Some waters are medicinal. Different kinds of Water. Rain. -^ Medicinal, spring. hot spring, sea, or salt. stagnant, river. Different states of Water. Ice. Fog. snow. cloud, hail. vapor, rain. dew. mist. steanL WATER. 125 Natural Collections of Water, Oceans. Lakes. seas. ponds, rivers. springs. Operations of Water. — It purifies, evaporates, freezes, quenches thirst, cools, finds its own level, penetrates, fertil- izes, is a solvent, extinguishes fire, separates easily into por tions which assume a spherical form. Movement of Water. Teacher. — In what way do oceans and seas move ? Children. — In waves. Teacher. — When you are on the sea shore, what difier. ence do you observe in the waves during the course of the day? Children. — At one time they are coming in ; at another going out. Teacher. — ^This is called the ebb and flow of the tide., What is the movement of a river ? Children. — It flows. Teacher. — What eventually becomes of its waters ? Children. — They are lost in some ocean or sea. Teacher, — What is that which with us is always flowing on? Children. — Our life. Teacher. — To what does it conduct us ? Children. — To eteniity. Teacher. — Of what, then, is a river a fit emblem or representation ? Childre7i. — Of life. 126 FOURTH STEP. ^LESSON IX. Teacher. — ^Find some passages in the Bible where '^ river is used as an emblem of life. Teacher, — You find the particles of water run about \ will the particles of wood do the same ? Children. — No. Teacher. — "Why will not the particles of wood flow about ? Children. — Because they stick close together. Teacher. — This is called cohering. When one substance is joined to another it is said to adhere (or stick to) ; when the particles of the same substance stick together, they are said to cohere. The particles of a liquid cohere very slightly, and are therefore easily separated. The particles of a solid cohere closely. LESSON IX. OIL. Qualities of Oil. It is fluid. It is light, yellowish. thick, semi-transparent. ,>" inflammable, soft. oleaginous, liquid. Some oils are vegetable, penetrating. Some are animal. emolUent. When bad, it is rancid, greasy. odorous. The vegetable oil is expressed from olives, and is im- ported chiefly from Italy and the south of France. It is also obtained from nuts and some other fruits, and from seeds. BEEK. 127 The animal oil is procured from the blubber or fat of the whale and seal. Birds are furnished with little bags containing oil ; with this they plume their feathers, and it causes rain and moist- ure to trickle off. Without this provision, the feathers of water fowl would imbibe so much moisture, that they would become too heavy to float on the w^ater. LESSON X. BEER. Qualities of Beer. It is liquid. It is artificial, fluid. odorous, orange color. semi-transparent, wholesome. slightly intoxicating, fermented. strengthening. Beer is composed of malt, hops, and water, boiled to- gether. Hops are the blossoms of a creeping plant, culti- vated in many portions of this country ; the place where they grow is called a hop yard. The tub in which the malt is first steeped is called a mashing tub / that which holds the beer when made, a vat ; when wanted for con- sumption, or sale, it is put into barrels. Malt is made of barley, by the following process. A quantity of barley is soaked in water for two or three days ; the water being afterward drained off, the grain heats spontaneously, swells, bursts, becomes .sweet, and ferments. Vegetables, during decomposition, undergo several degrees of fermentation ; the first (that above described) is called 128 FOURTH STEP. — ^LESSON XI. the saccharine fermentation^ from the sweetness it pro- duces ; sacchar-wm being the Latin for sugar. In conse- quence of this decomposition, which is similar to that which takes place in seed in the ground, the barley begins to sprout, but this vegetation is stopped by putting it into a kiln, where it is well dried by a gentle heat. LESSON XL FOREIGN WHITE WINE. Qualities of White Wine. It is yellowish. It is artificial. bright. semi-transparent, fluid. sapid, liquid. medicinal, fermented. stimulating, spirituous. clear, intoxicating. strengthening, heating. yielding to the touch, vegetable. Wine is made from the grape, the fruit of the vine, which is cultivated in vineyards. "The season of its gath- eruig is called the vintage. The grapes, when gathered, are placed in a wine press, by which the juice is ex- pressed ; this juice undergoes a fermentation, and becomes wine. This is the second fermentation which vegetable matter undergoes; it is called the vinoics fermentation, from its producing .wine ; vinum being the Latin word for wine. VINEGAR. 129 LESSON XII. VINEGAR. Qualities of Vinegar. It is vegetable. It is acid. orange-brown color. liquid. fluid. yielding to the touch. penetrating. stimulating. Uses. — To flavor food ; for pickling ; for medicine, artificial. medicinal. odorous. preservative. semi-transparent. fermented. LESSON XIII. INK. Qualities of Ink. It is black. It is astringent, useful. fluid, opaque. yielding to the touch, artificial. poisonous, liquid. Ink is made of galls, sulphate of iron, gum, and water. Galls are found upon the oak ; they are occasioned by a little insect, which pierces the bark of the tree, and lays its eggs in the hole which it has formed. The torn vessels of the tree discharge a portion of their contents ; this harden- ing, forms at first a defence for the eggs, and subsequently food for the caterpillars they produce ; these latter eat their way out of their confinement, before they change into the perfect insect. Iron dissolved in sulphuric acid is 6* 130 FOURTH STEP. LESSON XIV. called sulphate of iron ; when this is applied to the acid of the galls it becomes black, upon which quality the utility of ink depends. A little gum is added, to cause the ink to adhere to the paper. "^ LESSON XIV. MILK. Qaalities of Milk. It is white. It is natural. fluid. opaque. liquid. yielding to the touch. wholesome. emollient. sweet. nutritious. An animal substance. When fresh, it is warm. TIses. — For animals to feed their young ; for making cheese and butter ; to drink. The milk of cows is that most generally used by man. Invalids drink the milk of asses. In Tartary the milk of mares is used ; in Switzerland that of goats ; in the northern countries that of reindeer ; in Arabia that of camels. The teacher will find it a very improving and inter- esting exercise, to take two substances and compare them together — as water and milk — requiring the class to find out in what respects they are both alike. They are both fluid, hquid, cool, incompressible, penetrating, natural, &c. The qualities by which they are distinguished from each other should then be mehtioned. The water is transpa- rent, the milk is opaque ; the water is colorless ; the milk is white ; the water is tasteless, the milk is sweet, <&c. Liquids possess qualities by which they are very clearly ON METALS. 131 distinguished from other substances. They may all become sohd ; they are all fluid and incompressible ; their parts easily separate, forming into sj)heres or drops ; they pene- trate into the pores of substances; and they find their own level. The last circumstance can easily be proved to the pupils by means of a siphon. Having named the proper- ties common to all liquids, the class should also be required to mention the qualities peculiar to each^ as in the lessons on spices. Water is transparent, colorless, tasteless, inodorous, bright. Oil is yellowish, thick, emollient, semi-transparent, greasy, uiflammable. Beer is orange colored, bitter, spirituous, artificial, fer- mented. White wine is bright, yellowish, intoxicating, stimulat- ing, fermented. Vinegar is acid, orange colored, semi-transparent, fer- mented. Ink is black, bright, opaque, artificial. Milk is white, opaque, sweet, nourishing, natural. The children might determine which of these would form a particular class within the general class of liquids ; as beer, wine, vinegar, united together, because they are fermented liquids. 132 FOURTH STEP. — OX METALS. ON METALS. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE MHTALS. Occurrence. — The metals form a class of bodies belong- ing to the mineral kingdom. They are seldom found in a pure or uncombined state, but are almost always united to various other substances. The compounds so formed have not the distinguishing characters of metals, and they are termed ores, — as lead ore, iron ore, &c. Some of the metals are found in a pure state, when they are termed native, as native gold, native mercury, &c., &c. In their pure state metals are supposed to be simple substances, or elements, — that is, not to be compounds, or mixtures of other bodies. Iron, for example, is regarded as an ele- ment, because it cannot be made by the union of other substances, nor can any substance different from itself be obtained from it. Distingxiishing Characters. — The metals are distin- guished from all other bodies by possessing the following characters: — ^They have (when the surface is clean and un- tarnished) a peculiar brightness, termed the metallic lustre ; they are good conductors of heat, so that, if heat is applied to one part of a piece of metal, it is rapidly conveyed to every portion ; and they are also conductors of electricity, hence the employment of copper rods to convey the light- ning (which might otherwise destroy a building) safely into the ground. Many compound mineral bodies that are not metals also possess metallic lustre, but are not conductors of heat or electricity. GENERAL observatio:n^s. 133 Reflectors of Light. — The lustre of metals depends upon their power of reflecting or throwing back the light which falls upon them. The light from the sun, or any other source, may, w^hen it falls upon a substance, pass through it, as is the case with glass — the body is then termed transpa- rent ; or it may be absorbed by it, as is the case with a dull black board, or with velvet — the substance is then said to be opaque ; or it may be thrown back again, or reflected. This power of reflection is possessed by metals to a much greater degree than by any other bodies ; therefore, when it is wished to throw as much as possible of the light of a flame in one particular direction, a reflector of metal is em- ployed, as in carriage lamps, lighthouses, &c. Reflectors of Heat. — The heat which accompanies the light of the sun, or that thrown out by a fire or any heated body, is reflected by polished metals in precisely the same manner as light ; therefore bright metallic surfaces are used in reflecting-ovens, meat screens, &c. When metals are employed as reflectors of heat or light, it is requisite that they should be brightly polished, as it is only when in that state that they reflect well. Conductors of Heat. — The metals are better conductors of heat than any other solid bodies, a circumstance which occasions several of the peculiar efiects produced by them. If the hand is placed upon a piece of metal somewhat cooler than itself, the natural warmth is rapidly abstracted and conveyed to all parts of the metal ; hence metals are fre- quently spoken of as cold substances; if, on the contrary, the hand is placed on a piece of metal warmer than the body, it imparts its heat with equal facility, the portion 134 FOUBTH STEP. ON METALS. cooled having its temperature rapidly restored by the heat from the surrounding parts ; it follows that metals slightly warmer than the hand feel hot, and will inflict more severe burns than non-conducting substances at a much higher temperature. Conductors of Electricity. — ^The power of conducting electricity exists in metals to an infinitely greater degree than in any other substances. It is one of their properties most important to man. The natural electricity of the thunder clouds is safely conveyed into the ground by a lightning conductor of copper, and the electricity artificially produced is conveyed instantaneously thousands of miles by the wires of the electric telegraph, which, by causing the points of two magnetic needles to be directed as re- quired to either side, produces signs which stand for letters, and thus conveys messages immense distances in an infinite- ly short space of time. Opacity. — ^The metals are more opaque than other bodies. Even when beaten into thin leaves, they do not allow light to pass through. Silver leaf, for example, only To oVo part of an inch in thickness, is perfectly opaque. The gold leaf of commerce, which is about yy oVoo of an inch in thickness, is transparent. On looking through it against the light, all objects are readily seen, having the same appearance as if looked at through green glass. Specific Gravity or Weight. — The weight of the metals varies greatly ; some of them are the heaviest bodies known, while others are so light that they will float on water. These latter, however, are not common, being only known to experimental chemists. In the following list, GENERAL OESEKVATIONS. 135 the specific gravity of the more important metals only is given ; Platinum, 22.069 Gold, • • . 19.250 Mercury, 13.600 Lead, . . 11.381 Silver, 10.470 Copper, . . 89.00 Iron (wrought). 78.00 Tin, . 73.00 Zinc, 71.00 Aluminum, . 25.00 The weight of a cubic foot of the common metals is as follows : Lead, one cubic foot weighs, . Copper (cast), .... Brass, Steel, Wrought iron (closely hammered). 710 lbs. 549 623 490 485 Wrought iron, 475 Cast iron, 450 Zinc, 439 Hardness — The metals vary very much in hardness. Some of the more uncommon are sufficiently soft to be moulded easily by the fingers. Lead can be scratched by the nail; tin, zinc, gold, and silver may be cut with a knife; copper is harder, and iron greatly surpasses all common metals in this respect. Brittleness. — Some few of the metals, as antimony and bismuth, are so brittle that they may be powdered, and cast iron and cast zinc are readily broken. MaUeabUUy. — Others, on being hammered, spread out 136 FOURTH STEP. OX METALS. into thin leaves. Gold possesses this property in the high- est degree. It may be beaten into leaves so thin that, although quite free from visible holes, sixty square inches wiil not weigh one grain; and 300,000 of the leaves, if piled on each other, would not exceed an inch in thickness. In addition to gold — silver, platinum, copper, zinc, and lead furnish examples of malleable metals. Ductility. — The malleable metals are also ductile — that is, they can be drawn out into wires. Gold is one of the most ductile of the metals, — a single grain may be drawn out into a wire 550 feet long. Silver, platinum, iron, cop- per, zinc, tin, and lead are also ductile. The method adopted for drawing metals into wires is to form the metal into a bar or cylinder : this is drawn by great force through a hole in a steel plate, somewhat smaller than itself, and is consequently lessened in size and increased in length by the operation. It is then drawn through a still smaller hole ; again through one still less, and so on, until the wire is of the degree of fineness required. Tenacity. — The strength of wires does not, as might be imagined, correspond with the ductility of the metals of which they are formed. Iron, when made into steel, is by far the most tenacious metal ; its wire is stronger than one of equal size formed from any other metal, although, in point of ductility, it is surpassed by gold, silver, and plati- num. The tenacity of some of the metals greatly surpasses that of all other substances. The following list shows the number of tons which a rod one inch square is capable of holding up before breaking : GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 137 Lead, about | of a ton. Till, " 2 tons. Cast iron, nearly, 9 " Copper, 15 " Bar iron, 25 " Steel, 59 " Fusibility, — All the metals are capable of being melted or fused by heat, although they vary very much in their degrees of fusibility. The heat that always exists in tem- perate climates is sufficient to melt one metal — mercury; but in the colder regions of the earth, where the tempera- ture is low, it assumes the solid form. Of the other com- mon metals, tin, lead, and zinc melt below a red heat; cop- per, silver, and gold require a strong red or white heat ; cast iron melts at a bright white heat ; pure wrought iron is one of the least fusible, and requires the greatest degree of heat that can be obtained from a smith's forge to melt it. Volatility. — Several of the metals are volatile, rising in vapor when heated. Mercury slowly evaporates at all tem- peratures above the natural heat of the human body, and boils away rapidly below redness ; zinc also is volatile at a high red heat ; the other common metals are fixed in the fire. Compounds of the Metals, — The metals can be united not only with each other, but with several of the non- metallic elements, as sulphur, carbon, &c. When the metals are melted together, the compounds are called ALLOYS. These possess the characters of metals, and are of great use in the arts. The most important alloys are — brass, formed of copper and zinc ; pewter, of tin, copper, &c. ; German silver, of nickel, copper, and zinc ; solder, 188 FOURTH STEP. — METALS. of tin, lead, &c. When mercury is present, the name amalgam is given to the compound ; the most important amalgam is one of tin, used for silvering looking glasses. It is one of the most remarkable properties of alloys that they generally melt more readily than either of the metals of which they are formed. The use of solder by plumb- ers and workers in tin, zinc, &c., mainly depends upon its being more easily melted than the metals which it is em- ployed to unite. The compounds of the metals with the non-metallic substances are very important. When the metals unite with the oxygen of the air, compounds are formed termed rusts or oxides. Some metals have little disposition to unite wnth oxygen — that is, to rust; hence they remain untarnished : as gold, silver, and mercury. Others, as zinc and lead, form a thin layer of rust on the surface, which protects the metal beneath from further change. Otliers, as iron, rust or oxidize only in damp air» Many of the metals unite with sulphur, forming, as before observed, compounds called sulphurets, or sulphates. The common ores of lead and copper are sulphurets of those metals. Silver, although k does not rust in pure air, unites quickly with any sulphur that may be present, either fiom the escape of coal gas or from any decaying animal Bul)stances, and becomes tarnished by the formation of a thin layer of black sulphuret of silver. General Conversation on the Metals, REMARK. In giving the following lessons, it is desirable to prot GOLD. 139 sent the specimens to the class in their several natural and artilicial states. The teacher should be particularly care- ful to direct the attention of the children to those qualities in the metal under consideration, upon which its uses de- pend, leading them to trace the adaptation of qualities to certain uses. LESSON XV. GOLD. Qualities of Gold, It is a perfect metal. It is pliable, malleable.* 1. compact, ductile. 2. yellow, tenacious. 3. solid, heavy. 4. opaque, indestructible. brilliant. * A solid piece of gold and some leaf gold should be presented to the class, and the extreme lightness and thinness of the leaf may be felt. Teacher. — How was the gold made so thin ? Children. — It was beaten out. Teacher. — With what, do you think ? Children. — ^With a hammer. Teacher. — All things that can be thus extended by beating are called malleable. Could glass be thus beaten out ? Could chalk ? Camphor ? What qualities prevent them from being malleable ? Children. — Glass is brittle. Chalk is crumbling. Teacher. — What qualities in gold do you think render it malleable ? Children. — Its being tenacious. Teacher. — What other quality in gold depends upon its being tena* tious ? Children. — It is ductile. 2'eacher. — Ductile means capable of being drawn out. 140 FOUETH STEP. — METALS. It is fusible. It is reflective, incombustible, except sonorous. by electricity. Not affected by any ncid soft, compared with but aqua regia.* other metals. It is considered a perfect metal, because it does not lose any of its weight when fused, nor suffer any change. Most metals become oxydated.f When the children understand fully the different quali- ties, the teacher may mention to them the facts that prove the extraordinary degree in which the peculiar qualities exist in the metal. 1. Malleable. A grain of gold, the size of a pin's head, may be beaten out to cover a space of fifty square inches. 2. Ductile. A grain of gold can be drawn out to cover a wire of 352 feet in length ; a guinea can be drawn out to reach nine miles and a half. 3. Tenacious. A wire one-tenth of an inch in diameter will support 500 pounds without breaking. 4. Heavy. It is nineteen times heavier than water of the same bulk. Uses of Gold. When alloyed J with copper, gold is used as coin, and * Aqua regia (royal water) is a mixture of muriatic acid and nitric acid. \ Substances are oxydated when they are combined with a certain portion of oxygen. \ The combinations of metals with each other are called, in chemis* iry, allmfi ; but this term is commonly employed to designate those sub* •tanccs that lessen the value of any with which they are united. GOLD. 141 for ornamental purposes ; for the latter it is fitted by its brilliancy and beauty, and also because it is not liable to tarnish. The gold used in coinage, called standard gold, consists of a combination of about twenty-two parts of gold, and two of copper. Gold thread is made by covering silk or silver with gold beaten very thin. Gilding is the art of covering the surface of a sub- stance with gold ; this is effected by applying it in a state of leaf, or liquid gold, to a surface covered by a cement. Quicksilver unites with gold, communicating to it a portion of its own fluidity ; it has from this circumstance been used in gilding buttons — an effect which is produced very rapidly by the following process: The metals are mixed together, and the buttons immersed in the com- pound. They are then exposed to a great heat, by which the quicksilver is evaporated, and the gold is left upon the buttons. The purple color used in painting porcelain is obtained from gold. Gold is beaten into leaves upon a smooth block of mar- ble fitted into a wooden frame, about two feet square ; on three sides there is a high ledge, and the front has a flap of leather attached to it, which the workman uses as an apron to preserve the fragments that fall off. There are three kinds of animal membrane used in the operation. For interlaying with the gold at first, the smoothest and closest vellum is procured; and when the gold becomes thin, this is exchanged for much finer skin, made of the 142 FOUKTH STEP. ^METALS. entrails of oxen prepared for this purpose, and hence called goldbeaters'' skin: the whole is covered with parchment, to prevent the hammer from injuring it. After the gold has been reduced to a sufficient degree of thinness, it is put between paper which has been well smoothed and rubbed with red bole, in order to prevent it adhering to the gold. Geographical and Geological Situation of Gold, Gold is found principally in hot climates, either native or as an ore. A metal is called native when it occurs in nature pure, and an ore when mixed with other substances. Gold is found in mines, in Brazil, Peru, Mexico, and Califor- nia. Part of the western coast of Africa is called the Gold Coast, from the gold dust brought down by the natives to trade with. A great quantity of gold is obtained in the form of fine sand, from American and African rivers ; and in small quantities from the Danube, the Rhine, and the Rhone. It is supposed to be carried down by the moun- tain torrents. The wandering tribes of gypsies employ themselves in washing it from the beds of European rivers. The Himalaya mountains in Asia, are rich in gold. It some- times occurs in the veins which run through mountains, and sometimes in rounded masses in soils that are evi- dently the ruins of rocks. The mines which formerly yielded the largest quantities of gold were those of Peru and Lima ; the principal in Europe are those of Hungary and Saltzburg. There have been discovered large quantities of gold in California and in Australia, which has caused a comparative abundance of this metal. The mode of ex- SILVER. 143 trading gold from the ore is by reducing the whole to a fine powder, and mixing it with quicksilver. The latter unites with every particle of gold, but, being incapable of forming a combination with any but metallic substances, it separates the gold from the earth with which it Is inter- mixed. The quicksilver, which has absorbed the gold, is then evaporated by means of heat, leaving the pure metal in the vessel. LESSON XVL SILVER. Qualities of Silver. It is malleable. 1. It is white, ductile. 2. solid, tenacious. 3. compact, heavy. 4. natural, indestructible. brilliant, fusible. reflective, soft. sweetly sonorous, flexible. not aftected by com- a perfect metal. mon acids, opaque. 1. Malleable. Silver can be reduced to a degree of thinness nearly equal to that of which gold is capable. 2. Ductile. It can also be drawn out into the finest wire. 3. Tenacious. A wire one tenth of an inch in thick- ness will support 377 pounds without breaking. 4. Heavy. It is about eleven times heavier than water. 144 FOURTH STEP. METALS. Uses of Silver. Silver is used for coin, and is then combined with cop- per, to render it harder and better adapted to receive a fine and sharp impression on being cast. It does not lose its white color by its mixture with copper. The same alloy is employed for ornamental purposes. Silver is much used as a casing to copper utensils, to render them more pleasing to the sight, and also to pre- vent the formation of the poison extracted by acids from copper. The most permanent plating is effected by tak- ing two thin plates of silver and copper, the former in the, proportion of one to twelve of the latter ; a little pow- dered borax is placed between the two metals to promote their fusion ; and then, after being exposed to a white heat, they will be found firmly united. The substance is passed between rollers till the whole is of the proper thick- ness for the intended manufacture. Silver dissolved in aquafortis (nitric acid) yields crys- tals, which, being afterward melted in crucibles, form what is called lunar caustic. This preparation is of considerable value in surgical operations, being employed to burn away diseased flesh, and also for consuming warts, wens, and other excrescences of the skin. Indelible or permanent ink, used for marking linen, is made by dissolving nitrate of silver (lunar caustic) in water, and adding gum. The yellow color employed in painting porcelain is obtained from silver. Geographical and Geological Situation of Silver, Silver is found, both native and as an ore, in mines and QUICKSILVEK. 145 veins. South America is tlie country richest in silver mines. It is also found in Saxony, Bohemia, Norway, Hungary, and England ; but the mines of Mexico and Peru furnish annually ten times more than all those of Europe together. So poisonous are the exhalations from the mines of Peru, that many thousands of Indians have perished in them, and the cattle that graze on the outside are aifected by their malignant vapors. This metal is also found in several localities in our own country, the most important of which are the Washoe region (on the bor- ders of California and Nevada Territory), Lake Superior, Arizona, North Carolina, and from the gold of California and Colorado. The ores of silver are very numerous, and various methods are employed in diflerent countries to separate this metal from its ore. In Mexico and Peru the mineral is pounded, roasted, washed, and then mixed with mercury in vessels filled with water, a mill being employed for the purpose of more perfectly agitating the liquid. This causes the silver to unite with the mercury, and then, being submitted to heat, the latter is evaporated. The pure metal is afterward melted and cast into ingots or bars of 80 or 90 lbs. each. LESSON XYIL QUICKSILVER, OR MERCURY. Qualities of Quic7csilvei\ or Mercury, It is heavy. 1. It is cold. 3. fluid. 2. divisible. 4, 7 146 FOURTH STEP. METALS. It is volatile when heated. It is dilatable by heat, white. medicinal brilliant. 5. natural, opaque. mineral least tenacious of all bodies. 1. Weight. Nearly fourteen times heavier than water. It is the heaviest known fluid. 2. Fluid. It always retains its fluidity in our temper- ature ; but near the poles it congeals, and then is malle- able, ductile, and tenacious. 3. Cold. It is the coldest of all fluids, and the hottest when boiling. 4. It is capable of division, by the slightest effort, into an indefinite number of particles, which are of a spherical shape. 5. The peculiar brilliancy of metals has given rise to the term metallic lustre. Uses of Quicksilver. Quicksilver penetrates and softens other metals, losing its own fluidity, and forming a }cind of paste called amcU- gam. This affinity or attraction that it has for other metals makes it exceedingly useful in separating them from substances with which they are found combined ; they are drawn from their ores and unite with the mer< cury, and the latter being volatilized, the pure metal re* mains. Quicksilver is easily affected by the atmosphere, and is on this account used in thermometers and barome- ters. The Thermometer is an instrument constructed in the following manner : A tube of glass, terminating in a QUICKSILVER, 147 hollow ball which contains mercury, is plunged into boiling water, which causes the mercury to expand and rise to a certain height. At this point, which is called boiling heat, the tube is broken off and hermetically sealed ; * the freez> ing point is then ascertained and marked, and the interven- ing space graduated. The thermometer, by marking the expansion and contraction of the quicksilver, indicates the increase and decrease of heat and cold in the atmos- phere. To form the barometer, a glass tube, open at one end, and filled with quicksilver, is plunged with its open end downward into a bowl containing some of the same fluid. Part of the mercury in the tube flows into the vessel, leav- ing a space to which the air cannot gain access. A vacuum being thus formed, the atmosphere acts upon the mercury in the bowl ; when heavy, causing it to rise in the tube, and when light (the pressure being decreased), allowing it to descend. The barometer, by thus showing the weight of the air, indicates the probability of wet or dry weather. For when the atmosphere is light, it no longer supports the vapor and clouds which float in it, and they conse- quently descend toward the earth ; but when the air is more dense, they are borne up, and we have fine weather. The elevation of mountains is also ascertained by means of the barometer ; for as it is known that the rarity of the * In order to seal anything hermetieallj, the neck of a glass tube is heated till on the point of melting, and then with a pair of hot pincers it is closely twisted together, by which means the air is excluded. Her- metically is derived from Hermes^ the deity of ancient mythology who was thought to preside over the arts and sciences, particularly chemistry. 148 FOURTH STEP. METALS. atmosphere increases in proportion to the ascent, the height is easily calculated. Quicksilver is also used for coating mirrors. The pro- cess is effected in the following maimer: a sheet of tin foil the size of the plate of glass is placed evenly on a smooth block of stone ; over this is poured some quicksilver, which is carefully spread upon it with a feather or rubber of linen. Tin, in amalgamating with mercury, quickly forms an oxide of a black appearance ; this being removed, more of the fluid is poured upon it. The glass is then held horizontal- ly, and carefully spread over the amalgam, sweeping before it the superfluous mercury, and any more oxide that may have formed. Weights are then placed upon the glass^ and after having remained several days, the mixture ad- heres firmly and forms the mirror. Vermilion, used in coloring seahng wax, and the medi- cine called calomel, are preparations of this metal. Geographical and Geological Situation of Quicksilver, Quicksilver is found in the native state, as globules, in the cavities of mines ; but it is'most frequently combined with sulphur, forming the mineral called Cinnabar, which is of a red color. It is found in considerable quantities in some parts of California; the mines yielding 2,000,000 lbs. avoirdupois annually. The quicksilver mines of Idria, in Austria, are said to yield annually 100 tons ; those of Spain still more ; but the mines of Peru are the richest. The mines of Idria were accidentally discovered about three hundred years since. That part of the country was LEAD. 149 then much inhabited by coopers ; one of the men, when re^ tiring from work in the evening placed a new tub under a dropping spring to try if it would hold water, and when he came in the morning he found it so heavy that he could scarcely move it. On examination he perceived a shining, ponderous fluid at the bottom, which proved to be quick- silver. When this circumstance was made known, a com- pany was formed to discover and work the mines from whence the mercury had issued. In some parts of the mine it flows in small springs, so that in six hours as much as thirty-six pounds have been collected ; in other parts it i» found diffused in small globules. LESSOi^ XVIII. LEAD. It is heavy. 1. fusible. 2. bright when first melted or cut. malleable. ductile. very soft. 3. pliable. livid, bluish gray. easily calcined, that is. reduced by heat to a crumbling substance. Qualities of Lead. It is solid. sometimes amorphous, sometimes crystallized. 023aque. mineral. liable to tarnish. 4. inelastic, natural. It makes a gray streak on paper, boils and evaporates at great heat. 1. Heavy. It is eleven times heavier than water ; ra- jfier heavier than silver. 150 FOURTH STEP. METALS. 2. It melts at a much lower temperature than the other metals. 3. It is the softest of all metals. 4. Lead is not much altered by being exposed either to air or water, though the brightness of its surface is soon lost. Probably a thin stratum of oxide is formed on tha surface, which defends the rest of the metal from corrosion. Uses of Lead. The calx * of lead is the basis of many colors, which are obtained from it by different degrees of heat. Red lead and white lead, so much used in paints, are the calces of lead. They are soluble in oil, are very poisonous, and occasion the ill health to which painters are subject. The oxide of lead also enters into the composition of white glass, rendering it clearer ; it is also used in the glazing of common earthenware vessels. Any acid will extract a poison from lead, and therefore the use of it should be avoided in culinary operations. It is employed in glazing pottery. It is also used for gutters and pipes of houses, and for cisterns and reservoirs of water, because it does not rust, and is very durable. The great softness of lead, and the ease with which it is fused, are the properties which have brought it so much * Calx is the dross formed on the surface of lead when fused. This name is applied by chemists to those substances which have been re- duced by burning to a friable state. The operation by which this effect is produced is called calcination. It is more general now to term metaiiic bodies when calcined, oxides, "" LEAD. 151 into use. The persons who work it are called plumbers,^ The solder they use as a cement is an alloy of lead and tin, in the proportion of two parts of the former to one of the latter. Great quantities of lead are consumed in making shot. The metal for this purpose is alloyed with arsenic, to ren- der it more hard and brittle, and capable of assuming a perfectly spherical shape. Shot are formed by dropping the melted alloy into water from a considerable height, through an iron or copper frame, perforated with round holes, which are larger or smaller according to the required size of the shot. Mixed with antimony, lead is used for printing types ; and with tin and copper, it forms pewter. Geological and Geographical Situation of Lead. The largest and perhaps most important lead mines in the world are found in England and Wales. It is sup- posed, from relics and inscriptions found in these mines, that they were worked by the Romans when in possession of Great Britain. The principal mines in the United States are found in Missouri, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa. It has been found in several of the Atlantic States, but the mines, proving unprofitable, have mostly been abandoned. Lead is plentiful in Scotland, Ireland, Spain, France, and Germany. It is very doubtful whether it is ever found native ; it occurs frequently combined with sulphur, when it is called galena. * Plumb-er, from the Latin plumb-wm, lead. 152 FOURTH STEP. METALS. When the ore is brought out of the mines it is sorted and washed, to free it from dirt and rubbish ; it is then spread out, and the best pieces separated. After the ore, by picking and washing, has been sufficiently cleansed from extraneous matter, it is roasted * in a kind of kiln, to free it from the sulphur usually combined with it. The next process is to mix it with a quantity of coke, and submit it to the smelting furnace. In this there are tap holes, which, when the lead is melted, are opened, to allow it to run in a fluid state into an iron vessel. The dross which floats on its surface is skimmed ofi", and the metal is taken out by ladles, and poured into cast-iron moulds with round ends. It is then called ^9^^ leacl^ and is fit tor use. LESSON XIX. COPPER. Qualities of Copper. It is heavy. 1. It is mineral. tenacious, 2. sometimes crystallized, very sonorous. 3. sometimes amorphous, fusible. 4. ,^' brilliant, elastic. 5. reflective, capable of extreme divis- sapid. ibility. 6. nauseous to the taste. * Roasting is the process by which the voh\tile parts of an ore are evaporated. Smelting is that by which the pure metal is separated from the earthy particles combined with it in the ore. This is done by throw- ing the whole into a furnace, and mixing with it substances that will combine with the earthy parts ; the metal, being the heavie.st, falls to the bottom, and runs out by the proper opening in its pure metallic state. COPPER. 163 Qualities of Copper. It is malleable. It is hard. ductile. unpleasantly odorous, compact. solid, opaque. medicinal, orange-brown color. easily corroded. 1. Heavy. Copper is eight times heavier than water. 2. Tenacious. A wire one tenth of an inch in thickness will support two hundred and ninety-nine pounds and a half without breaking. 3. It is the most deeply sonorous of all metals. 4. It is more easily fused than iron, but less so than gold or silver. 5. It is the most elastic metal, next to iron. 6. A grain dissolved in ammonia will give a perceptible color to more than 500,000 times its weight in water. The Uses of Copper, Tlie uses of copper are numerous and important. When rolled into sheets between iron cylinders, it is used to cover the roofs of houses, especially arsenals and manu- factories, where there is liability to lire. The bottoms of ships are coppered in order to make them sail faster, and to prevent shell fish from perforating the wood. Copper is much used for cooking utensils, but great care- is necessary, for should any acid or even water be allowed to stand some time in the vessels, a poison is extracted ; but while boiling this evil does not arise. It is customary, in order to pre- vent any danger, to line copper vessels with tin. Copper IS used in the manufactories of gunpowder, because it docs 154 FOURTH STEP. METALS. not, like iron, give out sparks by collision. Having no effect upon the magnetic needle, copper is found to be the best material for the boxes and supports of this delicate instrument. Plates of copper are sometimes engraved with a sharp instrument called a burin; sometimes they are corroded with aquafortis ; * in the latter case, the cop- per is covered with wax, on which the design is sketched with a pointed instrument, the aquafortis reaches the cop- per just in those places where the wax has been removed by the sketching, and eats into it. Verdigris is a rust of copper, usually made from that metal by corroding it with vinegar. There is a large manufactory at Montpelier, in France, where verdigris is prepared in the following man- ner : Copper plates and" the refuse of grapes are placed alternately one upon another ; the latter speedily corrode the surface of the metal. The verdigris thus formed is scraped off as it collects on the copper ; it is afterward dried, and packed in casks or bags. It is chiefly employed in dying, and is a most virulent poison. The alloys of cop- per are numerous and valuable. Brass is the most impor- tant ; it is compounded of zinc and copper, in the propor- tion of three parts of the former to one of the latter. This is a very beautiful and useful substance ; it does not rust so easily as copper ; it is more ductile than either that metal or iron, and is therefore used in the construction of musical and mathematical instruments, and in clockwork. Sieves and b\ii3ds are woven of brass wire of extreme fineness. Brass is used both for puri)Oses of ornament and use. Cof per alloyed with tin forma bronze ; it is remarkable, • Aquafortia (»tioiig water) is iiiLiic acid diluted with water. COPPER. 155 that when these two metals are melted together, the com- pound so produced is heavier than tlie weight of the two metals taken separately. Bronze is very useful from its being extremely hard, durable, and sonorous ; it is made into cannon balls, statues, &c. The metal of which cannon are made is also an alloy of copper with tin. Bell metal consists of three parts copper and one tin. Copper is the principal ingredient in German silver and Chinese gongs ; and in small proportion it is used to give hardness to silver coin and plate. Geographical and Geological Situation of Copper. Copper is found in Sweden, Saxony, Great Britain, America, and Australia. The copper region of Lake Supe- rior contains almost the only mines of this metal that are profitably worked in the United States. The worn tools found in immense numbers in some of these mines, prove that they have been worked at a remote period by an un- known people. It was one of the metals earliest known ; the Bible mentions workers in brass before the Flood. It is found in great variety of forms ; sometimes in masses of pure metal, but more frequently combined with other substances, particularly sulphur. The copper mines of Anglesea are very productive ; they are situated on the top of a mountain, and form an enormous cavity more than 500 yards long, 100 broad, and 100 deep. The ore is ob- tained from the mine, either by pickaxes or by blasting the rock with gunpowder. It is then broken with a hammer into small pieces, an operation which chiefly employs women and children. After this, it is piled on a kiln, to the upper 156 FOURTH STEP. METALS. part of which flues are attached, that communicate with sulphur chambers. The kiln is covered, and tlie fires light- ed in different parts, that the ore may undergo the process of roasting. The whole mass gradually kindles, and the sulphur which is combined with the ore, being expelled in fumes by the heat, is conveyed through the flues to the sulphur chamber. This process occupies from three to ten months, according to the size of the kilns. When the operation is complete, or the ore is freed from the sulphur, it is submitted to the smelting houses, where, by the in- tense heat it undergoes, the pure metal is forced off in a fluid state. LESSON XX. IRON. Qualities of Iron. It is elastic. 1. It is fusible. ductile. 2. livid gray color. heavy. 3. solid. tenacious. 4. susceptible of a high hard. 5. polish. malleable. '-cold. liable to rust. sometimes amorphous. sonorous. sometimes crystallized. mineral. 1. In the state of steel, it is the most elastic of all metals. 2. Iron is more ductile than gold ; it may be drawn into a wire as fine as human hair. 3. It is the lightest of the common metals, except tin ; between seven and eisjht times heavier than water. IKON. 157 4. The most tenacious of the metals. A wh-e about one tenth of an inch in diameter will support 500 pounds without breaking. 5. Its hardness exceeds that of most other metals, and this is increased by its being converted into steel. Uses of Iron. Iron is the most useful of all metals, and man very early became acquainted with its value. Moses speaks of fur- naces of iron, and of the ores from which it was extracted. By means of this metal the earth has been cultivated, houses and cities built, and without it few arts could be practised. Iron is very abundant in nature, but it is always found mixed with some other substance. It is then called iron ore. Sometimes it is combined with clay, at other times with lime, or with flint. In order to separate the iron from its ore, intense heat is required; either pure clay, lime, or silex, remain stubborn in the hottest fires, but when mixed in proper proportions, the one assists in the fusion of the other ; therefore there is always thrown into the fur- nace with the iron ore some earth that will combine with that in the iron ore. The intense heat of the furnace is kept up by means of a continual supply of air, rushing into it from immense bellows, worked by machinery. The lime, clay, or flint, unite and form a kind of slag, which floats on the surface. At the same time the carbon, or pure charcoal of the fuel, aided by the limestone, melts the iron, which, being heavier than the other substances, falls to the bottom of the furnace, and remains there till the workmen let it out by a hole made at the bottom of 158 FOURTH STEP. METALS. ^ the furnace, and plugged with sand. When the workman judges that there is a sufficient quantity of the iron fused, he displaces the plug with an iron rod, and the melted iron runs out like a stream of liquid fire, and is conveyed into furrows made in sand, where it cools ; the pieces formed in the principal furrows are called sows, those in the smaller furrows branching from them, pigs. In this state it takes the name of cast iron, and from the process it has under- gone, it is become extremely hard, and having lost its tena- city, it resists the hammer and the file, and is very brittle ; \t is of a dark gray or blackish color. It is used for the backs of chimneys, grates, boilers, pipes, railroads, common cannon balls, &c. Cast iron contains a large proportion of carbon, and is probably saturated with it. It is converted into steel by taking aw^ay a portion of its carbon. It is converted into wrought iron by removing the carbon, and as far as possi- ble other impurities, as sulphur, phosphorus, &c. The value of wrought iron for machinery, and tools of all descriptions, is very great. Steel is also much employed for ornamental purposes, on account of the elegant polish it is capable of taking. Plumbago, or black lead, which is employed in the man- ufacture of pencils, is an ore of iron, containing nine parts of carbon to one of the metal. The bronze color used in porcelain painting is an oxide of iron. Meteoric stones, which have been the subject of so much conjecture, and which are sometimes believed to be ejected from volcanoes in the moon, are native iron. Iron is very valuable from the magnetic properties it IRON. 159 may acquire. By these it enables the mariner to steer across the ocean, the traveller to direct his course with safety in the pathless desert, and the miner to guide his researches after subterraneous treasures. The loadstone, or natural magnet, is an oxide of iron ; it communicates its power to bars of iron or steel when placed in contact with them. The artificial magnet is now always used, as ft possesses and retains all the properties of the loadstone. The qualities which render it useful, are, its attraction for iron, and its polarity, or the power by which it points to the poles when freely suspended. One end invariably turns Lo the north, and the other to the south, except when it approaches the poles ; there the directive power ceases al- together, which circumstance constitutes one of the great difficulties in navigating the Arctic Sea. Geographical Situation of Iron. Iron is the most universally diffused of the metals. It is found in every country, in greater or less quantities. It is very rarely met with in a native state, but generally as an oxide, or in combination with sulphuric or carbonic acid. LESSON XXI. TIN. Qualities of Tin. It is heavy. 1. It is very httle elastic, soft. 2. pliable, malleable. 3. easily cal(;ined. 160 FOURTH STEP. METALS. Qualities of Tin. is ductile. It is natural. fusible. mineral. white. reflective. opaque. sonorous, makes a solid. crackling noise. brilliant. dilatable by heat. 1. It is seven times heavier than water ; yet the light- est of the ductile metals. 2. It is softer than silver, but harder than lead. 3. Tin may be beaten into sheets the one thousandth part of an inch in thickness. Uses of Tin. Tin is chiefly employed in the manufacture of culinary utensils ; they are not, however, made of solid tin, but of what is called tin plate, which is thus prepared: Thin iron plates are first well cleansed, by washing them in water and sand ; they are then dipped into melted tin, and afterward steeped in water acidulated with sulphuric acid. This pro- cess causes the tin not only to cover the surface of the iron plate, but to penetrate it, so that the whole mass becomes of a whitish color. Pins are made of brass wire, tinned. When the pin is formed, a vessel is filled with strata or layers of tin plates between the brass pins ; the vessel is then filled with water and some tartaric acid, by means of which the tin is dissolved ; after five or six hours' boiling, the pins are found uniformly tinned. It is the zinc of tho brass which has an affinity for the tin, and forms the union which takes place. The pins are afterward polished ; they TIN. 161 are thrown into a tab containing a quantity of bran, which is set in motion by the turning of a shaft in the centre • the friction which the pins thus undergo renders them per- fectly bright. The uses of tin for domestic purposes are very various, particularly when laid over other metals, as in stirrups, buckles, &c. The oxide of tin is used in dyeing. Tin foil is used for coating Leyden jars, for enclosing small packages of tobacco and spices, and for covering the tops of champagne bottles, &c., to exclude the air. Large sheets are used for silvering looking glasses. Tin forms alloys with several other metals. These com- pounds have been mentioned before ; as bell metal, pewter, bronze. Tin leaves, amalgamated wdth mercury, are used for silvering and plating other metals. Geographical Situation of Tin. England, Germany, Chili, and Mexico, produce the largest quantities of this metal. The tin mines of Cornwall were well known to the ancients ; and the Phoenicians are said to have traded with the Britons for it long before the birth of our Saviour. Native tin is never found, and its ore is of less common occurrence than that of iron. It occurs as an oxide, or mixed with sulphur and copper; chiefly in veins running through granite and other rocks. When it is taken from the mine, it is broken into small pieces, and streams of water are passed over it, to free it from the earthy particles with which it is intermixed ; it is then roasted and smelted, when the metal is poured out into quadrangular moulds of stone, and receives the name of block tin. 3^2 ' FOURTH STEP. — METALS. LESSON xxn. COMPARISON OP METALS. Gold, a perfect metal, is the most precious. most compact. heaviest. ' Its weight is between nineteen and twenty times that of water. Silver, a perfect metal, is next in value to gold, and more useful ; its weight between ten and eleven times that of water. Quicksilver is fluid. easily volatilized, immalleable. Its weight is between thirteen and fourteen times that of water. Copper is the most sonorous. most elastic, except iron. Its weight is between eight and nine times that of water. Iron is the most elastic. most tenacious. most useful. most ductile. Its weight is between seven and eight times that of water. Lead is the softest. most easily fused. ON METALS IN GENERAL. 163 Its weight is between eleven and twelve times that of water. Tin, next to lead, is the softest of the metals ; it dilates most by heat ; it is the Hghtest, its weight being only seven times that of water. LESSON XXIII. ON METALS IN GENERAL. Metals are simple elementary bodies, distinguished by being heavier than all other substances ; by possessing a j)eculiar lustre, which is called the metallic lustre ; by re- flecting light and heat ; by their being opaque, fusible, mal- leable, tenacious, ductile, and generally elastic. Upon this last quality seems to depend their fitness for exciting sound, or sonorousness. Metals are capable of uniting with each other in a state of fusion ; this union is called an alloy. It is remarkable that by these combinations metals undergo a considerable change in their properties, and ac- quire new ones not belonging to either of them when not united. Thus the weight of the alloy, or the two metals in combination, is sometimes very different from the weight of both the metals taken separately ; an alloy of silver with copper or tin, or one of silver or gold with lead, is heavier than the same quantities of those metals uncombined. Their ductility and malleability are changed and generally impaired, the alloy becoming brittle. This is very remark- ably the case with gold and lead when united, the latter of which, even in the trivial proportion of half a grain to. an ounce of gold, renders the mass quite destitute of ■.enacity. 164 FOURTH STEP. METALS, The hardness of metals is varied by eotiibination. Gold being united with a small quantity of copper, and silver, with a minute proportion of the same metal, acquire such an increase of hardness, that these additions are always made to gold and silver which are exposed to wear. By a sinaU addition of gold, iron is said to gain so much hard- ness as to be even superior to steel for the fabrication of cutting instruments. Change of color is a common effect of the union of metals wdth each other. Arsenic, for example, which re- sembles steel, and copper, which has a red color, afford by their union a compound which has nearly the whiteness of silver. In order to ascertain how far the children have retained the knowledge acquired in these lessons, the following ques- tions may be given to them to answer in writing : QUESTIONS ON THE METALS. GOLD. 1. What are the chief qualities of gold? 2. What is its weight ? 3. Give a proof of its ductiUty. 4. tenacity. 5. malleability. 6 Upon what other quality does its malleability de- pend ? V. What qualities are directly opposed to malleability ? 8. What is an alloy ? 9. Why is gold alloyed for the purpose of coinage? SILVER. 105 10. What metal is used as its alloy ? and in wliat pro- portion ? 11. How are buttons gilded? 12. Describe the manner of forming leaf gold. 13. In what state is gold found ? 14. What is an ore ? 15. What is meant by a native metal? 16. In what countries is gold found? 17. What people employ themselves in separating it from the sands of the European rivers ? SILVER. 1. What are the chief proportions of silver? 2. What is its weight ? 3. What degree of tenacity does it possess? 4. What are the chief uses of silver ? 5. Upon what qualities do the uses of silver depend ? 6. Describe the operation of plating. 1. What is lunar caustic ? and what are its uses ? 8. Give the geographical location of silver. 9. Why are gold and silver called perfect metals ? QUICKSILVER. 1. What are the uses and properties of quicksilver ? 2. What is its weight ? 3. In what respect is it remarkable as a liquid ? 4. What effect does heat produce upon it ? 5. Under what circumstances does a change in its quaL itibjs take place ? and what is the change ? 6. What is an amalgam ? 166 FOUBTH STEP. — METALS. 1. Mention the uses of quicksilver. 8. What are the properties that fit it for a barometer ? 9. What for a thermometer ? 10. How is a barometer made ? and what is its use ? 11. How is a thermometer made ? and what is its use ? 12. What color is obtained from quicksilver ? 13. Where is quicksilver found ? 14. What circumstance led to the discovery of the mines of Idria ? LEAD. 1. What are the remarkable qualities of lead? 2. What is its weight? 3. What are the different effects which heat produces on lead ? 4. What are the chief uses of lead ? 5. Why is it used for reservoirs of water ? 6. How are shot made ? 7. What is the use of the oxides of lead ? 8. What are its alloys ? 9. In what state is lead found ? 10. What is lead called when .found united with sulphur? 11. Where is lead most abundant? 12. Describe the process of roasting and smelting. COPPEK. 1. What are the chief qualities of capper ? 2. What is its weight and what its degree of tenacity ? 3. How is it proved to be capable of extreme divisi- bility ? 4. What are the uses of copper ? IKON. 167 5. What is verdigris ? and how is it made ? 6. What is the danger incurred by employing copper in kitchen utensils ? V. What are the alloys of copper ? 8. In what respect is bra.^s preferable to copper ? 9. Where is copper found ? and in what state ? 10, Describe the copper mines in Anglesea, and the manner of extracting the metal from the ore. IRON. 1. What are the chief qualities of iron ? 2. What quality does it possess in a higher degree than any other metal ? 3. What is its weight and tenacity ? 4. What are the different states in which iron is used ? 5. How is cast iron prepared ? 6. What are its qualities and uses ? 7. How is wrought iron prepared ? 8. What are its qualities and uses ? 9. How is steel prepared ? 10. What are its qualities and uses? 11. What is meant by the temper of steel ? 12. What is plumbago? and what quality makes it useful ? 13. What is the geographical situation of iron? and with what is it found combined ? TIN. 1. What are the qualities of tin ? Z. What are the uses of tin ? 1G8 FOUKTII STEP. NATURAL HISTORY. 3. How is it prepared for use ? i. How are pins tinned ? 5. What is block tin ? C. Where is tin found ? LESSON XXIV. A BEE. JFor Children from ten to twelve years old. DESCRIPTION OF A BEE. I. Mcaminatio7i of the Bee. — ^The children should be directed to examine a bee very minutely, and the following description, as far as it can, should be drawn from them ; and what they cannot observe, they should be told. The bee possesses a horny covering, which is harder than the internal parts, thus serving as an external skele- ton. The body is divided into three distinct parts — head, thorax, and body. The jaws are four in number — two up- per ones, and two under ones ; the under ones are length- ened, and form, as it were, a sheath to the tongue. The tongue is very long and slender, and admirably adapted for clearing the honey out of the deep nectaries of flowers, and also for curling up inside the mouth. Their attention should then be directed to the fact, that there is a mem- branous bag folded under the tongue. They should be told that this bag is capable of being greatly distended, and is used for receiving the honey before it is swallowed and consigned to the honey bag. The bee has four wings — two upper ones and two under — the latter are much more delicate than the former. It has six legs ; on the broad A BEE. . 169 surfaces of the hind legs are two small cavities, which have a covering or lid of hairs. The children should be told that these are used for containing the bee bread, with which it feeds the young, and which it obtains and pre- pares at the same time it is gathering honey, and that when the honey also is safely deposited in its appropriate place, the bee, quite loaded, flies home. The children's attention should then be directed to the eye ; but before speaking of it they should be shown a piece of glass, of the shape of a double convex lens, be told its name, and that in the front part of our eye there is a very small capsule, or bag, filled with a transparent fluid, which is of the same shape — that in passing through this the rays of light meet in a point, or focus, which causes the reflections to be clear and dis- tinct. When the children thoroughly understand this, they should be told that the eye of the bee is always im- movably fixed, which they might consider a great defect, but that full compensation is made in the numerous lenses with which it is filled, each, they will see, acting as a single eye, consequently the bee would not require to move its eye. The children should then be told that the bee ^vas not always in the same form in which they see it, but that it had undergone three changes ; that on its first appear- ance from the egg it was something like an earth worm, and was called the larva ; in the second change it is called a chrysalis, when it is quite torpid ; and in the third it is ^he perfect insect or bee. From knowledge previously acquired, the children will be able by this examination of the bee to state that it is a true insect, and also to give the three proofs : 1st. It con- 8 170 FOURTH STEP. NATURAL HISTORY. sists of head, thorax, and body, while some insects (im- properly so called), such as the spider and scorpion, consist only of head and body, the thorax being united with the head. 2d. It has six legs — whereas the so-called insects have never less than eight — such are the spider and scor- pion. 3d. The spider and scorpion, and all the so-called insects, never undergo the changes for which the bee and all true insects are remarkable. After having thus dwelt upon the particular group to which the bee belongs, the children should be desired to name the great class in which it is included, and also to give the reasons why so placed ; viz., the bee belongs to the class " Articulata," because, 1st. It possesses what may be considered an external skeleton in its horny covering ; 2d. Its body is divided into several segments, or parts, which are joined or articulated together. II. Habits of the Bee. — They are social insects, each individual working for the good of all ; they are remark- able for their great industry and carefulness, and for the instinct they possess, as seen in the construction of their habitations — a subject which should be taken up in a separate lesson. LESSON XXV. HONEY COMB. For Children from eight to twelve years old, CONSTRUCTION OF COMBS, ETC. I. Examination of the Comh. — Several pieces of honey comb should be presented to the children. On examining HONEY COMB. 171 the combs the children will discover that- they are chiefly made of wax, but not exclusively, being smeared over with a gummy substance. They should be told that this is called " propolis," and is obtained from the bark and buds of some trees, and serves to strengthen the combs. II. Examination of Cells. — Classes of Bees. — The cells should then be examined as to their size; the children will soon see that there are three varieties in their size. They should then be told that there are three distinctions among the bees : — 1st. There is the queen bee, who is the most important personage, and the mother of all; who, with the royal larvae, occupies the largest cells, termed " royal chambers." 2d. The male bees, who are a little smaller in size ; the next sized cells contain larvae that will produce these. 3d. There are the workers, or the female bees, which are the smallest kind ; eggs that will produce these are deposited in the smallest cells. III. Uses of Cells. — ^The children should then be led by questioning to tell the three uses of cells. By refer- ring to what had just been dwelt upon, they see that the first use was, to contain eggs. By asking what was done with all the honey that was gathered, they will give the use, to serve as storehouses for honey. By questioning them as to what else the bee gathers from flowers, besides honey, and what was done with it, they will see that the cells also serve as receptacles for bee bread. IV. Description of the Construction of Combs and Cells. — ^After all this is quite clear to the children, the man- ner in which the combs and cells are constructed should be described to them, stopping at intervals in order to ques- 172 FOUETH STEP. — NATUEAL HISTOET. tion them, that all may follow ; thus, The wax makes its appearance in the form of eight scales upon the bee pre- vious to the making of a comb. A bee ascends to the top of the hive, and attaches itself by the hind legs to the roof; another follows, and by its hind legs fastens itself to the first bee ; a third follows the second, and so on, till a long string is formed, the last bee of which also fastens itself to the roof, so that a kind of festoon is produced ; thiS festoon is filled up by many more bees : several such fes- toons are made in each hive. In this state the bees remain quite still, until the scales appear. A bee then se.parate3 itself from the rest, and by its hind legs removes one of the scales, which is carried to the mouth by the fore legs, where it is masticated and mixed with a frothy liquid, by which it becomes whiter and firmer ; it is then attached to the roof of the hive : the remaining scales are treated in precisely the same manner; and then the bee retires, making way for another bee. Thus they continue to work until the whole block is formed. Before proceeding to the construction of the cells, the children should be well questioned on the preceding; as;. How does the wax ap- pear ? — In what way do the bees arrange themselves be- fore commencing: the combs? — How is the festoon com- menced ? — What is the next movement of the bees ? — What process does the wax undergo before being attached to the hive, and what are the benefits ? &c., &c. The manner of constructing the cells should then be described, as follows : — ^As soon as sufficient of the comb has been made to admit of the work of excavation, a bee commences making a cell ; and as the comb increases in COVEKING OP BIKDS. 173 size, the number of cells multiplies rapidly, more bees being able to join in the work. V. Lessons of Instruction. — ^The children should next be assisted to draw lessons of instruction from what has been noticed respecting the bee. First, They afford us a striking example of industry and carefulness — They do not lose one hour of the sum- mer's sunshine, but are always busy gathering honey, and storing it up for the winter's use, when they cannot leave their hives — From this we should learn never to idle away our time in youth, but embrace every opportunity of lay- ing by stores of instruction, for our comfort in old age, when we are not capable of so doing. Secondly, The examination of this wonderful little in- sect should also enlarge our ideas respecting the infinite wisdom and goodness of God, who giveth one of his smallest creatures such powers as are not only necessary to its own well-being, but can also contribute to the com- fort of man ; showing that the very smallest, as well as the largest of God's works, demands our highest admiration. lesso:n^ xxyi. BKETCH OF A LESSON ON THE COVERING OF BIKDS, AND ITS ADAPTATION TO THEIR WANTS. For Children under twelve years of age. In order that the children should determine what is necessary in the covering of birds, refer to their habits, motion, and the element in which they move ; and from a 174 FOURTH STEP. ^LESSON XXVI. consideration of these, lead them to deduce the necessity for great warmth ; by comparison of the blood of birds with that of other animals, speak of the rapid changes of temperature to which they are exposed in passing from one country to another — in ascending and descending in the atmosphere. (Instance Vultures.) The vulture descends from the limit of perpetual snow to tropical plains in a few moments. Also, call attention to their long and sustained flight — the energy they possess in consequence of their quick circulation, which is the cause of the warmth of their bodies — and how their covering prevents it from escaping. Great strength combined with lightness. The children led to see why the feathers should be strong, by reference to the organs of flight. Why light and also smooth, by reference to the element through which the bird moves. II. Examination of the structure of a feather. — Chil- dren name and describe the parts of a feather : — the quill or barrel — the shaft — vane, or beard — the qualities of the quill mentioned : Lightness. — Result of form— ^a hollow cylinder much stronger than if the same quantity were made into a solid cylinder. Should be illustrated to the children by compar- ing the weight borne by a hollow cylinder made of a piece of paper, with the weight borne by the same piece of paper made into a solid cylinder. Strength. — Composed of two sets of fibres, one acting longitudinally, the other circularly — eflect of this — ^cut a quill as when a pen is made, and show the children that the latter set are scraped off, the former separated by the slit. COVEEING OF BIEDS. 175 The shaft examined and described. Lead the children to see how the form adapts it to the shape of the body — ■ speak of the manner of flight, and show the necessity of the groove and curve beneath, in striking the air ; and of the great strength above, necessary to resist the stroke. Yane^ or heard. — Examined — of what composed — shape of the barbs, and their position with respect to the shaft — their arrangement with respect to each other — why the flat sides are tm-ned toward each other, and edges upward and downward — a large unrufiled quill presented, and the chil- dren shown that the barbs are firmly held together — when pulled asunder, they again unite on being smoothed — how is this ? Mention with what each barb is provided — posi- tion, office, and use of barblets — call attention of children to the beauty of this complicated arrangement, by suppos- ing the beard formed of a single piece, or the barbs glued together — the consequence in either case? — an injury once sustained could never be repaired by the bird — how the bird restores any feathers unfitted for flight through the violence of a storm, by contact with prey, or other accident. (What has been said here refers chiefly to the feathers of the wing and tail.) Children led to see how admirably the structure and arrangement of the body feathers are adapted to secure the warmth required for the bird. The feathers of the body compared with those of the wings, and the class led to observe how each part of the former is modified to suit a diflerent purpose. Refer to the swan, to show the provisions made when great warmth 176 FOURTH STEP. — ^LESSON XXVn. is required. Direct attention to what are called warm sub- stances — they are non-conductors, and prevent the escape of heat — ^how feathers effectually accomphsh this for the bird. Arrangement of feathers in wings and tail — wind can 'scarcely ruffle them. Refer to the goodness and wisdom of God in the beau- tiful adaptation of structure to wants, and caU for a suita- ble text. LESSON xxvn. SKETCH OF A LESSON ON THE ADAPTATION OF FEATHERS TO THE HABITS AND WANTS OF BIRDS. For Children under twelve years of Age, I. The Owl — Habits and food. — Call the children'? attention to the habits and food of the owl. 1. Habits. — Nocturnal, passing the day in obscurity, but on approach of evening (ioming forth in search of prey. 2. Food. — Mice, and other small animals, which are naturally very timid, and likely to be disturbed by the least noise, therefore only to be approached with great caution. 3. Adaptation of plumage. — Refer to the noise usually made by birds in flying — how prevented in case of the owl ? Plumage of owl examined, and the children led to see that the feathers are soft, loose, downy, yielding to every breath of air. Wings provided with quill feathers, deficient in strength and elasticity. Children led to deduce the necessity for HABITS AND WANTS OF BIKDS. 177 this, by reference to the nature of the animals on which they prey. Exte^it of wings compared with the body. Children led to see the provision made to prevent tardiness of flight. The edge of the outer feather of the owl compared with that of a pigeon, or any other bird, for the purpose of showing how admirably they are modified to secure noiseless flight. II. The Kingfisher. — Direct attention to its locality and food. 1. Locality. — Inhabits the margins of lakes and rivers. 2. Food. — Preys on small fish. The manner of obtain- ing food described, and the children led to see the kind of plumage necessary to resist the action of water during its sudden plunges. 3. The kingfisher's plumage examined — adaptation of bright hues and metallic lustre shown. 4. Habits of owl compared with those of kingfisher, to show the necessity of a diffbrent kind of covering. What would be the consequence had the kingfisher feathers like the owl? III. The Duck. — Children called upon to say all they know of the habits and food, where seen, &c. Refer to the habits and food of duck — to the chilling and softening eflfects of water — and then lead the children to see the necessity for such covering as will resist these effects. Compare the different effects of rain on the feathers of a duck, and on those of a hen. The reason of this difference may be illustrated by ref- 8* 178 FOUKTU STEP. ^LESSON XXVIII. erence to the various ways in which oil is used where resistance to the influence of water is desired. Examine the plumage of a duck : use of thick, downy under-coat — to prevent the escape of heat from the body ; smooth, pol- ished outer feathers — to keep out wet. Habits of duck and kingfisher contrasted, to show the necessity of different modification of feathers. IV. The OsTEiCH. — Refer to the country where it is found — its food and habits — show that flight is not neces- sary — refer to the heat of the country inhabited by the os- trich — the kind of protection needed; and lead the children to see how the plumage is fitted to aflford this. LESSON XXYin. SKETCH OF A LESSON ON THE BEAKS OF BIBDS. For Children from eight to ten years of age, I. Commence by questioning the children as to the organ by which birds obtain their food ; how it difiers from our mouth, and how it is a substitute for teeth ; and draw from them all they may have obseWed as to the habits of birds, supplying information where necessary, and leading them to see- that some birds, as the swallow, spend their time chiefly on the wing, darting with short and rapid flights in every direction ; and some, as the duck, spend the greater part of their time in swimming ; others, as the heron, are seen standing generally in the soft mud in the neighborhood of pools and lakes ; some, as the hen, may be seen constantly scratching up the ground ; and others again, as the owl, stealthily flitting about at night. ON THE BEAKS OF BIKDS. 179 Question as to how all these are employed, and lead them to see that the difference of habits arises from the different kinds of food that they require, and the different elements in which they seek for it. II. Present the beaks of the several birds above men- tioned—Children examine them, and trace their adaptation to the wants of the bird. 1st. That of the Sicallow. — Thin — soft — very wide at the base, and coming quickly to a point. Why soft ? — In- ferred from the nature of its food, insects captured while on the wing. The necessity for the great width of the beak in propoi'tion to the size of the bird, may also be inferred from the difficulty of securing these insects in the air. 2d. The Duck's. — Broad, flat, and spoon-shaped, having a fringe at the edge of each mandible. Use of the fringe — Serves as a strainer. The reason of this shaped beak will be. seen by reference to its food — small fish and insects. To the manner of obtaining them — dipping its head under water and straining the mud through the serrated edges of its beak, and retaining what is necessary. 3d. The Snipe's. — Long and slender, serrated like the duck's. By reference to the food and habits, lead the children to see how this long and slender beak is fitted for entering the soft mud, and how admirably the serrated edge is suited for retaining the insects contained in the mud. 4th. The Hell's. — Hard, strong, straight and blunt. By considering the habits of the hen, lead tlio children to see the necessity for hardness and strength, from the frequency with which it comes in contact with clay, stones, and other 180 FOURTH STEP. — LESSON XXIX. hard substances, also the hardness of the food ; — the bird could not well pick up any grains without a hard instru- ment. Refer to the force with which it pecks, and show the necessity for bluntness — If sharp, would soon be worn away, and enter the ground by the force of the blow. 5th. The OioVs. — Sharp, strong, and curved. The ne- cessity for these qualities again inferred fi-om the nature of its food, — ^birds and other small animals ; it requires the sharpness and strength it possesses to destroy its prey and tear it asunder. Before concluding the lesson, require the children to state how the beak of each bird mentioned is suited to its food, and then draw from them the conclusion, that the beaks of all birds are suited to their habits and wants, showing the goodness of God in thus providing them with what is best for them. LESSON XXIX. SKETCHES OP A LESSON ON THE MOLE. — TO BE GIVEN TO CHILDREN OP TEN YEAKS OP AGE. No. I. — Intended simply for the Teacher'* s own use. I. Animal described. — The body in form cylindrical — Compact, and strong in the fore part. The snout elon- gated, terminating in bone rather than gristle. The eyes small, and sunk in the fur. No external ears^ but a simple opening concealed under the covering. The skin tough, and covered by an extremely close, fine, short fur — ^having no determined direction, but, like the nap of velvet, pre- senting a smooth surface, incapable of being ruffled. The ON THE MOLE. 181 limbs short— The front pair thick, strong, and muscular, ending in broad hands^ spade-like in shape, obliquely in* chned so as to make the inner edges the lowest part — ^The extremities of these organs, five fingers, scarcely distinct, but furnished with hard, flat nails — The hind limbs small, and the feet comparatively feeble. II. Habits described. — The mole subsists chiefly on worms, and the larvai of insects found in the greatest abundance under the surface of the earth, where the mole has its habitation beneath those miniature hills so frequently found in rich meadows, and cultivated fields. Its nest is of a conical form, carefully lined with vegetable fibre, and makes a most comfortable nursery for its young, which are reared with extreme care and tenderness. Leading to the nest are always several subterraneous galleries, furnishing roads of egress and ingress. III. Adaptation of the Organization of the Animal to its Habits. — Structure, and habits of the mole carefully recapitulated. From the peculiar construction of the front limbs, infer that they are essentially necessary in administering to the wants of the animal. Means the little creature has of ex- cavating the passages in which its food is to be found. Has no other, and needs no other than those spade-like instruments the nails, the extremities of which loosen the soil, and render it capable of being collected in the hands ; from whence it is thrown to the sides, and a little behind the animal. The nails, aided by the pointed long snout, admirably adapted for working its way in the earth, and detecting worms, grubs, &c. — directed to these by the 182 FOURTH STEP. — LESSON XXX acute senses of smelling and hearing. Little power of vision required ; little given. God makes nothing which has not some distinct end to answer. The goodness of the Creator manifest in withholding an external ear and a fully- developed eye ; — if given, sources not of pleasure but of pain, on account of their liability to injury from the mould in which the animal is constantly employed. Covering exactly suited to an animal destined to lead a subterraneous life. Thick, short, and incapable of being displaced, it does not impede the animal in its progress — Does not retain the wet and mud. Well might the* Psalm- ist exclaim, "O Lord, how manifold are Thy works, in wisdom hast Thou made them all. LESSON XXX. No. II. — The Method of giving the Lesson on the Mole is here Detailed at lengthy to show not 07ily what is Taught^ but how it is Taught. I. Structure described.— A specimen of the mole being presented to the children, get them carefully to observe and describe its principal organs., directing their attention by means of questions, comparisons, &c. Ask if they know any form which the body nearly re- sembles? — "What things having the form of a cylinder are said to be ? — What then may be said of the body of the mole? — "The body of the mole is cylindrical" — ^This should be simultaneously repeated and written by the teacher on the black board. Next, let the children compare the /t/r of the mole with ON THE MOLE. 183 that of some animal in which the hairs are scattered and stiff. Call upon them to state the difference, and if unao' quainted with the term that expresses the quality of the mole's covering, tell them that, " when things are made to he closely together, and so as to occupy a smaller space than they otherwise would, they are said to be compact, or compactly arranged " — Let this be repeated more than once if necessary. Inquire whether they know any manufactured article used in dress to which the covering of the mole bears a resemblance. The obvious qualities of the fur, such as short, thick, fine, will be quickly seen ; but probably not one child will discover that, like the nap of velvet, it has no fixed direction, and is incapable of being ruffled, until told to stroke the animal from the head to the tail, and from the tail to the head, and a cat in the same way — ^Then to state what they observe. The children should describe the fur, and the teacher add to the account on the board, " and covered by a fine, short, compact fur, which has no particular direction, and cannot be ruffled." Next ask. What animal has a head something like the mole? — When they had a lesson on the pig, what did they say of its snout 9 — How it terminated ? — Let them feel the extremity of that organ in the mole, and then de- scribe the head. " The head of the mole is small, tapering into an elongated snout, which ends in bone rather than gristle." — This should be repeated simultaneously, and writ- ten on the board. Other parts of the head named and described by the children — The eyes very small, and sunk in the fur. Should 184 FOURTH STEP. — LESSON XXX. the children assert that the mole has no ears^ tell them that it has no external ears that can be seen, but that it» possesses the sense of hearing to a considerable degree. Question — With what do they hear? — Touch their ears — Do they think they would hear were that flap removed ? — Not so well, certainly, but they would be far from deaf; for they have an internal ear^ and the mole has this also ; the entrance to which they may discover if they look care- fully. Add to the notes on the board, "The eyes are small, nearly hidden by the fur; there is no outer ear, but a simple opening, concealed under the covering." Inquire if there is anything remarkable about the limbs ? They are very short ; the front pair are strong and ijius- cular, terminating in broad hands. Do the hands remind them of any tool used by gardeners, ditchers, &c. ? Yes, they are spade-like ; when they compare the fingers of the mole with their own, what difference do they observe ? what have they at the ends of their fingers ? what has the mole ? Desire them to describe the front limbs, and say what shall be written on the board. " The front limbs of the mole are strong, muscular, and terminate in large, broad, spade-like hands, ending in five fingers, scarcely divided, and furnished with hard, flat nails." By causing the children to compare the position of the hands of the mole with that of their own, lead them to observe the oblique, downward, and outward direction of the former. Desire them to feel that portion of the body to which tho limbs are attached, and contrast it with the fore parts of a rabbit, that they may perceive not only that the arms are Btrong, but that that part of the frame which supports thorn ON THE MOLE. 185 is SO also. Question as to the difference observable between the front and hind Hmbs. The latter are small and slender, lying close to the body, the feet are furnished with claws, yet are feeble compared to the spade-like hands. II. Habits described. — Inform the children that the mole cannot endure more than six hours' fast without great exhaustion. That it subsists on worms and the sfrubs of insects, found in the greatest abundance under the surface of the earth. If the pupils are not acquainted with the interior of mole hills, represent to them on the board the galleries and miniature hills made by the excavations of the little miner. Speak of the lining of the nests of birds. Tell them that the nest of the mole is lined with vegetable fibre, and made a most comfortable nursery for its young, which are reared with extreme care and tenderness. That leading to the dormitory of the mole there are always several sub- terranean passages, dug out by the creature as means of going in and coming out. That he is an expert swimmer ; appears to enjoy the water; and requires to drink fre- quently ; and that there is usually a colony of these little miners in possession of one common passage to the nearest stream or ditch. in. Adaptation of the organs to the hdJAts und locality shown. — Let the children, with the assistance of the notes on the board, and the occasional uso of the ellipsis, recapit- ulate the description of the organization and habits of the mole. Ask them to what the first part of the lesson re- lated, and to what the second. Question them as to what connection there is bc-Vw^en the organs, and the habitjj and 186 FOURTH STEP. LESSON XXX. locality of animals. Require examples of animals having their organs exactly adapted to their mode of life. Ques- tion : What organ fits the monkey for its life amid trees ? What part of the bat is adapted for flight ? What ena- bles the hedgehog to burrow in the earth ? What organ do they observe varies most to meet the wants of animals ? Draw from them the general rule, that " God, who formed animals, not only fixed the bounds of their habitation, and gave them their peculiar propensities, but also caused that the one should be fitted to the other." This is to be re- peated. Question : Did they observe anything peculiar in the construction of the limbs of the mole ? What then do they expect to find ? That they are essentially necessary in administering to its wants. Where is its food found ? What means has it of getting at worms below the surface of the earth ? Have they ever seen men making sewers ? What implements had they ? The mole has similar work to do. What has it corresponding to a spade or shovel ? Desire the children to imitate with their own hands the position of the hands of the mole, and say if they were to throw anything from them, holdiiTg their hands in this po- sition, in what direction with respect to their bodies it would go ? What would be the consequence if the mole could only use its feet in throwing soil behind it ? Are the feet of animals ever used in any other operation ? Think of the monkey, the cat, the parrot. But the mole does not convey its food to its mouth by means of its hands. What other organ could it use ? What senses in the mole would they expect to find very acute ? Does it need much light in its underground work ? What sense would not as- ON THE MOLE, 187 sist it in discovering its prey ? What have they observed when animals have not required a sense or organ ? Re- mark : They see that God makes nothing that has not some distinct end to answer, some work to perform. Question: Do they see any reason why an external ear was not given to the mole ? If it had one, what must happen ? What must be the result of the dirt and dust entering into the ears and eyes ? Hence if bestowed they w^ould be sources not of pleasure but of pain. What shall we say of the Creator of this little miner ? He is indeed hind as well as loise. " His tender mercies are over all His works." Question : If they were to thrust a hand into some newly dug earth, how would it feel ? What kind of covering then would be the best for one living under ground ? How is the fur of the mole adapted to keep in the heat of the body ? What other adv^antage arises from its fineness and thickness ? In what direction does a cat like to be stroked ? What would be done by pressing the hand the reverse way ? When told that sometimes moles pass each other in their very narrow galleries, or in their passage to a reservoir of water, and that not unfrequently a single mole can only just move with ease along a newly- excavated road, the children will readily see the suitability of a covering incapable of being ruffled, and of a body compact and cylindrical. What do they observe in all its organs ? What said David respecting God's works ? Let us also say, " Lord, how manifold are thy works ; in wis- dom hast Thou made them all." The lesson to be recapitulated, and condensed into a simple summary containing the principal ideas. To be 188 FOUJiTH STEP. ^I.ESSON XXXI. written at home from memory, and brought the following morning.* LESSON XXXI. Two Sketches of Lessons on Fur. SKETCH I. I. WJiat it is, and how fitted for the clothing of ani- mals. — Pictures, or stuffed specimens, such as can be pro- cured, brought before the children, that they may be led to determine what fur is, and observe its great variety and beauty, owing to the difference in the color, length, and thickness of the hairs. Use to the animal. State to the children the changes which it undergoes at different sea- sons of the year ; in winter becoming thick^ close, and dbun- dant, and in some the color changing to white ; in summer partly shed, and much more loose and open. The reason for these changes — the modifications observable in the fur of animals inhabiting different climates — the adaptation to the requirements of the animals, manifesting the wisdom and goodness of God. II. Qualities. — Soft — formed of hairs, therefore said to be hairy — the difference between the skin and the fur — the one soft and flexible, the other stiff and somewhat harsh — in what way it is fitted for the wants of the animals of which it forms the covering — why we say it is warm ? Lead them to observe that it is neither hot nor cold to the * It is the design of this lesson that either the mole itself, or a stuffed specimen, should be presented to the class. If a picture is used, the form of the lesson must be changed somewhat to correspond. FUR. 189 touch, but that as it does not allow the warmth of the body to pass away, we say it is warm^ and so of other objects. III. Uses to man. — Made into muffs, capes, cloaks, caps, &c. The qualities which fit it for such uses — warmth, soft- ness, and flexibility. SKETCH II. I. Fur producing countries. — ^These pointed out on the map, as Hudson Bay Company's territory ; Russian Amer- ica ; Siberia, the most important — the wild, dreary, and desolate character of these countries — the animals inhabit- ing them alone rendering them of any commercial import- ance — refer especially to the Hudson Bay Company's terri- tory ; the extent and character of their possessions ; the time and manner of establishment ; the factories and their situations. (All this described to the children.) n. Hunting season and hunters. — Hunting season — why at a particular time ? Question here as to the changes necessary in clotuing on the approach of winter ; and lead the children to see, that as this is the season when animals require most warmth, so it is the season when fur is the thickest; hence the time when it is most valuable, and hence also the hunting season. Speak of hunters, and the preparation for hunting — qualities of a good hunter — cau- tious in disturbing, dexterous, and fertile in invention, bold and courageous in attacking and securing — why are these qualities essential to a good hunter ? ni. Contrast Furs of Arctic and Tropical Regions. — 'Contrast the fur of animals found in northern latitudes with 190 FOURTH STEP. — LESSON XXXI. those met with m the tropics and warmer regions : in the first it is rich, fine, close, silky, and warm ; in the second, although beautiful in appearance, yet thin and scattered, neither adapted for warmth, comfort, nor general use — contrast northern and tropical climates, to lead the children to see the necessity for this difierence of covering — show that the difierence in fur of northern and tropical climates, arises from the same cause as that which marks a diflference in the fur of the same animals at difierent seasons — a beau- tiful evidence of design in the seal — inhabiting the arctic regions, great warmth necessary — under the skin of the common seal a thick layer of fat; in the fur seal no such layer found, but the animal is covered with a rich, curly, silky down, among which is scattered long coarse hair — the uses to which this fur is applied — the preparation it un- dergoes, and beauty of its appearance. IV. Uses to marij and qualities which render it useful. Enumeration of uses to which fur is applied, and the chil- dren led to observe the qualities which render it so exten- sively useful. (The children are supposed to have been previously made acquainted with fur.) V. Processes which Fur undergoes to fit it for use. 1. The state in which the skins are received by the furrier. 2. Cleansing — use of saw-dust — efiect — state of skin — diflference between the skin of arctic and tropical animals- manner in which it is softened and made thinner — prepara- tions for making it up into the articles required — laid in the saw-dust — why ? — effect — advantages taken of the pli- ability of the skin in this state. THE PIG. 191 3. Dyeing — how the appearance of the darker furs is obtained in this operation — difference between the dyeing of the fur seal and beaver, and that of other animals — the simplicity of the first operation — tedium of the second, and skill necessary for the performance. LESSON XXXII. THE PIG. I. Get the children to name the parts of the pig, and give a description of each — as its head, small and tapering — its ears, large and flat, hanging down on each side of its head like two flaps — its eyes, small, round, and sleepy-look- ing — the snout, which connects the nostrils and the mouth, is large and armed with strong teeth, and terminates in a hard, gristly substance — the neck, short and thick — the body, cylindrical, and covered with long coarse hairs called bristles — the legs, short and thin — the feet, cloven — the skin, coarse and thick. II. The habits of the pig spoken of — as that it eats all kinds of vegetable and animal substances, even in a putrid state; also, bran and meal, and, indeed, anything that comes in its way — its habits dirty and disgusting — it is fond of rolling itself about in the mud — why ? — to get rid of the vermin with which it is infested — and spends all its time in eating and sleeping — it never attacks other animals but in self-defence — it seems to know when a storm is ap- proaching, for it runs toward its sty screaming violently, and gathers all the straw into a heap to hide itself — the pig is subject to a disease from its gluttonous habits — it lives 192 FOURTH STEP. LESSON XXXII. for 18 or 20 years, and is found in almost every country of the world. III. Question the children as to the adaptation of its parts to its habits, &c., by comparing the one with the other, the children making the conclusions — the large ears, which flap about on a hot day and prevent the flies from getting into them and teasing the animal — does not require very strong sight — its small eyes are sufficient for the cir- cumstances in which God has placed it — also the long flexible snout, terminating in a ring of gristle, fitting it for grubbing in the mud for its food, and rooting up vegeta- bles ; were it furnished instead of this with a soft, fleshy mouth, the animal would not be able to do this without pain and inconvenience — the large, strong teeth, which help it in mastication — it is covered with stiff bristles ; were it covered with hair or fur, it could not roll about in the mud without collecting much dirt on its body — also, that its hard, thick skin makes it almost insensible to the blows it so often receives — ask who made the pig, and lead the children to see and admire the wisdom and goodness of God, in making all its parts so^eautifully adapted to their various uses. As the children are describing the parts, write the name and description of each on the board, that they may be aided when they consider the adaptation of the parts to the wants of the animal. The children should state this afterward on their slates. ON SOLUBILITY. 193 0]Sr SOLUBILITY. LESSON XXXIII. REMARKS. Lessons on objects may be followed by instruction on qualities with which the children are familiar. The following lesson will explain what is here recommended : LESSON ON SOLUBILITY. The teacher develops the ideas for which she afterward gives terms, by means of simple experiments. First she fills half full with water three glass tubes ; she then adds to one a pinch of Epsom salts, to another a few grains of sugar, to the third some powdered marble, and shakes each for a few moments. Teacher. — I wish you to describe the changes which have taken place in the mixtures. Pupils. — 1st. The salts and the sugar have disappeared. 2d. Melted in the water. 3d. Dissolved in the water. The marble remains the same. Teacher. — Right ; the salt and sugar have dissolved in the water ; the marble is not dissolved. Do you know what those substances are termed that dissolve in water ? Pupils. — Soluble. Teacher'. — What are those termed which do not dis- solve ? Pupils. — Insol ubl e . 194 FOURTH STEP. LESSON XXXIII. Teacher. — ^Tell me the names of several soluble bodies ? Pupils. — Sugar, Epsom salts, gum, salt. Teacher. — ^^fell me some that are insoluble. Pupils. — Marble, stone, wood, tin, slate. Teacher. — What has become of the sugar that dis- solved ? Is it destroyed ? Pupils.^No ; it is in the water ? Teacher. — How do you know that it is in the water ? Pupils. — We can taste sugar when it is dissolved in our tea, or in water. Teacher. — Would it be useful to give a particular name to a liqui'd that has dissolved any substance, in order to distinguish it from another that has not any substance dis- solved in it ? Pupils. — Yes. Teacher. — Such liquids are called solutions; what, therefore, is formed by the experiments made ? Pupils, — A solution of Epsom salts in water, and an- other of sugar in water. Teacher. — Is there a solution of marble formed ? Pupils — No ; for the marble would not dissolve. Teacher. — Does the water, or the sugar, or both to- gether, form the solution ? Pupils. — Both together. Teacher. — A liquid used to dissolve a solid is termed a solvent. What can we say of water ? Pupils. — It is a solvent of Epsom salts, sugar, &c. Teacher takes two equal portions of Epsom salts and places each in a tube, with equal quantities of water. One is left undisturbed, while the other is heated in the flame ox SOLUBILITY. 195 of a spirit lamp. The pupils are required to state what result they observe. Pupils. — ^The water that has been made hot has dis- solved the salts very quickly, and also in greater quantity. (The experiment should be made with the sugar also.) Teacher. — What would you say of the effects of hot liquids on soluble bodies? Pupils. — Hot liquids dissolve substances more quickly and in greater quantities than cold ones. Teacher. — This is generally, but not invariably, true. There are some bodies upon which cold and hot water has the same effect. Common salt is an example. Teacher makes another experiment ; placing two equal quantities of sugar in water, allowing one to remain undis- turbed, and shaking or stirring the other. Pupils to tell the result observed. Pupils. — The sugar in the shaken tube dissolves first. Teacher. — Try and explain why this is so. Pupils. — When the tube is shaken, every part of the solid is affected by the solvent which dissolves it ; but when the sugar lies at tho bottom, the water at the top does not help to dissolve it. Teacher then places a large lump of sugar in a spoon, and puts it into a tumbler of water, holding it near the top ; and then, placing the tumbler between the pupils and the light, requires them to say what they observe. Pupils. — Little wavy lines fall from the spoon. Teacher. — Can you tell what causes this? Consider what is happening to the sugar. Pupils. — ^It.is dissolving. 196 FOURTH STEP. — LESSON XXXIII. Teacher. — What, then, is being formed ? Pupils. — A solution of sugar. Teacher, — What becomes of the solution, as it is formed ? Pupils. — It is that which we see falling through the water. Teacher. — Right ; but why does the solution sink in the water ? Pupils. — It must be because it is heavier than water. Teacher. — It is so ; every solution formed by a solid in water is heavier than water. Knowing this, can you tell me why men swim more easily in the sea than in fresh wa- ter, and even more easily still in the Dead Sea ? Pupils. — Sea water is a solution of salt, and being heavier than fresh water, a man would not so easily sink in it. Teacher next places a quantity of common salt in a tube, and pours over it about twice its weight in water, shaking it for some time — then asks what has happened. Pupils. — Part of the salt is dissolved, and part is left — the water does not dissolve it atH Teacher. — You are correct ; water will not dissolve more than one-third of its weight of salt ; and when it re- fuses to dissolve more, it is said to be saturated. What kind of a solution is then formed ? Pupils. — A saturated solution. Teacher. — Water, as we have seen, will dissolve more of some bodies, as Epsom salts, when it is heated. If we were to heat a cold solution of Epsom salts, what do you think would happen ? ON SOLUBILITY. 197 Pupils. — It would then dissolve more salts, showing that it would not be saturated by the same quantity of salt as it was when cold. Teacher puts some powdered sealing wax into two tubes, and pours into one cold water, into the other spirits, and then shaking them, asks the pupils to say what differ- ence they observed in the two. Pupils. — The sealing wax has dissolved in the spirits, and not in the water. Teacher. — ^Is sealing wax a soluble or insoluble body ? Pupils. — It is both ; soluble in spirits, insoluble in water Teacher. — What kind of liquid is a solvent to sealing wax, and other resinous bodies ? Pupils. — Spirits. Teacher repeats the last experiment, substituting gum for seahng wax. Pupils. — ^The gum, contrary to the sealing wax, dis- solves in the water, but not in the spirit ; it is also soluble and insoluble. Teacher. — It is so ; but when no particular solvent is named, it is always understood to be water ; hence, in or- dinary language, gum is said to be soluble ; sealing wax insoluble ; the solvent, water, being understood. India rubber is an example of a solid, insoluble in all ordinary liquids, but soluble in coal tar, naphtha ; the solution thus obtained is used for making waterproof (Macintosh) cloth- ing, by employing it to cement together two thin layers of cloth. The pupils then should be required to mention all the 198 FOURTH STEP. — LESSON XXXIH. new terms they have learnt, or any like them ; as soluble, insoluble, solve, solvent, solution, dissolve, dissolving, solu- bility, insolubility, saturated. Teacher. — Do you observe a resemblance in these words ? Pupils. — Yes ; they all, except saturated, have solve or solu in them. Teacher. — ^The meaning of that root, as it is called (for it is like the root of a plant, the part from which the other parts spring), is to loose ; it comes from a Latin word solvo^ to loose — ^the v being changed into u ; the word sol- uble then means, being able to be loosed, or to have parti- cles separated by the action of a liquid. What would in- soluble mean ? Pupils. — In stands for not, therefore it means not fi,oluble. Teacher. — I wish you now to sum up the various parts of the lesson, so as to connect the whole together. Bodies that are capable of dissolving a>re called soluble/ those not capable of doing so, insoluble. When we speak of a body possessing solubility^ W« say it will dissolve. A liquid that dissolves a solid is termed a solvent; and a solu- tion is a solid dissolved in a liquid. When the solution will hold no more of the substance dissolved in it, we say it is saturated. Teacher. — These terms are sometimes used metaphori- cally — that is, applied to what is of a different nature ; try and remember some examples. Pupils. — To solve a question. Teacher. — Which means, to take it to pieces or un* ON THE SENSES. 199 loose it. What similar use of any of these terms do you recollect ? Pupils. — Dissolution of partnership. Teacher, — What does this mean ? Pupils, — That it is unloosened; the partners are no longer united together. Teacher. — And what do we mean when we call death a dissolution? Pupils — That the body crumbles to pieces; its parts are all loosened or separated. ON THE SENSES. LESSON XXXIV. The children having been already exercised in determin- ing by which of the senses they discover the presence of any quality, may be led to consider more fully the senses themselves. The first two lessons are drawn out for the use of the teacher ; the substance only of the others is given. Teacher. — Do you understand how you gained the knowledge of various qualities ? Children. — By our senses. Teacher. — How do you know when a thing is red or blue ? Children. — By sight. Teacher. — How, if you were blind, could you form a correct idea of color? What other means is there of gaining this knowledge ? Children. — None. 200 FOURTU STEP. LESSOK XXXIV. Teacher, — ^True; and to ascertain this point, a blind man was once questioned as to what notion he had of scar. let ; he said he thought that it must be like the sound of a trumpet. It is obvious that he had no correct idea of a quality discoverable by the sight, and he could only com- pare it wnth one that he had acquired through the medium of another sense. Can you tell me the reason why persons born deaf cannot speak ? Children. — They cannot imitate sounds, because they never heard any. Teacher. — Since, then, deaf persons have no correct ideas of sound, nor blind persons of color, how do we ac- quire our ideas of sound and color? Children. — By the means of the senses of seeing and hearing. Teacher. — How, then, do we suppose our minds become stored with ideas ? Children. — By the exercise of our senses.* Teacher. — Yes ; and if you had once had the idea of a dog formed in your mind, by seeing such an animal, when a dog is mentioned you can recall the idea, and fancy one immediately, as if it were present; your mind wdll also perform tho same operation when a quality is spoken of, which you have previously seen in some object. Again, if you see a dog unlike any you have observed before, yoq compare it with the species with which you are acquainted, and mark the difference between them. If I say that \ * It is probable that children would not at once arrive at this conclii sion. The teacher must, in that case, lead them to it by easy questiona ON THE SENSES. 201 have some green paper, canoot you immediately conceive the color of which I speak ? Children. — Yes. Teacher. — ^Did you, then, exercise your sight ? Children. — No. Teacher. — How, then, could you have the idea of green ? Children. — We remembered it. Teacher. — By what means did you first obtain the idea ? Children. — By seeing something green. Teacher. — What power of the mind do you exercise in recalling an idea ? Children. — Our memory. LESSON XXXV. FEELING OR TOUCH. Teacher. — ^What part of your body is the organ of touch ? Children. — It seems all over our body. Teacher. — Tell me some parts that do not possess the sense of feeling. Children. — ^Our hair, nails, and teeth. Teacher. — ^And in other animals, what parts are found destitute of sensation ? Children. — ^The hoofs, horns, claws, feathers, wool, hair, &c. Teacher. — What other word do we use to express the presence of sensation ? Children. — Sensibility. 9* 202 FOJRTU STEP. LESSOX XXXV. Teacher. — What word would you use to express the absence of sensation ? What syllable prefixed to a word gives it a negative meaning ? Children. — hi. Teacher. — Well, what word will express the absence of sensation ? Children. — Insensibility. Teacher. — The parts then that you have named are insensible, and, with the exception of these, the sense of feeling exists everywhere throughout the body ; but what part of it is particularly adapted, by its form, to become the organ of the sense ? Children. — The hand. Teacher. — Tell me what qualities we can discover in objects by this sense ? Children. — That they are hard, soft, rough, smooth, long, short, sharp, blunt, round, square, cylindrical, conical, heavy, light, fluid, liquid, dry, wet, hot, cold, &c. Teacher. — By what general term would you express such qualities as round, square, conical, f a more uniform shape. It is then taken from the hoop, laid on a moist slab, and rolled with a smooth board until it is of the proper shape ; the required length is given it by cutting off" the rough end. GKASSHOPPEB. 287 LESSON XXXIX. GRASSHOPPER. Natural History. — Grasshoppers are well known in- sects, remarkable for possessing in an almost equal degree the powers of flying and leaping. The body is thin, long, and flattened at the sides ; the legs are six in number, the hinder ones being much larger than the others, and longer than the body. Each hind leg consists of three distinct parts — the ihigh, the shank, and the foot ; these legs are not used in walking, but are only employed in leaping. When the animal wishes to leap, it draws the feet of the hind legs close to that part of the thigh that joins the body, the joint uniting the thigh and shank being bent to a very sharp angle, high above the back of the insect ; the various joints of the leg are then suddenly and pow- erfully straightened, and the foot forcibly striking the ground, the animal is propelled high into the air. The wings of the perfect insect are thin and membra- nous ; when at rest they are not observed, as they are folded up in a fan-like form under narrow wing-cases. The chirping noise made by the insect is caused by the rubbing of the thighs of the hind legs against the horny wing covers. The appetite of these insects is vora- cious ; they feed entirely on vegetable substances. The eggs of the female are deposited in the ground, and the young hatched from them resemble the old ones in appearance; but they are not furnished with either wings or wing-covers, consequently they are unable to fly 288 FIFTH STEP. SHELLS. or cliirp. After some time these parts grow, and the young one is changed into the perfect insect. SH£LLS. General Observatiotis on Shells. The substances known as shells are the natural cover- ings of certain animals, which are distinguished by the absence of any internal framework or skeleton ; by having cold and colorless blood; by their senses baing usually but slightly developed; and by their being soft, fleshy, and cold to the touch ; animals of this kind ar^ termed molluscous, from two Latin words signifying soft flesh; some of them, as the common slug, are destitute of any shelly covering. The number of distinct shells which have been de- scribed is upward of fifteen thousand. Shells consist chiefly of chalk or carbonate of lime, ■Which is cemented into a mass by animal matter ; the in- ner surface of each is lined by a part of the skin of the animal, which has the power of secreting or forming the substance of the shell ; and, as-the animal grows, is con- stantly enlarging it, by adding new shell at the edges, or around the mouth of the opening ; this skin has also the power of repairing any injury that may have occurred, by- forming new shell at the injured part. Shells are interesting to us, not only on account of their beauty and durability, but also from the evident in- stances of design they afford, and from the creative wisdom displayed in their formation ; those which are exposed to SHELLS. 289 the dashing of the waves on the shore, or to the torrents of rapid rivers, are often of almost impenetrable hardness, as in the periwinkle ; others, like the common snail, not exposed to violence, are thin and light, so that they may be readily borne by the inhabitant ; every shell offer strik- ing proofs of design and fitness in its adaptation to the ani- mal's station and habits. Shells, and their inhabitants, are of direct use to man in numerous instances ; the animals in many cases furnish very nutritious articles of food. Shells are often burned for the sake of the lime they yield ; others are employed in an unburued state as valuable manure ; and some kinds are used as a substitute for gravel in garden and park walks. To the natives of savage countries they are espe- cially valuable ; the sharp edges of broken pieces being used as substitutes for knives, and for forming arrow and spear heads ; they are also formed into fish hooks, and used as vessels for holding liquids. Over a large extent of Africa a small shell, the money cowry, passes instead of money, being taken in exchange for goods and labor in the same manner as coins are in civilized countries ; the value, however, of each shell is very small, a string of forty being not worth more than from one cent to four cents. About 1,000 tons of money cowries are annually imported into England from India, being employed by English traders in the purchase of goods from the natives on the west coast of Africa. In China, a thin, semi-transparent shell is used as a sub- stitute for glass in glazing windows in the junks, and for lanterns. 13 290 FIFTH STEP. — SHELLS. Vast numbers of several distinct species of foreign shells are used in the manufacture of cameos for brooches and other ornaments. These are formed from univalve shells, which consist of several layers of different colors. The engraver cuts away the outer layers, so producing the pattern or design required. Cameos are chiefly made in Paris, where upward of 100,000 shells are used annually. A large proportion of the cameos made in France are sent to England, and are mounted as brooches at Birmingham, and then exported to America and the colonies. In 1856 there were imported into England unmounted cameos of the declared value of 6,683/. Shells, for the convenience of arrangement, are ar- ranged into three groups — those formed of one piece, or valve, are termed univalves, as the snail, whelk, &c. ; those formed of two valves, united by a hinge, are termed bi- valves, as the oyster, mussel, &c, ; and those formed of several pieces are termed multivalves ; the latter, however, are not so abundant as the first two divisions. Univalve Shells. — A univalve shell is usually formed of several hollow whorls, which are coiled round so as to form the spire, the largest and last formed being termed the bod^ whorl / the entrance into the shell is termed the mouthy its two sides the lips ; where the spire ends is termed the point, or top of the shell; its opposite extrem- ity the base; many shells, as that of the whelk, have a projection at the bottom of the mouth ; this is called a beak ; it frequently contains a canal, into which the trunk of the living animal is received. When an animal inhabit- ing a univalve shell is full grow , the body whorl and SNAIL. 291 mouth are often ranch altered in form, and frequently so much enlarged as entirely to overspread and conceal the spire and other parts, — this happens in the cowries, the spotted and striped varieties of which are frequently seen ornamenting our sitting rooms. The animals inhabiting univalve shells are much more complicated in their formation than those of the bivalves ; they have a distinct head, which is generally furnished with organs termed feelers ; they also possess the sense of sight, and are furnished with a broad fleshy foot on which they crawl. LESSON XL. SNAIL. Natural History. — Snails, of which many distinct kinds are found in this and other countries, are univalves, of a conical form, with a large swelling body whorl, a smooth surface destitute of spires or projections, and a roundish mouth without a beak ; the shell is thin and light ; at tbe same time it is possessed of considerable strength j the animals are furnished with four feelers, the two upper are the longer, and carry at their ends two eyes, which appear like dark spots ; the means by which these feelers are pro- truded and drawn in at the will of the animal are particu- larly interesting; each feeler may be compared to the linger of a glove, the inside of which has a string sewn to the tip ; the effect of pulling the string would be to turn in the finger of the glove, beginning at the extremity ; precisely this contrivance exists in the feeler of the snail, 292 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON XL. which, however, possesses what does not exist in the glove, — a series of circular rings like fibres surrounding it at every part, by the contraction of which, in their proper order, the feeler is again turned out or protruded. The eggs of the snail are large for the size of the animal ; they are white, and resemble berries in appearance ; they are deposited in June. Its food consists entirely of vegetable substances ; dur- ing winter, or the extreme drought of summer, or at any time when their natural food is not to be obtained, they close the mouth or opening of the shell with a thin lid of hardened slime, and become torpid ; if put into a box they will fix themselves to the sides and remain in a dormant state for years, reviving, however, immediately if moist- ened. By this beneficent contrivance these animals are not only enabled to abstain from food during winter, but when extreme dryness in summer has parched up the vegetables on which they live, they have the power of be- coming dormant, whilst the same refreshing shower that restores the green herbage, calls back to life those animals whose food it forms. Various kinds of snails ha\^been used as food ; a large species, with a shell of a whitish color, with brown bands, was eaten by the Romans, and is now used for food in many parts of Europe. The common garden snail has been used sometimes in soup prepared for consumptives. Snails form the favorite food of many birds, especially those of the thrush kind, and they are also eaten by other animals. LIMPET. 293 LESSON XLI. LIMPET. Natural History, — ^The shell of the limpet is remark- able for its form, being conical without and concave with- in, and destitute of the spirally twisted whorls that are usually found in univalve shells. The animal is furnished with a pair of feelers, with eyes, and a hard, firm mouth, having a long tongue covered with minute hooks for rasp- ing down the sea-weeds on which it feeds ; it has a broad fleshy foot, with which it fixes itself immovably to rocks and stones when left uncovered by the tide ; this it effects by drawing up the foot in such a manner as to form a vac- uum in the interior, when the weight of the air and water firmly presses down the shell, on the same principle that one may attach a key to his tongue. This simple contri- vance, and the conical form of the shell, enable it to with- stand the violence of the waves that dash against the rocks; and thus this little animal from within its stony castle bids defiance to the storm, and magnifies the good- ness of Him who made it. In Scotland the limpet is frequently used for food, and the liquid obtained by boiling it is, when mixed with oat- meal, much esteemed. LESSON^ XLII. PERIWINKLE. Natural History. — ^The shell of the periwinkle, al- 294 FIFTH STEP. ^LESSON XTJII. though apparently resembling that of the snail, differs in several important particulars, as might be expected from the fact that one animal inhabits the land, while the other is exposed to the violence of the waves on the sea-shore ; the shell of the snail is thin, light, and delicate ; that of the periwinkle exceedingly thick and of uncommon strength, so that it will frequently support the weight of a person standing on it without bemg crushed ; in form the shell is more pointed than that of the common garden snail, — it consists of five or six rounded w^horls, the body whorl being larger than all the others; attached to the animal is a horny lid, with which it is able to. close the opening of the shell when it retreats within it. The ani- baals inhabiting these shells differ also very considerably, — one breathing air by means of lungs, while the respira- tion of the other resembles that carried on by the gills of a fish. The periwinkle is very extensively used for food by the poorer classes of London, being eaten after having been boiled ; it is collected in enormous quantities from the rocks and stones, when they are left bare by the ebbing of tha tide. . ,j* LESSON XLIIL WHELK. Natural History. — The shell of this animal is formed of seven or eight rounded whorls marked with raised stripes, and is of a dingy white or brownish color ; tho mouth of the shell is oval, with a short beak and a canal at WHELK. 295 the base ; the spire is much more elongated than in the snail or periwinkle. The animal is not a vegetable feeder, but subsists on the inhabitants of other shells, especially on muscles ; it is enabled to obtain its food by means of a short trunk or proboscis, furnished at the extremity with a number of very small teeth, — with these it bores through the shells of its prey, and extracts the softer parts. The destructive powers of a kind of whelk proved very annoying to the builders and light-house keepers of the Bell Rock light- house, on the coast of Scotland ; they had obtained a num- ber of a large kind of muscle, and endeavored to plant a colony of them on the rock, for use as food and for bait ; the muscles were soon observed to open their shells and die in great numbers ; and it was ascertained that the rock whelk, with its proboscis, bored small holes in the shells, and sucked out the finer parts of the body of the muscle, which, of course, perished; it was remarked that the whelk always bored the thinnest part of the muscle shell, and that the hole was beautifully smooth and circular. As the muscles were of great importance to the men, they endeav- ored to destroy their enemies ; but these were so numer- ous that all their efforts were in vain, and in three years the muscles were all extirpated. Whelks furnish but indifferent food for man, as they are hard and indigestible; they are, however, liked by some persons, and are constantly sold in the streets of London and other places ; by fishermen they are largely employed as bait. 296 FIFTH STEP. — ^LESSON XLIV. LESSON XLIV. SHELLS OF TWO PIECES, OR BIVALVKi The two pieces, or valves, of which these shells ar< formed, are united, at the part called the hinge, by an elastic ligament, which keeps the shell open ; but the ani- mal, by means of one or more strong muscles, or white fibrous contractile bands, which are attached inside the valves, and pass from one to the other, can close them at pleasure. At the hinge are often small prominences; these are called teeth, and the points of the valves over the hinge are called beaks. The animals inhabiting these shells differ much from those of the univalves ; they have no distinct head, and consequently do not possess either eyes or feelers ; their mouth is merely a small aperture, destitute of teeth ; they breathe by means of gills ; these gills in the oyster are the parts familiarly known as the beard, — when examined by a microscope, they are found to be covered with minute bodies called cilia, in shape like hairs, which, by their constant motion, cause currents in the water that carry food to the mouth of the animal. Some of these animals are furnished with feet, by which they crawl ; others, like the muscle, anchor them- selves by a cable of small fibres, while a third set, as the oyster, cement themselves to rocks, and are incapable of moving from place to place. MUSCLK. 297 LESSON XLV. MUSCLE. Katural History. — The shell of the muscle consists of two valves of equal size, and similar oval shape, pointed at the beaks ; their color is brown externally, but when freed from the outer layer, and polished, of a beautiful deep blue, the inside pearly white, but bluish towards the edges. The animals have the power of moving from place to place by means of a tongue-shaped foot, which they push out of the shell to some distance, and withdraw again ; when they wish to move, they place the shell erect on its edge, and stretch out the foot, — this, being sticky, adheres to the ground, and, when shortened, pulls the shell forward ; in this way the muscle moves along until it finds a convenient place of residence, when it forms a bundle of fine silky threads, one end of which it fastens to the rock, while the other is attached to the animal ; thus it remains securely anchored. Muscles are found on the coast of England in immense numbers, in beds which are uncovered at low water ; wo- men and children tear them away with iron hooks from the rocks and stones to which they are attached, and sell them as they are thus collected ; but in France they are fattened as oysters are in this country. The muscle is largely used for food, being eaten either plainly boiled or pickled ; it is a rich, and, when in season, not an unwholesome food ; in the summer, however, it is apt to disagree with many persons ; this was long thought 13* 298 I'nn'H step. — i.ksson xt.vi. to be owing to a small crab, which is often founcJ in the shell with the muscle, but there seems no good reason for this supposition ; the muscle is much used by fishermen as a bait for cod, haddock, &g. The shells are also much employed for holding the gold paint used by artists. LESSON XLVI. MOTHER- OF-PKARL. Description. -Mother-of-pearl is the hard, semi-trans- parent, brilliarxt, iridescent substance which forms the in- ternal layer of several kinds of shells ; the interior of the common oyiter shell is of this character, but the mother- of-pearl used in the arts is much more variegated with a play of color, and the larger shells of the tropical seas alone have this substance of sufficient thickness to be use- ful ; the chief supply of the mother-of-pearl oyster shell comes from the coasts of Ceylon, the Persian Gulf, and parts of Australia- The play of colors in mother-of-pearl depends on its pecu- liar structure ; it is so formed that it possesses, even when polished, a series of fine grooves ^running over the surface; these reflect the light in such a manner as to produce the various hues seen on the surface; the furrows are too small to be distinguished by the naked eye, but may be seen with the aid of a microscope ; an impression of them may be taken with very fine black sealing wax, which will then possess, to a considerable extent, a similar appearance. Uses to Man. — Immense quantities of mother-of-pearl are used in the manufacture of small articles, such as but* BONES. 299 tons, knife handles, salt spoons, &c., • Harder than flint. < . . . . Emery. 10. ' ' . . . Diamond. The diamond is the only mineral of the highest degree of hardness, and is therefore used for cutting glass, &c., the natural edges of the crystal being employed for that purpose. K the edges artificially made by cutting a dia- mond are used, they are soon worn down ; consequently diamond rings are much injured if employed for scratching glass. Weight, or specific gravity/. — The weight of minerals, and, in fact, of all solid and liquid substances, is compared with that of water as a standard, and is termed their spe- cific gravity, or peculiar weight. Thus, for example, the weight of sulphur is almost twice that of water, flint nearly three times, «fec. It is a more convenient and accurate mode of calculation to consider the weight of water as ex- pressed by ],000; that of sulphur would then be 1,980; flint, 2,700. These numbers are termed the specific gravi' ties of these substances. In the following list, the specific gravity of several of the most common mineral substances is given : Water, 1,000 Coal, .... 1,200 to 1,500 Clay, 1,800 to 2,700 Sulphur, .... 1,980 Rock salt, .... 2,250 Granite, .... 2,000 MINERALS. 345 Limestone, .... 2,250 to 2,500 Chalk, .... 2,500 Slate, ..... 2,750 Flint, .... 2,700 Emery, ..... 4,000 The specific gravity of water being taken at 1,000 gives peculiar facilities for ascertaining the weight of any substance, as it so happens that one cubic foot of water weighs almost exactly 1,000 ounces. It follows that the specific gravity of any substance gives the actual weight of a cubic foot in ounces, sufiiciently accurate for all prac- tical purposes. Thus, for example, the specific gravity of granite being 2,600, a cubic foot of it will weigh 2,600 ounces, or 1Q2^ lbs. ; a cubic foot of clay, in like manner, 2,000 ounces, or 125 lbs., &c., &c. Those minerals which are five times heavier than water are mostly metallic ores, as lead or galena ore, &c. The following table shows the number of cubic feet in one ton of the undermentioned minerals: Sand, . . . . 23|^ cubic feet. Gravel, 21| " Granite, . . . . 13 1- " Marble, 13 Chalk, .... 13 " Form. — By far the larger number of minerals are nat- urally formed in determined shapes, called crystals ; when this is not the case, they are termed massive. Minerals, whether crystalline or massive, have usually a certain inter- nal arrangement of their particles, which causes them, 15* 346 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXIX. when broken, to separate in some directions more readily than in others. This is termed their cleavage ; for ex- ample, rock salt and lead ore invariably break up into cubes, &c. When broken by a blow, minerals exhibit several varie- ties on the broken surface. This is termed their fracture^ and should not be confounded with the forms into which they cleave. LESSON LXIX. LIME. The substance called Ume is never found pure in nature, Otving to its great affinity for carbonic acid * and for water. All the earths of which lime forms the basis are called cal- careous. \ It is the most universally diffused of all sub- stances, and one of the most abundant ; it is computed that it constitutes -one eighth of the crust of the earth. In this distribution we have great cause to admire the wise and good providence of the Creator, as the utility of lime in various arts, in agriculture, in manufactures, and in medi- cine is very great. Lime, united with carbonic acid, forms common limestone, chalk, marble, &c. ; with sulphuric acid, it constitutes gypsum or alabaster ; and with fluoric acid, fluor or Derbyshire spar. These are its most interesting * Carbon is charcoal in its purest and colorless state ; it is most abun- dant in the vegetable kingdom, and is chiefly obtained from wood. The diamond is the only pure carbon that is known. United with oxygen, car bon forms carbonic acid. f Calcareous, from the Latin calx^ lime. LIME. 347 combinations with mineral substances. It enters also into the composition of animal matter, as shells, bones, and the hard coverings of insects ; our bones contain eight parts in ten of Ume ; and the shells of birds' eggs, nine parts in ten. Pure lime is procured from chalk, or limestone, by means of burning. Alternate layers of calcareous earth and fuel are arranged in a kiln ; a fire being kindled, the carbonic acid and water become volatilized, and are driven ofi", leaving the lime pure. In this state it is called quick limey and is white, caustic, acrid, pungent, and infusible ; corroding and destroying animal matter. When water is l^oured upon it, it swells, falls into a powder, and gives out great heat. This last operation is called slaching the lime. The water combining with the lime becomes solid, and the heat is occasioned by its changing from a fluid to a solid state, for in doing this it parts with some of its caloric. The uses of lime are numerous and important. It is formed into mortar, the cement used in building. The lime being slacked, is made into a j^aste by tempering it with water ; to this is added sand, and sometimes chopped hairs ; as it dries it becomes solid, hard, and durable. Ex- amples have been known of buildings a thousand years old, in which the mortar is as hard as the stones which it unites. Lime is used as a manure, to loosen soils which are too tenacious, and to render them more friable and capable of receiving vegetable fibres ; it also hastens the dissolution and putrefaction of animal and vegetable substances, of which mould is chiefly composed, and gives it the power 348 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LXX. of acquiring and retaining moisture, so necessary to the growth of vegetables. Lime is also employed in the man- ufacture of sugar, to deprive it of a portion of its acid. Tanners use it in removing hairs from the hides, and cleansing them from fat and grease ; it is used also in bleaching, and as a flux in the smelting of metals. LESSON LXX. ALUMINE, OK ARGIL. This substance obtained the name of alumine from its forming the base of common alum ; and argil,* on account of its being the constituent of all clays, which are there- fore termed argillaceous earths. The distinguishing quali- ties of clays are, that they have an earthy texture, give out a peculiar odor when breathed upon, which lias been thence called the argillaceous odor; they adhere to the tongue ; are never found crystallized, but sometimes slaty; are generally opaque, and their weight is about twice as great as that of water. When tempered with water, most argillaceous substances become soft, tenacious, and plas- tic;! but shrink and harden by the application of heat. Alumine is never found pure in nature ; but it is considered to be the most plentiful earth next to silex. Common clay is a nearly equal admixture of alumine and silex ; it is found in most countries, and is very valu- able in various arts ; for these it is peculiarly fitted, as it • Argil, from Latin argil/a, clay. f Plastic, from irA.curo'-€iy (plasH-<;ongy loaf. Such bread is, how- ever, very indigestible, and produces dyspepsia. Linen and other cloth, steeped in a solution of alum and then dried, cannot be set on fire ; hence it is some- times used for making curtains and other fabrics incom- bustible. LESSON LXXIL EMERY. Occurrence, — Emery is found in shapeless granular masses, at the base of mountains, in several of the islands of the Grecian Archipelago. The chief supply is obtained from the island of Naxos, at Cape Emeri, whence its name. A considerable quantity, however, is procured from the neighborhood of Smyrna, the East Indies, and in some mines in Saxony. In Jersey and in England small quanti- ties of it are occasionally found. Properties. — Emery is a grayish black, or brown, opaque mineral, with a glistening lustre and an uneven fracture. Its specific gravity is ^tbout 4,000, and it is dis- tinguished by its extreme hardness, inferior only to that of the diamond. Preparation. — In order to prepare emery for use, it is first crushed under heavy iron stampers, then ground in steel mills, and mixed with water ; the coarser particles having been allowed to subside, the water is poured off with the finer portions; these after a time sink, and are collected for use. Sometimes the emery is burnt or caV KOTTEN STONE AND TRIPOLI. 853 cined for the purpose of enabling it to be reduced to powder with less labor. Uses. — ^The use of emery depends upon its extreme hardness, which enables it, when in a state of fine pow- der, to be used by lapidaries for grinding and polishing precious stones ; by cutlers, in finishing steel instruments ; by opticians, for polishing glasses, &c. Sprinkled over paper or stout calico which has been previously covered wuth a layer of glue, it forms emery paper or cloth ; this is much employed in cleaning iron instruments and arti- cles of domestic use. LESSON LXXIII. ROTTEN STONE AND TRIPOLI. Occurrence and Properties. — Rotten stone and tripoli are two minerals resemblino^ each other, in havinsc their particles in a state of very fine division. Rotten stone, which is found in considerable quantity in Carmarthen- shire and Breconshire, South Wales, and at Ashford, in Derbyshire, England, is friable. It is found mixed with pieces of black marble, and it has recently been ascer- tained that an acid existing in the soil, decomposes the marble, thus producing rotten stone. Tripoli is so called from its being first found in that country. The small par. tides of both are very hard ; and when the minerals are reduced to powder they are extensively employed m pol- ishing metal ai-ticles. Rotten stone is not found except in England. The 354 FIFTH STEP. ^LESSON LXXIV. amount obtained yearly barely equals 400 tons ; and the annual value is stated at about 750^. Tripoli is remarkable as consisting almost entirely of the shelly coverings of small animalcules, their length not exceeding: l-3500th of an inch. •o LESSON LXXIV. PUMICE STONE. Occurrence and Projyerties. — Pumice is a stone of vol- canic origin, which is found in large quantities at Campo Bianco, about thirty miles from the port of Lipari ; it is also abundant in the island of Vulcano. Pumice is a po- rous stone, sufficiently light to float upon water. It is formed of silky fibres, which are interlaced in all directions. In color it is usually gray or white. To the touch it is harsh, and, although brittle, is sufficiently hard to scratch glass and steel. Uses. — The use of pumice in the arts is entirely as a polishing material ; it is employed in smoothing wood, glass, slate, stones, marble, &c. ; by painters it is much used for rubbing down the roughness on old work previous to new painting. It is also employed in smoothing leather, vellum, and skins, during their manufacture ; and in some countries it is regularly used for smoothing the skin of the hands, and rubbing corns on the feet. In the East, the domes of temples have been built with it in consequence of its great lightness. SLATE. 355 LESSON LXXy. SLATE. Slate is a mineral substance ; it is never found crys- tallized, but generally of a foliated structure ; it is either of a gray, blueish, or blackish color, often streaked by a different tint from that of the ground ; it is opaque, dull, compact, and brittle. It consists chiefly of alumine, with a small quantity of silex. It is dug out of quarries ; when first taken fiom them, it is comparatively soft, but becomes hard by exposure to the air. It is used for writing upon, for w^hetstones, and for roofing houses. In order to ascer- tain its fitness for the latter purpose, it is weighed as soon as it is excavated, and is then put into water for some days ; if after bemg well dried it is found to have increased in weight, it is laid aside as unsuitable for the purpose, the trial having proved that it was porous, and consequently absorbent. Such slate would not only allow water to pass through it, and so destroy the woodwork of buildings, but it would also be liable to be covered with lichens and moss, in consequence of the moisture which it retains. If its quality is ascertained to be good, it is split into thin plates for roofing. The tiles are fastened to the rafters by pegs driven through holes, which have been previously made in them ; the edge of one is laid over the other, in the same manner as the scales of fishes. Slate which is dark-colored, compact, and solid, is the best adapted for writing upon. In order to prepare the slate for this purpose, it is ren- dered smooth with an iron instrument, and it is then 356 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXXVI. ground with sandstone, and slightly polished. That which is softer and more friable, is used for pencils. The principal slate quarries in the United States are in Vermont, 'New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. Quar- ries of great extent are also worked in various parts of the British Isles. The school slates, when split out from the blocks, are taken to the factory, where a man provided with patterns of the six sizes usually made, marks out upon each sheet such slates as it will make to the best advantage. An- other workman then cuts them out with a circular saw, made of soft steel, and they are dressed, smoofehed, and polished by a third. Before machinery was applied to these operations they were shaved out like shingles. The smoothing is finished by rubbing the slate with a rag filled with its own dust. The slate is now washed and is ready for the frame. Slates are either quarried by blasting, or, where practicable, by splitting them off with large wedges SILICIOUS MINERALS. LESSON L'XXVI. SAND AND SANDSTONE. Occurrence, — Sand is a substance abundantly distrib- uted, forming in many places the bottom and shores of the ocean, and not unfrequently the beds of rivers ; on the surface of the earth it often forms tracts of vast extent, which are usually termed deserts, such as those of Arabia and Africa. SAND AND SANDSTONE. Z5l Sand is also found in beds, or layers, alternating with other substances. When at the surface of the ground, sand forms that kind of country found in some parts of Europe, termed heath, which is distinguished by its sterile character and the nature of the plants (chiefly heath, furze, and ferns,) growing on it. When the grains of sand are cemented together into a firm mass, they form the valuable stone called sandstone, many kinds of which are found in this country, where they are extensively used for building. From the hardness of the grains of sand, they are also valuable as grind stones, mill stones, scythe stones, and from their porosity they are frequently employed in the manufacture of filters. The variety known as Potsdam sandstone can be quar- ried in slabs of any required size, and is much used for paving. Properties. — Sand consists of silica, in small rough grains of various sizes. When pure, it is white or color- less, but it is usually tinted by the admixture of other materials. It is perfectly insoluble in water, and infusible in fire. Uses. — Sand is a substance of great value. It is found in all fertile soils, rendering them sufficiently porous to allow water to percolate and the air to gain access to the roots of the growing plants, and it is frequently added with great advantage to heavy, clay soils. Pure sand, as before mentioned, is unfitted to the growth of plants. In artificial processes sand is used extensively; the whiter kinds are employed in glass making, the coarser in making mortar and bricks. From its infusible nature. 358 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXXVII. and the property that some kinds possess of forming a mass when firmly pressed together, it is used for making the moulds into which melted metals are poured in the process of casting ; and its hard, gritty nature renders it useful I'n cleaning and scouring coarse metal and other articles. LESSON LXXVII. GLASS. Materials. — The substances which form the basis of glass are sand, and one or other of the alkalies, potash, or soda. The purest variety of sand is obtained from Lanesborough, Mass. Other qualities are procured from various parts of the country. It is essential that the sand be perfectly free from colored impurities, otherwise the glass receives a tinge. Red lead and litharge are era- ployed in certain kinds of glass, as they are found to render it more readily fusible and tenacious when melted. They have, however, the disadvantage of rendering it softer, and, therefore, more liable to be scratched. In addition to these substances, small portions of manganese, arsenic, borax, and other minerals, are occasionally em- ployed to produce more ready fusion and to remove color, and, in almost all cases, a considerable amount of broken glass, or cullet, as it is termed, is added. In the coarser kinds lime is also used in place of a dearer alkali. The localities of the glass .manufacture are determined by the nearness to coal fields, and by the ease of obtaining the materials required ; for these reasons, it is frequently GLASS. 359 established in seaports. Newcastle, Bristol, and Glasgow, with Birmingham, are the chief towns in which it is car- ried on in England. It is also manufactured in different sections of our own country, particularly in South Boston, East Cambridge, and Sandwich, Mass. ; Brooklyn, N. Y., where flint glass is manufactured. The most important manufactories of win- dow glass are located in the southern part of New Jersey, about Pittsburg, Penn., and the river towns below and in central New York. Tha only manufactory devoted exclu- sively to plate glass, is at Lenox, Berkshire Co., Mass. Our best plate glass is imported from England and France. Preparation. — The materials, having been mixed in the requisite proportions, are made to unite together by expo- sure to a moderate heat, which is increased until they melt into a pasty mass, termed frit. The ingredients of flint glass, however, which are of the purest kind, do not always require to be fritted. The materials are melted together in large crucibles, or pots, as they are usually termed. These are made of the most infusible materials, and each pot is capable of holding about fourteen hundred- weight of glass. These are built into a dome-shaped fur- nace, with openings in the sides, corresponding to the situation of each pot. In about forty-eight hours after having been placed in the furnace, the glass is in a state of the most perfect fusion, and is ready to be worked into any desired form. Manufacture — As the mode of manufacture varies with the kind of glass, and the purposes for which it is 360 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LXXVII. designed, it will be described under the heads of flint, crown, and plate glass. Flint glass is formed of sand, potash, or pearlash, and litharge, or red lead, and is manufactured into the im- mense variety of articles required for domestic use, by the aid of a hollow tube and a few very simple tools. The ease with which it is worked arises from its possessing an extraordinary combination \)f properties, being excessively ductile and tenacious, and of so soft a consistency that it may be bent, blown, pressed, or extended, and, in short, made to assume any form which the will of the workman dic- tates. The tube is dipped into the melted glass, and care is taken that the quantity collected on the end of it, is suf- ficient for the desired article. The mouth of the workman is then applied to the other end of the tube, and the glass is blown into a hollow form, being either placed in a mould, or rolled, pressed, cut, twisted, &c., so as to assume the form required. No substance possesses in so remarkable a degree the plastic property. After the articles are formed, they are placed in the annealing oven, at a great heat, which is gradually diminished, by which means they lose that liability to crack in sudden changes of temperature which they would possess if cooled suddenly. Crown glass, which is ordinarily used for windows, is harder than flint glass. No preparations of lead are used in its manufacture ; it therefore requires a higher tempera- ture for fusion. The materials are sand and soda, or soda ash, with small quantities of borax, arsenic, and manga- nese ; these are fritted for about four hours. On melting the fritted materials, a quantity of saline matter rises to GLASS. 361 the top, which is skimmed off, and a considerable amount of broken glass, or cullet^ as it is termed, is added, and in about forty hours the glass is ready for working. The workman takes about ten or eleven pounds on the end of an iron tube, blows it into a large, hollow, pear-shaped form ; then, by pressure against a plane surface, flattens the part opposite the tube ; an iron rod, called a punt, is then dipped in the melted glass of the furnace, and at- tached to the centre of the flattened part, and the iron tube is removed by wetting the glass around it ; the soft yielding glass is now carried by the punt and exposed to the heat of a furnace, the workman twirling it round with gradually increasing rapidity, which causes the hole left by the removal of the tube to enlarge in size, and at length the whole flattens out into a plane surface of four or Ave feet in diameter, of uniform thickness, except where the iron rod is attached in the centre ; a lump is there formed called the hulVs eye ; the glass is then annealed, and each disc divided into two parts for the convenience of carriage. The dark green glass used for wine bottles is made without lead, and of the coarsest materials ; common river sand and soap-boilers' waste, consisting of lime and a small proportion of alkali, being usually employed. Plate glass is a very pure glass, capable of flowing freely when melted, without streaks or air bubbles. The materials forming it are the w^iitest sand, soda, small por- tions of lime and the minerals manganese and cobalt, to- gether with broken plate glass, the waste of previous operations. The glass, when perfectly fused, is poured 16 362 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXXVII. upon an iron table of the size required, and the thickness is regulated by the height to which the sides of the table are raised. Immediately after it is poured out, the rnelied glass is flattened by having a metal roller passed over the upper surface ; it is then annealed for several days ; after this it is ground perfectly smooth by rubbing two plates together with finely powdered flint and water between them ; each plate is again ground with emery powder, and finally polished by a polishing powder, applied with a woollen rubber. The process of the manufacture of glass beads is inter- esting from its great simplicity. Tubes of glass of the required color are made by blowing cylinders, which are drawn out while still plastic to the required length. These tubes are cut up into very short pieces on the upright edge of a fixed chisel. They are then stirred over a furnace in a mixture of fine sand and wood ashes, heated to such a degree that the fragments of glass are softened, and lose their angular and sharp-edged form. Colored glasses are produced by the addition of small quantities of various mineral ingredients to the melted mass. A small quantity of soot gives a yellow color ; pre- parations of copper a red tint ; blue is produced by co- balt ; manganese gives an amethyst ; green is produced by iron, as in the common bottle glass ; tin produces an opaque white, and gold an exquisitely beautiful ruby tint. Projyerties. — The peculiar properties of glass in a melt- ed state have been already alluded to. When solid, it is strikingly distinguished by its beautiful transparency, hard- ness, and freedom from porosity ; its lustre, which is so GLASS. 303 characteristic that it is termed vitreous ; its being insoluble and incorrodible by all substances in ordinary use, even the strongest acids; it is brittle when in thick masses, but when in very thin threads it possesses an extraordinary degree of elasticity, which, unlike that of any other sub- stance, does not seem impaired by repeated bending. Uses. — The uses of glass in domestic economy are well known. Its employment for making vessels to hold liquids depends greatly on its transparency and polish, the former allowing the contents to be seen, and the latter enabling it to be readily cleaned after use. Its employment as a ma- terial for glazing windows depends on its transparency and insolubility, which enable it to admit the light and warmth of the sun, while it excludes the wind and rain. Glass is frequently ground upon revolving wheels of sandstone, or pohshing slate, into small circular pieces, with one or both sides concave or convex ; in these forms it alters the direction of the rays of light which pass through it, either bringing them to one point or focus, or dispersing them. These glasses are termed lenses, and are employed in making optical instruments — as microscopes, telescopes, &c., and also for spectacles. It is our familiarity with glass that alone renders us usually so insensible to the great value and exceeding beauty of this extraordinary substance. 364 FIFTH STEP. — ^LESSON LXXVUI. LESSON LXXVIIL MICA. Occurrence and Properties. — Mica is a mineral xixu\ possesses the property of being readily split into exceed ingly thin layers, which are transparent, possess a pearl}- metallic lustre, and are flexible and elastic. The gHsten. ing appearance of granite, and some other minerals, is dut to the presence of small scales of this substance. It occurs in large masses in many parts of the world, especially in Siberia, Sweden, and Norway. -It is also found in New Hampshire, and some of the other States, and Canada, in sufiicient quantities to be quarried for economical purposes. Uses. — The transparency and flexibility of this sub- stance have led to its employment as a substitute for glass, particularly under circumstances where it is exposed to violence ; hence it has been used in Russia for vessels of w^ar, in which glass windows were apt to be broken by the concussion caused by firing the guns. As it is not altered by exposure to a very liigh temperature, it is not unfrequently used to form transparent doors to stoves and lanterns, and it is now largely employed to form covers over gaslights, to protect the flame from drauglits of air, as well as to prevent the smoke rising to and soiling the ceiling. GRANITE. 365 LESSON LXXIX. GKANITE. Granite is a ooinpound rock, formed by an aggregation of grains of quart's, felspar, and mica. The proportions in which these component parts occur vary much ; but felspar is the predominating, and mica the least considerable, of these ingredients. Ihe grains are also of different magni- tudes ; when they are large, the granite is of a very coarse texture ; but sometimes they are so small, as almost to give the appearance of a uniform mass. These circum- stances occasion a great variety in the character of granite. When hornblend occurs m the place of mica, the rock is called syenite, from Syene^ in Upper Egypt, where it was first known and quarried. Some felspar is liable to decom- position, and when this is the prevailing substance in the rocks, they yield to the effects of the weather, and become more or less of a rounded form; but when the granite is hard and close-grained, which is more usually the case, they rise in bold prominent peaks, giving grandeur and boldness to the scenery. Granite is found in most coun- tries where there are mountains of an}'' .'3onsiderable eleva- tion. It forms the flanks of a considerable portion of the Andes, and it may be traced along the eastrv'n spurs of the Appalachian range, through the Southern States. It is finely developed through South Carolina and Georgia. The Stone mountain of the latter State is a naked mass of granite, rising four or five hundred feet above the sur- rounding country, and is so steep that it can bf ^s^'^-^^^'^d 366 FIFTH STEP. ^LESSON LXXX. only at one point. All New England abounds in granite, but the most famous quarries are along the coast of Maine, and at Quincy, Mass. ; from the latter place it is exported for building purposes to the principal cities on the Atlantic coast, the Gulf of Mexico, and in the West Indies. Granite is valuable on account of its great hardness and durability ; it is used for building, paving, submarine works, mill stones, troughs, and steps. INFLAMMABLE MINERALS. " LESSOIT LXXX. SULPHUR. Occurrence. — Sulphur occurs native in the neighbor- hood of all active volcanoes, from which it is discharged in vapoi-, and condenses in considerable quantities in the gravel and ashes of the interior of the craters. At Pouz- zales, near Naples, the mixture of sulphur and gravel is dug up and distilled to extract the sulphur. The* gravel is then returned to its original place, and in the course of years becomes so far charged with sulphur as to serve the same purpose again. It is also found more abundantly in beds, as in Sicily, from whence almost all the native sul- phur of commerce is obtained. Sulphur, when combined with metals, forms minerals, which are termed sulphurets ; these occur in most parts of the world ; some of them — as the sulphurets of lead, SULPHUR. 367 copper, and zinc — are valuable ores, the sulphur itself be- ing burnt away and lost during the preparation of the metals. One sulphuret — that of iron — also termed iron pyrites, is useless as an iron ore, but of great value as a source of sulphur, containing rather more than half its weight. When this sulphuret is lieated in the open air, the sul- phur burns away with a blue flame ; but if it is heated in close vessels, half the sulphur it contains is driven off" in vapor. This is collected in a solid or liquid state in a cold part of the apparatus ; the residue of the mineral is con- verted, by mere exposure to the air, into green vitriol, a l^roj^aration of iron largely used in dyeing black and in making ink. The usual form in which sulphur is prepared is in cylin- drical sticks, known as roll sulphur, or roll brimstone. These are formed by casting it in hollow wooden moulds, so made as to divide into two parts longitudinally. Properties. — Sulphur is a mineral of a bright yellow color, nearly twice as heavy as water, in which it is quite insoluble ; tasteless, and w^ithout smell when cold, but odorous when rubbed or warmed : it is brittle, and a very bad conductor of heat, so that, if a roll is grasped in the warm hand, the outer part only becomes heated, and, in- creasing in size, is forced away from the inner portion, and the mass breaks. Heated to a degree somewhat above that of boiling water (232 degrees Fahrenheitt) sulphur melts, forming an orange-colored Hmpid fluid ; if the heat is increased, its color becomes a deep red, and it thickens to such an ex- 368 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXXX. tent tliat the vessel may be quickly inverted without its being spilled; if in this state it is poured into water, it forms an elastic soft solid, wliich, after a time, becomes brittle. Heated to a still higher degree, it becomes some- what more fluid ; and if in a close vessel, it boils away in vapor, which, by a greater or less degree of cold, may be condensed into a solid or liquid state. Heated in the air, it takes fire, burning with a blue flame, and producing a very irritating, poisonous gas or vapor. Sulphur has a great disposition to unite with metals ; this may be shown by carrying a piece in the pocket with silver coins, when the formation of a black sulphuret of silver rapidly takes place. The same result occurs if an egg is eaten with a silver spoon, as sulphur is contained in the yolk. Uses. — The uses of sulphur in the arts are of the high- est importance. The manufacture of soda from salt, dye- ing and bleaching, the making of leather, gun{X)wder, and congreve matches, are but a few of those manufactures which mainly depend on sulphur, or its compounds, for existence. The ready inflammability of sulphur leads to its use in the making of lucifer matches, which are first dipped in melted sulphur before the compound of phosphorus is added, as the latter, from its rapid burning, would be un- able to set fire to the match if unassisted by the brimstone. The same property leads to its employment in gunpowder, to which it imparts the power of igniting with the slightest spark. The poisonous fumes which arise from its burning are largely employed in bleaching silk in the raw state, isinglass, walnuts, straw plait, and bonnets ; it is also occa- PLUMBAGO. 369 sionally used in destroying rats and vermin when they have accumulated in ships and other close places. Its fusibility leads to its employment in taking casts from medals, coins, and similar objects, for which purpose it is used in its most liquid state. Flowers of sulphur, which are formed when the vapors arising during its distillation are allowed to condense in a solid form, are much used as a domestic medicine, and enter also into the preparation of vermilion and other chemical substances. Oil of vitriol, or sulphuric acid, an exceedingly corro- sive, poisonous liquid, is made by burning sulphur in furnaces constructed for the purpose, the combustion being assisted by the presence of other substances. Some idea of the use of this acid in the arts and manufactures may be gained from the fact that 300,000 tons are annually made in England, the value, at the lowest computation, amount- ing to several hundred thousand pounds. It is the most extensively used in the arts of all the acids, and is an important branch of manufacture in chem- ical works in Philadelphia, Newark, N. J., Roxbury, Mass., and other parts of the country. LESSON LXXXI. PLUMBAGO. Occurrence and Properties. — Plumbago, which is also "termed graphite, and black lead, occurs in many parts of the world ; large quantities are found in Ceylon, the East Indies, and several localities in the United States ; particu- 16* 870 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXXXI. larly at Sturbridge, Mass., Brandon, Vt., Fishkill, and Ticonderoga, N. Y. In England the most celebrated mine was at Borrowdale, in Cumberland, as much as 100,000^. liaving been realized from it in a year ; but the mine is now closed. Plumbago is of a dark leaden color, having a dull metallic appearance. To the touch it is very smooth; and when placed between rubbing surfaces, enables them to glide easily over one another. It adheres to substances on which it is rubbed, staining them of a dark color, and imparting its own peculiar appearance. It is perfectly insoluble in water, and is quite infusible in the fire ; but heated strongly, and exposed to a current of air,-it slowly consumes. Uses. — ^The purer varieties of plumbago are entirely used in the manufacture of black lead pencils, being cut up by fine saws into thin slips, which are glued into grooves cut in cedar wood. A method has also been devised of purifying the more gritty varieties, and condensing the powder into blocks, from which slices are cut that are as good as the best original specimens. The leads for pencils intended for the finest work, before being placed in the "wood, are heated, and then immersed in hot wax or suet. From the dearness of the finest plumbago, compositions of clay, with black lead and other substances, are substituted in the cheaper pencils. The harder pencils have only half as much graphite powder as clay; softer ones have equal parts of each. Tlie hardest pencils, however, are made of an alloy of metallic lead, antimony, and mercury. Common pencils are made of graphite powder, mixed with melted sulphur, and run COAL. 371 into moulds. Gum arable and resin are sometimes used as ingredients. A large quantity of black lead is employed in polishing cast iron work, particularly stoves and ranges, giving to them a uniform color, and concealing any rust they may have on the surface. Finely powdered, it is frequently used instead of grease to prevent the friction between rubbing surfaces ; hence it is not un frequently applied to wooden screws, &c., &c. It is also a valuable material for crucibles and portable fur- naces. It is sometimes adulterated with lampblack. LESSON LXXXII. COAL. Coal is of two kinds, anthracite and bituminous ; the former being the most condensed and the richest in car- bon. Coal may be considered as a mineral, both from its subterraneous situation and the qualities which it possess- es ; many circumstances, however, justify the now preva- lent opinion that it is of vegetable origin : the following are, perhaps, the most convincing. Carbon, which is the chief constituent of all vegetable matter, particularly wood, composes three-fourths of this substance. Coal is also found in the various stages of mineralization. Sometimes it possesses a completely fibrous texture and ligneous appearance, even the knots of wood being discernible, while the same bed produces specimens of perfect mineral coal. Some remarkable instances of this have been found in the coal mines of Pennsylvania ; the roots of trees 372 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LXXXII. were imbedded in fire clay, and forming the substance of them (which generally underhes the coal measures), while the trunks passed into the anthracite beds, and almost im- perceptibly from these into the bituminous coal. In some instances the bark only was converted into coal, while the woody texture of the interior was still plainly to be seen. In Ireland a standing forest has been discovered at the depth of one hundred feet below the soil. To this we may add the inflammability of this substance ; the numer- ous vegetable remains and impressions that accompany it ; and that it has never been discovered above the line to which vegetation reaches. These vegetable remains gen- erally belong to extinct species, and difler so much from any living species that they cannot always be referred even to the class to which they belong. Coal is of a black color, bright, and frequently irrides- cent ; the structure is slaty ; it occurs always amorphous ; it is very combustible, a quality which few minerals pos- sess. The places from whence it is taken are called coal mines ; they abound in diiferent portions of the world ; especially in the United States, England, and Belgium, and have contributed much to' the wealth of these coun- tries. Both the persons employed in the mines, and the vessels which transport the coals, are called colliers ; the place where the trade is carried on, a colliery. The access to coal mines is generally through a narrow, perpendicular tunnel called a shafts up which the workmen and coals are drawn by machmery. The mines at Whitehaven, England, are some of the most extraordinary in the world. The principal entrance is by an opening at the bottom of a hill. COAL. 873 through a long sloping passage which is hewn in the rock, and leads to the lowest vein or bed of coal ; the descent is chiefly through spacious galleries intei-secting each other, formed by the excavation of the coal, large pillars of which are left to support the ponderous roof. These mines are very deep, and are extended under the bed of the sea, even to where the depth of the water is sufficiently great to ad- mit ships of burden. In these mines there are three strata of coal, which lie considerably apart from one another, and are made to communicate by pits. Miners are frequently impeded in their progress by veins of hard rock called dylces^ and the coal is seldom found in a direct line on the other side of them ; to ascertain its precise situation is often a work of considerable labor and expense. Coal is generally situated at the foot of mountains, and in hollows, which vary much in extent ; it rarely lies much above the level of the sea. Several dangers attend the labor of miners ; the great' est is that arising from fire damp, which is occasioned by the hydrogen gas or inflammable air produced in the mine, and which, when mixed with atmospheric air, explodes with great violence if brought into contact with any lighted substance. To avoid this danger, safety lamps are used, which were invented by Sir Humphrey Davy. They are of a very simple construction, consisting of wire gauze so closely interwoven, that gas of sufficient quantity to cause ignition cannot enter them. Another danger arises from the formation of carbonic acid gas, or fixed air, which, being heavier than the common air, occupies the lower part of the mines, and occasions death by suflfocation. 374 FIFTH STEP. — ^LESSON LXXXIII. Coal is used to raise the temperature of rooms ; to cook food ; to supply the fuel for railway locomotives, ocean steamers, manufactories (particularly where steam is re- quired), and in the working of metals. Bituminous coal furnishes us with the gas so much used, which is the sub- stance called hydrogen, and exists in coal in union with carbon ; it is easily driven away or volatilized by heating the coal in a close place, and when caught and preserved, it forms the gas now used to light our streets and build- ings ; when this has been extracted from the coal, the residue is called coke^ which is employed where intense heat is requisite. Coal tar is also produced in the evolution of gas, and was for a long time considered useless. It is now used to protect iron work exposed to the weather, and by distilla- tion it yields paraffine, which is made into candles, and also the coal oil which we use in lamps. SALINE MINERALS. LESSON LXXXin. SALT. Salt is a mineral substance, beautifully white, sparkling, and crystalline ; it is soluble, fusible, granulous, and of a peculiar flavor called saline. It is a most beneficent pro- vision of nature that salt — the only mineral substance re- quired as an article of food by man and the higher orders of the animal kingdom — is almost everywhere accessible. There are several varieties of this useful mineral, which SALT. 375 are distinguished by the different situations in which they are found. The principal are sea salt, called also bay salt^ which is produced from the ocean ; the best comes from Portugal ; salt drawn from brine springs ; and rock salt, which is due: out of the earth. Amono^st the most exten- give salt mines hitherto discovered are those at Wieliczka, a picturesque little town situated on the sides of a gentle valley, about eight miles from Cracow, formerly the chief city of Poland. The traveller who visits these subterra- neous deposits of salt, being furnished with a guide and two lamp bearers, is let down a shaft of about 150 feet by a rope. At the depth of 90" feet he arrives at the rock of pure salt, which is of a dingy soot color, here and there glistening by the light of the lamps. The swing is now abandoned, and the ear is assailed by the busy sound of spades, mattocks, and wheelbarrows, in every direction. This is the first floor of a large cavern, containing in dif- ferent parts a stable for twenty horses, quantities of salt, some in bare masses, some in casks ready to be hoisted to the surface, stores of implements for the miners,