Submitted f«- ExaojjR.'
THE WHITAKER \ nw CO.
GILDERSLEEVE'S
LATIN^ QKAMMAE
THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED
BY
B. L. GILDERSLEEVE
PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY
AND
GONZALEZ LODGE
PROFESSOR OF LATIN IN BRTN MAWR COLLEGE
UNIVERSITY PUBLISHING COMPANY
NEW YORK BOSTON NEW ORLEANS
AND LONDON
1900
Copyright, 18^4, by
UNIVERSITY PUBLISHING CO,
Entered at Stationers' Hall
«*♦ 2204
Press of J. J. Little & Co.
Astor Place, New York
PREFACE.
In the preparation of this third edition of Gilder-
SLEEVE^s Latin Grammar, the office of the senior collabo-
rator has been chiefly advisory, except in the Syntax. In
the Syntax, Professor Lodge is responsible for nearly every-
thing that pertains to the history of usage, but for all
deviations from the theory of the old grammar we bear a
joint responsibility. During the progress of the work we
have been cheered and aided by the encouragement and
advice of distinguished scholars and experienced teachers,
and whereas the Preface of the old grammar mentioned
but two faithful helpers, Professor Thomas R. Price and
Professor William E. Peters, the present work has had
the advantage of liberal cooperation.
Especial acknowledgment must be made of the attention
paid to every detail by W. Gordon McCabe, Esq., Head-
master of the University School, Richmond, Va., himself a
Latinist of exact and penetrating scholarship, and by his
accomplished assistant, Mr. 0. W. Bain. Professor Minton
Warren, of the Johns Hopkins University, has lent us
the aid of his wide and accurate knowledge of the history
of the Latin language, and Professor Chapman Maupin,
one of the revisers of Gilderslep^ve's Latin Primer,
has given us the benefit of his practical experience and
his acute observation. Professor E. M. Pease, of Leland
Stanford Junior University, whose removal to the distant
AVest interrupted a collaboration which promised valuable
results, has, in spite of his arduous labors as teacher and
editor, put at our service his notes on the Grammar of 1872.
Among the scholars who have read the book in proof
or advance sheets, and who have suggested improvements
Rn7453
IV PREFACE.
here and corrections there^, we would gratefully mention
Principal Bajs^croft, of Phillips Andover Academy, Presi-
dent Jesse, of the University of Missouri, Professor M. W.
Humphreys, of the University of Virginia, E. W. Tun-
stall, M.A., of Norfolk, Va., Professor Wm. C. Lawton",
of Philadelphia, Professor W. P. Mustard, of Haverford
College, Professor J. E. Goodrich, of the University of
Vermont, Professor Jas. H. Dillard, of Tulane University,
and Professor J. W. Redway, of New York. Finally we
desire to express our joint thanks to Dr. C. W. E. Miller,
Associate of the Johns Hopkins University, who has laid us
both under especial obligations by his careful studies in the
difficult chapter of Versification.
As in the Preface to the old grammar, so in the Preface
to the new, it is considered out of place to enlarge on the
excellence of the methods followed ; but as the new gram-
mar embraces a multitude of details that were not taken up
in the old grammar, it has been thought fit that Professor
Lodge should indicate the sources of the notes with which
he has enriched a manual that has held its modest place for
more than a quarter of a cei^tury.
B. L. Gildersleevb,
. _^^ Gonzalez Lodge.
August 1, 1894.
The following supplementary note may serve io embody a partial
bibliography of the more important works used in this revision, and
some necessary explanations of the method :
Fairly complete bibliographies of works on Latin Etymology
and Syntax may be found in Reisig's Vorlesungen uber lateinische
Spr'achnrissenschaft (new edition, by Hagen, Schmalz, and Landgraf,
1881-1888), and in the Lateinische Grammatik of Stolz and Schmalz
(in MtJLLER's Handbuch der klassisehen AUertumsunssenschaft; 2d
edition, 1800). Important also are the Grammars of/KiJHNER (1877,
1878)* and Roby (1881, 1882); though many statements in both, but
especially in the former, must be corrected in the light of more recent
study. Some indications of more modern theories may be found in
* A new Historical Grammar, by Stolz, Schmalz, Landgraf, and Wagener, was
announced by Teubner in 1891.
PREFACE. V
the Uriduterungen zur lateinischen Qrammatilc of Deecke (1893).
Many matters of importance both in Etymology and Syntax are
treated in the Archiv fur lateinisclie Lexihographie, and the construc-
tions with individual words are often well discussed in Krebs' Anti-
barbarus der lateinischen Sprache (fitli edition, by Schmalz, 1886).
For the accentuation and pronunciation of Latin we have also
Corssen's Aussprache, Vocalismus und Betonung der lateinischen
Sprache (1868, 1870), and Seelmann's Die Aussprache des Latein (1885).
For the Etymology we must refer to Bijcheler's Grundriss der
lateinischeii Declination (2d edition, by Wixdekilde, 1879) and to
Schweizer-Sidler's Lateinisclie Grammatik (1888) ; also to many
articles in various journals, most of which are given by Stolz. Indis-
pensable is Neue's Formenlehre der lateinischen Sprache, of which the
second volume of the third edition has already appeared (1893) and the
first parts of the third volume (1894), under the careful revision of
Waoener; also Georges' Lexikon der lateinischen Wortformen (1890).
For the Formation of Words and the relation of Latin forms to those
of the related languages we have Henry's Precis de Grammaire Com-
paree and Brugmann's Grundriss der vergleichenden Gra7nmatik, both
now accessible in translations. On these, in connection with Schweizer-
SiDLER, the chapter on the Formation of Words has been based.
In the historical treatment of the Syntax we must still rely in large
measure on Draeger's Historische Syntax der lateinischen Sprache
(2d edition, 1878, 1881), faulty and inaccurate though it often is :
many of the false statements have been corrected on the basis of more
recent individual studies by Schmalz ; but even Schmalz is not always
correct, and many statements of his treatise have been silently emended
in the present book. For the theoretical study of some problems of
Latin Syntax IIaase's Vorlesnugen uber lateinisclie Sprachivissenschaft
(1880) should not be overlooked. Since the appearance of the second
edition of Schmalz, in 1890, considerable progress has been made in
the various journals and other publications, as may be seen from
Deecke's summary in Bursian's Jahresbericht for 18913. Every etfort
has been made to incorporate in this grammar the main results of
these studies as far as practicable. We may also draw attention to
the following important articles, among others, some of which are
mentioned in the books above referred to :
Wolfflin's numerous articles in the ^rcA*v;^HiELMANN's articles
in the Archiv on habgre with Perfect Participle Passive, and on the
Reciprocal Relation ;i^jANDgraf's articles on the Figura Etyinologica,
in the second volume of the Acta Seminarii Erlaiigensis, and on the
Future Participle and the Final Dative, in the A/*c/ify,-^lALE's treatise
on The Cum Constructions, attacking the theories ofjIIoFFMANN (Latein-
ische Zeitpartikehi, 1874) ancWLtJUBEiiT {Die Syntax von Quom, 1869);
VI PREFACE.
Hoffmann's reply to Hale (1891), and Wetzel's Der Streit zmischen
Hoffmann und Hale (1892)rC>AHL's Die laieinische Partikel ut (1882),
withrGrUTJAHR-PROBST's Der Gebrauch von nt bei Tere7iz (1888) ,^Zim-
mermann's article on quod und quia im dlteren Latein (1880)-^cherer's
article on quando, in Stiidemund's Studien ; Morris's articles on the
Sentence Question in Flautus and Terence in the A.J. P. (vols. x. and
xi.) ; Hale's articles on the Sequence of Tenses in the A.J. P. (vols. viii.
and ix.), containing a discussion of the earlier Literature ; Elmer's
articles on the Latin Prohibitive in A.J. P. (vol. xv.)
A bibliography of the treatises on Prosody and Versification may
be found in Gleditsch's treatise in the second volume of Muller's
Handbuch ; this, with Plessis' Metrique Orecque et Latine (1889), has
been made tlie basis of the chapter on Prosody ; but in the treatment
of early metres, regard has been had to Klotz (Altromische Metrik,
1890), and to Lindsay's recent papers on the Saturnian in the A. J. P.
(vol. xiv.). In the matter of the order of words we have followed
r* Weil's treatise on the Order of Words, translated by Super (1887).
The question of the correct measurement of hidden quantities is
still an unsettled one in Latin ; for the sake of consistency the usage
of Marx, HiJUfshuchlein fur die Aussprache der lateinischen Vokale
%n posit ionslangen Silben (2d edition, 1889) has been followed.
The quotations have been made throughout from the Teubner Text
editions except as follows : Plautus is cited from the Triumvirate
edition of Ritschl ; Vergil from the Editio Maior of Ribbeck ; Ovid
and Terence from the Tauchnitz Texts ; Horace from the Editio Minor
of Keller and Holder ; Lucretius from the edition of Munro;
Ennius and Luciliiis from the editions of L. MUller ; fragmentary
Scenic Poets from the edition of Ribbeck. Special care has been
taken to make the quotations exact both in spelling and wording ; and
any variation in the spelling of individual words is therefore due to
the texts from which the examples are drawn.
Where it has been necessary to modify the quotations in order to
make them suitable for citation, we have enclosed within square
brackets words occurring in different form in the text, and in paren-
theses words that have been i ii.se rted ; wliere the passage would not
yield to such treatment, Cf. has been inserted before the reference.
We have not thought it necessary to add the references in the Prosody
except in the case of some of tlie citations from early Latin.
In the spelling of Latin words used out of quotation, as a rule u
and V have been followed by o rather than by u ; but here the require-
ments of clearness and the period of the language have often been
allowed to weigh. Otherwise we have followed in the main Bram-
bach's IMfsbuchlein fUr laieinische Rechtschreibung (translation by
McCabe, 1877). ' G. L.
CONTENTS.
ETYMOLOGY.
SECTION
lietters and Syllables 1-15
Alphabet, 1; Vowels, 2, 3; Diphthongs, 4; Conso-
nants, 6, 7 ; Phonetic Variations, 8, 9; Syllables, 10,
11 ; Quantity, 12-14 ; Accentuation, 15.
Parts of Speech 16
Inflection of the Substantive 17-71
Definitions, 18 ; Gender, 19-21 ; Number, 22 ;
Cases, 23-25 ; Declensions, 36 ; Endings, 27 ; First
Declension, 29, 30 ; Second Declension, 31-34 ; Third
Declension, 35-60 ; Fourth Declension, 61, 62 ; Fifth
Declension, 63, 64 ; Greek Substantives, 65, 66 ; Ir-
regular Substantives, 67-71.
Inflection of the Adjective 72-90
Definition, 72 ; First and Second Declension, 73-
76; Pronominal Adjectives, 76; Third Declension,
77-83 ; Irregular Adjectives, 84, 85 ; Comparison of
Adjectives, 86-90.
Adverbs 91-93
Formation of Adverbs, 91, 92 ; Comparison, 93. '
Numerals 94-98
Cardinals, 94 ; Ordinals, 94 ; Distributives, 97 ;
Adverbs, 98.
Pronouns 99-111
Personal, 100-102 ; Determinative, 103 ; Demon-
strative, 104 ; Relative, 105 ; Interrogative, 106 ; In-
definites, 107; Adjectives, 108; Correlative, 109-111.
Inflection of the Verb 112-175
Definitions, 112, 113; Endings, 114, 115; Inflection
of esse, 116, 117; of prSdesse, 118; of posse, 119. Reg-
ular Verbs, 120-167; Division, 120; Rules for forming
Tenses, 121. First Conjugation, 122; Second Conju-
gation, 123, 124; Third Conjugation, 125, 126; Fourth
Vlll CONTENTS.
SECTION
Conjugation, 127 ; Deponents, 138 ; Periphrastic,
129; Notes, 130, 131. Formation of the Stems, 132-
135; Change in Conjugation, 136; List of Verbs,
137-1G7. Irregular Verbs, 168-174; ire, 169, 2; quire,
nequire, 170; ferre, 171; edere, 172; fieri, 173; velle,
nolle, malle, 174; Defective Verbs, 175.
Formation of Words 176-200
Simple Words, 179-192; Substantives, 180, 181;
Adjectives, 182; Substantives without Suffixes, 183;
Suffixes, 184-189; Verbs, 190-192 ; Compound Words,
193-200; Substantives, 194-198; Verbs, 199,200.
SYNTAX.
Simple Sentence 202-471
Subject, 203, 204; Predicate, 205-209; Concord,
210, 211; Voices, 212-221. Tenses, 222-252; Present,
227-230; Imperfect, 231-234; Perfect, 235-240; Plu-
perfect, 241; Future, 242, 243; Future Perfect, 244,
245; Periphrastic, 246-251; Tenses in Letters, 252.
Moods, 253-283; Indicative, 254; Subjunctive, 255-
265 ; Imperative, 266-275 ; Tenses in Moods and Verbal
Substantives, 276-283.
Simple Sentence Expanded 284-471
Multiplication of the Subject 285-287
Qualification of the Subject 288-325
Adjectives, 289-303; Numerals, 292-295; Compara-
tives and Superlatives, 296-303; Pronouns, 304-319;
Personal, 304; Demonstrative, 305-307; Determina-
tive and Reflexive, 308-311; Possessive, 312 • Indefi-
nite, 313-319; Apposition, 320-325; Predicative Attri-
bution and Apposition, 325.
Multiplication of Predicate 386
Qualification of Predicate 327-449
The Cases 328-418
Accusative, 328-343; Dative, 344-359; Genitive,
360-383; Ablative, 384-410; Locative, 411; Preposi-
tions, 412-418; with Accusative, 416; with Ablative,
417; with Accusative and Ablative, 418.
Infinitive 419-424
Subject, 422; Object, 423; Predicate, 424.
CONTENTS. IX
SECTION
Gerund and Gerundive 425-433
Genitive, 428; Dative, 429; Accusative, 430; Abla-
tive, 431 ; with Prepositions, 432, 433.
Supine 434-436
Accusative, 435; Ablative, 436.
Participles 437, 438
Adverbs 439-449
Negatives, 441-449.
Incomplete (Interrogative) Sentence 450-471
Direct Simple Questions, 453-457; Direct Disjunc-
tive Questions, 458, 459 ; Indirect Questions, 460;
Moods in Direct, 462-466 ; Moods in Indirect, 467.
Compound Sentence . 472-670
Coordinate Sentence 473-503
Copulative, 474-482; Adversative, 483-491 ; Dis-
junctive, 492-497; Causal and Illative, 498-503.
Subordinate Sentences 504-670
Moods in, 508; Sequence of Tenses, 509-519; Re-
flexive in, 520-522.
Object Sentences 523-537
Introduced by quod, 524, 525 ; in Accusative and
Infinitive, 526, 527, 532-535; in Nominative and
Infinitive, 528; in Participle, 536, 537.
Causal Sentences 538-542
Introduced by quod, quia, etc., 539-541 ; by quod,
with verbs of Emotion, 542.
Sentences of Design and Tendency ... . ^ . 543-558
Final, 544-550; Pure Final, 545; Complementary
Final, 546-549; After verbs of Fear, 550.
Consecutive, 551; Pure Consecutive, 552; Comple-
mentary Consecutive, 553-557; Exclamatory Ques-
tions, 558.
Temporal Sentences 559-588
Antecedent Action, 561-567; Iterative Action, 566,
567; Contemporaneous Action, 568-573; Subsequent
Action, 574-577 ; Sentences with cum, 578-588.
Conditional Sentences 589-602
Logical, 595; Ideal, 596; Unreal, 597; Incomplete,
598-601 ; Of Comparison, 602.
Concessive Sentences 603-609
X CONTENTS.
SECTION
Relative Sentences 610-637
Concord, 614-621 ; Tenses, 622, 623 ; Moods, 624-
637.
Comparative Sentences 638-644
Correlative, 642 ; with atque or ac, 643 ; with quam,
644.
The Abridged Sentence 645-663
Historical Infinitive, 647 ; Oratio Obliqua, 648 ;
Moods in, 650-652; Tenses in, 653-655; Conditional
Sentences in, 656-659 ; Pronouns, 660 ; Partial Ob-
liquity, 662, 663.
Participial Sentences 664-670
Arrangement of Words and Clauses . . . . 671-687
Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric 688-700
Principal Rules of Syntax . . .Pp. 437-444
PROSODY.
Quantity 702-717
General Rules, 702-706 ; of Final Syllables, 707-
713; of Stem Syllables, 714 ; of Compounds, 715 ; in
Early Latin, 716, 717.
Figures of Prosody 718-738
Versification 729-827
Definition, 729-754; Versus Italicus, 755; Saturnian
Verse, 756 ; Iambic Rhythms, 757-767; Trochaic
Rhythms, 768-776 ; Anapaestic Rhythms, 777-782;
Dactylic Rhythms, 783-789 ; Logaoedic Rhythms,
790-805 ; Cretic and Bacchic Rhythms, 806-814 ;
Ionic Rhythms, 815-819 ; Compound Verses, 820-
823 ; Cantica, 824, 825 ; Metres of Horace, 826, 827.
PAGES
Appendix 491-493
Roman Calendar, Roman Weights and Measures,
Roman Money, Roman Names.
Index of Verbs 494-502
General Index o . . . 503-546
LATIN GRAMMAR.
ETYMOLOGY.
Alphabet.
1. The Latin alphabet has twenty-three letters :
abcdefghiklmnopqrstvxy;^
Remarks. — i. The sounds represented by C and K were originally
distinct, C having the sound of G, but they gradually approximated
each other, until C supplanted K except in a few words, such as
Kalendae, Kaes5, which were usually abbreviated, Kal., K. The orig-
inal force of is retained only in C. (for Gaius) and Cn. (for Gnaeus).
2. J, the consonantal form of I, dates from the middle ages. V repre-
sented also the vowel u in the Latin alphabet ; and its resolution into
two letters — V for the consonant, and U for the vowel — also dates from
the middle ages. For convenience, V and U are still distinguished in
this grammar.
3. Y and Z were introduced in the time of Cicero to transliterate
Greek v and X,. In early Latin v was represented by u (occasionally
by i or oi), and \ by ss or s. Z had occurred in the earliest times, but
had been lost, and its place in the alphabet taken by G, which was
introduced after C acquired the sound of K.
Note.— The Latin names for the letters Avere : a, be, ce, de, e, ef, ge, ha, i, ka, el,
em, en, 0, pe, qu (= cu), er, es, te, u, ex (ix), to be pronounced according to the
rules given in 3, 7. For Y the sound was used, for Z the Greeii name (zeta).
Vowels.
2. The vowels are a, e, i, 0, u, (y) ; and are divided :
1. According to their quality {i. e., the position of the organs used
in pronunciation), into
guttural (or back), a, 0, u ; palatal (or front), e, i, (y).
2. According to their quaiitity or prolongation (^. e., the time
required for pronunciation), into
long, ( — ) ; short, ( -^ ).
2 VOWELS — DIPHTHOi^GS — CONSONANTS.
Remark. — Vowels whose .^ndr.tiLy shifts in poetry are called com-
mon (see 13);. aod, are .distinguished thus :
^■^> by, jrre'^ereyee ^J\orf-j , • ^ by prefei-ence hmg.
3. Sounds of the Vowels.
a = a in father. = o in bone.
5 = e in prey. u = oo in moon,
i = i in caprice. y = u in sur (French), German ii.
Eemark. — The short sounds are only less prolonged in pronuncia-
tion than the long sounds, and have no exact English equivalents.
Diphthongs.
4. There are but few diphthongs or double sounds in Latin. The
theory of the diphthong requires that both elements be heard in a slur.
The tendency in Latin was to reduce diphthongs to simple sounds ;
for example, in the last century of the republic ae was gliding into e,
which took its place completely in the third century A. D, Hence
arose frequent variations in spelling : as glaeba and gleba, sod; so
oboedire and obedire, obey ; faenum (foenum) and fSnum, hay.
ae = aye (S,h-eh). ei = ei in femt (drawled).
oe =: oy in hoy. eu = eu in Spanish dewda (Sli-oo).
au = ou in ouw (ui = we, almost).
Note.— Before the time of the Gracchi we find ai and oi instead of ae and oe.
5. The sign •• (Diceresis — Greek=separatiou) o\er the second vowel
shows that each sound is to be pronounced separately : S6r, air ;
Oenomatis, aloS.
Consonants.
6. Consonants are divided :
1. According to the principal organs by which they are pronounced,
into
Labials (lip-sounds): b, p, (ph), f, v, m.
Dentals (tooth-sounds): d, t, (th), 1, n, r, s.
Gutturals (throat-sounds) : g, c, k, qu, (ch), h, n (see 7).
Note.— Instead of dental and guttural, the terms lingual and palatal are often used
2. According to their pro/o^j^ra^tow, into
A. Semi-voivels : of which
1, m, n, r, are liquids (m and n being nasals),
h is a breathing.
• is a sibilant.
CONSONANTS — PHONETIC VARIATIONS.
B. Mutes: to which belong
P-mutes, p, b, (ph), i
; labials.
T-rautes, t, d, (th),
dentals.
K-mutes, k, c, qu, g, (ch),
gutturals.
Those on the same line are said to be of the same organ.
Mutes are further divided into
Tenu6s (thin, smooth): p, t, k, c, qu, Aar^Z (surd).
Mediae (middle) : b, d, g, soft (sonant).
[Aspiratae (aspirate, rough): ph, tb, cb,] aspirate.
Those on tlie same line are said to be of the same order.
The aspirates were introduced in the latter part of the second cen-
tury B. C. in the transliteration of Greek words, and thence extended to
some pure Latin words ; as, pulcber, Gracchus.
3. Double consonants are : z — dz in adze ; x = cs (ks), gs ; i and u
between two vowels are double sounds, half vowel, half consonant.
Sounds of the Consonants.
7. The consonants are sounded as in English, with the following
exceptions :
C is hard throughout = k.
Cb is not a genuine Latin combination (6, 2). In Latin words it is a
k ; in Greek words a kh, commonly pronounced as cb in German.
G is hard throughout, as in get, give.
H at the beginning of a word is but slightly pronounced ; in the
middle of a word it is almost imperceptible.
I consonant (J) has the sound of a broad y ; nearly like y in yule.
N has a guttural nasal sound before c, g, q, as in a^ichor, anguish.
Qu = kw (nearly) ; before 0, qu = c. In early Latin qu was not fol-
lowed by u. Later, when was weakened to u, qu was replaced by c ;
thus quom became cum. Still later qu replaced c, yielding quum.
K is trilled.
S and X are always hard, as in hiss. aa;e.
T is hard throughout; never like t in nation.
U consonant (V) is pronounced like the vowel, but with a slur. In
the third century A. D. it had nearly the sound of our w. In Greek it
was frequently transliterated by Ov ; so OvaX^pios = Valerius.
Phonetic Variations in Vowels and Consonants.
8, Vowels.
I. Weakening. — In the formation of words from roots or stems
short vowels show a tendency to weaken ; that is, a tends to become e
4 PHOXETIC VARIATION'S.
and then i, or o and then u, while o tends towards e or i, and n towards i,
This occurs most frequently in compound words, to a less degree in
words formed by suffixes. Diphthongs are less frequently weakened
and long vowels very rarely. The principal rules for these changes are
as follows, but it must be remembered that to all there are more or less
frequent exceptions :
A.— I. In the second part of compound words, and in reduplicated
words, the root-vowel k is weakened to 6, which usually passes over
into 1 in open syllables (11, r.), and often to u before 1 and labial
mutes : con-scendo (scando) ; con-cido (cado) ; dS-sulto (salto) ; fefelli (fallo).
2. As final vowel of the stem k is weakened in the first part of a com-
pound word, usually to i, rarely to 6 or u: aquili-fer (aquila-); causi-dicus
(causa-). 3. In or before suffixes, & becomes i : domi-tus (doma-).
Note.— A frequently resists change, especially in verbs of the First and Second
Conjugations : as, sS-parare (parare) ; circmn-iac6re (iac6re) ; so satis-facere
(facere) and others.
E. — I. In the second part of compound words, root vowel 6 is usu-
ally retained in a close (11, R.) syllable, and weakened to i in an open
syllable ; but it is invariably retained before r: In-flecto (flectO); ob^
tineo (teneo); ad-verto (verto). 2. In or before suffixes, and in the final
syllable of a word, it also becomes i : geni-tor (gene-) ; un-decim (decern).
I. — At the end of a word i is changed to 6 : mare (marl).
0. — I. In composition final stem -vowel 6 is usually weakened to i ;
before labials sometimes to ii : agri-cola (agro-) ; auru-fex (usually anri-
fex). 2. In sullixcs, and in final syllables, it is weakened to i : amici-tia
(amico-) ; gracili-s (also gracilu-s).
TJ. — In composition final ^l(nn-vowel il is usually weakened to I;
the same weakening occuis sometimes within a word or l)e fore a suffix :
mani-fSstus (also manxi-fSstus) ; lacrima (early lacrtima).
AE, ATI. — In tlio second part of a compound word root-diphthong ae
is usually weakened to I, but often there is no change ; au is occasion-
ally changed to ii : ex-qulr3 (quaero) ; con-clfldO (claud5).
2. Omission. — Vowels are fre(juently omitted both in simple and
comj)ound words, either within the woi-d {si/ncope) or at tlie end {apo-
cope) : dextera and dextra ; princeps (for primceps, from prlmiceps) ; pergO
(for perregS) ; ut (uti) ; neu (n6ve).
3. Epenthesis. — Vowels are sometimes inserted to ease the pronun-
ciation, but usually before liquids or in foreign words : ager (agro-)
see 31 ; DaphinS (= DaphnS) ; drachuma (= drachma).
4. Assimitation. — Two vowels in adjoining syllables tend to become
like each other; tins assimilation is usually regressive {%. e., of the
first to the second), especially when 1 separates them : it is rarely pro-
gressive. Compare facilis with facul, familia with famulus, bene with bonus.
PHONETIC VARIATIONS. 5
5. A vowel before a liquid tends to become u, less often or e :
adulgscgns and adolgsc6ns ; vulgus and volgus ; decumus (decern) ; com-
pare tempus with temporis ; peperi (from pario), etc.
9. Consonants.
1. Assimilation. — When two consonants come together in Latin,
they tend to assimilate one to the other. This assimilation is nsii-
ally regressive ; sometimes it is progressive. It is either complete, that
is, the two consonants become the same ; or partial, that is, the one
is made of the same order or same organ as the other. These changes
occur both in inflection and in composition, but they are especially
noteworthy in the last consonant of prepositions in composition.
Scrip-tum for scrib-tum (regressive partial) ; ac-c6dere for ad-cSdere
(regressive complete) ; cur-sum for cur-tum (progressive partial) ; celer-
rimus for celer-simus (progressive complete).
2. Partial Assimilation. — (a) The sonants g and b, before the surd t,
or the sibilant s, often become surds (c, p ) ; the surds p, c, t before
liquids sometimes become sonants (b, g, d) ; the labials p, b before n
become m; the labial m before the gutturals c, q, g, h, i (j), the dentals
t, d, s, and the labials f, v, becomes n ; the dental n before labials p, b,
m, becomes m ; rSc-tum (for rSg-tum) ; scrip-si (for scrib-si) ; seg-mentum
(for sec-mentum) ; som-nus (for sop-nus) ; prin-ceps (foi- prim-ceps).
Note.— Similar is the change of q (qu) to c before t or s ; coc-tum (for coqu-tum).
(&) After 1 and r, t of the suffixes tor, tus, turn, becomes s by progres-
sive assimilation : cur-sum (for cur-tum).
3. Complete Assimilation. — There are many varieties, but the most
important principle is that a mute or a liquid tends to assimilate to
a liquid and to a sibilant : puella (puer) ; cur-rere (for cur-sere) ; c6s-si
(for ced-si) ; corolla (corona), etc,
4. Prepositions. — Ab takes the form a before m or v, and in a-fui ;
appears as au in au-fero, au-fugio ; as abs before c, t ; as as before
p. Ad is assimilated before c, g, 1, p, r, s, t, with more or less
regularity ; before gn, sp, sc, st, it often appears as a. Ante appears
rarely as anti. Cum appears as com before b, m, p ; con before c, d, f, g,
A, q, s, V ; co before gn, n ; assimilated sometimes before 1 and r. Ex
becomes 6 before b, d, g, i (j), 1, m, n, r, v ; ef or ec, before f. In usually
becomes im before b, m, p ; before 1, r it is occasionally assimilated ;
the same holds good of the negative prefix in. Ob is usually assimi-
lated before c, f, g, p ; appears as in o-mitto, o-perio, obs in obs-olesc5,
and OS in ostendo. Sub is assimilated before c, f, g, p, r ; appears as sus
in a few words, as sus-cipi5 ; occasionally su before s, as su-spici5. Trans
sometimes becomes tra before d, i ( j), n ; tran before s. Amb- (insepa-
rable) loses b before a consonant, and am is sometimes assimilated. Cir-
cum sometimes drops m before i. Dis becomes dif before f j dir before a
6 PHONETIC VARIATIONS — SYLLABLES.
vowel ; dl before consonants, except c, p, q, t, s, followed by a vowel,
when it is usually unchanged. The d of red and s6d is usually dropped
before consonants.
Note.— In early Latin assimilation is much less common than in the classical
period.
5. Dissimilation. — To avoid the harshness of sound when twd sylla-
bles begin with the same letter, the initial letter of the one is often
changed ; this is true especially of liquids, but occasionally ot other
letters : singu-la-ris (for singu-la-lis) ; meri-di6 (for medi-dig).
Note.— This principle often regulates the use of -brum or -bulum, and of -crum
or -culum in word formation (181, 6) : compare perlculum with simulacrum.
6. Omission. — («) When a word closes with a doubled consonant or
a group of consonants, the final consonant is regularly dropped in
Latin ; sometimes after the preceding consonant has been assimilated
to it. In the middle of a word, after a long syllable, ss and 11 are sim-
plified ; 11 is sometimes simplified after a short vowel, which is then
lengthened if the syllable is accented {compe7isatory lengthening) ; but
if the syllable is unaccented, such lengthening need not take place. In
this case other doubled consonants may also be simplified.
fel (for fell) ; lac (for lact) ; vigil (for vigils) ; lapis (for lapid-s, lapiss) ;
misi (for mIs-si) ; villa and vilicus ; but currus and curulis.
Note.— X is retained, even after 1 and r, as in calx, arx ; also ps, bs, as in stirps,
tubs ; ms is found in hiems only.
{h) In the tendency to easier pronunciation consonants are often
dropped both at the beginning and in the middle of a word :
stimulus (for stigmulus) ; pastor (for pasctor) ; aiS (for ahiS) ; natus (for
gnatus, retained in early Latin, rarely later); latus (for tlatus), etc.
7. Epenthesis. — Between m and 1, m and s, m and t, a p is generated :
ez-em-p-lum (ex-im6) ; cQm-p-si (c5m5) ; 6m-p-tus (emO).
8. 3Ietathesis or transposition of consonants occurs Sometimes in
Latin, especially in Perfect and Supine forms : cemO ; Pf . crS-vI, etc.
Syllables.
10. The syllable is the unit of pronunciation ; it consists
of a vowel, or a vowel and one or more consonants.
A word has as many syllables as it contains separate vowels
and diphthongs.
In dividing a word into syllables, a consonant, between
two vowels, belongs to the second : a-mo, / love ; li-xa, a
sutler.
SYLLABLES — QUANTITY. ^
Any combination of consonants that can begin a word
(including mn, under Greek influence) belongs to the fol-
lowing vowel ; in other combinations the first consonant
belongs to the preceding vowel : a-sper, rough ; fau-stus,
hicli/ ; li-bri, books ; a-mnis, river.
Remarks. — i. The combinations incapable of beginning a word are
(a) aOubled consonants : sic-cus, dry ; (b) a liquid and a consonant :
al-mus, fostering ; am-bo, hoih ; an-guis, snalie ; ar-bor, tree.
2. Compounds are treated by the best grammarians as if their parts
were separate words : ab-igO, I drive off ; r6s-publica, commonivealth.
11. The last syllable of a word is called the ultimate
(ultima, last) ; the next to the last the penult (paene, almost,
and ultima) ; the one before the penult^ the antepenult
(ante, before, and paenultima).
Remark. — A syllable is said to be open when it ends with a vowel ;
close, when it ends with a consonant.
Quantity.
12. I. A syllable is said to be long by nature, when it
contains a long vowel or diphthong : mos, custom ; caelum,
heaven.
Remarks. — i. A vowel before nf, ns, gm, gn, is long by nature :
infgllz, unlucky ; mgnsa, table ; agmen, trahi ; agnus, lamb. In many
cases, however, the n has disappeared from the written word ; so in
some substantival terminations : os (Ace. PL, 2d decL), us (Ace. PL,
4th decl.) ; in adjectives in osus (formosus, shapely, for formonsus) ; in
the numerical termination gsimus (= gnsimus). See 95, n. 5.
2. Before i eonsona?it (j) a vowel is long by nature : Pompgius,
Pompey ; except in compounds of iugum, yoke (bi-iugus, two-horse),
and in a few other words.
Note.— From about 134 to about 74 B. C. a, g, U, were often represented by aa, ee,
UU ; I by ei. From the time of Augustus to the second century i was indicated by a
leugthened I. From Sulla's time until the third century long vowels (rarely, however, i)
were mdicated by an Apex (').
2. A syllable is said to be long by position, when a short
vowel is followed by two or more consonants, or a double
consonant : ars, art ; c6llum, neck ; ^brumpo, / break off ;
per mare, through the sea ; nex, ^nurder.
8 ACCENTUATION".
3. A syllable is said to be short when it contains a short
vowel, which is not followed by two or more consonants :
locus, place ; tabula, picture.
Remark. — A vowel is short hy nature when followed by another
vowel, or by nt, nd : d6u8, Ood ; innoc6iitia, innocence ; amandus, to he
loved.
13. A syllable ending in a short vowel, followed by a mute
with 1 or r, is said to be common (anceps, douUful) : ten6-
brae, darkness.
Remark. — In prose such syllables are always short. In poetry they
were short in early times, common in the Augustan period.
14. Every diphthong, and every vowel derived from a
diphthong, or contracted from other vowels, is long: saevus,
cruel; concltido, I shut up (from claudo, I shut); cogo (from
co-ago), / drive together.
Accentuation.
15. T. Dissyllabic words have the accent or stress on the
penult : 6quus, horse.
2. Polysyllabic words have the accent on the penult, when
the penult is long ; on the antepenult, when the penult is
short or common : mandare, to commit ; mand^re, to chetv ;
intfignim, entire; circumdare, to surround; sup6rstit6s,
survivors. ,
Remarks. — i. The little appendages (enclitics), que, ve, ne, add an
accent to the ultimate of words accented on the antepenult : luminaque,
and lights ; fldminave, or rivers ; v6merene ] from a plowshare ^ Dis-
syllables and words accented on the penult are said to shift their accent
to the final syllable before an enclitic : egomet, I indeed ; amfireve, or
to love ; hnt it is more likely that the ordinary rule of accentuation
was followed.
2. Compounds (not prepositional) of facere and dare retain the
accent on the verbal form : calefacit, vfinumdare.
3. Vocatives and genitives of substantives in ios of the second de-
clension, as well as genitives of substantives in ium, retain the accent
on the same syllable as the nominative : Vergfll.
Note.— Other exceptions will be noted ae they occur. In the older language the
accent was not bounded by the antepenult : accipiO (accfpiO), concutiO (COnc6ti5).
PARTS OF SPEECH — IN^FLECTION.
Parts of Speech,
16. The Parts of Speech are the Noun (Substantive and
Adjective), the Pronoun, tlie Verb, and the Particles (Ad-
verb, Preposition, and Conjunction), defined as follows :
1. The Substantive gives a name: vir, a man; Codes,
Cocks ; donum, a gift,
2. The Adjective adds a quality to the Substantive : bonus
vir, a good ma7i,
3. The Pronoun points out without describing : hie, this ;
ille, that ; ego, /.
4. The Verb expresses a complete thought, whether asser-
tion, wish, or command ; amat, lie loves ; amet, may he love ;
ama, love thou !
5. The Adverb shows circumstances,
6. The Preposition shows local relation.
7. The Conjunction shows connection.
Remarks. — i. Substantive is short for noun-substantive, and ad-
jective for noun-adjective. Substantives are often loosely called nouns.
2. The Interjection is either a mere cry of feeling : all ! ah ! and does
not belong to language, or falls under one of the above-mentioned
classes.
3. The Particles are mainly mutilated forms of the noun and pro-
noun.
Notes.— 1. The difference between substantive and adjective is largely a difference
of mobility ; that is, the substantive is fixed in its application and the adjective is general.
2. Noun and pronoun have essentially the same inflection ; but they are commonly
separated, partly on account of the difference in signification, partly on account oi
certain peculiarities of the pronominal forms.
Inflection.
17. Inflection (inflexio, bending) is that change in the
form of a word (chiefly in the end) which shows a change in
the relations of that word. The noun, pronoun, and verb are
inflected ; the particles are not capable of further inflection.
The inflection of nouns and pronouns is called declension^
and nouns and pronouns are said to be declined.
The inflection of verbs is called conjugation ^ and verbs
are said to be conjugated.
lO THE SUBSTANTIVE — GENDER.
The Substantive.
18. A Substantive is either concrete or abstract ; concrete
when it gives the name of a person or thing ; abstract when
it gives the name of a quality ; as amicitia, friendsliip.
Concrete substantives are either proper or common :
Proper when they are proper, or peculiar, to certain per-
sons, places, or things: Horatius, Horace; Neapolis, Naples;
Padus, Fo.
Common when they are common to a whole class :
dominus, a lord ; urbs, a city ; amnis, a river.
Gender of Substantives.
19. For the names of animate beings, the gender is deter-
mined by the signification ; for things and qualities, by the
termination.
Names of males are masculine ; names of females, femi-
nine. Masculine : Romulus; luppiter; vir, inaii; equus, horse.
Feminine : Cornelia; Itino ; femina, uwman; equa, 7nare.
20. Some classes of words, without natural gender, have
their gender determined by the signification :
1. All names of months and winds, most names of rivers,
and many names of motmtains are masculine ; as : Aprllis,
April, the opening month ; Aqnilo, the north ivind ; Albis,
the River Elbe ; AthOs, Mou7it Athos.
Remarks. — i. Names of months, winds, and rivers were looked
upon as adjectives in agreement with masculine substantives under-
stood (mgnsis, month ; ventus, ^vind ; fluvius, amnis, river).
2. Of .he rivers, AUia, LgthS, Matrona, Sagra, Styx are feminine ;
Albula, AcherOn, Garumna vary, being sometimes masculine, some-
times feminine.
3. Of the mountains, Alpgs, the Alps, is feminine ; so, too, sundry
(Greek) names in a (G. ae), S (G. 6s) : Aetna (usually), Calp6,
CyllenS, Hybla, Ida, Ossa (usually), Oeta (usually), BhodopS, PholoS, PyrSnS,
and Carambis, Peloris. Pfilion and Soracte (usually), and names of moun-
tains in a (G. 5rum), as Maenala (G. MaenalOnun), are neuter.
II. Names of countries (terrae, feni.), islands (insulae,
fern.), cities (urbes, /cv/z.), plants (plantae, /em.), and trees
GEN"DER — NUMBER. 1 1
(arbores, fern.), are feminine: Aegyptus, Egypt; Ehodus,
llliodes ; pirus, a pear-tree ; abies, a fir-tree.
Remarks. — i. Names of countries and islands in us (os) (G. i) are
masculine, except Aegyptus, Chius, Chersonesus, Cyprus, Dglos, Epirus,
Lemnos, Lesbos, Peloponnesus, Rhodus, Samos, Bosporus (the country).
2, Many Greek names of cities follow the termination. Towards
the end of the republic many feminine names change the ending -us
to -um and become neuter : Abydus and Abydum, Saguntus and
Saguntum.
3. Most names of trees with stems in -tro (N. -ter) are masculine :
oleaster, ivild olive ; pinaster, wild pine. So also most shrubs : dumus,
hramble-hush ; rhus, sumach. J^Teuter are acer, maple ; laser, a plant ;
papaver, poppy (also mase. in early Latin) ; rQbur, oak ; slier, willow ;
siser, skirret (occasionally masc.) ; suber, cork-tree ; tuber, mushroom.
III. All indeclinable substantives^ and all words and
plirases treated as indeclinable substantives, are neuter : fas,
right; a longum, a long; scire tuum, thy knowi7ig ; triste
vale, a sad ^' farewell.'^
21. 1. Substantives which have but one form for mascu-
line and feminine are said to be of common gender : civis,
citizen (male or female) ; comes, companion ; itidex, pidge.
2. Substantiva mobilia are words of the same origin, whose
different terminations designate difference of gender : ma-
gister, master, teacher ; magistra, mistress; servus, serva,
slave (masc. and fem.) ; victor, victrix, conqueror (masc. and
fem.).
3. If the male and female of animals ha,ve but one desig-
nation, mas, male, and femina, female, are added, when it is
necessary to be exact : pavO mas (masculus), peacock ; pavo
femina, pealien. These substantives are called epicene
(eiTLKoiva, utrlque generi communia, common to each
gender).
Number.
22. In Latin there are two numbers : the Singular,
denoting one ; the Plural, denoting more than one.
Remark. — The Dual, denoting iwo, occurs in Latin only in two
words (duo, iwo; ambo, both), in the nominative and vocative of the
masculine and neuter, A similar formation is oct5, eight (two fours).
12 CASES.
Cases.
23. In Latin there are six cases :
1. Nominative (Case of the Subject).
Answers : who 9 what 9
2. Genitive (Case of the Complement),
Answers : ivhose 9 ivhereof 9
3. Dative (Case of Indirect Object or Personal Interest).
Answers : to whom 9 for whom 9
4. Accusative (Case of Direct Object).
Answers : whom 9 tvhat 9
5. Vocative (Case of Direct Address).
6. Ablative (Case of Adverbial Relation).
Answers : where 9 whence 9 wheretvith 9
Note. — These six cases are the remains of a larger number. The Locative (answers :
where?), is akin to the Dative, and coincident with it in the Ist and 3d Declengions ;
in the 2d Declension it is lost in the Genitive ; it is often blended with the Ablative in
form, regularly in ayntax. The Instrumental (answers: wherewith?), which is
found in other members of the family, is likewise merged in the Ablative.
24. I. According to their /orw, the cases are divided into
strong and wealc : The strong cases are Nominative, Accusa-
tive, and Vocative. The weak cases are Genitive, Dative,
and Ablative.
2. According to their st/ntactical 7ise, the cases are divided
into Casus Recti, or Independent Cases, and Casus ObllquI, or
Dependent Cases. Nominative and Vocative are Castis
Recti, the rest Casus Obliqui.
25. The case-forms arise from the combination of the case-
endings with the stem.
1. The stem is that which is common to a class of forma-
tions.
Notes.— 1. Tlie stem is often so much altered by contact with the case-ending, and
the cafse-ending so much altered by the wearing away of vowels and consonants,
that they can be determined only by scientific analysis. So in the paradigm mSnsa,
the stem is not mSns, but mSnsS, the final a having been absorbed by the ending in
the Dative and Ablative Plural niSnsIs. So -d, the ending of the Ablative Singular,
has nearly disappeared, and the loctitive ending has undergone many changes (6, ei, I,
6). The " cnide form " it is often impossible to ascertain.
2. The root is an ultimate stem, and the determinatioD of the root belongs to comp
DECLENSIONS. I ^
parative etymology. The stem may be of any length, the root was probably a mono-
syllable. In penna the stem is penna- ; in pennula, pennula- ; in pennatulus,
pennatulo- ; the root is pet (petna, pesna, penna), and is found in pet-ere, tofalL
upon, tojtyat; Greek, Trer-oMai, nTepov ; English, feather.
2. The case-endings are as follows, early forms being printed in
parenthesis :
Sg.— N.V. Wanting orra. f.-s;n. -m. Pl.— N.V, -es(eis, is); -i; n. -a.
G. -is (-OS, -us, -es) ; -i. G. -um (om) ; -rum (som).
J. -i (-e, -ei). D. -bus ; -is.
Ac. -m, -em. Ac. -s (for -ns) ; n. -a.
Ab. Wanting (or -d) ; -e. Ab. -bus ; -is.
Declensions.
26. There are five declensions in Latin, which are charac-
terized by the final letter of their respective stems {stem-
characteristic).
For practical purposes and regularly in lexicons they are also im-
properly distinguished by the ending of the Genitive Singular.
Stem Characteristic. Ge
NITIVE ^
I.
a (a).
ae.
II.
6.
I.
III.
i, a, a consonant.
is.
IV.
il.
us.
V.
6.
%l.
Remark. — The First, Second, and Fifth Declensions are called
Vowel Declensions ; the Third and Fourth, which really form but one,
the Consonant Declension, i and u being semi-consonants.
27. The case-endings in combination with the stem-char-
acteristics give rise to the following systems of terminations :
Singular.
I.
II.
III.
K
a.
us (os) ; wanting ; um (om).
s; wanting.
G.
ae (as, ai.
ai).
I (el).
is (us, es).
D.
ae (ai).
(oi).
I (e-i, i).
Ac.
am.
um (om).
em, im.
V.
a.
e ; wanting ; um (om).
8.
AO.
a (ad).
6 (Od).
e, I (ed, id).
14 FIRST DECLENSIOIS',
IV.
V.
N.V.
us; u.
es.
G.
lis (uos, uis).
&, 6 (es).
-
D.
ui, ti (uei).
il,6.
Ac.
urn; a.
em.
Ab.
Plural.
6.
I.
II.
III.
N. V.
ae.
3 (oe, e, el) ; ft.
Ss (e-is, is) ; a, ia.
G.
arum.
urn (om), orum.
um, ium.
D. A.
is(eis); abus.
is (eis), ibus.
ibus.
Ac.
Ss.
5s; ft.
is,es; a,ia.
IV.
V.
N.V.
lis (lies, uus) ; ua.
es.
G.
uum.
6rum.
D. A.
ubus, ibus.
Sbus.
Ac.
us; ua.
es.
Note.— Final -s and -m are frequently omitted in early inscriptions.
28. General Rules of Declensio7i.
I. For the strong cases .
Neuter substantives have the Nominative and the Vocative like the
Accusative ; in the Plural the strong cases always end in ft.
In the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Declensions the strong cases are
alike in the Plural.
The Vocative is like the Nominative, except in the Singular of the
Second Declension when the Nominative ends in -us.
II. For the weak cases :
The Dative and the Ablative Plural have a common form.
FIRST DECLENSION.
29. The stem ends in S,, which is weakened from an
original a. The Nominative has no ending.
Sg. — N. mensa (f.), the table, a table.
of the table, of a table.
to, for the table^ to, for a table,
the table, a table.
table ! table !
from, with, by, the table, from, ivith, by, a table.
G.
mensae,
D.
mgnsae,
Ac.
mgnsam,
V.
mensa,
Ab.
mensS,
SECOND DECLENSION.
Pl..
-N.
mSnsae,
the tables,
tables.
G.
mensarum,
of the tables,
of tables.
D.
mensis,
to, for the tables,
to, for tables
Ac.
mSnsas,
the tables,
tables.
V.
mgnsae,
tables/
tables !
Ab.
mensis,
from, with, by, the tables.
from, with, I
Remarks. — i. The early ending of the Gen., as, found in a few cases
in early poets, is retained in the classical period (but not in Caesar or
Livy) only in the form familias, of a family, in combination with pater,
father, mater, mother, filius, son, fflia, daughter, viz. : paterfamilias,
materfamilias, filius familias, filia familias.
2. The Loc. Sing, is like the Genitive: Romae, at Rome; militiae,
abroad.
3. The Gen. PI. sometimes takes the form -um instead of -arum;
this occurs chiefly in the Greek words amphora {amphora, measure of
tonnage), and drachma, franc — {Oreelc coin). The poets make frequent
use of this form in Greek patronymics in -da, -das, and compounds of
-cola (from colo, I inhabit) and -gena (from root gen, beget).
4. The ending -abus is found (along with the regular ending) in the
Dat. and Abl. PI. of dea, goddess, and fllia, daughter. In late Latin
the use of this termination becomes more extended.
Notes.— 1. A very few raasc. substantives show Nom. Sing, in as in early Latin.
2. A form of tlie Gen. Sing, in ai, subsequent to tiiat in as, is found in early
inscriptions, and not unfrequently in early poets, but only here and there in classical
poetry (Verg., A., 3, 354, etc.) and never in classical prose.
3. The early ending of the Dat. ai (sometimes contracted into a), is found occa-
sionally in inscriptions throughout the whole period of the language.
4. The older ending of the Abl., ad, belongs exclusively to early Latin. Inscriptions
show eis for is in Dat. and Abl. PI., and once as in the Dat. Plural.
30. Rtile of Gender. — Substantives of the First Declen-
sion are feminine, except when males are meant.
Hadria, the Adriatic, is masculine.
SECOND DECLENSION.
31. The stem ends in 6, which in the classical period is
weakened to u, except after u (vowel or consonant), where 5 is
retained nntil the first century A.D. In combination with
the case-endings it merges into o or disappears altogether.
In the Vocative (except in neuters) it is weakened to 6.
The Nominative ends in s (m. and f.) and m (n.). But
many masculine stems in which the final vowel, 6, is preceded
by r, drop the (os) us and e of the Nominative and Vocative,
and insert e before the r if it was preceded by a consonant.
i6
SECON^D DECLENSIOK.
32. I. Stems in -ro. The following stems in -ro do not drop the(os)
us and e of the Nom. and Voc. : erus, master ; hespenis, evening star ;
icterus, jaundice ; itiniperus, juniper ; morus, mulberry ; numems, num-
her ; taurus, bull ; virus, venom; umerus, sJioulder ; uterus, ivomb.
Note.— Socerus is found in early Latin
2. In the following words the
Plautus uses uterum, (n.) once.
ends in -ero and the e is there-
fore retained throughout : adulter, adulterer ; gener, son-in-law; Liber,
god of wine ; puer, boy; socer, father-in-law; vesper, evenifig ; and in
words ending in -fer and -ger, from fer5, / bear, and gero, / carry, as,
signifer, standard-bearer, armiger, armor-bearer.
Also Ibgr and Celtibfir (names of nations) have in the Plural Ib6ri
and Celtiben.
33. Hortus (m.), garden; puer (m.), boy; ager (m.),
field ; bellum (n.), tvar ; are thus declined :
Sg.-K
hortus,
puer.
ager,
bellum,
G.
horti.
pueri.
agri,
belli.
D.
horto.
puerO,
agro.
belie.
Ac.
hortum.
puerum,
agrum.
bellum,
V.
horte.
puer.
ager.
bellum,
Ab.
hortS.
puerS.
agrS.
bells.
IL.-N.
horti.
puerl,
agri,
bella.
G.
hortorum,
puerQrum,
agrorum,
bellonim,
D.
hortis.
pueris.
agris,
bellis.
Ac.
hortOs,
puerOs,
agros,
bella.
V.
horti,
pueri,
agri.
bella.
Ab.
hortis.
pueris.
agris.
bellis.
Remarks. — i. Stems in -io have Gen. Sing, for the most part in i until
the first century A. D., without change of accent : ingeni (N. ingenium),
of genius, Vergili, of Vergil. See 15, r. 3.
2. Proper names in -ius (stems in -io) have Voc. in i, without change
of accent : AntSni, TuUi, Gai, Vergili. Fllius, son, and genius, genius,
form their Voc. in like manner : fili, geni. In solemn discourse -us of
the Nom. is employed also for the Vocative. (See Liv. i. 24, 7.) So
regularly deus, God !
3. The Loc. Sing, ends in i (apparent Genitive), as Bhodi, at Rhodes,
Tarenti, at Tarentum.
4. In the Gen. PI. -tun instead of -Orum is found in words denoting
coins and measures ; as, nummum, of moneys (also -5rum) = sSstertium, of
sesterces; dSnSrium (occasionally -Orum) ; talentum (occasionally -5rum);
tetrachmum; medium (also -Orum), of nieasures ; iugerum; medimnum;
stadium (also -Orum). Likewise in some names of persons : deum (also
THIRD DECLENSION. 1/
-omm) ; fabrtun (in technical expressions ; as praefectus fabrum, other-
wise -5rtim) ; liberum (also -Snun) ; virum (poetical, except in technical
expressions, as triumvirum) ; socium (also -onun). Some other examples
are poetical, rare or late..
5. The Log. PI. is identical with the Dative : Delphis, at Delphi.
6. Deus, Ood, is irregular. In addition to the forms already men-
tioned, it has in Nom. PI. dei, diij di ; in Dat. and Abl. PI. deXs,
diis, dis.
Notes.— 1. The ending -ei for -I in the Gen. Sing, is found only in InscrlptionB sub-
sequent to the third Punic War.
2. Puer, boy^ forms Voc. puere in early Latin.
3. The original Abl. ending -d belongs to early inscriptions.
4. In early inscriptions the Nom. PI. ends occasionally in 6s, eis, Is : magistrSs
(for magistrl) vireis (for viri). The rare endings oe and g <,ploirumS for pltiriml)
and the not uncommon ending ei belong to the same period.
5. Inscriptions often show eiS for is in Dat. and Abl. Plural.
34. Rule of Gender. — Substantives in -us are masculine ;
in -um neuter.
Exceptions. — Feminine are : 1st. Cities and islands, as, Corinthus,
Samus. 2d. Most trees, as, fagus, heech ; pirns, pear-tree. 3d. Many
Greek nouns, as, atomus, atom ; dialectus, dialect ; methodus, method ;
paragraphus, paragraph ; periodus, period. 4th. Alvns, helly (m. in
Plaut.) ; colus (61, N. 5), distaff {silso m.) ; humus, groimd ; vannus,
wheat-fan.
Neuters are : pelagus, sea ; virus, venom ; vulgus, the rabble (some-
times masculine).
THIRD DECLENSION.
35. I. The stem ends in a consonant, or in the close
vowels 1 and u.
2. The stems are divided according to their last letter,
called the stem-characteristic, following the subdivisions of
the letters of the alphabet :
I. — Consonant Stems. II. — Vowel Stems.
A. Liquid stems, ending in 1, m, n, r. 1. Ending in i.
B. Sibilant stems, ending in s. 2. Ending in u,
( 1. Ending in a P-mute, b,p. (Compare the Fourth
C. Mute stems, ■< 3. Ending in a K-mute, g, c. Declension.)
( 3. Ending in a T-mute, d, t.
36. I. The Nominative Singular, masculine and femi-
nine, ends in s, which, however, is dropped after 1, n, r, s,
and combines with a K-mute to form x. The final vowel of
the stem undergoes various changes.
1 8 THIRD DECLEKSION.
The Vocative is like the Nominative.
In the other cases, the endings are added to the unchanged
stem.
2. Neaiters always form :
The Nominative without the case-ending s.
The Accusative and Vocative cases in both numbers like
the Nominative.
The Nominative Plural in a.
Notes on the Cases.
37. Singular.
1. Genitive.— In old Latin we find on inscriptions the endings -uS (Gr. -os) and
•es.
2. Dative.— The early endings of the Dat. are -gi and -g. These were succeeded
by I after the second century B. C, 6 being retained in formulas lilce iurS dicundd
(Liv., 42, 28, 6), in addition to the usual form.
3. Accusative.— The original termination -im, in stems of the vowel declension,
loses ground, and stems of tliis class form their Ace. more and more in -em, after the
analogy of consonant stems. For tlic classical usage see 57, r. i.
4. Ablative.— In inscriptions of the second and first centuries B. C. we find -ei,
-I, and -e. But -ei soon disappears, leaving e and i. In general e is the ending for the
consonant stems and I for the vowel. But as in the Ace, so in the Abl., the e makes
inroads on the i, though never to the same extent. (See 57, R. 2.) On the other
hand, some apparently consonant stems assume the ending i. Thus some in -as,
-atis : hSrgditati (200 B. C), aetati (rare) ; litl (rare), supellSctili (classical ;
early e) ; also the liquid stems which syncopate in the Gen,, as imber. The ending
-d is rare and confined to early inscriptions.
5. Locative.— Originally coincident in form with the Dat., the Loc. of the Third
Declension was finally blended with Abl., both in form and in syntax. In the follow-
ing proper names the old form is frequently retained : Karthagini, at Carthage, Sul-
mdnl, at Sulmo^ Lacedaemoni, at Lacedaemon, Sicyoni, Troezfinl, Anxorl,
Tiburl. Also Acherunti. I" the case of all except Anxur, Tibur, Acheiiiiis, the
regular form is more common.
The following Loc. forms of common nouns are found : herl, IticI, noctu (prin-
cipally in early Latin), orbi (Cic), peregrl (early Latin), praefiscini (early Latin),
rOrl, temperl (the usual form in early Latin), vesperi. In all cases the Abl. forn»
in e is also found.
38. Plural.
1. Nominative.— Early Latin shows -gls, -Is in the masc. and feminine. The latter
was usually confined to vowel stems, but also occurs occasionally in consonant stems
(ioudicls). Later the ending was -6s for all kinds of stems.
2. Genitive.— The ending -tun, uniting with the vowel in vowel stems, gives
-ium. But many apparently consonant stems show their original vowel form by tak-
ing -ium : (1) Many fern, stems in -tSt- (N. tas) with -ium as well as -um. (2) Mon-
osyllabic and polysyllabic stems in -t, -c, with preceding consonant. (3) Monosyllables
in -p and -b, sometimes with, sometimes without, a preceding consonant. (4) Stems in
-ss- ; see 48, r.
3. Accusative.— Old Latin shows also -els. The classical form is -gs for conso-
nant and -Is for vowel stems. But -gs begins to drive out -Is in some vowel stems and
wholly supplants it in the early Empire. On the other hand, some apparently original
consonant stems show -Is in early Latin, but the cases are not always certain.
CONSONANT STEMS. I9
l.-CONSONANT STEMS.
A.— Liquid Stems.
1. Liquid Stems in 1.
39. Form the Nominative without s and fall into two
divisions* :
A. Those in which the stem characteristic is preceded by a vowel :
1. 'Ul, 'Ulis : sal (with compensatory lengthening), salt; Punic
proper names like Adherbal, Hannibal.
2. -«7, "Uis : mtigil (mugilis is late), mullet ; pugil (pugilis in Varro),
boxer ; vigil, watchman. 'il, -Ills : sil, ochre ; Tanaquil (with
shortened vowel), a proper name.
3 -olf -oils : sol, sun,
4. 'Ulf -nils : consul, consul; exsul, exile; praesul, dancer.
B. Two neuter substantives with stems in -11, one of which is lost in
the Nominative : mel.
mellis,
honey ;
fel.
fellis.
gall.
Sg.— N.
consul, consul (
m.).
Pl.
— N.
consulSs, the consuls.
G.
consulis.
G.
consulum.
D.
consul!.
D.
consulibus,
Ac.
consulem,
Ac.
cSnsules,
V.
cSnsul,
V.
consulSs,
Ab.
cSnsule.
Ab.
consulibus.
Rules of Gender. — i. Stems in -1 are masculine.
Exceptions : Sfl, ochre, and sal, salt (occasionally, but principally in
the Sing.), are neuter.
2. Stems in -11 are neuter.
2. Liquid Stems in m.
40. Nominative with s. One example only : liiem(p)s,
tuinter (f.) ; Gen., Mem-is, Dat., hiem-i, etc,
3. Liquid Stems in n.
41. Most mascuHfie and feminine stems form the Nomi-
native Singular by dropping the stem-characteristic and
changing a preceding vowel to 0.
* Tn the following enumerations of stem-varieties, Greek substantives are a& a rule
omitted.
20
THIRD DECLENSION.
Some masculine and 7nost neuter stems retain the stem-
characteristic in the Nominative and change a preceding
i to e.
The following varieties appear ;
1. -eUy •enis : the masculine substantives li6n, splSn, spleen; r6n6s
(pi.), kidneys.
2. 'Of •itiis : homo, man; nemo, no one ; turbS, ivliirlwind ; Apoll6,
Apollo. Also substantives in -do (except praedo, G. -onis, robber) ; and
in -go (except harpago, G. -oids, gi'appling-hook ; ligo, G. -onis, mattock) ;
as, grands, hail; virgo, virgin. "en, inis : the mase. substan-
tives flamen, priest ; oscen (also f.), divining bird; pecten, comb ; musical
performers, cornicen, fidicen, liticen, tibicen, tubicen. Also many
neuters : as nomen, name.
3. -o (in early Latin 6, in classical period weakened), •onis : le5,
lion ; and about seventy others. -o, -onis : Saxo, Saxon (late).
4. Irregular formations : carS, G. carnis, flesh ; AniS, G. Anienis, a
river ; N6ri6, G. Nerienis, a proper name. Sanguis, blood, and poUis,
flour, drop the stem characteristic and add s to form nominative ; G.
sanguinis, pollinis.
42. MAS(:ULINE.
FEMININE.
NEUTER.
Sg.— X. leS, lion(m.).
imag5, likeness (f.).
n5men, name (n.).
G. leonis,
imaginis,
nominis.
1). leoni,
imagini,
nSmini,
Ac, leonem,
imaginem,
nomen,
V. leg,
imago,
nomen,
Ab. leOne,
imagine,
n5mine,
Pl.— N. leOnSs,
imagines,
nOmina,
G. leonnm,
imaginum,
nominum,
D. leonibus,
imaginibus,
nominibus,
Ac. Ie5nes,
imagines,
nOmina,
V. leOngs,
imagines,
nSmina,
Ab. leOnibus,
imaginibus.
nSminibus.
Note.— Early Latin shows
hom5nem, etc., occasionally.
43. Eules of Oeiider. — i. Substantives in -6 are mascu-
iiue, except carO, flesh, and those in -do, -go, and -16.
Exceptions. -Masculine arc cardS, Idnge ; 6rd5, rank; harpagS, grappling-
hook ; ligO, mattock ; marg5, harder (occasionally fern, in late Latin) ; and concrete
nouns like ptlgiO, dagger, titiO, firebrand, vespertiliO, bat.
2. Substantives in -en (-men) are neuter. See exceptions,
41, I, 2.
COKSOKANT STEMS, 21
4. Liquid Stems in r,
44. Form Nominative without s.
Stems fall into the following classes :
I. -aVf 'arts: salax, tt'out ; proper names like Caesar, Hamilcar;
the neuters baccar, a plant ; iubar, radiance ; nectar, nedar. "dVf
-aris: Lar, a deity. -dr, arts : Nar (Enn., Verg.), a river.
•dVf arris : far (n.) spelt.
2. -er, 'Cris : acipgnser, a fish ; agger, mound; anser, goose-; asser,
pole ; aster, a plant ; cancer, the disease ; career, prison; later, brick;
mnlier (f.), woman; jpsisser, sparroiv ; tuber (m. and f.), apple; vesper,
evening (QS, lo) ; vomer, plowshare (47, 2). The neuters axiev, maple ;
cadaver, dead body ; cicer, pea; laser, a plant ; laver, a plant ; papaver,
poppy ; piper, pepper ; siler, willow ; siser, skirret ; suber, cork; tuber,
tumor ; fiber, teat ; [verber], thong. -<?/*, -H.s ; four words, accipiter,
hawk ; frater, broflier ; mater, mother; -psiter, father. Also some proper
names, as Di6spiter, Falacer, and the names of the months, September,
October, November, December. Also, imber, shower, linter, skiff, fiter,
bag, venter, belly, which were probably vowel stems originally (see 45,
R. i). -er, -eris: agr, air; aether, ether. -er, -eris : vSr,
spring.
3. 'Or, 'Oris : arbor (f.), tree (stem originally in -os) ; some Greek
words in -tor, as rhstor, rhetorician ; slave names in -por, as Marcipor ;
the neuters : ador, spelt ; aequor, sea ; marmor, marble. 'Or, -oris :
very many abstract words, as amor, lore ; color, color ; clamor, outcry ;
soror, sister ; uxor, wife ; these may come from stems in 5s (see 47, 4) ;
also verbals in -tor, as victor.
4. -Mi*, 'iiris : augur, augur ; furfur, bran ; turtur, dove ; vultur,
vulture; lemurgs (pi.), ghosts, and a few proper names; also the
neuters fulgur, lightning ; guttur, throat ; murmur, murmur ; sulfur,
sulphur. -MJ', -ilris ; fur, thief.
5. Four neuters, ebur, ivory ; femur, thigh; iecur, liver ; robur, oak,
show Gen. in -oris ; two of these, femur, iecur, have also the irregular
forms feminis and iecineris, iecinoris, iocinoris. Iter, way, has G. itineris ;
and supellgx, furniture, has G. supellectilis.
46. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL.
N. labor, toil (m.), Iab5rgs, pater, father (m.), patrgs,
G. laboris, laborum, patris, patrum,
D. labori, laboribus, patrl, patribus,
Ac. laborem, labSrgs, patrem, patrgs,
V. labor, lab5res, pater, patrgs,
Ab. labdre. labSribus. patre. patribus.
22 THIRD DECLENSIOI^.
Remarks. — i. Imber, shower, linter, sldff, uter, hag, venter, helly,
show the vowel nature of their stems by having Gen. Ph in -ium,
Imber has also sometimes Abl. Sing, in I. (See 37, 4.)
2. Robur, strength, also forms a Nom. robus (47, 4), and v5mer, plow-
share, vomis (47, 2).
Note.— Arbor, and many stems in -or, were originally stems in -s ; the s became r
(47) between two vowels in the oblique cases, and then reacted upon the Nominative.
But many Nominatives in -os are still found in early Latin ; and some are still retained
in the classical times : arbos (regularly in Verg., frequently in Lucr., Hor., Ov.),
honos (regularly in Verg., commonly in Cic, Livy), and others.
46. Rules of Gender. — i. Substantives in -er and -or are
masculine. 2. Substantives in -ar and -ur are neuter.
Exceptions. — Masculine are salar, trout, and proper names in -ar ; augur,
augur ; furfur, bran ; names of animals in -ur and a few proper names in -ur.
Feminine are arbor, tree ; mulier, woman ; soror, sister ; uxor, tvife. Neuter
are acer, maple ; ador, spelt ; aequor, sea ; cadaver, dead body ; cicer. pea ;
iter, way ; laser, a plant ; laver, a plant ; marmor, marble ; papaver, iwppy ;
piper, i^epper ; siler, willow ; siser, skirret ; stiber, co?'k ; tuber, tumar ; uber,
teat ; ver, spring ; [verber], thong.
B. -Sibilant Stems.
47. The Nominative has no additional s, and changes in
masculines e to i, and in neuters e or to u before s.
In the oblique cases, the s of the stem usually passes over>
between two vowels, into r (rJiotacism).
There are the following varieties of stems :
I. 'dSf "arts : mas, male. 'ds, -dsis : vas (n.), vessel. 'ds,
»assis : as (m.), a copper (vowel long in Nom. by compensatory-
lengthening), and some of its compounds (with change of vowel), as
2. "CS, "eris : Cergs, Ceres. -is, 'Cris : cinis, ashes; cucumis,
cucufnber {see 57, r. i), pulvis (occasionally pulvis), dust ; v5inis, ploiv-
share (see 45, r. 2). •ivs, -eris : Venus, and occasionally pignus,
pledge (see 4).
3. "Is, •iris : glis, dormouse.
4. 'dSf -osis : old Latin ianitSs, labQs, clamSs (see 45, n.). 'OS,
•ossis: 08 (n.), bo7ie. 'OSf-oris: flSs, flower; glOs, sister-in-law;
lepos, charm ; mos (m. ), custom. ; -5s (n.), mouth ; rOs, dew. 'US, -oris :
corpus, hody ; decus, grace ; pignus, pledge, and twelve others ; on robus
(see 45, r. 2).
5. 'USf 'Uris : Ligus, Ligurian. •us, -uris : tellus (f.), earth ;
mUs (m.), mouse; the neuters: crtis, leg; ias, right; pus, pus; rOs,
country ; tils, incense.
6. aes, aeriSy brass.
CONSONANT STEMS.
23
48. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL.
N. A. V. genus, kind (n,), genera, corpus, hody (n.), corpora,
G. generis, generum, corporis, corporum,
D. generi, generibus, corpori, corporibus,
Ab. genere. generibus. corpore. corporibus.
Remark. — As, a copper, and os, hone, form the Gen. PI. in -ium, after
the usage of vowel stems (see 38, 2). So also mus, mouse.
49. Rule of Gender. — Masculine are substantives in -is
(-eris), and -6s, -oris: except os, mouth (Gr. oris), which is
neuter.
Neuter are substantives in -us (G. -eris, -oris), and in -us
(G. -iiris) ; except tellus, earth (G. telluris), which is femi-
nine ; and the masculines, lepus, hare (G. leporis) ; mus,
mouse (G. muris).
C— Mute stems.
60. All masculines and feminines of mute stems have s in
the Nominative. Before s a P-mute is retained, a K-mute
combines with it to form x, a T-mute is dropped.
Most polysyllabic mute stems change their final vowel i
into e in the Nominative.
The stems sliow variations as follows :
51. Stems ill a P-nmte.
1. 'dbs, -ahis : trabs, beam ; Arabs. -aps, -apis : [daps], feast.
2. ~ebs, ebis : plebs, commons.
3. -ejjs, -ipis: princeps, chief, and fourteen others. -ips^
-ipis: stips, dole.
4. ~ops,-ojjis: [ops], 2)0 wer.
5. -62>8, upis : auce]^, fowler, and the old Latin manceps, contractor.
6. -1*68, 'Vbis : urbs, city.
7. 'VpSf -rpis : stirps, stock.
So. — N. princeps, chief (m.), Pl. — princip5s,
G. principis, principum,
D. principi, principibus,
Ac. principem, principSs,
V. princeps, principSs,
Ab. principe. principibus.
62. Stems in a K-mute.
I. -aXf 'Ucis: fax, torch, and many Greek words in -ax, Atax,
proper name, -fla:^ -acts : tomix^ furnace ; limSx,f snail ; ■]^,jpeace;
and Greek cordax, thOrax.
24 THIRD DECLENSION".
2. -ca?, 'CCis : faenisex, mower ; nex, murder ; [prex], prayer ;
[resex], stump. -eoCf »ecis : allex (also allgc), brine ; verv6x, wether.
'CX, "egis : grex, herd ; aquilex, water-inspector. -ex, ^egis :
interrSx ; lex, law ; rex, ki7ig.
3. 'CXf '•ids : auspex, soothsayer, and about forty others. -ex,
•igis : rgmex, rower. -tx^ ids : cervix, neck, and about thirty-
others ; verbals in -ix, as victrix. -ix, -ids : appendix, appendix, and
ten others. -ix^ -igis : strix, screech-owl ; also many foreign proper
names, as Dumnorix, which may, however, be forms in -ix, -igis.
4. 'bx, 'bds : celox, cutter ; vox, voice. -ox, 'Ods : Cappadox,
Cappadocian. -ox, -ogis : Allobrox, Allohi^ogian.
5. 'UXf 'Ucis : crux, cross ; dux, leader ; nux, 7mt. •fix, 'Uds :
lux, light ; hallux, gold-dust ; Pollux. 'iix, -ugis : coniux (-unx),
spouse. 'iix, 'Ugis : frux, fruit.
6. 'VXf 'Vcis : arx, citadel ; merx, ivares. -Ix, 'Ids : falx,
sickle ; calx, heel, lime. -nx, -nds : lanx, dish ; compounds of -unx,
as quincunx, and a few names of animals ; phalanx has G. phalangis.
7. Unclassified : nix (G. nivis), snow; bos (G. bovis ; see 71), ox; [faux]
(G. faucis), throat ; faex (G. faecis), dregs,
Sg. — N. rex, king (m.). Pl.— reg6s,
G. regis, rggum,
D. r6gX, rggibus,
Ac. rggem, rgggs,
V. r6x, r6g6s,
Ab. rgge, rggibus.
53. stems in a T-mute
1. "as, 'Otis: many feminine abstracts, as aetas, o^e ; some proper
names, as Maecgnas. 'US, 'Utis : anas, duck. -as, -adis : vas,
bail ; lampas, torch.
2. '•es,-etls : iadigea, patron deity ; interpres, interpreter; praepes,
bi7'd ; seges, crop ; teges, mat. -es, -etis : abigs, fir ; arigs, ram ;
parigs, wall. -es, -etis : quiSs, quiet ; requigs, rest. -es, -edis :
pg3, foot, and its compounds. -es, -edis : hgrgs, heir ; mercgs, hire.
3. -€S, -itis : antistes, overseer ; caespes, sod, and some fifteen oth-
ers, -es, -idis : obses, hostage ; praeses, protector. -is, -itis :
USy suit. -is, -idis: capis, bowl; cassis, helmet, and nearly forty
others, mostly Greek.
4. -OS, -Otis : c3s, whetstone ; d5B, dowry ; nep5s, grandson ; sacer-
d5s, priest. -os, -odis : custOs, guard.
5. -Us, "litis: gltis, glue, and some abstracts: inventus, youth;
salfls, safety ; senecttis, old age ; servitOs, servitude ; virtfis, maiiliness.
-US, -udis: pecus, slieep. -Us, -Udis : incOs, anvil; paliis,
marsh; subscUs, tenon.
CONSONANT STEMS. 2^
6. -aeSf -aedis : T^r&es, sui-ety. -aus, -audis : I&ms, praise;
fraus, fraud.
7. -ISf-ltis: puis, porridge. -ns^ -ntis : in&ns, infant ; d6ns,
tooth; ions, fountain ; mons, mo unt ai?b ; fraas, b7'ow ; •pQns, bridge ; g^ns,
tribe; lens, lentil; m6ns, mind; rudgns, rope; torrgns, torrent. -s,
-nils : latinized Greek words like gigas, giant. -r«, -rtis : ars, art ;
cohors, cohort; fors, chance ; Mars; mors, death ; sors, lot.
S. Unclassified : cor (G. cordis), heart; nox (G. noctis), night ; caput
(G. capitis), head ; lac (G. lactis), milk.
Sg.— X. aetas, a</e (f .)• Pl.— aetatgs, SG.—p6s, /oo/ (in.). PL.—pedSs,
G. aetatis.
aetatum.
pedis.
pedum,
D. aetati,
aetatibus,
pedi,
pedibus,
Ac. aetatem,
aetates,
pedem,
pedgs.
V. aetas.
aetatgs,
pes,
pedes.
Ab. aetate.
aetatibus.
pede,
pedibus.
54. Many substantives of this class were originally vowel stems
(see 56), and show their origin by having the termination -ium in the
Gen. PI. and -i in the Abl. Singular. Some not originally vowel stems
do the same. (See 88, 2.)
Monosyllabic mute stems, with the characteristic preceded by a
consonant, have the Gen. PL in -ium : urbium, of cities ; arcium, of
citadels ; montium, of mou7itai?is ; partium, of parts ; noctium, of the
nights. But -urn is also found in gentum (Attius), partum (Ennius).
Monosyllabic mute stems, with characteristic preceded by a long
vowel or diphthong, vaiy : dot-ium, lit-ium, fauc-ium, fraud-um (-ium),
laud-um (-ium). But praed-um, vocum.
Monosyllaljic mute stems with characteristic preceded by a short
vowel have -um ; but fac-ium, nuc-um (-ium), niv-ium (-urn).
The polysyllabic stems in -nt and -rt have more frequently -ium, as
clientium (-um), of clients ; cohortium (-um), of companies. So adulg-
scentium (-um), amantium (-um), infantium (-um), parentum (~ium), serpen-
tium (-um), torrentium (-um) ; rudentum (-ium) ; but only quadrantum.
Of other })olysyllabic stems feminine stems in -at have frequently
both -um and -ium, as aetatum and aetatium, civitatum and civitatium,
etc. ; the rest have usually -um : but artifex, (li)aruspex, extispex, iudex,
supplex, coniux, rgmex, and usually fomax have -ium. Forceps, manceps,
municeps, princeps have -um. Paliis has usually paludium.
Notes.— I. The accusative lentim from [I6ns] is occasionally found, and partim
from pars, as an adverb.
2. Sporadic ablatives in -i occur as follows : animantl (Cic), bidenti (Luck.),
tridenti (Sil., Vekg.). capiti, consonant! (sram.), hgrgdi (inscr.), Iggi (inscr.),
lenti (TiTiN., Col.), luci (early), menti (CoL.), occipiti (Pers., Aus.), pacS
(Varro), parti, rudenti (Vitr.), sorts, torrenti (Sen.).
26 THIRD DECLENSION".
55. Ride of Gender. — Mute stems, with Nominative in fi^
are feminine.
1. Exceptions m a k-mufe.
Masculines are substantives in -ex, -gx, -ix, and -unx ; except cortex,
bark, forfex, shears, frutex, shrub, imbrex, tile, latex, Jiuid, obex, bolt,
silex, flint, varix, varicose vein, which are sometimes masculine, some-
times feminine ; and faex, dregs, forpex, to7igs, lex, law, nex, slaughter,
vlb6x, weal, and forms of [prex], prayer, which are feminine. Calx,
heel, and calx, chalk, are sometimes masculine, sometimes feminine.
2. Exceptions in a t-mute.
Masculine are substantives in -es, -itis, except merges (f.), sheaf;
also pgs, foot, and its compounds ; parigs, wall ; lapis, sto7ie.
Masculines in -ns are : dgns, tooth, and its compounds; fons, sprifig ;
m5ns, mountain ; pons, bridge ; rudgns, rope ; torrgns, torrent ; also some
substantivized adjectives and participles.
Neuters are only : cor, heart, lac, milk, and caput, head,
II.-VOWEL STEMS.
1 .—Vowel Stems in 1.
56. Masculines and feminines form their Nominative in s.
Some feminines change, in the Nominative, the stem-
vowel i into e.
Neuters change, in the Nominative, the stem-vowel i into
e. This e is generally dropped by polysyllabic neuters after
1 and r.
Stems in i have Genitive Plural in -ium.
Neuter stems in i have the Ablative Singular in i, and
Nominative Plural in -la.
The varieties of stems are :
1. ^iSf "is : nearly one hundred substantives, like civis, citizen.
2. -eSf -is : thirty-five, like vulpgs, fox. Some of these have also
variant nominatives in -is in good usage.
3. -e^ 'is : some twenty neuters, as mare, sea.
4. — , 'is : twenty-four neuters, wliich form Nominative by dropping
the stem charjulcristic and shortcniu-^ tlic preceding vowel : animal,
-aiis, animal ; calcar ((c. calcaris), syy/^y.
5. For substantives in -e/*, -ris, see 44, 2. Irregular is senex,
((j. senis ; sec 57, r. 3), old man.
VOWEL STEMS.
27
M. r. F. N. X.
Sg.—N. collis, Z^?//. twrris, fofcer. viiipSs, fox. maxe, mt. a.mma.1, living
G.
collis,
turris,
vulpis,
maris,
animalis.
D.
colli,
turri,
vulpi,
marl,
animali,
Ac.
collem,
turrim(ein),
vulpem,
mare.
animal,
V.
collis,
turris,
vulpgs,
mare,
animal,
Ab.
colle,
turriCe),
vulpe,
mari,
animal!,
Pl.— N. colles, turrSs,
G. coUium, turri-um,
D. collibus, turri-bus,
Ac. collis(gs), turrisCSs),
V. collSs, turrgs,
Ab. collibus. turri-bus.
vulpgs, maria, animalia,
vulpium, marum, animalium,
vulpibus, maribus, animalibus,
vulpis(6s), maria, animalia,
vulpes, maria, animalia,
vulpibus. maribus. animalibus.
67. Remarks. — i. The proper ending of the Ace. Sing, -im, is re-
tained akvays in amussis, buris, cucumis (see 47, 2), futis, mephitis,
ravis, rumis, sitis, tussis, vis ; and in names of towns and rivers in -is,
as Neapolis, Tiberis ; usualUj in febris, puppis, pelvis, restis, seciiris, turris ;
occasionaUi/ in bipennis, clavis, cratis, cutis, len(ti)s (see 54, n. i), messis,
navis, neptis, praesaepis, sementis, strigilis.
2. The Abl. in -i is found in substantives that regularly have -im
in Ace. (except perhaps restis) : also not unfrequently in amnis, avis,
bipennis, canalis, civis, classis, finis (in forraulai), fustis. Ignis (in phrases),
orbis, sementis, strigilis, unguis ; occasionally in anguis, bills, clavis,
collis, convallis, corbis, messis, neptia ; regularly in neuters in e, al, and ar,
except in rgte, and in the towns Caere, Praeneste.
Note.— So also the adjectives of this class, when used as substantives by ellipsis :
annaiis (sc. liber, book), chronicle ; natalis (sc. digs, day), birthday; Aprllis (sc.
mensis, month), and all the other months of the Third Declension : Abl., annall,
natali, Aprili, SeptembrI, etc. But iuvenis, young man; and aedllis, aedUe,
have Abl., iuvene, aedile ; adjectives used as proper nouns have generally Abl. in
-e, as, luvenalis, luvenale.
3. In the Gen. PL, instead of the ending -ium, -um is found always
in canis, dog, iuvenis, yoim.g man, panis, bread, senex, old, struSs, heap,
volucris, bird; usually in apis, bee, sgdes, seat, vates, bard ; frequently
in mensis, month. On imber, etc., see 45, r. i. Post-classical and rare
are ambagum, caedum, cladum, veprum, and a few others ; marum (the
only form found) occurs once.
4. In the Nom. PI. -eis and -Is are found in early Latin. So occa-
sionally in consonant stems (see 38, i), but in classical times such usage
is doubtful.
5. The proper ending of the Ace. PI., -Is (archaic, -eis), is found fre-
quently in the classical period along with the later termination -gs, which
supplants -Is wholly in the early empire. On the other hand, -is for -gs
in consonant stems is confined to a few doubtful cases in early Latin.
28
THIRD DECLENSION".
58. Rule of Gender. — i. Vowel stems, with Nomiuative
in -es are feminine ; those with Nominative in -is are partly
masculine, partly feminine.
Masculine Kve : amnis, rive?- (f., early) ; antgs (pl.)^ '^ows ; axis, axle : huxis, 2>low-
tail; cass6s (pi), toils; cauliS; stalk; coliis, hill; crinis, hair; gnsis, glaive;
fascis, fagot ; follis, bellows ; funis, rope (f., Lucr.) ; fustis, cudgel ; ignis, fire;
manes (pi-). Manes ; mSnsis, month ; mvL^ilds), mullet ; orbis, circle ; panis, bread ;
postis, door-post ; torr is,. fire-brand ; unguis, nail ; vectis, lever ; vermis, nvrm.
Com77ion are : callis,/oo/;;a//i ,• canalis, canal ; cltinis, haunch ; corbis, basket;
finis, end ; rStis, net (also r6te, n.) ; sentis (usually pi.), bi-amble ; scrobis, ditch ;
torquis (es), necklace ; tolgs (pi.), goitre ; veprgs (pi.), bramble.
Remark. — Of the names of animals in -is, some are mascuHne ; tigris,
ilger (fern, in poetry) ; canis, dog (also fern.) ; piscis, j^sA ; others fem-
inine : apis, hee ; avis, hird ; ovis, sheep ; fglis, cat (usually feles).
2. Vowel stems, with Nominative in -e, -al, -ar, are neuter.
2. Vowel Stems in u.
59. Of stems in u, the monosyllabic stems, two in num-
ber, belong to the Third Declension.
Sg.— N. grtis, crane (f.)
Pl.— grugs
G. gruis
gruum
D. grui
gruibus
Ac. gruem
gru6s
V. grus
grugs
Ab. grue
gruibus.
Sas, swine (commonly f.), usually subus, in Dat. and Abl. Plural.
Table of Nominativk and Genitive Endings op the Third Declensiok.
The * before the ending denotes that it occurs only in the one word cited.
60.
A. NOMINATIVES ENDING WITH A LIQUID.
^OM.
Gen.
NoM. Gen.
-al
-ali-s
animal, animal.
-ar *-arr-is
far,
spdt.
■ai-is
Hannibal, proper name.
-er -er-is
anser.
goose.
-al
*.ai.is
sal, salt.
-r-is
pater,
father.
-el
-ell-is
mel, Jioney.
*-iner-is
iter.
journey.
-il
-il-is
pugil, boxer.
-6r *-gr-is
vgr.
spring.
-n-is
Tanaquil, proper name.
-or -5r-is
color,
color.
-01
*-51-is
s51, the sun..
-or-is
aequor,
expanse.
-ul
-ul-is
consul, consul.
*-ord-is
cor,
heart.
-Sn
-gn-is
rgngs (pl.), kidneys.
-ur -ur-is
fulgur.
lightning.
-en
-in-is
n5men, name.
-or-is
rSbur,
oak.
-ar
-ari-8
-ari-s
calcar, spiir.
nectar, nectar.
-Or -Or-is
fur,
thitf.
VOWEL STEMS.
29
B. NOMINATIVES ENDING WITH S, OR X (CS, gs).
NOM.
Gen.
NOM.
Gen.
-as
*-as-is
vas,
dish.
-Is
*.lt-is
puis,
porridge.
*-ar-is
mas,
male.
-m(p)s
*-m-is
hiems,
winter.
-at-is
aetas,
age.
-ns
-nd-is
frSns,
leafy branch.
-as
*-ad-is
vas.
surety.
-nt-is
frons.
foreliead.
*ass-is
as,
a copper.
-IS
-rd-is
concors,
concordant.
-at-is
anas,
duck.
-rt-is
pars.
part.
-aes"
-aed-is
praes,
surety.
-bs
-b-is
urbs,
cUy.
*aer-is
aes,
brass.
-ps
-p-is
stirps,
stalk.
•aus
-aud-is
fraus,
cJieatery.
-eps
-ip-is
princeps,
chief.
-6s
-is
nubes,
cloud.
*-up-i8
auceps,
fowler.
-ed-is
pes.
foot.
-ax
-ac-is
pax.
peace.
-ed-is
heres,
heir.
-ax
=:=-ac-is
fax.
toixh.
*-er-is
Ceres,
Ceres.
-aex
-aec-is
faex,
dregs.
-et-is
abigs.
fir.
-aux
-auc-is
[faux,]
throat.
-6t-is
quigs.
rtsf.
-ex
-ec-is
nex.
death.
es
-et-is
seges,
crop.
-ic-is
iiidex,
judge.
-id-is
obses.
hostage.
-eg-is
grex.
flock.
-it-is
miles.
soldier.
*.ig-is
rgmex.
rower.
•is
-is
amnis,
river.
-ex
*-5c-is
allgx.
jnckie.
-id-is
lapis.
stone.
*-ic-is
vibgx(ix5
(, weaJ:
-in-is
sanguis,
blood.
-gg-is
rgx.
king.
-er-is
cinis,
ashes.
-Ix
-ic-is
cervix,
neck.
-is
*-it-is
lis,
suit at laiv.
-ix
-ic-is
calix,
cup.
*-ir-is
glis,
dormouse.
*4g-is
strix,
screech-owl.
-OS
*-od-is
custos,
keeper.
*-iv-is
nix.
snow.
-or-is
^os.
flower.
-5x
-oc-is
vox.
voice.
-6t-is
cos.
whetstone.
-ox
*-oc-is
praecox.
eaHy-Hpe.
*-ov-is
bos,
ox.
*-0g-i8
AUobrox, AUoinogian.
-OS
*oss-is
OS,
bone.
*-oct-is
nox.
night.
-US
*-ud-is
pecus.
cattle, sheep.
-ux
-c-is
crux,
ovss.
*-ur-is
Ligus,
a Ligurian.
-ug-is
cSniux,
s])ouse.
-or-is
corpus,
body.
-ux
-iic-is
lux,
light.
-or-is
scelus,
crime.
-ug-is
[frux,]
f7^iL
-fis
-u-is
sus,
swine.
-Ix
-Ic-is
falx,
sickle.
-fid-is
incus,
anvil.
-nx
-nc-is
lanx,
dish.
-ur-is
ius,
right.
-rx
-re-ifi
arx.
citadel.
-ut-is
salus,
weal.
C. NOMINATIVES ENDING WITH A MUTE.
-ut *-it-is caput,
-ac *-act-is lac, milk.
=Sc *-€C-is allgc, pickle (OS, 12).
head.
D. NOMINATIVES ENDING WITH A VOWEL.
-€
-i-s
mare, sea.
-0
-on-is
Saxo, Saxon,
^
-6n-is
pav3, peacock.
-in-is
homo, mail.
*-n-is
cars, flesh.
30 VOVHTK DECOINSION'.
FOURTH DECLENSION,
61. The Fourth Declension embraces only dissyllabic and
polysyllabic stems in u.
The endings are those of the Third Declension.
In the Genitive and Ablative Singular, and in the Nomi-
native, Accusative, and Vocative Plural (sometimes, too, in
the Dative Singular), the u of the stem absorbs the vowel of
the ending, and becomes long. In the Dative and Ablative
Plural it is weakened to i before the ending -bus.
The Accusative Singular, as always in vowel stems, has
the ending -m, without a connecting vowel (compare the
Accusative in -i-m of the stems in i), hence -u-m.
MASCULINE. NEUTER.
Sti.— N. fructus, fruit. Pi>.— fructus, Sg. -cornu, /u)rn. Pi>.— comua,
G. fructus, fructuum, corniis, cornuum,
I), frtictui (fruetti), friictibus, cornu, cornibus,
Ac. fructum, fructus, cornu, comua,
V. frUctus, fructus, cornu, cornua,
Ab. fructu. friictibus. cornu. cornibus.
Remarks. — i. Dat. AIL The original form -u-bus is retained
always in acus, arcus, quercus, tribus, and in classical times in partus.
But artus, genu, lacus, portus, specus, tonitru, veru, have both forms.
2. Domus, ^owse, is declined : G. domu-os (archaic), domu-is and dorai
(early), domu-us (late), domus. D. domo (early), domul. Ac. domum.
Y. domus. Ab. dom-u (sporadic), domo. Loc^ domi. PI. N. domtis.
G. domorum (Lucr. always, Verg., Flor.), domuiim (late). D. Ab.
domibus. Ac. domos, domus. Classical forms are those in black-faced
type, A classical variant for domi (Loc.) is domul.
Notes.— 1. Singrular: Genitive. In early inscriptions we find the ending -os, as
senatuos ; and in early autliors not unfrequently -is, along with the contraction -us
(-uis), wliich becomes the regular form in classical times. In inscriptions under the
empire -us is occasionally found, as exercituus. The termination -i, after the analogy
of the Second Declension, is common ii. early Latin, and is still retained in some
words even into the classical period ; as senatl (Cic, Sall., Livy), tumult! (Sall.).
2. Dative. In the early time -uei is found very rarely for -ul. Also u, as senatti,
fructu, which became the only form for neuters. In classical times -u in masc. and
fern, is poetical only (Caesar uses, however, casu, exercitti, magistratu, senatG,
quaestu), but extends to prose in the Augustan age and later.
3. Plural : Norn.., Ace, Voe. In imperial inscriptions -uus occurs.
4. Genitive. The poets frequently (-ontract -uum iuto -um for metrical reasons,
and this usage was sometimes extended to prose (not by Ciceko) in common words ; as
passflm for passuum.
5. Colus, distaff, belongs properly to tte Second Declension, but has variants : Q.
COltlS, Ab. colli, P1-, N., Ac, colus, from the Fourth.
FIFTH DECLEKSION". 3 1
62. Rule of Gender. — Substantives in -us are masculine ;
those in -u are neuter.
Exceptions. — Feminines are acus, needle (usually), domus, house,
idus (pi.), ihe Ides, manus, hajid, penus, victuals (also m.), porticus,
piazza, quinquatrus (pL), festival of Jlinerva, tribus, ti'ibe. Eai'ly and
late Latin show some further variations.
FIFTH DECLENSION.
63. The stem ends in -6 ; Nominative in s.
In the Genitive and Dative Singular -e has been shortened
after a consonant.
In the Accusative Singular we find, always e.
The ending in the Genitive Singular is that of the Second
Declension, -i ; the other endings are those of the Third.
MASCULINE.
FEMININE.
k~N.
digs, day.
Pl.-
-dies,
Sq.-
-rgs.
thing.
Pl.-
-res.
G.
diet,
dieruin,
rei.
rgrum,
D.
diei,
diebus,
rei.
rgbus,
Ac.
diem,
dies,
rem
>
rgs,
V.
dies,
digs,
rgs.
rgs,
Ab.
die.
digbus.
r6.
rgbus.
Remarks. — i. Plural : Gen., Dat., AM. Common in but two substan-
tives, dies, rgs. Late Latin shows also specigbus, and very rarely spgbus
and acigbus.
2. Many words of the Fifth Declension have a parallel form, which
follows the First Declension, us mollitigs, softness, and moUitia. Where
this is the case, forms of the Fifth Declension are usually found only
in the Nom., Ace, and Abl. Singular.
Notes.— 1. Singular : Genitive. The older ending -g-s is found sporadically in
early Latin, but usually the ending -g-i, which became later -§-i after consonants,
though early poets show numerous examples of rgi, spgl, fidgl. gl was occasionally
scanned as one syllable, whence arose the contraction g, which is retained not unfre-
quently m the classical period ; so acig (Caes., Sall.), dig (Pl., Caes., Ball., Livr,
later), fidg (Pl., Hok., Ov., late Prose), and other less certain cases; ioccursvery rarely,
principally in early Latin (but dil, Verg., pemicil, Cic). Plgbgs, in combination
with tribunus, aedilis, scitum, often shows a Gen. plgbi (plebei).
2. Dative. The contraction -g is found, but less often than in the Gen. ; acie
(8all.) ; dig, facie (early Latin) ; fidg (early Latin, Caes., Sall , Livy), perniciS
(LrvY), and a few other forms. The Dat. in -i is found very rarely in early Latin.
64. Rule of Gender. — Substantives of the Fifth Declension
are feminine except dies (which in the Sing, is common,
and in the PI. masculine), and meridies (m.), midday.
32
DECLEJS^SION OF GREEK SUBSTANTIVES.
Declension of Greek Substantives.
66. Greek substantives, especially proper names, are com-
monly Latinized, and declined regularly according to their
stem-characteristic. Many substantives, however, either
retain their Greek form exclusively, or have the Greek and
Latin forms side by side. These variations occur principally
in the Singular, in the Plural the declension is usually regular.
Singular Forms <
of Greek Substantives.
First
Declension.
N.
Penelopg,
Leonidas,
Anchises,
G.
PSnelopgs,
Leonidae,
Anchisae,
D.
Penelopae,
Leonidae,
Anchisae,
Ac.
Penelopen,
Leonidam, an.
Anchisgn, am,
V.
PSnelopg,
Leonida,
Anchisg, a, ft,
Ab.
Pgnelopa.
Leonida.
Anchisa.
Second Declension.
N.
Delos
, us. Ilion, urn,
Panthus,
Androgeos, us,
G.
D§li,
Ilii,
Panthi,
Androgei,
D.
Dglo,
Ilio,
PanthO,
Androgeo,
Ac.
Delon
, um, Ilion, um.
Panthun,
AndrogeSn, 5, 5na,
V.
DSle,
Ilion, um.
Panthu,
Androgeos,
Ab.
Delo.
ilio.
Third
Panth5.
Declension.
Androgeo.
N.
Solon
, Solo, a6r, air.
Xenophon,
Atlas,
G.
Solonis, aeris,
Xenophontis,
Atlantis,
D.
Soloni, aeri,
Xenophonti,
Atlanti,
Ac.
Solona, em, aera, em,
Xenophonta, em.
, Atlanta,
V.
Solon
a6r.
Xenophon,
Atla,
Ab.
Solone. aere.
Xenophonte.
Atlante.
N.
Thalgs,
Paris,
hgros, hero^
G.
Thal-etis, -is,
Paridis, os.
hgrois,
D.
Thal-eti, -i.
Paridi, i,
hgroi.
Ac.
Thal-gta, -6n, -em.
Par-ida, -im, -in,
hgroa, em,
V.
Thais,
Pari, Paris,
hgros,
Ab.
Thais.
Mixed
Paride.
Declensions.
hgroe.
n. m.
11. in.
II. in.
N.
Orpheus,
Athds,
Oedipus,
G.
Orphei, ei.
Ath5, 5nis,
Oedip-odis, -I,
D.
Orpheo,
Ath6,
Oedipodi,
Ac.
Orpheum, ea^
Athd, On, dnem,
Oedip-um, -oda,
V.
Orpheu,
Athos,
Oedipe,
Ab.
OrpheO.
Ath5ne.
Oedip-ode, -5.
IRREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES.
33
11. III.
II. III.
III. ly.
Achilles, eus,
Socratgs,
Did5,
Achillis, ei, I, eos,
Socratis, i,
Didus, onis,
Achilli,
Socrati,
Dido, oni,
Achillem, ea, en,
Socraten, em,
Dido, onem,
Achilles, e, eu, e,
Socrate, es,
Dido,
Achille, e, I.
Socrate.
Dido, one.
N.
G.
D.
Ac.
V.
Ab.
Remarks. — r. In the Gen. PI. -on and -eon are found in the titles of
books ; as, Georgicon, Metamorphoseon.
2. Many Greek names, of tlie Thii'd Declension in Latin, pass over
into the First Declension in the Plural ; as, Thucydidas, Hyperidae, and
many names in -cratSs ; as Socrates ; PL, Socratae (also SocratSs).
3. In transferring Greek words into Latin, the Accusative Singular
was sometimes taken as the stem:
So Kpari^p, Ace. KpaTTJpa, {punch) howl.
cratgr, cratgris (masc), and cratSra (crSterra) crat6rae (fem.).
2a\a|iCs, Ace. SaXa^jiiva, Salamis.
Salamis, Salaminis, and Salamina, ae.
66. Notes.— 1. Swgular : Genitive. The Greek termination oeo (oto) appears
rarely in early Latin, but Q, (ow) is more frequent, esjiecially in geographical names, etc.
The termination -os (o?) is rare except in feminine patronymics in -is, -as, (G. -idos,
-ados).
2. Dative. The ending -i is very rare ; and rarer still is the Dat, in -0 from femi-
nines in -5, and Dat. in -y from Nominatives in -ys.
3. Accusative., -a is the most common termination in the Third Declension, and is
found regularly in some words otherwise Latinized ; as aera, aethera. Stems in -5
usually have -5, very rarely -Sn.
4. Plural. In the Second Declension oe is found occasionally in the Nom., in early
Latin ; as, adelphoe. The Third Declension shows frequently 6s in the Nom. and is
in the Accusative ; also occasionally g in the Nom. and Ace. of neuters, and -si (but
only in the poets) in the Dative.
5. For other i)eculiaritie8, not observable in the paradigms, the dictionaries should
be consulted. Sometimes the forms are merely transliterations of Greek cases.
IRREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES.
1. Redundant Substantives. (Abundantia.)
67. A. Heterogeneous Substantives, or those whose gender varies :
I. The variation occurs in several cases in either number or in both.
ahrotonum, -us, a plant (rare), clipeus,
aevom (urn), -us, age, collura,
baculum, -us, staff, costum,
balteus, -um, girdle, forum,
buxus, -um, box-wood (rare), gladius,
[calamister], -um, curlirig-iron (rare), intihus,
caseus, -um, cheese, iugulum,
cavom (um), -us, cavity^ nardum,
cingulum, -us, belt, uasus,
3
-um,
-us,
-us,
-us,
-um,
-um,
-us,
-us,
-um,
shield,
neck,
a plant (rare),
market,
sivord,
succory (rare),
collar-boue,
nard (rare),
nose.
palatum,
-us,
palate,
pileus,
-um,
cap,
sagum,
-us,
cloak.
tergum,
-us,
hack,
34 IRREGULAR SUBSTAKTIYES.
thgsaurus, -um, treasure,
uterus, -um, womb,
vallus, -um, palisade,
and many others.
2. The gender varies in Singular and Plural, a. The Plural has
-a sometimes, while the Singular ends in -us (or -er) : clivus, hill, locus,
jest, locus (loca, localities ; loci, usually passages in books, topics), and
many others, especially names of places.
b. The Plural has -i, while the Singular ends in -um : Slum, thread,
frgnum, bit, rastrum, hoe, and many others.
68. B. Heteroclites, or substantives which show diiferent stems with
the same Nominative ; Jletaplasts, or those which have certain forms
from another than the Nominative stem.
list, 2d. esseda, -um, chariot, margarita, -um, jyearl,
ostrea, -um, oyster,
2. 1st, 5tli. duritia, -gs, hardness, materia, -5s, matter,
and many others. See G3, R. 2.
3. 2d, 1st. mendum, -a, favlt, sertum, -a, u-reath.
The following form their Plural according to the First Declension only : balneum,
bath, delicium, pleamre, epulum, banquet, fulmentum, prop.
4. 2d, 3d. sequester, trustee, Mulciber, Vulcan.
5. 2d, 4th. Many names of trees of the Second Declension have certain cases
according to the Fourth ; never, however, the Gen. and Dut. PI., and very rarely the
Dat. Sing. ; as cornus, cupressus, fagus, ficus, laurus, myrtus, pinus, and a
few others.
Also angiportus, allej/, colus, distaff, domus, Jvouse, and a large number of sub-
stantives of the Fourth Declension which have one or two cases of the Second ; so
arcus has G. arcl; conatus (-um), itissus (-um), vultus have Nom. Pi. in a;
senatus has Gen. Sing, senatl. See 61, rr, nn.
Finally, some substantives of the Second Declension form individual cases accord-
ing to the Fourth : fasti (Ac. PL fasttis), fretum (N. fretus, Ab. fretu), lectus (G.
lectus), tributum (N. tributus), and others.
c. 2d, 5tli. diluvium, -es, /oof^.
7. 3d. 2d. Vas, vessel, and vasum ; palumbes, pigeon, and palumbus ; liiiger],
acre, and iugerum ; all Greek nouns in -a (G. atis), as poSma, poem (G. poSmatis),
but PI. Gen. poSmatSrum, Dat. Abl. poSmatls.
8. 3d, 5th. Fames, hunger, tabes, cormption, have Abl. fam6, tabS ; requigs,
qmel ''G. -gtis) has Ace. requiem, Abl. requie ; satias (G. atis) is early and late for
satietas, sufficiency, and a form satigs is cited from late authors ; plgbs (G. plgbis),
cmmnons, and plgbes (G. plgbel).
9. 4th, 3d. Specus, cave, has occasionally forms of the Third Declension.
10. 2d, 3d, 1st. Vesper, evening, has Ace. vesperum; Dat. Abl. vespero; PI.
Nom. vespera of the Second Declensioii ; Ace. vesperam ; Abl. vesperaof the First ;
Gen. vesperis ; Abl. vespere ; Loc. vespere, vesperi of the Third.
11. 4th, 2d, 3d. PenuS,/oorf, (G. tis). Forms of the Second Declension are rare ;
of the Third early and late.
12. Variations in the same Declension : femur (G. femoris, feminis, etc:) ; iecur
(G. iecoris, iecinoris, etc.) ; pecus, early, also pecu (G. pecoris, pecudis, etc.).
Also allgc and allSx, baccar and baccaris, cassis and cassida, lac and lacte
(early), panis and pSne (early), r6te and rStis, satias and satietas.
IRREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES.
35
II. Defective Substantives.
I. SUBSTANTIVES DEFECTIVE IN NUMBER.
69. A. Substantives used in Singular only : Singularia tantum.
Most abstract substantives, and names of materials ; such as
iHstitia, justice, aurum, gold.
B. Substantives used in Plural only : Pluralia tantum.
altaria, ium,
altar (sing. late).
insidiae,
ambuscade.
ambages,
round about.
lactes.
intestines.
angustiae,
straits.
lamenta,
lamentations.
antae,
door-posts.
lautomiae,
stone-quarries.
antes,
rows (of vines).
liberi,
children.
arma, 5rum,
arms.
manes,
shades of the dead.
armamenta, orum
I, tackle.
manubiae,
spoils.
bellaria, orum,
desse7i.
minae.
threats.
bigae, quadrigae,
t wo-horse, four-hors>
e moenia, ium.
town-wall.
chariot (sing. late), nundinae (-num),
market.
cancelli,
lattice.
nuptiae.
ivedding.
casses,
foils (snare).
palpebrae.
eyelids (sing, late).
caulae,
opening.
parentalia,
festival for dead rdcb-
cervicSs,
neck (sing, early, late,
tions.
and poet.).
parietinae,
ruins.
cibaria.
victuals.
penates,
the Penates.
claustrum,
lock (sing. late).
plialerae.
trappings.
clitellae.
pack-saddle.
praecordia, orum,
diaphragm.
codicilli.
a short note.
praestrigiae.
jugglers' t?icks.
compedes,
fetters.
preces, -um.
prayer.
crepundia, orum,
rattle.
primitiae.
first-fruits.
cunae.
cradle.
quisquiliae,
i-ubbish.
divitiae,
nches.
reliquiae.
remains.
dumeta, orum,
thorn-bush.
renes.
kidneys.
epulae (epulum),
banquet.
salinae.
salt-pits.
excubiae.
watching.
scalae.
stairway.
exsequiae,
funeral procession .
sentes,
brambles.
exta, orum,
the internal organs.
spolia, orum.
spoils (sing, late, and
exuviae,
equipments.
poet.).
facetiae.
■intlicism (sing, ear-
sponsalia, ium.
betrothal.
ly and late).
suppetiae,
succo)^ (early and late).
fasti (fastus),
calendar.
talaria, ium.
winged sandals.
fauces.
gullet.
tenebrae,
darkness.
fSriae,
holidays.
thermae,
warm baths.
flabra,
breezes.
tonsillae.
tonsils.
fores,
door (sing, early,
tormina.
colic.
late and poet.).
tricae,
tricks.
fraga, drum,
straicber7i.es.
utensilia, ium.
necessaries.
grates,
thanks.
valvae,
folding-doors.
hiberna,
winter quarters.
verbera, um.
scourging (sing, poet
Idus, Kalendae,
Ides, Calends,
and late).
Nonae,
Nones.
vindiciae,
a legal claim.
incunabula,
swaddling-clothes.
virgulta, orum,
shmbbery.
xndutiae.
truce.
viscera.
entrails (sing, poet
Inferisie,
sacHJicesfor the dead.
and late).
36
lEKEGULAR SUBSTANTIVES.
Notes.— 1. Four of these have the Abl. Sing, in -e: ambage, COmpede, fauce,
prece.
2. Names of persons or towns, and collectives and the like, may be either singu-
laria tantum, as liippiter ; Roma ; capillus, hair ; or pluralia tantum, as
maiSrSs, ancestors ; Quirites ; liberi, children ; pulmones, lungs. Many of these
are not included in the above list, which is meant to contain only the principal forms.
Akin to pluralia tantum are :
C. Substantives used in Plural
with a special sense : Heterologa.
aedSs, is,
(em2)le (better aedis),
aedes.
house, 2mlace.
aqua,
water.
aquae.
mineral sjnings.
auxilium,
help,
auxilia,
auxilianes, reinforcements.
career.
j)rison.
carceres,
barriers.
castrum,
fori.
castra,
camp.
csra,
tvax.
c5rae.
waxen tablets.
comitium,
place of assemblage.
comitia.
assemblage for voting.
copia,
abundance.
copiae.
forces, troops.
dSlicium,
pleasure.
deliciae,
pet.
facultas,
capability.
facultatgs.
goods.
finis.
end, limit.
fings.
territory, borders.
forttina,
fortune.
fortunae.
2X)ssessions.
habSna,
strap.
habenae.
reins.
imDedimentum,
hindrance.
impedimenta, baggage.
littera,
letter (of the alphabet), litterae,
ejnstle, literature.
ludus,
game, school.
ludi.
p^iblic games.
opera.
work.
operas.
workmen.
pars.
part.
partes.
also rde.
rostrum,
beak.
rostra.
the tmbunal at Rome.
sors.
lot.
sortgs.
also oracle.
tabula.
board, iat^let.
tabulae.
also accounts.
vigilia,
a night-watch,
vigiliae,
inchets.
2. SUBSTANTIVES DEFECTIVE IN CASE.
70. A. Substantives occurring in only one case : (Jen. dici8,/wvw ; Ace. InfitiSs
(Ire), (to) lie ; pessum (Ire), (to) jwrish : Abl. pond5, in weight ; sponte, of free will ;
tabs, corruption (Gen. late) ; and many verbals in ti, as accltti, admonitti, arcessltti,
coactu, compressu, concgssu, domitu, inductu, interpositH, invitatti, iussu
(other forms late), iniussii, mandatti, missti, natu, permissu, promptu, rogatu.
A few others occur occasionally in ante-classical and post-classical Latin.
B. Substantives with only two cases : fgs, ne^, Sing. N. Ac. ; Instar, Sing. N. Ac. ;
interneciS, Sing. Ac. Ab. ; naucum, Sing. G. Ac. ; secus, Sing. N. Ac. ; spinter, Sing.
N. Ac; suppetiae, Plur. N. Ac, and a few others. Some verbals in -ns have in Plural
only Noni. and Ace, a8 impetus, monitOs. Greek neuters in -os have only Nom. and
Ace. Singular.
C. Substantives with three cases : faez, Sing. N., D., Plur. Ab. ; virus, slime ; Sing,
N., G., Ab.
D. Defective substantives with more than three cases are numerous, but in the
classical period the most importimt are : calx, lime, c5s, [dapsl , dica, { dicio] , flamen,
blast, forum, [tiixl, [indago], later, liix, [ops],6s,/?wyw7//, pax, rgmex, vis, [vix],
and most substantives of the Fifth Dccleusiou. The Noaiiaalivcs in brackets do not
occur, but only oblique cases.
E. N6m8, nobody, substitutes for Gen. and Abl. ntillius hominis, and nW@
homine. in the rat. and Ace. it is normal ; nSminI, nfiminem.
ADJECTIVES.
37
71.
III. Peculiarities.
as, assis (m.), a ccrprper.
auceps, aucupis, fmder.
bos (for bovs), bovis (c), ox, cmo.
G. PI. bourn.
D. Ab. btibus, bobus.
caput, capitis (n.)) head.
anceps, ancipitis, two-headed.
TOraeceps, -cipitis, headlong.
caro,carnis {L), flesh.
PI. G. carnium.
Cer6s, Cereris, Ceres.
far, farris (n.) spelt.
fel, felUs (n.), gall.
femur, femoris (n.), thigh.
femiuis.
iter, itineris Cn.), way, route
iecur, iecoris (n.), liver.
iecinoris, ieciueris, iocineris.
luppiter, lovis.
mel, mollis (n.), Jioney.
nix, nivis (f.), enow.
OS, ossis (n.), bone (48 r.).
5s, oris (n.), mouth.
pollis,j)olliiiis {m.\florir.
sanguis, sanguinis (m.), blood.
senex, senis, old man.
supellgx, supellectilis (f .). furniture.
Venus, Veneris, Yenm.
ADJECTIVES.
72. The adjective adds a quality to the substantive. Ad-
jectives have the same declension as substantives, and accord-
ing to the stem-characteristic are of the First and Second, or
Third Declension.
Adjectives of the First and Second Declension.
73. Stems in -o for masculine and neuter, -a for feminine ;
nominative in -us, -a, -urn ; (er), -a, -um. The same variations
in termination occur as in the substantives ; except that
adjectives in -ius form Singular Genitive and Vocative regu-
larly. See 33, E. i and 2.
Bonus, bona, bonum, good.
M.
F.
N.
M.
F.
N.
Sg.— N. bonus.
bona.
bonum.
Pl.— boni.
bonae.
bona.
G. boni.
bonae.
bonl.
bonorum,
bonarum,
bonorum.
D. bono,
bonae.
bonS.
bonis.
bonis.
bonis.
Ac. bonum.
bonam.
bonum.
bonos,
bonas.
bona.
V. bone.
bona,
bonum.
boni.
bonae.
bona.
Ab. bonS,
bona,
bono.
bonis.
bonis,
bonis.
Miser, misera, miserum, wretched.
Sg.— N. miser,
G. miseri
D. misero, miserae, misero.
Ac. miserum, miseram, miserum.
V. miser, misera, miserum.
Ab. misero, misera, misero.
misera, miserum. Pl.— miseri, miserae, misera.
miserae, miseri. miserorum, miserarum, miserorum,
miseris, miseris, miseris.
miseros, miseras, misera.
miseri, miserae, misera.
miseris, miseris, miseris.
pigris,
pigris,
pigris.
pigros,
pigras,
pigra.
pigri,
pigrae,
pigra.
pigris,
pigris,
pigris.
38 ADJECTIVES.
Piger, pigra, pigrum, sloto.
Sg.— N. piger, pigra, pigrum. Pl.— pigrI, pigrae, pigra.
G. pigri, pigrae, pigri. pigrorum, pigrarum, pigrorunic
D. pigro, pigrae, pigro.
Ac. pigrum, pigram, pigrum.
V. piger, pigra, pigrum.
Ab. pigro, pigra, pigro.
Remark. — For irregularities in the declension of ambS, both, duo,
two, see 95 ; for meus, my, see 100, R. i.
74. Stems in -ro follow tlie same principle in the forma-
tion of the Nominative masculine as the substantives, except
that -us is retained in ferus, ivild, properus, quivh, praepro-
perus, praeposterus, absurd, inferus, loiver (infer is early),
superus, upper (super is early), and a few others in late Latin ;
also when -ro is preceded by a long vowel ; as, austerus,
harsh, maturus, early, procerus, tall, purus, jmre, severus,
seriotts, sincerus, sincere, serus, late, verus, true.
Remarks. — i. Dextera, dexterum, etc., right, are found side by side
with dextra, dextrum, etc., throughout the language (see 8, 2). Caesar
uses only the shorter form.
2. A few adjectives of this class lack the Nom. Sing, wholly or in
part ; so there is no cSterus or posterus in the classical period.
75. Notes on the Cases.— 1. The Gen. Sing, in -I from adjectives in -ius occurs
occasionally in inscriptions and in late authors. The Gen. Sing. fern, in early Latin
had sometimes ai, and in inscriptions occasionally -aes and -es.
2. The Dat. Sing. fem. in early Latin occasionally ended in -al, and in the oldest
inscriptions in -a,
3. In early inscriptions the -d of the Abl. is occasionally retained.
4. Very rarely in early inscriptions does the Nom. PI. masc. end in -eis, and in one
case the Nom. PI. fern of a perfect participle ends in -ai.
5. In poetry, but at all periods, we find -um alongside of -5rum and -grum in the
Gen. Plural.
C. In the Dat. and Abl. PI. -iJs from adjectives in -ius is often contracted to is ;
usually in names of months and ia adjectives formed from proper names. In early
inscriptions -abus is found occasionally for -Is in the Dat. and Abl. I'l. feminine.
76. The so-called pronominal adjectives alter, one of the
two ; alteruter (a combination of alter and uter), either of
the two ; alius, other ; neuter, 7ieither ; nuUus, none; solus,
sole;_ totus, tohoU ; uUus, any ; unus, one ; uter, tvhicli of the
two, and their compounds, show the following variations in
declension :
ADJECTIVES. 39
1. They usually make the Gen. Sing, in -lus for all genders.
Remarks. — i. The Gen. alius is very rare, and as a possessive its
place is usually taken by alignus.
2. The I of the ending -ius (except in alius) could be shortened in
poetry. This was usually the case with alter, and regularly in the
compounds of uter ; as, utriusque.
Note. — The regular forms are early and rare ; in classical prose only nulli (Cic.
Rose. Com. i6, 48) and occasionally aliae.
2. They usually make the Dat. Sing, in -I.
Note.— Regular forms are Bometimes found, but in classical prose only alterae,
nuUo, t5tO, and perhaps t5tae. All is found in early Latin for alii.
3. In the compound alteruter we find usually both parts declined ;
sometimes the second only.
4. Alius makes Noni. and Ace. Sing, neuter irregularly : aUud.
Note.— Alis and alid, for alius and aliud, are early and rare ; the latter, however,
occurs several times in Luck, and once in Catullus.
Adjectives of the Third Declension.
77. The declension of the adjectives of the Third Declen-
sion follows the rules given for the substantives.
Most adjectives of the Third Declension are vowel stems
in -1, with two (rarely three) endings in the Nominative.
The remaining adjectives of the Third Declension are con-
sonant stems and have one ending only in the Nominative.
ADJECTIVES OF TWO ENDINGS.
78. I. These have (except stems in -ri) one ending in the
Nominative for masculine and feminine, one for neuter.
Most stems in -1 form the masculine and feminine alike,
with Nominative in s; but the Nominative neuter weakens
the characteristic i into e. (Compare mare, sea.)
2, Several stems in -i, preceded by r (cr, tr, br), form the
Nominative masculine, not by affixing s, but by dropping the
i and inserting short e before the r, as, stem acri, sharp,
Nom., acer (m.), acris (f.), acre (n.).
These adjectives are acer, alacer, campester, celeber, celer, equester,
paluster, pedester, puter, saltiber, Silvester, terrester, volucer, and the last
four months ; and are sometimes called adjectives of three endings.
The 6 belongs to the stem in celer, celeris, celere, swifty and therefor©
appears in all cases.
40
ADJECTIVES.
M. and F.
N.
M.
P.
N.
Sq.— N.
facilis, easy.
facile,
acer, sharp.
acris,
acre,
G.
facilis,
facilis,
acris,
acris,
acris.
D.
facili,
facili,
acri,
acri,
acri,
Ac.
fEtcilem,
facHe,
acrem.
acrem.
acre,
V.
faciUs,
facile.
acer.
acris,
acre.
Ab.
fadU.
facili.
acri.
acrt
acri.
Pu— N.
fafiilSs,
facilia,
acres,
acres.
acria.
G.
fEunliimi)
facilium,
acrinm,
acrium,
acrium,
D.
feciUbiis,
facilibus,
acribus.
acribus.
acribus,
Ac.
faciles (is),
facilia.
acres (is),
acres (is)
, acria,
V.
facilgs,
facilia,
acres,
acrgs.
acria,
Ab.
facilibiis.
facilibus.
acribus.
acribus.
acribus.
Remark. — Stems in -ali and -ari differ from the substantival declen-
sion in not suffering apocope in the Nom. Sing, neuter, except occa-
sionally capital. See 56.
79. Remarks. — i. Many adjectives of two endings (except stems
in -ri) have also -e in the Ablative. This is found chiefly in the poets,
very rarely, if ever, in classical prose, occasionally in early and pre-
Augustaii prose, and more often in inscriptions. When, however,
these adjectives become proper names, -e is the i-ule. See 57, r. 2, n.
2. The Gen. PI. in -um is found occasionally in inscriptions, fre-
quently in the poets. In classical prose are found only Titiensum and
familiarum.
Notes.— 1 . The Nom. PI. has in early Latin not nnfrequently -is.
2. In the Ace. PI., maec. and fern., of adjectives, the ending -is (eis) is found along-
tjide of -Ss in every period of the language, though in decreasing proportion, and after
the Augustan period principally in ormpTi^,
ADJECTIVES OF ONE ENDING.
80. Adjective stems of one ending (consonant stems) close
with 1, r, s, a p mute, a k mute, or a t mute. Examples are :
vigil, «^er<, meinor, mim^ul, pauper, /ww, cicur, tame, ptib6s, adult, veins, dd,
vigilis. memaris. pauperis. cicuris. puberis. veteris.
rarticeps, sharing^
participis.
caelebs, "unmarried,
caelibis.
mops, voor,
iuopis.
audax, hold, fSlIx, htcky, duplex, doMe, fsst^^Ly fierce, trux, savage,
audacis. felicis. duplicis. ferocis. trucis.
dives, rich, dSses, ^Mhfvl, compos, possessed of, pr1id6ns, wise, concoiis, harmwiiom,
divitia. desidis. compotis. prfldentis. concordis.
ADJECTIVES.
41
Present active participles are ?.lso consonant stems and
follow the same declension.
81. The stem varieties are :
1. Liquid stems in (a) -1: vigil (G. vigil-is), alert, pervigil ; (&) -r: par(G.
par-is), equal, impar (these two lengthen the vowel in the Nom.), compar, and three
others ; pauper (G. pauper-is), poor, uber ; memor (G. memor-is), mindful, im-
memor ; concolor (G. -6r-is), and three other compounds of color ; dggener (G.
-er-is), from genus (G. gener-is).
2. Sibilant stems in («) -s : exos (G. exoss-is), boneless (Lucr.) ; {b) -r : gnarus
(G. gnarur-is ; Plaut), Ligus, vetus ; pubgs (G. puber-is), impubgs.
3. Mute stems in («) a K-mute : audax (G. audac-is), bold, and four others ; felix
(G. felic-is), pernix, atrSx (G. atroc-is), ferox, velox ; exlex (G. -Igg-is) ; trux
(G. truc-is), redux ; the multiplicativcs in -plex (G. -plic-is), as simplex, etc. (b) A
p-mute : inops (G. inop-is) ; caelebs (G. caelib-is) ; compounds of -ceps (G. -cip-is,
from capere), as particeps, and of -ceps (G. -cipit-is, from caput), as anceps, prae-
ceps (Plaut. sometimes uses, in the Nom., ancipes, praecipes, etc.). (c) A T-mute :
hebes (G. hebet-is) and three others ; locuples (G. -pl6t-is) and three others ; dives
(G. divit-is), for which in poetry dis (G. dit-is), sospes ; compos (G. compot-is),
impos ; superstes (G. -sti-tis), ales ; exhergs (G. 6d-is) ; d6ses (G. desid-is),
reses ; compounds from substantives : consors (G. -sort-is), exsors ; concors, dis-
cors, misericors, sScors, v5cors ; expers ((t. -ert-is), iners, sollers ; amgns (G.
ament-is), dgmgns ; intercus (G. cut-is) ; pernox (G. -noct-is) ; bipgs (G. -ped-is),
quadrupgs, alipgs ; adjectives and participles in -ans, -ens (G. -ant-is, -ent-is) ;
and proper names in -as (G. at-is), -IS (G. -It-is), -ns (G. -nt-is), -rs (G. -rt-is),
Arpinas, Samnis, Veigns, Gamers.
82. The consonant stems have the same forms in all the
genders, except that in the Accusative Singular, and in the
Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative Plural, the neuter is
distinguished from the masculine and feminine.
In the oblique cases they follow in part the declension of
vowel stems ; thus,
1. In the Ablative Singular they have i and e — when used
as adjectives commonly i ; when used as substantives com-
monly e.
The participles, as such, have e ; but used as substantives
or adjectives, either e or i, with tendency to I.
2. In the neuter Plural they have ia ; except vetus, old,
which has Vetera. Many have no neuter.
3. In the Genitive Plural they have : ium, when the stem-
characteristic is preceded by a long vowel or a consonant ;
um, when the characteristic is preceded by a short vowel.
The participles have ium.
42
ADJECTIVES.
M. and F. N.
M. and F. N.
M. and F. N.
So.-
-N.
G.
D.
Ac.
Y.
fSlix,^«c^?/,fSlIx,
felicis, felicis,
felici, fglici,
fglicem, felix,
feUx, fglix.
prudgns,?f'i?(', prudgns,
prudentis, prudentis,
prMenti, prtidenti,
prudentem, prudens,
prudgns, prudens.
vetus, old, vetus,
veteris, veteris,
veteri, veteri,
veterem, vetus,
vetus, vetus.
]\r. and F.
N.
M. and F.
N.
-N.
amans, loving.
amans,
PL.-amantgs,
amantia.
G.
amantis,
amantis,
amantium.
amantium,
D.
amanti,
amanti,
amantibas.
amantibus,
Ac.
amantem,
amans,
amantgs (is),
amantia.
y.
amans,
amans.
amantes.
amantia,
Ab.
amante (i).
amante (i).
' amantibus.
amantibus.
Ab. fglici (e) felici (e) prudenti (e) prudenti (e) vetere (i) vetere (i)
Pl.— N. fgliogs, fglicia, prudentes, prudentia, vetergs, Vetera,
G. felicium, fglicium, prudentium, prMentium, veterum, veterum,
D. fglicibus, fglicibus, prudentibus, prudentibus, veteribus, veteribus,
Ac. fglicgs, fglicia, prudentgs, prudentia, vetergs, vetera,
V. fglicgs, fglicia, prudentgs, prudentia, vetergs, vetera,
Ab. fglicibus, fglicibus. prudentibus, prudentibus. veteribus, veteribus.
Sg.
83. Remark. — In early and late Latin, and at all periods in the
poets, -e is often found for -i in the Abl. Singular. In classical prose
-"Ne. find regularly compote, dgside, imptibere, participe, paupere, pubere,
euperstite, v^ere, and frequently divite (but always diti), quadrupede,
sapiente. With participles, -i is usual when they are nsed as adjectives,
but classical prose shows -e also in antecgdgns, candSns, consentigns,
dgspicigns, efflugns, Mans, immingns, infiugns, profluens, consequgns (but
sequgns not before Livy), titubans, vertgns.
Notes. — 1. In the Nom. and Ace. PI. -is for§s belongs to early Latin and the poets,
but a few cases of the Ace. are still found in CicEito. In the case of participles -is is
very common, and is the rule in Vergil and Horace. In the neuter, -a for -ia is
found only in ubera, vetera ; ditia is ahvays used for the unsyncopated form
divitia.
2. Compound adjectives, whose primitives had -um in Gren. PL, have usually -um
instead of -ium ; quadrupes, quadrupedum, and other compounds of pgs ; inops,
inopum ; supplex, supplicum. Also, cicur, cicurum ; vetus, veterum ; dives,
divitum; locuplgs, locuplgtum (rare, usually -ium). In the poets and in later
writers, -um is not uufrequcntly found where classical prose uses -ium.
Irregular Adjectives.
84. A. Abundantia.
I. Some adjectives which end in -us, -a, -um, in the classical times,
sliow occasionally in early Latin, in ilio poets, and in later Latin, forms
in -is, -e, e. g., imbgcillus and imbgcillis; infrgnus and Infrgnis; biiugus
and biiugis , violentus and violgns ; indecorus and indecoris ; so also
perpetuus and perpes. In a number of other adjectives the variant
iorms are very rare or disputed.
ADJECTIVES. 43
2. Many adjectives which end in -is, -e, in the classical times, show
parallel forms in -us, -a, -um, in early Latin, and more rarely in late
Latin. Adjectives in -us, -a, -um, in early Latin, seem to have had a
tendency to go over into forms in -is, -e. Thus, hilarus is the regular
form in early Latin ; in Cicero it is used side by side with hilaris,
and later hilaris is universal. Other examples in the classical period
are inermis and inermus ; imberbis and imberbus ; alaris and alarius ;
auxiliaris and auxiliarius ; intercalaris and intercalarius ; talaris and
talarius.
85. B. Defective.
1. Several adjectives lack a Nom. Singular, wholly or in part : as,
cetera (f), ceterum, perperum (u.), nuperum (n.), primoris (G.), bimaris
(G.), bimatris (G.), tricorporis (G.), and a few others.
2. Some adjectives are defective in other cases : thus, exspes and
perdius, -a are found only in the Nom. ; exlgx only in the Noin. and Ace.
(exlegem) ; pernox only in Nom., Abl. (pernocte), and Nom. PI. (pernoctgs,
rare) ; centimanus has only the Ace. Sing. (Hor., Ov.) ; also unimanus
(Liv.), and a few others.
C. Indeclinables.
Ngquam ; potis, and pote (early) ; frugl ; macte (mactus, -um, very
rare) ; necesse, necessum, and necessus (early and poetical) ; volup and
volupe (early) ; and the judicial damnas.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
86. The Degrees of Comparison are : Positive, Compara-
tive, and Superlative.
The Comparative is formed by adding to the consonant
stems the endings -ior for the masculine and feminine, and
-ius for the neuter.
The Superlative is formed by adding to the consonant
stems the endings -is-simus, -a, -um (earlier -is-sumus).
Vowel stems, before forming the Comparative and Super-
lative, drop their characteristic vowel.
Positive.
COMrAKATIVE.
M. and F. N.
SUPEKLATIVE.
altus,a,um, high.
altior, higher, altius,
altissimus, a, um, highest
fortis, e, brave,
fortior, fortius,
fortissimus.
utilis, e, usefuU
utilior, utilius,
titilissimus.
audax, bold,
audacior, audacius,
audacissimus.
prudgns, wise.
prudentior, prudentius,
prudentissimus.
Note.— In early Latin we find very rarely -iQs for ior ; also -ior used for the neuter
as well.
44 ADJECTIVES.
Peculiarities.
87. I. Adjectives in -er add the Superlative ending (-rumus) -rimus
(for -simus by assimilation ; see 9, i) directly to the Nominative mascu-
line. The Comparative follows the rule.
Positive. Comparative. Superlative.
miser, a, um, wretched, miserior, miserius, miserrimus.
celer, is, e, sivift, celerior, celerius, celerrimus.
acer, acris, acre, sharp, acrior, acrius, acerrimus.
Remarks. — i. Dexter, right, and sinister, left, have always dexterior
and sinisterior in the Comparative. Deterior, worse, deterrimus, lacks a
Positive.
2. Vetus, old, has Comp. veterior (archaic) or vetustior ; Sup.,
veterrimus. Matums, ripe, has occasionally Sup. maturrimus in addi-
tion to the normal maturissimus.
Note. — In early Latin and in inscriptions tliis rule is occasionally violated. Thus
celerissimus in Ennius ; integrissimus, miserissimus, in inscriptions.
2. Some Comparatives in -er-ior, whose Positive is lacking or rare,
form the Superlative either in -rgrans by metathesis ; or in -imus or
-umus ; or in both. These are : citerior, on this side, citimus (rai-e) ;
exterior, outer, extrgmus, extimus (hitter not in Cic.) ; dexterior (87,
I, R. I ; once in Cic.\ dextimus (rare ; not in Cic.) ; inferior, lower,
infimns, Imus ; interior, inner, intimus ; posterior, hinder, postr6mus,
postumns ; superior, upper, suprgmus, summus.
3. Six adjectives in -ilis add -limus to the stem, after dropping -i, to
form the Superlative ; perhaps by assimilation : facilis, easy ; diificilis,
Aar(^; similis, like ; dissimilis, unlike ; gracilis, slerider, and humilis, /oz^.
facilis, Comp. facilior. Sup. facillimus.
4. Adjectives in -dicus, -ficus, -volus, borrow the Comparative and
Superlative from the participial forms in -dicens, -ficgns, and -volens.
t)enevolus, benevolent, Comp. benevolentior. Sup. benevolentissimus.
maledicus, scwtrilom. maledicentior, maledicentissimus.
magnificus, distinguished. magnificentior, magnificentissimus.
Note.— Benevolgns, malevolgns, maledlcSns, still occur in early Latin.
5. In like manner eggnus and prOvidus form their Comparative and
Superlative.
eggnus, needy, egentior, egentissimus.
prOvidus, far-sighted, prSvidentior, prSvidentissimus.
ADJECTIVES. 45
6. Adjectives in -ns (os), preceded by a vowel (except those in -qnos),
form the Comparative and Superlative by means of magis and maximg,
more and most.
id5neus,./?i^, Comp. magis idSneus, Sup. maximS idoneus.
But
antiques, old, Comp. antiquior, Sup. antlquissimus.
Remark. — But -pivis, pious, which lacks the Comparative, forms the
Superlative regularly, piissimus (in inscriptions also pientissimus) ; like-
wise in late Latin, impius.
Notes.— 1. A few words, chiefly in early Latin, show the normal comparison. In
Cic. only, assiduissimS (adv.) and alsius.
2. Comparison by means of plus and pljirimum is late.
7. Some Comparatives and Superlatives are in use, whilst the cor-
responding Positive is either lacking or rare.
So deterior (87, i, r. 1) ; Ocior, swif(, Scissimus ; potior, better, potissimus ;
exterior, outer (87, 2), from exterus, on the outside, and prep, extra, without;
superior, upper (87, 2), from superus, on the top, and prep, supra, atiorn ; Inferior,
loiver (87, 2), from inferus, below, and prep, infra, beloiv ; posterior, hinder (87, 2),
from posterns, coming after, and prep, post, after ; citerior, on this side (87, 2),
from citer, and prep, cltra, on this side.
8. The Positive stem of existing Comparatives is sometimes met with
only in a preposition or an adverb ; as, ante, before ; anterior, that is
before ; prope, near ; propior, proximus ; Ulterior, further, ultimus, from
ultra, beyond ; interior, inner, intimus, from intra, withiti ; prior, former,
primus, first, from pro, before ; sequior (late), icorse, from secus.
9. Many adjectives lack one or both of the degrees of comparison ;
especially those denoting material, relationship, time, etc.
NOVUS, new, falsus, untrue, meritUS, deserved, have no Comparative.
Longinquos, afar, propinquos, near, saltitaris, healthful, iuvenis, young (Com-
parative iunior), and senex, old (Comparative senior), have no Superlative.
" Youngest " and '•'■oldest " are expressed by minimus, maximus (natti).
Note.— The Plautine and late medioximus, middlemost, lacks Positive and Com-
parative.
10. Dives, rich, shows in Cic. only divitior and divitissimus ; otherwise
the Comparative and Superlative are found principally in poetry and
later prose, the more usual forms being the syncopated ditior, ditissimus.
88. Participles used as adjectives are subject also to the
same laws of comparison : as, amans, loving, amantior,
amantissimus ; apertus, ope7if apertior, apertissimus.
46
ADJECTIVES.
89. The Superlative follows the declension of adjectives
of Three Endings of the First and Second Declensions. The
Comparative is declined according to the Third Declension,
thus :
M. and F.
N.
M. and F.
N.
Sg.-N.
altior,
altius.
PL.-altiorgs,
altiora.
G.
altioris,
altioris.
altiorum,
altiorum.
D.
altiori,
altiori.
altioribus,
altioribus.
Ac.
altiorem,
altius.
altiorgs,
altiora.
V.
altior,
altius.
altiorgs,
altiora.
Ab.
altiore and -i,
altiore and -i.
altioribus,
altioribus.
Remarks. — i. In classical prose the Abl. Sing, ends in -e. In the
poets and in early and late prose, often in -I.
2. Extremely rare is the ending -is for -6s in the Nom. Plural. In
the Aec. PI. this ending -is (-eis) is more common but still not fre-
quent, and confined mainly to pluris, minoris, mai5ris, melioris. The
neuter in -ia is found rarely in compluria, and perhaps once in pluria,
3. The Gen. PI. in -ium is found in plurium and complurium only.
90.
bonus,
malus,
magnus,
parvus,
multus,
nSquam,
frugi (iadecl.), frugal.
Irregular Comparison.
good,
bad,
great,
small,
much.
melior,
peior,
maior,
minor,
plllres,
complurSs,
nSquior,
frugaliox".
melius,
pSius,
mains,
minus,
pliis (no Dat. nor Abl.),
plura.
complura and -ia.
ngquius.
optimus.
pessimus.
maximus.
minimus.
plurimus.
nSquissimus.
frugalissimus.
ADVERBS.
91. Most adverbs are either oblique cases or mutilated
forms of oblique cases of nominal or pronominal stems.
The cases from which they are derived are principally the
Accusative and the Ablative.
I. (a) From the Accusative are Substantival Adverbs in -tim. This
was a favorite formation, nnd is used very often in all periods. In the
classical times the adverbs of this form are :
Acervatim, articulatim, centuriatim, certatim, generatim, gradatim,
gregatim, membratim, paulatim, privatim, sSparatim, singulatim, statim,
summatim, viritim, tributim, strictim, pedetemptim, raptim, furtim, partim,
praesertim, confgstim, and a tew others ; disguised forms of -tim are : caesim, in-
clsim, sensim, cursim, passim, vicissim, for caed-tim (9, 1-3), etc..- also interim.
ADVERBS. 47
(b) A few very common adverbs are, perhaps, from Accusative Sin-
gular feminine of adjectives and pronominal stems. Chiefly clam,
secretly, coram, i7i one's presence, palam, openly, perperam, wrongly, tarn,
so, quam, as, aliquam, some, iam, already ; and forms in -fariam, as bi-
fariam, multifariam, etc.
(c) The Accusative Singular neuter of many adjectival and prono-
minal stems is used as an adverb. This is true of all Comparatives.
Multum, 7nucli ; paulum, « little; nimium, too much ; cgterum, /or the
rest ; primum, first ; postremum, finally ; potissimum, chiefiy ; facile,
easily ; dulce, sweetly; triste, sadly ; impune, scot-free; aliquantum,
somewhat, and others.
To the Comparatives belong magis, more ; nimis, too ; satis, enough.
(d) The Accusative Plural feminine is found in alias, at other times,
perhaps in foras, o^d-of-doors. The Accusative Plural neuter is found
in alia, cetera, omnia, and occasionally in reliqua and a few others.
2. {a) From the Ablative are some substantival adverbs ; the princi-
pal ones in classical Latin being domS, at home; imgeniio, greatly ;
initio, at the outset ; modo, only ; oppido, very; prlncipio, in the begin-
ning; -pTivsLto, privately ; wdgo, commonly ; forte, by cha7ice ; msigno^re,
greatly, and other compounds of -opere ; gratiis, for nothing, and ingra-
tils, and a few others.
(b) Ablatives are also adverbs in 5 from adjectives in -us and -er :
altus, lofty, alte ; pulcher, beautiful, pulchrg ; miser, wretched, miserg.
Also fer6 and fermS (Sup.), almost.
(c) The Ablative of some adjectives and pronouns serves as an
adverb :
tuts, safely; falso, falsely ; perpetuO, ceaselessly ; continuO, forthwith;
improviso, unexpectedly ; primS, at first ; hSc, here; isto, there, etc.
{d) In a few cases the adverbial form is the Abl. Sing, feminine :
alia, otherwise; 2i\l(i\x&, somehoiv ; dextera and dextra, ifo the right;
sinistra and laeva, to the lejt liand ; qua, on which side; rScta,
straightway , and some others.
{e) A large number of these adjectives show adverbs in two end-
ings, sometimes with a difierence in meaning :
consultg and consults, purposely ; cert6, at least, and certo, certainly
(certs scio, / certainly know ; certo scio, / know for certaiti) ; rare, thinly,
and raxo, seldom; v5r6, i7i truth, and vSrS, tr7ie but ; rSctS, correctly, and
rScta, straightway ; dextera or dextra, to the right ; and dexterS, skill fully.
(/) Ablatives are also qui, hoiv (archaic), nSquIquam, to no purpose;
alioqui, otherwise ; perhaps also diu, by day and its compounds.
48 ADVERBS.
3. Locative in origin are the following, in addition to those men-
tioned under 37, 5 : dig (in combination with numeral adjectives in
early Latin, as dig septirai) and its compounds cottidie, daily, hodiS, to-
day, pridie, the day before, postridie, the day after ; quotannis, yearly ;
fori3, outside. Also many forms from tlie pronominal stems, ashic, illic,
istic (isti belongs to early Latin and Veiig.); sic, so, ut (uti, utei), as;
ill, there, and its compounds alibi, ibidem ; ubi (cubi), ivhere, and its
compounds.
4. A number of adverbs cannot be referred to a definite case, as :
adverbs of separation : hinc, hence, illinc (illim), istinc (istim), thence;
temporal adverbs : tunc, tJien, cum, when, quondam, once, quando, ivhen ?
and its compounds; also, ante, before ; post (poste), after; paene, almost ;
prope, propter, near ; saepe, often ; circiter, around; praeter, past ; ergo,
therefore; eras, to-morroiv ; baud (hau, haut), no^ ; item, likewise ; susque
dgque, up and down; vix, scarcely.
92. I- Adjectives and participles of the Third Declension form their
adverbs by adding -ter (-iter) to the stem ; stems in -nt dropping the t,
and stems in a k-mute inserting the connecting vowel i before the end-
ing ; also a few adjectives of the Second Declension :
fortis, brave, fortiter ; ferox, loild, ferociter ; •grM.^n^^foi'eseeing, prudenter.
Exceptions : audax, bold, audac-ter (seldom audaciter) ; difficilis, hard
to do, difficulter, difficiliter (but generally, non facile, vix, aegrg), and others.
2. A large number of adjectives of the Second Declension in -us, -a,
-um, and -er, -era, -erum, form in early and late Latin their adverbs by
dropping the stem vowel and adding -iter (those in -tus added -er
only). Many of these occur in classical Vvriters alongside of the normal
form in -6 : humaniter and htimang, humanely ; largiter and largg,
lavishly ; turbulenter and turbulentS, riotously.
3. Some adverbs of origin arc formed from substantival or adjectival
stems by the ending -tu3. In classical Latin mainly antiquitus, fro?n
early time ; divinitus, from the gods; funditus, from the foundation ; peni-
tus, from the depths; radicitus, from the roots ; also intus, from within.
4. The termination -versus, -vorsum, is used to show direction whither ;
but in classical Latin it is found principally in the adverbs : intrSrsus
(intrOvorsus), inwards; prorsus (-um), onwards; rursus (-um, rusum),
hack ; sursum (susum), np ; vorsum, towards.
5. A very large number of adverbs are formed by adding various
other terminations; as, -de: inde, thence, unde, ivhence ; -detn:
pridem, long ag ), itidem, liketvise, etc.; 'do: quando, when, etc.;
'darn : quondam, once ; -diini : dudum, a while ago ; vixdum, hardly
yet, etc.; 'per : nuper, lately, parumper, a little, semper, always, etc.;
'quani: umquam, ever, numquam, never, etc.; •secus: extrinsecus,
outside, etc.; -tenus: quatenus, how far ? etc.
NUMERALS.
49
6. Syntactical and miscellaneous : admodum, very {to a degree), denuo,
anew, imprimis; super, above, and its compounds, desuper, insuper; ex-
templo, at once; usque, to, and its compounds ; invicem, in turn ; adeo,
so ; antea, he fore ; interea, meanwhile ; postea, after ; praeterea, besides ;
propterea, on that account, and a few otliers.
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.
93. The Comparative of the adverb is the Accusative
neuter of the Comparative of the adjective. The Superla-
tive ends in -is-sime, -er-rim6, etc., according to the Super-
lative of the adjective.
Positive.
Comparative.
Superlative.
alte,
lofiUy,
altius,
altissimS.
pulchrg,
beautifully.
pulchrius,
pulcherrimS.
misere,
jworly.
miserius,
miserrimg.
fortiter,
bravely.
fortius.
fortissimg.
audacter,
boldly.
audacius,
audacissimg.
tuto,
safely.
tutius.
tutissimg.
facile.
easily,
facilius.
facillimg.
bene,
well.
melius,
optime.
male,
ill.
pgius,
pessiaig.
[parvus],
small.
minus, less.
minimg, least.
[magnus] ,
great.
magis, more,
maxim g, taost.
multum.
much.
plus, more.
plurimum.
cito.
quickly.
citius.
citissimg.
diu,
long.
diutius.
dititissimg.
saepe.
often.
saepius,
saepissimg.
nuper,
recently.
nuperrimg.
J
satis,
enough.
satius, better.
NUMERALS.
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.
94. The Cardinal numerals answer the question quot,
how many 9 and are the numbers used in counting. The
Ordinal numerals are derived from these and answer the
question quotus, ivldcli one in the scries 9 They are as fol-
lows :
1. Cardinal Numbers.
2. Ordinal Numbers.
1
I
tinus, una.
unum
primus, -a, -um (prior)
2
II
duo, duae.
duo
secundus (alter)
3
III
trgs, tria
tertius
4
IV (IIII) quattuor
quartus
5
V
quinqne
quintus
6
VI
sex
sextus
7
VII
4
septem
Septimus
50
NUMERALS,
1. Cardinal Numbers.
2. Ordinal Numbers.
8
VIII
octo
octavus
9
IX
novem
nonus
10
X
decern
decimus
11
XI
undecim
undecimus
12
XII
duodecim
duodecimus
13
XIII
tredecim
tertius decimus
14
XIV
quattuordecim
quartus decimus
15
XV
quindecim
quintus decimus
IG
XVI
sedecim
sextus decimus
17
XVII
septendecim
Septimus decimus
18
XVIII
duodeviginti
duodevicesimus
19
XIX
Undeviginti
undgvicesimus
20
XX
viginti
vicesimus
21
XXI
vigintii unus
vicesimus primus
22
XXII
viginti duo
vicgsimus secundus
23
XXIII
viginti tres
vicesimus tertius
24
XXIV
viginti quattuor
vicesimus quartus
25
XXV
viginti quinque
vicesimus quintus
26
XXVI
viginti sex
vicgsimus sextus
27
XXVII
viginti septem
vicesimus septimus
28
XXVIII
duodetriginta
duodgtricgsimus
29
XXIX
undetrigin-a
findgtricgsimus
30
XXX
triginta
tricesimus
40
XL
quadrJginta
quadraggsimus
50
L
quinquJginta
quinquaggsimus
60
LX
sex/7ginta
sexaggsimus
70
LXX
septwaginta
septuaggsimus
80
LXXX
oct(>ginta
octoggsimus
90
xc
nonJginta
nonagesimus
100
c
centum
centgsimus
101
CI
centum et unus
centgsimus primus [mus
115
cxv
centum et quindecim
centgsimus (et) quintus deci-
120
cxx
centum et viginti
centesimus vicesimus
121
CXXI
centum viginti unus
centgsimus vicesimus primus
200
CO
ducenti, -ae, -a
ducentesimus
300
ccc
trecenti
trecentgsimus
400
cccc
qua,dr///genti
quadringentgsimus
500
D(IO)
qulngentl
quingentgsimus
600
DC
8('scenti
sgscentgsimus
700
DCC
8ept<?/gentl
septingentgsimus
800
DCCC
octi^fgentl
octingentgsimus
900
DCCCC
iimgentl
nSngentgsimus
1000
M (CIO)
mllle
mlllgsimus
NUMERALS.
51
1. Cardinal Numbers.
2. Ordinal Numbers.
1001
MI
mllle et tinus
mTllesimus primus
1101
MCI
mllle centum unus
millesimus centesimus primus
1120
MCXX
mille centum viginti
millesimus centgsimus vice-
[tinus
1 simus [simus primus
1121
MCXXI
mille centum viginti
millgsimus centesimus vice-
1200
MCC
mille ducenti
millesimus ducentesimus
2000
MM
duo milia (millia)
bina mIlia
bis millesimus
2222
duo mTlia ducenti vi-
bis millesimus ducentSsimus
ginti duo
vicesimus secundus
5000
100
quinque milia
quina milia
quinquies millesimus
10,000
CCIOO
decem milia
dena milia
deciSs millgsimus
21,000
unum et viginti milia
semel et vicigs millesimus
100,000
centum milia
centena milia [mflia
centigs millgsimus
1,000,000
decies centena (centum) decies centiSs mTllesimus
95. The Cardinal numerals are indeclinable, except : tinus,
one, duo, hco, tres, three, the hundreds beginning with
ducenti, two hundred, and the plural milia, thousands, which
forms milium and milibus.
M and F.
N.
N. duo,
two,
duae,
duo.
trgs, three,
tria.
G. duomm,
duanim,
duorum.
trium,
trium.
D. duobus,
duabus,
duobus.
tribus,
tribus.
A. duos, due
duas,
duo.
trgs, tris,
tria.
Ab. duobus,
duabus,
duobus.
tribus,
tribus.
Like du6 is
declined ambo,
-ae,
-0, hoth.
Remarks. -
-I.
For the declension of unus see
76
. It occurs
also in
plural forms in connection with pltiralia tantum, as unis litteris (Cic.
Att., V. g. 2), or with another numeral in the sense only ; in the latter
sense also with substantives.
2. The Gen. of the hundreds, ducenti, etc., ends in -umand not-orum.
This must be distinguished from the use of the neuter singular in -um
as a collective, as argenti sgscentum (Luc), a six Jumdred of silver.
3. The PI. milia, milium, milibus, are treated almost always as sub-
stantives, the adjectival form being the Singular.
Notes.— 1. The form oinos for tinus is for.nd in early Latin. A Voc. une is occa-
sional (Cat., 37, 17).
2. For duae late Latin shows occasionally duO, and in Inscriptions dua, for neuter
52
NUMERALS.
duo, is sometimes found. The Gen. duum (old duom.) for duoruin is not unfre-
quent. In the Dat. and Abl., duO is found in inscriptions, and for ambobus occasion-
ally ambis. in the Ace. PI. masc, duo and ambo for duOS and ambos are quite com-
mon in early Latin, and also in classical times, but the better forms are duos, ambos.
3. Quattor is found for quattuor occasionally in inscriptions, and in early poetry
quattuor was sometimes scanned as a dissyllable.
4. In inscriptions the forms meilia. and millia are also found.
5. In regard to spelling of the Ordinals we find in early Latin quinctus as well as
quintus ; septumus and decuraus regularly, and often the enuings -ensimus and
-ensumus in ordinals from vicesimus on.
96. 1. Compound Numerals.
1. From 10 to 20, as in the tables, or separately : decern et tres.
2. The numbers 18, 19, 28, 29, etc., are commonly expressed by
subtraction ; occasionally, as in English, but never in Cicero, and very
rarely in other classical authors, duodgcentum is not found, and undg-
centum but once (Plin. Mai.).
3. From 20 to 100, the compound numerals stand in the same order
as the English : twenty-one, viginti unus ; or, one and twenty, unus et
(atque) viginti ; as, twenty-one years old : ann5s unum et viginti (viginti
finum), unom et viginti annos natus. But compounds like septuaginta et
tr6s are not uncommon, though avoided by good writers.
4. From 100 on, et may be inserted after the first numeral, if there
be but two numbers ; as, centum quattuor, or centum et quattuor. If
the smaller number precedes, the et should be inserted ; likewise in all
cases where a word is inserted within the compound numeral, as
ducenti anni et viginti. If there be three numerals, the et is regularly
omitted ; exceptions are very rare.
5. In compound ordinah^ alter is preferred to secundus.
6. CentSna milia is often omitted after the numeral adverb deciSa
= 1,000,000 ; especially in stating sums of money.
7. Fractions are expressed by pars (omitted or expressed) in com-
bination with dimidia (^), tertia (-J), quarta {^), etc. A Plural numera-
tor is expressed by a Cardinal ; as, duae quintae (|). The fraction is
often broken up ; as, pars dimidia et tertia (^ = | + §). The even de-
nominators could be divided ; as, dimidia tertia (-i- x -^ = ^). Instead
of dimidia without pars, dimidium is used.
2. Numeral Signs.
D is short for 10, M for CIO. Adding on the right of 10 multiplies by 10 ;
100 - 5000 ; 1000 = 50,000. Putting C before as oftcMi as O stands after nniltiplies the
right-hand number by 2 ; CIO = 1000 ; CCIOO = 10,000 ; CCCIOOO = 100,000. A line
above multiplies by 1000 ; V = 5000. A line above and at each side multiplies by
100,000_: IxTlYl! =1,400,000. These signs may be combined : thus, |xill| XXXVIID
or IXIIll XXXVII MI) = 1,337,500. Pun., N. II. iv., 12, 24. Other signs are d* » L
(inscr.) for 50, -^^ <x>, Q (inscr.) for 1000, and (3) for 100,000 (inscr.), and q for
500,000 (inscr.).
N^UMERALS.
53
97.
3. Distributive Numerals.
1 singuli, -ae, -a, owe each. 30
2 bini, -ae, -a, two each, 40
3 terni (trini) 50
4 quaternl 60
5 quini 70
6 sSni 80
7 septSni 90
8 octoni 100
9 novSni 102
10 d6ni 125
11 undeni 200
12 duodeni 300
13 terni dSni 400
14 quatemidgnl 500
15 quini d6ni 600
16 s6ni deni 700
17 septeni d6ni 800
18 octoni deni, duodSvicenl 900
19 noveni d6ni, undevicgnl 1000
20 vicgni 2000
21 vicSni singuli 3000
22 vicSni bini, bin! et vlc6nl 10,000
28 duodgtricgni 100,000
29 undgtriceni
triceni
quadraggni
quinquaggni
septuaggni
octogeni
nonagen!
centeni
centgni bini
centgni vicgni quini
ducgni
trecgni
quadringgnl
quinggni
sexcgni (sgscSni)
septinggni
octinggni
n5nggnl
singula milia
bina milia
trina milia
dgna milia
centgna milia
These answer the question quotgnl, how many each ?
Remarks, — i. The Gen. PI. masc. and neuter ends usually in -um,
except that singulus has always singulorum, and Cicero uses binorum.
2. The Distributives are used with an exactness which is foreign to
our idiom, whenever repetition is involved, as in the multiplication
table. But when singuli is expressed, the Cardinal may be used,
3. The Distributives are used with pliiralia tantum : binae litterae,
hm epistles. But with these tini is used for one, trini for three : unae
litterae, trinae litterae.
4. The same rules as to the insertion or omission of et apply to the
Distributives as to the Ordinals (96, 1. 3, 4).
Notes.— 1. The poets and later prose writers occasionally use the Distributives for
Cardinals, with words other than pluralia tantum (n. 3) ; also some forms of the
Singular. Especially noteworthy is the combination trinum nundinum, which is
technical, and therefore found also in model prose.
2. Parallel forms not found in classical times are quadrini (early, late), and the
late du(o)centgni, trecent6ni, quadringenteni, quingentgni, ses(x)cent6ni,
millgni^ etc.
54
NUMERALS.
4. Multiplicative Numerals.
Only the following forms occur :
1 simplex, single, 5 quincuplex
2 duplex, double, 7 septemplex
3 triplex, triple, 10 decemplex
4 quadruplex, quadruple. 100 centuplex
These answer the question, /toiv many fold f
5. Proportional Numerals.
Only the following forms occur :
1 simplus, -a, -um, single, 4 quadmplus
2 duplus, double. 7 septuplus
3 triplus 8 octuplus
These answer the question, hoiv many tim£S as great ?
98.
NUMERAL ADVERBS.
1
semel, once.
22
bis et vlci6s, vici6s et bie,
2
bis, twice.
vicies bis *
3
ter
30
tricies
4
quater
40
quadragies
5
quinquigs (-6ns)
50
quinquagigs
C
sexiSs (-6ns)
60
sexagigs
7
septies (-6ns)
70
septuagigs
8
octi53 (-6ns)
80
octogies
D
novigs (-6ns)
90
n6nagi6s
10
decigs (-6n8)
100
centies
11
undeciS3 (-6ns)
200
ducenti6s
12
duodecies, etc.
400
quadringenti6s
13
ter decies, tredecigs
500
quingenties
14
quater decies, quattuordecigs
600
sexcentigs (sgscenti6s)
15
qolnquigs decies, quindecigs
700
septingenties
10
sexigs decigs, sgdecigs
800
octingentigs
17
septigs decigs
900
nongentigs
18
duodgvicigs, octi6s deci6s
1,000
millies
19
und5vici6s, novi6s deci6s
2,000
bis milligs
20
vici63
100,000
centigs mlUigs
21
semel at vlci6s, vicies et semel,
1,000,000
mllligs milligs, deci6s cem
vicies semel -
ti6s mnii6s
These answer the question quotiSns (68) : how often ?
* Not semel Vlci6s, bis Vlci6s, etc., because that would be, once twenty times = 30
times ; twice twenty times = 40 times ; this, however, does not hold for numerals be-
tween 10 and 20.
PRONOUNS. 55
Remarks. — i. These adverbs, from quinquies on, have an older form
in -ens ; quinquiens. In toti§ns, so often, and quotigns, how often, this
remained the more usual form in classical times.
2. The combination of an adverb with a distributive adjective was
much liked by the Romans : as bis bina for quatema, etc. But the
normal forms are not unfrequent.
Note. — For the adverbs from undeciSs on, examples are very rare, and some are
cited only from the grammarians. So, when two forms are given, one is often due to
the grammarians ; thus quinquiBs deciSs, sexiBs deciSs, are cited only from Pris-
ciAN. The order, too, of compound adverbs varies.
PRONOUNS,
99. Pronouns point out without describing.
Note.— The pronoun is not a word used instead of a noun. The noun says too
much, for all nouns (proper as well as common) are originally descriptive ; the pronoun
simply points out. The noun says too little, because it cannot express person, as ego,
/, tu,
A. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
100. I. Personal Pronouns of the First Person.
Possessive.
Sg.
meus, -a, -um, mine or my.
Substantive,
-N.
ego,
/,
G.
mei,
of me.
D.
mihi,
to, fo7' me^
Ac.
me,
me.
Ab.
me.
from, with, by me.
-N.
n5s,
we.
G.
nostri,
of us.
nostrum.
D.
nobis,
to, for m.
Ac.
nos,
us.
Ab.
nobis,
from, with, by us.
G. nostri, of us,
noster, nostra, nostrum, ovt or ours.
Remarks. — i. The Voc. Sing. masc. of meus is mi, except when
meus is used with a substantive which does not change its form in the
Voc. ; thus, meus ocellus (Plaut. ; possibly, however, appositional), but
mi anime.
2. Nostrum in the Gen. PI. is the form for the Partitive Genitive.
Notes.— 1. Early Latin shows the following : Sg., N. ego ; G. mis ; D. mi, mihel
(inscr.) ; mih6 (inscr.) ; Ac. m6d, meme; Ab. m6d (meme is doubtful) ; PL, N. Ac.
6nos (in Carman ArvcUe only) ; G. nostrorum, nostrarum (for nostrum) ; D. Ab.
nobeis (inscr.).
2. In late Latin ml also serves for the Voc. Sing. fern, and Voc. PI. masc. Meum,
nostrum, in the Gen. PI. of the Possessives, are not unfrequent in early Latin.
3. The forms of meus, of tui and tuOS, of sul and SUOS, very frequently suffer Syn-
izesis (727) in early Latin.
4. On the combination of these pronouns with -met and -pte see 102, N. 2, 8,
56 PKOi^OUKS.
101. 11. Personal Pronouns of the Second Person.
Substantive. Possessive.
Sg.— N. V. tu, thou,
G. tui, of thee,
D. tibi, to, fo)' thee, tuns (-os), -a, -mn (-om), ;!^y or iAine
Ac. t§, thee,
Ab. t6, from, with, by thee.
Pl.— N. VOS, ye or you,
G- vestri, of you,
vestnun, vester (archaic voster), vestra, vestmin,
D. vobis, to, for you, your ox yours.
Ac. VOS, you,
Ab. vobis, from, with, by you.
Notes.— 1. Early forms are : G. tis ; D. tibei (inscr.), tib6 (inscr.) ; Ac. Ab. t5d,
t6t§; PI. G. vostri, vostrSrum, -arum.
2. Vestmni is for the Partitive Genitive.
3. Tuom and vostrom in the Gen. PI. of the Possessives are rare and confined to
early Latin.
4. On Synizesis Bee 100, N. 3. On combination with -met or -pte see 102, N. 2, 3.
III. Personal Pronouns of the Third Person.
102. The original personal pronoun of the third person,
together with its possessive, is used only as a reflexive in
Latin, and therefore lacks a Xominative. Its place is taken
in the oblique cases by the Determinative is (103),
DETERMINATIVE.
Substantive. Possessive.
Sg.— N. [is, ea, id], he, she, it, supplied by the Genitive.
G. 6ius, of him, SivLB, his, hers, its.
etc.
Pl.— N. [el, 11, 1 ; eae, ea], the?/,
G. eOrum, earum, eOrum, of them, eSrum, earum, eSnun, their or theirs.
etc.
REFLEXIVE.
Sttbstantive. Posresbite.
So.-N.
G. sul, of him, her, itisdf), gnus (-08), -a, -tun (-om), hi$^
T). sibi, to,for,him{se{f),her{sey), her{s), its {own).
Ac. se, sSsS, him{self), her{se^f),
Ab. se, S6s6, from, with, by him{seif).
P1..-N.
G. sulj of them{selves), 8XIT1S (-OS), -a, -tUU (-om), ^A^/*
D. sibl, to, for fhetn{selves), {ow?i), theirs.
Ac. s6, 8686, themiselves),
Ab. 86, 8686, from, with, by them(selvM\
PRONOUNS.
57
Notes.— 1. Inscriptions show sibei. The use of sSs§ in classical prose is regulated
mainly by artistic reasons. Suom in Gen. PI. from SUUS is rare and early.
2. The enclitic -met niay be added to ail the forms of ego (except nostrum), to all
the forms of til (except tu and vestrnm), to sibi, S6, and some forms of suus-;
egomet, / myself. Instead of ttimet, ttite is found ; from which early poets formed
occasionally ttltemet, tutimet. Met is also occasionally appended to forms Of meus
(early) and tUUS (late).
3. The enclitic -pte is joined very rarely to forms of the Personal P*ronoun (m§pte,
Pl., Men. 1059) ; more often to the Abl. Sing, of the Possessives ; it is especially com-
mon with su5 ; sudpte ingenio, hy his own genius.
4. From noster and vester and also from ctlius, whose f are formed the Gentile
adjectives of one ending : nostras, of our country ; vestras, of your country ; cuias,
of whose country ? G. nostratis, vestratis, ctiiatis.
103.
B. DETERMINATIVE PRONOUNS.
I. is.
he,
that
Singular.
Plural.
N.
is,
ea,
id,
ii, ei, i
eae.
ea.
G.
eius,
gius,
eius,
eorum.
earum,
eorum,
D.
ei.
ei,
ei.
iis, eis, is.
Ac.
eum,
earn,
id.
eos.
eas.
ea,
Ab.
e5,
ea,
eo.
iis, eis, is.
Note.— The following variations in the forms are found : N. it for id (post-cl.) ;
G. eiius (inscr.), eiUS (early poetry) ; D. eiel (inscr.), 61, el (early poetry), eae
(f .) ; Ac. em, im (early), for eum ; Pl. N. eis, eels, ieis, iel (early and rare), for ei ;
the usual classical form is ii; G. eum (inscr.) for eorum ; D. eieis, SelS, ieiS (inscr.),
ibus (early poetry and rare) ; the usual classical form is iis. The early forms sum,
sam, SOS, sas, for eum, eam, eos, eas, are cited by Pestus. Ace. and Abl. Sing, and
Gen. Pl. often suiler Synizesis in early poetry.
N.
G.
I).
Ac.
2. idem (is + dem), the same.
Singular. Plural.
idem, eadem, idem, idem, eidem, iidem, eaedem, eadem,
eiusdem, eiusdem, eiusdem, eorundem, earundem, eorundem,
eidem, eidem, eidem
eundem, eandem.
Abl. eodem, eadem,
idem,
eodem.
isdem, eisdem, iisdem,
eosdem, easdem, eadem,
isdem, eisdem, iisdem.
Note. —Variations in form : N. eidem, isdem (inscr., early) for Idem; D, Idem
(inscr.) for eidem ; Pl. N. Idem (more usual in poetry), eisdem, Isdem (inscr.);
D. Ab. iisdem (rare), eisdem (uncommon in classical prose). Synizesis is common.
I
3. ipse
(perhaps
is + pse), he
, self.
SINGUX.AR.
Plural.
N.
ipse.
ipsa,
ipsum,
ipsi.
ipsae.
ipsa,
G.
ipsius.
ipsius.
ipsius.
ipsorum.
ipsarum,
ipsorum,
D.
ipsi.
ipsi.
ipsi.
ipsis.
ipsis.
ipsis,
Ac.
ipsum.
ipsam.
ipsum,
ipsos.
ipsas.
ipsa,
Ab.
ips5,
ipsa.
ipso.
ipsis,
ipsis,
ipsis.
58
PRONOUNS.
Sg.
-N.
hic,
haec,
G.
huius,
huius,
D.
huic,
huic,
Ac.
hunc,
hanc,
Notes.— 1. In the earlier time the first part of ipse wag also declined, thus: N.
eapse ; Ac. eumpse, eampse ; Ab. eopse, eapse. other forms are doubtful.
2. For ipse the form ipsus was very commonly employed in early Latin, but fades
out with Terence, and later is only sporadic.
3. Inflectional variations are : D. ipso, ipsae (late) ; PL N. ipsel (inscr.). The few
other forms are uncertain. IpsiUS is dissyllabic twice in Terence.
4. Plautus shows ipsissimus (comp. Gr. avTOTaro?), and in late Latin ipsimus
and ipsima are found. A post-Ciceronian colloquialism was isse, issa.
5. Ipse combines with -met : ipsemet and ipsimet (N. Pi.), both rare.
104. C. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
I. Demonstrative Pronoun for the First Person.
hIc, this.
hoc, Pl. — hi, hae, haec, these,
huius, horum, harum, horum,
huic, his, his, his,
hoc, hos, has, haec,
Abl. hoc, hac, hdc. his, his, his.
Notes.— 1. The full forms of hIC in -ce are still found in limited numbers in early
Latin ; G. hOiusce (in the phrase huiusce modi, the form is common in the classical
period and later) ; D. hoice (inscr.) ; PI. N. helsce, hisce (not uncommon) ; G.
h5runco (rare) ; D., Ab. hISCe (in Plaut. and Teb. usually before vowels); Ac. hosce,
hasce (not uncommon ; occasionally in Cic).
2. Other variations in form are : G. huiuS and huIus (in early poetry for metrical
reasons); D. hae (rare and early); Ac. honc ; PL N. hei, heis for hi, haec for hae (in
Plaut. and Ter. regularly before vowels or h, occasionally before consonants ; occa-
sionally also in classical times and later) ; G. horunc, harunc (early). PL N. hiC
for hi and D. Ab. hlhus for his are doubtful.
3. Hie combines with -ne. Usually -ne was appended to hice, etc., and the e
weakened to i. Sometimes -ne is added directly to the regular forms. The examples
are frequent in early Latin, but occur also in Cic. and later writers : hlcine, haecine,
hScine, huicine, huncine, hancine, h5cine, hScine, haecine (N. PL fem.),
haecine (N. PL neut.), hiscine, hSscine, hascine; also hicne, haecne, hocne,
htiiusne, huncne, hancne, hocne, hacue, haecne, hosne, hasne.
II. Demonstrative Pronoun for the Second Person,
iste, that.
Sg. — N. iste, ista, istud, Pl. — isti, istae, ista,
G. istlus, istius, istlus, istorum, istarum, istdrum,
D. isti, istI, isti, istis, istis, istis,
Ac. istum, istam, istud, istds, istas, ista,
Abl. ist5, istS, istO. istis, istis, istis.
Notes.— L The Dat. Sing, shows istS in late and istae in early Latin.
2. Iste combines with -ce. In a very few cases (three times in early, once in late
Latin) this -ce is retained unchanged, but usually it is shortened to -c. The following
forms occur, all except istuc (more common than istud in classical Latin) and istaec
PRONOUNS.
59
(neuter, occasionally in Cic, Ep. and later), being wholly confined to early and late
Latin. N. istic, istaec, istuc (istoc, once) ; D. istic ; Ac, istunc, istanc ; Ab.
istOc, istac. Pi. N. istaec (f.), istaec (n.).
3. In a few cases in Plaut. and Ter. -ne is appended to istice, etc., the preceding
e being weakened to i ; istucine, istocine, istacine, istoscin'.
III. Demonstrative Pronoun for the Third Person.
Sg.— N. iUe, ilia, illud, Pl.
G. illius, illius, illius,
D. illi, illi, iUl,
Ac. ilium, illam, illud,
Ab. illo, ilia, illo.
Notes.— 1. The older forms from stem oUo- occur on early inscriptions, in laws, and
in the poets (except Plaut. and Ter.), even to a very late period, as follows : N. oUus,
-e (early) ; D. oUi ; PI. N. oUi, oUa ; G. oUom, oUarum (early) ; D. oUeis, oUis ;
Ac. olios (early).
2. Inscriptions show illut occasionally for illud. Other rare forms are : G. illi
(doubtful); D. illae ; PI. N. illei. Illius is often dissyllabic in early Latin.
3. IUe often combines with -ce, which is, however, usually shortened to -c :
illiusce, illace, illoce, illosce, illasce, illisce,an in early Latin ■, shortened forms :
N. illic, illaec, illuc ; D. illic ; Ac. illunc, illanc ; Ab. ill5c, iliac ; PI. N.
illaec (f.), illaec (n.), all with rare exceptions confined to Plautus and Terence.
4. A few cases of combination with -ne : illicine, illancine occur in Plautus and
Terence.
-illi,
illae,
ilia,
illorum,
illarum.
illSrum,
iUis,
illis.
illis.
illes.
illas.
ilia.
illis,
illis,
illTs,
105.
D. RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
Pl. — qui, quae, quae,
quorum, quarum, quorum,
quibus, quibus, quibus,
quos, quas, quae,
quiDus, quibus, quibus.
quidquid, quicquid, whatever.
Sg. — N. qui, quae, quod,
G. cuius, cuius, cuius,
D. cui, cui, cui,
Ac. quem, quam, quod,
Ab. quo, qua, quo.
General Relatives are :
Substantive, quisquis, whoever,
Adjective. (quiqui, quaequae, quodquod), whosoever.
quicunque, quaecunque, quodcunque, whichever.
Notes.— 1. Archaic and legal are quis and quid as relatives.
2. The prevalent form of Gen. on inscriptions of the Republican period and in early
Latin is quoius ; quius, cuiius, and other variations are also found. Other archaic
forms are : D., quoi. D. PL, quels. D. Ab. PL, quis is common in the poets at all
periods ; and also in prose wrilers ; but not cited from Caesar, and only from the
letters of Cicero.
3. The Abl. Sing, qui foT all genders is the prevalent form in early times, and in
combination with cum is preferred to quo, qua by Cicero.
4. Quisquis is occasionally used as an adjective, but not in classical Latin. Occa-
sionally, also, but rarely in Cicero, it is used for quisque, quidque. The Nom. Sing.
of the adjective quIquI, etc., probably does not occur. In the other cases the forms are
60 PRON^OUKS.
the same as those of qnisquis and can be distinguished only by the usage. In combi-
nation with modi we find culcui in Gen. sometimes in Cicero. In the Plural the
only form found is quibusquibus. (Liv. xli., 8, 10.)
5. In quicumque the -cumque is often separated by tmesis. The only variations
in form are queiquomque, quescumque in early Latin, and occasionally quiscumque
for quibuscumque (several times in Cicero).
106. E. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
Substantive. quis ? who ? quid ? ivhat ?
Adjective. qui ? quae "? quod \ which 9
Subst. and Adj. uter ? utra ? utrum ? ivho^ which of two f
Sg. N. quis ? quid "? who 9 what 9 Possessive.
G. cuius ? cuius ? whose 9 cuius, cuia, cuium, whose 9
T>. cui ? cui ? to, for whom 9
Ac. quern ? quid ? whom 9 what 9
Ab. quS ? quo ? from, with, by whom or what 9
The plural of the sitbstantive interrogative pronoun and both num-
bers of the adjective interrogative pronoun coincide with the forms of
the relative qui, quae, quod, who, which.
Strengthened Interrogatives.
Substantive, quisnami who, pray? quidnam? what, pray?
ecquis 1 is (here any one who ? ecquid ?
Adjective. quinami quaenaml quodnam? which, pray?
ecquil ecqual (ecquae)? ecquod?
Remark. — In the poets qui is sometimes found as a substantive
for quis in independent sentences. In dependent sentences the use
always fluctuates. A difference in meaning can hardly be made other
than that qui is generally used in much the same sense as qualis. On
the other hand, quis is often used as an adjective for qui ; usually, how-
ever, the substantive which follows is best looked upon as in apposi-
tion. In the classical period qui is the normal form for the adjective
in dependent questions.
Notes.— 1. Inecriptions show here and there quit and quot for quid and quod.
Quid is sometimes used for quod, but usually in the phrase quid n5m.en tibi est and
only in early Latin. Sometimes quae seems to be used as a substantive, but another
explanation is always possible.
2. In the obli(iue cases the same variations occur as in the oblique cases of the rela-
tive. The Abl. qui means haw f
3. For the dcclerRion of uter see 76.
4. The possessive cuius (quOius), -a, -um was UBed both as relative and as interroga-
PRONOUNS. 6l
live. It is frequent in Plaut. and Ter., but rare in other authors. Besides the Nom.
the only forntis found are Ac. quoium, qudiam ; Ab. quoia ; PI. N. quoiae, and,
perhaps, G. PI. quoium.
5. Quisnam is sometimes used as an adjective for qulnam and quinam occasion-
ally for quisnam as a substantive. The -nam may be separated by tmesis. Ecquis
and ecqui are not common, and are subject to the same fluctuations as quis and qui.
Ecquis combines with -nam to form ecquisnam and a few other occasional forms,
as : ecquaenam, ecquidnam, ecquodnam, ecquonam, ecquosnam.
107. F. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
I. Substantive, aliquis, aliqna (rare), aliquid, \ somebody, some one
quis, qua, quid, f or otlier.
Adjective. aliqui, aliqua, aliquod, \
qui, quae, qua, quod, ) ^
Remark. — The common rule is that quis and qui occur properly only
after si, nisi, n6, num, or after a relative ; otherwise aliquis, aliqui.
Notes.— 1. Aliquis and qnis are not unfrequently used as adjectives instead of
aliqui, qui, but rarely in early Latin. Occasionally (not in early Lathi) aliqui is used
as a substantive. Qui is also so used, but only after si, sin, sive, n6.
The use of quid and aliquid for quod and aliquod, and of aliquod for aliquid,
is very rare and late.
2. Besides the variations in form mentioned under the relative and interrogative, the
indefinitive quis shows qu§S as an early form for qui (N. PI.), and in PI. Nom. Ace.
neut, quae and qua in etpially good usage. Aliqxds shows in Abl, Sing, aliqui (rare
and early), in the PI. Nom. Ace. neut. always aliqua, and not unfrequently in post-
classical Latin aliquis for aliquibus.
2. quidam, quaedam, quiddam (and quoddam), a certain, certain one.
Remark. — Quidam, quaedam occur both as substantives and adjec-
tives, but quiddam is always substantive, quoddam always adjective.
The Plural is rare in early Latin (never in Plautus).
3. quispiam, quaepiam, quidpiam (and quodpiam), some one, some.
quisquam, , quicquam, any one (at all). No plural.
Notes.— 1. quispiam, quaepiam are rare as adjectives. In the neuter, quippiam
and quoppiam occur rarely. The comic poets do not use the Plural, and it is rare
elsewhere.
2. Quisquam is seldom used as an adjective, except with designations of persons ;
scriptor quisquam, anj/ writer (at all), Gallus quisquam, any Gaul (at all). The
corresponding adjective is uUus. The use of quisquam as a feminine is only in early
Latin. Quidquam is a poor spelling for quicquam. In Abl. Sing, quiquam occurs
occasionally. In Sing. Gen. Dat. Ace. frequently, and in Plural always, forms of ullus
were used.
62 CORRELATIVES.
4. quivis, quaevis, quidvis (and quodvis), ] any one you please,
quilibet, quaelibet, quidlibet (and quodlibet), f you like.
Note.— QuIvis, quaevis, quilibet (archaic -lubet), quaelibet may be used either
as gubstantives or adjectives, but quidviS, quidlibet are substantives only, quodviS,
quodlibet are adjectives only. Peculiar forms of quiviS are G. quoivis in quoivis-
modi (Plaut.) ; D., quovis (late) ; Ab., quivis (Plaut., Ter.), and the compounds
cuiusviscumque (Lucr. hi., 388) and quoviscumque (Mart, xiv., 2, 1). Quilibet
may be separated by tmesis into qui and libet (Sall., Cat. 5, 4).
5. quisque, quaeque, quidque and quodque, each one,
unusquisque, unaquaeque, tinumquidque and unumquodque, each one
severally.
Note.— Quisque occurs occasionally in early Latin as a feminine, and with its forms
is not unfrequenlly found in early and late Latin for quisquis, or quicumque. Quid-
que is substantive, quodque adjective. In the Abl. Sing, quique occurs occasionally.
The Plural is regular, but rare until post-classical times. In Norn. PI. quaeque is either
fem. or neuter.
108. The declension of the pronominal adjectives has been
given in 76. They are :
tillus, -a, -um, any ; nullus, -a, -um, no one, not one. The correspond-
ing substantives are ngmS (76) and nihil, the latter of which forms
only nihili (Gen.) and nibilo (AbL), and those only in certain combina-
tions.
n5nnullus, -a, -um, some, many a, dechned like nullus.
alius, -a, -ud, another; the Possessive of alius is aliSnus.
alter, -era, -erum, the other, one {of two).
neuter, neutra, neutrum, neither of two.
alteruter, alterutra, alterutrum, the one or the other of the two.
uterque, utraque, utrumque, each of two, either, ambo, -ae, -5, both.
utervis, utravis, utrumvis, ) j, • 7, , ^ ±t. i
,.^' ^ ,.,' ^ ,,,' \ whichever you please of the two.
uterlibet, utralibet, utrumlibet, \ i> jr j
CORRELATIVES.
109. I. CORRELATIVE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.
INTERROGATIVES.
Dejionstratives.
Relatives.
quis % who 9
is, that.
qui, who.
quaUs? of what
talis, such (of that
qualis, as {of which
kind 9
kind),.
kind).
quantuBl how much ?
tantus, 80 much.
quantus, as much.
quot 1 how many f
tot, so many.
quot, as many.
CORRELATIVES.
63
110. II. CORRELATIVE PRONOMINAL ADVERBS.
I. Pronominal adverbs of 7j/«<?e.
ub!?
qaa?
unde?
quo?
istiic, (istoc,) thither.
illuc, (illoc,) thither, yonder.
2. Pronominal adverbs of ti7ne.
quand0 1 when ? turn, then.
tunc, at that time
nunc, now.
quotiSns 1 how often 9 totigns, so often.
-i. Pronominal adverbs of manner.
where ?
ibi,
there. ubi.
where.
where,
hic, hac.
here, this way. qua.
where, which
which way
9
way.
istic, istac,
there, that way.
illic, iliac.
there, yonder ivay.
whence 9
inde,
thence. unde,
ivhence.
hinc,
hence.
istinc.
thence.
illinc.
thence, from yonder.
whither 9
eS,
thither. qu6,
whither.
hue, (hoc,)
hither.
quQmodo ? qui ? how 9
quam!
how much 9
ita, sic,
tarn,
so, thus,
so much.
quandO, when.
quom, cum.
quotigns, as often as.
ut, uti, as.
quam, as.
111. III. COMPOUNDS OF THE RELATIVE FORMS.
1. The relative pronouns become indefinite by prefixing
all-:
aliquantus, someivhat great; aliquot, several, some; alicubi, some-
where ; alicunde, from somewhere ; aliquandS, at some time.
2. The simple relatives become universal by doubling
themselves, or by suffixing -cunque (-cumque), sometimes -que :
quantuscunque, however great ; qualiscunque, of whatever Jcind; quot-
quot, however maiiy ; ubicunque, wheresoever ; quandocunque, quandSque,
whenever ; quotiSscunque, however often ; utut, in whatever way ; utcun-
que, howsoever ; quamquam, however, although.
3. Many of the relatives are further compounded with -vis
or -libet :
quantuslibet, quantusvis, as great as you please ; ubivis, where you
will ; quamvis, as you please, though.
64 THE VERB.
THE VERB.
112. The inflection given to the verbal stem is called Con-
jugation, and expresses :
1 . Person and Number ;
2. Voice — Active or Passive.
The Active Voice denotes that the action proceeds from the
subject : amo, / love.
The Passive Voice denotes that the subject receives the
action of the Verb : amor, / am loved.
3. Tense — Present, Imperfect, Future,
Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect.
The Present, amo, / love ; Future, amabo, / shall love ;
Pure Perfect, amavi, / have loved ; Future Perfect, amavero,
I shall have loved, are called Principal Tenses.
The Imperfect, amabam, / was loving ; Historical Perfect,
amavl, / loved ; Pluperfect, amaveram, / had loved, are called
Historical Tenses.
Remark. — The Pure and Historical Perfects are identical in form.
4. Mood — Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative.
The Indicative Mood is the mood of the, fact : amo, Hove.
The Subjunctive Mood is the mood of the idea : amem,
may I love, I may love ; amet, may he love, he may love ; si
amet, if he should love.
The Imperative Mood is the mood of command : ama, love
thou !
For further distinctions see Syntax.
5. These forms belong to the Finite Verb. Outside of the
Finite Verb, and akin to the noun, are the vei'bal forms called
Infinitive, Supine, Participle, Gerund.
The Infinitive active and the Supine are related to the noun, the
former being originally a Dative or Locative and the Supine showing
two cases. Accusative and Ablative.
No adequate uniform translation can be given, but for the general
meaning see paradigms.
113. A large number of Verbs have the passive form but
Active.
Sg.-
—I.
-m (or a vowel, coalescing with
the characteristic ending) ; Pf . i,
-r.
2.
-s; Pf. -s-ti; Impv. -t5(d) or want-
ing,
-ris or
3-
-t ; Impv. t5(d),
-tur ;
Pl.
— I.
-mus,
-mur.
2.
-tis ; Pf. -s-tis- ; Impv. -te or -t5te,
•mini.
THE YERB. 65
are active in meaning : hortor, / exhort. These are called
deponent (from deponere, to lay aside).
114. The Inflection of the Finite Verb is effected by the
addition of personal endings to the verb stems.
I. The personal endings are mostly pronominal forms, which serve
to indicate not only person, but also number and voice. They are :
Passive.
ris or -re ; Impv. -re or -tor.
Impv. -tor.
3. -nt ; Pf. Srunt or 6re ; Impv. -nto(d), -ntur ; Impv. -ntor.
2. The personal endings are added directly to the stem in the Pres-
ent Indicative and Imperative only, except in the third conjugation, in
some forms of the Future Indicative. In the other tenses certain
modifications occur in the stem, or tense signs are employed :
(«) In the Present Subjunctive final a of the stem is changed toS(e) ;
final g to ea (ea) ; final I to ia (ia) ; final e to a (a). In the Future In-
dicative final e is changed to a or 3 (e) ; final i to ia (ie, ie).
(6) The tense signs are : for the Imperfect Indicative, ba (ba) ; for
the Imperfect Subjunctive, rg (re) ; for the Future Indicative in a and S
verbs b! (b, bu); for the Perfect Indicative, I (i); for the Perfect Sub-
junctive, -eri ; for the Pluperfect Indicative, era (era) ; for the Pluper-
fect Subjunctive, issS (isse) ; for the Future Perfect Indicative, er! (er).
3. The stem itself is variously modified ; either by change of vowel
or by addition of suffixes, and appears in the following forms :
(a) The Present stem ; being the stem of the Present, Imperfect, and
Future tenses. These forms are called the Present System.
(b) The Perfect stem ; being the stem of the Perfect, Pluperfect, and
Future Perfect tenses. These forms are called the Perfect System.
(c) The Supine* stem ; being the stem of the Future Active and Per-
fect Passive Participles and of the Supine. These forms are called the
Supine System.
Note.— For details as to the formation of these stems, see 132 ff.
* This designation is retained because it is an established terminus technicm ; as a
matter of fact the Supine stem is not the stem of the Participles.
66
THE VERB.
115. 1- The Perfect, Pluperfect, find Future Perfect tenses in the
Passive are formed by the combination of the Perfect Passive Parti-
ciple with forms of the verb sum, / am.
2. The Future Passive Infinitive is formed by the combination of
the Supine with the Present Passive Infinitive of eo, I go.
3. The infinite parts of the verb are formed by the addition of the
following endings to the stems :
Active.
Infinitive. Pr. -re,
Pf. -isse,
Fut. -turum (-am, -um) esse,
Participles. Pr. -ns (G. -ntis),
Pf.
Fut. -turus (-a, -um).
Gerund. Gerundive.
-ndi (-do, -dum, -do). -ndus (-a, -um).
Passive.
ri,i.
-turn (-tarn, -turn) esse.
-tum iri.
-tus (-ta, -tum).
Supine.
-tum ; -tu.
116.
The Verb sum, I cmi.
(Pres. stem es-, Perf. stem fu-)
INDICATIVE.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
Sg.-
— I.
sum,
/ am,
sim.
I be,
2.
es,
thou art,
sis.
thou be,
3.
est.
he, she, it is
sit.
he, she, it be.
Pl.-
—I.
sumus,
we are,
simus.
ive be.
2.
estis.
you are,
sitis.
you be,
3.
sunt,
they are.
sint.
they be.
Imperfect.
Sg.-
—I.
eram.
I was.
essem.
I were
(forem).
2.
eras,
thou wast,
essSs,
thou wert
(forgs),
3.
erat.
he was.
esset,
he were
(foret).
Pl.-
—I.
eramus.
tve ivere,
essgmus.
we were.
2.
eratis.
you were.
essetis.
you were,
3.
erant.
they ivere,
essent.
they were
(forent).
Sg.-
—I.
2.
3.
erO,
eris,
erit,
I shall be,
thou u'ilt be,
he will be.
Future.
Pl.-
2.
3-
erimus,
eritis,
erunt,
we shall be,
you will be,
they will be.
THE VERB.
67
Perfect.
Sg. — I. fai, I have been, I fuerim, I have, may have, been,
was,
2. fuisti, thou hast beeir, fuerls, thou have, may est have,
thou wast, been,
3. fuit, he has been, he fuerit, he have, may have, bee7i.
was.
Pl. — I. fuimus, we have been, we fuerimus, we have, may have, been,
were,
2. fuistis, you have been, fuerltis, you have, may have,
you were, been,
3. fuerunt, fu6re, they have faerint, they have, may have,
been, they were. been.
Pluperfect.
Sg. — 1. fueram, 1 had been, fuissem, I had, might have, been,
2. fueras, thou hadst been, fuissgs, thou hadst, mi ghtst have,
been,
3. faerat, hehadbeeii. fuisset, he had, anight have, been.
Pl. — I. fueramus, we had been, faissgmus, we had, might have, been,
2. fueratis, you had been, faiss5tis, yoii had, might have,
been,
3. fuerant, they had been. faissent, they had, might have.
Future Perfect.
Sg. — I. faer5, I shall have been,
2. fueris, thou wilt have been,
3. fuerit, he will have been.
Pl. — I. fuerimus, ive shall have been,
2. fueritis, you will have been,
3. fuerint, they will have been.
IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVE.
Present. Future. Pres. esse, to be,
Sg. — I. , , Perf. fuisse, to have been,
2. es, be thou, est5, thou shall be, Fut. futtirtim (-am, -um) esse
3. , est5, he shall be. (fore), to be about to
be.
Pl.— I. , PARTICIPLE.
2. este, be ye, estote, you shall be,
3. , sunto, they shall be. Fut. futtirus, -a, -um, about
to be.
68
THE VERB.
regularly in Plautus and Terence, but the
Notes.— 1. Early forms are :
(a) In the Pres. Ind. gs for
quantity of the vowel is disputed.
(6) In the Pres. Subjv. siem, sigs, siet, sient ; regular in inscriptions until the
first century B. C. and common in early poets chiefly for metrical reasons ; side by
side with this occur fuam, fuas, fuat, fuant (also Lucr. iv., 637, Verg. x., 108, Liv.
XXV., 12, 6), which are taken up again by very late poets. Sit is also common.
(c) In the Impf . Subjv. the forms forem, forSs, foret, forent were probably in very
early times equivalent to futurus essem, etc. ; and occasionally this force seems to be
still present in the later period, especially in Sallust ; usually, however, they are
equivalent to essem, ess5s, esset, essent; in the Inf. fore always remained the
equivalent of futumm esse.
((0 In all the Perfect forms the original length was fu-, which is still found occa-
sionally in early Latin.
(e) Early and principally legal are the rare forms escit, escet, esit, for erit ;
-essint for erunt.
2. The Pres. Part, is found only in the compounds ; ab-s6us, absent, and prae-
S6ns, present.
117.
ab-sum,
(abfui) afui.
ad-sum, I am present. Pf. afful
d6-sum, / am wanting.
In-sum, 1 am in.
inter-sum, / am between.
Compounds of sum, / am.
I am away, absent. Pf. ob-sum, I am against, Ihurt. Pf.
obful or oifui.
pos-sum, / am able.
prae-sum, I am over, I superintend.
pro-sum, I am for, I profit.
sub-sum, / am under. No Pf .
super-sum, I am, or remain, over.
These are all inflected like sum ; but prosum and possum
require special treatment by reason of their composition.
Prosum, I iwofit.
118. In the forms of pr5sum, prod- is used before vowels.
INDICATIVE.
Present. pr5-sum, pr5d-es, prOd-est,
prO-sumus, prQd-estis, pr5-sunt,
Imperfect. prOd-eram,
Future. pr5d-er3,
Perfect. pr5-ful,
Pluperfect. pr5-fueram,
FuT. Perf. pro-fuerO,
SUBJUNCTIVE.
pr9-sim,
prdd-essem,
pr5-fuerim,
prd-fuissem.
INFINITIVE. Pres. prSd-esse ; Put. prS-fatflrum esse (-fore) ; Perf. pr5-fuissft
Possum, / am able, I can.
119. Possum is compounded of pot (potis, pote) and sum ;
t becomes 8 before s ; in the perfect forms, f (pot-fui) is lost.
THE VERB. 69
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
Sg. — I. pos-sum, I am able, can, pos-sim, Ihe able,
2. pot-es, pos-sis,
3. pot-est. pos-sit.
Pl. — I. pos-sumus, pos-simus, •
2. pot-estis, pos-sitis,
3. pos-sont. pos-sint.
Imperfect.
Sg. — I. pot-eram, I was able, could, pos-sem, I ivere, might be, able.
2.
3.
pot-eras,
pot-erat.
P0S-S6S,
pos-set.
Pl.-
—I.
2.
3.
pot-eramus,
pot-eratis,
pot-erant.
pos-semus,
pos-setis,
pos-sent.
Sg.-
—I.
2.
3.
pot-er5, 1 shall be able,
pot-eris,
pot-erit.
Future.
Pl..
—I.
2.
3.
pot-erimus,
pot-eritis,
pot-erunt.
Perpbct.
Sg.— I. pot-ui, / have been able, pot-uerim, / have, may have, been
able.
2. pot-uisti, pot-ueris,
3. pot-uit. pot-uerit.
Pl. — I. pot-uimus, pot-uerimus,
2. pot-uistis, pot-ueritis,
3. pot-uSrunt. pot-uerint.
Pluperfect,
Sg.— I. pot-ueram, / Aowi 6ecw aWe. pot-uissem, / had, might havet
been able.
2. pot-uerSs, pot-uissgs,
3. pot-uerat. pot-uisset.
Pl. — I. pot-ueramus, pot-uiss6mus,
2. pot-uerStis, pot-uiss6tis,
3. pot-uerant. pot-uissent.
70
REGULAR VERBS.
Future Perfect.
Sg. — I. -pot-uevo, I shall have been Pl. — i.
2. pot-ueris, [able, 2.
3. pot-uerit. 3-
INFINITIVE. Pres., posse, to be able. Perf.
pot-uerimus,
pot-ueritis,
pot-uerint.
potuisse, to have been aUe.
Notes.— 1. In the early Latin the fusion of the two parts of the compound has not
fully taken place ; we accordingly find not unfrequently : potis sum, potis es, potis
est, potis sunt ; potis siem, potis sis, potis sit, potis smt ; potis erat ; pote
fuisset ; and sometimes (even in classical and Augustan poets) potis and pote alone,
the copula being omitted. Partial fusion is seen in Inf. pot-esse, potisse ; Subjv.
poti-sit (inscr.), poti-sset.
2. Occasional passive forms (followed by a passive infinitive) are found in early
Latin (not in Plaut. or Ter.) and Lucretius : potestur, possStur, possitur, poter-
Stur. Foteriut for poterunt is doubtful.
REGULAR VERBS.
SYSTEMS OF CONJUGATION.
120. I. There are two Systems of Conjugation, the The-
matic and the Non-thematic (132). The Non-thematic is
confined to a small class. The Thematic System comprises
four Conjugations, distinguished by the vowel characteristics
of the present stem, a, e, ^, i, which may be found by drop-
ping -re from the Present Infinitive Active. The consonant
preceding the short vowel stem-characteristic is called the
consonant stem-characteristic.
2. From the Present stem, as seen in the Present Indica-
tive and Present Infinitive active ; from the Perfect stem,
as seen in the Perfect Indicative active ; and from the
Supine stem, can be derived all the forms of the verb.
These tenses are accordingly called the Principal Parts;
and in the regular verbs appear in the four conjugations as
follows :*
III
IV
Prks. Ind.
Pres. Inf.
Perf. Ind.
Supine.
1. am-o,
ama-re.
ama-vi,
ama-tum,
to love.
I. dgle-S,
dgl6-re.
dSle-vi,
dels-turn.
to blot out.
mone-5,
monS-re,
mon-ul,
mon-i-tum.
to remind.
I. em-5,
erne-re.
6in-i,
6m(p)-tuin,
to buy.
statu-3.
statue-re.
statu-I,
statu-tum,
to settle.
scrib-5,
scribe-re.
scrip-sl,
scrip-tum.
to write.
capi-5,
cape-re.
C6p-i,
cap-turn,
to take.
V. audi-5,
audi-re,
audl-vl,
audi-tum,
to hear.
REGULAR TERES.
Rules for forming the Tenses.
121. I. The Present System. From the Present stem as obtained
by dropping -re of the Pres. Inf. Active, form
a. Pres. Subj'v. by changing final a to e, 6 to ea, e to a (or -ia), i to ia,
and adding -m for active, -r for passive ; Pres. Impv. Passive by adding
-re; Fut. Impv. by adding -to for Active and -tor for the Passive ; Pres.-
Part, by adding -ns and lengthening preceding vowel ; Gerund by
adding -ndl after shortening a and 6, changing i to ie, and in a few verbs
e to ie. Pres. Impv. Active is the same as the stem ; Pres. Indie. Passive
may be formed from Pres. Indie. Act. by adding -r (after shortening 5).
h. Impf. Indie, by adding -bam for active and -bar for passive to the
stem in the first and second conjugations ; to the lengthened stem in
the third and fourth (e to 6 or iS, I to iS) ; Impf. Suhjv. by adding the
endings -rem and -rer, or by adding -m and -r respectively to the Pres.
Inf. Active.
c. Future, by adding -bO and -bor to the stem in the first and second
conjugations ; -m and -r in the third and in the fourth (e being changed
to a (ia) ; I, to ia).
2. The Perfect System. From the Perfect stem as obtained by drop-
ping final I of the Perfect, form
a. Perf. Suhjv. Active by adding -erim ; Perf. Inf. Active by adding
-isse.
h. Plupf. Indie. Active by adding -eram ; Plup. Suhjv. Active by
adding -issem.
c. Fut. Perf. Active by adding -er6.
3. The Supine System. From the Supine stem as obtained by drop-
ping final -m of the Supine, form
a. Perf. Part. Passive by adding -s.
h. Fut. Part. Active by adding -rus (preceding u being lengthened
tou).
c. The Compound Tenses in the Passive and the Periphrastic forms
by combining these Participles with forms of esse, to he.
Remark. — Euphonic changes in the consonant stem-characteristic.
Characteristic b before s and t becomes p ; g and qu before t become
c ; c, g, qn, with s, become x ; t and d before s are assimilated, and
then sometimes dropped. See further, 9.
8crIb-5, scrip-sl, scrlp-tum ; legO, iSc-tum ; coqn-C, coc-tum ; dIc-0, dixl
(dic-sl) ; iung-5, iunx-I (iung-sl) ; coqu-Q, ooxi (coqu-sl) ; ed-5, 6-sum (ed-
sum) ; c€d-5, c6s-si (c6d-8l) ; xnitt-5, ml-si (mit-sl), mis-sum (mit-sum).
n
REGULAR VERBS.
First Conjugration.
Conjugation of amare, to love,
PRIN. Parts : am-5, ama-re, amS-vI, ama-tnm.
ACTIVE.
Present.
iMPEBrECT.
INDICATIVE.
Am loving^ do love, love,
Sg. — I. am-5,
2. ama-g,
3. ama-t,
Pl. — I. ama-mus,
2. ama-tis,
3. ama-nt,
Was loving, loved.
Sg. — I. ama-ba-m,
2. ama-ba-s,
3. araa-ba-t,
Pl. — I. ama-ba-mus,
2. ama-ba-tis,
3. ama-ba-nt,
FUTURB.
Shall he loving, shall love.
Sg. — I. ama-b-S,
2. ama-bi-s,
3. ama-bi-t,
Pl. — I. ama-bi-mus,
2. ama-bi-tis,
3. ama-bu-nt.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Be loving, may love,
ame-m,
ame-8,
ame-t.
ame-mus,
ame-tis,
ame-nt.
loving, might love,
ama-re-m,
ama-re-8,
ama-re-t.
ama-r6-mus,
ama-rS-tis,
ama-re-nt.
Perfect.
Mave loved, did love.
Sg. — I. ama-v-I,
2. ama-v-isti,
3. ama-v-it,
Pl. — I. ama-v-imuB,
2. ama-v-istis,
3. amfi-v-firunt (-Sre),
Have, may have, loved,
ama-v-eri-m,
ama-v-eri-s,
ama-v-eri-t.
ama-v-erl-mus,
araa-v-eri-tis,
amfi-v-erl-nt.
REGULAR VERBS.
73
First Conjugration.
ACTIVE.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Sg.-
Pluperfect.
Had loved. Had, might have, loved.
—I. ama-vera-m, ama-v-isse-m,
2. ama-v-era-s, ama-v-is85-s,
3. ama-v-era-t, ama-v-isse t.
Pl.
—I. ama-v-era-mus, ama-v-issg-mns,
2. ama-v-era-tis, ama-v-issS-tis,
3. ama-v-era-nt, ama-v-isse-nt.
Sg.-
Future Perfect.
Shall have loved.
—I. ama-v-er-5,
2. ama-v-eri-s,
3. ama-v-eri-t.
Pl.
—I. ama-v-eri-mus,
2. ama-v-eri-tis,
3. ama-v-eri-nt.
IMPERATIVE.
Present. Future.
Sg
.— 1. , ,
2, araa, love thou, ama-t5, thou shall love,
3. . araa-tO, he shall love.
ama-t5te, ye shall love.
ama-nt5, they shall love.
Pl.— I. ,
2. araa-te, love ye,
3. ,.
INFINITIVE.
pREs. ama-re, to love.
Perf. ama-v-isse, to have loved.
Put. ama-ttlr-um, -am, -um esse, to he about to love.
GERUND. SUPINE.
N. [ama-re], loving.
G. ama-nd-I, of loving^
D. ama-nd-3, to loving.
Ac. [ama-re], Ac. ama-tiun, to love.
(ad) ama-nd-um, loving, to love.
Ab. ama-nd-5, ly loving. Ab. ama-ttl, to love, in the loving.
PARTICIPLES. - -
Present. N. ama-n-s (G. ama-nt-is), loving.
Future, ama-ttlr-us, -a, -um, being about to love.
74
BEGTTLAR VERBS.
First Conju^ration.
PASSIVE.
INDICATIVE.
Am loved.
Sg. — I. amo-r,
2. ama-ris (-re),
3. ama-tur,
Pl.-
-I. amS-mur,
2. ama-minXy
3. ama-ntur,
Present.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Be, may be, loved,
ame-r,
ara5-ris (-re),
ame-tur.
am5-mur,
ame-minl,
ame-ntur.
Imperfect.
Was loved.
Se. — I. ama-ba-r,
2. amS-ba-ris (-re),
3. am5-ba-tur,
Pl. — I. ama-ba-mur,
2. ainS-ba-minl,
3. ama-ba-ntur,
Shall he loved.
Sg. — I. ama-bo-r,
2. ama-be-ris (-re),
3. amS-bi-tiir.
Pl. — I. am5-bi-mur,
2. ama-bi-minl,
3. amS-ba-ntur.
Future.
Were, migJit be, loved,
ama-re-r,
amS-rg-ris (-re),
amS-re-txir.
ama-rg-mnr,
ama-r5-minl,
ajna-re-ntnr.
Perfect.
Have been loved, was loved.
Sg. — I. ama-t-QS, -a, -nm sum,
2. es,
3. est,
Pl. — I. ama-t-1, -ae, -a sumus,
2. estis,
3. sunt
ffdve, may have, been loved,
amS-t-us, -a, -um siin,
sis,
sit,
amS-t-I, -ae, -a simus,
sitis,
sint.
REGULAR VERBS. 75
First Conjugation.
PASSIVE.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pluperfect.
Had been loved. Had, might have, been loved,
Sg. — I. amS-t-us, -a, -um eram, amil-t-us, -a, -um essem,
2. eras, ess68,
3. erat, esset,
Pl. — I. ama-t-i, -ae, -a eramus, amti-t-I, -ae, -a essgaius,
2. erStis, essStis,
3. erant. essent.
Future Perfect.
Shall have been loved.
Sg. — I. ama-t-u8, -a, -um erO,
2. eris,
3. erit.
Pl. — I. ama-t-I, -ae, -a erimus,
2. eritis,
3. erunt.
IMPERATIVE.
Present. * Future.
Sg.— I. , ,
2. ama-re, be thou loved. ama-tor ihou shall he loved.
3. , ama-tor, he shall be loved.
2. a ma-mini, be ye loved. ,
3, . ama-ntor, they shall be lowd.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. ama-rl, to be loved.
Perf. ama-t-um, -am, -um esse, to have been loved.
FuT. ama-tum iri, to be about to be loved.
FuT. Pf. ama-t-um, -am, -um fore.
PARTICIPLE. GERUNDIVE.
Perf. amS-t-us, -a, -um, loved. ama-nd-us, -a, -um, {one) to be loved.
76
REGULAR VERBS.
123. Second Conjugration.
CoNJUGATioi?^ OF delfire, to destroy (Not out),
Prin. Parts : dele-0, d6l6re, d6l6-vi, d6l6-tum.
ACTIVE. PASSIVE.
INDIC.
SUBJV.
INDIC.
SUBJV.
Present.
Sg.— d5le-«S
dele-8,
dele-t,
delea-m,
delea-s,
delea-t,
dele-o-r,
dele-ris (-re),
dele-tur,
delea-r,
delea-ris (-re),
delea-tur,
Pl.— dele-mus,
dele-tis,
dele-nt.
delea-mus,
delea-tis,
delea-nt.
dele-mur,
dele-mini,
dele-ntur.
dele-a-mur,
dele-a-mini,
dele-a-ntur.
iMPERrECT.
Sg.— dele-ba-m,
dele-ba-8,
dele-ba-t.
dele-re-m,
dele-r6-s,
dele-re-t,
dele-ba-r,
dele-ba-ris (-re),
dele-ba-tur,
dele-re-r,
dele-r6-ris (-re),
dele-r6-tur,
Pl.— dele-ba-mus,
dele-ba-tis,
dele-ba-nt.
dele-r6-mus,
dele-r5-tis,
dele-re-nt.
dele-ba-mur,
dele-ba-mini,
dele-ba-ntur,
dele-r6-mur,
dele-r6-minl,
dele-re-ntur.
Future.
Sg.— dele-b-5,
dele-bi-s,
dele-bi-t,
dele-bo-r,
dele-be-ris (re),
dele-bi-tur,
Pl. — dele-bi-mus,
dele-bi-tis,
dele-bu-nt.
dele-bi-mur,
dele-bi-mini,
dele-bu-ntur.
Perfect.
Sg.— dele-v-I,
dele-v-isti,
dele-v-it,
del6-v-eri-m,
dele-v-eri-s,
dele-v-eri-t.
dele-t-us sum,
es,
est.
dgl6-t.U8 Sim,
sis,
sit.
Pl.— dele-v-imus,
dele-v-istis,
delC-v-erl-mus,
dele-v-eri-tis,
dele-t-I sumus,
estis,
dele-t-I simus,
sitis,
d6l5-v-8runt (-ere), dele-v-eri-nt.
font,
Bint.
EEQULAE VERBS.
77
SUBJV.
Second Conjugation.
AOTIVR PASSIVE.
mDIC. SUBJV. INDIC.
Pluperfect.
Sg. — dele-v-era-m, dele-v-isse-m, dele-t-us eram, dele-t-us essem,
dele-v-era-s, dele-v-iss6-8, erSs,
dele-v-era-t, dele-v-isse-t. erat,
Pl. — dele-v-era-mus, dele-v-issO-mus, dele-t-I eramus, dele-t-i essOmus,
dele-v-era-tis,
dele-v-era-nt.
dele-v-isse-tis,
dele-v-isse-nt.
erStis,
erant,
essetis,
essent.
Sg.— dele-v-er-O,
dele-v-eri-s,
dele-v-eri-t,
Future Perfect.
dele-t-us
erO,
eris,
erit.
Pl.— dele-v-er!-mu8,
dele-v-erl-tis,
dele-v-eri-nt,
dele-t-I
erimus,
eritis,
erunt.
Present.
IMPERATIVE.
Future. Present.
FUTUBK.
Sg. ,
dele,
»
dele-to,
dele-to,
dele.r«,
>
>
dele-tor,
dele-tor.
Pl. ,
dele-te,
»
dele-tote,
dele-ntO.
dele-mini,
>
dele-ntor
1 Pres. dele-re.
INFINITIVE.
Pres.
dele-rl.
Perf. dele-v-isse.
Fut. dele-tar-um, -am, -urn esse.
Perf. dele-t-um, -am, -um esse.
Put. dele-tum Irl.
Fut. Pf. dele-t-um, -am, -um fore.
GERUND.
N. [dele-re].
G. dele-nd-f
D. dele-nd-0.
Ac. [dele-re]
(ad) dele-nd-um.
Ak. dele-nd-0.
SUPINE.
Ac. dele-tum.
Ab. dele-ta.
PARTICIPLES.
Pres. N. dele-n-s ; G. dsle-nt-ia.
Fut. dele-tur-us, -a, -um.
Perf. dele-t-us, -a, -um.
GERUNDIVE.
dele-nd-us, -a, -um.
78'
REGULAR VERBS.
124. Like delere, to destroy , are conjugated only, nere, to spin,
flere, to toeep, and the compounds of -plere, filly and -olere grotv
(the latter with Supine in -itum); also ciere, to stir up. See 137(^).
All other verbs of the Second Conjugation retain the character-
istic e in the Present System, but drop it in the Perfect System,
changing vi to ui, and weaken it to i in the Supine System.
Second Conjugation.
Coi^^JUGATioiS' OF monere, to remind.
PRIN. Parts : mone-0, monS-re, mon-ul, moni-tum.
ACTIVE.
Sg.
Pl —
Sg.-
Pl.
Sg.-
Pl.
Sg.
Pl.-
INDIC.
mone-C,
mone-s,
mone-t,
raone-mus,
monS-tis,
mone-nt.
-mone-ba-m,
raone-ba-8,
mone-ba-t,
-mone-bS-mus,
mone-ba-tis,
monS-ba-nt.
-raone-b-0,
mone-bi-s,
mone-bi-t,
-mone-bi-mus,
mone-bi-tis,
monS-bu-nt.
-mon-u-I,
mon-u-istl,
mon-u-it,
-mon-u-imu8,
mon-u-istis,
SUBJV.
monea-m,
monea-s,
monea-t,
raonea-mus,
monea-tis,
monea-nt.
INDIC.
Present.
mone-o-r,
mone-ris (-re),
mone-tur,
inone-mur,
raone-mini,
mone-ntur.
Imperfect.
PASSIVE.
SUBJV.
monea-r,
raonea-ris (-re),
raonea-tur,
mone-a-mur,
mone-a-minl,
mone-a-ntur.
mone-re-m, inon5-ba-r,
inone-r6-s, mone-ba-ris (-re),
raone-re-t, mone-ba-tur,
mone-r6-mus, mone-ba-nmr,
mone-rS-tis, mone-ba-mini,
raone-re-nt. mone-ba-ntur.
Future.
mone-bo-r,
mone-be-ris (-re),
mone-bi-tur,
raone-bi-mur,
inone-bi-minl,
mone-bu-ntur.
Perfect.
mon-u-eri-m, moni-t-us sum,
mon-u-eri-s, es,
raon-u-eri-t, est,
mon-u-eri-mus, moiii-t-I sumus,
inon-u-eri-tis, estis.
raone-re-r,
mone-r6-ris (-re),
raoiie-rS-tur,
raone-r6-mur,
mone-rS-minI,
mone-re-ntur.
mon-u-6rant (-fire), raoii-u-eri-nt.
sunt.
moni-t-us Sim,
sis,
sit,
inoni-t-I simus,
sitis,
sint.
REGrMR VERBS.
79
Second Conjugation.
ACTIVE. " PASSIVE.
INDIC.
SUBJV.
mDic.
SUBJV.
Pluperfect.
Sg
-mon-u-era-m,
mon-u-era-s,
mon-u-era-t,
mon-u-isse-m.
raoni-t-us essem,
Pr..—
moni-t-us eram,
eras,
erat,
mon-u-era-mu8, mon-u-iss6-nius, moni-t-I eraxnus, moni-t-I essSmus,
mon-u-iss5-s,
mon-u-isse-t.
mon-u-era-tis,
iDon-u-issS-tis,
eratis.
essStis
mon-u-era-nt.
mon-u-isse-nt.
erant.
essent.
Future Perfect.
Sg.— mon-u-er-5,
moni-t-us erfl,
mon-u-eri-8,
eris,
mon-u-eri-t,
erit,
Pl. — mon-u-eri-mus,
moni-t-I erimus,
mon-u-eri-tis,
eritis,
raon-u-eri-nt.
erunt.
IMPERATIVE.
Present.
Future.
Present.
Futubb.
mone,
mon5-t5,
mone-re,
mone-tor,
mone-t5,
mone-tor,
Pl.
mone-te,
mone-tOte,
mone-mini,
mone-ntO.
mone-ntor.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. mon5-re.
Pres. monS-rl.
Perf. mon-u-isse.
Perf. moni-t-um.
-am, -um esse.
FuT. moni-tur-um,
-am, um esse
Fut. raoni-t-um
Iri.
Fut. Pf. raoni-t-um, -am, -um fore.
SUPINE.
N.
G.
D.
Ac.
Ah.
GERUND.
[mon5-re].
mone-nd-I.
mone-nd-5.
[mone-re] Ac. moni-tum.
(ad) mone-nd-um.
mone-nd-O. Ab. moni-ttl.
PARTICIPLES.
Pres. N. mon6-n-8 ; G. mone-nt-is,
Fut. moni-tur-us, -a, -um.
Perf. moni-t-us, -a, -am.
GERUNDIVE.
mone-nd-u8, -a, -um.
8o
REGULAR YF'RBS.
125, Third Conjugation.
Conjugation of emere, to buy,
Prin. Parts : em-o, erne-re, 6in-I, 6m(p)-tuin.
ACTIVE.
PASSIVE.
INDIC.
SUBJV.
INDIC.
Present.
SUBJY.
Sg.— em-o,
emi-8,
emi-t,
ema-m,
ema-8,
ema-t,
em-o-r,
eme-ris (-re),
emi-tur,
ema-r,
ema-ris (-re),
ema-tur.
Pl.— emi-mus,
erai-tis,
emu-nt.
ema-mus,
ema-tis,
ema-nt.
emi-mur,
emi-minl,
emu-ntur.
Imperfect.
ema-mur,
ema-mini,
ema-ntur.
Sg.— eme-ba-m,
eme-ba-8,
eme-ba-t,
eme-re-m,
eme-rS-s,
eme-re-t.
eme-ba-r,
eme-ba-ris(-re,)
eme-ba-tur,
eme-re-r,
eme-r6-ris (-re),
eme-re-tur,
Pl.— eme-ba-mus,
eme-ba-tis,
eme-ba-nt.
eme-r6-mus, eme-ba-mur,
eme-r6-tis, eme-ba-mini,
eme-re-nt. eme-ba-ntur.
eme-r6-mur,
eme-rg-mini,
eme-re-ntur.
Future.
Sg.— ema-m,
eme-s,
eme-t.
ema-r,
eme-ris (-re),
eme-tur,
Pl.— eme-mus,
eme-tis,
eme-nt.
eme-mur,
eme-mini,
eme-ntur.
Perfect.
Sg.— em-I,
em-isti,
era-it.
6m-eri-m,
Cm-eri-8,
6m-eri-t,
emp-t-U8 sum,
es,
est.
6rap-t-U8 sim,
sis,
sit,
Pl.— em-imus,
em-istis,
em-6runt (-&€
em-erl-mus,
em-eri-tis,
>). em-eri-nt.
6mp-t-I sumus,
estis,
sunt.
emp-t-I simua,
sitis,
•int.
REGULAR VERBS.
8l
Third Conjugation.
ACTIVE. PASSIVE.
INDIC. SUBJV. INDIC. SUBJV.
Pluperfect.
5mp-t-U8
Sg.— em-era-m,
em-isse-m,
erap-t-us eram,
em-era-8,
ein-issg-s,
eras,
em-era-t,
em-isse-t,
erat.
Pl.— em-era-mus,
em-issS-mus,
emp-t-I eramus,
em-era-tis,
em-iss6-tis,
eratis,
em-era-nt.
em-isse-nt.
erant.
Future Perfect.
Sg. — era-er-5.
emp-t-us era.
em-eris,
eris.
em-eri-t,
erit,
Pl.— em-eri-mus,
emp-t-I erimus.
5m-eri-tis,
eritis.
em-eri-nt.
erunt.
IMPERATIVE.
Present.
Future.
Present.
Sg.
erne,
enu-tO,
eme-re,
Pl.
emi-te.
emi-t5,
emi-tOte,
emi-minl.
eniu-ntO.
esses,
eiset,
essSmtu
essStis,
essent.
Pres. erae-re.
Perp. em-isse.
FuT. erap-ttir-um, -am, -urn esse.
FUTURB.
emi-tor,
erai-tor,
emu-ntor,
INFINITIVE.
Pres. em-I.
Perf. 5mp-t-um, -am, -um
FuT. eraptum Iri.
FuT. Pf. emp-t-um, -am, -um fore.
GERUND.
N. [eme-re].
G. era-e-nd-I.
D. em-e-nd-o.
Ac. [era-e-re]
(ad) em-e-ndum.
Ab. era-e-nd-5.
6
SUPINE.
Ac. emp-tum.
Ab. emp-ttl.
PARTICIPLES.
Pres. N. em5-n-s ; G. eme-nt-iSi
FuT. 5mp-tur-us, -a, -um.
Perf. Crap-t-us, -a, -um.
GERUNDIVE.
em-e-nd-us, -a, -um-
82
REGULAR VERBS.
126. Many verbs of the third conjugation with stem in ie (Pres.
Indie, in io) weaken this ie to e before -re, and to i before m, s,
and t in all tenses of the Present System except the Future.
Otherwise they follow the inflection of eme-re.
These verbs are capio, cupio, facio, fodio, ftigio, iacio, pario,
quatio, rapid, sapio, and their compounds ; also compounds of
-licio, -spicio, and the deponents gradior and its compounds,
morior and its compounds, patior and its compounds.
Synopsis of Present System of cape-re, to take,
Prin. Parts : capi-5, cape-re, c6p-I, cap-tom.
ACTIVE. PASSIVE.
INDIC.
SUBJV.
INDIC.
SUBJV.
Present.
Sg.-
-capi-5,
capi-8,
capi-t.
capia-m,
capia-s,
capia-t.
capi-o-r,
cape-ris (-re),
capi-tur,
capia-r,
capia-ris (-re),
capiii-tur.
Pl.-
-capi-mus,
capi-tis,
capiu-nt.
capia-mus, capi-mur,
capia-tis, capi-minl,
capia-nt. capiu-ntur.
capia-mur,
capia-mini,
capia-ntur.
Imperfect.
Sg.-
-capie-ba-m,
etc.
cap-e-re-m, capi-6-ba-r,
etc. etc.
cape-re-r,
etc.
Future.
Sg.-
-capia-m,
capi5-8,
etc.
capia-r,
capi5-ris (-re),
etc.
IMPERATIVE.
Prbs.
Put.
Pres.
Put.
Sg.-
-cape,
capi-te.
cap-i-tO,
cap-i-tO,
capi-tOte,
capiu-ntC
cape-re,
capi-minl.
INFINITIVE.
capi-tor,
capi-tor,
capiii-ntor.
Pres. cape-re.
cap-
•I.
PARTICIPLE.
GERUND.
GERUNDIVE.
Prbs
1. capie-n-s.
G.
capie-nd-I.
capie-nd-us, -a, -un.
REGULAR VERBS.
H
127.
Fourth Conjugration.
Conjugation of audire, to hear.
Prin. Parts : audi-3, audi-re, audi-vi, audl-tum.
ACTIVE. PASSIVE.
ETOIC. SUBJV. INDIC. SUBJV.
Sg. — audi-5,
audi-s,
audi-t,
Pl. — audi-mus,
audi-tis,
audiu-nt.
Sg. — audie-ba-m,
audi5-ba-s,
audie-ba-t,
Pl. — audie-ba-mu8,
audi5-ba-tis,
audie-ba-nt.
So.
-audia-m,
audie-s,
audie-t,
Pl. — audie-mus,
audie-tis,
audie-nt.
audia-m,
audia-s,
audia-t,
audia-mus,
audiS-tis,
audia-nt.
Present.
audi-o-r,
audi-ris (re),
audl-tur,
audl-mur,
audi-mini,
audi-u-ntur.
audia-r,
audia-ris (-re),
audia-tur,
audia-mur,
audia-mini,
audia-ntur.
Imperfect.
audl-re-m,
audI-rS-8,
aiidi-re-t,
audi-r6-mus,
audl-rS-tis,
audi-re-nt.
audie-ba-r, audl-re-r,
audie-ba-ris (re), audi-r6-ris (-re),
audie-ba-tur, audi-r6-tur,
audie-ba-mur,
audie-ba-minl,
audie-ba-ntur,
audi-r6-mur,
audi-re-minl,
audl-re-ntur.
Future.
audia-r,
audie-ris (-re),
audie-tur,
audie-mur,
audiS-minl,
audie-ntur.
Sg. — audi-v-I,
audi-v-isti,
audi-v-it,
Pl. — audl-v-imus,
audi-v-istis,
Perfect.
audl-v-eri-m, audl-t-us sum.
audl-t-as sim,
sis,
sit,
audl-v-erl-s, es,
audl-v-eri-t, est,
audl-v-erl-mu8, audl-t-I sumus, audi-t-f simurf,
audl-v-eri-tis, estis, sitis,
audi-v-erunt (-ere), audi-v-eri-nt.
sunt.
8int»
84
REGULAR VERBS.
Fourth Conjugratfon.
ACTIVE. PASSIYB.
INDIC. SUBJV. INDIC.
Pluperfect.
audl-v-isse-m, audi-t-us eram,
audi-v-is86-s, eras,
audi-v-isse-t, erat,
SUBJV.
Sg. — audi-v-era-m,
audi-v-era-s,
audl-v-era-t,
audl-tu-s essem,
essSs,
esset,
Pl. — audl-v-era-mu8, audl-v-issS-mns, audl-t-I erfimus, audl-t-I essSmus,
audl-v-erS-tis, audi-v-issS-tis,
audl-v-era-nt. audl-v-isse-nt.
eratis,
erant.
essStis,
essent.
Sg. — audI-v-er-(J,
audl-v-erl-s,
audl-v-eri-t,
Pl. — audi-v-eri-mus,
audi-v-eri-tis,
audi-v-eri-nt.
Future Perfect.
audi-t-us er6,
eris,
erit,
audl-t-I erimus,
eritis,
enmt.
IMPERATIVE.
Present.
Sg.
Pl.
audi,
audi-te.
Future.
audi-tO,
audi-tO,
audl-t5te,
audiu-nt6.
Present.
audl-re,
audl-mint
FUTURI.
audl-tor,
audi-tor,
audiu-ntor.
Pres. audl-re.
Perf. audl-v-isse.
FuT. audi-ttlr-uin, -am, -um
GERUND.
N. [audi-rej.
G. audie-nd-I.
D. audie-nd-5.
Ac. [audl-rej
(ad) audie-nd-ttm.
Ab. audie-nd'O.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. audl-rl.
Perf. audl-t-um, -am, um esse,
esse. FuT. audi-tum Irl.
Fut.Pf. audi-t-um, -am, -um fore.
SUPINE. PARTICIPLES.
Pres. N. audien-s, G. audie-nt-is,
FuT. audi-ttlr-us, -a, -um.
Perf. audl-t-us, -a, -um.
Ac. audi-tum.
Ab. audl-tfU
GERUNDIVE.
audie-nd-us, -a, -um.
DEPONENT VERBS.
DEPONENT VERBS.
128. Deponent verbs have the passive form, but are active
in meaning. They have also the Present and Future Active
Participles, and the Future Active Infinitive. Thus a depo-
nent verb alone can have a Present, Future, and Perfect
Participle, all with active meaning. The Gerundive, how-
ever, is passive in meaning as well as in form.
The conjugation differs in no particular from that of the
regular conjugation.
I. First Conjugratlon.
Conjugation of hortan, to exhort.
Prin. Parts : hort-or, hortS-rl, horta-tus sum.
INDICATIVE.
Exhort,
So. — hort-o-r,
horta-ris (-re),
horta-tur,
Pl.— horta-mur,
horta-minl,
horta-ntur.
WaB exhorting.
So. — horta-ba-r,
horta-ba-ris (-re),
horta-ba-tur,
Pl. — horta-ba-mur,
horta-ba-minl,
horta-ba-ntur.
Shall exhort.
Sg. — horta-bo-r,
horta-be-ris (-re),
horta-bi-tur,
Pl. — horta-bi-mur,
horta-bi-mini,
horta-bu-ntuy.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
Be exhorting, may exhort
horte-r,
horte-ris (-re),
horte-tur,
horte-mur,
horte-mini,
horte-ntur.
Imperfect.
Were exhorting, might exhoT
horta-re-r,
horta-r6-ris (-re),
horta-r6-tur,
horta-rB-mnr,
horta-re-minl,
horta-re-ntur.
Future.
86 DEPONENT VERBS.
Perfect.
Have exhorted, exhorted. Have, may have, exhorted^
Sg. — horta-t-us, -a, -um sum, horta-t-us, -a, -urn sim,
es, sis,
est, sit,
Pl. — horta-t-I, -ae, -a sumus, hortat-I, -ae, -a slmus,
estis, sitis,
sunt. sint.
Pluperfect.
Had exhorted. Had, might have, exhorted^
Sg.— horta-t us, -a, -um eram, horta-t-us, -a, -um essem,
eras, essSs,
erat, esset,
Pl.— horta-t-I, -ae, -a eramus, horta-t-I, -ae, -a essSmus.
erStis, essetis.
erant. essent.
Future Perfkct.
Shall have exhorted.
Sg. — horta-t-us, -a, -um er5,
eris,
erit,
Pl.— horta-t-I, -ae, -a erimus,
eritis,
erunt.
IMPERATIVE.
Present. PuTtrBi!.
Sg.
horta-re, exhort thou. horta-tor, thou shalt exhort,
• horta-tor, he shall exhort.
Pl.
horta-mini, exhort ye.
horta-ntor, they shall exhort.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES.
Pres. horta-rl, to exhort. Pres. horta-n-s, exhorting.
FuT. horta-ttlr-um, am, -um esse, Fut. horta-tiir-us, -a, um, ahoui
to he about to exhort. to exhort.
Perf. hortat-um, -am, -um esse, to Perf. horta-t-us, -a, -um, having
have exhorted. exhorted.
F. P. hortat-um, -am, -um fore. . GERUNDIVE.
SUPINE. horta nd-us, -a, -um, \one\ to he
Ac. horta-tum, to exhort, for ex- exhorted.
horting. GERUND.
Ab. horta-tfl, to exhort, m the ex- G. horta-nd-I, of exhorting.
horting.
DEPONENT VERBS.
87
2. Second, Third, Fourth Conjugations.
Synopsis of vereri, to fear; loqui, to speak; mentiri, to lie,
Pein. Parts : vere-or, ver6-ri, veri-tus sum; loqu-or, loqu-i, locu-tus sum;
menti-or, mentl-ri, mentl-tus sum.
INDICATIVK
Imperf.
FUT.
Perf.
Plupf.
FuT. Pf.
n.
vere-o-r,
ver5-ris (-re), etc,
vei€-ba-r,
vere-bo-r,
veri-t-us sum,
veri-t-us eram,
veri-t-us ero.
ni.
loqii-o-r,
loque-ris (-re), etc.
loqu5-ba-r,
loqua-r,
locu-t-us sum,
locu-t-us eram,
locQ-t-us ero.
17.
menti-0-r,
mentl-ris (-re), c^c,
mentie-ba-r,
raentia-r,
mentl-t-us sum,
menti-t-us eram»
menti-t-us erS.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Imperf.
Perf.
Plupf.
verea-r,
verea-ris (-re), etc.
verG-re-r,
veri-t-us sim,
veri-t-us essem.
loqua-r,
loquS-ris (-re), etc,
loque-re-r,
locu-t-us sim,
locu-t-us essem.
mentia-r,
mentia-ris (-re), etc.
meitti-re-r,
menti-t-us sim,
menti-t-us
Pres.
FUT.
Pres.
FUT.
Perf.
FuT. P5
vere-re,
ver5-tor.
IMPERATIVE,
loque-re,
loqui-tor.
INFINITIVE,
ver5-ri, loqu-i,
veri-tur-um esse, locu-tur-um esse,
veri-t-um esse, locu-t-um esse,
veri-t-um fore, locu-t-um fore.
menti-re,
menti-tor.
mentl-rl,
menti-tur-um esse;
menti-t-um esse,
menti-t-um fore.
Pres.
FUT.
Perf
GERUND.
GERUNDrV^E,
SUPINE.
vere-n-s,
veri-ttir-us,
veri-t-us.
vere-nd-i, etc.,
vere-nd-us,
vcri-tum,
veri-ta.
PARTICIPLES.
loque-n-8,
locu-tur-us,
locu-t-us.
loque-nd-i,
loque-nd-us,
locu-tum,
locu-ta.
mentie-n-s,
menti-ttir-us,
menti-t-us.
mentie-nd-I,
mentie-nd-us,
mentl-tum,
menti-tti.
88 PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION.
Periphrastic Conjugation.
129. The Periphrastic Conjugation arises from the com-
bination of the Future Participle active and the Gerundive
with forms of the verb sum.
ACTIVE.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres. amaturus (-a, -am) sum, amaturus (-a, -urn) sim,
Am about to love. Be about to love.
Ikpf. amaturus eram, amaturus essem,
Was about to love. Were about to love.
FuT. amaturus ero,
Shall be about to love.
Pkbf. amatiirus ful, amaturus fuerim,
Have been, was, about to love. Have, may have, been
about to love.
Plupf. amaturus fueram, amaturus fuissem,
Had been about to love. Had, might have, been
about to love.
FcT. Pekp. amatiirus fuer5,
Shall have been about to love.
INFINITIVE. Prks. amatur-um (-am, -um) esse, To be about to love.
Perp. ajtnatur-um fuisse, 2h have been about to love.
PASSIVE.
Pkbs.
amandus (-a, -um) sum,
Have to be loved.
Have to be loved.
IHW.
amandus eram,
Had to be loved.
amandus essem, forem,
Had to be loved.
FUT.
amandus er5, Shall have to be loved.
VVRV.
amandus ful,
Have had to be loved.
amandus fuerim,
Have had to be loved.
Plupp.
amandus fueram,
Had had to be loved.
amandus fuissem.
Should have had to he
loved.
INFINITIVE. Pkes. amandum (-am, -um) esse, To have to be loved.
Perp. amandum fuisse, To have had to be loved.
NOTES ON THE CONJUGATIONS. 89
Notes on the Four Conjugations.
130. The Present System,
1. Present Indicative.— (a) In the third person Singular active, early Latin, and
occasionally later poets, often retain the original length of vowel in the endings -at, -6t,
and -it of the first, second, and fourth conjugations. Final -it in the third conjuga-
tion is rare, and due, perhaps, to analogy or to metrical necessity. In the first person
Plural the ending -mus is found a few times m poetry. In third person Plural an
earlier ending, -onti, is found only in a Carmen Saliare, and is disputed. The ending
-ont is frequent m early Latin for -unt.
(6) In the second Singular, passive, in all tenses of the Present stem, the ending -re
is much more common in early Latin than -ris, and is regular in Cic. except in the Pr.
Indie, where he prefers -ris on account of confusion with Pr. Inf., admitting -re only
in deponents, and then but rarely. In general, in the Pr. Indie, -re is rare in the first
and second conjugations, more rare in the third, and never found in the fourth, in prose
authors. Post-Ciceronian prose writers, e. g., Livy, Tacitus, prefer -ris, even in the
other tenses of the Present stem. The poets use -ris or -re to suit the metre.
2. Imperfect Indicative.— In the fourth conjugation, instead of -ig-, we find m
early times -i-. This is common in early Latin (especially scibam), in the poets to suit
the metre, and occasionally in later prose. In the verb eo, and its compounds (but
ambire varies), this form was regular always.
3. Future Indicative.— Plautus shows sporadic cases of -it, as erit, vSnibit
(vgneS). In the fourth conjugation -ib5 for -iam is very connnon in early Latin
(especially scibo), and forms in -ibo of the third conjugation are occasional.
4. Present Subjunctive.— Final -at of the third person Singular active is occa-
sional in early Latin and also in later poets. In early Latin the active endings -im, -is,
-it, -int are found in dare (and some compounds), which forms very often duim,
duis, duit, duint. On similar forms from esse, see IIG ; from edere, see 172.
.5. Imperative.— (rt) Four verbs, dicere, ducere, facere, ferre (171), form the Pr.
Impv. active die, due, fae, fer. But in early Latin dice, duee, faee are not uncommon.
The compounds follow ihe usage of the simple verbs, except prepositional compounds
of facio. Scire, to knoiv, lacks the Pr. Impv. sci.
{b) The original ending of the Fut. Impv. active -tSd is found in early inscriptions,
but very rarely.
(c) The Pr. Impv. passive (second and third Singular) ends occasionally in early Latin
in -mino. Appellamino (Cic. Leg. hi. 3, 8) as third Plur. is a blunder.
G. Presknt Infinitive Passive.— The early ending -rier (-ier) is very common in
early Latin and occasionally in poetry at all periods. Plautus shows about 140 such
formations. In literary prose it does not appear till very late.
7. The Present Participle occurs sporadically in early Latin with the ending
-as, -es, the n having been omitted owing to its weak sound ; see 12, R. 1.
8. The older ending of the Gerund and Gerundive in the third and fourth conju-
gations was -undus ; and -endus was found only after u. In classical times -undus
is frequent, especially in verbs of third and fourth conjugations. Later, -endus is the
regular form.
, 131. Tlie Perfect System.
I. Syncopated Forms.— The Perfects in -Syl, -Svl, -ivi, often drop
the V before s or r, and contract the vowels throughout, except those in
-ivi, which admit the contraction only before s.
The syncopated forms are found in all periods, and in the poets are
used to suit the metre.
90
NOTES ON THE CONJUGATIONS.
audivisti, audistl.
Perfect.
Sing. 1.
2. amavisti, amasti. delevisti, dglesti.
Plur. 1.
2. amavistis, amastis. delevistis, delestis. audlvistis, audistis.
3. aiiiavenint,amarunt. delSverunt, delerunt. audiverunt, audiemiitc
SuBJv. amaverim, amarim, deleverim, delerim, audiverim, audierim,
etc. etc. etc.
Pluperfect.
Indic. amaveram, amaram, dglSveram, dglSram, audiveram, audieram,
etc. etc. etc.
SuBjv. amavissem, amassem, delgvissem, delessem, audivissem, audissem,
etc. etc. etc.
amaverd, aiuard,
etc.
amavisse, amasse.
Future Perfect.
delevero, d6l6ro,
etc.
Infinitive Perfect.
delSvisse, delesse.
audlverS, audiero,
etc.
audivisse, audisse.
2. In the first and third persons Sing, and in the first person PI.
of the Perfect, syncope occurs regularly only in Perfects in Ivi, and
no contraction ensues. It is most common in the Perfects of ire
(1G9) and petere. In other verbs this syncopation is post-Ciceronian,
except in a few forms. So Cicero uses dormiit, erudiit, expediit, moUiit,
cupiit (also Plautus) ; Caesar, communiit, resciit, quaesiit. Desinere
forms desii and desiit, once each in early Latin (Cicero uses destiti
and destitit instead), and then in post- Augustan Latin ; dgsiimus is
cited once from Cicero. The unsyncopated forms are always common
except those of Ire (169), which are very rare in classical prose, but
occur more often in the poets for metrical reasons.
Note.— The forms nomus (Enn. = nSvimus"), gnarramus (Ter.,^c?.,365), flg-
mus, mutamus, and narramus (Prop.), suemus (Lucr.), iu the Perfect, are sporadic
and sometimes doubtful.
3. nQvI, I Jcnow, and movi, 1 have moved, are also contracted, in
their compounds especially.
Sing.— 2. nOstl. Plur.— 2. nostis. 3. norunt. SuB.rv. nSrim, etc.
Plupp. nSram, etc. Subjv. nSssem, etc. Inf. nosse.
But the Fnt. Perf . nQro is found only in compounds.
Similar contractions are seen in mSvi, but not so often ; iHvI shows also a few
cases of syncope in poetry.
4. (a) In the early Latin poets frequently and occasionally in later, syncope takes
place in Perfects in -si. These drop the s and contract. A few cases are found in
Cicero, especially in the letters. Examples are dixti (found also in Cic. and probably
an earlier formation, and not by syncope for dixisti) ; duxti, principally in compounds;
intellextl (once in Cic); scilpstl ; mistl (misistr iuid s(!venil others ; also scripstis.
ib) Akin to these are a niiniber of forms in -so for Fiit. Perfect ; -sim for Pf.
Subjv. and more rarely -sem for Plupf. Siibjv. These foinis are most usual in the
tJiird conjugation, but arc also not uufieyui^ut in the other three ; thus,
THE STEM. 91
1. Fxiture Perfect : faxQ (facere) ; capso (capere) and compounds : iussodubSre ;
Verg.) ; amasso (amare) ; servasso (servare) and compounds, together with some
others.
2. Perfect Subj^inctlve : faxim and compounds ; duxim ; ausim ( audere, also
used by Cic.) ; iussim ; empsim (emere) ; locassim (locare) ; negassim (negare).
In the second and thkd persons Sing., where the Fut. Pf . Indie, and the Pf. Subjv. are
identical, the forms are much more common. The plural forms are much less frequent.
3. Pluperfect SubjitncHre : faxem ; pro-missem ; intel-lexes ; re-cSsset and a
few other forms ; ergpsemus (IIor , >§., i. 5, 79). These forms are rare.
4. Infinitive : dixe ; de-spexe ; ad-duxe, etc. ; intel-lexe ; de-traxe, etc. ,• ad-
vexe ; ad-misse, and a few others. Also the Future forms averuncassere, reconcili-
assere, impetrassere, oppugnassere.
The exact origin of these forms is still a matter of dispute, but the common view is
that they are aoristic formations.
5. From the earliest times the third Plural of the Pf. Indic. active shows two end-
ings, -gront (later -grant) and -gre. The form in -grunt ^^as always preferred, and
in classical prose is the normal form. The form in -gre seems to have been the popu-
lar form, and is much liked by Livy and later writers. Tacitus seems to have pre-
ferred -erunt for the Pure Perfect, and -gre for the Historical Perfect. The poets
scan, according to the exigencies of the metre, at all periods also grunt.
6. In regard to the other endings, we have to notice in early Latin -is occasionally
in the Pf . Subjv. and Fut. Pf. Indic. active ; Perfects in -if are always written with -iei-
on inscriptions ; in other Perfects the third person Singular in -git (older -gt), or -it ;
as dedet ; occasionally the first person ends in -ei and the second in -istei. Peculiar
forms are dedrot (dedyo), (for dederunt), fgced (for fecit), and a few others.
THE STEM.
132. With the exception of the verbs sum, / a7)ij edo, lent,
eo, I go, fero, / bear, vol5, I ivish (perhaps do, I give), and
their compounds, most of whose forms come directly from
the root, all verbs in Latin form their stems from the root by
the addition of a vowel or of a combination of a vowel with a
consonant. This vowel is called the thematic vowel ; see 190.
In the first, second, and fourth conjugations, and in some
verbs of the third conjugation, the stem thus formed is found
throughout the whole conjugation ; in other verbs the present
stem shows different forms from the other stems.
1. THE PRESENT STEM.
133. I- Th^ Stem or Thematic class : To this class belong those verbs
whose stems are formed by the addition of a thematic vowel (usually i,
sometimes u) to the root, as in the third conjugation, or to a stem
formed by the addition of a, g, or i to the root, as in the first, sec-
ond, and fourth conjugations. The stem thus formed is seen (with
lengthened vowel' sometimes) in all forms of the verb. To this class
belong verbs of the first, second, and fourth conjugations, and in the
92 THE STEM.
third (a) verbs formed from a strong root, ?'. e., verbs with I, u, a, g, 5,
ae, au ; and with e in the stem ; as dico (= deico;, duco {= douco), rado,
c6do, rodo, caedo, plaudo; veho, vergo, pendo, etc.; {b) verbs formed from
a weak i-oot, i. e., those with vowel i, u, 6, and probably those with a:
as dl-vido, furo, olo (olere), ago.
II. The Reduplicated class: The Present stem is formed by redupli-
cation, with i in the reduplicated syllable :
gen-, gi-gno (for gi-gen-o), gi-gne-re, to beget ; sta-, si-sto, si-ste-re, to
set, stand. Compare stare, to stand. Other forms, as sido(for si-s(e)do),
serS (for si-so), and perhaps bibo, have the Reduplication concealed.
III. The T class : The root, which usually ends in a guttural, is
strengthened by to, te : flecto (flec-), flecte-re, to bend.
IV. The Nasal class: In this class the root is strengthened by
no, ne, the nasal being inserted
A. In vowel-stems : sino (si-), sine-re, to let ; lin5 (li-), line-re, to be-
smear.
B. After the characteristic liquid : cerno (cer-), cerne-re, to sift,
separate ; tenmo (tem-), tenme-re, to scorn.
Notes.— 1. After 1 assimilation takes place : pello (for pel-no), pelle-re, to drive.
2. In a few verbs tlie strengthened forms (-no after a vowel, -ino after a liquid) are
confined mainly to the third person Plural active of the Present, and arc found not later
than the close of the sixth century of the city : danunt (= dant\ explenunt
(= explent), nequinont (= nequeunt), and a few others.
C. Before the characteristic mute : vinco (vie-), vince-re, to conquer ;
frango (frag), frange-re, to break; funds (fud-), funde-re, to pour.
Before a p-mute n becomes m: rumpo (RUP-), rumpe-re, to rend;
Climbs (cub-), cumbe-re, to lie doivn.
D. Here belong also those verbs in which the root is strengthened
by -nuo, nue ; as sternuo (ster-), sternue-re, to sneeze.
Note.— In verbs like tingUO, I soak , the consonantal n disappears before a conso-
nant in the Pf. and Supine : tinxi, tinc-tum.
V. The Inchoative class : The Present stem has the suffix -sco, -see.
ira-scor, I am in a rage ; crg-sc5, I grow ; ob-dormi-sco, I fall asleep ;
api-scor, I reach ; pro-fici-scor, I set out ; nanci-scor (nac-), I get ; no-sco
(= gno-sco), I become acquainted ; po-sco (= presto), I demand ; mis-ceo
(— mic-sc-e5), I mix; disco (= di-dc-sc6), / learn. A number of Incho-
atives are derivative formations from substantives ; as, lapidgsco (from
lapis), / become stone.
VI. The I class : Instead of the simple thematic vowel i the root is
increased by the form ie. In some forms of the Present stem, i. e., the
Pr. Inf., Impf. Subjv., second Sing., Pr. Impv., this appears in the
form e ; in some other forms it appears as i : capi-G (cap-), cape-re, to
take.
THE STEM. 93
NoTT?.— Verbs of the fourth conjugation also belong to the i claee ; but for con-
venience the i class is here restricted as above.
VII. TJie Mixed class : Some verbs that originally belong to the
i-class have gone over in the Present stem to the forms of the stem
class : as venio (ven-), veai-re, lo come; video (vid-), vide-re, to see; sonO
(S0x\-), sona-re, to sound.
II. THE PERFECT STEM.
134. I. Perfect in -vl (or -ui) : These are formed by the addition
(«) Of -vi to the stem as it appears in the Present Inf. in combina-
tion with the thematic vowel. To this class belong the Perfects of the
first and fourth conjugations, and the few vei'bs of the second conjuga-
tion mentioned in 124 ; ama-re, ama-vl; audi-re, audi-vi ; del6-re, del5-vf .
{h) Of -ul to the Present stem after its characteristic vowel is
dropped. Here belong the majority of the verbs of the second conjuga-
tion ; mon6-re, mon-ui.
II. Perfect in -si: These are formed by the atldition of -si to the
root ; which is, as a rule, long either by nature or position This class
comprises a large number of verbs in tlie third conjugation in which
the stem-characteristic consonant is a mute ; three in which it is -m
(preme-re, to press ; sume-re, to take ; con-tein(n)e-re, to scorn) ; and a few
in which it is -s, as ur-5, / hurri, us-sl; haereo, I stick, haesi (=haes-si).
Examples are r6po, I creep, rep-si ; scrib5, / ivrite, scrip-si ; dico, / say,
dixi (=: dic-si) ; carpQ, I pluck, carp-si ; rad5, J scrape, rasi (= rad-si).
Note.— But verbs in -ndS, take I in the Perfect : dSfend-O, / strike (ward) of,
defend-i ; perhaps because they formed originally a reduplicated perfect ; m, mandd,
Jc/iew, manCdi)di; so (fe)fendi, I have sti^uck.
III. Reduplicated Perfects : These are formed by prefixing to the
unstrengthened root its first consonant (or consonantal combination)
together with the following vowel, a and ae being weakened to e, or, if
the root began with a vowel, by prefixing e, and adding the termination
-i. In Latin but few of these forms remain, and they have been vaii-
ousiy modified : discS, I learn, di-dici ; spondeS, / pledge, spo(s)poiidi ;
tangS, / touch, te-ti-gl ; tundS, / strike, tu tiid-I ; ago, / act, eg!
(= e-ag-i) ; emo, I bmj, gmi (= e-em-I).
In composition the reduplication is in many eases dropped ; so
always in compounds of cade-re, to fall ; caede-re, to fell ; cane-re, to
sitig ; falle-re, to deceive ; pange-re, to fix ; parce-re, to spare ; pare-re.
to hear ; pende-re, to hang ; punge-re, to prick ; tange-re, to touch ;
tende-re, to stretch (occasionally retained in late Latin) ; tondg-re, to
shear (but occasionally retained in late Latin) ; tunde-re, to strike.
Disce-re, to learn, always retains it, and so p6sce-re, to demand, and ad-
mordere, to bite. Of compounds of curre-re, to run, succurrQjre always
94 THE STEM.
drops the reduplication, praecurrere always retains it : the others vaiy.
Of compounds of dare, abscondere usually drops it, but all trisyllabic
compounds that change the a, and all quadrisyllable compounds, retain
it. Compounds of sistere, to sei, and stare, to stand, retain it.
IV. Perfect in I. Verbs of the third conjugation, with a, short stem-
syllable, take i in the Perfect, after lengthening the stem-syllable and
changing a into g. In many cases these Perfects are the remains of
reduplicated forms : lego, / read, leg-i ; vide-o, / see, vid-i ; fodi-6, 1
stab, fod-i ; fugi-o, I flee, fvLQ-1 ; frang-o, / hreak, frgg-i.
V. Denominative verbs in-uS, like acn5, 1 sharpen; metuo, I fear ;
also sternuo, / sneeze, form the Perfect in -u-i after the analogy of pri-
mary verbs, and the formation in -ui gradually extended in Latin.
in. THE SUPINE STEM.
135. I- Supine in -turn, Perfect Passive Participle in -tus: The
stems are formed by tlie addition of -tu or -to
(a) To the stem as it appears in the Present Infinitive active. Here
belong most verbs of the fu-st and fourth conjugations, and those verbs
of the second conjugation that are mentioned in 124 : ama-tum, dele-
tmii, audi- turn. Those verbs of the second conjugation which form
Perfect in -•oi, form the Supine stem by weakening the thematic vowel
e to i, and adding -tu, -to, except cgnsS-re, to deem, doeg-re, to teach,
miscfe-re, to mix, teng-re, to hold, torre-ra, to scorch, which omit the the-
matic vowel, and form cgnsum, doctum, mixtum, (tentum), tostmn.
{h) To the unstrengthened stem. Here belong most verbs of the
third conjugation and the five verbs of the second just given, with
sporadic forms in the other conjugations : cai)-tuin (capio, / take),
rgp-tum (r6p5, 1 creep), dio-tom (dic5, 1 say), fac-tum (facio, I do).
In combinations of -t-with a dental, assimilation took place, giving
usually S3 after a short vowel and s after a long vowel : scissum (scindO,
I cleave), caesum (caedS, I fell). On the analogy of this and under the
influence often of Perfect in -si, we find -s- »lso in some other stems :
1. In stems with a gvittural characteristic ; as, flx-um (figo^ /^^) ,* often with a
preceding liquid : mersum (mergS, / dip: Pf. mcrsi); tersnm (targeS, / ivipe;
Pf . tersi) ; parsum (parc5, /^7>«r« ; Pf . parsi, old) ; spar-sum (spargo, / <^imnkle ;
Pf. sparsi) ; mul-sum (mulgeO, I milk ; VL mul-si) ; hut far-turn (farci5, / stuff;
Pf. farsi) ; tortum (torque5, / twist ; Pf . torsi) ; indul turn (nire and post-classical,
from indulges, / indulge ; Pf . indulsD.
2. In one witli a lalaal characteristic : lap-stun (labor, I slip).
3. In some stems wit^ characteristic s ; at?, censum (cSnseS, / deem ; see I. a.) ;
haesum (liaere5, 1 stick) ; pinsum (pinsO, I pound).
4. In some stems with a nasal characteristic : pressum (prem5, l press ; Pf . press!) ;
mSnsum (maneO, I remain ; Pf. mansi).
5. In stems where 11, rr lias arist'u by assiuiilation : pulsum (pellS, / (Mve) ;
falsum (falls, I falsify) ; vulsum (vello, I i)luck) ; cursum (currO, I run) ; versum
Cverro, / swteij).
CHAIs^GE OF COXJUCtATIOJT. 95
IT. Future Active Participle in -turns. — The same changes occur
in the stem as are found in the case of the Supine.
1. In some stems ending in -u a thematic vowel i is inserted ; as
arguiturus (arguere, to prove); luiturus (luere, to loose); abnuiturus
(abnuere, fo de7iy) ; ruittirus (ruere, to rush) ; gruittirus (eruere, io root
out) ; fruittirus (frui, to enjoy).
2. Some Future Participles are found without corresponding Per-
fect : Galiturus (calgre, to he ^varm) ; cariturus (carere, to lack) ; doliturus
(dolere, to grieve) ; iacittirus (iacere, to lie) ; paritiirus (pargre, to obey);
valiturus (valgre, to be well).
3. Irregular are: agnottirus, agnittirus (agnoscere, to hnow well);
disciturus (discere, to learn) ; hausurus, hausttirus (haurire, to drain) ;
nisurus (niti, to lean) ; moriturus (mori, to die) ; nosciturus (nOscere, to
know); orittirus (oriri, to arise) ; pariturus (parere, to bear).
Change of Conjugation.
136. A change of Conjugation occurs in verbs which show
a long thematic vowel in the Present stem, but not in the
Perfect stem, or the reverse.
1. Verbs with Perfect and Supine formed regularly, according to
the third conjugation, have the Present stem formed according to one
of the other three :
auge-o,
senti-o,
saepi-o,
veni-6,
vide-o,
vinci-o,
2. Verbs with Perfect and Supine formed according to the first,
second, or fourth conjugations, have the Present stem formed according
to the third, in consequence of strengthening:
augg-re,
auz-I,
auc-tum,
to increase.
senti-re,
sgn-si,
sgn-sum,
to/eel.
saepi-re,
saep-si,
saep-tum,
to hedge about.
veni-re,
ven-i,
ven-tum,
io come.
vide-re,
vid-i,
vi-sum,
to see.
vinci-re,
vinx-i,
vinc-tum,
to bind.
ster-n-o,
ster-ne-re,
stra-vi,
stra-tum,
to strew.
crg-sc-o,
crg-sce-re,
crg-vi,
cre-tum,
to gro2v.
li-n-o,
line-re,
Ig-vi (li-vi),
li-tum,
to smear.
3. Verbs with the Present formed regularly according to the third
conjugation, have the Perfect and Supine formed according to {a) the
second, or (/>) the fourth conjugation :
(rt) accumbere, to recline^ fremere, to rage, gemere, to groan, gignere, to beget,
molere, to grind., strepere, to resound, vomere, to vomit, form Perfect in -ui, Supine
in -itum.
alere, to nourish, colere, to aiUivate, consulere, to consult, frendere, to show the
teeth, occulere, to conceal, rapere, to snatch, and its compounds form Perfect in -ui,
Supine in -turn (-SUm). ^^^ ali-tUS, see 142, 3.
96 LIST OF VERBS
COmpSscere, to check, con-cinere, /o sing iogethfr, and other compounds of canerOr
to sing, excellere, to excel, stertere, to snore, tremere, to tremble, form Perfect in
-Ul, but no Supine.
(J)) arcessere, to minmm, incessere, to enter, cupere, to desire, petere, to seek,
quaerere, to search, and its compounds, rudere, to roar, sapere, to savor, form Per-
fect in -ivi, Supine in -itum.
4. Stems vary among the first, second, and fourth conjugations.
{a) Verbs with the Present formed according to the first, and Per-
fect and Supine accorditig to the second conjugation :
crepare, to craclde, cubare, to lie, domare, to conquer, micare, to flash,
plicare, io fold, sonare, to sound, tonare, to thunder, vetare, to forbid, with
Perfect in -ul, Supine in -itum :
fricare, to rub, necare, to kill, secare, to cut, with Perfect in -ui,
Supine in -turn (but participles in atus arc occasional, principally in later
Latin).
(b) Verbs with Present formed according to fourth, and Perfect and
Supine according to the second : amicire, to tvrap, aperire, to opeti,
operire, to cover, salire, to leap, and compounds.
(c) Of the second and fourth conjugations is cie-o (ci-o), cie-re (ci-re),
civi, citum (ci-tum), to stir up, and its compounds ; while poto, potare, to
drink, forms Sup. p5-tum or p5-tatuin, and Fut. Part, po-ttirus or
pota-turus.
5. dare, to give, and stare, to stand, pass over to the third conjuga-
tion in the Perfect, in consequence of reduplication.
LIST OF VERBS ACCORDING TO THE PER-
FECT FORM.
PEKFECT:-vi; SUPINE : -turn.
137. Stem class :
(a) Verbs of first and fourth conjugations, except those mentioned
in 136, 4. Irregular in Supine is
sepeli-o, sepeli-re, sepeli-vl, sepul-tum, to bury.
(&) In the second conjugation :
d5le.5,
dSlS-re,
dglS-vi,
dglS-tiim,
to destroy.
fle-O,
flS-re,
fle-vi,
flg-tum,
to iveep.
ne-3,
nS-re,
nS-vI,
ng-tum,
to spin.
-ole-5 (ab-.
, in-), -olg-re,
-OlS-Vl,
to gixnjo.
Ttiese compounds form Supine in itum ; abolitum, iuolitus.
-ple5, -pl5-re, plg-vi, plg-tum, tojilL
So the compounds vvitli com-, in-, ex-, re-, sup-.
vie-6, vig-re, vig-tus, to plait.
Irregular is
cie-5 (ci-3), cig-re (cire), cl-vl, cl-tum (ci-tum\ to stir vp.
In the compounds we And the Participles concitus or concitus, percitus, excltuf
or ezcitus, but accltus.
ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM.
97
(c) In the third conjugation ;
arcess-o, arcesse re, arcessi vi, arcessi-tmn, to send for.
So, too, lacess-0, / tease, capess O, / toy hold of. In early Latin we often find
accerso, the ri'lation of which to arceSSO iis variously explained. The forms arcessiri,
and later arcessiretUT, from the fourth conjugation, also occur.
in-cess-0, in-cesse-re, in-cessi-vi (cessi),
So facess o, Icau&e, make off-
to attack.
pet-0, pete re, peti-vi,
quaero, quaere re, quaesivi,
con quir-5, con-quire-re, conquisi vi,
So other compounds of -quiro (quaero).
rud-o, rude-re, rudi-vi,
ter-o, tere-re, tri-vi,
peti-tum, to seek ijly at).
quaesi-tum, to seek.
con-quisi-tum, to hunt up.
rudi-tum,
tri-tum,
Tib., I. 4,48, has at-teruisse,aud Apuleius has similar forms.
138. Reduplicated class :
ser-5, sere-re, sS-vi,
So c5nser5, but witli Sup. c5n-situm.
139. Nasal class :
A. li-n-0, line-re, 16-vi,
So compounds of lino. Pf- ll Vl is rare.
si-n-0,
si-vi,
sa-tum,
li-tum.
si-tum,
to roar,
to rub.
to sow.
to besmear.
to let.
So d6-sino. Heave off, and in early Latin, p6no (= po-sino), I put.
B. cer-n-o,
cer-ne-re,
crg-vi,
So d6cemo, / decide.
(cr6-tum),
to separate.
sprg-tum.
to despise.
stra turn.
to strew.
sper-n-0, sper-ne-re, spre-vl,
ster-n-o, ster-ne-re, stra-vi,
140. Ifichoative class :
invetera-sc-o, invetera-sce-re, invetera-vi, invetera-tum, to grow old.
pa-sc-o,
pa see re.
pa-vi,
pas turn,
vespera-sc-6, vespera-sce-re, vesperavi,
So advesperasco.
crS-sc-o,
cr6-sce-re, crB-vI,
crStum,
-cup J turn,
-dormi turn,
to graze (trans.).
to become evening.
to grmv.
to long for.
to fall asleep.
S(j the compounds.
con-cupisc 0, -cupi-sce-re, -cupi-vi,
ob-dormi SCO, -dormi sce-re, -dormi-vi,
So condormisco^ edormisco.
ex-oIe-sc-6, olg see re, -0l6-vi, -ol6-tum, to get one's growth.
So ob-sol6sc5, 1 grow old. But ab olgsco, I disappear, has abolitum; co-alesc5,
/ grmv together, co-alitum ; ad-olesco, / grow up, ad-ultum in the Sup. ; and
inolesco lacks the Supine.
qui6-sc-o, qui6-sce-re,
quiS-vi,
quiS-tum,
to rest.
8Ci-sc-o, sci-sce-re.
sci-vl,
sci-tum,
to decree.
So ad-8Cl8cO, / take on.
7
LIST OF VERBS
SU-6SC-5, sue-sce-re, sug-vi, su§-tum, to accustom one's sdf^
So compounds as-, con-, de-, man-.
(g)no-sc-5, no-sce-re, no-vi, (no-tum), to know.
So ignOSCO, I pardon ; but co-gnosco, I recognize, and other compounds of nosco,
have Sup. in -itum.
re-sip-isc-0, -sipi-sce-re, -sipi-vi, to come to one's
141. 1-class :
cupi-o, cupe-re, cupi-vi, cupi-tum, to desire.
sapi-o, sape-re, sapi-vi (-ui), to have a
PERFECT : -ui ; SUPINE : (Dtum.
142. 8tem class :
1. The majority of the verbs of the second conjugation; see 134, 1, &,
and 185, a. But
sorbe-o, sorb6-re, sorb-ui, — to sup up.
Pf . sorp-si occurs in Val. Max. and Lucan.
2. Of the first conjugation :
crep-o, crepa-re, crep-ui, crepi-tnm, to rattle.
So the compounds, but in early and late Latin the regular forms of dis-crepare
and in-crepare are occasional.
cub-5, cuba-re, cub-ui, cubi-tum, to lie.
Occasional regular forms in post-Ciceronian Latin.
dom-0, doma-re, dom-ui, domi-tum, to tame,
fric-5, frica-re, fricui, fric-tum (-a- turn), to rub.
Occasionally in early and more often iu post-classical Latin, the regular forms are
found in the compounds ; so always -frica-turus.
mic-6, mica re, mic-ul, to quiver, flash.
But dl-micare, to fight (out), is regular, except occasionally in Ovid.
nec-0, necare, neca-vi (nee ui rare), neca-tum, to kill.
The compound eneca-re, to kill off, has gnecavi in early Latin, otherwise Snecul
(rare) ; and enectus (but Plin. Mai., gnecatus).
plic-5, plica-re, (plica vl), plici-tum, to fold.
The simple forms of plicare are rare. The compounds ap-, COm-, ex-, im-, vary
between -avi and -ui in the Pf., and atum and -itum in the Sup. ; but Cicero uses
always applicavi, applicatum; complicavi, complicatum; and usually expli-
cavl, always explicatum ; always implicatum ; circumplieare is always regular ;
forms of replicaro arc rare.
sec-5, seca-re, sec-ul, sec-tum, to cut.
Regular forms are early, late, and rar6.
son-5, sona-re, son-ul, soni-tum, to sound.
But regularly sonSturus. Regular lorins are late, in early Latin the forms sonerOj
sonit, sonunt, resonit, resonunt, show that the simple verb was sonere.
ton-5, tona-re, ton-ul, to thunder.
But at-tonitu8 and intonatus (Hok., K/wd. 2, 51).
ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM.
99
vet-5, veta-re, vet-ui,
But Persius (5, 90) uses veta-Vl.
veti-tum,
ioforUd.
frem-o,
freme-re,
frem-ui.
—
to roar, rage.
gem-o,
geme-re,
gem-ui,
to groan.
vom-o,
vome re,
vom-ui.
vomi-tum,
to vomit.
al-5,
ale-re,
al-ul.
al-tum,
to ?wt(ri.'ih.
Participle ali-tUS occurs from Livy on.
COl-0,
cole-re,
col-ul.
cul-tum.
to cultivate.
con-cin-0,
-cine-re,
-cin-ul,
to sifig together.
So occinere,
, praecinere.
con-sul-5,
con-sule-re.
con-sul-ui,
c5n-sul-tum,
to consult.
deps-o,
depse-re.
deps-ui,
deps-tus,
to knead.
mol-o,
mole-re,
mol-ul.
moli-tum.
to grind.
occul-o,
occule-re,
occul-ui,
OCCUl-tllTTI,
to conceal.
pins-o,
pmse-re,
pins-ui.
pinsi-tum,
to pound.
Sup. also pinsum, pistum. Collateral forms of piso, pisere, are eaily and rare ;
so also is pinsibant.
ser-o, sere-re, (ser-tum\ to .string {out).
Common in compounds : as, deser5, dSserere, deserui, dgsertum, to desert.
The same forms are found occasionally in compounds of serere, to sow (138), but not
in classical Latin.
stert-5.
sterte-re.
stert-ul.
to snore.
Btrep-o,
strepe-re.
strep-ui,
(strepi-tum).
to make a din.
tex-o,
texe-re.
tex-ui.
tex-tum.
to iveave.
1 rregular
are
raet-o,
mete-re,
mess-ul,
mes-siun.
to 7)vnv.
vol-o.
vel-le.
vol-ui,
to ivish.
So nolo, malo ; see 174.
4. In the fourth conjugation :
amici-5, amici-re, amic-ui (amixi), amic-tum,
aperi-o, aperi-re, aper-ui, aper-tum,
operi-o, operi-re, oper-ui, oper-tum,
sali-o, sali-re, sal-ui, sal-tum,
to clothe,
to open,
to cover up.
to leap.
The regular Perfects salivi, salii, are found in compounds, but usually in post-
classical writers, and often syncopated.
143. Redvplicated class :
gl-gn-S (gen-), gl-gne-re, gen-ui, geni-tum, to beget.
Early Latin has the Present forms genit, genunt, genat, genitur, genuntur,
genendi, genl.
ICX)
LIST OF VERBS
144, Nasal class :
frend-o, frende-re, —
Also in the form £rende-o, frend6-re.
ac-cumb-o, -cumbe-re, cub-ui,
fr6-sum, frgs-sum, to gnash.
cubi-tum,
to lie down.
So also the compounds con-, dis-, in- ; but re-cumbo lacks the Supme,
ex-cell-o, -celle-re, (cell-ui), (cel-sus), to surpass.
Butper-cellere, tobeat down, has Pf. per-culi, Sup. per-culsum. Excelluenint
is found in Gell, xiv. 3, 7, and in Augustine ; otherwise forms of Pf. and Sup. do
not occur.
145. The Inchoative class :
dispSsc-S, dispgsce re, dispgsc-ul.
So compgscere, to check.
to let loose.
A large number of verbs are formed from verbs of the second con-
jugation, or from substantives or adjectives, and tal^e Pf . in -ui ; as,
oo-alesc-5,
alesce-re.
al-nl,
ali-tum,
to groiv together.
See 140.
6-van6sc-5,
vangsce-re,
van-ul.
to disappear.
con-val6sc-o,
. valgsce-re,
val-ul.
vali-tum,
to get well.
in-gemisc-o,
gemisce-re,
gem-ui.
to sigh.
not6sc-S,
notgsce-re,
not-ui,
to become known.
incaiesc-o,
incalesce-re,
incal-ul.
to get ivarrn.
146. The
I-class :
rapi-5,
rape-re.
rap-ul,
rap-tum.
to snatch.
cor-ripiS,
ripe-re.
rip-ui,
rep-tum,
to seize.
So other compounds. In early Latin, surripere syncopates some of its forms, as
surpuit, surpere ; surpuerat occurs in Hon. ; aoristic forms, as rapsit, surrepsit,
belong also to the early period. 131, 4, b. 2.
PERFECT : -si ; SUPINE : -turn, -sum.
147. Stem class :
I. In the second conjugation :
iube-5.
iubg-re.
iussi.
ius-sum,
to order.
On sorbeO see 142, 1.
arde-5,
Srd6-re,
ar-sl,
ar-sum,
to be on fire.
rIde-6,
ridg-re,
rl-sl,
rl-sum.
to laugh (at).
haere-3.
haerg-re,
hae-si,
(hae-sum),
to stick (to).
mane-Q,
mang-re,
man-sI,
man-sum.
to remain.
8uade-5,
8uadg-re,
8ua-sl,
8ua-sum,
to counsel.
With dental
dropped before ending of Pf.
and Supine.
auge-9,
augg-re,
auxl,
auc-tum,
to cause to wax.
frige-0,
frigg-re,
(frixl),
—
to be chilled.
lace-0.
Iflcg-re,
laxj,
CO give light.
ACCORDING TO THE PeE'Ft5CT FORM.
lOI
lUge-0, lugS-re, llixl, to is in mourning.
alge-5, algg-re, al-si, -.- "o/i^'/^j?.
fulge-o, fulg6-re, ful-si, — to glow.
In early Latin, forms of the third conjugation occur : fulgit, fulgere, effulgere
(Verg., a, VIII. 677).
indulge-5, indulg6-re, indul-si,
mulce-o, mulce-re, mul-si,
Rarely mulc-tus in compounds.
mulge-0, mulgS-re, mul-sI,
terge-5, tergg-re, ter-si,
Forms of the third conjugation : tergit, tergitur, terguntur, are occasionally
found ; and so too in some late compounds. Varro has tertus.
(indul-tum),
mul-sum,
to give xvay.
to stroke.
iniil-sum(ctuin), to milk.
ter-sum, to wipe.
torque-5,
torqu5-re,
tor-si,
tor-turn.
to twist.
turge-3,
turgg-re,
tur-si.
—
to swell.
urge-e,
urg6-re,
ur-si.
:
to press.
co-nive-5 (gnig"
7), -niv6-re,
-nixl (IvD,
to close the eyes.
2. In the third conjugat
ion :
carp-o,
de-cerp-S,
carpe-re,
d6-cerpe-re,
carp-sl,
dS-cerp-si,
carp- turn,
de-cerp-tnm,
to pluck,
to pluck off.
clep-5, clepe-re,
Rare and ante-classic.
clep-sl (cl6p-i),
, clep-tum,
tofilch.
nfib-o,
nube-re,
nup-sl,
nup-tum,
to put on a veil
(as a bride).
r6p-5,
r6pe-re,
r«p-sl,
rSp-tum,
to creep.
8calp-5,
scalpe-re,
scalp-si.
scalp-tum,
to scrape.
scrib-o,
scribe-re,
scrip-si,
scrip-tum.
to write.
sculp-o,
sculpe-re.
sculp-si,
sculp-tum.
to chisel.
serp-o,
serpe-re,
serp-si,
serp-tum,
to creep.
prem-o (-primo\ preme-re,
pres-si,
pres-sum.
to press.
Some compounds of emo, / iake, buy, have Pf
before which a euphonic p develops :
cSm-p-si,
c3m-5, c5me-re,
d6m-o, deme-re,
prom-o, prome-re,
Bum-5, sume-re,
On contemn-o see 149, c.
dic-5, dice-re,
d6m-p-si,
pr5m-p-si,
sum-psi,
c5m-p-tum,
d§m-p-tum,
prom-p-tum,
sum-p-tum.
-si. Sup. in -turn,
to adorn,
to take away,
to take out.
to take.
dixi (dic-sD, dic-tum,
Impv. die, see 130, 5. Occasionally in old Latin dlcSbO for Future.
duxl.
due turn,
duc-5, duce-re,
Imperative due, see 130, 5.
fIg-5, fige-re, flxl, fixum.
Part, fictus for fixus is occasional in early Latin.
-flig-5(con-,af-,in-), -flige-re, -flixi, -flic-tum,
Simple verb is found occasionally in early Latin.
frig-5, frige-re, frixi, fric-tum,
to lead.
tofasten.
to strike.
to parch.
I02
J8T OF VERBS
Sfig-5,
suge-rC; silxl,
t'lt, cXSUg'obO i? found m P^^aut., Ep. 188.
merg-o, merge-re, mer-si,
sparg-o, sparge-re, spar-si,
c6n-sperg-o, con-sperge-re, con-sper-sl,
suc-tum,
mer-sum,
spar-sum,
tositck.
to plunge,
to strew.
con-sper-sum, to besprinkle.
coqu-0,
coque-re,
coxi,
-lexi,
di-lexi,
[-lig-o (leg-), -lige-re,
di-lig-o, di-lige-re,
intelligo, or
intellego, intellege-re, intel-lexi,
negligS, or
neg-leg-o, neg-lege-re, neg-l6xi,
coc-tum,
-I6c-tum.]
dilec-tum
to cook.
to lore.
intel-l6c-tum, to iinderstand.
neg-lgc-tum, to neglect.
Other compounds have l6gi. Sall., J. 40, 1, has neglSgisset.
reg-o, rege re, r6xi, r6c-tum,
di-rig-o, di rige-re, di-rgxl, di-r6c-tum,
per-g-o, per-ge-re, per-r6xi, per-rgc-tum,
su-rg-o, su-rge-re, sur-rexi, sur-rec-tum.
But expergo formed expergitus in cany and late Latin.
teg-5, tege-re, texi,
claud-5, Claude re, clau si,
con-, ex-clud-6, ex elude -re, ex-clti-si.
Early Latin shows alt^o cludo, cludere.
to keep rigi
to guide,
to go on.
to rise up.
to cover,
to shut.
tec-tum,
clau-sum,
ex-clu-sum, to shut up., out.
laed-o,
col-lid-o,
lud-o.
laede re,
col-lide-re,
lude-re,
lae si,
col-li-si,
lu-si,
lae-sum,
col-li-sum,
lu-sum,
to harm.
to strike together
to play.
plaud-0 (ap-plaud-5), plaude re, plau-si,
ex-plod-o, ex-plode-re, ex-pl6-si,
rade-re,
rSde-re,
trude-re,
-vade-re,
c6de-re,
plau-sum, to clap.
ex-plo-sum, to hoot off.
rad-5,
lod-o,
trud-o,
vad-o (in-, 6-),
c6d-5,
quati-6.
quate-re,
ra-si,
ro-si,
trti-sl,
-va-si,
ces-si,
(quas-si),
ra-sum,
ro-sum,
trti-sum,
-va-sum,
c6s-suni,
to scratch,
to gnaw,
to push,
to go.
to give way.
to shake.
con-cuUd (per-, ex-), con-cute-re, con cus-si.
niitt-5,
dl-vid-o,
iir-5,
coni-bur-5,
ger-5,
flu-5 (flugv-),
stru-5 (strugv-),
trah-o (tragh-),
veli-5 (vcgh),
VlV-5 (vigv-),
mitte-re,
di- vide re,
tire-re,
mi-si,
di-vi-si,
US-si,
quas-sum,
con-cus-sum, to shatter.
mis-sum, to send.
di-vi-sum, to part.
tis-tum, to bum.
com-bure re, com -bus-si, com-bus-tum, to burn up.
gere-re,
flue-re,
strue-re,
trahe-re,
vehe-re,
vIve-re,
ges-si,
fluxi,
struxl,
traxi,
vexi,
vixi,
ges-tum,
(flux-US),
struc-tum,
trac-tum,
vec-tum,
vic-tum,
to carry.
to flow.
to build.
to drag,
to carry,
to live.
ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM.
lO'
148. The T-class:
flect-o, flecte-re, flexi,
flexum,
fo bend.
nect-o, necte-re, nexi (nexui),
The Pf. forms : in-nexui (Verg., A. v., 425).
nexum,
lo knot.
pect-5, pecte-re, pexi,
pexum,
to comb.
plect-o, plectere, (plexl),
plcxum,
ioptaU.
149. T/ie Nasal class :
(a) Supine without N :
fing-5,
finge-re,
flnxl,
fic-tum,
to/orm.
ming-S,
minge-re,
minxl,
mic-tum,
to urinate.
ping^o,
pinge-re,
pinxi,
pic-tura,
to paint.
string-6,
stringe-re,
strinxi,
stric-tum,
lo draw tighi.
(b) Supine
with N ;
ang-5,
ange-re,
anxl,
to throttle., vex.
cing-3,
cinge-re,
cinxi,
cinc-tum,
to gird.
6-mung-o,
6-munge-re,
6-munxi^
6-munc-tum,
to wipe Ui^ noss
iung-o,
iunge-re,
iunxi,
iunc-tum,
to yoke, join.
ling-5,
linge-re,
linxi,
linc-tum,
to lick.
mng-5,
ninge-re,
ninxi,
to snoiv.
pang-o,
pange-re,
panxi,
pane- turn,
to drive in.
Perfect also pggi, and Supine pactiuu. Cf>mpare 155 and paclscor, 16.5.
plang-6, plange-re, planxi, planc-tum, to smite.
-stingu-O, -stingne-re, nstinxi, -stinc-tum, to put out.
So the compounds ex-, dis-, re- ; the simple verb is ante-classic.
ting-5 (tingu-6), ting(u)e-re, tinxl, tinc-tum, to wet, dye.
ung-5 (ungu-o), ung(u)e re, unxl, unc-tum, to anoint.
(c) tem-n-S (rare) and its compounds form the Pf. with a euphonic p;
con-tem-n-5, -temne-re, -tem-p-si, -tem-p-tum, to despise.
150. The I-class :
I. In the third conjugation :
F-lici-o (I AC), lice-re, -lexl, -lec-tuml, to lure.
pel-lici-o, pel-lice-re, pel-lexl, pel-lec-tum, to allure.
So allicere, illicere, which, however, have early Pf. in -ui, as does pellicere also
But 6-licere has -ul regularly in claesical times, and S-lexI only later.
[-spici-0 (spec), -spice-re, -spexl, -spec-tuml, to peer.
per-spici-6, per-spice-re, per-spexi, per-spec-tum, toseethwngh.
So the compounds v\'ith ad-, con-,dS-, in-.
I04
LIST OF VERBS
2. In the fourth conjugation :
saepi-d, 8aepl-re> saep-sX,
8anci-5, sand-re, sanxl,
The Sup. sanci-tum is rare.
Tinci-5, vincI-re, vinzX,
£arci-o (-fcrci-6), farci-re, far-sl,
falci-5, fulci-re, ful-si,
8arci-5, sarci-re, sar-sS,
senti-oy sentX-re, s6n-8i,
haiiri-5y baorl-re, hau-si,
saep-tum,
sanc-tum,
vinc-tum,
far-turn,
ful-tum,
sar-tum,
sSn-sum,
haus-tiun,
to hedge in.
to hallow.
to bind,
to stuff.
to prop,
to patch,
to/eel.
to drain.
Verg., a. iv., 383, has hattsoms. Early Latin shows hauribant (Lucr.) and
haurierint ; hauritOrns is very late.
rauci-o, rauci-re, rau-sl, raa-sum, to be hoarse.
This verb is very rare.
PERFECT : -I WITH REDUPLICATIOH ; SUPINE : -sum, -turn.
151, In the Jirst conjugation :
I. d-5, da-re, ded-i, da-tum, to give, put^ do.
Everywhere fL, p"scept in das, thou givest, and da, giije thote.
1 . Like d5, are conjugated the compounds with dissyllabic words, snch as : circum-
d-5, Imiroumi ; satis-d6, Igive bail ; pessum-do, I?^/^ ; v6num-d5, Isell ; thus :
drcmn-d-o, circum-da-re, circum-de-di, circum-da-tum, to sttrround.
2. The compounds of da-re ^^'ith monosyllalHC words pass over wholly into the
Third Conjugation,
ab-d-5, ab-de-re, ab-did-i,
ad-d-o, ad-de-re, ad-did-l,
coD-d-8, con-de-re, con-did-i,
abs-con-d5, abs-cou-de-re, abs-con-d-i,
ab-di-tum, topuiaztay.
ad-di-tum, to put to.
con-di-tum, toputtip {found}.
abs- con -di- turn, to put far away.
Pf . abscondidi is found in Pl., Mer. 360, then not until late Latin.
cr5^d-5y
crS-de-re,
crS-did-I,
crg-di-tum.
to pnt faith.
d6-d-5,
de-de-re,
d6-did-i,
d6-di-t.um.
to give up.
e-d-Q,
«-de-re.
6-did-i,
6-di-tum,
to put out.
in-d-o,
in-de-re,
in-did-f.
in-di-tum.
to jntt in.
per-d-5v
per-de-re,
per-did-I,
per-di-tum.
i4) fordo {ruiny.
prod-S,
ia:o-de-re,
pr6-did-i.
pr5-di-tum.
to betray.
red-d-6,
red-de-re,
red-did-i,
red-di-tum.
to give back.
tra-d-6,
tra-de-re,
tra-did-r,
tra-di-tum,
to give oner.
v6n-d-5,
v6n-de-re,
v8n-did-I,
v6n-di-tuni,
topfut vp to sale.
NoTB.— In early Latin dare formed the Pr. Subjv., also dtlim. So in some of its
compounds, as perduim. See 130, 4.
2. st-5, stS-re, stet-I, (sta-tS-rus), ^o #/o»rf.
So the compounds :
ad-8t-5,
c0n-8t-5,
ad-8ta-re,
c5n-8ta-re,
ad-stit-I,
cGn-stit-X,
to stand by.
to standfast.
ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM.
105
In-st-0, In-sta-re, in-stit-I, to stand ujwn.
ob-st-6, ob-sta-re, ob-stit-i, to stand out
against.
per-st-o, per-sta-re, per-stit-i, to stand firm.
prae-st-o, prae-sta-re, prae-stit-i, to stand ahead.
re-st-6, re-sta-re, re-stit-i, to stand over.
di-st-o, di-sta-re, to stand apart.
ex-st-o, ex-sta-re, to stand out.
All compounds of slare with dissyllabic prepositions have, however, -steti in the
Perfect, as : ante-sto, / am svperior ; inter-sto, / am between ; super-sto, / stand
vjjon ; thus :
circum-st-5, circum-sta-re, circum-stet-I, to stand round.
Note.— Compare sisto and its compounds ; 154, i.
152. In the second conjugation :
morde-5, mord5-re, mo-mord-i, mor-sum, to bite.
pende-o, pend6-re, pe-pend-i, to hang (intr.).
sponde-o, spondg-re, spo-pond-i, spSn-sum, to pledge oneself .
Compounds omit the reduplication, but Plaut. shows also dS-spo-pondisse and
dS-spo-ponderas.
tonde-o, tondS-re, to-tond-i, tOn-sum, to shear,
153. In the third conjugation :
(a) Stem class.
Reduplication lost in the compounds :
cad-0, cade-re, ce-cid-I, ca-sum, (ofaH.
oc-cid-o, oc-cide-re, oc-cid-I, oc-ca-sum, to perish.
re-cidere sometimes forms reccidi, as well as recidi, in the Perfect.
caed-o, caede-re, ce-cid-i, cae-sum, tofeU.
oc-cid-o, oc-cide-re, oc-cid-i, oc-ci-sum, to kill.
can-o, cane-re, ce-cin-i, (can-turn), losing.
Compounds form the Pf. in -ui. For (cantum), cantatum was used.
parc-o, parce-re, peperc-i (par-si), (par-stirus), to spare.
com-parco (-perco), com-parce-re, com-pars-i, com-par-sum, to save.
parsi is common in early Latm, and is the only form used by Plautus. Early
Latin shows rarely parcui. Ter. uses compersit, ^
154. ip) Reduplicated class :
I. sisto (=r si-st-o), as a simple verb, has the transitive meaning,
1 {cause to) standi but in its compounds, the intransitive meaning, /
stand. Compare sto, I stand, and its compounds (151) :
sist-o, siste-re, (stit-I), sta-tum, to {cause to)
stand.
So the compounds :
con-sist-0, c5n -siste-re, c5n-stit-i, cOn-sti-tum, to come to a stand.
de-sist-o (ab-), dg-siste-re, dg-stit-i, dg-sti-tum, to stand off.
io6
LIST OF VERBS
re-siste-re, re-stit-i,
ad-siste-re, ad-stit-i,
in-siste-re, in-stit-i,
circum-siste-re, circum-stet-i,
bi-be-re, bi-bi,
The Pf. Part, is late.
ex-sti-tum,
ob-sti-tum,
re-sti-tum,
(bi-bi-tus),
to stand up.
to take a stand
against,
to ivithstand.
to stand near,
to stand upon,
to take a stand
round.
to drink.
ex-sist-6, ex-siste-re, ex-stit-i,
ob-sist-o, ob-siste-re, ob-stit-i,
re-sist-(5,
ad-sist-o,
in-sist-o,
circum-sist-o,
2. bi-bo,
No Supine.
165. (c) Nasal class:
fall-5, falle-re, fe-fell-i, fal-sum, to cheat.
Tiie compound refello has the Perfect refelli, and lacks Supine.
pell-0, pelle-re, pe-pul-I, pul-sum, to push, drive hack,
repello loses the reduplicating vowel in Pf. reppuli.
toll-6, toUe-re, — — to lift up.
Pf. and Sup. are formed sus-tull (from reduplicated Pf. tetuli, 171, n. 1) and snb-
latum (for t'la-tum.) ; a recent view makes su-Stuli from (Sjtollo.
(pang-0), (pange-re), pe-pig-i, pac-tum, (o drive a bargain.
The Pr. forms are supplied by paciscor, 1G5. The Pf. pegi, rare in the simple
form, is regular in the compounds com-, im-, op-. See 149, b.
to touch.
to border upon.
to hang (trans.).
to stretch.
tang-5 (tag), tange-re, te-tig-i, tac-tum,
at-ting-o, at-tinge-re, at-tig-i, at-tac-tum,
So with other compounds.
pend-0, pende-re, pe-pend-i, pgn-sum,
tend-5, tende-re, te-tend-i, t5n-sum and -turn,
ex-tend-5, ex-tende-re ex-tend-i, ex-ten-sum and -tum, to stretch out.
os-tend-o, os-tende-re, os-tend-i, os-ten-sum (-tus), to stretch at, shotc.
The compounds prefer the Sup. in -tum ; so always attentus, contentus, usually
distentus and intentus.
pung-5, punge-re, pu-pug-i, punc-tum, toimck.
inter-pung5, inter-punge-re, inter-punxi, inter-punc-tum, to place points
betiveen.
tund-5, tunde-re, tu-tud-i, tun-sum, tu-sum, to thump.
Simple form has usually tunsus in the Participle ; in the compounds more often
ttisus. The reduplicating vowel is lost in rettudl.
curr-5, curre-re, cu-curr-I, cur-sum, tot^n.
The compounds vary in their use of tlie reduplication ; praecurrere always has
the redupliculion, succurrere always omits it ; other compounds vary. See 134, iii.
156. {d) Inchoative class:
dlsc5 (= di-d(e)c-sc5), disce-re, di-dic-i, to learn.
A late form is Fut. Part, discitiirus. Compounds retain reduplication. See 134, m.
p68c-5 (= porc-sco), posce-re, po-p5sc-I, to claim.
Compounds retain the reduplication. See 134, m.
157. (^) Thel-class:
pari-9, pare-re, pe-per-I, par-tum (paritflrus\ to bt^ngfoi-th.
The compounds drop the reduplication and form the Inf. in -Ire. Butreperlre^
i4>find, forme its Pf., repperl, with omission of the vowel of reduplication.
ACCORDING TO THi: PERFECT FORM.
107
I
iu-tum (iuvattirus), to help.
-iti-tum (-iu-turus), to standby as aid.
lau-tum ilo-tum), to wash.
lava-turn, to icash.
PEEFECT: -i; SUPINE: -turn, -sum,
158. In the^rs^ conjugation :
mv-5, iuva-re, iuv-i,
ad-iuv-S, -iuva-re, -iuv-i,
(lav-o), (lav-ere), lav-i,
lav-o, lava-re, dava-vi),
The Present forms of lavere belong principally to early Latin, with occasional
forms in Augustan poets and lute writers ; lautum and lotum are both used in class-
ical times ; but lautum belongs rather to early, lotum to post-classical Latin. The
form lavatum is early and poetical.
159. In the second conjugation ;
cave-o, cav§-re, cav-I, cau-tum, to take heed.
fave-o, fave-re, fav-i, fau-tum, to be well-disposed.
ferve-o (0), fervS-ro (ere), ferv-i (ferb-ui), — to seethe.
Tlie Pr. forms of the third conjugation belong to early Latin and the poets. The
Pf. in -ui is post-Ciceronian.
fove-0, fov6-re, fSv-I, fo-tum, to keep wat-m.
move-o, movg-ro, mov-i, mo-tum, to move.
pave-o, pav6-re, pav-i, to quake {with fear).
prande-o, prand6-re, prand-i, prau-sum, tobreakfaet.
sede-o, sedS-re, sgd-i, ses-sum, to sit.
stride-o (-do), stride-re(-e-re), strid-i, to whistle, screech.
vove-o, vov§-re, v5v-i, v3-tum, to vow.
The Present forms of the third conjugation belong almost entirely to Augustan poets
and later writers.
vide-0, vidg-re, vid-I,
160. Ill the third conjugation :
With long vowel in the Perfect.
I. The Stem class:
vl-8um,
to see.
ag-o,
age-re.
6g-I,
Sc-tum,
to do, drive.
co-g-o,
co-ge-re.
CO-gg-i,
co-ac-tum.
to compel.
dg-g-5.
de-ge-re,
to pass (time).
red-ig-5,
red-ige-re,
red-gg-I,
red-ac-tum,
to bring back.
em-o,
eme-re,
gm-I,
emp-tum,
to take, to buy.
inter-im-o.
-ime-re.
-gm-i.
-gmp-tum.
to make away tvith.
CO-em-6, / buy np, is conjugated like em-0. But the compounds with ad-, ex-,
inter-, red-, take -im-5. So, too, dir-im-o, / sever.
ed-5, ede-re, ed-i, g-sum, to eat.
Note.— In agere, edere, emere, the reduplication has coalesced with the root ; as,
ggi = eagi.
cud-5, cade-re, (cud-i),
The Pf. and Sup. occur in compounds only.
(ctl-sum), to hammer.
io8
LIST OF VERBS
leg-o, lege-re, leg-i, 16c-tum, to pick up, read.
col-lig-6, col-lige-re, col-lgg-i, col-16c-tum, to gather.
So the other compounds, except di-lig-0, intel-leg-0, neg-leg-0, see 147, 2.
ic-o (defective), ice-re, ic-i, ic-tum, to strike.
Present stem rare : ic-it, ic-itur, ic-imur.
8id-5, side-re, sid-i.
The Pf . was originally reduplicated as the Present ; see 133, 11.
Pf. is -sgdi, -sessum, /rom sede-o, thus :
con-sld-o, con-side-re, con-sed-i, con-ses-sum
to sit doxcn.
In composition the
,, to settle down.
scab-o,
scabe-re,
scab-i,
to scratch.
solv-o,
solve-re,
solv-i.
solu-tum,
to loose, pay.
vert-o,
re-vert-or,
verte-re,
re-vert-i,
vert-i,
revert-i (active).
ver-sum,
re-ver-sum,
to turn.
to turn back.
verr-o,
verre-re,
verr-I (rare),
ver-sum,
to siveep.
vis-o,
vise-re,
vis-I,
to visit.
volv-o,
volve-re,
volv-i,
volu-tum.
to roll.
On percello, perculi, see 144. On toUo, sustull, see 155.
2. The Nasal class :
psall-o, psalle-re, psall-I,
sall-o, salle-re, (sall-i),
Very rare except in the past participle salsus.
vell-0, velle-re, vell-i (vul-si).
The Pf. vulsl is post Augustan.
lamb-0,
rump-o,
ac-cend-5,
dS-fend-o,
fund-5 (fud)
iiiaud-5,
pando,
pan-f
lambe-re,
rumpe-re,
ac-cende-re,
ds-fende-re,
funde-re,
mande-re,
pande-re,
in Supine is late.
lamb-i,
rup-i,
ac-cend-I,
de-fend-i,
fud-i,
mand-I,
pand-I,
to play on the cithern,
sal-sum, to salt.
vul-sum,
rup-tum,
ac-c6n-sum,
dg-fgn-sum,
fti-sum,
man-sum,
pas-sum,
prehend-5, prehende-re, prehend-i,
Often shortened to pr6ndo, prfindere, pr6ndi,
scand-5, scande-re,
a(d)-, d5-8cend-5, d6-scendere.
scand-i,
de-scend-i,
frang-5,
per-firing-6,
linqu-5,
re-linqu-5,
(pang-5),
com-ping-5,
See 149, b, 155.
vino-5 (VIC),
frange-re, fr6g-I,
per-fringe-re, per-fr6g-I,
to pluck.
to lick,
to break,
to kindle,
to strike
defend,
to j)om\
to chew,
to spread out.
away.
preh6n-sum, to seize.
prSnsum.
linque-re,
re-linque-re,
(pange re),
com-pinge re,
yince-re,
llqu t,
re-liqu I,
(p6g-i),
corn-peg I,
vic-l,
scan-sum,
de-scSn-sum,
frac-tum,
per-frac-tum,
re-lic-tum,
(pac-tum),
com-pac-tum,
vic-tum.
to climb,
toclbnb up, down
to break,
to shiver,
to leave,
to leave behind,
to drive in.
to drive tight.
to conquer.
ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM.
109
3. The T-class.
(a) With long vowel in the Perfect.
capi-o (cap-), cape-re,
cep-k,
cap-turn,
to take.
ac-cipi-o, ac-cipe-re.
ac-cep-i,
ac-cep-tum.
to receive.
faci-o, face-re,
fec-i,
fac-tum,
totnake.
cale-faci-o(calf.), cale face-re.
cale-fec-i,
cale-fac-tum,
to make warm.
per-fici-o, per-fice-re,
per-feci,
per-fec-tum,
to acldeve.
The Pf . was originally reduplicated ; on Impv.
, fac, see 130, 5.
fodi-0, fode-re,
f5d-i,
fos-siim,
to dig.
fagi-5, fuge-re,
fug-i,
(fug-i-turus),
to flee.
iaci-o, iace-re,
i6c-i,
lac turn,
to cast.
con-ici-5, con-ice-re.
con-i6c-f.
con-iec-tum,
to gather.
(b) With short vowel in the Pf. due to the loss of the reduplication
to cleave.
to split,.
find-S, finde-re, fid-i, fis-sum,
scind-6, scinde-re, scid-i, scis-snm,
The reduplicated form sci-cidi is found in early Latin.
161. In the fourth conjugation :
amici-5 forms rarely in late Latin amid ; see 142, 4.
com-per-tum, toflnd out.
re-per-tum, to find.
com-peri-5, com-peri-re, com-per-i,
re-peri-5, re-peri re, rep-per-I,
See the simple verb parere, 157.
veni-o, veni-re, v6n-I, ven-tum, to come.
lu early Latin sporadic tenses from a form venere occur, ak advenat, 6venat.
162. A number of verbs of the third conjugation have a character-
istic -u- ; these form the perfect in -I,
ab-lu-5.
ab-lue-re,
ab-nu-5,
ab-nue re.
acu-o,
acue-re,
ad-nu-6(an-
nu-6),adnue-re,
argu-5,
argue-re,
batu-5,
batue-re,
con-gru-O,
con-grue-re,
d6-libu-5,
d6-Iibue-re,
ex-u-5.
ex-ue-re,
im-bu-6.
im-bue-re,
in-du-5,
in-due-re,
lu-o,
lue-re.
metu-5.
metue-re,
minu-5,
minue-re.
plu-o.
plue-re,
ru-o,
rue-re.
spu-o,
spue-re,
statu-5,
statue-re,
sternu-5,
sternue-re,
su-o,
sue-re,
tribu-6,
tribue-re,
ab-lu-I,
ab-nu i,
acu-I,
ad-nu-I,
argu-I,
batu-i,
congru-I,
d5-Ubu-i,
exu-i,
im-bu-i,
in-du-I,
lu-i,
metu-I,
minu-i,
plu-it, pliiv
ru-i,
spu-i,
statu-I,
sternu-i,
su-i,
tribu-i,
it,
ab-lu-tum,
(ab-nu-itur-tts),
acu-tum,
argu-tum,
dS-libu-tum,
ex-u-tum,
im-bu-tum,
in-du-tum,
lu-ittir-us,
xninfl-tum,
ru-tum(ruitaru8)|
spu-tum,
stata-tum,
sQ-tum,
tribu-tum,
to wash off.
to dissent.
to sharpen,
to nod assent.
to accuse,
to beat,
to agree.
to anoi?if.
to ]mt off, dof.
to dip, dye.
tojmt on., don,
to atone/or.
to/ear.
to lessen,
to rain,
to rush dawn,
to spetc.
CO settle,
to sneeze,
to sew.
to allot.
I lO DEPONENTS.
DEPONENTS.
163. The majority of the deponent verbs belong to the first conju-
gation. In many instances they have parallel active forms in early or
in late Latin. The principal verbs are as follows :
In the ^rs^ conjugation :
adul-or, adula-rl, adula-tus sum, tofawnicpon.
Occubionally active in aute classical Latin (Lucr. v., 1070) and more often in later
I>atin.
alterc-or, alterca-rf , alterca-tus sum, to wrangle.
In early Latin altercasti (Ter,, And. C53), altercas. Active forms more common
in late Latin.
arbitr-or, arbitra-ri, arbitra-tus sum, to think.
Plaut. uses tiiis verb also as an active, but later this nsage is rare.
aucup-or, aucupa-ri, aucupa-tus sum, to try to catch.
Active forma are common in early Latin.
augur-or, augura-ri, augura-tus sum, to take the auguries.
Active forms are early, legal, and late. Vse as a passive is occasional in the clas-
sical period.
aiispic-or, auspica-ri, auspica-tus sum, to take the auspices.
Active forms are early and late. Cic. ar.d Livy use the verb as a passive in a few
instances.
comit-or, comita-ri, comita-tus sum, to accompany.
Poets (Ov., Prop., etc.) use the active forms frequently. The Perfect Part. comitS-
tu8 is common as a passive, also in classical Latin.
comment-or, commenta-ri, commenta-tus sum, to discuss.
Cic. uses commentatus as a passive in 7>y. 88, 301, Fam. xvi., 26, 1.
cQnfllct-or, c3nfllcta-rl, c5nflicta-tus sum, to struggle.
Occasionally found for confllctare. See Ter., And , 93.
cSnspic-or, conspica-ri, conspica-tus sum, to descry.
So dSspicor, sQspicor. But a few forms are occasionally (usually in early Latin)
used as passives, especially dSspicatUS (Plaut., Ter.), compared dgspicStissimus
by C;ic. {Sest. 16, 36, Verr. in., 41, 98). Plaut., Cas. 394, suspicSs.
contempl-or, contempla-rl, contempla-tus sum, to survey.
The active forms are used frequently in early Latin (regularly by Plaut.).
cOpul-or, c5pula-ri, copula-tus sum, to join.
So Plaut., Aul. IIG. Otherwise everywhere copulare.
crimin-or, crimina-ri, crimina-tus sum, to charge.
Plaut. uses criminaret, Ennius criminat.
cunct-or, cuncta-ri, cuncta-tus sum, to delay.
Active forms are occasional in early and late Latin.
dign-or, dIgnS-fi, digna-tus sum, to deem ivorthy.
This verb is predominantly post-classical and poetical. The active forms are earlj
and rare ; perhaps onoc iu Cicero.
DEPONENTS. Ill
fat)rIc-or, fabrica-ri, fabrica-tus sum, to forge.
Tlie active forms belong to poetry and to post- Augustan prose.
faener-or, faenera-ri, faenera-tus sum, to lend on interest.
Active forms occasional in early Latin and more frequent in late Latin.
fluctu-or, fluctua-rl, fluctua-tus sum, to undulate.
Active forms are rare in Plaut. and in Cic, but not uncommon later. The do«
ponent forms are post-Ciceronian.
(for), fii-ri, fa-tussum, to speak.
See 175, 3.
frastr-or, frtistra-ri, frustra-tus sum, to deceive.
Active forms rare, but at all periods.
illacrim-or, illacrima-ri, illacrima-tus sum, to weep over.
In Cic. and IIoR. ; otlierwise active.
interpret-or, interpreta-ri, interpreta-tus sum, to interpret.
Cic. uses interpretatus occasionally as a passive ; likewise Livy and others.
luct-or, lucta-rl, lucta-tus sum, to wrestle.
Plaut., Teu., Ennius, Vakro show sporadic forms of the active.
ludific-or, ludifica-rl, ludifica tus sum, to make sport.
Active frequent in Plaut., and occasionally later,
medic-or, medica-ri, medica-tus sum, to heal.
The active is once in Plaut., and frequent in poets and post-Augustan prose.
medit-or, medita-rl, medita-tus sum, to think over.
The form meditatUS is very commonly found as a passive.
mfiner-or, mtinera-ri, mtinera-tus sum, to l^estow.
Active forms in early Latin and occa>^ionally in Cic. and later.
nutric-or, nutrica-rl, nutrica-tus sum, to sucMe.
Active forms in early Latin.
odOr-or, odora-ri, odora-tus sum, to smell.
Active form^ occasional at all periods.
opin-or, opina-ri, opina-tus sum, to think.
Opino is frequent in early Latin, and opinatus as passive is common in Cicero.
palp-or, palpa-rl, palpa-tus sum, to stroke.
Is occasional (principally in early Latin) for palpare.
popul-or, popula-ri, popula-tus sum, to ravage.
Active forms'in simple verb and compounds are early, poetical, and post-classic.
sciscit-or, sciscita ri, sciscita-tus sum, to inquire.
Plaut., Merc. 380, sciscitare (active).
scrlit-or, scruta-ri, scruta-tus sum, to search.
Plaut., Aul. 657, perscrutavi. The use as a passive occurs first in Seneca,
sect-or, secta-ri, secta-tus sum, to pursue.
Active forms and passive usages are early.
8tabul-or, stabula-ri, stabula-tus sum, to stable.
Active forms begin with Vergil.
t^t-or, ttita-rl, tilta-tus sum, to protect.
Active fpriug aud passive usages are early and rare.
112 DEPONENTS.
tumultu-or, tumultua-rl, tumultua-tus sum, to raise a riot
But Plautus uses active forms ; and passive uses are occasional later.
vag-or, vaga-ri, vaga-tus sum, to wander.
Active forms belong to early Lati.;.
vener-or, venera-rl, venera-tus sum, to reverence.
But Plaut uses venerS, venerem ; Veug., Hok., and later writers show passive
uses.
164. Iri the second conjugation :
fate -or, fat§-ri, fas-sus sum, to confess.
con-fite-or, con-fit6-ri, con-fes-sus sum, to confess.
Both fateor and confiteor are used occasionally as passives by Cic. and later.
lice-or, licS-ri, lici-tus sum, to bid (at a sale).
mere-or, mere-ri, meri-tus sum, to deserve.
Especially in the phrases merSrl bene d5 aliqu5, to desene well of any one.
Otherwise the active is usual.
misere-or, miserS-ri, miseri-tus sum, to pity.
In early Latin the active forms are found occasionally, e. j/., Lucr. hi., 881.
poUice-or, pollic6-ri, poUici-tus sum, to promise.
Occasionrlly used as a passive in post classical Latin.
re-or, rS-rl, ra-tus sum, to think.
Pr. Part. Active is wanting.
tue-or, tu6 rl, tui-tus (tutus) sum, to protect.
In early Latin and occasionally later, a parallel form, tuor, tul, tuitus sum,
occurs. For tuitus usually tutatus.
vere-or, verS-ri, veri-tus sum, to fear.
165. In the third conjugation :
aplsc-or, aplsc-i, ap-tussum, to get.
Simple verb is frequent in early and late Latin Of the compounds, adiplscor,
adipisci, adeptus sum, is usually deponent in classical times, but occurs occasionally
as a passive in Sall. and later writers. The compounds ind-, red-, are rare.
am-plect-or, am-plect-i, am-plex us sum, to twine round, embrace.
So the compounds complector, circumplector. in early Latin active forms are
occasionally found ; e. j/., amplectitSte, circumplecte (Plaut ).
com-min-Isc-or, com-min-isc-i, com-mentus sum, to think vp, devise.
Ovid and later writers use commentus as a passive.
experg-isc-or, (-reg-) ex-perg-Isc-i, ex-per-r6c-tus sum, to (right one's self
zip) awake.
fung-or, fang-I, fClnc-tus sum, to discharge.
This verb is used passively very rarely : Tek., Ad. 508. Lucr. hi., 968. Cic, Sett.
4,10.
fru-or (frugv-), fru-I, frfic-tus (fru-i-tus) sum, to enjoy.
The form finiitus is rare and late.
DEPONENTS. 113
gradi-or, grad-I, gres-sus sum, to step,
ag-gredi-or, ag-gred-i, ag-gres-sus sum, to attack.
Occasionally active forms of the fourtli conjugation are found in early Latin.
lab-or, lab-i, lap-sus sum, to glide.
loqu-or, loqu-i, locii-tus sum, to speak.
mori-or, mor-i, mortu-ussum, to die.
Early Latin sliows parallel forms of the fourth conjugation, as moriri, Smorlrl.
Fut. Part, moriturus ; see i;35, 11., 3.
nanc-isc-or, nanc-isc-i, nac-tus (nanc-tus) sum, to get.
nasc-or (gna-), nasc-i, nS-tus sum, . to be bom.
Fut. Part, nasciturus.
nit-or (gnict- 1 nit-i, ni-sus (nix-us) sum, t to stay one's self on,
from genu), * ni-surus, ^
ob-liv-isc-or, ob-liv-isc-I, ob-li-tus sum, to forget.
pac-isc-or, pac-!sc-i, pac-tus sum (pepigl), to drive (a bargain).
Occasionally active forms are found in early Latin ; in Cic. pactus is frequently
used as a passive. See pangS.
pati-or, pat-I, pas-sus sum, to suffer.
per-peti-or, per-pet-i, per-pes-sus sum, to endure to the end.
pro-fic-isc-or, pro-flc-isc-i, pro-fec-tus sum, to (get forward) set out.
But Plaut., 31. G. 1329, proficiSCO.
quer-or, quer-i, ques-tus sum, to complain.
sequ-or, sequ-i, secu-tus sum, to follow.
ulc-Isc-or, ulc-Isc-i, ul-tus sum, to avenge.
Active forms are rare ; so once in Ennius. But Sall., Livy, and later writers use
the verb as a passive sometimes.
flt-or, Gt-I, u-sussum, to use.
Plaut. shows the compound abusa as a passive {Asin. 196).
veh-or, veh-i, vec-tus sum, to (wagon) ride.
vesc-or, vesc-i,
166. In the fourth conjugation :
assenti-or, assenti-rl, assSn-sus sum, to 1
Active forms are not uncommon in early Latin. Cic. uses the Pf . active forms fre-
quently ; likewise later writers.
com-peri-or, comperi-ri, to find out.
Occasionally found (but rarely in classical Latin ; as, Sall., J., 45, 1 ; 108, 3) for
comperio, comperire. But experior, experiri, expertus sum, to try, is regularly
deponent ; though Cic. and others use often the Pf. active forms.
largi-or, largi-ri, largi-tus sum, to bestow.
meati-or, menti-ri, menti-tus sum, to lie.
The poets and later prose writers use this as a passive also.
m6ti-or, mSti-rl, mSn-sus sum, to measure.
Passive usage is common, especially in the compounds : dSmSnsus, dImSnsu8|
emSnsus, permgnsus, remSusus.
8
1 14 SEMI-DEPONENTS.
6rdi-or, 5rdl-rl, 6r-sus sum, to begin.
Orsus, and more commonly exorsus, are also found as passives.
ori-or, ori-ri, or-tus sum, to anse.
The Pr. Indie, is usually formed according to the third conjugation ; the Impf.
Subjv. always orerer; but the Put. Part, is oriturus, The compounds follow the
same usage except adoriri, to tise up at, attack, which follows the fourth conjugation.
parti-or, parti-ri, parti-tus sum, to share.
Active forms and passive uses are found in early Latin, and sporadically in Cio.
and later.
poti-or, poti-ri, poti-tus sum, to get possession of.
The Pr. Indie, Impf. Subjv., and occasionally other forms, are also found in early
Latin and the poets, inflected according to the third conjugation ; so regularly after
Plaut. potitur, frequently poteretur, potergmur.
puni-or, pfinl-ri, puni-tus sum, to punish.
Occasionally in Cic. and late writers for ptinxre.
sorti-or, sorti-ri, sortl-tus sum, to cast lots.
Active occasionally in early Latin, and passive uses later of the Pf. Participle.
SEMI-DEPONENTS.
167. I. A few verbs form ilie Perfect forms only as deponents :
aude-5, aude-re, au-sus sum, to dare.
On the aorist forms ausim, etc., see 131, 4, b.
fid-5, fid-ere, fl-sus sum, to trust.
gaude-o, gaud6-re, gav-isus sum, to rejoice.
8ole-o, 80l6-re, sol-itus sum, to be ivont.
The K. active is found in early Latin ; but rarely.
2. The reverse usage is found in :
re-vert-or, re-vert-I, re-vert-I, to turn back.
So also deverti, but without Pf . Part. Beversus is also used actively, but revOT-
BUS sum for reverti is post-classic.
See also assentior, etc., 166.
Notes.— 1. Some active verbs have a Perfect Participle passive with active mean-
ing, as : cSnatus, one uho has dined, from cSnare, to dine ; pransus, having break-
fasted, from prandeS, / breakfast ; potus, drunken, from p5t5, / drink ; iuratus,
hating taken the oath, sworn, from itlrS, I swear ; coniuratus, a conspirator, from
wni^^, I conspire. Many such are used purely as Adjectives: c5nsideratU8, «r-
cumspect, from cSnslderSj cautUS, wanj, from caveo, I beware.
2. The Perfect Participle of many deponent Verl)3 has both active and passive mean-
ing : adeptus (adipiSCOr), har.ing acquired, or being acquired : comitStus (COmitor,
I accompany) ; efEatus feffor, I speak out) ; expertus (experior, itnj) : exsecratus
(exsecror, /curse) ; imitatus (imitor, Icopi/) : meritus (mereor, Idese?re) : opl-
natus, necopinatus (opinor, / think); pactus (paciscor, / contract): partitua
(partior, J distribute) ; sortltus (sortior, least lots) ; tueor, /protect ; tutus, sqfe.
For others, see the list of deponentii.
IRREGULAR VERBS. II5
IRREGULAR VERBS.
168. Irregular in the formation of the tense-stems :
1. Nine verbs of the third conjugation, which have, in spite of the
short stem-syllable, the Pf . in -si, viz. :
Clep5, Iflhh ; rego, I keep right ; tego, I cover in ; coqu5, Tbake ; and the com-
pounds of lego, Ipickvp ; laciS, Ilnre ,■ specie, Isp?/(-]igo, -licio, -spicio) ; divido,
I part ; quatio, I shake. See 147, 2.
From lego, however, only dlligo, Ilove ; intellego, I understand ; and neglego,
neglect^ are irregular. The other compounds are regular. See 147, 2.
2. Five verbs of the third conjugation, which, in spite of long stem-
syllable, have the Pf . in -I, viz. :
lambQ I lick; cud5, I hammer ; sid5, I sit (160,1); stride^, I ivhisfle (\59) \
vertQ, I turn {WO, 1).
3. Assimilation between bs and ms occurs in the Pf. and Sup. of
iube-5, I order. See 147, 1.
prem-o (-prim-5), I press. See 147, 2.
4. Special irregularities occur in :
bib-5, Idnnk. 154, 2.
mane-o, I remain. 147, 1.
meti-or, I measure. 166.
met-o, I mow. 142, 3.
mori-or, / die. 165.
rauci-o, / am Jioarse. 150, 2.
re-or, / think. 164.
5. Formed from different tense-stems, are the tenses of
fer-3, I bear. 171.
toU-o, Ilift- 155-
169. Irregular in the conjugation of the Present-stem :
1 . ori-or, ori-ri, or-tus sum, to arise.
See 166.
2. i-re, to go.
The stem is i, which, before a, 0, u, becomes e.
Prin. Parts : eo, Ire, ivi (iii, itum.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
I go. Ibegoi7ig.
Pres. Sg.— I. e-5, Pl. — I-mus, Sg.— ea-m, Pl.— ea-mus,
2. 1-8, i-tis, ea-s, ea-tis,
3. i-t, eu-nt. ea-t, ea-nt.
Il6 IRREGULAR VERBS.
Impf. I-ba-m, I went. I-re-m, / were going.
FuT. i-b-o, / shall go.
Perf. i-v-i (i-i), / have gone. i-v-eri-m (i-eri-m).
Plupf. i-v-era-m (i-era-m), / had gone. i-v-isse-m (i-isse-m, i-sse-m),
Fut.Pf. I-v-er-o (i-er-5), I shall have go7ie.
IMPERATIVE.
Sg. — 2. i, go thou. I-t5, thou shall go.
3- I- to, he shall go.
Pl. — 2. i-te, go ye. i-tote, ye shall go.
3. eu-nto, they shall go.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES.
Pres. i-re. Pres. ig-ns (G. eu-nt-is).
FuT. i-tur-um esse. Fut. i-tur-us.
Perf. l-v»isse (i-sse).
GERUND. SUPINE.
eu-nd-i, etc. i-tum, to go.
Remarks. — i. Like the simple verb are inflected most of the com-
pounds, except in the Perfect system, where syncope regularly takes
place (see 131, 2). Ven-eo, / am for sale, and per-eo, / perish, serve as
passives to v6n-d6, / sell, and per-d5, / destroy, whose regular passives
occur only in the forms vgnditus, v6ndendus, and perditus (but see Hor.,
Sat., ii. 6, 50). Amb-io, I solicit, follows the fourth conjugation through-
out, but in post-Ciceronian writers (Livy, Tac, Plin. Min.) shows occa-
sional forms like those of eS. Some compounds show occasionally Fut.
in -earn after the time of Seneca.
2. The ])as.^ivc of the simple verb is found only in the impersonal
forms itur, ibatur, itum est, iri (in combination with the Supine). But
compounds with transitive force are conjugated regularly ; so, prae-
ter-eS forms praeter-eor, -iris, Itur, -imur, -imini, -euntur, ibar, etc., -itus
sum, eram, erS, -euntor, -Itor, -iri, -eundus.
3. quire, to he ahh ; nequire, to he unable.
170. («) que-O, I am able, is found in the following forms, of which
those in parenthesis are unclassical, occurring in early and late Latin
and the poets ; C/Esar uses no form of queO.
Pr. Indic. queO, (quis), (quit), quimus, (quitis), queunt. Pr. Suijjv. queam,
queas, queat, queamus, queatis, queant. Impf. (quibam), (quirem). Fut.
(quIbO). Pf. quivi, etc.; quiverim, etc. Plupf. quiverara, < /c. ; quivissem,
etc. Fut. Pf. quIverO, etc. Pr. Inf. quire. Pf. quivisse. Part, quiens.
{h) neque-6, I am unable, has the same forms, all of which seem tob8
classic excepting the Future Indicative, which is not cited.
IRKEGULAR VERBS.
117
4. fer-re, to bear.
171. The endings beginning with t, s, and r are added
directly to the root (132). Some parts are supplied by tul-
(tol-, tla-).
Prin. Parts : fer5, ferre, tuli, latum.
ACTIVE.
INDICATIVE.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres.
/ hear.
/ he hearing.
Sg.— I.
fer-o, Pl— fer-i-mus, Sg.
—fera-m, Pl.— fcra-mus,
2.
fer-8, fer-tis,
fera-s, fera-tis,
3.
fer-t, fer-u-nt.
fera-t, fera-nt.
Impf.
ferS-ba-m, / was hearing.
fer-re-m, / were hearing.
Put.
fera-m, I shall hear.
Perf.
tul-i, / have home.
tul-eri-m.
Plupf.
tul-era-m.
tul-isse-m.
FuT. Pf.
tul-er-5.
IMPERATIVE.
Sg.— 2.
fer, hear thou.
fer-t5, thou shall hear.
3-
fer-to, he shall hear.
PL.-2.
fer-te, hear ye.
fer-tote, ye shall hear.
3.
feru-ntS, they shall hear.
INFINITIVE.
PARTICIPLES.
Pres. fer-re.
Pres. fer6-ns, hearing.
FuT. la-tur-um esse.
FuT. la-tur-us.
Perf. tul-isse.
GERUND.
SUPINE.
fere-nd-i, etc.
Ifi-ttun (t(o)la-tum).
PASSIVE.
INDICATIVE.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
I am home.
I he home.
PRE3. 1
Sg. — I. fer-o-r, Pl. — feri-mur,
Sg.— fera-r, Pl — fera-mur,
2. fer-ris, feri-mini,
fera-ris, fera-mini,
3. fer-tur, feru-ntur.
fera-tur, fera-ntur.
Impf.
fer6-ba-r.
fer-re-r.
Put.
fera-r.
Perf.
la-tus sum.
la-tus sim.
Plupf.
la-tus eram.
la-tus essem.
FuT. Pf.
la-tus erS.
Il8 IRREGULAR VERBS.
IMPERATIVE.
Sg. — 2. fer-re, he thou home. fer-tor, thou shalt he home.
3. fer-tor, he shall be home.
Pl. — 2. feri-mini, he ye home.
3. feru-ntor, thei/ shall he home.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
Pres. fer-ri, to he home. Perf. la-t-us, -a, -tun, hor?ie.
FuT. la-tum Irl. GERUNDIVE.
Perp. la-tum esse, to have heen home. fere-nd-us.
COMPOUNDS.
af-fer-5, af- fer-re, at-tul-i, al la-tum, to bear to.
au-fer-o, au-fer-re, abs-tul-i, ab-la-tum, ta bear away.
con-fer-6, con-fer-re, con-tul-i, col-la-tum, toadied.
dif-fer-o, dif-fer-re, dis-tul-i, dila-tum, to put off.
ef-fer-o, ef-fer-re, ex-tul-i, 6-la-tum, to carry out.
of-fer-o, of-ferre, ob-tul-i, ob-la-tum, to offer.
Notes. 1. The Pf. tull was originally reduplicated te-tuli. See 134, iii., 155.
Traces of this are seen in rettull.
2. Suf-fero, I undergo, has the Pf. sus-tin-ui (sus-tul-I, Bub-la-tum, being
appropriated to toll-5). (155.)
5. ed-ere, to eat.
172. In certain forms the endings beginning with s, t, and
r are added directly to the root (132) ; d before s (r) is
dropped or assimilated (as ss), and before t becomes s.
Pkin. Parts : edS, edere (esse), 6di, Ssum.
ACTIVE.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
I eat. I he eating.
Sg. — I. ed-3, Pl. — edi-mus, Sg. — eda-m, Pl. — eda-mus,
2. edi-s, e-s, edi-tis, 6s-tis, eda-s, eda-tis,
eda-nt.
3-
edi-t, e-st.
edu-nt.
eds
Impp.
edS-ba-m,
late.
ede-re-m, \
Fut.
eda-m.
Pkrf.
6d-I.
6d-eri-m.
Plupf.
6d-era-m.
gd-isse-m.
Fut. Pp.
6d-er.5.
IRREGULAR VERBS.
119
Sg.-
-2. ede, 68,
IMPERi
eat thou.
^TIVE.
edi-to, gs-t5, thou shalt eat.
3-
edi-to, es-to, he shall eat.
Pl.~
-2. edi-te, es-te,
eat ye.
edi-tote, gs-tote, ye shall eat.
3-
edu-nto, tliey shall eat
INFINITIVE.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres,
ede-re, 6s-se,
toeai.
Pees, (edg-ns).
Put.
es-ur-um esse.
Fur. es-ur-us.
Perf.
6d-isse.
GERUND.
SUPINE.
ede-nd-I, etc.
es-um, 6s-tU
PASSIVE.
In the passive voice the only peculiarities are as follows: Pr. Indie.
Sin?. Third, editur and Sstur. Impf. Subjv. Sing. Third, ederStur and
essetur. The Pf. Part, is 6sus and the Gerundive edendus.
Note.— In the Pr. Subjv. Active, early Latin sbows edim, edis, edit, edimus,
editis, edint. Also gssum and gssu in the Sup., gssurns in the Fut, Part. Come-
dere also siiov\ s comestus for comSsus.
6. fi-eri, to become,
173. K-5 is conjugated m the Present, Imperfect, and Future,
according to the fourth conjugation, but in the Subjunctive Imperfect
and in the Infinitive tlie stem is increased by e; thus, fi-e-rem, I were
becoming ; fi-e-ri, to become. In these forms the i is short, but else-
wliere it is long even before another vowel.
The Infinitive ends in -11, and the whole Verb in the Present-stem
is treated as the Passive to facio, / make. The rest of the Passive is
formed regularly from faei5.
Prin. Pakts : flS, fieri, factus sum.
ACTIVE.
PASSIVE.
Pres, faciS, I make.
INDIC.
fI5, I am made, I become.
fig, fit (fimus, fitis), fiunt.
Impf. faciebam, I made.
figbam, I was made, I became.
Fut, faciam, I shall make
fiam, / shall be made (becomei
Perf. fgci.
factus sum.
Plupf. fgceram.
factus eram.
Fut. Pf. fgcerO.
factus ero.
SUBJV. faciam, etc.
SUBJV.
fiam, fias, fiat, etc.
facerem, etc.
fierem, fiergs, etc.
INFINITIVE.
INFINITIVE.
facere, etc.
Pres.
fieri.
IMPERATIVE.
Perf.
factum esse, to have become.
(fi), (fi-to).
Fut.
futlirum esse or fore.
(fi-te).
Fut. Pf.
factum fore.
I20
IRREGULAR VERBS.
Notes.— 1. Occasionally in early Latin the form fiere is found for the Tnfinltivfl^
which indicates that the verb was originally active. The forms fieri and flerem are
very common in early Latin, along with the normal forms. 01 the forms in parenthe-
sis flmus and fitis do not certainly occur, and the Imperative forms are early. Pas-
give forms of fio are very rare ; never in Plautus or Terence.
2. The compounds of facio with Prepositions change the a of the stem into i, and
form the Passive in classical Latin regularly from the same stem : perficio, / achieve^
Pass, perficior ; interficio, Pass, interficior, lam destroyed. But interheri, cSn-
fierent, confieri, and several other forms are found in early Latin, and occasionally
in classical times. When compounded with words other than prepositions, faciS
retains its a, and uses fio as its Passive :
patefacio, I lay open, Pass. pateflS ; calefaciS, / warm. Pass. calefiS.
For the accent, see 15, 2, r. 2.
174.
PRIN.
7. veUe, to he loilling.
nolle, to he tinivilling ; malle, to he williiig rather.
Parts : V0I8, velle, volul ; n513, nSlle, nSluI ; maW, malle, maluL
INDICATIVE.
Pres.
voia,
n5l5,
mal9,
vis,
nSn vis,
mavis,
TUlt,
non vult,
mavult.
volumus,
nolumus,
malumus,
vultis,
non vultis.
mavultis,
voltuit.
aolunt.
malunt.
Impt.
volebanSj,
ndlsbam,
malebam.
FlTT.
volam,
nolam,
malam.
▼oles, etc.
nolgs, etc.
males, etc.
pKRy.
Tolni,
nOlu!,
malul, etc.
Plupt.
Tolueram,
n5lueram,
malueram, eto»
FUT. Pf.
. voluerO,
nSluerO,
SUBJUNCTIVE.
maluer5, etc.
Pwe».
velim.
n5Um,
malim,
veils,
nOlIs,
malls,
velit,
nSlit,
malit.
yelimufr.
nSlimus,
mallmuff,
velitis,
nOlitis,
malitis,
reUnt.
nOlint.
malint.
Impf.
▼ellem.
nOllem,
mSllem.
PERr.
voluerim,
nDluerim,
maluerim, etc.
Fluff.
voluissem,
nOluissem,
m&luissem, etCc
DEFECTIVE VERBS.
12
IMPV. (fac velis\
Sg.
—noli, nolito.
Pl.
— nolite, nolitote, noluntS.
INF. Pr. velle,
nolle, malle.
Pf. voluisse,
nSlnisse, maluisse.
PART, volens,
nolSns.
Notes.— 1. To the time of Cicero, and occasionally later, volt, voltis, are employea
for vult, vultis. In familiar language si viS, si vultis, were contracted to sis,
sultis ; vis was further combined with -ne Into vin.
2. Nolo is a contraction of nevolo (= n5n volo), and in early Latin we find, along
with the forms given above, also nevis, nevolt ; also occasionally we find non velis,
nQn velit, non velint, non vellem, for nolis, etc. ; but the feeling is slightly different.
3. Malo = ma volo, from niag(niage, magis)-volo. Frequently in Plaut., but
iarely in Ter., we find mavolo, mavolunt, ma volet, mavelim, -is, -it, ma vellem,
instead of malo, malim, malis, etc.
176. DEFECTIVE VERBS.
I. aid, I say aye.
INDIC. pREs. Sg. — I. aiO, 2. ais, 3. ait, Pl. — 3. aiunt.
Impf. aiSbam, etc.
Perf. 3- ait.
SUBJV. Pres. Sg. — 2. aias, 3. aiat, 3. aiant.
PART. aiSns (as adj.), affirmative. IMPV. aj^
Note.— In early Latin ain (= aisne V) was scanned often as a monosyllable ; and
in the Impf., aibam, aibS>S, aibat, aibant were frequently employed along with the
normal forms. The Impv. is rare, and found only in early Latin. Pr. Subjv. aiam is
emended into Pl., Ep., 281.
2. inquam, / say, quoth I.
I. mquam,
I. inquimus,
INPIC. Pres. Sg
Pl
Impf. Sg. —
FuT. Sg. —
Perf. Sg. — I. inquii,
IMPV. inque, inquitO.
2. mquis,
2. inquitis,
2. inquigs,
2. inquisti.
3. inquit.
3. inquiunt.
3. inquiebat,
3. inquiet.
3. inquit.
3. fa-ri, to speak.
INDIC. Pres. fatur. Fut. fabor, fabitur. Pert, fatus sum, e^(?. IMPV. fare.
PART. Pres. fans, fantis, fanti, fantem. GER. fandi, fando. SUP. fata.
Note.— In addition to these, compounds show also Pres. : -faris, -famur, -famini,
-fantur ; Impf. : -fabar, -fabantur ; Fut. : -fabere, -fabimur ; Part. : -fante
and others. These foni:s, r.s well as the uncom pounded forms, though occasionally
found in prose, are pecidiar to the poets until post-Augnstan limes. The Pf. Part, iu
eometimes used passively ; so eej^ecially fStum,/i7/<; ; effStus, dengnated.
122 DEFECTIVE VERBS.
4. have-re (ave-re), salve-re.
IMPV. havg, salvS, salvebis, hail thou !
havgtd, salvetd.
havSte, salvgte, hail ye !
INF. havere, salv6re.
Corresponding to these are the forms of valire, viz. : val5, valete,
valSre, farewell.
5. coepi, memini, odi, novl.
In use only in the Perfect-stem are coepi, / /mt'e begun, which serves
as a Perfect to incipiS, and memini, / remember, 5di, / hate, novi (from
nosco, see 131, 3, 140), / k7ioiv, am aware, cSnsuevi (from consugscS), /
am wont, which have the force of Presents.
a. INDIC. coepi, / have begun. SUBJV. coeperim.
coeperam. coepissem.
coepero. INF. coepisse, to have begun.
Note.— Early Latin shows coepio, coepias, coepiat, coepiam, coepere, coeperet.
Future Participle coeptUTUS is Post-Augustiui. Incepi is ante-classical.
Passive forms coeptus sum, ete., occur with the same meaning in combination with
a Passive Infinitive. Sec 423, n. 3.
f
h. INDIC. memini, I remember, SUBJV. meminerim.
memineram. meminissem.
meminero. INF. meminisse, to remember,
IMPV. Sg. — memento. Pl. — mementote.
c. INDIC. 5di, I hate, SUBJV. oderim.
5deram. odissem.
OderO. INF. 5disse, to hate.
FUT. PART, osurus.
Note.— Occasionally in early Latin, the poets, and later prose, deponent forms of the
Perfect are found, OSUS sum, etc. For the Passive the phrase odi5 esse is used.
d. INDIC. n5vl. SUBJV. noverim (norim).
nOveram (noram). novissem (nossem).
nOverS (n5r5). INF. nOvisse (nosse) to hioio.
6. cedo, quaeso.
Other defective forms are :
Sg. — cedo, give I (old Impv.) Pl. — cette.
INDIC. Pres. quaes5, please (i. e., I seek, beg), quaesumus.
Note.— Other forms of quaesO are found occasionally in early Latin, and sporadl-
cally in Cic, Sali.., and later ; the Pf . forms have been attached to quaerere, 137, c.
K/RMATIOJ^ OF WORDS. 1 23
FORMATION OF WORDS.
176. By the formation of words is meant the way in which
stems are made of roots, new stems of old, and in which
words are compounded.
177. All roots of the Latin language are probably mono-
syllabic. * They can be ascertained only by scientific analysis.
The difference between Root and Stem has been set forth in 25, nn.
Sometimes the Stem is the same as the Hoot ; so especially in the Root
Verbs (182). But it is usually different.
178. Words are either simple or compound.
A simjile word is one that is formed from a single root :
sol, sun; sta-re, stand, staij.
A compound word is one that is mado up of two or more
roots : s5l-stiti-um, sun-staying , solstice.
A.— Simple Words.
179. Simple words are partly jprimitive, partly derivative
or secondary.
1. Primitive words come from the root, and as this usually appears
in the simplest form of tlie verb-stem, primitive words are called
verbals. Examples are the root- verbal forms (134, 11., 182, 135, i.),
some substantives of the third declension, as dux (duc-s), leader, root
due (see 183, i), many substantives of the first, second, and fourth
declensions, as : scrib-a (scribo, / write), scribe.
2. Derivative words are formed from a noun-stem ; hence called
denominatives : vetus-tas, at/e, from vetes- (N. vetus), old.
Note.— Denominative verbs include many verbs vv-hich cannot definitely be referred
to any substantive ; such as many frequentatives and intensives. In its narrower sig-
nification the term refers to the special class of verbs made from substantives in use.
180. Substantives are generally formed by means of a suf-
fix. A suffix is an addition to a stem, and serves to define its
meaning or show its relations. So from the verbal stem scrib-
(scribo, I tvrite) comes scrip-tor, wr it-er ; scTVp'tio(ii), writ-ing.
* The theory of monosyllabic roots is adopted here as being somewhat more con-
venient than the theory of polysyllabic roots, now held by some important scholars.
Of course it will be understood that the actual existence of mere roots can be assumed
only for a very early period in the development or language, long before the indepen-
dent existence of Latin.
124 FORMATION OF WORDS.
Suffixes are either primary or secondary. A primary suffix is one
added to a root (or verb stem) to form primitive words. A secondary
suffix is one used in the formation of derivative words. Thus, -tor in
scrip-tor is a primary suffix ; -tas in vetus-tas is secondary.
Notes.— 1. By the fading out of the difEerence between primarj- and secondary suf-
fixes, primary suffixes come to be used sometimes to form secondary derivatives.
2. Consonant stems before consonant suffixes undergo the usual changes (9). So
scrib-tor becomes scrip-tor ; reg-s becomes rex, Stems are sometimes extended by
a vowel, usually i, less often u, to facilitate pronunciation : val-i-dus, strong ; doc-
U-meiituni, proof; sometimes they change the stem vo\\ el : teg, cover ; tog-a, for/a ;
tug-uriura, hut.
3. Vowel stems lengthen the final vowel : acu-, shai^ien ; acu-men, sharp part^
point.
The final vowel often disappears before the suffix : opta-, choose ; opt-io, choice.
181. FORMATION OF SUBSTANTIVES.
The suffixes, as applied to various roots, have often special func-
tions, and form words of definite meaning. The most important are
as follows :
1. Agency is indicated by
-tor, -trie (N. tor (m.), trix (/.)): ama-tor, lover; vic-trix, con-
qiieress ; occasionally -ter (N. ter, G. -tri) : ar-bi-ter (= ad + ba, step\
umpire; -on (N. o, G. onis): com-bib-o {fellow-drinker), boon compan-
ion; occasionally -o, -« (N. -us, -a) : serv-os, slave; scrib-a, scribe;
-OHO, -on a (N. 6nu-s, -ona) : col-onu-s, settler ; -(/)^ (N. es, G. itis):
xnil-es, soldier, and a few others.
2. Action, Activity, and Event are indicated by
a. -tu (N. tu-s, su-s, G. -us) : ad-ven-tus, arrival ; -tri-iia (N.
trina) : doc-trina, instructiori; -Iti-a (N. -Ina) : rap-ina, rapi7ie; -men
(N. men, G. min-is) : ag-men, train; 'inento (N. mentum) : tor-mentu-m,
torture; S'la {ella) ; loqu-ela, speech; quer-6la, complaint; "Cinio
(N. -u-m) : latro ciniu-m, highway robbery; -mbnio,, "inonia (N.
m5iiia, m5niu-m) : queri -raonia, complaint ; testi-moniu-m, testimony.
b. Abstracts. Mascuhne : -os (N". -or, G. -or-is) : ang-or, anguish.
Feminine : -on (N. do, g5, G. in-is) : ima-?^5, image; cup-i-do, desire;
-ia : audac-ia, boldness; -idn(S. i5) : leg-iQ, lcgio7i; -f m ; avari-tia,
avarice; collateral are some with Nom. in -ties, as diiri-ti5s, hard-
ness; -tioii (N. tiS, sio) : ainb-i-ti5, ambition ; c5n-fu-sio, confusion; -tat
(N. tas) : aequali-tas, equality; -ttira : ]^ic-tui&, painting; -tut-(N. tiia,
sus): iuven-tus, youth; -ta {-su) (N. tu-s, su-s), s5n-sus, perception;
-tudon (N. tud-o, G. -inis): a,egn'tVii!5, sickness of heart. ^Neuter: -tio
(N. tiu-m) : servi-tiu-m, bondage.
3. An Artisan or Tradesman is indicated by
-di'io (N. ariu-s) : argent-ariu-s, money changer.
FORMATION OF WORDS. 125
4. The Trade is indicated by
-aria : argent-aria, silver mine, hank.
5. The Locality of the work (or trade) is indicated by
-drio (X. ariu-m) : semin-ariu-m, seed-plot ; -bnio (N. Oniti-m) : Ml-
onium, fuller's shop; -iua : ofiac-ina, workshop; -cro, -eulo (X. -cru-m,
-culu-m) : lava-cru-m, hath; -trlno, -fritia (J^. trina, trinu-m) : su-
trina, shoemaker'' s shop ; pls-trlnu-m, 7nill.
6. Instrument and 3Ieans are indicated by
-brOf -bra (N. bra, bru-m): ll-bra, balance ; crl-bmm, sieve; -crOf
-culo (N. cru-m, culu-m) : ba-culu-m, walking stick; -lo, -la (N. -la,
-lu-m) : ^i-\^^ pillar ; tB-ln-m, tveapon; -nlo, -ula (N. ulu-s, ula, ulu-m) :
cap-ulu-s, handle; rgg-ula, rule; cing-ulu-m, girdle; -mento (N.
mentu-m): al-i-mentu-m, nourishment ; -tro, -tra (N. tra, tru-m):
fenes-tra, window ; ara-tru-m, jsJwzo.
7. Relationship is indicated by
-ter (N. ter, G. tr-is) : ^-ixx^fatJier; ma-ter, mother.
8. Condition or Relation by
-ina : discipl-Ina, discipline; medie-fna, medicine,
9. Function is indicated by
-tura {sura) : cul-tura, cidtivation.
10. Office is indicated by
-dta (X. atus, G. atus) : cSnsul-atus, consxdship; -tura (sura) :
dicta-ttira, dictatorship.
1 1. Dense Growths are indicated by
-efo (X. gtu-m) : murt-etu-m, myrtle grove; -to (X. tu-m) : virgul-
tn-m, hrusliwood.
12. Diminutives are indicated by
-lo, -la (X. lu-8, etc.), before which a liqnid is assimilated (0, 3) :
(ager), agel-lu-s, little field ; (tabul-a\ tabel-la, tablet ; (coron-a), corol-la,
chaplet ; Catul-Iu-s ( -- Caton-lu 6; ; homul-Iu-s (= homon lu-s), manikin;
-olo^ -nlo : olo after e, i, v, otiierwise -ulo (X. olu-s, ola, ulu-s, ula):
(alve-us), alve-olu-8, little holloio; (fili-a), flli-ola, little daughter ; (valv-a),
valv-olae, pod {little flaps); (circu-s), circ ulu-s, little ring, -v.ulo, -vula
(X. culu-s, etc\ after e, i, u, and consonant steins : (spgs\ sp€-cula, slight
hope; (amni-s), amni-culu-s, streamlet; (versu-s), versi-culu-s, versicle;
(homo, homin-), homun-culu-8, manikin ; (flOs), fl5s-culu-s, floweret ; (cor,
cord-), cor -culu-m, dear heart.
Note.— Diminutives have, a« a rule, the gender of their primitivee. ExcepUong
gre sometimes due to difference iu signification.
126 FOKMATIOK OF WORDS.
182. FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES.
The significance of the most important adjective suffixes, which are
often identical with the substantive suffixes, are as follows :
1. Action is indicated by
-hundOf -httnda : cuncta-'biindu-s, lingering. Repeated actionhy
-ulo^ -ula : cred-ulu-s, quick to believe; quer ulu-s, complaining. Pas-
sive action is indicated by -bill : ama-bili-s, lovable, v6nd-i-bili-s, to be
sold.
2. Capacity and Inclination are indicated by
-cundOf -cunda : fa-cundu-s, of ready speech ; vere-cundu-s,
modest. Passive Capacity hy -ili : ag-ili-s, readily moved, quick;
doc-ili-s, teachable. The Capacity and Resulting Condition by -till :
duc-tili-s, ductile ; fic-tili-s, capable of being moulded^ of clay.
3. Tendency is indicated by
-aci (N. ax) : aud-ax, hold ; rap-ax, greedy.
4. Likeness and Composition or JIaterial are indicated by
-aceOf -acea : arundin-acen-s, reedy ; cr6t-aceu-s, chalky; -icio :
later-iciu-s, made of brick; -no, -nu : acer-nu-s, of maple; ~neo^
-nea : ae-neu-s, brazen.
5. Belonging to is indicated by
-4o^ -ia : imperatSr-iu-s, helo7iging to a general ; -icio, -icia :
aedil-iciu-s, belonging to ari cedile; -duo, -ana : hum-aim-s, human;
urb-anu-s, iirbane, city.
6. Appurtenance and Jledium are indicated by
-ficOf -tica : aqua-ticu-s, aquatic; -till-: aqua-tili-s, aquatic;
pluma-tili-s, {embroidered) like feathers.
7. Origin is indicated by
-io, -ia : Cornel-ia (lex), Corinth-iu-s ; -dno, -ana, -Ino, -ina :
Eom-anu-s, Lat-inu-s.
8. 2'ime is indicated by
-lino, -tina : cras-tinu-s, of to-morrow; -ferno, -terna : hes-
ternu-s, of yesterday; -umo, -urna : noct-umu-s, by niglit; -tlno,
-tlna : matH-tinu-s, of early morning.
9. Locality, where, whence, is indicated by
-ia : Gall-ia, Gaul; -tlno: intes-tinu-s, inner, intestine; -ensi:
cire-ensi-s, fro7n the circus ; Sicili-finsi-s, Sicilian; -dti (N. -as) : cQi-
2s, of what country ^
FORMATION OF WORDS. 12/
10. Fullness is indicated by
-o.so, -osa : anim-osn-s, full of spirit ; verb-osu-s, luordy ; 'lento,
lenta : sanguin-o-lentu-s, bloody ; op-u-lentu-s, with abundant means.
11. Descent and Relationship are indicated in Latin mainly by Greek
adjectives, made by the addition of Greek suffixes to proper names.
Tliese suffixes are
M. 'ides (G. idae), F. -«s (G. idis), from Nominatives in us, or, os,
and s preceded by a consonant ; M. -ides (G. idae), F. -els (G. eidis),
from Nominatives in -eus ; M. -ades (G. adae), F. -eis (G. gidis), from
Nominatives in as (G. ae) arid -g3 (G. -ae) ; M. ^iades (G. iadae), F.
-ias (G. iadis), from Nominatives in ius, es, on, o ; F. -tiie, from Nom-
inatives in -us and -eus; F. -/owe, from Nominatives in ius : (Tantalus)
Tantal-id6s, son of Tantalus ; Tantal-is, daughter of Taiitalus ; (Pelops)
Pelopides ; (Thes-eus) Th6s-ides, ThgsSis ; (Aengas) Aene-adgs (Aeneadae also);
(Laertgs) Laert-iadgs ; (Neptiinus) Neptun-ing ; (Acrisius) Acrisiong, etc.
12. Diminutive adjectives are formed by the same suffixes as
diminutive substantives (181, 12) : albus, white^ alhvL-hxs, whitish ; miser,
xvretched, mis-ellus, poor {little) ; acer, sharp, acri-culu-s, somewhat sharp.
183. SUBSTANTIVES WITHOUT SUFFIXES.
(Root Substantives.)
A few substantives are formed from roots without a suffix :
1. With weak root : duc-s (dux), leader, from root due, lead ; nec-s
(nex), killing, from root nee. Mil.
2. With strong root : lue-s (lux), light, from root lue, light ; rgg-s
(rgx), Idng, from root rgg, ride.
3. With reduplication: cox-cev^ jail ; mar-mor, marble; mur-mur,
murmur.
THE SUFFIXES IN DETAIL.
184. Vowels.
-Of -a (N. u-s, a, u-m). Primary and secondary adjectives, and
primary substantives. The primary adjectives resemble somewhat
active participles in meaning ; fer-u-s, wild ; vag-u-s, ivandering. Sec-
ondary are especially adjectives in -orus, as dec-oru-s, graceful, from
decor, grace, and many others. Masculine substantives in -u-s are often
nouns of agency, sometimes nomina actionis and concretes therefrom:
eoqu-o-s, cook ; rog-u-s, pyre. Those in -a (a) are regularly mmina agen-
lis, especially in composition ; scrib-a, scribe ; agri-eola, husbandman
(land-tiller). Feaiinines are in -0 (which are principally names of
trees : pir-us, pear tree) and in -a : lup-a, she-wolf, as well as lup-u-s.
Neuters are those in -u-m, especially names of fruits : pir-u-m, pear.
128 FORMATION OF WORDS.
-i (N. i-s, e). Substantives : M . orb-i-s, circle ; pisc-i-s, fish, etc. ;
F. av-i-s, bird ; nav-i-s, ship ; N. mar-e, sea ; conclav-e, room. Adjec-
tives : dulc-i-s, sweet ; turp-i-s, ugly.
Note.— In adjectives especially, i is often weakened from -o, as inermis and iner-
mus, etc. Sometimes in substantives the Nom. shows es instead of is, as caed§S and
caedis, etc.
-iOf -ia (N. iu-s, la, iu-m). — i. This is the principal secondary suf-
fix, and is found in many combinations ; but it is also found as prim-
ary in substantives: M. gen-iu-s, genius; gladius, sword; F. pluv-ia,
rain; tib-ia, fife; N. fol-iu-m, leaf ; od-iu-m, hate; and in adjectives
ex-im-iu-s, pre-eminent {taken out) ; sauc-iu-s, ivounded, pluv-iu-s, rainy.
2. The suffix occurs as secondary in the forms -6io (-aeo\ -io, eo, io, in
a large number of Gentile names : Flav-giu-s, Flav-iu-s ; Ltic-eiu-s, Luc-
iu-s, Ltic-iu-s ; similar to these are those in ed-iu-s, id-iu-s, id-iu-s, -gl-iu-s,
il-iu-s, as Luc-id-iu-s, Corn-gl-iu-s, Luc-fl-iu-s. Also in some adjectives of
material in eu-s, as aur-eu-s, golden ; ferr-eu-s, iron. It occurs, moreover,
in many compound adjective and substantive endings, to be discussed
later, and in many abstract substantives in -antia, -entia, as abund-
ant-ia, abundance ; sci-ent-ia, knowledge, etc.
Note.— Instead of -ia, we find -ea in a few words : cav-ea, cage ; cochl-ea, snail.
-u (N. u-s, u). M. arc-u-s, boiv ; curr-u-s, chariot ; F. ac-u-s, needle ;
man-u-s, hand; N. gel-ti, frost; gen-u, knee. Secondary is socr-u-s,
mother-in-law. This suffix is found occasionally in adjectives com-
pounded with manus, as centi-manus, hundred-handed ; also in the form
-ui in a few adjectives, as ten-ui-s, thin.
Note.— The snftix -o often alternates with -u.
-iiOf -iia (N. uo-s, ua, uo-m). Primary and secondary substantives
and adjectives. Primary : M. eq-uo-s, horse ; F. al-vo-s, belly ; X.
ax-vo-m, field ; par-vo-s, stnall. Secondary : M. patr-uo-s, uncle; cer-vo-s,
stag ; F. ian-ua, gate ; cern-uo-s, stooping ; aesti-vo-s, of the summer.
Note.— Ivo-s is found in voc-ivo-S (vacuos), rediv-Ivo-s, etc. -vo is weakened
to -vi in pel-vi-s, basin.
185. Suffixes with Gutturals.
1. -co, -ca (N. cu-s, ca, cu-m). This forms both adjectives and
substantives, but is usually secondary. As primary it is found in :
io-CM-s^ jest ; lo-cu-s, pZace ; as secondary in : medi-cvi-s, physician ; ped-
i-ca, fetter. Adjectives are primary : cas-cu-s, very old ; or secondary :
civi-cu-8, civic.
2. -dcOf -aca (N. gcu-s, aca, acu-m). Primary in clo-aca, sewer;
secondary in ver-b6n-aca, vervain, and in adjectives, as mer-acu-s, j^wre.
FORMATIOX OF WORDS. 1 29
3. -IcOf -lea (N. Icu-s, ica, icu-m). In substantives, such as : M.
umbil-icu-s, 7iavel ; F. lect-ica, Utter ; urt-ica, nettle. In adjectives, as :
am-icu-s, friendly, etc.
4. -ucOf -ilea (N. ucu-3, uca, ucu-m). Primary in the adjectives :
cad-ucu-s, tottering ; mand-ucu-s, voracious ; secondary in alb-ucu-s, as-
phodel ; and in substantives in -uca, as er-uca, caterpillar ; verr-uca, wart.
Note.— Similar is the secondary suffix -inquo in long-inquo-S, distant; pro-
pinquo-s, near.
5 -ac (N. ax) forms substantives and adjectives ; the latter ex-
pressing nic/twaiiow. Primary: SMd-six, bold ; fxig-six, fleei?ig. Second-
ary : F. forn-ax, furnace ; lim-ax, snail ; v6r-ax, truthful.
6. -ec (N. Sx) is found in verv-ex, wether.
7. -ic (N. ex) forms a number of substantives that are mainly mas-
culine, except names of plants and trees. Primary : M. ap-ex, point ;
cort-ex, hark ; F. il-ex, holm-oak. Secondary : F. imbr-ex, gutter-tile.
8. -Ic (N. ix) forms substantives and adjectives. Primary : F. rad-
ix, root; fgl-ix, happy. Secondary: corn-ix, crow, and feminines in
-trix.
9. -de (N. ox) is found in the substantive cel-ox, yacht, and in a
number of adjectives : atr-ox, ferocious.
10. -deeOf -deea (X. aceu-s, acea, aceu-m), forms adjectives of
material or likeness : crgt-aceu-s, chalk-like.
Note.— Notice aho tlie suffix -ac-io, especially in proper names : Ver-acia,
11. -ie-eOf -ie-io(N. iceu-s, etc., iciu-s, etc.), form adjectives in-
dicating material, the latter suffix also some indicating relation : palm-
iceu-s, of palms ; tribun-iciu-s, proceeding from a tribune.
12. -le-io (X, Iciu-s, etc.) is found in nov-Iciu-s, 7iew, and in words
of participial meaning coming from forms in -to, as advent-iciu-s,
strajiger.
13. -ue-eOf -uc-io, occurs in pann-uceu-s or pann-uciu-s.
14. -ci-no and ei-n'-io occur (perhaps) in vati-cinu-s, prophetic,
and in some secondary neuter substantives, which denote action or
event, as latro-ciniu-m, robbery.
15. -cro, -eri, -elo, -culo (N. car, cris, clu-m, culu-m) are found
in some adjectives with participial force, and in a few neuter substan-
tives indicating instrument or locality ; as ala-cer, quick ; medio-cris,
mediocre ; peri-clum (-culu-m), danger ; ba-culu-m, stick (also m.) ; sepul-
crum, grave. Also the primary ridi-culu-s, laughable, and the secondary
anni-culu-s, aged.
9
130 FORMATIOK OF WORDS.
186. Suffixes with a Dental.
1. 'd (N. (d)s). Substantives only : frau-s, c7i.ea^efy ; merce-s, jpay ;
custo-s, guard.
2. -do, -di (N. du-s, etc., di-s). A secondary suffix used especially
for the formation of adjectives : frig-i-du-s, cold ; vir-i-dis, blooming.
3. -to {-so) (N. tu-s, ta, tu-m). This forms substantives and ad-
jectives, and is both primary and secondary. Primary : M. cub-i-tu-s,
elhoiv ; dig-i-tus, finger ; also substantives in -ta after Greek analogy :
po§-ta, poet ; F. has-ta, spear ; am-i-ta, amit ; N, lu-tu-m, mud ; tSc-
tum, roof ; ap-tu-s, ^/; bea-tu-s, fi^esset?. Secondary : M. nau-ta, saiYor ;
F. iuven-ta, youth; N. dense growths in g-tu-m: £nitic-e-tu-m, co^se ;
ius-tu-s, y^s^ ; and passive adjectives like barb-a-tus, bearded.
4. -ti {-si) [N, tis (sis)] forms primary and secondary substantives
and adjectives. Primary : M. fus-ti-s, club ; cas-si-s, hunting-net ; F.
cu-ti-s, sldn ; si-ti-s, thirst ; for-ti-s, brave ; mi-ti-s, 7nild, Secondary .:
(i) in adjectives and substantives indicating home, origin, usually
preceded by a, i, more rarely e: Camer-s (Camer-ti-s), /rom Camerinum;
Arpina-s (A.rplna-ti-s), of Arpinum ; nostr-as, from our country ; (2) in
the form -gnsi (for ent-ti) in adjectives of origin and locality : Sicili-en-
si-s, from Sicily ; castr-ensi-s, belonging to a camp.
5. -t (N. (t)s) forms primary and secondary substantives and ad-
jectives. Primary : M. com-e-s, companion ; d§n-s, tooth ; F. qui-e-s,
rest ; ar-s, art ; locupl-6-s, ivealthy ; with preceding e : div-e-s, rich.
Note also the Participles in -ns. Secondary : M. al-e-s, bird; eque-s,
horseman.
6. -ento- (X. -entu-s, et<i.) forms substantives and adjectives ; the
latter are participial in nature. i\l. v-entu-s, ivi7id ; F. pol-enta, cluster ;
N. ungu-entu-m, salve ; cru-entu-s, bloody. Secondary adjectives :
graclLentu-s, slender ; and by false analogy corpul entu-s, corpulent, and
the like.
7. -tat, -tut (M. ta-s, tti-s), forms secondary feminine abstracts and
collectives : civ-i-ta-s, citizenship ; liber-ta-s, //'cetZom ; iuven-tu-s, youth;
vir-tti-s, maydiness.
8. -tiOf -tia, -tie (N. tiu-m, tia, ti§-s), likewise form abstracts and
collectives, some neuter, most masculine : servi-tiu-m, slavery ; molli-
tia and molli-ti6-3, gentleness, etc.
Notes.— 1. In in-i-tiu-m, heginning, and spa-tiu-m, room, the snflix is primary.
2. Many roots form various derivatives of similar meaning, tlius : dur-i-tia, dur-
i-ti§-8, dtir-i-tS-s, hardness, etc.
9. -ti-co (N. ti-cu-s, etc.) forms secondary adjectives signifying
pertaining to : domes-ticu-s, domestic ; aqua-ticu-s, aquatic.
FORMATION OF WORDS. I3I
Note.— In such substantives as canti-CU-m, triti-C-um, the ending -co has been
!ftdded to a participial form in -to (cantO, tritO).
10. -ter forms primary substantives of kinship ; as, pa-ter, etc.
Different in formation is soror, which, like ux-or, has no feminine ending.
11. -tor {sor), F. -fi"Ac*(N. tor, trix), form substantives of agency,
those in trix being all secondary : aud-i-tor, hearer ; vena-trix, huntress ;
-tor is secondary in gladia-tor, etc.
12. -faro-, -tur-a (N. turu-s, etc.), forms participles in taru-s, as
ama-turu-s, and feminine substantives denoting activity or office : cul-
tur-a, cultivation ; cen-sur-a, censors] tip.
13. -tor-io (sdr-io) (N. toriu-s, etc.), form neuter substantives of
place and instrument, and adjectives denoting that which pertains to
the actor : audi-tor-ium, lecture hall ; alea-tor-iu-s, pertaining to a dice-
player.
14. -tro, -tra (N. tra, trxi-m), forms substantives, mostly neuter,
of means: ara-tru-m, ploio ; fenestra (f.), window. From words like
mon-S'tru-m, monster, come by false analogy those in -ster, as pin-aster,
wild pi?ie.
15. -ter Of -ter a (N. ter, tra, tru-m) forms comparatives: al-ter,
other ; dex-ter, right ; nos-ter, our ; perhaps also adjectives of relation,
appurtenance, or locality in -s-ter (G. stris), such as : palus-ter (= palud-
ter), sivampy ; eques-ter, equest7'ian ; campes-ter, champaign; terres-ter,
of the earth, terrestrial.
16. -trinOf -trina (N. trina, trinu m), forms substantives of activ-
ity (f.), or of locality (f., n.) : doc-trina, instruction ; pis-trina, bakery ;
pis-trinu-m, {pounding) mill.
17. -tili i-sili) (X. till s, tile) forms primary adjectives of capacity
and adaptation, and with preceding a secondary adjectives of relation
or belonging : duc-tili s, ductile ; mis-sili-s, tnissile ; aqua-tili-s, belong-
ing to the water.
18. -ter-no (N. ternu-s, etc.) forms adjectives indicating time :
hes-ternu-s, of yesterday.
19. -tur-no{^L turnu-s, etc.) forms substantives and adjectives
indicating cordmuance, from which come proper names : Sa-turnu-s,
Vol-tnrnu-s, tac-i turnu-s, silent.
20. -tinOf -fiiio (N. tinus, tinu-s, e/c), forms adjectives of time,
the latter also of place : eras tinu-s, of to-morrow ; intes-tinu-s, inner,
intestine; matu-tinu-s, of early morning.
21. -tn (sii) (N. tu-s, su-s) forms substantives of action and its
result : adven-tu-s, arrival ; cur-su-s, course ; or-tu-s, rising.
22. -d-tu (N. a-tu-s) forms secondary substantives of office : consul-
a-tu-s, consulship ; sen-a-tu-s, senate.
132 FORMATION OF WORDS.
187. Suffixes with a Labial.
1. 'hOf -ha (N. bu-s, etc.), forms substantives and adjectives : M.
mor-bu-s, disease ; F. bar-ba, heard ; N. ver-bu-m, icovd ; pro-bu-s, up-
right.
2. -hro, -bra (N. bra, bru-m), forms substantives indicating means
oi instrument. Primary : F. dola-bra, celt ; li-bra, balance ; ter-e-bra,
borer ; N. cri-bru-m, sieve. Secondary : candela-bru-m, candlestick.
Note.— Very rare are masculines; as, fa-ber, wn^-y^i! ; Mulci-ber, Yulcan.
3. -hiilOf -hula (N. bula, bulu-m), form substantives : F. fa-bula,
iale ; fi-bula (fig-), brooch ; N. pa-bulu-m, fodder ; sta-bulu-m, stall.
4. -hili (N. bili-s) forms adjectives, mostly of passive meaning in
classical prose : ama-bili-s, lovable ; no-bili-s, noble ; flg-bili-s, tearful.
188. Suffixes with! an original S.
1. -is (N. is, G. er-is) forms a few substantives : vSm-is (also vom-er),
plowshare ; cin-is, ashes ; pulv-is, dust ; cucum-is, cucumber.
2. -us (N. us, G. er-is, or-is) forms primary and secondary neuter
substantives. Primary : foed-us, bond ; gen-us, race ; temp-us, tivie.
Secondary : pect-us, breast ; fun-us, funeral.
Note.— Some such words have become monosyllabic, as aes, i&S, rus.
3. -OS (-or) (N. Ss, or, G. 5r-is) forms many primary and a few
secondary masculine abstracts. Primary : fl-5s, flower ; am-or, love.
Secondary : aegr-or, sickness.
Note.— Noteworthy arc M. lep-U8, hare ; F. arb-os, tree (45 n.); Ven-us (G. Ven-
eris), and the adjective vet-US (G. veteris), old.
4. -es (N. es, 5s, G. is, 6I) forms a few substantives of the third and
fifth declension : vat-Ss, bard ; fam-gs, hunger ; plgb-6s, people.
5. 'Or^o (N. 5ru-8, etc.) forms secondary adjectives, as : can-Oru-s,
sounding ; hon-oru-s, honorable ; and a few substantives, as : aur-5ra,
morning ; FlSra, etc.
189. Suffixes with a Liquid.
1. -lo^ -la (N. lu-8, etc.), forms many feminine and neuter, and a
few masculine substantives: M. ma-lu-s, mast; F. pMa, pillar; N.
cae-lu-m (= caed-lu-m), chisel ; fi-Iu-m, thread.
2. -i-lo, -i-la (N. ilu-8, etc.), forms primary and secondary su'c
FORMATION OF WORDS. 1 33
stantives and adjectives. M. sib-i-lu-s, hissing; N. oae-lu-m (= cav-
i-lu-m, hollow), heaven ; nub-i-lii-s, cloudy.
3. {-o-lo)f-u-lo, -u-la (N, ulu-s, etc.), form primary and second-
ary substantives, most of which indicate instrument, and primary adjec-
tives indicating repeated action or tendeticy : M. ang-u-lu-s, corner;
oc-u-lu-s, eye ; F. reg-u-la, rule ; t§g-u-la, tile ; N. iac-u-lu-m, javelin ;
spec-u-lu-m, mirror; bib-u-lu-s, hihulous ; cred-u-lu-s, ^?a'cA; to believe;
quer-u-lu-s, complaining ; caer-u-lu-s, hlae (secondary), and caer-u-leu-s.
Also fam-u-lu-s, servant, and the extension fam-ili-a, family.
4. -It (N. li-s, le) occurs in the substantive: M. cau-li-s, stalk ; and
in adjectives: subtMi-s, fine; incMi-s, cut in. Secondary in fidS-li-s,
faithful.
5. -i-li (N. ili-s, ile) forms a few substantives and many adjectives
indicating passive capacity : F. strig-i-li-s, scraper ; N. teg-i-le, roof.
Also vig-il, watchman ; ag-i-li-s, readily moved ; doc-ili-s, teachable.
Secondary in hum-i-li-s, low, and in the terminations -tili-s, -sili-s.
6. -olo^ -ola (after e, i, v), -iilo, -iila (N. olu-s, ulu-s, etc.), form
diminutives : alve-olu-s, little belly ; fili-olu-s, little son ; riv-ulu-s, brook-
let ; r6g-ulu-s, chief ; voc-ula, voice ; gran-ulu-m, grain ; alb-ulu-s, whit-
ish; parv-olu-s, small.
7. -ello, -ella (N. ellu-s, etc.), forms diminutives after 1 and by
assimilation after n, r : pop-ellu-s, tribelet; tab-el-la, tablet; pu-el-la, girl;
bel-lu-s (bonus), good ; misel-lus (miser), wretched. Doubly diminutive
are catel-lu-s, puppy ; cistel-la, basket ; capitel-lu-m, head.
8. -illOf 'ilia (N. illu-s, e/c), forms diminutives, and is formed like
ello, but usually after a preceding i : pulv-illu-s, srnall cushion ; pistr-
illa, small mill; sig-illu-m, small image ; bov-illu-s, bovine. Also c5dic-
illf, hillets ; paux-illu-s, slight; pus-illu-s, tiny.
9. -olla is found in cor-ol-la, tvreath ; 51-la, jar (aula).
10. -ullOf -tlllaf occurs in ul-lu-s, any, Sul-la ( = Sur-u-la), Catul-
lu-s (Caton-lus), homuUus (= homon-lu-s).
11. {-cO'lo), -cu-lo (N. culu-s, etc.), forms diminutives, especially
after consonantal and e, i, u stems : M. fios-cvlvi-s, floweret ; homun-culu-s,
manikin (irregular) ; avu-n-culu-s, uncle {1. collier's brother, irregular) ;
F. sp6-cula, little hope; auri-cula, ear; arbus-cula, liUle tree (irregular) ;
domu-n-cula, little house (irregular) ; N. cor-culu-m, {dear) ^^Mrt ; munus-
culu-m, little gift. Adjectives are dulci-culu-s, sweetish, and especially
diminutives from comparative stems, melius-culu-s.
12. -cello (-cillo) (N. cellu-s, etc.) stands to culo as ello to ulo: M.
p5ni-cillu-s, -m, painter's brush ; Ss-cillu-m, little mouth ; molli-cellu-s,
softish.
134 FORMATION OF WORDS.
13. -nleo (N. nleu-s) forms substantives that were originally adjec-
tival : aculeu-s, sting.
14. -dlif-ari (N. ali-s, ari-s, etc.), form secondary adjectives, some
of which are substantivized ni the neuter, and a few substantives : ven-
alis, i'ew«/; m.ov\.-dM-&y mortal; singul-ari-s, wnigwe; vulg-ari-s, common;
can-ali-s, canal; animal, living heing; calc-ar, spur.
15. -elii {-ella) forms primary and secondary substantives, most of
which indicate action: loqu-6la (loqu-ella), talking; cand-gla, candle;
custod-ela, watching.
16. -ell (N". gli-s, etc.) forms secondary substantives and adjectives:
cardu-eli-s, linnet; crud-eli-s, cruel.
Remark. — A further development of -6li is -elio, -elia : Aur-eli-us,
contum-eli-a, contumely.
17. -lit (N. ili-s, He) forms secondary substantives and adjectives :
M. aed-ili-s, opdile; N. cub-ile, couch; sed-ile, seat; civ-ili-s, civic; eri-li-s,
masters.
18. -yno, -tna (N, mu-s, etc^, forms primary substantives and pri-
mary and secondary adjectives. The feminine substantives express
usually the result of an action: M. an-i-mu-s, spirit; cal mu-s, cal-a-mu-s,
stalk; F. fsi-ma,, fame ; Ham-ma., Jla?ne; N, ar-ma, arms; po-mum, fruit.
Adjectives, primary: al-mu-s, fostering; fir-mu-s, strong. Secondary:
op-i-mu-s, fat ; patr-i-mu-s, matr-i-mu-s, with father, mother, living.
19. -in en Qs. men, G. min-is) forms primary, neuter substantives,
mostly indicating activity or results of activity : ag-men, train; flu-men,
river ; but M. fla-men, priest.
20. -meu-to (N. mentu-m) forms substantives (mostly primary)
indicating instrument: al-i-mentu-m, nourishment; tor -mentu-m, tor-
ture.
Note?.— 1. -men and -mentum are of ten formed from the same radical. In that
case mentu-m i« the more common : teg-u-men, teg-u-mentu-m, corering.
2. Eare and archaic are feminines in -menta ; armenta - armentu-m.
3. -menti occurs in sgmenti-s (f), fited - sgmen (n ).
21. -met (N. mes, G. mit-is) forms a few masculine substantives:
tra-mes, pa/A ; fo-mes, fuel ; li mes, cross-path.
22. -niinOf -niiua, -tnno, -mna (N. minu-s, etc.), form sub-
stantives : M. ter-minu-s, houndary ; F. al-u-mna, foster-daughter; fg-
mina, ivoman ; N. da-mnu-m, loss.
23. -tnofi (N. m5, G. m5n-is) forms primary and secondary masculine
substantives : pul-mo, lung ; ser-m5, discourse ; tB-mQ, pole (of a chariot).
24. -nidn-iOf -mon-ia (N. mOnia, m6niu-m), forms primary and
FORMATION OF WORDS. 1 35
secondary substantives. Primary : F. al-i-monia, nourishment ; quer-i-
mama.^ complaint ; N. al-i-moniu-m, Tiowris/miert^. Secondary: F. acri-
monia, tartness ; N. matr-i-moniu-m, marriage.
25. -mor forms primary masculine substantives ; cre-mor, broth ;
ru-mor, rumor.
26. -tnic (N, mex, G. mic-is) fonns a few substantives : cl-mex, bug ;
pu-mex, pumice.
27. a. -no, -via (N. mi-s,6'/e,), forms primary and secondary adjec-
tives ; the primary are participial in meaning ; the secondary indicate
material or relation, and occasionally locality ; when added to local
comparatives and adverbs, distributive numerals are also formed with
this suffix. Primary: 6ig-nvi-s, u'orthy ; plg-nu s /w/^. Secondary:
diur-nu-s, dailij ; fraternu-s, brotherly; acer-nus, maple; ex-ter-nu-a,
outer ; bi-ni, two each.
Note.— Adjectives denoting malerial have also -neo (= n'-eo), as ae^eu-S,
brazen ,• ilig-neu-s, quer-neu-s.
b. -nOf -na (N. nu-s, etc.), forms primary and a few secondary sub-
stantives. Primary : M. fur-nu-s, oven ; pug-nu-s, fist; F. c€-na, meal ;
la-na, ivool. N. d5-nu-ni, gift ; rgg-nu-m, kingdom. Secondary : M.
tribti-nu-s, tribune ; F. fortu-na, fortune ; albur-nu-m, sap-wood.
Note. — This sufiix is extended in pecti-nia, "ritoney.
28. -bundo-f -eiiudo (N. bundu-s, etc., cundu-s, etc.), form ad-
jectives of activity : cunct-a-bundu-s, delaying; fa-cundu-s, eloquent.
29. -ni (N. ni-s) forms primary substantives and adjectives: am-ni-s,
stream ; pe-ni-s, tail ; pa-ni-s, bread ; im-ma-ni-s, ivild ; sgg-ni-s, lazy.
30. -ino, -iua (X, inu-s, etc.), forms primary and secondary sub-
stantives and adjectives. Primary : M. dom-inu-s, lord ; F. pag-ina,
fage ; lic-inu-s, curled upwards. Secondary : M. ped-ic-inu-s, foot ;
F. fisc-ina, basket ; N. suc-inu-m, amber ; faec inu-s, making dregs.
Note.— The sufrix is extended in the proper name Lic-iniu-8.
31. -dnOf -una (N, anu-s, etc.), forms secondary adjectives, some
of which are substantivized. They indicate origin or appurte7iance ;
decum-anu-s, belonging to the tenth; lmm-&nn-s, human ; alt-sinvi-B, sea-
wind. Primary in Volc-anu-s, Di-ana.
32. -dn-eo (N. aneu-s, etc.) forms primary and secondary adjec-
tives. Primary : c6nsent-aneu-s, harmonious. Secondary : snbit-aneu-s,
sudden. This suffix becomes anio (= an'io) in proper names : Afr-aniu-s,
Fund-aniu-s.
33. -enOf -ena (N. 6nu-s, etc.), forms secondary substantives and
136 FORMATIOK OF WORDS.
adjectives : M. Vlbidi-Snn-s ; F. cat-ena, chain ; hab-6na, m» ; N.
ven-6nu-m, poison ; eg-enu-s, needy ; ali-6nu-s, strange.
Note.— This is extended to gn-on in toll eno, {well) siceep.
34. -InOf ~ina (N. inu-s, etc.), forms primary and secondary sub-
stantives and adjectives. Primary : M. cat-inu-s, -m, dish ; F. rap-ina,
rapine ; ru-Ina, ruin ; nec-op-inu-s, unexpected. Secondary : jM. pulv-
Jnu-s, cushion ; sal-inu-m, salt-cellar, and many feminines, especially
those denoting shops and factories; r6g-ina, queen ; cul-ina, kitchen ;
ofB.c-ina, ivorkshop ; j^n-inu-s, 'belonging to a lamb ; div-inu-s, divine.
Note.— An extension of this sufRx is found in riC-iniu-m, veil.
35. -en (N. -en, G. -in-is) forms a few substantives : M. pect-en, comb f
N. glut-en, glue.
36. -on (N. 8, G. in-is) forms a few substantives : M. card-o, hinge ;
marg-o, rim ; 5rd-o, row ; F. a-sperg-o, sprinkling ; virg-o, maid ; car-8,
fiesh.
Notes.— 1. Noteworthy is liOm-8, hom-in-is, man,
2. This suffix occurs very commonly in compounds forming feminine abstracts :
-edon (N. 6do), dulc-6do, sweetness ; -idou (N. ido), cnp-idS, desire ; form-
Id5,/enT ; -udon (N. udo), tSst-udo, tortoise ; -tudon (N. tudo), aegri-tiidO,
sickness ; -dgbn (N. ago), im-ago, image ; -Uf/on (N. ugo), aer-ugo, ?'ust ;
-igon (N. igS), cal-Igo, thick darkness ; or-igo, oriffin, etc.
37. -on (N. 0, G. onis) forms primary and secondary substantives.
The primary are nouns of agency : combib-o, felloiv-drinker ; prae-c-o,
herald ; tl-r5, recniit. The secondary indicate often the possession of
some bodily or mental peculiarities ; ale-5, dice-player ; centiiri-5,
centurion.
38. -ion (N. io) forms a few masculine and many feminine primary
and secondary substantives. Primary : M. ptig-io, dagger ; F. opin-i5,
opinion; reg-iS, region. Secondary: M. pell-io, furrier; vespertil-i3,
bat ; F. com-miin-i6, communion.
Note.— EsptK-ially frequent are feminine abstracts in t-i5 (s-io) : amb-i-tio, ambi-
tion ; op-pHgna-tid, siege. Noteworthy are the secondary diminutives, homunc-iS,
senec-iS.
39. -OHOf -6na (X, 5nti-s, 5na), forms few primary and many sec-
ondary substantives ; the masculines indicate agents, especially ja^rso/i
employed : M. col-5nu-s, settler ; F. matr-ona, matron ; Bell-5na.
40. -onio, -bnia (N. Qnin-s, etc.), forms substantives and adjec-
tives : M. Fav-5niu-s, zephyr; Pomp-5niu-s, etc.; caup-5niu-s, belonging
to a hosi. Neuters indicate tlie trade or shop : foll-Sniu-m, fuller'' s-shop.
41. -ro, -ra (N. (e)r, -ra, ru-m), forms primary substantives and ad-
jectives: IM. &g-e-Tf field ; cap-e-r, ^o«^ ; mft-ni-a, wall ; F. la.n-ra-B, laurel;
FORMATION OF WORDS. 1 3/
ser-ra, saw ; N. flag-ru-m, tvhip ; lab-ru-m, lip ; cla-ru-s, bright ; pu-rus,
clean.
Often a short vowel precedes : M. num-e-ru-s, number ; F. cam-era,
vault ; N. itig-eru-m, measure of land. So hil-aru-s, joyous ; lib-er,
free ; cam-uru-s, vaulted ; sat-ur, full.
Notes.— 1. Esteusions are Mer-curiu-s, tug-uriu-m, hut.
2. In a number of primary substantives and adjectives simple r is preceded by a
short vowel : M. late-r, Vile ; ans-er, goo^e ; F. mul-i-er, tvoman ; N. ac-er, maple;
ver (= ves-er), sprincy ; cic-ur, iame.
42. -ri (N. -(e)-r, -ris, G. ris) forms substantives and adjectives : M.
imb-e-r, ram-storm; ac-e-r, sharp; faneb-ri-s, funeral; perhaps
celeb-er, thronged.
43. -dro forms adjectives, as : av-aru-s, greedy ; am-aru-s, bitter.
44. -drif ~dli (N. ari-s, ali-s, etc.), forms secondary substantives and
adjectives ; -arrwhen the stem has 1, -ali when it has an r : pugill-are-s,
tablets ; primipil- ari-s, one who has been primipilus ; some neuters in ar
(from -are): calc-ar, 67;^^;•,• ex-em-p-l-ar,p«^(fer«, pulvin-ar, (sacrec?) cowc/t;
auxili-ari-s, auxiliary ; milit an-s, military ; consul ari-s, consular.
45. -driOf -aria (N. ariu s, etc.), forms substantives and adjec-
tives. There are sometnnes collateral forms in -ari-s. The substantives,
when masculine, indicate artisans; when feminine, business ov pro-
fession ; when neuter, the place where the work is carried on. M.
argent-ariu-s, money-changer ; ferr-ariu-s, iron-ivorker ; F. argent-aria,
silver mine, bank or banking ; N. api-ariu-m, beehive ; p5m-ariu-ni, apple
orchard.
46. -ero (X. 6ru-s, etc.) forms sev-5rus, earnest, and the substantive
gal-eru-s, -m, bonnet.
47. -uri forms the substantive sec-uri-s, axe, and by extension pgn-
uria, tcant.
48. The letter r appears often in combination with other suffixes, as :
-er-co in lup-ercu-s. Pan ; nov-erca, step-mother ; -er-to in lac-ertu-s, arm ;
lac-ertu-s, a lizard; -er-bo in ac-erbu-s, .so?/r ; sup-erbu-s, _proiJcZ ; -er-vo in
ac-ervo-s, heap ; cat-erva, croivd ; -er-na in cav-erna, hollow ; lu-cerna,
lamp ; -ter-na in lan-ter-na, lantern ; -ur-no in alb-urnu-s, white fish ;
lab-urnu-m, laburnum.
190. FORMATION OF VERBS.
1. Primitives are confined to the Third Conjugation, to some forms
of the Irregular verbs, and to some Inchoatives. The various stem-
formations are shown in 138.
2. Derivatives comprise the verbs of the First, Second, and Fourth
138 FORMATION OF WORDS.
Conjugations, and some verbs of the Third Conjugation. They are aU
(except the Inchoatives and the Meditatives) formed with the suffix io,
ie (yo, ye), which is added either to simple verbal stems, or to noun
(IG) slenis already existing or presupposed. The i in io, ie, contracts
with the preceding vowels a, e, i, u, leaving the ordinary forms of the
regular conjugations. Certain categories of these verbs have obtained
special names according to their various meanings :
The Causatives, formed by a change in the stem-vowel.
The Desideratives, formed by the addition of -io to nomina agetifis
in -tor ; afterwards a desiderative force was associated with the com-
bination -tor-io (-tar-io), and it was applied indiscriminately.
The Freq^ientatives come originally probably from participial stems
in -to ; Latin developed also the suffix -ito ; further, this being added
again to -to gave rise to -tito (-sito).
The Inchoatives, formed by a special suffix, -sco (sko), are treated in
conjugation as primitives belonging to the Tliird Conjugation.
The Meditatives have not been explained.
Note.— Theoretically the Verbdlia are all Dertoniinafiva, but owing to the wide
working of Analogy, it has been impossible in many cases, as in ama-re, monS-re, to
discover an original noxva ; while in other cases, as the verbal is formed from a part of
a denominative verb, it is convenient to retain the division.
191. A. Verhcilia (derived from verb-stems, 190, N.):
1. Frequent atives or Intensives, denoting repeated or in-
tense Action. These verbs end in -tare (-sare), -itare, -titare (-sitare),
and follow the supine stem (perfect passive form).
(a) cantare, sing : compare cano (cantum) : cursare, rim to and fro;
compare curr5 (cursum) : dictare, dictate ; compare dico (dictum) : dor-
mitare, be sleep g ; compare dormiS (dormitum) : habitare, l-eep, dwell;
compare habeo (habitum) : j^lUcitaiYi, pi^omise freely ; compare poUiceor
(poUicitus): pulsare, heat; compare pellS (pulsum).
(b) agitare (ago), noscitare (nosco), sciscitare (scisco), visitare (visS),
vocitare (voco), volitare (volo).
(c) cantitare (cantare), dictitare (dictare), cursitare (cursare).
Notes.— 1 The simple verb presuppose 1 by the frequentative or intensive is often
out of use, as in the case of : gus-tare, fanfe ; hor-tari, exhort. The frequentative or
intensive iu -tare is often out of use : actitare, repeatedly or zealoudy agitate (no
actare), from ago, actum: iSctitare, read carefully (no Igctare), from legS,
iSctum.
2. The verbs of the Fourth Conjugation form no freqnentatives excei)t dormiS,
sleep, dormitS ; mtinio, fwtkfy, munitS (rare) ; salio, leap, salto ; aperto, lay
hare^ and operto, cover, and compounds of veiltO (venio, ccme).
2. Inchoatives indicate entrance upon an action. For their
formation see 133, V.
3. Desider atives denote Desire or Tendency. They are formed
FORMATION OF WORDS. 1 39
by means of the suffix -turio (-surio) : gsurire (for ed-t), to he sharp-set
for eating, hungrij ; em-p-turire, to he all agog for huying.
4. Causatives signify the Effecting of the Condition indicated by
their original verb. They are found maudy in the Second Conjugation,
and show usually a change in the stem-vowel.
Change: cadere, fall, and caedere, fell; liquere, melt (trans.), and
liquere, melt (intr.) ; from root men- (as in me-men to) comes monere,
remind; necare, Idll, and nocere, he death to; placere, please, and
placare, cause to he pleased, appease ; sedere, sit, and sgdare, settle.
No change ; fugere, flee, and fng&re, put to Jlight ; iacere, throiv, and
iacere, {lie) thrown; pendere {hang) weigh, and pend6re, Itang (intr.).
5. Meditatives : (verbs that look forward to an action). These
end in -essere : arcessere, to summon ; capessere, to catch at ; facessere,
to do eagerly ; incessere, to enter ; lacessere, to irritate (136, 3, h).
192. B. Denominatives (derived from uotm-stems) :
1. These are most commonly found in the First Conjugation, even
though the stem-vowel of the noun is i or u.
{a) acerva-re, heap up (from acervo-s); aestua-re, seethe (aestu-s) ;
corona-re, ivreathe (corona) ; leva-re, Ugh /en (lev-i-s) ; macula-re, he-
smirch (macula) ; nomina-rc, name (nomen, nomin-is) ; onera-re, load
(onus, oner-is).
The Deponents signify Condition, Employment : ancilla-ri, he maid
(ancilla) ; aqua-ri, he a draiver of ivater (aqua) ; fura-ri, thieve (fur) ;
laeta-ri, he glad (laetu-s).
{h) albe-re, he white (albu-s) ; flore-re, he i?i hloom (flos, floris) ; fronde-re,
he in leaf (frons, frondi-s) ; luc6-re, he light (lux, luc-is).
(c) argue-re {he bright, sharp), prove ; laede-re, hurt ; metue-re, he in
fear (metu-s).
{d) custodi-re, guard (custos, custod-is) ; fini-re, end (fini-s) ; lenl-re
soften (Igni-s) ; vesti-re, clothe (vesti-s).
3. Noteworthy are the Diminutives formed by the suffix -illare :
st-illare, drop (st-illa) ; scint-illare, sparkle (scint-illa) ; osc-illare, to siving
(osc-illum). Similar in function but of different formation are puUu-
lare, sprout (pul-lus) ; fodic-are, punch (fodere, dig) ; albicare, whiten
(albu-s).
Notes.— 1. The Denominatives of the First, Third, and Fourth Conjugations are
regularly transitive, those of the Second Conjugation are regularly iidransitive.
2. These verbs are often found orfty in combination with prepositions : ab-undare,
mri over, abound (from unda, tvave) ; ac-cusare, accuse (from causa, ca^e) ; ex-ag-
gerare, pile up (from agger) ; ex-stirpare, root out (stirp-s) ; il-ltiminSre, illumine
(from Itimen, lumin-is).
140 FORMATION OF WORDS.
B.— Compound Words.
I. FORMATION OF COMPOUND WORDS.
193. I. By composition words are so put together that a
new word is made with a signification of its own. The
second word is regularly the fundamental word, the first
the modifier.
Note.— Properly speaking, composition occurs only in the case of substantives, i. e.,
where two or more simple stems come together. In verbs, there is either juxtaposition,
where the parts still retain their original force, or the combination of a verb with a
preposition. Broadly speaking, however, composition applies to all combinations of
words.
2. Composition is eithev projjer or improper.
194. Suhstantive.
In Compos itio 71 Improper ihero are either traces of con-
struction or the first part is still inflected ; e-normis = ex norma, out of
all rule ; legis-lator, lawgiver ; Senatus-consultum, decree of the Senate.
Many of these compounds liave gradually become inflectional : deli-
rus {dB-lir&)j crazy from fear ; egregius (6-grege), distmguished {from
the crowd) ; proconsul (for pro consule; ; trium-vir (from trium virum), etc.
Note.— From composition we must distinguish juxtaposition. So a preposition is
brought into juxtaposition with a substantive, or a substantive with a substantive :
ad-modum, to a degree^ very ; ob-viam, in the wmj, meeting ; tisusfructus, usu-
fruct ; liippiter, Father Jove. Noteworthy are the Copulative compounds ; such are
compound numerals like un-decim, duo-decim, ete., and occasional others : su-ove-
taur-ilia, offerings of swine ^ sheep^ and bulls.
195. Composition Proper .
I. The first part of the compound may be a particle, as ne-far-iu-s,
nefarious ; ve-sanu-s, mad, out of one's sound senses : or a substantive.
If it is a substantive —
(a) The stems in -a, -o, -u regularly weaken these vowels into -i
before the consonants of the second part, which i may vanisli : causi-
dicus, pleader, lawyer (causa) ; signi-fer, standard-hearer (signu-m) ;
corni-ger, horn-ivearer (cornu) ; man-ceps (manu- and cap-), one who takes
in hand, contractor. The i-stems retain i or drop it : Igni-vomu-s, fire-
vomiting (igni-s) ; nau-fragu-s, shipwrecked (nfivi-s).
{h) Vowel-stems drop their vowel before the vowel of the second
part : magn-animu-s, great-souled ; iin-animu-s, of one ?nind.
(c) Consonant-stems either drop their consonants or add i: liomi-
cid-a, manslayer (hoirun-) ; lapi-cid-a, stone-cutter (lapid-) ; matr-i-cid-a,
mother-murderer, matricide.
Note.— The first part is rarely, if ever, a verb. Apulkius uses the form pOsci>
nuuunius.
FORMATION OF WORDS. I4I
2, The second part of the composition is a noun : tri-enn-iu-m, space
of three years (annus) ; miseri-cor-s, tender-hearted (cor).
When the second part ends in a vowel, it adapts itself, if an adjec-
tive, to changes of gender, as flavi-comus, yellow-haired (coma, hair),
but more often this final vowel becomes i and tlie adjective follows the
third declension : tri-rgmi-s, trireme (rgmu-s, oar) ; ab-normi-s, abnormal
(norma, norm).
When the second part ends in a consonant, the last term usually
undergoes no change : bi-den-s, two-pronged ; simplex (sim-plec-s), simple.
Note.— From genus (G. generis), is formed dS-gener.
II. SIGNIFICATION OF COMPOUNDS.
196. Compound substantives and adjectives are divided according
to their signification into two main cla.sses : Determinative and Pos-
sessive.
In Determinative compounds one of the terms is subordinate to the
other. They fall into two classes : Attributive or Appositional, and
Dependent.
197. !• Attributive compounds. The first part is the attribute of
the second.
The first word is, (i) a substantive : ali-pes, ioing-foot{ed) ; (2) an ad-
jective : magn-animus, great-hearted ; lati-fundium, large estate ; (3) a
numeral : bi-enni-um {i. e., spatium), space of two years.
2. Dependent compounds. In these the second word is simply limited
by the other, its signification not being altered.
{a) The first word is : (i) an adjective : meri-di6s (from medi-di6 =
medio diS), mid-day ; (2) an adverb : bene-ficus {well-doing), beneficent ;
male-ficus, evil-doing ; (3) a numeral : ter-geminus, triple; (4) a par-
ticle : dis-sonus, harsh-sounding ; per-magnus, very large ; in-dignus,
unworthy ; (5) a verb-stem : horr-i-ficus, horrible {horror-stirnng).
(b) The first word gives a case relation, such as (i) the Accusative :
armi-ger = arma gerens, armor-bearer; agri-cola — agrum colens (land-
tiller), husbandman ; (2) the Genitive : s51-stitium = solis statiQ {smi-
• staying), solstice; (3) the Locative : ali6ni-gena {born elsewhere), alien ;
(4) the Instrumental : tibi-cen = tibia canens, flute-player.
198. Possessive Compounds are adjectival only, and are so called
because they imply the existence of a Subject possessing the quality
indicated.
The first term is, (i) a substantive : angui-manus, (having a) snake-
hand {elephant) : (2) an adjective : flavi-comus, {havirig) yellow hair ;
(3) a numeral : bi-fr6ns, {having) tivo front{s) ; (4) a particle : dis-cors,
discordant; in-ers, inactive.
1^2 FORMATION OF WORDS.
Note.— Notice that these divisions run into each other ; thus magn-animus ia
possessive, attributive, and dependent.
199. Verb.
In Composi tion Imp r o per the verb is joined to a. verb, sub-
stantive, or adverb. In C ompo sition Proper the verb is com-
bined v^rith a preposition.
200. I- Composition Improper .
(a) Verb wit?i verb : This only takes place when the second part of
the compound is facio orfio (178, n. 2). The first part of the compound
is regularly an intransitive of the second conjugation : cale-facio, cale-
fio, warm, am warmed.
{b) Verb iviih substantive : anim-adverto = animum adverto, take
notice ; manii-inittS, set free ; iisu-capio, acquire by use.
(c) Verb with adverb : bene-dico, bless ; male-dico, curse ; malo, nolS
(for mage (magis) vol5, ne- volo), satis-facio, satisfy.
2. Composition Proper.
The verb combines with separable or inseparable prepositions.
Compare 413, r. 3.
(a) With inseparable prepositions : amb-io, go about ; am-plector, en-
fold ; an-helo, draw deep breath, pant; dis-curro, run apart; dir-imS,
160, T, and 715, R.I ; por-tendo, hold forth, portend; red-do, give back;
re-solv6, resolve ; s6-iungo, separate.
(b) Willi separable prepositions ; ab e5, go away ; ad-eS, come up ;
ante-curro, run in advance ; com-pono, put together ; d6-curro, run down,
finish a course ; ex-c6do, overstep ; in-clud5, shut in ; ob-duc5, draio
over ; per-agro, ivander through ; post-habe5, keep in the background ;
prae-dico, foretell ; praeter-e5, pass by ; prod-eo, go forth ; prae-video,
foresee ; sub-icio, put under ; subter-fugio, flee from under ; super-sum,
remain over ; trans-gredior, pass beyond.
Syntax.
201. Syntax treats of the formation and combination of
sentences.
A sentence is tlie expression of a thought (sententia) in
words.
Sentences are divided into simple and compound.
A simple sentence is one in which the necessary parts
occnr but once ; for the compound sentence see 472.
The necessary parts of the sentence are tlie subject and the
predicate.
The predicate is that which is said of the subject.
The subject is that of which the predicate is said.
Luna fulget, The moon shines.
Luna is the subject ; fulget, the predicate.
Remarks. — i. The Interjection (IG, r. 2) and the Vocative case (23,
5) stand outside the structure of the sentence, and therefore do not
enter as elements into Syntax, except that the Vocative is subject to
the laws of Concord. See r. 3.
2. The Vocative differs from the Nominative in form in the second
declension only, and even there the Nominative is sometimes used
instead, especially in poetry and solemn prose.
Almae filius Maiae, H., 0., I. 2,43 ; son of mild Maia ! Audi tu,
populus Albanus, L., i. 24, 7 ; hear thou, people of Alia !
is prefixed to give emphasis to the address:
6 formose puer, nimium nS cr6de colori, V., Ec. 2, ir ; o shapely boy! trust not
complexion all too much.
The Vocative is commonly interjected in prose, except in higlily emotional pas-
3. On the use of the Vocative of an adjective or participle in appo-
sition, attribution, or predication, see 289, 325, R. i.
SYNTAX OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
202. The most simple form of the sentence is the finite
verb : su-m, / am ; doce-s, thou teachest ; scrlbi-t, he writes.
144 SYNTAX OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
Remark. — Here the form contains in itself all the necessary ele-
ments (compare 114), the persons being indicated by the endings.
From tiie expansion and modification of the finite verb arise all the
complicated forms of the compound sentence.
203. Subject. — The subject of the finite verb is always in
the Nominative Case, or so considered.
Remarks.— I. The subj. of the Inf. is in the Accusative (343, 2).
2. The use of the Nom. in Latin is the same as in English.
204. The subject may be a substantive or a pronoun, or
some other word, j^^^i^^se, or clause used as a substantive :
Deus mundum gubernat, God steers the universe. Ego rgges giecl,
[C] ad Her., iv. 53, 6G ; I drove out kings. Sapiens res adversas non
timet, THE SAGE does not fear adversity. Victi in servitutem redi-
guntur, THE VANQUISHED are reduced to slavery. Contendisse de-
corum est, Ov., 31., IX. 6 ; to have struggled is lionorahle. Magnum
beneficium [est] naturae quod necesse est mori. Sen., E.3L, lor, 14;
it is a great boon of nature, that we must needs die, Vides habet duas
syllabas, (the word) "vides" has tivo syllables.
Notes — 1. Masculine and feminine adjectives, and to a less degree participles,
arc used as substantives, but with the following limitations :
(«) Many adjectives in -aiiuS and -icus (the latter mostly Greek), designating
office or occupation, and words expressing friendship, kinship, or otlier relationship,
are used often as substantives both in the Sing, and the PI. of the masculine and femi-
nine : aquarius, waterman ; librarius, lookman {-seller, writer, etc.) ,• grammati-
CUS, grammarian ; amicus, friend ; cognatus, kinsman ; socius, partner. Many of
theso have becomealmost wholly fixed i;s substantives, as amicus, /rienrf. See 16, N. 1.
(&) Adjectives are very often used r.s substantives in the masc. Fl. when they desig-
nate a class : pauperSs, the poor ; divitSs, the rich. In the oblique cases of tlie Sing.,
this use is also not uncommon ; but in the Nom. the substantive is generally expressed :
vir bonus, a good man ; mulier peregrina, a foreign ivoman. So regularly, if used
with a proper name : Plato, doctissimus IlomS, the learned Plato. Exceptions are rare
and scattering in prose : egO et SUavissimu3 CicerO val6mus, C, Fa?n., xiv. 5, 1.
(c) On the use of participles as substantives see 437, n.
(d) When persons are not meant, a substantive is understood : cani (capilli), groT/
hairs ; calida (aqua), warm water ; dextra (manus), right hand.
2. Neuter adjectives and participles arc freely employed as substantives in both num-
bers ; in the PI. usually in Nom. and Ace, in the Sing, in all cases, butespecially in con-
nection with prepositions : medium, the midst ; eztrSmum, theend ; reliquom, the
residite .• futurum, the future ,• bonum, good .• bona, h'essuigx, possessions ; malum,
evil ; mala, misfortunes. The Pl:ir;U is frequently e;nploye 1 when tlie Engiisli idiom
prefeis the Singular : v6ra, the truth ; omnia, everything.
3. Adjectives of the Second Declension are soiiietimcs used as neuter substantives in
the Gen., after words of (luantity or pronouns : aliquid boni, something good ; nihil
mall, nothing bad. Adjectives of the Third Decleii8i>)n lue thus employed only in
combination with those of the Second, and even then very rarely (369, R. i).
Usually the adjective of the Third Declension draws the adjective of the Second
SUBJECT — PREDICATE — COPULA. I45
into it8 own construction : Quid habet ista res aut laetabile aut gloriosum 1
C, Tusc, 1. 21, 49 ; what is ihert to be glad of or to brag about in that?
4. Instead of the neuter adjective, the word rgs, Oilng^ is frequently used, especially
in forms which are identical for different genders, and consequently ambiguous ; so
bonarum rerum, of blessings, rather than bonorum (masc. and neut.).
5. In Lalin the PI. of abstract substantives occurs more frequently than in English ;
adventus iraperatorum, the nrrivalis) of the generals (because there were several
generals, or because they arrived at different times). Pluralizing abstract substantives
often makes them concrete : fortitudinSs, gallant actions ; formidines, bugbears ;
Irae, quarrels.
6. Other PI. expressions to be noted are : niv6s, snmvi-flakes) ; grandings, hail
(-stones) ; pluviae, {streams of) rain ; ligua, (Jogs of) wood ; carnSs, pieces of meat ;
aera, articles of bronze ; also Bymmetrical parts of the human body : cervic6s, neck ;
pectora, bjrxist.
The PI. is freely used in poetry and in later prose : Otia Si toUas, perigre Cu-
pidinis arctis, Ov., Bern. Am., 139 ; if you do atvaij with holidays, Ciq/ui's boiu (and
arrows) are ruined.
7. The rhetorical Roman often uses the First Person PL for the First Person Singular.
The usage originates in modesty, but mock modesty is the worst form of pomposity.
It is never very common, and is not found before Cicero : Librum ad te d5 senec-
tute misimus, C., Cat. J/., i, 3 ; u-e (I) have sent you a treatise on. old age.
In poetry there is often an element of shyness ; Sitque memor nostri necne, re-
ferte mihi, Ov., Tr., iv. 3, 10 ; bnug ine back (word) whether she thinks of its (me
among others) or no.
8. (a) The Sing., in a collective sense, is also used for the PI., but more rarely: faba,
beans ; porcus, pig (meat) ; gaUina., fowl (as articles of food) ; vestis, clothing.
(b) The use of the Sin2;. i:i designations of nationalities and divisions of troops is
introduced by LivY : Romanus, the lioman forces ; Poenus, the Carthaginians ;
hostis, the enemy ; miles, the soldiery ; pedes, the infantry ; eques, the cavalry.
205. Predicate and Copula. — When the predicate is not
in the form of a verb, but in the form of an adjective or
substantive, or equivalent, the so-called copula is generally
employed, in order to couple the adjective or substantive
with the subject.
The chief copula is the verb sum, I am.
Fortuna caeca est, C, Lael., 15, 54 ; fortune is Mind. Usus magister
est optimus, C, Rah. Post., 4, 9 ; practice is the best teacher.
Note.— Strictly speaking, the copula is itself a predicate, as is shown by the trans-
lation when it stands alone or with an adverb : est Deus, there is a God, God exists ;
rectS semper erunt rSs, things will always be (go on) well ; sic vita homiuum est,
C, Rose. Am., 30, 84 ; such is human life ; " So runs the world away.'''
206. Other copulative verbs are : videri, to seem; nasci,
to he horn; fieri, to hecome; evadere, to turn out; creari, to
he created; deligi, to be chosen; putari, to he thought; baberl,
to he held; did, to he snid; appeilari, to he called; nominari,
to he named. Hence the rule :
Verbs of seeming, becoming, with the passive of verbs of
10
146 SUBJECT OMITTED. — IMPERSONAL VERBS.
making, choosing, shoiving, tliinlcing, and calling, take two
Nominatives, one of the subject, one of the predicate :
Nemo nascitur dives, Sen., i^.J/., 20, 13; no one is horn rich. Aris-
tides iustus adpellatur, Aristides is called just. [Servius] rex est declara-
tus, L., I. 46, 1 ; Servius ivas declared king. [Thucydid§s] numquam est
numeratus orator, C, 0., 9, 31 ; Thucydides has never been accounted an
orator.
Remarks. — i. With esse, ser^-e as; vidSri, seem; habgri, he held; duci,
be deemed, and rarely with other verbs, instead of the Predicate Norn.,
a phrase may be employed, as : pro with xVbl., (in) loco, in numero, with
Gen., etc.
Audacia pro mtiro habetur, S., C, 58, 17 ; boldness is counted as a bul-
wark. In filii loco, C, Hed. in Sen., 14, 35 ; as a son.
2. The previous condition is given by ex or dS and the Abl, (396, n. 2).
Ex oratore arator factus, C, Ph., in. 9, 23; a pleader turned ploivman.
3. All copulative verbs retain the Nom. with the Inf. after auxiliary
verbs (423).
Beatus esse sine virttite nem3 potest, C, N.D., 1. 18, 48 ; no one can be
happy u'ithout virtue.
4. On the Double Ace. after Active Verbs, see 340.
Notes.— 1. The verbs mentioned, with some others, arc found in good prose. Others
are either poetical or unclassical, thus : perhiberi, to he held, is eai ly ; apparere, to
ajyfiear, is poetic and post-classical for videri ; reddi i'? not used for fieri ; sisti, to be
set down, is Plautine : manSre, to remain, is late (permanere once in Cicero).
2. Noteworthy is the use 01 audire, like the Greek d/couei«/, to be called, which is
confined to Horace ; rgxque paterque audisti, Ep., i. 7, 38 ; S., u. 6, 20, just as
•' hear " in this sense is said to be conllned to Milton.
207. Subject Omitted. — The personal pronoun is not
expressed in classical prose, unless it is emphatic, as, for
example, in contrasts :
Amamus parent6s, We love {our) payments. Ego reggs gieci, vos tyran-
nos introducitis, [C] ad Her., iv. 53, 66 ; I drove out kings, ye are bring-
iiig in tyrants.
Note.— The insertion of the pronoun without emphasis is very common in the
comic poets, and seems to have been a colloquialism. Also common in Catullus, Sal-
lust (as an archaism), and Petromus.
208. Impersonal Verbs. — Impersonal Verbs are verbs in
which the agent is regularly implied in the action, the sub-
ject in the predicate, so that the person is not expressed.
Chief of these are :
I. Verbs pertaining to the state of the weather : tonat, it thunders,
the thunder thunders, or rather, the Thunderer thunders; fulget, fulgn-
COPULA OMITTED. , I47
rat Oess common), fulminat (poet.), it lightens; pluit (poet.), it rains;
ningit, it snows, etc.
Nocte pluit tota, V., (Poet. Lat. Min., iv. 155, B.) ; all night it {he,
Jupiter) rains.
Note.— The divine ngent is sometimes expressed ; so, naturally, in religious or popu-
lar language : love tonante, fulgurante, c, Div., 11. 18, 43 ; love fulgente, C,
N. D.^ II. 25, C5.
2. The passive of intransitive verbs is often used impersonally ; so
regularly of verbs winch in the active are construed with the Dat. (217):
vivitur, people live ; curritur, there is a running ; pugnatur, there is a
battle ; mihi invidetur, / am envied. The subject is contained in the verb
itself : sic vivitur = sic vita vivitur, such is life ; pugnatur = pugna pugna-
tur, a battle is {being) fought. In the same way explain taedet, it wearies ;
miseret, it moves to pity ; piget, it disgusts ; pudet, it puts to shame.
Notes. — 1. With all other so-called Impersonal Verbs an Inf. (42?, 53.5) or an equiv-
alent (.52.3) is conceived as a subject : Non lubet mihi deplorare vitam, C, Cat.
J/., 23, 84. Sed accidit perincommod6 quod eum nusquam vidisti, C, j^L,
I. 17, 2.
2. other uses coincide with the English. So the .Third Person PI. of verbs of
Saying, Tliinking, and Calling. Also the ideal Second Person Singular (258). To be
noticed is the occasional use of inquit, qyoth he., of an imaginary person, but not by
Caesar, Sali.iist, or Tacitus : Non concido, inquit, Epicuro, C., Ac, 11. 32, 101 ;
I do not yield the jmiit, quoth he {07ie), to Epicurus.
209. Copula Omitted. — Est or sunt is often omitted in
saws and proverbs, in short statements and questions, in
rapid changes, in conditional clauses, and in tenses com-
pounded with participles :
Summum ius summa iniuria, C, Off., 1. 10, 33 ; the height of right {is)
the height of icrong. Ngmo malus fglix, Juv., iv. 8 ; no bad man {is)
happy. Quid dulcius quam habere quicum omnia audeas loqui ? C, LaeL,
7, 23 ; what sweeter than to have some one with whom you can venture
to talk about everything ? Sed haec vetera ; illud vSrS recens, C, Ph., n.
II, 25. Aliquamdiu certatum, S., lug., 74, 3. Cur hostis Spartacus, si tu
civisl C, P«r«(/., 4, 30.
So also esse, with participles and the like :
Caesar statuit exspectandam classem, Caes., B.G., iii. 14, 1 ; Caesar
resolved that the fleet must be icaited for.
Notes.- 1. The omission of esse is not common with the Nom. and Infinhive.
2. Popular speech omits freely ; so, mirum ni, mirum quin, factum, in Latin
comedy ; likewise potis and pote for forms of posse. To a like origin are due mirum
quantum, nimium quantum, etc., found at all periods.
3. The ellipsis of other forms of the copula is unusual. Thus Cicero occasionally
omits sit ill the Indirect Question, and Tacitus other forms of the Subjv. besides.
is omitted by Livy, and not unfrequently by Tacitus.
4. The Ellipsis of eSSe was Bometitnes due to the desire of avoiding the heaping up
148 .AGREEMEN^T OF PREDICATE WITH SUBJECT.
of Infinitives. Thus sentences like non dubito te esse sapientem dicere {to declare
you to he wise) were regularly cut down to non dubito t6 sapientem dioere (^0 de-
dare you tvise).
5. The ellipsis of other verbs, such as facere, Ire, venire, dicere, etc., is charac-
teristic of popular speech ; it is therefore not uncommon in Cicero's letters (ad AU.\
in Pliny's letters, and in works involving dialogue, such as Cicero's philosophical
wriifiugs. The historians avoid it, and it never occurs in Caesar and Velleius.
CONCORD.
210. The Three Concords. — There are three great
concords in Latin :
. The agreement of the predicate with the subject (211).
. The agreement of attributive or appositive with the substantive
)o, 321).
3. The agreement of the relative with antecedent (614).
2
(285, 321).
211. Agreement of the Predicate with the Subject,
in number and
The verbal predicate aarrees with its subiect
^ ^ *' ( person.
i in number.
The adjective predicate agrees with its subject •< gender, and
( case.
The substantive predicate agrees with its subject in case.
Substantiva mobilia (21, 2) are treated as adjectives, and follow the
number and gender of the subject.
Ego reges eieci, vos tyrannos introducitis, [C] ad Her., iv. 53, 66 (207).
Verae amicitiae senipiternae sunt, C, Lael,, g, 32 ; true friendships are
abiding. Dos est decern talenta, Ter., And., 950 ; the dowry is ten talents.
Usus magister est optimus, C . , Rah. Post. , 4, 9 (205). Arx est monosyllabum,
''Arx" 2s a monosyllable. Compare Ignis confector est et consumptor
omnium, C, N.D., 11. 15, 41 ; fire is the doer-up {destroyer) aiid eater-up
{consumer) of everything, with confectrixrSrum omnium vetustas, C, Frag.
IIemarks. — I. The violation of the rules of agreement is due chiefly
to one of two causes; either the natural relation is preferred to the
artificial (c5nstructi5 ad sgnsum, per synesin, according to the sense), or
the nearer is preferred to the more remote. Hence the following
Exceptions. — {a) Substantives of multitude often take the predi-
cate in the Plural: t^&ts, part ; vis {poiver), quantity ; multitude, cro/i't/;
organized bodies more rarely. Also, but not often, such words as
quisque, uterque, n6m6, etc.
Pars maior recgperant sSsS, L., xxxiv. 47, 6 ; the greater part had re-
tired. Omnia multitude abeunt, L., xxiv. 3, 15 ; all the crowd depart.
AGREEMENT OF PREDICATE WITH SUBJECT. I49
Magna vis gminus missa telorum multa nostris vulnera inferebant, Caes.,
B.C., II. 6, 5. Uterque ooruin ex castris exercitum educunt, Caes., B.C.y
III. 30, 3.
Note.— This usage is very common in comedj% but extremely rare in model prose.
LivY shows a greater variety and a larger number of substantives than any other
author, and poets and late prose writers are free. Yet Horace uses regularly the Sing,
with a collective, while Vergil varies, often employing first a Sing, and then a PI. verb
with tlie same substantive (as A., 11. C4). Tacitus often uses quisque witli a Plural.
(b) The adjective predicate often follows the natural gender of the
subject ; so especially with milia. This usage belongs pre-eminently
to the historians.
Capita coniiirationis virgis caesi (sunt), L., x. i, 3 ; the heads of the
conspiracy were flogged. Samnitium caesi tria milia, Cf. L., x. 34,8 ;
of the Samnites {there) were slain three thousand.
The passive verb often agrees in gender with the predicate : Non
omnis error stultitia dicenda est, C.,Div.y 11. 43, 90 ; not every false step
is to be called folly.
(c) The copula often agrees with the number of the predicate (" the
wages of sin is death ") :
Amantium irae (204, n, 5) amoris integratio est, Ter. , And., 555 ; lovers*
quarrels are lovers renewal.
2. A superlative adjective defined by a Partitive Gen. follows the
gender of the subj. when it precedes:
Indus, qui est omnium fluminum maximus, C, iY./>., 11, 52, 130 ; the
Indus, which is the greatest of all rivers.
Otherwise it follows the Genitive; but this usage is post-classic :
Velocissimum omnium animalium est delphinus, Plin., N.U., ix. 8, 20 ;
the dolphin is the swiftest of all animals.
3. The Voc. is sometimes used by the poets in the predicate, either
by anticipation or by assimilation. (See 325, r. i.)
4. The neuter adjective is often used as the substantive predicate of
a masculine or feminine subject :
Triste lupus stabulis, V., Ec, 3, 80 ; the tvolf is a baleful thing to the
folds. Varium et mutabile semper femina, V., A.,iy. 569 ; "a thi7ig of
moods and fancies " is woman ever.
This construction is poetical; in Cicero it is used with a few words
only; such as extremum, commune:
Omnium rerum (204, n. 4) mors [est] extrSmum, Cf. C, Fam., vi. 21, 1;
death is the end of all thirigs.
5. The demonstrative pronoun is commonly attracted into the gen-
der of the predicate:
Negat Epicurus ; hoc enim vostrum lumen est, C, Fi7i., 11. 22, 70 ; Fpi-
curus says No ; for he is your great light. Ea non media sed nulla via
est, L., xxxii., 21, 33 ; that is not a middle course, but no course at all.
ISO
FORMS OF THE VERBAL PREDICATE.
But in negative sentences, and when the pronoun is the predicate,
there is no change. So in definitions :
Quid aut quale [est] Deus ? Cf. C, N.D., i. 22, GO ; what or what man-
ner of thing is God ? Nee sopor illud erat, V., A., iii. 173, Quod ita erit
gestum, id lex erit, C, PIl., i. 10, 2G.
Exceptions are but apparent. C, 0., 11. 38, 157.
6. The adjective predicate sometimes agrees with a substantive in
apposition to the subject. So especially when the appositive is oppidum,
civitas, and the like :
Corioli oppidum captum [est], L., 11. 33, 9; Corioli-town was taken.
Corinthum, tStius Graeciae lumen, exstinctum esse voluerunt, C, Imp., 5,
11 ; they would have Corinth, the eye of all Greece, put out.
Note?;.— 1. Peculiar is the occasional nee of the Fut. participle in -urum for
feminines in early Latin : Altero (gladio) t§ occisurum ait (Casina), altero
vilicum. Pl., C'«5.,693. ^o True, 400
~- Age if* often used in early Latin as if it were an adverb, with the Plural ; occa-
sionally also cav§ : Age modo fabricamini. Pl., Cus., 488.
Akin is the use of a Voc. Sing, with a PI. verb, which is occasionally found in clas-
sical prose also ; Turn Scaevola ; quid est, Cotta % inquit, quid tac6tis ? C, 0.,
1. 35. IGO.
The use of aliquis, sanie one of you, in this way is early : Aperite aliquis actutum
ostium, Teu., .!(/., 634.
3. Other less usual constructions ad sensum are : the use of a neuter demonstrative
where a substantive of a different gender is expected, and the construction of r6s as if
it were neuter (both found also in Cicero) ; the neuter Singular summing up a preced-
ing Plural :
In Graecia musici floruerunt, discSbantque id (^Aa< [accofnplishme?/f]) omn6s,
C, 7V6Y-., I. 2, 4. Servitia repudiabat, ciiius (of which [dasi<]) initio ad eum
magnae copiae concurrebant, S-, 6'-, 56, 5. See also C, Div., 11. 57, 117.
Forms of the Verbal Predicate.
VOICES OF THE VERB.
212. There are two Voices in Latin — Active and Passive.
Remark. — The Latin Passive corresponds to the Greek Middle, and,
like the Greek Middle, may be explained in many of its uses as a
Reflexive.
213. Active. — The Active Voice denotes that the action
proceeds from the subject. Verbs used in the Active Voice
fall into two classes, as follows :
Verbs are called Transitive when their action goes over to
an object (transeo, / go over) ; InlransUive when their ac-
tion does not go Itegond the subject : occidere, to fell — to kill
(Transitive) ; cccidere, to fdll (Intransitive).
PASSIVE VOICE. 151
Remark. — Properly speaking, a Transitive Verb in Latin is one that
forms a personal p^issive, but the traditional division given above has
its convenience, though it does not rest upon a difference of nature,
and a verb may be trans, or intrans. according to its use. So
(a) Transitive verbs are often used intransitively, in which case they
serve simply to characterize the agent. This is true especially of verbs
of movement ; as declinare, inclinare, movere. mutare, vertere, and the
like, and is found at all periods.
(fi) On the other liand, many intrans. verbs are often used transi-
tively. This occurs also at all periods, but the Ace. is usually the inner
object (332).
(c) On the use of the Inf. active, where English uses the passive,
see 532, n, 2.
214. Passive. — The Passive Voice denotes that the sub-
ject receives the action of the verb.
The instrument is put in the Ablative.
Virgis caedetur, C, Fen*., iii. 28, G9 ; he shall be beaten with rods.
[Ignis] lumine proditur su5, v., //<?;•., 15, 8 ; the fire is betrayed by
its own light.
The agent is put in the Ablative with ab (a).
Ab amicis prodimur, C, Cluent., 52, 143 ; ive are betrayed by friends.
Virgis caesi tribuni ab legato sunt, L., xxix. 18, 13 ; the tribunes were
beaten with rods by the lieutenafit.
Remarks. — i. Intrans. verbs of passive signification are construed as
passives : fameperire, C, Inv., 11. 57, 172, to perish of hunger. So v6nire,
to be sold ; vapulare (chiefly vulgar), tobe beaten^ ab aliquo, by some one.
Abreofustibus[vapulavit], Cf. Quint., ix. 2, 12; lie was whacked with
cudgels by the defendant. Salvgbis a meo Cicerone, C, Ait., vi. 2, 10 ;
greeting to you from Cicero.
2. When the instrument is considered as an agent, or the agent as
an instrument, the constructions are reversed :
Vinci a Voluptate, C, Off., i. 20, 68 ; to be overcome by Dame Pleasure.
Patriciis iuvenibus saepserant latera^ L., in. 37, 6 ; they had flanked him
tvith a guard of patrician youths-
The latter construction is very rare in Cicero, and seems to belong
pre-eminently to the historians.
Animals, as independent agents, are treated like persons.
A cane non magno saepe tenetur aper, Ov., Bern. Am., 422 ; a boar is
often held fast by a little dog.
Animals, as instruments, are treated like things.
Compare equ5 vebi, to ride a horse (to be borne by a horse), with in
etuo, on horseback.
152 VOICES OF THE VERB.
215. The person in whose interest an action is done is put
in the Dative. Hence the frequent inference that the person
interested is the agent. See 354.
1. With the Perfect passive it is the natural inference,
and common in prose.
Mihl r6s tota provisa est, C, Verr., iv. 42, 91 ; / have had the whole
thing provided for. Carmina nulla mihi sunt scripta, Ov., Tr., v. 12, 35;
poems — / have none written (I have written no poems).
2. With the Gerundive it is the necessary inference, and
the Dative is the reigning combination.
Nihil [est] homini tarn timendum quam invidia, C, Cluent., 3, 7 ; there
is nothing that one has to fear to the same extent as envy.
216. The Direct Object of the Active Verb (the Accusa-
tive Case) becomes the Subject of the Passive.
Alexander Bar Sum vicit, Alexander conquered Darius.
Dargus ab Alexandro victus est, Darius was conquered by Alexander.
217. The Indirect Object of the Active Verb (Dative Case)
cannot be properly used as the Subject of the Passive. The
Dative remains unchanged, and the verb becomes a Passive
in the Third Person Singular (Impersonal Verb). This
Passive form may have a neuter subject corresponding to the
Inner object (333, i).
Active : Miseri invident bonis, The wretched envy the well-to-do.
Passive : mih]( invidetur,. ./ am envied,
tibi invidetur, thou art envied,
ei invidetur, he is envied,
nobis invidetur, we are envied,
v5bls invidetur, you are envied,
ils invidetur, they are envied.
Nihil facile persuadetur invltis. Quint., iv. 3, 10 ; people are not easily
persuaded of anything against their will. Anulls nostrls plus quam animls
creditur. Sen,, Ben., iii. 15, 3 ; our seals are more trusted than our souls.
Remarks. — i. In like manner a Gen. or Abl. in dependence upon an
active verb cannot be made the subj. of the passive.
2. On the exceptional usage of personal Gerundives from intrans.
verbs see 427, n. 5.
Notes.— 1. The poets and later prose writers sometimes violate the rule, under
Greek influence or in imitation of early usage : Cflr invideor 1 (for cSr invidetur
mihi?), H., A. P., 56 ; vixe^uidem credar, Ov., Tr., m. lo, 35 ; persuasus videtur
• ab aliquO, hy some one.
REFLEXIVE — DEPONENT. 1 53
esse, [C] ad Her ,1. 6, 9. (Persuadeo hospitem, Petr , 62, 2, is perhaps an inten-
tional solecism.)
2. Similar liberties are taken by -poets and late prose writers with the passive of
other intrans. verbs, such as concedere, permittere, praecipere, pronuntiare : Fa-
tis numquam conc6ssa (= cui concessum est) moveri Camarina, V., A., m. 700.
218. Reflexive. — Reflexive relations, when emphatic,
are expressed as in English :
Omne animal sS ipsum diligit, C, Fin., v. 9, 24, Every living creature
loves itself.
But when the reflexive relation is more general, the pas-
8ive (middle) is employed : lavor, / bathe, I bathe myself.
Ptirgari [nequlvgrunt], Cf. L., xxiv. 18, 4 ; they could not clear them-
selves. Cum in mentem vSnit, p6nor ad scrlbendum, C, Fam., ix. 15, 4 ;
when the notion strikes me I set myself to writing.
Note.— Some of these verbs approach the deponents, in that the reflexive meaning
of the passive extends also to some active forms ; thus, from vehor, I title, we get the
form veh6ns, Hding (rare) : Adulgscentiam per medias laudgs quasi quadrigis
vehentem, c, Br., 97, asi.
219. As the active is often used to express what the subject
suffers or causes to be done, so the passive in its reflexive
(middle) sense is often used to express an action which the
subject suffers or causes to be done to itself : trahor, / let my-
self be dragged ; tondeor, I have myself shaved.
Duos Mysos [insuisti] in culeum, Cf. C, Q.F., i. 2, 2, 5 ; you sewed two
Mysians into a sack {had them sewn). Sine gemitu aduruntur, C, Tusc.^
Y. 27, 77 ; they let themselves he burned without a moan. Diruit, aedi-
ficat, H., Ep., I. I, 100 ; he is pulling down, he is building. Ipse docet
quid agam ; fas est et ab hoste doc6rI, Ov., M., iv. 428 ; he himself teaches
(me) what to do ; it is (but) right io let oneself be taught even by an
enemy (to take a lesson from a foe).
220. Deponent. — The Deponent is a passive form which
has lost, in most instances, its passive (or reflexive) significa-
tion. It is commonly translated as a transitive or intransi-
tive active : hortor, / am exhorting (trans.) ; morior, / am
dying (intrans.).
Notes.— 1. A number of intrans. verbs show also a Perfect Part, passive used
actively ; not, however, in classical prose combined with esse to take the place of the
regular Perfect. On the use of such participles as substantives, see 167, N. i.
Quid causae excogitari potest, cur t6 lautum voluerit, cSnatum nSluerit
occidere ? c, Dei., 7, 20.
2. Many verbs show both active and deponent forms side by side. In this case the
active forms belong more often to early authors. See 163-167.
154
TENSES.
221. Eeciprocal. — Reciprocal relations {''one another")
are expressed by inter, among, and the personal pronouns,
nos, %is ; vos, you ; se, themselves.
Inter s6 amant, C, Q. F., in. 3, 1; They love one another.
Remarks. — i. Combinations of alter alterum, alius alium, uterque
alteram, and the like, also often give the reciprocal relation : some-
times there is a redundancy of expression.
Placet Stoicis homings hominum causa esse generates, ut ipsi inter sS
alii aliis prodesse possent, C, Off., i. 7, 23 ; it is a tenet of the Stoics
that men are brought into the world for the sake of men, to he a blessing
to one another.
2. Later writers use invicem or mutuo, inter s5, vicissim ; and early-
Latin shows occasionally uterque utrumque.
Quae omnia hue spectant, ut invicem ardentius diligamus, Plix.,^j9.,
VII. 20, 7 ; all these things look to our loving one another more fervently.
"Uterque utrlquest cordi, Ter., Ph., 800 ; either is dear to other.
TENSES.
222. The Tenses express the relations of time, embracing :
1. The stage of the action (duration in time).
2. The period of the action (position in time).
The first tells whether the action is going on, or finished.
The second tells whether the action is past, present, ox future.
Both these sets of relations are expressed by the tenses of
the Indicative or Declarative mood — less clearly by the Sub-
junctive.
223. There are six tenses in Latin :
1. The Present, denoting continuance in the prese7it.
2. The Future, denoting continuance in the ftitiire.
3. The Imperfect, denoting continuance in \ki% past.
4. The Perfect, denoting completion in i\\% present.
5. The Future Perfect, denoting completion in iheftiture,
6. The Pluperfect, denoting completion in the past.
224. An action may further be regarded simply as attained,
without reference to its continuance or completioii. Contin-
uance and completion require a point of reference for defini-
tion ; attaimnent does not. This gives rise to the aoristic or
indefinite stage of the action, which has no especial tense-
TABLE OF TEMPORAL RELATIONS.
155
form. It is expressed by the Present tense for the present ;
by the Future and Future Perfect tenses for the future ;
and by the Perfect tense for the past.
Of especial importance are the Indefinite or Historical
Present and the Indefinite or Historical Perfect (Aorist),
which differ materially in syntax from the Definite or Pure
Present and Perfect.
225. The Tenses are divided into Pr%ncii)al and Histori-
cal. The PrincijKil Tenses have to do with the Present and
Future. The Historical Tenses have to do with the Past.
The Present, Pure Perfect, Future, and Future Perfect are
Principal Tenses.
The Historical Present, Imperfect, Pluperfect, and His-
torical Perfect are Historical Tenses.
The Historical Tenses are well embodied in the following distich :
Talia tentabat, sic et tentaverat ante,
Vixque dedit victas utilitate manus. Ov., Tr., i. 3, 87,
226. Table of Temporal Relations,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
ACTIVE.
Continuance.
pREs, scribo,
/ am writing.
FuT. scribam,
/ shall he writing.
Past, scribebam,
/ was writing.
Completion.
scrips!,
I have written.
scripsero,
/ shall have written.
scripseram,
/ had written.
Attainment.
scribo,
/ write.
scribam (scripserO),
/ shall write.
scripsi,
/ wrote.
PASSIVE.
Continuance. Completion. Attainment.
pREs. scribitur (epistula), scripta est, scribitur.
The letter is written has been written, is written,
{writing). is written.
scribetur, scripta erit, scrlbetur,
27ie letter will he will have heen, will he written,
written {writing). will he written.
scrlbebatur, scripta erat, scripta est,
The letter was writ- had heen written^ was vyritten.
ten {writing). was written.
FUT.
Past.
156 PRESENT TENSE.
Remark. — The English passive is ambiguous. The same form is cur-
rently used Jor continuance, attainment, and completion. The context
alone can decide. A convenient test is the substitution of the active.
{ Continuance, Some one was writing a letter.
A letter ivas written : \ Completion, Some one had written a letter.
( Attainment, Some one wrote a letter.
Present Tense.
227. The Present Tense is used as in English of that
which is going on now (Specific Present), and of statements
that apply to all time (Universal Present).
Specific Present :
Auribus teneo lupum, Ter., Ph., 506 ; lam holding a ivolf hy the ears.
Universal Present :
Probitas laudatur at alget, Juv., i. 74 ; honesty is bepraised and freezes.
Dulce et dec5rum est pro patria mori, II., 0., ni. 2, 13 ; sweet and seemly
^tis to die for fatherland,
50 regularly of the quoted views of authors, the inscriptions of
books, etc. :
D6 iuvenum amore scribit Alcaeus, C, Tusc, iv. 33, 71 ; Alcaeusivrites
concerning the love of youths.
Notes.— 1. The Specific Pr. is often to be translated by the English Progressive
Present. The Universal Pr. is Aoristic, true at any point of time.
2. As continuance involves the notion of incompleteness the Pr. (sec 233) is used of at-
tempted and intended action (Present of Endeavor). But on account of the double use
of the Pr. this signification is less prominent and less important than in the Impf. Do
not mistake the Endeavor which lies in iheverb for the Endeavor which lies in the tense.
Ferlculum vltant, C, Rose. Am., i. 1 ; they are trying to avoid danger. In the
example sometimes cited : Qulntus frater Tusculanum v6nditat, C, Att., 1. 14, 7 ;
Brother Quintus is " trying to sell " his Tmculan villa ; vSnditare itself means to
offer for sale. Translate : intejids to offer for scde, if the notion lies in the Tense.
3. ThePr. when usetl with a negative often denotes Eesistance to Pressure (233) ; this
is, however, colloquial : Tac6; nQn tace5 Pl., C'a«, 826 ; keeji quiet! I won't.
4. The ambiguity of our English passive often suggests other translations. Use and
Wont make Law ; hence the frequent inference that what is done is wliat ought to be
done ; what is not done is not to be done : (Deus) nec bene pr5meritls capitur, neo
tangitur Irfi, Lucb., 11. 651 ; God is not to be inveigled by good se^rice, nor touched by
anger.
228. The Present Tense is used more rarely than in English
in anticipation of tlie future, chiefly in compound sentences :
51 vincimus, omnia tftta erunt, S., 6'., 58, 9 ; if we conquer (= shall con-
quer) ererythiiig will he safe. Antequam ad sententiam redeS dS mS
pauca dicam, C, Cat., iv. 10, 20 ; before I return to the subject, I will
IMPERFECT TENSE. I 5/
my a few things of myself . Exspectabo dum venit, Ter., Emi., 206 ; I
will wait all the time that he is coining, or, U7itil he com,es.
Notes.— 1. This construction is archaic and familiar. It is very common in the
Comic Poets, very rare in Cicero and Caesak, but more common later. Some usages
have become phraseological, as si viVO, if Hive, as Hive.
2. On the Pr. Indie, for the Deliberative Subjv., see 254, n. 2,
229. The Present Tense is used far more frequently than
in English, as a lively representation of tlie past (Historical
Present) :
Cohortis incedere iubet, S., C , 60, 1 ; Ae orders the cohorts to advance.
Maturat proficisci, Caes., B. G., i 7, 1 ; he hastens to depart.
Remark. — Dum, while {yet), commonly takes a Pr., which is usually
referred to this head. Dtim, so long as, follows the ordinary law, 571, ft.
Dam haec in coUoquid gerunttir, Caesari nuntiatom est, Caes , BO., i.
46, 1 ; while these things ivere transacting in the confereiice, word was
brought to Caesar.
230. The Present is used in Latin of actions that are con-
tinued into the present, especially with iam, noio ; iam diu,
now for a long time ; iam pridem, noio long since. In Eng-
lish we often translate by a Progressive Perfect.
(Mithridates) annum iam tertium et vicgsimum iggnat, C, Imp , 3, 7 ;
Mithridates has been reigning now going on twenty-three years. Libe-
rare yds a Fhilippo iam diu magis vultis quam audStis, L , xxxii. 21, 86;
you have this long time had the wish rather than (= though not) the
courage to deliver yourselves from Philip.
" Ilowdoes your honor for this many a day? " Shak , Ham., in. i, 91.
Notes.— 1. The Pr. sometimes gives the resulting condition :
Qui mortem nSn timet, magnum is sib! praesidium ad beatam vltam com-
parat, C., Tv^c, 11. i, 2 ; Jie wJio fears not death gets for himself great warrant for a
happy life. (Dicunt) vincere (= victSrem esse) bell5 Bomanum, L., 11. 7, 2.
2. More free is this usage in the poets, sometimes under Greek influence :
Auctore Phoebo gignor {yi.yvoiJ.ax = yovoi eifii) ; baud generis pudet. Sem.,
Ag., 295.
Vergil is especially prone to use a I*r. after a Past, denoting by the Past the cause,
by the Pr. the effect : Postquam altum tenu6re rates nee iam ampiius lillae
adparent terrae, A., in. 193.
Imperfect Tense.
231. The Imperfect Tense denotes continuance in the
past : pugnabam, / tvas fighting.
The Imperfect is employed to represent manners, customs,
situations; to describe and to particularize. A good ex-
am.ple is Tek.;, And., 74 ff.
158 IMPERFECT TENSE.
The Imperfect and the Historical Perfect serve to illus-
trate one another. The Imperfect dwells on the process;
the Historical Perfect states the result. The Imperfect
counts out the items; the Historical Perfect gives the sum,
A good example is Nep., ii. i, 3.
232. The two tenses are often so combined that the general
statement is given by the Historical Perfect, the particulars
of the action by the Imperfect :
(VerrSs) in forum vfinit ; ardgbant oculi ; toto ex ore crudeiitas eminSbat,
C, Verr., v. 62, 161 ; Verves came into the forum, his eyes were blazint/y
cruelty was standing out from Ms whole countenance.
233. The Imperfect is used of attempted and interrupted,
intended and expected actions {Imperfect of Endeavor). It
is the Tense of Disappointment and (with the negative) of
Resistance to Pressure. (Mere negation is regularly Perfect. )
Curiam relinqugbat, Tac, ^mi., 11. 34, 1; he was for leaving the
senate-house. [Lgx] abrogabatur, Cf. L., xxxiv. i, 7 ; the law was to he
abrogated. Simul ostendebatur (an attempt was made to show) quomodo
cOnstitutionem reperiri oporteret, [C] ad Iler.^ 11. i, 2. Dicebat (positive)
melius quam scripsit (negative) Hortgnsius, C, Or., 38, 132 ; Ilortensius
spoke better than he wrote. Aditum non dabat, Nep., iv. 3, 3 ; Ae would
not grant access (dedit, did not). Sec also Mart., xi. 105.
Notes.— 1. The Impf. as the Tense of Evolution is a Tense of Vision. But in Eng-
lish, Impf . and Hist. Pf. coincide ; hence tlie various translations to put the reader in
tlie place of the sj^ectator.
2. The contniuance is m the mind of the narrator ; it has nothing to do with the
absolute duration of the action. The mind may dwell on a rapid action or hurry over
a slow one. With definite numbers, however large, the Eist. Pf. must bo used, unless
tliere is a notion of continuance into another stage (overlapping).
(Gorgias) centum et novem vixit annSSj (^uint., hi. i, 9 ; c&rfjius lived one
kitndied and nine years. Biennium ibi perpetuom misera ilium tull, Ter., Ilec.^
87 ; I bore him there— }mir me .'—for two long years iorjethcr.
3. As the Teuse of Disappointment, the Impf. is occasionally used, as in Greek, to
express a startling appreciation of the real state of thiugs (Imperfect of Awakening).
Greeli influence is not unlikely.
Tu aderSs, Tin., PA., 858; (so it turns out that) yo^i were here (all the time).
Peream male si nOn optimum erat, n., S., n. i,6 ; perdition catch me if that was
not the best course (after ail).
Hence the modal use of dSbSbam and poteram (254, r. 2).
234. The Imperfect is used as the English Pluperfect,
which often takes a progressive translation ; especially with
iam, lam diti, iam dudnm.
PERFECT TENSE. I 59
lam dudum tibi adversabar, Pl., Men., 420 ; Ihad long been opposing
you. (Archias) domicilium Eomae multos iam annos [habebat], Cf. C,
Arch., 4, 7 ; Archias had been domiciled at Rome now these many years.
Remark. — As the Hist. Pr. is used in lively narrative, so the Hist.
Inf. is used in lively description, parallel with the Imperfect (647).
Perfect Tense,
The Perfect Tense lias two distinct nses :
I. Pure Perfect. 2. Historical Perfect (Aorist).
1. PURE PERFECT.
235. The Pure Perfect Tense expresses completion in the
Present, and hence is sometimes called the Present Perfect.
1. The Pure Perfect differs from the Historical Perfect, in that tlie
Pure Perfect gives from the point of view of the Present an instan-
taneous view of the development of an action from its origin in the
Past to its completion in the Present, that is, it looks at both ends of an
action, and the time between is regarded as a Present. The Historical
Perfect obliterates the intervening time and contracts beginning and
end into one point in the Past.
2. An intermediate usage is that in which the Perfect denotes an
action in the Past (Historical), whose effect is still in force (Pure).
236. Accordingly, the Perfect is used :
1 . Of an action that is now over and gone.
Viximus, C, i^«7W., xiv. 4, 5 ; we have lived {life for us has been).
FUium unicum habeo, immo habui, Ter., Ileaut., 94 ; I have an only
son — nay, have had an only son. Tempora quid faciunt : banc volo, t§
volui, Mart., vi. 40, 4 ; what difference times mahe ! (Time is) I want
HER, (Time has been) I wanted you.
2. Far more frequently of the present result of a more
remote action (res2iltin(/ conditioii) :
Equum et mulum Brundisii tibi reliqui, C, Fam., xvi. 9, 3 ; I have left a
horse and inrde for you at Brundusium — (they are still there). Perdidi
spem qua me oblectabam, Pl., Rnd., 222; I^ve lost the hope ivith which 1
entertained myself. Actumst, peristi, Ter., ^M?i., 54 ; it is all over;
you'' re undone .
Remark.— The Pure Pf. is often translated by the English Pres-
ent : novi, / have become acquainted with, I know ; memini, / have
recalled, I remember ; odi, / have conceived a hatred of, J hate ; csSa-
snevi, / have made it a rule, I am accustomed, etc.
l6o HISTORICAL PERFECT.
Oderunt Mlarem tristes tristemque iocosi, H., Ep., 1. 18, 89; the long*
faced hate the lively man, the jokers hate the long-faced man.
But the Aorist force is sometimes found :
Tacg, inquit, ante hoc novl quam tu natus es, Phaed., v. 9, 4 ; silence,
guoth he, I knew this ere that you were born.
Note.— The Pf . is used of that which has been and shall be (Sententious or Gnomic
Perfect, 242, n. t), but usually in poetry, from Catullus on, and frequently with an
indefinite adjective or adverb of number or a negative It is seldom an Aorist (Greek).
Evertere domos totas optantibus ipsis di facil6s, Juv., x. 7 ; n-hole houses at
the masters'' own request the {too) compliant gods o''erturn. Nemo repente fuit tUT-
pissimus, Juv., 11. 83 ; none of a sudden (hath ever) reach{ed) Uie depth of baseness.
237. As the Present stands for the Future, so the Perfect
stands for the Future Perfect.
(Brutus) si c5nservatus erit, vicimus, C, Fam., xii. 6, 2 ; Brutus f — if
HE is saved, we are victorious, ive (shall) have gained the victory,
238. Habeo or teneo, / hold, I have, with the Accusative
of the Perfect Participle Passive, is not a mere circumlocu-
tion for the Perfect, but lays peculiar stress on the 'ina'uite-
nance of the result.
Habeo statutum, Cf. C, Verr., in. 41, 95 ; I have resolved^ and hold to
my resolution. Perspectum habeo, Cf. C, Fam., iii. 10, 7 ; / have per-
ceived, and I have full insight. Excusatum habeas m6 rogo, c6no doml,
Mart., ii. 79, 2 ; I pray you have me excused, I dine at home.
2. HISTORICAL PERFECT.
239. The Historical or Indefinite Perfect (Aorist) states a
past action, without reference to its duration, simply as a
thing attained.
Mil5 domum vgnit, calceos et vestimenta mutavit, paulisper commoratus
est, C, 3Iil,, 10, 28; 3Iilo came home, changed shoes arid garments, tar-
ried a little while. (Gorgias) centum et novem vixit annSs, Quint., iii. i,
9 (233, N. 2). Vgni, vidi, vici, Suet., /?<?., 37 ; I came, saw, overcame.
Note.— The Pf., as the "short hand " for the Plupf., is mainly post-Ciceronian, but
ixigins with Caesak. It is never common: superi5ribu8 dlSbus nona Caesaris
legiO castra e3 locO posuit, Caes., B. C, m. 66, 2.
240. The Historical Perfect is the great narrative tense of
the Latin language, and is best studied in long connected
passages, and by careful comparison with tlie Imperfect.
See C, Off., III. 27, 100 ; Tusc, i. 2, 4.
PLUPEKFECT TENSE. — FUTURE TEifSE. l6l
Pluperfect Tense.
241. The Pluperfect denotes Com^jletion in the Past, and is
used of an action that was completed before another was be-
gun. It is, so to speak, the Perfect of the Imperfect. Hence
it is used :
1 . Of an action just concluded in the past.
Modo Caesarem rSgnantem videramus, C, Ph., ii. 42, 108 ; we had just
seen Caesar on the throne.
2. Of an action that was over and gone.
Fuerat inimlcus, C, Red. in Sen., 10, 26 ; he had been my enemy.
3. Of a resulting condition in the past.
MassilignsSs portas Caesari clauserant, Caes., B.C., t. 34, 4 ; the Ma/r-
seillese had shut their gates against Caesar. {Their gates were shut.)
Kemark. — When the Pf. of Resulting Condition is translated by
an English Pr. (28G, 2, r.), the Plupf. is translated by an English Im-
perfect : nSveram, I had become acquainted with, I knew ; memineram,
J remembered ; oderam, / hated ; cSnsueveram, / loas accustomed, etc.
Notes.— 1. Not unfrequently in early Latin, rarely in classical prose, but more often
in the poets, the Plupf. seems to be used as an Aorist ; bo very often dixerat :
Nil equidem tibi abstuli. EV. At illud quod tibi abstuleras cedo, Pl.,
Aul, 635. N5n sum ego qui fueram, Prop., i. 12, 11. See Ov., 7V., in. n, 25.
2. The Periphrastic Plupf. with habe5 corresponds to the Perfect (2;S8). It is
rare, and shows two forms, one with the Imperfect and one with the Plupf., the latter
being post-classical.
Equitatum, quem ex omni provincia coactum habSbat, praemittit, Cabs.,
B. G., 1. 15, 1. Multorum aur6s ilia lingua attonitas habuerat, Val. M., ui. 3.
Future Tense.
242. The Future Tense denotes Co7itinuance in the Fut-
ure : scribam, / shcdl he loriting.
The Future Tense is also used to express indefinite action
in the Future : scribam, / shall ivrite.
Eemarks. — I. In subordinate clauses the Latin language is more
exact than the English in the expression of future relations.
Donee eris fSlix, multos numerabis amicos, Ov., Tr., i. q, 5 ; so long as
you shall be (are) happy, you will count many friends.
2. Observe especially the verbs volo, I will, and possum, lean.
Odero si potero; si non, invitus amabo, Ov., Am., iii. 11, 35 ; I will
hate if I shall be able (can) ; if not, I shall love against my will. Qui
11
1 62 FUTURE PERFECT TEXSE,
adipisci vSram gloriam volet, iustitiae fungatur officiis, C, Off., ii. 13, 43 ;
whoso shall wish to obtain true glory, let him discharge the calls of
justice.
3. The Flit, is often used in conclusions, especially in Cicero :
Sunt ilia sapientis ; aberit igitur a sapiente aegritudQ, C, Tusc, iii. 8, 18.
Notes.— 1. The Fut. is used sometimes as a gnomic (236, n.) tense :
Haut facul femina invenietur bona, Afr., 7; unneth (= hardly) a ivoman shall be
found that's good. Et tremet sapiens et dolebit, et expallescet, Sen., E.JL, 71, 29.
2. Observe the (principally comic) use of the Future to indicate likelihood :
Verbum hercle hoc verum erit, Ter., Eun., 732 ; this will be God's oivn truth.
243. The Future is used in an imperative sense, as in
English, chiefly in familiar language.
Tu nihil dicSs, IT., A. P., 385 ; you will {are to) say nothing {do you
say nothing). Cum volet accgdes, cum t5 vitabit abibis, Ov., ^.^1., 11.
529 ; tvheii she wants you, approach ; and when she avoids you, iegone,
sir. Non mSappellabis, si sapis, Pl., Host., 515 ; see C, Fain., v. 12, 10.
Compare ut6tur and utatur, [C.J ad Her., 11. 3, 5.
Similar is the Future in Asseverations (comic).
Ita mS amabit Itippiter, Pl., Trin., 447 ; so help me Ood !
Future Perfect Tense.
244. The Future Perfect is the Perfect, both Pure and
Historical, transferred to the future, and embraces both
completion and attainmeyit : fecero, Ter., Pli., 882 ; I shall
have done it, or / shall do it (once for all) ; videro, Ter.,
^d., 538 ; I tvill see to it; profecerit, C, Fin., in. 4, 14;
it will prove profitable.
Remarks. — i. Hence, when the Pf. is used as a Pr., the Fut. Pf.
is used as a Future : nOverS, / shall knoiv; consugvero, / shall be ac-
customed ; 5dero, si potero, Ov., Am., ni. 11, 35 (242, r. 2).
2. In subordinate sentences, the Latin language is more exact than
the English in the use of the Fut. Perfect ; hence, when one action pre-
cedes another in the future, the action that precedes is expressed by the
Fut. Perfect.
Qui prior strinxerit ferrum, gius victoria erit, L., xxiv. 38, 5 ; who first
drau's the sword, his shall be the victory.
3. The Fut. Pf. is frequently used in volO, 7 will; nol5, T 2vill not;
possum, I can ; licet, it is left free ; libet, it is agreeable ; placet, it is the
pleasure ; whereas the English idiom familiarly employs the Present.
SI potuerO, faciam vobis satis, C, Br., 5, 21; if I can, I shall satisfy
you.
PERIPHRASTIC TE:fTSES. 1 63
4. The Fut. Pf. in both clauses denotes simultaneous accomplish-
ment or attainment ; one action involves the other.
Qui Antonium oppresserit, is bellum confgcerit, C, Fam., x. ig, 2 ;
he who shall have crushed {crushes) Antoiiij, will have finished {will
finish) the tear. [Ea] vitia qui fugerit, is omnia fer§ vitia vitaverit, C. ,
Or., 69, 231 ; he who shall have escaped these faults, ivill have avoided
almost all faults.
Sometimes, however, the first seems to denote antecedence, the second
finality. An Impv. is often used in the first clause.
Immuta (verborum collocationem), perierit tota rgs, C, 0;-., 70, 232 ;
change the arrangement of the tcords, the ivhole thing falls dead.
Notes.— 1. The independent use of the Fut. Pf. is characteristic of Comedy, but
occurs occasionally later in familiar style. Sometimes it gives an air of positiveness :
Bene merenti bene profuerit, male merenti par erit, Pl., Capt., r^is ; good
desert shall hare good issue ; ill desert shall have its due. Ego eras hie erS : eras
habuero, uxor, ego tamen convivium, Pl., Cas., 786. NHsquam facilius banc
miserrimam vitam vel sustentabo vel abi6cero, C, Alt., m. 19, 1. See also c,
Ac, II. 44, 135 ; L., i. 58, 10.
2. The Periphrastic Fut. Pf. with habe5 is rare. It corresponds to the Pf. and
Pluperfect.
Quod sifSceris, me maximo beneficio dSvinctum habebis, C, Att., xvi. 16 b. 9.
245. As the Future is used as an Imperative, so the Future
Perfect approaches the Imperative.
D6 t6 tu videris ; ego dS mg ipse profitSbor, C, Ph., 11. 46, 118 ; do you
see to yourself; I myself will define my position.
Note.— This is confined in Cicero almost entirely to videris, which is suspiciously
like the familiar Greek future o>ei, and is used in the same way.
Periphrastic Tenses.
246. The Periphrastic Tenses are formed by combining
the various tenses of esse, to he, with participles and verbal
adjectives. See 129.
I. PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION-ACTIVE VOICE.
247. The Periphrastic Tenses of the Active are chiefly com-
binations of esse and its forms with the so-called Future Par-
ticiple Active. The Future Participle is a verbal adjective
denoting capability and tendency. Compare amator and
amaturus. The translation is very various :
1. Scripturus sum, I am about to write, I am to tvrite, I purpose to
write, I am likely to write.
2. Scripturus eram, I zvas about to write, etc.
164 PERIPHRASTIC TENSES.
3. ScrlptHrus ful, I have been or ivas about to ivrite (often = I should
have written).
4. Scripturus fueram, I had been about to write, etc.
5. Scripturus ero, 1 shall be about to write, etc.
6. Scripturus fuero, / shall have made up my mind to write, etc. (of
course very rare).
1. Fiet illud quod futurum est, C, Div., 11. 8, 21 ; what is to be, will be.
2. [Egx] non interfuturus navall certamini erat, L., xxxvi. 43, 9 ; the
king did not i7itend to be present at the naval combat.
3. Fascis ipsi ad mS dSlaturi fugrunt, C, Ph., xiv. 6, 15 ; they them-
selves were ready to tender the fasces to me. Deditos ultimis cruciatibus
adfecturl fu6runt, L., xxi. 44, 4 ; they would have put the surrendered to
extreme tortures.
4. MaiDr Romanorum gratia fuit quam quanta futura Carthaginiensium
fuerat, L., xxii. 22, 19 ; the Romans' credit for this was greater than the
Carthaginians' ivould have been.
5. ESrum apud quos aget aut erit acttirus, mentgs s6nsusque dSgustet,
C, Or., I. 52, 223 ; he must taste-and-test the state of mind of those be-
fore whom he will plead or will have to plead.
6. (SapiSns) n5n vivet, si fuerit sine homine victurus, Sen., E.M., 9, 17;
The wise man unll not continue to live, if he finds that he is to live
without human society. (The only example cited, and that doubtful.)
Remarks. — i. The forms with sum, eram, and the corresponding
Subjv. forms with sim, essem, are much more common than those with
ful, etc., probably for euphonic reasons.
2. The Subjv. and Inf. scripturus sim, essem, fuerim, fuissem, scripturum
esse, fuisse, are of great importance in subordinate clauses. (656.)
Notes.— 1. The use of forem for essem appears first in Sallust, but is not uncom-
mon in LtvY, and occurs sporadically later. Fore for esse is post-classical.
DIcit se vSnisse quaesitum pacem an bellum agitaturus foret, S., Tug., 109, 2.
2. The periphrastic use of the Pr. Part, with forms of esse is rare, and in most
cases doubtful, as the question always arises whether the Part, is not rather a virtual
substantive or adjective. So with the not uncommon ut SiS scigns of the Comic Poets.
The effect of this periphrasis is to emphasize the continuance.
N6m8 umquam tarn sui d6spici6ns {despiser of self, self-depredator) fuit quin
spgraret melius sg posse dicere, C, Or., 11.89,3(54.
II. PERIPHRASTIC TENSES OF THE PASSIVE.
A.— Of Future Relations.
248. The periphrases faturum esse (more often fore) ut,
{that) it is to he that, and futurum fuisse ut, {that) it teas
to he that, with the Subjunctive, are very commonly used to
take the place of the Future Infinitive active ; necessarily so
PERIPHRASTIC TElSs^SES. IO5
when the verb forms no Future Participle. In the passive
they are more common than the Supine with iri.
Spero fore ut contingat id nSbIs, C, Tusc, i. 34, 82 ; / liope that we
shall have that good fortune. In Stis scriptum V6ient6s [habebant] fore
ut brevi a Gallis RQma caperStur, C, Div., i. 44, 100 ; the Veientes had
it written doini in their prophetic books that Rome would shortly he
taken by the Oauls.
Remark. — Posse, to be able, and velle, to will, on account of their
future sense, do not require a periphrasis. In the absence of peri-
phrastic forms, the forms of posse are often used instead. (656, r.)
Notes.— 1. These periphrases do not occur in early Latin.
2. Fore ut is used chiefly with Pr. and Impf. Subjv. ; Pf. and Plupf. are very
rare. (C, AH., xvi. 16 e. 16.)
3. The form futUTum fuisse Ut is used with passive and Supineless verbs, to ex-
press the dependent apodosis of an unreal conditional sentence.
Nisi eo ipso tempore nuntil dS Caesaris victoria essent allati, ezlstima-
bant plSrique futurum fuisse uti (oppidum) amittergtur, Caes., b. C, hi. ioi, 3.
(65G, 2.)
4. The Subjv. forms futurum sit, esset, fuerit ut, are used in the grammars to
supply the periphrastic Subjv. of passive and Supineless verbs (see 515, r. 2). Warrant
in real usage is scarce.
An utique futurum sit ut Carthaginem superent R5manl ] Quint, hi. 8, 17
(not merely periphrastic).
249. In eo est, it is on the point, | ^^^ ^J^^^ (^^^^ ^^i^l^
^^*' [ ims (Impersonal), J the subjunctive.
In eo [erat] ut (Pausanias) comprehendergtur, Nep., iv. 5, 1 ; it was
on the point that Pausanias should be (P. was on the point of being)
arrested.
Note. — This phrase occurs in Nepos and Livy, seldom in earlier writers.
B.— Of Past Relations.
250. The Perfect Participle passive is used in combination
with sum, / am, and ful, / have teen, I ivas, to express the
Pure Perfect and Historical Perfect of the Passive Voice.
Eram, / %vas, and faeram, / had been, stand for the Pluper-
fect ; and ero, / shall ie, and fuero, / shall have been, for the
Future Perfect.
Remarks. — i. Fui is the favorite form when the participle is fre-
quently used as an adjective : convlvium ex5rnStum fuit, the banquet
was furnished forth ; fui is the necessary form when the Pf . denotes
that the action is over and gone : amatus fui, / have been loved (but I
1 66 TENSES IN" LETTERS.
am loved no longer). The same principle applies to fueram and faerS,
though not so regularly.
Simulacrum 6 marmore in sepulcro positum fuit ; hoc quidam homS
nobilis deportavit, C, Z)om., 43, 111 ; a marble effigy was deposited in
the tomb ; a certain man of rank has carried it off. Arma quae fixa
in parietibus fuerant, ea sunt humi inventa, C, Div., i. 34,74 ; the arms
which had been fastened to the ivalls were found on the ground. Quod
tibi fuerit persuasum, huic erit persuasum, C, Rose. Com., i,3 ; ivhat is
(shall have proved) acceptable to yon will be acceptable to him.
2. To be distinguished is that use of the Pf . where each element has
its full force, the Participle being treated as an adjective. In this case
the tense is not past.
Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tr6s, Caes., B.G., 1, 1.
Notes.— 1. Tbe fui, etc., forms are rarely found in Cicero, never in Caesar, but
are characteristic of Ltvy and Sallust.
2. Forem for essem is common in the Comic Poets, occurs twice in Cicero's letters
(Att., VII. 21,2 ; X. 14,3), never in Caesar, but in Livv and Nepos is very common,
and practically synonymous Avith essem.
C— Periphrastic Conjugation— Passive Voice.
251. I . The combination of the Tenses of esse, to he, with the
Gerundive (verbal in -ndus), is called the Periphrastic Conju-
gation of the Passive, and follows the laws of the simple conju-
gation (129). The idea expressed is usually one of necessity.
Praeponenda [est] divitiis gloria, C, Top., 22,84 ; glory is to be pre-
ferred to riches.
2. According to the rule (217) the Gerundive of intransi-
tive verbs can be used only in the Impersonal form :
Parcendum est victis, The vanquished must be spared.
Notes.— 1. The Gerundive is a verbal adjective, which produces the effect of a Pro-
gressive Participle. Whenever a participle is used as a predicate it becomes character-
istic, and good for all time. As amans not only = qui amat, but also = qui amet,
so amandus - qui ametur. Compare 438, r.
2. Forem for essem is post-classical and comparatively uncommon.
TENSES IN LETTERS.
252. The Roman letter-writer not unfrequently puts him-
self in the position of the receiver, more especially at the
beginning and at- the end of the letter, often in the phrase
Nihil erat (habebam) quod scriberem, / have nothing to write.
This permutation of tenses is never kept up long, and applies
only to temporary situations, never to general statements.
MOODS. 167
Table of Permutations.
scribo, lam writing, becomes scrlbebam.
/ write, ** scrips!,
scripsi, / have written, ** scripseram.
I wrote, ** scripseram.
or remains unchanged,
scribam, / sJtall write, " scripturus eram.
The adverbial designations of time remain unchanged — or
heri, yesterday, becomes pridie.
hodiS, to-day, " quo die has litteras dedi, dabam.
eras, to-morrow, ** postero dig, postridie.
nunc, now, " turn.
Jonnias m6 continue recipere cogitabam, C.,Ait., vii. is, S; lam think-
ing of retiring forthwith to Formiae. Cum mifal dixisset Caeeilius
puerum s6 Eomam mittere, haec scripsi raptim, C, Att., 11. 9, 1 ; as Caeeil-
ius ha^ told me that he is sending a servant to Rome, I write in a
huryy. (Litteras) eram daturus postridiS ei qui mihi primus obviam
vSnisset, C, Ait., 11. 12, 4 ; I will give IJie letter to-morrow to the first
man that comes my way.
Note.— Cicero is much more consistent in this tense-shifting than Flint ; and
exceptions are not numerous proportionally : Ego etsi nihil habeo quod ad tS
scribam, scrlbd tamen quia tecum loquf videor, C, Att, xii. 53.
MOODS.
253. Mood signifies manner. The mood of a verb signifies
the manner in which the predicate is said of the subject.
There are three moods in Latin :
1. The Indicative.
2. The Subjunctive.
3. The Imperative.
Note.— The Infinitive form of the verb is generally, but imiwoperiy, called a mood.
The Indicative Mood.
254. The Indicative Mood represents the predicate as a
reality. It is sometimes called the Declarative Mood, as the
mood of direct assertion.
The use of the Latin Indicative differs little from the English.
Remarks. — i. The Latin language expresses possibility and power,
obligation and necessity, and abstract relations generally, as facts ;
whereas, our translation often implies the failure to realize. Such ex-
1 68 INDICATIVE MOOD.
pressions are : dSbeo, / ought, it is my duty ; oportet, it ieJiooves ;
necesse est, it is absolutely necessary ; possum, / can, 1 have it in my
power ; convenit, it is fitting ; par, aequom est, it is fair ; infinitum,
endless; difficile, hard to do ; longum, tedious; and many others ; also
the Indie, form of the passive Periphrastic Conjugation. Observe the
difference between the use of the Inf. in Eng. and in Latin after past
tenses of debeo, possum, oportet, etc.
Possum persequi permulta oblectamenta rSrum rusticarum, C, Cat. 31.,
i6, 55 ; / might rehearse very many delights of country life. Longum
est persequi utilitates asinorum, C, N.D., ii. 64, 159 ; it ivould he tedious
to rehearse the useful qualities of asses (I will not do it). Ad mortem
t6 dtici oportebat, C, Cat., i. i, 2 ; it behooved you to be (you ought to
have been) led to execution (you were not). Volumnia debuit in t6
officaosior esse, et id ipsum, quod fgcit, potuit diligentius facere, C, Fam.,
XIV. 16 ; it ivas VolumnicCs duty to be {V. ought to have been) more at-
tentive to you ; and the little she did do, she had it in her potver to do
{she might have done) more carefully. Quae eondicio non accipienda fuit
potius quam relinquenda patrial C, Alt., viii. 3, 3 ; what terms ought
not to have been accepted in preference to leaving thy cmmtry f [Eum]
vivum illinc ezire non oportuerat, C, Mur., 25, 51 ; he might never to
have gone out thence cdive.
The Pf. and Phipf. always refer to a special case,
2. The Impf. as the Tense of Disappointment is sometimes used in
these verbs to denote opposition to a present state of things : dSbg-
barn, / ought (but do not) ; poteras, you could (but do not). These may
be considered as conditionals in disguise. (See r. 3.)
Foteram morbos appellare, sed non conveniret ad omnia, C, Fiii., iii. 10,
35 ; I might translate (that Greek word) ^^ disea^ses,^'' but that would not
suit all the eases (poteram si conveniret). At poteras, inquis, melius
mala ferre silendS, Ov., Tr., v. i, 49 ; " But,^^ you say, " you coidd {yow do
not) bear your misfortunes better by keeping silent'' (poteras si sil6r6s).
3. The Indie, is sometimes used in the leading clause of condi-
tional sentences (the Apodosis), thereby implying the certainty of the
result, had it not been for the interruption. The Indie, clause gener-
ally precedes, which is sufficient to show the rhetorical character of the
construction.
With the Impf. the action is often i*eally begun :
LabSbar longius, nisi mS retinuissem, C, Leg.^ i. 19, 52 ; I was letting
myself go on {should have let myself go on) too far, had J not checked
myself. Omnino supervacua erat doctrlna, si natiira sufficeret, Quint.,
II. 8, 8 ; training were wholly superfluous, did nature suffice. Prae-
clSre viceramus, nisi Lepidus recSpisset AntOnium, C, Fam. , xii. 10, 3 ; we
had {should have) gained a bHlliaut victory, had not Lepidus received
Antony.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 169
In all these sentences the English idiom requires the Subjv., which
is disguised by coinciding with the Indie, in form, except in " were."
4. In general relative expressions, such as the double formations,
quisquis, no matter ivho, quotquot, no matter hoiv many, and all forms in
-cumque, -ever, the Indie, is employed in classical Latin where we may
use in English a Subjv. or its equivalent : quisquis est, 7ho matter who he
is, be, may he ; qualecumque est, whatever sort of thing it is, he, may he.
Quidquid id est, timeo Danaos et dona ferentes, V., A., 11. 49 ; whatever
it (may) he, I fear the Danai even when they bring presents.
Cicero has occasional exceptions (Ideal Second Person or by attraction) to this rule,
and later writers, partly under Greek influence, frequently violate it. Exceptions in
early Latin are not common.
Notes.— 1. Cicero introduces (n5n) putaram, "■ I should {not) have thovght so,''''
and malueram, / could have preferred. Lucan and Tacitus alone imitate the latter ;
the former was never followed.
Malueram, quod erat susceptum ab illis, silentio transirl, C, Alt., u. 19,3.
Feriam tua viscera. Magna ; malueram soceri, Lucan, vm. 521.
2. In early Latin, occasionally in the more familiar writings of Cicero, and here and
there later we find the Pr. Indie, (in early Latin occasionally the Fut.) used in place
of the Subjv. in the Deliberative Question.
Compressan palma an porrecta ferio '? Pl., Cas., 405. AdvolQne an maneol
C, Ati., xiii. 40, 2. Quoi d5no lepidum novom libellum, Cat., i, l.
Subjunctive Mood.
255. The Subjunctive Mood represents the predicate as an
idea, as something merely conceived in the mind (abstracts
from reality).
Remark. — The Latin Subjv. is often translated into English by the
auxiliary verbs may, can, must, might, could, would, should. When
these verbs have their full signification of possibility and poiver, obliga-
tion and necessity, they are represented in Latin by the corresponding
verbs, thus : may, can, might, could by the forms of posse, to be able,
licet, it is left free ; ivill and would by velle, to will, to be willing ; must,
by debeo or oportet (of moral obligation), by necesse est (of absolute
obligation).
Nostras iniurias nee potest nee possit alius ulcisci quam vos, L., xxix.
18, 18 ; our wrongs no other than you has the power or can well have
the power to avenge.*
Note.— In the Latin Subjv. are combined two moods, the Subjv. proper, and the
Optative, sometimes distinguished as the moods of ihQwill and the wish. This fusion
has rendered it difficult to define the fundamental conceptions of certain constructions.
* In this unique passage nec potest denies with the head, nec possit refuses to
believe with the heart.
I/O POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE.
256. I. The realization of the idea may be in suspense, or it
may be beyond control. The first, or purely Ideal Subjunc-
tive, is represented by the Present and Perfect Tenses ; the
second, or Unreal, is represented by the Imperfect and Plu-
perfect.
Notes.— 1. The Subjv., as the name implies (subiungo, / subjoin), is largely used
in dependent sentences, and will be treated at length in that connection.
2. The following modifications of the above principles must be carefully observed :
(a) The Romans, in lively discourse, often represent the unreal as ideal, that which
is beyond cohtrol as still in suspense. (596, R. i.)
{b) In transfers to the past, the Impf . represents the Pr., and the Plupf. the Pf. Sub-
junctive. (510.)
2. The idea may be a view, or a wish. In the first case
the Subjunctive is said to be Potential, in the second case
Optative. The Potential Subjunctive is nearer the Indica-
tive, from which it differs in tone ; the Optative Subjunc-
tive is nearer the Imperative, for which it is often used.
Potential Subjunctive.
257. I. The Potential Subjunctive represents the opinion
of the speaker as an opinion. The tone varies from vague
surmise to moral certainty, from ^' may '" and '^ might ^' to
*' must." The negative is the negative of the Indicative, non.
2. The Potential of the Present or Future is the Present
or Perfect Subjunctive. The verification is in suspense, and
so future; the action may be present or future : with Perfect
sometimes past.
Velim, I should wish ; nolim, I should he unwilling ; malim, / should
prefer ; dicas, you would say ; credas, you would believe, you must he-
lieve ; dicat, dixerit aliquis, some ojie may undertake to say, go so far as
to say.
Caedi discipulos miniing velim. Quint., i. 3, 13; I should by no means
like pupils to be flogged. Tu Platonem nee nimia valdS nee ninds saepe
laudaveris, C, Leg., in. i, 1 ; you cant praise Plato too much nor too
often.
Notes.— 1. The Pf. Subjv. as a Potential seems to have been very rare in early Latin.
CicEKo extended the usage slightly and employed more persons ; thus First Person PI.
and Second Sing, occur first in Cicero. From Cicero's time the usage spreads, per-
haps under the influence of the Greek Aorist. It was always rare with Deponents and
Passives. Another view regards this dlxsrit as a Fut. Pf. Indicative.
2. The Potential Subjv. is sometimes explained by the ellipsis of an Ideal or of an
OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE. I/I
Unreal Conditional Protasis. But the free Potential Subjv. differs from an elliptical
conditional sentence in the absence of definite ellipsis, and hence of definite translation.
Compare tlie two sentences above with :
Eum qui palam est adversariiis facile cavendo (si caveas) vitare possis,
C, Vert:, i. 15, •^'^^ ; an open adversary you can readily avoid by caution {if you are cau-
tious). Nil ego contulerim iucundo sanus (= dixm sanus ero) amico, H., 6'., i. 5,
44 ; there is naught I should compare to an agreeable friend, while I can in my sound
senses.
3. The Potential Subjv,, as a modified form of the Indie, is often found where the
Indie, would be the regular construction. So after quanquam (007, r. i).
268. The Potential of the Past is the Imperfect Subjunc-
tive, chiefly in the Ideal Second Person, an imaginary '' you."
Cr6der63 victos, L., 11. 43,9 ; yoii would, might, have thought them
beaten. Haud facile discernergs utruin Hannibal imperatSri an exercitui
carior esset, L., xxi. 4, 3 ; not readily could you have decided ichether
Hannihal was dearer to general or to army. MirarStur qui turn cerneret,
L., XXXIV. 9, 4 ; aiiy one ivho saiv it then must liave been astonished.
Vellem, 1 should have wished ; noUem, I should have been unwilling ;
mallem, I should have preferred (it is too late).
Notes.— 1. With vellem, n5llem, mallem, the inference points to non-fulfilment
of the wish in the Present (-261, r.) ; witli other words there is no such inference.
2. The Unreal of the Present and the Ideal of the Past coincide. What is unrea! of
a real person is simply ideal of an imaginary person. The Impf. is used as the tense
of Description,
The Aoristic Pf. Subjv. and the Plnpf. Subjv. are rarely used as the Ideal of the Past:
Hi ambo saltiis ad Libuos Gallos dSduxerint (var. deduxissent), L., xxi. 38, r.
Ea qua minimum credidisset (consul) resistebant hostSs, L., xxxii. 17, 4.
259. The Mood of the Question is the Mood of the ex-
pected or anticipated answer (462). Hence the Potential
Subjunctive is used in questions which serve to convey a
negative opinion on the part of the speaker.
Quis dubitet (= ngmS dubitet) quin in virtute divitiaesint ? C.,Parad.,
VI. 2, 48 ; ivho can doubt that true ivealth consists in virtue ? (No one.)
Quis tulerit Gracchos dg sgditione querentSsI Juv., ii. 24 ; who could bear
the Gracchi complaining of rebellion ? (No one.) Apud exercitum
fuerfs? C, Mur., 9, 21 ; can you have been with the army ? Hoc tantum
bellum quis umquam arbitrarStur ab uno imperatore confici posse? C,
Imp., II, 31 ; who would, could, should have thought that this great tvar
could be brought to a close by one general 9
Optative Subjunctive.
260. The Subjunctive is used as an Optative or wishing
mood.
1/2 OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
The regular negative is ng. Non is used chiefly to negative a single
word ; but very rarely in the classical period. A second wish may be
added by neque or nee (regularly if a positive wish precedes), but this is
also rare in the classical period, and is denied for Caesar.
The Pr. and Pf. Subjv. are used ivlien the decision is in suspense,
no matter how extravagant the wish ; the Impf. and Plupf. are used
n^hen the decision is adverse. The Pf. is rare and old.
Stet haec urbs, C, 31iL, 34, 93 ; may this city continue to stand ! Quod
di omen avertant, C, Ph., iii. 14, 35 ; which omen may the gods arot.
Ita di faxint (= fgcerint), Pl., Poen., 911 ; the gods grant it ! Ne isluo
Itippiter optimus maximus sirit (= siverit) ! L., xxxiv. 24, 2 ; may Jupiter,
supremely great and good, suffer it not I
261. The Optative Subjunctive frequently takes utinam,
utinam ne, utinam non ; ut is archaic and rare ; 6 si, oh if,
poetical and very rare ; qui, lioiv, occurs chiefly in early
Latin and in curses.
Valeas beneque ut tibi sit, Pl., Poen., 912 ; farewell ! God bless you !
Utinam modo conata efficere possim, C, Alt., iv. 16; may I hut have it
in my power to accomplish my endeavors. Utinam reviviscat frater !
Gell., X. 6, 2; would that my brother would come to life again ! Utinam
Inserere iocos moris esset, Quint., ii. 10, 9; tvould that it ivere usiml to in-
troduce Jokes ! lUud utinam ne vere scriberem, C, Fa?n.,Y. 17, 3 ; umild
that what I am writing were not true ! Utinam susceptus non essem, C,
Att., HI. II, 8; would I had not been born ! (Cicero's only example of
non.) mihi praeteritos referat si luppiter annos, V., A., viii. 560; if
Jove were to bring me hack the years that are gone by !
Remark. — For the wish with adverse decision, vellem and mallem
(theoretically also noUem) may be used with the Impf. and sometimes
(especially vellem) with the Plupf. Subjunctive.
Vellem adesse posset Panaetius! C, Tusc.,i. 33, 81; would that Pa-
naetius could he present ! Vellem mS ad cSnam invItassSs, C, Fam., xii.
4, 1 ; would that you had invited me to your dinner-party.
So velim, nolim, etc., for the simple wish (54G, r. 2).
Tuam milu dari velim eloquentiam, C, N. D., 11. 59, 147 ; I could wish
your eloquence given to me.
Notes.— 1. Utinam was perhaps originally an interrogative, IMiu prayf If so,
it belongs partly to the potential ; hence the frequent occurrence of nOn. sl (occasion-
ally SI,.V., A., VI. 187) introduces an elliptical conditional sentence, which is not intended
to have an Apodosis. When the Apodosis comes, it may come in a different form ; as
in the example : V., A., viii. 560, 568.
2. The Impf. Subjv. is occasionally used in early Latin to give an unreal wish in the
Past. This is almost never found in the later period.
Utinam t5 di prius perderent, quam periisti 6 patria tuS, Pl., Capt., 537.
Tunc mibi vita foret, Tib., i. 10, 11.
OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE. 1/3
262. The Optative Subjunctive is used in asseMrations :
Ita vivam ut maximos sumptus facio, C, ^^^., v. 15, 2 ; «s Hive, lam
spending very largely (literally, so may I live as I am making very great
outlay). Moriar, si magis gaudgrem si id mihi accidisset, Q.,Att., viii.
6, 3 ; may I die if I could he more glad if that had ha2yiJe7ied to me.
Note.— The Fut. Indie, in this sense is rare : Sic mg di amabunt ut mS tuarom
miseritumst fortunarum, Teu., Heaul., 463.
263. The Subjunctive is used as an Imperative :
1. In the First Person Plural Present, which has no Im-
perative form :
Arngmus patriam, C, /Ses/., 68, 143; let us love our country. N3
difficilia opt6mus, C, Verr., iv. 7, 15 ; let us not desire what is hard to do.
Note.— In the First Person Singular, the command fades into the wish.
2. In the Second Person.
{a) In the Present chiefly in the Singular, and chiefly of an
imaginary '^ you '' :
IstQ bono utare, dum adsit, cum absit, nS requiras, C, Cat.M., 10, 83 ;
you must enjoy that blessing so long as His here, when it is gone you
must not pins for it.
NoTK.— The Comic Poets use the Pr. negatively very often of a definite person,
sometimes combining it with an Impv.: igndsce, irata nS si6s, Pl., Am., 924 ; but
in the classical period such usage is rare, and usually open to otlier explanations ; a
definite person may be used as a type, or the sentence may be elliptical.
{h) In the Perfect negatively :
N6 transieris Hiberum, L., xxi, 44, 6; do tiot cross the Ehro. NS vos
mortem timueritis, C, Tusc, i. 41, 98; have no fear of death I
3. In the Third Person Present (regularly) :
Suum quisque noscat ingenium, C, Off., i. 31, 114 ; let each one know
his own mind. Donls impiX n§ placare audeant deos, C, Leg., 11. 16, 41 ;
let the wicked not dare to fry to appease the gods ivith gifts.
NoTK.— The Pf. in this usage is very rare. S., lug.., 85, 47 ; Tac, Ann., iv. 32, 1.
264. The Subjunctive is used as a Coricessive :
Sit fur, C, Verr., v. i, 4 ; (granted that) he be a thief. Fuerit (malus
civis), C, Verr., i. 14, 37; (suppose) that he was a bad citizen.
For other examples with ut and ng, see 608.
Note.— The past tenses are very rarely used concessively ; see C, 7Wc.,iii. i9,75
(Impf.) ; Sest., 19, 43 (Plupf.).
174 IMPERATIVE MOOD.
265. Tha Subjunctive is used in Questions which expect
an Imperative answer (coniimctivus deliberativus).
Genuine questions are commonly put in the First Person,
or the representative of the First Person :
Utrxmi super biam prius commemoreni an crudelitatem, C, Verr., i. 47,
122 ; shall I mention the insolence first or the cruelty 9 Magna fuit con-
tentio utrum moenibus sg defenderent an obviam irent hostibus, Nep., i. 4,
4 ; there was a great dispute whether they should defend themselves
behind the walls or go to meet the enemy. (TJtrom nos dgfendamus an
obviam eSmus ?) [Example of Third Person, 428, n. i.]
Ehetorical questions (questions which anticipate the
answer), under this head, are hardly to be distinguished
from Potential.
Quo mg nunc vertam'? Fndique custodier, C, Att., x. 12, 1 ; whither
shall 1 7101V turn ? Sentinels on every side. Quid agerem'? Q., Sest.^
19, 42 ; what was I to do ?
Remark. — The answer to the Deliberative Question is the Impv. or
the Imperative Subjv. of the Present (263, 2) or Past (272, 3).
Imperative Mood.
266. The Imperative is the mood of the will. It wills
that the predicate be made a reality. The tone of the Im-
perative varies from stern command to piteous entreaty. It
may appear as a demand, an order, an exhortation, a per-
mission, a concession, a prayer.
Abl in malam rem, Pl., Capt., 877 ; go {to the mischief), and he
hanged. Compesce mentem, IP, 0., i. 16, 22 ; curb your temper. Da mihl
hoc, mel meum! Pl., Trin., 244 ; give me this, honey dear !
267. The Imperative has two forms, known as the First
and the Second Imperative (also, but less accurately, as the
Present and Future Imperative). The First Imperative has
only the Second Person ; the Second Imperative has both
Second and Third Persons. The First Person is represented
by the Subjunctive (263, i).
Remark. — Some verbs have only the second form. This may be due
to tlie signification : so sclto, knoio thou ; memento, remember thou;
and habgtO, in the sense of know, remember.
IMPERATIVE MOOD. 1^5
On violation of Concord with the Imperative, see 211, n. 2.
Note.— The use of the Pronouns tu, VOS, etc., with the Impv., is colloquial, hence
common in Comedy ; or solemn : see V., A., vi. 95, 365, 675, 834, etc.
268. I. The First Imperative looks forward to immediate
fulfilment (Absolute Imperative) :
Special : Patent portae ; proficiscere, C, Cat., i. 5, 10, Open
8tand the gates; depart.
General: lustitiam cole et pietatem, Q., Rep.,\i. 16, IG,
Cultivate justice and piety.
2. The Second Imperative looks forward to contingent
fulfilment (Relative Imperative), and is chiefly used in laws,
legal documents, maxims, recipes, and the like ; likewise in
familiar language.
Regio imperio duo sunto ; iique cOnsules appellamino (180, 5, c);
NEMINI PARENTO; OLLIS (104, IH. N. 1) SALOS POPULI SUPREMA LEX ESTO,
C, Leg., III. 3,8 ; there shall he two {officers) with royal power ; they
shall he called consuls ; they are to obey no one ; to them the ivelfare of
the people must he the paramount law. Eem vobis proponam : vos earn
penditote, C, Verr., iv. i, 1 ; I iv ill propound the matter to yon ; do you
thereupon perpend it. Percontatorem fugito, nam garrulus idem est, H.,
Ep., 1. 18, G9 ; avoid your qiiestioner, for he is a tell-tale too.
269. Strengthening Words.— The Imperative is often strengthened and em-
phasized by the addition of Adverbs, fossilized Imperatives, Phrases, etc. : age, agite,
agedum, agitedum, came ; enclitic dum, then ; modo, o?)l]/ : iamdudum, at once ;
proinde, well, then; quin, toh>/ not? sduTie^ certainly ; amabo, obsecro, quaes5,
please ; sis (- si vis), saltis (- si voltis), sod6s (= si audes), if you please. Most
of these belong to familiar language, and are therefore found in great numbers in
Comedy and in Cicero's letters. In the classical prose, and even later, they are not
common. Dum in classical times is confined to agedum ; quin is cited tw ice in
Cicero (Mil., 29, 79 ; Base. Com., 9, 25), and rarely later. Iamdudum begins with Ver-
gil, and belongs to poetry and late prose. Sang is not cited for the classical period,
Sultis is confined to early Latin ; and sodSs occurs but once in Ciceuo {Alt., vn. 3, 13).
Mittite, agedum, lSgat5s, L., xxxvm. 47, 11. Quin tti i mod5, Pl., Cas., 755.
Note.— On the violation of Concord with age, see 211, n. 2.
270. Negative OF THE Imperative. — i. The regular neg-
ative of the Imperative is n6 (neve, neu), which is found with
the Second Imperative ; with the First Imperative, it is
poetical or colloquial.
Hominem mortuum in urbe ng sepelito ngve urito, C, Leg., 11. 23, 58;
one shall not hury nor hum a dead man in the city. Impius ng audgtO
plftcSre dQnis Iram deorum, C, Leg., 11. 9, 23 ; the impious man must not
176 IMPERATIVE MOOD.
dare attempt to appease hy gifts the anger of the gods. Tu ng cSdo
malis, sed contra audentior It5, V., yl., vi. 95 ; yield not thou to misfor-
tunes, but go more boldly (than ever) to meet them.
Remarks. — i. Non may be used to negative a single word:
A Iggibus non recgdamus, C, Cluent., 57, 155 ; let us not recede from
{let us stick to) the laws. Opus poliat lima, non exterat, Cf. Quint., x. 4,
4 ; let the file rub the ivork up, not rub it out.
2 Instead of n6 with the First Imperative was employed either noli
with the Infinitive (271, 2) ; or n5 with the Pf. Subjv., but the latter is
very rare in elevated prose (263, 2, b). On ng with Pr. Subjv. see 263, 2, a.
Note.— The use of n5n with the actual Impv. is found only in Ovid ; but the addi-
tion of a second Impv. by neque, nec, instead of ngve, nen, begins in classical times
(C, Ait., XII. 22, 3), and becomes common later. The use of neque (nec), nihil,
ngmo, ntillus witli the Subjv. in an Impv. sense has recently been claimed for the
Potential ISubjv. {must, 257, i) on account of the negative.
271. Periphrases. — i. Cfira (curato) ut, take care that ;
fac (facito) ut, cause that ; fac (facito), do, with the Sub-
junctive, are common circumlocutions for the Positive Im-
perative.
Cura ut quam primum (305, r. i) venias, C, Fam., iv. 10, 1 ; manage
to come as soon as possible. Fac cogitgs, C, Fam., xi. 3, 4, Do reflect I
Notes.— 1. Facitd is almost wholly confined to early Latin, especially Plautus ;
Bo also ctiratS.
2. Early Latin also shows vidg and vidgtO with Subjv. Terence introduces
VOlo, velim, with Subjv., which is found also in later times ; as, C, Fam., ix. 12, 2.
2. Cavl and cave (caveto) ne, leimre lest, with the Sub-
junctive, and noli, he unwilling, with the Infinitive, are cir-
cumlocutions for the Negative Imi^erativc (Prohibitive). Fac
ne is also familiarly used.
CavS festings, C, Fam., xvi. 12, 6 ; do not be in a hurry. Tantum
cum finggs ng sis manifgsta cavgtS, Ov., ^.J., 111. 801; only ivhen you
pretend, beivare that you be not detected. Noli, amabo, verberare lapidem,
ng perdas manum, Pl., Cure, 197 ; don't beat a stone, I pray you, lest
you spoil your hand. Fac ng quid aliud ctirgs li5c tempore, C.,Fam.,
xvL II, 1; see that you pay no attention to anything else, at this time.
Notes.— 1. Rare and confined to early Latin is the use of cav8 with any but the
second i)erson. Cf. Pl., Aul, 660 ; Ter., And., 403.
2. Other phrases are those with vidg ng and ciirat5 ng, with Subjv. ; comperce,
compgsce with Inf. (all ante-classical) ; parce, mitte, omitte with Inf. (poetical and
post-classical) ; n6lim with Subjv. (Cic.) ; fuge with Inf. (Hor.) ; absiste with Inf.
(Verg.).
IMPERATIVE MOOD. IJJ
272. Represen^tatives of the Imperative. — i. Instead
of the Positive Imperative, may be employed :
(a) The. Second Person of the Present Subjunctive (263, 2).
(Z>) The Second Person of the Future Indicative (243).
(c) The Third Person of the Present Subjunctive (2G3, 3).
2. Instead of the Negative Imperative (Prohibitive)^ may
be employed :
(a) The Second Person of the Present Subjunctive, with ne (263, 2, n.).
(b) Tiie Second Person of the Perfect Subjunctive, with ne (263, 2).
(c) The Second Person of the Future, with non (243).
{d) The Third Person of the Present or Perfect Subjunctive, with
nB (263, 3).
Remark. — The Pr. Subjv. is employed when stress is laid on the
continuance of the action ; the Pf., when stress is laid on the completion.
Hence the use of the Pf. Subjv. in total prohibitions and passionate
protests.
3. Tlie Imperative of the Past is expressed by the Im-
perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive (unfulfilled duties).
Compare 2G5, R.
DOtem daretis ; quaereret alium vimm, Ter., P/t., 297 ; you should
have given her a portion ; she should have sought another match. Cras
Ir6s potius, hodig hie cenares. Val6, Pl., Pers., 710; you ought rather to
have x>ut off going till to-morrow, you ought to {have) dine{d) with us
to-day. Good-bye. (Anything decided is regarded as past.) Potius
docSret (causam) non esse aequam, C, Off., in. 22, 88 ; he should rather
have shown that the plea ivas not fair. Ng poposcissgs (libros), C, Att.^
II. I, 3 ; you ought not to have asked for the books.
Observe the difference between the Unfulfilled Duty and the Unreal
of the Past (597).
Morergtur; fScisset certe si sine maximo dgdecore potuisset, Q.,Rab.
Post., 10, 29; he ought to have died ; he would certainly have done so,
could he have {done so) without the greatest disgrace.
Note. — The Plupf . tense in this usage is not ante-classical.
273. Passionate questions are equivalent to a command :
N6n tacSs ? Pl., A7n., 700 ; wo7i't you hold your tongue 9 Quin tacSsI
Wliy don't you hold your tongue 9 Quin datis, si quid datis? Pl., Cas.,
765 ; why donH you give, if you are going to do it 9 (Compare Fac, si
quid facis, Mart., i. 46, 1.) Ctir non ut plgnus vitae convlva recgdisT
LucR., III. 938 ; why do you not withdraw as a guest sated with life 9
13
178 TEXSES OF THE MOODS.
274. Puta, Ut puta, for example, begins with [C] ad Her., 11. 11, 16 (reading
doubtful) ; tiien H., 6'., 11. 5, 32, Quinte, puta, aut Publl. Later it becomes more
common, especially with the Jurists. See C, Ph., 11. 6, 15.
275. Summary of Imperative Constructions,
Positive.
2d P. Audi, liear thou ; audito (legal or contingent) ; audigs (famil-
iar) ; audias (ideal Second Person chiefly).
3d P. Audito (legal), let Mm hear ; audiat.
Negative.
2d P. Ne audi, hear not (poetic): ng audito (legal) ; n6n audi6s (famil-
iar) ; ne audias (chiefly ideal) ; noli audire (common) ; n6 audiveris (rarer).
3d P. Ng audito (legal), let him not hear ; ng audiat ; ng audiverit.
Tenses of the Moods and Verbal Substantives.
276. The Indicative alone expresses with uniform direct-
ness the period of time.
277. I. The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive have to
do with continued action, the Perfect and Pluperfect with
completed action. The Perfect Subjunctive is also used to
express the attainment.
2. In simple sentences Present and Perfect Subjunctive
postpone the ascertainment of the Predicate to the Future.
The action itself may be Present or Future for the Present
Subjunctive ; Present, Past, or Future for the Perfect Sub-
junctive.
Crgdat. He may believe (now or hereafter).
Crgdiderit. Let him have had the belief (heretofore), he may have
come to the belief (now), he may come to the belief {hei'eatter).
3. In simple sentences the Imperfect and Pluperfect Sub-
junctive are Past Tenses, and regularly serve to indicate un-
reality. (See 597.)
Note.— A Snbjv. of the Past, being a future of the past, gives a prospective (or
future) action the time of which is over (or past), so that the analysis of the past tenses
of the Snbjv. shows the same elements as the Periphrastic Conjugation with eram and
ful. Hence the frequent parallel use. See 254, r. 2, and 597, R. 3.
4. In dependent sentences the Subjunctive is future if the
leading verb has a future significtiJ;ion (515, R. 3) ; otherwise
TENSES OF THE MOODS. 1/9
the Subjunctive represents the Indicative. The tense is
regulated by the law of sequence. (See 509o)
278. The Imperative is necessarily Future.
279. The Infinitive has two uses :
1. Its use as a Substantive.
2. Its use as a representative of the Indicative.
280. The Infinitive as a Substantive.— As a Sub-
stantive the Infinitive has two tenses, Present and Perfect.
(See 419.)
1. The Present Infinitive is the common form of the In-
finitive, used as a Substantive. It has to do with continued
action.
(a) The Present Infinitive is used as a subject or predi-
cate. (See 423, 424.)
Quibusdam totum hoc displicet philosopharl, C, Fin., i. i, 1 ; to some
this wliole business of 7netaphysics is a nuisance.
(b) The Present Infinitive is used as the object of Verbs of
Creation {Auxiliary Verbs, Verbs that help the Infinitive
into being ; see 423.)
Cats servire quam pugnare mavult, C, Aft., vii. 15, 2 ; Cato prefers to
he a slave rather than to fight (being a slave to fighting).
2. The Perfect Infinitive is comparatively little used as a
Substantive. It has to do with completed action, and is also
used to express attainment.
(a) As a subject, it is used chiefly in fixed expressions or
in marked opposition to the Present.
Plus proderit demonstrasse rgctam protinus viam quam revocare ab
err5re iam lapsos, Quint., 11. 6, 2 ; it ivill be more profitable to have
pointed out the right path immediately than to recall from wa7idering
those that have already gone astray. [Non] tam turpe fuit vinci quam
contendisse decSrum est, Ov., J/., ix. 5 ; Hwasnot so much dishonor to be
beaten OjS ^tis an lionor to have struggled.
Remarks. — i. By a kind of attraction decuit, became, takes occa-
sionally a Pf. Inf. {emotional).
Tunc flgsse decuit, L., xxx. 44, 7 ; that ivas the time ivhen it ivould
have been becoming to iveep {to have ivept). Et grubuisse decSbat, Ov.,
M., IV. 330 ; the very flush of shame ivas becoming.
l80 TENSES OF THE MOODS.
2. So oportuit, behooved, is frequently followed by the Pf. Part, pas-
sive, with or without esse. This seems to have belonged to familiar
style ; it is accordingly very common in early Latin.
[Hoc] iam pridem factum esse oportuit, C, Cat., i. 2, 5 ; this ought to
have been doiie long ago.
(b) As an object, the Perfect Infinitive is seldom found
in the active, except after velle, to wish, which seems to have
been a legal usage.
Neminem nota strgnui aut ignavi militis notasse volui, L., xxiv. 16, 11 ;
J wished to have marked {to mark finally, to brand) no soldier with the
mark of bravery or of cowardice. Annales, quibus credidisse mails, L.,
XLii. II, 1. Neiquis eorum bacanal habuise velet, S. C. de Bag.
Otherwise it is found mainly in the poets (after the fashion of the
Greek Aorist Inf.), and usually with the Pf. and Plupf. tenses, volui,
etc., potui, dSbueram (debui).
Fratres tendentSs opaco Pelion imposuisse Olympo, H., 0., in. 4, 52 ; IVie
brothers striving to pile Pelion on shady Olympus.
Notes.— 1. This usage with velle seems to have approached often the Fut, Pf. in
force. A Pf. Inf. after the Pr. of posse occurs very rarely : Non potes probasse
nugas, Pl., Aul., 828 ; see V., A., vi. 78, and several cases in Ovid and Maktial.
2. The Pf. Inf. act. (siibj. or obj.) is often found in the poets, especially in elegiac
poetry, as the first word in the second half of a pentameter, where it can hardly be dis-
tinguished from a Present. This usage may be due partly to analogy with verbs of wish-
ing, partly to the exigencies of the metre, partly to the influence of the Greek Aorist. It
must be distinguished from the normal use of the Perfect : Quam luvat immltSs
ventds audire cubantem Et dominam tenero d§tinuisse sinu ! Tib., i. i, 45.
3, Noteworthy is the occasional use of debeo with the Pf. Inf. act. in the Fenec
"must have": statim vicisse d6be5, C.,/^o«c. ^m.,23,73; d6b6s adnotasse,
Plin., Ep., VII. 20, G.
{c) In the Passive, the Perfect Infinitive is used after
verbs of Will and Desire, to denote impatience of anything
except entire fulfilment. See 537.
[Patriam] exstinctam cupit, C, Fin., iv. 24, 60 ; he desires his country
blotted out.
Here the Infinitive esse is seldom expressed.
Corinthum patr6s vestri totlus Graeciae lumen exstinctum esse voluerunt,
C, Imp., 5, 11 (211, R. 6).
Note.— This usage is common in Comedy and in Cicero, rare, it at all, in Caesar
and Sallust ; and later also it is rare, surviving chiefly in phrases. The principal verb
is VOlO, less often cupiO, very rarely ezpetO and nOlo.
281. The Infinitive as the Representative of the
Indicative. — iVs the representative of the Indicative, the
TENSES OF THE MOODS. l8l
Infinitive has all its Tenses : Present, Past, Future, and
Future Periphrastics.
1. The Present Infinitive represents contemporaneous
action — hence the Present Indicative after a Principal Tense,
and the Imperfect after a Historical Tense :
Dico eum venire, / say that he is coming ; dicsbam eum venire, / said
that he icas comirig.
2. The Perfect Infinitive represents Prior Action — hence
the Perfect and Imperfect Indicative after a Principal
Tense, and the Pluperfect, Imperfect, and Historical Perfect
Indicative after a Historical Tense :
Dico eum vSnisse, / say that he came, has come, used to come.
Dixi eum vSnisse, I said that he had come, used to come, did come.
Note.— Memini, 1 rememher, when used of personal experience, commonly takes
the Present : Tum mg rSgem appellari a vobis memini, nunc tyrannum vocari
video, L., XXXIV. 31, 13 ; / remember being ctyled by you a king then, I see that I am,
called a tyrant now.
So also rarely memoria tened, recordor, I remember, I recall, and fagit m6, 1 do
not remember. When the experience is not personal, the ordinary construclion is fol-
lowed : Memineram Marium ad infimorum hominum misericordiam c5n-
fugisse, C, Sest., 22, 50 ; I remembered that Marius had thrown himself on the mercy
of a eet of low creatures.
The peculiar construction with the Pr. arises from the liveliness of the recollection.
When the action is to be regarded as a bygone, the Pf . may be used even of personal
experience: M6 memini Iratum dominae turbasse capill5s, Ov.,^.^.,u. i6q; /
remember in my anger having tousled my sweethearVs hair.
282. The Present Participle active denotes contimiance ;
the Perfect passive, completion or attainment.
Note.— The Latin is more exact than the English in the use of the tenses. So
the Pf. Part, is frequently employed when we use the Present ; especially in clas-
sical prose, with verbs that indicate a condition, mental or physical, where the action
of the participle is conceived as continuing up to, and sometimes into, that of the lead-
ing verb, as ratus, thinking ; veiitus, fearing ; gavisus, r^oicing, etc. This usage
spreads later : complexus, embracing ; hortatus, cxhaiiing.
283. The Future Participle (active) is a verbal adjective,
denoting capability and tendency, chiefly employed in the
older language with sum, / am, as a periphrastic tense. In
later Latin it is used freely, just as the Present and Perfect
Participles, to express subordinate relations.
Notes.— 1. The so-called Fut. Part, passive is more properly called the Gerundive,
and has already been discussed (251).
2. The Supine, being without tense relations, does not belong here.
l82 SIMPLE SENTENCE EXPANDED.
SIMPLE SENTENCE EXPANDED.
284. The sentence may be expanded by the multiplication
or by the qualfiication, A, of the subject, B, of the predicate.
1. Multiplication of the Subject.
Concord.
285. Number. — The common predicate of two or more
subjects is put in the Plural number :
Lucius Tarquinius et Tullia minor iunguntur nuptils, L.,i. 46, 9;
Lucius Tarquinius and Tullia the younger are united in marriage.
Pater et mater mortui [sunt], Ter., Eun., 518 ; father and mother are
dead.
Exceptions. — i. The common predicate may agree with a Sing,
subject when that subject is the nearest or the most important: " My
flesh and my heart faileth," Psa.,"lxxiii. 2G.
Aetas et forma et super omnia Romanum nomen te ferociorem facit, L.,
XXXI. 18, 3 ; your youth and heauty, a7id, above all, the name of Roman,
makes you too mettlesome. Latagum saxo occupat os faciemque adversam
v., J., X. 698(323, N. 2).
The agreement depends largely also upon the position of the verb.
If it precedes or follows the first subj., the Sing, is more apt to stand.
2. Two abstracts in combination, when conceived as a unit, take a
Sing, verb : " When distress and anguish cometh upon you," Prov., i.
27.
ReligiS et fidSs anteponatur amicitiae, C, Off., in. 10, 46 ; let the
religious obligation of a promise be preferred to friendship.
So any close union : " Your gold and silver 2*5 cankered," Jas., v. 3.
Senatus populusque Romanus intellegit, C, -Fam., v. 8, 2; the senate
and people of Rome perceives {— Rome perceives). Tua fiima et gnatae
vita in dubium veniet, Ter., Ad., 340 ; your good name will be jeoparded
and your daughter's life.
3. When the same predicate is found with two or more subjects,
who are conceived as acting independently, classical usage requires
that the predicate be in the Singular. LivY introduces the PL, which
grows, and becomes the rule in Tacitus : Palatium EOmulus, Eemus
Aventlnum ad inaugurandum templa capiunt, L., i. 6, 4.
Notes.— 1. Neque- neque, ncUfier—nor. allows the PI. chiefly wlicn the Persona
are different : Haec neque ego neque tti fScimus, Ter., Ad., 103 ; neither you nor 1
did this.
CONCORD. 183
The same is true, but not so common, of et - et (ns well as), ant— ant, either—^.
2. A Sing. subj. combined with another word by cum, wWi^ is treated properly as
a Singular. It is treatetl as a PI once each by Cato, Terekce (Ileaut., 473), Cicero
(by anacoluthon), Caksar {B C ■, in. 88), more often by Sallust and his imitators,
LivY, and later writers. Vblleius, Valerius M., and Tacitus follow the classical
Snlla cum Sclpione .... 16g§s inter s6 contnlerunt, C.,i%.,xn. 11,27. Ipse
dux cum aliquot principibus capiuatur, L.,xxi.6o, 7; i/ie general himself wit/t
some of the leading men are capiuied.
3. In the Abl. Abs. the Part, stands usually in the PI. with persons, usually in the
Sing, with things, c. Graccho et M. Fulvio Flacco interfectis, S., lug., 16, 8.
Caritate benevolentiaque sublata, C, Lad., 27, 102.
286. Gender. — When the Genders of combined subjects
are tlie same, tlie adjective predicate agrees in gender ; when
the genders are different, the adjective predicate takes either
the strongest gender or the nearest.
1. In things with life, the masculine gender is the
strongest ; in tilings without life, the neuter.
(«) The strongest :
Pater et mater mortui [sunt], Ter., 3un., 518 (285), Mums et porta dS
caelo tacta erant, L., xxxii. 29, 1 ; icall and gate had been struck by light-
ning. H5c anima atque animus vincti sunt foedere semper, Lucr., hi. 416.
(b) The nearest :
Convicta est Messalina et Silius, Cf. Tac, Ann., xii. 65 ; Messalina
was convicted and {so teas) Silius. Hippolochus LarissaeSrumque dSditum
est praesidium, L., xxxvi. 9, 14 ; Hippolochus and the Larissaean gar-
rison {were) surrendered.
2. AVhen things with life and things without life are com-
bined, the gender varies.
{a) Botli as persons :
Bgx rSgiaque classis profecti (sunt), L., xxi. 50, 11 ; tlie king and the
king's fleet set out.
(h) Botli as things :
Natura inimica [sunt] libera civitas et rgx, Cf. L., xliv. 24, 2; a free
state and a king are natural enemies.
3. Wlien the subjects are feminine abstracts the predicate
may be a neuter Plural (211, r. 4).
Stultitiam et intemperantiam dicimus esse fugienda, C, Fin., iii. iij
39 ; folly and want of self-control {we say) are {things) to be avoided.
Note. —This usage does not^ appear in early Latin, nor in Caesar or Sallust.
l84 ADJECTIVE ATTRIBUTE.
287. Persons. — When the persons of combined subjects
are different, the First Person is preferred to the Second,
the Second to the Third :
Si tu et Tullia, lux nostra, valgtis, ego et suavissimus Cicero valgmus,
C, Fam., XIV. 5, 1 ; if Tullia, light of my life, and you are well, dearest
Cicero and I are well.
Remark. — {a) In contrasts, and when each person is considered
separately, the predicate agrees with the person of the nearest subject.
Et ego et Cicero meus flagitabit, C, ^;'^., iv. 18, 5 ; my Cicero ivill
demand it and (so will) 1. Beat§ vivere alii in aliS, vOs in voluptate
ponitis, C, Fin., 11. 27, 86 ; some make a blessed life to rest on one thing,
so7ne on another, you on pleasure.
So regularly with disjunctives, see 285, n. 1.
(b) The order is commonly the order of the persons, not of modern
politeness : Ego et uxor mea, Wife and I.
2. Qualification of the Subject.
288. The subject may be qualified by giving it an attribute.
An attribute is that which serves to give a specific character.
The chief forms of the attribute are :
I. The adjective and its equivalents : amicus certns, a sure friend.
Remark. — The equivalents of the adjective are : i. The pronouns
hic, this, ille, that, etc. 2. Substantives denoting rank, age, trade:
servus homS, a slave person ; homS senex, an old fellow ; hom8 gladiator,
a gladiator-fellow ; mulier ancilla, a servant-wench. 3. The Genitive
(360, i). 4. The Ablative (400). 5. Preposition and case : excessus a
vita, departure from life. 6. Adverbs, chiefly with substantival par-
ticiples : rgctS facta, good actions. 7. Relative clauses (505).
II. The substantive in apposition : CicerS Orator, Cicero the orator.
I. ADJECTIVE ATTRIBUTE.
Concord.
289. Tlie Adjective Attribute agrees with its substantive
in gender, number, and case :
Gender, Number.
Vir sapiens, a ivise man, virl sapientfis, ^v^se men.
Mulier pulchra, a beautiful woman, muliergs pulchrae, beautiful women.
BSgium dOnum, royal gifty rfigia dOna, royal gifts.
ADJECTIVE ATTRIBUTE. 185
Case.
Virl sapientis, of a wise man. bone flli ! good son !
Mulieri pulchrae, for a beautiful woman, rggio doii5, hij royal gift.
Virum sapientem, wise man. mulieres pulchras, beautiful
women.
290. The common attribute of two or more substantives
agrees with the nearest ; rarely with the most important.
Volasgnus, vir et cOnsilii magni et virtuti3, Caes., B.O., in. 5, 2 : Volu-
senus, a man of great wisdom and valor. Cuncta maria terraeque pate-
bant, S., C, 10, 1 ; all seas a?id lands lag open. Multa alia castella
vicique aut deleta hostiliter aut Integra in potestatem v6n6re, L., ix. 38, 1.
Remarks —I. For emphasis, or to avoid ambiguity, the adj. is re-
peated with every substantive. Sometimes also for rhetorical reasons
simply.
(SemprOniae) multae fac§tiae, multusque lepos inerat, S.,C., 25, 5 ; Sem-
pronia had a treasure of ivitticisms, a treasiire of charmi7ig talk.
2. When a substantive is construed with several similar adjectives
in the Sing., it may be in agreement with ohe in the Sing, or may
stand in tlie PI., according to its position :
ftuarta et Martia legiongs, C, Fam., xi. ig, 1, but Legi5 Martia quar-
taque, C , P/t , v. 17, 46, The fourth arid Martian legions.
Notes. -1. A common surname is put in the Plural : M. (et) Q. Cicer5n68, Marcus
and Quintus Cicero; C, Cn., 3ML, CarbdnSs, Gains, Gnaeus (and) Marcus Varbo ;
otherwise, M. Cicero et Q- CicerS, Marcus and Quinlus Cicero.
2. Poets are free in regard to the position of tlic adjective : Semper honos nomenque
tuum laudSaque manSbunt, V, ^ , i. 6og.
291. Position of the Attrihde. — t. When the attribute
is emphatic, it is commonly put before the substantive, other-
wise in classical Latin ordinarily after it. But see 676.
1. Fugitivus servus, a runaivay slave (one complex).
2. Servus fugitivus, a slave (that is) a runaway (two notions).
Many expressions, however, have become fixed formuhx3, such as
civis R5manus, Roman citizen ; populua R5manus, people of Rome.
Compare body politic, heir apparent in English.
Remarks. — i. Variation in the position of the adj. often causes
variation in the meaning of the word. Thus rSs bonae, good things ;
bonae r6s, articles of value, or good circumstances ; r§s urbanae, city
matters ; urbanae rgs, witticisms ; mgnsa secunda, a second table ; secunda
mgnsa, dessert.
l86 NUMERALS.
2. Superlatives whicli denote order and sequence in time and space
are often used partitively, and then generally precede their substan-
tive : summa aqua, the surface of the water ; summus mons, the top of
the mountain ; vere primo, primo vSre, in the heginning of spring.
Similarly in media urbe, in the midst of the city ; reliqua, cetera Graecia,
the rest of Greece, and the like.
2. When the attribute belongs to two or more words, it is
placed sometimes after tliem all, sometimes after the first,
sometimes before them all.
Divitiae, nSmen, opSs vacuae consilio dedecoris plSnae sunt, C, Rap., i.
34, 51 : riches, name, resources {when) void of wisdom are full of dis-
honor.
For examples of the other positions see 290.
Numerals.
292. Duo means simply two, ambo, hotJi (two considered
together), uterque, either (two considered apart, as, " They
crucified two other with him, on either side one," Johk,
XIX. 18) :
Supplicatio ambonim n5mine et triumphus utrique dScrgtus est, L.,
XXVIII. 9, 9 ; a thanksgiving in the name of both and a triumph to
either {each of the two) ivas decreed. Qui utrumque probat, ambQbus de-
buit uti, C, Fin., ii. 7, 20 ; he who approves of either ought to have
availed himself of both.
Kemark. — Uterque is seldom PI., except of sets ; so witii pluralia
tantum.
Utrique {i.e., pl6bis fautOrgs et senatus) victSriam crudeliter exercebant,
S., C, 38, 4 ; either party (democrats and senate) made a cruel use of
victory. Duae fuSrunt Ariovisti uxor6s : utraeque in ea fuga perierunt,
Caes., J5.6'^., I. 53, 4 ; Ariovistus' s wives were two in number ; both jjer-
ished in that flight. Proximo di6 Caesar 6 castrls utrlsque copias suas
eduxit, Caes., 5. 6^., i. 50, 1.
On uterque with the PL, see 211, r. i ; with Gen., see 371, R.
293. Mille, a thousand, is in the Sing, an indeclinable adj. and is
less frequently used with the Genitive: mille militSs, rather than mille
militum, a thousatid soldiers; in the PI. it is a declinable substantive,
and must have the Genitive : duo milia militum, turn thousand{s of)
soldiers — two regiments of soldiers. If a smaller number comes
between, the substantive usually follows the smaller number ;
3500 cavalry,
NUMERALS. 1 8/
tria milia quingenti equit6s,
tria milia equitum et quingenti, but
equites tria milia quingenti, or
equitum tria milia quingenti.
But duo milia quingenti hostium in acie periSre, L., xxii. 7, 3.
Note.— The use of mlUe ns a substantive with the Part. Gen. is found mostly in
ante-classical and post-classical Latin. CicEno and Caesar use it but rarely, and in
phrases such as mllle nummum, mille passuum. Livy is fonder of it.
294. Ordinals. — The Ordinals are used more often in
Latin than in English ; thus always in dates : anno ducente-
simo quarto, in the year 20 J^. Sometimes they are used for
the cardinals with a carelessness that gives rise to am-
biguity :
Quattuor anni sunt, ex quo te non vidl,
It is four years, that I have not seen you {since I saw you).
Quartus annus est, ex quo tg non vidl.
It is the fourth year {four years, going on four years).
Note.— To avoid this ambiguity forms of incipere, to begin, and exigere, to
finish, seem to have been used. Cf., Pl., CapL, 980 ; Cist., 161.
On quisque with the ordinal, see 318, 2.
295. Distributives. — The distributives are used with an
exactness which is foreign to our idiom wherever repetition
is involved, as in the multiplication table.
Bis bina quot [sunt] 1 Q., JSf.D., n. 18, 49; hoiv many are twice two 9
Scriptum eculeum cum quinque pedibus, pullos galllnaceos tris cum temis
pedibus natos esse, L,, xxxii. i, 11 ; a letter was ivritten to say that a colt
had been foaled ivith five feet (and) three chickens hatched with three
feet {apiece).
With singuli the distributive is preferred, but the cardinal may be
used.
Antonius (pollicitus est) d§nario3 quinggnos singulis militibus daturum,
C, Fam., X. 32, 4 ; Antonius promised to give five hundred denarii to
each soldier. Singulis cSnsoribus dSnarii trecenti (so all MSS ) imperati
sunt, C, Verr., n. 55, 137 ; the censors ivere required to pay three
hundred denarii apiece.
Note.— Poets and later prose writers often use the distributive when the cardinal
would be the rule ; thus bini is not unfrcquently used of a pair even in Cicero : blnos
(SCjrpbos) habebam, Verr., iv. 14, 32. When there is an idea of grouping, the distribu-
tive is often broken up into a multiplicative and a distributive ; as,
Carmen ab ter novSnls virginibus cani iussSrunt, L., xxxi. 12, 9 ; they ordered
a chant to be sung by thrice nine virgins.
l88 COMPAEATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES.
On the other hand, prose sometimes shows a cardinal when exact usage would
require a distributive. So regularly milia.
Milia talentum per duodecim annos (dabitis), L , xxxvn. 45, 15.
On the distributives with pluralia tantum, see 97, r. 3.
Comparatives and Superlatives.
296. Comparative. — The comparative degree generally
takes a term of comparison either with quam, tJiaii, or in the
Ablative :
Ignoratio futurorum malorum utilior est quam scientia, C, Div., 11. g,
23 ; ignorance of future evils is better than knowledge (of them). Nihil
est virtute amabilius, C, Lael., 8, 28 ; nothing is more lovable than
virtue.
Rejiarks. — I. (a) The Abl. is used only when the word with quam
would stand in the Nom. or Ace. (644).
Caesar minor est j ^^^"^^ o^P ^^s, / ^^^^^^^ ^^ younger than Pompey.
Caesarem plus amamus \ '1^^"' I'ompeium, ) we love Caesar more than
( Pompeio, ) Pomp)ey.
In the second example the use of the Abl. may give rise to am-
biguity, as the sentence may also mean "«fe love Caesar more than
Pompey loves Mm.''' This ambiguity is always present when adverbs
are used, and hence good prose avoids using a comparative adv. with
an Ablative. See IL, /S"., i. i, 97.
{b) With cases other than Nom. or Ace, quam is regularly used to
avoid ambiguity.
Anulis nostris plus quam animis creditur, Sen., Ben., 11 1 15, 3 (217).
2. The Abl. is very common in negative sentences and is used ex-
clusively in negative relative sentences.
Polybium sequamur, quo nemo fuit diligentior, C , Rep , 11 14, 27 ; let
us follow Polybius, than ivhom no one was more careful.
3. Measure of difference is put in the Ablative (403).
4. Quam is often omitted after plus, amplius, more, and minus, less,
and the like, without affecting the construction :
Homini misero plus quingentSs colaphos infrggit mihi, TER.,ylfZ., 199 ;
he has dealt me, lucMess creature, more than five hundred crushing
boxes on the ear. Spatium est non amplius pedum sescentSrum, Caes.,
B.C., I. 38, 5 ; the space is not more than (of) six hundred feet.
But the normal construction is not excluded :
Pallis nOn latior pedibus quinquaginta, Caes., B.G., vii. 19, 1 ; a swamp
not broader than fifty feet (or pedes quinquaginta). Nostri mllitSs amplius
h5ris quattuor pugnaverunt, Caes., B.G., iv. 37, 3.
COMPARATIVES. 1 89
5. In statements of age we may have a variety of expressions ; thus,
more than thirty years old may be :
1. Natus plus (quam) triginta annSs. 3. Maior (quam) trig^ntaannosnatus.
2. Natus plus trigintaannis (rare). 4. Maior triginta annis (natus).
5. Maior triginta annorum,
6. On the combination of the comparative with opinione, opinion,
sp6, hope, and the like, see 398, n. 1.
Notes. — 1. Verbs and other words involving comparison sometimes have the Abl.
where another constnietion \"/ould be moi-e natural. Thus, mSlle, to jn^efer {\>oeL and
post-classical), aeque, adaequS, equalbj (early and late), alius, other (mainly poetic
and rare): Ntillos his mallem ludos spectasse, H., 5., 11. 8, 79. Qui me in terra
aequg fortunatus erit? Pl., 6'«m, 141. N5 put6s alium sapiente bonoque
beatum, Ep., 1. 16, 20.
2. Instead of the Abl., the Gen. is found occasionally in late Latin.
3. Instead of quam or the Abl., prepositionr.1 uses with the positive are often found;
as prae, in comparison ivith, praeter, ante, beyond ; also supra quam. Poetical
is the circumlocution with quails, as Hor., Epod.^ 5, 59. Inferior is sometimes con-
strued with the Dat., according to the sense ; inferior to 'wi&XeSi^ ol lower than,
4. Atque for quam is mainly poetical ; see 644, n. 2.
297. Standard of Comparison omitted. — When the stand-
ard of comparison is omitted, it is supplied : i. By the con-
text ; 2. By the usual or proper standard ; 3. By the opposite,
1 . By the context :
Solent rgges Persarum plures ux5rg3 liabSre, Cf. C, Verr., in. 33, 76;
the lings of Persia zisually have more tvives [than one].
2. By the proper standard :
Senectus est nattira loquacior, C, Cat.M., 16, 55, Old age is naturally
rather (or too) talkative.
3. By the opposite :
Quiesse erit melius, L., iii. 48, 3 ; it will he better to he-perfectly-
quiet (than to make a disturbance).
298. Disproportion. — Disproportion is expressed by the
comparative with quam pro, than for, and the Ablative, or
with quam ut, tliat, or quam qui, wlio, and the Subjunctive ;
Minor caedgs quam pro tanta victoria fuit, L., x, 14, 21 ; the loss was
(too) small for so great a victory. Quis non intellegit Canaehi signa ri-
gidiora esse quam utimitentur vgritatem"? C, Br., 18, 70 ; who does not
perceive that Canachu^ figures are too stiff to imitate the truth of
nattire ? Maior sum quam cui possit Forttina nocere, Ov., Jf., vi. 195; /
am too great for Fortune possibly to hurt me.
190 COMPARATIVES.
Remark. — Disproportion may also be expressed by the positive in
combination with prepositional phi-ases, etc. : pro multitudine angusti
fines, Caes., B.G., i. 2, 5 ; boundaries too small for their multitude.
Notes.— 1. The constructions quam pro and quam qui are both poBt-Ciceronian.
2. The nt is frequently omitted after quam, as : Dolabella eelerius Asia [ex-
cgssit], quam eo praesidium addHei potuisset, C , Fam , xii. 15, 1. This is espe-
cially common after potius quam.
299. Tivo Qualities compared. — When two qualities of the
same substantive are compared, we find either magis and
quam with the positive, or a double comparative :
Celer tuus disertus magis est quam sapiens, C, ^##., x. i, 4 ; your
(friend) Celer is eloquent rather than tvise — more eloquent than wise.
Acutierem sS quam ornatiorem [vult], C, Opt. Gen., 2, 6 ; he wishes to he
acute rather than ornate.
Notes. — 1. There is no distinction to he made between the two expressions. In the
latter turn, which is found first, but rarely, in Cicero, the second comparative is merely
attracted into the same form as the first. Tlie same rule applies to the adverb :
fortius quam fglicius, with moiv bravery than good luck.
2. Post-Augustan Latin show s occasionally the comparative followed l)y quam, and
the positive : Nimiapietas vestra acrius quam considerate excitavit, Tac, H.y
1.83.
300. Restriction to tJie Comparative. — When but two
objects are compared, the comparative exhausts the degrees
of comparison, whereas, in English, the superlative is em-
ployed, unless the idea of duality is emphatic.
Katu maior, the eldest (of two), the elder ; natti minor, the youngest,
the younger. Prior, the first ; posterior, the last.
Posteriores cogitationes, ut aiunt, sapientiorgs solent esse, C, P/i.,xn.
2, 5 ; afterthougJitSy as the saying is, are usually the wisest.
Remakk. — The same rule applies to the interroe:ative uter, which
of two 9 {whether ?) : Ex duSbus uter dignior ? ex pluribus, quis dlgnis-
simusl Quint., vn. 4, 21 ; of two, which is the worthier ? of more (than
two), which is the worthiest ?
Note.— Quis is rarely used instead of uter, r.s C, Fani.,xi. 3, 1 ; V., A., xit. 725.
301. Comparative Strengthened. The comparative is often strength-
ened during the classical period by the insertion of etiam, even ; later
also by adhtic, still. Multo is properly the Ablative of difference, and
is the normal form until the time of Veegil, when its place is taken
largely by longe, except in Horace, who retains multS. Ante-classical
and post-classical Latin occasionally doubles the comparative : magis
dulcius, Pl., Stich., 699. Nihil invenies magis hoc certS certius, Pl,,
PRONOUNS. igi
Capt., 643. Even in Cicero a word involving Preference is sometimes
strengthened by potius :
[ThemistocH fuit] optabilius oblivisci posse potius quam meminisse, C,
Or., II. 74, 800 ; Themistocles thought it (more) preferable to be able to
forget (rather) than to be able to remember.
302. Superlatwe. — The Latin superlative is often to be
rendered by the English positive, especially of persons :
Quintus Fabius Maximus, Quintus Fabius the Great. Maximo impetu,
maiore fortuna, L., xxviii 36,2 ; ivith great vigor, ivith greater luck.
Tain feUx ess5s quam formosissima vellem, Ov., Am.^ i. 8, 27 ; would thou
wert fortunate as (thou art) fair.
303. Superlative Strengthened.— '\!\\Q?,w^Qv\B.ivfe is strengthened by
multo, much (especially in early Latin); longS, by far {the normal usage
in the classical period); vel, even; unus, unus omnium, one above all
others ; quam (with adverbs and adjectives), quantus (with maximus), ut
(with adverbs) — potest, potuit, as— as possible.
£x Britannis omnibus longe sunt humanissiml qui Cantium incolunt,
Caes., B.G., V. 14, 1; of all the Britons bg far the most cultivated are
those that inhabit Kent. Protagoras sophistes illls temporibus vel maxi-
mus, C, N.D., 1. 23, G3; Protagoras, the very greatest sophist (= pro-
fessor of wisdom) in those times. Urbem unam mihl amicissimam dgclinavi,
C, Plane, 41,97; I turned aside from a city above cdl others friendly
to me. (Caesar) quam aequissimo loco potest castra commtinit, Caes. ,B.G.,
V. 49, 7; Caesar fortifies a camp in as favorable a position as possible.
RExMarks. — I. The omission of potest leaves quam with the super-
lative, which becomes a regular combination : as (great) as possible,
2. For tam, tantum, with positive followed by quam, quantum qui, and
the superlative, see G42, r. 5.
PRONOUNS.
I. Personal Pronouns.
304. I . The personal Pronoun is usually omitted when it
is the subject of a verb ; see 207.
2. The Genitive forms, mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, are used
mainly as Objective Genitives ; see 364, n. 2.
(Marcellinus) s6 acerrimum tui dgfSnsorem fore ostendit, C, Fam., 1. 1,
2 ; llarcellinus shoived that he would be your keenest defender.
NoTEs.-^l. Nostrum and vestrum for nostri, vestri, are very rare : [luppiter,
custosl htiius urbis ac vestrum, Cf. C, Cat., in. 12, 29.
2. The Possessive pronouns sometimes are found in place of this Genitive : Neque
neclegentia tua neque odio id fgcit tuo, Tek., Ph., 1016 ; he did this neither from
192 PRONOUNS.
neglect of thee nor from hatred of the£. Vester c5nspectus reficit et recreat men-
tem. meam, C, Plane. ^ i, 2 ; the sight of you refreshes and reneges my spirits.
" If I be a master, where is my fear ? " Mal., i. 6.
3. The Genitive forms, nostrum and vestrum, are used par-
titively ; see 364, r.
T8 ad m6 venire uterque nostrum cupit, C, Att., xiii. 33, 2 ; each of
us two desires that you should come to me.
Notes.— 1. So regularly also in certain phraseological uses which may be partitive
at basis. Frequentia vestrum, COnsSnSUS vestrum, regularly in combination with
omnium (364, r.), and occasionally when the Possessive is more natural ; is enim
splendor est vestrum, C, Att., vii. 13A, 3.
2. For a Part. Gen. of the third person (reflexive) a circumlocution must be used, such
as ex s5 or the Possessive suorum.
2. Demonstrative Pronouns.
305. Hie, this (the Demonstrative of the First Person),
refers to that ivhich is nearer the speaker, and may mean :
1. The speaker liimself : hie hom8 — ego, Pl., Trin., 11 15.
2. The persons with whom the speaker identifies himself, e. g., the
judges in a suit at law: si ego hos novi, if I know these men {= the jury).
3. The most important subject immediately in hand : hie sapiens
de quo loquor, C, Ac, ii. 33, 105 ; this (imaginary) wise man of ichom
I am speaking.
4. That in which the speaker is peculiarly interested : hoc studium,
this pursuit of mine, of ours.
5. That which has just been mentioned: haec hactenus, these things
thus far = so much for that.
6. Very frequently, that which is about to be mentioned : his con-
dicionibus, on the following terms.
7. The current period of time : hie diSs, to-day ; haec nox, the night
just past ov just coming ; hie mgnsis, the current month.
306. Iste, tliat (of thine, of yours), refers to that which
helomjs more pecvliai'ly to the Second Person (Demonstrative
of the Second Person) :
Perfer istam militiam, Q., Fam.,\u. 11, 2 -, endure that military
service of yours. Adventti tu5 ista subsellia vacu6facta sunt, C, Cat., i.
7, 16 ; at your approach the benches in your neighborhood ivere vacated.
Note.— The supposed contemptuous character of iste arises from the refusal to
take any direct notice of the person under discussion, " the person at whom one speaks
or points," and precisely the same thing is true of hic and ille, but less common.
307. Hie, that (the Demonstrative of the Third Person),
denotes that which is more remote from the speaker, and is
often used in contrast to hic, this.
PRONOUNS. 193
Sol mg ille admonuit, C, Or., iii., 55, 209 ; that {yon) sun reminded me.
Q. Catulus non antiquS ill5 more sed hoc nostro eruditus, C, Br., 35, 132;
Q. Catulus, a cultivated man, not after the old-fashioned standard of a
hy-gone time (illo) hut hy the standard of to-day (li5c).
Ille may mean :
1. That whicli has been previously mentioned (often ille quidem):
illud qnodinitiS vobisproposul, C, Font., 7, 17; that which I propounded
to you at first.
2. That which is well known, notorious (often put after the substan-
tive) : tgstula ilia, that (notorious) potsherd = institutioii of ostracism ;
illud Solonis, that (famous saying) of Solon's.
3. That which is to be recalled : illud imprimis mirabile, that (which
I am going to remind you of) is especially wonderful.
4. That wliich is expected :
Ilia dies veniet mea qua lugubria ponam, Ov., Tr., iv. 2, 73 ; the day
ivill come when I shall lay aside {cease) my inournful strai?is.
Remarks. — i. Hic and ille are used together in contrasts : as, the
latter — the former, (he former — the latter.
(a) When both are matters of indifference the natural signification is
observed : hic, the latter ; ille, the former.
ignavia corpus hebetat, labor firmat ; ilia maturam senectutem, hic
longam adolgscentiam reddit, Cels., i. i; laziiiess iveakens the body, toil
strengthens it ; the one (the former) hastens old age, the other (the lat-
ter) prolongs youth.
{b) When the former is the more important, hic is the former, ille, the
latter :
Melior tutiorque est certa pax quam spgrata victoria ; haec in nostra,
iUa in deorum manuest, L., xxx. 30, 19 ; better and safer is certain peace
than hoped-for victory ; the former is in our hand{s), the latter in the
hand{s) of the gods.
2. Hic et ille ; ille et ille ; ille aut ille, this man and (or) that man =
one or two.
Non dicam hoc signum ablatum esse et illud ; hoc dico, nullum tg
signum reliquisse, C, Verr.,i. 20, 53 ; I will not say that this statue was
taken off and that ; (what) I say (is) this, that you left no statue at all.
3. The derived adverbs retain the personal relations of hic, iste, ille:
hic, here (where I am) ; hinc, hence (from where I am) ; hue, hither
(where I am) ; istic, there (where you are) ; illic, there (where he is), etc.
4. The Demonstratives hic, iste, ille, and the Determinative is, are
often strengthened by quidem, irideed. The second member is then in-
troduced by sed, sed tamen (more rarely tamen, vgrum, autem, vgro), vgrum-
tamen, and sometimes is added asyndetically. The sentence often re-
quires that either the demonstrative or the particle be left untranslated.
13
194 PRONOUNS.
Optare hoc quidem est, non docere, C, Tusc ir. 13, 30 ; that is a
(pious) iidsli, not a (logical) proof. Nihil perfertur ad nos praeter rUmores
satis istos quidem constantgs sed adhuc sine auctore, C'., Fain.xn. 9, 1 ;
nothing is brought to us exaqjt reports, consistent enough, it is true, hut
thus far not authoritative.
lUe is most often used thus ; is, iste, hie, more rarely.
Notes.— 1. HiC and ille arc sometimes employed to add a qualification to a sub-
stantive by means of a contrast : Orator non ille vulgaris sed hie excellens, C,
Or., 14, 45 ; an orator, not of the iyon) common type, hvt of the ideal exceUence {we seek).
2. Not unfrequently in poetry, very rarely in prose, in a lonj;^ sentence a substan-
tive is repeated by means of ille : V., .4., i. 3, ille et terris iactatus ; H., 0., iv. 9, 51.
3. Sometimes two forms of hic, ille, or is are found in the same clause referring to
diffeicnt substantives : Svolve diligenter 6ius [^. e., Platonis] eum lihrum, qui
est d6 animO, C, Tusc, i. n, 24.
4. Ille may refer to an oblique form of is : Non est amici talem esse in eum,
qualis ille in se est, C, Lael, 16, 59.
5. Ille is found cliieliy in poetry with the personal pronouns ego, tu, and occasion-
ally with hie, and when so used takes its fullest force. Hunc iUum fatis externa
ab sgde profectum portendi generum, V., A., vu. 255.
3. Determinative and Reflexive Pronouns.
308. Is, tliat, is the determinative pronoun, and serves as
the lacking pronoun of the Third Person. It furnishes the-
regular antecedent of the relative :
Mild venit ohviam tuus puer ; is mih! litteras ahs te reddidit, C., Alt.,
II. I, 1 ; I ivas 7nd hy your servant ; he delivered to me a letter from you.
Is minimo eget mortalis qui minimum cupit, Syrus, 286 (Fr.); that mortal
is i7i want of least, ivho ivanteth least.
Remarks. — i. Is, as the antecedent of the relative, is often omitted,
chiefly in the Nom., more rarely in an oblique case (G19).
Bis dat qui dat celeriter, Syrus, 235 (Fr.); he gives twice who gives in
a trice.
Often it has the force of talis (631, i) in this connection:
Ego is sum qui nihil umquam mea potius quam meorum civium causa
fScerim, C, Fani., v. 21, 2; / am a ?nan never to have done anything
for my own sake, rather than for the sake of my fellow-citizens.
2. Is, with a copulative or adversative particle, is used as he or that
in English, for the purpose of emphasis. Such expressions are: et is,
atque is, isque, and he too, and that too ; neque is, et is non, and he not,
and that not; sed %hut he, further strengthened by quidem, mtZeeJ.
To refer to the wliole action id is employed.
Exempla quaerimus et ea non antiqua, C, Verr.,\i\. 90. 210 ; ice are
looking for examples, and those, too, not of ancicitt date. Epiciirus ana
in domS et ea quidem angusta quam magnos tenuit amicorum greggs, C. ,
Fin., I. 20, 65 ; ivhat shoals of friends Epicurus had in one house, and
PRONOUJTS. 195
ihat a ptnched-up one ! Negotium magnum est navigaie atque id mSnse
Quinctill, C, Att. v. 12, 1; it is a big job to take a voyage and that in
the month of July.
3. Is does not represent a substantive before a Gen., as in the Eng-
lish that of. In Latin the substantive is omitted, or repeated, or a
word of like meaning substituted.
Non iudicio discipulorum dicere debet magister sed discipuli magistri,
Quint., ii. 2, 13; tlie master is not to speak according to tha judgment of
the pupils ; but the pupils according to that of the master. Nulla est
celeritas quae possit cum animi celeritSte contendere, C, Tusc, i. 19, 43 ;
there is no speed tliaf can possibly vie with that of the mind. M. Coelius
tribunal suum iuxta C. Treboni sellam coUocSvit, Caes., B.C., in. 20, 1;
Marcus Coelius placed his chair of office next to that of Oaius Trehonius.
Of course hie, ille, and iste can be used with the Gen. in their proper
sense.
309. Reflexive. Instead of forms of is, the Reflexive
Pronoun sui, sibi, se, together with the Possessive of the
Reflexive suos (-us), sua, suom (-um) is used. (See 521.)
1. Rcgularhj \^'\\Gi\ reference is mSi&Q to i\\Q grainmatical
subject of the sentence :
Ipse sg quisque diligit quod sib! quisque carus est, C, Lael., 21, 80;
every one loves himself, because every one is dear to himself. (Fadius) a
me diligitur propter summam suam humanitatem, C.,Fam., xv. 14, 1;
Fadius is a favorite of mine by reason of his exceeding kindliness.
The subject may be indefiuite or (occasionally) impersonal.
Contentum suis r§bus esse maximae sunt divitiae, C, Par., vi. 3, 51 ;
io be content ivith o)i.e\'i own things {with what one hath) is the greatest
riches. Perventum ad suos erat, 1j., xxxiii. 8, C.
" Puro religion and mideliled is this ... to keep himself unspotted from the
world." Jambs', i. 27.
2. Frequently when reference is made to the actual sub-
ject (521, K. 2) :
Suos rex reginae placet, Vh., St., 133; every queen favors her own
king {every Jill loves her own Jack). Osculatur tigrim suus custos, Sex.,
E.M., 85, 41 ; her own keeper kisses the tigress {the tigress is kissed by
her oivn keeper). Cui proposita sit conservatio sui necesse est hulc partes
quoque sui caras esse, C, Fin., v. 13, 37; he who has in view the preser-
vation of himself {self-preservation) must necessarily hold dear the
parts of {that) self also.
This is especially common with suos, which when thus employed
has usually its emphatic sense: own, peculiar, proper.
19^ PROKOUKS.
3. Sui, sibi, sS are the regular complements of the infinitive
and its equivalents when a reflexive idea is involved ; and
se is also used with prepositions erga, inter, propter, per, for
especial emphasis.
(RomanI) sui colligendl hostibus facultatem (non) rtlinquunt, Caes.,
B.O., III. 6, 1 ; the Romans do not leave the enemy a chance to rally.
Ipsum Furnmm per s§ vidi libentissime, C, Fam., x. 3, 1.
4. Suos (-us) is also used in prepositional phrases that are
joined closely with the substantives ; so after cum, inter, and
more rarely after in, intra, and ad.
MagSnem cum classe sua in Hispaniam mittunt, L., xxiil, 32, 11 ; they
sent Mago with his fleet to Spain. Helvetios in fines suos reverti iussit,
Caes., B.G., i. 28, 3 ; he ordered the Helvetians to return to their own
country.
So the phrases su5 tempore, at the right time ; suo loco, at the right
'place.
Comoediae quem tisum in pueris putem suo loco dicam, Quint., i. 8, 7 ;
what I consider to he the good of comedy in the case of hoys I will men-
tion in the proper place.
Notes.— 1. The writer may retain forms of is, if he deeiros to emphasize his own
point of view. So too in prepositional combinations,
(Caesar) Ciceronera pro Sius merito laudat, Cae?., b. 6'., v. 52, 4 ; ('(w.mr praises
Cicero according to his desert. [Pompeiusj cum decrgtum d6 m6 Capuae fgcit,
ipse cunctae Italiae 6ius fidem implOranti signum dedit, c, Mil., 15, 39.
2. In early comedy and tiien asriiin iu late Latin, suOS is eometimes strengthened by
sibi: Su5 sibi gladi5 hunc iugulO, TER.,ylc;.,g58 ; very rarely in claesical Latin
(C, i%., II. 37, 96). Similarly mea mihl, Pl., True., 698.
3. On suum quisque, see 318, 3.
4. In dependent clauses the reflexive is used with reference either to the principal or
to the subordinate subject. See for fuller treatment 521.
310. Idem, the same, serves to unite two or more attributes
or predicates on a person or thing ; it is often to be trans-
lated by at the same time; liheivise, also; yet, notioith-
standing.
(Cimon) incidit in eandem invidiam quam pater suus, Nep.,v. 3, 1;
Cimon fell into the same odium as his father. Quidquid honestum [estj
idem [est] tltile, C, Off., 11. 3, 10; ivhatever is honorahle is also (at the
same time) useful. Nil prOdest quod nOn laedere possit idem, Ov., Tr., 11.
266; nothing helps that may not likeivise hurt. (Epicurus), cum optimam
et praestantissimam naturam dei dicat esse, negat idem esse in deo gratiam,
C, N.D., 1.43, 121; although Epicurus says that the nature of God ia
PROKOUS"S.
197
transcendently good and great, yet (at the same time) he says that there
is no sense of favor in God. Difficilis facilis, iucundus acerbus, es idem,
Mart., XII. 47, 1 ; crabbed (and) kindly, sweet {and) sour, are you at once.
Remarks. — i. When a second attribute is to be added to a substan-
tive it is often connected by Idemque, et idem, atque Idem : Vir doctissimua
Plats atque Idem gravissimus philosopborum omnium, C, Leg., ir. 6, 14 ;
Plato, a most learned man, and at the same time weightiest of all the
philosophers.
2. The same as is expressed by Idem with qui, with atque or Sc, with
ut, with cum, and poetically with tlie Dative. See 359, n. 6, 643, G43,
Tibi mecum in eSdem est plstrln3 vivendum, C, Or., 11. 33, 144 ; you
have to live in the same treadmill with me.
3. idem cannot be used with is, of wrhich it is only a stronger form
(is + dem).
311. I. Ipse, self, is the distinctive pronoun, and separates
a subject or an object from all others :
Ipse f5ci, / myself did it and none other, I alone did it, I did it of
my 0W71 accord, I am the very man that did it. Nunc ipsum, at this
very instant, at this precise moment.
Valvae subito sg ipsae aperuSrunt, C, Z)iV., i. 34, 74 ; the folding-
doors suddenly opened of their own accord. (Cato) mortuus est annis
octoginta sex ipsis ante [Ciceronem] cSnsulem, Q.,Br., 15, CI ; Cato died
just eighty-six years before Cicero^s consulship. Huic rei quod satis esse
visum est militum rellquit (Caesar) ; ipse cum legionibus in finSs TrSve-
rSrum proficiscitur, Caes., B.G., v. 2, 4.
Remarks. — i. Owing to this distinctive character, ipse is often used
oi persons in opposition to things ; riders in opposition to horses ; in-
habitants in opposition to the towns which they inhabit ; the master of
the house in opposition to his household, etc.
ES quS me ipsa mlsit, Pl., Cas., ygo ; I am going where mistress
sent me. Ipse dixit, C, N.D., i. 5, 10 ; the master said (avros €<^a).
2. Et ipse, likewise, as well, is used when a new subject takes an old
predicate :
[Locrl urbs] dSsciverat et ipsa ad Poenos, L., xxix, 6, 1 ; Locri-city had
likewise (as well as the other cities) revolted to the Carthaginians.
[Camillus] ex Volscis in AequSs transiit et ipsos bellum molientSs, L., vi.
2, 14 ; Camillus went across from the Yolscians to the Aequians, who
were likewise (as well as the Volscians) getting up war.
Cicero prefers in this meaning ipse alone, but et ipse occurs occasionally (not in
Caesar or Sallust), and becomes the prevailing forai in Livy and later.
2. Ipse is used to lay stress on the reflexive relation ; in
198 PRONOUN'S.
the Nominative when the subject is emphatic, in the Oblique
Cases when the object is emphatic.
S6 ipse laudat, lie (and not another) praises himself. Se ipsum laudat,
he praises himself (sind not another).
Piger ipse sibi obstat, Prov. (Sex, jEJ J/., 94, 28) ; ihe lazy man
stands in his own way, is his own obstacle. Non egeo medicina ; mg
ipse c5ns51or, C, Lael., 3, 10 ; J do ?wt need medicine; I comfort my-
self (I am my only comforter). EQdem modo sapiens erit affectus ergS
amicum quo in se ipsum, C, Fm., i. 20, 08 ; the ivise mati will feel to-
wards his friend as he feels towards himself.
Exceptions are common :
Quique aliis cavit, non cavet ipse sibI, Ov., ^.^., i. 84 ; a7id he ivho
cai'edfor others, cares not for himself.
Note.— LiVY seems to use sometimes ipse in connection with a reflexive as if it were
indeclinable or absolute : cum dies venit, causa ipse pro se dicta, damnatur, L.,
IV. 44, 10 ; ivhen the appointed dmj came he pleaded his oxon cause and was condemned.
4. Possessive Pronouns.
312. The Possessive Pronouns are more rarely used in Latin
than in English, and chiefly for the purpose of contrast or
clearness.
Manus lava et cena, C, Or., 11. 60, 246 ; ivash {your) hands and dine.
Praedia mea tti possides, e^o aliena misericordia vivo, C, Rose. Am., 50,
143 ; you are in possession of my estates, {while) I live on the charity
of others.
Remarks. — i. Observe the intense use of the Possessive in the sense
of property, peculiarity, fitness : suum esse, to belong to one's self, to
he one's own man.
Tempore tuo ptlgnasti, L., xxxvin. 45, 10 ; you hare fov.ghf at your
own time (= when you wished). Hoc honore mS adfScistis anno meS,
C, Leg. Agr., 11, 2, 4 ; you visited me ivi.th this honor in my own year
{— tlie first year in which I could be made consul). Pugna suum finem,
cum iacet hostis, habet, Ov., Tr., iii. 5, 34; a fight has reached its fit end
tvhen the foe is doirn.
2. On the use of the Possessive Pronouns for the Gen., see 304.
5. Indefinite Pronouns.
313. Qnidam means one, a, a certain one, definite or indefi-
nite to the speaker, but not definitely designated to the hearer.
In the Plural, it is equivalent to some, sundry, without em-
phasis.
PRON^OUNS.
199
Interea mulier qnaedam commigravit hue, Ter., And., 69 ; meanwhile
a certain woman took up her quarters here. Intellegendum est quibusdam
quaestionibus alios, quibusdam alios esse aptiorgs looos, C, Top., 21, 79 :
it is to he observed t/iat some grounds are more suitable for some questions,
for some, others, Tam nescire quaedam militSs quam scire oportet, Tag.,
//., I. 83.
Remarks. — i. With an adjective quidam often serves to heighten tlie
attribute by adding a vagueness to it. (Gr. ns)-
Est quodam incredibili rSbore animl, C, Mil., 37, 101 ; really he is en-
doived ivith a strange strengtti of mind {one that is past belief ).
2. Quidam is often used with or without quasi, as if, to modify an
expression :
N5n sunt isti audiendi qui virtutem duram at quasi ferream esse quandam
volunt, C, Lael., 13, 48 ; ttiose frietids of yours are not to be listened to
tvho will have it (maintain) that virtue is hard, and, as it were, made of
iron. Est quaedam virtutum vitiSrumque viclnia, Quint., ii. 12, 4 {cf.
III. 7, 25) ; there is a certain neighborly relation between virtues and
vices.
3. Quidam may bo strengthened by the addition of certus or tlnus:
Vita agenda est certo genere quodam, nQn quolibet, C, Fin., in. 7, 24.
Est eloquentia una quaedam dS sununis virttitibus, C, Or., iii. 14, 55.
314. Aliquis (aliqui) means, sotne one, some one or other,
wholly indefinite to the speaker as well as to the hearer :
[Dgclamabam] cum aliquo cottldiS, C, Br., 90, 310 ; I used to declaim
with somebody or other daily.
In the predicate it is often emphatic (by Litotes, 700) : sum aliquis,
aliquid, / am somebody = a person of importance, something = of
some weight; opposed to : nullus sum, nihil sum, lam a nobody, nothing.
This force is often heightened by a following contrast :
Est hoc aliquid, tametsi n5n est satis, C, Div. in Caec, 15, 47 ; this
is something, although it is not eyiough. Fac, ut m6 veils esse aliquem,
quoniam, qui fui et qui esse potui, iam esse non possum, C, Alt., 11 r. 15, 8 ;
do make out that I am somebody, since I can no longer be the man I was
and the man I might have been.
Remarks. — r. Aliquis and aliqui are distinguished as substantive and
adjective; accordingly, when aliquis is used with a substantive the rela-
tion is appositional. This always occurs with Proper names; and even
with other substantives the Romans seem to have preferred aliquis to
aliqui. (See 107, n. i.)
2. With numerals, aliquis is used like English some. Occasionally
also it has the force of many a. So in Caes., B.C., i. 2, 2, dixerat aliquis
Ifiniorem sententiam, where aliquig refers to three persons, named later.
20O PRONOUNS.
315. ftuis (qni), fainter than aliquis, is used chiefly after
si, if; nisi, unless ; ne, lest ; num, ivliethery and in lelative
sentences. See 107, k.
NS quid nimis ! 'V^vi., And.,6i', nothing in excess! Fit pl6rumque
at if qui boni quid voluut adferre, adfingant aliquid, quo faciant id, quod
nuntiant, laetius, C, Ph., i. 3, 8; it often happens that those who wish to
bring (some) good tidings^ invent something more, to make the 7iews more
cheering.
Notes.— 1. AKquis is used after si, etc., when there is stress : si quis, if any ; si
aliquis, ifso?ne ; si quid, ?/ anything ; si quidquam, {f anything at all.
Si aliquid dandnm est voluptati, senectus modicis conviviis delectari po-
test, C., Caio. M., 14, 44 ; if something is to be given tojyleasure (as something or other
must), old age can take delight in mild festivities.
Aliquis is regular if the sentence contains two negatives : [VerrSs] nihil umquam
fecit sine aliquo quaestu, C, Verr., v. 5. 11. (446.)
2. "Quis and qui are distinguished as aliquis and aliqui, but the distinction is often
neglected, even in classical Latin. See 107, n. 1.
316. Quispiam is rarer than aliquis, but not to be distin-
guished from it, except that quispiam never intimates impor-
tance. Dixerit quispiam, C, Cat.M., 3, 8 ; some one may say.
317. I. ftuisquam and ullus (adjective) mean any owe (at
all), and are used chiefly in negative sentences, in sentences
that imply total negation, and in sweeping conditions :
[lustitia] numquam nocet cuiquam, C, Fin., i. 16, 50 ; justice never
hurts anybody. Quis umquam Graecorum rhStorum a Thucydide quidquam
duzit? C, Or., 9, 317; lohat Greek rhetorician ever dreiv anything from
Tfiucydides? [None]. Si quisquam, ille sapiens fuit, C, Lael., 2, 9 ; if
any one at all (was) wise, he ivas. Quamdiu quisquam erit qui te defen-
dere audeat, vivSs, C, Cat., i. 2, C ; so long as there shall be any one to
dare defend you, live on. Hostem esse in Syria negant ullum, C, Fam.,
III. 8, 10 ; they say that there is not any enemy in Syria. OmninO nSmS
miius rei fuit emptor cui defuerit hie venditor, C, Ph., 11. 38, 97 ; gen-
erally there was never a buyer of anythirig who lacked a seller in him
{no one ever wanted to buy anything that he was not ready to sell).
So after comparatives :
SOlis candor inlQstrior est quam fiUius ignis, C, N.D., 11. 15, 40 ; the
brilliancy of the sun is more radiant than that of any fire.
Notes. — 1. Quisquam is occasionally (principally in Livy) strengthened by unus,
especially after a negative : Cum multl magis fremerent, quam quisquam iinus
recflsare audfiret, L-, m. 45, 4.
2. After sine, irithoiit, omnI is often used ir.stead of ull6 (tllla) i" early Latin :
Sine omnicttra dormias, Pi-., THn., 621.
3. On quisquam as an adj., see 107, 3, n. 2. Ullus is occasionally a subst. in Livy.
PRONOUNS. 2GI
2. The negative of quisquam is nemS, nohody ; nihil, noth-
ing (108). The negative of tillus is ntillus, no, none, which
is also used regularly as a substantive in the Genitive and
Ablative instead of neminis and nemine.
Uemd is also sometimes used apparently as an adjective,
though the conception is usually appositional.
Nemo vir magnus, C, N.D., ii. 66, 167 ; no great man, no one {who is)
a fjreat man.
Notes.— 1 . On neque quisquam and et n6m5, see 480.
2. Nullus is used in familiar language instead of nOn (so sometimes in English) :
Fhilippus nullus usquam, L., xxxir. 35, 2 ; no Philip anywhere. Quis is also used
familiarly : Prospectum petit, Anthea si quern videat, V., J.., 1. 181 ; anAnthms,
i. e., Aritheus or iicmiebody ivho would answer for him.
3. NemQ and nullus are occasionally strengthened by Unus,
318. I. duisque means each one, as opposed to omnis, every,
and is usually post-positive.
Mens cuiusque, is est quisque, C, Rep., vi. 24, 26 ; each man's mind
is each man's self. Laudati omnSs sunt donatique pro merits quisque,
L., xxxviii. 23 ; all were praised and rewarded, each one accord'mxj to
his desert. Quam quisque norit artem in hac sg exerceat, [C], Tusc.,i.
i8,41. (616.)
2. With superlatives and ordinals quisque is loosely trans-
lated every :
Optimum quidque rarissimum est, C, i^m., 11. 25, 81 ; every good
thing is rare ; more accurately, the better a thing, the rarer it is. (645,
R. 2.) Qulnto quoque anno Sicilia tota cSns6tur, C, Verr., 11. 56, 139 ;
every fifth year all Sicily is assessed.
3. duisque combines readily with the reflexives, sul, sibi,
se, SUU3, in their emphatic sense (309, 2). Here, except for
special reasons, the reflexive precedes. Suum cuique has be-
come a standing phrase.
Sua quemque fraus et suus terror vexat, C, Rose. Am., 24, 67 ; it is
his own sin and Ids own alarm that harasses a man.
Notes.— 1. After Cicero's time, owing to the phraseological character of the com-
bination, sui etc. quisque, we find it used without agreement.
Exercitus amisso duce ac passim multis sibi quisque imperium petentibus
brevi dilabitur, S.,/m^., i8,3. Instigando suos quisque populos effScere ut
omne Volscum nomen deficeret, L., n. 38, 6.
2. Classical but not connnon is the attraction of quisque into the case of the
reflexive. Haec proclivitas ad suum quodque genus a similitudine corporis
aegrotatio dicatur, c, Tusc, iv. 12, 28.
202 PRONOUNS.
3. Quisque combined with primus has two meanings : (a) as early as possible., (6>
one after the other in order (deinceps)-
Primo quoque tempore, C, Ph., m. 15, 39 ; at the earliest time possible. Primum.
quidque (each thing in order) coasid,era quale sit, C, N.D., i. 27, 77.
4. The various uses of quisqae are well summed up in Nagelsbach's formulae :
a. Non omnia omnibus tribuenda sunt, sed suum cuique ;
b. Omnes idem faciant, sed optimus quisque optime ;
c. Non omnibus annis hoc fit, sed tertio quoque anno ;
d. Non omnes idem faciunt, sed quod quisque vult.
319. Alter and alius are both translated other, another, but
alter refers to one of two, alius to diversity. They are used
in various phraseological ways, which can be best shown by
examples :
Solus aut cum altero, alone or with (only) one other ; alter Nero, a
second Nero.
Alter alterum quaerit, one (definite person) seeks the other (definite
person) ; alius alium quaerit, one seeks one, another another ; alter! —
alteri, one party — another party (already defined) ; alii— alii, so)7ie —
others. Alter often means neighbor, brother, fellow-man ; alius, third
person.
Alter :
(AgSsilalis) fuit claudus altero pede, Nep., xvii. 8, 1 ; Agesilaiis was
lame of one foot. Altera manu fert lapidem, panem ostentat altera, Pl.,
Aul., 195; 171 one hand a stone he carries, in the other holds out bread.
Mors nee ad vivos pertinet nee ad mortuos : alteri nulli (317, 2, n. 2) sunt,
alteros non attinget, C, Tusc, i. 38, 91 ; death concerns neither the liv-
ing nor the dead : the latter are not, the former it will not reach.
Alius :
Fallacia alia aliam trudit, Ter., And , 779 ; one lie treads on the heels
of another (indefinite series). Alii voluptatis causa omnia sapientSs
facere dixSrunt ; alii cum voluptate dignitatem coniungendam putavSrunt,
C, Gael., 15, 41 ; some have said that wise men do every thing for the
sake of pleasure, others have thought that pleasure is to be combined
with dignity. Divitias alii praeponunt, alii honores, C, Lael., 6, 20; some
prefer riches, others honors. Alii vestrum anserSs sunt, alii cangs, C-.,
Rose. Am., 20, 57 ; some of you are geese, others dogs. Aliud alii nattira
iter ostendit, S., C, 2, 9 ; nature shows one path to one man, another
path to another man.
Alter and alius :
Ab alio expectSs alteri quod fSceris, Syrus, 2 (Fr.) ; you may look for
from another ivhat you've done unto yo^ir brother (from No. 3, what
No. I has done to No. 2),
APiOSITION". 203
NoTBS.— 1. Alius is found occasionally, especially in late Latin, for alter : alius
KerO, Suet., Tit. 7 ; but in CAEs.,i^.G^., 1. 1, 1, alius follows tinus. Alii for re-
liqui or cSterl is occasional, in the earlier times, but more common in Livy and later.
2. The Greek usage of alius in the meaning besides, is post-Ciceronian and rare.
£0 missa plaustra iumentaque alia, L., iv. 41, 8.
APPOSITION.
3.20. By apposition one substantive is placed by the side of
another, which contains it :
Cicero orator, Cicero the orator. Rhgnus flumen, the river Rhine.
CONCORD.
321. The word in apposition agrees with the principal wo/d
(or words) in case, and as far as it can in gender and number :
Noni. Herodotus pater historiae, Herodotus the father of historj-;
Gen. Herodoti patris historiae ; Dat. Herodoto patri historiae.
Cnidus et ColophSn, nobilissimae urbes, captae sunt, Cf. C, Imj}., 12, 33;
Cnidus and Colophon, most nohle cities, ivere taken. Omnium doctrina-
rum inventrices Athgnae, Cf. C, Or., i. 4, 13; Athens, the inve7itor of all
branches of learning.
Remarks. — i. Exceptions in number are due to special uses, as, for
example, when deliciae or amorgs, etc., are used of a Singular :
Pompgius, nostri amorgs, ipse sg alflixit, C, Att., ir. 19, 3 ; Pompey, our
special passion, has wrecked himself.
2. The Possessive Pronoun takes the Gen. in apposition :
Tuum, hominis simplicis, pectus vidimus, C, PA., 11. 43, 111 ; we have
seen your bosom bared, you open-hearted creature ! Urbs mea tinius opera
fuit salva, Cf. C, Pis., 3, C ; the city ivas saved by my exertions alone.
3. On the agreement of the predicate with the word in apposition,
see 211, R. C.
Notes.— 1. In poetry, insteaf] of tlie Voc. in apposition, the Nom. is often found.
Semper celebrabere d5nis, Corniger Hesperidum, fluvius rSgnator aquarum,
v., A., VIII. 77. In prose not before Pliny.
2. Very rarely persons are lool^ed upon as tilings, and the Appositivcs used in the
neuter : Dum patrgs et pl6bem, invalida et inermia, liidificgtur, Tac, Ann., i. 46.
322. Partitive A2)positio}i. — Partitive Apposition is tliat
form of Apposition in which a part is taken out of the whole.
It is sometimes called Restrictive Apposition.
Maxuma pars ferg mSrem hunc homings habent, Pl , Capt., 232 ; man-
kind — 2^''^ify niucJi the greatest part of them — have iJiis way. Cetera
multitUdo sorte decumus quisque ad supplicium lecti (sunt), L., 11. 59, 11 ;
(of) the rest of the crowd every tentli man ivas chosen by lot for punish-
ment.
204 APPOSITION".
323. Distrihtitive Apposiiioii. — Distributive Apposition is
that form of Apposition in which the whole is subdivided
into its parts, chiefly with alter — alter, the one — tlie other ;
quisque, uterque, each one ; alii — alii, pars — pars, mme —
others. (It is often called Partitive Apposition.)
Duae filiae altera occisa altera capta est, Caes., B.G., i. 53, 4 ; {of)
two daughters, the one ivas killed, the other captured.
Remark. — The Part. Gen. is more commonly employed than cither
of these forms of apposition.
Notes.— 1. Partitive Apposition is not found in Cicero or Caesar, and Distributive
Apposition rarely. Tlicy are more frequent in Sallust, and not uncommon in Livy.
2. Tlic Greelv figure of the tvJiole and the part (,(txvi^<^ «a^' oAov xal fiepo^) is rare and
poetical in Latin. Latagum saxo occupat OS faciemque adversam, v.. A., x. 698 ;
87}iites Latagus nnfh a bowlder, full (irt) mouth and face {(f. Eng. '■'■hand and foot'").
324. Apposition to a Sentence. — Sometimes an Accusative
stands in apposition to a whole preceding sentence ; either
explaining the contents of the sentence or giving the end or
the aim of the action involved in the sentence. The latter
usage, however, is not found in Cicero or Caesar.
Admoneor ut aliquid etiam dS sepultura dicendum existimem, rem non
difficilem, C, Tusc, i. 43, 102 ; / am reminded to take into considera-
tiun tltat something is to he said about burial also— an easy matter,
Deserunt tribunal, ut quis praetorianorum militum occurreret manus inten-
tantes, causam discordiae et initium armorum, Tag., Ann., i. 27.
If the main verb is passive the Appositive may be in the Nominative:
Tag., Ann., in. 27.
Notes.— 1. Neuter adjectives and participles are occasionally used in the same way,
and some regard such neuters as Nominatives.
2. This Ace. is to be regarded as the object effected (330) by the general action of the
sentence.
Predicative Attribution and Predicative Apposition.
325. Any case may be attended by the same case in Pred-
icative Attribution or Apposition, which differ from the
ordinary Attribution or Apposition in translation only.
Nominative : Filius aegrStus rediit.
Ordinary Attribution : Tlie sick son returned.
Predicative Attribution : 77ie -sou retarned sick = he was sick
when he returned.
Hercules iuvenis le6nem interfgcit.
Ordinary Apposition : T/16 young man Hercules slew a Hon.
APPOSITION". 205
Predicative Apposition : Hercules, when a young man, sleiv a
lion = he ivas a young inan when he slew a lion.
Genitive : Potestas 6ius adhibendae uxoris, the permission to take her
to wife.
Dative : Amlco vlv5 non subvenisti, you did not Itelp your friend
{while he ivas) alive.
Accusative : Hercules cervam vivam cepit.
Ordinary Attribution : Hercules caught a living doe.
Predicative Attribution : Hercules caught a doe alive.
Ablative : Aere iituntur importato, they use imported copper = the
copper which they use is imported.
Remarks. — i. The Voc, not being a case proper, is not used piedi-
catively. Exceptions are apparent or poetical.
Quo, moriture, ruisi V., A., x. 810 ; " whither dost thou rush to die^^
(thou doomed to die) 9 Sic venias, hodierne, Tib., i. 7, 53.
Notice here the old phrase : Macte virtute estO, H., 8., i. 2, 31 ; m-
crease in virtue — heaven speed thee in thy high career.
Macte is regarded by some as an old Voc., from the same stem as magnus; by-
others as an adverb. A third view is that macte with est6 is an adverb, and only
when used absolutely a Vocative.
2. VictorSs redierunt may mean, the conquerors returned, or, they re-
turned conquerors ; and a similar predicative use is to be noticed in
Idem, the same: lidem abeunt qui vSnerant, C, Fin., iv. 3, 7 ; they go
away just as they had come (literally, the same persons as they had come).
3. Predicative Attribution and Apposition are often to be turned
into an abstract substantive :
Defend! rem ptiblicam adulescens, non deseram senex, C, Ph., 11. 46, 118;
J defended the state in my youth, I will not desert her in my old age.
So with prepositions :
Ante Ciceronem consulem, before the consulship of Cicero ; ante urbem
conditam, before the building of the city.
4. Do not confound the " as" of apposition with the "as" of com-
parison— ut, quasi, tamquam, sicut, velut ((>02, n. 1, C42): Hanc (virtfltem)
vobi3 tamquam hereditatem maiores vestrl reliqjierunt, C, Ph., iv. 5, 13 ;
your ancestors left you this virtue as (if it icere) a legacy.
5. When especial stress is laid on the adjective or substantive pred-
icate, in combination with the verbal predicate, the English langUcage
is prone to resolve the sentence into its elements :
Fragilem truci commisit pelagO ratem primus, H., 0., i. 3, 10 ; his frail
bark to the wild waves he trusted first = to trust his frail bark to the
wild waves he was first. Una salus victis nuUam sperare salutem, V., J..,
II- 353 > sole safety for the vaiiquished His, to hope for iione — the only
safety that the vanquished have, is to hope for none.
2o6 PREDICATE.
6. The English idiom often uses the adverb and adverbial expressions
instead of the Latin adjective : so in adjectives of inclination and dis-
inclination, knowledge and ignorance, of order and position, of time and
season, and of temporary condition generally : libgns, with pleasure;
volens, zvilling{l}j) ; nol6ns, unwilling{ly) ; invitus, against one's ivill ;
prudgns, aware ; imprudens, unawares ; sciens, knowing{hj) ; prinms, prior,
first; nltimus, /as/ ; medius, in, about the middle; hodiernus, to-da.y ;
matutinus, in the mor^iing ; frequSns, frequent{ly) ; sublimis, aloft ; totus,
wholly ; solus, unu3, alone, and many others.
Ego eum a mg invitissimus dimisi, C, Fam., xiii. 63, 1 ; 7 dismissed
Mm most unwillingly. Plus hodig boni fgci imprudens quam sciens ante
hunc diem nmquam, Ter., Ilec, 880; / have done more good to-day
unawares than I have ever done knowingly before. Adcurrit, mediam
mulierem complectitur, Ter., And., 133 ; he runs up, puts his arms about
the ivoman's waist. Qui prior strinxerit ferrum eius victoria erit, L., xxiv.
38, 5 (244, R. 2). Vespertinus pete tectum, II., Ej) , i 6, 20 ; seek thy dwell-
ing at eventide. Rarus venit in cgnacula mUes, Juv., x. 18 ; the soldiery
rarely comes into the garret. Sg totos tradidgrunt voluptatibus, C,
Lael., 23, 86 ; they have given themselves wholly to pleasure. Soli hoc
contingit sapienti, C, Par., v. i, 34 ; this good luck happens to the wise
man alone = it is only the wise man who has this good hick.
7. Carefully to be distinguished are the uses of primus, and the ad-
verbs primum, first, for the first time, and primo, at first. Primum means
first in a series ; primo, first in a contrast. But these distinctions are
not always observed.
Primum docent esse deos, deinde qualgs sint, turn mundum ab iis admi-
nistrari, postrgmo consulere eos rgbus humanis, Q.,N.D.,n. i, 3 ; first,
they teach us that there are gods, next of ivhat 7iature they are, then
that the world is ruled by them, finally, that they take thought for
human affairs. PrimS StoicSrum more agamus, deinde nostro institutS
vagabimur, C, Tusc, iii. 6, 13 ; let us treat the subject at first after the
manner of the Stoics, afterwards ice will ramble after our own fashion.
B.
1. Multiplibation of the Predicate.
326. The Multiplication of tlie Predicate requires no fur-
ther rules than those that have been given in the general
doctrine of Concord.
2. Qualification of the Predicate.
327. The Qualification of the Predicate may be regarded
as an External or an Internal change :
EXTERNAL CHANGE— ACCUSATIVE. 20/
I. External change : combination with an object.
I. Direct Object, Accusative. 2. Indirect Object, Dative.
II. Internal change : combination with an attribute which
may be in the form of
1. The Genitive case. 3. Preposition with a case.
2. The Ablative. 4. An Adverb.
Note.— The Infinitive forme (Infinitive, Genind, Gerundive, and Supine) appear
now as objects, now as attributes, and require a separate trcatiuer.t.
1. External Change.
Accusative.
The great function of the Accusative is to form temporary compounds with the verb,
as the great function of the Genitive is to form temporary compounds with the noun.
Beyond this statement everything is more or less extra-grammatical, and sharp sub-
divisions are often unsatisfactory. Still it may be said that
328. The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object.
The Direct Object is the object which defines directly the
action of the verb.
Remark. — The Dative defines indirectly because it involves an Ac-
cusative ; and the Genitive with the verb depends upon the nominal
idea contained in the verb.
1. (a) The Object may be contained in the verb (Inner
Object, Object Effected) :
Dens mundum creavit, God made a creation — the universe.
(b) Akin to this is the Accusative of Extent :
A recta cSnscientia trSversum unguem nOn oportet disc6dere, C, A ft.,
xiTT. 20, 4 ; one ought not to swerve a naithi'eadth from a right conscience.
Decern annos (Troia) oppugnata est, L., v. 4, 11 ; ten years ivas Troy
besieged. Maximam partem lacte vivunt, Caes., B.O., iv. i, 8 ; for the
most part they live on milk.
2. The object may be distinct from the verb (Outer Ob-
ject, Object Affected) :
Deus mundum gubernat, God steers the universe.
208 ACCUSATIVE.
General View of the Accusative.
329. I. Inner Object : Object Effected :
Cognate Accusative.
Accusative of Extent.
1. In Space.
2. In Time.
3. In Degree.
Terminal Accusative (Point Reached).
II. Outer Object : Object Affected :
1. Whole.
2. Part (so-called Greek Accusative).
III. Inner and Outer Objects combined :
1. Asking and Teaching.
2. Making and Taking.
rV. Accusative as tlie most general form of the object (object
created or called up by the mind) :
1. In Exclamations.
2. Accusative and Infinitive,
DIRECT OBJECT (Inner and Outer).
Note.— The Accusative is the object reached bj' the verb. This object is either in
apposition to the result of the action of the verb, and then it is called the Inner Object
or Object Effected ; or it is in attribution to the result of the action, and then it is said
to be the Outer Object or Object Affected. The Inner Object is sometimes called the
Voluntary Accusative, because it is already contained in the verb ; the Outer Object is
sometimes called the Necessary Accusative, because it is needed to define the character
of the action ; both verb and substantive contribute to the result ; compare hominem
caedere (occidere), lo slay a man (Object Affected), with homicidium facere (6J.
Quint., v. 9,9), io commit manslaughter (Object Effected).
330. Active Transitive Verbs take the Accusative case :
Eomulus TTrbem BSmain condidit, 0/. C, Dt'f., i. 17, 30 ; Romulus
founded the City of Rome. (Object Effected.)
[M6ns] regit corpus, C, Rep., vi. 24, 3G ; mind governs body. (Object
Affected.)
Remark. — Many verbs of Emotion which are intrans. in English are
trans, in Latin, as : dol6re, to grieve (for) ; d6sp5r5re, to despair (of);
horrgre, to shudder (at) ; mirarl, to ivonder (at) ; rid6re, to laugh (at).
HonSrgs dgspgrant, C, Crt/., 11. 9. 10 ; they despair of honors (give
them up in despair). Necata est Vitia quod filii necem flevisset (541),
Tag., Ann., vi. lo. 1 ; Vitia was executed for having ivept (for) her son's
execution. COnscia mens rSctI Famae mendacia risit, Ov., i^., iv. 311 ;
conscious of right, her soul (but) laughed (at) the falsehoods of Rumor.
ACCUSATIVE. 209
Notes.— 1. From the definition of transitive given above (213, B.) it will be seen that
this traditional rule reverses the poles ; it is retained merely for practical purposes.
2. This Ace. with verbs of Emotion is very rare in early Latin, and is not widely
extended even in the classical period. With most verbs an Abl. of C:mse or a preposi-
tional phrase is much more common, as : Ciir dg sua virtute d6spSrarent ? Caes.,
£.6., 1. 40,4.
3. The Ace. with verbal substantives is confined to Plautus : quid tibi nos
tactiSst, mendlce homS 1 Aul., 423.
4. The Ace. with verbal adjectives in -undus is rare and mainly post-classical :
Haec prope contionabundus circumibat homings, L., m. 47, 2.
331. Verbs compounded with the prepositions ad, ante,
circum, con, in, inter, ob, per, praeter, sub, subter, super, and
trans, which become transitive, take the Accusative.
All with circum, per, praeter, trans, and subter.
Many with ad, in, and super.
Some with ante, con, inter, ob, and sub. See 347.
Pythagoras Persarum magQs adiit, C, Fm., y. 2g, 87 ; Pythagoras
applied to (consulted) the Persian magi. Stella Veneris antegreditur
Bolem, C, K.D., ii. 20, 53 ; the star Venus goes in advance of the sun.
Omngs Domitium circumsistunt, Caes., B.C., i. 20,5 ; all surround Do-
mitius. Earn, si opus esse vidgbitur, ipse conveniam, C, Fam., v. 11, 2 ;
/ will go to see her, myself, if it shall seem expedie?it. Convivia cum
patre non inibat, C, Rose. Am., 18, 52 ; he ivould not go to banquets with
his father. Fretum, quod Naupactura et Patras interfluit, Ij. , xxvir. 29, 9 ;
the frith tliat flows between Naupactus and Patrae. Alexander tertiS
et tricgsimo anno mortem obiit, C, Ph., v. 17, 48 ; Alexander died in his
thirty -third year. Caesar omnem agrum Picgnum percurrit, Caes., B.C.,
I. 15. 1 ; Caesar traversed rapidly cdl the Pice?iian district. [Populus]
Bolet dignos praeterire, C, Plane, 3, 8 : the people is ivont to pass by the
worthy. Epaminondas poenam subiit, Cf. Nep , xv. 8, 2 ; Epaminondas
submitted to the punishment. Criminum vim subterfugere nullo mods
poterat, C, Verr., i. 3, 8 ; he coidd in no way evade the force of the
charges. R5mani ruinas muri supervadgbant, L., xxxn. 24, 5 ; the
Romans marched over the ruins of the wall. Crassus Euphratem niilla
belli causa transiit, Cf. C, Fi7i., in. 22, 75; Crassus crossed the Euphrates
without any cause for war.
Remarks. — 1. If the simple verb is trans., it can take two Accusa-
tives : Equitum magnam partem flumen traigcit, Caes., B.C., i. 55, 1; he
(hrew a great part of the cavalry across the river.
2. With many of these verbs the preposition may be repeated ; but
never circum : Copias traigcit Rhodanum, or trans Rhodanum, he threw his
troops across the Rhone.
3. Sometimes a difference of signification is caused by the addition
of the preposition :
14
2IO ACCUSATIVE.
Adire ad aliquem, to go to a man ; adire aliquem, to apply to {to con*
suit) a man.
INNER OBJECT.
332. Any verb can take an Accusative of the Inner Object,
when that object serves to define more narrowly or to explain
more fully the contents of the verb.
The most common form of this object is a neuter pronoun or adjec-
tive.
The most striking form is the so-called Cognate Accusative.
333. I. Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives are often used
to define or modify the substantive notion that lies in the
verb.
Xenophon eadem ferS peccat, C.,N.D., i. 12, 31 ; Xenophon makes
very much the same mistakes. Vellem equidem idem possem glSriari quod
Cyrus, C, Cat.M., 10, 32 ; for my part I could wish that it were in my
power to make the same boast as Cyrus.
With trans, verbs an Ace. of the person can be employed besides:
Discipulos id unum moneo ut praeceptorSs suds non minus quam ipsa
studia ament, Quint., ii. 9, 1 ; / give pupils this one piece of advice,
that they love their teachers no less than their studies themselves.
Remarks. — i. The usage is best felt by comparing the familiar Eng-
lish it after intrans. verbs, " to walk it, to foot it," etc., where " it"
represents the substantive that lies in "walk, foot," etc.
2. In many cases the feeling of the case is lost to the consciousness,
so especially with the interrogative quid, which has almost the foi-ce of
ciir. Quid ridSs ? what (laughter) are you laughing = what means your
laughter ?
Id nOs ad t§, si quid vellSs, v§nimus, Pl,, M.G., 1158 ; thaVs why we
have come to you, to see if you wanted anything.
N0TE8.— 1. With verbs of Emotion this Ace, gives the ground of the emotion :
TJtrumque laetor (I have a •double gladness., I am doubly glad), et sine dolore tS
fuisse et anim5 valuisse, C, Fam., vii. i, 1. Laetae exclamant : vSnit ! id quod
{in this that, /w this that) mS repente aspexerant, Teu., Ilec, 368.
From this arises the causal force of quod, in that = because.
2. Occasionally, but at all periods, the relative is used thus, to facilitate connection
with a demonjitriitlve clause :
Quae hominSs arant {.what men do in the way of plowing, etc.), navigant, aedifi-
cant, omnia virttiti parent, S., C, 2, 7. Id ipsum quod maneam in vita U« the
vei-yfact of my remaining in life) peccare mS [existimo], C, Fam., iv. 13, 2.
2. Cognate Accusative. — When the dependent word is of
the same origin or of kindred meaning with the verb, it is
called the Cognate Accusative, and usually has an attribute
ACCUSATIVE. 211
Faciam ut mel memineris dum vitam vivas, Pl. , Pers. , 494 ; TU make
you think of me the longest day you live. Mirum atque inscitum somniavi
somniuin, Pl., Rud., 597 ; a marvellous and uncanny dream Tve dreamed.
luravi verissimum itis iurandum, C, Fam., v. 2, 7; I swore the truest of
oaths.
Remark. — After the analogy of the Cognate Ace. are many phrase-
ological usages, such as rem certare, to fight a case ; foedus ferire, to make
a treaty (compare, to strike a bargain); itis respondgre, to render an
opinion ; causam vincere, to win a case, etc. Also the phrases with
ire : exsequias ire, to attend a funeral ; infitias ire, to deny, etc.
Notes.— 1. The omission of the attribute is found most often in legal phraseology,
proverbs, and the like :
Maiorum nSmS servitutem servivit, C., Top.., 6, 29 ; of our ancestors no one ever
slaved {what you would call) a slavery. Si servos furtuiu faxit noxiamve noxit,
XII. Ta?j.
2. When the Cognate Ace. is replaced by a word of similar meaning, but of a differ-
ent root, the effect is much the same as when an adjective is employed with the normal
Accusative. This usage, however, is rare, and mainly poetical.
Tertiam iam aetatem homimun (Nestor) vivSbat, C, Cat.M., 10,31 (reading
doubtful). Omne militabitur bellum, H., Epod., i, 23.
8. Interesting extensions are found in the poets, and rarely in prose.
Qui CuriSs simulant et Bacchanalia vivunt, Juv., n. 3. Nunc Sat3rrum,
nunc agrestem Cyclopa movetur, H., Ep., 11. 2, 125.
4. Instead of the Inner Ace. the Abl. is occasionally found : lapidibus pluere, to
rain stones ; sanguine sUdare, to siveat blood.
Herculis simulacrum mult5 sudore manavit, C, Dtv., i. 34, 74 ; the statue of
Hercules ran freely with sweat.
5. Verbs of Smell and Taste have the Inner Object, which is an extension of the
Cognate variety.
Fiscis sapit ipsum mare, Cf. Sen., N. Q., hi. 18, 2 ; the fish tastes of the very sea.
Non omnes possunt olSre unguenta exotica, Pl., Most., 42 ; it is not every one can
smell of foreign perfumes.
6. A poetical and post-classical construction is that which makes a substantival
neuter adjective the object of a verb. This occurs chiefly with verbs of sound : nec
mortale sonans, V., ^1., vi. 50 ; magna sonattirum, II.,*S'., i. 4, 44. Yet bolder is
nec vox hominem sonat, V.,^4.,i. 328. A verb of sight is found in tam cernis
acutum, H., aS'., i. 3, 26. Cf. dulce ridentem, ll., 0., i. 22, 23.
Accusative of Extent.
The Accusative of Extent has to do with Degree^ Space,
or Time.
334. The Accusative of Extent in Degree is confined to
neuter adjectives and pronouns used substantively, multum,
plus, tantum, quantum, etc.
Si mS amas tantum quantum profecto amas, C, Att., 11. 20, 5 ; if you
love me as much as in fact you do love me.
212 ACCUSATIVE.
"Remarks. — i. The number of adjectives and pronouns so used is
large, and in many cases the form is felt more as an adverb than as a
substantive.
2. Here belong the adverbial Accusatives tuam, etc., partem, vicem,
which occur occasionally at all periods.
335. The Accusative of Extent in Space is used properly
only with words that involve a notion of space. When space
is not involved in the governing word the idea of extent is
given by the use of per, through.
Trabes, distantes inter se binos pedgs, in solo collocantur, Caes., E.G.,
VII. 23, 1 ; beams two feet apart are planted in the ground. A rScta con-
scientia traversum unguem non oportet discedere, C. Att., xiii. 20, 4 (328,
b). Equitgs per 6ram maritimam dispositi sunt, Cf. Caes., B.C., iii. 24,
4 ; cavalry were posted along the sea shore. Phoebidas iter per Thebas
[fgcit], Nep., XVI. I, 2 ; Phoebidas marched through 'Thebes. Milites
aggerem latum pedes trecentos triginta altum pedSs octoginta exstruxe-
runt, Caes., B.G., vii. 24, 1; the soldiers raised an embankment three
hundred and thirty feet wide (and) eighty feet high.
Kemarks. — I. The adjectives in most common use with this Accusa-
tive are longus, long, latus, wide, altus, deep, high. Thick?iess, which
was indicated in early times by crassus, is expressed by phrases with
crassitudo. Similarly occur phrases with magnitudo, longitude, latitudo,
altitudo. Profundus, deep, never occurs with the Accusative.
2. Witii abesse and distare, an Abl. of Measure may also be used :
Milibus passuum quattuor et viginti abesse, Caes., B.G., i. 41, 5 ; to
be twenty-four miles from
Note.— When the point of reference is taken for granted, ab (a) with the Abl. is
occasionally used ; but only by Caesar and Livy. Here it has been suggested that ab
is used adverbially, and the Abl. is one of Measure.
(Hostes) ab milibus passuum minus duobus castra posuSrunt, Caes., B. G.,
II. 7, 3 ; the enemi/ pitched their camp less than two miles off.
336. The Accusative of Extent in Time accompanies the
verb, either with or without per, in answer to the question.
How long 9
Duodgquadraginta annos tyrannus SyracGsanSrum fuit Dionysius, C,
Tusc, V 20, 57 ; thirty-eight years was Dionysius tyrant of Syracuse.
(Gorgias) centum et novem vixit annOs, Quint., hi. i, 9 (233, n. 2). Ludi
per decern dies facti sunt, C, Cat., iii. 8, 20 ; games were performed for
ten days. Est m6cum per diem tOtum, Plin., Ep., i. 16, 7 ; he is with me
the livelong day. Sedet aeternumque sedSbit infglix TbSseus, V., A., vi.
617 ; there sits and shall forever sit imhappy Theseus.
AO'OU-S^ATIVE. 213
Remarks. — i. In giving definite numbers with iam, iam dia, lam
dudum, etc., the Ijatin often employs the ordinal where the English
prefers the cardinal. Compare the Ablative of Pleasure (408).
Mithridates annum iam tertium at vicgsimum regnat, C. , Imp. , 3, 7 (230).
2. Per with the Ace. is frequently used like the Abl. of Time Within
Which. Per ilia tempora = illis temporibus, in those times.
So especially with the negative :
Nulla r6s per triennium nisi ad nutum istius iudicata est, C, Verr., i.
5, 13 ; 710 matter was decided during {in) the three years except at his
heck.
3. With an Aoristic tense the dating point is given by abhinc, which
usually precedes the temporal designation.
Abhinc annos factumst sgdecim, Pl., Cas., 39 ; Hivasdone sixteen years
ago. Demosthenes abhinc annos prope trecentos fuit, C, Div., 11. 57, 118;
Demosthenes lived nearly three hundred years ago.
The use of an Ace. with an Aoristic tense without a dating word, like abMnc, is
very rare and doubtful. Caes., B. G., ii. 35, 4, has been emended.
4. Natus, old (bom), seems to be an exception to r. 3, but it is only
an apparent one, as the dating point is involved in the verb with which
it is construed. For various constructions with natus, see 206, r. 5.
Puer decern annos natus est, the boy is ten years old. Quadraginta
annos natus regnare [coepit], C, i>w., i. 23, 46 ; (he was) forty years
old (when) he began to reign.
Notes.— 1. The use of the indefinite substantival adjective is rare. Plautus uses
sempiternum, Vergil introduces aeternum (see example above), while perpetuum
does not appear until Apuleius.
2. Here belong the phraseological uses id temporis, id aetatis, which belonged to
the popular speech, and never became firmly rooted in literature. Thus Cicero rarely
uses them, except in his earliest works and his letters. Id genus is used after the same
general analogy, but is not temporal. This occurs in Cicero but once, Alt., xiii. 12, 3.
Caesar never uses any of these forms.
3. Poetical and rare is the extension which makes the Accusative of Extent the sub-
ject of a passive verb.
Nunctertia vivitur aetas, Ov., M., xii. 188 = nunc tertiam vivitur aetatem.
Tota mihi dormitur hiems, Mart., xiii. 59, i = tStam dormio hiemem.
Normally the verb becomes impersonal or is re2;ularly used with a proper subject,
and the Accusative of Extent is unchanged : [Bellum] quo duodecimum annum
Italia urgbatur, L., xxvii. 39, 9.
Accusative of the Local Object.
Terminal Accusative.
337. The activity of a verb may be defined by the Point
Reached. Hence tlie rule : Names of Towns and small
Islands, when used as limits of Motion Whither^ are put in
the Accusative.
214 ACCUSATIVE.
So also rns, into the country, domum, domos, home.
Miss! legati Athenas sunt, L., iii. 31, 8 ; envoys were sent to AthenSc
Latona confugit D6lum, Cf. C, Verr., i. 18, 48 ; Latona took refuge in
Delos. Ego rus ibo atque ibi mangbo, Ter,, Eun., 216; I shall go to
the country and stay tJiere. Innumerabilgs (philosophi) numquam domum
reverterunt, C, Tusc, v. 37, 107 ; innumerable philosophers never re-
turned home.
Remarks. — i. Countries and large islands being looked upon as
areas, and not as points, require prepositions, such as : in, into ; ad, to ;
versus, -ward ; in Graeciam proficisci, to set out for Greece.
2. When urbem, city, or oppidum, town, precedes the name of the
city or town, tlie idea of area is emphasized, and the preposition in or
ad is prefixed ; if urbem or oppidum follows, in or ad may be omitted :
In (ad) oppidum Cirtam, to, in {at) the town (of) Cirta.
When urbem or oppidum is qualified by an adjective, it regularly fol-
lows the name of the town, and has the preposition :
lugurtha Thalam perv6nit in oppidum magnum et opulentum, S., Jug.,
75, 1 ; Jugurtha arrived at Thala, a great and wealthy town.
3. Domum, with a possessive pronoun, or Gen., may mean house
as well as hom,e, and accordingly may or may not have in before it :
domum meam, or, in domum meam, to my house ; domum Pompeii, or, in
domum Pompgii, to Pompey^s house ; also domum ad Pompeium. Other-
wise : in magnificam domum venire, to come into a grand house.
4. Ad means to the neighborhood of, often before, of military op-
erations. Ad Mutinam, to the neighborhood (siege of) Mutina (Mo-
dena).
5. The fiimple Ace. will suffice even for extent :
OmniF ilia mtinicipia, quae sunt a VibSne Brundisium, C, Plane., 41, 97;
all the free towns from Vibo to Brundisium.
6. Motion to a place embraces all the local designations :
Phalara in sinum Maliacum pr5c6sserat, L., xxxv. 43, 8 ; he had ad-
vancad to Phalara on the Maliac Gulf. Tarentum in Italiam inferiOrea:
proficisci, to set out for Tarentum in Lower Italy.
Notes.— 1. The omission of the preposition before countries and large islands is
poetical and post-classical. Caesar shows such omission with Aegyptus only, Cicero
not at all.
2. Poets and later prose writers extend the Ace. also to names of peoples and streams.
Beginnings of this are seen in CicEno : cum Bosphorum confiigisset, Mirr., 16, 34.
3. The insertion of the preposition with names of towns and small islands is rare in
good prose, but is always legitimate when the preposition is to be emphasized,
4. The use of Usque with this Ace. to emphasize the continuity of the motion is
found first in Terence, occasionally in Cicero. From Liyy on it spreads and is used
also with other local designations.
5. Verbal substantives are also occasionally followed by this Accusative : BedltUB
BOmam, C, Ph., n. 42, 108 ; return to Rome.
ACCUSATIVE. 215
OUTER OBJECT.
Accusative of Respect.
338. The Accusative of the object affected sometimes specifies that
in respect to which the statement of a passive or intransitive verb,
or an adjective, applies. There are two varieties :
1. Definite: The Accusative of tlie part affected.
Percussa nova mentem formidine, V., G., iv. 357; her mi^id stricken
with a new dread. lam vulgatum actis quoque saucius pectus, Quint.,
IX. 3, 17 ; bi/ this time '' breast- wounded^' is actually becoine a common
newspaper phrase.
2. Indefinite : cetera, alia, reliqua, omnia, plgraque, cuncta ; in other
respects, in all respects, in most respects.
Cetera adsentior Crasso, C, Or., i. g, 35 ; in all other points I agree
with Crassus. Omnia Mercuric similis, V., A., iv. 558 ; in ail respects
like unto Jlercury.
Notes.— 1. This is commonly called the Greek Accusative, because it is so much
more common in Greek, and because its extension in Latin is due to Greek influence.
The first variety is very rare in early Latin. ; introduced into prose by S/xlust, it is
rare in Livy and later, and is applied usually to wounds. It is much more common
ill the poets. Of the second variety cStera is found here and there at all periods ; the
others are very rare. Good prose uses the Ablative for the first variety, and for the
second, ad cetera, in ceteris, per cetera, cte.
2. Billcrent is the Accusative with induor, Tdon ; exuor, Idqf; cingor, / gird on
myself, and other verbs of cMMng and unclothing, as well as 2}(^ssives, where the
Subject is also the Agent ; in which verbs the reflexive or middle signification is retained.
These uses are poetical or i>ost-classical.
Inutile ferrum cingitur, v.. A., u. 510 ; he girds on (himself) a uMess blade.
Loricam induitur fidoque accingitur 6nse, V., A., vii. 640 ; he dons a corselet and
begirds himself with his trv.^tij glaive. (Arminius) impetu equi pervasit oblitus
faciem suo cruore nS nosceretur, Tac, Arm.n. 17,7 ; Hermann pushed his way
through., thanks to the onset of his charger, having smeared his face with his own gore,
to keep from being recognized.
DOUBLE ACCUSATIVE (Inner and Outer).
When two Accusatives depend on the same verb, one is the Inner and the other the
Outer object. Theoretically any combination of Inner and Outer objects is allowable ;
practically the language has restricted its usage to varieties a and b.
339. (a) Active verbs signifying to Inquire, to Require,
to Teach, and celare, to conceal, take two Accusatives, one
of the Person, and the other of the Thing.
PiisiQnem quendam Socrates interrogat quaedam ge5metrica, C, Tusc,
I. 24, 57 ; Socrates asks an urchin sundry questions in geometry.
Caesar AeduOs frumentum flagitabat, Caes.,5. 6^., i. 16, 1 ; Caesar kept
demanding the corn of the Aediii. Quid nunc te, asine, litteras doceam?
(265), C, Pis., 30, 73 ; why should I noiv give you a lesson in literature,
2l6 ACCUSATIVE.
you donkey ? Non te celavi sermonem Ampii, C, Fam. , ii. i6, 3, I did not
keep you in the dark about my talk with Ampius.
Remarks. — i. The expressions vary a good deal. Observe :
This then is not the only way, Fdsc5, 1 claim, and flagito,
For it is also right to say, And always pet5, p5stiil5,
Docere and c6lare dS, Take aliquid ab aliquQ,
Interrogare de qua re. While quaere takes ex, ab, dg, qu3.
Adherbal Bomam legates miserat, qui senatum docSrent dS caede fra-
tris, S., Iiig., 13, 3 ; Adherbal had sent envoys to Borne to inform the
seriate of the murder of his brother. Bassus noster mg d6 li5c librS c6la-
vit, C, Fam., vii. 20, 3 ; onr friend Bassus has kept me in the dark
about this hook. Aquam a pumice nunc pOstulas, Pl., Pers., 41 ; you are
noiv asking water of a pumice-stone (blood of a turnip).
2. With doceo the Abl. of the Instrument is also used : docSre fidibus,
equ5, to teach the lyre, to teach riding ; with grudire, the Abl., in with
the Abl. or (rarely) dg. Doctus and gruditus generally take the Abl. :
Dcctus Graecis litteris, a good Grecian.
3. With cglari the Ace. of the Thing becomes the subject, and the
Ace. of the Person is retained ; or the Ace. of the Person is made the
subject, and instead of the Ace, of the Thing, d5 with the Abl. is used.
Notes.— 1. There is a great deal of difference in the relative frequency of these
verbs. So doceS and its compounds, rogo, pdsc5, reposcG, Cgl5, are common ; in-
terrog5, orS, expSscO, p5stulo, flagitS, consulO, are rare, exigS (in passive), per-
center, are ante-classical and post-classical. So, too, the classical Latin in general
avoids two Accusatives, unless one is a neuter pronoun.
2. The construction with ab, with verbs of Requiring, is much more common than
the double Ace, and in some cases is necessary ; so, too, the construction with dg after
verbs of Inquiring.
3. Other verbs of teaching than doced and its compounds, and grudire, always have
dg until late Latin, as instruere, etc. So docgre, when it means to inform.
4. The Passive form, with the Nom. of the Person and the Ace. of the Thing, is
sparingly used. Discere is the prose word for docgri, except that the past participle
doctus is classical but rare.
Motus decgri gaudet ISnicSs mattlra virg3, H., 0.,in. 6,21 ; the rare ripe
maid delights to learn Ionic dances. Vir omngs belli artgs gdoctus, L., xxv. 40, 5 ;
one who had learned (been taught) thoroughly all the arts of war.
340. (b) Verbs of Naming, Making, Taking, Choosing,
Showing, may have two Accusatives of the same Person or
Thing :
[Iram] bene Ennius initium dixit insSniae, C. , Tusc, iv. 23, 52 ; well did
Fnnius call anger the beginning of madness. Ancum Marcium rggem
populus creavit, L., i. 32, 1 ; the people made Ancus Marcius king. Cat3
ValeriumFlaccumhabuitcoUggam, Of. Nep., xxiv. i,2; Catohad Valerius
Flaccus (as) colleague. Eum simillimum de3 iMico, C, 3Iarc., 3, 8 ; .?
Judge him {to be) very like unto a god. Atbgnignsibus Pythia praecgpit ut
ACCUSATIVE. 217
Miltiadem sib! imperatorem sumerent, Nep., i. i, 3 ; the Pythia instructed
the Athenians to take MUtiades (as) their commander. Fraesta tg eum
qui mihi es cognitus, C, Fam., i. 6, 2 ; show yourself the mail that I
know you to he. Quern intellegimus divitera ■? C, Par., vi. i, 42 ; ivhom
do we understand hy the rich man 9
Remarks. — i. The Double Ace. is turned into the Double Nom.
with the Passive (206). Keddo, I render, is not used in the Passive, but,
instead thereof, fio, / become.
Habeo, with two Accusatives, commonly means to have ; in the sense
of hold, regard, other turns are used ; usually pro.
Utrum pro ancilla me habSs an pro filia ? Pl,, Pers., 341 ; do you look
upon me as a maid-servant or as » daughter f
Similarly habgre servorum loco, (in) numero deSrum, to regard as slaves,
as gods.
2. With verbs of Taking and Choosing the ejid is indicated by the
Dat. or ad with Accusative.
(BQmulus) trecentgs armatSs ad custOdiam corporis habuit, L., i. 15, 8 ;
Romulus had three hundred armed men as a body-guard.
341. (c) Double Accusatives, where one is the cognate, are very
uncommon :
Tg bonas precgs precor, Cato, R.R., i. 3, 4. Tarn tg basia multa basiare
vgsano satis et super Catullost, Cat., vii. 9.
Notes. — 1. Curions extensions occasionally occur :
Idem ius iurandum adigit Afranium, Caes., 5. C, i. 76.
2. In early Latin frequently, and in later times occasionally, the Inner object is
given by a neuter pronoun, in the simplest form. Quid mg viS % what do you ivant
of me? what do you, want me for ? So with prohibgre ; also with iubgre (once in
Cicero and Caesar), admongre, etc.
Neque mg Itippiter neque di omngs id prohibgbunt, Pl., Am., 1051. LItterae
quae tg aliquid iubgrent, C, Fam., xiii. 26, .3.
342. {d) In early Latin we find cases of two Accusatives with a
single verb, where the verb forms a single phrase with one of the Accu-
satives, and the second Accusative is the object of the phrase : animum
advertere, to perceive ; ludos facere, to make game of ; manum inicere, to
lay hands on, etc. In classical Latin these phrases have been usually,
where possible, formed into a single word : animadvertere, ludificari.
Animum advertit Gracchus in contione PisSnem stantem, C, Tusc, in.
20, 48 ; Gracchus perceived Piso standing in the assembly.
Note.— On the Double Accusative with compound verbs, see 331, r. i.
ACCUSATIVE AS A GENERAL OBJECTIVE CASE.
343. The iVccusative as the Objective Case generally is
used as an object of Thought, Perception, Emotion ', an ob-
2l8 DATIVE.
ject created by the mind, evoked or deprecated by the will.
Hence the use of the Accusative :
(a) In Exclamations. (5) With the Infinitive.
1. The Accusative is used in Exclamations as the general
object of Thought, Perception, or Emotion :
M6 miserum, C, Fam., xiv. i, 1 ; poor me ! Mg caecum qui haec ante
nSn viderim, Q., Att.y x. lo, 1 ; hlind me ! not to have seen all this before.
So in Exclamatory Questions :
Qu5 mihi fortunam, si non concgditur uti ? H., Ep., i. 5, 12 ; what (is
the object of) fortune to we if Tm not allowed to enjoy it 9
Interjections are used :
Heu mg miserum! Alas! poor me! 5 miseras hominum mantes, 6
pectora caeca, Lucr., ii. 14 ; oh, the wretched minds of men, oh, the
blind hearts !
So, in apposition to a sentence, see 324.
Notes.— 1. 5 with the Voc. is an address ; with the Nom. a characteristic; with
the Ace. an object of emotion.
2. Em, Lo! and Ecce, Lo here ! have the Ace. in the earlier language :
Em tibi hominem! Pl., Asin., 880 ; here's your man ! Ecce mg ! Pl., Ep., 680 ;
here am I!
So eccum, ellum, eccam, eccillam, in comic poetrj-.
Ecce takes only the Nom. in classical Latin. Distinguish between em and gn, the
latter of which, in the sense lo ! does not appear until Cicero's time, and takes the
Nominative, rarely the Accusative.
Pro takes the Vocative : Pr5 di immortalgs ! Ye immortal gods ! The Accusative
occurs in : Pro deum atque hominum fidem! C, Tusc, v. 16, 48 ; for heavev!' s sake !
and similar phrases.
Ei (hei)^! and Vae ! take the Dative.
Ei mihi ! Ah me ! Vae victis ! Woe to the conquered !
2. The Accusative and the Infinitive are combined so as
to present the notion of Subject and Predicate as an object
of thought or perception (527). Hence the Accusative with
the Infinitive is used :
[a) In Exclamations. (See 534.)
lb) As an Object. (See 527.)
{c) As a Subject, (See 535.)
DATIVE.
344. The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object, and
always involves a Direct Object, which may be contained in
the verb or expressed by the complex of verb and object.
DATIVE. 219
NSm8 errat Unl sibi, Sen., E.M., 94, 54 ; no one er?-s (makes mistakes)
to {for) 1 dm self alone. Non omnibus dormio, C, Fam., vir, 24, 1 ; it is
not for everybody that I am asleep. Tibi exercitum patria pr5 sS dedit,
C, Ph., XIII. 6, 14 ; your country gave you an army for its own defence.
Mulier sibI fglicior quam viris, C, Ph., v. 4, 11.
Note.— In English the form of the Indirect Object is the same as that of the
Direct : " He showed me (Dat.) a pure river ; " " he showed me (Ace.) to the priest."
Originally a case of Personal Interest, it is used freely of Personified Things, sparingly
of Local Relations, and this despite the fact that Locative and Dative are blended in the
First and Third Declensions. If a Locative, the Dative is a sentient Locative.
Dative with Transitive Verbs.
345. The Indirect Object is put in the Dative with Transi-
tive verbs, which already have a Direct Object in the Accusa-
tive. Translation, to, for, from. This Accusative becomes
the Nominative of the Passive. The Dative depends on the
complex.
Active Form :
To : Facile omngs, quom valSmus, r6cta cSnsilia aegrOtIs damus, Ter.,
And., 309 ; readily all of us, ivhen well, give good counsel to the sick.
For : Frangam tons5ri crura manusque simul, Mart., xi. 58, 10 ; Td
break the harher's legs for him and hands at once.
From : Somnum mihi [adSmit], C, Att., 11. 16, 1 ; it took my sleep away
from me.
Passive Form :
Merc6s mihi gl5ria dstur, Ov., F., in. 389; let glory be given to me as a
reward. Immeritis franguntur crura caballis, Juv.,x, 60 ; the innocent
hacks get their legs broken for the?n. Arma [adimuntur] mflitibus, L.,
xxn. 44, 6; the soldiers have their arms taken from them. Domus pul-
chra dominis aediiicatur n5n mtiribus, Cf. C, N.D., in. 10, 26 ; a handsome
house is built for its owners, not for the mice.
Remarks. — i. These constructions are found with more or less fre-
quency at all periods. But the Dat. with verbs of Taking Away, Pro-
hibiting, and the like, is mostly confined to poetry and later prose.
The translation from is merely approximate, instead of for. When the
idea of Personal Interest is not involved, the Abl. is necessary.
Isfrater, qui eripuit fratrem carcere, non potuit eripere ^to, Sen., Dial.,
XI. 14, 4.
A good example of a play on construction is Pl., Aid., 635 :
St. Nihil equidem tibi abstuli. Eu. At illud quod tib! abstuleras cede.
2. The translation For is nearer the Dat. than To. It is the regular
220 DATIVE.
form when the Ace. is that of the object effected ; when it is that of the
object affected the translation is more often to ; but for {in defence
of) is pr5 : pro patria mori, to die for one's country. To {with a view
to) is ad or in, and when tlie idea of motion is involved, the preposition
must be used, even with dare, which gives its name to the Dative :
Litteras alicui dare, to give one a letter (to carry or to have).
Litteras ad aliquem dare, to indite a letter to one.
Rogas ut mea tibi scripta mittam, C, Fam., i. 9, 23 ; you ask me to
send you my writings (you wish to have them). Libr5s iam pridem ad
te mlsissem si esse Sdendos putassem, C, Fam., i. 9, 23 ; / should have sent
the hooks to you long since if I had thought they ought to be published.
Dative with Intransitive Verbs.
346. The Indirect Object is put in the Dative with many
Intransitive Verbs of Advantage or Disadvantage, Yielding
and Kesisting, Pleasure and Displeasure, Bidding and For-
bidding.
Fuit mlrificus in CrassS pudor, qui tamen n5n obesset 5ius SrationI, C,
Or., I. 26, 122 ; Crassus had a marvellous modesty, not, however, such
as to be a bar to the effectiveness of his oratory. Ipsa sib! imbScillitas
indulget, C, Tusc.,iv. 18, 42 ; weakness gives free course to itself. Pro-
bus invidet nSmini, C, Tim., 3, 9 ; your upright man cherishes envy to
710 one. Catilina litteras mittit s6 forttinae cSdere, S., C, 34, 2; Catiline
ivrites that he gives way to fortune. Dies stultis quoque medSri solet, C,
Fam., VII., 28, 3 ; time is wont to prove a medicine even to fools. Mo-
derari at animo et orationi est non mediocris ingenil, Q.,Q.F.,i. 11. 13, 38 ;
to put boimds both to temper and to language is the work of no mean
ability. Sic agam, ut ipsi auctorl hoius discipllnae placet, C, Fin., i. 9,
29 ; I will act as it seems good to the head of this school {of thought)
himself. [Mundus] deo paret et huic oboediunt maria terraeque, C, Leg.,
III. I, 3 ; the universe is obedient to God, and seas and lands hearken
unto him. Virtuti suOrum satis credit, Cf. S., Ing., 106, 3 ; he puts
full confidence in the valor of his men. IllI poena, nSbis libertas [ap-
propinquat], C, Ph., iv. 4, 10; to him punishment, to us freedom, is draw-
ing 7iigh.
Remarks. — i. Of course the passives of these verbs are used imper-
sonally (208) :
Qui invident egent, iUls quibus invidStur, I rem habent, Pl., True, 745 ;
those who envy are the needy, those ivho are envied have the stuff'.
2. The verbs found with this Dat. in classical Latin are : prodesse,
obesse, noc6re, condticit, expedit ; assentirl, blandirl, cupere, favSre, grati-
ficSri, gratularl, Ignoscere, iudulgSre, m5rigerarl, studSre, sulfragarl; ad-
versarl, Insidiarl, invidSre, irasci, maledicere, minarl, minitarl, obtrectSre,
DATIVE. 221
officere, refragarl, suscgnsSre ; c6dere, concgdere ; resistere ; auxiliari, c5n-
sulere, medSri, opitulari, parcere, prospicere ; moderari, temperare (sibi) ;
placgre, displicgre ; auscultare, imperare, oboedire, obsequi, obtemperare,
parere, persuadere, servire, suadere ; credere, Mere, confidere, diffidere,
despgrare ; accidit, contingit, gvenit ; libet, licet ; appropinquare, repugnSre.
Also nubere, to marry (of a woman) ; supplicare, to implore.
Notes.— 1. Some other verbs are used occasionally in the same way, as incommo-
dare, which Cicero uses once. Also, dolere, with Dat. of suffering: person, is found
sometimes in Cicero, though it belongs rather to the Comic Poets.
2. Some of these words have also other constructions. These occur usually in ante-
classical and post-classical Latin ; if in classical Latin a different meaning is usually
found in the new construction. Thus indulggre aliquid, ^o grant a thing, invidere
alicul aliquid, obtrgctare, with Ace, suadgre, persuadgre, with Ace. of the Per-
son, are post-classical and late ; moderari, with Ace, is found in Lucretius and in
Silver Latin ; temperare, meaning mix, takes Ace. at all .periods, Fidere, c5nfl-
dere, diffidere are found also with Ablative.
Sometimes the personal interest is emphasized when the Dat. is employed, as over
against the Accusative. So regularly with verbs of Fearing, as : metuere aliquem,
to dread s&ine one, but metuere alicul, fo fear for some one ; cavEre alicui, io take
■precautions for some one, but cavgre aliquem (also d§, ab aliqu5), to take precau-
tions against some one ; cavgre aliqua rg (early), to beware of a thing. Consulere
aliquem, to consult a persoit ; cSnsuiere alicul, to consult for a person. On con-
venire, see 347, n. 2.
Noteworthy are the constructions of invidgre and vacare :
Invidgre alicui (in) aliqua rg (Cic uses prep.) I fol^egrudgeamanathing.
alicul aliquid (V erg., Hou., Livy, etc.) \ J J "^
alicuius rei (once in Horace, S.^ ii. 6, 84), to begrudge a thing.
(alicuius) alicui rei (common), to envy something belonging to a man.
Vacare rei, to be at leisure for, to attend to\ .
rg, a re, to be at leisure from '
Sometimes there is hardly any difference in meaning :
Comitor aliquem, / accompany a man ; comitor alicul, I act as companion to a
man ; praestolor alicui (better) or aliquem, / wait for.
3. Some words with similar meanings take the Accusative ; the most notable are :
aequare, to be equal ; decgre {to distinguish), to be becoming ; deficere, to be want-
ing ; delectare, to please ; iuvare, to be a help ; iubgre, to order ; laederc, to in-
jure ; and vetare, to forbid. The Dat. also occurs after aequSre and dgficere.
Eam picturam imitati sunt multi, aequavit ngmo, Plin., iV.//.,xxxv,ii,
126 ; that style of paifding many have ijnitated, none equalled. Forma viros neglgcta
decet, Ov., A. A., i. 509 ; a careless beauty is becoming to men. Me digs dgficiat, Cf.
C, Verr., 11. 21, 52 ; the day would faU me, Fortis fortlina adiuvat, Tbr., Ph.^ 203 ;
fortune f avoids Vie brave.
Tacitus is tiie first to use iubgre with Dative ; Ann., iv. 73, etc.
4. The Dat. use is often obscured by the absence of etymological translation. So
nubere alicul, to marry a man (to veil for him) ; medgri alicul, to heal (to take
one's measures for) a man ; supplicare, to beg (to bow tlie knee to) ; persuSdgre, to
persuade (to make it sweet).
6. After the analogy of verbs the phrases audientem esse, to hear, i.e., to obey,
supplicem esse, to entreat, auctorem esse, to advise, fidem babgre, to have faith iri,
are also found with the Dative :
Si potest tibi dicto audigns esse quisquam, C, Verr., i. 44, 114.
6. The poets are very free in their use of the Dat. with verbs of the same general
222 DATIVE.
meaning as those given. So gg misc6re, io mingle with : coire, concurrere, (o meet',
verbs of contending, as contendere, bellare, piignare, certare ; verbs of disagree-
ment, as differre, discrepare, distare, dissentire. Here belongs haerere with the
Dat., as v.. A., iv. 73, which may, however, be a Locative construction.
Dative and Verbs Compounded with Prepositions.
347. Many verbs compounded with the prepositions ad,
ante, con, in, inter, ob, (post), prae, sub, and super, take the
Dative, especially in moral relations.
Transitive Verbs have an Accusative case besides.
PlebSs clincta comitiis adfnit, C, Plane, 8, 21 ; the entire commonalty
was preseyit at the election, Onmis s6nsus hominnm mnlto antecellit sSn-
sibus bestiarum, C, N.D., 11. 57, 145 ; every sense of man is far superior
to the senses of beasts. (Ennius) equi fortis et victoris senectiitl comi>arat
suam, C, Cat.M.y 5, 14 ; Ennius compares his {old age) to the old age
of a gallant and winning steed. Imminent duo reges toti Asiae, C,
Imp., 5, 12 ; two kings are menaces to all Asia. Interes consiliis, C,
Att., XIV. 22, 3 ; you are in their councils, arepj'ivy io their plans. Piger
ipse sibi obstat, Prov. (311, 2). Omnibus Druidibus praeest unus, Caes.,
JB.G., VI. 13, 8 ; at the head of all the Druids is one man. Anatum ova
gallinis saepe supponimus, C, j\\D., 11. 48, 124 ; we off en put ducks' eggs
under hens (for them to hatch). Neque deesse neque superesse rei piibli-
cae vols, C. (Pollio), Fam., x. 33, 5; no life that is not true to the states
no life that outlives the state's — that is my motto.
Remarks. — i. The Dat. is found, as a rule, only when these verbs
are used in a transferred sense. In a local sense tlie preposition should
be employed, although even classical Latin is not wholly consistent in
this matter. In poetry and later prose the Dat. is extended even to
the local signification. In early Latin the repetition of the preposition
is the rule.
So incumbereingladium, C, Inv., 11. 51, 154, io fall upon one's sivord,
2. The principal intrans. verbs with the Dat. in classical Latin are:
Accgdere {to join, or, to le added ; otherwise usually preposition ad) ;
accumbere (once in Cic.) ; adesse (also with ad, in, and, in Plaut., apud);
adhiaergscere (ad of local uses) ; arridSre (once in Cic.) ; annuere (occa-
sionally with Ace.) ; assentiri ; assidgre ; antecedere (also with Ace.) ;
anteire (also with Ace.) ; antecellere (with Ace. from Livv on) ; con-
gruere (also with cum);' consentire (also with cum) ; c5nstare ; convenire {to
suit ; with cum, to agree with, especially in the phrase convenit mihf
cum aliqu5, / agree unth) ; illildere (also with Aec. and occasionally in
and Ace.) ; impendgre (with Ace. is archaic ; occasionally in) ; incgdere
(Sall., Livy, etc.) ; incidere (twice in Cic; regularly in); incubare (but
incumbere regidarly with in or ad) ; inesse (once in Cic.) ; inhaergre (occar
DATIVE. 223
sionally ad or in with Abl.) ; inhiare (Plaut. has Ace. only) ; innasci
(innatus) ; Inservire ; insinuare (once in Cic. ; usually in) ; insistero
(locally, in with Abl.; occasionally Ace.) ; instare; invadere (once in
Cic. ; occasionally Ace. ; regularly in) ; intercedere ; intercurrere ; inter-
esse (also with in and Abl.) ; intervenire ; obesse ; obrgpere (usually in,
ad) ; obsistere ; obstare ; obstrepere ; obtingere ; obvenire ; obversari ;
occurrere ; occursare ; praestare ; praesidere ; snbasse ; subvenire ; suc-
cedere ; succumbere ; succrescere (once in Cic.) ; succurrere ; superesse.
3. The same variety of construction is found with transitive verbs, in
composition.
4. After the analogy of praestare, excellere, to excel, is also found
with the Dative.
5. Some trans, verbs, compounded with d5 and ex (rarely with ab),
take the Dat., but it properly comes under 345.
Caesar DgiotarS tetxarchian 6ripuit, eidemque dgtraxit Armeniam, Cf.
C, Div., II. 37, 79 ; Caesar wrested from Dejotarus his ietrarchy, and
stripped from him Armenia.
Dative with Verbs of Giving and Putting.
348. A few verbs, chiefly of Giving and Putting, take a
Dative with an Accusative, or an Accusative with an Abla-
tive, according to the conception.
Praedam militibus donat, Caes., B.G., vii. 11, 9; he presents the booty
to the soldiers. But Rubrium corona dOnasti, C, Verr. in. 80, 185; thou
didst present Ruhrius with a crow7i.
Natura corpus animo circumdedit, Sen., E.M., 92, 13 ; Nature has put
a lody around the mirid. But Deus animum circumdedit corpore, Cf. C,
Tim., 6, 20 ; God has surrounded the mind with a body.
Remarks. — i. These are: aspergere, to besprinkle and to sprinkle on ;
circumdare, circumfundere, to surround ; donare, to prese?it ; impertire, to
endoiv and to give ; induere, to clothe and to put on ; exuere, to strip of
and to strip off ; intercludere, to shut off ; miscere, to 7nix and to mix in.
2. In general, classical Latin here prefers the Dat. of the person,
but no fixed rule is followed.
Dative of Possessor.
349. Esse, to he, with the Dative, denotes an inner connec-
tion between its subject and the Dative, and is commonly
translated by the verb to have :
[Controversia] mihi fuit cum avunculo tu6, C, Fin., iii. 2, 6; 7 had a
debate with your uncle. An nescis longas rggibus esse mantis % Ov., Her.,
224 DATIVE.
XVI. i66 ; or perhaps you do not hioiv that Icings have long arms 9
Compare non habet, ut putamus, fortiina longas manus, Sen., E.M., 82, 5.
Kemarks. — I. The predicute of esse, with the Dat., is translated in
the ordinary manner : Caesar amicus est mihi, Caesar is a friend to me
(amicus meus, my friend, friend of mine).
2. The Dat. is never simply equivalent to the Genitive. The Dat. is
the Person interested in the Possession, hence the Possession is em-
phatic ; the Gen. characterizes the Possession by the Possessor, hence the
Possessor is emphatic. The Gen. is the permanent Possessor, or owner ;
the Dat. is the temporary Possessor. The one may include the other:
Latini concSdunt Romam caput Latio esse, Cf. L., viii. 4, 5; the Latins
concede that Laiium has its capital in Home. (Latii : that Latium's
capital is Ro?ne.)
3. Possession of qualities is expressed by esse with in and the Abl.,
by inesse with Dat. or with in, or by some other turn :
Fuit mirificus in Crasso pudor, C, Or., i. 26, 122 (346), Cim5n habgbat
satis eloquentiae, Nep., v. 2, 1 ; Cimon had eloquence enough.
Sallust introduces the Dat. also for these relations.
4. Abesse and dSesse, to he luanting, to fail, take also the Dat. of
Possessor.
5. The Dat. of the person is regular with the phrases nomen (cogn5-
men) est, inditum est, etc. Here the name is in the Nom. in apposition
to nomen, in the best usage. Rarely in Cicero, always in Sallust, never
in Caesar, more often in early and post-Ciceronian Latin, the name is
found in the Dat. ; either by attraction with the Dat. of the person
or on the analogy of the Double Dative. The Appositional Genitive
(361) is first cited from Velleius. The undeclined Nom. after an
active verb appears first in Ovid; then in Suetonius.
F5ns aquae dulcis, cui nomen Arethusa est, C, Fe/r., iv. 53, 118 ; a
fountain of sweet water named Arethusa. Apollodoms, cui PyragrS cog-
nSmen est, C, Verr., iii. 31, 74 ; Apollodorus, surjiamed Fyragrus {fire-
tongs). N3men ArcturS est mihf, Pl., Bud., 5 ; my name is Arcturus.
Tibi nomen insanS posugre, IT., S., 11. 3, 47 ; tliey called you " cracked."
[Samnitgs] Maleventum, cui nunc urbi Beneventum nSmen est, perfugSrunt,
L., IX. 27, 14 ; tlie Samnites fled to JIaleventum (Ileome), a city ivhich
now hears the 7iame Beneventum (Welcome). Aetas, cui fgcimus ' aurea'
nOmen, Ov., M., xv. 96 ; the age to which we have given the 7iame ' Golden.''
Dative of Personal Interest.
In its widest sense this category includes the Dative with Transitive and Intransi-
tive Verbs, already treated, and the Ethical Dative, Dative of Reference, and Dative of
Agent, to follow. In its narrower sense it applies only to persons or their eqnivalents
who are essential to, but not necessarily participant in or affected by, the result, and
differs from the Dative with Transitive and Intransitive Verbs, in that the connection
with the verb is much more remote.
DATIVE. 225
850. I- The person from whose point of view the action is observed,
or towards whom it is directed, may be put in the Dative. A conve-
nient but not exact translation is often tlie English Possessive {Datwus
Energicus).
EI libenter mS ad pedes abigci, Cf. C, Att., viii. 9, 1 ; 7 gladly cast
myself at Ms feet. In conspectum vSnerat hostibus, Hirt., viii. 27 ; he
had come into the sight of the enemy. Tuo viro oculi dolent, Cf. Ter.,
Ph., 1053; your husband's eyes ache; nearer, your husband has a
pain in his eyes (tui viri oculi, your husband's eyes).
Note.— This Dat. is denied by some for early Latin and is rare in Cicero. Bnt
it becomes common from Livy on. With Relative and Demonstrative pronouns it is
often used by Ciceronian and Augustan poets. In the case of many of the examples
we have parallel constructions with the Geu. of Possessor, which is the normal usage.
2. The Dative is used of the person in whose honor, or interest, or
advantage, or for whose pleasure, an action takes place, or the reverse
{Dativus Comm,odl et Incommodl) :
Consurrgxisse omngs [Lysandro] dicuntur, C, Cat.M., 18, 63 ; all are
said to have risen up together in honor of Lysander. [Deo] nostra
altaria famant, V., Ec, i. 43 ; our altars smoke in honor of the god.
Si quid peccat miM peccat, Ter., Ad., 115 ; if he commits a fault, it is
at my cost.
Ethical Dative.
351. The Ethical Dative indicates special interest in the
action. It may be called the Dative of Feeling, and its use
is confined to the personal pronouns {Dativus Etliicus.)
Tti mihi Antonii exemplo istius audaciam dgfendis? C, Verr., m. 91,
213 ; do you defend me {to my face) by Antony's example that fellow's
audacity ? Ecce tibi Sgb5sus ! C, Att., 11. 15 ; here's your Sebosus !
" She's a civil modest wife, one (I tell you) that will not miss you
morning nor evening prayer." — Shakespeare.
Notes.— 1. This is essentially a colloquialism, common in comedy, especially with
ecce and em, frequent in Cicero's letters, occasionally found elsewhere. In poetry,
notably Augustan, it is almost wholly absent ; but there are several cases in Horace.
Cicero does not use em. Livy does not use ecce.
2. Especially to be noted is sib! velle, to vmriU to mean : Quid tibi vis, insane,
C, 6>r.. II. 67, 269 ; what do yoti want, madman 9 Quid volt sibi haec oratiol
Ter., Heaiit., 615 ; what does all this holding fvrth mean ?
Dative of Reference.
352. This indicates the person in whose eyes the state-
ment of the predicate holds good {Dativus ludicantis).
Ut mihi deformis, sic tibi magnificus, Tac. , H. , xii. 37 ; to me a
monster, to yourself a prodigy of splendor. Quintia formosa est multis,
Cat. , 86, 1 ; Quintia is a beauty in the eyes of many.
15
226 DATIVE.
NoTE.—This Dative is characteristic of the Augustan poets, but it is also common
enough in Cicero and the prose authors.
363. N'oteworthy is the use of this Dative in combination with par-
ticiples, which shows two varieties, one giving the local point of view,
the other the mental, both post-Ciceronian and rare. Caesar gives
the first local usage, Livy the first mental;
[Hoc] est oppidum primum Thessaliae venientibus ab Epiro, Caes., B.C.,
III. 80 ; this is the first town of Thessaly to those coming {as you come)
from Epirus. Vgr6 aestimanti, L., xxxvii. 58, 8 ; to one whose judg-
ment was true.
NoT.ES.— 1. This construction is probably drawn from the Greek, although Vitru-
VI us shows several examples.
2. Certainly Greek is the Dat. of the person with volenti, cupienti, invito (est),
etc., which is found first in Sallust, once in Livy, and sporadically in Tacitus, and
later.
Dative of the Agent.
364. The Dative is used with Passive Verbs, in prose
chiefly with the Perfect Passive, to show the interest vviiich
the agent takes in the result. That the person interested is
the agent is only an inference. (See 215.)
Mihi rgs tota provisa est, C, Verr., iv. 42, 91 ; / have had the ivhole
matter provided for. Cui non sunt auditae Dgmosthenis vigiliael C,
Tusc, IV. 19, 44 ; to whom are not Demosthenes' long ivatchings a famil-
iar hearsay ?
Notes.— 1. Instances of this Dat. with the Tenses of Continuance are poetical, or
admit of a different explanation :
Barbarus hie ego sum qui non intellegor ulli, Ov., TV., v. 10, 37 ; I am a bar-
barian here because I can't make myself intelligible to any one.
Whenever an adj. or an equivalent is used, the Dat. PI. may be an Ablative :
Sic dissimillimis bgstiolis communiter cibus quaeritur, c, iV.Z)., n. 48, 123 ;
«o, though these little creatures are so very unlike, their food is sought in common. Car-
mina quae scribuntur aquae potoribus, H., Ep., i. iq, 3 ; poems tvMch are ivritteu
xvhen people are ivater-drinkers. Cena ministratur puerls tribus, H., S., i. 6, 116 ;
Dinner is served, {the waiters being) the tvaiters are (but) three.
2. This Dat. is rare in early Latin, rare, if ever, in Caesar, not uncommon in Cicero.
But it is much liked by the poets and by some prose writers, notably by Tacitus.
355. The agent of the Gerund and Gerundive is put in
the Dative, at all periods.
Dlligentia praecipuS colenda est nSbIs, C, Or., 11. 35, 148 ; carefulness
is to be cultivated by us first and foremost. DgspSranda tibi salva Con-
cordia socru, Juv., VI. 231 ; you must despair of harmony while Mother-
in-law's alive.
DATIVE. 227
Remark. — To avoid ambiguity, especially when the verb itself takes
the Dat., the Abl. with ab (a) is employed :
Civibus a vobis consulendum, C, Imp., 2, 6 ; the interest of the citi-
zens must he consulted by you. Supplicatio ab eo decernenda non fuit,
C, Ph., XIV. 4, 11.
Where there is no ambiguity there is no need of ab :
Linguae moderandum est mihi, Pl., Cure, 486 ; I must put hounds to
my tongue.
Note.— Poets are free in their use of this Dative ; so with verbals in bills ; as,
multisille bonis flebilisocciditjll., 0.,i. 24,9; nulli exorabilis, 8il. Ital, Y.131.
Dative of the Object For Which.
356. Certain verbs take the Dative of the Object For
Which (to what end), and often at the same time a Dative
of the Personal Object For Whom, or To Whom.
Ngmini mens adventus labor! aut sumptui fuit, C, Verr., i. 6, 16 ; to
710 one ivas my arrival a burden or an expense. Virtus sola neque datur
d5nS neque accipitur, S., lug., 85, 38 ; virtue alone is neither given nor
taken as a present. Habere quaestui rem publicam turpe est, C, Off., 11.,
22, 77 ; it is base to have the state for one's exchequer.
RexMARKS. — I. Noteworthy is the legal phrase cui bono? to whom is
it for an advantage ? = who is advantaged ?
2. In the classical times the principal verbs in this construction are
esse, dare, ducere, habere, vertere, and a few others which occur less fre-
quently. Later Latin extends the usage to many other verbs, and
especially to Gerundive constructions. Dare is used principally in the
phrase dono dare.
3. The Double Dative is found principally with esse, but occasion-
ally with other verbs. Here there seems to have been a tendency,
mainly post-Ciceronian, to use the predicative Nom. instead of the
Dative. Interesting sometimes is the shift in usage ; thus, Cicero says
est turpitudo, Nepos, fuit turpitudinl.
Notes.— 1. In the same category, but with the idea of finality more clearly indi-
cated, are the agricultural usages, alimentO serere, condltui legere ; the medical,
remedio adhibSre ; the military terms, praesidi5, auxiliS, mittere, esse, etc.
2. With LiVY we notice the great extension of this Dat. with verbs of seeking, choos-
ing, etc., where classical Latin would prefer some other construction. So locum insi-
diis (insidiarum is classical) circumspectare Poenus coepit, L-, xxi. 53, 11. Taci-
tus goes furthest in such usages. Caesar, however, shows a few instances {B. G., i.
30,3).
3. The Final Dative with intrans. verbs is military and rare. So receptui canere,
to sound a retreat, is found first in Caes., B. G., vii. 47. Sallust shows a few exam-
ples.. The Dat., with similar substantives, is an extension, and is very rare. Cicero,
Ph., XIII. 7, 15, says receptui signum.
228 DATIVE.
4. The origin of this usage may have been mercantile (Key). In English we treat
Profit and Loss as persons : Quem fors difirum cmnque dabit lucro appone, H., 0.,
I. 9, 14 ; " Every day that Fate shall give, set down to Profit..''^
On the Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive in a similar sense, see 429.
Dative with Derivative Substantives.
357. A few derivative substantives take the Dative of their
primitives :
Itistitia est obtemperatio legibus, C, Leg., i. 15, 42 ; justice is obedi-
ence to the laws.
Note.— We find a few examples in Plautus, several in Cicero, and only sporadi-
cally elsewhere. Usually the verbal force is very prominent in the substantives ; as,
insidias consul! maturare, S., C, 32, 2.
Local Dative.
358. The Dative is used in poetry to denote the 7J?«ce
whither.
Kartbagini iam non ego niintios mittam superbos, H., 0., iv. 4, C9;
(to) Carthage 710 more shall I send haughty tidings. Iam satis terris nivis
atque dirae grandinis misit pater, H., 0., i. 2, 1 ; full, full etiough ofsnoiv
and dire hail the Sire hath sent the Land.
Notes.— 1. This construction begins with Accius, and is not uncommon in the
Augustan poets. No examples are cited from Plautus or Terence, hence the infer-
ence is fair that it was not a colloquialism. As a poetical construction it seems to have
sprung from personification.
2. Occasionally the substantive is also thus construed ; as in the facilis dSscSnsns
AvernS of Vergil (^4., vi. 126).
The extreme is reached when the Dative follows ire and the like :
It caelO clamorque vinim clangorque tubarum, V.,^., xi. 192 ; mmints to
High Heaven warrioj's'' shout and truinpets'' blare.
3. Tendere rnanlis has a few times, even in Cicero and Caesar, the Dat. of the
person, which is sometimes referred to this head. But the usual construction is ad.
Matrgs familiae Romanis d6 murS manus tendebant, Caes., B. G., \n. 48,
Dative with Adjectives.
359. Adjectives of Likeness, Fitness., FriendHness, Near-
ness, and the like, with their opposites, take the Dative :
Canis similis lupO est, C.,N.D., i. 35, 97 ; the dog is like unto the wolf.
Castrls idOneus locus, Caes., B. G., vi. 10, 2 ; a place suitable for a camp.
Utile est rei publicae nObilBs homines esse dIgnOs maiOribus suls, C, Sest.,
9, 21 ; it is to the advantage of the state that men of rank should be
worthy of their ancestors. Vir mihi amlcissimus, Q,. Fabricius, C, Sest..
35, 75 ; my very great friend, Q. Fabricius. Proxumus sum egomet mihi,
Ter., And., 636 ; myself am nearest to me. Omni aetati mors est com-
DATIVE. 229
mtinis, Cf. C, Cat. 31., 19, 68 ; death is common to every time of life.
(Testis) id dicit quod illi causae maximS est aliSnum, C, Caec, g, 24 ; the
tvitness says what is especially damaging to that case {side).
Remarks. — i. Many adjectives which belong to this class are used
also as substantives, and as such are construed with the Genitive :
amicus, friend ; affinis, cotmection ; aequalis, co7itemporary ; alignus
(rare), foreign, strange ; cognatus, Uinsman ; commlmis, common ; con-
trarius, opposite ; par, match ; proprius, peculiaris, own, peculiar ; similis,
like ("we ne'er shall look upon his like again "), especially of gods and
men, and regularly with personal pronouns, and in early Latin ; sacer,
set apart, sacred ; superstes (rare), survivor. Comparatives have regu-
larly the Dative ; Superlatives vary.
[Ille], cuius paucSs pares haec civitas tulit, C, Pis., 4, 8 ; {he was) a man
few of whose peers the state hath home. XJtinam t5 non solum vitae, sed
etiam dignitatis meae superstitem reliquissem, C, ^.i^., i. 3, 1 ; would
that I had left thee survivor not only of my life hut also of my position.
2. The ohject toivard which is expressed by the Ace. with in, erga,
adversus :
Manlius (fuit) sev6rus in filium, C, Off., iii. 31, 112 ; Manlius was severe
toward his son. M6 esse scit s5sS erga benivolum, Pl., Capt., 350 ; he
knows that I am kindly disposed toward him. Vir adversus merita
Caesaris ingratissimus, Cf. Vell., ii. 69, 1 ; a man most ungrateful tow-
ards Caesa?''s services (to him).
3. The ohject for which may be expressed by the Ace. with ad, to :
Hom8 ad ntillam rem utilis, C, 0^., in. 6, 29 ; a good-for-nothing
fellow.
This is the more common construction with adjectives of Fitness.
Notes.— 1. Propior, neare7\ proximus, next, are also construed (like prope, riear)
occasionally with the Ace. (principally by Caesak, Sallust, Livy), the adverbial
forms also with the Abl. with ab, off :
Crassus proximus mare Oceanum hiemarat, Caes., b. g., hi. 7, 2 ; Crassus had
wintered next the ocean. Id propius fidem est, L., 11. 41, 11 ; that is nearer belief,
i.e., more likely.
2. AliSnus, foreign, strange, is also construed with the Abl., with or without
ab(a); so commonly- absonus.
Homo sum, bumanl nil a mS aliSnum putd, Ter., /reaw^., 77; I am a man,
and nothing that pertains to man do I consider foreign to me.
3. lunctus, cdniunctus, joined, are also construed frequently with cum and the
Abl.; sometimes with the Abl. only : improbitas scelere iuncta, C, Or., 11. 58,237.
4. Similis is said to be used with the Gen. when the likeness is general and com-
prehensive ; with the Dat. when it is conditional or partial ; hence, in classical prose,
always vSrl simile, Livy being the first to say vSro simile.
5. Adversus, opponent, seems to be construed with the Gen. once in Sallust (C,
52, 7) and once in Quintilian (xii. i,2). Invidus, envious, is cited with the Gen.
once in Cicero {Flac, i, 2), then not till late Latin ; with the Dat. it is poetical ; other-
wise the possessive pronoun is used, as tul invidi (C, Fam., i. 4, 2). Pr5nus,
inclined, with the Dat., occurs in Sallust {lug., 114,2), then not till Tacitus ; the
usual construction is ad. Intentus, intent upon, has Abl. in Sallust (C, 2, 9, «:<:.) ;
230 GENITIVE.
otherwise Dat., or ad (in) with Ace. Notice the use of aversus with Dat. in Tag.,
Ann., 1. 66, 2 ; some other examples are doubtful.
6. In poetrj', idem, ihemme, is often construed after Greek analogy, with the Dative.
Invitum qui servat idem facit occidenti, H., A.P, 467 ; he who saves a manCs
life) agamst his will does the same thing as one who kills him («.s if he had killed Mm).
7. Adverbs of similar meaning sometimes take the Dative : Congruenter naturae
convenienterque vivere, c, Fin., m. 7, 26.
II. Internal Change.
Genitive.
360. I. The Genitive Case is the Case of the Complement,
and is akin to the Adjective^ with which it is often parallel.
It is the substantive form of the Specific Characteristic.
The chief English representatives of the Genitive are :
(a) The Possessive case : Domus regis, the king's f)ci^ace.
(b) The Objective case with of : Domus rggis, the palace of the king.
(c) Substantives used as adjectives or in composition : Arbor abietis,
fir-tree.
Remarks. — i. Other prepositions than of are not unfrequently used,
especially with tlic Objective Genitive. (3G^, 11. i.)
Patriae quis exsul se quoque fugit "i 11., 0., 11. 16, 19 ; ivhat exile from
his country ever fled himself as ivell ? Boiorum triumphi spem coUegae
reliquit, L., xxxiii. 37, 10 ; he left the hope of a triumph over the Boii
to his colleague.
Via mortis may be considered the umy {mode) of death or the death-
path, instead of via ad mortem (L., xliv. 4. 14).
2. An abstract substantive with the Gen. is often to be translated
as an attribute :
Verni temporis suavitas, C, Cat.M., 19, 70 ; the sweet spring-time.
Fontium gelidae perennitat6s, C, N.D., 11. 39, 98 ; cool springs that never
fail. Compare S., C, 8, 3.
And, on the other hand, the predicative attribute is often to be
translated as an abstract substantive with of :
Ante Romam conditam, before the founding of Rome. (825, r. 3.)
Notice also hie metus, this fear = fear of this, and kindred expres-
sions : Quam similitudinem = cuius rei similitudinem, C, N.D., 11. 10, 27.
2. The Genitive is employed :
I. and 11. Chiefly as the complement of Substantives and
Adjectives.
III. Occasionally as the complement of Verbs.
NoTK.— As the Accusative forms a complex with the verb, so the Genitive forms a
complex with the Substantive or equivalent. No logical distribution can be wholly
satisfactory, and the following arrangement has regard to convenience.
GENITIVE. 231
I. GENITIVE WITH SUBSTANTIVES.
Adnominal Genitive.
Appositive Genitive, or Genitive of Specification.
361. The Genitive is sometimes used to specify the con-
tents of generic words instead of Apposition in the same
case ; there are two varieties :
1. Appositiorml Genitive, — Genitive after such words as, vox, expres-
sion ; nomen, iiame, noun ; verbum, ivord, verb ; rSs, thing, etc.
Nomen amlcitiae, C, Fin., 11. 24, 78 ; the name friendship.
2. Epexegetical Genitive. — Genitive after such words as genns, class ;
vitium, vice ; culpa, fault, etc.
[Virtutes] continentiae, gravitatis, iustitiae, fidel, C, Mur., 10, 23 ; the
virtues of self-control, earnestness, justice, honor.
Notes.— 1. The former variety is very rare in Cicero, the latter much more com-
mon. A special variety is tlie use of the Gen. after such words as urbs, oppidum,
flumen, etc. This is not found in Plautus and Tehence, occurs perhaps but once
in CicEuo, and seems to be confined to a few cases in poetry and later prose. Often
personification is at work ; thus, in fons Tlmavl (V., A., i. 244), Timavus is a river
god, and fonS is not equal to Tlmavus. Clf. V., A., viii. 72.
2. Examples like arbor abietis (L., xxiv. 3, A), fir-tree ; arbor fici {Cf. C, Flac.,
ij, 41), fig-tree, etc., occur only here and there.
3. Colloquial, and probably belonging here, arc: scelus viri (Pl., 3/. (?., 1434), a
scoundrel of a man ; flagitium hominis (Pl-, ^*in.,473), '' scamp of a fellow, and
the like. Quaedam p§st6s hominum^ C, Fam., v. 8, 2 ; certain liestilentfelloxvs.
Possessive Genitive, or Genitive of Property.
362. The Possessive Genitive is the substantive form of an
adjective attribute with which it is often parallel ; it is used
only of the Third Person,
Domus rSgis — domus regia, the palace of the king, the king's palace —
the royal pcdace.
Remarks. — i. The Possession in the First and Second Person (and
in the Reflexive) is indicated by the Possessive Pronouns (until after
Livy): amicus meus, a friend of mine ; gladius tuus, a sword of thine.
But when omnium is added, vestrum and nostrum are used ; axis et focis
omnium nostrum inimicus, C, Ph., xi. 4, 10. Sometimes the adjective
form is preferred also in the Third Person: canis alienus, a strange dog,
another man's dog ; fllius erflis, master's son^
2. The attention of the student is called to the variety of forms
which possession may take. Statua Mjrronis, 3Iyron's statue, may mean:
I. A statue which Myron owns; 2. Which Myron has made; 3. Which
represents Myron.
3. Sometimes the governing word i^ omitted, where it can be easily
232 GENITIVE.
supplied, so especially aedes or templum, after ad, and less often after
other prepositions : Pecunia utinam ad Opis mangret, C, Ph., i. 7, 17 ;
would that the money were still at Ops's (temple).
Notes.— 1. The Family Genitive, as Hasdrubal Gisgonis (L.,xxviii., 12, 13),
Gisgo's Hasdrubal, llasdi^bal, Gisgo's son (as it were, Hasdrubal O' Gisgo), Hectoris
AndromacliS {v., A. ,111.319), Hector's (wife) Andrmjiache, is found twice onlj^ in
Cicero, otlierwise it is poetical and post-Ciceronian. ServOS, however, is regularly
omitted ; Flaccus Claudi, Flaco/s, Claudius'' slave.
2. The C/ur/wgrajMc {geographic) Genitive is rare and post-Ciceronian : R6x
Chalcidem Euboeae vgnit, L., xxvii. 30, 7; the king came to Chalcis of (in) Euboea.
The Chorographic Genitive is not found with persons. Here an adjective or a prep-
ositional phrase is necessary : Thales Mllesius, or ex MilStS, Thales of Miletm.
Active and Passive Genitive.
363. When the substantive on which the Genitive depends
contains the idea of an action (nomen actionis), the possession
may be active ov passive. Hence the division into
1. The Active or Subjective Genitive : amor Dei, the love
of God, the love ivhich God feels (God loves) ; patriae beneficia,
the benefits of (conferred hy) one's country (376, r. 2).
2. Passive or Objective Genitive : amor Dei, love of Gody
love toivard God (God is loved).
Remarks. — i. The English form in o/is used either actively or pas-
sively : the love of women. Hence, to avoid ambiguity, other preposi-
tions than of are often substituted for the Passive Genitive, such as for,
toward, and the like. So, also, sometimes in Latin, especially in Livy,
and later Historians generally:
Voluntas Servflii erga Caesarem, Cf. C, Q.F., iii. i. 6, 26 ; the good-
will of Servilius toward Caesar. Odium in bonos inveteratum, C, Vat.y
3, G ; deep-seated hate toward the conservatives.
2. Both Genitives may be connected with the same substantive :
VeterSs HelvSti5rum iniuriae populi ESmani, Cf. Caes., B.G., i. 30, 2 ;
the ancient injuries of the Roman people hy the Helvetians.
NoTK.— The use of the Genitive with substantives whose corresponding verbs take
other cases than the Accusative, gradually increases in Latin, beginning with the
earliest times, but it is not very common in the classical language.
364. The Subjective Genitive, like the Possessive, is used
only of the Third Person. In the First and Second Persons
the possessive pronoun is used, thus showing the close rela-
tionship of Agent and Possessor.
Amor mens, my love (the love which I feel). D6siderium tuum, your
longing {the longing which you feel).
GEIS^ITIVE. 233
Additional attributives are put in the Genitive (321, r. 2):
Itiraivi hanc urbem mea unius opera salvam esse, C, Pis., 3, 6 ; I swore
that this city owed its salvation to my exertions alone.
Remark. — Nostrum and vestrum are used as Partitive Genitives:
Magna pars nostrum, a great part of us ; uterque vestrum, eitJier (both)
of you.
Nostri melior pars means the better part of our being, our better part.
With omnium, the forms nostrum and vestrum must be used (362, r. i).
Notes.— 1. Occasionally, however, in Latin, as in English, the Gen. is nsed instead
of the possessive pronoun; so Cicero says splendor vestrum (Att., vii. 13 a, 3), and
cSnsSnsus vestrum (P/i-, v. i, 2), and one or two others ; but other examples are very
rare until after Tacitus, when the Singular forms, after the example of Ovid {31., i.
30), become not uncommon. See 304, 3, n. 1. " For the life of me " = " for my life."
2. On the other hand the Genitives of the personal pronouns are used regularly as
the Objective Genitive :
Amor mei, love to me. Desiderium tui, longi7ig for thee. Memoria nostri,
memory of us (our memory).
Occasionally the possessive pronoun is used even here ; see 304, 2, n. 2, and compare
"The deep damnation of his taking off."
Genitive of Quality.
365. The Genitive of Quality must always have an adjec-
tive or its equivalent.
Vir magnae auctoritatis, Caes., B.G., v. 35, 6; a man of great influ-
ence. Hom8 nihili (= nullius pretil), Pl., B., 1188 ; a fellow of no ac-
count. Tridui via, Caes., E.G., i. 38, 1; a three days' journey. N5n
multi cibi hospitem accipigs, multi ioci, C, Fam., ix. 26, 4; you will
receive a guest ivho is a small eater but a great joker.
Remarks. — i. The Genitive of Quality, like the adjective, is not
used with a proper name. Exceptions are very rare in classical Latin
(Caes. , B.G., v. 35, 6, Quintus Lflcanius, giusdem ordinis). But later they
are more common.
2. The Genitive of Quality is less common than the Ablative, being
used chiefly of the essentials. The Genitive always of Number, Meas-
ure, Time, Space ; the Ablative always of externals, so of parts of the
body. Often the use seems indifferent. (400.)
Note.— The omission of the adjective is not found before Apuleius, in whom,
as in English, a man of influence may be for a man of great influence.
Genitive as a Predicate.
366. The Genitives of Possession and Quality may be used
as Predicates.
Hie versus Plauti n6n est, hie est, C, Fam., ix. 16, 4; this verse is not
234 GENITIVE.
hy Plautus, this is. Omnia quae mulieris fuSrunt, viri fiunt d5tis nomine,
C, Top., IV. 23; everything that was the woman^s becomes the husband's
under the title of dowry. Virtus tantarum virium est ut sg ipsa tueatur, C. ,
Tusc, V. I, 2; virtue is of such strength as to be her own protector.
Eemarks. — I. The Possession appears in a variety of forms, and
takes a variety of translations :
Huius ero vivus, mortuus huius er5, Prop., ii. 15, 35; hers I shall be,
living; dead, hers I shall be. Nolae senatus Romanorum, plebs Hanni-
balis erat, L., ixiii, 39, 7; at Nola the senate was (on the side) of the
lionums, the common folk (on) Ilannibcd's. Damnatio est iudicum, poena
iSgis, C, Sull., 22, 63; condemning is the judges' (business), punishment
the law's. Est animi ingenui cui multum dgbeas eidem plurimum velle
debgre, C, Fam., 11. 6, 2 ; it shoivs the feeling of a gentleman to be will-
ing to owe very much to him to ivhom you already owe much. Pau-
peris est numerare pecus, Ov., 31., xiii. 823 ; 'tis only the poor man that
counts his flock {'tis the mark of a poor man to count the flock).
Observe the special variety, Oenitlvus Auctoris : Is [Herculgs] dlcg-
baturesse Myronis, C, Verr., iv. 3, 5; that (statue of) Hercules was said
to be Myron's (work), by Ifyron.
So also with facere, to make (cause to be), which is common in Livy
especially :
Romanae dicionis facere, L., xxi. 60, 3 ; to bring under the Roman
sway. Summum imperium in orbe terrarum Macedonum fecerant, L. , xlv.
7, 3 ; the paramount authority of the world they had brought {into the
hands) of the Macedonians.
2. For the personal representative of a quality, the quality itself may
be used sometimes with but little difference, as : stultitiae est, it is the
part of folly ; stulti est, it is the part of a fool. So, too, stultum est,
it is foolish. But when the adj. is of the Third Declension, the neuter
should not be used, except in combination with an adj. of the Second.
Temporl cgdere semper sapientis est habitum, C, Fam., iv. 9, 2 ; ^0 yield
to the pressure of the times has always been held ivise. Pigrum et iners
vidgtur sudSre adquirere quod possis sanguine parare, Tac, O., 14, 17 ; it
is thought slow and spiritless to acquire by sweat what you cari get hy
blood.
Some combinations become phraseological, as : consugtudinis, mOris
est (the latter post-classical), it is the custom.
3. The same methods of translation apply to the Possessive Pro-
noun in the Predicate ("Vengeance is mine") : meum est, it is my
property, busiriess, way.
N5n est mentiri meum, Ter., Ileaut., 549 ; lying is not my way (I do
not lie). His tantis in rfibus est tuura vidgre, quid agatur, C, Mur., 38,
83 ; in this important crisis it is your business to see what is to be done.
GEXITIYE. 235
Partitive Genitive.
367. The Partitive Genitive stands for the Whole to which
a Part belongs. It is therefore but an extension of the Pos-
sessive Genitive. It may be used with any word that involves
partition, and has the following varieties (368-372) :
368. The Partitive' Genitive is used with substantives of
Quantity, Number, Weight.
Maximus vini numerus fuit, permagnum pondus argenti, C, Ph., 11. 27,
6G ; there ivas a large amount of wine, an enormous mass of silver. In
iugerS Leontlni agri medimnum tritici seritur, C. Verr., in. 47, 112 ; on a
jnger of the Leontine territory a medimnus of wheat is sown. Campano-
mm alam, quingentos ferS equitSs excgdere acig iubet, L., x. 29, 2 ; he or-
ders a squadron of Campanians, about 500 horsemen, to leave the line.
Remark. — This is sometimes called the Oenitlvus Generis, Whether
the conception be partitive or not, depends on circumstances.
Medimnus tritici, a medimnus of wheat, may be a medimnus of
WHEAT {Genitivus Generis) or a medimnus of wheat {Partitive).
Note.— The reversed construction is occasionally found. Sex dies ad- earn rem
conficiendam spatii postulant, Caes., B. 6'., i. 3, 6, instead of spatium sex dierum.
369. The Partitive Genitive is used with the Neuter Sing-
ular of the following and kindred words, but only in the
Nominative or Accusative.
tantum, so much, quantum, as {how much), aliquantum, somewhat,
multum, much, plus, 7nore, plurimum, most,
paulum, little, minus, less, minimum, least,
satis, enough, parum, too little, nihil, nothing,
hoc, this, id, illud, istud, that, idem, the same,
quod and quid, which and what ? with their compounds.
Quod in rSbus honestis operae curaeque ponetur, id itire laudabitur, C. ,
Off., I. 6, 19 ; ivhat {of) effort and pains shall he bestowed on reputable
deeds, will receive a just recompense of p'aise. Is locus ab omni turba id
temporis (336, n. 2) vacuus [erat], C, Fin., v. i, 1 ; that place was at that
{point of) time free from anything like a crowd. Satis Sloquentiae,
sapientiae parum, S., C, 5, 4 ; enough {of) eloquence, of ivisdom too little.
Remarks. — i. Neuter adjectives of the Second Declension can be
treated as substantives in the Gen. ; not so adjectives of the Third,
except in combination with adjectives of the Second, but here usually
,the Second Declension adjective is attracted : aliquid bonum, or boni,
something good ; aliquid memorabile, something memorable ; aliquid bonI
236 • GENITIVE.
et memorabilis, something good and memorable (better aliquid bonnm et
memorabile).
Quid habet ista res aut laetabile aut gloriosum? C, 2'usc., 1. 21, 49
(204, N. 3).
2. A familiar phrase is : Nihil reliqui facere. i. To leave nothing
{not a thing). 2. (Occasionally), to leave nothing undone.
Notes.— 1. The conception is often not so much partitive as characteristic. So
Quodcumque hoc rggni, Y .., A.,\. ^% \ this realm, tvhat (little) there is of it {what little
realm I have). Perhaps, too, such combinations as flagitium hominis may be classed
under this head. See 361, n. 3.
2. The partitive construction, with a preposition, is not found in Cicero or Caesar,
but begins with Sallust :
Ad id loci, S., C, 45, 3 ; ad id locorum, S., lug., 63, 6.
370. The Partitive Genitive is used with numerals, both
general and special.
Special :
Centum militum, a hundred (of the) soldiers, a hundred (of) soldiers,
(Centum militSs, a, the hundred soldiers.)
Quintus rggum, the fifth (of the) ki?ig{s).
(Quintus rgx, the fifth king.)
Oerieral :
Multi militum, many of the soldiers, many soldiers.
(Multi militgs, many soldiers.)
K-EMARKS. — I. The English language commonly omits the partition,
unless it is especially emphatic :
Multi civium adsunt, many citizens are present. Multi clv6s adsunt,
MANY are the citizens present.
2. When all are embraced, there is no partition in Latin :
(N5s) trecenti coniuravimus, L., 11. 12, 15 ; three hundred of us have
hound ourselves hy an oath. Volnera quae circum plurima muros accSpit
patrios, V., A., 11. 277 ; wounds which he received in great numbers before
his country's walls.
Qui omngs, all of whom. Quot estis ? how many are {there of) you ?
So always quot, tot, totidem.
Here the English language familiarly employs the partition. Ex-
ceptions are very rare.
3. On mille and milia, see 293. On prepositions with numerals, see
372, R. 2.
371. The Partitive Genitive is used Avith Pronouns.
li militum, those (of the) soldiers. li militgs, those soldiers.
lUi GraecOrum, those (of the) Greeks.
Fidgnatium qui supersunt, ad urbem Fidgnas tendunt, L., iv. 33, 10 ; the'
surviving Fidenates take their way to the city of Fidenae.
GENITIVE. 237
Remarks. — i. TTterque, either {both), is commonly used as an adjec-
tive with substantives : uterque consul, either consul = both consuls; as
a substantive with pronouns, unless a substantive is also used: uterque
horum, both of these ; but uterque ille dux. So, too, with relatives in
the neuter, and with Plural forms of uterque, concord is the rule. Com-
pare uterque nostrum, C, Sull., 4, 13, with utrique nos, C, Fam., xi. 20,
3. See 292.
2. On the use of prepositions instead of the Genitive, see 372, r. 2.
Note.— The use of the relative with the Genitive is cliaracteristic of Livy.
372. The Partitive Genitive is used with Comparatives and
Superlatives :
Prior horum in proelio cecidit, Nep., xxi. i, 2 ; the former of these fell
in an engagement. Indus est omnium fluminum maximus, C, N.D., 11.
52, 130 (211, R. 2).
Remarks. — i. When there are only two, the comparative exhausts
the degrees of comparison (300).
2. Instead of the Partitive Genitive with Numerals, Pronouns, Com-
paratives, and Superlatives, the Abl. may be employed witli ex, out of
dg, from (especially with proper names and singulars), in, among (rare),
or the Ace. with inter, am,ong, apud : Gallus provocat unum ex Komanis,
the Oaul challenges one of the Romans ; unus dS multis, one of the many
(the masses) ; Croesus inter rgges opulentissimus, Croesus, wealthiest of
Icings. With unus, ex or dS is the more common construction, except
that when unus is first in a series, the Gen. is common.
3. On the concord of the Superlative see 211, r. 2.
Notes.— 1. The Partitive Genitive with positives is occasional in poetry ; in prose
it begins with Livy and becomes more common later.
Sequimur t6, sancte deorum, v., A., iv. 576 ; we follow thee, holy deity. Canum
dggeneres (caudam) sub alvom flectunt, PLiN.,iV.zr.,xi., 50,266; currish dogs
ciirl the tail up under the belly.
2. Substantival neuters, with no idea of quantity, were rarely followed by the Gen.
in early Latin. Cicero shows a few cases of Plurals of superlatives, and one case of a
Plural of a comparative in this construction : in interiora aedium SuUae {A.tt. iv.,
3, 3). Caesar shows one case of a positive : in occultis So reconditis templi {B. C,
III. 105, 5). Sallust shows the first case of the Singular : in praerupti montis ex-
trSmo {lug., 37, 4). Then the usage extends and becomes common, especially in Taci-
tus. In the poets it begins with Lucretius.
Ardua dum metuunt amittunt vSra viai (29, n. 2), Lucr., i. 660 ; the tohile they
fear the steeper road, they miss the true.
So amara curarum, n., 0., iv. 12, 19 ; hitter elements of cares. Utter cares ; strata
viarum, V., A., i. 422 = stratae viae, the paved streets.
3. The Partitive Genitive is also used with Adverbs of Quantity, Place, Extent : ar-
morum adfatim, L., xxvn. 17, 7 ; oMndance of arms • ubi terrarum, gentium?
where in the world ? (Very late Latin, tum temporis, at that time.) The usage with
hue, eo, as hue, eS arrogantiae procSssit, tie got to this, that pitch of presumption^
is a colloquialism, which begins with Sallust, but is not found in Cicero or Caesar.
238 GEKITIVE.
Notice especially the phrase : quod (or quoad) eius (facere) possum, as far as I can
do so: C, Fain., iii. 2, 2 ; Att., xi. 12, 4 ; Inv., 11., 6, 20.
4. The Partitive Genitive with proper names is rare, and mostly confined to LiVY :
Gonsulum Sulpicius in dextro Poetelius in laevo cornu consistunt, L., ix. 27, 8.
5. The Partitive Genitive as a Predicate is Greekish : Fi§S nobilium tu quoque
fontium, H., 0., m., 13, 13 ; tlum, too shall count among the famous fountains.
Genitive with Prepositional Substantives.
373. Causa, gratia, ergo, and instar are construed with the
Genitive.
[SopMstae] quaesttis causa pMlosopMbantur, C, Ac, 11. 23, 72 ; the pro-
fessors of ivisdom dealt in philosophy for the sake of gain. Tu me amoris
magis quam honoris servavisti gratia, Enn., F., 287 (m.); thou didst save
me more for lovers (sake) than (thou didst) for honors sake. Virtiitis
ergo, C, Opt. Gen., 7, 19; on account of valor, instar montis equus, V.,
^.,11. 15 ; a horse the bigness of a mountain. Plato mihi tinus instar est
omnium, C, Br., 51, 191 ; Plato by himself is in my eyes worth them all.
Remarks. — i. Causa and gratia, for the sake, commonly follow the
Gen. in classical Latin and also in the Jurists. In Livy and later they
often precede. Ergo, on account, belongs especially to early Latin,
except in formulae and laws, and follows its Genitive. It is rare in the
poets. Instar is probably a fossilized Infinitive (Instare), meaning •' the
equivalent, ^^ whether of size or value.
2. Except for special reasons causa takes the possessive pronoun in
agreement, rather than the personal pronoun in the Genitive ; more
rarely gratia :
Vestra reique publicae causa, C, Verr., v. 68, 173 ; for your sake and
that of the commonwealth. But in antithesis, multa quae nostri causa
numquam faceremus, facimus causa amIcSrum! C, Lael., 16, 57 (disputed).
II. GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES.
374. Adjectives of Fulness, of Participation, and of Power,
of Knowledge and Ignorance, of Desire and Disgust, take
the Genitive.
Plgnus rimarum, Ter., Eun., 105 ; full of chinks ("a leaky vessel").
Particeps consilii, C, Sidl., 4, 12 ; a sharer in the plan. Mentis compos,
C. , Ph. , II. 38, 97; in possession of (one's) mind. Multarum rgrum peritus,
C, -Fow^., II, 25 ; versed in many things. Cupidus pecuniae, (/. C..
Verr. , i. 3, 8 ; grasping after money. FastidiOsus LatlnSrum (litterarum),
C, Br., 70, 247 ; too dainty for Latin. Omnium rerum Inscius, C, Br.,
85, 292 ; a universal igfwramus. COr n5n ut plSnus vitae conviva recSdis 1
Lucii., III. 938 (273). Sitque memor nostri necne, referte mihl, Ov., TV., iv.
GEN^ITIVE. 239
3, 10 (204, N. 7). C5nsciamens recti Famae mendacia risit, Ov., i^., iv. 31T
(330, R.). Agricolam laudat iuris Iggumque peritus, H., S.,i. i, 9; the hus-
bandman's lot) is praised by the counsel learned in the law. OnmSs im-
memorem benelicii oderunt, C, Off., 11. 18, 63 ; all hate a man loho has no
memory for kindness. (Bestiae) sunt rationis et orationis expertes, C, Off. ,
I. 16, 50; beasts are devoid of reason and speech {lack discourse of reason).
Omnia plgna consiliorum, inania verbSrum videmus, C, Or.,i. g, 37; ive see
a ivorld that is full of wise measures, void of eloquence. Gallia frugum
fertilis fuit, L,, v. 34, 2; Gaul was productive of grain.
Notes.— 1. Of adjectives of Fulness, with the Gen., only plenus, repletus, inops,
and inanis are classical and common ; single instances are found of liberalis, pro-
fusus, in Sallust (C, 7, G ; 5, 4), and ieiunus occurs once in Cicero. Plautus also
uses onustus and prodigus. Poets and later prose writers are frce. Plenus occurs
very rarely with the Abl. in Cicero and Caesar, more often in Livy. Refertus is
used by Cicero usually with the Abl. of the Thing and with the Gen. of the
Person.
2. Participation : Classical are particeps, expers, consors, with some adjectives
expressing guilt, as manif 6stus (archaic), afiSnis, reus. Of these particeps takes
also the Dat. in post-classical Latin, and expers has also the Abl. (not classical) from
Plautus on. (See S., 6'., 33, 1.) Aifinis has the Dat. in Livv, in local sense also ia
Cicero ; reus takes Abl. or dS.
3. Pcnver : Compos alone is classical, and is occasionally found with Abl. in Sal-
lust, Vergil, Livy. Pot6ns is found in Plautus, the poets, and post-classical prose ;
impos in Plautus, and then not until Seneca.
4. Knoidedge and Ignorance : Classical are some eighteen. Of these peritus has
also Abl., and rarely ad ; insuetus takes also Dat. as well as dS ; prudens has also
ad ; rudis has Abl. with in more often than the Gen. in Cicero, but also ad. Ante-
classical Latin shows a few more adjectives.
5. JJesire and Disgust : Classical are avidus, cupidus, fastidiosus, studiosus.
Of these avidus has also in with Ace. and with Abl. ; studiosus has Dat. in Plautus
{M. G., 801) ; single examples are cited with ad and in. Fastidiosus occurs but once
in Cicero (see above) ; see H., (?., iii. i, 37.
6. In later Latin and in the poets almost all adjectives that denote an affection of the
mind take a Gen. of the Thing to which the affection refers, where model prose requires
the Abl. or a preposition: consilii ambiguus, Tac, //., iv. 21 ; daublful of purpose.
Ingratus salutis, V., A., x. 665.
The analogy of these adjectives is followed by others, so that the Gen. becomes a
complement to the adjective, just as it is to the corresponding substantive.
Integer vitae, H., 0., 1. 22, l ; spotless of life ; like integritas vitae. (Compare
l^ma et fortunis integer, S., //., 11. 41, 5 D ; in fame and fortunes intact.)
7. The seat of the feeling is also put in the Gen., chiefly with animi and ingenii
(which were probably Locatives originally). Aeger animi, L., i. 58, 9 ; sick at heart,
heartsick. Audax ingenii, Stat.,/?.,!!!. 2, 64 ; daring of disposition. The PI. is
animls.
8. The Gen. with adjectives involving /S'epa/'a^zon instead of the Abl. (390, 3) begins
with the Augustan poets ; though Sallust shows nudus and vacuus (Tug., 79, G ; 90,
1); liber labonim, H., A. P., 212.
9. Classical Latin uses certus with Gen. only in the phrase certiorem facere, to
inform, which has also d§ (always in Caesar).
10. Dignus, worthy, and indignus, unworthy, with Gen. are poetical and rare.
11. On alienus, strange, see 359, n. 2. On aequalis, communis, cdnscius, con-
trarius, par, proprius, similis, superstes, and the like, see 359, r. i.
240 GENITIVE.
Genitive with Verbals.
375. Some Present Participles take the Genitive when they
lose their verbal nature ; and so occasionally do verbals in
-ax in poetry and later prose.
(Epaminondas) erat adeo veritatis dUigens ut ng ioco quidem mentiretur,
Nep. , XV. 3, 1 ; Epaminondas ivas so careful {such a lover) of the truth
as not to tell lies even in jest. Omnium consgnsu capax imperii nisi im-
perasset, Tag., IT., i. 49 ; by general consent capable of empire, had
he not become emperor.
Notes.— 1. The participle is transient; the adjective permanent. The simple test
is the substitution of the relative and the verb : amans (participle), loving (ivho is
loving); amans (adjective), /or^t^, (substantive), lovei\- patiens (participle), bearing
(w/io is bea?'ing) ; patiens (adjective), enduring., (substantive), a sufferer.
2. Ante-classical Latin shows only amans, cupiens, concupiens, fugitans,
gergns, persequens, scigns, temperans. Cicero carries the usage very far, and it is
characteristic of his style. Caesar, on the other hand, has very few cases (/?. C, i. 69, 3).
Cicero also shows the first case of a Gen. after a compared participle. Sumus
nattlra appetentissimi honestatis, C, Tusc, 11. 24, 58. These participles can also
revert to the verbal constructions.
3. Of verbals with the Gen., Plautus shows one example : mendax {Asin., 855) ;
Cicero perhaps one : rapax {Lael., 14, 50). The usage in later Latin and the poets is
confined at most to about one dozen verbals.
III. GENITIVE WITH VERBS.
Genitive with Verbs of Memory.
376. Verbs of Reminding, Remembering, and Forgetting,
take the Genitive.
Tg veteris amicitiae commonefScit, [C] ad Her., iv. 24, 33 ; he reminded
you of your old friendship. Est proprium stultitiae aliSrum vitia cernere,
oblivisci suSrum, C, Tusc, iir. 30, 73; the fact is, it shows a fool to have
keen eyes for the faults of others, to forget one's own. Ipse iubet mortis
tg meminisse deus, Mart., ii. 59; a god himself bids you remember death.
Remarks. — i. Verbs of Reminding take more often the Abl. with
d6 (so regularly in Cicero), and the Ace. neut. of a pronoun or Nu-
meral adjective. Tacitus alone uses mongre with the Gen. (Ann., i.
67,_1)-
Oro ut Terentiam moneatis dg tgstamento, C, Alt., xi. 16, 5; I beg you
to put Terentia in mind of the will. Discipulos id unum moneo. Quint.,
II. 9, 1 (333, I).
2. Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting also take the Ace, espe-
cially of Things :
GENITIVE. 241
Haec olim meminisse iuvabit, Y., A.,i. 203 ; to remember these things
one day will give us pleasure. Qui sunt boni civ6s, nisi qui patriae bene-
ficia meminSrunt ? C, Plane, 33, 80 ; wJw are good citizens except those
who remember the benefits conferred by their country ? Oblivisci nihil
soles nisi iniurias, C, Lig., 12, 35 ; you are ivont to forget nothing except
injuries.
Eecordor (literally = / bring to heart, to mind) is construed with the
Ace. of the Thing, except in three passages from Cicero ; d6 is found
with Persons.
Et v5cem Anchisae magni voltumque recorder, Y., A., viii. 156 ; and I
recall (call to mind) the voice and countenance of Anchises the Great.
Memini, I bear in mind, I (am old enough to) remember, takes the
Accusative :
[Antipatrum] tti prob6 meministi, C, Or., iii. 50, 194 ; you remember
Antipater very well.
3. Venit mihi in mentem, it comes into (up to) my mind, may be con-
strued impersonally with the Gen., or personally with a subject ; the
latter by Cicero only when the subject is a neuter pronoun.
Venit mihi PlatSnis in mentem, C, Fin., v. i, 2 ; Plato rises before
my mind's eye.
Genitive with Verbs of Emotion.
377. Misereor, / pity, takes the Genitive, and miseret, it
moves to pity, paenitet, it repents, piget, it irks, pudet, it
wahes ashamed, taedet and pertaesum est, it tires, take the
Accusative of the Person Who Feels, and the Genitive of the
Exciting Cause.
MisergminI sociorum, C, Verr., i. 28, 72 ; pity your allies ! Suae quem-
que forttinae paenitet, C, Fam., vi. i, 1 ; each man is discontented with
his lot. M@ non solum piget stultitiae meae, sed etiam pudet, C, Bom.,
II, 29 ; I am not only fretted at my folly, but actually ashamed of it.
Remarks. — i. Pudet is also used with the Gen. of the Person whose
Presence excites the shame :
Pudet deorum hominumque, L., in. 19, 7 ; it is a shame in the sight of
gods and men.
2. These Impersonals can also have a subject, chiefly a Demon-
strative or Relative pronoun : Non t5 haec pudent? Ter., Ad., 754 ;" do
not these things put you to the blush ?
3. Other constructions follow from general rules. So the Inf.
(422) and quod (542).
Non mS vixisse paenitet, C, Cat.M., 23, 84 (540). Quintum paenitet
quod animum tuum offendit, Cf. C, Att.^ xi. 13, 2; Quintus is sorry that
he has wounded your feelings.
16
242 GEKITIVE.
Notes.— 1. With the same construction are found misereo (early Latin), miseresco
(poetical), dispudet (early Latin), distaedet (early Latin), vereor (mosDy in early
Latin), and a few others.
2. Miserari and commiserari, io pity, commiserate, take Ace. until very late
Latin.
Genitive with Judicial Verbs.
The Genitive with Judicial Verbs belongs to the same category as the Genitive with
Verbs of Rating, both being extensions of the Genitive of Quality,
378. Verbs of Accusing, Convicting, Condemning, and
Acquitting take the Genitive of the Charge.
(Miltiadgs) acclisatus est proditionis, Xep.,i. 7, 5; Militiades was
accused of treason. [Fannius] C. Verrem insimulat avaritiae, (1, Verr.,
I. 49, 128 ; Fannius charges Oaius Verres with avarice. Video non t§
absoliitum esse improbitatis sed illos damnatos esse caedis, C, Verr., i. 28,
72 ; / see not that you are acquitted of dishonor, but that they are con-
victed of murder.
Remarks. — i. Judicial Verbs inchide a number of expressions and
usages. So capi, teneri, dSprehendi, sg adstringere, s6 adligare, se obligare
(ante-classical), and others, mean to he found guilty ; increpare, increpi-
tare, urggre, dgferre, arguere, etc., mean charge.
So also kindred expressions : reum facere, {to make a party) to indict,
to bring an action against ; nomen deferre de, to bring an action
against ; sacrilegil compertum esse, to be found {guilty) of sacrilege.
2. For thie Gen. of the Charge may be substituted nomine or crimine
with the Gen., or the Abl. with de: nomine (crimine) coniurationis
damnare, to find guilty of conspiracy ; accusare de vi, of violence (Gen.
vis rare) ; dg veneficio, of poiso7iing ; de rebus repetundis, of extortion.
Postulare always has dg in Cicero. We find sometimes in with Abl. ;
convictus in crimine, on the charge ; or, inter : inter sicarios damnatus est,
convicted of homicide (C, Cluent., 7, 21 ; Cf. Ph., 11, 4, 8).
3. Verbs of Condemning and Acquitting take the Abl. as well as the
Gen. of the Charge and the Punishment, and always the Abl. of
the definite Pine ; the indefinite Fine, quanti, dupli, quadrupll, etc., is
in the Genitive.
Accusare capitis, or capite, to bring a capital charge. Damnare capitis,
or capite, to condemn to death. Damnari decem milibus, to be fined ten
thousand.
MultSre, to mulct, is always construed with the Ablative : Multare
pecunia, to midct in (of) money.
Manlius virtutem filil morte multavit. Quint., v. ii, 7 ; Ilanlius puri'
ished the valor of his son with death.
4. Destination and Enforced Labor are expressed by ad or in, but all
examples are post-classical : damnari ad bgstias, to be condemned (to be
GENITIVE. 243
thrown) to wild beasts ; ad (in) metalla, to the mities ; ad (in) opus pub-
licum, to hard labor. Voti damnari, to be boiind to fulfil a vow, is
Livian (except Nep., xx. 5, 8, where it has a different sense).
5. Verbs of Accusing- may have also the Ace. of the Thing and the
Gen. of the Person : inertiam accusas adulescentium, C, Or., i. 58, 340.
Genitive with Verbs of Rating and Buying.
379. Verbs of Eating and Buying are construed with the
Genitive of the general value or cost, and the Ablative of the
particular value or cost. (404.)
Verbs of Rating are : aestimare, existimare (rare), to value ; putare,
to reckon ; ducere (rare in Cicero), to take ; habgre, to hold ; pendere
(mostly in Comedy), to weigh ; facere, to make, put ; esse, to be (worth) ;
fieri, to be considered.
Verbs of Buying are : emere, to buy ; vendere, to sell ; vgnire, to be
for sale ; stare and constare, to cost, to come to ; prostare, licgre, to be
exposed, left (for sale) ; condticere, to hire ; locare, to let.
380. I. Verbs of Eating take :
Magni, much, pluris, more, pltirimi, maximi, most,
Parvi, little, minoris, less, minimi, least,
Tanti, tantidem, so quanti (and compounds), nibili, naught,
mucli, how much.
Equivalents of nihili, nothing, are flocci, a lock of wool, nauci, a triflCf
assis, a copper, pili (both in Catullus, mainly), and the like, and so akjo
huius, that (a snap of the finger), all usually with the negative.
Dum n6 ob malefacta, peream ; parvi existumo, Pl., Capt., 6S2, ; so
long as it be not for misdeeds, let me die ; little do I care. [Voluptatemj
virtus minimi facit, C, Fin., 11. 13, 42 ; virtue makes very little account
of the pleasure of the senses. [ludices] rem publicam flocci non faciunt,
Cf. C, Att.,\v.iC),4: ', the judges do not care a fig for tlie State. Non
habeo nauci Marsum augurem, C, Div., i. 58, 132 ; / do not value a
Ifarsian augur a baubee.
Remark. — Tanti is often used in the sense of operae pretium est = *V
is ivorth ivhile.
Est mihi tanti huius invidiae tempestatem subire, C, Cat., n, 7, 15 ; it
is worth while {the cost), in my eyes, to bear this storm of odium.
Notes.— 1. Aestim5 is found with the Abl. as well as with the Genitive. So
aestimare magno and magni, to value highly. Cicero prefers the Ablative.
2. Observe the phrases : boni (aequi bonique) faciS (a colloquialism), boni con-
suls (an old formula), I jmt vp with, take in good part. Non pSnsi habgre (ducere),
to consider not worth the_whUe, is post- Augustan and rare.
244 GENITIVE.
2. Verbs of Buying take tanti, quanti, pluris, and minoris,
The rest are put in the Ablative.
Vendo meum (frumentum) non pluris quam ceteri, fortasse etiam minoris,
C, Off., III. 12, 51 ; I sell my corn not dearer than everybody else, per-
haps even cheaper. Magis ilia iuvant quae pluris emuntur, Juv., xi. 16 ;
things give more pleasure ivhich are bought for more. Emit (Canius hor-
tos) tanti quanti Pythius voluit, C, Off., in. 14, 59 ; Canius bought the
gardens at the price Pythius waiited.
Quanti cenas ? Wliat do you give for your dinner f
Quanti habitas % ^Vhat is the rent of your lodgings 9
But:
Parvo famgs constat, magno ^stidium. Sen., E.3I., 17, 4 ; hunger costs
little, daintiness much.
An instructive shift:
Emit? peril hercle: quanti? — Viginti minis, Ti:r,, ^mw., 984 ; he
bought her 9 Tm undone. For how much ? — Twenty minae.
Kejiark. — Bene emere, to buy cheap ; bene vgndere, to sell dear ; male
emere, to buy dear ; male vgndere, to sell cheap. So, too, other adverbs:
melius, optimS, peius, pessime.
Genitive with Interest and Refert.
381. Interest and Refert take a Genitive of the Person,
seldom of the Thing, concerned.
Interest omnium rgctS facere, C, Fin., it. 22, 72 ; it is to the interest
of all to do right. Refert compositionis quae quibus anteponas. Quint.,
IX. 4, 44 ; it is of importance for the arrangement of words, which you
put before which.
Instead of the Genitive of the personal pronouns, the
Ablative Singular feminine of the possessives is employed.
Mea interest, mea rgfert, / am concerned.
Notes.— 1. Rgfert is commonly used absolutely, occasionally with mea, etc., sel-
dom with the Gen., in the classical language.
2. Instead of Apposition use the Relative :
Vehementer intererat vestra, qui patrgs estis, liber5s vestros hie potissi-
mum discere, Plin., Ep., iv. 13, 4 ; a wei^e vastly to the interest of you parents, that
your children, if possible, were taught at home.
3. The Nom. as a subject is rare, except in PLiNy''s Natural IRstory :
Usque adeo magni rgfert studium atque voluptas, Lucr., iv. 984.
Occasionally the Nom. of a neuter pronoun is found :
Quid (Ace.) tua id (Nom.) rgfert ? Teb., Ph., 723 ; what business is that of yours?
4. Rgfert is the more ancient, and is employed by the poets (interest is excluded
from Dactylic poetry by its ordinary forms) to the end of the classical period. Inter-
est is peculiar to prose, employed exclneively by Caesar, and preferred by Cicero
V hen ii complement is added.
GENITIVE. 245
5. No satisfactory explanation has been given of this construction. One view is
that mea rgfert was originally [ex] mea r6 fert (like ex mea re est), it is to my ad-
tantage, and that the ex was lost. Interest having much the same force, but being
later in development, took the constructions of rSfert by false analogy. The Gen.
would be but parallel to the possessive.
382. T. The Degree of Concern is expressed by an Adverb,
Adverbial Accusative, or a Genitive of Value.
Id mea minume rgfert, Ter., Ad., 881 ; that makes no diffei'ence at all
to me. Theodori nihil interest, C, Tusc, i. 43, 102 ; It is no concei-n of
Theodorus. Magni interest mea una nos esse, C, Att,, xiii. 4 ; it is of
great importance to me that we he together.
2. The Object of Concern is commonly put in the Infini-
tive, Accusative and Infinitive, ut or ne with the Subjunc-
tive, or an Interrogative Sentence.
Quid Milonis intererat interfici ClSdium ? C, 3Iil., 13.84 ; ivhat interest
had 3Iilo in Clodins' being killed 9 [Caesar dicere solebat] n6n tarn sua
quamrel publicae interesse uti salvus esset. Suet., lul., 86 ; Caesar used to
say that it was not of so much importance to him{self) as to the State
that his life should he spared. Vestra interest n6 imperatorem pessimi
faciant, Tag., //., i. 30 ; it is to your interest that the dregs of creation
do not make the emperor. Quid rgfert tales versus qua voce legantur 1
Juv.,xi. 182; what matters it what voice such verses are recited
with f
3. The Thing Involved is put in the Accusative with ad :
Magni ad honorera nostrum interest quam primum m6 ad urbem venire,
C, Fam., xvr. I, 1 ; it makes a great difference touching our honor that
J should come to the city as soon as possihle.
Occasional Uses.
383. I- The Genitive is found occasionally with certain Verbs of
Fulness : in classical Latin principally implgre, complgre, eggre, indiggre.
Piso multos codicgs implgvit earum rerum, C, Verr. i. 46, 119 ; Piso
fdled many books full of those things. Virtus plurimae commentationis
et exercitationis indiget, Cf. C, Fin., in. 15, 50; virtue stands in need
of much {very much) study and practice.
Notes.— 1. Classical Latin shows in all cases the Abl. much more frequently than
the Gen., except in the case of indiggre, where Ciceko prefers the Genitive. Livy
Ukevvise prefers the Gen. with implere.
2. Ante-classical and poetic are explgre (Verg.), abundare (Luc), scatere
(LucR.), saturare (Plaut.), obsaturare (Ter.), cargre (Ter.). Cargre and eggre
have the Ace. occasionally in early Latin.
3. other Grecisms are laborum dgcipitur, H., 6>.,ii. 13. 38 (reading doubtful).
246 ABLATIVE.
Regnavit popul5ruin, H., 0., in. 30, 12. Also mirari with Gen. in Vergil (A., XL
126). Noteworthy is the occasional use of crSdere with Gen. in Plautus ; so once
falli.
2. A Genitive of Separation, after the analogy of the Greek, is found
in a few cases in tiie poets.
Tit mg omnium iam labOrum levas, Pl., Rud. 247 ; how you relieve me
at last of all my toils and- troubles. DSsine mollium tandem querellarnm,
H., 0., II. 9, 17 ; cease at last from womanish complainings.
3. The Genitive in Exclamations occurs in a very few instances in
the poets. Cat., ix. 5 ; Prop., iv. (v.) 7, 21 ; compare Pl., Most., 912 ;
LucAN, II. 45.
On the Genitive after comparatives, see 296, n. 3.
ABLATIVE.
384. The Ablative is the Adverbial, as the Genitive is the
Adjective case. It contains three elements :
A. Where ? B. Whence ? C. Wherewith ?
In a literal sense, the Ablative is commonly used with prepositions ;
in a figurative sense, it is commonly used without prepositions.
A. The xVblative of the Place Where appears in a figurative sense as
the Ablative of the Time When.
B. The Ablative of the Place Whence appears as :
I. The Ablative of Origin. 2. The Ablative of Measure.
C. The Ablative of the Thing Wherewith appears in a figurative
sense, as :
I. The Ablative of Manner. 2. The Ablative of Quality. 3. The
Ablative of Means.
Remark. — It is impossible to draw the line of demarcation with
absolute exactness. So the Ablative of Cause may be derived from any
of the three fundamental significations of the case, which is evidently
a composite one.
To these we add :
D. The Ablative of Cause, E. The Ablative Absolute.
I. The Literal Meanings of the Ablative,
A. ABLATIVE OF THE PLACE WHERE.
AbiatTvus Localis.
385. The Ablative answers the question Where 9 and takes
as a rule the preposition in.
In porta navig5, Ter., And., 480 ; lam sailing in harbor. Pons in
HibgrO prope effectus (erat), Caes., ^.C, i. 62, 3 ; the bridge over the
ABLATIVE. 247
Ebro was nearly finished. Histrio in scaena [est], Pl., Poen., 20 ; the
actor is on the stage. Haeret in equo senex, Cf. C, Dei., 10, 28 ; the old
man sticks to his horse.
Remarks. — i. Verbs of Placing and kindred significations take the
Abl. with in, to designate the result of the motion : classical are ponere,
io place, and compounds ; locare, collocare, to put ; statuere, constituere,
to set ; considere, to settle ; defigere, to plant ; demergere, to plunge ;
imprimere, to press upon ; insculpere, to engrave (figurative) ; inscribere,
to write upon ; incidere, io carve upon ; includere, to shut into,
Plato rationem in capite posuit, iram in pectore locavit, C, Tusc, i. 10,
20 ; Plato has put reaso?i in the head, has placed anger in the breast,
(Lucretia) cultrum in corde dSflgit, L., i. 58, 11 ; Lucretia plants a knife
in {thrusts a knife down into) her heart. Philosophl in lis libris ipsis
qu5s scrlbunt dS contemnenda gloria sua nomina inscribunt, C, Tusc, i.
15, 34 ; philosophers ivrite their oivn names on (the titles of) the very
books which they write about contempt of glory. (Foedus) in columna
agnea inclsum, C, Balb., 23, 53 ; a treaty cut upoii a brazen colunm.
The same observation applies to sub :
Pone sub curru nimium propinqui solis in terra domibus negata, H., 0.,
I. 22, 21 ; put (me) under the chariot of the ail-too neighboring sun, in a
land denied to dwellings.
2. Verbs of Hanging and Fastening take ex, ab, or d§.
Culspgs omnis pendet exfortuna, huic nihil potest esse certi, C, Par., 11.
17 ; to him who has all his hojyes suspended on fortune, nothing can be
certain.
3. Here and there in is often rendered by per : C.,Fam., i. 7, 6, per
provlncias, here and there in the provinces ; V., A., iii. 236.
Notes.— 1. In classical pro^e the use of the Abl. without in is confined to a few
M'ords, mostly phraseological. So terra, on land ; marl, Ay f<ea ; usually in the phrase
terra marique (rarely in the reversed order), on land and sea. In terra is more
common otherwise than terra. Loco and locis, especially when used with adjectives,
usually omit in. The same is true of parte and partibus ; so regularly dextra
(parte), sinistra, laeva, etc., on the right, on the left. Livt uses regio like locus.
The tendency, however, is observable as early as Cicero's time to omit the in when
an adjective is employed, even in words other than those given above ; this tendency
becomes more marked in Livy and is very strong in later Latin. The poets are free.
Regard must always be had to 389.
2. The Ace. with in after verbs of Placing is very rare in classical prose. In early
Latin it is more common ; so with ponere, imponere, CoUocare. The examples with
Ace. in classical Latin are principally with compounds of ponere, as imponere (usu-
ally), reponere, exp5nere. Collocare with in and Ace. in Caes., b. G., i. 18, 7, is not
in a local sense. Sometimes the Dat. is found with imponere.
3. With a verb of Rest the motion antecedent to the rest is often emphasized by con-
struing the verb with in and the Ace. instead of wnth in and the Abl. This occurs
most often with esse and Jiab§re, and seems to have been colloquial, as it is very rare
in classical prose.
Numero mihi in mentem fuit dis advenientem gratias agere, Pl., Am., 180.
248 ABLATIVE.
Adesse in senatum itissit, c, Ph., v. 7, 19 {Cf. hQc ades, come hither). Parcere
victis in animum habSbat, L., xxxm. 10, 4.
386. Names of Towns in the Singular of the Third Declen-
sion, and in the Plural of all Declensions, take the Ablative
of Place Where without in.
Ut Romae consules sic Carthagine quotannis binlrgges creabantur, Nep.,
XXIII. 7, 4 ; as at Rome (two) consuls, so in Carthage tivo Icings, were
created yearly. Talis (Romae Fabricius), qualis Aristidgs Athgnis, fait, C,
Off., III. 22, 87; Fabricius was just such a man at Rome as Aristides
was at Athens.
Eemarks. — I. Appositions are put in the Abl. commonly with in;
when the appoi^itive has an attribute, the proper name regularly pre-
cedes : Neapoli, in celeberrimo oppidO, C, Rah. Post., 10, 26; at Naples,
a populous town.
2. In the neighborhood of, at, is ad with Ace, especially of military
operations: pugna ad Cannas (better Cannensis). the battle at Cannae;
p5ns ad Genavam, Caes., B.G.,i. 7; the bridge at Geneva.
Note.— The Abl. in names of Towns of the Second Declension is found once in Cae-
sar {£. C, in. 35, but the reading is questioned) ; more often in Vitruvius and later
Latin, but in Greek words only. Apparent exceptions in Caesar and Cicero are to be
referred to the Abl. of Separation. The poets, however, are free.
387. In citations from Books and in Enumerations, the
Ablative of the Place Where is used without in.
LibrS tertio, third booh ; versu decimS, tenth verse ; alio loc5, elsewhere.
But in is necessary when a passage in a book and not the whole book is
meant : Agricultiira laudatur in eo libro qui est d6 tuenda rg familiari, C,
Cat, 31., 17, 59; agriculture is praised in the work on domestic economy.
388. In designations of Place, with totus, cUnctus, whole ;
omnis, all ; medius, middle, the Ablative of the Place Where
is generally used without in.
Menippos, me5 iMiciS, tota Asia disertissimos, C, Br., 91, 815 ; Menip-
pus, in my judgment, the most eloquent man in all Asia (Minor).
Battiadgs semper totocantabitur orbe, Ov., Am., i. 15, 13; Battiades (Cal-
liraachus) ivill always be sung throughout the world.
Remark. — In is not excluded when the idea is throughout, in which
case per also may be used. Nego in Sicilia tOta {throughout the whole of
Sicily) O-llum argenteum vas fuisse, etc., C, Verr., iv. i, 1.
389. In all such designations of Place as may be regarded
in the light of Cause, Manner, or Instrument, the Ablative
is used without a preposition.
ABLATIVE. 249
Xrt terra Thermopylarum angustiae Graeciam, ita marJ fretum EurlpI
claudit, L.jXXXi. 23, 12 ; as the pass of Thermopylae bars Greece by
land, so the frith of Euripus by sea. Ariovistus exercitum castris conti-
nuit, Caes., B.G., i. 48, 4 ; Ariovistus kept his army withiii the camp.
Egressus est non vils sed tramitibus, C, Ph., xiii. g, 19^ he ivent out not
by high roads but by cross-cuts. Nemo ire quemquam publica prohibet
via, Pl., Cure, 35 ; no man forbiddeth {any one to) travel by the public
road. Matris cinergs Romam Tiber! subvecti sunt, Cf. Suet., Cal, 15;
his mother's ashes ivere brought u]) to Pome by the Tiber.
So recipere aliquem t6cto, oppido, portu, to receive a man into one's
house, town, harbor; where, however, the Ace. with in is not excluded:
recipe mg in tectum. Pl., R., 574.
B. ABLATIVE OF THE PLACE WHENCE.
Ablatlvus SeparatTvus.
390. I. The Ablative answers the question Whence? and
takes as a rule the prepositions ex, out of, de,from, ab, of.
(Eum) exturbasti ex aedibusl Pl., Trin., 137 ; did you hustle him out
of the house ? Araneas deiciam d6 pariete, Pl., aS/., 355 ; / ivill get the
cobwebs down from the wall. Alcibiadem Athgniensgs g civitate expulg-
runt, Cf. Nep., vii. 6, 2 ; the Athenians banished Alcibiades from the
sfrrfe. Dgcgdit ex Gallia RQmam Naevius, C, Quinct., 4. IG ; Naevius
withdrew from Gaul to Rome. Unde dgigcisti sive ex quo loco, sive a
quo loc5 {whether out of or from which place), eo restituas, C, Caec,
30, 88.
2. The prepositions are often omitted with Verbs of Ab-
staining, Removing, Relieving, and Excluding ; so regularly
with domo, from home, rure, from the country.
With Persons a preposition (chiefly ab) must be used.
(Verrgs) omnia domo gius abstulit, C, Fe/r., n. 34, 88 ; Verres took
every thi7ig away from his house. Ego, cum TuUius rtire redierit, mittam
eum ad tg, C, Fam., v. 20, 9 ; when Tullius returns from the country, I
will send him to you.
Compare Aligno manum abstineant, Cato, Ayr., 5, 1 ; let them keep
their hand{s)from other people's property, with [Alexander] vix a sg manus
abstinuit, C, Tusc, iv. 37, 79 ; Alexander hardly kept (could hardly
keep) his hands from himself {from laying hands on himself).
Compare Lapidibus optimos viros foro pellis, C, Har.Res., 18, 39; you
drive men of the best classes from the forum with stones, with Istum
aemulum ab ea pellito, Ter., Eun., 215 ; drive that rival from her.
Compare Omnium rgrum nattira cognita liberamur mortis metti, C,
Fin., I. 19, 63; by the knowledge of universal nature we get rid of the
250 ABLATIVE.
fear of death, with T5 ab eo libero, C, Q.F., iii. i. 3, 9; I rid you of
Mm.
Compare Amicitia nullo loco excluditur, C, Lael., 6, 22 ; friendship is
shut out from noplace, with Ab ilia exoludor, hoc concludor, cy. Ter.,
And., 386 ; / am shut out from her (and) shut up here {to live with her).
Notes.— 1. In classical Latin the preposition is usually employed in local relations,
and omitted in metaphorical relations ; though there are some exceptions.
2. It is to be noted that in the vast majority of cases the separation is indicated by a
verb ; hence this Abl. is found commonly with verbs compounded with prepositions.
Thus, classical Latin shows but few simple verbs with the Abl., as follows : mov6re,
chiefly in general or technical combinations : movere loco, senatu, tribu (Caesar,
however, has no case) ; pellere, in technical language with civitate, domo, foro,
patria, possessionibus, suis sgdibus ; cedere is found with patria, vita, me-
moria, possessione, Italia; cadere, technical with causa; solvere with lege
(legibus), religione, etc., somno; levare and liberare are found cliiefly in meta-
phorical combinations, and especially in Cicero ; arcSre has peculiarly ab with
metaphorical, Abl. with local forces. In the case of most of these verbs, the preposi-
tion with the Abl. is also found.
3. Of compound verbs with the Abl., Cicero shows only s6 abdicare (principally
technical), abesse (rarely), abhorrSre (once) ; abire (in technical uses — sS abdicare),
abrumpere (once), absolvere, abstinere (intrans. without, trans, more often with,
preposition), dSicere (with aedilitate, etc.), dgmovere (once), dgpellere, dgsistere,
deturbare ; gdticere (rare) ; efferre (rare) ; egredi ; gicere ; 61abi (rare) ; emit-
tere (Caes.) ; gripere (rare; usually Dat.) ; gvertere; excgdere ; excliidere;
exire (rare) ; expellere ; exsolvere ; exsistere (rare) ; exturbare ; intercludere ;
interdicere (alicui aliqua rg ; also alicui aliquid) ; praecipitare (Caes*.) ; probi-
bgre ; supersedgre.
Early Latin shows a few more verbs witli this construction. The poets are free with
the Abl., and also later prose writers, beginning with Livy.
4. H■llIno,/rw/^ the ground, begins with Vergil. The preposition a is found occar
sionally with domO ; necessarily with a word (adjective or adverb) involving measure-
ment, as ; longinqug, longg, procul.
5. Compounds with di (dis) also take the Dative (in poetry) :
Paulum sepultae distat inertiae cglata virtas, H., 0.,iv. 9,29; little doth
hidden worth differ frmn buried doth.
6. The Place Whence gives the Point of View from which. In English a different
translation is often given, though not always necessarily : a tergo, in the rear ; ex
parte dextra, on the right side ; ab oriente, on the east : a tanto spatid, at such a
distance ; ex fuga, on the flight ; a rg friimentaria laborare, to be e/nbarrassed in
the matter of i^rovisions.
3. The prepositions are also omitted with kindred Adjec-
tives.
Animus excelsus omni est liber ciirS, C, Fin., i. 15, 49 ; a lofty mind
is free from all care. (Cato) omnibus hamanis vitiis immunis, semper for-
tfinam in sua potestate babuit, Vell.,ii. 35,2 ; Cato, exempt from all
human failings, always had fortune in Jiis own potver. lugurtha (Ad-
herbalem) extorrem patria eflfgcit, S., /wi^r., 14, 11 ; Jugurtha rendered
Adherhal an exile from his country. Utrumque (fraus et vis) homine
aiignissimum, C, Off., 1. 13, 41.
ABLATIVE. 251
Notes.— 1 . The preposition is more usual in most cases. PUms and immtlnis, with
simple Abl., are poetical and post- Augustan. Expers, with Abl. instead of with Gen.,
belongs to early Latin and Sallust. BecSns, fresh from, with Abl., belongs to
Tacitus.
2. Procul, far from, regularly takes the preposition ab, except in the poets and
later prose.
3. The Abl. of the Supine is early and late, as Cato, Agr.., 5 ; Vllicus primus cu-
bitti surgat, postrgmus cubitum eat. See 436, n. 4.
391. Names of Towns and Small Islands are put in the
Ablative of the Place Whence.
Dgmaratus fugit Tarquinios Corintho, C, Tusc, v. 37, 109 ; Demaratus
fled to Tarquinii from Corinth. Dolabella Delo proficiscitur, C, Yerr.,
I. 18, 46 ; Dolabella sets out from Delos.
Remarks. — i. The prepositions ab (a) and ex (6) are sometimes used
for the sake of g^reater exactness, but rarely in model prose. So regu-
larly ab with tlie Phice from which distance is measured :
[Aesculapii templum] quinque milibus passuum ab urbe [Epidauro] distat,
Cf L.,XLV. 28, a (403, N.l).
When the substantives urbe, city, and oppido, town, are employed, the
use of the preposition is the rule, as also when not the town, but the
neighborhood is intended ; also always with longS. When the Apposi-
tivc has an attribute the ])roper name regularly precedes.
Aulide, ex oppido Boeotiae, from Aulis, a town of Boeotia. Ex Apol-
lOnia Ponti urbe, from Apollonia, a city of Pontus. Ex oppido Gergovia,
Caes., B.G.,\u. 4, 2 ; from the toivn of Gergovia.
Early Latin is free in the use of prepositions ; and also from Livy
on the usage seems to increase.
2. The Place Whence embraces all the local designations :
Agrigento ex Aesculapii fano whereas we should say, from the temple
of Aesculapius at Agrigentum. Unde domo ? V., A., vni. 1 14; from what
home ?
3. Letters are dated froryi rather than at a place.
Note.— Names of countries are but rarely used in the Ablative. Cicero, Sallust,
and LiVY show no instance, Caesar only one {B. C, in. 58, 4). Occasional examples
are found in early Latin and in old inscriptions ; then in later historians, beginning
with Velleius. The use of prepositions with towns seems in general to have been a
colloquialism, Cf. Suet., Aug., 86. The poets are free in their usage.
C. ABLATIVE OF THE THING WHEREWITH.
AblatTvus SociatTvus.
392. The Ablative of Attendance takes the preposition
cum, with.
Cum febri domum rediit, C, Or., in. 2, 6 ; he returned home ivith a
252 ABLATIVE.
fever. Catilina stetit in comitio cum t6lo, Cf. C, Cat., i. 6, 15 ; CatiUiu
stood v,i the place of election with a weapon {on him). Cum baculo pera-
que [senex], Mart., i\. 53, 3 ; an old man with stick and wallet. Nee te-
cum possum vivere nee sine te, Mart., xii. 47, 2; / can't live either with
you or without you.
Remarks. — i. In military phrases, the troops with which a march
is made are put in the Ablative, with or without cum ; generally with-
out cum when an adjective is used (Ablative of Manner), with cum when
no adjective is used (Ablative of Attendance). With definite numbers,
however, cum is regularly employed.
Albani ingenti exercitu in agrum Romanum impetum fecere, L., i. 23, 3 ;
the Albans attacked the Roman territory with a huge army. Caesar cum
equitibus DCCCC in castra pervenit, Caes., ^.C, i. 41, 1; Caesar arrived
in camp with nine hundred cavalry.
2. Not to be confounded with the above is the Instrumental Abla-
tive :
Navibus profectus est, C, Fam., xv. 3, 2 ; he set out by ship.
So also with verbs which denote other military actions :
Hasdrubal mediam aciem Hispanis firniat, L., xxiii. 29, 4 ; Hannibal
strengthens the centre with Spanish troops. Actum nihil est nisi Poeno
milite portas frangimus, Juv., x. 155 ; naught is accomjjlished unless we
break the gates with the Punic soldiery (as if with a battering-ram).
II. The Figurative Meanings of the Ablative.
A. The Place Where is transferred to the Time When.
Ablative of Time. AblatTvus Temporis.
393. Time When or Within Which is put in the Ablative.
Qua nocte natus Alexander est, eadem Dianae Ephesiae templum d€fla-
gravit, Cf. C, N.D., 11. 27, 69 ; on the same night on which Alexander
was born, the temple of Diana of Ephesus burned to the ground. SatumI
Stella triginta ferg annis cursum suum cSnficit, C, iV^.D., n, 20, 53 ; the
planet Saturn completes its period in about thirty years.
Many adverbial forms of time are really Locative Ablatives :
So hodie, to-day ; heri(e), yesterday ; mane, in the morning.
Remarks. — i. Time Within Which may be expressed by per and the
Accusative :
Per eOs ipsSs diSs quibus Philippus in Achaia fuit, Philocles saltum
CithaerSnis trSnscendit, L., xxxi. 26, 1 ; during those very days, while
Philip was in Achaia, Philocles crossed the range of Cithaeron.
2. Time Within Which may embrace both extremities ; so usually
with tOtus, all, whole :
ABLATIVE. 253
Kocte pluit tSta, redennt at mane serSna, V. (Poet. Lat. Min., iv. 155
B) ; all night (Jupiter) rains; clear skies come back in the morning.
Cf.CAES.,B.G.,i.26,5.
So with definite numbers ; but rarely, until the post- Augustan
period :
Scriptum est triginta annis vixisse Fanaetiam, posteaquam ill5s libr5s
edidisset, C, Off., iii. 2, 8 ; it is written that Panaetius lived for thirty
years after he had published those books (not to be confounded with the
Abl. of Difference, 403). Apud Pythagoram discipulis quinque annis
tacendum erat, Sen., ^.3/., 52, 10; in the school of Pythagoras the
disciijles had to keep sile?ice five years.
3. When the Notion is Negative, the English Time For Which is the
Latin Within Which.
[RosciusJ RSmam multis annis n5n v6nit, C, Rose. Am., 27, 74 ; Ros-
cius has not come to Rome in (for) ma7iy years. Not always, however;
compare Sex mgnsis iam hie ngmS habitat, Pl., Most., 954 ; no one has
been living here these six montJis.
4. Especially to be noted is the Abl. of Time with hie, this ; ille, that :
Cui viginti his annis snpplicatiS decr6ta est? C, Ph., xiv. 4, 11 ; to
whom diiring these last ticenty years has a supplication been decreed ?
[Karthaginem] hoc biennis gvertSs, C, Rep., vi. 11, 11 ; Carthage you
will overturn in the next two years.
Transferred to OratiS Obliqua, hie becomes ille (660. 3) :
DiodSras [respondit j illud argentum se panels illis diSbns misisse Lily-
baeum, C, Verr., iv. 18, 39 ; Diodorus answered that he had sent that
silver plate to Lilybaeum within a few days (a few days before).
5. The Abl. of Time is regularly accompanied by an attribute in
classical Latin, except in the case of a number of common designations,
as aestate, dig, hieme, nocte, vespere (vesperi). Exceptions are rare, such
as eomitiis, luce, pace, militia, and some names of games.
394. The Ablative with the preposition in is used of points
within a period of time, or of the character of the time.
Bis in dis, twice a day ; in pueritiS, in boyhood ; in adulgseentili, in
youth.
Nullo modo mihi placuit bis in diS satnmm fieri, C, Tusc, v. 35, 100 ;
it did not suit me iti any way to eat my fill twice a day. Feci ego istaec
itidem in adulgscentia, Pl., B., 410 ; I did those things too in my youth.
Remark.— The use or omission of in sometimes changes the meaning.
So bello Persico, at the time of the Persian war ; but in bello, in war
times ; in pace, in peace times. Phraseological is in tempore, more fre-
quent than tempore, at the right time. But in illo tempore means in
those circumstances, at that crisis. At present, for the present ^ is
always in praesentia or in praesentl (rare).
254 ABLATIVE.
Notes.— 1. Classical Latin confines the use of in to designations of Time of Life
(though here, when an adjective is employed, in is usually omitted) and to the periods
of time. Later in is used much more extensively. With numerals in is the rule. Cato
and the poets have sometimes bis die, as di§S = unus di6s.
2. D§, from, is also used in designations of time : principally in the phrase d§ diS,
dS nocte. Ut iugulent hominem surgunt dg nocte latrongs, H., Ep., i. 2, 32 ; to
kill a man, highwaymen nse by night, i. e., ivhile it is yet night.
Inter, between: Quae prandia inter continuom perdidi triennium, Pl., St.,
213 ; what luncheons I have lost dunng three years together.
Intra, tvithin: Subggit solus intra viginti digs, Pl., Cwrc, 448; he quelled
them all alone in less than twenty days.
On per, through, see 336, r. 2.
Cum, with, is found occasionally in phrases, as cum prima luce, ivith daybreak.
B. The Place Whence is transferred :
I. To Origin. 2. To Respect or Specification.
I. Ablative of Origin.
395. Participles which signify Birth take the Ablative of
Origin ; sometimes with the prepositions ex and de.
Amplissima familia nati adulescentgs, Caes., i?.6r., vii. 37, 1; young
men horn of a great house. Numae Pompilii regis nepos, Mia ortus, Ancus
Marcius erat, L., i. 32, 1 ; King Numa Pompilius''s grandson, a daugh-
ter's issue, was Ancus Marcius. Maecenas atavis gdite regibus, H., 0., i.
I, 1; Maecenas, offshoot of great-grandsire kings. Dis genite et geni-
tiire deos, V., ^.,ix. 639 ; begotten of gods, and destined to beget gods /
Sate sanguine divum ! V., ^., vi. 125 ; seed of blood divine ! Ex mg
atque ex hoc natus es, Ter., TIeaut.y 1030 ; you are his son and mine.
Oderunt natos dg paelice, Juv.,vi. 627; they hate the offspring of the
concubine.
Ab, and occasionally ex, are employed of remote progenitors :
Plgrique Belgae sunt orti ab Germanis, Cf. Caes., B.G., 11. 4, 1 ; Bel-
gians are jnostly of German descent. Oriundi er Etruscis, Cf. L., 11. 9, 1 ;
of Etruscan origin.
Notes.— 1. The principal participles thus used are natus, prognatus, oriundus ;
ortus, genitus, and satus begin in prose with Livy ; editus ami cretus are poetic ;
procreatus is late. Cicero nses oriundus but once ; it denotes remote origin.
2. With names of Places the preposition is the rule (362, n. 2) ; but there are a few
exceptions in early Latin and in Cicero, and a couple of examples in Caesar. Later
the simple Abl. disappears. The Abl. was the rule with names of Tribes.
Periphangs Rhod5 mercator, Pl., Asia., 499. Magius CremSna, Caes., B. C,
I. 24, 4. Q. Verrgs Romilia, C, Ven\, i. 8, 23 ; Q. Vcrres of the Romilian tribe.
3. With finite verbs denoting Origin, the preposition is regular, except occasionally
with nasci.
4. The Ablative of Agent properly belongs here. But for convenience of contrast it
is treated under 401.
396. The Ablative of Material takes ex in classical Latin.
ABLATIVE. 255
Ex animo constamus et corpore, Cf. C, Fin., iv. 8, 19 ; ive consist of
mind and hody.
Statua ex auro, ex aere, facta, a statue made of gold, of bronze. Often
an adjective is used : aureus, golden ; ligneus, wooden.
Notes.— 1. After Cicero constare is used more often with the Abl.; consistere
(with the Abl.) is poetical. Contineri, to be contained in, i.e., almost " to consist of,'"''
takes the Abl. only, but with a different conception.
Medicina tota constat experimentis, Quint., ii. 17, 9 ; all medicine is made up
of experiments {is empirical).
2. With fieri the previous state is indicated by d6 as well as by ex.
De templo carcerem fieri! C, P/i.,v. 7, 18 ; f707n a temple to become a jail.
FiSs d6 rhetore consul, Juv.,vii. 197; from (having been) rhetoi^cian you will
become consid. Ex oratore arator factus, C. PA., iii. g, 22 (200, r. 2).
3. Otherwise the simple Ablative of Material is poetic or late :
Mayors caelatus ferro, V., A., viii. 700 ; Mars carven of iron.
Melidre luto finxit, Juv., xiv. 35 ; Jie fashioned it of better clay^
2. Ablative of Respect.
397. The Ablative of Kespect or Specification gives the
Point From AV'hich a thing is measured or treated, and is
put in answer to the questions From What Point of View ?
According to What ? By What ? In Respect of What ?
Discriptus populus censti, ordinibus, aetatibus, C, ie^., in, 19, 44 ; a
people drawn off according to income, rank, (and) age. Ennius ingenio
maximus, arte rudis, Ov., Tr., n. 424 ; Ennius iii genius great, in art
unskilled. Anim5 ignavus, procax ore, Tag., JT., n. 23, 18 ; coward of
soul, saucy of tongue.
Noteworthy are the phrases : crine ruber, red-haired ; captus oculis
(literally, caught in the eyes), blind; captus mente, irisane ; mea sen-
tentia, according to my ojnnion ; iure, by right ; iSge, by law, etc. ; and
the Supines in -u (430).
Notes.— 1. Prepositions are also used, which ser\-e to show the conception :
(Caesaris) adventus ex colSre vestitus cognitus, c/. Caes.,s.6^., vn. 88, 1 ;
the arrival of Caesar was known by the color of his clothing. D§ gestu intellego
quid respondeas, C, Vat., 15, 35 ; I understand by your gesture what answer you are
giving. Ab animo aeger fui, Pl., Ep., 129 ; at heart I was sick. Otiosum ab
animo, Ter., Ph., 340 ; easy in mind.
Similarly ex iSge, according to law ; ex pacto, according to agreement ; ex (d§)
more, according to custom ; ex animi sentertia, according to {my) hearVs desire ;
ex usti, tisefuL
2. A special category is formed by words indicating eminence or superioi'ity ; so ex-
cellere, antecellere, praestare, superare, vincere ; and the adjectives : insignis,
illustris, dignus ; excellSns, praecellens. Praecellere is found in early and late
Latin, while dignari is poetic and post- Augustan.
Maxims populus Romanus animi magnitudine excellit, c, Off., 1. 18, 61 ; (h«
Roman people excel most in loftiness of mind.
On dignus with Gen., see 374, n. 10.
256 ABLATIVE.
A curious usage is that of decoras and decSre, with Abl., in Pl., Jf. G., 619; Asin., $77'
3. The origin of these constructions is still undetermined. They may be deduced
also from the Instrumental side of the Abl., or from the Locative side.
398. The Ablative of Respect is used with the Compara-
tive instead of quam, than, with the Nominative or Accusa-
tive ; but in the classical language mainly after a negative,
or its equivalent. {Abldtlvus Compardiionis.)
Tunica propior palliost, Pl, , Trin. , 1 1 54 ; the shirt is nearer thaii the
cloak. Nihil est vlrtute amabilius, C, Xfle?., 8, 28 ; nothing is more
attractive than virtue. Quid est in homine ratiSne divinius ? C, Leg., i.
7, 22 ; what is there in man more godlike than reason ?
So also after adverbs, but not so freely in prose :
Lacrima nihil citius arSscit, Q.,Inv.,i. 56, 109 ; nothing dries more
quickly than a tear. N6ni8 est qui tibi sapientius suadere possit te ipsS,
C, Fam., 11.'], 1 ; there is no one who can give you iviser advice than
you yourself. Fulcrum ornatum turpes morgs pgius caeno conlinunt, Pl.,
Most., 291 ; foul behavior doth bedraggle fine apparel icorse than mud.
Remark. — When the word giving the point of view is a relative, the
Abl. must be used. See 29G, r. 2.
Fhldiae simulacrls quibus nihil in illo genere perfectius videmus, cogitare
tamen possumus pulchriora, C, Or., 2, 8 ; the statues of Pheidias, than
which we see 7iothing more perfect in their kind, still leave room for us
to imagine those that are more beautiful.
Notes.— 1. The comparative is also employed with the Abl. of certain abstract
substantives and adjectives used as substantives ; so opini5ne, sp6, exspectatione ;
aequ5, iusto, solitS, and the like, all post-Ciceronian except aequo, opinione.
(Consul) s6rius sp6 (= quam spgs fuerat) Romam vSnit, L., xxvi. 26,4 ; the
consul came to Rome later than was hoped. Solito citatior amnis, L., xxiii. 19, 11;
the Hver imnning faster than usual.
2. AequS and a^aequS are found once each in PLAUTUSwith the Abl.; and then
not till the time of the elder Pliny.
3. For other details, see 296 and 644.
C. ABLATIVE OF THE THING WHEREWITH.
AblatTvus SociStlvus. Ablative of Attendance.
1 . Ablative of Manner.
399. The Ablative of Manner answers the question How ?
and is used with the Preposition cum when it has no Adjec-
tive ; with or without cum Avhen it has an Adjective or its
equivalent. {Abldtlvus Modi.)
[Stellas] circulSs su6s orbSsque cOnficiunt celeritSte mirabill, C, Rep., vi.
15, 15 ; the stars complete their orbits with ivonderful swiftness. V3s
ABLATIVE. 257
6r5 ut attentS bonaque cum venia verba mea audiatis, C, Rose. Am., 4, 9 ;
/ beg you to hear my words attentively and with kind indulgence.
Beats vivere, honeste, id est cum virtute, vivere, C, Fin., iii. 8, 29 ; to
live liappily is to live honestly, that is, virtuously.
Notes.— 1. The simple Abl. without an attribute is confined to a few substantives,
which have acquire(iadverbial force ; early Latin shows astu, CUrriculo, dolo, ergO,
gratiis and ingratiis, ioculo, merfto, numero, optato, ordine, sortito, volun-
tate, vulgo. Terence adds : vi, itire, iniuria. Classical Latin shows some of
these, also ratione, ratione et via, moribus, oonsuetudine, silentio, casti, I6ge,
fraude, vitio, sacramentO (beginning with Livy), and a few others. Sometimes the
idea of Specification is prominent, as in lege, iure (397) ; sometimes it is hard to dis-
tinguish between the Manner and the Instrument : vi, violently and by violence ; vi et
armis, by force of arm^ ; pedibus, afoot ; navibus, by ship. Notice, also, the use of
per, throngh, with the Accusative : per vim, by violence ; per litteras, by letter.
2. The post-Ciceronian Latin extends the use of the Abl. without an attribute.
3. The phrases sub condicione, sub l§ge, etc., begin with Livy.
2. Ablative of Quality.
(Descriptive Ablative.)
400. The Ablative of Quality has no Preposition, and al-
ways takes an Adjective or an equivalent.
[Hannibalis] n5men erat magna apud omngs gloria, C, Or., 11. 18, 75 ;
the name of Hatmibal was glorious in the esteem of all the world.
(Aggsilaus) statura fuit humili, Nep., xvn. 8, 1 ; Agesildus ivas (a man)
of low stature. Ista turpiculo puella naso, Cat., 41, 3 ; that girl of yours
with the ugly nose. Clavi ferrei digiti poUicis crassitudine, Cf. Caes.,
B.G., HI. 13, 4 ; iron nails of the thickness of your thumb.
Remarks. — i. External and transient qualities are put by prefer-
ence in the Ablative ; Measure, Number, Time, and Space are put in
the Genitive only ; parts of the body in the Ablative only. Otherwise
there is often no difference.
2. Of unnatural productions cum may be used : agnus cum suillo
capite, L., xxxi. 12, 7 ; a lamb with a sivirie's nead.
3. Ablative of Means.
401. The Means or Instrument is put in the Ablative
without a Preposition.
The Agent or Doer is put in the Ablative with the Prepo-
sition ab (a). The Person Through Whom is put in the
Accusative with per.
Xerxgs certior factus est, ( '• ^^^t^^' ^'^ ^^^^«^'-
Xerxes was informed, ] ^- ^ ^^^^i°' ^^ ^^^^^'^'^^^r
I 3. per nuntium, by means of a messenger.
17
258 ABLATIVE.
Qui sunt homings, a quibus ille se lapidibus adpetitum, etiam percussum
esse dixit ? C, Dom., 5, 13 ; who are the men by ivhom he said he had been
thrown at with stones, and even hit 9 Vulg-o occidgbantur ? Per quos
et a quibus ? C, Rose. Am., 29, 80; ivere they cut down openly ? Through
ivhose iyistrumentality and by whose agency ? Nee bene promeritis capi-
tur neque tangitur ira, Lucr., ii. 651 (227, n. 4). Ipse docet quid agam:
fas est et ab hoste doc6ri, Ov., M., iv. 428 (219). Discite sanari per quern
didicistis amare, Ov., Rem. Am., 43; learn to be healed by means of (him
by) whom you learned to love.
Remarks. — i. When the Instrument is personified and regarded as
an Agent, or the Agent is regarded as an Instrument, the constructions
are reversed ; when an adjective is used, the construction may be
doubtful; see 854, n. i, and 214, r. 2.
So iacent suis testibus, C, il/i/., 18, 47 ; they are cast by their own
witnesses ; or, they are cast, their oivn men being ivitnesses.
2. A quality, when personified, has the construction of the person.
So deseri a mente, a spe.
Vobis animus ab ignavia atque socordia conruptus [est], S., lug., 31, 2;
you have had your soid{s) debauched by sloth cmd indifference.
Notes.— 1. The number of verbs construed with this Abl. is very large and com-
prises several categories ; so verbs of Clotliing and Providing, Adorning and Endow-
ing, Training (grudire also takes in ; others take Ace, see 339), Living and Nour-
ishing, etc.
2. Of special importance are assugsco, assuefacio, assugtus ; (Catilina) sce-
lerum exercitatione assugfactus, C, Cat., u. 5, 9. The Dat. is found first in Livy
in prose. Ad with the Ace. is also classical.
3. AflScere, to treat, with the Ablative, is a favorite turn ; see the Lexicons.
4. Verbs of sacrificing, such as sacrificare, sacrum facere, divinam rem facere,
facere and fieri (mostly poetical), immolare, litare (poetical), have the Abl. of Means.
But immolare usually has Ace. and Dat., and so the others occasionally, except
facere.
Quinquaginta capris sacriiicavgrunt, L., xi.v. 16, 6 ; they sacrificed fifty she-
goats.
5. Here belong also verbs like pluere, sudare (not classic), stillare (not classic),
fiuere, manare, and the like : sanguine pluisse, L., xxiv. 10, 7. The Ace. is also
common.
C. "Nitor, I stay myself, is construed with the Abl.; occasionally with in. Fid5,
c5nndo, / t?''ust, rely on, have tlie Abl. ; but with persons the Dat., sometimes also with
tilings. On the other hand, diffido, I distrust, always has the Dat. in classical Latin,
but Tacitus shows Abl., and so do other later writers. Stare, to abide by, usually
has the Abl., but occasionally in ; manere l>as usually in ; the Abl. is poetical. Acqui-
gscere, to acquiesce in, with Abl. is rare. FrgtUS, siippoi'ted, takes the Abl. regularly;
Livy alone uses the Dative. Contentus, satisfied with (by), is used only of one's own
possessions (rgbus, fortiina, etc.), and has the Ablative.
SalGs omnium n5n vgritate sQlum sed etiam fama nititur, Cf. c, Q.F., i. ii.
1, 2; the welfare of all rests not on truth alone, but also on repute. Eius iudicio stare
n51im, C, Tusc, 11. 36, G3 ; J should not like to abide by his judgment.
7. A remnant of the old usage is found with fI5, faciO, and esse :
Quid fgcisti scIpiOne 1 Pl., Cas., 975 ; what have you done ivith the wand? Quid
ABLATIVE. • 259
mSflef? Pl., Most., 1 166 ; what will become of me? Quid t6 futurumsf? Ter.,
Ph., 137 ; what is to become of you ? Quid hoc homine facias ? C, Verr., 11. 16, 39 ;
Iww will you dispose of this man? Quid huic homini facias? C, Caecin., ii,30;
what will you do to this man ? Quid de nobis futurum lestj % C, Fam., ix. 17, 1 ;
what is to hajypen in our case ?
The use of the Dative is rare, and still more rare the use of dS.
The construction is colloquial, and never found in Caesar and Tacitus ; it is
always in an interrogative sentence, except in Cato and Ovid.
4-. Ablative of Standard. Ablatlvus Mensurae.
402. The Standard of Measure is put in the Ablative with
verbs of Measurement and Judgment.
Benevolentiam non ardore amoris sed stabilitate iudicemus, C, Off., i.
15. 47 ; good will we are to judge not hy ardor hut by steadfastness.
Magnos homings virttite metiniur, non forttina, Nep., xviii. 1, 1 ; we meas-
ure great men hy worth, not by fortune. Sonis homings ut aera tinnitti
dignOscimus, Quint., xi. 3, 31 ; ice distinguish men hy sound, as coppers
by ring.
Remarks. — i. It is often hard to distinguish the Measure from tlie
Kespect (see 397).
2. Ex with the Abl. is frequently found with these verbs ; so regu-
larly with aestimare, existimare, spectare, in the sense of judge, value.
Dicendum erit non esse ex fortuna fidem ponderandam, (J., Part. Or., 34,
117; the plea u'ill have to he made that faith is not to he iveighed hy
fortune. Sic est vulgus : ex vgritate pauca, ex opinione multa aestimat, C. ,
Rose. Com., 10, 29 ; this is the way of the rahhle : they value few things
by {the standard of) truth, many hy {the standard of) opinion.
403. Measure of Difference is put in the Ablative.
Sol multis partibus maior (est) quam terra universa, C, N.D., 11. 36, 92 ;
the sun is many parts larger than the whole earth. (Via) altero tanto
longiorem habgbat anfractum, Nep., xviii. 8, 5; the road had a bend {that
made if) longer hy as much again, as long again. Quinquigns tanto am-
plius Verrgs, quam licitum est, civitatibus imperavit, Cf. C'., Verr., iii. 97,
225; Yerres levied on the various cities jive times more than ivas cdlowed
by law. Turrgs dgnis pedibus quam mtirus altiorgs sunt, Curt. , v. i , 26 ; the
toicers are (by) ten feet higher than the wall. Tanto est accilsare quam
dgfendere, quanto facere quam sanare vulnera, facilius, Quint., v. 13, 3; it
is as much easier to accuse than to defend, as it is easier to inflict woimds
than to heal them. Perfer et obdura : multo graviora tulisti, Ov., Tr., v.
II, 7; endure to the end and he firm : you have borne much more grievous
burdens.
Notes.— 1. This rule applies to verbs involving diflference (such as abesse, distare,
malle, praestare, excellere, etc.), as well as to comparatives, with which must be
reckoned infra, supra, ultra.
26o ABLATIVE.
[Aesculapii templum] quinque milibus passuum ab urbe [Epidauro] distat,
Cf. L., XLV. 28, 3 ; the temple of Aesculapius is five miles from the city ofEpidaurus.
2. The Ace. is sometimes employed (see 335) ; especially with neuter adjectives mul-
tum, tantum, etc., but this is not common except with verbs.
3. The Plautine Abl. nimio, vvith the comparative, is not classical (compare [C],
Att., X. 8 A, 1), but reappears in Livy. Aliter with this Abl. is very rare and is not clas-
sical. So also the Abl. with the positive, of whicli a few examples are cited from early
Latin, as Ter., Heaut., 205.
4. {(i) Especially to be noted is the use of the Abl. of Measure with ante, before,
and post, after :
Paucis ante diSbus, Panels digbus ante, afeio days before.
Paucis post digbus, Paucis diebus post, a few darjs after, afterward.
Duobus annis postquam Roma condita est, two years after Borne was founded.
Pauls post Troiam captam, a little tvhile after the taking of Troy.
The Ace. can also be employed : post paucos annos, after a few years ; ante pauc5s
annos, a few years before ; and the ordinal as well as the cardinal numbers (but only
when quam follows) : tivo hundred years after{ward) may be :
Ducentis annis post or Ducentgsimo anno post.
Post ducentos annos or Post ducentgsimum annum.
{b) Ante and post do not precede the Abl. in classical Latin except with aliquantO
(rare) and paul5. Ante and post, with the Ace. followed by quam, instead of ante-
quam and postquam with the Abl., belong preeminently to post-classical Latin ;
classical examples are rare. Cicero never has ante.
{c) Ante hos sex mSnsgs, six months ago (compare 393, R. 4), more frequently
abhinc sex mgnses (336, r. 3) ; abhinc sex mgnsibus, means six months before.
(d) With a relative sentence the Abl. of the relative may be used alone, instead of
ante (post) quam :
Mors Roscii quadriduS quo is occlsus est, Chr^sogonO ntintiatur, c, Eosc.
Jm.,37, 105; the death of lioscius was announced to Vhrysogonus four days after he
was killed (in the course of the four days within which he was killed). See 393.
(e) Hence is ad : ad sex mgnsgs, six months hence.
(f) Do not confuse the Ace. with ante and post with the Ace. of Duration of Time.
5. Ablative of Price.
404. Definite Price is put in the Ablative.
Eriphyla aur5 viri vltam vgndidit, C, Inv., i. 50, 94; Eriphyle sold her
husband's life for gold. Viginti talentis unam oratiSnem Isocratgs vSn-
didit, Plin., N.IL, vii. 31, 110; Isoerales sold one speech for twenty tal-
ents. Emit morte immortalitatem. Quint,, ix. 3, 71 ; he purchased death-
lessness with death. Argentum accgpl, dote imperium vgndidi, Pl., Asin.^
87; the cash I took, (and) for a, dowry sold my sway.
Notes.— L HQtare, to exchange, is sometimes Give, sometimes Get; sometimes
Sell, sometimes Buy. The latter use is confined to poetry and later prose.
NSm6 nisi victor pace bellum mutavit, S., ('., 58, 15 ; no one wdess victorious
(ever) exchanged ivar for peace. Misera pax vel bell5 bene mtltatur, Cf. Tac,
Ann., III. 44, 10 ; a wretched peace is well exchanged even for war.
But car valle permtitem Sablna divitias operQsiQrSs ? IL, 0., m. i, 47 ; why
sTwuld I exchange my Sabine vale for riches sure to breed (nie) greater trouble f
2. So venSlis, vilis, cheap ; ckrus, dear. NSn, edepol, minis trecentis carast,
Pl., Pers., 668 ; stie is not dear, foi'e George, at three hundred minae.
3. For Genitive of Price, see 379.
ABLATIVE. 261
6. Ablative with Verbs of Plenty and Want.
405. Verbs of Depriving and Filling, of Plenty and Want,
take the Ablative.
[Dgmocritus] dicitur oculis s6 privasse, C, Fin., v. 29, 87; Democritus
is said to have deprived himself of his eyes. Deus bonis omnibus explgvit
mundum, Cf. C, Univ., 3, 9; God has filled the universe with all bless-
ings. Capua fortissimorum virQrum multitudine redundat, C. , Pis. , 1 1, 25 ;
Capua is full to overflowing with a multitude of gallant gentlemen. Non
caret effectti quod voluSre duo, Ov., Am., 11. 3, 16; ivhat two have resolved
on never lacks exemition. Quo maior est in [animis] praestantia, eomaiore
indigent diligentia, C, Tusc, iv. 27, 58.
Notes.— 1. Verbs of Depriving are commonly referred to the Ablative of Separation,
rather than to the Instrumental Ablative, and are put here for convenience of contrast.
But it must be remembered that in the classic tongues the construction of opposites is
identical.
2. Egeo and (more frequently) indigeS also take the Genitive :
Non tarn artis indigent quam laboris, C, Or., i. 34, 15G ; t/iey are not so much
in need of skill (is of industry. So impleri, V., A., i. 214.
3. Adjectives of Plenty and Want take the Gen., but some of them follow the
analogy of the verb (374, n. 1). So onustus, orbus, have Abl. more often than Gen.;
indigUS, egSnus, and inops have the Gen. more commonly. Plgnus has usually
the Gen.; the Abl. in increasing proportion from Lucretius on. Frequ6ns and va-
lidus do not take the Gen. until the post-Augustan period. See 374.
Asellus onustus aurS, Q., Atf..,i.\6,\2; a donkey laden witli (fold. PoUicitis
dives quilibet esse potest, Ov., J.^.,i. 444 ; anybody can be ricJi in lyroniises.
Amor et melle et felle est f§cundissimus, Pl., Cist., 69 ; love is {ver-y)fi'uitful botli
in honey and in gall (of acrimony).
406. Opus and usus take the Dative of the Person who
Wants and the Ablative of the Thing Wanted ; but the Thing
AYanted may be the subject, and opus (not usus) the predicate.
Novo consilio mihi nunc opus est, Pl., Ps., 601 ; a new device is what
J^m needing now. Viginti iam usust filio argent! minis, Pl., Asin., 8g;
my son has urgent iieed of twenty minae silver. Nihil opus est simula-
tione et fallaciis, C, Or., n. 46, 191 ; there is no need of making believe,
and of cheating tricks. Non opus est verbis sed fustibus, C, Pis., 30,
73; there is need not of ivords, but of cudgels. Emas non quod opus est,
sed quod necesse est ; quod non opus est asse carum est, Cato (Sen., E.3I.,
94, 27); buy 7iot what you want, but ivhat is absolutely needful ; what
you do not want (have no use for) is dear at a penny.
So with the Perfect Participle Passive.
Quod parat5 opus est para, Ter., And., 523 ; what must be got ready,
get ready. Vicino conventost opus, Pl., Cas., 502 , the neighbor must
262 ABLATIVE.
be called on. Citius quod non factost usus fit quam quod factost opus, Pl.,
Am., 505.
jSTotes.— 1. Opus est means properly : there is work to be done with ; usus est,
there is making use of {like utor) ; hence the Ablative. Some think that opus takes
Abl. by analogy with usus.
2. Opus est is common throughout ; usus est is very rarely found after the early
period. It belongs especially to comedy.
3. The Gen. with opus est occurs twice in Livy ; also in Pkopertius, Quintii.ian,
and Apuleius.
4. The neut. Ace. is usually adverbial (333, i) :
Quid (Ace.) digitos opus est graphic lassare tenendo? Ov., Am., i. n, 23 ;
what is the use of tiring the fingers by holding the stylus r
5. Besides the Pf. Part, pass., we find the Infin. and sometimes ut ; in this case the
Person is usually in the Dat. with opus (tisus) est, but may be in the Ace. with the
Inf., or may be omitted.
Opus est te animo valgre ut corpore possis, C, Fa?n., xvi. 14, 2 ; yon must be
tvell in mitid in order to be well in body. An quoiquamst tisus hoiuini s6 ut
eruciet % Ter., Heaut., 81 ; of what good is it to any man to torture himself?
The Supine is found occasionally ; in Cicero only scitu {Inv.,i. 20, 28 ; disputed).
6. In Plautus and Lucretius are occasional examples of tisUS as a predicate, with
the Thing Wanted as the subject.
7. Ablative with Sundry Verbs.
407. The Deponent Verbs utor, abutor, fruor, fungor, potior,
and vescor, take the Ablative.
Victoria uti nescis, L., xxn. 51, 4 ; hoiv to make use of victory you
know not. Quo usque tandem abiit6re patientia nostra, C. Cat., i. i, 1 ;
how long, tell me, will you abuse our patience ? Lux qua fruimur a DeO
nobis datur, Cf. C, llosc. Am., 45, 131 ; the light which we enjoy is given
to us by God. Funguntur oificio ; dgfendunt suos, C, Gael., 9, 21 ; they
acquit themselves of a duty ; they defend their own people. Fungar
vicecotis, II., J^.P.,304; I shall acquit myself of , discharge, theoffice of
a ivhetstone. Tutius esse arbitrabantur sine ull5 vulnere victoria potirl,
Caes., B.O., III. 24, 2; they thought it safer to make themselves masters
of the victory ivithout any wound. Numidae lacte vesc6bantur, S., lug.,
89, 7 ; the Numidians made their food of milk {fed on milk).
Notes.— 1. These Ablatives are commonly regarded as Ablatives of the Instrument :
but fruor, I get fruit, and yescor, I feed myseJf from, and perhaps fungor, "ay take
the Abl. as a Whence-case.
2. These verbs seem to have been originally construed with the Ace. : bui ilii> ( ase
is not found in classical Latin except in the Gerundive constniction (427. n. 5).
(a) TJtor with Ace. is very common in Pi.autxts, less so in Tep.enck. but only wiili
neuter pronouns. Cato uses also the neuter of substantives. Abfltor is coinliiued only
with Ace. in early Latin.
{I)) Fruor with Ace. is not in Plautus, but occasionally in Terence and Cato.
Fruniscor (rare) is transitive in Plautus and Quadrigarius (ap. Gell.).
{(•^ Fungor with Ace. is the rule in early Latin (Ter., Ad., 603, is disputed), then
in Nepos, Tacitus, Suetonius, and later.
{d) Potior has Gen. at all periods (rare in Cicero ; once in Caesar) ; the Ace.
ABLATIVE. 263
occasionally in earlj' and late Latin, in the b. Afr., the b. Z/Isp., and in Sallust. Note-
worthy is the use of an act. potire with Gen. in Pl., Am., 178, and a paes. potitus with
Gen. in several places in Plautus.
(e) Vescor takes the Ace. rarely in early Latin, in the poets, and in later Latin.
Vivere, hSUuari, take Abl. like vesci.
3. Utor is a favorite word, and has a most varied translation :
tJti aliquo amico, to avail one's silf of {toenjoy) a man'' s friendship (to have a
friend in him) ; titi consilio, to follow advice ; litl bond patre, to Mve t/ie advantage
of having a good father ; uti iSgibus, to obey the laws. See the Lexicons.
D. ABLATIVE OF CAUSE.
408. The Ablative of Cause is used without a preposition,
chiefly with Verbs of Emotion. Abldtlvus Causae.
In culpa sunt qui officia dSserunt mollitia animi, C, Fin., i. 10, 33 ;
theu are to blame tvho shirk their duties from effeminacy of temper.
Odgrunt peccare boni virtutis amore, II., Ep., 1. 16, 52 ; the good hate to
sin from love of virtue. Delicto dolere, correctione gaudgre (oportet), C,
Lael., 24, 90 ; one ought to he sorry for sin, to be glad of chastisement.
N5n did potest quam flagrem desiderio urbls, C, Att.^y. 11, \ \ I hum
(am afire) beyond expressio7i with longing for Rome.
Notes. — 1. A mimber of combinations l)ecome phraseological, as the verbals : arbi-
tratu, hortatu, imputeu, iussu, missu, rogatti, etc.; also consilio, auctoritaite,
with a Gen. or possessive i)rononn : iflssti civium, at Uie bidding of the citizens ; meH
rogatu, at my request.
2. Tlie moving cause is often expressed by a participle with the Abl., which usually
precedes : adductus, led ; ardSns, fired ; commotus, stined up ; incitatus, egged
on ; incensus, inflamed ; impulsus, dnven on ; motus, moved, and many others ;
amore, by loce ; ira, by anger ; odid, by hate ; metu, by fear ; sp6, t^y luope, etc.
Metu perterritos, sore frightened : verScundia d§territus, attashed, etc.
3. Instead of the simple Abl. the prepositions d6 and ex (sometimes in), with the
Abl., ob and propter with the Ace, are often used ; perhaps occasionally ab.
4. The preventing cause is expressed by prae, for (417, 9) : Prae gaudio ubi sim
Iiesci5, Ter., lleaut., 308 ; Iknoiv not where lamfoi'joy.
5. On causa and gratia with the Gen., see 373.
6. The use of tlie Abl. for the external cause, as regale genus nSn tam r6gni
quamrSgis vitiis repudiatum est (C, Leg., nr. 7, 15), tlie kingly form of gozern-
ment was rejected not so much by reason of the faults of the kingly form, as by reason
of tlie faults of the king, is not common in the early and in the classical period, except
in certain formulye ; but it becomes very common later.
7. The Ablati\e of Cause may have its origin in the Instrumental Ablative, in the
Ablative of Source, or in the Comitative Ablative.
E. ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE.
409. The so-called Ablative Absolute is an Ablative com-
bined with a participle, and serves to modify the verbal
predicate of a sentence. Instead of the participle, a predi-
cative substantive or adjective can be employed.
264 ABLATIVK
Note.— This Ablative, which may be called the Ablative of Circnmstance, springs
from the Temporal Use of the Ablative— the Temporal from the Local. Another view
regards it as an Ablative of Manner, with a predicate instead of an attribute.
410. The Ablative Absolute may be translated by the Eng-
lish so-called Xominative (originally Dative) Absolute, which
is a close equivalent ; but for purposes of style, it is often
well to analyze the thought, to change Passive into Active,
to make use of an abstract substantive. .
Xerxe rSgnante (= cum Xerxes regnaret), Xerxes reigning. When
Xerxes was reigning. In the reign of Xerxes.
Xerxe victO (= cum Xerxgs victus asset), Xerxes being, having been,
defeated. When Xerxes had been defeated. Aftei' the defeat of Xerxes.
Xerxe rSge (= cum Xerxes rgx esset), Xerxes [being^ kiiig. Wlien
Xerxes was king.
Patre vivo, while father is, luas alive {in father's lifetime),
Urbe expugnata imperator rediit :
Passive Form : The city [being] taken (after the city was taken), the
general returned.
Active Forjh : Having taken the city (after he had taken the city),
the general returned.
Abstract Form : After the taking of the city. After taking the
city.
Maximas virtutgs iacSre omnes necesse est voluptate dominante, C,
Fin., II. 35, 117 ; all the great(est) virtues must necessarily lie prostrate,
IF (or WHEN) the pleasure (of the senses) is mistress. Eomani veterSs
rSgnari omnSs voI0bant Ubertatis dulcSdine nondum experta, L., i. 17, 3 ;
the old Romans all wished to have a king over them (because they had)
not yet tried the sweetness of liberty.
Remarks. — i. As the Latin language has no Pf. Part, active, ex-
cept when the Deponent is thus used, the passive construction is far
more common than in English :
luvengs veste posits corpora ole5 perunxSrunt, C, Tusc., i. 47, 113 ; the
youths, (having) laid aside their clothing, anointed their bodies with oil;
or, laid as-ide their clothing, and anointed their bodies loith oil.
2. The Abl. Abs., though often to be rendei*ed by a coordinate sen-
tence, for convenience' sake, always presents a subordinate conception:
(Lysander) suadet Lacedaemonils ut rggia potestate dissolfita ex omnibus
dux deligatur ad bellum gerendum, Xep., vi. 3, 5 ; Lysandei" advises the
Lacedaemonians that the royal poiver be done away with, and a leader
he chosen from all, to conduct the ivar. Here the one is necessary to the
other.
3. As a rule, the Abh Abs. can stand only when it is not identical
LOCATIVE. 265
with the subject, object, or dependent case of the verbal predicate.
Manlius slew ilie Gaul and stripped him of his necklace is to be ren-
dered : Manlius caesum Grallum torque spoliavit.
This rule is frequently violated at all periods of the language, for
the purpose either of emphasis or of stylistic effect. The shifted con-
struction is clearer, more vigorous, more conversational.
Neque ilium m6 vivo corrumpi sinam, Pl., ^.,419 ; fior will I snffer
him to he debauched while I am alive.
The violation is most frequent when the dependent case is in the
Genitive :
lugurtha fratre meo interfecto regnum 5iu8 sceleris sui praedam fecit,
S., lug., 14, 11 ; Jugmiha killed ?ny brother, and (= after killing my
brother) made his throne the booty of his crime.
Notes.— 1. The Pf. Part, of Deponents and Semi-deponents as an active in the
Abl. Abs. is not found in early Latin, and is not common in classical Latin, where
it is always without an object and is confined to verbs of Growth (principally ortus,
coortus, natus). Death, and Motion. It becomes common later, being used with an
object from Sallust on.
2. The Pf . Part, of Deponents as a passive in the Abl. Abs. is confined in classical
Latin to gmeritus, pactUS, partltUS. Sallust and Livy, as well as later writers,
extend the usage. Tacitus, however, shows but two cases : adeptUS (Ann., i. 7, 8) and
ausus {A?in., III. 67, 4).
3. The Fut. Part. act. in tlie Abl. Abs. is post-Ciceronian, beginning with Pollio
and LivY.
4. The impersonal use of the Abl. Abs. is found not unfrequently in early Latin
and Cicero, rarely in Caesar and Sallust. Most of the forms so used have become
adverbial in character, as optato, SOrtitQ, intestato. consulto, auspicato, dirgct5,
merito, etc. The use of a following clause dependent upon the Abl. is begun in
Cicero : aditincto ut (Off.., 11. 12, 42). Sallust uses audito and comperto with the
Infinitive. But Livy extends this construction very greatly, and introduces the use of
neuter adjectives in the same way : incerto prae tenebris quid aut peterent aut
Vitarent, L., xxvm. 36, 12. It is frequent in Tacitus. *
5. The use of adjectives and substantives in the Abl. is not common in early Latin,
but is a favorite usage of tlie classical period and later : mS auctore, C, Or., iii.
14,54.
6. A predicate substantive, with the participle, is rare, but occurs in good prose :
PraetOre designatS mortuo filio, c, Tusc, m. 28, 70.
LOCATIVE.
411. In the Singular of the First and Second Declensions,
names of Towns and Small Islands are put in the Locative
of the Place Where.
Pompgius hiemare Dyrrhachii, ApoUoniae omnibusque oppidis constitu-
erat, Caes., 5.C'., in. 5, i ; Pompey had determined to uinter at Dyr-
rhachium, Apollonia, arid all the towns. Timotbeus Lesbi (vixit), Nei'.,
XI r. 3, 4 ; Timotheus lived at Lesbos. Rhodi ego non fui, sed fui in
Bitbynia, C, Plane, 34, 83 ; Fivas not at Rhodes, but I was in Bithynia.
2^ PREPOSITIONS.
Remarks. — i. A few substantives of the Third Declension also form
sporadic Locatives; so Carthagini, in Plautus, Cicero, and later;
Tiburi in Cicero, Livy, and later, and a few others. See 386.
2. Other Locative forms are, domi, at liome (61, r. 2), humi, on the
ground (first in Cicero), belli, and mllitiae, in the combinations domi
militiaeque, belli domique, in peace and in war, at home and in the field ;
ruri, in the country (but riire meo, on my farm).
Parvi sunt foris arma nisi est consilium domi, C, Off.,\. 22,76; of
little value are arms abroad unless there is wisdom at home. lacere
humi, C, Cat., i. 10, 26 ; to lie on the ground. Humi prosternere, L.,
XLV. 20, 9; to throw flat on the ground.
Belli is found alone occasionally in Terence and Cicero ; Ennius,
Vergil, and Ovid have terrae ; Vergil also campi.
3. Appositions are put in the Ablative, commonly with in, and regu-
larly follow wlien qualified by an attribute :
Militgs Albae constitgrunt in urbe opportuna, C, Ph., iv. 2, 6; the sol-
diers halted at Alba, a conveniently situated toivn. Archias Antiochiae
natus est celebri quondam ujbe, C, Arch., 3, 4 ; Archias was born at
Antioch, once a populous city.
When urbe, city, oppido, toivn, or insula, island, precedes, the prep-
osition is always employed :
In urbe Roma, in the city (of) Rome. In oppido Citio, in the town of
Citium. In insula Samo, in the island (of) Samos.
4. Domi takes the possessive pronoun in the Genitive :
Domi suae senex est mortuus, C, N.D., iii. 32, 81; the old man died
at his oivn house. Metuis ut meae domi ctirgtur diligenter, Ter., Hec,
257; you fear that she ivill not be carefully 7iursed at m/y house. Also
alignae domui (61, r. 2), C, Tusc, i. 22, 51; in a strange house; domi
illius, C, J)iv. in Caec, 18, 58 ; in his house.
But in dom5 Pericli (65), Nep., vii. 2, 1 ; in the house(\\o\A) of Pericles.
In domO casta, in a pure house. In domS, in the house (not, at home).
Notes.— 1. Early Latin shows a number of Locative forms that have disappeared
for the most part in the classical period. So temperi (tempori) replaced by tempore
in Cicero (Livy and Tacitus only in tempore) ; mani, replaced by mane ; vesper!
and herl ; and rare forms like di6, crastini, proximi. See 37, 5.
2. On Locative forms of the pronouns, see t)l, 3. Ou animi, see 374, n. 7.
PREPOSITIONS.
412. The Prepositions are originally local adverbs, which
serve to define more narrowly the local ideas involved in the
cases. The analogy of the local adverbs is followed by other
adverbs, which are not so much prepositions as prepositional
adverbs. Of the Prepositions proper, that is, Prepositions
PREPOSITIOKS. 267
used in composition (see Note), as well as in the regimen of
cases, cum (con) does not clearly indicate a local relation.
The only cases that involve local ideas are the Accusative
and Ablative. The Accusative, as the case of the Direct
Object, ]'epresents the relation lohither ? the Ablative repre-
sents the relations ivUence ? and zvhere ?
Remarks. — i. In verbs of Motion, the Result of the Motion is often
considered as Rest in a place (where). See 385, n. 2.
2. In verbs of Rest, the Rest is sometimes conceived as the Result
of Motion (whither). See 385, n. 3.
Note.— Prepositions derive their name from the fact that they are prefixed in com-
position. Many of the Latin Prepositions are not used in composition, and these may
be called improper Prepositions. The prefixes amb- (am- an-), dis (di), por- (porr-,
pol-), red- (re-), sed- (sg-) and v6- are sometimes called inseparable prepositions.
413. Position of the Preposition. — The Preposition gener-
ally precedes the case.
Remarks. — i. Cum always follows a personal pronoun, and may or
may not follow a relative pronoun : mScum, with me; quocum or cum
quo, ivith whom. Dg is not uncommonly placed after quo and qua, rarely
after quibus. Position after the relative is found here and tlierc also
in -the case of other Prepositions, but principally in early Latin or the
poets, as follows : ab, ad (also in Cicero), ex, in, per, post (after hunc,
C, Tiisc, n. 6, 15), and pro.
Dissyllabic Prepositions are postponed more often, but Cicero re-
stricts this to pronouns, with the following Prepositions : ante, circa,
contra, inter, penes, propter, sine, ultra. Caesar postpones intra also.
Tenus, as far as, and versus, -ward, always follow.
2. When the substantive has an attribute the Preposition may come
between ; banc igitur ob causam (C, Br. , 24 ,94), for this reason, therefore.
3. The Preposition may be separated from its case by an attributive
adjective or its equivalent, or other modifier of the case: post vgro Sullae
victoriam, hut after Sulla^s victory ; ad beate vivendum, for living hap-
pily. But model prose usually avoids separating the Preposition by
more than a word or two. The poets have no scruples.
Notes.— 1. A peculiarity of poetry, Livy, and later prose is the post-position of both
Preposition and attribute : metu in magno, L., ix. 37, 11 ; in great fear.
2. Especially to be noted is the position of per, through (by), in adjurations: Lydia
die per omnes te deos oro, H., 0., i. 8, 1 ; Lydia, tell, by all the gods, I pray thee.
Per ego te deos oro, Ter., And^ 834 ; I pray thee, by the gods.
3. Between the Preposition and its case are often inserted tlie enclitics que, ne, ve ;
and after ante, post, and practer the conjunctions autem, fnim, quidem, tamen,
vgro, occur, but not frequently. The first word in the combinations et— et, aut— aut,
268 PREPOSITIONS.
simul-simnl, vel— vel, sometimes follows the Preposition; cum et diurno et nOC«
turno metu, c, Tusc, v. 23, 66.
414. Rejjetitioii and Ornissioii of the Preposition. — With
different words which stand in the same connection, the Prep-
osition is repeated, when the Preposition is emphatic, or the
individual words are to be distinguished ; so regularly after
aut — aut, et — et, nee— nee, vel— vel, n5n modo— sed etiam,
sed, nisi, quam, and in comparative clauses with ut. Other-
wise it is omitted ; so always with que.
Et ex urbe et ex agrJs, C, Cat., 11. 10, 21 ; both from (the) city and
from (the) country. De honore aut de dignitate contendimus, C, Tiisc,
III. 21, 50 ; we are striving about office, or about position.
Remarks. — i. When a relative follows in the same construction as its
antecedent, the Preposition is usually omitted.
(Cimon) incidit in eandem invidiam (in) quam pater suus, Nep., v. 3, 1 ;
Cimon fell into the same disrepute into ivhich his father had fallen.
2. So in questions : Ante tempus mori miserum. Quod tandem tempus ?
C, Tusc.,1. 39,93 ; a hard case 'tis, to die before the time. (Before)
what time, pray 9
3. After quasi, tamquam, sicut, the Preposition is more often inserted.
Rus ex urbe tamquam 6 vinclis 6volav6runt, Cf. C, Or., 11. 6, 22 ; they
sped from the city to the country as if from a jail.
4. Two Prepositions are rarely used with the same word. Either the
word is repeated, a form of is used, or one Prep, turned into an adverb :
Pro ScipiSne et adversus Scipionem, for and against Scipio. Ante pfl-
gnam et post eam, before and after the battle. Et in corpore et extra [sunt]
quaedam bona, C, Fin., 11. 21, 68. But intra extraque munitiOngs, Caes.,
^.a, m. 72, 2.
415. As adverbs without a case are used :
Ad, about, with numerals in Caesar, Livy, and later ; adversus, to
meet, especially in Plautus and Terence ; ante and post of Time (403,
N. 4) ; contra, opposite, on the other hand ; circa, round about, and
circum (rare) ; prae, forward, in Plautus and Terence ; props, near,
and propter (rare); iuxta, near by (rare); intra, inside (post-classical);
extra, outside; Infra, beloiv ; supra, above; subter, beneath, and super,
above, both rare; citra, 07i this side; ultra, beyond ; coram, in the pres-
ence of; clam, secretly ; praeter, e.rcept (Sall., Livy and later).
I.— Prepositions Construed witii tiie Accusative.
416. The Prepositions construed with the Accusative are :
Ad, adversus, ante, apud, circa, circum, circiter, cis, citra.
PREPOSITIONS. 269
clam, contra, erga, extra, infra, inter, intra, iuxta, ob, penesi
per, post (pone), praeter, prope, propter, secundum, supra,
trans, ultra, usque, versus.
1. Ad. Of Motion Whither, to, up to. Of Direction, foivards{a.d ori-
■entem\ Of Respect, for, with regard to (ad has rSs perspicax) ; found
first in Terence. Of Manner, after, according to (ad hunc modum) ;
colloquial (in Cicero's speeches only quern ad modum). Of Place, at
(= apud), colloquial (ad montem, C, Fam., xv. 2, 2) and legal (ad forum,
ad te), rare in Cicero's speeches. Of Time, at, refers only to future,
and gives either a point (ad vesperum, at evening), an interval (ad
paucos dies, a feic days hence), or an approaching time, towards.
With Numerals, about. Of Purpose, for (castra hosti ad praedam re-
linquunt, L., iii. 63, 4). Also in phrases. Post-Ciceronian Latin ex-
tended the sphere of ad, and colloquially it was often a substitute for
the Dative.
2. Adversus (-um), [i.e., turned to]. Towards, over against, against.
Kare in early Latin and in Caesar and Sallust. In the sense, over
against, it is found first in Livy. In the transferred sense, towards, it
expresses usually hostile disposition, but begins to indicate friendly
disposition in Cicero. Exadversus (-um) is found occasionally, begin-
ning with Cicero, and is always local.
3. Ante [i.e., over against, facing]. Of Place Where, before. Of
Place Whither, before ; rarely (not in Cicero). Of Time, before; the
most frequent use. Of Degree, before ; not in Cicero or Caesar.
4. Apud is used chiefly of Persons. At the house of (characteristic
locality). In the presence of (iudicem). In the writings of (Platonem).
In the view of. Of Place, at, in (= in) ; common in comedy (apud
villam) ; rare elsewhere, especially with proper names, where ad was
preferred, except by Sallust. In phrases like apud s6 esse, to be in
one's senses.
5. Circa (circum). Around. Circum is exclusively local (except
once in Vitruvius, where it is temporal). Circa in the local sense is
found first in Cicero In the meaning about, of Time or Number,
it is found first in Horace. So, too, in the transferred sense of the
sphere of mental action : circa virentis est animus campos, H., 0., iL
6. Circiter. Of Plfice, about ; once in Plautus. Usually of Time,
about, especially with numerals ; but the prepositional usage is on the
whole small.
7. Cis. citra. This side, short of. Of Place ; cis found first in
Varro, citra in Cicero. Cis is occasionally temporal in Plautus, Sal-
lust, Ovid. Citra, of Time, ivithin, this side of; found first in Ovid.
Without {stopping short of) ; found first in Livy, then in Ovid, and
270 PREPOSITIONS.
the post- Augustan prose writers. In C, Or., 18, 50, citra maybe ren-
dered /wW^er hack ; i.e., nearer the beginning.
8. Clam. Secretly. With Ace. in early Latin, in the h. Hisp., and
in the Jurists. With Abl. in Caesar {B.C., 11.32, 8), and in the h.
Afr., 11,4 (both passages disputed). Clanculum with Ace., only in
Terence.
9. Contra. Opposite to, over against, opposed to, against. It appears
as a Preposition first in the classical period, and is used both in local
and transferred senses. In the latter case the force is predominantly
hostile.
10. Erga. Opposite, toivards. Of Place ; very rarely, in early and
late Latin. Usually in the transferred sense of friendly relations.
The hostile sense is occasional in comedy, Nepos, and later writers.
Erga is used always of Persons or personified Things until the time of
Tacitus.
11. Extra. Without, outside of, heside. It is used of local and trans-
ferred relations ; rarely in the sense of sine (Tag., II., i. 49) ; occasion-
ally in sense of praeter, except.
12. infra. Beneath, loiver down. Of Space ; more frequently in
classical Latin, of Kank or Grade ; Temporal but once (C, Br., 10, 40).
It occurs but rarely in later Latin, and is cited only once from early
Latin (Ter., Eun., 4Sg).
13. Inter. Between. Of Place Where, rarely of Place Whither.
Colloquial were phrases like inter viam (vias), on the road, inter nos,
between ourselves. Inter paucos, preeminently, is post-classical. Of
Time, during ; at all periods, but in Cicero principally in the Let-
ters.
14. Intra. Within. Of Local and Temporal (not in Cicero) rela-
tions. The usage in transferred relations is post-classical, and mainly
poetical.
15. luxta [i.e., adjoining^ Hard by, near, next to. It appears as
a Preposition first in Varro, then in Caesar, but not in Cicero. It is
used locally until Livy, who employs it also in transferred senses of
Time, Order, etc.
16. Ob {i.e., over against, opposite io^ Right before. Of Place
occasionally at all periods (not in Caesar, Livy, Curtius, Tacitus).
Of Cause, for ; found in early Latin (not with personal pronouns in
Plautus), in classical and post-classical Latin in increasing propor-
tion. Caesar uses it only in formulae with rem (r5s) and causam.
Cicero and Caesar do not use ob id or ob ea, which, found in early
Latin, reappear in Sallust. Ob has almost completely supplanted
propter in Tacitus. With the substantive and participle (ob dSfSnsum
Capitolium) ob is found first in Livy.
17. Penes. With = in the hands of ; of Persons. Applied to
PREPOSITIOJsTS. 271
Things, it is found in poetry first in Horace ; in prose first in Tacitus.
It is found wholly with esse until later Latin.
18. Per. Of Space, through ; of Time, duri?ig ; of Cause, owing to ;
of Instrument, &?/ (both persons and things) ; of Manner, hy, in. It
is used phraseologically in oaths, hy ; also with persons (sometimes
things), as per me licet, as far as I am concerned you may. Per = ab
of Agent is found only in late Latin.
19. P5ne. Behind, only in Local relations; it is most frequent in
Plautus, occurs but once in Cicero, never in Caesar or Horace, and
is rare in general.
20. Post. Of Place, behind; rare, but in good usage. Of Time,
after. Of Rank, subordinate to ; in Sallust, poets, and late prose.
21. Praeter. Of Place, in front of, on before, past. In a transferred
sense, except ; contrary to (opiniSnem and the like). Of Rank, beyond
(praeter omn6s is cited only from Plautus and Horace ; usually praeter
cSteros).
22. Prope. Of Place, near ; found first in the classical period. It
sometimes has the constructions of adjectives of Nearness. Of Time,
near ; very rare and post-classical, as Livv, Suetonius. Propius is
found first in Caesar as a preposition.
23. Propter. Of Place, near. Of Cause, on account of ; very com-
mon in early and classical Latin, but avoided by many authors, notably
Tacitus. With substantive and participle it appears first in Varro ;
then is common in Livy, and later.
24. Secundum [i.e., following^. Of Place, along (lltus), close behind;
\erj rare (C, Fam., iv. 12, 1). Of Time, immediately after ; in early
Latin and Cicero, common in Livy, but never in Caesar, Sallust,
Tacitus. Of Series, 7iext to ; in Plautus and Cicero. Of Reference,
according to ; at all periods. Secus is ante-classical and rare.
25. Supra. Of Place, above, beyond ; so Cicero almost exclusively.
Of Time, beyond; very rare. Of Grade, above. Of Authority, in
charge of; Vitruvius and later.
26. Trans. O71 the other side, beyond, across ; only in Local relations,
27. Ultra. Of Space and Measure, on that side, beyond. Of Time ;
only in late Latin. The early form uls is very rare and in formulae, as,
Cis Tiberim et uls Tiberim. In late Latin ultra supplants praeter almost
wholly.
28. TJsque, iip to, is found once in Terence, several times in Cicero,
and occasionally later, with the Ace. of the name of a town. With
other names of localities it appears first in Livy.
29. Versus, -ward. As a preposition it first appears in the classical
period and is found usually with names of Towns, and small Islands ;
with other words it is regularly combined with the prepositions ad (not
in Cicero) or in.
272 PREPOSITIONS.
II. Prepositions Construed with tine Ablative.
417. Prepositions construed with the Ablative are a (ab,
abs), absque, coram, cum, de, e (ex), prae, pro, sine, tenus;
rarely fine, palam, procul, simul.
1. A (ab, abs). Of Place Whence, from, especially of the point of
departure ; so in phrases, a tergo, a capite, etc. Of Cause, from (Ira) ;
beginning with Livy. Of Agent, by. Of Remote Origin, from. Of
Time, from. Of Reference, according to, after. Of Specification, in
(doleo ab oculis) ; often \/ith compound verbs.
Note.— The form before vowels and h is always ab ; before consonants usually a,
though ab is not uncommon before consonants other than the labials b, f, p, v, and is
frequent before 1, n, r, S, and i ( j) ; abs is found only before t§ and in the combination
absque. Cicero uses abs te in his early writings, but prefers a tS in his later ones.
2. Absque [i.e., off\ Without. Peculiar to early Latin, where it
is used in conditional sentences only. Occasionally in later Latin, as,
absque sententia (Quixt., vii, 2, 44), for praeter sententiam.
3. Coram. Face to face with, in the presence of ; it is used with Per-
sons only, and is found first in Cicero, and then in later writers, but in
general it is rare until the time of Tacitus, who uses it very often in
the Annals and always postpones.
4. Cum. With ; of Accompaniment in the widest sense. With
Abl. of Manner regularly when there is no attributive ; often when
there is one. Sometimes it is used of mutual action : 5rare cum, plead
with (Plautus), etc.
5. D6. Of Place, down from, and then from; especially with com-
pounds of de and ex. Of Source, from; with verbs of Receiving (actual
and mental). Of Origin; but mainly in poetry and later prose. Of
Object, concerning. Of Time ; in phrases d6 nocte, d6 dig (diem dS die,
day after day). Of the Whole from which a part is taken. Of Refer-
ence, according to (d6 sententia). Of Material ; poetical and late.
6. E (ex). Of Place, out of, from. Often in phraseological usages,
as ex -psirte, partly ; ex asse, and the like. With verbs of Receiving,
from. 01 Time, from; ex tempore is phraseological. Of Origin, /row.
Of Reference, according to. Of Manner ; in many phrases, as ex
aequo, ex Ordine. E is used before consonants only, ex before both
vowels and consonants.
7. Fine (or flnl). Up to ; found in Plautus and Cato, then not un-
til very late Latin. With the Gen. it occurs in b. Afr. and in Sallust,
Fr.; then not until Ovid and very late Latin.
8. Palam, in the sense of c5ram, in the presence of, is found first in
Horace and Livy, and is rare.
PREPOSITIONS. 273
9. Prae. Of Place, in front of; with verbs of Motion only, in clas-
sical Latin. In early Latin in the phrase prae manti, at hand. Of the
Preventive Cause, for ; with negatives only, in and after the classical
period ; in early Latin, also in positive sentences. Of Comparison, in
comparison with ; occasionally at all periods.
10. Pro. Of Place, before; not in early Latin, but found first in
the classical period, where it is confined to certain combinations, as
pro rostris, castris, aede, vallo, etc., and means before and on. In behalf
of ; not cited for early Latin. Instead of; very common at all periods.
In proportion to; at all periods. Quam pro; found first in Livy.
11. Trocvd, far from, is poetical, and begins in prose with Livy. In
classical Latin prose always with ab.
12. Simul, in the sense of cum, belongs to poetry and Tacitus (A7in.,
m. 64).
13. Sine, without, is opposed to cum.
14. Tenus, to the extent of. Of Space (actual and transferred), as
far as. It is found occasionally with the Gen., but almost wholly
with PI., and perhaps but once in Cicero {Arat., 83) ; otherwise it be-
longs to poetry, making its first appearance in prose in Cicero {Dei.,
13, 3G) and Livy. It occurs with the Ace. in late Latin. Tenus is al-
ways postponed.
III. Prepositions Construed with the Accusative
and Ablative.
418. Prepositions construed with the Accusative and Ab-
lative are in, sub, subter, super.
1. In (the forms endo, indu, are early and rare), (a) With Accusative :
Of Place, into, into the midst of. Of Disposition and Direction,
towards. Of Time, into (multam noctem), for (diem, multos annos, poste-
rum). Of Purpose or Destination, for ; mostly post-classical. Of Man-
ner, in, after. Phraseologically with neuter adjectives : in deterius, for
the worse ; but mainly post-classical. With Distributives, to, among.
(b) With Ablative : Of Place, in, on. Of Time, within. Of Refer-
ence, in the case of, in regard to, in the matter of. Of Condition, iji
(armis). In many phrases, especially with neuter adjectives, in incerto,
dubio, integro, ambiguo, etc.
2. Sub. (a) With Accusative : Of Place Whither, under. Of Time
Approaching, about (noctem, vesperum) ; just Past, immediately after.
Of Condition, under (sub potestatem redigi).
(b) With Ablative : Of Place Where, under ; also in phrases, sub
armis, etc. Of Time When, about ; rare, and first in Caesar. Of Posi-
tion, under (r5ge, iudice, etc.). Of Condition, ww6?er (ea condiciQne) ; first
in Livy.
18
274 INFINITIVE.
3. Subter. (a) With Accusative ; rare, and locally equal to sub.
(b) With the Ablative ; more rare and almost wholly poetical (Catui,-
Lus and Vergil). Cf.C, Tusc.,y. i, 4, which may be Ace. Subtua
occurs only in Vitr., iv. 2, 5, and then with the Accusative.
4. Super, (a) With Accusative but once before the classical time :
Of Place, over, above. Of Time, during; found first in Pliny, Epp.
Metaphorically of Degree, beyond (super modum) ; post-classical.
(b) With the Ablative : Of Space, above. Of Time, during (not
until the Augustan poets). Metaphorically = praeter ; very rare :
= ds, concerning; colloquial; hence in Plautus, Cato, Cicero's Ze/-
ters {ad Att.), Sallust, Horace, Livy; but uncommon.
INFINITIVE.
The Infinitive as a Substantive.
419. The Infinitive is the substantive form of the verb.
Note.— The Infinitive differs from a verbal substantive in that it retains the adver-
bial attribute, the designations of voice and time, and the regimen of the verb :
Amare, io Ume ; vald6 amare, to love hugely ; amari, to be loved ; amavisse, to
have loved ; amare aliquem, to love a man ; noc6re alicui, to hurt a ma)}.
Bnt the great claim of the Infinitive to be considered a verb lies in the involution of
predicate and subject. Like the finite verb, the Infinitive involves predicate and sub-
ject ; but the subj. is indefinite and the predication is dependent.
420. The Infinitive, when it stands alone, involves an in-
definite Accusative Subject, and the Predicate of tliat Sub-
ject is, of course, in the Accusative Case.
Rggem esse, to be king. Bonum esse, to be good. Compare quid stultius
quam aliquem eo sib! placgre quod ipse non f5cit. Sen., E.3I., 74, 17 ; what
is more foolish than for a man to (that a man should) pride himself on
what he has not done himself.
So in the paradigm of the verb :
Amaturum esse, io be about to love.
Note.— On the Nora, with the Inf. by Attraction, see 528.
In consequence of this double nature, the Infinitive may be used as
a substantive or as a verb.
421. The Infinitive, as a substantive, is used regularly in
two cases only — Nominative and Accusative. In the other
cases its place is supplied by the Gerund and the Ablative
Supine.
Notes.— 1. Traces of the originiil Dat. (or Loc.) nature of the Infinitive are elill
apparent in many constriictions, which are, liowevcr, mostly poetical :
INFINITIVE. 275
(a) With verbs of Motion in early Latin and the later poets, when ut, ad with
Gerundive or Sii]). is to be expected.
Abilt aedem visere Minervae, Tl-, ^ iQoo; Khe wentmrau to visit the temjM
of Minerva. Semper in Oceanum mittit mg quaerere gemmas, Prop,, ii. (hi.) 16
(8), 17 ; she is always semling me to the Ocean to look for {in quest of)i)earls.
if)) With verbs of Giving, Rendering, and the lilce, in early Latin and the poets, where
the Ace. of the Gerundive is to be expected. Classical is the use of bibere only, in this
way. (The old form biber points to the effacement of the final sense of this Inf.)
iovi bibere ministrare, Cf. c, Tusc, i. 26. Quern virum aut heroa lyra vel
acri tibia siimes celebrare, Clio'? H., 0., 1. 12,1. Different, of course, are cases
like di tibi posse tuos tribuant dgfendere semper, Ov., Tr., m. 5, 21, where posse
defendere is felt as potestatem defendendi.
(c) With many adjectives where the Sup. in u, or some construction of Purpose, is to
be expected.
In early Latin the adjectives are paratus, COnsuetUS, defessus. But this usage is
widely extended by the Augustan poets Vergii. and Horace, and later.
It is confined principally, however, to adjectives of capability, ability., necessity, etc.,
and adjectives like facilis (with act. as well as pass. Inf., first in Prop.), difficilis, and
the like : Eoma capi facilis, Lucan, ii. 656. Note the strange usage dissentire
manifgstUS, Tac, Ami., n. 57, 4, and occasionally elsewhere.
2. The Inf. may take an adj. attribute, but in classical prose this is limited to ip-
sum, hSc ipsum, and t5tum h5c :
Vivere ipsum turpe est nobis, livimj itself is a disgrace to us. Quibusdam
tStum hoc displicet philosopbari (280, i, a).
The Infinitive as a Subject.
422. The Infinitive, as a Subject, is treated as a neuter
substantive.
Incipere mult5 est quam inpetrare facilius, Pl., Poen., 974 ; heginning
is much easier (work) than winning. Miserum est dgturbari fortunis
omnibus, C, Quinct., 31, 95; it is ivretched to find oiie's self turned rudely
out of all one's fortunes. N5n tam turpe fuit vinci quam contendisse de-
c5rum est, Ov., M., ix. 6 (280^ 2, a).
Notes.— 1. The use of the Inf. as a subj. grew out of its use as an obj., but the
original Dat. (Loc.) sense was lost to the consciousness just as the prepositional sense
of our own to is lost when our Inf. becomes a subj.; as in, to err is human, to forgive
divine. No Roman felt turpe fuit vinci, as, there was disgrace in being beaten ;
bonum est legere was to him another bona est l§ctio (see Priscian, 408, 27).
2. Tlie substantives used as predicates are not common in early Latin. Lubido est
is confined to Plautus. Stultitia est, consilium est, and tempus est are universal.
Cicero introduces llie not uncommon mOS est, and many others with est, as : con-
suettidO (-inis), vitium, iiis, fas, nefas, facinus, fatum, caput, r§s (Caesar),
opus, munus, ofiicium, onus, sapientia, and a few others. Still more are found
later. Many of these also take ut ; so ofl&cium always in comedy (except Ter., And.,
331).
3. Neuter adjectives are used as predicates in great variety. Ciceronian are certius
(quam), c5nsentaneum, falsum, incredibile, integrum, gloriosum, mains
(quam), mirum, novom, optimum, rgctum, singulare, tritum, verisimile,
vSrum. Most of them, however, but once. ISome of these also take ut, but not often
in good prose.
276 INFINITIVE.
4. In early Latin many impersonal verbs are used as predicates. Classical Latin
retains most of them, but drops condecet, dispudet, subolet, and adds some, such
as paenitet, dedecet, displicet, prodest, obest, attinet. others come in later.
Some, such as oportet, also take ut or the simple Subjv. Noteworthy is est, ii is jws-
dble, found first in Varko and Lucr., then not till Verg. and Hor., and never common.
5. Certain abstract phrases, whose meanings are akin to the words already men-
tioned, take the Inf. as a subject. So especially predicate Genitives, as COnsuetudinis
and moris ; or combinations like quid negotii, nihil negotii est ; predicate Datives
such as cordi est, ciirae est, both unclassical ; or phrases, as operae pretium, in
animo esse, in mentem venire, of which the last two were introduced by Cicero.
The Infinitive as an Object.
423. I. The Infinitive is used as the Object of Verbs of
Creation, commonly known as Auxiliary Verbs.
These Verbs kelp the Infinitive into existence.
2. Such verbs denote Will, Power, Duty, Habit, Inclination, "Re-
solve, Continuance, End, and the like, with their opposites.
Emori cupio, Ter., Heaut., 971 ; Iivant to die. [Cato] esse quam vidgri
bonus malebat, S., C, 54,5 ; Cato 'preferred being {good) to seeming
good. Sed precor ut possim ttitius esse miser, Ov., Tr., v. 2, 78 ; hut 1
pray that I may be more safely tvretched. Vincere scis, Hannibal ; victo-
ria titi nescis, L.,xxii. 51 ; how to ivin victory, you know, Hannibal ;
how to make use of victory, you know not. Qui mori didicit, servire dS-
didicit, Sen., E.M., 26, 10 ; he who has learned to die has unlearned to
be a slave. Maledictis deterrgre ng scribat parat, Ter., Ph., 3 ; he is
preparing (trying) to frighten (him) from writing, by abuse. Qui men-
tlri solet, pgierare consugvit, C, Rose. Com., 16, 40 ; he who is wont to lie
is accustomed to swear falsely. Vulnera quae fecit dgbuit ipse pati, Ov.,
J.m.,11. 3, 4; the tvounds he gave he should himself have suffered.
Vereor laudare praesentem, C, N.T)., i. 21, 58 ; I feel a delicacy about
praising a man to his face. Rgligionum animum nSdis exsolvere pergS,
Lucr., i. 932; / go on to loose the spirit from the bonds of superstitious
creeds. Tua quod nil rgfert, percontari dgsinas, Ter., Ilec, 810 ; cease (o
inquire ivhat matters naught to you.
So habe5, I have (it in my power).
Tantum habeo poUicgri mg tib! cumulatg satisfacttirum, C, Fam., i. 5 a,
3 ; so much I can promise, that I will give you abundant satisfaction.
Notes.— 1. The original force of the Inf. is, in most of these constructions, hard to
determine, and was certainly not felt by the Romans themselves. In many cases the
Inf. seems to have been used because the governing \\ ord or phrase was felt to be more
or less equivalent to a Verb of Creation.
2. The principal verbs, construed thus with the Inf., are as follows :
Will : velle, malle, nOUe, cupere, optare (rare, except in passive), petere, p5stu-
Iftre, avgre, audgre, dgsiderare (first in Cic), praegestire, gestire, ardere,
INFINITIVE. ^77
metuere (ante-class.), vergri, timSre, formidare (ante-class.), reformldare, hor-
r6re, horrgscere, hortari and compounds, monere and compounds, suadSre (fiist
in Cic), persuadgre, iubere, imperare, praecipere, cogere, permittere (once in
Cic, then later), concgdere (first in Cic), ciirare (not in Caes., Sall., Livy), vetare>
rectisare (first in Cic), mittere, omittere, intermittere, cunctari, cessare,
morari, dubitare, gravari, prohibgre, impedire, deterrgre.
Power : posse, quire, nequire, sustingre (first in Cic), valgre (first in Cic),
poUere (first in Cic), habgre (rare, except in Cic), scire, nescire.
JJuty : debgre, necesse habeo.
Habit : assugscere, assugfacere (first in Cic), consugscere, solgre.
Inclination : conari (only with Inf.), studgre, contendere, intendere (Caes.),
laborare (always with neg. in Cic), molirl (rare), aggredi, ingredi, adorirl, niti
(first in Caes.), gniti (ante-class, and post-class.), quaerere (first in Cic), temptare
(first in HiRTius).
Resolve : cogitare, meditari, memini (mostly poet.), parare, statuere (first in .
Cic), constituere (first in Ter.), dgcernere (not class, in pass.), iudicare (first in
Cic), dgstinare (first in Caes.), certum est, dgliberatum est, propositum est
(first in Cic).
Continuance: stare (first in Cic), Instare, perstare (once in Cic,then late), per-
sevgrare (first in Cic), properare (only word used in early Latin), fgstinare (first in
Cic), mattirare (first in Cic).
Beginnirig and Etui : coepi, incipere (first in Cic), exgrdirl, pergere, dgsinere.
Poets are free in using the Inf. after other verbs.
3. Notice that coepi, / have begun, and dgsinO, / cease, are used in Pf. pass, with
passive Infinitives, in early Latin, Cicero, Caesar, always ; later the construction
varies, and Tacitus does not observe the rule.
Bell5 Atbgnignsgs undique premi sunt coepti, Nep., xm. 3, 1 ; the Athenians
began to feel the pressure of ivar on {from) all sides. Vetergs orationgs leg! sunt
dgsitae, C, Br., 32, 123 ; the old speeches have ceased to be 7'ead.
When the passives are really reflexives or neuter, the active forms may be used.
4. Verbs of Will and Desire take ut as well as the Infinitive. So regularly optO, 1
choose, in classical prose.
5. Verbs which denote Hope, Promise, and Threat are treated as verbs of Saying and
Thinking (5;B0), but also occasionally as in En<;lish :
Spgrant sg maximum fructum esse capttiros, C, Lael., 21, 79 ; they hope that
they ivill derive great advantage. Subrupturum pallam promisit tibi, Pl-, Asin.y
930 ; he 'promised to steal the mantle from you.
6. Doceo, I teach, iubeS, Ibid, vet5, 1 forbid, sino, I let, take the Inf. as a Second
Accusative (339) :
(Dionysius) ne collum tOnsorl committeret tondgre Alias suas docuit, c,
Tvsc, v. 20, 58 ; Dionysius, to keep from trusting his neck to a barber, taught las
daughters to shave (taught them shaving). Ipse iubet mortis tg meminisse deus,
Mart., ii. 59 (376). Vitae summa brevis spem nos vetat inchoare longam, H.,
0. I. 4, 15 ; life's brief sum forbids us open (a) long {account ivilh) hope. Neu sinas
Mgdos equitare inultSs, H., 0., i. 2, 51 ; nor let the Median ride and ride unpunished.
The Infinitive as a Predicate.
424. The Infinitive, as a verbal substantive, may be used
as a Predicate after the copula esse, to ie^ and the like.
Docto homini et grudito vivere est cogitare, C, Tusc, v. 38, 111 ; to a
learned and cultivated man to live is to think.
2/8 GERUKD AISTD GERUNDIVE.
GERUND AND GERUNDIVE.
425. The other cases of the Infinitive are supplied by the
Gerund. With Prepositions, the Gerund, and not the Infin-
itive, is employed.
N. Legere difficile est, reading {to read) is hard to do.
G. Ars legendi, the art of reading.
Puer studiosus est legendi, the hoy is zealous of reading.
D. Puer operam dat legendo, the boy devotes hi7nself to reading.
Ac. Puer cupit legere, the hoy is desirous to read.
Puer propensus est ad legendum, the hoy has a bent toward reading.
Ab. Puer discit legendo, the hoy learns by reading.
Note.— Of course the Inf. may be quoted as an abstract notion, a form of the verb :
Multum interest inter " dare " et " accipere," Sen., lien., 5, 10 ; there is a vast
difference between '•'Give " and ^'Ileceive.''''
426. As a verbal form, the Gerund, like the Infinitive,
takes the same case as the verb.
Homines ad deos nulla rS propius accMunt, quam salutem hominibus
dando, C, Lig., 12, 38 ; men draw nearer to the gods hy nothing so
much as by bringing deliverance to their fellow-men.
Notes.— 1. The Gerund is tlie substantive of the Gerundive (251, n.1). The most
plausible theory connects the forms in -ndu- with those in -nt- (Pr. Part, active) as being
verbal nouns originally without any distinction of voice. The signification of necessity
comes mainly from the use as a predicate, i.e., through the characteristic idea. Thus,
he loho is being loved, implies lie wlw is of a character to be loved (qui ani6tur), and
^hen he wlio should be loved.
The Gerundive is passi\e : the Gerund, like other verbal nouns (363), is theoretically
active or passive, according to the point of view. Practically, however, the passive
signification of the Gerund is rare.
lugurtha ad imperandum (=^ ut ei imperarStur, i^erhaps an old military form-
ula) Tisidium vocabatur, ('/■ W-, hii/-, 62, 8.
2. Gerundive and Pf. Part. pa.ssive are often translated alike ; but in the one case the
action is i)rogressive or prospective, in the other it is completed.
Caesare interficiendo Brutus et Cassius patriae llbertatSm restituere c5-
nati sunt ; by the murder of Caesar Q/y murdering Caesar), Bnifus and Cassius
eadeavored to restore their country' s freed(ym to her. Caesare interfecto, Brutus et
Cassius patriae libertatem non restituSrunt ; by murdenng Caesar, Bi-^xtus and
Cassius did not restore their coinitry's freedom to her.
427. Gerundive for Gerund. — Instead of the Gerund,
with an Accusative Object, the object is generally put in the
case of the Gerund, with the Gerundive as an Attribute,
G. Placandi Dei, of appeasing God.
D. PlacandS De5, for appeasing God.
Aii. PlacandO De5, by appeasing God.
GERUKD AND GERUNDIVE. 2/9
In model prose this construction is invariably employed with Prep-
ositions.
Ad placandos Deos, for appeasing the gods (C, Cat., in. 8, 20).
In placandis Diis, in appeasing tlie gods.
Notes.— 1. It is impossible to make a distinction between the Gerund and the Ge-
rundive form. Tiiey are often used side by side, where there can be no difference (L.,
XXI. 5, 5 ; XXV. 40, 6 ; xxviii. 37, 1 ; xxxi. 26, 6). The preference for tl:e Gerundive is
of a piece with the use of the Pf. Part. pass, in preference to an Abstract Substantive
(3C0, R. 2).
2. The impersonal Gerundive is found with an Ace. obj. once in Plautus (agitan-
dumst vigilias, 7>"i?i., 869), and occasionally elsewhere in early Latin (principally
Varro) ; very rarely in Cicero and for special reasons (^Cat. ilf., 2, 6) ; here and there
later (not in Caesar, Horace, Ovid, and, perhaps, Livy).
Aetemas quoniam poenas in morte timendumst, Lucr., i. m ; since we must
fear eternal punishments in death.
3. Neuter adjectives and pronouns are not attracted : aliquid faciendl ratiS,
C, /«t;., 1. 25, 36 ; metJiod of doing something. Cupiditas plura habendl, greed for
having more. But when the neuter adjective has become a substantive (304, n. 2), the
Gerundive form may be used : cupiditas v5ri videndi, C., Fin., 11. 14, 46 ; the desire
of seeing the ti^th.
4. The Gerundive with personal construction can be formed only from Transitive
Verbs, like other passives (217). Hence the impersonal form must be used for all verbs
that do not take the Ace, but with such verbs prepositions are rarely found.
Ad non parendum senatui, L., xlii. 9 ; for not obeying the senate.
5. But the Gerundives from utor, fmor, fungor, potior, vescor (407) have the per-
sonal construction, but usually only in the oblique cases (C, Fin., 1. 1, 3, is an excep-
tion), as a remnant of their original usage. The poets and later prose writers use still
more forms in the same way, as laetandus, dolendus, medendus, paenitendus, etc.
Cicero also shows single instances of gloriandus, disserendus, respondendus.
6. The use of the Nom. of the Gerundive follows the ordniary rules of the Nomina-
tive.
Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive.
428. The Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive is used
chiefly after substantives and adjectives which require a com-
plement :
Sapientia arg Vivendi putanda est, C, Fin., i. 13, 42 ; philosophy is to
be considered the art of living. Et propter vitam Vivendi perdere causas,
Juv. , vni. 84 ; and on account of life, to lose the reasons for living. RaU'
caque garrulitas studiumque immane loquendi, Ov., M., v. 678 ; and hoarse
chattiness, and a motistrous love of talking. Triste est nomen ipsum ca-
rtndi, C, Tusc, i. 36, 87; dismal is the mere word " carere " {go without).
Non est placandi spes mihi nulla Dei, Ov., Tr., v. 8, 22 ; / am not with-
out hope of appeasing God. ignorant cnpidi maledioendi plus invidiam
quam convicium posse, Quint., vi. 2, 16 ; those who are eager to abuse
knoiv not thai envy has more power than billingsgate. (Titus) equitandi
peritissimus fuit, Suet., ^V^.,3 ; 7'itus ivas exceedingly skilful m rid-
ing. Neuter sni prQtegendi corporis memor (erat), L., 11. 6, 9 ; neither
280 GERUND Al>rD GERUJ^DIVE.
thought of shielding his own body. Qui hie mos obsidendi vias et viros
alignos appellandi % L., xxxiv. 2, 9 ; what sort of ivay is this of hlocking
up the streets and calling upon other ivomen's husbands ? Summa elu-
dendi occasiost mihi nunc sen6s, XeR-, Ph-, 885; I have a tip-top chance
to fool the old chaps now.
Remarks. — i. As mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, are, in their origin,
neuter singulars, from meum, my being, tuum, tliy being, suum, one's
being, etc., the Gerundive is put in the same form : conservandi sui, of
preserving themselves; vestri adhortandi, of exhorting you; and no
regard is had to number or gender.
Copia placandi sit modo parva tui, Ov., Her., 20, 74 ; let (me) only have
a slight chance of trying to appease you (feminine).
2. The Gen. of the Gerund and Gerundive is used very commonly
with causa, less often with gratia, and rarely with (antiquated) erg3,
on account of, to express Design : Dissimulandi causa in senatum v6nit,
S., C.,2>i, 53; he came into the senate for the purpose of dissimulation.
The Gen. alone in this final sense is found once in Terence, several
times in Sallust, occasionally later, especially in Tacitus.
(Lepidus arma) c6pit libertatis subvortundae, S., Phil.Fr., 10; Lepidus
took up arms as a matter of {for the purpose of) subvert itig freedom.
More commonly ad, rarely ob. See 432.
Esse with this Gen. may be translated by serve to ; this is occasional
in Cicero ; see 366, 429, i.
Omnia discrimina talia concordiae minuendae [sunt], L., xxxiv. 54, 5 ;
all such distinctions are matters of {belong to) the diminishing of con-
cord {serve to diminish concord). Compare Caes., B. G., v. 8, 6: [nav6s]
quas sui quisque commodi fgcerat, ships which each one had {had) made
(as a matter) of personal convenience.
Notes.— 1. In early Latin, in Cicero (early works, Philippics and philosophical
writings), then in later authors, we find occasionally a Gen. Sing, of the Gerund, fol-
lowed by a substantive in the Plural. Here it is better to conceive the second Gen. as
objectively dependent upon the Gerund form.
Agitur utrum Ant5ni5 facultas d§tur agrSrum suls latrSnibus cond5-
nandi, C., Ph.., v. 3, 6 ; the question is whether Antoiiy shall receive the power 0/ giving
away (of) lands to his pet Mghtvaymen.
2. Fas est, nefeia est, ius est, fatum est, c5pia est, ratio est, cdnsilium est,
consilium capere, cdnsilium inire, and a few others, have often the Inf. where the
Gerund might be expected. Sometimes there is a difference in meaning ; thus tem-
pus, with Gerund, the proper time (season), with Inf., high time.
The poets and later prose writers extend this usage of the Infinitive.
3. Another peculiarity of the poets is the construction of the adj. or subst. like the
cognate verb with the Inf., instead of with the Gen. of the Gerund. (At) s6cura quigs
at nescia fallere (=quae nesciat fallere) vita, v., (7., 11. 467; Quiet without a
care, and a life that Tcnmveth not how to disappoint (ignorant of disap^mntment).
Later prose is more careful in this matter.
4. The Gen. of Gerund, depending upon a verb, is rare and Tacitean (Ann., 11.43).
Tacitus also uses the appositionul Gerund with a substantival neuter (Ann., xiii. 26).
GERUJS^D AKD GERUNDIVE. 28 1
5. Some substantives, like auctor, dux, may iiave a Dat. instead of a Gen.; Liv., i.
S3 : mS Albanl gerendo bello ducem creavgre.
Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive.
429. The Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used
chiefly after words that denote Fitness and Function.
1. The usage is rare in classical Latin, and begins with a few verbs
and phrases : esse (= parem esse), to he equal to ; praeesse and praeficere,
to he {put) in charge of; studere and operam addere, laborem impertire, to
give one's attention to; then it is used witli a few substantives and adjec-
tives to give the object for ivhich, and with names of Boards.
Solvendo civitatgs non erant, Cf. C, Fam., iii. 8, 2 ; the communities
were not equal to {ready for) payment.{were not solvent). [Sapiens] virgg
suas novit, scit s5 esse oneri ferendo, Sen., E.M., 71, 26 ; the wise man is
acquainted with his own strength ; he -knows that he is (equal) to hear-
ing the hurden.
So comitia decemviris creandis (C, Leg.Agr., 2,8) ; triumvir coloniis
dediicendis (S., Jug., 42) ; reliqua tempera dSmetendis fructibus accommo-
data sunt, C, Cat.M., 19, 70.
2. Classical Latin requires ad with the Ace, but from Livy on the
use of this Dat. spreads, and it is found regularly after words which
imply Capacity and Adaptation. It is found also technically with verbs
of Decreeing and Appointing, to give the Purpose.
Aqua nitrosa utilis est bibendo, Cf. Plix., JSf.H., xxxi. 32, 59; alkaline
water is good for drinking {to drink). Lignum aridum materia est idonea
gliciendis i'gnibus, Cf. Sen., N.Q., 11. 22, 1 ; di-y wood is a fit suhstance
for striking fire {drawing out sparks). Eeferundae ego habeo linguam
natam gratiae, Pl., Pers., 428 ; I have a tongue thafs horn for showing
thankfulness.
Notes.— 1. In early Latin the use of this Dat. is very restricted, it being found
principally after stud§re ; operam dare, or siimere (both revived by Livy) ; finem
(or modum) facere ; and a lew adjectival forms. Of the latter, Cicero uses only ac-
€ommodatus, Caesak only par,
2. Rare and unclassical is the Ace. in dependence upon a Dat. of the Gerund.
Epidicum operam quaerendo dabo, Pl., Ejy., 605.
Accusative of the Gerundive.
430. The Gerundive is used in the Accusative of the Ob-
ject to be Effected, after such verbs as Giving and Taking,
Sending and Leaving, Letting, Contracting, and Undertak-
ing. (Factitive Predicate.)
DIviti homini id aurum servandum dedit, Pl, B , 338 ; he gave that
282 GERUND AND GERUNDIVE.
gold to a rich man to keep. Conon mtiros reficiendos curat, Nep., ix. 4, 5*,
Conon has the walls rebuilt. Patriam diripiendam reliquimus, C, Fam.y
XVI. 12,1; ive have left our country to he plundered. [Carvilius] aedem
faciendam locavit, L., x. 46, 14 ; Carvilius let the (contract of) building
the temple.
Of course, the passive form has the Nominative :
Filius Philippi Demetrius ad patrem reducendus legatis datus est, L.p
XXXVI. 35, 13 ; the son of Philip^ Demetrius, was given to the envoys to
be take7i back to his father.
Notes.— 1. Early Latin shows with this constraction dare, condticere, locare,
rogare, petere, habere, prSpinare. Classical Latin gives up rogare, petere, propi-
nare, but adds others, as tradere, obicere, conc6dere, committere, curare, relin-
quere, proponere. Livy introduces suscipere. The use of ad in place of the simple
Ace. is not common.
[Caesar] oppidum ad diripiendum militibus concgssit, Caes., B. C, m. 80, 6.
But ad is necessary in nemini se ad docendum dabat, C, Bv., 89, 30G ; he would
yield to no one for teaching., i.e., ivould accept no one as a jnqnl.
2. Habeo dicendum and the like for habeo dicere, or, habeS quod dicam,
belongs to later Latin (Tac, Dial.., 37 ; Ann. iv. 40, etc.).
Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive.
431. The Ablative of the Gerund or Gerundive is used as
the Ablative of Means and Cause, seldom as the Ablative of
Manner or Circumstauce.
Unus homo nobis cunctando restituit rem, Ennius (C, Cat.M.,4, 10);
o?ie man by lingerifig raised our cause again. Hominis m6ns discendo
alitur et cogitando, C, Off,, i. 30, 105; the human mind is nourished by
learning and thinking. Plausum meo nomine recitando dedgrunt, Of.
C.,Atf.,iy. I, (J ; they clapped ivhen my name was read. Exercendo
cottidig mllite hostem opperigbatur, L., xxxiii. 3, 5; drilling the soldiers
daily he waited for the enemy.
Notes.— I. The Abl. with adjectives is post-Ciceronian : digna Stlrps suscipi-
endo (instead of quae susciperet) patris imperiS, Tac, .4///;., xai. 14. So too with
verbs : continuandS abstitit magistratu, L., ix. 34, 2.
2. The Abl. after a comparative is cited only from C, Off., 1. 15, 47.
3. In post-Augustan Latin, and occasionally earlier, we find the Abl. of the Gerund
paralleled by the Pr. participle : Bocchus, seu reputando (= reputans) . . . seu
admonitus, etc., S., lug., 103, 2.
Prepositions with the Gerund and Gerundive.
432. The Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive follows
the preposition ad, seldom ante, circa, erga, in, inter, ob,
propter, and super. See 427.
Nulla rgs tantum ad dicendum prSficit quantum scriptig, C, Br. 24, 92;
SUPINE. 283
nothing is as profitable for speaking as writing. Atticus pMlosophoriin*
praeceptis ad vitam agendam non ad ostentationem utebatur, Of. Nep., xxv.
17, 8; Atticus made use of the precepts of pliilosopliers for the conduct
of life, not for display. Inter spoliandum corpus hostis exspiravit, Cf.
L., II. 20, 9; ivhile in t/te act of stripping tlie body of tlie enemy he
gave up'tlie ghost.
Remark. — Ad is very common ; noteworthy is its use with verbs of
Hindering (palus Romanos ad insequendum tardabat, Caes., -B. 6^., vir.
26,2); with substantives to give tlie End (for); with adjectives of
Capacity and Adaptation (aptus, facilis, etc.). See 429, 2.
Notes.— 1. Ante is very rare (L , Praef., 6 ; V., G., in. 206). Circa and erga are
post- Augustan and very rare. In gives the End For Which, and is classical but not com-
mon. Inter is temporal, cluriug, uMle, and is found rarely in early, more often in
later, but not in classical prose. Ob is need first by Cicero (not by Caesar), and is
rare. Propter occurs first in Valerius Maximus ; super first in Tacitus.
2. On the Infinitive after a Preposition, see 425.
433. The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive takes the
prepositions ab, de, ex, often in, but seldom pro. Post-
Ciceronian and rare are cum arid super.
Prohibenda maximg est ira in puniendS, C, Off., i. 25, 89; especially to
be forbidden is anger in punisiiing. [Bratus] in liberanda patria (= dum
liberat) est interfectus, C, Cat. 31., 20, 75; Brutus teas slain in the effort
to free his country. Philosophi in iis libris ipsis quos scribunt de con-
temnenda gloria sua nomina Inscribunt, C, Tusc, i. 15, 84 (385, r. i). Ex
discendo capiunt voluptatem, CfC, Fin., v. 18, 48 ; they receive pleasure
from learning.
Notes.— 1. In with Abl. is eomcthncs almost equivalent to a Pr. participle : In
circumeundS exercitu animad vertit, b. Afr. , 82.
2. Sine is used once in Varko, L.L., 6, 75, and in Donatus (Ter., And., 391).
3. Even when the word and not the action is meant, the Gerund is the rule : Dis-
crepat a timendo confidere, C, Tusc, m. 7, 14 ; the Inf. in Varro, L.L., 6, 50.
SUPINE.
434. The Supine is a verbal substantive, which appears
only in the Accusative and Ablative cases.
The Accusative Supine.
435. The Accusative Supine (Supine in -um) is used
chiefly after verbs of Motion, to express Design.
Galliae Iggati ad Caesarem gratulatum convgnSrunt, Caes., B. G., i. 30,
1; the commissioners of Gaul came to congratulate Caesar. Spectatum
284 SUPTi^E.
vfniunt ; veniunt spectentur ut ipsae, Ov., A. A., i. 99; fJtey come to sed
the show ; they come to he themselves a show. (Q-alli gallinacei) cum sole
eunt cubitum, Plin., N. B.,x. 24, 46 ; cocks go to roost at sunset. Stultitia
est vSnatum dticere in vitas canes, Pl., /S^^., 139; His foolishness to take
unwilling dogs a-hunting.
Notes.— 1, Ire and venire are the most common verbs with the Supine, and they
form many phraseological usages, as : ire coctum, cubitum, dormitum, pastum,
snpplicatum, sessum, salutatum, etc. Similarly dare is found in phrases with
nuptiim, venum, pessum.
2. Tiie Supine is very common in early Latin, less so m Cicero, comparatively rare
in Caesar, frequent again iu Sallust and Livy. Later Latin, and especially the poets,
show bat few examples, as the final Inf. takes its place.
3. The Ace. Supine may take an object, but the construction is not very common :
(Hannibal) patriam dgfensum (more usual, ad defendendam patriam) revo-
catus (est), Nep., xxiii. 6, 1 ; Ilannihal was recalled to defend hii< country.
4. Tiie Fut. Inf. passive is actually made up of the passive Inf. of ire, to go^ iri {thai
a movement is made., from itur ; 208, 2), and the Supine :
Kumor venit datum iri gladiatorSs, Ter., Ilec, 39 ; the rumor comes that glad-
iators (gladiatorial shows) are going to be given.
The consciousness of this is lost, as is shown by the Nom. (528).
Reus damnatum iri videbatur, Quint., ix 2, 88 ; tJte accused seemed to he about
to be condemned.
The Ablative Supine.
436. The Ablative Supine (Supine in -u) is used chiefly
with Adjectives, as the Ablative of the Point of View From
Which (397). It never takes an object.
Mirabile dictu, wonderful (in the telling) to tell, visu, to heliold.
Id dictu quam rS facilius est, L., xxxi. 38, 4 ; that is easier in the say-
ing than in the fact {easier said than done).
IfoTES.— 1. Cicero and Livi' are the most extensive users of this Supine ; Caesab
has but two forms : factu and natu ; Sallust but three ; Cicero uses twenty-four.
In early Latin and in the iioets the usage is uncommon ; in later Latin it grows. Alto-
gether there are over one hundred Supines, but only about twenty-five Supines occur in
Abl. alone ; the most common are dicttl, to tell, factti, to do, audltti, to hear, visli,
to see, memoratu, relatu, tractatu ; then, less often, cognitu, to kncnv, inventti,
intellSctu, scitu, adspectti.
2. The adjectives generally denote Ease or Difficulty, Pleasure or Displeasure, Right
or Wrong (fi[S and ne^S). These adjectives are commonly used with Dative, and a
plausible theory views the Supine in u as an original Dative (ui).
3. Ad, with the Gerundive, is often used instead : Cibus facillimus ad conco-
quendum, C, Fin., n. 20, C4 ; food (that is) ve7ij easy to digest.
The Infinitive, facilis concoqui, is poetical. Common is facile concoquitur.
Other equivalents are active Infin., a verbal substantive, a Pf. Part. pass, (with
opus), or a relative clause (with dignus).
4. The use of the Abl. Supine with verbs is very rare.
(Vllicus) primus cubitti surgat, postrgmus cubitum eat, Cato, Agr.. 5. 5 ; the
steward must be the first to get out of bed, the last to go to bed. Obs5natu reded, PL.,
Men., 277 ; I come back from m^7'k(ting (imitated by Statius).
PARTICIPLE. 285
PARTICIPLE,
437. The Participle may be used as a substantive, but even
then generally retains something of its predicative nature.
Nihil est magnum somnianti, C, Div., ir. 68, 141 ; nothing is great
to a dreamer (to a man, when he is dreaming). Regia, crgde mihi, r6s
est succurrere lapsis, Ov., Pont., 11. g, 11; it is a kingly thing, believe me,
{to run to catch those who have slipped.) to succor the fallen.
Remark. — The Attribute of the Participle, employed as a substan-
tive, is generally in the adverbial form : rgcte facta, right actions ; facStS
dictum, a witty remark.
Notes. — 1. This use as a substantive is rare in classical prose, but more common in the
poets and in post-classical prose. In the Pr. Part., principally sapiSns, adulSscens,
amans ; in the Pf. more often, but usually in the Plural ; docti, the learned, victi,
tJie conquered. The first examples of Fut. Part, used as substantives are nuntiaturl
(Curt., vii. 4, 32), peccaturos (Tac, Agr., 19).
2. The use of an atlribntivo or predicative Pf. Part, with a substantive is agrowth in
Latin. Early Latin -hows very few cases, and those mostly with opuS and USUS, Cato
has post dimissum bellum, and this innovation is extended by Vauuo, with propter.
CicKuo is cautious, employing the prepositions ante, dg, in, post, praeter, but Sal-
lust goes much farther, as the strange sentence inter haec parata atque dgcrgta
(G64, R. 2) indicates. LiVY and Tacitus are, however, characterized by these preposi-
tional uses more than any other authors. The use of a Part, in the Norn, in this way
is found first in Livt.
438. The Participle, as an adjective, often modifies its
verbal nature, so as to be characteristic, or descriptive.
(Epaminondas) erat temporibus sapienter titens, Nep.,xv. 3, 1; Epa-
minondas was a man who made {to make) icise use of opportunities
(=: is qui titer etur). Senectus est operosa et semper aggns aliquid et
mSligns, Cf. C, Cat. 31., S, 26; old age is busy, and always doing some-
thing and working at something.
Remark. — Especial attention is called to the parallelism of the par-
ticiple or adjective with the relative and Subjunctive:
Egs parva dictii, sed quae studiis in magnum certamen excSsserit, L.
xxxiv. i; a. small thing to mention, but one which, by the excitement of
the parties, terminated in a great contest. Miinsra non ad dglicias muli-
ebrgs quaesita nee quibus nova nupta comatur, Tac, Germ., iB.
Note.— The Fiit. Part, active is rarely used adjectively in classical Latin except
the forms futurus, venturus. The predicate use after verbs of Motion to express
Purpose is found first in Cicero {Verr., i. 21, 56\ though verj-^ rarely, but becomes in-
creasingly common from Livy's time. LrvY is the first to use the Fut. Part, as 'an
adjective clause, a usage which also l)ecomes common later,
(Maroboduus) misit Iggatos ad Tiberium oraturos auxilia, Tac, Ann., n. 46;
Marbod sent commissioners to Tiberius, to beg for reinforcements. Ser villus adest
286 ADVERB.
de te sententiam laturus (perhaps due to est), C, rm\, i. 21, 56. Rem ausus pits
famae habituram {that was likely to have) quam fidei, L, 11. 10, 11. (Dictator) ad
hostem ducit, ntillo loco, nisi quantum necessitas cogeret, forttinae se com-
missurus {with the intention of submitting), L., xxii. 12, 2.
ADVERB.
439= I. The Predicate may be qualified by an Adverb.
2. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs,
and sometimes substantives, when they express or imply ver-
bal or adjective relations.
Male vivit, he lives ill ; bene est, it is iveJl ; ferg omn6s, almost all ;
nimis saepe, too often ; admodum adulesc6ns, a mere youth ; lat6 r6x (V.,
A., J. 21), wide-rulmg ; bis consul, twice consul; duo simul bella, two
simultaneous wai's.
Notes.— 1. The form of the Adverb does not admit of any further inflection, and
therefore the Adverb requires no rules of Syntax except as to its position.
2. With other adverbs and with adjectives, adverbs of degree only are allowable, to
which must be reckoned bene, egregie, and (later) insigniter. Poetical arc such
expressions as turpiter ater, spkndide mendax (H., A.P., 3 ; O., m. n, 35). Male
as a negative is found with sanus only in Ciceko {Att.^ ix. 15, 5) ; other combinations
are poetical, or post-classical.
3. The translation for tenj varies at different periods ; multum is common in
Plautus and in Horace's /S'a/ires and ^is/Ze^s, rare elsewhere ; vald6 is introduced by
Cicero, but did not survive him, to any extent. Sane is also frequent in Cicero, espe-
cially in the Letters ad Atticum. Cornificius affected vehementer, and so do collo-
quial authors, as Vitruvixjs; fortiter comes in later; bene is occasional in Plautus
and Terence, more common in Cicero ; oppidS is characteristic of early Latin, and
LivY and the Archaists ; admodum is Ciceronian, but adfatim comes later and is rare.
Abund@ is rare before the lime of Sai.lust. Nimium (nimio) belongs to early Latin,
as do impSnsS and impendio. Satis is common in the classical period, and also
nimis, but mainly with negatives.
4. The Adverb as an attribute of substantives is rare. Cicero shows tum, saeps,
quasi, tamqnam. Livy uses more.
440. Position of the Adverb. — Adverbs are commonly put
next to their verb, and before it when it ends the sentence,
and immediately before their adjective or adverb.
Iniuste facit, he acts unjust li/. Admodum pulcher, handsome to a de-
gree, very handsome. Vald§ diligenter, ve7-y carefully.
Remark. — Exceptions occur chiefly in rhetorical passages, in which
great stress is laid on the adverV), or in poetry :
[Iram] bene Ennius initium diicit Insaniae, C, 7'usc., iv. 23, 52 ; well
did Eniiius call anger the beginning of madness. Vixit dum vixit bene
Ter., JTec, 461 ; he lived while he lived (and lived) well.
One class of Adverbs demands si)ecial notice— the Negatives.
ADVERB, 287
Negative Adverbs.
441. There are two original negatives in Latin, ne and
hand (haut, hau). From ne is derived non [ne-oinom (unum),
no-wldt, not^. Ne is used chiefly in compounds, or with the
Imperative and Optative Subjunctive. The old use appears
in ne — quidem. Non is used with the Indicative and Poten-
tial Subjunctive ; hand negatives the single word, and is used
mainly with adjectives and adverbs.
442. Non (the absolute not) is the regular Negative of the
Indicative and of the Potential Subjunctive.
Quem amat, amat ; qnem non amat, non amat, Petr., 37 ; whom she
likes, she likes ; ivhom she does not like, she does iiot like.
Non ausim, I should not venture.
Remarks. — i. Non, as the emphatic, specific negative, may negative
anything. (See 270, r. i.)
2. Non is the rule in antitheses : Non est vivere sed valere vita, Mart.,
VI. 70, 15 ; not living, hut being well, is life.
Notes.— 1. Non in comljination with adjectives and adverbs, and rarely with sub-
stantives and verbs, takes the place of negative in- or ne-. Non arbitrabatur quod
efficeret aliquid posse esse non corpus (ao-w/xaToi/), c, Ac, i. ii,39; Cat. 31., 14, 47.
2. Other negative expressions are neutiquam, by ?w means ; nihil, nothing
(" Adam, with such counsel nothing swayed "). On nuUus, see 317, 2, n. 2.
3. Nec = n3n is found in early Latin, here and there in Veiu;., Livy, and Tacitus.
In classical Latin it is retained in a few compounds, as : necopinans, negotium, and
in legal phraseology.
443. Hand is the negative of the single word, and in model
prose is not common, being used chiefly with adjectives and
adverbs : hand quisqaam, not any; hand magnus, not great ;
hand male, not hadly.
Notes.— 1 . Hau is found only before consonants, and belongs to early Latin and
Vergil. Haut (early) and haud are found indiscriminately before vowels.
2. Haud is very rarely or never found in Conditional, Concessive, Interrogative, Rela-
tive, and Infinitive sentences.
3. Caesah uses haud but once, and then in the phrase haud SCi3 an (457, 2).
Cicero says also haud dubito, haud ignSro, haud srravero, and a few others ;
and combines it also with adjectives and adverbs, but not when they are compounded
with negative particles, i.e., he does not say haud difficilis, and the like.
4. Haud with verbs is very common in early Latin, and then again in Livy and
Tacitus. In antitheses it is not uncommon in comedy, but usually in the second
member : inceptiost amentium haud amantium, Tek., And. 218 ; the undertaking
isone of lunatics, not lovers.
5. A strengthened expression is haud quaquam.
288 ADVERB.
444. I . Ne is the Negative of tlie Imperative and of the
Optative Subjunctive.
Tu ng cede malis, V., ^., vi. 95 ; yield not thou to misfortunes. N8
transieris fiiberum, L., xxi, 44, 6 ; do not cross the Ehro. Ne vivam,
si scio, C, Att., IV. 16, 8 ; may 1 cease to live (strike me dead), if I
know.
Notes.— 1. On the negative with the Imperative, see 270, N.
2. Ne as a general negative particle, = non, is found very rarely in early Latin,
mostly with forms of velle (ng parcunt, Pl-, Most.., 124, is disputed). Classical Latin
retains this only in ne— quidem, in compound nSquaquam, and in a shortened form
in nefas, nego, neque, etc.
2. Ne is continued by neve or neu. See 260.
Ne illam vendas neu mg perdas hominem amantem, Pl., Ps., 322 ; do7i''t
sell her, and don't ruin me, a fellow in love.
445. Stihdivision of the Negative. — A general negative
may be subdivided by neque — neque, as well as by aut — aut,
or strengthened by ne— quidem, not even.
Nihil umquam neque insolgns neque gloriosum ex ore [Timoleontis] pro-
cgssit, Nep., XX. 4, 2 ; nothing insolent or boastful ever came out of the
mouth of Timoleon. Consciorum ngni5 aut latuit aut fUgit, L., xxiv. 5,
14 ; of the accomplices no one either hid or fled. Numquam [Scipionem]
ng minima quidem rg ofFendi, C, Lael., 27, 103 ; I never wounded Scipio's
feelings, tio, not even in the slightest matter.
(" I will give no thousand crowns w«i^/i«?'."— Shakespeare.)
Note.— In the same way negO, / say rw, is continued by neque— neque (nec—
nec) : Negant nec virtutes nec vitia crgscere, C, Fin., m. 15,48 ; they deny that
either virtues or vices increase {that there are any degrees in).
446. Negative Combinations. — In English, we say either
no one ever, or, 7iever any one ; notliing ever, or, never any-
thing ; in Latin, the former turn is invariably used : nemC
umquam, no one ever.
Verrgs nihil umquam fgcit sine aliquo quaestti, C, Verr., v. 5, 11 ; Yer-
res never did ariything without some profit or other.
Notes.— 1. iVb one yet is nondum quisquam ; no more, no longer, is iam non.
2. The resolution of a negative non iillus for nuUus, non umquam for num*
quam, non scio for nescio, is ijoetical, except for purposes of empiiusis, or when the
lirst part of the resolved negative is combined with a coordinating conjunction (480) :
N5n Gila tibl facta est initiria, Cf. c, Div. in Caec., 18, 60.
3. Ngm8 often equals nS quis : NgmS dg nObis unus excellat, C, These. ,y,
36, 105.
POSITION OF THE NEGATIVE. 289
447. Nego {I say no, I deny) is commonly used instead of
dico non, / say — not.
Assem sese daturum negat, C, Quinct., 5, 19 ; he says that he will
not give a copper. Vel ai vel nega, Accius, 125 (R.) ; say yes or say no /
Remark, — The positive (aio, I say) is sometimes to be supplied for a
subsequent clause, as C, Fin., i. 18, 61. The same thing happens with
the other negatives, as volo from nolo, iubeo from veto, scio from nescio,
queo from nequeo, quisquam from nemo, ut from ne.
POSITION OF THE NEGATIVE.
448. The Negative naturally belongs to the Predicate^ and
usually stands immediately before it, but may be placed
before any emphatic word or combination of words.
Petes non reverti, Sen.,^,J!/'., 49, 10 ; possibly yon may not return.
(Non potes reverti, you cannot possibly i^eiurn.) Saepe viri fallunt ; tenerae
non saepe puellae, Ov., A.A.,Jii. 31 ; often do men deceive ; soft-hearted
maidens not often. Non omnis aetas, Lyde, ludo convenit, Pl., B., 129 ;
not every age, (good) Lydus (Playfair), sorts ivith play. Non ego ven-
tosae plebis suifragia venor, II., Fp., i. 19, 37; I do not hunt the voices of
the windy commons, no, not I.
Notes.— 1. As the Copula esSB, to be, is, strictly speaking, a predicate, the Negative
generally precedes it, contrary to the English idiom, except in contrasts. The differ-
ence in position can often be brought out only by stress of voice : f§lix non erat, he
wasn''t happy ; non felix erat, he ivas not hajypy-, he was far from happy.
2. N§— quidem straddles the emphatic word or emphatic group (445) ; but very
rarely does the group consist of more than two words.
3. A negative with an Inf. is often transferred to the governing verb : non putant
lugendum, (esse) viris, C, Tusc., in. 28, 70 ; on nego, see 447.
449. Two negatives in the same sentence destroy one
another, and make an affirmative, but see 445 :
Non nego, / do not deny {I admit).
RE3IARKS. — I. Non possum non, I cannot but {I must)-
Qui mortem in malis ponit non potest earn non timgre, C, Fin., in. 8,
29 ; he who classes death among misfortunes carmot but {must) fear it.
2. The double Negative is often stronger than the opposite Posi-
tive ; this is a common form of the figure Litotgs, understateme7it (700),
Non indoctus, highly educated ; non sum nescius, / am, well aware.
Non indecoro pulvere sordidi, 11., 0., ii. i, 22; sivart (soiled) with (no
dis)honorable dust. Non ignara mali miseris succurrere disco, 'Y., A., i,
630 ; not unacquainted (= but too well acquainted) with misfortune, 1
learn to succor the wretched.
290 INCOMPLETE SENTENCE.
3. It follows from R. 2 that nee non is not simply equivalent to et,
and ; nee belongs to the sentence, non to the particular word:
Nee hoe [Z6noJ non vidit, C, Fin., iv. 22, 60; nor did Zeno fail to see
this. At neque non (di) diligunt nos, C, Viv., 11. 49, 102 ; hut neither (is
it true that) the gods do not love us, etc
In the classical Latin this form of connection is used to connect clauses but not sin-
gle words, and the words are regularly separated. Varro, the poets, and later prose
use necnon like et, and connect with it also single ideas.
4. Of especial importance is the position of the Negative in the fol-
lowing combinations;
Indefinite Affirmative. General Affirmative.
nonnihil, somewhat; nihil non, everything;
nonnemS, some one, some ; nemo non, everybody;
nonnuUi, some people ; nUlli non, all ;
nonnumquam, sometimes ; numquam non, ahcays ;
nonnusquam, somewhere; nusquam non, everywhere.
In ipsa curia nonnemo hostis est, C, 3Iur., 39, 84 ; in the senate-house
itself there are enemies (nemo non hostis est, everybody is ati enemy).
Non est placandi spes mihi nulla Dei, Ov., Tr., v. 8, 22 (428); I have some
hope of appeasing God (nulla spes non est, / have every hope). Ngm5
non didicisse mavult quam discere, Quint., iii. i, 6; everybody prefers
having lear7ied to learning.
INCOMPLETE SENTENCE.
Interrogative Sentences.
460. An interrogative sentence is necessarily incomplete.
The answer is the complement.
451. A question may relate :
{a) To the existence or the non-existence of the Predi-
cate : Predicate Question.
Vivitne pater ■? 7s my father alive 9
[b) To some undetermined essential part of the sentence,
such as Subject, Object, Adjective, Adverbial modifier :
Nominal Question.
Quisest"? Who is it P Quidais'? Wh((t do yon sny ? Qui hie mosT
V/hat sort of way is this ? Ciir non diseedis ? Why do you not depart ?
For a list of Interrogative Pronouns see 104.
Remarks. — i. The second class requires no rules except as to mood
(462).
2. The form of the question is often used to imply a negative opin-
DIRECT SIMPLE QUESTIONS. 29I
ion on the part of the speaker : Quid interest inter periurum et menda-
cem'? C, Rose. Com., 16, 46; what is the difference between a perjured
7nan and a liar ? All questions of this kind are called Rhetorical.
452. I. Interrogative sentences are divided into simple and
compound (disjunctive). Am I? (simple) ; Am I, or- am I
not ? (disjunctive).
Note. -Strictly speaking, only the simple interrogative sentence belongs to this sec-
tion ; but for the sake of completeness, the whole subject will be treated here.
2. Interrogative sentences are further divided into direct
and indirect, or independent and dependent. Am I? (di-
rect) ; He asks ichether 1 am (indirect).
DIRECT SIMPLE QUESTIONS.
453. Direct simple questions sometimes have no inter-
rogative sign. Such questions are chiefly passionate in their
character, and serve to express Astonishment, Blame, Disgust.
Infelix est Fabricius quod rtis suum fodit ? Sen., Dial., i. 3, G; Fahri-
cius is unhappy because he digs his oioi field ? (Impossible !) Heus,
inquit, linguam vis meam praecludere % Phaedr., i. 23, 5 ; IIo ! ho ! qnoth
he, you ivish to shut my tnouth, you do ? (You shall not.) Tuom para-
situm non novistU Pl., J/en.. 505 ; you don't know your own parasite 9
(Strange !) Hunc tu vitae splendorem maculis adspergis istis 1 C, Plane,
12, 30; you bespatter this splendid life with such blots as those 9
Notes.— 1. Questions of this kind are characteristic of the Comic Poets. In Cicero
they are found especially in expressions of doubt, with posse, and with an emphatic
personal pronoun.
2. Such a question may have the force of a command. So in the phrase etiam tii
tacSs? ivorCt you keep quiet? common in comedy (Pl., Trin-, 514).
3. Noteworthy is the occasional usage of the question in place of a cor.dition.
Amat? sapit, Pl., ^4?n., 90.5; is he in Ime? he is sensible. Tristis es ? indignor
quod sum tibi causa doloris, Ov.. TV., iv. 3, 33 (542). See 593, 4.
4. When several questions follow in immediate succession, only the first generally
takes the Interrogative Pronoun, or -ne. Repeated questioning is passionate.
5. On ut in the exclamatory question, see 558.
454. Interrogative Particles. Ne (enclitic) is always ap-
pended to the emphatic word, and generally serves to denote
a question, without indicating the expectation of the speaker.
Omnisne pecunia dissoluta est ? C, Yerr., in. 77, 180; is all the money
'paid out ? (Estne oninis pecunia dissoluta % is all the money paid out 9)
Remarks. — i. As the emphatic word usually begins the sentence,
292 DIRECT SIMPLE QUESTION'S.
SO -ne is usually appended to the first word in the sentence. But
exceptions are not uncommon.
2. -Ne is originally a negative. Questioning a negative leans to the
affirmative; and -ne is not always strictly impartial.
Notes.— 1. -Ne sometimes cuts off a precedmg -s (m which case it may shorten a
preceding long vowel), and often drops its own e. Viden ? Seesi? TGn'? Youf
Satin ? Fw certain ? Also scin, ain, vln, itan, etc. This occurs especially ia early
Latin.
2. This -ne is not to be confounded with the asseverative -ne, which is found occa-
sionally in Plautus and Tekence, Catullus, Horace (0 seri studiorum, qulne
put§tis, etc., H., -S'., 1. 10, 21, a much discussed passage), and later appended to per-
sonal, demonstrative, and relative pronouns.
3. In poetry -ne is sometimes appended to interrogative words, to heighten the effect :
utrumne (H., /S., il 3, 251), quone (H., ;S'., n. 3, 295).
4. -Ne is often added to personal pronouns in indignant questions : tune inane
quicquam putes esse \ C, Ac, 11. 40, 125.
5. In early Latin -ne seems to be used sometimes with a force similar to that later
exercised by nonne ; but in most of the examples the expectation of an affirmative
answer seems to be due rather to the context than to ne ; see, however, r. 2.
455. Nonne expects the answer Yes.
Nonne meministn C, Fin., 11. 3, 10 ; do you not remember ? Nonne
is generosissimus qui optimus'? Quint., v. 11, 4; is he not the truest gentle-
man who is the best man ?
So the other negatives witli -ne : nemone, nihilne, and the like.
Note.— Nonne is denied for Plautus, but wrongly, though it occurs but rarely,
and regularly before a vowel. It is also rare in Terence. In classical Latin it is fre-
quent, but is never found in Catullus, Tibullus, and Seneca Rhetor.
456. Num expects the answer Xo.
Numquis est hie alius praeter mg atque t6 ? Nemo est, Pl. , Tr. , 69 ; is
anybody here besides you and me f No. Num tibi cum faucSs urit sitis,
aurea quaeris pScula? IL, /S'., i. 2, 114 ; when thirst burns your throat
for you, do you ask for golden cups ? [No.]
Note.— Numne is found very rarely, perhaps only in C, N.D., i. 31, 88, and Lael.,
II, 36. Numnam belongs to early Latin. In many cases in early Latin, num seems
to introduce a simi)le question for information, without expecting a negative answer.
457. I. An {or) belongs to the second part of a disjunctive
question.
Sometimes, however, the first part of the disjunctive question is sup-
pressed, or, rather, involved. The second alternative witli an serves to
urge the acceptance of the positive or negative i)roposition involved in
the preceding statement. Tliis abrupt form of question [or, then) is of
frequent use in h'cnioustrance, Expostuhition, Surprise, and Irony.
N5n raanum abstings 1 An tibi iam mSvIs cerebrum dispergam hie "i
Ter., Ad., ySi ; are you not going to keep your hands off '.^ Or would
DIRECT DISJUNCTIVE QUESTIONS. 293
you rather have me scatter your brains over the place now ? (Vir custodit
absens, my husband keejos guard, though absent. Is it not so ?) An
nescis longas rggibus esse manus'? Ov., Her., 16, 166 ; or perhaps you do
not know {you do not know, then) that kings have long hands (arras).
Notes.— 1. This usage is found in early Latin, but is a cliaracteristic of Cicero
especially.
2. An is strengthened by ne. This is found frequently in early Latin, more rarely
later. Cicero uses anne only in disjunctive questions, and Horace, Tibullus, Pro-
PERTius not at all.
3. In early Latin very frequently, less often in the poets ; occasionally in prose, be-
ginning with LivY, an is used as a simple interrogative ; so nescio an = nescio num.
There seems to be good reason for believing that an ^vas originally a simple interroga-
tive particle, but became identified later with disjunctive questions.
2. Especially to be noted, in connection with an, are the phrases,
nescio an (first in Cicero, and not common), hand scio an (this is the
usual phrase : hand sciam an is rare), I do not know bat ; dubito an, /
doubt, I doubt but =: I am inclined to think ; incertum an (once in
Cicero), and rarely dubitarim and dubium an, which give a modest affir-
mation ; very rarely a negation. Negative particles, added to these
expressions, give a mild negation.
Hand scio an ita sit, C, Tusc, 11. 17, 41 ; I do not knoiv but it is so.
Hand scio an nOlla (senectus) beatior esse possit, C, Cat.M., 16. 56; I do
not know but it is impossible for any old age to be happier. Dubito an
[Thrasybulum] primum omnium ponam, Nep., viii. i, 1; I doubt but I
should {= 1 am inclined to think I should) put Thrasybulus first of all.
Note.— In early Latin these phrases are still dubitative. The affirmative force comes
in first in Cicero, and seems to have been equivalent to forsitan, perhaps, with the
Potential Subjunctive : F5rsitan et Priami fuerint quae fata requiras, V., A., n.
506 ; perhaps you may ask what was the fate of Priam, too.
DIRECT DISJUNCTIVE QUESTIONS.
458. Direct Disjunctive Questions have the following
forms :
First Clause. Second and Subseque7it Clauses.
utrum, 'whether, an (anne), or
•ne, an,
an (anne).
TJtrum ncsci3 quam alte ascenderis, an pr5 nihilo id putas ? C, Fam., x.
26, 3; are you not awa7'e hoiv high you have mounted, or do you count
that as nothing 9 Vosne Lucium Domitium an vos Domitius dgseruit ?
Caes., B.C., II. 32, 8 ; have you deserted Lucius Domitius, or has Domi-
tius deserted you ? Eloquar an sileam % V., A., in. 39; shall I speak, or
hold my peace f Utrum hoc tu parum commeministi, an ego non satis in-
tellgxi, an mutasti sententiam? C, Att., ix. 2; do you not remember this,
or did I misunderstand you, or have you chcmged your view ?
294 INDIRECT QUESTIONS.
Notes.— 1. Utrumne— an is found once in Cicero (lnv.,x. 31, 51), not in CAESiT
or LiVY, occasionally elsewhere (H.,^po(;., i, 7) ; utrum— ne— an is more common.
Ne-an, which is common in prose, is not found in Cat., Tib., Prop., Hor., Lucan.
2. Ne in the second member, with omitted particle in first member, occurs only h:
H., Ep., I. II, 3 (disputed), in the direct question, except in the combination necne (459).
3. Ne— ne is very rare ; V., A., 11. 738 ; xi. 126.
4. Aut (or), in questions, is not to be confounded with an. Aut gives another part
of a simple question, or another form of it (or, vi other ivords). An excludes, aut
extends.
(Voluptas) melioremne efficit aut laudabiliorem virum ? c., Parad., i. 3, 15 ;
does pleasicre make a better or more praiseworthy man ? (Answer : neither^ Tu
virum me aut hominem deputas adeo esse ? Ter., Hec, 524 ; do you hold me to
be your husband or even a man ?
459. In direct questions, or not is annon, rarely necne; in
indirect, necne, rarely annon.
Isne est quern quaero, annon? Ter., Ph., 852; is that the man I am
looking for, or not 9 Sitque memor nostri necne, referte mihi, Ov., Tr.,
IV. 3, 10(204, N. 7).
Notes.— 1. Necne is found indirect questions in Cicero, Tusc.,ni. i8,41 (sunt
haec tua verba necne ?), Flacc, 25, 59 ; and also Lucr., hi. 713. Annon in indirect
questions occurs in Cicero, Inv., i. 50, 95 ; 11. 20, 60 ; Cael., 21, 52 ; Balb., 8, 22, etc.
2. Utrum is sometimes used with the suppression of the second clause for whether
or no? but not in early Latin. So C, Flacc, 19, 45, etc.
INDIRECT QUESTIONS.
460. Indirect questions have the same particles as the
direct, with the following modifications.
1 . Simple Questions.
(«) Num loses its negative force, and becomes simply
whetlier. It decays in later Latin.
Specular! (iiisserunt) num soUicitati animi sociorum essent, L., xlh. 19,
8 ; they ordered them to spy out whether the allies had been tampered
ivith.
(h) Si, if, is used for ivhether, chiefly after verbs and sen-
tences implying trial. Compare si (261).
Temptata rgs est si primo impetu capi Ardea posset, L., i. 57, 3; an at-
tempt was made (in case, in liopes that, to see) if Ardea could he taken
hy a dash (coup-de-main). Ibo, visam si domi est (467, n.), Ter., Ileaut.,
170; I IV ill go (to) see if he is at home.
Notes.— 1. An is sometimes used for num and ne, but never in model prose.
COnsuluit deinde (Alexander) an t5tius orbis imperium fatis sibi dgstina-
retur, Curt., IV. 7,20 ; Alexander then asked the oracle xohether the empire of the
whole world was destined for him by the fates. .
2. NSnue is cited only Trom Cicero ayl only after quaerere {Ph., xii. 7, 15).
MOODS IN INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 295
2. Disjunctive Questions.
In addition to the forms for Direct Questions (458), a form with -ne
in the second clause only is found in the Indirect Question, but is
never common; see 4o8, n. 2.
Tarquinius Prisci Tarquinii regis filius neposne fuerit paruia liquet, L.,
I. 46, 4; whether Tarquiu was the son or grandson of king Tarquin tJie
Elder does not appear.
Notes.— 1. The form -ne is not found in Caesar or Sallust.
2. The form ne— ne is poetical, except once in Caesar {E.G., vii. 141, 8).
3. Utrum— ne— an is rare but classical. TJtranine - an begins with Horace, is not
found in Livy, Vell., Val. M., or either Pliny. In Tacitus only in the IHalogus.
SUIVIMARY OF DIRECT AND INDIRECT DISJUNCTIVE
QUESTIONS.
461. Direct.
Is the last syllable sJwrt or long ? Cf. C-, Or., 64, 217.
Postrgma syllaba utrum brevis est an longa T
brevisne est an longa ?
Indirect.
In a rer.'ie, it makes no difference whetJier the last syllable be slwrt or
long :
utrum postrema syllaba brevis sit an longa.
postrema syllaba brevisne sit an longa.
versu ni re er -^ postrgma syllaba brevis an longa sit (Ciceeo).
postrgma syllaba brevis sit longane.
MOODS IN INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.
1. In Direct Questions.
462. The Mood of the question is the Mood of the expected
or anticipated answer.
463. Indicative questions expect an Indicative answer,
when the question is genuine.
A. Quis homo est "? B. Ego sum, Ter., Atid., 965 ; who is that ? It is I.
A. Vivitne (pater) ? B. Vivom liquimus, Pl., Capt., 282; is his father
living 9 We left him alive.
464. Indicative questions anticipate an Indicative answer
in the negative when the question is rhetorical.
Quis non paupertatem extimescit ? C, Tusc, v. 31, 89 ; who does not
dread poverty ?
296 MOODS IN^ INTERROGATIVE SEN^TENGES.
Remark. — NOnne and num in the direct question are often rhetorical
(see Pl., Am., 539 ; C, Div., 1. 14, 24). With nonne a negative answer
is anticipated to a negative, hence the affirmative character. Compare,
further, 451, R. 2.
465. Subjunctive questions which expect Imperative an-
Bwers are put chiefly in the First Person, when the question
is deliberative.
A. Abeam 1 B. A"bi, Pl., 3Ierc., 749 ; shall I go away ? Go.
A. Quid nunc faciam ? B. Tg suspendito, Pl., Fs., 1229; ivhat shall I
do now 9 Hang yourself.
Remark. — So in the representative of the First Person in dependent
discourse (265).
466. Subjunctive questions anticipate a potential answer
in the negative, when the question is rhetorical.
Quis h5c crgdat ? who tvould believe tJiis 9 [No one would believe
this.] Quid faceret aliud? what else ivas he to do 9 [Nothing.]
Quis tulerit Gracchos de s6ditione querentes \ Juv., 11. 24 (259).
Remark. — On the Exclamatory Question see 534, 558.
2. In Indirect Questions.
467. The Dependent Interrogative is always in the Sub-
junctive.
The Subjunctive may represent the Indicative.
[C5nsiderabimus] quid fgcerit (Indie. fScit), quidfaciat(lndic. facit), quid
facturus dt (Indie, faciet or facturus est), Cf. C, Inv., i. 25, 36; ive will
consider what he has done, what he is doing, what he is going to do
{ivill do). (Epaminondas) quaesivit salvusne esset clipeus, C, Fin., 11. 30,
97 ; Epaminondas asked whether his shield was safe. (Salvusne est ?)
The SubjunctiA^e may be original. See 2G5.
Ipse docet quid agam; ^ est et ab hoste docSri, Ov., M., iv. 428 (219);
(Quid agam, what I am to do ; not what I am doing). Quaero a tS cur
C. Cornelium n6n dSfenderem, C, Vat., 2, 5 ; 7 inquire of you why I ivas
not to defend C. Comeliiis. (Cur n6n dSfenderem ? ivhy was I not to
defend ?)
Remarks. — i. NesciS quis, nesciS quid, nescis qui, nesci5 quod, TIcnow
not who, what, which, may be used exactly as indefinite pronouns, and
then have no effect on the construction. This usage is found at all
periods.
Nescio quid maius nascitur Iliade, Prop., n. (ni.) 32 (34), 6G ; some-
thing, I know not what, is coming to the birth, greater than the Iliad.
PECULIARITIES OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 29/
2. The Relative has the same form as the Interrogative quis ? except
in the Nom. Sing. ; hence the importance of distinguishing between
them in dependent sentences. The interrogative depends on the lead-
ing verb, the relative belongs to the antecedent. (Oil, R. 2.)
Interrogative : die quid rogem, tell 7ne what it is I arn ashing.
Relative : die quod rogo, Ter., And., 764 ; tell me that ivhich I am
asking (the answer to my question).
The relative is not unfrequently used where we should expect the
interrogative, especially when the facts of the case are to be empha-
sized :
Dicam quod sentio, C, Or., i. 44, 195 ; I will tell you my real opinion.
Incorporated relatives are not to be confounded v^'ith interrogatives:
Patefacio vobis quas isti penitus abstrusas insidias ( - insidias quas) sS
posuissse arbitrantur, C, Agr., 11. 18, 49; 1 am exjjosirig to your vieiv the
schemes ivhich those people fancy they have laid in profound secrecy.
Note.— In the early Latin of Comedy the leading verb is very frequently discon-
nected from the interrogative, wiiich consequently appears as an independent sentence
with the Indicative. This is most common after diC, responde, loquere, and kindred
Imperatives; vid§ (Plautus also ciicumspice, respice); t6 rogo, interrogo,
quaero,and similar phrases ; audire, vidgre, elc, scin ; relative worv.s, ut, quomodo,
etc., where the modal and not interrogative force is prominent. Classical prose has
given up all these usages. A few cases in Cicero are contested or differentlyexplained.
In poetry and later prose the examples are found only here and there.
Die, quid est ? Pl-, Men., 397; tell me, what is itf (Die quid sit, tell me what it
is.) Quin tti uno verbo die : quid est quod ni6 veils 1 Ter., And., 45 ; tcon't you
tell me in one ivord : W/iai is it you want of me ? Die mihi quid f§el nisi non sapi-
enter amavi, Ov., Her., 11. 27; tell me what have I done, save that I have loved
unwisely.
So also, neseio quomod5, 1 know not how = strangely ; and mlrum quantum, it
(is) marvellous how much — n'onderfulhj, are used as adverbs :
Mirum quantum profuit ad eoneordiam, L., 11. 1,11 ; it seized wonderfully to
promote hamiony. Neseio quo pacto vel magis homings iuvat gloria lata quam
magna, Plin., Ep., iv. 12, 7 ; someliow or oilier, people are even more charmed to have
a ividespread reputation than a g7'and one.
Early Latin shows also perquam, admodum quam, nimis quam, incredibile
quantum ; Cicero mirum (mire) quam, nimium quantum, sane quam, valde
quam; Caesar none of these ; Sallust immane quantum; Livy adds oppido quan-
tum ; Pliny Mai. immensum, infinitum quantum ; Florus plurimum quan-
tum. The position excludes a conscious ellipsis of the Subjunctive.
PECULIARITIES OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.
468. The subject of the dependent clause is often treated
as the object of the leading clause by Anticipation (Prolepsis).
Nosti Marcellum quam tardus sit, Caelius (C, Fam., viii. 10, 3); you
know Marcellus, what a slow creature he is.
Note.— This usage is very common in Comedy, and belongs to conversational style
in general.
298 PECULIARITIES OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.
469. Contrary to onr idiom, the interrogative is often used
in participial clauses. In English, the participle and verb
change places, and a Causal sentence becomes Final or Con-
secutive.
Quam utilitatem petentSs scire cupimus ilia quae occulta nobis sunt ? C,
Fin. , HI. 1 1 , 87 ; irJiat advantage do we seek ivhen we desire to knoiv those
things which are hidden from us F [Solon Pisistrato tyranno] quaerenti
qua tandem re frgtus sib! tarn audaciter resisteret, respondisse dicitur
senectute, C, Cat.JI., 20, 72 ; Solon, to Pisistratus the usurper, asking
him {— vvhen Pisistratus the usurper asked him) on what thing relying
{= on wliat he relied that) he resisted him so boldly, is said to have
answered " old age.'^
Note.— The Abl. Abs. with the interrogative is rare. C, Ve?T., iii. 80, 185.
470. Final sentences (sentences of Design) are used in
questions more freely than in English.
Sessum it praetor. Quidut itidicetur'? C, JV.D., iii. 30, 74 ; the Judge
is going to take Jiis seat. What is to be adjudged F {To adjudge what ?)
Remark. — The Latin language goes further than the English in
combining interrogative words in tlie same clause ; thus two interroga-
tives are not uncommon:
CQnsidera quis quern fraudasse dicatur, C, Rose. Com., 7, 31.
Yes and No.
471. (a) Yes is represented :
1. By sang, (literally) soundly, sanS quidem, yes indeed, etiam, even
(so), v5ro (rarely v6rum), of a truth, ita, so, omninS, by all means, certg,
surely, certo, for certain, admodum, to a degree, etc.
Aut etiam aut n5n respondere [potest], C, -4c., 11. 32, 104 ; he can
atiswer either yes or no.
2. By cgnseo, 7 think so ; scilicet, to be sure.
Quid si etiam occentem hymenaeum ? Cgnseo, Pl., Cas., 806 ; ivhat if
I shoidd also sing a marriage-song ? I think you had better.
3. By repeating the emphatic word eitlier with or without the con-
firmatory particles, vgr5 (principally witli pronouns), sang, prorsus, etc.
Estisne ? Sumus, are you 9 We are. Dasne "? Do sang, C, Leg., 1. 7,
21 ; do you grant ? I do indeed.
(h) No is represented :
1. By n5n, nSn vgrO, nSn ita, minimS, by no means, nihil, nothing^
minimg vgro, nihil sang, nihil minus.
2. By repeating the emphatic word with the negative :
SYNTAX OF THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 299
Non irata es 1 Non sum irata, Pl., Cas., 1007 ; you are not angry ?
I am not.
(c) Yea or Xay.— iinni5 conveys a correction, and either removes a
doubt or heightens a previous statement: yes indeed, nay rather.
Ecquid placeant (aedes) mgrogas'? Immo perplacent, Pl., Most., 907 ;
do I like the house, yon ask me ? Yes indeed, very nuich. Causa igitur
non bona est ? Immo optima, C, Att., ix. 7, 4 ; the cause, then, is a bad
one ? Nay, it is an excellent one.
Remark. — Yes, for, and no, for, are often expressed simply by nam
and enim : Turn Antonius : Heri enim, inquit, hoc mihi proposueram, C. ,
Or., ir. 10, 40 ; tlien quoth Antony : Yes, for I had proposed this to
myself yesterday.
SYNTAX OF THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.
472. I. A compound sentence is one in wliicli the neces-
sary parts of the sentence occur more than once ; one which
consists of two or more clauses.
2. Coordination (Parataxis) is that arrangement of the
sentence according to which the different clauses are merely
placed side hy side.
3. Subordination (Hypotaxis) is that arrangement of the
sentence according to which one clause depends on the other.
He became poor and we became ricli; the second clause is
a coordinate sentence.
He became poor that ice might be rich; the second clause
is a subordinate sentence.
4. The sentence which is modified is called the PrincijDal
Clause, that which modifies is called the Subordinate Clause.
*' He became poor " is the Principal Clause, " that ice might
be rich " is the Subordinate Clause.
Remark. — Logical dependence and grammatical dependence are not
to be confounded. In the conditional sentence, vivam si vivet, let me
live if she lives, my living depends on her living ; yet *' vivam " is the
principal, "si vivet" the subordinate clause. It is the dependence of
the introductory particle that determines the grammatical relation.
COORDINATION.
473. Coordinate sentences are divided into various classes,
according to the particles by which the separate clauses are
bound together.
300 COORDINATION".
Remark. — Coordinate sentences often dispense with conjunctions
{Asyndeton). Tlien the connection must determine the character.
Copulative Sentences.
474. The following particles are called Copulative Con-
junctions : et, -que, atque (ac), etiam, quoque.
Note.— The Copulative Conjunctions are often omitted, in climax, in enumerations,
in contrasts, in standing formulae, particularly in dating by the consuls of a year, if the
praenomina are added ; and finally, in summing up previous enumerations by such
words as alii, c6teri, cuncti, multi, omngs, reliqui.
475. Et is simply and, the most common and general par-
ticle of connection, and combines likes and unlikes.
Panem et aquam natura desiderat, Sen., E.M., 25, 4 ; hread and water
(is what) nature calls for. Probitas laudatur et alget, Juv., i. 74 ; hon-
esty is bepraised and — freezes.
Notes.— 1. We find sometimes two clauses connected by et where we should expect
et tamen. This usage is characteristic of Tacitus, but is found all through the
language. Fieri potest, ut rgcte quis sentiat et id, quod sentit, polite eloqui
non possit, C, Tusc, 1. 3, 6.
2. Et sometimes introduces a conclusion to a condition expressed in the Imperative,
but only once in early Latin, never in classical prose. DiC quibus in terris ; et eris
mibi magnus Apollo, V., Ec, in. 104.
3. Et, instead of a temporal conjunction, begins with Caesau (T/. IhG., i. 37, 1)
and Sallust (lug., 97,4) ; it is never common.
4. On neque ullus for et nuUus and the like, see 480. On et after words indi-
cating Likeness, see 643. On et for etiam, see 478, N. 2.
476. -due (enclitic) unites things that belong closely to
one another. The second member serves to complete or oq:-
tend the first.
Senatus populusque Romanus, C, Plane., yj, 90; the Senate and people
of Rome, Ibi mortuus sepultusque Alexander, Ij., xxxvi. 20, 5 ; there
Ale.vander died and was buried. [Soil origns et occidgns diem noctemque
conficit, C, N.D., n. 40, 102 ; the sun by its rising and setting makes
day and night.
Notes.— 1. Que was very common in early Latin, especially in legal phraseology,
where it was always letuined.
2. Que— que— que is ante-classical and poetic.
3. Que is always added to the first word in the clause it introduces, in Plautus, as
well as in classical prose ; but the Augustan poets are free in their position, for metrical
reasons. As regards prepositions, que is never ai)pended to ob and sub, rarely to a and
ad, but frequently to other monosyllabic prepositions ; it is always appended to dissyl-
labic prepositions in -a, and often to other dissyllabic prepositions.
4. On que for quoque sec 479, N. 2.
5. Combinations :
(a) et-et;
(6) que - et; »are in early Latin, never in Cicero, Caesar; begins with Sallust.
COORDINATION". 3OI
Sa;.iatst and Tacitus always add the que to the pronoun, LiVY and later prose writ-
ers to the substantive.
(c) et— que ; rare, and beginning with Ennius.
{(l) que— que begins with Plautus, ^Ennius. Cicero has it but once (noctesque
diesque, Fin.., i. 16, 51) ; it enters prose with Sallust, ar d poets are fond of it.
Et domino satis et nimium furique lupoque, Tib., iv. i, 187 ; enough for owner ^
and too much for thief and icolf.
477. Atque (compounded of ad and -que) adds a more
important to a less important member. But the second mem-
ber often owes its importance to the necessity of liaving the
complement (-que).
Ac (a shorter form, which does not stand before a vowel
orh) is fainter than atque, and almost equivalent to et.
Intra moenia atque in sinu urbis sunt hostgs, S., C, 52, 35 ; within the
walls, ay, and in the heart of the city^ are the enemies. A. Servos ? Ego ■?
B. Atque mens, Pl., Cas., 735 ; a slave ? I ? And mine to hoot.
Notes.— 1. The confirmative force of atque, as in the second example, is found
especially in Plautus, occasionally later.
2. Atque adds a climax, and then is often strengthened by Scastor, profectO, V6r5,
etc., Pl., B., 86 ; C, Tusc, i. 20, 4G.
3. In comedy, atque has sometimes demonstrative force : atque eccum, Pi-, St., 577.
4. Occasionally in Cicero, then in the Augustan poets, Livr and later prose writers,
notably Tacitus, atque or ac is often used to connect the parts of a clause in which
et or que (sometimes both) has been already employed :
Et potentgs sequitur invidia et humiles abiect5sque contemptus et turp6s
ac nocent6s odium, (^uint., iv. i, 14 ; the poiverfulare folloioed by envy ; theloivand
grovelling, by contempt ; the base and hurtful, by hatred.
5. Atque— atque is found occa.sionally in Cato, Catullus, Cicero, and Vergil.
Que— atque begins in poetry with Vergil, in prose with Livy, and is very rare.
0. Atque, introducing a principal clause after a temporal conjunction, belongs
exclusively to Plautus : Dum circumspecto m§, atque ego lembum cQnspicor, B.,
279. Also Fp., 217.
7. Atque is used before consonants, as well as aC, to connect single notions : when
sentences or clauses are to be connected, aC only is allowable ; either atque or ac with
expressions of Likeness.— Stamm.
8. On atque, after words indicating Likeness, se3G43. Atque follows a comparative
only after a negative in early and classical Latin. Horace is first to use it after a
positive.
9. Phraseological is alius atque alius, one or another, found first in Livy, and rare.
478. Etiam, evefi (now), yet, still, exaggerates (heightens),
and generally precedes the word to which it belongs.
Nobis rgs familiaris etiam ad necessaria deest, Cf. S., C, 20, 11 ; ive
lack means even for the necessaries of life. Ad AppI Claudi senectutem
accgdebat etiam ut caecus esset, C, Cat. 31. , 6, 16 (553, 4).
Notes.— 1 . Etiam as a temporal adverb refers to the Past or Present, and means
still ; it is sometimes strengthened by tum (tunc) or num (nunc). But beginning with.
302 COORDINATION.
LiVT, adhtic, which properly refers only to the Present, is extendeil to the Past and
used like etiam (turn).
Non satis me pernosti etiam qualis sim, Ter., And., 503 ; lou still do not Ivow
well eaougli (= little know) what manner of i*erson I am. Cum iste {i.e., Polemar-
chus) etiam cubaret, in cubiculum introductus est, C, Veir., m. 23, 5G ; -a idle the
dej'endaui {Polemarchus) was still in bed, he tvas introduced into the ledroom.
2. Instead of etiam, et is occasional in Plautus, in a change of person. Cicepo
uses it also after an adversative conjunction, as verum et ; also after nam and simul ;
more often when a pronoun follows, as et iUe, et ipse. Caesar never uses it so,
Sallust rarely, but it becomes common from Livy on.
3. Phraseological is etiam atque etiam, time and again. On etiam for ijes, see
471, 1.
479. Quoque, so also, complements (compare que) and
always follows the ^vorcls to which it belongs.
Cum patri (Timothei) populus statuan posuisset, filio quoque dedit, Cf.
Nep., xni. 2,3; f lie people, liaving erected a statue iv honor of t lie father
of Timotheus, gave one to the son also (likewise).
Remark. — The difference between etiam .ind quoque is not to be
insisted on too I'igidly :
Grande et conspicuum nostro quoque tempore monstrum, Juv., iv. 115 ;
a huge and conspicuous prod igy, even in our day.
Notes.— 1. In ante-classical and post-classical Latin the double forms etiam —
quoque, etiam quoque, are sometimes found, and in classical Latin also quoque
etiam occasionally : nunc vero mea quoque etiam causa rogo, c, Or., i. 35, 1G4.
2. Que in the sense of quoque is rare (compare m§que, Cat., cir. 3 ; me too), and is
found chiefly in the post- Augustan hodieque, to-day also.
480. Copulation hy means of tlie Negative. — Instead of et
and the negative, neque (nee) and the positive is the rule in
Latin.
Opinionibus vulgl rapimur in erroremnec vera cemimus, C, Leg., 11. 17,
43; hy the prejudices of the rabble we are hurried into error, and do not
distinguish the truth. (Caesar) properans noctem diei coniunxerat neque
iter intermiserat, Caes., ^. C, ni. 13, 2; Caesar in his Jiaste had joined
night tvith day and Jiad not broke?i his marcJi.
Remarks. — i. Et — non, mid — not, is used when the neg:ation is
confined to a single word, or is otherwise emphatic ; but neque is found
occasionally here, even in Cicero (Off., ni. 10, 41).
Et militavi non sine gloria, II., 0., ni. 26, 2 ; and J liarr hrcn a .sol-
dier not without glory.
On nee n5n, the opposite of et nQn, see 449, r. 3.
2. In combination with llio negative we have the loiiowiiig
Paradigms : Aiid no one, neque quisquam, nor any 07ie.
And no, neque ullus, nor any.
And notJiing, neque quidquam, nor anything.
And never, neque umquam, 7ior ever.
COORDINATION. 3O3
Neque amet quemquam nee ametur ab uUo, Juv., xii. 130 ; wMy he love
no one, and he loved by none.
3. Nee is often nearly equivalent to nee tamen, and yet not :
Extra invidiam nee extra gloriam erat, Tag., Ayr., 8, 3 ; he was beyond
the reach of envy, and yet not beyond the reach of glory. Cf. Ter.,
Uun., 249 ; C, Tusc, 11., 25, 60.
Notes.— 1. Neque = n6 quidem, is ante-classical and post-classical : nee nunc,
cum m§ vocat ultro, aecgdam 1 ll-, 'S., 11. 3, 262 (the only casj in Horace).
2. Caesar, Lucretius, Vergil, and Propeutius use neque regularly before
vowels.
3. Combinations :
(a) neque— neque ; nee— nee ; neque-nee ; nee— neque. Sometimes the first
neque has the force of and neither ; but this is limited in prose to Caesar, Saliust,
and LivY ; in poetry to Catullus and Propertius.
(6) neque— et ; neque— que ; neque— ae. Of these neque— et is rare in early
Latin, but more common in Cicero and later ; neque— que is rare, and found first in
Cicero ; neque— atque (ac) is very rare, and begins in Tacitus.
(c) et— neque is found first in Cicero, who is fond of it, but it fades out after him.
4. Neque is usually used for non, when followed by the strengthening words
enim, tamen, vSro, etc.
481. I. Insertion and Omission of Cojnilatives, — When
multus, much, many, is followed by another attribute, the
two are often combined by copulative particles : 77i<:ni?/ re-
noioned deeds, multa et praeclara facinora ; ma7iy good qual-
ities, multae bonaeque artes.
2. Several subjects or objects, standing in the same rela-
tions, either take et throughout or omit it throughout. The
omission of it is common in emphatic enumeration.
Phryges et Pisidae et Ciliees, C, Div., i. 41, 92 ; or, PhrygSs, Pfeidae,
Ciliees, Phrygians, Pisidiaiis, and Cilicians.
Note.— Et before the third member of a series is rare, but occurs here and there at
all periods ; in Cicero it usually draws especial attention to the last member. Atque
(ae) is u,sed thus a little more frequently (mores instittita atque vita, C, Fam., xv.
4,14), and que is not uncommon: aegritudines, irae libidinSsque, C, Tusc.,i.
33, BO.
3. Et is further omitted in climaxes, in antitheses, in
phrases, and m formidcB.
Viri non [est] debilitari dolore, frangi, succumbere, C, Fin., 11. 29, 95 ;
it is unmanly to allow one's self to be disabled (unnerved) by grief, to be
broken-spirited, to succumb. Diffieilis faeilis, iucundus acerbus, es idem,
Mart., XII. 47, ] (310).
Patres Conseripti, Fatlters (and) Conscript (Senators).
luppiter Optimus Maximus, Father Jsva, supremely good (and) great.
304 COORDINATIOIT.
Other Particles Employed.
482. Other particles are sometimes emjoloyed instead of
the copulative in the same general sense.
1. Temporal : turn— turn, tlien — then; alias— alias, at one time — at
another ; iam — iam, nunc — nunc, modo — modo, ?ww — now ; simul — simul,
at tJie same time.
Turn Graece — turn Lating, partly in Greek, partly in Latin. Horatius
Codes nunc singulos provocabat, nunc increpabat omnes, Cf. L., ii. lo, 8 ;
IJuratiuH Codes noiv challenged tliem singly, now taunted them all.
Modo hue, modo illuc, C, J^^., xiii. 25, 3 ; now hither, noiv thither
(liitlier and thitlier). Simul spernebant, simul metu6bant, tliey despised
and feared at the same time {they at once despised and feared).
Notes.— 1. Of these tum— tum is not ante-claspical, nunc— nunc is found first in
LucR., and is introduced into prose by Livy : simul — simul is found first in Caesais,
but not in Cicero ; iam— iam begins with Vergil and Livy. Aliquando ali-
quando, quandoque— quandoque, are post-Augustan ; interdum— interdum is
rare, but occurs in CiCEUo.
2. The combinations vary in many ways. Ciceronian are tum— alias ; alias—
plgrumque ; interdum— alias ; modo— tum ; modo— vicissim ; niost of them found
tut once. Some fifteen other combinations are post-Ciceronian.
3. On cum— tum, see 588.
2. Local : In Cicero only alio— alio ; hinc — illinc. Others are : hie —
illic (first in Vergil); hinc— hinc (Vergil, Livy); hinc — inde (Tacitus);
illinc— hinc (Livy) ; inde— hinc (Tacitus) ; alibi— alibi (Livy) ; aliunde —
aliunde (Pliny).
3. Modal : alitor — aliter ; qua— qua, rare, and lacking in many authors
{e.g., Caesar, Sallust). Li Cicero only four times, and confined to
the Letters ; pariter — pariter is poetical and post-classical ; aequg — aeque
is found once in Horace and once in Tacitus.
4. Comparative : ut — ita, as — so :
Dolabellam ut Tarsgnsgs ita Laodicgni ultr5 arcessigrunt, C, Fam., xii.
13, 4 ; as the people of Tarsus so the people of Laodicea {= both the
people of Tarsus and those of Laodicea) seiit for Dolahella of their own
accord.
Often, however, the actions compared are adversative ; and ut may
be loosely translated although,, while.
Haec omnia ut invitis ita non adversantibus patriciis transacta, T^., in.
55, 15 ; all this was done, the patricians, tliough unwilling, yet not
opposing {— against the wishes, but without any opposition on the part
of the j)atricians).
Note.— There are also many other similar combinations, as : quemadmodum—
Sic ; ut— BiC ; tamquam— sic, etc. The adversative use of ut -ita is rare in tlie clas-
sical period, but extends later.
COORDTN-ATION". 305
5. Adversative : non modo, n5n solum, non tantum, not only ; sed, sed
etiam, sed — quoque, verum etiam, hut even, hut also :
Urbes maritimae non solum multis periculis oppositae [sunt] sed etiam
caecis, C, Rep., 11. 3, 5 : cities on the seaboard ai'e liable not only to
many dangers, hut even (also) to hidden (ones). [Non] doceri tantum sed
etiam delectari volunt, Quint., iv. i, 57 ; they ivish not merely to he
taught, hut to he tickled to hoot.
Ill the negative form, non mode non, 7iot only 7iot ; sed ne— quidem,
hut not even ; sed vix, hut hardly.
Ego non modo tibi non irascor, sed ne reprehendo quidem factum tuum,
C, Still., 18, 50 ; 1 not only am 7iot angry ivith you, hat I do not even
find fault with your action.
Rf.marks. — I. Instead of non modo (solum) non— sed ne— quidem, the
latter non is generally omitted, when the two negative clauses have a
verb in common, the negative of the first clause being supplied by the
second; otherwise both negatives arc expressed.
Pis5ne consule senatui non solum iuvaro rem ptiblicam sed nS luggre
quidem licgbat, Cf. C, Pis. 10, 23; ichen Piso was consid, it icas not only
not left free for the senate (= the senate was not only not free) to help
the commonwealth, but not even to mourn (for her).
2. N§dum, not (to speak of) yet, much less, is also used, either with or
"without a verb in the Subjunctive; it is found first and only once in
Terence, never in Caesar and Sallust, in Cicero only after negative
sentences; fiom Livy on it is used after affirmative clauses as well.
Satrapa numquam sufFerre gius sumptus queat, ngdum tu possis, Ter. ,
Jleaut., 4^^; a nabob could never stand that girVs expenditures, much
less could you.
Notes.— 1. Non tantum i^ never found in early Latin, Caesar and Saixust,
rarely in Ci«ero. Sed— quoque is found first in Ciceuo ; so, too, sed simply, but
rarely. Livy is especially free in his use of sed. Verum, in the second member, is
not ante-classical nor Tacitean. Non alone i:i the first member is rare, but Ciceronian,
it is usually followed by sed only ; occasionally by sed etiam. Sed is sometimes
omiUed from Livy on. Cf. L., xxviii. 39, 11 ; Tac, Ann., in. 19, 2, etc.
2. Sed et, for sed etiam, belongs to post-Augustan Latin.
Adversative Sentences.
483. The Adversative particles are : autem, sed, verum,
vero, at, atqui, tamen, ceterum. Of these only sed and tamen
are really adversative.
Note.— The Adversative particles are often omitted : as when an afiirmative is fol-
lowed by a negative, or the reverse, or in other contrasts.
484. Autem (post-positive) is the weakest form of hit, and
30
306 COORDIXATION".
indicates a difference from the foregoing, a contrast rather
than a contradiction. It serves as a particle of transition
and explanation (= moreover, furthermore, now), and of
resumption (= to come hack), and is often nsed in syllo-
gisms.
Modo accedgns, turn autem recedSns, C. ,N.D., n. 40, 102 ; now approach-
ing, then again receding. Rumoribus mgcum pugnas, ego autem a tS
ration63 require, C, N.D., in. 5, lo; you fight me with rumors, whereas
I ask of you reasons. Quod est bonum, omne laudabile est; quod autem
laudabile est, omne est honestum ; bonum igitur quod est, honestum est,
C, Fin., lu. S, 27; everything that is good is praiseivorthy ; hut every-
thing that is praiseworthy is virtuousj therefore, ivhat is good is
virtuous.
Remark. — Autem commonly follows the first word in the sentence
or clause; but when an uneraphatic est or sunt occupies the second
place, it is put in the third. So igitur aad enim.
Notes.— 1. Noteworthy is the use of autem in lively questions. Cicero employs
it in this way, also to correct his own previous questions {Epanorthosis),
Egon debacchatus sum autem an tu in me ? Tkr., Ad., 185. Num quis testis
Postumium appellavit ? Testis autem ? non accusator 1 C, Rab.Post., 5, 10.
2. Autem is a favorite word witli Cicero, especially in his philosophical and moral
works, but not with the Historians, least of all with Tacitus, who uses it only nine
times in all.
485. Sed (set) is nsed partly in a stronger sense, to denote
contradiction, partly in a weaker sense, to introduce a new
thought, or to revive an old one.
N5n est vivere sed valere vita, Mart., vi. 70, 15 (442, r. 2). Domitius
nulla quidem arte sed Latine tamen dic6bat, C, Br., yj,2Q7;*Domitins
spoke with no art it is true, hut for all tliat, in good Latin.
Notes.— 1. The use of sed to carry on a narrative is characteristic of the historians,
though found also in Cicero. Sed in ea conitiratiSne fuit Q. Ctirius, S., 6'., 23, 1.
2. Sed is repeated by anaphora (682), occasionally m Cicero (rerr.,111. 72, 169),
more often later.
3. Sed may be strengthe xkI by tamen ; by vSro, enimvgro, enim ; by autem,
but only in connection m ith quid, and then only in comedy and in Vergil. Some-
times it is equal to sed tamen, as in V., A., iv. 660.
486. Verum, it / < lrui\ true, always takes the first place
in a sentence, and is practically eqnivalent to sed in its
stronger sense.
SI certum est facere, faciam ; vSrum ng post c5nferas culpam in m6, Tcr.,
JS'tf^i., 388; if you are determined to do it, I will arrange it; hut you
must not aftenvard lay the hlame on me.
COORDINATION^. 307
■Note.— Vgrum. gradually gives place to sed in Cicero. It is used occasionally to
return to the subject (v6rum haec quidem hactenus, C, r^sc, 111.34,84), and in
yielding a point (vSruin esto, C, Fin., 11. 23, 75), wliere sed is the usual word.
487. Vero, of a truth, is generally put in the second place,
asserts with conviction, and is used to heighten the state-
ment.
[Platcnem] Bion adeo admiratus est ut se totum el traderet. Neque
vgro minus Plato delectatus est Dione, Nep., x. 2, 3; Dion admired Plato
to such a degree that he gave himself wholly up to him ; and indeed
Plato was no less deliglded with Dion.
Notes. — 1. Vero is properly an affirmative adverb, and such is its only use in
Plautus. In Terence it has also acquired adversative force, which it preserves
throughout the language in greater or less degree ; so in the historians it is hardly more
than autem.
2. The combination vSrum v6ro is ante-classical ; on combinations with enim,
see 498, n. 6.
3. V§r5 is also, but not so commonly, usetl in transitions ; especially in the formulae
age vSro, iam v6ro.
488. At (another form of ad = in addition to) introduces
startling transitions, lively ohjections, remonstrances, ques-
tions, wishes, often by way of quotation.
"Philocteta, St! brevis dolor." At iam decimum annum in sp6lunca
iacet, C, Fin., 11. 29, 94 ; " Philoctetes, still ! the pain is short.'" But
he has been lying in his cave goiiig on ten years. "At multis malls
affectus?" Quis negat? (.'., F*7k, v. 30, 92; ''hut he has suffered
much?'" Who denies it ? At videte hominis intolerabilem audaciam!
C, 7)o??i., 44, 115; well, hut see the felloiv's insufferahle audacity! At
vobis male sit ! Cat., hi. 13 ; and ill luck to you I
Notes. — 1. Ast is the archaic form of at, ^nd is found occasionally in Cicero, de
Leg. and ad Alt., but more often in the poets and the later archaists.
2. At is used in anaphora, and also, especially in the poets, in continuing the narra-
tive. Noteworthy is its use after conditional sentences (in Cicero only after negatives,
never in Sallust), where it is frequently strengthened by certS, tamen, saltem: sl
minus supplicio adfici, at ctistodiri oportebat, C, Terr., v. 27, C9.
489. Atqui {Imt at any rate, hut for all that) is still
stronger than at, and is used chiefly in argument.
Vix crSdibile. AtquI sic habet, 11. , ^S"., i. 9, 52 ; scarce credible. But
for all that, 'tis so.
Notes.— 1. Atquin is occasional in early Latin, and even in Cicero.
2. At seems sometimes to be used for atqul. C, Tusc, iii. 9, 19.
490. Tamen (literally, even thus), nevertheless, is often
combined with at, verum, sed.
308 COORDINATION.
It is commonly prepositive, unless a particular word is to
be made emphatic.
Nattiram expelles furca, tamen usque recurret, H., Ep., i. lo, 24 ; you
may drive out Dame Nature with a pitchfork, for all that she ivill ever
he returning. Domitius nulla quidem arte sed Lating tamen dicebat, C,
Br.,u. 77,267(485).
Remark. — Nihilominus (?iothing the less), nevertheless, is used like
tamen, by which it is occasionally strengthened.
491. Ceterum, /or the rest, is used by the Historians as an
adversative particle.
Duo imperatores, ipsi par6s c6terum opibus disparibus, S., Tug., 52, 1 ;
two commajiders, equal in personal qualities, hut of unequal resources.
Note.— Cgterum is found once in Terence {Eun., 452), once in Cicero {Q.F., n.
12, 1), otherwise not before Sallust.
Disjunctive Sentences.
492. The Disjunctive particles are aut, vel, -ve, sive (seu).
Note.— The Disjunctive particles are but rarely omitted, and then mainly in con-
trasted opposites like pauper dives, plus minus, and the like.
493. I. Aut, or, denotes absolute exclusion or substitution.
Vinceris aut vincis. Prop., n. 8, 8 ; you are conquered or conquering.
2. Aut is often corrective = or at least, at most, rather
(aut saltern, aut potius).
Cuncti aut magna pars fidem mutavissent, S., Itig., 56, 5 ; all, or at least
a great part, would have changed their allegia7ice. Duo aut summum
trgs iuvengs, L., xxxni. 5, 8 ; tdvo, or at most three, youths.
3. Aut — aut, either — or.
Quaedam terrae partes aut frigore rigent aut tiruntur calore, Cf. C,
Tusc, I. 28, 08 ; some parts of the earth are either frozen with cold or
burnt with heat. Aut dJc aut accipe calcem, Juv., in. 295 ; either speak
or take a kick.
Notes.— 1 . The use of aut to carry on a preceding negative is found first in Cicero,
but becomes more common later : nSmS tribunos aut plebem timSbat, L-. in- 16, 4.
2. Aut is sometimes equivalent io 2X(rtlij— partly in Tacitus :
Eausta aut obruta Campaniae 5ra, //., i. 2.
3. On aut ill interrogative sentences, see 458, n.4.
494. T. Vel (literally, you may choose) gives a choice,
often with etiam, even, potius, rather.
co5rdin"ation-. 309
Ego vel Cluvi§nus, Juv., i. 80 ; /, or, if you choose, Cluvienus. Per
m§ vel stertas licet, non modo quigscas, C, Ac, 11. 29, 93 ; for all I care,
you may (even) snore, if you choose, not merely take your rest {sleep).
Satis vel etiam nimium intilta, C, Fam,., iv. 14, 3 ; enough, or even too
much. Epicurus homo minime malus vel potius vir optimus, C, Tusc, 11.
19, 44 ; Epicurus (was) a person hy no means had, or^ rather, a man of
excellent character,
2. Vel — vel, either — or (whether — or).
[Miltiades dixit] ponte rescisso regem vel hostium ferro vel inopia paucis
digbus interiturum, Nep., i. 3, 4 ; Jliltiades said that if the bridge ivere
cut the king ivould perish in a few days, whether by the sivord of the
enemy, or for want of provisions.
Notes.— 1. Vel, for example, is rare in Plautus and Terence, but common in
Cicero, especially in the Letters.
2. Vel in the sense of aut is rare in the classical period (C, Rep., 11. 28, 50), but is
more common later, beginning with Ovid, See Tac, Ann., i. 59.
3. Vel— vel is found in Plautus occasionally in the sense us well us, but in clas-
sical Latin is rigidly distinguished from et— et.
4. Aut is not uncommonly subdivided by vel— vel : aut canere vel voce vel
fidibus, C, Div., II. 59, 122.
495. -Ve (enclitic) is a weaker form of vel, and in Cicero
is used principally with numerals, in the sense at most^ or
with words from the same stem or of similar formation.
Bis terve, C, Fam., n. i, 1 ; twice or at most thrice (bis terque, twice
and indeed as much as thrice, if not more).
car timeam dubitemve locum defendere? Juv., i. 103 ; ivhy shoidd I
fear or hesitate to maintain my position 9 Aliquid faciendi n5n faciendive
ratio, C, Inv., 11. 9, 31 ; the method of doing something or not doing it.
Notes.— 1. In early I>atin ve is more often copulative than adversative.
2. Ve— ve is poetical only.
496. I. Sive (seu), if you dioose, gives a choice hetween
two designations of the same object.
TJrbem matri seu novercae relinquit, L., i. 3, 3 ; he leaves the city to his
mother or {if it seems more likely) to his step-mother.
2. Slve — slve (seu — seu), wJiether — or (indifference).
Sive medicum adhibueris slve non adhibueris non convalesces, C, Fat.,
12, 29 ; whether you employ a physician, or do not employ (one), you
will not get well. Seu visa est catulis cerva fidelibus seu rupit teretes
Marsus aper plagas, H., 0.,\. i, 27 ; ivhether a doe hath appeared to the
faitliful hounds, or a Marsian boar hath burst the tightly -twisted toils.
Notes.— 1. Single sive (= or) iy not found in Plautus or Terence ( Cf. Artd., 190),
but it occurs in Lucretius, Lucilius, and is common ia Cicero. Caesar and Sai.-
310 COORDINATIO:^^.
LUST, however, do not use it, and It is rare in the Poets. In the sense of give— Sive it
is found occasionally in poetry ; but in prose only three times in Tacitus.
2. Sive- sive is not found in Terence, but from Cicero on becomes common.
3. No distinction seems possible between sive and seu.
497. An is used in the sense of or not uncommonly in Cicero,
especially in the Letters; occasionally in Livy, and frequently in Taci-
tus. Elsewhere it is rare. See 457.
Tiberius casu an manibus [Haterii] impeditus prociderat, Tac, Ann.^
I. 13, 7 ; Tiberius had fallen forward, either hy chance or tripped by
Haterius' hands.
Causal and Illative Sentences.
498. A. The Causal particles are nam, enim, namque, and
etenim, for.
Nam is put at the beginning of a sentence ; enim is post-positive
(484, R.) : namque and etenim are commonly put in the first place.
Sensiis mirifice conlocati sunt ; nam oculi tamquam speculatores altissi-
mum locum obtinent, C, N.D., 11. 56, 140 ; the senses are admirnbly
situated; for the eyes, like watchmen, occupy the higltest post. PiscSs
5va relinquunt, facile enim ilia aqua sustinentur, C, N.D., 11. 51, 129 ;
fLsh leave their eggs, for tJiey are easily kept alive by the water. [Themi^
stoclgs] muros Athenignsium restituit suo periculo ; namque Lacedaemonii
prohibere conati sunt, Nep., ii. 6, 2 ; Themistocles restored the walls of
Athens with risk to himself; for the Lacedaemonia7is endeavored to
prevent it.
Notes. 1. The Augustan poets post[X)ne both nam and namque according to the
requirements of the metre, and in prose, beginning with Livy, namque is found some-
times in the second place, but more often in Livy than later.
In early Latin enim is often first in the sentence ; etenim is postponed in prose
only in the elder Pliny and Apuleius ; iu the poets, not uncommonly, so in Afranius,
TiBULi.us, PROPERTiUi^, and Horace.
2. These particles are originally asseverative, and are often used not only to furnish
a reason, but also to give an explanation or illustration {as for ifistarice). Quid enim
agasi vchat, for insiance, can you do? This is especially true of enim, hut is also
connnon enough with nam (n. 3), and a broad difference between nam snid enim
(which is of common origin with nam) cannot be proved. Etenim is often used to
carry on the argument, and gives an additional ground.
3. The asseverative forco of nam is retained in conversational style occasionally,
even in Cicero ( Yerr., i. 51, 133). Enim is almost wholly asseverative in Pi-auti:s and
Terence. Namque is very rare in Plauti:s and Terence, and is found before vowels
only. In classical Latin it is also rare, and found usually before vowels. With Livy it
comes into general use before vowels and consonants equally Etenim is found l)ut once
in Pi.AUTUs {Am., 26, an interpolation) and four times in Terence ; in post-classical
Latin also it is not common, but it is very frequent in classical Latin, especially in Cicero.
4. Noteworthy is the use of nam, in passing over a matter : nam quid ego dS
SCtiOne ipsa plQra dicam I (C, O., 1.5, 18), which is especially comincm in Cicero.
5. Nam shows ,111 ntruiity for interrogative particles. Hen; it sometimes precedes in
COORDINATION^.
311
the early language (Ter., Ph., 932), but becomes firmly attached in the classical period
in the forms quisnam, ubinam, etc., which, however, sometimes su£fer tmesis and
transposition in poetry (V., (r., 4, 445).
6. In atenim (first in Cicero), nempe enim (ante-classical and post-classical),
sed enim (rare), vgrumenim, enimvgro, verum enimvgrO, as in etenim, the enim
gives a ground or an illustration of the leading particle, but translation by an ellipsis
would be too heavy, and enim is best left untranslated :
A. Audi quid dicam. B. At enim taedet iam audire eadem miliSns, Ter.,
Ph., 487 ; A. Hear ti'hat I say. B. But (/ iDon't, for) lam tired qf Iiearing the same
ihmgs a tlKmsand times already.
7. Enim is used pleonastically after qaia in early Latin, and then again in Petro-
Nius and Gellitts ; also after ut and n6 in early Latin.
8. Qulppe is originally interrogative. From this the causal force develops, which
is not uncommon in Cicero. In Sallust, and especially in Livy and later writers,
quippe is equal to enim.
499. B. Illative particles are itaqne, igitur, erg5 ; eo, hinc,
inde, ideo, idcirco, quocirca, propterea, quapropter, proin, pro-
inde.
600. Itaque (literally, and so), therefore, is put at the be-
ginning of the sentence by the best writers, and is used of
facts that follow from the preceding statement.
Ngmo ausus est Phocionem liber sepelire ; itaqne a servis sepultus est,
Cf. Nep., XIX. 4, 4; 710 free man dared to hiiry Phocion, and so he was
buried hy slaves.
Remark. — Itaque in early and classical Latin has first place in a sen-
tence. It is first postponed by Lucretius, then by Cornificius and
Horace, and more often later.
601. IgituT, therefore, is used of opinions which have their
natural ground in the preceding statement ; in Cicero it is
usually post-positive, in Sallust never.
Mihi non satisfacit. Sed quot homings tot sententiae ; falli igitur possu-
mus, C, Fin., 1. 5, 15 ; me it does not satisfy. But matiy men many
minds. I may therefore he mistaken.
Note.— In historical writers igitur is sometimes used like itaque. Occasionally
also (not in classical Latin), it seems to have the force of enim (Pi>., Most., 1102, mss.).
602. Ergo denotes necessary consequence, and is used espe-
cially in arguments, with someAvhat more emphasis than igitur.
Negat haeo filiam mg suam esse; n5n ergo haec mater mea est, Pl.,
J5/p., 590 ; she says that I am not her daughter, therefore she is not my
mother.
Notes.— 1. In the Poets ergO sometimes introduces a strong conclusion in advance
of the premise (H., 0., i. 24, 5). In the classical period, however, its predominant use is
to introduce the logical conclusion.
312 SUBORDINATION.
2. Erg5 usually comes first, but its position is apt to vary in accordance with the
stress laid upon it.
3. Itaque erg5 is found in Terence and Livr ; ergo igituT in Plautus,
603. other Coordinating Conjunctions : hinc, hence, is found not
unfrequently : hinc illae lacrumae, Ter., And., 126. Inde, thence, there-
fore, is rare, and first in Cicero, but more common in later Latin. E5,
therefore, is found in early Latin, rarely in Cicero {Fam., vi. 20, 1),
not in Caesar or Sallust ; again in Livy and later ; so ideo, 07i that
account, but atque ideo is found once in Caesar. Idcirco, on that ac-
count, is rare, but from the earliest times. Quocirca, on tvhich account,
is found first in the classical period ; quapropter is found here and there
in early Latin, but more commonly in the classical time, rarely later;
propterea, on that account, is rare, and belongs to early Latin. Proin,
proinde, accordingly, are employed in exhortations, appeals, and the like.
Quod praeceptum (nosce tS ipsum), quia maius erat quam ut ab homine
vidergtur, idcirco assignatum est deo, C, Fin., v. 16, 44 ; this precept
{knoiv thyself), because it was too great to seem to he of man, was, on
that account, attributed to a god. Proinde aut exeant aut quiSscant, C,
Cat., II. 5, 11 ; let them then either depart or be quiet.
SUBORDINATION.
504. Subordinate sentences are only extended forms of the
simple sentence, and are divided into Adjective and Substan-
live sentences, according as they represent adjective and sub-
stantive relations.
This arrangement is a matter of convenience merely, and no attempt
is made to represent the development of the subordinate sentence from
the codrdinate.
505. Adjective sentences express an attribute of the sub-
ject in an expanded form.
Uxor quae bona est, Pl., Merc, 812 (634) = uxor bona.
606. Substantive sentences are introduced by particles,
which correspond in their origin and use to the Oblique
Cases, Accusative and Ablative.
These two cases furnish the mass of adverbial relations, and hence
we make a subdivision for this class, and the distribution of the subor-
dinate sentence appears as follows :
507. A. Substantive sentences.
I. Object sentences.
SUBORDIKATIOIf. 313
II. Adverbial sentences :
1. Of Cause. (Causal.)
2. Of Design and Tendency. (Final and
Consecutive. )
3. Of Time. (Temporal.)
4. Of Condition and Concession. (Condi-
tional and Concessive.)
B. Adjective sentences. (Relative.)
Moods in Subordinate Sentences.
508. I. Final and Consecutive Clauses always take the
Subjunctive. Others vary according to their conception.
Especially important are the changes produced by Oratio
Obllqua.
2. Oratio Obliqua, or Indirect Discourse, is opposed to
Oratio Recta, or Direct Discourse, and gives the main drift
of a speech and not the exact words. Oratio Obliqua, proper,
depends on some Verb of Saying or Thinking expressed or
implied, the Principal Declarative Clauses being put in the
Infinitive, the Dependent in the Subjunctive.
Socrates dicere solgbat :
0. R. Omngs in eo quod sciunt satis sunt gloquentSs.
Socrates used to say : ^'AIl men are eloquent enough in ivhat
they UNDERSTAND."
6. 0. Omngs in eo quod scirent satis esse gloquentgs, C, Or., i. 14, G8.
Socrates used to say that all men were eloquent enough in what
they UNDERSTOOD.
3. The oblique relation may be confined to a dependent
clause and not extend to the whole sentence. This may be
called Partial Obliquity.
6. E. Ifova nupta dicit : Fleo quod ire necesse est.
The hride says : I weep because I must needs go.
6. 0. Nova nupta dicit sg flgre quod ire necesse sit.
The hride says that she weeps because she must needs go.
6. R. Nova nupta flet quod ire necesse est, Cf. Cat., lxi. 81.
The bride weeps because she must go.
P. 0. Nova nupta flet quod ire necesse sit.
Tfie bride is weeping because '^ she must go " (quoth she).
314 SEQUENCE OF TENSES.
4. Akin to 0. 0. is the so-called Attraction of Mood, by
which clauses originally Indicative are put in the Subjunc-
tive because they depend on Infinitives or Subjunctives.
(663.)
Non dubito quin nova ntipta fleat quod ire necesse sit. / do not doubt
that the hride is weepirig because she must go.
Remark. — The full discussion of O. 0. must, of course, be reserved
for a later period. See 648.
SEQUENCE OF TENSES.
609. I. In those dependent sentences which require the
Subjunctive, the choice of the tenses of the dependent clause
is determined largely by the time of the leading or principal
clause, so that Principal Tenses are ordinarily followed by
Principal Tenses ; Historical, by Historical.
Note.— As the subordinate sentence arose out of the coordinate, hypotaxis out of
parataxis, the tenses of the Subjv. had originally an independent value, and the asso-
ciation was simply the natural association of time. But in some classes of sentences a
certain mechanical levelling has taken place, as in the Final sentence ; and in others,
as in the Interrogative sentence, the range of the Subjv. is restricted by the necessity of
clearness, just as the range of the Inf. is restricted by the necessity of clearness (530) ;
so that a conventional Sequence of Tenses has to be recognized. To substitute for
every dependent tense a corresponding independent tense, and so do away with the
whole doctrine of Sequence, is impossible. At the same time it must be observed that
the mechanical rule is often violated by a return to the primitive condition of para-
taxis, and that
2. This rule is subject to the following modifications :
1. Tense means time, not merely tense-form, so that
{a) The Historical Present may be conceived according to its sense
(Past) or according to its tense (Present). (229.)
(&) In the Pure Perfect may be felt the past inception or origin
(Past), or the present completion (Present). (235, i.)
2. The effect of a past action may be continued into the present or
the future of the writer (513).
3. The leading clause may itself consist of a principal and dependent
clause, and so give rise to a conflict of tenses with varying Sequence
(511, R. 2).
4. An original Subjunctive (467) of the past (265) resists levelling,
especially in the Indirect Question.
SEQUENCE OF TEIfSES.
315
510.
All forms that relate ^
to the Present and !
Future (so especially j
Principal Tenses) J
are followed by
All forms that relate to
the Past (so especially
Historical Tenses)
the Present Subjunctive
(for continued action) ;
the Perfect Subjunctive
(for completed action).
the Imperfect Subjunctive
(for continued action);
- are followed by ■{ the Pluperfect Subjunc-
tive (for completed ac-
tion).
Remark. — The action which is completed with regard to the lead-
ing verb may be in itself a continued action. So in English: I do 7iot
know what he has been doing, I did not know ivhat he had been doing.
The Latin is unable to make this distinction, and accordingly the
Imperfect Indicative (7 ivas doing) is represented in this dependent
form by the Perfect and Pluperfect, when the action is completed as
to the leading verb.
511.
Pr. (Pure cognosco, / am finding out,
OR Hist.),
FUT.,
cognoscam,
Pure Pf., cognovi,
FuT. Pf., cogn5ver6,
Hist. Pr., cogn5sc5,
Impf.,
Hist. Pf.,
Plupf.,
cognovi,
cognoveram,
I shall (try to)
fiiid out,
I have found out
(/ knoiv),
I shall have found
out (shall know),
lam (ivas) finding
out,
I was finding out,
I found out,
I had found out
(I knew),
quid facias,
what you are doing ;
quid fgcerls,
what you have done,
what you have been
doing {what you did),
what you were doing
ipefore).
quid facerSs,
what you ivere doing ;
quid fgcissSs,
what you had done, what
you had been doing,
ivhat you icere doing
{before).
When the Subjunctive is original, we have :
c5gnosc5, etc., I am finding out, | "^^^ ^^^^^^^^
cSgnovI, e/c, I knew.
.quid facergs,
ivhat you are to do.
ivhat you ivere to do.
what you ivere to do.
Principal Tenses.
Nihil rgfert postrgma syllaba brevis an longa sit, Cf C, Or., 64, 317
(461). Ubii (Caesarem) Srant (historical) ut sibi parcat, Caes., B G., vi. 9,
3l6 SEQUENCE OF TENSES.
7 (546, i). N6m8 adeo ferus est ut non mltSscere possit, H., Ep., i. i, 39
(552). Nee mea qui digitis lumina condat erit, Ov., Her., lo, 120 (681, 2).
Eusticus exspectat dum defluat amnis, H., Ep., i. 2, 43 (572). Post mortem
in morte nihil est quod metuam mali, Pl., Capt., 741 (631, 2). Ardeat ipsa
licet, tormentis gaudet amantis, Juv., vi. 209 (607).
Utrum nescis quam alte ascenderis an pro nihilo id putas % C, Earn., x.
26, 3 (458). Laudat Africanum Panaetius quod fuerit abstinens, C, Off.,
II. 22, 76 (542). Non is es ut te pudor umquam a turpitudine revocarit,
C, Cat., I. 9, 22 (552). Quern mea Calliope laeserit unus ego (sum), Ov.,
Tr., II. 568 (631, i). Sim licet extremum, sicut sum, missus in orbem, Ov.,
Tr., IV. 9, 9 (607). Multi fuerunt qui tranquillitatem expetentgs a negotiis
publicis s6 remSverint, C, Off., i. 20, 69 (631, 2).
Historical Tenses.
Epaminondas quaesivit salvusne esset clipeus, C, Fin., 11. 30, 97 (467).
Noctu ambulabat in publico Themistocles quod somnum capere non posset,
C, 'lusc, IV. 19, 44 (541). [Athenignses] creant decem praetores qui exer-
citui praeessent, Nep., i. 4, 4(545). Accidit ut una nocte omngs Hermae
deicerentur, Nep., vii. 3, 2 (513, r. 2). Ad Appi Claudi senectutem accgdgbat
etiam ut caecus esset, C, Cat. 31., 6, 16 (553, 4). Hannibal omnia prius-
quam excgderet pugna (erat) expertus, L., xxx. 35, 4 (577). (Agesilaus)
cum ex Aegypto reverteretur dgcgssit, Nep., xvii. 8, 6 (585).
Tanta opibus Etruria erat ut iam non terras solum sed mare etiam fama
nominis sui implgsset, L., i. 2, 5 (521, r. i). Cum primi ordings hostium
concidissent, tamen acerrimg reliqui resistgbant, Caes., E.G., vii. 62, 4
(587). Dglgta (est) Ausonum ggns perinde ac si interneclvo bello certasset,
L., IX. 25, 9 (602).
Original Subjunctive Retained.
Ipse docet quid agam (original, agam) ; fas est et ab hoste docgri, Ov.,
M., IV. 428 (219). Quaero a tg cur ego C. Cornelium non defenderem
(original, dgfenderem), C, F«^., 2, 5 (467). Misgrunt Delphos consultum
quid facerent (original, faciamus), Nep., ii. 2, 6 (518).
Remarks. — i. The treatment of the Hist. Pr. according to its sense
(past) is the rule in classical Latin, especially when the dependent clause
precedes. But there are many exceptions.
Agunt gratias quod sibi pepercissent ; quod anna cum hominibus c5n-
sanguineis contulerint queruntur, Caes., B. C, i. 74, 2; tliey return
thanks to them for having spared them, and complain that they had
crossed swords ivith kinsmen.
2. Noteworthy is the shift from the primary to the secondary sequence;
this is mostly confined to clauses of double dependence, i.e., where one
subordinate clause is itself principal to a second subordinate clause.
SEQUENCE OF TEN^SES. 31/
Here the first has usually the primary, the second the secondary se-
quence.
Rogat ut curat quod dixisset, C, Quinct., 5, 18 ; lie asks him to attend
to what he had said (he would).
So of authors :
[Chrysippus] disputat aethera esse eum quem homings lovem appellarent,
C, N.D., I, 15, 40 ; Chrysippus maintains that to be aether which men
call Jove.
3. The Pure Pf. is usually treated as a Hist. Pf . in the matter of
sequence :
Quae subsidia habgrgs et habgre possgs, exposui, Q. Cicero, 4, 13 ; what
supports you have or can have I have set forth.
4. The reverse usage, when an Hist. Pf. is followed by a primary
Subjv., is not common. Many of those cited from Cicero are from the
Letters, where the shift of tense might be influenced by the letter-tense
principle (252).
Sed qu5 consilio redierim, initio audistis, post estis experti, C, Ph., x. 4, 8.
Quis miles fuit, qui Brundisii illam non videriti C, Ph., 11. 25, 61. (The
context shows that fuit cannot be Pure Pf.)
612. Sequence of Tenses in Sentences of Design. — Seu-
tences of Design have, as a rule, only the Present and Im-
perfect Subjunctive. The Roman keeps the purpose and
the process, rather than the attainment, in view.
PR.,
edunt,
they are eating,
Pure Pf.,
gdgrunt,
thsy have eaten.
ut vivant,
FUT.,
edent,
they ivill eat.
' that they may live (to
FuT. Pf.,
gderint,
they will have eaten,
live).
Impf.,
edgbant,
they were eating,
ut viverent,
Plupp.,
gderant,
they had eaten,
y that they might live (to
Hist. Pf.,
gderunt,
they ate.
live).
Spectatum veniunt, veniunt spectentur ut ipsae, Ov., A. A., i. 99 (435).
Sed precor ut possim ttitius esse miser, O v. , Tr. , v. 2, 78 (424). Gallinae pen-
nis fovent pullos ng frigore laedantur, Cf. C, N.D., 11. 52, 129 (545). Legem
brevem esse oportet quo facilius ab imperitis teneatur, Sen., E.M., 94, 38
(545). Mg praemisit domum haec ut nuntiem uxori suae, Pl,, Am., 195 ; he
has sent me home ahead of him, to take the news to his wife. Oculos
ecfodiam tibi ng mg observare possis, Pl., Aid., 53; Twill gouge out your
eyes for you, to make it impossible for you to imtch me.
[Laelius] venigbat ad cgnam ut satiaret dgsideria naturae, C, Fin., 11.
8, 25 ; Laelius used to go to table, to satisfy the cravings of nature.
(Phagthon) optavit ut in currum patris tollergtur, C, Off., in. 25, 94 (546, i).
31 8 SEQUENCE OF TENSES.
Remark. — Parenthetical final sentences like nt ita dicam, nS errStis,
are really dependent on the thought or utterance of the speaker, and
have the present sequence everywhere.
N6 longior sim, val6, C, Fain., xv. 19; 7iof to be tedious, farewell!
NS tamen ignores, virtute Neronis Armenius cecidit, II., Ep., i. 12, 25 ; hut
that you may not fail to know it, it ivas hy the valor of Nero that the
Armenian fell.
Notes.— 1. The Pf. and Plupf. Subjv. are sometimes found in sentences of Design,
chietiy in earlier and later Latin (no example is cited from Caesau or Sallust), when
stress is laid on completion, or when an element of Hope or Fear comes in : Ut SiC
dixerim (first found in Quint.), if I may be allowed to use the exjjression.
Affirmare andeo me omui ope adnisurmn esse nS frustra vos hanc spem dS
me conceperitis, L., xliv. 22 ; I dare assure you that I will strain every nerve to keep
you from having conceived this hope of me in rain. (After a past tense, ne concepis-
setis.) Nunc agendum est nS frustra oppressum esse Antonium gavisi simus,
C, ad Br., i. 4, 3. Hie obsistam, ne imprudent! hue ea se subrSpsit (131, 4, t>. 2)
mihi, Pl., M.G., 333. EfFecit ne cuius alterius sacrilegium res publica quam
Neronis sgnsisset, Tac, Agr., 6.
Wlien the tense is comix)und, the participle is usually to be considered as a mere
adjective.
Patronus extiti uti n5 [Sex. Roscius] omnino dgsertus esset, C, Bosc.Am., 2,
5 ; where d§sertUS = solus.
2. Occasional apparent exceptions are to be explained in various ways. Thus, in C,
Sest., 14, 32 : etiamne Sdicere audeas n§ maererent, we have a repetition as an
indignant question of the precetling statement : gdicunt (Hist. Pr.) duO COnsulSs ut
ad suum vestitum senatores redirent.
513. Exceptional Sequence of Tenses : — Sentences of Re-
sult {Consecutive Sentences). In Sentences of Result, the
Present Subjunctive is used after Past Tenses to denote the
continuance into the Present, the Perfect Subjunctive to
imply final result. This Perfect Subjunctive may represent
either the Pure Perfect or Aorist, the latter especially with
the negative : the action happened once for all or not at all.
Present Tense :
[Siciliam VerrSs] per triennium ita vexavit ut ea restitui in antiquum
statum ntillo modo possit, C, Yerr., I. 4, 12 ; Verres so harried Sicily for
three years as to make it ntierhj impossible for if to be restored to its
original condition. In [LucullS] tanta prudentia fuit ut hodiS stet Asia,
C, Ac, II. I, 3 ; Lucullus's forethought was so great that Asia sta7ids
firm to-day.
Perfect Tense (Pure) :
(MurSna) Asiam sic obiit ut in ea neque avSritiae neque luxuriae vSstl-
gium rellquerit, C, Mur., 9, 20 ; Murena so administered Asia as not to
have (that he has not) left in it a trace either of greed or debauchery
(there is no trace there),
SEQUENCE OF TEKSES. 319
Perfect Tense (Aorist) .:
Equites hostium asriter cum equitatu nostr5 conflixerunt, tamen ut nostri
eosin silvas collgsque compulerint, Caes., B.G., v. 15, 1 ; the cavalry of
the enemy engaged the cavalry on our side briskly, and yet {the upsliot
was that) our men forced them into the woods and hills. Neque vgro tarn
remisso ac languido animo quisquam omnium fuit qui ea nocte conquiSverit,
Caes., B.C., i. 21, 5; and indeed there was no one at all of so slack and
indifferent a temper as to take {a wink of) sleep that night.
Remarks. — i. After a Pure Pf., if the dependent clause is affirma-
tive, CiCEiio prefers the Impf. (he has but iive cases of Pf.); if negative
the Pf. (in the proportion 2 to 1).
2. After accidit, contigit, and other verbs of Happening, the Impf. is
always used, the result being already emphasized in the Indie, form.
Accidit ut una nocte omngs Hermae deicerentur, Nep., vii., 3, 3 ; it
happened that in one night all the Hermae were thrown down.
Notes.— 1. The use of the Aoristic Pf. Siibjv. after an Aoristic Pf. Indie, seems to
have been an attempt of the Romans to replace the consecutive Aor. Inf. in Greek with
wffT€. Examples are not found in early Latin, are rare in Cicero, very rare in Caesau,
perhaps not at all in Sallust ; more frequent in Livy, common in Tacitus, very com-
mon in Nepos and Suetonius, etc.
2. In two coordinated clauses depending on the same verb we find the tenses occa-
sionally varying. The Pf. in the first subordinate, with Impf. in the second, is doubtful
in any case, rare in Cicero, and is cited but once each from Caesar (B. G., vii. 17) and
Velleius (i. 9, 1). The reverse construction, Impf. followed by Pf ., is more common,
but found first (though rarely) in Livy, and belongs mainly to late Latin.
ZSno nuUo modo is erat qui nervos virtutis inciderit, sed contra qui omnia
in virtute poneret, C, Ac, i. 10, 35. Here the shift is due to the negative. TantUS
pavor omnes occupavit ut non modo alius quisquam arma caperet- sed etiam
ipse r§X perfugerit, L., xxiv. 40, 12. Here the tenses depend on the ideas of continu-
ance and completion, of the many and the single (non capi6bant^r6x perfugit).
3. In relative sentences of coincident action with causal coloring, either the coinci-
dence is retained, or a principal clause in the Past is followed by the Impf. Subjunctive.
Tu humanissimS fScisti qui mg certiorem fgceris, c.,Att.,xni.43,l. Cum
hoc Pompeius vehementer egit cum diceret, etc., c, Att., 11. 22, 2. Videor mihi
gratum fecisse Siculis, quod eorum iniurias sim persecutus, C, Verr., u. 6, 15
(518, R.).
Representation of the Subjunctive in the Future and
Future Perfect Tenses.
514. The Subjunctive has no Future or Future Perfect,
which are represented either by the other Subjunctives, or
in the Active by the Subjunctive of the Periphrastic Conju-
gation.
Rule I. — (a) After a Future or Future Perfect Tense, the
Future relation (contemporary with the leading Future) is
320
SEQUENCE OF TENSES.
represented by the Present Subjunctive ; the Future Perfect
(prior to the leading Future) by the Perfect Subjunctive,
according to the rule.
Cognoscam,
/ shall (try to) find out,
CognoverS,
/ shall have found out (shall know),
quid facias, what you are doing
(will be doing).
^quid fgceris, what you have done
(will have done).
{V) But whenever the dependent Future is subsequent to
the leading Future, the Periphrastic Tense must be employed.
Cdgnoscam,
I shall (try to) find out,
Cognover5,
/ shall have found out (shall know),
quid facturus sis,
"what you are gomy to do (what
you will do).
[Considerabimus], [we shall consider'] .
A. Quid fgcerit aut quid ipsi acciderit aut quid dixerit, ivhat he has
done, or ivhat has happened to him, or what he has said.
B. Aut quid faciat, quid ipsi accidat, quid dicat, or, ivhat he is doing,
what is happening to him, ivhat he is saying.
C. A.ut quid facturus sit, quid ipsi casurum sit, qua sit usurus oratione,
C, Inv., I. 25, 36; or what he is going to do (will do), what is going to
(will) happen to him, ivhat plea he is going to employ (will employ).
Tti quid sis acturus pergratum erit si ad mg scripseris, C, Fam. , ix. 2, 5 ;
it will he a great favor if you will write to me what you are going
to do.
Remark, — In some of these forms ambiguity is unavoidable,
may represent a real Perfect, B a real Present.
So A
515. EuLE II. — After the other tenses, the Future relation
is expressed by the Active Periphrastic Subjunctive, Present
or Imperfect.
C5gnQsc9,
I am finding out,
COgnovI,
I have found out (know),
C5gnQsc€bam,
I was trying to find out,
Cogii5veram,
/ had found out,
quid facturus sis (irhat you are going to
do), what you will do.
quid facturus ess6s {what you were going to
do), what you would do.
SEQUEN'CE OF TENSES. 321
Tarn ea rgs est facilis ut innumerabilis natura mundos eflfectura sit, effi-
ciat, elfecerit, Cf. C, N.D., i. 21, 53; the thing is so easy that nature
will make, is making, has made, innumerable ivorlds.
Incertum est quam longa cuiusque nostrum vita futura sit, C, Verr., i.
58, 153 ; it is uncertain hoiv long the life of each one of us is goi?ig to
be (will be).
Antea dubitabam venturaene essent legiongs ; nunc mih! non est dubium
quin venturae non sint, C, Fam., 11. 17, 5 ; before, I was doiMful whether
the legions tvould come (or no) ; 7iow I have no doubt that they will not
come.
Remarks. — i. The Pf. and Plupf. Subjv. of the Periphrastic are used
only to represent the Apodosis of an Unreal Conditional Sentence.
C6gn6sc5, Cognovi, quid facturus fueris, (whatyou have been
lam finding out, I have found out what you ■would have done, going to do).
(know),
Cognoscgbam, Cognoveram, [quid facttirus fuiss6s, {what you had been
I was trying to find out, I had found out, xohat you would have going to do).
done, rare.]
2. There is no Periphrastic for the Fut. Pf. active, no Periphrastic
for passive and Supineless Verbs. The Grammars make up a Peri-
phrastic for all these from futurum sit, esset ut, as :
-_- j-u-i.- -rx- -i I Mt redderit, that he will have returned.
Non dubitoquin futurum sit, J ^ ^ ., . , .„ .
I do not doubt '^^ '**''' i ut maereat, that he will grieve.
[ ut necStur, that he will be killed.
But there is no warrant in actual usage.
For the dependent Fut. Pf. act. Terence says {Hec, 618) : Tua rgfert nil utrum
illaec fgcerint quand5 haec aberit.
For the dependent Fut. Pf. pass. Cicebo says (Fam.,yi. 12, 3) : Nec dubito quin
C5nfecta r6s futura sit, nor do I doubt but the matter will have been settled.
In the absence of the Periphrastic forms, use the proper tenses of posse. (248, R.)
3. When the preceding verb has a future character (Fear, Hope,
Power, Will, and the like), the simple Subjv. is sufficient.
Gain, nisi perfrSgerint mtinitiongs, d§ omni salute dSspgrant ; RSmanI, si
rem obtinuerint, finem laborum omnium exspectant, Caes., b. G., vn. 85, 3 ; the
Gauls despair of all safety unless they break through {shall have broken through) the
fortifications ; the Romans lookfonvard to an end of all their toils, if they hold their
own {shall have held). Vgngrunt querentSs nee spem uUam esse resistendi, nisi
praesidium Romanus misisset, I-^-, xxxiv. n, 2 ; they came with the complaint that
there was no hope of resistance unless the Roman sent a force to protect them. Intent!
quando hostis inprudentia rueret, Tac, H., u. 34.
Of cour!?e the Deliberative Subjunctive is future : Examples, 265.
Et certamen habentlSti, quae vivasequatur coniugium, Prop., iv. 12, 19 (M.).
616. Sequence of Tenses in Oratio Obliqua : In Oratio Obli-
qua and kindred constructions, the attraction of tenses ap-
31
322 SEQUENCE OF TENSES.
plies also to the representatives of the Future and Future
Perfect Subjunctive.
In [clava] erat scriptum nisi domum revertergtur sg capitis eum damna-
ttiros, Nep., IV. 3, 4; it was written on the staff that if he did not re-
turn home, they woidd condemn him to death. (Oratio Egcta : nisi
domum revertgris, tg capitis damnabimus, imless you (shall) return home,
we ivill condemn you to death). Pythia praecgpit ut Miltiadem sibi im-
peratorem stimerent ; id si fgcissent (0. R., fgceritis) incepta prospera futura
(0. R., erunt), Nep., i. i, 3 ; the Pythia instructed them to take Miltiades
for their general ; that if they did that, their undertakings would be
successful. lacedaemonii, Philippo minitante per litteras sg omnia quae
conarentur (6. R., conabimini) prohibiturum, quaesiverunt num sg esset eti-
am mori prohibiturus (0. R., prohibgbis), C.,Tusc., v. 14, 42; the Lacedae-
monians, when Philip threatened them hy letter that he would prevent
everything they undertook (should undertake), asked whether he ivas
going to (would) preveiit them from dying too.
517. Sequence of Tenses after the other Moods. — The Im-
perative and the Present and Perfect Subjunctive have the
Sequences of the Principal Tenses ; the Imperfect and Plu-
perfect have the Sequences of the Historical Tenses.
[Ng] compone comas quia sis venturus ad illam, Ov., Rem. Am., 679; do
not arrange (your) locks because (forsooth) you are going to see her.
Excellentibus ingeniis citius defuerit ars qua civem regant quam qua hostem
superent, L., 11. 43, 10; great geniuses woidd be more likely to lack the
skill to control the citizen than the skill to overcome the enemy. Quid
mg proMbgret Epicurgum esse, si probarem quae ille diceret? C, Fin., i.
8, 27; what ivould preve7it me from being an Epicurean if I approved
ivhat he said (says) ? Turn ego tg primus hortarer diu pgnsitargs quem
potissimum gligergs, Plin., Ep., iv, 15, 8; in that case I should be the
first to exhort you to iveigh long whom you shoidd choose above all
others. Quae vita fuisset Friam5 si ab adulgscentia scisset quos gventus
senectutis esset habiturus 1 C, Div., 11. 9, 22 ; what sort of life would
Priain have led if he had known, from early manhood, what were to be
the closing scenes of his old age 9
Remarks. — i. Of course, when the Pf. Subjv. represents an Histor-
ical Tense, it takes the historical Sequence :
Magna culpa Pelopis qui nOn docuerit filium quatenus esset quidque
curandum, C, Tusc, i. 44, 107; greatly to blame is Pelops for not having
taught his son how far each thing was to be cared for. Qui scis an ea
causa mg Odisse adsimulaverit, ut cum matre plus una esset ? Ter., Hec,
235 ; how do you knoiv but she has pretended to hate me in order to he
more with her (oivn) mother ?
SEQUENCE OF TENSES.
323
So also in the Conditional proposition, when the action is past. For
varying conception, see C, Off., iii. 24, 92.
2. The Impf. Subjv., being used in opposition to the Present, might
be treated as a Principal Tense, but the construction is less usual :
Vergrer ne immodicam orationem putares nisi esset generis eius ut saepe
incipere saepe desinere videatur, Plin., Ep., ix. 4, 1; / should be afraid
of your thinking the speech of immoderate length, if it were ?wt of snch
kind as to produce the effect of often beginning, often ending. ego nS
possim tales sentire dolores quam mallem in gelidls montibus esse lapis !
Tib., II. 4, 7.
618. Sequence of Tenses after an Infinitive or Participle.
— When a subordinate clause depends on an Infinitive or
Participle, Gerund or Supine, the tense of that clause follows
the tense of the Finite verb, if the Finite verb is Past ; if the
Finite verb is Present, it follows the tense that the dependent
verb would have had, if it had been independent.
Dicit s6 interrogare (original
interrogo),
He says that he is asking,
Dicit se interrogasse (original
interrogavi),
He says that he asked.
Dixit 86 interrogare (original
interrogo),
He said that he was asking.
quid agas,
quid ggeris,
quid acturus sis,
quid ageres,
quid ggisses,
quid acturus esses,
what you are doing,
ivhat you have done,
what you are going
to do (will do).
what you were doing.
what you had done.
what you were going
to do (would do).
Mihi interroganti,
ivhen I ask him,
(literally : to me asking),
Mihl interroganti,
ivhen I asked him
(literally : to me
quid agat, tvhaf heis doi?ig, f non re-
quid ggerit, what he has spondet,
done, < he gives
quid acturus what he is going no an-
sit, to do (will do), [ siver.
' quid ageret, what he tvas do- ''
ing, non re-
quid ggisset, u) h a t he had spondit,
done, \ he gave
quid acturus ^0 an-
esset, what he was go- swer.
ing to do,
Apud Hypanim fluvium Aristoteles ait bestiolas quasdam nasci quae unam
diem vivant, C, Tusc, i. 39, 94 (G50). Satis mihi multa verba fecisse vi-
deor quare esset hoc bellum necessarium, C, Imp., 10, 27; / think I have
said enough (to show) why this war is necessary. ApellSs pictores eos
324 REFLEXIVE IK SUBORDINATE SENTENCES.
peccare dIcSbat qui nSn sentirent quid esset satis, C, Or., 22, 73; Apelles
used to say that those painters blundered ivho did not perceive ivhat
was (is) eiiough. Ath6niens6s Cyrsilum quendam suadentem ut in urbe
mangrent lapidibus obrugrunt, C, O/f., in. 11, 48 (546). Cupido incessit
animos iuvenum sciscitandi ad quein eorum regnum Romanum esset ventu-
rum, L., I. 56, 10; the minds of the young men were seized by the desire
of inquiring to which of them the kingdom of Rome would come.
Miserunt Delphos consultum quid facerent, Nep., ii. 2, 6 ; they sent to
Delphi to ask the oracle what they should do. See 265.
Remark. — Nevertheless examples are not imfrequent where the
sequence of the governing verb is retained : Videor mih! gratum fgcisse
Siculis quod eorum iniurias meo periculo sim persecutus, C, Verr., 11. 6, 15;
/ seem to have pleased the Sicilians, in that J have followed up their
injuries at my own risk (on account of the coincidence, 513, n. 3).
619. Oricii7ial Subjunctives in Dependence. — i. The Po-
tential of Present or Future after a Past tense goes into the
Past ; the same is true of Deliberative Questions (465). On
the other hand, the Potential of the Past must be retained
even after a Present tense (467).
VideS causas esse permultas quae [Titum Roscium] impellerent, C, Rose.
Am., 33, 92; I see that there are very many causes which might have
impelled Titus Roscius. QuaerS a tS cur Gaium CornSiium non dSfenderem,
C, Fa^., 2, 5(467).
2. On the behavior of Conditional Subjunctives in depend-
ence see 597j, R. 4.
Remark. — The Sequence of Tenses is not unfrequently deranged by
the attraction of parenthetic clauses or, especially in long sentences, by
the shifting of the conception. Examples are C, Balb.^ i. 2 ; Ph., iii.
15, 39 ; Ac, II. 18, 56, and many others.
USE OF THE REFLEXIVE IN SUBORDINATE
SENTENCES.
520. In subordinate clauses, the Reflexive is used with
reference either to the subject of the principal, or to the
subject of the subordinate, clause ; and sometimes first to
the one and then to the other.
521. The Reflexive is used of the principal subject when
reference is made to the thought or will of that subject ;
hence, in Infinitive Sentences, in Indirect Questions, in Sen-
REFIiEXIVE IN SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. 325
tences of Design, and in Sentences which partake of the
Oblique Relation.
Sentit animus sS vi sua, non aliSna movSrI, C, Twsc, i. 23, 55; the
mind feels that it moves by its own force, (and) not by that of another.
QuaesivSrunt num s6 esset etiam mori prohibitOrus, C, Tusc, v. 14, 42
(516). Pompgius a ni6 petivit ut sgcum et apud se essem cottidig, Cf.C,
Att., V. 6, 1 ; Pompey asked me to be with him, and at his house, daily.
Paetus omngs libros quOs frater suus reliquisset mihi donavit, C, Att., 11. i,
12; Paetus presented to me all the books (as he said) that his brother had
left (quos frater eius reliquerat, would be the statement of the narrator).
Remarks. — i. Sentences of Tendency and Result have forms of is,
when the subj. is not the same as that of the leading verb ; otherwise
the Reflexive :
Tarquinius sic Servium dlliggbat ut is gius vulg5 habgrgtur fflius, C,
Pep. II. 21, 38; 2\irquin loved Servius so that he ivas commonly consid-
ered his son. But Tanta opibus Etruria erat ut iam nSn terras solum sed
mare etiam fama nominis sui implgsset, L. , i. 2, 5 ; so great in means (= so
powerful) ivas Etruria that she had already filled not only the land,
but even the sea, with the reputation of her 7iame.
2. The Reflexive may refer to the real agent, and not to the gram-
matical subj. of the principal clause. (309, 2.)
A Caesare invltor sib! ut sim Iggatus, C, Att., 11. 18, 3; / am invited
by Caesar {= Caesar invites me) to be lieutenant to him.
Especially to be noted is the freer use of suus (309, 4). The other
forms are employed chiefly in reflexive formulae (309, 3), as sg recipere,
to withdraw, etc.
(Rgmani) sui colligendi hostibus facultatem (non) relinquunt, Caes.,
^.6^., III. 6, 1(309,3).
3. The Reflexive is used in general sentences, as one, one's self, etc.
(309, i): DgfSrme est dg sg ipsum praedicare, C, Off., i. 38, 137; it is un-
seemly to be bragging about one's self.
With the Inf. this follows naturally from 420.
4. In Indie, relative sentences, which are mere circumlocutions (505),
is is the rule:
SScratgs inhonestam sib! crgdidit Orationem quam ei Lysias reo compo-
suerat, Quint., ii. 15, 30; Socrates believed the speech which Lysias had
composed for Mm when he was arraigned, dishonoring to him.
Sometimes, however, the Reflexive is put contrary to the rule:
Metellus in ils urbibus quae ad sg dgfgcerant praesidia imp5nit, S.,
lug., 61, 1; Metelhis put garrisons in those towns ivhich had gone over
to him ; regularly, ad eum.
lUe babet quod sibi debgbatur, PETR.,43, 1; he has his due; regu-
larly, ei.
326 REFLEXIVE IN SUBORDINATE SENTENCES.
5. Sometimes the Demonstrative is used instead of the Reflexivej
because the nan-ator presents his point of view:
Solon, quo tiitior vita gius esset, furere se simulavit, C, Off., i. 30, 108;
Solon feigned madness that his life 'might be the safer. (The notion of
Result intrudes.) Pompeius ignes fieri prohibuit, quo occultior esset eius
adventus, Caes., B.C., iii. 30, 5; Pompey forbade fires to be kindled in
order that his approach might be the better concealed.
Notes.— 1. Occasionally, principally in early Latin, the Reflexive seems to be used
witli the force merely of a tliird personal pronou'.i :
Vitis si macra erit, sarmenta sua concidito minute, Cato, Agr., 37, 3.
But sentences like eum fecisse aiunt quod sibi faciundum fuit (Pl., Poen., 956),
where the relative clause is but a circumlocution for olRcium. suom, belong properly
under 11. 4. Similarly, C.,7/?t;.,i. 33, 55. In the sentence, Cicero tibi mandat, Ut
Aristodemo idem de se respondeas quod dg fratre suo respondisti (C, Att., n. 7,
5), dS fratre eius would jar on account of the se to which it refers.
2. Examples of Reflexives pointing both ways :
[Romani] legates miserunt qui a [Prusial peterent ne inimicissimum suum
(= Romanorum) apud se (= Prilsiam) haberet, Nep., xxm. 12, 2 ; the Eomans sent
ambassadors to ask Prvsias not to keep Iheir bUtereH enemy at Jm covrt. Agrippa
Atticum flens orabat atque obsecrabat ut s6 sibi suisque reservaret, Cf. Nep.,
XXV. 22, 2 ; Agrippa begged and conjured Atticus ivith tears to save himself [Atticus]
foi' him [Agrippa] and for his own family [Atticus].
Hopeless ambiguity :
Hergs mens dare ill! damnas esto omnia sua. Quint., vii. 9, 12 ; my heir is to
give him all that is hi^.
3. For the sake of clearness, the subj. of the leading sentence is not unfrequently
referred to in the form of the Demonstrative nistead of the Reflexive :
(Helvgtii) AUobrogibus sgse vel persuasuros existimabant vel vi coacturos
ut per suos fings eos ire paterentur, Caes., b. G., i. 6, 3 ; the Helvetians thought that
they ivoidd jiersuade or force the Allobroges to let them [the Helvetians] go through
their territory.
4. Ipse is always used in its proper distinctive sense ; so, when it represents the
speaker in 0. 0. (660.)
Eius and SuT.
522. Alexander morigns anulum suum dederat Perdiccae, Nep., xvirr.
2, 1; Alexander ,\y;\\(?VL\ dying, had given his ring to Perdiccas.
Perdiccas accgperat gius anulum, Perdiccas had received his ring.
Quarg Alexander dgclaraverat se regnum ei commendasse, thereby,
Alexander had declared that he had committed the kingdom to him.
Ex quo Perdiccas conigcerat eum rggnum sibi commendasse, from this
Perdiccas had gathered that he had committed the kingdom to him.
I,x qu5 omngs conigcerant eum rggnum ei commendasse, from this, all
had gathered that he had committed the kingdom to him.
• Perdiccas p5stulavit ut sg rggem habgrent cum Alexander Snulum sibi
dedisset, Perdiccas demanded that they should have him for king, as
Alexander had given the ring to him.
Amici pOstulavgrunt ut omngs eum rggem habgrent cum Alexander anu-
OBJECT SENTENCES. 32/
lum ei dedisset, (bis) friends demanded that all should Jiave him for
king, as Alexander had given the ring to him. (Lattrnann and Mllller.)
Ita sg gesserat Perdiccas ut el rggnum ab Alexandre commendargtur,
Perdiccas had so behaved himself that the hingdom was intrusted to
him by Alexa?ider.
OBJECT SENTENCES.
523. Verbs of Doing, Perceiving, Conceiving, of Think-
ing and Saying, often take their object in the form of a
sentence.
Notes.— 1. These sentences are regarded, grammatically, as neuter substantives.
The Accusative of neuter substantives is employed as a Nominative. Hence, a passive
or intransitive verb may take an obj<«t sentence as a subject.
2. To object sentences belong also Dependent Interrogative clauses, which have
been treated elsewhere for convenience of reference. See 452, i, n , 4C0, 467.
I. Object Sentences introduced by QUOD.
524. Clauses which serve merely as periphrases (circumlo-
cutions) or expansions of elements in the leading sentence
are introduced by quod, that.
Notes.— 1. This usage seems to be in orif^in explanatory; that jb, a demonstrative
in the leading clause is explained by the quod clause. But as the relative can always
include the antecedent demonstrative, tlie prevailing usage is without an antecedent.
In any case, however, the construction is essentially relative.
2. The original rektion of quod and its antecedent is adverbial. They are Accusa-
tives of Extent, fhat = in that, and are to be classed under the Inner Object (332). But
after transitive verbs qnod and its antecedent are felt as Outer Objects, though when-
ever the notion of Cause intrudes (m thai = because), the original relation comes back,
as in causal sentences proper.
3. The antecedent demonstrative (whether omitted or inserted) would therefore be
either tlie direct object of the verb or it would be in adverbial or prepositional relation.
We have tlien two uses of the explanatory clause ; (a) with verbs, with or without an
antecedent demonstrative ; (6) as explanatory of an antecedetU (expressed or implied)
in adverbial relation to the verb or dependent upon a prep >6ition.
525. I. Uuod {tlie fact that, the cirt^umstance that, in
that) is used to introduce explanatory clauses, after verbs of
Adding and Dropping, and after verbs of Doing and Hap-
pening with an adverb.
Adde hue quod perferri litterae nulla condicione potugrunt, Pollio (0.,
Fam., X. 31, 4); add to this the fact that letters could mider no cir-
cumstances be got through. Adde quod ingenuas didicisse fidSliter ai't^s
Smollit morSs nee sinit esseferos, Ov., Pont., ir. 9, 47; add {the fact) that
to have acquired faithfully the accomplishments (education) of a gentle-
man, softetis the character, and does not let it he savage. Praetereo quod
328 OBJECT SENTENCES.
earn sib! domum dglegit, C, Cluent., 66, 188 ; I pass over tJie fact iJiat
she chose that house for herself. Bene facis quod me adiuvas, C, Fiii.,
III. 4, 16 ; 7 is kind in you to help me. Accidit perincommods quod
eum nusquam vidisti, C, Ait., i. 17, 2 ; it happened very un fortunately
that you saw him noivhei'e. Bene mihi 6venit quod mittor ad mortem, Q.,
Tusc, 1. 41, 97; it is fortunate for me that lam sent to death (execution).
Notes. — 1. Of verbs of Adding adicere is introduced by Livy, addere is cited
once each from Accius (209, R.) and Terence {Ph., 168), then more often from Lucre-
tius, Horace, and Ovm, but not from Cicero and Vergil. AccMere is the passive
of addere and occurs at all periods. Of verbs of Dropping, only praetereo, mittO,
and omitto (C, Aft., viii. 3, 3) are cited (all classical).
2. Esse is found mostly in the combinations quid (hoc) est quod, ^ohy is it that,
this is why, which are confined to early Latin : Scin quid est quod ego ad t§ venio 1
Pl., Men., 677 ; hSc est quod ad v5s venio, Pl., St., 127. Est quod, nihil est quod,
etc., occur here and there later, but the effect of the negative on the mood is noteworthy.
Compare positive sed est quodsuscSnset tibi(TER.,yi7uZ., 448) ; the?-e is something
that niaJces him angry iviih yon, with negative nihil est iam quod mihi suscSnseas
(Pl., Merc, 317) ; there is nothing to imtke you angry with me.
3. To this group belongs the exclamatory interrogation QuidT quod, or quid
quod ? -what of this, that ?
Quid quod simulac mihi collihitum est praesto est imago % C, N.B., i. 38, 108;
what is to be said of the fact that the image presents itself as soon as I see Jit f {Nay,
vtoes not t/ie iinage pi^esent itself?)
4. The nse of quod after verbs of Doing and Happening is found first in Cicero ;
Plautus uses quia in this construction.
5. With several of the above-mentioned verbs ut can be employed, as well as quod
(ut, of the tendency — quod, of the fact) :
Ad Appi Claudi senectutem aco§debat ut etiam caecus esset, C, Cat.M.. 6, 16
(553, 4), or, quod caecus erat. Accedit quod patrem plus etiam quam ipse scit
amo, C, Att., XIII. 21, 7 ; besides, J love the fatJier even more than lie himself knmos.
But when the action is prospective or conditional, ut must be used :
Additur ad hanc dSflnltionem aZSnone rSctg ut ilia opIni5praesentis mall
sit recgns, C, Tusc, m. 31, 75.
G. Quod with verbs of Motion as an adverbial Ace. is confined to early Latin and to
veniS (Pl-t Men., 677) and mittS (Pl., Ps., 639).
7. The extension of quod to verba sentiendi et dicendl is very unusual. One
example in early Latin (Pl., Asin., 52) is nuich disputed ; suspicious examples are C,
Fam.,\\\. 8,6 ; Caes., 77.C.,i. 23,3, but a certain example is in b.IIisp. (10, 2), re-
nuntiarunt quod habSrent. The only case in Augustan poets is V., A., ix. 289 ; it is
doubtful in Livy ; perhaps twice in Tacitus {Aim. ,111. 54; xiv. 6). In later Latin,
from Petronius on, it becomes frequent.
2. Quod {in that, as to the fact that, whereas) introduces
explanatory clauses after demonstratives (expressed or im-
plied), independent of the leading verb. See 627, R. 2.
Mih! quidem videntur homines hSc rS maximS bSstiis praestSre, quod
loqui possunt, C, Inv., i. 4; to me men seem to excel beasts most in this,
that they have the power of speech. Praeterquam quod fieri nOn potuit, nS
fingi quidem potest, C, Div., 11. 12, 28; besides the fact that this could
not be done, it could not even be made up. Nil habet Infgllx paupertas
OBJECT SENTENCES. 329
dtirius in sg quam quod (= id quod) ridiculSs homings facit, Juv., iii. 152 ;
unhappy poverty hath in itself nothing harder {to bear) than that it
makes people ridiculous. Magnum beneficium [est] naturae quod necesse
est mori, Sen. , E. 31. , loi , 14 (204). Quod spiro et placeo, si placeo, tuum est,
H., 0., IV. 3, 24; that I do breathe and please, if that I please, is thine.
Notes.— 1. In early usage the antecedent is not common, but it is emploj-ed very
often by Cicero, for the purposes of argument.
2. Prepositional usages witli the Abl. are ex e5, d§ e5, In eO, pro e5, Cum e3
quod. Of these cum eo quod, with the proviso that, is very rare, occurring but once
in Cicero (Att., vi. i, 7). The prepositional usages with the Ace. are ad id quod
(only in Livy) ; super id quod (only in Tacitus) ; praeter quod (Florus and late
writers); prae quod (Plautus only). Similar is excepto quod (Hor., Quint.). As
praeter and super are comparative in force, we find praeter quam quod (early Latin,
Cic, and later), super quam quod (only in Livy). Similar to praeter quod is nisi
quod (Plaut., Cicero [not Orations], Sall., Livy", and later). Tantum quod = nisi
quod, once in Cicero ( Verr., 1. 45, 116) and is rare; tantum quod, temporal, " just," is
colloquial, and found first in Cicero's Letters, then not till the post-Augustan period.
3. Quod, ''as to the fact that,'' is combined also with the Subjv. in early Latin:
quod ille gallinam sg sectari dicat, etc. (Pl., 31. G., 162). This is explained as being
the Potential Subjv., inasmuch as all the examples cited involve supposed statements or
actions of a second or third (often indefinite) person, which the speaker merely wishes
to anticipate. The usage is occasional, also, later : C, Pis., 27, 66 ; Verr., v. 68, 175, and
sporadically in Fronto and Gaius. Sometimes the idea of Partial Obliquity enters, as
in c, Br., 18, 73, quod aequalis fuerit LIvius, minor fuit aliquantO ; Inv., n. 29,
89, (reading doubtful).
In general the usage of quod, "■ as to the fact that,'' is familiar. Cicero uses it often
in his Letters. But Caesar is fond of it too. Tacitus has it but once {Dial., 25).
3. The reigning mood is the Indicative. The Subjunctive
is only used as in Oratio Obliqua.
Cum Castam accusarem nihil magis pressi quam quod accusator eius prae-
varicationis crimine corruisset, Plin., Ep., in. 9, 34 ; whe7i I accused
Casta there was no point that I laid more stress on than (what I stated)
* ' that her accuser had gone to pieces under a charge of collusion. "
Remark. — Verbs of Emotion, such as Rejoicing, Sorrowing, etc.^
take quod with the Indie, or Subjunctive. See Causal Sentences, 539.
II. Object Sentences, with Accusative and Infinitive.
626. Prelimmary Observation. — On the simple Infinitive
as an object, see 423.
The Inf. , as a, verbal predicate, has its subject in the Accusative. (420.)
527. Active verbs of Saying, Showing, Believing, and
Perceiving (verba sentiendi et declarandi), and similar ex-
pressions, take the Accusative and Infinitive :
Thales Milesius aquam dixit esse initium r6rum, C, iV.i>., i. lo, 25;
330 OBJECT SENTENCES.
Thales of Miletus said that water was the first principle of things.
[Solon] furere s6 Simula vit, C, Off., i. 30, 108; Solon pretended to he mad.
Medici causa morbi inventa curationem esse inventam putant, C, Tusc,
III. lo, 23; physicians think that, (when) the cause of disease (is) dis-
covered, the method of treatment is discovered. Volucrgs vidgmus fingers
et construere nidos, C, Or., 11. 6, 23; we see that birds fashion and build
nests. Audiet cives acuisse ferrum, H., 0., i. 2, 21; [the youth] shall
hear that citizens gave edge to steel. Timagenes auctor est omnium
in litteris studiorum antiquissimam musicgn extitisse, Quint., i. 10, 10 ;
Timagenes is the authority (for the statement) tJiat of all intellectual
pursuits music was the most ancient.
The sentence very often passes over into the Ace. and Inf. (0. O.)
without any formal notice.
Remarks. — i. Verba sentiendi comprise two classes, those of {a)
Actual and those of {b) Intellectual Perception. Some verbs, such as
sentire, videre, cemere, audire, belong to both classes. Otherwise the
most common are :
(«) Conspicari, conspicere, aspicere, suspicere, prospicere, also rarely
tueri and somniare (early).
{h) Intellegere, cognoscere, comperire, scire, nescire, and less commonly,
but Ciceronian, discere, ignorare, accipere, animadvertere, perspicere,
etc.
2. Verba declarandi can likewise be divided into two classes : (a)
those of Actual and {h) those of Intellectual Representation; but the
classes often fade into each other, or, rather, a verb of Intellectual
Representation can be readily used as one of Actual Representation.
In general, verbs of Intellectual Representation are those of Thinking,
Remembering, Belief and Opinion, Expectation, Trust and Hope.
Verbs of Actual Representation are those of Saying, Showing, Approv-
ing, Boasting, Pretending, Promising, Swearing, Threatening, Accus-
ing (the last have more often quod). Verbs of Concluding belong
always to both classes. The principal of these verbs are : putare, ducere,
arbitrari, cgns6re, suspicari, credere, existiraare, meminisse, confidere, spg-
rare, dgspgrare. Then dicere, edicere, affirmare, confirmare, aio (rare),
loqul (rare), negare, fatgri, narrare, tradere, scribere, niintiare, ostendere,
probare, gloriari, dgmonstrare, persuadere, significare, pollicgri, promittere,
minari, simulare, dissimulare, etc.; concludere, colligere, efficere. Also
ponere, to suppose (rare), facere, to represent. Simihir expressions are
spgs est, opinio est, ^ma est, auctor sum, tgstis sum, certiorem aliquem
facere, etc.
3. When the subj. of the Inf. is a personal or reflexive pronoun, that
subj. may be omitted — chiefly with Fut. Inf. — and then esse also is
dropped. This occurs rarely in Cicero, more frequently in early
Latin, Caesar, and later.
OBJECT SENTENCES. 33 1
Refracturos carcerem minabantur, L., vi. 17, ; they threatened to
break open the Jail.
4. The simple Inf. is often used in English, where the Latin takes
Ace. and Infinitive. This is especially true of verbs of Hoping and
Promising. Spero me hoc adepturum esse, / hope to {that I shall) obtain
this. Promittebat se venturum esse, he p)romised to {that he would)
come.
5. When the Ace. with the Inf. is followed by a dependent Ace.,
ambiguity may arise :
Aio te, Aeacida, Romanos vincere posse (C, Div., 11. 56, 116), in which
te may be subject or object.
Real ambiguity is to be avoided by giving the sentence a passive
turn :
Aio a te, Aeacida, Romanos vinci posse, I affirm that the Romans can
be conquered by thee, son of Aeacus.
Aio te, Aeacida, a Romanis vinci posse, / affirm that thou, son of
Aeacus, canst be conquered by the Romans.
When the context shows which is the real subj., formal ambiguity
is of no importance. But see Quint., vii. g, 10.
Notes.— 1. Verbs of Perception and Representation talce the Part, to express the
actual condition of tlie object of Perception or Representation (536). As there is no Pr.
Part, pass., the Inf. must be used, and thus tlie difference between Intellectual and Actual
Perception is effaced, sometimes even in the active, and, in fact, the use of the Part,
is confined to authors who are consciously influenced by a rivalry with the Greek.
Audio civ6s acuent6s ferrum, Cf. H., O., i. 2,21 ; I hear citizens sharpen(ing) the
steel. Audio a civibus acui ferrum, I hear that the steel is shai^ened by citizens ;
or, the steel as it is sharpened by citizens. Octavium (dolore) confici vidi, C, Fi7i.,
II. 28, 93 ; / have seen Octavius (when he was) ivearing end with anguish. VidI
histriones flent§s egredi, Quint., vi. 2, 35 ; I have seen actors leave the stage weep-
ing.
(Plato) a Deo aedificari mundum facit, C, N.D., i. 8, 19 ; Plato makes mit that
the universe is built by God. Polyphemum Homerus cum ariete conloquentem
facit, C, Tusc, V. 39, 115 (536). Fac, quaeso, qui ego sum esse tS, C, Fayn., va. 23,
1 ; suppose, I pray., ycmrself to be me.
2. The (Greek) attraction of the predicate of the Inf. into the Nom. after the Verb
of Saying or Thinking, is poetical ; the first example is Pl., Asin., 634.
Phasglus ille, quem videtis, hospitSs, ait fuisse navium celerrimus, Cat.,
IV. I ; that pinnace yonder, tvhich you see, my stranger guests, declares she used to be
(claims to have beeti) the fastest craft afloat.
There is one example in Cicero (Agr., 11. 21, 57).
3. The use of the Ace. and Inf. with verba dSclarandi is an outgrowth of the use
after verbs of Creation (423), just as in English "I declare him to be," is an extension
of " I make him to be," in which Ace. and Inf. have each its proper force. This is the
origin of the so-called Oratio Obliqua, or Indirect Discourse, which represents not the
exact language used, but the general drift, and in which the tenses of the Inf. seem to
represent approximately the tenses of the Indicative. It was to complete the sclieme of
the Tenses that the Fut. Inf. was developed, and this is the sole use of that tense. The
use of the Ace. and Inf. after verba sentiendi, like the use in English " I see him go."
is more primitive, but tlie original case of the Inf. is no longer felt.
332 KOMIKATIVE WITH INFIN-ITIVE.
Nominative with Infinitive.
528. Passive verbs of Saying, Showing, Believing, and
Perceiving :
1. In the Simple tenses prefer the personal construction,
in which the Accusative Subject of the Infinitive appears as
the Nominative Subject of the leading verb.
2. In the Compound tenses prefer the impersonal con-
struction, which is the rule with Gerund and Gerundive.
Thus, instead of
Tradunt Homgrum caecum fuisse, they say that Homer ivas blind,
we should have,
Traditur HomSrus caecus fuisse, Homer is said to have heen Mind,
or,
[Traditum] est Homerum caecum fuisse, C, Tusc, ¥,.39, 114 ; there is
a tradition that Homer was bli^id.
[Aristaeus] inventor olei esse dicitur, C, Verr., iv. 57, 128 ; Aristaeus
is said to be the inventor of oil. Terenti fabellae propter glegantiam ser-
monis putabantur a Laelio scribi, C, Att., vii. 3, 10 ; Terence's plays, on
account of the elegance of the language, ivere thought to be written by
Laelius. [Si VSios migrabimus] amisisse patriam vidSbimur, L.,v. 53,
b ] if we remove to Veji, we shall seem to have lost our country. Reus
damnatum iri videbatur, Quint., ix. 2, 88 (435, n. 4). CrSditur Pythago-
rae auditSrem fuisse Numam, L., xl. 29, 8 ; it is believed that Numa
teas a hearer of Pythagoras.
But:
[Venerem] AdOnidi nflpsisse pr5ditum est, C, W.D., in. 23, 59 ; it is re-
corded that Venus married Adonis. (Philonem) existimandum est diser-
tum fuisse, C, Or., i. 14, 62 ; we must suppose that Philo was eloquent.
Remarks. — i. The impersonal construction is the rule if a Dat. is
combined with the verb : mih! nuntiabatur Parthos transisse Euphratem,
C, Fam., XV. i, 2 ; it was announced to me that the Parthians had
crossed the Euphrates.
1. Various peculiarities are noteworthy in the matter of these verbs.
Thus, dicitur usually means it is maintained, dictum est, it is said.
CrSditur, etc. (impersonal), is the regular form in classical prose ; the
personal construction is poetical and late. Vid6rl is used, as a rule,
personally ; the impersonal construction vidStur is rare. The active
forms trSdunt, crfidunt, etc., are everywhere common.
TENSES OF THE IKFINITIVE. 333
Notes.— 1. In early Latin the i)ersonal construction is found with argui, cluSre (a
virtual passive), dici, existimarl, invenirl, iuberi, nuntiari, perhibgri, reperiri.
All these, except cluere, are retained in the classical period, Cicero and Caesar
add twenty-five new verbs, and from this time on the construction increases.
2. Virtual passives, on the analogy of cluere, are rare ; apparSre, constare, venire
in suspicionem, are Ciceronian ; so also opus est in [C], Fam., xi. n, 2, and perhaps
Ter., A?id., 337.
3. A second clause following a Nom. with the Inf. takes its subj. in the Accusative
C, Or., II. 74,299.
4. In verbs of Saying, except dico (compare Tac, Ann., iv. 34, 8;, the personal con-
struction is confined to the third person. The poets are free in treating verbs under this
head.
Tenses of the Infinitive with Verba SentiendT et Decla-
randl.
529. The Infinitive denotes only the stage of the action,
and determines only the relation to the time of the leading
verb (281).
530. After verbs of Saying, Showing, Believing, and Per-
ceiving, and the like.
The Present Infinitive expresses contemporaneous action ;
The Perfect Infinitive expresses prior action ;
The Future Infinitive expresses future action.
Remark. — The action which is completed with regard to the leading
verb may be in itself a continued action. So in English: / have been
studying, I had been studying. Hence, the Impf. Indie. (Twos study-
ing) is represented in this dependent form by the Pf. Inf., because it is
prior to the leading verb.
^^ In this table the Present is taken as the type of the Principal,
the Imperfect as the type of the Historical, Tenses.
531. Contemporaneous Action.
Active. Passive.
P. T. DIcit : tS errare, tS dScipI,
He says, that you are going wrong, that you are {being) deceived (217, R.).
H. T. DIcebat : t6 errare, t§ dScipI,
He was saying, that you were going that you were {being) deceived,
wrong.
Prior Action,
P. T. DIcit : tS errasse, tg deceptum esse,
He says, that you hate gone wtvng, that you have been {are) deceived,
that you went wrong, that you were deceived (Aor.),
that . you have been going {that people have been deceiving you),
wrong,
334
TEKSES OF THE INFINITITE.
H. T. Dicebat : tg errasse,
He was saying^ thai you had gone
wrong,
that you tvent wrong,
that you had been
going wrong.
te deceptum esse,
that you had been deceived,
that you ivere deceived (Aor.),
iihat people had been deceiving yon).
Subsequent Aciion.
P. T. DIcit : tg erraturnm esse,
He says, that yoic {are about to go
wrong), wiU {be) go{ing) wrong.
te deceptum iri,
that you {are going to) will be i
ceived.
H, T. DIcSbat : tS erraturum esse,
He was saying, that you were about
to {wovid) go ivrong.
te deceptum iri,
that you ivere going to {would) be
deceived.
Periphrastic Future.
The following form (the Periphrastic Future) is necessary when the verb has no
Sup. or Fut. participle. It is often formed from other verbs to intimate an interval,
which cannot be expressed by other forms, and is more common in the passive than
the Fut. Inf. pass, of the paradigms.
P. T, DIcit: fore (futurum esse) ut er-
r6s (metuas),
fore (futurum esse) ut erra-
Veris (rare),
H. T. Dicgbat : fore (futurum esse) ut
errares (metueres),
errassgs (rare),
fore ut dgcipiaris (metuaris),
fore ut deceptus sis (rare), usually
deceptum fore (not futurum
fore ut decipereris (metuereris),
deceptum fore (rarely : fore ut d6-
ceptus essgs).
Notes.— 1. For examples of the Periphrastic, see 248.
Carthaginignsgs debellatum mox fore rgbantur, L., xxm. 13, 6 ; the Cartha-
ginians tlumght that the war tvould soon be {have been) brought to an end. From
dSbellatum erit, it will be {have been) brought to an end. So in the deponent adep-
tum fore.
2. Ponderous poriphrnstics nro of rare occurrence. So fgtiales dgcrevSrunt
ntrum e5rum fgcisset rgctS facturum (L., x:::a. 8) ; not fore ut fecisset, although
the O. R. requires utrum fgceris, recte fgceris. (244, n. 4.) See Weissenborn''a
note.
3. Posse, velle, etc., do not require the Periphrastic, and seldom take it. (248, R.)
4. SpSrare, to Jvope, promittere (pollic6ri), to promise, which i-egularly take the
Fut. Inf., have occasionally the Pr. when an immediate realization of the hope is antici-
pated. With spSs est the Pr. Inf. is more common.
Legati veniunt qui poUiceantur obsidSs dare, Caes., B. O., iv. 21, 5; ambassa-
dors come to promise the giving of {to give) hostages.
So, too, when the Fut. Inf. is not available, sometimes also when it is. posse and
the Pr. is a fair substitute. Totlus Galliae sgs5 potiri posse (= potituros esse)
spgrant, Caes.. B.G., i. 3, 8 ; they Iwpe they can {will) get imsession of the zohole of
Gaul. See 423, n. .5.
Of course spgrSre u'-ay b<! ustd simply us a verb of Thinking.
ACCUSATIVE AND II^FIN^ITIVE. 335
Accusative and Infinitive witii Verbs of Will and Desire.
532. Verbs of Will and Desire take a Dependent Accusa-
tive and Infinitive.
The relation is that of an Object to be Effected.
Si vis mS flgre, dolendum est primum ipsi tibi, H, ^.P., 102; if you
ivish me to iveep, you must first feel the ^Jctng yourself. Utrum [Milonis]
corporis an Pythagorae tibi malis vires ingenii dari ? C, Cat. 31., 10, 33;
which (whether) ivould you rather have given to you, Jlilo's strength of
body or Pythagoras' strength of mind ? Ipse iubet mortis te meminisse
deus, Mart., ii. 59 (376). Vitae summa brevis spem nos vetat inchoare
longam, n.,0.,i. 4, 15 (423, n. G). Ngmo ire quemquam publica pro-
hibet via, PL.,Cwrc.,35 (389). Germani vinum ad se omnino impor-
tari non sinunt, Caes., B.G., iv. 2, 6; the Germans do not permit wine
to he imported into their country at all.
Remarks.— I. A list of these verbs is given in 423, n. 2.
2. When the subj. of the Inf. is the same as the snbj. of the leading
verb, the subj. of the Inf. is usually not expressed :
Ni parere velis, pereundum erit ante lucernas, Juv., x. 339 ; unless you
resolve to obey, you will have to perish before candle-light. Et iam mal-
let equos numquam tetigisse paternos, Ov., M., u. 182; a?id noiv he could
have wished rather never to have touched his father's horses.
But the subj. may be expressed, and commonly is expressed, when
the action of the Inf. is not within the power of the subject ; so espe-
cially with an Inf. passive :
(Timoleon) maluit sS diligi quam metui, Nep., xx. 3, 4; Timoleon pre-
ferred that he should be loved rather than that he should be feared.
Ego rtis abitaram me certo dgcrgvi, Ter., Hec, 586. Principem se esse
mavult quam vidSri, C, Off., i. 19, 65.
Notes.— 1. On the construction of this class of verbs with ut (n5, quominus), see
546. Impero, I command, in model prose takes only the Inf. passive or deponent; in
Sallust, Hirtius, Curtius, Tacitus, and the Poets sometimes the active.
(Hannibal) imperavit quam plurimas vengnatas serpentgs vivas coUigi,
Nep., 23, 10 ; Hannibal ordered as many jmsonoiis serpents as ])ossible to be caught
alive.
PermittO seldom takes the Inf. (e.g., C, Verr., v. 9, 22); the Ace. with Inf. begins in
Tacitus ; concSdo takes Inf. pass, only, in classical prose. lubeo, Ibid ; sino, Il«t ;
veto, I forbid ; prohibeo, / prohibit, always have the Inf. of passive verbs. With
sino and veto the model construction is Inf. only. SinO takes ut occasionally in
early and late Latin, veto does not have ng till in the post-Ciceronian period. lubSre
takes ut when it is applied to decrees of the Senate, and from Livy on when used of the
orders of generals ; prohibgre takes ng and quominus. These verbs may themselves
be turned into the passive : iubeor, sinor, vetor, probibeor.
2. After iubeo, / bid, and vet5, I forbid, the Inf. act. can be used without a subj.
(even an imaginary or indefinite one) :
Xubet yeddere, he bids return {orders the retvrning).
336 ACCUSATIVE AND INFINITIVE.
Vetat adhibgre medicinam, C, Att., xvi. 15, 5 ; hefoiMds the administration of
medicine. Infandum, regina, iubes renovare dolorem, V., A., 11. 3 ; ujuj^akaUe,
O queen, the anguish which you hid (me, us) revive.
3. After volo, nolo, malo in early Latin, ut and the Subjv. is proportionally
more common than in the classical time. But with the Potential forms, velim, ma-
lim, vellem, mallem, Cicero uses only the Subjv. (without ut). When volo means
maintain, it takes the Inf. only ; see 546, R. i.
4. It is noteworthy that in classical Prose cupere never takes ut, vvhile optare
never takes the Infinitive.
5. On the use of the Pf . Inf. instead of the Pr. after these verbs, see 537, n. i.
6. The Poets go much further in using verbs and phrases as expressions of Will and
Desire. See 423, n. 4.
Accusative and Infinitive with Verbs of Emotion.
633. Verbs of Emotion take a dependent Accusative and
Infinitive, inasmuch as these verbs may be considered as
verbs of Saying and Thinking. (542. )
Salvom t6 advgnisse gaudeo, Ter., P^., 286 ; I. rejoice that you should
have arrived safe {to think that you have arrived safe, at your arriving
safe). Quod salvos advSnistI, that you have arrived safe. Quod salvos
adveneris, that (as you say) you liave arrived safe.
Inferiores non dolSre [dSbent] s5 a suis dignitate superari, C, Lael., 20,
71 ; inferiors ought not to consider it a grievance that they are sur-
passed in rank hy their own {friends).
Remarks. — i. This construction, outside of a few verbs, is not com
mon, though found in a wide range of authors. Gaudere, laetarl, dol6re
queri (beginning in Cic), mlrari, are common ; in addition Cicero uses
rarely, however, more than once each, maergre, ItigSre, cQnficI, discruciari
angi, soUicitari, indignari, fremere, dSmirari, admirari, subesse timorem
Early Latin shows ridgre (Naev.), gestire, mih! dolet (Ter.), maestus sum
(Plaut.), cruciarl (Plaut.), lamentari (Plaut., Hor.), stispirare (Lucr.),
incendor Ira (Ter.), ferox est (Plaut.), invidSre (Plaut., Hor.), formidare,
ver6ri, in addition to the common gaudgre, etc., already cited.
2. On the Participle after a verb of Emotion, 536, n. 2.
Accusative and Infinitive in Exclamations.
534. The Accusative with the Infinitive is used in Excla-
mations and Exclamatory Questions as the object of an un-
expressed thought or feeling.
Hem, mea Itlx, tg nunc, mea Terentia, sic vexSrl, C, Fam., xiv. 2, 2;
Vm, light of my life, for you to he so harassed now, Terentia dear.
Hominemne ROmSnum tam Graecg loqul 1 Plin., Ep., iv. 3, 5 ; a Roman
speak such good Greek ? {To think that a Roman should speak such
ACCUSATIVE AI^TD IKFINITIVE. 337
good Greek.) Mgne incepto desistere — ? V., J^., i. 37; I^desist from my
undertaking ? Hinc abire matrem'? Ter., Hec, 612 ; mother go away
from here 9
Remarks. — i. Different is quod, which gives the ground.
Ei mihi quod nullis amor est sanabilis herbis, Ov., M., i. 523; woe^s me
that {in that, because) love is not to be cured by any herbs.
2. On ut, with the Subjv. in a similar sense, see 558. Both forms
offer an objection.
Accusative and Infinitive as a Subject.
535. The Accusative with the Infinitive may be treated as
the Subject of a sentence. The Predicate is a substantive or
neuter adjective, an impersonal verb or abstract phrase.
In the English " for— to," the '■'■for " belongs not to the case but to the Infinitive, but
the object relation haa been effaced here as it has been in Latin. See 422, n. 1.
Est inusitatum rggem reum capitis esse, C, Dei., i. i ; it is an extra-
ordinary thing that a king should {for a king to) be tried for his life.
Facinus est vincire civem Romanum, C. , Verr., v. 66, 170; it is an outrage
to put a Roman citizen in chains. Necesse est facere sumptum qui quaerit
(= eum qui quaerit) lucrum, Pl., As., 218; need is that he make outlay
who an income seeks. Legem brevem esse oportet, quo facilius ab imperitis
teneatur, Sen,, E.M., 94, 38; it is proper that a law should be brief
{a law ought to be brief), that it may the more easily be grasped by the
uneducated. Quid MilSnis intererat interfici Clodium, C, Mil., 13, 34
(382, 2). Opus est t§ animo valgre, C, Fam., xvi. 14, 2 (406, n. 5).
Remarks. — i. A list of expressions taking the Inf. as a subj. is given
in 422, NN.
2. Oportet, it is proper, and necesse est, must needs, are often used
with the Subjunctive. So also many other phrases with ut. (See 557.)
Necesse also takes the Dat. of the Person :
lit culpent alii, tibi m5 laudare necesse est, Ov., Her., 12, 131 ; let others
blame, but you must give me praise.
3. When the indirect obj. of the leading verb is the same as the
subj. of the Inf. the predicate of the subj. is put in the same case as the
indirect object : in standard prose chiefly with licet, it is left (free) ;
in poetry and later prose with necesse, with satius est, it is better, con-
tingit, it happens, vacat, there is room.
Licuit esse otioso Themistocli, C, Tusc, i. 15, 33 ; Themistocles ivas
free to live a life of leisure.
The Ace. is occasionally found ; always if the Dat. is not expresvsed.
Medios esse iam non lic6bit (nos), C, -4^^., x. 8, 4; it will no longer be
allowable to be neutral.
22
33<S CAUSAL se:n'teitces.
Object Sentences Represented by the Participle.
536. The Participle is used after verbs of Perception and
Representation, to express the actual condition of the object
of perception or representation.
Catonem vidi in bibliotheca sedentem multis circumfusum Stoicorum
libris, C, Fin., in. 2, 7 ; I saiv Cato sitting in the library with an ocean
of Stoic books about him. Prodiga non sentit pereuntem fgmina censum,
Juv., VI. 362 ; the lavish woman does not perceii^e (how) the income (is)
dwindling. Saepe illam audivi furtiva voce loquentem, Cat., lxvii. 41;
I have often heard her talking in a stealthy {in an under-) tone. Gauds
quod spectant oculi te mllle loquentem, II., E}^., i. 6, 19 (542). PolyphS-
mum Homgrus cum ariete conloquentem facit, C, Tusc, v. 39, 115 ; Homer
represents Polyphemus (as) tcdking with the ram.
Notes.— 1. This construction is found but once in early Latin (Piso), then in Cicero,
Sallust, Nepos, ViTRUVius, LivY, Horace. Tlie naturalization of it is due to Cicero,
and other students of Greek models. The poverty of Latin in participles was a serious
drawback to the convenient distinction from the Infinitive ; and it may be said that the
participle was never perfectly at home.
2. On the Inf., see 527, n. 1. The Greek construction of Part, agreeing with the
leading Nom. after verbs of Perception and Emotion, is rare and poetical :
Gaudent scribentSs, H., Ep., n. 2, 107 ; they have joy while ivriting. SSnsit
medios dglapsus in hostSs, V., A., 11. 377 ; he iierceited (it) having fcdlen {that he had
fallen) 'midst the enemy. Gaudent perfusi sanguine fratrum, V., G., 11. 510 ; they
r^oice, bedrenched with brothers'' blood.
637. The Perfect Participle Passive is used after verbs of
Ca-usation and Desire, to denote impatience of anything ex-
cept entire fulfilment :
SI qui voluptatibus dticuntur missos faciant honorgs, C, Sest., 66, 138 ;
if any are led captive by sensual pleasures, let them dismiss honors {at
once and forever). Huic mandgs si quid rgctg curatum veils, Ter., Ad.,
372 ; you must intrust to him whatever you want properly attended to.
Notes.— 1. After verbs of Will and Desire, the Inf. esse is occasionally found with
this Part., and hence it may be considered a Pf . Infinitive (280, 2, c). Compare, how-
ever, Pf. Part. pass, with opus est, USUS est (406).
2. The verbs of Causation tiius employed are cOrare, dare, facere, reddere. The
usage is most common in early Latin. In the classical period only missum facere.
CAUSAL SENTENCES.
538. Causal sentences are introduced :
1. By quia, because, quod, {in that) because. -j
2. By quoniam (quom iam), now that, quandfi, quandS- [• ^ ^^^®
quidem, since. ) I'^'oper.)
CAUSAL SENTENCES. 339
3. By cum (quom), as. (Inference.)
4. By the Relative Pronoun, partly alone, partly with ut, utpote,
quippe, etc. (See 626, 634.)
Notes.— 1. Quod is the Ace. Sing, neuter, and quia is probably the Ace. PI. neuter
from the rehitive stem. They have accordingly often a correlative demonstrative ; so
with quod : eo, ea re, ideo, idcirco, ea gratia (in Sallust only), hoc, hac mente
(H., ti., u. 2, DO), propterea, and a few combinations with ob and propter ; with quia
are found eo, ea re, ideo, idcirco, propterea, and ergo (in Plautub only).
2. Quod ai'd quia differ in classical prose, chieliy in that quod is used, and not
quia, when the causal sentence is at the same time an object sentence.
3. Quoniam is originally temporal, and as such is still found in Plautus. The
causal use of it becomes much more extensive in classical prose, and, like quandO
(quandSquidem), it is used of evident reasons.
4. Quando is used principally as a temporal particle. In a causal sense it is very
rare in Cicero (in the Orations never, unless compounded with quidem), and is not
found in Caesar. The compound with quidem is more common.
5. Quatenus, in so far as, is poetical and in late prose. Horace shows first ex-
ample, 0., III. 24, 30. Valerius M., Quintilian, Tacitus, Pliny Minor, and Sue-
tonius show occasional examples.
Causal Sentences with QTJOD, QUIA, QUONIAM, and QUANd8.
539. Causal sentences with quod, quia, quoniam, and
quando are put in the Indicative, except in oblique relation
(Partial or Total).
Remark. — The other person of the obhque clause may be imaginary,
and the writer or speaker may quote from himself indirectly :
Laetatus sum, quod mihi licgret rScta defendere, C, Fam., i. 9, 18 ; 1
was glad (to say to myself) tliat I ivas free to champion the right.
540. Causal sentences with quod, quia, quoniam, and
quando take the Indicative in Direct Discourse.
Torquatus filium suum quod is contra imperium in hostem pugnavera-t
necari iussit, S., C, 52, 30 ; Torquatus hade his son he put to death
because he had fought against the enemy contrary to order(s) [quod
pugnasset = because, as Torquatus said or thought]. Amantes de forma
itidicare non possunt, quia sSnsum oculorum praecipit animus. Quint., vi.
2, ; lovers cannot Judge of beauty, because the heart forestalls the eye.
Quia natura mutari non potest idcirco vgrae amicitiae sempiternae sunt,
C, Lael., 9, 32; because nature cannot change, therefore true friend-
ships are everlasting. Neque mg vixisse paenitet quoniam ita vixi ut non
frtistra m5 natum existumem, C, Cat. 31., 23, 84 ; cmd I am not sorry
for having lived, since I have so lived that I think I was born not in
vain. S51u8 er5 quoniam n5n licet esse tuum, Prop., 11. 9, 46 ; I shall be
alone since I may not be thine. Voluptas sgmovenda est quandS ad maiora
quaedam nati sumus, Of. C, Fin., v. 8, 21; pleasure is to be put aside
340 CAUSAL SENTENCES.
because we are horn for greater things. Erant quibus appetentior famae
[Helvidius] vid5r6tur quandS etiam sapientibus cupidQ gloriae novissima
exuitur, Tag., //., iv. 6, 1 ; /Acre ivere some to whom Uelvidms seemed
too eager for fame, since, eveii from the wise, ambition is the last
(infirmity) that is put of . Sequitur ut liberatorgs (sint), quandoquidem
tertium nihil potest esse, C, Ph., ii. 13, 31.
541. Causal sentences with quod, quia, quoniam, and
quandO take the Subjunctive in Oblique Discourse (Partial
or Total).
Noctu ambulabat in publico Themistoclgs quod somnum capere non pos-
set, C, Tusc, IV. 19, 44 ; Themistocles used to ivalk about in public
at night because (as he said) he could not get to sleep. Aristides nonne
ob earn causam expulsus est patria quod praeter modum iustus esset?
C, Tusc, V. 36, 105 ; {there is) Aristides ; was he tiot ba?iished his couti-
try for the {alleged) reason " that he was unreasonably just " ? [N6l
compone comas quia sis venturus ad illam, Ov., Rem. Am., 679 (517).
Quoniam (so most MSS.) ipse pro sS dicere non posset, verba fgcit frater
eius Stesagoras, Nep., i. 7, 5; "as [Miltiades] could not speak for him-
self,'' his brother, Stesagoras, made a speech. (Indirect quotation from
the speech of Stesagoras.)
A good example is Pl., 31. G., 1412-15.
Notes. — 1. Quia is the usual particle in the causal sense in Plautus, quod being
very rare ; but quod is more coramou in Terence, and is the regular particle in clas-
sical prose (Caesar has but one case of quia), though the use of quia revives in post-
classical Latin. Cicero makes a point on the difference in meaning in Bosc.Am.., 50,
145 : conc6do et quod {by reason of the fact that) animus aequus est, et quia
{because) necesse est.
2. A rejected reason is introduced by non quod with the Subjv. (as being the sug-
gestion of another person). The Indie, which is properly used of excluded facts, is
also used of flat denials, like the negative and Indie, in the independent sentence, but
the Subjv. is the rule. N8n quia is the rule in early Latin, but classical prose shows
very few examples. From Livy on it becomes common. Other equivalents are nSn
qu5, non eo quod, non eo qu5 ; further, n5n quin for non quo nQn. All of these are
found with Subjv. only. The corresponding affirmative is given by sed quod or sed
quia indiscriminately, regularly with the Indicative.
Subjunctive :
Pugil6s in iactandis caestibus ingemlscunt, nOn quod doleant, sed quia
profundenda voce omne corpus intenditur venitque plaga vehementior, c,
I'usc, II. 23,5(3; boxers injdying the caestus heave groans, notthat (as you might sup-
pose) they are In pain, but because in giving full vent to (he voice all the body is put to
the stretch and the bloiv comes with a greater rush. Mai5rSs nostrl in dominum d6
serv5 quaerl n51u5runt ; n5n quIn posset vSrum invenirl, sed quia vidgbatur
indignum esse, C, Mil., 22, 59 ; our ancestors ivould not allow a slave to be questioned
by toiture against his master, not because (not as though they thought) Ute truth could
not be got at, but because such a course seemed degrading. A [LacedaemoniSrum
exulibus] praetor vim arcuerat, nOn quia salvOs vellet sed quia perire causa
indicta nOlSbat. L., xxxviii.33, 11 ; the praetor had warded off violence from the
CAUSAL SENTEN-CES. 34I
Lacedaemonian exiles, not (as you might have supposed) because he wished them to
escape, but because he did not ivish them to perish rvith their case not pleaded (unheard).
The same principle apphes to magis quod (quo), quia— quam quo (first in Cicero),
quod (first in Sallust), quia (first in Livy), witli the moods in inverse order.
Libertatis originem inde, magis quia annuum imperium consulate factum
est quam quod demintitum quidquam sit ex rSgia potestate, numerfis, L., n.
I, 7 ; you may begin to count the origin of liberty from that ])oint, rather because the
consular government was limited to a year, than because aught was taken away from
the rayed poiver.
Indicative :
Sum non dicam miser, sed certe exercitus, non quia multis dsbeo sed quia
saepe concurrunt aliquorum bene de m6 meritorum inter ipsSs contentionSs,
C, Plane , 32,78 ; I a?n, I will not say, ^vretched, but certainly warned, not because I
am in debt to many, but because the rived claims of some whohave deserved well of me
often conflict. Compare also H., S., 11. 2, 89.
3. Verbs of Saying and Thinking are occasionally put in the Subjv. with quod by
a kind of attraction. Compare 585, N. 3.
Impetrare nOn potui, quod rgligione b5 impediri dicerent, C, Fam., iv. 12, 3 ;
I could not obtain permission, because they said they ivere embarrassed (pj^evented) by
a religious scruple (= quod impedirentur, because (as they said) they ivere prevented).
This attraction is said to occur not unfrequently in Cicero, several times in Caesar
and Sallust, but ia not cited from any other author. Compare, however, crSderent,
L., XXI. 1,3.
4. On the use of tamquam, etc., to indicate an assumed reason, see 602, n. 4.
5. Quandoque is archaic and rare. It is found first in the Twelve Tables, a few
times in Cicero and Livy, three times in Horace, and occasionally later.
6. Causal sentences may be represented by a participle (069), or by the relative (626).
QUOD with Verbs of Emotion.
542. Quod is used to give the ground of Emotions and Ex-
pressions of Emotion, such as verbs of Joy, Sorrow, Sur-
prise, Satisfaction and Anger, Praise and Blame, Thanks
and Complaint.
The rule for the Mood has been given already : 539.
Indicative :
Gaude quod spectant ocull tS mllle loquentem, H., Ep., i. 6, 19 ; rejoict
that a thousand eyes are gazing at you (while you are) speaking. Dolet
mih! quod tii nunc stomacharis, C, ad Br., i. 17, 6 ; it pains me that you
are angry now. Quintum paenitet quod animum tuum oifendit, Cf. C, Att.,
XI. 13, 2 (877, R. 3), luvat mg quod vigent studia, Plin., Fp., i. 13, 1 ; /
am charmed that studies are flourishiiig . Tristis es ? indignor quod sum
tibi causa doloris, Ov., Tr., iv, 3, 33; are you sad ? I am provoked (with
myself) that I am a cause of pain to you. Tibi gratias ago, quod m5
omni molestia liberasti, C, Fam.., xiii. 62; / thank you, that you freed
me from all annoyance.
Subjunctive :
Gaudet miles quod vicerit hostem, Ov., Tr., 11. 49 ; the soldier rejoices
342 SENTENCES OF DESIGN AND TENDENCY.
at having conquered the enemy. Neque mihi umquam veniet in mentem
poenitSre quod a mS ipse non desciverim, C, Att., ii. 4, 3 ; it will never
occur to me to he sorry for not having been untrue to myself. Laudat
Africanum Panaetius quod fuerit abstinens, C, Off., 11. 22, 76 ; Panaetius
praises Africanus for having been abstinent. NemS est oratorem quod
Latine loquergtur admiratus, C, Or., iii. 14, 52; no 07ie{e\er) admired an
orator for speaking (good) Latin. S5cratSs accusatus est quod corrumpe-
ret iuventutein, Quint., iv. 4, 5 ; Socrates ivas accused of corrupting
youth. Memini gloriari solitum esse Quintum HortSnsium quod numquam
bello civili interfuisset, C, Fam., 11. 16, 3; I remember that Quintus Ilor-
tensius used to boast of never having engaged in civil war. Agunt gra-
tias quod sib! pepercissent, Caes., B.C., i. 74, 2 (511, r. i).
Remark. — This class of verbs may be construed with the Ace. and
Inf. : salvom t§ advgnisse gaudeS (533) ; also with quia, principally in
early Latin, and in Cicero's Letters, then occasionally in Livy, Taci-
tus, Suetonius, and later. But in Expressions of Praise and Blame,
Thanks and Complaint, quod is more common. On cum, see 564, n. 2.
Amo te et n6n neglexisse habeo gratiam, Ter., Fh., 54 ; / love you
(= mucli obliged), ayid I am thankful to you for not having neglected
(it). Gratulor ingenium n5n latuisse tuum, Ov., Tr., i. 9, 54; I congratu-
late (you) that your genius has not laifi hidden. [TsocratSs] queritur plGs
honoris corporum quam animorum virtutibus darl. Quint., hi. 8, 9 ; Iso-
crales complai^is that more lionor is paid to the virtues of the body than
to those of the mi7id.
Notes.— 1. Perplexing Emotion (Wonder) may be followed by a Conditional, or by
a Dependent Interrogative, as in English, but this construction is not found in Vergil,
CAiifsAU, Sallust, and is never common.
Miror si [ Tarquinius] quemquam amlcum habere potuit, C, Lad., 15, 54 ; /
wonder if Tarquin could ever have had a friend.
Besides mlror (and mirum), there is one case of gaudeo si in C'iceko ( VeiT., iv. 17,
37), and a few cases after expressions of Fear in Tacitus. There are also sporadic cases
of indignari (indignitas) si.
2. Noteworthy is tlie phrase mIrum (-a) nt (nisi), "'tis a wonder that— not., which
belongs to the colloquialisms of early Latin (Pl., Capt.y 820), but reappears once in Livy.
SENTENCES OF DESIGN AND TENDENCY.
543. I. Sentences of Design are commonly called Final
Sentences. Sentences of Tendency are commonly called
Consecutive Sentences. Both contemplate the end — the one,
as an aim ; the other, as a consequence.
2. They are alike in having the Subjunctive and the par-
ticle ut {hoiu, that), a relative conjunction.
FINAL SENTENCES. 343
3, They differ in the Tenses employed. The Final Sen-
tence^ as a rule, takes only the Present and Imperfect Sub-
junctive. Consecutive Sentences may take also Perfect and
Pluperfect.
4. They differ in the kind of Subjunctive employed. The
Final Sentence takes the Optative. The Consecutive Sen-
tence takes the Potential. Hence the difference in the
Nega^tive.
Final : n6 (ut ng), Consecutive : ut non, Ihat not.
ne quis, ut n6m6, iliat no one.
ne ullus, ut nullus, that no.
ne umquam, (ne quandO,) ut numquam, that never,
ne usquam, (necubi,) ut nusquam, that 7wwhere.
ne aut — aut, (ut n6ve — neve,) ut neque — neque, that neither — nor.
Remarks. — i. Verbs of Effecting have the Final Sequence.
2. Verbs of Hindering have the sequence of the Final Sentence, but
often the signification of the Consecutive.
3, Verbs of Fearing belong to the Final Sentence only so far as they
have the Optative Subjunctive ; the subordinate clause is only semi-
dependent upon the principal, and we have a partial survival of orig-
inal parataxis.
Note?.— 1. Inasmuch as the Sahjv. cannot express a fact, the Latin Consecutive
clause does not properly express actual result, but only a tendency, which may, we
infer., lead to a result. To obviate this difliculty, the Latin has recourse to the circum-
locutions with accidit, gvenit, ^tc.
2. It is to be remarked that the difference "between Final and Consecutive often con-
sists only in tlie point of viev/. What is final from the point of view of the doer is
consecutive from the point of view of the spectator ; hence the variation in sequence
and negative after verbs of Effecting. A frustrated purpose gives a negative result ;
hence the variation in negative after verbs of Hindering.
3. Here and there in Cicero, more often in Livy and later writers, instead of nSve
(neu), a second clause is added by neque, the force of the final particle being felt
througliout the sentence.
Monitor tuus suadebit tibl ut hinc discedas neque mihl verbum uUum
respondeas, C, Mv. in. Caec, i6, 52 ; your adviser will counsel you to depart hence and
answer me never a word.
FINAL SENTENCES.
544. Final Sentences are divided into two classes :
I. Final Sentences in which the Design is expressed by
the particle ; Pure Final Sentences (Sentences of Design).
Oportet esse, ut vivas, n5n vivere ut edas, [C], ad Her.^ iv. 28, 39; you
must eat in order to live, not live in order to eat.
344 FIKAL SEKTENCES.
This form may be translated by, {in order) to ; sometimes by thai
may, that might, that, with the Subjunctive and the like.
II. Final Sentences in which the Design lies in the lead-
ing verb (verba studii et voluntatis, verbs of Will and Desire);
Complementary Final Sentences.
Volo uti mih! respondeas, C, Vat., 7, 17; I ivish you to answer me.
This form is often rendered by to, never by in order to, sometimes
by that and the Subjunctive, or some equivalent.
Of the same nature, but partly Final and partly Consecu-
tive in their sequence, are :
Verbs of Hindering.
Peculiar in their sequence are :
III. Verbs of Fearing.
Remarks. — i. The use of the Subjv. with Temporal Particles often
adds a final sense, inasmuch as the Subjv. reg'ularly looks forward to
the future. So dum, dSnec, quoad (572), antequam, priusquam (577).
2. The general sense of a Final Sentence may also be expressed:
(i) By the Relative qui with the Subjunctive. (G30.)
(2) By the Genitive of Gerund or Gerundive, with (seldom without)
causa or gratia. (428, \i. 2.)
(3) By ad with Gerund and Gerundive. (433.)
(4) By the Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive. (429, 2.)
(5) By the Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive after verbs of
Giving, Wc. (430.)
(6) By the Accusative Supine after verbs of Motion. (435.)
(7) By the Future Participle xYctive (post-Ciceronian). (438, n.)
(8) By the Infinitive (poetic and rare). (421, n. 1, a.)
I. Pure Final Sentences.
645. Pure Final Sentences are introduced by :
1. Tit (utl) (how) that, and other relative pronouns and
advei-bs. (030.)
lit and nS are often preceded by a demonstrative expression, such
as: idcircQ, therefore; e5, to that end ; propterea, on that account ; e3
cSnsiliS, 'With that design ; ea causa, r6, for i/iat reason.
2. Quo = ut eo, that thereby; with comparatives, that
the . . , — ;
FINAL SENTENCES. 345
3. Ne, that not, lest, continued by neve, neu. (444.)
Oportet esse, ut vivas, non vivere ut edas, [C], ad Her., iv. 28, 39 (544,
I.). Inventa sunt specula, ut homo ipse se nosset, Sen., i\^.^., i. 17, 4;
mirrors ivere invented, to make man acquainted with himself. Ut
amgris, amabilis esto, Ov^, A. A., 11. 107; that you may he loved {to make
yourself loved, in order to he loved), be lovable. Legem brevem esse
oportet, quo faciliusabimperitisteneatur, Sen., E.M., 94, 88(535). [Senex]
serit arbores, quae alter! saeclo prosint, Caecilius (C, Tusc.,i. 14, 31);
the old man sets out trees, to do good to the next generation. Semper habe
Pyladen aliquem qui curet Orestem, Ov., Bern. Am. , 589 ; ahvays have some
Pylades, to tend Orestes. [AthgnignsSs] creant decern praetorgs qui exer-
citui praeessent, Nep., i. 4, 4 ; the Athenians make ten generals to com-
mand their army. [Magngsiam Themistocli Artaxerxgs] urbem donarat,
quae ei panem praebgret, Nep., ii. 10, 3; Artaxerxes had giveii Themis-
iocles the city of 3Iagnesia, to furnish him with bread. Gallinae pennis
fovent puUos, n6 frigore laedantur, Cf. C, N.D.,u. 52, 129; hens keep
(their) chickens warm tvith {their) wings, that they may not he {to keep
them from being) hurt by the cold. Dionysius, ng coUum tonsori commit-
teret, tondgre filias suas docuit, C, Tusc, v. 20, 58 (423, n, G).
Remarks. — i. Ut ng is found for ng with apparently no difference in
signification, occasionally at all periods, but not in Caesar, Sallust,
LiVY. Quo without comparative is rare and cited only from Plautus,
Terence, Sallust, Ovid, and later Latin; qu5ne (=ut ng) is not found
till the time of Dictys ; apparent examples in classical Latin are to be
otherwise explained. Quominus and quin occur in special uses.
2. Ut non is used when a particular word is negatived :
Confer tg ad Mallium, ut non giectus ad alignos sed invitatus ad tuos
isse videaris, C, Cat., i. 9, 23; betake yourself to Ilallius, that you may
seem to have gone not as an outcast to strangers but as an invited guest
to your own (friends).
3. Ut and ne are used parenthetically at all periods, depending on
a suppressed word of Saying or tlie like.
Utque magis stupeas ludos Paridemque reliquit, Juv., vi. 87 ; aiid to
stun you more (I tell you that) she left Paris and the games.
The verb of Saying may be inserted: atque ut omngs intellegant dicS,
C, Imp., 8, 20 ; and that all may under stayid, I say.
II. Complementary Final Sentences.
A. Verbs of Will and Desire.
546. Complementary Final Sentences follow verbs of
Willing and Wishing, of Warning and Beseeching, of Urg-
346 FIJ^AL SENTENCES.
ing and Demanding, of Eesolving and Endeavoring (verba
studii et voluntatis).
1. Positive : ut.
Vols uti mih! respondeas, C, Vat., 7, 17 (544, II.). (Phaethon) optavit
ut in currura patris tolleretur, C, Off.,ui. 25,94; Phaethon desired 4o
be lifted up into his fathefs chariot. Admoneo ut cottidie meditere
resistendum esse iracundiae, C, Q.F., 1. 1. 13, 38; I admonish you to reflect
daily that resistance must be made to hot-headedness. Ubii (Caesarem)
orant, ut sib! parcat, Caes., B.G., vi. q, 7 ; the Ubii beg Ca>sar to spare
them. Sed precor ut possim tutius esse miser, Ov., Tr., v. 2, 78 (423, 2).
Exigis ut Priamus natorum funere ludat, Ov., Tr., v. 12, 7; you exact that
Priam sport at (bib) sons' funeral. AtheniensSs cum statuerent ut navgs
conscenderent, Cyrsilum quendam suadentem ut in urbe manerent lapidibus
obru6runt, C, Off.,\u. 11, 48; the Athenians, resolving to go 07i board
their ships, overwhelmed with stories (= stoned) one Cyrsilus, who tried
to persuade them to remairi m the city.
So also any verb or phrase used as a verb of Willing or
Demanding.
Pythia respondit ut moenibus ligneis s§ munirent, Nep., it. 2, 6 ; the
Pythia answered that they must defend themselves with walls of wood.
2. Negative : ne, ut ne ; continued by neve (neu), and not,
Caesar suls imperavit ne quod omnino telum in hostSs reicerent, Caes.,
B. G., I. 46, 2 ; Caesar gave orders to his (men) not to throw back any mis-
sile at all at the enemy. Themistocles [coUggis suis] praedixit ut n6 prius
LacedaemoniOrum legates dimitterent quam ipse esset remissus, Nep., ii. 7,
3 ; Themistocles told his colleagues beforeharid not to dismiss the Lace-
daemonian envoys before he were sent bach. Pompeius suis praedixerat
ut Caesaris impetum exciperent n5ve s6 loco movSrent, Caes , B.C., in. 92,
1 ; Pompey had told his men beforehand to receive Caesar's charge and
not to move from their position.
Remarks. — I. When verbs of Willing antl Wishing are used as
verl)s of Saying and Thinking, Knowing and Showing, the Inf. must
be used. The English translation is that, and the Indie. : vol5, / ivill
have it (maintain), moneo, / remark, persuadeo, I convince, decerns, 1
decide, c6g5, 1 conclude.
[MoneoJ artem sine ad^iduitate diCDndi r.:n multum iuvare, Cf. [C], ad
Her., T. 1, 1 : J rcr.iark that art without cov.stant practice in speaking is
of little avail. Vix cuiquam persuadebatur Graecia omni c6s8ur5s (RSmanQs),
L., XXXIII. 32, 3 ; scarce any one could be persuaded that the Romans
would retire from all Greece. N5n sunt isti audiendl qui virtuteni duram
ot quasi ferream esse quandam volunt, C, Lael., 13, 48 (313, r. 2). Est
FINAL SENTENCES. 347
mos hominum ut nolint eundem pluribus r6bus excellere, C, Brut., 21, 84 ;
it is the ivay of the world not to alloiv tliat the same man excels in more
things (than one).
2. When the idea of Wislnng is emphatic, the simple Subjv., with-
out ut, is employed, and the restriction of sequence to Pr. and Impf.
is removed :
Velim existimes ngminem cuiquam cariorem umquam fuisse quam te mihi,
C, Fam., I. 9, 24 ; / ivish you to think that no one was ever dearer to
any one than you to me. Malo te sapiens hostis metuat quam stulti civgs
laudent, L., xxii. 39, 20 ; 1 had rather a wise enemy should fear you
til an foolish citizens shoidd praise you. Excusatum habeas mg rogo,
cgno doml, Mart., ii. 79, 3 (238)- Hue ades, insani feriant sine litora
fluctus, v., Ec, 9, 43 ; come hither (and) let tlie mad waves lash the
shores. Tam fglix esses quam formosissima vellem, Ov., Am., i. 8, 27 (302).
Vellem me ad cenam invitasses, C, Fam., xii. 4, 1 (261, R.). Occidit occi-
deritque sinas cum nomine Troia, V., A., xii. 828 ; 'tis fallen, ajid let
Troy be fallen, name and all.
So iubeo in poetry and later pi-ose. Compare also potius quam, 577, n. 6.
3. Ut ne is not used after verbs of negative signification, as impediS,
/ hinder, recuse, / refuse (548). Otherwise there seems to be no differ-
ence in meaning between it and ne, except that sometimes the n6 seems
to apply more to a single word in the sentence.
4. On ngdum, see 482, 5, r, 2.
Notes.— 1. Such verbs and phrases are : Willing ax\(\ Wishivg : volo, nol5, mal5,
opto, studeo. Warning and Beseeching: hortor, adhortor, moneo, admoneS,
auctor sum, consilium do, orS, rogo, peto, precor, posco, postulo, fiagito, ob-
secro. Urging and Demanding; suadeo, persuadeo, censeo, impero, mando,
praecipio, 6dico, dico, scribo Resolving and Endeatoring .- statuo, constituo,
decerno, nitor, contendo, laboro, pugno, id ago, operam do, euro, video, pro-
video, prospiciS, legem fero, Igx est, etc.
2. Substantives of kindred meaning, in combination with the copula or other verbs,
take similar constructions. Such are voluntas, cupiditas, spgs, ardor, auctdritas,
consilium (especially in the combination eo, hoc consilio), signum, praeceptum,
exemplum, propositum, officium, negotium, munus, verba, and litterae (with
dare, mittere, etc.), sententia, animus (especially eo animo), condicio (especially
ea condicione), foedus, itis, Igx (ea Igge), cura, opera, causa, ratio.
8. Instead of ut with the Subjv., the Inf. is frequently used with this class of verbs.
So, generally, with iubeo, Ij>rder, 532. With verbs of Asking, however, the Inf. ia
not common until Vergil. Orare has Inf. once in Plautus, then in Vergil and later
poets ; in prose first in Tacitus. Rogare has ut regularly, Inf. only once (Cat., xxxv.
10). Quaeso, imploro, obsecro, obtestor, never have Inf., flagitare only once
(H.,*S'., 11.4, Gl) until Suetonius; postulare very often, especially in early Latin in
the sense expect ; poscere not till the Augustan poets. Authors vary. The use of the
Inf. is wider in poetry and silver prose.
B. Verbs of Hindering.
547. The dependencies of verbs of Hindering may be regarded as
partly Final, partly Consecutive. Ng and quominus are originally final,
348 FINAL SENTENCES.
but the final sense is often effaced, especially in quominus. Quin is a
consecutive particle. The sequence of verbs of Hindering is that of
the Final Sentence.
The negative often disappears in the English translation.
548. Verbs and phrases signifying to Prevent, to Forbid,
to Refuse, and to Beware, may take ne with the Subjunc-
tive, if they are not negatived.
Impedior ng pltira dicam, C, SulL, 33, 92 ; I am hindered from say-
ing more (I am hindered that I should say no more). " Who did hinder
you that ye should not obey the truth ?" Gal., v. 7.
Servitus mea mihi interdixit ng quid mirer meum malum, Pl., Pers.,
621 ; my slavery has forbidden me to marvel aught at ill of mine. Hi-
stiaeus ng res conficeretur obstitit, Nep. , i 3, 5 ; Histiaeus opposed the
thing's being done. (Rggulus) sententiam ng diceret recusavit, C. , Off. , in.
27, 100; Regidus refused to pronounce an opinion. Maledictis dgterrgre
ng scribat parat, Ter., Ph., 3 (423, 2). Tantum cum finges ne sis mani-
fgsta cavgto, Ov., A. A., in. 801 (271, 2). Tantum ng noceas dum vis pr5-
desse vidgto, Ov., Tr., i. r, 101; only see {to it) that you do not do harm
while you wish to do good.
NoTKS.— 1. The most important of these words are: Preventing : impedire, im-
pediments esse, prohibgre, tengre, retingre, dgterrgre, intercludere, interpel-
lare, deprecari, obsistere, obstare, intercgdere, interponere. Forbidding:
interdicere. lief using : rectisare, repugnare, resistere, sg tengre, sg repri-
mere, sib! temperare, morari. Beware: cavgre, vidgre, and a few others,
especially the plirase per aliquem Stare (more often with quominus).
2. Many verbs of Preventing and Refusing also take quominus (549), and some also
the Infinitive (423, 2, N. 2).
3. Cavgre, to beivare, and praecavgre belong to verbs of Hindering only so far as
action is contemplated. Cavgre, followed by ut, means to be sure to ; by ng or ut
ng, to see to it that not ; by ng, to take 2)recauti07is against. When ng is omitted,
cavg, cavgto, with the Siibjv , form circumlocutions for the negative Imperative
(271, 2). So with vidg ut, ng. Cavgre also has the Inf. occasionally as a verb of
negative Will (423, 2, n. 2), beginning with Plautus. In prose it is cited only from
Cato (once), Cicero {Att.,111. 17,8), Sallust (/«{/., 64, 2), and Pliny Mai.
4. Vidg ng (ng non), see to it lest, is often used as a polite formula for dubito an
(457, 2), / aiii inclined to think. Credere omnia vidg ng non sit necesse, c, Div.,
11.13,31.
549. Verbs of Preventing and Refusing may take quominus
(= ut eo minus), that therehy the less, with the Subjunctive,
Aetas nOn impedit quSminus agri colendl studia tenesmus, 0., Cat. 31.,
17, 60 ; age does not hinder oar retaining interest in agriculture. Non
dgterret sapientem mors quominus rei publicae c5nsulat, C, Tusc, i. 38,
91 ; death does not deter the sage from co?isulting the interest of the
State. Quid obstat quOminus (Deus) sit beatus ? C, N.D., i. 34, 95; what
FINAL SENTENCES. 349
is in the way of God's being happy ? Caesar cognSvit per AfrSnium
stare quominus proelio dimicargtur, Caes., B.C., i. 41, 3 ; Caesar foutid
that it was A f ramus'' s fault that there was no decisive fight (stat, there
is a stand-still).
Notes.— 1. With impedlre and proMbere Caesar never uses quSminiis ; Cicero
rarely. Bnt with other words implying Hindrance Cicero uses quSminus not unfre-
quently. With proMbSre the regular construction is the Inf., but this is rare with
impedlre, quSminus being the rule. Witli reciisare, the Inf. is rare (Cxes.,B.G.,
in. 22, 8) but classical, becoming more frequent from Livy on. The passive of deter-
rgre is also construed with the Inf. occasionally.
2. Plautus does not use qu.5m.imis, Terence first, but seldom. It is eajjecially
common from the time of Cicero. In Terence the elements are sometimes separated
(quo -minus), thus emphasizmg the relative character. But it is not so used in the
classical Latin, and in the Silver Age the force of its origin ceases to be felt, so that it is
construed like quin. The fact that it is not found in Plautus nor in Vitruvius haa
led to the suggestion that it is a book-word.
. 3. The difference in usage between qu5minus and quln seema to be that while
quIn is always used with negatives, quOminus occurs sometimes with positives, so that
according to the connection it is either Final or Consecutive.
4. Qu5 setius for quominus is archaic, but occurs twice in Cornipicius and
twice in Cicero {Liv., 11. 45, Vi2 ; 57, 170).
III. Verbs of Fearing.
550. I. Verbs of Fearing, and expressions that involve
Fear, take the Present and Perfect, Imperfect and Pluperfect
Subjunctive.
The Present Subjunctive represents the Present and Future
Indicative. The Perfect Subjunctive regularly represents
the Perfect Indicative.
Present and Perfect Subjunctive become Imperfect and
Pluperfect after a Past Tense.
These constructions are survivals of the original parataxis, when n€ and tit were
particles of wish. Thus, timeO : n6 veniat, lam afraid; may he not come (i.e., lam,
afraid that he will), becomes, when the two clauses are combined, time5 nS veniat,
/ am afraid lest (that) he may ivdll) com£. Similarly with ut, \\'hich in this usage
was originally how. Hence,
2. With verbs of Fearing, ne, lest, shows that the nega-
tive is wished and the positive feared ; ut (ne non) shows
that the positive is wished and the negative feared : ne non
is used regularly after the negative, or an interrogative with
negative force.
Vereor nS hostis veniat, I fear lest the enemy come, that he is eomitig^
that he will come. ( / ivish he may not come.)
Vereor n5 hostis v6nerit, / fear lest the enemy have come, that {it will
turn out that) he has come.
350 PIiq-AL SENTENCES.
Vereor ut amicus veniat, I fear (Jiow my friend can come) lest my friend
come not, that he is not coming, will not
come. {I wish he may come.)
Vereor ut amicus venerit, / fear lest my friend have not co?7ie, that he
has not come.
Non vereor ne amicus non veniat, / do not fear that my friend is not
coming, tvill not come.
Non vereor n5 amicus non venerit, / do not fear that my friend has not
come.
Id pavgs, ne dticas tu illam, tu autem ut dtlcas, Ter., A7id., 349 ; thafs
what you dread, you lest you marry her (n§ ducam !) ; you, on the other
hand, lest you don't (utinam ducam!).
Vereor ne dum minuere velim laTaorem augeam, C. , Leg., i. 4, 12 ; I fear
lest, while I icish to lessen the toil, I increase it {that I am increasing
it). Vergmur nS parum hie liber mellis et absinthiS multum habere vide-
atur. Quint., hi. i, 5; I am afraid that this hook ivill seem to have too
little honey and (too) much wormwood. Timeo ne tibi nihil praeter la-
crimas queam reddere, C, Plane, 42, 101; lam afraid that I can give
you nothing in return save tears. Aurum inspicere volt ng subruptum
siet, Pl., Aid., 39 ; he wishes to inspect the gold {for fear) lest it he
filched.
Times ut sustineas (labores), C, Fam., xiv. 2, 3; I fear that you will
not hold out wider your toils. Vereor ne dum defendam meos, non parcam
tuls, C, Att., I. 17, 3; I fear lest in defending my own I may not spare
thine. Non vereor ng tua virtus opini5ni hominum non respondeat, Cf.C,
Fam., II. 5, 2; J do not fear that your virtue ivill not answer to (come
up to) public expectation. Jl^tuo ng id cSnsilii egperlmus quod non facile
expUcare possimus, C, Fam., xiv. 12 ; I fear that we have formed aplayi
that we cannot readily explain. Unum jllud extimgscebam ng quid turpius
facerem, vel dicam, iam ^filgcissem, C. , Att., ix. 7, 1 ; the only thing I feared
was, lest I should act disgracefully, or, J should (rather) say, (lest) /
had already acted disgracefully.
Notes.— 1. Ut seems to be used only after metuS, pave5, timed, and vereor.
Most common is vQrepr ; metu3 is common in early Ljvtiu, but is cited but rarely later
(Horace, Cicero) ; pave5 lias to be supplied once with ut in Tbr., And., 349. TimeS
Ut is found first in Cicero, and i^ very r^re.
2. Ng nSn 18 \ety rare in early Latin, but becomes more frequent from Cicero on.
Ut ng is never fonnd for nS.
3. Two strange cages arc cited where, instead of ng, ut seems to be used, viz., ITor.,
S., 1. 3, 120, nam ut ferula caedSs meritum maiora subire verbera, n6n vereor,
and L., xxviii. 22, 12, nihil minus, quam ut ggredl obsessi moenibus audgrent,
timgri poterat. I» the first case the ut clause precedes, and the non vereor is used
by anacoluthon ; in the second the nt clause is a circumlocution for an omitted illud,
parallel to nihil. This is also helped by the antecedence of the ut clause.
4. When a verb of Fear is a verb of Uncertainty an indirect question may follow :
vereor quO modS acceptOrl sltis, [C], ad Her., iv. 37, 49.
CON^SECUTIYE SENTENCES. 35 I
5. (a) With the Inf. verbs of Fear are verbs of (negative) Will : vereor = prae
timSre nolo.
Vos AUobrogum testimoniis non credere timetis? c.,Fonf., 12,26; are ye
afraid to disbeliece the testimony of the AUobrogect y Vereor laudare praesentem,
C, M.D.., I. 21, 58 (428, 2). Nil metuunt itirare, Cat., lxiv. 146 ; l/tey have no fear to
take an oath.
These consti'uctions are found at all periods ; chiefly, however, in the poets and
1 tcr i^rose writers. Cicero shows reserve. The usage of the Inf. as an out-and-or.t
ver'.al snhst. in the Ace. is poetical : nec mori per vim (= mortem violentam)
metuam, n., c, in., 14, 15.
(&) With the Ace. and Inf. verbs of Fear are verbs of Thinking or of Perception :
vereor = cum timore puto or video.
Vergbar non omnes causam vincere posse suam [Ov., Her., 16, 75]. T61um-
que instare tremescit, v., .4., xii. qi6.
This construction is rare, but occurs at all periods ; more often, however, it involves
the substantives timer and metus, especially in Livy, who shows seven cases in
all.
CONSECUTIVE SENTENCES.
Sentences of Tendency and EesuU.
551. I. Consecutive Sentences are those sentences which
show the Consequence or Tendency of x\ctions. In Latin,
Eesult is a mere inference from Tendency, though often an
irresistible inference. In other words, the Latin hxnguage
uses so as throughout, and not so that, although so that is
often a convenient translation. The result is only implied,
not stated.
2. Consecutive Sentences are divided into two classes :
I. Consecutive Sentences in which the Tendency is ex-
pressed by the Particle : Pure Consecutive Sentences.
II. Consecutive Sentences in which the Tendency lies in
the leading A^erb : (a) after verbs of Eifecting ; {b) after
negatived verbs of Preventing, Doubt, and Uncertainty ;
(6') after words and phrases requiring expansion.
I. Pure Consecutive Sentences.
552. Pure Consecutive Sentences are introduced by
1. Ut (uti), that, so that, and other relative pronouns and
adverbs (GSl).
2. Ut — non, that, so that, as — not, continued by neque, nec
(543, 4).
3. Quin = ut non, after a negative sentence (554).
Correlative demonstratives occur very often : ita (sic), tarn.
352 CONSECUTIVE SENTENCES.
tantopere, tanto, tantum, adeo, eo, hue ; talis, tantus, tot, ia^
eius modi, and others of similar meaning.
In virtute multi sunt adscensus, ut is maximS gloria excellat, qui vir-
tute plurimum praestet, C, Plane, 25, 60 ; in virtue there are many
degrees, so that he excels most in glory ivho is most advanced in virtue.
Nequc me vixisse paenitet quoniam ita vixi ut non frustra mg natum exis-
tumem, C, Cat.M., 23, 84 (540). Tanta vis probitatis est, ut earn in
hoste etiam diligamus, C, Lael., q, 29 ; so great is the virtue of upright-
ness, that toe love it even in an enemy. Non is es ut t6 pudor umquam a
turpittidine revocarit, C. , Cat. , i. 9, 23 ; you are not the man for shame
ever to have recalled you {= ever to have been recalled by shame) from
baseness. N6ni5 adeo ferns est ut non mitescere possit, H., Ep., i. i, 89 ;
no one is so savage that he canriot {be made to) soften. Nil tarn difficile
est quin quaerendo invSstigari possiet, Ter., Heaut., (>•]$', naught is so
hard but it can (= that it cannot) be tracked out by search. Numquam
tam male est Siculis quin aliquid facets et commode dicant, C, Verr., iv.
43, 95 ; the Sicilians are never so badly off as not to (have) something
or other clever and pat (to) say.
Remarks. — i. Notice especially the impersonal tantum abest, afuit
(rarely aberat) — ut — ut. The phrase originates with an abstract Abl.
dependent on a personal absum, which abstract Abl. is afterward ex-
panded into a consecutive clause with ut.
[Agesilaus] tantum afuit ab insolentia gloriae ut commiseratus sit for-
tunam Graeciae, Nep., xvii. 5, 2 ; Agesilaus was so far from the inso-
lence of glory that he pitied the {mis)fortune of Greece. Tantum abest
ab eo ut malum mors sit ut verear ng homini sit nihil bonum aliud, C,
Tusc, I. 31, 76 ; so far is it from death (— so far is death from) being
an evil that 1 fear man, has no other blessing. Tantum afuit, ut illorum
praesidio nostram tirmargmus classem, ut etiam a Rhodiis urbe prohiberen-
tur nostri militgs, Lentulus [C, Fam., xii. 15, 2] ; so far were we from
strengthening our fleet by reinforcements from them that our soldiers
ivere actually kept aivay from the city by the Rhodians. Tantum abest
ut nostra mirgmur ut usque e5 difficilgs simus ut ngbis n5n satisfaciat ipse
Dgmosthengs, C, Or., 29, 104 ; so far are we from admiring our oivn (com-
positions) that we are so hard to please that Demosthenes himself fails to
satisfy us.
The personal construction is extremely rare.
The second ut may be omitted, and a declarative sentence follow
asyndetically : Tantum aberat ut binSs (libros) scrlberent : vix singulos
conf6c6runt, C, Att., xiii. 21, 5; so far were they from writing two copies
of each book, it was icith difficulty they finished up one.
2. DIgnus, ivorthy, indlgnus, unworthy, aptus, idoneus, ^/, take a con-
secutive sentence with qui. Occasionally in early, more often in later
CONSECUTIVE SENTENCES. 353
Latin, dignus and indignu3 take ut. In poetry all these words are
found sometimes with the Infinitive.
Qui modeste paret, videtur qui aliquando imperet dignus esse, C; Leg.,
III. 2. 5 ; he ivho obeys-duhj seems to be ivortluj to commcmd some day.
3. While ita (sic) is usually antecedent to a consecutive ut, it
may also be antecedent to a final ut or ne when the design or wish
intrudes. Ita me gessi 116 tib! pudori essem, L., xl. 15, 6 ; I behaved my-
self so as not to be a disgrace to you.
So not unfrequently wMien a restriction or condition is intended :
Ita probanda est mansuetudo ut adhibeatur rei ptiblicae causa severitas,
C, 0^.,i. 25, 88; mildness is to be approved, so that {prorided that)
strictness be used for the sake of the commonwealth. Ita frui volunt
voluptatibus ut nulli propter eas cSnsequantur dolorSs, C, Fin., i. 14, 48 ;
they wish to enjoy pleasures without having any pain to ensue on ac-
count of tJiem. [Pythagoras et Plato] mortem ita laudant ut fugei;e vitam
vetent, C, Scaur., 4, 5; Pythagoras and Plato so praise death, that tliey
(\Nhile they praise death) forbid fleeing from life. Ita tu istaec tua
miscgto nS mS admisceas, Ter., TTeaut., 783 ; mix up your mixings so you
mix me not withal. Tantum a vallo [PompSi] prima acigs aberat, uti n6
t6lo adici posset, Caes., B.C., iii. 55.
Ut alone may also be used thus : Rex esse nolim ut esse crudelis velim,
Syr., 577 ; Icing I ivould not be, if I must school myself to cruelty.
4. Ut non is often = without, and the English verbal in -ing :
(Octavianus) numquam filios suos populo commendavit ut non adiceret : si
merebuntur, Suet., Aug., 56; Octavianus (Augustus) never recommended
his sons to the people in such a way as not to add (= without adding) :
if they are worthy. Qui ng malum habeat abstinet sg ab iniuria certg
malet existimari bonus vir ut non sit quam esse ut non putgtur, C, Fin., ir.
22, 71 ; he who, to avoid 7nis for tune, abstains from injury, will certainly
prefer being thought a good man without being such, to being (a good
man) ivithout being believed (to be such).
II. Complementary Consecutive Sentences.
A. Verbs of Effecting.
653. Verbs of Effecting belong partly to the Consecutive,
partly to the Final Sentence. The negative is non or ne ; the
sequence, final or consecutive.
Such verbs are :
r. Verbs of Causation : facere, efficere, perficere, / mahe,
effect, achieve ; assequi, consequl, / attain, accomplisli, and
ma,ny others (sequence, final).
The following are cited as more or less common in Cicero : prgficere,
23
354 C02?"SECUTIYE SENTENCES.
impetrare, valgre, committere, tenere, adipisci, praestare, ferre (in phrases
consuettido, natura, fortuna fert), adferre, adiuvare, expugnare, extorquere,
exprimere, and a few others.
Efficiam ut intellegatis, C, Clitent., 3, 7; / will cause ijoii, to nnder-
stand. Sed perfice, ut Crassus haec quae coartavit nobis explicet, C, Or.,
I. 35, I60 : hut bring it about that Crassus {make Crassus) unfold to us
ii'liat he has condensed. Non conrniittam ut causam aliquam til! recusandi
dem, C, Or., 11. 57, 233; / shall not make the blunder of giving you an
excuse for refusing.
Negatives :
Rerum obscuritas non verborum facit ut non intellegatur orati5, C, Fin.,
II. 5, 15 ; it is the obscurity of the subject, not of the words, that
causes the language not to be understood. Potestis efficere ut male moriar,
ut non moriar non potestis, Plin., Up., iii, 16, 11 ; you may make me die
a, hard death, keep me from dying you cannot. Efficiam posthac nS
quemquam voce lacessas, V., Ec, 3, 51; / will bring it about that you
cludlenge no one hereafter in song.
Facere ut is often little more than a periphrasis ; especially in the
forms fac ut and faxo, faxit (both peculiar to (Comedy).
Fortuna vestra facit ut irae meae temperem, L., xxxvi. 35, 3; your for-
tune causes that I {makes me) restrain my anger (put metes to my anger).
Invitus (325, r. 6) facio ut recorder ruinas rei publicae, C, Vat., 9, 21 ; (it
is) against my will that I {am doing so as to) recall the ruined condition
of the commonwealth.
2. Verbs of Compelling and Permitting (sequence, final) :
C5gere, adigere, impellere, ducere, with its compounds, mov6re, com-
movgre, to which nuist be added exorare, to force by pleading. Permit-
tere, sinere, concMere, dare, (non) pati, and less often largiri, tribuere,
ferre.
TenSmus memoria Catulum esse coactum ut vitasg ipse privaret, C, Or.,
iiT. 3, 9 ; we rcmem'cer that Catulus was forced to fake his oim life.
Illud natura non patitur, ut aliOrum spoliis nostras cSpias augeamus, C,
Off., III. 5, 22; nature does not allow us to increase our wealth by the
spoils of others. Collggam perpulerat n6 contra rem publicam sentiret, S. ,
C, 26, 4; he had prevailed upon his colleague, not to take sides against
the commonwealth.
Note.- C5gere lias iisunlly the Tiif. (423, 2, n. 2), also sinere (423, n. 6) patl. On
permittere, t'te 5.32, n. 1. Cogere in tlio eense eoitdude is a verb of Sayii!j;j^51(), r i).
Facere Jind efficere, ii tlu' sc^jisj r.7«w, are very rarely used with the Infinitive. Com-
pare c, Br., 38, 142, (actiS) tales 5rat5r6s vidSrl facit, quftlSs ipsi s6 vidSrl
VOlunt. This becomes more coumion in very late Latin.
3. Passive verbs of Causation, and their equivalents.
CONSECUTIVE SENTENCES. 355
luimely, many Impersonal A^erbs of Happening and Follow-
ing, of Accident and Consequent (sequence, consecutive).
Such verbs arc conflci, effici, fit, accidit, contingit, obtingit, evenit, it
happens, usu venit, it occurs, sequitur, it fotloirs, and many others. So
also est, it is the case. For the sequence, see also 518, r. 2.
Ex quo efficitur, non ut voluptas ng (the design of the arguer) sit vo-
luptas, sed ut voluptas non (the result of the argument) sit summum bo-
num, C, Fi)i., 11. 8, 24; from ichich it results, not that pleasure is not
pleasure, t)uf that pleasure is not the supreme good. Potest fieri ut fallar,
C, Fam., xiH. 73. 2 ; {it) may fje {that) I am mistaken. Potest fieri ut
is unde te audisse dicis iratus dixerit, C, Or., 11. 70, 285; {it) may l)e {that)
he from whom you say you heard {it) said it in anger. Persaepe 6venit
ut utilitas cum honestate certet, C, Part. Or., 25,89; ii very ofte^i {so)
happens that profit is at variance with honor.
Note.— Noteworthy is the early Latin use of (fieri) potis Ut n§, as in fieri potis
est ut n6 qua exeat, Ter., Ad.,t26.
4. Very many impersonal verbs and combinations of neuter
adjectives with est, after the analogy of the impersonals just
mentioned (sequence, consecutive).
Such are : additur, acc6dit, it is added ; restat, reliquom est, it remains ;
apparet, it is plain. Enumerations, as, proximum, tertium, extrgmum
est; intisitatum, rarum est, it rarely happens that; novom, singulare,
mirum, inauditum, verum, falsum, (non) vgrisimile, consequgns, etc. Also
rarely, interest, necesse est, necessarium est, and the like.
Ad Appi Claudi senectutem accgdgbat etiam ut caecus esset, ('.. Cat. 31.,
6, 16; to the old age of Appius Claudius was further added his being
blind. Ei n3 integrum quidem erat ut ad iustitiam remigraret, C, Tusc,
V. 21. 62 ; for him it ivas tiot even an open question to go hack to
justice. Rarum (= raro accidit) ut sit idoneus suae rei quisque defensor,
Quint., iv. i, 46; it is rare for a man to be a good defender of his own
case.
Remarks. — i. Necesse est, it is necessary, generally, and oportet, it
behooves, always omit ut :
[Leuctrica pugna] immortalis sit necesse est, Xep., xv. 10, 2 ; the battle
of Leu ctra must needs be immortal. Sed non efFugigs ; mecum moriaris
oportet, Prop., ii. 8, 25 ; but you shall not escape; yon must die ivith
me.
2. The neuter adjectives are rarely used with ut until the post-classi-
cal period and are far more commonly construed with the Infinitive.
3. Very common is the periphrasis fore (futurum) ut, which gives the
common form of the Fut. Infinitive. See 248.
35^ CONSECUTIVE SENTENCES.
B. Verbs of Hindering.
554. Quin is used like quominus, with Verbs of Preventing,
Refusing, etc., but only when they are negatived or ques-
tioned.
Notes.— 1. Quin is compounded of qui— an interrogative-relative Ablative or
Locative— and n6 (non). Its first use is interrogative : " why not " in an indignant
question ; almost equivalent to an indignant Imperative, with which, through the fad-
ing out of its composition, it is occasionally connected, especially in early and later
Latin, rarely in Ciceuo (269).
2. An indignant question {Haw not? Wliy not?) objects to opposition, and is there-
fore naturally construed with the negative of a verb of Hindering. Hence quin, as an
interrogative (flow not ?), takes the sequence of the Interrogative Sentence. But this
shows itself only after words of doubt ; after verbs of Preventing the sequence coincides
with that of the Final Sentence, and after other negative sentences the sequence coin-
cides with that of the Consecutive Sentence.
3. By its combination with verbs of Preventing, quin came to be felt as a consecu-
tive particle = ut non, and was then used in other consecutive connections for
ut non.
555. Quin is used when Verbs and Phrases of Preventing,
Omitting, Refraining, Refusing, and Delaying, Doubt, and
Uncertainty, are negatived or questioned.
1. Verbs of Preventing and the like (sequence of the
Final Sentence).
Vix nunc obsistitur illis quin lament mundum, Ov., J/., i. 58 ; they
are now hardly to he kept {that they should riot rend) from rending
the universe. Antiochus non sg tenuit quin contra suum doctSrem librum
ederet, C, Ac, n. 4, 12; Antiochus did ttot refrain from publishing a
book against his teacher. Vix repriraor quin tg mangre iubeam, Pl.,
31. G., 1368; I am scarcely kept back {keep myself back) from bidding
you remain. Neque mg liippiter [prohibgbit] quin sic faciam uti con-
stitul, Pl., A^n., 105 1 ; nor will Jupiter prevent me from doing just as
I determined to do.
Remark. — The list of verbs is given in 548, n. 1.
2. Verbs of Doubt and Uncertainty (sequence of the
Interrogative Sentence).
Non dubium est quin ux5rem nQlit Alius, Ter., And., 172 ; there is no
doubt that (ray) S07i does not want a ivife. Quis dubitet (= ngmO dubi-
tet) quin in virtate divitiae sint ? C, P«m(Z., vi. 2, 48 (259). Non
dubitari dgbet quin fuerint ante Homgrum pogtae, C, Br., 18, 71 ; it is not
to be doubted tJiut there were poets before Homer. Nunc mihi non est
dubium quin ventGrae non sint (legi5ngs), C, Fam., u. 17, 5 (515).
CONSECUTIVE SENTENCES. 35/
Occasionally verbs of Saying and Thinking are found with the same
construction, because they are near equivalents.
Negari non potest quin rectius sit etiam ad pacatos barbaros exercitum
mitti, Cf. L., XL. 36, 2; it cannot he denied (doubted) that it is better for
an army to he sent to the harharians even though they he quiet. Non
abest suspicio (Litotgs [700] for dubitari non potest) quin (Orgetorix) ipse
sib! mortem consciverit, Caes., E.G., i. 4. 4; there is no lack of ground
to suspect (=: there is no doubt tliat) Orgetorix killed himself.
Remarks. — i. The principal gain of the interrogative sequence is
that the Periphrastic Fut. may be employed (of which, however, the
first example is cited from Cicero), but according to 515, r. 3, n5n
dubito quin may have the simple Subjv. instead of the Periphrastic :
Non dubitare- quin de omnibus obsidibus supplicium sumat (Ariovistus),
Caes., E.G., i. 31,10 ; "/<e did not doubt that Ariovistus would put all
the hostages to death.'' Compare Cat., cviii. 3.
So when there is an original Subjv. notion :
N6n dubito quin ad te statim veniam, C.,Att.,\'ni. iib,3: I do not
doubt that I ought to come to you forthwith. (Veniam ? Shall I come 9)
2. Of course dubito and n5n dubito may have the ordinary interroga-
tive constructions (467). On dubitS an, see 457, 2.
3. Non dubito, with the Inf., usually means / do not hesitate to:
Non dubitem dicere omnSs sapient6s semper esse beatos, C, Fin., v. 32,
95; I should not hesitate to say that all wise men are alivays happy.
Et dubitamus adhuc virtutem extendere factis ? V., A., vi. 806; and do ive
still hesitate to spread our (fame for) valor by our deeds ? Compare
vereor, times, I fear, hesitate to (550, 2, n. 5).
So occHsionally non dubito quin. See r. i.
(Romani) arbitrabantur non dubitaturum fortem virum quin cederet ae-
quo animo I6gibus, C, J/<7., 23, 63; the Romans thought that a brave
man would not hesitate to yield ivith equanimity to the laivs.
Note.— N5n dubitS with the Inf. for non dubitO quin occurs chiefij'^ in Nepos,
LivY, and later writers.
Sunt multi qui quae turpia esse dubitare non possunt utilitatis speciS
ducti probent. Quint., m. 8, 3; there are mavy who, led on by the appearance of
profit., approve what they cannot doubt to be base.
566. Quin, equivalent to ut non, may be used after any
negative sentence (sequence of the Consecutive Sentence).
Here it may often be translated '' wWiotit."
Nil tam difficile est quin quaerendo invgstigari possiet, Ter., Heaut.,
675 (552). Nullum adhuc intermisi diem quin aliquid ad te litterarum
darem, C, Alt., vii. 15, 1 ; / have thus far not allowed a day to pass but
I dropped you {without dropping you) something of a letter {a line or
two).
358 CONSECUTIVE SENTENCES.
Note tlie combination (facere) non possum quin, / cannot hut, and
similar combinations ; non possum non with Inf. is also classical.
Facere non possum quin cottidie ad te mittam (litteras), C, Att., xii. 27,
2; I cannot do without (/ cannot help) sending a letter to you daily.
Non possum quin exclamem, Pl., Triii., 705; I cannot but (I imisl) cry
out. (Nullo modo facere possum ut non sim popularis, C, Agr., 11. 3, 7
(reading doubtful); I cannot help beiiig a 7na7i oj the people.)
Nihil abest quin sim miserrimus, C, ^^^., xi. 15, 3; there is nothing
ivanting that I should he (= to make me) perfectly miserable. Fieri
nullo modo poterat quin Cleomeni parceretur, C, Verr., v. 40, 104; it could
in nowise happen but that Cleornenes should be spared (= Cleomenes
had to be spared). Paulum afuit quin (Fabius) Varum interficeret, Caes.,
B.C., II. 35, 2; tltere ivas little lacking but Fabius (had) killed Varus
(= Fabius came near killing Varus).
Explanatory Ut.
557. A Consecutive Sentence with ut is often used to give
the contents or character of a j)receding substantive^, adjec-
tive, or pronoun.
Est m5s hominum ut nolint eundem pluribus r6bu3 excellere, C.,Br.,
2 1 . 84 (540, R. i). An quoiquarast usus homini se ut cruciet ? Ter. , Ileauf. ,
81 (406, N. 5). Est miserorum ut malevolentes sint atque invideant bonis,
Pl., Capt., 583; the ivretched have a way of being ill-natured and envy-
ing the ivell-to-do. Nee meum ad t§ ut mittam gratiis, Pl., Asin., 190 ;
nor is it my style to let her go to you as a gracious gift. Id est proprium
civitatis ut sit libera, C, Off., ir. 22, 70 ; it is the peculiar privilege of a
state, to be free. lUud ipsum habet consul ut oi reliqui magistratus pareant,
C, Leg., in. 7, IG ; theconsid has this very prerogative, that the other
magistrates be obedient unto him. TOtum in eo est, ut tibi impergs, C,
Tusc, II. 22, 53 ; all depends itjjon this (one thing), your self-command.
Remark. — These are principally mos, consuStudo, A«&i7, ivoiit ; opus,
usus, need ; many substantives of opinion and perceptioji, as opinio, sen-
tentia, cSgitatio, mSns, sapientia, scientia, cognitio ; natflra, genus, status,
and others, usually with a demonstrative attached ; adjectives indi-
cating possession : meum, tuom, suom (all mainly ante-chiss.), proprium,
commune, praecipuum (Livy), and [)redicate Genitives with cscc : id, hoc,
illud, etc. These should be distinguished from final usages.
Notes.— 1. Tendency and Character lend tlicnii^clvcs readily to circiunlooution, and
ut with Siibjv. becomes a manner of eqiiivalon; i) il.c l:i!'., which, howcvc:-, is by far
the more common construction.
2. To the same principle is to be referred the use of ut after maior (magis) quam,
n5n alitor quam {unthovl), lirst in Livy ; after nisi (591, b, R. 3). See 298.
Praeceptum mains erat quam ut ab liominc vidSrStur, c, Fin., \. 16, 44 (503).
TEMPORAL SENTENCES. 359
Exclamatory Questions.
558. Ut with the Subjunctive is used in Exclamatory
Questions, usually with the insertion of -ne.
Egone ut te interpellem ? C, Tusc, ii. i8, 42 ; / interrupt you ? TfL
ut umquam te corrigas ? C, Cat.^ r. 9, 22; you — ever reform, yourself f
Di magnif ut qui civem Bomanum occldisset, impunitatem acciperet, Sen.,
Ben., V. 16, 3 ; Great Gods ! that one who had slain a Roman citizen^
should escape unpunished I
Note.— The expression is closely parallel with the Ace. and Infinitive. The one
objects to the idea ; the other, to any state of things that could produce the result.
In neither case is there any definite or conscious ellipsis. Compare Tbk., Uec.., 589,
with 613.
TEMPORAL SENTENCES.
559. The action of the Temporal or Dependent clause may
stand to the action of the Principal clause in one of three
relations :
1. It may be antecedent.
CoNJuxcTioxs : Fostquam (Postea quam, not ante-class.), after that,
after; ut, as ; ubi, wJien (litx?rally, where); simulac, as soon as ; ut prl-
mum, cum prfnmTn, the first moment thai.
II. It may be contemporaneous.
Conjunctions : Dum, donee, while, until ; quoad, up to (the time) thai;
quamdiu, as long as ; cum, tvlie?i.
III. It may be subsequent.
Conjunctions : Antequam, priusquam, before that, before.
A special chapter is required by
IV. Cum (qnom), when.
MOODS IM TEMPORAL SENTENCES.
560. I. The mood of Temporal clauses is regularly the
Indicative.
2. The Subjunctive is used only :
(i) In Oratio Obliqua (508), Total or Partial. So also in
the Ideal Second Person.
(2) When the idea of Design or Condition is introduced.
360 TEMPORAL SENTENCES.
I. ANTECEDENT ACTION.
561. In historical narrative. Temporal Clauses with post-
quam (posteaquam), ubi, ut, simulac, ut primum, and cum
primum commonly take the Historical Perfect or the Histor-
ical Present Indicative.
The English translation is not unfreqiiently the Pluperfect.
Fostquam Caesar pervSnit, obsid§s poposcit, Caes., B.G., i. 27, 3 ; after
Caesar arrived, he demanded hostages. Quae ubi nuntiantur Bouiam,
senatus extemplo dictatorem dici iussit, L., iv. 56, 8 ; wJien these tidings
were carried to Home, the- senate forlhivith ordered a dictator to be ap-
pointed. FompSius ut equitatum suum pulsum vidit, acig excgssit, Caes.,
B.C., III. 94, 5 : as Pompey saw his cavalry beaten, he left the line of
battle. (Felopidas) non dubitavit, simul ac conspexit hostem, confllgere
(555, 2, R. 3), Nep., XVI. 5, 3 ; as soon as he (had) caught sight of the
enemy, Felopidas did not hesitate to engage (him).
Subjunctive in Oratio Obliqua.
Ariovistum, ut semel Gallorum copias vicerit (5. R, vicit), superbS im-
perare, Caes., B.G., i. 31, 12 ; " that Ariovistus, as soon as he had once
beateri the forces of the Gauls, exercised his ride arroga7itly."
562. The Imperfect is used to express an action continued
into the time of the principal clause (overlapping).
The translation often indicates the spectator (233, n. 1).
Ttt postquam qui tibl erant amid n5n poterant vincere, ut ainlcl tibi
essent qui vincebant effecisti, C, Quinct., 22, 70 ; after (you saw) that
those who were friendly to you could not be victorious you managed
that those should be friendly to you who were going to be victorious.
Ubi nemo obvius ibat, ad castra hostium tendunt, L., ix 45, 14 ; when
(they saw that) no one was coming to meet them, they proceeded to the
camp of the enemy.
Subjunctive in Oratid Obliqua.
Scrlpsisti (eum) posteaquam nSn auderet (6. E. ndn audebat) reprehendere,
laudare coepisse, C, Alt., i. 13, 4 ; you wrote that, after he could 7wt get
up the courage to blame, he began to pi-aise.
663. I. The Pluperfect is used to express an action com-
pleted before the time of the principal clause ; often of the
Resulting Condition.
Albinus postquam dficrSverat ndn Sgredi prOvincia, milites stativis castris
habSbatjS., lug., 44, 4 ; after Albinus had filUy determined not to depart
TEMPORAL SENTENCES. 361
from the province, lie kept his soldiers in cantonments. Posteaquam
multitudinem coll6gerat emblgmatum, instituit officinam, C, Verr., iv. 24,
54 ; after he had got together a great number of figures, he set up shop.
2. The Pluperfect is used with postquam when a definite
interval is mentioned. Rarely also the Historical Perfect
(Aorist).
Post and quam are often separated. With an Ablative of Measure,
postmay be omitted ; with a relative both post (ante) and quam (408, n.4,6?).
(Aristldgs) decgssit ferS post annum quartum quam Themistocles Athenis
erat expulsus, Nep., hi. 3, 3 ; Aristides died about four years after
Themistocles had been (was) banished from Athe^is. Post diem tertium
gesta r6s est quam dixerat, C, J/^7., 16, 44; the matter was accomplished
three days after he had said it would be. [HamilcarJ nono anno postquam
in Hispaniam venerat occisus est, Nep., xxit. 4, 2 ; Hamilcar was killed
7iine years after he came to Spain. (Aristides) sexto ferS anno quam erat
expulsus in patriam restitutus est, Nep., in. i, 5 ; Aristides was 7'estored
to his country about six years after he tvas exiled. Triduo fer6 postquam
Hannibal a ripa Rhodani movit, ad castra hostium venerat, L., xxi. 32, 1 ;
(within) about three days after Hannibal moved from the banks of the
Rhone he had come to the camp of the enemy.
Subjunctive in Oratio Obliqua.
Scriptum a PosidoniS est triginta annis vixisse Panaetium posteaquam
libros [d6 officiis] gdidisset, C, Off., in. 2, 8; it is recorded by Fosidonius
that Panaetius lived thirty years after he put forth his books on Duties.
The attraction is sometimes neglected.
Notes.— 1. The most common of these conjunctions is postquam, bnt the others
also occur at all periods. Simul (atque) is rare in early Latin. In the following notes
the usage in Iterative action is excluded.
2. The Irapf. with postquam is cited but once from early Latin (Pl., Most., 640), it
becomes more common in Cicero, but is distinctive of Livy, who shows nearly one
hundred examples. The Impf. with ubi is cited once in early Latin (Tek., Eu7i., 405),
where, however, it is Iterative, not at all from Cicero, once from Caesar, after which
it is found more frequently, but never becomes common. The Impf. with ut is found
first in Cicero, never in Caesar, Sallust, Vergil, but not uncommonly in Livy ;
only once in Tacitus (//., in. 31), where it is Iterative. The Impf. with simul (atque)
is not cited from Cicero and Caesar, but appears once in Sallust, where it is
Iterative ; it is very rare.
3. The Plupf, with postquam is not cited from Plautus or Horace, and but once
from Terence {And. \^^) ; CxCERO uses it but rarely, Caesar but once (5. 6'., in. 58,
5) ; Livy uses it often, and Tacitus is fond of it. The Plupf. with ubi is found once .
in Plautus, twice each in Cicero and Caesar, and then more frequently. The Plupf.
with nt (primum) is found first in Cicero, perhaps but once in Caesar (fl. C., in. 63, 6),
more often later. The Plupf. with simul (atque) is cited once from Cicero, not at all
from Caesar, and rarely later.
4. Some dozen cases are cited, princii)ally from Cicero, of the Subjv. with post-
362 TEMPORAL SENTENCES.
quam not in 0.0. Mogt of these are disputed. If the Subjv. is <o remain in these
passages it is to be explained as due either to Partial Obliquity or to the intrusion of the
cum Subjv. into other temporal constructions. The Subjv. appears in late Latin.
5. The Subjv. with ubi occurs occasionally in early Latin, but only once in Cicero,
not unfrequently in Livy and Tacitus. This is usually explained as either the Iterative
or Potential Subjunctive. The Subjv. with ut is post-classical, and the Subjv. with
simul does not occur.
664. Postquam and the like, witli the Present and Perfect
Indicative, assume a causative signification (compare quo-
niam, noiu that = since).
[Curia] minor mih! videtur posteaquam est maior, C, Fin., v. i, 2 ; the
senate-house seems to me smaller now that it is (really) greater. Tremo
horreoque postquam aspexi hanc, Ter., Eun., 84 ; / quiver and shiver
since I have seen her.
Notes.— 1. The use of temporal conjunctions, especially postquam in the Present
Sphere, is much more common in early Latin than later. Ubi and ut occur at all peri-
ods, but rarely ; ubi has almost the same force as si ; ut means ex quo, since. Simul
is rare, and found first in Lucretius.
2. Cum, also, has sometimes the causal signification.
Gratulor tibi cum tantum valgs, C, Fam., ix. 14, 3 : / ivish you joy now that
you have eo muck injhience.
665. TJbi and simul are occasionally found with the Future
and Future Perfect ; not so postquam and ut.
Ubi m6 aspiciet ad carnuficem rapiet continue, Pl., B., 689 ; as soon
as he shall catch {catches) sight of me he ivill hurry me at once to the
hangman. Id tibi quidem hercle fiet, Demaenetum simulac conspexero,
Pl., J.sm., 477; that indeed shall certainly he your fate, as soon as I
shall have espied Demaenetus.
Note.— When thus used ubi and simul approach almost the meaning of cum (580).
So also quand5 ; see 580, n. 3. These uses should be distinguished from those of Itera-
tive Action.
Iterative Action.
566. Rule I. — When two actions are repeated contempo-
raneously, both are put in tenses of continuance.
HumilSs labOrant ubi potentgs dissident, Phaed.,i. 30, 1 : the lowly
suffer when the powerful disagree. Populus m6 sibilat ; at mihi plaud5
ipse domi simul ac nummos contemplor in area, II., S., i. i, 60 ; the people
hiss me ; but I clap tu/jsclf at home as soon as I gloat o^er my cash in
the strong box. Ubi frumentS opus erat, cohort6s praesidium agitabant,
S., lug., 55, 4 ; ivhen there ivas need of corn, the cohorts would serve as
an escort.
TEMPORAL SENTENCES. 363
The Subjunctive with the Ideal Second Person.
Bonus segnior fit ubi neglegas, S., lug., 31, 38 ; a good man becomes
more sjnriiless wh-en you neglect Mm.
567. Rule II. — When one action is repeated before an-
other, the antecedent action is put in the Perfect, Pkiper-
fect, or Futui'e Perfect ; the subsequent action in the Pres-
ent, Imperfect, or Future, according to the relation.
[H;^ As this use runs through nil sentences involving Jintecedent
action, all the classes are represented in the following examples.
Observe the greater exactness of the Latin expression. Compare
244, R. 2.
Quotigns cecidit, surgit, As often as he falls, he rises.
Quotiens ceciderat, surggbat, As often as he fell, he rose.
Quotiens ceciderit, surget, As often as he falls, he will rise.
Siraul inflavit tibicen a perito carmen agnoscitur, C, Ac, 11. 27, 80; as
soon as the jliiter blows, the so?ig is recognized by the connoisseur. [Alci-
biades] simul ac s6 remiserat, Itixuriosus reperigbatur, Nep.. vit. i, 4; as
soon as Alcibiades relaxed, he teas found a debauchee. Dociliora sunt in-
genia priusquam obduruerunt, Quint., i. 12, 9 ; minds are more teachafjle
before they (have) become hardened, [Agerl cum multos annos quigvit,
uberiores efferre fruges solet, C, Br., 4, 16 ; when a field has rested
(rests) ituniy years, it visually prodtices a more abundant crop. Cum
palam gius anuli ad palmam converterat (Gyggs) antillo vidgbatur, C, Off.,
in. 9, 38; whe/L(eycr) Gyges turned the bezel of the ring toivard the palm
{of his hand), he was to be seen by no one. Si pgs condoluit, si dgns, ferre
non possumus, C, Tusc, 11, 22, 52; if a foot, if a tooth ache{s), we cannot
endure it. Stomachabatur senex, si quid asperius dixeram, C, N. I)., i. 33;
9;J; the old man used to be fretted, if I said anything {that was) rather
harsh. Quos laborantes conspexerat, his subsidia submittgbat, C aes., B.G.,
IV. 26, 4; to those whom he .mw {had espied) hard pressed he icoidd se?id
reinforcements. Haergbant in memoria quaecumque audierat et viderat
(Themistoclgs), C, Ac, ii. i, 2 ; whatever Themidocles had heard and
seen (= heard and saw) remained fixed in his memory. Qui timgre dgsi-
erint, odisse incipient, Tac, Agr., 32; those who cease to fear will begin
to hate.
The Subjunctive with the Ideal Second Person.
Ubi consulueris, mature facto opus est, S., 6\, 1,6 ; ivhen you have
deliberated, you want speedy action.
The Subjunctive in Oratio Obliqua.
[Cats] mirari sg aigbat quod non ridgret haruspex baruspicem cum vidis-
364 TEMPORAL SENTEITCES.
set, C, Div., II. 24, 51 ; Cato said that he wondered that an haruspex
did not laugh when he saiv (another) haruspex. (Non ridet cum vidit.)
The Subjunctive by Attraction.
[Araneolae] rete texunt ut si quid inhaeserit conficiant, C, N.D., 11. 48,
123 ; spiders weave ivehs to despatch anytJiing that gets caught (si quid
inhaesit, conficiunt). Quare fiebat, ut omnium oculos, quotiescunque in
publicum prodisset, ad se converteret, Nep., vii. 3, 5 ; wherehy it hajj-
pened that he att7'acted the eyes of cdl every time he went out in public
(quotiescunque prodierat, convertebat).
Note.— The Subjunctive in Iterative Tenses may be accounted for on the principle
that a repeated action which is retrospective from the point of view of the narrator, and
so naturally takes the Indicative, becomes prospective from the point of view of the
agent, and so talies tlie Subjunctive. But, liovvever the construction is justified, tlie fact
remains that the Subjunctive in Iterative Sentences is a grow^th in Latin. With the
principal tenses it is confined mostly to the Ideal Second Person. Indefinite quis is very
near to this. So Cicero, Eab. Post., 13, 36 : ubi semel quis pgieraverit- oportet.
With Impf . and Plupf. the first examples (excluding cam) are in Catullus (lxxxiv. i),
and Caesar (e.g. B.C.,n. 15,3). Then it spreads, probably under Greek influence,
and is very common in the historians, especially Livy and Tacitus. Ubi and ut are
the particles employed ; also very often si and relatives, in general quicumque, quo-
tiSns, etc. With cum, Iterative Subjunctives are found to a limited extent also in Cicero
and Caesar ; but all cases of principal tenses in third person have been emended, and
those with historical tenses are not common, and sometimes doubtful.
Cum ferrum s6 inflexisset, neque gvellere neque pugnare poterant (= vidS-
bant S6 non posse), CAES.,ii. ^'.,1.25, 3; when the iron had bent, they found that
they could neither pluck it out nor fight. Incurrere ea gens in Macedoniam solita
erat (as if cSnstituerat) ubi rSgem occupatum externo bello sgnsisset, L., xxvi.
25, 7 ; tJiat tribe was wont to make a raid oti Macedonia whenever they perceived the
king engrossed in foreign war. Qui unum eius ordinis oflfendisset omnfis ad-
versSs habSbat (as if certS sciSbat se habiturum), L., xxxm. 46, 1 : n^hoso had
offended one of that order was sure to have all again.^t him. Modum adhibendS ubi
rfis posceret, priorgs erant, L.,iii. 19,3 ; by the use of moderation, witen the case
, demanded it, they were his superiois.
II. CONTEMPORANEOUS ACTION.
568. Conjunctions used of Contemporaneous Action are :
Dum, donee, ivhile, so long as, until ; quoad, up to (the
time) Ihctt ; quamdiu, as long as ; cum, v:Jien.
An action may be contemporaneous in Extent — so long as,
ivhile.
An action may be contemporaneous in Limit — until.
Rkmark. — Dum, {while) yet, denotes duration, which may bo coex-
tensive, so long as, or not. It is often causal. Donee (old form doni-
cum, used only in the sense until), is parallel with dum in the sense so
long as, until. Cickko uses il oiily as until.
TEMPORAL SENTENCES. 365
1. Contemporaneous in Extent.
(So long as, while.)
569. Complete Coextension, — Dum, donee, quoad, quamditi,
so long as, ivliile, take the Indicative of all the tenses.
Vita dum superest, bene est, Maecenas (Sen., E.M., lor, 11) ; w/nYe
{so long as) life remains, His well. Sibi v§ro banc laudem relinquont,
" Vixit, dum vixit, bene," Ter., Hec, 461 ; thei/ leave indeed this praise
for themselves, " He lived well while he lived'' {all the time). Tiberius
Graccbus tam diu laudabitur dum memoria rSrum R5manarum mangbit, C,
Off., II. 12, 43 ; Tiberius Gracchus shall he praised so long as the
memory of Roman history remains {shall remain). Fuit haec gfens fortis
dum Lycurgi Igggs vigSbant, C, Tusc, i. 42, 101 ; this nation was brave
so long as Die laws of Lycurgus were in force. D5nec gratus eram tibi,
Persarum vigui rSge beatior, II., 0., iii. 9, 1 ; while I was pleasing in
your sight, I throve more blessed than Persia's king. Quoad potuit, re-
stitit, Caes., B.G., iv. 12, 5 : as long as he could, he withstood.
Subjunctive in Oratio Obliqua.
(Rggulus dixit) quam diu iure iurando hostium tengrgtur non esse sS
senatorem, C, Off., iir. 27, 100 ; [Regulus said] that as long as he was
hound by his oath to the enemy he was not a senator, (Quamdiu teneor
ndn sum senator.) -^
Subjunctive by Attraction.
Faciam ut mei memineris dum vitam vivas, Pl., Pers., 494 (333, 2).
Notes.— 1. Dum.— In the Past Sphere we have the Pf. (Aor.), Hist. Pr., end Imper-
fect. Of these the Hist. P*r. is found first in Sallust (C, 36, 1), and the Impf., while
occurring at all periods, is rare. The Pf. is not in Caesaii. Dum in the Present
Sphere is rare ; the Pure Pr. has been observed in Pl., B., 737 : mane dum scrlbit,
which looks much like parataxis, and occasionally in Cicero and later ; the Pure Pf.
is cited only from Terence {And., 556, 597), and is only apparent. Several examples
of the Future Sphere are cited, Pl., B., 225, nSn metu5 mibi dum b6c valebit
pectus ; Ter., Heaut., 107 ; C, Rosc.Am., 32, 991 ; V., .4., 1. 6c7, etc.
Donee is not found in the gsnse "so long as," until JAjcr., v. 178 ; then H., 0., 1.9,
16 ; III, 9, 1. Also Ov., Tr., i. 9, 5. Livy uses it occasionally, but Tacitus affects it,
and employs Hist. Pf., Impf., and Fut. tenses.
Quoad (correlative with adeo) belongs especially to the classical poeus, but is also
found in prose. Compare C, PA., iii. 11, 28, <2fc. It is usually found in the Past
Sphere ; in the Present the adverbial force, " so far as," seems to preponderate ; Pl.,
Asin., 296 : quoad virgs valent. The Future tenses are more common.
Quamdia (correlative with tamdili) is found with this usage first in Cicero.
2. When the actions are coextensive, the tenses are generally the same in both mem-
bers, but not always.
570. Partial Coextension. — Dum, tvhile, wJiile yet, dur-
366 TEMPORAL SENTENCES.
ing, commonly takes the Present Indicative after all Tenses:
so especially in narrative.
Cape hunc equum, dum tib! virium aliquid superest, L., xxii. 49, 7 ;
take this horse, while you have yet some strength left. Bnin haec Romae
aguntnr, consulSs ambd in Liguribus gerebant bellom, L , xxxix. 1, 1:
while these tilings were going on at Rome, both consuls were carrying on
war in Liguria. Praetermissa eius rei occasio est, dum in castellis reci-
piendis tempos teritur, Ij., xxxiii. 18, 20 ; the opportunity was allowed
to slip by, while time was wasted in recovering miserable forts.
gW° Dum in this sense often resists the change into Subjv. in 6. 0., especially in
post-classical Latin. (655, k. 3.)
Notes.— 1. Quamdiu and quoad are, by their composition, incapable of being
used in this sense, and as donec was avoided, dum is the only temporal conjunction
of limit that is loose enough in its formation to serve for partial coextension. The
Pr. after it, formally an Hist. Pr., always connotes continuance, and the construction
becomes practically a periphrasis for a missing Pr. participle.
2. The Pure Pr. of the Present Sphere is found occasionally, principally in early
Latin. In this sense the relation is often causal, and the construction is paiallel with
the I*r. participle, the lack of which in the passive it supplies.
Ardua dum metuunt ( = metuentSs) amittunt v6ra vial, Lucr., i. 660 (372, n. 2).
The causal relation is also often present with the other tenses.
3. Other tenses are extremely rare, as the Future; Pl., il/<e?i.,2i4, dum C0qu6tur,
interim pStabimus ; the Impf., Nep.,xxiii.2,4, quae divina r6s dum conficig-
batur, quaeslvit a me.
4. LiVY, xxxii. 24, 5, shows one case of the Plupf . as a shorthand to express the
maintenance of the result, dum averterat = dum aversos t6nebat.
2. Contemporaneous in Limit.
(Until.)
571. Dnm, donee, quoad, i(p to (the time) thatj until, have
the Present, Historical Present, Historical Perfect, and
Future Perfect Indicative.
Tityre, dum redeo, brevis est via, pasce capellas, V., Ec, 9, 23; Tity-
rus, while I am retiirning (= till 1 return) — the way is short — feed my
kids. Epaminondas ferrum in corpore usque eo retinuit, quoad renuntiatum
est vicisse Boeotios, Cf. Nep-.xv.q, 3; Epaminondas retained the iro?i
in his body, until ivord ivas brought back that the Boeotians had con-
quered. DSnec rediit Marcellus, silentium fuit, L., xxiii. 31, 9 ; until
Marcellus returned, there was silence. Hand dfisinam donee perfScerO hoc,
Tkr., P/t., 42c; I urill not cease until I have (shall have) accomplished
it. Exspectabo dum venit, Ter., Eun., 206 ; I will ivait until he comes.
Subjunctive in 6rati5 Obllqua.
Scipi5ni SilanSque d5nec revocati ab oenatu forent prorogatum imperium
TEMPORAL SENTENCES. 36/
est, L., XXVII. 7, 17; Scipio and Silanus had their command extended
until " they should have been recalled by the senate.'''
Notes.— 1. With the Past Sphere the idea of limit precludes the employment of a
tense of continuance, which would naturally involve the notion of Overlapping Action.
The Impf. is, therefore, not found until the time of Tacitus (once with donec, //-,
1. 9). With the Present Sphere the tense must be iterative or historical. Otherwise the
Pr. is used by anticipation for the Future.
2. The Fut. Indie, is found occasionally in early Latin, usually, however, the Present.
In the classical times, and afterwards, the Subjv. takes its i)lace. Thus Cicero uses the
Subjv. regularly, after verba exspectandi, except in possibly four passages of tl.e
earlier Orations and Letters.
3. Donee is not uncommon in early Latin, but is very rare in Cicero, and never
occurs in Caesar. On the other hand, Tacitus shows one hundred and thirty-eight
cases of it.
4. Donicum belongs to early Latin, but is not found in Terence ; one case with the
Subjv. is found in Nepos. Donique is found in Lucretius four times with the Indie,
always before vowels ; ia Vituuvius once with Indie, three times with Subjv.; other-
wise it is not cited.
5. Quoad, until., occurs once in Plautus, and with the Subjunctive. Otherwise it is
found with both moods occasionally throughout the language.
G. LivT introduces donec inversum like cum inversum (581). See xxi. 46, G ;
XXXV. so, 4, etc.
572. Dum, donee, and quoad, until, take the Subjunctive
when Suspense and Design are involved.
Verginius dum collegam consuleret moratus (est), Ij.,iv.2i, 10; Vergi-
nius delayed until he could (long enough to) consult his colleague. At
tanti tibi sit non indulgere theatris, dum bene de vacuo pectore cgdat amor,
Ov., Hem. Am., 751 ; but let it be ivorth the cost to you {= deem it worth
the cost) 7iot to indulge in play-going, until love be fairly gone from
(your) imtenanted bosom.
Often with verba exspectandi, especially exspecto, / waif.
Rusticus exspectat dum defluat amnis, H., Up., i. 2, 42; the cloiim waits
for the river to run off (dry).
Remarks. — i. The Subjv. is sometimes used in narrative with dum,
while, and donee, while, until, to express subordination. The prin-
ciple is that of Partial Obliquity. There is often a Causal or Iterative
sense (like cum, 584, ii.).
Dum intentus in eum s§ rex totus Sverteret, alter 6latam securim in
caput deiecit, L., i. 40, 7; while the king, intent upon him, was turn-
ing quite away, tlie other raised his axe and planted it in his skull.
(Averteret from the point of view of alter = dum videt avertentem.)
2. Verba exspectandi have also other constructions, as ut, si, nuin, but
not the Infinitive.
573. Dunij mods, and dammods, if onlij, provided only.
368 TEMPORAL SENTENCES.
only, are used with tlie Present and Imperfect Subjunctive,
rarely the other tenses, in Conditional Wishes.
The negative is ne (dum ng = ne interim).
Oderint dum metuant, Accius (C, Off., i. 28, 97); let them Kate sc long
as they fear (provided that, if they will only fear). Quo lubeat nubant,
dum dos ne fiat comes, Pl., AiiL, 491 ; let them marinj where (= who/ii)
tiiey please, if hut the dowry do not go with them. Dummodo morata
recte veniat, dotata est satis, Pl., Aid., 229; provided only she come with
a good character, she is eiidowed (= her dowry is) enoiigh. In e5 multa
admiranda sunt: gligere modo ctirae sit, Quint., x. i, 131; many things
in him are to be admired ; 07ily you must be careful to choose. Copia
placandl sit modo parva tul, Ov,, Her., 20, 74 (428, r. i).
Notes.— 1. It has been noticed that Tacitus uses dummodS only in the Germania
and Dialogns, otherwise dum.
2. Dummodo n§ and mod5 n5 are found first in Cicero. In post- Augustan Latin
n5n is sometimes used for nS ; Juv., vii. 222, dummodo nOn pereat.
III. SUBSEQUENT ACTION.
Antequam and Priusquam with the Indicative.
674. Antequam and priusquam, before, take the Present,
Perfect, and Future Perfect Indicative, when the limit is
stated as a fact. The Present is used in anticipation of the
Future.
Remarks. — i. The elements ante, antea, prius, and quam are often
separated.
2. As prius (ante) -quam is negative in its signification (= necdum),
the Indie, is sometimes found where we sliould expect the Subjunctive.
Note.— Antequam is much rarer than priusquam, especially in early Latin, where
it is cited only from Cato, Caelius, Terence {Hec, 146, with Subjv. in O. O.), and
Varro. Cicero prefers it before a Pr. Indie, priusquam elsewhere.
675. The Present Indicative is used after positive sen-
tences.
Antequam ad sententiam redeo, ds mS pauca dicam, C, Cat., iv. 10, 20 ;
before I return to the subject, I will say a few things of myself. Omnia
experiri certum est prius quam pereo, Ter., And., 311; I am determined to
try everything before I perish. (Prius quam peream — sooner than perish,
to keep from perishing.)
Notes.— 1. The Pure Pf. Indie, is used of Iterative Action, and is rare. (567.)
DociliSra sunt ingenia priusquam obd1iru6runt, Quint., i. 12, 9(567).
Instead of this, the Pr. Subjv. is more common in general statements (567, N.)
2. Tacitus shows no example of the Pr. Indicative.
TEMPORAL SENTEN^CES. 369
576. The Perfect (Aorist) and Future Perfect Indicative
are used both after positive and after negative clauses, chiefly
the latter.
Heraclio, aliquanto ante quam est mortuus, omnia tradiderat, C, Verr.,
II. 18, 40; some time before he died he had handed over everything to
Heraclius. Legati non ante profecti quam impositos in naves militSs vid§-
nint, L., XXXIV. 12, 8 ; the envoys did not set out until they saw the
soldiers on hoard. Neque defatigabor ante quam illorum vias rationgsque
et pro omnibus et contra omnia disputandi percgpero, C, Or., in. 36, 145 ;
/ will not let myself grow weary before (until) / learn (shall have learned)
their methods of disputing for and against everything.
Subjunctive in Oratio Obliqua.
Themistoclgs [coll6gis suis] praedixit, ut n6 prius LacedaemoniSrum
iSgatos dimitterent quam ipse esset remissus, Nep., ii. 7, 3(540, 2). (Non
prius dimittgtis quam ego ero remissus.)
Remark. — After negative clauses containing a historical tense the Pf.
is the rule and the connection is always close : non priusquam =. dum.
Violations of this rule are very rare ; see 577, 2.
Notes.— 1. The Fnt. is found occasionally in Plautus, but has disappeared by the
time of Terence. The Fut. Pf. is never common, but is found atall periods. Tacitus
avoids it, and so do fcther authors.
2. The Impf . is confined to LivY, who shows four examples, and to one case in late
Latin. The Phipf. is found once in Cicero (Doni., 30, 78), where it may be Iterative,
and once in early Latin (Ter., Hec, 14c,).
Antequam and Priusquam with the Subjunctive.
577. Antequam and priusquam are used with the Subjunc-
tive when an ideal limit is given ; when the action is expected,
contingent, designed, or subordinate.
I. An ideal limit involves necessary antecedence, but not necessary
subsequence. After positive sentences, the Subjunctive is the rule,
especially in generic sentences and in narrative. (Compare cum, 585.)
After Historical Tenses the Subjunctive is almost invariable when the
action does not, or is not to, take place. 'J'he translation is often be<
fore, and the verbnl in -ing (Greek -rrptv with the Infinitive).
Ante videmus fulgSrem quam sonum audiamus, Sex., N.Q.,u. 12, 6;
ice see the flash of lightnirig before fiearing the sound (we may never
hear it). But compare Lucr., vi. 170. In omnibus negotiis prius quam
aggrediare adhibenda est praeparatio diliggns, C, Off.,i. 2i,7'S; in all
affairs, before addressing yourself (tu them), you must make use of care-
ful preparation (Ideal Second Person). [Collem] celeriter priusquam ab
370 TEMPORAL SEJ^TENCES.
adversariis sentiatur communit, Caes., B.C., i. 54, 4; he speedily fortified
the hill before he was (too soon to be) perceived by the enemy (prius
quam =: prius quam ut). Hannibal omnia priusquam excederet pugna
(erat) expertus, L., xxx. 35, 4 ; Hannibal had tried every thijig before
withdrawing from the fight (= to avoid withdraiving from the fight).
Saepe magna indoles virttitis priusquam rei publicae prodesse potuisset
ex3tincta est, C, Ph., v. 17, 47; ofteii hath great native worth been ex-
tinguished before it could be of service to tie State. Ducentis annis ante
quam urbem Romam caperent in Italiam Galli transcenderunt, L., v. 33, 5;
(it ivas) two hundred years before their talcing Rome {that) the Gauls
crossed into Italy (here the Subjv. gives the natural point of reference).
2. After an historical tense in the negative, the Subjunctive is excep-
tional. (576, 11.)
Inde non prius egressus est quam (= ibi manebat dum) r6x eum in fidem
reciperet, Nep., ii. 8, 4; he did not come out until the hing should take
him under his protection (he stayed to make the king take him under
his protection). See Caes., B.G., vi. 37, 2; L., xlv. ii, 3.
Notes.— 1. The Pr. Subjv. is common, but is usually generic; the few cases of Final
Subjv. are confined to early Latin. Very rarely the Hist. Pr. is found after a Hist.
Present. See Caes., B. C, i. 22.
2. The Pf. occurs occasionally ; it is usually in a final sense.
Non prius dimittunt quam ab his sit concessum, Caes., b. G., hi. 18.
3. In LivY we find the Inipf. Subjv. used not unfrequently, where the idea of sus-
pense or design is very slight, much after the manner of cum nomdum (as C, Ph., v.
1,4).
4. The Plupf . Subjv. is cited five times from Cicero and four times from Livy. In
these passages the completion rather than the continuance is in suspense.
5. PostridiSquam is found in Plautus, Cicero (Letters), and Suetonius with
the Indicative. In Cicero, Ac, ii. 3, 9, with the Subjunctive. PridiSquam is found
in Plautus and Cicero with the Indicative ; in LivY, Val. Max., and Suetonius
with the Subjunctive. Both are very rare.
6. When the will is involved, potius quam is used in the same way as prius quam.
Depugna potius quam servias, C, Alt. vn. 7, 7 ; fr/ht it mit rather than be a
slave.
IV. CONSTRUCTIONS OF CUM (QUOM).
578. Cum is a (locative) relative conjunction.
Note.— Originally locative (where), quom became temporal (when) like ubi. When
time is not defined by a fixed date, it readily becomes circumstance, and this circum-
stance is interpreted as cause, condition, and the like. Compare the circumstantial
relative itself. The first construction was with the Indicative as in any other merely
relative clause, and this is the sole construction in earliest Latin. But, beginning with
Terence, we can observe the drift ever increasing in Latin towards the expression of
character by tendency (Subjv.) rather than by fact (Indie), so that the relative of char-
acter takes more and more the Subjunctive, and cum follows the lead of ut nnd of the
inflected relative pronoun.
579. There are two great uses of cum :
I. Temporal cum {when, then), with the Indicative.
TEMPORAL SENTENCES. 3/1
II. Circumstantial cum {as, ivhereas), with the Subjunc-
tive.
In the second usage the relation is still purely a matter of
inference ; but according to this inferential connection we
distinguish :
{a) Historical cum, as, giving the attendant circumstances,
mainly temporal, under which an action took place.
{b) Causal cum, as, wliereas, since, indicating that the
main action proceeded from the subordinate one.
(c) Concessive cum, wliereas, although, indicating that the
main action was accomplished in spite of that of the subor-
dinate clause.
I. Cum vSr appetit, militSs ex hibernis movent, when spring ap-
proaches, soldiers move out of tcinter-quarters.
II. (rt) Cum ver appeteret, Hannibal ex hibernis movit, as spring was
approaching {spring approaching), Hannibal moved out of winter-
quarters.
(b) Cum vSr appetat, ex hibernis movendum est, as (since) spring is
approaching, we must move out of winter-quaiiers.
(c) Cum v6r appeteret, tamen hostgs ex hibernis non movSrunt, whereas
{although) spring was approachitig, nevertheless the enemy did not move
out of winter-quarters.
1. Temporal Cum.
580. Cum, tvhe?i, is used with all the tenses of the Indica-
tive to designate merely temporal relations.
In the Principal clause, a temporal adverb or temporal expression
is frequently employed, such as turn, tunc, theti ; nunc, now ; diSs, day ;
tempus, time ; iam, already ; vix, scarcely, and the like.
Animus, nee cum adest nee cum discgdit, apparet, C, Cat. 31., 22, 80;
the .'<onl is ?iot visible, either ivhen it is present, or when it dejmrts.
Stomacher cum aliorum n5n me digna in m6 conferuntur, C, Plane, 14, 35 ;
/ get fretted when other people's Jokes that are not worthy of me are
foisted on me. [Sex libros d6 rS publica] tum scripsimus cum gubernacula
rel publicae tenebamus, C, Div., 11. i, H; I wrote the six books about the
State at the time ivhen I held the helm of the State. Eecordare tempus
illud cum pater Curi5 maerSns iac6bat in lecto, C, Ph., n. 18, 45; remem-
ber the time when Curio the father lay abed from grief. Longum illud
tempus cum non erS magis m6 movet quam h5c exiguum, C, Att., xii. 18, 1 ;
that long time (to come), when I shall not crAst, has more effect on me
than this scard {present time). Iam dilucgscebat cum signum cQnsul
372 TEMPORAL SENTENCES.
dedit, L., xxxvi. 24, G; by this time day ivas beginning to dawn, when
the consul gave the signal. (See 581.)
Idea] Second Person with the Subjunctive :
Pater, hominum inmortalis est inftimia. Etiam turn vivit quom esse
credas mortuam, Pl., Pers., 355; Father, immortal is the ill-fame of the
u'orld. It lives on even when you think that it is dead.
But the presence of a temporal adverb does not mean necessarily that
the cum clause is merely temporal.
Remarks. — i. Fuit cum commonly follows the analogy of other
characteristic relatives (631), and takes the Subjunctive :
Fuit tempus cum (= fuit cum) rura colerent homines, Varro, R.R., iii.
I, 1 ; there was a time when all mankind tilled fields = were countrymen.
The Indie, is rare.
2. Memini cum, / remember the time when, takes the Indie, but
audire cum takes the Subjv. parallel with the participle :
Memini cum mih! dgsipere vidgbare, C, Farn , vii. 28, 1; I remember
the time tvhen you seemed to me to show the worst possible taste. Audivi
Metrodorum cum de iis ipsis rebus disputaret, C, Or., 11. 90, 365; / have
heard Met'rodorus di§cuss{ini^) these very matters.
3. Peculiar is the use of cum with Lapses of Time. Lapses of Time
are treated as Designations of Time in Accusative or Ablative :
Multi anni sunt cum {= multos annos) in aere meo est, C, Fam., xv.
14, 1 ; {it is) many years (that) lie has been (230) m my debt. Permulti
anni iam erant cum inter patricios magistrates tribunSsque nulla certa-
mina fuerant, L., ix. 33, 3; very many years had elapsed since there had
been a?iy struggles between the patrician magistrates and the tribunes.
Nondum centum et decem anni sunt cum (= ex quo = abhinc annos) dS pe-
cuniis repetundis lata lex est, C, Off., 11. 21, 75; it is not yet one hundred
and ten years since the law concerning extortion was proposed.
Notes.— 1. In Plautus cum with the Indie, may be explicative, causal, conceeeive,
adversative. Esrplicative : salvos quom {that) advenis, gaudeO, Most., 1128. Caus-
al: salvos quom {since) peregrg advenis, cgna detur, B., 536- Concessive : [servi]
quom {although) culpa carent, tamen malum metuont. Most., 859. Advermlixe:
insanire m6 aiunt, ultro quom {whereas) ipsi insaniunt, Men., 831.
The same holds true for Terence, except that the Subjv. is now making its appear-
ance in cases where it can be neither potential, ideal, nor attracted, as Ilec, 341 : non
visam ux5rem Pamphili, quom in proxumo hie sit aegra *?
Of course, tliis prevalence of the Indie, does not exclude the attraction into the
Subjv., nor does it exclude the regular potential use.
2. The explicative use dies out, except where it is akin to the conditional ; but it
always retains the Indicative. With Causal and Concessive-Adversative uses, the
Subjv. is used more and more in place of the Indicative.
3. In early Latin we find quoniam and quandS, need sometimes with the force of
quom. In the case of quoniam several examples are cited from Plautus, in most of
which, however, the causal conception lies very close at hand ; the temporal force seems
to have disappeared by the time of I'erence, and only reappears in Gellius. The
TEMPORAL SENTENCES. 373
temporal usage of quando is still the prevailing one in Plautus, over seventy instances
having been collected. Of these the majority are in the Present and Future Spheres, in
which the shift to tlie causal conception is very easy ; many of them are also iterative.
In Tepence the temporal usage of quandS has disappeared unless possibly in one
passage (AcL, 606), but sporadic cases are found later, even in Ciceko.
Quoniam hinc est profecturus peregre thensaurum demonstravit mihi,
Pl., Ti-in., 149. Turn, quand5 Iggatos Tjrrum misimus, C, Leg.Agr., 11. 16, 41.
681. Cum hiversum. When the two actions are indepen-
dent, cum is sometimes used with the one which seems to be
logically the principal clause, just as in English.
lam non longins bidui via aberant, com duas vSnisse legionSs cognoscunt,
Caes., B.G., VI. 7, 2 ; they tcere noiv distant not more than two days'
march, when they learned that two legions were come.
Similar is tlie addition of an illustrative fact, often causal or adversa-
tive, by cum interea (interim), quidem, tamen, etc., with the Indicative.
582. Eoc2)lic(ttive cum. — When the actions of the two
clauses are coincident, cum is almost equivalent to its kin-
dred relative quod, in that.
Aiacem, hunc quom vid6s, ipsum vid6s, Pl., Capt., 615 ; lohen you see
him, you see Ajax himself. Cum tacent, clamant, C, Cat., i. 8, 21 ; ivhen
(= in tliat) they are silent, they cry aloud. Dixi omnia cum hominem
nominavl, Plin., Ep., iv. 22, 4; I have said everything, in naming the
man.
583. Conditional cum. — Cum with the Future, Future
Perfect, or Universal Present, is often almost equivalent to
si, if, with which it is sometimes interchanged.
Cum posc6s, posce Lating, Juv., xi. 148; when (if) you {shall) ask (for
anything), ask in Latin. Cum veniet contra, digito compgsce labellum,
Juv., I. 160 ; when (if) he meets you, padlock your lip ivith your finger.
584. Iterative cum. — Cum in the sense of quotiens, as often
as, takes the Tenses of Iterative Action.
Solet cum sg purgat in mg conferre omnem culpam, C, ^^/., ix. 2 a, 1;
he is accustomed, ivhen he clears himself, to put off all the blame on me.
[Ager] cummultos annos requigvit uberiorgs eflferre fruggs solet, C, Br., 4,
1 C) (567). Cum palam eius anuli ad palmam converterat (Gyggs) a nulls
vidgbatur, C, Off., in. 9, 38 (507).
Kemark. — The Subjv. is also found (567, n.) :
Cum in ius duci dgbitorem vidissent, undique convolabant, L., 11. 27, 8 ;
tvhenever they saw a debtor taken, to court, they made it a rule to hurry
together from cdl quarters.
374 TEMPORAL SENTENCES.
2. Circumstantial Cum.
585. Historical cum. — Cum, when (as), is used in narra-
tive with the Imperfect Subjunctive of contemporaneous
action, with the Pluperfect Subjunctive of antecedent action,
to characterize the temporal circumstances under which an
action tool^ place.
[AgesilausJcumexAegyptorevertergturdecessit, Nep., xvii. 8, G ; Agesi-
laus died as he was returning from Egypt. Zenonem cum Athgnis essem
audiebam frequenter, C, N.D., i. 21, 59; when I was {being) at Athens,
1 heard Zeno {lecture) frequently. Athgnienses cum statuerent ut nav6s
conscenderent, Cyrsilum quendam suadentem ut in urbe manerent, lapidibus
cbruerunt, C, Off., ni. 11, 48 (540).
Cum Caesar Anconam occupavisset, urbem reliquimus, C, Fam., xvi. 12,
2 ; when (as) Caesar had occupied Ancona (Caesar having occupied
Ancona), I left the city. Attains moritur altero et septuaggsimo anno,
cum quattuor et quadraginta annos rggnasset, L., xxxni. 21, 1; Attains
died in his sevejity-second year, having reigned forty-fonr years.
Remark. — The subordinate clause generally precedes. The circum-
stantiality often appears as causality, but sometimes the exact shade
cannot be distinguished. Owing to this implicit character, cum with
the Subjv. is a close equivalent to the participle, and often serves to
supply its absence. Compare 611 with 631, 2.
Notes.— 1. How closely allied the ideas of time and circumstance are, in these
constructions, is seen from such examples as this :
Cum varicgs secabantur C. Mario, dolgbat, C, Tusc, 11. 15, 35 (time). Marius
cum secargtur, ut supra dixi, vetuit, etc., C, Tusc, 11. 22, 53 (circumstances).
Cum ad tribum Poiliam ventum est, (date) et praeco cunctargtur (cir-
cnrastanccs) citare ipsum censorem; Cita, inquit NerS, M. Livium, L.,xxix.
37,8.
2. The use of Time When particles with the Pr. is necessarily limited to itt^rative or
causal (adversative) relations. Hence there is no room for the ciicumstantial cum with
the Subjv. except so far as it is causal-adversative. Fut. and Fut. Pf. are found chieJly
in general or iterative relations.
3. By attraction similar to that with qnod (541, n. 3) and other relatives, cumdiceret,
with an Inf., is found where diceret would be more natiually omitted or in!<eite;l is
(ut dicgbat) ; so cum adsentire se diceret for cum adsentiret, L., i. 54, l. Simi-
larly with cum causal : '• saying, as he did," C, Mil.., 5, 12.
586. Causal CMm. — Cum, ivlien, whereas, since, seeing that,
with any tense of the Subjunctive, is used to denote the rea-
son, and occasionally the motive, of an action (580, N. 1).
Quae cum ita sint, effectum est nihil esse malum quod turpe n5n sit, C,
Fin., III. 8, 29; since tliese things are so, it is made out (proved) that
nothing is bad that is not dishonorable. Cum [Athgnas] tamquam ad
TEMPORAL SENTENCES. 375
mercaturam bonarum artium sis profectus, inanem redire turpissimum est,
C. Ojf., III. 2, 6; as {since) you set out for Athens as if to 7narket for ac-
complishments, it icould be utterly disgraceful to return empty {handed).
Dolo erat pugnandum, cum par non esset armis, Nep., xxiii. io, 4 ; he had
to fight hy stratagem, as he {seeing that he) ivas tiot a match in arms.
Remarks. — i. The characteristic nature of the Siibjv. with cum
comes out more clearly in the causal connection, owing to the parallel
with utpote, quippe, and the relative (G2G, n.).
2. I'he primary tenses are more common, in this connection, but the
historical tenses are abundant enough. With the latter the causal
relation need never be emphasized.
687. Concessive and Adversative cum. — Causal cum,
whereas, becomes Concessive cum, whereas, althougli, with
the Subjunctive, when the cause is not sufficient ; the rela-
tion is often adversative, and there is no limitation as to
tense.
The temporal notion is still at work; whether the times are for or
against an action is a matter outside of language (580, n. 1).
Nihil mS adiuvit cum posset, C, Att., ix. 13, 3 ; he gave me 710 assist-
ance, altliough {at a time when) he had it in his power. Cum primi
ordings hostium concidissent, tamen acerrimg reliqui resistebant, Caes.,
B.G., VII. 62, 4; although the first ranks of the enemy had fallen {been
cut to pieces), nevertheless the rest resisted most vigorously. Perire artem
putamus nisi apparet, cum desinat ars esse, si apparet, Quint., iv. 2, 127;
we think that {our) art is lost unless it shows, whereas it ceases to be art
if it shoivs.
Remarks. — i. To emphasize the adversative idea, tamen is often
added in the principal clause.
2. Adversative cum non, ivhereas not, is often conveniently trans-
lated without; cum non Inferior fuisset, C, Off., i. 32, IIG ; without
being inferior.
588. Cum— tum. i. When cum, ivhen, turn, then, have the
same verb, the verh is put in the Indicative. Cum — tum then
has the force of both — and especially, and a strengthening*
adverb, such as maximg, praecipue, is often added to the
latter.
(Pausanias) consilia cum patriae tum sibi inimica capigbat, Nep., iv. 3, 3 ;
Pausanias conceived plans that were hurtful both to his country and
especially to himself
3/6 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
2. When they have different verbs, the verb with cum is
usually in the Indicative, but may be in the Subjunctive,
especially when the actions of the two verbs are not contem-
porary ; this Subjunctive often has a concessive force.
[Sisennae historia] cum facile omngs vincat superior6s, turn indicat tamen
quantum absit a summo, C, Br., 64, 228; although the history of Sisenna
easily surpasses all former histories, yet it shows how far it is from the
highest {mark).
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
689. In Conditional Sentences the clause which contains
the condition (supposed cause) is called the Protasis, that
which contains the consequence is called the Apodosis.
Logically, Protasis is Premiss ; and Apodosis, Conclusion.
Grammatically, the Apodosis is the Princijjal, the Protasis
the Dependent, clause.
590. Sign of the Conditional. — The common conditional
particle is si, if.
Notes.— 1. SI is a locative case, literally, so, in those circumstavces (comp. si-C, so,
and the English : " I would by combat make her good, so were I a man." — Shake-
speare). Hence, conditional clauses with si may be regarded as adverbs in the Abl.
case, and are often actually represented by the Abl. Absolute.
Sic is found as the correlative of si in the colloquial language, as : sic ScribSs all-
quid, si vacabis (C, Att., xii. 38, 2) ; sic ignovisse putato mg tibi, si c6nas hodi6
mecum (H., Ep., i. 7, 69). Instead of sic, its equivalent tum occurs at all periods, being
in the Augustan time restricted to formal uses. Igitur is also found as late as Cicero,
who likewise uses ita. Other particles are post-classical.
2. The connection with the Causal Sentence is shown by si quidem, which in later
Latin is almost = quoniam ; see 595, r. 5.
3. The temporal particles cum and quandO, tvhen, and the locative ubi, are also
used to indicate conditional relations in which the idea of Time or Space is involved.
591. Negative of si. — The negative of si is si non or nisi.
{a) With si non, if not, the non negatives the single word ;
hence an opposing positive is expected, either in a preceding
condition, or in the conclusion. Therefore, si non is the rule :
I. When the positive of the same verb precedes.
Si fSceris, mfignam habSbO gratiam ; si n6n fSceris, IgnOscam, C., Fam.^
V. 19 ; if you do it, I will be very grateful to you ; if you do not, I will
forgive {you).
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 377
2. When the Condition is concessive ; in this case the prin-
cipal clause often contains an adversative particle.
Si mill! bona r6 publica frui non licuerit, at car§bo mala, C, Mil., 34,
93 ; */ / shall not he allowed to enjoy good government, 1 shall at least
he rid of had.
(b) With nisi, unless, the negative ni- refers to the princi-
pal clause, which is thus denied, if the conditional clause is
accepted ; hence :
1. Nisi adds an exception or restriction to the leading
statement. Compare the general use of nisi, excepi (r. 2).
Nisi molestumst, paucis percontarier (130, 6) volo ego ex tg, Pl., Rtid.y
120; if it is not disagreeable, I ivish to ask you a few questions.
So the formulas nisi fallor (ni fallor is found first in Ovid), nisi mS
omnia fallunt (C, Att., viii. 7, 1), and the like.
2. Nisi is in favorite use after negatives.
Parvl {— nihili) sunt foris arma nisi est consilium domi, C, Off-, i- 22,
76 (411, R. 2). [Non] possem vivere nisi in litteris viverem, C, Fam., ix.
26, 1 ; / co\dd not live unless I lived in study. Memoria minuitur nisi
eam exerceas, C, Oat. 31., 7, 21; memory wanes unless (except) you exer-
cise it. (Si non exerceas, in case you fail to exercise it.)
So more often than si n5n, in asseverations. Peream nisi sollicitus
sum, C, Fam., xv. 19, 4 ; may I die if I am fiot troubled.
Remarks.— I. Sometimes the difference is unessential :
Nisi Curio fuisset, hodis ts muscae comSdissent, Cf. Quint., xi. 3, 129;
if it had not been for Curio, the flies would have eaten you up this day.
Si non fuisset woidd be equally correct.
2. Nisi is often used after negative sentences or equivalents in the
signification of but, except, besides, only :
inspice quid portem ; nihil liic nisi triste vidgbis, Ov., Tr., in. i, 9;
examine ivhat I am hringi7ig ; you will see nothing here except (what is)
sad. Falsus honor iuvat et mendax in^mia tenet, quem nisi mendSsum
et medicandum'? ii.,Ep.,\.i(i,o^\ '^ false honor chartns and lying
slander scares,^' tvhom hut the faulty and the fit for physic 9
So nisi si, except in case, with a following verb ; occasional in early
Latin, more common later, but not in Caes. {B. 0.,\. 31, 14, is disputed),
Sall., Verg., Iloii. Nisi ut, except on condition that, is post-classical.
Necesse est CasilingnsSs s@ dgdere Hannibali ; nisi si malunt fam§ perire,
C, Inv., II. 57, 171; the people of Casilinum must needs surrender to
Hannibal ; unless (except in case) they prefer to perish by hunger.
3. Nisi quod introduces an actual limitation — with the exception, that
(525, 2, N. 2) ; so praeterquam quod ; nisi ut (e. g. C, Imp., 23, 67).
378 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
Nihil acciderat [PolycratI] quod noUet nisi quod anulum quo dglectabatur
in mari abiecerat, C, Fin., v. 30, 92 ; nothing had happened to Poly-
crates that he could 7iot have loished, except that he had thrown into the
sea a ring in which he took delight {= a favorite ring). NiMl peccat
nisi quod nihil peccat, Plin., Ep., ix. 26, 1; he malces no blunder except
— that he makes no blunder (" faultily faultless '*).
4. Nisi forte (found very often in Cicero, very rarely earlier), unless,
perhaps, nisi vgro (peculiar to Cicero), unless, indeed, with the Indie,
either limit a previous statement, or make an ironical concession :
N6m6 ferS saltat sobrius nisi forte insanit, C, 3Iur.,6, 13; there is
scarce any one that dances (when) so6e/-, unless perhaps he is cracked.
Plgnum forum est eorum hominum, . . . nisi vgro paucos fuisse arbitramini,
C, Sull., 9, 28; the forum is full of those rnen; unless, indeed, you
think they were (but) few.
Notes.— 1. Nisi is sometimes strengthened by tamen, but, yet.
Nisi etiam hie opperiar tamen paulisper, Pl., Aid., 805 ; Cf. C, Att., v. 14, 3.
Even without tamen it is adversative in colloquial Latin, especially after nescio.
2. NI is found mostly in early Latin and the poets, and in legal formuke and collo-
quial phrases. It is rare in Ciceko, and never used in Caesar.
Peream ni piscem putavl esse, Varro, E.R., hi. 3, 9 ; may I die if I did not
think it was a fish.
3. Nisi forte is found occasionally with the Subjv. from Apuleius on.
592. Two Conditions excluding each the other. — When
two conditions exclude each the otheiv si is used for the first ;
sin, if not {hut if), for the second.
Sin is further strengthened by autem, vero (rare), hut;
minus, less (not); secus (rare), otlierwise; aliter, else.
Mercatura, si tenuis est, sordida putanda est ; sin magna et copiosa, n5n
est admodum vituperanda, C, Off., i. 42, LjI; mercantile business, if it
is petty, is to be considered dirty (work); if {it is) not {petty, but) great
and abundant (= conducted on a large scale), it is not to be found fault
with much.
Remark. — If the verb or predicate is to he supplied from the
context, si minus, if less {not), sin minus, sin aliter, if otherwise, are
commonly used, rarely si non :
Edfic tecum omngs tuos ; si minus, quam plurimQs, C, Cat., i. 5, 10;
take out iviih you all your {followers) ; if not, as many as possible.
Odero si pctero ; si nOn, invltus amSbO, Ov., Am., in. 11, 35 (243, 11. 2).
Note.— Much less common arc simple si, or si strengthened by n6n, nihil, ntillus,
minus, or by autem, v6r5 ; or sed si, at si (Col.), sI contra (Hor., Pun.). Sin may
also be followed by nOn, but commonly only when one or more words intervene.
PQma cruda si sunt, vix Svelluntur ; si matura, dScidunt, C, Cat.M,, 19,71.;
if f nut is green it can hardly be plucked, f ripe il fulls ((f itself).
CON'DITIOJ^AL SENTENCES. 379
593. other Forms of the Protasis. — i. The Protasis may
be expressed by a Relative.
Qui videret, urbem captam diceret, C, Vetr., iv. 23, 52; u'hoso had seen
it, had said that the city was taken. Miraretur qui turn cerneret, L.,
XXXIV. 9, 4 (258).
2. The Protasis may be contained in a Participle.
Si latet ars, prodest; affert dgprensa pudorem, Ov., A.A.,u. 213; art,
if concealed, does good ; detected, it brings shame. Maximas virtutes
iacere oinngs necesse est voluptate dominante, C, Fin., ir. 35, 117 ; all the
greatest virtues must necessarily lie prostrate, if the pleasure {of tlie
senses) is mistress. Nihil [potest] Svenire nisi causa antec6dente, C, Fat.,
15, 34; nothing can happen, unless a cause jJrecede.
3. The Protasis may be involved in a modifier.
F6c6runt id servi Milonis quod suos quisque servos in tali rg facere volu-
isset, C, 3Jil., 10, 29 ; the servants of llilo did ivhat each man would
have wished his servants to do in such case (si quid tale accidisset). At
bene non poterat sine puro pectore vivi, Lucr., v. 18 ; but there could be no
good living icitliout a clean heart (nisi purum pectus esset). Neque enim
materiam ipsam (cgns6bant) cohaergre potuisse si nulla vi continergtur,
neque vim sine aliqua materia, C, ^4c., i. 6, 24.
4. The Protasis may be expressed by an Interrogative, or,
what is more common, by an Imperative or equivalent.
Tristis es ? indignor quod sum tibi causa doloris, Ov., Tr., iv. 3, 33 (542).
Cgdit amor rgbus: rgs age, tutus eris, Ov., Rem. Am., 144 ; love yields to
business ; be busy (if you plunge into biLsiness), you will be safe. Im-
mtitai (verborum collocationem),.perierit totargs, C, Or., 70, 232 (244, r. 4).
Classification of Conditional Sentences.
594. Conditional sentences may be divided into three
classes, according to the character of the Protasis :
I. Logical Conditional Sentences : si, with the Indicative.
II. Ideal Conditional Sentences : si, chiefly with Present
and Perfect Subjunctive.
III. Unreal Conditional Sentences : si, w4th Imperfect
and Pluperfect Subjunctive.
Notes.— 1. In some grammars of Greek and Latin, conditional sentences, and sen-
tences involving conditional relations, have been divided into parlicidar and general.
Whether a condition be particular or general depends simply on the character of the
Apodosis. Any form of the Conditional Sentence may be general, if it implies a rule of
action. The forms for Iterative action have been given (566, 567).
380 conditio:n"Al sentences.
2. Conditional Sentences with the Subjunctive (Ideal and Unreal) are best understood
by comparing the forms of the Ideal and Unreal wish which have the same mood and
the same tenses. The Unreal wish of the Past is the Plupf., that of the Present is the
Impf. Subjunctive. The Ideal wish is the Pr. and Pf. Subjunctive. The same tem-
poral relations appear in the conditional.
I. LOGICAL CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
695. The Logical Conditional Sentence simply states the
elements in question^ according to the formula : if this is so,
then that is so ; if this is not so, then that is not so.
It may be compared with the Indicative Question.
The Protasis is in the Indicative : the Apodosis is generally
in the Indicative ; but in future relations any equivalent of
the Future (Subjunctive, Imperative) may be used.
PuoTASis. Apodosis.
Si id crSdis, erras,
If you believe that, you are (joing wrong.
Si id crSdSbas, errabas,
If you believed that, you were going wrong.
Si id crgdidisti, errasti,
If you (have) believed that, you went (have gone) wrong.
Si id crSdSs, errabis,
If you (shall) believe that, you ivill (be) goiing) wrong (234, r.).
Si id crgdideris, erraveris,
If you (shall have) believe(A) that, you will have gone (will go) wrong.
SI quid crgdidisti, erras,
If you have believed anything
(=• when you believe anything), you go wrong. Comp. 5G9.
Si quid crgdideras, errabas,
If you had believed anything
(= when you believed anything), you went wrong.
SI splritum ducit, vivit, C, Inv., i. 46, 80; if he is drawing (his) hreath
(breathing) he is living. Parvi sunt foris arma nisi est cSnsilium domi,
C, Off., I. 22, 76 (411, R. 2). Si occidi, rgcte feci ; sed non occidi, Quint.,
IV, 5, 13; if I killed him, I did right ; hut 1 did not kill him. [Natu-
ram] si sequemur ducem, numquam aberrabimus, C, Off., i. 28, 100; if we
(sliall) follow nature (as our) guide, ive shall never go astray. [Im-
probos] 8l meus consulatus sustulerit, multa saecula prSpagarit rei publicae,
C, Cat., II. 5, 11; if my consulship shall have done away with the de-
structives, it ivill have added many ages to the life of the State. Si pSs
condoluit, si dgns, ferre n5n possumus, C, Tusc, 11. 22, 53 (567). Stomacha-
batur senex, si quid asperius dixeram, C, N.D., i. 33, 93 (567). Vivam, si
vivet ; si cadet ilia, cadam. Prop., ii. (in.) 28 (25), 42 (8); let me live, if
she lives ; if site falls, let me fall. Nunc si forte potes, sed nOn potes,
optima cOnianx, finitis gauds tot miM morte malls, Ov., Tr., 111. 3, 55;
COI^DITIOI^AL SENTENCES. 38 1
now, if haply you can, but you cannot, noble wife, rejoice that so many
evils have been finished for me by death. Flectere si nequeo superos,
Acheronta movSbo, V., A., vii. 312; if I can't berid the gods above, Til
rouse {all) hell behrw. Si tot exempla virttitis non movent, nihil umquam
movebit ; si tanta clades vilem vitam non fecit, nulla faciet, L., xxii. 60,
14; if so many examples of valor stir you not, 7iothing ivill ever do it ;
if so great a disaster has not made life cheap, none (ever) will. Dgsings
timere, si sperare dgsieris, Sen., E.M., i. 5, 7 ; you will, cease to fear, if
you {shall have) ceasc(d) to hope. Peream male, si non optimum erat,
H., /S'., ir. I, 6 ; inay T die the death if it was not best. Si volebas parti-
cipari, auferres (= auferre debebas) dimidium domum, Pl., True, 74S; if
you wished to share in it, you should have taken the half home. Respi-
raro si te viderS, C, Att., 11. 24, 5; I shall breathe again, if I shall have
seen you.
Remarks. — i. After a verb of Saying or Thinking ((5rati5 Obliqua),
the Protasis must be \)\\i in the Subjv., accordhig to the rule.
(Si id credis, erras.) Dico, t6, si id crSdas, errare.
Dixi, t§, si id crSderes, errare.
(Si id crSdgs, errabis.) Dico, te, si id crSdas, erraturum esse.
Dixi, t6, si id crgdergs, erraturum esse.
(Si id crgdidisti, errasti.) Dico, t6, si id crgdideris, errasse.
Dixi, tg, si id crgdidisses, errasse.
For examples, see Orati5 Obliqua, 657.
2. The Subjv. is used by Attraction :
[Araneolae] rete texunt ut si quid inhaeserit confidant, C, N.D., ir. 48,
123(567). (Si quid inhaesit conficiunt.)
3. The Ideal Second Person takes the Subjv. in connection with
the Universal Present :
(Senectus) plgna est voluptatis si ilia solas uti. Sen., E.M., 12, 4; old
age is full of pleasure if you know {if one knoivs) how to enjoy it.
Memoria minuitur nisi cam exerceas, C, Cat. If., 7, 21 (591, b. 2).
4. Sive— sive (seu — seu) almost invariably takes the Logical form.
(496, 2.) The Subjv. is occasionally used by Attraction or with the
Ideal Second Person.
Seu vicit, ferociter instat victis ; seu victus est, instaurat cum victSribus
certamen, L., xxvii. 14, 1 ; if he vanquislies (507), he presses the va?i-
quished furiously ; if he is vanquished, he renews the struggle with the
vanquishers.
5. Siquidem, as giving the basis for a conclusion, often approaches
the causal sense (590, n. 2). In this case the Apodosis precedes.
Molesta Veritas, siquidem ex eai nascitur odium, C, Lael., 24, 89;
truth is burdensome, if indeed {since) hatred arises from it.
6. Si mode, if only, serves to limit the preceding statement.
382 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
A deo tantuni rationem habemns, si modo habSmus, C, N.D., iii. 28,
71 ; all that we have from God is (bare) reason, if only we have it.
Si vgro when thus used is ironical (C, Ph., viii. 8, 24). Si tamen
seems to be post-classical.
Notes.— 1. Phraseological are si quaeris (quaerimus) in a sense approaching that
of profecto (C, Of., ni. 20, 80 ; Tusc, iii. 29, 73) : Si dis placet, if (he gods will,
often ironical (Cf. Teu., Eun., gig; C, Fin.,u.^io,Sl). Si foitef peradvetdure {C,
Or., HI. 12, 47 ; Mil., 38, 104).
2. It will be observed that the tense involved depends in each member upon the
sense. But for this very reason certain combinations would be uncommon. Thus
Pr.— Impf. and Fut.— Pr. are rare ; Pr.— Fut. is more common in ante-classical and
post-classical Latin than Fut. — Fut., the Pres. being useil by anticipation. Cicero
prefers Fut.— Fut. Cicero also uses frequently Fut. Pf.— Fut. Pf., which is also found
elsewhere, but rarely. Pf .— Fut. is found first in Cicero, and is never common ; also
Impf. — Impf. Plupf.— Impf. is mostly found in ante-classical and post-classical Latin.
The Pf., by anticipation for Fut. Pf., is not unfrequent in early Latin. So C, Fam.,
XII. 6, 2 : (Brutus) si conservatus erit, vicimus (237) ; Cf. Sen., Ben., in. 62, 145.
Also the Pr. by anticij)ation for the Fut. (228) : Pl., Poen., 671 : Rgx sum, Si egO
ilium ad me adlexero.
II. IDEAL CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
596. The Ideal Conditional Sentence represents the mat-
ter as still in suspense. The supposition is more or less fanci-
ful, and no real test is to be applied. There is often a wish
for or against. The point of view is usually the Present.
I. The Protasis is put in the Present Subjunctive for con-
tinued action, and in the Perfect Subjunctive for completion
or attainment.
The Apodosis is in the Present or Perfect Subjunctive.
The Im.perative and Future Indicative or equivalents are
often found. The Universal Present is frequently used,
especially in combination with the Ideal Second Person (595,
E. 3 ; 663, 2).
On the difference between Subjunctive and Future, see 257.
Protasis. Apodosis.
SI id crSdas, errSs,
Jf you should (were to) believe that, you wcfuld he going wrong.
Si id crSdas, erraveris,
//■ you should (were to) believe that, you would go wrong.
Si id crSdideris, errSs,
1. If you sliauld (prove to) have believed
that (Perfect ; Action Past or Future), you wovid be going wrong.
2. If you should (come to) believe that (Aor. ;
Action Future), you would be going wrong.
SI id crSdideris, erraveris (rare).
If you (should have) believe(A) that., you tcould (have) go(i\e) wrong.
CON-DITIONAL SENTEiTCES. 383
Si vicinus tuus equum meliorem habeat quam tuus est, tuumne equum
malis an illius 1 C, Inv., i. 31, 52; if your neighbor {were to) have a
better horse than yours is, would you prefer your horse or his ? Si
gladium quis apud te sana mente deposuerit, repetat insanigns, reddere
peccatum sit, officium non reddere, C, Off., iii. 25, 95 ; if a man in sound
mind were to deposit {to have deposited) a sword with you, (and) reclaim
it {when) mad, it ivould be wrong to return it, right not to return it.
Hanc viam si asperam esse negem, mentiar, C, Best., 46, 100 ; if I should
say that this way is not rough, J shoidd lie. SI nunc mS suspendam
meam operam luserim, et meis inimicis voluptatem creaverim, Pl., Cas.,
424; should I hang myself now, I should (thereby) {have) fool{ed) my
work away, and give{n) to my enemies a charming treat. Ciceroni nSmo
ducentSs nunc dederit nununos nisi fulserit anulus inggns, Juv., vii. 139 ;
no one would give Cicero iwwadays two hundred two-penaes unless a
huge ring glittered {on his hand). Si quis furioso praecepta det, erit ipsQ
quem mongbit, insanior. Sen., E.M., 94, 17; if one should give advice to a
madman, he ivill be more out of his mind than the very man whom he
advises. Si valeant homings, ars tua, Phoebe, iacet, Ov., Tr., iv. 3, 78;
should men keep well, your art, Phoebus, is naught. Otia si tollas,
perigre Cupidinis arcus, Ov., Rem. Am., 139 (204, n. 6). (Senectus) est
plgna voluptatis, si ilia scias uti, Sen., E.M., 12, 4 (595, r. 3). Memoria
minuitur nisi earn exerceas, C, Cat.M., 7, 21 (591, b. 2). Nulla est excu-
satio peccati, si amici causa peccaveris, C, Lael., 11, 37; it is no excuse
for a sin to have si^med for the sake of a friend.
2. The Point of View may be the Past. In that case the
Protasis is found in the Imperfect, very rarely the Pluper-
fect Subjunctive, and the Apodosis has corresponding forms.
This usage, however, is rare, inasmuch as it coincides in
form with the Unreal Condition, from which it is distin-
guishable only by a careful study of the context. When found
with indefinite persons, the construction is the Potential of
the Past.
The idea of Partial Obliquity frequently enters, in which
case si may often be translated, in case that.
Quod usu non veniebat dg eo si quis Iggem constitueret non tam prohi-
bgre vidgretur quam admongre, C, TulL, 4, 9; if one should make a law
about that which was not customary, he would seem not so much to pre-
vent as to warn. (Present : si quis constituat, videatur.) Si Alfenus turn
iudicium accipere vellet, dgnique omnia quae postulargs facere voluisset, quid
agergs? C, Quiiict., 26, 83 ; in case Alfenus was willing then to under-
take the trial, and should have been willing afterwards to do all that
you required, ivhat were you to do 9 (See the whole passage — Present:
384 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
Si nunc velit, . . . voluerit, agas.) Si tribuni me triumphare prohiberent,
Furium et Aemilium testes citaturus fui, L., xxxviir. 47; should the tri-
bunes prevent me from triumphing, I was going to su7nmon Furius and
Aemilius as witnesses. Quid faceret ? si vivere vellet, Seianus rogandus
erat, Sen., Cons. Marc, 22, 6 ; what was he to do ? if he 'wished to live
SejaniLS wa£ (the man) to he asked. See Tag., Ann., iii. 13. Erat Quinc-
tins, si cedergs, placabilis, L., xxxvi. 32, 5 ; Quinctius teas, if yoti
yielded to him, (sure to be) placable. (Est si cedas.) Si luxuriae tem-
peraret, avaritiam non timergs, Tag., //., 11. 62 ; if he were to control
his love of pleasure, you should not have feared avarice. (Si temperet,
non timeas.) Cur igitur et Camillus doleret, si haec . . . eventura putaret ?
et ego doleam si. . .putem'? C, Tusc, 1. 37, 90. (Present: doleatsi putet.)
Remarks. — i. The Ideal is not controlled by impossibility or im-
probability, and the lively fancy of the Roman often employs the Ideal
where we should expect the Unreal. (Comp. 250, n. 2.) This is more
common in early Latin.
Tti si hie sis, aliter sentias, Ter., And., 310; if yon were I (put your-
self in my place), you woidd think differently. Haec si tecum patria
loquatur, nonne impetrare debeaf? C, Cat., i. S, 19; if your country
shoidd (were to) speak thus ivith you, ought she not to get (what she
wants) ? So C, Fin., iv. 22, 61.
2. Sometimes the conception shifts in the course of a long sentence:
SI reviviscant et tecum loquantur — quid talibus viris respondgres ? C,
Fin., IV. 22, 61: if they shoidd come to life again, and speak with you
— what answer ivould you make to such men 9
3. When non possum is followed by nisi (si non), the Protasis has
the Ideal of the Past, after the past tense, and may have the ideal
of the Present after a primary tense.
Neque mtinitiongs Caesaris prohibgre poterat, nisi proeliS dgcertare vellet,
Caes., B.C., III. 44. See Madvig on C, Fin., iii. 21, 70.
4. In comparing Ideal and Unreal Conditionals, exclude future verbs
such as posse, velle, etc. The future sense of such Unreal Conditionals
comes from the auxiliary.
5. In Oratio Obliqua the difference between Ideal and Logical Future
is necessarily effaced, so far as the mood is concerned. (656.)
III. UNREAL CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
597. The Unreal Conditional sentence is used of that
which is Unfulfilled or Impossible, and is expressed by the
Imperfect Subjunctive for continued action — generally, in
opposition to the Present ; and by the Pluperfect Subjunc-
tive — uniformly in opposition to the Past.
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 385
The notion of Impossibility comes from the irreversible character of
the Past Tense. Compare the Periphrastic Conjug. Perfect and Im-
perfect. Any action that is decided is considered Past (compare C,
Of., II. 21, 75). (See 277, 3, N.)
Protasis. Apodosis.
SI id credergs, errares,
//■ you believed (were believing) that, [you
do not,] you uvuhl be going wrong.
Si id crSdidissSs, erravissSs,
Jf yon had believed that, [you did not,] you zvould have gone wrong.
Sapientia n5n expeterStur, si nihil efficeret, C, Fin., i. 13, 42 ; wisdom
would not be sought after, if it did no practical good. Caederem t6, nisi
irascerer, Sen., Ira, i. 15, 3; I should flog you, if I were not getting angry.
Si ibi t6 esse scissem, ad tS ipse vgnissem, C, Fin., i. 8 ; if I had known
you u'cre there, I should have co?ne to you myself. Hectora quis nosset,
felix si Troia fuisset 1 Ov., Tr., iv. 3, 75 ; who ivould know (of) Hector, if
Troy had been happy ? Nisi ante Roma profectus essSs, nunc earn certS
Tclinquergs, C, Fam., vii. 11, 1; if you had not departed from Rome be-
fore, you would certainly leave it now. Ego nisi peperissem, RSma non
oppUgnaretur ; nisi fllium habgrem, libera in libera patria mortua essem,
L., II. 40, 8 ; had I not become a mother, Rome would not be besieged ;
had I not a son, I should have died a free woman in a free land.
Remarks. — i. The Impf. Subjv. is sometimes used in opposition to
continuance from a point in the Past into the Present. This is neces-
sarily the case when the Protasis is in the Impf., and the Apodosis in
the Plupf., except when the Impf. denotes opposition to a general
statement, which holds good both for Past and for Present :
Non tarn facile opes Carthaginis tantae concidissent, nisi Sicilia classibus
nostris pateret, Cf. C, Verr., 11. i, 3; the great resources of Carthage {Car-
thage with her great resources) ivould not have fallen so readily, if Sicily
had not been (as it still continues to be) open to our fleets. Si pudorem
habgres, tUtimam mihi pensionem remisissgs, Sen., E.M., 29, 10 ; if you
had (= you had not, as you have not) any delicacy, you ivould have let
me off from' the last payment. Memoriam ipsam cum voce perdidissemus,
si tarn in nostra potestate esset oblivisci quam tacgre, Tac, Agr., 2, 4;
we sliould have lost memory itself, together with utterance, if it were as
much in our poiver to forget as to keep silent.
The Impf. in both members, referring to the Past, always admits of
another explanation than that of the Unreal ; thus we have a case
of Kepresentation (654, n.) in
Protogengs si lalysum ilium suum caenS oblitum videretj magnum, credo,
acciperet dolorem, C, Att., 11. 21, 4; */ Protogejies could see that famous
lalysus of his besmeared with mud, he would feel a mighty pang. See
Pl., Aul., 742.
25
386 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
2. In Unreal Conditions, after a negative Protasis, the Apodosis is
sometimes expressed by the Tmpf. Indie, when the action is represented
as interrupted (233); by the Plupf. and Hist. Pf., when the conclusion
is confidently anticipated (254, r. 3).
Labebar longius, nisi me retinuissera, C, Leg., i. 19, 52 (254, r. 3).
This usage after a positive is cited first in the post-Augustan writers.
Cases like C, Verr., v. 42, 129; L., xxii. 28, 13, do not belong here.
Omnino supervacua erat doctrina, si natura sufficeret, Quint, 11. 8, 8
(254, R. 3). Peractum erat bellum, si Pompeium Brundisii oppriraere
potuisset, Flor., ii. 13, 19 ; the war was (had been) finished, if he had
been able to crush Po7npey at Brundusium.
The Impf. Indie, is sometimes found in the Protasis :
Ipsam tibi epistolam misissem, nisi {v. I. , sed) tarn subito fratris puer profi-
ciscebatur, C, Att., viii. i, 2; I should have sent you the letter itself, if
my brother's .servant was not starting so suddenly.
3. {a) The Indicative is the regular construction in the Apodosis
with verbs Avhich signify Possibility or Power, Obligation or Necessity
— so with the active and passive Periphrastic — vix, paene, scarcely,
hardly, and the like. In many cases it is diflicult to distinguish this
usage from that of the Ideal (590, 2).
consul esse qui potui, nisi eum vitae cursum tenuissem ? C, Rep., i. 6,
10; how could I have beeti consul, if I hud not kept that course of life ?
Antoni gladios potuit contemnere, si sic omnia dixisset, Juv., x. 123 ; he
might have despised Antony's swords, if he had thus said cdl (that he
did say). Emendaturus, si licuisset, eram, Ov., Tr., i. 7, 40 ; / should
have removed the faults, if I had been free (to do it). Pons iter paene
hostibus dedit (paene dedit = dabat = dattirus erat), ni unus vir fuisset, L.,
II. 10, 2; the bridge well nigh gave a passage to the enemy, had it not
been for one ma7i.
(b) With the Indie, the Possibility and the rest are stated absolutely;
when the Subjv. is used the Possibility and the rest are conditioned as
in any other Unreal sentence.
Compare quid facere potuissem, nisi tum consul fuissem, with consul esse
qui potui, nisi eum vitae cursum tenuissem, C, Rep., i. 6, 10. Qui si fuisset
meliore fortuna, fortasse austerior et gravior esse potuisset, C, Pis., 29, 71.
4. In Oratio Obliqua the Protasis is unchanged ; the Apodosis is
formed by the Periphrastic Pr. and Pf. Inf. (149), for the Active, futU-
rum (fore) ut, futtirum fuisse ut for passive and Supineless verbs.
A. Dic6 (dixl), t6, si id cr6der6s, erraturum esse.
B. Dico (dixi), t6, si id credidisses, erratUrum fuisse.
A. Dico (dixi), si id cr6der6s, fore ut dScipergris.
B. Died (dixi), si id credidisses, futurum fuisse ut dScipergris.
A is very rare ; A, theoretical. For the long form, B, the simple
Non dubito,
/ do not dmiht,
Non dubitabam,
I did not doubt.
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 387
Perfect Infinitive is found. Examples, see 659, n. In B, fuisse is
omitted occasionally in later Latin ; Tac, Ann., 1. 33, etc.
5. {a) When the Apodosis of an Unreal Conditional is made to de-
pend on a sentence which requires the Subjv., the Plupf. is turned
into the Periphrastic Pf. Subjv. ; the Impf. form is unchanged.
quin, si id credergs, errargs,
that, if you believed that, you would be going tvrong.
quin^ si id crSdidisses, erraturus fuerls,
that, if you had believed that, you would have gone wrong.
Honestum tale est ut, vel si ignorarent id homines, esset laudabile, Cf.
C, Fin., II. 15, 49; virtue is a thing to deserve praise, even if men did
not hiow it. Ea res tantum tumultum ac fugam praebuit ut nisi castra
Punica extra urbem fuissent, effusura sg omnis pavida multitudo fuerit, L.,
XXVI. 10, 7 ; that matter caused so much tumult and flight (= so wild a
panic), that had not the Funic camp been outside the city the whole
frightened midtitude icoidd have poured forth. Nee dubium erat quin,
si tarn pauci simul obire omnia possent, terga daturi bostgs fuerint, L., iv.
38, 5 ; there was 710 doubt that, if it had been possible for so small a
number to manage everything at the same time, the enemy ivould have
turned their backs. Die quidnam facturus fueris, si eo tempore cgnsor
fuissgs? L., IX. 33, 7 ; tell (me) what you ivould have done, if you had
been censor at that time f See C. , Fis. , 7, 14.
(b) The Periphrastic Plupf. Subjv. occurs rarely, and then only in
the Dependent Interrogative. The only examples cited are fi-om Livy.
Sublbat cogitatio animum, quonam modo tolerabilis futura Etruria fuisset
si quid in Samnio adversi gvgnisset, L., x. 45, 8.
(c) Potui (254, R. i) commonly becomes potuerim, and fui with the
Periphrastic passive in -dus becomes fuerim, after all tenses.
Hand dubium fuit quin, nisi ea mora intervgnisset, castra eo die Punica
capi potuerint, L., xxiv. 42, 3; th§re tvas no doubt that, had not that de-
lay interfered, the Funic camp could have been taken on that day. Quae
(res) sua sponte nefaria est ut etiamsi lex non esset, magnopere vitanda
fuerit, C, Verr., i. 42, 108.
(d) The passive Conditional is unchanged :
Id ille si repudiasset, dubitatis quin ei vis esset allata? C, Sest.,2g,
62 ; if he had rejected that, do you doubt that force ivould have been
brought (to bear) on him f
The active form is rarely unchanged (L.,.ir. 33, 9). In the absence
of the Periphrastic tense the Inf. with potuerim is often a sufficient
substitute; see L., xxxii. 28, 0.
Note.— In Plautus and Terence, absque vvith the Abl. and esset (foret) is
found a few times instead of nisi (si n5n) with Nom., and esset (fuisset) in the sense
if it were not {had not been) for.
Nam absque tg esset, bodig numquam ad solem occSsum viverem, Pl.,
Men., 1022. Cf. Liv., 11. 10, 2 (u. 3, above).
388 CONDITIOKAL SEiq^TENCES.
INCOMPLETE CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
698. Omission of the Conditional Sign. — Occasionally the
members of a Conditional sentence are put side by side with-
out a Conditional sign.
An ille mihi (351) liber, cui mulier imperat ? poscit, dandum est ; vocat,
veniendumest ; eicit, abeundum; minatur, extimescendum, C, Farad., 5, 2;
or is he free {tell) me, to tvhom a woman gives orders ? she asks, he must
give ; she calls, he must come ; she turns out {of door), he must go ; she
threatens, he must he frightened. Unum cognoris, omnis noris, Ter.,
Ph., 265; you know one, you know all. Dedisses huic animo par corpus,
fScisset quod optabat, Plin., Ep., i. 12, 8; had you given him a hody
that was a match for his spirit, he would have accomplished what he
desired.
599. Omission of tlie Verb of the Protasis.- — AVhen the
verb of the Protasis is omitted, either the precise form or the
general idea of the verb is to be supplied from the Apodosis.
Si quisquam (= si quisquam fuit), Cato sapiens fuit, Cf. C, Lael., 2, 9;
if any one ivas ivise, Cato ivas. Educ tecum omngs tuos ; si minus, quam
pltirimos, C, Cat., i. 5, 10 (592, r.).
600. Total Omission of the Protasis. — i. The Protasis is
often contained in a participle or involved in the context ;
for examples see 593, 2 and 3.
2. The Potential Subjunctive is sometimes mechanically
explained by the omission of an indefinite Protasis (257, n. 2).
NimiO plus quam velim [Volscorum] ingenia sunt mobilia, L., 11. 37, 4;
the dispositions of the Volscians are {too) much moi-e unstable than I
should like. Tuam mihi dari vellem eloquentiam, C, N. D., 11. 59, 147; I
could ivish to have your eloquence given me. Tam fglix ess6s quam f3r-
mSsissima vellem, Ov., Am., i. 8, 27 (302). (TJtinam ess6s !)
601. Omission and Involution of the Apodosis. — The
Apodosis is omitted in Wishes (261), and implied after verbs
and phrases denoting Trial (460, 2). It is often involved in
Oratid Obliqua, and sometimes consists in the general notion
of Result, Ascertainment, or the like.
Si vSrum excutias, faciSs n6n uxor amStur, Juv., vi. 143; if you were fa
get out the truth (you would find that) it is the face, not the ivife, that
coxditio:n^al sentences. 389
is loved. (lugurtha) timebat iram (= ng irascergtur) senatus, ni paruisset
Iggatis, S., lug , 25, 7 ; Jugurtha ivas afraid of tlie anger of tJie senate
(that the senate would get angry) in case he did not (should not have)
obeyied) the legates.
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES OF COMPARISON.
602. The Apodosis is omitted in comparisons with ut si,
velut si, ac si, quam si (rare), tamquam si, quasi, or simply
velut and tamquam, as if.
The verb is to be supplied from the Protasis, as is common
in correlative sentences. The Mood is the Subjunctive.
The tenses follow the rule of sequence, rather than the
ordinary use of the conditional. In English, the translation
implies the unreality of the comparison.
Noli timgre quasi [= quam timeas si] assem elephants dgs, Quint., vi.
3, 59; don't he afraid, as if you ivere giving a penny to an elephant.
Parvi primo ortu sic iacent tamquam [= iaceant si] omnino sine animo sint,
C, Fin., V. 15, 42 ; babies, when first born, lie (there), as if they had no
mind at all. Hie est obstandum, militgs, velut si ante Romana moenia
ptignemus, L., xxi. 41, 15; here (is ivhere) we must oppose them, soldiers,
as if we ivere fighting before the walls of Rome (velut obstgmus, si p"
gngmus, as we ivould oppose them, if we were to fight). Mg iuvat, v
ipse in parte labQris ac perlculi fuerim, ad finem belli Punici pervgnisse,
XXXI. I ; I am delighted to hdrc readied the end of the Punic ivar, as ij
J had shared in the toil and danger (of it). Tantus patrgs metus cgpit
velut si iam ad portas hostis esset, L., xxi. 16, 2 ; a, great fear took hold
of the senators, as if the enemy were already at their gates. Dgleta (est)
Ausonum ggns perinde ac si internecivo bello certasset, L., ix. 25, 9; the
Ausonian race ivas blotted out, just as if it had engaged in an interne-
cine war (war to the knife).
Remarks. — i. Occasionally the sequence is violated out of regard to
the Conditional:
Massilignsgs in eo bonore audimus apud [Romanes] esse ac si medium
umbilicum Graeciae incolerent, L., xxxvii. 54, 21 ; we hear that the people
of JlarseiUes are in as high honor with the Romans as if they inhabited
the mid-navel (= the heart) of Greece. Eius negotium sic velim suscipias,
ut si esset rgs mea, C, Fam., 11. 14, 1; I wish you would undertake his
business just as if it were my affair.
2. The principal clause often contains correlatives, as : ita, sic,
perinde, proinde, similiter, nQn (baud) secus, etc.
Notes.- 1. Tamquam and quasi are also used in direct comparison with the Indie-
390 CONCESSIVE SENTENCES.
ative. Here the verbs with both clauses are apt to l)e the same, in which case the verb
with quasi or tamquam is usually oruitted in model prose.
Quasi poma ex arboribus, cruda si sunt, vix 6velluntur, sic vitam adule-
scentibus vis aufert, c, (Jat.M., 19, n.
2. Quasi is used to soften or apologize for a single word {- ut ita dicam).
Mors est quaedam quasi migratio commutatioque vitae, Cf. c, Tusc, 1. 12,
27 ; death is as it were a shifting of life's quarters.
3. As in the ordinary Conditional sentence, so in the Comparative sentence, the Pro-
tasis may be expressed by a participle :
Gain laeti ut explorata victoria ad castra Komanorum pergunt, Cf. Caes.,
B.G., III. 18,8 ; the Gauls iw their joy., as ?/ (their) victory had been fully ascertained.,
proceeded to the camp of the liomans. Antiochus securus dg bello Eomano erat
tamquam non transituris in Asiam Romanis, L., xxxvi. 41, 1 ; Aidiochus teas as
unconcerned about the war with Home as if the Romans did not iiUend to cross over
hito Asia Minor.
4. In Celsus, Quintilian, Juvenal, Pliny Min., and especially in Tacitus
and Suetonius, we find tamquam used almost like quod (541), to indicate an as-
sumed reason, in imitation of the similar Greek use of w? with the participle, and
occasionally where we might have expected the Ace. and Infinitive.
Pridem invisus tamquam plus quam civilia agitaret, TAc.,^?m., 1. 12,6;
long misliked as (in Tiberius' judgment) j)lotting high treason. Stispectus tamquam
ipse suas incenderit aedes, Juv., 111.222 ; suspected of having {as if he had) set
his own house on fire. Vulgi opinio est tamquam (com6tes) mtitationem regni
portendat, Tac. Ann., xiv. 22, \\ it is the popular belief that a comet jwrtends a
change in the kingdom.
Other particles, quasi, Sicut, and ut, occur much more rarely and are cited mainly
from Tacitus (quasi only in the Annals). Compare Suet., Tit., 5.
5. Ut si is rare in early Latin, not being found at all in Plautus. It is found but
once in Livy, but frequently in Cicero and later Latin. Yelut si is found first in
Caesar. Velut for velut si is found first in Livy. Ac sI is equivalent to quasi only
in late Latin.
CONCESSIVE SENTENCES.
603. Concessive Sentences are introduced by :
1. The Conditional particles, etsi, etiamsi, tametsi (tamen-
etsi).
2. The generic relative, quamquam.
3. The compounds, quamvis, quantumvis.
4. The verb licet.
5. The Final particles, ut (ne).
6. Cum (quom).
These all answer generally to the notion aUhough.
Note.— Etsi (et + si), even if; etiamsi, even now if ; tametsi, yet even if;
quamquam (quam + quam), to what extent soever ; quamvis, to ivhat extent you
choose ; quantumvis, to what amount you choose ; licet, it is left free (perhaps in-
trans. of linquo, /Yea?;e).
604. Etsi, etiamsi, and tametsi, take the Indicative or Sub-
junctive, according to the general principles which regulate
CONCESSIVE SENTENCES.
391
the use of si, if. The Indicative is more common, espe-
cially with etsL
D5 futuris rebus etsi semper difficile est dicere, tamen interdum con-
iectura possis accgdere, C. Fam., vi. 4, 1; although it is always difficult
to tell about the future, nevertheless you can sometimes come near it hy
guessing. [HamilcarJ etsi flagrabat bellandi cupiditate, tamen paci servi-
undum putavit, Ni.p., xxii. i, 3 ; although Eamilcar was on fire with the
desire of war, fievertheless he thought that he ought to subserve {to imrh
for) peace. Inops ille etiamsl referre gratiam non potest, habere certS
potest, C, Off., II. 20, 69; the needy man {spoken of), if he cannot return
a favor, can at least feel it. Mg v6ra pro gratis loqui, etsi meum inge-
nium non moneret, neoessitas cogit, L., iii. 68, 1); even if my dispositioti
did not hid me, necessity compels me to speak what is true instead of
ivhat is palatable.
Remarks. — i. Si itself is often concei^sive (591, 2), and the addition
of et, etiam, and tamen serves merely to fix the idea.
2. Etiamsi is used oftener with the Siibjv. than with the Indie,
and seems to bo found only in conditional sentences. On the other
hand, etsi is also used like quamquam (005, r. 2), in the sense ''and
yet;" virtutem si unam amiseris — etsi amitti non potest virtus, C,
Tusc, II. 14, 32 ; so too, but rarely, tametsi. Etsi is a favorite word
with Cicero, but does not occur in Quintilian nor in Sallust, the lat-
ter of whom prefers tametsi. Tametsi is not found in the Augustan
poets nor in Tacitus, and belongs especially to familiar speech.
3. Tamen is often correlative even with tametsi.
605. Quamquam, to ivliat extent soever, falls under the head
of generic relatives (254, R. 4), and, in the best authors, is
construed with the Indicative.
Medici quamquam intellegunt saepe, tamen numquam aegris dicunt, ill5
morbo eos esse morituros, C, Div., 11. 25, 54; although physicians often
ktww, nevertheless they never tell their patients that they will die of
that (particular) disease. ^
Remarks. — i. The Potential Subjv. (257, n. 3) is sometimes found
with quamquam : Quamquam exercitum qui in Volscis erat mallet, nihil
rectisavit, L., vi. 9, 6; although lie might well have preferred the army
tvhich was in the Volscian country, nevertheless he made no objection.
So especially with the Ideal Second Person.
2. Quamquam is often used like etsi, but more frequently, at the
beginning of sentences, in the same way as the English, and yet,
although, however, in order to limit the whole preceding sentence.
3. The Indie, with etsi and quamquam, is, of course, liable to attrac-
tion into the Subjv. in Oratio Obliqua (508).
392 CONCESSIVE SENTENCES.
Note. — The Subjv. with quamquam (not due to attraction) is first cited from Cicero
(perhaps Tusc, v, 30, 85), Nepos (xxv. 13, 6), after which, following the development
in all generic sentences in Latin, it becomes more and more common ; thus, in post-
Augustan Latin, Juvenal uses it exclusively, and Pliny Min. and Tacitus regularly.
606. Quamvis follows the analogy of void, / will, with
which it is compounded, and takes the Subjunctive (usually
the principal tenses).
Quantumvis and quamlibet (as conjunctions) belong to
poetry and silver prose.
Quamv£s sint sub aqua, sub aqua maledicere temptant, Ov., 31., vi. 376;
although they he under the water, imder the water they try to revile.
Quamvis ille niger, quamvis tu candidus essgs, V., Ec, 11. 16; although he
was black, although you were fair. [Vitia mentis], quamvis exigua sint,
in mains exc6dunt, Sen., E.M., 85, 13 ; mental ailments (= passimis),
no matter how slight they he, go on, increasing. Quamvis sis molestus
numquam t6 esse confitebor malum, C, Tusc, 11. 25, 61 ; although you, he
trouhlesoinCy I shall never confess that you are an evil.
Notes.— 1. The Indie, with quamviS is cited in prose first from C, Bab. Post., 2,
4 ; Nep., I. 2, 3 (except in fragments of Vaebo and Vatinius) ; in poetry it appears
first in Lucretius. Then it grows^ so that in the post- Augustan period it is used just
like quamquam with the Indie, though the Subjv. is also common :
Quamvis ingenio non valet, arte valet, Ov., Am., 1. 15, 14 ; although he does not
tell by genius, he does tell by art.
2. The verb of quamvis is sometimes inflected : Quam volet Epicurus iocetur,
tamen numquam me movebit, C, N.D., 11. 17, 46.
607. Licet retains its verbal nature, and, according to the
Sequence of Tenses, takes only the Present and Perfect Sub-
junctive :
Licet irrldeat si qui vult, C, Par ad., i. i, 8 ; ?e^ any one laugh who will.
Ardeat ipsa licet, tormentis gaudet amantis, Juv., vi. 209; though she her-
self is aglow, she rejoices in the tortures of her lover. Sim Ucet extrgmum,
sicut sum, missus in orbem, Ov., Tr., iv. 9, 9 ; although I be sent, as 1
have been, to the end of the world.
Notes.— 1. Exceptions are extremely rare : Juv.,xni. 56.
2. Quamvis is sometimes combined with licet, as ; quamvis licet insectSmur
istos-metuo ne soli philosophi sint, C, Tusc., iv. 24, 53.
;i. Occasionally licet is inliccted ; e.g.,^., Epod.,!^,!^ ; S..,i\. i, 59. From the
tiuie of Apuleius licet is construed with the Indicative.
608. TJt and ne are also used concessively for the sake of
argument ; this is common in Cicero, who often attaches to
it sane ; the basis of this is the Imperative Subjunctive.
Ut dSsint virSs, tamen est laudanda voluntas, Ov., Pont., iii. 4, 79 ;
RELATIVE SENTENCES. 393
granted that strength he lacking, nevertheless you must praise {my)
good will. NS sit summum malum dolor, malum certS est, C, Tusc, 11.
5, 14; granted that pain be not the chief evil, an evil it certainly is.
Remarks. — i. TJt non can be used on the principle of the Specific
Negative : Hie dies ultimus est; ut non sit, prope ab ultimo est, Sen.,
E.M., 15, 12 ; this is your last day ; granted that it he not, it is near the
last.
2, Examples with past tenses are rare: C, 3Iil., 17, 46; L., xxxviii.
46, 3, etc.
3. On ita — ut, see 262 ; on ut— ita, see 482, 4.
609. Concessive Sentence represented hij a Participle or
Predicative Attribute. — The Concessive sentence may be
represented by a Participle or Predicative Attribute.
[Risus] interdum ita repente erumpit, ut eum cupientes tengre nequea-
mus, Cf. C, Or., 11. 58, 235; laughter between whiles (occasionally) breaks
out so suddenly that we cannot keep it doivn, although ive desire to do
80. Multorum tS ocull et aur5s non sentientem custSdient, C, Cat., i. 2, 6;
{of) many (the) eyes and ears ivill keep guard over you, though you per-
ceive it not (without your perceiving it). Quis Aristldem non mortuum
diligit 1 C, Fin., v. 22, 62; ivho does not love Aristides, {though) dead 9
Notes.— 1. Quamquam, quamvis, and etsi are often combined with the parti-
ciple. Tliis, however, is rare in classical Latin, but becomes more common later.
(Caesar), quamquam obsidione Massiliae retardante, brevi tamen omnia
subggit, Suet., lul, 34.
2. With adjectives and adverbs this is much more common, so especially with
quamvis, which is used with a positive as a circumlocution for the superlative. With
the superlative quamviS is rare.
Etsi non iniquum, cert6 triste senattis consultum, L., xxv. 6, 2. Cum omnia
per populum geruntur, quamvis iustum atque moderatum tamen ipsa aequa-
bilitas est iniqua, c, Rep., i. 27, 43.
RELATIVE SENTENCES.
610. The Latin language uses the relative construction far
more than the English : so in the beginning of sentences,
and in combination with Conjunctions and other Relatives.
Remarks. — i. Tlie awkwardness, or impossibility, of a literal trans-
lation may generally be relieved by the substitution of a demonstra-
tive with an appropriate conjunction, or the employment of an abstract
noun :
Quae cum ita sint, now since diese things are so (Ciceronian formula^
Futtira modo exspectant ; quae quia certa esse non possunt, conficiuntur
et angore et metu, C, Fin., i. 18, 60; they only look forward to the
future ; and because that cannot be certain, they wear themselves out
394 RELATIVE SENTENCES.
with distress and fear. [Epicurus] non satis politus iis artibus quas qui
tenent, 6ruditl appellantur, C, Fin., i. 7, 26; Jilpicurus is 7iot sufficiently
polished by those accomplislimerits, from the possession of which people
are called cultivated.
2. Notice especially quod in combination with si and its compounds
ubi, quia, quoniam, ut (poetic and post-class.), utinam, ne, utinam ng, qui
(rare), in which quod means and as for that, and is sometimes trans-
lated by and, hut, therefore, whereas, sometimes not at all.
Quod ni fuissem incogitans ita eum exspectarem ut par fuit, Ter., Ph.,
155 ; ivhereas, had I not been heedless, 1 should be aivaiting him in
proper mood.
Notes.— 1. The use of the Relative to connect two independent clauses instead of a
demonstrative, is very rare in Plautus, more common in Terence, but fully devel-
oped only in the classical period.
2. The Relative is the fertile source of many of the introductory particles of the com-
pound sentence (quom, quia, quoniam, compounds of quam, ut, ubi, etc.), and is
therefore treated last on account of the multiplicity of its uses.
611. Relative sentences are introduced by the Relative
pronouns in all their forms : adjective, substantive, and
adverbial. (See Tables 109 foil.)
Remarks. — i. The Relative adverbs of Place, and their correlatives,
may be used instead of a preposition with a Relative. Unde, ivhence, is
frequently used of persons, but the others rarely ; occasional examples
are cited for ubi and quo, the others less frequently : ibi = in eo, etc.;
ubi = in quo, etc.; inde — ex eo, etc.; unde = ex quo, etc ; eo = in eum,
etc.; quo =■ in quem, etc.
Potest fieri ut is, unde t5 audisse dicis, iratus dixerit, C, Or., u. 70, 285;
it may be that he, from whom you say you heard (it), said it in anger.
Quo (= quibus) lubeat nubant, dum dos ne fiat comes, Pl., Aul., 491 (573).
2. The Relative is not to be confounded with the Dependent Inter-
rogative sentence (467, R. 2).
Quae probat populus ego nescio. Sen., E.M., 29, 10; the thiiigs that the
people approves, I do not know (quid probet, ivhat it is the people ap-
proves). Et quid ego te velim, et tu quod quaeris, sci5s, Ter., And., 536;
you shall know both what {it is) I want of you, and what (the thing
which) you are asking {— the ansiver to your question).
612. Position of Relatives. — The Relative and Relative
forms are put aft the beginning of sentences and clauses.
The preposition, however, generally, though not invariably,
precedes its Relative (413).
613. Antecedent. — The word to which the Relative refers
RELATIVE SEN"TEN"CES. 395
is called the Antecedent, because it precedes in thought even
when it does not in expression.
Remark. — The close connection between Relative and Antecedent
is shown by the frequent use of one preposition in common (414, r. i),
CONCORD.
614. The Relative agrees with its Antecedent in Gender,
Number, and Person.
Is minimo eget mortalis, qui minimum cupit, Syrus, 286 (Fr.) (308).
Uxor contenta est quae bona est uno viro, Pl., Merc, 812 ; a wife, ivho is
good is contented with one husband. Malum est consilium quod mutari
non potest, Syrus, 362 (Fr.); had is the plan that cannot {Jet itself) he
changed. Hoc illis narro qui m5 non intellegunt, Phaedr., 3, 128; I tell
this tale for those tvho understand me not. Ego qui tS confirmo, ipse mS
non possum, C.,Fam., xiv. 4, 5 ; J tvho reassure you, cannot reassure
myself.
Remarks, — i. The Relative agrees with the Person of the true Ante-
cedent, even when a predicate intervenes ; exceptions are very rare :
Tu es is, qui (mg) summis laudibus ad caelum extulisti, C, Fam., xv. 4,
11 ; you are he that has{t) jjraised me to the skies.
The Latin rule is the English exception: Acts, xxi. 38; Luke, xvi. 15.
2. When the Relative refers to a sentence, id quod, that which, is
commonly used (parenthetically). So also quae rSs, or t;imple quod, and,
if reference is made to a single substantive, is qui or some similar form.
Si a vobis id quod non spgro deserar, tamen animo non dgficiam, C,
Rose. Am., 4, 10; if I should he deserted hy you {which I do not expect),
nevertheless I should not hecome faint-hearted. Nee audiendus [Theo-
phrasti] auditor, Strato, is qui physicus appellatur, C, N.D., i. 13, 35.
3. The gender and number of the Relative may be determined :
{a) By the sense, and not by the form ; that is, a collective noun may
be followed by a Plural Relative, a neuter numeral by a masculine Rela-
tive, a possessive pronoun by a Relative in the person indicated by the
possessive, etc.
Caesa sunt ad sex milia qui Pydnam perfugerant, L., xliv. 42, 7 ; there
were slain up to six thousand who had fled to Pydna. Equitatum omnem
praemittit, qui videant, Caes., B.O.,i. i^', he sent all the cavalry ahead,
ivho should see {that they might see, to see).
{h) By the predicate or the apposition, and not by the antecedent;
so especially when the Relative is combined with the copula or with a
copulative verb.
Thebae, quod Boeotiae caput est, L., xlii. 44, 8; Thebes, which is the
capital of Boeofia. Tlumen Scaldis, quod influit in Mosam, Caes., B.G.,
396 EELATIYE SENTENCES.
VI. 33, 3 ; the river Scheldt, which empties into the Maas. lusta gl5ria,
qui est fructus virtutis, C, Pis., 24, 57 ; i^eal glory, ivhich is the fruit
of virtue.
Exceptions are not nnfrequent, especially when the preclicatiye sub-
stantive in the Relative clause is a foreign word or a proper name.
Stellae quas Graeci cometas vocant, C, jV.D., ii. 5, 14; the stars which
the Oreeks call comets. Est genus quoddam hominum quod Helotae voca-
tur, Nep., IV. 3, 6 ; there is a certain class of men called Helots.
4. The pronominal apposition may be taken up into the lielative and
disappear :
Testarum sufiEragiis quod illi ostracismum vocant, Nep., v. 3, 1; hy pot-
sherd votes — (a thing') ivliicli they call " ostracism.^''
5. When the Relative refers to the combined antecedents of different
gender, the strongest gender is preferred, according to 28G :
Grandes natti matres et parvi liberi, quorum utrumque aetas miseri-
cordiam vestram requirit, C, Verr., v. 49, 129; aged jnatrons and infant
cliildren, ivhose age on either hand demands your compassioji. Otium
afeque divitiae, quae prima mortales putant, S., C, 36, 4 ; leisure and
motley, which mortals reclw7i as the prime things.
Or, the nearest gender may be preferred :
Eae friiggs atque fructus quos terra gignit, C, N.D., 11. 14, 37 ; those
fruits of field and tree which earth hears.
6. Combined Persons follow the rule, 287.
Note. — A noteworthy peculiarity is found in early Latin, where a generic Relative
sentence with qui is made the subject of an abstract substantive with est, and repre-
sented by a demonstrative in agreement with that substantive.
Istaec virtus est, quando usust, qui malum fert fortiter, Pl., J5i«., 323;
thaVs manhood ivho (if one) bears evil bravely, when there's. need.
The parallel Greek construction suggests Greek influence.
615. Repetition of the Antecedent. — The Antecedent of
the Relative is not seldom repeated in the Relative clause,
with the Relative as its attributive.
(Caesar) intellgxit diem instare, quo di§ frumentum militibus metiri oportg-
ret, Caes., B.G., i. 16, 5 ; Caesar saw that tlie day was at hand, on
which day it behooved to measure corn (corn was to be measured out)
to the soldiers.
Note.— This usage belongs to the formal style of government and law. Caesar is
very fond of it, especially with the word diSs. It is occasional in Plautus and Ter-
ence, and not uncommon in Ci< ero ; but after Cicero it fades out, being found but
rarely in Livy, and only here and there later.
616. Incorporation of the Antecedent. — i. The Antece-
dent substantive is often incorporated into the Relative
RELATIVE SENTENCES. 397
clause ; sometimes there is a demonstrative antecedent,
sometimes not.
In quern primum egressi sunt locum Troia vocatur, L., i. i, 3; the first
place they landed at was called Troy. Quam quisque norit artem, in hac
sS exerceat, [C], Tusc, i. i8, 41; what trade each man is inaster of, {in)
that let him practise (himself), that let him ply.
Notes.— I. Incorporation, while much less frequent than Repetition, is still not
unfrequently met with in Livy ; after Livr it decays. No examples are cited from
Sallust with a demonstrative antecedent, and but one from Caesar. No example
is cited from Caesar without a demonstrative antecedent.
2. Instead of a principal clause, followed by a consecutive clause, the structure is
sometimes reversed. What would have been the dependent clause becomes the prin-
cipal clause, and an incorporated explanatory Relative takes the place of the demon-
strative. This is confined to certain substantives, and is found a number of times in
Cicero, but rarely elsewhere (Sall., IIor., Livy, Ovid, Sen., Tag., Pliny Min.).
Qua enim prudentia es, nihil tg fugiet (= ea prudentia es, ut nihil t§
fagiat), C, Fam., xi. 13, 1. Veils tantummodo ; quae tua virtus (est), expug-
nabis, H.,-s., 1. 9,54.
2. An appositional substantive, from which a Relative
clause depends, is regularly incorporated into the Relative
clause.
[Amanus] Syriam a Cilicia dividit, qui mons erat hostium plenus, C,
Alt., V. 20, 3 ; Syria is divided from Cilicia by Amanus, a mountain
which was full of enemies = tlie enemy.
Note.— This usage is found first in Cicero. The normal English position ia found
first in Livy, but it becomes more common in later Latin.
Priscus, vir ciiius providentiam in r§ publica ante experta civitas erat,
L., IV. 46, 10.
3. Adjectives, especially superlatives, are sometimes trans-
ferred from the substantive in the principal clause and made
to agree with the Relative in the Relative clause.
[Themistocles] dS servis suis quern habuit fidelissimum ad rggem misit,
]Nep., II. 4, 3; Themistocles sent the most faithful slave he had to the
king. Ngmini crgdo, qui largg blandust dives pauperi, Vh.^AuL, ig6; I
trust no rich man who is lavishly kind to a poor man.
617. Attraction of the Relative. — The Accusative of the
Relative is occasionally attracted into the Ablative of the
antecedent, rarely into any other case.
Hoc confirmamus illo augurio quo diximus, C, Alt., x. 8, 7; we confirm
this hy the augury ivhich we mentioned.
Notes.— L This attraction takes place chiefly when the verb of the Relative clause
must be supplied from the principal sentence ; that is, with auxiliary verbs like velle,
SOlSre, iubgre ; and after verbs of Saying and the like.
398 RELATIVE SENTENCES.
It is rare in early Latin, but common from Cicero on.
Quibus poterat sauciis dnctis secum ad urbem pergit, L., iv. 39, 9 ; having
taken ivith him all the wounded he could, hs pi-oceeded to the city.
2. Inserted Attraction. — So-called Inverted Attraction is found only in poetry, and
then usually in the Ace, which may be considered as an object of thought or feeling.
This Ace. stands usually for a Norn., sometimes, but only in Comedy, for the
Gen. Dat. or Abl. A strange usage is the Nom. where the Ace. would be expected.
This may be nominatlVUS pendens, a form of anacduthcm (697), and is found only
in early Latin.
XJrbem qiiam statuo, vestra est, V., ^ ., i. 573 ; {as for) the city which lam rear-
ing, (it) is yours. Istum quem quaeris, ego sum, Pl., Cure, 419 ; (asfo?') that man
tvhom you are looking for, I am he. Ille qui mandavit eum exturbasti ex
aedibus % Pl., Trin., 137. (" He that hath ears to hear, let him hear.'")
618. Correlative Use of the Relative. — The usual Correl-
ative of qui is is, more rarely hie, ille.
Is minimo eget mortalis, qui minimum cupit, Syrus, 286 (Fr.) (308).
Hie sapiens, de quo loquor, C, Ac, 11. 33, 105 (305, 3). Ilia digs veniet,
mea qua lugubria ponam, Ov., Tr., iv. 2, 73 (307, 4).
619. Ahsorption of the Correlative. — The Correlative, is,
is often absorbed, especially when it would stand in the same
case as the Relative. This is a kind of Incorporation.
Postume, non bene olet, qui bene semper olet. Mart., ir. 12, 4; Postu-
mus, (he) smells 7iot siveet, who always smells sweet. Quem arma n5n
frggerant vitia vicgrunt, Curt., vi. 2, 1 ; (him) whom arms had not crushed
did vices overcome. Quem di diligunt adulescens moritur, Pl., 5., 816;
(he) whom the gods love dies young. Xerxes praemium proposuit qui [= ei
qui] invgnisset novam voluptatem, C, Tusc, v. 7, 20; Xerxes offered a
reivard to him who should invent a new pleasure. Miseranda vita qui
{= eorum qui] sS metui quam amari malunt, Nep., x. 9, 5; pitiable is the
life of those ivho would prefer being feared to being loved. Discite
sanari per quem [= per eum, per quem] didicistis amare, Ov., Rem. Am. ^
43 (401).
Difficult and rare are cases like :
Nunc redeo ad quae (for ad ea quae) mih! mandas, G.,Att.,\.ii,(i.
620. Position of the Correlative clause. — The Relative
clause naturally follows its Correlative, but it often precedes ;
incorporation also is common.
Male sg rgs habet cum quod virtute effici dgbet id temptatur pecunia, C,
Off., II. 6, 22; it is a bad state of affairs when what ought to be accom-
plished by worth, is attempted by money. Quod vidgs accidere pueris hOo
nSbis quoque maiusculls pueris gvenit. Sen., E.M., 24, 13; what you see
befall children (this) happens to us also, children of a larger growth.
Quam quisque nOrit artem, in hac sg exerceat, [C], These, i. 18, 41 (616, i).
RELATIVE SENTE]S^CES. 399
The Correlative absorbed :
Quod non dedit fortuna, non eripit, Sen., E.31., 59, 18; ivhat fortune
has not given (does not give), she does ?iot take away. Per quas nos
petitis saepe fugatis opes, Ov., A. A., iii. 132; the means you take to win
us often scare us off.
621. Indefinite Antecedent. — The Indefinite Antecedent is
generally omitted.
Elige cui dicas : tu mihi sola places, Ov., A. A., i. 42; choose some one
to whom you may say : Yoic atone please me.
Remark. — Such sentences are sometimes liardly to be distinguished
from the Interrogative: [CononJ nOn quaesivit ubi ipse tuto viveret, Nep.,
IX. 2, 1; Conon did not seek a place to live in safely himself, might be
either Relative or Deliberative (2(55).
TENSES IN RELATIVE SENTENCES.
622. Future and Future Perfect. — The Future and
Future Perfect are used with greater exactness than in cur-
rent English (242, 244).
Sit liber, dominus qui volet esse meus. Mart., ii. 32, 8; he must he free
who unshes (shall wish) to be my master. Qui prior strinxerit ferrum,
gius victoria erit, Liv. (244, r. 2).
623. Iterative Action. — Relative sentences follovi^ the laws
laid down for Iterative action (5GG, 567).
I. Contemporaneous action :
Ore trahit quodcumque potest, atque addit acervo, H., S., i. i, 34; drags
with its mouih whatever it can, and adds to the treasure (heap). Qua-
cumque incMSbat agmen, iSgati occurrSbant, L., xxxiv. 16, 6: in whatever
direction the column advanced, ambassadors catne to meet them.
II. Prior action :
[Terra] numquam sine usura reddit, quod accepit, C, Cat. 31., 15, 51 ; the
earth 7iever returns without interest what it has received {receives). Quod
non dedit fortuna, non eripit, Sen., F.M., 59, 18 (620). N5n cgnat quotigns
ngmo vocavit eum. Mart., v. 47, 2; he does not dine as often as (ivhen)
no one has invited (invites) him. Haergbant in niemoria quaecumque
audierat et viderat [Themistoclgs], C, vl^., ir. i, 2 (507). Sequentur tg
quocumque pervgneris vitia. Sen., i^\.¥., 28, 1 ; vices ivill follow you
whithersoever you go. Qui timgre dgsierint, odisse incipient. Tag., Agr.,
32 (567).
Remark. — On the Subjv. in Iterative Sentences, .see 567, n.
400 EELATIVE SENTENCES.
MOODS IN RELATIVE SENTENCES.
624. The Relative clause, as such — that is, as the represen-
tative of an adjective — takes the Indicative mood.
Uxor quae bona est, Pl., Merc, 812 ; a wife who is good (a good ivife).
Remark. — The Relative in this use often serves as a circumlocution
for a substantive, with this difference : that the substantive expresses
a permanent relation ; the Relative clause, a transient relation : ii qui
decent = those who teach = the teachers (inasmuch as they are exercis-
ing the functions). On the Relative with Subjv. after an adj. clause,
see 438, r.
625. hidefinite and Generic Relatives. — i. ftuicumque,
quisquis, and the like, being essentially Iterative Relatives,
take the Indicative according to the principles of Iterative
action (254, R. 4). So also simple Relatives when similarly
used.
Quacumque incedSbat agmen, Iggati occurrgbant, Liv., xxxiv. 16, 6 (628).
Remark. — According to 567, n., the Subjv. is used :
(i) In Oratio Obliqua (Total or Partial) :
Marti Galli quae bello ceperint (Pf. Subjv.) dgvovent (=r sg daturSs
vovent), Cf. Caes., B. G., vi. 17, 3; the Gauls devote {promise to give) to
Mars whatever they (shall) take in war (6. E., Quae cgperimus, dabimus),
(2) By Attraction of Mood (Complementary Clauses):
Quis eum diligat quern metuat? C, Lael., 15, 53 (629).
(3) In the Ideal Second Person :
Bonus sggnior fit ubi neglegas, S., lug., 31, 28 (566).
(4) By the spread of the Subjv. in post-classical Latin:
Qui unum gius ordinis offendisset omngs adversos babgbat, L., xxxiii.
46, 1 (567).
2. Qui = si quis, if any, has the Indicative when the Con-
dition is Logical.
[Terra] numquam sine usura reddit, quod accgpit, C.,Cat.M., 15, 51
(623). (Si quid accgpit.) Qui mori didicit, servire dgdidicit, Sen., U.M.,
26, 10 (423).
Remark. — Whtn the Condition is Ideal, the Subjv. is necessary (596).
In post-classical Latin the Subjv. is the rule with all conditionals.
626. Kvplanatonj Relative. — Qui, with the Indicative
(= is emm, for he), often approaches quod, in that.
Habe5 senectuti magnam gratiam, quae mihi sermonis aviditatem
RELATIVE SENTENCES. 4OI
auxit, C, Cat.M., 14, 46; I am very iJiankfid to old age, tvMch (for it,
in that it) has increased me {= in me) the appetite for talJc.
Remark. — Qui with the Subjv, gives a ground, = cum is (086); qui
with the Indie, a fact ; and in many passages the causal sense seems to
be inevitable :
insanit hie quidem, qui ipse male dicit sibi, Pl., Men., 309; cracked is
this man, who calls (= for calling) down curses on himself. Erraverim
fortasse qui me aliquid putavi, Plin., Ep., \. 23, 2; / may have erred in
thinking myself to he somethirig.
Notes.— 1. This causal sense is heightened by ut, utpote, as; quippe, namely.
lit qui is rare in early Latin, Caesar, and Cicero, and is not found at all in Terence
and Sallust. Livy, however, is fond of it. The mood is everywhere the Subjunc-
tive. Utpote is found only here and there in Latin, and not at all in Terence,
Caesar, Livy ; but once in Plautus. The mood is the Subjv. until late Latin.
Quippe qui is the most common of the three, but does not occur in Caesar. In early
Latin the mood is the Indie, (except V\..,Pers., 6gq) ; also in Sallust. Cicero uses
the Subjv. ; Livy uses both moods ; later the Subjv. is the rule until the time of
Apuleius.
2. Simple Explanatory qui has the Indie, most commonly in early Latin, and in
general develops on the same line that cum follows.
627. The Subjunctive is employed in Relative clauses
when it would be used in a simple sentence.
Potential : Habeo quae velim, C. , Fin. , i. 8, 28 ; / have ivhat I should
like.
Optative: Quod faustum sit, rggem create, L., i. 17, 10; blessing he
on your choice, make ye a king.
Remarks. — i. Especially to be noted is the Subjv. in restrictive
phrases. Here the Relative often takes quidem, sometimes modo.
The early Latin shows only quod sciam(as if dum aliquid sciam), «o/ar as I
may be permitted to know something about it (= quantum scio, as far as I know, for
all I know), which is used throughout the language, and quod quidem veniat in
mentem (Pl.,^;;.,638). Cicero, however, shows a great variety. Quantum sciam
is found first in Quintilian.
Omnium oratorum quos quidem c5gnoverim actitissimum iudico Serto-
rium, C, Br., 48, 180 ; of all orators, so far as I know them, I consider Sertorius the
most acute. Nullum ornatum qui modo non obsctiret subtrahendum puto,
Quint., V. 14, 33 ; / think no ornament is to be withdraion, provided that it do not
cause obscurity.
2. Restrictions involving esse, posse, attinet, are regularly in the
Indicative. Cicero and Caesar, however, show a very few cases of
the Subjv., especially witli possls.
Prodidisti et te et illam, quod quidem in tg fuit, Ter., J.J., 692; you
have hetrayed hoth her and yourself, so far as in you lay. Ego quod ad
me attinet, iudicgs, vici, C, Yerr.^ II. i. 8, 21; /, judges, so far as per'
tains to me, have conquered,
16
402 RELATIVE SENTENCES.
628. The Subjunctive is used in Kelative clauses whicK
form a part of the utterance or the view of another than the
narrator, or of the narrator himself when indirectly quoted
(539, R.). So especially in Oratio Obliqua and Final Sen-
tences.
Recte Graeci praecipiunt, non temptanda quae efl&ci non possint, Quint.,
IV. 5, 17; right are the Greeks in teaching that those things are not to
he attempted which cannot he accomplished. Apud Hypanim fluvium
Aristoteles ait, bestiolas quasdam nasci quae unum diem vivant, C, Tusc,
I. 39, 94 (650). Virtus facit ut eos diligamus in quibus ipsa inesse videatur,
C, Off., I. 17, 56; virtue makes ns love those in whom she seems to
reside. Postulatur ab hominibus ut ab iis se abstineant maximg vitiis, in
quibus alterum reprehenderint, C, Verr., iii. 2, 4; it is demanded of men
that they refrain from those f emits most of all as to u'hich they hate
hlamed another. Senatus censuit uti quicumque Galliam provinciam
obtingret, Haeduos dgfenderet, Caes., B. G., i. 35 ; the senate decreed that
ivhoever ohtained Gaul as his province shoidd defend the Haedui.
Paetus omngs libros quos frater suus reliquisset mihi donavit, C, Att., 11.
1,12; (this is Paetus' statement; otherwise: quos frater eius (521) reli-
quit ; compare C, Att., i. 20, 7). Xerxgs praemium proposuit qui [= eX
qui] invgnisset novam voluptatem, C, Tusc, v. 7, 20 (619).
Remark. — Even in Oratio Obliqua the Indie, is retained :
(a) In explanations of the narrator :
Nuntiatur Afranio magnos commeattis qui iter habgbant ad Caesarem ad
flumen constitisse, Cai;s., B.C., i. 51, 1; it is (was) announced to Afra-
Quus that large supplies of provisions (which were on their way to
Caesar) had halted at the river.
In the historians this sometimes occurs where the Relative clause is
an integral part of the sentence, especially in the Impf. and Pluperfect;
partly for clearness, partly for liveliness. For shifting Indie, and
Subjv., see L., xxvi. i.
(h) In mere circumlocutions:
Quis neget haec omnia quae vidgmus deorum potestate administrari ?
Cf. C, Cat., III. g, 21; who would deny that this whole visihle ivorld is
managed hy the poiver of the gods f Providendum est ng quae dicuntur
ab eo qui dicit dissentiant, Quint., iii. 8,- 48; we must see to it that the
speech be not out of keeping with the speaker.
629. Relative sentences which depend on Infinitives and
Subjunctives, and form an integral part of the thought, are
put in the Subjunctive (Attraction of Mood).
Pigrl est ingenil contentum esse iis quae sint ab alils inventa, Quint., x.
RELATIVE SENTENCES.
403
2, 4; it is the mark of a slow genius to he coiitent ivith what has been found
out hy others. Quis aut eum diligat quern metuat aut eum a quo s6 metui
putef? C, Lael., 15.53; who could love a nia7i whom he fears, or by
whom he deems himself feared 9 Nam quod emaspossis iure vocSre tuum,
Mart., ir. 20, 2; for ivhat you buy you may rightly call your oum. Ab
alio exspectes alter! quod feceris, Syrus, 2 (Pr.) (-319). In virtute sunt multi
ascenstis, ut is gloria maxime excellat, qui virtute plurimum praestet, C,
Plane, 25, 60 (552). Si solos eos dicer es miseros quibus moriendum esset,
neminem eorum qui viverent exciperes ; moriendum est enim omnibus, C,
Tusc, I. 5, 0; if you called only those wretched ivho had {have) to die^
you would except none who lived {live) ; for all have to die.
liEMARK. — The Indie, is used :
{a) in mere circumlocutions ; so, often in Consecutive Sentences :
Necesse est facere sumptum qui quaerit lucrum, Pl., J.s.,218 (535).
Efficitur aboratore, ut ii qui audiunt ita adficiantur ut orator velit, Cf. C,
Br., 49, 185; it is brought about by the orator that those who hear him
(= his auditors) are affected as he wishes {them to be).
(b) Of individual facts :
Et quod vid6s perisse perditum diicas. Cat., viii. 2; and ivhat you see
(definite tiling, definite person) is lost for aye, for aye deem lost. (Quod
videas, anybody, anything.)
630. Relative Sentences of Design. — Optative Relative sen-
tences are put in the Subjunctive of Design, when qui — utis.
Sunt multi qui gripiunt aliis quod aliis largiantur, C, Off., i. 14, 43;
many are they who snatch from some to lavish on others. [Senex] serit
arbores, quae alter! saeclo prosint, Caecilius (C, Tusc, i. 14, 31) (545).
Semper hab6 Pyladgn aliquem qui curet Orestem, Ov., Rem.Am., 589(545).
[Magnesiam Themistocli Artaxerxes] urbem donarat, quae ei panem
praeberet, Ne p., 11. 10, 3 (545).
Notes.— 1. The basis of this construction is the characteristic Siibjv., and the con-
ception seems Potential rather than Optative ; but in many cases the characteristic force
is no longer felt.
2. After mittere there are a few cases where the Impf. Indie, is used with much the
same force a!?; Uie linpf. Snbjv., but the purpose is merely inferential from the continu-
ance ill the teiirfe. Sjc 2:«. So (in the following sentence) invgstigabant = inves-
tigatiirl erant.
Inmittgbantur ill! can6s, qui invSstigabant omnia, C, Verr., iv. 21, 47.
3. By attraction simihir to that with quod (541, n. 3) and quom (585, n. 3), the Rela-
tive is sometimes found with an Inf. and diceret, where the Subjv. of the verb in the
Inf., or the Indie, with a parenthetical ut dixit, is to be expected.
Litteras quas mS sib! misisse diceret (= misisset, or miserat, ut dixit) reci-
tavit, c. Ph., II. 4, 7.
631. Relative Sentences of Tendency. — Potential Relative
sentences are put in the Subjunctive of Tendency^ v^^hen
qui = ut is.
404 RELATIVE SENTENCES.
The notion is generally that of Character and Adaptation, and we
distinguish four varieties :
1. With a definite antecedent, when the character is
emphasized ; regularly after idoneus, suitable ; aptus, fit ;
dignus, worthy ; indignus, umvortliy ; after is, talis, eiusmodi,
tarn, tantus, and the like ; after tinus and solus.
Est innocentia adfectio talis animi, quae noceat nemini, C, Tusc, iii. 8,
16 ; harmlessness {ifinocence) is that state of mind that does harm to no
one {is innocuous to any one). lUe ego sim cuius laniet furiosa capillos,
Ov., A.A.yU. 451 ; may I he the man ivhose hair she tears in her seasons
of frenzy. Solus es, C. Caesar, cuius in victoria ceciderit n6m3, C, Dei.,
12, 34; thou art the only one, Caesar, i7i whose victory no one has fallen.
Quern mea Calliope laeserit unus ego, Ov., Tr., it. 568; / am the only
one that my Calliope {= my Muse) has hurt. (Acadgmici) mentem solam
censebant idoneam cui crgderStur, C, ^c.,i. 8, 30; the Academics held
that the mi7id alone was fit to be believed (trustworthy).
Remarks. — i. TJt is not unfrequently found instead of qui after the
correlatives.
2. Idoneus, dignus, etc., take also ut, and the Infinitive (552, r. 2).
2. Witli an indefinite antecedent ; so especially after
negatives of all kinds, and their equivalents, and in com-
binations of multi, quidam, alii, nonntilli, etc., with est, sunt,
exsistit, etc.
Est qui, sunt qui, there is, there are some who ; ngmS est qui, there is
none to ; nihil est quod, there is nothing ; habeo quod, I liave to ; reperi-
untur qui, persons are found who {to) . . . ; quis est qui "i who is
there ivho {to) . . . . F est cur, there is reason for, etc. So, alco,
fuit cum, there ivas a time when (580, r. i).
Sunt qui disc6ssum animi a corpore putent esse mortem, C, Tusc.^i. 9,
18 ; there are some who (to) thimk that death is the departure of the soul
from the body. Fuit qui suadSret appellationem m6nsis August! in Sep-
tembrem transferendam. Suet., Aug., 100 ; there ivas a man ivho urged
{--. to urge) that the name of the month {of) August shoidd be trans-
ferred to September. Multi fu6runt qui tranquillitatem expetentgs a
negotiis publicis s6 removerint, C, Off., i. 20, 09; there have been many
ivho, in the search for quiet, have withdraivn themselves from public
engagements. OmninS n6m6 HUius rei fuit emptor cui dSfuerit hie vendi-
tor, C, Ph., II. 38, 97 (317, i). Post mortem in morte nihil est quod metuam
mali, Pl., Capt., 741; after death there is no ill in death for me to
dread. Nee mea qui digitis lumina condat erit, Ov., Her., 10, 120 ; and
there will be no one to close mine eyes with his fingers. Miserrimus est
RELATIVE SENTENCES. 405
qui quom gsse cupit quod edit (172, n.) non habet, Pl., Capt., 463^ he is a
poor wretch who, ivhen he waiits to eat, has not anything to eat (non
habet quid edat would mean does not Imow what to eat). Quotus est
quisque qui somniis pareat, C, Div., 11. 60, 135 ; {how many men in the
world), the fewest men in the woi'ld obey dreams.
Remarks. — i. The Indie, may be used in the statements of definite
facts, and not of general characteristics :
Multi sunt qui gripiant, Multi sunt qui eripiunt,
There are matiy to snatch away. Many are they ivlio snatch away.
Of course this happens only after affirmative sentences. The poets
use the Indie, more freely than prose writers :
Sunt-qui (= quidani)quod sentiunt non audent (so mss.) dicere, C, Off.,
1. 24, 84 ; some dare not say what they think. Sunt-quibus ingrate ti-
mida indulgentia servit, Ov., A. A., 11. 435 ; to some trembling indul-
gence plays the slave all thanklessly. Sunt qui (indefinite) non habeant,
est-qui (definite) non curat habSre, 11., Ep., 11. 2, 182.
2. When a definite predicate is negatived, the Indie, may stand on
account of the defunte statement, the Subjv. on account of the negative:
A. Nihil bonum est quod non eum qui id possidet meliorem facit ; or,
B. Nihil bonum est quod non eum qui id possideat meliorem faciat.
A. Nothing that does not make its owner better is good.
B, lliere is nothing good that does not make its oivner better,
3. After comparatives with quam as an object clause.
Maiora in defectione deliquerant, quam quibus ignosci posset, L., xxvi.
12, 6; (m that revolt) they had been guilty of greater crimes than could
be forgiven {had sinned past forgiveness). Non longius host§s aberant,
quam quo t6lum adici posset, Caes., B.O., 11. 21, 3; the enemy were not
more than a javelin'' s throiv distant.
Remarks. — i. Classical Latin prefers ut after comparatives.
2. Instead of quam ut, quam is not unfrequently found alone, espe-
cially after potius, but also after amplius, celerius, etc.; in which case the
construction resembles that of antequam.
4. Parallel with a descriptive adjective with which it is
connected by et or sed.
Exierant (duo) adulescentes et Drusi maximg familiares, et in quibus
magnam spem maiorgs coUocarent, C, Or., i. 7, 25 ; two young men had
come out (who were) intimates of Drusus and in whom their elders were
putting great hopes.
632. ftuin in Sentences of Character. — After negative
clauses^ usually with a demonstrative tarn, ita, etc.^ quin is
406 RELATIVE SENTEK^CES.
often used (556) where we might expect qui non, and some°
times where we should expect quae non, or quod non.
Sunt certa vitia quae ngm5 est quin eifugere cupiat, C, Or., in. ii, 41;
there are certain faults which there is no one hut (— everybody) desires
to escape. Nfl tarn difficile est quin quaerendo invgstigari possiet (= possit),
TER.,^eaM^.,675(5o2).
Remark. — That quin was felt not as qui non, but rather as ut n5n, is
shown by the fact that the demonstrative may be expressed :
Non cum quSquam arma contuli quin is mih! succubuerit, Nep., xviii.
II, 5; / have never measured swords with any one that he has not {hut
he has) succumhed to me.
633. Relative in a Causal Sense. — When qui = cum is, as
he, the Subjunctive is employed. (See 58G, r. i.)
The particles ut, utpote, quippe, as, are often used in conjunction
with the Relative ; for their range, see G26, n. 1.
(Caninius) fuit mirifica vigilantia qui suo toto consulatu somnum non vi-
derit, C, Fam., vii. 30, 1 ; Caniriius has shown marvellous ivatch fulness,
not to have seen (= taken a ivinh of) sleep in his ivhole consulship.
5 fortunate adulgscens, qui tuae virtutis Hom6rum praeconem inveneris !
C, Arch., 10, 24; lucky youth ! to have found a crier (= truynpeter) of
your valor (in) Homer ! Maior gloria in Scipione, Quinctii recentior ut
qui e5 anno triumphasset, L., xxxv. 10, 5; Scipio's glory ivas greater,
Quinctius' was fresher, as {was to he expected in) a man who {inasmuch
as he) had triumphed in that year.
Remark. — On the use of the Indie, after quippe, etc., see 626, n. 1.
On the sequence of tenses, see 513, n. 3.
634. Relative m a Concessive or Adversative Sense. — Qui
is sometimes used as equivalent to cum is in a Concessive or
Adversative Sense.
Ego qui leviter Graecas litteras attigissem, tamen cum v6nissem Athgnas
complur63 ibi digs sum commoratus, C, Or., i. 18, 82; although I had
dahhled hut slightly in Greek, nevertheless, having come to Athens, I
stayed there several days.
Note.— The Indie, is the rule for this conetruction in early Latin (580, n. 1).
635. Relative and Infinitive. — The Accusative and Infini-
tive may be used in Orati5 Obliqua after a Relative, when
the Relative is to be resolved into a Coordinating Con-
junction and the Demonstrative.
(Philosophi cgnsent) unum quemque nostrum mundl esse partem, ex qu5
iUud natura consequi ut commUncm utilitatem nostrae anteponamus, C,
RELATIVE SENTEKCES. 40/
Fin., III. 19, 64; philosophers hold that every one of us is apart of the
universe, and that the natural consequence of this is for us to prefer
the common welfare to our own.
Notes.— 1. This usage is not cited earlier than Cicero, and seems to be found prin-
cipally there, with sporadic examples from other authors.
2. Occasional examples are also found of the Inf. after etsi (Livt), quamquam
(Tac), in the sense anri yet ; cum interim (Livy), quia (Sen.), nisi (Tac), si non
(Livy) ; and after quem admodum, ut (Cic, Livy, Tac), in comparative sentences.
636. Comhination of Relative Sentences, — Relative Sen-
tences are combined by means of Copulative Conjunctions
only luhen they are actually coordinate.
When the second Relative would stand in the same case as
the first, it is commonly omitted {a).
When it would stand in a different case {h), the Demon-
strative is often substituted {c) ; or, if the case be the Nom-
inative {d) or Accusative {e), the Relative may be omitted
altogether.
(a) Dumnorix qui principatum obtinSbat ac plebl acceptus erat (Caes., B.O.^
1-3,5),
J)ioniiorh% icho held the chieftaincy, and {ivJid) was acceptable to the commons;
ib) Dumnorix qui principatum obtinSbat cuique plgbs fav6bat,
Dumnoi'ix, who held the chieftaincy, and whom the conin tons f avoided ;
ifi) Dumnorix qui principatum obtinebat eique plebs fav6bat,
Dxwmorix, who held tlic chieftaincy, and ivhom the commons favored ;
(d) Dumnorix quem plgbs diliggbat et principatum obtingbat,
Dumnorix, whom the commons loved, and {who) held the chieftaincy ;
(6) Dumnorix qui principatum obtingbat et plgbs diliggbat,
Dumnorix, who held the chieftaincy, and {ivhom) the commons loved.
Examples : (a) Caes., B. 6., iv. 34, 4 ; (b) C, Lael., 23, 87 ; Tusc, i. 30, 72 ; {c) C, Br.^
74, 258 ; Tusc, v. 13, 38 ; (e) C, Off., 11. 6, 21 ; L., x. 29, 3 ; (d) S., lug., loi, 5 ; Teb.,
Ad., 85.
Notes.— 1. The insertion of a demonstrative is almost confined to early Latin,
LucuETirs, and Cicero. Caesar and Sallust have no examples, and Livy very few.
On the other hand, the use of a relative by zeugma (090) in connection with two or
more verbs governing different cases is found at all periods.
2. (a) The Relative is not combined with adversative or illative conjunctions (btU
7c7u), who therefoi^e) except at the beginning of a sentence, when it represents afolloio-
ing demonstrative or anticipates it (020).
Qui fortis est, idem fidgns est ; qui autem fSdgns est, is n5n extimgscit
C, 7"nsc., III. 7, 14 ; he trho is brave is confident, but he tcho is confident is not afraid.
{lA Sed qui, qui tamen, can ha used in antithesis to adjectives.
SopbrOn mimorum quidem scriptor sed quem PlatS probavit. Quint., i. 10,
J 7 ; Sophron, a wHler of mimes, 'tis true, but (one) that Plato approved.
(c) Qui tamen may be added to explain a foregoing statement.
Causam tibl exposuimus Ephesi, quam tu tamen coram facilius cognosces,
C, Fafn., XIII. 55, 1.
3. Two or more Relative clauses may be connected with the same antecedent when
the one serves to complete the idea of the principal clause, the other to roodify it :
408 COMPARATIVE SENTEITCES.
nia vis quae inv6stigat occulta, quae inventio dicitur, C, Tusc, i. 25, 61 ;
the faculty that tracks (rut hidden things^ ivhich is called (the faculty of) research.
4. The Relative is often repeated by anaphmm (682) for stylistic reasons. Compare
C, 7'msc., I. 25, 62 ; Plane., 33, 81 ; L., xxiii. 14, 3.
637. Relative Se7itence represented by a Participle.— The
Relative sentence is sometimes represented by a Participle,
but generally the Participle expresses a closer connection
than the mere explanatory Relative.
Omnes aliud agentgs^ aliud simulantes perfidi (sunt), C, Off., iii. 14, 60;
all who are driving at one thing and pretending another are treacherous.
[Pisistratus] Homgri libros confusos antea sic disposuisse dicitur ut nunc
habemus, C, Or., in. 34, 137; Pisistratus is said to have arranged the
books of Homer, which were (whereas they were) in confusio7i before,
as we have them now.
COMPARATIVE SENTENCES.
638. A peculiar phase of the Relative sentence is the Com-
parative, which is introduced in English by as or than, in
Latin by a great variety of relative forms :
(a) By correlatives ; (b) by atque or ac ; (6') by quam.
639. Moods in Comparative Sentences. — The mood of the
Dependent clause is the Indicative, unless the Subjunctive
is required by the laws of oblique relation, or by the condi-
tional idea (602).
Remark.— On potius quam with the Subjv., see below, 644, r. 3.
640. The dependent clause often borrows its verb from the
leading clause. Compare 602.
ignOratio futurorum malorum utilior est quam scientia, C, Biv., n. 9,
23 (~'96). Servi moribus isdem erant quibus dominus, Cf. C, Verr., in. 25,
62 ; the servants had the same character as the master.
641. When the dependent clause (or standard of compari-
son) borrows its verb from the leading clause, the depend-
ent clause is treated as a part of the leading clause ; and if
the first or leading clause stands in the Accusative with the
Infinitive, the second or dependent clause must have the
Accusative likewise.
Ita sentid Latlnam linguam locupl€ti5rem esse quam Graecam, C, Fin.,
1.3,10; it is my opinion that the Latin language is richer than the
COMPARATIVE SENTENCES.
409
Greek. Ego Gaium Caesarem non eadem dg r6 publica sentiro quae mS scio,
C, Pis., 32, 79; / laiow that Gains Caesar has not the same poiitical
views that I (have).
so (as) = as.
I. Correlative Comparative Sentences.
642. Correlative Sentences ot* Comparison are introduced
by Adjective and Adverbial Correlatives :
1. Adjective correlatives :
tot, totidem quot, (so) as many
tantus quantus, (so) as great
talis qualis, such
Idem qui, the same
2. Adverbial correlatives :
tarn quam, (so) as mucW]
tantopere quantopere, (so) as much
totigns (es) quotiens (6s), as often
tamdiu quamdiu, as long
ita, sic fut, uti, sicut, tamquam (rare),""
J quasi (rare),
item, itidem 1 quemadmodum,
I quomodo,
Quot homings, tot sententiae, {as) many men, (so) many minds, Ter.,
Ph., 454. Frumentum tanti fuit quanti iste aestimavit, C, Vcrr., iii. 84,
194 ; corn ivas worth as much as he valued it. Plgrique habgre amicum
talem volunt, qualgs ipsi esse n5ii possunt, C, Lael., 22, 82 ; most people
wish to hare a friend of a character such as they themselves cannot
possess. CimSn incidit in eandem invidiam quam pater suus, Nep. , v. 3, 1
(310). Nihil est tam populare quam bonitas, C, Lig., 12, 37; nothing is
so ivinyiing as kindness. Sic dg ambitione quomodo dg amica queruntur,
Sex., ^MT., 22, 10; they complain of ambition as they do of a sweet-
heart. Tamdiu requigsco quamdiu ad tg 8crib5, C, Alt., ix. 4, 1 ; I rest as
long as I am icriting to you. Opto ut ita cuique gveniat, ut dg rg publica
quisque mereatur, C, P/i., 11. 46, 119; I wish each one's fortune to he
such as he deserves of the state.
3. The Correlative is sometimes omitted.
HomS, non quam isti sunt, gloriSsus, L., xxxv. 49, 7; a man, 7iot (so)
vainglorious as they are. Discgs quamdiu volgs, C, Off., i. i, 2; you shall
learn (as long) as you wish.
Remarks. — i. Instead of idem qui, idem ut is sometimes found.
Bisputationem exponimus eisdem ferg verbis ut actum disputStumque
4IO COMPARATIVE SE:NrTEi^-CES.
est, C, Tusc. II. 3, 9; we are setting forth the discussion in very much
the same words in ivhich it was actually carried on.
On idem with atque, ac, et, see 643 ; on idem with Dat., see 359, n. 6 ;
on idem with cum, see 310, r. 2.
2. {a) The more — the more, m{\,j be translated by quo (quisque) — eo, and
the like, with the comparatives ; but usually by ut (quisque), quam—ita,
tam, etc., with the superlative, especially when the subj. is indefinite.
Tanto brevius omne quanto felicius tempus, Pliny, Ep., viii. 14, 10 ;
time is the shorter, the happier it is. Quam citissimg confides, tam
maxime expediet, Cato, J.^r. , 64, 2 ; the quicker the better. Ut quisque
sib! plurimum confidit, ita maxime excellit, C, Lael.,g,30; the more a
man trusts himself, the more he excels.
(b) When the predicate is the same, one member of ten coalesces with
the other : Optimum quidque rarissimum est, C, Fin., 11. 25, 81 (318, 2),
= ut quidque optimum est, ita rarissimum.
3. Ut — ita is often used adversatively (482, 4). On ita — ut, in assev-
erations, see 2G2.
4. Ut and pro eo ut are frequently used in a limiting or causal sense,
so far as, inasmuch as; pr5 eo ut temporum difficultas tulit(C,, Verr.,
III. 54, 12G), so far as the hard times permitted; ut tum r6s erant, as
things ivere then; ut temporibus illis (C, Fern, iii. 54, 125), /or those
times ; ut erat foriosus (C, Rose. Am., 12, 33), stark mad as he was; ut
Siculi (C.-, Tusc, 1. 8, 15), as {is, ivas, to be expected of) Sicilians.
Vir ut inter Aetolos facundus, L., xxxii. 33, 9; a man of eloquence for
an Aetolian. Ut sunt htimana, nihil est perpetuom datum, Pl., Cist., 194;
as the world wags, nothing is given for good and all.
5. On quam, quantus, and the Superlative, see 303.
Notice in this connection quam qui, ut qui, and the like, with the
Superlative (usually maximg) :
Tam sum amicus rei publicae quam qui maxime (= est), C, Fam., v. 2,
0; / am as devoted a friend to the state as lie ivho is most {=2 as any
man). Proelium, ut quod maximg umquam, commissum est, L., vii. 33, 5.
Domus celebratur ita, ut cum maxime, C, Q.F., 11. 4, 6.
6. The Correlative forms do not always correspond exactly.
Subeunda dimicatio totiSns, quot coniurati superessent, L., 11. 13, 2.
II. Comparative Sentences with ATQUE (AC).
643. Adjectives and Adverbs of Likeness and Unlikeness
may take atque or ac.
Virttls eadem in homine ac deS est, C, Leg., i. 8, 25 ; virtue is the same
in man as in god. Date operam n6 simili titamur fortiina aique tisl
sumus, Ter., Ph., 30; do your endeavor that ire have not {\\\)-luck like
that we had before. DissimulatiS est cum alia dicuntur ac sentias, C,
COMPAEATIYE SEJ^^TEXCES. 4I I
Or., II. 67, 269; dissimulation is when other things are said than what
you mean (sometliing is said other tlian what you mean). Similiter
(602, R. 2) facis ac si me roges ctir te duobus contuear oculis, et non altero
coniveam, C, N.D., iii. 3, 8; you are acting {like) as if yon were to ask
me ivhy I am looking at you with two eyes, and not blinking ivith one.
Non dixi secus ac sentiebam, C, Or., 11. 6, 24 ; / did not speak otherwise
than J thought.
Notes.— 1. The expression is commonly explained by an ellipsis : Alitor dixi at-
que [aliter] sentiSbam, I sjwke one ivay and yet I was thinking another ivaij.
So we find : Timeo ne aliud credam atque aliud ntintigs, TER.,Hec.,S44\ I
fear that 1 believe one thing, and you are telling another.
2. Instead of atque, et is sometimes used ; this is not common, but the greater pro-
portion of cases occurs ill the classical period : Solet enim aliud sentire et loqui,
C, Fam., VIII. i, 3 ; for he has a ivay of thinking one thing and saying another.
3. These words are principally : aequos, par, pariter, idem, iuxta (from the
classical period on), perinde, proinde, pro eo ; alius, aliter, secus (usually with a
negative), contra, contrarius, similis, dissimilis, simul ; and rarely item, talis,
totidem, proximS, and a few others. Plautus uses thus some words which involve
a similar meaning, as (d6)mutare {M. G., 1130). Compare also M. G., 763 ; B., 725.
4. Alius and secus have quam occasionally at all periods. On the other hand, nSn
alius and other negative combinations seldom have atque, commonly quam or nisi.
After negative forms of alius Cicero has regularly nisi, occasionally praeter.
Philosopbia quid est aliud (= nihil est aliud) nisi dSnum deOrum ? c, Tnsc,
1. 26, C4 ; ijkilosoimy--ivhat elae is it but the gift of the gods?
III. Comparative Sentences with QUAM.
644. Comparative Sentences with quam follow the com-
parative degree or comparative expressions.
The Verb of the dependent clause is commonly to be sup-
plied from the leading clause, according to 640.
In Comparative Sentences quam takes the same case after
it as before it.
Melior tutiorque est certa pax quam spSrata victoria, L., xxx. 30, 19
(307, R. i). Potius amicum quam dictum perdidi, Quint., vi. 3, 20; I f)re-
f erred to lose my friend rather than my joke. Velim existimSs ngminem
cuiquam cariorem umquam fuisse quamtemibi, C, Fam., i. 9, 24 (546, 11. i).
Remarks. — i. When the second member is a subj , and the first
member an oblique case, the second member must be put in the Xom. ,
with the proper form of the verb esse, unless the oblique case be an
Accusative :
Vicinus tuus equum meliorem habet quam tuus est, Cf. C, Inv., i. 31, 52
(590). Ego hominem callidiorem vidi nSminem quam Phormionem, Ter.,
Ph., 5QI ; I have seen 710 shrewder man than Phormio (= quam PhormiS
est). Tibi, multd maiSri quam Africanus fuit, m6 nQn multo minorem quam
Laelium adiunctum esse patere, Cf. C, Fam., v. 7, 3.
412 THE ABRIDGED SE^^TENCE.
2. On quam pro, and quam qui, see 298. On the double comparative,
see 299.
3. (a) When two clauses are compared by potius, rather, prius, hefoj-e,
citius, quicker, sooner, the second clause is put in the Pr. or Impf.
Subjv. (512), with or (in Cicero regularly) without ut.
Dgpugna potius quam servias, C, Att., vii. 7, 7 (077, n. C), (Dixerunt)
se miliens morituros potius quam ut tantum dedecoris admitti patiantur,
L., IV. 2, 8; they said that they would rather die a thousand times than
(to) suffer such a disgrace to slip in. Morituros sg affirmabant citius
quam in alienos mores verterentur, L., xxiv. 3, 12 ; they declared that
they had rather die, than let themselves be changed to foreign ivays. '
(b) If the leading clause is in the Inf., the dependent clause may
be in the Inf. likewise, and this is the regular construction in classical
Latin when the Inf. follows a verb of Will and Desire ; Cicero uses
the Inf. regularly, Caesar generally, though examples of the simple
Subjv. are not uncommon in both ; Livy is very fond of the Subjv,,
especially with ut, which is cited first from him.
Se ab omnibus dSsertos potius quam abs tg defenses esse malunt, C, Div.
in Caec, 6, 21; they prefer to be deserted by all rather than defended
by you.
Notes. — 1. Instead of tam— quam, so — as, the Roman prefers the combinations
n5n minus quam-non magis quam (by LitotSe).
(a) Non minus quam nieans no less than = quite as much :
Patria hominibus non minus quam liberi cara esse debet, {Cf. c.,) Fam., iv.
5, 2 ; country ought to be no less dear to men than children (= quite as dear as).
The meaning as little as is cited only from Ter., Ilec, 647 : non tibi illud factum
minus placet quam mihi, where 7iot less than = quite as much as = as little as.
(b) Non magis quam means quite as little, or qiiite as much :
Animus non magis est sanus quam corpus, Cf. C, Tusc, m. 5, 10 ; the mind
is no more sound than the body = as little sound as the body. (Or it might mean : The
mind is no more sound than the body = the body is quite as sound as the mind.)
So with other comparatives.
Fabius non in armis praestantior fuit quam in togS, Cf.c, Cat. ]IL, 4,11;
Fabius was not more distinguished in war than in peace {no less distinguished in peace
than in ivar, quite as distinguished in peace as in war).
2. After a negative comparative, atque is occasionally found for quam in Plautus,
Tehence, Catullus, Vergil ; much more often in Horace (nine times ia tlio
Satires, twice in the Epodes), who uses it also after a positive.
NOn Apollinis magis vgrum atque hoc resp5nsumst, Ter., And., 698. 111!
nOn minus ac tibi pectore uritur intimo flamma, cat., lxi. 176. Cf. 11., /S"., n. 7, oc.
THE ABRIDGED SENTENCE.
645. The compound sentence may be reduced to a simpla
sentence, by substituting an Infinitive or a Participle for tlie
dependent clause.
THE ABRIDCxED SENTEKCE. 4I3
THE INFINITIVE AND INFINITIVE FORMS.
646. The practical uses of the Infinitive and its kindred
forms, as equivalents of dependent clauses, have already been
considered :
Infinitive after Verbs of Creation : 423.
Gerund and Gerundive : 425-433.
Supine: 434-43G.
Infinitive in Object Sentences : 526-531.
Infinitive in Complementary Final Sentences : 532.
Infinitive in Relative Sentences : 635.
Note.— Under the head of the Abridged Sentence will be treated the Historical In.
finitlve and 6rati5 Obllqna : the Hietorical Infinitive, because it is a compendious
Imperfect : 6rati5 Obllqua, because it foreshortens, if it does not actually abridge,
and effaces the finer distinctions of Oratio Recta.
HISTORICAL INFINITIVE.
647. The Infinitive of the Present is sometimes used by
the historians to give a rapid sequence of events, with the
subject in the Xominative ; generally, several Infinitives in
succession.
(Verrgs) minitarl Diodoro, vociferarl palam, lacrimas interdum vix tenSre,
C, Ver7\, IV. iS, 39 ; Verres threatened (was for threatening) Diodorus,
bawled out before everybody, sometimes coidd hardly restrain Ms tears.
Notes.— 1. The ancient assumption of an ellipsis of coepit, ft^g'an (Quint., ix. 3,
58), serves to show the conception, although it does not explain the construction, which
has not yet received a convincing explanation. A curious parallel is de with Infinitive
in French. The Final Infinitive {to be) for, may help the conception, as it sometimes
does the translation. It takes the place of the Imperfect, is used chiefly in rapid pas-
sages, and gives the outline of the thought, and not the details ; it biis regularly the
sequence of a Past tense.
2. The Historical Infinitive is sometimes found after cum, ubi, etc. See S., lug.^
q8, 2 ; L., III. 37, 6 ; Tac, Ann., 11. 4, 4 ; //., in. 31 ; Aim., iii. 26, 2. No examples are
cited from Ciceko and Caesar ; this usage is characteristic of Tacitus,
Oratio oblTqua.
648. The thoughts of the narrator, or the exact words of
a person, as reported by the narrator, are called Oratio P^cta,
or Direct Discourse.
Indirect Discourse, or Oratio Obliqua, reports not the exact
words spoken, but the general impression produced.
Remaeks. — I. Under the general head of Gratis Obllqua arc em-
414 THE ABRIDGED SENTENCE.
braced also those clauses which imply Indirect Quotation (Partial
Obliquity). See 508.
2. Inquam, quoth I, is used in citinc^ the Oratio Rgcta ; aio, I say,
generally in Oratio Obliqua. Inquam never precedes the Oratio Obliqua,
but is always parenthetic; aio may or may not be parenthetic. Oratio
Kecta may also be cited by a parenthetic " ut ait," " ut aiunt," rarely
ait, (as) he says, {as) they say. The subject of inquit often precedes
the quotation, but when it is mentioned in the parenthesis it is almost
always put after the verb.
Turn Cotta : rumoribus mecum, inquit, pugnas, C, N.D., in. 5, 13 (484).
Aliquot somnia v6ra, inquit Ennius, C, Div., 11. 62, 127; "-some dreams
are true,^' quoth Ennius.
3. The lacking forms of inquam are supplied by forms of dicere.
649. Oratio Obliqua differs from Oratio Recta, partly in the
use of the Moods and Tenses, partly in the use of tlie pronouns.
Notes.— 1. It must be remembered that as a rule the Roman thought immediately
in 6. 0., and did not thinli first in 0. B. and then transfer to 6. 0. ; also that 0. 0. is
necessarily less accurate in its conception than 6. B.., and hence it is not always possible
to construct the 0. E. from the 0. 0. with perfect certainty. What is ideal to the
speaker may become unreal to the narrator, from his knowledge of the result, and hence,
when accuracy is aimed at, the narrator takes the point of view of the speaker, and in
the last resort passes over to 0. IlScta.
2. 0. Obliqua often comes in without any formal notice, and the governing verb has
often to be supplied from the context, sometimes from a preceding negative.
(Regulus) sententiam ne diceret reciisavit ; (mying ikal) quam diu iure
iurando hostium tengretur, non esse sg senatorem, c. Off., m. 27, lOO.
(idem Rggulus) reddi captivos negavit esse utile ; (saying that) illos enim
adulescentes esse, s6 iam confectum senecttite, /^.
3. Sometimes, after a long stretch of 0. Obliqua, the writer suddenly shifts to the
0. Kecta. Examples : C, Tusc., 11. 25, Gl ; L., 11. 7,9, etc.
Moods in Oratio Obliqua.
650. In Oratio Obliqua the princijyal clauses (except In-
terrogatives and Imperatives) are put in the Infinitive, the
subordinate clauses in the Subjimctive.
Oratie E6cta : Apud Hypanim fiuvium, inquit Aristotel6s,
Orati5 Obliqua : Apud Hypanim fluvium Aristoteles ait
0. R. : bgsticlae quaedam nascuntur,
0. 0. : bestiolas quasdam nasci,
0. S. : quae unum diem vivunt,
0. 0. : quae unum diem vivant, c, Tusc, i. 39, M.
0. 'K.—On the river Bog, says Ainslotle, \ little creatures are born, that live {.tmt\
6. 0,~AristoUe says that on the river Bog, ' one day.
S5crat3s dicere solSbat :
6. E. OmnSs in eo quod sciunt satis sunt eioquentes,
0. 0. OmnSs in e5 quod scirent satis esse Sloquentes, C, Or., 1. 14, 63.
THE ABRIDGED SE]S"TEK^CE. 4I5
6. R. Socrates used to say : "All men are eloquent enough in what ^A^y under-
stand."
0. 0. Socrates tised to say thai all men were eloquent enough in what they under-
stood.
Remark. — When the Principal Clause, or Apodosis, is in the Indie.,
the Inf. is used according to the rule for Verbs of Saying and Think-
ing. When the Principal Clause, or Apodosis, is in the Subjv., as in
the Ideal and Unreal Conditions, special rules are necessary (05G).
Otherwise, Subjv. in 0. R. continues to be Subjv. in 0. 0.
Note.— In Caesar, ^.C.,iii. 73, G, where a principal clause is apparently put in
the Subjv., instead of dStrimentum in bonum verteret, read (fore ut) . . . verte-
ret, with Vossius, Diibner, Perrin, Hoffmann. Nep., ii. 7, G, is disputed.
651. Interrogative sentences are put in the Subjunctive,
according to 467 ; inasmuch as the verb of Saying involves
the verb of Asking.
Ariovistus respondit sg prius in Galliam venisse quam populum Roma-
num: quid sibi vellet cur in suas possessiones veniret, Caes., B.G., i. 44,
7; Ariovistus replied that he had come to Gaul before the Roman peo-
ple ; what did he (Caesar) mea7i by coming into his possessions ? (Quid
tibi vis \)
Remarks. — i. Indicative Rhetorical Questions (464), being substan-
tially statements, are transferred from the Indie, of 6. R. to the Ace.
and Inf. of 0. 0. when they are in the First and Third Persons. The
Second Person goes into the Subjunctive.
6. R. Num possum \ Can I f [^ o.] 6. 0. HTum posse %
Caes., B.G., I. 14; Could he ?
Quid est turpiua % WJiat is baser 9 [Nothing.] Quid esse turpius ?
Caes., B. G., v. 28, G; What ivas baser 9
Qu5 86 repulsos ab Romanis ituros? L., xxxiv. 11,6; whither should
they go, if repelled by the Romans ? (Quo ibimus ■?) Cui non apparere
ab eo qui prior arma intulisset iniuriam ortaia (esse) % L., xxxii. 10, 0; to
whom is it not evident that the wrong began with him, who had been
the first to wage war 9 (Cui non apparet \)
Examples are not found in early Latin, are rare in classical period,
but are especially common in Livy.
Si bonum diicerent, quid pro noxio damnassent? L., xxvn. 34, 13; */
they thought him a good man, uihy had they condemned him as guilty 9
(Si bonum ducitis, quid pro noxio damnastis %)
The Question in the Second Person often veils an Imperative. Here
from Livy on the Subjv. is the rule.
Nee cessabant Sabini instaro rogitantes quid tererent tempus, L., iil
61, 13. (0. R., Quid teritis 1)
41 6 THE ABRIDGED SENTEJ^CE.
Exceptions are rare ; Subjv. with Third Person, Caes., B.C., i. 32.
3; Inf. with Second Person, L., vi. 39, 10.
2. In Subjv. Rhetorical Questions the Subjv. is either retained or
transferred to the Infinitive. The Deliberative Subjv. is always refained.
Quis sibi persuaderet sine certa re Ambiorigem ad giusmodi consilium
descendisse ? Caes., 5. 6^., v. 29, 5 ; ivho could persuade himself that
Ambiorix had proceeded to an extreme measur^e like that, ivithout (hav-
ing made) a sure thing (of it) ? (Quis sib! persuadeat ?)
The Inf. form would be the Future: quern sibi persuasurum 1 (659),
and is not to be distinguished from the Fut. Indicative.
652. Imperative sentences are put in the Subjunctive,
sometimes with, usually without, ut ; the ]S[egative is, of
course, ne (never ut ne).
Redditur responsum : nondum tempus pugnae esse ; castris sg ten6rent,
L., II. 45, 8; there was returned for answer, that it ivas not yet time to
fight, that they must keep witliin the camp. (0. R., castris vos tengte.)
(Vercingetorix) cohortatus est : ng perturbarentur incommodo, Caes., B. O.,
VII. 29, 1 ; Vercingetorix comforted them {by saying) that they must not
allow themselves to he disco7icerted by the disaster. (0. R., nolite per-
turbari.)
Remarks. — i. Ut can be used according to 540, after verbs of Will
and Desire and their equivalents.
Pythia respondit ut moenibus ligneis sg munlrent, Nep.,ii. 2, G ; the
Pythia answered that they must defend themselves with walls of ivood.
2. Verbs of Will and Desire, being also verba dicendi, frequently
have an ut clause followed by an Ace. with the Inf., the second clause
adding a statement to the request.
TJbii 5rabant ut sibi auxilium ferret ; ad auxilium spemque reliqui tem-
poris satis futurum, Caes., ^.6^., iv. r6, 5.
Tenses in Oratio Obliqua.
653. The Tenses of the Infinitive follow the laws already
laid down (530) :
The Present Infinitive expresses contemporaneous action ;
The Perfect Infinitive expresses prior action ;
The Future Infinitive expresses future action.
Remark. — The Impf. Indie, as expressing prior coiitinuatice,
becomes the Pf. Inf. in 0. 0., and hence loses its note of continuance.
654. The- Tenses of the Subjunctive follow the law^^ of
THE ABRIDGED SENTENCE. ^l^
sequence (510). The choice is regulated by the point of
view of the Reporter, or the point of view of the Speaker.
Note. — By assuming the point of view of tlie speaker, greater liveliness as well ae
greater accuracy is imparted to the discourse. This form is technically called Reprae-
sentatio. In Conditional Sentences Repraesentatio often serves to prevent ambigu-
ity. Tiie point of view not unfreqnently saiits from reporter to speaker, sometimes in
the same sentence ; this has the effect of giving additional emphasis to the primary
verb, and is therefore common in commands and in favorable alternatives.
Point of View of the Reporter :
Lggationi Ariovistus respondit : sib! mirum videri quid in sua Gallia
quam bello vicisset, Caesari negotii esset, Caes., ^. 6^., i. 34, 4 ; to the
embassy Ariovistus replied, tJiat it seemed strange to him {he wondered)
what business Caesar had in his Gaul, ivhich he had conquered in
war.
Point of View of the Speaker :
[Legatis Helvetiorum] Caesar respondit : consuSsse deos immortales, quo
gravius homines ex commutatione rSrum doleant, quos pro scelere eorum
ulcisci velint, his secundiores interdum r6s concedere, Caes., B.G., i. 14, 5;
to the envoys of the Helvetians (Jaesar replied, that the gods ivere (are)
ivont, that men might (may) suffer the more severely from change in
their fortunes, to grant occasional increase of prosperity to those whom
they wished (wish) to punish for their crime. (A long passage is L.,
ixxviii. 32.)
Point of View shifted :
Ad haec Marcius respondit : SI quid ab senatu petere vellent, ab armis
discSdant, S., C, 34, 1; thereto Marcius replied : If they wished to ask
anything of the senate, they must lay down their arms.
Proinde aut cgderent (undesired alternative) animo atque virtute genti
per eos dies totiens ab se victae, aut itineris finem spgrent (desired alterna-
tive) campum interiacentem Tiber! ac moenibus Romanis, L., xxi. 30, 11 ;
therefore they should either yield in spirit and courage to a nation
which during those days they had so often conquered, or they must hope
as the end of their march the plain that lies between the Tiber and the
walls of Rome.
655. Ot>ject, Causal, Temporal, and Relative Clauses fol-
low the general laws for Subordinate Clauses in Oratio
Obliqua.
For examples of Object Clauses, see 525 ; for Causal, see 541 ; for
Temporal, see 501-564, 569-577; for Kelative, see 628.
Remarks. — i. Coordinate Relative Clauses are put in the Acq. and
Infinitive (635).
21
41 8 THE ABRIDGED SENTEXCE.
2. Relative Clauses are put in the Indicative: (a) In mere circum-
locutions, (h) In explanations of the narrator (028, r.).
3. Dum, with the Indie, is often retained as a mere circumlocution:
Die, hospes, Spartae nos te hie vidisse iaeentis, dum Sanctis patriae Iggi-
bus obsequimur, C, Tusc, i. 42. 101 ; tell Sparta, stranger, that thou hast
seen us lying here obeying {in obedience to) our country s halloived
laws.
So also sometimes cum ; see C, Lael., 3, 13.
656. Conditional Sentences in Oratio OblTqua, Total and
Partial.
1. The Protasis follows the rule for subordinate clauses
(650).
2. The Indicative Apodosis follows the rule, hut Present,
Imperfect, and Perfect Subjunctive are turned into the
Future Infinitive or its periphrases.
The Pluperfect Subjunctive is transferred to the Perfect
Infinitive of the Active Periphrastic Conjugation.
Passive and Supineless Verbs take the circumlocution
with MiLruin fuisse ut . . . . 248, x. 3.
Remark.— Posse needs no Fut. (248, r.), and potuisse no Periphrastic
Pf. Inf., so that these forms are often used to lighten the construction.
3. Identical Forms. — In the transfer of Conditions to
0. 0., the difference between many forms disappears. For
instance,
I. 1. SI id cr6dis, errabis. 1
2. Si id credgs, errabis. I Dico t6, si id crgdas, erraturum esse.
3. Si id crgdas, errgs. J
II. 1. Si id crgdis, errabis. 1
I liiaS,:S."' |D«xitMndorMer5a.err««xumesse.
4. Si id crgdergs, errargs. J
III. 1. Si id crgdideris, errabis. ";
2. Siidcredideris,erres. i Dixit5,siidcrgdidissgs,erf5turume3se.
3. Si id ergdideris, erraveris. j ' '
4. Si id crgdidissgs, errargs, J
Notes.— 1. In No. I. the diiTercnce is not vital, though exactness is lost.
2. (a) In No. II. the ambiguity lies practically between 2 and 3; inasmuch as
Eepraesentatio is usually employed for the Logical Condition, and the Periphrastic
Pf. Inf. is employed in the Unreal, wherever it is possible. The difference between
an Unfulfilled Present and an Unfulfilled Past would naturally vanish to the narrator,
to whom both are Past.
Ariovistus respondit : si quid ipsi a Caesare opus esset, sgsg ad ilium ven-
tfirum fuisse : si quid ille sg velit, ilium ad sg venire oportgre, Caes., b. (?., i.
THE ABRIDGED SENTENCE.
419
34, 2 ; Ariovistus ansivered, that if he had tvanted anythviq of Caesar he would have
come to him ; if he (Caesar) wanted, anything of him, he ought to come to htm (Ario-
vistus). 0. R. : si quid mih! a Caesare opus esset, ego ad ilium venissem ; si
quid ille mg vult, ilium, ad me venire oportet.
Fatentur se virtutis causa, nisi ea voluptatem faceret, ne manum quidem
versuros fuisse, C , Fin.^ v. 31, 93 ; they confess that for_viriite"s o?rn sa/ce, if it did
not cause jdeastire, they 7i'ould not even turn a hand. 0. R. : nisi ea voluptatem
faceret nS manum quidem verteremus.
{b) Occasionally in the Logical Condition the Fut. Indie, is changed to the Fut.
Periphrastic Subjv., thus : si adsensurus esset, etiam opinaturum is an 0. 0.
quotation for si . . . adsentietur, opinabitur in C , .Ic, 11 21, 67.
3. No. Ill , like No. II., is used chiefly of the future. But in 3 the periphrases with
fore (futurum esse) are commonly employed for the active and the Pf . participle, with
fore for the passive. In 4 the same fading out of the difference between Unfulfilled
Present and Past occurs as in II.
657. Logical Conditions in Oratio Obliqua,
1. Ad haec Ariovistus respondit : si ipse populo Romano non praescri-
beret quemadmodum suo iure utergtur, non oportere sese a populo Romano in
suo iiire impediri, Caes., B.G., i. 36, 2 ; to this Ariovistus made answer :
If he did not prescribe to the Roman people how to exercise their right,
he ought not to he hindered hy the Roman people in tlie exercise of his
right. (6. R. : si ego non praescribo, non oportet me impediri.)
2. Si bonum ducerent, quid pro noxio damnassent ? Si noxium com-
perissent, quid alterum (consulatum) crederent "? L , xxvii. 34, 13 ; if they
thought lama good mail, why had they condemned him as guilty ; if
on the other hand, they had found him gnilfy, why did they intrust
him with a second consulship ? (0. R. : si— ducitis, quid damnastis ? si —
comperistis, quid creditis ■?)
3. Titurius clamitabat, suam sententiam in utramqus partem esse
tutam ; si nihil esset (0. R. : si nihil erit) durius, nulio pericuio ad proxi-
mam legionem perventiiroa (0. R. : pervenietis) ; si Gallia omnis cum Ger-
manis conseatiret (0. R. : si consentit) unam esse (0. R. : est) in celeritate
positam saliitem, Caes., B.G., v. 29, G; Titurius kept crying out that
his resolution ivas safe in either case: if there were (shoidd be) no
especial pressure, they would get to the next legion iviihout danger ; if
all Gaul ivas m league with the Germans, their only safety lay in speed,
4. Eum omnium laborum finem fore existimabant si hostem Hibero
intercltidere potuissent, Caes., B.C., i. 68, 3; they thought that would be
the end of all {their) toils, if they could cut off the enemy from the
Ebro. (0. R. : is laborum finis erit (or fuerit) si hostem intercludere
potuerimus.
5. [Hi] lugurthae non mediocrem animum pollicitando accendebant si
Micipsa rgx occidisset, fore uti solus imperi Numidiae potiretur, S., lug., 8,
1 ; these persons kindled no little courage in Jugurtha{'s heart) by prom-
ising over and over that if Kitig 3Iicipsafell, he alone should possess the
rule over Numidia. (0. R. : si Micipsa occiderit, tu solus imperi potigris.)
420 THE ABRIDGED SENTENCE.
6. [FidSs data est] si lugurtham vivom aut necatum sib! tradidisset
fore ut illi senatus inpunitatem et sua omnia concederet, S., Ivg., 6i, 5; Ids
word was pledged that if he delivered to him Jugurtha, alive or dead,
the senate ivould grant him impunity, and all that 2i'as his. (0. R. : si
milii tradideris, tibi senatus tua omnia concedet.)
7. Non multo ante urbem captam exaudita vox est . . . futurum esse,
nisi provisum esset, ut Eoma caperetur, C, Div., i. 45, 101 ; not long before
the taking of the city, a voice was heard (saying), that unless precau-
tions were adopted, Borne ivould be taken. (0. -R. : nisi provisum erit,
Roma capietur.)
8. Ariovistus respondit si quid ille se velit ilium ad sS venire oportgre,
Caes., B.G., I. 34, 2 (GSr,, 3, N. 2).
9. Ariovistus respondit nisi decedat [Caesar] sese ilium pro hoste habi-
turum ; quod si eum interfecerit, multis ses6 nobilibus principibusque popull
Romani gratum esse facturum, Caes., B.G., i. 44, 12; Ariovistus replied,
that unless Caesar ivithdrew, he should regard him as an enemy, and
in case he killed him, he would do a favor to many men of the highest
position among the Roman peoj^le. (0. R. : nisi decedes tg pro hoste
habebQ . . . si tg interfgcero gratum fgcero; 244, r. 4.)
Remark. — Posse is usod as has been stated (656, 2, r.).
Negarunt dirimi bellum posse nisi Messeniis Achaei Pylum redderent,
L., XXVII. 30, 13; they said that the war could not be stopped unless the
Achaeans restored Pylos to the Messenians. (6. R. : bellum dirimi n5n
potest (poterit) nisi Pylum reddent.)
Decent, si turris concidisset, n5n posse militgs contingri quin spe praedae
in urbem irrumperent, Caes., B.C., 11. 12, 4; they show that if the tower
fell, the soldiers could not be kept from bursting into the city in the hope
of booty. (0. R. : si conciderit, non possunt (poterunt) contingri.)
658. Ideal Conditions in Oratio Obliqua.
- I. Ait sg si tiratur " Quam hoc suave " dicttirum, C, Fin., 11. 27, 88; he
declares that if he were to be burnt he would say, " How sweet this is."
(0. R. : si urar, dicam, same form as Logical.)
2. Voluptatem si ipsa pro sg loquatur concgssuram arbitror DignitatI,
C, Fi?i., III. I, 1 ; / think that if Pleasure were to speak for herself, she
would yield {the palm) to Virtue. The context shows that the condi-
tion is Ideal, not Logical. Si loquatur, concgdat. Compare 596, r. i.
659. Unreal Conditions in Oratio Obliqua.
I. Titurius clamitabat EburSngs, si fCaesai] adesset, ad castra ventur53
[nQn] esse, Caes., B.C., y. 2(),2 ; Titurius kept crying out that ij
Caesar ivere there, the Eburones would not be coming to the camp.
(6. R. : si Caesar adesset, EburSngs n5n venirent.) On the rareness of
THE ABRIDGED SEKTENCB. 421
this form, see 597, r. 4; and even this passage has been emended into
ventures sese (for esse).
2. [Apparebat] si dititius vixisset, Hamilcare duce Poenos arma Italiae
inlaturos fuisse, L., xxi. 2, 2; it was evident that if he had lived longer,
the Funics ivould have carried their arms into Italy under Hamilcar's
conduct.
3. Nisi 80 ipso tempore nuntii de Caesaris victoria essent allati existima-
bant plerique futtirum fuisse ut (oppidum) amitteretur, Caes., ^. C, in.
10 r, 3; had not news of Caesar's victory been brought at that very time,
most persons thought the city would have been lost. (0. R. : nisi nuntii
allati essent, oppidum amissum esset.)
Note.— As the Plupf . Indie, is Bometimes used (rhetorically) for the Subjv. (254, r.
3), so the ordinary Pf. Inf. is sometimes employed instead of the Periphrastic :
Nem5 mihl persuadebit multos praestantgs viros tanta esse conatOs
(= conaturos fuisse) nisi animo cernerent (597, n. i) posteritatem ad se perti-
n@re, C., C'a<.i/.,23, 82; no one will persuade me that (so) many eminent men had
made such mighty endeavws, had they not seen irith their minds' (eye) that posterity
belonged to them. Agricola solgbat narrare s6 prima in iuventa studium
philosophiae acrius hausisse (0. R. : hauserat>, ni prudentia matris coercu-
isset, Cf. Tac, Agr., 4, 5 ; Agricola used to relate that in his earliest youth he would
have drunk in more eagerly the study oj philosophy, had not his nfiother's prudence
restrained him.
So witli potuisse :
(Pompeium) plerique existimant si acrius Snsequi voluisset bellum eS diS
potuisse finire, Caes., B.C., m. 51, 3 ; ?nost people think that if Ponipey had {but)
determined to follow up more energetically, he coxdd have finished the war on that day.
(0. R. : si voluisset, potuit, 597, r. 3.) Namque ilia multitudine si sana mgns
esset (597, R. 1) Graeciae, supplicium Persas dare potuisse, Nep., xvii. 5, 2 ; /or
with that number, if Greece Itad had {had been in her) sound mind, the Persians
might have paid the penalty (due). (0. R. : si Sana mens esset Graeciae, suppli-
cium Persae dare potugrunt.)
Pronouns in Oratio OblTqua.
660. I. The Reflexive is used according to the principles
laid down in 520 ff.
2. The person addressed is usually ille ; less often is.
Ariovistus respondit nisi decgdat [Caesar] sgsg ilium pro hoste habitH-
rum : quod si eum interfecerit, multis sesg nobilibus principibusque populi
Romani gratum esse facturum, Caes., E.G., i. 44, 12 (657, 9).
Of course, this does not exclude the ordinary demonstrative use.
3. Hie and iste are commonly changed into ille or is, nunc
is changed into turn and tunc, except when already contrasted
with tunc, when it is retained (S., lug., 109, 3 ; iii, 1).
Diodorus [respondit] illud argentum se paucis illls digbus misisse Lily-
baeum, C, Verr., iv. 18, 39 (393, r. 4).
422
THE ABRIDGED SENTENCE.
4. Nos is used when the narrator's party is referred to ;
compare Caes., E.G., i. 44, below.
5. Ipse seems to be used sometimes in 0. 0. with reference
to the principal subject, as contrasted with the person ad-
dressed. Usually, however, ipse would have occurred in the
0. E. as well.
Ariovistus respondit : Si ipse populo Romano non praescriberet, quemad-
modum suo iure uteretur, non oportere sesg a populo Eomano in suo iure
impediri, Caes., E.G., i. 36, 2 (057).
661. Specimens of the conversion of Oratio Obliqua into
Oratio Recta.
Oratio Obliqua.
I. Ariovistus respondit :
Transi5se R]i5nura sese non sua
sponte sed rogatum et arcessituw
a Gallis; non sine magna spe mH-
gnlsque praeraiis domum propin-
qiiosque reliqiu'sse ; sed5s habere
in Gallia ab ipslsconcessas, obsides
ipsorum voluntate datOs ; stlpen-
dium capere iure belli, quod vic-
torSs victis imponere eonsn^r int.
Non sese Gallis sed Gailos sibi bel-
lum intuU'sse; omn5s Galliae civi-
tates ad se oppugnanduni x^.nisse
et contra se castra habiiissc ; eds
omn5s copies a se uno proelio pul-
sus iic siiperiltas esse. Si iterum
experiri velint, se iternra paratum
esse decertare ; si pace uti velint,
iniqiumi esse d5 stipcndio recusrirc,
quod sua voluntate ad id tempus
pependeriw/. Aniicitiam populi
liomani sihi ornamento et prae-
sidio, non detrimento esse oportere
idque se ca spe petisse. Si per
populum Koiiulnum stipendiuin
vc\\\\{.{dt}ir et dediticii subtraha?i-
tur, non minus libenter ses(? reciisa-
tfirtim populi Romani amicitiara
quam uppetierit. Quod niultitti-
dinem GermanOrum in Galliam
traduca^, id se snl muniendi, non
Galliae impugnandae causa, facere ;
eius rei testimOnio esse (piod nisi
rogatus non venenV et quod bellum
non intulerit sed defendenV.
CAIiS., E.G., 1. 44.
Oratio Eecta.
Transu Khenum non med sponte
sed rogfitus et arcessitus a Gallis ;
non sine nulgna sp5 magnisque
praemiis domum propinquosque
reliqu^; s5des habe5 in Gallia ab
ipsis concGssas, obsid5s ipsorum
voluntate datOs; stipendium capio
iure belli, quod victores victis im-
ponere consn^rimt. Non ego Gal-
lis sed Gain mihi bellum intule-
rimt ; omn5s Galliae civitates ad
me oppiignandum s'^werunt et con-
tra me castra habueyw^i^ ; e«e om-
n5s copiae il me uno proelio pulsae
iic superatae sunt. Si iterum ex-
periri volunt, iterum paratus sum
decertare, si pace uti volunt, ini-
quum est de stipendio recusare,
quod sua voluntate ad hoc tempus
pepem\erunt. Amicitiam populi
liomani mihi ornamento et prae-
sidio, non detrimento esse oporte^
idque ea sp5 petii. Si per populum
Romanum stipendium remitted?/?-
et dediticii ^uhtvukheniur, non mi-
nus libenter recQsa^o populi Ro-
mani amicitiam quam a|)pet/i.
Quod multitudinem Germfinorum
in Galliam tnlduca/w,* id uiei mu-
niendi, non Galliae impugnandae
causa fac^V}; Cius rei testimonio est
quod nisi rogatus non v5nl et quod
bel 1 u m non intuit sed defend?.
* Allusion to the precoding speech,
otherwise tradQcO.
THE ABRIDGED SENTENCE.
423
Oratio Obliqua,
2, His Caesar ita respondit :
Eo sihi minus dubitationis darl
quod eas rSs quas l5gati HelvBtii
conunexnoYOSsent meuioria tenere^
alque eo giavius ferre quo minus
meritd populi Ilomani acQiiXissent ;
qui si alieuius iniuriae sib! conscius
fuisset non fnisse difficile cavere ;
sed eo deceptuw quod neque com-
missum a s5 intellegere^ quarB ti-
meret neque sine causa timendum
ip\\idret. Quod si veteris contume-
liae oblivisci vellet, num etiam re-
centium iniuriSrum, quod eo invito
iter per provinciam per vim temp-
tdssent, quod Aeduds, qutxl Am-
barrSs, quod Allobrogas vcxdsseni
memoriam depdnere posse F Quod
Slid victoria tarn insolenter glOriil-
rentui\ quodque tarn diu sS impune
tulisse iniuriSs admlvdrentur eo-
dem pertinere. Consut^sse enim
deds immortales quo gravius ho-
mines ex coramutritione r5rum
doleant, quds pro scelere corum
ulcisci velint, his secundiorGs in-
terdum res et diuturnidrem impu-
nitatem concedere. Cum ea ita
sint, tamen si obsid5s ab its sihi
dentur, uti ea quae polliceaw/wr
facturos intelleg«/, et si Aeduis de
iniuriis quas ipsis sociis<:[UC edrum
inXwlerint, item si Allobrogibus
satisfaciaw/, sese cum ils pacem
esse facturum.
Caes., B.G., I. 14.
Oratio EScta.
Hoc mihi minus dubitationis
datur quod eas r5s quas vos, legati
Helvgtil, commemor«s^ts, memi^ria
teneo atque hoc gravius fero quo
minus merito populi Rdmani aeci-
derunt ; qui si alieuius iniuriae
sibi conscius fuisset, non tint diffi-
cile cavere ; sed ed d5eeptu« quod
neque commissum a sS intellegeJa^
quarg timfiret neque sine causii ti-
mendum piitdbat. Quod si veteris
contumeliae oblivisci void, num
etiam recentium iniuriarum, quod
me invito iter per provinciam per
vim tempt«s/^s, quod Aeduos, quod
Ambarrds, quod Aliobrogas vexa-
stis, memoriam depdnere possum?
Quod vestrd victoria tarn insolenter
glCmiiminl, quodque tam diu vds
impune tulisse iniurias diihim'dmini
eodem pertine/. Cdnsuei'^rww^
enim dl immortal5s quo gravius
homines ex commiitatidne rerura
doleant, quOs pro scelere eorum
ulcisci volunt, his secundidres in-
terdum res et diuturnidrem impu-
nitatem concedere. Cum haec ita
sint, tamen si obsides a vohls mihi
dahuntur, uti ea, quae pollic^^wiw*,
facturos intellegam et si Aeduis de
iniuriis quiis ipsis sociisque edrum
intul^\s^^s, item si Allobrogibus
satisfaci^/f^s, ego vobisQum pacem
faciam.
3. Stdla regl patefecit :
Quod \)o\\\cecLtur, senatum et
popnlu?/i Kdmanum, quoniam am-
plius armis valumewt, non in gra-
tiam h&hiturds ; faciundum ali-
quid, quod illdrum magis quam
sad retulisse viderehtr; id ided in
prdmptu esse, quoniam lugurthae
cd[)iam habere^, quera si Romanis
trfididisse^, fore ut illl plurimum
d^hitrefur ; amicitiam, foedus, Nu-
midiae partem, quam nunc petered,
tunc dltro adven/wram.
S., lug., III.
Quod pollicms, senatuset popu-
lus Rdmanus quoniam amplius
armis valum^wt, ndn in gratia m
hahehunt; faciundum aliquid, quod
illdrum magis quam iud retulisse
vide«^Mr; id ided in prdmptu est,
quoniam lugurthae cdpiam hab^s,
quem si Rdmanis tradidem tibl
plurimum debei*7wr; amicitia, foe-
dus, Numidiae pars, quam nunc
pet*6s tunc ultrd adveme^.
424
THE ABRIDGED SENTENCE.
OrStid Obliqua.
4. Athmienses deplordverunt
vastdtionem populdtimemque mi-
ser abilem agrorum. Neque se id
queri quod hostilia ab hoste passi
forent; esse enim quaedam belli
iara quae ut faeere ita pati sit fas.
Sata exurl, dirui tecta, praediis
hominnrn peconimque agl raisera
raag-is quam indisfna patienti esse ;
veram enira v5r5 id se quer*, quod
is, qui Romfinos alieiiigentis et bar-
baros voce^ adeo omnia simul di-
vina hamanaque iQra pollumif ut
priore populatione cum infernis
diis, secunda cum superis helium
nefarium gesserit. Omnia sepul-
cra monumentaque diruta esse in
finibus sms, omnium nudatos
manes, niillius ossa terra, tegl.
Qualem terram Atticam teQerit,
exornatam quondam opulentam-
que, talem eum si lice«^ Aetoliam
Graeciamque omnem t'dctitnim.
Urbis quoque suae similem defor-
mitdtem futuram fuisse, nisi lio-
miini subvBnisseut.
L., XXXI. 30.
Oratio Eecta.
Non id querimur quod hostilia
ab hoste passi sumus. Sunt enira
quaedam belli iura quae ut faeere
ita pati est fas, Sata exiiri, dirui
tecta, praedas honiinum peeorum-
queagi miseramagisquam indlgna
patienti simt ; veriim enim vero id
querimur quod is, qui Romiinos
alienigenas et barbaros voe«/, adeo
omnia simul divina humanaque
iiira poliu?Y ut pridre populatione
cum infernis diis, secunda eum su-
peris bellum nefarium gesserit.
Omnia sepulcra monumentaque di-
ruta stmt in finibus nostras, omni-
um nudati m lines, nidllus ossa terra
teguntiir. Qualem terram Atticam
fee^Y, exornatam quondam opulen-
tamque, tiilem is, si Vicebit (or :
licea^) Aetoliam Graeciamque om-
nem ia,ciet (or : iiwiat). Urbis
quoque nostrae simiU's deformitas
fuisset^ nisi Koraani subvenissent.
INVOLVED ORATIO OBLTQUA. ATTRACTION OF
MOOD.
662. OratiS Obliqua proper depends on some verb of Thinking or
Saying, expressed or understood. In a more general sense the term 0.
Obliqua is used of all complementary clauses that belong to ideal rela-
tions. The principle is the same in both sets of sentences, for in the
one, as in the other, the Infinitive takes its dependencies in the Sul>
junctive, on account of the close relation between the Ideal mood and
the Substantive Idea of the verb. Hence the favorite combination of
the Infinitive and the Ideal Second person :
Difficile eat anucitiam manSre si a virtute dSfSceris, C, Lael, 11, 37; ^7
is hard for friendship to abide if you (one) have fallen away from vir-
tue. Proprium humani ingenii est Sdisse quern laeserls, Tag., Agr., 42,
4 ; it is {peculiar to) human nature to hate whom you have injured.
(But Qdisti quern laesisti.)
The so-called attraction of mood, by which clauses originally Indica-
tive become Subjunctive in dependence on Subjunctives, is another
phase of the same general principle.
THE ABRIDGED SENTENCE. 425
663. I. All clauses which depend on Infinitives and Sub-
junctives, and form an integral part of the thought, are put
in the Subjunctive (Subjunctive by Attraction).
Recordatione nostrae amicitiae sic fruor ut beat§ vixisse videar quia cum
Scipione vixerim, C, Lael. ,4, lo : / enjoy the remembrance of our friend-
ship so much that I seem to have lived happily because I lived with
Scipio. Vereor ne dum minuere velim laborem augeam, C, Leg., i, 4, 12;
I fear lest while I am wishing to lessen the toil I inay increase it (dum
minuere volo, augeo). Isto bono utare dum adsit, cum absit, nS requiras,
C, Cat. 21., 10, 33 (2G3, 2, a). Quarg fiebat ut omnium oculos quotiescum-
que in publicum prodisset ad sg conVerteret, Xep., vii. 3, 5 (567; quoties-
cumque prodierat conrertebat). Nescire quid antequam natus sis acciderit,
id est semper esse puerum, C, Or., 34, 120 ; not to know what happened
before you were born, (that) is to be always a boy. Fraus fidem in parvis
sib! praestruit ut cum operae pretium sit, cum mercSde magna fallat, L.,
xxvni. 42, 7; fraud lays itself a foundation of credit in small things
in order that when it is worth while it may 'make a great profit by
cheating. [Araneolae] rgte texunt ut si quid inhaeserit confieiant, C,
N.D., II. 48. 123 (567 ; si quid inhaesit conficiunt). Abeunti si quid popos-
cerit concSdere mSris, Tac, G., 21, 4 ; to tlie departing {guest) it is
customary to grant anything that he asks (si quid popOscit concSdunt).
Notes.— 1. Dum not iinfrequently resists the Attraction both in prose and poetry :
Tantum nS noceas dum vis prodesse vidgto, Ov., Tr., 1. 1, 101 (548).
2. On the retention of the Indie, in Relative clauses, see 628, r.
2, Partial Obliquity. — (a) From this it is easy to see how the
Subjunctive came to be used in a Generic or Iterative sense after
Tenses of Continuance. Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative
may all involve the Notion of Habit, Will, Inclination, Endeavor, and
the complementary clauses would follow the sense rather than the form.
For examples, see 567, n.
(b) So also is explained the use of the Subjunctive in Causal Sen-
tences, and especially in Conditional Sentences, where the Apodosis is
embodied in the leading verb.
(lugurtha) timSbat Iram senatus (= n6 irascergtur senatus) ni paruisset
legatis, S., lug., 25, 7(601). [Ubiis] auxilium suum (= sg auxiliatiirum)
pollicitus est, si ab Suebis premerentur, Caes., B.G., iv. 19, 1. Praetor
aedem (— sg aedificaturum) Diovi vovit si eo dig hostis fudisset, L., xxxi.
21, 12.
The idea of 6. 0. is shown in the tense:
Si per Metellum licitum esset matrgs venigbant (= venturae erant), C,
Verr., v. 49, 129. [Dictator] ad hostem dticit nullo loco nisi necessitas
cogeret fortunae sg commissurus, L., xxii. 12, 2 (438, n.).
426 PARTICIPIAL SENTENCES.
PARTICIPIAL SENTENCES.
664. Participles are used in Latin even more extensively
than in English, to expj-ess a great variety of subordinate
relations, such as Time and Circumstance, Cause and Occa-
sion, Condition and Concession. The classification cannot
always be exact, as one kind blends with another.
Remarks.— I. It is sometimes convenient to translate a Participial
Sentence by a coordinate clause, but the Participle itself is never coor-
dinate, and such clauses are never equivalents. (410, r. 2.)
Manlius Galium caesum torque spoliavit, L., vi. 42, 5; Mmilius sleiv the
Gaul and stripped him of his neckcfiain (after slayinir the Gaul stripped
him of his neckchain, having slain, etc.). (Miltiades) capitis absolutus,
pecunia multatus est, Nep., i. 7, 6; Miltiades (though) acquitted/)/ a cap-
ital charge, teas mulcted in {a sum of) money {was acquitted, but midcted).
2. A common translation of the -Pai'tieiplc is an abstract substan-
tive; see 325, R. 3; 437, n. 2.
Nee terra mutata miitavit mores, L., xxxvii. 54. 18 ; nor hath the
change of land changed the character. Teucer Ulixen reum facit Aiacis
occisi, Quint., iv. 2, 18; Teucer indicts Ulysses for the murder of Ajax.
Inter haec parata atque decrSta, S., C, 43, 3.
3. On the Participle after verbs of Perception and Representation,
see 53G.
665. Participles may represent Time When,
Alexander morigns anulum suum dederat Perdiccae, Nep., xviii. 2, 1;
Alexander (when he was) dying, had given his ring to Perdiccas.
Dionysius tyrannus Syracusis expulsus Corinthi pueros docSbat, C, Tusc,
III. 12, 27; Dionysius the tyrant, (after he had been) exiled from Syra-
cuse (after his exile from Syracuse), taught (a) boys' (school) at Corinth.
Ablative Absolute.
(SolOn et Pisistratus) Servio TuUio rSgnante viguSrunt, C, Br., to, 39;
Solon and Pisistratus flourished when Sereins Tullius was tnug [in the
reign of Servius 2'ullius). S5le orto Volsci se circumvallatos viderunt,
Cf. h., IV. g, 13; when the sun was risen (after sunrise), the Volscians
saw that they were surrounded by lines of intrenchment.
Notes.— 1. On the Abl. Abs. of the simple Participle, see 410, n. 4.
2. Suetonius uses the Abl. Abs. as wuU as the simple Participle with ante (prius)
quam : (Tiberius) excfissum AugustI nSn prius palam fgcit quam Agrippa
iuvene intergmptO, Tib., 22 ; sec also Inl., s8.
PARTICIPIAL SENTENCES. 42/
666. Participles may represent Cause Why.
Areopagitae damnav§runt puerum coturnicum oculos Sruentem, Cf,
Quint., v. 9. lo; the court of Jlars^ Hill condemned a boy for plucking
out (because lie plucked out) the eyes of quails. Athenienses Alcibia-
dem corruptum a rege Persarum capere noluisse Cymen arguebant, Cf. Nep. ,
VII. 7,2; the Athenians clim^ged Alcihiades with having been unwill-
ing to take Cyme (because he had been) bribed by the King of Persia.
Ablative Absolute.
(Romani veteres) regnari omngs volebant libertatis dulcedine nondum
experts, L., i. 17, 3 ; the old Romans all wished to have a king over them
(because they had) not yet tried the sweetness of liberty.
Note.— An apparent cause is given by ut, as, velut, as, for instance, tamquam,
(so) as, quasi, as if, see 602, n. 3.
In this usage Cicero and Caesau arc very careful, employing only quasi, ut.
LivY introduces tamquam, utpote, velut, and tlie tendency grows until it reaches
its culmination in Tacitus.
667. Participles may represent Condition and Concession.
SI latet ars prodest, affert dSprSnsa pudorem, Ov., ^.^., 11. 313 (593,
2). [Eisus] interdum ita repents erumpit ut eum cupientes tenere nequea-
mus, Cf. C, Or., 11. 58, 235 (GOO). (Miltiades) capitis absolutus, pecunia
multatus est, Nep., i. 7, 6(6G4, r. i).
Ablative Absolute.
Maximas virtut6s iacSre omnSs necesse est voluptate dominants, C, Fin.,
II. 35, 117 (593, 2).
Note.— On the combination of quamquam, quamvis, and etsi with the Particfple,
see e09, n. 1 ; nisi also is not uncommon ; tamsn is sometimes added in the principal
clause.
668. Participles may represent Relative Clauses (637).
OmnSs aliud agsntSs, aliud simulantes, perfidi (sunt), C, Off., iii. 14, 60
(637). [Pisistratus] Homeri libros confuses antea sic disposuisse dicitur ut
nunc habgmus, C, Or., iii. 34, 137 (637).
Remark. — So-called, qui dicitur, vocatur, quern vocant ; above-men-
tioned, quem antea, supra diximus.
669. Future Participle (Active). — The Future Participle is a verbal
adjective, denoting Capability and Tendency, chiefly employed in the
older language with sum, I am, as a periphrastic tense. In Later Latin
it is used freely, just as tlie Present and Perfect Participles, to express
subordinate relations.
Peculiar is the free use of it in Sentences of Design, and especially
428 ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS.
noticeable the compactness gained by the employment of it in Condi-
tional Relations.
670. In later Latin, the Future Participle (active) is used
to represent subordinate relations (438, N.) :
1. Time When.
(Tiberius) traiecturus (= cum traiecturus esset) Ehgnum commeatum non
transmisit, Suet., Tib., 18; when 'Tiberius was about to cross the Rhine,
he did not send over the provisions.
2. Cause Why.
DSridiculo fuit senex foedissimae adulationis tantum infamia ustirus,
Tag., Ann., ni. 57, 3; a butt of ridicule was the old man, as infamy
was the only gain he would make by his foul fawning. Antiochus secti-
rus dg bello Bomano erat tamquam nou transituris in A.siam Romanis,
L., XXXVI. 41, 1 (602, N. 3).
3. Purpose (usually after a verb of Motion).
(Maroboduus) misit Iggatos ad Tiberium oraturos auxilia, Tag., Ann. 11,
46 (438, N.). Consul Larisam est profectus, ibi de summa belli consultatu-
rus, L., XXXVI. 14, 5.
Note. — The Pr. Participle is sometimes used in a similar sense, but the Purpose is
only an inference :
LSgatl v6n6runt nuntiantes Asiae quoque civitates soUicitari, L., xxxi. 2,
1; envoys came with the announcement that the states of Asia also were tampered ivith.
4. Condition and Concession.
(i) Protasis.
Dedituris s5 Hannibal! fuisse accersendum Romanorum praesidium "f L.,
XXIII. 44, 2; if they had been ready to surrender to Hannibal, tvould
they have had to send for a Roman garrison 9 (= si dgdittiri fuissent,
6. R. : si dedituri fufirunt.)
(2) Apodosis.
Quatiunt arma, ruptiirl imperium ni ducantur, Tag., H., hi. 19, 3;
they clash their arms, ready to break orders, if they be not led forward.
Librum misi exigent! tibi, missurus etsi non exggissSs, Plin., Ej)., hi. 13,
1 ; / have sent you the book, as you exacted it, although I should have
sent it even if you had not exacted it.
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS.
671. The Latin language allows greater freedom in the
arrangement of words than the English. This freedom is,
of course, due to its greater wealth of inflections.
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 429
Two elements enter into the composition of a Latin Sen-
tencO;, governing to some extent its arrangement : Gram-
mar and Rhetoric.
672. I. Grammatical arrangement has for its object clear-
ness. It shows the ideas in the order of development in the
mind of the speaker. By Grammatical arrangement the
sentence grows under the view.
2. Rhetorical arrangement has for its objects Emphasis
and Rhythm. It presents a sentence already developed in
such a way that the attention is directed to certain parts of
it especially.
(a) Emphasis is produced ;
1. By reversing the ordinary position.
2. By approximation of similars or opposites.
3. By separation.
In all sentences Beginning and End are emphatic points. In long
sentences the Means as wpU as the Extremes are the points of emphasis.
(b) Rhythm. — Much depends on the rhythmical order of words, for
which the treatises of the ancients are to be consulted. Especially
avoided are poetic rhythms. So, for example, the Dactyl and Spondee,
or close of an Hexameter at the end of a period.
673. Two further principles seem to underlie the arrange-
ment of Latin sentences : {a) that of the ascending construc-
tion ; {b) that of the descending construction. In the
ascending construction, which is more common, the prin-
cipal word is placed last, and the subordinate ones, in the
order of their importance, precede. In the descending con-
struction the reverse is the process. The descending con-
struction is regular in definitions.
674. Rule I. — The most simple arrangement of a sentence
is as follows :
1. The Subject and its Modifiers.
2. The Predicate and its Modifiers.
I. Dionysius tyrannus, SyracHsis expulsus, 2. Corinthl puer5s docSbat,
C, Tusc.,ui. 12,27(665).
Rhetorical positions :
Potentes sequitur invidia, Quint., iv. 1, 14 (477, n. 4). N5bls n9n satis-
430 ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS.
facit ipse Dgmosthenes, Cf. C, Or., 29, 104 (552, r. i). Discriptus (erat)
populus cgnsu, ordinibus, aetatibus, C, Leg., in. 19, 44 (397). Intra
moenia sunt hostes, S., C, 52, 35 (477).
liiLMARK. — The modifiers of the predicate stand in the order of their
importance. The following arrangement is common :
I. Place, Time, Cause, or Means. 2. Indirect Object. 3. Direct
Object. 4. Adverb. 5. Verb.
Note.— The postponement of the subject is rare and always for definite reasons in
the classical period ; later it becomes a mannerism, especially in the elder Pliny ; to a
less degree in Nepos and Livy.
675. Rule II. — Interrogative Sentences begin with the
interrogative, subordinate clauses with the leading particle
or relative.
Quis eum diligat quern metuat ? C. , Lad. , 1 5, 53 (629). Postquam Caesar
pervSnit obsides poposcit, Caes., E.G., i. 27, 3 (5()1). Si spiritum ducit
vivit, C, hiv., I. 46, 86 (595). Qui timgre dSsierint odisse incipient, Tac,
Agr., 32 (567).
Rhetorical position :
[Naturam] si sequSmur ducem, numquam aberrabimus, C, Of., i. 28,
100 (595). D6 futtiris rgbus etsi semper difficile est dicere, tamen interdum
coniectura possis accMere, C, Fam., vi. 4, 1 (604). [Cato] mirari se aiebat
quod nSn ridgret haruspex, haruspicem cum vidisset, C, Du'., 11. 24, 51
(567).
676. Rule III. — An Adjective usually precedes, but often
follows, the word to which it belongs ; a dependent Genitive
usually follows the governing word ; so too does a word in
Apposition.
Saepe mSgna indoles virtutis priusquam rei publicae prodesse potuisset ex-
stincta est, C, Vh., v. 17, 47(577). Sgnsum ocul5rum praecipit animus,
Quint., VI. 2, 6 (540).
Rhetorical position ;
[isocratSs] queritur plus honoris corporum quam animSrum virttltibus
dari, Quint., in. 8, 9 (542, h.). [AgerJ, cum multos annos quievit, uberiorgs
efferre frugSs solet, C, Br., 4, 16 (567). VerSmur n6 parum hie liber
mellis et absinthii multum habe.-a videatur, Quint., hi. i, 5 (550).
Remarks.— I. The demonstrative pronouns regularly precede; the
possessives regularly follow.
VerSmur n6 hic liber absinthii multum habere videatur, Quint., in.
I, 5 (550). Torquatus fllium suum necari ittssit, S., C, 52, 30 (540).
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 43 1
Rhetorical position :
Recordare tempus illud, cum pater Curio maerens iacebat in lecto, C,
Ph., II. i8, 45 (580). Osculatur tigrim suus custos, Sex., E.M,, 85, 41
(309, 2).
2. Ordinals regularly follow, Cardinals regularly precede the sub-
stantive.
3. Many expressions have become fixed formulae : so titles, proper
names, and the like; see 288.
Facinus est vincire civem Romanum, C, Verr., v. 66, 170 (535).
4. The titles rex, imperator, etc., frequently precede the proper name
with which they are in apposition.
5. New modifiers of either element may be inserted, prefixed, or
added :
Catdnem vidi in bibliotheca sedentem multis circumfusum Stoiconun
libris, C, Fin., 111. 2, 7 (5oG). Saepe magna indoles virtutis priusquam
rei publicae prodesse potuisset exstincta est, C, Ph., v. 17, 47 (577). At
videte hominis intolerabilem audaciam, C, Dom., 44, 115 (488). (Aristides)
interfuit ptignae navali apud Salamina, Nep., hi. 2, 1.
Notes.— 1. The tendency in Latin was to reverse the Indo-Germanic rule by which
an attributive adjective and a dependent Genitive preceded the governing word. But in
early Latin the adjective still holds its place more often before its substantive, while the
Genitive has already succumbed for the most part to the tendency. In the classical
period the adjective is more often used after ifs subsUmtivc. But neither position
can be strictly called rhetorical. The same is true of the possessive pronoun.
2. The original force of a following adjective or Genitive was restrictive or appori-
tional, while, when it preceded, it formed a close compound with its substantive ; thus,
bonus homo, « oood man (one idea) ; homo bonus, a man (one idea) %vho is good
(another idea). In classical Latin this distinction is no longer inevitable, though it is
often essential.
677. EuLE IV. — Adverbs are commonly put next to their
verb (before it when it ends a sentence), and immediately
before their adjective or adverb.
Zenonem cum Athenis essem audiebam frequenter . . . .,C., i\^./>., i. 21, 50
(585). Caedi discipulos minimg velim, Quint., i. 3, 13 (257). Vix cuiquam
persuadebatur Graeciaomnicessuros (Romanes), L., xxxiir. 32, 3(546, r. i).
[Risus] interdum ita repente grumpit ut eum cupientSs tenere nequeamus,
C, Or.,11.58, 235(fi09).
Rhetorical positions :
[Iram] bene Ennius initium dixit Insaniae, C, Tusc, iv. 23, 52(440).
Saepe magna indoles virtutis priusquam rei publicae prodesse potuisset ex-
stincta est, C, Ph., V. 17, 47 (577).
Remarks. — i. Ferg, paene, prope, usually follow:
Nem5 fere saltat sobrius nisi forte insanit, C, Mur., 6, 13 (591, R. 4).
2. Negatives always precede, see 448.
432 ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS.
Note. —The separation of adverbs from their adjectives is rare, except in the case ol
tain and quam, which Plautus, Terence, Cicero, and later authors often separate,
e. ^., by a preposition : tam ab tenul exitio. Hyperbaton with other adverbs is rare,
678. Rule V. — Prepositions regularly precede their case
(413).
A recta conscientia traversum unguem non oportet discedere, C, Ait,,
XIII. 2o, 4 (328, i).
Remarks. — i. On versus, tenus, and the postposition of cum in com-
bination with the personal pronouns and the relative, see 418, r. i.
2. Monosyllabic prepositions are not unfrequently put between the
adjective and substantive : magna cum ctira. See 413, r. 2.
Less frequently they are placed between the Gen. and substantive;
except when the relative is employed.
3. Dissyllabic prepositions are sometimes put after their case (Ana-
strophe), especially after a relative or demonstrative: most frequently
contra, inter, propter. So also adverbs. See 413, r. i.
4. The preposition may be separated from its case by a Gen. or an
adverb (413, r. 3) : ad Appi Claudi senectiitem accedebat etiam ut caecus
esset, C, Cat.M., 6, 16 (553, 4).
5. Monosyllabic prepositions, such as cum, ex, de, post, sometimes ap-
pend the enclitics -que, -ve, -ne, as, exque iis, aiid froyn them. Usually,
however, the enclitics join the dependent substantive: in patriamque
rediit, and returned to his country. See 413, n. 3.
On the position of per, see 413, n. 2.
679. Rule VI. — Particles vary.
Enim commonly takes the second, seldom the third place; nam and
namque are regularly prepositive. See 498, n. 1.
Ergo in the syllogism precedes, elsewhere follows ; igitur is com-
monly second or third; itaque regularly first. See 502, n. 2; 500, r.
Tamen is first, but may follow an emphatic word. See 490.
Etiam usually precedes, quoque (dways follows. See 478, 479.
ftuidem and dSmum {at length) follow the word to which they
belong.
680. Rule VII. — A word that belongs to more than one
word regularly stands before them all, or after them all,
sometimes after the first (291).
Ariovistus respondit multls s6s6 n5bilibus principibusque populi R5manl
gratum esse facturum, Caes., B.O., i. 44, 12 (657, 9). [Isocratgs] queritur
plus honoris corporum quam animorum virtiitibus dari. Quint., hi. 8, 9 (542,
R.). Longum est mulSrum persequi utilitatSs et asinOrum, C, N.B., u.
64, 159(254, R. I).
ARRANGEMENT OF CLAUSES. 433
681. Rule VIII. — Words of kindred or opposite meaning
are often put side by side for the sake of complement or
contrast.
Manus manum lavat, one hand ivashes the other. [Cato] mirari se
aiebat quod non rideret haruspex, haruspicem cum vidisset, C, Z>ti'., ii.
24, 51 (5G7). Emit morte immortalitatem, Quixt., ix. 3, 71 (40-1).
682. Rule IX. — Contrasted Pairs. — When pairs are con-
trasted, the second is put in the same order as the first, but
often in inverse order. The employment of the same order
is called Anaphora (repetition). The inverse order is called
CJiiasmus, or crosswise position, and gives alternate stress.
The principle is of wide application, not merely in the sim-
ple sentence but also in the period.
Same order (Anaphora).
Fortuna (i) vestra (2) facit ut Irae (i) meae (2) temperem, L., xxxvr.
35, 3 (553, i). Malo te sapigns (i) hostis (2) metuat quam stulti (i) civ6s
(2) laudent, L., xxir. 39, 20(546, r. 2).
Inverse order (Chiasmus).
Ante vidgmus (i) fulgorem (2) quam sonum (2) audiamus (r), Sen., N.Q.,
II. 12, G (577). Parvi sunt foris (i) arma (2) nisi est consilium (2) domi
(I), C, O/..1. 22, 70(411, R. 2).
Remark. — Chiasmus is from the Greek letter X (chi):
1. Foris -^ 2. arma
2. consilium ^'- i. domi.
683. Poetical PecuUarities.~ln the poets we find many varieties
of arrangement of substantive and adjective, designed to draw especial
attention to the idea or to color the verse. These occur chiefly in the
Hexameter and Pentameter, but to a lesser degree also in other meas-
ures. Thus the substantive and adjective are put either at tiie end of
each hemistich, or at the beginning of each hemistich, or one is at the
end of the first and the other at the beginning of the second.
Cerberus et nullds hodig petat improbus umbras \ et iaceat tacit a lapsa
catena sera, Prop., iv. (v.) ii, 25. PuniceO stabis suras evincta cothurnd,
v., Ec, 7, 32. Me similem vestrls moribus esseputasT Prop., ii. (in.)
29 (27), 32.
ARRANGEMENT OF CLAUSES.
684. A period is a compound sentence with one or more
subordinate clauses, in which sentence the meaning is kept
suspended to the close.
28
434 ARRANGEMENT OF CLAUSES.
685. Latin periods may be divided into two classes :
1. Responsive or Apodotic, in which a Protasis has an
Apodosis.
2. Intercalary or Enthetic, in wdiicli the various items are
inserted in their proper place between Subject and Predicate.
Ut saepe homines aegri raorbo gravl, cam aestu febrique iactantur,
si aquam gelidam bibenint, prlino releviirl vidoiitur, deinde multo
gravius vehementiusque afflictantur : sic hie morbus, qui est in re piib-
liea, relevatus istius poena, vehementius, reliquis vivis, ingravescet,
C, Cat., I. 13, 31 (Apodotic).
Catuvolcus, rex dimidiae partis Ebiironum, qui una cum Arabiorige
consilium inierat, aetata iam confectus, cum labOrem aut belli aut fugae
ferre non posset, omnibus precibus detestiitus Ambiorigem, qui eius
consilii auetor fuisset, taxo, cuius magna in Gallifi Germaniaque eopia
est, se exanimavit, Caes., B.O., vi. 31, 5 (Enthetic).
686. Nagelsbach's careful study of the subject has led to the fol-
lowing results. The simplest period is composed of one subordinate («)
and one principal {A) clause ; the principal varieties are : (1) a : A,
where the principal clause follows the subordinate ; (2) ^1 (a) A, where
the subordinate clause is inserted within the principal clause ; (3) ^ | a,
where the principal clause precedes the subordinate clause ; (4) a {A) a,
where the principal clause is inserted within the subordinate clause.
When two subordinate clauses {a, h), independent of each other, are
used, the forms are : (5) a : A \ h ; (6) a : A {h)a; (7) A (a) A \ h ; (8)
A {a) A (b) A ; (9) a : {h : A). If the dependent clauses are of diifei-ent
degree {a, a. A), that is, one depending upon the other, some fifteen
additional forms are allowable.
Some examples are :
a ( .4) a : illorum vides quam niteat oratio, C, Fin., rv. 3, 5. a : (h : A) :
cur nolint, etiamsi taceant, satis dicunt, C, Dit\ in Caec, 6, 31. a:a : A:
quid agatur, cum aperuero, facile erit statuere, C, Ph., v. 2, G. a : A \ a:
illud quid sit, scire cupio, quod iacis obscure, C, Att., 11. 7, 4. a \ a (A) a:
nos uti exspectaremus s6, reliquit qui rogaret, Varro, i^. /<?., i. 2, 32.
A \ a{a) a : mando tibi plane, totum ut videas cuius modi sit, C, Att., i.
12,2.
687. Periods are also divided into Historical and Oratorical. The
former are, as a rule, simple. The most common form is a : A, i.e.,
where a subordinate clause is followed by a leading clau>e : Id ubi
dixisset hastam in hostium fines 6mitt6bat, L., i. 42, 13. Another com-
mon period, developed and much liked by Livv, and later by Tacitus,
was cx:a:A, consisting of (1) a participial clause: (2) a clause
introduced by a conjunction; (3) the principal clause. Cf. Tag., A7in.,
FIGURES. 435
II. 69, 3, dStentus ubi . . . accgpit plebem proturbat. Historians,
having much occasion for desci'iption, are also prone to use the
descending period, i.e., the form in which the principal clause precedes.
So especially Nepos. Livy likes also to use two independent sub-
ordinate clauses asyndetically.
The Oratorical periods are much more diverse and complicated,
owing to the greater variety of effects at which they aim. We find,
however, the ascending structure, where the emphasis is continually
ascending until it culminates at the end, more common.
See an excellent example in C, Imp., 5, 11 :
Yds eum regem inultum esse patiemini qui Iggatum populi Komani
consularem vinculis ac verberibus atque omni supplicio EXCliUCIA-
TUM XECAVIT ?
FIGURES OF SYNTAX AND RHETORIC.
688. Ellipsis is the omission of some integral part of the
thought, such as the substantive of the adjective (204, N". 1),
the copula of the predicate (209), the verb of the adverb.
Unde domo? V., A., viii. 114 (391, it. 2).
UeiMark. — When the ellipsis is indefinite, do not attempt to supply
it. The figure is still much abused by commentators in the explana-.
tion of grammatical phenomena.
689. Brachylogy (breviloquentia) is a failure to repeat an
element which is often to be supplied in a more or less
modified form.
Tarn felix esses qiiainform6sissiina(=es) vellem, Ov., Am., i. 8, 27(302).
690. Zeugma or Syllepsis is a junction of two words under
the same regimen, or with the same modifier, although the
common factor strictly applies but to one.
Mantis ac supplices vocgs ad Tiberium tendgns, Tag., Ann., 11. 29,2;
stretchinc) out hands and (uttering) suppliant cries to Tiberius.
691. Aposiopesis is a rhetorical breaking off before the
close of the sentence, as in the famous Vergilian Quos
ego
692. Pleonasm is the use of superfluous words.
693. Enallage is a shift from one form to another : vos
Calliope precor, V., ^., ix. 525.
436 FIGURES.
Hypallage is an interchange in the relations of words :
dare classibus austros, V., A., iii. 6j.
694. Oxymoron is the use of words apparently contradic-
tory of each other : cum tacent clamant, C, Cat., i. 8, 21
(582).
696., Synecdoche is the use of the part for the whole, or the
reverse : tectum for domum, puppis for navis, mucro for gladius,
eic.
696. Hyperbaton, Trajection, is a violent displacement of
words. Lydia die per omnes t§ decs or 6, H., 0., i. 8, 1 (413,
K. 2).
697. Anacoluthon, or tvant of sequence, occurs when the
scheme of a sentence is changed in its course.
698. Hendiadys (tV 8ia hvolv) consists in giving an analysis
instead of a complex, in putting two substantives connected
by a copulative conjunction, instead of one substantive and
an adjective or attributive genitive.
Vulgus et multitude, the common herd. Via et ratio (C, Verr., i. 16,
47), scientific method. Vl et armis, hy force of arms.
So two verbs may be translated by an adverb and a verb : fundi
fugarlque, to he utterly routed.
699. Consti'uctio Praegnans. So-called constructio prae-
gnans is nothing but an extended application of the accusa-
tive of the Inner Object (Object Effected). The result is
involved, not distinctly stated.
Exitium inrltat, Cf. Tag., Ann., xin. i, 1 ; he provokes destruction (ad
exitium inritat).
.700. Litotes, or Understatement, is the use of an expres-
sion by which more is meant than meets the ear. This is
especially common with the Negative.
NSn ludecorQ pulvere sordidl, H., 0., ii. i, 22 (449, r. 2).
PRINCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 437
PRINCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX.
1. The Verb agrees with its subject in number and person (211).
2. The Adjective agrees with its subject in gender, number, and ease
(211).
3. The common Predicate of two or more subjects is put in the
Plural (285); when the genders are different, it takes the strongest
gender or the nearest (28G); when the persons are different, it takes
the first in preference to the second, the second in preference to the
third (287).
4. The common Attribute of two or more substantives agrees with
tlie nearest, rarely with the most important (290).
5. The Predicate substantive agrees with its subject in case (211).
6. The Appositive agrees with its subject in case; if possible, also in
number and person (321),
7. The Relative agrees with its antecedent in gender, number, and
person (614).
8. Disproportion is indicated by the comparative with quam pr5,
quam ut, quam qui (298).
Q. In comparing two qualities, use either magis quam with the posi-
tive, or a double comparative (299).
10. Superlatives denoting order and sequence are often used parti-
tively and then usually precede their substantive (291, r. 2).
11. The Genitive forms mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestrl, are used mainly
as objective genitives ; nostrum and vestrum as partitive (304, 2).
12. The Reflexive is used regularly when reference is made to the
grammatical subject; frequently when reference is made to the actual
subject (309).
13. The Reflexive is used of the principal subject, when reference is
made to the thought or will of that subject; hence, in Infinitive clauses,
or Indirect Questions, in Sentences of Design, and in Oratio Obliqua
(521).
14. The Possessive Pronoun is used instead of the Possessive or Sub-
jective Genitive in the First and Second Persons (3G2, 364).
15. The Appositive to a possessive pronoun is in the Genitive (321,
R. 2).
16. With words of Inclination and Disinclination, Knowledge and
Ignorance, Order and Position, Time and Season, the adjective is usu-
ally employed for the adverb (325, r. 6).
17. The Indicative, not the Subjunctive, is used in expressions of
Possibility, Power, Obligation, and Necessity (254, r. i).
438 PRIJvTCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX.
1 8. The Potential of the Present or Future is the Present or Perfect
Subjunctive (257); the Potential of the Past is the Imperfect Subjunc-
tive (258).
19. The Optative Subjunctive may be used to express a Wish (200),
an xVsseveration (262), a Command (263), or a Concession (264).
20. The First Imperative looks forward to immediate, the Second
to contingent, fulfilment (268).
21. The Negative of the Imperative is regularly noli with the Infin-
itive ; sometimes ne with the Perfect Subjunctive (270, 11. 2), or cave
with the Subjunctive (271) is also used.
22. The Infinitive, with or without a subject, may be treated as a
neuter subject (422), object (423), or predicate (424).
23. The Infinitive is used as the object of verbs of Will, Power,
Duty, Habit, Inclination, Resolve, Continuance, End, etc. (423).
24. The Accusative and Infinitive is used as the object of verbs of
Will and Desire (532).
25. The Accusative and Infinitive is used as the object of verbs of
Emotion (533).
26. The Accusative and Infinitive is used in Exclamation (534).
27. After verbs of Saying, Showing, Believing, and Perceiving, the
Present Infinitive expresses action contemporary with that of the gov-
erning verb, the Perfect, action prior to it, the Future, action future to
it (530).
28. Tlie Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive is used cliiefly
after substantives and adjectives that require a complement (428).
29. The Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used mainly in
post-classical Latin after words of Fitness and Function ; also after
words of Capacity and Adaptation, and to express Design (429).
30. The Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used after verbs
of Giving and Taking, Sending and Leaving, etc., to indicate Design
(430).
31. Tiie Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used to denote
Means and Cause, rarely Manner (431).
32. The Supine in -um is used chiefly after verbs of Motion to
express Design (435).
33. The Supine in -ti is used chiefly with adjectives to indicate
Respect (436).
34. The Present Participle denotes continuance, the Perfect, comple-
tion, at the time of the leading verb (282).
35. The Future Participle is used in post-Ciceronian Latin to express
Design (438, n.).
PRINCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 439
36. The Participle is used after verbs of Perception and Represen-
tation to express the actual condition of the object (536).
37. The Perfect Participle passive is used after verbs of Causation
and Desire, to denote impatience of anything except entire fulfilment
(537).
38. The subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative (203).
39. Verbs of Seeming, Becoming, with the passive of verbs of Mak-
ing, Choosing, Showing, Thinking, and Calling, take two Nomina-
tives, one of the subject, one of the predicate (20G).
40. With passive verbs of Saying, Showing, Believing, and Per-
ceiving, the Accusative subject of the Infinitive becomes the Nomina-
tive subject of the leading verb (528).
41. The Appositional Genitive is used after v5x, n5men, verbum,
rSs, etc. (361, i).
42. The Epexegetical Genitive (or Genitive of Explanation) is used
after genus, vitium, culpa, etc. (361, 2).
43. The Possessive Genitive is used of the Third Person to denote
possession (362).
44. The Subjective Genitive is used of the subject of the action indi-
cated by the substantive (363, i) ; the Objective Genitive of the object
of that action (363, 2).
45. Essential or permanent qualities are put in the Genitive,
always with an adjective (365); external and transient qualities in the
Ablative, always with an adjective (400). See No. 82.
46. The Genitives of Quality and Possession may be used as predi-
cates (306).
47. The Partitive Genitive stands for the whole to which a part
belongs (367).
48. Adjectives of Fulness and Want, of Knowledge and Ignorance,
of Desire and Disgust, of Participation and Power, may take the Gen-
itive (374). Also some present participles used as adjectives, and in
later Latin some verbals in -ax (375).
49. Verbs of Reminding, Remembering, and Forgetting take usu-
ally the Genitive (376); but sometimes the Accusative, especially of
things (376, r.).
50. Impersonal verbs of Emotion take the Accusative of the Person
Who Feels, and the Genitive of the Exciting Cause (371).
51. Verbs of Accusing, Convicting, Condemning, and Acquitting,
take the Genitive of the Charge (o78).
52. Verbs of Rating and Buying take the Genitive of the General,
the Ablative of the Particular Value (379, 40-1). See No. 87.
440 PRINCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX.
53. Interest and Rgfert take tlie Genitive of the Person, rarely of the
Thing concerned (381).
54. The Indirect Object is put in the Dative (345).
55. Verbs of Advantage and Disadvantage, Bidding and Forbid-
ding, Pleasure and Displeasure, Yielding and Resisting, take the
Dative (346).
56. Many intransitive verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter,
ob, post, prae, sub, and suner may take a Dative; transitive verbs also
an Accusative besides (347). See No. 66.
57. Verbs of Giving and Putting take a Dative and Accusative, or
an Accusative and Ablative (348).
58. The Dative is used with esse to denote possession (349).
59. The Dative is used of the Person Interested in the action (350).
60. The Ethical Dative is used of the personal pronouns only (351).
61. The Dative of Reference is used of the Person to whom a state-
ment is referred (352).
62. The Dative of Agent is used with the Perfect passive, the
Gerund, and the Gerundive (354).
63. The Dative may denote the Object For Which in combination
with the Person To Whom (355).
64. Adjectives of Friendliness, Fulness, Likeness, Nearness, with
their opposites, take the Dative (359).
65. Active transitive verbs take the Accusative case (330).
66. Many intransitive verbs, mostly those of Motion, compounded
with ad, ante, circum, con, in, inter, ob, per, praeter, sub, subter, super,
and trans, take the Accusative ; transitive verbs thus compounded may
have two Accusatives (331). See No. 56.
67. Intransitive verbs may take an Accusative of similar form or
meaning (333, 2), .
68. The Accusative may express Extent in Degree, Space, or Time
(334-6).
69. Names of Towns and Small Islands are put in the Accusative of
Place Whither; so also domus and rus (337). See No. 74 and 92.
70. Verbs meaning to Inquire, Require, Teach, and Conceal, take
two Accusatives, one of the Person, one of the Thing (339).
71. Verbs of Naming, Making, Taking, Choosing, and Showing,
take two Accusatives of the same Person or Thing (340).
72. The subject of the Infinitive is regularly in the Accusative (420),
73. The Accusative may be used in Exclamations (343).
74. Place Where is denoted by the Ablative, usually with in (385);
PRINCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 44I
Place Whence by the Ablative, usually with ex, dS, or ab (390).
Names of Towns and Small Islands omit the prepositions (386, 891).
See No. 69 and 92.
75. Attendance is denoted by the Ablative with cum (393).
76. Time When or Within Which is denoted by the Ablative (393).
77. Origin or Descent is denoted by the Ablative with or without
ex and dg (395).
78. Material is denoted by the Ablative with ex (396).
79. The Point of View or Respect is denoted by the Ablative (397).
80. Comparatives without quam are followed by the Ablative (398).
81. Manner is denoted by the Ablative regularly with an adjective
or cum (399).
82. External and transient qualities are denoted by the Ablative,
always with an adjective (400); essential and permanent qualities by
the Genitive, always with an adjective (365). See No. 45.
83. Cause, Means, and Instrument, are denoted by the Ablative
(401, 408).
84. The Agent is denoted by the Ablative with a (ab) (401).
85. The Standard of Measurement is denoted by the Ablative (402).
86. Measure of Difference is put in the Ablative (403).
87. Definite Price is put in the Ablative (404); General Price in the
Genitive (379). See No. 52.
88. Verbs of Depriving and Filling, of Plenty and Want, take the
Ablative (405).
89. The Ablative is used with opus and tisus (406).
90. Utor, fruor, fungor, potior, and vescor take the Ablative (407).
91. The Ablative, combined with a participle, serves to modify the
verbal predicate of a sentence : Ablative Absolute (409).
92. Names of Towns and Small Islands of the First and Second
Declensions are put in the Locative of the Place Where (411). See
No. 09 and 74.
93. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs (439).
94. A question for information merely is introduced by -ne (454).
95. A question that expects the answer yes is introduced by ii5nne
(455).
96. A question that expects the answer no is introduced by num
(456).
97. The Deliberative Question is in the Subjunctive (265).
98. The Indirect Question is in the Subjunctive (467).
442 PRINCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX.
99. Sequence of Tenses. Principal tenses are ordinarily followed by
Principal tenses, Historical by Historical (509).
100. After a Future or Future Perfect, the Future relation is
expressed by the Present, the Future Perfect by the Perfect Subjunc-
tive (514). After other tenses the Future relation is expressed by the
Active Periphrastic Present and Imperfect Subjunctive (515).
loi. In Oratio Obliqua all subordinate tenses follow the general law
of sequence (516).
102. Quod, the fact that, in that, is used with the Indicative to
introduce explanatory clauses after Verbs of Adding and Dropping,
Doing and Happening, and demonstratives (525).
103. Quod, quia, quoniam, and quando take the Indicative in Direct
Discourse, the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse, to express Cause
(540, 541).
104. Quod is used after verbs of Emotion with the Indicative in Di-
rect, the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse, to give the Ground (542).
105. Final Sentences have the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive
with ut or n6 (545).
106. Complementary Final Clauses are used after verbs of Will and
Desire (546).
107. Positive verbs of Preventing, Refusing, Forbidding, and Be-
waring, may take n5 with the Subjunctive (548).
108. Verbs of Preventing and Refusing may take quominus with
the Subjunctive (549). See No. 112.
109. Verbs of Fear are followed by n6 or ut (ng non) and all tenses
of the Subjunctive (550).
no. Consecutive Sentences have the Subjunctive with ut and utnOn
(552).
111. Verbs of Effecting have the Subjunctive with ut and nS, or ut
n5n (553).
112. Negatived or Questioned verbs of Preventing, Hindering, etc.,
of Doubt and Uncertainty, may be followed by the Subjunctive with
quin (555). See No. 108.
113. A Consecutive Clause with ut is often used to give the contents
or character of a preceding substantive, adjective, or pronoun (557).
114. Ut, ut primum, cum, cum primum, ubi, ubi primum, simulac,
simul atque, and postquam take the Perfect Indicative, in the sense of
as soon as; but the Imperfect of Overlapping Action, and the Pluper-
fect when a definite interval is given (561, 562, 563).
115. When two actions are repeated contemporaneously, both are
put in the Indicative in tenses of continuance (566).
PRINCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 443
116. When one action is repeated before another, the antecedent
action is put in the Perfect, Pluperfect, or Future Perfect, tlie subse-
quent in the Present, Imperfect, or Future, according to the relation
(567).
117. Dum, donee, quoad, quamdiu, so long as, while, take the Indica-
tive of all tenses (569).
118. Humytvhile, while yet, takes the Present Indicative after all
tenses (570).
119. Dum, donee, quoad, imtil, take the Present, Historical Present,
Historical Perfect, and Future Perfect Indicative (571).
120. Dum, donee, quoad, until, take the Subjunctive when Suspense
or Design is involved (572).
121. Dum, modo, and dummod5, if only, provided only, take the
Present and Imperfect Subjunctive in Conditional Wishes (573).
122. Antequam and priusquam take the Indicative Present, Perfect,
and Future Perfect when the limit is stated as a fact; the Subjunctive
when the action is expected, contingent, designed, or subordinate
(574, 577).
123. Temporal cum, when, is used with all tenses of the Indicative
to designate merely temporal relations (580).
124. Historical cum, ivhen, is used with the Imperfect and Pluper-
fect Subjunctive to give the temporal circumstances under which an
action took place (585).
125. Causal and Concessive cum, when, whereas, although, are used
with all tenses of the Subjunctive (586, 587).
126. The Logical Condition has usually some form of the Indica-
tive in both Protasis and Apodosis (595).
127. The Ideal Condition has usually the Present or Perfect
Subjunctive, less often the Irapei-fect or Pluperfect, in both clauses
(596).
128. The Unreal Condition has the Imperfect Subjunctive of oppo-
sition to present, the Pluperfect of opposition to past fact (597).
129. Ut si, ac si, quasi, quam si, tamquam, tamquam si, velut, and
velut si, introduce a comparison in the Subjunctive. The tense follows
the rule of sequence (602).
130. Concessive clauses may be introduced by etsi, etiamsi, tametsi,
with the Indicative or Sul)junctive (604); by quamquam, with the
Indicative (605); by quamvis, with the Subjunctive (600).
131. Indefinite and generic relatives usually have the Indicative
(625); so explanatory qui, when equivalent to quod (626).
132. The Subjunctive is used in Relative Clauses that form a part
444 PRINCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX.
of the utterance of another ; so in Oratio Obliqua and Final Clauses
(628).
133. Relative sentences that depend on Infinitives or Subjunctives,
and form an integral part of the thought, are put in the Subjunctive
by Attraction (629).
134. Relative sentences are put in the Subjunctive of Design when
qui = ut (final) is (630).
135. Relative sentences are put in the Subjunctive of Tendency
when qui — ut (consecutive) is ; so after dignus, indignus, idoneus, aptus,
etc.; after an indefinite antecedent; after comparatives with quamiOBl).
136. Comparative sentences after words of Likeness and Unlike-
ness may be introduced by atque or ac (643).
137. Comparative sentences after comparatives are introduced by
quam (644).
138. In Oratio Obliqua, Principal Clauses are put in the Infinitive,
except Interrogatives and Imperatives, which are put in the Subjunc-
tive ; Subordinate clauses are put in the Subjunctive (650, 651, 652).
PROSODY.
701. Prosody treats of Quantity and Versification.
Remarks. — i. Prosody originally meant Accent. Latin Accent is
regulated by Quantity, and as classical Latin versification is also quan-
titative, Prosody is loosely used of both quantity and versification.
2. In the earliest Latin the Accent was not regulated by Quantity,
but was on the initial syllable (15, n.). This often resulted in
(a) The disappearance of the vowel (8, 2) in the antepenult or pro-antepenult ; this
occurs especially in Greek words, but also in some common Latin words : Poludeuces,
FoldeucSs, FoUtices, Pollux ; balineion, balineam, balneiun, bath ; maximus,
greatest, for magisimos ; optumus, best, for opitumus, etc.
(b) The shortening of a lo?ig j)enult (8). This was still going on in the time of
PLAUTtrs, and occurs here and there in the poets : anchora, anchor, from ankllra ; so
p6ier5, 1 swear falsely, for peri1ir5 ; chorea, dance, from choreia, etc.
(c) The weakening (8) of the antepenult, sometimes also of the penult, both in Greek
words and Latin : Massilia from Massalia ; beni- and mail- for bene and male in
composition ; -hibeo for habeO in composition ; and a few others, as -cld5 for caed9
in composition, etc.
QUANTITY.
702. Rule I. — A syllable is said to be long hy nature when
it contains a long vowel or diphthong : 6, vae, leges, saevae.
Remarks. — i. {a) A vowel before -gin,-gn, -nf^ -ns is long hy nature;
(b) a vowel before -nt, -nd is short by nature.
Exceptions :
(a) Egnatius, Theognis, and some Greek words in -egma, as phlegma,
phlegm ; but pSgma.
(b) Contio (for coventiS), assembly ; igntaculum, iSntatiS, breakfast ;
ntintius, messenger; quintus, fifth; and Greek substantives in -us, -untis,
-6n, -ontis ; Charondas, EpaminSndas ; also nundinae (noven-d-), market
day; nonium, not yet ; pr6nd5, /sei^e ; (ivduiecim, fifteen ; vBndSflsell;
Gndecim, eleven; vindemia, vintage.
2. Inchoative verbs have vowel before -sc long by nature ; dIscO, /
learn.
3. Noteworthy are the following : quartus, fourth ; qvdnqvLB, five, and
its derivatives ; viginti, twenty ; mllle, thousand^ and its derivatives.
44^ QUANTITY.
4. In verbs the quantity of the Present Stem is generally retained
throughout before two consonants (except -ns).
Except dico, 1 say ; Supine, dictum ; duc5, I lead ; Supine, ductum ;
and their derivatives, like dictio, etc.
5. Noteworthy are the following : ago, / drive, ggi, actum ; emo, 1
huy, gmi, gmptum ; frango, / brealc, fregi, fractum ; fungor, / jjerform,
functus ; iubeo, / order, iussi, iussum ; iungo, 1 join, iunxi, iunctum ; lego,
/ read, l6gi, I6ctum ; pango, / fix, pactum ; rego, / govern, rgxi, rectum ;
sancio, I sanction, sanxi, sanctum, sancitum ; struo, / pile up, struxi,
structum ; tango, / touch, tactum; tego, / cover, tSxi, tectum ; traho, /
draw, traxi, tractum; ungo, / anoint, tinxi, ui).ctum; vincOy I conquer,
vici, victum ; rumpo, / break, rupi, ruptum.
6. In verbs, a vowel resulting from syncope is long before ss, st(131).
Also, perhaps, i before s and t in syncopated Pf. forms of ire and peters.
Note.— On the method of distinguishing long vowels on inscriptions, see 12, i, n.
703. EuLE II — A syllable is said to be long % position
(12, 2) when a short vowel is followed by two or more con-
sonants, or a double consonant : ars, collum, castra.
Remarks. — i. The consonants may be divided between two words :
per mare, in terrls ; but when all the consonants are in the second word,
the preceding short syllable commonly remains short, except in the
Thesis (739) of a verse, when it is lengthened : praemia. scribae.
2. Eveiy vowel sound followed by i consonant (j) is long (except in
the compounds of iugmn, yoke). This is due sometimes to natural
length of the vowel, sometnnes to compensation : Gains from Gavius,
p6ier5 for periurO ; but biiugus, two-horse.
Note.— In compounds of iacere, to throw, the i is often omitted, and the preceding
vowel lengthened by compensation ; so c5nicere ; a short vowel with the i omitted is
not found until Ovid's time.
3. Final s, preceded by a shore vowel, is dropped before a consonant
in the older poetry; often too in Lucretius {Apocope).
In somnfs vfdit priu(s) quamsam(=eam) discere coepit. — Enn., A., 225.
Note.— In comic poetry, a short fmal syllable in s blends with est, and sometimes
with es : opnst (= opus est) ; simili's (= similis es).
704. Rule III. — A syllable ending in a short vowel before
a mute, followed by 1 or r, is common (13) : tene-brae, darh-
ness. In early Latin it is regularly short, so, too, when the
mute and liquid begin a word.
Remarks. — i. The syllable must end in a short vowel : navi-fragns,
ship-wreeMng ; melU-fluus, floiving with honey ; but in ab-rumpo the a
is long by position.
QUANTITY. 44/
2. In Greek words m and n are included under this rule : Tg-cmgssa,
Cy-cnus.
Exception. — Derivative substantives in abrum, acrum, atrum fi-oni
verbs ; as flabra, blasts. Zmaragdos, Mart., v. i i,l, cannot be paralleled.
705. Rule IV. — Every diphthong, and. every vowel de-
rived from a diphthong, or contracted from other vowels, is
long (14) : saevos, cruel j conclwdo, I shut ttp (from claudo) ;
in^qllOs, unfair (from aequos) ; cogo, / drive together (from
coigo = con + ago).
Exception. — Prae in composition is shortened before a vowel until
the time of Statius ; prae-ustus, burnt at the 2^oint (V., A., vii. 524).
706. Rule V. — One simple vowel before another vowel-
sound, or h, makes a short syllable : deus, God ; puer, boy ;
nihil, nothing.
Exceptions :
1. a in the old Gen. of the First Declension : aural.
2. 6 in -ei of the Fifth Declen^jion, when a vowel precedes : di6I, but
fid6i (63, N. I).
3. a and e before i in proper names in -ius : Gai, Pomp6i.
4. i in the Gen. form -ius (76, r. 2). Alterius is often shortened,
perhaps even in prose : unius, ullius, nullius, totius, are found in poetry.
In alius the i is never shortened (alius for aliius).
5. i in fiS is long, except before er: fio, but fieret and fieri.
6. eheu, Diana, ohS, dius (= divus).
7. Many Greek words : a§r, Menelaus, museum, M6d6a.
8. In early Latin many words retain the original length of the
vowel : ais, r6i; all forms of fio; cltio ; fui and its forms ; pltiit, luit,
adnui, etc. Most of the shortened forms also occur, and are more
common.
Quantity of Final Syllables.
A. POLYSYLLABLES.
707. Rule VI. — In words of more than one syllable, final
a, e, and y are short ; i, 0, and u are lo?ig.
T. a is short : terra, earth ; dona, gifts ; capita, heads.
Exceptions :
1. Abl. of the First Declension : terrS.
2. Voc. of words in as (Aen6a), and Greek Nom. in a (Electra).
3. Impv. of First Conjugation : ama.
448 QUANTITY.
4. Most uninflected words : triginta, iuxta, but itS., quia, 6i&. With
pat&, for instance, compare cav6 below.
2. e is short.
Exceptions :
1. Abl. of the Fifth Declension : diS.
2. Impv. of Second Conjugation : mong (but see Note).
3. Most adverbs of Second Declension : rSctg ; but ben6, mal§, infemS
(LucR.), maxume (Plaut.), probe (Plaut.), supem6 (Lucr., Hor.),
temerg (Plaut., Ter.).
4. Greek words in 6 (7?) : Temp6, mel6.
5. Que is thought to be not unfrequently long in the Thesis of early
Saturnians ; so in the hexameter of the classical period if a second
que follows in the Arsis.
Note.— Observe that in Plautus and Terence any dissyllabic Iambic impv. may
have the last 6 shortened ; principally cavS, h.ab6, iubl, maiiS, monS, movS, tacS,
tenS, valS, vid6. See 716. Later poets also shorten sometimes when the penult is
long ; salve (Mart.).
3. y is always short, except in contracted forms : imsj
(Dative misy = misyi).
4. i is long : domini, viginti, audi.
Exceptions :
1. Greek Dat. si: TrSasi.
2. Greek Nom., as sinapi; Voc, as Pari; Dat. Sing, (rarely), as
HinSidi.
3. quasi, nisi, cui (when a dissyllable).
4. i is common in mihl, tibl, sib!, ibl, ub!.
Observe the compounds : ibidem, ibique, ubique, ubinam, ubivis, ubi-
cunque, nScubi, utinam, utique, sicuti ; (but uti).
5. is long : bono, tuto.
Exceptions :
1. Common in homO; in the Augustan times in le8 and many proper
names ; as ScIpiS ; in the post- Augustan times in many common sub- ,
stantives : virgd. N6m6 is found first in Ovid, mentis in Horace.
2. Frequently short in Iambic words in early Latin, especially in
verbs, many of which remained common in the Augustan times, as
V0I8, vet8, sci8, pet5, puts, etc.; so less often nesci8, d6sin5, obsecrQ, dixerS,
CderS. From Seneca on, the Gerund may be shortened : amands.
3. is usually short in modd, citd, octd, egd, Hied, Immo, dud, ambd
(post-classical) ; and in many other words in later poetry.
6. u is always long : coma, fractu, audltu.
QUANTITY. 449
708. Rule VII. — All final syllables that end in a simple
consonant other than s are short.
Exceptions :
1 . all6c, lien, and many Greek substantives.
2. The adverbs and oblique cases of illic, illuc, istic, isttic, can
hardly be considered exceptions, as -c is for -ce, and is merely enclitic.
3. Compounds of par : dispar, impar.
4. iit, petiit, and their compounds.
5. Final -at, -et, -it, were originally long, and as such often occur
in early Latin, and occasionally before a pause in the classical poets.
709. Rule VIII. — Of final syllables in s: as, es, os, are
long ; is, us, ys, short.
I. as is long : Aeneas, servas, amas.
Exceptions :
1. Greek substantives in &s, &dis : Areas, Arc&dis.
2. Greek Ace. PI., Third Declension : hSro&s, Arcad&s.
3. an&s, an&tis.
2. es is long : rfiges, dies, mones.
Exceptions :
1. Nom. and Voc. Sing., Third Declension, when the Gen. has fitis,
Itis, idis : seg6s, miles, obs6s ; but abigs, ari6s, paries.
2. Compounds of 6s, he (long syllable in Plautus) : ad6s, pot6s.
3. penes (Preposition).
4. Greek words in 6s (f5) : Nom. PI., as Arcades ; Voc, as OSmoS'
thenes ; Neuter, as cacoethes.
5. Iambic verbal forms in Second Person Sing, in early Latin.
3. OS is long : deos, nepos.
Exceptions :
1. Comp6s, impOs, exds ; and as the Nom. ending in the Second Declen-
sion.
2. Greek words in 68 (o?) : mel6s.
4. is is short : canis, legis.
Exceptions :
1. Dat. and Abl. Plural : terris, bonis.
2. Ace. PI. of the Third Declension : omnis = onmSs.
3. In the Nom. of sundry Proper Names, increasing long in the
Genitive : Quiris, Quiritis.
4. Second Person Sing. Pr. Indie, active, Fourth Conjugation :
audis.
450 QUANTITY.
5. In the verbal forms from vis, sis, fis, and velis : n5-lis, ma-lis,
ad-sis, cale-fis.
6. In the Second Person Sing. Fut. Pf. Indie, and Pf. Subjv., is
is common : videris.
7. Pulvis, cinis, sanguis, occasionally in early Latin.
5. US is short : servus, currus.
Exceptions :
1. Gen. Sing., Nom. and Ace. PL, Fourth Declension : currus.
2. Nom. Third Declension, when the Gen. has a long u : virtus,
virtutis ; incus, incudis ; tellus, telluris.
3. In Greek words with u (ouS) : tripus, Sapphus ; but Oedipus and
polypus.
4. Occasionally the Dat. and Abl. PI. of the Third Declension, the
First Person PI. active of verbs, seem to be long in early Latin.
6. ys is short : chlamys.
B. MONOSYLLABLES.
710. EuLE IX. — All monosyllables that end. in a vowel
are long : a, da, me, de, hi, si, 0, do, tii.
Except the enclitics : -qu6, -v6, -116, -c6, -t6, -ps6, pt6.
711. Rule X. — Declined or conjugated monosyllables
that end in a consonant follow the rules given : das, fles,
scis, dat, flet, is, id, quis, his, quis, quos.
hie, this one, is often shortened; die and due have the quantity of
their verbs; es, he, is short in classical Latin, long in early Latin.
712. Rule XI. — Monosyllabic Nominatives of substan-
tives and adjectives are long when they end in a consonant,
even if the stem-syllable be short : 6s, mos, ver, sol, far, plus ;
lar (laris), pes (pedis), bos (bovis), par (paris).
Exceptions :
vir and lac, os (ossis), mel;
Also cor, vas (vadis), fel. Also quot, tot.
713. Rule XII. — Monosyllabic particles that end in a
consonant are short : an, cis, in, nee, p6r, t^r.
Excepting Sn and n5n and quin ;
And also eras and cur and sin ;
Also the Adverbs in c : hie, hue, hae, sic ; and So (atque).
QUANTITY.
451
Quantity of Stem-Syllables.
714. EuLE XIII. — The quantity of stem-syllables, when
not determined by the general rules, is fixed by the usage of
the poets (long or short by authority).
Remarks. — i. The changes of quantity in,the formation of tense-
stems have been set forth in the conjugation of tlie verb (153, 2).
2. The occasional differences in the quantity of the stem-syllables
which spring from the same radical can only be explained by reference
to the history of each word, and cannot be given here. Some ex-
amples are :
paciscor,
pax, pads.
s6deo,
s6dgs.
macer,
macero.
fides,
fido (feido).
lego,
Igx, legis.
dux, duels.
duco (douco).
rfigo,
r6x, regis.
v6co,
vox.
tego,
tSgula.
lucerna,
luceo (louceS).
acer,
acer bus.
suspicor,
suspicio.
moles,
mdlestus.
mOveo,
mobilis (= movbiUs).
Quantity in Compounds.
715. Rule XIV. — Compounds generally keep the quan-
tity of their constituent parts : (cedo) ante-cedo, de-cedo,
pro-cedo ; (caedo), occido ; (cado), occido.
Kemarks. — I. Of the inseparable prefixes, di, se, and vS are long,
r6 slioit : diduco, sSduco, v6cors, rSdtico ; di, in disertus, is shortened for
dis, Hiul in dirimo, dir stands for dis.
2. N6 is short, except in nSdum, ngmS (ne-hemS), ngquam, ngquiquam,
nequaquam, ngquitia, neve.
3. Re comes from red, which in the forms redd, recc, repp, rell, rett,
occurs principally in poetry before many consonantal verb forms ; but
this doubling varies at different periods, and is found throughout
only ill reddo. Re by compensation for the loss of the d is found,
occasionally, piineipally in Perfect stems and in dactylic poetry,
especially in reicere, religio (also relligio and religio), rgduco (once in
Plaut.).
4. Pro is shortened before vowels, and in many words before con-
sonants, especially before f : prSavos, prOhibeo, prdinde, prdfugio, prdfu-
gus, prSfundus, prdfiteor, prOfari, prfifanus, prdficiscor, prficella, prQcul,
prdnepos. The older language shortens less frequently than the later.
In Greek words pro (tt/jcI) is generally short : prdpheta ; but prologus.
5. The second part of the compound is sometimes shortened : dgigro,
452 FIGURES OF PROSODY.
(from iOro), c5gnitiis, agnitus (from notus). Notice the quantity in
the compounds of -dicus : fatidicus, vgridicus (dico), and innuba, pronuba
(niibS).
6. Mechanical rules, more minute than those given above, might be
multiplied indefinitely, but they are all open to so many exceptions as
to be of little practical value. A correct pronunciation of Latin can-
not be acquired except by constant practice, under the direction of a
competent teacher, or by a diligent study of the Latin poets, and con-
sequently of Latin versification.
Peculiarities of Quantity In Early Latin.
716. The Iambic (734) Law. Any combination of short and long,
having an accent on the short, or immediately preceding or following
an accented syllable, may be scanned as a Pyrrhic. This applies to
(a) Iambic words, especially imperatives, as : rogO, vide, mang ;
(h) Words beginning with an Iambus, when the second syllable is
long by position, and the third syllable is accented, as : senSctutem,
voluntatis ;
(c) Two monosyllables closely connected, or a monosyllable closely
connected with a following long initial syllable, as : quis hie est, ut
6cc6pi. The monosyllable may have become so by elision.
{d) Trochaic words following a short accented syllable, as : quid istuc.
(e) Cretic words, but more often in anapaestic measure, or at the
beginning of a hemistich, as vSnerant.
Notes.— 1. Before quidem a monosyllable is shortened ; tu quidem.
2. A combination like voluptas mea is looked npon as a single word.
3. Authorities are not agreed as to the shortening : in polysyllabic words, when the
second syllable is long by nature and the third syllable accented ; in trisyllables which
have become Iambic by elision ; in Cretics at Trochaic and Iambic close ; in poly-
syllables like simillumae.
717. Personal pronouns and similar words of common occurrence
forming Trochees (734) may shorten the initial syllable when followed
by a long syllable or its equivalent, even in the oblique cases : ille
mg, dmniuni mg, unde tibi.
Notes.— 1. The words involved are ille, illic, iste, istic, ipse, ecquis, omnis,
nempe, inde, unde, quippe, immo, and a few others that are disputed, such as some
dissyllabic imperatives like mitte, redde, and monosyllables followed by -que, -ne,
-ve, and the like.
2. Nempe, inde, unde, quippe, ille, iste, may perhaps suffer syncope and be
scanned as monosyllables.
3. Nempe never forms a whole foot. Proin, dein, exin are used only before con-
sonants : proinde only before vowels ; deinde usually before vowels, rarely Ixjfore
consonants.
4. Trochees also come under the operation of the Iambic Law when they foMow a
short accented syllable.
FIGUKES OF PROSODY. 453
FIGURES OF PROSODY.
718. Poetry often preserves the older forms of language,
and perpetuates peculiarities of pronunciation, both of which
are too frequently set down to poetic license.
719. I. Elision. — When one word ends with a vowel and
another begins with a vowel, or h, the first vowel is elided.
Elision is not a total omission, but rather a hurried half-
pronunciation, similar to grace notes in music.
_ a e
fglix fin(a) ant(e) alias PriamSIa virgS. — Verg.
2. Ecthlipsis. — In like manner m final (a faint nasal
sound) is elided with its short vowel before a vowel or h.
u u e
M5n8tr(um), horrend(um), Inf5rm(e) ingSns cul lumen adSmptum. — Verg.
Exception. — After a vowel or.m final, the word est, is, drops its e
and joins the preceding syllable (Aphaeresis).
SI rixast ubi tfi pulsas ego vapul6 tantum. — Juv,
Aetemas quoniam poenas in morte timendumst. — Lucr.
720. Hiatus. — Hiatus is the meeting of two vowels in
separate syllables, which meeting produces an almost contin-
uous opening (yawning) of the vocal tube. In the body of
a word this hiatus, or yawning, is avoided sometimes by con-
traction, often by shortening the first vowel (13).
Remarks. — i. The Hiatus is sometimes allowed : a, in the Thesis
(729), chiefly when the first vowel is long ; h, in an Arsis (729), or resolved
Thesis, when a long vowel is shortened (Semi-hiatus) ; c, before a pause,
chiefly in the principal Caesura (750); d, in early Latin, in the princi-
pal Caesura, before a change of speakers, and occasionally elsewhere.
{a) Stant et iuniperi (h) et castaneae Qi) hirsutae. — Verg.
(b) Credimus T an qui {h) amant ipsi sibi somnia fingunt % — Verg.
(c) Promissam gripui genero. {h) Arma impia stimpsi. — Verg,
(d) A. Abi. B. Quid abeam T A. St! abi (/i). B. Abeam (^)T A. Abl.—
Plaut.
2. Monosyllabic interjections are not elided.
3. On the elision of e in -ne % see 45G, r. 2.
721. Diastole. — Many final syllables, which were originally
long, are restored to their rights by the weight of the Thesis.
454 FIGURES OF PROSODY.
"Uxor, heus uxor, quamquam tu irata's mihi. — Plaut.
Dummodo morata recte veniat dotatast satis. — Plaut.
Perrupit Acheronta Herculeus labor. — Hor.
Sometimes, however, Diastole arises from the necessities of the
verse (as in proper names), or is owing to a pause (Punctuation).
Nee quas Priamides in aquosis vallibus Idae. — Ov.
Desine pltira pui'r— et quod nunc instat agamus. — Verg.
Pectorib*7s inhians spirantia consulit exta. — Verg.
Note.— The extent to which diastole is allowable is a matter of dispute, especially
in early Latin.
On quS, see 707, 2, Ex. 5.
722. Systole. — Long syllables which had begun to shorten
in prose, are shortened (Systole).
Obstupui steteruntque comae vox faucibus haesit. — Verg.
E terra magn(uni) alterms spectare laborem. — Lucr.
Unius ad certam formam primordia rerum. — Lucr.
NtilUus addictus iurare in verba magistrl. — Hor.
Note.— The short penult of the Pf . in stet6runt, dedfirunt, was probably original
(dedro in inscriptions). See 131, 4, b, 5 and 6.
723. Hardening. — The vowels i and u assert their half-
consonant nature (Hardening) : abiete (abiete), geiiz;a (genua),
teniia (tenuis).
Fluvi'Srum r6x Eridanus camposque per omn6s. — Verg.
Nam quae t6nda sunt hiscendist nulla potestas. — Lucr.
724. Dialysis. — The consonants 1 and v assert their half-
vowel nature: diss6l?Xd (dissolvo), GaMs (Gains, from Gavins).
Adulteretur et columba miluo. — Hor.
Stamina non uUi dissoluenda deo. — Tib.
725. Syncope. — Short vowels are dropped between con-
sonants, as often in prose : calfacio for calefacio.
Templorum positor templorum sancte repostor. — Ov.
Quiddam magnum addens unum mS surpite (= surripite) raorti.— Hor.
726. Tmesis. — Compound words are separated into their
parts.
Qu5 mS cunque (= quocumque m6) rapit tempestas dgferor hospes. —
Hor.
Note.— The earlier poets carry Tmesis much further, in unwise emulation of the
Greek. Celebrated is : SaxQ cere comminuit brum.-ENNius.
VERSIFICATION. 455
727. Synizesis. — Vowek are connected by a slur, as often
in the living language : deinde, deinceps.
Quid faciam roger anne rogem 1 quid deinde rogabo ? — Ov,
So even vvlieii h intervenes, as dehinc :
Eurum ad sg Zephyrumque vocat, deEinc talia fatur.— Verg.
Remark.— Synizesis {settling together) in also called Synaeresis (/oA>
ing together), as opposed to Diaeresis (5) ; but Synaeresis properly
means contraction, as in c5gS (for coagS), and nSmS (for nehemd). Syna-
loepha is a general terra embracing all methods of avoiding Hiatus.
Note.— 1. Syiiizesis is very common in early Latin, especially in pronominal forms:
ml (miM), metis, and its forms, dissyllabic forms like eo, eum, etc.
728. Synapheia. — A line ends in a short vowel, which is
elided before the initial vowel of a following line, or a word
is divided between two lines, i. e., the two lines are joined
together.
Sors exitura et nos in aetern(um)
Exilium impositura cumbae. — Hor., 0., 11. 3, 27.
Gallicum Rhen(um), horribile aequor, ulti-
mosque Britannos. — Cat., 11. 11.
VERSIFICATION.
729. RJiyfhm. — Rhythm means harmonious movement.
In language, Rhythm is marked by the stress of voice (Ac-
cent). The accented part is called the Thesis ;* the unac-
cented, the Arsis. The Rhythmical Accent is called the
Ictus [bloiv, beat).
Remark. — Besides the dominant Ictus, there is a subordinate or
secondary Ictus, just as there is a dominant and a secondary Accent
in words.
730. Metre. — Rhythm, when represented in language, is
embodied in Metre (Measure). A Metre is a system of syl-
lables standing in a determined order.
* Thesis and Arsis are Greek terms, meaning the putting down and the raising of
the foot in marching. The Roman Grammarians, misunderstanding the Greek, applied
the terms to the lowering and raising of the voice, and thus reversed the significations.
Modern scholars up to recent times followed the Roman habit, but at present the ten-
dency is to use the terms in their original signification, as above.
45<5
VERSIFICATION-.
731. Uiiit of Measure. — The Unit of Measure is the short
syllable, (^), and is called Mora, Tempus {Time).
The value in music is J = |.
The long (— ) is the double of the short.
The value in music \s \ = \.
Remark. — An irrational syllable is one which is not an exact mul-
tiple of the standard unit. Feet containing such quantities are called
irrational.
732. Resolution and Contraction. — In some verses, two
short syllables may be used instead of a long (Resolution),
or a long instead of two short (Contraction).
Resolution
b
Contraction,
n
733. Feet. — As elements of musical strains, Metres are
called Bars. As elements of verses, they are called Feet.
As musical strains are composed of equal bars, so verses
are composed of equal feet, marked as in music, thus | .
Remark. — Theoretically, the number of metres is unrestricted ;
practically, only those metres are important that serve to embody the
principal rhythms.
734. Names of the Feet. — The feet in use are the follow-
ing :
Feet of Three Times.
Trochee,
— \j
legit.
Iambus,
\j—'
legunt.
Tribrach,
\j \j \j
16git8.
Feet of Four
Times.
Dactyl,
KJ KJ
Iggimtls.
Anapaest,
<u» KJ —
16g6rent.
Spondee,
isgi.
ProceleusmatlcoB,
\J KJ \J \J
relegitnr
J J
nn
VERSIFICATION".
457
Feet of Five
Times.
Cretic,
— w
legdrint.
J /J
First PaeSn,
^ KJ \J
legfiritis.
J :n
Fourth Paeon,
\y KJ \J
legimini.
j^/j
Baccliius,
^ —
Iggebant.
j-j J
Antibacchius,
v^
legistis.
J J f
Feet of Six
Times.
Knicus a maiore,
WW
coUggimtls.
J J n
lOnicus a minQre,
\j ^
reiegsbant.
njj
Choriambus,
— v^ v^
colligSrant.
J n J
Ditrochee,
\J — K^
colliguntiir.
j/jj-
Diiambus,
vy — w —
Iggamini.
/J jj
Remarks. — i. Other feet are put down in Latin Grammars, but they
do not occur in Latin verse, if in any, such as :
Antispast, w ^ IfegSbaris.
Dispondee, s6lgg5runt.
Second Paeon, ^^ — ^^ Ifegentibus.
Third Paeon, ^ w — v^ 16gitot6.
Molossus, Igggrunt.
Pyrrhic, w ^ 16git.
First Epitrite, ^ r6l6g6runt.
Second Epitrite, — o gligebant.
Third Epitrite, «^ — s6l6g6rint.
Fourth Epitrite, w coUggistis.
2. For Irrational Feet see 743 and 744.
735. Asce^iding and Descending Rhythms. — Rhythms are
divided into ascending and descending. If the Thesis fol-
lows, the Rhythm is called ascending ; if it precedes, de-
scending. So the Trochee has a descending, the Iambus an
ascending, rhythm.
736. Names of Rhythms. — Rhythms are commonly called
after their principal metrical representative. So the Trochaic
Rhythm, the Anapaestic Rhythm, the Iambic Rhythm, the
Dactylic Rhythm, the Ionic Rhythm.
737. Classes of Rhythms. — In Latin, the musical element
458 VERSIFICATION.
of versification is subordinate, and the principles of Greek
rhythm have but a limited application.
The Greek classes .ire based on the relation of Thesis to Arsis.
1. Equal Class, in which the Thesis is equal to the Arsis (/fVo?
i6oy). This may be called the Dactylico- Anapaestic class.
II. Unequal Class, in which the Thesis is double of the Arsis {yevoi
di7tXa6Lov). This may be called the Trochaico-Iambie class.
III. QuinquepartitG or Paeonian Class (Five-eighths class), of which
the Cretic and Bacchlus are the chief representatives (^fVoS vuioA-ior).
738. Eliytlunical Series. — A Rhythmical Series is an
uninterrupted succession of rhythmical feet, and takes its
name from the number of feet that compose it.
Dipody = two feet. Pentapody == five feet.
Tripody = three feet. Hexapody = six feet.
Tetrapody = four feet.
Remarks. — i; The Dipody is the ordinary unit of measure (-meter) in
Trochaic, Iambic, and Anapaestic verse. In these rhythms a mono-
meter contains two feet, a dimeter four, a trimeter six, a tetrameter
eight.
2. The single foot is the ordinary unit of measure (-meter) in Dactyl-
ic verse. Thus, a verse of one Dactyl is called a Monometer ; of two,
a Dimeter ; of three, a Trimeter ; of four, a Tetrameter ; of five, a
Pentameter ; of six, a Hexameter.
3. There are limits to the extension of series. Four feet (in Greek,
five) is the limit of the Dactylic and Anapaestic, six of the Trochaic
and Iambic series. All beyond these are compounds.
739. The Anacrustic Scheme. — Ancient Metric discussed the colon,
whether in Ascending or Descending Rhythm, according to the feet of
which it was composed. Most modern critics, since the time of Bent-
LEY, regard the first Arsis in an ascending rhythm as taking the place
of an upward beat in music (called by Hermann Anacrusis ; i. e.,
rpward stroke, signal-heat), whereby all rhythms become descending.
In this way the Iambus is regarded as an Anacrustic Trochee, the
Anapaest as an Anacrustic Dactyl, the lOnicus a minOre as an Ana-
crustic ISnicus a maiore. The sign of the Anacrusis is :
740. Equality of the Feet. — Every rhythmical series is
composed of equal parts. To restore this equality, when it
ifc^ violated by language, there are four methods :
1. Syllaba Anceps. 3. Protraction.
2. Catalexis. 4. Correption.
TERSIiaCATIOK. 459
741. Syllaha Anceps. — The final syllable of an indepen-
dent series or verse may be short or long indifferently. It
may be short when the metre demands a long ; long when
the metre demands a short. Such a syllable is called a Syl-
laha Anceps.
742. Catalexis and Pause. — A complete series is called
Acatalectic ; an incomplete series is called Catalectic. A
series or verse is said to be Catalectic in syllaham, iti dissyl-
labum, m trisyllabum, according to the number of syllables
in the catalectic foot.
^ s^ v^ I ^ ^ w I ^ Trimeter dactylicus catalecHcus in syllaham.
j:. ^ ^ I JL Kj K^ I jr. ^ Trimeter dactylicus catalecticus in dissyllabum.
The time is made up by Pause.
The omission of one mora is marked a ; of two
/\ A
743. Protraction and Sy7icope. — Protraction [rovrf) con-
sists in drawing out a long syllable beyond its normal quan-
tity. It occurs in the body of a verse, and serves to make
up for the omission of one or more Arses, which omission is
called Syncope.
>— = 3 = J. (triseme long); i_j = 4 = J (tetraseme long).
744. Correption. — Correption is the shortening of a sylla-
ble to suit the measure.
1. So a long syllable sometimes takes the place of a short, and is
marked > ; similarly, two short syllables often seem to take the place
of one, and may be marked >.>\^.
2. Wlien a Dactyl is used as a substitute for a Trochee, the approx-
imate value is often 1^ + ^ + 1=3 = J H J ; which may be indicated
by -^\j (cyclic Dactyl).
The following line illustrates all the points mentioned :
a he he b d e
— > I -U ^ I 1__ II -vy v^ I L_ II -^ O I — ^ I — A
Nullam I Vare sa- | era | vite pri- j us || sgveris | arbo j -rem. — Hor.
(a) Irrational trochee (irrational long). (6) Cyclic dactyl, (c) Syncope and Protrac*
tion (triseme long), (cf) Syllaba anceps. (e) Catalgxis.
460 VERSIFICATION.
Remark. — Under this head, notice the frequent use of the irrational
long in Anacrusis.
745. Verse. — A Simple Rhythm is one that consists of a
simple series ; a Compound Rhythm is one that consists of
two or more series.
A Verse is a simple or compound rhythmical series, which
forms a distinct and separate unit. The end of a verse is
marked
1. By closing with a full word. Two verses cannot divide a word
between them, except very rarely by Synapheia (728).
2. By the Syllaba Anceps, which can stand unconditionally.
3. By the Hiatus, *'. e., the verse may end with a vowel, though the
next verse begin with one. Occasionally such verses are joined by
Synapheia (V., A,, i. 332-3, 448-9 ; 11. 745-6).
746. Methods of Combining Verses. — The same verse may
be repeated throughout without recurring groups (Stichic
Composition) ; such as the Septenarius and Octonarius, the
Trochaic Septenarius, the Heroic Hexameter, the Iambic
Senarius (Trimeter). Or the same verse or different verses
may be grouped in pairs (distichs), triplets (tristichs), fours
(tetrastichs). Beyond these simple stanzas Latin versifica-
tion seldom ventured.
Larger groups of series are called Systems.
Larger groups of verses are called Strophes, a name some-
times attached to the Horatian stanzas.
747. Cantica and Diverbia.- — In the Drama there is a broad divis-
ion between that part of the [)lay which was simply spoken, and is
called Diverbium, comprising the scenes in the Iambic Senarius, and
that part which was either sung or recited to a musical accompani'
raent called Canticum. The Canticum is subdivided into : (1) Those
scenes which were merely recited to the accompaniment of the flute,
and were written in Trochaic and Iambic Septenarii and Iambic Octo-
narii ; and (2) tliose parts which wore written in varying measures
(mutatis modis cantica) and sung. The latter division is also called
" Cantica in the narrow sense," and may be divided into monologues,
dialogues, etc. The greatest variety of measures is found in the mono-
logues.
748. Union of Language luith Rhythm. — When embodied
VERSIFICATION. 461
in language, rhythm has to deal with rhythmical groups
already in existence. Every full word is a rhythmical group
Avith its accent, is a metrical group with its long or short
syllables, is a word-foot. Ictus sometimes conflicts with
accent ; the unity of the verse-foot breaks up the unity of
the word-foot.
749. Conflict of Ictus and Accent. — In ordinary Latin
verse, at least according to modern pronunciation, the Ictus
overrides the Accent ; this conflict seems, however, to have
been avoided in the second half of the Dactylic Hexameter,
and the Ictus made to coincide with the Accent.
Note.— The extent to which this conflict was felt by the Romans themselves is a
matter of uncertainty, but it seems liliely that the dominant accent of a word was not
so sharp as in modem pronunciation, and consequently the conflict would not be serious.
750. Conflict of Word-foot and Verse foot. — The conflict
of word-foot and verse-foot gives rise to Caesura. Caesura
means an incision produced by the end of a word in the
middle of a verse-foot, and is marked f .
This incision serves as a pause, partly to rest the voice for a more
vigorous effort, partly to prevent monotony by distributing the masses
of the verse.
Remarks. — i. So in the Heroic Hexameter the great Caesura falls
before the middle of the verse, to give the voice strength for the first
Arsis of the second half.
— v^w I -^ — I -^f— |— — 1 -^^-'wl ^ —
Una saltis victis f nullam spSrare salutem. — Verg.
It does not occur at the middle, as in that case the verse would
become monotonous.
2. In many treatises any incision in a verse is called a Caesura.
751. Varieties of Caesura. — Caesurae have different
names to show their position in the verse, as follows :
ASemiter?idria, after the third half foot, i.e., in the second foot.
Semiqmndria, after the fifth half foot, i.e., in the third foot.
Semiseptendria, after the seventh half foot, i.e., in the fourth foot.
Seminovendria, after the ninth half foot, i.e., in the fifth foot.
Remark. — These Caesurae are frequently called after their Greek
names, thus : trihemimeral, penihemimeral, hepthemimeral, etc.
462 TERSIFICATIOK.
762. Masculine and Feminine Caesurae. — In trisyllabic
metres, when the end of the word Avitliin the verse-foot falls
on a Thesis, it is called a Masculine Caesura ; when on an
Arsis, a Feminine Caesura.
_ a h c d
Una sa | lus f vi [ ctis f niil | lam f spe | rare f sa ] lutem.
a, 5, c, are Masculine Caesurae ; <:<?, a Feminine Caesura.
Especially noteworthy is the Feminine Caesura of the third foot in
the Hexameter, called the Third Trochee (783, r. 2).
753. Diaeresis, — When verse-foot and word-foot coincide.
Diaeresis arises, marked ||
Ite domum saturae f venit | Hesperus | its capellae. — Verg.
Remarks. — i. Diaeresis, like Caesura, serves to distribute the masses
of the verse and prevent monotony. What is Caesura in an ascend-
ing rhythm becomes Diaeresis as soon as the rhythm is treated ana-
crustically.
Suis I et i i psa f Eo I ma vi I ribus | ruit. Iambic Trimeter.
Su : is et || ipsa || Eoma | viri | bus f ru | it. Troch. Trimeter Catal.,
with Anacrusis.
2. Diaeresis at the end of the fourth foot of a Hexameter is called
Bucolic Caesura, and has a special effect (7*83, r. 3).
754. Recitation. — When the word-foot runs over into the
next verse-foot, a more energetic recitation is required, in
order to preserve the sense, and hence the multiplication of
Caesurae lends vigor to the verse.
Remark. — The ordinary mode of scanning, or singing out the ele-
ments of a verse, without reference to signification, cannot be too
strongly condemned, as,
Unasa, lusvic, tisnul, lamspe, raresa, lutem !
Numerus Italicus,
755. The oldest remains of Italian poetiy are found in some frag-
ments of ritualistic and sacred songs, and seem to have had no regard
to quantity. No definite theory can be formed of this so-called Numerus
Italicus in which they were composed, but they seem to have been in
series of four Theses, usually united in pairs or triplets, but sometimes
separate. An example is the prayer to Mars, from Cato, Agr., 141.
Mars pater tS precor | quaes6que uti siSs | voldns propitius
Mib! domd | familiaeque nostrae, etc.
YERSIFICATION. 463
Saturnian Verse.
766. The Saturnian verse is an old Italian rhythm which occurs in
the earlier monuments of Latin literature. It divides itself into two
parts, with three Theses in each ; but the exact metrical composition
has been a matter of much dispute, the remains not being sufficient to
admit of any dogmatism. The two principal theories nro :
1. The Quantitative Theory. — The Saturnian is a six-foot vei'se wi Ji
Anacrusis, and a Caesura after the third xYrsis, or more rarely af'.er
the third Thesis.
Dabunt malum Metelli | Naevio poetae.
Cornglius Lucius | Scipio Barbatus.
Quoius fSrma virtutei | parisuma fmt.
Eorum sectam sequontur | multi mort^lgs.
Notes.— 1. The Thesis is formed by a long or two shorts ; the Arsis by a short, a
long, or two shorts (not immediately before the Caesura). The Arsis may be wholly
suppressed, most often the second Arsis of the second hemistich. Short syllables under
the Ictus may be scanned long. ITiatus occurs everywhere, but usually in Caesura.
2. This theory is held by many scholars, but with various modifications. Thus, some
do not accept the lengthening of the short syllables, others would scan by protraction
four feet in each half verse, etc.
Dabunt malum Metelli 1 Naevi5 pogtae, etc.
2. The Accentual Theory. — The Saturnian verse falls into two halves,
the first of which has three Theses, the second usually three, sometimes
two, in which case there is usually Anacrusis in the second hemistich.
Quantity is not considered.
Dabunt malum Metelli 1 NaeviS pogtae.
Qudius forma virtlitei | parisuma fdit.
Notes. ^ — 1. Two accented syllables are regularly divided b\' a single unaccented
syllable, except that between the second and third there are always two. Hiatus
allowed only at Caesura.
2. A modification of this theory would scan
Dabunt malum Metelli ! Naevio poStae.
3. Very recently a modification of the Accentual Theory has been proposet'., which
has much in its favor :
(«) The accent must fall on the beginning of each line, though it may be u second-
ary accent ; the first hemistich has three, the second has but two Theses.
(6) The first hemistich has normally seven syllables, the second six ; but an extra
short syllable may be admitted where it w ould be wholly or partially suppressed in
current pronunciation.
(c) After the first two feet there is an alternation between words accented on the first
and those accented on the second syllable.
{d) A final short vowel is elided, otherwise semi-hiatus is the rule ; but there may be
fall Hiatus at the Caesura.
Dabunt malum Metelli I Naevio poetae.
Pr&n(a) incedit Cereris 1 Proserpina puer.
464 VERSIFICATION.
Iambic Rhythms.
757. The Iambic Rhythm is an ascending rhythm, in
which the Thesis is double of the Arsis. It is represented
By the Iambus : w ^ ;
By the Tribrach ; wvL»v^;
By the Spondee : — ^ ;
By the Dactyl : — ^ ^ ;
By the Anapaest : ^ ^ ^', and
By the Pi-oceleusniaticus : w^ ^b^.
Remark. — The Spondee, Dactyl, Anapaest, and Proceleusmaticus
are allirrational, and are consequently marked on the schemes thus:
> — , >wv^, \.A^—, \y^\^Kj\ see 744.
758. Iambic Octondrius {Tetrameter Acatalectic).
Itiss^i) adpararl prandium | aml-
c(a) exspectat mS, scio, Pl.,
Jft'y^., 599. >^w — >^wT7||w^>— >^w^
Hic ^nis est iambe salvS f vindi-
cis doctor mali, Servius. >^w — w^v.^ — >^ w— >^«^ —
Anacmstic Scheme :
> : .(» I -> I ^(» I -> I .<» I -> I . ^ 1 -A
Note.— This verse is predominantly a comic verse, occurring most frequently in
Terence, who shows five hundred lines, while Plautus shows but three hundred.
The substitutions are the same as in the Senarius (761, n. 1). There are two varieties :
(a) That which is divided into two equal halves by Diaeresis at the end of the fourth
foot. In this case the fourth foot as well as the eighth has all the privileges of the final
foot of the Senarius (Hiatus, Syllaba Anceps), and conforms also to its rules, so that the
line is practically a distich of two Quaternarii ; but Hiatus after the fourth foot is
denied for Terence.
(6) That which is divided into two unequal halves by a Caesura after the fifth Arsis.
Here the rules of the final foot apply only to the eighth, and the fourth may be a Spon-
dee. The principle which governs the choice of words after the slmiqulndria in the
Senarius applies here after the dividing Caesura. The Hiatus comes under the general
rules. From the earliest period there is a tendency to keep the even feet pure. This
variety is preferred by Terence to the former. Examples of the two forms are :
TrOia, 6 patria, 6 Pergamum, 1! 6 Priame, periisti senex, Plaut.
Is porr5 ni(e) autem verberat II incursat pugnis calcibus, Pi.aut.
Facil(e) omnSs quom valSmus rgcta I consilia aegrOtis damus, Ter.
759. lamhic Septendrius {Tetrameter Catalectic).
Bemitte pallium mihl i| meum quod
involastl, Cat. \j jl. \j — kj j- \j — || \j j. ^ — kj x. — f\
VERSIFICATIOi^^. 465
Anacrustic Scheme :
Notes.— 1. This verse is confined principally to Plautus and Terence ; it is to be
regarded as a compound of Dimeter + Dimeter Catalectic : hence regular Diaeresis after
the fourtii foot, which is treated as a final foot. The same rules, in regard to the vari-
ous word-feet allowable, apply here as in the case of the Senarins (761, N. 6). Substitu-
tions are allowable in every foot except in the fourth, when followed by a Diaeresis.
With Syllaba Anceps :
Si abduxeris celabitur li itidem ut celata adhuc est, Plaut.
With Hiatus :
Sed si tibi viginti minae i argenti proferuntur, Plaut.
2. Exceptionally in Plautus, more often in Terence, the line is cut by Caesura after
the fifth Arsis. In this case the fourth foot has no exceptional laws except that if the
seventh foot is not pure the fourth should be, though this is not absolutely necessary.
760. The Iambic Sendrius (a Stichic measure). This is an imitation
of the Iambic Trimeter of the Greeks, but differs from it in that it
is a line of six separate feet and not of three dipodies. In the early-
Latin there is no distinction between the odd and even feet, such as
prevails in the Greek Trimeter, but the same substitutions were allow-
able in the one as in the other. This distinction is regained in Horace
and Seneca, who follow the Greek treatment closely, and with whom
the line may be with some degree of justice called the Iambic Trimeter,
but it is very doubtful whether the Roman felt the Iambic Trimeter as
did the Greek. In both Senarius and Trimeter the last foot is always
pure.
761. The Early Use {Sendrius).
Any substitution is allowed in any foot except the last.
Quamvis serm5n6sf possunt longi
texier, Pl., Trin., 797. >.^|>— | >^i>~ |>^lv^ —
Qui scire possis f aut ingenium
noscere, Ter., And., 53. > ^ j v^- — | > ^ | >v^w \ > x. \ w —
S(i) ux6ris f propter amoremf nQ-
lit ducere, Ter., And., 155. >.^|>— |^^^|>— i>^|w —
Di fortiinabuiitf vostra consili(a).
tta volo, Pl., Trin., 576. >^|>— |>.^|vy— | v/^Ow | ^~
E! r(ei) operam dare tef fuerat ali-
quant(o) aequius, Pl., Trin.,
Iig. > vl/v^ I >^^w I > Ovy I vy WW I > .^ I w —
Notes.— 1. In the Iambic measure two shorts at the end of a polysyllabic word
cannot stand in either Thesis or Arsis ; hence such feet as genera, ma I teria, would
not be allowable. But a Dactyl is sometimes found in the first foot (Ter., Eun., 348).
The two sliorts of a Thesis cannot be divided between two words, when the second word
la a polysyllable with the accent on the second syllable ; hence fingit amorem is
30
466
YERSIFICATIOIi.
faulty. The two shorts of an Arsis should not be divided between two words if the
first short ends a word ; but there are sundry exceptions ; especially the case where
two words are closely connected, as, for instance, a preposition and its case ; propter
amOreni.
2. The most frequent Cajsura is the semiqvindna. ]Vext comes the iemUeptehaiia,
which is usually accompar.ied by the semiterndria or by Diajresis after second foot.
Examples above.
3. Elision is more frequent in the Iambic Senarius than in the Dactylic Hexameter,
and occurs especially before the last and fifth Theses ; also not unfrequeiitly in tiie
fouith foot. The proportion of elision varies between Terence (four elisions in every
three verses) and Horace (one in five stichic verses, and one in seven in distichs).
4. Semi-hiatus (720), also called Graecdvicus or Legilimus, is very common both in
Thesis and Arsis ; Hiatus is also admitted at a cliange of speaker ; whether it is admis-
sible before proper names, foreign words, and in the principal Caesura, is still a matter
of dispute.
5. If the line is divided by the lemiqiiwdria Caesura, and the fifth foot is formed by
a single word, the second half of the third foot, together with the fourth, may be formed
by a single word only when that is a Cretic or a Fourth Paeon ; as, filius bonan fide
(Pl., Mo^t., 670). Thufi depinxti verbis prob§ would not be allowable for verbis
dgpinxti probe (Pl., Poeii., 1114).
6. To close the line with two Iambic feel was not allowable, except as follows : (1)
When the line ends with a word of four syllables or more. (2) When the line ends with
a Cretic word. (3) When the line ends with an Iambic word preceded by an anapaest
or Fourth Pason. (4) When a change of person precedes the sixth foot. (5) When
elision occurs in the fifth or sixth foot.
762. The Later Use (THme^er).
Sufs et ipsa f Roma viribus ruit ^ j- ^ — \ ^ j:. ^ — \ >^^w —
Heu mg per urbem f nam pudet
tanti mali > j- ^ — \ > ^ ^ — \ >_cw —
Dgripere lunam f vScibus possim
meis >vj/^w— \ > J. ^ — I >.x.w —
InfSmis Helenae f Castor oSensus
vicem >^v^^,^|>^v^— | >^w —
Optat quietemf Pelopis infidl pater > ^w— |>v^^w— | >^w —
Alitibus atque f canibuc homici-
d(am) Hectorem >^vyw— | wv^ww^v.^ | y ^ ^^ —
VectSbor humerisftunc eg(o) ini-
micis eques > .awww|>^www|>^w —
Pavidumque lepor;em) et f adve-
namlaque6 gpniem, Hor. ^-.^ -^v^ww|w^w — | w^ -i. w —
Anacrustic Scheme : w:— v./|— ^|— w|— |— ^|— A
Notes.— 1. The Iambic Trimeter, niien kept pure, has a rapid aggic ssi\ e movement.
Hence, it is thus used in lampoons and invectives. It admits the yijoiidce in the odd
places (first, third, fifth foot); the Tribrach in any but the h'.sl, though in Horace it is
excluded from the fifth foot ; the Dactyl in the first and third. The Anapaest is rare.
The Proceleusmaticus occurs only in Seneca and Terentianiis. When carefully
handled, the closing part of the verse is kept light, so as to preserve the character. The
VERSIFICATION-. 467
fifth foot is pure in Catullus, but is almost always a Spondee in Seneca and
Petronius.
2. Diaeresis at the middle of the verse is avoided. Short particles, which adhere
closely to the following word, do not constitute exceptions.
Laboriosa neccohors Ulixei, Hor.
Adulteretur etcolumba miluo, Hob,
In like manner oxpliun—
Eefertque tanta grexamicus ubera, Hor.
3. The Caesura is usually the semujmndria, but the sSmisepfSnaria is found also,
but either with the ^emiquwaria or with Diaeresis after the second foot.
4. The Sendrivs 2)urus, composed wholly of Iambi, is found first in Catullus (iv.
and XXIX.) ; also in Horace (E]X)d., xvi.), Vergil (Cat., 3, 4, 8), and the Priapea.
5. Of course, in the Anacrustic Scheme, the Caesura of the ordinary scheme becomes
Diaeresis.
Le : vis ere I pante II l3rDipha II desi I lit pe I de.
763. Iambic Trimeter Cataledic.
MeS renidet in domo lacunar w.z.w — kj ./. kj — ^ jl\j
ESgnmque pueris nee satelles Orel, Hor. >^^^w^^>^w — v^'-^^U
Anacrustic Scheme : :^w|— >j.2lw|— w|l^|— A (with
Syncope).
Notes.— This occurs in Horace (0., i. 4; 11. 18). No resolutions are found except in
the second line quoted, where pneris may be dissyllabic (27), and the Spondee alone is
used for the Iambus, mainly in the third foot. The Caesura is always fhniqnlndria.
764. Trimeter lamhicus Claudus (Choliambus) ; 8cazon
( = Hobbler) Hipponacteus.
Miser Catulle dgsinas ineptfre, Cat. w -£.^ — ^^v.^ — wjl^v-^
FulsSre quondam eandidi tibf 85l6s, Oat. > ^w — >^w — wjl^ —
Dominisparanturista; serviunt v5bIs,M art. v-a^ ^kj — ^jju-k^ — ^^^ —
Anacrustic Scheme : :^w|— l^v^-l— v^|^-^|-a. Tro-
chaic Trimeter with Anacrusis, Syncope, and Protraction.
Notes.— 1. In the Choliambus the rhythm is reversed at the close, by putting a Tro-
chee or Spondee in the sixth foot. The lighter the first part of the verse, the greater the
surprise. It is intended to express comic anger, resentment, disappointment.
2. This metre, introduced into Rome by Mattius, was used frequently by Catullus
and Martial. Persius also has it in his Prologue.
3. The Dactyl is occasional in the first and third feet, the Tribrach occurs very rarely
in the first, more often in the third and fourth, frequently in the second. The Spondee
is found in the first and third feet ; the Anapaest only in the first.
4. The Caesura is usually slmiqulndria, sometimes semiseptendHa, which is regu-
larly supported by Diaeresis after the second foot.
765. Iambic Quaterndrius {Dimeter).
Inarsit aestu5sius v^^w — <^.^v_^ —
Imbrgs nivesque eomparat > ^ v^ — w^w —
Videre properant6s domum w jl «^^^>^w —
Ast ego vicissim risero, Hon. > ^-^ w — > ^ v^ —
468 VERSIFICATIOIT.
Anacrustic Scheme :
vy • - w 1 - v^ I - ^ I - A
Note.— This verse is constructed according to the principles which govern the Sena-
riiis and Octonarius. It is rare in systems until the time of Seneca, and is usually
employed as a Clausula in connection with Octonarii and Septenarii (Plautus, Ter-
ence), Senarii (Horace), or Dactylic Hexameter (Horace).
766. lamhlc Terndrius {Dimeter Cataledic).
Id repperi i(am) exemplum >.^v.y — >^— or> : .z.w^>i-£ — /\
Note.— This verse is found mainly in Plautus and Terence, and used as a Clau-
sula to Bacchic Tetrameters (Plautus), Iambic Septenarii (Plautus) ; but twice in
Terence (^And., 485 ; Hec, 731). It is found in systems first in Petronius.
767. The lainhic Tripody Catalectic and the Dipody Aca-
talectic are found here and there.
Inops amStor, Trin., 256. Bonu(s) sit bonis, B., 660.
Trochaic Rhythms.
768. The Trochaic Rhythm is a descending rhythm, in
which the Thesis is double of the Arsis. It is represented.
By the Trochee : ^ w ;
By the Tribrach : o w w ;
By the Spondee : -^ — ;
By the Anapaest : >^w — ;
By the Dactyl -. ^ kj y^ .
By the Proceleusmaticus : v!/ ^ «^^.
Eemark. — The Spondee, Anapaest, Dactyl, and Proceleusmaticus are
all irrational and are accordingly measured — >, w<^>,^v^or— «^>^,
Kj\j Ky^ ; see 744.
769. Trochaic Octonarius {Tetrameter Acatalectic),
Scheme: ^ > _> ^ >_> 11 ^ > _> ^ > _>
KJ ^ KJ ^ » \J 'U Ky \y
Farce iam camoena vati || parce iam sacro furSrl. — Servius.
Date viam qua fiigere liceat, || facite, tStae plateae pateant, Pl. , Aul, , 407.
Note.— This verse belongs to the cantica of early Comedy. It is properly a com-
pound of two Quaternarii. Hence Hiatus and Syllaba Anceps are admitteci in the
Diaeresis. A fourth or sixth Thesis, formed by the last syllable of a word forming or
ending in a Spondee or Anapaest, was avoided, as was also a monosyllabic close. The
Substitutions were allowed in all feet except the eighth, where the Tribrach is rare.
770. Trochaic Septendrius { Tetrameter Catalectic),
\j \j ^ ^ ^ \j /\
Scheme: .^ > -> ^ > -> ^ >-> ^ ^-
VERSiriCATIO]!^-. 469
Cr& timet qui ntiinqu(ain) amavit I qiiiqu(e) amavit eras amet. — Pervig.
Yen.
Tu m(6) amoris magi' qu(am) honoris || servavisti gratia. — Ennius.
Vapular(e) ego tS vehementer | iubeo: ng me territes. — Plaut.
Notes.— 1. This is usually divided by a Diaeresis after the fourth Arsis into two
halves, with the license of a closing verse before the Diteresis ; tliis is often sup-
ported by Diaeresis after the second foot. Not unfrequently the line is divided by
Cuesura after the fourth Thesis, which may in this case be Ancepe or have Hiatus,
though not in Terence ; but other critics refuse to admit sucli a division, and prefer
Diaeresis after the fifth foot. The substitutions are allowable in any foot except the
seventh, which is regularly kept pure, though occasionally in early Latin a Tribrach or
a Dactyl occurs even here. But the Dactyl is rare in the fourth foot.
2. The rule for the words allowable after the shniqumaria Caesura in the Senarius
(761, N. 5) apply here after the Diaeresis, with the necessary modifications ; that is, the
second hemistich cannot be formed by a word occupying the fifth and the Thesis of the
sixth foot, followed by a word occupying the two succeeding half feet, unless the first
word is a Cretic or a Fourth Paeon.
3. In regard to the close the same rules apply as in the case of the Iambic Senarius
(761, N. 6) ; in regard to the fourth and sixth Theses the rules are the same as for the
Octonarius (769, N.).
4. The strict Septenarius of the later poets keeps the odd feet pure, and rigidly
observes th . Diieresis.
771. IVochaic Tetra?neter Claudus.
Hunc Ceres, cibi ministra, friigibus suts
porcet, Varro. .cw — \j ^ k^ — ^ jl. \^ — \^ a. j^\j
Note.— This verse is found only in the Menippean Satires of Vakbo, and is formed,
like the Iambic Senarius Claudus, by reversing the last two quantities.
772. Trochaic Quaternarius icitli Anacrusis.
Si fractus illabatur orbis, Hor. w:.^w| |.^wl— U
Note.— This occurs only in the Alcaic Strophe of Horace.
773. Trochaic Terndrius {Dimeter Catalectic),
Respice vgro Thespri5, Pl., Ep., 3. -<^w — > ^ w — /\
Non ebur nequ(e) aureum, Hor. ^w — w^w — /\
Note.— An uncommon measure, confined mainly to early poetry and to Horace ; it
is used as a Clausula between Tetrameters (Plautus) and Iambic Senarii Catalectic
(Horace), or in series. The third foot was kept pure ; also the others in the strict
measure.
774. The Trochaic Tripody Acatalectic {Ithyphallic),
Qu(om) ^sus est ut pudeat, Plaut., ^kj — >^^^
Note.— This is rare, and appears only in early Latin and as a Clausula, usually with
Cretics. Substitutions were allowable in everv foot.
470 VERSIFICATION.
776. Trochaic Tripody CcUalectic.
Ilheu, qu(ain) ego mails || perdidi modis,
Pl., Ps., 259. ^>v!/(^w^ I ^ \j ^ \j X.
Note.— This is found occasionally in early Latin ; usually two at a time, otherwise
as a Clausula. When the first word is a Cretic the line may end in two Iambi.
776. 'rrocliaic Dipodij {Mononieter).
Nimis inepta's, Pl., liud., 681. ^ ^^ ^ ^-^
NoTE.~Tl;ia is found occasionally as a Clausula with Cretic Tetrameters.
Anapaestic Rhythms.
777. The Anapaestic Rhythm is an ascending rhythm, in
which the Thesis is to the Arsis as 2 to 2. It is represented,
By the Anapaest : v.^ w ^ ;
By the Spondee : — ^ ;
By the Dactyl : -vi.^;
By the Proceleusrnaticus : w w v!/>^.
Notes.— 1. The Anapaestic measure is not uncommon in the Cantica of Plautus ;
but it is the metre most subject to license of all the early metres. Notice especially the
operation of the Iambic Law (716, 717) ; the common occurrence of Synizesis, of Dia-
stole, and les8 often of Syncope, etc.
2. Strict Anapaestic lines after the model of the Greek are found only in Varko,
Seneca, and later authors.
778. A napaestic Octondrlus ( Tetrameter Acatalectic) , and
Anapaestic Sejjtendrius {Tetrameter Catalectic).
Hostibus victis, civibiis salvis |j rS pla- —^^ v^w |
cida, pacibus perfectis, Pers., 753. — v!/-^ v^«^ ^
Septumas ess(e) aedis a porta f |] ub(i) — <^«^ j- |
ai(e) habitat Igno quoi iussit, Ps. , 597. v^v^vi/w jl
Ait illam miseram, crTiciar(i) et lacru- ^ w jl — <^w — o w |
mantem s(e) adfiictare, Pl. , 31. G. , 1032. v>'^^^ ^~~A
Erit et tib(i) 6xoptat(um) obtinget | bo- w ^ .^ w w ^ ||
n(um) hab(e) animum ne formida, Pl., w w ^^ — • ^ — T
M.G., 1 01 1.
Notes.— 1. These have regularly the Diaeresis after the fourth foot, dividing the
line into Quaternarii. Before the Diaeresis, the licenses of a closing foot (Hiatus and
Syllaba Anceps) are occasionally found.
2. In the Septenarius the seventh Thesis may be resolved, but the resolution of the
eighth in the Octonarius is avoided.
779. Anapaestic Trimeter Catalectic.
Ferspicio nihill meam v5s gratiam facere,
Pl., Owrc, 155. —^<u—^\j—^ '^\j—/\
Note.— This vei-se is very rare, and is denied by some critics ; it has the same treat-
ment as the !Sc])tcnarius.
VERSIFICATI01S-. 47 ^
780. Ayiapaestic Quaterndrius {Dimeter Acatalectic).
Venient annis II saecula sgris yj k^ jl. — — — ^^
Quibus Oceanus jj vincula r6rum ^ ^ x. v^v^— — ^<^
Laxet et ingens || pateat tellus — vr/w — — ^ w ^
Tethysque novos I detegat orbes — ^ww— — vi'w
Nee sit terns II ultima Thul€.— Sen. Trag. — ^ — — — ^^
Note.— This verse avoids resolution of the fourth Thesis ; Syllaba Anceps aud
Hiatus are rare.
781. Armpaestic Dimeter Catalectic {Paroemiac).
Volucer pede corpore pulcher v.yvy^«^«^ — wvy./Lv^
Lingua catus ore canSrus — j.^^ — ^kj^\j
Verum memorare magis quam — -s^v^v^ — ww.^v^
Functum laudare decebit. — Auson. — jt. — —^^^\j
Notes.— 1. This verse is not common except as the close of a system of Anapaestic
Acatalectic Dimeters. It allows in early Latin resolution of the third Thesis.
2. Latin Anapaests, as found in later writers, are mere metrical imitations of the
Greek Anapaests, and do not correspond to their original in contents. The Greek
Anapaest was an anacrustic dactylic measure or march (in J time). Hence the use of
Pause to bring out the four bars.
Paroemiacus : Anaa^usiic Scheme,
Volucer pede corpore pulcher \j ^ : —y^ \j j — v^v^ ] | —
A
Dimeter Acatalectic : Anacnu-tic Scheme,
Quibus Oceanus vincula rSrum v/v^:— ww | | w^— | —
The Arses of the last feet are supplied by the Anacrusis of the following verse,
782. Anapaestic Dipody {Monometer Acatalectic).
Omne paratumst, Pl., Men., 365 — vj/^— j-
NoTE, — This verse is found in anapaestic systems between Anapaestic Dimeters.
Dactylic Rhythms.
783. The Dactylic Rhythm is a descending rhythm, in
which the Thesis is equal to the Arsis (2 = 2).
The Dactylic Rhythm is represented by the Dactyl : -^^^^
Often, also, by the Spondee : ^— •
784. Dactylic {Heroic) Hexameter. — The Heroic Hexameter is com-
posed of two Dactylic tripod ics, the second of which ends in a Spondee.
Spondees may be substituted for the Dactyl in the first four feet ; in
the fifth foot, only when a special effect is to be produced. Such
verses are called Spondaic. The longest Hexameter contains five
Dactyls and one Spondee (or Trochee) — in all, seventeen syllables ; the
shortest in use, five Spondees and one Dactyl— in all, thirteen sylla-
472
VERSIFICATION.
bles. This variety in the length of the verse, combined with the great
number of caesural pauses, gives the Hexameter peculiar advantages
for continuous composition.
_ _ __ (_)
Scheme : — wv^|^ww|jlwv^[— ww|^v^v^|^ —
1. Ut fugiunt aquilas t timidissima !1 turba columbae. Ov.
2. At tuba terribili + sonitu I procul i! aere canoro. Veko.
3. Quadrupedante putrem t sonitu i quatit I ungula campum.
Verg. J
4. Cum medio celeres t revolant i exaequore mergi. Verg. i
5. Vastius insurggns + decimae I ruit 11 impetus undae. Ov. !- Four Dactyls.
6. Et reboat raucum 1 regio 1 cita ii barbara i bombum. Lucb. J
7. Muta metu terram 1 genibus t sumjnissa petSbat. Luck.
8. Inter cunctantSs t cecidit 1 moribunda ministr5s. Verg.
9. N§ turbata volent 1 rapidis t ludibria ventis. Verg.
Five Dactyls.
Three Dactyls.
10. Versaqu(e) in obnixSs t urgentur 1! cornua vasto. Verg.
11. Proc6ssit longg 1 flammantia 3 moenia mundl. Lucr.
12. Portam vi multa t converso i cardine torquet. Verg.
13. T6ct(um) august(um) ingens t centum sublime columnls.
Verg.
14. OUi respondit t RgxAlbai Longai. Ennius.
15. Aut I6v5s ocreas t lento t dticunt argents. Verg.
16. Sunt apud infernos t totjnilia formSsarum. Prop.
17. Aeriaeque Alpes + etnubifer !! Appennlnus. Ov.
18. PrScubuit viridi- 1 qu(e) injitore II conspicitur— sus. Verg.
19. Parturiunt months 1 nascgtur II ridiculus— mus. Hor.
Two Dactyls.
One Dactyl.
j- No Dactyl.
Spondaic
Verses.
Verg.
) Monosyllabic
' ending.
( Semiquin. and
' Bucolic.
[Third Trochee
\ and
i. Semisept.
1- Split in half.
\ Shivered,
[-a - sound.
I^e - sound.
}-8 - sound.
Notes.— 1. The two reigning ictuses are the first and fourth, and the pauses are so
arranged as to give special prominence to them— the first by the pause at the end of the
preceding verse, the fourth by pauses within the verse, both before and after the Thesis.
2. The principal Caesura is the shniqmndria or pen themimeral, i. e., after the Thesis
of the third foot, or Masculine Caesura of the third foot ; the next is the slmiseplinaria
or hepthemimeral^ after the Thesis of the fourth foot ; but usually supplementetl by the
simiterndna in the Thesis of the second or by one after the second Trochee ; then
the Feminine Caesura of the third foot, the so-called Third Trochee^ which is less used
among the Romans than among the Greeks. As Latin poetry is largely rhetorical,
and the Caesura is of more importance for recitjition than for singing, the Roman poets
are very exact in the observance of these pauses.
10 +G = 16 8
20. Nascere, praeque diem) veni6ns age, iLucifer,almum.
21. inslgnem pietate t virum 1 tot adire laborSs. Verg.
22. Et nigrae violae 1 sunt Ii et vaccinia 1 nigra. Verg.
23. Sparsis II hastis II longis II campus II splendet et horret. £n.
%^. Quamyis sint sub aqua sub aqua maledicere tentant. Ov.
25. Me m(§) adsum qui f5c(i) in m6 convertite ferrum. Verg.
26. Discissos nudds laniabant dentibus artus. Verg.
VERSIFICATIOK. 473
In verses with several Cfesnrae, the semisepiendria outranks the semigulndria, if it
precedes a period, and tlie latter does not, or if it is perfect and the latter is imperfect
(i.e., formed by tmesis or bj' elision) ; it also as a masculine Caesura outranks the Third
Trochee as a feminine. In other cr.ses there may be doubt ae to the principal Caesura.
3. The Diaeresis which is most carefully avoided is the one after the third foot,
especially if that foot ends in a Spondee, and the verse is thereby split in half.
Examples are found occasionally, and if the regular Caesura precedes, the verse is
not positively faulty.
His lacrimis vitam t damus !! — et miser escimus ultro.— Verg.
It is abominable wlien no otlier Caesura proj^er is combined with it.
Poeni pervortent§3 :: omnia II circumcursant.— Pseudo-Ennius (Mekula).
On the other hand the Diuiresis at the end of the fourth foot divides the verse into
proportionate parts (sixteen and eight morae, or two to one), and gives a graceful tro-
chaic movement to the hexameter. This is called the Bucolic Caesura, and while com-
mon in Greek, is not so in Latin even in bucolic poetry. Juvenal, however, is fond of
it, showing one in every fifteen verses.
Ite domum saturae I venit Hesperus II Ite capellae.— Verg.
4. Verses without Caesura are very rare ; a few are found in Ennius (see No. 23) and
LuciLTus. Horace uses one designedly in A. P., 263.
5. Elision is found most often in Vergil (one case in every two verses) and least
often in Lucan (leaving out Ennius and Claudian). Catullus, Juvenal, Horace,
Ovid stand about midway between these two extremes. It is very rare in the Thesis
of the first foot, and is found oftencst in the following order : the Thesis of the second
foot, the Arsis of the fourth, the Arsis of the first, the Thesis of the third.
G. Simple Hiatus is very rare in lines composed wholly of Latin words, except at the
principal Caesura ; it is found after a final short syllable (excluding -m) but twice (V.,
Ec, II. 53 ; A., I. 405) ; after a long monosyllable (omitting Interjections and a) but
once (V., A., iv. 235). But before the principal Caesura, or if the line contains a Greek
word, examples are not very uncommon. Vergil has altogether about forty cases ;
Horace shows two cases {S., 1. 1, 108 ; Epod.^ 13, 3) ; Catullus two in the Hexameter
of the Elegiac Distich (66, 11 ; 107, 1); Propertius one (iii. 7, 49).
7. Of Semi-hiatus Vergil shows some ten examples at the close of the Dactyl, but all
of Greek words except yl., iii. 211 ; Ec.^ 3, 79 ; there are occasional examples elsewhere,
as in Propertius, Horace, etc. There are also several examples of Semi-hiatus after a
monosyllable in the first short of the Dactyl, aa : Cat., xcvii. i ; V., ^., vi. 507 ; IIor.,
yS., 1. 9, 38. Hiatus after num occurs in HoR., *S'., 11. 2, 28.
8. Vergil is fond of Diastole, showing fifty-seven cases, all except three (.4., iii.
464, 702 ; XII. 648) of syllables ending in a consonant ; Horace, in Satires and Epistles,
has eleven, once only of a vowel (6'., 11. 3, 22) ; Catullus, three ; Propertius, three ;
TiBULLUS, four ; Martial (in the Distich), two ; Vergil also lengthens que sixteen
times, but only when que is repeated in the verse, and before two consonants or a
double consonant (except .1., iii. 91) ; Ovid exercises no such care.
9. A short syllable formed by a final short vowel remains short before two con-
sonants, of which the second is not a liquid (mainly sc, sp, St), especially in the fifth
foot, less often in the first. Lucilius, Lucretius, and Ennius have numerous exam-
ples of this ; Vergil but one case (.4., xi. 309), except before z ; Horace has eight
cases in the Satires ; Propertius six ; Tibullus two cases, one before smaragdos.
10. A Hexameter should close (a) with a dissyllable preceded by a polysyllable of at
least three syllables, or (b) with a trisyllable preceded by a word of at least two syllables.
The preposition is proclitic to its case. Exceptions to this rule are common in early
Latin, but decrease later. Thus Ennius shows fourteen per cent, of exceptional lines.
In later times artistic reasons sometimes caused the employmant even of a monosyllable
at the end (see exs. 18, 19).
11. Spondaic lines are exceptional in Ennius and Lucretius, more common in
474 VERSIFICATION".
Catullus, rare in Vergil, Ovid, Horace, never in Tibullus. The stricter poets
required that in this case the fourth foot should be a Dactyl, and then the two last feet
were usually a single word. Entirely Spondaic lines are found in Ennius (three cases,
as Ann., i. 66, m.) and Cat. (ii6, 3).
12. Ennius shows three peculiar cases of the resolution of the Thesis in the Dactyl,
Aim., 267 ; Sat., 53 and 59.
13. Hypermetrical verses running into the next by Synapheia are rare ; e.g.. Luck.,
V. 846 ; Cat., 64, 298 ; 115, 5. Vergil has twenty cases, usually involving que or ve,
but twice -m {A., vii. 160 ; G., i., 295) ; three other cases are doubtful. Horace hns
two cases (in the Satii-es), Ovid three, Valerius Flaccus one, Horace has also
four cases of two verses united by tmesis of a compound word.
14. Pure dactylic lines are rare ; the most usual forms of the first four feet of the
Btichic measure are these : dsss, 15 per cent. ; dsds, 11.8 per cent. ; ddss, 11 per cent. ;
SDss, 10 per cent. The most uncommon are ssdd, 1.9 per cent. ; sddd, 2 per cent. The
proportion of Spondee to Dactyl in the first four feet varies from 65.8 per cent, of
Spondee in Catullus to 45.2 per cent, in Ovid. The following statements are from
Drobisch : (a) Excepting Ennius, Cicero, and Silius Italicus, Latin poets have
more Dactyls than Spondees in the first foot, {b) Excepting Lucretius, more Spon-
dees in the second, (c) Excepting Valerius Flaccus, more Spondees in the third,
(rf) Without exception, more Spondees in the fourth.
15. Much of the beauty of the Hexameter depends on the selection and arrangement
of the words, considered as metrical elements. The examples given above have been
chosen with especial reference to the picturesque effect of the verse. Monosyllables at the
end of the Hexameter denote surprise ; anapaestic words, rapid movement, and the like.
Again, the Hexameter- may be lowered to a conversational tone by large masses of
Spondees, and free handling of the Caesura. Compare the Hexameters of Horace in
the Odes with those in the Satires.
785. Elegiac Pentameter {Catalectic Trimeter repeated).
The Elegiac Pentameter consists of two Catalectic Trimeters or Pen-
themimers, the first of which admits Spondees, the second does not.
There is a fixed Diasresis in the middle of the verse, as marked above,
which is commonly supplemented by the semiterndria Cassura. The
Pentameter derives its name from the old measurement: — w v.^,— w v^,
,w>^— ,v^w— ; and the name is a convenient one, because the
verse consists of 2^ + 2^ Dactyls. The Elegiac Distich is used in sen-
timental, amatory, epigrammatic poetry.
The musical measurement of the Pentameter is as follows :
— w>^ I — wv^ |i — I II — v^w I WW I
A
This shows why neither Syllaba Anceps nor Hiatus is allowed at the
Diaeresis, and explains the preference for length by nature at that point.
At dolor in lacrimas I verterat onine
m.er'uiii, Tib. .z. w w .^ w w -^
Ml legat et lectd || carmine doctus
amet, Ov. .^ w w -^ — .^
At nunc barbarigs || grandis habere
nihil, Ov. ^ — ^ w w ^
Concessum nulls || lige redibit iter,
Pkop. X. — jl. — ^
jL. \^ KJ ^ <J \J JL
VERSIFICATION". 475
The Elegiac Pentameter occurs only as a Clausula to the Heroic
Hexameter, Avith whicli it forms the Elegiac Distich. Consequently the
sense should not run into the following Hexameter (exceptions rare) :
Saep(e) ego tentavi curas depellere vino
At dolor in lacrimas || verterat onine merum, Tib.
Ingenium quondam fuerat pretiosius auro
At nunc barbaries I grandis habere nihil, Ov.
Par erat inferior versus : risisse Cupido
Dicitur atque unum \\ surripuisse pedem, Ov.
Saep(e) ego cum dominae dulces a limine duro
Agnosco voces || haec negat esse domi, Tib.
Notes.— 1. In the first two feet of the Pentameter, which alone can suffer variation,
the forms are as follows : ds, 46 per cent. ; dd, 24.5 per cent. ; ss, 16 per cent, ; sd, 13.5
far cent. Catullus, however, has ss, 34.5 per cent.
2. Elision is rare, especially in the second hemistich. When it occurs it is generally
m the first Arsis or second Thesis, and usually affects a short vowel or -m. Catullus
shows the greatest proportion of examples, Ovid the smallest. Except in Catullus and
Lygdamus there are fewer cases of Elision in the Pentameter than in the Hexameter.
3. Elision and Diastole in the Diiieresis are rare. Catullus especially, and Pro-
PERTius occasionally, have Elision. Propertius and Martial show each two cases
of Diastole (Prop., n. 8, 8 ; ii. 24, 4 ; Mart., ix. ioi, 4 ; xiv. 77, 2).
4. A final short vowel before two consonants, one of which is a liquid or s, is
lengthened twice in Tibullus, and remains short once in Propertius (Tib., 1.5, 28 ;
1.6,34; Prop., IV. 4, 48).
5. Dialysis occurs in compounds of solvo and volv5 ; as. Cat., 66, 74 ; Tib., i. 7, 2, etc.
6. In the strict handling of the Pentameter by Ovid, the rule was that it g-hould
close with a dissyllable. So in his Amores^ Ovid shows no example of any other end-
ing ; and in his Tristia the proportion is one in one hundred and forty lines. In ear-
lier times, however, there was no especial avoidance of polysyllabic endings, though
more are found in Catullus than in any other author. Peculiar is Propertius, who,
while almost equalling Catullus in his disregard of the law of the dissyllabic ending
in the first book, equals the Tristia of Ovid in the observance of it in his fourth.
With dissyllabic ending the prevailing forms of the second Hemistich are — "^ ^ y — ^ i
^ — , and — >^ , ^ — "-^ , ^ — , but Tibullus and Ovid, and in less degree Catul-
lus, employ quite often — ^ "->' — "^ , "^ — and — , ^ "^ y — ^ j ^ —.
786. Dactylic Tetrameter A cat. {metrum Alcmdnium).
Nunc decet aut viridi nitidum caput .^lv^v^.a-^v^^wv^^v^o-
Pallida mors aequS pulsat pede ^^^ kj j-— ^— j-^ kj
Vitae stimma brevis spem n6s vetat ^— ^ k^ •^ -c.— ^^ ^
This verse occurs mainly in combination with an Ithyphallic to form the Greater
Archilochian verse ; occasionally in stichic composition in Seneca ; also in Ter.,
And., 625.
787. Dactylic Tetrameter Cat. in Dissyllaium (Archi-
lochium).
Aut Epheson bimarisve Corinthl .s. ^u kj m k^ \^ ^ \j '^ j:.Tj
fortes peiSraque passi ji.— .z
Mlusorem cohibent Archyta, Hor
.£. \J \J ^ KJ
.S. \J \J .£. -^ V^
476 VERSIFICATION".
Note.— This line, which only occurs in the Alcmardan System, may also Ix; looked
upon as an Acatalectic Tetrameter with a spondaic close.
788. Dactylic Trifiieter Gatalectic in Syllaham {Lesser
Arcliilocliian),
Pulvis et umbra sumus, Hor. ^ ku kj jh. kj kj ^
Note.— This line occurs mainly in the first three Archilochian Strophes.
789. Dactylic Dimeter Catalectic in DissyUabum {Adonic).
Temiit urbem, Hor. .^ v^ ^ ^ »^
Note.— Though generally measured thus, this verse is properly logaoedic, and will
recur under that head (792). It occurs mainly in the Sapphic stanza, and at the close
of series of Sapphic Hendecasyllabics in Seneca.
Logaoedic Rhythms.
790. The Logaoedic Rhythm is a peculiar form of the Tro-
chaic rhythm, in which the Arsis has a stronger secondary-
ictus than the ordinary Trochee.
Instead of the Trochee, the cyclic Dactyl or the irrational
Trochee may be employed. This cy clic D actyl is represented
in morae by 1|, J, 1 ; in music, by J^ = j\, j\, i.
When Dactyls are employed, the Trochee preceding is
called a Basis, or Tread, commonly marked x . If the basis
is double, the second is almost always irrational in Latin
poetry. Instead of the Trochee, an Iambus is sometimes
prefixed. Anacrusis and Syncope are also found.
Remarks. — i. Logaoedic comes from Aoyo?, prose, and aoihrj,
song, perhaps because the rhythms seem to vary as in prose.
2. Dactyls are usually, but not necessarily, employed.
No Dactyl.
791. Alcaic Enneasyllahic.
Si fractus illabatur orbis, TTor. ^: m k^ ^^ ^^ ^\j
Note.— The Anacrusis should be long. Horace shows no exceptions in the fourth
book and very few in the first three. The regular Csesura is the seniiq'uwdna.
One Dactyl.
792. Add7iic.
Terruit urbem, Hor. -<^ ^ | ^ -^ [
Note.— Elision is not allowed in this verse. As far as its formation is concerned, it
should consist either of a dissyllable + a trisyllable, or the reverse. Proclitics and
enclitics go with their principals.
VERSIFICATIOIf. 477
793. Aristophanic (Choriambic).
Lydia die per omnfe, Hor. ^<j \ -^ ^ | uz. j ^
Note.— ThiB verse occurs mainly in the lesser Sapphic Strophe of Hoeacb.
One Dactyl, with Basis.
794. Pherecratean.
X
Nigris aequora ventis, Hor. j:. > | Ay w j u^ | —
Note.— This verse occurs in the fourth Asclepiadlan Strophe of Horace ; also in
Catullus (xvii.) and the Priapla. No Elision is allowed by Horace, and there is no
regular CiEsura.
795. Glyconic.
llmirabitur insol^ns, Hor. ■£-> \ -^^ \ j-kj \ —
Note.— This occurs in the second, third, and fourth AsdtpiaMan strophes of
Horace ; also in Catullus (xvii.) and the Priap^a. There is generally the shmtefi^-
nana Caesura ; occasionally instead of it a Second Trochee. Elision of long syllables
is very rare in Horace ; Elision of a short before the long of the Dactyl more often.
Horace also shows occasional liberties, such ae Diastole (<?., iii. 24, 5), Dialysis (<?., i.
23, 4), and lines ending with monosyllables ((?., i. 3, 19 ; 1. 19, 13 ; iv. i, 33).
796. Phaldecean {Hendecasyllabic).
X
Passer mortuus est meae puellae. ^
Arida mode pdniic(e) expolltum ^ >'' ^^ \ j^ ^ \ ^ ^ \
Tuae Lesbia sint satis superque. Cat. v^ : 1—
Notes.— 1. This verse, introduced into Latin by Laevius, was used very often by
Catullus, Martial, Pliny Minor, Petronius, and Statius, as well as in the PtiH-
pia and elsewhere.
2. In Greek the Basis was not unfreqnently an Iambus. So, too, in Catullus,
but the tendency in Latin was to make it a Spondee ; thus, in the Pi'iapSa, Petronius,
and Martial it is always so, while Statius has but one case of a Trochee, and AusoNiua
but one of an Iambus.
3. The principal Ca^ura is the slmiguind.na; but Catullus uses also almost as fre-
quently Diaeresis after the second foot. Occasionally there is a Diaeresis after the third
foot, supplemented by a Second Trochee Caesura.
. 4. Elision is very common in Catullus ; in the Pfiapia, Martial, and later it is
very rare, if we exclude Aphaeresis from consideration. Hardening (723) is occasional,
and Catullus shows a few cases of Semi-hiatus. A monosyllabic ending is very rare,
with the exception of es and est-
5. Catullus, in 55, apparently shows a mixture of regular Phalaeceana and spurious
Phalaeceans in which the Dactyl is supplanted by a Spondee. The poem is still under
discussion.
One Dactyl, with Double Basis-
797. Sapphic {Hendecasyllahic).
X X
Audiet Gives f acuisse ferrum, Hor. — »-^ j — > j — \ ^.a^ \ —\j\—\j
Notes. — 1. In the Greek measure, often retained in Catullus, the Dactyl is
ured -»^ o- ; in Horace, owing to a strong Ciesura after the long it Is regularly v-a^.
478 VERSIFICATION.
Further, Catullus, like the Greeks, employed occasionally a Trochee in the second
foot ; Horace made it a rule to employ bn\y a Spondee there.
2. The regular Caesura in Latin is the shmquindria ; but the Third Trochee (784,
N. 2) is found not unfrequently in Catullus and Horace, but not later. The usage
of Horace is peculiar in this respect : In the first and second books there are seven
cases in two hundred and eighty-five verses ; in the third none at all ; in the fourth
twenty-two in one hundred and five verses ; in the Carmen Scecitlare nineteen in
fifty-seven verses.
3. Elision is very common in Catullus, but occurs in Horace only in about one
verse in ten. Later usage tends to restrict Elision. Licenses are extremely rare in the
classical period. So Horace shows one example of Diastole (0., ii. 6, 14). Mono-
syllabic endings are not common, but the word is usually attached closely with what
precedes. The last syllable is regularly long.
4. Seneca shows some peculiarities : occasionally a Dactyl in the second foot, or a
Spondee in the third ; occasionally also Dialysis.
One Dactyl with Double Basis and Anacrusis.
798. Alcaic (Greater) Hendeeasyllahic.
Vides nt alta | stet nive candidum >:^v^ [ ^> \ ^k^ | ^w | jl /\
Soracte nee iaiu || sustineaut onus, Hor.
Notes.— 1. The second Basis is always a Spondee ; the few exceptions having been
emended. The Anacrusis is regularly long ; Horace shows no exception in the fourth
book and very few in the first three. The last syllable may be long or short.
2. The regular Caesura is a Diaeresis after the second foot ; Horace shows but two
exceptions in six hundred and thirty-four verses (O., i. 37, 14 ; iv. 14, 17). A few others
show imperfect Csesurae, as O., 1. 16, 21 ; i. 37, 5 ; 11. 17, 21.
3. In regard to Elision, the facts are the same as in the case of the Sapphic.
4. Licenses are not common : Diastole occurs in H., 0., in. 5, 17 ; Hardening
(72S) occurs in H., 6>., iii. 4, 41 ; iii. 6,6. Tmesis is not unfrequent in forms of
quicunic[ue (H., 0.,i. 9, 14 ; 1. 16, 2 ; i. 27, 14).
Two Dactyls.
799. -Alcaic (Lesser) or Decasyllabic.
Vertere funeribns trinmphos, Hor. a^«^ \ -^y^ \ j-\j \ s.^'
NoTB.— The Caeenra is regularly the shniternaria, occasionally the Second Trochee.
Elision occurs a little less often in this measure than in the Hendeeasyllahic. The last
syllable is usually long. Diastold occurs in H., 0., 11. 13, 16.
In all these, the Dactyl has a diminished value. More questionable
is the iogaoedic character of the Greater Archilochian :
800. Archilochian (Greater) = Dactylic Tetrameter and
Trochaic Tripody.
Solvitur ^cris hiems gratS vice | v^is et Fav^nl, Hok,
VERSIFICATIOIS'. 479
If measured logaoedically, the two shorts of the Dactyl must be re-
duced in value to one {y.^ = w), and the logaoedic scheme is
Logaoedic tetrapody + Logaoedic tetrapody with Syncope.
Note.— Diaeresis is always found after the fourth foot, which is always Dactylic.
The principal Caesura is the semiqianaria. In the third foot a Spondee is preferred,
whereas the Greek model has more often the Dactyl.
801. Chorimnhic Rhythms. —When a logaoedic series is
syncopated, apparent choriambi arise. Wiiat is [ -^^ | l_ |
seems to be — ww— . Genuine choriambi do not exist in
Latin, except, perhaps, in the single line Pl., Men., no.
802. Asclepiadean (Lesser).
This verse is formed by a Catalectic Pherecratean followed by a
Catalectie Aristophanic.
MaecSnSs atavis || Sdite regjbos, ^
HOR, — > l^v^ |i_^[|Aj,^ I ^v^ [ ^.
Notes.— 1. There should he Diaeresis, complete or incomplete (i.e., weakened hy
Elision), between the two halves. Only two exceptions are cited (H., 0., ii. 12, 25 ; iv.
8, 17). The Caesura is regularly the sSmUer?td?ia in Horace, less often the Second
Trochee.
2. Elision occurs about as often as in the Elegiac Pentameter. It occurs most often
in the first Dactyl and in the stichic measure. The final syllable may be short or
long ; but a monosyllable is rare. Licenses are likewise rare, as Diastole (H., 0., i.
3,36).
803. Asclepiadean {Greater).
Niillani Vare sacra \\ vfte prius f s^veris arborem, Hor.
X
Note.— This verse differs from the preceding by having a Catalectic Adonic (792)
inserted between the two halves. Diaeresis always separates the parts in Horace. The
rules of Elision are the same as in the preceding verse.
804. Sapphic {Greater).
Ti deQs orS Sybarin \ cur properas amando, Hor.
X X
^ \^ I .z.> |Ayw |i-^||-^v.y I ^w ji-^l — A
Note.— This verse differs from the lesser Sapphic by the insertion of a catalectic
Adonic. It is found only in Horace (0., i. 8). Diaeresis always occurs after the fourth
foot, and there is also a semiquindria Caesura.
480 VERSIFICATION.
805. Pridpean {Glyconic + Pherecratean).
Hunc lucum tibi dedico j] consecroque Priape, Cat.
X X
Note.— Diaeresis always follows the Glyconic, but neither Hiatus nor Syllaba Anceps
is allowable. The verse occurs in Cat. 17 and Pj^iap. 85.
Cretic and Bacchic Rhythms.
806. These passionate rhythms are found notunfrequently
in Plautus and occasionally elsewhere. They both belong
to the Quinqnepartite or Five-Eighths class.
The distribution of the Creticus is 3 + 2 morae.
The metrical value of the Creticus is — ^ - (Amphimacer).
For it may be substituted the First Paeon, — ^ ^ w, or the
Fourth Paeon, v-^ w ^— .
Note.— Double resolution in the same foot is not allowable, and there is rarely more
than one resolution in a verse. Instead of the middle short an irrational long is some-
times found.
807. I'etrameter Acatalectic. j-i> j- \ j. ^ ^ \ ^ ^^ jl | ^ kj ^
Ex boni3 p8ssum(i) et fraudulentissumi, Pl., Capt., 235.
Note.— Resolution is not allowed at the end nor in the second foot immediately be-
fore a Ciesura. The Arsis immediately preceding (i.e., of the second and fourth foot)
is regularly pure.
808. Tetrameter Catalectic. ^ kj j- \ ^kj j- \ ^kj ^ \ ^ —
Da ini(lii) h6c mel meum si in(g) amgs s(i)aud6s, Pl., Trin., 244.
Note.— The existence of such lines is disputed, but the balance of authority seema
to be in favor of recognizing them.
809. Dimeter Acatalectic.
Iir6sce salt(eni) hunc quis est, Pl., Ps., 262. jc ^ jl \ ^kj j.
Note.— This vei-se is found usually at the close of a Cretic system, or with Trochaic
Septenarii. It follows the same rules as the Tetrameter, that is, the last long is not
resolved and the second Arsis is kept pure.
810. Acatalectic Cretic Trimeters are rare and not always certain.
Compare Pl., Trin., 267, 269, 271 ; Ps., 1119 ; Most., 338 ; Cata-
lectic Trimeters and Dimeters are even more uncertain. Compare Pl.,
Trin., 275 ; True, 121.
811. The Bacchius has the following measure : v^ ^ ^, = 1 +
2 + 2 morae (J"J J), or if the descending form -^ ^ w be re-
garded as the normal one 2+2 + 1 morae (jj/^).
VERSIFICATION". 48 1
Fcr the long two shorts are sometimes siibstituted. On the other
hand, an irrational long may be used for the short, and occasionally
two shorts are also thus used.
812. Bacchic Tetrameter.
Quibus nee locust ullu' nee spgs parata ^ ^ j. \ \j j- j- \ kj j. jl | ^^6
Misericordior nulla mist fgminanim \^ o \j j. | kj x. ^ \ ^ x. ^ \ ^^6
Note.— In this verse there is usaally a Caesura after either the second or third
Iambus ; rarely Diairesis after the second Bacchius. The Arsis is kept pure in the
second and fourth feet if the following long closes a word. Not more than one dissyl-
labic Arsis is allowable. Usually there is only one resolved Thesis, very rarely two,
never more than three.
813. Dimeter Acatalectic.
Ad aetat(em) agundam, Pl., Trin,, 232. \j x. x. \ kj x. x.
Note.— This is rare except at the close of a Bacchic series, to form the transition
to another rhythm.
814. Bacchic Hexameter oceuvs in nine lines in a monologue in Pl.,
Am., 633-642. Hypennetric combination into systems is found in Pl,,
3Ie7i., 571 ff, and Varro, Sat., p. 195 (r.).
Ionic Rhythm.
815. The Ionic Rliytlim is represented by lonicus a mfiiore
^ ^ J J jj For the lonicus a maiore may be substituted
the Ditrochaeus — w — v./. This is called Anaclasis {hreaJcing-
up).
The verse is commonly anacrustic, so that it begins with
the thesis ^ w .- — . Such verses are called Ionic! a minore.
The second long has a strong secondary ictus.
In the early Latin, beginning with Ennius, the verse was used with
much license. Resolution of the long syllables was common as well as
the use of irrational long, and the contraction of two short syllables
into a long. Horace alone shows the pure Ionic.
The lonicus is an excited measure, and serves to express the frenzy
of distress as well as the madness of triumph.
816. Tetrameter Catalectic Ionic a maiore (Sotadean).
This measure, introduced by Ennius, Avas used with great freedom
by the earlier poets ; but a stricter handling is found in later Latin
poets, as Petronius, Martial, etc.
31
482 VERSIFICATION.
Nam quam varia sint genera
poematorum, Baebi, ^ — v^ v^w | j- ^kj wv^ | .^.w — > I ^ /\
Quamque longe discinct(a) ali(a)
ab aliis, sic nSsce. — Accius. ^w — > | ^ — v^w | ^wv^ — > 1 ^a
Later Latin :
The most common scheme is the pure Ionic with Anaclasis, espe-
cially in the third foot. Irrational longs are not used, and there is
rarely more tlian one resolution, as : ^^^— w w or — v_/v^ w w.
Molles vetergs DeliacI manu recisi ^ — ww^ — ww^^^v^^ —
ter corripui terribilem manu bipennem. ^ — ww^— wv^^w^^w^ —
— Prop.
817. A combination of the Ionic a mciidre into systems is found in
Laevius, who has a system of ten followed by a system of nine. Some
traces of similar arrangement have been observed in the Satires of
Varro.
818. Tetrameter Cataledic Ionic a mitiore {Galliamhic).
This verse was introduced by Varro in his Me?iippea?i Satires, and
appears also in Catullus, 63, and in some fragments of Maecenas.
In Catullus the two short syllables may be contracted (ten times
in the first foot, six times in the third), and the long may be resolved,
but not twice in the same Dimeter (except 63), and very rarely in the
first foot of the second Dimeter (once in 91), but almost regularly in
the penultimate long. Diaeresis between the two Dimeters is regular.
Anaclasis is found in the majority of the lines ; regularly in the first
Dimeter (except 18, 54, 75).
The frequent resolutions and conversions give this verse a peculiarly
wild character.
Ordinary Scheme :
Without Anaclasis :
With Anaclasis :
Anacrustic ScJie'^e :
Without Anaclasis : kj kj : ^ — kj ^ | ^— f«^w | j:. — kj^ (r,._j
With Anaclasis : w -^ : ^ w — ^ | ^--\^ w | ^ v^ — v j ixj — j|
Et ear(um) omni(a) adirem furi-
bunda latibula v^o-^ — kj kj ^ — wv^^v^\^<^v^^
Qu5 nCs decet citatis celerare tri-
pUdiis — -^ ^ — w^ — wvy^vyvyv^w.^
ItaqTi(e) ut domum Cyb6b6s teti-
gere lassulae ^^^>^^v^ — \j ^ — <^ v^jlw — w-c
: \j \j ^ — Kj Kj JL — \j \j J. — \j Kj x.
'U \J ^ \J \J ^ \^ \J ^ \J <J ^ .
VERSIFICATION". 483
Super alta vectus Attis celeri rate
maria ^ ^ jl kj — \j ^ — kj\j^kj\^\j\j.c
lam iam dolet quod eg! iam iam-
que paeuitet. — Cat. — ^v^ — <^^ jl kj — ^ j^
819. Dimeter Catalectic Ionic a minare (Anacreotitic).
This verse is found first in Laevius, then in Seneca, Petronius,
and later. Anaclasis is regular in the first foot. The long syllable
may be resolved, or the two shorts at the beginning may be contracted.
The verse may end in a Syllaba Anceps.
Vener(em) igitur alm(um) adSrans wwvi/»^w^w^ —
Seu fgnun(a) isve mas est — ^ w ^ vy ^ —
It(a) ut alba Noctilucast. wv^-^v^^iw^ —
Note.— Owing to the similarity of the verse to the Iambic Quaternarius Catiilectic it
is also called the Ilemiambic.
Compound Verses.
820. lambelegus {Iambic Dimeter and Dactylic Trimeter Cat.).
This verse occurs only in the second Archilochian Strophe of
Horace, and is often scanned as two verses :
Tu vina Torquatd mov3 {{ consule pressa mc6. — Hor.
821. Elegiamhus {Dactylic Trimeter Cat. and Iambic Dimeter).
This verse occurs only in the third Archilochian Strophe of Horace,
and is often scanned as two verses :
Dgsinet imparibus || certare submStuspudor.— Hor.
A
>
Ji. w
I -.11
822. yersus Reizianus {Iambic Dimeter and Ariapaestic Tripody
Catalectic).
Redi, qu6 fugis nunc ? ten6 tenS. || Quid stolidg clamas 1
Qui(a) ad tris viros i(am) ego dsferam || Nomen ttiOm. Qu(am) obrem 1
Pl., Aul., 415.
K.KJ JL 'U > \1/ \^ \J — II ^ \J ^ —
V-A^ ^ <^ KJ KJ ^ \J II ^ ^ —
Note.— From the time of Reiz, after whom this verse has been named, it has l>een
the subject of a great deal of discussion. In regard to the first part of the verse there
484 . VERSIFICATION".
is considerable unanimity, in regard to the second opinions differ. Some regard It as
an Iambic Dimeter Catalectic Syncopated (^^ j^ ^ l^ jl >u ) ; others as an Iambic
Tripody Catalectic (v^^w^ — /\). Spengel regards it as a Hypercatalectic Ana-
paestic Monometer, and he has been followed with a variation in the nomenclature in
the above scheme. Leo regards it as Logaoedic. The most recent view (Ivlotz)
regards it as sometimes Logaoedic, and sometimes Anapaestic.
823. I- Plautus shows several verses compounded of a Cretie Di-
meter and a Catalectic Trochaic Tripody. These verses are usually,
but not always, separated by Diaeresis. Examples : Ps., 1285, 12S7.
2. Some authorities consider verses like Pl., 3Iost., 693, Bud., 209,
compounded of a Cretie Dimeter and a Clausula. Others regard them
as Catalectic Cretie Tetrameters.
The Cantica of Early Latin.
824. The construction of the Cantica (in the narrow sense) of
Plautus and Terence is still a matter of dispute. Three opinions
have been advanced. One looks at them as antistrophic, following
the scheme a.b.b. ; others hold that the scheme is a.b.a. The third
view is that with some exceptions the Cantica are irregular composi-
tions, without a fixed principle of responsion.
In Terence, Trochaic Octonarii are always followed by Trochaic
Septenarii, and very frequently the Trochaic Septenarii are followed
by Iambic Octonarii. In Plautus there are long series of Cretie and
Bacchic verses, and sometimes these alternate, without, however, any
regular scheme, with other verses.
A Bacchic Trochaic Canticum is found in Pl., -Sferc, 335-363, as
follows : I. 2 Bacc. Tetram. ; II. 4 Anap. Dim.; III. i Troch. Octon.;
IV, 13 Bacc. Tetram.; V. i Troch. Octon.; VI. 2 Bacc. Tetram.; VII.
1 Troch. Octon. ; VIII. 2 Bacc. Tetram. ; IX. 2 Troch. Octon.
A Trochaic Iambic Canticum is Ter., Ph., 153-163. A. 153-157:
2 Troch. Octon.; i Troch. Sept.; i Iamb. Octon. B. 158-163; i Troch.
Octon. ; 2 Troch. Sept. ; 3 Iamb. Octon. ; i Iamb. Quater. (Clausula).
The Cantica of Later Latin.
825. I- The Cantica of Seneca are composed mostly in Anapaestic
Dimeters, closed frequently, though not necessarily, by a Monometer.
A Dactyl is common in the first and third feet. The Spondee is like-
wise very common, a favorite close being — v^ »^ — ji . The Diaeresis
between the Dimeters is regular. Examples : fferc. Fur., 125-203.
In Ag., 310-407, Dimeters and Monometers alternate.
2. Iambic Dimeters, occasionally alternating with Trimeters, but
usually stichic, are found occasionally ; as Med., 771-786.
VERSIFICATION". 485
3. Peculiar to Seneca is the use of a large variety of Logaoedic
measures in his Cantica. So we find not unfrequently the following
in stichic repetition: Lesser AsclepiadSans, Glyconics, Sapphic Hen-
decasyllabics, Adonics, and other imitations of lioratian measures ;
but there are few traces of antistrophic arrangement.
Lyric Metres of Horace.
826. In the schemes that follow, the Roman numerals refer to
periods, the Arabic to the number of feet or bars, the dots indicate
the end of a line.
I. Asclepiadean Strophe No. 1. Lesser Asclepiadean Verse (803
repeated in tetrastichs.
X
— > I ^v^ ( l_ I -xy^ I -w I -^ II 3
-> 1-^^ l^ll-^w 1-^ I -^ 11
3
-> I -^w |._1|^^ I -^ I -^ I 3
-> l-^l-i-w I-.. 1-^11
0.,i. i; III. 30; IV. 8.
3
II. Asclepiadean Strophe No. 2. Glyconics (795) and Lesser
Asclepiadean (802) alternat?ing, and so forming tetrastichs.
-> i--- I'- II--- I— i -/^ll I
-> I ^w I -w I -^ I 4
-> 1-^- 1 -i--- 1 -- 1-/^11 i
0., 1. 3, 13, 19, 36; III. 9, 15, 19, 24, 25, 28; IV. I, 3.
III. Asclepiadean Strophe No. 3. Three Lesser Asclepiadean Verses
(802) followed by a Glyconic (795). *
X
— > l^v.^ |l-_||-«.^v_/ I — v^
A 3
'- I -w I -
~> I--W |l_ |-u^ I -w I -^ 3
A
O.y I. 6, 15, 24, 33; n- 12; III. 10, 16; IV. 5, 12
486 VERSIFICATION".'
IV. Asclepiadean Strophe No. 4. Two Lesser Asclepiadean Verses
(802), a Pherecratean (794), and a Glyconic (795).
I. -> l^w i^i-^w l-w I- I 1.3
^^ 3
-> 1 -^w I ^Ij-...^ I -^ I _^|| •
xL -> i-^^ I- I -.11 n.'
A 4
-> j-^^ I -w I -^11 ;
0., I. 5, 14, 21, 23; III. 7, 13; IV. 13.
V. AscUpiadeari Strophe No. 5. Greater Asclepiadean (803), re-
peated in fours.
^^ 2
3
-> 1-^^ l^ll--.. |l_||-^w I-^ I _^|| 3
->!-- I-11-- l-ll--)-- I
A" I
0., I. II, 18; IV. 10.
VI. Sapphic Strophe. Three Lesser Sapphics (797), and an Adonic
(792), which is merely a Clausula. In the Sapphic Horace regularly
breaks the Dactyl.
X X
-w I -> I -t^ I -^ I -^ I 5
X X
-^ I -> I -f^A^ I -w I -w II 5
XX g
— w I — > I ~ t ^--^ I — ^ I — '^ i
O., I. 2, 10, 12, 20, 22, 25, 30, 32, 38; II. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 16; III. 8, II,
14, 18, 20, 22, 27; IV. 2, 6, 11; Carmen Saeculare.
NoTK.— In Greek the third and fourth verses run together to form a single verse.
In Latin tliis is rare ; one case is found in Catullus, ii, 11, and three in Horace, 0.,
1. 2, 19 ; 25, 11 ; II. 16, 7 ; but the occurrence of Hiatus between the two lines in Horace
(0., I. 2, 47 ; 12, 7 ; 12, 31 : 22, 15, etc.) may be considered as indicating that the verses
were conceived as separate. Elision and Hiatus are also occasionally found in the
lines. Elision, second and third: Cat., 11, 22; H., (5., 11. 2, 18 ; 16, 34; iv. 2,22;
third and fourth: Cat., 11, 19; H., 0., iv. 2,23; C..S'.,47. Hiatus, first and second:
H., O., I. 2, 41 ; 12, 25 ; 11. 16, 5 ; iii. 11, 29 ; 27, 33 ; second and third : H., (?., i. a, 6 ;
12, 6 ; 25, 18 ; 30, 6 ; n. 2, 6 ; 4, 6 ; in. n, 50 ; 27, 10.
VERSIFICATION^. 48/
VII, Lesser Sapphic Strophe. Aristophanic (793), and Greater
Sapphic (804). Two pairs are combined into a tetrastich.
-^ I -> I -^w l^l^w I -w Iu_l -^ I I
-^^ i -^ j L_ I -^ j ^
-o I -> 1 -^^ Jl_|i-^^ j -^ |._l _ J J
O., I. 8. ^^
VIII. Alcaic Stroplie. Two Alcaic verses of eleven syllables (798),
a Trochaic Quaternarius with Anacrusis (772), and one Alcaic verse of
ten (799).
I.^--l-^|--l--l-Al
X X
> . . . I >
I---1-- 1-/^8
: — w — — vy I — i
I. 5
5
IL
4
4
0., T. 9, 16, 17, 26, 27, 29, 31, 34, 35, 37 ; ir. I, 3, 5, 7, 9, II, 13, 14,
15, 17, 19, 20; III. I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 17, 21, 23, 26, 29; IV. 4, 9, 15, 17.
Note.— Elision between the verses is much more rare than in tlie Sapphic strophe ;
it occurs but twice : O., n. 3, 27 ; in. 29, 35. Hiatus, on the other hand, is very common.
IX. Archilochian Strophe No. 1. A Dactylic Hexameter (784), and
a Lesser Archilochian (788), two pairs to a tetrastich-
1 — '-' v^ j
— v^ \_/ 1
1 -t -- 1
— ^ ^ I
— \^ 1^ J
— 1
3
3
3
W w j
_ t Jl. 1
— vy w 1
-w^ 1
1 I
3
3
3
O., IV. 7.
X. ArcJdlocliian Strophe No. 2. A Dactylic Hexameter (784), and
an lambelegus (820).
— o'v_/ I — vyvy j — vyvy j — Kj Kj j — Kj \j J 11
> . i >
i-"|-A«
WW I — <J \J
|-A«
Epod., 13.
488 VERSincATioK.
XI. Archiloehian Strophe No. 3. An Iambic Trimeter (762), fol-
lowed by an Elegiambus (821).
> :_^ I _> { _^ 1 _ II
\j ' w ' A
Epod., II.
XII. Archiloehian Strophe No. 4. A Greater Archiloehian (800),
and a Trimeter Iambic Catalectic (763). Two pairs combined to form
a tetrastich.
^^w»V_;^v..^^^>^^^V>'^v>'<^ [j JL \J — \J — <-/
\J jH. \J — ^ ^ <U — O^VJ
a, I. 4.
This verse may be considered as Logaoedic, thus (800) :
> 1 > 1 >
«^X-» v>>^ ' V-*>V
-^^ i -^ 1 -^ I •- 1 -A
>:-^|->|-^|-^I^|_/,ft 6
>
v>\-/
XIII. Alcmanian Strophe. A Dactylic Hexameter (784), followed
by a Catalectic Dactylic Tetrameter (787).
O., I. 7, 28; JEpod., 12.
Note.— The Tetrameter may be con&idered acatalectic with a Spondee in the fourth
place (787, n.).
XIV. lamUc Trimeter repeated (762).
>:--|-tl — l-^l — l-A
Epod., 17.
XV. lamUc Strophe. Iambic Trimeter (702), and Dimeter (765),
> .
--I
-^1
--I
-^1
— K^
> .
:-- 1
-l\
-- 1
!-A
Epoil.,
l-IO.
VERSIFICATION". 489
XVI. Pythiambic Strophe No. 1. A Dactylic Hexameter (784), or
Versus Pythius, and an Iambic Dimeter (705).
^Kj\j ^\^\^ -^'^\j j:-^ \j ^ \j \j ^ \j
\j J- \j — \j J- ^ —
Epod.^ 14, 15.
XVII. Pythiamhic Strophe No. 2. A Dactylic Hexameter (784), and
an Iambic Trimeter (7C0).
J- KJ\^ .Z. V^'^ -t- V^W -i- \-/^J .£- \J \J -i- ^J
t^^V^ \J ^ \J \^ ^ \J —
Epod., 16.
XVIII. Trochaic Strophe. A Catalectic Trochaic Dimeter (772),
and a Catalectic Iambic Trimeter (763). Two pairs make a tetra-
stich.
JL vy — <^ -£. W —
\J ^ \y — \J JL 'U — ^^-^.^-'
a, II. 18.
XIX. The Ionic System is found once in Horace ; it consists of ten
lonici a mindre feet, variously arranged by metrists. Some regard the
system as comi)Oscd of ten Tetrameters followed by a Dimeter. Others,
with more probability, divide into two Dimeters followed by two Tri-
meters. The scheme may be made a maiore by Anacrusis.
Joniciis a mindre scheme :
KJ \J JL KJ \J ^
Miserarum (e)st neque amorl
dare ludum neque dulci ^^<^-^ — ^^w-^— ]|
mala vino laver(e) aut exanimari v^v^.^ — w^^ — ww^— |
metuentes patruae verbera linguae kj^j^ — ^^^^ — ^^x.— |
Imiicus d maiore scheme :
\^ \y : wv^l I I, 2
A
^«^: v^^l II ' 2
A
\J ^ : V-y«^| WV^I II. g
A
v^\^: wv-/| ww| _
A
0., III. 12.
490
VERSIFICATION".
827. Index of Horatian Odes and Metres.
Book. Ode. Metre, i
I. 1 i. I
8 ii.l
4 xii. I
5 iv. I
G lii.
7 xiii.
8 vii.
9 viii.
10 vi.
11 V.
12 vi.
13 ii.
14 iv.
15 iii.
16 viii.
17 viii.
18 V.
19 ii.
20 vi.
21 iv.
22 vi.
23 iv.
24 iii.
25 vi.
26 viii.
27 viii.
28 ... xiii.
29 viii.
30 vi.
81 viii.
33 vi.
33 iii.
34 viii.
35 viii.
36 ii.
37 viii.
38 vi.
Book. Ode. Metre.
II. 1 viii.
2 vi.
3 viii.
4 vi.
5 viii.
6 vi.
7 viii.
8 vi.
9 viii.
10 vi.
11 viii.
12 iii.
13 viii.
14 viii.
15 .- viii.
16 vi.
17 viii.
18 xviii.
19 viii.
20 viii.
III. 1 viii.
2 viii.
3 viii.
4 . . viii.
5 viii,
6 viii.
7 iv.
8 vi.
9 ii.
10 iii.
11 vi.
12 xix.
13 iv.
14 vi.
15 ii.
16 iii.
17 viii.
Book. Ode. Metre.
III. 18 vi.
19 ii.
20 vi.
21 viii.
22 vi.
23 viii.
24 ii.
25 ii.
26 viii.
27. vi.
28 ii.
29 viii.
30 i.
IV. 1 ii.
2 vi.
3 ii.
4 viii.
5 iii.
6 vi.
7 ix.
8 i.
9 viii.
10 V.
11 vi.
12 iii.
13 iv.
14 viii.
15 viii.
Carmen Saeculare vi.
Epod. 1-10 XV.
11 xi.
12 xiii.
13 x.
14 xvi.
15 xvi.
16. xvii.
17 xiv.
APPENDIX.
ROMAN CALENDAR.
The names of the Roman months were originally adjectives. The
substantive mensis, month, may or may not be expressed : (mensis)
lanuarius, Februarius, and so on. Before vVngustus, the months July
and August were called, not lulius and Augustus, but. Quintilis and
Sextflis.
The Romans counted backward from three points in the month,
Calends (Kalendao), Xones (Nonae), and Ides (Idtis), to which the names
of the months are added as adjectives : Kalendae lanuariae, Nonae Fe-
bruariae, Idus Martiae. The Calends are the first day, the Nones the
fifth, the Ides the thirteenth. In March, May, July, and October the
Nones and Ides are two days later. Or thus:
In March, July, October, May,
The Ides are on the fifteenth day,
The Nones the seventh ; but all besides
Have two days less for Nones and Ides.
In counting backward ('* come next Calends, next Nones, next Ides ")
the Romans used for "the day before" pridig with the Ace: pridig
Kalendas lanuarias, Dec. 31 ; pridie N5nas Ian. = Jan. 4 ; pridig Idus Ian.
= Jan. 12.
The longer intervals are expressed by ante diem tertium, quartum,
etc., before the Accusative, so that ante diem tertium Kal. Ian. means
" two days before the Calends of Janiuiry ; " ante diem quartum, or a. d.
iv., or iv. Kal. Ian., "three days before," and so on. This remarkable
combination is treated as one word, so that it can be used with the
prepositions ex and in : ex ante diem iii. Nonas lunias usque ad pridig
Kal. Septembres, from June 3 to xVugust 31 ; differre aliquid in ante diem
XV. Kal. Nov., to postpone a 7natter to the ISth of October.
Leap Year. — In leap year the intercalary day was counted between
a. d. vi. Kal. Mart, and a. d. vii. Kal. Mart. It was called a. d. bis sex-
tum Kal. Mart., so that a. d. vii. Kal. Mart, corresponded to our February
23, just as in the ordinary year.
To turn Roman Dates into Englisli.
For Nones and Ides. — I. Add one to the date of the Nones and Ides,
and subtract the given number.
492
ROMAX SYSTEMS OF MEASURE A^Ti WEIGHT.
For Calends. — II. Add two to the days of the preceding month, and
subtract the given luimber.
Examples: a. d. viii. Id. Ian. (13 + 1 — 8) = Jan. 6 ; a. d. iv. Non.
Apr. (o + 1 - 4) =: Apr. 2 ; a. d. xiv. Kal. Oct. (30 + 2 - 14) = Sept. 18.
Fecrr. — To obtain the year B.C., subtract the given date from 754
(7o3 B.C. being the assumed date of the founding of Rome, anno urbis
conditae). To obtain the year a.d., subtract 753.
Thus : Cicero was horn 648, a. u. c. = 106 B.C.
Augustus died 767, a. u. c. = 14 a.d.
Note.— Before the reform of the Calendar by Julius Coesar in b.c. 46, the year
consisted of 355 days, divided into twelve months, of which March, May, Quintliis
(July), and October had 31 days, February 28, the remainder 29. To rectify the
Calendar, every second year, at the discretion of the Pcntif.ccs, a month of varying
length, called mSnsis intercalaris, was inserted after the 23d of February.
ROMAN SYSTEMS OF MEASUREMENT.
Square Measure.
Long Measure.
4 digit! = I palmus. loo pedes,
4 palmi = i p6s (11.65 in.). quadrat!
I scripulum.
6 palmi,
i\ pedgs
I cubitus.
36 scripula = i clima.
4 climata = i actus.
2i pedes
=
1 gradus.
2 actus = 1 iugerum (acre).
2 gradus, )
5 pedes )
=
I passus.
The iugerum contains 28,800
125 passus
=
I stadium.
sq. ft. Eom.;
8 stadia
^^
I mille passuum
(mile).
Eng. acre — 43,560 sq. ft.
Dry Measure.
Liquid Measure.
i\ cyathi
=
I acetabulum.
i^ cyathi = i acetabulum.
2 acetabula
=
I quartarius.
2 acetabula = i quartarius.
2 quartarii
T=
1 hemina.
2 quartarii = i hgmina.
2 hSmlnae
=
I sextarius.
2 heminae = i sextarius (pint).
8 sextarii
—
I semodius.
6 sextarii — i congius.
2 semodil
I modius (peck).
4 congii = I tirna.
2 urnae = i amphora.
20 amphorae = i cuUeus.
ROMAN
WEIGHTS.
3 siliquae
•=.
I obolus.
2 sicilici = T semuncia.
2 oboll
=
I scripulum.
2 semtlnciae = i uncia.
2 acripula
=
I drachma.
12 unciae = i libra (pound).
2 drachmae
=
I sicilicus,
ROM AX MONEY AND NAMES.
493
Notes.— 1. The multiples of the Uncia were sSsctincia (1?), sextans (2), qua-
drans (3), trigns (4), quincunx (5), sgmis ((5), septunx (t), bes (8), dodrans (0), dex-
tans (10), deunx (H).
2. The libra wag also called as (see below), which latter is taken as the unit in all
Tiieasures, and the foregoing divisions applied to it. Iler.ce, by substituting as for
iugerum, we have deiinx as || of a iugerum, dextans as 1§, etc.
ROMAN MONEY.
The unit was originally the as (which was about a pound of copper),
with its fractional divisions. This gradually depreciated, until, after
tlie second Punic war, the unit had become a sSstertius, which was
nominally 2^ ass5s.
2^ asses = I sestertius (about
4 cts.).
2 sestertii = i quinarius.
2 quinarii = i dinarius.
25 denarii =: i aureus (nummus).
1000 sestertii = i s6stertium
(I42.94 to Augustus's time).
Note.— Sestertium. (which may be a fossilized Gen. PI. = sestertiOrum) was
modified by distributives (rarely by cardinals), thus : blna sestertia, 2000 sesterces.
But in multiples of a million (deci6ns centena milia sestertium, ?. e., sester-
tiOrum), centena milia was regularly omitted, and sestertium declined as a neuter
singular. HS stands as well for sestertius as sestertium ; and the meaning is regti-
lated by the form of the numeral ; thus HS viginti (XX) = 20 sestertii J HS vicena
(XX) = 20 sestertia, i.e., 20,000 sestertii.
ROMAN NAMES.
The Roman usually had three names ; a nOmen, indicating the gfins,
a cSgnomen, indicating the familia in the gens, and the praenQmen, indi-
cating the individual in the familia.
The nomina all end in ius. The cognSmina have various forms, in
accordance with their derivation. For example : Q. Mucins Scaevola
(from scaevos, Jeff hand).
The praenomina are as follows, with Iheir abbreviations:
Aulus,
A.
Lucius,
L.
Quintus,
Q.
Appius,
App.
Marcus,
M.
Servius,
Ser.
Gaius,
C.
Manius,
M'.
Sextus,
Sex.
Gnaeus,
Cn.
Mamercus,
Mam.
Spur ius,
Sp.
Decimus,
D.
Numerius,
Num.
Titus,
T.
Kaes5,
K.
Publius.
P.
Tiberius,
Ti.. Tib
Notes.— 1. Adoption from one ggns into another was indicated by the termination
-ianus. From the fourth century a.d. a second c5gn5men was also called an
agnomen.
2. T3aughters had no peculiar praenSmina, but were called by the name of the gBns
in which they were born. If there were two, they were distinguished as maior and
minor ; if naore than two, by the numerals tertia, quarta, etc.
INDEX OF VERBS.
INDEX OF VERBS.
[The References are to the Sections]
Ab-(Io, ero, -didl, -ditum, 151, i,
ab-ii^o (ago), ere, -i^gi, -actum,
160, I.
ab-ieio (iacio), ere, -ieci, -ieetum,
160, 3.
ab-luo, ere, -lul, -lutiim, 162.
ab-nuo, ere, -nul (-nuituriis), 163.
ab-oleo, ere, evi, itum, 137, b.
ab-olesco, -ere, -olevi, -olitum. 140.
ab-ripio (rapio), -ere, -ripui, -rep-
tum, 146.
abs-condo (do), ere, -di (-didi),
ditura, 151, I.
ab-sisto, -ere, -stiti, 154, i.
ab-sum, -esse, ab-ful, a-ful, 117.
ac-cendo, -ere, -ceiidi, -censum,
160, 2.
ac-eido (cado), ere, -cidi, 165, a.
ac-cipio (capio), ere, -cepi, -cep-
turn, 160, 3.
ac-colo (coLo), ero, -colul, -cultum,
152, 3.
ac-cumbo, ere, -cubui, -cubitum,
144.
ac-curro, ere, ac-curri, -cursum,
155, 184, III.
aceo, ere, aeui, to be sow.
acesco, ere, acuI, to get sour.
ac-quiro (quaero), ere, -quisivl,
-quisltum, 137, c.
acuo, ere, acui, acutura, 162.
ad-do, ere, -did!, -ditura, 151, i.
ad-imo (emo), ere, -emi, -Cmptum,
160, 1.
ad-iplscor, I, ad-eptus sum, 165.
ad-iuvo, lire, -iavi, -liitum, 158.
ad-ol(~sco, ere, -olevi, -iiltum, 140.
ad-orior, -orirl, -ortus sum, 166.
ad-sclsco, ere, -scivl, -scTtiun, 140.
ad-sisto, ere, -stiti, 154, i.
ad-spicio, ere, -spexl, -spectum,
150, I.
ad-sto, -stare, -stiti, 151, 2.
ad-sum, ad-esse, ad-ful (af-fui),
117.
ad-vcsperasco, ere. avi, 140.
aegresco, ere, to fall sick.
af-fero, -ferre, at-tull, nl-lalum,
171.
af-fllgo, ere, -flixi, -flictum, 147, 2.
ag-gredior, -gredi, -gressus, 165.
a-gnosco, ere, a-gnovi, a-guitum
(agnoturus), 140.
ago, ere, egi, actum, 160, i.
aio, 175, I.
albeo. Ore, to be ivMte.
algeo, ere, alsi, 147, i.
-lexi
al-licio, ere,/ j-^ '.X -lectum, 150, r.
al-luo, ere. -lui. -latum, 162.
alo, ere, alui, al(i)tum, 142, 3.
amb-igd (ago), ere, 172, i.
amb-io (eo), ire, ivi (ii), itum, 160,
2, R. I.
._ . /amicui,\ . .
amicio, ire, ( amixi, / ainictum,
142, 4, 161.
amplector, i, amplexus, 165.
ango, ere, anxi, 140, b.
an-nuo, ere, annul (annutum), 163.
ante-cello, ere, 154.
ante-sto, -stare, -steti, 151, 2.
a-perio, -Ire, aperui, apertum,
142, 4.
apiscor, i, aptus sum, 105,
ap-peto, ere, ivi, itum, 147, c.
^■ - - -plicui, -plicitum,
ap-phco, are, (IpHeaVi/.plieatum),
152, 2.
ap-pond, ere, -posui, -positum,
139, A.
arceo, ere, arcui ] ;j;:;;^f(;j . ^
arcesso (accerso), ere, arcessivi,
-itum, 137, e.
ardeo, ere, arsi, arsum, 147, i.
arescd, ere, ilrui, to become dry.
arguO,ero,nrgu1,(;;'|[;[,"';';,^^162.
ar-ripid (rapio), ere, ui, -reptum,
146.
a scendf) (scanuo), ero, i, scensum,
160, 2
a-spicid, ere, fi-spexl, a-spoctum,
150, I.
as-sentior, iri, assensus sum, 166.
as-sided (sedeo), ere, -sedi, -ses-
sum, 159.
as-suescd, ere, -suevi,-suctum,140.
at-tendd, ere, -tendi, -tentum, 155,
INDEX OF VERBS.
495
at-texd, ere, -texiiT, -textum, 152,3.
at-tineo (teneo), ere, ui, -tentum,
135, I. a.
at-tingo (tango), ere, attigl, attac-
tiun, 155.
at-loUo, ere, to raise up.
auded, ere, ausus sum, 107.
audio, ire, ivi, itum. See 127.
au-fero, -ferre, abstull, ablatum,
171.
augeo, ere, auxi, auctum, 147, i.
ay,e, 175, 4.
Balbutio, ire, to stutter.
batuo, ere, ui, 162.
bibo, ere, bibi, (bibitura), 154, 2.
Cado, ere, cecidi, easum, 153.
caecutio, ire, to be blind.
caedo, ere, cecidi, caesum, 153.
calefacio, ere, -feci, -factum, 160,
3; 173, N. 2.
calesco, ere, calui, to get warm.
calleo, ere, ui, to be sMlled.
calveo, ere, to be bald.
candeo, ere, ui, to shine.
caiieo, ere, to be gray.
cano, ere, cecini, eantum, 153.
capesso, ere, ivi, itum, 137, c.
capio, ere, cepi, captum, 12G;
160, 3.
carpo, ere, carpsi, carptum, 147, 2.
caveo, ere, cavi, cautuui, 159.
cede, 175, 6.
cedo, ere, cessi, cessum, 147, 2.
cenatus, 167, n. 1.
_ _ _ - cBnsum, 10- .
censeo, ere, ui, / _ -, x 13;), \.a.
' ' ' (censitus),
cernd, ere, crevi, (eretum), 139.
cingd, ere. cinxi, cinctum, 149, b.
circum-do, -dare, -dcdi, -datum,
151, I.
circum-sisto, ere, stetl, 154, i.
circum-sto, stare, stetl, 151, 2.
claudo, ere, clausi, clausum, 147, 2.
ciepd, ere, J^^J^P^i' clcptum, 147, 2.
co-alGsco, ere, -alui, (-alitum), 140,
145.
co-arguo, ere, ui, 162.
co-emo, ere, -5mi, -em(p)tum,
160, I.
coepi, coepisse, 175, 5, a.
cd-gndscd, ere, -gnovi, -gnitum,
140.
co-go (ago), ere, co-egi, co-iictum,
160, I.
col-lido (LAEDcl), ere, -lisl, lisuni,
147, 2.
col-ligo (lego), ere, -iGgI, -lectuui,
160, I.
col-luceo, Cre, -luxi, 157, i.
colo, ere, colui, cultuin, 142, 3.
com-burd, ere, -ussi, -ustum,147,2.
com-edd, ere, -Gdi, -esum (estum),
172.
coraitiitus, 167, n. 1.
comminiscor, i, commentus sum,
165.
corn-moved, ere, -mcvi, -mdtur.i,
159.
cd-uid (emo), ere, cdmpsi, cdmp-
tum, 147, 2.
eom-parcd,ere,-parsi,-parsum,153.
com-pelld, ere, com-puli, -pulsum,
155.
com-perid (pario), ire, com-peri,
com-per-tum, 161, 166.
comp5scd, cre, ul, 145.
com-pingd, ere, -p5gi, -pHctum,
10!), 2.
com-plector, i, com-plexus, 165.
com-pled, ere, Bvi, 5tum, 147.
com-primd (premo), ere, -pressi,
■pressum, 147, 2.
com-pungd, ere, -punxi, -punctum,
155.
con-cidd (cado), ere, -cidi, 153, a.
con-cidd (CAED07, ere, -cidi,-cisum,
153, a.
cou-cind (cano), ere, -cinui, 142, 3.
concitus (ciEo), 137, b.
cou-cludd (CLAUDo), ere, -clusl,
-clusum, 147, 2.
con-cumbd, ere, -cubui, -cubitum,
144.
con-cupisco, ere, -cupivi, cupitum,
140.
con-cutid (quatio), ere, -cussi, -cus-
sum, 147, 2.
cou-dd, ere, -didi, -ditum, 151, i.
con-dormiscd, -ere, -ivi, itum, 140.
cdn-fercid (farcio), ire (fersi), fer-
tum, 150, 2.
cdn-ferd, -ferre, -tuli, colhltum,
171.
cdn-ficid (FACio),ere, -feci,-fectum,
160, 3.
496
INDEX OF VERBS.
con-fiteor (fateor), eri, -fessus,
104.
con-fligo, ere, -fiixi, -flictum,
147, 2.
cOn-fringo (frango), ere, -fregi,
-fnlctum, 160, 2.
coii-grno, ere, congriii, 162.
con-icio (iacio), ere, -ieci, -ieetum,
160, 3.
eoniuratus, 167, N. 1.
co-„!veO, ..-e, --;?J:^_ 147, r.
coii-quird (quaero), ere, -quisivi,
-quisltum, 137, c.
con-sero, ere, -serui, -sertum,
152, 3.
con-sero, ere, -s5vi, -situm, 138.
con-sideratiis, 167, N. 1.
coii-sido, ere, consedl, -sessum,
160, I.
con-sisto, ere, -stiti, -stitum, 154, i.
cdii-spergo, ere, -spersi, -spersum,
147, 2.
con-spicio, ere, -spexi, -spectum,
150, I.
con-stituo (sTATUo), ere, ul, -stitu-
tiim, 162.
con-sto, -stare, -stitI, (constatu-
riis), 151, 2.
con-suesco, ere, -suevi, suStiim,
140; 175, 5.
consulo, ere, consului, -sultiim,
142, 3.
con-temno, ere, -tera(p)si, -tem(p)-
tiim, 149, c. »
con-tendo, ere, -tend!, -tentum,
155.
con-texo, ere,-texui,-textum,152,3.
con-tineo (teneo), 5re, ui, -tentum,
135, I. a.
con-tingo (tango), ere, contigi,
contactum, 155.
convalesce, ere, -valul, -valitum,
145.
coquo, ere, coxi, coctum, 147, 2,
168, I.
cor-ripio (rapio), ere, -ripul, -rep-
tum, 146.
cor-ruo, ere, corrui, 162.
cr5bresco, ere, crebrul, to get fre-
quent.
cre-dd, ere, -did!, -dituni, 151, i.
crepo, are, crepui,crepitum, 142, 2.
crGscO, ere, crevi, cretuin, 140.
cubO, are, cubui, cubitum, 142, 2.
cudO, ere, cudi, cusum, 160, i,
cupid, ere, ciipivi, cupitum, 141.
currd, ere, cucurri, ciirsura, 155.
De-cernd, ere, -crSvI, -cretum, 139.
de-cerpd (carpo), ere, si, turn, 147,
2.
de-dd, dedere, dedidi, deditum,
151, I.
de-fendo, ere, -fendl, -fensiim, 160,
2.
defetiscor, I, to he icorn out.
de-go (ago), ere, 160, i.
deleo. See Paradigm, 123, 124.
de-libuo, iiere, ui, iitura, 162.
dedigo, ere, -legl, -lectnm, 160, i.
de-mo (emo), ere, dempsi, demp-
tum, 147, 2.
depelld, ere, depiili, depulsiini, 155.
dC-prinid (premo), ere, -press!,
pressum, 147, 2.
depso, ere, depsu!, depstum, 142, 3.
de-scendd (scando), ere, -scendi,
-scensum, 160, 2.
de-sero, ere, -serul, -sertum, 142, 3.
de-silid (sALio). Ire.Jjp'j^^^f^"^^^™)'
de-si no, ere, jggJJ^' desitum, 139.
de-sipid (sapio), -ere, 141.
d5-sisto, ere, -stiti, -stitum. 154, i.
de-spicid, ere, -spexl, -spectum,
150. I.
de-su5scd, -ere, -evi, -5tum, 140.
de-sum, -esse, -fui, 117.
de-tendo, ere, -tend!, -tentum. 155.
de-tined (teneo), ere, -ui, -tentum,
135, I. a.
dC-vei'tor, -i, 167.
died, ere, dixl, dictum, 147, 2.
dii'-l'ero, -ferre, distuli, dilatum,
171.
dl-gndscd (nosco), ere, -gnovi, 140.
di-ligd, ere, -lex!, -lectum, 147, 2.
di-mico, are, avi, atum, 142, 2.
dl-rigd, ere, -rexl, -rectum, 147, 2.
dir-imd (emo), ere, -Gml, -emplum,
160, I.
discd, ere, didici, 156.
dis-crepd, are, -crepu! (avi), 142, 2.
dis-cumbd, ere, -cubui, -cubitum,
144.
dis-pescO, ere, -pescul, to divide^
145
dis-sided (sedeo), ere, -s5di, 159.
INDEX OF VERBS.
497
di-stinguo, ere, -stinxi, -stinctum,
119, h.
di-sto. -stare, 151, 2.
ditesco, ere, io grow rich.
dividd, ere, divisi, di visum, 147, 2.
do, dare, dedi, datum, 151, i.
doceo, ere, docui, doctum, 185, i, a.
domo, are, ui, itum, 142, 2.
duco, ere, duxl, ductum, 147, 2
duleescO, ere, to grow sweet.
duresco, ere, diirul, to grow hard.
Edo, ere, edi, esum, 160, i, 172.
e-do (do), edere, 5didi, editum,
151, I.
e-dormisco, -ere, -Ivi, -itum, 140.
ef-fero, -ferre, extull, elatum, 171.
egeo, ere, egul, to ivant.
e-licio, ere, -licui, -licitum, 150, i.
e-ligO (lego), ere, -leg], -lectum,
160, I.
e-mico, are, ui (aturus), 142, 2.
eiiiineo, ere, ui, to stand out.
emo, ere, emi, emptum, 160, i.
enuingd, ere, emuiixl, emunctum,
149, h.
e-neco, are, ['"^"^^'avi), ^^ectum,
142, 2.
eO, ire, Ivi, itum, 1C9, 2.
e-vado, ere, Gvilsi, evasum, 147, 2.
e-vanesco, ere, evflnui, 145.
ex-iirdesco, ere, exarsi, exSrsum,
147, I.
ex-celld, ere, ui (excelsus), 144.
excitus, 137.
ex-cludd (cLAUDo), ere, -si, -sum,
147, 2.
ex-curro, ere, ex(cu)curri, -cur-
sum, 155.
ex-imo, ere, emi, -emptum, 160. i.
ex-olescd, ere, -olevi, -oletum, 140.
ex-pello, ere, -puli, -pulsum, 155.
experglscor, i, experrectus sum,
165.
ex-perior, iri, -pertus suin, 1G6.
ex-pleo, ere, evi, etum, 124, 137,
h.
ex-plico, are, ul (avi), itum (iitum),
142.
ex-plodo (PLAUDo), ere, -si, -sum,
147, 2.
exsecratus, 167, n. 2.
ex-stinguo, ere, -stinxi, -stinctum,
149, I.
32
ex-sisto, ere, -stiti, -stitum, 154, i.
ex-sto, are (exstaturus), 151, 2.
ex-tendd, ere, dl, -sum (-tum), 155.
ex-tolld, ere, 155.
ex-ud, ere, -ui, -utum, 1G2.
Facessd, ere, ivi (-i), itum., 137, c,
facid, ere, feci, factum, 1(50, 3.
fallo, ere, fefelli, falsum, 155.
farcid, ire, farsi, fartum, 150, 2.
fari, 175, 3.
fateor, Sri, fassus sum, 1G4.
fatlscd, ere, to fall apart.
fatiscor, i (fessus, adj.).
faved, ere, fjivi, fautum, 159.
ferid, ire, to strike.
fero, ferre, tuli, Ifitum, 171.
ferved, ere, fervi (ferbui), 159,
fido, ere, fisus sum, 167.
figd, ere, fixi, fixum, 147, 2.
findd, ere, fidi, fissum, 160, 3.
fingd, ere, finxi, fictum, 149, a.
fid, fieri, factus sum. 173.
fleetd, ere, flexi, flexum, 148.
fled, ere, evi, etum, 137, b.
liigo, ere, flixi, flictum, 147, 2.
fldred, ere, ui, to bloom
flud, ere, fiuxi (fluxus. adj.), 147,2.
fodid, ere, fddi, fossum, 100, 3.
forem, 116.
foved, ere, fovi. fdtum, 159.
frangd, ere, fregi, frSctum, 160, 2.
fremd, ere, ui, 142, 3.
frendd (eo), ere (ui), fresum, fres-
sum, 144.
fried, are, ul, f rictum (atum), 142, '
2.
friged, 5re (frixl), 147, i.
frigd, ere, frixi, frictum, 147, 2.
frouded, ere, ul, to be leafy.
fruor, i, fructus (fruitus) sum, 165.
fugid, ere, fug!, fugitum, ICO, 3.
falcid, ire, fulsl, fultum, 150, 2.
fulged, ere, fulsi. 147, i.
fundd, ere, fudi, fusum, 160, 2.
f ungor, i, functus sum, 165.
(turd, def), furere, to rare.
Gannid, ire, to yelp.
gauded, ere, gfivisus sum, 167.
gemd, ere, ui, 142 3.
gerd, ere, gessi, gestum, 147, 2.
gignd, ere, genui, genitum, 143,
gliscd, ere, to swell.
gradior, i, gressus sum, 165.
498
IN-DEX OF VERBS.
Haereo, ere, haesi, (haesum), 147,
I.
haurio, ire, hausi, haustum (hau-
surus, haustiirus), 150, 2.
have, 175, 4.
hisco, ere, to yawn.
liorred, 5re, ul, to stand on end
hortor, ari, atus sum, 128.
laceo, ere, iacul, to lie.
iacio, ere, i5ci, iactum, 160, 3.
ico, ere, ici, ietiim, IGO, i.
i-ijnosco, ere, -giiovi, -gnotiim,
l40.
il-licio, ere, -lexi, -lectum, 150, i.
il-lido (laedo), ere, -llsl, -llsum,
147, 2.
imbuo, ere, ui, titum, 162.
imitatus, 167, n. 2.
immiiieo, ere, to overhang.
im-pingo (pango), ere, peg!, pac-
tum, 160, 2.
in-cal5sco, ere, -calu!, 145.
iii-cendo, ere, -cendT, -cSnsum,
160, 2.
incessd, ere, ivi (i), 187, c.
in-eido (cado), ere, -eidi, -casum,
152.
in-cido (caedo), ere, -cidl, cisum,
153.
in-cipio (capio), ere, -cep!, -ccp-
tum, 160, 3.
in-crepd, are, ui, itum, 142, 2.
in-curabo, ere, -cubul, -cubitum,
144.
in-cutio (quatio), ere, -cussi, -cus-
sum, 147, 2.
ind-igeo (egeo), ere, ui, to ivant.
ind-iplseor, i, indeptus sum, 105.
iri-do, ere, -didi, -ditum, 151, i.
indulgeo, ere, indulsi (iiidultum),
147, I.
in-du<~), ere, dul, -dutum, 162.
ineptio, ire, to he silly.
in-fllgo, ere, -flixi, -flietum, 147, 2.
iiigemlseo, ere, ingemui, 115.
ingruo, ere, ul. See cougruo, 102.
in-notesco, ere, ndtui, 145.
in-olGsco, ere, -ol5vI, 140.
iiiquam, 175, 2.
in-sideo (sedeo), Sre, -sedl, -ses-
sum. 159.
in-sistd, ere, -stiti, 154, i.
in-spicio, ere, -spexl, -spectum,
150. I.
inter-ficio, ere, -feci, -fectum, 160,
3; 173, N. 2.
in-sto, are, -stiti (instaturus),151,2.
in-sum, -esse, -fui, 117.
intel-legd, ere, -lexI, -lectum, 147, 2.
iriter-inio (emo), ere, -emi, -emp-
tum, 160, I.
iiiter-pungo, ere, -punxl, -punc-
tum, 155.
inler-sto, are, -stetl, 151, 2.
inter-sum, -esse, -fuI, 117.
inveterasco, ere, -avi, 140,
in-vado, ere, invasi, -vasum,147, 2.
!i"ascor, I, iratussum, to get angry.
iubeo, ere, iussi, iussum, 147, i.
iungo, ere, iunxl, iunctum, 149, &.
iuratus, 167, n. 1.
iuvo, are, iiivl, iCitum (iuvaturus),
158.
Labor, i, lapsus sum, 165.
lacessS, ere, lacessivi, -itum, 187, c.
Iacio, 150.
laedo, ere, laesi. laesum, 147, 2.
lambo, ere, i, 160, 2.
laugiieo, ere, i, to he languid.
largior, ii'i, itus sum, 166.
lateo, ere, ui, to lie hid.
laA'-d, are (ere), Ifivi, lautum, lo-
tum, lavatum, 158.
lego, ere, l5gi. lectum, 160, i.
libet, libere, libuit (libitum est), it
pleases.
liceor, Crl, itus sum, 164.
licet, licere, licuit (licitum est), it
is permitted.
lingo, ere, linxi, linctum, 149, &.
lino, ere, levi (livi), litum, 189.
linquo, ere, liqui, 160, 2,
liqued, ere, licui, to he clear.
liveo, ere, to he livid.
loquor, i, locutus sum, 128, 2; 165.
liiceo, ere, luxi, 147, i.
ludo, ere, lusi, lusum, 147, 2.
lugeo, ere, luxi, 147, i.
( lutum, to wash,
luo,ere, lui, \ luitum, to atone for,
( 162.
Maered, Ore, to grieve.
maid, malle, mJIlui, 142, 3; 174.
mandd, ere, mandi, mansnm
160, 2.
maned, ere, mansi, mansum,147, i,
mansuBscd, -ere, -Cvi, -etum, 140.
INDEX OF VERBS.
499
mecleor, Pvl, to heal.
meminl, 175, 5, h.
meiitior, Iri, itus, 128, 2; 16G.
mereor, 5rl, meritus sum, 164.
mergo, ere, mersi, raersum, 147, 2.
m5tior, iri, meiisus sum, 160.
meto, ere, messui (rare), messum,
142, 3.
metuo, ere, ui, 162.
mico, are, ui, 142, 2.
mingo, ere, minxi, mictum, 149, a.
minuo, ere, minui, minutum, 162,
misceo, ere, ui, mixtum (mistum).
misereor, eri, miseritus (misertus)
sum, 164.
mitto, ere, misi, missum, 147, 2.
molo, ere, molui, molitum, 142, 3.
moneo, 5re, ui, itum, 131.
mordeo, 5re, momordi, morsum,
152.
morior, mori, mortuus sum (rnori-
turus), 165.
moveo, ere, movi, motum, 159.
mulceo, ere, mulsi, mulsum, 147,
I.
mulgeo, 5re, mulsi, mulsum
(ctum), 157, I.
mungo, ere, munxi, munctum,
160.
Nanciscor, i, nactus(nanctus),165.
nascor, i, niitus sum (nascitiirus),
165.
neco, are, avi, Stum, 142, 2.
necto, ere, nexi (nexui), nexum,
148.
neg-lego, ere, -lexi, -lectum,147,2.
necopinatus, 167, n. 2.
ned, nere, nevi, netum, 137, h.
nequeo, ire^l70.
ningo, ere, ninxi, 149, h.
niteo, ere, ui, to slii?ie.
nitor, 1, iiixus (nisus) sum, 165.
nolo, nolle, nOluI, 142, 3; 174.
noceo, ere, ui (noeifurus), to be
hurtful.
nosco, ere, novi, notuni, 140; 175,
notesco, ere, notui, 145.
niibo, ere, nupsi, nuptum, 147, 2.
Ob-do, ere, -didi, -ditum, 151, i.
ob-dormisco, ere, -dormivi, -dor-
mituui, 140.
obliviscor, i, oblitus sum, 165,
ob-sideo (sedeo), 5re, -sedi, -ses-
sum, 159.
ob-sisto, ere, -stiti, -stitum, 154, i.
obs-olesco, ere, -olevi, -oletum,
140.
ob-sto, stilre, stiti (obstatiirus),
151, 2.
obtineo (teneo), ere, -tinui, -ten-
tum, 135, T, a.
oc-cido (cADo), ere, -cidi, -casum,
153.
oc-cido (caedo), ere, -cidi, -cisum,
153.
oc-cino (cANo), ere, -cinui, 142, 3;
153.
oc-cipio (cAPio), ere, -cepi, -ceptum,
160, 3.
occuld, ere, occului, occultum,
142, 3.
odi, def., 175, 5, a.
of-fendo, ere,-fendi,-f5nsum,160,2.
of-fero, -ferre, obtuli, oblatum,
171.
oleo, ere, ui, to smell.
operid, ire, operui, opertum, 142, 4.
opinatus, 167, n. 2.
opperior, iri, oppertus (or itus),
166.
ordior, iri, orsus siun, 166.
orior, iri, ortus sum (oriturus), 166.
os-tendd, ere, -tendi, -tensum
(-tentus), 155.
Paeiscor, i, pactus sum, 165, 167,
N. 2.
palleo, -ere, -ui, to be pale.
pan do, ere, pandi, passum (pan-
sum), 160, 2.
pango, ere ^ ^^^^.^ ^^^^ ^^ ^ ^^^^
parco, ere, peperci (parsi), par-
surus, 153.
pario, ere, peperl, partum (pari-
turus), 157.
partior, iri, itus, 166.
pasco, ere, pavi, pastum, 140.
pate-facio, ere, -feci, -factum, 173,
N. 2.
pated, Sre, ui, to be open.
patior, i, passus sum, 165.
paved, ere, pavi, 159.
pectd, ere, pexi, pexum, 148.
pel-licio, -licere, Jifi^^X -lectnm,
150, I.
(licui),
500
II^DEX OF VERBS.
pells, ere, pepull, pulsiira, 155.
pendeo, ere, pependi, 152.
pendo, ere, pependi, pensiim, 155.
per-cello, ere, perculi, perculsum,
144.
percSnseo (censeo), 5re, -censui,
-ceiisiiin, 135, i, a.
percitus (cieo), 137.
per-do, ere, -didl, -ditum, 169, 2,
R. i; 151, I.
per-eo, ire, perli, itiim, 169, 2, r. t
per-licio, ere, -feci, -fectiim, 100, 3.
per-fringo, ere, -fregi, -frilctum,
160, 2.
pergo (REGO), ere, perr5xi, perrec-
tum,'l47, 2.
per-petior (patior), i, perpessus
sum, 165.
per-spicio, ere, -spexi, -spectum,
150, I.
per-sto, -stare, -stiti, 151, 2,
per-tiueo (teneo), Bre, iii, 135, i, a.
pessum-do, -dure, -dedi, -datum,
151, I.
peto, ere, ivi (ii), itum, 137, c.
piget, pigere, piguit, pigitura est,
it irks.
pingo, ere, pinxi, pictum, 149, a.
pinso,ere, ui (i), pinsitum (pistum,
pinsum), 142, 3.
plango, ere, planxi, planctum,
149, h.
plaudo.ere, plausi, plausum,147, 2.
plecto, ere, (plexi),.plexum, 148.
plector, i, to be punished.
-pleo, 137, h.
plico, are, ui (avi), itum (atum),
142, 2.
polleo, ere, to be potent.
polliceor, eri, itus sum, 164.
pono, ere, posui, positura, 139.
posco, ere, poposcl, 150.
pos-sideo (sedeo), ere, -sedi, -ses-
sum, 159.
pos-sum, posse, potui, 119.
potior, iri, itus sum, 166.
poto. are, iivl, potum, potatum,
136, 4. c.
potus, 167, N. 1.
prae-cello, ere, -cellui, 144.
prae-cino, ere, -einui, 142, 3.
prae-curro, ere, -cucurri, -cursum,
155.
prae -sided (sedeo), ere, -s5di, 159.
prae-sum, -esse, -ful, 117.
prae-sto, -stare, -stiti (-staturus),
151, 2.
prandeo, Gre, prandi, prunsum,
159.
prehendo, ere, prehendi, prchen-
sum, 160, 2.
premo, ere, press!, pressum, 147, 2.
prOd-igo (ago), ere, -egi, 160, i.
pro-do, ere, -didi, -ditum, 151, i.
pro-fieiscor, I, profectus sum, 105.
pro-fiteor (fateor), eri, -fessus
sum, 164.
prouir)(EMo), ere, prompsi, promp-
tum, 147, 2
pro-sum, prodesse, profui, 118.
pro-tendo (tendo), ere, -tendi,
-tentum, tensum, 155.
psallo, ere, i, 160, 2.
pudet, 5re, puduit, puditum est,
it shames.
puerasco, ere, to become a boy.
pungo, ere, pupugi, punctum, 155.
pimior, iri, Itus sum, 166.
Quaero, ere, quaesivi, quaesitura,
137, c.
quaeso, 175, 0.
quatio, ere, (quassi), quassum,
147, 2.
queo, quire, 170.
queior, qucrl, questus sum, 167.
quiesco, ere, quievi, quietum, 140.
Rado, ere, rasi, rasum, 147, 2.
rapio, ere, rapui, raptum, 146.
raucio, ire, rausi, rausum, 150, 2.
re-eSnseo (censeo), ere, -censui,
-censu.m (receiisitum), 135, 1, a.
re-cido, ere, reccidi, recasum, 153.
recrudesod, ere, -crudui, to get
raiu again.
re-cumbo, ere, -cuhui, 144.
red-arguo, ere, -argui, 102.
red-dd, ere, -didl, -ditum, 151, i.
red-igd (ago), ere, -egl, -actum,
160, I.
red-imd, -ere, 160, i.
re-felld (.fallo), ere, refelli, 155.
re-ferd, -ferre, -tull, -latum, 171.
rego, ere, rexi, rectum, 147, 2.
re-linqud, ere, -llqui, -lictum,
160, 2.
rerainlscor, I, to recollect.
INDEX OF VERBS.
501
renideo, 5re, to gliiter.
reor, rerl, rat us sum, 164.
re-pello, ere, reppuli, pulsum, 155.
re-perio, ire, repperi, repertum,
157, 161.
repo, ere, rBpsi, reptum, 147, 2.
re-sipisco, ere, -sipivi (sipui), 140.
re-sisto, ere, -stiti, -stitum, 154, i.
re-spondeo, ere, -s'jondi, -sponsura,
152.
re-sto, stfire, -stiti, 151, 2.
re-stinguo, ere, -stinxl, -stinctum,
149, b.
re-tineo (teneo), ere, ui, -tentum,
135, I, a.
re-vertor, i, reverti, reversCiin,
160, I ; 107.
re-vivisco, ere, vixi, victuin, to
revive.
rideo, ere, risl, risum, 147, i.
rigeO, ere, ui, to he stiff.
rodo, ere, rosi, rosum, 147, 2.
rubeo, Cre, ui, to be red.
rudo, ere, rudlvi, ituin, 137, c.
rumpo, ere, rupi, ruptum, 160, 2.
ruo, ere, rui, rutura (ruiturus), 162.
Saepio, Ire, saepsi, saeptuiii, 150, 2.
salio, ire,^g^\\^l'^ saltum, 142, 4.
sallo, ere, (salli), salsum, 160, 2.
salve, def., 175, 4.
sancio,->ro,sanxl.^j^;;^!™;)_150,2.
sapio, ere (.saplvi), sapui, 141.
sarcid, ire, sarsi, sartum, 150, 2.
satis-do, -dare, -dedi, -datum, 151, i.
seabo, ere, scabi, to scratch, 100, i.
scalpo, ere, sealpsi, scalptum,
147, 2.
scando, ere, scandi, scansum,
100, 2.
seated, ere, to gush forth.
scindO, ere, scidi, seissum, 160, 3.
seised, ere, scivi, scitura, 140.
serlbd, ere, scrips!, scriptura, 147,
2,
sculpd, ere, sculpsi, seulptum.
147, 2.
seed, are, seeui, ^^^^™' 142, 2.
' ' ' secaturus, '
seded, 5re, sedi, sessum, 159.
selig^d (lego), ere, -iGgi, -l5etum.
160, 1.
sentid, ire, sensi, sensum, 150, 2.
sepelid, ire, ivi, sepultum, 137, a.
sequor, i, secutus sum, 165.
serd, ere, 142, 3.
sero, ere, sevi, satum, 138.
serpd, ere, serpsl, serptum, 147, 2.
sidd, ere, sidl, 160, i.
siled, ere, ul, to he siient.
smo, ere, sivi, sit urn, 139.
sistd, ere, (stiti), statum, 154, i.
sitid, ire, ivi, to t/iirst.
soled, ere, solitus sum, 167,
solvd, ere, solvi, solutum, 160, i.
sond, are, sonui, ^^^itum, -^^^ ^^
' ' sonaturus, '
sorbed, ere(sorp si), sorbui, 142, i.
sorded, ere, ui, to be dirty.
sortior, iri, sortitus sum, 166.
spargd, ere, sparsi, sparsum, 147,
2.
spernd, ere, sprevi, spretum, 139.
-spicid, 150, I.
splended, 5re, ui, to shine.
spondeo, ere, spopondl, spdnsum,
152.
spud, ere, spui, sputum, 162.
squaled, ere, to he rough, foul.
statud, ere, statui, statutum, 162.
sternd, ere, stravi, stratum, 139.
sternud, ere, sternui, 102.
stertd, ere, stertui, 142, 3.
-stingud, ere, 149, h.
std, stare, steti, statum, 151, 2.
strepd, ere, strepul, strepitum,
142, 3.
strlded, Gre (ere), stridi, 159.
stringd, ere, strinxi, strictum,
149, a.
strud, ere, struxl. striietum, 147, 2.
studed, ere, ui, to he zealous.
stuped, ere, ui, to he astounded.
sujided, ere, suasi, suasum, 147, i.
sub-dd, ere, -didi, -ditum, 151, i.
sub-igd (ago), ere, -egi, -iictum,
100, I.
suc-cedd (cEDo), ere, -cessi, -ces-
sum, 147.
suc-cendd, ere, -cendT, -censum,
100, 2.
sue censed, ere, ui, -censum, 135,
I, a.
suc-currd, ere, -eurri,-cursum,155.
.suescd, ere, suevi, suetum, 140.
suf-ferd, -ferre, sus-tinui, 171, n. 2.
suf-ficid (FACio), ere, -feci, -fectum,
100, 3.
502
INDEX OF VERBS.
suf-fodio, ere, -fodi, -fossum,
IGO, 3.
sug-gero, ere, -gessi, -gestum, 147,
2.
sugo, ere, suxi, suctura, 147, 2.
sum, esse, fui, IIC,
sumo (emo), ere, sumpsi, sump-
tum, 147, 2.
suo, ere, sul, sutum, 162.
superbio, ire, to he haughty.
super-sto, -stare, -steti, 151, 2.
super-sum, -esse, -I'm, 117.
sup-pono, ere, -posui, -positum,
139, A.
surgo (^REGo), ere, surrexi, surr5c-
tum, 147, 2.
surripio, ere, ul (surpul), -reptum,
140.
Taedet, pertaesum est, it tires.
tango, ere, tetigi, tilctum, 155.
tego, ere, t5xi, tectum, 147, 2.
temno, ere, 149, c.
tendo, ere, tetendl, tensum (-tum),
155.
teneo, ore, tenui, (tentum),185, i, a.
tergeo, ere, tersi, tersum, 147, i.
terd, ere, trivl, tritum, 137, c.
texo, ere, texui, textum, 142, 3.
timeo, ere, uI, to fear.
ting(u)o, ere, tinxi, tinctum, 149,6.
tollo, ere (sustull, sublfitum), 155.
tondco, ere, totondl, tonsum, 152.
tono, are, ul, 142, 2.
torpeo, ere, ui, to he torpid.
torqued, ere, torsi, tortum, 147, i.
torreo, ere, torrui, tostum, 135,i,a.
tra-do, ere, -didi, -ditum, 151, i.
traho, ere, traxi, triictum, 147, 2.
tremo, ere, ui, to tremhle.
tribuo, ere, ui, tributum, 162.
triido, ere, triisi, trusum, 147, 2.
tueor, eri ^^^^^^^ ttitatus sum, 164.
tumeo, Cre, ui, to swell.
tundo, ere, tutudi, tunsum, tu-
sum, 155.
turgeo, ere, tursi, 147, i.
Ulciscor, 1, ultus sum, 165.
ungo, ere, tinxi, Unctum 149, h.
urgeo, ere, ursi, 147, i.
tiro, ere, tissi, ustum, 147, 2.
titor, i, usus sum, 165.
Vado, ere, 147, 2.
vale, 175, 4.
veho, ere, vexi, vectura, 147,2; 165,
vello, ere, velli (vulsi), vulsum,
160, 2.
ven-do, ere, -didi, -ditum, 151, i;
169, 2, R. I.
ven-eo, ire, ivi (ii), 169, 2, r. i.
venid, ire, veni, ventum, 16!.
vBnum-do, -dare, -dedi, -datum.
151, 1.
vereor, eri, veritus sum, 164.
verro, ere, verri, versum, 160, i.
verto, ere, verti, versum, 160, i.
vescoi', i, 165.
vesperasco, ere, avi, 140.
veto, are, vetui, vetitum, 142, 2.
video, ere, vidi, visum, 159.
vieo, ere, etum, to plait. Sec
137, h.
vigeo, ere, ui, to flourish.
vincio, ire, vinxi, vinetum, 150, 2.
vinco, ere, vici, victum, 100, 2.
viso, ere, visi, 160, i.
vivo, ere, vixi, victum, 147, 2.
volo, velle, volui, 142, 3; 174.
volvo, ere, volvi, voliitum, 160, r,
vomo, ere, vomui, vomitura, 142, 3
voved, ere, vovi, votum, 159.
GENERAL INDEX.
Abbreviations. —Abl., ablative; Abs., absolute; Ace, accusative; act., active; adj.,
adjective; adv., adverb; attrib., attributive, attribution ; app.,appositive, appositiou;
Comp., comparisoD, comparative; coustr., construction; cop., copula, copulative;
cpd., compound, compounded; Dat., dative; decl., declension; def., definite; dem.,
demonstrative; fem., feminine; Fut., future; Tut. PI'., future perfect; Gen., geni-
tive; Ger., gerund, gerundive; Impf., imperfect ; Imp v., imperative; indef., indefi-
nite; Indie, indicative; Inf., infinitive; interrog., interrogative; Loc, locative;
masc, masculine; neg., negative; neut., neuter; Nom., nominative; obj., object;
Part., partitive; part., participle; pass., passive ; PL, plural; poss., possessive, pos-
session; pred., predicate; prep., preposition; pron., pronoun ; rel., relative; Sg.,
singular; subj., subject; Subjv., subjunctive; subst., substantive; Sup., supine; vb.,
verb ; Vuc, vocative.
A— Sound of, 3; weakening of, 8,1; length
of final, 707,1. See ab.
ab (a)— la composition, 9,4; varies witb a
as prep., 9,4; syntax of as prep , 417,1;
position of 413, k.1; Dat. after vbs cpd.
witb, 347,R.5; gives Point of Reference,
335,N. : with Abl. takes place of second
Ace, 339, N. 2; with Abl. of Separation,
390: with Abl. of Point of View, ^6.2,N.6;
with Towns, 391,R.l ; with Abl. ofOrigin,
395; witb Abl. of Respect, 397, nI with
Abl. of Agent, 401; to express Cause,
408,N.3; with Abl. Ger., 433-
abdicare— with s6a»d Abl., 390,n.3.
abesse -with Ace. of Extent, or a and
Abl., 335, R. 2; with Dat.. 349,r4; with
Abl. of Measure, 403,N.l; of Place, 390,
N.3; tantum abest ut,— ut, 652,r.i.
abhinc-with Ace, 336, r :j.
abhorrgre— with Abl. of Place, 390, n.3.
ability— adis. of, with Inf., 423, N I.e.
abire— with Abl. of Place, 390, n 3.
ABL.A.TIVE— defined, 23,6: 1st docl. Sg. in
ad, PI- in eiS, 29,n.4; Pi. in abus, 29,R 4;
2d decl. Sg. in od, 33,n.3; Pi. in eiS, 33,
N.5; 3d decl. Sg. in ei, I, 6, 37,4; mute
stems witb i,54: sporadic cases in i^ 54,
N.2 ; vowel stems in i^ 67,R 2 ; adjs.
used as substs. in i, 57,R 2,n ; 4th
decl. in ubus, 61,u 1: adjs. in d, 75,N.3;
PI. in is (for iig) and abus, 75,N.6; adjs.
of three endings in e, 79,R 1: adjs. and
parts, in i and e, 82; adjs. iu e and f^
83: Comp. of part., 89,R 1; forms ad vs.,
91,2.
With act. vb. cannot be subj. of pass.,
217,R.l; with vbs. involving comparison,
296,N.l; prepositional uses instead. 26.
N.3; with pro *'f Disproportion, 298; for
inner obj., 333,2,n.4. with abesse and
distare, 335,R.2; of Point of Reference,
z&. N ; with Ago. after vbs. of Giving and
Putting, 3i8; with preps instead of
Part. Gen., 372,R 2 Scheme of Syntax,
384; of Place where 385. of Towns, 386;
of Place whence, 390; with vbs of Ab-
staining, 390,2. with Adjs., 390 3, of
Towns, 391; props, with Towns, z/> R.l;
of Attendance, 392, of Time, 393; preps.,
394; of Origin, 395, preps., ib. n.2; of
Material, 396, of Respect, 397: with
words of Eminence, tb. N 2, with Comp.,
398, 298, and rr1,2; of Manner, 399;
of Quality. 400, and r.I; with cum <»f
unnatural productions, ^6. N.2; of In-
strument, 401. of Agent, 314, and r.2.
401 and rr 1,2, with special vbs., 401,
NN 1 7; of Standard, 402, of Difference,
403, of Price, 404, with vbs. of Plenty
and Want 405. with opus and usus,
408; with utor, fruor, e/c , 407, of Cause,
403 and nn 2 6; of Ger., 431; of Ger.
with preps., 433; of Sup. , 436.
iBLATIVE ABSOLUTE— concord VVitll tWO
subjs., 286,N.3; syntax of. 409,10; with
Interrog., 469,N.; of part., 665,N.2.
504
GENEEAL INDEX
abmmpere— with Abl. of place, 390, n.3.
absiste— with luf. for Impv., 271,2,N.2.
absolvere— with Abl. of Place, 390,N.3.
absonus— with Abl., 359,N.2.
Absorption of Correlative— 619.
absque — 417,2; with Subjv., 597, N.
abstaining— \hs. of, with Abl., 390,2.
abstinere— with Abl. of Place, 390,N.3.
abstract — relations expressed by Indie,
254,B.l; substs. become concrete in PL,
204,N.5; formation of, 181,2,6.
abundantia — 84.
abundare— with Gen., 383,1,n.2.
abunde— wery, 439,n.3.
abuti— with Abl., 407 and N.2,a.
ac— see atque ; ac si with Subjv. of
Comparison, 602; aCSi= quasi, ib.if.5.
accedere— with Dat., etc., 347, R. 2; with
quod, 625; with ut, 653,4.
accent— in early Latin, 701,k.2 ; in mu-
sic, 729; conflict with Ictus, 749.
accentuation— 15; effect of enclitics, ib.
B.l; in cpds., i6. B.2; in Voc.td.E.S;
early, i6.n.
accidit— with Dat., 346,E.2 ; sequence
after, 613, R. 2; with ut, 653,3.
accipere— with inf., 527,e1.
aCCOmmodatUS— with Dat. Ger.,429,N.l.
accumbere— with Dat., etc., 347,R.2.
ACCUSATIVE— definition, 23,4. 3d decl. 38;
in im, 37,3; 54 n.1; in eis, 38,3; of vowel
stems, 57, k1 and 5; PI. in is and 6s, 67,
R.5; in Greek substs., 66, nn. 3 and 4; of
adjs. of three endings in is^ eiS, 79,N.2;
iiiIS,83,N.l; ofComp. iuis, eiS,89,B.2;
forms ad vs., 91,1.
Becomes subj. of pass., 216; syntax of,
328-343; general view, 328, 329; direct
obj., 330; with vbs. of Emotion, ifi.E. and
N.2; 333,1, N.l; with verbal substs., 330,
N.3; with adjs. in undus, i6N.4; with
cpd. vbs., 331. Inner obj.. 332, 333; ueut.
pron and adj., 333,1; Cognate, tb.2: Abl.
instead, i6.2,N.4; with vbs of Taste and
Smell, i6.2,N.5; extension of Coguate
idea, i6.2,NN.2 and 6. Double Ace. 333,
1; of Extent, 334-336; in Degree, 334, in
Space. 335, in Time, 336; with abesse
and distare, 3o5,r.2; with abhinc, 336,
R.3; with natUS, i^& R.4; with adjs., iTj.
N.l; of Extent as subj. of pass., ib.s.3-
of Local Object, 337; prep, with Large
Towns, ib. Ru.l and 2; domum and in
domum, ii>- r.3; force of ad, i(^- b-4;
with usque, '■&.N.4; with verbal substB.,
i6. N.5; of Respect, 338: with vbs. of
Clothing, etc., and passives, ib. n.2;
Greek Ace. or Abl. instead, ib. n.1.
Double Ace, 339-342; with vbs. of In-
quiring, etc., 339; special vbs., ib.nn.,
NN.; pass, form, ib. N.4; with vbs. of
Naming, Making, etc., 340; pass, form,
ib. R.l; End by ad or Dat., ib. R.2: one
Ace. is cognate, 341 and n.2; one Ace.
forms a phrase, 342; as a general objec-
tive case, 343, with Interjections, ib. 1:
Ace. and Inf., ib. 2: and Dat. with vbs.
of Giving and Putting, 348; with prepa.
for Part. Gen., 372, R.2: for Abl. of
Standard, 403,N.2: subj. of Inf., 203,R.l;
420; after impersonal Ger., 427,n.2; of
Ger., 430; of Ger. with preps., 432; of
Sup., 436; with Inf. as object clause,
626-536; with Inf. as subj., 536; with
Inf. after vbs. of Emotion, 542,R. ; with
Inf. in rel. clause, 635; with Inf. in
dependent comparative clause, 641.
accusing -\h8. of, with Gen., 378; with
other constr., ib. rr.2 and 5.
acquiescere— with Abl., 401,n.6.
acquUtivg— \hs. of, with Gen., 378; with
other constr., ib. er.2 and 3.
action, activity— suffixes for, 181,2; 182,1.
active voice— 112,2 ; 213 ; Inf. as pass.,
532,N.2; of something caused to be
done, 219; periphrastic, 247.
ad — Jn composition, 9,4; vbs. cpd. with,
take Ace, 331; with Towns and Coun-
tries, 337,RB.l and 4; with Ace of End
after vbs. of Taking, etc., 340, E.2; with
Ace for Dat., 345,R.2; vbs. cpd. with,
take Dat., 347; in the neighborhood of, 386,
R.2; //ence,403,N.4,e; position of, 413. R.l;
as adv., 415; as prep., 416,1; with Ace.
Ger., 429,2; 428,R.2: 432 and r.: alter
vbs. of Hindering, 432,R. ; with Ger. for
Abl. Sup., 436,N.3; ad id quod, 525,2,
N.2.
adaequS— with Abl., 296,n.1; 398,N.2.
adaplation—worda of, with Dat. Ger.,
429.2.
addere— with operamaud Dat. Ger., 429,
1; with quod, 625,1, N.l, with ut,653,4.
adding'- vbs. of, with quod, ^26,1 ; list
of, ib. N.l: with ut, it>- N.5; 653,4.
adductus— with Abl. of Cause. 408,N.3.
adeo-with ut, 662.
-with Dat., etc., 347, R.2.
GENERAL IIS^DEX.
505
adfatiin--v'''*y, 4S9,n.3.
adferre— ^vith ut, 653,1.
adhaerescere— with Dat., etc., 347,k.2.
adhortari— with ut, 546,n.i.
adkiic— strengthens Comp., 301, as yet,
siill, 478,N.l.
adicere— with quod, 525,1, n 1.
adigere-with ut, 663,1.
adipisci— with ut, 553,1.
adire— with Ace. or ad, 331,K.3.
adiuvare— with ut, 553,1.
ADJECTIVE— 16,2 ; and subst., i6.b.1,k.1;
decl. of, 17, defined, 72; 1st and 2d decl.,
73; Gen. and Vo(^, 73; stems in ro, 74;
witli Nom. wanting. 743.2; Prononnnal,
75; 3d decl., 77; two endings, 78; stems
in ri, 78,2; in all ainl Sri, 78 R.; one
ending, 80: case peculiarities, 83; abuu-
dantia, 84, varying decl., 84,2; defective
and indeelinable. 85; comparison of, 86;
correlative. 109: formation of, 182.
As subst., 204, NN, 1-4; agreement of
pred., 211: excepticms, j6. im. : altrib.
agrees in Gendej-, 286. ueut. with fern.,
ib. 3; concord of, 289; with two snbjs.,
290: position, 290 N 2, 291; meaning
varies with position, ib. Kl; 676;
superlatives of Order and Sequence,
291,1, R.2; numerals, 292-295; compara-
tives, 296-301; superlatives, 302, 303; of
Inclination. Knowledge, etc., in pred.,
325,R-fi, verbal with Ace, 330,N 3; ueut
in Cognate Ace. 333,1 ; of Extent in
Degree, 334 and r.1; or Time, 336,n.1;
with Gen. of Quality. 365,R.2, of 3d
decl. as pred., 366, R. 2 ; with Abl. of
Separation, 390,3; with Abl. of Atten-
dance, 392,R 1, with Abl. of Quality, 400;
in Abl. Abs., 410,nn.4,5; with Inf., 421,
N.l,c; with Inf. for Gen. of Ger., 428,N.3;
with Abl. Ger., 431,N.l; with Abl. Sup.,
436,N.2; neut. with ut, 553,4, and r.2.
adligare— with se and Gen., 378,R.l.
admirari-with inf., 633,r.i.
admodum— lerj/, 439,n.3; with quam
and ludic, 467,N.; yes, 471,1.
admonere— with two Aces., 341, n. 2 ; with
ut, 546,N.l.
Adonic— measure, 789, 792.
adoriri— with inf., 423,2.n.2.
adorning~\hs. of, with Abl., 401,n.1.
adstringere— with s5 and Gen.,378,R l.
adulescSns— 437 n.1.
advantage—yhs. of, with Dat. , 346.
ADVERB — defined, 16,5, and r.3; discussion
of, 91, 92: from Ace, 91,1; from Abl., ib.
2; from Loc, ib.3; imcertain, ib. 4; by
terminations, 92,1-5; syntactical aud
miscellaneous, 9?, 6 ; comparison of, 93;
numeral, 98: pron., 110: with Dat., 359,
N.7, with Part. Gen., 372,N.3 : general
use of, 439; position of, 440; for rel.
with prep., 611,u.l. position of, 677.
adversari-with Dat., 346,r.2.
adversative- sentences, 483-491; parti-
cles, 483 ; cum, SSO.nn.I and 2, 587;
qui, 634.
ad versus— gives obj. toward which, 359j
R.2; as adv , 415: as prep., 416,2.
advertere-animum, with Ace, 342.
ae— pronunciation of, 1 aud n.; weaken-^
ing of, 8,1.
aed§S— omitted, with Gen., 362,R.3.
aequalis— with Gen. or Dat.. 359,R.l.
aequare— with Dat. or Aco., 346. n.3.
aequum— with est instead of sit, 254,R.l?
aeque with Abl., 296,n.1; aequo after
Comp., 398,N I ; with atque, 643,N.3 ;
aeque aequS, 482,3.
aes— d^cl. of, 47, G.
aestimare— with Gen., 379; with Abl,,
380 N.l; with Abl. and ex, 402,R.2.
aetas— in Abl. of Time, 393, R.5 ; idaeta*
tis, 336,N 2.
aeternum-as adv , 336, n 1
alficere— with Abl, of Means, 401,N.3,
afflnis— with Dat. or Ace, 359,R.l; with
Geu , 374,N.2
affirmare— with Inf , 627.R.2.
age— with PI , 211,N.2; with Impv., 269;
age vSro, 487,n,3 ; id ago, with ut,
546,N 1.
agency— suffixes for, 181, 1
agent— in Abl. with ab,214, 401: in Abl ,
214,R 2; in Dat., 215, 354, 366; and In-
strument, 401,R.l.
aggredi— with Inf , 423,2,n.2.
aio— 175,1; supplied from negO, 447,R.
introduces O.R., 648,R.2 ; with Inf., 52' ,
R.2.
alaris— and alarius, 84,2,
Alcaic— measure, 791, 799.
Alcmanian— measure, 786.
ali— forms indef. prons,, 111,1.
alignus— poss, of alius, 108; with Gea.
or Dat.. 359,R.l and n.2.
aliquando— aliquando, 482, n.i.
aiiquantum— with ante, 403,n»#.
5o6
GENERAL INDEX.
aliquis and aliqui— 107; with PI. vrb.,
211,N.2; syntax 1)1, 314: with numerals,
314,K.2,i; lor quis aud qui, 107,N.l, and
315, N. 1 : with two negs., 316, n. 1 ; per
aliquem stare, with ne, quominus,
648,N.l.
alius— d eel. of, 76, 108; reciprocal alius
alium, 221,K.l; with Abl., 319; lor
alter, Ceteri, ib. n.I ; besides, ib. N.2;
alia as Ace. of Respect, 338,2; aliter
with Abl. of Mea.sure, 403 n. 3; aliuS
atque alius, 477, n.9 ; alias— alias, 482,
1 ; turn- alias, alias— plerumque,
interdum— alias, ib. n.2 ; alio— alio,
alibi— alibi, ib. 2 : aliter— aliter, ib.
3; aliter strengthens sin, 592; followed
by quam, nisi, praeter, 643, N.i ; with
atque, 643,^.3.
all6c-decl. of, 68,12.
alphabet— 1. Sounds of letters, ib. kr.
1-3; names of letters, ib. n.
alter—deci. of, 76, 108; for secundus,
96,5 ; alter alterum, reciprocal, 221, R.
1; and alius, 319.
alteruter— (leci. of, 76, 108.
altitude -with Ace. of Extent, 335, R.l.
altus -with Ace. of Extent, 335,R.l.
amare— 122; amabo, with impv., 269;
amans, 437,n.1 ; with Gen., 375,K.2.
amb— ill composition, 9,4.
ambire— conj. of, 169,2,r.i.
ambo— decl. of., 73,R., 95,108; and uter-
que, 292.
arnicas- with Gen. or Dat., 369,R.l.
amplius— with quam omitted, 296,r.4.
an -in disjunctive questions, 457,1 ; in
phrases, ib. 2 ; strengthened by ne, ib.
l,xN.2; as a simple interrog. particle, ib.
1,N 3; in second part of a disjunctive
question, 458 ; anne, ib.-. and aut, ''^•
N.4 ; annon and necne, 459; for num
or ne ill indirect question, 460,1,n1;
or 497.
auacoluthou — 697.
Anacreontic — measure, 819.
anacrusis— and anacrustic scheme, 739
anapaestic— foot, 734; rhythm, 736; va-
rieties of, 777-782: substitutes for, 777.
anaphora— 485. N.2; 636, n. 4: 682.
angi— with Ace. and Inf., 633. r.1.
angiportus-<h^c]. of, 68 5.
animadvertere-with ir;f., 527.K.1.
animals—as iustrumeuts or agents, 214,
S.2.
animus— with ut, 646, n.2 ; animum ad-
vertere, with Acc, 342: animi as Loc,
374, X. 7; in animo esse, with Inf. 422,
N.5.
Anio-decl. of, 41,4.
annuere— with Dat., etc., 347,r.2.
ante— in composition, 9,4 ; vbs. cpd. will
take Acc. or Dat., 331, 347; with Abl. of
Standard or Acc. of Extent, i03,N.4 ;
position of, 413, R.l and k.3; as adv.,
415 ; as prep., 416,3 : Mith Acc. Ger.,
432 and n.I; with part., 437,n.2.
anteaquam— see antequam.
antecedent — action, 661-567 : definite,
613 ; repetition of, 616 ; incorporation
of, 616 ; indefinite, 621 ; def. or iudef.
with Indie, or Siibjv., 631,1, and 2.
antecedere— with Dat., etc., 347,r.2.
antecellere-with Dat., etc., 347,r.2; with
Abl. of Respect, 397,n.2.
anteire— with Dat., etc., 347,R.2.
antepenult— 11.
antequam— with Indic, 574-576 ; with
Pr., 575 ; with Pf. and Fut. Pf., 576 ;
M-ith Subjv., 577.
anterior— 87.8.
aphaeresis-719,2,EX.
apocope- 703. R. 3.
aorist— forms on sO, sim, 131,4,^.; defi-
nition, 224 ; Pure Pf. as Aor , 236,n. ;
Hist. Pf., ,^39; Plupf, 241, n. 1 ; Pf. as
Potential of Past. 258 n 2.
apodosis — 589; omission of, 601; in com-
parative sentences, 602 ; in Indic. in
Unreal Conditions, 597.R.3 ; alter vrb.
requiring Subjv., ib.u 5.
apo8iopesis~691.
apparere— as cop. vb., 20S,n.1 ; with
Nom. and Inf., 628.N.2 ; with ut, 653,4,
appellare — with two Acxs., 340; with two
Nonis., 206.
appointing— \ha. of, with Dat. of Ger.,
429,2.
apposition — 320; concord in, 321; excep-
tions, ib. KR.,NN. ; Partitive, 322, 323;
Restrictive, 322 ; Distributive, 323 ;
whole and part, ib. n.2 ; to sentence,
324 ; predicate, 325 ; Gen. of, 361 ; to
names of Towns, 386,R.l : to Loc, ill,
R.3; prou. incorporated, 614, R.4; subst,
incorporated, 616,2.
aDpropinquare— witli Dat., 346,h.2.
aptUS— constr., 652,R.2; with qui, 631,?..
apud— 418.4.
GENERAL IXDEX.
507
arbitrari— with Inf.. 627,r.2.
arbitratti— as Abl. ot Cause. 408,n'.1.
arbor ti«'"i- <'f. 45,n.
arcere— with Abl. ot Separation, 390,"2,n.2.
Archilochiau— measure, 788, 800.
arcus— decl. of, 68,5.
ardere— with int., 423,2,n.2 ; ardens, to
express cause, 403,x.2.
ardor— with ut, 54:6.n.2.
arguere— with Gen., 378,u.l; with Inf.,
628,N.l.
Aristophanic— measure, 793.
arranj^ement— of words, 671-683 ; of
clauses, 684-687 ; grammatical or rhe-
torical, 672 ; ascending and descending,
673 ; of simple sentences, 674 ; of inter-
rog. sentences, 675 ; of adj. and Gen.,
676: of alvs., 677; of preps., 678: of par-
ticles, 679 : of attributes, 680 ; of oppo-
sites, 681; of pairs, 682 : anaphoric and
chiastic, 682 ; poetical, 683 : periods,
685; historical and oratorical, 687.
arridere— with Dat., ejc, 347,r.2.
artisan — suffixes for, 181, :3.
as — decl. of,48,R.
Asclepiadeau— measure, 802, 803.
asking — vbs. of, with two Aces., 339 and
K.l.N.l; with Inf. or ut, 546 and r 3.
aspergere— with Dat. and Ace, or Ace.
and Abl.,348,R.l.
aspicere— with inf., 627,r.i ; aspectu,
436,N.l.
aspirates — 6,2,B.
assentiri— with Dat., 346,r.2; 347,R.2.
assequi-with ut, 663,1.
-assere— as inf. ending, 131,4,^.4.
asseverations — in Subjv., 262 ; in Fut.
Indic, ib. N.; with nisi, 591,/>.2.
assidgre— with Dat., e.ic, 347,R.2.
assimilations — of vowels, 8,4; of conso-
nants, 91,2,3; of preps., 9,4; of Yoc,
211,R.3.
assaefacere— with Abi. or Dat., 401,n.2 ;
with Inf..d23.2,N.2.
assTiescere-with Abl. or Dat., 401,n.2;
with Inf., 423,-i,N.2.
asttl — in Abl. of Manner, 399,N.l.
asyndeton — after demonstrative, 307,
K.4; in coordination, 473, N., 474,n., 483,
N., 492, N.
at— use of, 488 and nn.: ast, 488,n.1.
atque— for quam, 296,n.4 ; syntax of,
477 and notes : adds a third member,
481,N.; with adjs. of Likeness, etc., 643;
for quam after neg. Comp., 344, n.
2.
atqui— 489; atquin, ib. n.i.
attendance -Abl. of, 392 ; with cum, i&.
R 1: instrumental, ib. r.2.
attinet w'ith inf., 422,n.4; restrictions
witli, 627,R.2.
attraction in Gender, 211,R.5 ; in mood,
508,4, 629: of vb. of Saying into Subjv.,
6il,N.3, 586,N.3, 630,N.3 ; of Eel., 617 ;
inverse, 617, N. 2 ; of mood in general,
662, 653.
attributive~288 ; concord of adj., 289 ;
with two or more substs., 290: po.sition
of, 291 ; superlatives of Order and Se-
quence, 291,1,R 2 : pred., 325 ; various
peculiarities of, ib. rr. ; omitted with
cognate Ace, 333,2,N.l ; with Abl. of
Time, 393,R.5 ; omitted with Abl. of
Manner, 399, n.I; with Inf., 421,n.2; with
part., 437,R.
au— pi'onunciation of, 4 ; weakening of,
8,1.
auctorem esse, with Dat., 346,n.5 : with
Inf., 527,R.2 ; with ut, 646,n.1.
auctoritas-with ut, 546,n.i ; auctori-
tate as Abl. of Cause, 408,N.l.
audere— with Inf., 423,2,n.'2.
audire-iike Gr. aKoveif, 206,N.2: audi-
6ns, with Dat., 346. n. 5 ; with cum and
Subjv., 680,r2; with Inf. and part.,
627,R.l, and n.I ; with rel. and Indic,
467.N.; audita, 436,N.l.
auscultare— with Dat., 346,r.2.
aut— t^istinguished from an, 468. N.4; use
of. 493 and notes; aut— aut with PI.,
236,N.l: subdivides a neg., 445.
autem— position of, 413,N.3, 484 R.; syn-
tax of, 484; in lively questions, ib. N.I ;
strengthens ged, 485, N. 3, 592.
auxiliari -with Dat., 346,r.2.
auxiliaris— and auxiliarius, 84,2.
auxiliary— vbs. with Inf., 280,1,6.
avSre— with inf., 423,2,x.2.
a versus— with Dat., 359,R.5.
Baccar— 68,12.
Bacchic— foot, 734 ; measures, 811-814.
balneum— 68,3.
becomhig—vhs. of, with two Noms., 206.
beginning— yhs. of, with Inf., 423, and n.2.
believing— whs. of, with Ace. and Inf., 626
and 627; with Nom., 528.
bellare-with Dat., 346,n.6.
5o8
GENERAL IXDEX.
bellum-in Abl. of Time, 394,B ; belli
as Loc, 411,B.2.
belonging— suffixes for, 182,5.
benev olus— t-ompared, 87,4.
heseecluiig—\h8. of, witti ut, 54.6.
bewaring — vbs. of, witli n6, 648.
bibere— with dare, 421,n.i,6.
bidding -\ha. ot, witli Dat., 346.
biiugus— and biiugis, 84,1.
bimatris— 86,1.
bini-for duo, 348,r.2.
blandiri— with Dat., 346,u.2,
boards— with Dat. Ger., 429,1.
bonus -comparison, 90 ; cui bono, 356,
R.l ; bene, as adv. of Degree, 439,n.2,
and 3.
books— omit in with Abl., 387.
bos— decl. of, 62.7.
brachylogy— 689.
breathings— 6, 2, A.
bi/ying—.vhs. of, with Gen. or Abl., 379,
C— sound of, l,B.l; name of, 1,n.
cadere— with Abl. of Separation, 390,2,N.
2.
caesura— defined, 750 ; varieties, 751 ;
masc. and fern., 752 ; bucolic, 753,k.2 ;
in Iamb. Sen., 769,n.2; in lam. Trim.
Cat., 761,N.; in lam. Trim. Claud., 762,
N.4 ; in lam. Oct., 763,N.6. ; in lam.
Sept., 764, N.2 ; in Troch. Sept., 770,N.2;
in Dae. Hex., 784,N.2 : in alcaic, 791,
798, 799,N.l ; in Glyconic, 795; in Plialae-
cean, 796,n.3 ; in Sapphic, 797,N.2, 804 ;
in Archilochian, 800,N. ; in Asclepia-
dean, 802,n.1.
calling— \hs. of, with two Aces., 340; with
two Noras., 206.
calx— decl. ol, 70,D.
campi-as Loc, 411,R.2.
cantica— defined, 747; in early Latin,
824; in later Latin, 826.
capability— adja. of, with Inf., 421,N.l,c.
capacity— acijs. of, with Dat. Ger., 429,2 ;
suffixes for, 182,2.
capx—with Gen, of Charge, 378,r.1.
capital— decl. of, 78, b.
caput— decl. of, 63.8; est with Inf., 422,
N.2.
cardinal numbers— 94 ; Gen. Pi. of, 95,
K.2 ; collective Sg. of, ib. ; duO and
ambO, 292 ; with singull, 295: for Dis-
tributive, 295.N.; position of, 676,k.2.
carere- with Abl., 406; with Gten., 383,1,
n.2.
Caro— decl. of, 41,4; gender of, 43,1.
Carthagini— as Loc, 411,e.1.
carus—with Abl. of Price, 404,n.2.
cases— defined, 23 ; strong and weak,
recti and obliqui, 24 ; case-lorms, 25 ;
endings, 26,2.
cassis— decl. of, 68,12.
Casu as Abl. of Manner, 399,n.1.
catalexis 742.
causa— with Gen., 373; with poss. pron.,
ib. R.2; with Gen. Ger., 428.E.2; causa,
in phrases with ut, 646,n.2; causam
vincere, 333, 2,b.
CAUSAL skntences— coordinate, 498 ; par-
ticles, 498 ; syntax of subordinate, 538-
642 ; general division, 638, 539 ; with
quod, cte., and Indie, 640 : with quod,
etc., and Subjv., 541; with quia, ib.
N.l ; rejected reason, ib. n.2 ; with
quandoque, il>- N-5 ; with vbs. of Emo-
tion, 642 ; si for quod, i^- n.1 ; with
cum, 580,RR.l and 2, 586 ; with tam-
quam, etc., 541.N.4, 602,n.4 ; relative,
634 ; clauses in O.O., 655.
causation— \hs,. of, with part., 637; with
ut, 553,1; pass, with ut, ib. 3.
causative verbs— formation of, 191,4.
cause— Abl. of, 408 ; various expressions
for, ib. NN. ; preventing, ib. n.4 ; exter-
nal, ib. N.6; represented by part., 666,
670,2.
cav ere— with Subjv. for imp v., 271,2;
with Dat., 346,N.2; constructions with,
548,kn. 1 and 3.
ce— appended to iste, 104,3,N.2 ; to iHe,
ib. N.3.
C6dere— with Dat., 346.R.2 ; with Abl. of
Separation, 390,2,n.2.
cedo— clefective, 176,6.
celare— with two Aces., or dS, 339 and r.
1 and 3,N.l.
celer— comparison of, 87,1, and n.
Cgnsgre-with inf., 627,b.2 ; with ut, 646,
N.l ; c§nseo, yes, 471,2.
centimanus— defective, 86,2.
cernere— with Inf., 627,r.i.
certare— with Dat., 346,n.6; rem cer-
tare, 333, 2,B.
certus— strengthens quidam, 313,R.3 ;
with Gen., 374.N.9 ; certg, certo, yes.
471,1; certe, strengthens at, 488, n.2,
oertius (quam), with inf., 422, n.3;
GENERAL INDEX.
509
Certum est, with inf.. 423,2,n.2; cer-
tiorem facere, with inf., 627, r. 2.
C6SSare— with inf., 423,2,n.2.
(ceterus)— Nom. masc wanting, 74,R.2,
85,1; use of cgterum, 4il: cetera "sed
partitively, 2913.2; alius instead, 319,
N.l: as Ace. of Respect, 338,2.
charge— in Gen. with Judicial verbs,
378 ; with nomine, i&- R-2 ; iu Abl., ib.
K.3.
chiasmus— 682 and n.
choosing— vhs. of, with two Noms., 206 ;
with two Aces., 340 ; End with Dat. or
ad, i^- R-2 ; vbs. of, with Final Dat.,
356,N.2.
choriambic— feet, 734 ; rhythms, 801-
cingi— with Ace, 338,N.2.
circa— position of, 413, R.l ; as adv., 415 ;
as prep., 416,5 ; with Ace. Ger., 432 and
N.l.
Circiter— as prep.. 416.6.
circum— iu composition, 9,4 ; vbs. cpd.
witli, take Ace, 331; never repeated, ife.
11.2; as adv., 415; as prep., 416,5.
circumdare— with Dat. and Ace, or Ace.
and Abl., 348, K.l.
circumfundere— with Ace. and Dat ,or
Ace. and Abl., 348,R.l.
Circumspice— with direct question, 467,
N.
circumstantial cum — 585 588.
Cis— as prep., 416,7.
citerior-87,2 and 7.
Citius quam— coustr. after, 644,u.3.
citra— as adv., 415: as prep., 416,7.
Civitas — concord of, in pred., 211,e.6.
clam -as adv., 415; as prep., 416,8.
Clanculum— as prep., 416,8.
cliVUS-decL of. 67,2.
clothing— vhs. of, with Ace. of Respect,
338 N.2; with Abl. of Means, 401. N.l.
cluere— with Nora, and Iuf.,623,N.l.
COepi— 175,5,a, and n. ; with Inf., 423,
N.a.
COgere— with Inf.,423,2,N.2; withut,S53,
2; conclude, with Inf., 546,R.l, 653,2,n.
cogitare— with inf., 423,2,n 2.
COgitatio— iu phrases with ut, 5S7,b.
Cognate Accusative — 333,2 ; similar
phrases, ib. r. : with second Ace, 341 ;
with proliibere, iubgre, ii>. n.2.
COgnatUS— ^yith Gen. or Dat., 359, R-l.
COgnitio— in phrases with ut, 657,R.
cognomen esse— with Dat., 349, b.5.
cognoscere— with inf.,627.R.l; cognitu
as Sup., 436,N.l.
coincidence— constr. with, 513,^.3.
COire— with Dat., 346,N.6.
coUigere— with inf., 627, e.2.
COllocare— with in and Abl., 385,E.l ;
with in and Ace, ib. N.3-
COlus— decl. of, 61,N.5.
comitari— with Dat., 346,n.2.
COmitiis— as Abl. of Time, 393,R.5.
commiserari— with Ace, 377,n.2.
COmmittere— with Ace. Cter., 430,N.l;
with ut, 648 N.l.
commovSre— with ut, 653,2; commotus,
to express cause, 408,N.2.
commune— as subst , 211, R.*: iu phrases
with ut, 657,R. ; communis, w'ith Gen.
or Dat , 359,B.l.
comparative— in lor, 86; in entior, 87,4,5;
lacking, 87,9; with quam or Abl., 296
and RR. ; omission of quam, ib. r.4; age
with natus, ib. R 5; with opiniSne, lb.
E.6; of Disproportion, 298, omission of
ut alter quam, ib. R.2; restriction of,
300; strengthened, 301: doubled, ib.;
with Part. Gen., 372 and tt.2; with Abl.
of Respect, 398 and b.; with Abl. of
Measure, 403,n.1; with Abl. Ger.,431,N.
2; with quam qui, 631,3.
coMPARATivK SENTENCES— 638-644 ; divis-
ion of, 638; moods in, 639; vb. omitted
in, 640 ; in dependent clauses, 641; cor-
relatives in, 642; the more— the more, ib.
R.2; with atque,643; with quam, 644.
comparison— of adjectives, 86 ; peculiar-
ities, 87: by magis and maxim§, ib.Q;
by plus and plurimum, ib. r),N.2: de-
fective, 87,2,7,9. of participles, 68,89; of
advs., 93; irregular, 90; standard of,
omitted, 297; of qualities. 299; condi-
tional eentenceg of. 602-
compelling— vhs. of, with ut, 553,2.
compensatory lengtheninpr— 9,6,«.
COmperee— with luf forImpv.,271,2,ir.a^
comperire— with Gen,, 378,e.1; with Inf.,
527, R.l.
compesce— with laf. for Impv., 271,2,
N.2.
complere— with Gen., 383,1.
COmpleXUS— as a Present, 282.>f.
compos— with Gen., 374,N.3.
composition— of words, 193-200 ; dlvlg.
ions, 193; of Bubats., 194-198; oi vbs..
510
GENERAL INDEX.
compounds— attrib., 197,1 ; dependent,
lb. 2 ; poss., 198 ; quantity in, 716.
con— »ee cmn.
COnarl— with inf., 423,2,n.2.
COnatUS— defective, 68,5.
COncgdere— «sed personally in pass., 217,
N.2; with Dat., 346,e.2; with Inf., 423,2,
N.2; 532,N.l; with Ace. Ger., 430,n.1;
with ut, 548,N.l.
conceiving— \hs. of, Avith obj. clause, 523.
concessive— Snbj v., 264 : CUm, 580,nn.1
and 2, 587; qui, 634; part.. 009,667,670,4.
CONCESSTVE SENTENCES— 603-609 ; With
etsi, etc., 604 ; with quamquam, 605 ;
■with quamvis, etc., 606; with licet,
607; with ut, 608; representatives of,
609.
concltidere— with inf., 627,k.2.
concord — 210; pred. with subj., 211; vio-
lations of, ib. KB.l-6,HN.l-3; of subj. and
pred. multiplied, 285-287; of app.,321;
neut. for persons, 323, n 2; of rel., 614.
concupiens— with Gen., 375,n.2.
concurrere— with Dat., 346, n.6.
condecet— with inf., 422, n. 4.
vondemning — vbs. of, with Gen., 378; with
other constrs., ib. r.2; with Abl., ib. r.
3; enforced destination, ib. r.4.
COndiciS— in phrases with nt, 546, N.2.
condition— suflBxes for, 181,8; indicated
by a question, 453,n.3; represented by
part., 667,670,4.
conditional cum — 583-
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES— 58^602 ; divis-
ion of, 589; sigfl. 590; negatives, 691;
two excluding, 592; equivalents of Pro-
tasis, 593; classilication of. 594. Logical,
696; in O.O., it.R.l; withSubjv., ib. rr.
2,3; sive— sive,»fc R *; siquidem, »& k.
6; simodO,»6B.6, phrases, ife.N.l: range
of tenses, »6.N.2. Ideal, 596; for un-
real, ii.R.l; shift to unreal, »6.B.2; after
non possum, »6 k-3; in 6.O., ib. r.5.
Unreal, 597; Impf. of Past, ib. B.l; In-
die, iu Apodosis, xb. rr 2,3; in 0., ib,
B.4: after a vb. requiring Subjv., t6. r.
5 absque, »fr-N.l. Incomplete, 698-601;
omission of sign, 698; of vb. of Prot.,
699; of Prot., 600;_of Apotl., 601; of Com-
parison, 6(K; in O.O. general consider-
ation, 656; Logical, 657; Ideal, 658; Un-
real, 659; Pf. Inf. and potuisse, *6. N.
COndiicit— with Dat., 346, R.2; with Gen.,
379; with Ace. Qer., 430,k.1.
confici-with Inf., 633,e.1; with ttl,
553,3.
COnfidere— with Dat., 346,r.2 and n.2;
with Abl., 401,N.6; with Inf., 627,R.2.
confirmare— with inf., 627,r.-2.
congruere— with Dat , etc., 347,r.2.
conjugation— defined, 17; systems of, 120;
first. 122; second, 123, irregular si^coiid,
124; third, 125; third in io, 126. fourth,
127; deponents, 128; periphrastic, 129;
notes on; 130,131; change iu. 136.
conjunction— defined, 16.7, and r.3.
coniungere— with Dat. or cum, 359,n.3.
CONSECUTIVE SENTENCES— exceptional se-
quence in, 613; syntax of, 651-558; gen-
eral division, 551 ; Pure, 552"; tantum
abest nt, ^&. «.!; with dignus, etc., ib.
R,2 ; with idea of Design, ib. r.3: ut
non, tvithout, ib. R.4 ; Complementary,
553; vbs, of Effecting, 553; vbs. of Cau-
sation, ib.l; of Compelling, etc.,ib. 2;
Happening, etc., ib. 3; impersonals, ib.i:
vbs. of Hindering, 554-656; quin with
vbs. of Preventing, 555,1; with vbs. of
Doubt, ib. 2; quin = ut non, 656; non
dubitO qnin, ib. rr.1,2 ; Explanatury
ut, 657; Exclamatory question , 568: rel.
sentences, 631; withdef. antecedent, ib.
1; with indef. antecedent, ib. 2; with
Comp., ib. 3; with adj.,i6. 4; with quin,
632; Indic. for Subjv., ib. 2,rr.1,2.
consentaneum— with inf., 422,n.3.
consentire — with Dat., etc.. 347,r.2.
consequi— and cSnsequSns, with ut, 663,
1 and 4.
considere— with in and Abi., 385,r.i.
consilium— in Abl. of Cause, 408,n.1 ; in
phrases, with Inf., 422,N.2, and 428,n.2;
with dare and ut, 546,nn.1 and 2.
COnsistere— with Abl. of Material, 396,
N.l.
consonants— 6; double, tb.3; sounds of, 7;
phonetic variations in, 9; combinations
of, 10,R.l.
COnsors— with Gen., 374,N.2.
cSnspicari— with inf., 627,r.1.
conspicere— with inf., 527,r.i.
COnstare— with Dat.. etc.. 347,R.2; with
Gen., 379; with Abl. of Material, 396,n.
1: with Nom, and Inf., 628,n,2,
c5nstituera— with in and Abl., 386,r.i ;
with Inf., 423,2,n.2; with ut, 546,n.1.
lOnsti-uctiO—ad s?nswn, 211,r.1,n,3; prae-
gn&ns, 699.
GENERAL INDEX.
511
c5nsuescere - with Inf., 423,2,n.2; con-
suetus, witU Inf., 421,N.l,c.
COnsuetudo— in Abl. of Mauuer, 399. n 1;
iu phrases, with Iuf.,422,N.2, or ut,557,
R.
consulere— with two Aces , 339 ami n 1;
with Dat., 346. R 2 aud n.2; boni COn-
sulere, 380,N 2.
coutemporaueous action— 638-573; in Ex-
tent, 569,570; in Limit, 571 573.
contendere -with Dat., 346,n.G; with
l!il , 423,'.i,N.2; with ut, 546,N.l.
COntineri— with x\bl of Material, 396,N 1,
contentus, with Abl., 401,n e.
contingit— with ut, 553,3; contigit,
with Dat., 346,R.2; sequence after, 513,
N.2; attraction of pred. after, 535,R-3.
continuance -\hs. of, with Inf., 423, and
n2.
contra— position of, 413,Rl; as adv., 416,-
as prep., 416,9; with atque, 643,n.3.
contrac(ing—\hs. of, with Ace. Ger., 430.
contraction— of shorts, 732.
contrarius— with Gen. or Dat., 359,R.l;
with atque, 643,n.3.
contrasts— with hiC— ille, 307,RR.1.2 ;
with ipse, 311,R.l; with aliquis, 314;
alter-alter, etc., 323.
convenire— iiidic. for Subjv., 254,r1;
with Dat., 346,N.2, 347,R.2.
comnc(ing—\'hs. of, with Gen., 378; other
coustr., ib. r.2.
coordination — defined, 472; without con-
junction, 472,R. ; syntax of, 473-503;
copulative, 474-482: adversative, 483-
491 ; disjunctive, 492-497 ; causal and
illative, 498-503.
COpia— with Inf., 428,N.2.
copula— with pred., 205; itself a pred., ib.
N.: omitted, 209; agrees with pred.,
211.R l,EX.c.
copulative— vbs., 206; with Nom. and Inf.,
ib. R.3. Particles, 474 ; omitted, ib. n.,
481. Sentences, 474-482 ; nse of neg. to
connect, 480.
cor— tied, of, 63,8; cordi est, with Inf.,
422.N.5.
coram— as adv. , 415; as prep., 417,3.
cornus— dticl. of, 68,5.
corpus— <3ecl. of, 48.
correlatives— 109-111 ; pronominal adjs.,
109; advs., 110; cpds.. Ill; coordinating
particles, as tum— tum, alias— alias,
etc., 482; of Eel., 618; absorption of, 619,
621; position of, 620; in comparative
sentences, 642; omitted, 642,3.
correptiou — 744.
COS defective, 70,D.
countries— in Ace, with prep., 337, R.l ;
without, ib. N 1; in Abl., 391,N.
crassitudo -with Ace. of Extent, 335,B.l.
crassus— with Acc. of Extent, 335,R.1.
crastini— as Loc, 411,n.1.
creare- with two Accs., 340 ; with two
]SIoms.,206.
creation— \bs. of, with Inf., 280,1, ft.
Crgdere— personal in pass., 217,N.l; with
Dat , 346,R.2 ; with Inf., 627,R.2 ; cr6di-
tur, with Inf., 628,R.2.
cretic— foot, 734 , substitutions for, 806;
rhythms, 806-810.
cruciari— with Inf , 633,r.1.
cuius— as poss. pron., 106,N.4.
culpa— witli Epexegetical Gen., 361,2.
cum— and quom, 7 ; iu composition, 9,4 ;
with subst. to form cpd subj., 285, N.2;
vbs. cpd. with take Acc, or Dat., 331.
347 ; with Abl. of Attendance, 392. and
R.l; to indicate Time, 394, n.2, with Abl.
of Manner, 399; with unnatural produc-
tions, 400,R.2: position of. 413,R.l; with
Abl. Ger.. 433 ; as prep., 417,4 ; with eo
and quod, 525, 2, N 2 ; (primum). as
soon as, 561-663 ; Causal. 664,n.2 ; with
Iterative action, 666, 567 ; with Subjv.,
lb. N.; derivation of, 578 ; general view
of, 579 ; Temporal, 580; fuit CUm, ib.
R.l ; memini cum, ib. r.2; witli Lapses
of Time, ib. r.3; in early Latin, ib. n.1 ;
Inverse, 581 ; Explicative, 682 ; Condi-
tional, 583, 590,N 3; Iterative, 584; with
Subjv., ib. R. ; Circumstantial, 685-588;
Historical, 685; Causal, 686; Concessive
and Adversative, 687: Cum non = ivilh-
out, ib. R.2; Cum— tum, 688; mood. ib.
2; cum interim, with inf., 635, n.2; with
Indie, retained in 0., 655,R.3.
-CUmque— makes general relatives. 111,2.
CUncta— Aee. of Respect, 338,2: may omit
in with Abl. of Place, 388.
cunetari— with inf., 423.2,n.2.
CUpere— with Pf. inf., 280,2 e,N. : with
Dat., 346,R.2: cupienti est, 353 n.2;
with Inf., 423,2.N.L>; 638.N.4 ; cupiSus,
with Gen., 376,N.2.
cupiditas-with ut, 646.N.2.
Cupidus-with Gen.,374,N.5.
CUpresSUS- decl. of, 68,5.
512
GENERAL INDEX.
ctira— with ut, 546.N.2; ctirae est, \vith
Inf., 422.N.5.
curare— with I;:f., 423,2,n.2-, with Ace.
Ger., 430,N,1 ; with part., 637,n 2; with
ut, 54:6.N.l; cura ut for Impv., 271,1.
and 2,N.2.
CUrriculO— as Abl. of Manner, 399,n.1.
Dactylic— foot, 734 ; substitutions, 783 ;
rhythm, 736 ; riiythms, 783-789.
damnas— indeclinable, 85,C.
daps— defective, 70,D.
dare-Pf. dedrot, 131,6; Pr. danunt,
133,iv.,N.2 ; with ad or Dat., 345,ii.2 ;
with Final Dat., 3i6,R 2. operam, with
Dat. Ger., 429,n.1, or ut, 546.N.1 ; with
Ace. Ger., 430,N.l ; nuptum, e^c-, 435,
N.l; with Pf. part., 537.N.2; permit, with
Ut, 563.2.
DATIVE— defined, 23,3 ; 1st decl. in ai, a,
abus, as, eiS, 29,nn.3,4; 3d decl. in ei,
e, 37,2; 4th decl. in ubus, uei, U, 61,R.,
and N.2 ; 5th decl., uncommon, 63,R.l ;
in g, i, ih. N.2; in Greek substs., 66,n.2;
in adjs. in ai, a, abus, is (for iis), 75,
NN.2,6 ; in i of pron. adjs., 76,2; with
act. vb. unchanged in pass., 217, 346,
R.l; gives End with vbs. of Taking, etc.,
340,E.2 ; with ei and vae, 343,1, N.2; of
Indirect Obj., 344 ; with trans, vbs.,
345 ; with vbs. of Taking Away, ib. k.1 ;
and pro, ib- R.2 ; with iutrans. vbs.,
346; with cpd. vbs., 347; vdth vbs. cpd.
with de, ex, ab, ib. e.5 ; and Ace. with
vbs. of Giving and Putting, 348; of Pos-
sessor, 349; of Personal Interest, 350;
Ethical, 351 ; of Eeference, 352, 353 ;
with participles, 353 ; of Agent, 216,
354; Double, 356; with substs., 357; Lo-
cal, 358 ; vvitli adjs., 359 ; with cpds. of
di, dis, 390,2.N.5; of Ger., 429.
flg_\vith Abl. for second Ace, 339,nn 2,3;
vbs. cpd. with take Dat., 347,R,5 ; with
Abl. of Separation, 390,1, and 2 ; to indi-
cate Time, 394.N.2; with Abl. of Origin,
396,and n.2 ; with Abl. of Respect, 397,
N.l: with Abl. of Cause, 408, n. 3: position
of, 413, R.l ; as prep., 416.5 ; with Abl,
Ger.. 433 ; with part., 437,N.2 ; dg e3
quod, 626,2 N.2.
death— deponent vb. of as act. in Abl. Abs.,
410.N.1.
debSre— Indie, for Subjv., 254, R.l: Impf.
as tense of Disappointment, ib. b.2 ;
with Pf. Inf , 283,2,6, and n.3; with Inf.,
423,2,N.2
decgre—with Pf. Inf , 280,2,ft,R.l ; with
Dat , 34S,n.3 ; with Abl. of Respect,
397 n.2
decernere-with inf , 423,2,n.2, and 546,
R.l ; with ut, 646,N 1.
declension— defined, 17 ; varieties of, 27 :
rules for, 28; 1st, 29. 30. 2d, 31-33: stems
in -ro and -ero, 32; 3d, 35-60: stems of,
35; formation of Nom. Sg., 36 ; liquid
stems, 39-46; sibilant, 47-49; mute, 50-
55; vowel, 56-59; 4th, 61, 62; 5th, 63, 64;
vary between 5th and 3d, 63, R.2 ; of
Greek substs.. 65 ; adjs. of Ist and 2d,
73 ; of pron. adjs., 76 ; parts., 80-
decorus— with Abl , 397,N.2.
decreeing— \hs.. of, with Dat. Ger., 429,2.
dedecet-with inf., 422,n.4.
deesse-rwith Dat , 349. r.4.
deferre— with Gen. of charge, 378,R.l.
defessus— with inf., 421,N.l,c.
deficere— with Acc, 346,n.3.
defigere— with in and Abl., 385,r.1.
degree— ad vs. of, modify other advs., 469,
' N.2.
deicere— with Abl., 390.2.N.3.
delectari— with acc, 346,n.3.
deliberative questions— 265 ; Subjv. in
O.O., 651.R.2.
deliberatum est-with inf., 423,2,n.2.
dglicium-deci. of, 68,3.
deligere— with two Aces., 340 ; w-ith two
Noms., 206.
demanding— vhs. of, with ut, 546.
demergere— with in and Abl., 385.R.1.
demirari-^nth inf., 533.R.1.
demonstrare— with inf., 627,r.2.
demonstratives— 104 : attracted in Gen-
der, 211, R 5, and n.3 ; syntax of, 305-
307 ; hie, 305 ; iste, 306; ille, 307 ; hie
— ille, il>- Rr1,2 ; advs. similarly used,
lb. R'3; strengthened by quidem, ib.
R 4 ; reflexive of, 521, I4. 5 ; followed by
quod, 525,2 ; continue a rel. clause,
638 N I; position of, 676 R.l.
dSmovgre— with Abl., 390.2,n.3.
denominative -179,2, and n.; Pf. of vba.,
134, v.; formation of vbs., 192.
dense growths— suffixes for, 181,11.
dentals— 6,1; suffixes with, 186.
dgpellere— with Abi., 390,2,n.3.
deponent— 113 ; conjugation, 128; list of,
163-166; semi-, 167; how used, 220-
GENERAL INDEX,
513
dSprecari- with ng,548,N.l.
deprehendi-with Geu. of Charge, 378,
n.l.
depriving— \hs. of, with Abl., 405, N.
derivative words— 179,2.
descent— suffixes for, 182,11.
desiderare-with luf., 423,2,n.2.
desidcrative verbs — foriuatiou of, 191,3.
desinere— with luf., 423,2,nn.2,3.
desire ~-a.d]s. of, with Geu., 374 ; vbs. of,
with luf., 281,c.; 423,2,NN.2,4; sequence
after, 615.K.3 ; with Ace. and Int., 632 ;
with Tit. i^- N.1-4 ; with part., 537, N.l ;
with complemeutary Final clause, 546.
dgsistere— with Abl., 390,2,n.3.
desperare— with Dat., 346,R.2 ; with Inf.,
527,11.2.
determinative pronouus— 103 ; syntax of,
308.
deterrere-with Inf.. 423,2.n.2 ; with ng,
548,N.i ; with quominus, 549,n.i.
deturbare— with Abl., 390,2,n,3.
deus— decl. of, 33.R.6
dexter— decl. of, 74,b.1; Comp. of, 87,1,
K.l ; if). 2 and 7,
diaeresis — 5, 753.
dialysis — 724.
diastole — 721.
dica— defective, 70,I>.
dicere— with two Noms. in pass., 206 ;
omission of, 209, n. 5 ; dixerat as Aor.,
241,N.i ; dicat, dixerit aliquis, 257,2 ;
with Ace. and Inf., 527,R.l ; with Nom.
and Inf., 528, aad N.l ; dicitur and
dictum est, ib. R 2 ; not confined to 3d
person, ib. N.4 ; with ut, 546,n.1 ; dlC,
with Indie, question, 467.N.; dictu, iu
Sup.,436,N.
[dicio]— defective, 70,I>.
di§— as Loc, 91,3; as Abl. of Time. 393,
R.o ; din, '>y '?«.'/, 91.2./.
ditference — measure of, 403 ; vbs. of, with
Abl., ib. N.l.
difFerre-with Dat., 346,n.6.
difficile— comparison of, 87,3; with est
forSubjv., 254 B.l: with Inf., 421 N.l, c.
dijficulty—adis. of, with Abl. Sup., 436,n.2.
dilfldere— with Dat., 346,R.2, and n.2 ;
not Abl., 401,N.6.
dignari— with Abl. of Respect, 397,n.2.
dignus— with Gen., 374,N.10 ; with Abl.
of Respect, 397,n.2 ; constr. alter, 652,
R 2 ; qui or Ut, with Subjv., 631,1, and
B.2.
33
diluvium- beteroclite, 68,6.
diminutive— suffixes for, 181,12, 182,12 :
vbs., 192,2.
diphthongs— 4 and n. ; length of. 14 :
quantity of, 705.
dis— ill composition, 9.4.
disagreement— vhs. of, with Dat., 346,n.G.
discere— pass, of docere, 339,n.4; with
Iuf.,527,R.l.
discrepare— with Dat., 346,n.6.
discruciari— with inf., 533,r 1.
disousl—a,dis. of, with Gen., 374.
disinclination — adj. of, for advs., 325,R.6.
disjunctive— particles, 492 , sentences,
492-497; particles omitted, 492,n. ; ques-
tions, 452; forms of, 458; mdirect, 460,2.
displeasure — vbs. of, with Dat., 346 ; adjs.
of, with Abl. Sup., 436,N.2.
displicere— with Dat., 346,r.2 ; displi-
Cet, withIuf.,422,N.4.
disproportion— by quam pro, qui, ut,
etc., 298 ; by positive, with preps., ib.
R. ; omission of ut after quam, ib- n.2.
dispudet— with Gen., 377,n.1 ; with Inf.,
422,N.4.
dissentire— with Dat., 346,n.6.
dissimilation — of Consonants, 9,5,
dissimilis— Comp. of, 87,3.
dissimulare— with inf., 627,r.2.
distaedet— with Gen., 377,n.1.
dlstare — with Acc. or a and Abl., 335,R.
2 ; with Dat., 346, n.6 ; with Abl. ol
Measure, 403, N.l.
distributives— 97 ; with pluralia tan-
tum, ib. R.3 : for cardinals, ib. N.l, 295,
N. ; syntax of, 295; iu apposition, 323.
cnve?'biii?n—7iT.
dives— Comp. of, 87,10.
divinam rem facere— with Abl. of
Means, 401,N.4.
docere— with two Aces., or dg, 339, and r.
1; with ab, ib. R.2; doctus, ib. R.2, and
N.4; discere as pass., ib. n.4 ; constr.
after, 423, n.6.
doing— vhs. of, take obj. clause, 623, and
625,1, and n.4.
dolere— with inf., 533,r.1 ; dolet, with
Dat., 346,N.l ; with Dat. and Inf., 633,
R.l.
dolo— as Abl. of Manner, 399,N.l.
domus— decl., 61,R.2, 68,5; Acc. as Limit
of Motion, 337: Abl. of Separation, 390,
2; domi, 411,R.2; with Geu, of ijoss.
pron., 411,R.4:.
514
GENERAL INDEX.
dSnare— ■^vith Dat. aud Ace, or Ace. and
Abl.. 348, K.l.
donee— <^lerivation, 568 aud k. : of com-
plete coextension, with Indie, 569 ;
until, with ludic, 571; inverse, ib. N.6;
with Subjv., 572; to express subordina-
tion, ib. R.
donicum— 568; range of, 571, n.4.
donique— range of, 571,n.4.
doubt~\hs. of, with quin, 555,2.
dropping — vbs. of, with quod clause, 626,
1; with ut, ib. N.4.
dubitare-an, 457,2; with inf., 423,2,n.
2 ; non dubito, with quin, 555,2, r.1;
with Interrog., ib. r.2 ; with Inf., ib.
R.3, and n.
dubium— with an and Subjv., 457,2.
ducere— with pred. Nom. or phrase, 206,
R.l; with Final Dat., 356,R.2; with Gen.
of Price, 379; pgnsi ducere, 380,1, N.2;
deem, with Ace. aud Inf., 527,R.2; feaci,
with ut, 563,2.
dum— fiichtic, with Impv., 269; with Pr.
ludic, 229,R. ; force of, 568,R. ; of com-
plete coextension, 569; of partial coex-
tension, 570; until, with Indie., 571; with
Subjv., 672; to express subordination,
i6. R. ; provided that, 573; with modo,
ib.; with Pr. for participle, 570,nn.1
and 2 ; ca\^sal, ib. ; retained, with Indie.
inO.O., 655,r3, 683,1, n.1.
dUTWXlOdO —provided that, 673.
duo— dec] . of, 73, R., 95, and amb5, uter-
que, 292.
duritia— heteroclite, 68,2.
duty— wbs. of, with Inf., 423 and n.2.
E — sound of, 3; weakening of, 8,1; length
of final, 707,2: gand ex in coinp., 9,4.
ease— adjs. of, with Abl. Sup., 436,N.2.
ebur— decl. of, 44,5.
ecastor— strengthens atque, 477, N.2.
ecce— with Ace. aud Nom., 343,1, N.2.
ecquis-106 and n.5.
eetblipsis — 719,2.
edere— conjugation of, 172, N.
edicere-with inf., 627,R.2; with ut, 646,
N.l.
edlicere— with Abl., 390,2,n.3.
effecting — vbs. of, liave Final Sequeuce,
643,R-1, and N.2; constr. of, 553.
efferre— with Abl., 390,2, n. a.
efiicere— with Subjv. and ut, 663,1 aud 3;
with Inf., 627,H.2, 563,2,N.
egSnus— Comp. of, 8~,5 ; with Gen. or
Abl., 405, N. 3.
egere— with Gen. or Ace., 383,1, 405,n.2.
ego— tied, of, 100; Gen. PL, nostrum,
nOStri, 100,R.2, 304,2 and ?,: poss. pron.
instead, ib. 2, N.2; nOS hi O.O.. 660,4.
ggredi -with Abl., 390,2. x. 3.
egregie— adv. of Degree, 439,N.2.
ei— with Dat. in exclamations, 343,1,N.2.
gicere— with Abl., 390,2,n.3.
glabi— with Abl., 390,2,N.3.
Elegiambus— 821.
elision— 719,1 ; in lam. Sen., 759,n.3 ; in
Dae. Hex., 784,n.5; in Pent., 786,n.2; in
Sapphic, 797, N.3; in Asclepiadean, 802,
N.2.
ellipsis — 688; see Omission.
em— with Ace. of Exclamation, 343,1,
N.2.
emere— with Gen., 379; beneemere, 380,
2,R.
eminence— words of, with Abl., 397,N.2.
emittere— with Abl., 390.2,n.3.
emotion — vbs. of, with Ace., 330,R- and n,
2, 333,1, N.l; vbs. of, with Abl. of Cause,
408; with Ace. and Inf., 633; in Nom. of
Part., 536, N.2; Causal sentences after,
542 and r. ; perplexing, with indirect
question or si, 542,N.l,
emphasis— in arrangement, 672,2, a.
gn— in exclamations, 343,1,N.2.
enallage— 693.
enclitics- effect of, on pronunciation, 15,
R.l.
endeavor— vhs. of, with ut, 646,1.
ending— vhs. of, with Inf., 423,2 and
N.2.
endings — of cases, 26,2. 27.
endoiving—\hs. of, with Abl. of Means,
401,N.l.
enim— position of. 413,n.3, 484,r., 498,n.1;
yes for, i71,Ji-; strengthens sed, 485, N.
3,493; nsseverative, 498,n.2; cojnbina-
tions of, ib. n.6; after quia, if>- n.7.
enimvgrO— strengthens sed, 485,n.3.
gniti-with Inf., 423,2,N.2.
enumerations— in Abl. without in, 387.
epanorthosis— 484,R 1.
cpenthesis— of vowels, 8,3; of consonants,
9,7.
epicene substantives— 21,3-
epulum— heteroclite, 68,3.
ergS— use of, 416,10; with Ace. Ger.,432,
N.l.
GENERAL INDEX.
515
ergS-vvith Geu., 373; as adv., 3S9,n.1 ;
with Gen. Ger., 428,k.2 : usage of, 502
and N.l ; position of, 16. n.2 ; combina-
tions of, ih. X.3.
gripere-with Abi., 390,2,n.3.
erudire— with Abl. or de, 339, u. 2 and N.
3; with in or Abl., 401,N-1.
esse— conjugation of, 116; early forms, ib.
fiN.: cpils., 117; as copula,205 ; esse pro,
in numero, etc., 206, b i; omitted, 209
and NN., 280,2,a,R.2 and c ; with Fut.
part, to form periphrastic, 247 ; cpd.
tenses with ful, etc., ib. R.l ; forem
tor essem, Hj- n.1, 250,n.2, 251,n.2;
with Pr. part., 247,n.2 ; futUTum
esse Ut, 2i8-. other forms, ib. nn.; in
eo est ut, 249; with Pf. part., 2^0:
variations, ib. ku.,nn.; with Ger., 251 1;
with Final Dat., 356,R.2; with Double
Dal., ib. R.3 ; with Geu,, 379 ; with in
and Ace, 385, n. 3 ; with Abl., 401,n.7;
with Geu. Ger., 423,R 2: with Dat. Ger.,
429,1 ; futurus as adj , 437,n. ; esse
quod, 525,1, N.2; est, it is the case, with
Ut, 553,3 ; fuit cum, with Subjv., 680,
R.l ; restrictions with, 627,R.2 ; sunt
qui, with Subjv., 631.2.
esseda— tieteroclite, 68,1.
et— iu numerals, 96,4. 97,4; et— et, with
PI., 235,N.; usage of, 475; = et tamen,
ib.ii.l; tor etiam, ib- N-2, 482, 5. n.2:
omitted, 481,2,n. and 3 ; with adjs. of
Likeness and Unlikeness, 643,n.2.
etenim -use of, 498 and NN.
Ethical Dative— 361.
etiam— strengthens comparative, 301 ;
syntax of, 473 and nn.; yes, 471.1: and
quoque, 479 R. and N.l; with tum, 478,
N.l: after sed, verum, 48.2,5. and N.l.
etiamsi— 603a:id n.; syntax of, 604 and
RK.
etSi— 603; with Indic. or Subjv., 604: a^ul
yet, ib. Ti.2; with part., 609, N.l, 667, n. ;
with adj. or adv., ih. n.2; with Inf., 635,
N.2.
evadere— with two Noms., 203.
evenit— with Dat., 316, r.2 ; with ut,
553,3.
event— suffixes for, 181,2.
evertere— with Abl., 390,2,n.3.
ex— iu comp.. 9,4; vbs. c])d. with, take
Dat., 347,R..'5; with Abl. of Separation,
390,1 and 2; with Towns, 391, R.l; with
Abl. of Origin. 395 and n.2; with Abl. of
Material, 396: with Abl. of Respect, 397,
N.l: with Abl. of Measure, 402 R.2; with
Abl. of Cause, 408,n.3, 413,r1; use as
prep., 417,0; with Abl. Ger., 433; ex eo
quod, 525,2,N.2.
exadversus— use of. 416,2.
excedere-with Abl., 390,2,n.3.
eXCellere— vvith Dat., 347, R. 4: with Abl.
of Respect, 337,N.2; with Abl. of Meas-
ure, 403, N 1,
excepto -with quod, 625,2,N.2.
exclamations— in Ace, 343,1; in Gen.,
383,3; in Ace. and Inf., 534; exclamatory
questions, 558.
excltidere— with Abl., 390,2,n.3.
excluding — vbs. of, with Abl., 390,2.
exemplum— iu phrases with ut, 546,N.2.
exigere— with ordinal, 294 ; with two
Aces., 339 and n.1,
exire— with Abl., 390,2,n.3.
existimare— with Geu., 379; with ex and
Abl., 402,R.2; with Norn, and Inf., 528,
N 1; with Ace. and Inf., 527,R.2.
exlex-tlfci'ective, 86,2.
exorare— with ut, 553,2.
exordiri— with inf., 423.2,n.2.
expedit— with Dat., 346.R.2.
expellere-with Abl., 390 2,n.3.
expers-with Gen., 374,n.2 ; with Abl.,
390,3,N.l.
expetere— with Pf, inf. pass , 280 2, c N.
explere— with Gen., 383,1,n 2 ; explg-
nunt, 133. IV. N.2.
explicative cum -580,nn.1,2, 582.
expQnere— with in and acc, 385,n.-2.
expOSCere— with two Accs., 339 g.nd n.I.
exprimere— with ut, 553,1.
expugnare-with ut, 553,1.
exsequias— with ire, 333,2,r.
exsistere— with Abl., 390,2,n.3.
exsolvere -with Abl., 390,2,n.3.
cxspectare— constr. of, 672.
exspectatione -as Abl. of Respect, 398,
N.l.
exspes— defective, 85,2.
extent— iu Degree, 334; in Space. 336; iu
Time, 336; Acc. of, as subj. of pass.,
336,N.3.
exterior— Comp. of 87,2 and 7.
extorqugre— with ut, 553,1.
extra -as adv., 415; as prep., 416,11.
extremum— Comp. of, 87,2 ; with masc.
subj., 211, R. 4 ; with ut, 553,4.
exturbare -with Abl., 390,2,n.3.
5i6
GEl^ERAL INDEX.
exui— with Ace. of Respect, 338,N.2; with
Dat. aud Ace, or Ace. aud Abl., 348,R.l.
facere-early Pf., feced, ISl.^'' ; omission
of, 209, N. 5 ; mirum factum, 209,n 2 ;
fac (Ut) for Impv., 271,1 ; ludOS aud
secoud Ace, 342 ; with pred. Geu., 366,
K.i ; nihil reliqui, 339, b. 2 ; quod fa-
cere possum, 373,N.3 ; with reum and
Geu., 378.n.l ; with Geu. of Price, 379 ;
boni, ib. 1 N.2 ; (sacrum) facere, with
Abl., 40l.NN.4,7 ; finem facere, with
Dat. Ger.. 429,N.l : represent, wiih Kcc.
andluf., 527,R.2; with Pf. part., 537,n 2;
with cousecutive clause, 663,1 ; with
luf., 653,2.N.; facere (faxo) ut as pe-
riphrasis, ib. 1 ; non possum (facere)
quia, 556 ; Sup. of, 436, n.
facilis— comparison of, 87,3; with Inf.,
421,N,l.c.
facinUS— with est and Inf., 422,N.2.
faex— decl. of, 52,7, 70,C.
fagUS— heteroclite, 68,5.
falsus— without Comp., 87,9 ; with ut,
563.4.
fama— with est aud inf., 627.R,2.
fames- heteroclite, 68,8.
fari— conj. of, 176,3, andN.
fas— 70,B. ; with luf., 422,N.2. 428.N.2; with
Abl. Sup., 436,N.2.
fastening—yhs. of, with ex, ab, d§, 385,
B.2.
fastidiosus— with Gen., 374,N.5.
fateri— with Ace. and Inf., 627,R.2.
fatum— with est and Inf., 422,n.2, and
428,N.2.
[fauxl-decl. of, 62.7.
fav§re -with Dat., 346,r.2.
/^ar— sequence after vbs. of, 616, R. 3 ;
clauses of, and Final Clauses, 643. R. 3 ;
syntax of clause of, 650; Inf. or Indirect
question after, ib. nn.4,5.
femur— dpci. of, 44 5, 68,12.
fere— position of, 677,R.l.
ferire-withfoedus, 333,2,r.
ferOX— with est and Inf., 633, R.l.
ferre-conj. of. 171 ; legem with ut,
646,N.l ; in phrases with ut, 653.1
and 2.
fBstinare-with inf., 423,2,n.2.
ficus— heteroclite, 68,5.
fidem— habere with Dat,, 346.N. 5.
fidere— with Dat., 346,a.2 aud n.2 ; vitl:
Abl.,40l.N.6.
fieri— conjugation of, 173 and nn. ; with
two Noms., 206, 304,R.l : with Gen. of
Price. 379 : with ex or dS, 396,n.2 ; = to
be sacrificed, with Abl., 401. nn.. 5,7: with
Ut, 553.3; fieri potis est ut, ib. n.
figure— Whole and Part. 323, n.2; Figures
of Syntax and Rhetoric, 688-700 ; of
Prosody, 718 728.
fllia— t^ecl. of, 29,R.4.
Jilling—\hs. of, with Abl., 406.
ilium— heterogeneous, 67.2,6.
FINAL SENTENCES — With luterrogatlve
particle, 470 ; general view, 643, 644 ;
Pure, 645; ut ne, or ut non, ib. br 1,2;
Coraplemeutary, 646-549 ; with vbs. of
Will and Desire, 646 ; Inf. instead, ib.
R.l ; with vbs. of Hindering, 647-649 ;
Subjv. without ut, ib. E.2 ; ut ne, ib.
R,3 ; with Substantives, ib. N.2 ; Inf.
instead, ib. n.3 ; n6 with vbs. of Pre-
venting, 648; quominus, 649: with vbs.
of Fear, 650; eight circumlocutions for,
644, R- 2 ; sequence in, 612.
final syllables— quantity of, 711-713.
fine— in Gen. or Abl., 378,R.3.
fine(i)-as prep., 417,7.
fitness— aajs. of, with Dat., 359; with Dat.
Ger.,429.
flagitare— with Abl. or a, 339,r.1, and
N.l; with ut, 646,NN.1,3.
flagitium hominis- 369.N.1, 361,n.3.
flamen— flefective, 70,D.
floCCi— as Gen. of Price, 380,1.
fluere— with Abl. of Means, 401, n,.').
flumen— with Gen. of App., 361,N.l.
foedus— with ferire, 333,2,R.; in phrases
with ut, 646,N.a.
following ~\hs. of, with ut, 653,3.
foot— in Metre, 733 ; names of, 734 ; equal-
ity of, 740 ; conflict of Word and Verse,
750.
foras-91,l,(f.
forbidding— \hs. of. With Dat., 346 ; with
ne, 548.
forgetting — vbs. of, with Gen. or Ace, 376
and R.2.
FORMATION OF WORDS— 176 200 ; Simple
words. 179-192; primitives and deriva-
tives, 179 ; suffixes, 180 ; formation of
substs., 181 : of adjs., 182: with suf-
fixes, 183. Suffixes in detail— vowels,
184; gutturals, 136: dentals, 186; la-
bials, 187 ; s, 188 ; liquids, 189 ; lorma-
tiou of vbs., 190; verbalia, 191;
GENERAL INDEX.
517
frequentatives or intensives, ib. 1 ; iu-
choatives, ib. 2 ; desideratives, ib. 3 ;
causatives, ib. 4; meditatives, ib. 5;
denominativa, 192 ; cpd. words, 193-
200; substs., 191-198 ; vbs.,199, 200; see
compounds.
formidare— with inf., 423,2,n.2, aud 533.
R.l.
forsitan— 457,2,N.
forte nisi— 591,R.4, and n.3.
fortiter— w?-?/, 439,n.3.
forum— defective, 70,D.
fraude— as Abl. of Manner, 399,n.1.
fremere— with Acc and Inf.,633,R.l.
frequ6ns— in pred. attribution, 325, u.6 ;
with Abl., 406,N.3.
frequentative verbs— formation of, 191,1.
fretum— heteroclite, 68,5.
frgtus— with Abl., 401,N.G.
friendlitiess—adis. of, withDat., 359.
frugi-86,C.; Comp. of,90.
frui— with Abl., i07, and ^. 2,6 ; personal
Ger., 427,N.5.
frunisci— with Abl., 407,n.2,6.
[frux] —defective, 70,D.
fugere— with inf. for Impv., 271,2,N.2;
fugit mg, with Pr. Inf., 281.2,N.
fugitans— with Gcu., 375,n.2.
fulmentum— heteroclite, 68,3.
fulness— suffixes for, 182,10.
fulness— adjs. of, with Gen., 374; vbs. of,
with Gen., 383,1.
function— suffixes for, 181,9; in Dat. Ger.,
429.
fungi— with Abl., 403 and k.2,c; personal
Ger., 427,N.5.
fustis- heteroclite, 68,5.
FUTURE— 112,3 ; formation of, 114,115;
early forms, 130,3 ; part, in urum f^r
fem., 211.N.1; definition of, 223; usatfe
of, 243; of volo and possum, ^b. r.2; as
gnomic, ib. n.1 ; in Impv. sense, 243;
periphrasticact., 247; Indie, for Deliber-
ative Subj.v., 254,n2; part, act., 283;
part, as subst., 437,n.1 ; part, as an
adj., 438,N. ; representation of in O. O.,
614, 515; periphrastic in Unreal Cond.,
ib. R.l; Inf., 630; in rel. sentences, 622;
syntax of part., 669, 670.
FUTURE PERFECT — 112,3 : formation of,
114,115; in so, 131,4.6.1; defined. 223;
syntax of, 244; as Fut.. ib. R.l; with
nolo, volo, possum, etc., ib. R.3; in
both clauses, ib. b.4 ; independent use
of, ib.s.l; periphrastic, with habeO,
ib. N.2 ; as Impv., 245 ; Representation
of. iaO. O., 514,515; Pf. and Plupt. peri-
phrastic in Unreal Condition, 515,R.l;
in rel. sentences, 622.
Galliambic Verse— 818.
gaudere— with si, 542,n.1 ; gavisus as
Pr.,282,N.
geuder--19 ; common, 21,1; epicene, t6. 3;
substantiva mobilia, ib. 2 ; of 1st
Decl., 30; of 2d Decl., 34; of 3d Decl., 39,
43,46,49,55,58 ; of 4th Decl , 62; of .5tii
Decl., 64; concord in, 286, ueut. PI. with
feniiuines, tb. 3.
GENITIVE— defined, 23,2 ; of 1st Decl. in
as, ai, um, 29,RR.,nn.; of 2d Decl. in J
(from stems in io), in um, iu ei, 33,r.R.,
NN.; of 3d Decl. in us, es, 37,1 ; in um,
ium, 38,2. 54, 57, R.3; of 4th Decl. in os,
is, i, UUm, 61,N.l, of 5th Cccl. in gs,
ei, e, 63,N.l ; of Greek substs. in 5n,
eon, 65,R.l; oes, 66,n.1; of adjs., 73 ; in
i, ai, aes, es, um, 76,nn, ; of pron. adjs.
iu ius, 76,1: of adjs. of three endings in
um, ium, 79,r.2, 82, 83,n.2; of Comp. of
part., 89,r.3 ; of Cardinals, £'5,R.2 ; of
Distributives, 97,R.l.
uotsubj. of pass., 217,R.l; with miUe,
293 and k.; with Comp. for Abl.. 296,n.2;
mei,e/c., as objective, 304,2; nostrum as
Part., ib.3; poss. pron. for Gen., 304,2, N.
2; in app. to poss. pron., 321,R.2; Part.
Gen. for Part App., 323,R ; with nomen
est, 349,R.r>; general view. 360; translated
by abstract snbst., ib. R-2; Adnominal,
Appositive,381; Epexogetical, 361; Pos-
sessive, 362; flagitium hominis, 361,
N.l, Family, 362,Nl; Chorographic, e6.
N.2; Subjective and Objective, 363; two
with one subst , ib R 2 , 1st and 8d per-
sons as possessive, 361; of Quality 365;
as Pred , 366 , with facere, ib- R.l;
auctoris, ib , generis, 368 k. ; with
I)repositional subst., 373- with adjs ,
374 and NN ; with participles and ver-
bals, 375, with vbs. of Memory, 376;
with vbs. of Emotion, 377; with Judicial
vbs.. 378; with vbs. of Eating and Buy-
ing, 379,380 ; with interest and refert,
381; with vbs. of Fulness, 383,1; with
vbs. of Separation, ib. 2; in Exclama-
tions, ib. 3; pred. with Inf., 422,n.5;
Ger., 428 ; with esse,.causa, etc., ib. B,
Si8
GENERAL INDEX.
2; Ger. with PI. subst., ib. n.1 ; Ger.
with vb., lb. N.4 ; position of, 676 aud
NN.12.
genus- <^ecl. of, 48; id genus, 336, n. 2;
witlj Epexojretical Gen.. 361,2.
gerens- with Geu., 376.N.2.
GEKUND aud GEiiUNDiVE— 112,.5 ; forma-
tion of, 115,3 ; early forms, 130,8 ; Agent
of. in Dat., 215,2; with essC to form
periphrasis, 251 ; force of Gerundive,
ib- N.l; syntax of, 425-433; and Inf.,
425; and vb., 428; Gervmdive for
Gerund, 427; impersonal Gerundive,
i/^.N.2; from intraus. vbs., ib. N.4 ; Gen.
of, 428; luf- instead, ib. N.2; depend-
ing on vb., ib. N.4; Dat. instead, ib n.5;
Dat. of, 429; Ace. of, 430 ; Abl. of, 431 ;
paralleled by part., ^6. n.3; Acc. of,
with preps., 432; with ad after vbs. of
Hindering, ib.i\..l ; Abl. of, with preps.,
433.
gestire-^vithInf., 423,2,n.2, 533,R.1.
gignere-(genitus), with Abl. of Origin,
385, N.l.
gioing— vbs. of, v^'ith Dat. and Acc, or
Acc. and Abl., 348; with Inf., 423,n.1.Z>.;
witli Acc. Ger., 430.
gloriari -v.itli Acc. and Inf., 527,R.2.
gloriosum— with est and Inf., 422,N.3.
Glycouio verse— 795.
gracilis— Comp. ci, 87,3.
gratia— \\ith Gen., 373; withposs. pron.,
ib. R.2; with Gen. Ger., 428,K.2; gra-
tiis, as Abl. of Manner, 399,N.l.
gratificari— witii Dat., 346,e.2.
gratulari-witii Dat., 316, r 2.
gravari— vvit'i Inf., 423,2.n.2.
Greek subslantives— decl. of, 65: Greek
Acc, 338.
growth— vbs. of, in Abl. Abs., 410,N.l.
guttural— vowels, 2,1 ; consonants, 6,1 ;
suffixes with, 185.
habere— with, two Noms. in pass., 206;
with Pf. part, to denote Maintcnauceof
the Result, 238,241,n.2, 214,n 2 ; first
Impv. wanting, 267,R. ; with two Aces ,
340,R.i; with pro, loco, numero, and
a second Acc, ib. ; with Final Dat., 356,
E.2: with Gen. of Price, 370; pensi
habSre, H^- I.N.2; with in and Acc,
285,N.3; with Acc. Ger.. 430,n1; habeo
dicendum, ^t- n.2; be able, with Inf.,
423,2,n.2.
habit— \hfi of, with Inf., 423 and n.2.
haerere— with Dat., 346,n.6.
hanging— \bs. of, with ex, ab, de, 385,R.2=
/m^j^y^.'/i?^ -sequence alter vbs. of, 513p
R.2; vbs. of, with quod clause, 525,1;
Ut instead, ib. n.5: vbs. of, with con-
secutive clause, 653.3.
hardening— in a verse, 723.
haud— 441 and 443, with nn.; scio an,
457,2.
ai)av6re-l76,4.
helluari— with Abl., 407,N.2,e.
heiuliadys— 698.
heteroclites — 68-
heterogeneous substantives— 67.
heterologa — 69, c.
hiatus— defined, 720 ; in lam. Oct., 763,
n. ; in Anap. Oct., 778,N.l ; in Dact.
Hex., 784:,NN.C,7 , in Sapphic, 726,n.
hie— 104, laudNN.; syntax of, 305; con.
temptuons character of, 306,n. ; and
ille, 307,RR.1,2; strengthened by qui-
dem, ib. E.4 ; two forms of, refer to
dilierent substs., ib. n.3 : hic— illlC,
hinc— hinc, hinc— inde, hinc— illinc,
illinc — hinc, inde— hinc, 482,2 ; hoc
with ut, 657, R , huius, i'l Gen. of Price,
380,1 ; with Abl. of Time, 393,R.4 ; in
O. O., 660,3 ; hinc aa coiirdinating con-
junction, 603.
hiems— (led. of, 40 ; in Abl. of Time, 393,
R.5.
/ti?7de?-inj7— sequence after vl)s. of, 543,
E.2 and N.2 ; vbs. of, with ne, 648 ; with
quin, 554-556 ; and vbs. of Preventing,
555; and vbs. of Doubt, ib. 2.
Historical cum— 585 and nn.
HISTORICAL INFINITIVK— parallel with
Impf., 254,R. ; syntax of , 647 ; conjunc-
• tions with, ib, n.2.
HISTORICAL PERFKCT— 224 ; forcc of, 239 ;
and Pure Pf., 235; and Impf., 231, 240;
for Plupf., 239,N.; a.s Potential of Past,
258, N.2.
HISTORICAL PRESENT— 224 and 229; with
dum, 229,N., 570.
historical tenses— 225-
hodiernUS— in prcd. Attrib., 325,R.6.
homS- in early Latin, 42, N.
honor— and honos, 45, n.
hope— constr. of, vbs. of,423,N.5; sequence
alter, vbs. of, 615,R.3; vbs. of, withAcc
and Inf., 627, R 4.
HORACE— Lyric Metres of, 826.
GENERAL INDEX,
519
horrere— with Inf., 423.2,n.2.
horrescere— with Inf., 423,2,n.-2.
hortari— with luf., 423,2,n.2; with ut,
646,N.l ; hortatus, a« Pi., 232,N.; hor-
tatu,a3 Abl. of Cause, 408,N.l.
humilis— Comp. of, 87,3.
humus -in Abi. of Separation, 390,2,n.4;
humi, as Loc, 411,B 2-
bypallage-693-
hyperbaton— 693.
hypotaxis— 172.
I— and J., l,it.2; sound of, 3; weakening
of, 8,1 ; effect of, on preceding vowel,
12,R.2 ; I-clas3 of vb. stems, 133,vi.;
length of final. 707,4.
iam— with Pr. Indie, 230; iamdlu, iam
pridem, ii>- ; with Impf. indic, 234 ;
iam— iam, 482.1, and n.i ; iam vero,
487.N.3 ; iam dudum, with Impv., 269.
lambtlogna verse — 820.
Iambic— law, 716, 717 ; foot, 734; rhythm,
736; rhythms, 757-767,
ictus— conflict cf , with Accent, 749.
IDEAL. coN'DiTiOTf— from present point of
view, 596,1; from pa.st point of view, ib.
2; = Unreal, ih. r.1 : Bhift to Unreal,
ib. K.2; after non possum, ib- K.3; in
0.O.,i&. R.5,658.
idem— <5ecl, of, 103,2, and nn ; syntax of,
310 ; with que, et, atque, ib. r.i ; the
same as, with qui, ut, atque, cum,
or Dat., 310,u.3. 359.N.0, 642,k.1; not
used with is, 310,B.3 ; in pred, attrib.,
325,R.2.
idoneus — conetrs. with, 652,k2; with
qui and Subjv. . 631,1.
iecur— decl. of, 44,5, 68,12.
ieitinus- with Gen., 374,N.l.
igitur — position of, 484, R.; usage of, 601;
with ergo, 502,n.3; coriel. of gi, 690.N.1.
ignorance— -Adis. of, in pred. app., 325, R.
G : witli Gen,, 374.
ignorare— with inf., 627,r 1.
ignoscere— with Dat., S46,r.2.
ILL.\TIVE SENTENCE.S— 499, 600-
ille decl. of, 104,3, and nn.; forms from
olio, ib. N.I : Syntax of, 307 ; and hic,
ib. rr.1,2 ; et ille, i^- R-2 ; strength-
ened by quidem, ib- r.-I ; repeats a
snbst., ib- n.2: two forms with different
antecedents, ib- n3; refers to oblique
case of is, ib. N.4 : with Abl. of Time,
393,R4; illinc-hinc, hinc— illinc.
hiC-illic, 482.2: iUud with ut,667,B.:
in O. O., 660,2.
iiludere-wifch Dat.. elc-, 347,u.2.
illustris— witii Abl. of Respect, 397, N.2.
imbecillus-aiid imbeciilis. 84.1.
imber— dec], ot, 44.2, 45. ul.
imberbis-and imberbus, 84,2.
immane— with quantum and indic,
467,N.
immgnsum- with quantum and indic,
467.N.
immo— nseof, 471,c; scansion of, 717,si.l.
immolarc— with Abl. of Means, 401,N.4.
immunis— witii Abl. of S-p , 390,3,n.i.
impediments- with esse and ng, 548,
N.l.
impedire— with Inf.,423,2,N,2; withnS,
648,N.l; with qu6minus,649.N.l.
impellere— with ut, 553,2; impulsus,
impulsu, of Cause, 408, nn. 1 and 2.
impendio— tv)-2^. 439,n.3.
impendere— with Dat., etc., 347,b.2.
impensg— w?-y. 439,n.3.
imperare— with Dat., 346,R.2 ; with Inf.,
423,2,n.2, 632,n 1; with ut, 546.N.1.
IMPERATIVE— 112,4 ; early forms, 130,5 ;
Subjv. for, 263 ; answers deliberative
question, 265,n.; usage, 266-275 ; First
and Second, 267 ; strengthening words,
269; negative of, 270; pronouns with,
267,N'. ; concord with, 811,n.2 ; periph-
rases of, 271: representatives of, 272:
of Past, 272,3 ; tenses of. 278 ; for Pro-
tasis, 593,4 ; in Subjv. with O. O., 652
and R.I.
IMPERFECT — 112,3 ; early forms, 130,2;
force of, 223. 231: and Hist. Pf., 232; of
Endeavor, Disappointment, and Resist-
ance to Pressure, 233 ; a tense ot Evolu-
tion, ib. N.l ; overlapping, ib. n.2 582 ;
of Awakening, ib. N.3 ; with iam, *'tC;
234; of opposition to Present, 254,u.2;
in Apodosis of Action begun, ib. k.3,
597,R.2; as Potential of Past, 858; i»
Wish, 260; with vellem, «6. R.; Subjv.
as Concessive, 264 : Subjv. as Impv. of
Pa«t, 272,3 ; tense relations of Subjv.,
277: in Sequence, 610,R-; in Coincidence,
613.N 3 ; Subjv. as Principal Tense, 517.
R.2.
impersonal verbs— £08,1 and 2 ; divine
Agt. expressed, ib. 1,n.; vbs. of Saying,
elc, 208.2,N.2, 528; in Ger. con8tr.,427,
N.4; with ut, 553,4,
$20
GENERAL INDEX.
impertire— with Dat. and Ace, or Ace.
and Abl., 348,R.l ; laborem, with Dat.
Ger., 429,1.
impetrare— with nt, 653,1.
implere— with Gen., 383,1.
implorare— with ut only, 646,n.3.
imponere-with in and Ace, 385,n.2.
impOS— with Gen., 374.N.3.
imprimere— with in and Abl., 385,k.1.
imprudens— in pred. attrib., 325,R.6.
impulsu— as Abl, oiCause, 408, N.l.
in— ill composition, 9,4; vbs. cpd. with
take Ace. or Dat., 331,347; with Countries
and Towns, 337,r1 ; with Ace. for Dat ,
345,R.2 ; with app. to Towns, 386,R.l ;
with books, 387; throughout, 388,R; with
recipere, 389 ; with Abl. of Time, 394,
E. and N.2; with Abl. of Cause, 408,n 3;
position of, 413,R 1 ; as prep., 418,1 ;
with Ace. Ger., 432, and n 1 ; with Abl.
Ger., 433 and n 1 ; with part., 437,N.2 ;
in eo quod, 625,2,n.2.
inanis-with Gen., 374,N.l.
incMere— with Dat., e<c.,347,R.2.
incendl-with ira a"d inf., 533,r.1 ; in-
C§n3US, of Moving Cause, 408,N.2.
incertum— with an and Subjv.,467,2.
inchoative verbs— 133,v., 191,2.
incidere— with Dat., e/c, 347,R.2.
incidere— with in and Abl., 385,r.1.
incipere-with inf., 423.2,n.2; with Or-
dinal, 294,N.
incitatU5—i>f Moving Cause, 408,N.2.
inclination— suffixes for, 182,2.
inclination~-»(\}9. of, in pred. attr., 325,R.
6 ; vbs, of, with Inf.»423aud n.2.
includere-with in and Abl., 385,r. 1.
incommodare— with Dat.. 346,n l.
incovi^oration— of antecedent, 616 ; qua
prudentiaes, 616,1,n.2; of correlative,
619
incrgdibile — with inf., 422,n.3; with
quantum a'^d Indic, 467,N.
inca:epare~c/< argy?, with Gen., 378,r.1.
increpitSre— c/(«rpe, with Gen., 378,r.i.
incubare— with Dat., etc , 347,R.2.
incuinbere— with Dat., e<c.,347, b.2.
iindagO]— defective, 70, D.
ind©— as coordinating couj., 603 ; in con-
trast with bine, 482,2.
indecorua-and indecoris, 84, i.
tndefiniie pronouns — 107; syntax of, 313
319 ; quidam, 313 : aliquis, 314 ; quis,
315; quispiam, 316; quisquam and
ullus, 317 ; quisque, 318 ; alter and
alius, 319 ; rel. with ludic, 254,R.4,
625.
INDICATIVE— 112,4 ; early forms of, 130,1-4;
meaning of, 254; in Apodosis, 254,R 3 ;
with iudef. rel., ib. r.4 ; Pr. for Delib-
erative Subjv., ib. N.2; tense relations
of, 276; neg. of, 257 ; in questions. 463,
464; after nescio quis, «'c., 467,R.1; in
Relative Sentences, ib. r 2 ; in Tem-
poral Sentences, 660,1 ; to express De-
sign, 630,N 2.
indiggre— with Gen.. 383,1, 406,N.2.
indignari- with inf., 533,r.i ; with si,
542,N.l.
indignus— with Gen , 374,n.10 ; with qui,
nt, oi' Inf. 552,r2; with qui and
Subjv , 631,1 and r I.
indigUS— with Abl. or Gen., 405,n.3.
induere— with Dat. and Ace ,or Acc.and
Abl., 348,Bl ; indui, with Ace. of Re-
Bpect, 338,N 2,
indulgere— with Dat , 346,R 2 and N.2.
inermis-aud inermus, 84,3.
inesse— with Dat., etc., 347,r 2.
inferior— 87,2; with Dat , 296, N. 3.
INFINITIVE— 112.5; formation of, 115,3;
early forms, 130,6 : aor. in -xe, etc.,
131,4,fc,4; Fut. in assere, ^'^-J act. for
pass, 213, R,c ; usage of, 279, assubst.,
280; after debeo, ib. 2,^,n.3; after
decuit, oportuit, ib- 2,6,Rland2; as
representative of Indic, 281; after
memini, e/c, ib- 2,n. ; syntax of, 419-
424; with Ace. as subj.,420; assubst.,
421 ; traces of Locative nature, ib. N.l ;
as subj.,422; as obj,, 423; ut instead,
ib.ii.4; as pred. with esse, 425; with
preps., ib. N.; Fut. pass., 435,N.4; se-
quence after, 618; Ace. and Inf. after
vbs. of Saying and Thinking, 527 ; part,
instead, ib. N.l; tenses after these vbs.,
629-531 ; after posse, velle, ib. n.3;
after spgrare, zb. n.4; with vbs. of
Will and Desire, 632 ; with vbs. of Emo-
tion, 633; ut instead, 532,nn.3,4 ; in
Exclamations, 634; and quod, ib'R.l;
Ace. and Inf. as subj., 635; .A''c. and
Inf. after vbs. of Emotion, 642; with
vbs. of Will and Desire, 546,N. 3 ; with
vbs. of Fear, 660,N.5 ; with dignus, etc,,
652,R.2 ; Ace. and Inf. in Relative Sen-
tences, 635 ; after potius, <^tc.. 644,B.3.
646 ; in O. O., 660. See Hist. Inf.
GENERAL IXDEX.
521
Infinitum— with est instead of sit. 254,
R.l ; with quantum and ludic, 467,N.
Infitias- TO,A.; ire, 333,-2,r.
infl(>cti(>ii -IT.
infra—with Abl. of Measure, 4:03,N.l ; as
adv., 415 ; as prep., ^16,1'2.
infrenus— and infrgnis, 84, 1.
ingratiiS— as Abl. ol Manner, 399,n 1.
ingenii-as Loc, with adjs., 374.N.7.
ingredi— with Ir.f., 423,2,n.2.
inhaerere— with Dat., etc., 347,e.2.
iniiiare— with Dat., dr., 34:7. r.2.
inicere manum- with Aec, 342.
initiria— as Abl. of Manner, 399,n.1.
innatus— with Dat., 347, r 2.
Inner Object— Ace. of, 328, 330, S32: Abl.
instead, 333,2,N.4; after vbs. of Taste
and Smell, H). '2,n.5.
inops— with Gen., 374,N.l; with Abl.,
405, N. 3.
inquam— 175,2 ; inquit, Jnipersonal, 208,
2,N.2; inciting O. It.. 648,R.2; lacking
forms supplied by dicere, ib. U.3.
i!;quinng -\hs. of, with two Aces., 339,
and R.l.NN.l and 2.
Inscrlbere— with in and Abl., 385,r.i.
insculpere— with in and Abl., 386,k l.
inservire-with Dat., 347,r.2.
insignis - with Abl. of Itespect, S97,n.2 ;
insigniter as adv. of Degree, 439,N.2.
insidiari-with Dat , 346 r.2.
Insinuare-with Dat., 347,r.2.
insistere-with Dat., 347,u.2.
instar— 70,B ; with Gen., 373.
instare— with Dat., 347, k.2; with Inf.,
423,2,N.2.
instruere— with dg, u30,n ?.
instrument— suffixes uy,lSlS>; in Abl.,
214, 401; with ab, 2j.4,r.2 ; Abl. of con-
trasted with Abl. of Attendance, 392. R.2.
instrumental -case, 23, n.
insugtus— with Gen., 374,N.4.
integrum— with Inf., 422,n.3.
intsUegere-with inf., 527.R.1; intel-
lectU as Sup., 436, N.
intendere-with inf., 423,2.n.2; inten-
tUS, with Abl., etc., 359, N. 5.
intensive verbs — formation of, 191,1.
inter — with reflexive to express recip-
rocal action, 221; vbs. cpd. with, take
Ace. or Dat., 331,347 ; to designate Tizne,
394,N.2: position of, 413,R.l; as prep.,
416,13; with Ace, G.r., 432 and N.l: with
part., 437, N. 2.
intercalaris— and intercalarius, 84,2.
intercgdere— with Dat., 347,r2; with
ne, 548,N.l: with quin, 555,1.
intercludere— with Dat. and Acc, or
Ace. and Abl., 348,1;.!; with Abl.. 390,2,
N.3; with ne, 548,N.i; with quin, £55,1.
intercurrere— with Dat., 3i7,ii.2.
interdicere-with Abl., 390,2.n.:3 ; with
ng, 648,N.l; with quin, 555,1.
interdum— coordinates with alias, 4 2,
l.N.l.
interesse— with Dat., 347,r.2 : interest,
with Gen. and Abl., 381: with Nom.,
lb. N.3 ; constr. of Object of Concern,
382,1 and 2 ; constr. of Thing Involved,
ih. 3 : with ut, 653,4.
Interest— Dat. of Personal, 350.
interior— 87,2 and 8.
interjection — 16,b.2; no syijtax, 201, R.l.
intermittere— with inf., 423,2 n. 2.
internecio— citfet-tive. 70,b.
interpellare— w'ith ne, 548, n.1.
interponere— with ng, 548,n.i.
interrogare— with two accs., or dS, 339,
R. I and N.l: with Indic, 467,N.
interrogative pronouns —106 ; distin-
guished from rel., 467,R.2; with part.,
469; in Final Sentence, 470; doubling
of, ib. R.
INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES — 460 - 470 ;
simple and cpd., 462 ; particles in, 454-
467; moods in, 462-467: Indic, 463,464;
Subjv., 435,466 ; alter vb. of Wonder,
542, N. I ; after vb. of Fear, 550, n. 4 ; for
Protasis, 593,4: in O. O., 651 and ru.
intervenire— with Dat., 347,r.2.
intra— to designate Time, 394,N.2; posi-
tion of, 413,R.l; as adv., 415; as prep.,
416,14.
intransitive verbs— used impersonally,
208,2; used transitively, 213,^.6 ; con-
strued as pass., 214, B. 1 ; with neut.
subj. in pass., 217; with personal Ger.,
217,R.2; with Pf. part. pass, used active-
ly, 220,n.1; Gerund of, used imperson-
ally, 251,2.
inusitatum— with ut, 553,4.
invadere— with Dat., 347,r.2.
inveniri— with Nom. and Inf., 528,N.l;
inventu in Sup., 436,N.
inverse— donee, 571,N.6; cum, 681 ; at-
traction of rel.. 617,N.2.
invicem— to indicate reciprocality, 221,
K.2.
522
GENERAL INDEX.
invidgre— with personal pass., E17,n.1;
with Drft., 346,R.2 and n.2; with Inf.,
533, K.l.
invidus— «"iistr. of, 359,n.5.
invitUS-iu pred. app., 325, k. 6 ; invito
est, 353,N.2.
ioculo— a!< Abi. of Manner, 399,N.l.
iocus —heterogeneous, 67,2.
iouic— loot, 734:; rhythm, 736; rhythms,
816-819 ; substitutions lor, 815.
ipse— decl. of, 103,3 and n.; ipsus, i5.N.2;
syntax of, 311; et ipse, lb. 1,k.2: em-
pLasizes reflexive, ib. 2 ; used indediu-
ably, ib. 2,N.; in O. O., 660,5.
Ira— ot Moving Cause, 408,n.2 ; incendor
ira with Int., 533,u.l.
irasci-vvith Dat., 346,R.2.
ire— 169,2; omission of, 209,N.5; with
Dat., 368,N.2: with Sup., 435,N.l; with
infitias, eic, 333, 2,r,
is— decl. of, 103,1 and N.; strengthened by
quidam, 307, R.4 ; talien np by ille, ib.
N.4; two forms with different ante-
cedent, ib. N.3; syntax of. 3C3; = talis,
ib. K.l ; with et, atque, que, i^- R-2 ; for
reflexive, 309,N.l; id temporis, aeta-
tis, 336,N.2; eo as coordinating conj.,
503; ideo, idcirco, ib.; with qui and
Subjv., 631,1; with ut, '/>• R-L 657,R.;
in O. O., 660,2.
islands— in Local Ace, 337 ; witli in, ib.
ii.l and N.3; prep, omitted with Large
Islands, ib. N.l.
iste— decl. of, 104,11. and nn.; syntax of,
306 ; contemptuous character of, ib. N. ;
streiigtliened by quidem, 307,R.4; in
O. O., 680,3.
ita— with ut, 482,4 ; correlative of gl,
_ £90,N.l ; yes. 471,a.l.
Jlalicus Aumfrus—7B6.
itaque— usage of, 500 ; position of, ib. r.;
witii ergo, 502,N.3,
iter— decl. of, 44,5.
Iterative action— 566, 667; Subjv. in.ib.
N. ; with cum, 584; iu Relative Sen-
tences, 623.
Ithyphallic— verse, 774.
iubfire- with two Accs., 341,n.2; with
Ace. and Dat., 346,n3; con.str. after,
423,N.C ; with Ace. and Inf., 528 and n.1;
with Inf., 423,2,N.2, 532,NN.1,2; with
Subjv., 646,b.2; iussu, defective, 68,5;
iussu as Abl. of Cause, 408,n.1.
iadicftre with inf., 423.2.N.2.
[iuger]— decl. of, 68,7.
iunctUS— with Dat., etc., 369.N.3.
itis— with Inf., 422 N.2, 428,N.2 ; with
respondere, 333,2 n. ; in phrases with
ut, 546 N.2; iure, 399,n.1; iure in Abl.
of Respect. 397.
iUstO— as Abl. of Respect, 398,N.l.
iuvare— with Ace, 343,N.3.
iuvenis-Comp. of, 87,9.
itixta— as adv , 415 ; as prep , 416,15.
Jialgment—\hs. of, with Abl. of Standard,
402.
K— sounds of, l,R.l ; name of, ib. N.
knoiuledge — adia. of, in pred. attrib., 326,
E.6 ; adjs. of, with Gen., 374.
Labials— 6,1 ; sufhxes with, 187.
laboreni— with impertireaud Dat. Ger,,
429.1.
laborare— with inf., 423,2,n.2 ; with ut,
546, N.l.
lac— decl. of, 53,8 ; 68,12.
laedere— with Acc, 346,n.3.
laetari — \vith Acc. and Inf., 533,R.l.
lamentari— with Acc. and Inf., 533,R.l.
largiri- with ut, 563,2.
later— defective. 70,D.
latitiidine— with Acc of Extent, 335,R.l.
latUS— with Acc. of Extent, 335,R.l.
laurus— heteroclite, 68,5.
leaving — vbs. of, with Acc. Ger., 430.
lectUS— heteroclite, 68,5.
length— by nature, 12,1, and n.; by poai-
tioii, iO. 2; representation of long vow-
els, lb- n.
lengthening — compensatory, 9,C,a.
letters — tenses in, 262; advs. in, ib.; dated
from a place, 391,R.3.
letting— \i^. of, with .'\cc. Ger., 430.
levare— with Abl., 390.2 n.2.
lex— i» phrases with ut, 546,nn.1 and 2;
lege, 397 and N.l, 389,N.l.
liberalis— with Gen., 374 n1.
lifcerare— with Abl., 390.2.N.2.
-libet— added to rels., 111.3 : exact use
of libuerit, 244,u.3; libens, i" pi'«d.
attrib., 325, R.O; with Dat., 346 R.2.
licgre -<ixuct use of Fut. Pi , 244, R 3; with
Dat., 346,R.2 ; with Gen., 379; licet,
although, 603-607: with quamvis, ib. N.
2; with Indie, ib. N..3.
likeness— suffixes for, 188,4.
GENERAL INDEX.
523
KA:e??^ss -adjs. of, with Dat., 349 ; with
atquelacj, 643.
Unguals— 6,1, N.
linter-deci. of, 44,2, 45,R 1.
liquids— 6,2, A ; 3d Decl. stems in, 39-46 ,
suffixes with, 189.
litare— witii Abl. of Means, 401,n.4.
litotes -644,N 1, 700.
litterae— in phrases with ut, 546,n.2.
living — vbs. of, with Abl., 401,N.l.
Local Dative 368.
locality— suffixes for, 181,5, 182,9.
locare— with Gen., 379; within and Abl.,
386,R.l ; with Ace. Geu., 430-
LOCATIVE^ 23, N. ; of 1st Decl., 29.R.2; of ^d
Decl., 33,RR.3,5 ; 3d Decl., 37,5 ; forms
advs., 91,3: syntax of, 411: in 3d Decl.,
ib. R.l ; other Locs., ib. u.2 ; app. to, in
Abl., ib. n 3 , domi, with poss. prou.,
ib. K 4.
locus -67,2 ; in loco habere, 340, rI;
Abl. without in, 385,N.l.
logaoedic rhythms -790 805.
LOGICAL CONDITION— 595 ; with Subjv. by
Attraction, ib. K,2; with Ideal 2dPerson,
lb. R.3; sive- sive, ^^- r-4: si quidem,
ib. R.5 ; si modo, vero, tamen, ib. r.O;
tenses in, ib- n.2 ; iu 0. O., 657, 695,
R.l.
longinquus Comp. of. 87.9.
longitudine— with Ace of Extent, 335,
Bl.
longum-with est for Subjv., 254,r1:
long6 strengthens Comp. or Superla-
lativf, 301, 303 ; with Ace, 335,r1.
loqui- with Ace. and Int., 527,R.2 ; with
Indie, question, 467,N.
lubido— ill phrases with Inf., 422,N.2.
ludos facere-with Acc , 342.
lugere-'Vith luf , 533,r l.
lux— 70,D; iu Abl. of Time, 393,R.5.
M— final omitted, 27,N.
macte-85,c, 325,r.1.
maerere— with inf., 533,r.1.
magnificus— Comp. of, 87,4.
magnitudine— with Acc. of Extent, 335,
ii.l.
magnus — comparison of, 90 : coustr.
with maior, 296,R.5; magis, in com-
parison of Qualities, 299 ; magni, as
Gen. of Price, 380,1 ; maius, with Inf.,
422.N.3 ; maximi, as Gen. of Price, 380,
1; nSn magis quam, 644,n.1.
makivg -vha. of, with two Noms., 206;
with two Aces., 340-
maledicere -with Dat., 346,r.2.
maledicus-Comp. of, 87,4.
malle -conj. of, 174 and N.3; malueram,
could haie preferred, 254,n.1; malim,
mallem, us Potential, 257,2, 258. n 1 :
iu Unreal Wish, 261. R. : with Abl., 296,
N.l; with Abl. of Measure, 403 N.l ;
with Inl
546, N.l.
malus— comparison of, 90; male as ueg.,
439, N.2.
manare— with Abl. of Means, 401,N.5.
mandare— with ut, 546, n.i.
manere— as copulative vb.,206,N.l ; with
Abl , 401,N 6.
mani— as Loc, 411,n.1.
manifgstUS— with Gen., 374, N. 2 ; with
luf . 421,N.l,c.
Manner— Abl. of, 399 and nn.
manus inicere— with Acc, 342.
mare — in Abl. without in, 386,n.1.
margarita— heteroclite, 68,1.
materia— heteroclite, 68,2.
Material— Abl of, 396, indicated by adj.,
ib.\ suffixes for, 182,4.
maturare— with inf., 423,2,n.2.
maturus— Comp of, 87,i,r.2.
matutinus— in pred. Attr. , 325,R.6.
Means- Abl. of, 401, and ur ,nn. ; suffixes
for, 131,6.
measure — vbs. of, take Abl , 402.
Measure— Abl, of, 402; of Difference, 403;
Abl. of, with vbs. involving Difference,
lb. N.l; with ante and post, ib. n.4.
medgri— with Dat.. 346, R 2 and n.4.
medioximus— 87,y,N.
meditari— with inf., 423,2, n.2.
meditative verbs — formation, 191,5.
medium— 8uffi?:es for, 182,6.
medius— in pred. attrib., 325,R.6 ; used
partitively, 291, R. 2 ; Abl. used without
in, 388.
memini— 175,5,&; First Impv. vi^anting,
267,R. ; with Pr. Inf., 281,2,n. : with Acc.
376,r2; with Inf., 423,2,n.2, G27,R.2 ;
with cum and Indie, 580,R.2.
memoratu— as Abl. Sup., 436, n.
memoria teneo— with Pr. inf., 281,2,n.
mendum— heteroclite, 68,3.
mens— ill phrases with ut, 557,R.; in
mentem venire, with Gen., 376,r.3;
in mentem venire, with inf., 422, n 5.
524
GENERAL TXDEX.
meritus— Comp. of, 87,9 ; merits as Abi.
ol Manner, 399,N.l.
-met— added to pereonal pvon., 102,N.2;
to ipse, 103, 3, N. 5.
metaplasts— 68.
metathesis — of coiisoiiauts, 9,8.
metre— 730; unit of, 731.
metuere— with Dat., 346,n.2 ; with ut,
ne, or Inf., 550 aud n.1 ; with Inf., 423,
2.N.2.
metUS— with Inf., 550,N.5.
meus— 73,R-, 76 ; Vuc, of, 100,R.l; early
lorms of, ii».N.2; syuizesis in, ib.n.3, 727,
N. ; mea mihl, 309,n.2. mei with Geu.
Ger., 428,Rl; wit:i ut, 657.ii.
middle voice — 212,11., 218; with Ace, of
Ilespect, 338,N.2.
militia— in Abl. of Time, 393,R 5, inLoa,
411, u. 2.
mille— a subst. in PI., 95,R.3 ; inscrip-
tioual forma of, ibni, milia, with
masc. vb., 211,k l,Ex.G ; use of, in Sg.
aud PL, 293 ; as subst. with Part. Gen.,
293,N. ; milia i<>r distributive, 295,N.
minari, minitari— with Dat., 346,r.2;
withluf ,627,u.2.
minor— quam omitted with, 296,R.4: ;
with vbs. of Rating aud Buying, 380,1;
minoris, minimi, as Gen. of Price, lb.;
minus, "o, 47i,«^.i. minime, no, ib.^
sin minus, 592 ; si minus, ib r. ; non
minus quam, 644,n.i
mirari-with inf., 423,2,n.2, 533,R.1; with
quod, 642 ; with si, ib. N.l.
mirum -with factum and ni, quantum,
quin, 209,N 2, 467,N. ; with quod, 648;
with si, 642,N.l, with ni, i^- N.2 ; with
Inf., 422,N 3 ; with quam and Indie,
467,N.: with ut, 553,4.
miSCgre— Se, with Dat., 346,n.6; with
Dat. and Ace, or Ace. aud Abl., 348,u 1.
miserari-with acc, 377,n.2.
misergre-with Geu., 377,n1; miseret,
with Gen., 377; misereoi, with Gen.,
lb. • misergsc5, with Gen., tb. N.l.
mittere—mitte, with inf. for impv.,
271,2,N.2; with Inf., 422,N.3; withquod,
525,l,N.l ; followed by Impf. Indic. to
give Design, 630, N 2 ; missil, of Moving
Cause, 408,N.l.
mixed class of Verbs — 133, vii.
moderari— with Dat.. 346,R.2 and N.2.
modo-strengtheus Impv., 269 ; modo—
modo, 482,1 ; contrasted with tum,
vicissim, 482,i.N.2: non modo— sed
etiam, 482,5 : non modo non, sed
ne— quidem, Hj. r1 ; pronded only,
573 ; modo ne, i^>- n.2.
moliri— with inf., 423,2,n.2.
monere- with Geu. or Acc, 376 and r.1;
with Inf , 423,'-i,N.2 ; with ut, 646,n.1.
mood 112.4, 253; Indic, 254; Subjv..
255 265; liupv., 2G8275 ; Inf , 279 281;
attraction of.508,4; in TemporalClauses,
560 . in Relative Senteuces, 624-635; in
Comparative Sentences, 633 ; in O. O.,
650 652.
morari with ne, 548. n. l
morigerari— with Dat., 348,r.2.
mOS-'moris) with inf., 422, nn. 2 and 5 ;
with ut, 557, r; moribus, 399 n.I.
motion- \h. of, with Inf , 421,n l,a; vb. of,
with Sup., 435 ; vb. of, with Fut. part.,
438,N ; vb of, with quod, 625,1, n.O, end
of, conceived as Rest, 412. u.l
movere syucoi)e in Pf, 1313; with
Abl. of Separation, 390,n 1 ; with ut,
553,2, motUS, of Moving Cause, 408. n. 2.
Mulciber— heteroclite, 68, i
multare— with Abl , 378, r 3.
multitude — 8\xhiiiB. ol', with PL, 211,R 1.
E.K.a.
multitudO -with PL vb , 211.R.l,Ex.a.
multum for Abl. of Measure, 403 n. 2;
very, 439, N 3 ; multO with Couip., 301 ;
with Superl , 303.
munus- with Inf., 422,N.2 ; with ut, 646.
n2.
mutare-with Abl.. 404.N.1.
mutes— 6,2, B.
mutUO— of reciprocal action. 221,K.2.
myrtus— heteroclite, 68,5.
Nam - usage of, 498 and ns. ; position of,
ib-, N.l ; asseverative, ib. n.2 ; yes for
471, R-
naming—\h& of, with two Aces., 340.
namque-498; position of, ib. n.I.
narrare— with luf . 527, r.2
nasals 6,2 A.; nasal class of vbs . 133, iv.
nasci with two Nonis., 206; natus,
constr. of, 296,n-'5; with Acc, 336,u.4;
with Abl. of Origin, 395,nn.1,3; natti
in Abl. Sup., 436,N.
natura— ii> phvases with ut, 557. K.
naucum -defective, 70,B.; nauci, aa
Gen. of Price, 380,1-
n6 -iieg. of Opt. Subjv , 260; of Impv.,
GENERAL INDEX.
525
270; continued by neque, 260; by
neve, 270,444.2; with Pt. Subjv., 270,
R.2; syntax ol, 441, 444; = non, 4-44,1,
N.2; ne-quidem, ib- i,n.2. 445,448. n. 2,
432,5 and it.l ; in Final Sente')ceR, 543,
4; ut ne, 545. R.l; quo ne, H>-; paren-
thetii-al, ib. r.3 ; after vbs. of Hiuder-
iug. 548; after vbs. of Fear, 650; n6
non, i/>. N.l; with dum, 673; as Con-
cessive, 608.
ne— added to hie, 104,1. n. 3 ; to iste, il'-
2,N.3; to ille, 103,3, N.4; as interroga-
tive, 454; asseverative, ib. N.2; added
to interrogatives, ib. K.3 ; = nonnc, it*-
a. 5: added to nuni,456,N.; strengthens
an, 457,1, N.2 ; to introduce double
questions, 458; necne or annon, 459;
to introduce second member (if au indi-
rect question, 460 2.
nearness -&djs of, with Dat., 359.
nec = non, 442,n.3 ; see neque.
necessarium— with ut, 563,4.
necesse — 85,C.; withestiustoadofSubjv.,
264 K.l; with Inf., 638; with ut omit-
ted, 538 R 2, 553,4,u 1 : with pred. at-
tracted, 538 R.3; with ut, 553,4; with
habeoandlnf., 423.2.N2,
necessity— ad js. of, with Inf., 421,n.1,c ;
expressed by ludic, 254,R.l, 256, R.
neduni-482,5,R.2.
nefas— 70.B. ; with inf., 428.N.2; with
Abl. Sup., 436,N.2; with Inf., 422,N.2.
negare— '^se of, 444,1.n.2; continued by
neque— neque, 445.N.; = dic6 non,
447: with Inf., 627.U.2.
negative— of Potential, 257; of Opt., 260;
of Impv., 270; non with Oi)t.. 260;
non with Impv., 270 R.l ; noll with
Iuf.,270,R.2; acl vs., 441-449; non, 442;
haud, 443 ; nec = non, 442,n.3 ; ne,
444; subdivision of, 445; combinations,
446; resolution of, ib. n.2; positive
supplied from, 447,R ; position of, 44\
449; two, 449; nec non loi' et, ib R-3;
in Copulative Sentences, 430 ; in Final
aud (Consecutive Sentences, 543,4.
negotium— in phrases with ut, 546. n.2;
with Inf., 422,N.5.
neniB-dech of, 70 D. ; and ntxllus, 108;
with PI. vb., 211, R.l, Ex. a; with Impv.
Subjv., 270,^■.; and quisquam, 317,2;
as adj., ifj ; et nSmS, ib. 2, N.l;
strengthened by unus ; - nequis, 446,
N.3.
nequam— 85,C ; comparison of, 90.
neque— with opt. Subjv. for ne, 260; adds
Impv.. 270,N.; neque— neque with pi.,
285, N.l; subdivides a general neg., or
nego, 445 and N.l; nec non, 449,r3;
for et non, 480 and R.l; for nectamen,
ib. R.3 ; for ne — quidem, ib- n.I ; com-
pared with nec, ib. N.2 ; for non, ib. n.
4; for neve, 543,N.3.
nequire— conj. of, 170,5 ; nequinont,
133,iv.N.2: with Inf., 423,2,n.2.
Neri6-(i<("i. of, 41,4.
nescio-an, 457,2 ; quis, 467.R.1 ; quo-
modo, '6.N.; with Inf., 423,2,N.2,527.R.l.
neu, neve— 444,2 ; adds Final Clause,
543,4; neque instead, ib. n.3.
neuter— tied, of, 76, 108; neutiquam,
442,N.2.
neuter — adj. with masc. subj,, 211,R.4 ;
demonstrative whensubst. is expected,
ib. n.3; Sg. sums up PI., ib.; PI. pred.
to two ferns., 286,3 ; in app. to persons,
321,n.2 ; pron. and adj. in Cognate Ace,
333,1, S41,N.2 ; pron. and adj. with Part.
Gen., 360 ; pron. and adj. not attracted
to Ger.,427,N.3.
neve— see neu.
ni— witli mlrum, 209,n.2; range of, 591,
N.2.
nihil— for nulius, 108 ; with impv.
Subjv.,2 0,N.; neg. of quisquam, 317,
2; no, 471,'';, 1 ; nihil! as Gen. of Price,
380,1; for non, 442 N.2.
nihilominus— 490, r.
nimis— with quaxn and Indic, 467,N.
nimium-witii quantum, 209, N.2, 467,N.;
very, 435, N.3; nimio as Abl. of Stan-
dard, 403,n.3.
nisi— witli quod, 525,2 n.2,591,6,r.3; with
ut, 557,N.2, 591i',R.4; and si non, 691,6;
but. except, ib. R.2 ; si, ib. ; nisi forte,
vero, ib. r.4; nisi tamen, e&- n.I; in
asseverations, 691,6,2 ; with Inf., 635,
n.2; vvith participle, 667,N.
niti— with Abl., 401.N.6 ; with Inf., 423,2,
N.2; withut, 546.N.1.
nix -clfii;!. of, 62,7.
no— hov>' translated, 478,6 and c.
nocere-with Dat., 346.
nolle— t-onj. of, 174; exact use of nolue-
rit, 244,r.3 ; nolim, nollem, as Poteu-
tinl, 257,2, 258; not in Unreal Wish, 261.
R-; noli, with Inf. for Impv., ?70.N.2,
271,2 ; nolim, with Subjv. for Impv.,
526
GENERAL INDEX.
271,2,N.2 : withPf. Inf. pass., 280,2,c.n.;
nolens, in pred. app., 325, K. 6 ; with
Iuf.,423,2,N.2: with nt, 646,n.1 ; with
Inf. or ut, 538 and n.3.
nomen — with esse and Dat., 349.R5;
with Appositioiial Gfen., 361,1 ; with
Gen. of Charge, 378,R.2.
nominari— witii two Noms., 206.
NOMINATIVE— deiined, 23,1 ; of 1st Dec!.,
E9ana n.1 ; of 2d Decl., 31.33,N.-1 ; of Sd
Decl., 36 1 and 2. 38.1, 57.R.4: of Greek
Kubstantivos, 66,N.4; ofadjs., 75.n.4,79,
N.l; of PavticiiMes, 89.K.2; for Voc, 201,
K.2; .syntax of, 203; two Nonis., 206;
with Inf. alter copulative vb., jb. R.3;
for Voc. in app., 321. N.l ; with 6 and
gn, or eCCe, 343.1,n1; with lui. by
attraction, 527, n. 2; alter pass. vbs!. of
Saying and Thinking, 528; nOminativus
pendens, 627,n.2.
non— ueg. of Potential, 257; neg. of Wj.sh,
260; with Impv., 270,R.l; syntax of. 441,
442; with ullus for nuUus, 446,n.2;
nSn possum non, 449,n.i ; nee non =
et, ib. K.3; no, 471, i> 1 ; non modo-sed
etiam, 482.5 and n.i -, non mode— sed
ne-quidem, ih. k. i ; for ne, 573. n. 2.
nonne— syntax of, 455 ; with indirect
question, 460,1,n.2; with rhetorical
question, 4G4,R.
n5nnullus— 108.
noscere— syncope in Pf, 131,3; novi,
175,5.c;.
nOStri— with Gen. Ger., 428,K.l.
noun— defined, 16; inflection of, 17 ; and
pronoun, 16, N. 2.
nourishing— yh^. of, with Abl., 401, N.l.
nOVUS— Corap. of, 87.9; with Inf., 422, n.
3; with ut, 653,4.
nOX— flecl. of, 63.8; with Abl. of Time,
393.R.5.
nnbere— with Dat., 346,R.2 and N.4.
nudus— with Gen., 374,n,8.
nullus— decl. of, 76,90; and n6ni6, 108;
with Impv. Subjv.,270,N ; and ullus,
317,2; for non, i6. n.2.
num— 456; with ne and nam, "!> n.; i»
indirect questions, 460, 1 .« ; in rhetorical
questions, 464,R.
numbtir— Sg. and PI.. 22. Dual, ih. u. and
112,1; concord of, 285 and nn.; violation
of Concord in app.. 321,k.1 ; substs. of.
with Gon., 368 ; dchuitc numbers in
Abl. of Time, 393,R.2.
numerals— cardinals, 94: ordinals, 95 and
294: cpd., 96: omission of cent6na
milia, ii>. 6; insertion of et, »'>• 5; frac-
tious, ib. 7; signs, 96,ii.; distributives,
97 and 295; multiplicatives, 97 ; propor-
tionals, 97; advs., 98 ; duo, ambo, uter-
que, 292; mille, 293; singuli, 295:
distributives for cardinals, ib. n. ; ali-
quis with, 314,R 2 ; quisque with, 318,
2; with Part. Gen., 370.
numero-as adv., 399, n.i ; (in) numero
habere, 340 r1
nunc— strengthens etiam, 478, N. 1 ; nunc
—nunc, 482,1 and N.l.
nuntiare— with inf.. 627,R.2; with Nom.
and Inf., 528, N.l.
nuperum— defective, 86 1.
0— sound of, 3; weakening of, 8,1; as
interjection, 201,R.2, 343,n.1; o Si in
Wishes, 261; length of final, 707,5.
Ob — in composition, 9,4; vbs. cpd. with,
take Ace. or Dat., 331,347; to give the
Cause, 408,N.3; a.s prep.. 416,16: with
Ace. Ger., 428,B 2, 432 and k.I.
Obesse— with Dat, 346, R. 2,347, r. 2: with
Inf., 422,N.4.
Obicere— with Ace Ger , 430, N.l.
object — direct, becomes subj. of pass.,
216; indirect retained in pass., 217;
direct, 330; inner. 330,332,333: outer,
338 ; indirect, 344 ; of Ger., 427,2; after
Dat. Ger., 429, n. 2 ; after Ace. Sup., 435,
N.3; after Abl. Sup.. 436.
OBJECT SENTENCES— 523 -537 ; with quod,
524,525 : with Ace. and Inf., 526.527 ;
with Nom. and luf , 628: alter vbs. of
Will and Desire, 532; after vbs. of Emo-
tion, 533; ill exclamations. 534; as subj.,
535; in part., 536, 537; in O. O., 655.
Objective Genitive— 363: of pers. pron..
364,N.2.
Obligare — with se and Gen. of Charge,
378,R.l.
obligation— expressed by Indie, 254, B.l,
255.R.
oboed ire- with Dat., 346,r.2.
obrgpere— with Dat., 347,r.2.
obsaturare— with Gen., 383,1. n. 2.
obsecrS— strengthens Impv., 269; with-
out Inf , 646,N.3; with ut, 546,N.l.
obsequi— with Dat., 346,R.2.
obsistere— with Dat., 347. r. 2 ; with n6,
648,N.l ; with quin, 555,1.
GENERAL INDEX.
527
obstare— with Dat., 347.R.2 ; with ng,
5i8.N.l ; with f^uin, 555.1.
obstrepere— with Dat., 347,r.2.
obtemperare— with Dat., 346,r.2.
obtestor— with inf., 546,N.3.
obtingere— with Dat., 347. r 2.
obtrectare— with Dat., 346,r.2 and N.2.
obvenire— witii Dat., 347,r.2.
obversari-w'ith Dat., 347,r.2.
occurrere-with Dat., 347, r.2.
occursare-with Dat., 347, r.2.
ocior-87,7.
odi— coiyugation of, 176,5, c ; odio esse as
pass, of, ib. N.
office— suffixes for, 181.10
officere— with Dat., 346,R.2.
ofRcium - iu phrases with luf., 422,N 2;
withut, 646, N. 2
olle-for iUe, 104 3.N.I.
oruissiou— of vowels, 8,2, 701,R 2.a ; of
consonauts, 9,6; of subj.. 207; of copula,
209; of other vbs., tb. N 5, of esse m
Pf. Inf. pass., 280,2 a,K.2 and c ; of cou-
junctioD. 474,N., 481,483.N .492N ; of
non, 482,5, R l ; of vb. of Kav lu-,', 645 R 3;
of vb. with sin, 592, R ; of si 698. of vb.
of Protasis, 699; of Protasis, 600; of
Apodusis, 601 ; of vb. aft(-r quasi a^d
tamquam, 602,n l ; of vb. of compara
tive clausf, 640.
omittere— with quod, 625,1 n.1 ; with
Inf., 423,2,N.2; oiuitte, with luf. fur
Impv., 271,2,N.2.
oinitting~\hs. of, with quod, 655,1; vbs.
of, with Inf., 423,2.
omnin6-2/es. 471,a,i.
omnis— iu Abi., without in, 388 ; omnia,
as Ace. of Respect, 338,2.
onus— with Inf., 422,N.2.
Onustus— with Gen., 374,N.l ; with Abl.,
405.N.3.
operam— iu phrases with Dat. Ger., 429,
1 and N.l ; with luf., 422,N.5 ; with ut,
646 NN.l and 2.
opinio— in phrases with Inf., 627, R.2;
with ut, 557,R.; opinione aa Abl. of
Respect, 398 N.l.
opitulari— with Dat., 346 r.2.
oportet— Iiidic. for Subjv,, 264. R.i ; with
Pf. part, pass., 280.2,6.R.2; with Inf. or
Subjv., 636,R.2; with ut, 553,4. R.I.
Oppido— «er?/, 439,N.3; with quantum.
467 N,
Oppidum— bas pred. adj. in agreement.
211,R.6; requires prep., 337,R.l.; with
Epexegetical Gen., 336,N.l; in app. to
Town in Abl., 356, R 1, 391, R.I ; m app.
to Loc, 411,R.3.
[ops]— defective, 70, D.
Optare— with inf., 423,2, n 2 ; with ut, ib.
>f.:t,646,N.l; optato, as Abl. of Manner,
3S9,N.l.
OPTATIVE SUB.TUNCTIVE — 250-266 ; ia
Wishes, 230 ; particles witli, 261 ; in
Asseverations, 232; as Impv, 263; as
concessive, 264; lu Deliberative Ques-
tions, 266.
optimum -with luf , 422,n 3.
opus -with Abl., 406 ; with Gen., ib. N 3 ;
with Nom.. ib. N.4 ; with part , 437,N 2;
with Inf., 422,N 2; with ut,657,R. ; with
Nom. and Inf , 528, n. 2.
5rare— with two Accs , 339 and n 1, with
Inf., 648,N.3 ; with ut, t^- n L
ORATio OBLIQUA— 608.2. partial, ib M, ibA;
sequence in, 616; in Relative Sentences,
626,R , 628,R-. 629,R , 648,649 ; comes iu
without notice. 649, n 2; shift to, ib. n.3,
moods in, 650-652 ; Interrogative iu,
661; Impv in, C63 ; tenses in, 663-665;
iu Causal Sentences, 666; Conditional
Stutences in, 666-659; Logical, 695, R 1,
C57 ; Ideal 596, R. 5 658 ; Unreal 697,r 4,
669. pronouns iu, 660 ; by Attraction,
508,4,682; partial. 603,3 663; Represeu-
tation, 654 and N.
Orbus— with Abl.. 405,N.3.
order— -M^s. of, iu pred. attrib., 325,R 6.
ordiual3-94; early forms, 96, n. 5; alter
for secundus, 96,5; lu dates, 234; for
cardinals, ib. and 336,r1; with quis-
que,2^. N-, 318,2; position of, 676,R.2.
Ordine— as Abl. of Manner, 399,N.l.
Origin— Abl. of, 396 ; preps, with Abl. of,
ib. NN.2 and 3 ; suffixes of, 182,7.
oriri— 166,169,1 : ortus, with Abl. of
Grigiu, 396,N 1.
oriundus -with Abl, of Origin, 395,N.l.
OS— bone, decl. of, 48.R.; mouth, defective,
70 D.
OStendere— with Ace aud Inf., 537,R.2.
OStrea -heteroclite, 68,1.
overlapping action— 662,571, N.l.
oxymoron -694.
Paene— with in die. in Apod, of Unreal
Condition, 697,R.3 . position of, 677,R 1.
paenitet— with Geu., 377 ; with ueut.
528
GENERAL INDEX.
siibj., lb. R.3 ; with Inf., 422,n.4 ; with
quod, 642.
palam— fis prep., 417,8.
palatals — vowels, 2; consonants, 6,1,n.
palumbes— heteroclite, 68,7.
panis— heteroclite, 68,12.
par— with est instead of Subjv., 254,R.l;
with Geu. or Dat., 359,R.l; with Dat.
Ger.,429,N.l.
parare— with inf., 423,2,n.2; paratus,
with Inf., 421,N.l,c.
parataxis— 472.
parcere— with Dat., 346,r.2; parce, with
Inf. lor Impv., 271,2,n.2.
parenthetical ut and ne— 646,K.3.
pargre— with Dat., 346,r.2.
pariter— pariter, 482,3.
pars— with PI. vb., 211,R.l,Ex.a ; in Abl.
without in, 385,N.l; tuam partem,
334,R.2.
Part Affected— iu Ace, 338,1.
partial obliquity— 508,3, 663.
particeps— with Gen., 374,N.2.
participation — adjs. of, with Gen., 374.
PARTICIPIAL SENTENCES— 664-670 ; to ex-
press Time, 665; Cause, 666; Condition
and Concession, 667 ; relative clauses,
668 ; Future similarly used, 669,670.
PARTICIPLE— decl. of, 80,82; Abl. of, 83;
Nom. and Ace. PI. of, ib. N.l ; compar-
ison of, 88,89; Abl. of Comp., i6. r.1 ;
Nom. PI. of. ib.R.2 ; Geu. PI. of, ib. E.3;
defined, 112,5; formation of, 115,3;
early forma of, 130,7; Pf. pass., 135,1.;
Fut. Act., tb. II ; Pf. pass, of Deponents
as act., 167,n1; Pf. pass, of intrans.
vba. used as act., 220,n.1; Pf. with
hateoand teneo, 238; Fut. periphras-
tic, 247; Pr. periphrastic with esse, ib.
N.'i; Pf. with fui, 260; as al.j., ib.y 2;
as pred., 261,N.l ; usage of Pr. and Pf,,
282; usage of Fut. act., 283: concord
with two subjs. in Abl. Abs., 286,N.3;
Pr. with Gen., 375, contrasted with adj.,
ib. N.l; Coiup. of, with Gen., ib. N.2 ; of
Birth with Abl., 395; Pf. pass, with
opus and usus, 406; in Abl. Abs., 4G9,
410, and nn.; Pf. pass parallel with
Gcr., 426,N.2, 427,N.l ; as subst., 437;
Fut. as subst., i^i. N.l ; as adj., 438;
Fut. as adj., ii. N.l; ])arallel with rel.
and Subjv., ib. R.: with interro;,'., 469 ;
sequence after, 518; after vbs. of Percep-
tion, etc., 627,N. 1,636; alter vba. of
Causation, etc., 637; equiv. to cum,686
R ; for Prot., 593,2 ; for Prot. iu Com-
parative Sentence, 602,N.3; Concessive,
609 ; for rel., 637.
particles— copulative, 474 ; adversative,
483 ; disjunctive, 492; causal, 498 ; illa-
tive, 499; position of, 679.
partitive apposition— 322.
Partitive Genitive— 367-372; with substs.
of Quantity, etc., 368; with ncut. Sp.,
369; with numerals, 370; with pronouns,
371 ; with comparatives and superla-
tives 372 ; preps, instead, ib. E.2 ; with
uterque, 371, r.I ; extensions of, 372,
NN.; contrasted with Geu. of Character-
istic, 369,N.l.
parts of speech— 16.
parvus— Comp, of, 90 ; iu Gen. of Price,
3301.
passive — voice, 112,2 ; vbs. with two
Noms , 206; vb. agrees with pred., 211,
R.I, Ex. b ; defined, 214 ; Pf. with Dat.
of Agent, 215,1 ; as reflexive, 218 ; of
something endured, 219 ; periphrastic
forms of, 243-251: with Ace. of Respect,
338,N.2 ; impersonal, 346,R 1.
pati— with Tit, 663,2 ; wilh Inf., tfc.N.
patronymics— 182,11.
paulo, paulum— with ante and post,
403.N.4,6.
pause— in Verse, 742.
pavSre— constr. ol, 560 and N.l.
pax— i^ecl. of, 70,D ; in Abl. of Time, 393,
R 5, 394,R.l.
peculiaris— with Gen. or Dat., 369,k.1.
peCUS— heteroclite, 68,12.
pellere— with Abl. of Separation, 390.
N 1.
pendgre— with Gen., 379.
penes — position of, 413,R-1 ; use of, as
prep., 416,17.
pentameter— elegiac, 785; Pf. Inf. in, 280,
2, ft, N.2; position of words in, 683.
penult— 11.
penus— beteroclite, 68,11.
per— vbs. cpd. with take Ace., 331 ; with
Ace. of Extent, 335, 336 ; to express
Time Within Which, ib. R.2, 393,R.l ;
here and there in, 386. R.3; for Abl. of
Manner, 399,N.l: with Person Through
Whom, 401 ; position of, 413,R.l, and n.
2 : use as prep., 416,18,
per cei ring— whs. of, with Object Clause.
623 ; with Ace. and Inf., 526, 527 ; with
GENERAL IXDEX.
529
Norn., 528: with part., 627. n.1, 536;
Noin. after, 538,N.2.
percontari— with two Aces., 339 and n.1.
perdius— tlotvt'tive, 85.2.
PERFECT— defined. 112,3 : System, 114,2
andS./v: forniation of, lU, 115, 121,2;
syucopated forms of, 131, 13; early
forms of, 131,4 : Stem, 134 ; part, pass.,
135.1. ; liart. as subst., 167,n 1 ; pass,
with Dat. of Agent, 215,1; part, used as
act., 220, N.1 ; defined, 223; Historical,
225 ; Pure and Historical, 235 ; force of,
236 ; trans, by Eug. Pr , ib. r. ; with
Aor. force, ib. ; Gnomic, ib. N, , ior Fut.
Pf.,237: part, with habeo aiui teneo,
238: pass, with fui, 250; Snbjv. as
Potential, 257,2 and N.1 ; in wishes,
260 ; Subjv. as Impv , 263,2,/', 270, R. 2,
tense relations in Snbjv , 277 ; Ii>f.
as subj. or obj., 280,2 ; alter decuit,
ib. a, R. 1 ; Emotional, ib. ; alter
Oportuit, ^f^■ r. 2; after velle, 280.
2.fj and N.1; after p03Se, 2'^. : after
debeo, ib. n.3 ; alter vbs. of "Will and
Desire, 280. 2, t" ; use of part , 282 and
N.; part, as subj., 437,n.1 , Se<|uence
after, 611,RR.3,4 ; S:ibjv in Final
Sentences, 512,n 1 ; in Cnnsecutive Seu-
tences. 513 and nn, . Inf.. 630, laf. iu
0.0. . 659,N
perficere- witii ut 553,1.
pergere— with inf , 423. 2. n 2.
perhibere — as copulative vb , 2O6,
N.l ; with Norn, and Inf., 528 and
N.1.
period— Responsive and Apodrtic, 685:
forms distinguished by Niigelsbach,
686 : Historical and Oratorical, 687.
periphrasis for Impv., 271: for Fut
periphrastic, 515,R 2 ; for Fut.. 531 and
N.l : for Apod, in Unreal Condition,
597.U.5.
PEKIPHR.\STIC CONJUGATION — 129 . act ,
247 : pass., 251 ; with fui, 247, R.l: with
forem, ib. N.I ; Pr. part, with esSe, ib.
N.2: with futtirura esse ut, 248 : with
in eo est, 249 ; with po3se, velie, 243,
R. : Pf. part, with sum and fui, 250 and
R.l ; with forem for essem, ib. n.2 ;
withGer., 251 ; Fut. act.. 283.
perire— pass, of perdere, 169,2 r.i.
peritUS— with Gen., 374,N.4.
permangre— with two Noms^ 20o,n,i.
permittere— used personally iu pass..
34
217,N.2 ; with Inf., 423,2,N.2, 532,N.l,
653,2.N. ; with ut, 553,2.
permuting — vbs. of, with Consecutive
Clause, 553,2.
pernox— ilefective, 85,2.
perperum— defective, 85,1.
perpetuus — and perpes, 84, i ; per-
petuum, as adv. Ace, 336,N.l.
perquam— with indic, 467. n.
persequens-with Gen., 375,n.2.
perseverare— with inf., 423.2, n.2.
persons-iu conjugation of vb., 112,1 ;
concord of, 287 ; order of, ib. n.
personal endings— 114.
personal pronouns— 304 ; omitted, ib. 1 ;
Geu of,as objective, ib. 2 364,n 2; poss.
for, ib. 2,N.2; Gen. of, as Partitive, ib. 3;
for poss , lb. 3,N.l ; circumlocution for
third personal pronoun, ib. 3,N.2.
perspicere— ^vith Acc. aud inf., 627. r.i.
perstare-with inf., 423,2,n.2.
persuadere— used personally in pass.,
217.N.1: with Dat., 346. u.2. and nnT2,4" ;
with Inf., 423 2,n2, 527,r.2, 546, r. 1 ;
with tit, 646,N.l.
pertaesum est -with Gen., 377.
pessum— defective, 70.A ; with ire, 435,
N 1.
petere — with a and Abl., 339,R.1 and n.1;
with Acc. Ger., 430,N.l: with Inf., 423.
2,N.2; with ut, 546.N I.
Phalaeccan— verse, 796.
Pherecrateau— verse, 794.
phonetic variations— in vowels, 8; in con-
sonants, 9 ; in consonant stem-charac-
teristic, 121. R.
piget— with Gen., 377; with subj., ib. k.2.
pili- as Gen. of Price, 380,1.
pinus— Ijeteroclite, 68,5.
plus— Conip. of, 87,G,N.
\Aa,ce— where, in Abl., 385; with vbs. of
Placing, ib. R.l ; with Towns, 386 : as
Cause, Means, etc., 389 ; with Books,
dc, 387 ; with totus, etc., 388 ; iu Loc,
411: whence, in Abl , 390, 391 ; with
Towns, 391; of origin, 395.N.2 ; whither,
in Acc, 337.
placgre— with Dat., 346, R.2; use of Fut.
Pf., 244,R.3.
}}leasure~wh's,. of, with Dat., 343; adjs. of,
with Abl. Sup.. 436, N.2.
plebs— decl. of, 63.N.1, 68,8.
plenty— \hs. of, with Abl., 406 ; adjs. of,
with Geu. or Abl., ib. N. 3.
530
GENERAL INDEX.
plenus— with Gen , 374. nI : with Abl.,
405N.3.
pleonasm -692.
pleraque— as Ace of Respect, 338,2.
pluere — witli Abl. of Means, 401, >. 5.
PLUPERFECT— 112,3 ; formation of, 114,
115 ; Aor. forms of, 131,4, ?;,3 ; defined,
2^3 ; force of, 241; translated by Impf.,
ib. R.; used as Aor., ib. N.l; periphras-
tic, with habeo, ib. n.2 ; Sub]v as Po-
tential of Past, 258,N.2 : in Wish, 260;
with vellem, 231,u. ; Subjv. as Conces-
sive, ib. N.; Subjv. as Impv. of Past,
273,3 ; tense force in Subjv., 277 ; In
Final Sentences, 512,n.1 ; to express
Eesnltiug Condition, 663,1 ; Indie, in
Apod, of Unreal Condition, 697, n 2.
plural— of abstracts, 204,n.5 ; used for
Sg., ib. NN.6,7 ; pred. with two snbjs.,
285; neut. pred. to two ferns., 286,3.
plus— quam omitted with, 296,R.4 , plu-
ris, with vbs. of Rating and Buying,
380,1 ; plurimum, with quantum, 467,
N. ; plurimi, as Gen. of Price, 380,1
poema— litteroclite, 68,7.
pollere- with Inf., 423 2,n.2.
poUiceri— with inf., 627. h.2, 531, n. 4.
pollis — tlecl. of, 41,4.
pondo— defective, 70, A.
pone— usage of, 416,19.
ponere— with in and Abl., 386,R.l and n.
2 ; suppose, with Inf., 627,R.2.
poscere— with two Aces., 339andK 1; with
a and Abl., ib. R.l ; with Inf. or ut, 546,
NN.1,3.
position— adjs. of, iu pred. attrib., 325, r.
6; of advs., 440 ; of neg., 448 and nn.; of
rel., 612; of correlative clause, 620;
poetical peculiarities iu, 683.
positive— degree lacking, 87,2,7,8, and 9;
with prep, to express disproportion,
298, R.; in comparing qualities, 299; Mith
quam after Comp., 299,n.2; with Part.
Gen., 372.N.2; supplied Irom nc g., 417,
R.
posse-conj. of, 119; potisf'>i' posse, 209,
N.2; use of Fut. and Fiit. Pf. of, 2i2 n 2,
244,R.3; ueed.< no periphrasis, 248, R. ;
Indie, for Subjv., 254,R.l ; Impf- ludie.
of Disappointment, ib. R 2 ; with Pf.
Inf. act., 280,2,^), and N.l : with quam,
etc., to strengthen superlative, 303 ;
omitted, with quam, ib. R.l; with Inf.,
423,2,N.2 ; n5n possum non, 449,r.1 ;
in simple questions, 453,N.l : for peri-
phrastic, 513. R.3, 531, N. 3 and 4; in Apod,
of Unreal Condition, 597,R.5.c ; restric-
tions with, 627,R.2 , in Logical Condi-
tion, 657,R. ; in Unreal Condition in
0.0 .659,N.
Possession— Dat. of, 349: compared with
Gen., ib R.2; of qualities, ib. r.3; Gen.
oi", 36S; in 1st and 2d person, ib. R.l ;
omission of governing word, ib- R 3.
possessive pron.ouiis — 100 102, 106,N 4 ;
usage of suus, 309,4 and nn ; syntax of,
312; intense use of, ?/> r 1 ; for Gen. of
personal pron., 304,2 n.2 ; with Gen in
app., 321,R.2; for 1st and 2d persons in
Subjective Gen,, 364 ; as pred., 366,R.3 ;
with interest and refert, 381 ; with
domi, 411,R 4; position of, 676,R 1.
possibility— in Indie, rather than Subjv.,
254,Rl.255,R.
post— vbs. cpd. with, take Dut.. 347; with
Abl. or Ace. of Measure, 403,N.4; posi-
tion of, 403, N 4.6, 413, R.l : omission of,
with rel., 403,N 4 ; as adv., 415 ; as
prep ,416,20; with Pf, part, pass., 437,
N.2.
posteaquam— see postquam.
pOSterum— defective, 74,R.2; Comp. of,
87,2 and 7.
postquam— with Ili.st. Pf. or Pr.. 561;
with Impf ,562 ; vvith Plupf.,563 ; range
of tenses with, ib. nn.1-3; with Subjv.,
ib. N.4. Causal with Pr. and Pf.,564 and
N.l ; in Iterative action, 566,567.
postridie quam— 577,n.5.
pOStulare— with a and Abl., 339,R.l and
N.l; with Inf.,423,2,N.2, 546,N.3; with
ut, <&• N.3.
potens— with Gen., 374 n. 3.
POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE— 257-259; for Pr.
and Fut., 257 ; for Past, 258 ; in ques-
tions, 259; for Indie, 257,n.;{ ; not con-
ditional, 257,n 2, 600,i?; ofPast coincides
with Unreal of Present, 258,n.2.
pOtiri— with Abl., 407 and N.2, tZ ; with
personal Ger., 427,n..'>.
potis, e— 85,C; potior, 87,7; potius
strengthens comparative, 301 : potiuS
quam, with Subjv. or Inf., 577,N.O, 631,
3,R 2, 644, R- 3 ; see posse,
poiwr— adjs. of, with Gen., 374; vbs. of,
with Inf., 423 and N.2; sequence after
vb. of, 516,R.3 ; in Indie, rather than
Subjv., 254, R.l, 256,R.
GENERAL IXDEX.
531
prae— to express disproportion, 296,n.3;
vbs. cpd. with take Uat., 347; gives
rreveuting Causo, 403,N.4; as adv., 415,
as prep., 417,9 ; prae quod, 625,2.
N.2.
praecellere— with A1)1. of Respect, 397,
N.2.
praecipere— with luf , (iS3,2.N 2; with
Ut, 6i5,Nl; used personally in pass,
217,N.2 , praeceptum, with ut,546,N 2.
praecipitare-with Abi , 390,2.n 3.
praecipuum witii ut, 557,r
praeesse -with Dat. Ger., ^9,1
praeficere-with Dat. Ger., 429,1
praegestire— with inf., 423,2,n 2.
(in) praesentia— Z-^'' the present, 394, r.
praesidere— with Dat., 347,ii.2.
praestare— with Dat., 347, r.2 ; with Abi.
of liespect, 397,N.2; with Abi. of Meas-
ure, 403,N 1; with ut, 653,1.
praestolari— with Dat., 346,n.2.
praeter— to express disproportion, 296,
N.3; vbs. cpd. with, take Ace, 331; posi-
tiou of, 413,N-3; use as prep., 416,21;
with Pt. part, pass., 437,N.2 ; id quod,
quam quod, quod, 625.2 n. 2.
praeterire— with quod, 626,1,n.1.
precari-with ut, 646,n.1.
predicate— and copula, 205; with copula-
tive vbs., 206; concord of, 211 ; viola-
tion of concord of, i6. RR.l-G.NN.1-3 ; iu
PI. with two subjs., 285 ; iu PI. with
neque— neque, ''>• n.i ; concord of, in
Gender, 283; iu Person, 287; Attribu-
tion, 325; Apposition, ib. and r.G; with
Ahl. Abs., 410,n.G; after Inf., 538.
prepositions— assiniilatiou of in composi-
tion, 9,4 : defined. 16,G ; repeated with
cpd. vbs., 331,RR.2,3 ; with Countries
and Towns, 337, RU- 1-4: withdoniuni,^^-
R.3: omitted with Countriesand Towns,
337.NN1-3; in.stead of D::t., 347,r1;
omittel with vbs. and adjs. of Separa-
tion, 390,2 and 3; with Abi. of Origin,
395,NN.^\3 ; syntax of, 412-416 ; origin of,
412; positio;i of, 4:3,678; repetition and
omission of, 411; as advs., dl5 ; with
Ace. , 416 ; with Abi., 417 ; with Ace. and
Abi., 418 ; two with same case, 414, r.4;
improper, 412,N. ; with participles for
abstract substantives, 437,N.2.
PRESENT— 112,3 ; System, 114 3, a ; rules
lor formation of, 121,1 ; notes on Sys-
tem, 130 ; formation of Stem, 133 ; de-
fined, 223 ; Historical, 224, 229 ; Spe-
cific or Universal, 227 ; Progressive, Vu.
N.I ; of Eudeavor, ib. N.2 ; of llesist-
ance to Pressure, ib. N. 3 ; anticipates
Fut., 228 ; with iam, etc., £30 ; con-
trasted with^f. to give Eflfect iu Ver-
gil, lb. N.3 : part, with esse, 247,N.2 ;
Indie for Deliberative Subjv., 254. n.2 ;
Subjv. as Potential. 287.2: Subjv. in
Wishes, 280; Subjv. as liupv., 263, 270,
r2, Subjv as Concessive, 2^4 ; tense
relations in Snbjv , 277 ; Int. as subj. or
obj . 280. 1 , Inf. after memini, 281,2.
N., part., 232 , part, as subst., 437,N.l :
Hist sequence alter, 511, R.l ; Inf. after
vbs. of Saying and Thinking, 530 ; Inf.
for Fut ,531,NN 3aud4.
presenting -\hB. of, with ne, quominus,
or quin, 648 549.655,1.
previous condition— given by ex or ab,
and .\bl.,206,R.2, 396,N.2.
Priapean - verse, 805
Price- Gen. of, 370; Abi. of, 404.
pridiequam -usage of, 677,n.5.
piiniitive words— 179, 1.
primoris '1' feetive, 85,i.
primus- with quisque, 318,n,3 ; primo,
primum, 325, R.7 ; in pred. attrib., 325,
R.6 ; used partitively, 291 ; prior,
87,8.
principal parts — 120.
principal tenses— 225.
priusquam— with Indic,, 574, 676 ; with
Pr., 575; with pure Vi.,ib- n.I ; with
Pf. or Fut., 676; non priusquam =
dum, ib. R.; with Subjv., 577 ; with ut
orInf.,644,R.3.
pro— to express disproportion, 298; with
habere, 340, R-I ; "with Nom. or Acc. iu
Exclamations, 343,1, n.I ; for, compared
with Dat., 34.5,R 2 ; position of, 413, R.l ;
as prep., 417,10; with Abi. Ger , 433 :
pro eo quod, 625, 2,n 2 ; pro eo ut, 642,
r4.
probare— with Inf , 527, r 2.
prOCreatUS— with Abi. of Origin, 335,n.1.
prOCUl -with Abi. of Separation, 330, 3,N.
2 : as prep., 417,11.
prodesse— conj. of, lis ; with Dat,. 346,
R 2; with Inf., 422. N, 4.
prSdigUS— with Gen , 374.N.1.
profectO— strengthens atque, 477,N.2.
proficere— with ut, 663,1.
profundus— never with Acc, 335,R.l.
532
GENERAL INDEX.
profusus— with Gen., 374,N. 1.
prOgnatUS— with Abl. of Orlgiu, S95,n 1.
prohibere-wit]itwoAccs.,341,N.2 ; with
Abl., 390.2, N. 3; with Inf., 423.2,n.2 ;
with ne, 548, and n.1 . with quoniinus,
549, and n 1 ; with Inf., 632,N.l. 54D,n.1.
prohilnting—yhs. of, with Dat., 345. R.l.
proinde— strengthens Impv., 269; as
coordinating conj., 603 ; and proin, H^-
proleppis — of subj. of leading clause, 4:68-
prmnisiiig — vbs. of, with Inf., 423,N.o,
527, R.4; 531,N.4.
promittere-with Pr, Inf , 527,k 2, 631,
N.4.
PRONOUNS— defined, 16,3 ; compared with
noiuLS, lb. N.2 ; decl. of, 17 ; Personal,
100-102; Determinative, 103; Demon-
strative, 104 ; Relative, 105 ; Interroga-
tive, 105 ; Indefinite, 107 ; Pronominal
Adjectives, 108; Possessive, 100-102;
omitted, 207 ; with Impv., 267,n.; syn-
tax of, 304-319 ; Personal, 304; Demon-
strative, 305 307 ; hlc, 305 ; iste, 306 ;
ille, 307 ; Determinative is, 308 ; Ke-
flexive,309 ; idem, 310 ; ipse, 311 ; Pos-
sessive, 312 ; Indefinite, 313-319 ; qui-
dam, 313 ; aliquis, 314 ; quis, 315 ;
quispiam, 316 ; quisquam and ullus,
317; quisque, 318; alter and alius,
319; with Part. Gen., 371 ; iuO. O.,660.
pronuntiare— used personally in pass.,
217,N.2.
pronus— constr. of, 359, n. 5.
prope— as adv., 415; as prep., 416,22;
position of, 678, k.1 ; propior and prox-
imus, 87,8 ; with Ace. or ab, 359,N.l.
proper are— with inf., 423,2,n.2.
prSpinare— with Acc. Ger., 430, n.I.
propinquus— Comp. of, 87,9.
proponere— with Acc. Ger., 430,N.l.
propOSitum— est, with inf., 423,2,n.2;
with ut, 546.N.2.
proprius— with Gen. or Dat., 359, R.l ;
with ut, 557, R.
propter— compared with Abl. of Cause,
408, N. 3 ; position of, 413,K.l ; as adv.,
415; as prep., 416,23; with Acc. Ger.,
432 and n.1.
propterea— 503.
prosody— 701-823.
prospicere — with Dat., 346,u.2 ; with
Inf.. 527,11.1 ; with ut, 546,n.1.
prOstare— with Gen. of Price, 379.
protasis — defined, 589; equivalents of,
593 ; omission of vb. of, 599 ; total
omission of, 600.
protraction — 743.
providere— with ut, 546,n.i.
pro riding— xba. of, with Abl., 401,N.l.
providus-Comp. of, 87,5.
prcximum- in phrases with ut, 557,R.
prudens— in prc^a. uttrib., 325,11.6; with
Gen., 374,N.l.
-pte -added to personal pronouns, 102,N.
3.
pudet— with Gen., 377 and ii.l ; with
subj., ib. n.2.
puer— Voc. of, 33, N.2,
pugnare— with Dat.. 346.N6; with ut,
546,N.l.
purpose— in Inf , 423,n.1 ; in Dat. Ger.,
429,2; in Sup., 435; in Fut. part., 438,n.;
sequence in clauses of, 612; reflexive in
clauses of, 521 ; rel. clauses of, 630 ; see
Final Sentences.
ptirus— with Abl. of Sep., 390,3,N.
putare— with Gen. of Price, 379; with two
Noms. in pass., 206. (non) putaveram,
254,N.l ; puta, ut puta, /w example,
274; with Inf., 627. u. 2.
putUng~\hs. of, with Diit. and Acc, or
Acc. and Abl., 348.
Qua— qua, 482,3.
quaerere— with a, de, ex, 339,r.i ; with
luf., 423,2,N.2 ; with Direct Question,
467,N.
quaeso— 175,C ; with impv., 269; without
Inf.. 646.N.3.
qualis— "1 phrases instead of Compara-
tive, 296,N.3.
Quality— possession of. 349,R.3; Gen. of,
365 and R.l ; Gen. and Abl. of, ih. r.2,
400,R.1 ; Gen. of, as pred., 366; Abl. of,
400; personified quality as person, if).
R.2 ; Comparison of qualities, 299.
quam— after comparatives, 296 and r.1 ;
omission of, it), r.4 ; preps, instead, ib.
N.3; atque instead, ib. N 4 : with pro,
ut, qui, to express disproportion, 298 ;
with positive lor comparative, 299, n.2 :
in comparison of qualities, 299: with po-
tuit and superlative, 303; with qui and
superlative, ib. R.2; magis, non allter,
quam ut, 667,n.2 ; quam si, with
Subjv. of Comparison, 602 ; with qui
or ut after comparatives, 631,3 : with
quam qui and superlative, 842,R.5;
GENERAL INDEX.
533
after alius or secus, 643,n.4: with Com
parative Seuteui'es, 614; with potius,
prius, etc., B.3.
quamdiu— 668; with Indic. 569; rauge
of, ib. N.l.
quamlibet-606.
quamquam— 603 and n.; with Indic,
605; with Subjv., ib. kr.1,2, and n: ajid
ypt. it). R.3 ; with part., 609,N 1, 667,N. ;
with Inf., 635,N.2.
quamvis— 603 and n. ; with Snbjv.. 606;
with Indic, ib. N.l; inflpction of vb. of.
i&. N.2; with licet, 607, N. 2; with part.,
609.N.1, 667,N. ; with adj. or adv., 609,
N.2.
qaandS— with Causal Indic, 540; with
Subjv., 641 ; early use, 538,N.4, 680. N.3;
conditional nse, 690,n.3.
quandoque— ■with causal clause, 641,N.5;
quandoque— quandoque, 482,i,n.1.
quantity— rules for, 702-706 : of final
syllables, 707-713; ol polysyllables, 707-
709; of monosyllables, 710-713 ; of stem
syllables. 714; of cpds., 715 ; in early
Latin, 716, 717.
quantity— 12: substs. of. witliGen.. 368-
quantum— with mirum, nimium, ftc.,
209,N.2, 467. N. ; with maximus and
potuit to .strengthen superlative, 303 ;
quantum qui, with superlative, Uj. r.
2; quanti, with vbs. of Rating and
Buying, 380; with advs. and Indic,
467,N.
quantumvis-603and n., 606-
quasi -with subst., 439. n. 4; with Subjv.
of Comparison. 602; with Indic, ib- N.l;
to apologize, i/>.N.2; to give an Assumed
Reason, i/A n.4,658.n.
quateuus— as a Causal particle. 538,N.5.
quattuor— early forms of, 95, n.3.
que— Abided to rels., 111,2; syntax of,
476 and nn.; for quoque, 479,n.2 ; adds
third member, 481, n.
quemadmodum— sic, 482,3,n.
queri- with Ace. and IiiL, 633,R.l.
questions — with Potential Subjv., 259;
deliberative, 265,465 ; passionate equiv.
to command, 273, 453,N.2 ; predicate
and nominal, 451 ; rhetorical 265, 451,
R.2, 464,466; direct simple, 453 457;
equiv. to Condition, 453,N.3; with ne,
454 ; with n5nne, 455-; with num, 456;
with an, 457 : direct disjunctive, 458 ;
neg. of, 459; particles in indirect, 460 ;
moods in, 462-467 ; Indic in, 463, 464;
Subjv. in, 465, 468 ; indirect, 467 ; gen-
uine, 463; disconnected, 467, n. ; ex-
clamatory, 558.
qui iuterrogative--106 and r.
qui relative— 105 and nn.: with quam
and Subjv. to express disproportion,
298; after dignus, el's.. 652,R. 2; equiv.
to si quis, 625,2; explicative, 62G ;
strengthened by ut, utpote, quippe,
ib. N.l; quod SCiam, 627 R l ; equiv. to
cum is, 626,R., 633. 634 ; equiv to ut is,
630, 631; after comparatives with
quam, 631.3; equiv. to adj., ib. i ; sed
qui, qui tamen, 636,n2; quo quis-
que, with comparative, 642,R.2; see
quo and qua.
quia— after vbs. of Doing and Happening,
525.1.N-4; origin of and, correlatives
with, 538,NN.1,2 ; with Causal Indic,
540; vvith Subjv., 641; alter vbs. of
Emotion, 642. R.; with Inf., 635,n.2
quicumque— 105 and n.5; witli Indic,
254.4, 625.
quidam -107.2; syntax of, 313; with
quasi, 319.r2; strengthened by cer-
tus, unus, 313 R.3.
quidem— with demonstrative pron., 307,
R 4; position of, 413,N.3, 679 ; yes, with
sang, 471, a, 1.
quilibet— 107 and n.
quin— with mirum, 209 n 2; strength-
ens Impv., 269; non quin as Causal,
541,N.2; Ibrce of, 647; in Consecutive
Sentences, 652,3 ; with vbs of Prevent-
ing, 656,1 ; with vbs. of Doubt and Un-
certainty, ib. 2; after nOn dubito, ib. 2.
. R.l ; equiv. to ut non, 656 . atter vbs.
of Saying, etc., 555,2 ; in Relative Sen-
tences of Character, 632 and r. ; facere
non possum quin, 556.
quippe— 498, N. 8; with qui, 623,n l.
quiqui— lOSand N 4.
quire— conjugation t>f, 170,a; with Inf.,
433,2,N.2.
quis indefinite— and qui, 107,1; for ali-
quis, ib. R. and n 1 ; syntax of, 315;
aliquis instead, ^i. Nl ; familiar usage
of. 317, -^.N. 2.
quis "iterrogative 106; and qui, V6. R.;
old forms of, ib- nn.1,'_> ; qui in ^Yishes,
261; foruter, 300,N.
quisnam— 106 and N.r,.
quispiam— 107,3, and n.1 ; syntax of, 316.
534
GEN^ERAL INDEX.
quisquam— 107,3,audN.2; syntax of.Si";
strengthened by unus, i')- l.N.l; nega-
tive of, ib- 2; as adj., iO. 1,n.3.
quisque— 107,5,and n.; quisquisiiistoad,
105,N.-1; with PI. vb.. 211,R.l.Ex.a; with
ordinal, 294,n., 318,2; syntax of, 318;
with superlatives, ^('>. 2; with reflexives,
ib. 3; attraction of, ib. n.2; suumquis-
qUG, i'>- N.4; with quo and compara-
tive, 642,K.2; ut quisque, with super-
lative, ib.
quisquis— 105 ; as adj., ib.s.i; with
Indie, 254,4, 625.
qui vis- 107,4 and n.
quo — as Causal conjunction, 64'., n. 2 ; non
quo ill Final Clauses, 545,2 ; quone, '*•
Ki; quo setius, 549,N.4.
quoad — force of, 668 ; of complete coex
teusion, 569; ureii^, with Indic, 671: with
Snbjv., 673; until, with Subjv., i/j. n.o.
quod— iuI'iiierObj.. 333 l.N.l ;introduce3
Object Sentences, 524: after vbs. of Add-
ing and Dropping, 525,1 : after demon-
stratives, ib. 2; and ut, ib- I.n..*) ; quid
est quod, ii^- 1n.2; after verba senti-
endi, ^l^- n.T; after demonstratives,
with preps., ib. 2, N.2; as to the fad that,
with Subjv., j'6. 2,N.3; with Snbjv. in
O. O., ib. 3; after vbs. of Motion, ib.l,
N.G; gives Ground in Exclamations, 634,
K.l ; with Causal Sentence in Indie ,
540; with Cansal Sentence in Subjv.,
641; after vbs. of Emotion, 541; with
diceret, i(^- n.3; n5n quod, «'>. n.2;
magis quod, 541,n.2 ; correlatives of,
638, Ni ; and quia, ib. n.2; nisi quod,
691. u. 3 ; quod si, 610, B 2.
quom— see cum.
quominus— ft>rce of, 647; with vbs. of
Preventing, e^c, 649; for ne, 548,N.2;
and quin, 549,N.3.
quomodo— with Direct Question, 487,n,
quoniam— with Causal Indic, 640; with
Subjv., 641; original force of, 538,N.3;
early usage of, 580, N.3.
quoque— syntax of, 479 ; and etiam, 479,
K. and N.l ; que instead, ib. n.2; with
ced and v§rum, 482,5 and N.l.
JRafing—vhB. of, with Gen. and Abl.. 379,
380.
ratio— i'» Abl. of Manner, 399,N.l ; with
ut, 546, N.2.
recgns— with Abl., 390,3,n.1,
recipere- with Abl. or in, 389.
reciprocal relations — given by inter *6r
5221; by alter alterum, efc, ib. kI ; by
invicem, mutuo, dc. ib. k.2.
recitation of verses— 754.
recordari— with Pr. inf., 281,2,n.; with
Ace, 376,R.2.
rectum— with inf., 422,h.3.
rectisare— with inf., 423,2,n.2; with nS,
648,N.l; with quominus, 549andN.l;
constr. with, 649,n.1.
red -iu composition, 9,4, 715,R.3.
reddere-with Pf. part., 537,n2; red^I
andfierl, 206,Nl. 340,R.l.
reduplication -in Pr. stem, 133,11.: in
Pf. stem, 134,111 ; omitted in Pf o*
cpd. vbs., ib.
Reference— Dat. of, 352
rgfert— with Gen. and Abl., 381,382-
Nom. with, 381, N.3 ; origin of, ib. N.5;
expression of Degree of Concern, 382,1
and 2 ; expression of 'i hing Involved,
ib. 3.
refertus— with Gen., 374,N.l.
reflexive- 218; passive used for, 218;
approaches deponent, 218,R.; pronouns,
309; is retained instead of reflexive, ib.
N.l; strengthened, ib. N.2 ; SUUm quis-
que, 318,N.3 ; with ipse, 311,2 ; with
Ace. of Respect, 338,N 2; in subordinate
clauses, 620-522 ; not in Consecutive
Sentences, 621,R.l ; refers to realsubj.,
309,2, 521,R.2; free use of.ib.n.3; Indic*
Relative Sentences, ib. R.4; ambiguity
in, ib. N.3; demonstrative instead of,
ib. R.I, N.3.
reformidare— with inf., 423,2.n.2.
refragari-with Dat., 346,r.2.
refraining— \hs. of, with quin, 555,1.
irfusing—vha. of, witli n6, 648 ; with
quominus, 549; with Inf., 548,R.2; with
quin, 555,1.
Rcizidyius Versus— 82Z.
regis -in Abl. without in, 385,n.1.
relation— suffixes for. 181,8.
relationship— suffixes for. 181,7.182,11.
relative pronouns— 105 ; nia<le indefinite,
111,1 ; or universal, ib- 2, in Inner Obj.,
333,1, N. 2 ; instead of app. with rgfert,
381, N.2; contrastfid with interrogative,
467,R.2, 611,R.2; indefinite with Indic,
354,R.4; with Subjv., 667,n. ; advs. in-
stead, 611,R 1; continued bydemonstrsi-
live, 836,N.l ; repetition oJ, 615.
GENERAL INDEX.
535
RKLATivE SENTENCES- 610-637; for Pro-
tasis, 593,1; general consideration of,
610; liow introduced, 611; position of,
612; antecedent in, 613 ; concord in, 614
and BR.; id quod, e/c, in app, to a sen-
teuee, ib. P..2 ; incorporation of app , ib.
R.4 : repetition of antecedent, 615; in-
corporation of antecedent, 616; attrac-
tion of, 617 ; correlative of, 618 ; absoriv
tiou of correlative, 619; position of
correlative, 620; indefinite antecedent,
621; tenses in, 622,623; in Iterative
action, 623; moods in, 624-635; indefi-
nite and generic relatives with Indie,
254, u. 4, 625,1; or Subjv., t6. B.; condi-
tional, 625,2 ; explanatory, 628 ; Subjv.
in explanatory, 627 ; quod SCiam, etc. ,
ib. K.l; restrictions with esse, pOSSe.
attiliet,ift-K-2; with Subjv. by Partial
Obliquity, 628 ; with Subjv. by Attrac-
tion, 629; Final, 630; attraction of
diceret, if)- n.3 ; Consecwtive, 631 ; after
definite antecedent, ib. 1; after indefi-
nite antecedent, 2&.2 ; after conipai-a
tive, ib, 3 ; parallel to adj , ib 4 ; with
qnin, 632; Causal, 633; C ucessiveand
Adversative, 634; in Int , 635 ; ecnibina-
tion of, 636; iJarticiple instead, 637,668,
in O. O., 655 and ku.
relatu-asSup.,438,N.
relieving— vhs. ot, with Abl , S9D,2.
relinquere— with acc Gor , 430,n.1.
reliquum est— with ut, 553,4
reliquus — used ^Mirtitively with Subst.,
291,11.2 ; alius for, 319,n.i ; reliqua,
as Acc. of Respect, 338,2.
rememberittg — vba. of, with Gen., 378;
with Acc, ib. n. 2.
rgmex— defective, 70, D.
reminding— \l)s. of, with Gen., 376; with
Abl. or Acc., ib. kr.1,2.
removing— vbs. of, with Abl., 390,2.
rendering — vba. o{, with Inf , 421, N. 1,6.
reperiri— with Nom. and Inf , 528,N.l.
repetition of relative, 615-
repl§tus— with Gen., 374,N.l.
reponere— with in aud Acc, 385, n. 2.
repOSCere— with two Aces., 339 and n. 1,
reprexentdtio—^^i Ami n., 656,n 1.
rcpreientaUion—ybs. of, with Acc. and Inf.,
526, 627 ; with part., 527,n.1, 536.
reprimere— with ne, 548,n.i.
repugnare— with Dat., 346, B.2 ; withnfi,
548. N.i.
requiSs— heteroclite, 68,8.
requiring— vh^. of, with two Aces., 339
and K.l, N.I ; with ab, i*. N.2.
r6ri— l>art. of, with Tr. force, 282, n.
r6s— fov neut., 204, n. 4 ; construed like
neut., 211,N.2 ; with AppositionalGen.,
361,1 ; in phrases with Inf., 422,N.2 :
divinam rem facere, with Abl., 401,n.
4 ; rem certare, 333, 2. u.
resistere— with Dat., 346, r.2 : with n6,
54S,N.l; with qufn, 555,1.
resisting— \hQ. of, with Dat , 346.
resolution— of long syllable 732.
resolving— vhs. of, with Inf. 423 and n 2 ;
with ut, 546.
Respect -Acc. of, 338; with vbs of Cloth-
ing, etc., ib. N. 2 ; Abl. of, 387 ; Abl. of,
with comparatives, 398 ; Abl. of, with
words of Eminence or Superiority, 397,
N.2 ; prei)8. instead, tb. s.l.
respice— with Direct Question, 467,N.
responde— witli Direct Question, 467,N.;
ius respondere, 333,2 a.
rest—oouceivod as end of Motion, 412,
r2.
restat— with ut, 563.4.
restrictions— in Relative Sentences, 627,
ru.1,2,
result— for Sentences of, see Consecutive
Sentences.
rete-heteroclite, 68,12.
retingre— with n6, 548,n.1.
reus— with Gen., 374,N.2 ; 378,R.l.
ridSre -with Acc. and Inf., 533,R.l.
rhotacism— 47.
rhythm — in arrangement, 627,2,6 ; de-
fined, 739 ; ascending or descending.
735 ; names of, 736 ; classes of, 737 ;
rhythmical series, 738; union of lan-
guage with, 748.
robur-decl. of, 44,5, 45,R.2.
rogare — with two Accs., 339,and n.1 ; with
Acc. Ger., 430,N.l ; with ut, 546,n.1 ;
with Direct Question, 467,N. ; rogatu,
of Moving Cause, 408,M.l.; with Inf. or
Ut, 546,N.3.
root— defined, 25,1, N., 177.
rudis— with Gen., 374, n. 4.
rus— as limit of Motion, 337 ; in Abl.
ofSeparatiou, 390,2; rurl i" Loc, 411,
E.2.
S— final omitted, 27,N., 703,b.3 ; suffixes
with, 188,
536
GENERAL INDEX.
Sacer— with Gen. or Dat., 369, k. 1 ; sa-
crum facere, with Abi., 401,n.4.
sacraments— as Abl. of Manner, 399,
N.l.
sacrificaro— with Abl., 401,n.4.
sacrificing— \hs. of, with Abl., 401,N.4.
saepe— as attrib. to snbst,, 439,N-4.
saltern— strengthens at, 488,n.2.
saltitaris— has no s^iperlative, 87,9.
salv§re— conjugation of, 175,4.
sane— strengthens Impv., 269 ; very, 439,
N.3 ; with concessive ng, 608 ; with
quamand Inilic,, 467,n.; yes, 471,a.
sanguis— decl. of, 41,4.
sapiens— as subst., 437,n 1.
sapientia— in phrases with Inf , 422,N.
•2 ; with ut, 657,R.
Sapphic — verse, 797, 804.
satias— heteroclite, 68,8 and 12.
satis— ^■^''■J', 439,N.3 ; attraction of pred.
after satius est, 535,K.3.
saturare— with Gen., 383,i,n.2.
Satnrnian— verse, 755-
satUS— ^>'>*h Abl. of Origin, 395, N 1.
sa'kjing—vhs. of, with Object Clause, 523 ;
vbs. of, with quod, 525,1.N.7; vbs. of,
with Aec. and Inf., 626,527; ybs. of,
with Norn, in pass., 528 ; vbs. of, at-
tracted into Snbjv. after quod, 641,n.
3 ; vbs. of, omitted, 645,b.3; vbs. of,
withquin, 555,2.
8Cat§re— with Gen., 383,1, N.2.
scazon— verse, 764.
BCientia— in phrases with ut, 667,B.
scilicet— ?/«s. 471.a,2.
scire— first Impv, wanting, 267,R.: SCiSns
in pred. attrib., 325,R.6 ; quod SCiam,
quantum scio, 627,e1 ; witli Inf,
423,2,N.2, 627,b.1 ; followed by direct
question, 467,n. ; sci6ns, wth Gen,,
375,N.2; scitU as Sup., 436,n.
BCribere-witb Acc. and inf., 527,R.2;
withut,646,N,l.
leasoft— adjs. of, in pred. attrib., 325,R 6.
secondary words— see Derivatives.
secundum— as prep., 416,24 ; alter for
secundus.
secus -70, B ; sequius, 87,8 ; strengthens
sin, 694; with quam, 643,n.4.
86d— in composition, 9,4, 715, R.l.
Bed— introduces contrast to demonstra-
tive, 307,n.4 ; with etiam, quoque,
after nSn modo, 482,5 and n.1 ; with
n.6— quidem, tfa- RI; omitted, ib.TH.'Z;
with et, ib. N.2; syntax of, 485 ; repeat
ed, ib. N.2 ; strengthened, ib. n.3.
see?dng—\h&. of, with Final Dat., 356,N.2,
seeming—yhs. of, with two Noma., 206.
semi-deponents— 167.
semi-hiatus— 720,R.l.
semi- vowels— 6,2, A.
sempiternum— as adv. Acc, 338,n.1,
senatus— dec], of, ei, 68,5.
sending— \h». of, with Acc. Ger., 430.
senex— decl. of, 66,5; Comp. of, 87,9.
sentence— simple or cpd., 201 ; syntax of
simple, 202,ff. r simplest form of, 202;
simple expanded, 284,ff- ; incomplete,
450-470 ; coordination of, 473 ; Copula-
tive, 474-482; Adversative, 483-491; Dis-
junctive, 492-497 ; Causal and Illative,
498-503 ; Object, 523-537 ; Causal. 538-
542 ; Final, 643-650 ; Consecutive, 551-
658; Temporal, 559 588 ; Conditional,
689-602; Concessive, 603-609 ; Relative,
610-637; Abridged, 645-663; Partici-
pial, 664 670.
sententia in phrases with ut, 646,K.2.
567.R.
sentire— with Acc. and Inf., 527,R.2.
Separation— Gen. of, 374,n.8, 383,2 ; Abl.
of, 390.
SEQUENCE OF TENSES- 609-519 ; Txiie and
modifjcations, 609; general con.sidera-
tious, 610 ; shift from primary to sec-
ondary sequence, 511, R. 2; in sentences
of Design, 512 ; in sentences of Kesult,
613; in coincident sentences, ib. n.S;
representation of Subjv. in, 514, 615 ;
in O. O, 516; after other mooils, 617;
after Inf. or part . , 618 ; original Subj vs.
in, 619 ; derangement of, ib- R. ; in Com-
parative Sentences, 602, R 1 ; after Hist.
Pr.,511, Rl; after Pure Pf, ?7>, r.3,
613,R.l ; alter Hist. Pf . 511. R 4 ; after
accidit, etc.ib. b2; alter vb. with
future character, 616, R 3.
sequester— iieteroclite, 68,4.
sequitur-with ut, 553,3.
sertum— heteroclite, 68,3.
servire— with Dat., 346,r 2.
servus— omitted, 362,N.l.
shortening— of penult, 701,R.2,&; of vow-
els. 716, 717.
showing— \\)s. of, with two Noms., 206;
with two Aces.. 340; with Acc. and Inf.,
626, 627 ; with Nom, an(J Inf.. 628-
Sl-with 5 in Wishes, 261 and N.l ; with-
GEN'ERAL INDEX.
537
out 5 in Wishes, ih N 1 ; siS, s6d§S,
SUltis, with Impv , 269 ; m Indirect
Question after vbs. ol'Irial, 460,17^ ; m
Iterative action, 666, 567 . cign of Coii
dition. 590 and N 1 ; siquidem, t> n 2,
695,r5; si non and nisi 591; sin. 692;
Si modo, tamen, vero, 695,r(J; si
forte, ib. N 1, Concessive, 604, u 1 ; with
Inf., 635,N 2.
sibilants— 6,2, A; suffixes with, 188
sic— coordinate with other particles, 482,
4,N.; correlative of si, 690,N.l.
Sicut— gives Assumed Ileason, 602,n.4.
significare with inf., 527.K.2.
Signum— ill phrases with ut, 546, n 2.
silentiS— as Abl. of Manner, 399,n 1.
similis— compared, 87,3 ; with Gen. or
Dat., 359,11. land n 4.
simul— as prep., 417.12; simul— simul,
482,1 and n1; Temporal, with atque
(ac), as soon as, 661 563 ; Causal with
Pr. and Pf., 664 and n.; with Fut. and
Fnt Pf., 565 and n.
simulare -with inf.,627,R2.
sin— "se of, 592. strengthened by minus,
etc., ib. R
sine position of, 413,11 1 ; as prep., 417.
13: with Abl. Ger.,433,N.2.
Sinere— with Inf , 423,n.6, 653,2,n.; with
Ut,632.N 1,653,2.
Blngular— in collective sense for PI, 204,
N.8 ; Voc. with PI. vb., 211,N.2 ; neut.
sums up preceding PI., ib. n3; as a
subj.. combined with cum and another
word, 285, N. 2.
singulare— in phrases with luf, 422,N 3;
in phrases with ut, 553,4.
singulus—witli numerals, 295.
siquidem- 590, n 2, 695, u 5.
sinister— Comp. of, 87,i,r i.
sis— strengthens imp v., 269
sisti— as copulative vb , 206,n.1.
sive-use of, 496; sive— sive, ib. 2,695,
R.4 ; or iZ>. N.l ; and seu, ib. n 3.
smell— \hB. of, with Inner Object, 333,2,
N.5.
socer— and socerus, 32,i.n.
SOdSs — strengthens Impv., 269-
80l6re— with Inf., 423,2. N. 2; solitO, as
Abl. of Respect, 398,n.1.
SOllicitari— with Ace. and Inf., 633,R.l.
solus— (led. of.. 76 ; in pred. attrib., 325,
B.6 ; non S51um sed, etc., 482,5, and R.l;
with qui and Subjv., 631,1.
solvere -with Abl , 390,2,n.2.
somniare - with Ace. and Inf., 627,R.l.
sonants— 6,2, B.
SOrtitO— as Abl. of Manner, 399,n.1.
Sotadean— verse, 816.
sricnl—\hs. of, with neut. Ace. of Inner
Object, 333.2,n.G.
Specification— Gen. of, 361.
spectare with ex and aw., 402,r.2.
specus— heteroclite, 68,91
sperare-with inf., 627.R.2; with Pr.
Iuf,531.N.4.
spgs-with est ancl Pr. Inf., 631,n.4; in
phrases with Inf, 627,R.2; with ut,
646.N2; in Abl. of Respect, 398.N. I.
spinter— defective, 70,B.
Sponte defective, 70,A.
Standard— Abl. of, 402, 403; exand Abl.
instead of Abl., 402,R.2 : Abl. of, with
ante or post, 403,n.4; Acc. of Extent
for Abl , i{j. N. 3 ; of comparison omit-
ted, 297.
stare— with Gen. of Price, 379; to abide
by, with Abl., 401,N.6 ; to persist in, with
Inf , 423,2 N.2,
Statuere— with in and Abl., 385,R.1 ; with
Inf., 423.2,N.2 ; with ut, 646,n.1.
Status -in phrases with ut, 557.R.
stem— 25,1 132; Present, 114,3,rt, 133;
Perfect, 114,3,6, 134 ; Supine, 114,3,c,
136; Formation of Verb stem. 132-135;
varies between Conjugations, 136;
quantity of stem syllables, 714.
stem-characteristic — 26, 120; euphonic
changes in, 121,R
stillare— with Abl.. 401, n.5.
Studere- with Dat , 346,R 2 ; with Dat.
Ger. 4294 and N.l ; with Inf.. 423.2,n.
2 ; withut, 546,N.l.
Studiosus— with Gen., 374. N.5.
Stultitia— in phrases with Inf., 422, n.2.
SUadere— with Dat., 346. r2, and n.2;
with Inf., 423,2, N.2 ; with ut,646,N.l.
sub — in composition, 9,4; vbs. cpd.
with, take Acc. or Dat., 331, 347; with
COndicione, etc., 399, n. 3 ; usage of, a.s
prep., 418,2.
subesse— with Dat, 347,R.2 ; timorem,
with Acc. and Inf., 633. Rl-
subject— 201 ; in Nom., 203 ; in Acc. with
Inf., ib. R.l; forms of, 204; omitted.
207; of impersonal vbs., 208,1, n. and
2,N.l; Multiplication of, 286,ff.; Qualifi-
cation of, 288,ff.; prolepsis of subj. of
538
GENERAL INDEX.
dependent clause, 468; of Inf. omitted.
627,R 3, 532, R 2 and n.2; Acc. and Inf.
as, 535 ; attraction of pred. alter Acc.
an (1 Inf., ih. R.3.
Subjective— Genitive, 363, 364; poss. pron.
instead, 364.
SUBJUNCTIVK— 112,4 ; early forms of, 130,4;
Aorist forms of Pf. and Plupf., 131,4,6,
2,3; Indie, for Deliberative. 254,N.2 ;
witli generic relatives, ih. r.C,625,R-;
force of, 255 ; Indie, with vbs of Possi-
bility, e<c.,io.R.: Idealand Unreal, 256,1;
Potential and Opt., ib. 2 Potential
of Pr. and Fut., 257-259 ; Potential for
Indie. i6. N.3; Potential of Past, 268;
Potential of Past with vellem, efc, ih.
N.l; Opt., 260; negs. of Opt., iT;, parti-
cles with Opt., 261 ; Impf. for Unreal
wish, ib. N.2: in Asseverations, 262;
as Impv., 263, 267, 270, v.., 272; as con-
cessive, 264 and n.; tense relations of,
277 ; with quam ut or quam qui to
express disproportion, 298; in Delib-
erative or Ilhetorical questions, 265,
465, 466, in Indirect questions, 467;
after vb. with Fut. character, 515,
B.3 ; Original in dependence, 519 ;
with quod, as to the fact that, 525,2,n 3 ;
in Final and Consecutive Sentences, 643,
4 ; with ut tor Inf , 567, N.l ; in Tem-
poral Clauses, 560,2, 563. nn 4, .5 ; in Iter-
ative action, 567,N ; in Contemporane-
ous action, 572, 673 ; iu Subsequent
action, 677 ; with cum, 586, 688 ; in
Relative Sentences, 627, 628 ; by Attrac-
tion, 509,4, 629 ; after potius, 644,R.3 ;
inO. O.,660 652.
Sublimis— iii pred. attrib., 325,K.6.
SUbolet-with Inf., 422,N.4.
subordination— defined, 472; syntax of
Subordinate Clauses, 604,tf. ; division
of, 605-507; moods in, 508; Sequence
of Tenses in, 509 519.
subsequent action— syntax of Sentences
of, 574-577 ; with ludic, 674-676; with
Subjv.. 677.
substantives— defined, 16,1, and r.I.n.I ;
inflection of, 17; division of, 18; gender
of, 19, 20^ mobilia, 21,2; epicene, ib.
3 ; irregular, 67 71 ; heterogeneous,
67 ; heteroclites, 68 ; metaplasts, ib, ;
defective, 69 ; singularia tantum,^*-
A ; pluraiia tantum, ib. B ; hetero-
loga, ib. C ; tormatiou of, 180, 181 ;
without suffixes, 183; adjs. and parts.
u.'jed as, 204,nn. ; PI. of abstracts, ih.
NN.5,0; agreement of pred., 211 and
RR.,NN.; with several adjs. iu Sg., 290.
R.2; common surname in PL, 290,
N.l ; verbal with Acc, 330, N.3, 337. N.5 ;
verbal with Dat., 366,n.3, 357, 358,n.2 ;
in Abl. Abs., 410,n.5 ; with Dat. Ger.,
428,N.5 ; with Inf. for Gen. Ger., ib. n.
4 ; in phrases with Final Sentence, 546,
R.2 ; iu i)hra<e3 with Consecutive Sen-
tence, 557 and r.
subter— vbs, cpd. with take Acc , 331 ;
as adv., 415 ; as prep., 418,2.
sub venire— with Dat., 347,r.2.
succedere— with Dat , 347,r.2.
succrescere - with Dat.. 347,r.2.
succumbere— with Dat., 347,r.2.
succurrere— with Dat., 347,r.2.
sudare— with Abl. of Means, 401,n.5.
sufferre-Pf. of, 171,n.2.
sulTixes — 180 ; primai-y and secondary, ib.
N.l; of substantives, 181; of adjs., 182:
forming diminutives, 181,12, 182,12; in
detail, 184-189 ; with vowels, 184 ; with
gutturals, 186 ; with dentals, 186 ; with
labials, 187; with s, 188; with liquids,
189.
suflfragari— with Dat., 346,r.2.
SUi— t^ecl. of, 102 and N.l ; with -met,
ib. N 2; witli -pte, ih. N.3; circumlocu-
tion for Part. Gen., 304,3 N.2; usage of,
309, 520-622 ; complement of Inf., 309,3;
is instead, ib. N.l ; with SUUS, ih. N.2.
sultis— strengthens Impv., 269.
sum— see esse.
Summus— comparison of, 87,2 ; used par-
titively, 291,R.2.
SUpellSx- clecl. of, 44,5.
super — vbs. cpd. with, take Acc. or Dat.,
331, 347; as adv., 415; as prep., 418,4;
with Acc. Ger.,432,N.l ; with Abl. Ger.,
433 ; id quod, quam quod, 526,2,n.2.
SUperare-with Abl. of Respect, 397,N.2.
superesse— with Dat., 347,R.2.
superior— 87,2 and 7.
superiority — vbs. of, with Acc. of Re-
spect, 397,n.2.
Buperlative— in issimus, 86; in rimuS-
87,1; in limus, H>- 3; in entissimus,
ib. 4 and 5; lacking, ib. 9; of parts., 89;
of advs., 93; meaning of, varies with
position, 291,R.2,302; strengthened. 303;
with quam, quantum, qui, lb. r.2, 642,
GENERAL INDEX.
539
B.5; with quisque, 318,2; with Part.
Gen., 372; with preps., i6. r.2; with
Ut, 642,11.2.
supersedere— with Abi., 390,2.n.3.
Superstes— with Gen. or Dat., 359, n 1.
HTpiNE— 112,5; s5-stem,114,3,c; formation
of, 115,3, 121,3; stem. 135; iu Abl. of
Sep., 390,3, N.3, 436, n 4 ; iu Abl. of Ke-
spect, 397,1; with opuS, 406,N.5; de-
fined, 434; Ace. of, 435; Abl. of, 436.
SUppetiae— defective, 70,B.
SUppleX — with Dat., 346,N.5.
SUpplicare — with Dat., 346,r 2 and n.4.
supra— with quam after a comparative,
296, N.3; with Abl. of Measure, 403,N.l;
as adv., 415: as prep , 416,25.
surds— 6,2, B.
surname — common, in PI,, 290,N.l.
SUS — decl. of, 59.
suscens6re— with Dat., 346,r.2.
suscipere — with Acc. Ger., 430,N.l.
SUspicari— with Acc. and Inf., 627,R.2.
SUSpicere — with Acc. and Inf., 627,R.l.
SUSpirare — with Acc. and Inf., 633,R.l.
sustinere— with Inf., 423,2, n. 2.
SUUS (os)— 102 ; syntax of. 309; emphatic,
ib. 2 ; with prep, phrases, ib. 4; is in-
stead, ib. N.l; suum quisque, ib. n 3;
SU5 tempore, ib. 4; with Gen. Ger.,
428,R.l ; in dependent clauses, 621 ;
SUOm with ut, 657, R.
syllaba anceps~-741.
syllables— division of, IQ ; names for, H;
open, 11,R.; close, ib.; length of, 12;
common, 13; quantity of final, 707-713 ;
of polysyllables, 707-709 ; of monosyl-
lables, 710-713.
syllepsis — 690.
syuapheia— 728.
syncope— 725-743 ; in Pf. forms, 131, S.
synecdoche— 695.
synizesis— 727.
syntax — defined, 201.
systole— 722.
T— sound of, 7 ; t-f^^ass of vbs., 133,in.
tabes— heteroclite, 68,H.
tabo— defective, 70, A.
taedet— with Geu., 377; with pronoun as
sub.i., 377, R.2.
taking — vbs. of, with two Aces.., 340; End
For Which given by Dat. or ad, ib. R.2;
vbs. of Taking Away, with Dat., 347,R.5 ;
with Acc. Ger,, 430.
talaris -and talarius, 84,2.
talis— with qui or ut and Subjv., 631,1
and R.l.
tarn— with quam, quantum, qui, and
superlative, 303, u,2; with qui or ut aiid
Subjv., 631,1 ami r.1.
tamen — introduces contrast, 307,R.4;
position of, 413,N.3; with sed, 485,N.3;
syntax of, 490; with at, 488. n. 2 ; em-
phasizes adversative relation, 587,R.l ;
with tametsi, 604,r.3.
tametsi— form, 603 and n ; usage, 604
and RR.
tamquam— with subst . 439,n 4 ; with
Subjv. of Comparison, 602; with Indie,
ib. N.l; to give an Assumed Reason, ib.
N.4 ; with part., 666,N. ; tamquam si,
602.N 4; coordinate with sic, 482,3, n.
tanti-asGen. of Price, 380,1.
tantidem— as Gen. of Price 380,1.
tantUS— with quiorut"'"'' Subjv., 631,1
and R.l; tanti, with vbs. of Rating and
Buying, 380 ; tantl est, it ^^ wortli wJiile,
lb. R 1; tantum, with quam, quan-
tum, qui, and superlative, 303,R.2 ;
tantum, for Abl. of Measure. 413, N. 2 ;
non tantum sed, etc., 482, 5 ; tantum
quod, 525,2,N.2; tantum abest ut,
562, R.l.
taste— whs. of, with Inner Obj., 333,2,N.5.
teaching— \ha. of, with two Aces., 339 and
nn.2,3.
temperare— with Dat., 346,r.2 and n.2 ;
with ng, 648,N.l ; temperans, with
Gen., 375,n.2.
templum— omitted, 362,r 3.
TEMPOU.vL SENTENCES— 569 688 : division
of, 559 ; moods in, 860; Antecedent Ac-
tion, 661-667; Iterative Action, 666, 567;
Contemporaneous Action, 668-673; Sub-
sequent Action, 674-677; with cum,
678-588 ; general view of, 579 ; Temporal
cum, 580; cum inversum, 681 , Explic-
ative cum, 582 ; Conditional cum, 583 ;
Iterative cum, 584 ; Circumstantial
cum, 685 588; Historical cum, 685;
Causal cum, 586 ; Concessive cum, 587;
cum-tum, 588 ; in 6. O., 655.
temptare— with inf., 423,2. n.2.
tempus— with Inf. or Ger.', 428, N.2 tem-
pore or in tempore, 394,r.; id tem-
poris, 336,N.2 ; with Inf., 422,N.2 ;
temper!, 411,n.1.
teudeucy— suflBxes for, 182,3.
54©
GENERAL INDEX.
tendere mantis— with Dat., 358,n.3.
tenere— with Pf. part, to deuote Main-
teuauce of Result, 238 ; memoria
teneO,witli Pr. inf., 281, 2,N.: (se) with
n6, 548,N.l; with quominus, 549;
with quin, 565,1; with ut, 553,1; teneri,
with Gen. of Charge, 378,b 1.
tenses— 112,3; signs of, 114,2; formation
of, lU, 115, 121; syutax of, 222-252;
definitions, 223; of continuance, attain-
ment, or completion, 224 ; Pr., 227-230;
Impf., 231 234 ; Pure Pf., 236-238 ; Hist.
Pf., 239, 240 ; Plupf., 241 ; Fut., 242,
243; Fut. Pf., 244, 245; periphrastic,
246-251; in Letters, 252; of Indie, 276;
of Impv., 278; Sequence of, 609; in
Final and Consecutive Sentences, 543,
3; in Relative Sentences, 622,623; in
O. O., 663-655; in Inf., 279, 653; of
Subjv., 277, 654, 665 ; RepresantatiO,
654,N.
tenus— position of, 413,R.l ; usage of, as
prep., 417,14.
terminations of cases— 27.
terra— ill Abl. without in, 386,n.i ; ter-
rae as Loc, 411,b 2.
tertium— est with ut, 553,4.
testis est— with Acc. and Inf., 627,R.2.
thematic class of verbs— 133,1.
thickness — how expressed, 335,u.l.
thinking— \ha. of, with two Noms., 206;
with Object Sentence and quod, 523,
628,1, N.7; with Inf., 627; vbs. of, at-
tracted into Siibjv. after quod, 641,N.3;
vbs. of, with quin, 656,2.
threat— vhs. of, with Inf., 423,N.5.
Tiburl— as Loc, 411,r.1.
time— adjs. of, in pred. attrib., 325,R.6 ;
suffixes lor, 182,8; when, in Abl., 393;
how long, in Acc, 336; within lohich, in
Abl., 393; with per, 336, 393,R.l ; with
tOtUS, ii>- R-2; when =i for which, ib. r.3;
with hie, ille, ib. R.4; preps, for Abl.,
394 ; lapses of, with cum, 680,R.3; given
by part., 666, 670,1.
timfire— constr. of, 660 and N.l; with
Inf., 423,2,N.2.
timor— est, with Inf., 660,n..5 ; tim5rem
SUbesse, with inf., 633, H.l.
titles— position of, 676, u. 4.
tmesis— 726.
tOtUS— decl. of, 76; in pred. atti'ib., 326,
R.6; with Abl. of Place Where, 388; with
Time How Long, 393,R.2.
towns -with Acc, 337; in Abl. of Place
Where, 386; in Abl, of Place Whence, 391 ;
in Loc, 411 ; with preps., 337,n 3. 391,
R 1 ; with appositives, 337,R.2, 386,R.l,
391, R. 1,411, R.3.
tractatu-asSup., 436,n.
trade— suffixes for, 181,4.
tradere— with Acc Ger., 430,n.1 ; with
Acc. and Inf., 527, R. 2.
tradesman— suffixes for, 181,3.
training— \h8. of, with Abl.,, 401,N.l.
trajection— 696.
trans— in composition, 9,4 ; vbs. cpd.
with take Acc, 331 ; as prep., 416,20.
transitive verb— defined, 213 ; used iu-
traus., ib n.a.
transposition- of consonants, 9,8.
trgS— decl. of, 95.
^•mZ— vbs. of, with si, 460,1, i>; with im-
plied protasis, 601.
tribes— in Abl. of Origin, 396,N.2.
tribuere— with ut, 553,2.
tributum— heteroclite, 68,5.
tricorporis— defective, 86,1.
trini— 97,R.3.
tritum— with Inf., 422,N.3.
trochee- shortened by Iambic Law, 717;
trochaic foot, 734; rhythm, 736;
rhythms, 768-776.
tu— tied, of, 101 and n 1; synizesis in, ib.
N.4; with met and -pte, 102,nn.2,3; ves-
tri and vestrum, 304,2 and 3, 364, R.;
poss. pron. for, 304,2,n.2; tui, vestri,
with Ger., 428,R 1.
tuSri— with Acc. and Inf , 627,R.l.
turn— with subst., 439,N.4 ; with etiam,
478,N.l ; as coordinating particle, 482,1
and Nl; tum— tum, 482,1 and N.l;
cum— turn, 588; correlative of si, 590,
N.l.
tUUS (OS)-IOI and N 3 ; tuum with ut,
657,r; tui with Gen. Ger., 428.R.1.
U— length of Final -707,6.
ubi— «s soon as, with Indie, 661-663 ;
Causal, with Indie, 664,n.1 665 and N.l;
with Iterative action, 666, 567 ; with
Subjv , 667,N. ; Conditional, 690,n.3.
alius— decl. of, 76 ; and quisquam, 107,
3, N. 2, 108; syntax of, 317.
ais-416,27.
ulterior-87,8 ; ultimusiu pred. attrib.,
325, R.6.
ultimate — defined, 11.
GENERAL INDEX.
541
ultra— with Abl. of Measure, 403,n.1;
position of, 413,n.l; as adv., 416; as
prep., 416,27.
uncertainty— \hs. of, with quin, 555,2.
understatement— defiuition ol, 700.
undertaking— \hs. of, with Ace. Ger.,430.
unimanus— defective, 85,2.
unlike.n€ss—a.dis. ol, with atque (ac), 643.
UNHEAL CONDITION— 597; with Impf. of
opposition to Past, ib. u.l ; with ludic,
in Apod., ib- iiii 2,3 ; in 6 O , ib. R.4,
659 ; Apod, in, after vb. requiring
Subjv., 597, R.5; with absque, ib. n.
Unus— tied, of, 76, 95,N 1 ; PI. with plQ-
ralia tantum, 95, r1 ; as distributive,
97,u 3; with superlative, 303 ; with
quidam, 313,k.3; with quisquam, 317,
i.N.i; with nSmd, ntillus, 317,2,n 3 ; in
pred. attrib., 325,K.6 ; with prep, for
Part. Gen., 372,R.2 ; with qui and
Snbjv., 631,1.
unusquisque— 107,5.
urbs— with name of Town, requires
prep., 337,R.2, 386,r.1, 391,R.1, 411,R.3;
with Appositioual Sen., 361,N.l.
UTggri— with Gen. of Charge, 378.R.1.
urging— vhs. ol, with ut, 546-
usque— with Ace. of Motion Whither, 337,
N.4 ; usage of, as prep., 416,28.
iiSUS— with Abl., 406 ; with other constr.,
ib.s.5; as pred., ib.; with Pf. part., 406,
437,N.2 : in phrases with ut, 557, R.;
usu venit, with ut, 553,3.
ut— 1» wishes, 261 ; witli quam, to ex-
press disproportion, 298, 631,3,R 1 ;
omitted, 298,n.2 ; with potuit, to
strengthen superlative, 303 ; ut— ita,
482,4 ; alter vbs. of Adding and Hap-
pening, 525,1,N.5 ; in Final and Con-
secutive Sentences, 643 ; ut UOn, ib. 4,
545,R.2, 552; parenthetical, ib. r3;
ut ne, 645, R.l, 546,r 3 ; after vbs. of
Fear, 650 and N.l ; to add restriction,
652.R 3 ; after vb. of Causation, 553,1 ;
alter vbs. of Compelling and Permit-
ting, ib. 2 ; alter vbs. of Happening, ib.
3 ; after impersonals, ib. 4 ; E.xplaua-
tory, 557 ; Exclaniatovy, 658 ; with
magis quam, 557,n 2 : ut primum, as
soon as, with Indie, 561-563 ; Causal,
664, N.; with Iterative sentences, 563,
667 ; nisi ut, 557,n.2, 591 R 3 ; with si
and Subjv., 602 ; witli Subjv., to give
an Assumed Reason, iO. n.4 ; Conces-
sive, 608 and r.1 ; with qui, 626.R.1;
alter comparatives. 631,3,r.1; with
quisque and superlative, 642,R 2; pr5
eo ut, as Causal, ib. r.4 ; ut qui, with
superlative, ib. r.5 ; introduces O. O.
after vbs. of Will and Desire, 652,R.l;
with part, to give Assumed Reason,
666, N.
Uter, bag-iiecl. of, 44.2, 46,Rl.
Uter, which— dec\. of, 76, 106; quis for,
300,N.; utruui as interrogative parti-
cle, 468 ; iu Indirect Question, 460,2,N.
3 ; utrum, whether or no, 459,N.2.
uterlibet-108.
Uterque— ilecl. of, IO8 ; with Pi. vb., 211,
R.l,Ex.rt, 292, R-; to express reciprocal
action, -221, R.l and 2; force of, 292;
with Part. Gen., 371,R.l.
Uterum— heterogeneous, 32,1, n.
utervis— 108.
Utl— with Abl., 407 and N.2,a ; other
coustrs. of, lb. N.3 ; with personal Ger.,
427, N.5.
Utinam— ill wishes, 261 and N. 1.
utpote— with qui, 626.N.1.
V— and u, 1,R.2 ; pronunciation of, 7.
Vacare— with Dat., 346, n.2 ; attraction
of pred. after, 535,R.3.
vacuus— with Gen., 374,N.8.
vae— with Dat.. 343,1 N.l.
vedd^—verij, 439,N.3; with quam and
Indie, 467,N.
valere— with inf., 423,2,n.2; with ut,
553,1.
validus- with Abl. or Gen, 405, N.3.
vas— heteroclite, 68,7.
ve— "sage of, 495 : ve— ve, ib. n.2.
vehementer— 'ery, 439,n 3.
vel— with superlative, 303; usage of, 494;
vel — vel, i^- 2 ; for example, ib. N.l ; a*
xvelL as, ib. N.3.
velle — conjugation of, 174 ; exact use of
Fut. or Fut. Pf., 242,N.2 and r.3 : has
no periphrasis, 248, R, 631,N.3 ; velim,
257,2 ; vellem, as Potential, 258,N. 1 ;
vellem, as Unreal, 261,R. ; with Subjv.
for Impv., 270,N.2 ; with Pf. Inf. act.,
280,2 6, and N.l; with PI. Inf. pass.,
280,2,c,N.; volens i» pred. attrib.,
325,u.O; sili velle, 351,n.2; volenti
est, 353,n.2: with Inf. or ut, 532, and
N.3, 646. R.l ; with Inf.,423,2,N.2; with
Ut, 546,N.l.
542
GENERAL INDEX.
velut— 'With Subjv., 602 ; with part, to
give Assumed Reason, 666,n.
velutSi— with Subjv., 602
vgnalis— with Abl., 404,N.4.
vSndere— with Gen. of Price, 379 ; bene
vendere, 380,2,r.
venire-omitted, 209,n 5 ; venit mihi
in mentem, with Gen., 376,k.3; with
Sup., 435,N.l; venturus as adj., 438,
N.; in SUSpicionem, with Nom. and
Inf., 528,N.2; with Inf., 422,n 5 ; USU
venit, with ut, 553 3.
venire— pass, oi vendere, 169,2,u.i; with
Geu. of Price, 379.
venter— decl. of, 44,2, 45,k l.
verbals— defined, 179,1; prod, agreement
of, 211; subst. with Ace, 330,i<.3, 337,
K.5; adj. with Ace, ib. n.4; in bilis,
with Dat., 355,N. ; in ax, with Geu.,
376 ; formation of verbdlia, 191.
VERBS— defined, 16,4 ; conjugation of, 17 ;
inflection of, 114 ; deponents, 113 ; per-
sonal endings, 114; regular, 120, if. ;
classes of, 133 ; Stem or Thematic class,
133,1.; Eeduplicated Class, ih. II.;
T-class, ih. Ill- ; Nasal class, ib. IV. ; In-
choative class, [b. v.; i-class, ih. VI. ;
mixed class, 2/!;. VII.;hstof, 137-162; De-
ponents, 163 166 ; Semi-deponents, 167;
Irregular, 168-174; Defective, 175 ; form-
ation of. 190 200: division of, 190 ; Ver-
balia, 191 ; Denominative, 192 ; com-
position of, 199, 203; Impersonal, 203;
iutrans. used personally, ib. 2; Concord
of, 210, 211, 235-287 ; trans, and iu-
trans., 213 ; trans, used as intrans.,
ib. -R.a ; intrans. vised as trans., ib.
R.fc.
verbum — with Appositional Gen., 361,1 ;
in phrases with ut, 546, N. 2.
ver§ri— constr. with, 650 and n.1 ; Veri-
tas as Pr., 232, N. ; with Inf.,423,2,N 2,
533,R.l.
V6risimile— in phrases with Inf., 422,N.
3 ; in phrases with ut, 653,4.
V6r5— position of, 413,N.«3 ; ys, 471,a,l ;
with atque, 477, n.2 ; with sed, 485 N. 3 ;
syntax of, 487 ; with nisi, 591, n.4 ; with
Sin, 592.
verse— 745 ; methods of combiuiug, 746 ;
Italic, 765 ; Saturuian, 756 ; compound,
820, 823.
versification— 729-823; anacrustic scheme
of, 739.
versus— position of, 413,R.l ; usage as
prep., 416,29 ; versus Jtalicus—755.
vertere— with Final Dat., 356,K.2.
Verum— introduces contrast to demon-
strative, 307,R.4 ; yes, 471.a,l; with
etiam, 482,5 and N.l ; syntax of. 488 ;
with Inf , 422,N.3 ; with ut, 553,4.
?'e?-)/— translations of, 439,n.3.
veSCi— with Abl., 407 and N.2,<i ; with
personal Ger, 427,N,5.
vesper decl. oi, 68,10 ; in Abl. of Time,
393,11 5; vesperi-37,5, 411,n 1.
vester— 101 and k.3.
vetare— w'ith Ace , 346,n.3 ; with Inf.,
423,2,NN.3 and G, 532,n 1 and 2.
vetUS— decl. of, 82,2; comp. of, 87,1,B.2.
via— as Abl. of Manner, 399,n.1.
vicissim— gives reciprocal relation, 221.
11.2 ; as coordinating particle, 482,1,
vid§re— with Ace. and Inf., 527,R.2; with
ut, 546,N I ; Avith ng, 648,n.1 ; with
Direct Question, 467,n. ; with two
Noms. in pass., 206 ; videri, and vi-
detur, 528,R.2 ; vide, with Subjy. for
Impv., 271,N.2, 648, n.3 ; videris, as
In:ipv., 245,N.
Vilis— with Abl. of Price, 404.N.2.
Vincere— with Abl. of Respect, 397,n.2 ;
causam, 333,2 u.
violentus— and viol6ns, 84, i.
virus— <^ieiective, 70, C.
ViS-70,D; with PI. vb.. 211,R.l,Ex.a; vi,
as Abl. of Manner, 399,n 1.
-vis— with relatives, 111,3.
vitium— with Epexegetical Gen., 361,2;
with Inf., 422,N.2 ; vitio as Abl. of
Manner, 399,N.l. .
Vivere— with Abl., 407,N.2,e.
[vix]-70,D; tuam vicem, 334.R.2.
VOCATIVE— defined, 23,5; in i, 33,R.2 ; in
adjs. of 1st and 2d Decl., 73 ; no syntax
of, 201,R 1 ; Nom. instead, ib. e.2 ; in
app., ib. R.3 ; in pred., 211,R.3 ; Sg.
with PI. vb.,i6. n.2; Nom. instead, 321,
N.l ; in pred. app., 325,u.l ; with Q or
pr5,343,l.N.l.
voice-112 2, 212; act., 213; pass., 214;
middle, 212,N.
voluntas— in phrases with ut, 546,n.2;
VOluntateas Abl. of Manner, 399,N.l.
volup— indeclinable, 86,C.
v6mer— decl. of, 46,r.2.
vowels — 2 ; sounds of, 3 ; phonetic varia-
GENERAL INDEX.
543
tions in, 8 ; weakening of, ib- 1 ; omis-
sion of, ib. 2; epouthesis of, tb. 3;
assimilation of, ib. 4 ; quantity of final,
707 ; suffixes with, 184.
VOX — with Appositional Gen., 361,1.
VulgO— as Abl. of Manner, 399,N.l.
VultUS— heteroclite, 68,5.
Want— \ha. of, with Abl , 405 ; adjs. of.
with Gen. and Abl., ibm.3.
warning— vhs. of, with ut, 546.
weakening of vowels— 8,1, 701,R.2.
weight — snbsts. of, with Gen., 369.
w;j7^vbs. of, with Inf., 280,2, c, 423,2, 632;
sequence after vbs. of, 515, u- 3 ; ut in-
stead of luf. after, 532,N. 1-4; with Final
sentence, 546 ; with Inf. instead, ib. R.l;
with simple Subjv., ib. k.2.
wishes— in Subjv., 260, 261 ; apodosis
omitted with, 601.
wt7/(0Mi— translated by ut non, 5£2,r4;
quin, 556 ; cum non, 587,ii.2.
wonder — coustr. with vbs. of, 542.N.1,
words— Formation of, 176-200.
Y-1,R.3; length of final. 707,3,
2/es— trans, of, 471,aand c.
yielding— \hs. of, with Dat., 346.
Z— when
ib. N.
zeugma -
introduced, 1,b.3 ; sound of.
SYNTAX OF INDIVIDUAL AUTHORS.
The syntactical usage of individual authors is treated as follows:
AcciiTS— 358,N.l; 625,l,N.l.
Afranius — 498,N.l.
Apuleius— 336.N.1 ; 365,n.; 406,n.
N.l ; 691,N.3; 607, n. 3 ; 626.N.1.
I; 498,
Caelius— 574.N.
Caesar— 208. 2,N. 2 ; 209. n.5 ; 228.N.1 ; 239.
N.; 250,N.land 2; 260; 280.2,c,N.; 285.
N.2; 286 3,N.; 311,1,R.2 ; 323,N.l ; 324;
335,N.; 336,N.2; 337,N.l; 341.N.2; 349,R.5;
354 N.2; 356N.2and3;358,N.3; 359,N.l;
369, N.2; 372. N.2 and 3 ; 374,n.1 and 9;
' 375,N.2; 381.N.4; 386.N.; 391,n.;£9j,n 2;
401.N.7; 407,N.-2,d; 410,N.4: 413.R.1: 415;
416,2,3,8 15,10,19,22, and 24 ; 418,2; 422,
N.2; 423,N.2 and 3; 427,N.2: 429,N.l; 432,
N.l; 435,N.2; 436,N.l; 443 n. 3; 458,n1;
460,2,N.l and 2; 467,N ; 476. n. 3; 476, n.^;
478.N.2 ; 480 N.2 and 3; 482.3; 482.5,r.2
and N.l; 496,N.l; 603; 512,n.1 ; 513,n.1
and 2; 525,2,n.3; 527,R.3; 528,n.1 ; 638,
N.4; 641,N.l and 3; 542,n.1 ; 546,u.l ; 549.N.
I and 2 ; 663,n.2 and 3 ; 567.N. ; 669,N.l ;
571 N.3; 591,R 2 and n.2; 602,n.5; 615.N.;
616.1 N.l; 626,n.1: 627,R.2; 636.N.1; 644.
n.3: 647,n.2;660n ; 666.N.
B. Hisp.-i07,N.2,d; 416,8.
/?. yl/r.-407.N.2,r? ; 417,7.
Cato— 286,N.2; 394,3.N.l: 401,N.7; 407,N.2;
417 7; 418,4; 437,n.2; 477.N.5; 648.N.3;
574.N.
Catullu.s- 207,N.; 236 n.: 380; 417.3: 454,
n.2; 455,N.; 458,N 1 ; 477,N.5; 480,n.3:
646,n.3;667,n;644n2.
Celsus 602.N.4.
Cicero- 204, N. 7 ; 206. n. 1 ; 209,N.3and5;
211,R 4 and N.3 , 214, R. 2 ; 228,n.1 ; 239,
N. : 242,R 3 ; 245,n. : 250,n.1 and 2 ; 252,
N ; 254,R.(; and nn 1,2 ; 257,n.1 ; 261 ;
269; 271,2,n2; 280,2.c,n.; 285, n.2;
293,N. , 298,N.l; 299.N.1 ; 301; 311,
1,R.2; 318,N.l; 319,n.2 ; 323,n.1 ; 324;
336,N.2; 337n.1,2, and 4; 341,n.2 ;
343 N.l ; 346,N.l and 2 ; 347,R.2 ; 349,
544
GENERAL INDEX.
R.5; 361.N.1 ; 352.N.: 354.N 2 ; 356. r 3
and N.3 ; 357; 358,n.3 and 5 ; 361. n.1 ;
362,N.l ; 364,N.l; 369, N. 2 ; 372,n.2 ai)d3 ;
374,N. 1.2,4, aud 5 ; 376. N.2 aud 3 ; 376,k.
1,2, and 3; 380.1, N.l and 4; 383,N.l. 386,
N.l; 386.N.; 390,2,n.2 and 3; 391,n.; 395,
N.l and 2; 396,N.l: 398,n.1; 403. n. 4; 406.
N.5 ; 407,N.2,d ; 410,N.4 ; 411,k.1 and 2,
and N.l ; 413,R.l ; 416,1,2.3,5,7.13.14,15,
16,19,24,25.28, and 29 ; 417,1,N.3 and 14 ;
418,4; 422,N.2,3, and 5 ; 423. N.2 and 3 ;
427 N.2 and 5 ; 428-R 2 and N.l; 429,N.l;
432.N.1 ; 435, N.l ; 436,N.l; 438,N.; 439,N.
2,3 aud 4 ; 443,N.3 ; 463,N.l ; 467 1,n 1
aud 2, 2 and n.; 458,n.1 ; 459,n.1 ; 460,1,
N.2 ; 467, N. ; 476,N.5 ; 477,n.4 and 5; 478.
N.2 ; 480,E.l aud N.3 ; 481, N.; 482,l,N.l
and 2, 2, 3, and 5. r.2 and N.l ; 484,N.l
and 2; 485,n.1 and 2; 486,N.; 488,N.laud
2; 489.N.1 ; 491.N.; 493, n. 1 ; 494,N.l;
495; 496,N.l; 497; 498,n.3.4,6 aud 8; 601;
503 ; 611,R.4 ; 613,r.1 and nn.1.2 ; 525,1,
N.l aud 4, 2,N.2 and 3 ; 627,R.l and 3,
and N.2 ; 528,n.1 aud 2 ; 632,n.1 aud 3;
633,R.l; 536,N.l; 538,n.4; 541,n.1,2.3 aud
5; 542,R. and n.1 ; 543,n.3 ; 648, n.3 ; 649.
N.1,2 and 4; 650,n.1,2 and 5; 653,1; 565,
R.l ; 563,N.2.3,4 and 5 ; 567,N.; 569,N.l;
671,N.2 aud 3 ; 573,n.2 ; 674,n.; 576,n.1;
677,N.4 and 5 ; 580,n.3 ; 690,n.1; 591,R.4
and N.2; 602,N.5 ; 604,R.2; 606,n.; 606,n.
1; 608; 615,n.; 616,1,n.2, aud 2, n.; 617,
N.l; 626,N.l; 627,u.land2; 636,N.l aud
2 ; 636,n.1 ; 643,n.4 ; 644,R.3 ; 647,n.2;
666,N.; 677 N.
Columella— 592, N.
CoRNiFicius— 439.N.3 ; 500,R.; 649,n.4.
CuRTius— 418,16; 632,N.l.
DicTYs— 546,R.l.
Ennius— 411,r.2 ; 476.N.5.
Florus— 467.N ; 626,2,N.2.
rBONTO-626,2,N.3.
and 2 ; 460,2.N.3 ; 477,N.8 ; 480,n.1 ; 482,
3; 498,n.1 ; 500,R.; 526.1, N.l, 2,n.2 ; 633.
R.l ; 636 N.l ; 638. N.5 : 541,n.5 ; 563,n 3;
569,N.l ; 691,R.2 ; 592,N. ; 616,1,n.2 ; 644,
n2.
Juvenal-602,n 4 ; 606,n.
LivY— 204,N.8 ; 209,N.3; 211,R.l,Ex.rt,N. ;
247,Nl ; 249.N.; 250,N.land2; 286, Ex.
3 and N 2; 2^3 N. ; 311,1,R.2, 2.N.: 317,n.
1; 319 N.l; 323.N.1; 336,n. ; 337,n.4;
338,N.l; 346,N.2; 3i7.i!.2 ; 360.1,n.; 351.
N.l ; 353,N.2 ; 356. N 2 ; 359,N.l and 4 ;
363,R.l ; 366,R 1 ; 371,n.; 372,N.laud 4 ;
373, R 1 ; 374, N 2 and 3 ; 383, n.1 ; 386, n.
1 ; 390,2 N.3 ; 391,R 1 and n.; 396,n.1 ;
399,N.l and 3; 401,N.2and 6; 403.N.3 ;
406,N.3; 410,n2.3, and 4; 411,R.l and
N.l ; 413, N.l ; 415 ; 416,2,7,15,16,22.23.
24. aud 28; 417,1,8.10,11, and 14 ; 418,2,
and 4 ; 423,N.2 ; 427,n.2 ; 429,2 and n.1;
430,N.l ; 436,N 2 ; 436,n 1 ; 437,n.2 ; 438,
N. ; 439,N3and4; 442.N.3 ; 443,N.4 ;
467,1,N.3 ; 458,N.l ; 460,2,N.3 ; 467,n. ;
477,N.4,5 and 9 ; 478,n.1 aud 2 ; 480,n.3 ;
482,1, N.1,2 and 5,r.2 aud n.1; 497 ; 498,
N.1.3,and8; 502,N.3 ; 503-; 513,n.1 and
2 ; 626,1, N.l aud 7 and 2,n.2 ; 632,n.1 ;
536,n.1 ; 641,N. 2 and 5 ; 542,R aud n.2;
643,n.3 ; 546,R.l ; 649 n I ; 660,n.5 ; 555,
2,n.; 657.R. and n.2 ; 663,n.2, 3, and 5 :
667,n.; 669,N.l ; 570.N 4 ; 671,n.6 ; 576,
N.'2 ; 577,N.3,4, and 5 ; 697,R.5 ; 602,N.5;
616,N. ; 616,l,N.l and 2, aud 2,N.; 626,N.
1 ; 635,N.2 ; 636,n.1 ; 644,R.3 ; 651,R.l ;
666, N. ; 687.
LucAN— 254,N 1 ; 458, n.1.
LuciLiL's— 383,1,N.2; 4S6.N.1.
LucRETirs-372,N 2 ; 383.1, n.2 ; 405,N.3 ;
406.N.6 ; 422,N 4 ; 469,n.1 ; 480,n.2 ; 482,
l.N.l ; 496,N.l ; 600,R. ; 626,1,n.1 ; 633,
R.l ; 664,N.l ; 671,n.4 ; 606,n.I ; 636,n.1.
Martial— 280,2,6,n.1.
Gaius— 525,2, N.3.
Gellius— 680,N.3.
HiRTius-423,N.2 : 632,n.1.
Horace— 211,R.l, Ex.a.N.; 271,2,N 2 ; 301 ;
346,n2; 361, n. 1 ; 416,5.17,19. and 21;
417.8; 418,4 ; 421,N.l,c; 422.N.4 ; 427,n.
2; 439,N.3; 454,N.2; 457 N.2 ; 468,N.l
Naevius— 533,N.l.
Nepos— 249,N. ; 260,N.2 ; 356,R.3 ; 408,N.2,
c ; 416,10 ; 513,n.1 ; •536.N.1 ; 656,2.N. ;
671,N.4 ; 605,n. ; 606,N.l ; 687.
OVTD-270,N.; 280,2,6,N.l ; 349.R.5; 384.
N.1;401,N.7; 411.R.2 ; 416,7; 417,7; 427,
N.2; 494,N,3; 626,1,N.; 646,R.l; 616,n.2.
GENERAL INDEX.
545
Petronius— 207,N.; 625,1,n.1.
Plautus— 206,N.l ; 211,R.l, Ex.a,N.; 270,
N.l ; 330,N.3 ; 336,n.1 ; 347, k. 2 ; 357,n ;
3S8,N.l ; 361,N.l; 374,n. 1,2,3, and 5;
375,N.3 ; 383,1,n.2, aud 3 , 398,N.2 ; 406,
N.6;407,N.2; 411.ii.l ; 415; 416,6,7,16,
19,21, aud 2i 417,7;. 418,4 ; 422,n 2 ;
439,N.3 ; 454,N.2 ; 455,n ; 467,n.;'476,n.
3 aud 5 ; 477,N. 1 and G ; 478,N 2 ; 487,
N.l ; 494,N.l and C ; 496,N 1 ; 498,n 3 ;
502,N.3; 525,1,N 4 and 2,n 2 ; 533,u 1 ;
638,N.l aud 3; 541,n 1 ; 645.R 1 ; 546,
N.3 ; 648,N.3 ; 649,n.2 ; 563,N,3 ; 569,n.
1;671,N.5; 576,Nl; 677,n.5 ; 680,n 1
aud 3 ; 697,n.; 602,n 5 ; 610,N 1 ; 616 n.;
626,N.l ; 643,N 3 ; 677,N.
Pliny Maiou-381.n 3 ; 398,n 2, 460,2,n 3;
467,N.; 482,2; 498.1.N.1 ; 592,n.
Pliny MiNOK-209,N.5 ; 252,n.; 418,4; 460,
2,N.3; 638,N.5; 648,N.3; 602,N 4; 605,n ;
616,1,N.2.
POLLIO— 410,N.3.
Pkopertius— 406,N.3; 421,n.1,c ; 467,1,N 2,
458,N.l; 480,N.2aud3; 498,N,l.
QUADUIGARIUS— 407,N.2,6.
QuiNTiLiAN— 359,N.5 ; 406,N 3; 612,n 1 ;
625,2.N.2; 538,N.5 ; 602,N.4; 604.R2;
627,R.l.
Sallust— 207,N.; 208,2.N.2 ; 247,Nl; 250,
N.l; 280,2,c,N.; 286.N.2; 286,3,N ; 311,1,
R.2; 323,N.l; 338,N.l ; rj47,R.2 ; 349,R.4;
353,N.2 ; 356,N.3 ; 359,N.l aud 6 ; 369,N.
2 ; 372,N.2 aud 3 ; 374,N.1,3, aud 8 ; 390,
3,N.l; 391,N.; 407,N.2 ti; 410,N.l,2and 4;
416,2,4,7,16,20 aud 24 ; 417,7; 418,4; 423,
N.2; 428,R.2; 435,N.2 ; 436,N 1 ; 437,N.2;
439.N.3; 460,2,N.l; 467.N.; 475,N.3; 476.
N.5; 478,N.2;480,N3;482,3and5,R.2aud
N.1;488,N.2; 491,N.; 496,N.l ; 501; 603;
612,N.l; 513,N.l; 625,2,n 2, 632,n.1 ; 536,
N.l; 638,N.l; 641,n. 2and3, 642,n 1; 646,
R.l; 548,N.3 ; 563,n.2 ; 669,N.l ; 691, R 2 ;
604.R.2; 616,1, N.l aud 2 ; 626,N 1 ; 636,
N.l.
Seneca— 374, N.3 ; 616,1, n 2 , 636, n 2.
Seneca Rhetor — 446,N.
Suetonius — 349,r.5; 407,n.2,c ; 416,22;
613,n.1; 642,R. ; 546,n.3; 577 n.5 ; 602,
N.4; 665,N.2.
Tacitus -208,2,N. 2; 209,n.3; 211,r.1,Ex.
o,N.; 254,N.l; 285,Ex.3 aud n.2; 346,n.
3; 353,N.2; 354,n.2; 356,n.2; 359,n.5; 364,
N.l ; 372,N.2 ; 376,R.l ; 390,3,n.1 ; 401.N.6
and 7 ; 407,N.2,a ; 410,N.2 and 4 ; 411,n.
1; 416,10,16.23 aud 24; 417,3 and 12;
423,N.3; 428,R.2 aud n.4 ; 432,N.l; 437,
N.2; 442, N.3; 443, n.4 ; 460,2,N.3; 476,
N.l; 476,N..'5; 477,n.4 ; 480.N.3 ; 482,2.3
and 5,N.l ; 484,N.2 ; 493,n 2 ; 496,n.1 ;
497 ; 513,n.1 ; 525,1,n.7, aud 2,N.2and3;
532,n.1 ; 638,N.5 ; 642,R. and n 1 ; 645,
n3; 563,n2,3 and 5; 567,n. ; 569,n1;
571,N.laud 3; 573,n.1; 675,n.2 ; 676,n.
1 ; 602,n 4 ; 604,r 2 , 605,n. ; 616,1,n.2;
635,n2; 647,n2; 666,n ; 687.
Terence-211,R l,Ex a,N ; 271,N 2 ; 286,
N.2 . 337,N 4 : 368,N.l ; 361,n 1 ; 383,1,
N 2, 399,n.1 ; 407,n.2 ; 411,r 2 ; 415; 416,
1,8, aud 28; 423 n 2 ; 428,r2; 439,R 3 ;
454,N 2 ; 455,N. ; 482 5 r 2 ; 487,n 1 ; 489,
N.; 494,N.l ; 496.N 1 and 2 ; 498,n.3 ; 502,
N.3 ; 626,l,N.l ; 533,R.l ; 541,n 1 ; 645,
R.l ; 549,N 2 ; 569,n 1 ; 571,n 4 ; 574,n. ;
676,N.l ; 578,N. ; 580,n 1 aud 3 ; 697,
N. ; 610,N 1 ; 615,N. ; 626,N 1 ; 644,n.2 ;
677,N.
TiBULLUs — 465,N. : 457,1,n 2 ; 468,n 1 :
498,n.1.
Valerius Maximus — 285,n 2 ; 432,n.1 ;
460,2,N.3 ; 538.N 5 ; 577,n.5.
Varuo— 416,7,15, and 23 ; 422,n.4 ; 427,n.
2 ; 437,N.2 ; 449,R.3 ; 674,n. ; 606,n.1.
Vatinius— 606,N . I .
Velleius— 209,N.5 ; 286,n.2 ; 349,R.5 ; 391,
N.; 460,2,N.3; 613,n.2.
Vergil — 211 R.l,Ex.a,N.; 230,n.2 ; 269;
276,2,N.2 ; 301 ; 336,n.1 ; 346, n 2 ; 374,
N.3; 383.1,n.2 and 3; 390,2,N 4 ; 411.R.
2 ; 417,3 ; 421,n.1,c ; 422,N 4 ; 442,n.3 ;
443,N.l ; 458,n.3 ; 477,n.5 ; 480,N.2 ; 482,
1,N I aud 2 ; 485,N 3 ; 525,1,n 1 ; 542,n
1 , 546,N.3 ; 563,N.2 ; 691,R 2 , 644,n 2.
ViTRUVius-353,N 1 ; 386,n , 416,5 aud 25;
418,3 ; 439.N.3 ; 636,n.1 ; 549,N.2 ; 671,
N.4.
The Historians— 209,n. 5; 211,R l,Ex.i> ;
214,R 2 ; 363,R.1 ; 391,N. ; 484,n.2 ; 486,
Nl; 487,Nl; 491; 501,N.; 667,n.; 628,R.
The Poets— 211,R.l,Ex.a,N. and r.4; 217,
N.l and 2; 230,N.2 ; 241, N 1 ; 261 ; 269 ;
270; 271,2,N.2 ; 280,2,6 and N.2; 290,N.
2 ; 295,N.; 296,N.1,3, aud 4 ; 321, N.l; 332,
2,N.2aud 3; 333,2,N.6 ; 336,N.3; 337,N.
546
GENERAL INDEX.
1 and 2 ; 338,N.l and 2 ; 346,n.6 ; 350,1,
N.; 351,N.l ; 362,N. ; 354,n.2 ; 358; 361,
N.l ; 362,N.l ; 373,R.l ; 374,n.1,3,(),8, and
10 ; 375 ; 383,1,n.1 ; 385,n.1 ; 386,n. ; 390,
3,N.l and 2 ; 391,N ; 394,3,n.1 ; 396,n.1
and 3; 397,N.2 ; 401.N.4aua6: 404,n.1;
407,N.2,e; 413,k.1 and 3, and n1 ; 416,
14, and 20 ; 417,5,12, and 24 ; 418,3 and
4; 421. N.l; 427,n.5 ; 428,N.2 and 3;
435,N 1 ; 436,N.l and 3 ; 437,n 1 ; 439,n.
2; 440,R.; 446,N.2; 449,R.3 ; 454,N 3 ;
457,1,N.3; 460,2,N.2; 467,N.; 476.N.2,3,
and 5 ; 477,n.4 ; 482,3 ; 488,n.1 and 2;
495,N.2 ; 496,N.l ; 498,n.1 and 5 ; 502,N.
1; 525,l,N.7; 627,n 2 ; 532,n.1 and G;
535,R.3 ; 636,N.2 ; 538,n.5 ; 546,u.2 and
N.3 ; 552.n 2 ; 691,n.2 ; 604,u.2 ; 617,n.
2 : 631,2,N.l , 683
The Comic Poets— 211, r 1, Ex. a,N.; 228,
N.l; 242,N.2; 243; 244,n.1 ; 247,n.2;
263,2.N.; 267,N.; 269; 280, 2,c n.; 346,n 1;
361,N.l; 406,N.2; 416,4; 443,N.4 ; 453,
N.l and 2; 467,N.; 468,n.; 477,n.3 ; 553,1;
617,N.2.
Later Prose— 211,r.1, Ex. a,N ; 217,n.1
and 2; 221,R.2 ; 269; 361,n.1 ; 372,N.3;
374,N.l and 3; 375; 386,n.; 390,2,n.3;
404,N.l ; 413,N.l ; 415 ; 416, 20, 23, 25, and
27: 417,5; 427,N.5; 428,n.1, 2. and 3;
449,R.3; 460,l,a; 467,n.; 476,n.5; 477,n.
4; 528,R.2 and n.4; 535,R.3; 538,n.5;
646, r.2; 555,2,n.; 569,n.1.
Anteclassical Latin— 211,n.1 and 2; 220,
N.2; 221,R.2; 241,N.l; 248,N.l ; 254,N.2;
257,N.l; 260; 261.N.2; 271,1,n 1 and 2,
and 2,N.l and 2; 272,3,n.; 280,2,a.B.2;
293,n.; 296,n.1; 301; 303; 309,n.2; 319.
N.l; 330, N.2; 339,N.l; 341,n. 2; 346, n.2;
347,R.l; 350,1,N.; 373,R.l; 374,n.4;376,
N.2; 383,1, N.2; 385,N.2; 390,2,n1; 390,
n.3; 391,R.2 and n.; 395 n.2; 397. n.2;
393,N.l; 403.N.3; 407.N.2; 408,N.G; 410.
N.1,4, and 5; 413,R.l; 416, 10. 12, IC, 23.
24. and 27; 417,2,9, and 10; 421,N.l;
422,N.2and4; 423, n.2 and 3; 427,N.2;
428 N.l; 429,N.l; 430,n.1; 432,n.1; 433,
N.2; 436,N.l and 4; 437,N.2; 439,N.3; 442,
N.3; 443,N.l and 4; 444,1,n.2; 454,n.1 and
5;456,N.;457,1,N.1,2, and 3, and 2,n.;
469,N.2; 475,N.l; 476,N.1,2, and 5; 479,
N.l; 480,N.l; 482,1,n.1, and 5,n.1; 487,
N.2; 488,N.l; 496,N.l; 498,N.5,C,and 7;
600; 503; 613,n.1; 626,l,N.2,G,and7, and
2,N.2, and3; 627,R.3; 528,N.l; 636,N.l;
537,N.2; 541,N.5; 642,r. and n.2; 646,'
N.3; 649,N.4; 650,n.1 and 2; 663,3,n.;
557,R.; 563,N,1,2, and 5; 564,n.1: 571,
N.2,3, and 5; 574,n.; 576,n.1; 577,n.1;
580,N.3; 591,R.2 and n.2; 602,n.5; 614,
N.; 617,N.land2; 626,n1. and 2; 627,
R.l;634,N.;636,N.l; 651,R.l.
Classical Latin— 220,n.1 ; 241,N.l ; 260 ;
263,2.N.; 269 ; 270,n. ; 282,n ; 285, Ex.3 ;
301:303; 309,n.2; 318,n.2 ;330,n.2; 339.
N.l and 4; 342; 343,N.l: 346,N.2: 347,R.l;
348,R.2; 356,R.2; 359,N.4; 363,n.; 374,
N. 1,2,3,4, 5, and 9 ; 381.N.1 ; 383,1 ; 385,
R I and N.1,2, and 3 ; 390,2,N.l, and 2 ;
391,R.l ; 393,R 5 ; 394,n.1 ; 398 ; 399,N.l;
401,N.2 and 6 ; 403,n.3 and 4 ; 407,n.2:
408,N.G ; 410,N 1,2,5 and 6; 413,R.3; 418,
9,12,16,23, and 29 ; 417,9 and 11 ; 421.N.
1 and 2 ; 422.N.4 ; 423,N.4 ; 429,1 and 2;
430,Nl; 432,N.l; 437,1; 438,n.; 439.N.3;
442,n3; 444,1,n.2; 449, R. 3 ; 460,1,n.1,
and 2, n.3; 467,n.; 475,n.2: 477.N.8; 479,
N.l; 482,4,N ; 494,N.2and8;498.N.3and
4; 500,R.; 501,n.; 602,n.1; 503; Sll.R.l;
525,1, N.l ; 528,R.2, and N.l ; 632,N.1,3,
and 4; 535,R.3; 537,N.2; 638,N. 2 and 3 ;
541,Nland2; 545.R.1; 546,n.3; 549,n.1;
556; 571,N.2; 602.N.1; 610,n.1 ; 631,3,h.
1; 643,N.3; 644,R.3; 651, R.l.
Post-classical Latin— 211, r.2 ; 239,n.;
241,N.2; 247,N.l; 251,n.2; 254, r. 6, and
N.2 ; 257,N.l ; 271,2,N.2 ; 292,n.; 296.N.
land 2; 298,n.1; 299,n.2 ; 301; 309,
N.2 ; 319.N.1 ; 330,n.4 ; 333,2,n.6 ; 337,
N.l and 2 ; 338,N.2 ; 339,N.l and 3 ;
346, N.2; 349,R.5; 365,N. ; 356,R.3;
362.N.1 and 2; 366,R.2 ; 374,N.2and 3;
378,R.4 ; 380,1,N.2 ; 390,3,n.1 ; 391. n. ;
393,r5; 397,N.2; 398,n.1: 399,n.2: 403,
N.4; 405,N.3; 407,N.2; 408,N.6 ; 410,N.l,
2,3, and 5 ; 411,R.l; 415 ; 416,7,10,12,14,
16.17,18. and 22; 417,7; 418,4; 422,N.2,4,
and 5 ; 423,n.2 and 3 ; 431,n.1 and 3;
432,N.l; 433; 435,n.1; 436,n.1; 437.N.1;
438,N.; 439,N.2 and 3; 479,N.l and 2;
480,N.l ; 482,l,N.l and 2, 3,4,n., and 5.
N.l and 2 ; 494,N.2 ; 498,n. 1,3,6, and 8 ;
603 ; 513, n.2 ; 625,1, N. 7, and 2.N.2: 628,
R.2; 532,N.l; 541,n.1; 543,n.3; 545,R.l;
646,n.3; 549,n.2 ; 653, 2,n. and 4,r.2 ;
667,N.2; 5f3,N.4and5; 573,n.2 ; 676,N.
2; 690,n.1 ; 595, R. C. ; 602,n.5 ; 606,N.;
606,n.1 ; 616,2,n.; 626,1, R. aud2,R.; 626,
N.l; 669; 677,N.
PAKALLEL KEFEEENCES OF THE OLD AND
NEW EDITIONS.
1-7
1-7
8
10
9
11
10
12,1 and
n
13
12
14
13
12,3
14
15
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10
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17
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18
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19
20
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21
23
22
24,2
23
24,1
24
25
25
26
26,1
26,R.
26,2
28
"7
29
28
30
29
31.33
30
34
81
31,33
32
32,2, 74
33,34
73
35
76
36, 37
35
38,39
36
40
39
41
40
42
41
43
42
44
43
45
44
45, R.
44,N.
46
44,2
47
46
48
47
49
48
50
49
51
50
52
51
53
52
54
52,6
54, R.
54
55
53,1-6
56
53,7 fin^^
57
55'
58,59
56
60
57
61
58
62
59
63-66
60
67
61
70
64
149, 150
129
71,72
65
151
131
73
65,R.i and 2.
152
133
74
67,68
153
134
75
69
154
135
76
70
155
121,R,
77
68
156
136
78
67
157-181
137-162
79
68
182
167
80
71
183
168
81
72
184
169,1
82
78
1&5
169,2, 17
83
82
186
171
84
80
187
172
85,1-3
82
188
173
85,4
83,N.l and 2.
189
174
86
86
190
175
87
89
191
130, 131
88
87
192
201
89
90
193
202
90
91
194
203
90,1
91,2,6
194,R.2
201,R.2
90,2
92,1
195
204
90,3
91,2,C
196
205
90,4
91,i,c
197
206
91
93
198
207
92
95
199
208
93
94
200
209
94
96
201
210
95
97
202
211
96
98
203
212
97
99
204
213
98
100
205
214
99
101
206
215
100
102
207
210
101
103
208
217
102
104
209
218
103
105
210
219
104
106
211
220
105
107
212
221
106
109
213
222
107
110
214
223
108
111
215
224
109
112,1-4
216
225
110
112,5
217
226
111
114^
218
227
112
116
219
228
113
117
220
229
114
118
221
230
115
119
222
231
116-118
120
223
232
119-122
122
224
233
123-126
123
225, 226
234
127,129,130 124
227
235
128
135,La
228
236
131-134
125
229
237
135-138
127
230
238
139, 140
126
231
239
141-148
128
232
240
548
PARALLEL REFEREN'CES.
OLD
NEW
OLD
NEW
OLD
NEW
233
241
301
314
367
368
234
242
302
314
368
370
235
243
303
316
369
371
236
244
304
317
370
372
237
245
305
318
371
369
238
246
306
819
372
373
239
247
307
292
373
374
240
248
308
293
374
375
241
249
309
294
375
376
242
250
310
295
376
377
243
251
311
296
377
378
244
252
312
297
378
379
245
253
313
298
379
380,1
246
254
314
299
380
380,2
247
255
315
300
381, 382
381, 382
248
256.1
316
302
383
384
249
256,2
317
303
384
385
250
257
318
320
385
387
251
259
319
321
386
388
252
258
320
322
387
389
252,R.i
257,N.2 and 3
321
323
388
390
and
3
322
349,R.5
389
405
253
260
333
324
390
406
254
261
324
325
391
392
255
262
325
326
392
393
256
263
326
327
393
394
257
264
327
328
394
omitted
258
265
328
329
395, 396
395, 396
259
266
329
330
397, 398
397, 402
260
267
330
331
399
398
261
268,1
331
332, 333,2
400
403
262
268,2
a31,R.2
3.33,1
401
399
263
270
331, R. 3
334
402
400
264
271
331,R.4
333,2,N.4
403,
401
265
272,1
332
338
404
404
266
27'2,2
333
339
405
407
266,R.3
272,3
334
340
406
408,N.7
267
263,2,a
335
335
407
408
268
273
336
335,R.i
408
409
269
275
337
336
409
410
270
276
338
336,R.4
410
337
271
277
339
343
411
391
272
278
340
343,1
412
386, 411
273
279
341
343,2
413
412
274
280,1
342
omitted
414
413
275
280,2
343
344
415
413,R.2 and 3
276
281
343,R.2
350,1
416
414
277
281,1 and 2
344
345
416,R.
415
278
282
344, R. 3
358
417
416
279
283
345
346
418
417
280
284
346
347
419
418
281
285
347
346,N.2
420
419
282
286
348
348
421
420
283
287
349
349
422
421
284
288
350
356
423
422
2m
289
351
351
424
423
286
290
352
354
425
424
287
291,1
353
355
426
425
288
291,2
354
353
427
426
289
omitted
355
357
428
427
290
305
356
369
429
428
291
306
357
360,1
4d0
429
292
307
358
360,2
431
480
293
308
359
361
432
431
294
309
360
362
433
432
295
309,1 and 2
361
363
434
433
296
310
362
304,2 ; 364,N.2
435
434
297
311,1
363
364
436
435
298
311,2
364
365
437
436
299
312
365
366
438
437
300
313
866
367
489
438
PARALLEL REFEREN^CES.
549
OLD
ITEW
OLD
NEW
OLD
NEW
440
439
509
508
615
613
441
440
510-518
510-518
616
614
442
441
518,Ex.
518
G17
615
443,1
442
519-549
519-549
618
616
443,2
443
550
554
618,B.
616,i,N.2
444
445
551
555
619
617
445
446
552
550
620
618
446
447
553
551
621
619
447
448
554
552
622
620
448
449
555
553
623
621
449
444,1
556
552
624
622
450
444,2
557
553,1
625
623
451
450
558
553,3 and 4
626
624
452
451
559
557
627
626
453
452,1
560
558
628
625,2
454
452,2
561
559
629
627
455
453
562
560
630
628
456
• 454
563
561
631
629
457
455
564
562
632
630
458
456
565
563,1
633
631,1
459 "
457,1
566
563,2
634
631,2
459,B.
457,2
567
564
635
632
460'
458
568
566
636
633
461
459
569
567
637
634
462
460
570
568
638
635
463
461
571
569
639
C36
464
462
572
570
640
637
465
463
573
571
641
638
466
464
574
572
G42
639
467
465
575
573
643
640
468
466
576
574
644
641
469
467
577
575
645
642
470
468
578
576
646
643
471
469
579
577
647
644
472
470
580
578
648
645
473
471
581
579
649
646
474
472
581,R.
581
650
647
475
473
582
580
651
648
476
474
583
582
652
649
477
475
584
583
653
650
478
476
585
584
654
651
479
477
586
585
655
652
480
478
587
586
656
653
481
479
588
587
657
654
482
480
589
588
658
655
483
481 1
590
589
659
656
484
482
591
590
660
657
485
483
592
591
661
658
486
484
593
592
662
659
487
485
594
593
663
660
488
486
595
590,N.l
664
661
489
487
596
594
665
662
490
483 .
597
595
666
663,1
491
489
598
596,1
666,R.i
663,2
492
490
599
597
667
664
493
491
599,R.3
596,2 ; 597,R.3
668
665
494
492
600
598
669
666
495
493
601
599
670
667
496
494
602
600
671
668
497
495
603
601
672
669
498
496,1
604
602
673
670
499
496,2
605
603
674
671
500
498
606
604
675
672
501
499
607
605
676
674
502
500
608
606
677
675
503
501
609
607
678
676
504
502
610
608
679
677
505
504
611
609
680
678 .
506
505
612
610
681
679
507
506
613
611
682
680
508
507
614
612
883
681
S50
PARALLEL REFERENCES.
OLD
NEW
OLD
NEW
OLD
NBW
68*
682
724
730
761
784
am
684
725
731
762
785
(58G
685
726
732
768
777, 780, 781
t587
omitted
727
7;33
764
790-793
t88-692
688-692
728
734
765
794-796
693
696
729
735, 739
766
797
694
697
730
736
767
798
695
698
731
737
768
799
696
699
732
738
769
800
697
700
733
740
770
801-«05
698
701
734
741
771
806-814
699
702
735
742
772
815
700
703
736
743
778
823,19
701
704
737
744
774
818
702
705
738
745
775
820
703
706
739
746
776
821
704
707
740
748
777
756
705
708
741
749
778
826
700
709
742
750
779
827
707
710
743
752
780
176
708
711
744
753
781
177
709
712
745
754
782
178
710
713
746
768
783
179
711
714
747
774, 778, 772, 791
784
180
712
715
748
769
7&5, 786
184-189
713
718
749
770
787
191
714
719, 720
750, 751
757
788
192
715
721
752
705
789
193
716
722
753
763
790
194, 195
717
723
754
760-762
791
194,N.
718
724
755
764
792
199
719
725
756
758
793, 794
200
720
726
757
759
795
196
721
727
758
783
796
197,2 ; 108
722
703,R.3
759
789
797
197,1
723
729
760
788, 787, 786
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