If MM Jfl • / OP THE jvo ZA^Ay Division Range Shelf- Received, < &LeJh~t K A LX x UH1VELISITY OF CALIFORNIA. PREFACE; OB, LETTER OF INTRODUCTION. My Child : — Amid the severe pressure of daily labors and cares I have tended you. Under depri- vation and humiliation I had but a cheerful coun- tenance for you. Many a long winter's night I have watched over you, nursed and taught you un- til the sun rose, and my weary head without repose entered upon the struggle of the day. It is time you go forth and stammer your lesson to the world. Your dress is simple, for service and not for parade, but your armor shall make you strong in battle. There is no loss of force. The life and spirit of my sweet little Julia, which floated away from her while I attended to you and your wants, will be with you ; and however much you may be abused, never mind, if only thereby other children will be treated more tenderly, and will be kept alive and be made happy. The perishing masses are the import of thy mes- sage ; nothing can save them but an Education aiming in all its parts at the preservation of the individual and the race. Nothing but the solidar- ity of mankind, or, in more homely phrase, the 4 PREFACE. feeling of mutual responsibility, can give stability to society tottering to its very base. Want almost general can only be allayed by industry as uni- versal. Home, the school of great and small, health of body and mind, city and country, in- stitutions, and whatever influences the well-be- ing of individuals and States ; the jail, the hos- pital, the battlefield, the shop and the banking- house, the past as well as the present, whatever touches man, is part of thy message — be brief, but hide nothing. Proclaim the true spirit and principle of Educa- tion ; when you will have done that, the people will know the rest, as Education embraces the whole of life, and ten thousand times ten thousand rules would leave the subject as incomplete as ever. When your message, burdened with facts and figures, fatigues the listener, retire not unwillingly to the shelf, satisfied that the solidity of thy argu- ments will secure to your message another hearing. And now, child of my riper age, of many labors and anxious hours, I trust you and your message to justice that never fails in the end. May success attend you, not for my sake, nor for your sake, but for the sake of the Education of the Race, and the saving of the masses that perish to-day. THE AUTHOR. CONTENTS Preface, • - 3 Introduction, . . 9 Race Deterioration . • i3 Rate of Mortality, .... 18 Rate of Insanity, . . 22 Rate of Crime, ..... 29 Blindness and Deaf- mutism, . . 38 Unfitness for the Military Service, 39 Factory Population, . . 4i Consumption, 42 Scrofula, . . . . . 45 47 General Deterioration, , . . 48 Pauperism, . . 49 Remedies, . ■ ■ • 58 Education and Race Preservation, 62 Degenerated Tribes, ■ • • 65 Degeneracy in Tenement Houses, 66 The Evolution of Education, . , . . 67 Heredity, ...... ■ . . 69 Race Education Defined, . . . 76 Race and Scholastic Education, . 80 6 CONTENTS. Race and Scholastic Education compared, . .82 Systems of Education, 90 Race and Individual Education, .... 100 Race Education further Expounded, . . . 105 Race Education and Division of Labor, . . .111 Woman's Work, . . . . . .112 The School and the Home, . . . . .115 The Development of Education, . . . , 117 Our Civilization and Deterioration, . . . .119 Education and Individualism, . . . . 121 Race Education and Hygiene, . • . . .124 Kindergarten, . . . . . . 133 Education and Social Science, ..... 146 Industrial Education,. . . . . . .152 The Progress of Industrial Education, . . .161 Industrial Education in the United States, . . 170 The Progress of Civilization, ..... 185 The Progress of General Education, . . . 251 Cost of Education and of Crime, . . . .261 Does our Common Education Prevent Crime ? . 263 Does our Common Education Prevent Pauperism ? . 263 Intellectual Pleasures, . . . . . . 264 Education and the State, . . . . . .265 Education and our Financial Crisis, . • . 266 Eras of Civilization, ...... 269 The School the Miniature of the World, . . 269 The Period of Crime and of Education, . . .270 The Half-time School System, . . . . 270 Our Wordy Education, • . . . . .271 CONTENTS. 7 Education and Industrial Labor, . . . .272 Race Education Described, . . . . .291 The Education of the Old Greeks, . . . 292 The Education of Massachusetts, . . . -294 The Demands of Race Education, . . . 295 Race Education and a Rational Idealism, . . 298 The Claims of Classical and Scientific Education, . 303 The Proper Employment of Time, . . . . 332 Men and Women, and their Spheres, . . . 334 Industry, Health, Comfort, and Happiness, . . 335 The Science of Things, ..... 335 The Cultivation of Altruism, 337 Laborers must make a Market for their Manufactures, 338 The People and their Homes, .... 348 The Scourges of Humanity, . . . . 424 Our Resources and our Greed, .... 460 The Threatening Danger, 478 The Duty of the Nation, ...... 478 The Education that is Wanted, . . . . 479 Index, 489 INTRODUCTION. Deterioration is the foundation of our work, which we bring forward, that we may convince men of the necessity of aiming at race amelioration. Certainly, the gradual descent from the meridian of life to natural death is but an inevitable process of individual deterioration, and when, again, whole species and genera of plants and animals become extinct, as the geological strata attests, that is general deterioration. The whole of life, therefore, is a constant struggle of the individual and the race against a world of hostile forces ever tending to deteriorate them. A healthy rural population crowding into un- wholesome city quarters, and transmitting to an en- feebled progeny a constitution deteriorated by the conflux of adverse circumstances is not unworthy the attention of men. The removal of the preventable causes of deterio- ration becomes the more urgent in this country, where a comparatively new soil and a foreign climate conspire against the exogenous white race, as has been noticed from BufTon down to our day, and is patent to every observer from the lesser development of the muscular system, the narrow chest, the pale face, the delicate constitution, the 10 INTRODUCTION. premature dental decay, the greater frequency of consumption, especially among the female sex, and the small fertility even of foreign born women after their acclimatization. Society and the means of preventing ever present morbid tendencies from settling into abnormal and anti-social formations mast be the chief study of the future teacher in our normal colleges. We recognize the importance of the study of man, but, alas ! look for it in musty chronicles instead of in the living present spread out before us like a feast. We might just as well seek the key to the enigma of life among rattling bones. What a world of thought the structure of a pros- perous society presents to us ! and what lessons are to be compared in importance to those the morbid conditions of society offer us. The application of physical, mental and social hygiene to the physical, mental and social degeneracy as manifested by an excessive rate of mortality, insanity, pauperism and crime is the great work of the teacher. This truth is sure of finding acceptance at last, as we are beginning to be oppressed with taxes for the erection of hospitals, mad-houses, jails, poor houses, asylums for the blind, the deaf, the dumb, the idiotic, etc., etc., all the fruit of sin or our indif- erence for man, his happiness, or misery. The very word Education in our day suggests the school, studies, hieroglyphics, and what not. The writer of this work sets out with an inquiiy into the condition of the people, and from a vast IN TROD UC TION. x ! array of facts relative to the increase of the rate of mortality, insanity and the deepening dye of crimi- nality comes to the conclusion that the human race is threatened by degenerating tendencies. The author next gives a rapid sketch of the opin- ions of the great thinkers of the world — past as well as present — concerning the cardinal principles of Education, and proceeds to establish his own doctrine of Race Education, or Hereditary Culture. He endeavors to prove that the preservation of the human race is the primary function of Education He shows that a true Education must be organic and of a nature to become hereditary. He con- trasts the proposed Race Education with our pres- ent scholastic tatooing. He sketches the history of general and industrial Education, as well as of civilization. The claims of classical and scientific Education are fully examined. The necessity of organizing kindergartens is dwelt upon ; woman's work in society and civilization is shown, and Education exhibited as a social science. Pauperism is considered as the great deteriorator of the race, which must be combated by industrial Education. The work concludes with the application of the principles of Race Education to the present crisis, and especially to the American people, to whom an appeal is made to do its duty to the rising gener- ation, for whom to live it is our duty. A hollow and self-seeking literary foppery fills the heads, empties the hearts, and weakens the hands of men. Work is the coordination of all the powers of man, educating them all, and developing 12 INTRODUCTION. in him the capacity and the will to serve mankind efficiently. The world, says Francis Bacon, has grown old with age, and goes to school to the lo- quacious childhood and puerilities of the boyish Greeks ; this is trifling, contemptible, and degrad- ing to modern civilization. Their sience is but sophistry, and their history a fable ; all idle, fruit- less talk, without a single experiment to elevate or assist mankind. It is like the countenance of a virgin with monsters fastened to the womb, bring- ing forth barking and nothing else. Such is an- tiquity, in the words of the great Chancelor, and such is the Education of our youths, who should be trained to will and to do and to save a perishing race. The range of the work, the variety of the topics and their importance, all bearing upon the health and wealth of society and upon Education are such, that parents, teachers, social students and friends of humanity in general, we hope, will welcome it as a storehouse of facts and valuable suggestions. < LIBRARY ^ UNIVERSITY OF v CALIFORNIA. . DETERIORATION AND RACE EDUCATION. PART FIRST. RACE DETERIORATION. WRITERS and thinkers, according to their stand- point or method of investigation, base their sys- tems of Education upon religious or philosophical principles, as God-likeness, duty, humanity, useful- ness, happiness, etc. Most children are not educated at all. They are simply taught the three R's. Many are brought up to get along in the world, no matter how the world gets along ; and a small minority is taught in schools devoted to the promotion of learning, but regardless to the advancement of humanity, while denominational schools care more for the propaga- tion of their peculiar tenets than for anything else ; and only the fewest children are educated upon anthropological principles. Upon a careful study of the social condition of (13) 14 Race Deterioration. the people, we venture to advance the principle that the general tendency of human deterioration must be counteracted by Race Education aiming i directly at race amelioration. Statistics prove that a deterioration of the physi- cal, mental and moral tone of mankind, induced by the present state of civilization, is undermining the race. Many Utopian theories have been advanced against the various ills of society, but a race ame- liorating Education alone can stop humanity in its downward career. Pauperism, with all the misery and barbarity in- separable from it ; drunkenness, crime and insanity, a growing morbidity, leading through heredity to race deterioration, and a fearful infant as well as adult rate of mortality, such are the tendencies that surround us on all sides, and must be com- bated by Race Education. Maintaining, as we do, that the one great aim of Education must be to counteract the cause of human deterioration, the first step in our inquiry must be to prove the actual existence of such fatal agencies. Deterioration is contingent on our pres- ent state of civilization, as labor, especially in fac- tories, is productive of metal, mineral, vegetable or animal dust and deleterious gases, all favoring phthisis. Not infrequently rank poison, such as Race Deterioration. 15 copper, lead, arsenic, phosphorus, etc., have to be handled and are absorbed by the system. Many manufacturing processes require degrees of heat or moisture varying from what the human body can well bear; and often the posture of the laborer, attending one or another technical operation, inter- feres with the free action of one or more organs. Mines, barracks, damp and dark tenements, filthy lanes, crowded towns and factories, penitentiaries, want, commercial crises, epidemics, poverty, misery, degradation, drunkenness, tobacco, opium, and other influences too numerous for mentioning, contribute to this deterioration. It would open too wide a field for discussion were we to enter upon these and kindred causes of human deterioration, the existence of which alone concerns us here, and which we shall prove by the rising rate of mortality as well as of insanity and by the nature of crime. The profound Morel says : " My conviction is that in the majority of cases the insane are of a deteriorated constitution, suffering from a long line of hereditary degeneracy. ,, Everywhere, the same writer continues, insanity increases, so does gen- eral paralysis, and a general collapse diminishes the chances of curability. Hysteria and hypochondria, often accompanied with a suicidal mania or ten- dency, are becoming alarmingly common among 1 6 Race Deterioration. the working people and even in the country. The increase of misdemeanors, crime against property, juvenile criminality, and a physically degenerated community that has not men enough fit for the service, are incontrovertible facts, alarming Euro- pean governments and engaging their most earnest attention. A brigade raised among the weavers in England measured mostly less than five feet. At Spitalfields, the men are not good enough for cannon fodder. "The constitution of these de- generated men," says Dr. Mitchell, " does rapidly descend to the size of the Lilliputians ; the old men among them surpass in strength -the young ones." At Birmingham the men cannot be said to be all sick, but neither are they all well. Among 613 men, only 238 were approved for the service. The spinners and weavers are stunted and rickety. So they are in France and everywhere else. Upon investigation, scrofula, diseases of the digestive or- gans and inflammatory affections of the eyes are most common. Abortions and distortions of the spi- nal column are almost universal among the working people. Often the children manifest an early arrest of their faculties ; they learn but little, and even of this they soon lose every recollection. Often three to four years are not sufficient for these degenerates to learn a little reading and writing. Their lan- guage, their morals, their conduct are all low, loose, Race Deterioration. \j and shameless. All about them is degenerate. Their pale physiognomies are mute, hard, showing nothing but resolution to persevere in evil. These types shock us ; and well they may, for they are personifications of the degeneracy of our race, caused by evils which are more fraught with danger for modern society than the invasion of the bar- barians was for ancient Rome. This degeneracy might be stopped if society would consent to be anything else but a machine, grinding humanity, even at the risk of conjuring up a revolution, to which the present state of affairs must lead sooner or later. Having described the symptoms of human de- terioration among the English working people, Morel proceeds to trace the same symptoms in France, where he finds the masses to have lost the power and inclination for fixing their attention upon subjects of a higher order. Such is the imbecility of the young or their intellectual faculties that the priest has to defer their confirmation. In Rouen, as in most manufacturing cities of France, the population is born and develops under conditions favorable for the formation of phthisis, cancer, in- flammation of the kidneys and of the digestive organs, hysteria, chlorosis, and general, progressive paralysis. The factory children are puny, their intelligence torpid ; and most characteristic is the 1 8 Rate of Mortality: degeneracy which slowly, but surely, undermines the health of body, mind, and morals of the population, visibly nearing a fatal transformation into a fixed order of diseased specimens deviating from the nor- mal type of humanity, in whom the average intel- lectual life is low ; and the double characteristic of their moral and physical shortcomings is reflected in the form of the body as well as in the disposition of the mind. In the absence of regenerating meas- ures these diseased specimens are bound to form progressive types of degeneration. Having established the progressive hereditary de- terioration of the normal type of humanity among the masses, and the necessity as well as the possi- bility of a complete regeneration by the removal of fatal causes, from the labors of Morel, we pro- ceed to the still higher authority of a million statis- tical facts, and we shall set out with those of mortality rate's as best studied, and the sure indi- cators of the vitality and the ameliorating or dete- riorating tendencies of the world. RATE OF MORTALITY. To those who consider mortality rates a senti- mental question, we would recall the words of Europe's greatest statistician : " The people them- selves are by far the most important capital of the State ; and the industrial capital stored up in the Rate of Mortality. 19 living generation surpasses the sum of all other species of capital. Every injury to the physical condition of the people is a loss of the noblest capital of intelligence and physical strength of the nation, and is an absolute destruction of capital/' Dr. Engel, to whom we have just referred, has established the average age at death in Prussia to have been as follows : 1821-1830 28.39 years. 1831-1840 28.34 " 1841-1850 . 27.23 " 1851-1860 26.40 " In Bavaria lived, after the first year, of 1,003 born, 1841-1848 . . 701 children. " 1848-1855 . . 697 " 1855-1862 . . 681 " " 1 862-1 869 . . 673 In Basel, Switzerland, survived the first year of 1,000 born, 1 82 1 -1 840 . . 879 children. " 1841-1850 . . 830 " 1860-1865 . . 802 " 1866-1870 . . 783 Marc d'Espine shows the expectation of life for Geneva to have been as follows : 1814-1836 47.29 years. 1838-1845 43.62 " In Wurtemberg lived, after the first year, of 1,000 born, 1 846-1 856 . . 697 children. " 1858-1866 . . 646 " 1 866-1 868 . . 640 2b Rate of Mortality. In Muhlhausen lived, after the first year, of 1,000 born, 1 830-1 842 " 1 860-1 868 745 children. 670 " In France lived, after the first year, of 1,000 born, 1840-185 1 " 1851-1860 834 children. 826 Neison shows in England an increased mortality, notwithstanding all sanitary improvements. It has been as follows : 1 838-1 844. For males, 2.27 per ct. pop. '* females, 2.104 per ct. pop. 1 845-1 854. For males, 2.364 per ct. pop. " females, 2.209 per ct. pop. This shows an increase of mortality of 4. 141 per cent, in males, and 4.8 per cent, in the female por- tion of the population. W. R. Gray, in a paper published in the Statisti- cal Journal of 1842, says that the rate of mortality has increased in England since 1820 10 per cent, and probably 12.50 per cent. Mr. S. Shattuck, in a paper on the vital statistics of Boston, says: " The average value of life is greater now than during the last century, but not as great as it was twenty years ago. It was at its maximum from 1811-1820, and since that time it has somewhat decreased." He also says : ** It is a melancholy fact, and one which should arrest the attention of all, that 43 per cent., or nearly one- Rate of Mortality. 21 half, of all deaths which have taken place within the last nine years, are of persons under nine years of age ; and the proportional mortality at this age has been increasing." The average mortality of children under five years in 1866- 1870 amounted in the city of New York to 50.6 per cent., and but 4.4 per cent, of all who died during the same years reached seventy years. Of 492,262 deaths in the United States in 1870, 7,986, or 1.6 per cent., were of old age, while 69,896 died of consumption alone. Fully a hun- dred thousand children die annually in this country beyond what is natural, and with them twice as many hearts are broken. But hearts do not count in this matter-of-fact world. The loss of labor during gestation, lactation and the sickness of the child, medical attendance and funeral expenses foot up at least to one hundred dollars in each case, and in the aggregate to ten millions per annum, to a class generally in such precarious circumstances as to be crushed by this additional burden ; and the fifty thousand adults, who die annually purely from degenerating causes, can we estimate them individually to be worth less than a thousand dol- lars ? Or is the loss of the State in the citizen, or of the wealth of the country in the producer, and of the wife and the children in the husband and father, less than this paltry sum? This, then, is 22 Rate of Insanity. another loss of fifty millions per annum. But a hundred and fifty thousand avoidable deaths mean two millions of avoidable cases of sickness and their cost ; and, worse still, so much sickness means so much deterioration of the race, and multitudes of men, women and children decrepit in body and soul, fit inmates of all sorts of asylums and candi- dates for early graves — the last of which is not the worst for them. But one glance more at the most degenerate. Among the most destitute at Manchester, of 21,000 children 20,700 die before they reach five years. In Lille, in France, 94 per cent, of the same sort of children die before this age. In very deterio- rating trades, of 1,000 born, but 15 reach, the age of fifty. Without entering upon details and causes beyond the proper limit of our inquiry, we have established the fact of a rising death rate, which proves a degeneracy Education must protect us against, and this Race Education or Hereditary Culture only, and not school pedantry, can ac- complish. RATE OF INSANITY. The daily increasing rate of insanity is another symptom of human deterioration. Maudsley says : u In the hard struggle for exist- ence, men of inherited weakness, or some other debility, break down in madness. Overcrowding Rate of Insanity. 23 deteriorates health, favors scrofula, phthisis, and faulty nutrition, all of which open the way to in- sanity ; and whatever deteriorates mental or bodily health may lead to insanity in the next generation." Galton says : " Social agencies are unsuspectedly working toward the degeneration of humanity, and it is a duty we owe humanity to study this power and to combat it to the advantage of the future inhabitants of the earth." Griesinger, a great authority in Germany on in- sanity, decidedly believes in its increasing rate. He says : " Misery and privation are its chief causes. Bad nourishment, hunger, cold, fatigue and over-exertion, which of necessity accompany misery, are important physical causes of insanity, and, hence, of race deterioration. Typhus, inter- mittent fever, cholera, pneumonia, acute rheuma- tism, tubercular, constitutional diseases, and anae- mic states — all scourges of the poor — induce insan- ity. The monotonous and hopeless condition of many factory hands, depriving them of all interest in a higher life, is favorable to dementia." Such are the opinions of the leading minds of Europe on the spreading causes of insanity. We shall now prove the terrible fact of an actual race deterioration by statistics, which, though suf- ficient to convince the earnest inquirer, do not begin to display all the facts of the case. 24 Rate of Insanity. According to Dr. Simon, the medical officer of the British government, there were returned in England and Wales in 1852 21,154 poor lunatics. 1857 27,693 " According to Maudsley, there were in England and Wales in 1849 18,560 insane. 1866 35,860 " which is a steady annual increase of 1,000 insane persons for seventeen successive years. The same result is obtained, if we take the state- ment of Dr. Robertson, according to which there were in England and Wales in 1844 . . . 20,612 insane, or 1 in 802 pop. 1852 . . . 26,352 " " 1 " 691 " 1858 . . . 35»347 " " 1 " 544 " 1868 . . . 56,118 " " 1 " 432 " In Scotland were in 1859 4,980 insane. i860 5,226 In Ireland were in 1844 . 10,855 insane. 1863 16,256 According to the General Inspector of the Insane in France, there were in Rate of Insanity. 25 January I, 1835, in the asylums 1840, " 1845, " 1850, « 1855, " i860, " 1869, " Belgium had in its asylums in 10,529 insane. 13,243 17,089 20,061 24,869 28,761 38,545 1852 . 1856, i860 . 1864, £,054 insane. 4,278 4,832 * 5,441 " In the Netherlands there were in the asylums in January 1, 1844 837 insane. 1850 1856 1862 1868 Norwegia had in * . 1,187 " . 1,828 . 3,179 M ^7 T> U Ks ** ^ 1835 • 1845 . 1855 . In the Rhen 1 insane in 334 population. 309 239 sh provinces of Prussia the ratio o the insane to the population was in 1828 ... 1 insane in 1,027 population. 1856 ... " 666 In Nassau the ratio of the insane to the popula- tion was in 1840 .... 1 insane in 607 population. 1858 .... « 318 26 Rate of Insanity. In Wurtemberg insanity has increased since 1832 76.3 per cent., while the population has increased 13.5 per cent. . . Baden shows in 1851 1854 1857 i860 1862 The official reports of Berlin show an increase of cases of mental aberration or melancholia in 100 insane. 158 a 187 << 231 N 255 tt 3 00 " tt 1865 1866 275 cases. 337 " 377 " Massachusetts had in 1 870 in a population of 1,457,351, 3,194 insane. Dr. Jarvis shows in the Fifth Annual Health Report an annual increase of fresh cases. In 1867 . , . 1 for every r 1,546 population 1868 ; it 1,486 1869 . tt i,533 1870 . it i,35o 1871 . tt 1.389. 1872 . it i,357 The intensity of this disease of degeneracy has equally increased, so that at Bicetre, among 100 insane were afflicted with general paralysis, the very worst form and the most incurable, in Rate of Insanity. 27 1828-1829 . . 9 cases. 1832-1833 ........ 16 " 1836-1837 19 " 1840-1841 ........ 25 " 1844-1845 .27 « 1848-1849 34 " A glance at the following figures will show the disproportionate increase of the insane in the Uni- ted States. In 54 asylums were in 1839 . . 1,329 insane, with 961 annual new cases. 1849 • • 7,029 " " 2,961 " " 1859 . . 13,696 " " 5,342 .« 1869 .. 22,549 " u . 8,769 " " The State of New York had in its various insti- tutions in 1870 4,761 insane. 1871 5^73 " 1873 6,003 " 1874. 6,279 " What a commentary these increasing ratios of insanity form to Galton, when he says : " Our race is overweighed and likely to be drudged into de- generacy by demands that exceed its powers. With the deterioration of the condition of the masses, their organizations and functions, there will he plenty of idiots, but very few great men ; and, hence, under the miserable conditions in which the masses of the people live, the general standard of mind is but little above the grade of trained idiocy." 28 .Rate of Insanity, The eager pursuit of wealth, says an eminent writer, as well as the dread of poverty, have their ill effects. Men are excited, anxious, absorbed in the state of the market, petty gains, meanness and dishonesty, until their moral nature and character are sapped, and their nature deteriorated. Over- work, depression, exhaustion, want of culture, pov- erty, drunkenness, licentiousness, are all favorable to the development of insanity; and the number of the insane is rising. The same author relates a number of cases of financial operators, whose specu- lative, selfish minds show their morbidity in the diseased minds of their children, who are either morally defunct or wholly insane. The increase of insanity has been for a century steady, large and universal in the ratio of the spread of our present civilization. Is this lesson not plain enough, when the uni- versally educated Scandinavians have 3.4 insane in 1,000 population ; the cultivated Germans, 3 in 1,000; the less educated Romanic nations, 1 in 1,000; and the most barbarous Sclavonic races, 0.6 in 1,000; and, again, when the ratio of the insane to the population is larger in cities than in the country, and the professionally educated, who com- pose 5.04 per cent, of the population, yield 13.8 of all the insane? If, then, our civilization and Edu- cation are especially productive of human deterio- Crime. 29 ration and insanity, is it not reasonable to ask that Education should studiously avoid and oppose whatever degenerates mankind ? CRIME. Crime may have decreased numerically but it has deepened in quality, and has become a low, permanent type of humanity. The crime of former times was rude force cropping out under other in- fluences as stern virtue, and needed but the restraint of force. The crime of to-day is disease and insan- ity, and cries for help. Sporadic crime is individ- ual, habitual crime is social ; for society engenders it by deteriorating humanity, though it denies the paternity and evades the responsibility. An En- glish judge says, insanity and criminality are con- vertible terms. Plato and Aristotle held crime and insanity akin, and so do Pinel, Esquirol and Prichard in our own day. Morel says, we have hidden in us the germs of the fatal disposition of which we are the victims. But our position that the criminal class is evidence of a deep-seated social deterioration, calls for more than a mere incidental verification. We shall, there- fore, sustain it by the observations of Bruce Thomp- son, than whom none has brought greater expe- rience and thoroughness to the treatment of this question. " Intimate and daily experience/' says 30 Crime. he, u have led me to the conviction, that in by far the greater proportion of offences, crime is heredi- tary, which tendency is in most cases associated with bodily defect, such as spinal deformities, stam- mering or other imperfect organizations of speech, club-foot, cleft palate, hare-lip, deafness, congenital blindness, paralysis, epilepsy and scrofula." " The criminal class," says this great officer and observer, " has a stupid, sullen look, the complexion is bad, the heads and outlines are harsh, clumsy, and angular; the women are positively ugly in form, feature and action. The frequency of tuber- cular diseases among habitual criminals is proof of a low type and a deteriorated system. Most of them die before the meridian of life is reached, and hardly any see old age. The post-mortem ex- aminations show a series of morbid appearances very remarkable ; almost every vital organ of the body being more or less diseased ; few dying of one disease, but generally worn out by a complete degeneration of all the vital organs. Everything indicates a deteriorated hereditary organization." The low state of intellect among criminals shows them degenerate. One-third of the juvenile crimi- nals are imbeciles. According to the reports of the English common prisons, one in every twenty- five of the males is weak-minded, insane, or epilep- tic. Of six thousand prisoners in Scotland, 12 per Crime. jjc cent, are mentally weak, imbeciles, suicides, epilep- tics, besides the fully insane. According to the official report of the Millbank Prison, of 943 con- victs, 218 were weak-minded, 34 insane, besides many epileptics. One in 27 was insane, and the great majority had some inherited physical infirm- ity or defect of intellect. Out of 6,273 prison population in Scotland, fully 1 per cent, were epi- leptic, and, of course, enfeebled in mind and irrita- ble in temper. Morel shows that crime and insan- ity lapse into each other congenitally. Bruce Thompson further shows by the number- less recommittals returned to prison, not three, four or five, but thirty, forty and fifty times, by the utter remorselessness, grossest habitual lying, and total want of all self-respect, that professional crimi- nals are hopeless imbeciles and hardly amenable to moral treatment. What else is this but a degraded organization ? The criminal classes are especially liable to brain diseases and insanity, and many of the great crimi- nals died in lunatic asylums ; and madness among criminals in prison is extremely frequent. In Scot- land, of 2,690 criminals, 57 are insane, or 1 in 47 of the criminal population, while of the whole popula- tion, 1 in 432 is the common proportion. In England, during 1860-1868, 1,244 criminals were detained as insane. In 1857-1867, of 664 %2 Crime. homicides, 108 were declared by the courts of England as insane. Among the habitual female criminals, I in 30 is the proportion of the insane to the sane. Frederic Hill says : " Crime often proceeds from father to son in a long line of succession." Prof. Laycock says : " The line of hereditary transmission of mental and moral qualities is as inexorable in these moral imbeciles as in other men, and adds to the imbecile, vicious and degraded part of the population." Dr. William Guy, upon a thorough research of the judicial record of the Millbank Prison during a period of thirty years, shows that of 5,598 criminals convicted of rape, arson, horse and cattle stealing, burglary, homicidal attacks or violence, and fraudu- lent offences, 232 were insane, weak-minded, and epileptic; 657 were scrofulous or lung and heart diseased; 1,434 were deformed or defective, and 3,399 were sound. The same great authority says: "We have at this moment at the Millbank Prison 200 convicts, who would be much more in their place at an in- sane asylum." The late Governor of the Chatham Convict Prison declared : " I have known as many as 50 per cent, and more of the inmates of an Irish convict prison mentally affected." Crime. 33 E. Gordon, the late Lord Advocate of Scotland, testifies to the great weakness of intellect among those placed at the bar of justice. Dr. Wilson, in a paper read before the British Association, in 1869, reported that from the exami- nation of 460 heads of criminals, and from observa- tions he had made, he had no doubt that cranial deficiency, associated with a real physical deterio- ration, is the cause of crime, and that 40 per cent, of all convicts are invalids more or less, and that the percentage is largely increased in the class of professional thieves. Dr. Campbell found in 50 prisoners, after death, the weight of the brain 2 lbs. and 14^ oz., while the average weight of the brain in other men is over 3 lbs. The average height of 6,022 male pris- oners, who passed through the Worcester Prison, was found two inches less than the average height of Englishmen, and their weight was lighter in proportion. The physical aspects of convicts have become almost proverbial. Bullet heads, low brows, pro- jecting ears, weasel eyes, and other bodily indica- tions of deficiency, are but too general among them. In some of the most ferocious criminals there have repeatedly been discovered after death morbid conditions of the brain or other organs, as tumors, cancers, ulcers, or irritating secretions, 34 Crime. which fully accounted for mental or moral defi- ciencies and for murders committed. Dr. Wines cites many cases of congenitally weak minds, idiots and insane, which came under his notice among our own criminals. Miss Dix has in two years traced twenty-six persons convicted for crime in the Eastern Peni- tentiary of Pennsylvania, who were insane. Every month, she says, men -are convicted and sentenced as if they were responsible, when, in fact, they were not. Among 233 convicts, whose personal relations have been carefully studied under the auspices of our eminent sanitarian and prison reformer, Dr. Harris, 54 were found belonging to families in which insanity, epilepsy and other disorders of the nervous system are reported. Eighty -three per cent, belonged to a criminal, pauper or inebri- ate stock, and were, therefore, hereditary or congen- ially affected ; and, hence, nearly j6 per cent, of their number proved habitual criminals. Dr. Har- ris states, also, that the general observation in the counties of our State goes to prove that crime, pauperism and insanity revert into each other con- genially, so that disease or insanity in the parent produces crime or pauperism in the offspring, or vice versa, crime or pauperism in the parent pro- duces disease or insanity in the offspring. Crime; 35 The progress of culture and civilization has cer- tainly lessened the crime of unrestrained passion and rudeness ; but has the criminal class, until quite of late, been reached ? In England and Wales were committed in 1805 ....... 4,605 individuals. 1815 7,818 1825 ....... 14,437 1835 20,731 1845 • 24,033 According to Potter, crime has increased in En- gland and Wales since the beginning of this cen- tury to 1850, to five times; in Ireland, from 1805 to 1849, to twelve times; and in Scotland, since 181 5 to 1849, to seven times. While the popula- tion has increased 79 per cent., crime has risen 482 per cent. In France were committed for common offenses in 1 826-1 830 .... 178,021 individuals. 1831-1835 .... 203,207 " 1841-1845 .... I95»542 1846-1850 .... 221,414 " Incendiarism has in 1 826-1 865 increased in France over 200 per cent. In London, the proportion of incendiarism to buildings was : 1845 . . 1 in 2,990, 1850 1 in 2,673, 1855 ........ 1 in 2,585, 36 Crime. 1861 1 in 2,370, 1862 1 in 2,180, 1863 1 in 2,064, 1864 1 in 1,980, 1865 1 in 1,900. In Holland, according to Guringar, crime has in the last years increased 72 per cent., and the pris- oners 34 per cent. Norwegia had in 1815, 480 criminals, and in 1845, I >7^ 2 I And what progress have we made in the United States in lessening the number of the great and habitual criminals who crowd our State prisons? In 1850 the entire population was 19,553,668, and the inmates of our State prisons numbered 5^46. In i860 the population was 26,922,537, and the criminals in the State prisons numbered 19,086; and at the last census, in 1870, the population of the United States amounted to 33,589,377, and the number of criminals was 32,901. We see here at a glance, that crime has increased beyond all proportion to population. Neither will it answer to lay it to ihe foreign element, the crim- inal rate of which has remained the same, or even lessened, while the native criminals have increased during 1860-1870, from 10,143 to 24,173. We have proven that the criminal class is a de- viation from the normal type of humanity, and is, therefore, an evidence of actual race deterioration. Statistics have shown us that no decided decrease Crime. 37 of crime has attended our late general progress of civilization ; and, in fact, the recommittals, espe- cially of juvenile criminals, the frequency of female criminality, suicides, infanticides, prostitution and illegitimate births, show all a deep-seated human deterioration. Of course, illegitimate births mean a rich harvest for the grave, the jail, and prostitu- tion, the latter of which avenges itself on society by insidious venereal deterioration, which inflicts upon its unborn victims blindness, idiocy, phthisis, scrofula and a most degenerate system in general. But we must forbear entering here upon this form of human deterioration though not to mention it would be a gross oversight. The causes of human deterioration are vast and many, but the right sort of Education may conquer them all. When the hero of Wagram, Austerlitz and Jena stood at the gates of Berlin, Fichte addressed to the German nation, in the midst of the thunder and storm which burst forth from the brazen throats of a thousand cannons, the potent word, Education, and the relative position of the French and Ger- mans to-day proves the wisdom of the patriot and philosopher. Like an ancient, renowned legislator, he thought Education was the sole function of the Government ; for, where the people are rightly ed- ucated, war, prisons, courts, asylums of all sorts, 38 Blindness and Deaf -Mutism, poor-houses, hospitals and other institutions of the same kind cease to have an existence. blindness" and deaf-mutism. Blindness and deaf-mutism are common, fearful, expensive and preventable. Europe has 5°°r ooo blind, Asia 2,000,000 and the United States 25,000. What a growing misery and public ex- pense. Blindness, congenital in one in ten cases, and then the offspring of a deteriorated parentage, results in the main from causes accompanying misery. Scarlet fever, measles, smallpox, typhoid and other fevers, all preventable diseases, raging among the poor, give rise to this terrible visitation and great public burden ; and so does scrofula. Ophthalmia is another disease of poverty leading often to blind- ness. The strain upon the eyes of tailors, dress makers, needle makers, watch makers, blacksmiths and other operatives causes much blindness ; but lace making is the most fearful trade as far as blinding poor operatives is concerned. Deaf-mutes, Europe counts 250,000, and the Uni- ted States 20,000. That congenital deaf-mutism is a deterioration of the system is obvious from the fact that whilst in Europe 1 in 1400 is a deaf-mute, there are poor regions there in which 1 in 44, and even 1 in 20 of the entire population is a deaf-mute ! Of 644 deaf-mutes in Massachusetts, 350 are con- Unfitness for Military Service. 39 genital and traceable to a deteriorated stock, whilst 304 are post-natal, of whom 112 are the result of scarlet fever, and the rest are the victims of other fevers, diseases and accidents peculiar to the tene- ments and condition of the poor. The blind, deaf-mute, as well as the idiot, are but chargeable to removable causes and conditions of our half civilization. Inherent weakness is the cause of many a form of degeneracy. Under differ- ent conditions the local or general congenital weak- ness leads to blindness, deaf-mutism, idiocy, or other morbid formation, still -birth, deformity, general weakness, or death in early infancy. UNFITNESS FOR MILITARY SERVICE. Michel Levy, the highest sanitary authority in France, cites the following facts as evidence of a general race deterioration: From 1816 to 1840, of 7,321,609 recruits, 1,416,527, or nearly one-fifth, have been rejected for being below the requisite stature or on account of infirmities. In compar- ing the exempted prior to 18 16 with those of 1840, the latter are twice as numerous, though the stand- ard has been lowered from 1 metre 57 centimetres, to 1 metre 56 centimetres. There were rejected in 1852 . . 3.34 per cent, for deficient growth. 15.55 " " infirmities. 1853 . . 4.75 " " deficient growth. 21.03 " " for infirmities. 40 Unfitness for Military Service. The steady deterioration of the people necessi- tated a continual lowering of the military standard, as the following table will show : It was, 1 701 1.624 metres, " 1803 1.598 " 1818 1.576 " i860 1.560 " and to-day of every 325,000 young men who sur- vive their twenty-fifth year, 108,333 are rejected on account of low stature or infirmities. According to the statement of Dr. Mayer, the average of nine years shows 716 out of 1,000 con- scripts being under the standard measure, and 399 on account of bodily ailments. Berlin could not fur- nish its quota in men fit for service by 156 in 1856. If, on an average, 352 in 1,000 men of the most favorable age are rejected by the recruiting officer, what must be the condition of the people at large ? Among 8,794,674 examined recruits of European countries between 1837 and 1856, 1,576,815, or 17.9 per cent., were found below the standard measure, and 3,097,016 sickly, crippled, feeble and otherwise unfit for military service. What a condition ! About 53.1 per cent, of men, at their best age, sickly or stunted in their growth. The official report of the canton of Zurich shows, for the agricultural districts, 29 in 1,000 young men disabled ; for the industrial, 35. Factory Population. 41 FACTORY POPULATION. The deterioration of the factory population in England is seen from the fact that, on an average, the measure of 1,000 factory boys aged 18 years, was 55.28 inches, of non-factory boys, 55.56 inches — a difference of .28 inches in favor of non-factory boys. The same official report shows 2,000 factory boys, aged 9-17 years, weighing 3 pounds less each than as many non-factory boys. Upon examination 51 farmers' boys, old 10 y., 9 m., measured in height 51 inches. 51 mining boys, of the same age, measured 47.3 inches. An official examination of the health of 350 fac- tory, and as many non-factory boys, showed of Factory. Non-factory. Bad health 73 21 Middle health .... 134 88 Good health 143 241 These examinations have been varied without any material change in the result. The following official list of the diseases of the factory and agricultural population of the canton Zurich, in Switzerland, is suggestive. In each 1,000 population were found : Factory. Agriculturists. Eye diseases 13 7 Injuries from accidents . . 14 7 Rheumatic diseases ... 13 9 42 Consumption. Factory. Agriculturists. Lung diseases ..... 37 IO Abdominal diseases ... 9 3 Scrofula and infirmity . . 1 1 5 Ulcers 8 3 The deteriorating influence of the trades is only so fearful because they are divorced from, science and Education, which alone can find the means of rendering them innoxious, and dispose the men engaged in them to be more on their guard. Workers in white lead, arsenic and phosphorous compounds, who deteriorate most fearfully in most factories, suffer hardly any where the employers are highly intelligent and conscientiously disposed, and the government keeps a strict watch over the hygienic management of factories. Nothing calls louder for the association of sci- ence and Education with the. trades, than the pres- ent outrageous poisoning of humanity throughout more or less all the factories of the land. CONSUMPTION. As consumption shows more degeneracy and de- teriorates humanity more fearfully than any — and we might almost say than all other diseases put together — we will just refer to its deteriorating influence in the trades divorced from science and Education upon the men engaged in them. In Berlin, the observation was made that the whole Consumption. 43 population being taken of 1,000 deaths of men over 20 years, 344 are caused by tubercular consump- tion, while among mechanics, 497 die from this fearfully deteriorating disease. This observation is confirmed by the experience of Dr. Hannover, at Copenhagen, who found that upon 60 deaths from consumption among the people at large come 96 among the mechanics and laborers. According to the observations of Benoiston de Chateauneuf, among 43,010 hospital cases 18 to 48.4 of every 1,000 died from consumption, ac- cording to the nature of the different trades and the deteriorating influences, as dampness, danger- ous fumes, dust, etc., accompanying them. Lombard found that, while among men who live in perfectly healthy surroundings, 50 to 89 in a thousand die from consumption ; men working in the close air of factories, as they are managed to- day, die in 138 cases in 1,000; those working in dust of any sort, die in 137 to 152; and those ex- posed to the evaporations of ethereal acids, var- nishes, etc., die in 369 cases in 1,000 from con- sumption. In the always reliable statistics of Geneva, we find among men living under the best possible conditions the death rate from consumption in 44 Consumption. 1,000 deaths 5° Among the tailors 60 1 Machinists 497 Book binders, calico printers, painters, gilders, stone masons, type founders, and millers 4& 2 Jewelers, watchmakers and day la- borers 460 Silk workers 333 Fifty in a thousand we may, then, call the nat- ural proportion of death from consumption to the deaths from all other causes. How loudly, then, do these high ratios of death from consumption call for bringing to bear science and Education upon these race-deteriorating trades, in many of which men grow gray before they live half their years. The dry-grinders die in the majority of cases before they reach thirty-six years ; so do the manufacturers of watches and others exposed to fine, hard dust, like cutters of crystals, stone cut- ters, etc. It is impossible to pass unnoticed this great cause of human deterioration ; but to state in full the disease, deformity, death, and even hereditary corruption of body and mind e'ntailed by each of two hundred trades deprived of the safeguards and thoughtful precaution of science, the school and Education, upon the producers of the wealth of the country, would fill many volumes. U BRA IIY L CALIFOKiSiA. SCROFULA ^ . _ The tendency of the masses toward degeneracy is obvious from the character and spread of scrofula — significantly called by some the people's malady — a constitutional, hereditary and deteriorating disease common among the poor. Mr. Phillips, the greatest authority in this field of inquiry, says that in the cottages of the poor we find the child with a scrof- ulous constitution, often pallid, puffy, insensible, listless; and, if it be not altogether deprived of force and energy, what remains is soon wasted by taxing it beyond its force. In an extraordinary experience extending to the examination of 133,721 children, 24.5 per cent, presented a number of scrofulous symptoms ; in 3.5 per cent, the disease was so marked as to be obvi- ous to the eye. Among 95,586 recruits, 800, or 1 in 1 19, were rejected on account of scrofulous marks. At the examination of 660 persons, between 10 and 18 years, at the house of correction, 95 showed symptoms of scrofula. Mr. Phillips sums up his wonderful experience as follows : \y 2 per cent, of the children of the poor show apparent scars ; 3 per cent, show at a glance en- larged glands ; 24^ per cent, show these enlarged glands under close examination ; 8 per cent, of the 46 Scrofula, adult poor show the same scrofulous symptoms ; 3 per cent, of the population are under treatment for scrofula. In some districts Mr. Phillips found only 1 1 per cent, of the children of the poor scrofulous, and in other districts 72 per cent, were thus affected. Barier found, upon examination of 166 strong children, 21 tuberculous, or 1 in 8; 114 moderate children, 27 tuberculous, or 1 in 4 ; 99 feeble chil- dren, 49 tuberculous, or 1 in 2. How closely want and misery in the parents and children are allied with scrofula, is obvious from the fact, that we find affected with this disease: 4 to 5 per cent, of all the sick in hospitals; 40 to 50 per cent, of foundlings; 50 to 60 per cent, of children received into orphan asylums. When we consider that insufficient or improper food, dark, damp and unventilated apartments, in- sufficient clothing, etc., engender scrofula, it be- comes plain that, with the increase of poverty, scrofula must increase; and, as this disease is of a tubercular nature and akin to consumption — into which it reverts hereditary — the impoverished masses must of necessity degenerate. Scrofula, says a noted American author, that once was a rarity among us, has of late become quite common. Changes of Mortality Rates. 47 CHANGES OF MORTALITY RATES. Many causes contributed to improve the chances of life from the sixteenth to the beginning of the nineteenth century, as the growth of science, the spread of intelligence, the general prosperity springing up with the small trades, which brought with it improved dwellings, food, clothing, etc., the disappearance of periodical famines, the cessation of former ravages from smallpox through Jenner's great discovery ; and, finally, another cause of the apparent great reduction in the old mortality rates, is to be found in the prudentially reduced modern birth rate, caused by later marriages, as the mortal- ity is always greatest among infants. * But with the large industries, the former master has become again poor and dependent ; large cities sprang up with all the unwholesome elements of thick populations, crowded tenements with their vices, drunkenness, worst of all, alcoholism, illegiti- mate births, the trade diseases of modern factories, and all contributed to swell of late the list of mortality. The ravages of our largely increased factory towns make up for the former victims from the smallpox, and our periodical business stagna- tions are as calamitous to the working people as former famines were. There is none but will agree that there are ele- 4 8 General Deterioration. ments in our civilization tending toward the deterio- ration of mankind which must be combated ; our position, therefore, cannot but be tenable that our Education must strive to preserve the race, which it can only by being physiological, scientific and industrial — making us healthy, intelligent and pros- perous. GENERAL DETERIORATION. A picture of France of but a few years ago may serve us as an illustration of our civilization, which strives for perfection in art and literature, for accu- mulation of wealth and everything else, save the one thing needful — the amelioration of mankind. France, with a population of 35,783,170, had Blind One-eyed Deaf-mutes .... Insane Goiter and hunchbacks Deformed spinal column Loss of one or both arms " " " legs Club foot ...... Total 37,662, 75>o63, 44,97o> 42,383, 44,619, 9>°77, 11,301, 22,547, 317,134. This picture of misery is far from being com- plete. The charity murder of tens of thousands of foundlings, the massacre of factory hands and mi- ners, a fearful infant mortality, paupers, criminals, Pauperism. 49 prostitutes, infanticides and suicides, should all be added as evidence that our pretentious age under- stands but little of the art how to prevent the de- terioration of mankind. What a picture the whole of Europe presents of what we call in this age civilization, with its 300,- 000 deaf-mutes, 500,000 blind, as many insane and idiotic, and as large a criminal class ! ! PAUPERISM. Pauperism, like insanity, does not exist in the natural state of man. Under the sweet influences of the- skies, he is in the woods as quick and nimble as the bird or deer he pursues. Only in the at- mosphere, thick with moral and physical poison of crowded cities, he degenerates into a pauper, robbed of all that elasticity and high potency by which man masters every resistance and subjects everything to his will. Pauperism being the parent as well as the offspring of human deterioration, forms such an entanglement of causes and effects as to render it difficult to hunt it down. Our poor- houses reveal at a glance the genesis of pauperism, for there we find the congenitally blind, deaf and mute, the insane, the idiotic, the epileptic, the de- formed, the inebriate as well as the pauper ; and they are not only inmates of the same building, 3 50 Pauperism. but are members of the same family, united by all the ties of consanguinity. This idiot is that pau- per's nephew; this deaf-mute is his own child; "that inebriate is his brother; and that mount in view covers the bones of an old inmate, who found his last resting place in the paupers field forty-five years ago — his uncle ; what are we to conclude from all this but that the pauper is the child of a de- generate blood and family ? We do not mean to deny that poverty, with its harassing care, misery, squalor, crowded tenements and poor fare, with everything adverse to human health and development, is the generating cause of a deterioration that, deepening still more, settles in that apathetic state of the pauper, which is the beginning of a line of deformities ending in com- plete extinction. If a pauper meant a man without money, we should not care about him. If it meant a man without pleasure, we would not care. If it meant a man of sorrow and much trouble, we might, per- haps, not care. But it means more than this, it means a man robbed of his very manhood ; and even more than this, he is corruption and the de- formity of everything that is manly ; he is a dis- seminating mass of crime, insanity and disease ; an infernal brood springing up from him and poi- soning all around him ; an avenging Nemesis get- Pauperism. 5 1 ting even with society that mocked a brother in his deep fall and degradation. Pauperism is, as a rule, attended by anaemic states of the blood, which make continuous exer-" tion impossible, and dispose the poor to scrofula, subject them, to a most frightful rate of infant mortality as also to a very high figure of adult death rate ; and, during epidemics — as the black death, the cholera or typhus — the degenerate poor are the first and often the only sufferers, as the power of resistance is in these deteriorated men reduced to almost nothing. In 1862, among the 963,200 destitute or paupers of England and Wales, were 30,905 insane, which makes 1 in 31.8. If we consider that these insane are adults of from 20 to 45 years of age, which form but one-fifth of the whole population, we will find that one of six adults among the destitute and congenitally poor is insane. And in this frightful amount of mental disease 10,311 idiots belonging to the same destitute poor of England and Wales are not included. And this fearful rate of insanity was gradually rising from 1852 to 1869, until the ratio of the insane to the sane amounted, among the paupers of England and Wales, to 1 in 25, and in the metropolitan district to nearly I in 20. In the United States it is not much better. In 1854 the legislature of Massachusetts appointed a 52 Pauperism. commission on insanity. They reported : " We find the pauper class furnishes in the ratio of its number sixty-four times as many insane as the other classes." Dr. Wm. Guy says, frequent as insanity is among criminals, it is still more so among paupers. Epilepsy, that fearful malady, affecting and en- feebling the mind more than any other, is getting most common among the poor. Dr. Nattuck, phy- sician to the Bradford infirmary, has searched the register of patients for more than thirty years — from 1 825-1 859 — and found the proportion of this malady to other diseases as follows : 1 825-1835 15 in 1,000, 1835-1845 18 in 1,000, 1845-1855 24 in 1,000, 1855-1859 34 in 1,000. Balbi observed the same increase of epilepsy among the poor of Vienna and Milan. These facts, together with the observation of the hereditary nature of pauperism — which congenitally reverts into insanity, disease or crime — leave no doubt but that pauperism is one of the worst forms of race deterioration, and that the paralysis of the human will and its energies is but the result of a fearful dissolution in progress. But, as we have already mentioned, human deterioration is also to a large extent the result of pauperism. Pauperism. 53 Dr. Prichard, the famous author of the " Physical History of Man," says : " The conflict in England in the seventeenth century drove many of the na- tives to the mountains of Sligo and Mayo. Here they have been almost ever since exposed to the worst effects of hunger and ignorance — the two great brutalizers of the human race — gradually producing in their case open, projecting mouths, with prominent teeth and exposed gums ; their advancing cheek bones and depressed noses bear barbarism in their very front. Five feet, two inches, on an average, pot-bellied, bow-legged, abortively featured, these spectres of a people that were once well-grown, able-bodied and comely, stalk abroad diminutive and deformed, while they are specimens of human beauty and vigor in other parts of the country where they have never been subjected to the same causes of physical degeneration. Such are the deteriorating effects of misery ! " Is the pauper condition of the world not a re- proach to the nations, and will it not soon involve their very existence ? To say, simply, pauperism forms in Germany, France and England respect- ively,* 3, 4 and 5 per cent, of the population, or that in these countries 30,000, 40,000 and 50,000 of each million population are paupers, gives no conception of the existing evil. We appreciate more truly the situation when we consider that at 54 Pauperism. the slightest rise of breadstuff's or financial disturb- ance, this army of paupers swells to double and triple its usual proportion. So was in 1847 every tenth man in England and every eighth man in London a pauper. In 1852 every thirteenth man in Paris, every seventh man in Marseilles, and even double as many in Lille, in France, were paupers. In 1855, every twelfth man in Italy, every sixth in Belgium, and nearly twice as many in Flanders were paupers. In 1847, * 83,447 individuals were assisted by the public authorities of Paris, and this number has gradually risen to 237,893 in 1866. But how many hearts agonized in secret, and would not appeal to a public board of charities ? The following statement of Jules Simon gives us a full insight into the extent of public misery. He takes 1,700 francs to be the lowest possible sum a working-man can subsist upon a year with a family of two children. He further states that actually of 500,000 work-people of Paris earn per annum 35,000 1,600 francs each. 60,000 1,400 u 44,000 ...... 1,150 " 160,000 450 " . The remaining make even less. But, then, how do workmen fare with five, six and seven children on such scanty incomes ? And the condition of this Pauperism. 55 half million may fairly be taken as the average state of the masses. But we are permitted to approach still nearer the problem of the actual condition of the people. In 1874 the tax roll in Prussia proved that 58.5 per cent, of the population earned individually less than $100 per annum, and 34.1 per cent, less than $150. Here, then, we have more than nine out of every ten in the proud Empire of Bismarck struggling with poverty; and, in fact, less than 1 per cent, has an income of $1,500, while the great wealth of the country is held by less than one-tenth of 1 per cent, of the nation. The tax roll of England betrays the same sad condition of the people there. In 1865, of a popu- lation of 24,127,013, only 332,431 were taxed on incomes, while the rest of the nation struggled with poverty, their incomes falling below three hundred dollars per annum. In Belgium, in 1856, of 908,000 families, lived Upon alms 226,000 families, In utter misery . ... 220,000 " In poverty . . . . . 273,000 " In comfort 89,630 " Of 100 Belgians, 49 live in utter destitution ; 42 live very poorly ; 9 live in comfort. That corrup- tion and mortality are in proportion hardly needs being told ; 44 per cent, of the children are illegiti- 5 6 Pauperism. mate, and I in every 150 population is a prosti- tute. The fact is, we have volumes upon volumes writ- ten by the conservative Le Play, Ducpetiaux, De Gerando and the like authorities, full of figures like Napier's tables of logarithms, about the wages of every trade for the last hundred years ; the price of bread, meal, cheese, meat, beans, onions, soap, rent, articles of furniture, clothing, and what not, the weight in grains of carbonaceous and nitro- genous food indispensable for the support of a man, woman or child at the different seasons of the year. Governments are turning pale at the ominous results of these accounts, all tending to establish in a variety of ways how the people are wasting away. The Blue Books of the English government, in a lengthy and learned Report, officially advise the people of her British Majesty not to indulge in daily evacuations of the bowels, which are promo- tive of too vigorous a digestion. Two or three a week will do for people in straitened circum- stances Do not the very heavens blush at such misery and insults? Poor humanity that calls for such official dissertations, and such royal philanthropy. Calamitous as 40,000 to 50,000 paupers in the million are, the most desponding fact is the hope- Pauperism. 57 less struggle of the whole million, save fifty or a hundred thousand who are well off. With the pau- per — the degraded and ruined pauper — pity comes too late, he does not care for it, nor can he be bettered ; those who have not yet given up the struggle against the stream, and are still to be saved, should most excite our sympathy. What a mill that does such grinding, turning out to the million fifty thousand paupers of whom a couple of thousands go down in lunacy, and all end in total human brutalization, filling the world with bastards, prostitutes and sneaks, of whom England and Wales alone count 127,839. The following table proves the deteriorating power of pauperism. Caspar showed that there are left of i,coo born : A mong the favored. A mong the poor. 10 years after birth . . . 943 598 25 " 852 553 45 " 624 396 55 " 464 283 65 « 318 172 8 S « 29 9 9O " " 15 4 Wherever, says a very able writer on medical statistics, pauperism with its want and misery pre- vails, there the mother is more likely to die in labor ; there still-births will be more frequent ; there the deaths during infancy will be more numerous ; there epidemics will rage with more violence ; there 58 Remedies. the recoveries from sickness will be fewer, and death will usually happen at an earlier period of life. All Education is thrown away on men in this condition, for you cannot engraft virtue on physical misery. The advocates of the old rtfgime claim for slavery that pauperism did not exist under it. But are we not to bear the sight of a brother with a square meal and a decent bed and shelter to rest him from the fatigue of an honest day's work without we own him like a sheep, a horse or a cow? The rates of mortality of poor-houses are often higher than those of prisons, insane asylums and even than those of hospitals. Is this not proof enough that pauperism is one of the worst phases of race deterioration ? That the county houses, in which the poor are collected, hardly harbor a man, woman or child with a sound limb, organ or brain, establishes only our proposition, that pauperism is evidence of a deteriorating humanity. REMEDIES. This tide of human corruption, wrong and infamy has ceased to be a subject for the consideration of curious students ; the despairing millions are put- ting their hands to it ; the very names of their societies and organizations and public organs all over the world, fill volumes. To prevent a war more bloody and desolating than the world has Remedies. . 59 yet seen, what is proposed ? Communism, public charity or co-operation. Communism, destructive of liberty and individ- uality, is complete despotism. Besides, by destroy- ing individual motives and responsibility, it de- creases productiveness and increases poverty, want and misery. Public charities were nowhere organized on so great a scale as in England, which raised a poor tax equal to the entire revenue of a kingdom, and they failed ; for they are but an ill-concealed com- munism, and share in the same improvidence. But even co-operative societies would bring but little help, as with the present remorseless competition, societies would wage the same ruinous war against one another as now individuals do. The world of the future is not to be a monster soup kitchen. The conception is poor, paltry and impossible. We want a more varied and higher productive power and moral energy. The world is becoming a school house, training the race for more efficient and more perfect work. Forty years ago the total value of the school property of the State of Massachusetts was half a million ; to-day it is seventeen and a half millions. The school prop- erty of the State of New York amounts to thirty millions. This shows the direction we are march- ing in. 60 Remedies. Pauperism is want of energy, power, health and strength. We must, therefore, introduce into our system of Education the element of physical work to train the rising generation to labor and exertion. Better we combine work with Education, than build poor-houses and penitentiaries, and introduce work at that late stage. When labor and intelligent reflection accompany each other in childhood and youth they will remain united through life, and the social problem will be solved. The productiveness of labor will increase then in more than one way ; the laborer will lessen his expensive and injurious indulgences, while he will increase his substantial comforts and nobler pleasures, which add to his power and efficiency. Nothing but Race Education, training all classes — capitalists as well as laborers — for accomplishing together the great work of saving, elevating and preserving the race, can deliver us from the violent revolution that threateningly overhangs the social sky. Our present school system breaks a boy from ■ any inclination he may have had for physical labor ; it fills the country with seekers for clerkships and office hunters of all sorts ; and the laboring people feel that the children who are to take up their work are not benefited by such schools. Through union with labor the school becomes the institution of Remedies. 61 the people, and renders Education common and universal, as the lovers of the race ever wished to see it, and solves every problem, as an active and intelligent people will ever be able to cope with the difficulties of their situation. Or does any one pretend that pauperism offers no problem for solu- tion this side of the Atlantic ? Let us, then, just glance at the Empire State, and notice the progress of pauperism, which in- cludes every other private as well as public vice and misfortune, and we will find its rate rising from year to year. County Poor-house Population. City Poor-house Population. Total. 1871 • • ^,933 39,286 58,219, 1873 . . 20,193 41,737 61,930, 1874 . . 26,094 43719 69,813. But the army of the poor that had to be relieved by the board of charities was much larger than the one supplied inside the poor-house, and amounted in 1874 to 122,391, which, added to the first, gives 192,204 individuals provided for by the public chari- ties. But to form a correct idea of the deterioration, that is partly the cause and partly the effect of pauperism, let us look at the 18,933 paupers inside the poor-houses of the State of New Yprk in 1871, and the causes which brought them there : 62 Education and Race Preservation. Drunkenness Debauchery Idleness . . Vagrancy . Lunacy . . Idiocy . . Blindness . Deaf-mutism Sickness Lameness . Decrepitude Old age Indigency . Orphanage . Bastardy Not ascertained 4,846, 616, 873, 1,023, 1,652, 416, 204, 7o, 730, 427, 942, 1,735. 249, 3ii» 3,058. What a system of Education, life and philosophy, the fruitage of which is such a pandemonium com- pounded of hundreds of poor-houses, each teem- ing with prostitutes, bastards, drunkards, insane, idiots, epileptics, orphans, lame, sick, blind, deaf- mutes ; and yet this queer medley of vice, misery and corruption is but a sharply drawn picture of the outside world. ; EDUCATION AND RACE PRESERVATION. We must organize schools which will make poor- houses, penitentiaries, insane asylums and the like institutions unnecessary. A school which cannot do this has no right to exist, and it will most as- suredly fail /to bring about such a consummation, if it does not strive for it directly, studiously and Education and Race Preservation. 63 intelligently. Or has Education rro higher aim than geography and grammar, and does it take no interest in the weal or woe of man, and in the calamities and misfortunes of life which develop from habits contracted in early childhood ? Race Education must lay a new and deep foun- dation in the heart, head and hands of the people. It must discard shams and illusions, restrain our selfishness, and set us to work for one another. It must stop our crime-creating society in its work of scattering broadcast the seeds of death and dis- ease, of raising one crop after another of half a million of defectives and of undermining the health of all, as none can be all well in an atmosphere which breeds such a distemper. Necessity will force us at last to give heed to these lessons. The capital absorbed in the State of New York in insane, blind and deaf-mute asylums, in poor- houses, houses for orphans and hospitals, amounts to $50,000,000, and the yearly outlay on these in- stitutions is fully $10,000,000. Correctional insti- tutions, criminal courts and penitentiaries, police force, etc., are not included in this sum. And as we cannot long continue the present barbar- ous fashion of lumping together all sorts of defect- ives in these sinks of wretchedness and misery we call poor-houses, and will have soon to put the blind, the deaf-mutes, the insane, the idiot, the re- 64 Education and Race Preservation. spectable but indigent old, and, finally, the chil- dren, into institutions their condition calls for, we shall have to double the sum presently expended upon them. To save the State from these bur- dens we must save humanity, and the prevention of human degeneracy must become the great aim of public Education. Education is the natural function of parental aid extended to the undeveloped young for its pres- ervation ; and while among animals it stops at the individual, among men it takes in the race, the pres- ervation of which is the only natural and sensible function of Education. Our educators study to reduce the statistical fig- ures of illiteracy, but look upon those of insanity, the blind, the deaf-mutes and the idiots as God- appointed social quantities. The high figures of these miseries are so constant, because our barbar- ity is ever the same, and we make no attempt at lessening them. Noble men have plead for the bettering of the condition of the insane, the idiot, the blind and the deaf-mute ; but what is wanted is an earnest effort for the prevention of these miseries, which are all the offspring of a constitution weakened by wretched living and other unhygienic conditions, under which* mostly the poor degenerate. In pleading for the tens of thousands of insane, Degenerated Tribes. 65 idiotic, blind, deaf and dumb we plead for a hundred times as many outside the asylums ; for nature tol- erates no quick transitions, and we differ all but in degree from one another ; and for every one who is all insane, idiotic or criminal, hundreds are partially so, and that just in proportion to their coming under the control of the same wide-spread causes. To prevent human deterioration means to strengthen and purify the whole nation, and to defer its extinction a thousand years. And is such an aim unworthy of. our schools? DEGENERATED TRIBES. Degeneracy, surrounding us on all sides, appears to us as the normal condition of mankind, which is not apt to lead to the disintegration of the race and the nation. But a little reflection and obser- vation may convince us that the process of deterio- ration, though working by imperceptible degrees, brings about in the end fearful results. The earth is full of kindred tribes, of which some are mean in body and spirit, brutal, lazy and stupid, by reason of the barren territory they occupy, and which starves and dwarfs them, while tribes of the same descent, but more favorably placed, are well- formed, active and intelligent. Europeans, who, by their enterprise and valor, have made noticeable maritime conquests, have 66 Degeneracy in Tenement Houses. through unfavorable surroundings fallen behind the very savages their ancestors have subdued. A most appalling illustration of the low type of humanity into which whole communities may de- generate from want of pure air, water, light and food, is afforded by the disgustingly deformed and idiotic cretins, found in great numbers at the base of great mountains and in deep valleys, with the air stagnant, in certain localities of Germany, Switzerland, France, Italy, Denmark, Norway, the Highlands of Scotland, Turkey, Russia, China, Su- matra, South America, etc. DEGENERACY IN TENEMENT HOUSES. But the crowded tenements of our large cities contain all the elements of the climatic influences which produce cretins, and we need not roam the world over to find illustrations of permanent types of a degraded sort of humanity. The pauper and criminal class show all the characteristics of a spe- cific low type of humanity, and not only threaten our future, but are a burden to the present gen- eration. How unsound must be our general condition and how unsafe our future, with half our dead dying from unnatural causes, with throe millions of avoidable cases of sickness per annum, half a million of habitual drunkards, criminals and pau- The Evolution of Education. 67 pers — not to mention an army of defectives of every description. The duty of Education to counteract this degen- eracy, and the system it must pursue to reach this important end, will form the contents of the follow- ing chapters. THE EVOLUTION OF EDUCATION. The catechism formed once the entire outfit of the school. Education meant then to believe. The reaction followed, and Education meant next to know. This, too, was found hollow, and Education was next taken for teaching us how and what to be, which again ended in moral formalism and in a re- fined sentimental self-seeking. We expound Edu- cation as the art of preserving the race by training us what to do. To believe, to know, to be, to do, and, finally, the synthesis of all the four form the com- plete evolution of Education springing up in the order of the human faculties, perception, reason, emotion and the will. The three distinct ages of childhood, boyhood or girlhood, and youth or maidenhood, indicate three phases of Education. In the first, our being is to be developed in the infant training school ; in the second, the opening mind is to be furnished with knowledge in the common school, and in the third we are to be set to work in the school of 68 The Evolution of Education. industry preparatory to life we are about to enter. Our being, knowing afifcT doing are to be determined at these three different ages. Our present Edu- cation plainly teaches by its practice, never mind what you are or what you do, if you only are know- ing ; and, hence, cunning rather than character and useful activity is fostered by our schools. How long, oh ! how long does the watchman of the night cry, When shall the blind see, the deaf hear, the dumb speak, the simple understand, the lame walk forth, the sick take up their bed, prison- ers go free, and the people's dead rise ? How long, how long? does the voice of reason and experience respond to the voice of the watch- man in the night, until the art of raising men will come to honor, and mothers will learn how to edu- cate children, and children will be trained for virtue and activity in the infant sanctuaries of the nation, and young men will be prepared in temples de- voted to art and manual skill for usefulness ; until the body and its physical powers will be inured to active work. Not until then will men be healthy and honest, will the blind see, the deaf hear, the dumb speak, the simple understand, the prisoners go free, and the people's dead rise. LIBRARY x UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. X = — PART SECOND. HEREDITY. HISTORY joins her testimony to that of statis- tics, and the decay of Egypt, Assyria, Greece, Carthage, Rome, the Byzantine Empire and the Saracens give evidence of the deteriorating ten- dency inherent in human society. Only an Education wisely directing its efforts toward counteracting this deterioration can delay the death of a nation. Despotisms, aristocracies, democracies ; in short, distinctive forms of government have distinctive vicious tendencies, so have the different pursuits — as agriculture, manufacturing, commerce, or the dif- ferent stages of civilization ; and each of these vary- ing conditions require a distinctive system of Edu- cation for counteracting its peculiar degenerative tendencies. As the masses live under conditions tending almost universally toward their deterioration, Edu- cation must directly aim to counteract this dete- rioration through measures leading to hereditary im- provement. The principle of heredity or the trans- (69) 70 Heredity. missibility of structural peculiarities from parent to offspring has already been recognized by Hippoc- rates, and has been fully established by Darwin and other naturalists. The principle of heredity has been fully discussed in regard to genius by Galton ; in regard to psychological morbidity by Lucas, Despine and Mireau ; in regard to crime by Bruce Thompson ; in regard to insanity by Morel, Maudsley and others, and in a more general way by Herbert Spencer, Ribot and others. Nobody doubts but that the general nature of the parent is transmitted to the child. That less important peculiarities are transmissible is not so plain, nevertheless established. Many families have been known in which four, five and six generations had more or less than five fingers on each hand. Baldness, defective teeth, deafness, cataract, have been known to be congenital, and the gout, con- sumption and insanity are universally so ; other affections are more or less so, and nervousness in parents generally appears in the children. Singular habits are often formed through pecul- iar surroundings, and give rise to peculiar structural formations. Domestic birds that have no use for flying lose the power of the wing. Cave fishes, like moles, lose the organ of sight almost entirely. Domestic animals, which are not exposed to hostile attacks from other animals and do not raise their Heredity. 71 external ear in the act of spying the feared danger, lose the power of doing so just as man has lost it ; and, hence, the importance of fostering mental habits, as attention, reflection, self- observation, will, etc., as these habits condition corresponding structural peculiarities in the brain, become trans- missible, and, after ages, permanent features of the race. That even newly acquired habits are transmis- sible has been established beyond contradiction. It is maintained, with much reason, that merely the predisposition to disease and malformation, insanity, dipsomania, crime, consumption, etc., is transmitted and only developed under conditions favoring the formation of these peculiarities. This explains why often the peculiarity which appeared in the parent does not appear in all the children, and often shows itself only after two, three and four generations, when. surrounding conditions con- spire with the innate tendency they make actual. Let the educator bear in mind that human de- terioration can only be prevented by calling to his aid influences adverse to the development of un- desirable hereditary tendencies, and that the im- provement of mankind can only be secured by con- ditions favorable to the development of desirable hereditary tendencies. It is not often that the one or the other set of *J2 Heredity. qualities is so unalterably fixed in the mind of the child as to leave nothing to be done by Education. We are the work of two factors — of innate ten- dencies, which are the work of nature, and of sur- roundings and habits, which are the work of man and of Education. Heredity and human agency have each their limits, which it is well to bear in mind in order to avoid opposite, but equally dangerous mistakes. We cannot do all, but neither is our agency re- duced to nothing. Only by realizing the power of heredity as well as the power of external condi- tions, are we sure to press both into the service of mankind and thereby prevent human deteriora- tion. We hold with Dr. Carter that the habit of exer- cising the judgment increases the power of this intellectual operation by stimulating the growth of its nervous organ, and that, as a general rule, a maris brain grows to the kind of activity most habit- ual to it — whether sensational or intellectual — and a tendency to the character thus impressed upon it is transmitted in some measure to his offspring. Or, as Darwin and Herbert Spencer show, external influences may considerably change functions which in their turn modify the organ which becomes per- manent and fixed in the race through heredity. Our mental powers have attained their present Heredity, 73 perfection through the cumulative or hereditary effect of a thousand generations, and are as capa- ble of hereditary improvement in the future as they have been in the past. It is high time the hereditary tendency of mental characteristics be intelligently applied in the Edu- cation of the race. The presumption is that, as the organ is hereditary, the function must be so, too. Thinking improves the brain under certain condi- tions, and with the improved brain the thinking is transmitted. Dr. Gall has maintained as much sixty years ago, and Auguste Comte recognizes the fact. Thomas Buckle was still in doubt, but observation has established the hereditary nature of our moral and intellectual faculties. Both Senecas were noted for their extraordinary memories. So were An- naeus, father and son ; and in modern times the Porson family. The hereditary nature of the imagi- nation is illustrated by the poetic eminence of the Greek poets Sophocles, his son and grandson ; Aristophanes, the famous comic poet, and his three sons ; Ariosto, of the " Orlando Furies©/' his brother, Gabriel, and his nephew, Horace ; Tasso, the renowned author of "Jerusalem Delivered," and Bernardo Tasso, his father, the greatest poet of his* time, though eclipsed by his great son; music has descended through two centuries in the family of the Bachs. 4 74 Heredity. The family history of scientific men shows the intellect just as subject to the law of heredity as the imagination ; an observation holding true from Aristotle down to Darwin, and of which we t will cite a few instances. Jacques Bernouilli, a dis- tinguished mathematician and scientist, had two sons, four grandsons and two great-grandsons equal- ly renowned in one or another branch of science. Cassini, a celebrated astronomer, had a son, grand- son, great-grandson and a great-great-grandson, all distinguished astronomers and naturalists. Euler, the celebrated mathematician, had a father and three sons, all great mathematicians. Gregory, the distinguished mathematician, counted fifteen mem- bers of scientific ability in his family. Sir William Herschel, the renowned astronomer, his son, John Herschel, his daughter and two grandsons, are among hundreds of illustrations of the principle of heredity. The will-power, prominent in statesmen and sol- diers, follows the same law, as is manifest from the names of the Adams, Colberts, Foxes, Guises, Medicis, Pitts, Peels, Richelieus, Walpoles, Charle- magne, Collignys, Gustavus Adolphus, Maurice of Nassau, and many other equally distinguished fami- lies. It is not pleasant to dwell upon the shady side of human nature, or we could cite as many illustra- Heredity. 75 tions of the hereditary nature of drunkenness, theft, suicide, homicide and other crimes and vices. We shall illustrate this tendency by the sketch of one or two unfortunate families. Jean Chretien shows the following descendants by three sons : Two grandsons condemned for life to hard labor for robbery and murder ; one grandson condemned to death ; one great-grandson transported for rob- bery ; one great-grandson died in prison guilty of many robberies ; one great-grandson died falling from a roof he was scaling in the attempt of rob- bery ; one great-grandson died guilty of many rob- beries ; two great-granddaughters died in prison, where they were sent for theft ; one great-great- grandson condemned to death for murder and robbery. Bruce Thompson tells of 904 convicts at Perth, 404 of whom were recommitted. In a house of detention were 109 convicts belonging to 50 fami- lies, and 8 members of one family. " A most striking illustration of hereditary degen- eracy offers the Thirtieth Annual Report of the Prison Association of the State of New York. The Juke family, located in the State of New York, is descended from five sisters who were born 1 720-1 740, and counts among its members 140 criminals and offenders, 60 habitual thieves and 50 76 Race Education Defined. common prostitutes. Seven murders have been committed by this family, and one and forty years have been spent by it inside the prison. The reporter of this case asks : " Do our courts, our laws, our almshouses and our jails deal with the question presented?" To us it seems, when once the problem reaches the court, the almshouse or the jail, it is already too late, and matters but little how they deal with it. The far more impor- tant query is, does our system of Education deal with this question? Shall we, by example, sur- roundings and judicious training, produce gener- ations of Fenelons, Franklins and Aragos, or let heredity uncontrolled breed families^ and gener- ations of the Chretien and Juke style, and bank- rupt humanity? RACE EDUCATION DEFINED. But Education to be hereditary must be some- thing different than a mere cramming process. True Education is the constitutional improvement of the whole man. Man, and not scholarship, Is the aim of Education. The constitutional improve- ment of man is effected by the training of the body, the senses and the functions of the brain to the highest degree of power and active use. This training must take place in the formative period of earliest infancy, in order to improve the Race Education Defined. jj very organization, that it may work rightly and automatically through life. Education must be functional and affect the or- ganization of man, if it is to be hereditary. Education, when hereditary,, is not lost with the individual, but is what it ought to be — Race Education. Education, when so constituted as to become hereditary in its effects, forms a truly National Education. An Education that affects the constitution of man through habitual training in the formative period of earliest infancy, forms man's character; and if the training is of the right sort, it makes him a good man ; and a like training of the whole people forms a noble national character. The practical training of the eye, the ear, the hand, the intellect and the will in the formative period of earliest infancy makes an effective, indus- trious individual, and a like general training renders a nation industrious, inventive and prosperous. Our bookish Education keeps us from observing and using our senses with accuracy — a power of universal usefulness, and yet so rare. The present bringing up called by a misnomer Education, neglecting the child in the formative, and, therefore, most^ susceptible and assimilative period of its earliest infancy, fails to form its char- 78 Race Education Defined. acter or to develop its powers; it fills the world with conceptions lacking execution, aspirations un- satisfied, promises unfulfilled, beautiful theories and poor practice, and, hence, the conflict between the ideal and the real,. which constitutes the contradic- tion and the misery of the times. Education must put the child to work; for by work man is perfected. And what he does not achieve, he never comprehends ; and, hence, the •barrenness of the word-learning of the schools. It profits but little the individual, and none at all the race or nation. Habit and heredity, judiciously controlled, ame- liorate man; left to themselves they deteriorate him. We haye to this day neglected to aim at the cumulative effect of Education through the prin- ciple of heredity, and have failed to secure as great an abundance of good and wise men, inventors, statesmen and sages as we might, while the vicious have even by the power of this principle spread themselves through generations until they threaten to curse the nation with a brood of criminals, pau- pers and imbeciles. There is something of the infinite in moral obli- gation ; and our duty toward the present, to be rightly performed, must take in the remotest fu- ture. The solidarity of mankind extends through Race Education Defined. yg all time as through all space, or as far as man's existence spreads. Only when based upon the principle of heredity we shall educate man for the future of the race, w T ill the individual be blessed in his present relations ; while an Education that ig- nores the future of the race sacrifices likewise the true interests of the individual and of the present, which are inseparably linked to the whole of hu- manity. Only when national infant schools will watch over, cultivate and direct the growth of the bodies and souls of the dear little ones of the nation ; and the future mothers of the race, instead of being unsexed in factories, will be trained in these na- tional schools for their truly noble work in the nursery, will our homes be co-workers with our schools; and people and teachers will form one great educational association, joining heart, head and hand in the great national work of rearing up the rising generation. Only when the principle of heredity will be made the foundation of a system — which will be the Edu- cation of the race and the nation as well as of the individual — will men of enlarged capacities of head and heart consecrate themselves to the work of Education, which under their hands will no more be a thoughtless routine, but science, life and prac- tice. There was a heathen age, wjien it was the 80 Race and Scholastic Education. ambition of the great and the wise to guide and teach the young, who grew up to men worthy of their teachers, who were sages ; that time must and will come again, and then humanity will be blessed. Nothing but a thorough, consistent and well- directed Race Education will free the masses from the blight of pauperism, madness and crime, and remove from us the disorganizing selfishness and incapacity for good that sadden us on every side. Education at public expense, directed by the na- tion, must be national, securing the perpetuity of the commonwealth and the well-being of the masses, and that can only be achieved by hered- itary Race Education, which is improving the quality and increasing the energy of every God- given power of the body and soul of man. RACE AND SCHOLASTIC EDUCATION. Race. Education is the only solution of the great social problem arising from hereditary defective- ness and the consequent increase of pauperism, misery, crime and insanity. While our routine Education is scholastic, exer- cising the memory at the expense of every other faculty and to the injury of the force of body and soul, Race Education, or Hereditary Culture, is hygiene applied to the physical, mental and moral nature of man.- Race and Scholastic Education. 81 Race Education, by training the present genera- tion, determines the condition of the next one ; it watches over the first hours and days of man, when the foundations of his character are laid ; it watches with unwearying solicitude over the waive in its charge, as a mother does over her babe. Race Education makes physical culture the basis of its future operations ; and, hence, gymnastics form an important part of its system. Race Education, by its own hygienic tendency, inures the people to an habitual observance of the sanitary laws of body and mind, and secures there- by the health and strength of the nation. Race Education, or Hereditary Culture, makes the practice of art and industry integral parts of its system ; first, because activity is health, and, secondly, because activity transforms the physical world into things of beauty and use, which, in their turn, become means of a more perfect life ; while the scholastic system has its eye fixed upon an ar- tificial literary standard, unconcerned about life, health and power, and is entirely theoretical and notional. Race Education, or Hereditary Culture, as it dif- fers from scholastic Education in aim and method, so it differs from it in the objects of knowledge, or the subjects it gives prominence to in its course of instruction. It cultivates the study of hygiene, of 4* 82 Race and Scholastic Education Compared. nature, art, industry, economics and government, whatever concerns life and action, and looks to the future of man ; while scholastic Education concerns itself about words, opinions, archaeological lore, and looks to the past. Race Education, or Hereditary Culture, consid- ers function, organization, power, work and charac- ter, or a complete human existence, as the end, and knowledge as but one of the means for securing this end. RACE AND SCHOLASTIC EDUCATION COMPARED. Race Education, or Hereditary Culture, aiming at mental quality is averse to stuffing by lectures or text books. The mind must be exercised on the object of thought in the only natural and old Socratic way by dialogue, which alone develops the power of thought, and by showing the student how to find knowledge in and by himself, makes it part of himself and a possession forever. It was not books, but the discourse, says Thorn- ton, that developed the Grecian mind for the ap- preciation of Eschylus and orators of the metal of Demosthenes. Race Education, caring above all for man, chooses subjects and methods of instruction suited to the age and the development of the faculties of judg- ment, reason, sensibility, invention or imagination. Race and Scholastic Education Compared, 83 The scholastic system, caring more for scholar- ship than for man, adopts methods calculated for the promotion of learning, unconcerned about the effect upon man, as it cares more about a complete body of rules of Latin composition or Greek par- ticles, than about the body and soul of humanity. Race Education, aiming at a harmoniously de- veloped and happy humanity, recognizes the claims of the young to the happy days of childhood, which it will not sacrifice for the sake of produc- ing intellectual prodigies. Race Education, or Hereditary Culture, direct- ing its efforts against human deterioration, guards against premature mental strains in infancy ; it takes measures against the mental equilibrium disturbing predominance of one faculty over an- other ; it aims at soundness and efficiency all over, which secures the present success and happiness of the individual as well as the health and strength of the race in the future ; while our scholastic Education, which has only in view the individual and its accomplishments, cultivates the memory and imagination at the cost of the highest reason- ing and moral faculties, and makes men selfish, proud and unjust ; and, hence, the strife, ambi- tion, disappointment, increase of insanity, suicide, premature death and social decay, so glaring in our day. 84 Race and Scholastic Education Compared. Our chiefly literary Education stimulates mostly emotion and fancy, which are the life of the pas- sions, and it secures the application of the student by working upon his pride, and thus nurses the flame which consumes us ; for pride or morbid selfishness is half insanity, and passions uncon- trolled are insanity complete ; and pride and pas- sion, as they disorganize human economy, so they disorganize the social ; and, hence, our charge against the doubly fatal tendency of our scholas- tic Education upon the individual as well as upon society. However loyal schoolmen may be in theory to the principles of development in Education, do they recognize them in practice? Do they give due weight to the training of the physical forces, the senses, and, especially, to the moral faculties and the powers of observation, invention and prac- tical execution or industrial skill ? Do they supremely aim at forming sound minds in sound bodies, which help themselves by efficient hands, restrained from working injury to others by fortified morals and habits of honesty ? As all evils tend to race deterioration, and not infrequently spring from it, Education, the great social preserver, has to be moulded in every par- ticular, in aim, means, method, scope and surround- ings, in keeping with the one great aim of race Race and Scholastic Education Compared. 85 amelioration or Hereditary Culture, to which every part of Education must tend as the radius points to the centre. Our scholastic tattooing, with all its ornaments and accomplishments, is shallow patchwork, while Race Education recognizes no improvement unless it enters the blood and marrow of body and soul, and becomes, by its organic nature, hereditary. Unless our partly ineffectual and partly selfish culture is given up to Race Education, Pariahs will spring up among us stunned in body, low in per- ception and defective in moral sensibility, who will drag the nation into the vortex of their own corruption ; for the virtue and intelligence of a select few is too narrow a basis for a great nation to stand upon, and the few are absorbed by the many. Upon the foundation we indicate here, physiolo- gists, psychologists, statesmen and educators must raise a system, in which every step taken shall advance the race as well as the individual in very deed and forever. The formation of desirable hereditary habits does not only call for infant schools, but also for long- continued training. To render the association of occupation and virtue more permanent, we must make it continuous to the age of sixteen or eight- een years ; this alone can deepen the better dispo- 86 Race and Scholastic Education Compared. sition, render it organic and hereditary, and thus improve the race as well as the individual. Theoretical knowledge has assumed vast propor- tions, and its power and efficiency- are marvelous, where physical resistance is to be overcome by mechanical elements. More indefinite is the power of science in modifying organizations, which, grow- ing from within and averse to direct external inter- ference, yield only if put in surroundings, where they may — as if it were at will — seize upon the means which are to our purpose and assimilate them as desired. We know we have to adapt the medium a fauna or flora lives in to the qualities we wish them to develop ; and yet, when we deal with the cultivation of man, we fancy that we can talk him into virtue, wisdom and efficiency, without adapting the conditions and surroundings to the desired end ; as if, like savages given to sorcery, we believed in the enchanting power of magic words and formulas. We forget that our actions very much depend upon our affective and passional nat- ure, which almost wholly depends on the organic functions, in their turn determined by the nutritive condition of the entire state of the body and mind. Dejection, fear, grief, despair, uncertainty, anger, sorrow and the like affections, disturb the organic functions, which in their turn disturb the brain. And yet we consider the brain and its functions Race and Scholastic Education Compared. 87 as if they were independent of all these affec- tions. But, if the outer world has to yield the elements for a healthy nutrition, the individual must, by an over-active habit, contract such affections and men- tal tendencies as are most desirable for his own de- velopment and that of the race. Only when we behold in our Education the Edu- cation of the race are we likely to see in our con- tact with men and nature and in our inner and outer experience, grand educational influences, the end of which is our own development as well as the culture and development of the race. Men cannot be talked into living for the race ; they must be trained and be brought up for the race, and they will live for the race. Race Education, bringing up the individual for the race, develops the altruistic feelings, by which we feel the weal or woe of others as if it were our own, until conscience acts as an unerring and spon- taneous force, and the religion of doing good be- comes as hereditary among men as brute instinct among animals. Does our position that the individual belongs to the race want a proof? Is there a power or faculty in him that has not descended to him from the race, and ought he not to make a faithful return for the trust v/ith which he has been honored ? 88 Race and Scholastic .Education Compared, Humanity has hitherto progressed from mere brutal strength to intellectual force, and must ad- vance to moral power. Violence has but shifted the scene from muscle to brain. The three powers in man seem to have divided the rule of the ages among themselves. The first age of the world belonged to the brutal force in man. The second age belonged to reason. The empire of both these powers is equally remorseless. The third age of the world belongs to love, which rules only to serve. God comes to us in humanity, and, above all, in helpless children, and calls upon us in their divine capabilities, which wait for our maturing them. Education must not be a trade, but a worship ; and the school must become a temple, in which the teacher officiating at the altar of humanity, makes a sacrifice of himself that the race may live a better and happier life. Science pushes us to these conclusions. For every function has for its end self-preservation ; and the function of Education must have for its purpose the preservation of the race, and, hence, the indi- vidual must be brought up not for ambition, wealth or power, but for the race. If we lived in isolation like animals, their brutal, individual Education might do for us as for them, but as we are by our families and states linked with the whole of hu- Race and Scholastic Education Compared, Sg manity, the condition of the race determines our own preservation. Not only the moral law with its sanctions of a sweet inner reward or remorse, but also the inex- orable law of physiology, with its long catalogue of most hideous diseases, enjoins upon us Race Education, or Hereditary Culture. The importance of physical Education has been insisted upon by all great writers on Education, so the training of the senses, the development of the mental faculties, the formation of character and the strengthening of the will, so have the means of doing this great work been tried and studied ; but, though the highest induction contains nothing but what lies in the scattered facts, it throws a flood of light upon them, and so will the principle of Race Education, or Hereditary Culture, give defi- niteness and union to the principles and practice of Education, which it will guide and direct by keep- ing in view the highest aim, by inculcating the subordination of the individual to the race, of which it is but a part and for which it must live and be educated. The necessity of basing Education upon the principle of race amelioration was first suggested to us by the overwhelming evidence of an actual deterioration of race, forced upon us by a patho- logical study of labor. The study of heredity con- 90 Systems of Educatio7t. vinced us, in the next place, of the transmissibility of improved mental states, and, therefore, of the practicability of race amelioration through im- proved methods of Education. Our doctrine is supported on every page of Car- penter's remarkable work on Mental Physiology, which must suggest our doctrine that the heredi- tary defectiveness of the masses must be corrected by Education and Hereditary Culture ; that an Educa- tion that docs not affect its subjects organically ana permanently — even as far as the race is concerned, and for future generations — is not deserving the name of Education. This is our principle of Education, and all the means and appliances of study and training of mind and body must tend toward it as the planets do to the sun. The great social problem of the condition of the masses, the latest development in biology, and the progress in the separate parts of Education, all point to the doctrine of Race Education, or Hereditary Culture, as the principle of gravitation of a strictly scientific system of Education upon which the whole science — in all its parts — is to be reconstructed. SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. Others before us have laid stress upon Educa- tion ; have singled out the various parts of Educa- Systems of Education. 91 tion ; have, perhaps, seen in part the importance of our principle, as Spurzheim and others of the same school ; none, however, have recognized in it the principle that contains all others and much more beside, and that alone is comprehensive enough to rear upon a complete system of Edu- cation. Penn's first word to his colony was, " Educate," and Washington's last bequest in his farewell ad- dress to the people he so well loved, was again, " Educate." Education, says Renan, is with modern society a question of life and death. It contains, as La- boulaye says, the solution of the problem that troubles the age we live in. But what is com- monly called Education, makes of us, as Goethe expressed it, bags filled with words, figures and facts. What we want is men of vigor, action and character. " It is the early training that makes the master," sings Germany's great national poet. Strength, will, power, mental activity, work and a harmoniously developed humanity must be aimed at in Education — such are the utterances of our great thinkers. Our higher reason is but the accumulated capital of the progress of the ages, says science. Thank- fully we receive at the hands of the heroes of hu- man progress the requisite material for our struct- 92 Systems of Education. ure of Race Education, and trace step by step our principle in their labors. Already the Lacedemonians gave supreme atten- tion to the physical condition of the parents. The Old Testament almost on every one of its pages, lays stress upon the early training of the young. The genealogical history of individuals and fam- ilies proves the truth of the heredity of mental traits. Physiology teaches that systematic think- ing enlarges the brain, and craniology establishes this principle by the exact measurements of the skulls of races and ages belonging to different stages of civilization. We acknowledge our in- debtedness for these and other labors. Happiness, truth, goodness, activity, reasonable- ness, virtue, God-likeness, etc., are unquestionably important elements, but they lack direction, defi- niteness, compass and scientific basis ; they con- tain no principle that secures what they aim at, and each and every one of them considers only the individual, who, if he is to live for humanity, must be educated for it. There is not a principle suggested by our system but has the support of the earliest thinkers of the race. The divine Plato largely discourses how manners are implanted in early infancy, and virtue gathers Systems of Education. 93 strength from habit. He insisted upon bringing together children from three to six years of age for the purpose of being trained at their self-originated games. He already considered compulsory Educa- tion the safeguard of the State. Careful training in gymnastics, music and science he insists upon as the means for the attainment of strength and beauty of mind and body, so highly prized among the Greeks. Aristotle, who furnished the world with its intel- lectual food for over two thousand years, like his great master, urges State Education to begin in early childhood, the very playthings of which should have a bearing upon the life and work of the man, whose ethical culture must be secured by early habits of right feeling and correct ac- tion, under teachers of political knowledge, whose aim must be not to form merely useful, but per- fect men, by the means of art, science and dis- cipline, the tools of Education. Plutarch, in his inimitable essay on Education, tells us of Lycurgus showing the Lacedemonians in a public meeting the effect of early training on two dogs of the same dam, the one running to the platter, and the other starting after the hare ; the one made voracious, and the other an excellent hunter. Early exercise, says the same author, gives 94 Systems of Education. strength ; good habits lead to virtue, and wisdom leads to happiness and a good old age. Training of body and soul from earliest infancy, the solid things of science, the living example of parents and teachers, and upon the like topics, Plutarch gave us in these essays his thoughts with a freshness, which makes them delightful reading to-day. Montaigne said : " Bookish learning is a poor stock to go upon." Again, he said : " Our under- standings are no more formed by learning by rote what other men said than we learn riding, han- dling an axe or playing a tune, by discourses with- out practice." Lord Bacon said : " Our speeches take after our learning, our thoughts after our inclinations, and our deeds after our habits, which are fixed by the force of early custom." Milton indignantly descants against the waste of time in our schools with a miserable little Latin and Greek, and pleads for a virtuous and noble Education, consisting in studies, exercises, diet and music, likest to those ancient and famous schools of Pythagoras, Plato, Isocrates, Aristotle and oth- ers, and of whom were bred such a number of re- nowned philosophers, orators, historians, poets and statesmen. John Locke held that a sound mind in a sound Systems of Education. 95 body — as already Juvenal aptly expressed it — is the chiefest happiness, and, hence, the chiefest care of Education. Education makes the man, and the commonest and weakest impressions in childhood have most important and permanent consequences for us. Morals and good habits come first, the knowledge of things next, and languages last. The treatment should be mild, natural and suited to the temperament, inclination and character of the child, which the educator has to study carefully. Leibnitz, who, by the universality of his genius, has thrown out many ideas ahead of his age, ad- vanced the teaching of the arts and trades in public schools as a matter of highest utility to the State. Montesquieu said, Education has for its founda- tion the same principles as the State — fear under despotism, pride under a monarchy, and virtue un- der a republic. And since virtue is formed by early habit, a republic must train children to simplicity and self-restraint. Attachment to the laws of the country demands a preference of the public good to narrow self-interest. Everybody participates in a free country in the government of the State, and must love to preserve it. Nothing but virtue and intelligence can save a republic from ending in despotism, corruption and anarchy. As the great Cominius, the John the Baptist of universal Education, was the apostle of the study g6 Systems of Education. of method, to the spread of which all over Europe his agitated life has been devoted, so was Rousseau a hundred years later the apostle of the study of the child and its nature. According to him, the full activity of our senses and faculties and the skill of acquiring knowledge are the ends of Edu- cation and are to be attained by actual observa- tion, but not by mere words thrust upon children, to whom they have no meaning and whom they can but stupefy. Like Locke, Rousseau insists upon the propriety of every child learning a trade, which not only bestows independence, but culti- vates reflection far more than books do at that age. Basedow, who first reduced to practice whatever was tangible in Rousseau's " Emile," insisted equal- ly upon his pupils to engage at least two hours daily in the mechanical exercise of some useful trade. None lived in deeper sympathy with the race, shared its miseries, loved it more truly, or worked more earnestly for elevating and saving it through life-long labor in the schoolroom, than Pestalozzi, and none has effectually more reformed our system of Education than he. He has clearly worked out the principles of developmental Education, object teaching and the whole modern system of primary Education ; and he, above all, is the prophet of the school house and the schoolmaster of Europe. Man's love of liberty, says Kant, is so strong that Systems of Education. 97 if he is not early subjected to discipline, he inclines, especially under a free government, to lawlessness, which is barbarity. To habituate the child to sub- mission to reason is the first aim of Education, which must lead the race to its highest destiny, the development of its faculties. The great phi- losopher of Konigsberg insisted that the child is not to be educated for the world as it is, that it may get along in it, but that it must be brought up for humanity and a better future ; and that a bringing us up for the good of the world cannot injure us in our own life. Education is discipline or correction, culture or instruction, and exercise of the faculties of prudence and wisdom, and at last the formation of the moral disposition or of character. The child must learn to use its freedom and its powers, act upon principles and develop its character by order and steadiness. Work is the chief element in human life ; the school should, therefore, train children to work, and as this re- quires strength and energy, physical exercise must form the prelude to Education, and is a chief part of it. So far the founder of the critical school of philosophy of Germany. Mackintosh wisely says, Education is a proper disposal of all the circumstances which influence character, and of the means of producing those habitual dispositions which insure well-doing. 5 98 Systems of Education. According to Froebel, indolence, love of pleas- ure, want of sense and energy, lead to vice and crime. He insists, therefore, upon work, as activity takes delight in its own creation, and develops intelligence and energy of will. Rousseau, Pesta- lozzi, and others before them, have seen that work develops virtue. None but Froebel has realized all the applications this principle is capable of de- veloping in man. The Kindergarten is the door by which we re-enter the garden of Eden. As work was the first means in educating the race, when the soil was cursed with sterility that man might be blessed through work, so in the Education of the individual, work is the first means of blessing him ; and the restless activity of the child is the foundation of the indefatigable enterprise of the man. Industry, which is the characteristic feature of the age, must be made the school of humanity. Life, energy and power, like wisdom, are not to be plucked from trees ; they come only as responses to an earnest will, as the prayer which ends in work as its amen. And in earliest infancy this training must begin. Spelling, grammar and arithmetic may be learned at ten or twenty years, or later. The man, the character, says Juvenal, is made at seven ; what he is then, he will always be — in spite of a thousand teach- ers you may give him after that period has passed. Systems of Education. 99 Maudsley says, the true aim and character of Education are unhappily not yet understood. Man should understand himself and nature, of which he is a part ; and with which himself, his thoughts and actions should be in harmony ; that through knowl- edge of and obedience to the laws of nature he may represent the highest physical, mental and moral evolution. Our present Education must be revolutionized ; for to-day, riches, position, power and the applause of men are the chief aims, and not culture, development and character; and, hence, anxieties, disappointments and jealousies break down the soul in madness, which noth- ing can cure more radically than a sound Educa- tion. John Draper maintains, Education should repre- sent the existing state of knowledge and not the pretended wisdom of past ages. He treats with deserved contempt the pretended training obtained through the study of Latin and Greek. The Ameri- can political system is founded on the principle of public intellectual culture, and the organization of the intellect is to be the great work of this conti- nent. The only method of ameliorating the con- dition of men is by acting on their intelligence. Our aspirations have been hitherto physical ; they must and are now becoming spiritual and intellec- tual. Our personal ambitions must retire, that we 100 Race and Individual Education. may share in the development and accomplishment of a far higher result. There is not a principle of Education but we may glean it from some ancient or modern writer ; but Race Education, or Hereditary Culture, is a formula that embraces all the hitherto separated tendencies, each of which is but part of Education. It embraces the physical, mental, moral and indus- trial elements ; it suggests the method, means and end, and sets before us humanity as the highest aim ; it is above all practical, and looks to the solid welfare of the individual, nation and race, and indicates the necessity of a National Education, as none but the nation can educate the individual for the race and nation. RACE AND INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION. Man, standing on the border of the brute world, cares only for himself. He mounts the first step of civilization and lives for his family ; the second, and he lives for the State. He is to-day called upon to mount the third and live for the race. Or, is it asking too much, after ages of spiritual culture and political Education, that man should feel his unity with, and his place in the race, from which separated he has no more life nor purpose than the eye, hand or foot has apart from the body? Race and Individual Education, ioi Is it not unscientific and leading to mischief, if the school treat man as a complete and unitary- being that has its end outside of the race ? Should we not live, and, therefore, be brought up for the race ? Or, are we to be brought up for ourselves, and be told afterward that we must live for the race ? Does not this doing one thing and saying another, sow in us the seeds of hypocrisy* and contradiction ? Does not our every act bless or curse the race, ameliorate or deteriorate it ? Why, then, should the preservation and ameliora- tion of the race, which enters our every act, not be made especially the aim of Education ? If a decent regard for the rights of conscience keeps out of schools disputable points, what is there to hinder us from introducing into them the purest ethics of science ? The training of man for his place in a world of law, order and justice, that the race may be .pre- served and live, grow and develop in harmony with the conditions of being and universal progress and development, is the work of Race Education, or Hereditary Culture. Everything serves a purpose outside its own ex- istence ; it is the law of nature in which everything is means as well as ends. Man, a conscious being, feels the void of a life that serves no higher purpose and ends with its own being. Race Education 102 Race and Individual Education. points out to us humanity or the whole as the end of the individual, who is but part of the whole, and is only possible in and through it. . The individual who, in passion or ignorance, silences this inner voice of nature, which pushes man to be means as well as end in a world of mu- tuality, will soon perish in his isolation. Every great reformer of Education was a great lover of the race. So was every extraordinary teacher. The worst method in the hands of a teacher full of love to his race, is preferable to the best method in the hands of a teacher whose soul is dead. The highest scientific induction places the spirit of saving, elevating and preserving the race, which has led all the great reformers of Education into the discovery of improved methods, and has strength- ened and upheld their hands in the performance of their arduous work, as a constructive principle, at the very head and front of Education, and builds upon it a system in keeping with the great end to be attained. Of course, routine pays no attention to the aim or principle of the teacher, whom it considers a tool working well with the method, books and charts furnished by the man of genius who has a soul for him. We deny the proposition. Man is not made of Race and Individual Education. 103 wood or leather, and cannot be manufactured ma- chine-like. A man must have a higher life in his soul, or he cannot kindle it in others. In ev- ery department even this is the mischief, that forms and methods so useful supersede the life and spirit which generated them ; and, natural enough, lose their efficiency with the spirit that departed. The highest generalization alone can teach us the proper means and methods, and put into them life and efficiency. Civilization will not long tolerate the barbarism of our present poor and mad-houses or killing jails. The care of our defectives is becoming very expen- sive ; the lessening of public burdens, therefore, by lessening public miseries, is the rightful domain of public Education, the sphere of which is the pub- lic weal and not fashionable accomplishments, lead- ing to fashionable vices and corruption, and end- ing in human degeneracy — the very thing public Education is to prevent. If we are to succeed in stopping race dete- rioration or lessening defectiveness, we must aim directly at it and work hard for it ; sailing at large on the wide ocean of Education will not do it. Theorists may dream ; still the indications are the world is not to be improved by being turned into 104 Race and Individual Education. a vast monster kitchen, but by being made into a grand school house, where the present generation will train the next one, that every man may live in harmony with the laws of his own individual being, of society and of the entire universe ; that all dis- cord may disappear ; vice, misery and crime may only live in name as sad memories of the past, and men may no more imbrue their hands in each oth- er's blood, nor may be driven annually by the half a million to madness or unnatural self-destruction. The common consciousness of the nation and the world at large is, that its future salvation is Educa- tion. Of course, we ascribe such potency, no more than Herbert Spencer does, to mere ciphering, or spelling, or geography, or algebra. Make the individual the end of Education, and his partial culture will be taken for his full develop- ment ; make individual development the means and the race the end — as nothing else is — heredity be- comes then our great ally and human degeneracy our great adversary, of which the one can only be secured by early infant training and discipline throughout the whole of Education, and the other can only be combated through industrial train- ing, the only sure preventive of pauperism, the main source of misery which opens the flood gates of human degeneracy. Race Education Further Expounded. 105 RACE EDUCATION FURTHER EXPOUNDED. Physical, intellectual, moral, scientific and indus- trial Education have each attracted more or less attention. We deal with Education as a social science and with the chief end of Education. Men of mere routine care not about ends, but the sight of the end of the journey keeps us on the right track. The end once clearly perceived, and the means and method for obtaining it are clear. The putting of the problem right is half the solu- tion ; and, hence, our solicitude for ascertaining the great end of Education and for finding the formula, which embraces the whole of Education. Race Education implies that Education has its tangible foundation in the physical nature of, and its moral purpose in devotion to, the race. And we must lay stress upon the moral element, which is crowded out of Education by the multiplicity of modern studies. Virtue, says Locke, is to be aimed at in Educa- tion, and not forward pertness or any little arts of shifting. The teacher should know that Latin and language are the least part of Education, and that virtue and a well-tempered soul are to be preferred to any sort of learning. Lord Karnes says : " Our teachers direct their instruction to the head with very little attention 5* 106 Race Education Further Expounded. to the heart. And yet, surely, a man is intended to be more an active than a contemplative being ; and right action is infinitely more important than rare scholarship. " Bacon and Milton, like all great leaders of the race, speak in the same strain. But this right disposition can only be formed in the mind while it is in its very making, by our stamping devotion to mankind upon every exercise of the school, be it gymnastics, music or industry, and that we can only effect by engaging in every exercise for the purpose of enlarging the capacities, efficiency and happiness of the race. The whole of Education must be a consecration of the individual to the race, in which it is to be merged, and life from the cradle to the grave has to be a sacrifice of the present to the future, and of the individual to the race. Still, this sacrifice is only one in appearance, as we can do nothing for the race, which does not further our own individual growth and true happiness. Race Education, or Hereditary Culture, renders the adaptation of the Education of every individual to his own peculiar organization only the more im- perative, as no permanent improvement is possible which is not based on physiological conformation ; and, hence, the development of the race and the individual is best secured when the one is treated as the end, and the other as the means. Race Education Further Expounded. 107 The gala or state morality, or moral mask and prudery, of a lesson or two a week in a moral text book, would not be worth pleading for. The whole of Education and every act of it must be perme- ated by a spiritual element, which is at the same time the last and most sober word of science, with- out cant or weakness, and in which science and religion are wedded to each other — and that word is Race Education. In the multiplicity of means and methods for doing this, that and something else in the mechani- cal routine of our crowded school houses, the phys- ical basis, and the moral purpose of all true Edu- cation can only be kept in view by the magic word of Race Education. A teacher cannot develop hereditary culture or build up a desirable national character, if he has not risen even to the bare conception of Race Edu- cation. He, who aims may hit ; he, who does not even aim is sure to miss. Only national infant schools moulding the char- acter and organization of a people by habit and training, and nothing else can build up a desirable hereditary national character. Every peculiarity of the skin, muscles, bones and nerves is hereditary, and so is that of the brain, especially when the whole of the nation is trained and educated in the same direction, and the surroundings are made subservi- 108 Race Education Further Expounded. ent to the same common end. It is almost beyond the power of the individual to dispose the forces of nature and of society in a manner as will develop his character in the right direction. This requires the almost infinite means and power only at the disposal of a nation, which, to say the least, largely shares in our individual responsibility, which it con- trols mightily in its right or wrong development. And, hence, the duty of our public Education to use all the powers at the command of the state for the elevation of the character and efficiency of all. Race Education, or Progressive Hereditary Cult- ure, has a double function to perform — the correc- tion of physical, mental and moral morbid tenden- cies and the developing and strengthening of the normal activities of man in the most susceptible and pliable period of infancy and youth. Enlightened thinkers insist that a criminal should not be treated as a blank, but as a collection of hereditary tendencies ; and, certainly, the school and the teacher should not be behind the prison and its keepers in scientific method and treatment. Let the school correct some of our hereditary ten- dencies and cultivate others, and there will soon be no call for prisons and the like institutions. Better the teacher study the hereditary tendencies of the child than that the same study be forced upon us in the end for the purpose of correcting pauperism, insanity and crime. Race Education Further Expounded, 109 The constitutional deterioration of the masses induced by want, misery and neglect, begins its destructive work in the mind with the highest functions, the moral sensibilities, or the conscience, spreading to the will, the seat of the character or energy, until it reaches at last the power of thought ; and, hence, the increase of crime, pauperism and insanity. The physical powers may seem unabated, but the decay is apparent in the higher functions and the moral sensibilities are defective, rendering men hardly accountable. With the progress of deteri- oration the function of the will is attacked, and the man is no more to be blamed for his lethargy, than the idiot for his obtuseness. The corruption of our time and its general con- fusion, as our lack of organizing capacity, are all symptoms of deterioration not likely to be met by Latin grammar. We over-estimate in our scheme of Education the ideas of other men which, coming to us without thought or observation, are but half understood words, adding nothing to our real strength. Knowl- edge, like wealth, looks tempting ; but only when obtained by long and hard labor do they develop the power of employing them wisely. Our thirst for knowledge is as morbid as our greed for gain. Wealth and knowledge are both but means of which humanity is the end ; knowledge, however, no Race Education Further Expounded. instead of developing humanity by being assimilated into character or incorporated into institutions, is left by us unapplied. We hurry from idea to idea, like images in a phantasmagoria ; one gives way to the other; all solves itself into relativity; and, hence, the apathy and anarchy of the age in which truth and goodness have ceased to serve as stand- ards of life and action. Ideas are so far ahead of the actual condition of mankind that the application of the one to the other is almost out of question ; the one advancing at high speed, the other lagging lazily behind at a great distance, until hardly anything but violent revolution can bridge over the chasm between the actual and the ideal ; a contrast too painful long to be borne and which must have its adjustment. Race Education strives for a strong, healthy and normal humanity; scholastic Education sends its literary firework up into the clouds, unconcerned about the benighted masses of mankind below. Religious men feel the defect of the position of men, who cultivate science and literature uncon- cerned about man. We have applied science to almost everything and have made it pay, save to humanity itself, which has become almost worthless. It was otherwise with the Greeks. True, they knew but little of machinery, but their men were God- like. The realism of science may become as dan- Race Education and Division of Labor. 1 1 1 gerous to humanity, and even more so, than the dogmatism of past ages, which it replaces by the worship of wealth it develops. Spain, doting upon the gold mines of the New World, neglected the richer treasures of her own soil and got poor. We get rich by trade and com- merce, and neglect the cultivation of humanity, more rich in treasures than even the bosom of mother earth under our feet. Poor and paltry, indeed, are our richest possessions compared with the material wealth of the future, and this is but as the dust of the balance to the power and the re- sources of the mind, which creates it all. Science in its most perfect form leads, to the highest evolution of humanity, and is more truly religious than anything else, because it is most humane. We believe with the great positivist, that the re-organization of Education must precede the re- organization of society ; as all legislation is but a dead letter as long as public opinion is unimproved. RACE EDUCATION AND DIVISION OF LABOR. Race Education leads tp a proper division of labor, the chief part of a proper organization of society. For National Infant schools, a chief feature in Race Education, train young women for their fu- 112 Woman's Work. ture work and duties as mothers and educators of the race. The children are kept first in the infant, next in the elementary, and, at last, in industrial schools ; and grown men alone are to work in facto- ries. Here, then, is a most simple and natural divi- sion of labor initiated, resting upon the difference of sex and age, decidedly restricting the present mur- derous competition of labor. All the vast interests and the very existence of humanity call impera- tively for this step in the re-organization of society, a step supported by public opinion and meeting with but little resistance, everybody feeling the need and naturalness of this measure. We shall not lose by this division of labor, for we produce values in proportion to our efficiency ; and, if we are better educated, the production of material values will be enhanced, besides that the more perfect and normal man is the chiefest wealth of the state. WOMAN'S WORK. Woman holds her commission from God ; her natural sphere is the nursery and the Infant Train- ing school, where she continues her work of gesta- tion, which is not completed until she has formed the character of her offspring. The factory is not woman's place, as Gladstone says : " He who will free woman from labor in the Woman's Work. 113 factory will be a benefactor of the family ;" still, as we cannot afford to lose the labor of half the race, woman must work for the race by working upon the race, fashioning and developing its character ; and that she only can do when Kindergartens cover the land in which she is prepared for her work. Why were the Romans during the better ages of the republic the model citizens of the world ? Be- cause they had model mothers for their educators. Fill the land with Kindergartens, training women for their future duties as mothers ; and, as we shall have then more than Roman mothers, we shall also have citizens who are more than Romans. Woman in the barbarous state of society is the slave ; in the semi-barbarous she is the toy and the tyrant, and in the perfect state of society she is the educator. When women will be educators of the race they will be its saviors ; to-day, show, pride and vanity make them its destroyers, leading on men by their extravagance to corruption in private as well as public business, until confidence in men and insti- tutions is to-day fairly gone, and the downfall of rthe nation almost inevitable. To let a woman speak about her own sex, we will quote the well-known and competent Emilie Davies, who said before the National Association for the Improvement of Social Science : " Is it H4 Woman s Work. not true that to amuse themselves and other peo- ple is the great object in the life of women ; and is it possible that their sedulous devotion to this one object can fail- to react upon the men with whom they associate ? Who gives the tone to what we may call lax and luxurious homes ? Who teaches the boys that hard work is foolish self-tor- ture, that an easy life is more to be desired than the fine gold of intellectual attainment ? Not their fathers. What is the ideal presented to young girls ? Is it anything higher than to be amiable, inoffen- sive, always ready to give pleasure and to be pleased ? Could anything be more stupefying than such * conception of the purposes of exist- ence ? As long as women live only for trifles, men will only live for making money." Only when women will be brought up to be the educators of the race will men live for great pur- poses, and every family will be a centre from which saving influences will go forth to bless the race. Women have infinitely more tact for developing character than men, though they m^y have less fit- ness for teaching Aristotle's metaphysics, which, however, are best not taught at all. Pessimists may stamp every thought of an up- ward tendency as an idle dream, but we cannot be- lieve men, women, the government and our whole civilization hopelessly corrupt. The School and the Home. 115 Race Education, or Hereditary Culture, aiming at the prevention of race deterioration, insists upon fitting woman for her domestic duties, upon the proper performance of which many lives depend. She has under her supervision the home, the food, the clothing, the exercise, the rest, sleep and the entire habits of the family. She nurses them in sickness, and by her economy or lavishness brings comfort competency, and general improvement, or poverty, with all its want, misery and deteri- oration. For the children, the home and the school are the place, and not the factory. For men and their powers the factory and the workshops of art, science and industry furnish op- portunities, according to their aptitudes. Reactionists may force upon the world revolu- tion ; thinkers work for normal development ; and the soul must be dead that does not feel that there is a divinity in reason that shapes the progress of the race. THE SCHOOL AND THE HOME. Race Education interests itself in the homes of the people, without the co-operation of which its own success is utterly impossible. The school can at best do but half its work with children housed like swine. Ii6 The School and the Home. The cry of the educators of the land must, there- fore, be : " Homes for the people and schools for the children." Race Education, in which training predominates, exercises more the will, the central faculty of the mind ; and by moulding the heart and character of man leads through correct feeling to sound think- ing. Race Education antagonizes in the pliant state of the young organism all vicious hereditary ten- dencies, physical or otherwise, and corrects the pas- sions which unbalance the mind. Race Education improves the race by fostering individual skill and aptitudes, which increase the effectiveness of the race as well as of the individual. Race Education does not consider man as a sep- arate being, divorced from the past, present and future of the race. Man exists only in, through and for the race, and can only be understood and prepared for his destiny in harmony with the race. Race Education, aiming at the improvement of the race, seeks to elevate the masses ; while scho- lastic Education, aiming at literary excellency, the prerogative of but few, sacrifices to this small mi- nority the many. Education, fitting man for all his functions in society, must take council with social science. The teachers of Greece and Rome were social and moral The Development of Education. 1 1 7 philosophers, hence their great influence upon their disciples and upon the lives of the men of their times. The characteristic morbid tendencies of the minds and morals of individuals and communi- ties, the vices and miseries peculiar to the age, their spread, cure and prevention deeply interest the educator. THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION. The Education of modern Europe began with the catechism, or belief, progressed to the study of the languages of Greece and Rome, and is thought to have reached its goal in our day in aiming at knowledge, which, we maintain, must give way to Race Education. Belief, language, knowledge and humanity form the complete cycle or evolution of Education. We begin with instinctive hope and assurance, the prophecy of future realization ; and, hence, belief, or the catechism. As language is the first step and mark of growing intelligence in the child, so it is with the race. Language, the instru- ment of thought, must be brought to some degree of perfection before men can think with precision and advance to scientific knowledge. Language, having the full impress of reason, is the best means for developing the mind ; and, being the store- house of the intellectual acquisitions of the race, 1 1 8 The Development of Education. acquaints us with the labors of those who preceded us before we advance to original research. But even knowledge is not the last word, for ideas must become things, leading to the improvement of man and the elevation of the race. We are far from undervaluing knowledge; still nothing less than the preservation and improve- ment of the race can be the aim of Education. We object to the display made of a showy sort of learning in our higher institutions, while the people are refused in their elementary schools the solid instruction of science that would assist them in the use of the tools they are to handle in their/ future practical pursuits in life. Our histories, with their royal pedigrees, political intrigues and battles, must give way to the study of the rise and development of cities and states ; and physics, chemistry, physiology, botany and the other sciences must be taught in the com- mon school chiefly in their applications to life and industry. Our common schools better teach a little less geography and a little more of Youmans , Physi- ology and Hygiene, a little less grammar and a little more of Youmans' Household Science. The sub- ject matter of our Education is not life, but litera- ture, the heroes of which we worship, while we neglect the only true hero of the world — toiling humanity. Our Civilizatio?i a7td Deterioration. 119 Race Education, or Hereditary Culture, implies progress, a power by which we are striving for an excellency not yet attained, and which assists us more in our endeavor to work up to the high des- tiny of man than any other idea or principle. Race Education, improving the masses, lifts all to a higher plane of common sense, where all see at a glance what the interminable discussions of former ages could not make clear even to the wise surrounded by general darkness. OUR CIVILIZATION AND DETERIORATION. The whole of our civilization is a series of life- deteriorating processes. The producing classes de- generate in mines and factories ; adulterations and artificial wants do their work on the consumer ; luxury deteriorates the one, and want and misery- degenerate the other. The records of nobles of Venice, of the old aristocracy of France and En- gland, prove the almost general disappearance of families living in great affluence after a few cen- turies ; while our factory and poor laborers in great cities, left to themselves, die out in three to four generations. There is not a relation in life but tends toward race deterioration ; and, like past nations and civ- ilizations, we dig our own grave if we fail to oppose to this degenerating tendency an Education, which 120 Our Civilization and Deterioration. is a persistent system of race amelioration, inspired by the spirit of altruism, the saving genius of the race, and the only possible correction of an age selfish to the core. Race Education cultivates in the teacher, who brings up the child for the race, devotion to hu- manity, which from him spreads and imbues all. The system in vogue appeals to the scholar's pride — a passion that stirred up the first rebellion in heaven ; a passion fierce and anti-social underlying one-half of all mischief and oppression in the world. Are men never to be brought up to work for one another ? Is the kingdom of heaven never to be- come a fact and a truth ? Are justice, peace and good -will among men but a dream and not a prophecy as well ? Individual Education means selfishness, which, winding its way from the school room to the cabi- net, creeps down thence to the lowest shop, and involves the nation in ruin. Not without mighty reasons, and the testimony of the universal facts of history as well as the judg- ment of the best of mankind, has Rousseau de- nounced civilization as the mother of the chiefest of our woes, which denunciation falls still justly upon the culture of to-day, that often is but an- other name for refined selfishness, considering itself the highest end instead of serving and improving Education and Individualism. 121 the race. Within reasonable limits this terrible in- dictment of all past civilization is more than a mere morbid fancy of the over-sensitive Jean Jacques. The clear-sighted Lessing, than whom none loved truth more ardently, moaned over the displacement of the practical wisdom of Socrates by the dreams of Plato and the syllogisms of Aristotle — for both these men were but toying, the one with philos- ophy and the other with science — while none of them cared for humanity, at least not in the great style of the master, who discarded the high-sound- ing philosophy of the schools and set about teach- ing men how to live. Other sages spoke words of love, equally drowned by the jargon of the schools, which ever preferred what pedants call scholarly accomplishments to humanity, which they left to perish. Words cost less than deeds, and learning is cheaper than goodness ; and, hence, scholarship is more popular than humanity. This evil, therefore, is not of yesterday, nor is its denunciation new ; but, as the lesson is not heeded, men must not complain if it is dinned in their ear over and again. EDUCATION AND INDIVIDUALISM. Neither the promotion of the individual nor the establishment of any truth or principle, but solely 6 122 Education and Individualism. the preservation and improvement of the race are the aim of the new Education. Or do we aim too high, when we are asking for the masses of the people a sound body and a well- balanced mind, the first requisite of Race Educa- tion ? Nothing but the bringing up of every child for the race can bring those better times, the belief of which is implanted in every human breast. Race Education, with heredity, its foundation principle, impresses parents and all with the sense of the responsibility arising from the knowledge that by any imprudence, which deteriorates the race, we may give the world maniacs, criminals, paupers and idiots, filling individuals and com- munities with sadness and decay, and even lead to a degeneracy which may seal the doom of our country. Individual happiness as the aim of Education, and, therefore, of life, is mean on the very face of it ; and yet the aim of individual perfection leads invariably to the same selfish end and defeats its own better purpose. Considering the culture of the select few of our own class as the sole aim of humanity, we reduce mankind to beasts of burden in order to subserve our own selfish purposes, call it culture or what you may, and thus we find that neither the divine Education and Individualism. 123 musings of Plato nor the science of Aristotle dis- covered to the one or the other the inhumanity of slavery, which they deemed the necessary condi- tion of their own culture. Race Education, setting up the claims of the race above those of the individual, makes universal be- nevolence the sum total of all morality, the founda- tion of our Education and of our conduct in life. In our endeavor to be unsectarian we become inhuman to piracy. But humanity will not always be cheated out of the great principles springing from the eternal relations of the individual to the whole of humanity and the Cosmos, advanced by every founder of religion and adhered to by a sound philosophy. Every man who sacrifices the in- terests of humanity to his own narrow advantage, or who is proud, oppressive and inhuman, has not risen to the high plane of humanity, and is a brute. Ed- ucation must be organized on the highest principles of humanity, or society will break up into frag- ments. A half a million of men have fallen as if it was yesterday, before the violated majesty of the higher law, and if it cannot be done otherwise, mil- lions more will fall — but the higher law of the sub- ordination of the individual to society will be vin- dicated. Men sneer at patriotism, honesty and honor, and confess money their deity. Wealth takes off the ugly looks of vice, and poverty de- 124 Raw Education and Hygiene. prives virtue of its charm. Ostentation makes riches a necessity at any price, and all at war with one another chase for gold. A nation may live for ages under traditional slavery, but a state, in which all deliberately violate the known laws of nature, cannot long continue to exist ; and that this is our condition is the open secret of the nation to be read on every countenance. And are we to be told by pedants that this condition of affairs matters nothing to the school? — perish the state, literary culture is the thing ! Since, then, nothing but subordination to the higher law, or the subordination of the individual to humanity, and general regard to the good of mankind can preserve a state or government, Edu- cators must rear their whole structure upon this foundation, and, hence, the necessity of Race Edu- cation, or Hereditary Culture, which subordinates in every particular the individual to the race. Under the system of Race Education self-culture is not a debt we owe merely to ourselves, and which we may slight — if we so please — it becomes rather a duty we owe to others, and which to neg- lect is a crime against the race. RACE EDUCATION AND HYGIENE. Race Education does not trust to the power of mere words ; it looks to material conditions, from Race Education a?td Hygiene. 125 which ever ideas and principles spring, as effects do from their causes; for folly or wisdom, and vice or virtue, are but the inner aspect of the outer condition of man ; and air, bread, clothing and shel- ter are full of moral significance. Do we expect to pluck figs from thistles? Why, then, should we look for sound principles in an un- sound body? We treat the mind and take no ac- count of the body — the common vice of the quack, who treats the symptoms and leaves the deeper seat of the disease untouched. Race Education studies its subjects in their homes and in connection with their hereditary family relations. Plants, to be understood, must be seen in the soil in which they grow ; and children can only be understood in the home in which they are rooted with their vices and their virtues. The scholastic system injures body and soul by the cramming process ; the aesthetic system culti- vates unduly the imagination and the passions ; the moral system, relying upon precepts, neglects the material conditions of what it aims at ; the practical system makes time-serving men, and even the harmonious development of the faculties of the individual is defective in principle, as man must be brought up chiefly in harmony with the race and the future of humanity. 126 Race Education and Hygiene. Race Education lays its foundation in the body, watching the physiological formation, in which are the beginnings of the higher development. Emotion, will and perception originate in sensa- tions, and these depend upon the state of nutri- tion ; and we might just as well try to transplant the flora of the tropics to the rigid zone as try to inculcate noble conceptions into children, whose nerves, suffering from want of proper nutrition, give rise to vicious sensations. The school often debilitates children by mental overstrain, physical inactivity, too long hours of study, want of pure air and ozone, seats and post- ures interfering with the natural functions of one or the other of the organs, overheated rooms, de- pression arising from fear or dislike of the teacher or the school restraint, envy of the more gifted and preferred students, self-distrust, want of cheerful- ness or lack of harmonizing physical and moral surroundings. With so many drawbacks to health, strength, working capacity and good-will, what wonder that the funneling system of the schools interfering in so many ways with individuality and energy, fur- nished so small a quota of the great men of the world. Sir Isaac Newton ranked very low in school until the age of twelve. Sheridan was pronounced an Race Education and Hygiene. 127 incorrigible dunce. Goldsmith was dull in his youth, and Shakespeare, Gibbon, Davy and Dryden have given at school not the slightest evidence of their future success. The character given to the great Swedish chemist, Berzelius, in his school certificate, is " Indifferent in behavior and of doubtful hope." Walter Scott passed for " the thickest skull in the school." Milton and Swift were justly celebrated for stupidity in childhood? That our schools look more to geography, gram- mar and spelling than to life, health and strength of the rising generation may be seen from the last report of the Commissioner of Education, in which Dr. Thomas F. Hunter, of Buffalo, is quoted to have said in his inaugural address before the Medi- cal Society of the State of New York : " In the primary department little children have hardly room to breathe and stretch out their little arms. The United States hospitals allow from 800 to 1,200 cubic feet of air to the individual. The Brit- ish India jails give the prisoners 648 cubic feet of air. Some of our schools give our (growing?) chil- dren 56 cubic feet ! No wonder that scarlet fever, diphtheria, typhoid fever and blood poisoning of every sort are more or less prevalent. A large pro- portion of these dread disorders are generated and propagated in our public schools. But acute dis- eases are not the only results of this criminal 128 Race Education and Hygiene. crowding. Tuberculosis, scrofulous and brain affec- tions, developed at various periods, are generated in our schools. Better for society and better for themselves would it be that these infants were not educated at all than at such risk/' And such schools may be found in every large city of the land! The average number of cubic feet to the scholar in the schools of Philadelphia is 143. The propor- tion of carbonic acid to the air is 500 per cent, larger in these crowded rooms than in the normal atmosphere, and cannot but vitiate the blood. Every individual, says Dr. Bell, requires 2,000 feet of fresh air every hour, and if only 300 feet are allowed to the scholar, the air must be changed every twenty minutes, and with less provisions con- tamination is sure to follow ; the sensibilities are blunted, the intellect is obtused ; stupidity, idiocy and physical deformity are promoted. The de- pressed condition of the children in our schools predisposes them to epidemics, from which they suf- fer also more intensely than others. An examination of the public schools of Brook- lyn, in 1874, showed So, 49, 30, 29 and even as lit- tle as 24 cubic feet of air to the scholar. Such is the condition of the schools in Brooklyn. It is, as we have seen, not much better in Philadelphia, and very much the same all over the country. Race Education and Hygiene. 129 Dr. Howard shows that our present system of Education, treating alike all scholars, is injurious to many, weakens body and mind, and is one of the causes of the increase of insanity. Is it not time, then, that our schools be put under the sanitary supervision of competent physi- cians, as advocated by the Social Science Asso- ciation ? Theory and practice have both established the hygienic effect of gymnastics, never more indispen- sable in childhood or mature age than under our present division of labor, which affords hardly to anybody the harmonious exercise of all the parts and organs of his body. Still our schools are crimi- nally indifferent about this reform, alike necessary to the health and development of the human system. The one-sided mental culture of our seminaries leads to mental degeneracy. The criminal pride and foolish vanity of the world, the excess of imagi- nation and passion, and other disturbing elements cultivated by our literary schools, prepare the way for insanity, to which students thus deteriorated fall an easy prey in after-life. But it is not necessary to enter upon a hygienic analysis of our present scholastic system. Dr. Ray, a most eminent observer, sketches in a few lines the future mothers of our physically enfeebled race, as sickly young women, daughters of healthy moth- 130 Race Education and Hygiene. ers who went to school hale and hearty, and re- turned with an enfeebled constitution, the face pale and the spine not infrequently curved, to give ex- istence to children as weak as themselves. The examination of a noted physician proved the fact that there was not one girl out of forty who have spent two years at a boarding-school that was not more or less crooked. Horace Mann said : " Degeneracy must not only be considered as one of the greatest calamities that can befall a people, but it must be entered on the catalogue of its greatest sins." Again, the same eminent educator says : " As the inevitable conse- quence of unhealthful habits, debility or sickness ensues, old age is anticipated, feeble parents are succeeded by feebler children, the lineage dwindles and tapers from less to less, the cradle and swad- dling clothes are frequently converted into the coffin and shroud, occasional contributions are sent off to deformity, to idiocy and insanity, until sooner or later, after incredible sufferings and abused and outraged nature finding all her commands broken, her admonitions unheeded, her punishments con- temned, applies to the offending family her sov- ereign remedy of extinction." The same veteran says : " On the broad and firm foundation of health alone can the loftiest and most enduring structure of the intellect be reared." Race Education and Hygiene. 131 Nervous diseases are daily becoming more fre- quent, and our mad houses, though of the size of towns and daily increasing in number, are over- flowing with their unhappy tenants. We, therefore, insist upon Race Education, or Hereditary Culture, which clearly implies a human- ity, sound in body, vigorous in mind, skilful in per- forming, inventive in conception and well-balanced all over. Our definition of Education excludes both ex- tremes, the past ineffectual formalism as well as the anti-ideal or unethical realism, which would fain press Education into the service of a selfish industrialism. Health is the first condition of success and hap- piness, and, hence, hygiene and gymnastics are the first steps in Education. Gymnastics direct the organic activity of the body from the great nerv- ous centres to the muscular system, and lessen thereby an excess of sensibility, which, among other baneful influences, counts also that of a premature and morbid sexual development, end- ing in that terrible vice which destroys the youths of the land by the tens of thousands. Our one- sided Education, failing to combine physical with mental exercise, is greatly responsible for this race- deteriorating pest. Too many lessons lead to evening studies, an 132 Race Education and Hygiene. excited brain, an unsound sleep, dreams and self- pollution. Muscular exercise and fatigue induce a sound sleep and a clear head for morning study. Germany is following in the traces of ancient Greece, and gymnastics form a part of its common schools, of which it is fast reaping the benefit. L I BEAR Y try I VERS IT Y OF CALIFORNIA^ PART THIRD, KINDERGARTEN AND INFANT EDUCATION. For hundreds of years universities absorbed all the care of governments ; to-day the vaster impor- tance of common schools is conceded. But we venture to say, the foundation must be laid deeper and lower still — in infant schools, where the senses are developed, moral and industrious habits are formed, the taste is improved, and the finer feel- ings, which give fibre to the will, are cultivated. But while the highest interests of humanity de- mand the formation of national infant schools, the immediate material interests of the industrial classes call for them as an opportunity for early art training, the development of the faculty of form, combination and invention, as they can only compete with machinery in art and ornamental industry. The daily increasing temptations of all classes convince all of the urgency of moral training, the want of which has not a little to do with our almost universal loss of trust and confidence, and the con- sequent crisis we are passing through. (133) 1 34 Kindergartens and Ltfant Education. Through the inactivity of our intellectual facul- ties in early infancy we become more apt to imi- tate and form habits good or bad, and, hence, the importance of training-schools at that age. Our sensations and their gradations, even those of touch, smell and taste, and especially those of sight — which suggest form and magnitude and lead to the perception of order and beauty — and those of hearing — which imply a succession of time and harmony — are all elements of thought and lead to the formation and development of the mind. This cultivation of the mind begins, then, with the ex- ercise of the senses, and especially of the eye, best cultivated by Kindergarten training adapted for the purpose and by the art of drawing continued in after years. From the very birth of man, sensations deepen into perceptions, perceptions by repetition form memory, memory develops into imagination ; the ab- sent object is imagined and calls forth desire, which grows into passion ; impressions force a compari- son arid give rise to judgment, which again devel- ops into reason ; and, hence, the importance of coming in contact with living nature and her grand living realities, the source of all healthy sensation and perception, the fountain-head of all higher mental life, and the necessity of feeding the minds of children through their senses and not to blur Kindergartens and Infant Education. 135 their minds through words — the imperfect shad- ows of things. It is from the freshness of the sen- sations and perceptions, derived from the constant intercourse with living nature, that the self-made man obtains his vigor and success in life. When character and individuality and the culti- vation of virtues, like order, steadiness, neatness, industry, wisdom and love, and, in general, a better and happier humanity will be aimed at in Educa- tion, Kindergarten, in which the development of these traits is the only business of the teacher and his young pupils, will be assigned the first place in the rearing of the race. As long, however, as the cramming down of the fragments of half-digested knowledge is taken for the proper work of the school, the race will be uneducated and suffer se- verely and variously, in spite of our boasted insti- tutions of learning, and in proportion to the undeveloped nature of its positive elements of physical, mental and moral strength. The words of Lord Brougham are always worth considering, and he dwells upon it as a weighty matter in connection with national infant schools, that a child can and does learn more before the age of six years than it does or can learn after that age during his whole life, however long it may prove to be. Children, he says, with curiosity, frankness and candor, become soon unwilling to 1 36 Kindergartens and Infant Education. learn, turn stubborn and sullen, and even full of base fear and falsehood, from want of early Educa- tion and infantile tuition. If colleges and universities turn out men full of fine speeches and sermons, only Kindergarten schools can turn out men and women of fine moral dispositions and such sterling mental parts as will make them citizens of solid worth. Kindergarten sounds very poetic, though its ori- gin is deeply realistic. Froebel's heart sunk within him at the misery of the masses, whose children are pining away within the dingy walls of dark and damp tenement apartments. He longed to see men free and happy, which they cannot be without activity ; but to be active they must be healthy, and, hence, he insisted that the pale little prisoners of the poor should be congregated in schools con- nected with gardens, that heaven's free air may have access to them and give them strength to act and to live. Next to bodily vigor, mental activity is requisite to a perfect life. The dwellings of the poor offer but little variety of impressions and yield but little food to the perceptive powers, the imagi- nation, the will, the sesthetic faculty; and the social virtues have no chance at all in the isolation of the dwellings of the poor, where the dear little ones are not infrequently locked up as brutes in cages, while the parents are out to work. Kindergartens and Infant Education. 1 37 That in England 408,461 infants of the ages be- tween three and six years attend infant schools, or, according to the report of the Commission of the Duke of Newcastle, 12.17 per cent, of the popula- tion under 5 years, and in France 418,768 infants of the same ages are in public halls, proves suffi- ciently the practicability of infant schools, and that they could be made beneficial to the highest de- gree to the race by the training and direction given to the physical and mental activities of the young before they take the wrong direction, into which they are often pushed by vicious hereditary ten- dencies. The progress of the Kindergarten schools in the last few years is a guarantee of their ultimate suc- cess. There were but twelve in the United States in 1 87 1. The following table, taken from the Com- missioner's late report, shows their growth in the last few years : 1873. 1874. 1875. Kindergarten Schools . . 42 55 95 Teachers 73 125 216 Pupils 1,252 1,636 2,809 St. Louis has made a lively beginning of incor- porating the Kindergarten system in the primary department of public instruction. Boston has en- tered upon the same experiment. The Kindergarten demands the highest capacity 1 3 8 Kindergartens and Infant Education. in the teacher, shows clearly the object of Educa- tion, and how to reach it; the teacher studying and developing the pupil, as books do not step in between the two and defeat the true object of Education. Once the presence of the father assisted the mother in the government of the children ; to-day the factory or the business house calls him away from his home ; and the mother, burdened with additional cares and labors in and out of the house, can impossibly attend with an even temper to the difficult task of properly training her children. The generality of mothers have to do their own work, their cooking, washing, sweeping, mending, nursing and taking care of babies ; and shall they be made also to train and educate our little children ? Is it a wonder that women are weakened, break down in body and mind and transmit their feebleness to their children ? We insist upon it that the father's absence and the increased responsibilities and cares and labors of women to-day, together with the irritability of our excited nerves, make it a necessity — both for mothers and children — that the latter are managed by infant schools, which would thereby much im- prove the health of overburdened mothers, and, in consequence, improve the race. As the house is dead and empty without the Kindergartens and Infant Education. 1 39 presence of the blessed little ones, so is the nation without its public nurseries, in which alone our children can be properly trained. Oh ! what bliss is in store for the race, when juvenile processions of sweet children will on fes- tive occasions brighten the careworn brow of the workers of the nation. The lamb-like innocence, beaming from the angelic little faces, will do more toward purifying the moral atmosphere of the land than all opposition parties. Far from being an innovation, we find that Boston had already in 1823 an infant school of 130 children. The growing difficulty of attaining success in the complexity of our modern relations, the ad- vantage a cultivated intellect bestows, and the continuous exercise of this faculty, render it super- fluous to dwell upon the necessity of mental train- ing at school. In proportion as men will be expected to do something well in life, the development of their faculties and energies, and, hence, their early train- ing will become more important. The infant school, therefore, must be something different from a mere play or singing school ; and, least of all, must the children be crammed. Infant schools cannot but become worse than useless when children are taught in them in the manner of: 140 Kindergartens and Infant Education. G, is for Goshen, a rich and good land, H, is for Horeb, where Moses stand. I, is for Italy, where Rome stands so fair. J, is for Joppa, and Peter lodged there. K, is for Kadesh, where Miriam died, L, is for Lebanon, can't be denied. Froebel's games must not be allowed to become monotonous, but the individuality of the teacher and the pupil must endow them with a daily fresh- ness, which renders them a delightful exercise to the minds and bodies of the children. The teach- ers of infant training-schools do a most noble work and must have warm hearts and active minds. Race Education, aiming at permanent qualities and fixed tendencies in the race, cares more for infant training than collegiate teaching. The latter may give us masters or commanders, who have neither the will nor the disposition to practice the laws they lay down for the regulation of others ; it may make diplomats disposed to take advantage of the ignorance of the multitudes ; but infant train- ing makes men who are a law to themselves, and who succeed not by the folly and faults of other men, but by their own skill and industry. It is a sort of malign providence in the state to educate the citizen just sufficiently to make him responsible for the law which he may be able to read, without developing in him the power to con- form to it. Kindergartens and Infant Education. 141 The culture of the disposition in the young, which is mostly effected by living example, is a grand school for the adult generation. But, alas! just here is the rub. It costs little or nothing to lec- ture. To give the example, we have to become learners and workers ourselves, and, hence, the preference of barren teaching to fruitful training. If a person well trained in childhood strays from the path of rectitude, he is easily redeemed from his error through the early instilled sentiment, which, as it were, waits but for an opportunity to be aroused from its dormant state into full power, swaying again the life and action of the soul and purging it from vice and crime. Race Education lays most stress upon the culti- vation and development of a sound body, for where health and vigor are wanting, nothing great or good can be achieved, neither intellectually nor other- wise, and nations as individuals lose their hold upon success and pre-eminence with the loss of physical energy. Still, though our main care in dealing with infancy is the attainment of bodily health and strength, we may and must lay the foundation to intellectual greatness already in the nursery. It has been observed by Beale that fixing the atten- tion steadily upon one object, or the complete concentration of mind, makes the Newton or Leib- 142 Kindergartens and Infant Education. nitz. And this faculty may be cultivated in the nursery by riveting the attention of a child to whatever he is doing, until he comprehends as much of it as his age permits before he passes to anything else. Children are so apt to fly from one thing to another with too much rapidity to thor- oughly acquire a knowledge of one thing before they begin to examine another. By a wise control over the appetites and propen- sities of our children the foundation is laid to that self-command in them, without which no real hap- piness in life is possible. Let children observe and learn facts, storing their minds with material for a later age when the higher faculties will begin to combine and compare ideas. We take only notice of what a child learns by set lessons, forgetting how much he learns by ob- servation of innumerable facts and the acquisition of language. Premature decrepitude and death are often the fruit of forcing the mind and neglecting to strength- en the body. Proper digestion, perspiration, exercise and res- piration are requisite to the proper action of the brain. Lessen the quality of the blood by impure air, or the quantity by insufficiency of food, and the brain lacks its proper stimulus. Race Education aiming at permanent effect Kindergartens and Infant Education, 143 through organic improvement seeks to ascertain in the nursery the temperament, constitution, idio- syncrasies of the various organs and their functions, morbid affections, hereditary tendencies and habits of those trusted to its charge. It being ascertained that the child we are to manage is of a bilious, san- guine, nervous or lymphatic temperament, of a weak or powerful constitution, scrofulous or phthit- ical, with a hereditary tendency to insanity, habits, surroundings and a mode of living are to be chosen opposing the development of the evil tendencies feared. It is in the nursery that the habit must be estab- lished of conforming to the hygienic laws of our being, a habit that determines the whole of life, and is positively of itself sufficient to insure our success and happiness in life ; and punctuality as regards food, sleep, temperature, evacuations, cloth- ing, etc., affords a constant opportunity for the establishment of this habit of conforming to the hygienic laws of our being; and this opportunity begins with our existence, and will do more for us than all later precepts and exactions. The brain of the young, soon over-worked, dis- turbs the functions of nutrition and produces indi- gestion so common among us, as we over-task our children at school and ourselves in whatever enter- prise we may be engaged in. 144 Kindergartens and Infant Education. It is the excess that injures. A proper amount of physical and mental activity promotes the nerv- ous activity requisite for the healthy functions of the human system. Temperance and exercise of body and mind must be insisted upon, without which health of body and mind are impossible and life becomes a tor- ment. Though all faculties are to be trained, still they are to be subordinate to the intellectual powers, which must, above all, be called into active exer- cise, especially as we are naturally prone to yield to our animal propensities. As the formation of regular habits, self-control and order are of the highest importance, a good nurse will lay the foundation to all these habits, and secure at the same time the health of the child by invariable order in the periods of feeding and in all other matters. Much can be done for the future happiness of the child by a cheerful nurse, who avoids harsh tones. A discordant voice and ill-tempered mother are sure to beget moroseness in the child, and lay the foundation for future misery. Gloom and de- pression, says Taylor, during childhood debilitate body and mind. A sorrowful child, full of unkind- ness and misfortune, develops among the lowest class a ferocity, which startles from the commission Kindergartens and Infant Education. 145 of no crime. An unhappy childhood is often the cause of a wrong life, for it perverts the judgment and natural feelings of man ; depression impairs the functions and lowers the tone of body and mind. Bearing in mind all the time that the physical growth and development is at this tender age im- portant beyond every other consideration, we still say, more can be done for the future mental devel- opment of the child in the first two years, than at any future period, for the child's powers of obser- vation can be steadied and its curiosity strength- ened, while we can weaken the one by discouraging the other, in order not to be annoyed by the child questioning us and exposing our ignorance besides trying our patience. As light, air and exercise are the first requisites of the young citizen, we will remark that the fading of the carpet must not be allowed to interfere with free access of the rays of the sun, neither must the possibility of soiling clean garments stand in the way of free and easy out-door play, and as a prop- erly warm and active skin is the foremost preserver of good health, we will add here our protest against children's bare arms and legs. It is a shame, our factories interfere even with infant schools. But can we not by stringent fac- tory laws, like Switzerland, keep little children out of factories? Or are our western prairies not as 7 146 Education a Social Science, fertile as the ice-fields of Helvetia, and can the American republic not as well provide for the fu- ture citizen, as the mountainous land of Tell does for its children ? EDUCATION A SOCIAL SCIENCE. Providence, that gives the bird its beautiful plum- age and teaches it to sing, that joins suppleness to strength in the tiger, gives antlers to the stag and fleetness to the hare, will it not provide for the suffering masses a way of escape from their miser- ies ? The physician studies but one side of human life — the physical^-and that in its abnormal state. The lawyer considers man in his legal and hardly in his moral or physical relations. The divine is almost wholly absorbed by the world to come, and the suffering masses themselves, and their hun- gry leaders, are too much in the thickest of the fight to direct with judgment the details of the battle. May we not look reasonably to the teacher for the deliverance of humanity from its present troubles ? Great educators are not mere cipherers. They are lovers of the race, and sorrow with its sufferings. Luther, Franke, De la Salle, Rousseau, Basedow, Zinzendorf, Pestalozzi, De Fellenberg, Oberlin, Wichern, in short, all who have revolutionized old barren systems, or applied well-known principles Education a Social Science, 147 on a grand scale, were deeply exercised about the social miseries of the people they yearned to relieve from the burdens that were pressing upon them. Vehrli, in Switzerland, was so strongly convinced of the necessity of the teacher's sympathy with the people, that at his normal school at Constance the future teachers had to work as hard and live as poorly as the commonest of the people, with whom they were to be united in heart and feeling ; and the sifccess of this system had become so manifest, that it has been copied in numerous normal schools all over Europe, and especially in those which had the good of the people at heart as the great and good Vehrli. The teacher is no theorist, but a practical worker. He has the best opportunities for observing human nature and for acting upon it when it is most sus- ceptible and least prejudiced. He has but one desire — the good of the race — and the world trusts and confides in him to-day more than ever. Who, then, of all men is more suited for the priesthood of social reform than the teacher and educator? The proper division of the sciences and the assigning to each of them its proper work is the very foundation and beginning of their successful cultivation. Medicine was for long ages but a part of theology and was practiced by the miracle work- ing and healing divine, and astronomy was left to 148 Education a Social Science. the fortune-telling astrologer ; while the chemistry of society, or social philosophy, like the chemistry of nature, was left to the goldmakers, and shared the same" fate of never rising in such hands to the dignity of a science. Remove social science from political economy — vulgarly speaking, the art of making money — to Education or the art of improving man, and social philosophy will experience the same change as the science of the heavens did when removed ffom its ancient quackery to the serene science of astron- omy, or chemistry from the goldmakers to the schools and laboratories of the Berzelius and Rose. As long as social philosophy was made the ad- junct of political economy, man was made sub- servient to wealth, just as wealth will be made subservient to man when political economy will be made an adjunct to social philosophy. Like law, medicine or theology, social philosophy must be put in keeping of some working profession ; and there is none, as we have seen, more proper for the cultivation of this noblest of all departments than that of the educator, who has in his hands the formation of humanity almost from the very cradle, and whose work is the improvement of man. Of course, the educator will make man and his improve- ment the centre and circumference of social philoso- phy. But is there any serious objection to this? Education a Social Science, 149 Only in the union of social science and Educa- tion lies the success of both and the future of humanity. Like the mills of the gods the educator grinds slowly, but surely, and equals all in the end. He does not convulse society with revolutionary meas- ures ; but neither are counter revolutions possible where he has prepared the ground for the onward movement of a progress in keeping with the condi- tions of time and place. Race Education puts a new emphasis upon Lord Brougham's celebrated " the schoolmaster is abroad," and endows it with the force of an almost new inspiration. The suffering masses, humanity, need not despair, the schoolmaster is abroad. He is intelligent ; is in daily contact with the children of the poor ; his labors and aspirations are for the poor ; their welfare is his success ; his worldly prospects are modest ; the prosperity of the poor is all he works for, and this is the highest re- ward of his most ardent labors. To the teacher the poor must look as to their most trusty friend, who will yet conquer for them the sphynx, answer her queries, and solve the problem that presses hard upon a suffering world to-day. To fill this, his mission, the teacher must study the whole of man. He must understand the gene- sis of physical debility, morbidity and of excessive 150 Education a Social Science. rates of mortality ; he must understand the genesis of pauperism, of drunkenness, of insanity, of vice and of crime ; for Education is the dietetics by which all these abnormal developments are to be prevented, and the race and the individual are to be preserved and improved. But if Education is a social science, it certainly cannot teach, as it does to-day teach, everything save the principles of this science, which is the most useful of all to man. Horace Mann has successfully urged upon com- mon schools the study of human physiology. But is the physiology of society or political economy less essential for our social existence than common physiology is for the animal economy? Ignorance cannot interfere with the motion of the stars, but it does with the movements of indus- try. Passions and narrow interests blind us as to the facts and principles of social science, and make an impartial study of the same a double necessity. How natural it is for a laboring man to believe that labor is the only factor in production ; that wages can be raised or lowered at option ; that what is gained by capital is taken from wages, and that to curtail capital is to improve wages, and the like sophisms, which form the stock in the conflict between labor and capital and which sound eco- nomical teachings must help to clear away. Education a Social Science. 1 5 1 England,with its extreme centralization of wealth, real and personal, would not enjoy to-day the peace and prosperity it does, had not its Broughams, its Robert Peels, its Chalmers, its Chambers, Charles Knights and Chadwicks worked as assiduously for the spread of sound economical doctrines as for the improvement of the condition of the masses. Education, or race preservation, cannot overlook the laws of production, exchange, currency, distri- bution and consumption, which can no more be violated with impunity than any other laws of nature. The aim of Education, says Mr. Blyth, before the National Association of Social Improvement, is not to make reading and calculating machines, or manufacturers of Greek and Latin verses, but steady, intelligent and thrifty men, practicing regu- lar industry, beneficially to society, and, therefore, profitable to themselves ; men who possess self-re- straint to abstain from wasting or misusing the product of their industry; forethought to store a portion of that product against sickness or old age ; honesty and trustworthiness, the' prevalence of which qualities in society enables confidence to be felt that their savings will be enjoyed, and a sense of parental duty inducing them to seek to implant in their children a disposition similar to their own. There are plenty of opportunities in school life 152 Industrial Education. to follow up the lessons of industry, self-restraint, forethought, equity and the like duties with their practical application. The mischief caused by the economical ignorance of the merchant class can only be imagined when we consider the universal calamity of our financial crises, which are as periodic and destructive as the pest formerly was. If men of science do not teach at school correct principles of social science to the advancement of social order, peace and general prosperity, disor- ganizes will spread doctrines subversive to society and civilization. Whoever will succeed to arouse the nation to a proper realization of the danger that threatens our future, from the neglect of the duty of teaching the people sound principles of social science in our common schools, will prove himself a public bene- factor. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. The preservation and improvement of the race requires a certain degree of general well-being, which depends to-day chiefly upon the productive- ness of the industrial arts, which, therefore, must form the chief concern of the school. Our whole course of instruction looks to general culture. The adding of practical science and industrial training, Industrial Education. 153 far from materializing the schools and rendering men machines, would only join practice to theory, and executing to planning, which humanizes us by the inter-penetration of thought and action. Science and industry are both gainers when they are united. Once the soldier held the scholar in contempt ; to- day the school and the scholar avoid the contact with the workshop and the mechanic ; and yet, if Lord Bacon is right, the workshop is the vestibule to real knowledge, and its methods are safer than those of Plato or Descartes. The school should omit nothing in theory or practice to make men more productive, saving, forethoughted, just and moral. Science, in its prac- tical application, the history and description of raw materials and the fashioning them into articles of industry, the management of tools, domestic and political economy and social science, form all-im- portant parts of the workingman's course at the industrial school. The industrial colleges of the United States should graduate annually a thouand mechanics and artisans, models of skill, efficiency and reliability. How much more such graduates would be worth to the country than the graduates sent out by our Latin and Greek schools, the relics of the middle ages. We are no more satisfied with verbal alterations. The abstract formulas and rules of science are of 7* 154 Industrial Education. no more practical use than the fine points of the schoolmen of the middle ages. Our infant schools must build us up by their training ; our common schools must use us to experimental ways by their constructive method of instruction, and our indus- trial schools must give us opportunities for apply- ing that spirit to the practical arts of life. A sensible people will as well submit to compul- sory industrial training as to spelling and grammar, especially as many trace their miseries to the want of such training. One-half of the people are out of work, because the other does not know how to work, and has nothing to give in exchange for the labor of the other. Or is this idea of compulsory industry a dream ? If it is, it was sober enough a dream for the eminent jurist Lieber to have dreamt it forty years ago. Against the spirit of the age Education is im- potent. Joining with it, Lieber remarks, it yields a permanency of results attested by the stability of the Chinese Empire, in which the Education of the schools and the spirit of the country are of a piece. Wild speculation and industrial activity are the double tendency of this age ; the school may reinforce the first and lead to extravagance and ruin, or it may sustain the latter and promote uni- versal well-being. In antiquity, lessening human wants was lessening Industrial Education. 155 the double barbarity of slavery, which supplied labor, and of war, which furnished the markets of the world with slaves. In modern times, the in- crease of human wants is the foundation of a civil- ization in which labor is supplied by brains, direct- ing machinery. Only when labor will be coupled with intelligence and taste, and will be efficient, and the capacity for consumption will be universally in- creased by the enhanced productive power of the masses, will over-production cease to be a periodic calamity, distressing alike to labor and capital, and, hence, the necessity of associating art instruction and industrial training with the common Education of the people. Or must the children of the industrious classes be pauperized before they can get into industrial schools? Is it just or wise to make industry the exclusive feature of pauper schools ? Is not this degrading labor and sliding back into the foul spirit of slavery and indolence, and the contempt of poor humanity? Is it not undermining the foundation of national wealth and public morality and manhood ? There are two sorts of culture, a traditional, oc- cupying itself with the opinions of the past, and a common, acquainting itself with men and things as they are. The first is as barren as endless, and in- accessible to the masses, for whose wants public 156 Industrial Education. Education ought to be suited. The second is suited for the people, whose Education must be such as will make them healthy and well balanced men, gain- ing a comfortable living by their skill and industry ; and with health of body and mind, and industry, comfort and manly culture will not long be miss- ing. To be plain, our schools are not to furnish us with young ladies and gentlemen shining in society, but to fit men and women for useful work in a world of toil and labor. Our encyclopaedic Education makes of everybody a superficial judge of everything; thorough uni- versal elementary art and technical training makes men skilful performers of useful things. We want workers and not everlasting talkers. We are all critics, but where are the artists ? Once schools were only attended by the clergy ; and, hence, they were engrossed by Latin. Later, they were frequented by the wealthier classes and became commercial in character. To-day, when the working people crowd them, they must be- come essentially industrial. Drawing, geometry, science applied, technical instruction and indus- trial training must develop taste, skill and inclina- tion for a variety of mechanical pursuits. As long as five millions of youths are annually un- fitted upon our school benches for the plough, the shop and the factory, neither this, that or any Industrial Education. 157 other administration will relieve us of the misery of our times. Who can count the direct and indirect victims of a half a million of dens of iniquity in the land? Who can measure the depth of their misery and degradation? What an army of paupers, drunk- ards, criminals, insane and idiots! What sorrowful batallions of the blind, deaf and dumb, who come into the world loaded with other men's sins. And the vicious, the proud, the avaricious, slaves and oppressors greatly swell this sad list. When men have once been saturated with sin and shame, benevolent societies may pitying follow them to the grave. The common schools must bring up the people for work ; and a gentleman who thinks his children above such an Education, must have the dancing master come to the house. Education alone can safely guide us through life. But Education must start us on the very way we are to travel through life. It must make us, when children, feel, think, live and act as we are to do through life. To pass our young years upon school benches entirely, prepares us for passing our lives in the school and not in the world. There are hours enough in the day for exercising a child in all the parts of life. William Penn, the founder of the commonwealth 158 Industrial Education. that bears his name, framed the following provision, which was adopted by the Provincial Council in 1683 : "That all children within this province of the age of twelve years shall be taught some use- ful trade or skill, to the end that none may be idle, but the poor may work to live and the rich — if they become poor — may not want." Our Education, says the State Superintendent of Pennsylvania, seems faulty in this, that too many young people are seeking a livelihood without working with their hands. Of 240 convicts, re- ceived at the Eastern Penitentiary of Pennsylvania, only twelve had a regular trade, and of the crimi- nals of 17 prisons in the United States in 1868, 79 per cent, were without a trade. Mr. Edward Winslow, of Boston, insists upon joining mechanical and industrial training to our common school exercises. So* does Prof. J. W. Burns, of Philadelphia. Commissioner Eaton de- cidedly uses all his resources to direct the minds of the teachers of the United States to the want of a more practical Education ; and aptly quotes, in introducing the subject of Education and Labor, the words of Humboldt : " The time is not far distant when science and manipulative skill must be wedded together, that national wealth and increasing pros- perity of nations must be based on an enlightened* employment of natural products and forces." Industrial Education. 159 Man's whole make of body and soul, his wants, and the whole structure of society, call for the per- fecting of our industrial occupations, especially to- day, when the competition among unskilled labor- ers is so great, and the power of steam takes the place of muscle. But under our system of division of labor, when a man, making a twentieth part of a thing, can earn however scanty a living and do- ing it all the time, does it expeditiously and to the satisfaction of the employer, technical schools be- come a necessity, in which apprentices are taught every part of a process, and the theory as well as the practice, in order to become superior workmen. Neighborhoods and countries blessed with such industrial institutions have distanced in the great markets of the world all the competition of the more imperfect products of countries, which by this sad experience have -been awakened to their com- mercial danger. Muhlhousen, Creuzot and Besangon, with their celebrated industrial schools; Belgium, with fifty such institutions and fifteen thousand apprentices, who have attended these schools with great satisfac- tion to themselves and the manufacturers ; France, with its twelve thousand of industrial scholars ; and Germany, with its 52,127 apprentices in fourteen hundred and fifty industrial schools, are sufficient proof of the practicability of such institutions. 160 Industrial Education. Scott Russel shows the actual cost of the techni- cal Education of a workman is no more than $125, and the surplus earning of educated over uneduca- ted labor of one single year amounts to as much. England is almost carrying on a crusade against the ignorance arising from want of like institutions for the technical training of her people. It recog- nizes the utter failure of a general Education, that is not followed up by a special Education and train- ing in some particular industry. A practical Education for useful life is hereditary ; for, as it is all work and training, it enters the very make of body and soul, while superficial scholarship profits very little at present and nothing at all in the future. Modern governments are expensive ; and if they do not assist the pursuit of industry, especially when the scientific information and the technical skill nec- essary for the complete mastery cannot be secured without the assistance of public institutions, they will soon find empty the pockets of the people they so often rifle. Why should the government not as well provide for the highest mastery of the occupations of the work-people as for the learned professions ? Solon freed children from all obligations toward their old parents, who neglected to teach them a trade. The Progress of Industrial Education, 161 Massachusetts made this duty obligatory upon parents by statute laws as early as 1642, and Con- necticut in 1650. Almost forty years ago, Lieber said in his " Ethics of Politics/' that all his investigations lead him to the conclusion that modern crime is very much due to the want of fixed occupations. Among 358 convicts in one prison he found but 52, or one in seven, who had a trade. In Belgium, in districts in which industrial schools are in operation, vagrancy, the hotbed of crime, has entirely disappeared, and at Creuzot, in which industrial instruction has been in vogue since 1841 though a city of twenty-five thousand inhabitants, crime, and even misdemeanors, have almost disap- peared, and three policemen form the entire force sufficient to give the people the feeling of perfect security. Education, without industrial training, starves the masses, breeds mutiny and ends in national suicide. Race Education most stringently insists upon in- dustrial training as the most effective preventive of pauperism, vice, crime, insanity, and, in fact, of q every wrong from which society suffers to-day. THE PROGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. The progress in the industrial arts in England, France and Germany is not by any means the re- 1 62 The Progress of Industrial Education. suit of mere manufacturing routine, which has but slowly advanced the arts, until the government has, by the creation of schools of design, of art, and practi- cal science, spread the taste and the principles requi- site for the advancement of a higher industry. If we are to advance in the industrial arts for the sake of our commerce, our hungry masses, the puri- fication of taste and the delights of a higher civiliza- tion, we must likewise found industrial schools. Our late national exhibition entitles us to say that with the same art and industrial training, France, England and Germany possess already for many years, we would soon be more than their equal in the manufacturing arts. As far back .as 1835 the House of Commons has appointed a parliamentary committee for ascertain- ing the state of art in England and other countries, the best means for extending a knowledge of and a taste for art among the manufacturing classes, and the state of the higher branches of art and the best mode for advancing them. The want of instruction in design and the absence of public and open galleries containing approved specimens of art was pronounced by this committee the chief cause of the difference between the artistic feeling of the English manufacturing districts and that of similar districts of France and other coun- tries. A normal school of design was, therefore, The Progress of Industrial Education. 163 determined upon, and the Government School of Design opened at Somerset House, in 1837. Eyery student had to devote himself to the advancement of the interests of manufactures and ornamental trades. The course of study embraced — 1. Elementary instruction, as outline drawing of ornaments and of the human figure, shadowing, drawing from plaster, modeling and coloring. 2. Instruction in design for special branches ; the study of fabrics and of such processes of industry as admit only of the application of design under cer- tain conditions; the history of taste in manufactur- ing ; the distinction of styles of ornamentation, and such knowledge as was calculated to improve the tastes of the pupils and acquaint them with art. In 1841 the first common local schools of art were opened at Spitalfields, Sheffield, Manchester, Bir- mingham, Coventry, Nottingham, Norwich, Stoke, Hanley, Leeds, Huddersfield, Newcastle, Glasgow and Paisley, with 2,241 pupils. Technical art instruction was given ; museums were established ; artistic anatomy, practical con- struction, wood engraving, painting on porcelain, decorative art in all kinds of woven fabrics, paper staining, furniture and jewelry, all were treated with the greatest attention. In 1863 these schools of art have, through the continued care of Parliament, and the central insti- 164 The Progress of Industrial Education. tution, the Chamber of Commerce, and the general interest of the public, risen to 90 with 16,480 pupils under instruction, and 79,305 children of poor, and other schools were taught through their influence ; and to-day 117 schools of art give instruction to 20,310 pupils, with 309 night classes, having 11,747 pupils and 148,256 scholars in poor-schools all over the country under instruction in design. That these establishments have materially raised the character of the designs in all descriptions of English manufactures nobody doubts. The opening of the trade schools at Bristol, Wor- cester and other places, in which building, mechan- ical and engineering trades and chemical manu- facturing have made great progress since 1852, has been successfully followed up, until in 1870, 799 have been in full operation with 34,283 pupils. And it is universally admitted that these science schools had a lasting effect upon the scientific Education of the working people throughout the country. In 1 861, 82 classes submitted to public examina- tion, such as entitles to government support ; in 1870, 2,204 science classes were examined not only in mathematics, mechanics, drawing, physics and chemistry, but in practical work, testing the power of using the ax, saw, plane, chisel, file, forge, smith- work, turning, pattern making, moulding, etc., the The Progress of Industrial Education. 165 rule being that unless fully one-half of the science students are practical workmen the school has no claim upon the government for support. What an excellent example for our imitation. A school that does not aid the world in its work has no claim upon its assistance. The following table will best illustrate the im- portance attached by England to these practical institutions. Industrial instruction was given in in 9 schools, with 500 pupils. " 38 1,300 " " 70 « 91 "120 " 153 " 212 " 3IO " 5H Enough has been said about the industrial, art and science schools of England, which have made it great in the industrial arts, to show how much can be accomplished in a few years by a govern- ment, which has at heart the commerce of the nation and the welfare of the masses. In France, national schools of art and common industrial schools have been fostered with the same care as in England and with the same results. The schools of arts and trades at Chalons, Angers and at Aix sent out every year 300 young men perfect i860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 2,543 3>m 4,666 5,479 6,835 10,230 15,010 21,000 1 66 The Progress of Industrial Education. in theory and practice in a number of trades. Paris, Lyons, Muhlhausen, Rouen, Nimes, Dieppe, Ro- chelle and other places, have excellent practical schools of industry. In 1862, 79 cities had indus- trial schools, attended by 32,000 pupils. France has two great national agricultural col- leges, seventy farm schools, practical schools for draining, etc. ; three mining schools, the central schools of arts and manufacturing at Paris, also the famous Conservatory of Arts and Industry, three national schools of arts and manufacturing in the provinces ; in Savoy, a famous school for watch- making, the renowned Polytechnic School at Paris. In 1867, there were in France 250 special smaller technical schools, 21 schools of design, 12 of arts and trades, 5 of hydrography, 4 of the technical sciences, 4 of design for textile arts, lace, wall- paper, furniture, etc. Germany, which ranks high in the industrial pursuits, swarms with thorough practical technical schools, of which Austria has 45, Bavaria 36, Sax- ony 76, Baden 50, among which are some for watch- making, weaving and straw plaiting. Switzerland has, besides its great polytechnic institutes, 29 in- dustrial schools. Belgium has 15 technical schools and 68 national workshops. Enough has been said to show the necessity of organizing industrial schools for our success in the The Progress of Industrial Education, 167 practical arts, commerce and the self-support of the masses, who must live by their labor. We have done more ; we have shown by the example of the foremost nations in art and industry that these institutions are not only possible and thor- oughly practical, but do actually exist in great numbers and fulfill all that is expected of them. Every lover of America cannot but look with pleasure at the following table, which shows the growth of schools of science in the United States : 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. Schools ... 17 41 70 70 72 74 Teachers . . 144 303 724 749 609 758 Students . . 1,413 3,303 5,395 8,950 7,244 7,157 These schools of science are an almost infinite improvement upon the old Greek and Latin schools, which in the vast majority of cases do more injury than good ; and as these schools of science grow older, they will become more practical and teach more science applied than pure science, with which a graduate leaving the college cannot profit the world sufficiently to get in return for his services a modest meal. We have hardly any schools of industry ; and drawing, as useful, and even more so than writing, to every artisan, is but slowly making headway in our common schools, the only ones the masses are able to attend. It is often expressed that technical pursuits hard- 1 68 The Progress of Industrial Education. \y merit the attention of men seeking a comfortable living. If this was really so, and an efficient artisan could not make a decent living, communism, in- cendiarism and every disorganizing scheme against a society, which refuses men a living for the labor it requires of them, would find almost an apology in such an unjustifiable condition. The fact is, we live in a crisis, in which a fat bank account and even plenty of real estate is no more security against want than labor is. An average importa- tion of $500,000,000 to $600,000,000 worth of manufactured goods is evidence that we want more skilled men. The association of industry with the school and science, will raise it to the character of art and infinitely vary it. No matter how much machinery produces, as long as men work and ex- change their products, they are benefited. But that they may all have work, industry must take the character of art, which admits of an almost infinite variety and demand ; for, of course, with a gigantic producing machinery, men cannot find employment in a few rude manufactures. An Arabic enameled glass lamp set up in the Louvre, became the support of hundreds of artisans model- ing after it. An industry raised to the character of art not only gives bread to the masses, but in purifying the taste of the people it improves their morals, for the beau- The Progress of Industrial Education. 169 tiful and the good are but different expressions of the same thing. Congress has manifested great wisdom in initi- ating the practical and scientific tendency of our higher institutions by its munificent grants for the establishment of agricultural colleges. That it put foremost agriculture and mechanics next, is emi- nently proper, as the promotion of agriculture is every way more to be desired in this country than the cultivation of manufacturing industry. The National Bureau of Education, under the able superintendence of John Eaton, contributes its full share to rendering the educators of the land more practical. It does all in its power to show the need of the organization of infant schools. It acquaints us with the progress of technical Educa- tion abroad. It makes plain by statistical investi- gations the bearings of Education upon the various relations of the nation as well as of the individual. It brings face to face the theories and practice of the great educators of the land, which are thus cor- rected or supported one by the other. The in- fluence of the National Bureau of Education is immense, and forms an epoch in the educational activity of the United States. It lifts the educa- tor to a plane where he discerns all that is advanced the world over by the leaders of thought in his line, and where he beholds Education in connec- tion with all the great interests of humanity. 170 Industrial Education in the United States. The prospected delineation of our centennial his- tory of Education by the National Bureau is simply stupendous. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED -STATES. In the beginning of the century, before the full tide of emigration had set in, when land was new and cheap, work hard and plenty and help rare, the farmers' sons had to do the work ; and when they had grown into manhood and felt the want of an Education, the colleges and seminaries were glad to give it to them in exchange for their labor. Thus the condition of the country prepared for manual labor schools, and here, as everywhere else, has theory perfected what practice has roughly initiated. Between 1820 and 1830 public opinion had taken a decided stand on the utility and feasibility of manual labor schools, which were introduced every- where at the end of this period. The democratic men who cleared the woods, broke the ground and made this country and gov- ernment, did a good deal of hard working and hard thinking; and they thought their children most likely to do the same if they handled at college as many tools as books. They wanted their sons to work for their Education, and work while they were at it, as they deemed thought only valuable when work rendered it effective. They did not want Industrial Education in the United States. 171 polish got at the expense of health and vigor, which labor alone can give and preserve. Neither did they want the poor, who could not pay, but could w r ork for their Education, to be excluded from the schools. But, above all, were they unwilling that their sons should lose at school their taste for work- ing, while they acquired a taste for thinking. And, then, they believed nothing was gained when inde- pendence was lost ; and so, again, they wanted their sons doubly to work for their Education, that they might feel independent while they worked for it, and feel independent after they got it ; as they could live by the plow or the anvil — if they could not by their profession — and be true to their con- victions. The eminently industrial people of Pennsylvania took the lead in this matter. The Manual Labor Academy near Philadelphia, opened in 1829. "The hours of recreation are employed in useful bodily labor, such as will exercise their skill, make them dexterous, establish their health and strength, en- able each to defray his own expenses, and fit him for the vicissitudes of life," the record reads. In 1830 every invalid student, who resorted to the Manual Labor Academy and spent there about a year, was restored to health. "When thought shall need no brain/' the report continues, " and nearly four hundred organs of motion shall cease I J 2 Industrial Education in the United States. to constitute the principal portion of the human body, then may the student dispense with muscu- lar exertion." The House of Representatives of the State of Pennsylvania, by a resolution passed in December, 1832, directed a committee on education to inquire into the expediency of establishing at the expense of the state a manual labor academy for the in- struction of teachers for public schools. The com- mittee made out a report as the result of a very careful investigation, of which we will briefly state the following points : 1. That the expense of Education, when con- nected with manual labor judiciously directed, may be reduced at least one-half. 2. That the exercise of about three hours' labor daily, contributes to the health and cheerfulness of the pupil, by strengthening and improving his physical powers and by engaging his mind in useful pursuits. 3. That so far from manual labor being an im- pediment in the progress of the pupil in intellectual studies, it has been found, that in proportion as one pupil has excelled the other in the amount of labor performed, the same pupil has excelled the other in equal ratio in his intellectual studies. 4. That manual labor institutions tend to break down the distinction between rich and poor, which Industrial Education in the United States. 1 73 exists in society, inasmuch as they give an almost equal opportunity of Education to the poor by labor as is afforded to the rich by the possession of wealth ; and 5. That pupils trained that way are much better fitted for active life, and better qualified to act as useful citizens than when educated in any other mode ; that they are better as regards physical en- ergy and better intellectually and morally. This report was accompanied with an act to be passed by the Legislature establishing a State Man- ual Labor Academy. New York City had a Society for Promoting Manual Labor in Literary Institutions, the prin- ciples of which were expressed by Mr. Wild, the secretary, in the report of 1833, in so solid a man- ner, as to command our attention even to-day. Our muscular system and bony structure, he says, does not look as if we were made merely for read- ing and writing. The influences which body and mind exert upon each other are innumerable, incessant and all-con- trolling; the body continually modifying the state of the mind, and the mind ever varying the condi- tion of the body. Not the body alone, not the mind alone, but both united by mutual laws make man. The mutual laws form the only rational basis for a system of Education. A system based upon 174 Industrial Education in the United States. anything else is wrong. The body is the house, the instrument, the reflector and the servant of the mind ; and if it is rendered dark, dull and crip- pled, what is it worth, and of what use is it to the mind ? And what is then the state of the mind ? The body and the mind must be educated to- gether. We must preserve the body in the condi- tion which will most favorably affect the mind. As the best condition of the mind always attends the best condition of the body, must not a system of Education, which expends all its energies upon the mind alone and surrenders the body to chance, be fundamentally defective ? Is not a system false, which aims solely at development of mind and yet overlooks those very principles which are indispen- sable to produce that development, and transgresses those very laws which constitute the only ground- work of rational Education ? The mental part of Education has been vastly improved. But what has meanwhile been done for the body ? What provision has been made for the daily wants of its muscles and nerves ? What aids have been furnished to the organs of digestion, secretion and circulation ? What means have been provided for preserving the body in its best condi- tion, or for giving healthful energy to its func- tions, best securing to the mind that permanent vigor which results from such a condition of bodily Industrial Education in the United States. 175 organs ? We have neglected the Education of the body, and with the sound body the sound mind has become rare. This is no new discovery. Mil- ton has, two centuries ago, urged the connection of physical and mental Education. Locke has done the same. Jahn, Ackerman, Salzmann and Franke have done the same in Germany, and Tissot, Rousseau and Lond in France. As far back as the end of the last century, Dr. Rush, of Philadelphia, recommended at length the connecting of agricultural and mechanical labor with literary institutions, saying, " The student should work with his own hands in the intervals of study." President Lindsley, of the Nashville University ; Professor Mitchel, of the Medical College of Ohio ; Professor Harris, of the Medical Institute of Phila- delphia ; President Fisk, of the Wesleyan Univer- sity, and Professor Hitchcock, of Amherst College, have all earnestly advocated the union of manual labor with intellectual culture. Mr. Wild closes his very able report with the apprehension that the want of the element of phys- ical work in our system of Education will make of us just as degenerate and sinking a race as the higher classes in France were before the great revolution, or as the noble families of Spain are to-day. But reports and speeches were the small- 1 76 Industrial Education in the U?iited States. est part of the work. Manual labor schools sprung up North and South, and East and West. The Society for the Promotion of Education of the Episcopal Methodist Church organized a num- ber of manual labor schools. The Baptists were not less active in the cause of establishing like institutions. The Governor of Pennsylvania recommended in his message the adoption of the system of manual labor in seminaries for teachers. The Governor of Georgia recommended the introduction of manual labor schools. The Legislature of North Carolina has passed a bill incorporating the manual labor schools of the State. In the United States Senate, in 1836, the reso- lution was offered proposing the Committee on Public Lands to be instructed to inquire into the expediency of making a grant of land to our col- leges in each State for the Education of the poor on the manual labor school system. We may, by way of illustration, mention but few of the many manual labor schools which resulted from this discussion of principles and legislation. Connecticut had manual labor schools at Suffield, at Worcester and Haddenfield. Georgia had man- ual labor schools in Camden county, at Lawrence- ville and Covington. These institutions were in successful operation, and paid the students at the Industrial Educatio?t in the United States. 1 77 end of each term, $14 to $30 for the work done in three hours per day. In Kentucky, Cumberland College, at Princeton, was conducted as a manual labor school. Another labor school was at Lexington. In the State of Indiana manual labor was intro- duced at Wabash College ; and at the Teachers' Seminary at Madison the students paid entirely by their labor for all necessary expenses, without being put back in their studies. Dr. Blyth, President of South Hanover College, in the same State, and organized on the same prin- ciple, says : " Such schools give birth to enterprise, create or perpetuate habits of industry and econ- omy, generate and keep alive a feeling of self-sup- port and independence, preserve health and create genius." Massachusetts introduced a manual labor school at Lexington and at Andover Seminary. In Missouri, Marion College required every stu- dent to work in the shop or field three hours daily, which enabled the student to pay a considerable part of his expenses. In New Hampshire, at the manual labor school, straw-plaiting was carried on as a trade. In New Jersey, we find manual labor introduced at the Stockbridge Academy, in Madison county. In the State of New York, we find the manual 1 78 Industrial Education in the United States. labor schools practically introduced by the noblest of her sons, Gerrit Smith, at Peterboro. In North Carolina, the Donaldson Manual Labor School gave poor young men an opportunity of getting the best Education by paying for it in labor. Ohio seems to unite the industry of the East with the snap or go-aheadativeness of the West. It had a manual labor school at Granville, prepared teach- ers on the same plan at Marietta, and had another manual labor school at Dayton. At Lane Semi- nary, on Walnut Hills, near Cincinnati, the com- mittee state that the combining of three hours daily labor in some useful and interesting employ- ment with study, protects the health and constitu- tion of our young men ; greatly augments their physical energy ; furnishes to a considerable extent or entirely the means of self-education ; increases their power of intellectual acquisition ; facilitates their actual progress in study ; removes their temp- tation to idleness ; confirms their habits of indus- try ; gives them a practical acquaintance with the common employments of life ; inspires them with independence of character and the originality of investigation, which belongs peculiarly to self-made men. Printing was followed. The students got sufficiently skilled in three weeks* practice to earn $2.54 per week, working daily three hours. They Industrial Education in the United States. 179 followed also cabinet making with the same good results. The Western Reserve College, at Hudson, had shops and tools provided for those who wished to engage in labor. Some have gained, says the col- lege report, only health of body and vigor and elasticity of mind, enough to pay, one would think, for two or three hours daily labor, while others did much toward defraying their expenses. Oberlin was never backward in the spirit of genuine re- form, and required the students to do daily three hours of manual labor, with marked results as to the health of the students, which was made an object. The Keystone State has already occupied our attention. The manual labor school near Pitts- burg had 440 acres of land and a three -story building sixty feet long. Chester county was the seat of a very active association for the adoption of an improved system of Education, recommend- ing the establishment of a model school combining agricultural and mechanical labor with literary and scientific instruction. At Bristol College, in the same state, manual labor in school was found highly useful as well as economical, and the Episcopal Recorder, at Phila- delphia, says, with reference to this institution : " We hope to send forth trained and strong men, I So Industrial Education in the United States. no diluted manhood, who associate vulgarity and meanness with all manual labor, or young men blighted with college diseases. Sedentary invalids of every description demand that systematic and regular labor be incorporated in the very framework of our new institutions. Manual labor and mental culture ought to go together, for, as Plato says, " A good Education imparts to the mind and to the body all the power, all the beauty and all the perfection of which they are capable." In South Carolina the report of the Manual La- bor School at Pendleton says that the manual labor system in South Carolina has been fairly tried, and that it is decidedly the most advantageous mode of Education which has ever been introduced into this or any other country. Alabama, Michigan, Tennessee and other states have interested themselves equally in this cause, but enough has been said to show what our fathers have thought and what they have done for manual labor schools. About the time of the agitation of manual labor schools, 1 820-1 830, the population of the United States, all told, was not 10,000,000. Labor was then mostly native and respected. The American laborer wanted a higher Education he could not pay for nor find free of charge. The pupil, who came from the plough or the shop, felt more the bene- Industrial Education in the United States. 181 fit of manual labor, which, indeed, all appreciated in all its blessed bearings, as the young republic was still full of democratic inspirations. With the change of these conditions manual labor schools lost in popularity ; but physical labor is so funda-* mental a condition of human existence, that these institutions will never be superseded without detri- ment to society, though their methods may have to be varied to meet new wants and purposes. Out cities have in the last thirty years grown to the size of the largest cities of the Old World ; land has become rare, and the foreign population — ■ especially under the present system of manufactur- ing — is flocking more and more into these hives of human beings. In these days of steam and ma- chinery, these masses must be aided and sustained to maintain themselves by an industry, skill and knowledge have elevated to the character of art, or we all end in chaos brought on by idleness, mis- ery, vice, crime and a turbulent and despairing mob. Enough has been said to show that our fathers have thought the union of labor and study at school eminently wise and practical as well. We do not ask to make of every school a workshop, but we insist, the most important years of man in which his character and habits are formed for life and the many millions which are spent on Education in 1 82 Industrial Education in the United States. ♦ this country, must have something greater, better and wiser to point to than a little grammar, spell- ing, arithmetic and geography. Industrial Educa- tion is not a new crotchet. It had many years ago a most tangible existence in this country ; it is to- day organized on a great scale in Germany, France, Belgium, Switzerland, and is making rapid progress in England. It has been urged upon the teachers and legislators of the land by most practical men for the last twenty-five years ; and the modern apostle of Education, Pestalozzi, held it suffi- ciently important for the school to help the pu- pil to sustain himself in the world, that he com- bined manual labor with school instruction. . We plead for practical scientific instruction, with full application to the industrial arts and'life. We plead for drawing that shall give the scholar full exercise of the eye, hand and imagination, and develop his taste and skill ; for more geometry, the science of form and color, and the history of indus- try and technology. We plead for technical gym- nastics in every school, which, besides promoting physical development, shall give the scholar the use of the common implements of the trades. We plead for special industrial schools of a nature to assist in the progress of the trades peculiar to cer- tain localities and districts. We plead for the or- ganization of industrial institutions of all grades Industrial Education in the United States. 183 into one great system, with a national industrial university at its head, that shall inspire our hands with great and useful works. We plead, in fine, for the cultivation of the industrial spirit in every normal college, which is to send out into the world teachers for the people, whose success as well as the success of the country depend on the cultiva- tion of industrial habits. In our pleading for industry we plead for agricul- ture — the noblest of all industries, and the most useful as well as the most elevating of them all — and the one in which more than in any other we have great nature as an especial ally on our grand and unequalled prairies and in the variety of our climes, which produce whatever will bless man. How long still will teachers set before them with indifference of mind the vacant task of making chil- dren read and write, and, perchance, know a little geography, arithmetic and grammar? It is time we spread the practical facts and prin- ciples of science, which would make of every laborer, mechanic and manufacturer a thinker and an invent- or ; a man, who by his skill would largely contrib- ute to the pleasures and adornments of life, and add to his own happiness as well as to that of mankind. The capabilities of art and science for making of earth a heaven will not be known until pervading the masses, every child in the land will be tremu- 184 Industrial Education in the United States. lous with sensibility, and love of order and beauty. With the energy of thought peculiar to practical science and the sensibility attending art, every home will be the blessed abode of peace and plenty, of love, order and beauty, in which sadness and sor- row will be unknown, as all will be industrious and live in natural simplicity, hardly ever visited by sickness, want and misery. Such is the future the union of science, art and industry is to usher in. But who has the heart to dwell upon the picture of the misery of the laborer of to-day, who, unaided by art and science, plods along in the old beaten path with but a poor re- turn for his toil, and lives in squalid quarters made darker and more miserable still by the sight of cheerless, sick and dying children and a poor moth- er borne down by labor and care ? Industrial Education for the people is no theory. It is with them a question of life and death. It is a question of civilization. It is a national question, and touches the existence of the state. And the rich are as well interested in it as the poor, as the time is near when only capital turned over by la- borers, skilled through the knowledge of art and science, will yield a return to its owner. LIB R A R Y UNIVERSITY OE ^ CALIFORNIA. PART FOURTH. THE PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION. THE history of the world is the Education of mankind, and every step in the onward march of civilization is full of lessons and suggestions to the educator who aims at the preservation and im- provement of the race. Schoolmen take the wit and wisdom of books for civilization. They do not know what effort it has cost humanity to develop the industrial arts, which have made life possible and even pleasure- able in a world that harasses man at every step. Industry, or human activity applied to the arts of life, has changed us, and is changing us every day ; and if Education is to become a civilizing power, it must improve and advance industry to a science and instrument for the mental and moral improvement of the people who are ever engaged .tin it. Industry is the mother of the inductive method of reasoning from enlarged experience, and of the utilitarian philosophy, and both these, her daughters, are fast changing the life and mind of mankind. O85) 1 86 The Progress of Civilization. It is a maxim recognized and acted upon by- practical statesmen, that general progress is not influenced by abstruse principles or reasonings, which never penetrate the masses. Only as far as science mingles with the trades and occupations of the people does it become the property of the world and civilizes the age. The decorations of a building are not the build- ing, nor are they as important as the foundation laid solidly deep down in the ground. It is so with literature and the common arts of life, which sustain life. Civilization existed before prophets, poets, philosophers and statesmen appeared. Long and laborious was the way industry had to travel. before the present stage was reached. Not only civilization as a whole includes many changes, but, as Tylor conclusively shows, there is not a tool, a garment or any other object of art, but it is the survivor of a thousand changes ; and as every pebble is an epitome of all past geological changes, and mirrors the cosmos to him who under- stands its language, even so it is with every object of human ingenuity, as each is a volume of the world's history, stretching back from this our Age of Steel to that of Iron, back to the Age of Bronze, and the Flint Age, when man was the companion of the mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros. Yes, the whole world of human objects is a library, The Progress of Civilization. 187 and nothing in it is so trivial, be it a spade, a knife or a hatchet, but it has to tell wonders of the thou- sand sires that preceded it, and whose history is closely interwoven with the history of the race. Pedants see civilization exclusively in schools and books which exist but since yesterday, while the mechanic arts date back a hundred thousand years, and their remains are found to-day buried under thick strata, the work of myriads of years and in company with a fauna that shows the very skies and climate as well as the earth have changed, and are no more what they have been when the hands of men have formed these debris of another age and world. Such is the cycle of ages that was required to bring the mechanic arts to their present maturity. Well says Gibbon, " The poet or philosopher illus- trates his age and country by the efforts of a single mind, but these superior powers of reason or fancy are rare ; many may be qualified to spread the benefits of government, trade, manufactures, art and science, but even this requires the union of many, which may come to naught ; but the simple practice of the mechanic trades stikes an everlast- ing root into the most unfavorable soil ; under all changes and restrictions these inestimable gifts have been diffused ; they have been successively propagated ; they can never be lost. We may, 1 88 The Progress of Civilization. therefore, acquiesce in the pleasing conclusion, that every age of the world has increased and still in- creases the real wealth, the happiness, the knowl- edge, and, perhaps, the virtue of the human race." Thus with the practice of the mechanic trades the progress of the race has begun and continued through unnumbered ages, and through them alone what has been acquired in the long struggle will be maintained and descend to new races and civili- zations, when all else will be lost and become unin- telligible. Thousands of years the race roamed about before it stole the thunder from the clouds — learned how to kindle fire and how to keep it up. The Egyp- tians, the Phoenicians, the Persians, the Greeks and the Chinese have all preserved the tradition of the invention of this art by their ancestors, and to this day we meet with tribes who miss it. To pluck fruit from trees was the first method of sustaining life. A long time passed before man made the first tool or instrument, the first step in his civilization— the arrow and the bow — which made the chase possible. Only as men multiplied, and the chase fell short of sustaining life, would men consent to tend flocks of sheep and herds of cattle. When man succeeded in domesticating animals and throwing the burden and slavery of his work The Progress of Civilization. 189 upon the horse, the ox and the ass, a great stride was made in the civilization of the race. In China and India but until a very recent date men were used instead of animals for transporting goods over roads ; and an embassy from Holland to Peking required the service of a thousand men to carry the baggage. In the taking of Mexico by Ferdi- nand Cortez, fifty thousand Indians were employed in doing what five hundred horses might have accomplished. It was no small matter when man discovered the chestnut and the like preservable fruits; and the cereals, as rice, wheat, maize, were still later discov- eries, and became each the foundation of a peculiar civilization — rice in Asia, wheat in Europe and maize in Peru and Mexico. Hunting, fishing, pastoral life, mining, working of metals and tool making had all to precede the plow, without which the proper cultivation of the cereals was impossible. It certainly is hardly deserving the name of agriculture when plowing was done with horns, the rib bones of cows were used for cutting the grain, and threshing was done by driving wagons, or rather sleighs, through the grain, or the wheat was gained and at the same time prepared for eating by burning the straw. We find still, tribes not only preparing the ground for receiving the seed in such a rough way, but 190 The Progress of Civilization. wholly ignorant of seeding. The plow is a great stride in the civilization of the race ; for, by increas- ing food and making man secure against hunger, it gave him leisure to provide for his higher and nobler wants. Bread, the first necessity of life, most aptly illus- trates the slow and laborious progress of the arts of civilization. After the discovery of the cereals, seeding, and cultivation by the plow, the cereals were for long ages roasted and thus eaten. Next came the improvement of pounding them, and not until long after, were they ground on hand mills, and made into flat and brittle cakes, whence the Scripture expression of breaking bread. Bread, properly speaking, was a much later invention, and wholesome light bread raised by ferment, belongs to a still later period. Let none think that these first steps toward pro- viding for the race belong to the fabulous ages. Wheat bread was in England but a very few hun- dred years ago a luxury indulged in by the higher classes ; fruit and vegetables are there but of a very late date ; and even the consumption of fresh meat was restricted to the fewest. Next to food is clothing. Here humanity had to learn curing or tanning of skins, spinning and weaving of wool. The preparation of flax cannot have been learned but slowly and is due to woman's The Progress of Civilisation. 191 fine observation and painstaking ; and language has preserved the history of this art in the etymol- ogy of wife, which means literally a weaver. How inefficient was man before he understood the work- ing of metals and the use of tools. It was the plow that by a proper cultivation of the soil turned nations from cannibalism. The first houses were caverns, not as perfect as the dwellings constructed by beavers. Ages passed before the cave was improved by a hole at the top for the smoke to escape. The first implements of war were clubs, spears, darts and arrows, and the latter were headed with brass as early as the siege of Troy. The battering ram was first used by Pericles. The first cannons were made of iron bars held together in the shape of a concave cylinder by rings of copper, and the first cannon balls were stone. The first vessels were beams joined together; next trunks of trees were cut hollow, and at last planks were joined in the shape of a boat. The ship with a prow and a stern with a movable helm and sails came after thousands of years. Burning wood was anciently the only method for lighting the house ; torches came next ; and even at the time of Homer lamps and candles were un- known among the Greeks, so were spoons and forks. Neither had their houses chimneys. Locks and 192 The Progress of Civilization. keys were unknown, and bundles were secured with ropes intricately combined ; and, hence, the famous Gordian knot. Shoes and stockings are a late im- provement ; so are shirts, which came into use in the last days of Rome ; and in modern Europe shirts were not common before the eighth century. Hardly any commerce was possible before the discovery of the wheel, the wagon and the ship, which were rendered more effective by steam and the compass. A new epoch dawned upon mankind with the discovery of letters, which, again, took thousands of years, and is not by any means perfect as yet. The Egyptians used hieroglyphics. It was a di- vine inspiration that first permanently fastened on any material the idea of gentleness by the picture of the lamb ; strength by the picture of the bull, or magnanimity by that of the lion. The Chinese use to this day sixty thousand arbitrary signs rep- resenting as many words, the greatest scholar can hardly master in a long life, a method that much retarded their progress and made them stiff and conservative. Our alphabet is the evolution of hieroglyphics and shows the outlines in its letters of the things from which they are derived. The repre- sentation of the simple elements of sound by visi- ble signs or letters was a wonderful process and one- that had to pass through many stages ; and writing The Progress of Civilization. 193 was most probably but little known in Greece at the time of Homer. Charlemagne could not sign his name, neither could many of the bishops at his time. Books were still rare at the time of William the Conqueror. The Countess of Anjou gave for a collection of homilies two hundred sheep, a quarter of wheat, another of rye and a third of millet, besides a number of marten skins. To encourage the art of reading in England, capital punishment for murder was remitted if the criminal could read, which was expressed in law by the phrase of " benefit of clergy." An English edi- tion of six hundred copies of the Bible, when first printed, was not wholly sold in three years. The Emperor Rudolphus, in 1281, ordered all public acts to be published in German instead of Latin, as formerly. In France all public edicts were still published in Latin in 1539, and in Scotland and other European countries the practice continued to the last century to the damage of the language of the land and the common people, who were thereby kept ignorant of the public law and cut off from all contact with the higher classes, who were jabbering hog Latin among themselves. We find tribes who cannot count beyond five. Our decimal system has early been learned from our digitals. The Peruvians used knots of various colors to designate numbers. Our ciphers were 9 194 The Progress of Civilization. invented in Hindoostanee and were brought to France in the tenth century by the Arabs, who are also the inventors of algebra or the science of solv- ing mathematical problems by representing num- bers by the common letters of the alphabet. Money was certainly a vast improvement upon barter. Cattle were the first general medium of exchange, as they could be driven from place to place, and as men bought their wives, a virgin was, for instance, held worth a dozen heads of cat- tle. The Lydians were the first who coined gold and silver money after the Trojan war, at which barter was still the common method of exchange. Money is one of the mightiest instruments in the rise of civilization, as it encouraged industry by facilitating commerce through a universal standard of value and a portable and preservable instrument of exchange, which could be used as an equivalent for the greatest as well as for the smallest values. It set man free ; he could at any time liquidate his property and go where he pleased and thus escape tyranny, but it made man also greedy for so desirable an article, rendered him more selfish and also powerful for ill as well as for good. The useful arts lead to the fine arts ; and sculp- ture, painting, architecture, and, at last, gardening, rose into prominence one after another already in antiquity. The Progress of Civilization. 195 We have already remarked that civilization fol- lowed everywhere the introduction of the cereals. The Egyptians and the Chaldeans were the first cultivators of the cereals and the first civilized na- tions. The civilization of Europe dates equally from the introduction of the cereals, iron and the plow. How much has common industry done for hu- manity by the cultivation or introduction of the cereals, the plow, iron, steel, the loom, steam and machinery, each of which marks a new epoch of civilization. Little has the school achieved hitherto in com- parison with this, neither will it in the future, ex- cept it makes its object the improvement of indus- try and effects thereby civilization. Without iron, man is impotent, for he is then without tools. A hatchet, a knife, or even a nail, will buy almost anything among tribes who have not the use of iron, as they feel their power infi- nitely increased by it. Copper, brass and the pre- cious metals have all been earlier discovered and used on account of their brightness and state of purity in which they are often found on the very surface of the earth, and as they are softer and easier worked. It is all otherwise with iron. At the time of Homer iron was still thought precious enough to rank with gold and silver as the price 196 The Progress of Civilization. of the conqueror. Every step in the improvement of the working of iron and the manufacture of steel is an improvement in civilization affecting human- ity far more than the smoothest rhymes or the most acute system of metaphysics. Herodotus mentions Glaucus of Chios as the first who smelted iron. It was not before the Mid- dle Ages that iron entirely took the place of brass. Think for a moment we lost the use of iron ; without a plow or a tool we should soon sink into utter barbarity ; and but few could maintain them- selves even in that condition, but would perish. Erasmus describes England at the time of Henry VIII. as a land of filth, every room full of " grease, fragments, bones, spittle, excrements of dogs and cats and everything that is nauseous/' Madrid had not a privy as late as 1760, and the royal man- date to build such raised a storm of opposition. Iron brought the age of industry, which cast men into a new mould, and made of the English a people loving cleanliness. In 1563 knives were first made in England. Pocket watches were brought from Germany 1577. In 1580 coaches were introduced. A saw mill was erected near London 1633. Coffee houses were opened 1652. Steam flouring mills began as hand mills, horse mills, water mills, and, finally, became what they are to-day. Striking clocks were not The Progress of Civilization. 197 known until the end of the thirteenth century, and, hence, the custom of watchmen calling the hours of the night. Paper was first made in the four- teenth century. The eggs of the silk-worms were first introduced in Europe under the reign of Jus- tinian from Hindoostanee. With the progress of industry, food, clothing and all other means of comfort and luxury so in- creased, that the poorest man to-day has a greater quantity of them than fell to the share of kings or nobles but a few hundred years ago. Queen Catharine could not command a salad for dinner until the king brought a gardener from the Netherlands. About the same time the artichoke, the apricot and the damask rose made their first appearance in England. Turkeys, carps and hops were first known there in the year 1524. The cur- rant shrub was brought from the islands of Zante 1533. In the year 1540 cherry trees were brought from Flanders to Kent. At the time of Henry VIII. there were but few chimneys even in the capital towns of England, and the smoke issued at a hole in the ceiling, the door and windows ; utensils, forks, spoons, etc., were of wood. The people slept 6n straw with a log of wood for a pillow. Henry II., of France, at the marriage of the dutchess of Savoy, used the first silk stockings that 198 The Progress of Civilization. were made in France. Elizabeth, the great queen of England, had her reception room strewn with rushes or straw — as in our days half decent stables are ; she received in the third year of her reign a present of a pair of black silk stockings. The first stone bridge over the Thames was built in 12 13, and over the Seine in the beginning of the six- teenth century. The first silk factory was built in Lyons in 1536. Glass windows were still rare in private houses in the twelfth century. King Ed- ward III. invited three clockmakers from Holland. Gunpowder, firearms and artillery, with the pew art of war, called forth standing armies, while the rest of the people remained at home and devoted themselves to the trades, which gained thereby such importance that they ruled the state and pretty much ended the old regime, which was one of con- stant war, and, therefore, barbarous. The Saracens have spread a taste for chemical manipulation and the observation of nature and mechanical improvements. Roger Bacon has trod into this path, and prepared the way for the great Bacon of Verulam. Men have never paid attention enough to the importance of the industrial arts. Glass was intro- duced into Britain 671 ; still it was not applied there for windows until the thirteenth century, was but in the sixteenth century manufactured there The Progress of Civilization. 199 and did not enter into general use until the middle of the seventeenth century. Country houses in Scotland were not glazed until 1661. The manu- facture of silk was more than a thousand years traveling from the shores of the Bosphorus to England. Henry the Great, king of France, and his distin- guished minister, the able Sully, have laid the foundation to France's eminence in the manufac- turing arts. Under the great Colbert, the minister of Louis XIV., the since famous manufactory of Sevres china was established, the manufacture of glass brought from Venice, wall paper invented in France, the manufacture of fine cloth introduced from England; until, in 1685, the revocation of the edict of Nantes had driven away the Huguenots, the best artisans of France, with whom a great part of the manufacture and civilization of France have wandered to England, Germany, the United States and other countries. In the Middle Ages all arts were debased through the spirit of feudalism, and all labor was considered slavish. Hence the slow progress in manufactures and civilization. All articles of furniture were rare, the same room was used for cooking and eating, and the ox often lived under the same roof with the farmer. Lords, even at the time of Elizabeth, would, like other movable furniture, take with them 200 The Progress of Civilization. the windows of their castle on leaving for London and the court. Forks were unknown until James I. Barley bread was the usual food of the poorer classes in 1626. In some portions of England, as late as 1725, even a rich family used but a peck of wheat in a year, and that about Christmas. Dry bran bread, mixed with rye meal, was commonly used by servants and laborers. Corn was mostly ground at home by the hand mill, even at the time of Elizabeth. Holland provided London with vege- tables, and at the time of Henry VIII. not a cab- bage, carrot, turnip or other edible root grew in all England. Natural enough, in proportion to the want of industry, barbarism and crime abounded, and 70,000 thieves were hanged under this prince in England. Spectacles were introduced in the thirteenth century ; needles were brought from France to England in 1543, and first made there in 1626. Umbrellas made their appearance in England in 1768, and their first use excited the jeers of the vulgar. The land was one waste and the mines poorly explored. Take the quantity of iron smelted in the Middle Ages. It amounted to fifteen pounds at most, per hand. Using coke instead of charcoal in making iron, a furnace produces in our time thirty tons a day, or four hundred pounds of a superior quality The Progress of Civilization, 201 per hand. A man accomplishes, therefore, thirty times as much as before. When grinding flour was done by hand mills it took one grinder for twenty-five consumers. In our improved flouring mills one man turns out flour enough for 3,600, so that one man does the work of one hundred and forty-four formerly employed. Fourteen large mills, employing two hundred and seventy-eight hands, do to-day the milling of a city of a million population. In Rome and Athens the hand mills kept going 40,000 hands for an equal population. In the manufacture of cotton one man does to- day what seven hundred could do before recent improvements were made. John Kay, of Bolton, introduced the fly shuttle in 1750, so that one hand can attend from ten to twenty shuttles. Mr. Har- greaves, of Blackburn, first introduced the spinning jenny in 1770. Mr. Arkwright built his machinery for carding and roving in 1771, and Mr. Crompton's mule was introduced in 1780; and about the begin- ning of the century Mr. Watts' steam engine came into use, the power loom began its work, and from that day the modern factory system dates. About the middle of this century 250,000 power looms were in operation. The muslin exported from England in 1833 meas- ured ten times the circumference of the globe. In 9* 202 The Progress of Civilization. 1840 it was equal to thirty-five times the same length, or one milliard and three hundred and eighty-three millions of metres, and the whole ex- port of cotton manufactures amounted to one hun- hundred and sixty-three millions of dollars. The cheapness has increased with the supply, so that it was in 1853 five times as cheap as twenty-five years back, and twelve times as cheap as fifty years back. In 1740 England produced 17,000 tons of iron, in 1840, 1,500,000 tons, and in 1856, 3,000,000 tons. But in transporting power we have gained per- haps most. One man with an efficient locomotive can carry 500 tons of freight. It would take 50,000 men to do the same carrying in the same time. All this was accomplished by the hard struggle and ingenuity of industry, hardly aided by the school. Let the reader notice that we traced the progress of the arts before an earnest attempt of introducing universal Education was made. Solely by the nat- ural force of circumstances, by a continually spread- ing division of labor, and the devotion of the whole attention of the laborer to but a small field of labor, skill and invention have made rapid progress, com- forts have been increased, taste has been improved, and leisure has been gained, which has called forth the literature of the day, of which the arts and trades are the cause and not the effect. The Progress of Civilization. 203 Slavery in all degrees gave way in England in 135 1 to the arbitrary power and stipulations of legislation, which settled the price of labor. And the trades were so backward that four-fifths of the people were agriculturists, and yet, as we have seen, the land was a waste. The discomfort of the people may be seen from the fact that from the year 1075 to 1575 the popu- lation of England and Wales has but doubled. From 1600 to 1700, the increase was about 30 per cent. ; from 1700 to 1750, the increase was 25 per cent., and in 1800 to 1850, the population of the United Kingdom doubled, besides furnishing a constant stream of emigration for this and other parts of the world. Commerce had anxiously explored the sea to find a new way to the East Indies ; and the mari- time discoveries which were constantly making, kept the world agitated and enterprising. The first attempt of manufacturing in the United States was made in 1608, only one year after the first effective English settlement at Jamestown, in Virginia. So early has the spirit of industry devel- oped in this country. In 1776 the first attempts of raising cotton in the South were made, and the cotton of 1790, 1791 and 1792 together, made one moderate cargo. At the end of half a century the cotton crop amounted 204 The Progress of Civilization. to two millions of bales ; and to-day it reaches the figure of four and five millions. In 1 8 12 the first glass works were erected in Pittsburg. The first iron works were built in the United States in Pennsylvania, in Newcastle county, in 1726. In 1805 the population of the United States was 6,180,000; its manufactures amounted to $30,000,000, and its agricultural pro- ductions to $85,000,000. In 1870 the population of the United States amounted to 38,558,371, and there were counted 252,148 factories, with 40,191 steam engines and 51,018 water wheels, with a total of 2,346,142 horse power, and 2,053,996 hands, yielding a net product of $1,743,898,200, or, in- cluding the raw material, $4,232,325,44.2. These sums are too large to realize their amounts. We will, therefore, take some of the great indus- tries separately : Iron industries $346,952,694 Cotton goods 177,903,687 Woolen goods 178,064,453 Boots and shoes 181,644,090 Clothier goods 147,650,378 Leather 1 37,480,097 Furniture 57*926,547 Mining products 152,598,994 The agricultural productions of every sort amounted in 1870 to $2,447,538,658. The United States had in 1873, 70,178 miles of The Progress of Civilization. 205 railroad, at a cost of $3,436,638,749 for carrying on its internal trade. The foreign trade of the world amounts to $10,- 000,000,000 per annum, and is carried on in 200,- 000 vessels plowing the ocean with a cargo of 20,000,000 tons. Of 2,500,000 tons of sugar — the yearly consump- tion of the world — the United States consume 500,000 tons. How slow, uncertain and laborious was the prog- ress of industry, feeling, as it were, her way in the dark for thousands of years, and how glorious and rapid was her march since she has caught sight of the rising sun of science ! Let science, then, fully join her, and the effect on her as well as on her children will be immense, and a new era will rise for humanity. But industrial progress does not merely mean so many bales of cotton and so many tons of iron or coal ; it means the progress in the condition of the slave, serf or villain, and the free laborer ; it means the moral progress of the chieftain or successful bandit to the privilege of birth ; and, at last, to personal capacity and useful enterprise. With the increase of production the laborer gained in personal and political influence as well as in a material view. As slaves, laborers were crowded together without reference to health or decency ; as free mechanics 206 The progress of Civilization. and small masters they occupied small properties ; they became possessed of all the virtues and ad- vantages attaching to property and well-regulated homes. But, alas ! the great industries under the regime of steam and machinery have centralized capital and population ; and, again, laborers are crowded in tenements without regard to health and decency, ending in the formation of a permanent low, short- lived, stinted type of degraded humanity. We cannot separate from our present form of industry the sanitary and moral relations of the people ; they are all eminently questions of civilization, and find their solution in Education. Associate industry at all points with Education, and mind will control matter, and reason will bring order into the present social chaos. The Education of the industrial masses into thinking men once achieved, further steps will best suggest themselves to the men most concerned, and who are the best judges of their condition, wants and means of relief. But this Education must embrace the industrial, economical, domestic and social relations, and in- crease their efficiency as producers, their intelli- gence, their mofal power, their health and their social consideration. Our all-absorbing great in- dustries can find their only justification in the The Progress of Civilization, 207 union with art and science and in the spread of taste, sensibility, fine feeling, knowledge, wisdom and well-being among the masses engaged in them. Industries which had no other end than the pro- duction of a million of trifles to satisfy the vanity of their consumers, and left their producers unim- proved and miserable, would be a most degrading materialism, which could only end in universal brutalization and in the downfall of the nation. Every field and every factory throughout the land and the wide world is a laboratory, and every laborer producing profitable results is an experimentalist. Where the hand and the brain work in unison and shape nature's elements into angels minister- ing to the well-being of man, most is effected for human civilization. Schools, hardly organized for half a century, have as yet done little for industry, which has progressed by its own unaided exertions, until its advance has aroused practical men to found polytechnic insti- tutes and industrial schools, which promise to lead industry to still higher development. The unaided success of the industries is plainly to be read in the greatness of the Italian republics, the Hansas, Flanders and in France prior to the persecution of the Huguenots; or in England in our own day, where Education has been organized but of very late. 208 The Progress of Civilization, We do not deny the importance of the school ; but to advance civilization, it must prepare the people for their work — nice essays are for the phi- losopher. The nature of the civilization of an epoch is determined by the character of the peo- ple, which, again, depends on the work they are engaged in and on the manner .in which they per- form it. The tens and hundreds of thousands of fabricates they manufacture are their volumes ; and, hence, the more intelligence and science is brought to bear upon them by an industrial and technical Education, the more the people will think and improve, and the higher a civilization will be attained. Industry has advanced to a science, and its theory must be taught as well as its practice, if it is to progress with the rapidity peculiar to all the movements of the age we live in. All the ap- pliances of human ingenuity are to be set in mo- tion to increase the quality as well as the quantity of our manufactures, to make the workmen con- sumers as well as producers, and to restore har- mony between labor and capital. With every new step industry increased the hap- piness of mankind, and made us wiser and better in proportion as the common wants were satisfied and the higher ones awakened and cared for. How vast are the numbers engaged in the in- dustries of the world and how great is the capital The Progress of Civilization. 209 — the whole earnings of the past — engaged in them. Can Education do anything worthier and more fruitful of precious results than by improving the industries, improve the great majority of man- kind engaged in them, and by doubling the wages of labor and the profits of capital, and satisfying all, fill all with peace and concord, wiping out the sorrow and woe attending the present state of want, madness and crime ? In very deed science owes all to industry, and it is time it serve in its turn industry, that it may the surer serve humanity and the moral progress of the race. The beautiful arts of architecture, sculpture and painting, clocks, spectacles, telescopes, air pumps, chemical manipulations and printing, were all de- veloped before universal Education was intro- duced, and are all the results of the progress of the industrial arts, which furnished the tools and often the entire mechanism and the very observa- tions which led to the principles some claim for the school. When we consider the innumerable host of tech- nical arts and trades furnishing the necessities, com-] forts and pleasures of life, providing science with her tools and developing the taste, mind and mor-' als of the great mass of mankind engaged in them, the infinite observations, facts and combinations of 210 The Progress of Civilization. ideas stored up in them as displayed in the great industrial exhibitions of the world, and especially in the magnificent one we have just witnessed in our own country, what an infinite world of mental activity they present to us. And right here, speaking of the indebtedness of the world to past labors, we will express our obli- gations to scores of laborers who have preceded us in our field of inquiry, and especially would we mention the noble author of the "Sketches of Man," upon whose resources we have freely drawn. Little can man in his few days see with his own eyes ; past labors are the genuine source of inspi- ration, and their honest recognition is the most be- fitting invocation. In almost every trade qualities and relations hid- den from the superficial observer, are made the basis of operations and applications. How mighty small is the sum of our little school learning com- pared with the thought and experience treasured up in a thousand skilful trades, each of which man- ufactures often a hundred different articles. The most complicated technical arts require as much mental force as any of the branches of school learning, which were only injured by metaphysical subtlety. Bishop Heretius remarked that all the learning The Progress of Civilization, 2 1 1 down to the beginning of the eighteenth century- could be put into six to ten moderate folios, to which we may add ten or even twenty volumes for our late scientific acquisitions. What a library, on the other hand, would it form, if every observa- tion and every manipulation in every trade and art was written down ! And, yet, these practical ob- servations are unquestionably founded in truth, and useful much more than most of the learned trash of the schools. Industry, more than science, has worked in the past under the guidance of practical observation — the main instrument of genius and the source of all invention — until Bacon has got his philosophy from the shop, which has done the world more good than the philosophy which Socrates has brought down from heaven. The knowledge of the schools or abstract philoso- phy has done infinite mischief, by fostering relig- ious prejudices and false political theories sustain- ing despotisms, false moral systems and standards ; in short, it has caused much physical, moral, political and religious mischief, while technical in- ventions have saved and preserved mankind from much physical harm and have assisted in the moral and intellectual culture of the race. The technical pursuits, by cultivating physical 212 The Progress of Civilization. and mental activity, developed the body and mind of the people, and thus materially increased their health, efficiency and well-being. Industrial progress is continuous in its develop- ment ; theoretical knowledge and literary culture are often inactive and dead for ages. The labor of the world may be historically di- vided into the following epochs : The time of the first rude labors ; the trades, with division of labor ; industry, combined with science and art, or ornamental industry ; and, at last, the highest technic, or union of strength and beauty. In the first days of the race, the same man was hunter, fisher, smith, carpenter, cabinet maker, tailor, etc. This sharpened his wits ; but, of course, he brought it to perfection in nothing. However, as every- body was his own customer, he was easily suited. As mankind increased and formed towns, each man was able to dispose of his surplus, he devoted himself, therefore, to one trade, produced a great quantity of articles of better quality, and got in ex- change for his fabric a greater number of articles of higher quality than he could have made himself. This division of labor led to almost scientific exactness and perfection in the trades. Competi- tion among the producers led to ornamental in- dustry. At last, use, beauty and strength, with the great- The Progress of Civilization. 213 est possible productivity and cheapness in articles of manufacture, were aimed at ; and what formerly seemed to be the work of individual skill, is now performed by a mechanism which replaces the dex- terity and intelligence of the laborer. In Greece as well as in Rome the trades were despised as fit only for slaves. In the world of to-day they are the very beginning of freedom, universal liberty and civilization. It is the tradesmen who formed in the Middle Ages fortified towns and founded modern liberty, maintaining their rights against a fierce nobility and often against kings. The Florentine republics, the Hansa League and Flanders have achieved wealth and liberty, not by their arms, but by their industry ; and to-day, the greatest of all modern states, as Germany, France, England and the United States, are founded upon industry, as the ancient states developed their strength in war. How productive of great and noble qualities is industry by the independence it procures and the opportunities it gives us for developing our talents. Wealth develops power and dignity and health and well-being among the masses. The industrial laborer is the soldier of the nine- teenth century, making daily more conquests for civilization and humanity. 214 The Progress of Civilization. Industry creates commerce and new sources of maintenance, lessens idleness and vice, and im- proves morals by employing men. It was the want of industry that made the people of Rome and Greece accessible to the tricks of the demagogue and rendered them turbulent. To the rise of the industrial classes and the con- sequent development of wealth, Europe owes its liberty and civilization, as the third estate, grown powerful, forced royalty and nobles as well as the clergy to respect the rights of the people. Industry, through commerce following in its wake, gives rise to intercourse among men and nations, to interchange of ideas, mutual liberality, and peace and good-will among men. Commerce, which rests upon industry, is one of the main sources of modern civilization. Industry consti- tutes our superiority over the ancients. Slavery and contempt of labor form the centre of the civilization of the ancients and of the mili- tary life in which their activity found the only outlet. Among the Boeotians, men who defiled themselves by commerce, were for ten years excluded from all state offices ; and Augustus condemned a senator to death because he took part in manufacture. The slave system engendered ferocity. Slaves had to imbrue their hands in each other's blood as gladiators, and to engage in deadly combat with The Progress of Civilization. .215 brutes almost as ferocious as their masters. They were often mutilated with atrocious cruelty ; they were tortured on the slightest suspicion and cruci- fied for trifling offenses. If a master was murdered, all the slaves were put to torture ; and if the per- petrator was not discovered, they were all put to death. Tacitus relates a case in which not less than four hundred were thus slaughtered. Ladies of fashion amused themselves by the repeated in- fliction of painful flesh wounds on their lady maids with their own hand and dagger, and by ordering others to be crucified. Old and infirm slaves were exposed on an island of the Tiber, where they were left to die from starvation. As a man's children could not be considered less his own than his slaves, and his wife is but part of his household, he had also over them the power of life and death ; and as a man is not likely to be more tender with strangers than with hj£ own wife and children, savage barbarism characterized all the relations of man with his fellows. Such was an- tiquity and such the models classical Education would force upon modern civilization. Industry, or application to the arts and trades, led to the development of the spirit of observation and to facts ; it led away from dreams, sophistry and dogmatism to genuine enlightenment and rea- sonableness ; it fed to the discovery of the inductive 2i6 The Progress of Civilization. philosophy, or, rather, declared working the only true philosophy and the shop the best school, and thus laid the foundation to genuine progress and improvement. It led to the development of the principle of util- ity, which is the safest test of truth and goodness. It led to peace and good-will among all men, as they all work for each other and exchange with each other the products of their labor. Industry cultivates enterprise and caution, two qualities Hume calls the most important for suc- cess in life. Industry, says Buckle, makes us conscious of our power. It is averse to superstition, as we daily feel that all depends on our own resources and how we manage them. It is the mother of wealth, and, hence, of civilization, and seeking for markets it leads to maritime discoveries. Industry gives men with competency and independence dignity and respectability, and thus cultivates a higher regard for humanity. Industry, assuming the character of art, develops the taste for the beautiful, and, hence, the cultiva- tion of industry and art leads to virtue and good manners, as the good and the beautiful are akin. Industry strengthens the physical and mental capacities of man by constant exercise ; increases The Progress of Civilization. 217 his self-restraining power, the basis of moral excel- lency, and thus renders man better and nobler; Industry, says Leckey, by providing the world with refining comforts, undermined the asceticism of the Church, its monastic spirit and ecclesiastic power ; it secularized Europe and made it tolerant. Industry led from dreamy philosophy and meta- physical speculation and dogmatic theology to the cultivation of science and the formation of a prac- tical code of natural ethics for the regulation of man in his intercourse with his fellow, nature or with himself. All the gold in the world flowing into a state cannot save it if industry leaves it ; witness Spain. The main idea of Adam Smiths " Wealth of Nations " is industry, which all his measures tend to promote as the pillar of a nation's greatness. Labor, according to him, is the basis of value. Adam Smith employed his whole genius to show that industry must be freed from all its former shackles. A new lesson we must learn — inasmuch as indus- try makes a nation great and prosperous — the school as well as the state must chiefly direct its efforts toward the promotion of manufactures and indus- try. For, as skill and excellency are only attained by habitual exercise, we must be trained to indus- try from early childhood. 10 218 The Progress of Civilization. Liberty, industry and peace are indissolubly linked together. Nothing but the enlightened self-interest of industry and commerce will event- ually abolish war among nations. But industry and commerce, which cement for- eign nations, should they not draw closer to each other the different classes and conditions in the same nation by showing them the identity of their interests ? Industry, says Leckey, while it disposes nations for peace, makes them strong in war. Under the industrial regime production gives rise to new wants, and wants to new exertions, and exertions to wealth, which again gives rise to refined tastes, finer perceptions of beauty and intel- lectual aspirations. Industry produces capital, which gives opportu- nity for higher pursuits. Slavery, war and despotism, all recede before industry. A law-abiding spirit, sobriety, integrity and a steady character are all in the wake of industry. The old ascetic spirit destroys with human nature human energy. Industry strengthens human ener- gies and unites all by an enlightened self-interest. Human industry has connected oceans separated by continents ; has drained lakes in low lands and created others in high places; has pierced moun- The Progress of Civilization. 219 tain chains ; has planted gardens in the wilderness ; has built cities upon the waves of the ocean; 'has laid low ancient forests ; has changed climates ; has turned rivers from their natural course and has altered the face of the whole earth by changing its vegetable covering. St. Helena, when discovered in 1505, produced about sixty vegetable species, including but three or four known to grow else- where, also. At the present time its flora numbers seven hundred and fifty species. The flora of trop- ical America has been found by Humboldt and Bonpland to have been greatly introduced after the discovery of the New World. At the time of Aristotle the peach, that ripens to-day in England and Germany, could but imperfectly be raised under the Grecian sky ; and many of the fruits that in the days of Pliny thrived but poorly in sunny Italy, do well to-day in northern Europe. The mulberry tree was introduced in southern France in 1500, and to-day it does well in much more northerly climes of Europe. Who dares to deny but that tropical plants may ultimately grow in the temperate zone, by industry transplanting them gradually into countries more and more removed from their tropical home ? The changes effected by human industry in the animal kingdom are not less extensive than those in the vegetable world, and these changes multiply 220 The Progress of Civilization. each other by their mutual bearings, until the final results assume a universal aspect. Not to speak of the changes effected by the introduction of birds which live on insects — the agency of which is important in fertilizing plants — the ox, the horse, the sheep, the swine, so useful to man, have all been transplanted to the New World by human industry, as hardly any of the quadrupeds of the Old World were found in Amer- ica. And in our own day the Cashmere or Thibet goat was brought but in 1850 to South Carolina and the camel to Texas and New Mexico, where they promise to do well. The monumental buildings of the world are its true public libraries, seen and read by all, spreading in one or another style lessons of severe and chaste beauty or of spiritual grandeur, and imparting the spirit and civilization of one age to another ; and this, too, is the work of industry. With the increase of pleasure and refinement arising from the beauty and delicacy of an in- dustry daily more assuming the character of art, human sensibility and kindliness of heart spread among men, and brought with them a higher state of civilization. As laborers, mechanics and manu- facturers obtained wealth, they gained importance and achieved freedom, consideration and influence ; the courts and the law had to do them justice, and The Progress of Civilization, 221 thus changed all together; governments had to consult them and became representative and con- stitutional ; and now, at last, schools have to suit their course to the practical needs of the la- borer. We best learn the nature of Education by study- ing it in the great style of Providence or universal history, which is the Education of the race. The Education of the individual must be in kind the same as the Education of the race, and must end in it. If educators find nothing in the history and development of the race that concerns them, the worse for their system ; as for us the Education of the individual must begin the very work the Edu- cation of the race will complete. Draw closer the connection between the school and industry, science and the trades, and spread sound economical knowledge, and a humane dispo- sition among employers and employees, and you reduce the mortality of the laborers of the land by at least 50,000, and the number of cases of sick- ness by 750,000 per annum. There is hardly a department of science but its fundamental facts have been furnished by the ob- servation of the practical men of industry. But how many of these observations are lost through the want of scientific knowledge in the practical workers of the world, and who can set a limit to 222 The Progress of Civilization. future progress and improvement when practical workers will be scientific observers ? As long as labor is a drudgery, leaving the mind and the heart vacant, men will rather scheme than work. Join to labor science and art, and the ven- erated high priests of human industry, ministering in their laboratories to the comforts and necessities of mankind, will find their work a delight and a pleasure, they would no more exchange with the leisure of the elegant trifler than the toiling chem- ist or physicist would. Labor is the physical aspect of moral power, and a nation cannot be free, powerful and truly great without being eminent for its industry. Rome and Greece possessed no industries, neither were they great, for their masses were slaves. Industry, through constant exercise, bestows the freedom of the power of using our faculties for our own good as well as for the good of the race, and this freedom constitutes true liberty. As long as war is tolerated, the spirit of rapacity, inhumanity and domination will pervade every sphere of private and public life, and men and nations will be barbarians. As long as men are fools and knaves enough to butcher one another, it is simply ridiculous to talk of civilization, which only can begin where war ends. War deteriorates a nation physically as well as morally. After every The Progress of Civilization. 223 great war — in Sweden and Germany after the thirty- years' war, in Prussia after the seven years' war and in France after the great Napoleonic war — the number of diseased, crippled and weak men had increased to an extent that interfered with the recruiting office. For, as the able-bodied men have been taken from their homes, and have fallen in the field, the weak and the sickly formed families and humanity necessarily was physically deteri- orated. So, for instance, do we find in France exempt from the service — aside from causes of sickness, low stature or of being crippled — for constitutional weakness, in 1 8 16-1820 . . . 51.05 in 1,000 recruits. 1831-1835 . . . 79.04 1 865-1 868 . . . 96.90 In Prussia were exempt for all causes of sickness, for being crippled, constitutionally weak and of low stature, in j 83 1 345 in 1,000 recruits. 1854 382 1858-1862 .... 423 In Saxony, were exempt from the service for all causes in 1832-1836 33 in 100. * 1850-1854 50 224 The Progress of Civilization. The steadily diminishing number of long-lived persons is another incontestable proof of a deteri- orating humanity. There were in Sweden over 90 years of age in Women. Men. 175' • IO.4 in 1,000. 6.6 in 1, 000. 1763 • 7 " 4 ' (1766) 1780 . 4-4 " 34 • 1790 . 5-3 n 2.7 1 (1775) 1800 . 2.7 n 1.3 i We dare not enter upon a recital of the social, moral and economical disorders which follow wars, neither is it necessary, as we all keenly feel them just now. Our armies are slaughter houses. The killed in the field are the least. The barracks and the camp do the work of destruction. Though the soldiers are picked men, the mortality among them is dou- ble that of the entire population. Balfour shows the mortality in England in a 1,000 population at the age of 20-25. 25-30. 30-35. 35-40. Civilians . . . 8.4 9.2 10.2 11.6 Soldiers . . 17.0 18.3 18.4 19.3 The mortality of colonial troops in warm climates is a real slaughter, and amounts among the English troops in The Progress of Civilization. 225 The Bermudas . . * . to 52.1 in 1,000. St. Helena "33 Jamaica "128 " The Small Antilles . . "82.5 Ceylon "75 In the Russian army the regular mortality is 38 in 1,000, almost four-fold what it is among the common people at the same ages. In Algeria, during the war, the French lost 100,- 000 men, of whom 3,400 died from wounds, while more than nineteen out of every twenty were the victims of camp diseases. During the first seven months of the Crimean war 38.5 per cent, of the English troops died from camp diseases. In the great Russian campaign Bonaparte lost two-thirds of his magnificent army, before he reached Moscow, in camp diseases. The great Russian army of 209,800 men that opposed him counted, after five months, 40,290 men. In our own great war we had from June 1, 1861, to June 1, 1863, 53.2 deaths per annum for every 1,000 men in the field, of whom 8.6 died from wounds and 44.6 from camp diseases. We know the slaughter in the battle field was great, and yet the slaughter in the camp was more than five times as large 'as that by ball and powder. The slaughter from suicide is not less remarkable 226 The Progress of Civilization. in the army, and compares with the number of suicides among civilians in Saxony as 177 to 100. France ....... "253 Prussia "293 Sweden "423 Austria " 643 " And Christian governments foster military organi- zations and parade with them on occasions of great religious solemnity. Russia is carrying on a war of aggression against Turkey with a prospect of another war fifty years hence for the enslavement of the whole of Europe. Has the press a word against it ? Is our plea, then, for the sacredness of human life out of season ? According to an article in the Lancet of April 10, 1841, the mortal- ity in the English work-houses was 207 in 1,000! But we need not go so far back. It amounted in 47 work-houses in London, 1851-55 . . . . 227.2 in 1,000. Berlin, 1852 142.8 " Massachusetts, 1861-67 • ! 33-7 " The wantonness of these mortalities among the state poor appears in its true light when we con- sider that even in hospitals, which only take in the sick, the mortality averages in the smaller 150 in 1,000 and in the larger 100 in 1,000, and that on an average there is but one death for fifteen cases The Progress of Civilization. 227 of sickness, so that a sick man entering a hospital has a better chance of life than a poor man enter- ing the almshouse. Among prisoners averaging 30- 40 years, 30-50 in a thousand die per annum, while in the outside world the mortality among men of the same ages is but 10-20 in 1,000. If the mortality in our public institutions, right under the eye and control of the government, sur- passes, the general mortality — which already in- cludes all sorts of vicious and criminal classes — must we not conclude that sacredness of human life has not as yet the supreme influence it ought to have even with the guardians of public order and safety ? Or is this fearful mortality in our public institu- tions due to the deep-seated deterioration in the classes gathered in them? We do not deny it partly is, and this establishes our position of the prevalence of deteriorating tendencies in society, which, again, have very much for their basis a gen- eral disregard for human life, which allows causes unfavorable to human life to accumulate and gather strength until they settle in a permanent deterio- rated type of humanity. No, the sacredness of human life does not as yet find the recognition it calls for. We occasionally suspend hostilities to give a chance to the natural increase of population and to the industrial savings 228 The Progress of Civilization. of a few years of peace to fill the gap made in the ranks and in the pocket by Krupp's eighty-ton guns, the improved implements of destruction of an advanced Christian civilization. War organized and carried on openly by govern- ments established mainly for the protection of the lives of the citizens, is the most flagrant outrage of God, man and nature ; and, as long as it is tol- erated, justice among men will be but a mockery. For, if governments indulge in direct murder for the sake of self-aggrandizement, why should not individuals commit indirect murder for the same purpose ? And they do, as the slaughter of fac- tories, railroads and tenement houses proves. Dr. Parne finds scrofula prevalent in the indus- trial district of the department of Aude. Bossard ascribes the physical debility of the inhabitants of the Ardennes to their industries. In Haute Rhin, Muller tells us that the agriculturists are fine men, while the operatives are pale and sickly. Poter finds in the department of the Rhone the people, exclusively devoted to manufacturing, physically degenerated and furnishing the greatest number of exempts from the service. Dr. Engel showed for Saxony in 1852, 1853 and 1854 unfit for the service, In cities 56 in 100. In the country $1 « The Progress of Civilization, 229 Repeated recruiting gave the following results as to unfitness for the service : Farmers 46 in 100 recruits. Cabinet-makers . . . 51 * " " Operatives 57 " " Artists 63 " " Merchants 70 " " Scholars 80 " Domestics 83 " " A higher civilization must protect us against the insiduous attacks upon life growing out of the con- ditions of a lower state of civilization as well as against the open violence of the savage state. It must deal with causes, and not with isolated fla- grant acts, which like weeds spring up from the old stock. The higher civilization is greatly hygienic and improves the race in its highest aspects by improv- ing its physical basis and its very genesis. Our industries create a new sort of barbarism in the very midst of our much boasted civilization by their stolid indifference to the physical and moral condition of the millions engaged in them. Several years ago the average age at death in the weaveries of Leicester was eighteen years! For everyone agriculturist, who dies from lung diseases, 2.63 die from the same diseases in the manufac- turing town of Manchester. Of women engaged in lace making 617 die from the same terrible mal- 230 The Progress of Civilization. ady to every 301 men otherwise occupied in the same district. At the age of thirty-five to forty- five the mortality of the London tailors is 57 per cent, and the molality of the London printers 117 per cent, higher than that of the agriculturists. At the age of forty-five to fifty-five London tai- lors have twice and London printers more than twice the mortality of the agriculturists. The enumeration of the various pests making havoc among the workmen in many industries, and against which a higher civilization must protect the masses, would fill not one, but many volumes. Of 1,078 children who worked in English spin- neries 22 reached the fortieth year and but 9 the fiftieth. Of 824 young hands in six spinneries 183 enjoyed good health, 240 were in delicate health, 256 were sick, 43 were puny, 100 had tumefactions of joints, 37 had curvatures of the spine. Trades with excessive labor cause inflammations, curva- tures, ruptures and hemorrhages. According to Dr. Friedlander one-fourth of the workingmen of England and one-eighth of Ger- many are ruptured. France, England and Ger- many keep an exact inventory of the work-peo- ple reared with the treasure of the nation. The time is coming when we shall have to raise our laborers, and then we shall at least take as good care of them as we do of other chattel ; but until The Progress of Civilization. 231 then the friend of humanity can study only abroad the effects of modern industry upon the lives and health and morals of the work-people. Considering the army of martyrs among the hands engaged in the manufacture of fine cloth- ing, Ruskin says of the wearers of these articles: " They have literally entered into a partnership of death and dressed themselves in his spoils. Yes, if the veil could be lifted not only from your thoughts, but from your human sight, you would see — the angels do see — on those gay white dresses of yours, strange, dark spots of crimson patterns, that you know not of — spots of the inextinguishable red that all the sea cannot wash away; yea, and that among the pleasant flowers that crown your fair heads and glow on your wreathed hair, you would see that one weed was always twisted which none thought of — the grass that grows on the grave!' In our chase for gold we have become reckless as to human life, and so various are the ways in which men in our day are got out of the world that fully half the people die by a brother's hand. This murderous spirit so perfectly possesses this age, that men snap the cord of life before their sands are run. The increase of suicide has been fearful in the last hundred years. There were committed in 232 The Progress of Civilization, Paris, 1 794-1 804, . . . 107 annual suicides, " 1 804-1 823^ . . • 334 " " 1 830-1 835, . . . 382 " Berlin, 17 58-1 77 5, . . . ' 45 " 1 784-1 797, . . . 62 " " 1 797-1 808, . . . 126 " " 1813-1822, . . . 546 " The average annual suicides in France were 1826-1830 i»739 1831-1835 2,263 1836-1840 2,574 1841-1845 2,951 1846-1850 3,466 1851-1855 3,639 While during 1826-1856 the population has risen from 31,858,937 to 36,039,364, or in the ratio of 100 to 113, suicides have risen in the ratio of 100 to 209, so that while the population has but little increased, suicides have more than doubled. In Denmark the annual number of suicides were 1835-1839 261 1840-1844 300 1845-1849 330 1850-1854 . . - 389 1855-1856 414 The proportion of suicides has thus risen from 219 to 392 in every million of population. In Prussia suicides have increased in 1 823-1 858 from 510 to 2,180. The Progress of Civilization. 233 In general, suicides have increased, taking most European countries, 3 to 5 per cent., while the aver- age increase of population has been 1.64 per cent. The proportion of suicides in Denmark Saxony . , Scandinavia Germany , France . . is 388 in 1,000,000 pop. " 126 " 112 Spain and other V p> Romanic nations M 80 /", " ^ A> c> Slavonic races . . " 47 ^{ / 'i The annual ratio of suicides to every million population is for /^ Berlin 212 Rural Districts 123 Geneva 250 Copenhagen 477 Rural Districts 488 Paris 640 Rural Districts no According to Legoyt the proportion of suicides in a million population is in France among Farmers . 90 Industrials 128 Liberal Professions 218 The Poor 569 These figures speak volumes. For only a dete- riorated humanity can act contrary to the natural instincts of self-preservation, and the increasing 234 The Progress of Civilization. ratios of a suicidal mania prove, therefore, a pro- gressive deterioration of the race. And as like insanity suicide is most prevalent among civilized nations, in the large centres of the world, and among classes of men who are mostly drawn into the vortex of civilization, the falsity of this very civilization is the unavoidable conclusion. The social relations of a people are the main factors of the prevalent suicidal mania, the amount of which is the guage of its prosperity, health and soundness. In our extravagance, luxury makes of the one a blase, and misery crushes the other, until both lose their mental balance, and neither the one nor the other cares for living. This demoralized condition loudly calls for a more solid Education and training in our youth, and for an industrial system and laws in consonance with the physical and moral elements of our nature, which only a government based upon hygiene can give us. Pauperism, crime and human degeneracy in its various forms, treated in other parts of this work, lead by various routes to self-destruction, the final judgment of nature, events and of the individual upon himself. Murder, insanity and oppression beyond endur- ance culminate in suicide, the most tragic catas- trophe in life in which man wrecked in his mind and all else makes the fearful plunge. Yes, suicide The Progress of Civilization, 235 is but one of the many forms of social murder, which must be stayed, that something may be sacred beside gold — and that is human life. Do we give an uncertain sound ? We trace on every page of the history of our age the spirit of social murder and insist upon an honest regard for human life. We insist upon an unflinchingly sani- tary government, that will protect the life of the poor and his children as much as the property of the rich. The ages of war have not slain more men than this age of industry has. The ages of war have spared at least women and children. This age of industry has fastened its fangs deepest even in the flesh of women and children. The stolid indifference with which industry sees the life of the poor waste away, nurses among the masses an apathy that must become dangerous to society. In the name of God, humanity and the future peace of the world, let industry lesson the people in other sentiments than contempt of life and a disregard of humanity. The adjustments of an infinite Providence may turn to profit the slaughter of wars and revolutions, and death may feed life in decaying organisms, but it is madness still to destroy life that out of its ashes it may rise again. 236 TJie Progress of Civilization. Already Pinel noticed the immense points of contact between the diseases of men and the world's history. Let statesmen study less politics and more pathology. They will thereby prevent dis- eases physicians vainly endeavor to cure. By ac- quainting themselves with the special tendencies of certain classes and ages to suffer from leading diseases, statesmen learn how they may preserve the health and strength of the nation. That there are general social relations under which death and disease single out whole classes and ages for their special victims we have established by facts, rea- sonings and authorities. The diseases of a people and the degree of their sufferings are the truest index to the culture,- the moral and social condition as well as the prosperity of a nation. " History," says Virchhow," has more than once shown that the destiny of a nation de- pends upon its condition of health and energy, and it is plain the pathological history of a people is inseparable from its civilization. Fearful rates of mortality are writings on the wall in which the statesman of capacity can read the disturbing ele- ment which has invaded the life of the nation, and which even a careless government cannot afford to overlook." There was a time when the wrath of the gods was looked upon as the source of disease ; later the The Progress of Civilization. 237 stars had to bear the blame ; to-day it is the occult forces of nature and what not, instead of tracing the main cause of disease in the food we eat, in the water we drink, in the air we breathe, in our occupations and their deleterious influences and cares, anxieties, over-exertions and ensuing debility. Civilization is the conquest of nature and of our- selves through obedience to the laws of being. And, certainly, a people cannot be said to be civil- ized which is greatly wrecked and diseased, body and soul, by slavery, want and misery. We understand the significance of prevailing rates of mortality. We know they greatly vary in the different industries and may be swelled or low- ered by measures taken or neglected ; and still the government, which alone has the power of enforc- ing such measures, takes no notice of this matter, involving as it is the lives of tens of thousands. England has long ago shown its wisdom and hu- manity by its factory legislation, which is being imitated by every other government, as local legis- lation is too much under private influence, and the self-help of the work-people is liable to run into excess. Moses, Lycurgus and Numa have knitted togeth- er slaves and brigands into nations loving liberty, order and virtue, through institutions embodying immortal principles ; and to-day great nations are 238 The Progress of Civilization. threatened with dissolution through the all-disin- tegrating selfishness of a self-seeking age. There is a mutinous war of the masses the world over, in Germany, France, England, Belgium, Holland, Italy, Spain, Scandinavia, Russia and in America. This is no more a prophecy. It is history for all who can read. Never were the conditions more favorable for the building up of a great and beautiful humanity than to-day. Prejudices of race are dead, and we are all brothers ; slaves no more work for us, but we delight in industry and live by it ; the ignorance of former days has passed away, and science illu- mines and directs us all. Humanity, industry and science incorporated into public institutions, established for the preservation and the improvement of the race, and based upon an unflinching regard for human life and whatever touches man and his rights, duties and entire nature, may still give rise to a grand and beautiful human- ity, such as the past has neither known nor conceived of, and this consummation will be achieved when hy- giene, the law of life and health, will control the individual as well as the nation as the supreme law of a grand and a cojnplete humanity. It is not bread for the stomach, but regard for humanity, the life, the mind and the position of the masses the age demands. The Progress of Civilization. 239 But the right of the masses to this regard implies their duty to exercise it themselves toward others, which unless they do, can never become a universal sentiment, as is desirable for the good of mankind. Self-sufficient capital may delight in the strife of competition, which by itself would reduce the so- cial world into conflicting atoms ; and labor may consider paramount association, by which it sus- tains itself in its weakness. We acknowledge both these principles as necessary and natural comple- ments to each other ; still neither competition nor association are the highest elements of civilization ; they are both but means to an end, and this end is humanity itself, and the highest principle is, there- fore, regard for human life or the preservation of the race. The oddity of our position does not escape us. Setting aside the high considerations of philo- sophy and literature, we treat the life, health and well-being of the masses as the question of civilization. And this our subject not suffering us to turn from it for the sake of making apologies, we will only say what needs no further proof, that the health and well-being of a people are its wis- dom and its virtue, and its honor and its greatness among the nations, as its weakness and its poverty are its folly, and its crimes and its downfall and its shame among the nations. 240 The Progress of Civilization. It is clear to every historical student who casts his eye observingly over the world, that a most fearful revolution is imminent, one not to be put down with the baton of the police nor with the bayonet or cannon of the regular army. We would, therefore, inspire a sacred regard for human life, such as would lead to peaceful reformation and improvement. But if the fates, or, better, the folly and inhumanity of man, have decided upon revolu- tion and violence, may the lesson of the sacredness of human life, repeated on every page and almost in every line of this volume, help assuage the wrath of man, and stay in some degree the fratri- cidal hand of man raised against his brother man. There is no other foundation for peace, pros- perity, freedom, concord and equity among men than the sacredness of human life ; it is our only security against oppression, injustice and grinding rapacity. The sacredness of human life means educational opportunities for all ; it means the integrity of the family, the bulwark of civilization against its dissolution and moral chaos ; it means sobriety, temperance and moderation against all that leads to drunkenness, madness and human decay ; the sacredness of human life pleads for the fallen criminal, who is after all a man, and against his further brutalization and the gallows; the sa- credness of human life pleads for the good of all, The Progress of Civilization. 241 be they rich or poor, strong or weak, wise or fool- ish, aye, be they good or bad, as all are men and all are more or less erring and all in want of more light and more love. The sacredness of human life alone is the har- binger of the reign of justice, love and peace and of God's kingdom among men. But there is a new school of reformers who, discarding every no- ble sentiment that dwells in the human breast, feign to make us believe that might is right and brute force is the highest divinity. These self- styled Darwinians say the struggle for existence is nature's method for weeding out the weak and im- proving the race. t The old practice of destroying feeble children is approved of; hospitals are dis- carded ; wars are deemed useful as mowing down the less vigorous ; no quarters are given to the weak, and the gospel of war and selfishness is preached in the name of Darwin and his principle of the " survival of the fittest.'' Humanity revolts against this slaughter - pen civilization, which is not less false in principle as it is cruel in practice. Though the law of heredity is true, still the law of the dissimilarity ofchildren and parents is not less true than the law of simi- larity, and the law of deterioration is often cor- rected by the natural tendency of reverting to the normal type, which is effected by children taking 11 242 The Progress of Civilization. after the healthier organized of the two parents or even after a remote ancestor ; and, hence, a father mean in body and soul has often children of finest quality. We must not push inferences to an un- reasonable extent and preach in the name of Dar- win indirect murder, already too prevalent. We are not to join the blind elements against a brother, but rather avert from him their fury. We must instruct the ignorant, strengthen the weak, lead the fallen back to virtue's ways, and thus use all gentler means for the improvement of the race ; and if death and destruction are to come, the earth has her volcanoes and the skies are armed with thunderbolts. But let not man volunteer to be a minister of death to his brother man, directly or indirectly, either by what he does or by what he omits to do. Only when the sanctity of human life will deter- mine our Education and industry, will our progress in civilization be genuine. The history of the world is as yet but the history of humanity suffering death under a thousand forms at the fratricidal hand of man. The Spartans hunted down their slaves, occa- sionally, as if they were the meanest animals, to keep down their numbers. The Greeks butchered in war in cold blood, spar- ing neither age, sex nor station. The Progress of Civilization. 243 The Romans, as we have seen, were no less cruel at home than in war. Cicero, having been beheaded by the order of Antonius, and his head having been brought, Fulvia, the wife of Antonius, struck it on the face, drew out the tongue and pierced it with a bodkin. The delight of the Romans in the combat of wild beasts with slaves shows their bloodthirsti- ness. Turkey never showed such barbarity. Clotaire, King of the Franks, 559, burned alive his son with all his friends, because they rebelled against him. Queen Brunehaut, being condemned by Clotaire II., was dragged through the camp at a horse's tail till she gave up her ghost. The Goths were extremely prone to blood. The Scythians made use of the skulls of their enemies to drink out of. The Gauls deposited the heads of their slain, brought from battle, in chests as trophies. The scalping of enemies by Indians is too well- known. The French peasants, in the civil wars in 1358 — sorely oppressed by the nobles warring against each other — hung a knight, after they had violated in his presence wife and daughters, whom they forced to eat of the flesh of the husband and father they had roasted upon the spit, and terminated that horrid scene by murdering the whole family and burning the castle. The nobility treated the peasants no 244 The Progress of Civilization. better. The Dutch, in Amboyna, deprived the na- tives, if they were found guilty of theft, of their ears and nose, and William Funnel, who was there in 1705, reports to have seen 500 of such ear-and- noseless wretches in one gang. Poisoning and assassination were most com- monly perpetrated as late as the seventeenth cen- tury in England. For a score of trifling offenses people were hung in England as late as this very century: For treason or lisping a word against the King of England the prescribed punishment was to cut up the criminal alive, to tear out his heart, to dash it about his ears, and to throw it into the flames. The torturing and burning of the Jews, the knight templars, heretics and witches are well-known. The treatment of the Mexicans by the Spaniards shocks us ; so does the infecting of the Peruvians by the Portuguese with the clothes of smallpox and scarlet fever patients, or the shooting of the Tasmanilians by the English to feed their dogs on the flesh of these unfortunates, or the poisoning of wells with strychnine by the to get rid of the redskins. Of course, we would not do these things, and yet we are but a refined set of anthropophagi and let but exceedingly few of our fellows die a natural death, and the victims of indirect or direct murder are more than a thou- The Progress of Civilization, 245 sandfold the number of those who are cut down bluntly by the armed hand of the undisguised homicide. The story of Madame Lapouchin has but too often repeated itself. She was the most admired at the court of the Empress Elizabeth at St. Petersburg. Suspected of plotting against the government, she was condemned to undergo the punishment of the knout. As she appeared at the place of execution, every feature in her face plead for her innocence. Her youth, her beauty, her life and spirit pleaded in vain for her; she was deserted by all and abandoned to the grim executioners. •Her cloak being torn off, modesty made her start back, she turned pale, and burst into tears. One of the executioners stripped her naked to the waist, seized her with both hands, and threw her upon his back, raising her some inches from the ground. The other executioner, laying hold of her delicate limbs with his rough fists, put her in a posture for receiving the punishment. Then laying hold of the knout — a sort of whip made of a leathern strap — he, with a single stroke, tore off a slip of skin from the neck downward, repeating his strokes till all the skin of her back was cut off in small slips. The executioner finished his task with cutting out her tongue ; after which she was dispatched to Si- beria, the land of Russian mercy. 246 The Progress of Civilization. Our theme is humanity, and were this the history of an individual only, we should not have told it here ; but it has repeated itself so many times that it has become the history of humanity, and we have no apology to make for its recital. Not only pagan Rome was profuse in shedding human blood in constant party strife, as the names of Marius and Scylla, Cinna and Octavius will call to everybody's memory. Not only religious fanat- ics have caused human blood to flow in torrents, but even in the name of liberty and human rights men have been butchered. According to good authority, 18,613 persons have been guillotined in the madness of the first French revolution. In the Vendee have been killed : Women 15,000, Children , 22,000, Killed of all categories .... 900,000, Carnage under the proconsulate Carrier at Nantes 32,000, Carnage at Lyons 31,000. Neither does the great French revolution form an exception to the rule. Has the French government not fusillated forty thousand citizens in the name of order as it was but yesterday? And what is every war organized by- we care not what government, but public murder sanctioning The Progress of Civilization. 247 the killing of our fellow-men in one or another way under one or another pretext, whenever it suits our own private advantage or public cupidity, national glory or what not. The murdering of wives, husbands, children, slaves and old men, the avenging of imaginary offenses in the duel, political assassinations, have all been sanctioned in their turn, and the want of the unconditional recognition of the sacredness of human life has marked every century with another form of bloody mania. At one time husbands trem- bled for their lives as women could not resist the temptation of poisoning their natural protectors. At another time tyrants were smitten with fury, and every free thought was expiated on the gal- lows. Priests have more raged than all other mad- men put together, knights challenged and fought everybody for their love's honor sake, red repub- licans did their part, and when there was none against whom to turn a bloody hand, men ran in companies to drown themselves, and laws pre- scribing the dishonorable treatment of the dead bodies had to be passed to stop the suicidal mania. Give but one page to the sad story of every unfortunate individual, who fell a victim to fratri- cidal rage of one or another sort in the last five thousand years, and they would fill volumes out- 248 The Progress of Civilization. numbering the books of all the private and public libraries of the United States. The lesson for which more than ten thousand times ten thousand have paid with their dear lives can be nothing else and nothing less than THE SANCTITY OF HUMAN LIFE. Men, nations and periods have excelled in relig- ion, poetry and philosophy, and have at the same time been inhuman in their dealings. Herein, even, has the past failed. It has treated humanity as a circumstance, but not as the corner-stone of civili- zation. None of the civilizations of the past has declared man sacred and inviolate by any and every power, under each and every pretence, be it of a private or public nature, in the name of justice, religion, God, country or anything else. It is time man and his well-being are declared the paramount object of the state and civilization. Wealth, science, philosophy, religion, were all made for man, and not man for them. Some put knowledge above man. But most of the knowledge of our age is only the present error that replaces the error of the past age, to be in its turn replaced by that which is to come. In Edu- cation as well as in religion, the good of mankind has hitherto been sacrificed to barren opinions. We plead for man, his life, his bread, his freedom, The Progres* of Civilization. 249 his happiness. His civilization will take care of itself. In spite of the prophets, poets and philosophers of the past, ignorance, misery and injustice have cursed and oppressed the race. There is but one principle, that proclaimed in all its absoluteness, can save and bless the race, REGARD FOR HUMAN LIFE, FOR ALL THAT PRESERVES, PROLONGS AND SAVES HUMAN LIFE, AND AN ABSOLUTE CONDEM- NATION OF ALL THAT WORKS DESTRUCTIVELY UPON HUMAN LIFE, WEAKENS, SHORTENS OR RENDERS IT BURDENSOME. No man, or government, or institution has a right to sap directly or indirectly human life, the very foundation of all rights and duties, and what- ever is sacred in human rights and institutions. As the sanctity of human life is the foundation of civilization, so it is also the cardinal priniciple of Education, which must aim at the preservation and improvement of the race through the preserva- tion and improvement of the individual. We maintain civilization means something differ- ent than a little gloss here and a few sophisms there. It means a people at work for its own good and doing well ; a well-to-do people ; the founda- tion of a free and perfect manhood, that will in its own way work out the problem of civilization. Industry will do more for mankind than all the 250 The Progress of Civilization. Iliads. Greece has excelled in philosophy, Rome in jurisprudence, and the Middle Ages in religion, and each has oppressed the masses. Human life, despised by them all, must become the corner-stone of a new and altogether different civilization, phi- losophy, jurisprudence, religion and industry, such as will usher in a better and happier age than the world has yet seen. A straggling piper, fiddler, rhymer or dreamer are but poor evidences of a high civilization. A good government patterns after nature ; it builds up the body, and the mind will take care of itself; it looks after the seemingly trivial things of to-day, which bear in them the germs of the great things of to-morrow; it sees the future culture of the masses in their health and strength and bread and butter of to-day, and goes for it with a will. This is civilization. L I B R A R Y UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. PART FIFTH, THE PROGRESS OF GENERAL EDUCATION. The progress of Education in the United States, as everywhere else, establishes our proposition that it is the tendency of the age to improve the condi- tion of mankind and to solve the great social prob- lem by making the world a schoolhouse, in which humanity is not taught letters, but is taught and trained in the art of living and acting. At the close of the last century we had but twenty-three colleges and thirty-seven academies and no common school system in the United States. In 1813, the State of New York appointed the first superintendent of common schools. Normal col- leges, school journals, high schools, and, at last, the erection of agricultural and industrial schools, are all of a late date, and the National Bureau of Education is still more so. To-day the common school property of the United States amounts to $173,838,545, the yearly expenditure of the com- mon schools reaches the sum of $88,618,950, and the teachers number 249,262 ! The entire prop- erty of all sorts of schools, exclusive of orphan (25O 252 The Progress of General Education. asylums, houses of correction, etc., amounts to $340,601,718. The following table of the Commissioner shows how deeply and rapidly the conviction is spreading that through the school we are to solve the great social problem, and, hence, the erection of normal colleges, which shall provide us with professional teachers devoted for life to the art of educating men: 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. Normal Colleges in the U. S. . . 53 65 98 113 124 137 As the world relies upon the school, the school must study the problem it is to solve. The teacher must understand the cause of every deviation from the normal type of humanity in the pauper, the criminal and the insane ; he must strive to lessen human misery and weakness as far as physical, mental, moral and industrial training enable him, and that will quite suffice to regenerate the world. It is but a couple of centuries when the doors of the better institutions in England were slammed in the face of the common people, who had the im- pertinence to aspire after a gentleman's Education. It is hardly a hundred years when in Scotland, foremost in Education, the usual deficiency of the schoolmaster's budget had to be made up by cock- fighting displayed in the school-room — the victims of the feathery tribe being adjudged the teacher's — The Progress of General Education. 253 who was sure to put into the field a most valiant fighting cock. It is not yet forty years that the schools of the people in England had to be provided for by all sorts of charitable tricks, of which one pretty com- mon was clubs meeting every Saturday at the beer houses and taking up collections to pay the school- master, who was a member of the club and was bound to spend part of his dues in beer. The teacher was very frequently drawing pauper rates, and by teaching for the consideration of four or five shillings a week kept out of £he working house. No wonder teachers did not feel sweet-tempered, who, as Friedrich Richter informs us, had in Prussia an average salary of two hundred dollars per annum, while many had but from five to ten dollars, and some got one cent per week for each scholar, upon which they could but poorly subsist, but recuper- ated during the half of the year when they drove out to pasture their bovine friends, whom they treated to less blows than the scholars who kept them lean. John Jacob Hauberle, more punctual than the rest, kept a School Flogging Journal, in which he informs us of having administered during his schoolmastership of fifty-one years and seven months, 911,527 strokes of the cane and 124,000 of the rod ; also 20,989 blows with the ruler ; not only 10,235 boxes on the ear, but also 7,905 tugs at the 254 The Progress of General Education. same member; and a sum total of 1,115,800 blows with the knuckles on the head. He imposed be- sides 22,763 fines in the shape of chapters in the Bible and catechism and parts of grammar to be learned by heart. He threatened 1,707 children who did not receive it, made JJJ kneel upon round hard peas and 631 upon a sharp-edged piece of wood, to which are to be added a corps of 5,001 riders on the wooden horse. Such was the treat- ment of scholars by John Jacob Hauberle, who thought the floggings the children received of suf- ficient importance to keep account. What must have been the treatment of helpless children at the hand of less scrupulous teachers? To Lord Brougham belongs the glory to have aroused the Parliament of England by his position, his learning, his eloquence, his humanity and states- manship to the danger that threatened the country from the gross ignorance of its population ; and mainly through his exertions a Committee of the House of Commons to inquire into the educational condition of London, Westminster and Southwark, was appointed in 18 16. In 18 18 Mr. Brougham's Committee on the Education of the People gener- ally, was appointed. In 1820 his first bill was brought before Parliament. In 1834 the first Par- liamentary vote for Education was passed, and a select Committee of the House of Commons ap- The Progress of General Education. 255 pointed to inquire into the means for establishing a national system of Education. In 1836 the first Parliamentary vote was passed for the erection of schools of design, and from this time one Parlia- mentary act after another laid vividly hold upon general, industrial, scientific and art Education, until the most comprehensive of all, the Elementary Act of Education, passed in 1870. As late as 1850 half of the people of England and Wales were illiterate, and half the children were without school attendance. The teachers were poor, miserable men, not to be trusted with the commonest work. The schools were kept in unwholesome cellars and garrets, without maps, blackboards, books, apparatus or playgrounds, and, of course, without rooms for classification. Many parishes were without any schools at all. Among the teachers we find blacksmiths, tailors, colliers, cooks, hatters, hucksters, some of them continuing their trade. The noise in these school rooms was usually such that a person could not hear what was said. These wretched, miserable schools, with a few worm-eaten benches and tables for their furniture, were often hovels in ruins or over stables, with small windows, poorly lighted, with damp earth for their floor ; and among 692 of these schools, 364 had not as much accommodation as anything in the shape 256 The Progress of General Education. of a privy. Parliamentary grants for Education were for the primary department in 1833 $100,000 1840 150,000 1850 900,000 1862 . . . 3,873,715 1870 4»573.6o5 1872 7.757,8oo In France, of 38,000 communities, 14,000 were in 1833 without schools ; in 1870 only 800 very small communities were without schools. In 1832 one- sixth of the French people were educated. In 1856 almost one-half of the people were educated. Upon 10,000 in the army of France could read in 1828 . . 3,518 men from 21-40 years old. 1846 . . 5.331 i860 . . 7,000 " " " The primary department in France counted in 1830 j 1,000,000 scholars. 1848 3.53o.i35 1850 3.784.710 1868 4,442,421 The appropriations for primary instruction in Paris were in 1852 1,300,000 francs. 1859 1,700,000 " 1866 5,207,000 " The Progress of General Education, 257 In 1862, France had 1,833 school libraries, in 1866 it had 10,243 ! Belgium had in 1830, 293,000 children in the pri- mary department ; in 1848 it had 462,000 in the same department. The progress of Education in the past and pres- ent is very much the same everywhere, and not only proves that the world came to the conclusion that its improvement must come from the school ; it also shows that if the misery of the masses has been very great hitherto, so has been the neglect of their Education. It further proves that scholars and philosophers, while they indulge in the delights of the intellect and the imagination, are, as a rule, to their own reproach, unconcerned about the bru- tality, ignorance and misery of the masses. But the weightiest lesson of all is that private means and efforts are insufficient to provide for the Edu- cation of the masses. England, with its state church, and mutually jealous sects and its public- spirited men of wealth, proved by the miserable failure they made of the Education of the people, that the power and wisdom of the state alone are to be trusted with this great work and responsi- bility. The more the masses equal in moral and intel- lectual grasp the rest of society, the more it must be admitted that they are the most important fac- 258 The Progress of General Education. tor in the production of wealth, and are, therefore, entitled to the best wealth can give — a good and substantial Education ; and this is also all they can claim from the state without detriment to them- selves and without confusion of ideas and princi- ples ; and whoever endeavors to deprive them of that, under whatsoever pretext — public economy, or what not — his name ought to be loathed as that of Arnold, the traitor. Reforms should commence so imperceptibly as to be sure to escape the opposition of opinions and things, and the capital invested in them should only grow with our experience in managing them. We should then be sure of meeting with success and of finding imitators. u Do not pitch your improve- ments too high," is the instruction of the Prussian Minister to his Commissioner of Education. Connecticut feels the necessity of combining in- dustrial training with school Education, as the peo- ple in many localities visibly suffer from want of occupation, and she refuses $100,000 of a testator, bequeathed for the purpose of inaugurating that improvement, as the committee appointed for the investigation of that matter reports an industrial school requires a capital of $500,000. We should open our industrial school with two dozens of needles, a half a dozen spools of cotton and sixty yards of muslin ; and if, in an evil hour, The Progress of General Education. 259 we should allow our ambition to run away with us, we might open in two branches at a time, and put into the students' hands two dozens of knives, and commence wood carving with a stock of 200 square feet of walnut lumber. Anyhow, we should begin with a capital of not over $50, and be sure of suc- cess ; but the Connecticut industrial school cannot start on less than $500,000 ! Our philosophy as how to open industrial schools applies to infant schools, obligatory evening schools and every new movement. Train the children to profitable employment, and every parent will hurry his children to school and keep them there, until the morals of the school accompanying the work of the muscles will become assimilated, fixed, organic and hereditary. The cultivation and improvement of the few favorably situated for a time is lost with their op- portunities in the unimproved masses in which they soon sink back ; only the culture and improvement of the whole people can become hereditary ; and, hence, Race Education, or Hereditary Culture, im- plies universal culture. Luther, the reformer of the schoolhouse as well as of the Church, and Pestalozzi, are beginning to tell on Germany. After the Austrian defeat at Sadowa, a high Prussian official having been asked, " Who was 260 The Progress of General Education. your biggest general?" answered, "The school- master." It was the lack of this sort of general that beat France. The Polytechnic Institute of France is the best in Europe — its primary instruction is the poorest. The Protestant leaders, as early as 1560, asked for an obligatory school law ; they were crushed ; and to-day, after three hundred years, the French government is still wrangling over such a law. Ger- many, having taken possession of Elsace and Lor- raine, March 1, 1 871, introduced compulsory school attendance the 18th of the following month, and made an annual school appropriation of 6,562,427 francs. The French government, under the Res- tauration, made an annual appropriation of 50,000 francs for the primary Education of the whole of France. That England appropriated for primary instruc- tion in 1841, $150,000, and in 1872, $7,757,8oo, and France, in 1828, for the primary instruction of the nation 50,000 francs, while Paris appropriated for the primary instruction of its own population in 1873, 11,132,046 francs, is a guarantee of progress and gives us faith in the future of humanity. Prussia, with 12,256,725 population, had already in 1825, 21,623 primary free schools, with 25,000 teachers and 1,664,218 scholars under attendance, Cost of Education and of Crime. 261 while England, as late as 1841, had an annual ap- propriation of §50,000 for the primary schools of the whole country ; and, as a natural consequence, expended during the same period for the suppres- sion of crime, $3,224,845. COST OF EDUCATION AND OF CRIME. An Education that trains, teaches and fits us for usefulness from our earliest childhood may be ex- pensive. But is a quarter of a million of drunkards, as many criminals, paupers and defectives, less so ? a half a million of men who consume, waste, depre- date and not only produce nothing, but absorb the labor of one army watching them, and of another that is administering to their vicious propensities in a hundred thousand haunts of vice, shame and drunkenness ! The wages of these idlers, at the low rate of $1 per day, would amount to $150,- 000,000 per annum. But the difference between the production of a nation of forty million indus- trially and morally trained and one that is without such influence, does not count by the hundred, but by the thousands of millions ; as the result of every producer would be enhanced by increased efficiency and economy. The habitual criminals, of whom we have about 40,000 in our state prisons, cost the state each, for detection, apprehension, conviction and mainte- 262 Cost of Education and of Crime. nance, $500. The depredations of each, during an average criminial career of five years and a half, amount to $2,750, which gives a total cost to so- ciety of $130,000,000. Drunkenness costs the nation four and five times as much, and the same may be said of the idle pauper class and the defectives. For pauperism and its misery nearly double the rate of death and disease in the land. But we may multiply tenfold the damage to the nation from pauperism, drunkenness, crime and every sort of defectiveness, and these miseries assume vaster pro- portions still, as they are hereditary and multiply with every generation in a geometrical ratio. The Juke family thus yielded in seventy -five years in Adult paupers 280 Criminals and offenders 140 Habitual thieves 60 Common prostitutes 50 Women specifically diseased .... 40 Men contaminated by these women . 400 Aggregate of children who died pre- maturely 300 Cost of crime, pauperism, depredation, premature death, specific disease and loss of wages, etc $1,308,000 This is the fruit borne by the cheap Education of a family of four sisters in the State of New York during seventy-five years. Does Every Education Prevent Pauperism f. 263 Charles L. Brace has proved the wholesome influ- ence of industrial schools on crime. But does our common Education prevent crime ? The criminal class is, naturally enough among other things, also illiterate ; but, certain'y reading and writing have in themselves but little restrain- ing power over crime. Prof. John W. Draper, who is very guarded in his statements, positively asserts in his treatise on Physiology, that our common Education has rather the reverse tendency. The same position has been taken by Herbert Spencer and other investigators. DOES EVERY EDUCATION PREVENT PAUPERISM? It has equally been established beyond a doubt, that a common school Education is not proof against pauperism. Thus, the counties lying be- tween London and the south coast of England are by far less illiterate than the North Midland counties, and have yet a great deal more of pau- perism. Only an Education that develops from early in- fancy all the powers of body and mind, fosters good habits, imparts practical information and trains men to active and skilled industry, is a preventive against pauperism and crime ; and, in fact, against every other deviation from the normal type of humanity. 264 Intellectual Pleasures. It is time the sham of our illiteracy statistics be made clear to the comprehension of everybody. The fact that most of paupers and criminals cannot read and write is used as a conclusive argument, that all Education has to do to diminish pauperism and crime is to teach people how to read and write. In truth, however, illiteracy is not the cause of pauperism and. crime; but, like pauperism and crime, it is a symptom of want, misery and a gen- eral deterioration and degradation, which are the real causes of illiteracy as well as of crime. The detection of this fallacy is of vast impor- tance, for it teaches us that to impart a knowledge of reading and writing does not touch the cause of pauperism and crime. To effect this, we must re- move want, misery and congenital deterioration, which can only be brought about by the prevention of the development of inherited evil tendencies through correct early training in infant schools and the cherishing of active habits in the industrial school, developing skill and capacity, promoting well-being, health and comfort, where degraded tendencies, left to themselves, would have produced want, misery and degradation. INTELLECTUAL PLEASURES. An increased outlay and effort for educating the masses is our greatest security for the future. It Education and the State. 265 has long ago been observed by prominent econo- mists, whenever intellectual pleasures are in the ascendant, civilization progresses, and when sen- sual pleasures predominate, civilization is on the wane. It certainly shows in our favor that we spend a hundred and fifty millions per annum for the culture of the young, and, besides this, vast sums taken out of the fund of material gratification, lessen by so much luxury, ruinous by its effeminat- ing tendency, and add so much to the virtue, force, intelligence and efficiency of the next generation. Water, air and earth make the wheat and cotton plant, which, in their turn, are made into food and clothing. So does under the process of an advanc- ing civilization matter enter into the production of mind. Our spiritual wants increase daily, and their satisfaction is attended with least waste. One loaf can feed but one stomach, and one coat can cover but one back ; but one idea may feed a thou- sand minds. The production of mind is, therefore, the most profitable investment, and the progress of the race, of manufactures and of values lead all to it, and, hence, our increased educational efforts. EDUCATION AND THE STATE. Lycurgus has already said, the business of the legislator resolves itself into the bringing up of youth. 266 Education and our Financial Crisis. . Plato has said, man cannot propose a higher and holier object for his study than Education and all that appertains to it. Nothing, says Auguste Comte, can give stabil- ity to a government but a great principle, to which under every change or revolution of opinion all the people will hold and around which they will rally ; and an Education that will teach them the submis* sion of their desires to the will of all. Race Education, or the subordination of the indi* vidual in each and every act to the race, gives us the principle and the Education, which of all others trains for this wholesome subordination. " It is most natural for the individual," says Aris- totle, " to be educated for the nation, of which he is but a part, as the limb is of the body and for the body." We admit the criticism, that antiquity sunk the individual in the state. But do we not fall in the opposite vice, and err on the side of meanness, as the ancients did on the side of noble- ness, by running individuality into consummate selfishness? Race Education deepens and unites both elements in educating the individual for the race. EDUCATION AND OUR FINANCIAL CRISIS. Too dull and listless to learn in the school of thought, nature's laws will make themselves heard Education and our Financial Crisis. 267 at last by speaking to us in pinching want, ruin, misery and bitter disappointment attending the upheaval of commercial crashes, and, at last, in revolutions and national ruin. Witness our present crisis, aggravated by our false Education. War has demoralized the indus- trial habits of the land ; the late discontent of labor has materially lessened its results, and production was thus doubly cut short ; still mislead by an in- flated currency, the people were sure of getting rich, and spent more than ever. How could we but get poor, losing at both ends by a decreased produc- tion, and an increased consumption when labor and saving are the only sources of wealth ? From the firing of the first gun at Sumter we got poorer as a nation, as we produced less, or what we pro- duced were not means for further production, but destruction. We were piling up fences, farm imple- ments and the wealth of cities and states, and made of it a great and fearful conflagration. And even this is not all ; we destroyed a million of producers, made the living worthless through habits contracted in the camp or the extravagance and the gambling spirit at home. What a strange way of getting rich ! From Adam Smith down to Mill, McLoid, Jevons and Cary, economists have taught us dif- ferently. When we felt flush, the crash was coming ; for we were indulging in a dangerous delusion* 268 Education and our Financial Crisis. Our future will never be secure until our children are trained from their fourth to their seventh year to be active, skilful and creative, and thus a last- ing foundation for industrious and moral habits be laid ; then to their twelfth or thirteenth year they must be intellectually trained and instructed, and after that to their eighteenth year industrial em- ployment must be combined with the highest tech- nical and scientific instruction. We are wofully deficient in industrial and moral habits, as also in the knowledge of the plainest principles of economy. We have to overcome the financial fiction of honestly getting something out of nothing, when, in fact, labor and saving are the only factors in the production of wealth. If we bring up our children for work, we bring them up for the country and for the production and the cheapening of the first necessaries of life, the increase of which increases the well-being of the masses. If we raise them for idleness, we raise them for the city and for chance stakes, which tend to unprincipled transactions. It is the lack of the element of work in the popular Education that swells the movement of the population toward the great cities, where everybody fishes for his prize, and one wins while a hundred sink beneath the wave. Our Education is at best a hunt for charming The School the Miniature of the World. 269 information, but the power of producing our nec- essaries to sustain life must precede the delightful. Our defeats as our victories come from the school- master, and the school is at the bottom of our financial disasters. " Nonsense," says my critic, " it is the time." But, pray, who makes the time but we, and who made us but the school ? ERAS OF CIVILIZATION. Our present development of the understanding must be followed by the reign of reason, as it has been preceded by the dominion of the imagination. The creation of language and the fine arts formed the dawn of civilization ; now science absorbs the age. Only the perfect state is the consummation of the highest reason. THE SCHOOL THE MINIATURE OF THE WORLD. It need not be repeated that to instruct is ndt to educate. But it is not enough realized that knowledge is not always saving, and that the down- fall of empires has mostly been attended by sub- tlety of intellect and universal skepticism. To educate the young is to make them live long enough the life we wish them to live, that they may continue it from habit. It is not to show them at a distance the way they are to walk in, but to train them in it. The school must be a 270 The Half-hour School System. miniature of the world with all its work and duties, in which the young must be exercised. And this simultaneous training of every part of man's nature is the more necessary as each has its modifying in- fluence on the other, and none can be cultivated to advantage separately. THE PERIOD OF CRIME AND OF EDUCATION. The greater amount of crime is committed be- tween the ages of twenty and thirty years. By increasing the industrial usefulness of Education, which enables scholars to support themselves, parents are more induced to send their children early, long and continuously to school than by compulsory school laws, and thus prolonged school attendance influencing those years of vicious ten- dencies, will lessen crime by one-half. THE HALF-TIME SCHOOL SYSTEM. Race Education divides the scholar's time be- tween instruction and industrial training, which is acknowledged to yield better results than the long hours of our common schools, in which, however much talking the teacher may do, the jaded scholar receives but little. The half-time system, not interfering with the acquisition of a trade, enables the student to pro- long his period of Education, to become acquainted Our Wordy Education. 271 with the theoretical acquirements of his especial trade and their use ; and having for years combined work with study, his success as an artisan and in- ventor is assured. The leading educators of England agree with Mr. Chadwick in pronouncing short school hours a success ; that prolonged attention is impossible for a young child ; that school hours are wasted because they make impossible demands upon a child's immature powers ; that short lessons, with bodily work, produce better intellectual results than lessons twice as long, without the relief bodily exer- cise gives to the mind. Dr. Norris says, before the British Association, he has confronted this subject on all its sides, and found that children who studied half the school hours, and worked the other half of the day, stud- ied and worked more efficiently than children who worked or studied all the time. OUR WORDY EDUCATION. Let our scholars have less to do with words, the shadows of things, and more with the things them- selves, and they will prove as energetic and success- ful as our self-made men. Teachers and parents often think that children must learn all the words Johnson, Walker, Richardson, Worcester and Web- ster did not know how to spell and pronounce; 272 Education and Industrial Labor. that they must know by heart every third and fourth rate river in Africa, soon to be forgotten ; and that their heads must be filled with Rs, Xs and Ys until they are turned themselves into unknown quantities. Who will deliver us from the yoke of the letter, and permit us once more to have a soul and to act an honest part in the world ! Our schools teach too much, educate not enough and train men for labor not at all. Our information is too general, which means es- pecial ignorance as far as accomplishing anything in particular is concerned. We want science adoing, as life and nature are. The word must become flesh, and not the flesh word, says Richter. EDUCATION AND INDUSTRIAL LABOR. Locke treats what the schools call learning in comparison with physical, mental and moral habits with a most hearty contempt. How strenuously this philosopher, eminent above all others for his great good sense, insisted upon combining one or several mechanical pursuits with intellectual Edu- cation even in the highest classes of society, of which practice he cites many examples among the ancients. Cato and Cincinnatus were but illustra- tions of what was most common, among the great men of Rome. Spinoza does not stand alone in Education and Industrial Labor. 273 modern time. Luther made a good hand in several trades, so did the great Lord Brougham, and so did other men of like eminence. Industrial universities, receiving their pupils from industrial common schools, would be of infinite more advantage to the country than our present colleges with their Latin and Greek pretences. It is the Central College of Arts and Manufactures at Paris, the pupils of which are in great demand among the manufacturers of France. But not only Locke, the father of the modern sensational school, but as we have seen Leibnitz, the author of the monadology, and Fichte, the transcendentalist, all equally insisted upon the , necessity of joining handicraft to mental culture. Froude, the realistic historian, instills the same les- son. And our own great dead of but yesterday, was not his parting tragic enough, that we so soon for- get his life and his teachings ? The destruction of slave labor was but half of Mr. Greeley's lesson. The union of Education with free labor was the other and more important half; and half the utter- ances of his life we should have to cite were we to repeat all he so forcibly said upon this score. Solon made labor binding upon all men ; our Puritan fathers legislated it ; philosophers of all schools enforced it ; Germany, and all Europe, more or less, introduced it in its schools more than a 12* 274 Education and Industrial Labor. hundred years ago. We may turn a deaf ear to the teachings of lawgivers and philosophers of other nations and our own, but the ruin of our industries, labor failing to feed the people, and giving way to dishonesty, corruption and anarchy will at last force us to concede to labor its place in the Education of the people. Labor, says De Gerando, is the great educator. Labor means wealth, power and civilization. La- bor means character, duty and nobleness. Labor prevents disorder, ennui and dissipation ; it inures to action and usefulness. It is a school of sobriety, cultivates attention, perseverance, precision and % method. It allays the passions and brings inward peace and health to the soul. Labor gives vigor, a sense of dignity and the power of self-restraint. It restrains inordinate ambition, and accustoms us to estimate reality above empty applause. All honest work, says John Mill, is for the uni- versal good, and as honorable as any public func- tion ; and by doing perfectly whatever we do we perfect our character. Froude sets handwork before headwork. The first business of Education, he says, is to assist us in honestly supporting ourselves. A man must work, steal or beg. The practical necessities pre- cede the intellectual. As long as society does not mind the common wants of humanity and Education and Industrial Labor. 27$ give this sort of Education, it has no right to con- demn the rogue or mendicant. Miss Nightingale has well said, that without in- dustrial training the three Rs are most likely end- ing in a fourth R — Rascaldom. Mr. Pearson, in his report before the House of Lords, says : I am satisfied that the cause of juve- nile crime is not the absence of Education, and that any Education of the children of the laboring masses unaccompanied by industrial training and actual employment in manual and useful labor, will entirely fail in checking the growth of crime. And what opportunities have the people for en- gaging in profitable trades? says another well-in- formed authority. Owing to a variety of circum- stances it has become almost impossible to procure for children such educational training as will make them skilful artisans. The public school must fit for work. European nations are competing in estab- lishing schools of art, and we must shape our public schools in the same direction or fall behind the civ- ilized world in our industries. European countries swarm with schools for drawing and technical train- ing. Little Wurtemberg alone has four hundred drawing schools. The United Kingdom has eight hundred schools of art. Every country and every great city in Europe has a grand schoql of arts and industries. Whatever tirrjQ and expense has been 276 Education and Industrial Labor. devoted of late in England to drawing has richly- been repaid by the improved industries. New York, Boston, Philadelphia and a few more cities have a few such schools as any German prov- ince is swarming with. The Superintendent of Education of the State of Rhode Island says, our motto should be " the best Education to the largest number." The pres- ent course of study is arranged for those who intend to complete the whole course in the high school and not for the masses, who are growing up in igno- rance, vice and youthful crimes, which multiply in a geometrical ratio. Hundreds of orphan asylums, industrial schools and reformatories, in which many industries have for years been successfully taught, prove the prac- ticability and utility of teaching and training the masses in skilled labor. Massachusetts has the honor of having passed an act in 1872 providing that the city council of any city or town may estab- lish and maintain industrial schools and raise the money necessary to render them efficient, and pre- scribe the arts, trades and occupations to be taught. The Cooper Institute of New York City, founded by the munificence of the eminently good and wise Peter Cooper, with more than two thousand stu- dents, mostly mechanics, crowding its courses in engineering, mining, metallurgy, analytical and syn- Education and Industrial Labor. 277 thetical chemistry, architectural drawing and prac- tical building, schools of telegraphy, wood-engrav- ing, photography, design and painting, proves the eagerness of the public to benefit by schools of art and industry, and is a reproach to public remissness in not following the lead of this great benefactor in giving the masses in similar institutions oppor- tunities for combining labor with study, that they may rise from their unprofitable drudgery to re- munerative technic art. The Institute of Technology at Boston, the Worcester Institute of Industrial Science and Cor- nell University, under the able lead of President White, are all hopeful illustrations of the combina- tion of labor and study. It is pleasant to mention the noble beginnings made by the Women's Educational and Industrial Society of New York City, who train and instruct thousands of women in a variety of occupations. Long Island has a Printers' training school. The Hebrew Orphan Asylum of New York and the Episcopal Orphan Home of Brooklyn teach several trades, and so does the Wilson Industrial School of New York to girls, the Brooklyn Female Em- ployment Society and the Young Ladies' Branch of the Women's Christian Association completing the list. A model for future institutions of health- ful labor, is presented to us by Girard College, 278 Education and Industrial Labor. with its extensive arrangements for type-setting, printing, book-binding, type-casting, stereotyping, turning, carpentering, photographing, electroplat- ing, telegraphing and shoemaking. By refusing labor a place in the Education of the masses, we practically tell them " we will not teach you anything useful, but even that will make you paupers, criminals and orphans, and soon enough bring you to our industrial pauper schools, reformatories and orphan asylums where you shall be taught some trade or other." But must we burn down the house to roast the pig? Must the people pass through pauperism, crime and orphan- age to get into industrial schools? Would it not be more sage to engraft industry upon our public school system, and rather prevent pauperism, crime and premature orphanage than make them the bridge to industry? Women suffering nearly twice as much from pov- erty than men prove by the consequent deteriora- tion of the race the failure of our present Education. As long as in the absence of a great national system of Kindergartens women are not employed in what is peculiarly their work — the Education of the race — only a varied industrial Education can save them from being crushed by a competition they are bound to meet with in a few overcrowded employments open to them. By giving women a Education and Industrial Lajbor. ^'^279 \V - i \ reasonably extended industrial Educatiorv,/^e > cur- < }> tail by one-half prostitution, crime, woman's s\av4/y * y to man-, widowed misery, the idiocy of orphans <^J starving with their pining mothers and other in- numerable evils, all flowing from woman's help- lessness. A proper industrial training would enable woman to provide for herself and for those depending on her whenever she should be thrown upon her own resources. In 1859 women in New York City made and pressed stylish caps for two shillings per dozen. In London about the same time fifty thousand females were working for under sixpence per day, and above one hundred thousand for under one shilling a day. Shirt-makers made a dozen shirts for two shillings. Waistcoat-makers earned only from three to four shillings a week ; workers for the army clothiers received eight cents a piece for jackets and trousers, earning thereby two shillings a week. Shoe-binders worked eighteen hours a day, and earned one shilling and sixpence a week. The mantilla-maker, working from nine in the morn- ing till eleven at night, made four shillings and six- pence a week in the busy season. At a meeting of one thousand female slop work- ers in England the curious result was obtained, that none of that number had earned more than five 280 Education and Industrial Labor. shillings a week. Ninety-nine had earned only one shilling, and two hundred and thirty-three had had no work at all during the whole of the week. In 1867, the New York World informs us, there were in the metropolis 70,000 women and girls, beside domestics, who worked for their living, of whom 7,000 lived in cellars, and 20,000 were in a constant fight with starvation and pauperism. Since i860 establishments doubled employing these hag- gard creatures at the top of princely merchant houses. The New York Times in December, 1867, informs us of thousands of women in the city working from seven in the morning to midnight getting seventy- two cents for the making of a dozen of shirts. Six cents for a shirt ! And pay for drawers, undershirts and blouses in proportion. But flannel shirts care- fully made brought 12^ cents a piece, best white shirts 87^ cents, a dozen best drawers $1.25 a dozen. A soldier's widow, with four children to support was getting $4.50 for embroidering a cloak, two weeks of toiling ! the cloak selling at $50 to $75, the woman being told, if she will not do it plenty others will do it. The average labor for 1866 was for Cloak makers $8.00 per week. Shirt " 9.00 " Cuff and collar makers . . $8.00 to 9.00 " Umbrella " .... 5.00 " Education and Industrial Labor. 281 Button hole makers 3.00 per week. Fur-sewers $4.00 to 7.00 " Machine operators .... 4.00 to 8.00 '' In Boston we read there were in 1868, 20,000 women working at starvation rates, 8,000 workers at 20 to 25 cents per day, 12,000 workers for less than 50 cents, and even at these rates there was little work. These women lived at times on one cracker a day for breakfast, dinner and supper. American wives and mothers work in Boston from dawn to dawn to get one mouthful of food, making shirts at eight cents a day ! Some women take shirts at 50 cents a dozen, and operate sewing- machines at $2.50 a week. Dr. Dio Lewis says : " These operating girls run the machine from one and a half to two years, and their backs give out, and their spines give way. When they give out they are pretty well spoiled, and are then thrown out to pick up what they can get, until God in his mercy shall take them hence. " In 1868 one of the best informed journals reports, 30,000 girls struggled in New York City with star- vation and cold, six cents for the making of a shirt and furnishing the thread ! In 1 869 the New York Herald writes : " The work- ing women live in nasty tenement houses, in cellars unfit for human habitation, in pools of foulness, where every impurity is matured, and every vice 282 Education and Industrial Labor. flourishes, with no air, no light, a rickety bed, a broken-down stove and second-hand cooking uten- sils. Such is the condition of 75,000 working wom- en in New York City." A room of 12 by 14 feet, ceiling 8 feet high, pay- ing $8 a month and earning $6 a week, working on an average 12 hours a day. The Economist, in 1869, said: "The maximum average of female labor was $5 per week. The sur- geons of Bellevue and other hospitals, who investi- gated the subject, assert that much of the sickness and mortality of females in the city of New York results from insufficient food and clothing, exposure and cold. The ranks of shame and death are re- cruited by thousands of unfortunates, who would never have strayed from the path of rectitude if they had obtained honest employment." Does all this not loudly call for an industrial Education? Is it a wonder that with such mothers the race deteriorates? Who is there but takes good care of a valuable mare, and have we become so debased that we do not value our mothers and our race as much as a farmer does his stock ? Woman in her great misery, involving the ruin of the race — in more than one way — is the con- demnation of our impracticable system of Educa- tion, which does nothing for the preservation of the race or for the individual, and the stolid indiffer- Education and Industrial Labor, 283 ence of which for human weal or woe betrays an appalling degree of barbarity. The answer of Agesilaus, the Spartan king, upon the question, what was best for boys to learn? " What they will practice when they will be grown to be men," is as sensible to-day as it was then. The masses of the people must be skilled in in- dustrial labor; they must be used to the application of knowledge to work and must be industrious, and, hence, the importance of -training them early to these requirements of their mature years. Nervousness leading to a variety of affections, ending often in insanity, is one of the most serious symptoms of the general degeneracy of our age ; and all great physicians pronounce moderate labor the most remedial agent in cases of insanity. Ca- banis fully proves that muscular activity lessens nervous excitement ; hence, physical labor is most wholesome in this our age of nervous affections. The fostering of honest work would certainly have a good effect on the insanity of mammon worship or the madness of speculation. The life and motion of the stars is kept up by the opposing centripetal and centrifugal forces; the adjustment of the inner and outer conditions is maintained in organic life by assimilation and dispersion, and social life consists in progressive adaptation and conservative institutions. 284 Education and Industrial Labor. The conservatism of China is known, so is its intellectual culture. The code of the Jews is " study the law and observe it," which includes research and steady adherence. And both these nations have outlived all others. The Romans were war- ring and progressive tribes ; but, as we have already seen, the mothers grown up under the shade of domestic habits, had charge of the Education of the children, and supplied it with the conserva- tive element. The Greeks conbined the culture of the physical and intellectual element as no other nation, and, hence, their perfect health and beauty of mind and body. The hard toiler is slow, patient and conservative, while the student is progressive, as thought will impatiently outrun the slow march of stubborn reality. By joining study with labor, we combine the spirit of progress, development and adaptation with the spirit of conservatism, both so necessary for the historic development of a nation. Nothing but the union of intellectual Education with physical labor can save us from corruption of every sort and bring us back to the perfect culture and natural simplicity of the Greeks. Or, is there any reason to contradict the statement, that with culture, honest labor and simple living the simplic- ity of the Greeks is more likely to come than with musty Greek grammars and dictionaries ? Education and Industrial Labor, 28.5 Our schools, instead of developing in us a taste for technical pursuits equal to that by which Eng- land, Germany, and, above all, France excel, force us to speculate on each other's hide. If, of a hun- dred scholars leaving school, ninety-five engaged in useful work, and five scrambled for the profits of their labor, that might do ; but of the hundred, ninety-five scramble for the questionable profits of the unwilling labor of five, and, hence, the murder- ous competition, which leaves the five and ninety- five dead on the field. The clergy have started our Latin schools, the commercial classes have organized our grammar schools. The laboring masses of to-day call for industrial schools. The famous Dean of St. Paul says, before the British Association : " Whether we have advanced as far as we wisely may, in blending the useful with the ordinary Education, may well occupy the thoughts of the reflective and practical men. I am at a loss to see, why exercise of the faculties may not be combined with what will be applicable to the future employment. " Dr. Fitch, one of the foremost educators of Eng- land, says, before the same Association, the children of the masses want more than reading, writing and arithmetic ; they want to be put in possession of the mechanic arts ; they want right habits ; they 286 Education and Industrial Labor. want to be taught to think about their work, to feel an interest in inquiring and observing for them- selves, and to know how knowledge is acquired and applied. We badly want schools and appreciate them ; but they must not devote themselves exclusively to teaching us how to talk about things, but to do the things and do them rightly. We appreciate the teacher's difficulty. He tries to make the pupil what he is ; and as he is an ever- lasting talker, talkers he will make. But the world is getting tired of words. What it wants is doing, and to this the school must make some sort of an approach or the world will stay away from it. The State of New York has a right to expect a better return from thirty millions school property than five hours spelling and geography five times a week. The school must form the home and the shop as well as the school of the youth of the land during eight or nine hours of the day. A nutri- tious but simple meal, not costing over five cents, a simple dress, earnest work and a generous conduct upon the playground alone can educate the nation to simplicity, industry and universal good-will. Moral teachings, enforced by such habits, must regenerate the nation that, though young, has al- ready entered upon its period of decadence. As we have already quoted, learning forms our Education and Ltdustrial Labor. 287 speeches, but habit our inclinations, after which our actions take. Learning is not the end of man, for we can but little know at best ; character and achievement, or what we are -and what we accom- plish, are much more important ; and, hence, the organization of the school must develop our nature in infancy, and not dismiss us until we are ready to do our work in the world intelligently. The science of life and the art of living are the main object of Education, as leading to the preservation and improvement of the race. Once the phenomena of nature have been deemed unworthy the attention of the schoolmen, and the fancies of men have been dignified with the name of philosophy. To-day learned men have but half parted with their conceit, and despise the knowl- edge of the common things of the world. But who can take an intelligent survey of the inter- national exhibitions of the world without being struck with the amazing variety and grandeur of the works of common men when compared with the smallness and paltriness of the most elegant words of literature. What is Homer, Virgil, Horace, Dante, Milton or Shakespeare in comparison with half a million of intricate mechanisms, each doing the work of dozens of men, and one hundred million articles of use and beauty ? Well may Herbert Spencer say, 288 Education and Industrial Labor. what is stored up in books is but the smallest part of the knowledge of mankind. We disavow every intention of disparaging sci- ence, but as emphatically declare that practical work, which has furnished science with the great facts underlying it, must be taken again into the service of science and must be treated more gra- ciously by the new mistress. Our abstruse scientific treatises may be excellent for scientists ; the masses who must work must be initiated into the principles of science by studying and working them out in their application to indus- try. We need no more be ashamed of affiliating the school with the workshop than with old dame nature. To be plain, the school must become con- siderably a workshop, in spite of literary fops and word-mongers. Science and life will be gainers by the change. A person of a practical turn of mind may not care about electricity, caloric or the common prop- erties of matter, but will take interest in electro- plating, the steam engine and the strength of building materials. Let every school district have a library not of the battles of England or the wars of Rome, but of every treatise on every branch of industry car- ried on in the said locality, with a museum contain- ing every article manufactured in different countries Education and Indiistrial Labor. 289 and ages of the same nature and the tools used in the process, and the saloons will be less visited, and inebriety and pauperism will receive a check, and every industry flourish as never before. From our primary and secondary departments of instruction to the college and university all is verbal, culminating in Latin and Greek, which is a very fraud, not one in ten scholars going through them ever being able to read these languages, save the few text books, parrot-like got by rote. Every town ought to have its industrial schools, every county its industrial college, every State its indus- trial university, and the whole country its national academy of»the industrial arts and sciences. The whole land must become a bee -hive, in which each works for all, and all work for each. Then, and only then, will all be sound in body and sound in mind, sound in government, sound in finance and sound all over. Education must not begin and end in generali- ties, but must branch out in different industrial institutions, in keeping with the pursuits of the different sections of the country, to which they must give a higher impetus. Since religion has ceased to be a state power, binding men's consciences and hands, too, a ra- tional discipline must school men from very child- hood up in useful activity and severe simplicity. 13 290 Education and Industrial Labor. The industrial training of a long line of genera- tions must become an instinct with the race. Pro^ duction is characteristic of civilized, as destructive- ness is of savage life, and our social instincts make daily more the preservation of the race as dear to us as the preservation of our own life. Only when the world wik be all work, will vice, fraud and war, and every other species of wrong and oppression, disappear from among men. Let any one judge in the light of the recognized principle, that Education should enable us to avail ourselves of all our powers to our best advantage, and teach us how to learn and improve through life — if our schools are serving this double purpose —teaching and training, as they do, the people in nothing that bears directly on their future vocation, which is mostly industrial. " The circle of knowledge through which every man in his own place becomes blessed, begins immediately around him from his own being, and from his own relations/' Such are Pestalozzi's words. Instruction, foreign to a man's pursuit, is soon forgotten, while the science that discovers to a man the philosophy of his daily work, renders it to him an opportunity for constant mental growth and satisfaction, besides the practical advantage he derives from the thorough understanding of his business. Race Education Described. 291 To fit men for duty and the labor of life is the paramount work of public schools. Do they either ? We are beginning to feel the effects of crowding even upon this continent, especially in the larger towns ; and nothing but Race Education, insisting with equal stringency upon physical, mental, moral and industrial training from earliest infancy to full maturity, can bar the door to pauperism, and pre- pare for us a future in which none will be so poor as to suffer want ; none so vicious as to inflict wan- tonly an injury upon his neighbor; none so igno- rant as not to know his duty and none so unmanly as not to practice it. RACE EDUCATION DESCRIBED. After we had penned down these our thoughts on Education, Dr. E. Seguin's masterly contribution to physiological Education came to our hand. Our standpoint is the practical forced upon us by the study of the unspeakable misery of the masses and their deterioration, leading us to Race Education, or Hereditary Culture, which at every step is an ethical as well as a physical problem. The principle of Race Education, or Hereditary Culture, combines physical, mental, moral and in- dustrial elements ; it satisfies the highest require- ments of science, answers the common ends of hu- man life and society, recognizes the claims of the 292 The Education of the Old Greeks. individual, the nation and the race ; the ends of life and the means for attaining them evolve from it. It warns us against every possible mistake, and commends itself the more as the common degene- racy of mankind is studied. Practical necessity leads to it ; the general demand for universal Edu- cation finds its fullest expression in it ; the latest biological results are formulated in it. It is highly realistic and idealistic, or a complete synthesis of both ; and, finally, history shows us our ideal sys- tem of Race Education in execution with results, the most exalted imagination could not equal as far as the realization of the beautiful in man is concerned. THE EDUCATION OF THE OLD GREEKS. The ancient Greeks, who were but small in numbers, have furnished the nations of the earth ideals in every manner of greatness, unsurpassed, yea, unapproached. It is not the sky, it is not the race — for these still exist — but the great men have not come again since the Education of that race. has changed. Lay it not to the age, sky, race or God ; give us the Education of the Greeks, and God, nature and the race will give us Greeks again. We take issue with the absurd method of the schoolmen, who think we can model after the The Education of the Old Greeks. 293 Greeks by turning the pages of musty Greek grammars and lexicons. If we are to excel as the Greeks excelled, we must adopt the same training and spirit of Education, only improved by the experience of later ages. While we protest against forcing Greek grammar upon a hundred thousand youths of the land for the sake of one hundred, who will make a success- ful study of the noble literature of that language ; we insist, however, upon the propriety, the possi- bility and the necessity of giving every child in the land the same Education the Greeks gave their children. It matters little if we read Greek, espe- cially as it is commonly read, or not. What we want is to excel in action as the Greeks did, and this the like training alone can give. All branches of Education were comprised by the Greeks under the terms of gymnastfcs and music, wonderfully expressing thereby that like these, they must all be practiced in a manner as to produce strength and beauty of body and soul. A perfect life is a work of art, and is not attained by reading about it, but by acting, by living, exer- cise and steady training, and in this we must model after the Greeks, if we are to equal them in beauty and harmony or rhythm of action. 294 The Education of Massachusetts. THE EDUCATION OF MASSACHUSETTS. Massachusetts more than any other state has made our system of common schools what it is. We love study and admire that state for the te- nacity with which it labors on its historical insti- tutions and develops and improves them. But if we oppose the common school system of Massa- chusetts of to-day, we point with preference to Massachusetts two hundred years ago — the stand it took then on industrial training ; and if we insist on early Education, it is Boston fifty years ago that gives us our argument. Mr. Phillips, one of Massachusetts' most favored sons, said : " The fact is that many young people, graduates of our public schools, are not capable of doing any work for which any one should pay a dollar, nor can they write a decent letter at fifteen, nor even read a newspaper well. The old New England system, which made a boy work six months by his father's side on the farm or in the workshop, after he had been six months at school, was better than the present one. From such a system it was possible to get such a man as Theo- dore Parker. Now the public school hands a child to its parents with no means of earning its bread." Mr. E. Washburn, another favored son of Mas- sachusetts, admits that the Education the mother The Demands of Race Education. 295 must give the child is a thousand times more impor- tant for society and the state than the Education our schools give. This admits our whole position so far as the indispensableness of national infant schools are concerned. If to watch over and nurse a baby every hour and minute night and day, to cook, wash, mend and keep a home neat and clean, and attend to a hundred other household duties, if all this is as much as one unaided young mother can attend to, the state must give us infant schools to attend to that Education of the heart and character of young children, which Mr. Wash- burn admits to be a thousand times as important to society and the state than the later Education, but which hardly one mother in ten is situated to afford her young children. THE DEMANDS OF RACE EDUCATION. The demands of Race Education are not unrea- sonable. It condemns the present system, which is purely intellectual, and gives rise to an intellec- tual strife and to a remorseless competition in life, which sends millions to insane asylums, poor-houses, jails and early graves. Race Education simply insists that the intellec- tual culture of the present common school system be preceded by the still more important culture of the character, morals and faculties of the young 296 The Demands of Race Education. children in national infant schools, and be followed by industrial training indispensable for self-support, general usefulness and the development of national wealth and the prevention of pauperism — the pest of modern states. We may sum up the practical points of our sys- tem as follows : 1. Education must aim at the preservation and improvement of the race. 2. Many causes at work contribute to a race de- terioration, which manifests itself as a. An excessive infant as well as adult mortality; b. Nervous derangement and frequent insani y ; c. Habitual criminality ; d. An inactive pauper temperament, and a va- riety ; e. Of congenital defectiveness, weakness or de- formity. 3. To lessen human deterioration in all possible forms is the great aim of Education. 4. The development of low hereditary tenden- cies must be counteracted by the formation of op- posite habits in its very infancy, and thus the foun- dation must be laid for desirable hereditary tenden- cies, and, hence, the all-importance of infant train- ing schools. 5. Information must be spread among the peo- ple about the hereditary nature of morbid tenden- The Demci7tds of Race Education. 297 cies, and the duty of parents to their children in whom their own passions, drunkenness or weak- ness, assume the shape of madness, homicide or idiocy, blindness or deaf-mutism. 6. A knowledge and observance of the laws of hygiene by the parents will lessen in the children weakness, the cause of every sort of defectiveness and an excessive infant mortality. 7. Race preservation being the~€4id of Educa- tion, no woman's Education is finished until she has acquired practically the art of raising children in the infant training school. 8. The laws of health, domestic economy and moral government are woman's first studies, as upon them depend the life and health, the eco- nomical success and the moral tone of the family. 9. As the masses must live by their physical exertions, and as rude labor cannot successfully compete with machinery, men must be trained to industry and art in childhood by infant training schools. 10. The tendency to nervous derangement and insanity, so prevalent in our age, can only be cor- rected by inuring men to physical lahor. 11. The spreading of technical industry alone can infuse into our age a spirit of simplicity, mod- eration and honest dealing, and thus counteract the present extravagance and fraud ending in ruin. 13* 298 Race Education and a Rational Idealism. 12. The school, science and Education must be brought in closer relationship with the factory, and lessen the dangers accruing to life from deleterious processes. 13. In the people's school technical skill and proficiency must form the acme of man's Educa- tion, as domestic proficiency must be the end of woman's Education ; and the school must provide for each, and dismiss neither the one nor the other until this is accomplished. 14. Education must, above all, prevent pauper- ism, which through want and misery leads to every form of moral as well as physical depravity, by fos- tering chiefly what is useful, and making man an efficient and self-supporting producer. 15. Every part of Education must practically as well as theoretically be based upon the devotion of the individual to the race. Our present Educa- tion is neither practical nor moral. It is all liter- ary foppery, and too trifling to be borne with in an age of hard common sense. RACE EDUCATION AND A RATIONAL IDEALISM. The preservation and improvement of the race are the plummet line of every part of our system of Education. The hygienic and economic rela- tions of the individual are ever present to us, as morbid juices lead to morbid desires, and an empty Race Education and a Rational Idealism, 2gg Ury. *K stomach is dull of moral comprehension, and health r and bread are important factors of virtue, and are both secured by labor wisely and moderately per- formed. But, though our aim is tangible, it is com- prehensive, and by no means excludes the ideal ends of all schools, which we only use as means for the improvement of the race, which to us is the highest goal of Education. It has been most truly said before us, Education must help us to help ourselves, not so much impart as draw out. It must train us to learn from our own observation, or to get our knowledge at first hand from nature. It must inure us to freedom without license, for chains are as galling to the mind as to the body, and lawlessness is debasing. The whole of Education must be a process of unfolding, a gradual revelation of what is in man. Education, in developing the faculties and capacities of the human mind, always commences with what is nearest to us, and leads us gradually by our own exertions to do and to comprehend by our own power and energy what seemed but shortly beyond our capacity. It begins by naming to the child the external parts of the body, and leads it gradually to the knowledge of the most complex functions of the human system and the laws we must observe if we wish to live a healthy and happy active life. Education, beginning with the simple relation 300 Race Education and a Rational Idealism. of the child to its parents, leads it on to the knowl- edge and obedience of the laws which govern men and states, and selfishness gives way as the child feels its dependence upon its mother, father, broth- ers, sisters, the community and humanity. Education makes the child feel and act in unison with nature, humanity and the infinite. While it cultivates individuality, it develops the conscious- ness, that it is but part of the great whole, in har- mony with which it must seek its own growth. Education must embrace the activities of the body, which give energy to the mind. It must assist us in giving shape and form to our ideas with our own hands. It must make us creative as well as intelligent. We must realize our thoughts in the world without us as well as form correct ideas in our minds of things external. In man the ideal and the real blend and take coloring from one another, and, standing as mediators between the two, we are at peace with all. Education must ever work under the inspiration that the child it directs is part of nature, humanity and the infinite, for which it must be educated fully as well as for itself. We must be educated for intelligent work, for virtue, for freedom, for progress and for humanity. The development of the capacities of man secures his highest usefulness, and the bringing his passions Race Education and a Rational Idealism. 301 under the rule of reason, bestows the truest happi- ness — peace of mind. Education embraces the cultivation of the heart as well as the development of the intellectual pow- ers, and the science of the duties and responsibili- ties of human life is the paramount knowledge of mankind and must form a part of his instruction, adapted to the various stages of Education. Education must train us to the highest activity in the service of humanity, truth, justice and good- ness. It must train us to take the right for our guide and to be content, and have internal peace when we have done our best. Education must train the body, enlarge the un- derstanding, develop the affections, give clearness to our perceptions and energy to our thoughts. It must free us from narrow-mindedness and lead us to reason and justice, to the infinite and the abso- lute, in which alone there is rest. Education, by properly watching over and devel- oping every faculty, physical, mental and moral, assists in the revelation of our God-likeness, which consists in living not in and for ourselves, but in and for all things. It cultivates thoughtfulness, kindliness and industry, a hand ready in execution, a quick eye, an inventive imagination and whatever else renders man effective, is in its scope. While Education works up to the general ideal 302 Race Education and a Rational Idealism, of a universal humanity, it fosters with particular care what is original in every single man, and con- stitutes his individuality. Education leads us to know ourselves and to comprehend the times we live in, to move with it and to live not for the present, but for the future, not in the narrow limit of our own self, but in the whole. It trains us to subordinate selfish desire to universal principles and the good of all. The noble passions must be inflamed by examples of noble- ness, patriotism and self-sacrifice studiously held up to them, as fire kindles on fire. Education brings the child up to the ideal of the educator and fits it for the world it is to live and act in ; showing man his destiny, it assists him in fulfilling it. It is the lever by which we act upon the future of the race. Education trains man to submission to the in- finite, to the love of man and to a self-determined activity in the service of the true, the good and the beautiful, in all his relations to man* nature and the infinite. It imparts to him true human culture and a character, as far as possible, inde- pendent of external influences and in full accord- ance with reason. Education trains us to be true to the relations of things, and to act upon general principles, so as to earn the approval of our own conscience as well Classical and Scientific Education, 303 as that of an impartial world. It cultivates the aesthetic faculty and renders the will effective, pro- moting thereby the good and the beautiful, and making us perfect. Let us hold up the sacredness of childhood, hu- manity and the eternal laws of mind and its rela- tionships, as reflected from this rapid sketch of the nature and work of Education, and compare with it the dead materialism or aimless routine work of our schools. What wonder that the generation it brings up is as indifferent as men brought up ac- cording to the mandates of eternal reason would be glorious. Mankind ought to resemble a blissful family, a haven full of rest ; but, alas ! it is all a pandemonium full of unrest, in which every one is at war with everybody else and with all that is good in himself. AND SCIENTIFIC \ Cat I* More than one battle has to be fought before a EDUCATION. THE CLAIMS OF CLASSICAL AND SCIENTIFIC great cause is forever won. For upward of two hundred years the contest between the Old and the New Education has been going on ; and only induced by repeated recent attempts to introduce Latin into the highest grades of our common schools, do we enter upon an argument that we should have con- sidered settled long ago by the popular verdict. 304 Classical a7td Scientific Education. We combat the introduction of Latin as the adoption of a false principle, which vitiates our whole system of popular Education. Once, when Popery and Caesarism swayed the world, institutions had to take the line of author- ity, the rule of life and the norm of their culture from Rome ; and the effects of this conspiracy still blight our system of Education. Latin and Greek grammar, we are seriously told, are better suited for the formation and development of the human mind and its faculties than God's infinite universe. Latin and Greek grammar usurp, therefore, the place of science, which alone gives us power over nature for our own good and the benefit of mankind. Even our purely English Education is vitiated by putting grammatical pedantries and verbal trash before the practical knowledge of things real and useful. It is comparatively a short time when Latin was the only written language of modern Europe; next, an English book was hardly thought decent without being interspersed with crumbs of Latin ; and even to-day the sciences useful tq, the common people are inaccessible to them by barbarous Greek and Latin names without number. Scholars naturally over-estimate their little Latin and Greek, but this magnifying of a deceitful sort of half-knowledge is hardly decent or honest. Classical and Scientific Education. 305 Already Comenius, born 1 592, clearly saw that nature and industry are more properly instruments of mental development, observation, comparison and judgment than mere words and phrases are. John Locke, born 1632, insisted upon the same principle, and, hence, laid stress upon drawing and the principle of utility, deprecating the loss of time bestowed upon a miserable little Latin and Greek. Herman Francke, born 1663, the founder of the celebrated Orphan House and many other public institutions at Halle, was equally eager to give to the common course of instruction a more realistic tendency. J. J. Hecker organized as early as 1747 the first real, or high and technical school, at Berlin upon practical and scientific principles. Men of common sense have since opposed the senseless routine of Latin and Greek grammar ; until to-day, in Germany, the land of thorough scholarship, the old seminaries are fast giving way to real schools, teaching drawing, mathematics, science, technology and modern lan- guages instead of the old Latin and Greek jargon. The national budget necessitates the government to favor real ox industrial and technical high schools, which are building up the industry, commerce and financial condition of the country. But science and industry are not only to be rec- 306 Classical and Scientific Education. ommended on the ground of their utility, they are every way superior as instruments of thought or educationally than Latin and Greek. The school must make men think. How is this end best to be attained? The new method an- swers, by early acquainting men with nature as a system of thought, law, and spiritual relations ; so that, wherever men may be, the air they breathe, the water they drink, the sky they see, minerals, plants, or whatever may meet their view, "may bring to their mind the physical, mathematical, chemical or physiological relations underlying them, and thus exercise their thoughts and keep their minds active. Next to nature, industry occupies men's thoughts, which, therefore, combined with science, is of great educational value through life. But as the individual is rooted in the nation in which it finds his spiritual home, the national lit- erature forms another important element in the Education of the individual. Thus the new Education builds its system upon nature, industry and nationality, to which the old Education opposes its miserable pittance of Greek and Latin. Undoubtedly Petrarcha, Reuchlin, Erasmus and the like men, who penetrated into the genius of • Greek civilization and its realism, or perfect union Classical and Scientific Education. 307 of spirit and matter, which they opposed to the re- vilings of nature by the old Church, were highly favorable to modern advance ; but, alas ! our fourth and fifth rate classical scholars know nothing of the old Greeks, and their miserable little Greek gram- mar and parrot-like learned few detached pieces of Greek or Latin stupefy them, and make them intol- erable through the ill-founded conceit with which it fills them. Emerson says, that he has not met in all his trav- els in America with half a dozen of men who could read Plato profitably. This whole Greek and Latin scholarship is an imposture, the writing of miser- able verses in these languages included. There is not one teacher in ten who has sufficient knowledge of these languages to derive from them a higher culture. The learned apparatus requisite for their thorough understanding requires the study of a lifetime. Must hundreds of thousands of students in the land throw away their years and opportuni- ties for the sake of a few hundred Latin and Greek roots, which can be learned by any English student with the help of an etymological handbook in a few weeks, if not days ? And, as for the historic value of Greek and Ro- man civilization, a few parrot-like learned detached pieces of Latin and Greek, forming a classic course, have nothing whatsoever to do with this sort of 308 Classical and Scientific Education. study ; and any English reader can find most com- petent information about it in the great writers on the subject ; and as to an original familiarity with antiquity, not a half a dozen of men ever attain it in any country. A noted Oxonian scholar, in his address before the British Association, says that educators com- plain of the indifference of all classes for educa- tional opportunities offered them in all sorts of higher and lower institutions. And true it is, he continues, university professors would lecture to benches literally empty, were it not that the pen- sions attached to scholarships attracted students to the universities. But educationalists forget that, though parents esteem Education, their chief care is to bring up their children that they shall be able to provide for themselves ; and, hence, if schools will not teach and train scholars for their future vocation, but insist upon making the critical, gram- matical and literary feature of the old schools the ruling tendency of our present Education, the hard- working, matter-of-fact world of to-day will entirely turn its back upon them. Classical students pretend to be a privileged class of scholars, and use Latin and Greek as the badge of the aristocratic order, when, in fact, their Latin and Greek amounts to little more than nothing. Classical and Scientific Education. 309 Would we pardon the arrogance of a German or Italian, who maintained that we cannot be men of culture without studying his literature ? And is it less stupid in a Latin or Greek scholar to maintain that we cannot be men of the finest cul- ture without going to school to Rome or Greece ? Is the book of nature written by the hand of in- finite power and wisdom, and is our own history and literature not instructive, refining and suggestive enough for us, and every way more useful and full of great issues, than the half-understood crudities of Greek and Latin books ? Has our modern civilization developed no new ideas and principles to which the ancients were strangers ? Is humanity so poor that it cannot develop itself on nature, industry and nationality, but is utterly lost without Latin and Greek ? And still men will boast upon the superiority of Christian civilization ! Is it not enough that we are denationalized by a constant stream of men of all nations flowing in upon us? Must the school, too, tear us from our own soil and take us to Rome and Greece to make of us anything but what we are by our own past history? Should not our public schools deepen our national feeling and nurse our souls with the life, work and words of our own poets, authors and statesmen ? 310 Classical and Scientific Education* Or are we so poor that we have none good enough in our own history and nation who could serve as models to our children ? People, of course, will study Sanscrit, Zend and Arabic, and so they may Latin and Greek ; but the imposition is to force any of these languages upon our children as a thing indispensable to culture, and deprive them of the study of science, industry and their own, perhaps equally excellent, if not superior, litera- ture. By introducing Latin into our high schools we exclude practically from them the industrial classes, who have neither leisure nor taste for such studies. Latin has for ages, like an impenetrable barrier, separated the educated class from the common people. Do we want to build up this wall again ? Is it not more in keeping with our civilization to make our own tongue the sole medium of science and literature, that it may be the harbinger of cul- ture and refinement to the lowliest hut in the land as to the proudest palace ? That the Greeks had a monopoly of ideal culture, which is only to be acquired by the study of their literature, is simply preposterous. Ideal men had never any more an existence than ideal trees or animals. Only science, or the knowledge of the laws of nature and of common things and the literature Classical and Scientific Educaticn. 3 1 1 of the land, can reach all and be the means of uni- versal culture and prosperity ; and, hence, the importance of schools of science and industry, which are nurseries of national intelligence and greatness. Mere grammar schools will never avert from the nation the dangers threatening it from the growing power of Romanism. Only science schools accus- toming people to reason from the observation of solid things, can secure us from the perils arising from a priesthood that, under the guise of spiritual rule, has owned and controlled the thoughtless of all ages. General principles and philosophy are also a very unsafe guide, and even a dangerous one, if they do not rest upon the safe basis of scientific knowledge. Beside, we cannot understand the spirit of our own time nor choose the right means for achieving our own purposes without a knowledge of the ele- ments of science, industry and social philosophy. The Church fashioned our old institutions, and as she is the only road to heaven and the saints lived in her early days, so is Latin the only way to hu- man culture and only the ancients were perfect. The modern culture, with its new elements of free- dom, industry and commerce, is the mother of our new schools of science and industry for the masses, 312 Classical arid Scientific Education. and their deliverance from ignorance and its thral- dom. It ill becomes the realistic Greek student to charge science with materialistic tendencies. It is through matter the spirit manifests itself. Material elements have often a great moral significance. What would become of modern civilization if it were deprived of coal, cotton or iron ? Industry is to culture and civilization what the body is to the soul. Industry, far from materializing us, forces us to the study of the laws and relations of nature, her products, the methods of gaining, treating and pre- paring them for the wants of men, and fosters the knowledge of the laws and conditions of nations with whom we are brought in contact. There is not an occupation — and if it were break- ing stones on the road — but affects ultimately the state and the very constitution of society. Industry, through the creation of wealth and the distribution of property, becomes the mother of civilization. Industry is progressive, promotes peace, favors labor — the condition of order — and science — the basis of its progress — as well as the higher arts, which alone satisfy increased wealth. Schools of science educate us for life and indus- try. It is hard to say what Latin and Greek edu- Classical and Scientific Education, 313 cate us for. Or are we to take this very uselessness for ideality ? The achievements of science and industry are countless. Every day is marked by some new dis- covery, be it the compass, the telescope, the spec- troscope, the telephone, the power-loom, the steam engine, the locomotive, the sewing machine or the mower and reaper. Chemistry opens the way to the very heart of nature and leads to every profit- able manufacture ; its elements are the alphabet by which we may read every page in the book of nature. Geology discloses to us the past, as astron- omy does the future. What has Latin and Greek to put beside all this? We admit that the very remains of the ancient life of man are imbedded in old linguistic strata, and that the history and development of language are the history of the race and of the human mind. But what has the miserable Latin and Greek of the schools to do with the science of language and its history ? Almost seventy years ago Sidney Smith scourged classical pedants with his caustic wit, and said, they bring us up as if we were all to become village school teachers and spend our lives in declinating nouns and conjugating verbs. They despise the science of things and the knowledge of human affairs, and dignify their Latin and Greek stuff with the name of erudition. 14 314 Classical and Scientific Education. The learning of a language, beside the vernacular, may bring clearly and distinctly before the mind every idea expressed in human language, assist in • clear, exact and vigorous thinking, and Hevelops the highly important power of abstract thought. But all this may be achieved just as well by learn- ing a living language, and even much better than by a dead one. Once the privileged few sought in school a sort of diplomatic shrewdness; and the impenetrable Latin fog made "them appear to the masses like demi-gods. To-day, when the people rule, and private as well as public expenditure is large, some- thing more than mere shrewdness, make-believe and grand phrase — science, that increases and improves production, is looked for in schools. The masses cannot bend over books. The gen- eral fine taste of the Greeks was due to the element of culture in their public institutions ; and univer- sal culture among us is only possible if the industries in which we all are engaged assume the character of art and science, and become thereby a school of culture for us all, as public life was for the Greeks. Once life was monotonous and the imagination needed a stimulation word-culture afforded. To- day life is only too exciting, and nothing but sober science can bestow what is wanted — prosperity, the basis of universal civilization. Classical and Scientific Education. 315 We, too, had for many years neither eyes nor ears for anything but the poetry of the ages and the dreams of philosophy. Arabic and Sanskrit trifles, like Latin, Greek and other literary trash came all in for their share of our attention. And to-day we freely confess, had we less indulged in idle curiosity and literary vanity, but by washing and combing a few forlorn boys, made of them decent members of society, the world would have .been the gainer, and we should have lost nothing by it. Men seem to escape one error only to fall into another. We have no more faith in the jargon of the creeds, but put our trust in the jargon of the schools, and men neglecting to do the good work at their door think to lay the world and civilization under obligation by talking about Arabic and Sanskrit. Our classical students have much to say about a formal ideal culture and the beautiful. But are these grammatical pedants not notoriously awkward in their taste ? And is the genius for art and the beautiful not rather an inspiration than a scholastic acquisition ? Is not the flood of grammatical, archaeological, mythological and literary notices accompanying every line of the classics sufficient to destroy all poetic charm ? And what can a tyro in the ancient 316 Classical and Scientific Education. languages know of the beauties of an author of whom he has read but a few scraps ? We leave it to the judgment of anybody, what is more apt to develop formal ideal culture, a heap of arbitrary grammatical observations or the study of nature, which is a systematic series of interde- pendent relations and an organic whole, every part of which is the embodiment of a beautiful law. Or does the formation of the root, branch, leaf, bud and flower in a plant and its contemplation not; contribute as much to the ideal and formal culture of the student as the memorizing of the prefixes and suffixes of declensions and conjugations ? How utterly false is the assertion that the study of the material world is less rich and suggestive than the so-called humanistic studies. The simplest mineral, beside its physical proper- ties and uses, leads us to the contemplation of its chemical composition and geological relations, and thus carries us back to the past history of the globe. But when we consider that nothing in the state, religion or life of the ancients, their slavery, gladi- ators, unmentionable vices, cruel tyrannies, etc* comport with our taste and civilization, can it be wholesome for the heart and mind of the student to attach himself to the classic phrase which, what- ever its form may be, is substantially ignoble ? How infinite, rich and real are the laws and ob- "4 Classical and Scientific Edutatio\ '•