LESSONS 0]::^''t)'BJE,dts,
GRADUATED SERIES;
DESIGNED FOR
Cljitorm kMm t\)t ^tB at M'< u)i imxtm pars :
CONTAINING, ALSO,
INFORMATIOx\ ON COMMON OBJECTS.
ARRANGED
By E. a. SITELDOT^,
8UPT. PUBLIC SCHOOLS, OSWKGO, N Y., WTlUtU OF ELEMENTARY INBTKUCTION,
SBADINO BUOK AND ClIAl'.To, ET(J., ET(;.
NEW YORK:
SCRIBNER, ARMSTRONG *t CO.,
LB
l C'
Entered, according to Act of Concress. in the year 1863, by
• \^HAKCE8 hCUIBNEB,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, for the
3oBtLern District of New York.
EDUCATION UEI.*i'l'#
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PEEFACE
The fourteenth edition of " Lessons on Objects "
was published in London in 1855, under the auspices
of the Home and Colonial Training Institution, and
underwent at that time a thorough revision.
In this American edition many changes have been
made in the arrangement of the Lessons. Some
of the terms have been modified, others left out al-
together. A number of the lessons have been omit-
ted and others substituted in their place, and much
information on common objects has been added. In
the original work there were but few Model Lessons ;
in this, a large additional number have been inserted.
These have been taken from " Manual of Elementary In-
struction," '' Model Lessons," and '* Notes and Sketches
of Lessons," all London publications. The arrange-
ment of the Steps correspond to the arrangement in the
" Manual of Elementary Instruction." The first three
steps are designed for the first three years of the child's
school life, or for the Primary Schools. The fourth and
fifth steps are adapted to the junior or intermediate
grade, or for pupils from ten to fourteen years of age.
The Models given are designed to aid the teacher
in the preparation of her lessons, as suggestions in re-
54 1224
PREFACE.
gard to the proper method of arranging and present-
ing them, and not as forms to be implicitly or blindly
followed.
In cases where lists of the names of the qualities of
objects are given, it is not essential that the children
should be led to the discovery of all the qualities named.
As the object of these Lessons is to cultivate the
senses, to awaken and quicken observation, and lead
the children to observe carefully everything in nature
about them that comes within the range of the senses,
it is important as far as possible to give the children a
good deal of latitude, and let the discoveries be their
own, except as they may be guided in part by the
teacher. So that if they should leave out in their in-
vestigations some qualities named, and put in others not
named, it is not a matter of importance, provided they
are correct as far as they go, and accuracy of ohserva^
tion is cultivated. It should be added, that as the ideas
are clearly developed, the giving of terms to express
these ideas is d ^signed as a preparation for '' Language
Lessons," and to give the children a vocabulary by
which they are enabled to express the observations they
are continually making oir the objects of the external
world. Thus observation gjid language are both culti-
vated.
We cannot do better here than insert the Preface
to the Fourteenth London Edition,
PREFACE
TO THE FOURTEENTH LONDON EDITION.
When this work was first presented to tlio public, nearly tliiitj'
years since, the idea of systematically using the material world as
one of the means of educating the minds of children, was so novel
and untried a thing in England, that the title " Lessons on Ob-
jects " excited many a smile, and the success of the little volume
was deemed to be, at best, very dubious. The plain sound sense
of the plan, however, soon recommended it to our teachers, and
they discovered that reading, writing, and arithmetic, do not form
the sole basis of elementary education, but that the objects and
actions of every-day life should have a very prominent place in
their programme.
In spito of the ominous forebodings which attended the first
introduction of this little volume, the public has given a decided
sanction to the system of teaching it, and the degree in which it
has in consequence modified books for the young and the practice
of elementary instruction, can scarcely be calculated.
Successive editions of the Lessons have issued rapidly from the
press, hitherto without any alteration ; but it is now thought desira-
ble to profit by the experience gained by the introduction of such
a course of instruction, and to make a few changes and additions.
As the work is much used in institutions for the training of Teach-
6 PREFACE.
ers, the following account of the plan of the whole course is given
as a guide in the use of the lessons, and a help in carrying out the
idea. Those who fall into a mechanical way of giving such in-
struction, and do not perceive the principle involved, completely
defeat its intention, and they had far better keep to old plans and
old books.
The work contains progressive series of lessons, the prevailing
aim be"ng to exercise the faculties of children according to their
natural order of development, aiming also at their harmonious
cultivation.* The first series chiefly exercises the perceptive
faculties, arresting attention on qualities discoverable by the senses ;
and then furnishing a vocabulary to clothe the ideas, and so fixing
them in the mind, where they will be ready for reproduction when
the faculty of conception begins to act. The second and third se-
ries, in addition to this, exercise the conceptive powers in recalling
the impressions made upon the senses by external objects, when
they are removed from observation — also in leading from what has
become known to what is unknown. In the fourth series, the
children are exercised in tracing resemblances and differences, in
drawing comparisons and recognizing analogies, thereby cultivat-
ing the power of arranging and classifying.
In the fifth series, the reason and judgment are brought into
activity ; in tracing the connection between cause and efiect, be-
tween use and adaptation ; latfguage or the power of expression
is cultivated ; the ideas developed in the lessons of the previous
series are expressed either in simple words or short sentences ;
but throughout this series the pupils are required to put down
all the knowledge they acquire, in the form of consecutive nar-
rntive. This plan promotes fixedness of attention during the giv-
ing of the lesson, a clear apprehension of facts and truths, and
facility in arranging and expressing what has been acquired.
* See " Home Education," p. 198.
PREFACE. 7
An objection has been made to these Lessons, that thej put
fine words into children's mouths, and give them an air of ped-
antry — but the evil in reality is the effect of the ignorance that
has hitherto prevailed as to the properties of the most common
things by which we are surrounded, and the consequent poverty
of the poor man's language. When the love of knowledge is
excited, and the habit of intelligent observation cultivated, words
and phrases are required to define accurately what so often other-
wise remains vague impressions on the mind; consequently a
more extended vocabulary is requisite, and when no simple and
common words can be found to express (for instance, such very
important and common qualities as opacity and transparency),
the only terms our language affords must be used, and the reproach
of pedantry be risked.
Teachers making use of these Lessons are earnestly advised to
vead carefully the introduction to a series before they commence
the lessons which it contains, and to endeavor to understand, and
then to act np to the principles and aim set forth. They should
guard against mere mechanical work, or allowing this in their
pupils; the latter, after having heard a few names, will often,
without thought or observation, apply them indiscriminately.
Neither should the lessons be slavishly followed in all that is set
down ; they should rather be used as affording suggestive hints ;
and variety should be sought for — the children often themselves
indicate what their minds require.
ELIZABETH MAYO.
Eampstead^ July^ 1855.
CONTENTS.
Page
Hints on Sketch Writing 11
FIRST STEP.
Introductory RciDark ^ 20
Lesson 1. A Biskrt, for its parts 25
2. A Ne -dl •, fo;' ts parts 25
3. A Penknife, for its parts.. .26
4. A Chair, for its ])art.s 27
6. A Watch, for its parts 28
6. A Pig 29
7. APe ,cil 30
8. Milk 32
9. A Feather 33
10. Loaf Sugar 36
11. Fint 38
12. Woo! 39
13. A Piece of Bark 40
14. A Rook 41
15. A Pin 42
16. A Cube of Wood 42
17. A Thimble 43
18. AK.y 43
19. ACup 44
20. A Pair of Scissors 45
2L A Bird 45
22. All Orange 46
SECOND STEP.
Xntroductory Remarks 47
Lc«8on 1. India Uu'bcr 47
2. A Piece of Sponge 48
" 3. Whalebone 49
4. A I^iccoof Glas.s 51
6. A Piece of Slate 62
6. Leather 53
7. LoafSiigar 56
8. A P eco of Gum Arabic... 57
9. A Piece of Sponge 57
10. Wool : 58
11. Water 58
12. A Piece of Wax 68
13. Camphor 69
14. Bread 59
Page
Lesson 15. Sealing Wax GO
16. Whalebone 60
17. Ginger 61
18. Blotting P;iper 61
19. A Piece of Willow 61
20. M Ik 62
2L Rce 62
22. Sa t 62
23. Horn 03
24. Ivo ry 63
25. Oak Bark 04
26. U cut Lead Pencil 64
27. A Wax Candle 65
28. APen 60
THIRD STEP.
Introductory Remarks 68
Lesson 1. Chalk 68
2. Coal 70
3. A Match 72
4. A Rose Leaf 75
5. Hoiey Comb 78
6. A Butterfly 80
7. Recapitulaiion 84
8. Masi'acre of Children of
Bethleh<m 88
9. AQuill 89
10. A Penny 90
11. Mustard Seed 91
12. An Apple 91
13. Glas.^ of a Watch 92
14. Brown Sugar 92
15. An Acorn 93
16. A Piece of Honey Comb.. 93
17. Refined Sugar 94
18. A Gwk 95
19. Glue 95
20. Pack Thread 96
21. Honey 96
22. Buttercup. 98
23. A liady ISird 97
24. An OvHter 98
26. A Fir Cone 99
26. Fur. 100
27. ALaurelLeaf 100
CONTENTS.
Page
Lesson 28. A Needle 101
29. A Plant and a Stone 102
30. ABcll 103
31. AWheel 104
32. Camphor 106
33. Fire 107
34. An Anchor 109
35. A Balance HO
FOURTH STEP.
Introductory Remarks 113
LcSriOa 1. Pt'pper 114
2. Niiimeg 115
3. Mace.." 117
4. Cinuamoii 119
5. Ginger 119
6. Allspice 120
7. A Clove ..121
8. Water 124
9. Oil 126
10. Beer 127
11. Foreign White Wine 12S
12. Vinegar 129
13. Ink 129
14. Milk 130
Hetals.
General Obpervat'ovB on the MotalB.132
General Coiivcrsatiou on the Metals. 138
Lesson 15. Gold 139
16. Silver 143
17. Quicksilver or Mercury. .145
18. Lead 149
19. Copper 152
20. Iron 156
21. Tin 159
22. Comparison of Metals... 162
23. On Metals in General.... 163
Natural History.
24. A Bee 168
25. Honey Comb 170
26. Covering of B^rds 173
27. Adaptation of Feathers
to Habits and Wants
of Birds 176
28. Beaks of Birds 178
29. The Mole— No. 1 180
30. " " " 2 182
31. On Pur— No. 1 188
" 2 189
32. The Pig 191
33. Solubility 193
34. On the Senses 199
35. Feeling or Touch 201
36. Sight 204
37. Hearing 205
38. Smell 206
39. Taste 207
FIFTH STEP.
Introductory Remarks 208
1*
Page
Lesson 1. Glass 209
2. " 211
3. " 213
4. Introduction and Natu-
ral H.siory of Silk
Worm 214
5. De.-^crii)Uon of Silk Man-
ufacture 218
6. Descripton of various
fabrics composed of
Silk 221
Vegetable King-dom.
Remark;* 223
Lesiion 7. Cork 229
8. Canes 231
9. Charcoal 232
Grain and Pulse— Observatio.s on.. 234
Lesson 10. Barley ai;d Malt 235
n. Rye 237
12. Oats 239
13. Rice 240
14. Indian Corn or Maize... .242
15. Wheat... 244
16. Pulse 246
17. Beans 246
18. Peas 248
Fruits and Seeds.
19. Forci'in Currants 249
20. The Cocoanut 250
21. Raisins 251
22. Figs 252
Vegetahle Secretions.
23. Camphor 254
24. Gum Arabic 256
25. India Rubber or Caout-
chouc 257
26. Gutta Percha 260
27. Oils 262
28. RuL'ar 266
29. Coffee 269
30. Tea 270
31. Hops 272
32. Sago 273
83. Starch 275
34. Wafers 276
35. Sealing Wax 277
36. Paper 278
37. Nutgalls 281
Insects.
Observations on 283
Lesson 38. Beeswax 285
39. Grasshopper 287
Shells.
Observations on 288
Le.-^son 40. Snail.. 291
41. Limp't 293
42. Periwinkle 293
43. Whelk 294
44. Shells of two^ieccs, or
bivalves 296
10
CONTENTS.
Pacre
LessoD 45. MiiPcle 297
46. Mothor-of- Pearl 298
Miscellaneous Objects.
47. Bones 299
48. Feathers 302
49. Glue 306
60. Horn 308
61. Hort;e Hair 310
62. Ivory 311
63. Leather 312
54. So-ip 316
65. Sponge 318
66. T()rtoi^e Shell 319
67. Whaiel.one 321
68. Coral 323
69. Wax Candles 325
60. Shellac 325
61. Butter. 326
62. Cheese 327
63. Felt 328
Textile or "Woven Fabrics and
their Materials.
Lesson 64. Cotton 331
65. Flax 334
66. Hemp 336
67. Silk 339
68. Wool 341
Minerals.
Ohf**vaf Ions on 342
X-Ha»»u 69. I>iiiie 346
70. Alumine or Argil 348
Pasre
Lesson 71. Alum 366
72. Emery 352
73. Rotten Stone ai-d Tri-
poli 353
74. Pumice Stone 354
75. Slate 355
S'diciotis Minerals.
Lesson 76. Siind and Sandstone 356
77. Glass 358
78. Mica 364
79. Granite 365
Inflammable Minerals.
Lesson 80. Sulphur 366
81. I'umbago 369
82. Coal 371
Saline Minerals.
83. Salt..,.^ 374
84. Soda 379
Manufactured Articles.
Lesson 85. Pc^rcelain 381
86. Needles 882
87. Nails 385
88. Knives 387
89. Scissors 389
»0. Steel Pens 390
91. Lime 391
92. Brags 393
93. Puis 394
94. Pewter 397
Glossary 390
LESSOlSrS ON OBJECTS.
HINTS ON SKETCH WRITING *
There is, perhaps, no practice better adapted to insure
effective oral teaching, than diligent preparation of the les-
sons which the teacher intends to give her pupils. The
recent impulse imparted to popular education, while it has
directed attention to this important subject, has shown,
also, how much it has been neglected. This fact, with the
difficulties attending first attempts at the practice, renders
it desirable to furnish a few hints to teachers and students,
which may help them in this branch of their work, and lead
to its better appreciation.
Experience daily proves that an unprepared lesson, or
what may be termed extempore teaching, is sure to be
vague, diffuse, and shallow ; and on the other hand, that a
well-prepared lesson is generally clear, to the point, and
given with spirit and effect.
If, with all the advantages of well-disciplined minds,
those who instruct adults find careful preparation indis-
pensable, far more so must it be to those who have to
* Taken from ^^ Notes and Sketches of Lessons.'"
12 " ' ' ' ' ' "^INT^S ON SKETCH WRITING.
teach children, and who in many cases are very deficient
in mental culture.
An accurate knowledge of her subject gives self-posses-
sion and composure to the teacher; enables her to attend
to the effect of the lesson on the minds of the children ;
prevents tedious repetition, and important omissions; and
gives her such a power over the children as to produce a
consciousness that the teacher is guiding them, not they
her. Success is then sure to follow, in winning their atten-
tion, and eliciting their inquiries and remarks. Moreover,
the teacher who has diligently acquired, thoroughly di-
gested, and suitably arranged her matter, will not easily
be seduced from her subject by incidental association or
irrelevant questioning; she readily detects the one, and
discourages the other.
Drawing up sketches also affords much salutary mental
discipline to the teacher herself. She is practised in ana-
lyzing subjects of instruction ; and then, in reconstructing
them on the principles of good teaching. She learns to
view the lesson as a whole, to see the prominent bearings
of the subject, and to grasp and retain them firmly while
working them out.
Again : if a teacher can overcome her natural love of
ease, and once make up her mind to the practice of prepar-
ing sketches of lessons, it will not only tend to cultivate
and discipline her mind, but greatly contribute to the
pleasure of her daily occupation, economizing at once time
and labor. She will enjoy the interesting work of deter-
mininijj the end to be aimed at, of seeking the means of
its attainment, and then of watching its success. Further;
HINTS OX SKETCH WEITIXG. 13
If, after having prepared the sketch, the teacher takes care,
at the close of the day, to enter that sketch in a hook, and
to notice the omissions made, and other incidents connected
with the lesson as given, she will at the end of a single
twelvemonth find her task greatly lightened, and her work
with every new class of children comparatively easy. Her
pupils withal, by the help of a systematic and regular
course of well premeditated and prepared instruction, will
have their minds properly exercised, and make solid prog-
ress : the same lesson will not, as is now often the case,
be repeated within too short a space of time ; and when it
is again given, it will have the full benefit of the teacher's
experience and correction.
It may seem very trite to say that, in order to prepare
a good sketch of a lesson, a teacher should thoroughly ac-
quaint herself with the subject, both in itself and in its
different bearings on relative subjects; yet much vagueness
on the part of the teacher, and much inattention on the
part of the children, are owing to the neglect of a truth so
obvious. Whatever may be the skill of the teacher, with-
out proper and ample materials, no valuable result will be
produced.
In a Scripture lesson, the meaning of the passage select-
ed should be carefully studied ; the parallel passages and
texts consulted ; every reference to places, manners, cus-
toms, &c., clearly understood ; that the teacher may come
forward with a mind enriched with knowledge, an^l a heart
imbued with religious feeling.
In secular instruction, the best information should be
obtained from books and actual observation. The points
14 HINTS ON SKETCH WRITING.
to which to lead the pupils should be determined, whether
relating to historical facts, to utility, or to the connecting
dependence of one part of the subject on another. Truth,
thus acquired by search, will be valued and remembered,
the harmony and dependence between various truths per-
ceived, and its existence become a reality to them.
It is of great importance that teachers should be well
supplied with concordances, commentaries, and other books
of reference. The scanty library of many of our teachers,
• while the mechanic is so well supplied with choice tools of
every kind, is enough to make those deeply mourn who wish
well to the cause of education.
The expenditure on this account would be richly repaid
in the enhanced usefulness of the teacher.
Assuming that good and sufficient matter has been col-
lected, the next point is to determine what the special subject^
or leading idea^ of the lesson shall be. In order to do this,
in a Scripture lesson, for example, the teacher should ascer-
tain the current of thought that runs through the passage,
the particular truth it teaches, and the practical application
of which it is susceptible. The advantages of attention to
this rule in religious instructidn, are strikingly expressed by
Inglis, in the " Sabbath School." He says, " A person,
when he has settled the subject of his lesson in this way,
has before his eyes a definite purpose to serve. Instead of
occupying himself with unconnected explanations, pious,
but pointless reflections, and hap-hazard questions, he tries,
we shall say, on that day and by that one lesson, to con-
vince the children — of the value of their souls ; or, of the
evils of liypocrisy ; or, of tlie holiness of God ; or, of the
HINTS ON SKETCH WRITING. 15
happiness of heaven ; something at least tangible and im-
portant. Instead of wandering at random wherever the
impulse of association or the answers of the children may
lead him, his subject is a helm to his thoughts, and guides
them steadily to the point. He tries to lodge one or two
great truths in the minds of his scholars ; and this distinct-
ness of purpose gives method and clearness to every part
of the lesson. Both teacher and scholars know where they
are, and what they are about."
In preparing the sketch of a lesson on a secular subject,
the teacher should in like manner, so far as is practicable,
confine herself to a single point, — or at most, a few points,
toward which the whole instruction should tend, as rays
to a centre. Her attention should not be directed to what
she can or might say on the subject, but to supply what is
most suited to the children's minds and acquirements, to
their present and future wants ; and what they can well
receive and digest.
The plan^ or method of the lesson, is another very im-
portant consideration. The information which the teacher
has collected is placed in her own mind in the order in
which she has acquired it, and not in that in which it
should be imparted to the children. She has, therefore, tc
endeavor to throw herself into the minds of her pupils ; to
realize to herself their actual state, and to consider what is
known, that she may obtain a firm footing from whence to
proceed to that which is unknown and new. She has also
to analyze her subject, that she may commence with what
is simple and elementary, and so to arrange her points that
she may proceed, by a series of well-graduated steps, to
16 HINTS ON SKETCH WRITING.
that which is more diftlcult, or is complex in its character.
The ideas presented or gathered from the subject will then
be received in their right order, their suitable connection
felt, and the whole will be adjusted satisfactorily in the
mind. She has, moreover, to determine how she should
present her subject so as to seize that point of view which
is most suitable, and likely to excite the greatest degree of
interest and healthy exercise in her class, — varying this, in
^different sketches, that she may not continue in a hackneyed
course, or put the children's minds in trammels. Teachers
are very apt to adopt some model in their teaching, and to
wear it threadbare. They, in consequence, lose freedom of
mind themselves, and their pupils become weary of travel-
ling always by the same road. It is better to make a few
.xiistakes (by which, indeed, they gain experience), than
lose their energy and independence of thought.
In drawing out the heads, it is of great importance that
a proportionate degree of attention be paid to each, that
too much be not given to the subordinate, while the pnn-
cipal are left indefinite and incomplete. Care should also
be taken that the heads are not too numerous: minute
divisions impoverish the subject, and diminish its effect.
They should also be marked by clear, distinct, and broad
lines. Teachers who endeavor to take a comprehensive
view of their subject, will succeed far better than those
who bring to it a critical, fanciful spirit.
It is hardly necessary to point out that there is a great
difference between a sketch designed simply for the teach-
er's use, and one written for the inspection of others ; the
object of the one is simply to suggest, that of the other to
HINTS ON SKETCH WRITING. 11
inform. In general, the former contains only the memoranda
of what the teacher intends to bring before the children, in
the order it is to be given ; while the latter should contain
more or less of the teacher's method of giving the lesson,
and greater fulness of information.
To a teacher of long experience, who has in her owti
mind a well-acquired method, memoranda may be sufficicut ;
still, method must be attended to in preparation, though it
may not be essential to exhibit it in notes for her own use.
She should not only know that a lesson requires reasoning,
description, illustration, and application, but her own mind
should be made up as to how a point is to be reasoned out,
described, illustrated, or applied. The character of the
matter is important, and the arrangement of it necessary ;
but the method of presenting it to the children is as impor-
tant as either ; for, as the late Dr. Mayo has well said, " it
is as important how children learn, as what they learn."
But for students in a training school, who prepare sketches
for their own improvement and the inspection of others
(and it is to this class that these hints may be considered
more immediately applicable), it is requisite to state in the
sketch the method as well as the matter of the lesson. In'
formation may be nicely put together, but more is needed
to insure a good lesson — the manner in which children's
minds are to be exercised upon it ; this should, therefore,
be stated in the sketch. It is easy enough to collect infor-
mation from books, but not so easy to show how such
information is to be used as a means of developing the
minds of the pupils ; and this is what ought to be done by
a good teacher.
18 HINTS ON SKETCH WRITING.
Method and order should by no means be confounded ;
—-order has to do with the arrangement of the mformation,
the raw material, as it were, of the lesson ; method, with
the moulding and fashioning which it undergoes in the
hands of the teacher, constituting the manner in which it
should be presented to the children, so as to exercise their
mental powers at the right time, and in due proportion.
Order deals, as we have seen, with the information — the
subject matter of the lesson ; method, with the mind, the
development and furnishing of which is the object of the
instruction. Thus, order is more concerned with the in-
strument used ; method, with the end to be attained. And
while order is method to a certain extent, method includes
more than mere order.
In addition, therefore, to information and order, a stu-
dent's sketch should show how it is proposed to introduce
what is general and abstract ; to help to the conception of
what is absent ; to illustrate what is not understood ; to re-
solve the complex into its simple elements ; and to fix in the
memory that which is received by the understanding. In
fine, the sketch should contain the skeleton, or outline, of
the lesson, showing the prineipal points on which it is in-
tended to exercise the children's attention, and the manner
in which the subject should be treated, so as to secure their
interest, and fix the ideas clearly and thoroughly in their
minds.
A teacher, in the selection of her subject, may have a
general aim ; thus, in a Bible lesson, to produce a religious
impression ; in a lesson on an object, to call out observation ;
in a lesson on number, to cultivate accuracy and draw forth
HINTS ON SKETCH WEITING. 19
power ; in a lesson on an animal, to exhibit the wisdom and
goodness displayed in its structure, and thus to draw forth
admiration and love toward the Divine Creator. But, in
the treatment of the particular lesson, there should, we
repeat, be one, or at most two or three prominent points
put down in the sketch, which should be natural, simple,
and striking ; it should be the special aim of the teacher to
w^ork them out. The sketch should declare the plan by
which the children are to be conducted to these points :
thus, in a lesson on an object, it should show how any par-
ticular idea is to be developed, or how the children are to
be led to discover the fitness of the object for its use ; in a
lesson in natural history, how an animal's organization is
adapted to its habits ; on number, by what steps the chil-
dren are to be induced to draw conclusions for themselves;
in a Bible lesson, how it is purposed to produce an impres-
sion, and to bring a truth or precept within the sphere of
the children's perception and self-application.
With respect to the details of information, a sketch,
whether drawn up by a teacher for her own use in the
school, or by a student in training,* should contain what
may be called suggestive hints of the subject of the lesson.
It should equally avoid detailed information, on the one
hand ; and on the other, mere general notices, such as con-
stitute a table of contents, or heading of a chapter. In the
former case the document would present the appearance of
a depository of information, rather than a sketch ; and the
* For examples of these two kinds of sketches, or rather of memo-
randa and sketch, see the memoranda and the sketch for lessons on th«
Mole, p. , Fourth Step.
20 Hi]!n:s on sketch WRirrNa
teacher would herself be in danger of presenting it in a
book form, — of becoming a lecturer instead of a teacher ;
while a sketch, if of too general a character, would either
do injustice to the knowledge of the teacher, or produce a
vague and superficial lesson.
The general style of a sketch should be pithy, pointed,
and condensed, in order that its different parts may catch
the eye. To effect this, the use of the ellipsis will con-
tribute. Questions may also often be used in a sketch with
effect ; they aid in giving point and expression, and indicate
method in the very shortest way. But it requires considei*-
able judgment and experience to frame questions properly
for such a purpose, and with due regard to the character
of a sketch, avoiding, on the one hand, the minuteness re-
quired in a lesson, and on the other, the generality of mere
heads. The following example is faulty, inasmuch as the
questions change by their directness and specialty the char-
acter of a sketch ; while from their paucity they fail as to
a lesson : — " I will question the children on the most im-
portant points in the -narrative as I proceed ; as, whom
Abraham sent to fetch Rebecca? at what place the servant
stopped? who came to the well while he was there ? how
did Rebecca treat him ? what disposition did she manifest?"
Compare this with the following extract from a sketch on
" the Goodness of God, shown in the different Seasons of
the Year : " — " Draw from the children a descnption of
this season (winter). What do they observe out of doors ?
trees without leaves, gardens without flowers, frost, snow,
wind, fogs, cloudj, &c. How do they feel ? What do they
lik« to have on ? What difference do they find indoors ?— •
HINTS ON SKETCH WRITING. 21
fires required, windows shut, &c." Here questions are
used to elicit what may be called classes of answers^ to
form connecting links, and also to indicate the method of
the teacher ; not one of them is of that isolated or detailed
character which marks each question in the first extract.
The title of the lesson should always be stated in a clear,
bold hand, at the top of the sketch ; next, the class of chil-
dren for whom it is prepared, as this information is neces-
sary to the determining the suitability in the mode of
treating the subject; then, the point of view, or the ideas
to be developed : but when the point is contained in. the
title of the lesson, as in a lesson on grammar or number, it
should not be repeated. It also gives great neatness to a
sketch to mark the heads in Roman numerals, and the sub-
divisions in the Arabic. A margin should be left, and the
heads or leading ideas stated therein ; this, besides improv-
ing the appearance of the sketch, enables both the teacher
and others to see at a glance the matter and order of the
lesson. A legible handwriting and neatness of execution
should by no means be neglected in a sketch. These minor
points may appear trivial, but they are not unimportant ;
attention to them will promote self-possession when giving
the lesson, and tend to form beneficial habits.
FIKST STEP.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS FOR THE DIRECTION OF THE
TEACHER.
To lead children to observe with attention the objects
which surround them, and then to describe with accuracy
the impressions they convey, appears to be the first step in
the business of education.
As the period of childhood is characterized by the cease-
less activity of the perceptive faculties, it is clear that with
them intellectual education should commence. The devel-
opment of these powers gives animation to the dull, and
precision to the lively, while it promotes that clearness of
apprehension which is the solid basis of after attainment,
and without which our judgments are unsound, and our
reasonings inconclusive. As the sphere of observation is
enlarged, and the pages of history or the fields of science
are explored, the mind, accustomed to accurate investiga-
tion, will not rest content with less than satisfactory evi-
dence, either in morals or in science.
The present work consists of five series of lessons, each
of which increases in difiiculty as the pupil advances. The
order observed in them is the result of some experience,
INTEODUCTORY REMARKS. 23
and of several trials, which have produced a strong convic-
tion of the importance and value of a methodical arrange-
ment, and of a very gradual progression. It is therefore
recommended that no step iu the course should be alto-
gether omitted, though the age and talents of the children
must regulate the time bestowed on each.
It is very important, that in all instruction, some definite
object should be proposed, and that every step should have
a tendency toward the end in view. Thus in the series
under consideration, the development of the perceptive
faculties is aimed at, and each sense is called into action,
that all may be strengthened by exercise, and their judg-
ments corrected. By linking also the ideas gained to ap-
propriate words, a ready command of language may be
acquired.
A few lessons fully drawn out are given in each step, as
a specimen of the manner in w^hich the others should be
given. It would have extended the volume to an unneces-
sary length, and filled it with needless repetitions, had each
been made out with equal minuteness. Information is not
given in the preliminary set, as the end proposed is to ex-
cite the mental powers of the children to activity, and not
to furnish them with knowledge.
It may perhaps be necessary to guard against the error
of expecting, in a work like the present, anything more
than hints as to the mode of arranging and imparting
knowledge. Teachers ought to be well informed, in order
to meet the inquiries which the active minds of children
continually suggest. Their questions will generally point
out the best mode of treating a subject, or of leading them
24 FIRST STEP.
to the discovery of any truth. Precise, unvarying rules may
be laid down for mechanical operations ; but mind alone can
act upon mind, and bring it into vigorous exercise ; and all
instruction must be dry and uninteresting, which has not
undergone some modification from the person by whom it
is communicated.
There are several faults into which teachers are likely
to fall ; one is that of telling too much, for though the in-
formation may be received with pleasure, and appear to
profit, yet under such a mode of instruction, the pupils'
minds remain almost passive, and they acquire a habit of
receiving impressions from others, at a time when they
ought to be gaining mental power by the exertion of their
own faculties. Another mistake is that of giving a term
before the pupil has felt his want of it.* When the idea
of any quality has been formed in his mind, Avithout his
being able to express it, the name given under such circum-
stances fixes it on the memory : thus, when a child observes
that whalebone, after having been bent, returns to its orig-
inal position, he may be told that this property which he
has discovered is called elastic.
In the First Step the children are led to discern and
name the several parts of an object, as also to the distinct
perception of some of the more obvious qualities, without
* The writer desires particularly to enforce this remark, having in on*
or two instances seen the lessons altogether misused. Thus the qualities
were told, and the explanation of the terms given, instead of the object
being presented to the children that they might make their own observa-
tions upon it, and learn from the teacher how to express qualities uleaily
discerned by them, although unknown by uam«.
A BASKET, FOR ITS PARTS. 25
the communication of a term by which to express such per-
ception, except in those cases where the term is famihar.
LESSON I.
A BASKET, FOR ITS PARTS.
Require the children to name the object, and to tell its
use — as to hold potatoes, peas, bread, tea, sugar, books,
work, paper, &c. ; and then to point out its parts, as the lid,
the handles, the sides, the bottom, the inside, the outside,
and the edges ; to describe the use of the lid — to cover the
things contained in the basket, and to prevent them being
seen ; and to tell also the use of the sides and of the bot-
tom. What would happen if the basket had no lid ? The
things it contained would be seen, and the dust would get
in. "What would happen if it had no handle ? It could not
be conveniently held. Show me how you would be obliged
to hold it if it had no handle. Would you like to have to
hold it in that way ? What would happen if there were no
sides to the basket ? The thhigs it contained would fall
out sidewise. What would happen if there were no bottom
to the basket ? They would fall downward, nor would the
basket stand safely. Then make the children repeat to-
gether the names of the various parts of a basket. " The
basket has a lid, a handle," &c.
LESSON IL
A NEEDLE, FOR ITS PARTS.
The children to give the name, and tell how the nee-
"ile is used : What persons use needles ? What men use
26 FIBST STEP. — ^LESSON III.
them? Desire a child to touch some part of the needW;
ask the name of that part of it, and let all repeat the word
together. When all the parts have been discovered, the
children repeat together — " A needle has an eye, a point,
and a shank." Question them as to where the eye is,
where the point, and where the shank. All repeat : " The
eye is at one end of the needle, the point is at the other
end of it, and the shank is between the eye and the poinf
Ask the use of the eye, and what is put through it. Thread,
cotton, silk, or worsted. What is the act of putting any
one of these through the eye of the needle called ? What
is the use of the point ? what should the point be ? When
is a needle a bad one ? When the point is blunt. What
is the use of the shank ? It gives a part by which to hold
the needle, and also to hold the stitches we take up.
Conclude by simultaneous recapitulation of the parts of a
needle : " A needle has," &c.
LESSON IIL
A PENKNIFE, FOR ITS PARTS.
The teacher calls upon the^children to name the object,
and then desires a child to point to some part of the knife ;
supposing this to be the blade, the children should learn the
name ; if they do not know it, the letter B is then written
on the slate, and the children taught to understand that B
stands for the word blade ; then they should be required
to point to the other parts of the knife, as the handle, the
rivets, &c., and to tell their names, or to learn them if
they do not know them; repeating the names of the
A CHAIR, FOE ITS PARTS. 27
several parts of the knife, as indicated by the letters on
the slate.
The teacher is next to touch the different parts of the
knife, and as this is done to require the children to give the
name of each part, as the edge of the blade, the point, the
handle, the rivets, the hinge, &c.
Holdmg up the knife, the teacher then asks the children
how the blade is placed with respect to the handle ? whether
it is always in the same position ? how it is placed when the
knife is used ? and how when it is put into the pocket ?
where the point is ? and where the rivets, &c. ? how many
parts has the knife ? the children now to refer to the slate,
and to mention, as they count the number, what each let-
ter stands for. The use of the knife might be here spoken
of, and when a penknife is used in preference to any other
knife ; have they ever seen any person make a pen with
such a knife as that before them ?
The object is now to be withdrawn, and the teacher is
to desire the children to name the parts of it from memory,
one child only being at first allowed to speak, and then all :
" The knife has a blade, — ^the knife has a handle," &c. If
they mistake, the board is to be referred to, and the teacher
is to question them as to what each letter stands for. They
might also describe the position of the parts, first one of
them doing so, and then, simultaneously, all.
LESSON IV.
A CHAIR, FOR ITS PARTS.
The children to name the object, then to tell its use, — -
to sit on ; then to point out its parts, as the back, the seat,
28 FIRST STEP. — ^LESSON IV.
the legs, and the bars ; then to tell the use of the several
parts, as the back, for the sitter to lean against ; of the seat,
for him to sit on ; of the legs, to support the chair ; of the
cross-bars, to give strength and firmness to the whole.
What would be the consequence had the chair no back ?
"We could not so well rest on it when tired. Of its having
no seat ? There would be nothing to sit upon. Of its
having no legs? The seat would be on the floor. What
would happen were there no bars ? The chair would soon
fall to pieces. Of which of the parts is there one only ?
Of the seat and of the back. How many legs are there ?
Why four legs ? How many bars are there ? Which parts
are upright? Which parts are level? Repeat together
the names of the several parts of a chair.
LESSON V.
A WATCH, FOE ITS PAETS.
The teacher, holding up a watch, asks. What is this ?
It is a watch. Now look well at it, and tell me the name
of some part of it. The hands. Yes. Tell me another
part. The glass. All repeat, — " The watch has hands and
it has a glass." Find another part. The rim. Is there
any part of the watch which you cannot see when I hold it
up ? Yes, the inside. If you will think a little you will be
able to tell me some other part. The outside. All repeat,
" The watch has an outside and an inside." You have told
me the watch has hands ; where do they meet ? In the
middle. In the middle of what ? In the middle of the
fece. In telling me this you have mentioned two other
THE PIG. 29
parts of the watch. The watch has a face, and there is a
small hole in the middle of it. Now tell me how many
hands the watch has ? Two. Are they alike ? No. How
are they unlike ? One of them is long, the other is short.
Say, " The watch has two hands, one of them long and the
other short." Can you find out anything more about the
face ? There are little figures round the edge of it. Re-
peat together, " The face has figures round it." Tell me
some other part which you have named? The glass. How
many glasses has the watch ? Only one. And what does
th glass cover? It covers the face. Say, "The watch
has a glass, which covers the face."
Well, now you have been looking at the watch, and
have told me several parts of it which you have found out
by looking at it, who among you can tell me when a watch
is near, even if it be not in sight ? I can. It ticks. What
is the use of a watch ? It tells us what time it is. Yes,
and there is something else which tells the time ; what is
it ? A clock. Now let us sing about the clock :
"The neat little clock, in the comer it stands."
LESSON VI.
THE PIG.
I. Show the children the picture of a pig. Let them
name and point to all its parts ; as the head, eyes, ears, nose,
mouth, neck, legs, tail, &c. Tell them that the nose and
mouth together are called the snout. Ask whether they
have seen a pig. If like the one before them. The differ-
80 FIRST STEP. — ^LESSON VII.
ence. What they have seen pigs doing? Their color,
shape, &c. Where pigs Uve ? If they have ever seen a
sty ? What they eat out of? &c., &c. Thus leading them
to talk familiarly and to say all they can about pigs.
II. Speak of the use of the pig to man. What it's flesh
is called ? If tcey have ever tasted it ?
III. Who made ihe pig ? How we should feel toward
God, who has given at> tliis useful animal. How it should
be treated ; givmg some examples which have come under
their notice of cruelty to the pig ; appealing to the children
if this conduct is right, or pleasing to God. How God
would regard such children. How all animals which God
has made should be treated, and if they would like to be
treated cruelly themselves. By these and similar questions
exciting humane feelings toward animals.
LESSON VII.
A PENCIL, TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OP ITS PARTS AND
THEIR USES.
The children repeat together : This is a pencil. Who
can tell the use of a pencil ? - It is used for writing. What
do you mean by writing ? Look at me. The teacher
makes some unmeaning marks on paper, and asks : Is this
writing? No. The teacher next forms some letters or
words, on the board, and asks : Is this writing ? Yes, it is.
Now you can tell me when we wHte with a pencil When
we use it to make words. Do any of you know any other
iise of a pencil ? Some child will perhaps say : It is used
A PENCIL. 31
to draw with. Repeat together: '^ A pencil is used to
write with and to draw with.'''* If you wished to write or
draw, could you do so if you had a pencil alone, and
nothing more? No. Right; you must have paper, or
Bomethmg to write or draw upon. Now look well at the
pencil, and tell me if it is everywhere alike, as this piece
of chalk is? What can any of you see? The wood of
the pencil. What more ? The lead of it. The wood is
not then the whole of the pencil ? what is it ? It is a part
of it. And what is the lead ? The lead is also a part of
the pencil. What can you say the pencil has? The
pencil has parts. Try and find some other parts. Call
a child to touch some part of the pencil ; he will most
likely touch the ends ; the children may not know how
to call them ; they may be told they are the ends of the
pencil, and then repeat together: The pencil has ends.
How many ends has a pencil? Two. Before any one
can use the pencil for writing, what must be done to
one of the ends? It must be cut. What do we form
when we cut it? We form a point. What more do
you see on the pencil? Some words. That is the
maker's name. Now repeat together the parts a pen-
cil has. A pencil has wood, &c. What is the use of
the lead? What would be the consequence if there
were no lead in the pencil? What is the use of the
wood ? What do you think would be the consequence
if the pencil were all lead? Yes; one disadvantage
would be that it would blacken our fingers. Now tell
me where the lead is. Repeat together: " The lead
runs along the middle of the pencil." Where is
32 FIRST STEP. — LESSON VIII.
the wood ? Repeat together : " The wood is round tht
lead:'' Where is the point ? Repeat together : " The
point is at one end of tJie penciV*
LESSON VIII.
MILK.
What is this in the glass ? Milk. Where do we get
milk ? It comes from the cow. How can you tell that this
is milk and not water ? By its being white. Is there any
other reason for your saying that it is not water ? We
cannot see through it. Repeat together : " Milk is white,
and we cannot see through it?"* Taste it. It is very nice.
What kind of taste has it ? It has a sweet taste. Repeat :
" Milk has a nice sweet taste.^^ You have told rae in what
it is unlike water, now find out something in which it is
like water ; now look at rae (the teacher pours out a little
of the milk in drops) ; it will wet anything ; it forms itself
in drops. We call those things which make others wet, and
form themselves into drops, liquids. What then is milk?
Milk is a liquid. Tell me some other liquids. Water, beer,
ifec. What use do we make of milk ? We drink it. Why
are little children fed upon milk ? To make them grow.
Yes; and because it makes them grow it is said to be
nourishing. Tell me some other things that are nour-
ishing.
Do you know any other animal besides the cow that
gives milk ? Yes, the ass and the goat. I think you can
bU tell me why God gave animals milk. Yes, Ho gives it
A FEATHER. 33
to them to be food for their young. Why is milk so suit-
able for the food of young animals ? Because it is so nour-
ishing. How kind it is in God to give animals such nice
nourishing food for their young, to keep the little things
alive till they have teeth to bite the grass ! What is the
young of the cow called ? A calf Now repeat all you
know about milk. " MilTc comes from the cow. God gives
it to the cow to feed the young calf when it has not teeth
to bite the grass. Milk is white^ and we cannot see through
it y it tastes nice and sweet y it is a liquid^ and snakes very
nourishing food,
LESSON IX.
A FEATHER.
What is this ? A feather. Whence does it come ? It
comes from off a bird. How do you think a bird would
feel without its feathers? Very cold. Of what use then
are feathers to birds ? They keep them warm. What do
we wear to keep us warm ? Coats, frocks, aprons, &c. Do
you know one word by which to speak of all these to-
gether ? Yes ; clothing. Yes, and feathers are the cloth-
ing of birds. Now look at this feather (the teacher throws
it up in the air) ; what do you see ? It flies about. If I
throw this cent in the air, will it do the same? No,
teacher, it. will fall to the ground at once. Why does
the feather float in the air, and the cent fall to the
ground ? Because the feather is light, and the cent
is heavy. I wish some of the older children to tell me
why a covering so light as feathers is best suited to birds ?
2*
84 FIBST STJSP. — LESSON IX.
Because they have to fly in the air. Yes ; and if they had
very heavy clothing they would fall down. We see then
that the great God who is in heaven cares even for the
little birds. He tells us in His Holy Word, that not even a
sparrow falls to the ground without His knowing it ; and
if He observes all that the little birds do, and takes such
care of them, do you think He will ever forget you or me ?
Oh no, dear children ! He knows everything you do, and
everything that happens to you ; and, in the same chapter
of the Bible in which He speaks of His care of the sparrows,
He says, much more will he take care of His children ; you
shall learn this verse, and I hope, when you see the little
birds flying about so happily, you will remember that God,
who takes such care of them, will never forget you.
But now examine the feather, and tell me what colors you
see in it. Part of it is white^ and part of it is brown. Here
is another feather ; what color is it ? It is green. What
then do you perceive as to the color of feathers. They
difler. You may say, then, feathers are of different colors.
Pass the feather round, and try to find out more about it.
It is soft. Is every part of the feather soft ? No, not the
part in the middle. And what '^of that ? It is hard. That
hard part of the feather is called the shaft. What can you
say of the shaft ? It is hard. All repeat : tfie shaft of tht
feather is hard. What other difference is there between
the shaft of the feather and the downy part of it ? ♦ The
shaft shines, and the downy part does not. What do you
call things that shine ? Bright. And things that do not
* As feathers vary very much, the qualities will, of courae, depead
opon the particular specimen chosen for the lesson.
A FEATHER. 35
shine ? Dull. Then the shaft of the feather is bright., and
the down is duU. What other difference do you perceive ?
Feel the feather. We cannot easily bend the shaft. Do
any of you know what we call things that cannot be easily
bent ? I think you must have heard ; but attend, and try
and remember what I say to you : things that cannot easily
be bent are said to be stiff. Tell me some things that are
stiff? Wood, slate. And what can you say of the shaft of
the feather ? It is stiff. Yes, the shaft is stiff., you cannot
easily 5ewc? it ; but the down you can easily bend. Hold up
the feather to the light ; we can see through it. Can you
see through the feather itself? No, but between the
parts of it. But if I put all the parts of the feather
close together, what do you find then ? We cannot see
through it.
And now you shall tell me what aro^the uses of feathers?
They are used for beds. Why do they make nice beds ?
Because they are soft. Why are they a suitable clothing
for birds? Because they are light. Feathers then are
useful to us because they are soft ; they are useful to birds
because they are ligh% and keep them warm. Did you
ever see a slender piece of wood, pointed at one end, with
three feathers fastened on the other end ? Yes, teacher.
What is it called? An arrow. Why were the feathers
put on the wood ? To make the arrow fly in a straight
line.
Well ; you shall now repeat all that you have said about
feathers : " Feathers are the clothing of birds ; God has
given birds a very light clothing, that they may the more
easily fly in the air ; God takes care of the birds, much
36 FIBST STEP. — LESSON X,
more will He take care of us ; feathers are of various col-
ors ; the shaft of the feather is hard^ bright y and stiff ;
the downy part is soft and dvU^ and we can easily bend it ;
we cannot see through the feather / feathers are used for
stuffing beds, because they are softy and for arrows, to make
them fly in a straight line.''^
LESSON X.
LOAF SUGAR.
You can all tell me what this is. Yes. It is sugar.
What kind of sugar is it ? White sugar. Those who can
tell me what sugar is, hold up their hands. You remember
where the lead comes from ? Out of the earth. And the
feather ? From off -the bird. Now I will tell you about
sugar; it is made from the juice that is pressed out of the
stem of a plant. Here is the picture of the plant. The
plant is called the sugarcane, and a very nice juice, which
contains the sugar, is pressed out from the stem. Look at
the people in this picture. Are they like me ? No, teach-
er, they are very dark. Some day we will talk about the
countries in which the sugar-cane grows, and where the
dark-colored people live. Now, you must tell me all you
can yourselves find out about the sugar. It is sweet. You
all know that. Repeat : " Sugar is sweet.'*'* Look, I put a
piece of the sugar into some water ; what do you perceive ?
It dissolves. Look again: I hold it to the flame of the
candle. It melts. What then can you say of sugar ? It
dissolves in water and it melts in fire. Repeat ; " JSugar
LOAF SUGAR. 37
dissolves in water and melts in fireP * Now in what do
lead and sugar differ ? They both melt in fire, but the
sugar alone dissolves in water. Now look at the sugar,
and feel of it, and tell me anything you find out. It is
hard. What more ? It is white. Is all sugar white ?
No, some sugar is brown. Look at this piece of sugar
again. It is bright. Is it bright in the same way that lead
is bright ? No, little bits of the sugar are bright. Yes, it
appears like a number of little bright sparks ; it is said to
be sparkling. What can you say of sugar ? It is spark-
ling. Repeat together: " White sugar is sparkling?''
Well, try again. It is in a lump. Is all sugar the same?
No, brown sugar is not in a lump as this is. Did you ever
see an uncut piece of white sugar in a grocer's shop?
What was its shape ? Round. Was it all the way up the
same size ? No, it became smaller and smaller, till it end-
ed in a rounded point. What is the use of sugar ? To
sweeten tea. What more ? To sweeten puddings ; to
sweeten our food. Now repeat the heads of the lesson;
" Sugar is made from the juice of sugar-cane ; it is very
sweet ; it melts in fire and dissolves in water. Loaf sugar
is white, hard, and sparkling y sugar is used to sweeten
our food:'*
* The teacher should have a clear perception of the difference be-
tween the melting or fusion of a solid substance and the dissolving of
substances.
88 FIRST STEP. LESSON XI.
LESSON XL
FLINT.
What is this ? A flint. What is a flint ? A sort of
stone. Where do we find stones ? In the earth. Look
at it ; what can you say of it ? It is black. The teacher
holds up the flint. What do you all say of the color of the
flint ? It is black. Repeat together : " Tlie flint is
hlack?'' What more do you see ? It shines. All of you
repeat : " The flint shines^ Do you think a piece of flint
would make a good window ? No. Why not ? We
could not see through it. All repeat : " We cannot see
through flinty Tell me some other things through which
you cannot see. The walls, the slates, &c. Now pass the
flint round and feel of it. What now can you say of it ?
It is hard ; it is cold. Kepeat together : " The flint is hard
and cold?"* What more do you observe ? It is smooth.
Repeat : " The flint is smooth.^^ Feel the edges. They
are sharp. Repeat : " The edges of the fli?it are sharp.''"'
The teacher strikes a piece of --flint and a piece of steel to-
gether. What am I doing ? Striking the flint and steel
together. What do you see ? Sparks of fire. What pro-
duced the sparks? The striking the flint and steel to-
gether. Repeat together : " Flint strikes fire with steeV
Now repeat all that has been said about flint : '-''Flint
is a stone; it comes out of the earth; it is black ; we
cannot see through it ; when we touch it we feel that it is
cold^ hard^ smooth^ and sharp at the edges ; a?id it is used
to strike fire.'*'*
WOOL. 39
LESSON xn.
WOOL.
What is this ? Wool. Where does wool come from ?
It comes from off the sheep's back. What is a sheep ? An
animal. What is wool then ? Part of- an animal. Of
what use is the wool to the sheep ? It keeps it warm.
Can the sheep make its own wool ? 'No. Who gave the
little sheep this warm clothing ? God. Yes, God gave the
sheep this warm clothing, because it could not make cloth-
ing for itself
Now pass this wool round the class : look at it, and feel
it, and tell me what you can find out about it. It is soft.
Repeat : " Wool is sofV It is all hairs. Yes. Repeat
then : " JFool is formed of hairs^ Feel it again. It is
dry. Repeat : " Wool is dry?"* What more ? It is warm.
Does it feel warm, as fire does ? No. What do you mean
then ? That anything made of wool keeps us warm. Re-
peat : " Wool keeps us warm.'''* Yes, it keeps us warm, be-
cause it prevents the warmth of our bodies from passing
away from us.
Who can tell me what wool is used for? To make
stockings and flannel. What do you call that very thick
flannel which you have on your beds ? Blanket. Do you
kpow any kind of clothes which are made of wool. Yes,
our fathers' coats. And what have some persons on their
floors to keep their feet warm? Carpets. Carpets are
made of wool.
Now repeat all you have said of wool : " Wool come*
40 FIRST STEP. — LESSON XIH.
from off the sheep* s hack ; it is the clothing which God
gives the sheep to keep it warm ; wool is soft, dry^ and made
up of hairs ; it keeps us warm / it is made into stockings,
fannel, blankets, and carpets,'*'*
LESSON XIII.
A PIECE OF BARK.
"What is this? A piece of bark. All look at it.
Where do we find bark? On trees. On what part of
trees? On the stem. On which part of the stem? Look
and see. (The teacher brings in a piece of the stem of a
tree on which the bark still remains.) On the outside.
Repeat together : " Bark is the outer part of the stems of
trees.'*'*
Look at the bark ; what do you perceive ? It is hrown.
Repeat : " Bark is hrown.'*'* Look again ; is it like glass ?
No, we cannot see through it. What can you SAy of it
then? We cannot see through bark. Compare it with
glass. It does not shine. When anything does not shine
at all, it is said to be dull ; what is the bark ? It is dull.
Repeat : " The hark is dulV* Show me some things in the
room tha'tf are dull. Now feel of the bark. It is rough.
And what more ? It is dry. Now look (th^ teacher
separates the fibres), it has strings or hairs. These strings
or hairs are called fibres, and we say the bark is fibrous.
Repeat : " The hark is fibrous.'*'* Some plants have very
fibrous stems, and are very useful to us on this account ;
here are some of the fibres of hemp ; and here are some
of flax, which supplies much of our clothing. I think you
A BOOK. 41
can find out something more if you feel the bark agaia
Yes ; it is hard.
Now repeat all you have said : " Barh is the outside
covering of the stems of trees ; it is brown ; loe cannot se6
through it ; it is roughs dull^ dry^ hard^ and fibrous:^
LESSON XIV.
A BOOK.
In the following lessons, tenns expressing qualities that
may be developed are given. The lessons may be carried
out on the same general plan as the preceding. In no case
should a term be given before the idea is developed, and
the necessity for it is felt. Where the quality is not appa-
rent to the sensef , it must be brought out by experiment.
Parts.
The outside.
The leaves.
inside.
pages.
edges.
margin.
corners.
beginning.
binding.
type.
paper.
letters.
back.
numbers.
sides.
stops.
top.
words.
bottom.
sentences.
title page.
syllables.
preface.
lettering.
introduction.
stitching.
contents.
lines.
end.
paragraphs.
i2 riEST STEP. — ^LESSON XV.
The children should determine the position of the dif*
ferent parts, their form and uses.
T-ESSON XV.
A PIN.
Parts.
Qualities,
The head.
It is hard.
shank.
white.
point.
bright.
solid.
smooth.
The head is round.
The point is sharp.
The shank is straight.
tapering.
Use. — To keep together for a time parts of dress, &t.
LESSON XVI.
A CUBE OP WOOD.
The cube will convey to the children a good idea of a
surface ; but as some confusion is likely to arise in their
minds, when they are informed that what bounds every
part of an object, and can be felt or seen, is the surface^
and then, when they find that the surface is divided into
parts, to be told that these divisions are caUed surfaces, it
is therefore necessary to give them a name for the divisions
of the surface — that oi faces has been adopted. A sphere
may be shown as an example of an undivided surface, and
by comparing it with the cube, a clear idea of what is meant
by surface and faces may be elicited.
A THIMBLE. '.
Parts.
Qualities.
The surface.
It is hard.
faces.
light.
edges.
solid.
corners.
brown.
smooth.
dull.
burns with a flame.
The faces are flat.
square.
The edges are straight.
The corners are sharp.
LESSON XVII.
A THIMBLE.
Parts.
Qualities.
The inside.
It is hollow.
outside.
silver.
top.
full of little holes.
bottom.
white.
rim.
bright.
border.
hard.
curved.
The inside is smooth.
The outside is rough.
43
Use. — ^To preserve the middle finger from being pricked
in working.
LESSON xvin
A KEY.
Parts.
The ring,
barrel.
Qualities.
It is hard,
steel.
i4
PIEST STEP. — ^LESSON XVIII.
Parts.
Qualities,
The wards.
The bright.
grooves.
smooth.
edges.
stiff.
surface.
liable to rust.
corners.
Part of the barrel is hollow.
The barrel
is in the form of a cylinder.
The
ring
is curved.
Places locked up by a key. — Doors, gates, boxes,
desks, portmanteaus, trunks, portfolios, tea chests, closets,
drawers, cabinets, &c.
LESSON XIX.
A CUF
»^
Parts.
Qualities.
The bowl.
It is hollow.
handle.
hard.
upper rim.
curved.
lower rim.
glossy.
bottom.
smooth.
inside.
glazed.
outside.*
^
thin.
edges.
TK5:
rim is circular.
surface.
* From the examination of such an object as a cup, glass, any vessel,
or a box, children may be led to discriminate clearly the difference be-
tween outside and surface, and to see that the former is the opposite to
the inside, while the latter is the boundary of every part of an object
A PAIR or SCISSORS.
45
LESSON XX.
A
PAIR OF SCISSORS.
Parts.
Qualities.
Ihe limbs.
It is steel.
bows.
bright.
blades.
hard.
shanks.
cold.
rivets.
solid.
pivot.
The blades are pointed.
points.
One face is flat.
surface.
The other curved.
faces.
The front edge sharp.
The back blunt.
The bows are curved.
Tho cLiMren should name the kind of materials which
sjssors will cut, and point out the different manner in
which knives and scissors cut.
LESSON XXI.
A BIRD.
Parts.
The head,
body,
wings,
legs. ^
beak.
The qualities would
Principal depend on the kind
parts. of bird chosen for
the lesson.
eyes.
nostrils.
neck.
a
FIRST STEP. — ^LESSON XXn.
Parts,
Parts,
The feathers.
The skin.
bones.
feet.
claws.
joints.
LESSON
XXII.
AN ORANGE.
Parts, Qualities,
The peel. It is reddish yellow, oi
rind of the peel. orange color,
white of the peel. in the form of a ball.
juice.
rough on the outside.
pulp.
The pulp
is juicy.
seeds.
soft.
eye.
cooling.
divisions.
sweet when ripe.
membrane.
vegetable.
inside.
solid.
outside.
It has
a sweet smelL
surface.
.^
PIECE OF INDIA EUBBKE,
47
SECOND STEP.
In this Step the children continue to be exercised on
the more obvious qualities, and the sj^ecific term by which
to express the quality is given.
LESSON I.
A. PIECE OF INDIA RUBBER, TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF ONE
KIND OF ELASTICITY.
Present the India rubber, and ask its name ; then call a
child to try and see what he can do to it. He can bend it
and stretch it. Then call the children's attention to the
shape and size of the India rubber, and to the child when
stretching it, asking them what he is doing to it, and what
change they notice in it when he is stretching it ? It be-
comes longer. Then tell the child to let go the end he has
pulled out, calling on the children to observe what happens
to the India rubber. It returns to its shape. What was
done to the India rubber ? How did it appear while it was
being stretched? What happened to it when let go?
Now what have you particularly observed in India rubber ?
India rubber will stretch when pulled out, and returns to
48 SECOND STEP. ^LESSON U. '
its place when let go. Children, repeat this together. Do
you know how to describe this property of India rubber ?
It is said to be elastic. Repeat this word together.
When are things said to be elactic ? Tell me something
that is elastic. Why do you say that India rubber is
elastic ?
Call upon a child to name that property of India rubber
which has been illustrated in the lesson, and then all repeat
the name of the property together.
LESSON II.
A PIECE OF SPONGE, TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF ONE KIND
OF ELASTICITY.
The name of the object first to be determined ; then a
child is to be asked to try what can be done to it, when it
will be found that it can be pressed close together. Ask
how the sponge appears when it is pressed tightly. It ap-
pears much smaller than before. Then tell the child to let
it go, bidding all observe ; the sponge returns to its former
shape and size. One child is now to describe that which
they have all observed to occur, both when the sponge was
pressed, and when the pressure was removed ; then all re-
peat together : " Sponge can be pressed into a small spaccj
but returns to its own shape and size when no longer
pressed^ Do you recollect something else, that after you
have stretched it out, comes back to its shape when you
let it go? What did you say that the India rubber was?
In what are the India rubber and the sponge alike? They
both return to their size and shape when you leave them
WHALEBONE. 49
to themselves. Was the same done to both ? What was
the difference ? The India rubber was stretched, the
sponge was pressed. In what were they alike ? They
both returned to their shape when left to themselves.
What did we say the India rubber was? The sponge
is also elastic. Now what things are elastic ? Why is
the India rubber said to be elastic ? Why is sponge said
to be elastic ? The children to be questioned as to the dif-
ferent ways in which things return to their shape or size,
till they gain the clear idea " that those things are said to
he elastic^ which, when their shape or size has been changed
by force^ rrturn to it if left to themselves.'^'' They should
repeat this together several times. The children then to
say what is one of the most striking qualities of a sponge.
LESSON III.
WHALEBO'^E, TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF ONE KIND OP
ELASTICITY.
See that the children know what the object is ; and then
call one cf them to try and see what he can do to it ; he
will find that he can bend it ; tell him to let go one end of
it, and bid the others observe what happens; after this,
question them concerning its returning to its former shape.
What kind of a line was it before it was bent ? What when
you bent it ? What was it when you let one end of it
go ? Then give a child a piece of cloth ; tell him to bend
it ; then tell him to let go of one end of it, and see whether
it will do as the whalebone did, telling him also to state
3
60 SECOND STEP. — LESSON III.
what he sees. The cloth remains bent, but what did you
observe in the whalebone? After bending it, it returned
to its own shape. What then can you say of whalebone ?
It can be bent, and on being let go, returns to its own
shape. Anything which has this property which you have
observed is said to be elastic. Repeat this word to-
gether. What is whalebone ? Why is whalebone said to
be elastic ?
Let the children be required to say what other things
they have learned about, which are elastic, and describe in
what respect their elasticity differs from that of whalebone.
One of these, when stretched^ returns to its former shape ;
another, when compressedy returns to its former shape ; and
whalebone, when hent^ returns to its former shape. In what
were they all alike ? They all take their own shape when
left to themselves. What can you say of all ? They are
all elastic. Let the children next give the reason for their
calling India rubber elastic, and then be told to repeat to-
gether : " India rubber is said to be elastic, because, after
being stretched out, it goes back to its own shape when
left to itself." Let another of them say why sponge is said
to be elastic, and then let all .repeat together : " Sponge is
said to be elastic, because, after having been compressed,
it takes its own shape and size when left to itself." An-
other should say in what manner whalebone is elastic, and
then all repeat together : ^' Wficdebone is elastic, because,
when it has been bent, it goes back to its own shape when
left to itself."
A. PIECE OF GLASS. 5)
LESSON IV.
A PIECE OF GLASS, TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF TRANS-
PAKENCY.
. The teacher is to show the children a piece of glass, and
to lead them to observe its transparency ; preparing them
for this by holding a pebble, or any similar object, behind
the black board or the slate, and asking them what she has
in her hand ; this they will not be able to tell ; the object
should then be withdrawn from behind the board, and held
behind the glass, and the same question asked, which they
will now be able to answer. She may then ask them why
they could not tell her what she had in her hand when she
held it behind the slate, and why they could tell her what
it was when she held it behind the glass. Then they should
be asked what they can say of the glass, and repeat to-
gether ; " We can see through the glass."
The teacher asks the children what they have observed
in glass, and says : Now I will tell you what we call that
quality which you have observed. When we can see
through a thing we say it is transparent ; repeat this word
together. What is glass ? Why do we say it is trans-
parent ? What can you say of water ? When are things
called transparent ? Desire the children also to mention
some other things that they can see through, and what
they can say of them ; the word transparent is then writ-
ten on the board, and they learn to spell it.
62 SECOND STEP. LESSON V.
LESSON V.
A PIECE OF SLATE, TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF OPACITY,
What is this? A piece of slate. Repeat together:
" This is slate.'*'* Which of you can tell me in what part
of a house slate is sometimes used? (Show of hands.)
Yes; in the roof. It does well for covering the roof; but
what would you say to making the windows of slate?
Why would it not do as well as glass ? We could not see
through it. Let us try whether we can see anything
through slate. The teacher holds it up, and puts several
things behind it, which of course cannot be seen. What
then can you say of slate ? Why would it not do for win-
dows ? We should not be able to see through it. But
more than that. Suppose the windows of this room to be
of slate instead of glass, what would the room be ? It
would be dark. What is it that comes into the room
through the glass ? Light. What then is it that does not
come through slate ? Not even light can be seen through
slate. What can you say of slate ? We cannot see through
slate. Now that you have 'observed this quality in slate I
will tell you what such things are said to be. Tell me
again what this quality is which you have observed in
slate. That we cannot see through it ; we cannot even see
light through it. Such things are said to be opaque. Re-
peat this word together. Now repeat together : " Slate is
opaque?'* Tell me something else that is opaque. Why
are wood, stone, and such like things, said to be opaque ?
What do you say wood is ? Repeat together : " Wood is
LEATHER. 53
opaque^'''' &c. When is anything said to be opaque ? The
word must now be written on the board, and the children
should learn to spell it. Now repeat together that quality
of slate which you have now noticed. " Slate is opaque:'*
LESSON VI.
LEATHER.
What is this? It is leather. What is leather? It is
the skin of animals. Name some animals, the skins of
which are used for leather. The cow, the horse, the calf,
the sheep, and the dog. Does the skin of these animals
look like this leather? No. What is the difference?
Their skins are covered with hair. What has been done
to them in making the leather ? The Hair has been scraped
off. Yes ; and the skin has been cleaned and smoothed.
How do we get paper ? It is made of rags. Is leather
made by man, as paper is ? No. But has he nothing to
do to the skin of the animal in order to make it into
leather ? Yes ; it is prepared by him for use.
This is a piece of the skin of a horse. What has been
done to it ? It has been prepared. Now look at it and
tell me what you see in it. It is black. Yes ; this side of
it is black; but this is brown. And what side would you
call that which is black ? The upper side. And what that
which is brown ? The under side. Then how should you
describe this piece of leather? The upper side of it is
black, and the under side brown. Look at it again. We
cannot see through it. You have learned the term for
64 SECOND STEP. LESSON VI.
this, have you not ? Yes ; it is opaque. (The teacher writes
the word on the board, and the children spell it.) Tell me
some things which are opaque. Stone, wood, slate. What
are all these ? Look at the leather again. It is dull. Ob-
serve both sides of it. The upper side is rather bright ;
the under side is dull. Now you have said that this leather
is black and bright on the upper side, and brown and dull
on the under side, and that it is opaque. How did you find
out these qualities ? Yes, by your sight.
Now, take the leather in your hand, and tell me wliat
you observe. It is thin. But if you compare it with the
paper, what would you say ? It is not so thin as the paper.
What more do you notice when you feel of it ? It is
smooth. Compare the two sides. The upper side is the
smoother. Try again what you can do with it. We can
easily bend it. What could you do with the paper ? Fold
it up. Can you do the same with the leather ? No ; we
can bend it ; on this account it is said to he flexible. When
do we call a thing flexible ? When we can easily bend it.
What can you do with the paper besides bending and fold-
ing it ? We can tear it. Try to tear the leather. We
cannot do so. Why ? Because it is tough. Take it in
your hand again, and try if you can say anything more of
it. It is light. Now, you have told me that this leather
is thirty smooth^ flexible^ tough, and light ; how did you dis-
cover these qualities ? By our hands. Yes, by feeling or
touch.
Now shut your eyes, and I will hold the leather near
you, but without letting you sec it or touch it ; what can
you tell me about it now ? It has a smell. Whatever has
LEATHER. ' ^ 55
a smell is said to be odorous. What then is leather ? It
is odorous. How did you find out that it was odorous ?
By the nose. In what manner ? By smelling it. You
found out some qualities in this leather by the eye. Yes.
In what way ? By looking at it. And some qualities you
found out by the hand. Yes. How did you do tliis ? We
touched it. And you found out that it was odorous by the
7iose. In what manner ? We smelled of it.
Are you now wearing anything made of leather ? Yes,
shoes. Why is leather fit for shoes ? It is strong. Yes,
it is strong or durable. Why does your mother, in wet
weather, wish you to have a good pair of leather shoes in
which there are no holes ? That our feet may be kept dry.
Then the water does not come through leather. It is wa-
terproof. Why then is leather fit for shoes ? Because it
is durable and waterproof. You have before mentioned
some other qualities which make leather fit for shoes; you
would not like, I should think, to wear iron shoes ? Why
not? Because they would be so heavy. Leather then is
fit for shoes because it is light. Why would wooden shoes
be unpleasant to wear ? They would hurt the feet. Why
does leather not hurt the feet ? It bends to the shape of
the foot. Yes ; it is flexible.
Now, I will show you something more in the leather ;
see, I put it in the fire ; it frizzles up. What did you no-
tice in the paper when put into the fire ? It was soon
burned up. And what do you observe in the leather ? It
has a very unpleasant smell when burning. This is what
happens to animal substances when you burn them ; they
frizzle up, and give out a disagreeable odor.
66 SECOND STEP. — ^LESSON VH.
Now, repeat together all that has been said about
leather : " Leather is the skin of an animal.'''' What is
done to it ? It is prepared. " Leather, then, is the pre-
pared skin of an animal. By the eye, or by the sense
of sight, we find out that it is black and bright on the up-
per side, brown and dull on the under surface, and that it
is opaque ; by our hands, or by the sense of feeling, we
find that it is thin, tough, flexible, and smooth / by the
nose, or by the sense of smell, we find that it is odorous.
When we put it into the fire it frizzles up, and gives oif a
disagreeable odor : it is fit for shoes, because it is lasting,
thin, light, flexible, and waterproofs
LESSON VII.
LOAF SUGAR.
Ideas to be developed by this lesson — soluble, fusible^
brittle*
Qualities of Loaf Sugar.
It is soluble. It is white,
fusible.* sparkling,
brittle. '- solid.
hard. opaque,
sweet.
Use. — ^To sweeten our food.
* The difference between fusibility and solubility may be rendered ob
vious to the children, by dissolving one piece of sugar in water, and hold
ing another over the candle. It is better that such simple experiment «
should be performed in their presence, than that a mere description of tba
operation should be given.
▲ PIECE OF GUM A E ABIC. §7
LESSON vm.
^ A PIECE OF GUM ARABIC.
Ideas to be developed by this lesson — semi'transparent^
adhesive.
Qualities of Gum Arabic.
It is hard. It is soluble in water.
bright. adhesive when melted
yellow. soUd.
semi-transparent.
Use. — ^To unite light and thin substances.
LESSON IS.
SPONGE.
Ideas to be developed by this lesson--^orow5, absorbe*^
Qualities of /Sponge.
It is porous. It is elastic.
absorbent.*
dull.
soft.
flexible.
tough.
light brown.
opaque.
Use. — For washing.
* The quality of absorbing will be made obvious to the class by show
ing that the sponge sucks up any liquid. It possesses this quality in coor
sequence of its being full of pores. The use to which an object is applied,
often leads to the observation of the quality upon which the use ia de«
pendent.
3*
58 SECOND STEP. — LESSON X.
LESSON X.
WOOL.
Qualities of Wool,
It is soft. It is tough,
absorbent. durable,
white.
flexible.
elastic.
opaque.
dry.
light.
Uses. — For making cloth, flannels, blankets, carpets,
stockings, &c.
LESSON XL
WATEE.
Ideas to be developed by this lesson — colorless, re-
flectivei inodorous^ cleansing.
Qualities of Water.
It is liquid. It is inodorous,
reflective. transparent,
glassy. ^ cleansing,
colorless. ' '
Uses. — ^To cleanse ; to fertilize ; to drink ; for cooking
purposes.
LESSON XII.
A PIECE OP WAX.
This substance is here introduced, because it possesses
many of the qualities already noticed.
CAMPHOR. 59
Qualities of Wax.
It is solid. It is sticky,
opaque. yellowish,
dull. , hard,
tough. odorous,
fusible. smooth.
Use. — To make candles and tapers.
LESSON xm.
CAMPHOR.
Ideas to be developed by this lesson — aromaticy stimu*
kiting^ inflammable^ soluble in spirits.
Qualities of Camphor.
It is aromatic. It is soluble in spirits,
stimulating. hard,
white. solid,
semi-transparent. very inflammable,
bright. light.
Uses. — ^For medicine ; to prevent the taking of disease ;
to preserve cabinets from small insects.
LESSON XIV.
BREAD.
Ideas to be developed by this lesson — edible^ whole*
some^ nutritious, moist.
Qualities of Bread.
Xt is porous. It is opaque,
absorbent. solid.
66 SECOND STEP. — ^LESSON XV.
Qualities of Bread.
It is wholesome. The crumb is moist,
nutritious. The crust is hard,
edible. brittle.
The crumb is yelld^wrish white. brown,
soft, when new.
Use, — ^To nourish.
LESSo:Nr XV.
SEALING WAX.
Idea to be developed by this lesson — impressible.
Qualities of Sealing Wax.
It is hard. It is smooth,
bright. colored*
brittle. inflammable,
fusible. odorous,
opaque. When fused it is soft,
soluble in spirits. impressible,
light. adhesive,
solid.
Use, — ^To seal letters.
LESSON XVI.
WHALEBONE.
Idea to be developed by this \e%%on— fibrous.
Qualities of Whalebone.
It is elastic,
durable,
hard.
It is fibrous,
opaque,
stiff.
Uses, — ^As a
stiffener ;
for whips, &Q.
* The color will be determined by the epecimen presentee^
GIIfGEB. 61
LESSON XYII.
GINGER.
Ideas to be developed by this lesson-^ungentj medici*
nal^ jagged.
Qualities of Ginger,
It is pungent. It is tough,
dull. opaque,
hard. wholesome.
dry. medicinal,
fibrous. jagged,
aromatic. light brown.
Uses, — ^To flavor food ; for medicine.
LESSON XVIII.
BLOTTING PAPER.
Ideas to be developed by this lesson— ^mtoA, pliable^
artificial.
Qualities of Blotting Paper.
It is absorbent. It is pliable,
porous. dull,
soft. inflammable,
thin. easily torn,
pinkish. artificial.
Use. — ^To suck up superfluous ink.
LESSON XIX.
A PIECE OF WILLOW.
Qualities of Willow.
It is hard. It is fibrous,
inflammable. dull.
62 SECOND STEP. — LESSON XI.
Qucdities of Willow,
It is opaque. It is flexible,
solid. white,
elastic. odorous.
LESSON XX.
MILK.
Idea to be developed — greasy.
Qualities of Milk.
It is white. - is greasy,
liquid. nutritiouw.
opaque. sweet,
wholesome.
Uses. — ^To make cheese, butter, puddings; to drink j
food for young animals.
LESSON XXL
EICE.
Qualities of Bice.
It is white.
It is solid.
hard.
porous.
opaque.
^
absorbent.
smooth.
♦""^
wholesome,
stiff.
.
.nutritious.
bright.
Use. — ^To nourish.
LESSON xxn.
SALT.
Ideas to be developed by this lesson — grarmlous^ sapid,
^iney preservative.
A HORN. 63
Qualities of Salt.
It is white. It is hard,
sparkling. opaque,
granulous. soluble,
sapid, or has a taste. fusible,
salt, or saline. preservative.
Uses. — ^To flavor food ; to preserve from putrefaction ;
to manure land.
LESSON XXI]
A HOEN.
Qualities of a Horn,
It is hard. It is tapering,
dull. opaque,
uneven. stiff,
hollow. yellowish brown,
odorous when burnt. fibrous.
Uses. — ^To make combs, glue, lanterns ; handles to
knives and forks.
LESSON XXIV.
IVORY.
Qualities of Ivory.
It is hard. It is opaque,
white. solid,
smooth. durable,
bright.
W SECOND STEP. — ^LESSON XXV.
LESSON XXV.
▲ PIECE OF THE BARK OF THE OAK TREE.
Idea to be developed by this lesson — astringent.
Qualities of BarJc.
is brown.
It is
5 stiff.
rough on the outside.
solid.
smooth on the inside.
durable.
opaque.
fibrous.
dry.
dull.
inflammable.
astringent.*
Uses. — ^To guard the tree from injury ; for tanning.
LESSON XXVL
AN UNCUT LEAD PENCIL.
From this object the children may become acquainted
with the cylinder ; for they will not fail to observe that the
ends are flat, and that the other face is curved.
Idea to be developed by this lesson — cylindrical.
Parts.
Qualities.
The surface.
It is hard.
faces.
odorous.
ends.
long.
* The children may be made to understand the quality of astringency,
by drawing their attention to the contracting effect produced in the mouth
by eatmg a choke cherry or piece of alum.
A WAX CANDT.E. 66
Parts,
Qualities,
The lead.
It is solid.
wood
opaque.
inflammable.
dry.
brown.
One face is curved.
The ends are flat.
circular.
The form is cylindrical.
The lead is gray.
brittle.
friable.
bright.
Us£S. — For writing, drawing, &c. Let the children
point out on what
occasion a pencil is preferable to a pen,
and vice versa.
In this lesson, and others, the conceptive faculty may
be exercised, by requiring the children to recall to their
minds some object in which they had observed before the
quality of inflammability ; also that of friability.
LESSON XXVIL
A WAX CANDLE.
This object recalls the idea of the cylinder^ obtained
in a previous lesson, and presents the peculiar parts of the
candle itself
Parts. Qualities.
The wick. It is cylinder,
wax. hard.
ee
SECOND STEP. LESSON XXVIH.
Parts.
Qualities,
The surface.
It is opaque.
faces.
yellowish white.
ends.
The wax is sticky.
edges.
fusible.
top.
The wick is inflammable.
bottom.
tough.
middle.
white.
fibrous.
flexible.
Use. — ^To give light.
The children should be asked, What must be done be-
fore the candle gives light ? What becomes of the wick ?
What of the wax ?
LESSON XXVIII.
A PEN.
A pen presents many different parts ; the qualities of
some of these are opposite to the qualities of others.
Ideas to be developed by this lesson — angular^ grooved^
spongy.
Parts. Qualities.
The quill. The quill is transparent,
shaft. cylindrical,
feather. hollow,
laminae. bright,
pith. hard,
nib. elastic,
split. yellowish,
shoulders. horny.
A PEN.
Farts.
Qualities.
"he surface.
The shaft is opaque.
faces.
angular.
skin.
solid.
groove.
white.
inside.
stiff.
outsida
hard.
grooved.
The pith is white.
spongy.
porous.
elastic.
soft.
87
68 THIRD STEP.— -LESSON
THIED STEP.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS FOR THE DIRECTION OF THE
TEACHER.
In this series the children may be led to the observation
of qualities which cannot be discerned merely by the senses.
Thus by showing them at the same time wool and woollen
cloth, and questioning them as to the difference of the
two, they will readily conceive the ideas of natural and
artificial. In this manner they may be led to remark the
distinction between foreign and native ; exotic and indi-
genous ; animal^ vegetable, mineral, dtc.
At this Step the conceptive powers should be more de-
cidedly called into exercise ; the way for this is prepared
by the clearness and vividness of the ideas obtained through
the careful cultivation of perception.
LESSON L
CHALK.
What is this ? A piece of chalk. Where do we get
chalk ? Out of the earth. What are those places called
out of which chalk is taken ? Chalk pits. God has placed
CHALK. 69
a great deal of chalk in the earth in some countries, so that
it rises up and forms low, rounded hills. Where have you
ever seen a hill ? Chalk, you say, comes out of the earthy
dug from chalk pits. Paper, you remember, is made by
man — leather is prepared by man, but chalk is neitlier
made nor prepared by man ; and it is therefore said to be
a natural substance. Why is chalk said to be natural?
Because it is neither made nor prepared by man.
Why do you think that this is chalk? It is white.
Yes, chalk is white, but milk is white also ; how then do
you know chalk from milk? Milk is liquid. Yes, the
chalk does not flow or form itself into drops ; it is in a
solid lump. Chalk is solido Why do we call it solid?
Because it does not form drops, but is found in a lump.
Now look at this lump of sugar ; this, like the chalk, is
white and solid ; how do we know it from the chalk ? It
is sparkling. Yes, and the chalk is dull. Now you have
seen that the chalk is white, solid, and dull. Look at it
again. We cannot see through it. What then can you say
of it ? It is opaque. Thus by the sense of sight you dis-
cover that chalk is white, solid, dull, and opaque.
Now feel the chalk. It feels very dry. Rub it. It.
crumbles. Into what condition does it crumble? That
of a powder. Chalk is dri/ and crumbling. What hap-
pens when I draw the chalk across the slate ? Some of the
chalk remains on the slate, and leaves a mark. That is
because the chalk is crumbling. What quality of chalk
makes it useful to us ? That of its being crumbling. Who
gave it this most useful quality ? God. Yes ; God, who
made the chalk, made it of a crumbling nature. ^
70 THIRD STEP. ^LESSON U,
And now tell me another sense by which we find out a
quality, in addition to those of sight and touch ? The
sense of smell. Well, smell of the chalk. It has no smell ;
it is inodorous. How do you find out that sugar is sweet ?
By tasting it. But as chalk is not meant to be eaten, you
need not taste it, though you may put it to your tongue,
and tell me what you observe. It sticks to the tongue.
Yes; repeat together: " Chalk sticks to the tongue^
Where have you seen chalk used? To write on the
black board.
Now all of you repeat everything you have learned,
about chalk.
" Chalk is dug out of chalk pits. There is so much
chalk in the earth in some countries, that it forms hiUs,
Chalk is a natural substance, of great use to man. When
we look at chalk we find that it is white., solid^ dull, and
opaque; by feeling it we find that it is dri/ and sticks to
the tongue ; it is a*umhling, and therefore useful for writiiig
with ; it is inodorous ; and it is used for writing on the
black board."
LESSON n.
COAL.
I hold in my hand a piece of a natural substance, and I
wish you to tell me what it is ? But first tell me what I
mean by a natural substance ? That which is not made by
man. The natural substance which I hold in my hand was
dug out of the earth ; it is black, and very useful to man ;
guess what it is. Yes, it is a piece of coal. Why did you
COAL. VI
tuink it to be coal ? Because you said that it was black,
and that it came out of the earth, and was useful to man.
What quaUty of coal is it which makes it so useful to man?
Its being so inflammable. How is it that this quaUty of
coal makes it so useful ? Because we can cook our food,
and warm our rooms with it. Yes ; how sad it would have
been last wmter, if there had not been coals for fires. Who
made coals inflammable ? God. How very good is our
Heavenly Father in giving to diflferent things differing
quahties, that they may be of varied use to man ! He has
caused some to be liquid, that we may drink them / some
to be wholesome, that we may be nourished by them ;
some to be crumbling, that we may write with them ; and
some to be inflammable, that we may be warmed by them.
Now examine this piece of coal. It is very bright, and
it is opaque. Repeat together : " Coal is very bright^ and
it is opaque?'' Feel it. It is hard, solid, and brittle. Re-
peat together: "Coal \s hard^ solid, brittle.'*^ Sometimes,
teacher, there are little bright yellow patches in the coal.
Yes, those are little bits of iron ; and we sometimes find
pieces of slate in the coal, and then we say it is not good, it
will not burn well.
What use do we make of coal ? We cook our food and
warm our rooms with it. What other use is made of coal ?
Gas is made from it. What is the use of gas ? To light
the streets. What other use is made of coal ? It is used
in producing steam. What does steam come from ? From
boiling water. What makes the water boil so as to be-
come steam ? The fire. And what makes the best fire ?
Coal. If we cannot get coal, what could we use instead of
72 THIRD STEP. ^LESSON III.
it? Wood. And what must we do to get wood? We
must cut down our trees. Now repeat together your les-
son tipon coal ; " Coal is a natural substance dug out of the
earth / it is very useful to man^ because it is very inflam-
mahle. It is blacky bright^ brittle, hard^ and opaque. It is
useful for cooking our food and warming our rooms y for
making gas, and producing steam, and also for many other
purposes."
LESSON m.
A MATCH.
Do you know what this is ? Yes, teacher, it is a match.
Are matches found ready made ? No. How do we get
them? They are made by some person. Tell me then
what the different parts of a match are. The sulphur and
the wood. And where is the sulphur put ? At the end of
the match. How many ends has the match ? Two. Do
you observe any other parts ? The sides. Then the parts
of a match are, the wood, the sulphur, the ends, the sides.
And now tell me what is sulphur? Where does it
come from ? It comes out of the earth. Who can tell me
what we call things which are dug out of the earth, but
which do not grow out of it ? Stones. No ; we do not
call everything dug out of the earth stone ; I think some
of you will recollect a very useful thing, which, though it
is dug out of the earth, we do not call a stone ; what is it ^
Yes, coal. But you would not call coal a stone, would
you, or sulphur ? No ; but everything that is dug out of
the earth may be called a mineral. What then is a min-
eral ? And now tell me what sulphur is. It ii a mineral
A MATCH. 73
Why is sulphur said to be a mineral ? Name any other
minerals you know.
Now look carefully at the sulphur, and tell me some-
thing about it. It is yellow. Yes ; all of you repeat to-
gether : " Sulphur is yellowP See, I put some of it to a
lighted candle. It is on fire. What do you say those
things are that readily take fire ? They are inflammable.
Sulphur is inflammable. Did you notice anything more in
the sulphur when it took fire ? The flame was very blue.
Repeat : " Sulphur burns with a hlae flameP I think you
can find out something more by my having set the sulphur
on fire. It gives off a very unpleasant smell. What are
those things called tliat give out a smell? Sulphur is odov'
ous. By what did you find out that sulphur was odorous?
By the nose. What use did you make of your noses then?
We smelled with them. By what did you find out that sul-
phur was yellow ? By the eye. What use did you make
of your eyes then ? We saw w^ith them. There is some-
thing more that the fire does to the sulphur ; what is it ?
The fire melts it. Repeat : " Sulphur melts w^hen heated."
What is the quality that makes sulphur useful to us ? Its
being inflammable.
Of what is the greater part of this match made ? Of
wood. You have told me that sulphur is a mineral, be-
cause it is found in the earth ; now what is wood ? It is a
'vegetable. Yes ; all repeat together : " Wood is vegetable:^
What is it taken from ? A tree. What kind of wood is
this ? It is pine. Yes ; and here is a picture of the pine
tree.
Now examine this piece of wood, and tell me something
4
74 THIRD ST£P. LESSON III.
about it. It is hard ; it is dry ; it is opaque ; in color it is
yellowish white. Repeat these qualities of wood all to-
gether: "Pine wood is hard, dry, opaque, dull; the color
is yellowish white." Now I will put a bit of it to the flame
of this candle. It has taken fire : it is inflammable. What
difierence did you observe between the sulphur and wood
when put into the flame ? The sulj^hur took fire sooner,
and burned with a blue flame. Yes ; and it also melted
into drops ; but what does wood become when it has been
burned ? It becomes ashes. Now think a little and try to
find out why both sulphur and wood are required in ordei
to make a good match ? The sulphur is used in a matcr
because it takes fire so quickly. And what of the wood ?
How long did the sulphur burn ? It burned but a very
short time. It would not burn long enough to enable any
one to light a candle or fire from it ; but the wood burns a
much longer time ; so we have the sulphur because it takes
fire quickly, and sets fire to the wood ; and the wood, be-
cause it bums much longer, and enables us to Ught a fire or
candle without hurry.
Now you shall repeat all you have said about the match, .
" A match is made of wood and sulphur. The sulphur is
placed at one end ; it is a mineral substayice^ and comes out
of the earth ; it is yellow ; it is very inflammable^ burning
with a blue flame ; it also melts inflre^ and is very odorous.
Wood is a vegetable substance^ and comes from a tree called
a pine tree. The wood is inflammable^ but it does not bum
SLway so fast as the sulphur; it burns to ashes ; its color is
yellowish white ; it is hardj dry, dull, and opaqugj'^
A ROSE LEAF. 7S
LESSON IV.
A HOSE LEAF.
What is this? It is a leaf. Where are leaves found?
On plants and trees. What leaves do cows and horses eat ?
Those of the grass. What leaves do we sometimes eat ?
Cabbage leaves and spinach, &c. Do you know a word by
which you can at once speak of trees, and grass, and cab-
bages ? What is one of the largest vegetables you have
ever seen ? An elm tree. Tell me the name of a smaller
one. Wheat. Tell me of one we often eat. Lettuce.
What are all these called ? Vegetables. Where do vege-
tables come from ? They grow out of the ground. If I
had a piece of land without any vegetables growing upon
it, what must I do to raise some ? You must sow some
seed in it. Where must I put the seed ? In the earth.
If I were to sow some grass seed, what would follow ?
Some grass would spring up. And what would it be at
first ? Very small. If it were healthy, would it continue
so small ? No. What would it do ? It would grow. If
I were to put an acorn in the ground, what would happen ?
A little root would burst out of it and go down into the
groundj and a little green shoot would come up and put out
some little leaves. Yes, and at first it would be very small;
but it would grow, so that in many years it would become
a great oak. But would the same occur if I buried a piece
of flint or coal in the earth ? No. These do not grow
out of the earth as vegetables do.
Now you know the difference between a mineral and a
16 THIRD STEP. — ^LESSON IV.
vegetable. Look at this leaf, and tell me its different parts.
By what part do I hold it ? The stalk. What does the
stalk bear ? The leaf. The stalk that bears a leaf is called
the leaf stalk : what is this ? A leaf stalk. Find out some
of the parts of the leaf. The edge. Here are two leaves,
one from a rose tree, the other from the plant on which the
lily grows ; what difference do you observe in the edges of
them ? The rose leaf has little points, which the lily leaf
has not. Yes ; the points are called teeth, because they are
like the sharp pointed teeth of some animals ; and an edge^
that has such points, is said to be toothed. What is this
edge ? It is toothed. Why is it said to be toothed ? Be-
cause it has points like the teeth of some animals.
Find out some other parts of this leaf. There is a line
down the middle of it. Yes ; that line is called the mid-
rib. See whether the midrib is the same on both sides of
the leaf. It sinks in on one side and stands out on the
other. Which of you can tell me what they call the hol-
low line made by the plough in a ploughed field ? A fur-
row. And what do they call the raised part on each side
of it ? A ridge. What is the midrib like on this side of
the leaf? A furrow. And on this side it is like a ridge,
Now you see there are two sides or surfaces to the
leaf; by what names would you distinguish them ? When
the luaf is on the tree, which side is uppermost ? This,
therefore, is called the upper side / and what would you
call the other ? The under side. Look carefully at the
leaf again. There are other lines upon it. Where do these
lines spring from ? From the midrib. And where do they
end ? In the edge. These lines are called the veins / in
A EOSE LEAF. 77
what are they like the midrib ? They sink in like furrows
on the upper side of the leaf, and rise up like ridges on the
under surface of it. Do you see any other part. The end.
The point or end is opposite to the stalk.
Now tell me some of the qualities of the leaf; what can
you say of it ? It is green ; it is rather bright. Look
again, and see if both sides are bright. No ; the under side
is dull. Here^are several leaves ; what difference do you
observe in their upper and under surfaces? The upper
surface is the brighter. Feel of the rose leaf. It is thin ;
it is soft. Anything more ? It bends easily. What do
you say of a thing which bends easily ? It is pliable.
What can you then say of this leaf? It is pliable. What
more do you notice when you feel of it ? It is light and
smooth. What is its shape ? It is round. (The teacher
draws a correct circle on the black board.) What, is it
like this in shape ? No, not quite I will dravv the shape
of an Ggg ; which is it more like ? It is more like the
shape of the eg^. We call the shape of an Qgg oval ;
what would you say is the shape of this leaf? It is oval.
Now you must let me hear you all together repeat the
heads of this lesson on the rose leaf. " A rose leaf is a veg-
etable substance ; it grows on a leaj stalk ; it has a toothed
edge ; it has a midrib^ which is like a farroio on the up2)er
side, and like a ridge on the under side ; it has also many
veins, which are like furrows on the upper side, and like
ridges on the under side. Its color is green ; its shape is
oval. To the touch it is thin, soft^ smooth / it is pliable ;
the upper side is rather bright, and the under side is dulV
V8 THIRD STEP. ^LESSON V.
LESSON V
HONEY COMB.
What is this ? A piece of honey comb. Where does
it come from ? A bee hive. Who placed it in the hive ?
The bees made it there. Can you tell me how the bees
made it? No, I am sure you cannot. iThey have no
hands, nor tools, yet see how beautifully it is made ; not
one of you could form such a piece of comb. Where did
the bees learn how to make the comb ? Yes ; God taught
them, and enabled them to do it well. He has taught all
animals to do whatever is necessary to their comfort. Now
look at the honey comb, and tell me what you see. It is
full of holes. The holes are called cells. What parts do
you see in the cells ? What do we call that part of this
room in which the windows are, and where the door is ?
The sides. Well, see what the cells have ? They have
sides. Count how many sides each cell has. Yes ; each cell
has six sides. Look again at the room, and tell me what
you call those parts of it in which the sides meet each other.
The corners. And what has' 'each cell ? It has corners.
How many corners has each cell ? — count them. Six. Re-
peat : " Each cell has six corners^ When you look into
the cell, what part of it do you see? The bottom, or floor
of it. And what is the other end called ? The top. What
is there round the top ? An edge.
Now try to find out some qualities of the honey comb ;
you may take it in your fingers. It is very light and sticky.
Now look at it. It is dull. It is yellow. Hold it up
HONEY COMB. 79
to the light. Is it transparent, or is it quite opaque?
What do you observe? We see the light through it.
When you see light through a substance it is said to be
translucent. Why is this honey comb said to be translu-
cent ? Because we can see the light through it. Now
look at it as I press it in my fingoi-s. I have crushed it ;
it is brittle. Now I put it into the flame of a candle ; it
melts. When does it melt ? When it is heated. It is
fusible.
What use does the bee make of the cells ? It stores up
honey in them. And where does the bee get the honey ?
From flowers. Yes; in summer the bee collects honey,
which it stores up in some of the cells ; but it also uses
others of the cells for another purpose; the young bees are
kept in them, and these are fed and watched by the old
bees till they get their wings, and then they fly, and begin
to work themselves. And what do we make of the honey
comb ? We melt it down into wax. And what use do we
make of the wax? We make candles of wax. Yes; and
we rub furniture with it, to make it bright. I should think
that some of you have seen wax used for other purposes be-
side these. Yes, teacher, my mother uses it. What does
she use wax for ? She rubs her thread with it to make it
firm and strong. Now repeat all you know about the honey
comb. " Honey comb is made by hees^ who put into it the
honey they get from, flowers. It is formed of a number of
little cells^ each of which has six sides, and six corners, a
bottom, or floor, and a to2:> with an edge. Wax is very
light, thin, and sticky / its color is light yellow ; it is dull /
it is transluce7it ; it is brittle, and melts when heated. We
80 THIRD STEP. LESSON VI.
use it to make candles and to polish furniture y it is used
to strengthen thread.^"*
LESSON VI.
A BUTTERFLY.
What is this ? It is a butterfly. What is a butterfly ?
An insect. What is an insect ? It is neither a vegetable
nor a mineral ; it is an cmimal. Now examine the butterfly,
and tell me its different parts. It has wings. How many
wings has a butterfly ? Four. Wliat difference do you
observe in these four wings ? Two of them are large and
two are small. What can it do with its wings ? It can fly.
Where are the wings placed? Two on each side of the
body. In what position are the wings when the insect is
flying ? Are they in the direction of the walls of the room,
or of the ceiling ? They are in the direction of the ceil-
ing.* In what other direction does the butterfly some-
times place its wings ? It sometimes puts them upright,
so that they touch each other ; but when it flies they are
always spread open. If you had a piece Of thin paper,
which you wished to float on the air, would you roll it up,
or spread it out ? I should spread it out. Yes ; then the
air would support it. What does the butterfly do that is
like this ? f It opens its wings and spreads them out.
* If the children have learned the difference between the horizontal
and vertical position, they may here apply their knowledge.
f The youngest children should be led to the observation of facts.
The reasoning upon thciu, and drawing conclusions from them, is the work
of a later period.
A BUTTEEFLT. 81
What more do you observe in the butterfly's wings?
They are beautifully marked. See, I rub the wings with
my finger. What do you perceive ? The color comes off.
There is a kind of down upon the wings which is easily
rubbed off. Repeat together : " The butterfly has four
wings^ two of them are large and two small. They are
placed on either side of the body. When it flies the wings
are spread out; when at rest, they are often upright.
They are covered with beautifully colored down., which is
very easily rubbed off.''''
Now what other part do you observe in the butterfly ?
The legs. How many legs has a butterfly ? It has six
legs. Where are they placed ? Underneath the body.
What can the butterfly do with its legs ? It can walk.
Does it use them much in walking ? No. AYhat do you
generally see a butterfly doing ? Flying about. And
when it is not flying, what is it doing? It is standing.
What does it stand upon ? Its legs. When we ourselves
walk or move along we bend our legs ; what do we call
that part where the lag bends? We cafl it a joint. And
what can the butterfly do with its legs ? It can bend
them. What then must it have upon its legs ? Joints.
Repeat together what you know of the butterfly's legs :
"The butterfly has six legs placed under its body ; the
legs have Joi?its / it uses its legs chiefly to stand upon?''
Now find out another part of the butterfly. Its body.
What sort of a bodylias it ? It is long and small. You
may call it slender. Where is the body placed ? Be-
tween the wings. What more do you observe in it ? It
is covered with hairs. Repeat together : " The body of the
4*
82 TUIKD STEP. LESSON VI.
butterfly is slender and covered with hairs ; it is placed
between its wings?'*
What other part do you see ? The head. And what
has the butterfly upon its head ? It has horns. How
many ? Two. What sort of horns are they ? They are
long. And what more ? Fine. What do you observe as
to the ends of these ? They are thick. The horns of
the butterfly always end in thick knobs. What more do
you see on the head ? Eyes. How many ? Two. What
is the use of the eyes ? They are to see with. Look
again at the head ; there are some things that stick out.
These are called feelers ; most insects have four feelers.
Look, here is something which I draw out from between
the feelers. What is it like ? It is like a rolled up hair.
This is the butterfly's mouth, and it is called a trunk.
Which of you can tell me what butterflies feed upon ?
Honey. And w^here do they find honey? In flowers.
Yes ; generally at the bottom of the flowers. Could they
get at it if they had mouths like yours and mine ? No.
What then is the particular use of such a m"mith as this to
a butterfly ? To get at the honey at the bottom of the
flowers. Yes, the butterfly darts its trunk into the flowers,
and as it is hollow, it can suck up the sweet honey through
it. What pleasure you will now have in observing a but-
terfly, and in thinking that God has given it just such a
mouth as an insect which feeds on honey needs, while ours
is the best for us ! Now repeat together the names of the
parts of the butterfly's head : " The butterfly has two eyes
on its head^ and two horns^ which are long^ each ending in
a knob. It has four feelers / between two of which ig
A BUTTEKFLY 83
placed its mouthy which is a long curled-up trunJc y it darts
this trunk into flowers to get at the honey P
The children's remarks upon the color and marks of the
butterfly must be determined by the particular species of
that brought before them. The teacher should lead them
to admire its beauty, and to observe the happy life it seems
to lead, and then draw attention to the sin of teasing a little
creature which God has formed to be happy, and of injur-
ing that which God has made so beautiful. No opportu-
nity should be lost of endeavoring to counteract that pro-
pensity to cruelty which is so common in children ; this
evil disposition springs generally from a love of showing
power ; they should therefore be encouraged to exercise
any power God may have bestowed, in increasing the hap-
pntess of all His creatures. They should .be early trained
to feel that they are accountable for every faculty they
possess, even for their power over the most insignificant
insect.
In what kind of weather do butterflies come out ? In
fine sunshiny weather. How do they employ themselves ?
In flying about and gathering honey. Would it be right
in us to imitate the butterfly ? No ; because God has
given us all work to do, and tells us in His Word to be as
industrious as the ant. The life of the butterfly is short, it
needs but to provide for the present day ; but we should
labor while we have youth and strength, that we may not
be a burden to others when we become old.
Now repeat together all that we have said of the but-
terfly. " The butterfly is an insefit : it has four wings^ two
of which are large and two are small ; when it flies these
84 THIRD STEP. LESSON VII.
are sjyread out y they are covered with beautiful down^
which is easily nibbed off : between the wings is the hody.^
which is long and slender^ and covered with soft hairs ;
under its body are six legs^ which hawQ joints / it does not
use its legs much in walking^ bat chiefly in standing : upon
the head there are two loiig horns^ with knobs at the end ;
two eyes ; four feelers ; between two of the feelers is
placed the mouthy which is a long^ hollow trunk, curled up
when not in use ; it darts this trunk into flowers^ to get at
the honey ^ upon which it feeds."
LESSON VII.
RECAPITULATION.
Here are the four objects upon which you have had les-
sons this week. What are they ? A match, a leaf, a piece
of honey comb, and a butterfly. Which of these is made
by man ? The match. What things must the person have
who would make a match ? Suljihur and wood. What
kind of a substance is sulphur? It is a mineral substance.
And what is wood ? It is a vegetable substance. Upon
what other vegetable substance have you had a lesson ? A
leaf Are the leaf and the wood whole vegetables ? No ;
they are but parts of vegetables. The butterfly is a whole
animal. Tell me the name of another animal. A dog. I
will write the names of these two animals on the board —
butterfly, dog. Now, tell me the names of two whole veg'
etables, that I may write them down also. A rose tree,
wheat. Now of two minerals. Sulphur and flint. We
have now two animals^ two vegetables^ and two minerals.
EECAPITULATIOX. 85
Now tell me what can the butterfly do ? It can fly.*
What can the dog do ? It can run. Can the dog fly, or
the butterfly run ? No. But can you not find out some-
thing that we can say is done by both of them, when the
one flies and the other runs ? They both move. In what
manner does the butterfly move ? It flies from flower to
flower. Whom does the butterfly please in thus flying from
flower to flower ? Itself The butterfly flies about when-
ever it pleases. And when the dog runs about or lies down
to sleep, whom is he pleasing ? Himself. Then the dog
moves about whenever he pleases ; what then can you say
that both these animals do? They move about as they
please.
But now think a little about these vegetables, and tell
me how in this respect they differ from the animals. The
vegetables cannot move about. Did you never see a tree
move ? Yes ; when the wind blows. In what then is its
moving difierent from the moving of an animal ? The ani-
mal moves about when and where it likes, but the tree does
not move from place to place ; its branches move when the
wind blows them. But think what vegetables do. If I
wished to have a crop of wheat in my field, what must I do ?
Sow some seed. Yes ; I must put the little seed into the
ground ; and what then ? It Avill spring up. And what
will it become at last ? Wheat. Yes ; a plant of wheat
with a stem^ and leaves^ and a head. But what must have
happened to the vegetable when, from being a little seed,
* Of course it is impossible to anticipate the exact answers of children,
but the points here dwelt upon are those to which the teacher should direct
observation by questions.
86 THIED STEP. — LESSON VIII.
it has become a large plant ? It must have grown. What
then do vegetables do? They grow. Yes; vegetables
grow. Do animals also grow? Yes. Tell me how you
know that animals grow. We had a little kitten, which is
now a great cat. What can you say of animals? That
they grow, and move about where they please. What can
you say of vegetables ? That they grow.
But now think about minerals ; supposing I put this
piece of flint into the ground, as I might a seed ; if I came
in a fortnight, might I expect to see any part of it above
the earth ? No. Why not ? If I had put in a seed I
should expect to see a little shoot coming up. Yes ; be-
cause the vegetable grows, but the mineral does not grow.
Well, then, you have found out that animals grow, and move
about as they please / vegetables grow / minerals neither
grow nor move from place to place.
LESSON vm.
SKETCH OF A LESSON ON THE MASSACRE OF THE CHILDREN
OF BHTHLEHEM.
Intended for Children of nine or ten years of age.
L Picture examined. — Get the children to examine the
picture, telling what they see ; as, a man, a woman, a child.
The man looks strong and fierce, holds a knife or dagger in
one hand, a child in the other by one of its legs. The in-
fant seems frightened ; its mouth is open ; it is crying. The
woman is kneeling at the feet of the man, stretching out
her arras toward the child ; she looks frightened and im-
MASSACRE OF THE CHILDREN OP BETHLEHEM. 87
ploring. What does this mean? What does it appear the
man is about to do with the infant ? Why is the woman so
imploring ?
Thus introduced, endeavor to make the children picture
to themselves the distressing scene recorded in Matthew ii,
16-18; how wretched the poor mothers must have been to
see their helpless infants torn from them, and murdered be-
fore their eyes, by brutal men sent for that purpose — and
probably in every house a murder; expressed in the lan-
guage of Jeremiah, ''lamentation, and weeping, and great
mourning."
II. Narrative told. — Here read or detail to the children
the circumstances that led to this general massacre of poor
unoffending babes ; questioning them, to ascertain that they
are following the teacher. The wise men's visit — they apply
to Herod for information as to the birthplace of the King of
Israel, who hears them with astonishment — he consults tho
scribes, who point out Bethlehem as the place of Messiah's
birth — he is moved with jealousy, fearing that his throne
will be taken from him — under a mask of hypocrisy he di-
rects the wise men to find out the new-bom Prince, and
requests them to return to him with tidings, that he may
go and worship Him also — an angel tells them to return to
their own country another way — Herod's disappointment —
he orders the slaughter of all the children of a certain age,
both in Bethlehem and the neighborhood, that among them
the . Saviour might fall — with fearful exactness his com-
mands were carried out — an example of which we see in the
picture before us.
III. Gods Providence. — Lead the children to coi^sidei
88 THIRD STEP. LESSON VIII.
how God overruled Herod's wicked design, and preserved
the infant Jesus. What did Herod think he had done ?
Defeated the indications of the star, and accompUshed his
own will in opposition to that of the Almighty. But had
he done so ? Remark that whatever crafty, cruel devices
were in his heart, the counsel of the Lord must stand.
This event formed another accomplishment of the words
of the prophet Jeremiah (xxxi, 15-17). Thus, also, the
date of Christ's birth was publicly marked, and all others
who could have pretended to be the Messiah, as having
been born at Bethlehem about the same time, were cut off.
Load the children next to see that Joseph knew neither the
danger the Child was in, nor, if he had known it, was he
aware of any way to escape ; but an angel appears and
tells him of both. **Take the young Child by night, and
flee into Egypt." Thus the inflxnt Jesus was rescued.
How vain is it for man to contend against the Almighty !
IV. Practical application. — ^Direct the children, by
questions, to observe the main ideas in the preceding parts
of the lesson, and to make a threefold apphcation: 1st,
What the cruelty of Herod suggests. 2d, What the work-
ings of God's providence. 3il, The preservation of the in-
fant Jesus.
1st. From the cruelty of Herod we learn to what
lengths wicked men will go when they give way to evil
passions, and how guarded we should be against envy and
jealousy.
2d. From the working of God's overruling providence,
we see how He can thwart and baffle the wicked designs
of men, and make their wrath to praise Him. But can tho
A QUILL. 88
Messiah, Who is to be the consolation of Israel, be intro-
duced with all this lamentation ? Yes ; 1st, for so it was
foretold ; and 2d, if we look further, we shall find that the
weeping in Ramah was but a forerunner to the greatest
joy; for it follows: "Thy work shall be rewarded, and
there is hope in thy end ; " " Unto them a child was born,"
sufficient to repair their losses.
3d. From the preservation of the Saviour, we learn the
security of God's people, which may be also seen in the
case of David, who said : " I will not be afraid of ten
thousands of people that have set themselves against me
round about."
LESSON IX
A QUILL.
This subject is
taken as it brings up many terms pre-
viously developed.
Parts,
(
Qualities.
The quill.
It
is long.
shaft.
stiff.
ends.
useful.
feather.
natural.
laminae.
animal substance
inside.
The barrel
is transparent.
outside.
hard.
groove.
elastic.
surface.
bright.
faces.
yellowish.
pith.
cylindrical.
skin.
hollow,
light.
The shaft
is feathered.
90 THIBD STEP. LESSON X.
QualUies,
The shaft is white,
stiflf.
hard,
opaque,
solid,
angular,
grooved.
Children may be led to remark the difference which fire
produces on animal and vegetable substances, both as to
appearance and smell.
The t iacher now requires the class to give an explana^
tion in their own words of the terms they have used.
LESSON X.
A
PENNY.
Idea to be developed in
L this lesson — metallic.
Parts.
Qualities,
The surface.
It is round.
faces.
flat.
edges.
mineral.
milling.
metallic.
impression.
opaque.
image.
bright.
superscription.
reddish white.
date.
fusible.
hard.
artificial.*
heavy.
durable.
uneven.
* The class should be led to remark that, though the workmanship ia
artiSciaL the substance is natural.
MUST^ED SEED.
91
LESSON XI.
MTISTAKD SEED.
Ideas to be developed by this lesson — indigenous^ pul-
verable^ spherical.
Qualities.
t is pungent.
It
is dull.
yellow.
opaque.
hard.
dry.
pulverable.
natural.
indigenous.
vegetable.
spherical.
solid.
stimulating.
LESSON XII.
AN APPLE.
Idea to be developed-
—membranaceous.
(
Qualities.
It is spherical.
The seeds
are brown on the
odorous.
outside when
colored.
ripe.
opaque.
white in the in-
natural.
side.
vegetable.
hard.
juicy.
The core is merabranace-
hard.
ous.
solid.
stiff.
pleasant.
yellow.
The eye is dry.
hard.
brown
semi-transpa-
shrivelled.
rent.
92 THIRD STEP. — LESSON XIIL
LESSON xm.
GLASS OF A WATCH.
The ideas to be developed by this lesson — concave and
convex.
Farts,* Qualities.
It is artificial,
transparent,
brittle,
bright,
thin,
hard,
clear,
curved.
' The upper face is convex.
The under face concave.
The edge circular.
Uses. — ^To preserve the hands of the watch froi^ being
injured, and to keep the works from dust.
LESSON XIV.
BROWN SUGAR.
The idea to be developed by this lesson — native.
Qualities.
It is brown. It is useful.
granulous. vegetable substance,
sweet. artificial,
soluble. native,
fusible. sticky.
opaque. moist.
* The children should be psked whether there are any parts to this ob-
ject peculiar to it ; and when, as in the watch glaas, there are not, the
naming of the parts had better be omitted.
AN ACORN. 93
Use. — ^To sweeten our food.
Obtained from the sugar cane, which is cultivated in the
East and West Indies, and some of the Southern States.
LESSON XV.
AN ACORN.
Ideas to be
developed — oval^ scaly.
Parts,
Qualities,
The cup.
It is vegetable.
berry.
natural.
nut.
hard.
point of the nut. green.
scar.
opaque.
scales.
The nut is oval.
surface.
bright.
edges.
solid.
The cup is dull.
The inside is concave.
smooth.
The outside is rough.
brownish.
scaly.
The edge is circular.
LESSON XVI.
A PIECE OF HONEY COMB.
Ideas to be developed — compressible^ hexagonal^ reg*
ular.
Parts. Qualities.
The cells. It is natural.
divisions. animal production.
04
t
TUIED
STEP.-
—LESSON XVII.
Parts.
Qualities,
The edges.
It is light.
base of cells.
fusible.
comers.
sticky.
surface.
dull.
faces.
semi-transparent
yellowish.
thin.
compressible.
brittle.
The cells are hexagonal.
•
regular.
hollow.
LESSON XVII.
REFINED SUGAR.
The ideas to be developed by this lesson — crystaUine,
amorphous, refined.
Parts,
Qualities,
The surface.
It is white.
edges.
middle.
crystals.
grains.
pores.
sweet,
sparkling,
crystalline,
solid.
,5 fusible,
soluble.
shapeless or amorphous,
hard.
refined.
nutritious.
crumbUng.
opaque,
artificial.
vegetable substance
brittle.
A CORK. 95
Brought from the East and West Indies or the Southern
States in its raw state. Refined by sugar bakers, and sold
by grocers in loaves of a conical form.
LESSON
XYIII.
A CORK.
Parts.
Qualities,
The ends.
It
is light.
surface-
compressible.
faces.
elastic.
edge»- .
opaque.
dry.
light brown.
solid.
porous,
smoothc
cylindrical,
dull.
inflammable,
vegetable.
The form is artificial.
The substance is natural.
Uses. — ^To stop bottles, to buoy people up in the water.
Children to determine what qualities fit it for its use.
LESSON XIX.
GLUE.
Idea to be developed — tenacious.
Qualities,
It is translucent. When melted, it is tough,
mahogany brown. Adhesive.
96
THIRD STEP. LESSON XX.
Qualities.
It is hard. When melted, it is sticky,
solid. elastic,
animal substance. tenacious,
artificial.
LESSON XX.
PACKTHREAD.
Ideas to be developed — twisted^ slender.
Qualities.
It is dry.
It is durable.
dull.
light brown.
twisted.
vegetable substance.
flexible.
inflammable.
tough.
soft.
opaque.
slender.
fibrous.
solid.
artificial.
rough.
LESSON XXL
HONEV.
Qualities.
It is sweet.
It is a vegetable substance
fluid.
natural.
thick.
nourishing.
liquid.
healing.
yellow.
opaque.
sticky.
LESSON XXII
BUTTER CUP.
Parts.
Qualities.
The petals.
It is vegetable.
margins '
or edges. concavt.
A LADY BIRD. 97
Parts. Qualities.
The cup. It is natural,
leaflets of cup. odorous,
stamens. The petals are yellow,
pistils. glossy in the inside,
stalk. dull on the outside,
place of insertion. circular,
inside. pointed at the place of
outside. insertion,
surface. striped.
opaque.
pliable.
The leaflets are greenish.
thin.
membranaceous.
semi-transparent.
pointed.
The stalk is green.
grooved.
angular.
stiff.
fibrous.
LESSON XXIII.
A LADY BIRD.
Ideas to be developed — hemispherical^ fragile^ jointed.
Parts. Qualities.
The head. It is animal,
eyes. natural,
feelers or palpi. hemispherical,
horns, or antennae. The wing cases are red.
wings. spotted,
wing cases, or elytra. bright,
thorax. hard.
5
98 THIRD STEP. ^LESSON XXIV.
Parts. Qualities,
The legs. The wing cases are brittle.
body.
opaque.
back.
stiff.
spots.
The outside is convex.
surface.
The inside is concave.
claws.
One margin straight.
The other curved.
The wings are membranaceouai
pliable.
thin.
transparent.
fragile.
The body is oval.
black.
The legs are jointed.
short.
black.
LESSON XXIV.
AN OYSTER.
Ideas to be developed— manwe, pearly, irregulafr.
Parts, ,- Qualities,
The valves. It is animal.
hinge. opaque.
outside. marine.
inside. natural.
margin. The valves are circular.
impressions. hard.
moUusk. stiff.
scales or laminae. pulverable.
The outside is rough.
scaly or laminated
A FIR CONE. 99
Qualities.
The outside is irregular.
dull.
dingy brown.
uneven.
The inside is pearly.
bright.
smooth.
slightly concave.
The mollusk is soft.
edible.
nutritious.
cold.
smooth.
slippery.
LESSON XXV.
A FIR CONE.
Ideas to be developed — conical, tiled or imbricated^
keeled.
Parts, Qualities,
The scales. It is brown,
seeds. opaque,
top. hard,
place of insertion. vegetable,
fibres. natural,
surface. conical,
stalk. tiled or imbricated.
inflammable,
odorous.
The scales are stifi*.
dull.
The outside is light brown.
100 THIRD STEP. — ^LESSON XXVI.
Qualities,
The outside is pointed at the top.
rough.
irregularly conicaL
The inside of scales is chestnut color,
shaded,
keeled.
LESSON XXVI.
FUR.
ideas to be developed — tubular ^ inanimate*
Parts. Qualities.
The skin. It is an animal substance,
hair. It is hairy,
surface. inanimate,
points of hair. The hairs are flexible.
slender,
soft,
tubular,
straight.
The hairs are pointed.
The skin is stiflT.
The color and other peculiarities to be decided by the
specimen presented.
LESSON XXVII.
A LAUREL LEAP.
Parts. Qualities.
The upper face. It is oval,
under face. smooth,
edge or margin. pointed,
point or termination. vegetable.
A NEEDLE. y ' , > , ... ,»,10
Parts.
Qualities,
The veins.
It is odorous.
midrib.
opaque.
base.
bitter.
stalk.
stiff.
long.
The rib is straight.
raised, or keeled on
the under side.
grooved on the upper
side.
The veins are curved.
The margin is curved.
slightly toothed.
The upper face is bright.
The under face is dull.
LESSON xxvm.
A NEEDLE.
Parts,
Qualities,
The eye.
It
is a mineral.
shank.
metallic.
point.
artificial.
opaque.
bright.
tapering.
pointed.
slender.
useful.
gray or steel color.
hard.
brittle.
solid.
steel.
' "' ; ; ; thiilo step. — ^lesson xxix.
Made of steel, which is a preparation of iron, having
been subjected to great extremes of heat and cold.
LESSON XXIX.
A PLANT AND A STONE.
To develop the ideas of organs^ organized^ and inor-
ganized.
To give the class an idea of organized and inorganized,
a plant and a stone may be shown ; and questions given,
such as the following :
Teacher. — If I put these two into the earth, and visit
them in a month, what great difference might I expect to
perceive in them ?
Children. — ^The plant will have grown ; the stone will
have remained of the same size.
Teacher. — How did the plant increase ?
Children. — It absorbed moisture.
Teacher. — By what means ?
Children. — Through its roots and pores.
Teacher. — ^Did this nourish only the roots ?
Children, — No.
Teacher. — ^You are right ; the sap was produced which
circulated through the plant by means of vessels. Now
those parts of vegetables and animals which do something
are called organs ? What do animals hear with ? What
do they smell with ? What do they see with ? What do
they taste with ? What then may you call the ears, noses,
ayes, and mouths of animals ?
Children. — Organs.
A BELL. 103
Teacher. — Name some other organs of animals.
Children. — Hands, feet, heart, and veins.
Teacher. — Name some of the organs of vegetables.
Children. — Roots, stems, leaves, and pores.
Teacher. — ^A body possessing organs is called organized.
Kame some organized bodies.
Children. — A tree, an insect.
Teacher. — Bodies that do not possess any organs are
called inorganized. Name some morganized bodies or
substances.
Children. — ^A stone, water, sugar, lead, and salt.
The teacher names miscellaneous substances, and the
children decide whether they are organized or inorganized.
She then calls upon the children to name all the organized
bodies they can think of, which are written on the board
in one column.
Another column may be made in the same way of inor-
ganized substances.
Qualities of Stone.
It is hard. It is cold,
inorganized. opaque,
mineral. solid,
natural. irregular in form, or amor-
phous.
LESSON XXX.
A BELL.
Ideas to be developed in this lesson — sonorous and the
peculiar parts.
Parts. Qualities.
The barrel. It is metallic.
104 THIRD STEP. — ^LESSON XXXI.
^arts. Qualities.
The ears, cannon. ^ It is artificial
handle, I hard.
according j elastic.
to the sort. J sonorous,
clapper. cold.
nm. hollow.
surface.
inside.
concave.
heavy.
outside. rim circular.
clapper spherical.
Different kinds of bells.
Souse bells, pulled by wires passing from one part of a
house to another part where they are rung. Church bells,
suspended at the upper part of the building, pulled by
ropes ; — when there are several bells lDf different tones,
they form a peal or chime ; — when one is rung slowly, it
is said to be tolled. Hand bells, swung by the hand — some
used in houses, some by milkmen, &c. Cow bells, hung
on the neck of a cow.
Uses of Bells. — To give notice of different things — in
the house, of different people arriving, servants wanted —
in a church, the time of divine service is marked, deaths
and funerals announced by tolling, marriages and happy
events by a peal The cow bell is used to tell where the
cow is. Horse bells to give warning to people on the
street of the approach of a sleigh.
LESSON XXXI.
A WHEEL.
Ideas to be developed in this Xq^sou— circular, diverg-
ing, and the peculiar parts.
A WHEEL. 106
Parts, Qualities,
The nave. The rim is circular.*
box. divided,
spokes. wooden,
arm of the axletree. thick.
linchpin. The tire is circular,
rim composed of felloes. entire,
tire or band. iron,
rivets. thin,
centre. The spokes are straight;,
circumference. equal m length,
wooden.
diverging from
the nave.
The relative position and proportion of the different,
parts should form a part of the exercise.
The nave is in the centre ; the spokes diverge from the
nave to the rim, and are all of equal length, if not, the rim
would not form a perfect circle ; the tire is outside the rim,
and forms, of course, a larger circle than the rim which it
encloses ; the arm of the axle fits into the box *. the felloes are
parts of a circle, and are joined together, forming the rim.f
The children should alsa be led, as an additional exer-
cise, to see the use and adaptation of the different parts.
The box to receive the arm of the axletree upon which the
* The children will probably say, round. They should be led to see
that this is a very indefinite term, which they apply to a ball as well as to
a shilling ; their observatiozi should be directed by questions to the per-
ception of how a sphere and a circle differ, and the term circular, given
and applied to the wheel before them, and to absent objects of » similar
bhapw.
-j- These parts are meiwloncd in 1 Kings, vii. 33.
6*
106 THIRD STEP. LESSON XXXU.
wheels turn — the spokes to keep the rim in its circular form
and to unite the nave and the rim — the tire to keep all the
parts in their place, and to give strength ; the tire is put
on when the iron is expanded by great heat, and being
suddenly cooled, it contracts, and this binds the whole firmly
together. The linchpin passes through the arm of the axle-
tree, and keeps it fixed in the box.
The use of wheels is, by their rotary motion, to impel
carriages of different kinds; the children might name the
various vehicles in which they are used ; they might also
be led to see that no other form than that of a circle
would answer for a wheel.
LESSO>" XXXII.
An exercise which gives a pleasing variety to lessons on
objects, and which calls out thought and conception — con-
sists in the teacher, instead of presenting an object for ex-
amination, giving the children a description of one, and
requiring them from the qualities attributed to it to dis-
cover what it is. Some judgment is necessary in giving
such a lesson, that the children may be led to correct their
hasty conclusions, and to see that it is not one quality which
decides what a material is, but the combination of several.
An example is given, to help the teacher in carrying out
the idea.
Teacher, — I will tell you the qualities of something I
am thinking about, and you must try and find out what it
is. It is white and natural.
Children,— M:\\\i ?
Tcac/ier, — ^No ; it is solid.
FIKE. 107
Children.— Chalk ?
Teacher, — No ; it is vegetable and odorous.
Children. — ^A white lily ?
Teacher. — No ; for it is friable and highly inflammable.
Now repeat the qualities I have mentioned and think what
substance possesses them all. White, natural, solid, vege-
table substance, odorous, and highly inflammable.
Children will not fail to find out that it must be cam-
phor, having in the third Step had a lesson on this object.
It will be obvious that the qualities first mentioned are
common to many substances, without suflSciently distin-
guishing any one. The children's conception is therefore
engaged m callmg up in their minds a variety of objects
familiar to them. The art of the teacher is to keep at
first in the background distinguishing qualities, so as more
thoroughly to stimulate the conception, and in the end to
lead the children to see more clearly the peculiar and dis^
tinguishing qualities of the substance.
LESSON XXXIII.
FIRE.
Ideas to be developed — consuming^ purifying^ ascend-
ing.
Qualities.
It is bright. It is purifying,
reddish yellow. hot.
spreading. The flames are pointed,
consuming. ascending,
drying.
How produced and fed. — Fire can be produced by fric-
tion ; rubbing two pieces of wood or stone briskly togeth-
108 THIKD STEP. LESSON XXXIII.
er ; the collision of flint and steel occasions sparks that will
set fire to any inflammable material ; but lucifer matches,
which are tipped with a very combustible substance, are
now generally used to produce fire. The fuel that feeds
fire is either coal, wood, or peat.
Effects of fire. — Some substances, as coal, wood, &c., it
consumes, reducing them to ashes. Some, as butter,
metals, &c., it melts or changes from solids to liquids.
Some, as water, quicksilver, &c., it changes into steam, or
vapor. Some substances, as dough, clay, &c., it hardens.
It expands bodies, penetrating through their particles and
loosening them. Some substances, as metals, it refines,
driving away impurities.
Uses. — 1. In domestic life. It warms our houses and
gives light to us when the natural light of day is removed.
It cooks our food, thus enabling us to profit by the animals
and vegetables which God has given us.
2. In manufactures. By fire, metals are fitted for va-
rious purposes. Glass, porcelain, brick making, indeed all
our manufactures, require the aid of fire. It is also fire
that furnishes us with the steam that enables us to travel
with such rapidity by sea and^land, and which lights our
streets and houses at night.
An emblem.'^ — ^There are many instances in the Bible
of fire being used as an emblem. Thus God is spoken of
as a " consuming fire." His wrath, when kindled by sin,
destroys like fire. Our Saviour is compared to the refiner's
fire, purifying His people, purging them from the dross of
sin, as fire acts upon metals.
* An cml)lem is a picture which represents one thing to the eye and
another to the understanding.
AN ANCHOR.
109
LESSON^ XXXIV.
AN ANCHOR.
Parts.
Qualities,
The shank.
It is iron.
cross-bar
or stock. heavy.
arms.
hard.
flukes.
cold.
ring.
opaque.
-
metallic.
The shank is perpendicular to
the beai
The beam is straight.
horizontal to the
shank.
smaller at the ends.
sometimes h*on.
sometimes wooden.
The arms are curved.
The flukes are pointed.
sharp.
The rinj? is circular.
The largest kind of anchor is called the sheet anchor,
and is only used in times of great danger or in heavy
gales.
The anchor is an instrument of iron attached by a cable,
which passes through the ring to the bows of ships ; when
the latter are to remain stationary, the anchor is let down
or cast into the water, and is thrown by the stock into such
a position that one of the flukes is sure to enter the ground
perpendicularly ; this keeps the vessel fixed, for any strain
acting nearly horizontally would rather tend to root the
arm deeper in its moorings. This operation is called ca^t-
110 THIRD STEP. ^LESSON XXXV.
ing anchor^ and the ship is then said to be riding at an«
chor y when the anchor is heaved up, the expression used
is weighing anchor. When the anchor finds good moorings
and takes firm hold, the vessel is in safety ; it cannot be
driven to and fro by the storm, or dashed against rocks by
the hurricane.
When the children clearly understand what an anchor
is, and the oflSce it performs, they should be led to trace
the analogy between hope and an anchor. The former is
thrown out from us, and is fixed upon something, and if it
has a firm grasp it will keep us steady ; we shall remain un-
shaken, whatever may assail, as long as the anchor of hope
retains its hold. The children should be referred to Heb.
vi., where the anchor is used as the emblem of hope, which
is described as having entered into that within the veil,
that is, into the Holy of Holies, the type of Heaven, where
our great High Priest is for us entered ; anchored on Him,
the rock of our salvation, we shall be kept immovably fixed
amidst all the trials and temptations of life. We often
speak of a person or thing being our sheet anchor, which
means that on which we altogether depend as our last
and best resource.
LESSON XXXV.
A BALANCE.
Paris.
The lever, or beam. The qualities depend
pivot or fulcrum. upon the kind of
scales. balance used in the
chains connecting the lesson.
scales with tlie beam.
A BALAI^CE. Ill
The balance is an instrument used to ascertain the ex-
act weight of anything. It is most essential in trade ;
without such a help barter and exchange would be guess-
work, and dishonest dealings could not be easily detected.
When one scale perfectly balances the other, what is held
in each is equal in weight, and if in one scale standard
weights are placed, the substance in the other can be accu-
rately determined.
The children should endeavor to find out why the
balance is employed as the emblem of justice, and why,
whenever justice is represented as a person, she always
holds a pair of scales in her hand. They will be able to
trace the analogy between testing a substance as to its
weight in scales and the exercise of justice, w^hich consists
in impartially weighing conduct or opinions against a law-
ful standard, in order to arrive at a just and right judg-
ment. They will also understand the metaphor used to
set forth the conduct of Belshazzar : "Thou art weighed
in the balance, and art found wanting." His life and char-
acter were in one scale, God's holy law and requirements
in the other, and the former fell short — was altogether de-
ficient.
At this step some exercises would be well introduced
on the connection of diiferent qualities. The children will
easily be led to discover that all absorbent objects are po-
rous, that all brittle substances are hard, that all adhesive
ones are tenacious, all sonorous ones are elastic ; that to be
malleable and ductile they must be tenacious, their particles
cohering ; to be elastic, an object must be either exten-
sible, flexible, or compressible.
112 THIRD STEP. LESSON XXXV.
Children may also with profit exercise their conceptive
powers in drawing, out of the treasures of their memory,
examples of objects in which any particular quality is found,
and classifying them according to the different degree in
which they possess the quality. Thus objects may be re-
membered, furnishing a regular gradation from the most
impenetrable opacity to the clearest transparency; the
same may be done with hard and soft — ^from soft as butter
to as hard as flint, &g.
INTEODUCTOEY EEMAKKS. 113
FOURTH STEP
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
The chief aim proposed iu this Step is, to exercise the
children in composing, arranging, and classifying objects,
and in tracing analogies ; thus developing a higher faculty
than that of simply observing their qualities. The com-
plex operation of connecting things by their points of re-
semblance, and at the same time of distinguishing them
individually by their points of dissimilarity, prepares for
one of the highest exercises of our reason ; yet it may be
carried on in children at a much earlier period than is
usually imagined, if they are trained to arrange their ideas.
With this view the spices, liquids, and metals have been
chosen as forming .a connected series of objects.* The
different woods, grains, &c., are good subjects for similar
instruction.
In the early lessons, the perceptions simply exercised
the intuitive faculties, which, being stimulated and direct-
ed, furnish the mind with ideas. At this point, the process
commences of regarding them, not simply, but in series and
relationship, and lessons are given to cultivate the discern-
ment of analogies between physical and moral or spiritual
* A few lessons on Animals, as also in Geography, have been added.
1 1 4 FOURTH STEP. — ^LESSON I.
qualities. The information given should be reproduced by
the children on their slates or on paper.*
epiCES.
LESSON I.
PEPPER.
Qualities of Pepper,
It is hard. It is dry.
vegetable. dull,
foreign, t sapid,
tropical production. pungent,
wrinkled. odorous,
spherical. aromatic,
rough. wholesome,
black. stimulating,
preservative.
* The leading qualities of the objects are still put down in connection
with each lesson, for the convenience of the teacher, if she finds it desirable
to use any of them. As fast, however, as the children become suflBciently
familiar with any particular quality, and the term expressing it, it is better
not to continue to repeat it, but only call out those qualities that awaken
new thoughts and require new terms, or that are peculiarly characteristic
of the object. This remark applies to previous as well as succeeding les-
sons. No good can result by the constant repetition of qualities and terms
already familiar to the children.
f Teacher. — If it comes from a foreign country, how do we get it?
Children. — It comes in a ship.
Teacher. — This is called importing ; and sending out of our own coun-
try is called exporting. What do we call this exchange of production ?
Children. — Trade or commerce.
leacher. — And what are the people called who carry it on ?
ClvUdren, — Merchants.
NUTMEG. 115
The pepper plant is a creeping shrub, much resembling
the vine, and is often called the pepper vine. It is gener-
ally planted near some thorny bush, among the branches of
which it entwines itself like ivy. It produces berries in
clusters : if the fruit is intended for black pepper, it is not
allowed to ripen, but is collected while green, and rubbed
by the hands or feet, till the seeds, several of which are
contained in each berry, are separated. These are exposed
on mats to the rays of the sun during the day, and are col-
lected at night in jars, to preserve them from the dew.
When the berries are intended to be converted into white
pepper, they are allowed to ripen, and they then become
red. They are rubbed in a basket, the pulp is removed by
washing, and the seeds, which are white, are dried.
LESSON
II.
NUTMEG.
Qualities of Nutmeg,
sapid. It
is foreign.
hard.
tropical production.
oval.
pungent.
dingy brown.
preservative.
dull.
pulverable.
opaque.
agreeable to the taste.
dry.
aromatic.
vegetable.
odorous.
natural. Surface uneven.
The nutmeg is the kernel of a fruit which is the pro^
icfuce of a tree resembling our cherry tree, both in size and
growth. It is found in the East Indies. The external
covering of the fruit is a husk ; this opens when ripe, and
116 FOURTH STEP. — ^LESSON H.
displays a thin scarlet membrane, called mace ; this being
carefully removed, there still remains a woody shell which
surrounds the nutmeg. The nuts are first dried in the sun,
and then placed on a frame of bamboos over a slow fire,
until the kernels, on being shaken, rattle in their shells.
REMARKS OK WORDS.
Teacher. — ^Why is nutmeg said to be odorous ?
Children. — Because it has a smell.
Teacher, — Why aromatic ?
Children. — Because it has that pungent smell distin-
guished by the name aromatic.
Teacher. — Are all things that are aromatic also odorous?
Children. — Yes.
Teacher. — Are all things that are odorous also aromatic?
Children. — No.
Teacher. — Is an onion odorous?
Children. — Yes.
Teacher. — Are these smells alike ?
Children. — No.
Teacher. — Which of these terms includes every kind of
wnell?
Children, — Odorous.
Teacher. — If you were to put all odorous substances
into one class, and all aromatic into another, what would
you say of the two classes ?
Children. — ^That the class containing all odorous object^j
would be much the largest; it would include the aroraatio
substances.
Teach&r. — A term which includes all the varieties of one
MACS. 117
kind or quality of substance, is called a generic term,
while that which marks one of the species, is called a
specific term. Which is the generic term, odorous or aro-
matic ?
Children. — Odorous.
Teacher. — Why is this a generic term ?
Children. — Because it includes every variety of odors.
Teacher. — What kind of term is aromatic ?
Children. — A specific term.
Teacher.— '^\^.^ ?
Children. — Because it applies only to one particular
kind of smell.
Give examples of generic terms and of a specific term
applicable to each of them.
Children. — Odorous, fragrant ; colored, red ; foreign,
Chinese production.
The class should determine, in succeeding lessons, what
terms are generic and what specific.
LESSON m.
MACE.
Qualities of Mace.
It is pungent. It is natural.
agreeable to the taste. inflammable,
aromatic. medicinal,
orange red. dry.
dull. pulverable.
opaque. membranaceous,
thin. preservative,
fibrous. imported.
118 FOURTH STEP. — LESSON m.
It is brittle.
It is sapid.
foreign.
stimulating.
tropical.
Mace is the covering between the shell of the nutm«j
and its external husk.
EEMARKS ON WORDS.
Teacher, — " Foreign." Should you call mace a foreign
production if you were in the place where it grows ?
Children, — No. It is only foreign to the countries
where it does not grow.
Teacher, — Where would you call it pungent and aro-
matic ?
Children, — Everywhere.
Teacher, — Can it be mace without being foreign ?
Children, — Yes.
Teacher, — Can it 5e mace without being pimgent and
aromatic ?
Children . — No.
Teacher. — Which then of these qualities belong to mace
as mace ?
Children. — ^Pungent and aroinatic.
Those qualities which determine anything to he what it
is, are called essential.
Qualities which are not essential are called accidental.
What qualities of mace are essential ?
What qualities of mace are accidental ?
Why are pungent and aromatic said to be essential
qualities ?
Why is it that its being foreign is said to be accidental ?
LESSON^ IV.
CINNAMON
Qualities of Cinnamon,
" It is light brown, and gives name to a color,
thin. It is inflammable.
brittle.
dry.
preservative,
aromatic.
vegetable,
natural.
pungent.
agreeable to tie tasts.
opaque.
hard.
foreign,
hght.
pulverabla
medicinal.
sweet.
stimulating.
Cinnamon is in the inner bark of the branches of a
kind of laurel tree, growing m Ceylon and Malabar. The
branches of three years old are selected as furnishing the
best cinnamon; the outside bark is scraped off; the branch-
es are then ripped up lengthways with a knife, and the in-
ner bark is gradually loosened, till it can be entirely taken
off. Exposure to the sun causes it to curl up. The pieces
of bark so curled are called quills, and the smaller ones art
inserted into the larger.
LESSON V.
GINGER.
Qualities of Ginger,
It is fibrous. It is solid,
knotty. hard,
sapid. preservative.
120 FOURTH STEP. ^LESSON VI.
Qualities.
Qualities,
It is rough.
It is light.
jagged.
yellowish brown.
vegetable.
pulverable.
tropical.
medicinal.
foreign.
stimulating.
aromatic.
wholesome.
pungent.
opaque.
dry.
inflammable.
dull.
Ginger is the root of a plant resembling a reed, whicB
grows both in the East and West Indies. The root does
not strike to any considerable depth in the earth, but
spreads out far in every direction. When first dug up, it
is soft, and eaten by the Indians as a salad. If intended
for exportation, it is placed in bundles, and dried in the sun.
LESSON
VI
ATJ.SPICE.
Parts.
The skin. It
Qualities.
is aromatic.
seeds.
odorous.
partition of seed vessel.^
point of insertion.
pungent.
spherical.
brown.
speckled.
organized.
natural.
•
vegetable.
dry.
opaque.
tropical
dull
A
CLOVE.
Qualities.
Qualities,
\i is stimulating.
It is hard.
inflammable.
friable.
sapid.
wrinkled.
conservative.
121
Alls^jice or pimento is the dried berry of a species of
myrtle^ indigenous in the West Indies ; it is a most beauti-
ful and fragrant tree, producing numerous bunches of white
flowers, to which succeed the berries ; these are gathered
by the hand and spread out in the sun to dry. In this
operation they lose their former color, and become brown.
When the seeds rattle in the shell, they are known to be
sufficiently dry, and are packed in bags for exportation.
The flavor of pimento is considered to unite that of the
other spices ; henct ihe name of allspice.
LESSON
yii.
Parts.
A CLOVE.
Qualities.
The calyx or cup.
tube.
It is aromatic,
odorous.
leaflets of cut?.
points of leaflets,
bud.
•dges.
pungent.
brown.
organized,
natural.
vegetable.
dry.
opaque.
tropical.
imported.
dull.
122 FOURTH STEP. — LESSON vn.
Qualities,
It is stimulating. The bud is spherical
hard. The tube is long,
inflammable. The leaflets are pointed,
preservative.
Cloves are the unexpanded flower buds and calyx ol' a
species of laurel which grows in the West Indies. At a
certain season of the year, the clove tree produces a pro'
fusion of flowers in clusters ; they are gathered before the
flower opens, when the four points of the calyx project,
and the petals are folded one over the other, forming a bud
about the size of a pea. After they are gathered, they are
exposed for some time to the smoke of a wood fire, and
then to the rays of the sun.
At the conclusion of the lesson on spices, the chil-
dren should be called upon to mention those qualities
which they have found common to all ; as aromatic, pun-
gent, dry, tropical, stimulating, vegetable. Then let some
other similar substance be presented to them, such as
mustard.
Teacher. — Is this a spice ?
Children, — No. .^'
Teacher— Why not ?
Children. — It has not the qualities of a spice.
Teacher. — If I showed you a substance with which you
were not previously acquainted, and you found that it pos*
sessed the essential qualities of the spices you have exam*
ined, what would you consider it to be?
Children. — A spice.
Teacher. — To what then do you apply the term spice ?
A CLOVE. 123
Children, — To a set of natural productions possessing
certain qualities.
Teacher. — When a number of things are arranged to-
gether, each having similar qualities, what would you call
the collection ? What would you call a number of boys
who are placed together because they are nearly equal in
knowledge ?
Children. — A class.
Teacher. — -What, then, would you call a collection of
substances that possess the same (qualities ?
Children. — A class.
Teacher. — ^What may you call all substances which are
aromatic, pungent, tropical, &c. ?
Children. — A class.
Teacher — And ^hat is the name of that class ?
Children. — Spice.
Teacher. — What, then, does the term spice express ?
Children. — ^A class of substances, possessing the quali-
ties aromatic, pungent, &c.
Teacher. — ^Tell me all the substances belonging to that
class.
Children. — ^Pepper, nutmeg, mace, cinnamon, ginger,
allspice, cloves.
Teacher. — Are all the substances of this class alike in
all respects?
Children. — Xo.
Teacher. — How can you tell one spice from another ?
Children. — By each having some qualities peculiar to
itself
Teacher. — Name something in each spice which distin-
guishes it.
124 FOURTH STEP. — LESSON VIII.
Children. — Ginger is a root ; pepper is a seed ; nutmeg
is a kernel ; mace is the membranaceous covering of that
kernel ; cinnamon is a bark ; pimento is a seed vessel ; the
clove is a cup and flower bud.
ON LIQUIDS.
LESSON vm.
WATER.
Qualities of Water,
It is fluid. It is wholesome,
transparent. tasteless,
clear. cold,
colorless. inodorous,
liquid. natural,
useful. • solvent,
bright. refreshing,
incompressible, except penetrating,
by immense power. cleansing,
eflective. cooling,
drinkable. fertilizing.
Some waters are medicinal.
Different kinds of Water.
Rain. -^ Medicinal,
spring. hot spring,
sea, or salt. stagnant,
river.
Different states of Water.
Ice. Fog.
snow. cloud,
hail. vapor,
rain. dew.
mist. steanL
WATER. 125
Natural Collections of Water,
Oceans. Lakes.
seas. ponds,
rivers. springs.
Operations of Water. — It purifies, evaporates, freezes,
quenches thirst, cools, finds its own level, penetrates, fertil-
izes, is a solvent, extinguishes fire, separates easily into por
tions which assume a spherical form.
Movement of Water.
Teacher. — In what way do oceans and seas move ?
Children. — In waves.
Teacher. — When you are on the sea shore, what difier.
ence do you observe in the waves during the course of the
day?
Children. — At one time they are coming in ; at another
going out.
Teacher. — ^This is called the ebb and flow of the tide.,
What is the movement of a river ?
Children. — It flows.
Teacher. — What eventually becomes of its waters ?
Children. — They are lost in some ocean or sea.
Teacher, — What is that which with us is always flowing
on?
Children. — Our life.
Teacher. — To what does it conduct us ?
Children. — To eteniity.
Teacher. — Of what, then, is a river a fit emblem or
representation ?
Childre7i. — Of life.
126 FOURTH STEP. ^LESSON IX.
Teacher. — ^Find some passages in the Bible where '^
river is used as an emblem of life.
Teacher, — You find the particles of water run about \
will the particles of wood do the same ?
Children. — No.
Teacher. — "Why will not the particles of wood flow
about ?
Children. — Because they stick close together.
Teacher. — This is called cohering. When one substance
is joined to another it is said to adhere (or stick to) ; when
the particles of the same substance stick together, they are
said to cohere.
The particles of a liquid cohere very slightly, and are
therefore easily separated. The particles of a solid cohere
closely.
LESSON IX.
OIL.
Qualities of Oil.
It is fluid. It is light,
yellowish. thick,
semi-transparent. ,>" inflammable,
soft. oleaginous,
liquid. Some oils are vegetable,
penetrating. Some are animal.
emolUent. When bad, it is rancid,
greasy. odorous.
The vegetable oil is expressed from olives, and is im-
ported chiefly from Italy and the south of France. It is
also obtained from nuts and some other fruits, and from
seeds.
BEEK. 127
The animal oil is procured from the blubber or fat of
the whale and seal.
Birds are furnished with little bags containing oil ; with
this they plume their feathers, and it causes rain and moist-
ure to trickle off. Without this provision, the feathers of
water fowl would imbibe so much moisture, that they would
become too heavy to float on the w^ater.
LESSON X.
BEER.
Qualities of Beer.
It is liquid. It is artificial,
fluid. odorous,
orange color. semi-transparent,
wholesome. slightly intoxicating,
fermented. strengthening.
Beer is composed of malt, hops, and water, boiled to-
gether. Hops are the blossoms of a creeping plant, culti-
vated in many portions of this country ; the place where
they grow is called a hop yard. The tub in which the
malt is first steeped is called a mashing tub / that which
holds the beer when made, a vat ; when wanted for con-
sumption, or sale, it is put into barrels.
Malt is made of barley, by the following process. A
quantity of barley is soaked in water for two or three days ;
the water being afterward drained off, the grain heats
spontaneously, swells, bursts, becomes .sweet, and ferments.
Vegetables, during decomposition, undergo several degrees
of fermentation ; the first (that above described) is called
128 FOURTH STEP. — ^LESSON XI.
the saccharine fermentation^ from the sweetness it pro-
duces ; sacchar-wm being the Latin for sugar. In conse-
quence of this decomposition, which is similar to that which
takes place in seed in the ground, the barley begins to
sprout, but this vegetation is stopped by putting it into a
kiln, where it is well dried by a gentle heat.
LESSON XL
FOREIGN WHITE WINE.
Qualities of White Wine.
It is yellowish. It is artificial.
bright. semi-transparent,
fluid. sapid,
liquid. medicinal,
fermented. stimulating,
spirituous. clear,
intoxicating. strengthening,
heating. yielding to the touch,
vegetable.
Wine is made from the grape, the fruit of the vine,
which is cultivated in vineyards. "The season of its gath-
eruig is called the vintage. The grapes, when gathered,
are placed in a wine press, by which the juice is ex-
pressed ; this juice undergoes a fermentation, and becomes
wine. This is the second fermentation which vegetable
matter undergoes; it is called the vinoics fermentation,
from its producing .wine ; vinum being the Latin word
for wine.
VINEGAR.
129
LESSON XII.
VINEGAR.
Qualities of Vinegar.
It is vegetable.
It is acid.
orange-brown color.
liquid.
fluid.
yielding to the touch.
penetrating.
stimulating.
Uses. — To flavor food ; for pickling ; for medicine,
artificial.
medicinal.
odorous.
preservative.
semi-transparent.
fermented.
LESSON XIII.
INK.
Qualities of Ink.
It is black. It is astringent,
useful. fluid,
opaque. yielding to the touch,
artificial. poisonous,
liquid.
Ink is made of galls, sulphate of iron, gum, and water.
Galls are found upon the oak ; they are occasioned by a
little insect, which pierces the bark of the tree, and lays its
eggs in the hole which it has formed. The torn vessels of
the tree discharge a portion of their contents ; this harden-
ing, forms at first a defence for the eggs, and subsequently
food for the caterpillars they produce ; these latter eat
their way out of their confinement, before they change into
the perfect insect. Iron dissolved in sulphuric acid is
6*
130 FOURTH STEP. LESSON XIV.
called sulphate of iron ; when this is applied to the acid
of the galls it becomes black, upon which quality the utility
of ink depends. A little gum is added, to cause the ink to
adhere to the paper. "^
LESSON XIV.
MILK.
Qaalities
of Milk.
It is white.
It is natural.
fluid.
opaque.
liquid.
yielding to the touch.
wholesome.
emollient.
sweet.
nutritious.
An animal substance. When fresh, it is warm.
TIses. — For animals to feed their young ; for making
cheese and butter ; to drink.
The milk of cows is that most generally used by man.
Invalids drink the milk of asses. In Tartary the milk of
mares is used ; in Switzerland that of goats ; in the northern
countries that of reindeer ; in Arabia that of camels.
The teacher will find it a very improving and inter-
esting exercise, to take two substances and compare them
together — as water and milk — requiring the class to find
out in what respects they are both alike. They are both
fluid, hquid, cool, incompressible, penetrating, natural, &c.
The qualities by which they are distinguished from each
other should then be mehtioned. The water is transpa-
rent, the milk is opaque ; the water is colorless ; the milk
is white ; the water is tasteless, the milk is sweet, <&c.
Liquids possess qualities by which they are very clearly
ON METALS. 131
distinguished from other substances. They may all become
sohd ; they are all fluid and incompressible ; their parts
easily separate, forming into sj)heres or drops ; they pene-
trate into the pores of substances; and they find their own
level. The last circumstance can easily be proved to the
pupils by means of a siphon. Having named the proper-
ties common to all liquids, the class should also be required
to mention the qualities peculiar to each^ as in the lessons
on spices.
Water is transparent, colorless, tasteless, inodorous,
bright.
Oil is yellowish, thick, emollient, semi-transparent,
greasy, uiflammable.
Beer is orange colored, bitter, spirituous, artificial, fer-
mented.
White wine is bright, yellowish, intoxicating, stimulat-
ing, fermented.
Vinegar is acid, orange colored, semi-transparent, fer-
mented.
Ink is black, bright, opaque, artificial.
Milk is white, opaque, sweet, nourishing, natural.
The children might determine which of these would
form a particular class within the general class of liquids ;
as beer, wine, vinegar, united together, because they are
fermented liquids.
132 FOURTH STEP. — OX METALS.
ON METALS.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE MHTALS.
Occurrence. — The metals form a class of bodies belong-
ing to the mineral kingdom. They are seldom found in a
pure or uncombined state, but are almost always united to
various other substances. The compounds so formed have
not the distinguishing characters of metals, and they are
termed ores, — as lead ore, iron ore, &c. Some of the
metals are found in a pure state, when they are termed
native, as native gold, native mercury, &c., &c. In their
pure state metals are supposed to be simple substances, or
elements, — that is, not to be compounds, or mixtures of
other bodies. Iron, for example, is regarded as an ele-
ment, because it cannot be made by the union of other
substances, nor can any substance different from itself be
obtained from it.
Distingxiishing Characters. — The metals are distin-
guished from all other bodies by possessing the following
characters: — ^They have (when the surface is clean and un-
tarnished) a peculiar brightness, termed the metallic lustre ;
they are good conductors of heat, so that, if heat is applied
to one part of a piece of metal, it is rapidly conveyed to
every portion ; and they are also conductors of electricity,
hence the employment of copper rods to convey the light-
ning (which might otherwise destroy a building) safely into
the ground. Many compound mineral bodies that are not
metals also possess metallic lustre, but are not conductors
of heat or electricity.
GENERAL observatio:n^s. 133
Reflectors of Light. — The lustre of metals depends upon
their power of reflecting or throwing back the light which
falls upon them. The light from the sun, or any other
source, may, w^hen it falls upon a substance, pass through it,
as is the case with glass — the body is then termed transpa-
rent ; or it may be absorbed by it, as is the case with a
dull black board, or with velvet — the substance is then said
to be opaque ; or it may be thrown back again, or reflected.
This power of reflection is possessed by metals to a much
greater degree than by any other bodies ; therefore, when
it is wished to throw as much as possible of the light of a
flame in one particular direction, a reflector of metal is em-
ployed, as in carriage lamps, lighthouses, &c.
Reflectors of Heat. — The heat which accompanies the
light of the sun, or that thrown out by a fire or any heated
body, is reflected by polished metals in precisely the same
manner as light ; therefore bright metallic surfaces are used
in reflecting-ovens, meat screens, &c. When metals are
employed as reflectors of heat or light, it is requisite that
they should be brightly polished, as it is only when in that
state that they reflect well.
Conductors of Heat. — The metals are better conductors
of heat than any other solid bodies, a circumstance which
occasions several of the peculiar efiects produced by them.
If the hand is placed upon a piece of metal somewhat cooler
than itself, the natural warmth is rapidly abstracted and
conveyed to all parts of the metal ; hence metals are fre-
quently spoken of as cold substances; if, on the contrary,
the hand is placed on a piece of metal warmer than the
body, it imparts its heat with equal facility, the portion
134 FOUBTH STEP. ON METALS.
cooled having its temperature rapidly restored by the heat
from the surrounding parts ; it follows that metals slightly
warmer than the hand feel hot, and will inflict more severe
burns than non-conducting substances at a much higher
temperature.
Conductors of Electricity. — ^The power of conducting
electricity exists in metals to an infinitely greater degree
than in any other substances. It is one of their properties
most important to man. The natural electricity of the
thunder clouds is safely conveyed into the ground by a
lightning conductor of copper, and the electricity artificially
produced is conveyed instantaneously thousands of miles
by the wires of the electric telegraph, which, by causing
the points of two magnetic needles to be directed as re-
quired to either side, produces signs which stand for letters,
and thus conveys messages immense distances in an infinite-
ly short space of time.
Opacity. — ^The metals are more opaque than other
bodies. Even when beaten into thin leaves, they do not
allow light to pass through. Silver leaf, for example, only
To oVo part of an inch in thickness, is perfectly opaque.
The gold leaf of commerce, which is about yy oVoo of an
inch in thickness, is transparent. On looking through it
against the light, all objects are readily seen, having the
same appearance as if looked at through green glass.
Specific Gravity or Weight. — The weight of the metals
varies greatly ; some of them are the heaviest bodies
known, while others are so light that they will float on
water. These latter, however, are not common, being only
known to experimental chemists. In the following list,
GENERAL OESEKVATIONS.
135
the specific gravity of the more important metals only is
given ;
Platinum,
22.069
Gold,
• •
. 19.250
Mercury,
13.600
Lead,
.
. 11.381
Silver,
10.470
Copper, .
.
89.00
Iron (wrought).
78.00
Tin,
.
73.00
Zinc,
71.00
Aluminum,
.
25.00
The weight of a cubic foot of the common metals is as
follows :
Lead, one cubic foot weighs, .
Copper (cast), ....
Brass,
Steel,
Wrought iron (closely hammered).
710 lbs.
549
623
490
485
Wrought iron, 475
Cast iron, 450
Zinc, 439
Hardness — The metals vary very much in hardness.
Some of the more uncommon are sufficiently soft to be
moulded easily by the fingers. Lead can be scratched by
the nail; tin, zinc, gold, and silver may be cut with a knife;
copper is harder, and iron greatly surpasses all common
metals in this respect.
Brittleness. — Some few of the metals, as antimony and
bismuth, are so brittle that they may be powdered, and
cast iron and cast zinc are readily broken.
MaUeabUUy. — Others, on being hammered, spread out
136 FOURTH STEP. OX METALS.
into thin leaves. Gold possesses this property in the high-
est degree. It may be beaten into leaves so thin that,
although quite free from visible holes, sixty square inches
wiil not weigh one grain; and 300,000 of the leaves, if
piled on each other, would not exceed an inch in thickness.
In addition to gold — silver, platinum, copper, zinc, and lead
furnish examples of malleable metals.
Ductility. — The malleable metals are also ductile — that
is, they can be drawn out into wires. Gold is one of the
most ductile of the metals, — a single grain may be drawn
out into a wire 550 feet long. Silver, platinum, iron, cop-
per, zinc, tin, and lead are also ductile. The method
adopted for drawing metals into wires is to form the metal
into a bar or cylinder : this is drawn by great force through
a hole in a steel plate, somewhat smaller than itself, and is
consequently lessened in size and increased in length by
the operation. It is then drawn through a still smaller
hole ; again through one still less, and so on, until the wire
is of the degree of fineness required.
Tenacity. — The strength of wires does not, as might be
imagined, correspond with the ductility of the metals of
which they are formed. Iron, when made into steel, is by
far the most tenacious metal ; its wire is stronger than one
of equal size formed from any other metal, although, in
point of ductility, it is surpassed by gold, silver, and plati-
num. The tenacity of some of the metals greatly surpasses
that of all other substances. The following list shows the
number of tons which a rod one inch square is capable of
holding up before breaking :
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 137
Lead, about | of a ton.
Till, " 2 tons.
Cast iron, nearly, 9 "
Copper, 15 "
Bar iron, 25 "
Steel, 59 "
Fusibility, — All the metals are capable of being melted
or fused by heat, although they vary very much in their
degrees of fusibility. The heat that always exists in tem-
perate climates is sufficient to melt one metal — mercury;
but in the colder regions of the earth, where the tempera-
ture is low, it assumes the solid form. Of the other com-
mon metals, tin, lead, and zinc melt below a red heat; cop-
per, silver, and gold require a strong red or white heat ;
cast iron melts at a bright white heat ; pure wrought iron
is one of the least fusible, and requires the greatest degree
of heat that can be obtained from a smith's forge to
melt it.
Volatility. — Several of the metals are volatile, rising in
vapor when heated. Mercury slowly evaporates at all tem-
peratures above the natural heat of the human body, and
boils away rapidly below redness ; zinc also is volatile at a
high red heat ; the other common metals are fixed in the fire.
Compounds of the Metals, — The metals can be united
not only with each other, but with several of the non-
metallic elements, as sulphur, carbon, &c. When the
metals are melted together, the compounds are called
ALLOYS. These possess the characters of metals, and are
of great use in the arts. The most important alloys are —
brass, formed of copper and zinc ; pewter, of tin, copper,
&c. ; German silver, of nickel, copper, and zinc ; solder,
188 FOURTH STEP. — METALS.
of tin, lead, &c. When mercury is present, the name
amalgam is given to the compound ; the most important
amalgam is one of tin, used for silvering looking glasses.
It is one of the most remarkable properties of alloys that
they generally melt more readily than either of the metals
of which they are formed. The use of solder by plumb-
ers and workers in tin, zinc, &c., mainly depends upon its
being more easily melted than the metals which it is em-
ployed to unite.
The compounds of the metals with the non-metallic
substances are very important. When the metals unite
with the oxygen of the air, compounds are formed termed
rusts or oxides. Some metals have little disposition to
unite wnth oxygen — that is, to rust; hence they remain
untarnished : as gold, silver, and mercury. Others, as
zinc and lead, form a thin layer of rust on the surface,
which protects the metal beneath from further change.
Otliers, as iron, rust or oxidize only in damp air»
Many of the metals unite with sulphur, forming, as
before observed, compounds called sulphurets, or sulphates.
The common ores of lead and copper are sulphurets of
those metals. Silver, although k does not rust in pure air,
unites quickly with any sulphur that may be present, either
fiom the escape of coal gas or from any decaying animal
Bul)stances, and becomes tarnished by the formation of a
thin layer of black sulphuret of silver.
General Conversation on the Metals,
REMARK.
In giving the following lessons, it is desirable to prot
GOLD. 139
sent the specimens to the class in their several natural and
artilicial states. The teacher should be particularly care-
ful to direct the attention of the children to those qualities
in the metal under consideration, upon which its uses de-
pend, leading them to trace the adaptation of qualities to
certain uses.
LESSON XV.
GOLD.
Qualities of Gold,
It is a perfect metal. It is pliable,
malleable.* 1. compact,
ductile. 2. yellow,
tenacious. 3. solid,
heavy. 4. opaque,
indestructible. brilliant.
* A solid piece of gold and some leaf gold should be presented to the
class, and the extreme lightness and thinness of the leaf may be felt.
Teacher. — How was the gold made so thin ?
Children. — It was beaten out.
Teacher. — With what, do you think ?
Children. — ^With a hammer.
Teacher. — All things that can be thus extended by beating are called
malleable. Could glass be thus beaten out ? Could chalk ? Camphor ?
What qualities prevent them from being malleable ?
Children. — Glass is brittle. Chalk is crumbling.
Teacher. — What qualities in gold do you think render it malleable ?
Children. — Its being tenacious.
Teacher. — What other quality in gold depends upon its being tena*
tious ?
Children. — It is ductile.
2'eacher. — Ductile means capable of being drawn out.
140 FOUETH STEP. — METALS.
It is fusible. It is reflective,
incombustible, except sonorous.
by electricity. Not affected by any ncid
soft, compared with but aqua regia.*
other metals.
It is considered a perfect metal, because it does not
lose any of its weight when fused, nor suffer any change.
Most metals become oxydated.f
When the children understand fully the different quali-
ties, the teacher may mention to them the facts that prove
the extraordinary degree in which the peculiar qualities
exist in the metal.
1. Malleable. A grain of gold, the size of a pin's head,
may be beaten out to cover a space of fifty square inches.
2. Ductile. A grain of gold can be drawn out to cover
a wire of 352 feet in length ; a guinea can be drawn out
to reach nine miles and a half.
3. Tenacious. A wire one-tenth of an inch in diameter
will support 500 pounds without breaking.
4. Heavy. It is nineteen times heavier than water of
the same bulk.
Uses of Gold.
When alloyed J with copper, gold is used as coin, and
* Aqua regia (royal water) is a mixture of muriatic acid and nitric
acid.
\ Substances are oxydated when they are combined with a certain
portion of oxygen.
\ The combinations of metals with each other are called, in chemis*
iry, allmfi ; but this term is commonly employed to designate those sub*
•tanccs that lessen the value of any with which they are united.
GOLD. 141
for ornamental purposes ; for the latter it is fitted by its
brilliancy and beauty, and also because it is not liable to
tarnish.
The gold used in coinage, called standard gold, consists
of a combination of about twenty-two parts of gold, and
two of copper.
Gold thread is made by covering silk or silver with
gold beaten very thin.
Gilding is the art of covering the surface of a sub-
stance with gold ; this is effected by applying it in a state
of leaf, or liquid gold, to a surface covered by a cement.
Quicksilver unites with gold, communicating to it a
portion of its own fluidity ; it has from this circumstance
been used in gilding buttons — an effect which is produced
very rapidly by the following process: The metals are
mixed together, and the buttons immersed in the com-
pound. They are then exposed to a great heat, by which
the quicksilver is evaporated, and the gold is left upon the
buttons.
The purple color used in painting porcelain is obtained
from gold.
Gold is beaten into leaves upon a smooth block of mar-
ble fitted into a wooden frame, about two feet square ; on
three sides there is a high ledge, and the front has a flap
of leather attached to it, which the workman uses as an
apron to preserve the fragments that fall off. There are
three kinds of animal membrane used in the operation.
For interlaying with the gold at first, the smoothest and
closest vellum is procured; and when the gold becomes
thin, this is exchanged for much finer skin, made of the
142 FOUKTH STEP. ^METALS.
entrails of oxen prepared for this purpose, and hence called
goldbeaters'' skin: the whole is covered with parchment,
to prevent the hammer from injuring it. After the gold
has been reduced to a sufficient degree of thinness, it is
put between paper which has been well smoothed and
rubbed with red bole, in order to prevent it adhering to
the gold.
Geographical and Geological Situation of Gold,
Gold is found principally in hot climates, either native
or as an ore. A metal is called native when it occurs in
nature pure, and an ore when mixed with other substances.
Gold is found in mines, in Brazil, Peru, Mexico, and Califor-
nia. Part of the western coast of Africa is called the Gold
Coast, from the gold dust brought down by the natives to
trade with. A great quantity of gold is obtained in the
form of fine sand, from American and African rivers ; and
in small quantities from the Danube, the Rhine, and the
Rhone. It is supposed to be carried down by the moun-
tain torrents. The wandering tribes of gypsies employ
themselves in washing it from the beds of European rivers.
The Himalaya mountains in Asia, are rich in gold. It some-
times occurs in the veins which run through mountains,
and sometimes in rounded masses in soils that are evi-
dently the ruins of rocks. The mines which formerly
yielded the largest quantities of gold were those of Peru
and Lima ; the principal in Europe are those of Hungary
and Saltzburg. There have been discovered large quantities
of gold in California and in Australia, which has caused a
comparative abundance of this metal. The mode of ex-
SILVER. 143
trading gold from the ore is by reducing the whole to a
fine powder, and mixing it with quicksilver. The latter
unites with every particle of gold, but, being incapable of
forming a combination with any but metallic substances, it
separates the gold from the earth with which it Is inter-
mixed. The quicksilver, which has absorbed the gold, is
then evaporated by means of heat, leaving the pure metal
in the vessel.
LESSON XVL
SILVER.
Qualities of Silver.
It is malleable. 1. It is white,
ductile. 2. solid,
tenacious. 3. compact,
heavy. 4. natural,
indestructible. brilliant,
fusible. reflective,
soft. sweetly sonorous,
flexible. not aftected by com-
a perfect metal. mon acids,
opaque.
1. Malleable. Silver can be reduced to a degree of
thinness nearly equal to that of which gold is capable.
2. Ductile. It can also be drawn out into the finest
wire.
3. Tenacious. A wire one tenth of an inch in thick-
ness will support 377 pounds without breaking.
4. Heavy. It is about eleven times heavier than
water.
144 FOURTH STEP. METALS.
Uses of Silver.
Silver is used for coin, and is then combined with cop-
per, to render it harder and better adapted to receive a
fine and sharp impression on being cast. It does not lose
its white color by its mixture with copper. The same
alloy is employed for ornamental purposes.
Silver is much used as a casing to copper utensils, to
render them more pleasing to the sight, and also to pre-
vent the formation of the poison extracted by acids from
copper. The most permanent plating is effected by tak-
ing two thin plates of silver and copper, the former in the,
proportion of one to twelve of the latter ; a little pow-
dered borax is placed between the two metals to promote
their fusion ; and then, after being exposed to a white
heat, they will be found firmly united. The substance is
passed between rollers till the whole is of the proper thick-
ness for the intended manufacture.
Silver dissolved in aquafortis (nitric acid) yields crys-
tals, which, being afterward melted in crucibles, form what
is called lunar caustic. This preparation is of considerable
value in surgical operations, being employed to burn away
diseased flesh, and also for consuming warts, wens, and
other excrescences of the skin. Indelible or permanent
ink, used for marking linen, is made by dissolving nitrate
of silver (lunar caustic) in water, and adding gum. The
yellow color employed in painting porcelain is obtained
from silver.
Geographical and Geological Situation of Silver,
Silver is found, both native and as an ore, in mines and
QUICKSILVEK. 145
veins. South America is tlie country richest in silver
mines. It is also found in Saxony, Bohemia, Norway,
Hungary, and England ; but the mines of Mexico and
Peru furnish annually ten times more than all those of
Europe together. So poisonous are the exhalations from
the mines of Peru, that many thousands of Indians have
perished in them, and the cattle that graze on the outside
are aifected by their malignant vapors. This metal is also
found in several localities in our own country, the most
important of which are the Washoe region (on the bor-
ders of California and Nevada Territory), Lake Superior,
Arizona, North Carolina, and from the gold of California
and Colorado.
The ores of silver are very numerous, and various
methods are employed in diflerent countries to separate
this metal from its ore. In Mexico and Peru the mineral
is pounded, roasted, washed, and then mixed with mercury
in vessels filled with water, a mill being employed for the
purpose of more perfectly agitating the liquid. This
causes the silver to unite with the mercury, and then,
being submitted to heat, the latter is evaporated. The
pure metal is afterward melted and cast into ingots or bars
of 80 or 90 lbs. each.
LESSON XYIL
QUICKSILVER, OR MERCURY.
Qualities of Quic7csilvei\ or Mercury,
It is heavy. 1. It is cold. 3.
fluid. 2. divisible. 4,
7
146 FOURTH STEP. METALS.
It is volatile when heated. It is dilatable by heat,
white. medicinal
brilliant. 5. natural,
opaque. mineral
least tenacious of all bodies.
1. Weight. Nearly fourteen times heavier than water.
It is the heaviest known fluid.
2. Fluid. It always retains its fluidity in our temper-
ature ; but near the poles it congeals, and then is malle-
able, ductile, and tenacious.
3. Cold. It is the coldest of all fluids, and the hottest
when boiling.
4. It is capable of division, by the slightest effort, into
an indefinite number of particles, which are of a spherical
shape.
5. The peculiar brilliancy of metals has given rise to
the term metallic lustre.
Uses of Quicksilver.
Quicksilver penetrates and softens other metals, losing
its own fluidity, and forming a }cind of paste called amcU-
gam. This affinity or attraction that it has for other
metals makes it exceedingly useful in separating them
from substances with which they are found combined ;
they are drawn from their ores and unite with the mer<
cury, and the latter being volatilized, the pure metal re*
mains. Quicksilver is easily affected by the atmosphere,
and is on this account used in thermometers and barome-
ters. The Thermometer is an instrument constructed in
the following manner : A tube of glass, terminating in a
QUICKSILVER, 147
hollow ball which contains mercury, is plunged into boiling
water, which causes the mercury to expand and rise to a
certain height. At this point, which is called boiling heat,
the tube is broken off and hermetically sealed ; * the freez>
ing point is then ascertained and marked, and the interven-
ing space graduated. The thermometer, by marking the
expansion and contraction of the quicksilver, indicates
the increase and decrease of heat and cold in the atmos-
phere.
To form the barometer, a glass tube, open at one end,
and filled with quicksilver, is plunged with its open end
downward into a bowl containing some of the same fluid.
Part of the mercury in the tube flows into the vessel, leav-
ing a space to which the air cannot gain access. A vacuum
being thus formed, the atmosphere acts upon the mercury
in the bowl ; when heavy, causing it to rise in the tube,
and when light (the pressure being decreased), allowing it
to descend. The barometer, by thus showing the weight
of the air, indicates the probability of wet or dry weather.
For when the atmosphere is light, it no longer supports
the vapor and clouds which float in it, and they conse-
quently descend toward the earth ; but when the air is
more dense, they are borne up, and we have fine weather.
The elevation of mountains is also ascertained by means
of the barometer ; for as it is known that the rarity of the
* In order to seal anything hermetieallj, the neck of a glass tube is
heated till on the point of melting, and then with a pair of hot pincers
it is closely twisted together, by which means the air is excluded. Her-
metically is derived from Hermes^ the deity of ancient mythology who
was thought to preside over the arts and sciences, particularly chemistry.
148 FOURTH STEP. METALS.
atmosphere increases in proportion to the ascent, the height
is easily calculated.
Quicksilver is also used for coating mirrors. The pro-
cess is effected in the following maimer: a sheet of tin foil
the size of the plate of glass is placed evenly on a smooth
block of stone ; over this is poured some quicksilver, which
is carefully spread upon it with a feather or rubber of linen.
Tin, in amalgamating with mercury, quickly forms an oxide
of a black appearance ; this being removed, more of the
fluid is poured upon it. The glass is then held horizontal-
ly, and carefully spread over the amalgam, sweeping before
it the superfluous mercury, and any more oxide that may
have formed. Weights are then placed upon the glass^
and after having remained several days, the mixture ad-
heres firmly and forms the mirror.
Vermilion, used in coloring seahng wax, and the medi-
cine called calomel, are preparations of this metal.
Geographical and Geological Situation of Quicksilver,
Quicksilver is found in the native state, as globules, in
the cavities of mines ; but it is'most frequently combined
with sulphur, forming the mineral called Cinnabar, which
is of a red color. It is found in considerable quantities in
some parts of California; the mines yielding 2,000,000
lbs. avoirdupois annually.
The quicksilver mines of Idria, in Austria, are said to
yield annually 100 tons ; those of Spain still more ; but the
mines of Peru are the richest.
The mines of Idria were accidentally discovered about
three hundred years since. That part of the country was
LEAD.
149
then much inhabited by coopers ; one of the men, when re^
tiring from work in the evening placed a new tub under
a dropping spring to try if it would hold water, and when
he came in the morning he found it so heavy that he could
scarcely move it. On examination he perceived a shining,
ponderous fluid at the bottom, which proved to be quick-
silver. When this circumstance was made known, a com-
pany was formed to discover and work the mines from
whence the mercury had issued. In some parts of the
mine it flows in small springs, so that in six hours as much
as thirty-six pounds have been collected ; in other parts it
i» found diffused in small globules.
LESSOi^ XVIII.
LEAD.
It is heavy. 1.
fusible. 2.
bright when first
melted or cut.
malleable.
ductile.
very soft. 3.
pliable.
livid, bluish gray.
easily calcined, that is.
reduced by heat to a
crumbling substance.
Qualities of Lead.
It is solid.
sometimes amorphous,
sometimes crystallized.
023aque.
mineral.
liable to tarnish. 4.
inelastic,
natural.
It makes a gray streak on
paper,
boils and evaporates at
great heat.
1. Heavy. It is eleven times heavier than water ; ra-
jfier heavier than silver.
150 FOURTH STEP. METALS.
2. It melts at a much lower temperature than the other
metals.
3. It is the softest of all metals.
4. Lead is not much altered by being exposed either to
air or water, though the brightness of its surface is soon
lost. Probably a thin stratum of oxide is formed on tha
surface, which defends the rest of the metal from corrosion.
Uses of Lead.
The calx * of lead is the basis of many colors, which
are obtained from it by different degrees of heat. Red
lead and white lead, so much used in paints, are the calces
of lead. They are soluble in oil, are very poisonous, and
occasion the ill health to which painters are subject. The
oxide of lead also enters into the composition of white
glass, rendering it clearer ; it is also used in the glazing
of common earthenware vessels. Any acid will extract a
poison from lead, and therefore the use of it should be
avoided in culinary operations. It is employed in glazing
pottery.
It is also used for gutters and pipes of houses, and for
cisterns and reservoirs of water, because it does not rust,
and is very durable.
The great softness of lead, and the ease with which it is
fused, are the properties which have brought it so much
* Calx is the dross formed on the surface of lead when fused. This
name is applied by chemists to those substances which have been re-
duced by burning to a friable state. The operation by which this effect
is produced is called calcination. It is more general now to term
metaiiic bodies when calcined, oxides, ""
LEAD. 151
into use. The persons who work it are called plumbers,^
The solder they use as a cement is an alloy of lead and tin,
in the proportion of two parts of the former to one of the
latter.
Great quantities of lead are consumed in making shot.
The metal for this purpose is alloyed with arsenic, to ren-
der it more hard and brittle, and capable of assuming a
perfectly spherical shape. Shot are formed by dropping
the melted alloy into water from a considerable height,
through an iron or copper frame, perforated with round
holes, which are larger or smaller according to the required
size of the shot. Mixed with antimony, lead is used for
printing types ; and with tin and copper, it forms pewter.
Geological and Geographical Situation of Lead.
The largest and perhaps most important lead mines in
the world are found in England and Wales. It is sup-
posed, from relics and inscriptions found in these mines,
that they were worked by the Romans when in possession
of Great Britain.
The principal mines in the United States are found in
Missouri, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa. It has been found
in several of the Atlantic States, but the mines, proving
unprofitable, have mostly been abandoned.
Lead is plentiful in Scotland, Ireland, Spain, France,
and Germany.
It is very doubtful whether it is ever found native ; it
occurs frequently combined with sulphur, when it is called
galena.
* Plumb-er, from the Latin plumb-wm, lead.
152 FOURTH STEP. METALS.
When the ore is brought out of the mines it is sorted
and washed, to free it from dirt and rubbish ; it is then
spread out, and the best pieces separated. After the ore,
by picking and washing, has been sufficiently cleansed from
extraneous matter, it is roasted * in a kind of kiln, to free
it from the sulphur usually combined with it. The next
process is to mix it with a quantity of coke, and submit it
to the smelting furnace. In this there are tap holes, which,
when the lead is melted, are opened, to allow it to run in a
fluid state into an iron vessel. The dross which floats on
its surface is skimmed ofi", and the metal is taken out by
ladles, and poured into cast-iron moulds with round ends.
It is then called ^9^^ leacl^ and is fit tor use.
LESSON XIX.
COPPER.
Qualities of Copper.
It is heavy. 1. It is mineral.
tenacious, 2. sometimes crystallized,
very sonorous. 3. sometimes amorphous,
fusible. 4. ,^' brilliant,
elastic. 5. reflective,
capable of extreme divis- sapid.
ibility. 6. nauseous to the taste.
* Roasting is the process by which the voh\tile parts of an ore are
evaporated. Smelting is that by which the pure metal is separated from
the earthy particles combined with it in the ore. This is done by throw-
ing the whole into a furnace, and mixing with it substances that will
combine with the earthy parts ; the metal, being the heavie.st, falls to the
bottom, and runs out by the proper opening in its pure metallic state.
COPPER. 163
Qualities of Copper.
It is malleable. It is hard.
ductile. unpleasantly odorous,
compact. solid,
opaque. medicinal,
orange-brown color. easily corroded.
1. Heavy. Copper is eight times heavier than water.
2. Tenacious. A wire one tenth of an inch in thickness
will support two hundred and ninety-nine pounds and a
half without breaking.
3. It is the most deeply sonorous of all metals.
4. It is more easily fused than iron, but less so than gold
or silver.
5. It is the most elastic metal, next to iron.
6. A grain dissolved in ammonia will give a perceptible
color to more than 500,000 times its weight in water.
The Uses of Copper,
Tlie uses of copper are numerous and important.
When rolled into sheets between iron cylinders, it is used
to cover the roofs of houses, especially arsenals and manu-
factories, where there is liability to lire. The bottoms of
ships are coppered in order to make them sail faster, and
to prevent shell fish from perforating the wood. Copper is
much used for cooking utensils, but great care- is necessary,
for should any acid or even water be allowed to stand some
time in the vessels, a poison is extracted ; but while boiling
this evil does not arise. It is customary, in order to pre-
vent any danger, to line copper vessels with tin. Copper
IS used in the manufactories of gunpowder, because it docs
154 FOURTH STEP. METALS.
not, like iron, give out sparks by collision. Having no
effect upon the magnetic needle, copper is found to be the
best material for the boxes and supports of this delicate
instrument. Plates of copper are sometimes engraved
with a sharp instrument called a burin; sometimes they
are corroded with aquafortis ; * in the latter case, the cop-
per is covered with wax, on which the design is sketched
with a pointed instrument, the aquafortis reaches the cop-
per just in those places where the wax has been removed
by the sketching, and eats into it. Verdigris is a rust of
copper, usually made from that metal by corroding it with
vinegar. There is a large manufactory at Montpelier, in
France, where verdigris is prepared in the following man-
ner : Copper plates and" the refuse of grapes are placed
alternately one upon another ; the latter speedily corrode
the surface of the metal. The verdigris thus formed is
scraped off as it collects on the copper ; it is afterward
dried, and packed in casks or bags. It is chiefly employed
in dying, and is a most virulent poison. The alloys of cop-
per are numerous and valuable. Brass is the most impor-
tant ; it is compounded of zinc and copper, in the propor-
tion of three parts of the former to one of the latter. This
is a very beautiful and useful substance ; it does not rust so
easily as copper ; it is more ductile than either that metal
or iron, and is therefore used in the construction of musical
and mathematical instruments, and in clockwork. Sieves
and b\ii3ds are woven of brass wire of extreme fineness.
Brass is used both for puri)Oses of ornament and use.
Cof per alloyed with tin forma bronze ; it is remarkable,
• Aquafortia (»tioiig water) is iiiLiic acid diluted with water.
COPPER. 155
that when these two metals are melted together, the com-
pound so produced is heavier than tlie weight of the two
metals taken separately. Bronze is very useful from its
being extremely hard, durable, and sonorous ; it is made
into cannon balls, statues, &c. The metal of which cannon
are made is also an alloy of copper with tin. Bell metal
consists of three parts copper and one tin. Copper is the
principal ingredient in German silver and Chinese gongs ;
and in small proportion it is used to give hardness to silver
coin and plate.
Geographical and Geological Situation of Copper.
Copper is found in Sweden, Saxony, Great Britain,
America, and Australia. The copper region of Lake Supe-
rior contains almost the only mines of this metal that are
profitably worked in the United States. The worn tools
found in immense numbers in some of these mines, prove
that they have been worked at a remote period by an un-
known people. It was one of the metals earliest known ;
the Bible mentions workers in brass before the Flood.
It is found in great variety of forms ; sometimes in
masses of pure metal, but more frequently combined with
other substances, particularly sulphur. The copper mines
of Anglesea are very productive ; they are situated on the
top of a mountain, and form an enormous cavity more than
500 yards long, 100 broad, and 100 deep. The ore is ob-
tained from the mine, either by pickaxes or by blasting the
rock with gunpowder. It is then broken with a hammer
into small pieces, an operation which chiefly employs women
and children. After this, it is piled on a kiln, to the upper
156 FOURTH STEP. METALS.
part of which flues are attached, that communicate with
sulphur chambers. The kiln is covered, and tlie fires light-
ed in different parts, that the ore may undergo the process
of roasting. The whole mass gradually kindles, and the
sulphur which is combined with the ore, being expelled in
fumes by the heat, is conveyed through the flues to the
sulphur chamber. This process occupies from three to ten
months, according to the size of the kilns. When the
operation is complete, or the ore is freed from the sulphur,
it is submitted to the smelting houses, where, by the in-
tense heat it undergoes, the pure metal is forced off in a
fluid state.
LESSON XX.
IRON.
Qualities of Iron.
It is elastic. 1. It is fusible.
ductile. 2. livid gray color.
heavy. 3. solid.
tenacious. 4. susceptible of a high
hard. 5. polish.
malleable. '-cold.
liable to rust. sometimes amorphous.
sonorous. sometimes crystallized.
mineral.
1. In the state of steel, it is the most elastic of all
metals.
2. Iron is more ductile than gold ; it may be drawn
into a wire as fine as human hair.
3. It is the lightest of the common metals, except tin ;
between seven and eisjht times heavier than water.
IKON. 157
4. The most tenacious of the metals. A wh-e about
one tenth of an inch in diameter will support 500 pounds
without breaking.
5. Its hardness exceeds that of most other metals, and
this is increased by its being converted into steel.
Uses of Iron.
Iron is the most useful of all metals, and man very early
became acquainted with its value. Moses speaks of fur-
naces of iron, and of the ores from which it was extracted.
By means of this metal the earth has been cultivated,
houses and cities built, and without it few arts could be
practised. Iron is very abundant in nature, but it is always
found mixed with some other substance. It is then called
iron ore. Sometimes it is combined with clay, at other
times with lime, or with flint. In order to separate the
iron from its ore, intense heat is required; either pure clay,
lime, or silex, remain stubborn in the hottest fires, but when
mixed in proper proportions, the one assists in the fusion
of the other ; therefore there is always thrown into the fur-
nace with the iron ore some earth that will combine with
that in the iron ore. The intense heat of the furnace is
kept up by means of a continual supply of air, rushing into
it from immense bellows, worked by machinery. The
lime, clay, or flint, unite and form a kind of slag, which
floats on the surface. At the same time the carbon, or
pure charcoal of the fuel, aided by the limestone, melts
the iron, which, being heavier than the other substances,
falls to the bottom of the furnace, and remains there till
the workmen let it out by a hole made at the bottom of
158 FOURTH STEP. METALS. ^
the furnace, and plugged with sand. When the workman
judges that there is a sufficient quantity of the iron fused,
he displaces the plug with an iron rod, and the melted iron
runs out like a stream of liquid fire, and is conveyed into
furrows made in sand, where it cools ; the pieces formed in
the principal furrows are called sows, those in the smaller
furrows branching from them, pigs. In this state it takes
the name of cast iron, and from the process it has under-
gone, it is become extremely hard, and having lost its tena-
city, it resists the hammer and the file, and is very brittle ;
\t is of a dark gray or blackish color. It is used for the
backs of chimneys, grates, boilers, pipes, railroads, common
cannon balls, &c.
Cast iron contains a large proportion of carbon, and is
probably saturated with it. It is converted into steel by
taking aw^ay a portion of its carbon. It is converted into
wrought iron by removing the carbon, and as far as possi-
ble other impurities, as sulphur, phosphorus, &c. The value
of wrought iron for machinery, and tools of all descriptions,
is very great. Steel is also much employed for ornamental
purposes, on account of the elegant polish it is capable of
taking.
Plumbago, or black lead, which is employed in the man-
ufacture of pencils, is an ore of iron, containing nine parts
of carbon to one of the metal. The bronze color used in
porcelain painting is an oxide of iron. Meteoric stones,
which have been the subject of so much conjecture, and
which are sometimes believed to be ejected from volcanoes
in the moon, are native iron.
Iron is very valuable from the magnetic properties it
IRON. 159
may acquire. By these it enables the mariner to steer
across the ocean, the traveller to direct his course with
safety in the pathless desert, and the miner to guide his
researches after subterraneous treasures. The loadstone,
or natural magnet, is an oxide of iron ; it communicates
its power to bars of iron or steel when placed in contact
with them. The artificial magnet is now always used, as
ft possesses and retains all the properties of the loadstone.
The qualities which render it useful, are, its attraction for
iron, and its polarity, or the power by which it points to
the poles when freely suspended. One end invariably turns
Lo the north, and the other to the south, except when it
approaches the poles ; there the directive power ceases al-
together, which circumstance constitutes one of the great
difficulties in navigating the Arctic Sea.
Geographical Situation of Iron.
Iron is the most universally diffused of the metals. It
is found in every country, in greater or less quantities. It
is very rarely met with in a native state, but generally as an
oxide, or in combination with sulphuric or carbonic acid.
LESSON XXI.
TIN.
Qualities of Tin.
It is heavy. 1. It is very httle elastic,
soft. 2. pliable,
malleable. 3. easily cal(;ined.
160 FOURTH STEP. METALS.
Qualities
of
Tin.
is ductile.
It
is natural.
fusible.
mineral.
white.
reflective.
opaque.
sonorous, makes a
solid.
crackling noise.
brilliant.
dilatable by heat.
1. It is seven times heavier than water ; yet the light-
est of the ductile metals.
2. It is softer than silver, but harder than lead.
3. Tin may be beaten into sheets the one thousandth
part of an inch in thickness.
Uses of Tin.
Tin is chiefly employed in the manufacture of culinary
utensils ; they are not, however, made of solid tin, but of
what is called tin plate, which is thus prepared: Thin iron
plates are first well cleansed, by washing them in water and
sand ; they are then dipped into melted tin, and afterward
steeped in water acidulated with sulphuric acid. This pro-
cess causes the tin not only to cover the surface of the iron
plate, but to penetrate it, so that the whole mass becomes
of a whitish color. Pins are made of brass wire, tinned.
When the pin is formed, a vessel is filled with strata
or layers of tin plates between the brass pins ; the vessel is
then filled with water and some tartaric acid, by means of
which the tin is dissolved ; after five or six hours' boiling,
the pins are found uniformly tinned. It is the zinc of tho
brass which has an affinity for the tin, and forms the union
which takes place. The pins are afterward polished ; they
TIN. 161
are thrown into a tab containing a quantity of bran, which
is set in motion by the turning of a shaft in the centre •
the friction which the pins thus undergo renders them per-
fectly bright. The uses of tin for domestic purposes are
very various, particularly when laid over other metals, as
in stirrups, buckles, &c. The oxide of tin is used in dyeing.
Tin foil is used for coating Leyden jars, for enclosing
small packages of tobacco and spices, and for covering the
tops of champagne bottles, &c., to exclude the air. Large
sheets are used for silvering looking glasses.
Tin forms alloys with several other metals. These com-
pounds have been mentioned before ; as bell metal, pewter,
bronze. Tin leaves, amalgamated wdth mercury, are used
for silvering and plating other metals.
Geographical Situation of Tin.
England, Germany, Chili, and Mexico, produce the
largest quantities of this metal. The tin mines of Cornwall
were well known to the ancients ; and the Phoenicians are
said to have traded with the Britons for it long before the
birth of our Saviour. Native tin is never found, and its
ore is of less common occurrence than that of iron. It
occurs as an oxide, or mixed with sulphur and copper;
chiefly in veins running through granite and other rocks.
When it is taken from the mine, it is broken into small
pieces, and streams of water are passed over it, to free it
from the earthy particles with which it is intermixed ; it is
then roasted and smelted, when the metal is poured out
into quadrangular moulds of stone, and receives the
name of block tin.
3^2 ' FOURTH STEP. — METALS.
LESSON xxn.
COMPARISON OP METALS.
Gold, a perfect metal, is the most precious.
most compact.
heaviest. '
Its weight is between nineteen and twenty times that
of water.
Silver, a perfect metal, is next in value to gold, and
more useful ; its weight between ten and eleven times that
of water.
Quicksilver is fluid.
easily volatilized,
immalleable.
Its weight is between thirteen and fourteen times that
of water.
Copper is the most sonorous.
most elastic, except iron.
Its weight is between eight and nine times that of
water.
Iron is the most elastic.
most tenacious.
most useful.
most ductile.
Its weight is between seven and eight times that of
water.
Lead is the softest.
most easily fused.
ON METALS IN GENERAL. 163
Its weight is between eleven and twelve times that
of water.
Tin, next to lead, is the softest of the metals ; it dilates
most by heat ; it is the Hghtest, its weight being only seven
times that of water.
LESSON XXIII.
ON METALS IN GENERAL.
Metals are simple elementary bodies, distinguished by
being heavier than all other substances ; by possessing a
j)eculiar lustre, which is called the metallic lustre ; by re-
flecting light and heat ; by their being opaque, fusible, mal-
leable, tenacious, ductile, and generally elastic. Upon this
last quality seems to depend their fitness for exciting
sound, or sonorousness. Metals are capable of uniting
with each other in a state of fusion ; this union is called an
alloy. It is remarkable that by these combinations metals
undergo a considerable change in their properties, and ac-
quire new ones not belonging to either of them when not
united. Thus the weight of the alloy, or the two metals
in combination, is sometimes very different from the weight
of both the metals taken separately ; an alloy of silver with
copper or tin, or one of silver or gold with lead, is heavier
than the same quantities of those metals uncombined.
Their ductility and malleability are changed and generally
impaired, the alloy becoming brittle. This is very remark-
ably the case with gold and lead when united, the latter
of which, even in the trivial proportion of half a grain to.
an ounce of gold, renders the mass quite destitute of
■.enacity.
164 FOURTH STEP. METALS,
The hardness of metals is varied by eotiibination. Gold
being united with a small quantity of copper, and silver,
with a minute proportion of the same metal, acquire such
an increase of hardness, that these additions are always
made to gold and silver which are exposed to wear. By a
sinaU addition of gold, iron is said to gain so much hard-
ness as to be even superior to steel for the fabrication of
cutting instruments.
Change of color is a common effect of the union of
metals wdth each other. Arsenic, for example, which re-
sembles steel, and copper, which has a red color, afford by
their union a compound which has nearly the whiteness of
silver.
In order to ascertain how far the children have retained
the knowledge acquired in these lessons, the following ques-
tions may be given to them to answer in writing :
QUESTIONS ON THE METALS.
GOLD.
1. What are the chief qualities of gold?
2. What is its weight ?
3. Give a proof of its ductiUty.
4. tenacity.
5. malleability.
6 Upon what other quality does its malleability de-
pend ?
V. What qualities are directly opposed to malleability ?
8. What is an alloy ?
9. Why is gold alloyed for the purpose of coinage?
SILVER. 105
10. What metal is used as its alloy ? and in wliat pro-
portion ?
11. How are buttons gilded?
12. Describe the manner of forming leaf gold.
13. In what state is gold found ?
14. What is an ore ?
15. What is meant by a native metal?
16. In what countries is gold found?
17. What people employ themselves in separating it
from the sands of the European rivers ?
SILVER.
1. What are the chief proportions of silver?
2. What is its weight ?
3. What degree of tenacity does it possess?
4. What are the chief uses of silver ?
5. Upon what qualities do the uses of silver depend ?
6. Describe the operation of plating.
1. What is lunar caustic ? and what are its uses ?
8. Give the geographical location of silver.
9. Why are gold and silver called perfect metals ?
QUICKSILVER.
1. What are the uses and properties of quicksilver ?
2. What is its weight ?
3. In what respect is it remarkable as a liquid ?
4. What effect does heat produce upon it ?
5. Under what circumstances does a change in its quaL
itibjs take place ? and what is the change ?
6. What is an amalgam ?
166 FOUBTH STEP. — METALS.
1. Mention the uses of quicksilver.
8. What are the properties that fit it for a barometer ?
9. What for a thermometer ?
10. How is a barometer made ? and what is its use ?
11. How is a thermometer made ? and what is its use ?
12. What color is obtained from quicksilver ?
13. Where is quicksilver found ?
14. What circumstance led to the discovery of the mines
of Idria ?
LEAD.
1. What are the remarkable qualities of lead?
2. What is its weight?
3. What are the different effects which heat produces
on lead ?
4. What are the chief uses of lead ?
5. Why is it used for reservoirs of water ?
6. How are shot made ?
7. What is the use of the oxides of lead ?
8. What are its alloys ?
9. In what state is lead found ?
10. What is lead called when .found united with sulphur?
11. Where is lead most abundant?
12. Describe the process of roasting and smelting.
COPPEK.
1. What are the chief qualities of capper ?
2. What is its weight and what its degree of tenacity ?
3. How is it proved to be capable of extreme divisi-
bility ?
4. What are the uses of copper ?
IKON. 167
5. What is verdigris ? and how is it made ?
6. What is the danger incurred by employing copper
in kitchen utensils ?
V. What are the alloys of copper ?
8. In what respect is bra.^s preferable to copper ?
9. Where is copper found ? and in what state ?
10, Describe the copper mines in Anglesea, and the
manner of extracting the metal from the ore.
IRON.
1. What are the chief qualities of iron ?
2. What quality does it possess in a higher degree
than any other metal ?
3. What is its weight and tenacity ?
4. What are the different states in which iron is used ?
5. How is cast iron prepared ?
6. What are its qualities and uses ?
7. How is wrought iron prepared ?
8. What are its qualities and uses ?
9. How is steel prepared ?
10. What are its qualities and uses?
11. What is meant by the temper of steel ?
12. What is plumbago? and what quality makes it
useful ?
13. What is the geographical situation of iron? and
with what is it found combined ?
TIN.
1. What are the qualities of tin ?
Z. What are the uses of tin ?
1G8 FOUKTII STEP. NATURAL HISTORY.
3. How is it prepared for use ?
i. How are pins tinned ?
5. What is block tin ?
C. Where is tin found ?
LESSON XXIV.
A BEE.
JFor Children from ten to twelve years old.
DESCRIPTION OF A BEE.
I. Mcaminatio7i of the Bee. — ^The children should be
directed to examine a bee very minutely, and the following
description, as far as it can, should be drawn from them ;
and what they cannot observe, they should be told.
The bee possesses a horny covering, which is harder
than the internal parts, thus serving as an external skele-
ton. The body is divided into three distinct parts — head,
thorax, and body. The jaws are four in number — two up-
per ones, and two under ones ; the under ones are length-
ened, and form, as it were, a sheath to the tongue. The
tongue is very long and slender, and admirably adapted
for clearing the honey out of the deep nectaries of flowers,
and also for curling up inside the mouth. Their attention
should then be directed to the fact, that there is a mem-
branous bag folded under the tongue. They should be
told that this bag is capable of being greatly distended,
and is used for receiving the honey before it is swallowed
and consigned to the honey bag. The bee has four wings —
two upper ones and two under — the latter are much more
delicate than the former. It has six legs ; on the broad
A BEE. . 169
surfaces of the hind legs are two small cavities, which have
a covering or lid of hairs. The children should be told
that these are used for containing the bee bread, with
which it feeds the young, and which it obtains and pre-
pares at the same time it is gathering honey, and that when
the honey also is safely deposited in its appropriate place,
the bee, quite loaded, flies home. The children's attention
should then be directed to the eye ; but before speaking
of it they should be shown a piece of glass, of the shape of
a double convex lens, be told its name, and that in the front
part of our eye there is a very small capsule, or bag, filled
with a transparent fluid, which is of the same shape — that
in passing through this the rays of light meet in a point,
or focus, which causes the reflections to be clear and dis-
tinct. When the children thoroughly understand this,
they should be told that the eye of the bee is always im-
movably fixed, which they might consider a great defect,
but that full compensation is made in the numerous lenses
with which it is filled, each, they will see, acting as a single
eye, consequently the bee would not require to move its
eye. The children should then be told that the bee ^vas
not always in the same form in which they see it, but that
it had undergone three changes ; that on its first appear-
ance from the egg it was something like an earth worm,
and was called the larva ; in the second change it is called
a chrysalis, when it is quite torpid ; and in the third it is
^he perfect insect or bee.
From knowledge previously acquired, the children will
be able by this examination of the bee to state that it is a
true insect, and also to give the three proofs : 1st. It con-
8
170 FOURTH STEP. NATURAL HISTORY.
sists of head, thorax, and body, while some insects (im-
properly so called), such as the spider and scorpion, consist
only of head and body, the thorax being united with the
head. 2d. It has six legs — whereas the so-called insects
have never less than eight — such are the spider and scor-
pion. 3d. The spider and scorpion, and all the so-called
insects, never undergo the changes for which the bee and
all true insects are remarkable.
After having thus dwelt upon the particular group to
which the bee belongs, the children should be desired to
name the great class in which it is included, and also to
give the reasons why so placed ; viz., the bee belongs to
the class " Articulata," because, 1st. It possesses what may
be considered an external skeleton in its horny covering ;
2d. Its body is divided into several segments, or parts,
which are joined or articulated together.
II. Habits of the Bee. — They are social insects, each
individual working for the good of all ; they are remark-
able for their great industry and carefulness, and for the
instinct they possess, as seen in the construction of their
habitations — a subject which should be taken up in a
separate lesson.
LESSON XXV.
HONEY COMB.
For Children from eight to twelve years old,
CONSTRUCTION OF COMBS, ETC.
I. Examination of the Comh. — Several pieces of honey
comb should be presented to the children. On examining
HONEY COMB. 171
the combs the children will discover that- they are chiefly
made of wax, but not exclusively, being smeared over with
a gummy substance. They should be told that this is called
" propolis," and is obtained from the bark and buds of some
trees, and serves to strengthen the combs.
II. Examination of Cells. — Classes of Bees. — The cells
should then be examined as to their size; the children
will soon see that there are three varieties in their size.
They should then be told that there are three distinctions
among the bees : — 1st. There is the queen bee, who is the
most important personage, and the mother of all; who,
with the royal larvae, occupies the largest cells, termed
" royal chambers." 2d. The male bees, who are a little
smaller in size ; the next sized cells contain larvae that will
produce these. 3d. There are the workers, or the female
bees, which are the smallest kind ; eggs that will produce
these are deposited in the smallest cells.
III. Uses of Cells. — ^The children should then be led
by questioning to tell the three uses of cells. By refer-
ring to what had just been dwelt upon, they see that the
first use was, to contain eggs. By asking what was done
with all the honey that was gathered, they will give the
use, to serve as storehouses for honey. By questioning
them as to what else the bee gathers from flowers, besides
honey, and what was done with it, they will see that the
cells also serve as receptacles for bee bread.
IV. Description of the Construction of Combs and
Cells. — ^After all this is quite clear to the children, the man-
ner in which the combs and cells are constructed should be
described to them, stopping at intervals in order to ques-
172 FOUETH STEP. — NATUEAL HISTOET.
tion them, that all may follow ; thus, The wax makes its
appearance in the form of eight scales upon the bee pre-
vious to the making of a comb. A bee ascends to the top
of the hive, and attaches itself by the hind legs to the roof;
another follows, and by its hind legs fastens itself to the
first bee ; a third follows the second, and so on, till a long
string is formed, the last bee of which also fastens itself
to the roof, so that a kind of festoon is produced ; thiS
festoon is filled up by many more bees : several such fes-
toons are made in each hive. In this state the bees remain
quite still, until the scales appear. A bee then se.parate3
itself from the rest, and by its hind legs removes one of
the scales, which is carried to the mouth by the fore legs,
where it is masticated and mixed with a frothy liquid, by
which it becomes whiter and firmer ; it is then attached to
the roof of the hive : the remaining scales are treated in
precisely the same manner; and then the bee retires,
making way for another bee. Thus they continue to work
until the whole block is formed. Before proceeding to
the construction of the cells, the children should be well
questioned on the preceding; as;. How does the wax ap-
pear ? — In what way do the bees arrange themselves be-
fore commencing: the combs? — How is the festoon com-
menced ? — What is the next movement of the bees ? —
What process does the wax undergo before being attached
to the hive, and what are the benefits ? &c., &c.
The manner of constructing the cells should then be
described, as follows : — ^As soon as sufficient of the comb
has been made to admit of the work of excavation, a bee
commences making a cell ; and as the comb increases in
COVEKING OP BIKDS. 173
size, the number of cells multiplies rapidly, more bees being
able to join in the work.
V. Lessons of Instruction. — ^The children should next
be assisted to draw lessons of instruction from what has
been noticed respecting the bee.
First, They afford us a striking example of industry
and carefulness — They do not lose one hour of the sum-
mer's sunshine, but are always busy gathering honey, and
storing it up for the winter's use, when they cannot leave
their hives — From this we should learn never to idle away
our time in youth, but embrace every opportunity of lay-
ing by stores of instruction, for our comfort in old age,
when we are not capable of so doing.
Secondly, The examination of this wonderful little in-
sect should also enlarge our ideas respecting the infinite
wisdom and goodness of God, who giveth one of his
smallest creatures such powers as are not only necessary
to its own well-being, but can also contribute to the com-
fort of man ; showing that the very smallest, as well as the
largest of God's works, demands our highest admiration.
lesso:n^ xxyi.
BKETCH OF A LESSON ON THE COVERING OF BIKDS, AND ITS
ADAPTATION TO THEIR WANTS.
For Children under twelve years of age.
In order that the children should determine what is
necessary in the covering of birds, refer to their habits,
motion, and the element in which they move ; and from a
174 FOURTH STEP. ^LESSON XXVI.
consideration of these, lead them to deduce the necessity
for great warmth ; by comparison of the blood of birds
with that of other animals, speak of the rapid changes of
temperature to which they are exposed in passing from one
country to another — in ascending and descending in the
atmosphere. (Instance Vultures.) The vulture descends
from the limit of perpetual snow to tropical plains in a few
moments. Also, call attention to their long and sustained
flight — the energy they possess in consequence of their
quick circulation, which is the cause of the warmth of their
bodies — and how their covering prevents it from escaping.
Great strength combined with lightness.
The children led to see why the feathers should be
strong, by reference to the organs of flight. Why light
and also smooth, by reference to the element through
which the bird moves.
II. Examination of the structure of a feather. — Chil-
dren name and describe the parts of a feather : — the quill
or barrel — the shaft — vane, or beard — the qualities of the
quill mentioned :
Lightness. — Result of form— ^a hollow cylinder much
stronger than if the same quantity were made into a solid
cylinder. Should be illustrated to the children by compar-
ing the weight borne by a hollow cylinder made of a piece
of paper, with the weight borne by the same piece of paper
made into a solid cylinder.
Strength. — Composed of two sets of fibres, one acting
longitudinally, the other circularly — eflect of this — ^cut a
quill as when a pen is made, and show the children that the
latter set are scraped off, the former separated by the slit.
COVEEING OF BIEDS. 175
The shaft examined and described. Lead the children
to see how the form adapts it to the shape of the body — ■
speak of the manner of flight, and show the necessity of
the groove and curve beneath, in striking the air ; and of
the great strength above, necessary to resist the stroke.
Yane^ or heard. — Examined — of what composed — shape
of the barbs, and their position with respect to the shaft —
their arrangement with respect to each other — why the flat
sides are tm-ned toward each other, and edges upward and
downward — a large unrufiled quill presented, and the chil-
dren shown that the barbs are firmly held together — when
pulled asunder, they again unite on being smoothed — how
is this ? Mention with what each barb is provided — posi-
tion, office, and use of barblets — call attention of children
to the beauty of this complicated arrangement, by suppos-
ing the beard formed of a single piece, or the barbs glued
together — the consequence in either case? — an injury once
sustained could never be repaired by the bird — how the
bird restores any feathers unfitted for flight through the
violence of a storm, by contact with prey, or other
accident.
(What has been said here refers chiefly to the feathers
of the wing and tail.)
Children led to see how admirably the structure and
arrangement of the body feathers are adapted to secure the
warmth required for the bird.
The feathers of the body compared with those of the
wings, and the class led to observe how each part of the
former is modified to suit a diflerent purpose. Refer to
the swan, to show the provisions made when great warmth
176 FOURTH STEP. — ^LESSON XXVn.
is required. Direct attention to what are called warm sub-
stances — they are non-conductors, and prevent the escape
of heat — ^how feathers effectually accomphsh this for the
bird.
Arrangement of feathers in wings and tail — wind can
'scarcely ruffle them.
Refer to the goodness and wisdom of God in the beau-
tiful adaptation of structure to wants, and caU for a suita-
ble text.
LESSON xxvn.
SKETCH OF A LESSON ON THE ADAPTATION OF FEATHERS TO
THE HABITS AND WANTS OF BIRDS.
For Children under twelve years of Age,
I. The Owl — Habits and food. — Call the children'?
attention to the habits and food of the owl.
1. Habits. — Nocturnal, passing the day in obscurity,
but on approach of evening (ioming forth in search of prey.
2. Food. — Mice, and other small animals, which are
naturally very timid, and likely to be disturbed by the
least noise, therefore only to be approached with great
caution.
3. Adaptation of plumage. — Refer to the noise usually
made by birds in flying — how prevented in case of the
owl ? Plumage of owl examined, and the children led to
see that the feathers are soft, loose, downy, yielding to
every breath of air.
Wings provided with quill feathers, deficient in strength
and elasticity. Children led to deduce the necessity for
HABITS AND WANTS OF BIKDS. 177
this, by reference to the nature of the animals on which
they prey.
Exte^it of wings compared with the body. Children
led to see the provision made to prevent tardiness of
flight.
The edge of the outer feather of the owl compared
with that of a pigeon, or any other bird, for the purpose
of showing how admirably they are modified to secure
noiseless flight.
II. The Kingfisher. — Direct attention to its locality
and food.
1. Locality. — Inhabits the margins of lakes and rivers.
2. Food. — Preys on small fish. The manner of obtain-
ing food described, and the children led to see the kind of
plumage necessary to resist the action of water during its
sudden plunges.
3. The kingfisher's plumage examined — adaptation of
bright hues and metallic lustre shown.
4. Habits of owl compared with those of kingfisher, to
show the necessity of a diffbrent kind of covering. What
would be the consequence had the kingfisher feathers like
the owl?
III. The Duck. — Children called upon to say all they
know of the habits and food, where seen, &c.
Refer to the habits and food of duck — to the chilling
and softening eflfects of water — and then lead the children
to see the necessity for such covering as will resist these
effects. Compare the different effects of rain on the
feathers of a duck, and on those of a hen.
The reason of this difference may be illustrated by ref-
8*
178 FOUKTU STEP. ^LESSON XXVIII.
erence to the various ways in which oil is used where
resistance to the influence of water is desired. Examine
the plumage of a duck : use of thick, downy under-coat —
to prevent the escape of heat from the body ; smooth, pol-
ished outer feathers — to keep out wet.
Habits of duck and kingfisher contrasted, to show the
necessity of different modification of feathers.
IV. The OsTEiCH. — Refer to the country where it is
found — its food and habits — show that flight is not neces-
sary — refer to the heat of the country inhabited by the os-
trich — the kind of protection needed; and lead the children
to see how the plumage is fitted to aflford this.
LESSON XXYin.
SKETCH OF A LESSON ON THE BEAKS OF BIBDS.
For Children from eight to ten years of age,
I. Commence by questioning the children as to the
organ by which birds obtain their food ; how it difiers from
our mouth, and how it is a substitute for teeth ; and draw
from them all they may have obseWed as to the habits of
birds, supplying information where necessary, and leading
them to see- that some birds, as the swallow, spend their
time chiefly on the wing, darting with short and rapid
flights in every direction ; and some, as the duck, spend
the greater part of their time in swimming ; others, as the
heron, are seen standing generally in the soft mud in the
neighborhood of pools and lakes ; some, as the hen, may
be seen constantly scratching up the ground ; and others
again, as the owl, stealthily flitting about at night.
ON THE BEAKS OF BIKDS. 179
Question as to how all these are employed, and lead
them to see that the difference of habits arises from the
different kinds of food that they require, and the different
elements in which they seek for it.
II. Present the beaks of the several birds above men-
tioned—Children examine them, and trace their adaptation
to the wants of the bird.
1st. That of the Sicallow. — Thin — soft — very wide at
the base, and coming quickly to a point. Why soft ? — In-
ferred from the nature of its food, insects captured while
on the wing. The necessity for the great width of the beak
in propoi'tion to the size of the bird, may also be inferred
from the difficulty of securing these insects in the air.
2d. The Duck's. — Broad, flat, and spoon-shaped, having
a fringe at the edge of each mandible. Use of the fringe —
Serves as a strainer. The reason of this shaped beak will
be. seen by reference to its food — small fish and insects.
To the manner of obtaining them — dipping its head under
water and straining the mud through the serrated edges
of its beak, and retaining what is necessary.
3d. The Snipe's. — Long and slender, serrated like the
duck's. By reference to the food and habits, lead the
children to see how this long and slender beak is fitted for
entering the soft mud, and how admirably the serrated
edge is suited for retaining the insects contained in the
mud.
4th. The Hell's. — Hard, strong, straight and blunt. By
considering the habits of the hen, lead tlio children to see
the necessity for hardness and strength, from the frequency
with which it comes in contact with clay, stones, and other
180 FOURTH STEP. — LESSON XXIX.
hard substances, also the hardness of the food ; — the bird
could not well pick up any grains without a hard instru-
ment. Refer to the force with which it pecks, and show
the necessity for bluntness — If sharp, would soon be worn
away, and enter the ground by the force of the blow.
5th. The OioVs. — Sharp, strong, and curved. The ne-
cessity for these qualities again inferred fi-om the nature
of its food, — ^birds and other small animals ; it requires the
sharpness and strength it possesses to destroy its prey and
tear it asunder.
Before concluding the lesson, require the children to
state how the beak of each bird mentioned is suited to its
food, and then draw from them the conclusion, that the
beaks of all birds are suited to their habits and wants,
showing the goodness of God in thus providing them with
what is best for them.
LESSON XXIX.
SKETCHES OP A LESSON ON THE MOLE. — TO BE GIVEN TO
CHILDREN OP TEN YEAKS OP AGE.
No. I. — Intended simply for the Teacher'* s own use.
I. Animal described. — The body in form cylindrical —
Compact, and strong in the fore part. The snout elon-
gated, terminating in bone rather than gristle. The eyes
small, and sunk in the fur. No external ears^ but a simple
opening concealed under the covering. The skin tough,
and covered by an extremely close, fine, short fur — ^having
no determined direction, but, like the nap of velvet, pre-
senting a smooth surface, incapable of being ruffled. The
ON THE MOLE. 181
limbs short— The front pair thick, strong, and muscular,
ending in broad hands^ spade-like in shape, obliquely in*
chned so as to make the inner edges the lowest part — ^The
extremities of these organs, five fingers, scarcely distinct,
but furnished with hard, flat nails — The hind limbs small,
and the feet comparatively feeble.
II. Habits described. — The mole subsists chiefly on
worms, and the larvai of insects found in the greatest
abundance under the surface of the earth, where the mole
has its habitation beneath those miniature hills so frequently
found in rich meadows, and cultivated fields. Its nest is
of a conical form, carefully lined with vegetable fibre, and
makes a most comfortable nursery for its young, which are
reared with extreme care and tenderness. Leading to the
nest are always several subterraneous galleries, furnishing
roads of egress and ingress.
III. Adaptation of the Organization of the Animal
to its Habits. — Structure, and habits of the mole carefully
recapitulated.
From the peculiar construction of the front limbs, infer
that they are essentially necessary in administering to the
wants of the animal. Means the little creature has of ex-
cavating the passages in which its food is to be found.
Has no other, and needs no other than those spade-like
instruments the nails, the extremities of which loosen the
soil, and render it capable of being collected in the hands ;
from whence it is thrown to the sides, and a little behind
the animal. The nails, aided by the pointed long snout,
admirably adapted for working its way in the earth, and
detecting worms, grubs, &c. — directed to these by the
182 FOURTH STEP. — LESSON XXX
acute senses of smelling and hearing. Little power of
vision required ; little given. God makes nothing which
has not some distinct end to answer. The goodness of the
Creator manifest in withholding an external ear and a fully-
developed eye ; — if given, sources not of pleasure but of
pain, on account of their liability to injury from the mould
in which the animal is constantly employed.
Covering exactly suited to an animal destined to lead
a subterraneous life. Thick, short, and incapable of being
displaced, it does not impede the animal in its progress —
Does not retain the wet and mud. Well might the* Psalm-
ist exclaim, "O Lord, how manifold are Thy works, in
wisdom hast Thou made them all.
LESSON XXX.
No. II. — The Method of giving the Lesson on the Mole
is here Detailed at lengthy to show not 07ily what is
Taught^ but how it is Taught.
I. Structure described.— A specimen of the mole being
presented to the children, get them carefully to observe
and describe its principal organs., directing their attention
by means of questions, comparisons, &c.
Ask if they know any form which the body nearly re-
sembles? — "What things having the form of a cylinder are
said to be ? — What then may be said of the body of the
mole? — "The body of the mole is cylindrical" — ^This
should be simultaneously repeated and written by the
teacher on the black board.
Next, let the children compare the /t/r of the mole with
ON THE MOLE. 183
that of some animal in which the hairs are scattered and
stiff. Call upon them to state the difference, and if unao'
quainted with the term that expresses the quality of the
mole's covering, tell them that, " when things are made
to he closely together, and so as to occupy a smaller space
than they otherwise would, they are said to be compact,
or compactly arranged " — Let this be repeated more than
once if necessary.
Inquire whether they know any manufactured article
used in dress to which the covering of the mole bears a
resemblance. The obvious qualities of the fur, such as
short, thick, fine, will be quickly seen ; but probably not
one child will discover that, like the nap of velvet, it has
no fixed direction, and is incapable of being ruffled, until
told to stroke the animal from the head to the tail, and
from the tail to the head, and a cat in the same way — ^Then
to state what they observe. The children should describe
the fur, and the teacher add to the account on the board,
" and covered by a fine, short, compact fur, which has no
particular direction, and cannot be ruffled."
Next ask. What animal has a head something like the
mole? — When they had a lesson on the pig, what did
they say of its snout 9 — How it terminated ? — Let them
feel the extremity of that organ in the mole, and then de-
scribe the head. " The head of the mole is small, tapering
into an elongated snout, which ends in bone rather than
gristle." — This should be repeated simultaneously, and writ-
ten on the board.
Other parts of the head named and described by the
children — The eyes very small, and sunk in the fur. Should
184 FOURTH STEP. — LESSON XXX.
the children assert that the mole has no ears^ tell them
that it has no external ears that can be seen, but that it»
possesses the sense of hearing to a considerable degree.
Question — With what do they hear? — Touch their ears —
Do they think they would hear were that flap removed ? —
Not so well, certainly, but they would be far from deaf;
for they have an internal ear^ and the mole has this also ;
the entrance to which they may discover if they look care-
fully. Add to the notes on the board, "The eyes are small,
nearly hidden by the fur; there is no outer ear, but a
simple opening, concealed under the covering."
Inquire if there is anything remarkable about the limbs ?
They are very short ; the front pair are strong and ijius-
cular, terminating in broad hands. Do the hands remind
them of any tool used by gardeners, ditchers, &c. ? Yes,
they are spade-like ; when they compare the fingers of the
mole with their own, what difference do they observe ?
what have they at the ends of their fingers ? what has
the mole ? Desire them to describe the front limbs, and
say what shall be written on the board. " The front limbs
of the mole are strong, muscular, and terminate in large,
broad, spade-like hands, ending in five fingers, scarcely
divided, and furnished with hard, flat nails." By causing
the children to compare the position of the hands of the
mole with that of their own, lead them to observe the
oblique, downward, and outward direction of the former.
Desire them to feel that portion of the body to which tho
limbs are attached, and contrast it with the fore parts of
a rabbit, that they may perceive not only that the arms are
Btrong, but that that part of the frame which supports thorn
ON THE MOLE. 185
is SO also. Question as to the difference observable between
the front and hind Hmbs. The latter are small and slender,
lying close to the body, the feet are furnished with claws,
yet are feeble compared to the spade-like hands.
II. Habits described. — Inform the children that the
mole cannot endure more than six hours' fast without great
exhaustion. That it subsists on worms and the sfrubs of
insects, found in the greatest abundance under the surface
of the earth.
If the pupils are not acquainted with the interior of
mole hills, represent to them on the board the galleries
and miniature hills made by the excavations of the little
miner. Speak of the lining of the nests of birds. Tell them
that the nest of the mole is lined with vegetable fibre, and
made a most comfortable nursery for its young, which are
reared with extreme care and tenderness. That leading
to the dormitory of the mole there are always several sub-
terranean passages, dug out by the creature as means of
going in and coming out. That he is an expert swimmer ;
appears to enjoy the water; and requires to drink fre-
quently ; and that there is usually a colony of these little
miners in possession of one common passage to the nearest
stream or ditch.
in. Adaptation of the organs to the hdJAts und locality
shown. — Let the children, with the assistance of the notes
on the board, and the occasional uso of the ellipsis, recapit-
ulate the description of the organization and habits of the
mole. Ask them to what the first part of the lesson re-
lated, and to what the second. Question them as to what
connection there is bc-Vw^en the organs, and the habitjj and
186 FOURTH STEP. LESSON XXX.
locality of animals. Require examples of animals having
their organs exactly adapted to their mode of life. Ques-
tion : What organ fits the monkey for its life amid trees ?
What part of the bat is adapted for flight ? What ena-
bles the hedgehog to burrow in the earth ? What organ
do they observe varies most to meet the wants of animals ?
Draw from them the general rule, that " God, who formed
animals, not only fixed the bounds of their habitation, and
gave them their peculiar propensities, but also caused that
the one should be fitted to the other." This is to be re-
peated. Question : Did they observe anything peculiar in
the construction of the limbs of the mole ? What then do
they expect to find ? That they are essentially necessary
in administering to its wants. Where is its food found ?
What means has it of getting at worms below the surface
of the earth ? Have they ever seen men making sewers ?
What implements had they ? The mole has similar work
to do. What has it corresponding to a spade or shovel ?
Desire the children to imitate with their own hands the
position of the hands of the mole, and say if they were to
throw anything from them, holdiiTg their hands in this po-
sition, in what direction with respect to their bodies it
would go ? What would be the consequence if the mole
could only use its feet in throwing soil behind it ? Are the
feet of animals ever used in any other operation ? Think
of the monkey, the cat, the parrot. But the mole does
not convey its food to its mouth by means of its hands.
What other organ could it use ? What senses in the mole
would they expect to find very acute ? Does it need much
light in its underground work ? What sense would not as-
ON THE MOLE, 187
sist it in discovering its prey ? What have they observed
when animals have not required a sense or organ ? Re-
mark : They see that God makes nothing that has not
some distinct end to answer, some work to perform.
Question: Do they see any reason why an external ear
was not given to the mole ? If it had one, what must
happen ? What must be the result of the dirt and dust
entering into the ears and eyes ? Hence if bestowed they
w^ould be sources not of pleasure but of pain. What shall
we say of the Creator of this little miner ? He is indeed
hind as well as loise. " His tender mercies are over all His
works." Question : If they were to thrust a hand into
some newly dug earth, how would it feel ? What kind of
covering then would be the best for one living under
ground ? How is the fur of the mole adapted to keep in
the heat of the body ? What other adv^antage arises from
its fineness and thickness ? In what direction does a cat
like to be stroked ? What would be done by pressing the
hand the reverse way ? When told that sometimes moles
pass each other in their very narrow galleries, or in their
passage to a reservoir of water, and that not unfrequently
a single mole can only just move with ease along a newly-
excavated road, the children will readily see the suitability
of a covering incapable of being ruffled, and of a body
compact and cylindrical. What do they observe in all its
organs ? What said David respecting God's works ? Let
us also say, " Lord, how manifold are thy works ; in wis-
dom hast Thou made them all."
The lesson to be recapitulated, and condensed into a
simple summary containing the principal ideas. To be
188 FOUJiTH STEP. ^I.ESSON XXXI.
written at home from memory, and brought the following
morning.*
LESSON XXXI.
Two Sketches of Lessons on Fur.
SKETCH I.
I. WJiat it is, and how fitted for the clothing of ani-
mals. — Pictures, or stuffed specimens, such as can be pro-
cured, brought before the children, that they may be led
to determine what fur is, and observe its great variety and
beauty, owing to the difference in the color, length, and
thickness of the hairs. Use to the animal. State to the
children the changes which it undergoes at different sea-
sons of the year ; in winter becoming thick^ close, and dbun-
dant, and in some the color changing to white ; in summer
partly shed, and much more loose and open. The reason
for these changes — the modifications observable in the fur
of animals inhabiting different climates — the adaptation to
the requirements of the animals, manifesting the wisdom
and goodness of God.
II. Qualities. — Soft — formed of hairs, therefore said
to be hairy — the difference between the skin and the fur —
the one soft and flexible, the other stiff and somewhat
harsh — in what way it is fitted for the wants of the animals
of which it forms the covering — why we say it is warm ?
Lead them to observe that it is neither hot nor cold to the
* It is the design of this lesson that either the mole itself, or a stuffed
specimen, should be presented to the class. If a picture is used, the form
of the lesson must be changed somewhat to correspond.
FUR. 189
touch, but that as it does not allow the warmth of the
body to pass away, we say it is warm^ and so of other
objects.
III. Uses to man. — Made into muffs, capes, cloaks, caps,
&c. The qualities which fit it for such uses — warmth, soft-
ness, and flexibility.
SKETCH II.
I. Fur producing countries. — ^These pointed out on the
map, as Hudson Bay Company's territory ; Russian Amer-
ica ; Siberia, the most important — the wild, dreary, and
desolate character of these countries — the animals inhabit-
ing them alone rendering them of any commercial import-
ance — refer especially to the Hudson Bay Company's terri-
tory ; the extent and character of their possessions ; the
time and manner of establishment ; the factories and their
situations. (All this described to the children.)
n. Hunting season and hunters. — Hunting season —
why at a particular time ? Question here as to the changes
necessary in clotuing on the approach of winter ; and lead
the children to see, that as this is the season when animals
require most warmth, so it is the season when fur is the
thickest; hence the time when it is most valuable, and
hence also the hunting season. Speak of hunters, and the
preparation for hunting — qualities of a good hunter — cau-
tious in disturbing, dexterous, and fertile in invention, bold
and courageous in attacking and securing — why are these
qualities essential to a good hunter ?
ni. Contrast Furs of Arctic and Tropical Regions. —
'Contrast the fur of animals found in northern latitudes with
190 FOURTH STEP. — LESSON XXXI.
those met with m the tropics and warmer regions : in the
first it is rich, fine, close, silky, and warm ; in the second,
although beautiful in appearance, yet thin and scattered,
neither adapted for warmth, comfort, nor general use —
contrast northern and tropical climates, to lead the children
to see the necessity for this difierence of covering — show
that the difierence in fur of northern and tropical climates,
arises from the same cause as that which marks a diflference
in the fur of the same animals at difierent seasons — a beau-
tiful evidence of design in the seal — inhabiting the arctic
regions, great warmth necessary — under the skin of the
common seal a thick layer of fat; in the fur seal no such
layer found, but the animal is covered with a rich, curly,
silky down, among which is scattered long coarse hair —
the uses to which this fur is applied — the preparation it un-
dergoes, and beauty of its appearance.
IV. Uses to marij and qualities which render it useful.
Enumeration of uses to which fur is applied, and the chil-
dren led to observe the qualities which render it so exten-
sively useful. (The children are supposed to have been
previously made acquainted with fur.)
V. Processes which Fur undergoes to fit it for use.
1. The state in which the skins are received by the
furrier.
2. Cleansing — use of saw-dust — efiect — state of skin —
diflference between the skin of arctic and tropical animals-
manner in which it is softened and made thinner — prepara-
tions for making it up into the articles required — laid in
the saw-dust — why ? — effect — advantages taken of the pli-
ability of the skin in this state.
THE PIG. 191
3. Dyeing — how the appearance of the darker furs is
obtained in this operation — difference between the dyeing
of the fur seal and beaver, and that of other animals — the
simplicity of the first operation — tedium of the second, and
skill necessary for the performance.
LESSON XXXII.
THE PIG.
I. Get the children to name the parts of the pig, and
give a description of each — as its head, small and tapering
— its ears, large and flat, hanging down on each side of its
head like two flaps — its eyes, small, round, and sleepy-look-
ing — the snout, which connects the nostrils and the mouth,
is large and armed with strong teeth, and terminates in a
hard, gristly substance — the neck, short and thick — the
body, cylindrical, and covered with long coarse hairs called
bristles — the legs, short and thin — the feet, cloven — the
skin, coarse and thick.
II. The habits of the pig spoken of — as that it eats all
kinds of vegetable and animal substances, even in a putrid
state; also, bran and meal, and, indeed, anything that
comes in its way — its habits dirty and disgusting — it is
fond of rolling itself about in the mud — why ? — to get rid
of the vermin with which it is infested — and spends all its
time in eating and sleeping — it never attacks other animals
but in self-defence — it seems to know when a storm is ap-
proaching, for it runs toward its sty screaming violently,
and gathers all the straw into a heap to hide itself — the pig
is subject to a disease from its gluttonous habits — it lives
192 FOURTH STEP. LESSON XXXII.
for 18 or 20 years, and is found in almost every country of
the world.
III. Question the children as to the adaptation of its
parts to its habits, &c., by comparing the one with the
other, the children making the conclusions — the large ears,
which flap about on a hot day and prevent the flies from
getting into them and teasing the animal — does not require
very strong sight — its small eyes are sufficient for the cir-
cumstances in which God has placed it — also the long
flexible snout, terminating in a ring of gristle, fitting it for
grubbing in the mud for its food, and rooting up vegeta-
bles ; were it furnished instead of this with a soft, fleshy
mouth, the animal would not be able to do this without
pain and inconvenience — the large, strong teeth, which
help it in mastication — it is covered with stiff bristles ; were
it covered with hair or fur, it could not roll about in the
mud without collecting much dirt on its body — also, that
its hard, thick skin makes it almost insensible to the blows
it so often receives — ask who made the pig, and lead the
children to see and admire the wisdom and goodness of
God, in making all its parts so^eautifully adapted to their
various uses.
As the children are describing the parts, write the
name and description of each on the board, that they may
be aided when they consider the adaptation of the parts to
the wants of the animal. The children should state this
afterward on their slates.
ON SOLUBILITY. 193
0]Sr SOLUBILITY.
LESSON XXXIII.
REMARKS.
Lessons on objects may be followed by instruction
on qualities with which the children are familiar. The
following lesson will explain what is here recommended :
LESSON ON SOLUBILITY.
The teacher develops the ideas for which she afterward
gives terms, by means of simple experiments. First she
fills half full with water three glass tubes ; she then adds
to one a pinch of Epsom salts, to another a few grains of
sugar, to the third some powdered marble, and shakes
each for a few moments.
Teacher. — I wish you to describe the changes which
have taken place in the mixtures.
Pupils. — 1st. The salts and the sugar have disappeared.
2d. Melted in the water. 3d. Dissolved in the water.
The marble remains the same.
Teacher. — Right ; the salt and sugar have dissolved in
the water ; the marble is not dissolved. Do you know
what those substances are termed that dissolve in water ?
Pupils. — Soluble.
Teacher'. — What are those termed which do not dis-
solve ?
Pupils. — Insol ubl e .
194 FOURTH STEP. LESSON XXXIII.
Teacher. — ^Tell me the names of several soluble bodies ?
Pupils. — Sugar, Epsom salts, gum, salt.
Teacher. — ^^fell me some that are insoluble.
Pupils. — Marble, stone, wood, tin, slate.
Teacher. — What has become of the sugar that dis-
solved ? Is it destroyed ?
Pupils.^No ; it is in the water ?
Teacher. — How do you know that it is in the water ?
Pupils. — We can taste sugar when it is dissolved in our
tea, or in water.
Teacher. — Would it be useful to give a particular name
to a liqui'd that has dissolved any substance, in order to
distinguish it from another that has not any substance dis-
solved in it ?
Pupils. — Yes.
Teacher. — Such liquids are called solutions; what,
therefore, is formed by the experiments made ?
Pupils, — A solution of Epsom salts in water, and an-
other of sugar in water.
Teacher. — Is there a solution of marble formed ?
Pupils — No ; for the marble would not dissolve.
Teacher. — Does the water, or the sugar, or both to-
gether, form the solution ?
Pupils. — Both together.
Teacher. — A liquid used to dissolve a solid is termed a
solvent. What can we say of water ?
Pupils. — It is a solvent of Epsom salts, sugar, &c.
Teacher takes two equal portions of Epsom salts and
places each in a tube, with equal quantities of water. One
is left undisturbed, while the other is heated in the flame
ox SOLUBILITY. 195
of a spirit lamp. The pupils are required to state what
result they observe.
Pupils. — ^The water that has been made hot has dis-
solved the salts very quickly, and also in greater quantity.
(The experiment should be made with the sugar also.)
Teacher. — What would you say of the effects of hot
liquids on soluble bodies?
Pupils. — Hot liquids dissolve substances more quickly
and in greater quantities than cold ones.
Teacher. — This is generally, but not invariably, true.
There are some bodies upon which cold and hot water has
the same effect. Common salt is an example.
Teacher makes another experiment ; placing two equal
quantities of sugar in water, allowing one to remain undis-
turbed, and shaking or stirring the other. Pupils to tell
the result observed.
Pupils. — The sugar in the shaken tube dissolves first.
Teacher. — Try and explain why this is so.
Pupils. — When the tube is shaken, every part of the
solid is affected by the solvent which dissolves it ; but
when the sugar lies at tho bottom, the water at the top
does not help to dissolve it.
Teacher then places a large lump of sugar in a spoon,
and puts it into a tumbler of water, holding it near the
top ; and then, placing the tumbler between the pupils and
the light, requires them to say what they observe.
Pupils. — Little wavy lines fall from the spoon.
Teacher. — Can you tell what causes this? Consider
what is happening to the sugar.
Pupils. — ^It.is dissolving.
196 FOURTH STEP. — LESSON XXXIII.
Teacher. — What, then, is being formed ?
Pupils. — A solution of sugar.
Teacher, — What becomes of the solution, as it is
formed ?
Pupils. — It is that which we see falling through the
water.
Teacher. — Right ; but why does the solution sink in
the water ?
Pupils. — It must be because it is heavier than water.
Teacher. — It is so ; every solution formed by a solid in
water is heavier than water. Knowing this, can you tell
me why men swim more easily in the sea than in fresh wa-
ter, and even more easily still in the Dead Sea ?
Pupils. — Sea water is a solution of salt, and being
heavier than fresh water, a man would not so easily sink
in it.
Teacher next places a quantity of common salt in a
tube, and pours over it about twice its weight in water,
shaking it for some time — then asks what has happened.
Pupils. — Part of the salt is dissolved, and part is left —
the water does not dissolve it atH
Teacher. — You are correct ; water will not dissolve
more than one-third of its weight of salt ; and when it re-
fuses to dissolve more, it is said to be saturated. What
kind of a solution is then formed ?
Pupils. — A saturated solution.
Teacher. — Water, as we have seen, will dissolve more
of some bodies, as Epsom salts, when it is heated. If we
were to heat a cold solution of Epsom salts, what do you
think would happen ?
ON SOLUBILITY. 197
Pupils. — It would then dissolve more salts, showing
that it would not be saturated by the same quantity of salt
as it was when cold.
Teacher puts some powdered sealing wax into two
tubes, and pours into one cold water, into the other spirits,
and then shaking them, asks the pupils to say what differ-
ence they observed in the two.
Pupils. — The sealing wax has dissolved in the spirits,
and not in the water.
Teacher. — ^Is sealing wax a soluble or insoluble body ?
Pupils. — It is both ; soluble in spirits, insoluble in
water
Teacher. — What kind of liquid is a solvent to sealing
wax, and other resinous bodies ?
Pupils. — Spirits.
Teacher repeats the last experiment, substituting gum
for seahng wax.
Pupils. — ^The gum, contrary to the sealing wax, dis-
solves in the water, but not in the spirit ; it is also soluble
and insoluble.
Teacher. — It is so ; but when no particular solvent is
named, it is always understood to be water ; hence, in or-
dinary language, gum is said to be soluble ; sealing wax
insoluble ; the solvent, water, being understood. India
rubber is an example of a solid, insoluble in all ordinary
liquids, but soluble in coal tar, naphtha ; the solution thus
obtained is used for making waterproof (Macintosh) cloth-
ing, by employing it to cement together two thin layers of
cloth.
The pupils then should be required to mention all the
198 FOURTH STEP. — LESSON XXXIH.
new terms they have learnt, or any like them ; as soluble,
insoluble, solve, solvent, solution, dissolve, dissolving, solu-
bility, insolubility, saturated.
Teacher. — Do you observe a resemblance in these
words ?
Pupils. — Yes ; they all, except saturated, have solve or
solu in them.
Teacher. — ^The meaning of that root, as it is called (for
it is like the root of a plant, the part from which the other
parts spring), is to loose ; it comes from a Latin word
solvo^ to loose — ^the v being changed into u ; the word sol-
uble then means, being able to be loosed, or to have parti-
cles separated by the action of a liquid. What would in-
soluble mean ?
Pupils. — In stands for not, therefore it means not
fi,oluble.
Teacher. — I wish you now to sum up the various parts
of the lesson, so as to connect the whole together.
Bodies that are capable of dissolving a>re called soluble/
those not capable of doing so, insoluble. When we speak
of a body possessing solubility^ W« say it will dissolve. A
liquid that dissolves a solid is termed a solvent; and a solu-
tion is a solid dissolved in a liquid. When the solution
will hold no more of the substance dissolved in it, we say
it is saturated.
Teacher. — These terms are sometimes used metaphori-
cally — that is, applied to what is of a different nature ; try
and remember some examples.
Pupils. — To solve a question.
Teacher. — Which means, to take it to pieces or un*
ON THE SENSES. 199
loose it. What similar use of any of these terms do you
recollect ?
Pupils. — Dissolution of partnership.
Teacher, — What does this mean ?
Pupils, — That it is unloosened; the partners are no
longer united together.
Teacher. — And what do we mean when we call death a
dissolution?
Pupils — That the body crumbles to pieces; its parts
are all loosened or separated.
ON THE SENSES.
LESSON XXXIV.
The children having been already exercised in determin-
ing by which of the senses they discover the presence of
any quality, may be led to consider more fully the senses
themselves. The first two lessons are drawn out for the use
of the teacher ; the substance only of the others is given.
Teacher. — Do you understand how you gained the
knowledge of various qualities ?
Children. — By our senses.
Teacher. — How do you know when a thing is red or
blue ?
Children. — By sight.
Teacher. — How, if you were blind, could you form a
correct idea of color? What other means is there of
gaining this knowledge ?
Children. — None.
200 FOURTU STEP. LESSOK XXXIV.
Teacher, — ^True; and to ascertain this point, a blind
man was once questioned as to what notion he had of scar.
let ; he said he thought that it must be like the sound of a
trumpet. It is obvious that he had no correct idea of a
quality discoverable by the sight, and he could only com-
pare it wnth one that he had acquired through the medium
of another sense. Can you tell me the reason why persons
born deaf cannot speak ?
Children. — They cannot imitate sounds, because they
never heard any.
Teacher. — Since, then, deaf persons have no correct
ideas of sound, nor blind persons of color, how do we ac-
quire our ideas of sound and color?
Children. — By the means of the senses of seeing and
hearing.
Teacher. — How, then, do we suppose our minds become
stored with ideas ?
Children. — By the exercise of our senses.*
Teacher. — Yes ; and if you had once had the idea of a
dog formed in your mind, by seeing such an animal, when
a dog is mentioned you can recall the idea, and fancy one
immediately, as if it were present; your mind wdll also
perform tho same operation when a quality is spoken of,
which you have previously seen in some object. Again,
if you see a dog unlike any you have observed before, yoq
compare it with the species with which you are acquainted,
and mark the difference between them. If I say that \
* It is probable that children would not at once arrive at this conclii
sion. The teacher must, in that case, lead them to it by easy questiona
ON THE SENSES. 201
have some green paper, canoot you immediately conceive
the color of which I speak ?
Children. — Yes.
Teacher. — ^Did you, then, exercise your sight ?
Children. — No.
Teacher. — How, then, could you have the idea of
green ?
Children. — We remembered it.
Teacher. — By what means did you first obtain the idea ?
Children. — By seeing something green.
Teacher. — What power of the mind do you exercise in
recalling an idea ?
Children. — Our memory.
LESSON XXXV.
FEELING OR TOUCH.
Teacher. — ^What part of your body is the organ of
touch ?
Children. — It seems all over our body.
Teacher. — Tell me some parts that do not possess the
sense of feeling.
Children. — ^Our hair, nails, and teeth.
Teacher. — ^And in other animals, what parts are found
destitute of sensation ?
Children. — ^The hoofs, horns, claws, feathers, wool, hair,
&c.
Teacher. — What other word do we use to express the
presence of sensation ?
Children. — Sensibility.
9*
202 FOJRTU STEP. LESSOX XXXV.
Teacher. — What word would you use to express the
absence of sensation ? What syllable prefixed to a word
gives it a negative meaning ?
Children. — hi.
Teacher. — Well, what word will express the absence of
sensation ?
Children. — Insensibility.
Teacher. — The parts then that you have named are
insensible, and, with the exception of these, the sense of
feeling exists everywhere throughout the body ; but what
part of it is particularly adapted, by its form, to become
the organ of the sense ?
Children. — The hand.
Teacher. — Tell me what qualities we can discover in
objects by this sense ?
Children. — That they are hard, soft, rough, smooth,
long, short, sharp, blunt, round, square, cylindrical, conical,
heavy, light, fluid, liquid, dry, wet, hot, cold, &c.
Teacher. — By what general term would you express
such qualities as round, square, conical, <fec. ?
Children.— ^y shape.
Teacher. ^^Y what general term wou-ld you express
such qualities as large, small, &c. ?
Children — By size.
Teacher. — By what general term would you express
such quaHties as rough, smooth, &c. ?
Children. — By kind of surface.
Teacher. — By what general term would you express
such qualities as hard, soft, fluid, tenacious, &c.?
Children. — By kind of substance.
ON THE SENSES. 203
Teacher. — By what general term would you express
such qualities as heavy, light, &c. ?
Children. — By weight
Teacher. — Now arrange the qualities which you dis-
cover by your feeling under five general heads, i. e., shape^
eize, kind of surface, kind of substance, weight.
The children having performed this exercise, the teach-
er may mention the following facts.
Teacher. — The quickness and accuracy of the sense of
feehng is, we find, much increased by exercise, as is exem-
plified in blind persons, the defect of whose sight is fre-
quently compensated, in a great measure, by an exquisite
sensitiveness of touch. Bats also appear to possess this
sense in a remarkable degree. They have been observed,
even after loss of sight, and with their ears and nostrils
stopped, to fly through intricate windings and passages,
without striking against the walls, and also to avoid fines
and cords placed in their way. The expanded membrane
that serves them for wings is probably the seat of this deli-
cate sense of feeling, which so admirably fits them for their
nocturnal and dark abodes. The palpi, or feelers of in-
sects, possess the same quality very acutely, and this en-
ables them to explore the surface of bodies in search of
food, and warns them also of the approach of danger.
The class should be required, at the conclusion of the
lesson, to draw up some account of this sense, mentioning
where it resides, what qualities fall within its cognizance,
and to recapitulate any incidental information received
during the lesson.
204 FOURTH STEP. ^LESSON XXXVI.
LESSON XXXVL
SIGHT.
The eyes are the organs of sight, and are beautifully
adapted for the office they have to perform. They are so
constructed as to allow us to see things near, or at a dis-
tance ; to confine ourselves to the inspection of one ob-
ject, or to take in at once a large sphere of vision. The
part of the eye which admits the light may be expanded
or contracted, according as the rays are more or less pow-
erful. This fact is remarkably exemplified in the eyes of
the cat and of the owl. Indeed nothing affords a more
striking proof of the kind providence of God than the
beautiful adaptation of the eyes of animals to their peculiar
modes of life ; those of moles, fishes, and birds, are remark*-
able illustrations of this fact.*
Of all the senses, that of sight is in most frequent and
continual exercise. It fills the mind with the greatest va-
riety of ideas, which it gathers not only from the objects
of nature and of art, but from the writings of the wise and
good of all ages.
The qualities we discover by this sense are : transpa-
rent, semi-transparent, translucent, opaque, glimmering,
bright, dark, sparkling, dull ; and the various modifications
of color, size, and shape. Many may be ascertained either
by touch or sight ; as those of size, form, kind of surface,
and substance.
* The teacher should here fully explain to the class the circumstaocee
referred to, and give other similar instances.
ON THE SENSES. 205
LESSON XXXYII.
HEARING.
The ears are the organs of this sense. In many ani-
mals the ear has externally the form of a trumpet, and is
well adapted for gathering sound and bringing it to a
focus ; in man it contains many convolutions and channels,
which receive the vibrations of air in every direction, and
convey them to the part called the drum, which is the
actual seat of this sense.
The formation of the ears of animals is beautifully ac-
commodated to their peculiar habits of life. In beasts of
prey the trumpet part is inclined forward, easily to catch
the sound of those they are pursuing. But animals whose
chief means of protection is flight, have these organs
turned backward, that they may be readily apprised of the
approach of their enemies.
The ears are the medium through which all sensations
of sound reach the mind ; without them, we should be de-
prived of the advantages of verbal instruction, the pleas-
ures of conversation, and the charms of music.
The motion of the parts of a body, or the collision of
one body against another, occasions a vibration in the air,
which is similar to the effect produced on water when a
stone is thrown into it. Circle succeeds circle, till the
power of motion is exhausted ; and just as any light sub-
stance within the influence of these undulations is agitated
by them, so, when our ear is within reach of these vibra-
tions of air, the sensation of sound is produced.* The
* This account may appear, at first sight, above the comprcliension of
206 FOUKTH STEP. — LESSON XXXVIH.
chirping note of the cricket is occasioned simply by the
constant friction of a little membrane against its wings.
When two bodies are rubbed or struck together, we may
in most cases be able to determine, by the sounds emitted,
the nature of the substances brought into contact. Very
different sounds are occasioned by the collision of metals
from that which wood gives out ; and the sound produced
from hollow bodies is very unlike that resulting from solid
ones. There are various kinds of sounds ; as shrill, deep,
grating, harsh, loud, soft, harmonious, sweet. Animals
produce different sounds. The cat mews, the dog barks,
the lion roars, the ass brays, the cow lows, the horse
neighs, the rook caws, the goose cackles, the cock crows,
the fly buzzes, the bee hums. Man speaks, laughs, cries,
shouts, groans, whistles, sings.
LESSON XXXVIII.
SMELL.
The nose is the organ of this sense; its cavities are
lined with a thin membrane supplied with nerves connect-
ed with a principal one, which is essential to the perception
of smell.
By means of this sense we derive all our ideas of odor.
Though not so important to man as the other senses, yet
it adds much to his pleasure ; and to many animals it is
essential, directing them in search of their food. The
children ; a class, however, which had gone through the preceding exer-
cises, was found fully capable of understanding it.
ON THE SENSES. 207
scent of dogs is peculiarly fine, and on this account they
are employed in the chase.
Odor is produced by exceedingly small particles called
effluvia, which escape from odorous bodies; these diffuse
themselves in the atmosphere, and whenever they reach
the olfactory nerves they occasion the sensation of smell.
Heat promotes the escape of these particles, which are of
a volatile nature ; hence, when the sun shines brightly, the
lowers are more fragrant.
LESSON^ XXXIX.
TASTE.
The mouth is the organ of taste. The skin within the
mouth is finer and more delicate than that of the rest, of
the body, it is supplied with a great number of blood ves-
sels, and covered with innumerable papilla3. Sapid bodies,
however, before they excite the sensation of taste, require
to be moistened by the saliva. In graminivorous animals
the papillae are defended from the action of the stiff bristles
of grass and corn by a strong skin, which being perforated,
allows the dissolved juice to reach the seat of taste. The
principal qualities discoverable by the taste are bitter,
sweet, acid, pungent, acrid, luscious. There are many
others, which derive their names from the substances in
which they exist : as salt, spicy, &c.
Many animals have some one of the senses in great
perfection, but in none are they all found in the same de-
gree as in man.
FIFTH STEP.
INTKODUCTOEY REMARKS.
The following lessons may be advantageously Used as a
first exercise in composition. The object should be present-
ed to the children, and they should continue, as before, to
make their own observations upon it. Questions should
then be addressed to them, calculated to elicit their
knowledge of its natural history, manufacture, or compo-
sition : and further particulars should afterward be com-
municated by the teacher, to render their information more
complete. After having rearranged and repeated the mat-
ter so obtained, the teacher should examine the class, and
require a written account. Children from ten to fourteen
years of age may derive great improvement from this exer-
cise in composition. It will stimulate their attention, fur-
nish a test of their having well understood the lesson, and
lead them to arrange and express their ideas with clearness
and facility. Artificial substances should be exhibited, both
in their raw and manufactured state. Thus, in the lesson on
flaxj the plant itself, the fibres when separated from the
Btoni, the thread when spun, and the various articles into
GLASS. 209
which it is manufactured, may be brought before the class,
and likewise pictures of the machinery employed in the
manufacture.
Many of the lessons in this Step will contain too much
matter to be presented at one time to the pupils, and must
therefore be divided.
The information given is exclusively for the use of the
teacher, as reference in the preparation of lessons.
Many of the lessons have been taken, with some modi-
fications, from " Information on Common Objects." Much
aid has also been derived in their preparation from the
" "New American Cyclopgedia," and, in a few instances,
passages have been literally incorporated. This is a work
which teachers would do well to consult where accessible.
The following sketches, three on glass, and three on
silk, are given as specimens of the way succeeding lessons
may be treated.
LESSON I.
I. Different kinds of Glass compared. — Bring together
several pieces of different kinds of glass, and ask the chil-
dren to name each — as, crown glass, plate glass, sheet glass,
flint glass, bottle glass. These pieces should be examined
by the children, that they may point out the difference,
They should name the various uses to which they have
seen glass applied, and the particular use of each kind ; as,
for windows, mirrors, drinking glasses, decanters, orna-
ments, bottles, watch glasses, &g.
Qualities of Glass. — ^The class should be called on to
name the qualities in glass which render it useful ; as trans-
210 FIFTH STEP. LESSON I.
parency, hardness, durability, not being affected by weather
or acids, &c.
Glass contrasted with substances used in former times.
Other substances possessing the same qualities, but in a
less degree, should be shown the class, named, and a con-
trast drawn, for the purpose of proving the superiority of
glass over these substances. Thus, horn has not the same
degree of transparency ; parchment is not so durable ;
mica does not admit the light so freely ; and none of the
three have the same bright, cheerful, beautiful appear-
ance that glass has.
II. Various substances used in the manufaxiture. — ^The
various substances used in the manufacture of glass should
then be produced and named — as, sand, an alkali (as pearl-
ash), nitre, oxide of lead, oxide of manganese, oxide of ar-
senic, lime, &c. ; and the children should be led to see that
each ingredient imparts a particular quality to glass.
Pearlash, which is much used in flint glass, imparts much
clearness. Oxide of lead is used to cause it to vitrify at a
much lower temperature than it otherwise would; to in-
crease the density, and to impart tenacity.
III. Origin and history of Hie manufacture. — Informa-
tion should be given to the children with respect to the
progress of the manufacture, and of its supposed origin.
They should be told of the glass beads and imitations of
precious gems found in Egypt with mummies more than
3,000 years old, and of hieroglyphics that must be as old
as the sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt ; the relics found
in the ruins of Nineveh, and other facts which seem to
point to the ancient inhabitants of that country as the first
GLASS. 211
manufacturers of glass ; the many fine specimens of glass in
urns and vases which are seen even at the present day, and
which show to what an extent the manufacture was carried.
They should be told of the introduction of glass making
into Europe — first into Italy, finally into England ; from
thence into the United States by deserters from the British
army in the time of the Revolution; but that glass was
used very much in England long before the art of making
it was known to the English ; for even as far back as the
time of the Druids, we find glass beads and amulets worn,
which were procured in barter with Syrians, who came to
Great Britain for tin.
Recapitulation. — After receiving this information, which
should be thoroughly worked into the children's minds as
the teacher proceeds, they should reproduce the matter on
their slates.
LESSON n.
I. Glass house and tools used. — In this lesson the chil-
dren should (after recapitulating the last lesson) give a de-
scription of any glass house which they may have seen, and
also of the different tools used by those who work in glass.
If they have not seen one, a small model or picture may be
shown, representing the different parts. They should de-
scribe the conical shaped building — the furnace in the cen-
tre, with the working holes at the sides — the pots, which
are made of the finest clay — their position and number —
tools used by the glass blower, as iron tube, shears, punt-
ing rod, tongs, &c. They should then be asked as to how
the men on the premises are generally employed ; some in
212 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON II.
glass blowing ; others in attending to the furnace, carrying
coals, and others watching the pots, &c.
" II. Processes gone through in the manufacture of Glass.
The children, having noticed how the workmen were em-
ployed, will be prepared to learn the different processes
gone through in the manufacture of glass. As a difference
exists in the making of each kind, the children may be led
to speak of window glass only, as they are better acquaint-
ed with that than with the others, and more frequently see
how that particular kind is used. They should first be told
that window glass is that which is generally used for win-
dow panes ; and should say what qualities window glass re-
quires that are not of so much importance in other kinds ;
as hardness, transparency, and durability; and they should
then be led to see that in order to give the glass these
qualities, a slight difference must be made both in the
quality and quantity of the ingredients used. The children
should be told that such substances as lead, or metallic ox-
ides, make glass soft and plastic ; and they will at once see
that very little of these must be used in making window
glass, in which greater hardness is requisite. They should
be told of the different processes gone through — first, the
preparation of the sand by water, for the purpose of re-
moving any impurities — next, the making of frit, and what
frit is — the process of melting it down after having kept
it for some time. The metal in a liquid state should be
spoken of — the time allowed to pass before skimming the
metal. The children should be told that broken glass is
very useful at this stage of the manufiicture. The glass
thus used is known by the name of cullet, and is thrown in
GLASS. 213
with the boiling metal. They should be told next of the
workman — the tube which he uses — his mode of forming
the mass of metal — first, to a pear shape — then, to a flat
surface. A description should be given of the process
of annealing — what is its object — why it is necessary —
what qualities it will impart to the glass.
This lesson should be reproduced in writing.
LESSON III.
I. On Stained Glass. — Several pieces of glass of differ-
ent colors should be brought before the children. They
should examine and describe them, and ascertain whether
the colors are merely external, or whether they are such as
cannot be removed without destroying the glass. They
should be asked where they had seen glass of different
colors ? — If they had seen figures represented on glass by
means of colors — and where ? They should be led to name
the kind of buildings in which colored glass is generally
seen; such as churches, or ecclesiastical edifices of any
kind ; particularly in those where the object is to make an
imposing appearance. Many churches and cathedrals have
very fine windows of stained glass.
II. The teacher under this head will describe the pro-
cess of glass staining, dwelling on the following points : —
The pattern, or drawing of the figures to be represented,
which is first made. The mode of placing this behind the
glass for the purpose of painting the pattern, the mate-
rials being prepared beforehand. A description should be
given of the muffle, or iron box, in which the glass is
214 FIFTH STEP. LESSON IV.
burned. The care necessary on the part of the glass stain-
ers should be noticed. The fusing of the glass and its ab-
sorption of coloring — the time allowed in the furnace — the
removal of the loose particles of paiut. The class should
be told that the color is produced by fusing gold, silver,
and copper with the glass ; and that gold is used in pro-
ducing rose color and ruby; copper in producing blue,
green, and lemon ; and silver and lead in producing yellow
and orange ; they will easily see what colors in glass bring
the most money, which are most expensive.
LESSOI^ IV.
SKETCHES OP A SERIES OF LESSONS ON SILK AND ITS
MANUFACTURE.
For an Advanced Class of Children.
INTBODUOTION AND NATURAL niSTORY OF THE SILK WORM.
I. Object examined. — A piece of silk is given to the
children, which they carefully examine, and are then called
upon to describe its appearance;. as, smooth, soft, glossy —
next, they discover and name t"he qualities upon which its
use and beauty depend, viz. : its strength, which is great,
considering the fineness of the fibres of which it is com-
posed — its lightness — ^lustre — capability of taking the finest
dyes — it resists fire better than cotton fiibrics do— is beau-
tifully soft to the touch, and extremely pliable, so that it
can be arranged in folds.
[Note. — Specimens of the insect m all its stages should be shown to
the children, and constantly referred to in the course of the lesson.]
SILK. 215
II. Description of the Silk Worm. — Insect and its
habits described. Show the children that the silk worm is
erroneously termed a worm. Why ? It is really a kind
of caterpillar, and passes through all the changes which in-
sects undergo.
Changes ichich the insect imdergoes. — Many of the
children have, perhaps, tried to rear a silk worm, and will
therefore know that it is hatched from an cgg^ in size like
a mustard seed ; and is, when first hatched, small, and of
a dark color ; in a iaw days it becomes gray, then tinged
with the color of its food ; it attains its full size in about
eight weeks, and it has during this period changed its
skin four or five times. Children to determine why this is
necessary — its continually increasing size. The insect re-
mains in a quiet state before doing this ; refrains from cat'
ing ; then bursts the old skin near the head, and works its
way out.
Length, when full grown, from two and a half to three
inches. What does it then do ? Begins to spin. Tell the
children that it selects a corner in which to spin, then
moves its head from side to side, and fixes the thread at
diiferent points, so as completely to enclose itself — con-
tinues to spin for about five days — during this time it has
become much shorter — changes its skin, and takes the form
of a chrysalis, enclosed in a dark brown case, and is in a
torpid state — remains in this state two or three weeks —
then changes into the moth or perfect insect. The children
will, perhaps, wonder how the moth can escape fi-om the
cocoon in which it is so completely enclosed. Tell them
that the little creature does this by softening a portion of
^16 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON IV.
the cocoon with a fluid which it has the power of forming.
It is now, as they will see from the specimen, a moth of a
pale cream color, covered with fine down, and furnished
with small, comb-like feelers. After a short time it lays its
eggs, firmly cementing them to the substance on which
they are deposited ; and the object of its existence being
thus accomplished, it shortly dies. Children should draw a
comparison between the animal in its different stages, as to
appearance, organs, and habits.
III. Food. — On what does the silk worm feed ? The
leaves of the mulberry tree. Children will know, that as
this tree is not an evergreen, the leaves can only be pro-
cured at certain seasons of the year. Has this anything
to do with the hatching of the eggs ? Yes ; they must
only be hatched in those seasons when the leaves can be
obtained ?
Means used to prevent the eggs from hatching at a
wrong season. — Sometimes the eggs are sent from one
country to another. How are they prevented from hatch-
ing on the journey ? They are first carefully dried ; placed
in glass vials, closely sealed, to exclude the air and moist-
ure, and then immersed in earthen pots filled with cold
water, which is constantly changed. Why ? To keep it
cool. Why should so much pains be taken to exclude the
air from the Qg^^ and to prevent their becoming warm ?
Because the eggs of the silk worm, like those of the
chicken, and other animals with which the children are
acquainted, are hatched by heat.
Manner of hatching the eggs. — ^The children might
then be told the different means used to hatch the eggs.
SILK. • 217
That in some countries the peasants fold them in small
paper packets, and keep them in their bosoms until the
wamath prepares them for hatching ; in others, that the
warmth of the sun is employed ; but that the plan most
generally adopted is to hatch them by placing them in
rooms artificially heated.
IV. Countries of the Silk W^onn, — A warm climate is
necessary to the well-being of the silk worm. Children
name and point out on the map some warm countries, as
France, Italy, India, China, &c. They might then be told
that the silk worm is reared in nearly all the southern coun-
tries in Europe : to a very great extent in India and China.
That it was originally a native of China, from whence arti-
cles manufactured of silk were exported in early ages to
different parts of Asia and Europe ; and that the raw mate-
rial furnished employment to manufactui-ers in Persia, Tyre,
and other countries. That in the United States many ef-
forts have been made to introduce its manufacture, but
with very limited success.
How ititroduced into Europe. — The silk worm was in-
troduced into Europe a. d. 552, by two Persian monks,
who were missionaries, and had travelled as far as China,
where they viewed with great curiosity the dress of the
Chinese, and carefully watched the manufacture. On leav-
ing China they went to Constantinople, and entrusted the
Emperor Justinian with their secret ; he encouraged them
by promising them a reward if they succeeded in intro-
ducing the manufacture into Europe. They returned to
China, with much difficulty obtained a quantity of eggs,
cunningly concealed them in a hollow cane, brought them
10
218 FIFTH STEP. LESSON V.
to Constantinople, hatched them, tended the insects with
great care, and instructed the Romans in the art of manu-
facturing silk. The children will thus see that the silk
manufacture in Europe had a very small beginning — a
caneful of eggs being the means of establishing the manu-
facture, and of furnishing the Europeans with a luxury,
for which large sums had hitherto been exacted from them
by their Oriental neighbors.
This and the following lessons should be reproduced by
the children in writing.
LESSON V. '•
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SILK MANUFACTURE.
I. Different processes in the manvfacture. — How is the
silk obtained from the cocoon ? What is the first process
in the manufacture? The destruction of the chrysalis.
How is this accomplished? By placing it in a heated
oven. What is next done ? The rough, outer floss,
which is comparatively useless, is removed, and the co-
coons are thrown into a vessel of hot water placed over a
fire. Why ? To loosen the thread. The whole is now
stirred with a little broom, which catches the loose ends
of the threads. Several of these threads taken together
are wound upon a reel. Wliy take several together ? Be-
cause the fibres are so fine that one taken alone would not
be strong enough, it would quickly break. The silk wound
off is next tied up into hanks ready for the manufacturer,
and is known by the name of " raw aHJcJ*'*
SILK. 219
[Note. — It is desirable that drawings or models of the mactines used
in the dififerent stages of the manufacture should be placed before the
children, and constantly referred to by the teacher while describing the
various processes. Except with the most advanced pupils ihe remainder
of this and the next sketch may be omitted.]
11. Various operations which the raw silk undergoes. — ■
Briefly describe the various processes which the raw silk
passes through, as winding, spinning, twisting, cleaning,
weaving, and dyeing ; all of which, except the last, are
known under the general term " silk throwing.^^
Winding, — In this operation each hank of silk is ex-
tended upon a six-sided reel {swift). A number of swifts
are arranged side by side, upon an axis, on either side of a
frame. Above the swifts are the bobbins, similarly ar-
ranged, one bobbin for each swift. The bobbins connect-
ed with the swifts by the ends of the hanks of silk are
now set in motion, causing the swifts to turn round and
wind the silk. The machine requires constant attention.
Why? For the purpose of joining the ends broken in
winding, putting on the hanks, and exchanging the bob-
bins.
Spinning. — ^The silk is now sorted according to its
qualities and fineness. The next process is that of spinning
or twisting each thread, which is done in a mill, where it
acquires that form called " singles.'^'' How is this effected ?
The long thread of silk is unwound from the bobbins on
to a long roller, and in its passage from one to the other
becomes twisted. How can this be? The bobbins are
fixed upright, and the roller is placed horizontally above
them ; this circumstance alone is sufficient to twist the silk
220 FIFTH STEP. ^LESSON V.
while passing from one to the other. Two or more of
these singles are now twisted slightly together in the man-
ner above described ; the next operation is to spin these
combined threads into a firm, thick thread, which is per-
formed m the same manner as the former spinning.
Cleaning. — One process only remains before the silk is
fit for the weaver, viz., the cleaning. How is this per-
formed ? The silk is boiled for four hours in a large
quantity of water, into which a good deal of soap has been
thrown. Why does the silk require cleaning ? Because it
still retains the gum, with which the insect covers it, which
if not removed, renders the silk harsh to the 'touch, and
unfit to receive the dye. By cleaning, however, the silk
becomes soft and glossy. It is now sent to the loom,
where it is woven into various fabrics. In a long piece of
woven silk the long threads are called the " warp^'' and
the cross threads the '•''weft^'' or ''^woof.'''* These words,
and any others new to the children which may occur in the
lesson, should be written upon the board, and the beads of
the lesson also, as it greatly assists the children in after-
ward reproducing it on their own slates. Before conclud-
ing the subject of weaving^ the teacher might show the
children the great care and patience necessary on the part
of the weaver, in consequence of the fineness of his work ;
a piece of silk 20 inches in width, often requiring 8,000
threads, all of which must be arranged with the greatest
regularity.
Dyeing, — Can the chiWren think of any process which
the silk has yet to undergo before it is fit for sale ? Of
what color is it now ? Did the cleaning alter the color ?
SILK. 221
N"o ; it is still of a bright yellow color. But white silk is
sometimes wanted-^how is this obtained ? The silk must
be " bleached^'' made white, and then it is fit also for the
dyer, who, by means of his colors, can make the silk of
any shade he pleases.
LESSON VI.
SKETCH III. BEIEF DESCKIPTION OF TUE VARIOUS FABRICS
COMPOSED OF SILK.
[Note. — The required specimens should be procured, and shown to
the children.]
I. Articles made of Silk named. — Children furnish the
list. Velvet — silks, plain and brocaded — Persian — damask
— ribbon — satin — sarsnet, and crape. The value of silk
inferred from the number of articles manufactured from it,
and the great difference in their texture.
II. Description of the Fabrics. — Velvet — One of the
most beautiful productions of the silk loom now manufac-
tured. In addition to the warp and woof, a soft shag or
pile is produced by inserting short pieces of silk thread,
doubled, under the woof; these stand up in so large a
number and so compactly as to conceal the interlacings of
the warp and woof. The children will see, from examining
a piece of velvet, that it is this silky pile which imparts to
velvet its softness and beauty.
Brocade. — Brocaded silks are those adorned with flow-
ers or other figures of silk.
Gauze. — A material in which the smallest quantity of
Bilk is employed for a given size of woven fabric. How can
222 FIFTH STEP. — ^LESSON VI.
this be done ? If the gauze were woven in the usual way,
the threads being so fine, it would be very weak. How is
this prevented ? The threads are made to cross and over-
loop each other, (something like the threads of a net,) and
thus the material acquires the requisite strength. The
children to discover this intertwining of the threads by
carefully examining a piece of gauze.
Bomhazine^ Poplin^ and Lustre. — Examined, and found
to be substances composed of a mixture of silk and worst-
ed, the two latter containing much more silk than the
former.
Satin. — A twilled silk, owing its peculiar lustre to the
number of threads of warp passed over by the woof before
it passes under one of them. When taken out of the loom,
it presents a slight degree of roughness or flossiness. How
is this removed ? The children can all tell how their aprons
look after they have been washed and dried. Are they fit
to wear ? No ; they look rough. How do they feel ?
Very stiff and uncomfortable. How can this roughness be
removed ? They must be ironed to make them smooth.
Then how do they think satin can be made so nice and
smooth ? Just in the same nlanner, it is passed between
heated iron rollers, which smooth down the surface, and
give to it that beautiful lustre peculiar to satin.
EEMAEKS. 223
THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.
EEMAEKS.
The nature of the objects which we derive from the
vegetable kingdom, and their utility to man^ depend so
much on the structure and living action of the plants,
that some introductory account of the latter seems de-
sirable.
The most important parts of a plant are: the root,
stem, branches, leaves, buds, flowers, fruit, and seeds.
The root is that part of a plant which grows under
ground ; it serves the purpose of fixing the plant firmly
and of absorbing moisture for its support ; it is usually
more or less fibrous, and the absorption of moisture takes
place almost entirely at the very extremities or points of
the fibres.
In some plants the root often serves as a storehouse of
nourishment for their growth during the following year.
This is the case in those plants which, like the carrot and
parsnip, instead of flowering in the first year of their
growth, produce and store up nourishment for the second
year, when they bring forth flowers and seeds. Plants
growing in this manner are termed biennials, and the nu-
triment stored up during the first year in their large fleshy
roots is often used for food by men and animals.
The stem or trunk of a tree consists of three distinct
parts; in the centre is a light, soft, cellular substance,
termed the pith ; which in some plants, as the elder, is suf-
ficiently large to be readily examined ; its use appears to be
224 FIFTH STEP. — VEGETABLE KINGDOM.
to convey the sap upward to the leaves when the plant is
very young, and before other channels are formed for its
ascent ; as the plant increases in age, the pith becomes dry,
is apparently of no further use, and may be removed with-
out injury to the life of the tree.
I The pith is surrounded by the wood, which consists of
tough, strong fibres, firmly united together, so as to form a
solid substance; these fibres are arranged side by side,
running in the direction of the stem or trunk : they cause
what is termed the grain of the wood, and are cut across
when a piece of wood is cut against the grain^ and torn
from each other when it is spht with the grain.
Every summer a fresh quantity of wood is formed
round that previously existing ; each season's growth is
therefore of necessity a hollow cylinder, inclosing the wood
previously formed, and the appearance it exhibits when
the tree is cut across is, of course, circular, the whole
mass of wood being formed of a series of such circles,
each the result of one year's growth ; it follows that by
counting them we may ascertain the age of the tree ; the
first year's wood is next the pith, that formed the second
year is outside tliat of the first year, and so on ; a fresh
circle being deposited each year external to those pre-
viously formed.
If a single circle is examined, it will be found that the
vessels are larger and more open in that part which is
nearest the centre of the tree ; this arises from the fact
that this is formed in the spring, when growth is more
rapid, and the leaves require a larger quantity of sap ; in
Bome woods, the great difference between the inner and
REMARKS. 225
outer part of each circle, renders the rings very distinct,
as in oak, ash, and elm ; in others, as beech and mahog-
any, the texture is much more uniform ; in the wood of
the fir tribe, the pores are filled with resinous matter, ren-
dering the circles very evident.
The oldest wood in a tree is toward the centre of the
trunk ; this is termed the heart wood ; the youngest and
softest is at the outside, and is called the sap wood, be-
cause it is through it that the sap rises to supj^ly the
leaves ; the sap wood is gradually converted into heart
wood as it grows older, the pores and interstices being
filled up and darkened in color by the thickened juices,
which descend from the leaves through the back, and
reach the older circles by means of a series of passages
passing inward from the bark to the pith. These medul-
lary passages or rays (termed by carpenters the silver
grain, from their giving a glistening appearance to the
wood when it is cut parallel to them) are large and readily
observed in oak or beech, while in fir wood they are small,
numerous, and not easily distinguished. For purposes re-
quiring strength and durability only the heart wood is
employed; timber trees should be felled at mature age,
when the heart wood is well formed, and before any decay
has commenced ; the best season for felling is winter,
when the sap is present in very small quantities ; after
having been felled, they should be seasoned by an expo-
sure to dry air for at least two years, otherwise the wood
will warp and split when used ; well-seasoned timber em-
ployed in dry situations is extremely durable ; if wholly
sunk in water, the durability is much lessened, and, when
10*
'226 FIFTH STEP. VEGETABLE KINGDOM.
exposed to alternate moisture and drought, all timber de-
cays rapidly.
In its power of resisting pressure, timber may be re-
garded as incompressible in the direction of its fibres ; but
pressed at right angles to the grain, the softer kinds, such
as fir, shrink considerably ; in resisting a force pulling in
opposite directions, timber possesses enormous strength;
bars of oak or fir one inch square being capable of support-
ing upward of five tons ; in bearing a cross strain, the dif-
ferent kinds vary considerably, some, as fir, &c., being
much weakened by the tendency of the annual circles to
separate from each other.
The uses of the wood to the tree are to give firmness
and strength to the stem, and to serve as a channel for the
ascent of the sap to the leaves and flowers.
Around the wood is the bark. This also is formed in
circles, but they are so pressed together by the growth of
the wood beneath that they cannot readily be counted.
The bark varies much in character in difierent trees, being
sometimes fibrous, as in the bass tree, so much employed by
gardeners and nurserymen ; leathery, as in the bark of the
birch, of which boxes and canoes are made ; or corky, as in
the cork tree of Spain and Portugal.
In the trees of tropical climates the arrangement of
the woody matter in the stems is very dissimilar to that
occurring in the trees of temperate countries ; there is, as
it were, a mixture of pith and woody fibres together, and
no trace of circles can be observed. Such trees are easily
recognized by their appearance, as they are almost inva-
riably destitute of branches, bearing merely a tuft of large
REMARKS. 221
leaves on the top of the trunk. Of this kind of growth
the various palm trees are well knowm examples.
Leaves are the flat, green, expanded bodies growing on
the branches. Each leaf consists of a framework of veins,
which is sometimes netted, as in most of the ordinary leaves
of this country, and sometimes perfectly parallel, as in our
grasses and grains, and in all the trees of the palm tribe ;
between the veins is the pulp, having numerous air cavities
passing through it in every direction ; the whole is covered
w^ith a skin, extending over both surfaces of the leaf, that
on the under surface being pierced wi'th innumerable
breathing pores.
The action of the different parts in the living vegetable
may be thus briefly described. The roots, by their ex-
treme points, absorb from the soil water containing cer-
tain mineral and other substances ; this rises through the
sap wood, and is conveyed by the branches into the leaves ;
there it is exposed freely to the action of the sun and air,
and a large portion of the water escapes by evaporation ;
the remainder is, by the influence of the air entering
through the breathing pores, converted into the nourish-
ment required for the support of the plant and for the
formation of its peculiar products and secretions.
Such portion of the sap as is not required for the
growth of the flowers and fruit descends by the bark, and,
passing inward by the medullary rays, is stored up in the
heart wood, or, as in the case of biennials during their first
year's growth, descends to the fleshy root, there to be
stored up as nutriment for use during the next season, as
in the case of the carrot and parsnip.
228 FIFTH STEP. — VEGKIABLE KINGDOM.
When any peculiar substance of a medicinal or othei
marked character is produced by a plant, it is obvious that
we may, in many cases, be so guided by a knowledge of
these facts, as to obtain it in the greatest quantity. Thus,
when the sap is first absorbed by the roots, it is thin and
watery, not possessing any decided properties. The same
remark applies to it as it exists in the sap wood, but in its
altered state in the leaves it possesses marked and decided
properties ; hence leaves are frequently employed for me-
dicinal or other purposes, as in the case of tea, and of the
sweet herbs used in cookery ; as the altered sap descends
by the bark, that part becomes charged with the peculiar
substances which the plant has the power of forming ; and
thus bark is very frequently employed in the arts, and
also in medicine. Oak and other barks used in tanning,
and cinnamon employed as a spice, may be taken as ex-
amples.
Should the wood itself be required for the sake of any
substances contained in it, the heart wood filled with the
altered sap is much more valuable than the sap wood.
The root, also, as in the case of jalap, rhubarb, chicory,
ifec, <fec., is often charged with the peculiar principles of the
plant producing it.
The flowers consist of several parts, each distinct in its
structure and use ; the outer part, usually green in color,
which encloses all the others in the flower bud, is termed
the calyx or flower cup; it usually consists of several leaf-
like parts more or less united at the edges; these are
termed sepals.
The more highly-colored and ornamental part of the
^OEK. 229
flower is termed the corolla ; this also consists of several
leaf-like parts, which are termed petals.
The corolla surrounds the stamens, which are small
bodies, exceedingly variable in number, consisting of an
elongated stalk or filament crowned by an enlarged head
or anther.
The seed vessel, containing, as its name implies, the
young seeds, and protecting them until they have arrived
at maturity, is the most important part of the flower ; it
is variously situated, being in some, as the apple and cu-
cumber, below the flower, and in others, as the cherry,
within it.
. Seeds of various plants — as grains, pulse, spices, &c. —
are largely made use of by man for food and other pur-
poses ; as they contain, stored up in small space, a quantity
of very nutritious matter for the support of the young
plant during the first stages of growth, before it has
formed roots and leaves, so as to obtain its own nourish-
ment from the earth and air.
OBJECTS DERIVED FROM THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.
Barh mid Stems.
LESSON YII.
COEK.
Natural History. — Cork is the bark of a small ever-
green oak which grows abundantly in Spain, Portugal, the
south of France, and north of Africa. When the tree is
from fifteen to twenty years' old, a circular cut is made
230 FIFTH STEP. LESSON VII.
around the trunk immediately below the branches, and an-
other at the surface of the ground ; several perpendicular
incisions are then made from one to the other, and the
cork removed by inserting a blunt instrument underneath
it, care being taken not to injure the inner bark, which
would cause the death of the tree. The operation is per-
formed in July or August, and is repeated every eight or
ten years during the whole life of the tree, usually about
150 years.
The cork, when lemoved, is slightly charred or
scorched; this improves it by closing the pores, and en-
ables it more easily to be flattened by pressure, at the
same time giving it the dark color and burnt odor by
which it is distinguished.
Uses. — The qualities that render cork so valuable are :
its lightness, its being compressible, elastic, and impervious
to liquids ; its lightness renders it valuable in constructing
lifeboats, cork jackets, floats for fishing nets, and other pur-
poses ; its being compressible, elastic, and impervious, ren-
ders it fitted for closing the mouths of bottles, as, when
fiiTiily forced in, its elasticity causes it to press so closely
against all parts of the mouth as to prevent the contents
from escaping, or the air from gaining access.
Cork is also occasionally used in thin layers to form the
inner soles of shoes and boots ; it is cut into the required
shape for the various purposes for which it is used by
means of broad knives, which require constant sharpening.
Bungs for casks are so cut that their flat sides correspond
to the two sides of the cork, while bottle corks are cut in
the opposite direction ; the latter are consequently much
CANES. 231
fess porous in the direction of their length, and afford a
more secure fastening.
LESSON" VIII.
CANES.
Natural History. — Canes, or rattans, are the long,
slender stems of a species of palm which grows wild in the
forests of the East Indies, the Malay peninsula, and the ad-
jacent islands ; the plants are remarkable for the extraor-
dinary length of their stems, which occasionally reach
several hundred feet ; they are abundantly furnished with
hooked prickles, by means of which they are supported on
the tops of the highest trees.
The sterns are cut by the natives, and stripped of their
leaves, which surround them like a sheath, by being pulled
through a notch cut in a tree ; they are then dried in the
sun, and tied up in bundles for exportatior.
Uses. — Canes consist chiefly of tough woody fibres,
with a number of open tubes to allow the ascent of the
sap with sufficient rapidity to supply the great evaporation
that takes place from the leaves ; on the outside they are
covered with a transparent flinty coating of extreme hard-
ness ; canes split readily in the direction of their length,
an-d are used for forming the open lattice work of the seats
of chairs, and similar purposes, for which they are well
adapted by the toughness and strength of the fibres, and
the hardness of the external covering. Those are es-
teemed the best which are pale in color, very long, thin,
and sufficiently flexible to bend without cracking the
glazing.
232 FIFTH STEP. LESSON IX.
In addition to these uses, the plant yielis ais fcdibU
fruit, and when cut across, a flow of wholesome^ refreshing
sap takes place from the end of tlie stem ; the young
shoots also furnish, when cooked, a pleasant and delicate
ai tide of food.
Within the last few years, canes have been much mor*
largely imported than formerly, and tbey are now em-
ployed for coarse basket work whicli is exposed to great
violence ; for this their great strength renders them valu-
able. The large baskets used by grocers, bakers, and
other trades, for heavy goods, are now also frequently
made of unsplit canes.
LESSON^ IX.
CHARCOAi ,
Preparation. — ^The term coal, or cole, was originally
applied to wood or any substance used for fuel ; hence half
burned or charred wood received its name of charcoal.
Charcoal is prepared by setting fire to a heap of small
wood, almost entirely covered witli:-a layer of earth, and
when the whole is ignited closing the openings by which
air has been allowed to enter, the fire is thus put out and
the wood remains in a charred state. The best charcoal
is made from hard wood.
Properties. — Wood charcoal is a light black porous
solid ; showing distinctly the annual rings and structure of
the wood from which it was formed ; it is brittle and easily
reduced to a coarse powder, the small particles of which it
is composed being exceedingly hard. It is perfectly un-
CIIAKCOAL. 2o3
cliangeatle in air, insoluble in water or in the strongest
acids, and also infusible in the fire. Heated to redness
in the air, it burns away without smoke, producing an in*
visible but fatally poisonous gas termed carbonic acid. It
is so bad a conductor of heat, that a piece may be held
in the fingers within a quarter of an inch of the red hot
part.
Uses. — Charcoal is remarkably distinguished by its
power of absorbing gases to the extent of man}^ times its
bulk ; hence it is frequently employed to remove any un-
pleasant odors arising from putrefying animal substances,
which it does by absorbing them. The chief use of char-
coal is as fuel ; it is much more largely employed for this
purpose in cities than in the country; it is also extensively
used in the manufacture of gunpowder, that prepared from
the black alder being usually selected. Its power of ab-
sorbing odor leads to its use in correcting the smell of
tainted meat; and it is sometimes spread upon over-crowd-
ed churchyards with the same view. Powdered peat char-
coal is also used in some European countries to absorb the
smell of ofiensive manures previous to their being spread
upon the soil ; and water is frequently purified by filtering
through a layer of powdered charcoal. It is also used for
polishing hard substances, for making crayons, and in med-
icine. Animal charcoal, which is prepared by heating
bones to redness in close iron vessels, is largely used in the
sugar refineries, as when syrup made from raw or brown
sugar is filtered through a layer of it, the coloring matter
is absorbed by the charcoal, and the syrup becomes color*
less. {See Sugar.)
23 A FIFTH STEP. — LESSON IX.
GRAIN AND PULSE.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
Description. — The plants yielding grain are annuals ;
th« wliol^ plant, including the root, dying when the seed is
ripe; their stems, which are termed straw or culm, aro
liollov*^, and divided into lengths by partitions across the
interior, corresponding with knots or swellings on the out-
side ; this structure is evidently intended to strengthen the
hollow stalk ; this stem is covered externally with a sili-
ceous or flinty varnish, which gives a peculiar harshness to
the straw. The leaves arise from the knots, alternately on
opposite sides of the stem ; each leaf has a broad, flat stalk,
which is rolled around the stem, so as to form a sheath,
split up on one side ; the blades of the leaves are long, and
tapering to a point ; their veins run straight, and parallel
with each other, from the base to the point, not branching
out and reuniting, as is common with most leaves ; the last
leaf of the stalk forms a sheath, which is securely and
closely rolled around the young heads or ears of grain.
Tiie blossoms of the grain plants are formed of small
scales, which are at first green, but become yellow when
ripe ; they enclose a one-seeded fruit termed a grain ; the
blossoms are usually arranged in close heads, termed ears
or spikes ; grains and grasses belong to the same tribe of
plants, differing only in respect to size ; the seeds of all
grasses might be used for food if they were large enough
to answer the purpose, as no grass plant, except the com-
mon darnel, is unwholesome when in a healthy state. The
BARLEY AND MALT* 235
grains contain a very large proportion of starch (see
Starch)^ a considerable quantity of a very strengthening
food known as gluten, a variable amount of oil or fat, and
small quantities of sugar, gum, fibre, and other substances.
The native country of the common grains is unknown ;
with the exception of barley, which is indigenous in Sicily
and the interior of Asia, they are not found anywhere in a
wild state; but are probably grasses which have been in-
creased in size and value by cultivation ; when allowed to
grow wild, they soon degenerate and cease to bear seed
sufficiently large to be available for the food of man.
LESSON X.
BARLEY AND MALT.
Cultivation. — Barley, next to wheat, is one of the most
important grains cultivated in this country. Like most of
the grains, its native country is unknown, and, if allowed
to grow wild, it rapidly degenerates.
Two distinct kinds are cultivated — winter barley and
spring barley.
Barley is a very hardy grain, capable of resisting both
heat and drought, and may therefore be more profitably
grown upon poorer soils than wheat ; it comes quickly to
maturity, and ripens perfectly in short northern summers,
which are not long enough to admit the ripening of wheat ;
it is the latest sown and the earliest reaped of all our sum-
mer grains ; in warm countries two harvests of barley are
reaped each year — one from the winter, the second from
the spring sown. This fact explains the passage in Exodus
236 FIFTH STEP. LESSON X.
iy, 31, where the plague of hail is mentioned : — " The flax
and the barley were smitten, for the barley was in the
ear ; " " but the wheat and the rye were not smitten, for
they were not grown up." This plague happened in
March ; the first crop of barley was, therefore, nearly ripe,
having been sown the previous autumn.
In this country barley is usually sown from the middle
of April to the middle of May, although the time varies
somewhat in different localities, and is sown broadcast by
hand, or with the drilling machine. It thrives best in dry
seasons ; if there is much rain it becomes sickly, and in
vevy wet seasons each grain will sprout in the ear, and the
whole is rendered worthless.
Winter barley, as its name implies, remains in the
ground during that season, and is usually sow^n in October.
The quantity of barley produced on an acre of land is,
on an average, from twenty-five to thirty-five bushels.
Each grain of barley ends in a long awn or beard,
which is broken off in threshing ; the shape of a grain is
doubly conical, being pointed at the ends, and there is a
groove on one side ; from its tolerably uniform length, it
has given its name to one of our divisions of the inch,
namely, one-third, it being reckoned that three barley
corns placed end to end make one inch in length.
Uses. — ^The great use of barley is to make malt for
brewing beer and distilling spirits. The malting of barley
is performed by steeping it in water until it has become
soft and swollen ; it is then taken out and allowed to drain,
and remain in heaps for about forty hours, during which
time each grain begins to grow or germinate, sending out
RYE. 237
a small root, as it would if planted in moist earth ; to check
this growth, the barley is spread out to dry on floors, and
afterward heated in a kiln ; the color of the malt variea
with the heat at which it is dried ; the darker kinds are
used for brewing porter, and the lighter for ale. After
having been kiln dried, the root is broken off by stirring
the malt with spades, and, when separated by sifting,
forms the substance known as malt dust or malt culm,
which is used for sheep feeding, and sometimes as manure.
During malting, barley undergoes the changes that
happen to all seeds during germination ; the starch matter
is converted into sugar, which is capable of being dissolved
in the juices of the growing plant and nourishing it; hence
the taste of malt is sweet, and it is the sugar which, dis-
solved by boiling water, changes during fermentation into
the spirituous part of the beer.
Barley does not form a palatable bread when ground
into flour, as it is coarse, dry, and apt to become sour. It is
sometimes used for food, especially by invalids, in the form
of pearl barley ; this is formed by grinding off the outer
husks in mills adapted for that purpose.
It is used as food for poultry, and, when ground into
meal, for fattening pigs, turkeys, and other animals.
Barley straw is of considerable value as fodder for
cattle and horses.
LESSON XL
EYE.
Cultivation. — ^Rye is a grain capable of growing on
lighter and poorer soils, and in colder latitudes than the
238 FIFTH STEP. LESSON XI.
Other varieties of grain. It is, therefore, the prevailing
grain in a portion of Siberia, the North American Russian
possessions, the northern part of the New England States,
and the north of Europe. It requires less care in the pre-
paration of the ground, and a less amount of manure than
is given to either wheat or barley ; but the value of the
produce is proportionably small. Rye is usually sown in
the autumn after a crop of wheat, although the nature of
the previous crop is not of great importance. It is sup*
posed to be a native of the desert countries round the
Caspian Sea.
Uses, — Rye is cultivated for several distinct pui*poses.
The ripe grain, ground into meal, is largely used by the
poorer class of people in Russia, and other parts of the
Continent, for making a coarse, heavy kind of bread, which
is very dark in color, and unpalatable. In Holland the
ripe grain is fermented, and a distilled spirit obtained
from the liquid. Rye straw forms the best material for
thatching, and is much used for making straw plait for
hats and bonnets.
In this country, rye is not largely used for food, and but
a limited amount of it is raised. •"
It is only on the poorer and more barren soils that it is
cultivated for the sake of the grain ; but in some situations
near poultry yards a belt of it is sown around fields of
other grains, to protect them from fowls, as they do
not relish rye as food. One circumstance that ren*
ders rye less desirable as food for man, is the occa-
sional occurrence of a disease in the grain, rendering it
extremely unwholesome ; in this affection, the grains en-
OATS. 239
large very considerably, and become somewhat like the
curved spur of a cock ; hence the name spurred rye, or er-
got of rye. From this diseased grain a very useful medi-
cine (secale cornutum) is extracted.
LESSON XIL
OATS.
Qultwation. — The native country of oats is not known
with any degree of certainty. The plant flourishes in
colder climates and seasons than any other grain, and is
therefore largely cultivated in high mountainous countries,
as Scotland, Norway, and Sweden. In appearance it dif-
fers strikingly from the other grains, the flowers being ar-
ranged in loose bunches, so that each hangs with the open
part of the husk toward the earth, an arrangement which
prevents the access of wet to the grain.
Several varieties are known in this country, such as the
white, red, black, &c.
Oats are usually sown in April or May, being scattered
broadcast by hand, at the rate of from four to six bushels
an acre, and the average produce is from thirty to fifty
bushels.
Uses. — Oats form an exceedingly wholesome and, at
the same time, very nutritious article of food ; when kiln
dried and ground into coarse meal, they form the food of
a very large proportion of the people of Scotland and the
north of England, being used both in the form of oaten
cakes and porridge.
When the seeds are deprived of the husks they are
k'tO FIFTH STEP. LESSOX XIII.
cvlled oat grits, and form a very palatable and nutritious
food for the sick. Except in this form, it is but little used
for food in the United States.
The great consumption of oats, however, is as food for
horses ; for this purpose they are employed both whole and
ground ; they are also used for feeding geese, ducks, and
other poultry, <fec
The ripe straw of the oat is regarded as more nutri-
tious than any other, and is preferred as fodder for cat-
tle ; and the chaff or husk of the grain is often used for
stuffing mattresses among the Scotch peasantry, as it is
soft, elastic, and inexpensive.
LESSON XIII.
RICE.
Cultivation. — The native country of rice is undoubted-
ly Asia, in the warmer parts of which it is even now found
growing wild, and the seeds collected for food ; from Asia
it has been carried by man, and spread over the warmer
and more marshy parts of Europe, America, and Africa ;
its introduction into America^Jias taken place within the
last one hundred and fifty years.
The great peculiarity in the cultivation of rice is the
quantity of moisture it requires. In this country, for ex-
ample, it is sown in the spring, in rows or trenches eighteen
inches apart, and the ground is flooded with water for sev-
eral days ; when the plants are four inches high, the flood-
ing is repeated, and continued for a fortnight ; and again
a third time, shortly before the grain ripens, the fields are
EICE. 241
inundated, and remain so until the rice is ripe. From the
swampy state of the soil in rice-growing districts, the cul-
tivation of rice is a most unhealthy occupation, and in this
country it is left almost entirely to the care of negro
slaves. On the grain becoming ripe, the water is drained
off, and the reaping performed with a sickle, the laborer
sinking deeply in the soft ground in which the plants
grow.
Rice is cultivated in very ranch the same manner in
Italy, Lombardy, and Spain, and to an immense extent in
India, China, and Ceylon. In all countries the best rice
fields are the low swampy grounds through which the
large rivers run ; in other situations the waters of the
small streams are collected in reservoirs, and used for irri-
gating the grounds.
In fertility rice much exceeds our common grains ; in
India two crops a year, of thirty to sixty bushels each, are
the ordinary produce of an acre. In Lombardy, three
bushels of seed are sown to an acre, and the usual return
is fifty bushels.
It is often shipped in the state of rough rice, that is,
with the hulls on, as it is thus more easily protected from
damage in transportation. Its preparation is completed in
mills made for this purpose, both in this country and in
Europe.
Rice, although not spoken of by name in the Holy
Scriptures, must have been well known to the sacred histo-
rians ; it is probable that its cultivation is alluded to in
Eccles. xi, 1, and Isaiah xxxii, 20.
Uses. — Rice forms the chief food of a greater number
11
242 FIFTH STEP.— LESSON XIV".
of persons than any other substance ; the people of India^
China, and part of America, live chiefly upon it ; with a
mixture of spices termed curry, it forms almost the entire
food of whole races of men in India ; and it is estimated
that it supports upward of one hundred millions of people.
As a diet it is light, wholesome, and readily digested ;
but, from consisting almost entirely of starch, it is not so
nutritious as the other grains ; it is used with more advan-
tage as a partial article of food than alone ; in the latter
case the quantity necessarily eaten is very large.
In India a species of strong spirit termed arrack is dis-
tilled from fermented rice, and the straw is also used for
making plait for bonnets. Large quantities of rice arh used
in England in the manufacture of starch.
LESSON XIV.
INDIAN CORN OR MAIZE.
CuUivatiofij dbc. — The native place of maize is undoubt*
edly America, where it was found growing both wild and
cultivated by the Spanish discoverers of the New World.
*In appearance the Indian corn- difiers much from other
grains; the stalk is strong, jointed, and reedy, growing
from seven to ten feet in height, and covered with broad
alternate leaves ; the top of the stem bears a bunch of
barren flowers, termed the tassel; and lower down are the
ears, generally about three in number, each enclosed in a
sheath formed of several thin leaves ; the ears consist of a
pithy, cylindrical stem, called the cob, on which are closely
arranged the rows of seeds ; from each seed proceeds a
INDIAN CORN OK MAIZE. . 243
ong silky filament, which issues from the sheath at the top
of the ear ; after a time both the tassel of barren flowers,
which forms a fertilizing powder necessary for the protec-
tion of the grain, and the silken filaments which receive it
as it falls, dry up and drop oflf.
The color of Indian corn varies from a rich golden yel-
low, or even white, to a deep red chocolate color.
The cultivation of maize is very simple. The grains are
planted in rows about three feet apart, care being taken
that the season is so far advanced that the young plants
shall not be destroyed by the frost. The return varies
greatly, according to the quantity of manure used, and the
nature of the ground, but it is always very great, in some
instances even several hundred fold.
Uses. — Indian corn forms the staple article of food in
many parts of the United States, and among all classes of
persons in Mexico ; in Africa, where it_^ has been intro-
duced and is largely cultivated, it is said to be as much
used as rice.
In those warm countries where it grows to perfection,
it is the most profitable grain that can be cultivated, its
produce being so much greater than that of any*other
grain ; it forms, in consequence, a cheap, and, at the same
time, exceedingly wholesome article of diet. It contains a
larger proportion of fat or oil than any other grain, and
is, therefore, possessed of remarkable fattening properties.
From consisting in great part of starch, Indian corn
flour is not well adapted for making bread, unless mixed
with wheat flour ; it is most frequently used in the tbrm of
thick porridge, puddings, and cakes.
244 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON XV.
Com is used extensively in the United States in the
manufacture of starch. The largest manufactories are at
Oswego, K. Y., and Glen Cove, Long Island. At the for-
mer place more than 200,000 bushels of corn are made into
starch annually, which is used both in cooking and by the
laundress
LESSON XV.
WHEAT.
Cultivation^ <&c. — ^The native country of wheat is not
known with any degree of certainty ; it has in -fact been
so changed by cultivation that it is unknown in its natural
state ; in Europe, where it has been long cultivated, many
varieties exist, the most important being the spring or
summer, and the winter or lammas wheat. Spring wheat,
so termed from its being sown at that season, has a more
slender head than the winter kind; it is also awned or
bearded ; the grain itself is smaller, and the whole plant
more delicate and less productive ; it is, therefore, less
cultivated.
Winter wheat is a vigorous und hardy plant. The ear
is destitute of any awn or beard. Two distinct kinds of it
exist, which are distinguished by the names red and white
wheat. The latter is more delicate in its growth, and is
better suited to lighter lands than the red. It is preferred
for producing fine flour, and consequently sells at higher
rates. The red wheat, on the contrary, is hardy, and bet-
ter adapted to the cold, strong clay soils. Winter wheat
is sown in the autumn, usually in September or October,
WHEAT. 245
the young plants standing during the winter, and ripening
their seeds the following autumn.
The sowing is either broadcast by iiand, or performed
with the drill or sowing machine ; the latter causes a much
more advantageous arrangement of the seed in furrows.
Wheat tillers freely ; that is, each seed produces several
stalks, the usual number being about five or six.
The produce of wheat is, on the average, about twenty-
six bushels an acre ; but in districts where manure is abun-
dant and agriculture carried to a high state of perfection,
much larger quantities are obtained ; forty bushels to the
acre are not unfrequent. From the United States and
Canada large quantities of flour are annually exported to
Europe.
Wheat is subject to a disease called smut, which may
be described as a sort of black mildew, affecting the ripen-
ing grain. A few diseased grains wdll contaminate a large
quantity of seed, and the plants produced from such seed
will be affected ; fortunately this disease may be almost en-
tirely destroyed, even when largely present in seed wheat,
by steeping it in various solutions, as, for example, strong
brine, or, what is still more effectual, a solution of sulphate
of copper, or blue vitriol ; or a weak solution of arsenic.
Uses. — Wheat furnishes, when ground, one of the most
nutritious and valuable of all kinds of flour ; in temperate
countries, where the poverty of the inhabitants does not
preclude its use, it forms the chief article of food. From
the tough character of the dough (obtained by mixing
wheat flour with water) it forms a more spongy, and,
therefore, lighter kind of bread than any other flour.
246 FIFTH STEP. — ^LESSON XVI.
LESSON XVL
PULSE.
The term pulse is applied to the seeds of plants resem-
bling more or less in their structure the common pea;
they are characterized by highly developed and ornamental
flowers, the corolla consisting of petals which are irregular
in form, and which, in some species, as the sweet pea, so
much resemble a. butterfly, that they have been termed
butterfly-shaped, or papilionaceous, a term which is applied
to the flowers of the whole group.
The ripened seed vessel is also very peculiar in these
plants. It consists of two halves, or valves, usually convex
externally and concave internally; these separate when
ripe, and disclose a row of seeds attached to each valve.
Such seed vessels are popularly termed pods, and are
known to botanists as legumes ; hence the plants bearing
them are frequently termed leguminous plants. In this
country peas and beans form the most frequently used
leguminous seeds.
It should be remembered that all leguminous seeds are
not wholesome ; those of the Laburnum tree, for example,
often give rise to serious illness when eaten by children.
LESSON XVTL
BEANS.
Natural History. — Beans are the produce of a plant
which originally came from the East, but which is now ex-
tensively cultivated in all the temperate parts of the world.
- * BEAlfS. 247
The plant is an annual, from two to four feet in height ;
the leaves are divided into leaflets ; and the flowers, which
are of that kind termed butterfly-shaped, are white, with a
black spot on the centre of each wing, and exceedingly
fragrant ; each flower is succeeded by a broad thick pod,
smooth externally and woolly internally, containing several
seeds.
Beans require a heavy clay soil, and are planted in hills
or sown in drills, either with a hoe or with a drilling ma-
chine. The crops are ready to be gathered in the autumn.
The formation and growth of a bean may be readily exam-
ined if it is soaked in water for a few hours. It will be
found to consist of a thick outer skin or covering, inclosing
two parts, joined together by a small curved, doubly point-
ed portion ; the two halves are the seed lobes, or leaves ;
these contain the nourishment for the young plant, and,
rising above the surface of the ground, form its first
leaves ; the connecting parts consist of the young stem
and root ; the uses of the diiferent parts may be readily
ascertained by moistening a few beans and examining them
from day to day.
Uses. — Beans constitute a very hearty food, and the
better sort are much used for the table. They are exten-
sively used for rations in the army, and as ship stores.
In England they are employed as food for hard-working
horses, for which purpose they are usually crushed and
mixed with cut hay, straw, bran, oats, or other food ; they
are also used in fattening pigs, but are regarded as making
the flesh hard and tough; bean meal is also sometimes
mixed with the flour of new wheat for making bread.
248 PIFTH STEF. ^LESSON XVIIL
LESSON xvni.
PEAS.
Natural History. — The plant yielding the common pea
is a native of the south of Europe, but it is now cultivated
in all temperate climates. It is a climber, with compound
divided leaves, the main stalks of which proceed beyond
the last pair of leaflets, and form the spirally twisted ten-
drils, by means of w^iich the plant clings for support to
other objects. Few circumstances show more evidently
the design and wisdom of the Creator than the numberless
instances of compensation. Animals, for instance, denied
the possession of some one sense, are compensated for it
by the great perfection of another, which answers their
wants more perfectly; or, as in the present case, a plant
destitute of the power to raise its leaves and flowers from
the ground, and expose them to the genial influences of the
sun and air, is compensated for its weakness by a contri-
vance which enables it to borrow the needful support from
other plants.
The flowers of the pea consistr of five dissimilar petals,
forming that kind of flower termed butterfly-shaped, or
papilionaceous, which is only found in the plants of the pea
tribe. Each flower is followed by a pod, which divides
when ripe into two parts, both of which bear a row of
seeds, or peas. Each pea consists of an outer skin, inclos-
ing two half globular seed lobes, connected together as in
the bean, the description of which may be referred to as
applicable to the various parts of the pea. Cultivation has
FOREIGN CUKEANTS. 243
produced many varieties of this vegetable ; some are re-
markable for ripening earlier than others ; some for their
peculiar form, size, or color. The common field pea re-
quires a rich, strong soil, but the garden varieties succeed
better on dry, light lands.
Uses. — The garden pea is highly valued for the table,
when gathered in its green state, and when ripe, dried, and
separated from the skins, we obtain from them the well
known split peas, and pea flour, so much used for making
puddings and soup. In this form they furnish an exceed-
ingly nutritious and wholesome, but, to some persons, not
always an easily digested article of food.
The common pea is largely used in feeding pigs ; it is
grown as an agricultural crop, being sown either broadcast
or in drills ; in either case it spreads over the ground, and
for the purpose of support a few beans are sometimes
sown with it. The dry haulm or straw of the pea is very
valuable as food for horses and cattle.
bruits and Seeds.
LESSON XIX.
FOEEIGN CUEEANTS.
The foreign, or dried currants, are a species of small
raisins or grapes, which chiefly grow in the Grecian Islands.
They were formerly very abundant in the Isthmus of Co-
rinth, and were called from thence Corinthians ; this term
has been corrupted into currants, probably from their re-
semblance to the English fruit of that name. These httle
11
250 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON XX.
grapes have no stones, and are of a reddish black color ;
they are extremely delicious when fresh gathered. The
harvest commences in August, and as soon as the grapes
are gathered they are spread to dry on a floor, prepared
for the purpose by stamping the earth quite hard. This
floor is formed with a gentle rising in the middle, that the
rain, in case any should fall, may flow ofi'and not injure the
fruit. When sufficiently dry, the currants are cleaned, and
laid up in magazines, where they are so closely pressed to-
gether that, when a supply is needed, it is dug out with an
iron instrument.
They are packed in large casks for exportation, and
trodden down by the natives.
LESSON XX.
THE COCOANUT.
The tree which produces this fruit is a kind of palm,
which is found in Brazil, Ceylon, and throughout the East
Indies ; its trunk resembles a stately column, crowned at
the summit with narrow leaves, fourteen or fifteen feet in
length, and only three in breadth ^- amidst these, hangs the
fruit. The external rind of the cocoanut is thin, brown,
smooth, and approaches a triangular form. This covering en-
closes an extremely fibrous substance, of considerable thick-
ness, which immediately surrounds the nut ; the latter has
a thick and hard shell, with three holes at the base, each
closed by a black membrane. The kernel, which is about
an inch in thickness, lines the shell and encloses a sweet,
refreshing liquid. The cocoanut tree affords the Indians
RAISINS. 251
food, clothing, and means of shelter. Before the kernel
comes to maturity, it is soft and pulpy, may be scraped out
with a spoon, and supplies the natives with an agreeable
and nutritious food ; when pressed in a mill, it yields an
oil. By making incisions in the flower-buds at the top of
the tree, the sap flows out, and is esteemed an agreeable
and cooling drink ; it is sold in the bazaars under the name
of toddy. If allowed to stand a few hours it ferments, be-
comes extremely intoxicating, and is called palm wine. By
soaking the fibrous trunk in water it is made soft, and can
be manufactured into sail cloth, or twisted into cordage of
any description, which surpasses in durability that formed
of hemp. The woody shells are very hard, and susceptible
of a high polish ; they are used for cups, ladles, and other
domestic utensils. The trunk of the tree furnishes either
beams or rafters for habitations, or is made into boats.
The leaves platted together form an excellent thatch; they
are also used for umbrellas, mats, and various other useful
articles.
LESSON XXI.
EAISIXS.
Natural History. — Raisins, or dried grapes, are the
produce of the vine — a plant which, although now cultiva-
ted in all the warm parts of the globe, was originally a na-
tive of the south of Asia, from whence it has been carried
into Europe, Africa, and America. The early cultivation
of this plant is mentioned in Genesis ix, 20 ; and the large
size of the fruit produced in the genial climate of Palestine
is as remarkable now as in the time of Moses.
252 rrFTH step. — lesson xxn.
In this country the fruit of the vine does not arrive at
a sufficient degree of perfection to make wine, without the
addition of sugar ; nor is the warmth of the sun powerful
enough to dry raisins ; we are, therefore, dependent upon
other countries for our supply.
In Valencia, from whence our great supply is obtained,
the raisins are prepared by dipping the bunches of grapes
into a hot lye made of wood ashes, oil, and lime ; they are
then exposed on frames of basket work for fourteen or fif-
teen days, to be dried by the heat of the sun.
Muscatel raisins are dried on the vines without being
dipped; hence the different appearance and flavor. The
effect of the lye is to soften the skin of the fruit, rendering
it less tough, but it somewhat injures the flavor. Valencia
raisins are employed in pastry, the Muscatels for eating
uncooked.
Sultana raisins are a smaller variety from Smyrna,
without seeds. A peculiar mildew has attacked almost
all the varieties of the grapevine during the last few
years ; the quantity of raisins has been lessened, and tho
price correspondingly increased.
LESSON XXII.
FIGS.
Natural History. — Figs are produced on a small trcf ,
originally a native of the southwest of Asia, but now culti-
vated extensively in all the countries of the south of Eu-
rope; in height it seldom reaches above twenty feet, and
bears large, deeply-lobed leaves, very rough on the upper
FIGS. 253
surface, and downy beneath ; it is not furnished with any
visible flowers, the fruit arising from the stem in the form
of small pear-shaped buds, which are pierced at the larger
end with a small hole ; these buds enlarge in size until
they become ripe, still retaining their original shape.
Each one contains a cavity, lined with numerous small,
scale-like bodies; these are the flowers enclosed within the
fruit. The structure cannot be seen in the dried fig, the
cavity having been closed up by pressure, and the internal
flowers ripened into the seeds. In its unripe state, the fig
abounds with a bitter milky juice — this, as it ripens, be-
comes changed into sugar.
One ot the most remarkable circumstances connected
with the fig is the fact of its bearing two, or even three,
crops of fruit during the year ; this peculiarity, and the
extreme value of it az an article of food, are alluded to
frequently in the Old Testament, — "I found Israel hke
grapes in the wilderness ; I saw your fathers as the first-
ripe in the fig tree at her first time." — (Hosea ix, 10).
The first crop is formed on the old wood, and is ripe in
May and June ; the second grows on wood of the same
year, and is ripe in September; and in very warm cli-
mates, as Greece and Egypt, a third crop is produced,
which ripens after the leaves are shed, thus supplying the
inhabitants with fresh fruit during the greater part of the
year.
Those intended for exportation are not gathered until
perfectly ripe ; they are dried on frames, which are placed
in the sun by day, and under cover at night ; in very wet
seasons they are partially dried by stoves ; whe» quit^ dry,
254 FIFTH STEP. ^LESSON XXIH.
they are packed in boxes and baskets for exportation.
Most of the tigs used in this country and Great Britain are
imported from Turkey.
Uses. — Figs are a very nutritious and valuable article
of diet ; in many parts of the East they form, with a small
portion of bread, the chief food of the inhabitants, and
when abundant are even given in small quantities to an-
imals, as corn is in this country. The sycamore of Scrip-
ture is a larger species of fig, the fruit of which is also
occasionally eaten.
Vegetable Secretions.
LESSON XXIII.
CAMPHOE.
Natural History and Preparation. — Camphor exists in
small quantities in many plants, but is chiefly obtained from
a species of laurel tree, a native of China and Japan, which
is now cultivated in most of the warm parts of the w^orld ;
the great supply is obtained from the Island of Formosa,
and carried in Chinese junks to Canton, whence foreign
markets are supplied.
Camphor is obtained by heating in a still the leaves,
branches, and wood of the tree cut up into small pieces ;
being volatile, it rises in vapor ; this is collected in a solid
form in a cold part of the apparatus. The camphor of com-
merce is in a dirty, granular state, and is purified by a
second distillation. The art of refining it was long monop-
lized by the Venetians, and afterward by the Dutch. It is
now, however, practised in the United States.
CAMPHOR. 255
Properties* — Camphor is a solid, semi-transparent sub«
stance, so tough that it cannot be powdered without the
addition of a few drops of spirit or oil ; it possesses a
strong aromatic and very peculiar odor ; it is very sparing-
ly soluble in water, to w^hich, however, it imparts its pecu-
liar odor and bitter taste ; in spirit it dissolves readily, the
camphor separating in the solid form when the solution is
poured into water. Camphor is also soluble in oil. In
large doses it acts as a poison, producing convulsions, stu-
por, and death.
It melts at a moderate heat, and at the same time pass-
es off rapidly in vapor ; if brought into actual contact with
a flame, it takes fire readily, burning with a large flame and
much smoke.
Uses. — ^The strong odor of camphor is obnoxious to
insects and moths ; it is, therefore, employed to protect
cabinets of natural history and clothes ; when taken as a
medicine, it-s first effect is that of a stimulant, but its action
afterward becomes depressing ; its strong odor has given
rise to the idea that it is capable of preventing infection,
and it is frequently carried about the body with this view ;
it has not, however, the slightest power of destroying in-
fection, and, from its depressing effects, its action is deci-
dedly injurious.
Dissolved in spirit, it forms a valuable application to
unbroken chilblains, and also to burns or scalds when the
gkin is not destroyed.
256 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON XXIV.
LESSON XXIV.
GUM ARABIC.
Natural Sistory. — Gum arable is the produce of seve-
ral kinds of acacia trees, natives of the sandy deserts of
Africa and the East Indies.
In the hottest seasons of the year the gum oozes out
from the bark in a thick mucilage, which hardens on expo-
sure to the air, in a similar manner to the gum produced
by the plum and cherry trees of this climate, but to a much
greater extent.
When pure, gum arabic is transparent and colorless,
but the commoner kinds are generally yellow. It has a
glassy lustre, is perfectly inodorous, and has an insipid
taste. It dissolves readily in water, forming a thick adhe-
sive solution, which becomes sour after having been made
some time.
Uses. — Gum in the form of mucilage is much used as a
cement for small articles, as for fastening labels to glass,
(fee. ; it is also employed extensively in the arts, for stiffen-
ing crapes and other fabrics, and.in the manufacture of ink.
Paper which has been gummed on one side, and allowed to
become dry, is readily attached to any object by moisten-
ing with the tongue or otherwise; in this manner gum is
largely employed for postage stamps and envelopes, a por-
tion of sugar being usually mixed with it, to enable the
cement to be more rapidly softened by the moisture em-
ployed. The gum usually employed for this and other
coarse purposes is termed British gum, or Dextrine, being
INDIAN EUBBEK. 257
made by baking starch in a moderate heat until it assumes
a pale brown color, and becomes soluble in cold water,
LESSOX XXV.
INDIAN RUBBER, OR CAOUTCHOUC.
Natural History. — Indian rubber is produced by seve-
ral trees, natives of the warmer parts of South America
and the East Indies ; it is obtained, during the rainy sea-
son, by making deep incisions in the bark, when a thick,
creamy juice, of a yellowish white color, flows out, capable
of being mixed with water; this remains unchanged if kept
in closely corked bottles, but dries slowly on exposure to
the air.
In South America the natives spread the juice, as it is
obtained from the tree, on moulds of clay, applying one
layer as soon as that previously put on is dry ; the drying
is hastened by placing the moulds over a wood fire, the
smoke of which colors the Indian rubber. These moulds
are sometimes in the form of a shoe, and sometimes of a
bottle.
When a sufficient number of coats have been applied,
so as to produce the desired thickness, the clay moulds are
broken and the pieces withdrawn, leaving the Indian rub-
ber in the form of the mould ; from the East Indies it is
usually imported in the form of balls or irregular pieces.
Properties. — Indian rubber is a soft, pliable, and highly
elastic substance, tough, and difficult to be cut ; its elas-
ticity varies, being much lessened by cold and increased by
a moderate heat; when suddenly stretched it becomes
258 MFTH STEP. — LESSON XXV.
warm — an experiment readily tried by extending a thin
thong suddenly between the lips ; if stretched, and
placed in cold water for some time, it loses its contrac-
tile power, which, however, it regains immediately on
being warmed.
Indian rubber is insoluble in cold or hot water, but is
softened by long boiling, and becomes somewhat adhesive ;
it is also insoluble in spirits or weak acids, but dissolves
readily, with the aid of heat, in pure ether, spirits of tur-
pentine, and coal naphtha, remaining unchanged when the
liquids evaporate ; it is partly dissolved by oil, becoming
clammy and glutinous.
Freshly cut, clean surfaces of Indian rubber, readily
adhere, if pressed together, or they may be united by using
that which has been dissolved in naphtha or turpentine ;
heated to a degree rather higher than boiling water, it
melts, but it is altered in its properties, and does not be-
come solid on cooling ; if brought into contact with a
flame, it immediately takes fire, burning with a white
flame, and giving out a dense smoke and a very peculiar
odor. In Guiana, where the trees abound, it is frequently
used for torches.
Preparation. — Indian rubber is formed into blocks by
being placed in an iron cylinder, lined with spikes, through
which passes an iron shaft, also armed with spikes, and
made to turn round rapidly ; by this operation the Indian
rubber is torn into small pieces, which, when firmly pressed
together, unite into a uniform solid block, capable of being
cut up into thin sheets or threads ; this is accomplished by
means of wet knives, moved by machinery ; threads of
INDIAN RUBBER. 259
such a degree of fineness are produced, that 5,000 yards
weigh only one pound.
Uses. — The elasticity, flexibility, and impervious nature
of this substance render it of great use in the arts ; the
natives of the countries where it is produced make water-
proof articles by spreading the fresh juice on cloth and
other substances ; in this country it is so used by being
dissolved in naphtha or turpentine, and then spread upon
cloth, or applied between two thin fabrics, which are
pressed together by rollers. The dissolved Indian rubber
is also used as a cement in binding books, and for other
purposes.
When dissolved with shellac it forms a valuable ce-
ment, termed marine glue, used in ship-building.
Advantage is taken of the property of Indian rubber of
becoming inelastic when cold, in weaving elastic band.oges,
&c. The threads employed for this purpose are stretched
to seven or eight times their original length, and wound on
rollers ; they are then kept extended in the cold for two or
three weeks, by which time they entirely lose their elas-
ticity; in this state they are woven readily, and when
passed over a hot roller the Indian rubber resumes its
elasticity ; these fabrics are employed for many purposes,
as glove bands, brace ends, surgical bandages, &c., &c.
The use of Indian rubber in removing black lead pen-
cil marks from paper is well known ; its name is derived
from its being so employed. It is also used, either alone
or in combination, in the manufacture of boots, shoes,
travelling bags, life preservers, &c.
Vulcanized Indian rubber is usually prepared by adding
260 FIFTH STEP. LESSON XXVI.
a small quantity of sulphur to the rubber as it is prepared
in the mill ; .when the article required is finished, it is heat-
ed ; the sulphur and heat effect a very important change ;
the Indian rubber becomes much more elastic than before,
and possesses the great advantage of not being stiffened by
cold, nor softened by the heat of boiling water ; it loses
also its adhesiveness to so great a degree that it cannot be
made to unite, and the waste pieces are comparatively
valueless. The red vulcanized Indian rubber is prepared
in a similar manner, a compound of sulphur and antimony
being employed. The permanently flexible and elastic
character of vulcanized Indian rubber has led to its ex-
tensive use for gas tubes, elastic bands, springs, toys, &c.,
&c., &G. By the addition of magnesia to vulcanized rub-
ber it acquires that degree of hardness which adapts it to
the manufacture of knife handles, combs, canes, buttons,
fancy boxes, and many other articles.
LESSON XXVI.
GUTTA PERCHA.
N'atural History and Preparation. — Gutta percha is
the product of a tall tree, a native of the Malayan Penin-
sula, and the adjacent islands, which, when wounded, ex-
udes a milky juice, hardening on exposure to the air. It
was formerly procured by the natives in a most wasteful
mode, by cutting down the trees and collecting Jhe thick-
ened sap from between the bark and the wood ; but taj}-
ping has lately been introduced. This sap, as it hardens, is
kneaded into shapeless masses ; these, when imported into
GUTTA PERCH A. 261
this country, are prepared for use by being cut into
shreds, cleaned by washing, and caused to unite by
V^^armth and j^ressure. Each tree yields from twenty to
thirty pounds.
Properties. — In its prepared state, gutta percha is a
tough, strong, flexible substance, somewhat resembling
leather ; it is lighter than water, of a brown color, taste-
less, and having a peculiar odor; it is quite insoluble in
water, spirit, and weak acids, but is dissolved by ether,
spirits of turpentine, and coal naphtha. It is softened by
a degree of warmth much less than that of boiling water,
but greater than that of the human body ; it then becomes
a plastic mass, capable of being readily moulded into any
required shape ; it is inflammable, burning with a white
flame and much smoke; it is quite impervious to water,
even in thin layers, and is not a conductor of heat or
electricity.
Uses. — The uses to which this substance has been ap-
plied depend chiefly on its toughness, insolubility, and the
ease with which it may be made to assume any form. By
pressure in moulds it is made into trays, cups, bottles, pic-
ture frames, inkstands, &c., &c. ; flattened between rollers,
it forms bands, traces, shoe soles, thin waterproof sheeting,
<fec. ; and it is also formed into pipes for conveying water,
which, from their toughness, resist great pressure ; and for
speaking tubes, for which purpose it is peculiarly adapted,
as it possesses in this form an extraordinary power of con-
ducting sound. From its extreme strength it is also well
fitted for forming substances submitted to rough usage ;
it possesses, however, the disadvantage of being readily
262 FIFTH STEP. LESSON XX VH.
altered in shape by a degree of heat less than that of boil-
ing water.
One of its most useful applications depends upon its be-
ing a non-conductor of electricity ; hence it is employed to
cover the wires of the submarine electric telegraph.
LESSON XXVII.
OILS.
Fixed or greasy oils arc abundantly formed by various
vegetables, and are of extreme value to man, as food, for
lighting, soap and candle making, and many other pur-
poses.
Oils are seldom, if ever, stored up in the leaves or
bark, but are usually found in the seed-vessel or seeds;
in the latter, oils answer the twofold purpose of nourish-
ing the young plant during its early growth, and of
affording a supply of food to man and animals.
The quantity of oil in various seeds is very great. The
kernel of the hazel nut contains 60 per cent. ; walnut 50 ;
almond, 46 ; poppy seed, 50 ; rape, 39 ; hemp, 25 ; flax,
22. Many of these seeds wheri~dry, as the almond, take
fire and burn readily when placed in the flame of a candle.
The most commonly used vegetable oils are olive, lin«
seed, palm, and castor oils.
Olive Oil. Natural History. — The olive is a small
evergreen tree, common in the south of Europe, Barbary,
and the Levant ; it has lance-shaped grayish-green leaves,
and white flowers ; the latter are followed by a fruit the
size and shape of a damson, of a purple color, with a nau-
OILS. 263
seous, bitter, oily flesh, which encloses a sharp-pointed
stone.
The oil is obtained from the fruit by crushing it un-
der rollers into a paste, which is then enclosed in bags and
subjected to the action of a screw press. That which flows
first is regarded as the best ; after that has been removed,
hot water is added to the mass, and an additional quantity
obtained.
Properties and Uses. — Olive oil is an insipid, inodorous,
pale, yellow, oily liquid, not liable to turn rancid, and very
inflammable ; at a temperature several degrees above the
freezing point of water it becomes solid.
In the south of Europe and Syria, of which countries
the olive is a native, the oil has been in use from the ear-
liest periods of which we have any record, both for food
(1 Kings, xvii, 12) and burning in lamps (Exod. xxvii, 20) ;
at the present time it may be regarded as the cream and
butter of Spain and Italy, and so much is it valued, that
the tree is chosen as the emblem of peace and plenty.
In our own country olive oil is used in the preparation
of food, though to a much more limited extent than in
Europe ; the common kinds are largely employed in the
woollen manufacture, and some kinds of soap.
Linseed Oil. Natural History. — The description of
the plant yielding flax and linseed will be found under
the head of Textile Fabrics ; the seeds, when separated,
are crushed and pressed in mills, when they yield nearly
one fourth of their weight of oil ; this, of all vegetable oils,
is one of the cheapest and most useful. It possesses the
property of drying when exnosed in thin layers to the
264 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON XXVII.
action of the air ; hence its use in the preparation of
paint and varnish, for which purpose the employment of a
fatty, non-drying oil, as that of the olive, would not an-
sv\'er. It is also employed in large quantities for making
putty, and for various purposes in the arts ; it is not un-
wholesome, but it has a nauseous and unpleasant taste,
which renders it unfit for the food of man.
The crushed mass that remains after the extraction of
the oil is termed oilcake, and is much used for fattenino^
cattle. The skins of the seeds contain a large quantity of
mucilaginous or gummy matter; this is dissolved when
boiling Avater is poured upon the seeds, and forms the
solution termed linseed tea; ground into powder the
seeds furnish linseed meal, a substance used medicinally
for poultices, &c.
The manufacture of this oil has become a very impor-
tant branch of industry in this country ; the seed for this
purpose being largely imported from the British East
Indies.
Palm Oil. — This substance, which is in a solid form in
temperate climates, is obtained from the fruit of a species
of palm, found upon the westj^rn coast of Africa, in the
West Indies, and some parts of South America. It is ex-
ported mostly to England, where it is bleached and manu-
factured into candles and fine soaps.
Castor Oil. — Is expressed from the seeds of the castor
oil plant, and is chiefly used medicinally. It is also much
used for burning in France, Italy, and some other
eountries.
Volatile oils are very distinct in their character from
OILS. 265
those that are fixed and greasy. They are usually found
in the flowers, but also in the other parts of certain vege-
tables. By boiling the substances containing them with
water, the oil is volatilized, and, passing over with the
steam, may be collected and preserved for use. By this
process of distillation, most of the volatile oils are col-
lected ; some, however, as the volatile oil of lemon peel,
are obtained by pressure. Many volatile oils are used as
flavoring ingredients, as the oil of lemon ; or as perfumes,
as those of bergamot, lavender, rosemary, &c., &c. The
most valuable volatile oil is that obtained from turpentine.
The substance known as turpentine is a soft solid, com-
posed of a mixture of resin and volatile oil, obtained by
wounding different trees of the fir tribe, when it exudes
and is collected.
The oil, or spirits of turpentine, is obtained by distil-
ling it in an ordinary copper still, when the oil distils over,
and the resin remains behind. The distilled fluid is color-
less, very limpid, and possesses a peculiar and powerful
smell. It is much lighter than water, its specific gravity
being about 875. From its volatile character, it is largely
employed in common paint, as it flies ofl* in vapor when
exposed to the air, leaving the drying linseed oil and
white lead, of which the substance of the paint is chiefly
composed.
It is very inflammable, burning with a large flame and
much smoke ; purified by a second distillation, it is known
as camphene, and was formerly much used in lamps of a
jjeculiar construction, but latterly its use has been entirely
superseded by the mineral oil known as kerosene.
12
266 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON XXVIII.
LESSON XXVIII.
SUGAR.
Natural History. — Sugar is the produce of a plaiit
called the sugar cane, which has been cultivated from very
remote times by the Chinese. It is now extensively grown
in both the East and West Indies, Brazil, the United
States, &c. The root of the sugar cane is jointed, solid,
and perennial ; sending up several smooth, jointed, un-
branched stems, whicb rise to a height of from six to
twelve feet, and which are filled with a pithy substance,
containing a very sweet juice. The leaves, which are
about three inches broad, and from three to four feet in
length, spring singly from the joints, sheathing or wrap-
ping round the stem for some distance, like the leaves of
grasses. The top of the stem is furnished with a loose
bundle of small downy flowers, of a pale lilac color, giving
to the plant an exceedingly elegant appearance ; these
blossoms are, however, rarely seen in the West Indies, as
the canes are cut down before the time of flowering.
The sugar cane is cultivatt3ii by planting the top joints
when the cane is cut, each cutting producing several stems.
The planting does not require to be renewed annually, as
fresh canes spring from the roots for some years in suc-
cession. During growth, the canes are sometimes de-
stroyed by numerous small insects that live on the juice;
they are also subject to the depredations of monkeys,
i'ats, <&c.
When the canes are ripe, which is usually in March,
SUGAR. 267
they are cut, divided into convenient lengths, and carried
to the mill, where they are crushed, and the juice ex-
pressed by passing them between large iron rollers. The
juice is immediately boiled, with the addition of a small
quantity of lime, to promote the separation of the impuri-
ties, which rise to the surface in the form of a scum, and
are skimmed off. The clear liquor is then rapidly boiled,
until it becomes sufficiently thick to form solid grains on
cooling. The sugar in this state is termed raw or moist
sugar, and is packed in casks for exportation ; these casks
are pierced with holes, through which the molasses, or un-
crystallize'd portions of the sugar drain away.
It is estimated that about one hundred canes yield five
gallons of the best juice, and that these produce about five
pounds of sugar. The fuel generally used in boiling is
the crushed cane itself, previously dried by exposure to
the sun.
Sugar is also obtained from other plants : in some por-
tions of the United States it is obtained from the sweet
maple, and in France large quantities are prepared from
b^et root.
Raw sugar is converted into loaf or lump sugar by a
process termed refining. The raw sugar is dissolved in
warm water, with the addition of a httle lime, and the
liquor filtered through thick folds of cloth ; by this means
it is freed from many impurities, and rendered transparent,
although it remains colored. The next stage is the discol-
oration of the syrup, which is effected by filtering it
through layers of animal charcoal, or bone black, formed
by heating bones to redness, in close iron vessels. The
268 FIFTH STEP. LESSON XXVIII.
colorless syrup is pumped into covered boilers, or, as they
are called, vacuum pans ; here it is heated by steam pipes,
and the air and vapor rising from it are pumped away by
an air pump, the effect of which is, that the syrup boils at
a very moderate heat, and is not discolored by burning
When sufficiently concentrated by heat, the syrup is placed
in moulds, where it forms, on cooling, a solid mass of gran-
ular sugar ; this is purified by pouring a small quantity of
clear syrup on the top, which, flowing through, carries with
it any portions of sugar that have not crystallized. The
substance known as treacle consists of the uncrystallizable
portions of sugar which are left in the diffvirenf* processes
of manufacture.
Loaf sugar is a granular white solid, formed of a num-
ber of small, hard, transparent crystals, slightly adhering
together. When pure, it is free from smell, and has a
sweet taste. It is soluble in water, forming a syrup of
greater or less degree of thickness, according to the quan-
tity of sugar dissolved. Weak solutions of sugar, espe-
cially if any other vegetable substances are present, are
apt to ferment, when the sugar is converted into spirit.
The spirit of fermented liquors, it may be observed, in all
cases, depends on the quantity of sugar contained in the
substances of which they are formed.
Loaf sugar is readily melted by a moderate heat, be-
coming reddish brown ; if the heat is increased, a dark
brown, soluble, slightly bitter substance is produced, much
used for coloring soups, spirits, &c., under the name of
caramel, or browning. Refined sugar furnishes a good
example of a phosphorescent substance, two pieces rubbed
COFFEE. 269
against each other in the dark giving out a beaatifal pale
light.
Uses. — Sugar forms an exceedingly wholesome article
of food. It is remarked that during the harvest time the
negroes engaged in the work, and even the horses and
cattle feeding on the refuse become in good condition,
although their labor is at that period much increased. It
is the basis of all our confectionery, and an important ele-
ment in many table delicacies. It is also much used in
preserving fruits, meats (particularly hams), and fish.
The quantity of raw sugar imported into England is
above 9,000,000 cwt. yearly ; about 300,000 cwt. of refined
sugar is also imported. This amount shows a consumption
of upward of thirty pounds per head to each person in
Great Britain annually, a consumption greater than that
of any country in the world, except the United States. In
France the annual consumption is only four pounds per
head ; in Russia and Germany still less.
LESSON XXIX.
' COFFEE.
Coffee is the seed of a plant growing principally in
Arabia and the West Indies; it reaches the height of 16
or 18 feet; the flower resembles jessamine, and the leaves
are evergreen ; the fruit when ripe is like the cherry ; it
contains two cells, and each cell has a single hemispherical
seed. "When ripe, it is either gathered by the hand, or
shaken from the trees, and placed on mats for the sun to
dry the pulpy substance which surrounds the seed. The
270 FIFTH STEP. LESSON XXX.
husk is broken by heavy rollers, and afterward removed
by winnowing. In order to prepare the coffee for a bever-
age, it must be roasted till it becomes of a dark brown
color, and extremely odorous ; after which it is ground,
and either infused or boiled in water. It is remarkable
for its very stimulating property, and is used not only as
a beverage, but as a medicine. Its discovery is said to
have been occasioned by the following circumstance.
Some goats, who browsed upon this plant, were observed
by the goat herd to be exceedingly wakeful, and often to
caper about in the night ; the prior of a neighboring mon-
astery, wishing to keep his monks awake at their m^atins,
tried if the cofiee would produce the same effect upon
them as it was observed to do upon the goats ; the success
of his experiment led to the appreciation of its value.
LESSON XXX.
TEA.
Natural History^ <&c. — Tea is the produce of a small
evergreen shrub, a native of China, Japan, and some parts
of India. The leaves are lancirshaped, toothed like a saw,
or serrated at the edges, of a bright deep-green color when
fresh, their length varying from two to five inches. The
flowers, which are white, with numerous yellow stamens,
closely resemble those of the camellia japonica — a plant to
which the tea shrub itself has a very considerable resem-
blance. Each flower is succeeded by dry fruit, containing
three seeds.
The first crop of tea is not collected until the plants,
TEA. 271
which are raised from seeds, are three years old ; after this
age the leaves are gathered several times during the
course of the year, the young ones alone being plucked ;
as soon as collected they are put into shallow baskets,
partly dried by the sun and air, and afterward over a char-
coal stove ; during the process they are rubbed between
the hands, so as to roll them up, and are constantly stirred,
to prevent scorching.
There are two kinds of tea imported into this country
— black and green. The black tea is prepared by placing
the leaves in a heap after they are gathered, which pro-
duces a slight degree of heat, sufficient to darken the
leaves ; whereas the green tea is dried and rolled imme-
diately after having been gathered. The inferior kinds
are prepared by coloring the leaves with Prussian blue.
The Chinese tea-makers employed by the East India Com-
pany in Assam make both green and black tea indiscrimi-
nately from the same trees.
The transportation of tea from the tea districts to the
shipping ports, is much of it performed by men, who carry
the chests, slung one at each end of a bamboo, which rests
across the shoulder.
The consumption of tea in Great Britain is about 65
millions of pounds annually, being about two pounds for
each person ; in the United States the quantity consumed
is at the rate of about one pound for each person an-
nually; on the continent of Europe coffee is employed
to a much greater extent than tea ; and in the German
States the annual consumption is only half an ounce per
head annually.
272 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON XXXI.
Uses. — The mode in which tea is used as a beverage
requires no explanation. Its precise action on the system
is not thoroughly understood ; it is slightly astringent, and
contains a volatile oil, which has a peculiar effect on the
nervous system, occasioning, when taken in large quanti-
ties, watchfulness and sleeplessness; on the other hand,
when taken in moderation, it has a soothing effect on
the circulation ; tea also contains a peculiar substance,
termed theiriy which is supposed to assist considerably in
the nutrition of the system.
LESSON XXXI.
HOPS.
Natural History. — The plant producing hops is found
wild in the Eastern States, on the banks of the Mississippi
and Missouri, and in the temperate parts of Europe. It is
cultivated extensively in New England, New York, and
Ohio. The English have carried its cultivation to great
perfection ; in the county of Kent alone from 25,000 to
30,000 acres are occupied by hop plantations. It has a
perennial root, and a coarse, harsh, twining, annual stem,
which grows to a great length, bearing large, opposite,
heart-shaped, or lobed leaves, toothed like a saw at the
margin, and extremely rough. The barren flowers are
small, greenish, and very numerous. The fertile flowers
grow on distinct plants, and consist of green scales, ar-
ranged in cone-shaped heads, each scale enclosing a small
seed vessel with a single seed, and several grains of a
yellow powder, in which the bitter flavor of the hop
chiefly resides.
SAGO. 273
In the hop grounds poles are placed for the plants to
twine around ; these are taken down and laid across lai-ge
baskets or boxes, when the hops are picked. The fertile
flowers only are valuable, and the plants bearing the bar-
ren ones are seldom allowed to grow. After being picked,
the hops are dried in kilns, termed oast houses, and packed
in large bags for the convenience of carriage. This pack-
ing is frequently done by machinery, and the parcels are
made so compact that they may be cut into blocks with
a knife, and kept for years in a dry situation. The
expense of cultivation is very great, and the crop is ex-
ceedingly uncertain both in quality and quantity, the latter
varying from two to twenty hundred-weight an acre; from
ien to fourteen is regarded a favorable return ; warm sea-
sons, with little rain, are most productive.
Uses. — Hops possess a pecuhar, bitter taste, and a
strong odor ; they are valuable from their strengthening
properties, and are also cultivated for their use in making
beer and yeast, to which they impart their aromatic fl.avor,
enabling them also to be kept a considerable time without
turning sour. They are used in medicine, both in decoc-
tions and in poultices. The fibres of the vine are strong
and flexible, and are sometimes woven into coarse cloth,
which serves for sacks in which to carry the hops to
market.
LESSON XXXII.
SAGO.
Sago is the pith of the sago palm, a tree indigenous to
Japan, and the dry rocky mountains of Malabar.
12*
2Y4 FIFTH STEP. ^LESSON XXXII.
It is hardly possible to imagine a plant more graceful
in its foliage, or more beautiful when in fruit, than this
species of palm. Tlie foliation, which slightly resembles
that of the fern, is placed on the stem in the manner of
the feathei*s of a shuttlecock, forming a gigantic basket of
the most graceful appearance ; at the bottom of this is the
salmon-colored flower, resembling, both in shape and tex-
ture, the blossom of the cockscomb, but of a pale buff
color, inclining to brown. The fruit is a drupe, that is, a
nut surrounded by a pulpy substance, as a plum. The
growth of this plant at first is slow ; it appears for some
time a shrub thickly set with prickles ; as it increases in
height, it loses its thorns. When the tree has reached its
maturity, a whitish powder transpires through the pores
of the leaves, and adheres to their extremities. On this
intimation of the trees being filled with pith, the Malays
cut tliem down near their roots, and divide them into sev-
eral sections, which are split into quarters The bark is
woody, and about an inch in thickness ; in the centre of
the stem is a fat or gummy pith, which forms the sago.
Tliis pithy substance, being scooped out, is diluted in pure
water, and strained through a'~bag ot fine cloth, which
separates the glutinous from the farinaceous matter. This
latter having lost part of its moisture by evaporation, is
passed through sieves, by which process it become granu-
lated, and being received into earthen vessels, it dries and
hardens into little globules. Sago is extremely nutritious
and wholesome, and forms an excellent light diet for
invalids.
V STARCH. 2 75
LESSON xxxm.
STARCH.
History and Properties. — Starch is a vegetable pro-
duct, formed in very large quantity by many plants, and
stored in various parts of their structure ; constituting a
reservoir of food to be used in the future growth of the
plant. It is found abundantly in seeds, as in wheat, rice,
chestnuts, cfec, &c. ; in stems, as in the sago palm ; in un-
derground tubers and roots, as the potato, arrowroot,
<fec., &c.
Starch is insoluble in cold water, and remains un-
changed until it is required for the growth of the plant
for whose use it was stored up ; it then alters its charac-
ter, becoming converted into sugar, which being soluble, is
available for the nourishment of the growing plant. The
results of this change are familiar in the conversion of bar-
ley into malt, and in the sweetness of a potato that has
begun to grow.
Starch is prepared in England chiefly from wheat and
rice flour ; in America, from Indian corn and potatoes ; and
in France from horse chestnuts. Its preparation on a small
scale may be shown by tying a small quantity of flour in a
piece of muslin, and working it with the fingers in a vessel
of water until all the starch has passed through, leaving
the gluten of the flour ; on allowing the water to remain
at rest, the starch so obtained settles at the bottom of the
vessel.
As thus obtained, starch is a granular powder, of a
276 riFTH STEP. — LESSON XXXIV.
brilliant white appearance, perfectly insoluble in cold wa-
ter, but soluble in boiling water, forming a thick gummy
solution, which is much used by laundresses, and in the
manufacture of many textile fabrics, for the purpose of
stiffening.
Starch may also be rendered soluble by a dry heat ; the
substance called dextrine, or British gum (which is used in
the glazed print works), is made by exposing starch in
ovens to a degree of heat rather above that of the boiling
point of water.
In addition to these uses, starch is an important in-
gredient in almost all our vegetable food, and in a nearly
pure state is used in the form of arrowroot, potato starch,
corn starch, sago, and tapioca.
Miscellaneous Substances not used as food,
LESSON XXXIV.
WAFERS.
Manufacture. — Wafers arc made from wheaten flour,
which is mixed with water so'Os to form a thin smooth
paste ; this paste is pressed by the workmen between two
thin polished iron plates, so joined together as to form,
when closed, a pair of " wafer tongs ; " the plates do not
quite touch each other, but are separated by a space as
thick as the wafers are required ; when used they are
slightly warmed and greased, filled with the flour paste,
closed, and held for a few moments over a charcoal fire ;
the heat sets the paste, and on separating the tongs, a thin
SEALING WAX. 277
sheet of polished dry brittle wafer falls out. Several of
these are piled up, and by means of a punch are cut into
small circular wafers of the size required. Made with
flour only, the wafers are Avhite, but they are frequently
colored by mixing various substances with the paste, as
lamp black, gamboge, indigo, vermilion, and red lead ;
most of these substances are poisonous, especially the last
two, and injurious eifects have in consequence often fol-
lowed their use in large numbers. Transparent wafers are
made of fine glue or isinglass, and some fancy wafers are
cut from gilt or silvered paper, gummed on the lower sur-
face, and generally embossed.
Uses. — The use of wafers for fastening papers and let-
ters depends on their becoming soft and adhesive when
moistened ; if in this state they are placed between two
pieces of paper, and the latter pressed together, the wafer
adheres to both, and when dry unites them firmly.
LESSON XXXV.
SEALING WAX.
Manufacture. — Sealing wax is prepared by melting to-
gether a resinous substance termed shellac (which is found
encrusting certain trees in the East Indies), and about one
quarter of its weight of Venice turpentine, a thick clammy
substance, obtained by wounding the larch tree ; to these
Ingredients are added, for red wax, the pigment vermilion,
and, for black, lamp black; these substances are well
mixed, and rolled into cylindrical rods on a hot smooth
marble slab ; these rods are cut into sticks of the propejf
2V^ FIFTH STEP. — LESSON XXXVI.
length ; polished by exposure for a few moments to a char,
coal fire ; and marked by a stamp with the maker's name ;
oval sticks are formed by casting the wax into moulds of
the desired shape.
Inferior kinds of wax, such as that used for covering
the corks of bottles, are made from common resin and red
lead, or other coarse coloring material.
Properties and Uses. — Sealing wax is a hard, easily
fusible substance, capable of catching fire when placed in
the flame of a candle, and of burning steadily ; the heat
given out by the blazing portion melts another part, which
falls down in drops in a fused and adhesive state, capable
of adhering very firmly to paper, or any other porous sub-
«tances ; it will not, however, unite to the polished face of
a metal or stone seal. In its melted state, sealing wax is
sufficiently j^lastic to receive any impression stamped upon
it ; this it retains as it becomes solid. It is therefore much
used by seal engravers in obtaining fine proof impressions.
The ordinary resins do not answer for sealing wax, be-
cause they are so fusible as to melt in the flame before
they are sufficiently heated to take fire. ^
LESSON XXXVI.
PAPER.
Paper is made from a great variety of materials, as
linen, cotton, worn out India bagging, wood, bark, straw,'
hay, and thistles, according to the kind required. The
Chinese are supposed to have been the first manufacturers
of linen paper. It was not, however, till the 13th or 14th
PAPER. 279
century that the art became known to European nations.
It is made of linen rags, first carefully picked and sorted
according to their quality; they are then reduced to a
pulp by a machine which consists of a solid cylindrical
piece of wood, into which are fastened plates of steel
ground very sharp ; this is fixed in a trough, into which
the rags are put with a sufl^icient quantity of water. At
the bottom of the trough is a plate with steel bars, also
ground sharp. The engine being turned round with con-
siderable velocity, and the rags passing through the two
sets of iron plates, are torn to pieces, and in the course of
four hours are reduced to a pulp. The motion of the en-
gine causes the water in the trough to circulate, and by
that means constantly returns the stufi" to the engine. The
trough is fed with clear water at one end, while the dirty
water is carried off at the other through a hole defended
with wire grating to prevent the escape of the pulp. From
this, which is called the washing engine^ the pulp passes in
a state of purity and whiteness to another engine, similarly
constructed, and called the heating engine. The only dif-
ference between this operation and the former is, that the
velocity is increased, and that it is no longer necessary
to introduce fresh water, the pulp having been already
cleansed from its impurities. From hence it passes into
a large vat connected with boilers, and the heat they
produce gives the pulp a degree of consistency ; it is
afterward conveyed into smaller vessels, in each of which
is a wheel called an agitator, which prevents it from sink-
ing to the bottom. Into these vessels a workman dips a
ciould» a kind of sieve, the size of the paper to be made.
200 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON XXXVL
and about an inch deep; the bottom is formed of fine
brass wires, through which the superfluous water passes.
The skill of the workman consists in taking up just so
much pulp as is necessary to form the paper of a proper
thickness. Another workman is stationed to receive from
the first the mould, out of which he turns the sheet upon
a felt or woollen clotli ; another woollen cloth is placed
upon it, ready to receive the next sheet. Thus th(cjy pro-
ceed, placing alternately paper and felt, till they have made
six quires of paper. This is then wheeled to the press,
where great force is applied, and the water is squeezed
from it. After this the paper is separated from the felt ;
one sheet is laid upon another, and it undergoes a second
pressure. This operation is repeated five or six times,
and the sheets are separated from one another between
each appUcation of the screw-press. They are afterward
hung up to dry in rooms where there is a current of fresh
air. In this state the paper is absorbent, like blotting pa-
per ; to fit it for writing it is sized. Size is made of vel-
lum * shavings, boiled in water, with sulphate of zinc and
alum finely pounded. After the papci' is sized, it is again
pressed four or five times, and h«ng up to dry as before.
It is then told into quires, and sent to the stationer^ who
prepares it for sale.
The most ancient kind of paper w\'is made from the
papyrus, a species of reed growing on the banks of the
Nile, from whence our name joaper. Leaves also were em-
ployed at a very early period for the purpose of preserving
and transmitting the opinions and experience of mankind ;
• Vellum is the prepared skin of young calves.
NUTGALLS. 283
hence originated the word folio (folium being the Latin
for leaf), and also the meaning of leaf as applied to a book.
The use of bark succeeded that of leaves, generally the inner
bark of the lime tree ; it was called by the Romans liher^
and they gave the name of liher to a book, and we have
adopted the'' term library for a collection of books. For
the convenience of carrying, this substance was rolled up,
and in this form was denominated volnmen^ from which is
clearly derived oar volume. Our Saxon ancestors em-
ployed the bark of the beech, and called it 5oc, a name
which we have transferred to our booh. It is probable
that the skins of animals were the first substances upon
which characters were written.
LESSOX XXXVII.
NUTGALLS.
Natural Illstory . — Kutgalls are obtained from a small,
shrubby oak, that grows abundantly in all the countries of
Asia Minor. The plant seldom attains a greater height
than six feet. It bears leaves, flowers, and acorns, which
do not differ in any very great degree from those of our
native oaks. The nutgalls are caused by a small fly, which
pierces the bark of the young shoots to deposit its ^^^^ ;
around this a swelling takes place, forming the gall ; when
the ^i^^ is hatched, the grub feeds on the substance of the
gall that surrounds it ; after a time it is changed into a
perfect insect, and, by gnawing a hole through the side of
the nutgall, makes its escape.
Nutgalls are gathered by hand. They are most valu
282 FIFTH STEP. LESSON XXXVH.
able when arrived at their full size, and before they are
pierced by the fly ; in this state they are termed bine galls ;
as obtained in commerce, they are nearly spherical, vary-
ing in size from a large pea to a large nut ; the best are of
a deep olive color, and are covered with tubercular projec-
tions, heavy, brittle, with an almost flinty fracture ; when
broken, they exhibit the remains of the grub, and not un-
frequently the perfect insect is found enclosed. Those
from which the insects have escaped are lighter in color,
not so heavy, and, as before observed, of less value. They
are known in commerce as white galls.
Properties and Uses. — Nutgalls are inodorous, and of
an extremely nauseous, astringent, bitter taste. They are
much used in the manufacture of writing ink, as they
produce a black color when mixed with preparations of
iron ; they are also largely employed in dyeing silk, cloth,
and other substances, of a black color ; occasionally they
are used in medicine.
INSECTS. 283
THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.
INSECTS.
General Ohservatioiis on Insects.
The animals which belong to this large and important
class receive their name from the Latin word insectus^ cut
into / as they have in general the appearance of being cut
into three parts — the head, the chest, and the abdomen.
They are also distinguished by passing through a very re-
markable series of changes before they arrive at their per-
fect state. The bodies of insects, in every stage, are
destitute of any internal framework of bones, being sup-
ported by the skin, which is frequently sufficiently firm to
be capable of giving a fixed shape to the body, and of
forming the joints to the limbs.
In their perfect or mature state the head is covered
with several distinct pieces of horny skin, and usually fur-
nished with two movable organs, termed from their use
feelers; below these is the mouth, which opens perpen-
dicularly. The eyes of insects generally are compound^
each eye, though apparently single, consisting of a large
number of eyes united together ; in some species, however,
the eyes are simple, and few in number.
The chest supports the wings, which are either two in
number, as in the house fly ; or four, as in the butterfly.
In some classes the upper wings are not used for flight,
but form a horny covering for the protection of the two
284 FIFTH STEP. THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.
lower wings, which are thin and delicate ; this occurs in
the lady bird, the cockchafer, &c. The difference in the
construction of the wings is very considerable, and fur-
nishes the means whereby this large class of animals (of
which naturalists have reckoned more than 100,000 dis-
tinct kinds) can be arranged into several smaller divisions
or orders ; to the chest also are attached the legs, which in
all true insects are six in number. Insects do not breathe
through their mouths, or by means of lungs, but the air
passes through pores in their sides, and is then conveyed
by very small tubes over the whole body.
The changes through which insects pass are very singu-
lar ; they are hatched from eggs, which are usually laid in
great numbers, and deposited with remarkable instinct ia
the immediate neighborhood of such food as will be suit-
able to the young. From these eggs proceed larvce, or, as
they are more commonly called, grubs, maggots, or cater-
pillars, which are at birth very small in size ; they, how^
ever, usually grow with great rapidity, eating voraciously;
a silkworm, for example, attains in thirty days many thou-
sand times its original weight.
During their continuance .in this state, their rapid
growth renders it necessary that the skin should be seve-
ral times cast off, to permit the great increase of size that
takes place.
Arrived at its full size, the larva changes into a pttpa^
or chrysalis, in which state it is enclosed in a horny skin, is
destitute of limbs, and without the power of moving.
After remaining in this state for some time, the animal
bursts its enclosure and appears as the perfect insect ; in
BEESWAX. 285
this stage its life is usually short ; it lays eggs for the pro-
duction of another generation, and dies. In some insects
the whole of the stages described are not passed through,
or are not distinctly marked. This is the case with the
common cockroach, or house beetle, and many others.
Though individually of small size and comparative in-
significance, yet insects, from their vast numbers and great
voracity, are of the utmost importance in the economy of
nature. In numerous cases they act as natural scavengers,
removing with great rapidity all kinds of decaying animal
and vegetable matters ; and many are useful directly to
man, furnishing him with food, medicine, dyes, &c.
INSECTS, a:n'd substa:n'ces derived from them,
LESSON XXXVIII.
BEESWAX.
Preparation and Uses. — Beeswax, the formation of
which has been already described, is prepared for use by
melting the comb in boiling water, the honey having been
previously extracted ; in this state it is yellow, and has a
peculiar smell. Yellow wax is freed from impurities by
melting, when the heavier particles sink to the bottom, and
the lighter rise to the top, and are removed by skimming.
When purified, it is used for making ointments, cements,
&c. ; it melts quickly under the heat of boiling water, and
becomes soft at the temperature of the human body.
When warm, it is sufficiently soft to take the impression
of any object, which it retains when cold and hard ; for
286 FIFTH STEP. ^LESSON XXXVni.
this purpose wax is much used by dentists, &c. Beeswax
is whitened by the process of bleaching ; it is first formed
into thin ribands or shavings, which are laid upon canvas
in a bleaching ground, where, by the action of the sun,
they become colorless, and are cast into small flat cakes.
In this state wax is used for making artificial flowers and
fruit, for waxing sewing thread, and for making candles.
The manufacture of wax candles differs from the mode
adopted in making any other kind. Common candles are
made by repeatedly dipping the wicks into the melted tal-
low until they are of sutiicient size for use ; and the name
of dips is given tliem fiom the manner in which- they are
made. The candles called moulds are made by pouring
the melted tallow into pewter moulds in which the wick
has been previously stretched. If wax were to be treated
in this way, it would not come out readily from the mould ;
therefore, in forming candles of this substance, the wicks
are hung on a hoop suspended over a pan of melted wax;
the workman pours over each wick a quantity of wax,
which adheres to it ; but as the candle would be larger at
the bottom from the running down of the melted wax, the
wick is unhooked and hung up again bottom upward,
when wax is again poured over it, and it becomes ^>f a
more uniform shape. It is then taken from the hoop, laid
on a moist slab, and rolled with a smooth board until it is
of the proper shape ; the required length is given it by
cutting off" the rough end.
GKASSHOPPEB. 287
LESSON XXXIX.
GRASSHOPPER.
Natural History. — Grasshoppers are well known in-
sects, remarkable for possessing in an almost equal degree
the powers of flying and leaping. The body is thin, long,
and flattened at the sides ; the legs are six in number, the
hinder ones being much larger than the others, and longer
than the body. Each hind leg consists of three distinct
parts — the ihigh, the shank, and the foot ; these legs are
not used in walking, but are only employed in leaping.
When the animal wishes to leap, it draws the feet of the
hind legs close to that part of the thigh that joins the
body, the joint uniting the thigh and shank being bent to
a very sharp angle, high above the back of the insect ;
the various joints of the leg are then suddenly and pow-
erfully straightened, and the foot forcibly striking the
ground, the animal is propelled high into the air.
The wings of the perfect insect are thin and membra-
nous ; when at rest they are not observed, as they are
folded up in a fan-like form under narrow wing-cases.
The chirping noise made by the insect is caused by
the rubbing of the thighs of the hind legs against the
horny wing covers. The appetite of these insects is vora-
cious ; they feed entirely on vegetable substances.
The eggs of the female are deposited in the ground,
and the young hatched from them resemble the old ones
in appearance; but they are not furnished with either
wings or wing-covers, consequently they are unable to fly
288 FIFTH STEP. SHELLS.
or cliirp. After some time these parts grow, and the
young one is changed into the perfect insect.
SH£LLS.
General Observatiotis on Shells.
The substances known as shells are the natural cover-
ings of certain animals, which are distinguished by the
absence of any internal framework or skeleton ; by having
cold and colorless blood; by their senses baing usually
but slightly developed; and by their being soft, fleshy,
and cold to the touch ; animals of this kind ar^ termed
molluscous, from two Latin words signifying soft flesh;
some of them, as the common slug, are destitute of any
shelly covering.
The number of distinct shells which have been de-
scribed is upward of fifteen thousand.
Shells consist chiefly of chalk or carbonate of lime,
■Which is cemented into a mass by animal matter ; the in-
ner surface of each is lined by a part of the skin of the
animal, which has the power of secreting or forming the
substance of the shell ; and, as-the animal grows, is con-
stantly enlarging it, by adding new shell at the edges, or
around the mouth of the opening ; this skin has also the
power of repairing any injury that may have occurred, by-
forming new shell at the injured part.
Shells are interesting to us, not only on account of
their beauty and durability, but also from the evident in-
stances of design they afford, and from the creative wisdom
displayed in their formation ; those which are exposed to
SHELLS. 289
the dashing of the waves on the shore, or to the torrents
of rapid rivers, are often of almost impenetrable hardness,
as in the periwinkle ; others, like the common snail, not
exposed to violence, are thin and light, so that they may
be readily borne by the inhabitant ; every shell offer strik-
ing proofs of design and fitness in its adaptation to the ani-
mal's station and habits.
Shells, and their inhabitants, are of direct use to man
in numerous instances ; the animals in many cases furnish
very nutritious articles of food. Shells are often burned
for the sake of the lime they yield ; others are employed
in an unburued state as valuable manure ; and some kinds
are used as a substitute for gravel in garden and park
walks. To the natives of savage countries they are espe-
cially valuable ; the sharp edges of broken pieces being
used as substitutes for knives, and for forming arrow and
spear heads ; they are also formed into fish hooks, and used
as vessels for holding liquids. Over a large extent of
Africa a small shell, the money cowry, passes instead of
money, being taken in exchange for goods and labor in the
same manner as coins are in civilized countries ; the value,
however, of each shell is very small, a string of forty being
not worth more than from one cent to four cents. About
1,000 tons of money cowries are annually imported into
England from India, being employed by English traders in
the purchase of goods from the natives on the west coast
of Africa.
In China, a thin, semi-transparent shell is used as a sub-
stitute for glass in glazing windows in the junks, and for
lanterns.
13
290 FIFTH STEP. — SHELLS.
Vast numbers of several distinct species of foreign
shells are used in the manufacture of cameos for brooches
and other ornaments. These are formed from univalve
shells, which consist of several layers of different colors.
The engraver cuts away the outer layers, so producing the
pattern or design required. Cameos are chiefly made in
Paris, where upward of 100,000 shells are used annually.
A large proportion of the cameos made in France are sent
to England, and are mounted as brooches at Birmingham,
and then exported to America and the colonies. In 1856
there were imported into England unmounted cameos of
the declared value of 6,683/.
Shells, for the convenience of arrangement, are ar-
ranged into three groups — those formed of one piece, or
valve, are termed univalves, as the snail, whelk, &c. ; those
formed of two valves, united by a hinge, are termed bi-
valves, as the oyster, mussel, &c, ; and those formed of
several pieces are termed multivalves ; the latter, however,
are not so abundant as the first two divisions.
Univalve Shells. — A univalve shell is usually formed
of several hollow whorls, which are coiled round so as to
form the spire, the largest and last formed being termed
the bod^ whorl / the entrance into the shell is termed the
mouthy its two sides the lips ; where the spire ends is
termed the point, or top of the shell; its opposite extrem-
ity the base; many shells, as that of the whelk, have a
projection at the bottom of the mouth ; this is called a
beak ; it frequently contains a canal, into which the trunk
of the living animal is received. When an animal inhabit-
ing a univalve shell is full grow , the body whorl and
SNAIL. 291
mouth are often ranch altered in form, and frequently so
much enlarged as entirely to overspread and conceal the
spire and other parts, — this happens in the cowries, the
spotted and striped varieties of which are frequently seen
ornamenting our sitting rooms.
The animals inhabiting univalve shells are much more
complicated in their formation than those of the bivalves ;
they have a distinct head, which is generally furnished
with organs termed feelers ; they also possess the sense of
sight, and are furnished with a broad fleshy foot on which
they crawl.
LESSON XL.
SNAIL.
Natural History. — Snails, of which many distinct kinds
are found in this and other countries, are univalves, of a
conical form, with a large swelling body whorl, a smooth
surface destitute of spires or projections, and a roundish
mouth without a beak ; the shell is thin and light ; at tbe
same time it is possessed of considerable strength j the
animals are furnished with four feelers, the two upper are
the longer, and carry at their ends two eyes, which appear
like dark spots ; the means by which these feelers are pro-
truded and drawn in at the will of the animal are particu-
larly interesting; each feeler may be compared to the
linger of a glove, the inside of which has a string sewn to
the tip ; the effect of pulling the string would be to turn
in the finger of the glove, beginning at the extremity ;
precisely this contrivance exists in the feeler of the snail,
292 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON XL.
which, however, possesses what does not exist in the glove,
— a series of circular rings like fibres surrounding it at
every part, by the contraction of which, in their proper
order, the feeler is again turned out or protruded. The
eggs of the snail are large for the size of the animal ; they
are white, and resemble berries in appearance ; they are
deposited in June.
Its food consists entirely of vegetable substances ; dur-
ing winter, or the extreme drought of summer, or at any
time when their natural food is not to be obtained, they
close the mouth or opening of the shell with a thin lid of
hardened slime, and become torpid ; if put into a box they
will fix themselves to the sides and remain in a dormant
state for years, reviving, however, immediately if moist-
ened. By this beneficent contrivance these animals are
not only enabled to abstain from food during winter, but
when extreme dryness in summer has parched up the
vegetables on which they live, they have the power of be-
coming dormant, whilst the same refreshing shower that
restores the green herbage, calls back to life those animals
whose food it forms.
Various kinds of snails ha\^been used as food ; a large
species, with a shell of a whitish color, with brown bands,
was eaten by the Romans, and is now used for food in
many parts of Europe. The common garden snail has
been used sometimes in soup prepared for consumptives.
Snails form the favorite food of many birds, especially
those of the thrush kind, and they are also eaten by other
animals.
LIMPET. 293
LESSON XLI.
LIMPET.
Natural History, — ^The shell of the limpet is remark-
able for its form, being conical without and concave with-
in, and destitute of the spirally twisted whorls that are
usually found in univalve shells. The animal is furnished
with a pair of feelers, with eyes, and a hard, firm mouth,
having a long tongue covered with minute hooks for rasp-
ing down the sea-weeds on which it feeds ; it has a broad
fleshy foot, with which it fixes itself immovably to rocks
and stones when left uncovered by the tide ; this it effects
by drawing up the foot in such a manner as to form a vac-
uum in the interior, when the weight of the air and water
firmly presses down the shell, on the same principle that
one may attach a key to his tongue. This simple contri-
vance, and the conical form of the shell, enable it to with-
stand the violence of the waves that dash against the
rocks; and thus this little animal from within its stony
castle bids defiance to the storm, and magnifies the good-
ness of Him who made it.
In Scotland the limpet is frequently used for food, and
the liquid obtained by boiling it is, when mixed with oat-
meal, much esteemed.
LESSON^ XLII.
PERIWINKLE.
Natural History. — ^The shell of the periwinkle, al-
294 FIFTH STEP. ^LESSON XTJII.
though apparently resembling that of the snail, differs in
several important particulars, as might be expected from
the fact that one animal inhabits the land, while the other
is exposed to the violence of the waves on the sea-shore ;
the shell of the snail is thin, light, and delicate ; that of
the periwinkle exceedingly thick and of uncommon
strength, so that it will frequently support the weight of
a person standing on it without bemg crushed ; in form
the shell is more pointed than that of the common garden
snail, — it consists of five or six rounded w^horls, the body
whorl being larger than all the others; attached to the
animal is a horny lid, with which it is able to. close the
opening of the shell when it retreats within it. The ani-
baals inhabiting these shells differ also very considerably,
— one breathing air by means of lungs, while the respira-
tion of the other resembles that carried on by the gills of
a fish.
The periwinkle is very extensively used for food by the
poorer classes of London, being eaten after having been
boiled ; it is collected in enormous quantities from the
rocks and stones, when they are left bare by the ebbing
of tha tide. . ,j*
LESSON XLIIL
WHELK.
Natural History. — The shell of this animal is formed
of seven or eight rounded whorls marked with raised
stripes, and is of a dingy white or brownish color ; tho
mouth of the shell is oval, with a short beak and a canal at
WHELK. 295
the base ; the spire is much more elongated than in the
snail or periwinkle.
The animal is not a vegetable feeder, but subsists on
the inhabitants of other shells, especially on muscles ; it is
enabled to obtain its food by means of a short trunk or
proboscis, furnished at the extremity with a number of
very small teeth, — with these it bores through the shells
of its prey, and extracts the softer parts. The destructive
powers of a kind of whelk proved very annoying to the
builders and light-house keepers of the Bell Rock light-
house, on the coast of Scotland ; they had obtained a num-
ber of a large kind of muscle, and endeavored to plant a
colony of them on the rock, for use as food and for bait ;
the muscles were soon observed to open their shells and
die in great numbers ; and it was ascertained that the rock
whelk, with its proboscis, bored small holes in the shells,
and sucked out the finer parts of the body of the muscle,
which, of course, perished; it was remarked that the whelk
always bored the thinnest part of the muscle shell, and
that the hole was beautifully smooth and circular. As the
muscles were of great importance to the men, they endeav-
ored to destroy their enemies ; but these were so numer-
ous that all their efforts were in vain, and in three years
the muscles were all extirpated.
Whelks furnish but indifferent food for man, as they
are hard and indigestible; they are, however, liked by
some persons, and are constantly sold in the streets of
London and other places ; by fishermen they are largely
employed as bait.
296 FIFTH STEP. — ^LESSON XLIV.
LESSON XLIV.
SHELLS OF TWO PIECES, OR BIVALVKi
The two pieces, or valves, of which these shells ar<
formed, are united, at the part called the hinge, by an
elastic ligament, which keeps the shell open ; but the ani-
mal, by means of one or more strong muscles, or white
fibrous contractile bands, which are attached inside the
valves, and pass from one to the other, can close them at
pleasure. At the hinge are often small prominences;
these are called teeth, and the points of the valves over
the hinge are called beaks.
The animals inhabiting these shells differ much from
those of the univalves ; they have no distinct head, and
consequently do not possess either eyes or feelers ; their
mouth is merely a small aperture, destitute of teeth ; they
breathe by means of gills ; these gills in the oyster are the
parts familiarly known as the beard, — when examined by a
microscope, they are found to be covered with minute
bodies called cilia, in shape like hairs, which, by their
constant motion, cause currents in the water that carry
food to the mouth of the animal.
Some of these animals are furnished with feet, by
which they crawl ; others, like the muscle, anchor them-
selves by a cable of small fibres, while a third set, as the
oyster, cement themselves to rocks, and are incapable of
moving from place to place.
MUSCLK. 297
LESSON XLV.
MUSCLE.
Katural History. — The shell of the muscle consists of
two valves of equal size, and similar oval shape, pointed at
the beaks ; their color is brown externally, but when freed
from the outer layer, and polished, of a beautiful deep blue,
the inside pearly white, but bluish towards the edges. The
animals have the power of moving from place to place by
means of a tongue-shaped foot, which they push out of the
shell to some distance, and withdraw again ; when they
wish to move, they place the shell erect on its edge, and
stretch out the foot, — this, being sticky, adheres to the
ground, and, when shortened, pulls the shell forward ; in
this way the muscle moves along until it finds a convenient
place of residence, when it forms a bundle of fine silky
threads, one end of which it fastens to the rock, while the
other is attached to the animal ; thus it remains securely
anchored.
Muscles are found on the coast of England in immense
numbers, in beds which are uncovered at low water ; wo-
men and children tear them away with iron hooks from the
rocks and stones to which they are attached, and sell them
as they are thus collected ; but in France they are fattened
as oysters are in this country.
The muscle is largely used for food, being eaten either
plainly boiled or pickled ; it is a rich, and, when in season,
not an unwholesome food ; in the summer, however, it is
apt to disagree with many persons ; this was long thought
13*
298 I'nn'H step. — i.ksson xt.vi.
to be owing to a small crab, which is often founcJ in the
shell with the muscle, but there seems no good reason for
this supposition ; the muscle is much used by fishermen as
a bait for cod, haddock, &g. The shells are also much
employed for holding the gold paint used by artists.
LESSON XLVI.
MOTHER- OF-PKARL.
Description. -Mother-of-pearl is the hard, semi-trans-
parent, brilliarxt, iridescent substance which forms the in-
ternal layer of several kinds of shells ; the interior of the
common oyiter shell is of this character, but the mother-
of-pearl used in the arts is much more variegated with a
play of color, and the larger shells of the tropical seas
alone have this substance of sufficient thickness to be use-
ful ; the chief supply of the mother-of-pearl oyster shell
comes from the coasts of Ceylon, the Persian Gulf, and
parts of Australia-
The play of colors in mother-of-pearl depends on its pecu-
liar structure ; it is so formed that it possesses, even when
polished, a series of fine grooves ^running over the surface;
these reflect the light in such a manner as to produce the
various hues seen on the surface; the furrows are too small
to be distinguished by the naked eye, but may be seen with
the aid of a microscope ; an impression of them may be
taken with very fine black sealing wax, which will then
possess, to a considerable extent, a similar appearance.
Uses to Man. — Immense quantities of mother-of-pearl
are used in the manufacture of small articles, such as but*
BONES. 299
tons, knife handles, salt spoons, &c., <fec., and it is much
employed in inlaying dark woods, with which its varied
surface forms a beautiful and striking contrast.
Recently, the dark varieties of the shell have come into
demand ; these were formerly regarded as valueless, and
were rejected. It is stated that whole wagon loads lie
buried under some of the streets of Birmingham, where it
was thrown as waste, while it is now worth from 15/. to
201. per ton.
Some idea may be formed of the extensive use of this
material from the fact that England imported in 1857
nearly 35,000 cwt., the estimated value being 57,819/.
Of this quantity, about one-fourth was re-exported to
Gther countries, the remainder being retained for home
consumption.
MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS.
LESSOJ^ XLYII.
BONES.
Katural History. — The bodies of all the higher classes
of animals are supported by an internal framework of
bones, termed the skeleton ; these bones, to resist without
injury the various forces to which they are exposed in the
living body, must be able to bear compression, extension,
and twisting, without either bending or breaking ; for that
purpose they are formed of two materials — one an earthy
substance, which is chiefly phosphate of lime, to give so-
lidity and hardness ; the other an animal substance, resem-
300 FIFTH STEP. LESSON XLVH.
bling glue or gelatine, to impart toughness ; if a K-ne is
slightly burnt in the fire, the gelatine is charred, and it
becomes black ; when exposed to a red heat in the open
air for a longer time, the animal matter is entirely burnt
away, and the white earthy phosphate of lime alone re-
mains ; this retains the form of the bone, but is exceed-
ingly brittle, from the destruction of the gelatine ; by
soaking a bone in diluted acid for a considerable time, the
earthy matter may be removed, leaving the gelatine in the
form of a flexible gristle. The composition of bone may
be stated generally as —
Organic matter, chiefly gelatine, . . . 40 purts.
Phosphate of lime, 50 "
Carbonate of lime (chalk), ... 8 "
Other mineral materials, . . . . 2 *'
100
The uses of the framework of bones to the animal may
be arranged under three divisions : — 1st, by their hardness
and firmness they give support and a fixed shape to the
body. 2d, they enclose and protect delicate and important
organs from external injury, — thus, the bones of the skull
protect the brain, those of the chest the heart and lungs.
3d, they give firmness to the limbs, and at the joints, where
they are connected together, admit of motion ; those parts
of the bones that rub over each other during the move-
ments of the limbs, are covered with a very smooth gristle
or cartilage, and are moistened by an unctuous fluid.
As the same quantity of material makes a stronger
column when arranged in the form of a hollow tube than
BONES. 301
as a solid cylinder, the long bones of the limbs are formed
into hollow tubes, the cavity being, in terrestrial animals,
filled with an oily fluid, which hardens, when cold, into
marrow, — and in birds, with air ; this, when heated by
the warmth of the animal, has a tendency to render it
lighter.
Uses to Man. — Bones are a very important article of
commerce. After having been boiled to extract the
grease, which is used in soap and candle making, the
larger kinds, termed shank bones, of which 2,000,000 are
used annually at SheflSeld, are employed for knife handles,
tooth and nail brushes, combs, paper knives, spoons ; the
smaller for buttons, and a variety of small articles ; the
shavino;s and sawdust formed in makins; these articles are
used either as manure or for size-making. Heated in closed
iron vessels, bones turn black ; in this state they are
termed animal charcoal, or bone black, an article much
used in clarifying sugar.
One great use of bones, is as manure, especially in
England ; for this purpose they are collected from every
part of the island, and even from the Continent, and
crushed, either coarsely, or into a fine powder ; in either
state the farmer scatters them over his land, or sows a
quantity with his seed. When acted upon by oil of vit-
riol, or sulphuric acid, they furnish a valuable manure,
known under the name of superphosphate of lime.
The earthy matter of bones contains a large portion
of phosphorus, which, when extracted by chemical pro-
cesses, is used extensively for the manufacture of matches.
About 70,000 tons of bone are annually imported into
302 FIFTH STEP. LESSON XLVm.
England ; about one third of this large quantity comes
from the cattle feeding plains of South America, and about
one fifth from Russia.
LESSON XLVIII.
FEATHERS.
Natural JTistory.—Yesiihevs are the substances that
form the clothing or natural covering of birds. The
habits and movements of these animals are so peculiar as
to require in their clothing a very unusual combination of
qualities j it must be a bad conductor of heat, so as to
prevent the escape of the natural warmth of the animal,
under all circumstances, whether in the water or in the
cold upper regions of the air, or in winter. It is neces-
sary also that it should be exceedingly light, for, if heavy,
it would render flight impracticable ; a striking example
of the extreme lightness of a bird's plumage is afforded by
the fact, that all the feathers of the common owl (a bird
very abundantly clothed) weigh only one ounce and a half;
this lightness must, nevertheless, in the feathers of the
wings, be combined with great strength, as these parts are
forcibly struck against the air, in the act of flying. The
whole covering must be flexible, to permit the varied
movements of the animal, and sufficiently smooth to offer
the least possible resistance to the rapid passage of the
bird through the air ; and, lastly, the entire covering must,
in many instances, be waterproof
On examination we shall find that these apparently
FEATHERS. 303
opposite qualities of warmth, lightness, strength, flexibility,
smoothness, and the power of resisting the entrance of
water, are combined in the covering of birds in a manner
which most strongly proclaims the wisdom and beneficence
of the Creator, who has declared that without Him " not
even a sparrow falleth to the ground." A feather consists
of three parts — a quill or barrel, a shaft, and a vane or
beard ; the quill is that part of the feather by which it is
attached to the body of the bird ; it is formed of a horny
substance, of a hard and elastic nature, remarkably strong
and light ; this lightness is given by its being formed in the
shape of a hollow cylinder, which is filled with air ; it is
hollow for the same reason that the bones are hollow, that
is, to ensure strength with the least possible w^eight. That
the quill may also possess strength in every direction, it is
formed of two sets of fibres, (though, from their being
transparent, this is not readily seen) ; one set runs in the
direction of the length of the quill ; it is this set that is
torn apart (not across) when a quill is split to make a pen ;
the other fibres are circular, and run round the former,
binding them together ; if this circular set is not scraped
off before making a pen, the slit is jagged, in consequence
of their being torn across.
The membranous substance found within the quill is
the dried remains of the blood vessels by which the feather
was nourished during its growth.
The shaft of the feather is four sided ; it is largest near
the quill, and gradually lessens in size to the end ; it is
slightly bent, to adapt it to the shape of the bird, covered
with a horny substance like that of the quill, but not so
304 FIFTH STEP. LESSON XLVIIL
thick, and filled with a light elastic substance resembling
pith.
The vane or beard of the feather is composed of a num-
ber of flat barbs or pieces, which grow from the sides of
the shaft ; these are placed with their flat sides toward
each other, their edges being turned upward and down-
ward ; this method of placing them is the strongest that
could be adopted, as it is these edges that strike the air
during flight.
In an unruffled feather the barbs or pieces of the vane
are united together, and cannet easily be parted ; it is evi-
dent, however, that they do not adhere by any adhesive
matter, or the feather would feel clammy ; if these barbs
are ruffled, they reunite when the feather is smoothed from
the quill toward the end. This reunion is effected by the
following beautiful contrivance : — Every barb has a row of
very minute hooks on each side ; those on the side nearest
the quill turn their points upward, those on the other side
downward ; these all hook in one another, and hold the
barbs together ; when the feather is ruffled by any force,
these elastic hooks are stretched apart without being bro-
ken, and so exquisitely perfect is their adaptation to each
other, that on being brought together, either by smooth-
ing the feather upward between the thumb and finger, or
by the bird preening them with its bill, they reunite ; this
exquisite contrivance enables the bird to keep the vanes of
the feathers, particularly those of the wings and tail, in the
best possible condition for resisting the air in flight. That
part of the vane nearest the quill is often formed of softer
barbs wilhout hooks ; this downy portion, when the feather
FEATHERS. 305
is in its natural situation, is next the skin of the bird, and
serves to keep the body warm. Many birds are, in addi-
tion, furnished with down growing from the skin, so as to
form a warm under clothing, the delicate and elastic fila-
ments of which are not hooked together like the barbs
of feathers, but remain separate. Down is most abun-
dant under the feathers of swimming birds, where it is re-
quisite to prevent the water from abstracting the heat of
their bodies; and it is much more abundant on the under
surface of the body than elsewhere. The down of these
birds is never wet, the close oily layer of feathers protect-
ing it from the water. Some water birds, as the goose,
pluck the down from their breasts to line their nests.
Feathers are often modified so as to suit the wants of
the particular species of bird. Thus birds of prey, as
hawks and eagles, have hard, firm feathers, extremely
strong and elastic. Owls have soft, downy feathers, so
that they fly silently at night, and surprise their prey. In
the ostrich, and other birds that do not fly, the barbs are
not joined by hooks, but are loose and flowing. Swimming
birds have their feathers close and oily, to prevent the en-
trance of water.
Uses to Man. — ^The coverings of birds are of great use
to man, and form articles of commerce, under the names
of quills, feathers, and down.
Quills are chiefly used for the manufacture of writing"
pens, and are generally obtained from wings of geese^
which, at stated times, are partially deprived of their quillf
and feathers. The quills, when pulled from the animals,
are sorted according to their size and quality ; the smallest
300 FIFTH STEP. LESSON XLIX.
are sold under the name of pinions. Before they are sold
for use, quills are sometimes stained yellow. In 1855,
nearly twenty-seven millions of foreign swan and goose
quills were imported into England, valued at about
30,000^.
Feathers are used in this country for stuffing beds, bol-
sters, and pillows, &q. The most valued are obtained from
geese, the inferior kinds from ducks, fowls, and other poul-
try. Ornamental and colored feathers, as those of the os-
trich, bird of paradise tails, the domestic cock, &c., &c.,
are much employed in personal decoration.
Down is used in two states, either removed from the
skin of the animal for stuffing pillows, quilts, and other
substances, or attached to the skin for making tippets, &c.,
in the same manner as fur.
LESSON XLIX.
GLUE.
Manufacture ana Uses. — Glue is an impure variety of
the animal substance known as gelatine. It is much used
by carpenters, and in the variojis arts, as a strong cement.
The best is obtained from the skins of animals, the small
cuttings rejected by the currier being generally employed;
an inferior kind is made from the sinews and hoofs of
horses and other animals.
These materials are first well steeped in lime water,
which assists in removing any grease ; they are then boiled
in water until all the soluble parts are dissolved ; the im-
purities that rise to the surface are skimmed off; the liquor
GLUE. 30?
/s then strained, to separate the undissolved pieces of skin,
and again boiled down until it becomes on cooling a very
firm, hard jelly. This jelly is cut into thin, flat, square
pieces, which are dried upon coarse netting. The
depressions left by the network are visible on the dried
glue.
When of a good quality, glue is of a rich brown color,
semi-transparent, and without spots or clouds in its inte-
rior ; it should be perfectly soluble in hot water, not leav-
ing any sediment. The solution of glue in water is, when
cold, a jelly-hke mass, which varies in firmness according to
the quantity of glue dissolved ; even when made very firm
it readily melts with heat, and in this state is used as a
cement, being applied while hot to the substances which it
is wished to unite ; they are pressed together, and as the
glue becomes firm on cooUng, remain cemented, although
it is not till after some days (when the glue has become
perfectly dry) that the joint is very firm.
The use of glue depends on its being readily soluble in
hot w^ater, its adhesiveness when dissolved, and upon its
becoming hard as it cools and dries. Its tenacity when
used as a cement is very great ; frequently the wood work
joined by it will break at some other place, and not at that
at which it is cemented. From its solubility in water, glue
is useless in damp situations.
To prevent the glue from being burnt in heating, it is
dissolved in a glue-pot, consisting of two vessels, one placed
within the other. The outer one, which is much the larger,
is partly filled with water, while in the inner one the glue
to be dissolved is placed. By this arrangement the glue
308 FlFl'H STEP. — LESSON L.
cannot be overheated as long as any water remains in tho
outer vessel.
The workmen using glue are chiefly joiners and cabinet
makers ; a weak solution, termed size, which is usually ob-
tained by boiling down the clippings of parchment, glove
leather, <fec., is mixed with whitewash, to prevent its being
readily rubbed off when dry.
Isinglass, so much used for making jellies, &c., &c., is 9,
purer kind of glue obtained from the air-bladders or sounds
of the sturgeon, and several kinds of fish ; a variety of glue
obtained from the skins of animals is sold under the name
of gelati7ie^ and used for the same purpose.
LESSON L.
HORN.
Description. — ^The substance known as horn is obtame ^
from many ruminating animals, as the ox, the goat, th^
sheep, and the antelope ; the term horn is often applied to
the antlers of animals of the stag or deer tribe, but erro-
neously, as they consist, not of horn, but of solid bone, are
generally branched, and are shed annually, while true horns
are permanent. The horns of the ox, &c., are of a conical
form, and generally somewhat curved ; they have a bony
core in the centre, which takes its rise from the bone of the
forehead ; this core is supplied with nerves, and also with
vessels, by which nourishment is conveyed to the horny
portion that surrounds it like a sheath.
The outside horn, like the nails of the fingers, is quite
insensible ; the tip may be cut off without giving pain ; if,
HORN. 30d
however, the bony core is injured, it bleeds freely, and the
animal suffers pain. The chief difference between horn and
bone arises from the former being destitute of earthy mat-
ter ; hence its semi-transparency.
The horns used in the arts are obtained from various
animals of the ox tribe, and are imported in large numbers
from Russia, the Cape of Good Hope, South America, &c.
Preparation and Uses, — Horns are prepared by first
soaking them in water for five or six weeks ; this loosens
the core and permits its removal ; the solid part of the
horn, near the tip, is then cut off, and used in making
knife handles, buttons, &c. ; the remainder is softened by
boiling water and exposure to heat ; in this state it is pre-
pared for use by being split up with a knife, and pressed
flat between hot iron plates. If required in thin sheets, it
is split into layers, smoothed by scraping, and afterward
polished.
When prepared for combs, the horn is pressed, and made
into the required shape by a saw and rasps. If a very
large piece of horn is required for a comb, or any other
article, two pieces are joined together by heating the edges
until they are quite soft, and keeping them pressed togeth-
er firmly until cold.
Drinking cups are formed by moulding the hollow part
of the horn (softened by heat) into a regular shape — it is
then polished. A deep groove is afterward cut or turned
near the bottom ; the cup is again softened by heat, and a
flat piece of horn, of the proper size, forced into the
groove. The horn contracts as it cools, and the joint is
perfectly water-tight.
310 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LI.
Horns were anciently used in making the musical in-
struments so called, and the name still remains ; hence we
have the bugle horn, &c., though they are now made of
brass and other materials.
The waste from buffalo and ox horns is of some value,
being either used as manure, or in the manufacture of
Prussian blue.
The hoofs of the ox consist of a material similar to that
forming the horn, and they are extensively employed for
making buttons and ladies' side combs. At one comb
manufactory near Aberdeen, in Scotland, eighty tons of
hoofs are stated to be used for the latter purpose.;
LESSON LI.
HORSE HAIR.
Description. — The horse hair used in the arts is in gen-
eral obtained from the tail and mane of horses.
The long hair of the tail is woven into a kind of
coarse cloth for sieves, also into a fabric for covering
chairs, sofas, &c. ; in the latterxjase the horse hair runs in
one direction only, and threads of flax or hemp in the
other, sufficiently firm and strong to give great strength
to the whole. The long hairs are also used to form fishing
lines, violin bows, <fec.
The shorter hair is usually curly ; it is generally sold
in commerce twisted into cords, which are afterward
picked open, and the hair used for stuffing mattresses,
chairs, sofas, <fec. To fit it for this purpose it is baked
IVORY. 311
with a gentle beat, by wbich its elasticity is much in-
creased. The short hair of the mane is also used for
stuffing horse collars, and other inferior work. Much of
the hair used in manufactures is imported from South
America.
LESSON^ LII.
IVOEY.
Natural History. — Ivory is the bard, bony substance
foi-raing the tusks of several animals, as the elephant, hip-
popotamus, walrus, and spermaceti whale. The chief and
best supply of elephant ivory comes from Africa. Large
quantities are obtained also from immense collections of
bones and tusks of extinct species of mammoths and ele-
phants, which are found in the banks of the northern riv-
ers of Siberia. Some of these tusks were ten feet long,
and weighed 186 lbs. each. The tusks found in Africa
occasionally weigh from fifty to seventy pounds, but do
not average quite twenty pounds each. At the low esti-
mate of 30^. per cwt , the total value of the ivory imported
into England, is nearly 300,000^. yearly, and above 20,000
elephants are annually slaughtered to yield this supply.
Elephant ivory is a white, translucent substance, mainly
composed of the same materials as bone, possessing a very
fine, close texture, in which may be observed a diamond-
shaped network, caused by curved lines interlacing each
other with great regularity and beauty, and giving rise to
a pattern resembling the engine turning of a watch, ex
tremely hard, yet slightly compressible by great force, and
812 FIFTH STEP.— LESSON LIII.
elastic. Cut into thin layers it has a greater degree of
transparency than paper of the same thickness.
Uses to Man. — The semi-transparency and whiteness
of ivory, together with its fine, even surface, render it the
best known substance for the groundwork of small delicate
paintings, such as miniatures ; it is also employed by the
turner for various articles, as well on account of its beauty
and hardness, as from its being less liable to crack than
bone. The keys of pianofortes, knife handles, chess men,
surgical and mathematical instruments, and toys are made
from it. The ancients esteemed it highly as a material for ,
sculpture, and it is still used by the carver jfor small
figures and or'namental devices.
LESSON LIII.
LEATHER.
Manufacture and Uses. — Leather is a substance uni-
versally used among civilized, and very generally among
barbarous nations ; it is made from the skins of animals,
which are tanned or prepared with some substance having
the power of converting the ^rishable skin, that decays
readily when wet or moist, into a lasting and comparatively
imperishable leather. Several tanning substances are em-
ployed, according to the kind of leather required ; that for
the soles and upper leathers of shoes, for harness, and sim-
lar purposes, is tanned with the aid of oak bark. The
hides or skins, either fresh, as received from the butcher,
or salted, as they are brought from abroad, are first scraped
to remove any pieces of flesh or fat that may remain at-
l-KATHER. 313
tached to the inside, and are then soaked in a mixture of
lime and water, by which means the hair is loosened, and
can be readily scraped off. Thus cleansed from the hair
and flesh, they are again soaked for some days in an acid
liquid, made by putting barley or rye flour into water and
letting it remain till it becomes sour, or by adding a small
quantity of oil of vitriol ; this acid solution has the effect
of opening the pores of the skin, so that the tan can after-
ward penetrate more readily. The hide is then placed in
the tan-pit with oak bark and water ; first in a weak, and
afterward in a strong solution. The process of manufactu-
ring skin into leather is a very slow one ; to make strong
and well-tanned leather the hides should remain in the pits
from six to twelve, or even eighteen months ; if taken out
too soon, the middle of the skin is not well tanned. The
hides when removed are dried, and finally passed between
rollers, to give them a smooth surface and render them
firm.
By these processes the skin is much altered in its prop-
erties ; when taken from the animal it is soft and moist,
and, when dry, brittle, and liable to crack ; it is also very
perishable, and putrefies rapidly if kept wet ; these qualities
render untanned skins of little use. Leather, on the con-
trary, is flexible and sofi, whether wet or dry ; it is also, if
properly prepared, waterproof and lasting; at the same
time it is light, and sufficiently strong to withstand much
wear when made into shoes, harness, &c.
There is a mode of tanning by steam, called the " hot
process," by which the leather is produced more rapidly
and cheaply, but it is of very inferior quality.
14
314 FIPTH STEP. — LESSON LUI.
The leather required for the upper parts of boots and
shoes is prepared by the currier, who, by paring and rub-
bing, renders it thinner, more flexible, softer, and capable
of taking a polish ; at the same time he blackens it with
lampblack, and oil or tallow. The skins used for upper
leathers are calf, and the thinner skins of cows and horses ;
while the thicker skins, and those of oxen, &c., are used for
the soles. These skins are imported mostly from South
America and Calcutta.
The numerous kinds of leather, required for different
purposes, are made by slight variations in the process.
Morocco leather, for example, is prepared from goat
skins, which are mainly imported from Switzerland and
Mexico. The flesh and hair are scraped ofl" as before de-
scribed ; each skin is then sewed up in the form of a bag,
which is filled with water and a vegetable substance termed
sumach ; this substance, like the oak bark, is astringent,
and has the effect of tanning these skins in a few hours ;
they are then dyed, and rubbed with a grooved ball, in
order to give them the ribbed appearance which distin-
guishes morocco leather ; imitation, or inferior morocco, is
manufictured from sheep skins. Morocco leather is soft
and very flexible, while its grooved appearance renders it
ornamental. It is frequently used for coveiing books and
chairs, lining carriages, &c.
A very strong leather is made from seal skins, and is
used for the tops of riding and hunting boots. In Loui-
siana the manufacture of heather from alligator skins was
commenced some years since, and more recently a new
source of leather has been found in the skin of the white
LEATHER. 315
whale, which is found in the rivers emptying into Hudson's
Bay.
The leather which, from its softness and power of
stretching, is usually selected for gloves and ladies' shoes,
though called kid, is mainly prepared from the skins of
Iambs. It is tanned with alum, and, to render it as soft
and yielding as possible, eggs and flour are used during
the process.
Wash, or chamois leather, is prepared by cleansing the
skins with lime ; they are then dried ; afterward, they are
beaten with heavy hammers, while kept wet with oil ;
again hung up to dry, and again beaten with the addition
of fresh oil ; this operation is many times repeated ; lastly,
the surplus oil is removed by soaking the skin in water
containing pearlash ; it is ultimately dried, and it is then fit
for use. Being very soft, wash leather is much employed
for polishing metal articles ; and from its warmth and
softness, it is made into under waistcoats, &c. ; it does
not resist the wet, and is, therefore, unfit for outer
clothing.
Sheep skins are split by a machine so as to form a
cheap kind of leather termed skiver, which is largely used
for pocketbooks, hat linings, common bookbinding, and
similar purposes. At the present time the skins of the
larger animals are split ; the outer side being employed as
a substitute for morocco leather, and the inner for inferior
purposes.
316 FIFTH STEP. — ^LESSON UV.
LESSON LIV.
SOAP.
Manufacture, — All the various hard soaps are prepared
from different kinds of fat or oil, and the alkali, soda. It
is necessary, however, that the common soda should be
rendered much more caustic than it is in its usual state;
this is done by boiling it with fresh burnt lime, which, act-
ing chemically on the soda, greatly increases its caustic
powers. The soda thus prepared and dissolved in water
forms what is termed the lye or ley of the soap boiler.
White hard soap is manufactured in the following man-
ner : — Into an iron vessel, heated by steam, a large quan-
tity of fatty material is placed ; into this a quantity of the
ley is poured. The mixture is boiled for some time, and
fiequently stirred, during which time the tallow unites with
the soda of the ley, and forms a viscid liquid ; a strong so-
lution of salt is then added, which causes the immediate
separation of the water and the ley ; this is pumped away,
and a stronger ley being added; the operations are repeat-
ed until the whole of the grease is converted into soap.
It is now submitted to another process called " fitting,"
which consists in boiling it in weak ley or water until the
impurities settle to the bottom. The contents of the boiler
are then left to cool and settle for two or three days. In
order to harden the soap it is removed from the boiler and
poured into large pans ; when cold it becomes a solid mass,
which is cut up by wires into bars.
SOAP. 317
When scented and cast in small cakes, it is sold as
Windsor soap.
Yellow soap is made in the same way, with the addition
of a portion of resin, which gives the peculiar smell and
bitter taste by which it is distinguished, but it adds to its
solubility, and to its power of forming a lather in water.
Fancy or toilet soaps are prepared from a great variety
of materials, as palm, olive, castor, and spermaceti oils,
mutton tallow, and lard. The well known Castile soap is
made with olive oil and soda, while the Windsor soap re-
quires mutton tallow.
Soaps are colored by mixing mineral paints into the
melted mass, as vermilion for pink, ochres for the brown,
&c.
In marbling fancy soaps, the paint is mixed with olive
oil or soap, and a small portion, taken up on a palette knife,
is moved about in the melted mass.
All the various soaps are soluble in water, forming
semi-transparent solutions ; when moist or dissolved, soap
has a peculiar feeling, distinguished by the term soapy.
The great use of soap depends upon its solubility, and
upon its power of rendering grease and dirt soluble in
water, without exerting any corrosive action ; a weak so-
lution of caustic alkali would act more powerfully in
cleansing, but at the same time it would, like the wash-
ing powders in general use, destroy or materially injure
the linen and other fabrics with which it might be
brought in contact.
Soap is sometimes found as a natural product. In Cal-
ifornia a small shrub grows abundantly which is generally
318 FIFTH STEP. — ^LESSON LV. '
nsed for soap, and is even preferred to the artificial variety.
The bulbous root of this plant is dug up, stripped of its
husks, and rubbed upon the clothes in the water. Several
other plants have been found in various parts of the world
which serve the same purpose.
LESSON LV.
SPONGE.
N'atural History. — Sponges are animal substances,
which are found in marine and fresh waters in various
parts of the world. The two principal varieties' met with
in commerce are known as Turkey and West Indian, the
former coming from the Mediterranean, the latter, which
is much coarser, from the Bahamas Banks and coast of
Florida. The inhabitants of the Greek Islands, from
whence the best sponges are obtained, are trained to dive
for sponge from their childhood ; — to quicken their de-
scent they use a large heavy stone, which is attached to
the boat by a rope ; they seldom remain under water so
loner as two minutes at one time. Some of the coarser
kinds of sponge are obtained by dredging the bottom of
the ocean. Sponge is a very light, soft, compressible,
highly elastic material ; on examination with a microscope
it is found to consist almost entirely of horny elastic fibres,
which are so arranged as to form an infinite number of
small tubes that open on the outer surface of the sponge,
and communicate internally with larger tubes formed in
the same manner.
During the life of the animal these tubes are lined with
TOETOISE SHELL. 319
a soft gelatinous flesh. The animal has the power of caus-
ing strong currents of water to flow out of the larger aper-
tures, its place being supplied by what passes in through
the smaller pores ; this action is always going on, and
while the water is so passing, the requisite food is with-
drawn for the support of the animal. When removed
from the water this soft flesh drains away, the elastic
fibrous framework or sponge remaining. In some varie-
ties the fibres of the sponge are flinty in their texture ;
such are, of course, useless in an economical point of view.
Uses. — The use of sponge as a material for washing,
&c., depends on its porosity and elasticity ; the first quality
enables it to absorb water with great rapidity. This is
readily forced out by pressure, and on being removed, the
elasticity of the fibres causes the sponge to resume its
former size, the tubes being again ready to receive aL^
liquid with which they may be placed in contact.
LESSOR LYI.
TORTOISE SHELL.
Natural History. — The tortoise shell of commerce is
chiefly obtained from the back shell of two species of sea
tortoises or turtles, a native of the seas of the torrid zone,
the best being furnished by the hawksbill turtle. As in
the other animals of the order to which they belong, these
turtles are enclosed in a bony case formed underneath by
the expanded breastbone, and on the back by the flattened
vibs and spine ; on the latter bony arch grow the scales of
320 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LVI.
tortoise shell. Five large scales, or " plates," as they are
termed, are taken from the centre of each shell, and four
from each side; there are also twenty-five small ones at
the edge. These plates are thick in proportion to the size
and age of the animal, and overlap one another to a great
extent.
The scales are removed from the bony arch by heating
it over a fire ; this process loosens them, and they are
easily separated by a knife. The value of the rough shell
is very considerable, the best being worth about three
guineas a pound. It is frequently injured by barnacles
and other shell fish, which fix themselves to the turtle
while alive.
3Iam(facture and Uses. — Tortoise shell is manufactured
in a similar manner to horn, a substance which it closely
resembles. It is first softened by boiling in salt and wa-
ter, and then pressed flat until cold ; it is rendered smooth
and of uniform thickness by scraping and filing ; and if
larger pieces are required than can be obtained from sin-
gle plates, two or more are united together. The pieces
to be joined are sloped oflT to the distance of about a quar-
ter of an inch from the edge. TJie margins are so placed
as to overlap one another, and, after being pressed togeth-
er by an iron clamp, the whole is placed for some time in
boiling water ; by this means the two pieces become so
perfectly united that the joint cannot be seen. The filings
and powder of the various processes are not lost ; they are
collected and placed in metal moulds, and by warmth and
pressure are formed into any shape that may be desired.
As heat darkens the tortoise shell, and greatly lessens its
WHALEBONE. 521
beauty, it is usually cut into the required patterns by drills
and saws, and not moulded like horn.
In making combs, in order to economize the shell, two
are often formed out of one piece ; the teeth of one being
cut out of the spaces between those of the other. Besides
its use for combs, boxes, &c., tortoise shell is used for in-
laying and ornamenting tables, cabinets, &g. : for this pur-
pose it is cut into thin sheets, and a bright metal is placed
beneath, which, shining through the semi-transparent shelly
gives the article a very ornamental appearance.
LESSON LYII.
WHALEBONE.
Natural History. — The substance termed whalebone is
not, as its name might seem to imply, obtained from the
bones of the animal, but it forms a substitute for teeth in
the Greenland whale, and some other species that nearly
resemble it.
The plates, or blades of ^vhalebone, which are usually
about three hundred in number in each side, are arranged
along the sides of the upper jaw, occupying the usual situ-
tion of the teeth in other animals. Each plate is flat, and
they are ranged with these flat sides parallel to each other
across the jaw. The edges are formed of coarse, loose
fibres, and are turned toward the inside of the mouth, so
that the whole together form a sort of strainer, the lower
part of which is received into the hollow of the large and
spoon-shaped lower jaw.
This apparatus is the only means which the whale pos-
14*
322 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LVII.
sesses of securing its food; for although this creature
attains the immense length of from fifty-five to sixty-five
feet, and a girth of thirty or forty feet, with a weight
equalling that of two hundred oxen, it feeds entirely on
the small pulpy animals that float in countless multitudes
in the water of the Arctic seas. In order to secure these,
it swims with considerable rapidity, its mouth being open ;
the water rushes in at the fore part, where there are no
plates of whalebone, and passes out at the sides, after
having been strained through the fringe or filter of
whalebone, which allows the water to escape, but retains
the food.
The length of the blades varies considerably with the
size of the animals, and the part of the jaw from which
they are taken; the longest are usually about ten or
eleven feet, and the quantity obtained from a full-sized
whale is about one ton.
The surfaces of the blades are formed of a firm, com-
pact, fibrous substance, which can be readily split in the
direction of its length ; this substance is tough, strong,
very elastic, and capable of receiving a high polish ; the
color varies from black to a dasky gray or white. Be-
tween the two surfaces or sides of these blades there is a
layer of coarse, fibrous material, and, as before stated, the
inside edge and lower end of each blade form a coarse,
fibrous fringe.
Uses. — WhaleboTiC is prepared by boiling it for some
hours in water ; thio r^riders it soft, and more readily cut ;
on cooling, it becomes harder and darker than before. Its
u«ea greatly depend on its extreme elasticity ; split into
CORAL. 323
fibres, it is employed in the place of bristles for making
coarse brooms and brushes ; it is also used in large quanti-
ties for the stretchers of umbrellas and parasols ; the whiter
pieces, cut into thin strips, are sometimes platted into bon-
nets, and, after having been dyed, into artificial flowers ; it
is also employed for stays, brushes, whip handles, canes,
and the manufacture of hair cloth. The waste shavings
are employed as a stuffing material for upholsterers, the
refuse going to the farmers for manure.
A large quantity of artificial whalebone is now used for
Umbrellas and parasols. It is made from the inner portion
of the common cane, which is steamed, and then impreg-
nated with a fluid containing shellac ; this renders it as
elastic as whalebone.
LESSON LYIII.
CORAL.
Corals are the secretions made by one of the lowest
class of aniinals, called polypi, inhabiting the deep ; they
sometimes assume the forms of branches of the most beau-
tiful appearance ; sometimes they resemble beads strung in
a necklace, while others present a more consolidated mass ;
but all are perforated with pores more or less minute,
which are the habitations of the little architects.
Among the various phenomena of the natural world,
there are perhaps none more calculated to excite astonish-
ment and admiration than the vast coral reefs that rise up
from the deep, and at times even constitute islands. They
are produced from a calcareous matter which exudes from
324 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LVIH.
the coral polyp, and hardening, forms at once its habita-
tion and its mausoleum. This creature is of the class of
zoophytes, the lowest grade of animal life, the link be
tween the animal and the vegetable kingdom. They work
only under water, so that the coral reefs never rise abova
the level of the sea ; and when the tide retires, the rock
appears dry, compact, rugged, and perforated ; but when
the returning waters wash its sides, a most interesting spec-
tacle of active life is presented, countless myriads of va-
rious shapes and colors protrude themselves from the ori-
fices, and the whole edifice seems teeming with life and
animation.
The coral ceases to grow in height when the polyp is
no longer exposed to the washing of the sea ; the work is
then commenced at the sides, and other parts rise in suc-
cession, till they reach the same height, and form a level
surface at the top, with steep precipitous sides. In this
manner, and by such insignificant agents, atom deposited
upon atom, the solid rock is at length produced ; upon this
the sea deposits sand, mud, and decayed seaweed ; these
prepare for mosses and lichens, which in their turn produce
a soil for more perfect vegetation ; till at last the island
thus formed becomes a fit residence for man.
As these rocks are constructed beneath the surface of
the sea, they present no beacon to warn the mariner of
their existence, and thus render navigation in those seas
in which they abound exceedingly dangerous.
WAX CANDLES. S2A
LESSON LIX.
WAX CANDLES.
Wax candles are manufactured from two kinds of wax
■ — animal and vegetable. Beeswax is a substance secreted
by bees in their bodies, and of which they construct their
cells. For the methods of obtaining the wax, see the les-
son on " Beeswax."
The insect wax of China is the product of a small
white insect, which deposits it upon the trees on which it
feeds.
Of the vegetable waxes, the Japanese, the palm wax of
New Granada, and the myrtle wax of the United States,
are the principal. Of these the myrtle or barberry wax is
used most extensively, and is becoming an important arti-
cle of commerce.
The Japanese and myrtle wax are obtained from berries,
and the palm wax from bark.
Wax candles are generally made by pouring the melted
wax over the wicks, and rolling them, during the process
and at its close, between two marble slabs, in order to give
them shape. Moulds of glass encased in gutta percha
are sometimes used.
LESSON LX.
SHELLAC.
Shellac is a substance produced by a little insect called
coccus lacca, and is deposited on the small branches of the
Indian fig tree, for the protection of its eggs. It dis'
326 FIFTH STEP. — ^LESSON LXI.
charges the gum from its own body, and forms it into
cells, in each of which is placed an egg. When the eggs
are hatched the young grub pierces through the viscid
substance which enclosed it, and flies away ; and the ma-
terial provided for a little insect's well-being becomes a
valuable article of commerce.* The lac is first sold on the
sticks, when it is called stick lac ; but after it has been
purified and formed into thin sheets or cakes, it is called
shellac. Its color varies from orange to dark reddish
brown, and has a shining lustre. Before the discovery of
the cochineal dye, shellac was much used by the dyers of
Prussia and Holland in forming their celebrated crimson
dyes. It is the principal ingredient in sealing wax and
varnish, and is employed in japanning. Its usefulness
arises from its being fusible, soluble, and adhesive.
LESSON LXI.
BUTTER.
Butter is prepared from the milk of the cow. When
milk has been allowed to stand a few hours, a thick, rich
substance, called cream^ rises t© the surface. This js
skimmed off, and by being briskly agitated, is converted
into butter. The instrument by which this operation is
performed is called a chur?i. There is another substance
* The children would be interested in recollecting many instances of
this primary and secondary uses of substances, and their attention might
be directed to a perception of the difference between man's work and that
of the lower creatures ; the latter led by instinct, the former by reason
and experience, resulting in discovery.
CHEESE. 327
found in the churn besides butter ; it is called huttermilJc^
and when fresh is considered by many a refresliing drink.
This is very carefully se]3arated from the butter by " work-
ing" it either by hand or a wooden ladle ; in dairies w^here
large quantities are made, a machine is used for pressing
the buttermilk from the butter. The butter prepared for
winter store is salted, and packed in barrels and tubs.
The place where the milk is kept is called a dairy ^ and
great care is taken to keep it free from odors of every
depcription.
LESSON LXII.
CHEESE.
Cheese is prepared from milk which is coagulated or
curdled, by mixing it with a liquor called rennet ; the curd
thus formed is a white, solid substance ; this is sepa-
rated from the whey or watery particles of the milk, and
then pressed and dried. Large and rich cheeses often re-
quire to be bound with strong linen cloth to prevent their
bursting in the drying process. Rennet is made by steep-
ing the inner membrane of a young calf's stomach in wa-
ter. This is salted, dried, and kept for some time before
using. A color is sometimes given to cheese by saffron, or
by a substance called annato^ which is the seed vessel of a
shrub growing in the West Indies. The latter ingredient
is so often adulterated with red lead, which is poisonous,
tnat its use is generally abandoned.
828; FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXin.
LESSON LXm.
FELT.
Felt is the substance of which hats are made. It is
composed of hairs; those of the rabbit are chiefly used
by hatters. The operation oi felting depends upon a pe-
cuUar construction in all hairs, which, however smooth
and even they may appear, have in reality a tiled or scaly
texture on the surface. The scales are so placed that they
yield to the finger, if drawn along the hair from the root
to the point, but present a resistance when moved in a con-
trary direction. In consequence of this peculiarity, if the
hair be seized in the middle between two fingers and
rubbed, the root will gradually recede, and the point will
approach the fingers, exhibiting a progressive motion to-
ward the root ; the imbricated surface preventing all mo-
tion in the opposite way. From this property hairs, when
beaten or pressed together, begin to move in the direction
of the root, and are disposed to catch hold and twist round
each other, and thus to cohere and form a continuous mass,
which is called felt. It is in consequence of this tendency
to felt that woollen cloths increase in density, and contract
in dimensions by being washed ; and also that they do not
ravel out when cut.
This material was formerly made by hand. By this
process a m^t) was occupied a day in making four or five
bat " bodies," as they are called before the " sizing " and
" shaping " is done. Machinery is now employed by which
three men and a boy can make four hundred in a day. The
TEXTILE OR WOVEN FABRICS. 329
rabbit's fur used in this manufacture is principally imported
from the German States of Europe.
TEXTILE OR WOVEX FABRICS, AND THEIR
MATERIALS.
Introduction. — The materials for our clothing are de-
rived both from the animal and the vegetable kingdoms ;
as, however, the processes these materials undergo in the
course of manufacture are very similar, it has been thought
desirable to describe them under one head, and to give, at
the same time, a short account of spinning and weaving.
The process of spinning consists in twisting the loose
fibres of cotton, flax, wool, or other fibrous material, into
threads fit for the use of the weaver, and is one of the
greatest antiquity ; it is alluded to by Moses in Exodus
XXXV, 25, and was not then spoken of as a new art. Origi-
nally, it was performed with a distaff and spindle, the for-
mer being a stick about a yard in length, with a knob or
enlargement near one end ; the flax or other substance to
be spun (having been previously combed so as to lay the
fibres parallel) was loosely twisted around it ; thus charged,
the distaif was held under the left arm, and some of the
fibres were pulled out by the right hand, and twisted into
a thread ; this thread was w^ound upon the spindle, a rod
of wood about a foot in length, having a notch at one end,
in which the thread could be secured ; to this spindle, a
piece of metal or stone was attached, to increase its weight
and enable the spinner to keep it twirling round as it hung
from the thread, while a fresh supply of fibres was pulled
330 FIFTH STEP. TEXTILE FABRICS.
out from the distaif ; when a sufficient length of thread was
spun to permit the spindle to reach the ground, the thread
was removed from the notch, wound on the spindle, fast-
ened by being again secured to the notch, and a new
length commenced. This process of spinning was super-
seded by the spinning wheel, in which contrivance the cot-
ton or other substance, after having been combed or carded
so as to straighten the fibres and lay them perfectly paral-
lel, is attached to a spindle that is made to revolve with
great rapidity, by a strap of leather, which also passes
around a large wheel turned by the hand or foot of the
spinner.
At the present time the spinning wheel is very rarely
seen, all the varieties of cloth being now woven from
thread spun by the aid of powerful and very comj^licated
machinery, which acts on the same principle as the spin-
ning wheel, but is far too intricate to be understood with-
out diagrams and a much longer description than falls
within the plan of the present work.
Weaving, or the art of making cloth by the interlace-
ment of threads, has also been practised from the earliest
times. It is in all probability older even than spinning, for
rushes and the fibrous stems of plants were probably woven
together into a sort of coarse matting, such as is now used
by some of the least civilized nations, long before the
twisting or spinning together of fibres to form threads
was had recourse to ; however this may be, representa-
tions of hand looms for weaving are found upon the
tombs of the ancient Egyptians, constructed on precisely
th«^ -same plan as those in use at the present day, and
COTTOJT. 331
these paintings were probably made in the times of the
patriarchs.
If we examine any piece of plain woven material, as
calico, silk, or canvas, we lind a number of parallel threads
running the whole length of the piece of cloth ; these form
the warp, and those which pass across them at right angles
in the direction of the width of the cloth, form the weft,
the threads of these pass alternately over and under those
of the warp ; in reality, there is but one thread of weft,
which is doubled back at the edge of the cloth, and re-
turns, passing over those threads it passed under before,
and under those which it previously passed over; the
arrangement of the threads being similar to that which is
produced in darning, when that operation is performed to
fill up the vacant space in a worn stocking.
The hand loom is still used occasionally, but is rapidly
giving place to larger instruments worked by steam power,
in which all the various processes in weaving are performed
by means of machinery. The larger machines are known
by the name of power looms. *
lesso:n" lxiy.
COTTON.
This extremely valuable substance, wnich is now raised
in such abundance as to furnish the cheapest and most ex-
tensively used clothing, is produced in the seed vessels of
the cotton plant, of which there are many varieties ; some
are herbaceous annual plants, growing from eighteen to
twenty-four inches high ; others, shrubs, about the size of
332 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXIV.
our currant bushes, and of from two to ten years' dura-
tion ; while a third kind attain the growth of small trees,
of an altitude of from twelve to twenty feet.
The leaves of the cotton plant are of a bright dark
green color, deeply divided into five lobes ; the flowers are
large and showy, of a bright sulphur or lemon color, and
closely resembling in appearance and botanical structure
those of the single hollyhock; each flower is succeeded
by a triangular, three-celled seed vessel, which attains th^
size of a small walnut, and, when ripe, bursts open fronj
the swelling of the cotton contained in the three cells ;
the seeds, which are rather larger than those of grapes,
are enclosed in the cotton wool, which adheres very firm-
ly to them. One variety of cotton, cultivated in China
and some parts of America, has a yellow tint ; this tint it
preserves when woven into the fabric called nankeen.
The cotton plant is largely cultivated in India, China
the United States, West Indies, on the shores of the Medl
terranean, and, in short, in almost all the warmer parts of
the world ; it flourishes readily in soils too poor for the.
growth of grain and other crops, and succeeds well iij
moderately dry seasons. It is cultivated in the Southern
States from the seed which is sown by hand in March and
April.
The cotton, when perfectly ripe, is gathered by women
and children, the seeds and wool being picked out of the
pod ; it is dried in the sun, and is then ready for tbe re-
moval of the seeds. This was formerly done by hand, but
a more rapid process is now adopted. The cotton is placed
in a box, one side of which is formed of stout paraL'el
COTTON. 333
wires, placed about one eighth of an inch apart ; by the
side of this box is a roller, carrying a number' of circular
saws, with curved teeth, which project through the wires
into the box. On the roller being made to revolve, the
teeth of the saws drag the cotton through the wires, the
seeds remaining behind ; after being thus separated, the
cotton is powerfully compressed into bags, and is ready
for transport to various manufacturing countries.
The spinnhig and weaving of cotton into calicoes and
other fabrics are now almost entirely accomplished by
means of machinery, moved either by steam or water
power. The fibres of the cotton are first separated from
each other, and cleared from dust, by means of a contriv-
ance called a willow, a machine formed of rollers, in which
iron spikes are fixed ; these are made to turn round rapidly,
and the fibres are thus separated, and then laid parallel
by the carding macihine, in which they are passed between
two brushes (or cards, as they are termed) made with iron
wire ; thus prepared, they are transferred to the machines,
which spin them into yarn, or thread, fit for the use of
the weaver. The strong and firm material known as sew-
ing cotton consists of several yarns twisted together.
In order that the cotton manufacture may be success-
fully carried on in any particular district, it is essential, first,
that it should be situated where fuel is cheap, if steam
power is used, or on rapidly descending streams, if
the machinery is driven by water power ; second, that it
should be as near as possible the country from whence
the cotton is principally brought ; third, that there should
be easy means of communication with seaports and" other
334 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXV.
parts of the country. These several conditions are ail
fulfilled in actual localities of the cotton manufacture. In
England, the Lancashire and Cheshire, and in Scotland,
the western portion of the central coal fields are its seats.
England obtains her greatest and earliest supply of cotton
from America ; and the coal fields on which the cotton is
manufactured are to tho west of Britain.
LESSON LXV.
FLAX.
The fibre of the flax plant has been employed -as a ma-
terial for clothing from very remote times ; it was in com-
mon use among the Egyptians. In Gen. xli, 42, we read
that Pharaoh arrayed Joseph in vestures of fine linen. Re-
2:)resentations of flax, and of its different stages of manu-
facture abound amongst the paintings on the Egyptian
tombs, and the various specimens of mummy cloth hitherto
examined have been formed entirely of this substance.
It is produced extensively in Russia, the United States,
and Ireland, but the best flax in the world is found in Hol-
land and Belixium. Flax is used in the manufacture of
linen sheetings, shirtings, handkerchiefs, table linens, and
some kinds of lace and edgings.
The variety of flax most commonly cultivated is an an-
nual, with slender, green, herbaceous stems, about two feet
in height, bearing small, narrow pointed leaves, destitute
of stalks, and crowned by a number of elegant blue
flowers, each of which is succeeded by a globular seed-vea*
sel, containing ten flat oblong se^s of a dark brown color.
FLAX. 335
The flax plant is cultivated as well for the sake of its
seeds, which are the well known " linseed " of commerce,
as for the valuable fibres yielded by the stem ; when the
latter are the principal objects of cultivation, the plants are
sown thickly, so as to cause the stems of the crowded
plants to run up high ; on the contrary, when the seeds are
required, the plants are sown less thickly, and allowed to
remain a longer time in the ground before they are gath-
ered. When ripe, the leaves of the plant fall off and the
stems turn yellow ; the flax is then pulled by hand, care-
fully dried in the sun, and either stacked under cover, or
deprived of its seeds at once by pulling the tops of the
stems through a coarse iron comb, fixed perpendicularly in
a block of wood ; the seed vessels, being too large to pass
through the teeth of the comb, are torn ofi*.
The seeds of the flax plant thus obtained are extremely
valuable to man ; they are known, as before observed, un-
der the name of linseed, and, when pressed, yield a very
useful oil.
The stems of the flax, freed from the seeds, undergo a
series of processes to prepare them for the use of the
weaver ; they are first steeped in shallow pools of water
until partially rotted, to cause the fibres of the bark (the
only part used in Aveaving) to separate readily from each
other ; they are then usually exposed to the action of the
sun and air by spreading them out on the grass for about a
fortnight ; the central w^oody portion of the stem, which
has been rendered brittle by steeping, is then removed by
an instrument termed a brake, the simplest form of which
consists of a long slit in a block of wood, with a wooden
336 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXVI.
sword fitting loosely into it ; a bundle of flax is laid across
the slit and forced into it by the sword ; the brittle, woody
part of the stem is broken by the bending to which it is
thus subjected. The brake in general consists of three or
more swords fitted into one handle ; these pass into a cor-
responding number of slits, and break the stem with great
rapidity ; the broken woody portions are readily separated
from the tough uninjured fibres either by beating with a
short staff, or by rubbing out with the hand.
To render the flax fit for the purposes of the spinner, it
is next hatchelled, a process necessary to lay the fibres par-
allel, and separate those which, from their shortness, are
not used. The hatchel may be compared to a brush
formed of sharply pointed needles instead of bristles ; it is
fixed on a low stand, with the points upward ; the work-
man, taking a bundle of flax in his hand, throws it on to
the hatchel, and drawing it toward himself through the
teeth, the long fibres become parallel, while the short
broken ones are retained by the instrument ; those latter
form the well known substance called tow. At the pres-
ent time these processes are very extensively performed by
machinery. '-.
After hatchelHng, the flax is fit for the use of the spin-
ner ; nearly all the flax now used in this country is spun by
machines, the spinning wheel being rarely seen.
LESSON LXVI.
HEMP.
The plant yielding the hemp of commerce is an annual,
the native country of which was probably the East, but it
HEMP. 337
is now extensively cultivated in most parts of the world ;
the stem is simple or unbranched, and rises to a height
of about five or six feet, bearing numerous leaves, each
divided into a number of narrow pointed leaflets, deeply
notched at the margin ; the whole j^lant is covered with
stift* hairs, which give it a pecuHar harshness to the
touch.
The flowers are of two hinds, barren and fertile ; these
grow on distinct plants, and are green and inconspicuous ;
the plant bearing the barren or male flowers is of quicker
growth than that which bears the female or fertile, and
rises several inches higlier ; by this means the fertilizing
powder that it produces is more readily scattered over the
fertile plants ; the flowers of the latter plants arc succeed-
ed by the small seed like fruits enclosed in the green cup
of the flower ; these are collected and sold under the name
of hemp seed ; this seed, when crushed in a press, yields a
large quantity of oil, much used in the preparation of A^ar-
nishes, and occasionally employed in the formation of some
kinds of soap.
Hemp seed, being extremely nutritious, is much sought
after by birds, and frequently given to those kept in con-
finement. The plant, when grown in tropical climates,
possesses a peculiar narcotic power, and an extract of the
leaves, when swallowed or smoked, produces intoxication ;
it is employed for this purpose by the inhabitants of some
parts of the East, to whom the use of wine is forbidden by
the Mohammedan religion.
Hemp is chiefly cultivated for the sake of its fibres,
which are very tough and flexible, and particularly adapt-
15
338 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXVI.
ed for the manufacture of coarse, strong fabrics, such a3
canvas, sail cloth, sacking, as well as for making twijie,
cordage, ropes, and cables; the quantity used for these
purposes is extremely large ; from 20,000 to 30,000 tons
are annually exported from Russia to English and Ameri-
can markets alone.
English hemp is chiefly woven into coarse sheeting, and
into the cloth called liuckaback, of which coarse towels are
made.
Ilemp is most profitably cultivated in a rich, liglit soil,
the coarseness and strength of the fibres depending on the
amount and the richness of the manure. When required
for the use of the weaver, it is, like flax, sown Broadcast ;
the stems are in consequence crowded, and rise higher ;
they are also less coarse than when the plants are sown in
drills at a greater distance apart. The full-grown plants
are pulled up by the roots, those bearing barren flowers
being first selected ; the fertile ones are left some weeks
later to ripen their seeds, which are readily rubbed out by
the hand. After the plants are gathered, the tops and
roots are cut off in the fields, to be left as manure, and the
stems, tied up in bundles, are placed in water ; this rots
the woody and useless parts, and leaves the fibres in a state
in which they can be more readily separated. This pro-
cess, which is termed rotting, renders the water poisonous,
and occasions a very offensive odor. When it is com-
pleted, the hemp is dried, and the woody portion, broken
by hatchelling, is removed, as described under the head
of flax ; after this 't is ready to be spun into yarn for
weaving.
SILK. 339
Hemp is largely used for the formation of string, cord-
age, ifec, the fibres being twisted so as to unite firmly to-
gether. This process was formerly performed by hand ;
the spinner took a bundle of hatchelled hemp and wrapped
it around his w^aist ; he then drew out a few fibres, and
twisting them together, fastened them to a hook, which
was twirled round with great rapidity by a large wheel
generally turned by a boy ; the spiuner w^alked backward
from the hook, and as he did so the twisting yarn drew
out additional fibres from the bundle round his waist,
while with his hand he regulated the number of these
fibres, and caused the yarn to be of uniform size ; the yarns
so made were again twisted into strands ; three of these
strands form a rope, and three ropes united make a cable.
Horse power was employed in twisting the ropes and ca-
bles. Steam machinery now performs all these operations,
from the hatchelUng of the hemp to the twisting of the
rope or cable.
LESSOR LXYH.
SII.K.
The formation of raw silk, and the amount, have been
described under the head of the silkworm moth, and it
remains only to trace its further pi-ogress into spun silk,
adapted for the use of the weaver and the sempstress.
The hanks of raw silk, having been washed in warm water,
are wound upon bobbins or reels ; this is accomplished by
a winding machine, the efiect produced by this machinery
being the same as w^hen a skein of thread is held on the
340 FIFTH STEP. ^LESSON LXVII.
outstretched hands of one person and wound on a reel by
another. The silk is then twisted, or thrown^ as it is
termed, so as to unite several filaments together into a
single yarn, and for the stouter threads several yarns are
again twisted together, or doubled; the tendency of the
filaments to untwist after being twisted is counteracted
by exposure to steam, which gives the threads a perma-
nent set.
The only silk fabrics requiring a particular notice are
changeable silks, satin, and velvet. Changeable silks are
formed by having the warp and the weft of differently
colored yarns; a peculiar play of colors is thus produced
when the fabric is moved, or seen from different points of
view. Satin owes its peculiar softness and lustre to the
circumstance of its being so woven that the threads of the
warp alone are visible, those of the weft scarcely coming
to the upper surface ; this is accomplished by carrying the
thread of the weft under five or six threads of the warp,
and over one; again under five or six threads, and over
one, and so on across the warp ; by this means the warp
threads alone are seen, and a rich, unbroken glossy surface
is produced. Velvet, the soft|^ile of which is so peculiar,
is formed by weaving short loops of silk into the fabric ;
these loops, which stand at right angles to, and hide both
the weft and the warp, are afterward cut open by a sharp
instrument, and the cut ends of the silk standing up from
.the pile give rise to the peculiarly soft appearance of the
velvet ; this arrangement may also be observed in hearth
rugs, where the cut ends of short worsted threads rise up
from a coarse canvas foundation.
WOOL. 341
Silk fabrics are manufactured mostly in England,
France, Italy, and China.
LESSON LXVIIL
WOOL.
The clothing manufactured from wool is particularly
adapted to cold countries; not that it communicates
warmth, but, being a non-conductor of heat, it prevents
that of our bodies from escaping. Wool is the hairy cov-
ering of sheep, which has a peculiar felting property ; it is
taken from the living animal in the summer season, by an
operation called sheep shearing^ and in that state is called
the fleece. The wool of the Spanish sheep is particularly
fine ; the flocks in that country are often very large, con-
taining as many as a thousand sheep.
The first operation performed on the raw wool is to pick
and sort it ; this is particularly needful, as the same sheep
produces wool of various qualities. It is next cleansed
from its impurities, and committed to the wool comber^
who, by means of iron-spiked combs of different degrees
of fineness, draws out the fibres, smooths, and straightens
them. It is then prepared for the spi7iner^ who forms it
into threads, the more twisted of which are called icorsted,
and the less twisted yar7i. It is then employed in the
manufacture of every description of hosiery, stuifs, carpets,
flannels, blankets, and cloths. England manufactures so
much woollen clothing, that it was formerly considered the
staple commodity of the country ; and to mark its import-
ance the Lord Chancellor sits upon a woolsack.
342 FIFTH STEP. — MINERALS.
MINERALS.
GENERAL CHARACTERS OF MINERALS.
The objects derived from the mineral kingdom afford
one of the most obvious means of supplying material
wealth to a country. In fact, some countries derive their
chief importance from the abundant supply of mineral
wealth which they export to other countries less richly
furnished than they in this particular.
Minerals are distinguished from each other by the
possession of certain characters, the most important. of
which will be briefly described here, in order to prevent
repetition in speaking of the several species in detail.
Lustre. — Many minerals possess a high degree of
brightness, but in characterizing them, the kind of lustre
is more important than its degree. The most important
varieties are —
The metallic lustre, as in . . . . Black lead.
Vitreous, or glassy lustre, as in . . Rock crystal.
Resinous, or waxy lustre, as ja" . . Amber.
Pearly lustre, as in . . . . Satin spar.
When minerals are destitute of any lustre, they are
termed dull.
Color, — The colors of minerals are very numerous, and
it frequently happens that several different tints may occur
in the same mineral, from the mixture of small portions of
other substances. Color, therefore, is not to be regarded
as a character of great value in distinguishing minerals.
MINEEALS. 343
except when it occurs in connection with metallic lustre ;
it is then more definite, as, for example, in lead ore or ga-
lena, which is always gray.
Some minerals are distinguished by peculiar appear-
ances connected with color, — such as the rainbow-like
variety of tints found in several of those possessed of
metallic brightness, — for example, in the copper ore, called
from this circumstance, peacock copper ore, and the re-
flection of a floating milky light from the interior of some
others, which is called opalescence from the fact that it is
very distinct in the opal.
Hardness. — While difierent minerals vary very much in
their degree of hardness, this character is generally con-
stant in the same species. Plardness is, therefore, regarded
as of great importance in distinguishing minerals. Its de-
gree may be readily ascertained by the ease or difficulty
with which one mineral will scratch another. In describ-
ing hardness, the following scale is employed :
SCALE OF THE DEGREES OF HARDNESS OF MINERALS.
No. 1. Yields easily to the finger nail, as for example, . Chalk.
2. Yields with difficulty to the nail, but does not scratch a
copper coin, .... Rock salt.
3. Scratches a copper coin, and is also scratched by it, be-
ing of about the same degree of hardness, . Lime spar,
4. Not scratched by a copper coin, but not hard enough
to scratch glass, . . , Fluor spar.
5. Scratches glass with difficulty, and yields easily to the
knife, ..... Apatite.
6. Scratches glass easily, and yields with difficulty to the
knife, ..... Felspar.
344 FIFTH STEP. — MIXEKALS.
1. Does not yield to the knife, and to a fine file with dif-
ficulty, ..... Flint.
8. \ / . . . Topaz.
9. >• Harder than flint. < . . . . Emery.
10. ' ' . . . Diamond.
The diamond is the only mineral of the highest degree
of hardness, and is therefore used for cutting glass, &c.,
the natural edges of the crystal being employed for that
purpose. K the edges artificially made by cutting a dia-
mond are used, they are soon worn down ; consequently
diamond rings are much injured if employed for scratching
glass.
Weight, or specific gravity/. — The weight of minerals,
and, in fact, of all solid and liquid substances, is compared
with that of water as a standard, and is termed their spe-
cific gravity, or peculiar weight. Thus, for example, the
weight of sulphur is almost twice that of water, flint nearly
three times, «fec. It is a more convenient and accurate
mode of calculation to consider the weight of water as ex-
pressed by ],000; that of sulphur would then be 1,980;
flint, 2,700. These numbers are termed the specific gravi'
ties of these substances.
In the following list, the specific gravity of several of
the most common mineral substances is given :
Water, 1,000
Coal, .... 1,200 to 1,500
Clay, 1,800 to 2,700
Sulphur, .... 1,980
Rock salt, .... 2,250
Granite, .... 2,000
MINERALS. 345
Limestone, .... 2,250 to 2,500
Chalk, .... 2,500
Slate, ..... 2,750
Flint, .... 2,700
Emery, ..... 4,000
The specific gravity of water being taken at 1,000
gives peculiar facilities for ascertaining the weight of any
substance, as it so happens that one cubic foot of water
weighs almost exactly 1,000 ounces. It follows that the
specific gravity of any substance gives the actual weight
of a cubic foot in ounces, sufiiciently accurate for all prac-
tical purposes. Thus, for example, the specific gravity of
granite being 2,600, a cubic foot of it will weigh 2,600
ounces, or 1Q2^ lbs. ; a cubic foot of clay, in like manner,
2,000 ounces, or 125 lbs., &c., &c.
Those minerals which are five times heavier than water
are mostly metallic ores, as lead or galena ore, &c.
The following table shows the number of cubic feet in
one ton of the undermentioned minerals:
Sand, . . . . 23|^ cubic feet.
Gravel, 21| "
Granite, . . . . 13 1- "
Marble, 13
Chalk, .... 13 "
Form. — By far the larger number of minerals are nat-
urally formed in determined shapes, called crystals ; when
this is not the case, they are termed massive. Minerals,
whether crystalline or massive, have usually a certain inter-
nal arrangement of their particles, which causes them,
15*
346 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXIX.
when broken, to separate in some directions more readily
than in others. This is termed their cleavage ; for ex-
ample, rock salt and lead ore invariably break up into
cubes, &c.
When broken by a blow, minerals exhibit several varie-
ties on the broken surface. This is termed their fracture^
and should not be confounded with the forms into which
they cleave.
LESSON LXIX.
LIME.
The substance called Ume is never found pure in nature,
Otving to its great affinity for carbonic acid * and for water.
All the earths of which lime forms the basis are called cal-
careous. \ It is the most universally diffused of all sub-
stances, and one of the most abundant ; it is computed that
it constitutes -one eighth of the crust of the earth. In this
distribution we have great cause to admire the wise and
good providence of the Creator, as the utility of lime in
various arts, in agriculture, in manufactures, and in medi-
cine is very great. Lime, united with carbonic acid, forms
common limestone, chalk, marble, &c. ; with sulphuric acid,
it constitutes gypsum or alabaster ; and with fluoric acid,
fluor or Derbyshire spar. These are its most interesting
* Carbon is charcoal in its purest and colorless state ; it is most abun-
dant in the vegetable kingdom, and is chiefly obtained from wood. The
diamond is the only pure carbon that is known. United with oxygen, car
bon forms carbonic acid.
f Calcareous, from the Latin calx^ lime.
LIME. 347
combinations with mineral substances. It enters also into
the composition of animal matter, as shells, bones, and the
hard coverings of insects ; our bones contain eight parts
in ten of Ume ; and the shells of birds' eggs, nine parts in
ten.
Pure lime is procured from chalk, or limestone, by
means of burning. Alternate layers of calcareous earth
and fuel are arranged in a kiln ; a fire being kindled, the
carbonic acid and water become volatilized, and are driven
ofi", leaving the lime pure. In this state it is called quick
limey and is white, caustic, acrid, pungent, and infusible ;
corroding and destroying animal matter. When water is
l^oured upon it, it swells, falls into a powder, and gives out
great heat. This last operation is called slaching the lime.
The water combining with the lime becomes solid, and the
heat is occasioned by its changing from a fluid to a solid
state, for in doing this it parts with some of its caloric.
The uses of lime are numerous and important. It is
formed into mortar, the cement used in building. The
lime being slacked, is made into a j^aste by tempering it
with water ; to this is added sand, and sometimes chopped
hairs ; as it dries it becomes solid, hard, and durable. Ex-
amples have been known of buildings a thousand years
old, in which the mortar is as hard as the stones which it
unites.
Lime is used as a manure, to loosen soils which are too
tenacious, and to render them more friable and capable of
receiving vegetable fibres ; it also hastens the dissolution
and putrefaction of animal and vegetable substances, of
which mould is chiefly composed, and gives it the power
348 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LXX.
of acquiring and retaining moisture, so necessary to the
growth of vegetables. Lime is also employed in the man-
ufacture of sugar, to deprive it of a portion of its acid.
Tanners use it in removing hairs from the hides, and
cleansing them from fat and grease ; it is used also in
bleaching, and as a flux in the smelting of metals.
LESSON LXX.
ALUMINE, OK ARGIL.
This substance obtained the name of alumine from its
forming the base of common alum ; and argil,* on account
of its being the constituent of all clays, which are there-
fore termed argillaceous earths. The distinguishing quali-
ties of clays are, that they have an earthy texture, give
out a peculiar odor when breathed upon, which lias been
thence called the argillaceous odor; they adhere to the
tongue ; are never found crystallized, but sometimes slaty;
are generally opaque, and their weight is about twice as
great as that of water. When tempered with water, most
argillaceous substances become soft, tenacious, and plas-
tic;! but shrink and harden by the application of heat.
Alumine is never found pure in nature ; but it is considered
to be the most plentiful earth next to silex.
Common clay is a nearly equal admixture of alumine
and silex ; it is found in most countries, and is very valu-
able in various arts ; for these it is peculiarly fitted, as it
• Argil, from Latin argil/a, clay.
f Plastic, from irA.curo'-€iy (plasH-<;<rt), to form.
ALUMIXE, OR ARGIL. 34t
may be moulded into any form, which it retains unchanged
after exposure to heat. The beds of lakes, ponds, and
springs, are almost entirely of clay ; instead of allowing
the filtration of water, as sand does, it forms an impenetra-
ble bottom, and by this means water is accumulated in the
caverns of the earth, producing those natural reservoirs
whence springs issue and spout out at the surface. Clayey
soils, in consequence of their absorbing and retaining
moisture, are heavy and sticky. Clay is often used, by
the poorer classes in some countries in forming their
cottages.
It is the substance of which bricks and tiles are con-
structed ; when well baked in a kiln, or in the sun, it be-
comes very hard and durable. A proof of this is furnished
in the existence at the present day of those mighty Egyp-
tian pyramids, which many suppose to have been the work
of the Israelites in their bondage.
Porcelain clay is that employed in china manufactories ;
it absorbs moisture rapidly, and becomes very tenacious
when kneaded. It is distinguished from other clays by
the fineness of its texture and its friability. A coarser
kind, called potter'' 8 clay^ is used in making common earth-
enware.
Another description of clay, of a plastic nature, is called
pipe clay^ from its being used in the manufacture of pipes ;
it is cast in a cylindrical mould, a wire being afterward
run through it to form the hollow through which tho
fumes of the tobacco are inhaled ; when baked, it be-
comes hard and white. This clay is also used in extract-
ing grease out ot different substances. Jb'alkr-s earth ia
350 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXXI.
anotlier argillaceous substance, which was formerly similar-
]y employed.
Tlie soil or mould which covers our fields and gardens,
contains more or less of these three substances, aluraine,
silica, and lime. They occur in very different proportions ;
a mixture of all forms the best soil, each correcting and
keeping within their due proportion the qualities of the
other ; thus, in a clayey soil filtration is carried on by
means of sand, while clay, on the other hand, gives consis-
tency to a sandy soil, and lime loosens the texture of heavy
lands, and corrects the coldness occasioned by their re-
taining water. The fertilizing property of our soils, how-
ever, greatly depends upon the admixture of decayed
toiimal and vegetable matter.
LESSON LXXI.
ALUM.
Manufacture. — The substance known as alum is a com-
pound of alumina, or the base of clay, united with sulphuric
acid and a proportion of potash or ammonia. Jt is pre-
pared from a dark gray slaty clay, termed alum shale, or
alum slate. This, when exposed to air and moisture, grad-
ually crumbles to pieces, and suffers much change in its
character. The soluble parts are then dissolved by water;
a solution containing potash is added ; on boiling away
the water, the alum crystallizes, — it is purified by being
again dissolved and crystallized. Many varieties of the
elate require to be burnt before use. This is effected by
setting it on fire in enormous heaps, containing, in some
ALUM. 351
cases, many thousand tons. Sometimes tne shale possesses
sufficient inflammable matter to barn spontaneously; in
others, small coal or cinders are added.
Properties. — Alum is a transparent, colorless, saline
substance, readily soluble in eighteen times its weight of
cold and its own weight of boiUng water, the excess dis-
solved by hot water separating in crystals as the solution
cools. When the crystallization is slowly conducted, the
crystals are regular octohedrons, but in the alum of com-
merce they are more or less connected together and ir-
regular in form. These crystals contain nearly half their
weight of water, and, when heated, the alum first dis-
solves in this water, which, if the heat is continued, boils
away, leaving a dry mass — the burnt alum of the druggist.
The taste of alum is astringent, but somewhat sweet-
ish ; when swallowed, it has an astringent action ; and,
although of value as a medicine, is unwholesome when not
required.
Uses. — In the arts alum is a substance of great value.
It is much employed in converting skins into leather (see
Leather) ; it is also used in paper making ; in the manu-
facture of some kinds of candles, to harden and whiten the
tallow ; in dyeing and calico printing it is absolutely indis-
pensable ; and it is employed by paper hangers in making
paste, &Q.
, Alum is employed by bakers in the manufacture of
wheaten bread, rendering it whiter in color, and causing
the loaves to separate more readily. Its chief use, how-
ever, arises from the fact that it enables inferior flour,
which has been damaged by being harvested in wet
352 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXXII.
weather, and would otherwise yield a clammy bread, to
be made into a light, s2:>ongy loaf. Such bread is, how-
ever, very indigestible, and produces dyspepsia.
Linen and other cloth, steeped in a solution of alum
and then dried, cannot be set on fire ; hence it is some-
times used for making curtains and other fabrics incom-
bustible.
LESSON LXXIL
EMERY.
Occurrence, — Emery is found in shapeless granular
masses, at the base of mountains, in several of the islands
of the Grecian Archipelago. The chief supply is obtained
from the island of Naxos, at Cape Emeri, whence its name.
A considerable quantity, however, is procured from the
neighborhood of Smyrna, the East Indies, and in some
mines in Saxony. In Jersey and in England small quanti-
ties of it are occasionally found.
Properties. — Emery is a grayish black, or brown,
opaque mineral, with a glistening lustre and an uneven
fracture. Its specific gravity is ^tbout 4,000, and it is dis-
tinguished by its extreme hardness, inferior only to that of
the diamond.
Preparation. — In order to prepare emery for use, it is
first crushed under heavy iron stampers, then ground in
steel mills, and mixed with water ; the coarser particles
having been allowed to subside, the water is poured off
with the finer portions; these after a time sink, and are
collected for use. Sometimes the emery is burnt or caV
KOTTEN STONE AND TRIPOLI. 853
cined for the purpose of enabling it to be reduced to
powder with less labor.
Uses. — ^The use of emery depends upon its extreme
hardness, which enables it, when in a state of fine pow-
der, to be used by lapidaries for grinding and polishing
precious stones ; by cutlers, in finishing steel instruments ;
by opticians, for polishing glasses, &c. Sprinkled over
paper or stout calico which has been previously covered
wuth a layer of glue, it forms emery paper or cloth ; this
is much employed in cleaning iron instruments and arti-
cles of domestic use.
LESSON LXXIII.
ROTTEN STONE AND TRIPOLI.
Occurrence and Properties. — Rotten stone and tripoli
are two minerals resemblino^ each other, in havinsc their
particles in a state of very fine division. Rotten stone,
which is found in considerable quantity in Carmarthen-
shire and Breconshire, South Wales, and at Ashford, in
Derbyshire, England, is friable. It is found mixed with
pieces of black marble, and it has recently been ascer-
tained that an acid existing in the soil, decomposes the
marble, thus producing rotten stone. Tripoli is so called
from its being first found in that country. The small par.
tides of both are very hard ; and when the minerals are
reduced to powder they are extensively employed m pol-
ishing metal ai-ticles.
Rotten stone is not found except in England. The
354 FIFTH STEP. ^LESSON LXXIV.
amount obtained yearly barely equals 400 tons ; and the
annual value is stated at about 750^.
Tripoli is remarkable as consisting almost entirely of
the shelly coverings of small animalcules, their length not
exceeding: l-3500th of an inch.
•o
LESSON LXXIV.
PUMICE STONE.
Occurrence and Projyerties. — Pumice is a stone of vol-
canic origin, which is found in large quantities at Campo
Bianco, about thirty miles from the port of Lipari ; it is
also abundant in the island of Vulcano. Pumice is a po-
rous stone, sufficiently light to float upon water. It is
formed of silky fibres, which are interlaced in all directions.
In color it is usually gray or white. To the touch it is
harsh, and, although brittle, is sufficiently hard to scratch
glass and steel.
Uses. — The use of pumice in the arts is entirely as a
polishing material ; it is employed in smoothing wood,
glass, slate, stones, marble, &c. ; by painters it is much
used for rubbing down the roughness on old work previous
to new painting. It is also employed in smoothing leather,
vellum, and skins, during their manufacture ; and in some
countries it is regularly used for smoothing the skin of the
hands, and rubbing corns on the feet. In the East, the
domes of temples have been built with it in consequence
of its great lightness.
SLATE. 355
LESSON LXXy.
SLATE.
Slate is a mineral substance ; it is never found crys-
tallized, but generally of a foliated structure ; it is either
of a gray, blueish, or blackish color, often streaked by a
different tint from that of the ground ; it is opaque, dull,
compact, and brittle. It consists chiefly of alumine, with
a small quantity of silex. It is dug out of quarries ; when
first taken fiom them, it is comparatively soft, but becomes
hard by exposure to the air. It is used for writing upon,
for w^hetstones, and for roofing houses. In order to ascer-
tain its fitness for the latter purpose, it is weighed as soon
as it is excavated, and is then put into water for some
days ; if after bemg well dried it is found to have increased
in weight, it is laid aside as unsuitable for the purpose, the
trial having proved that it was porous, and consequently
absorbent. Such slate would not only allow water to pass
through it, and so destroy the woodwork of buildings, but
it would also be liable to be covered with lichens and moss,
in consequence of the moisture which it retains. If its
quality is ascertained to be good, it is split into thin plates
for roofing. The tiles are fastened to the rafters by pegs
driven through holes, which have been previously made in
them ; the edge of one is laid over the other, in the same
manner as the scales of fishes. Slate which is dark-colored,
compact, and solid, is the best adapted for writing upon.
In order to prepare the slate for this purpose, it is ren-
dered smooth with an iron instrument, and it is then
356 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXXVI.
ground with sandstone, and slightly polished. That which
is softer and more friable, is used for pencils.
The principal slate quarries in the United States are in
Vermont, 'New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. Quar-
ries of great extent are also worked in various parts of the
British Isles.
The school slates, when split out from the blocks, are
taken to the factory, where a man provided with patterns
of the six sizes usually made, marks out upon each sheet
such slates as it will make to the best advantage. An-
other workman then cuts them out with a circular saw,
made of soft steel, and they are dressed, smoofehed, and
polished by a third. Before machinery was applied to
these operations they were shaved out like shingles. The
smoothing is finished by rubbing the slate with a rag filled
with its own dust. The slate is now washed and is ready
for the frame. Slates are either quarried by blasting, or,
where practicable, by splitting them off with large wedges
SILICIOUS MINERALS.
LESSON L'XXVI.
SAND AND SANDSTONE.
Occurrence, — Sand is a substance abundantly distrib-
uted, forming in many places the bottom and shores of the
ocean, and not unfrequently the beds of rivers ; on the
surface of the earth it often forms tracts of vast extent,
which are usually termed deserts, such as those of Arabia
and Africa.
SAND AND SANDSTONE. Z5l
Sand is also found in beds, or layers, alternating with
other substances. When at the surface of the ground,
sand forms that kind of country found in some parts of
Europe, termed heath, which is distinguished by its sterile
character and the nature of the plants (chiefly heath, furze,
and ferns,) growing on it. When the grains of sand are
cemented together into a firm mass, they form the valuable
stone called sandstone, many kinds of which are found in
this country, where they are extensively used for building.
From the hardness of the grains of sand, they are also
valuable as grind stones, mill stones, scythe stones, and
from their porosity they are frequently employed in the
manufacture of filters.
The variety known as Potsdam sandstone can be quar-
ried in slabs of any required size, and is much used for
paving.
Properties. — Sand consists of silica, in small rough
grains of various sizes. When pure, it is white or color-
less, but it is usually tinted by the admixture of other
materials. It is perfectly insoluble in water, and infusible
in fire.
Uses. — Sand is a substance of great value. It is found
in all fertile soils, rendering them sufficiently porous to
allow water to percolate and the air to gain access to the
roots of the growing plants, and it is frequently added
with great advantage to heavy, clay soils. Pure sand, as
before mentioned, is unfitted to the growth of plants.
In artificial processes sand is used extensively; the
whiter kinds are employed in glass making, the coarser
in making mortar and bricks. From its infusible nature.
358 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXXVII.
and the property that some kinds possess of forming a
mass when firmly pressed together, it is used for making
the moulds into which melted metals are poured in the
process of casting ; and its hard, gritty nature renders it
useful I'n cleaning and scouring coarse metal and other
articles.
LESSON LXXVII.
GLASS.
Materials. — The substances which form the basis of
glass are sand, and one or other of the alkalies, potash,
or soda. The purest variety of sand is obtained from
Lanesborough, Mass. Other qualities are procured from
various parts of the country. It is essential that the sand
be perfectly free from colored impurities, otherwise the
glass receives a tinge. Red lead and litharge are era-
ployed in certain kinds of glass, as they are found to
render it more readily fusible and tenacious when melted.
They have, however, the disadvantage of rendering it
softer, and, therefore, more liable to be scratched. In
addition to these substances, small portions of manganese,
arsenic, borax, and other minerals, are occasionally em-
ployed to produce more ready fusion and to remove
color, and, in almost all cases, a considerable amount of
broken glass, or cullet, as it is termed, is added. In the
coarser kinds lime is also used in place of a dearer alkali.
The localities of the glass .manufacture are determined
by the nearness to coal fields, and by the ease of obtaining
the materials required ; for these reasons, it is frequently
GLASS. 359
established in seaports. Newcastle, Bristol, and Glasgow,
with Birmingham, are the chief towns in which it is car-
ried on in England.
It is also manufactured in different sections of our own
country, particularly in South Boston, East Cambridge,
and Sandwich, Mass. ; Brooklyn, N. Y., where flint glass is
manufactured. The most important manufactories of win-
dow glass are located in the southern part of New Jersey,
about Pittsburg, Penn., and the river towns below and in
central New York. Tha only manufactory devoted exclu-
sively to plate glass, is at Lenox, Berkshire Co., Mass.
Our best plate glass is imported from England and
France.
Preparation. — The materials, having been mixed in the
requisite proportions, are made to unite together by expo-
sure to a moderate heat, which is increased until they melt
into a pasty mass, termed frit. The ingredients of flint
glass, however, which are of the purest kind, do not
always require to be fritted. The materials are melted
together in large crucibles, or pots, as they are usually
termed. These are made of the most infusible materials,
and each pot is capable of holding about fourteen hundred-
weight of glass. These are built into a dome-shaped fur-
nace, with openings in the sides, corresponding to the
situation of each pot. In about forty-eight hours after
having been placed in the furnace, the glass is in a state
of the most perfect fusion, and is ready to be worked into
any desired form.
Manufacture — As the mode of manufacture varies
with the kind of glass, and the purposes for which it is
360 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LXXVII.
designed, it will be described under the heads of flint,
crown, and plate glass.
Flint glass is formed of sand, potash, or pearlash, and
litharge, or red lead, and is manufactured into the im-
mense variety of articles required for domestic use, by the
aid of a hollow tube and a few very simple tools. The
ease with which it is worked arises from its possessing an
extraordinary combination \)f properties, being excessively
ductile and tenacious, and of so soft a consistency that it
may be bent, blown, pressed, or extended, and, in short,
made to assume any form which the will of the workman dic-
tates. The tube is dipped into the melted glass, and care
is taken that the quantity collected on the end of it, is suf-
ficient for the desired article. The mouth of the workman
is then applied to the other end of the tube, and the glass
is blown into a hollow form, being either placed in a mould,
or rolled, pressed, cut, twisted, &c., so as to assume the
form required. No substance possesses in so remarkable a
degree the plastic property. After the articles are formed,
they are placed in the annealing oven, at a great heat,
which is gradually diminished, by which means they lose
that liability to crack in sudden changes of temperature
which they would possess if cooled suddenly.
Crown glass, which is ordinarily used for windows, is
harder than flint glass. No preparations of lead are used
in its manufacture ; it therefore requires a higher tempera-
ture for fusion. The materials are sand and soda, or soda
ash, with small quantities of borax, arsenic, and manga-
nese ; these are fritted for about four hours. On melting
the fritted materials, a quantity of saline matter rises to
GLASS. 361
the top, which is skimmed off, and a considerable amount
of broken glass, or cullet^ as it is termed, is added, and in
about forty hours the glass is ready for working. The
workman takes about ten or eleven pounds on the end of
an iron tube, blows it into a large, hollow, pear-shaped
form ; then, by pressure against a plane surface, flattens
the part opposite the tube ; an iron rod, called a punt, is
then dipped in the melted glass of the furnace, and at-
tached to the centre of the flattened part, and the iron
tube is removed by wetting the glass around it ; the soft
yielding glass is now carried by the punt and exposed to
the heat of a furnace, the workman twirling it round with
gradually increasing rapidity, which causes the hole left by
the removal of the tube to enlarge in size, and at length
the whole flattens out into a plane surface of four or Ave
feet in diameter, of uniform thickness, except where the
iron rod is attached in the centre ; a lump is there formed
called the hulVs eye ; the glass is then annealed, and each
disc divided into two parts for the convenience of
carriage.
The dark green glass used for wine bottles is made
without lead, and of the coarsest materials ; common river
sand and soap-boilers' waste, consisting of lime and a
small proportion of alkali, being usually employed.
Plate glass is a very pure glass, capable of flowing
freely when melted, without streaks or air bubbles. The
materials forming it are the w^iitest sand, soda, small por-
tions of lime and the minerals manganese and cobalt, to-
gether with broken plate glass, the waste of previous
operations. The glass, when perfectly fused, is poured
16
362 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXXVII.
upon an iron table of the size required, and the thickness is
regulated by the height to which the sides of the table are
raised. Immediately after it is poured out, the rnelied
glass is flattened by having a metal roller passed over the
upper surface ; it is then annealed for several days ; after
this it is ground perfectly smooth by rubbing two plates
together with finely powdered flint and water between
them ; each plate is again ground with emery powder, and
finally polished by a polishing powder, applied with a
woollen rubber.
The process of the manufacture of glass beads is inter-
esting from its great simplicity. Tubes of glass of the
required color are made by blowing cylinders, which are
drawn out while still plastic to the required length.
These tubes are cut up into very short pieces on the
upright edge of a fixed chisel. They are then stirred over
a furnace in a mixture of fine sand and wood ashes, heated
to such a degree that the fragments of glass are softened,
and lose their angular and sharp-edged form.
Colored glasses are produced by the addition of small
quantities of various mineral ingredients to the melted
mass. A small quantity of soot gives a yellow color ; pre-
parations of copper a red tint ; blue is produced by co-
balt ; manganese gives an amethyst ; green is produced
by iron, as in the common bottle glass ; tin produces an
opaque white, and gold an exquisitely beautiful ruby tint.
Projyerties. — The peculiar properties of glass in a melt-
ed state have been already alluded to. When solid, it is
strikingly distinguished by its beautiful transparency, hard-
ness, and freedom from porosity ; its lustre, which is so
GLASS. 303
characteristic that it is termed vitreous ; its being insoluble
and incorrodible by all substances in ordinary use, even the
strongest acids; it is brittle when in thick masses, but
when in very thin threads it possesses an extraordinary
degree of elasticity, which, unlike that of any other sub-
stance, does not seem impaired by repeated bending.
Uses. — The uses of glass in domestic economy are well
known. Its employment for making vessels to hold liquids
depends greatly on its transparency and polish, the former
allowing the contents to be seen, and the latter enabling it
to be readily cleaned after use. Its employment as a ma-
terial for glazing windows depends on its transparency
and insolubility, which enable it to admit the light
and warmth of the sun, while it excludes the wind
and rain.
Glass is frequently ground upon revolving wheels of
sandstone, or pohshing slate, into small circular pieces, with
one or both sides concave or convex ; in these forms it
alters the direction of the rays of light which pass through
it, either bringing them to one point or focus, or dispersing
them. These glasses are termed lenses, and are employed
in making optical instruments — as microscopes, telescopes,
&c., and also for spectacles.
It is our familiarity with glass that alone renders us
usually so insensible to the great value and exceeding
beauty of this extraordinary substance.
364 FIFTH STEP. — ^LESSON LXXVUI.
LESSON LXXVIIL
MICA.
Occurrence and Properties. — Mica is a mineral xixu\
possesses the property of being readily split into exceed
ingly thin layers, which are transparent, possess a pearl}-
metallic lustre, and are flexible and elastic. The gHsten.
ing appearance of granite, and some other minerals, is dut
to the presence of small scales of this substance.
It occurs in large masses in many parts of the world,
especially in Siberia, Sweden, and Norway. -It is also
found in New Hampshire, and some of the other States,
and Canada, in sufiicient quantities to be quarried for
economical purposes.
Uses. — The transparency and flexibility of this sub-
stance have led to its employment as a substitute for glass,
particularly under circumstances where it is exposed to
violence ; hence it has been used in Russia for vessels of
w^ar, in which glass windows were apt to be broken by
the concussion caused by firing the guns. As it is not
altered by exposure to a very liigh temperature, it is not
unfrequently used to form transparent doors to stoves and
lanterns, and it is now largely employed to form covers
over gaslights, to protect the flame from drauglits of air,
as well as to prevent the smoke rising to and soiling the
ceiling.
GRANITE. 365
LESSON LXXIX.
GKANITE.
Granite is a ooinpound rock, formed by an aggregation
of grains of quart's, felspar, and mica. The proportions in
which these component parts occur vary much ; but felspar
is the predominating, and mica the least considerable, of
these ingredients. Ihe grains are also of different magni-
tudes ; when they are large, the granite is of a very coarse
texture ; but sometimes they are so small, as almost to
give the appearance of a uniform mass. These circum-
stances occasion a great variety in the character of granite.
When hornblend occurs m the place of mica, the rock is
called syenite, from Syene^ in Upper Egypt, where it was
first known and quarried. Some felspar is liable to decom-
position, and when this is the prevailing substance in the
rocks, they yield to the effects of the weather, and become
more or less of a rounded form; but when the granite is
hard and close-grained, which is more usually the case,
they rise in bold prominent peaks, giving grandeur and
boldness to the scenery. Granite is found in most coun-
tries where there are mountains of an}'' .'3onsiderable eleva-
tion. It forms the flanks of a considerable portion of the
Andes, and it may be traced along the eastrv'n spurs of the
Appalachian range, through the Southern States. It is
finely developed through South Carolina and Georgia.
The Stone mountain of the latter State is a naked mass of
granite, rising four or five hundred feet above the sur-
rounding country, and is so steep that it can bf ^s^'^-^^^'^d
366 FIFTH STEP. ^LESSON LXXX.
only at one point. All New England abounds in granite,
but the most famous quarries are along the coast of
Maine, and at Quincy, Mass. ; from the latter place it is
exported for building purposes to the principal cities on
the Atlantic coast, the Gulf of Mexico, and in the West
Indies.
Granite is valuable on account of its great hardness
and durability ; it is used for building, paving, submarine
works, mill stones, troughs, and steps.
INFLAMMABLE MINERALS. "
LESSOIT LXXX.
SULPHUR.
Occurrence. — Sulphur occurs native in the neighbor-
hood of all active volcanoes, from which it is discharged in
vapoi-, and condenses in considerable quantities in the
gravel and ashes of the interior of the craters. At Pouz-
zales, near Naples, the mixture of sulphur and gravel is
dug up and distilled to extract the sulphur. The* gravel is
then returned to its original place, and in the course of
years becomes so far charged with sulphur as to serve the
same purpose again. It is also found more abundantly in
beds, as in Sicily, from whence almost all the native sul-
phur of commerce is obtained.
Sulphur, when combined with metals, forms minerals,
which are termed sulphurets ; these occur in most parts
of the world ; some of them — as the sulphurets of lead,
SULPHUR. 367
copper, and zinc — are valuable ores, the sulphur itself be-
ing burnt away and lost during the preparation of the
metals. One sulphuret — that of iron — also termed iron
pyrites, is useless as an iron ore, but of great value as a
source of sulphur, containing rather more than half its
weight.
When this sulphuret is lieated in the open air, the sul-
phur burns away with a blue flame ; but if it is heated in
close vessels, half the sulphur it contains is driven off" in
vapor. This is collected in a solid or liquid state in a cold
part of the apparatus ; the residue of the mineral is con-
verted, by mere exposure to the air, into green vitriol, a
l^roj^aration of iron largely used in dyeing black and in
making ink.
The usual form in which sulphur is prepared is in cylin-
drical sticks, known as roll sulphur, or roll brimstone.
These are formed by casting it in hollow wooden moulds,
so made as to divide into two parts longitudinally.
Properties. — Sulphur is a mineral of a bright yellow
color, nearly twice as heavy as water, in which it is quite
insoluble ; tasteless, and w^ithout smell when cold, but
odorous when rubbed or warmed : it is brittle, and a very
bad conductor of heat, so that, if a roll is grasped in the
warm hand, the outer part only becomes heated, and, in-
creasing in size, is forced away from the inner portion, and
the mass breaks.
Heated to a degree somewhat above that of boiling
water (232 degrees Fahrenheitt) sulphur melts, forming an
orange-colored Hmpid fluid ; if the heat is increased, its
color becomes a deep red, and it thickens to such an ex-
368 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXXX.
tent tliat the vessel may be quickly inverted without its
being spilled; if in this state it is poured into water, it
forms an elastic soft solid, wliich, after a time, becomes
brittle. Heated to a still higher degree, it becomes some-
what more fluid ; and if in a close vessel, it boils away in
vapor, which, by a greater or less degree of cold, may be
condensed into a solid or liquid state. Heated in the air,
it takes fire, burning with a blue flame, and producing a
very irritating, poisonous gas or vapor. Sulphur has a
great disposition to unite with metals ; this may be shown
by carrying a piece in the pocket with silver coins, when
the formation of a black sulphuret of silver rapidly takes
place. The same result occurs if an egg is eaten with a
silver spoon, as sulphur is contained in the yolk.
Uses. — The uses of sulphur in the arts are of the high-
est importance. The manufacture of soda from salt, dye-
ing and bleaching, the making of leather, gun{X)wder, and
congreve matches, are but a few of those manufactures
which mainly depend on sulphur, or its compounds, for
existence.
The ready inflammability of sulphur leads to its use in
the making of lucifer matches, which are first dipped in
melted sulphur before the compound of phosphorus is
added, as the latter, from its rapid burning, would be un-
able to set fire to the match if unassisted by the brimstone.
The same property leads to its employment in gunpowder,
to which it imparts the power of igniting with the slightest
spark. The poisonous fumes which arise from its burning
are largely employed in bleaching silk in the raw state,
isinglass, walnuts, straw plait, and bonnets ; it is also occa-
PLUMBAGO. 369
sionally used in destroying rats and vermin when they have
accumulated in ships and other close places.
Its fusibility leads to its employment in taking casts
from medals, coins, and similar objects, for which purpose
it is used in its most liquid state.
Flowers of sulphur, which are formed when the vapors
arising during its distillation are allowed to condense in a
solid form, are much used as a domestic medicine, and
enter also into the preparation of vermilion and other
chemical substances.
Oil of vitriol, or sulphuric acid, an exceedingly corro-
sive, poisonous liquid, is made by burning sulphur in
furnaces constructed for the purpose, the combustion being
assisted by the presence of other substances. Some idea
of the use of this acid in the arts and manufactures may be
gained from the fact that 300,000 tons are annually made
in England, the value, at the lowest computation, amount-
ing to several hundred thousand pounds.
It is the most extensively used in the arts of all the
acids, and is an important branch of manufacture in chem-
ical works in Philadelphia, Newark, N. J., Roxbury, Mass.,
and other parts of the country.
LESSON LXXXI.
PLUMBAGO.
Occurrence and Properties. — Plumbago, which is also
"termed graphite, and black lead, occurs in many parts of
the world ; large quantities are found in Ceylon, the East
Indies, and several localities in the United States ; particu-
16*
870 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXXXI.
larly at Sturbridge, Mass., Brandon, Vt., Fishkill, and
Ticonderoga, N. Y. In England the most celebrated mine
was at Borrowdale, in Cumberland, as much as 100,000^.
liaving been realized from it in a year ; but the mine is
now closed. Plumbago is of a dark leaden color, having a
dull metallic appearance. To the touch it is very smooth;
and when placed between rubbing surfaces, enables them
to glide easily over one another. It adheres to substances
on which it is rubbed, staining them of a dark color, and
imparting its own peculiar appearance. It is perfectly
insoluble in water, and is quite infusible in the fire ; but
heated strongly, and exposed to a current of air,-it slowly
consumes.
Uses. — ^The purer varieties of plumbago are entirely
used in the manufacture of black lead pencils, being cut up
by fine saws into thin slips, which are glued into grooves
cut in cedar wood. A method has also been devised of
purifying the more gritty varieties, and condensing the
powder into blocks, from which slices are cut that are as
good as the best original specimens. The leads for pencils
intended for the finest work, before being placed in the
"wood, are heated, and then immersed in hot wax or suet.
From the dearness of the finest plumbago, compositions of
clay, with black lead and other substances, are substituted
in the cheaper pencils.
The harder pencils have only half as much graphite
powder as clay; softer ones have equal parts of each. Tlie
hardest pencils, however, are made of an alloy of metallic
lead, antimony, and mercury. Common pencils are made
of graphite powder, mixed with melted sulphur, and run
COAL. 371
into moulds. Gum arable and resin are sometimes used as
ingredients.
A large quantity of black lead is employed in polishing
cast iron work, particularly stoves and ranges, giving to
them a uniform color, and concealing any rust they may
have on the surface.
Finely powdered, it is frequently used instead of grease
to prevent the friction between rubbing surfaces ; hence it
is not un frequently applied to wooden screws, &c., &c. It
is also a valuable material for crucibles and portable fur-
naces. It is sometimes adulterated with lampblack.
LESSON LXXXII.
COAL.
Coal is of two kinds, anthracite and bituminous ; the
former being the most condensed and the richest in car-
bon. Coal may be considered as a mineral, both from its
subterraneous situation and the qualities which it possess-
es ; many circumstances, however, justify the now preva-
lent opinion that it is of vegetable origin : the following
are, perhaps, the most convincing. Carbon, which is the
chief constituent of all vegetable matter, particularly wood,
composes three-fourths of this substance. Coal is also
found in the various stages of mineralization. Sometimes
it possesses a completely fibrous texture and ligneous
appearance, even the knots of wood being discernible,
while the same bed produces specimens of perfect mineral
coal. Some remarkable instances of this have been found
in the coal mines of Pennsylvania ; the roots of trees
372 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LXXXII.
were imbedded in fire clay, and forming the substance of
them (which generally underhes the coal measures), while
the trunks passed into the anthracite beds, and almost im-
perceptibly from these into the bituminous coal. In some
instances the bark only was converted into coal, while the
woody texture of the interior was still plainly to be seen.
In Ireland a standing forest has been discovered at the
depth of one hundred feet below the soil. To this we
may add the inflammability of this substance ; the numer-
ous vegetable remains and impressions that accompany it ;
and that it has never been discovered above the line to
which vegetation reaches. These vegetable remains gen-
erally belong to extinct species, and difler so much from
any living species that they cannot always be referred even
to the class to which they belong.
Coal is of a black color, bright, and frequently irrides-
cent ; the structure is slaty ; it occurs always amorphous ;
it is very combustible, a quality which few minerals pos-
sess. The places from whence it is taken are called coal
mines ; they abound in diiferent portions of the world ;
especially in the United States, England, and Belgium,
and have contributed much to' the wealth of these coun-
tries. Both the persons employed in the mines, and the
vessels which transport the coals, are called colliers ; the
place where the trade is carried on, a colliery. The access
to coal mines is generally through a narrow, perpendicular
tunnel called a shafts up which the workmen and coals are
drawn by machmery. The mines at Whitehaven, England,
are some of the most extraordinary in the world. The
principal entrance is by an opening at the bottom of a hill.
COAL. 873
through a long sloping passage which is hewn in the rock,
and leads to the lowest vein or bed of coal ; the descent is
chiefly through spacious galleries intei-secting each other,
formed by the excavation of the coal, large pillars of which
are left to support the ponderous roof. These mines are
very deep, and are extended under the bed of the sea, even
to where the depth of the water is sufficiently great to ad-
mit ships of burden. In these mines there are three strata
of coal, which lie considerably apart from one another, and
are made to communicate by pits. Miners are frequently
impeded in their progress by veins of hard rock called
dylces^ and the coal is seldom found in a direct line on the
other side of them ; to ascertain its precise situation is
often a work of considerable labor and expense. Coal is
generally situated at the foot of mountains, and in hollows,
which vary much in extent ; it rarely lies much above the
level of the sea.
Several dangers attend the labor of miners ; the great'
est is that arising from fire damp, which is occasioned by
the hydrogen gas or inflammable air produced in the mine,
and which, when mixed with atmospheric air, explodes
with great violence if brought into contact with any
lighted substance. To avoid this danger, safety lamps are
used, which were invented by Sir Humphrey Davy. They
are of a very simple construction, consisting of wire gauze
so closely interwoven, that gas of sufficient quantity to cause
ignition cannot enter them. Another danger arises from
the formation of carbonic acid gas, or fixed air, which,
being heavier than the common air, occupies the lower
part of the mines, and occasions death by suflfocation.
374 FIFTH STEP. — ^LESSON LXXXIII.
Coal is used to raise the temperature of rooms ; to cook
food ; to supply the fuel for railway locomotives, ocean
steamers, manufactories (particularly where steam is re-
quired), and in the working of metals. Bituminous coal
furnishes us with the gas so much used, which is the sub-
stance called hydrogen, and exists in coal in union with
carbon ; it is easily driven away or volatilized by heating
the coal in a close place, and when caught and preserved,
it forms the gas now used to light our streets and build-
ings ; when this has been extracted from the coal, the
residue is called coke^ which is employed where intense
heat is requisite.
Coal tar is also produced in the evolution of gas, and
was for a long time considered useless. It is now used to
protect iron work exposed to the weather, and by distilla-
tion it yields paraffine, which is made into candles, and also
the coal oil which we use in lamps.
SALINE MINERALS.
LESSON LXXXin.
SALT.
Salt is a mineral substance, beautifully white, sparkling,
and crystalline ; it is soluble, fusible, granulous, and of a
peculiar flavor called saline. It is a most beneficent pro-
vision of nature that salt — the only mineral substance re-
quired as an article of food by man and the higher orders
of the animal kingdom — is almost everywhere accessible.
There are several varieties of this useful mineral, which
SALT. 375
are distinguished by the different situations in which they
are found. The principal are sea salt, called also bay salt^
which is produced from the ocean ; the best comes from
Portugal ; salt drawn from brine springs ; and rock salt,
which is due: out of the earth. Amono^st the most exten-
give salt mines hitherto discovered are those at Wieliczka, a
picturesque little town situated on the sides of a gentle
valley, about eight miles from Cracow, formerly the chief
city of Poland. The traveller who visits these subterra-
neous deposits of salt, being furnished with a guide and
two lamp bearers, is let down a shaft of about 150 feet by
a rope. At the depth of 90" feet he arrives at the rock of
pure salt, which is of a dingy soot color, here and there
glistening by the light of the lamps. The swing is now
abandoned, and the ear is assailed by the busy sound of
spades, mattocks, and wheelbarrows, in every direction.
This is the first floor of a large cavern, containing in dif-
ferent parts a stable for twenty horses, quantities of salt,
some in bare masses, some in casks ready to be hoisted to
the surface, stores of implements for the miners, <fec* This
excavation is about 100 feet long and 80 broad (besides
the stable), and about 20 feet high. From hence a long
gallery, 12 feet high by 8 broad, leads toward the interior
of the mine, where lateral avenues branch off in various
directions, each named after some Austrian prince or prin-
cess, and resembling more in appearance the avenues of a
subterraneous palace than the passages of a mine. A
flight of steps conducts down another hundred feet to the
second floor ; in this descent the bed of salt is inter-
rupted by a narrow stratum of pure clay ; sometimes by a
376 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXXXIII.
mixture of salt and the same earth ; these strata are, in
places, very curiously curved, as though a rolling wave had
been arrested in its course, and preserved in its original
form. The miners are here found at work, some hewing
pillars of salt from the rock, some cutting them into mass-
es for home consumption, and some stowing the masses in
barrels for exportation. The cavern on this floor is rather
smaller than the first ; it consists of one spacious hall, and
has no pillar to support the roof.
Proceeding on his subterranean journey, the traveller
arrives at a wooden platform, from whence he looks down
upon an abyss, which the simple lights of the conductors
fail to illuminate, though the spars of the mineral reflect-
ing the rays of light produce a novel and beautiful efiect.
When princes or other great personages visit the mines, a
chandelier of crystal salt, hanging in the centre, is fur-
nished with 150 lights, which display a stupendous cavern,
having the appearance of a castle in ruins ; at the bottom
are some rows of seats, rising like the benches of a theatre ;
opposite to these is an orchestra : here, on such occasions,
a small band plays a few airs of slow and simple music,
which has a most singular effect, and harmonizes well with
the surrounding scene. Long galleries and flights of steps,
all spacious enough to allow free course to the fresh air,
lead deeper and deeper in the saline rock ; the scene now
and then is varied by a cavern full of workmen, and some
along the galleries, wheeling their little carts full of salt,
each with its lamp in front. On the fourth floor there is
a little subterraneous lake, about 80 feet long and 40 broad,
over which illustrious personages are ferried on rafts of
SALT. .3 77
^r logs, lighted by numerous flambeaux. Here terminates
the bed of green salt^ the most common sort, and easiest
to be cut. The next to it is called spica salt, which is
harder and more close grained, and next succeeds a white
and finer-grained variety. This part of the mine is TOO
feet below the surface of the earth ; 300 feet beneath this
lies the finest crystal salt, which is reached by long flights
of steps and inclined planes. The cavern in which it is
found is sufliciently spacious for a regiment of soldiers to
perform their manoeuvres in it. This is the deepest part
of the mine : the air is quite pure, rather cooler than that
of the open day, but much warmer than it is about half-
way down. The return is through a difi*erent series of
corridors and caverns. On the third floor is a simple tomb
of salt, with the name of the late Emperor of Austria
inscribed with letters of wood neatly gilt. On the second
floor is a large saloon with all the implements of mining,
and the mode of letting them down with men and horses
exhibited in transparency. On the first is a chapel present-
ing an altar, statue of the Virgin, crucifix, and figures of
Casimir I and his wife, all cut out of the solid salt ; before
the chapel is a small pulpit in the Gothic style. To visit
the whole of this extraordinary and extensive mine, with
all its galleries and caverns, no less a distance than 300
miles must be traversed.
The salt used in the United States is chiefly obtained
from salt brine springs. The principal springs are at Syra-
cuse, N. Y., in Western Virginia, and Pennsylvania, in
Michigan, and the States bordering on the Ohio river. The
most productive springs are about Onondaga Lake, at Syra-
378 FIFTH STEP. — ^LESSON LXXXHI.
cuse. To obtain this, wells are bored or sunk in the low
lands about the lake, to various depths, from 200 to 300
feet, and from these salt water is pumped up into reser-
voirs, from which the evaporating works are supplied. It
is allowed to remain in these reservoirs until some of its
impurities, particularly the oxide of iron, are deposited.
To hasten this they put in a little alum, or clay, or heat
the brine. About one eighth of the whole salt product is
separated by solar evaporation, and seven eighths by boil-
ing. The great reservoirs for the former process cover an
area of 700 acres. They are divided into tanks of about
16 by 18 feet each, and 6 inches deep. These are|)rovided
with covers, or movable sheds, which are removed in
pleasant weather. About fifty bushels of coarse salt, such
as is used for packing and curing provisions, may be made
annually in one of these tanks. Seventy pounds is called
a bushel of solar salt. Of the boiled salt, fifty-six pounds
or five of these bushels make a barrel.
The boiling is conducted in large iron kettles, contain-
ing about one hundred gallons, and set in "blocks" of
brickwork, close together, either in a single line, or in two
parallel rows, the whole length-'of the block. A double
block may contain eighty kettles, and may make from
20,000 to 25,000 bushels a year. To make forty-five
bushels of salt requires a cord of hard wood or a ton of
coal. There are here 312 blocks, containing 16,434 kettles,
and capable of making 12,480,000 bushels of salt yearly.
Just before the salt begins to crystallize, the sulphate of
lime separates, and is caught in a pan at the bottom of the
kettle. It is furthe * purified and made perfectly white,
SODA. 879
when it is scooped into a basket, drained back into the
kettle, and put into bins, where it is allowed to drain for
two weeks. It is then barrelled for sale. The cost of man-
ufacture is about one dollar per barrel.
The conservative properties of salt render it invaluable
for household purposes, and for preserving meat during
voyages ; and its stimulating properties give a relish to
food and help digestion. When fused, it is used in glaz-
ing pottery ; it improves the whiteness and clearness of
glass, and gives hardness to soap ; it is used by the dyer in
fixing colors ; also, sometimes as a manure.
It was employed in all the Jewish ceremonies, being
emblematical of purity and incorruptibility. Our blessed
Lord calls his disciples the salt of the earth ; thereby signi-
fying to them that having, by divine grace, their own
hearts purified, they are to exercise by precept and exam-
ple a purifying influence on the hearts of others.
LESSON LXXXIV.
SODA.
Manufacture. — ^Until w^ithin the last few years, soda
was obtained from a substance termed kelp, formed of the
ashes of burned seaweeds. In Scotland alone, twenty-five
thousand tons of kelp were annually produced. At the
present time soda is prepared by fusing the native peroxide
of tin with caustic soda in an iron crucible.
Properties. — Soda, in its ordinary state, is in the form
of large crystals, more or less perfect. These are transpa-
rent and colorless, containing more than half their weight
380 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LXXXIV.
of water. Exposed to a dry air, the water flies ofl^ leav-
ing the soda as an opaque, white powder. If the crystals
are heated, the soda dissolves in the water they contain,
and the whole becomes liquid ; on increasing the heat, the
water evaporates, and at last the dry soda remains only
as a white powder, without any trace of a crystaUine form.
Soda is very soluble in water, its taste is alkaline and
unpleasant. It has considerable cleansing properties, as it
renders grease and dirt soluble in hot water, and so en-
ables them to be removed by washing. This power may
be much increased by adding quicklime to soda, when the
latter is rendered caustic. This mixtuTe has been some-
times employed for washing clothes, but it is far too corro-
sive to be used with safety, destroying the texture of the
linen, &c.
Uses. — The employment of soda in domestic economy
depends on its cleansing properties. It is used to assist
the action of soap in washing clothes, paint, wood, &c. In
the chemical arts, such as making glass, soap, &c., it is of
the very highest importance ; it also forms, in combination
with other substances, many valuable medicines.
PORCELAIN. 381
MANUFACTURED ARTICLES.
LESSON LXXXV.
PORCELAIN.
Clay and flint are the chief ingredients of porcelain.
The first gives the plasticity and tenacity requisite for the
moulding it into a shape ; the latter renders it hard, and
allows of a slight degree of vitrification. The following
is the usual process carried on in the English manufacto-
ries of china. Flints are first calcined, then mixed in cer-
tain proportions with Cornish granite,* and ground to a
very fine powder; water is poured upon this mixture, and
it is twice strained through silken sieves. It is then
boiled till it is of the consistency of cream, and the watery
particles being evaporated, it becomes a tough paste. A
portion of this substance is then placed upon a turning
wheel, and moulded by the hand with a precision and ra-
pidity which practice only can give. Vessels of a circular
shape are formed in this manner, as bowls, plates, cups, and
saucers ; utensils of other forms are made in moulds of
gypsum, the pores of which absorbing the moisture of the
clay, the vessels are contracted in size, and in consequence
may be easily loosened from the mould. Each vessel thus
formed is placed in a separate clay case. The furnace is
filled with these, and then bricked closely up, and they are
subjected to a red heat for sixty hours. The temperature
* It is to the large proportion of felspar in a state of decomposition
that Cornish granite owes the preference which is given to it.
382 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON LXXXVI.
is then gradually lowered, and the porcelain is withdrawn ;
in this state it is called biscuit^ and is white, dull, and po-
rous. Tliis process greatly diminishes the size of the ves«
sels; and it fits them to receive the blue color, called
cobalt,* which has the appearance of a dirty gray till
glazed. The glazing consists of lead and glass, ground to
an impalpable powder, mixed in water with some othei
ingredients, which are kept secret. The biscuit is merely
dipped into the glazing, and is then baked again for forty
hours. It is now ready to receive other colors, and the
gilding which the pattern may require. It is baked a third
time for ten hours or more. Lastly, the gilding is bur-
nished with bloodstone or agate, and the china is ready for
the wareroom. The colors are changed by baking, appear-
ing very different when first laid on than when they have
been subjected to heat. Comparatively little of this ware
is manufactured in the United States.
LESSON LXXXVI.
NEEDLES.
Manufacture. — The material from which needles are
made is soft steel wire of the requisite degree of fineness.
This is obtained by the manufacturer in large coils, each
containing sufficient wire to form several thousand needles.
These coils are first cut up into pieces of the length re-
quired to make two needles, usually about three inches,
large shears being used capable of cutting a coil of one
hundred wires.
* Cobalt is an oxide of the metal of that name.
NEEDLES. oS3
Five or six thousand of these lengths are made into a
bundle, kept together by a ring of steel at each end ;
they are then heated to redness in a furnace, and after-
ward laid upon a flat iron plate, and rubbed backward
and forward with a steel bar, until each wire is perfectly
straight.
The next stage is to grind a point at each end of the
wire. This is done by the aid of a grindstone about eigh-
teen inches in diameter and four inches thick ; they are
made to revolve so rapidly that they are liable to fly into
pieces, and are therefore partially enclosed in iron plates to
avoid injury to the grinder, should such an accident occur.
The grinder takes from fifty to sixty wires between the
thumb and forefinger of his right hand ; and as he presses
them against the stone, he causes all the wires to roll
round, and thus each is ground to a point. So expert do
the grinders become by practice, that they point a handful
of these wires, usually about sixty, in half a minute, or
about seven thousand in an hour. During the grinding
every wire gives out a stream of sparks, and these to-
gether form a bright glare of light.
Pointing these wires is the most unhealthy part of the
manufacture ; the fine dust is carried into the lungs of the
workmen, and destroys them in a few years, very few living
beyond the age of forty.
Wet grindstones cannot be used, as the points of the
needles would be rapidly rusted.
The wires thus pointed at each end are stamped by a
heavy hammer, raised by a lever moved by the workman's
foot. The under surface of this hammer is so formed.
384 FIFTH STEP. LESSON LXXXVI.
that whoQ it falls on the wire midway between th^ two
ends, it stamps on one side the gutters or grooves in which
the eye is afterward made ; and the anvil on which the
wire rests when the hammer strikes it forms the two
grooves on tlie opposite side. This stamping also makes
a slight depression or pit on each side at the spot in-
tended for the eye.
The wires are then passed to a boy, who takes a num-
ber of them in his left hand, while with his right he
works a press moving two hard steel points or piercers.
These come down upon the wire as it is placed beneath
t'»em, and pierce the eyes for the two needles. Each
wire now resembles two rough, unpolislied needles, uni-
ted together by their heads ; and as it would require much
trouble to divide them separately into two needles, a num-
ber are threaded upon two very thin wires, and are sepor
rated by filing and bending.
Any needles which may have been bent in the several
processes are straightened by rolling under a steel bar, and
are hardened by heating in a furnace and suddenly cooled
in cold water or oil. After hardening they are tempered
by being slightly heated, and, if any are bent during hard-
ening, they are straightened by being hammered on anvils
with small hammers; finally, the whole are polished by
laying twenty or thirty thousand side by side upon a piece
of thick canvas, smearing them with oil and emery, rolling
up the canvas, and rubbing them under a press for several
hours or even days.
Drilled-eyed needles undergo another operation — a
fine drill is made to revolve rapidly in the eye of each,
NAILS. 385
to take off the rough edge and prevent their cutting the
thread when used ; finally, the points are finished on a
revolving hone and polished on a wheel covered with
leather, and enclosed in a paper for sale.
Simple as the construction of a needle may appear,
the steel which forms it has to pass through the hands of
one hundred and twenty workmen from the time it leaves
the iron mine until its manufacture is completed.
The manufacture of needles is now carried on to a
great extent in many villages in England, but principally
at Redditch, about fourteen miles from Birmingham, and
from this obscure place a large portion of Europe, the
British Colonies, and the United States are supplied.
LESSOR LXXXVII.
NAILS.
Manufacture and Varieties. — ^Three distinct kinds of
nails, adapted to various uses, are manufactured in this
country. It is stated that of these kinds there are three
hundred different varieties, each variety being formed, on
an average, of ten sizes.
The three kinds are, wrought nails, cast nails, and cut
or punched nails.
"Wrought nails are made of sheet iron, which is cut by
machinery into rods of various thicknesses, according to
the size of the nails required. The persons who convert
these rods into nails are called nailers, and men, women,
and even children follow the pursuit, each person usually
making one form of nail only, and by so doing acquiring
17
386 PEFTH STEP. — ^LESSON LXXXVII.
a remarkable degree of skill and rapidity in its pro
duction.
The first process in making these nails is to heat in a
forge one end of the nail rod to redness ; it is then ham-
mered to a point, and the required length cut off with a
chisel. If the nails are large, the rod is immediately re-
turned to the forge, but if of moderate size, two nails are
made at one heating. During the time the rod is being
reheated, the nailer forms the heads of those cut off, by
hammering them, while still red hot, into the hole of a
steel instrument used for the purpose, called a bore, this
hole being the shape of the head.
The nailers become so expert by long practice, that one
man has been known to make seventeen thousand nails in
a week without assistance. To do this w^ould require
more than half a million blows of the hammer. The
usual number made by each nailer is about six thousand
weekly.
The different sorts of nails are named either from the
use to which they are applied, or from their shape : as
shingle, floor, ship carpenters', horseshoe, rose heads, dia-
monds, sprigs, brads, and spikes. Sprigs are a small, sharp,
taper nail, without heads, used by shoemakers. Brads are
nails with the head on one side, and are used for nailing
floors and ceilings. Very large nails are called spikes.
Rose nails have a broad, spreading, circular head, and are
made of various degrees of strength, and for various
uses.
Horseshoe nails are thin and flat on the sides. They
are made of the very purest and toughest iron, and, after
KNIVES. 387
having been used, the old iron is in considerable demand
for making gun barrels.
Tacks are a useful flat-headed nail, adapted for nailing
down carpets, &c. They are usually small, and are fre-
quently tinned over by boiling them in a solution of tin
and sal ammoniac, to prevent their rusting.
Cast nails are adapted only for coarse purposes, as for
garden walls, nailing up lathing for plasterers, &c. They
are rough, and have the disadvantage of being much more
brittle than wrought nails.
Cut nails are usually punched out of sheet iron, the
most common form being the sparables, or sparrow bills
— so called from their resemblance to the beak of that bird
— and brads, which have a slight projecting head on one
side.
The employment of nails in connecting various sub-
stances, and the uses of the several parts, as the point, the
shank, and the head, are too obvious to require description.
LESSON LXXXYIII.
KNIVES.
Manufacture — Knives, or cutting instruments of va-
rious kinds, have been used by men, from the earliest ages,
for the purposes of war, and for slaughtering animals, cut-
ting food and other substances. In ancient times, as at the
present day among some barbarous nations, shells, sharp-
edged flints, and other hard stones were employed; at a
later period cutting as well as warlike instruments were
formed of brass or bronze, but at the present time, in all
388 FIFTH STEP. — ^LESSON LXXXVIH.
civilized nations, they are formed exclusively of steel oi
iron.
Clasp knives — so called from the blade shutting into
the handle — consist of four distinct parts, viz., the blade,
the spring, the iron sides, and the scales, or ornamental
outsides.
Penknife blades, which ought to be made from the best
cast steel, are forged with a small hammer, from the end
of a steel rod heated to redness, and are cut off with suffi-
cient metal attached to form the joint ; the blade is then
held in a pair of tongs, and heated a second time, when the
part forming the joint is finished ; the notch called the nail
hole, used in opening the blade, is also made by striking
with a chisel of the required shape ; the maker's name is
at the same time impressed by punching. The blades are
then hardened by heating them to redness and dipping the
cutting part in water, and they are afterward tempered, to
prevent their being too brittle. The spring and iron sides
of the knife are forged by hand. The scales, as they are
termed, whether formed of ivory, bone, wood, or mother-
of pearl, are fitted to the sides, and drilled with holes for
the rivets; these are put in' and tightened by hammering,
after the various parts are exactly fitted to each other by
filing.
The sides and back of the handle are afterward
scraped, and polished on a revolving wheel covered with
leather; lastly, the blade is ground and polished ready
for use.
6CISS0BS. 389
LESSON LXXXIX.
SCISSORS.
Manufacture, — Scissors are forged from bar steel, heat-
ed to redness, each blade being cut off with sufficient metal
to form the shank and bow ; for the latter a small hole is
punched ; this hole is afterward stretched to the required
size by hammering it on a conical anvil ; the shank and
bow are then filed into a more perfect shape, and the hole
bored for the rivet ; the blade is next ground, and the
handles filed smooth and burnished with oil and emery;
after this, the blades are screwed or riveted together, and
fitted, so as to work pleasantly over one another. The
screw or rivet is then removed, and the two blades, bound
closely to«fether with fine iron wire to prevent their warp-
ing, are heated to redness, hardened by sudden cooling,
and tempered. After this the wire is removed, the blades
are again ground and adjusted, so as to bring the edges to
a perfect state ; they are then polished by emery and oil,
ground for the third time, put together, and the edges
whetted, when they are ready for use, although some of
the more costly kinds undergo the additional process of
burnishing, by rubbing with polished steel tools, which is
done by women.
Uses. — The use of scissors does not require any de-
tailed description ; it may be noticed, however, that the
edges of the blades are not sharply ground like those of
knives, and that in cutting they crush or bruise more than
that instrument. This does not interfere with their use
390 FIFTH STEP. — LESSON XC.
in cutting thin articles, as paper or cloth, but it prevents
their being usefully employed in dividing thicker sub-
stances.
LESSON XC.
STEEL PENS.
Manufacture. — Steel pens, which are chiefly manufac-
tured at Birmingham, England, are made from the best
fiteel, which is first rolled into narrow strips of the required
width and thickness ; these are then cleaned by the action
of some dilute acid, and cut by means of a punch worked
by a screw press, into flat blank pieces of the requisite
size ; the hole in the centre is then made, and the maker's
name stamped on each pen ; after which, the blank is
curved into a nib, or a cylinder if a barrel pen is required.
Up to this stage the steel has been worked in a soft state ;
the pens are now hardened by being heated and cooled
suddenly by immersion in oil ; afterward they are tempered
to the required degree of elasticity, polislied by being
placed with tine sand or some other polishing material in
a revolving cask, and the nib-ground to a fine point on a
grindstone, or emery wheel ; after this, the slit is cut by a
chisel worked by a screw press, and the pens made ready
for sale by being colored and varnished. The manufacture
is chiefly carried on by women, men being employed only
to repair the tools. It is estimated that 1,000,000,000 pens
are manufactured at Birmingham annually. The principal
demand for steel pens in the United States, and many
countries of Europe is supplied from this source.
ZINC. 391
LESSON XCI.
ZINC.
Occurrence. — Zinc is not found in a native state. The
ores from which it is extracted are of two kinds. In one,
which is termed blende^ or, by the miners, black jack, it is
combined with sulpluir. This ore occurs in tolerable abun-
dance distributed amongst other ores, particularly those of
lead, in Cornwall, Derbyshire, and in the north of England.
The other, which is the mineral known as calamine, is by
far the more valuable ore ; it is found in the Mendip Hills,
and also in Flintshire, Derbyshire, <fec., England.
Preparation. — Zinc is obtained from its ores by first
heating them to redness in an open furnace. This opera-
tion drives off the sulphur from the blende, and some
gases from the calamine. The roasted ore is then mixed
with coke or charcoal, and put into large earthen pots re-
sembling oil jars in form ; these are placed in a circular
furnace, and from the bottom of each pot a large iron
tube passes through the floor of the furnace into a vessel
of cold water. When the jars are heated to redness, the
metal is reduced to the metallic state, and, being volatile,
flies off in vapor, which, passing by the iron tube into the
water, is condensed into a solid form. The metal so ob-
tained is remelted, when the impurities are skimmed from
the surface, and it is then cast into bars for use.
Properties. — Zinc is a bluish-white metal, possessing a
high lustre when polished, and tarnishing slowly on the
surface when exposed to the air. The thin coat of rust
392 FIFTH STEP. ^LESSON XCI.
SO formed appears to protect the metal beneath from any
further change. Zinc is about seven times heavier than
water.
As obtained by casting, it is brittle, and on- being
broken shov/ s a crystalline fracture, but heated to a degree
somewhat above that of boiling water, it becomes mallea-
ble, and may be rolled into sheets, which retain their mal-
leability when cold ; the sheet zinc so obtained is flexible,
and possesses some degree of elasticity. Heated to a high
degree, but still short of the point at which it melts, zinc
becomes brittle, and may be powdered.
It melts below a red heat, requiring a higher temper-
ature than tin or lead } at a bright red heat, in a covered
vessel, it boils rapidly, passing away in vapor ; but if the
air is admitted, by uncovering the vessel, it takes fire and
burns with a splendid greenish flame.
Zinc possesses a very considerable degree of hardness,
considerably greater than that of any of the common
metals except copper and iron.
Uses. — Zinc being only superficially acted on by air
and water, and being niuch lighter than lead, has to a
great extent, superseded that -metal for such purposes as
gutters, rain-water pipes, &c. Its lightness and cheapness
has also led to its employment as a covering for roofs,
and it is much employed in making baths, cans, and other
utensils for holding water. It is not usually employed in
lining cisterns, as it is apt to impart an unpleasant flavor to
the water.
Its hardness enables it to be used for making saws for
dividing blocks of salt; and as it does not rust, it is pre-
BRASS. .393
ferable to iron for that purpose. It is also used instead of
lithographic stone in producing prints, which are termed
zincographs. Its lustre has led to its employment instead
of brass for name plates on doors, &c.
The slow action of air and moisture on zinc has also led
to its employment as a covering to sheet iron, for protect-
ino- the latter from the action of the weather. The iron so
protected is known as galvanized iron. It is made by a
similar process to that used in making tinned plate, the
iron goods being first cleaned by an acid, and dipped in a
bath of the melted metal.
Sheet zinc, perforated with holes, admitting the passage
of light and air, is used largely in the place of wire gauze
for window blinds, meat safes, and other purposes.
Preparations of zinc are now largely used in house
painting, as substitutes for white lead ; and, although they
do not make as opaque a paint as that substance, they
possess the advantages of being cheaper, uninjurious to
the workmen, and are less liable to become discolored.
A very large quantity of zinc is annually consumed in
the galvanic batteries required in working the electric
telegraph.
The only alloy into the composition of which zinc enters
largely is brass. (See Brass)
LESSON XCII.
BRASS.
Composition. — Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc,
various proportions of the metals being employed in order
394 FIFTH STEP. LESSON XCIH.
to obtain different degrees of hardness and color in the
resalting compound. The best proportions for common
brass are about two parts of copper to one part of zinc.
Formerly brass was made by heating copper with calamine
(the ore of zinc) and charcoal, but it is now formed by
melting together the two metals; it is then cast into
plates, which are either broken up for recasting into any
desired form, or rolled into sheets.
Properties. — Common brass is very malleable, and duc-
tile when cold. It is melted more easily than copper, and
readily cast into any required form. It admits of a very
high polish, and does not tarnish or rust on exposure to
the air, and although sufficiently soft to yield without diffi-
culty to the files and other tools of the workmen, is durable
in wear.
Uses. — From its malleability, ready fusibility, and duc-
tility, brass is so easily worked that it is employed to an
immense extent in the manufacture of machinery, wheels
for clocks and watches, and for articles of domestic use, as
candlesticks, pins, buttons, door handles, &c.
LESSON xcm.
PINS.
Manufacture. — ^The making of pins is, from their ex-
tensive use, a very important article of manufacture. Two
manufactories in Connecticut, located at Birmingham and
Waterbury, produce about eight tons of pins a w^eek.
They make their own brass and wire, for which they re-
quire a ton of copper daily ; this they obtain exclusively
PINS. 395
from Lake Superior. In England, for home use and ex-
portation, upward of fifteen millions are made daily. The
old method of manufacture furnishes a remarkable instance
of the division of labor, fourteen persons being engaged on
each pin, without including those w^ho formed the wire
from which it was made.
This method of making pins may be briefly described
as follows : — Brass wire of the required size was cleaned
by soaking it in water, rendered acid by oil of vitriol or
sulphuric acid ; it was then straight en ed^nd cut into short
lengths, each being sufficient for four or six pins ; these
pieces were pointed at each end by grinding on two small
broad wheels, the first used being made of steel, and cut
like a file ; the second a fine grit stone ; the grinder w^ould
take from fifty to eighty pin wires in his hands, and,
spreading them out flatly, apply them first to the revolving
file, and afterward to the stone to polish them, rolling the
wires during the whole time between his hands, so as to
bring them to rounded points at the ends ; from the wires
thus pointed one pin's length w^as cut off at each end;
they were then pointed again, and two more pins' lengths
cut off, and finally they were pointed and divided in the
centre ; the stems of the pins were thus complete, and the
next step was to form the head ; this was effected by wind-
ing, in a lathe, some soft small brass wire in a close spiral,
around a piece of steel wire, the same size as the pins ; this
steel wire having been withdrawn, the coils were cut up
into short pieces of two or two and a half turns each, when
they are ready to fix on the stems ; this was done by the
worker, usually a boy or girl, who would take up sevei*al
396 FIFTH STEP. — ^LESSON XCIII.
of the headless pins, and plunge them into the heads, which
are contained either in a bowl or in his apron ; the wires in
this way would each catch a head, or sometimes more than
one ; the superjfluous ones, if any, were pulled off, and the
pins placed one at a time, points downward, in a small steel
die, and a heavy iron bar, raised by a treadle moved by the
foot, was allowed to fall on each, striking the top of the
pin, and thus moulding or fastening on the head ; the pin
was then removed from the die and another operated
upon ; quick workers could head fifteen hundred pins an
hour, and from twelve to fifteen thousand a day.
The pins were cleaned by boiling them in an acid liquor,
such as sour beer or wine lees, and were tinned by boiling
in a solution of tin ; after this, they were polished by being
shaken in bags partly filled with bran, which was afterward
separated by winnowing, leaving the pins dry, clean, and
ready for papering. The paper in which pins were stuck
for sale was folded by a crimping iron, and the folds were
placed between the jaws of an iron vice, across which
grooves are fixed as a guide ; the paperer passed a horn
comb into a heap of pins in her lap, catching up a number
by the heads ; these were thrust- through the folds of the
paper, one in each groove. The improvements introduced
into the manufacture by American inventors have entirely
changed its character and led to a more rapid production
of pins, and at a much less cost of labor. The machinery
for sticking pins saves much time and labor. The only
attention the machine requires is to supply it with paper
and pins.
Solid-headed pins are made of a single piece of wire,
PEWTEE. 397
the heads being pressed by the aid of machinery. The
pins so made are more elegant, and the heads cannot come
off; but they bend easily, as this mode of manufactuie
necessitates the use of a softer wire than for the common
kinds.
LESSON XCIY.
PEWTER.
Composition. — Pewter is an alloy, the composition of
which varies according to the purposes for which it is re-
quired. Its base is always tin, to which is added, for the
inferior kinds, about one quarter of its weight of lead ; this
latter metal, however, is not used in making the best pew-
ter, which consists of tin with very small proportions of
antimony and copper.
Properties. — Pewter is soft, flexible, but inelastic ; ca-
pable of being bent to a considerable extent, and again
straightened, without cracking. It is of a whitish color,
with a very considerable degree of brilliancy, and, al-
though it becomes dull, it does not readily tarnish when
exposed to air or moisture. It is very fusible, and may be
readily cast in any desired form.
Uses. — Formerly pewter was in almost universal use
for plates and dishes, but it has gradually been displaced
by the great cheapness of pottery ware. It is still em-
ployed for beer and other measures which are exposed to
violence, as it is not liable to crack, and if pressed out of
shape, can be restored by beating on a mould. Its softness
also allows the engraving of names and addresses without
much labor, and, therefore, cheaply.
398 FIFTH STEP. — ^LESSON XCIV.
Britannia metal may be regarded as a harder and supe-
rior kind of pewter, containing a larger proportion of anti-
mony. The best consists of ninety parts of tin, ten of
antimony, and one and a half of copper. Like pewter, it is
readily cast into moulds or rolled into sheets ; it is suffi-
ciently soft to be stamped with cast iron, or even hard
brass dies ; it is also capable of being tumad in a lathe,
and fluted or moulded by pressure ; hence it is extensively
employed in making spoons, teapots, jiitchers, and other
domestic articles. The superior kinds are often plated
with silver, by the electro process.
YOCABULARY
AROMATIC, derived from the Greek Apcw^o, aroma : spice having a pun-
gent spicy smell.
ADHESIVE, derived from the Latin ad-hser-ere, to stick to : composed of
particles which not only unite together, but attach themselves to other
substances, causing them to stick together ; — thus the particles of gum
have a strong mutual cohesion ; it also easily attaches itself to paper
and other substances, causing them to hold together.
AFFINITY, derived from the Latin affin-e.s, related : the tendency which
some bodies have to unite with others.
ABSORBENT, derived from the Latin absorh-ere, to suck up : sucking up
liquids. An absorbent substance must be also porous, for if there were
no pores, the liquid could not enter the substance.
AGGREGATION, derived from the Latin aggreg-are, to collect together in
one flock. A collection of things brought together in one.
ARGILLACEOUS, derived from the Latin argilla, clay : partaking of the
nature of clay, or consisting principally of clay.
ALLOY, an inferior metal mixed with one more precious ; or the com-
pound of two metals.
ASTRINGENT, derived from the Latin ad-string-ere, to bind to : binding,
contracting
AMORPHOUS, derived from fhe Greek o (a) not, and /xopcprf (morphe) a
form : without any regular form,
ACIDULATED, derived from the Latin acid-ulus, slightly acid : made
slightly acid
ACRID, from the Latin acri-s, sharp : hot, or sharp to the taste.
ANNEAL, to heat glass after it is blown, that it may not break.
400 VOCABULARY.
AMALGAM, the combination of mercury with any other metallic sub-
stance.
AQUAFORTIS, signifies litei-ally strong water, but is applied to a weak
nitric acid.
ALKALI, a substance which, uniting with acids, neutralizes their acidity:
it derives its name from a plant called kali, from the ashes of which al-
kaline substances are procured.
ATMOSPHERE, derived from the Greek arfios (atmos) vapor, and acpaipa
(sphaira) a globe or sphere : the air that surrounds our globe is com-
posed of oxygen and nitrogen.
BRITTLE, easily broken : hard substances only are brittle.
CONGEAL, derived from the Latin con, together, and gel-w, cold : to turn
from a liquid into a solid by the influence of cold.
CIRCLE, a circle bounded by a curved line, which is equally distant at
every point from the centre.
CIRCULAR, in the form of a circle.
CONE, a solid bounded by a flat circular surface called the hase^ and a
curved surface tapering to a point, called the apex.
CONICAL, having the form of a cone.
CALCINED, burnt in a fire and reduced to a calx, or friable substance.
CULINARY, derived from the Latin culina, a kitchen : belonging to the
kitchen.
CHALYBEATE, derived from the Greek xaAvi// (chaly-6s) iron : impreg-
nated with iron or steel.
CORROSIVE, derived from the Latin rod-^re, to gnaw : having the power
of eating away anything.
CONTAGION, derived from the Latin con, together, and iaw-gere, to
touch : something proceeding from body to body, by which disease la
communicated.
CONCAVE, the inner curve of a hollow sphere.
CONVEX, the outer curve of a sphere.
CONSERVATIVE, derived from the Latin con, together, and serv-arc, to
keep : having the power of preserving or preventing decay.
CAUSTIC, derived from the Greek KavariKos (causticos), burning: having
the power to destroy the texture of parts by burning or eating them away.
COHERE, derived from the Latin co, together, and haer-lre, to stick: to
stick together.
CALORIC, derived from the Latin cal-or, heat : heat.
COLLISION, derived from the Latin collis-ii«, struck together: the act of
striking two bodies together.
COMPACT, fii-m, solid, close.
VOCABULARY. 401
CARBON", derived from the Latin earbo, charcoal : the pure inflammable
part of charcoal.
CARBONIC ACID, carbon united with a certain portion of oxygen.
CALCAREOUS, derived from the Latin calx, lime ; consisting principally
of lime.
COMPONENT PART, derived from the Latin con, together, and pon-ere,
to place : a part forming with others a compound body.
CYLINDER, derived from the Greek KvXiudM (kylindo), I roll: a solid
bounded by one curved surface and two flat ends.
CYLINDRICAL, having the form of a cyUnder.
DUCTILE, derived from the Latin duc-<l/is, capable of being drawn out in
length.
DECOMPOSITION, the separation of the particles of a compound body.
DILATABLE, derived from the Latin dilat-are, to extend : capable of be-
ing expanded.
DENSE, close, thick : the opposite to rare.
DILUTED, derived from the Latin di\\i-erc, to wash : having been made
thinner or weaker.
ECONOMICAL, derived from the Greek oiKoi/o/jna (oikonomia), household
management : relating to the management of a family.
ELEMENT, a substance not compounded, having but one constituent part.
EMOLLIENT, derived from the Latin moll-is, soft : having the power to
soften.
EXPORTED, derived from the Latin ex, out, and port-are, to carry : to
carry out of the country.
EXOTIC, derived from the Greek i^cc (exo), without : not produced in our
country : particularly applied to plants.
EVAPORATE, derived from the Latin e, out from, and vapor, vapor : to
pass off in a vapor.
EXCRESCENCE, derived from the Latin ex, out, and cresc-ere, to grow :
something growing out of another body, not useful to it, and contrary
to the common order of production.
EXHALE, derived from the Latin ex, out, and hal-are, to breathe: to
send out vapors or fumes.
ELASTIC, having the power, when bent or stretched, of returning to its
original position.
EFFERVESCENT, derived from the Latin eflfervesc-ere, to boil up-, bub-
bling up with internal commotion.
EDIBLE, derived from the Latin ed-ere^ to eat: fit for food, eatable.
FRAGRANT, having a sweet scent.
t02 VOCABULART.
FLUID, derived from the Latin flu-^re, to flow : having parts easily sepa-
rable, and flowing about.
FUSIBLE, melting in fire.
FRIABLE, easily crumbling.
FOLIATED, derived from the Latin foli-wm, a leaf: composed of leaves,
or laminae.
FRACTURE, derived from the Latin fract-M«, broken: the appearance of
a mineral when broken.
FRAGILE, derived from the Latin frang-cr«, to break: easily broken or
injured.
FLEXIBLE, derived from the Latin flex-ws, bent : easily bent.
FRICTIOX, derived from the Latin fric-are, to rub: the act of rubbing
two bodies together.
FARINACEOUS, derived from the Latin farina, flour : mealy, of the na-
ture of flour.
FILTRATION, derived from the Latin filtr-M?n, a colander: the process of
pa''sing a liquid through the interstices of another body.
FERMENTATION, derived from the Lati^ ferment-?<w, leaven: internal
commotion in the particles of a body: plants undergo fermentation
when they decompose.
GLUTINOUS, derived from the Latin gluten, glue : tenacious, viscid.
GLOBULE, deiivgd from the Latin glob-ulus^ a small globe: small globe
or sphere.
GRAMINIVOROUS, derived from the Latin gramen, grass, and vor-ar«, to
eat : feeding on grass.
GRANULOUS, derived from the Latin granul-wm, a little grain : separat-
ing into small particles, or grains, as sand.
GENERIC, derived from the Latin gengr-a, kinds : relating to a genus, oi
kind of things.
GRADUATED, derived from the Latin- gradu-«, a step : marked by a reg-
ular increase of degrees.
HORIZON, derived from the Greek dpiCwv (horizon), bounding: the line
that bounds our view.
HORIZONTAL, in the same direction as the horizon.
HERMETICALLY se;iled, so sealed as entirely to exclude the air.
HYDROGEN, derived from the Greek vSwp (hydor) water, and ytwafiu
(gen-naeiii) to produce ; the lightest gas : with a certain portion of oxy-
gen it forms water.
IRIDESCENT, derived from the Latin irid-csccr«, to become like a rain*
bow : shining with the colors of the rainbow.
VOCABULARY. 403
IMPALPABLE, derived from the Latin in, not, and palp-are, to feel ; not
to be perceived by touch.
IMBRICATED, derived from imbric-are, to cover with tiles : arranged in
the manner of the tiles of the house.
IMPORTED, derived from the Latin in, into, and port-are, to carry : car-
ried into a country.
IMPRESSIBLE, derived from the Latin in, and press- ws, pressed : easily
receiving and retaining an impression.
INDIGENOUS, derived from the Latin indig-ewa, native : the natural pro-
duction of the country. This term is applied to vegetables, as native is
to animals.
INSIPID, derived from in, not, and sap-ere, to savor : having but little
flavor.
INCOMBUSTIBLE, derived from in, not, and combust-ws, burned : noi
to be consumed by fire.
INTERSTICE, derived from the Latin inter, between, and stit-ion, placed :
small space between the different parts of the body.
IMPREGNATED, filled with any quality or thing.
INCISION, derived from the Latin incis-ws, cut in : a cut or wound made
by a sharp instrument.
IMPERVIOUS, derived from the Latin in, not, per, through, and via, a
way : presenting no passage. A substance is impervious to a liquid
when it presents no pore or passage by which it can enter.
IGNITED, derived from the Latin igni-.s, fire : having been kindled or set
on fire.
INFUSION, derived from in, into, and fusus, poured : a liquid in which
something has been steeped to draw out its properties.
LIQUID properly signifies that which nas been melted : anything which we
drink, or which forms into drops. Air is a fluid Water is both fluid
and liquid ; when we speak of it as a stream or current, it is properly
called a fluid, but when we speak of it as passing from a congealed to a
dissolved state, it should properly be called a liquid.
LAMINA, a thin plate.
LAMINATED, formed of thin plates or laminae.
LATERAL, derived from the Latin latera, sides : at the side.
LIGNEOUS, derived from the Latin lign-M?«, wood : made of wood, or
having a woody structure.
LUBRICOUS, derived from the Latin lubric-t(s, slippery: sUppery, smooth.
LAYER, that which is spread over a substance.
MAGNIFYING, derived from the Latin magn-tcs, great, ana d-ert, to be
made : making things appear larger than they actually are.
404 VOCABULARY.
MALLEABLE, derived from the Latin malle-ws, a hammer: capable,
when beaten, of great extension without the particles being sep-
arated.
MALEFACTOR, derived from the Latin male, badly, and factor, doer : a
criminal, an evil doer.
MATURITY, derived from the Latin matur-ws, ripe : ripe, or having ar-
rived at its most perfect state.
MARINE, derived from the Latin mare, the sea: belonging to the sea.
MEAGRE, dry and harsh to the touch : a term applied to earthy minerals,
as chalk.
METALLIC, composed of a metal, or of the nature of a metal.
NATIVE, derived from the Latin nat-ws, born : growing naturally in a
country. When applied to a metal, it means that it is not mixed with
any other substance.
NUTRITIOUS, derived from the Latin nutr-iVe, to nourish: containing
much nourishment.
NEUTRALISE, derived from the Latin, neut-er, neither: to destroy the
distinguishing qualities of anything. The compound of an alkali and
an acid has not the qualities of either, both being neutralised by their
action upon each other.
NITROGEN, a gas : united in certain proportions with oxygen, it forms
atmospheric air.
NITRIC ACID, nitrogen, united with a certain proportion of oxygen.
NITRATE, nitric acid united with another substance.
OXYGEN, derived from the Greek o|us (oxys), acid, and yfwaeii/ (gen-.
7iaem), to produce : a gas; united in certain proportion with oxygen,
it forms the air ; with hydrogen, water.
OXIDE, that which is united with oxygen.
ODOROUS, derived from the Latin odor, a smell: having a smell
OVAL, derived from the Latin ov-mw, 'SOi egg : having the form of
an egg.
OLEAGINOUS, derived from the Latin oXe-nm, oil : oily.
ORE ; a metal is termed an ore when united with another mineral 8u|)-
stancc.
OPAQUE, derived from the Latin opuc-w«, dark : dark, not admitting any
light to pass through.
PONDEROUS, derived from the Latin pond-us, a weight: heavy.
PORTABLE, derived from the Latin port-are, to cany : easy to carry.
POLARITY, the property of turning towards the poles.
PLIABLE, derived from the French pli-^r, to fold : easily folded into
plaits. A young twig ia flexible, linen is pliuble.
VOCABULARY. 405
PULVERABLE, derived from the Latin pulv-is, dust : capable of being
reduced to a powder or dust.
PERFORATED, derived from the Latin perfor-arc, to bore through :
pierced with holes.
PLASTIC, derived from the Greek irXacraeiv (plas3-ei?i), to form : capable
of being moulded into any form.
PETRIFACTION, derived from 'the Latin petra, a stone, and fac-ere, to
make : turned into stone.
PARALLEL, derived from the Greek napa (para), by the side of, and
aWrjKwu (allelon), each other ; running in the same direction with an-
other thing, and always keeping at the same distance from it.
PERFECT, when applied to a metal, signifies that it does not lose any of
its weight by fusion.
POROUS, derived from the Greek Tropoy (poros), a passage : full of small
pores or holes. All bodies are more or less porous, but the quality is
only attributed to those in which it is obvious.
PUNGENT, derived from the Latin pung-er^, to prick: warm to the
taste.
PROCESS, derived from the Latin process-ws, a going forward: a regular
course by which anything is done.
PERPENDICULAR, derived from the Latin perpendicul-?<??i, a plumb
line : in the same direction as a plumb line, hanging freely.
PENDULOUS, derived from the Latin ipend-ere, to hang : hanging sus-
pended.
QUADRANGULAR, derived from the Latin quatuor, four, and angul-ws,
an angle: a form having four angles.
REFLECTIVE, reflecting, or giving back an image : this quality depends
upon brightness.
RESERVOIR, derived from the Latin reserv-are, to keep : a place where
anything is kept in store.
RARITY, thinness as applied to fluids : the opposite to dense.
ROASTING, with respect to minerals, the process by which their volatile
parts are evaporated.
RHOMB, derived from the Greek pofx^os (rhombos), a rhomb .- a surface
bounded by four equal straight lines; its opposite angles are equal,
but not right angles.
RHOMBOHEDRON, derived from the Greek poMjSos (rhombos), a rhomb,
and kZpa (hedra), a base : a solid bounded by six rhombs, any one of
which may be its base.
STRATUM, derived from the Latin strat-ttw, laid : a bed or layer.
SUPPLE, easily bent in any direction.
406^ VOCABULARY.
SMELTING, the process by which the pure metal is separated from th^
earthy particles with which it is combined iu the ore.
SILICIOUS, derived from the Latin sil-ex, tiint: consisting principally of
silex or flint.
SECRETION, derived from the Latin secret-MS, separated : that which is
separated from any other substance, Teara are an animal secretion :
the honey in flowers is a vegetable secretion.
SOLUBLE, derived from the Latin so\v-ere, to loosen : melting in a liquid.
SOLVENT, having the power of dissolving things.
SOLUTION, that which contains anything dissolved.
SPHERE, derived from the Greek a^aipa (sphaira), a globe or sphere : 4
solid bounded by one curved surface, which is equally distant in every
part from the centre.
SPHERICAL, having the form of a sphere.
SOLID, filling up space : in this sense it is opposed to hollow.
SOLID, having particles adhering closely together : in this sense it is op-
posed to fluid.
SONOROUS, derived from the Latin son-us, a sound : capable of producing
sound.
SUMMIT, derived from the Latin summ-?is, highest: the top or highest
part.
SAPID, derived from the Latin sap-<?re, to savor : having a flavor.
SPARKLING, bright in parts and not over the whole surface.
SATURATE, derived from the Latin satur, full: to fill anything till it can
receive no more.
SEMI-TRANSPARENT, derived from the Latin serai, half, trans, through,
and p&Y-enH, appearing : presenting an imperfect passage to the rays of
light, so that objects do not appear clearly through.
TRANSPARENT, derived from the Latin tmns, through, and par-«n», ap-
pearing : yielding a free passage to the rays of light, so that objects
appear through.
TRANSLUCENT, derived from the Latin trans, through, and lux, light :
yielding a partially obstructed passage to the rays of light, so that light
only appears through.
TENACIOUS, derived from the Latin tenax, holding : having particles
uniting firmly together. Gum being tenacious, the particles cannot
easily be separated, and on this account it acts as a cement ; glue, be»
ing more tenacious, acts as a still stronger cement.
TUItULAR, derived from the Latin tubul-?t,<{, a small tube : having the
form of a hollow cylinder.
TOUGH, capable of being bent or extended without breaking.
YOCABULARY. 407
TARTAR, a hard substance deposited on the sides of a cask during the
fermentation of wine. ,
TARTARIC ACID, tartar combined with a certain portion of oxygen.
TRIANGLE, derived fiom the Latin tres, three, and angul-ws, an angle : a
form that has three angles.
TRIANGULAR, having the form of a triangle.
TRANSMITTED, derived from the Latin trans, across, and mitt-ere, to
send : sent from one person or place to another.
VACUUM, derived from the Latin vacu-ws, empty : space completely
unoccupied.
VELOCITY, derived from the Latin velox, swift: speed, swiftness.
VISCID, derived from the Latin visc-?«s, bird lime : glutinous, tenacious.
VITRIFIABLE, derived from the Latin, \itv-u7n, glass, and ^-eri, capable
of being converted into glass.
VOLATILE, derived from the Latin vol-are, to fly : passing or flying olf
naturally by evaporation.
UNCTUOUS, derived from the Latin unct-w,s, anointed : fat, clammy, oily.
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