Submitted f«- ExaojjR.' THE WHITAKER \ nw CO. GILDERSLEEVE'S LATIN^ QKAMMAE THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED BY B. L. GILDERSLEEVE PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY AND GONZALEZ LODGE PROFESSOR OF LATIN IN BRTN MAWR COLLEGE UNIVERSITY PUBLISHING COMPANY NEW YORK BOSTON NEW ORLEANS AND LONDON 1900 Copyright, 18^4, by UNIVERSITY PUBLISHING CO, Entered at Stationers' Hall «*♦ 2204 Press of J. J. Little & Co. Astor Place, New York PREFACE. In the preparation of this third edition of Gilder- SLEEVE^s Latin Grammar, the office of the senior collabo- rator has been chiefly advisory, except in the Syntax. In the Syntax, Professor Lodge is responsible for nearly every- thing that pertains to the history of usage, but for all deviations from the theory of the old grammar we bear a joint responsibility. During the progress of the work we have been cheered and aided by the encouragement and advice of distinguished scholars and experienced teachers, and whereas the Preface of the old grammar mentioned but two faithful helpers, Professor Thomas R. Price and Professor William E. Peters, the present work has had the advantage of liberal cooperation. Especial acknowledgment must be made of the attention paid to every detail by W. Gordon McCabe, Esq., Head- master of the University School, Richmond, Va., himself a Latinist of exact and penetrating scholarship, and by his accomplished assistant, Mr. 0. W. Bain. Professor Minton Warren, of the Johns Hopkins University, has lent us the aid of his wide and accurate knowledge of the history of the Latin language, and Professor Chapman Maupin, one of the revisers of Gilderslep^ve's Latin Primer, has given us the benefit of his practical experience and his acute observation. Professor E. M. Pease, of Leland Stanford Junior University, whose removal to the distant AVest interrupted a collaboration which promised valuable results, has, in spite of his arduous labors as teacher and editor, put at our service his notes on the Grammar of 1872. Among the scholars who have read the book in proof or advance sheets, and who have suggested improvements Rn7453 IV PREFACE. here and corrections there^, we would gratefully mention Principal Bajs^croft, of Phillips Andover Academy, Presi- dent Jesse, of the University of Missouri, Professor M. W. Humphreys, of the University of Virginia, E. W. Tun- stall, M.A., of Norfolk, Va., Professor Wm. C. Lawton", of Philadelphia, Professor W. P. Mustard, of Haverford College, Professor J. E. Goodrich, of the University of Vermont, Professor Jas. H. Dillard, of Tulane University, and Professor J. W. Redway, of New York. Finally we desire to express our joint thanks to Dr. C. W. E. Miller, Associate of the Johns Hopkins University, who has laid us both under especial obligations by his careful studies in the difficult chapter of Versification. As in the Preface to the old grammar, so in the Preface to the new, it is considered out of place to enlarge on the excellence of the methods followed ; but as the new gram- mar embraces a multitude of details that were not taken up in the old grammar, it has been thought fit that Professor Lodge should indicate the sources of the notes with which he has enriched a manual that has held its modest place for more than a quarter of a cei^tury. B. L. Gildersleevb, . _^^ Gonzalez Lodge. August 1, 1894. The following supplementary note may serve io embody a partial bibliography of the more important works used in this revision, and some necessary explanations of the method : Fairly complete bibliographies of works on Latin Etymology and Syntax may be found in Reisig's Vorlesungen uber lateinische Spr'achnrissenschaft (new edition, by Hagen, Schmalz, and Landgraf, 1881-1888), and in the Lateinische Grammatik of Stolz and Schmalz (in MtJLLER's Handbuch der klassisehen AUertumsunssenschaft; 2d edition, 1800). Important also are the Grammars of/KiJHNER (1877, 1878)* and Roby (1881, 1882); though many statements in both, but especially in the former, must be corrected in the light of more recent study. Some indications of more modern theories may be found in * A new Historical Grammar, by Stolz, Schmalz, Landgraf, and Wagener, was announced by Teubner in 1891. PREFACE. V the Uriduterungen zur lateinischen Qrammatilc of Deecke (1893). Many matters of importance both in Etymology and Syntax are treated in the Archiv fur lateinisclie Lexihographie, and the construc- tions with individual words are often well discussed in Krebs' Anti- barbarus der lateinischen Sprache (fitli edition, by Schmalz, 1886). For the accentuation and pronunciation of Latin we have also Corssen's Aussprache, Vocalismus und Betonung der lateinischen Sprache (1868, 1870), and Seelmann's Die Aussprache des Latein (1885). For the Etymology we must refer to Bijcheler's Grundriss der lateinischeii Declination (2d edition, by Wixdekilde, 1879) and to Schweizer-Sidler's Lateinisclie Grammatik (1888) ; also to many articles in various journals, most of which are given by Stolz. Indis- pensable is Neue's Formenlehre der lateinischen Sprache, of which the second volume of the third edition has already appeared (1893) and the first parts of the third volume (1894), under the careful revision of Waoener; also Georges' Lexikon der lateinischen Wortformen (1890). For the Formation of Words and the relation of Latin forms to those of the related languages we have Henry's Precis de Grammaire Com- paree and Brugmann's Grundriss der vergleichenden Gra7nmatik, both now accessible in translations. On these, in connection with Schweizer- SiDLER, the chapter on the Formation of Words has been based. In the historical treatment of the Syntax we must still rely in large measure on Draeger's Historische Syntax der lateinischen Sprache (2d edition, 1878, 1881), faulty and inaccurate though it often is : many of the false statements have been corrected on the basis of more recent individual studies by Schmalz ; but even Schmalz is not always correct, and many statements of his treatise have been silently emended in the present book. For the theoretical study of some problems of Latin Syntax IIaase's Vorlesnugen uber lateinisclie Sprachivissenschaft (1880) should not be overlooked. Since the appearance of the second edition of Schmalz, in 1890, considerable progress has been made in the various journals and other publications, as may be seen from Deecke's summary in Bursian's Jahresbericht for 18913. Every etfort has been made to incorporate in this grammar the main results of these studies as far as practicable. We may also draw attention to the following important articles, among others, some of which are mentioned in the books above referred to : Wolfflin's numerous articles in the ^rcA*v;^HiELMANN's articles in the Archiv on habgre with Perfect Participle Passive, and on the Reciprocal Relation ;i^jANDgraf's articles on the Figura Etyinologica, in the second volume of the Acta Seminarii Erlaiigensis, and on the Future Participle and the Final Dative, in the A/*c/ify,-^lALE's treatise on The Cum Constructions, attacking the theories ofjIIoFFMANN (Latein- ische Zeitpartikehi, 1874) ancWLtJUBEiiT {Die Syntax von Quom, 1869); VI PREFACE. Hoffmann's reply to Hale (1891), and Wetzel's Der Streit zmischen Hoffmann und Hale (1892)rC>AHL's Die laieinische Partikel ut (1882), withrGrUTJAHR-PROBST's Der Gebrauch von nt bei Tere7iz (1888) ,^Zim- mermann's article on quod und quia im dlteren Latein (1880)-^cherer's article on quando, in Stiidemund's Studien ; Morris's articles on the Sentence Question in Flautus and Terence in the A.J. P. (vols. x. and xi.) ; Hale's articles on the Sequence of Tenses in the A.J. P. (vols. viii. and ix.), containing a discussion of the earlier Literature ; Elmer's articles on the Latin Prohibitive in A.J. P. (vol. xv.) A bibliography of the treatises on Prosody and Versification may be found in Gleditsch's treatise in the second volume of Muller's Handbuch ; this, with Plessis' Metrique Orecque et Latine (1889), has been made tlie basis of the chapter on Prosody ; but in the treatment of early metres, regard has been had to Klotz (Altromische Metrik, 1890), and to Lindsay's recent papers on the Saturnian in the A. J. P. (vol. xiv.). In the matter of the order of words we have followed r* Weil's treatise on the Order of Words, translated by Super (1887). The question of the correct measurement of hidden quantities is still an unsettled one in Latin ; for the sake of consistency the usage of Marx, HiJUfshuchlein fur die Aussprache der lateinischen Vokale %n posit ionslangen Silben (2d edition, 1889) has been followed. The quotations have been made throughout from the Teubner Text editions except as follows : Plautus is cited from the Triumvirate edition of Ritschl ; Vergil from the Editio Maior of Ribbeck ; Ovid and Terence from the Tauchnitz Texts ; Horace from the Editio Minor of Keller and Holder ; Lucretius from the edition of Munro; Ennius and Luciliiis from the editions of L. MUller ; fragmentary Scenic Poets from the edition of Ribbeck. Special care has been taken to make the quotations exact both in spelling and wording ; and any variation in the spelling of individual words is therefore due to the texts from which the examples are drawn. Where it has been necessary to modify the quotations in order to make them suitable for citation, we have enclosed within square brackets words occurring in different form in the text, and in paren- theses words that have been i ii.se rted ; wliere the passage would not yield to such treatment, Cf. has been inserted before the reference. We have not thought it necessary to add the references in the Prosody except in the case of some of tlie citations from early Latin. In the spelling of Latin words used out of quotation, as a rule u and V have been followed by o rather than by u ; but here the require- ments of clearness and the period of the language have often been allowed to weigh. Otherwise we have followed in the main Bram- bach's IMfsbuchlein fUr laieinische Rechtschreibung (translation by McCabe, 1877). ' G. L. CONTENTS. ETYMOLOGY. SECTION lietters and Syllables 1-15 Alphabet, 1; Vowels, 2, 3; Diphthongs, 4; Conso- nants, 6, 7 ; Phonetic Variations, 8, 9; Syllables, 10, 11 ; Quantity, 12-14 ; Accentuation, 15. Parts of Speech 16 Inflection of the Substantive 17-71 Definitions, 18 ; Gender, 19-21 ; Number, 22 ; Cases, 23-25 ; Declensions, 36 ; Endings, 27 ; First Declension, 29, 30 ; Second Declension, 31-34 ; Third Declension, 35-60 ; Fourth Declension, 61, 62 ; Fifth Declension, 63, 64 ; Greek Substantives, 65, 66 ; Ir- regular Substantives, 67-71. Inflection of the Adjective 72-90 Definition, 72 ; First and Second Declension, 73- 76; Pronominal Adjectives, 76; Third Declension, 77-83 ; Irregular Adjectives, 84, 85 ; Comparison of Adjectives, 86-90. Adverbs 91-93 Formation of Adverbs, 91, 92 ; Comparison, 93. ' Numerals 94-98 Cardinals, 94 ; Ordinals, 94 ; Distributives, 97 ; Adverbs, 98. Pronouns 99-111 Personal, 100-102 ; Determinative, 103 ; Demon- strative, 104 ; Relative, 105 ; Interrogative, 106 ; In- definites, 107; Adjectives, 108; Correlative, 109-111. Inflection of the Verb 112-175 Definitions, 112, 113; Endings, 114, 115; Inflection of esse, 116, 117; of prSdesse, 118; of posse, 119. Reg- ular Verbs, 120-167; Division, 120; Rules for forming Tenses, 121. First Conjugation, 122; Second Conju- gation, 123, 124; Third Conjugation, 125, 126; Fourth Vlll CONTENTS. SECTION Conjugation, 127 ; Deponents, 138 ; Periphrastic, 129; Notes, 130, 131. Formation of the Stems, 132- 135; Change in Conjugation, 136; List of Verbs, 137-1G7. Irregular Verbs, 168-174; ire, 169, 2; quire, nequire, 170; ferre, 171; edere, 172; fieri, 173; velle, nolle, malle, 174; Defective Verbs, 175. Formation of Words 176-200 Simple Words, 179-192; Substantives, 180, 181; Adjectives, 182; Substantives without Suffixes, 183; Suffixes, 184-189; Verbs, 190-192 ; Compound Words, 193-200; Substantives, 194-198; Verbs, 199,200. SYNTAX. Simple Sentence 202-471 Subject, 203, 204; Predicate, 205-209; Concord, 210, 211; Voices, 212-221. Tenses, 222-252; Present, 227-230; Imperfect, 231-234; Perfect, 235-240; Plu- perfect, 241; Future, 242, 243; Future Perfect, 244, 245; Periphrastic, 246-251; Tenses in Letters, 252. Moods, 253-283; Indicative, 254; Subjunctive, 255- 265 ; Imperative, 266-275 ; Tenses in Moods and Verbal Substantives, 276-283. Simple Sentence Expanded 284-471 Multiplication of the Subject 285-287 Qualification of the Subject 288-325 Adjectives, 289-303; Numerals, 292-295; Compara- tives and Superlatives, 296-303; Pronouns, 304-319; Personal, 304; Demonstrative, 305-307; Determina- tive and Reflexive, 308-311; Possessive, 312 • Indefi- nite, 313-319; Apposition, 320-325; Predicative Attri- bution and Apposition, 325. Multiplication of Predicate 386 Qualification of Predicate 327-449 The Cases 328-418 Accusative, 328-343; Dative, 344-359; Genitive, 360-383; Ablative, 384-410; Locative, 411; Preposi- tions, 412-418; with Accusative, 416; with Ablative, 417; with Accusative and Ablative, 418. Infinitive 419-424 Subject, 422; Object, 423; Predicate, 424. CONTENTS. IX SECTION Gerund and Gerundive 425-433 Genitive, 428; Dative, 429; Accusative, 430; Abla- tive, 431 ; with Prepositions, 432, 433. Supine 434-436 Accusative, 435; Ablative, 436. Participles 437, 438 Adverbs 439-449 Negatives, 441-449. Incomplete (Interrogative) Sentence 450-471 Direct Simple Questions, 453-457; Direct Disjunc- tive Questions, 458, 459 ; Indirect Questions, 460; Moods in Direct, 462-466 ; Moods in Indirect, 467. Compound Sentence . 472-670 Coordinate Sentence 473-503 Copulative, 474-482; Adversative, 483-491 ; Dis- junctive, 492-497; Causal and Illative, 498-503. Subordinate Sentences 504-670 Moods in, 508; Sequence of Tenses, 509-519; Re- flexive in, 520-522. Object Sentences 523-537 Introduced by quod, 524, 525 ; in Accusative and Infinitive, 526, 527, 532-535; in Nominative and Infinitive, 528; in Participle, 536, 537. Causal Sentences 538-542 Introduced by quod, quia, etc., 539-541 ; by quod, with verbs of Emotion, 542. Sentences of Design and Tendency ... . ^ . 543-558 Final, 544-550; Pure Final, 545; Complementary Final, 546-549; After verbs of Fear, 550. Consecutive, 551; Pure Consecutive, 552; Comple- mentary Consecutive, 553-557; Exclamatory Ques- tions, 558. Temporal Sentences 559-588 Antecedent Action, 561-567; Iterative Action, 566, 567; Contemporaneous Action, 568-573; Subsequent Action, 574-577 ; Sentences with cum, 578-588. Conditional Sentences 589-602 Logical, 595; Ideal, 596; Unreal, 597; Incomplete, 598-601 ; Of Comparison, 602. Concessive Sentences 603-609 X CONTENTS. SECTION Relative Sentences 610-637 Concord, 614-621 ; Tenses, 622, 623 ; Moods, 624- 637. Comparative Sentences 638-644 Correlative, 642 ; with atque or ac, 643 ; with quam, 644. The Abridged Sentence 645-663 Historical Infinitive, 647 ; Oratio Obliqua, 648 ; Moods in, 650-652; Tenses in, 653-655; Conditional Sentences in, 656-659 ; Pronouns, 660 ; Partial Ob- liquity, 662, 663. Participial Sentences 664-670 Arrangement of Words and Clauses . . . . 671-687 Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric 688-700 Principal Rules of Syntax . . .Pp. 437-444 PROSODY. Quantity 702-717 General Rules, 702-706 ; of Final Syllables, 707- 713; of Stem Syllables, 714 ; of Compounds, 715 ; in Early Latin, 716, 717. Figures of Prosody 718-738 Versification 729-827 Definition, 729-754; Versus Italicus, 755; Saturnian Verse, 756 ; Iambic Rhythms, 757-767; Trochaic Rhythms, 768-776 ; Anapaestic Rhythms, 777-782; Dactylic Rhythms, 783-789 ; Logaoedic Rhythms, 790-805 ; Cretic and Bacchic Rhythms, 806-814 ; Ionic Rhythms, 815-819 ; Compound Verses, 820- 823 ; Cantica, 824, 825 ; Metres of Horace, 826, 827. PAGES Appendix 491-493 Roman Calendar, Roman Weights and Measures, Roman Money, Roman Names. Index of Verbs 494-502 General Index o . . . 503-546 LATIN GRAMMAR. ETYMOLOGY. Alphabet. 1. The Latin alphabet has twenty-three letters : abcdefghiklmnopqrstvxy;^ Remarks. — i. The sounds represented by C and K were originally distinct, C having the sound of G, but they gradually approximated each other, until C supplanted K except in a few words, such as Kalendae, Kaes5, which were usually abbreviated, Kal., K. The orig- inal force of is retained only in C. (for Gaius) and Cn. (for Gnaeus). 2. J, the consonantal form of I, dates from the middle ages. V repre- sented also the vowel u in the Latin alphabet ; and its resolution into two letters — V for the consonant, and U for the vowel — also dates from the middle ages. For convenience, V and U are still distinguished in this grammar. 3. Y and Z were introduced in the time of Cicero to transliterate Greek v and X,. In early Latin v was represented by u (occasionally by i or oi), and \ by ss or s. Z had occurred in the earliest times, but had been lost, and its place in the alphabet taken by G, which was introduced after C acquired the sound of K. Note.— The Latin names for the letters Avere : a, be, ce, de, e, ef, ge, ha, i, ka, el, em, en, 0, pe, qu (= cu), er, es, te, u, ex (ix), to be pronounced according to the rules given in 3, 7. For Y the sound was used, for Z the Greeii name (zeta). Vowels. 2. The vowels are a, e, i, 0, u, (y) ; and are divided : 1. According to their quality {i. e., the position of the organs used in pronunciation), into guttural (or back), a, 0, u ; palatal (or front), e, i, (y). 2. According to their quaiitity or prolongation (^. e., the time required for pronunciation), into long, ( — ) ; short, ( -^ ). 2 VOWELS — DIPHTHOi^GS — CONSONANTS. Remark. — Vowels whose .^ndr.tiLy shifts in poetry are called com- mon (see 13);. aod, are .distinguished thus : ^■^> by, jrre'^ereyee ^J\orf-j , • ^ by prefei-ence hmg. 3. Sounds of the Vowels. a = a in father. = o in bone. 5 = e in prey. u = oo in moon, i = i in caprice. y = u in sur (French), German ii. Eemark. — The short sounds are only less prolonged in pronuncia- tion than the long sounds, and have no exact English equivalents. Diphthongs. 4. There are but few diphthongs or double sounds in Latin. The theory of the diphthong requires that both elements be heard in a slur. The tendency in Latin was to reduce diphthongs to simple sounds ; for example, in the last century of the republic ae was gliding into e, which took its place completely in the third century A. D, Hence arose frequent variations in spelling : as glaeba and gleba, sod; so oboedire and obedire, obey ; faenum (foenum) and fSnum, hay. ae = aye (S,h-eh). ei = ei in femt (drawled). oe =: oy in hoy. eu = eu in Spanish dewda (Sli-oo). au = ou in ouw (ui = we, almost). Note.— Before the time of the Gracchi we find ai and oi instead of ae and oe. 5. The sign •• (Diceresis — Greek=separatiou) o\er the second vowel shows that each sound is to be pronounced separately : S6r, air ; Oenomatis, aloS. Consonants. 6. Consonants are divided : 1. According to the principal organs by which they are pronounced, into Labials (lip-sounds): b, p, (ph), f, v, m. Dentals (tooth-sounds): d, t, (th), 1, n, r, s. Gutturals (throat-sounds) : g, c, k, qu, (ch), h, n (see 7). Note.— Instead of dental and guttural, the terms lingual and palatal are often used 2. According to their pro/o^j^ra^tow, into A. Semi-voivels : of which 1, m, n, r, are liquids (m and n being nasals), h is a breathing. • is a sibilant. CONSONANTS — PHONETIC VARIATIONS. B. Mutes: to which belong P-mutes, p, b, (ph), i ; labials. T-rautes, t, d, (th), dentals. K-mutes, k, c, qu, g, (ch), gutturals. Those on the same line are said to be of the same organ. Mutes are further divided into Tenu6s (thin, smooth): p, t, k, c, qu, Aar^Z (surd). Mediae (middle) : b, d, g, soft (sonant). [Aspiratae (aspirate, rough): ph, tb, cb,] aspirate. Those on tlie same line are said to be of the same order. The aspirates were introduced in the latter part of the second cen- tury B. C. in the transliteration of Greek words, and thence extended to some pure Latin words ; as, pulcber, Gracchus. 3. Double consonants are : z — dz in adze ; x = cs (ks), gs ; i and u between two vowels are double sounds, half vowel, half consonant. Sounds of the Consonants. 7. The consonants are sounded as in English, with the following exceptions : C is hard throughout = k. Cb is not a genuine Latin combination (6, 2). In Latin words it is a k ; in Greek words a kh, commonly pronounced as cb in German. G is hard throughout, as in get, give. H at the beginning of a word is but slightly pronounced ; in the middle of a word it is almost imperceptible. I consonant (J) has the sound of a broad y ; nearly like y in yule. N has a guttural nasal sound before c, g, q, as in a^ichor, anguish. Qu = kw (nearly) ; before 0, qu = c. In early Latin qu was not fol- lowed by u. Later, when was weakened to u, qu was replaced by c ; thus quom became cum. Still later qu replaced c, yielding quum. K is trilled. S and X are always hard, as in hiss. aa;e. T is hard throughout; never like t in nation. U consonant (V) is pronounced like the vowel, but with a slur. In the third century A. D. it had nearly the sound of our w. In Greek it was frequently transliterated by Ov ; so OvaX^pios = Valerius. Phonetic Variations in Vowels and Consonants. 8, Vowels. I. Weakening. — In the formation of words from roots or stems short vowels show a tendency to weaken ; that is, a tends to become e 4 PHOXETIC VARIATION'S. and then i, or o and then u, while o tends towards e or i, and n towards i, This occurs most frequently in compound words, to a less degree in words formed by suffixes. Diphthongs are less frequently weakened and long vowels very rarely. The principal rules for these changes are as follows, but it must be remembered that to all there are more or less frequent exceptions : A.— I. In the second part of compound words, and in reduplicated words, the root-vowel k is weakened to 6, which usually passes over into 1 in open syllables (11, r.), and often to u before 1 and labial mutes : con-scendo (scando) ; con-cido (cado) ; dS-sulto (salto) ; fefelli (fallo). 2. As final vowel of the stem k is weakened in the first part of a com- pound word, usually to i, rarely to 6 or u: aquili-fer (aquila-); causi-dicus (causa-). 3. In or before suffixes, & becomes i : domi-tus (doma-). Note.— A frequently resists change, especially in verbs of the First and Second Conjugations : as, sS-parare (parare) ; circmn-iac6re (iac6re) ; so satis-facere (facere) and others. E. — I. In the second part of compound words, root vowel 6 is usu- ally retained in a close (11, R.) syllable, and weakened to i in an open syllable ; but it is invariably retained before r: In-flecto (flectO); ob^ tineo (teneo); ad-verto (verto). 2. In or before suffixes, and in the final syllable of a word, it also becomes i : geni-tor (gene-) ; un-decim (decern). I. — At the end of a word i is changed to 6 : mare (marl). 0. — I. In composition final stem -vowel 6 is usually weakened to i ; before labials sometimes to ii : agri-cola (agro-) ; auru-fex (usually anri- fex). 2. In sullixcs, and in final syllables, it is weakened to i : amici-tia (amico-) ; gracili-s (also gracilu-s). TJ. — In composition final ^l(nn-vowel il is usually weakened to I; the same weakening occuis sometimes within a word or l)e fore a suffix : mani-fSstus (also manxi-fSstus) ; lacrima (early lacrtima). AE, ATI. — In tlio second part of a compound word root-diphthong ae is usually weakened to I, but often there is no change ; au is occasion- ally changed to ii : ex-qulr3 (quaero) ; con-clfldO (claud5). 2. Omission. — Vowels are fre(juently omitted both in simple and comj)ound words, either within the woi-d {si/ncope) or at tlie end {apo- cope) : dextera and dextra ; princeps (for primceps, from prlmiceps) ; pergO (for perregS) ; ut (uti) ; neu (n6ve). 3. Epenthesis. — Vowels are sometimes inserted to ease the pronun- ciation, but usually before liquids or in foreign words : ager (agro-) see 31 ; DaphinS (= DaphnS) ; drachuma (= drachma). 4. Assimitation. — Two vowels in adjoining syllables tend to become like each other; tins assimilation is usually regressive {%. e., of the first to the second), especially when 1 separates them : it is rarely pro- gressive. Compare facilis with facul, familia with famulus, bene with bonus. PHONETIC VARIATIONS. 5 5. A vowel before a liquid tends to become u, less often or e : adulgscgns and adolgsc6ns ; vulgus and volgus ; decumus (decern) ; com- pare tempus with temporis ; peperi (from pario), etc. 9. Consonants. 1. Assimilation. — When two consonants come together in Latin, they tend to assimilate one to the other. This assimilation is nsii- ally regressive ; sometimes it is progressive. It is either complete, that is, the two consonants become the same ; or partial, that is, the one is made of the same order or same organ as the other. These changes occur both in inflection and in composition, but they are especially noteworthy in the last consonant of prepositions in composition. Scrip-tum for scrib-tum (regressive partial) ; ac-c6dere for ad-cSdere (regressive complete) ; cur-sum for cur-tum (progressive partial) ; celer- rimus for celer-simus (progressive complete). 2. Partial Assimilation. — (a) The sonants g and b, before the surd t, or the sibilant s, often become surds (c, p ) ; the surds p, c, t before liquids sometimes become sonants (b, g, d) ; the labials p, b before n become m; the labial m before the gutturals c, q, g, h, i (j), the dentals t, d, s, and the labials f, v, becomes n ; the dental n before labials p, b, m, becomes m ; rSc-tum (for rSg-tum) ; scrip-si (for scrib-si) ; seg-mentum (for sec-mentum) ; som-nus (for sop-nus) ; prin-ceps (foi- prim-ceps). Note.— Similar is the change of q (qu) to c before t or s ; coc-tum (for coqu-tum). (&) After 1 and r, t of the suffixes tor, tus, turn, becomes s by progres- sive assimilation : cur-sum (for cur-tum). 3. Complete Assimilation. — There are many varieties, but the most important principle is that a mute or a liquid tends to assimilate to a liquid and to a sibilant : puella (puer) ; cur-rere (for cur-sere) ; c6s-si (for ced-si) ; corolla (corona), etc, 4. Prepositions. — Ab takes the form a before m or v, and in a-fui ; appears as au in au-fero, au-fugio ; as abs before c, t ; as as before p. Ad is assimilated before c, g, 1, p, r, s, t, with more or less regularity ; before gn, sp, sc, st, it often appears as a. Ante appears rarely as anti. Cum appears as com before b, m, p ; con before c, d, f, g, A, q, s, V ; co before gn, n ; assimilated sometimes before 1 and r. Ex becomes 6 before b, d, g, i (j), 1, m, n, r, v ; ef or ec, before f. In usually becomes im before b, m, p ; before 1, r it is occasionally assimilated ; the same holds good of the negative prefix in. Ob is usually assimi- lated before c, f, g, p ; appears as in o-mitto, o-perio, obs in obs-olesc5, and OS in ostendo. Sub is assimilated before c, f, g, p, r ; appears as sus in a few words, as sus-cipi5 ; occasionally su before s, as su-spici5. Trans sometimes becomes tra before d, i ( j), n ; tran before s. Amb- (insepa- rable) loses b before a consonant, and am is sometimes assimilated. Cir- cum sometimes drops m before i. Dis becomes dif before f j dir before a 6 PHONETIC VARIATIONS — SYLLABLES. vowel ; dl before consonants, except c, p, q, t, s, followed by a vowel, when it is usually unchanged. The d of red and s6d is usually dropped before consonants. Note.— In early Latin assimilation is much less common than in the classical period. 5. Dissimilation. — To avoid the harshness of sound when twd sylla- bles begin with the same letter, the initial letter of the one is often changed ; this is true especially of liquids, but occasionally ot other letters : singu-la-ris (for singu-la-lis) ; meri-di6 (for medi-dig). Note.— This principle often regulates the use of -brum or -bulum, and of -crum or -culum in word formation (181, 6) : compare perlculum with simulacrum. 6. Omission. — («) When a word closes with a doubled consonant or a group of consonants, the final consonant is regularly dropped in Latin ; sometimes after the preceding consonant has been assimilated to it. In the middle of a word, after a long syllable, ss and 11 are sim- plified ; 11 is sometimes simplified after a short vowel, which is then lengthened if the syllable is accented {compe7isatory lengthening) ; but if the syllable is unaccented, such lengthening need not take place. In this case other doubled consonants may also be simplified. fel (for fell) ; lac (for lact) ; vigil (for vigils) ; lapis (for lapid-s, lapiss) ; misi (for mIs-si) ; villa and vilicus ; but currus and curulis. Note.— X is retained, even after 1 and r, as in calx, arx ; also ps, bs, as in stirps, tubs ; ms is found in hiems only. {h) In the tendency to easier pronunciation consonants are often dropped both at the beginning and in the middle of a word : stimulus (for stigmulus) ; pastor (for pasctor) ; aiS (for ahiS) ; natus (for gnatus, retained in early Latin, rarely later); latus (for tlatus), etc. 7. Epenthesis. — Between m and 1, m and s, m and t, a p is generated : ez-em-p-lum (ex-im6) ; cQm-p-si (c5m5) ; 6m-p-tus (emO). 8. 3Ietathesis or transposition of consonants occurs Sometimes in Latin, especially in Perfect and Supine forms : cemO ; Pf . crS-vI, etc. Syllables. 10. The syllable is the unit of pronunciation ; it consists of a vowel, or a vowel and one or more consonants. A word has as many syllables as it contains separate vowels and diphthongs. In dividing a word into syllables, a consonant, between two vowels, belongs to the second : a-mo, / love ; li-xa, a sutler. SYLLABLES — QUANTITY. ^ Any combination of consonants that can begin a word (including mn, under Greek influence) belongs to the fol- lowing vowel ; in other combinations the first consonant belongs to the preceding vowel : a-sper, rough ; fau-stus, hicli/ ; li-bri, books ; a-mnis, river. Remarks. — i. The combinations incapable of beginning a word are (a) aOubled consonants : sic-cus, dry ; (b) a liquid and a consonant : al-mus, fostering ; am-bo, hoih ; an-guis, snalie ; ar-bor, tree. 2. Compounds are treated by the best grammarians as if their parts were separate words : ab-igO, I drive off ; r6s-publica, commonivealth. 11. The last syllable of a word is called the ultimate (ultima, last) ; the next to the last the penult (paene, almost, and ultima) ; the one before the penult^ the antepenult (ante, before, and paenultima). Remark. — A syllable is said to be open when it ends with a vowel ; close, when it ends with a consonant. Quantity. 12. I. A syllable is said to be long by nature, when it contains a long vowel or diphthong : mos, custom ; caelum, heaven. Remarks. — i. A vowel before nf, ns, gm, gn, is long by nature : infgllz, unlucky ; mgnsa, table ; agmen, trahi ; agnus, lamb. In many cases, however, the n has disappeared from the written word ; so in some substantival terminations : os (Ace. PL, 2d decL), us (Ace. PL, 4th decl.) ; in adjectives in osus (formosus, shapely, for formonsus) ; in the numerical termination gsimus (= gnsimus). See 95, n. 5. 2. Before i eonsona?it (j) a vowel is long by nature : Pompgius, Pompey ; except in compounds of iugum, yoke (bi-iugus, two-horse), and in a few other words. Note.— From about 134 to about 74 B. C. a, g, U, were often represented by aa, ee, UU ; I by ei. From the time of Augustus to the second century i was indicated by a leugthened I. From Sulla's time until the third century long vowels (rarely, however, i) were mdicated by an Apex ('). 2. A syllable is said to be long by position, when a short vowel is followed by two or more consonants, or a double consonant : ars, art ; c6llum, neck ; ^brumpo, / break off ; per mare, through the sea ; nex, ^nurder. 8 ACCENTUATION". 3. A syllable is said to be short when it contains a short vowel, which is not followed by two or more consonants : locus, place ; tabula, picture. Remark. — A vowel is short hy nature when followed by another vowel, or by nt, nd : d6u8, Ood ; innoc6iitia, innocence ; amandus, to he loved. 13. A syllable ending in a short vowel, followed by a mute with 1 or r, is said to be common (anceps, douUful) : ten6- brae, darkness. Remark. — In prose such syllables are always short. In poetry they were short in early times, common in the Augustan period. 14. Every diphthong, and every vowel derived from a diphthong, or contracted from other vowels, is long: saevus, cruel; concltido, I shut up (from claudo, I shut); cogo (from co-ago), / drive together. Accentuation. 15. T. Dissyllabic words have the accent or stress on the penult : 6quus, horse. 2. Polysyllabic words have the accent on the penult, when the penult is long ; on the antepenult, when the penult is short or common : mandare, to commit ; mand^re, to chetv ; intfignim, entire; circumdare, to surround; sup6rstit6s, survivors. , Remarks. — i. The little appendages (enclitics), que, ve, ne, add an accent to the ultimate of words accented on the antepenult : luminaque, and lights ; fldminave, or rivers ; v6merene ] from a plowshare ^ Dis- syllables and words accented on the penult are said to shift their accent to the final syllable before an enclitic : egomet, I indeed ; amfireve, or to love ; hnt it is more likely that the ordinary rule of accentuation was followed. 2. Compounds (not prepositional) of facere and dare retain the accent on the verbal form : calefacit, vfinumdare. 3. Vocatives and genitives of substantives in ios of the second de- clension, as well as genitives of substantives in ium, retain the accent on the same syllable as the nominative : Vergfll. Note.— Other exceptions will be noted ae they occur. In the older language the accent was not bounded by the antepenult : accipiO (accfpiO), concutiO (COnc6ti5). PARTS OF SPEECH — IN^FLECTION. Parts of Speech, 16. The Parts of Speech are the Noun (Substantive and Adjective), the Pronoun, tlie Verb, and the Particles (Ad- verb, Preposition, and Conjunction), defined as follows : 1. The Substantive gives a name: vir, a man; Codes, Cocks ; donum, a gift, 2. The Adjective adds a quality to the Substantive : bonus vir, a good ma7i, 3. The Pronoun points out without describing : hie, this ; ille, that ; ego, /. 4. The Verb expresses a complete thought, whether asser- tion, wish, or command ; amat, lie loves ; amet, may he love ; ama, love thou ! 5. The Adverb shows circumstances, 6. The Preposition shows local relation. 7. The Conjunction shows connection. Remarks. — i. Substantive is short for noun-substantive, and ad- jective for noun-adjective. Substantives are often loosely called nouns. 2. The Interjection is either a mere cry of feeling : all ! ah ! and does not belong to language, or falls under one of the above-mentioned classes. 3. The Particles are mainly mutilated forms of the noun and pro- noun. Notes.— 1. The difference between substantive and adjective is largely a difference of mobility ; that is, the substantive is fixed in its application and the adjective is general. 2. Noun and pronoun have essentially the same inflection ; but they are commonly separated, partly on account of the difference in signification, partly on account oi certain peculiarities of the pronominal forms. Inflection. 17. Inflection (inflexio, bending) is that change in the form of a word (chiefly in the end) which shows a change in the relations of that word. The noun, pronoun, and verb are inflected ; the particles are not capable of further inflection. The inflection of nouns and pronouns is called declension^ and nouns and pronouns are said to be declined. The inflection of verbs is called conjugation ^ and verbs are said to be conjugated. lO THE SUBSTANTIVE — GENDER. The Substantive. 18. A Substantive is either concrete or abstract ; concrete when it gives the name of a person or thing ; abstract when it gives the name of a quality ; as amicitia, friendsliip. Concrete substantives are either proper or common : Proper when they are proper, or peculiar, to certain per- sons, places, or things: Horatius, Horace; Neapolis, Naples; Padus, Fo. Common when they are common to a whole class : dominus, a lord ; urbs, a city ; amnis, a river. Gender of Substantives. 19. For the names of animate beings, the gender is deter- mined by the signification ; for things and qualities, by the termination. Names of males are masculine ; names of females, femi- nine. Masculine : Romulus; luppiter; vir, inaii; equus, horse. Feminine : Cornelia; Itino ; femina, uwman; equa, 7nare. 20. Some classes of words, without natural gender, have their gender determined by the signification : 1. All names of months and winds, most names of rivers, and many names of motmtains are masculine ; as : Aprllis, April, the opening month ; Aqnilo, the north ivind ; Albis, the River Elbe ; AthOs, Mou7it Athos. Remarks. — i. Names of months, winds, and rivers were looked upon as adjectives in agreement with masculine substantives under- stood (mgnsis, month ; ventus, ^vind ; fluvius, amnis, river). 2. Of .he rivers, AUia, LgthS, Matrona, Sagra, Styx are feminine ; Albula, AcherOn, Garumna vary, being sometimes masculine, some- times feminine. 3. Of the mountains, Alpgs, the Alps, is feminine ; so, too, sundry (Greek) names in a (G. ae), S (G. 6s) : Aetna (usually), Calp6, CyllenS, Hybla, Ida, Ossa (usually), Oeta (usually), BhodopS, PholoS, PyrSnS, and Carambis, Peloris. Pfilion and Soracte (usually), and names of moun- tains in a (G. 5rum), as Maenala (G. MaenalOnun), are neuter. II. Names of countries (terrae, feni.), islands (insulae, fern.), cities (urbes, /cv/z.), plants (plantae, /em.), and trees GEN"DER — NUMBER. 1 1 (arbores, fern.), are feminine: Aegyptus, Egypt; Ehodus, llliodes ; pirus, a pear-tree ; abies, a fir-tree. Remarks. — i. Names of countries and islands in us (os) (G. i) are masculine, except Aegyptus, Chius, Chersonesus, Cyprus, Dglos, Epirus, Lemnos, Lesbos, Peloponnesus, Rhodus, Samos, Bosporus (the country). 2, Many Greek names of cities follow the termination. Towards the end of the republic many feminine names change the ending -us to -um and become neuter : Abydus and Abydum, Saguntus and Saguntum. 3. Most names of trees with stems in -tro (N. -ter) are masculine : oleaster, ivild olive ; pinaster, wild pine. So also most shrubs : dumus, hramble-hush ; rhus, sumach. J^Teuter are acer, maple ; laser, a plant ; papaver, poppy (also mase. in early Latin) ; rQbur, oak ; slier, willow ; siser, skirret (occasionally masc.) ; suber, cork-tree ; tuber, mushroom. III. All indeclinable substantives^ and all words and plirases treated as indeclinable substantives, are neuter : fas, right; a longum, a long; scire tuum, thy knowi7ig ; triste vale, a sad ^' farewell.'^ 21. 1. Substantives which have but one form for mascu- line and feminine are said to be of common gender : civis, citizen (male or female) ; comes, companion ; itidex, pidge. 2. Substantiva mobilia are words of the same origin, whose different terminations designate difference of gender : ma- gister, master, teacher ; magistra, mistress; servus, serva, slave (masc. and fem.) ; victor, victrix, conqueror (masc. and fem.). 3. If the male and female of animals ha,ve but one desig- nation, mas, male, and femina, female, are added, when it is necessary to be exact : pavO mas (masculus), peacock ; pavo femina, pealien. These substantives are called epicene (eiTLKoiva, utrlque generi communia, common to each gender). Number. 22. In Latin there are two numbers : the Singular, denoting one ; the Plural, denoting more than one. Remark. — The Dual, denoting iwo, occurs in Latin only in two words (duo, iwo; ambo, both), in the nominative and vocative of the masculine and neuter, A similar formation is oct5, eight (two fours). 12 CASES. Cases. 23. In Latin there are six cases : 1. Nominative (Case of the Subject). Answers : who 9 what 9 2. Genitive (Case of the Complement), Answers : ivhose 9 ivhereof 9 3. Dative (Case of Indirect Object or Personal Interest). Answers : to whom 9 for whom 9 4. Accusative (Case of Direct Object). Answers : whom 9 tvhat 9 5. Vocative (Case of Direct Address). 6. Ablative (Case of Adverbial Relation). Answers : where 9 whence 9 wheretvith 9 Note. — These six cases are the remains of a larger number. The Locative (answers : where?), is akin to the Dative, and coincident with it in the Ist and 3d Declengions ; in the 2d Declension it is lost in the Genitive ; it is often blended with the Ablative in form, regularly in ayntax. The Instrumental (answers: wherewith?), which is found in other members of the family, is likewise merged in the Ablative. 24. I. According to their /orw, the cases are divided into strong and wealc : The strong cases are Nominative, Accusa- tive, and Vocative. The weak cases are Genitive, Dative, and Ablative. 2. According to their st/ntactical 7ise, the cases are divided into Casus Recti, or Independent Cases, and Casus ObllquI, or Dependent Cases. Nominative and Vocative are Castis Recti, the rest Casus Obliqui. 25. The case-forms arise from the combination of the case- endings with the stem. 1. The stem is that which is common to a class of forma- tions. Notes.— 1. Tlie stem is often so much altered by contact with the case-ending, and the cafse-ending so much altered by the wearing away of vowels and consonants, that they can be determined only by scientific analysis. So in the paradigm mSnsa, the stem is not mSns, but mSnsS, the final a having been absorbed by the ending in the Dative and Ablative Plural niSnsIs. So -d, the ending of the Ablative Singular, has nearly disappeared, and the loctitive ending has undergone many changes (6, ei, I, 6). The " cnide form " it is often impossible to ascertain. 2. The root is an ultimate stem, and the determinatioD of the root belongs to comp DECLENSIONS. I ^ parative etymology. The stem may be of any length, the root was probably a mono- syllable. In penna the stem is penna- ; in pennula, pennula- ; in pennatulus, pennatulo- ; the root is pet (petna, pesna, penna), and is found in pet-ere, tofalL upon, tojtyat; Greek, Trer-oMai, nTepov ; English, feather. 2. The case-endings are as follows, early forms being printed in parenthesis : Sg.— N.V. Wanting orra. f.-s;n. -m. Pl.— N.V, -es(eis, is); -i; n. -a. G. -is (-OS, -us, -es) ; -i. G. -um (om) ; -rum (som). J. -i (-e, -ei). D. -bus ; -is. Ac. -m, -em. Ac. -s (for -ns) ; n. -a. Ab. Wanting (or -d) ; -e. Ab. -bus ; -is. Declensions. 26. There are five declensions in Latin, which are charac- terized by the final letter of their respective stems {stem- characteristic). For practical purposes and regularly in lexicons they are also im- properly distinguished by the ending of the Genitive Singular. Stem Characteristic. Ge NITIVE ^ I. a (a). ae. II. 6. I. III. i, a, a consonant. is. IV. il. us. V. 6. %l. Remark. — The First, Second, and Fifth Declensions are called Vowel Declensions ; the Third and Fourth, which really form but one, the Consonant Declension, i and u being semi-consonants. 27. The case-endings in combination with the stem-char- acteristics give rise to the following systems of terminations : Singular. I. II. III. K a. us (os) ; wanting ; um (om). s; wanting. G. ae (as, ai. ai). I (el). is (us, es). D. ae (ai). (oi). I (e-i, i). Ac. am. um (om). em, im. V. a. e ; wanting ; um (om). 8. AO. a (ad). 6 (Od). e, I (ed, id). 14 FIRST DECLENSIOIS', IV. V. N.V. us; u. es. G. lis (uos, uis). &, 6 (es). - D. ui, ti (uei). il,6. Ac. urn; a. em. Ab. Plural. 6. I. II. III. N. V. ae. 3 (oe, e, el) ; ft. Ss (e-is, is) ; a, ia. G. arum. urn (om), orum. um, ium. D. A. is(eis); abus. is (eis), ibus. ibus. Ac. Ss. 5s; ft. is,es; a,ia. IV. V. N.V. lis (lies, uus) ; ua. es. G. uum. 6rum. D. A. ubus, ibus. Sbus. Ac. us; ua. es. Note.— Final -s and -m are frequently omitted in early inscriptions. 28. General Rules of Declensio7i. I. For the strong cases . Neuter substantives have the Nominative and the Vocative like the Accusative ; in the Plural the strong cases always end in ft. In the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Declensions the strong cases are alike in the Plural. The Vocative is like the Nominative, except in the Singular of the Second Declension when the Nominative ends in -us. II. For the weak cases : The Dative and the Ablative Plural have a common form. FIRST DECLENSION. 29. The stem ends in S,, which is weakened from an original a. The Nominative has no ending. Sg. — N. mensa (f.), the table, a table. of the table, of a table. to, for the table^ to, for a table, the table, a table. table ! table ! from, with, by, the table, from, ivith, by, a table. G. mensae, D. mgnsae, Ac. mgnsam, V. mensa, Ab. mensS, SECOND DECLENSION. Pl.. -N. mSnsae, the tables, tables. G. mensarum, of the tables, of tables. D. mensis, to, for the tables, to, for tables Ac. mSnsas, the tables, tables. V. mgnsae, tables/ tables ! Ab. mensis, from, with, by, the tables. from, with, I Remarks. — i. The early ending of the Gen., as, found in a few cases in early poets, is retained in the classical period (but not in Caesar or Livy) only in the form familias, of a family, in combination with pater, father, mater, mother, filius, son, fflia, daughter, viz. : paterfamilias, materfamilias, filius familias, filia familias. 2. The Loc. Sing, is like the Genitive: Romae, at Rome; militiae, abroad. 3. The Gen. PI. sometimes takes the form -um instead of -arum; this occurs chiefly in the Greek words amphora {amphora, measure of tonnage), and drachma, franc — {Oreelc coin). The poets make frequent use of this form in Greek patronymics in -da, -das, and compounds of -cola (from colo, I inhabit) and -gena (from root gen, beget). 4. The ending -abus is found (along with the regular ending) in the Dat. and Abl. PI. of dea, goddess, and fllia, daughter. In late Latin the use of this termination becomes more extended. Notes.— 1. A very few raasc. substantives show Nom. Sing, in as in early Latin. 2. A form of tlie Gen. Sing, in ai, subsequent to tiiat in as, is found in early inscriptions, and not unfrequently in early poets, but only here and there in classical poetry (Verg., A., 3, 354, etc.) and never in classical prose. 3. The early ending of the Dat. ai (sometimes contracted into a), is found occa- sionally in inscriptions throughout the whole period of the language. 4. The older ending of the Abl., ad, belongs exclusively to early Latin. Inscriptions show eis for is in Dat. and Abl. PI., and once as in the Dat. Plural. 30. Rtile of Gender. — Substantives of the First Declen- sion are feminine, except when males are meant. Hadria, the Adriatic, is masculine. SECOND DECLENSION. 31. The stem ends in 6, which in the classical period is weakened to u, except after u (vowel or consonant), where 5 is retained nntil the first century A.D. In combination with the case-endings it merges into o or disappears altogether. In the Vocative (except in neuters) it is weakened to 6. The Nominative ends in s (m. and f.) and m (n.). But many masculine stems in which the final vowel, 6, is preceded by r, drop the (os) us and e of the Nominative and Vocative, and insert e before the r if it was preceded by a consonant. i6 SECON^D DECLENSIOK. 32. I. Stems in -ro. The following stems in -ro do not drop the(os) us and e of the Nom. and Voc. : erus, master ; hespenis, evening star ; icterus, jaundice ; itiniperus, juniper ; morus, mulberry ; numems, num- her ; taurus, bull ; virus, venom; umerus, sJioulder ; uterus, ivomb. Note.— Socerus is found in early Latin 2. In the following words the Plautus uses uterum, (n.) once. ends in -ero and the e is there- fore retained throughout : adulter, adulterer ; gener, son-in-law; Liber, god of wine ; puer, boy; socer, father-in-law; vesper, evenifig ; and in words ending in -fer and -ger, from fer5, / bear, and gero, / carry, as, signifer, standard-bearer, armiger, armor-bearer. Also Ibgr and Celtibfir (names of nations) have in the Plural Ib6ri and Celtiben. 33. Hortus (m.), garden; puer (m.), boy; ager (m.), field ; bellum (n.), tvar ; are thus declined : Sg.-K hortus, puer. ager, bellum, G. horti. pueri. agri, belli. D. horto. puerO, agro. belie. Ac. hortum. puerum, agrum. bellum, V. horte. puer. ager. bellum, Ab. hortS. puerS. agrS. bells. IL.-N. horti. puerl, agri, bella. G. hortorum, puerQrum, agrorum, bellonim, D. hortis. pueris. agris, bellis. Ac. hortOs, puerOs, agros, bella. V. horti, pueri, agri. bella. Ab. hortis. pueris. agris. bellis. Remarks. — i. Stems in -io have Gen. Sing, for the most part in i until the first century A. D., without change of accent : ingeni (N. ingenium), of genius, Vergili, of Vergil. See 15, r. 3. 2. Proper names in -ius (stems in -io) have Voc. in i, without change of accent : AntSni, TuUi, Gai, Vergili. Fllius, son, and genius, genius, form their Voc. in like manner : fili, geni. In solemn discourse -us of the Nom. is employed also for the Vocative. (See Liv. i. 24, 7.) So regularly deus, God ! 3. The Loc. Sing, ends in i (apparent Genitive), as Bhodi, at Rhodes, Tarenti, at Tarentum. 4. In the Gen. PI. -tun instead of -Orum is found in words denoting coins and measures ; as, nummum, of moneys (also -5rum) = sSstertium, of sesterces; dSnSrium (occasionally -Orum) ; talentum (occasionally -5rum); tetrachmum; medium (also -Orum), of nieasures ; iugerum; medimnum; stadium (also -Orum). Likewise in some names of persons : deum (also THIRD DECLENSION. 1/ -omm) ; fabrtun (in technical expressions ; as praefectus fabrum, other- wise -5rtim) ; liberum (also -Snun) ; virum (poetical, except in technical expressions, as triumvirum) ; socium (also -onun). Some other examples are poetical, rare or late.. 5. The Log. PI. is identical with the Dative : Delphis, at Delphi. 6. Deus, Ood, is irregular. In addition to the forms already men- tioned, it has in Nom. PI. dei, diij di ; in Dat. and Abl. PI. deXs, diis, dis. Notes.— 1. The ending -ei for -I in the Gen. Sing, is found only in InscrlptionB sub- sequent to the third Punic War. 2. Puer, boy^ forms Voc. puere in early Latin. 3. The original Abl. ending -d belongs to early inscriptions. 4. In early inscriptions the Nom. PI. ends occasionally in 6s, eis, Is : magistrSs (for magistrl) vireis (for viri). The rare endings oe and g <,ploirumS for pltiriml) and the not uncommon ending ei belong to the same period. 5. Inscriptions often show eiS for is in Dat. and Abl. Plural. 34. Rule of Gender. — Substantives in -us are masculine ; in -um neuter. Exceptions. — Feminine are : 1st. Cities and islands, as, Corinthus, Samus. 2d. Most trees, as, fagus, heech ; pirns, pear-tree. 3d. Many Greek nouns, as, atomus, atom ; dialectus, dialect ; methodus, method ; paragraphus, paragraph ; periodus, period. 4th. Alvns, helly (m. in Plaut.) ; colus (61, N. 5), distaff {silso m.) ; humus, groimd ; vannus, wheat-fan. Neuters are : pelagus, sea ; virus, venom ; vulgus, the rabble (some- times masculine). THIRD DECLENSION. 35. I. The stem ends in a consonant, or in the close vowels 1 and u. 2. The stems are divided according to their last letter, called the stem-characteristic, following the subdivisions of the letters of the alphabet : I. — Consonant Stems. II. — Vowel Stems. A. Liquid stems, ending in 1, m, n, r. 1. Ending in i. B. Sibilant stems, ending in s. 2. Ending in u, ( 1. Ending in a P-mute, b,p. (Compare the Fourth C. Mute stems, ■< 3. Ending in a K-mute, g, c. Declension.) ( 3. Ending in a T-mute, d, t. 36. I. The Nominative Singular, masculine and femi- nine, ends in s, which, however, is dropped after 1, n, r, s, and combines with a K-mute to form x. The final vowel of the stem undergoes various changes. 1 8 THIRD DECLEKSION. The Vocative is like the Nominative. In the other cases, the endings are added to the unchanged stem. 2. Neaiters always form : The Nominative without the case-ending s. The Accusative and Vocative cases in both numbers like the Nominative. The Nominative Plural in a. Notes on the Cases. 37. Singular. 1. Genitive.— In old Latin we find on inscriptions the endings -uS (Gr. -os) and •es. 2. Dative.— The early endings of the Dat. are -gi and -g. These were succeeded by I after the second century B. C, 6 being retained in formulas lilce iurS dicundd (Liv., 42, 28, 6), in addition to the usual form. 3. Accusative.— The original termination -im, in stems of the vowel declension, loses ground, and stems of tliis class form their Ace. more and more in -em, after the analogy of consonant stems. For tlic classical usage see 57, r. i. 4. Ablative.— In inscriptions of the second and first centuries B. C. we find -ei, -I, and -e. But -ei soon disappears, leaving e and i. In general e is the ending for the consonant stems and I for the vowel. But as in the Ace, so in the Abl., the e makes inroads on the i, though never to the same extent. (See 57, R. 2.) On the other hand, some apparently consonant stems assume the ending i. Thus some in -as, -atis : hSrgditati (200 B. C), aetati (rare) ; litl (rare), supellSctili (classical ; early e) ; also the liquid stems which syncopate in the Gen,, as imber. The ending -d is rare and confined to early inscriptions. 5. Locative.— Originally coincident in form with the Dat., the Loc. of the Third Declension was finally blended with Abl., both in form and in syntax. In the follow- ing proper names the old form is frequently retained : Karthagini, at Carthage, Sul- mdnl, at Sulmo^ Lacedaemoni, at Lacedaemon, Sicyoni, Troezfinl, Anxorl, Tiburl. Also Acherunti. I" the case of all except Anxur, Tibur, Acheiiiiis, the regular form is more common. The following Loc. forms of common nouns are found : herl, IticI, noctu (prin- cipally in early Latin), orbi (Cic), peregrl (early Latin), praefiscini (early Latin), rOrl, temperl (the usual form in early Latin), vesperi. In all cases the Abl. forn» in e is also found. 38. Plural. 1. Nominative.— Early Latin shows -gls, -Is in the masc. and feminine. The latter was usually confined to vowel stems, but also occurs occasionally in consonant stems (ioudicls). Later the ending was -6s for all kinds of stems. 2. Genitive.— The ending -tun, uniting with the vowel in vowel stems, gives -ium. But many apparently consonant stems show their original vowel form by tak- ing -ium : (1) Many fern, stems in -tSt- (N. tas) with -ium as well as -um. (2) Mon- osyllabic and polysyllabic stems in -t, -c, with preceding consonant. (3) Monosyllables in -p and -b, sometimes with, sometimes without, a preceding consonant. (4) Stems in -ss- ; see 48, r. 3. Accusative.— Old Latin shows also -els. The classical form is -gs for conso- nant and -Is for vowel stems. But -gs begins to drive out -Is in some vowel stems and wholly supplants it in the early Empire. On the other hand, some apparently original consonant stems show -Is in early Latin, but the cases are not always certain. CONSONANT STEMS. I9 l.-CONSONANT STEMS. A.— Liquid Stems. 1. Liquid Stems in 1. 39. Form the Nominative without s and fall into two divisions* : A. Those in which the stem characteristic is preceded by a vowel : 1. 'Ul, 'Ulis : sal (with compensatory lengthening), salt; Punic proper names like Adherbal, Hannibal. 2. -«7, "Uis : mtigil (mugilis is late), mullet ; pugil (pugilis in Varro), boxer ; vigil, watchman. 'il, -Ills : sil, ochre ; Tanaquil (with shortened vowel), a proper name. 3 -olf -oils : sol, sun, 4. 'Ulf -nils : consul, consul; exsul, exile; praesul, dancer. B. Two neuter substantives with stems in -11, one of which is lost in the Nominative : mel. mellis, honey ; fel. fellis. gall. Sg.— N. consul, consul ( m.). Pl. — N. consulSs, the consuls. G. consulis. G. consulum. D. consul!. D. consulibus, Ac. consulem, Ac. cSnsules, V. cSnsul, V. consulSs, Ab. cSnsule. Ab. consulibus. Rules of Gender. — i. Stems in -1 are masculine. Exceptions : Sfl, ochre, and sal, salt (occasionally, but principally in the Sing.), are neuter. 2. Stems in -11 are neuter. 2. Liquid Stems in m. 40. Nominative with s. One example only : liiem(p)s, tuinter (f.) ; Gen., Mem-is, Dat., hiem-i, etc, 3. Liquid Stems in n. 41. Most mascuHfie and feminine stems form the Nomi- native Singular by dropping the stem-characteristic and changing a preceding vowel to 0. * Tn the following enumerations of stem-varieties, Greek substantives are a& a rule omitted. 20 THIRD DECLENSION. Some masculine and 7nost neuter stems retain the stem- characteristic in the Nominative and change a preceding i to e. The following varieties appear ; 1. -eUy •enis : the masculine substantives li6n, splSn, spleen; r6n6s (pi.), kidneys. 2. 'Of •itiis : homo, man; nemo, no one ; turbS, ivliirlwind ; Apoll6, Apollo. Also substantives in -do (except praedo, G. -onis, robber) ; and in -go (except harpago, G. -oids, gi'appling-hook ; ligo, G. -onis, mattock) ; as, grands, hail; virgo, virgin. "en, inis : the mase. substan- tives flamen, priest ; oscen (also f.), divining bird; pecten, comb ; musical performers, cornicen, fidicen, liticen, tibicen, tubicen. Also many neuters : as nomen, name. 3. -o (in early Latin 6, in classical period weakened), •onis : le5, lion ; and about seventy others. -o, -onis : Saxo, Saxon (late). 4. Irregular formations : carS, G. carnis, flesh ; AniS, G. Anienis, a river ; N6ri6, G. Nerienis, a proper name. Sanguis, blood, and poUis, flour, drop the stem characteristic and add s to form nominative ; G. sanguinis, pollinis. 42. MAS(:ULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. Sg.— X. leS, lion(m.). imag5, likeness (f.). n5men, name (n.). G. leonis, imaginis, nominis. 1). leoni, imagini, nSmini, Ac, leonem, imaginem, nomen, V. leg, imago, nomen, Ab. leOne, imagine, n5mine, Pl.— N. leOnSs, imagines, nOmina, G. leonnm, imaginum, nominum, D. leonibus, imaginibus, nominibus, Ac. Ie5nes, imagines, nOmina, V. leOngs, imagines, nSmina, Ab. leOnibus, imaginibus. nSminibus. Note.— Early Latin shows hom5nem, etc., occasionally. 43. Eules of Oeiider. — i. Substantives in -6 are mascu- iiue, except carO, flesh, and those in -do, -go, and -16. Exceptions. -Masculine arc cardS, Idnge ; 6rd5, rank; harpagS, grappling- hook ; ligO, mattock ; marg5, harder (occasionally fern, in late Latin) ; and concrete nouns like ptlgiO, dagger, titiO, firebrand, vespertiliO, bat. 2. Substantives in -en (-men) are neuter. See exceptions, 41, I, 2. COKSOKANT STEMS, 21 4. Liquid Stems in r, 44. Form Nominative without s. Stems fall into the following classes : I. -aVf 'arts: salax, tt'out ; proper names like Caesar, Hamilcar; the neuters baccar, a plant ; iubar, radiance ; nectar, nedar. "dVf -aris: Lar, a deity. -dr, arts : Nar (Enn., Verg.), a river. •dVf arris : far (n.) spelt. 2. -er, 'Cris : acipgnser, a fish ; agger, mound; anser, goose-; asser, pole ; aster, a plant ; cancer, the disease ; career, prison; later, brick; mnlier (f.), woman; jpsisser, sparroiv ; tuber (m. and f.), apple; vesper, evening (QS, lo) ; vomer, plowshare (47, 2). The neuters axiev, maple ; cadaver, dead body ; cicer, pea; laser, a plant ; laver, a plant ; papaver, poppy ; piper, pepper ; siler, willow ; siser, skirret ; suber, cork; tuber, tumor ; fiber, teat ; [verber], thong. - between two vowels, into r (rJiotacism). There are the following varieties of stems : I. 'dSf "arts : mas, male. 'ds, -dsis : vas (n.), vessel. 'ds, »assis : as (m.), a copper (vowel long in Nom. by compensatory- lengthening), and some of its compounds (with change of vowel), as 2. "CS, "eris : Cergs, Ceres. -is, 'Cris : cinis, ashes; cucumis, cucufnber {see 57, r. i), pulvis (occasionally pulvis), dust ; v5inis, ploiv- share (see 45, r. 2). •ivs, -eris : Venus, and occasionally pignus, pledge (see 4). 3. "Is, •iris : glis, dormouse. 4. 'dSf -osis : old Latin ianitSs, labQs, clamSs (see 45, n.). 'OS, •ossis: 08 (n.), bo7ie. 'OSf-oris: flSs, flower; glOs, sister-in-law; lepos, charm ; mos (m. ), custom. ; -5s (n.), mouth ; rOs, dew. 'US, -oris : corpus, hody ; decus, grace ; pignus, pledge, and twelve others ; on robus (see 45, r. 2). 5. 'USf 'Uris : Ligus, Ligurian. •us, -uris : tellus (f.), earth ; mUs (m.), mouse; the neuters: crtis, leg; ias, right; pus, pus; rOs, country ; tils, incense. 6. aes, aeriSy brass. CONSONANT STEMS. 23 48. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. N. A. V. genus, kind (n,), genera, corpus, hody (n.), corpora, G. generis, generum, corporis, corporum, D. generi, generibus, corpori, corporibus, Ab. genere. generibus. corpore. corporibus. Remark. — As, a copper, and os, hone, form the Gen. PI. in -ium, after the usage of vowel stems (see 38, 2). So also mus, mouse. 49. Rule of Gender. — Masculine are substantives in -is (-eris), and -6s, -oris: except os, mouth (Gr. oris), which is neuter. Neuter are substantives in -us (G. -eris, -oris), and in -us (G. -iiris) ; except tellus, earth (G. telluris), which is femi- nine ; and the masculines, lepus, hare (G. leporis) ; mus, mouse (G. muris). C— Mute stems. 60. All masculines and feminines of mute stems have s in the Nominative. Before s a P-mute is retained, a K-mute combines with it to form x, a T-mute is dropped. Most polysyllabic mute stems change their final vowel i into e in the Nominative. The stems sliow variations as follows : 51. Stems ill a P-nmte. 1. 'dbs, -ahis : trabs, beam ; Arabs. -aps, -apis : [daps], feast. 2. ~ebs, ebis : plebs, commons. 3. -ejjs, -ipis: princeps, chief, and fourteen others. -ips^ -ipis: stips, dole. 4. ~ops,-ojjis: [ops], 2)0 wer. 5. -62>8, upis : auce]^, fowler, and the old Latin manceps, contractor. 6. -1*68, 'Vbis : urbs, city. 7. 'VpSf -rpis : stirps, stock. So. — N. princeps, chief (m.), Pl. — princip5s, G. principis, principum, D. principi, principibus, Ac. principem, principSs, V. princeps, principSs, Ab. principe. principibus. 62. Stems in a K-mute. I. -aXf 'Ucis: fax, torch, and many Greek words in -ax, Atax, proper name, -fla:^ -acts : tomix^ furnace ; limSx,f snail ; ■]^,jpeace; and Greek cordax, thOrax. 24 THIRD DECLENSION". 2. -ca?, 'CCis : faenisex, mower ; nex, murder ; [prex], prayer ; [resex], stump. -eoCf »ecis : allex (also allgc), brine ; verv6x, wether. 'CX, "egis : grex, herd ; aquilex, water-inspector. -ex, ^egis : interrSx ; lex, law ; rex, ki7ig. 3. 'CXf '•ids : auspex, soothsayer, and about forty others. -ex, •igis : rgmex, rower. -tx^ ids : cervix, neck, and about thirty- others ; verbals in -ix, as victrix. -ix, -ids : appendix, appendix, and ten others. -ix^ -igis : strix, screech-owl ; also many foreign proper names, as Dumnorix, which may, however, be forms in -ix, -igis. 4. 'bx, 'bds : celox, cutter ; vox, voice. -ox, 'Ods : Cappadox, Cappadocian. -ox, -ogis : Allobrox, Allohi^ogian. 5. 'UXf 'Ucis : crux, cross ; dux, leader ; nux, 7mt. •fix, 'Uds : lux, light ; hallux, gold-dust ; Pollux. 'iix, -ugis : coniux (-unx), spouse. 'iix, 'Ugis : frux, fruit. 6. 'VXf 'Vcis : arx, citadel ; merx, ivares. -Ix, 'Ids : falx, sickle ; calx, heel, lime. -nx, -nds : lanx, dish ; compounds of -unx, as quincunx, and a few names of animals ; phalanx has G. phalangis. 7. Unclassified : nix (G. nivis), snow; bos (G. bovis ; see 71), ox; [faux] (G. faucis), throat ; faex (G. faecis), dregs, Sg. — N. rex, king (m.). Pl.— reg6s, G. regis, rggum, D. r6gX, rggibus, Ac. rggem, rgggs, V. r6x, r6g6s, Ab. rgge, rggibus. 53. stems in a T-mute 1. "as, 'Otis: many feminine abstracts, as aetas, o^e ; some proper names, as Maecgnas. 'US, 'Utis : anas, duck. -as, -adis : vas, bail ; lampas, torch. 2. '•es,-etls : iadigea, patron deity ; interpres, interpreter; praepes, bi7'd ; seges, crop ; teges, mat. -es, -etis : abigs, fir ; arigs, ram ; parigs, wall. -es, -etis : quiSs, quiet ; requigs, rest. -es, -edis : pg3, foot, and its compounds. -es, -edis : hgrgs, heir ; mercgs, hire. 3. -€S, -itis : antistes, overseer ; caespes, sod, and some fifteen oth- ers, -es, -idis : obses, hostage ; praeses, protector. -is, -itis : USy suit. -is, -idis: capis, bowl; cassis, helmet, and nearly forty others, mostly Greek. 4. -OS, -Otis : c3s, whetstone ; d5B, dowry ; nep5s, grandson ; sacer- d5s, priest. -os, -odis : custOs, guard. 5. -Us, "litis: gltis, glue, and some abstracts: inventus, youth; salfls, safety ; senecttis, old age ; servitOs, servitude ; virtfis, maiiliness. -US, -udis: pecus, slieep. -Us, -Udis : incOs, anvil; paliis, marsh; subscUs, tenon. CONSONANT STEMS. 2^ 6. -aeSf -aedis : T^r&es, sui-ety. -aus, -audis : I&ms, praise; fraus, fraud. 7. -ISf-ltis: puis, porridge. -ns^ -ntis : in&ns, infant ; d6ns, tooth; ions, fountain ; mons, mo unt ai?b ; fraas, b7'ow ; •pQns, bridge ; g^ns, tribe; lens, lentil; m6ns, mind; rudgns, rope; torrgns, torrent. -s, -nils : latinized Greek words like gigas, giant. -r«, -rtis : ars, art ; cohors, cohort; fors, chance ; Mars; mors, death ; sors, lot. S. Unclassified : cor (G. cordis), heart; nox (G. noctis), night ; caput (G. capitis), head ; lac (G. lactis), milk. Sg.— X. aetas, alow- tail; cass6s (pi), toils; cauliS; stalk; coliis, hill; crinis, hair; gnsis, glaive; fascis, fagot ; follis, bellows ; funis, rope (f., Lucr.) ; fustis, cudgel ; ignis, fire; manes (pi-). Manes ; mSnsis, month ; mvL^ilds), mullet ; orbis, circle ; panis, bread ; postis, door-post ; torr is,. fire-brand ; unguis, nail ; vectis, lever ; vermis, nvrm. Com77ion are : callis,/oo/;;a//i ,• canalis, canal ; cltinis, haunch ; corbis, basket; finis, end ; rStis, net (also r6te, n.) ; sentis (usually pi.), bi-amble ; scrobis, ditch ; torquis (es), necklace ; tolgs (pi.), goitre ; veprgs (pi.), bramble. Remark. — Of the names of animals in -is, some are mascuHne ; tigris, ilger (fern, in poetry) ; canis, dog (also fern.) ; piscis, j^sA ; others fem- inine : apis, hee ; avis, hird ; ovis, sheep ; fglis, cat (usually feles). 2. Vowel stems, with Nominative in -e, -al, -ar, are neuter. 2. Vowel Stems in u. 59. Of stems in u, the monosyllabic stems, two in num- ber, belong to the Third Declension. Sg.— N. grtis, crane (f.) Pl.— grugs G. gruis gruum D. grui gruibus Ac. gruem gru6s V. grus grugs Ab. grue gruibus. Sas, swine (commonly f.), usually subus, in Dat. and Abl. Plural. Table of Nominativk and Genitive Endings op the Third Declensiok. The * before the ending denotes that it occurs only in the one word cited. 60. A. NOMINATIVES ENDING WITH A LIQUID. ^OM. Gen. NoM. Gen. -al -ali-s animal, animal. -ar *-arr-is far, spdt. ■ai-is Hannibal, proper name. -er -er-is anser. goose. -al *.ai.is sal, salt. -r-is pater, father. -el -ell-is mel, Jioney. *-iner-is iter. journey. -il -il-is pugil, boxer. -6r *-gr-is vgr. spring. -n-is Tanaquil, proper name. -or -5r-is color, color. -01 *-51-is s51, the sun.. -or-is aequor, expanse. -ul -ul-is consul, consul. *-ord-is cor, heart. -Sn -gn-is rgngs (pl.), kidneys. -ur -ur-is fulgur. lightning. -en -in-is n5men, name. -or-is rSbur, oak. -ar -ari-8 -ari-s calcar, spiir. nectar, nectar. -Or -Or-is fur, thitf. VOWEL STEMS. 29 B. NOMINATIVES ENDING WITH S, OR X (CS, gs). NOM. Gen. NOM. Gen. -as *-as-is vas, dish. -Is *.lt-is puis, porridge. *-ar-is mas, male. -m(p)s *-m-is hiems, winter. -at-is aetas, age. -ns -nd-is frSns, leafy branch. -as *-ad-is vas. surety. -nt-is frons. foreliead. *ass-is as, a copper. -IS -rd-is concors, concordant. -at-is anas, duck. -rt-is pars. part. -aes" -aed-is praes, surety. -bs -b-is urbs, cUy. *aer-is aes, brass. -ps -p-is stirps, stalk. •aus -aud-is fraus, cJieatery. -eps -ip-is princeps, chief. -6s -is nubes, cloud. *-up-i8 auceps, fowler. -ed-is pes. foot. -ax -ac-is pax. peace. -ed-is heres, heir. -ax =:=-ac-is fax. toixh. *-er-is Ceres, Ceres. -aex -aec-is faex, dregs. -et-is abigs. fir. -aux -auc-is [faux,] throat. -6t-is quigs. rtsf. -ex -ec-is nex. death. es -et-is seges, crop. -ic-is iiidex, judge. -id-is obses. hostage. -eg-is grex. flock. -it-is miles. soldier. *.ig-is rgmex. rower. •is -is amnis, river. -ex *-5c-is allgx. jnckie. -id-is lapis. stone. *-ic-is vibgx(ix5 (, weaJ: -in-is sanguis, blood. -gg-is rgx. king. -er-is cinis, ashes. -Ix -ic-is cervix, neck. -is *-it-is lis, suit at laiv. -ix -ic-is calix, cup. *-ir-is glis, dormouse. *4g-is strix, screech-owl. -OS *-od-is custos, keeper. *-iv-is nix. snow. -or-is ^os. flower. -5x -oc-is vox. voice. -6t-is cos. whetstone. -ox *-oc-is praecox. eaHy-Hpe. *-ov-is bos, ox. *-0g-i8 AUobrox, AUoinogian. -OS *oss-is OS, bone. *-oct-is nox. night. -US *-ud-is pecus. cattle, sheep. -ux -c-is crux, ovss. *-ur-is Ligus, a Ligurian. -ug-is cSniux, s])ouse. -or-is corpus, body. -ux -iic-is lux, light. -or-is scelus, crime. -ug-is [frux,] f7^iL -fis -u-is sus, swine. -Ix -Ic-is falx, sickle. -fid-is incus, anvil. -nx -nc-is lanx, dish. -ur-is ius, right. -rx -re-ifi arx. citadel. -ut-is salus, weal. C. NOMINATIVES ENDING WITH A MUTE. -ut *-it-is caput, -ac *-act-is lac, milk. =Sc *-€C-is allgc, pickle (OS, 12). head. D. NOMINATIVES ENDING WITH A VOWEL. -€ -i-s mare, sea. -0 -on-is Saxo, Saxon, ^ -6n-is pav3, peacock. -in-is homo, mail. *-n-is cars, flesh. 30 VOVHTK DECOINSION'. FOURTH DECLENSION, 61. The Fourth Declension embraces only dissyllabic and polysyllabic stems in u. The endings are those of the Third Declension. In the Genitive and Ablative Singular, and in the Nomi- native, Accusative, and Vocative Plural (sometimes, too, in the Dative Singular), the u of the stem absorbs the vowel of the ending, and becomes long. In the Dative and Ablative Plural it is weakened to i before the ending -bus. The Accusative Singular, as always in vowel stems, has the ending -m, without a connecting vowel (compare the Accusative in -i-m of the stems in i), hence -u-m. MASCULINE. NEUTER. Sti.— N. fructus, fruit. Pi>.— fructus, Sg. -cornu, /u)rn. Pi>.— comua, G. fructus, fructuum, corniis, cornuum, I), frtictui (fruetti), friictibus, cornu, cornibus, Ac. fructum, fructus, cornu, comua, V. frUctus, fructus, cornu, cornua, Ab. fructu. friictibus. cornu. cornibus. Remarks. — i. Dat. AIL The original form -u-bus is retained always in acus, arcus, quercus, tribus, and in classical times in partus. But artus, genu, lacus, portus, specus, tonitru, veru, have both forms. 2. Domus, ^owse, is declined : G. domu-os (archaic), domu-is and dorai (early), domu-us (late), domus. D. domo (early), domul. Ac. domum. Y. domus. Ab. dom-u (sporadic), domo. Loc^ domi. PI. N. domtis. G. domorum (Lucr. always, Verg., Flor.), domuiim (late). D. Ab. domibus. Ac. domos, domus. Classical forms are those in black-faced type, A classical variant for domi (Loc.) is domul. Notes.— 1. Singrular: Genitive. In early inscriptions we find the ending -os, as senatuos ; and in early autliors not unfrequently -is, along with the contraction -us (-uis), wliich becomes the regular form in classical times. In inscriptions under the empire -us is occasionally found, as exercituus. The termination -i, after the analogy of the Second Declension, is common ii. early Latin, and is still retained in some words even into the classical period ; as senatl (Cic, Sall., Livy), tumult! (Sall.). 2. Dative. In the early time -uei is found very rarely for -ul. Also u, as senatti, fructu, which became the only form for neuters. In classical times -u in masc. and fern, is poetical only (Caesar uses, however, casu, exercitti, magistratu, senatG, quaestu), but extends to prose in the Augustan age and later. 3. Plural : Norn.., Ace, Voe. In imperial inscriptions -uus occurs. 4. Genitive. The poets frequently (-ontract -uum iuto -um for metrical reasons, and this usage was sometimes extended to prose (not by Ciceko) in common words ; as passflm for passuum. 5. Colus, distaff, belongs properly to tte Second Declension, but has variants : Q. COltlS, Ab. colli, P1-, N., Ac, colus, from the Fourth. FIFTH DECLEKSION". 3 1 62. Rule of Gender. — Substantives in -us are masculine ; those in -u are neuter. Exceptions. — Feminines are acus, needle (usually), domus, house, idus (pi.), ihe Ides, manus, hajid, penus, victuals (also m.), porticus, piazza, quinquatrus (pL), festival of Jlinerva, tribus, ti'ibe. Eai'ly and late Latin show some further variations. FIFTH DECLENSION. 63. The stem ends in -6 ; Nominative in s. In the Genitive and Dative Singular -e has been shortened after a consonant. In the Accusative Singular we find, always e. The ending in the Genitive Singular is that of the Second Declension, -i ; the other endings are those of the Third. MASCULINE. FEMININE. k~N. digs, day. Pl.- -dies, Sq.- -rgs. thing. Pl.- -res. G. diet, dieruin, rei. rgrum, D. diei, diebus, rei. rgbus, Ac. diem, dies, rem > rgs, V. dies, digs, rgs. rgs, Ab. die. digbus. r6. rgbus. Remarks. — i. Plural : Gen., Dat., AM. Common in but two substan- tives, dies, rgs. Late Latin shows also specigbus, and very rarely spgbus and acigbus. 2. Many words of the Fifth Declension have a parallel form, which follows the First Declension, us mollitigs, softness, and moUitia. Where this is the case, forms of the Fifth Declension are usually found only in the Nom., Ace, and Abl. Singular. Notes.— 1. Singular : Genitive. The older ending -g-s is found sporadically in early Latin, but usually the ending -g-i, which became later -§-i after consonants, though early poets show numerous examples of rgi, spgl, fidgl. gl was occasionally scanned as one syllable, whence arose the contraction g, which is retained not unfre- quently m the classical period ; so acig (Caes., Sall.), dig (Pl., Caes., Ball., Livr, later), fidg (Pl., Hok., Ov., late Prose), and other less certain cases; ioccursvery rarely, principally in early Latin (but dil, Verg., pemicil, Cic). Plgbgs, in combination with tribunus, aedilis, scitum, often shows a Gen. plgbi (plebei). 2. Dative. The contraction -g is found, but less often than in the Gen. ; acie (8all.) ; dig, facie (early Latin) ; fidg (early Latin, Caes., Sall , Livy), perniciS (LrvY), and a few other forms. The Dat. in -i is found very rarely in early Latin. 64. Rule of Gender. — Substantives of the Fifth Declension are feminine except dies (which in the Sing, is common, and in the PI. masculine), and meridies (m.), midday. 32 DECLEJS^SION OF GREEK SUBSTANTIVES. Declension of Greek Substantives. 66. Greek substantives, especially proper names, are com- monly Latinized, and declined regularly according to their stem-characteristic. Many substantives, however, either retain their Greek form exclusively, or have the Greek and Latin forms side by side. These variations occur principally in the Singular, in the Plural the declension is usually regular. Singular Forms < of Greek Substantives. First Declension. N. Penelopg, Leonidas, Anchises, G. PSnelopgs, Leonidae, Anchisae, D. Penelopae, Leonidae, Anchisae, Ac. Penelopen, Leonidam, an. Anchisgn, am, V. PSnelopg, Leonida, Anchisg, a, ft, Ab. Pgnelopa. Leonida. Anchisa. Second Declension. N. Delos , us. Ilion, urn, Panthus, Androgeos, us, G. D§li, Ilii, Panthi, Androgei, D. Dglo, Ilio, PanthO, Androgeo, Ac. Delon , um, Ilion, um. Panthun, AndrogeSn, 5, 5na, V. DSle, Ilion, um. Panthu, Androgeos, Ab. Delo. ilio. Third Panth5. Declension. Androgeo. N. Solon , Solo, a6r, air. Xenophon, Atlas, G. Solonis, aeris, Xenophontis, Atlantis, D. Soloni, aeri, Xenophonti, Atlanti, Ac. Solona, em, aera, em, Xenophonta, em. , Atlanta, V. Solon a6r. Xenophon, Atla, Ab. Solone. aere. Xenophonte. Atlante. N. Thalgs, Paris, hgros, hero^ G. Thal-etis, -is, Paridis, os. hgrois, D. Thal-eti, -i. Paridi, i, hgroi. Ac. Thal-gta, -6n, -em. Par-ida, -im, -in, hgroa, em, V. Thais, Pari, Paris, hgros, Ab. Thais. Mixed Paride. Declensions. hgroe. n. m. 11. in. II. in. N. Orpheus, Athds, Oedipus, G. Orphei, ei. Ath5, 5nis, Oedip-odis, -I, D. Orpheo, Ath6, Oedipodi, Ac. Orpheum, ea^ Athd, On, dnem, Oedip-um, -oda, V. Orpheu, Athos, Oedipe, Ab. OrpheO. Ath5ne. Oedip-ode, -5. IRREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES. 33 11. III. II. III. III. ly. Achilles, eus, Socratgs, Did5, Achillis, ei, I, eos, Socratis, i, Didus, onis, Achilli, Socrati, Dido, oni, Achillem, ea, en, Socraten, em, Dido, onem, Achilles, e, eu, e, Socrate, es, Dido, Achille, e, I. Socrate. Dido, one. N. G. D. Ac. V. Ab. Remarks. — r. In the Gen. PI. -on and -eon are found in the titles of books ; as, Georgicon, Metamorphoseon. 2. Many Greek names, of tlie Thii'd Declension in Latin, pass over into the First Declension in the Plural ; as, Thucydidas, Hyperidae, and many names in -cratSs ; as Socrates ; PL, Socratae (also SocratSs). 3. In transferring Greek words into Latin, the Accusative Singular was sometimes taken as the stem: So Kpari^p, Ace. KpaTTJpa, {punch) howl. cratgr, cratgris (masc), and cratSra (crSterra) crat6rae (fem.). 2a\a|iCs, Ace. SaXa^jiiva, Salamis. Salamis, Salaminis, and Salamina, ae. 66. Notes.— 1. Swgular : Genitive. The Greek termination oeo (oto) appears rarely in early Latin, but Q, (ow) is more frequent, esjiecially in geographical names, etc. The termination -os (o?) is rare except in feminine patronymics in -is, -as, (G. -idos, -ados). 2. Dative. The ending -i is very rare ; and rarer still is the Dat, in -0 from femi- nines in -5, and Dat. in -y from Nominatives in -ys. 3. Accusative., -a is the most common termination in the Third Declension, and is found regularly in some words otherwise Latinized ; as aera, aethera. Stems in -5 usually have -5, very rarely -Sn. 4. Plural. In the Second Declension oe is found occasionally in the Nom., in early Latin ; as, adelphoe. The Third Declension shows frequently 6s in the Nom. and is in the Accusative ; also occasionally g in the Nom. and Ace. of neuters, and -si (but only in the poets) in the Dative. 5. For other i)eculiaritie8, not observable in the paradigms, the dictionaries should be consulted. Sometimes the forms are merely transliterations of Greek cases. IRREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES. 1. Redundant Substantives. (Abundantia.) 67. A. Heterogeneous Substantives, or those whose gender varies : I. The variation occurs in several cases in either number or in both. ahrotonum, -us, a plant (rare), clipeus, aevom (urn), -us, age, collura, baculum, -us, staff, costum, balteus, -um, girdle, forum, buxus, -um, box-wood (rare), gladius, [calamister], -um, curlirig-iron (rare), intihus, caseus, -um, cheese, iugulum, cavom (um), -us, cavity^ nardum, cingulum, -us, belt, uasus, 3 -um, -us, -us, -us, -um, -um, -us, -us, -um, shield, neck, a plant (rare), market, sivord, succory (rare), collar-boue, nard (rare), nose. palatum, -us, palate, pileus, -um, cap, sagum, -us, cloak. tergum, -us, hack, 34 IRREGULAR SUBSTAKTIYES. thgsaurus, -um, treasure, uterus, -um, womb, vallus, -um, palisade, and many others. 2. The gender varies in Singular and Plural, a. The Plural has -a sometimes, while the Singular ends in -us (or -er) : clivus, hill, locus, jest, locus (loca, localities ; loci, usually passages in books, topics), and many others, especially names of places. b. The Plural has -i, while the Singular ends in -um : Slum, thread, frgnum, bit, rastrum, hoe, and many others. 68. B. Heteroclites, or substantives which show diiferent stems with the same Nominative ; Jletaplasts, or those which have certain forms from another than the Nominative stem. list, 2d. esseda, -um, chariot, margarita, -um, jyearl, ostrea, -um, oyster, 2. 1st, 5tli. duritia, -gs, hardness, materia, -5s, matter, and many others. See G3, R. 2. 3. 2d, 1st. mendum, -a, favlt, sertum, -a, u-reath. The following form their Plural according to the First Declension only : balneum, bath, delicium, pleamre, epulum, banquet, fulmentum, prop. 4. 2d, 3d. sequester, trustee, Mulciber, Vulcan. 5. 2d, 4th. Many names of trees of the Second Declension have certain cases according to the Fourth ; never, however, the Gen. and Dut. PI., and very rarely the Dat. Sing. ; as cornus, cupressus, fagus, ficus, laurus, myrtus, pinus, and a few others. Also angiportus, allej/, colus, distaff, domus, Jvouse, and a large number of sub- stantives of the Fourth Declension which have one or two cases of the Second ; so arcus has G. arcl; conatus (-um), itissus (-um), vultus have Nom. Pi. in a; senatus has Gen. Sing, senatl. See 61, rr, nn. Finally, some substantives of the Second Declension form individual cases accord- ing to the Fourth : fasti (Ac. PL fasttis), fretum (N. fretus, Ab. fretu), lectus (G. lectus), tributum (N. tributus), and others. c. 2d, 5tli. diluvium, -es, /oof^. 7. 3d. 2d. Vas, vessel, and vasum ; palumbes, pigeon, and palumbus ; liiiger], acre, and iugerum ; all Greek nouns in -a (G. atis), as poSma, poem (G. poSmatis), but PI. Gen. poSmatSrum, Dat. Abl. poSmatls. 8. 3d, 5th. Fames, hunger, tabes, cormption, have Abl. fam6, tabS ; requigs, qmel ''G. -gtis) has Ace. requiem, Abl. requie ; satias (G. atis) is early and late for satietas, sufficiency, and a form satigs is cited from late authors ; plgbs (G. plgbis), cmmnons, and plgbes (G. plgbel). 9. 4th, 3d. Specus, cave, has occasionally forms of the Third Declension. 10. 2d, 3d, 1st. Vesper, evening, has Ace. vesperum; Dat. Abl. vespero; PI. Nom. vespera of the Second Declensioii ; Ace. vesperam ; Abl. vesperaof the First ; Gen. vesperis ; Abl. vespere ; Loc. vespere, vesperi of the Third. 11. 4th, 2d, 3d. PenuS,/oorf, (G. tis). Forms of the Second Declension are rare ; of the Third early and late. 12. Variations in the same Declension : femur (G. femoris, feminis, etc:) ; iecur (G. iecoris, iecinoris, etc.) ; pecus, early, also pecu (G. pecoris, pecudis, etc.). Also allgc and allSx, baccar and baccaris, cassis and cassida, lac and lacte (early), panis and pSne (early), r6te and rStis, satias and satietas. IRREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES. 35 II. Defective Substantives. I. SUBSTANTIVES DEFECTIVE IN NUMBER. 69. A. Substantives used in Singular only : Singularia tantum. Most abstract substantives, and names of materials ; such as iHstitia, justice, aurum, gold. B. Substantives used in Plural only : Pluralia tantum. altaria, ium, altar (sing. late). insidiae, ambuscade. ambages, round about. lactes. intestines. angustiae, straits. lamenta, lamentations. antae, door-posts. lautomiae, stone-quarries. antes, rows (of vines). liberi, children. arma, 5rum, arms. manes, shades of the dead. armamenta, orum I, tackle. manubiae, spoils. bellaria, orum, desse7i. minae. threats. bigae, quadrigae, t wo-horse, four-hors> e moenia, ium. town-wall. chariot (sing. late), nundinae (-num), market. cancelli, lattice. nuptiae. ivedding. casses, foils (snare). palpebrae. eyelids (sing, late). caulae, opening. parentalia, festival for dead rdcb- cervicSs, neck (sing, early, late, tions. and poet.). parietinae, ruins. cibaria. victuals. penates, the Penates. claustrum, lock (sing. late). plialerae. trappings. clitellae. pack-saddle. praecordia, orum, diaphragm. codicilli. a short note. praestrigiae. jugglers' t?icks. compedes, fetters. preces, -um. prayer. crepundia, orum, rattle. primitiae. first-fruits. cunae. cradle. quisquiliae, i-ubbish. divitiae, nches. reliquiae. remains. dumeta, orum, thorn-bush. renes. kidneys. epulae (epulum), banquet. salinae. salt-pits. excubiae. watching. scalae. stairway. exsequiae, funeral procession . sentes, brambles. exta, orum, the internal organs. spolia, orum. spoils (sing, late, and exuviae, equipments. poet.). facetiae. ■intlicism (sing, ear- sponsalia, ium. betrothal. ly and late). suppetiae, succo)^ (early and late). fasti (fastus), calendar. talaria, ium. winged sandals. fauces. gullet. tenebrae, darkness. fSriae, holidays. thermae, warm baths. flabra, breezes. tonsillae. tonsils. fores, door (sing, early, tormina. colic. late and poet.). tricae, tricks. fraga, drum, straicber7i.es. utensilia, ium. necessaries. grates, thanks. valvae, folding-doors. hiberna, winter quarters. verbera, um. scourging (sing, poet Idus, Kalendae, Ides, Calends, and late). Nonae, Nones. vindiciae, a legal claim. incunabula, swaddling-clothes. virgulta, orum, shmbbery. xndutiae. truce. viscera. entrails (sing, poet Inferisie, sacHJicesfor the dead. and late). 36 lEKEGULAR SUBSTANTIVES. Notes.— 1. Four of these have the Abl. Sing, in -e: ambage, COmpede, fauce, prece. 2. Names of persons or towns, and collectives and the like, may be either singu- laria tantum, as liippiter ; Roma ; capillus, hair ; or pluralia tantum, as maiSrSs, ancestors ; Quirites ; liberi, children ; pulmones, lungs. Many of these are not included in the above list, which is meant to contain only the principal forms. Akin to pluralia tantum are : C. Substantives used in Plural with a special sense : Heterologa. aedSs, is, (em2)le (better aedis), aedes. house, 2mlace. aqua, water. aquae. mineral sjnings. auxilium, help, auxilia, auxilianes, reinforcements. career. j)rison. carceres, barriers. castrum, fori. castra, camp. csra, tvax. c5rae. waxen tablets. comitium, place of assemblage. comitia. assemblage for voting. copia, abundance. copiae. forces, troops. dSlicium, pleasure. deliciae, pet. facultas, capability. facultatgs. goods. finis. end, limit. fings. territory, borders. forttina, fortune. fortunae. 2X)ssessions. habSna, strap. habenae. reins. imDedimentum, hindrance. impedimenta, baggage. littera, letter (of the alphabet), litterae, ejnstle, literature. ludus, game, school. ludi. p^iblic games. opera. work. operas. workmen. pars. part. partes. also rde. rostrum, beak. rostra. the tmbunal at Rome. sors. lot. sortgs. also oracle. tabula. board, iat^let. tabulae. also accounts. vigilia, a night-watch, vigiliae, inchets. 2. SUBSTANTIVES DEFECTIVE IN CASE. 70. A. Substantives occurring in only one case : (Jen. dici8,/wvw ; Ace. InfitiSs (Ire), (to) lie ; pessum (Ire), (to) jwrish : Abl. pond5, in weight ; sponte, of free will ; tabs, corruption (Gen. late) ; and many verbals in ti, as accltti, admonitti, arcessltti, coactu, compressu, concgssu, domitu, inductu, interpositH, invitatti, iussu (other forms late), iniussii, mandatti, missti, natu, permissu, promptu, rogatu. A few others occur occasionally in ante-classical and post-classical Latin. B. Substantives with only two cases : fgs, ne^, Sing. N. Ac. ; Instar, Sing. N. Ac. ; interneciS, Sing. Ac. Ab. ; naucum, Sing. G. Ac. ; secus, Sing. N. Ac. ; spinter, Sing. N. Ac; suppetiae, Plur. N. Ac, and a few others. Some verbals in -ns have in Plural only Noni. and Ace, a8 impetus, monitOs. Greek neuters in -os have only Nom. and Ace. Singular. C. Substantives with three cases : faez, Sing. N., D., Plur. Ab. ; virus, slime ; Sing, N., G., Ab. D. Defective substantives with more than three cases are numerous, but in the classical period the most importimt are : calx, lime, c5s, [dapsl , dica, { dicio] , flamen, blast, forum, [tiixl, [indago], later, liix, [ops],6s,/?wyw7//, pax, rgmex, vis, [vix], and most substantives of the Fifth Dccleusiou. The Noaiiaalivcs in brackets do not occur, but only oblique cases. E. N6m8, nobody, substitutes for Gen. and Abl. ntillius hominis, and nW@ homine. in the rat. and Ace. it is normal ; nSminI, nfiminem. ADJECTIVES. 37 71. III. Peculiarities. as, assis (m.), a ccrprper. auceps, aucupis, fmder. bos (for bovs), bovis (c), ox, cmo. G. PI. bourn. D. Ab. btibus, bobus. caput, capitis (n.)) head. anceps, ancipitis, two-headed. TOraeceps, -cipitis, headlong. caro,carnis {L), flesh. PI. G. carnium. Cer6s, Cereris, Ceres. far, farris (n.) spelt. fel, felUs (n.), gall. femur, femoris (n.), thigh. femiuis. iter, itineris Cn.), way, route iecur, iecoris (n.), liver. iecinoris, ieciueris, iocineris. luppiter, lovis. mel, mollis (n.), Jioney. nix, nivis (f.), enow. OS, ossis (n.), bone (48 r.). 5s, oris (n.), mouth. pollis,j)olliiiis {m.\florir. sanguis, sanguinis (m.), blood. senex, senis, old man. supellgx, supellectilis (f .). furniture. Venus, Veneris, Yenm. ADJECTIVES. 72. The adjective adds a quality to the substantive. Ad- jectives have the same declension as substantives, and accord- ing to the stem-characteristic are of the First and Second, or Third Declension. Adjectives of the First and Second Declension. 73. Stems in -o for masculine and neuter, -a for feminine ; nominative in -us, -a, -urn ; (er), -a, -um. The same variations in termination occur as in the substantives ; except that adjectives in -ius form Singular Genitive and Vocative regu- larly. See 33, E. i and 2. Bonus, bona, bonum, good. M. F. N. M. F. N. Sg.— N. bonus. bona. bonum. Pl.— boni. bonae. bona. G. boni. bonae. bonl. bonorum, bonarum, bonorum. D. bono, bonae. bonS. bonis. bonis. bonis. Ac. bonum. bonam. bonum. bonos, bonas. bona. V. bone. bona, bonum. boni. bonae. bona. Ab. bonS, bona, bono. bonis. bonis, bonis. Miser, misera, miserum, wretched. Sg.— N. miser, G. miseri D. misero, miserae, misero. Ac. miserum, miseram, miserum. V. miser, misera, miserum. Ab. misero, misera, misero. misera, miserum. Pl.— miseri, miserae, misera. miserae, miseri. miserorum, miserarum, miserorum, miseris, miseris, miseris. miseros, miseras, misera. miseri, miserae, misera. miseris, miseris, miseris. pigris, pigris, pigris. pigros, pigras, pigra. pigri, pigrae, pigra. pigris, pigris, pigris. 38 ADJECTIVES. Piger, pigra, pigrum, sloto. Sg.— N. piger, pigra, pigrum. Pl.— pigrI, pigrae, pigra. G. pigri, pigrae, pigri. pigrorum, pigrarum, pigrorunic D. pigro, pigrae, pigro. Ac. pigrum, pigram, pigrum. V. piger, pigra, pigrum. Ab. pigro, pigra, pigro. Remark. — For irregularities in the declension of ambS, both, duo, two, see 95 ; for meus, my, see 100, R. i. 74. Stems in -ro follow tlie same principle in the forma- tion of the Nominative masculine as the substantives, except that -us is retained in ferus, ivild, properus, quivh, praepro- perus, praeposterus, absurd, inferus, loiver (infer is early), superus, upper (super is early), and a few others in late Latin ; also when -ro is preceded by a long vowel ; as, austerus, harsh, maturus, early, procerus, tall, purus, jmre, severus, seriotts, sincerus, sincere, serus, late, verus, true. Remarks. — i. Dextera, dexterum, etc., right, are found side by side with dextra, dextrum, etc., throughout the language (see 8, 2). Caesar uses only the shorter form. 2. A few adjectives of this class lack the Nom. Sing, wholly or in part ; so there is no cSterus or posterus in the classical period. 75. Notes on the Cases.— 1. The Gen. Sing, in -I from adjectives in -ius occurs occasionally in inscriptions and in late authors. The Gen. Sing. fern, in early Latin had sometimes ai, and in inscriptions occasionally -aes and -es. 2. The Dat. Sing. fem. in early Latin occasionally ended in -al, and in the oldest inscriptions in -a, 3. In early inscriptions the -d of the Abl. is occasionally retained. 4. Very rarely in early inscriptions does the Nom. PI. masc. end in -eis, and in one case the Nom. PI. fern of a perfect participle ends in -ai. 5. In poetry, but at all periods, we find -um alongside of -5rum and -grum in the Gen. Plural. C. In the Dat. and Abl. PI. -iJs from adjectives in -ius is often contracted to is ; usually in names of months and ia adjectives formed from proper names. In early inscriptions -abus is found occasionally for -Is in the Dat. and Abl. I'l. feminine. 76. The so-called pronominal adjectives alter, one of the two ; alteruter (a combination of alter and uter), either of the two ; alius, other ; neuter, 7ieither ; nuUus, none; solus, sole;_ totus, tohoU ; uUus, any ; unus, one ; uter, tvhicli of the two, and their compounds, show the following variations in declension : ADJECTIVES. 39 1. They usually make the Gen. Sing, in -lus for all genders. Remarks. — i. The Gen. alius is very rare, and as a possessive its place is usually taken by alignus. 2. The I of the ending -ius (except in alius) could be shortened in poetry. This was usually the case with alter, and regularly in the compounds of uter ; as, utriusque. Note. — The regular forms are early and rare ; in classical prose only nulli (Cic. Rose. Com. i6, 48) and occasionally aliae. 2. They usually make the Dat. Sing, in -I. Note.— Regular forms are Bometimes found, but in classical prose only alterae, nuUo, t5tO, and perhaps t5tae. All is found in early Latin for alii. 3. In the compound alteruter we find usually both parts declined ; sometimes the second only. 4. Alius makes Noni. and Ace. Sing, neuter irregularly : aUud. Note.— Alis and alid, for alius and aliud, are early and rare ; the latter, however, occurs several times in Luck, and once in Catullus. Adjectives of the Third Declension. 77. The declension of the adjectives of the Third Declen- sion follows the rules given for the substantives. Most adjectives of the Third Declension are vowel stems in -1, with two (rarely three) endings in the Nominative. The remaining adjectives of the Third Declension are con- sonant stems and have one ending only in the Nominative. ADJECTIVES OF TWO ENDINGS. 78. I. These have (except stems in -ri) one ending in the Nominative for masculine and feminine, one for neuter. Most stems in -1 form the masculine and feminine alike, with Nominative in s; but the Nominative neuter weakens the characteristic i into e. (Compare mare, sea.) 2, Several stems in -i, preceded by r (cr, tr, br), form the Nominative masculine, not by affixing s, but by dropping the i and inserting short e before the r, as, stem acri, sharp, Nom., acer (m.), acris (f.), acre (n.). These adjectives are acer, alacer, campester, celeber, celer, equester, paluster, pedester, puter, saltiber, Silvester, terrester, volucer, and the last four months ; and are sometimes called adjectives of three endings. The 6 belongs to the stem in celer, celeris, celere, swifty and therefor© appears in all cases. 40 ADJECTIVES. M. and F. N. M. P. N. Sq.— N. facilis, easy. facile, acer, sharp. acris, acre, G. facilis, facilis, acris, acris, acris. D. facili, facili, acri, acri, acri, Ac. fEtcilem, facHe, acrem. acrem. acre, V. faciUs, facile. acer. acris, acre. Ab. fadU. facili. acri. acrt acri. Pu— N. fafiilSs, facilia, acres, acres. acria. G. fEunliimi) facilium, acrinm, acrium, acrium, D. feciUbiis, facilibus, acribus. acribus. acribus, Ac. faciles (is), facilia. acres (is), acres (is) , acria, V. facilgs, facilia, acres, acrgs. acria, Ab. facilibiis. facilibus. acribus. acribus. acribus. Remark. — Stems in -ali and -ari differ from the substantival declen- sion in not suffering apocope in the Nom. Sing, neuter, except occa- sionally capital. See 56. 79. Remarks. — i. Many adjectives of two endings (except stems in -ri) have also -e in the Ablative. This is found chiefly in the poets, very rarely, if ever, in classical prose, occasionally in early and pre- Augustaii prose, and more often in inscriptions. When, however, these adjectives become proper names, -e is the i-ule. See 57, r. 2, n. 2. The Gen. PI. in -um is found occasionally in inscriptions, fre- quently in the poets. In classical prose are found only Titiensum and familiarum. Notes.— 1 . The Nom. PI. has in early Latin not nnfrequently -is. 2. In the Ace. PI., maec. and fern., of adjectives, the ending -is (eis) is found along- tjide of -Ss in every period of the language, though in decreasing proportion, and after the Augustan period principally in ormpTi^, ADJECTIVES OF ONE ENDING. 80. Adjective stems of one ending (consonant stems) close with 1, r, s, a p mute, a k mute, or a t mute. Examples are : vigil, «^er<, meinor, mim^ul, pauper, /ww, cicur, tame, ptib6s, adult, veins, dd, vigilis. memaris. pauperis. cicuris. puberis. veteris. rarticeps, sharing^ participis. caelebs, "unmarried, caelibis. mops, voor, iuopis. audax, hold, fSlIx, htcky, duplex, doMe, fsst^^Ly fierce, trux, savage, audacis. felicis. duplicis. ferocis. trucis. dives, rich, dSses, ^Mhfvl, compos, possessed of, pr1id6ns, wise, concoiis, harmwiiom, divitia. desidis. compotis. prfldentis. concordis. ADJECTIVES. 41 Present active participles are ?.lso consonant stems and follow the same declension. 81. The stem varieties are : 1. Liquid stems in (a) -1: vigil (G. vigil-is), alert, pervigil ; (&) -r: par(G. par-is), equal, impar (these two lengthen the vowel in the Nom.), compar, and three others ; pauper (G. pauper-is), poor, uber ; memor (G. memor-is), mindful, im- memor ; concolor (G. -6r-is), and three other compounds of color ; dggener (G. -er-is), from genus (G. gener-is). 2. Sibilant stems in («) -s : exos (G. exoss-is), boneless (Lucr.) ; {b) -r : gnarus (G. gnarur-is ; Plaut), Ligus, vetus ; pubgs (G. puber-is), impubgs. 3. Mute stems in («) a K-mute : audax (G. audac-is), bold, and four others ; felix (G. felic-is), pernix, atrSx (G. atroc-is), ferox, velox ; exlex (G. -Igg-is) ; trux (G. truc-is), redux ; the multiplicativcs in -plex (G. -plic-is), as simplex, etc. (b) A p-mute : inops (G. inop-is) ; caelebs (G. caelib-is) ; compounds of -ceps (G. -cip-is, from capere), as particeps, and of -ceps (G. -cipit-is, from caput), as anceps, prae- ceps (Plaut. sometimes uses, in the Nom., ancipes, praecipes, etc.). (c) A T-mute : hebes (G. hebet-is) and three others ; locuples (G. -pl6t-is) and three others ; dives (G. divit-is), for which in poetry dis (G. dit-is), sospes ; compos (G. compot-is), impos ; superstes (G. -sti-tis), ales ; exhergs (G. 6d-is) ; d6ses (G. desid-is), reses ; compounds from substantives : consors (G. -sort-is), exsors ; concors, dis- cors, misericors, sScors, v5cors ; expers ((t. -ert-is), iners, sollers ; amgns (G. ament-is), dgmgns ; intercus (G. cut-is) ; pernox (G. -noct-is) ; bipgs (G. -ped-is), quadrupgs, alipgs ; adjectives and participles in -ans, -ens (G. -ant-is, -ent-is) ; and proper names in -as (G. at-is), -IS (G. -It-is), -ns (G. -nt-is), -rs (G. -rt-is), Arpinas, Samnis, Veigns, Gamers. 82. The consonant stems have the same forms in all the genders, except that in the Accusative Singular, and in the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative Plural, the neuter is distinguished from the masculine and feminine. In the oblique cases they follow in part the declension of vowel stems ; thus, 1. In the Ablative Singular they have i and e — when used as adjectives commonly i ; when used as substantives com- monly e. The participles, as such, have e ; but used as substantives or adjectives, either e or i, with tendency to I. 2. In the neuter Plural they have ia ; except vetus, old, which has Vetera. Many have no neuter. 3. In the Genitive Plural they have : ium, when the stem- characteristic is preceded by a long vowel or a consonant ; um, when the characteristic is preceded by a short vowel. The participles have ium. 42 ADJECTIVES. M. and F. N. M. and F. N. M. and F. N. So.- -N. G. D. Ac. Y. fSlix,^«c^?/,fSlIx, felicis, felicis, felici, fglici, fglicem, felix, feUx, fglix. prudgns,?f'i?(', prudgns, prudentis, prudentis, prMenti, prtidenti, prudentem, prudens, prudgns, prudens. vetus, old, vetus, veteris, veteris, veteri, veteri, veterem, vetus, vetus, vetus. ]\r. and F. N. M. and F. N. -N. amans, loving. amans, PL.-amantgs, amantia. G. amantis, amantis, amantium. amantium, D. amanti, amanti, amantibas. amantibus, Ac. amantem, amans, amantgs (is), amantia. y. amans, amans. amantes. amantia, Ab. amante (i). amante (i). ' amantibus. amantibus. Ab. fglici (e) felici (e) prudenti (e) prudenti (e) vetere (i) vetere (i) Pl.— N. fgliogs, fglicia, prudentes, prudentia, vetergs, Vetera, G. felicium, fglicium, prudentium, prMentium, veterum, veterum, D. fglicibus, fglicibus, prudentibus, prudentibus, veteribus, veteribus, Ac. fglicgs, fglicia, prudentgs, prudentia, vetergs, vetera, V. fglicgs, fglicia, prudentgs, prudentia, vetergs, vetera, Ab. fglicibus, fglicibus. prudentibus, prudentibus. veteribus, veteribus. Sg. 83. Remark. — In early and late Latin, and at all periods in the poets, -e is often found for -i in the Abl. Singular. In classical prose -"Ne. find regularly compote, dgside, imptibere, participe, paupere, pubere, euperstite, v^ere, and frequently divite (but always diti), quadrupede, sapiente. With participles, -i is usual when they are nsed as adjectives, but classical prose shows -e also in antecgdgns, candSns, consentigns, dgspicigns, efflugns, Mans, immingns, infiugns, profluens, consequgns (but sequgns not before Livy), titubans, vertgns. Notes. — 1. In the Nom. and Ace. PI. -is for§s belongs to early Latin and the poets, but a few cases of the Ace. are still found in CicEito. In the case of participles -is is very common, and is the rule in Vergil and Horace. In the neuter, -a for -ia is found only in ubera, vetera ; ditia is ahvays used for the unsyncopated form divitia. 2. Compound adjectives, whose primitives had -um in Gren. PL, have usually -um instead of -ium ; quadrupes, quadrupedum, and other compounds of pgs ; inops, inopum ; supplex, supplicum. Also, cicur, cicurum ; vetus, veterum ; dives, divitum; locuplgs, locuplgtum (rare, usually -ium). In the poets and in later writers, -um is not uufrequcntly found where classical prose uses -ium. Irregular Adjectives. 84. A. Abundantia. I. Some adjectives which end in -us, -a, -um, in the classical times, sliow occasionally in early Latin, in ilio poets, and in later Latin, forms in -is, -e, e. g., imbgcillus and imbgcillis; infrgnus and Infrgnis; biiugus and biiugis , violentus and violgns ; indecorus and indecoris ; so also perpetuus and perpes. In a number of other adjectives the variant iorms are very rare or disputed. ADJECTIVES. 43 2. Many adjectives which end in -is, -e, in the classical times, show parallel forms in -us, -a, -um, in early Latin, and more rarely in late Latin. Adjectives in -us, -a, -um, in early Latin, seem to have had a tendency to go over into forms in -is, -e. Thus, hilarus is the regular form in early Latin ; in Cicero it is used side by side with hilaris, and later hilaris is universal. Other examples in the classical period are inermis and inermus ; imberbis and imberbus ; alaris and alarius ; auxiliaris and auxiliarius ; intercalaris and intercalarius ; talaris and talarius. 85. B. Defective. 1. Several adjectives lack a Nom. Singular, wholly or in part : as, cetera (f), ceterum, perperum (u.), nuperum (n.), primoris (G.), bimaris (G.), bimatris (G.), tricorporis (G.), and a few others. 2. Some adjectives are defective in other cases : thus, exspes and perdius, -a are found only in the Nom. ; exlgx only in the Noin. and Ace. (exlegem) ; pernox only in Nom., Abl. (pernocte), and Nom. PI. (pernoctgs, rare) ; centimanus has only the Ace. Sing. (Hor., Ov.) ; also unimanus (Liv.), and a few others. C. Indeclinables. Ngquam ; potis, and pote (early) ; frugl ; macte (mactus, -um, very rare) ; necesse, necessum, and necessus (early and poetical) ; volup and volupe (early) ; and the judicial damnas. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 86. The Degrees of Comparison are : Positive, Compara- tive, and Superlative. The Comparative is formed by adding to the consonant stems the endings -ior for the masculine and feminine, and -ius for the neuter. The Superlative is formed by adding to the consonant stems the endings -is-simus, -a, -um (earlier -is-sumus). Vowel stems, before forming the Comparative and Super- lative, drop their characteristic vowel. Positive. COMrAKATIVE. M. and F. N. SUPEKLATIVE. altus,a,um, high. altior, higher, altius, altissimus, a, um, highest fortis, e, brave, fortior, fortius, fortissimus. utilis, e, usefuU utilior, utilius, titilissimus. audax, bold, audacior, audacius, audacissimus. prudgns, wise. prudentior, prudentius, prudentissimus. Note.— In early Latin we find very rarely -iQs for ior ; also -ior used for the neuter as well. 44 ADJECTIVES. Peculiarities. 87. I. Adjectives in -er add the Superlative ending (-rumus) -rimus (for -simus by assimilation ; see 9, i) directly to the Nominative mascu- line. The Comparative follows the rule. Positive. Comparative. Superlative. miser, a, um, wretched, miserior, miserius, miserrimus. celer, is, e, sivift, celerior, celerius, celerrimus. acer, acris, acre, sharp, acrior, acrius, acerrimus. Remarks. — i. Dexter, right, and sinister, left, have always dexterior and sinisterior in the Comparative. Deterior, worse, deterrimus, lacks a Positive. 2. Vetus, old, has Comp. veterior (archaic) or vetustior ; Sup., veterrimus. Matums, ripe, has occasionally Sup. maturrimus in addi- tion to the normal maturissimus. Note. — In early Latin and in inscriptions tliis rule is occasionally violated. Thus celerissimus in Ennius ; integrissimus, miserissimus, in inscriptions. 2. Some Comparatives in -er-ior, whose Positive is lacking or rare, form the Superlative either in -rgrans by metathesis ; or in -imus or -umus ; or in both. These are : citerior, on this side, citimus (rai-e) ; exterior, outer, extrgmus, extimus (hitter not in Cic.) ; dexterior (87, I, R. I ; once in Cic.\ dextimus (rare ; not in Cic.) ; inferior, lower, infimns, Imus ; interior, inner, intimus ; posterior, hinder, postr6mus, postumns ; superior, upper, suprgmus, summus. 3. Six adjectives in -ilis add -limus to the stem, after dropping -i, to form the Superlative ; perhaps by assimilation : facilis, easy ; diificilis, Aar(^; similis, like ; dissimilis, unlike ; gracilis, slerider, and humilis, /oz^. facilis, Comp. facilior. Sup. facillimus. 4. Adjectives in -dicus, -ficus, -volus, borrow the Comparative and Superlative from the participial forms in -dicens, -ficgns, and -volens. t)enevolus, benevolent, Comp. benevolentior. Sup. benevolentissimus. maledicus, scwtrilom. maledicentior, maledicentissimus. magnificus, distinguished. magnificentior, magnificentissimus. Note.— Benevolgns, malevolgns, maledlcSns, still occur in early Latin. 5. In like manner eggnus and prOvidus form their Comparative and Superlative. eggnus, needy, egentior, egentissimus. prOvidus, far-sighted, prSvidentior, prSvidentissimus. ADJECTIVES. 45 6. Adjectives in -ns (os), preceded by a vowel (except those in -qnos), form the Comparative and Superlative by means of magis and maximg, more and most. id5neus,./?i^, Comp. magis idSneus, Sup. maximS idoneus. But antiques, old, Comp. antiquior, Sup. antlquissimus. Remark. — But -pivis, pious, which lacks the Comparative, forms the Superlative regularly, piissimus (in inscriptions also pientissimus) ; like- wise in late Latin, impius. Notes.— 1. A few words, chiefly in early Latin, show the normal comparison. In Cic. only, assiduissimS (adv.) and alsius. 2. Comparison by means of plus and pljirimum is late. 7. Some Comparatives and Superlatives are in use, whilst the cor- responding Positive is either lacking or rare. So deterior (87, i, r. 1) ; Ocior, swif(, Scissimus ; potior, better, potissimus ; exterior, outer (87, 2), from exterus, on the outside, and prep, extra, without; superior, upper (87, 2), from superus, on the top, and prep, supra, atiorn ; Inferior, loiver (87, 2), from inferus, below, and prep, infra, beloiv ; posterior, hinder (87, 2), from posterns, coming after, and prep, post, after ; citerior, on this side (87, 2), from citer, and prep, cltra, on this side. 8. The Positive stem of existing Comparatives is sometimes met with only in a preposition or an adverb ; as, ante, before ; anterior, that is before ; prope, near ; propior, proximus ; Ulterior, further, ultimus, from ultra, beyond ; interior, inner, intimus, from intra, withiti ; prior, former, primus, first, from pro, before ; sequior (late), icorse, from secus. 9. Many adjectives lack one or both of the degrees of comparison ; especially those denoting material, relationship, time, etc. NOVUS, new, falsus, untrue, meritUS, deserved, have no Comparative. Longinquos, afar, propinquos, near, saltitaris, healthful, iuvenis, young (Com- parative iunior), and senex, old (Comparative senior), have no Superlative. " Youngest " and '•'■oldest " are expressed by minimus, maximus (natti). Note.— The Plautine and late medioximus, middlemost, lacks Positive and Com- parative. 10. Dives, rich, shows in Cic. only divitior and divitissimus ; otherwise the Comparative and Superlative are found principally in poetry and later prose, the more usual forms being the syncopated ditior, ditissimus. 88. Participles used as adjectives are subject also to the same laws of comparison : as, amans, loving, amantior, amantissimus ; apertus, ope7if apertior, apertissimus. 46 ADJECTIVES. 89. The Superlative follows the declension of adjectives of Three Endings of the First and Second Declensions. The Comparative is declined according to the Third Declension, thus : M. and F. N. M. and F. N. Sg.-N. altior, altius. PL.-altiorgs, altiora. G. altioris, altioris. altiorum, altiorum. D. altiori, altiori. altioribus, altioribus. Ac. altiorem, altius. altiorgs, altiora. V. altior, altius. altiorgs, altiora. Ab. altiore and -i, altiore and -i. altioribus, altioribus. Remarks. — i. In classical prose the Abl. Sing, ends in -e. In the poets and in early and late prose, often in -I. 2. Extremely rare is the ending -is for -6s in the Nom. Plural. In the Aec. PI. this ending -is (-eis) is more common but still not fre- quent, and confined mainly to pluris, minoris, mai5ris, melioris. The neuter in -ia is found rarely in compluria, and perhaps once in pluria, 3. The Gen. PI. in -ium is found in plurium and complurium only. 90. bonus, malus, magnus, parvus, multus, nSquam, frugi (iadecl.), frugal. Irregular Comparison. good, bad, great, small, much. melior, peior, maior, minor, plllres, complurSs, nSquior, frugaliox". melius, pSius, mains, minus, pliis (no Dat. nor Abl.), plura. complura and -ia. ngquius. optimus. pessimus. maximus. minimus. plurimus. nSquissimus. frugalissimus. ADVERBS. 91. Most adverbs are either oblique cases or mutilated forms of oblique cases of nominal or pronominal stems. The cases from which they are derived are principally the Accusative and the Ablative. I. (a) From the Accusative are Substantival Adverbs in -tim. This was a favorite formation, nnd is used very often in all periods. In the classical times the adverbs of this form are : Acervatim, articulatim, centuriatim, certatim, generatim, gradatim, gregatim, membratim, paulatim, privatim, sSparatim, singulatim, statim, summatim, viritim, tributim, strictim, pedetemptim, raptim, furtim, partim, praesertim, confgstim, and a tew others ; disguised forms of -tim are : caesim, in- clsim, sensim, cursim, passim, vicissim, for caed-tim (9, 1-3), etc..- also interim. ADVERBS. 47 (b) A few very common adverbs are, perhaps, from Accusative Sin- gular feminine of adjectives and pronominal stems. Chiefly clam, secretly, coram, i7i one's presence, palam, openly, perperam, wrongly, tarn, so, quam, as, aliquam, some, iam, already ; and forms in -fariam, as bi- fariam, multifariam, etc. (c) The Accusative Singular neuter of many adjectival and prono- minal stems is used as an adverb. This is true of all Comparatives. Multum, 7nucli ; paulum, « little; nimium, too much ; cgterum, /or the rest ; primum, first ; postremum, finally ; potissimum, chiefiy ; facile, easily ; dulce, sweetly; triste, sadly ; impune, scot-free; aliquantum, somewhat, and others. To the Comparatives belong magis, more ; nimis, too ; satis, enough. (d) The Accusative Plural feminine is found in alias, at other times, perhaps in foras, o^d-of-doors. The Accusative Plural neuter is found in alia, cetera, omnia, and occasionally in reliqua and a few others. 2. {a) From the Ablative are some substantival adverbs ; the princi- pal ones in classical Latin being domS, at home; imgeniio, greatly ; initio, at the outset ; modo, only ; oppido, very; prlncipio, in the begin- ning; -pTivsLto, privately ; wdgo, commonly ; forte, by cha7ice ; msigno^re, greatly, and other compounds of -opere ; gratiis, for nothing, and ingra- tils, and a few others. (b) Ablatives are also adverbs in 5 from adjectives in -us and -er : altus, lofty, alte ; pulcher, beautiful, pulchrg ; miser, wretched, miserg. Also fer6 and fermS (Sup.), almost. (c) The Ablative of some adjectives and pronouns serves as an adverb : tuts, safely; falso, falsely ; perpetuO, ceaselessly ; continuO, forthwith; improviso, unexpectedly ; primS, at first ; hSc, here; isto, there, etc. {d) In a few cases the adverbial form is the Abl. Sing, feminine : alia, otherwise; 2i\l(i\x&, somehoiv ; dextera and dextra, ifo the right; sinistra and laeva, to the lejt liand ; qua, on which side; rScta, straightway , and some others. {e) A large number of these adjectives show adverbs in two end- ings, sometimes with a difierence in meaning : consultg and consults, purposely ; cert6, at least, and certo, certainly (certs scio, / certainly know ; certo scio, / know for certaiti) ; rare, thinly, and raxo, seldom; v5r6, i7i truth, and vSrS, tr7ie but ; rSctS, correctly, and rScta, straightway ; dextera or dextra, to the right ; and dexterS, skill fully. (/) Ablatives are also qui, hoiv (archaic), nSquIquam, to no purpose; alioqui, otherwise ; perhaps also diu, by day and its compounds. 48 ADVERBS. 3. Locative in origin are the following, in addition to those men- tioned under 37, 5 : dig (in combination with numeral adjectives in early Latin, as dig septirai) and its compounds cottidie, daily, hodiS, to- day, pridie, the day before, postridie, the day after ; quotannis, yearly ; fori3, outside. Also many forms from tlie pronominal stems, ashic, illic, istic (isti belongs to early Latin and Veiig.); sic, so, ut (uti, utei), as; ill, there, and its compounds alibi, ibidem ; ubi (cubi), ivhere, and its compounds. 4. A number of adverbs cannot be referred to a definite case, as : adverbs of separation : hinc, hence, illinc (illim), istinc (istim), thence; temporal adverbs : tunc, tJien, cum, when, quondam, once, quando, ivhen ? and its compounds; also, ante, before ; post (poste), after; paene, almost ; prope, propter, near ; saepe, often ; circiter, around; praeter, past ; ergo, therefore; eras, to-morroiv ; baud (hau, haut), no^ ; item, likewise ; susque dgque, up and down; vix, scarcely. 92. I- Adjectives and participles of the Third Declension form their adverbs by adding -ter (-iter) to the stem ; stems in -nt dropping the t, and stems in a k-mute inserting the connecting vowel i before the end- ing ; also a few adjectives of the Second Declension : fortis, brave, fortiter ; ferox, loild, ferociter ; •grM.^n^^foi'eseeing, prudenter. Exceptions : audax, bold, audac-ter (seldom audaciter) ; difficilis, hard to do, difficulter, difficiliter (but generally, non facile, vix, aegrg), and others. 2. A large number of adjectives of the Second Declension in -us, -a, -um, and -er, -era, -erum, form in early and late Latin their adverbs by dropping the stem vowel and adding -iter (those in -tus added -er only). Many of these occur in classical Vvriters alongside of the normal form in -6 : humaniter and htimang, humanely ; largiter and largg, lavishly ; turbulenter and turbulentS, riotously. 3. Some adverbs of origin arc formed from substantival or adjectival stems by the ending -tu3. In classical Latin mainly antiquitus, fro?n early time ; divinitus, from the gods; funditus, from the foundation ; peni- tus, from the depths; radicitus, from the roots ; also intus, from within. 4. The termination -versus, -vorsum, is used to show direction whither ; but in classical Latin it is found principally in the adverbs : intrSrsus (intrOvorsus), inwards; prorsus (-um), onwards; rursus (-um, rusum), hack ; sursum (susum), np ; vorsum, towards. 5. A very large number of adverbs are formed by adding various other terminations; as, -de: inde, thence, unde, ivhence ; -detn: pridem, long ag ), itidem, liketvise, etc.; 'do: quando, when, etc.; 'darn : quondam, once ; -diini : dudum, a while ago ; vixdum, hardly yet, etc.; 'per : nuper, lately, parumper, a little, semper, always, etc.; 'quani: umquam, ever, numquam, never, etc.; •secus: extrinsecus, outside, etc.; -tenus: quatenus, how far ? etc. NUMERALS. 49 6. Syntactical and miscellaneous : admodum, very {to a degree), denuo, anew, imprimis; super, above, and its compounds, desuper, insuper; ex- templo, at once; usque, to, and its compounds ; invicem, in turn ; adeo, so ; antea, he fore ; interea, meanwhile ; postea, after ; praeterea, besides ; propterea, on that account, and a few otliers. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 93. The Comparative of the adverb is the Accusative neuter of the Comparative of the adjective. The Superla- tive ends in -is-sime, -er-rim6, etc., according to the Super- lative of the adjective. Positive. Comparative. Superlative. alte, lofiUy, altius, altissimS. pulchrg, beautifully. pulchrius, pulcherrimS. misere, jworly. miserius, miserrimg. fortiter, bravely. fortius. fortissimg. audacter, boldly. audacius, audacissimg. tuto, safely. tutius. tutissimg. facile. easily, facilius. facillimg. bene, well. melius, optime. male, ill. pgius, pessiaig. [parvus], small. minus, less. minimg, least. [magnus] , great. magis, more, maxim g, taost. multum. much. plus, more. plurimum. cito. quickly. citius. citissimg. diu, long. diutius. dititissimg. saepe. often. saepius, saepissimg. nuper, recently. nuperrimg. J satis, enough. satius, better. NUMERALS. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 94. The Cardinal numerals answer the question quot, how many 9 and are the numbers used in counting. The Ordinal numerals are derived from these and answer the question quotus, ivldcli one in the scries 9 They are as fol- lows : 1. Cardinal Numbers. 2. Ordinal Numbers. 1 I tinus, una. unum primus, -a, -um (prior) 2 II duo, duae. duo secundus (alter) 3 III trgs, tria tertius 4 IV (IIII) quattuor quartus 5 V quinqne quintus 6 VI sex sextus 7 VII 4 septem Septimus 50 NUMERALS, 1. Cardinal Numbers. 2. Ordinal Numbers. 8 VIII octo octavus 9 IX novem nonus 10 X decern decimus 11 XI undecim undecimus 12 XII duodecim duodecimus 13 XIII tredecim tertius decimus 14 XIV quattuordecim quartus decimus 15 XV quindecim quintus decimus IG XVI sedecim sextus decimus 17 XVII septendecim Septimus decimus 18 XVIII duodeviginti duodevicesimus 19 XIX Undeviginti undgvicesimus 20 XX viginti vicesimus 21 XXI vigintii unus vicesimus primus 22 XXII viginti duo vicgsimus secundus 23 XXIII viginti tres vicesimus tertius 24 XXIV viginti quattuor vicesimus quartus 25 XXV viginti quinque vicesimus quintus 26 XXVI viginti sex vicgsimus sextus 27 XXVII viginti septem vicesimus septimus 28 XXVIII duodetriginta duodgtricgsimus 29 XXIX undetrigin-a findgtricgsimus 30 XXX triginta tricesimus 40 XL quadrJginta quadraggsimus 50 L quinquJginta quinquaggsimus 60 LX sex/7ginta sexaggsimus 70 LXX septwaginta septuaggsimus 80 LXXX oct(>ginta octoggsimus 90 xc nonJginta nonagesimus 100 c centum centgsimus 101 CI centum et unus centgsimus primus [mus 115 cxv centum et quindecim centgsimus (et) quintus deci- 120 cxx centum et viginti centesimus vicesimus 121 CXXI centum viginti unus centgsimus vicesimus primus 200 CO ducenti, -ae, -a ducentesimus 300 ccc trecenti trecentgsimus 400 cccc qua,dr///genti quadringentgsimus 500 D(IO) qulngentl quingentgsimus 600 DC 8('scenti sgscentgsimus 700 DCC 8ept, Q (inscr.) for 1000, and (3) for 100,000 (inscr.), and q for 500,000 (inscr.). N^UMERALS. 53 97. 3. Distributive Numerals. 1 singuli, -ae, -a, owe each. 30 2 bini, -ae, -a, two each, 40 3 terni (trini) 50 4 quaternl 60 5 quini 70 6 sSni 80 7 septSni 90 8 octoni 100 9 novSni 102 10 d6ni 125 11 undeni 200 12 duodeni 300 13 terni dSni 400 14 quatemidgnl 500 15 quini d6ni 600 16 s6ni deni 700 17 septeni d6ni 800 18 octoni deni, duodSvicenl 900 19 noveni d6ni, undevicgnl 1000 20 vicgni 2000 21 vicSni singuli 3000 22 vicSni bini, bin! et vlc6nl 10,000 28 duodgtricgni 100,000 29 undgtriceni triceni quadraggni quinquaggni septuaggni octogeni nonagen! centeni centgni bini centgni vicgni quini ducgni trecgni quadringgnl quinggni sexcgni (sgscSni) septinggni octinggni n5nggnl singula milia bina milia trina milia dgna milia centgna milia These answer the question quotgnl, how many each ? Remarks, — i. The Gen. PI. masc. and neuter ends usually in -um, except that singulus has always singulorum, and Cicero uses binorum. 2. The Distributives are used with an exactness which is foreign to our idiom, whenever repetition is involved, as in the multiplication table. But when singuli is expressed, the Cardinal may be used, 3. The Distributives are used with pliiralia tantum : binae litterae, hm epistles. But with these tini is used for one, trini for three : unae litterae, trinae litterae. 4. The same rules as to the insertion or omission of et apply to the Distributives as to the Ordinals (96, 1. 3, 4). Notes.— 1. The poets and later prose writers occasionally use the Distributives for Cardinals, with words other than pluralia tantum (n. 3) ; also some forms of the Singular. Especially noteworthy is the combination trinum nundinum, which is technical, and therefore found also in model prose. 2. Parallel forms not found in classical times are quadrini (early, late), and the late du(o)centgni, trecent6ni, quadringenteni, quingentgni, ses(x)cent6ni, millgni^ etc. 54 NUMERALS. 4. Multiplicative Numerals. Only the following forms occur : 1 simplex, single, 5 quincuplex 2 duplex, double, 7 septemplex 3 triplex, triple, 10 decemplex 4 quadruplex, quadruple. 100 centuplex These answer the question, /toiv many fold f 5. Proportional Numerals. Only the following forms occur : 1 simplus, -a, -um, single, 4 quadmplus 2 duplus, double. 7 septuplus 3 triplus 8 octuplus These answer the question, hoiv many tim£S as great ? 98. NUMERAL ADVERBS. 1 semel, once. 22 bis et vlci6s, vici6s et bie, 2 bis, twice. vicies bis * 3 ter 30 tricies 4 quater 40 quadragies 5 quinquigs (-6ns) 50 quinquagigs C sexiSs (-6ns) 60 sexagigs 7 septies (-6ns) 70 septuagigs 8 octi53 (-6ns) 80 octogies D novigs (-6ns) 90 n6nagi6s 10 decigs (-6n8) 100 centies 11 undeciS3 (-6ns) 200 ducenti6s 12 duodecies, etc. 400 quadringenti6s 13 ter decies, tredecigs 500 quingenties 14 quater decies, quattuordecigs 600 sexcentigs (sgscenti6s) 15 qolnquigs decies, quindecigs 700 septingenties 10 sexigs decigs, sgdecigs 800 octingentigs 17 septigs decigs 900 nongentigs 18 duodgvicigs, octi6s deci6s 1,000 millies 19 und5vici6s, novi6s deci6s 2,000 bis milligs 20 vici63 100,000 centigs mlUigs 21 semel at vlci6s, vicies et semel, 1,000,000 mllligs milligs, deci6s cem vicies semel - ti6s mnii6s These answer the question quotiSns (68) : how often ? * Not semel Vlci6s, bis Vlci6s, etc., because that would be, once twenty times = 30 times ; twice twenty times = 40 times ; this, however, does not hold for numerals be- tween 10 and 20. PRONOUNS. 55 Remarks. — i. These adverbs, from quinquies on, have an older form in -ens ; quinquiens. In toti§ns, so often, and quotigns, how often, this remained the more usual form in classical times. 2. The combination of an adverb with a distributive adjective was much liked by the Romans : as bis bina for quatema, etc. But the normal forms are not unfrequent. Note. — For the adverbs from undeciSs on, examples are very rare, and some are cited only from the grammarians. So, when two forms are given, one is often due to the grammarians ; thus quinquiBs deciSs, sexiBs deciSs, are cited only from Pris- ciAN. The order, too, of compound adverbs varies. PRONOUNS, 99. Pronouns point out without describing. Note.— The pronoun is not a word used instead of a noun. The noun says too much, for all nouns (proper as well as common) are originally descriptive ; the pronoun simply points out. The noun says too little, because it cannot express person, as ego, /, tu, A. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 100. I. Personal Pronouns of the First Person. Possessive. Sg. meus, -a, -um, mine or my. Substantive, -N. ego, /, G. mei, of me. D. mihi, to, fo7' me^ Ac. me, me. Ab. me. from, with, by me. -N. n5s, we. G. nostri, of us. nostrum. D. nobis, to, for m. Ac. nos, us. Ab. nobis, from, with, by us. G. nostri, of us, noster, nostra, nostrum, ovt or ours. Remarks. — i. The Voc. Sing. masc. of meus is mi, except when meus is used with a substantive which does not change its form in the Voc. ; thus, meus ocellus (Plaut. ; possibly, however, appositional), but mi anime. 2. Nostrum in the Gen. PI. is the form for the Partitive Genitive. Notes.— 1. Early Latin shows the following : Sg., N. ego ; G. mis ; D. mi, mihel (inscr.) ; mih6 (inscr.) ; Ac. m6d, meme; Ab. m6d (meme is doubtful) ; PL, N. Ac. 6nos (in Carman ArvcUe only) ; G. nostrorum, nostrarum (for nostrum) ; D. Ab. nobeis (inscr.). 2. In late Latin ml also serves for the Voc. Sing. fern, and Voc. PI. masc. Meum, nostrum, in the Gen. PI. of the Possessives, are not unfrequent in early Latin. 3. The forms of meus, of tui and tuOS, of sul and SUOS, very frequently suffer Syn- izesis (727) in early Latin. 4. On the combination of these pronouns with -met and -pte see 102, N. 2, 8, 56 PKOi^OUKS. 101. 11. Personal Pronouns of the Second Person. Substantive. Possessive. Sg.— N. V. tu, thou, G. tui, of thee, D. tibi, to, fo)' thee, tuns (-os), -a, -mn (-om), ;!^y or iAine Ac. t§, thee, Ab. t6, from, with, by thee. Pl.— N. VOS, ye or you, G- vestri, of you, vestnun, vester (archaic voster), vestra, vestmin, D. vobis, to, for you, your ox yours. Ac. VOS, you, Ab. vobis, from, with, by you. Notes.— 1. Early forms are : G. tis ; D. tibei (inscr.), tib6 (inscr.) ; Ac. Ab. t5d, t6t§; PI. G. vostri, vostrSrum, -arum. 2. Vestmni is for the Partitive Genitive. 3. Tuom and vostrom in the Gen. PI. of the Possessives are rare and confined to early Latin. 4. On Synizesis Bee 100, N. 3. On combination with -met or -pte see 102, N. 2, 3. III. Personal Pronouns of the Third Person. 102. The original personal pronoun of the third person, together with its possessive, is used only as a reflexive in Latin, and therefore lacks a Xominative. Its place is taken in the oblique cases by the Determinative is (103), DETERMINATIVE. Substantive. Possessive. Sg.— N. [is, ea, id], he, she, it, supplied by the Genitive. G. 6ius, of him, SivLB, his, hers, its. etc. Pl.— N. [el, 11, 1 ; eae, ea], the?/, G. eOrum, earum, eOrum, of them, eSrum, earum, eSnun, their or theirs. etc. REFLEXIVE. Sttbstantive. Posresbite. So.-N. G. sul, of him, her, itisdf), gnus (-08), -a, -tun (-om), hi$^ T). sibi, to,for,him{se{f),her{sey), her{s), its {own). Ac. se, sSsS, him{self), her{se^f), Ab. se, S6s6, from, with, by him{seif). P1..-N. G. sulj of them{selves), 8XIT1S (-OS), -a, -tUU (-om), ^A^/* D. sibl, to, for fhetn{selves), {ow?i), theirs. Ac. s6, 8686, themiselves), Ab. 86, 8686, from, with, by them(selvM\ PRONOUNS. 57 Notes.— 1. Inscriptions show sibei. The use of sSs§ in classical prose is regulated mainly by artistic reasons. Suom in Gen. PI. from SUUS is rare and early. 2. The enclitic -met niay be added to ail the forms of ego (except nostrum), to all the forms of til (except tu and vestrnm), to sibi, S6, and some forms of suus-; egomet, / myself. Instead of ttimet, ttite is found ; from which early poets formed occasionally ttltemet, tutimet. Met is also occasionally appended to forms Of meus (early) and tUUS (late). 3. The enclitic -pte is joined very rarely to forms of the Personal P*ronoun (m§pte, Pl., Men. 1059) ; more often to the Abl. Sing, of the Possessives ; it is especially com- mon with su5 ; sudpte ingenio, hy his own genius. 4. From noster and vester and also from ctlius, whose f are formed the Gentile adjectives of one ending : nostras, of our country ; vestras, of your country ; cuias, of whose country ? G. nostratis, vestratis, ctiiatis. 103. B. DETERMINATIVE PRONOUNS. I. is. he, that Singular. Plural. N. is, ea, id, ii, ei, i eae. ea. G. eius, gius, eius, eorum. earum, eorum, D. ei. ei, ei. iis, eis, is. Ac. eum, earn, id. eos. eas. ea, Ab. e5, ea, eo. iis, eis, is. Note.— The following variations in the forms are found : N. it for id (post-cl.) ; G. eiius (inscr.), eiUS (early poetry) ; D. eiel (inscr.), 61, el (early poetry), eae (f .) ; Ac. em, im (early), for eum ; Pl. N. eis, eels, ieis, iel (early and rare), for ei ; the usual classical form is ii; G. eum (inscr.) for eorum ; D. eieis, SelS, ieiS (inscr.), ibus (early poetry and rare) ; the usual classical form is iis. The early forms sum, sam, SOS, sas, for eum, eam, eos, eas, are cited by Pestus. Ace. and Abl. Sing, and Gen. Pl. often suiler Synizesis in early poetry. N. G. I). Ac. 2. idem (is + dem), the same. Singular. Plural. idem, eadem, idem, idem, eidem, iidem, eaedem, eadem, eiusdem, eiusdem, eiusdem, eorundem, earundem, eorundem, eidem, eidem, eidem eundem, eandem. Abl. eodem, eadem, idem, eodem. isdem, eisdem, iisdem, eosdem, easdem, eadem, isdem, eisdem, iisdem. Note. —Variations in form : N. eidem, isdem (inscr., early) for Idem; D, Idem (inscr.) for eidem ; Pl. N. Idem (more usual in poetry), eisdem, Isdem (inscr.); D. Ab. iisdem (rare), eisdem (uncommon in classical prose). Synizesis is common. I 3. ipse (perhaps is + pse), he , self. SINGUX.AR. Plural. N. ipse. ipsa, ipsum, ipsi. ipsae. ipsa, G. ipsius. ipsius. ipsius. ipsorum. ipsarum, ipsorum, D. ipsi. ipsi. ipsi. ipsis. ipsis. ipsis, Ac. ipsum. ipsam. ipsum, ipsos. ipsas. ipsa, Ab. ips5, ipsa. ipso. ipsis, ipsis, ipsis. 58 PRONOUNS. Sg. -N. hic, haec, G. huius, huius, D. huic, huic, Ac. hunc, hanc, Notes.— 1. In the earlier time the first part of ipse wag also declined, thus: N. eapse ; Ac. eumpse, eampse ; Ab. eopse, eapse. other forms are doubtful. 2. For ipse the form ipsus was very commonly employed in early Latin, but fades out with Terence, and later is only sporadic. 3. Inflectional variations are : D. ipso, ipsae (late) ; PL N. ipsel (inscr.). The few other forms are uncertain. IpsiUS is dissyllabic twice in Terence. 4. Plautus shows ipsissimus (comp. Gr. avTOTaro?), and in late Latin ipsimus and ipsima are found. A post-Ciceronian colloquialism was isse, issa. 5. Ipse combines with -met : ipsemet and ipsimet (N. Pi.), both rare. 104. C. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. I. Demonstrative Pronoun for the First Person. hIc, this. hoc, Pl. — hi, hae, haec, these, huius, horum, harum, horum, huic, his, his, his, hoc, hos, has, haec, Abl. hoc, hac, hdc. his, his, his. Notes.— 1. The full forms of hIC in -ce are still found in limited numbers in early Latin ; G. hOiusce (in the phrase huiusce modi, the form is common in the classical period and later) ; D. hoice (inscr.) ; PI. N. helsce, hisce (not uncommon) ; G. h5runco (rare) ; D., Ab. hISCe (in Plaut. and Teb. usually before vowels); Ac. hosce, hasce (not uncommon ; occasionally in Cic). 2. Other variations in form are : G. huiuS and huIus (in early poetry for metrical reasons); D. hae (rare and early); Ac. honc ; PL N. hei, heis for hi, haec for hae (in Plaut. and Ter. regularly before vowels or h, occasionally before consonants ; occa- sionally also in classical times and later) ; G. horunc, harunc (early). PL N. hiC for hi and D. Ab. hlhus for his are doubtful. 3. Hie combines with -ne. Usually -ne was appended to hice, etc., and the e weakened to i. Sometimes -ne is added directly to the regular forms. The examples are frequent in early Latin, but occur also in Cic. and later writers : hlcine, haecine, hScine, huicine, huncine, hancine, h5cine, hScine, haecine (N. PL fem.), haecine (N. PL neut.), hiscine, hSscine, hascine; also hicne, haecne, hocne, htiiusne, huncne, hancne, hocne, hacue, haecne, hosne, hasne. II. Demonstrative Pronoun for the Second Person, iste, that. Sg. — N. iste, ista, istud, Pl. — isti, istae, ista, G. istlus, istius, istlus, istorum, istarum, istdrum, D. isti, istI, isti, istis, istis, istis, Ac. istum, istam, istud, istds, istas, ista, Abl. ist5, istS, istO. istis, istis, istis. Notes.— L The Dat. Sing, shows istS in late and istae in early Latin. 2. Iste combines with -ce. In a very few cases (three times in early, once in late Latin) this -ce is retained unchanged, but usually it is shortened to -c. The following forms occur, all except istuc (more common than istud in classical Latin) and istaec PRONOUNS. 59 (neuter, occasionally in Cic, Ep. and later), being wholly confined to early and late Latin. N. istic, istaec, istuc (istoc, once) ; D. istic ; Ac, istunc, istanc ; Ab. istOc, istac. Pi. N. istaec (f.), istaec (n.). 3. In a few cases in Plaut. and Ter. -ne is appended to istice, etc., the preceding e being weakened to i ; istucine, istocine, istacine, istoscin'. III. Demonstrative Pronoun for the Third Person. Sg.— N. iUe, ilia, illud, Pl. G. illius, illius, illius, D. illi, illi, iUl, Ac. ilium, illam, illud, Ab. illo, ilia, illo. Notes.— 1. The older forms from stem oUo- occur on early inscriptions, in laws, and in the poets (except Plaut. and Ter.), even to a very late period, as follows : N. oUus, -e (early) ; D. oUi ; PI. N. oUi, oUa ; G. oUom, oUarum (early) ; D. oUeis, oUis ; Ac. olios (early). 2. Inscriptions show illut occasionally for illud. Other rare forms are : G. illi (doubtful); D. illae ; PI. N. illei. Illius is often dissyllabic in early Latin. 3. IUe often combines with -ce, which is, however, usually shortened to -c : illiusce, illace, illoce, illosce, illasce, illisce,an in early Latin ■, shortened forms : N. illic, illaec, illuc ; D. illic ; Ac. illunc, illanc ; Ab. ill5c, iliac ; PI. N. illaec (f.), illaec (n.), all with rare exceptions confined to Plautus and Terence. 4. A few cases of combination with -ne : illicine, illancine occur in Plautus and Terence. -illi, illae, ilia, illorum, illarum. illSrum, iUis, illis. illis. illes. illas. ilia. illis, illis, illTs, 105. D. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. Pl. — qui, quae, quae, quorum, quarum, quorum, quibus, quibus, quibus, quos, quas, quae, quiDus, quibus, quibus. quidquid, quicquid, whatever. Sg. — N. qui, quae, quod, G. cuius, cuius, cuius, D. cui, cui, cui, Ac. quem, quam, quod, Ab. quo, qua, quo. General Relatives are : Substantive, quisquis, whoever, Adjective. (quiqui, quaequae, quodquod), whosoever. quicunque, quaecunque, quodcunque, whichever. Notes.— 1. Archaic and legal are quis and quid as relatives. 2. The prevalent form of Gen. on inscriptions of the Republican period and in early Latin is quoius ; quius, cuiius, and other variations are also found. Other archaic forms are : D., quoi. D. PL, quels. D. Ab. PL, quis is common in the poets at all periods ; and also in prose wrilers ; but not cited from Caesar, and only from the letters of Cicero. 3. The Abl. Sing, qui foT all genders is the prevalent form in early times, and in combination with cum is preferred to quo, qua by Cicero. 4. Quisquis is occasionally used as an adjective, but not in classical Latin. Occa- sionally, also, but rarely in Cicero, it is used for quisque, quidque. The Nom. Sing. of the adjective quIquI, etc., probably does not occur. In the other cases the forms are 60 PRON^OUKS. the same as those of qnisquis and can be distinguished only by the usage. In combi- nation with modi we find culcui in Gen. sometimes in Cicero. In the Plural the only form found is quibusquibus. (Liv. xli., 8, 10.) 5. In quicumque the -cumque is often separated by tmesis. The only variations in form are queiquomque, quescumque in early Latin, and occasionally quiscumque for quibuscumque (several times in Cicero). 106. E. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. Substantive. quis ? who ? quid ? ivhat ? Adjective. qui ? quae "? quod \ which 9 Subst. and Adj. uter ? utra ? utrum ? ivho^ which of two f Sg. N. quis ? quid "? who 9 what 9 Possessive. G. cuius ? cuius ? whose 9 cuius, cuia, cuium, whose 9 T>. cui ? cui ? to, for whom 9 Ac. quern ? quid ? whom 9 what 9 Ab. quS ? quo ? from, with, by whom or what 9 The plural of the sitbstantive interrogative pronoun and both num- bers of the adjective interrogative pronoun coincide with the forms of the relative qui, quae, quod, who, which. Strengthened Interrogatives. Substantive, quisnami who, pray? quidnam? what, pray? ecquis 1 is (here any one who ? ecquid ? Adjective. quinami quaenaml quodnam? which, pray? ecquil ecqual (ecquae)? ecquod? Remark. — In the poets qui is sometimes found as a substantive for quis in independent sentences. In dependent sentences the use always fluctuates. A difference in meaning can hardly be made other than that qui is generally used in much the same sense as qualis. On the other hand, quis is often used as an adjective for qui ; usually, how- ever, the substantive which follows is best looked upon as in apposi- tion. In the classical period qui is the normal form for the adjective in dependent questions. Notes.— 1. Inecriptions show here and there quit and quot for quid and quod. Quid is sometimes used for quod, but usually in the phrase quid n5m.en tibi est and only in early Latin. Sometimes quae seems to be used as a substantive, but another explanation is always possible. 2. In the obli(iue cases the same variations occur as in the oblique cases of the rela- tive. The Abl. qui means haw f 3. For the dcclerRion of uter see 76. 4. The possessive cuius (quOius), -a, -um was UBed both as relative and as interroga- PRONOUNS. 6l live. It is frequent in Plaut. and Ter., but rare in other authors. Besides the Nom. the only forntis found are Ac. quoium, qudiam ; Ab. quoia ; PI. N. quoiae, and, perhaps, G. PI. quoium. 5. Quisnam is sometimes used as an adjective for qulnam and quinam occasion- ally for quisnam as a substantive. The -nam may be separated by tmesis. Ecquis and ecqui are not common, and are subject to the same fluctuations as quis and qui. Ecquis combines with -nam to form ecquisnam and a few other occasional forms, as : ecquaenam, ecquidnam, ecquodnam, ecquonam, ecquosnam. 107. F. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. I. Substantive, aliquis, aliqna (rare), aliquid, \ somebody, some one quis, qua, quid, f or otlier. Adjective. aliqui, aliqua, aliquod, \ qui, quae, qua, quod, ) ^ Remark. — The common rule is that quis and qui occur properly only after si, nisi, n6, num, or after a relative ; otherwise aliquis, aliqui. Notes.— 1. Aliquis and qnis are not unfrequently used as adjectives instead of aliqui, qui, but rarely in early Latin. Occasionally (not in early Lathi) aliqui is used as a substantive. Qui is also so used, but only after si, sin, sive, n6. The use of quid and aliquid for quod and aliquod, and of aliquod for aliquid, is very rare and late. 2. Besides the variations in form mentioned under the relative and interrogative, the indefinitive quis shows qu§S as an early form for qui (N. PI.), and in PI. Nom. Ace. neut, quae and qua in etpially good usage. Aliqxds shows in Abl, Sing, aliqui (rare and early), in the PI. Nom. Ace. neut. always aliqua, and not unfrequently in post- classical Latin aliquis for aliquibus. 2. quidam, quaedam, quiddam (and quoddam), a certain, certain one. Remark. — Quidam, quaedam occur both as substantives and adjec- tives, but quiddam is always substantive, quoddam always adjective. The Plural is rare in early Latin (never in Plautus). 3. quispiam, quaepiam, quidpiam (and quodpiam), some one, some. quisquam, , quicquam, any one (at all). No plural. Notes.— 1. quispiam, quaepiam are rare as adjectives. In the neuter, quippiam and quoppiam occur rarely. The comic poets do not use the Plural, and it is rare elsewhere. 2. Quisquam is seldom used as an adjective, except with designations of persons ; scriptor quisquam, anj/ writer (at all), Gallus quisquam, any Gaul (at all). The corresponding adjective is uUus. The use of quisquam as a feminine is only in early Latin. Quidquam is a poor spelling for quicquam. In Abl. Sing, quiquam occurs occasionally. In Sing. Gen. Dat. Ace. frequently, and in Plural always, forms of ullus were used. 62 CORRELATIVES. 4. quivis, quaevis, quidvis (and quodvis), ] any one you please, quilibet, quaelibet, quidlibet (and quodlibet), f you like. Note.— QuIvis, quaevis, quilibet (archaic -lubet), quaelibet may be used either as gubstantives or adjectives, but quidviS, quidlibet are substantives only, quodviS, quodlibet are adjectives only. Peculiar forms of quiviS are G. quoivis in quoivis- modi (Plaut.) ; D., quovis (late) ; Ab., quivis (Plaut., Ter.), and the compounds cuiusviscumque (Lucr. hi., 388) and quoviscumque (Mart, xiv., 2, 1). Quilibet may be separated by tmesis into qui and libet (Sall., Cat. 5, 4). 5. quisque, quaeque, quidque and quodque, each one, unusquisque, unaquaeque, tinumquidque and unumquodque, each one severally. Note.— Quisque occurs occasionally in early Latin as a feminine, and with its forms is not unfrequenlly found in early and late Latin for quisquis, or quicumque. Quid- que is substantive, quodque adjective. In the Abl. Sing, quique occurs occasionally. The Plural is regular, but rare until post-classical times. In Norn. PI. quaeque is either fem. or neuter. 108. The declension of the pronominal adjectives has been given in 76. They are : tillus, -a, -um, any ; nullus, -a, -um, no one, not one. The correspond- ing substantives are ngmS (76) and nihil, the latter of which forms only nihili (Gen.) and nibilo (AbL), and those only in certain combina- tions. n5nnullus, -a, -um, some, many a, dechned like nullus. alius, -a, -ud, another; the Possessive of alius is aliSnus. alter, -era, -erum, the other, one {of two). neuter, neutra, neutrum, neither of two. alteruter, alterutra, alterutrum, the one or the other of the two. uterque, utraque, utrumque, each of two, either, ambo, -ae, -5, both. utervis, utravis, utrumvis, ) j, • 7, , ^ ±t. i ,.^' ^ ,.,' ^ ,,,' \ whichever you please of the two. uterlibet, utralibet, utrumlibet, \ i> jr j CORRELATIVES. 109. I. CORRELATIVE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. INTERROGATIVES. Dejionstratives. Relatives. quis % who 9 is, that. qui, who. quaUs? of what talis, such (of that qualis, as {of which kind 9 kind),. kind). quantuBl how much ? tantus, 80 much. quantus, as much. quot 1 how many f tot, so many. quot, as many. CORRELATIVES. 63 110. II. CORRELATIVE PRONOMINAL ADVERBS. I. Pronominal adverbs of 7j/« > dele-tor, dele-tor. Pl. , dele-te, » dele-tote, dele-ntO. dele-mini, > dele-ntor 1 Pres. dele-re. INFINITIVE. Pres. dele-rl. Perf. dele-v-isse. Fut. dele-tar-um, -am, -urn esse. Perf. dele-t-um, -am, -um esse. Put. dele-tum Irl. Fut. Pf. dele-t-um, -am, -um fore. GERUND. N. [dele-re]. G. dele-nd-f D. dele-nd-0. Ac. [dele-re] (ad) dele-nd-um. Ak. dele-nd-0. SUPINE. Ac. dele-tum. Ab. dele-ta. PARTICIPLES. Pres. N. dele-n-s ; G. dsle-nt-ia. Fut. dele-tur-us, -a, -um. Perf. dele-t-us, -a, -um. GERUNDIVE. dele-nd-us, -a, -um. 78' REGULAR VERBS. 124. Like delere, to destroy , are conjugated only, nere, to spin, flere, to toeep, and the compounds of -plere, filly and -olere grotv (the latter with Supine in -itum); also ciere, to stir up. See 137(^). All other verbs of the Second Conjugation retain the character- istic e in the Present System, but drop it in the Perfect System, changing vi to ui, and weaken it to i in the Supine System. Second Conjugation. Coi^^JUGATioiS' OF monere, to remind. PRIN. Parts : mone-0, monS-re, mon-ul, moni-tum. ACTIVE. Sg. Pl — Sg.- Pl. Sg.- Pl. Sg. Pl.- INDIC. mone-C, mone-s, mone-t, raone-mus, monS-tis, mone-nt. -mone-ba-m, raone-ba-8, mone-ba-t, -mone-bS-mus, mone-ba-tis, monS-ba-nt. -raone-b-0, mone-bi-s, mone-bi-t, -mone-bi-mus, mone-bi-tis, monS-bu-nt. -mon-u-I, mon-u-istl, mon-u-it, -mon-u-imu8, mon-u-istis, SUBJV. monea-m, monea-s, monea-t, raonea-mus, monea-tis, monea-nt. INDIC. Present. mone-o-r, mone-ris (-re), mone-tur, inone-mur, raone-mini, mone-ntur. Imperfect. PASSIVE. SUBJV. monea-r, raonea-ris (-re), raonea-tur, mone-a-mur, mone-a-minl, mone-a-ntur. mone-re-m, inon5-ba-r, inone-r6-s, mone-ba-ris (-re), raone-re-t, mone-ba-tur, mone-r6-mus, mone-ba-nmr, mone-rS-tis, mone-ba-mini, raone-re-nt. mone-ba-ntur. Future. mone-bo-r, mone-be-ris (-re), mone-bi-tur, raone-bi-mur, inone-bi-minl, mone-bu-ntur. Perfect. mon-u-eri-m, moni-t-us sum, mon-u-eri-s, es, raon-u-eri-t, est, mon-u-eri-mus, moiii-t-I sumus, inon-u-eri-tis, estis. raone-re-r, mone-r6-ris (-re), raoiie-rS-tur, raone-r6-mur, mone-rS-minI, mone-re-ntur. mon-u-6rant (-fire), raoii-u-eri-nt. sunt. moni-t-us Sim, sis, sit, inoni-t-I simus, sitis, sint. REGrMR VERBS. 79 Second Conjugation. ACTIVE. " PASSIVE. INDIC. SUBJV. mDic. SUBJV. Pluperfect. Sg -mon-u-era-m, mon-u-era-s, mon-u-era-t, mon-u-isse-m. raoni-t-us essem, Pr..— moni-t-us eram, eras, erat, mon-u-era-mu8, mon-u-iss6-nius, moni-t-I eraxnus, moni-t-I essSmus, mon-u-iss5-s, mon-u-isse-t. mon-u-era-tis, iDon-u-issS-tis, eratis. essStis mon-u-era-nt. mon-u-isse-nt. erant. essent. Future Perfect. Sg.— mon-u-er-5, moni-t-us erfl, mon-u-eri-8, eris, mon-u-eri-t, erit, Pl. — mon-u-eri-mus, moni-t-I erimus, mon-u-eri-tis, eritis, raon-u-eri-nt. erunt. IMPERATIVE. Present. Future. Present. Futubb. mone, mon5-t5, mone-re, mone-tor, mone-t5, mone-tor, Pl. mone-te, mone-tOte, mone-mini, mone-ntO. mone-ntor. INFINITIVE. Pres. mon5-re. Pres. monS-rl. Perf. mon-u-isse. Perf. moni-t-um. -am, -um esse. FuT. moni-tur-um, -am, um esse Fut. raoni-t-um Iri. Fut. Pf. raoni-t-um, -am, -um fore. SUPINE. N. G. D. Ac. Ah. GERUND. [mon5-re]. mone-nd-I. mone-nd-5. [mone-re] Ac. moni-tum. (ad) mone-nd-um. mone-nd-O. Ab. moni-ttl. PARTICIPLES. Pres. N. mon6-n-8 ; G. mone-nt-is, Fut. moni-tur-us, -a, -um. Perf. moni-t-us, -a, -am. GERUNDIVE. mone-nd-u8, -a, -um. 8o REGULAR YF'RBS. 125, Third Conjugation. Conjugation of emere, to buy, Prin. Parts : em-o, erne-re, 6in-I, 6m(p)-tuin. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. INDIC. SUBJV. INDIC. Present. SUBJY. Sg.— em-o, emi-8, emi-t, ema-m, ema-8, ema-t, em-o-r, eme-ris (-re), emi-tur, ema-r, ema-ris (-re), ema-tur. Pl.— emi-mus, erai-tis, emu-nt. ema-mus, ema-tis, ema-nt. emi-mur, emi-minl, emu-ntur. Imperfect. ema-mur, ema-mini, ema-ntur. Sg.— eme-ba-m, eme-ba-8, eme-ba-t, eme-re-m, eme-rS-s, eme-re-t. eme-ba-r, eme-ba-ris(-re,) eme-ba-tur, eme-re-r, eme-r6-ris (-re), eme-re-tur, Pl.— eme-ba-mus, eme-ba-tis, eme-ba-nt. eme-r6-mus, eme-ba-mur, eme-r6-tis, eme-ba-mini, eme-re-nt. eme-ba-ntur. eme-r6-mur, eme-rg-mini, eme-re-ntur. Future. Sg.— ema-m, eme-s, eme-t. ema-r, eme-ris (-re), eme-tur, Pl.— eme-mus, eme-tis, eme-nt. eme-mur, eme-mini, eme-ntur. Perfect. Sg.— em-I, em-isti, era-it. 6m-eri-m, Cm-eri-8, 6m-eri-t, emp-t-U8 sum, es, est. 6rap-t-U8 sim, sis, sit, Pl.— em-imus, em-istis, em-6runt (-&€ em-erl-mus, em-eri-tis, >). em-eri-nt. 6mp-t-I sumus, estis, sunt. emp-t-I simua, sitis, •int. REGULAR VERBS. 8l Third Conjugation. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. INDIC. SUBJV. INDIC. SUBJV. Pluperfect. 5mp-t-U8 Sg.— em-era-m, em-isse-m, erap-t-us eram, em-era-8, ein-issg-s, eras, em-era-t, em-isse-t, erat. Pl.— em-era-mus, em-issS-mus, emp-t-I eramus, em-era-tis, em-iss6-tis, eratis, em-era-nt. em-isse-nt. erant. Future Perfect. Sg. — era-er-5. emp-t-us era. em-eris, eris. em-eri-t, erit, Pl.— em-eri-mus, emp-t-I erimus. 5m-eri-tis, eritis. em-eri-nt. erunt. IMPERATIVE. Present. Future. Present. Sg. erne, enu-tO, eme-re, Pl. emi-te. emi-t5, emi-tOte, emi-minl. eniu-ntO. esses, eiset, essSmtu essStis, essent. Pres. erae-re. Perp. em-isse. FuT. erap-ttir-um, -am, -urn esse. FUTURB. emi-tor, erai-tor, emu-ntor, INFINITIVE. Pres. em-I. Perf. 5mp-t-um, -am, -um FuT. eraptum Iri. FuT. Pf. emp-t-um, -am, -um fore. GERUND. N. [eme-re]. G. era-e-nd-I. D. em-e-nd-o. Ac. [era-e-re] (ad) em-e-ndum. Ab. era-e-nd-5. 6 SUPINE. Ac. emp-tum. Ab. emp-ttl. PARTICIPLES. Pres. N. em5-n-s ; G. eme-nt-iSi FuT. 5mp-tur-us, -a, -um. Perf. Crap-t-us, -a, -um. GERUNDIVE. em-e-nd-us, -a, -um- 82 REGULAR VERBS. 126. Many verbs of the third conjugation with stem in ie (Pres. Indie, in io) weaken this ie to e before -re, and to i before m, s, and t in all tenses of the Present System except the Future. Otherwise they follow the inflection of eme-re. These verbs are capio, cupio, facio, fodio, ftigio, iacio, pario, quatio, rapid, sapio, and their compounds ; also compounds of -licio, -spicio, and the deponents gradior and its compounds, morior and its compounds, patior and its compounds. Synopsis of Present System of cape-re, to take, Prin. Parts : capi-5, cape-re, c6p-I, cap-tom. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. INDIC. SUBJV. INDIC. SUBJV. Present. Sg.- -capi-5, capi-8, capi-t. capia-m, capia-s, capia-t. capi-o-r, cape-ris (-re), capi-tur, capia-r, capia-ris (-re), capiii-tur. Pl.- -capi-mus, capi-tis, capiu-nt. capia-mus, capi-mur, capia-tis, capi-minl, capia-nt. capiu-ntur. capia-mur, capia-mini, capia-ntur. Imperfect. Sg.- -capie-ba-m, etc. cap-e-re-m, capi-6-ba-r, etc. etc. cape-re-r, etc. Future. Sg.- -capia-m, capi5-8, etc. capia-r, capi5-ris (-re), etc. IMPERATIVE. Prbs. Put. Pres. Put. Sg.- -cape, capi-te. cap-i-tO, cap-i-tO, capi-tOte, capiu-ntC cape-re, capi-minl. INFINITIVE. capi-tor, capi-tor, capiii-ntor. Pres. cape-re. cap- •I. PARTICIPLE. GERUND. GERUNDIVE. Prbs 1. capie-n-s. G. capie-nd-I. capie-nd-us, -a, -un. REGULAR VERBS. H 127. Fourth Conjugration. Conjugation of audire, to hear. Prin. Parts : audi-3, audi-re, audi-vi, audl-tum. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. ETOIC. SUBJV. INDIC. SUBJV. Sg. — audi-5, audi-s, audi-t, Pl. — audi-mus, audi-tis, audiu-nt. Sg. — audie-ba-m, audi5-ba-s, audie-ba-t, Pl. — audie-ba-mu8, audi5-ba-tis, audie-ba-nt. So. -audia-m, audie-s, audie-t, Pl. — audie-mus, audie-tis, audie-nt. audia-m, audia-s, audia-t, audia-mus, audiS-tis, audia-nt. Present. audi-o-r, audi-ris (re), audl-tur, audl-mur, audi-mini, audi-u-ntur. audia-r, audia-ris (-re), audia-tur, audia-mur, audia-mini, audia-ntur. Imperfect. audl-re-m, audI-rS-8, aiidi-re-t, audi-r6-mus, audl-rS-tis, audi-re-nt. audie-ba-r, audl-re-r, audie-ba-ris (re), audi-r6-ris (-re), audie-ba-tur, audi-r6-tur, audie-ba-mur, audie-ba-minl, audie-ba-ntur, audi-r6-mur, audi-re-minl, audl-re-ntur. Future. audia-r, audie-ris (-re), audie-tur, audie-mur, audiS-minl, audie-ntur. Sg. — audi-v-I, audi-v-isti, audi-v-it, Pl. — audl-v-imus, audi-v-istis, Perfect. audl-v-eri-m, audl-t-us sum. audl-t-as sim, sis, sit, audl-v-erl-s, es, audl-v-eri-t, est, audl-v-erl-mu8, audl-t-I sumus, audi-t-f simurf, audl-v-eri-tis, estis, sitis, audi-v-erunt (-ere), audi-v-eri-nt. sunt. 8int» 84 REGULAR VERBS. Fourth Conjugratfon. ACTIVE. PASSIYB. INDIC. SUBJV. INDIC. Pluperfect. audl-v-isse-m, audi-t-us eram, audi-v-is86-s, eras, audi-v-isse-t, erat, SUBJV. Sg. — audi-v-era-m, audi-v-era-s, audl-v-era-t, audl-tu-s essem, essSs, esset, Pl. — audl-v-era-mu8, audl-v-issS-mns, audl-t-I erfimus, audl-t-I essSmus, audl-v-erS-tis, audi-v-issS-tis, audl-v-era-nt. audl-v-isse-nt. eratis, erant. essStis, essent. Sg. — audI-v-er-(J, audl-v-erl-s, audl-v-eri-t, Pl. — audi-v-eri-mus, audi-v-eri-tis, audi-v-eri-nt. Future Perfect. audi-t-us er6, eris, erit, audl-t-I erimus, eritis, enmt. IMPERATIVE. Present. Sg. Pl. audi, audi-te. Future. audi-tO, audi-tO, audl-t5te, audiu-nt6. Present. audl-re, audl-mint FUTURI. audl-tor, audi-tor, audiu-ntor. Pres. audl-re. Perf. audl-v-isse. FuT. audi-ttlr-uin, -am, -um GERUND. N. [audi-rej. G. audie-nd-I. D. audie-nd-5. Ac. [audl-rej (ad) audie-nd-ttm. Ab. audie-nd'O. INFINITIVE. Pres. audl-rl. Perf. audl-t-um, -am, um esse, esse. FuT. audi-tum Irl. Fut.Pf. audi-t-um, -am, -um fore. SUPINE. PARTICIPLES. Pres. N. audien-s, G. audie-nt-is, FuT. audi-ttlr-us, -a, -um. Perf. audl-t-us, -a, -um. Ac. audi-tum. Ab. audl-tfU GERUNDIVE. audie-nd-us, -a, -um. DEPONENT VERBS. DEPONENT VERBS. 128. Deponent verbs have the passive form, but are active in meaning. They have also the Present and Future Active Participles, and the Future Active Infinitive. Thus a depo- nent verb alone can have a Present, Future, and Perfect Participle, all with active meaning. The Gerundive, how- ever, is passive in meaning as well as in form. The conjugation differs in no particular from that of the regular conjugation. I. First Conjugratlon. Conjugation of hortan, to exhort. Prin. Parts : hort-or, hortS-rl, horta-tus sum. INDICATIVE. Exhort, So. — hort-o-r, horta-ris (-re), horta-tur, Pl.— horta-mur, horta-minl, horta-ntur. WaB exhorting. So. — horta-ba-r, horta-ba-ris (-re), horta-ba-tur, Pl. — horta-ba-mur, horta-ba-minl, horta-ba-ntur. Shall exhort. Sg. — horta-bo-r, horta-be-ris (-re), horta-bi-tur, Pl. — horta-bi-mur, horta-bi-mini, horta-bu-ntuy. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Be exhorting, may exhort horte-r, horte-ris (-re), horte-tur, horte-mur, horte-mini, horte-ntur. Imperfect. Were exhorting, might exhoT horta-re-r, horta-r6-ris (-re), horta-r6-tur, horta-rB-mnr, horta-re-minl, horta-re-ntur. Future. 86 DEPONENT VERBS. Perfect. Have exhorted, exhorted. Have, may have, exhorted^ Sg. — horta-t-us, -a, -um sum, horta-t-us, -a, -urn sim, es, sis, est, sit, Pl. — horta-t-I, -ae, -a sumus, hortat-I, -ae, -a slmus, estis, sitis, sunt. sint. Pluperfect. Had exhorted. Had, might have, exhorted^ Sg.— horta-t us, -a, -um eram, horta-t-us, -a, -um essem, eras, essSs, erat, esset, Pl.— horta-t-I, -ae, -a eramus, horta-t-I, -ae, -a essSmus. erStis, essetis. erant. essent. Future Perfkct. Shall have exhorted. Sg. — horta-t-us, -a, -um er5, eris, erit, Pl.— horta-t-I, -ae, -a erimus, eritis, erunt. IMPERATIVE. Present. PuTtrBi!. Sg. horta-re, exhort thou. horta-tor, thou shalt exhort, • horta-tor, he shall exhort. Pl. horta-mini, exhort ye. horta-ntor, they shall exhort. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES. Pres. horta-rl, to exhort. Pres. horta-n-s, exhorting. FuT. horta-ttlr-um, am, -um esse, Fut. horta-tiir-us, -a, um, ahoui to he about to exhort. to exhort. Perf. hortat-um, -am, -um esse, to Perf. horta-t-us, -a, -um, having have exhorted. exhorted. F. P. hortat-um, -am, -um fore. . GERUNDIVE. SUPINE. horta nd-us, -a, -um, \one\ to he Ac. horta-tum, to exhort, for ex- exhorted. horting. GERUND. Ab. horta-tfl, to exhort, m the ex- G. horta-nd-I, of exhorting. horting. DEPONENT VERBS. 87 2. Second, Third, Fourth Conjugations. Synopsis of vereri, to fear; loqui, to speak; mentiri, to lie, Pein. Parts : vere-or, ver6-ri, veri-tus sum; loqu-or, loqu-i, locu-tus sum; menti-or, mentl-ri, mentl-tus sum. INDICATIVK Imperf. FUT. Perf. Plupf. FuT. Pf. n. vere-o-r, ver5-ris (-re), etc, vei€-ba-r, vere-bo-r, veri-t-us sum, veri-t-us eram, veri-t-us ero. ni. loqii-o-r, loque-ris (-re), etc. loqu5-ba-r, loqua-r, locu-t-us sum, locu-t-us eram, locQ-t-us ero. 17. menti-0-r, mentl-ris (-re), c^c, mentie-ba-r, raentia-r, mentl-t-us sum, menti-t-us eram» menti-t-us erS. SUBJUNCTIVE. Imperf. Perf. Plupf. verea-r, verea-ris (-re), etc. verG-re-r, veri-t-us sim, veri-t-us essem. loqua-r, loquS-ris (-re), etc, loque-re-r, locu-t-us sim, locu-t-us essem. mentia-r, mentia-ris (-re), etc. meitti-re-r, menti-t-us sim, menti-t-us Pres. FUT. Pres. FUT. Perf. FuT. P5 vere-re, ver5-tor. IMPERATIVE, loque-re, loqui-tor. INFINITIVE, ver5-ri, loqu-i, veri-tur-um esse, locu-tur-um esse, veri-t-um esse, locu-t-um esse, veri-t-um fore, locu-t-um fore. menti-re, menti-tor. mentl-rl, menti-tur-um esse; menti-t-um esse, menti-t-um fore. Pres. FUT. Perf GERUND. GERUNDrV^E, SUPINE. vere-n-s, veri-ttir-us, veri-t-us. vere-nd-i, etc., vere-nd-us, vcri-tum, veri-ta. PARTICIPLES. loque-n-8, locu-tur-us, locu-t-us. loque-nd-i, loque-nd-us, locu-tum, locu-ta. mentie-n-s, menti-ttir-us, menti-t-us. mentie-nd-I, mentie-nd-us, mentl-tum, menti-tti. 88 PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION. Periphrastic Conjugation. 129. The Periphrastic Conjugation arises from the com- bination of the Future Participle active and the Gerundive with forms of the verb sum. ACTIVE. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. amaturus (-a, -am) sum, amaturus (-a, -urn) sim, Am about to love. Be about to love. Ikpf. amaturus eram, amaturus essem, Was about to love. Were about to love. FuT. amaturus ero, Shall be about to love. Pkbf. amatiirus ful, amaturus fuerim, Have been, was, about to love. Have, may have, been about to love. Plupf. amaturus fueram, amaturus fuissem, Had been about to love. Had, might have, been about to love. FcT. Pekp. amatiirus fuer5, Shall have been about to love. INFINITIVE. Prks. amatur-um (-am, -um) esse, To be about to love. Perp. ajtnatur-um fuisse, 2h have been about to love. PASSIVE. Pkbs. amandus (-a, -um) sum, Have to be loved. Have to be loved. IHW. amandus eram, Had to be loved. amandus essem, forem, Had to be loved. FUT. amandus er5, Shall have to be loved. VVRV. amandus ful, Have had to be loved. amandus fuerim, Have had to be loved. Plupp. amandus fueram, Had had to be loved. amandus fuissem. Should have had to he loved. INFINITIVE. Pkes. amandum (-am, -um) esse, To have to be loved. Perp. amandum fuisse, To have had to be loved. NOTES ON THE CONJUGATIONS. 89 Notes on the Four Conjugations. 130. The Present System, 1. Present Indicative.— (a) In the third person Singular active, early Latin, and occasionally later poets, often retain the original length of vowel in the endings -at, -6t, and -it of the first, second, and fourth conjugations. Final -it in the third conjuga- tion is rare, and due, perhaps, to analogy or to metrical necessity. In the first person Plural the ending -mus is found a few times m poetry. In third person Plural an earlier ending, -onti, is found only in a Carmen Saliare, and is disputed. The ending -ont is frequent m early Latin for -unt. (6) In the second Singular, passive, in all tenses of the Present stem, the ending -re is much more common in early Latin than -ris, and is regular in Cic. except in the Pr. Indie, where he prefers -ris on account of confusion with Pr. Inf., admitting -re only in deponents, and then but rarely. In general, in the Pr. Indie, -re is rare in the first and second conjugations, more rare in the third, and never found in the fourth, in prose authors. Post-Ciceronian prose writers, e. g., Livy, Tacitus, prefer -ris, even in the other tenses of the Present stem. The poets use -ris or -re to suit the metre. 2. Imperfect Indicative.— In the fourth conjugation, instead of -ig-, we find m early times -i-. This is common in early Latin (especially scibam), in the poets to suit the metre, and occasionally in later prose. In the verb eo, and its compounds (but ambire varies), this form was regular always. 3. Future Indicative.— Plautus shows sporadic cases of -it, as erit, vSnibit (vgneS). In the fourth conjugation -ib5 for -iam is very connnon in early Latin (especially scibo), and forms in -ibo of the third conjugation are occasional. 4. Present Subjunctive.— Final -at of the third person Singular active is occa- sional in early Latin and also in later poets. In early Latin the active endings -im, -is, -it, -int are found in dare (and some compounds), which forms very often duim, duis, duit, duint. On similar forms from esse, see IIG ; from edere, see 172. .5. Imperative.— (rt) Four verbs, dicere, ducere, facere, ferre (171), form the Pr. Impv. active die, due, fae, fer. But in early Latin dice, duee, faee are not uncommon. The compounds follow ihe usage of the simple verbs, except prepositional compounds of facio. Scire, to knoiv, lacks the Pr. Impv. sci. {b) The original ending of the Fut. Impv. active -tSd is found in early inscriptions, but very rarely. (c) The Pr. Impv. passive (second and third Singular) ends occasionally in early Latin in -mino. Appellamino (Cic. Leg. hi. 3, 8) as third Plur. is a blunder. G. Presknt Infinitive Passive.— The early ending -rier (-ier) is very common in early Latin and occasionally in poetry at all periods. Plautus shows about 140 such formations. In literary prose it does not appear till very late. 7. The Present Participle occurs sporadically in early Latin with the ending -as, -es, the n having been omitted owing to its weak sound ; see 12, R. 1. 8. The older ending of the Gerund and Gerundive in the third and fourth conju- gations was -undus ; and -endus was found only after u. In classical times -undus is frequent, especially in verbs of third and fourth conjugations. Later, -endus is the regular form. , 131. Tlie Perfect System. I. Syncopated Forms.— The Perfects in -Syl, -Svl, -ivi, often drop the V before s or r, and contract the vowels throughout, except those in -ivi, which admit the contraction only before s. The syncopated forms are found in all periods, and in the poets are used to suit the metre. 90 NOTES ON THE CONJUGATIONS. audivisti, audistl. Perfect. Sing. 1. 2. amavisti, amasti. delevisti, dglesti. Plur. 1. 2. amavistis, amastis. delevistis, delestis. audlvistis, audistis. 3. aiiiavenint,amarunt. delSverunt, delerunt. audiverunt, audiemiitc SuBJv. amaverim, amarim, deleverim, delerim, audiverim, audierim, etc. etc. etc. Pluperfect. Indic. amaveram, amaram, dglSveram, dglSram, audiveram, audieram, etc. etc. etc. SuBjv. amavissem, amassem, delgvissem, delessem, audivissem, audissem, etc. etc. etc. amaverd, aiuard, etc. amavisse, amasse. Future Perfect. delevero, d6l6ro, etc. Infinitive Perfect. delSvisse, delesse. audlverS, audiero, etc. audivisse, audisse. 2. In the first and third persons Sing, and in the first person PI. of the Perfect, syncope occurs regularly only in Perfects in Ivi, and no contraction ensues. It is most common in the Perfects of ire (1G9) and petere. In other verbs this syncopation is post-Ciceronian, except in a few forms. So Cicero uses dormiit, erudiit, expediit, moUiit, cupiit (also Plautus) ; Caesar, communiit, resciit, quaesiit. Desinere forms desii and desiit, once each in early Latin (Cicero uses destiti and destitit instead), and then in post- Augustan Latin ; dgsiimus is cited once from Cicero. The unsyncopated forms are always common except those of Ire (169), which are very rare in classical prose, but occur more often in the poets for metrical reasons. Note.— The forms nomus (Enn. = nSvimus"), gnarramus (Ter.,^c?.,365), flg- mus, mutamus, and narramus (Prop.), suemus (Lucr.), iu the Perfect, are sporadic and sometimes doubtful. 3. nQvI, I Jcnow, and movi, 1 have moved, are also contracted, in their compounds especially. Sing.— 2. nOstl. Plur.— 2. nostis. 3. norunt. SuB.rv. nSrim, etc. Plupp. nSram, etc. Subjv. nSssem, etc. Inf. nosse. But the Fnt. Perf . nQro is found only in compounds. Similar contractions are seen in mSvi, but not so often ; iHvI shows also a few cases of syncope in poetry. 4. (a) In the early Latin poets frequently and occasionally in later, syncope takes place in Perfects in -si. These drop the s and contract. A few cases are found in Cicero, especially in the letters. Examples are dixti (found also in Cic. and probably an earlier formation, and not by syncope for dixisti) ; duxti, principally in compounds; intellextl (once in Cic); scilpstl ; mistl (misistr iuid s(!venil others ; also scripstis. ib) Akin to these are a niiniber of forms in -so for Fiit. Perfect ; -sim for Pf. Subjv. and more rarely -sem for Plupf. Siibjv. These foinis are most usual in the tJiird conjugation, but arc also not uufieyui^ut in the other three ; thus, THE STEM. 91 1. Fxiture Perfect : faxQ (facere) ; capso (capere) and compounds : iussodubSre ; Verg.) ; amasso (amare) ; servasso (servare) and compounds, together with some others. 2. Perfect Subj^inctlve : faxim and compounds ; duxim ; ausim ( audere, also used by Cic.) ; iussim ; empsim (emere) ; locassim (locare) ; negassim (negare). In the second and thkd persons Sing., where the Fut. Pf . Indie, and the Pf. Subjv. are identical, the forms are much more common. The plural forms are much less frequent. 3. Pluperfect SubjitncHre : faxem ; pro-missem ; intel-lexes ; re-cSsset and a few other forms ; ergpsemus (IIor , >§., i. 5, 79). These forms are rare. 4. Infinitive : dixe ; de-spexe ; ad-duxe, etc. ; intel-lexe ; de-traxe, etc. ,• ad- vexe ; ad-misse, and a few others. Also the Future forms averuncassere, reconcili- assere, impetrassere, oppugnassere. The exact origin of these forms is still a matter of dispute, but the common view is that they are aoristic formations. 5. From the earliest times the third Plural of the Pf. Indic. active shows two end- ings, -gront (later -grant) and -gre. The form in -grunt ^^as always preferred, and in classical prose is the normal form. The form in -gre seems to have been the popu- lar form, and is much liked by Livy and later writers. Tacitus seems to have pre- ferred -erunt for the Pure Perfect, and -gre for the Historical Perfect. The poets scan, according to the exigencies of the metre, at all periods also grunt. 6. In regard to the other endings, we have to notice in early Latin -is occasionally in the Pf . Subjv. and Fut. Pf. Indic. active ; Perfects in -if are always written with -iei- on inscriptions ; in other Perfects the third person Singular in -git (older -gt), or -it ; as dedet ; occasionally the first person ends in -ei and the second in -istei. Peculiar forms are dedrot (dedyo), (for dederunt), fgced (for fecit), and a few others. THE STEM. 132. With the exception of the verbs sum, / a7)ij edo, lent, eo, I go, fero, / bear, vol5, I ivish (perhaps do, I give), and their compounds, most of whose forms come directly from the root, all verbs in Latin form their stems from the root by the addition of a vowel or of a combination of a vowel with a consonant. This vowel is called the thematic vowel ; see 190. In the first, second, and fourth conjugations, and in some verbs of the third conjugation, the stem thus formed is found throughout the whole conjugation ; in other verbs the present stem shows different forms from the other stems. 1. THE PRESENT STEM. 133. I- Th^ Stem or Thematic class : To this class belong those verbs whose stems are formed by the addition of a thematic vowel (usually i, sometimes u) to the root, as in the third conjugation, or to a stem formed by the addition of a, g, or i to the root, as in the first, sec- ond, and fourth conjugations. The stem thus formed is seen (with lengthened vowel' sometimes) in all forms of the verb. To this class belong verbs of the first, second, and fourth conjugations, and in the 92 THE STEM. third (a) verbs formed from a strong root, ?'. e., verbs with I, u, a, g, 5, ae, au ; and with e in the stem ; as dico (= deico;, duco {= douco), rado, c6do, rodo, caedo, plaudo; veho, vergo, pendo, etc.; {b) verbs formed from a weak i-oot, i. e., those with vowel i, u, 6, and probably those with a: as dl-vido, furo, olo (olere), ago. II. The Reduplicated class: The Present stem is formed by redupli- cation, with i in the reduplicated syllable : gen-, gi-gno (for gi-gen-o), gi-gne-re, to beget ; sta-, si-sto, si-ste-re, to set, stand. Compare stare, to stand. Other forms, as sido(for si-s(e)do), serS (for si-so), and perhaps bibo, have the Reduplication concealed. III. The T class : The root, which usually ends in a guttural, is strengthened by to, te : flecto (flec-), flecte-re, to bend. IV. The Nasal class: In this class the root is strengthened by no, ne, the nasal being inserted A. In vowel-stems : sino (si-), sine-re, to let ; lin5 (li-), line-re, to be- smear. B. After the characteristic liquid : cerno (cer-), cerne-re, to sift, separate ; tenmo (tem-), tenme-re, to scorn. Notes.— 1. After 1 assimilation takes place : pello (for pel-no), pelle-re, to drive. 2. In a few verbs tlie strengthened forms (-no after a vowel, -ino after a liquid) are confined mainly to the third person Plural active of the Present, and arc found not later than the close of the sixth century of the city : danunt (= dant\ explenunt (= explent), nequinont (= nequeunt), and a few others. C. Before the characteristic mute : vinco (vie-), vince-re, to conquer ; frango (frag), frange-re, to break; funds (fud-), funde-re, to pour. Before a p-mute n becomes m: rumpo (RUP-), rumpe-re, to rend; Climbs (cub-), cumbe-re, to lie doivn. D. Here belong also those verbs in which the root is strengthened by -nuo, nue ; as sternuo (ster-), sternue-re, to sneeze. Note.— In verbs like tingUO, I soak , the consonantal n disappears before a conso- nant in the Pf. and Supine : tinxi, tinc-tum. V. The Inchoative class : The Present stem has the suffix -sco, -see. ira-scor, I am in a rage ; crg-sc5, I grow ; ob-dormi-sco, I fall asleep ; api-scor, I reach ; pro-fici-scor, I set out ; nanci-scor (nac-), I get ; no-sco (= gno-sco), I become acquainted ; po-sco (= presto), I demand ; mis-ceo (— mic-sc-e5), I mix; disco (= di-dc-sc6), / learn. A number of Incho- atives are derivative formations from substantives ; as, lapidgsco (from lapis), / become stone. VI. The I class : Instead of the simple thematic vowel i the root is increased by the form ie. In some forms of the Present stem, i. e., the Pr. Inf., Impf. Subjv., second Sing., Pr. Impv., this appears in the form e ; in some other forms it appears as i : capi-G (cap-), cape-re, to take. THE STEM. 93 NoTT?.— Verbs of the fourth conjugation also belong to the i claee ; but for con- venience the i class is here restricted as above. VII. TJie Mixed class : Some verbs that originally belong to the i-class have gone over in the Present stem to the forms of the stem class : as venio (ven-), veai-re, lo come; video (vid-), vide-re, to see; sonO (S0x\-), sona-re, to sound. II. THE PERFECT STEM. 134. I. Perfect in -vl (or -ui) : These are formed by the addition («) Of -vi to the stem as it appears in the Present Inf. in combina- tion with the thematic vowel. To this class belong the Perfects of the first and fourth conjugations, and the few vei'bs of the second conjuga- tion mentioned in 124 ; ama-re, ama-vl; audi-re, audi-vi ; del6-re, del5-vf . {h) Of -ul to the Present stem after its characteristic vowel is dropped. Here belong the majority of the verbs of the second conjuga- tion ; mon6-re, mon-ui. II. Perfect in -si: These are formed by the atldition of -si to the root ; which is, as a rule, long either by nature or position This class comprises a large number of verbs in tlie third conjugation in which the stem-characteristic consonant is a mute ; three in which it is -m (preme-re, to press ; sume-re, to take ; con-tein(n)e-re, to scorn) ; and a few in which it is -s, as ur-5, / hurri, us-sl; haereo, I stick, haesi (=haes-si). Examples are r6po, I creep, rep-si ; scrib5, / ivrite, scrip-si ; dico, / say, dixi (=: dic-si) ; carpQ, I pluck, carp-si ; rad5, J scrape, rasi (= rad-si). Note.— But verbs in -ndS, take I in the Perfect : dSfend-O, / strike (ward) of, defend-i ; perhaps because they formed originally a reduplicated perfect ; m, mandd, Jc/iew, manCdi)di; so (fe)fendi, I have sti^uck. III. Reduplicated Perfects : These are formed by prefixing to the unstrengthened root its first consonant (or consonantal combination) together with the following vowel, a and ae being weakened to e, or, if the root began with a vowel, by prefixing e, and adding the termination -i. In Latin but few of these forms remain, and they have been vaii- ousiy modified : discS, I learn, di-dici ; spondeS, / pledge, spo(s)poiidi ; tangS, / touch, te-ti-gl ; tundS, / strike, tu tiid-I ; ago, / act, eg! (= e-ag-i) ; emo, I bmj, gmi (= e-em-I). In composition the reduplication is in many eases dropped ; so always in compounds of cade-re, to fall ; caede-re, to fell ; cane-re, to sitig ; falle-re, to deceive ; pange-re, to fix ; parce-re, to spare ; pare-re. to hear ; pende-re, to hang ; punge-re, to prick ; tange-re, to touch ; tende-re, to stretch (occasionally retained in late Latin) ; tondg-re, to shear (but occasionally retained in late Latin) ; tunde-re, to strike. Disce-re, to learn, always retains it, and so p6sce-re, to demand, and ad- mordere, to bite. Of compounds of curre-re, to run, succurrQjre always 94 THE STEM. drops the reduplication, praecurrere always retains it : the others vaiy. Of compounds of dare, abscondere usually drops it, but all trisyllabic compounds that change the a, and all quadrisyllable compounds, retain it. Compounds of sistere, to sei, and stare, to stand, retain it. IV. Perfect in I. Verbs of the third conjugation, with a, short stem- syllable, take i in the Perfect, after lengthening the stem-syllable and changing a into g. In many cases these Perfects are the remains of reduplicated forms : lego, / read, leg-i ; vide-o, / see, vid-i ; fodi-6, 1 stab, fod-i ; fugi-o, I flee, fvLQ-1 ; frang-o, / hreak, frgg-i. V. Denominative verbs in-uS, like acn5, 1 sharpen; metuo, I fear ; also sternuo, / sneeze, form the Perfect in -u-i after the analogy of pri- mary verbs, and the formation in -ui gradually extended in Latin. in. THE SUPINE STEM. 135. I- Supine in -turn, Perfect Passive Participle in -tus: The stems are formed by tlie addition of -tu or -to (a) To the stem as it appears in the Present Infinitive active. Here belong most verbs of the fu-st and fourth conjugations, and those verbs of the second conjugation that are mentioned in 124 : ama-tum, dele- tmii, audi- turn. Those verbs of the second conjugation which form Perfect in -•oi, form the Supine stem by weakening the thematic vowel e to i, and adding -tu, -to, except cgnsS-re, to deem, doeg-re, to teach, miscfe-re, to mix, teng-re, to hold, torre-ra, to scorch, which omit the the- matic vowel, and form cgnsum, doctum, mixtum, (tentum), tostmn. {h) To the unstrengthened stem. Here belong most verbs of the third conjugation and the five verbs of the second just given, with sporadic forms in the other conjugations : cai)-tuin (capio, / take), rgp-tum (r6p5, 1 creep), dio-tom (dic5, 1 say), fac-tum (facio, I do). In combinations of -t-with a dental, assimilation took place, giving usually S3 after a short vowel and s after a long vowel : scissum (scindO, I cleave), caesum (caedS, I fell). On the analogy of this and under the influence often of Perfect in -si, we find -s- »lso in some other stems : 1. In stems with a gvittural characteristic ; as, flx-um (figo^ /^^) ,* often with a preceding liquid : mersum (mergS, / dip: Pf. mcrsi); tersnm (targeS, / ivipe; Pf . tersi) ; parsum (parc5, /^7>«r« ; Pf . parsi, old) ; spar-sum (spargo, / <^imnkle ; Pf. sparsi) ; mul-sum (mulgeO, I milk ; VL mul-si) ; hut far-turn (farci5, / stuff; Pf. farsi) ; tortum (torque5, / twist ; Pf . torsi) ; indul turn (nire and post-classical, from indulges, / indulge ; Pf . indulsD. 2. In one witli a lalaal characteristic : lap-stun (labor, I slip). 3. In some stems wit^ characteristic s ; at?, censum (cSnseS, / deem ; see I. a.) ; haesum (liaere5, 1 stick) ; pinsum (pinsO, I pound). 4. In some stems with a nasal characteristic : pressum (prem5, l press ; Pf . press!) ; mSnsum (maneO, I remain ; Pf. mansi). 5. In stems where 11, rr lias arist'u by assiuiilation : pulsum (pellS, / (Mve) ; falsum (falls, I falsify) ; vulsum (vello, I i)luck) ; cursum (currO, I run) ; versum Cverro, / swteij). CHAIs^GE OF COXJUCtATIOJT. 95 IT. Future Active Participle in -turns. — The same changes occur in the stem as are found in the case of the Supine. 1. In some stems ending in -u a thematic vowel i is inserted ; as arguiturus (arguere, to prove); luiturus (luere, to loose); abnuiturus (abnuere, fo de7iy) ; ruittirus (ruere, to rush) ; gruittirus (eruere, io root out) ; fruittirus (frui, to enjoy). 2. Some Future Participles are found without corresponding Per- fect : Galiturus (calgre, to he ^varm) ; cariturus (carere, to lack) ; doliturus (dolere, to grieve) ; iacittirus (iacere, to lie) ; paritiirus (pargre, to obey); valiturus (valgre, to be well). 3. Irregular are: agnottirus, agnittirus (agnoscere, to hnow well); disciturus (discere, to learn) ; hausurus, hausttirus (haurire, to drain) ; nisurus (niti, to lean) ; moriturus (mori, to die) ; nosciturus (nOscere, to know); orittirus (oriri, to arise) ; pariturus (parere, to bear). Change of Conjugation. 136. A change of Conjugation occurs in verbs which show a long thematic vowel in the Present stem, but not in the Perfect stem, or the reverse. 1. Verbs with Perfect and Supine formed regularly, according to the third conjugation, have the Present stem formed according to one of the other three : auge-o, senti-o, saepi-o, veni-6, vide-o, vinci-o, 2. Verbs with Perfect and Supine formed according to the first, second, or fourth conjugations, have the Present stem formed according to the third, in consequence of strengthening: augg-re, auz-I, auc-tum, to increase. senti-re, sgn-si, sgn-sum, to/eel. saepi-re, saep-si, saep-tum, to hedge about. veni-re, ven-i, ven-tum, io come. vide-re, vid-i, vi-sum, to see. vinci-re, vinx-i, vinc-tum, to bind. ster-n-o, ster-ne-re, stra-vi, stra-tum, to strew. crg-sc-o, crg-sce-re, crg-vi, cre-tum, to gro2v. li-n-o, line-re, Ig-vi (li-vi), li-tum, to smear. 3. Verbs with the Present formed regularly according to the third conjugation, have the Perfect and Supine formed according to {a) the second, or (/>) the fourth conjugation : (rt) accumbere, to recline^ fremere, to rage, gemere, to groan, gignere, to beget, molere, to grind., strepere, to resound, vomere, to vomit, form Perfect in -ui, Supine in -itum. alere, to nourish, colere, to aiUivate, consulere, to consult, frendere, to show the teeth, occulere, to conceal, rapere, to snatch, and its compounds form Perfect in -ui, Supine in -turn (-SUm). ^^^ ali-tUS, see 142, 3. 96 LIST OF VERBS COmpSscere, to check, con-cinere, /o sing iogethfr, and other compounds of canerOr to sing, excellere, to excel, stertere, to snore, tremere, to tremble, form Perfect in -Ul, but no Supine. (J)) arcessere, to minmm, incessere, to enter, cupere, to desire, petere, to seek, quaerere, to search, and its compounds, rudere, to roar, sapere, to savor, form Per- fect in -ivi, Supine in -itum. 4. Stems vary among the first, second, and fourth conjugations. {a) Verbs with the Present formed according to the first, and Per- fect and Supine accorditig to the second conjugation : crepare, to craclde, cubare, to lie, domare, to conquer, micare, to flash, plicare, io fold, sonare, to sound, tonare, to thunder, vetare, to forbid, with Perfect in -ul, Supine in -itum : fricare, to rub, necare, to kill, secare, to cut, with Perfect in -ui, Supine in -turn (but participles in atus arc occasional, principally in later Latin). (b) Verbs with Present formed according to fourth, and Perfect and Supine according to the second : amicire, to tvrap, aperire, to opeti, operire, to cover, salire, to leap, and compounds. (c) Of the second and fourth conjugations is cie-o (ci-o), cie-re (ci-re), civi, citum (ci-tum), to stir up, and its compounds ; while poto, potare, to drink, forms Sup. p5-tum or p5-tatuin, and Fut. Part, po-ttirus or pota-turus. 5. dare, to give, and stare, to stand, pass over to the third conjuga- tion in the Perfect, in consequence of reduplication. LIST OF VERBS ACCORDING TO THE PER- FECT FORM. PEKFECT:-vi; SUPINE : -turn. 137. Stem class : (a) Verbs of first and fourth conjugations, except those mentioned in 136, 4. Irregular in Supine is sepeli-o, sepeli-re, sepeli-vl, sepul-tum, to bury. (&) In the second conjugation : d5le.5, dSlS-re, dglS-vi, dglS-tiim, to destroy. fle-O, flS-re, fle-vi, flg-tum, to iveep. ne-3, nS-re, nS-vI, ng-tum, to spin. -ole-5 (ab-. , in-), -olg-re, -OlS-Vl, to gixnjo. Ttiese compounds form Supine in itum ; abolitum, iuolitus. -ple5, -pl5-re, plg-vi, plg-tum, tojilL So the compounds vvitli com-, in-, ex-, re-, sup-. vie-6, vig-re, vig-tus, to plait. Irregular is cie-5 (ci-3), cig-re (cire), cl-vl, cl-tum (ci-tum\ to stir vp. In the compounds we And the Participles concitus or concitus, percitus, excltuf or ezcitus, but accltus. ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM. 97 (c) In the third conjugation ; arcess-o, arcesse re, arcessi vi, arcessi-tmn, to send for. So, too, lacess-0, / tease, capess O, / toy hold of. In early Latin we often find accerso, the ri'lation of which to arceSSO iis variously explained. The forms arcessiri, and later arcessiretUT, from the fourth conjugation, also occur. in-cess-0, in-cesse-re, in-cessi-vi (cessi), So facess o, Icau&e, make off- to attack. pet-0, pete re, peti-vi, quaero, quaere re, quaesivi, con quir-5, con-quire-re, conquisi vi, So other compounds of -quiro (quaero). rud-o, rude-re, rudi-vi, ter-o, tere-re, tri-vi, peti-tum, to seek ijly at). quaesi-tum, to seek. con-quisi-tum, to hunt up. rudi-tum, tri-tum, Tib., I. 4,48, has at-teruisse,aud Apuleius has similar forms. 138. Reduplicated class : ser-5, sere-re, sS-vi, So c5nser5, but witli Sup. c5n-situm. 139. Nasal class : A. li-n-0, line-re, 16-vi, So compounds of lino. Pf- ll Vl is rare. si-n-0, si-vi, sa-tum, li-tum. si-tum, to roar, to rub. to sow. to besmear. to let. So d6-sino. Heave off, and in early Latin, p6no (= po-sino), I put. B. cer-n-o, cer-ne-re, crg-vi, So d6cemo, / decide. (cr6-tum), to separate. sprg-tum. to despise. stra turn. to strew. sper-n-0, sper-ne-re, spre-vl, ster-n-o, ster-ne-re, stra-vi, 140. Ifichoative class : invetera-sc-o, invetera-sce-re, invetera-vi, invetera-tum, to grow old. pa-sc-o, pa see re. pa-vi, pas turn, vespera-sc-6, vespera-sce-re, vesperavi, So advesperasco. crS-sc-o, cr6-sce-re, crB-vI, crStum, -cup J turn, -dormi turn, to graze (trans.). to become evening. to grmv. to long for. to fall asleep. S(j the compounds. con-cupisc 0, -cupi-sce-re, -cupi-vi, ob-dormi SCO, -dormi sce-re, -dormi-vi, So condormisco^ edormisco. ex-oIe-sc-6, olg see re, -0l6-vi, -ol6-tum, to get one's growth. So ob-sol6sc5, 1 grow old. But ab olgsco, I disappear, has abolitum; co-alesc5, / grmv together, co-alitum ; ad-olesco, / grow up, ad-ultum in the Sup. ; and inolesco lacks the Supine. qui6-sc-o, qui6-sce-re, quiS-vi, quiS-tum, to rest. 8Ci-sc-o, sci-sce-re. sci-vl, sci-tum, to decree. So ad-8Cl8cO, / take on. 7 LIST OF VERBS SU-6SC-5, sue-sce-re, sug-vi, su§-tum, to accustom one's sdf^ So compounds as-, con-, de-, man-. (g)no-sc-5, no-sce-re, no-vi, (no-tum), to know. So ignOSCO, I pardon ; but co-gnosco, I recognize, and other compounds of nosco, have Sup. in -itum. re-sip-isc-0, -sipi-sce-re, -sipi-vi, to come to one's 141. 1-class : cupi-o, cupe-re, cupi-vi, cupi-tum, to desire. sapi-o, sape-re, sapi-vi (-ui), to have a PERFECT : -ui ; SUPINE : (Dtum. 142. 8tem class : 1. The majority of the verbs of the second conjugation; see 134, 1, &, and 185, a. But sorbe-o, sorb6-re, sorb-ui, — to sup up. Pf . sorp-si occurs in Val. Max. and Lucan. 2. Of the first conjugation : crep-o, crepa-re, crep-ui, crepi-tnm, to rattle. So the compounds, but in early and late Latin the regular forms of dis-crepare and in-crepare are occasional. cub-5, cuba-re, cub-ui, cubi-tum, to lie. Occasional regular forms in post-Ciceronian Latin. dom-0, doma-re, dom-ui, domi-tum, to tame, fric-5, frica-re, fricui, fric-tum (-a- turn), to rub. Occasionally in early and more often iu post-classical Latin, the regular forms are found in the compounds ; so always -frica-turus. mic-6, mica re, mic-ul, to quiver, flash. But dl-micare, to fight (out), is regular, except occasionally in Ovid. nec-0, necare, neca-vi (nee ui rare), neca-tum, to kill. The compound eneca-re, to kill off, has gnecavi in early Latin, otherwise Snecul (rare) ; and enectus (but Plin. Mai., gnecatus). plic-5, plica-re, (plica vl), plici-tum, to fold. The simple forms of plicare are rare. The compounds ap-, COm-, ex-, im-, vary between -avi and -ui in the Pf., and atum and -itum in the Sup. ; but Cicero uses always applicavi, applicatum; complicavi, complicatum; and usually expli- cavl, always explicatum ; always implicatum ; circumplieare is always regular ; forms of replicaro arc rare. sec-5, seca-re, sec-ul, sec-tum, to cut. Regular forms are early, late, and rar6. son-5, sona-re, son-ul, soni-tum, to sound. But regularly sonSturus. Regular lorins are late, in early Latin the forms sonerOj sonit, sonunt, resonit, resonunt, show that the simple verb was sonere. ton-5, tona-re, ton-ul, to thunder. But at-tonitu8 and intonatus (Hok., K/wd. 2, 51). ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM. 99 vet-5, veta-re, vet-ui, But Persius (5, 90) uses veta-Vl. veti-tum, ioforUd. frem-o, freme-re, frem-ui. — to roar, rage. gem-o, geme-re, gem-ui, to groan. vom-o, vome re, vom-ui. vomi-tum, to vomit. al-5, ale-re, al-ul. al-tum, to ?wt(ri.'ih. Participle ali-tUS occurs from Livy on. COl-0, cole-re, col-ul. cul-tum. to cultivate. con-cin-0, -cine-re, -cin-ul, to sifig together. So occinere, , praecinere. con-sul-5, con-sule-re. con-sul-ui, c5n-sul-tum, to consult. deps-o, depse-re. deps-ui, deps-tus, to knead. mol-o, mole-re, mol-ul. moli-tum. to grind. occul-o, occule-re, occul-ui, OCCUl-tllTTI, to conceal. pins-o, pmse-re, pins-ui. pinsi-tum, to pound. Sup. also pinsum, pistum. Collateral forms of piso, pisere, are eaily and rare ; so also is pinsibant. ser-o, sere-re, (ser-tum\ to .string {out). Common in compounds : as, deser5, dSserere, deserui, dgsertum, to desert. The same forms are found occasionally in compounds of serere, to sow (138), but not in classical Latin. stert-5. sterte-re. stert-ul. to snore. Btrep-o, strepe-re. strep-ui, (strepi-tum). to make a din. tex-o, texe-re. tex-ui. tex-tum. to iveave. 1 rregular are raet-o, mete-re, mess-ul, mes-siun. to 7)vnv. vol-o. vel-le. vol-ui, to ivish. So nolo, malo ; see 174. 4. In the fourth conjugation : amici-5, amici-re, amic-ui (amixi), amic-tum, aperi-o, aperi-re, aper-ui, aper-tum, operi-o, operi-re, oper-ui, oper-tum, sali-o, sali-re, sal-ui, sal-tum, to clothe, to open, to cover up. to leap. The regular Perfects salivi, salii, are found in compounds, but usually in post- classical writers, and often syncopated. 143. Redvplicated class : gl-gn-S (gen-), gl-gne-re, gen-ui, geni-tum, to beget. Early Latin has the Present forms genit, genunt, genat, genitur, genuntur, genendi, genl. ICX) LIST OF VERBS 144, Nasal class : frend-o, frende-re, — Also in the form £rende-o, frend6-re. ac-cumb-o, -cumbe-re, cub-ui, fr6-sum, frgs-sum, to gnash. cubi-tum, to lie down. So also the compounds con-, dis-, in- ; but re-cumbo lacks the Supme, ex-cell-o, -celle-re, (cell-ui), (cel-sus), to surpass. Butper-cellere, tobeat down, has Pf. per-culi, Sup. per-culsum. Excelluenint is found in Gell, xiv. 3, 7, and in Augustine ; otherwise forms of Pf. and Sup. do not occur. 145. The Inchoative class : dispSsc-S, dispgsce re, dispgsc-ul. So compgscere, to check. to let loose. A large number of verbs are formed from verbs of the second con- jugation, or from substantives or adjectives, and tal^e Pf . in -ui ; as, oo-alesc-5, alesce-re. al-nl, ali-tum, to groiv together. See 140. 6-van6sc-5, vangsce-re, van-ul. to disappear. con-val6sc-o, . valgsce-re, val-ul. vali-tum, to get well. in-gemisc-o, gemisce-re, gem-ui. to sigh. not6sc-S, notgsce-re, not-ui, to become known. incaiesc-o, incalesce-re, incal-ul. to get ivarrn. 146. The I-class : rapi-5, rape-re. rap-ul, rap-tum. to snatch. cor-ripiS, ripe-re. rip-ui, rep-tum, to seize. So other compounds. In early Latin, surripere syncopates some of its forms, as surpuit, surpere ; surpuerat occurs in Hon. ; aoristic forms, as rapsit, surrepsit, belong also to the early period. 131, 4, b. 2. PERFECT : -si ; SUPINE : -turn, -sum. 147. Stem class : I. In the second conjugation : iube-5. iubg-re. iussi. ius-sum, to order. On sorbeO see 142, 1. arde-5, Srd6-re, ar-sl, ar-sum, to be on fire. rIde-6, ridg-re, rl-sl, rl-sum. to laugh (at). haere-3. haerg-re, hae-si, (hae-sum), to stick (to). mane-Q, mang-re, man-sI, man-sum. to remain. 8uade-5, 8uadg-re, 8ua-sl, 8ua-sum, to counsel. With dental dropped before ending of Pf. and Supine. auge-9, augg-re, auxl, auc-tum, to cause to wax. frige-0, frigg-re, (frixl), — to be chilled. lace-0. Iflcg-re, laxj, CO give light. ACCORDING TO THE PeE'Ft5CT FORM. lOI lUge-0, lugS-re, llixl, to is in mourning. alge-5, algg-re, al-si, -.- "o/i^'/^j?. fulge-o, fulg6-re, ful-si, — to glow. In early Latin, forms of the third conjugation occur : fulgit, fulgere, effulgere (Verg., a, VIII. 677). indulge-5, indulg6-re, indul-si, mulce-o, mulce-re, mul-si, Rarely mulc-tus in compounds. mulge-0, mulgS-re, mul-sI, terge-5, tergg-re, ter-si, Forms of the third conjugation : tergit, tergitur, terguntur, are occasionally found ; and so too in some late compounds. Varro has tertus. (indul-tum), mul-sum, to give xvay. to stroke. iniil-sum(ctuin), to milk. ter-sum, to wipe. torque-5, torqu5-re, tor-si, tor-turn. to twist. turge-3, turgg-re, tur-si. — to swell. urge-e, urg6-re, ur-si. : to press. co-nive-5 (gnig" 7), -niv6-re, -nixl (IvD, to close the eyes. 2. In the third conjugat ion : carp-o, de-cerp-S, carpe-re, d6-cerpe-re, carp-sl, dS-cerp-si, carp- turn, de-cerp-tnm, to pluck, to pluck off. clep-5, clepe-re, Rare and ante-classic. clep-sl (cl6p-i), , clep-tum, tofilch. nfib-o, nube-re, nup-sl, nup-tum, to put on a veil (as a bride). r6p-5, r6pe-re, r«p-sl, rSp-tum, to creep. 8calp-5, scalpe-re, scalp-si. scalp-tum, to scrape. scrib-o, scribe-re, scrip-si, scrip-tum. to write. sculp-o, sculpe-re. sculp-si, sculp-tum. to chisel. serp-o, serpe-re, serp-si, serp-tum, to creep. prem-o (-primo\ preme-re, pres-si, pres-sum. to press. Some compounds of emo, / iake, buy, have Pf before which a euphonic p develops : cSm-p-si, c3m-5, c5me-re, d6m-o, deme-re, prom-o, prome-re, Bum-5, sume-re, On contemn-o see 149, c. dic-5, dice-re, d6m-p-si, pr5m-p-si, sum-psi, c5m-p-tum, d§m-p-tum, prom-p-tum, sum-p-tum. -si. Sup. in -turn, to adorn, to take away, to take out. to take. dixi (dic-sD, dic-tum, Impv. die, see 130, 5. Occasionally in old Latin dlcSbO for Future. duxl. due turn, duc-5, duce-re, Imperative due, see 130, 5. fIg-5, fige-re, flxl, fixum. Part, fictus for fixus is occasional in early Latin. -flig-5(con-,af-,in-), -flige-re, -flixi, -flic-tum, Simple verb is found occasionally in early Latin. frig-5, frige-re, frixi, fric-tum, to lead. tofasten. to strike. to parch. I02 J8T OF VERBS Sfig-5, suge-rC; silxl, t'lt, cXSUg'obO i? found m P^^aut., Ep. 188. merg-o, merge-re, mer-si, sparg-o, sparge-re, spar-si, c6n-sperg-o, con-sperge-re, con-sper-sl, suc-tum, mer-sum, spar-sum, tositck. to plunge, to strew. con-sper-sum, to besprinkle. coqu-0, coque-re, coxi, -lexi, di-lexi, [-lig-o (leg-), -lige-re, di-lig-o, di-lige-re, intelligo, or intellego, intellege-re, intel-lexi, negligS, or neg-leg-o, neg-lege-re, neg-l6xi, coc-tum, -I6c-tum.] dilec-tum to cook. to lore. intel-l6c-tum, to iinderstand. neg-lgc-tum, to neglect. Other compounds have l6gi. Sall., J. 40, 1, has neglSgisset. reg-o, rege re, r6xi, r6c-tum, di-rig-o, di rige-re, di-rgxl, di-r6c-tum, per-g-o, per-ge-re, per-r6xi, per-rgc-tum, su-rg-o, su-rge-re, sur-rexi, sur-rec-tum. But expergo formed expergitus in cany and late Latin. teg-5, tege-re, texi, claud-5, Claude re, clau si, con-, ex-clud-6, ex elude -re, ex-clti-si. Early Latin shows alt^o cludo, cludere. to keep rigi to guide, to go on. to rise up. to cover, to shut. tec-tum, clau-sum, ex-clu-sum, to shut up., out. laed-o, col-lid-o, lud-o. laede re, col-lide-re, lude-re, lae si, col-li-si, lu-si, lae-sum, col-li-sum, lu-sum, to harm. to strike together to play. plaud-0 (ap-plaud-5), plaude re, plau-si, ex-plod-o, ex-plode-re, ex-pl6-si, rade-re, rSde-re, trude-re, -vade-re, c6de-re, plau-sum, to clap. ex-plo-sum, to hoot off. rad-5, lod-o, trud-o, vad-o (in-, 6-), c6d-5, quati-6. quate-re, ra-si, ro-si, trti-sl, -va-si, ces-si, (quas-si), ra-sum, ro-sum, trti-sum, -va-sum, c6s-suni, to scratch, to gnaw, to push, to go. to give way. to shake. con-cuUd (per-, ex-), con-cute-re, con cus-si. niitt-5, dl-vid-o, iir-5, coni-bur-5, ger-5, flu-5 (flugv-), stru-5 (strugv-), trah-o (tragh-), veli-5 (vcgh), VlV-5 (vigv-), mitte-re, di- vide re, tire-re, mi-si, di-vi-si, US-si, quas-sum, con-cus-sum, to shatter. mis-sum, to send. di-vi-sum, to part. tis-tum, to bum. com-bure re, com -bus-si, com-bus-tum, to burn up. gere-re, flue-re, strue-re, trahe-re, vehe-re, vIve-re, ges-si, fluxi, struxl, traxi, vexi, vixi, ges-tum, (flux-US), struc-tum, trac-tum, vec-tum, vic-tum, to carry. to flow. to build. to drag, to carry, to live. ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM. lO' 148. The T-class: flect-o, flecte-re, flexi, flexum, fo bend. nect-o, necte-re, nexi (nexui), The Pf. forms : in-nexui (Verg., A. v., 425). nexum, lo knot. pect-5, pecte-re, pexi, pexum, to comb. plect-o, plectere, (plexl), plcxum, ioptaU. 149. T/ie Nasal class : (a) Supine without N : fing-5, finge-re, flnxl, fic-tum, to/orm. ming-S, minge-re, minxl, mic-tum, to urinate. ping^o, pinge-re, pinxi, pic-tura, to paint. string-6, stringe-re, strinxi, stric-tum, lo draw tighi. (b) Supine with N ; ang-5, ange-re, anxl, to throttle., vex. cing-3, cinge-re, cinxi, cinc-tum, to gird. 6-mung-o, 6-munge-re, 6-munxi^ 6-munc-tum, to wipe Ui^ noss iung-o, iunge-re, iunxi, iunc-tum, to yoke, join. ling-5, linge-re, linxi, linc-tum, to lick. mng-5, ninge-re, ninxi, to snoiv. pang-o, pange-re, panxi, pane- turn, to drive in. Perfect also pggi, and Supine pactiuu. Cf>mpare 155 and paclscor, 16.5. plang-6, plange-re, planxi, planc-tum, to smite. -stingu-O, -stingne-re, nstinxi, -stinc-tum, to put out. So the compounds ex-, dis-, re- ; the simple verb is ante-classic. ting-5 (tingu-6), ting(u)e-re, tinxl, tinc-tum, to wet, dye. ung-5 (ungu-o), ung(u)e re, unxl, unc-tum, to anoint. (c) tem-n-S (rare) and its compounds form the Pf. with a euphonic p; con-tem-n-5, -temne-re, -tem-p-si, -tem-p-tum, to despise. 150. The I-class : I. In the third conjugation : F-lici-o (I AC), lice-re, -lexl, -lec-tuml, to lure. pel-lici-o, pel-lice-re, pel-lexl, pel-lec-tum, to allure. So allicere, illicere, which, however, have early Pf. in -ui, as does pellicere also But 6-licere has -ul regularly in claesical times, and S-lexI only later. [-spici-0 (spec), -spice-re, -spexl, -spec-tuml, to peer. per-spici-6, per-spice-re, per-spexi, per-spec-tum, toseethwngh. So the compounds v\'ith ad-, con-,dS-, in-. I04 LIST OF VERBS 2. In the fourth conjugation : saepi-d, 8aepl-re> saep-sX, 8anci-5, sand-re, sanxl, The Sup. sanci-tum is rare. Tinci-5, vincI-re, vinzX, £arci-o (-fcrci-6), farci-re, far-sl, falci-5, fulci-re, ful-si, 8arci-5, sarci-re, sar-sS, senti-oy sentX-re, s6n-8i, haiiri-5y baorl-re, hau-si, saep-tum, sanc-tum, vinc-tum, far-turn, ful-tum, sar-tum, sSn-sum, haus-tiun, to hedge in. to hallow. to bind, to stuff. to prop, to patch, to/eel. to drain. Verg., a. iv., 383, has hattsoms. Early Latin shows hauribant (Lucr.) and haurierint ; hauritOrns is very late. rauci-o, rauci-re, rau-sl, raa-sum, to be hoarse. This verb is very rare. PERFECT : -I WITH REDUPLICATIOH ; SUPINE : -sum, -turn. 151, In the Jirst conjugation : I. d-5, da-re, ded-i, da-tum, to give, put^ do. Everywhere fL, p"scept in das, thou givest, and da, giije thote. 1 . Like d5, are conjugated the compounds with dissyllabic words, snch as : circum- d-5, Imiroumi ; satis-d6, Igive bail ; pessum-do, I?^/^ ; v6num-d5, Isell ; thus : drcmn-d-o, circum-da-re, circum-de-di, circum-da-tum, to sttrround. 2. The compounds of da-re ^^'ith monosyllalHC words pass over wholly into the Third Conjugation, ab-d-5, ab-de-re, ab-did-i, ad-d-o, ad-de-re, ad-did-l, coD-d-8, con-de-re, con-did-i, abs-con-d5, abs-cou-de-re, abs-con-d-i, ab-di-tum, topuiaztay. ad-di-tum, to put to. con-di-tum, toputtip {found}. abs- con -di- turn, to put far away. Pf . abscondidi is found in Pl., Mer. 360, then not until late Latin. cr5^d-5y crS-de-re, crS-did-I, crg-di-tum. to pnt faith. d6-d-5, de-de-re, d6-did-i, d6-di-t.um. to give up. e-d-Q, «-de-re. 6-did-i, 6-di-tum, to put out. in-d-o, in-de-re, in-did-f. in-di-tum. to jntt in. per-d-5v per-de-re, per-did-I, per-di-tum. i4) fordo {ruiny. prod-S, ia:o-de-re, pr6-did-i. pr5-di-tum. to betray. red-d-6, red-de-re, red-did-i, red-di-tum. to give back. tra-d-6, tra-de-re, tra-did-r, tra-di-tum, to give oner. v6n-d-5, v6n-de-re, v8n-did-I, v6n-di-tuni, topfut vp to sale. NoTB.— In early Latin dare formed the Pr. Subjv., also dtlim. So in some of its compounds, as perduim. See 130, 4. 2. st-5, stS-re, stet-I, (sta-tS-rus), ^o #/o»rf. So the compounds : ad-8t-5, c0n-8t-5, ad-8ta-re, c5n-8ta-re, ad-stit-I, cGn-stit-X, to stand by. to standfast. ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM. 105 In-st-0, In-sta-re, in-stit-I, to stand ujwn. ob-st-6, ob-sta-re, ob-stit-i, to stand out against. per-st-o, per-sta-re, per-stit-i, to stand firm. prae-st-o, prae-sta-re, prae-stit-i, to stand ahead. re-st-6, re-sta-re, re-stit-i, to stand over. di-st-o, di-sta-re, to stand apart. ex-st-o, ex-sta-re, to stand out. All compounds of slare with dissyllabic prepositions have, however, -steti in the Perfect, as : ante-sto, / am svperior ; inter-sto, / am between ; super-sto, / stand vjjon ; thus : circum-st-5, circum-sta-re, circum-stet-I, to stand round. Note.— Compare sisto and its compounds ; 154, i. 152. In the second conjugation : morde-5, mord5-re, mo-mord-i, mor-sum, to bite. pende-o, pend6-re, pe-pend-i, to hang (intr.). sponde-o, spondg-re, spo-pond-i, spSn-sum, to pledge oneself . Compounds omit the reduplication, but Plaut. shows also dS-spo-pondisse and dS-spo-ponderas. tonde-o, tondS-re, to-tond-i, tOn-sum, to shear, 153. In the third conjugation : (a) Stem class. Reduplication lost in the compounds : cad-0, cade-re, ce-cid-I, ca-sum, (ofaH. oc-cid-o, oc-cide-re, oc-cid-I, oc-ca-sum, to perish. re-cidere sometimes forms reccidi, as well as recidi, in the Perfect. caed-o, caede-re, ce-cid-i, cae-sum, tofeU. oc-cid-o, oc-cide-re, oc-cid-i, oc-ci-sum, to kill. can-o, cane-re, ce-cin-i, (can-turn), losing. Compounds form the Pf. in -ui. For (cantum), cantatum was used. parc-o, parce-re, peperc-i (par-si), (par-stirus), to spare. com-parco (-perco), com-parce-re, com-pars-i, com-par-sum, to save. parsi is common in early Latm, and is the only form used by Plautus. Early Latin shows rarely parcui. Ter. uses compersit, ^ 154. ip) Reduplicated class : I. sisto (=r si-st-o), as a simple verb, has the transitive meaning, 1 {cause to) standi but in its compounds, the intransitive meaning, / stand. Compare sto, I stand, and its compounds (151) : sist-o, siste-re, (stit-I), sta-tum, to {cause to) stand. So the compounds : con-sist-0, c5n -siste-re, c5n-stit-i, cOn-sti-tum, to come to a stand. de-sist-o (ab-), dg-siste-re, dg-stit-i, dg-sti-tum, to stand off. io6 LIST OF VERBS re-siste-re, re-stit-i, ad-siste-re, ad-stit-i, in-siste-re, in-stit-i, circum-siste-re, circum-stet-i, bi-be-re, bi-bi, The Pf. Part, is late. ex-sti-tum, ob-sti-tum, re-sti-tum, (bi-bi-tus), to stand up. to take a stand against, to ivithstand. to stand near, to stand upon, to take a stand round. to drink. ex-sist-6, ex-siste-re, ex-stit-i, ob-sist-o, ob-siste-re, ob-stit-i, re-sist-(5, ad-sist-o, in-sist-o, circum-sist-o, 2. bi-bo, No Supine. 165. (c) Nasal class: fall-5, falle-re, fe-fell-i, fal-sum, to cheat. Tiie compound refello has the Perfect refelli, and lacks Supine. pell-0, pelle-re, pe-pul-I, pul-sum, to push, drive hack, repello loses the reduplicating vowel in Pf. reppuli. toll-6, toUe-re, — — to lift up. Pf. and Sup. are formed sus-tull (from reduplicated Pf. tetuli, 171, n. 1) and snb- latum (for t'la-tum.) ; a recent view makes su-Stuli from (Sjtollo. (pang-0), (pange-re), pe-pig-i, pac-tum, (o drive a bargain. The Pr. forms are supplied by paciscor, 1G5. The Pf. pegi, rare in the simple form, is regular in the compounds com-, im-, op-. See 149, b. to touch. to border upon. to hang (trans.). to stretch. tang-5 (tag), tange-re, te-tig-i, tac-tum, at-ting-o, at-tinge-re, at-tig-i, at-tac-tum, So with other compounds. pend-0, pende-re, pe-pend-i, pgn-sum, tend-5, tende-re, te-tend-i, t5n-sum and -turn, ex-tend-5, ex-tende-re ex-tend-i, ex-ten-sum and -tum, to stretch out. os-tend-o, os-tende-re, os-tend-i, os-ten-sum (-tus), to stretch at, shotc. The compounds prefer the Sup. in -tum ; so always attentus, contentus, usually distentus and intentus. pung-5, punge-re, pu-pug-i, punc-tum, toimck. inter-pung5, inter-punge-re, inter-punxi, inter-punc-tum, to place points betiveen. tund-5, tunde-re, tu-tud-i, tun-sum, tu-sum, to thump. Simple form has usually tunsus in the Participle ; in the compounds more often ttisus. The reduplicating vowel is lost in rettudl. curr-5, curre-re, cu-curr-I, cur-sum, tot^n. The compounds vary in their use of tlie reduplication ; praecurrere always has the redupliculion, succurrere always omits it ; other compounds vary. See 134, iii. 156. {d) Inchoative class: dlsc5 (= di-d(e)c-sc5), disce-re, di-dic-i, to learn. A late form is Fut. Part, discitiirus. Compounds retain reduplication. See 134, m. p68c-5 (= porc-sco), posce-re, po-p5sc-I, to claim. Compounds retain the reduplication. See 134, m. 157. (^) Thel-class: pari-9, pare-re, pe-per-I, par-tum (paritflrus\ to bt^ngfoi-th. The compounds drop the reduplication and form the Inf. in -Ire. Butreperlre^ i4>find, forme its Pf., repperl, with omission of the vowel of reduplication. ACCORDING TO THi: PERFECT FORM. 107 I iu-tum (iuvattirus), to help. -iti-tum (-iu-turus), to standby as aid. lau-tum ilo-tum), to wash. lava-turn, to icash. PEEFECT: -i; SUPINE: -turn, -sum, 158. In the^rs^ conjugation : mv-5, iuva-re, iuv-i, ad-iuv-S, -iuva-re, -iuv-i, (lav-o), (lav-ere), lav-i, lav-o, lava-re, dava-vi), The Present forms of lavere belong principally to early Latin, with occasional forms in Augustan poets and lute writers ; lautum and lotum are both used in class- ical times ; but lautum belongs rather to early, lotum to post-classical Latin. The form lavatum is early and poetical. 159. In the second conjugation ; cave-o, cav§-re, cav-I, cau-tum, to take heed. fave-o, fave-re, fav-i, fau-tum, to be well-disposed. ferve-o (0), fervS-ro (ere), ferv-i (ferb-ui), — to seethe. Tlie Pr. forms of the third conjugation belong to early Latin and the poets. The Pf. in -ui is post-Ciceronian. fove-0, fov6-re, fSv-I, fo-tum, to keep wat-m. move-o, movg-ro, mov-i, mo-tum, to move. pave-o, pav6-re, pav-i, to quake {with fear). prande-o, prand6-re, prand-i, prau-sum, tobreakfaet. sede-o, sedS-re, sgd-i, ses-sum, to sit. stride-o (-do), stride-re(-e-re), strid-i, to whistle, screech. vove-o, vov§-re, v5v-i, v3-tum, to vow. The Present forms of the third conjugation belong almost entirely to Augustan poets and later writers. vide-0, vidg-re, vid-I, 160. Ill the third conjugation : With long vowel in the Perfect. I. The Stem class: vl-8um, to see. ag-o, age-re. 6g-I, Sc-tum, to do, drive. co-g-o, co-ge-re. CO-gg-i, co-ac-tum. to compel. dg-g-5. de-ge-re, to pass (time). red-ig-5, red-ige-re, red-gg-I, red-ac-tum, to bring back. em-o, eme-re, gm-I, emp-tum, to take, to buy. inter-im-o. -ime-re. -gm-i. -gmp-tum. to make away tvith. CO-em-6, / buy np, is conjugated like em-0. But the compounds with ad-, ex-, inter-, red-, take -im-5. So, too, dir-im-o, / sever. ed-5, ede-re, ed-i, g-sum, to eat. Note.— In agere, edere, emere, the reduplication has coalesced with the root ; as, ggi = eagi. cud-5, cade-re, (cud-i), The Pf. and Sup. occur in compounds only. (ctl-sum), to hammer. io8 LIST OF VERBS leg-o, lege-re, leg-i, 16c-tum, to pick up, read. col-lig-6, col-lige-re, col-lgg-i, col-16c-tum, to gather. So the other compounds, except di-lig-0, intel-leg-0, neg-leg-0, see 147, 2. ic-o (defective), ice-re, ic-i, ic-tum, to strike. Present stem rare : ic-it, ic-itur, ic-imur. 8id-5, side-re, sid-i. The Pf . was originally reduplicated as the Present ; see 133, 11. Pf. is -sgdi, -sessum, /rom sede-o, thus : con-sld-o, con-side-re, con-sed-i, con-ses-sum to sit doxcn. In composition the ,, to settle down. scab-o, scabe-re, scab-i, to scratch. solv-o, solve-re, solv-i. solu-tum, to loose, pay. vert-o, re-vert-or, verte-re, re-vert-i, vert-i, revert-i (active). ver-sum, re-ver-sum, to turn. to turn back. verr-o, verre-re, verr-I (rare), ver-sum, to siveep. vis-o, vise-re, vis-I, to visit. volv-o, volve-re, volv-i, volu-tum. to roll. On percello, perculi, see 144. On toUo, sustull, see 155. 2. The Nasal class : psall-o, psalle-re, psall-I, sall-o, salle-re, (sall-i), Very rare except in the past participle salsus. vell-0, velle-re, vell-i (vul-si). The Pf. vulsl is post Augustan. lamb-0, rump-o, ac-cend-5, dS-fend-o, fund-5 (fud) iiiaud-5, pando, pan-f lambe-re, rumpe-re, ac-cende-re, ds-fende-re, funde-re, mande-re, pande-re, in Supine is late. lamb-i, rup-i, ac-cend-I, de-fend-i, fud-i, mand-I, pand-I, to play on the cithern, sal-sum, to salt. vul-sum, rup-tum, ac-c6n-sum, dg-fgn-sum, fti-sum, man-sum, pas-sum, prehend-5, prehende-re, prehend-i, Often shortened to pr6ndo, prfindere, pr6ndi, scand-5, scande-re, a(d)-, d5-8cend-5, d6-scendere. scand-i, de-scend-i, frang-5, per-firing-6, linqu-5, re-linqu-5, (pang-5), com-ping-5, See 149, b, 155. vino-5 (VIC), frange-re, fr6g-I, per-fringe-re, per-fr6g-I, to pluck. to lick, to break, to kindle, to strike defend, to j)om\ to chew, to spread out. away. preh6n-sum, to seize. prSnsum. linque-re, re-linque-re, (pange re), com-pinge re, yince-re, llqu t, re-liqu I, (p6g-i), corn-peg I, vic-l, scan-sum, de-scSn-sum, frac-tum, per-frac-tum, re-lic-tum, (pac-tum), com-pac-tum, vic-tum. to climb, toclbnb up, down to break, to shiver, to leave, to leave behind, to drive in. to drive tight. to conquer. ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM. 109 3. The T-class. (a) With long vowel in the Perfect. capi-o (cap-), cape-re, cep-k, cap-turn, to take. ac-cipi-o, ac-cipe-re. ac-cep-i, ac-cep-tum. to receive. faci-o, face-re, fec-i, fac-tum, totnake. cale-faci-o(calf.), cale face-re. cale-fec-i, cale-fac-tum, to make warm. per-fici-o, per-fice-re, per-feci, per-fec-tum, to acldeve. The Pf . was originally reduplicated ; on Impv. , fac, see 130, 5. fodi-0, fode-re, f5d-i, fos-siim, to dig. fagi-5, fuge-re, fug-i, (fug-i-turus), to flee. iaci-o, iace-re, i6c-i, lac turn, to cast. con-ici-5, con-ice-re. con-i6c-f. con-iec-tum, to gather. (b) With short vowel in the Pf. due to the loss of the reduplication to cleave. to split,. find-S, finde-re, fid-i, fis-sum, scind-6, scinde-re, scid-i, scis-snm, The reduplicated form sci-cidi is found in early Latin. 161. In the fourth conjugation : amici-5 forms rarely in late Latin amid ; see 142, 4. com-per-tum, toflnd out. re-per-tum, to find. com-peri-5, com-peri-re, com-per-i, re-peri-5, re-peri re, rep-per-I, See the simple verb parere, 157. veni-o, veni-re, v6n-I, ven-tum, to come. lu early Latin sporadic tenses from a form venere occur, ak advenat, 6venat. 162. A number of verbs of the third conjugation have a character- istic -u- ; these form the perfect in -I, ab-lu-5. ab-lue-re, ab-nu-5, ab-nue re. acu-o, acue-re, ad-nu-6(an- nu-6),adnue-re, argu-5, argue-re, batu-5, batue-re, con-gru-O, con-grue-re, d6-libu-5, d6-Iibue-re, ex-u-5. ex-ue-re, im-bu-6. im-bue-re, in-du-5, in-due-re, lu-o, lue-re. metu-5. metue-re, minu-5, minue-re. plu-o. plue-re, ru-o, rue-re. spu-o, spue-re, statu-5, statue-re, sternu-5, sternue-re, su-o, sue-re, tribu-6, tribue-re, ab-lu-I, ab-nu i, acu-I, ad-nu-I, argu-I, batu-i, congru-I, d5-Ubu-i, exu-i, im-bu-i, in-du-I, lu-i, metu-I, minu-i, plu-it, pliiv ru-i, spu-i, statu-I, sternu-i, su-i, tribu-i, it, ab-lu-tum, (ab-nu-itur-tts), acu-tum, argu-tum, dS-libu-tum, ex-u-tum, im-bu-tum, in-du-tum, lu-ittir-us, xninfl-tum, ru-tum(ruitaru8)| spu-tum, stata-tum, sQ-tum, tribu-tum, to wash off. to dissent. to sharpen, to nod assent. to accuse, to beat, to agree. to anoi?if. to ]mt off, dof. to dip, dye. tojmt on., don, to atone/or. to/ear. to lessen, to rain, to rush dawn, to spetc. CO settle, to sneeze, to sew. to allot. I lO DEPONENTS. DEPONENTS. 163. The majority of the deponent verbs belong to the first conju- gation. In many instances they have parallel active forms in early or in late Latin. The principal verbs are as follows : In the ^rs^ conjugation : adul-or, adula-rl, adula-tus sum, tofawnicpon. Occubionally active in aute classical Latin (Lucr. v., 1070) and more often in later I>atin. alterc-or, alterca-rf , alterca-tus sum, to wrangle. In early Latin altercasti (Ter,, And. C53), altercas. Active forms more common in late Latin. arbitr-or, arbitra-ri, arbitra-tus sum, to think. Plaut. uses tiiis verb also as an active, but later this nsage is rare. aucup-or, aucupa-ri, aucupa-tus sum, to try to catch. Active forma are common in early Latin. augur-or, augura-ri, augura-tus sum, to take the auguries. Active forms are early, legal, and late. Vse as a passive is occasional in the clas- sical period. aiispic-or, auspica-ri, auspica-tus sum, to take the auspices. Active forms are early and late. Cic. ar.d Livy use the verb as a passive in a few instances. comit-or, comita-ri, comita-tus sum, to accompany. Poets (Ov., Prop., etc.) use the active forms frequently. The Perfect Part. comitS- tu8 is common as a passive, also in classical Latin. comment-or, commenta-ri, commenta-tus sum, to discuss. Cic. uses commentatus as a passive in 7>y. 88, 301, Fam. xvi., 26, 1. cQnfllct-or, c3nfllcta-rl, c5nflicta-tus sum, to struggle. Occasionally found for confllctare. See Ter., And , 93. cSnspic-or, conspica-ri, conspica-tus sum, to descry. So dSspicor, sQspicor. But a few forms are occasionally (usually in early Latin) used as passives, especially dSspicatUS (Plaut., Ter.), compared dgspicStissimus by C;ic. {Sest. 16, 36, Verr. in., 41, 98). Plaut., Cas. 394, suspicSs. contempl-or, contempla-rl, contempla-tus sum, to survey. The active forms are used frequently in early Latin (regularly by Plaut.). cOpul-or, c5pula-ri, copula-tus sum, to join. So Plaut., Aul. IIG. Otherwise everywhere copulare. crimin-or, crimina-ri, crimina-tus sum, to charge. Plaut. uses criminaret, Ennius criminat. cunct-or, cuncta-ri, cuncta-tus sum, to delay. Active forms are occasional in early and late Latin. dign-or, dIgnS-fi, digna-tus sum, to deem ivorthy. This verb is predominantly post-classical and poetical. The active forms are earlj and rare ; perhaps onoc iu Cicero. DEPONENTS. Ill fat)rIc-or, fabrica-ri, fabrica-tus sum, to forge. Tlie active forms belong to poetry and to post- Augustan prose. faener-or, faenera-ri, faenera-tus sum, to lend on interest. Active forms occasional in early Latin and more frequent in late Latin. fluctu-or, fluctua-rl, fluctua-tus sum, to undulate. Active forms are rare in Plaut. and in Cic, but not uncommon later. The do« ponent forms are post-Ciceronian. (for), fii-ri, fa-tussum, to speak. See 175, 3. frastr-or, frtistra-ri, frustra-tus sum, to deceive. Active forms rare, but at all periods. illacrim-or, illacrima-ri, illacrima-tus sum, to weep over. In Cic. and IIoR. ; otlierwise active. interpret-or, interpreta-ri, interpreta-tus sum, to interpret. Cic. uses interpretatus occasionally as a passive ; likewise Livy and others. luct-or, lucta-rl, lucta-tus sum, to wrestle. Plaut., Teu., Ennius, Vakro show sporadic forms of the active. ludific-or, ludifica-rl, ludifica tus sum, to make sport. Active frequent in Plaut., and occasionally later, medic-or, medica-ri, medica-tus sum, to heal. The active is once in Plaut., and frequent in poets and post-Augustan prose. medit-or, medita-rl, medita-tus sum, to think over. The form meditatUS is very commonly found as a passive. mfiner-or, mtinera-ri, mtinera-tus sum, to l^estow. Active forms in early Latin and occa>^ionally in Cic. and later. nutric-or, nutrica-rl, nutrica-tus sum, to sucMe. Active forms in early Latin. odOr-or, odora-ri, odora-tus sum, to smell. Active form^ occasional at all periods. opin-or, opina-ri, opina-tus sum, to think. Opino is frequent in early Latin, and opinatus as passive is common in Cicero. palp-or, palpa-rl, palpa-tus sum, to stroke. Is occasional (principally in early Latin) for palpare. popul-or, popula-ri, popula-tus sum, to ravage. Active forms'in simple verb and compounds are early, poetical, and post-classic. sciscit-or, sciscita ri, sciscita-tus sum, to inquire. Plaut., Merc. 380, sciscitare (active). scrlit-or, scruta-ri, scruta-tus sum, to search. Plaut., Aul. 657, perscrutavi. The use as a passive occurs first in Seneca, sect-or, secta-ri, secta-tus sum, to pursue. Active forms and passive usages are early. 8tabul-or, stabula-ri, stabula-tus sum, to stable. Active forms begin with Vergil. t^t-or, ttita-rl, tilta-tus sum, to protect. Active fpriug aud passive usages are early and rare. 112 DEPONENTS. tumultu-or, tumultua-rl, tumultua-tus sum, to raise a riot But Plautus uses active forms ; and passive uses are occasional later. vag-or, vaga-ri, vaga-tus sum, to wander. Active forms belong to early Lati.;. vener-or, venera-rl, venera-tus sum, to reverence. But Plaut uses venerS, venerem ; Veug., Hok., and later writers show passive uses. 164. Iri the second conjugation : fate -or, fat§-ri, fas-sus sum, to confess. con-fite-or, con-fit6-ri, con-fes-sus sum, to confess. Both fateor and confiteor are used occasionally as passives by Cic. and later. lice-or, licS-ri, lici-tus sum, to bid (at a sale). mere-or, mere-ri, meri-tus sum, to deserve. Especially in the phrases merSrl bene d5 aliqu5, to desene well of any one. Otherwise the active is usual. misere-or, miserS-ri, miseri-tus sum, to pity. In early Latin the active forms are found occasionally, e. j/., Lucr. hi., 881. poUice-or, pollic6-ri, poUici-tus sum, to promise. Occasionrlly used as a passive in post classical Latin. re-or, rS-rl, ra-tus sum, to think. Pr. Part. Active is wanting. tue-or, tu6 rl, tui-tus (tutus) sum, to protect. In early Latin and occasionally later, a parallel form, tuor, tul, tuitus sum, occurs. For tuitus usually tutatus. vere-or, verS-ri, veri-tus sum, to fear. 165. In the third conjugation : aplsc-or, aplsc-i, ap-tussum, to get. Simple verb is frequent in early and late Latin Of the compounds, adiplscor, adipisci, adeptus sum, is usually deponent in classical times, but occurs occasionally as a passive in Sall. and later writers. The compounds ind-, red-, are rare. am-plect-or, am-plect-i, am-plex us sum, to twine round, embrace. So the compounds complector, circumplector. in early Latin active forms are occasionally found ; e. j/., amplectitSte, circumplecte (Plaut ). com-min-Isc-or, com-min-isc-i, com-mentus sum, to think vp, devise. Ovid and later writers use commentus as a passive. experg-isc-or, (-reg-) ex-perg-Isc-i, ex-per-r6c-tus sum, to (right one's self zip) awake. fung-or, fang-I, fClnc-tus sum, to discharge. This verb is used passively very rarely : Tek., Ad. 508. Lucr. hi., 968. Cic, Sett. 4,10. fru-or (frugv-), fru-I, frfic-tus (fru-i-tus) sum, to enjoy. The form finiitus is rare and late. DEPONENTS. 113 gradi-or, grad-I, gres-sus sum, to step, ag-gredi-or, ag-gred-i, ag-gres-sus sum, to attack. Occasionally active forms of the fourtli conjugation are found in early Latin. lab-or, lab-i, lap-sus sum, to glide. loqu-or, loqu-i, locii-tus sum, to speak. mori-or, mor-i, mortu-ussum, to die. Early Latin sliows parallel forms of the fourth conjugation, as moriri, Smorlrl. Fut. Part, moriturus ; see i;35, 11., 3. nanc-isc-or, nanc-isc-i, nac-tus (nanc-tus) sum, to get. nasc-or (gna-), nasc-i, nS-tus sum, . to be bom. Fut. Part, nasciturus. nit-or (gnict- 1 nit-i, ni-sus (nix-us) sum, t to stay one's self on, from genu), * ni-surus, ^ ob-liv-isc-or, ob-liv-isc-I, ob-li-tus sum, to forget. pac-isc-or, pac-!sc-i, pac-tus sum (pepigl), to drive (a bargain). Occasionally active forms are found in early Latin ; in Cic. pactus is frequently used as a passive. See pangS. pati-or, pat-I, pas-sus sum, to suffer. per-peti-or, per-pet-i, per-pes-sus sum, to endure to the end. pro-fic-isc-or, pro-flc-isc-i, pro-fec-tus sum, to (get forward) set out. But Plaut., 31. G. 1329, proficiSCO. quer-or, quer-i, ques-tus sum, to complain. sequ-or, sequ-i, secu-tus sum, to follow. ulc-Isc-or, ulc-Isc-i, ul-tus sum, to avenge. Active forms are rare ; so once in Ennius. But Sall., Livy, and later writers use the verb as a passive sometimes. flt-or, Gt-I, u-sussum, to use. Plaut. shows the compound abusa as a passive {Asin. 196). veh-or, veh-i, vec-tus sum, to (wagon) ride. vesc-or, vesc-i, 166. In the fourth conjugation : assenti-or, assenti-rl, assSn-sus sum, to 1 Active forms are not uncommon in early Latin. Cic. uses the Pf . active forms fre- quently ; likewise later writers. com-peri-or, comperi-ri, to find out. Occasionally found (but rarely in classical Latin ; as, Sall., J., 45, 1 ; 108, 3) for comperio, comperire. But experior, experiri, expertus sum, to try, is regularly deponent ; though Cic. and others use often the Pf. active forms. largi-or, largi-ri, largi-tus sum, to bestow. meati-or, menti-ri, menti-tus sum, to lie. The poets and later prose writers use this as a passive also. m6ti-or, mSti-rl, mSn-sus sum, to measure. Passive usage is common, especially in the compounds : dSmSnsus, dImSnsu8| emSnsus, permgnsus, remSusus. 8 1 14 SEMI-DEPONENTS. 6rdi-or, 5rdl-rl, 6r-sus sum, to begin. Orsus, and more commonly exorsus, are also found as passives. ori-or, ori-ri, or-tus sum, to anse. The Pr. Indie, is usually formed according to the third conjugation ; the Impf. Subjv. always orerer; but the Put. Part, is oriturus, The compounds follow the same usage except adoriri, to tise up at, attack, which follows the fourth conjugation. parti-or, parti-ri, parti-tus sum, to share. Active forms and passive uses are found in early Latin, and sporadically in Cio. and later. poti-or, poti-ri, poti-tus sum, to get possession of. The Pr. Indie, Impf. Subjv., and occasionally other forms, are also found in early Latin and the poets, inflected according to the third conjugation ; so regularly after Plaut. potitur, frequently poteretur, potergmur. puni-or, pfinl-ri, puni-tus sum, to punish. Occasionally in Cic. and late writers for ptinxre. sorti-or, sorti-ri, sortl-tus sum, to cast lots. Active occasionally in early Latin, and passive uses later of the Pf. Participle. SEMI-DEPONENTS. 167. I. A few verbs form ilie Perfect forms only as deponents : aude-5, aude-re, au-sus sum, to dare. On the aorist forms ausim, etc., see 131, 4, b. fid-5, fid-ere, fl-sus sum, to trust. gaude-o, gaud6-re, gav-isus sum, to rejoice. 8ole-o, 80l6-re, sol-itus sum, to be ivont. The K. active is found in early Latin ; but rarely. 2. The reverse usage is found in : re-vert-or, re-vert-I, re-vert-I, to turn back. So also deverti, but without Pf . Part. Beversus is also used actively, but revOT- BUS sum for reverti is post-classic. See also assentior, etc., 166. Notes.— 1. Some active verbs have a Perfect Participle passive with active mean- ing, as : cSnatus, one uho has dined, from cSnare, to dine ; pransus, having break- fasted, from prandeS, / breakfast ; potus, drunken, from p5t5, / drink ; iuratus, hating taken the oath, sworn, from itlrS, I swear ; coniuratus, a conspirator, from wni^^, I conspire. Many such are used purely as Adjectives: c5nsideratU8, «r- cumspect, from cSnslderSj cautUS, wanj, from caveo, I beware. 2. The Perfect Participle of many deponent Verl)3 has both active and passive mean- ing : adeptus (adipiSCOr), har.ing acquired, or being acquired : comitStus (COmitor, I accompany) ; efEatus feffor, I speak out) ; expertus (experior, itnj) : exsecratus (exsecror, /curse) ; imitatus (imitor, Icopi/) : meritus (mereor, Idese?re) : opl- natus, necopinatus (opinor, / think); pactus (paciscor, / contract): partitua (partior, J distribute) ; sortltus (sortior, least lots) ; tueor, /protect ; tutus, sqfe. For others, see the list of deponentii. IRREGULAR VERBS. II5 IRREGULAR VERBS. 168. Irregular in the formation of the tense-stems : 1. Nine verbs of the third conjugation, which have, in spite of the short stem-syllable, the Pf . in -si, viz. : Clep5, Iflhh ; rego, I keep right ; tego, I cover in ; coqu5, Tbake ; and the com- pounds of lego, Ipickvp ; laciS, Ilnre ,■ specie, Isp?/(-]igo, -licio, -spicio) ; divido, I part ; quatio, I shake. See 147, 2. From lego, however, only dlligo, Ilove ; intellego, I understand ; and neglego, neglect^ are irregular. The other compounds are regular. See 147, 2. 2. Five verbs of the third conjugation, which, in spite of long stem- syllable, have the Pf . in -I, viz. : lambQ I lick; cud5, I hammer ; sid5, I sit (160,1); stride^, I ivhisfle (\59) \ vertQ, I turn {WO, 1). 3. Assimilation between bs and ms occurs in the Pf. and Sup. of iube-5, I order. See 147, 1. prem-o (-prim-5), I press. See 147, 2. 4. Special irregularities occur in : bib-5, Idnnk. 154, 2. mane-o, I remain. 147, 1. meti-or, I measure. 166. met-o, I mow. 142, 3. mori-or, / die. 165. rauci-o, / am Jioarse. 150, 2. re-or, / think. 164. 5. Formed from different tense-stems, are the tenses of fer-3, I bear. 171. toU-o, Ilift- 155- 169. Irregular in the conjugation of the Present-stem : 1 . ori-or, ori-ri, or-tus sum, to arise. See 166. 2. i-re, to go. The stem is i, which, before a, 0, u, becomes e. Prin. Parts : eo, Ire, ivi (iii, itum. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. I go. Ibegoi7ig. Pres. Sg.— I. e-5, Pl. — I-mus, Sg.— ea-m, Pl.— ea-mus, 2. 1-8, i-tis, ea-s, ea-tis, 3. i-t, eu-nt. ea-t, ea-nt. Il6 IRREGULAR VERBS. Impf. I-ba-m, I went. I-re-m, / were going. FuT. i-b-o, / shall go. Perf. i-v-i (i-i), / have gone. i-v-eri-m (i-eri-m). Plupf. i-v-era-m (i-era-m), / had gone. i-v-isse-m (i-isse-m, i-sse-m), Fut.Pf. I-v-er-o (i-er-5), I shall have go7ie. IMPERATIVE. Sg. — 2. i, go thou. I-t5, thou shall go. 3- I- to, he shall go. Pl. — 2. i-te, go ye. i-tote, ye shall go. 3. eu-nto, they shall go. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES. Pres. i-re. Pres. ig-ns (G. eu-nt-is). FuT. i-tur-um esse. Fut. i-tur-us. Perf. l-v»isse (i-sse). GERUND. SUPINE. eu-nd-i, etc. i-tum, to go. Remarks. — i. Like the simple verb are inflected most of the com- pounds, except in the Perfect system, where syncope regularly takes place (see 131, 2). Ven-eo, / am for sale, and per-eo, / perish, serve as passives to v6n-d6, / sell, and per-d5, / destroy, whose regular passives occur only in the forms vgnditus, v6ndendus, and perditus (but see Hor., Sat., ii. 6, 50). Amb-io, I solicit, follows the fourth conjugation through- out, but in post-Ciceronian writers (Livy, Tac, Plin. Min.) shows occa- sional forms like those of eS. Some compounds show occasionally Fut. in -earn after the time of Seneca. 2. The ])as.^ivc of the simple verb is found only in the impersonal forms itur, ibatur, itum est, iri (in combination with the Supine). But compounds with transitive force are conjugated regularly ; so, prae- ter-eS forms praeter-eor, -iris, Itur, -imur, -imini, -euntur, ibar, etc., -itus sum, eram, erS, -euntor, -Itor, -iri, -eundus. 3. quire, to he ahh ; nequire, to he unable. 170. («) que-O, I am able, is found in the following forms, of which those in parenthesis are unclassical, occurring in early and late Latin and the poets ; C/Esar uses no form of queO. Pr. Indic. queO, (quis), (quit), quimus, (quitis), queunt. Pr. Suijjv. queam, queas, queat, queamus, queatis, queant. Impf. (quibam), (quirem). Fut. (quIbO). Pf. quivi, etc.; quiverim, etc. Plupf. quiverara, < /c. ; quivissem, etc. Fut. Pf. quIverO, etc. Pr. Inf. quire. Pf. quivisse. Part, quiens. {h) neque-6, I am unable, has the same forms, all of which seem tob8 classic excepting the Future Indicative, which is not cited. IRKEGULAR VERBS. 117 4. fer-re, to bear. 171. The endings beginning with t, s, and r are added directly to the root (132). Some parts are supplied by tul- (tol-, tla-). Prin. Parts : fer5, ferre, tuli, latum. ACTIVE. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. / hear. / he hearing. Sg.— I. fer-o, Pl— fer-i-mus, Sg. —fera-m, Pl.— fcra-mus, 2. fer-8, fer-tis, fera-s, fera-tis, 3. fer-t, fer-u-nt. fera-t, fera-nt. Impf. ferS-ba-m, / was hearing. fer-re-m, / were hearing. Put. fera-m, I shall hear. Perf. tul-i, / have home. tul-eri-m. Plupf. tul-era-m. tul-isse-m. FuT. Pf. tul-er-5. IMPERATIVE. Sg.— 2. fer, hear thou. fer-t5, thou shall hear. 3- fer-to, he shall hear. PL.-2. fer-te, hear ye. fer-tote, ye shall hear. 3. feru-ntS, they shall hear. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES. Pres. fer-re. Pres. fer6-ns, hearing. FuT. la-tur-um esse. FuT. la-tur-us. Perf. tul-isse. GERUND. SUPINE. fere-nd-i, etc. Ifi-ttun (t(o)la-tum). PASSIVE. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. I am home. I he home. PRE3. 1 Sg. — I. fer-o-r, Pl. — feri-mur, Sg.— fera-r, Pl — fera-mur, 2. fer-ris, feri-mini, fera-ris, fera-mini, 3. fer-tur, feru-ntur. fera-tur, fera-ntur. Impf. fer6-ba-r. fer-re-r. Put. fera-r. Perf. la-tus sum. la-tus sim. Plupf. la-tus eram. la-tus essem. FuT. Pf. la-tus erS. Il8 IRREGULAR VERBS. IMPERATIVE. Sg. — 2. fer-re, he thou home. fer-tor, thou shalt he home. 3. fer-tor, he shall be home. Pl. — 2. feri-mini, he ye home. 3. feru-ntor, thei/ shall he home. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. Pres. fer-ri, to he home. Perf. la-t-us, -a, -tun, hor?ie. FuT. la-tum Irl. GERUNDIVE. Perp. la-tum esse, to have heen home. fere-nd-us. COMPOUNDS. af-fer-5, af- fer-re, at-tul-i, al la-tum, to bear to. au-fer-o, au-fer-re, abs-tul-i, ab-la-tum, ta bear away. con-fer-6, con-fer-re, con-tul-i, col-la-tum, toadied. dif-fer-o, dif-fer-re, dis-tul-i, dila-tum, to put off. ef-fer-o, ef-fer-re, ex-tul-i, 6-la-tum, to carry out. of-fer-o, of-ferre, ob-tul-i, ob-la-tum, to offer. Notes. 1. The Pf. tull was originally reduplicated te-tuli. See 134, iii., 155. Traces of this are seen in rettull. 2. Suf-fero, I undergo, has the Pf. sus-tin-ui (sus-tul-I, Bub-la-tum, being appropriated to toll-5). (155.) 5. ed-ere, to eat. 172. In certain forms the endings beginning with s, t, and r are added directly to the root (132) ; d before s (r) is dropped or assimilated (as ss), and before t becomes s. Pkin. Parts : edS, edere (esse), 6di, Ssum. ACTIVE. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. I eat. I he eating. Sg. — I. ed-3, Pl. — edi-mus, Sg. — eda-m, Pl. — eda-mus, 2. edi-s, e-s, edi-tis, 6s-tis, eda-s, eda-tis, eda-nt. 3- edi-t, e-st. edu-nt. eds Impp. edS-ba-m, late. ede-re-m, \ Fut. eda-m. Pkrf. 6d-I. 6d-eri-m. Plupf. 6d-era-m. gd-isse-m. Fut. Pp. 6d-er.5. IRREGULAR VERBS. 119 Sg.- -2. ede, 68, IMPERi eat thou. ^TIVE. edi-to, gs-t5, thou shalt eat. 3- edi-to, es-to, he shall eat. Pl.~ -2. edi-te, es-te, eat ye. edi-tote, gs-tote, ye shall eat. 3- edu-nto, tliey shall eat INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. Pres, ede-re, 6s-se, toeai. Pees, (edg-ns). Put. es-ur-um esse. Fur. es-ur-us. Perf. 6d-isse. GERUND. SUPINE. ede-nd-I, etc. es-um, 6s-tU PASSIVE. In the passive voice the only peculiarities are as follows: Pr. Indie. Sin?. Third, editur and Sstur. Impf. Subjv. Sing. Third, ederStur and essetur. The Pf. Part, is 6sus and the Gerundive edendus. Note.— In the Pr. Subjv. Active, early Latin sbows edim, edis, edit, edimus, editis, edint. Also gssum and gssu in the Sup., gssurns in the Fut, Part. Come- dere also siiov\ s comestus for comSsus. 6. fi-eri, to become, 173. K-5 is conjugated m the Present, Imperfect, and Future, according to the fourth conjugation, but in the Subjunctive Imperfect and in the Infinitive tlie stem is increased by e; thus, fi-e-rem, I were becoming ; fi-e-ri, to become. In these forms the i is short, but else- wliere it is long even before another vowel. The Infinitive ends in -11, and the whole Verb in the Present-stem is treated as the Passive to facio, / make. The rest of the Passive is formed regularly from faei5. Prin. Pakts : flS, fieri, factus sum. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. Pres, faciS, I make. INDIC. fI5, I am made, I become. fig, fit (fimus, fitis), fiunt. Impf. faciebam, I made. figbam, I was made, I became. Fut, faciam, I shall make fiam, / shall be made (becomei Perf. fgci. factus sum. Plupf. fgceram. factus eram. Fut. Pf. fgcerO. factus ero. SUBJV. faciam, etc. SUBJV. fiam, fias, fiat, etc. facerem, etc. fierem, fiergs, etc. INFINITIVE. INFINITIVE. facere, etc. Pres. fieri. IMPERATIVE. Perf. factum esse, to have become. (fi), (fi-to). Fut. futlirum esse or fore. (fi-te). Fut. Pf. factum fore. I20 IRREGULAR VERBS. Notes.— 1. Occasionally in early Latin the form fiere is found for the Tnfinltivfl^ which indicates that the verb was originally active. The forms fieri and flerem are very common in early Latin, along with the normal forms. 01 the forms in parenthe- sis flmus and fitis do not certainly occur, and the Imperative forms are early. Pas- give forms of fio are very rare ; never in Plautus or Terence. 2. The compounds of facio with Prepositions change the a of the stem into i, and form the Passive in classical Latin regularly from the same stem : perficio, / achieve^ Pass, perficior ; interficio, Pass, interficior, lam destroyed. But interheri, cSn- fierent, confieri, and several other forms are found in early Latin, and occasionally in classical times. When compounded with words other than prepositions, faciS retains its a, and uses fio as its Passive : patefacio, I lay open, Pass. pateflS ; calefaciS, / warm. Pass. calefiS. For the accent, see 15, 2, r. 2. 174. PRIN. 7. veUe, to he loilling. nolle, to he tinivilling ; malle, to he williiig rather. Parts : V0I8, velle, volul ; n513, nSlle, nSluI ; maW, malle, maluL INDICATIVE. Pres. voia, n5l5, mal9, vis, nSn vis, mavis, TUlt, non vult, mavult. volumus, nolumus, malumus, vultis, non vultis. mavultis, voltuit. aolunt. malunt. Impt. volebanSj, ndlsbam, malebam. FlTT. volam, nolam, malam. ▼oles, etc. nolgs, etc. males, etc. pKRy. Tolni, nOlu!, malul, etc. Plupt. Tolueram, n5lueram, malueram, eto» FUT. Pf. . voluerO, nSluerO, SUBJUNCTIVE. maluer5, etc. Pwe». velim. n5Um, malim, veils, nOlIs, malls, velit, nSlit, malit. yelimufr. nSlimus, mallmuff, velitis, nOlitis, malitis, reUnt. nOlint. malint. Impf. ▼ellem. nOllem, mSllem. PERr. voluerim, nDluerim, maluerim, etc. Fluff. voluissem, nOluissem, m&luissem, etCc DEFECTIVE VERBS. 12 IMPV. (fac velis\ Sg. —noli, nolito. Pl. — nolite, nolitote, noluntS. INF. Pr. velle, nolle, malle. Pf. voluisse, nSlnisse, maluisse. PART, volens, nolSns. Notes.— 1. To the time of Cicero, and occasionally later, volt, voltis, are employea for vult, vultis. In familiar language si viS, si vultis, were contracted to sis, sultis ; vis was further combined with -ne Into vin. 2. Nolo is a contraction of nevolo (= n5n volo), and in early Latin we find, along with the forms given above, also nevis, nevolt ; also occasionally we find non velis, nQn velit, non velint, non vellem, for nolis, etc. ; but the feeling is slightly different. 3. Malo = ma volo, from niag(niage, magis)-volo. Frequently in Plaut., but iarely in Ter., we find mavolo, mavolunt, ma volet, mavelim, -is, -it, ma vellem, instead of malo, malim, malis, etc. 176. DEFECTIVE VERBS. I. aid, I say aye. INDIC. pREs. Sg. — I. aiO, 2. ais, 3. ait, Pl. — 3. aiunt. Impf. aiSbam, etc. Perf. 3- ait. SUBJV. Pres. Sg. — 2. aias, 3. aiat, 3. aiant. PART. aiSns (as adj.), affirmative. IMPV. aj^ Note.— In early Latin ain (= aisne V) was scanned often as a monosyllable ; and in the Impf., aibam, aibS>S, aibat, aibant were frequently employed along with the normal forms. The Impv. is rare, and found only in early Latin. Pr. Subjv. aiam is emended into Pl., Ep., 281. 2. inquam, / say, quoth I. I. mquam, I. inquimus, INPIC. Pres. Sg Pl Impf. Sg. — FuT. Sg. — Perf. Sg. — I. inquii, IMPV. inque, inquitO. 2. mquis, 2. inquitis, 2. inquigs, 2. inquisti. 3. inquit. 3. inquiunt. 3. inquiebat, 3. inquiet. 3. inquit. 3. fa-ri, to speak. INDIC. Pres. fatur. Fut. fabor, fabitur. Pert, fatus sum, e^(?. IMPV. fare. PART. Pres. fans, fantis, fanti, fantem. GER. fandi, fando. SUP. fata. Note.— In addition to these, compounds show also Pres. : -faris, -famur, -famini, -fantur ; Impf. : -fabar, -fabantur ; Fut. : -fabere, -fabimur ; Part. : -fante and others. These foni:s, r.s well as the uncom pounded forms, though occasionally found in prose, are pecidiar to the poets until post-Augnstan limes. The Pf. Part, iu eometimes used passively ; so eej^ecially fStum,/i7/<; ; effStus, dengnated. 122 DEFECTIVE VERBS. 4. have-re (ave-re), salve-re. IMPV. havg, salvS, salvebis, hail thou ! havgtd, salvetd. havSte, salvgte, hail ye ! INF. havere, salv6re. Corresponding to these are the forms of valire, viz. : val5, valete, valSre, farewell. 5. coepi, memini, odi, novl. In use only in the Perfect-stem are coepi, / /mt'e begun, which serves as a Perfect to incipiS, and memini, / remember, 5di, / hate, novi (from nosco, see 131, 3, 140), / k7ioiv, am aware, cSnsuevi (from consugscS), / am wont, which have the force of Presents. a. INDIC. coepi, / have begun. SUBJV. coeperim. coeperam. coepissem. coepero. INF. coepisse, to have begun. Note.— Early Latin shows coepio, coepias, coepiat, coepiam, coepere, coeperet. Future Participle coeptUTUS is Post-Augustiui. Incepi is ante-classical. Passive forms coeptus sum, ete., occur with the same meaning in combination with a Passive Infinitive. Sec 423, n. 3. f h. INDIC. memini, I remember, SUBJV. meminerim. memineram. meminissem. meminero. INF. meminisse, to remember, IMPV. Sg. — memento. Pl. — mementote. c. INDIC. 5di, I hate, SUBJV. oderim. 5deram. odissem. OderO. INF. 5disse, to hate. FUT. PART, osurus. Note.— Occasionally in early Latin, the poets, and later prose, deponent forms of the Perfect are found, OSUS sum, etc. For the Passive the phrase odi5 esse is used. d. INDIC. n5vl. SUBJV. noverim (norim). nOveram (noram). novissem (nossem). nOverS (n5r5). INF. nOvisse (nosse) to hioio. 6. cedo, quaeso. Other defective forms are : Sg. — cedo, give I (old Impv.) Pl. — cette. INDIC. Pres. quaes5, please (i. e., I seek, beg), quaesumus. Note.— Other forms of quaesO are found occasionally in early Latin, and sporadl- cally in Cic, Sali.., and later ; the Pf . forms have been attached to quaerere, 137, c. K/RMATIOJ^ OF WORDS. 1 23 FORMATION OF WORDS. 176. By the formation of words is meant the way in which stems are made of roots, new stems of old, and in which words are compounded. 177. All roots of the Latin language are probably mono- syllabic. * They can be ascertained only by scientific analysis. The difference between Root and Stem has been set forth in 25, nn. Sometimes the Stem is the same as the Hoot ; so especially in the Root Verbs (182). But it is usually different. 178. Words are either simple or compound. A simjile word is one that is formed from a single root : sol, sun; sta-re, stand, staij. A compound word is one that is mado up of two or more roots : s5l-stiti-um, sun-staying , solstice. A.— Simple Words. 179. Simple words are partly jprimitive, partly derivative or secondary. 1. Primitive words come from the root, and as this usually appears in the simplest form of tlie verb-stem, primitive words are called verbals. Examples are the root- verbal forms (134, 11., 182, 135, i.), some substantives of the third declension, as dux (duc-s), leader, root due (see 183, i), many substantives of the first, second, and fourth declensions, as : scrib-a (scribo, / write), scribe. 2. Derivative words are formed from a noun-stem ; hence called denominatives : vetus-tas, at/e, from vetes- (N. vetus), old. Note.— Denominative verbs include many verbs vv-hich cannot definitely be referred to any substantive ; such as many frequentatives and intensives. In its narrower sig- nification the term refers to the special class of verbs made from substantives in use. 180. Substantives are generally formed by means of a suf- fix. A suffix is an addition to a stem, and serves to define its meaning or show its relations. So from the verbal stem scrib- (scribo, I tvrite) comes scrip-tor, wr it-er ; scTVp'tio(ii), writ-ing. * The theory of monosyllabic roots is adopted here as being somewhat more con- venient than the theory of polysyllabic roots, now held by some important scholars. Of course it will be understood that the actual existence of mere roots can be assumed only for a very early period in the development or language, long before the indepen- dent existence of Latin. 124 FORMATION OF WORDS. Suffixes are either primary or secondary. A primary suffix is one added to a root (or verb stem) to form primitive words. A secondary suffix is one used in the formation of derivative words. Thus, -tor in scrip-tor is a primary suffix ; -tas in vetus-tas is secondary. Notes.— 1. By the fading out of the difEerence between primarj- and secondary suf- fixes, primary suffixes come to be used sometimes to form secondary derivatives. 2. Consonant stems before consonant suffixes undergo the usual changes (9). So scrib-tor becomes scrip-tor ; reg-s becomes rex, Stems are sometimes extended by a vowel, usually i, less often u, to facilitate pronunciation : val-i-dus, strong ; doc- U-meiituni, proof; sometimes they change the stem vo\\ el : teg, cover ; tog-a, for/a ; tug-uriura, hut. 3. Vowel stems lengthen the final vowel : acu-, shai^ien ; acu-men, sharp part^ point. The final vowel often disappears before the suffix : opta-, choose ; opt-io, choice. 181. FORMATION OF SUBSTANTIVES. The suffixes, as applied to various roots, have often special func- tions, and form words of definite meaning. The most important are as follows : 1. Agency is indicated by -tor, -trie (N. tor (m.), trix (/.)): ama-tor, lover; vic-trix, con- qiieress ; occasionally -ter (N. ter, G. -tri) : ar-bi-ter (= ad + ba, step\ umpire; -on (N. o, G. onis): com-bib-o {fellow-drinker), boon compan- ion; occasionally -o, -« (N. -us, -a) : serv-os, slave; scrib-a, scribe; -OHO, -on a (N. 6nu-s, -ona) : col-onu-s, settler ; -(/)^ (N. es, G. itis): xnil-es, soldier, and a few others. 2. Action, Activity, and Event are indicated by a. -tu (N. tu-s, su-s, G. -us) : ad-ven-tus, arrival ; -tri-iia (N. trina) : doc-trina, instructiori; -Iti-a (N. -Ina) : rap-ina, rapi7ie; -men (N. men, G. min-is) : ag-men, train; 'inento (N. mentum) : tor-mentu-m, torture; S'la {ella) ; loqu-ela, speech; quer-6la, complaint; "Cinio (N. -u-m) : latro ciniu-m, highway robbery; -mbnio,, "inonia (N. m5iiia, m5niu-m) : queri -raonia, complaint ; testi-moniu-m, testimony. b. Abstracts. Mascuhne : -os (N". -or, G. -or-is) : ang-or, anguish. Feminine : -on (N. do, g5, G. in-is) : ima-?^5, image; cup-i-do, desire; -ia : audac-ia, boldness; -idn(S. i5) : leg-iQ, lcgio7i; -f m ; avari-tia, avarice; collateral are some with Nom. in -ties, as diiri-ti5s, hard- ness; -tioii (N. tiS, sio) : ainb-i-ti5, ambition ; c5n-fu-sio, confusion; -tat (N. tas) : aequali-tas, equality; -ttira : ]^ic-tui&, painting; -tut-(N. tiia, sus): iuven-tus, youth; -ta {-su) (N. tu-s, su-s), s5n-sus, perception; -tudon (N. tud-o, G. -inis): a,egn'tVii!5, sickness of heart. ^Neuter: -tio (N. tiu-m) : servi-tiu-m, bondage. 3. An Artisan or Tradesman is indicated by -di'io (N. ariu-s) : argent-ariu-s, money changer. FORMATION OF WORDS. 125 4. The Trade is indicated by -aria : argent-aria, silver mine, hank. 5. The Locality of the work (or trade) is indicated by -drio (X. ariu-m) : semin-ariu-m, seed-plot ; -bnio (N. Oniti-m) : Ml- onium, fuller's shop; -iua : ofiac-ina, workshop; -cro, -eulo (X. -cru-m, -culu-m) : lava-cru-m, hath; -trlno, -fritia (J^. trina, trinu-m) : su- trina, shoemaker'' s shop ; pls-trlnu-m, 7nill. 6. Instrument and 3Ieans are indicated by -brOf -bra (N. bra, bru-m): ll-bra, balance ; crl-bmm, sieve; -crOf -culo (N. cru-m, culu-m) : ba-culu-m, walking stick; -lo, -la (N. -la, -lu-m) : ^i-\^^ pillar ; tB-ln-m, tveapon; -nlo, -ula (N. ulu-s, ula, ulu-m) : cap-ulu-s, handle; rgg-ula, rule; cing-ulu-m, girdle; -mento (N. mentu-m): al-i-mentu-m, nourishment ; -tro, -tra (N. tra, tru-m): fenes-tra, window ; ara-tru-m, jsJwzo. 7. Relationship is indicated by -ter (N. ter, G. tr-is) : ^-ixx^fatJier; ma-ter, mother. 8. Condition or Relation by -ina : discipl-Ina, discipline; medie-fna, medicine, 9. Function is indicated by -tura {sura) : cul-tura, cidtivation. 10. Office is indicated by -dta (X. atus, G. atus) : cSnsul-atus, consxdship; -tura (sura) : dicta-ttira, dictatorship. 1 1. Dense Growths are indicated by -efo (X. gtu-m) : murt-etu-m, myrtle grove; -to (X. tu-m) : virgul- tn-m, hrusliwood. 12. Diminutives are indicated by -lo, -la (X. lu-8, etc.), before which a liqnid is assimilated (0, 3) : (ager), agel-lu-s, little field ; (tabul-a\ tabel-la, tablet ; (coron-a), corol-la, chaplet ; Catul-Iu-s ( -- Caton-lu 6; ; homul-Iu-s (= homon lu-s), manikin; -olo^ -nlo : olo after e, i, v, otiierwise -ulo (X. olu-s, ola, ulu-s, ula): (alve-us), alve-olu-8, little holloio; (fili-a), flli-ola, little daughter ; (valv-a), valv-olae, pod {little flaps); (circu-s), circ ulu-s, little ring, -v.ulo, -vula (X. culu-s, etc\ after e, i, u, and consonant steins : (spgs\ sp€-cula, slight hope; (amni-s), amni-culu-s, streamlet; (versu-s), versi-culu-s, versicle; (homo, homin-), homun-culu-8, manikin ; (flOs), fl5s-culu-s, floweret ; (cor, cord-), cor -culu-m, dear heart. Note.— Diminutives have, a« a rule, the gender of their primitivee. ExcepUong gre sometimes due to difference iu signification. 126 FOKMATIOK OF WORDS. 182. FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES. The significance of the most important adjective suffixes, which are often identical with the substantive suffixes, are as follows : 1. Action is indicated by -hundOf -httnda : cuncta-'biindu-s, lingering. Repeated actionhy -ulo^ -ula : cred-ulu-s, quick to believe; quer ulu-s, complaining. Pas- sive action is indicated by -bill : ama-bili-s, lovable, v6nd-i-bili-s, to be sold. 2. Capacity and Inclination are indicated by -cundOf -cunda : fa-cundu-s, of ready speech ; vere-cundu-s, modest. Passive Capacity hy -ili : ag-ili-s, readily moved, quick; doc-ili-s, teachable. The Capacity and Resulting Condition by -till : duc-tili-s, ductile ; fic-tili-s, capable of being moulded^ of clay. 3. Tendency is indicated by -aci (N. ax) : aud-ax, hold ; rap-ax, greedy. 4. Likeness and Composition or JIaterial are indicated by -aceOf -acea : arundin-acen-s, reedy ; cr6t-aceu-s, chalky; -icio : later-iciu-s, made of brick; -no, -nu : acer-nu-s, of maple; ~neo^ -nea : ae-neu-s, brazen. 5. Belonging to is indicated by -4o^ -ia : imperatSr-iu-s, helo7iging to a general ; -icio, -icia : aedil-iciu-s, belonging to ari cedile; -duo, -ana : hum-aim-s, human; urb-anu-s, iirbane, city. 6. Appurtenance and Jledium are indicated by -ficOf -tica : aqua-ticu-s, aquatic; -till-: aqua-tili-s, aquatic; pluma-tili-s, {embroidered) like feathers. 7. Origin is indicated by -io, -ia : Cornel-ia (lex), Corinth-iu-s ; -dno, -ana, -Ino, -ina : Eom-anu-s, Lat-inu-s. 8. 2'ime is indicated by -lino, -tina : cras-tinu-s, of to-morrow; -ferno, -terna : hes- ternu-s, of yesterday; -umo, -urna : noct-umu-s, by niglit; -tlno, -tlna : matH-tinu-s, of early morning. 9. Locality, where, whence, is indicated by -ia : Gall-ia, Gaul; -tlno: intes-tinu-s, inner, intestine; -ensi: cire-ensi-s, fro7n the circus ; Sicili-finsi-s, Sicilian; -dti (N. -as) : cQi- 2s, of what country ^ FORMATION OF WORDS. 12/ 10. Fullness is indicated by -o.so, -osa : anim-osn-s, full of spirit ; verb-osu-s, luordy ; 'lento, lenta : sanguin-o-lentu-s, bloody ; op-u-lentu-s, with abundant means. 11. Descent and Relationship are indicated in Latin mainly by Greek adjectives, made by the addition of Greek suffixes to proper names. Tliese suffixes are M. 'ides (G. idae), F. -«s (G. idis), from Nominatives in us, or, os, and s preceded by a consonant ; M. -ides (G. idae), F. -els (G. eidis), from Nominatives in -eus ; M. -ades (G. adae), F. -eis (G. gidis), from Nominatives in as (G. ae) arid -g3 (G. -ae) ; M. ^iades (G. iadae), F. -ias (G. iadis), from Nominatives in ius, es, on, o ; F. -tiie, from Nom- inatives in -us and -eus; F. -/owe, from Nominatives in ius : (Tantalus) Tantal-id6s, son of Tantalus ; Tantal-is, daughter of Taiitalus ; (Pelops) Pelopides ; (Thes-eus) Th6s-ides, ThgsSis ; (Aengas) Aene-adgs (Aeneadae also); (Laertgs) Laert-iadgs ; (Neptiinus) Neptun-ing ; (Acrisius) Acrisiong, etc. 12. Diminutive adjectives are formed by the same suffixes as diminutive substantives (181, 12) : albus, white^ alhvL-hxs, whitish ; miser, xvretched, mis-ellus, poor {little) ; acer, sharp, acri-culu-s, somewhat sharp. 183. SUBSTANTIVES WITHOUT SUFFIXES. (Root Substantives.) A few substantives are formed from roots without a suffix : 1. With weak root : duc-s (dux), leader, from root due, lead ; nec-s (nex), killing, from root nee. Mil. 2. With strong root : lue-s (lux), light, from root lue, light ; rgg-s (rgx), Idng, from root rgg, ride. 3. With reduplication: cox-cev^ jail ; mar-mor, marble; mur-mur, murmur. THE SUFFIXES IN DETAIL. 184. Vowels. -Of -a (N. u-s, a, u-m). Primary and secondary adjectives, and primary substantives. The primary adjectives resemble somewhat active participles in meaning ; fer-u-s, wild ; vag-u-s, ivandering. Sec- ondary are especially adjectives in -orus, as dec-oru-s, graceful, from decor, grace, and many others. Masculine substantives in -u-s are often nouns of agency, sometimes nomina actionis and concretes therefrom: eoqu-o-s, cook ; rog-u-s, pyre. Those in -a (a) are regularly mmina agen- lis, especially in composition ; scrib-a, scribe ; agri-eola, husbandman (land-tiller). Feaiinines are in -0 (which are principally names of trees : pir-us, pear tree) and in -a : lup-a, she-wolf, as well as lup-u-s. Neuters are those in -u-m, especially names of fruits : pir-u-m, pear. 128 FORMATION OF WORDS. -i (N. i-s, e). Substantives : M . orb-i-s, circle ; pisc-i-s, fish, etc. ; F. av-i-s, bird ; nav-i-s, ship ; N. mar-e, sea ; conclav-e, room. Adjec- tives : dulc-i-s, sweet ; turp-i-s, ugly. Note.— In adjectives especially, i is often weakened from -o, as inermis and iner- mus, etc. Sometimes in substantives the Nom. shows es instead of is, as caed§S and caedis, etc. -iOf -ia (N. iu-s, la, iu-m). — i. This is the principal secondary suf- fix, and is found in many combinations ; but it is also found as prim- ary in substantives: M. gen-iu-s, genius; gladius, sword; F. pluv-ia, rain; tib-ia, fife; N. fol-iu-m, leaf ; od-iu-m, hate; and in adjectives ex-im-iu-s, pre-eminent {taken out) ; sauc-iu-s, ivounded, pluv-iu-s, rainy. 2. The suffix occurs as secondary in the forms -6io (-aeo\ -io, eo, io, in a large number of Gentile names : Flav-giu-s, Flav-iu-s ; Ltic-eiu-s, Luc- iu-s, Ltic-iu-s ; similar to these are those in ed-iu-s, id-iu-s, id-iu-s, -gl-iu-s, il-iu-s, as Luc-id-iu-s, Corn-gl-iu-s, Luc-fl-iu-s. Also in some adjectives of material in eu-s, as aur-eu-s, golden ; ferr-eu-s, iron. It occurs, moreover, in many compound adjective and substantive endings, to be discussed later, and in many abstract substantives in -antia, -entia, as abund- ant-ia, abundance ; sci-ent-ia, knowledge, etc. Note.— Instead of -ia, we find -ea in a few words : cav-ea, cage ; cochl-ea, snail. -u (N. u-s, u). M. arc-u-s, boiv ; curr-u-s, chariot ; F. ac-u-s, needle ; man-u-s, hand; N. gel-ti, frost; gen-u, knee. Secondary is socr-u-s, mother-in-law. This suffix is found occasionally in adjectives com- pounded with manus, as centi-manus, hundred-handed ; also in the form -ui in a few adjectives, as ten-ui-s, thin. Note.— The snftix -o often alternates with -u. -iiOf -iia (N. uo-s, ua, uo-m). Primary and secondary substantives and adjectives. Primary : M. eq-uo-s, horse ; F. al-vo-s, belly ; X. ax-vo-m, field ; par-vo-s, stnall. Secondary : M. patr-uo-s, uncle; cer-vo-s, stag ; F. ian-ua, gate ; cern-uo-s, stooping ; aesti-vo-s, of the summer. Note.— Ivo-s is found in voc-ivo-S (vacuos), rediv-Ivo-s, etc. -vo is weakened to -vi in pel-vi-s, basin. 185. Suffixes with Gutturals. 1. -co, -ca (N. cu-s, ca, cu-m). This forms both adjectives and substantives, but is usually secondary. As primary it is found in : io-CM-s^ jest ; lo-cu-s, pZace ; as secondary in : medi-cvi-s, physician ; ped- i-ca, fetter. Adjectives are primary : cas-cu-s, very old ; or secondary : civi-cu-8, civic. 2. -dcOf -aca (N. gcu-s, aca, acu-m). Primary in clo-aca, sewer; secondary in ver-b6n-aca, vervain, and in adjectives, as mer-acu-s, j^wre. FORMATIOX OF WORDS. 1 29 3. -IcOf -lea (N. Icu-s, ica, icu-m). In substantives, such as : M. umbil-icu-s, 7iavel ; F. lect-ica, Utter ; urt-ica, nettle. In adjectives, as : am-icu-s, friendly, etc. 4. -ucOf -ilea (N. ucu-3, uca, ucu-m). Primary in the adjectives : cad-ucu-s, tottering ; mand-ucu-s, voracious ; secondary in alb-ucu-s, as- phodel ; and in substantives in -uca, as er-uca, caterpillar ; verr-uca, wart. Note.— Similar is the secondary suffix -inquo in long-inquo-S, distant; pro- pinquo-s, near. 5 -ac (N. ax) forms substantives and adjectives ; the latter ex- pressing nic/twaiiow. Primary: SMd-six, bold ; fxig-six, fleei?ig. Second- ary : F. forn-ax, furnace ; lim-ax, snail ; v6r-ax, truthful. 6. -ec (N. Sx) is found in verv-ex, wether. 7. -ic (N. ex) forms a number of substantives that are mainly mas- culine, except names of plants and trees. Primary : M. ap-ex, point ; cort-ex, hark ; F. il-ex, holm-oak. Secondary : F. imbr-ex, gutter-tile. 8. -Ic (N. ix) forms substantives and adjectives. Primary : F. rad- ix, root; fgl-ix, happy. Secondary: corn-ix, crow, and feminines in -trix. 9. -de (N. ox) is found in the substantive cel-ox, yacht, and in a number of adjectives : atr-ox, ferocious. 10. -deeOf -deea (X. aceu-s, acea, aceu-m), forms adjectives of material or likeness : crgt-aceu-s, chalk-like. Note.— Notice aho tlie suffix -ac-io, especially in proper names : Ver-acia, 11. -ie-eOf -ie-io(N. iceu-s, etc., iciu-s, etc.), form adjectives in- dicating material, the latter suffix also some indicating relation : palm- iceu-s, of palms ; tribun-iciu-s, proceeding from a tribune. 12. -le-io (X, Iciu-s, etc.) is found in nov-Iciu-s, 7iew, and in words of participial meaning coming from forms in -to, as advent-iciu-s, strajiger. 13. -ue-eOf -uc-io, occurs in pann-uceu-s or pann-uciu-s. 14. -ci-no and ei-n'-io occur (perhaps) in vati-cinu-s, prophetic, and in some secondary neuter substantives, which denote action or event, as latro-ciniu-m, robbery. 15. -cro, -eri, -elo, -culo (N. car, cris, clu-m, culu-m) are found in some adjectives with participial force, and in a few neuter substan- tives indicating instrument or locality ; as ala-cer, quick ; medio-cris, mediocre ; peri-clum (-culu-m), danger ; ba-culu-m, stick (also m.) ; sepul- crum, grave. Also the primary ridi-culu-s, laughable, and the secondary anni-culu-s, aged. 9 130 FORMATIOK OF WORDS. 186. Suffixes with a Dental. 1. 'd (N. (d)s). Substantives only : frau-s, c7i.ea^efy ; merce-s, jpay ; custo-s, guard. 2. -do, -di (N. du-s, etc., di-s). A secondary suffix used especially for the formation of adjectives : frig-i-du-s, cold ; vir-i-dis, blooming. 3. -to {-so) (N. tu-s, ta, tu-m). This forms substantives and ad- jectives, and is both primary and secondary. Primary : M. cub-i-tu-s, elhoiv ; dig-i-tus, finger ; also substantives in -ta after Greek analogy : po§-ta, poet ; F. has-ta, spear ; am-i-ta, amit ; N, lu-tu-m, mud ; tSc- tum, roof ; ap-tu-s, ^/; bea-tu-s, fi^esset?. Secondary : M. nau-ta, saiYor ; F. iuven-ta, youth; N. dense growths in g-tu-m: £nitic-e-tu-m, co^se ; ius-tu-s, y^s^ ; and passive adjectives like barb-a-tus, bearded. 4. -ti {-si) [N, tis (sis)] forms primary and secondary substantives and adjectives. Primary : M. fus-ti-s, club ; cas-si-s, hunting-net ; F. cu-ti-s, sldn ; si-ti-s, thirst ; for-ti-s, brave ; mi-ti-s, 7nild, Secondary .: (i) in adjectives and substantives indicating home, origin, usually preceded by a, i, more rarely e: Camer-s (Camer-ti-s), /rom Camerinum; Arpina-s (A.rplna-ti-s), of Arpinum ; nostr-as, from our country ; (2) in the form -gnsi (for ent-ti) in adjectives of origin and locality : Sicili-en- si-s, from Sicily ; castr-ensi-s, belonging to a camp. 5. -t (N. (t)s) forms primary and secondary substantives and ad- jectives. Primary : M. com-e-s, companion ; d§n-s, tooth ; F. qui-e-s, rest ; ar-s, art ; locupl-6-s, ivealthy ; with preceding e : div-e-s, rich. Note also the Participles in -ns. Secondary : M. al-e-s, bird; eque-s, horseman. 6. -ento- (X. -entu-s, et nuuunius. FORMATION OF WORDS. I4I 2, The second part of the composition is a noun : tri-enn-iu-m, space of three years (annus) ; miseri-cor-s, tender-hearted (cor). When the second part ends in a vowel, it adapts itself, if an adjec- tive, to changes of gender, as flavi-comus, yellow-haired (coma, hair), but more often this final vowel becomes i and tlie adjective follows the third declension : tri-rgmi-s, trireme (rgmu-s, oar) ; ab-normi-s, abnormal (norma, norm). When the second part ends in a consonant, the last term usually undergoes no change : bi-den-s, two-pronged ; simplex (sim-plec-s), simple. Note.— From genus (G. generis), is formed dS-gener. II. SIGNIFICATION OF COMPOUNDS. 196. Compound substantives and adjectives are divided according to their signification into two main cla.sses : Determinative and Pos- sessive. In Determinative compounds one of the terms is subordinate to the other. They fall into two classes : Attributive or Appositional, and Dependent. 197. !• Attributive compounds. The first part is the attribute of the second. The first word is, (i) a substantive : ali-pes, ioing-foot{ed) ; (2) an ad- jective : magn-animus, great-hearted ; lati-fundium, large estate ; (3) a numeral : bi-enni-um {i. e., spatium), space of two years. 2. Dependent compounds. In these the second word is simply limited by the other, its signification not being altered. {a) The first word is : (i) an adjective : meri-di6s (from medi-di6 = medio diS), mid-day ; (2) an adverb : bene-ficus {well-doing), beneficent ; male-ficus, evil-doing ; (3) a numeral : ter-geminus, triple; (4) a par- ticle : dis-sonus, harsh-sounding ; per-magnus, very large ; in-dignus, unworthy ; (5) a verb-stem : horr-i-ficus, horrible {horror-stirnng). (b) The first word gives a case relation, such as (i) the Accusative : armi-ger = arma gerens, armor-bearer; agri-cola — agrum colens (land- tiller), husbandman ; (2) the Genitive : s51-stitium = solis statiQ {smi- • staying), solstice; (3) the Locative : ali6ni-gena {born elsewhere), alien ; (4) the Instrumental : tibi-cen = tibia canens, flute-player. 198. Possessive Compounds are adjectival only, and are so called because they imply the existence of a Subject possessing the quality indicated. The first term is, (i) a substantive : angui-manus, (having a) snake- hand {elephant) : (2) an adjective : flavi-comus, {havirig) yellow hair ; (3) a numeral : bi-fr6ns, {having) tivo front{s) ; (4) a particle : dis-cors, discordant; in-ers, inactive. 1^2 FORMATION OF WORDS. Note.— Notice that these divisions run into each other ; thus magn-animus ia possessive, attributive, and dependent. 199. Verb. In Composi tion Imp r o per the verb is joined to a. verb, sub- stantive, or adverb. In C ompo sition Proper the verb is com- bined v^rith a preposition. 200. I- Composition Improper . (a) Verb wit?i verb : This only takes place when the second part of the compound is facio orfio (178, n. 2). The first part of the compound is regularly an intransitive of the second conjugation : cale-facio, cale- fio, warm, am warmed. {b) Verb iviih substantive : anim-adverto = animum adverto, take notice ; manii-inittS, set free ; iisu-capio, acquire by use. (c) Verb with adverb : bene-dico, bless ; male-dico, curse ; malo, nolS (for mage (magis) vol5, ne- volo), satis-facio, satisfy. 2. Composition Proper. The verb combines with separable or inseparable prepositions. Compare 413, r. 3. (a) With inseparable prepositions : amb-io, go about ; am-plector, en- fold ; an-helo, draw deep breath, pant; dis-curro, run apart; dir-imS, 160, T, and 715, R.I ; por-tendo, hold forth, portend; red-do, give back; re-solv6, resolve ; s6-iungo, separate. (b) Willi separable prepositions ; ab e5, go away ; ad-eS, come up ; ante-curro, run in advance ; com-pono, put together ; d6-curro, run down, finish a course ; ex-c6do, overstep ; in-clud5, shut in ; ob-duc5, draio over ; per-agro, ivander through ; post-habe5, keep in the background ; prae-dico, foretell ; praeter-e5, pass by ; prod-eo, go forth ; prae-video, foresee ; sub-icio, put under ; subter-fugio, flee from under ; super-sum, remain over ; trans-gredior, pass beyond. Syntax. 201. Syntax treats of the formation and combination of sentences. A sentence is tlie expression of a thought (sententia) in words. Sentences are divided into simple and compound. A simple sentence is one in which the necessary parts occnr but once ; for the compound sentence see 472. The necessary parts of the sentence are tlie subject and the predicate. The predicate is that which is said of the subject. The subject is that of which the predicate is said. Luna fulget, The moon shines. Luna is the subject ; fulget, the predicate. Remarks. — i. The Interjection (IG, r. 2) and the Vocative case (23, 5) stand outside the structure of the sentence, and therefore do not enter as elements into Syntax, except that the Vocative is subject to the laws of Concord. See r. 3. 2. The Vocative differs from the Nominative in form in the second declension only, and even there the Nominative is sometimes used instead, especially in poetry and solemn prose. Almae filius Maiae, H., 0., I. 2,43 ; son of mild Maia ! Audi tu, populus Albanus, L., i. 24, 7 ; hear thou, people of Alia ! is prefixed to give emphasis to the address: 6 formose puer, nimium nS cr6de colori, V., Ec. 2, ir ; o shapely boy! trust not complexion all too much. The Vocative is commonly interjected in prose, except in higlily emotional pas- 3. On the use of the Vocative of an adjective or participle in appo- sition, attribution, or predication, see 289, 325, R. i. SYNTAX OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 202. The most simple form of the sentence is the finite verb : su-m, / am ; doce-s, thou teachest ; scrlbi-t, he writes. 144 SYNTAX OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. Remark. — Here the form contains in itself all the necessary ele- ments (compare 114), the persons being indicated by the endings. From tiie expansion and modification of the finite verb arise all the complicated forms of the compound sentence. 203. Subject. — The subject of the finite verb is always in the Nominative Case, or so considered. Remarks.— I. The subj. of the Inf. is in the Accusative (343, 2). 2. The use of the Nom. in Latin is the same as in English. 204. The subject may be a substantive or a pronoun, or some other word, j^^^i^^se, or clause used as a substantive : Deus mundum gubernat, God steers the universe. Ego rgges giecl, [C] ad Her., iv. 53, 6G ; I drove out kings. Sapiens res adversas non timet, THE SAGE does not fear adversity. Victi in servitutem redi- guntur, THE VANQUISHED are reduced to slavery. Contendisse de- corum est, Ov., 31., IX. 6 ; to have struggled is lionorahle. Magnum beneficium [est] naturae quod necesse est mori. Sen., E.3L, lor, 14; it is a great boon of nature, that we must needs die, Vides habet duas syllabas, (the word) "vides" has tivo syllables. Notes — 1. Masculine and feminine adjectives, and to a less degree participles, arc used as substantives, but with the following limitations : («) Many adjectives in -aiiuS and -icus (the latter mostly Greek), designating office or occupation, and words expressing friendship, kinship, or otlier relationship, are used often as substantives both in the Sing, and the PI. of the masculine and femi- nine : aquarius, waterman ; librarius, lookman {-seller, writer, etc.) ,• grammati- CUS, grammarian ; amicus, friend ; cognatus, kinsman ; socius, partner. Many of theso have becomealmost wholly fixed i;s substantives, as amicus, /rienrf. See 16, N. 1. (&) Adjectives are very often used r.s substantives in the masc. Fl. when they desig- nate a class : pauperSs, the poor ; divitSs, the rich. In the oblique cases of tlie Sing., this use is also not uncommon ; but in the Nom. the substantive is generally expressed : vir bonus, a good man ; mulier peregrina, a foreign ivoman. So regularly, if used with a proper name : Plato, doctissimus IlomS, the learned Plato. Exceptions are rare and scattering in prose : egO et SUavissimu3 CicerO val6mus, C, Fa?n., xiv. 5, 1. (c) On the use of participles as substantives see 437, n. (d) When persons are not meant, a substantive is understood : cani (capilli), groT/ hairs ; calida (aqua), warm water ; dextra (manus), right hand. 2. Neuter adjectives and participles arc freely employed as substantives in both num- bers ; in the PI. usually in Nom. and Ace, in the Sing, in all cases, butespecially in con- nection with prepositions : medium, the midst ; eztrSmum, theend ; reliquom, the residite .• futurum, the future ,• bonum, good .• bona, h'essuigx, possessions ; malum, evil ; mala, misfortunes. The Pl:ir;U is frequently e;nploye 1 when tlie Engiisli idiom prefeis the Singular : v6ra, the truth ; omnia, everything. 3. Adjectives of the Second Declension are soiiietimcs used as neuter substantives in the Gen., after words of (luantity or pronouns : aliquid boni, something good ; nihil mall, nothing bad. Adjectives of the Third Decleii8i>)n lue thus employed only in combination with those of the Second, and even then very rarely (369, R. i). Usually the adjective of the Third Declension draws the adjective of the Second SUBJECT — PREDICATE — COPULA. I45 into it8 own construction : Quid habet ista res aut laetabile aut gloriosum 1 C, Tusc, 1. 21, 49 ; what is ihert to be glad of or to brag about in that? 4. Instead of the neuter adjective, the word rgs, Oilng^ is frequently used, especially in forms which are identical for different genders, and consequently ambiguous ; so bonarum rerum, of blessings, rather than bonorum (masc. and neut.). 5. In Lalin the PI. of abstract substantives occurs more frequently than in English ; adventus iraperatorum, the nrrivalis) of the generals (because there were several generals, or because they arrived at different times). Pluralizing abstract substantives often makes them concrete : fortitudinSs, gallant actions ; formidines, bugbears ; Irae, quarrels. 6. Other PI. expressions to be noted are : niv6s, snmvi-flakes) ; grandings, hail (-stones) ; pluviae, {streams of) rain ; ligua, (Jogs of) wood ; carnSs, pieces of meat ; aera, articles of bronze ; also Bymmetrical parts of the human body : cervic6s, neck ; pectora, bjrxist. The PI. is freely used in poetry and in later prose : Otia Si toUas, perigre Cu- pidinis arctis, Ov., Bern. Am., 139 ; if you do atvaij with holidays, Ciq/ui's boiu (and arrows) are ruined. 7. The rhetorical Roman often uses the First Person PL for the First Person Singular. The usage originates in modesty, but mock modesty is the worst form of pomposity. It is never very common, and is not found before Cicero : Librum ad te d5 senec- tute misimus, C., Cat. J/., i, 3 ; u-e (I) have sent you a treatise on. old age. In poetry there is often an element of shyness ; Sitque memor nostri necne, re- ferte mihi, Ov., Tr., iv. 3, 10 ; bnug ine back (word) whether she thinks of its (me among others) or no. 8. (a) The Sing., in a collective sense, is also used for the PI., but more rarely: faba, beans ; porcus, pig (meat) ; gaUina., fowl (as articles of food) ; vestis, clothing. (b) The use of the Sin2;. i:i designations of nationalities and divisions of troops is introduced by LivY : Romanus, the lioman forces ; Poenus, the Carthaginians ; hostis, the enemy ; miles, the soldiery ; pedes, the infantry ; eques, the cavalry. 205. Predicate and Copula. — When the predicate is not in the form of a verb, but in the form of an adjective or substantive, or equivalent, the so-called copula is generally employed, in order to couple the adjective or substantive with the subject. The chief copula is the verb sum, I am. Fortuna caeca est, C, Lael., 15, 54 ; fortune is Mind. Usus magister est optimus, C, Rah. Post., 4, 9 ; practice is the best teacher. Note.— Strictly speaking, the copula is itself a predicate, as is shown by the trans- lation when it stands alone or with an adverb : est Deus, there is a God, God exists ; rectS semper erunt rSs, things will always be (go on) well ; sic vita homiuum est, C, Rose. Am., 30, 84 ; such is human life ; " So runs the world away.''' 206. Other copulative verbs are : videri, to seem; nasci, to he horn; fieri, to hecome; evadere, to turn out; creari, to he created; deligi, to be chosen; putari, to he thought; baberl, to he held; did, to he snid; appeilari, to he called; nominari, to he named. Hence the rule : Verbs of seeming, becoming, with the passive of verbs of 10 146 SUBJECT OMITTED. — IMPERSONAL VERBS. making, choosing, shoiving, tliinlcing, and calling, take two Nominatives, one of the subject, one of the predicate : Nemo nascitur dives, Sen., i^.J/., 20, 13; no one is horn rich. Aris- tides iustus adpellatur, Aristides is called just. [Servius] rex est declara- tus, L., I. 46, 1 ; Servius ivas declared king. [Thucydid§s] numquam est numeratus orator, C, 0., 9, 31 ; Thucydides has never been accounted an orator. Remarks. — i. With esse, ser^-e as; vidSri, seem; habgri, he held; duci, be deemed, and rarely with other verbs, instead of the Predicate Norn., a phrase may be employed, as : pro with xVbl., (in) loco, in numero, with Gen., etc. Audacia pro mtiro habetur, S., C, 58, 17 ; boldness is counted as a bul- wark. In filii loco, C, Hed. in Sen., 14, 35 ; as a son. 2. The previous condition is given by ex or dS and the Abl, (396, n. 2). Ex oratore arator factus, C, Ph., in. 9, 23; a pleader turned ploivman. 3. All copulative verbs retain the Nom. with the Inf. after auxiliary verbs (423). Beatus esse sine virttite nem3 potest, C, N.D., 1. 18, 48 ; no one can be happy u'ithout virtue. 4. On the Double Ace. after Active Verbs, see 340. Notes.— 1. The verbs mentioned, with some others, arc found in good prose. Others are either poetical or unclassical, thus : perhiberi, to he held, is eai ly ; apparere, to ajyfiear, is poetic and post-classical for videri ; reddi i'? not used for fieri ; sisti, to be set down, is Plautine : manSre, to remain, is late (permanere once in Cicero). 2. Noteworthy is the use 01 audire, like the Greek d/couei«/, to be called, which is confined to Horace ; rgxque paterque audisti, Ep., i. 7, 38 ; S., u. 6, 20, just as •' hear " in this sense is said to be conllned to Milton. 207. Subject Omitted. — The personal pronoun is not expressed in classical prose, unless it is emphatic, as, for example, in contrasts : Amamus parent6s, We love {our) payments. Ego reggs gieci, vos tyran- nos introducitis, [C] ad Her., iv. 53, 66 ; I drove out kings, ye are bring- iiig in tyrants. Note.— The insertion of the pronoun without emphasis is very common in the comic poets, and seems to have been a colloquialism. Also common in Catullus, Sal- lust (as an archaism), and Petromus. 208. Impersonal Verbs. — Impersonal Verbs are verbs in which the agent is regularly implied in the action, the sub- ject in the predicate, so that the person is not expressed. Chief of these are : I. Verbs pertaining to the state of the weather : tonat, it thunders, the thunder thunders, or rather, the Thunderer thunders; fulget, fulgn- COPULA OMITTED. , I47 rat Oess common), fulminat (poet.), it lightens; pluit (poet.), it rains; ningit, it snows, etc. Nocte pluit tota, V., (Poet. Lat. Min., iv. 155, B.) ; all night it {he, Jupiter) rains. Note.— The divine ngent is sometimes expressed ; so, naturally, in religious or popu- lar language : love tonante, fulgurante, c, Div., 11. 18, 43 ; love fulgente, C, N. D.^ II. 25, C5. 2. The passive of intransitive verbs is often used impersonally ; so regularly of verbs winch in the active are construed with the Dat. (217): vivitur, people live ; curritur, there is a running ; pugnatur, there is a battle ; mihi invidetur, / am envied. The subject is contained in the verb itself : sic vivitur = sic vita vivitur, such is life ; pugnatur = pugna pugna- tur, a battle is {being) fought. In the same way explain taedet, it wearies ; miseret, it moves to pity ; piget, it disgusts ; pudet, it puts to shame. Notes. — 1. With all other so-called Impersonal Verbs an Inf. (42?, 53.5) or an equiv- alent (.52.3) is conceived as a subject : Non lubet mihi deplorare vitam, C, Cat. J/., 23, 84. Sed accidit perincommod6 quod eum nusquam vidisti, C, j^L, I. 17, 2. 2. other uses coincide with the English. So the .Third Person PI. of verbs of Saying, Tliinking, and Calling. Also the ideal Second Person Singular (258). To be noticed is the occasional use of inquit, qyoth he., of an imaginary person, but not by Caesar, Sali.iist, or Tacitus : Non concido, inquit, Epicuro, C., Ac, 11. 32, 101 ; I do not yield the jmiit, quoth he {07ie), to Epicurus. 209. Copula Omitted. — Est or sunt is often omitted in saws and proverbs, in short statements and questions, in rapid changes, in conditional clauses, and in tenses com- pounded with participles : Summum ius summa iniuria, C, Off., 1. 10, 33 ; the height of right {is) the height of icrong. Ngmo malus fglix, Juv., iv. 8 ; no bad man {is) happy. Quid dulcius quam habere quicum omnia audeas loqui ? C, LaeL, 7, 23 ; what sweeter than to have some one with whom you can venture to talk about everything ? Sed haec vetera ; illud vSrS recens, C, Ph., n. II, 25. Aliquamdiu certatum, S., lug., 74, 3. Cur hostis Spartacus, si tu civisl C, P«r«(/., 4, 30. So also esse, with participles and the like : Caesar statuit exspectandam classem, Caes., B.G., iii. 14, 1 ; Caesar resolved that the fleet must be icaited for. Notes.- 1. The omission of esse is not common with the Nom. and Infinhive. 2. Popular speech omits freely ; so, mirum ni, mirum quin, factum, in Latin comedy ; likewise potis and pote for forms of posse. To a like origin are due mirum quantum, nimium quantum, etc., found at all periods. 3. The ellipsis of other forms of the copula is unusual. Thus Cicero occasionally omits sit ill the Indirect Question, and Tacitus other forms of the Subjv. besides. is omitted by Livy, and not unfrequently by Tacitus. 4. The Ellipsis of eSSe was Bometitnes due to the desire of avoiding the heaping up 148 .AGREEMEN^T OF PREDICATE WITH SUBJECT. of Infinitives. Thus sentences like non dubito te esse sapientem dicere {to declare you to he wise) were regularly cut down to non dubito t6 sapientem dioere (^0 de- dare you tvise). 5. The ellipsis of other verbs, such as facere, Ire, venire, dicere, etc., is charac- teristic of popular speech ; it is therefore not uncommon in Cicero's letters (ad AU.\ in Pliny's letters, and in works involving dialogue, such as Cicero's philosophical wriifiugs. The historians avoid it, and it never occurs in Caesar and Velleius. CONCORD. 210. The Three Concords. — There are three great concords in Latin : . The agreement of the predicate with the subject (211). . The agreement of attributive or appositive with the substantive )o, 321). 3. The agreement of the relative with antecedent (614). 2 (285, 321). 211. Agreement of the Predicate with the Subject, in number and The verbal predicate aarrees with its subiect ^ ^ *' ( person. i in number. The adjective predicate agrees with its subject •< gender, and ( case. The substantive predicate agrees with its subject in case. Substantiva mobilia (21, 2) are treated as adjectives, and follow the number and gender of the subject. Ego reges eieci, vos tyrannos introducitis, [C] ad Her., iv. 53, 66 (207). Verae amicitiae senipiternae sunt, C, Lael,, g, 32 ; true friendships are abiding. Dos est decern talenta, Ter., And., 950 ; the dowry is ten talents. Usus magister est optimus, C . , Rah. Post. , 4, 9 (205). Arx est monosyllabum, ''Arx" 2s a monosyllable. Compare Ignis confector est et consumptor omnium, C, N.D., 11. 15, 41 ; fire is the doer-up {destroyer) aiid eater-up {consumer) of everything, with confectrixrSrum omnium vetustas, C, Frag. IIemarks. — I. The violation of the rules of agreement is due chiefly to one of two causes; either the natural relation is preferred to the artificial (c5nstructi5 ad sgnsum, per synesin, according to the sense), or the nearer is preferred to the more remote. Hence the following Exceptions. — {a) Substantives of multitude often take the predi- cate in the Plural: t^&ts, part ; vis {poiver), quantity ; multitude, cro/i't/; organized bodies more rarely. Also, but not often, such words as quisque, uterque, n6m6, etc. Pars maior recgperant sSsS, L., xxxiv. 47, 6 ; the greater part had re- tired. Omnia multitude abeunt, L., xxiv. 3, 15 ; all the crowd depart. AGREEMENT OF PREDICATE WITH SUBJECT. I49 Magna vis gminus missa telorum multa nostris vulnera inferebant, Caes., B.C., II. 6, 5. Uterque ooruin ex castris exercitum educunt, Caes., B.C.y III. 30, 3. Note.— This usage is very common in comedj% but extremely rare in model prose. LivY shows a greater variety and a larger number of substantives than any other author, and poets and late prose writers are free. Yet Horace uses regularly the Sing, with a collective, while Vergil varies, often employing first a Sing, and then a PI. verb with tlie same substantive (as A., 11. C4). Tacitus often uses quisque witli a Plural. (b) The adjective predicate often follows the natural gender of the subject ; so especially with milia. This usage belongs pre-eminently to the historians. Capita coniiirationis virgis caesi (sunt), L., x. i, 3 ; the heads of the conspiracy were flogged. Samnitium caesi tria milia, Cf. L., x. 34,8 ; of the Samnites {there) were slain three thousand. The passive verb often agrees in gender with the predicate : Non omnis error stultitia dicenda est, C.,Div.y 11. 43, 90 ; not every false step is to be called folly. (c) The copula often agrees with the number of the predicate (" the wages of sin is death ") : Amantium irae (204, n, 5) amoris integratio est, Ter. , And., 555 ; lovers* quarrels are lovers renewal. 2. A superlative adjective defined by a Partitive Gen. follows the gender of the subj. when it precedes: Indus, qui est omnium fluminum maximus, C, iY./>., 11, 52, 130 ; the Indus, which is the greatest of all rivers. Otherwise it follows the Genitive; but this usage is post-classic : Velocissimum omnium animalium est delphinus, Plin., N.U., ix. 8, 20 ; the dolphin is the swiftest of all animals. 3. The Voc. is sometimes used by the poets in the predicate, either by anticipation or by assimilation. (See 325, r. i.) 4. The neuter adjective is often used as the substantive predicate of a masculine or feminine subject : Triste lupus stabulis, V., Ec, 3, 80 ; the tvolf is a baleful thing to the folds. Varium et mutabile semper femina, V., A.,iy. 569 ; "a thi7ig of moods and fancies " is woman ever. This construction is poetical; in Cicero it is used with a few words only; such as extremum, commune: Omnium rerum (204, n. 4) mors [est] extrSmum, Cf. C, Fam., vi. 21, 1; death is the end of all thirigs. 5. The demonstrative pronoun is commonly attracted into the gen- der of the predicate: Negat Epicurus ; hoc enim vostrum lumen est, C, Fi7i., 11. 22, 70 ; Fpi- curus says No ; for he is your great light. Ea non media sed nulla via est, L., xxxii., 21, 33 ; that is not a middle course, but no course at all. ISO FORMS OF THE VERBAL PREDICATE. But in negative sentences, and when the pronoun is the predicate, there is no change. So in definitions : Quid aut quale [est] Deus ? Cf. C, N.D., i. 22, GO ; what or what man- ner of thing is God ? Nee sopor illud erat, V., A., iii. 173, Quod ita erit gestum, id lex erit, C, PIl., i. 10, 2G. Exceptions are but apparent. C, 0., 11. 38, 157. 6. The adjective predicate sometimes agrees with a substantive in apposition to the subject. So especially when the appositive is oppidum, civitas, and the like : Corioli oppidum captum [est], L., 11. 33, 9; Corioli-town was taken. Corinthum, tStius Graeciae lumen, exstinctum esse voluerunt, C, Imp., 5, 11 ; they would have Corinth, the eye of all Greece, put out. Note?;.— 1. Peculiar is the occasional nee of the Fut. participle in -urum for feminines in early Latin : Altero (gladio) t§ occisurum ait (Casina), altero vilicum. Pl., C'«5.,693. ^o True, 400 ~- Age if* often used in early Latin as if it were an adverb, with the Plural ; occa- sionally also cav§ : Age modo fabricamini. Pl., Cus., 488. Akin is the use of a Voc. Sing, with a PI. verb, which is occasionally found in clas- sical prose also ; Turn Scaevola ; quid est, Cotta % inquit, quid tac6tis ? C, 0., 1. 35. IGO. The use of aliquis, sanie one of you, in this way is early : Aperite aliquis actutum ostium, Teu., .!(/., 634. 3. Other less usual constructions ad sensum are : the use of a neuter demonstrative where a substantive of a different gender is expected, and the construction of r6s as if it were neuter (both found also in Cicero) ; the neuter Singular summing up a preced- ing Plural : In Graecia musici floruerunt, discSbantque id (^Aa< [accofnplishme?/f]) omn6s, C, 7V6Y-., I. 2, 4. Servitia repudiabat, ciiius (of which [dasi<]) initio ad eum magnae copiae concurrebant, S-, 6'-, 56, 5. See also C, Div., 11. 57, 117. Forms of the Verbal Predicate. VOICES OF THE VERB. 212. There are two Voices in Latin — Active and Passive. Remark. — The Latin Passive corresponds to the Greek Middle, and, like the Greek Middle, may be explained in many of its uses as a Reflexive. 213. Active. — The Active Voice denotes that the action proceeds from the subject. Verbs used in the Active Voice fall into two classes, as follows : Verbs are called Transitive when their action goes over to an object (transeo, / go over) ; InlransUive when their ac- tion does not go Itegond the subject : occidere, to fell — to kill (Transitive) ; cccidere, to fdll (Intransitive). PASSIVE VOICE. 151 Remark. — Properly speaking, a Transitive Verb in Latin is one that forms a personal p^issive, but the traditional division given above has its convenience, though it does not rest upon a difference of nature, and a verb may be trans, or intrans. according to its use. So (a) Transitive verbs are often used intransitively, in which case they serve simply to characterize the agent. This is true especially of verbs of movement ; as declinare, inclinare, movere. mutare, vertere, and the like, and is found at all periods. (fi) On the other liand, many intrans. verbs are often used transi- tively. This occurs also at all periods, but the Ace. is usually the inner object (332). (c) On the use of the Inf. active, where English uses the passive, see 532, n, 2. 214. Passive. — The Passive Voice denotes that the sub- ject receives the action of the verb. The instrument is put in the Ablative. Virgis caedetur, C, Fen*., iii. 28, G9 ; he shall be beaten with rods. [Ignis] lumine proditur su5, v., //ei, and is used in the same way. Periphrastic Tenses. 246. The Periphrastic Tenses are formed by combining the various tenses of esse, to he, with participles and verbal adjectives. See 129. I. PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION-ACTIVE VOICE. 247. The Periphrastic Tenses of the Active are chiefly com- binations of esse and its forms with the so-called Future Par- ticiple Active. The Future Participle is a verbal adjective denoting capability and tendency. Compare amator and amaturus. The translation is very various : 1. Scripturus sum, I am about to write, I am to tvrite, I purpose to write, I am likely to write. 2. Scripturus eram, I zvas about to write, etc. 164 PERIPHRASTIC TENSES. 3. ScrlptHrus ful, I have been or ivas about to ivrite (often = I should have written). 4. Scripturus fueram, I had been about to write, etc. 5. Scripturus ero, 1 shall be about to write, etc. 6. Scripturus fuero, / shall have made up my mind to write, etc. (of course very rare). 1. Fiet illud quod futurum est, C, Div., 11. 8, 21 ; what is to be, will be. 2. [Egx] non interfuturus navall certamini erat, L., xxxvi. 43, 9 ; the king did not i7itend to be present at the naval combat. 3. Fascis ipsi ad mS dSlaturi fugrunt, C, Ph., xiv. 6, 15 ; they them- selves were ready to tender the fasces to me. Deditos ultimis cruciatibus adfecturl fu6runt, L., xxi. 44, 4 ; they would have put the surrendered to extreme tortures. 4. MaiDr Romanorum gratia fuit quam quanta futura Carthaginiensium fuerat, L., xxii. 22, 19 ; the Romans' credit for this was greater than the Carthaginians' ivould have been. 5. ESrum apud quos aget aut erit acttirus, mentgs s6nsusque dSgustet, C, Or., I. 52, 223 ; he must taste-and-test the state of mind of those be- fore whom he will plead or will have to plead. 6. (SapiSns) n5n vivet, si fuerit sine homine victurus, Sen., E.M., 9, 17; The wise man unll not continue to live, if he finds that he is to live without human society. (The only example cited, and that doubtful.) Remarks. — i. The forms with sum, eram, and the corresponding Subjv. forms with sim, essem, are much more common than those with ful, etc., probably for euphonic reasons. 2. The Subjv. and Inf. scripturus sim, essem, fuerim, fuissem, scripturum esse, fuisse, are of great importance in subordinate clauses. (656.) Notes.— 1. The use of forem for essem appears first in Sallust, but is not uncom- mon in LtvY, and occurs sporadically later. Fore for esse is post-classical. DIcit se vSnisse quaesitum pacem an bellum agitaturus foret, S., Tug., 109, 2. 2. The periphrastic use of the Pr. Part, with forms of esse is rare, and in most cases doubtful, as the question always arises whether the Part, is not rather a virtual substantive or adjective. So with the not uncommon ut SiS scigns of the Comic Poets. The effect of this periphrasis is to emphasize the continuance. N6m8 umquam tarn sui d6spici6ns {despiser of self, self-depredator) fuit quin spgraret melius sg posse dicere, C, Or., 11.89,3(54. II. PERIPHRASTIC TENSES OF THE PASSIVE. A.— Of Future Relations. 248. The periphrases faturum esse (more often fore) ut, {that) it is to he that, and futurum fuisse ut, {that) it teas to he that, with the Subjunctive, are very commonly used to take the place of the Future Infinitive active ; necessarily so PERIPHRASTIC TElSs^SES. IO5 when the verb forms no Future Participle. In the passive they are more common than the Supine with iri. Spero fore ut contingat id nSbIs, C, Tusc, i. 34, 82 ; / liope that we shall have that good fortune. In Stis scriptum V6ient6s [habebant] fore ut brevi a Gallis RQma caperStur, C, Div., i. 44, 100 ; the Veientes had it written doini in their prophetic books that Rome would shortly he taken by the Oauls. Remark. — Posse, to be able, and velle, to will, on account of their future sense, do not require a periphrasis. In the absence of peri- phrastic forms, the forms of posse are often used instead. (656, r.) Notes.— 1. These periphrases do not occur in early Latin. 2. Fore ut is used chiefly with Pr. and Impf. Subjv. ; Pf. and Plupf. are very rare. (C, AH., xvi. 16 e. 16.) 3. The form futUTum fuisse Ut is used with passive and Supineless verbs, to ex- press the dependent apodosis of an unreal conditional sentence. Nisi eo ipso tempore nuntil dS Caesaris victoria essent allati, ezlstima- bant plSrique futurum fuisse uti (oppidum) amittergtur, Caes., b. C, hi. ioi, 3. (65G, 2.) 4. The Subjv. forms futurum sit, esset, fuerit ut, are used in the grammars to supply the periphrastic Subjv. of passive and Supineless verbs (see 515, r. 2). Warrant in real usage is scarce. An utique futurum sit ut Carthaginem superent R5manl ] Quint, hi. 8, 17 (not merely periphrastic). 249. In eo est, it is on the point, | ^^^ ^J^^^ (^^^^ ^^i^l^ ^^*' [ ims (Impersonal), J the subjunctive. In eo [erat] ut (Pausanias) comprehendergtur, Nep., iv. 5, 1 ; it was on the point that Pausanias should be (P. was on the point of being) arrested. Note. — This phrase occurs in Nepos and Livy, seldom in earlier writers. B.— Of Past Relations. 250. The Perfect Participle passive is used in combination with sum, / am, and ful, / have teen, I ivas, to express the Pure Perfect and Historical Perfect of the Passive Voice. Eram, / %vas, and faeram, / had been, stand for the Pluper- fect ; and ero, / shall ie, and fuero, / shall have been, for the Future Perfect. Remarks. — i. Fui is the favorite form when the participle is fre- quently used as an adjective : convlvium ex5rnStum fuit, the banquet was furnished forth ; fui is the necessary form when the Pf . denotes that the action is over and gone : amatus fui, / have been loved (but I 1 66 TENSES IN" LETTERS. am loved no longer). The same principle applies to fueram and faerS, though not so regularly. Simulacrum 6 marmore in sepulcro positum fuit ; hoc quidam homS nobilis deportavit, C, Z)om., 43, 111 ; a marble effigy was deposited in the tomb ; a certain man of rank has carried it off. Arma quae fixa in parietibus fuerant, ea sunt humi inventa, C, Div., i. 34,74 ; the arms which had been fastened to the ivalls were found on the ground. Quod tibi fuerit persuasum, huic erit persuasum, C, Rose. Com., i,3 ; ivhat is (shall have proved) acceptable to yon will be acceptable to him. 2. To be distinguished is that use of the Pf . where each element has its full force, the Participle being treated as an adjective. In this case the tense is not past. Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tr6s, Caes., B.G., 1, 1. Notes.— 1. Tbe fui, etc., forms are rarely found in Cicero, never in Caesar, but are characteristic of Ltvy and Sallust. 2. Forem for essem is common in the Comic Poets, occurs twice in Cicero's letters (Att., VII. 21,2 ; X. 14,3), never in Caesar, but in Livv and Nepos is very common, and practically synonymous Avith essem. C— Periphrastic Conjugation— Passive Voice. 251. I . The combination of the Tenses of esse, to he, with the Gerundive (verbal in -ndus), is called the Periphrastic Conju- gation of the Passive, and follows the laws of the simple conju- gation (129). The idea expressed is usually one of necessity. Praeponenda [est] divitiis gloria, C, Top., 22,84 ; glory is to be pre- ferred to riches. 2. According to the rule (217) the Gerundive of intransi- tive verbs can be used only in the Impersonal form : Parcendum est victis, The vanquished must be spared. Notes.— 1. The Gerundive is a verbal adjective, which produces the effect of a Pro- gressive Participle. Whenever a participle is used as a predicate it becomes character- istic, and good for all time. As amans not only = qui amat, but also = qui amet, so amandus - qui ametur. Compare 438, r. 2. Forem for essem is post-classical and comparatively uncommon. TENSES IN LETTERS. 252. The Roman letter-writer not unfrequently puts him- self in the position of the receiver, more especially at the beginning and at- the end of the letter, often in the phrase Nihil erat (habebam) quod scriberem, / have nothing to write. This permutation of tenses is never kept up long, and applies only to temporary situations, never to general statements. MOODS. 167 Table of Permutations. scribo, lam writing, becomes scrlbebam. / write, ** scrips!, scripsi, / have written, ** scripseram. I wrote, ** scripseram. or remains unchanged, scribam, / sJtall write, " scripturus eram. The adverbial designations of time remain unchanged — or heri, yesterday, becomes pridie. hodiS, to-day, " quo die has litteras dedi, dabam. eras, to-morrow, ** postero dig, postridie. nunc, now, " turn. Jonnias m6 continue recipere cogitabam, C.,Ait., vii. is, S; lam think- ing of retiring forthwith to Formiae. Cum mifal dixisset Caeeilius puerum s6 Eomam mittere, haec scripsi raptim, C, Att., 11. 9, 1 ; as Caeeil- ius ha^ told me that he is sending a servant to Rome, I write in a huryy. (Litteras) eram daturus postridiS ei qui mihi primus obviam vSnisset, C, Ait., 11. 12, 4 ; I will give IJie letter to-morrow to the first man that comes my way. Note.— Cicero is much more consistent in this tense-shifting than Flint ; and exceptions are not numerous proportionally : Ego etsi nihil habeo quod ad tS scribam, scrlbd tamen quia tecum loquf videor, C, Att, xii. 53. MOODS. 253. Mood signifies manner. The mood of a verb signifies the manner in which the predicate is said of the subject. There are three moods in Latin : 1. The Indicative. 2. The Subjunctive. 3. The Imperative. Note.— The Infinitive form of the verb is generally, but imiwoperiy, called a mood. The Indicative Mood. 254. The Indicative Mood represents the predicate as a reality. It is sometimes called the Declarative Mood, as the mood of direct assertion. The use of the Latin Indicative differs little from the English. Remarks. — i. The Latin language expresses possibility and power, obligation and necessity, and abstract relations generally, as facts ; whereas, our translation often implies the failure to realize. Such ex- 1 68 INDICATIVE MOOD. pressions are : dSbeo, / ought, it is my duty ; oportet, it ieJiooves ; necesse est, it is absolutely necessary ; possum, / can, 1 have it in my power ; convenit, it is fitting ; par, aequom est, it is fair ; infinitum, endless; difficile, hard to do ; longum, tedious; and many others ; also the Indie, form of the passive Periphrastic Conjugation. Observe the difference between the use of the Inf. in Eng. and in Latin after past tenses of debeo, possum, oportet, etc. Possum persequi permulta oblectamenta rSrum rusticarum, C, Cat. 31., i6, 55 ; / might rehearse very many delights of country life. Longum est persequi utilitates asinorum, C, N.D., ii. 64, 159 ; it ivould he tedious to rehearse the useful qualities of asses (I will not do it). Ad mortem t6 dtici oportebat, C, Cat., i. i, 2 ; it behooved you to be (you ought to have been) led to execution (you were not). Volumnia debuit in t6 officaosior esse, et id ipsum, quod fgcit, potuit diligentius facere, C, Fam., XIV. 16 ; it ivas VolumnicCs duty to be {V. ought to have been) more at- tentive to you ; and the little she did do, she had it in her potver to do {she might have done) more carefully. Quae eondicio non accipienda fuit potius quam relinquenda patrial C, Alt., viii. 3, 3 ; what terms ought not to have been accepted in preference to leaving thy cmmtry f [Eum] vivum illinc ezire non oportuerat, C, Mur., 25, 51 ; he might never to have gone out thence cdive. The Pf. and Phipf. always refer to a special case, 2. The Impf. as the Tense of Disappointment is sometimes used in these verbs to denote opposition to a present state of things : dSbg- barn, / ought (but do not) ; poteras, you could (but do not). These may be considered as conditionals in disguise. (See r. 3.) Foteram morbos appellare, sed non conveniret ad omnia, C, Fiii., iii. 10, 35 ; I might translate (that Greek word) ^^ disea^ses,^'' but that would not suit all the eases (poteram si conveniret). At poteras, inquis, melius mala ferre silendS, Ov., Tr., v. i, 49 ; " But,^^ you say, " you coidd {yow do not) bear your misfortunes better by keeping silent'' (poteras si sil6r6s). 3. The Indie, is sometimes used in the leading clause of condi- tional sentences (the Apodosis), thereby implying the certainty of the result, had it not been for the interruption. The Indie, clause gener- ally precedes, which is sufficient to show the rhetorical character of the construction. With the Impf. the action is often i*eally begun : LabSbar longius, nisi mS retinuissem, C, Leg.^ i. 19, 52 ; I was letting myself go on {should have let myself go on) too far, had J not checked myself. Omnino supervacua erat doctrlna, si natiira sufficeret, Quint., II. 8, 8 ; training were wholly superfluous, did nature suffice. Prae- clSre viceramus, nisi Lepidus recSpisset AntOnium, C, Fam. , xii. 10, 3 ; we had {should have) gained a bHlliaut victory, had not Lepidus received Antony. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 169 In all these sentences the English idiom requires the Subjv., which is disguised by coinciding with the Indie, in form, except in " were." 4. In general relative expressions, such as the double formations, quisquis, no matter ivho, quotquot, no matter hoiv many, and all forms in -cumque, -ever, the Indie, is employed in classical Latin where we may use in English a Subjv. or its equivalent : quisquis est, 7ho matter who he is, be, may he ; qualecumque est, whatever sort of thing it is, he, may he. Quidquid id est, timeo Danaos et dona ferentes, V., A., 11. 49 ; whatever it (may) he, I fear the Danai even when they bring presents. Cicero has occasional exceptions (Ideal Second Person or by attraction) to this rule, and later writers, partly under Greek influence, frequently violate it. Exceptions in early Latin are not common. Notes.— 1. Cicero introduces (n5n) putaram, "■ I should {not) have thovght so,'''' and malueram, / could have preferred. Lucan and Tacitus alone imitate the latter ; the former was never followed. Malueram, quod erat susceptum ab illis, silentio transirl, C, Alt., u. 19,3. Feriam tua viscera. Magna ; malueram soceri, Lucan, vm. 521. 2. In early Latin, occasionally in the more familiar writings of Cicero, and here and there later we find the Pr. Indie, (in early Latin occasionally the Fut.) used in place of the Subjv. in the Deliberative Question. Compressan palma an porrecta ferio '? Pl., Cas., 405. AdvolQne an maneol C, Ati., xiii. 40, 2. Quoi d5no lepidum novom libellum, Cat., i, l. Subjunctive Mood. 255. The Subjunctive Mood represents the predicate as an idea, as something merely conceived in the mind (abstracts from reality). Remark. — The Latin Subjv. is often translated into English by the auxiliary verbs may, can, must, might, could, would, should. When these verbs have their full signification of possibility and poiver, obliga- tion and necessity, they are represented in Latin by the corresponding verbs, thus : may, can, might, could by the forms of posse, to be able, licet, it is left free ; ivill and would by velle, to will, to be willing ; must, by debeo or oportet (of moral obligation), by necesse est (of absolute obligation). Nostras iniurias nee potest nee possit alius ulcisci quam vos, L., xxix. 18, 18 ; our wrongs no other than you has the power or can well have the power to avenge.* Note.— In the Latin Subjv. are combined two moods, the Subjv. proper, and the Optative, sometimes distinguished as the moods of ihQwill and the wish. This fusion has rendered it difficult to define the fundamental conceptions of certain constructions. * In this unique passage nec potest denies with the head, nec possit refuses to believe with the heart. I/O POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE. 256. I. The realization of the idea may be in suspense, or it may be beyond control. The first, or purely Ideal Subjunc- tive, is represented by the Present and Perfect Tenses ; the second, or Unreal, is represented by the Imperfect and Plu- perfect. Notes.— 1. The Subjv., as the name implies (subiungo, / subjoin), is largely used in dependent sentences, and will be treated at length in that connection. 2. The following modifications of the above principles must be carefully observed : (a) The Romans, in lively discourse, often represent the unreal as ideal, that which is beyond cohtrol as still in suspense. (596, R. i.) {b) In transfers to the past, the Impf . represents the Pr., and the Plupf. the Pf. Sub- junctive. (510.) 2. The idea may be a view, or a wish. In the first case the Subjunctive is said to be Potential, in the second case Optative. The Potential Subjunctive is nearer the Indica- tive, from which it differs in tone ; the Optative Subjunc- tive is nearer the Imperative, for which it is often used. Potential Subjunctive. 257. I. The Potential Subjunctive represents the opinion of the speaker as an opinion. The tone varies from vague surmise to moral certainty, from ^' may '" and '^ might ^' to *' must." The negative is the negative of the Indicative, non. 2. The Potential of the Present or Future is the Present or Perfect Subjunctive. The verification is in suspense, and so future; the action may be present or future : with Perfect sometimes past. Velim, I should wish ; nolim, I should he unwilling ; malim, / should prefer ; dicas, you would say ; credas, you would believe, you must he- lieve ; dicat, dixerit aliquis, some ojie may undertake to say, go so far as to say. Caedi discipulos miniing velim. Quint., i. 3, 13; I should by no means like pupils to be flogged. Tu Platonem nee nimia valdS nee ninds saepe laudaveris, C, Leg., in. i, 1 ; you cant praise Plato too much nor too often. Notes.— 1. The Pf. Subjv. as a Potential seems to have been very rare in early Latin. CicEKo extended the usage slightly and employed more persons ; thus First Person PI. and Second Sing, occur first in Cicero. From Cicero's time the usage spreads, per- haps under the influence of the Greek Aorist. It was always rare with Deponents and Passives. Another view regards this dlxsrit as a Fut. Pf. Indicative. 2. The Potential Subjv. is sometimes explained by the ellipsis of an Ideal or of an OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE. I/I Unreal Conditional Protasis. But the free Potential Subjv. differs from an elliptical conditional sentence in the absence of definite ellipsis, and hence of definite translation. Compare tlie two sentences above with : Eum qui palam est adversariiis facile cavendo (si caveas) vitare possis, C, Vert:, i. 15, •^'^^ ; an open adversary you can readily avoid by caution {if you are cau- tious). Nil ego contulerim iucundo sanus (= dixm sanus ero) amico, H., 6'., i. 5, 44 ; there is naught I should compare to an agreeable friend, while I can in my sound senses. 3. The Potential Subjv,, as a modified form of the Indie, is often found where the Indie, would be the regular construction. So after quanquam (007, r. i). 268. The Potential of the Past is the Imperfect Subjunc- tive, chiefly in the Ideal Second Person, an imaginary '' you." Cr6der63 victos, L., 11. 43,9 ; yoii would, might, have thought them beaten. Haud facile discernergs utruin Hannibal imperatSri an exercitui carior esset, L., xxi. 4, 3 ; not readily could you have decided ichether Hannihal was dearer to general or to army. MirarStur qui turn cerneret, L., XXXIV. 9, 4 ; aiiy one ivho saiv it then must liave been astonished. Vellem, 1 should have wished ; noUem, I should have been unwilling ; mallem, I should have preferred (it is too late). Notes.— 1. With vellem, n5llem, mallem, the inference points to non-fulfilment of the wish in the Present (-261, r.) ; witli other words there is no such inference. 2. The Unreal of the Present and the Ideal of the Past coincide. What is unrea! of a real person is simply ideal of an imaginary person. The Impf. is used as the tense of Description, The Aoristic Pf. Subjv. and the Plnpf. Subjv. are rarely used as the Ideal of the Past: Hi ambo saltiis ad Libuos Gallos dSduxerint (var. deduxissent), L., xxi. 38, r. Ea qua minimum credidisset (consul) resistebant hostSs, L., xxxii. 17, 4. 259. The Mood of the Question is the Mood of the ex- pected or anticipated answer (462). Hence the Potential Subjunctive is used in questions which serve to convey a negative opinion on the part of the speaker. Quis dubitet (= ngmS dubitet) quin in virtute divitiaesint ? C.,Parad., VI. 2, 48 ; ivho can doubt that true ivealth consists in virtue ? (No one.) Quis tulerit Gracchos dg sgditione querentSsI Juv., ii. 24 ; who could bear the Gracchi complaining of rebellion ? (No one.) Apud exercitum fuerfs? C, Mur., 9, 21 ; can you have been with the army ? Hoc tantum bellum quis umquam arbitrarStur ab uno imperatore confici posse? C, Imp., II, 31 ; who would, could, should have thought that this great tvar could be brought to a close by one general 9 Optative Subjunctive. 260. The Subjunctive is used as an Optative or wishing mood. 1/2 OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE. The regular negative is ng. Non is used chiefly to negative a single word ; but very rarely in the classical period. A second wish may be added by neque or nee (regularly if a positive wish precedes), but this is also rare in the classical period, and is denied for Caesar. The Pr. and Pf. Subjv. are used ivlien the decision is in suspense, no matter how extravagant the wish ; the Impf. and Plupf. are used n^hen the decision is adverse. The Pf. is rare and old. Stet haec urbs, C, 31iL, 34, 93 ; may this city continue to stand ! Quod di omen avertant, C, Ph., iii. 14, 35 ; which omen may the gods arot. Ita di faxint (= fgcerint), Pl., Poen., 911 ; the gods grant it ! Ne isluo Itippiter optimus maximus sirit (= siverit) ! L., xxxiv. 24, 2 ; may Jupiter, supremely great and good, suffer it not I 261. The Optative Subjunctive frequently takes utinam, utinam ne, utinam non ; ut is archaic and rare ; 6 si, oh if, poetical and very rare ; qui, lioiv, occurs chiefly in early Latin and in curses. Valeas beneque ut tibi sit, Pl., Poen., 912 ; farewell ! God bless you ! Utinam modo conata efficere possim, C, Alt., iv. 16; may I hut have it in my power to accomplish my endeavors. Utinam reviviscat frater ! Gell., X. 6, 2; would that my brother would come to life again ! Utinam Inserere iocos moris esset, Quint., ii. 10, 9; tvould that it ivere usiml to in- troduce Jokes ! lUud utinam ne vere scriberem, C, Fa?n.,Y. 17, 3 ; umild that what I am writing were not true ! Utinam susceptus non essem, C, Att., HI. II, 8; would I had not been born ! (Cicero's only example of non.) mihi praeteritos referat si luppiter annos, V., A., viii. 560; if Jove were to bring me hack the years that are gone by ! Remark. — For the wish with adverse decision, vellem and mallem (theoretically also noUem) may be used with the Impf. and sometimes (especially vellem) with the Plupf. Subjunctive. Vellem adesse posset Panaetius! C, Tusc.,i. 33, 81; would that Pa- naetius could he present ! Vellem mS ad cSnam invItassSs, C, Fam., xii. 4, 1 ; would that you had invited me to your dinner-party. So velim, nolim, etc., for the simple wish (54G, r. 2). Tuam milu dari velim eloquentiam, C, N. D., 11. 59, 147 ; I could wish your eloquence given to me. Notes.— 1. Utinam was perhaps originally an interrogative, IMiu prayf If so, it belongs partly to the potential ; hence the frequent occurrence of nOn. sl (occasion- ally SI,.V., A., VI. 187) introduces an elliptical conditional sentence, which is not intended to have an Apodosis. When the Apodosis comes, it may come in a different form ; as in the example : V., A., viii. 560, 568. 2. The Impf. Subjv. is occasionally used in early Latin to give an unreal wish in the Past. This is almost never found in the later period. Utinam t5 di prius perderent, quam periisti 6 patria tuS, Pl., Capt., 537. Tunc mibi vita foret, Tib., i. 10, 11. OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE. 1/3 262. The Optative Subjunctive is used in asseMrations : Ita vivam ut maximos sumptus facio, C, ^^^., v. 15, 2 ; «s Hive, lam spending very largely (literally, so may I live as I am making very great outlay). Moriar, si magis gaudgrem si id mihi accidisset, Q.,Att., viii. 6, 3 ; may I die if I could he more glad if that had ha2yiJe7ied to me. Note.— The Fut. Indie, in this sense is rare : Sic mg di amabunt ut mS tuarom miseritumst fortunarum, Teu., Heaul., 463. 263. The Subjunctive is used as an Imperative : 1. In the First Person Plural Present, which has no Im- perative form : Arngmus patriam, C, /Ses/., 68, 143; let us love our country. N3 difficilia opt6mus, C, Verr., iv. 7, 15 ; let us not desire what is hard to do. Note.— In the First Person Singular, the command fades into the wish. 2. In the Second Person. {a) In the Present chiefly in the Singular, and chiefly of an imaginary '^ you '' : IstQ bono utare, dum adsit, cum absit, nS requiras, C, Cat.M., 10, 83 ; you must enjoy that blessing so long as His here, when it is gone you must not pins for it. NoTK.— The Comic Poets use the Pr. negatively very often of a definite person, sometimes combining it with an Impv.: igndsce, irata nS si6s, Pl., Am., 924 ; but in the classical period such usage is rare, and usually open to otlier explanations ; a definite person may be used as a type, or the sentence may be elliptical. {h) In the Perfect negatively : N6 transieris Hiberum, L., xxi, 44, 6; do tiot cross the Ehro. NS vos mortem timueritis, C, Tusc, i. 41, 98; have no fear of death I 3. In the Third Person Present (regularly) : Suum quisque noscat ingenium, C, Off., i. 31, 114 ; let each one know his own mind. Donls impiX n§ placare audeant deos, C, Leg., 11. 16, 41 ; let the wicked not dare to fry to appease the gods ivith gifts. NoTK.— The Pf. in this usage is very rare. S., lug.., 85, 47 ; Tac, Ann., iv. 32, 1. 264. The Subjunctive is used as a Coricessive : Sit fur, C, Verr., v. i, 4 ; (granted that) he be a thief. Fuerit (malus civis), C, Verr., i. 14, 37; (suppose) that he was a bad citizen. For other examples with ut and ng, see 608. Note.— The past tenses are very rarely used concessively ; see C, 7Wc.,iii. i9,75 (Impf.) ; Sest., 19, 43 (Plupf.). 174 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 265. Tha Subjunctive is used in Questions which expect an Imperative answer (coniimctivus deliberativus). Genuine questions are commonly put in the First Person, or the representative of the First Person : Utrxmi super biam prius commemoreni an crudelitatem, C, Verr., i. 47, 122 ; shall I mention the insolence first or the cruelty 9 Magna fuit con- tentio utrum moenibus sg defenderent an obviam irent hostibus, Nep., i. 4, 4 ; there was a great dispute whether they should defend themselves behind the walls or go to meet the enemy. (TJtrom nos dgfendamus an obviam eSmus ?) [Example of Third Person, 428, n. i.] Ehetorical questions (questions which anticipate the answer), under this head, are hardly to be distinguished from Potential. Quo mg nunc vertam'? Fndique custodier, C, Att., x. 12, 1 ; whither shall 1 7101V turn ? Sentinels on every side. Quid agerem'? Q., Sest.^ 19, 42 ; what was I to do ? Remark. — The answer to the Deliberative Question is the Impv. or the Imperative Subjv. of the Present (263, 2) or Past (272, 3). Imperative Mood. 266. The Imperative is the mood of the will. It wills that the predicate be made a reality. The tone of the Im- perative varies from stern command to piteous entreaty. It may appear as a demand, an order, an exhortation, a per- mission, a concession, a prayer. Abl in malam rem, Pl., Capt., 877 ; go {to the mischief), and he hanged. Compesce mentem, IP, 0., i. 16, 22 ; curb your temper. Da mihl hoc, mel meum! Pl., Trin., 244 ; give me this, honey dear ! 267. The Imperative has two forms, known as the First and the Second Imperative (also, but less accurately, as the Present and Future Imperative). The First Imperative has only the Second Person ; the Second Imperative has both Second and Third Persons. The First Person is represented by the Subjunctive (263, i). Remark. — Some verbs have only the second form. This may be due to tlie signification : so sclto, knoio thou ; memento, remember thou; and habgtO, in the sense of know, remember. IMPERATIVE MOOD. 1^5 On violation of Concord with the Imperative, see 211, n. 2. Note.— The use of the Pronouns tu, VOS, etc., with the Impv., is colloquial, hence common in Comedy ; or solemn : see V., A., vi. 95, 365, 675, 834, etc. 268. I. The First Imperative looks forward to immediate fulfilment (Absolute Imperative) : Special : Patent portae ; proficiscere, C, Cat., i. 5, 10, Open 8tand the gates; depart. General: lustitiam cole et pietatem, Q., Rep.,\i. 16, IG, Cultivate justice and piety. 2. The Second Imperative looks forward to contingent fulfilment (Relative Imperative), and is chiefly used in laws, legal documents, maxims, recipes, and the like ; likewise in familiar language. Regio imperio duo sunto ; iique cOnsules appellamino (180, 5, c); NEMINI PARENTO; OLLIS (104, IH. N. 1) SALOS POPULI SUPREMA LEX ESTO, C, Leg., III. 3,8 ; there shall he two {officers) with royal power ; they shall he called consuls ; they are to obey no one ; to them the ivelfare of the people must he the paramount law. Eem vobis proponam : vos earn penditote, C, Verr., iv. i, 1 ; I iv ill propound the matter to yon ; do you thereupon perpend it. Percontatorem fugito, nam garrulus idem est, H., Ep., 1. 18, G9 ; avoid your qiiestioner, for he is a tell-tale too. 269. Strengthening Words.— The Imperative is often strengthened and em- phasized by the addition of Adverbs, fossilized Imperatives, Phrases, etc. : age, agite, agedum, agitedum, came ; enclitic dum, then ; modo, o?)l]/ : iamdudum, at once ; proinde, well, then; quin, toh>/ not? sduTie^ certainly ; amabo, obsecro, quaes5, please ; sis (- si vis), saltis (- si voltis), sod6s (= si audes), if you please. Most of these belong to familiar language, and are therefore found in great numbers in Comedy and in Cicero's letters. In the classical prose, and even later, they are not common. Dum in classical times is confined to agedum ; quin is cited tw ice in Cicero (Mil., 29, 79 ; Base. Com., 9, 25), and rarely later. Iamdudum begins with Ver- gil, and belongs to poetry and late prose. Sang is not cited for the classical period, Sultis is confined to early Latin ; and sodSs occurs but once in Ciceuo {Alt., vn. 3, 13). Mittite, agedum, lSgat5s, L., xxxvm. 47, 11. Quin tti i mod5, Pl., Cas., 755. Note.— On the violation of Concord with age, see 211, n. 2. 270. Negative OF THE Imperative. — i. The regular neg- ative of the Imperative is n6 (neve, neu), which is found with the Second Imperative ; with the First Imperative, it is poetical or colloquial. Hominem mortuum in urbe ng sepelito ngve urito, C, Leg., 11. 23, 58; one shall not hury nor hum a dead man in the city. Impius ng audgtO plftcSre dQnis Iram deorum, C, Leg., 11. 9, 23 ; the impious man must not 176 IMPERATIVE MOOD. dare attempt to appease hy gifts the anger of the gods. Tu ng cSdo malis, sed contra audentior It5, V., yl., vi. 95 ; yield not thou to misfor- tunes, but go more boldly (than ever) to meet them. Remarks. — i. Non may be used to negative a single word: A Iggibus non recgdamus, C, Cluent., 57, 155 ; let us not recede from {let us stick to) the laws. Opus poliat lima, non exterat, Cf. Quint., x. 4, 4 ; let the file rub the ivork up, not rub it out. 2 Instead of n6 with the First Imperative was employed either noli with the Infinitive (271, 2) ; or n5 with the Pf. Subjv., but the latter is very rare in elevated prose (263, 2, b). On ng with Pr. Subjv. see 263, 2, a. Note.— The use of n5n with the actual Impv. is found only in Ovid ; but the addi- tion of a second Impv. by neque, nec, instead of ngve, nen, begins in classical times (C, Ait., XII. 22, 3), and becomes common later. The use of neque (nec), nihil, ngmo, ntillus witli the Subjv. in an Impv. sense has recently been claimed for the Potential ISubjv. {must, 257, i) on account of the negative. 271. Periphrases. — i. Cfira (curato) ut, take care that ; fac (facito) ut, cause that ; fac (facito), do, with the Sub- junctive, are common circumlocutions for the Positive Im- perative. Cura ut quam primum (305, r. i) venias, C, Fam., iv. 10, 1 ; manage to come as soon as possible. Fac cogitgs, C, Fam., xi. 3, 4, Do reflect I Notes.— 1. Facitd is almost wholly confined to early Latin, especially Plautus ; Bo also ctiratS. 2. Early Latin also shows vidg and vidgtO with Subjv. Terence introduces VOlo, velim, with Subjv., which is found also in later times ; as, C, Fam., ix. 12, 2. 2. Cavl and cave (caveto) ne, leimre lest, with the Sub- junctive, and noli, he unwilling, with the Infinitive, are cir- cumlocutions for the Negative Imi^erativc (Prohibitive). Fac ne is also familiarly used. CavS festings, C, Fam., xvi. 12, 6 ; do not be in a hurry. Tantum cum finggs ng sis manifgsta cavgtS, Ov., ^.J., 111. 801; only ivhen you pretend, beivare that you be not detected. Noli, amabo, verberare lapidem, ng perdas manum, Pl., Cure, 197 ; don't beat a stone, I pray you, lest you spoil your hand. Fac ng quid aliud ctirgs li5c tempore, C.,Fam., xvL II, 1; see that you pay no attention to anything else, at this time. Notes.— 1. Rare and confined to early Latin is the use of cav8 with any but the second i)erson. Cf. Pl., Aul, 660 ; Ter., And., 403. 2. Other phrases are those with vidg ng and ciirat5 ng, with Subjv. ; comperce, compgsce with Inf. (all ante-classical) ; parce, mitte, omitte with Inf. (poetical and post-classical) ; n6lim with Subjv. (Cic.) ; fuge with Inf. (Hor.) ; absiste with Inf. (Verg.). IMPERATIVE MOOD. IJJ 272. Represen^tatives of the Imperative. — i. Instead of the Positive Imperative, may be employed : (a) The. Second Person of the Present Subjunctive (263, 2). (Z>) The Second Person of the Future Indicative (243). (c) The Third Person of the Present Subjunctive (2G3, 3). 2. Instead of the Negative Imperative (Prohibitive)^ may be employed : (a) The Second Person of the Present Subjunctive, with ne (263, 2, n.). (b) Tiie Second Person of the Perfect Subjunctive, with ne (263, 2). (c) The Second Person of the Future, with non (243). {d) The Third Person of the Present or Perfect Subjunctive, with nB (263, 3). Remark. — The Pr. Subjv. is employed when stress is laid on the continuance of the action ; the Pf., when stress is laid on the completion. Hence the use of the Pf. Subjv. in total prohibitions and passionate protests. 3. Tlie Imperative of the Past is expressed by the Im- perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive (unfulfilled duties). Compare 2G5, R. DOtem daretis ; quaereret alium vimm, Ter., P/t., 297 ; you should have given her a portion ; she should have sought another match. Cras Ir6s potius, hodig hie cenares. Val6, Pl., Pers., 710; you ought rather to have x>ut off going till to-morrow, you ought to {have) dine{d) with us to-day. Good-bye. (Anything decided is regarded as past.) Potius docSret (causam) non esse aequam, C, Off., in. 22, 88 ; he should rather have shown that the plea ivas not fair. Ng poposcissgs (libros), C, Att.^ II. I, 3 ; you ought not to have asked for the books. Observe the difference between the Unfulfilled Duty and the Unreal of the Past (597). Morergtur; fScisset certe si sine maximo dgdecore potuisset, Q.,Rab. Post., 10, 29; he ought to have died ; he would certainly have done so, could he have {done so) without the greatest disgrace. Note. — The Plupf . tense in this usage is not ante-classical. 273. Passionate questions are equivalent to a command : N6n tacSs ? Pl., A7n., 700 ; wo7i't you hold your tongue 9 Quin tacSsI Wliy don't you hold your tongue 9 Quin datis, si quid datis? Pl., Cas., 765 ; why donH you give, if you are going to do it 9 (Compare Fac, si quid facis, Mart., i. 46, 1.) Ctir non ut plgnus vitae convlva recgdisT LucR., III. 938 ; why do you not withdraw as a guest sated with life 9 13 178 TEXSES OF THE MOODS. 274. Puta, Ut puta, for example, begins with [C] ad Her., 11. 11, 16 (reading doubtful) ; tiien H., 6'., 11. 5, 32, Quinte, puta, aut Publl. Later it becomes more common, especially with the Jurists. See C, Ph., 11. 6, 15. 275. Summary of Imperative Constructions, Positive. 2d P. Audi, liear thou ; audito (legal or contingent) ; audigs (famil- iar) ; audias (ideal Second Person chiefly). 3d P. Audito (legal), let Mm hear ; audiat. Negative. 2d P. Ne audi, hear not (poetic): ng audito (legal) ; n6n audi6s (famil- iar) ; ne audias (chiefly ideal) ; noli audire (common) ; n6 audiveris (rarer). 3d P. Ng audito (legal), let him not hear ; ng audiat ; ng audiverit. Tenses of the Moods and Verbal Substantives. 276. The Indicative alone expresses with uniform direct- ness the period of time. 277. I. The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive have to do with continued action, the Perfect and Pluperfect with completed action. The Perfect Subjunctive is also used to express the attainment. 2. In simple sentences Present and Perfect Subjunctive postpone the ascertainment of the Predicate to the Future. The action itself may be Present or Future for the Present Subjunctive ; Present, Past, or Future for the Perfect Sub- junctive. Crgdat. He may believe (now or hereafter). Crgdiderit. Let him have had the belief (heretofore), he may have come to the belief (now), he may come to the belief {hei'eatter). 3. In simple sentences the Imperfect and Pluperfect Sub- junctive are Past Tenses, and regularly serve to indicate un- reality. (See 597.) Note.— A Snbjv. of the Past, being a future of the past, gives a prospective (or future) action the time of which is over (or past), so that the analysis of the past tenses of the Snbjv. shows the same elements as the Periphrastic Conjugation with eram and ful. Hence the frequent parallel use. See 254, r. 2, and 597, R. 3. 4. In dependent sentences the Subjunctive is future if the leading verb has a future significtiJ;ion (515, R. 3) ; otherwise TENSES OF THE MOODS. 1/9 the Subjunctive represents the Indicative. The tense is regulated by the law of sequence. (See 509o) 278. The Imperative is necessarily Future. 279. The Infinitive has two uses : 1. Its use as a Substantive. 2. Its use as a representative of the Indicative. 280. The Infinitive as a Substantive.— As a Sub- stantive the Infinitive has two tenses, Present and Perfect. (See 419.) 1. The Present Infinitive is the common form of the In- finitive, used as a Substantive. It has to do with continued action. (a) The Present Infinitive is used as a subject or predi- cate. (See 423, 424.) Quibusdam totum hoc displicet philosopharl, C, Fin., i. i, 1 ; to some this wliole business of 7netaphysics is a nuisance. (b) The Present Infinitive is used as the object of Verbs of Creation {Auxiliary Verbs, Verbs that help the Infinitive into being ; see 423.) Cats servire quam pugnare mavult, C, Aft., vii. 15, 2 ; Cato prefers to he a slave rather than to fight (being a slave to fighting). 2. The Perfect Infinitive is comparatively little used as a Substantive. It has to do with completed action, and is also used to express attainment. (a) As a subject, it is used chiefly in fixed expressions or in marked opposition to the Present. Plus proderit demonstrasse rgctam protinus viam quam revocare ab err5re iam lapsos, Quint., 11. 6, 2 ; it ivill be more profitable to have pointed out the right path immediately than to recall from wa7idering those that have already gone astray. [Non] tam turpe fuit vinci quam contendisse decSrum est, Ov., J/., ix. 5 ; Hwasnot so much dishonor to be beaten OjS ^tis an lionor to have struggled. Remarks. — i. By a kind of attraction decuit, became, takes occa- sionally a Pf. Inf. {emotional). Tunc flgsse decuit, L., xxx. 44, 7 ; that ivas the time ivhen it ivould have been becoming to iveep {to have ivept). Et grubuisse decSbat, Ov., M., IV. 330 ; the very flush of shame ivas becoming. l80 TENSES OF THE MOODS. 2. So oportuit, behooved, is frequently followed by the Pf. Part, pas- sive, with or without esse. This seems to have belonged to familiar style ; it is accordingly very common in early Latin. [Hoc] iam pridem factum esse oportuit, C, Cat., i. 2, 5 ; this ought to have been doiie long ago. (b) As an object, the Perfect Infinitive is seldom found in the active, except after velle, to wish, which seems to have been a legal usage. Neminem nota strgnui aut ignavi militis notasse volui, L., xxiv. 16, 11 ; J wished to have marked {to mark finally, to brand) no soldier with the mark of bravery or of cowardice. Annales, quibus credidisse mails, L., XLii. II, 1. Neiquis eorum bacanal habuise velet, S. C. de Bag. Otherwise it is found mainly in the poets (after the fashion of the Greek Aorist Inf.), and usually with the Pf. and Plupf. tenses, volui, etc., potui, dSbueram (debui). Fratres tendentSs opaco Pelion imposuisse Olympo, H., 0., in. 4, 52 ; IVie brothers striving to pile Pelion on shady Olympus. Notes.— 1. This usage with velle seems to have approached often the Fut, Pf. in force. A Pf. Inf. after the Pr. of posse occurs very rarely : Non potes probasse nugas, Pl., Aul., 828 ; see V., A., vi. 78, and several cases in Ovid and Maktial. 2. The Pf. Inf. act. (siibj. or obj.) is often found in the poets, especially in elegiac poetry, as the first word in the second half of a pentameter, where it can hardly be dis- tinguished from a Present. This usage may be due partly to analogy with verbs of wish- ing, partly to the exigencies of the metre, partly to the influence of the Greek Aorist. It must be distinguished from the normal use of the Perfect : Quam luvat immltSs ventds audire cubantem Et dominam tenero d§tinuisse sinu ! Tib., i. i, 45. 3, Noteworthy is the occasional use of debeo with the Pf. Inf. act. in the Fenec "must have": statim vicisse d6be5, C.,/^o«c. ^m.,23,73; d6b6s adnotasse, Plin., Ep., VII. 20, G. {c) In the Passive, the Perfect Infinitive is used after verbs of Will and Desire, to denote impatience of anything except entire fulfilment. See 537. [Patriam] exstinctam cupit, C, Fin., iv. 24, 60 ; he desires his country blotted out. Here the Infinitive esse is seldom expressed. Corinthum patr6s vestri totlus Graeciae lumen exstinctum esse voluerunt, C, Imp., 5, 11 (211, R. 6). Note.— This usage is common in Comedy and in Cicero, rare, it at all, in Caesar and Sallust ; and later also it is rare, surviving chiefly in phrases. The principal verb is VOlO, less often cupiO, very rarely ezpetO and nOlo. 281. The Infinitive as the Representative of the Indicative. — iVs the representative of the Indicative, the TENSES OF THE MOODS. l8l Infinitive has all its Tenses : Present, Past, Future, and Future Periphrastics. 1. The Present Infinitive represents contemporaneous action — hence the Present Indicative after a Principal Tense, and the Imperfect after a Historical Tense : Dico eum venire, / say that he is coming ; dicsbam eum venire, / said that he icas comirig. 2. The Perfect Infinitive represents Prior Action — hence the Perfect and Imperfect Indicative after a Principal Tense, and the Pluperfect, Imperfect, and Historical Perfect Indicative after a Historical Tense : Dico eum vSnisse, / say that he came, has come, used to come. Dixi eum vSnisse, I said that he had come, used to come, did come. Note.— Memini, 1 rememher, when used of personal experience, commonly takes the Present : Tum mg rSgem appellari a vobis memini, nunc tyrannum vocari video, L., XXXIV. 31, 13 ; / remember being ctyled by you a king then, I see that I am, called a tyrant now. So also rarely memoria tened, recordor, I remember, I recall, and fagit m6, 1 do not remember. When the experience is not personal, the ordinary construclion is fol- lowed : Memineram Marium ad infimorum hominum misericordiam c5n- fugisse, C, Sest., 22, 50 ; I remembered that Marius had thrown himself on the mercy of a eet of low creatures. The peculiar construction with the Pr. arises from the liveliness of the recollection. When the action is to be regarded as a bygone, the Pf . may be used even of personal experience: M6 memini Iratum dominae turbasse capill5s, Ov.,^.^.,u. i6q; / remember in my anger having tousled my sweethearVs hair. 282. The Present Participle active denotes contimiance ; the Perfect passive, completion or attainment. Note.— The Latin is more exact than the English in the use of the tenses. So the Pf. Part, is frequently employed when we use the Present ; especially in clas- sical prose, with verbs that indicate a condition, mental or physical, where the action of the participle is conceived as continuing up to, and sometimes into, that of the lead- ing verb, as ratus, thinking ; veiitus, fearing ; gavisus, r^oicing, etc. This usage spreads later : complexus, embracing ; hortatus, cxhaiiing. 283. The Future Participle (active) is a verbal adjective, denoting capability and tendency, chiefly employed in the older language with sum, / am, as a periphrastic tense. In later Latin it is used freely, just as the Present and Perfect Participles, to express subordinate relations. Notes.— 1. The so-called Fut. Part, passive is more properly called the Gerundive, and has already been discussed (251). 2. The Supine, being without tense relations, does not belong here. l82 SIMPLE SENTENCE EXPANDED. SIMPLE SENTENCE EXPANDED. 284. The sentence may be expanded by the multiplication or by the qualfiication, A, of the subject, B, of the predicate. 1. Multiplication of the Subject. Concord. 285. Number. — The common predicate of two or more subjects is put in the Plural number : Lucius Tarquinius et Tullia minor iunguntur nuptils, L.,i. 46, 9; Lucius Tarquinius and Tullia the younger are united in marriage. Pater et mater mortui [sunt], Ter., Eun., 518 ; father and mother are dead. Exceptions. — i. The common predicate may agree with a Sing, subject when that subject is the nearest or the most important: " My flesh and my heart faileth," Psa.,"lxxiii. 2G. Aetas et forma et super omnia Romanum nomen te ferociorem facit, L., XXXI. 18, 3 ; your youth and heauty, a7id, above all, the name of Roman, makes you too mettlesome. Latagum saxo occupat os faciemque adversam v., J., X. 698(323, N. 2). The agreement depends largely also upon the position of the verb. If it precedes or follows the first subj., the Sing, is more apt to stand. 2. Two abstracts in combination, when conceived as a unit, take a Sing, verb : " When distress and anguish cometh upon you," Prov., i. 27. ReligiS et fidSs anteponatur amicitiae, C, Off., in. 10, 46 ; let the religious obligation of a promise be preferred to friendship. So any close union : " Your gold and silver 2*5 cankered," Jas., v. 3. Senatus populusque Romanus intellegit, C, -Fam., v. 8, 2; the senate and people of Rome perceives {— Rome perceives). Tua fiima et gnatae vita in dubium veniet, Ter., Ad., 340 ; your good name will be jeoparded and your daughter's life. 3. When the same predicate is found with two or more subjects, who are conceived as acting independently, classical usage requires that the predicate be in the Singular. LivY introduces the PL, which grows, and becomes the rule in Tacitus : Palatium EOmulus, Eemus Aventlnum ad inaugurandum templa capiunt, L., i. 6, 4. Notes.— 1. Neque- neque, ncUfier—nor. allows the PI. chiefly wlicn the Persona are different : Haec neque ego neque tti fScimus, Ter., Ad., 103 ; neither you nor 1 did this. CONCORD. 183 The same is true, but not so common, of et - et (ns well as), ant— ant, either—^. 2. A Sing. subj. combined with another word by cum, wWi^ is treated properly as a Singular. It is treatetl as a PI once each by Cato, Terekce (Ileaut., 473), Cicero (by anacoluthon), Caksar {B C ■, in. 88), more often by Sallust and his imitators, LivY, and later writers. Vblleius, Valerius M., and Tacitus follow the classical Snlla cum Sclpione .... 16g§s inter s6 contnlerunt, C.,i%.,xn. 11,27. Ipse dux cum aliquot principibus capiuatur, L.,xxi.6o, 7; i/ie general himself wit/t some of the leading men are capiuied. 3. In the Abl. Abs. the Part, stands usually in the PI. with persons, usually in the Sing, with things, c. Graccho et M. Fulvio Flacco interfectis, S., lug., 16, 8. Caritate benevolentiaque sublata, C, Lad., 27, 102. 286. Gender. — When the Genders of combined subjects are tlie same, tlie adjective predicate agrees in gender ; when the genders are different, the adjective predicate takes either the strongest gender or the nearest. 1. In things with life, the masculine gender is the strongest ; in tilings without life, the neuter. («) The strongest : Pater et mater mortui [sunt], Ter., 3un., 518 (285), Mums et porta dS caelo tacta erant, L., xxxii. 29, 1 ; icall and gate had been struck by light- ning. H5c anima atque animus vincti sunt foedere semper, Lucr., hi. 416. (b) The nearest : Convicta est Messalina et Silius, Cf. Tac, Ann., xii. 65 ; Messalina was convicted and {so teas) Silius. Hippolochus LarissaeSrumque dSditum est praesidium, L., xxxvi. 9, 14 ; Hippolochus and the Larissaean gar- rison {were) surrendered. 2. AVhen things with life and things without life are com- bined, the gender varies. {a) Botli as persons : Bgx rSgiaque classis profecti (sunt), L., xxi. 50, 11 ; tlie king and the king's fleet set out. (h) Botli as things : Natura inimica [sunt] libera civitas et rgx, Cf. L., xliv. 24, 2; a free state and a king are natural enemies. 3. Wlien the subjects are feminine abstracts the predicate may be a neuter Plural (211, r. 4). Stultitiam et intemperantiam dicimus esse fugienda, C, Fin., iii. iij 39 ; folly and want of self-control {we say) are {things) to be avoided. Note. —This usage does not^ appear in early Latin, nor in Caesar or Sallust. l84 ADJECTIVE ATTRIBUTE. 287. Persons. — When the persons of combined subjects are different, the First Person is preferred to the Second, the Second to the Third : Si tu et Tullia, lux nostra, valgtis, ego et suavissimus Cicero valgmus, C, Fam., XIV. 5, 1 ; if Tullia, light of my life, and you are well, dearest Cicero and I are well. Remark. — {a) In contrasts, and when each person is considered separately, the predicate agrees with the person of the nearest subject. Et ego et Cicero meus flagitabit, C, ^;'^., iv. 18, 5 ; my Cicero ivill demand it and (so will) 1. Beat§ vivere alii in aliS, vOs in voluptate ponitis, C, Fin., 11. 27, 86 ; some make a blessed life to rest on one thing, so7ne on another, you on pleasure. So regularly with disjunctives, see 285, n. 1. (b) The order is commonly the order of the persons, not of modern politeness : Ego et uxor mea, Wife and I. 2. Qualification of the Subject. 288. The subject may be qualified by giving it an attribute. An attribute is that which serves to give a specific character. The chief forms of the attribute are : I. The adjective and its equivalents : amicus certns, a sure friend. Remark. — The equivalents of the adjective are : i. The pronouns hic, this, ille, that, etc. 2. Substantives denoting rank, age, trade: servus homS, a slave person ; homS senex, an old fellow ; hom8 gladiator, a gladiator-fellow ; mulier ancilla, a servant-wench. 3. The Genitive (360, i). 4. The Ablative (400). 5. Preposition and case : excessus a vita, departure from life. 6. Adverbs, chiefly with substantival par- ticiples : rgctS facta, good actions. 7. Relative clauses (505). II. The substantive in apposition : CicerS Orator, Cicero the orator. I. ADJECTIVE ATTRIBUTE. Concord. 289. Tlie Adjective Attribute agrees with its substantive in gender, number, and case : Gender, Number. Vir sapiens, a ivise man, virl sapientfis, ^v^se men. Mulier pulchra, a beautiful woman, muliergs pulchrae, beautiful women. BSgium dOnum, royal gifty rfigia dOna, royal gifts. ADJECTIVE ATTRIBUTE. 185 Case. Virl sapientis, of a wise man. bone flli ! good son ! Mulieri pulchrae, for a beautiful woman, rggio doii5, hij royal gift. Virum sapientem, wise man. mulieres pulchras, beautiful women. 290. The common attribute of two or more substantives agrees with the nearest ; rarely with the most important. Volasgnus, vir et cOnsilii magni et virtuti3, Caes., B.O., in. 5, 2 : Volu- senus, a man of great wisdom and valor. Cuncta maria terraeque pate- bant, S., C, 10, 1 ; all seas a?id lands lag open. Multa alia castella vicique aut deleta hostiliter aut Integra in potestatem v6n6re, L., ix. 38, 1. Remarks —I. For emphasis, or to avoid ambiguity, the adj. is re- peated with every substantive. Sometimes also for rhetorical reasons simply. (SemprOniae) multae fac§tiae, multusque lepos inerat, S.,C., 25, 5 ; Sem- pronia had a treasure of ivitticisms, a treasiire of charmi7ig talk. 2. When a substantive is construed with several similar adjectives in the Sing., it may be in agreement with ohe in the Sing, or may stand in tlie PI., according to its position : ftuarta et Martia legiongs, C, Fam., xi. ig, 1, but Legi5 Martia quar- taque, C , P/t , v. 17, 46, The fourth arid Martian legions. Notes. -1. A common surname is put in the Plural : M. (et) Q. Cicer5n68, Marcus and Quintus Cicero; C, Cn., 3ML, CarbdnSs, Gains, Gnaeus (and) Marcus Varbo ; otherwise, M. Cicero et Q- CicerS, Marcus and Quinlus Cicero. 2. Poets are free in regard to the position of tlic adjective : Semper honos nomenque tuum laudSaque manSbunt, V, ^ , i. 6og. 291. Position of the Attrihde. — t. When the attribute is emphatic, it is commonly put before the substantive, other- wise in classical Latin ordinarily after it. But see 676. 1. Fugitivus servus, a runaivay slave (one complex). 2. Servus fugitivus, a slave (that is) a runaway (two notions). Many expressions, however, have become fixed formuhx3, such as civis R5manus, Roman citizen ; populua R5manus, people of Rome. Compare body politic, heir apparent in English. Remarks. — i. Variation in the position of the adj. often causes variation in the meaning of the word. Thus rSs bonae, good things ; bonae r6s, articles of value, or good circumstances ; r§s urbanae, city matters ; urbanae rgs, witticisms ; mgnsa secunda, a second table ; secunda mgnsa, dessert. l86 NUMERALS. 2. Superlatives whicli denote order and sequence in time and space are often used partitively, and then generally precede their substan- tive : summa aqua, the surface of the water ; summus mons, the top of the mountain ; vere primo, primo vSre, in the heginning of spring. Similarly in media urbe, in the midst of the city ; reliqua, cetera Graecia, the rest of Greece, and the like. 2. When the attribute belongs to two or more words, it is placed sometimes after tliem all, sometimes after the first, sometimes before them all. Divitiae, nSmen, opSs vacuae consilio dedecoris plSnae sunt, C, Rap., i. 34, 51 : riches, name, resources {when) void of wisdom are full of dis- honor. For examples of the other positions see 290. Numerals. 292. Duo means simply two, ambo, hotJi (two considered together), uterque, either (two considered apart, as, " They crucified two other with him, on either side one," Johk, XIX. 18) : Supplicatio ambonim n5mine et triumphus utrique dScrgtus est, L., XXVIII. 9, 9 ; a thanksgiving in the name of both and a triumph to either {each of the two) ivas decreed. Qui utrumque probat, ambQbus de- buit uti, C, Fin., ii. 7, 20 ; he who approves of either ought to have availed himself of both. Kemark. — Uterque is seldom PI., except of sets ; so witii pluralia tantum. Utrique {i.e., pl6bis fautOrgs et senatus) victSriam crudeliter exercebant, S., C, 38, 4 ; either party (democrats and senate) made a cruel use of victory. Duae fuSrunt Ariovisti uxor6s : utraeque in ea fuga perierunt, Caes., J5.6'^., I. 53, 4 ; Ariovistus' s wives were two in number ; both jjer- ished in that flight. Proximo di6 Caesar 6 castrls utrlsque copias suas eduxit, Caes., 5. 6^., i. 50, 1. On uterque with the PL, see 211, r. i ; with Gen., see 371, R. 293. Mille, a thousand, is in the Sing, an indeclinable adj. and is less frequently used with the Genitive: mille militSs, rather than mille militum, a thousatid soldiers; in the PI. it is a declinable substantive, and must have the Genitive : duo milia militum, turn thousand{s of) soldiers — two regiments of soldiers. If a smaller number comes between, the substantive usually follows the smaller number ; 3500 cavalry, NUMERALS. 1 8/ tria milia quingenti equit6s, tria milia equitum et quingenti, but equites tria milia quingenti, or equitum tria milia quingenti. But duo milia quingenti hostium in acie periSre, L., xxii. 7, 3. Note.— The use of mlUe ns a substantive with the Part. Gen. is found mostly in ante-classical and post-classical Latin. CicEno and Caesar use it but rarely, and in phrases such as mllle nummum, mille passuum. Livy is fonder of it. 294. Ordinals. — The Ordinals are used more often in Latin than in English ; thus always in dates : anno ducente- simo quarto, in the year 20 J^. Sometimes they are used for the cardinals with a carelessness that gives rise to am- biguity : Quattuor anni sunt, ex quo te non vidl, It is four years, that I have not seen you {since I saw you). Quartus annus est, ex quo tg non vidl. It is the fourth year {four years, going on four years). Note.— To avoid this ambiguity forms of incipere, to begin, and exigere, to finish, seem to have been used. Cf., Pl., CapL, 980 ; Cist., 161. On quisque with the ordinal, see 318, 2. 295. Distributives. — The distributives are used with an exactness which is foreign to our idiom wherever repetition is involved, as in the multiplication table. Bis bina quot [sunt] 1 Q., JSf.D., n. 18, 49; hoiv many are twice two 9 Scriptum eculeum cum quinque pedibus, pullos galllnaceos tris cum temis pedibus natos esse, L,, xxxii. i, 11 ; a letter was ivritten to say that a colt had been foaled ivith five feet (and) three chickens hatched with three feet {apiece). With singuli the distributive is preferred, but the cardinal may be used. Antonius (pollicitus est) d§nario3 quinggnos singulis militibus daturum, C, Fam., X. 32, 4 ; Antonius promised to give five hundred denarii to each soldier. Singulis cSnsoribus dSnarii trecenti (so all MSS ) imperati sunt, C, Verr., n. 55, 137 ; the censors ivere required to pay three hundred denarii apiece. Note.— Poets and later prose writers often use the distributive when the cardinal would be the rule ; thus bini is not unfrcquently used of a pair even in Cicero : blnos (SCjrpbos) habebam, Verr., iv. 14, 32. When there is an idea of grouping, the distribu- tive is often broken up into a multiplicative and a distributive ; as, Carmen ab ter novSnls virginibus cani iussSrunt, L., xxxi. 12, 9 ; they ordered a chant to be sung by thrice nine virgins. l88 COMPAEATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES. On the other hand, prose sometimes shows a cardinal when exact usage would require a distributive. So regularly milia. Milia talentum per duodecim annos (dabitis), L , xxxvn. 45, 15. On the distributives with pluralia tantum, see 97, r. 3. Comparatives and Superlatives. 296. Comparative. — The comparative degree generally takes a term of comparison either with quam, tJiaii, or in the Ablative : Ignoratio futurorum malorum utilior est quam scientia, C, Div., 11. g, 23 ; ignorance of future evils is better than knowledge (of them). Nihil est virtute amabilius, C, Lael., 8, 28 ; nothing is more lovable than virtue. Rejiarks. — I. (a) The Abl. is used only when the word with quam would stand in the Nom. or Ace. (644). Caesar minor est j ^^^"^^ o^P ^^s, / ^^^^^^^ ^^ younger than Pompey. Caesarem plus amamus \ '1^^"' I'ompeium, ) we love Caesar more than ( Pompeio, ) Pomp)ey. In the second example the use of the Abl. may give rise to am- biguity, as the sentence may also mean "«fe love Caesar more than Pompey loves Mm.''' This ambiguity is always present when adverbs are used, and hence good prose avoids using a comparative adv. with an Ablative. See IL, /S"., i. i, 97. {b) With cases other than Nom. or Ace, quam is regularly used to avoid ambiguity. Anulis nostris plus quam animis creditur, Sen., Ben., 11 1 15, 3 (217). 2. The Abl. is very common in negative sentences and is used ex- clusively in negative relative sentences. Polybium sequamur, quo nemo fuit diligentior, C , Rep , 11 14, 27 ; let us follow Polybius, than ivhom no one was more careful. 3. Measure of difference is put in the Ablative (403). 4. Quam is often omitted after plus, amplius, more, and minus, less, and the like, without affecting the construction : Homini misero plus quingentSs colaphos infrggit mihi, TER.,ylfZ., 199 ; he has dealt me, lucMess creature, more than five hundred crushing boxes on the ear. Spatium est non amplius pedum sescentSrum, Caes., B.C., I. 38, 5 ; the space is not more than (of) six hundred feet. But the normal construction is not excluded : Pallis nOn latior pedibus quinquaginta, Caes., B.G., vii. 19, 1 ; a swamp not broader than fifty feet (or pedes quinquaginta). Nostri mllitSs amplius h5ris quattuor pugnaverunt, Caes., B.G., iv. 37, 3. COMPARATIVES. 1 89 5. In statements of age we may have a variety of expressions ; thus, more than thirty years old may be : 1. Natus plus (quam) triginta annSs. 3. Maior (quam) trig^ntaannosnatus. 2. Natus plus trigintaannis (rare). 4. Maior triginta annis (natus). 5. Maior triginta annorum, 6. On the combination of the comparative with opinione, opinion, sp6, hope, and the like, see 398, n. 1. Notes. — 1. Verbs and other words involving comparison sometimes have the Abl. where another constnietion \"/ould be moi-e natural. Thus, mSlle, to jn^efer {\>oeL and post-classical), aeque, adaequS, equalbj (early and late), alius, other (mainly poetic and rare): Ntillos his mallem ludos spectasse, H., 5., 11. 8, 79. Qui me in terra aequg fortunatus erit? Pl., 6'«m, 141. N5 put6s alium sapiente bonoque beatum, Ep., 1. 16, 20. 2. Instead of the Abl., the Gen. is found occasionally in late Latin. 3. Instead of quam or the Abl., prepositionr.1 uses with the positive are often found; as prae, in comparison ivith, praeter, ante, beyond ; also supra quam. Poetical is the circumlocution with quails, as Hor., Epod.^ 5, 59. Inferior is sometimes con- strued with the Dat., according to the sense ; inferior to 'wi&XeSi^ ol lower than, 4. Atque for quam is mainly poetical ; see 644, n. 2. 297. Standard of Comparison omitted. — When the stand- ard of comparison is omitted, it is supplied : i. By the con- text ; 2. By the usual or proper standard ; 3. By the opposite, 1 . By the context : Solent rgges Persarum plures ux5rg3 liabSre, Cf. C, Verr., in. 33, 76; the lings of Persia zisually have more tvives [than one]. 2. By the proper standard : Senectus est nattira loquacior, C, Cat.M., 16, 55, Old age is naturally rather (or too) talkative. 3. By the opposite : Quiesse erit melius, L., iii. 48, 3 ; it will he better to he-perfectly- quiet (than to make a disturbance). 298. Disproportion. — Disproportion is expressed by the comparative with quam pro, than for, and the Ablative, or with quam ut, tliat, or quam qui, wlio, and the Subjunctive ; Minor caedgs quam pro tanta victoria fuit, L., x, 14, 21 ; the loss was (too) small for so great a victory. Quis non intellegit Canaehi signa ri- gidiora esse quam utimitentur vgritatem"? C, Br., 18, 70 ; who does not perceive that Canachu^ figures are too stiff to imitate the truth of nattire ? Maior sum quam cui possit Forttina nocere, Ov., Jf., vi. 195; / am too great for Fortune possibly to hurt me. 190 COMPARATIVES. Remark. — Disproportion may also be expressed by the positive in combination with prepositional phi-ases, etc. : pro multitudine angusti fines, Caes., B.G., i. 2, 5 ; boundaries too small for their multitude. Notes.— 1. The constructions quam pro and quam qui are both poBt-Ciceronian. 2. The nt is frequently omitted after quam, as : Dolabella eelerius Asia [ex- cgssit], quam eo praesidium addHei potuisset, C , Fam , xii. 15, 1. This is espe- cially common after potius quam. 299. Tivo Qualities compared. — When two qualities of the same substantive are compared, we find either magis and quam with the positive, or a double comparative : Celer tuus disertus magis est quam sapiens, C, ^##., x. i, 4 ; your (friend) Celer is eloquent rather than tvise — more eloquent than wise. Acutierem sS quam ornatiorem [vult], C, Opt. Gen., 2, 6 ; he wishes to he acute rather than ornate. Notes. — 1. There is no distinction to he made between the two expressions. In the latter turn, which is found first, but rarely, in Cicero, the second comparative is merely attracted into the same form as the first. Tlie same rule applies to the adverb : fortius quam fglicius, with moiv bravery than good luck. 2. Post-Augustan Latin show s occasionally the comparative followed l)y quam, and the positive : Nimiapietas vestra acrius quam considerate excitavit, Tac, H.y 1.83. 300. Restriction to tJie Comparative. — When but two objects are compared, the comparative exhausts the degrees of comparison, whereas, in English, the superlative is em- ployed, unless the idea of duality is emphatic. Katu maior, the eldest (of two), the elder ; natti minor, the youngest, the younger. Prior, the first ; posterior, the last. Posteriores cogitationes, ut aiunt, sapientiorgs solent esse, C, P/i.,xn. 2, 5 ; afterthougJitSy as the saying is, are usually the wisest. Remakk. — The same rule applies to the interroe:ative uter, which of two 9 {whether ?) : Ex duSbus uter dignior ? ex pluribus, quis dlgnis- simusl Quint., vn. 4, 21 ; of two, which is the worthier ? of more (than two), which is the worthiest ? Note.— Quis is rarely used instead of uter, r.s C, Fani.,xi. 3, 1 ; V., A., xit. 725. 301. Comparative Strengthened. The comparative is often strength- ened during the classical period by the insertion of etiam, even ; later also by adhtic, still. Multo is properly the Ablative of difference, and is the normal form until the time of Veegil, when its place is taken largely by longe, except in Horace, who retains multS. Ante-classical and post-classical Latin occasionally doubles the comparative : magis dulcius, Pl., Stich., 699. Nihil invenies magis hoc certS certius, Pl,, PRONOUNS. igi Capt., 643. Even in Cicero a word involving Preference is sometimes strengthened by potius : [ThemistocH fuit] optabilius oblivisci posse potius quam meminisse, C, Or., II. 74, 800 ; Themistocles thought it (more) preferable to be able to forget (rather) than to be able to remember. 302. Superlatwe. — The Latin superlative is often to be rendered by the English positive, especially of persons : Quintus Fabius Maximus, Quintus Fabius the Great. Maximo impetu, maiore fortuna, L., xxviii 36,2 ; ivith great vigor, ivith greater luck. Tain feUx ess5s quam formosissima vellem, Ov., Am.^ i. 8, 27 ; would thou wert fortunate as (thou art) fair. 303. Superlative Strengthened.— '\!\\Q?,w^Qv\B.ivfe is strengthened by multo, much (especially in early Latin); longS, by far {the normal usage in the classical period); vel, even; unus, unus omnium, one above all others ; quam (with adverbs and adjectives), quantus (with maximus), ut (with adverbs) — potest, potuit, as— as possible. £x Britannis omnibus longe sunt humanissiml qui Cantium incolunt, Caes., B.G., V. 14, 1; of all the Britons bg far the most cultivated are those that inhabit Kent. Protagoras sophistes illls temporibus vel maxi- mus, C, N.D., 1. 23, G3; Protagoras, the very greatest sophist (= pro- fessor of wisdom) in those times. Urbem unam mihl amicissimam dgclinavi, C, Plane, 41,97; I turned aside from a city above cdl others friendly to me. (Caesar) quam aequissimo loco potest castra commtinit, Caes. ,B.G., V. 49, 7; Caesar fortifies a camp in as favorable a position as possible. RExMarks. — I. The omission of potest leaves quam with the super- lative, which becomes a regular combination : as (great) as possible, 2. For tam, tantum, with positive followed by quam, quantum qui, and the superlative, see G42, r. 5. PRONOUNS. I. Personal Pronouns. 304. I . The personal Pronoun is usually omitted when it is the subject of a verb ; see 207. 2. The Genitive forms, mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, are used mainly as Objective Genitives ; see 364, n. 2. (Marcellinus) s6 acerrimum tui dgfSnsorem fore ostendit, C, Fam., 1. 1, 2 ; llarcellinus shoived that he would be your keenest defender. NoTEs.-^l. Nostrum and vestrum for nostri, vestri, are very rare : [luppiter, custosl htiius urbis ac vestrum, Cf. C, Cat., in. 12, 29. 2. The Possessive pronouns sometimes are found in place of this Genitive : Neque neclegentia tua neque odio id fgcit tuo, Tek., Ph., 1016 ; he did this neither from 192 PRONOUNS. neglect of thee nor from hatred of the£. Vester c5nspectus reficit et recreat men- tem. meam, C, Plane. ^ i, 2 ; the sight of you refreshes and reneges my spirits. " If I be a master, where is my fear ? " Mal., i. 6. 3. The Genitive forms, nostrum and vestrum, are used par- titively ; see 364, r. T8 ad m6 venire uterque nostrum cupit, C, Att., xiii. 33, 2 ; each of us two desires that you should come to me. Notes.— 1. So regularly also in certain phraseological uses which may be partitive at basis. Frequentia vestrum, COnsSnSUS vestrum, regularly in combination with omnium (364, r.), and occasionally when the Possessive is more natural ; is enim splendor est vestrum, C, Att., vii. 13A, 3. 2. For a Part. Gen. of the third person (reflexive) a circumlocution must be used, such as ex s5 or the Possessive suorum. 2. Demonstrative Pronouns. 305. Hie, this (the Demonstrative of the First Person), refers to that ivhich is nearer the speaker, and may mean : 1. The speaker liimself : hie hom8 — ego, Pl., Trin., 11 15. 2. The persons with whom the speaker identifies himself, e. g., the judges in a suit at law: si ego hos novi, if I know these men {= the jury). 3. The most important subject immediately in hand : hie sapiens de quo loquor, C, Ac, ii. 33, 105 ; this (imaginary) wise man of ichom I am speaking. 4. That in which the speaker is peculiarly interested : hoc studium, this pursuit of mine, of ours. 5. That which has just been mentioned: haec hactenus, these things thus far = so much for that. 6. Very frequently, that which is about to be mentioned : his con- dicionibus, on the following terms. 7. The current period of time : hie diSs, to-day ; haec nox, the night just past ov just coming ; hie mgnsis, the current month. 306. Iste, tliat (of thine, of yours), refers to that which helomjs more pecvliai'ly to the Second Person (Demonstrative of the Second Person) : Perfer istam militiam, Q., Fam.,\u. 11, 2 -, endure that military service of yours. Adventti tu5 ista subsellia vacu6facta sunt, C, Cat., i. 7, 16 ; at your approach the benches in your neighborhood ivere vacated. Note.— The supposed contemptuous character of iste arises from the refusal to take any direct notice of the person under discussion, " the person at whom one speaks or points," and precisely the same thing is true of hic and ille, but less common. 307. Hie, that (the Demonstrative of the Third Person), denotes that which is more remote from the speaker, and is often used in contrast to hic, this. PRONOUNS. 193 Sol mg ille admonuit, C, Or., iii., 55, 209 ; that {yon) sun reminded me. Q. Catulus non antiquS ill5 more sed hoc nostro eruditus, C, Br., 35, 132; Q. Catulus, a cultivated man, not after the old-fashioned standard of a hy-gone time (illo) hut hy the standard of to-day (li5c). Ille may mean : 1. That whicli has been previously mentioned (often ille quidem): illud qnodinitiS vobisproposul, C, Font., 7, 17; that which I propounded to you at first. 2. That which is well known, notorious (often put after the substan- tive) : tgstula ilia, that (notorious) potsherd = institutioii of ostracism ; illud Solonis, that (famous saying) of Solon's. 3. That which is to be recalled : illud imprimis mirabile, that (which I am going to remind you of) is especially wonderful. 4. That wliich is expected : Ilia dies veniet mea qua lugubria ponam, Ov., Tr., iv. 2, 73 ; the day ivill come when I shall lay aside {cease) my inournful strai?is. Remarks. — i. Hic and ille are used together in contrasts : as, the latter — the former, (he former — the latter. (a) When both are matters of indifference the natural signification is observed : hic, the latter ; ille, the former. ignavia corpus hebetat, labor firmat ; ilia maturam senectutem, hic longam adolgscentiam reddit, Cels., i. i; laziiiess iveakens the body, toil strengthens it ; the one (the former) hastens old age, the other (the lat- ter) prolongs youth. {b) When the former is the more important, hic is the former, ille, the latter : Melior tutiorque est certa pax quam spgrata victoria ; haec in nostra, iUa in deorum manuest, L., xxx. 30, 19 ; better and safer is certain peace than hoped-for victory ; the former is in our hand{s), the latter in the hand{s) of the gods. 2. Hic et ille ; ille et ille ; ille aut ille, this man and (or) that man = one or two. Non dicam hoc signum ablatum esse et illud ; hoc dico, nullum tg signum reliquisse, C, Verr.,i. 20, 53 ; I will not say that this statue was taken off and that ; (what) I say (is) this, that you left no statue at all. 3. The derived adverbs retain the personal relations of hic, iste, ille: hic, here (where I am) ; hinc, hence (from where I am) ; hue, hither (where I am) ; istic, there (where you are) ; illic, there (where he is), etc. 4. The Demonstratives hic, iste, ille, and the Determinative is, are often strengthened by quidem, irideed. The second member is then in- troduced by sed, sed tamen (more rarely tamen, vgrum, autem, vgro), vgrum- tamen, and sometimes is added asyndetically. The sentence often re- quires that either the demonstrative or the particle be left untranslated. 13 194 PRONOUNS. Optare hoc quidem est, non docere, C, Tusc ir. 13, 30 ; that is a (pious) iidsli, not a (logical) proof. Nihil perfertur ad nos praeter rUmores satis istos quidem constantgs sed adhuc sine auctore, C'., Fain.xn. 9, 1 ; nothing is brought to us exaqjt reports, consistent enough, it is true, hut thus far not authoritative. lUe is most often used thus ; is, iste, hie, more rarely. Notes.— 1. HiC and ille arc sometimes employed to add a qualification to a sub- stantive by means of a contrast : Orator non ille vulgaris sed hie excellens, C, Or., 14, 45 ; an orator, not of the iyon) common type, hvt of the ideal exceUence {we seek). 2. Not unfrequently in poetry, very rarely in prose, in a lonj;^ sentence a substan- tive is repeated by means of ille : V., .4., i. 3, ille et terris iactatus ; H., 0., iv. 9, 51. 3. Sometimes two forms of hic, ille, or is are found in the same clause referring to diffeicnt substantives : Svolve diligenter 6ius [^. e., Platonis] eum lihrum, qui est d6 animO, C, Tusc, i. n, 24. 4. Ille may refer to an oblique form of is : Non est amici talem esse in eum, qualis ille in se est, C, Lael, 16, 59. 5. Ille is found cliieliy in poetry with the personal pronouns ego, tu, and occasion- ally with hie, and when so used takes its fullest force. Hunc iUum fatis externa ab sgde profectum portendi generum, V., A., vu. 255. 3. Determinative and Reflexive Pronouns. 308. Is, tliat, is the determinative pronoun, and serves as the lacking pronoun of the Third Person. It furnishes the- regular antecedent of the relative : Mild venit ohviam tuus puer ; is mih! litteras ahs te reddidit, C., Alt., II. I, 1 ; I ivas 7nd hy your servant ; he delivered to me a letter from you. Is minimo eget mortalis qui minimum cupit, Syrus, 286 (Fr.); that mortal is i7i want of least, ivho ivanteth least. Remarks. — i. Is, as the antecedent of the relative, is often omitted, chiefly in the Nom., more rarely in an oblique case (G19). Bis dat qui dat celeriter, Syrus, 235 (Fr.); he gives twice who gives in a trice. Often it has the force of talis (631, i) in this connection: Ego is sum qui nihil umquam mea potius quam meorum civium causa fScerim, C, Fani., v. 21, 2; / am a ?nan never to have done anything for my own sake, rather than for the sake of my fellow-citizens. 2. Is, with a copulative or adversative particle, is used as he or that in English, for the purpose of emphasis. Such expressions are: et is, atque is, isque, and he too, and that too ; neque is, et is non, and he not, and that not; sed %hut he, further strengthened by quidem, mtZeeJ. To refer to the wliole action id is employed. Exempla quaerimus et ea non antiqua, C, Verr.,\i\. 90. 210 ; ice are looking for examples, and those, too, not of ancicitt date. Epiciirus ana in domS et ea quidem angusta quam magnos tenuit amicorum greggs, C. , Fin., I. 20, 65 ; ivhat shoals of friends Epicurus had in one house, and PRONOUJTS. 195 ihat a ptnched-up one ! Negotium magnum est navigaie atque id mSnse Quinctill, C, Att. v. 12, 1; it is a big job to take a voyage and that in the month of July. 3. Is does not represent a substantive before a Gen., as in the Eng- lish that of. In Latin the substantive is omitted, or repeated, or a word of like meaning substituted. Non iudicio discipulorum dicere debet magister sed discipuli magistri, Quint., ii. 2, 13; tlie master is not to speak according to tha judgment of the pupils ; but the pupils according to that of the master. Nulla est celeritas quae possit cum animi celeritSte contendere, C, Tusc, i. 19, 43 ; there is no speed tliaf can possibly vie with that of the mind. M. Coelius tribunal suum iuxta C. Treboni sellam coUocSvit, Caes., B.C., in. 20, 1; Marcus Coelius placed his chair of office next to that of Oaius Trehonius. Of course hie, ille, and iste can be used with the Gen. in their proper sense. 309. Reflexive. Instead of forms of is, the Reflexive Pronoun sui, sibi, se, together with the Possessive of the Reflexive suos (-us), sua, suom (-um) is used. (See 521.) 1. Rcgularhj \^'\\Gi\ reference is mSi&Q to i\\Q grainmatical subject of the sentence : Ipse sg quisque diligit quod sib! quisque carus est, C, Lael., 21, 80; every one loves himself, because every one is dear to himself. (Fadius) a me diligitur propter summam suam humanitatem, C.,Fam., xv. 14, 1; Fadius is a favorite of mine by reason of his exceeding kindliness. The subject may be indefiuite or (occasionally) impersonal. Contentum suis r§bus esse maximae sunt divitiae, C, Par., vi. 3, 51 ; io be content ivith o)i.e\'i own things {with what one hath) is the greatest riches. Perventum ad suos erat, 1j., xxxiii. 8, C. " Puro religion and mideliled is this ... to keep himself unspotted from the world." Jambs', i. 27. 2. Frequently when reference is made to the actual sub- ject (521, K. 2) : Suos rex reginae placet, Vh., St., 133; every queen favors her own king {every Jill loves her own Jack). Osculatur tigrim suus custos, Sex., E.M., 85, 41 ; her own keeper kisses the tigress {the tigress is kissed by her oivn keeper). Cui proposita sit conservatio sui necesse est hulc partes quoque sui caras esse, C, Fin., v. 13, 37; he who has in view the preser- vation of himself {self-preservation) must necessarily hold dear the parts of {that) self also. This is especially common with suos, which when thus employed has usually its emphatic sense: own, peculiar, proper. 19^ PROKOUKS. 3. Sui, sibi, sS are the regular complements of the infinitive and its equivalents when a reflexive idea is involved ; and se is also used with prepositions erga, inter, propter, per, for especial emphasis. (RomanI) sui colligendl hostibus facultatem (non) rtlinquunt, Caes., B.O., III. 6, 1 ; the Romans do not leave the enemy a chance to rally. Ipsum Furnmm per s§ vidi libentissime, C, Fam., x. 3, 1. 4. Suos (-us) is also used in prepositional phrases that are joined closely with the substantives ; so after cum, inter, and more rarely after in, intra, and ad. MagSnem cum classe sua in Hispaniam mittunt, L., xxiil, 32, 11 ; they sent Mago with his fleet to Spain. Helvetios in fines suos reverti iussit, Caes., B.G., i. 28, 3 ; he ordered the Helvetians to return to their own country. So the phrases su5 tempore, at the right time ; suo loco, at the right 'place. Comoediae quem tisum in pueris putem suo loco dicam, Quint., i. 8, 7 ; what I consider to he the good of comedy in the case of hoys I will men- tion in the proper place. Notes.— 1. The writer may retain forms of is, if he deeiros to emphasize his own point of view. So too in prepositional combinations, (Caesar) Ciceronera pro Sius merito laudat, Cae?., b. 6'., v. 52, 4 ; ('(w.mr praises Cicero according to his desert. [Pompeiusj cum decrgtum d6 m6 Capuae fgcit, ipse cunctae Italiae 6ius fidem implOranti signum dedit, c, Mil., 15, 39. 2. In early comedy and tiien asriiin iu late Latin, suOS is eometimes strengthened by sibi: Su5 sibi gladi5 hunc iugulO, TER.,ylc;.,g58 ; very rarely in claesical Latin (C, i%., II. 37, 96). Similarly mea mihl, Pl., True., 698. 3. On suum quisque, see 318, 3. 4. In dependent clauses the reflexive is used with reference either to the principal or to the subordinate subject. See for fuller treatment 521. 310. Idem, the same, serves to unite two or more attributes or predicates on a person or thing ; it is often to be trans- lated by at the same time; liheivise, also; yet, notioith- standing. (Cimon) incidit in eandem invidiam quam pater suus, Nep.,v. 3, 1; Cimon fell into the same odium as his father. Quidquid honestum [estj idem [est] tltile, C, Off., 11. 3, 10; ivhatever is honorahle is also (at the same time) useful. Nil prOdest quod nOn laedere possit idem, Ov., Tr., 11. 266; nothing helps that may not likeivise hurt. (Epicurus), cum optimam et praestantissimam naturam dei dicat esse, negat idem esse in deo gratiam, C, N.D., 1.43, 121; although Epicurus says that the nature of God ia PROKOUS"S. 197 transcendently good and great, yet (at the same time) he says that there is no sense of favor in God. Difficilis facilis, iucundus acerbus, es idem, Mart., XII. 47, 1 ; crabbed (and) kindly, sweet {and) sour, are you at once. Remarks. — i. When a second attribute is to be added to a substan- tive it is often connected by Idemque, et idem, atque Idem : Vir doctissimua Plats atque Idem gravissimus philosopborum omnium, C, Leg., ir. 6, 14 ; Plato, a most learned man, and at the same time weightiest of all the philosophers. 2. The same as is expressed by Idem with qui, with atque or Sc, with ut, with cum, and poetically with tlie Dative. See 359, n. 6, 643, G43, Tibi mecum in eSdem est plstrln3 vivendum, C, Or., 11. 33, 144 ; you have to live in the same treadmill with me. 3. idem cannot be used with is, of wrhich it is only a stronger form (is + dem). 311. I. Ipse, self, is the distinctive pronoun, and separates a subject or an object from all others : Ipse f5ci, / myself did it and none other, I alone did it, I did it of my 0W71 accord, I am the very man that did it. Nunc ipsum, at this very instant, at this precise moment. Valvae subito sg ipsae aperuSrunt, C, Z)iV., i. 34, 74 ; the folding- doors suddenly opened of their own accord. (Cato) mortuus est annis octoginta sex ipsis ante [Ciceronem] cSnsulem, Q.,Br., 15, CI ; Cato died just eighty-six years before Cicero^s consulship. Huic rei quod satis esse visum est militum rellquit (Caesar) ; ipse cum legionibus in finSs TrSve- rSrum proficiscitur, Caes., B.G., v. 2, 4. Remarks. — i. Owing to this distinctive character, ipse is often used oi persons in opposition to things ; riders in opposition to horses ; in- habitants in opposition to the towns which they inhabit ; the master of the house in opposition to his household, etc. ES quS me ipsa mlsit, Pl., Cas., ygo ; I am going where mistress sent me. Ipse dixit, C, N.D., i. 5, 10 ; the master said (avros €<^a). 2. Et ipse, likewise, as well, is used when a new subject takes an old predicate : [Locrl urbs] dSsciverat et ipsa ad Poenos, L., xxix, 6, 1 ; Locri-city had likewise (as well as the other cities) revolted to the Carthaginians. [Camillus] ex Volscis in AequSs transiit et ipsos bellum molientSs, L., vi. 2, 14 ; Camillus went across from the Yolscians to the Aequians, who were likewise (as well as the Volscians) getting up war. Cicero prefers in this meaning ipse alone, but et ipse occurs occasionally (not in Caesar or Sallust), and becomes the prevailing forai in Livy and later. 2. Ipse is used to lay stress on the reflexive relation ; in 198 PRONOUN'S. the Nominative when the subject is emphatic, in the Oblique Cases when the object is emphatic. S6 ipse laudat, lie (and not another) praises himself. Se ipsum laudat, he praises himself (sind not another). Piger ipse sibi obstat, Prov. (Sex, jEJ J/., 94, 28) ; ihe lazy man stands in his own way, is his own obstacle. Non egeo medicina ; mg ipse c5ns51or, C, Lael., 3, 10 ; J do ?wt need medicine; I comfort my- self (I am my only comforter). EQdem modo sapiens erit affectus ergS amicum quo in se ipsum, C, Fm., i. 20, 08 ; the ivise mati will feel to- wards his friend as he feels towards himself. Exceptions are common : Quique aliis cavit, non cavet ipse sibI, Ov., ^.^., i. 84 ; a7id he ivho cai'edfor others, cares not for himself. Note.— LiVY seems to use sometimes ipse in connection with a reflexive as if it were indeclinable or absolute : cum dies venit, causa ipse pro se dicta, damnatur, L., IV. 44, 10 ; ivhen the appointed dmj came he pleaded his oxon cause and was condemned. 4. Possessive Pronouns. 312. The Possessive Pronouns are more rarely used in Latin than in English, and chiefly for the purpose of contrast or clearness. Manus lava et cena, C, Or., 11. 60, 246 ; ivash {your) hands and dine. Praedia mea tti possides, e^o aliena misericordia vivo, C, Rose. Am., 50, 143 ; you are in possession of my estates, {while) I live on the charity of others. Remarks. — i. Observe the intense use of the Possessive in the sense of property, peculiarity, fitness : suum esse, to belong to one's self, to he one's own man. Tempore tuo ptlgnasti, L., xxxvin. 45, 10 ; you hare fov.ghf at your own time (= when you wished). Hoc honore mS adfScistis anno meS, C, Leg. Agr., 11, 2, 4 ; you visited me ivi.th this honor in my own year {— tlie first year in which I could be made consul). Pugna suum finem, cum iacet hostis, habet, Ov., Tr., iii. 5, 34; a fight has reached its fit end tvhen the foe is doirn. 2. On the use of the Possessive Pronouns for the Gen., see 304. 5. Indefinite Pronouns. 313. Qnidam means one, a, a certain one, definite or indefi- nite to the speaker, but not definitely designated to the hearer. In the Plural, it is equivalent to some, sundry, without em- phasis. PRON^OUNS. 199 Interea mulier qnaedam commigravit hue, Ter., And., 69 ; meanwhile a certain woman took up her quarters here. Intellegendum est quibusdam quaestionibus alios, quibusdam alios esse aptiorgs looos, C, Top., 21, 79 : it is to he observed t/iat some grounds are more suitable for some questions, for some, others, Tam nescire quaedam militSs quam scire oportet, Tag., //., I. 83. Remarks. — i. With an adjective quidam often serves to heighten tlie attribute by adding a vagueness to it. (Gr. ns)- Est quodam incredibili rSbore animl, C, Mil., 37, 101 ; really he is en- doived ivith a strange strengtti of mind {one that is past belief ). 2. Quidam is often used with or without quasi, as if, to modify an expression : N5n sunt isti audiendi qui virtutem duram at quasi ferream esse quandam volunt, C, Lael., 13, 48 ; ttiose frietids of yours are not to be listened to tvho will have it (maintain) that virtue is hard, and, as it were, made of iron. Est quaedam virtutum vitiSrumque viclnia, Quint., ii. 12, 4 {cf. III. 7, 25) ; there is a certain neighborly relation between virtues and vices. 3. Quidam may bo strengthened by the addition of certus or tlnus: Vita agenda est certo genere quodam, nQn quolibet, C, Fin., in. 7, 24. Est eloquentia una quaedam dS sununis virttitibus, C, Or., iii. 14, 55. 314. Aliquis (aliqui) means, sotne one, some one or other, wholly indefinite to the speaker as well as to the hearer : [Dgclamabam] cum aliquo cottldiS, C, Br., 90, 310 ; I used to declaim with somebody or other daily. In the predicate it is often emphatic (by Litotes, 700) : sum aliquis, aliquid, / am somebody = a person of importance, something = of some weight; opposed to : nullus sum, nihil sum, lam a nobody, nothing. This force is often heightened by a following contrast : Est hoc aliquid, tametsi n5n est satis, C, Div. in Caec, 15, 47 ; this is something, although it is not eyiough. Fac, ut m6 veils esse aliquem, quoniam, qui fui et qui esse potui, iam esse non possum, C, Alt., 11 r. 15, 8 ; do make out that I am somebody, since I can no longer be the man I was and the man I might have been. Remarks. — r. Aliquis and aliqui are distinguished as substantive and adjective; accordingly, when aliquis is used with a substantive the rela- tion is appositional. This always occurs with Proper names; and even with other substantives the Romans seem to have preferred aliquis to aliqui. (See 107, n. i.) 2. With numerals, aliquis is used like English some. Occasionally also it has the force of many a. So in Caes., B.C., i. 2, 2, dixerat aliquis Ifiniorem sententiam, where aliquig refers to three persons, named later. 20O PRONOUNS. 315. ftuis (qni), fainter than aliquis, is used chiefly after si, if; nisi, unless ; ne, lest ; num, ivliethery and in lelative sentences. See 107, k. NS quid nimis ! 'V^vi., And.,6i', nothing in excess! Fit pl6rumque at if qui boni quid voluut adferre, adfingant aliquid, quo faciant id, quod nuntiant, laetius, C, Ph., i. 3, 8; it often happens that those who wish to bring (some) good tidings^ invent something more, to make the 7iews more cheering. Notes.— 1. AKquis is used after si, etc., when there is stress : si quis, if any ; si aliquis, ifso?ne ; si quid, ?/ anything ; si quidquam, {f anything at all. Si aliquid dandnm est voluptati, senectus modicis conviviis delectari po- test, C., Caio. M., 14, 44 ; if something is to be given tojyleasure (as something or other must), old age can take delight in mild festivities. Aliquis is regular if the sentence contains two negatives : [VerrSs] nihil umquam fecit sine aliquo quaestu, C, Verr., v. 5. 11. (446.) 2. "Quis and qui are distinguished as aliquis and aliqui, but the distinction is often neglected, even in classical Latin. See 107, n. 1. 316. Quispiam is rarer than aliquis, but not to be distin- guished from it, except that quispiam never intimates impor- tance. Dixerit quispiam, C, Cat.M., 3, 8 ; some one may say. 317. I. ftuisquam and ullus (adjective) mean any owe (at all), and are used chiefly in negative sentences, in sentences that imply total negation, and in sweeping conditions : [lustitia] numquam nocet cuiquam, C, Fin., i. 16, 50 ; justice never hurts anybody. Quis umquam Graecorum rhStorum a Thucydide quidquam duzit? C, Or., 9, 317; lohat Greek rhetorician ever dreiv anything from Tfiucydides? [None]. Si quisquam, ille sapiens fuit, C, Lael., 2, 9 ; if any one at all (was) wise, he ivas. Quamdiu quisquam erit qui te defen- dere audeat, vivSs, C, Cat., i. 2, C ; so long as there shall be any one to dare defend you, live on. Hostem esse in Syria negant ullum, C, Fam., III. 8, 10 ; they say that there is not any enemy in Syria. OmninO nSmS miius rei fuit emptor cui defuerit hie venditor, C, Ph., 11. 38, 97 ; gen- erally there was never a buyer of anythirig who lacked a seller in him {no one ever wanted to buy anything that he was not ready to sell). So after comparatives : SOlis candor inlQstrior est quam fiUius ignis, C, N.D., 11. 15, 40 ; the brilliancy of the sun is more radiant than that of any fire. Notes. — 1. Quisquam is occasionally (principally in Livy) strengthened by unus, especially after a negative : Cum multl magis fremerent, quam quisquam iinus recflsare audfiret, L-, m. 45, 4. 2. After sine, irithoiit, omnI is often used ir.stead of ull6 (tllla) i" early Latin : Sine omnicttra dormias, Pi-., THn., 621. 3. On quisquam as an adj., see 107, 3, n. 2. Ullus is occasionally a subst. in Livy. PRONOUNS. 2GI 2. The negative of quisquam is nemS, nohody ; nihil, noth- ing (108). The negative of tillus is ntillus, no, none, which is also used regularly as a substantive in the Genitive and Ablative instead of neminis and nemine. Uemd is also sometimes used apparently as an adjective, though the conception is usually appositional. Nemo vir magnus, C, N.D., ii. 66, 167 ; no great man, no one {who is) a fjreat man. Notes.— 1 . On neque quisquam and et n6m5, see 480. 2. Nullus is used in familiar language instead of nOn (so sometimes in English) : Fhilippus nullus usquam, L., xxxir. 35, 2 ; no Philip anywhere. Quis is also used familiarly : Prospectum petit, Anthea si quern videat, V., J.., 1. 181 ; anAnthms, i. e., Aritheus or iicmiebody ivho would answer for him. 3. NemQ and nullus are occasionally strengthened by Unus, 318. I. duisque means each one, as opposed to omnis, every, and is usually post-positive. Mens cuiusque, is est quisque, C, Rep., vi. 24, 26 ; each man's mind is each man's self. Laudati omnSs sunt donatique pro merits quisque, L., xxxviii. 23 ; all were praised and rewarded, each one accord'mxj to his desert. Quam quisque norit artem in hac sg exerceat, [C], Tusc.,i. i8,41. (616.) 2. With superlatives and ordinals quisque is loosely trans- lated every : Optimum quidque rarissimum est, C, i^m., 11. 25, 81 ; every good thing is rare ; more accurately, the better a thing, the rarer it is. (645, R. 2.) Qulnto quoque anno Sicilia tota cSns6tur, C, Verr., 11. 56, 139 ; every fifth year all Sicily is assessed. 3. duisque combines readily with the reflexives, sul, sibi, se, SUU3, in their emphatic sense (309, 2). Here, except for special reasons, the reflexive precedes. Suum cuique has be- come a standing phrase. Sua quemque fraus et suus terror vexat, C, Rose. Am., 24, 67 ; it is his own sin and Ids own alarm that harasses a man. Notes.— 1. After Cicero's time, owing to the phraseological character of the com- bination, sui etc. quisque, we find it used without agreement. Exercitus amisso duce ac passim multis sibi quisque imperium petentibus brevi dilabitur, S.,/m^., i8,3. Instigando suos quisque populos effScere ut omne Volscum nomen deficeret, L., n. 38, 6. 2. Classical but not connnon is the attraction of quisque into the case of the reflexive. Haec proclivitas ad suum quodque genus a similitudine corporis aegrotatio dicatur, c, Tusc, iv. 12, 28. 202 PRONOUNS. 3. Quisque combined with primus has two meanings : (a) as early as possible., (6> one after the other in order (deinceps)- Primo quoque tempore, C, Ph., m. 15, 39 ; at the earliest time possible. Primum. quidque (each thing in order) coasid,era quale sit, C, N.D., i. 27, 77. 4. The various uses of quisqae are well summed up in Nagelsbach's formulae : a. Non omnia omnibus tribuenda sunt, sed suum cuique ; b. Omnes idem faciant, sed optimus quisque optime ; c. Non omnibus annis hoc fit, sed tertio quoque anno ; d. Non omnes idem faciunt, sed quod quisque vult. 319. Alter and alius are both translated other, another, but alter refers to one of two, alius to diversity. They are used in various phraseological ways, which can be best shown by examples : Solus aut cum altero, alone or with (only) one other ; alter Nero, a second Nero. Alter alterum quaerit, one (definite person) seeks the other (definite person) ; alius alium quaerit, one seeks one, another another ; alter! — alteri, one party — another party (already defined) ; alii— alii, so)7ie — others. Alter often means neighbor, brother, fellow-man ; alius, third person. Alter : (AgSsilalis) fuit claudus altero pede, Nep., xvii. 8, 1 ; Agesilaiis was lame of one foot. Altera manu fert lapidem, panem ostentat altera, Pl., Aul., 195; 171 one hand a stone he carries, in the other holds out bread. Mors nee ad vivos pertinet nee ad mortuos : alteri nulli (317, 2, n. 2) sunt, alteros non attinget, C, Tusc, i. 38, 91 ; death concerns neither the liv- ing nor the dead : the latter are not, the former it will not reach. Alius : Fallacia alia aliam trudit, Ter., And , 779 ; one lie treads on the heels of another (indefinite series). Alii voluptatis causa omnia sapientSs facere dixSrunt ; alii cum voluptate dignitatem coniungendam putavSrunt, C, Gael., 15, 41 ; some have said that wise men do every thing for the sake of pleasure, others have thought that pleasure is to be combined with dignity. Divitias alii praeponunt, alii honores, C, Lael., 6, 20; some prefer riches, others honors. Alii vestrum anserSs sunt, alii cangs, C-., Rose. Am., 20, 57 ; some of you are geese, others dogs. Aliud alii nattira iter ostendit, S., C, 2, 9 ; nature shows one path to one man, another path to another man. Alter and alius : Ab alio expectSs alteri quod fSceris, Syrus, 2 (Fr.) ; you may look for from another ivhat you've done unto yo^ir brother (from No. 3, what No. I has done to No. 2), APiOSITION". 203 NoTBS.— 1. Alius is found occasionally, especially in late Latin, for alter : alius KerO, Suet., Tit. 7 ; but in CAEs.,i^.G^., 1. 1, 1, alius follows tinus. Alii for re- liqui or cSterl is occasional, in the earlier times, but more common in Livy and later. 2. The Greek usage of alius in the meaning besides, is post-Ciceronian and rare. £0 missa plaustra iumentaque alia, L., iv. 41, 8. APPOSITION. 3.20. By apposition one substantive is placed by the side of another, which contains it : Cicero orator, Cicero the orator. Rhgnus flumen, the river Rhine. CONCORD. 321. The word in apposition agrees with the principal wo/d (or words) in case, and as far as it can in gender and number : Noni. Herodotus pater historiae, Herodotus the father of historj-; Gen. Herodoti patris historiae ; Dat. Herodoto patri historiae. Cnidus et ColophSn, nobilissimae urbes, captae sunt, Cf. C, Imj}., 12, 33; Cnidus and Colophon, most nohle cities, ivere taken. Omnium doctrina- rum inventrices Athgnae, Cf. C, Or., i. 4, 13; Athens, the inve7itor of all branches of learning. Remarks. — i. Exceptions in number are due to special uses, as, for example, when deliciae or amorgs, etc., are used of a Singular : Pompgius, nostri amorgs, ipse sg alflixit, C, Att., ir. 19, 3 ; Pompey, our special passion, has wrecked himself. 2. The Possessive Pronoun takes the Gen. in apposition : Tuum, hominis simplicis, pectus vidimus, C, PA., 11. 43, 111 ; we have seen your bosom bared, you open-hearted creature ! Urbs mea tinius opera fuit salva, Cf. C, Pis., 3, C ; the city ivas saved by my exertions alone. 3. On the agreement of the predicate with the word in apposition, see 211, R. C. Notes.— 1. In poetry, insteaf] of tlie Voc. in apposition, the Nom. is often found. Semper celebrabere d5nis, Corniger Hesperidum, fluvius rSgnator aquarum, v., A., VIII. 77. In prose not before Pliny. 2. Very rarely persons are lool^ed upon as tilings, and the Appositivcs used in the neuter : Dum patrgs et pl6bem, invalida et inermia, liidificgtur, Tac, Ann., i. 46. 322. Partitive A2)positio}i. — Partitive Apposition is tliat form of Apposition in which a part is taken out of the whole. It is sometimes called Restrictive Apposition. Maxuma pars ferg mSrem hunc homings habent, Pl , Capt., 232 ; man- kind — 2^''^ify niucJi the greatest part of them — have iJiis way. Cetera multitUdo sorte decumus quisque ad supplicium lecti (sunt), L., 11. 59, 11 ; (of) the rest of the crowd every tentli man ivas chosen by lot for punish- ment. 204 APPOSITION". 323. Distrihtitive Apposiiioii. — Distributive Apposition is that form of Apposition in which the whole is subdivided into its parts, chiefly with alter — alter, the one — tlie other ; quisque, uterque, each one ; alii — alii, pars — pars, mme — others. (It is often called Partitive Apposition.) Duae filiae altera occisa altera capta est, Caes., B.G., i. 53, 4 ; {of) two daughters, the one ivas killed, the other captured. Remark. — The Part. Gen. is more commonly employed than cither of these forms of apposition. Notes.— 1. Partitive Apposition is not found in Cicero or Caesar, and Distributive Apposition rarely. Tlicy are more frequent in Sallust, and not uncommon in Livy. 2. Tlic Greelv figure of the tvJiole and the part (,(txvi^<^ «a^' oAov xal fiepo^) is rare and poetical in Latin. Latagum saxo occupat OS faciemque adversam, v.. A., x. 698 ; 87}iites Latagus nnfh a bowlder, full (irt) mouth and face {(f. Eng. '■'■hand and foot'"). 324. Apposition to a Sentence. — Sometimes an Accusative stands in apposition to a whole preceding sentence ; either explaining the contents of the sentence or giving the end or the aim of the action involved in the sentence. The latter usage, however, is not found in Cicero or Caesar. Admoneor ut aliquid etiam dS sepultura dicendum existimem, rem non difficilem, C, Tusc, i. 43, 102 ; / am reminded to take into considera- tiun tltat something is to he said about burial also— an easy matter, Deserunt tribunal, ut quis praetorianorum militum occurreret manus inten- tantes, causam discordiae et initium armorum, Tag., Ann., i. 27. If the main verb is passive the Appositive may be in the Nominative: Tag., Ann., in. 27. Notes.— 1. Neuter adjectives and participles are occasionally used in the same way, and some regard such neuters as Nominatives. 2. This Ace. is to be regarded as the object effected (330) by the general action of the sentence. Predicative Attribution and Predicative Apposition. 325. Any case may be attended by the same case in Pred- icative Attribution or Apposition, which differ from the ordinary Attribution or Apposition in translation only. Nominative : Filius aegrStus rediit. Ordinary Attribution : Tlie sick son returned. Predicative Attribution : 77ie -sou retarned sick = he was sick when he returned. Hercules iuvenis le6nem interfgcit. Ordinary Apposition : T/16 young man Hercules slew a Hon. APPOSITION". 205 Predicative Apposition : Hercules, when a young man, sleiv a lion = he ivas a young inan when he slew a lion. Genitive : Potestas 6ius adhibendae uxoris, the permission to take her to wife. Dative : Amlco vlv5 non subvenisti, you did not Itelp your friend {while he ivas) alive. Accusative : Hercules cervam vivam cepit. Ordinary Attribution : Hercules caught a living doe. Predicative Attribution : Hercules caught a doe alive. Ablative : Aere iituntur importato, they use imported copper = the copper which they use is imported. Remarks. — i. The Voc, not being a case proper, is not used piedi- catively. Exceptions are apparent or poetical. Quo, moriture, ruisi V., A., x. 810 ; " whither dost thou rush to die^^ (thou doomed to die) 9 Sic venias, hodierne, Tib., i. 7, 53. Notice here the old phrase : Macte virtute estO, H., 8., i. 2, 31 ; m- crease in virtue — heaven speed thee in thy high career. Macte is regarded by some as an old Voc., from the same stem as magnus; by- others as an adverb. A third view is that macte with est6 is an adverb, and only when used absolutely a Vocative. 2. VictorSs redierunt may mean, the conquerors returned, or, they re- turned conquerors ; and a similar predicative use is to be noticed in Idem, the same: lidem abeunt qui vSnerant, C, Fin., iv. 3, 7 ; they go away just as they had come (literally, the same persons as they had come). 3. Predicative Attribution and Apposition are often to be turned into an abstract substantive : Defend! rem ptiblicam adulescens, non deseram senex, C, Ph., 11. 46, 118; J defended the state in my youth, I will not desert her in my old age. So with prepositions : Ante Ciceronem consulem, before the consulship of Cicero ; ante urbem conditam, before the building of the city. 4. Do not confound the " as" of apposition with the "as" of com- parison— ut, quasi, tamquam, sicut, velut ((>02, n. 1, C42): Hanc (virtfltem) vobi3 tamquam hereditatem maiores vestrl reliqjierunt, C, Ph., iv. 5, 13 ; your ancestors left you this virtue as (if it icere) a legacy. 5. When especial stress is laid on the adjective or substantive pred- icate, in combination with the verbal predicate, the English langUcage is prone to resolve the sentence into its elements : Fragilem truci commisit pelagO ratem primus, H., 0., i. 3, 10 ; his frail bark to the wild waves he trusted first = to trust his frail bark to the wild waves he was first. Una salus victis nuUam sperare salutem, V., J.., II- 353 > sole safety for the vaiiquished His, to hope for iione — the only safety that the vanquished have, is to hope for none. 2o6 PREDICATE. 6. The English idiom often uses the adverb and adverbial expressions instead of the Latin adjective : so in adjectives of inclination and dis- inclination, knowledge and ignorance, of order and position, of time and season, and of temporary condition generally : libgns, with pleasure; volens, zvilling{l}j) ; nol6ns, unwilling{ly) ; invitus, against one's ivill ; prudgns, aware ; imprudens, unawares ; sciens, knowing{hj) ; prinms, prior, first; nltimus, /as/ ; medius, in, about the middle; hodiernus, to-da.y ; matutinus, in the mor^iing ; frequSns, frequent{ly) ; sublimis, aloft ; totus, wholly ; solus, unu3, alone, and many others. Ego eum a mg invitissimus dimisi, C, Fam., xiii. 63, 1 ; 7 dismissed Mm most unwillingly. Plus hodig boni fgci imprudens quam sciens ante hunc diem nmquam, Ter., Ilec, 880; / have done more good to-day unawares than I have ever done knowingly before. Adcurrit, mediam mulierem complectitur, Ter., And., 133 ; he runs up, puts his arms about the ivoman's waist. Qui prior strinxerit ferrum eius victoria erit, L., xxiv. 38, 5 (244, R. 2). Vespertinus pete tectum, II., Ej) , i 6, 20 ; seek thy dwell- ing at eventide. Rarus venit in cgnacula mUes, Juv., x. 18 ; the soldiery rarely comes into the garret. Sg totos tradidgrunt voluptatibus, C, Lael., 23, 86 ; they have given themselves wholly to pleasure. Soli hoc contingit sapienti, C, Par., v. i, 34 ; this good luck happens to the wise man alone = it is only the wise man who has this good hick. 7. Carefully to be distinguished are the uses of primus, and the ad- verbs primum, first, for the first time, and primo, at first. Primum means first in a series ; primo, first in a contrast. But these distinctions are not always observed. Primum docent esse deos, deinde qualgs sint, turn mundum ab iis admi- nistrari, postrgmo consulere eos rgbus humanis, Q.,N.D.,n. i, 3 ; first, they teach us that there are gods, next of ivhat 7iature they are, then that the world is ruled by them, finally, that they take thought for human affairs. PrimS StoicSrum more agamus, deinde nostro institutS vagabimur, C, Tusc, iii. 6, 13 ; let us treat the subject at first after the manner of the Stoics, afterwards ice will ramble after our own fashion. B. 1. Multiplibation of the Predicate. 326. The Multiplication of tlie Predicate requires no fur- ther rules than those that have been given in the general doctrine of Concord. 2. Qualification of the Predicate. 327. The Qualification of the Predicate may be regarded as an External or an Internal change : EXTERNAL CHANGE— ACCUSATIVE. 20/ I. External change : combination with an object. I. Direct Object, Accusative. 2. Indirect Object, Dative. II. Internal change : combination with an attribute which may be in the form of 1. The Genitive case. 3. Preposition with a case. 2. The Ablative. 4. An Adverb. Note.— The Infinitive forme (Infinitive, Genind, Gerundive, and Supine) appear now as objects, now as attributes, and require a separate trcatiuer.t. 1. External Change. Accusative. The great function of the Accusative is to form temporary compounds with the verb, as the great function of the Genitive is to form temporary compounds with the noun. Beyond this statement everything is more or less extra-grammatical, and sharp sub- divisions are often unsatisfactory. Still it may be said that 328. The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object. The Direct Object is the object which defines directly the action of the verb. Remark. — The Dative defines indirectly because it involves an Ac- cusative ; and the Genitive with the verb depends upon the nominal idea contained in the verb. 1. (a) The Object may be contained in the verb (Inner Object, Object Effected) : Dens mundum creavit, God made a creation — the universe. (b) Akin to this is the Accusative of Extent : A recta cSnscientia trSversum unguem nOn oportet disc6dere, C, A ft., xiTT. 20, 4 ; one ought not to swerve a naithi'eadth from a right conscience. Decern annos (Troia) oppugnata est, L., v. 4, 11 ; ten years ivas Troy besieged. Maximam partem lacte vivunt, Caes., B.O., iv. i, 8 ; for the most part they live on milk. 2. The object may be distinct from the verb (Outer Ob- ject, Object Affected) : Deus mundum gubernat, God steers the universe. 208 ACCUSATIVE. General View of the Accusative. 329. I. Inner Object : Object Effected : Cognate Accusative. Accusative of Extent. 1. In Space. 2. In Time. 3. In Degree. Terminal Accusative (Point Reached). II. Outer Object : Object Affected : 1. Whole. 2. Part (so-called Greek Accusative). III. Inner and Outer Objects combined : 1. Asking and Teaching. 2. Making and Taking. rV. Accusative as tlie most general form of the object (object created or called up by the mind) : 1. In Exclamations. 2. Accusative and Infinitive, DIRECT OBJECT (Inner and Outer). Note.— The Accusative is the object reached bj' the verb. This object is either in apposition to the result of the action of the verb, and then it is called the Inner Object or Object Effected ; or it is in attribution to the result of the action, and then it is said to be the Outer Object or Object Affected. The Inner Object is sometimes called the Voluntary Accusative, because it is already contained in the verb ; the Outer Object is sometimes called the Necessary Accusative, because it is needed to define the character of the action ; both verb and substantive contribute to the result ; compare hominem caedere (occidere), lo slay a man (Object Affected), with homicidium facere (6J. Quint., v. 9,9), io commit manslaughter (Object Effected). 330. Active Transitive Verbs take the Accusative case : Eomulus TTrbem BSmain condidit, 0/. C, Dt'f., i. 17, 30 ; Romulus founded the City of Rome. (Object Effected.) [M6ns] regit corpus, C, Rep., vi. 24, 3G ; mind governs body. (Object Affected.) Remark. — Many verbs of Emotion which are intrans. in English are trans, in Latin, as : dol6re, to grieve (for) ; d6sp5r5re, to despair (of); horrgre, to shudder (at) ; mirarl, to ivonder (at) ; rid6re, to laugh (at). HonSrgs dgspgrant, C, Crt/., 11. 9. 10 ; they despair of honors (give them up in despair). Necata est Vitia quod filii necem flevisset (541), Tag., Ann., vi. lo. 1 ; Vitia was executed for having ivept (for) her son's execution. COnscia mens rSctI Famae mendacia risit, Ov., i^., iv. 311 ; conscious of right, her soul (but) laughed (at) the falsehoods of Rumor. ACCUSATIVE. 209 Notes.— 1. From the definition of transitive given above (213, B.) it will be seen that this traditional rule reverses the poles ; it is retained merely for practical purposes. 2. This Ace. with verbs of Emotion is very rare in early Latin, and is not widely extended even in the classical period. With most verbs an Abl. of C:mse or a preposi- tional phrase is much more common, as : Ciir dg sua virtute d6spSrarent ? Caes., £.6., 1. 40,4. 3. The Ace. with verbal substantives is confined to Plautus : quid tibi nos tactiSst, mendlce homS 1 Aul., 423. 4. The Ace. with verbal adjectives in -undus is rare and mainly post-classical : Haec prope contionabundus circumibat homings, L., m. 47, 2. 331. Verbs compounded with the prepositions ad, ante, circum, con, in, inter, ob, per, praeter, sub, subter, super, and trans, which become transitive, take the Accusative. All with circum, per, praeter, trans, and subter. Many with ad, in, and super. Some with ante, con, inter, ob, and sub. See 347. Pythagoras Persarum magQs adiit, C, Fm., y. 2g, 87 ; Pythagoras applied to (consulted) the Persian magi. Stella Veneris antegreditur Bolem, C, K.D., ii. 20, 53 ; the star Venus goes in advance of the sun. Omngs Domitium circumsistunt, Caes., B.C., i. 20,5 ; all surround Do- mitius. Earn, si opus esse vidgbitur, ipse conveniam, C, Fam., v. 11, 2 ; / will go to see her, myself, if it shall seem expedie?it. Convivia cum patre non inibat, C, Rose. Am., 18, 52 ; he ivould not go to banquets with his father. Fretum, quod Naupactura et Patras interfluit, Ij. , xxvir. 29, 9 ; the frith tliat flows between Naupactus and Patrae. Alexander tertiS et tricgsimo anno mortem obiit, C, Ph., v. 17, 48 ; Alexander died in his thirty -third year. Caesar omnem agrum Picgnum percurrit, Caes., B.C., I. 15. 1 ; Caesar traversed rapidly cdl the Pice?iian district. [Populus] Bolet dignos praeterire, C, Plane, 3, 8 : the people is ivont to pass by the worthy. Epaminondas poenam subiit, Cf. Nep , xv. 8, 2 ; Epaminondas submitted to the punishment. Criminum vim subterfugere nullo mods poterat, C, Verr., i. 3, 8 ; he coidd in no way evade the force of the charges. R5mani ruinas muri supervadgbant, L., xxxn. 24, 5 ; the Romans marched over the ruins of the wall. Crassus Euphratem niilla belli causa transiit, Cf. C, Fi7i., in. 22, 75; Crassus crossed the Euphrates without any cause for war. Remarks. — 1. If the simple verb is trans., it can take two Accusa- tives : Equitum magnam partem flumen traigcit, Caes., B.C., i. 55, 1; he (hrew a great part of the cavalry across the river. 2. With many of these verbs the preposition may be repeated ; but never circum : Copias traigcit Rhodanum, or trans Rhodanum, he threw his troops across the Rhone. 3. Sometimes a difference of signification is caused by the addition of the preposition : 14 2IO ACCUSATIVE. Adire ad aliquem, to go to a man ; adire aliquem, to apply to {to con* suit) a man. INNER OBJECT. 332. Any verb can take an Accusative of the Inner Object, when that object serves to define more narrowly or to explain more fully the contents of the verb. The most common form of this object is a neuter pronoun or adjec- tive. The most striking form is the so-called Cognate Accusative. 333. I. Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives are often used to define or modify the substantive notion that lies in the verb. Xenophon eadem ferS peccat, C.,N.D., i. 12, 31 ; Xenophon makes very much the same mistakes. Vellem equidem idem possem glSriari quod Cyrus, C, Cat.M., 10, 32 ; for my part I could wish that it were in my power to make the same boast as Cyrus. With trans, verbs an Ace. of the person can be employed besides: Discipulos id unum moneo ut praeceptorSs suds non minus quam ipsa studia ament, Quint., ii. 9, 1 ; / give pupils this one piece of advice, that they love their teachers no less than their studies themselves. Remarks. — i. The usage is best felt by comparing the familiar Eng- lish it after intrans. verbs, " to walk it, to foot it," etc., where " it" represents the substantive that lies in "walk, foot," etc. 2. In many cases the feeling of the case is lost to the consciousness, so especially with the interrogative quid, which has almost the foi-ce of ciir. Quid ridSs ? what (laughter) are you laughing = what means your laughter ? Id nOs ad t§, si quid vellSs, v§nimus, Pl,, M.G., 1158 ; thaVs why we have come to you, to see if you wanted anything. N0TE8.— 1. With verbs of Emotion this Ace, gives the ground of the emotion : TJtrumque laetor (I have a •double gladness., I am doubly glad), et sine dolore tS fuisse et anim5 valuisse, C, Fam., vii. i, 1. Laetae exclamant : vSnit ! id quod {in this that, /w this that) mS repente aspexerant, Teu., Ilec, 368. From this arises the causal force of quod, in that = because. 2. Occasionally, but at all periods, the relative is used thus, to facilitate connection with a demonjitriitlve clause : Quae hominSs arant {.what men do in the way of plowing, etc.), navigant, aedifi- cant, omnia virttiti parent, S., C, 2, 7. Id ipsum quod maneam in vita U« the vei-yfact of my remaining in life) peccare mS [existimo], C, Fam., iv. 13, 2. 2. Cognate Accusative. — When the dependent word is of the same origin or of kindred meaning with the verb, it is called the Cognate Accusative, and usually has an attribute ACCUSATIVE. 211 Faciam ut mel memineris dum vitam vivas, Pl. , Pers. , 494 ; TU make you think of me the longest day you live. Mirum atque inscitum somniavi somniuin, Pl., Rud., 597 ; a marvellous and uncanny dream Tve dreamed. luravi verissimum itis iurandum, C, Fam., v. 2, 7; I swore the truest of oaths. Remark. — After the analogy of the Cognate Ace. are many phrase- ological usages, such as rem certare, to fight a case ; foedus ferire, to make a treaty (compare, to strike a bargain); itis respondgre, to render an opinion ; causam vincere, to win a case, etc. Also the phrases with ire : exsequias ire, to attend a funeral ; infitias ire, to deny, etc. Notes.— 1. The omission of the attribute is found most often in legal phraseology, proverbs, and the like : Maiorum nSmS servitutem servivit, C., Top.., 6, 29 ; of our ancestors no one ever slaved {what you would call) a slavery. Si servos furtuiu faxit noxiamve noxit, XII. Ta?j. 2. When the Cognate Ace. is replaced by a word of similar meaning, but of a differ- ent root, the effect is much the same as when an adjective is employed with the normal Accusative. This usage, however, is rare, and mainly poetical. Tertiam iam aetatem homimun (Nestor) vivSbat, C, Cat.M., 10,31 (reading doubtful). Omne militabitur bellum, H., Epod., i, 23. 8. Interesting extensions are found in the poets, and rarely in prose. Qui CuriSs simulant et Bacchanalia vivunt, Juv., n. 3. Nunc Sat3rrum, nunc agrestem Cyclopa movetur, H., Ep., 11. 2, 125. 4. Instead of the Inner Ace. the Abl. is occasionally found : lapidibus pluere, to rain stones ; sanguine sUdare, to siveat blood. Herculis simulacrum mult5 sudore manavit, C, Dtv., i. 34, 74 ; the statue of Hercules ran freely with sweat. 5. Verbs of Smell and Taste have the Inner Object, which is an extension of the Cognate variety. Fiscis sapit ipsum mare, Cf. Sen., N. Q., hi. 18, 2 ; the fish tastes of the very sea. Non omnes possunt olSre unguenta exotica, Pl., Most., 42 ; it is not every one can smell of foreign perfumes. 6. A poetical and post-classical construction is that which makes a substantival neuter adjective the object of a verb. This occurs chiefly with verbs of sound : nec mortale sonans, V., ^1., vi. 50 ; magna sonattirum, II.,*S'., i. 4, 44. Yet bolder is nec vox hominem sonat, V.,^4.,i. 328. A verb of sight is found in tam cernis acutum, H., aS'., i. 3, 26. Cf. dulce ridentem, ll., 0., i. 22, 23. Accusative of Extent. The Accusative of Extent has to do with Degree^ Space, or Time. 334. The Accusative of Extent in Degree is confined to neuter adjectives and pronouns used substantively, multum, plus, tantum, quantum, etc. Si mS amas tantum quantum profecto amas, C, Att., 11. 20, 5 ; if you love me as much as in fact you do love me. 212 ACCUSATIVE. "Remarks. — i. The number of adjectives and pronouns so used is large, and in many cases the form is felt more as an adverb than as a substantive. 2. Here belong the adverbial Accusatives tuam, etc., partem, vicem, which occur occasionally at all periods. 335. The Accusative of Extent in Space is used properly only with words that involve a notion of space. When space is not involved in the governing word the idea of extent is given by the use of per, through. Trabes, distantes inter se binos pedgs, in solo collocantur, Caes., E.G., VII. 23, 1 ; beams two feet apart are planted in the ground. A rScta con- scientia traversum unguem non oportet discedere, C. Att., xiii. 20, 4 (328, b). Equitgs per 6ram maritimam dispositi sunt, Cf. Caes., B.C., iii. 24, 4 ; cavalry were posted along the sea shore. Phoebidas iter per Thebas [fgcit], Nep., XVI. I, 2 ; Phoebidas marched through 'Thebes. Milites aggerem latum pedes trecentos triginta altum pedSs octoginta exstruxe- runt, Caes., B.G., vii. 24, 1; the soldiers raised an embankment three hundred and thirty feet wide (and) eighty feet high. Kemarks. — I. The adjectives in most common use with this Accusa- tive are longus, long, latus, wide, altus, deep, high. Thick?iess, which was indicated in early times by crassus, is expressed by phrases with crassitudo. Similarly occur phrases with magnitudo, longitude, latitudo, altitudo. Profundus, deep, never occurs with the Accusative. 2. Witii abesse and distare, an Abl. of Measure may also be used : Milibus passuum quattuor et viginti abesse, Caes., B.G., i. 41, 5 ; to be twenty-four miles from Note.— When the point of reference is taken for granted, ab (a) with the Abl. is occasionally used ; but only by Caesar and Livy. Here it has been suggested that ab is used adverbially, and the Abl. is one of Measure. (Hostes) ab milibus passuum minus duobus castra posuSrunt, Caes., B. G., II. 7, 3 ; the enemi/ pitched their camp less than two miles off. 336. The Accusative of Extent in Time accompanies the verb, either with or without per, in answer to the question. How long 9 Duodgquadraginta annos tyrannus SyracGsanSrum fuit Dionysius, C, Tusc, V 20, 57 ; thirty-eight years was Dionysius tyrant of Syracuse. (Gorgias) centum et novem vixit annOs, Quint., hi. i, 9 (233, n. 2). Ludi per decern dies facti sunt, C, Cat., iii. 8, 20 ; games were performed for ten days. Est m6cum per diem tOtum, Plin., Ep., i. 16, 7 ; he is with me the livelong day. Sedet aeternumque sedSbit infglix TbSseus, V., A., vi. 617 ; there sits and shall forever sit imhappy Theseus. AO'OU-S^ATIVE. 213 Remarks. — i. In giving definite numbers with iam, iam dia, lam dudum, etc., the Ijatin often employs the ordinal where the English prefers the cardinal. Compare the Ablative of Pleasure (408). Mithridates annum iam tertium at vicgsimum regnat, C. , Imp. , 3, 7 (230). 2. Per with the Ace. is frequently used like the Abl. of Time Within Which. Per ilia tempora = illis temporibus, in those times. So especially with the negative : Nulla r6s per triennium nisi ad nutum istius iudicata est, C, Verr., i. 5, 13 ; 710 matter was decided during {in) the three years except at his heck. 3. With an Aoristic tense the dating point is given by abhinc, which usually precedes the temporal designation. Abhinc annos factumst sgdecim, Pl., Cas., 39 ; Hivasdone sixteen years ago. Demosthenes abhinc annos prope trecentos fuit, C, Div., 11. 57, 118; Demosthenes lived nearly three hundred years ago. The use of an Ace. with an Aoristic tense without a dating word, like abMnc, is very rare and doubtful. Caes., B. G., ii. 35, 4, has been emended. 4. Natus, old (bom), seems to be an exception to r. 3, but it is only an apparent one, as the dating point is involved in the verb with which it is construed. For various constructions with natus, see 206, r. 5. Puer decern annos natus est, the boy is ten years old. Quadraginta annos natus regnare [coepit], C, i>w., i. 23, 46 ; (he was) forty years old (when) he began to reign. Notes.— 1. The use of the indefinite substantival adjective is rare. Plautus uses sempiternum, Vergil introduces aeternum (see example above), while perpetuum does not appear until Apuleius. 2. Here belong the phraseological uses id temporis, id aetatis, which belonged to the popular speech, and never became firmly rooted in literature. Thus Cicero rarely uses them, except in his earliest works and his letters. Id genus is used after the same general analogy, but is not temporal. This occurs in Cicero but once, Alt., xiii. 12, 3. Caesar never uses any of these forms. 3. Poetical and rare is the extension which makes the Accusative of Extent the sub- ject of a passive verb. Nunctertia vivitur aetas, Ov., M., xii. 188 = nunc tertiam vivitur aetatem. Tota mihi dormitur hiems, Mart., xiii. 59, i = tStam dormio hiemem. Normally the verb becomes impersonal or is re2;ularly used with a proper subject, and the Accusative of Extent is unchanged : [Bellum] quo duodecimum annum Italia urgbatur, L., xxvii. 39, 9. Accusative of the Local Object. Terminal Accusative. 337. The activity of a verb may be defined by the Point Reached. Hence tlie rule : Names of Towns and small Islands, when used as limits of Motion Whither^ are put in the Accusative. 214 ACCUSATIVE. So also rns, into the country, domum, domos, home. Miss! legati Athenas sunt, L., iii. 31, 8 ; envoys were sent to AthenSc Latona confugit D6lum, Cf. C, Verr., i. 18, 48 ; Latona took refuge in Delos. Ego rus ibo atque ibi mangbo, Ter,, Eun., 216; I shall go to the country and stay tJiere. Innumerabilgs (philosophi) numquam domum reverterunt, C, Tusc, v. 37, 107 ; innumerable philosophers never re- turned home. Remarks. — i. Countries and large islands being looked upon as areas, and not as points, require prepositions, such as : in, into ; ad, to ; versus, -ward ; in Graeciam proficisci, to set out for Greece. 2. When urbem, city, or oppidum, town, precedes the name of the city or town, tlie idea of area is emphasized, and the preposition in or ad is prefixed ; if urbem or oppidum follows, in or ad may be omitted : In (ad) oppidum Cirtam, to, in {at) the town (of) Cirta. When urbem or oppidum is qualified by an adjective, it regularly fol- lows the name of the town, and has the preposition : lugurtha Thalam perv6nit in oppidum magnum et opulentum, S., Jug., 75, 1 ; Jugurtha arrived at Thala, a great and wealthy town. 3. Domum, with a possessive pronoun, or Gen., may mean house as well as hom,e, and accordingly may or may not have in before it : domum meam, or, in domum meam, to my house ; domum Pompeii, or, in domum Pompgii, to Pompey^s house ; also domum ad Pompeium. Other- wise : in magnificam domum venire, to come into a grand house. 4. Ad means to the neighborhood of, often before, of military op- erations. Ad Mutinam, to the neighborhood (siege of) Mutina (Mo- dena). 5. The fiimple Ace. will suffice even for extent : OmniF ilia mtinicipia, quae sunt a VibSne Brundisium, C, Plane., 41, 97; all the free towns from Vibo to Brundisium. 6. Motion to a place embraces all the local designations : Phalara in sinum Maliacum pr5c6sserat, L., xxxv. 43, 8 ; he had ad- vancad to Phalara on the Maliac Gulf. Tarentum in Italiam inferiOrea: proficisci, to set out for Tarentum in Lower Italy. Notes.— 1. The omission of the preposition before countries and large islands is poetical and post-classical. Caesar shows such omission with Aegyptus only, Cicero not at all. 2. Poets and later prose writers extend the Ace. also to names of peoples and streams. Beginnings of this are seen in CicEno : cum Bosphorum confiigisset, Mirr., 16, 34. 3. The insertion of the preposition with names of towns and small islands is rare in good prose, but is always legitimate when the preposition is to be emphasized, 4. The use of Usque with this Ace. to emphasize the continuity of the motion is found first in Terence, occasionally in Cicero. From Liyy on it spreads and is used also with other local designations. 5. Verbal substantives are also occasionally followed by this Accusative : BedltUB BOmam, C, Ph., n. 42, 108 ; return to Rome. ACCUSATIVE. 215 OUTER OBJECT. Accusative of Respect. 338. The Accusative of the object affected sometimes specifies that in respect to which the statement of a passive or intransitive verb, or an adjective, applies. There are two varieties : 1. Definite: The Accusative of tlie part affected. Percussa nova mentem formidine, V., G., iv. 357; her mi^id stricken with a new dread. lam vulgatum actis quoque saucius pectus, Quint., IX. 3, 17 ; bi/ this time '' breast- wounded^' is actually becoine a common newspaper phrase. 2. Indefinite : cetera, alia, reliqua, omnia, plgraque, cuncta ; in other respects, in all respects, in most respects. Cetera adsentior Crasso, C, Or., i. g, 35 ; in all other points I agree with Crassus. Omnia Mercuric similis, V., A., iv. 558 ; in ail respects like unto Jlercury. Notes.— 1. This is commonly called the Greek Accusative, because it is so much more common in Greek, and because its extension in Latin is due to Greek influence. The first variety is very rare in early Latin. ; introduced into prose by S/xlust, it is rare in Livy and later, and is applied usually to wounds. It is much more common ill the poets. Of the second variety cStera is found here and there at all periods ; the others are very rare. Good prose uses the Ablative for the first variety, and for the second, ad cetera, in ceteris, per cetera, cte. 2. Billcrent is the Accusative with induor, Tdon ; exuor, Idqf; cingor, / gird on myself, and other verbs of cMMng and unclothing, as well as 2}(^ssives, where the Subject is also the Agent ; in which verbs the reflexive or middle signification is retained. These uses are poetical or i>ost-classical. Inutile ferrum cingitur, v.. A., u. 510 ; he girds on (himself) a uMess blade. Loricam induitur fidoque accingitur 6nse, V., A., vii. 640 ; he dons a corselet and begirds himself with his trv.^tij glaive. (Arminius) impetu equi pervasit oblitus faciem suo cruore nS nosceretur, Tac, Arm.n. 17,7 ; Hermann pushed his way through., thanks to the onset of his charger, having smeared his face with his own gore, to keep from being recognized. DOUBLE ACCUSATIVE (Inner and Outer). When two Accusatives depend on the same verb, one is the Inner and the other the Outer object. Theoretically any combination of Inner and Outer objects is allowable ; practically the language has restricted its usage to varieties a and b. 339. (a) Active verbs signifying to Inquire, to Require, to Teach, and celare, to conceal, take two Accusatives, one of the Person, and the other of the Thing. PiisiQnem quendam Socrates interrogat quaedam ge5metrica, C, Tusc, I. 24, 57 ; Socrates asks an urchin sundry questions in geometry. Caesar AeduOs frumentum flagitabat, Caes.,5. 6^., i. 16, 1 ; Caesar kept demanding the corn of the Aediii. Quid nunc te, asine, litteras doceam? (265), C, Pis., 30, 73 ; why should I noiv give you a lesson in literature, 2l6 ACCUSATIVE. you donkey ? Non te celavi sermonem Ampii, C, Fam. , ii. i6, 3, I did not keep you in the dark about my talk with Ampius. Remarks. — i. The expressions vary a good deal. Observe : This then is not the only way, Fdsc5, 1 claim, and flagito, For it is also right to say, And always pet5, p5stiil5, Docere and c6lare dS, Take aliquid ab aliquQ, Interrogare de qua re. While quaere takes ex, ab, dg, qu3. Adherbal Bomam legates miserat, qui senatum docSrent dS caede fra- tris, S., Iiig., 13, 3 ; Adherbal had sent envoys to Borne to inform the seriate of the murder of his brother. Bassus noster mg d6 li5c librS c6la- vit, C, Fam., vii. 20, 3 ; onr friend Bassus has kept me in the dark about this hook. Aquam a pumice nunc pOstulas, Pl., Pers., 41 ; you are noiv asking water of a pumice-stone (blood of a turnip). 2. With doceo the Abl. of the Instrument is also used : docSre fidibus, equ5, to teach the lyre, to teach riding ; with grudire, the Abl., in with the Abl. or (rarely) dg. Doctus and gruditus generally take the Abl. : Dcctus Graecis litteris, a good Grecian. 3. With cglari the Ace. of the Thing becomes the subject, and the Ace. of the Person is retained ; or the Ace. of the Person is made the subject, and instead of the Ace, of the Thing, d5 with the Abl. is used. Notes.— 1. There is a great deal of difference in the relative frequency of these verbs. So doceS and its compounds, rogo, pdsc5, reposcG, Cgl5, are common ; in- terrog5, orS, expSscO, p5stulo, flagitS, consulO, are rare, exigS (in passive), per- center, are ante-classical and post-classical. So, too, the classical Latin in general avoids two Accusatives, unless one is a neuter pronoun. 2. The construction with ab, with verbs of Requiring, is much more common than the double Ace, and in some cases is necessary ; so, too, the construction with dg after verbs of Inquiring. 3. Other verbs of teaching than doced and its compounds, and grudire, always have dg until late Latin, as instruere, etc. So docgre, when it means to inform. 4. The Passive form, with the Nom. of the Person and the Ace. of the Thing, is sparingly used. Discere is the prose word for docgri, except that the past participle doctus is classical but rare. Motus decgri gaudet ISnicSs mattlra virg3, H., 0.,in. 6,21 ; the rare ripe maid delights to learn Ionic dances. Vir omngs belli artgs gdoctus, L., xxv. 40, 5 ; one who had learned (been taught) thoroughly all the arts of war. 340. (b) Verbs of Naming, Making, Taking, Choosing, Showing, may have two Accusatives of the same Person or Thing : [Iram] bene Ennius initium dixit insSniae, C. , Tusc, iv. 23, 52 ; well did Fnnius call anger the beginning of madness. Ancum Marcium rggem populus creavit, L., i. 32, 1 ; the people made Ancus Marcius king. Cat3 ValeriumFlaccumhabuitcoUggam, Of. Nep., xxiv. i,2; Catohad Valerius Flaccus (as) colleague. Eum simillimum de3 iMico, C, 3Iarc., 3, 8 ; .? Judge him {to be) very like unto a god. Atbgnignsibus Pythia praecgpit ut ACCUSATIVE. 217 Miltiadem sib! imperatorem sumerent, Nep., i. i, 3 ; the Pythia instructed the Athenians to take MUtiades (as) their commander. Fraesta tg eum qui mihi es cognitus, C, Fam., i. 6, 2 ; show yourself the mail that I know you to he. Quern intellegimus divitera ■? C, Par., vi. i, 42 ; ivhom do we understand hy the rich man 9 Remarks. — i. The Double Ace. is turned into the Double Nom. with the Passive (206). Keddo, I render, is not used in the Passive, but, instead thereof, fio, / become. Habeo, with two Accusatives, commonly means to have ; in the sense of hold, regard, other turns are used ; usually pro. Utrum pro ancilla me habSs an pro filia ? Pl,, Pers., 341 ; do you look upon me as a maid-servant or as » daughter f Similarly habgre servorum loco, (in) numero deSrum, to regard as slaves, as gods. 2. With verbs of Taking and Choosing the ejid is indicated by the Dat. or ad with Accusative. (BQmulus) trecentgs armatSs ad custOdiam corporis habuit, L., i. 15, 8 ; Romulus had three hundred armed men as a body-guard. 341. (c) Double Accusatives, where one is the cognate, are very uncommon : Tg bonas precgs precor, Cato, R.R., i. 3, 4. Tarn tg basia multa basiare vgsano satis et super Catullost, Cat., vii. 9. Notes. — 1. Curions extensions occasionally occur : Idem ius iurandum adigit Afranium, Caes., 5. C, i. 76. 2. In early Latin frequently, and in later times occasionally, the Inner object is given by a neuter pronoun, in the simplest form. Quid mg viS % what do you ivant of me? what do you, want me for ? So with prohibgre ; also with iubgre (once in Cicero and Caesar), admongre, etc. Neque mg Itippiter neque di omngs id prohibgbunt, Pl., Am., 1051. LItterae quae tg aliquid iubgrent, C, Fam., xiii. 26, .3. 342. {d) In early Latin we find cases of two Accusatives with a single verb, where the verb forms a single phrase with one of the Accu- satives, and the second Accusative is the object of the phrase : animum advertere, to perceive ; ludos facere, to make game of ; manum inicere, to lay hands on, etc. In classical Latin these phrases have been usually, where possible, formed into a single word : animadvertere, ludificari. Animum advertit Gracchus in contione PisSnem stantem, C, Tusc, in. 20, 48 ; Gracchus perceived Piso standing in the assembly. Note.— On the Double Accusative with compound verbs, see 331, r. i. ACCUSATIVE AS A GENERAL OBJECTIVE CASE. 343. The iVccusative as the Objective Case generally is used as an object of Thought, Perception, Emotion ', an ob- 2l8 DATIVE. ject created by the mind, evoked or deprecated by the will. Hence the use of the Accusative : (a) In Exclamations. (5) With the Infinitive. 1. The Accusative is used in Exclamations as the general object of Thought, Perception, or Emotion : M6 miserum, C, Fam., xiv. i, 1 ; poor me ! Mg caecum qui haec ante nSn viderim, Q., Att.y x. lo, 1 ; hlind me ! not to have seen all this before. So in Exclamatory Questions : Qu5 mihi fortunam, si non concgditur uti ? H., Ep., i. 5, 12 ; what (is the object of) fortune to we if Tm not allowed to enjoy it 9 Interjections are used : Heu mg miserum! Alas! poor me! 5 miseras hominum mantes, 6 pectora caeca, Lucr., ii. 14 ; oh, the wretched minds of men, oh, the blind hearts ! So, in apposition to a sentence, see 324. Notes.— 1. 5 with the Voc. is an address ; with the Nom. a characteristic; with the Ace. an object of emotion. 2. Em, Lo! and Ecce, Lo here ! have the Ace. in the earlier language : Em tibi hominem! Pl., Asin., 880 ; here's your man ! Ecce mg ! Pl., Ep., 680 ; here am I! So eccum, ellum, eccam, eccillam, in comic poetrj-. Ecce takes only the Nom. in classical Latin. Distinguish between em and gn, the latter of which, in the sense lo ! does not appear until Cicero's time, and takes the Nominative, rarely the Accusative. Pro takes the Vocative : Pr5 di immortalgs ! Ye immortal gods ! The Accusative occurs in : Pro deum atque hominum fidem! C, Tusc, v. 16, 48 ; for heavev!' s sake ! and similar phrases. Ei (hei)^! and Vae ! take the Dative. Ei mihi ! Ah me ! Vae victis ! Woe to the conquered ! 2. The Accusative and the Infinitive are combined so as to present the notion of Subject and Predicate as an object of thought or perception (527). Hence the Accusative with the Infinitive is used : [a) In Exclamations. (See 534.) lb) As an Object. (See 527.) {c) As a Subject, (See 535.) DATIVE. 344. The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object, and always involves a Direct Object, which may be contained in the verb or expressed by the complex of verb and object. DATIVE. 219 NSm8 errat Unl sibi, Sen., E.M., 94, 54 ; no one er?-s (makes mistakes) to {for) 1 dm self alone. Non omnibus dormio, C, Fam., vir, 24, 1 ; it is not for everybody that I am asleep. Tibi exercitum patria pr5 sS dedit, C, Ph., XIII. 6, 14 ; your country gave you an army for its own defence. Mulier sibI fglicior quam viris, C, Ph., v. 4, 11. Note.— In English the form of the Indirect Object is the same as that of the Direct : " He showed me (Dat.) a pure river ; " " he showed me (Ace.) to the priest." Originally a case of Personal Interest, it is used freely of Personified Things, sparingly of Local Relations, and this despite the fact that Locative and Dative are blended in the First and Third Declensions. If a Locative, the Dative is a sentient Locative. Dative with Transitive Verbs. 345. The Indirect Object is put in the Dative with Transi- tive verbs, which already have a Direct Object in the Accusa- tive. Translation, to, for, from. This Accusative becomes the Nominative of the Passive. The Dative depends on the complex. Active Form : To : Facile omngs, quom valSmus, r6cta cSnsilia aegrOtIs damus, Ter., And., 309 ; readily all of us, ivhen well, give good counsel to the sick. For : Frangam tons5ri crura manusque simul, Mart., xi. 58, 10 ; Td break the harher's legs for him and hands at once. From : Somnum mihi [adSmit], C, Att., 11. 16, 1 ; it took my sleep away from me. Passive Form : Merc6s mihi gl5ria dstur, Ov., F., in. 389; let glory be given to me as a reward. Immeritis franguntur crura caballis, Juv.,x, 60 ; the innocent hacks get their legs broken for the?n. Arma [adimuntur] mflitibus, L., xxn. 44, 6; the soldiers have their arms taken from them. Domus pul- chra dominis aediiicatur n5n mtiribus, Cf. C, N.D., in. 10, 26 ; a handsome house is built for its owners, not for the mice. Remarks. — i. These constructions are found with more or less fre- quency at all periods. But the Dat. with verbs of Taking Away, Pro- hibiting, and the like, is mostly confined to poetry and later prose. The translation from is merely approximate, instead of for. When the idea of Personal Interest is not involved, the Abl. is necessary. Isfrater, qui eripuit fratrem carcere, non potuit eripere ^to, Sen., Dial., XI. 14, 4. A good example of a play on construction is Pl., Aid., 635 : St. Nihil equidem tibi abstuli. Eu. At illud quod tib! abstuleras cede. 2. The translation For is nearer the Dat. than To. It is the regular 220 DATIVE. form when the Ace. is that of the object effected ; when it is that of the object affected the translation is more often to ; but for {in defence of) is pr5 : pro patria mori, to die for one's country. To {with a view to) is ad or in, and when tlie idea of motion is involved, the preposition must be used, even with dare, which gives its name to the Dative : Litteras alicui dare, to give one a letter (to carry or to have). Litteras ad aliquem dare, to indite a letter to one. Rogas ut mea tibi scripta mittam, C, Fam., i. 9, 23 ; you ask me to send you my writings (you wish to have them). Libr5s iam pridem ad te mlsissem si esse Sdendos putassem, C, Fam., i. 9, 23 ; / should have sent the hooks to you long since if I had thought they ought to be published. Dative with Intransitive Verbs. 346. The Indirect Object is put in the Dative with many Intransitive Verbs of Advantage or Disadvantage, Yielding and Kesisting, Pleasure and Displeasure, Bidding and For- bidding. Fuit mlrificus in CrassS pudor, qui tamen n5n obesset 5ius SrationI, C, Or., I. 26, 122 ; Crassus had a marvellous modesty, not, however, such as to be a bar to the effectiveness of his oratory. Ipsa sib! imbScillitas indulget, C, Tusc.,iv. 18, 42 ; weakness gives free course to itself. Pro- bus invidet nSmini, C, Tim., 3, 9 ; your upright man cherishes envy to 710 one. Catilina litteras mittit s6 forttinae cSdere, S., C, 34, 2; Catiline ivrites that he gives way to fortune. Dies stultis quoque medSri solet, C, Fam., VII., 28, 3 ; time is wont to prove a medicine even to fools. Mo- derari at animo et orationi est non mediocris ingenil, Q.,Q.F.,i. 11. 13, 38 ; to put boimds both to temper and to language is the work of no mean ability. Sic agam, ut ipsi auctorl hoius discipllnae placet, C, Fin., i. 9, 29 ; I will act as it seems good to the head of this school {of thought) himself. [Mundus] deo paret et huic oboediunt maria terraeque, C, Leg., III. I, 3 ; the universe is obedient to God, and seas and lands hearken unto him. Virtuti suOrum satis credit, Cf. S., Ing., 106, 3 ; he puts full confidence in the valor of his men. IllI poena, nSbis libertas [ap- propinquat], C, Ph., iv. 4, 10; to him punishment, to us freedom, is draw- ing 7iigh. Remarks. — i. Of course the passives of these verbs are used imper- sonally (208) : Qui invident egent, iUls quibus invidStur, I rem habent, Pl., True, 745 ; those who envy are the needy, those ivho are envied have the stuff'. 2. The verbs found with this Dat. in classical Latin are : prodesse, obesse, noc6re, condticit, expedit ; assentirl, blandirl, cupere, favSre, grati- ficSri, gratularl, Ignoscere, iudulgSre, m5rigerarl, studSre, sulfragarl; ad- versarl, Insidiarl, invidSre, irasci, maledicere, minarl, minitarl, obtrectSre, DATIVE. 221 officere, refragarl, suscgnsSre ; c6dere, concgdere ; resistere ; auxiliari, c5n- sulere, medSri, opitulari, parcere, prospicere ; moderari, temperare (sibi) ; placgre, displicgre ; auscultare, imperare, oboedire, obsequi, obtemperare, parere, persuadere, servire, suadere ; credere, Mere, confidere, diffidere, despgrare ; accidit, contingit, gvenit ; libet, licet ; appropinquare, repugnSre. Also nubere, to marry (of a woman) ; supplicare, to implore. Notes.— 1. Some other verbs are used occasionally in the same way, as incommo- dare, which Cicero uses once. Also, dolere, with Dat. of suffering: person, is found sometimes in Cicero, though it belongs rather to the Comic Poets. 2. Some of these words have also other constructions. These occur usually in ante- classical and post-classical Latin ; if in classical Latin a different meaning is usually found in the new construction. Thus indulggre aliquid, ^o grant a thing, invidere alicul aliquid, obtrgctare, with Ace, suadgre, persuadgre, with Ace. of the Per- son, are post-classical and late ; moderari, with Ace, is found in Lucretius and in Silver Latin ; temperare, meaning mix, takes Ace. at all .periods, Fidere, c5nfl- dere, diffidere are found also with Ablative. Sometimes the personal interest is emphasized when the Dat. is employed, as over against the Accusative. So regularly with verbs of Fearing, as : metuere aliquem, to dread s&ine one, but metuere alicul, fo fear for some one ; cavEre alicui, io take ■precautions for some one, but cavgre aliquem (also d§, ab aliqu5), to take precau- tions against some one ; cavgre aliqua rg (early), to beware of a thing. Consulere aliquem, to consult a persoit ; cSnsuiere alicul, to consult for a person. On con- venire, see 347, n. 2. Noteworthy are the constructions of invidgre and vacare : Invidgre alicui (in) aliqua rg (Cic uses prep.) I fol^egrudgeamanathing. alicul aliquid (V erg., Hou., Livy, etc.) \ J J "^ alicuius rei (once in Horace, S.^ ii. 6, 84), to begrudge a thing. (alicuius) alicui rei (common), to envy something belonging to a man. Vacare rei, to be at leisure for, to attend to\ . rg, a re, to be at leisure from ' Sometimes there is hardly any difference in meaning : Comitor aliquem, / accompany a man ; comitor alicul, I act as companion to a man ; praestolor alicui (better) or aliquem, / wait for. 3. Some words with similar meanings take the Accusative ; the most notable are : aequare, to be equal ; decgre {to distinguish), to be becoming ; deficere, to be want- ing ; delectare, to please ; iuvare, to be a help ; iubgre, to order ; laederc, to in- jure ; and vetare, to forbid. The Dat. also occurs after aequSre and dgficere. Eam picturam imitati sunt multi, aequavit ngmo, Plin., iV.//.,xxxv,ii, 126 ; that style of paifding many have ijnitated, none equalled. Forma viros neglgcta decet, Ov., A. A., i. 509 ; a careless beauty is becoming to men. Me digs dgficiat, Cf. C, Verr., 11. 21, 52 ; the day would faU me, Fortis fortlina adiuvat, Tbr., Ph.^ 203 ; fortune f avoids Vie brave. Tacitus is tiie first to use iubgre with Dative ; Ann., iv. 73, etc. 4. The Dat. use is often obscured by the absence of etymological translation. So nubere alicul, to marry a man (to veil for him) ; medgri alicul, to heal (to take one's measures for) a man ; supplicare, to beg (to bow tlie knee to) ; persuSdgre, to persuade (to make it sweet). 6. After the analogy of verbs the phrases audientem esse, to hear, i.e., to obey, supplicem esse, to entreat, auctorem esse, to advise, fidem babgre, to have faith iri, are also found with the Dative : Si potest tibi dicto audigns esse quisquam, C, Verr., i. 44, 114. 6. The poets are very free in their use of the Dat. with verbs of the same general 222 DATIVE. meaning as those given. So gg misc6re, io mingle with : coire, concurrere, (o meet', verbs of contending, as contendere, bellare, piignare, certare ; verbs of disagree- ment, as differre, discrepare, distare, dissentire. Here belongs haerere with the Dat., as v.. A., iv. 73, which may, however, be a Locative construction. Dative and Verbs Compounded with Prepositions. 347. Many verbs compounded with the prepositions ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, (post), prae, sub, and super, take the Dative, especially in moral relations. Transitive Verbs have an Accusative case besides. PlebSs clincta comitiis adfnit, C, Plane, 8, 21 ; the entire commonalty was preseyit at the election, Onmis s6nsus hominnm mnlto antecellit sSn- sibus bestiarum, C, N.D., 11. 57, 145 ; every sense of man is far superior to the senses of beasts. (Ennius) equi fortis et victoris senectiitl comi>arat suam, C, Cat.M.y 5, 14 ; Ennius compares his {old age) to the old age of a gallant and winning steed. Imminent duo reges toti Asiae, C, Imp., 5, 12 ; two kings are menaces to all Asia. Interes consiliis, C, Att., XIV. 22, 3 ; you are in their councils, arepj'ivy io their plans. Piger ipse sibi obstat, Prov. (311, 2). Omnibus Druidibus praeest unus, Caes., JB.G., VI. 13, 8 ; at the head of all the Druids is one man. Anatum ova gallinis saepe supponimus, C, j\\D., 11. 48, 124 ; we off en put ducks' eggs under hens (for them to hatch). Neque deesse neque superesse rei piibli- cae vols, C. (Pollio), Fam., x. 33, 5; no life that is not true to the states no life that outlives the state's — that is my motto. Remarks. — i. The Dat. is found, as a rule, only when these verbs are used in a transferred sense. In a local sense tlie preposition should be employed, although even classical Latin is not wholly consistent in this matter. In poetry and later prose the Dat. is extended even to the local signification. In early Latin the repetition of the preposition is the rule. So incumbereingladium, C, Inv., 11. 51, 154, io fall upon one's sivord, 2. The principal intrans. verbs with the Dat. in classical Latin are: Accgdere {to join, or, to le added ; otherwise usually preposition ad) ; accumbere (once in Cic.) ; adesse (also with ad, in, and, in Plaut., apud); adhiaergscere (ad of local uses) ; arridSre (once in Cic.) ; annuere (occa- sionally with Ace.) ; assentiri ; assidgre ; antecedere (also with Ace.) ; anteire (also with Ace.) ; antecellere (with Ace. from Livv on) ; con- gruere (also with cum);' consentire (also with cum) ; c5nstare ; convenire {to suit ; with cum, to agree with, especially in the phrase convenit mihf cum aliqu5, / agree unth) ; illildere (also with Aec. and occasionally in and Ace.) ; impendgre (with Ace. is archaic ; occasionally in) ; incgdere (Sall., Livy, etc.) ; incidere (twice in Cic; regularly in); incubare (but incumbere regidarly with in or ad) ; inesse (once in Cic.) ; inhaergre (occar DATIVE. 223 sionally ad or in with Abl.) ; inhiare (Plaut. has Ace. only) ; innasci (innatus) ; Inservire ; insinuare (once in Cic. ; usually in) ; insistero (locally, in with Abl.; occasionally Ace.) ; instare; invadere (once in Cic. ; occasionally Ace. ; regularly in) ; intercedere ; intercurrere ; inter- esse (also with in and Abl.) ; intervenire ; obesse ; obrgpere (usually in, ad) ; obsistere ; obstare ; obstrepere ; obtingere ; obvenire ; obversari ; occurrere ; occursare ; praestare ; praesidere ; snbasse ; subvenire ; suc- cedere ; succumbere ; succrescere (once in Cic.) ; succurrere ; superesse. 3. The same variety of construction is found with transitive verbs, in composition. 4. After the analogy of praestare, excellere, to excel, is also found with the Dative. 5. Some trans, verbs, compounded with d5 and ex (rarely with ab), take the Dat., but it properly comes under 345. Caesar DgiotarS tetxarchian 6ripuit, eidemque dgtraxit Armeniam, Cf. C, Div., II. 37, 79 ; Caesar wrested from Dejotarus his ietrarchy, and stripped from him Armenia. Dative with Verbs of Giving and Putting. 348. A few verbs, chiefly of Giving and Putting, take a Dative with an Accusative, or an Accusative with an Abla- tive, according to the conception. Praedam militibus donat, Caes., B.G., vii. 11, 9; he presents the booty to the soldiers. But Rubrium corona dOnasti, C, Verr. in. 80, 185; thou didst present Ruhrius with a crow7i. Natura corpus animo circumdedit, Sen., E.M., 92, 13 ; Nature has put a lody around the mirid. But Deus animum circumdedit corpore, Cf. C, Tim., 6, 20 ; God has surrounded the mind with a body. Remarks. — i. These are: aspergere, to besprinkle and to sprinkle on ; circumdare, circumfundere, to surround ; donare, to prese?it ; impertire, to endoiv and to give ; induere, to clothe and to put on ; exuere, to strip of and to strip off ; intercludere, to shut off ; miscere, to 7nix and to mix in. 2. In general, classical Latin here prefers the Dat. of the person, but no fixed rule is followed. Dative of Possessor. 349. Esse, to he, with the Dative, denotes an inner connec- tion between its subject and the Dative, and is commonly translated by the verb to have : [Controversia] mihi fuit cum avunculo tu6, C, Fin., iii. 2, 6; 7 had a debate with your uncle. An nescis longas rggibus esse mantis % Ov., Her., 224 DATIVE. XVI. i66 ; or perhaps you do not hioiv that Icings have long arms 9 Compare non habet, ut putamus, fortiina longas manus, Sen., E.M., 82, 5. Kemarks. — I. The predicute of esse, with the Dat., is translated in the ordinary manner : Caesar amicus est mihi, Caesar is a friend to me (amicus meus, my friend, friend of mine). 2. The Dat. is never simply equivalent to the Genitive. The Dat. is the Person interested in the Possession, hence the Possession is em- phatic ; the Gen. characterizes the Possession by the Possessor, hence the Possessor is emphatic. The Gen. is the permanent Possessor, or owner ; the Dat. is the temporary Possessor. The one may include the other: Latini concSdunt Romam caput Latio esse, Cf. L., viii. 4, 5; the Latins concede that Laiium has its capital in Home. (Latii : that Latium's capital is Ro?ne.) 3. Possession of qualities is expressed by esse with in and the Abl., by inesse with Dat. or with in, or by some other turn : Fuit mirificus in Crasso pudor, C, Or., i. 26, 122 (346), Cim5n habgbat satis eloquentiae, Nep., v. 2, 1 ; Cimon had eloquence enough. Sallust introduces the Dat. also for these relations. 4. Abesse and dSesse, to he luanting, to fail, take also the Dat. of Possessor. 5. The Dat. of the person is regular with the phrases nomen (cogn5- men) est, inditum est, etc. Here the name is in the Nom. in apposition to nomen, in the best usage. Rarely in Cicero, always in Sallust, never in Caesar, more often in early and post-Ciceronian Latin, the name is found in the Dat. ; either by attraction with the Dat. of the person or on the analogy of the Double Dative. The Appositional Genitive (361) is first cited from Velleius. The undeclined Nom. after an active verb appears first in Ovid; then in Suetonius. F5ns aquae dulcis, cui nomen Arethusa est, C, Fe/r., iv. 53, 118 ; a fountain of sweet water named Arethusa. Apollodoms, cui PyragrS cog- nSmen est, C, Verr., iii. 31, 74 ; Apollodorus, surjiamed Fyragrus {fire- tongs). N3men ArcturS est mihf, Pl., Bud., 5 ; my name is Arcturus. Tibi nomen insanS posugre, IT., S., 11. 3, 47 ; tliey called you " cracked." [Samnitgs] Maleventum, cui nunc urbi Beneventum nSmen est, perfugSrunt, L., IX. 27, 14 ; tlie Samnites fled to JIaleventum (Ileome), a city ivhich now hears the 7iame Beneventum (Welcome). Aetas, cui fgcimus ' aurea' nOmen, Ov., M., xv. 96 ; the age to which we have given the 7iame ' Golden.'' Dative of Personal Interest. In its widest sense this category includes the Dative with Transitive and Intransi- tive Verbs, already treated, and the Ethical Dative, Dative of Reference, and Dative of Agent, to follow. In its narrower sense it applies only to persons or their eqnivalents who are essential to, but not necessarily participant in or affected by, the result, and differs from the Dative with Transitive and Intransitive Verbs, in that the connection with the verb is much more remote. DATIVE. 225 850. I- The person from whose point of view the action is observed, or towards whom it is directed, may be put in the Dative. A conve- nient but not exact translation is often tlie English Possessive {Datwus Energicus). EI libenter mS ad pedes abigci, Cf. C, Att., viii. 9, 1 ; 7 gladly cast myself at Ms feet. In conspectum vSnerat hostibus, Hirt., viii. 27 ; he had come into the sight of the enemy. Tuo viro oculi dolent, Cf. Ter., Ph., 1053; your husband's eyes ache; nearer, your husband has a pain in his eyes (tui viri oculi, your husband's eyes). Note.— This Dat. is denied by some for early Latin and is rare in Cicero. Bnt it becomes common from Livy on. With Relative and Demonstrative pronouns it is often used by Ciceronian and Augustan poets. In the case of many of the examples we have parallel constructions with the Geu. of Possessor, which is the normal usage. 2. The Dative is used of the person in whose honor, or interest, or advantage, or for whose pleasure, an action takes place, or the reverse {Dativus Comm,odl et Incommodl) : Consurrgxisse omngs [Lysandro] dicuntur, C, Cat.M., 18, 63 ; all are said to have risen up together in honor of Lysander. [Deo] nostra altaria famant, V., Ec, i. 43 ; our altars smoke in honor of the god. Si quid peccat miM peccat, Ter., Ad., 115 ; if he commits a fault, it is at my cost. Ethical Dative. 351. The Ethical Dative indicates special interest in the action. It may be called the Dative of Feeling, and its use is confined to the personal pronouns {Dativus Etliicus.) Tti mihi Antonii exemplo istius audaciam dgfendis? C, Verr., m. 91, 213 ; do you defend me {to my face) by Antony's example that fellow's audacity ? Ecce tibi Sgb5sus ! C, Att., 11. 15 ; here's your Sebosus ! " She's a civil modest wife, one (I tell you) that will not miss you morning nor evening prayer." — Shakespeare. Notes.— 1. This is essentially a colloquialism, common in comedy, especially with ecce and em, frequent in Cicero's letters, occasionally found elsewhere. In poetry, notably Augustan, it is almost wholly absent ; but there are several cases in Horace. Cicero does not use em. Livy does not use ecce. 2. Especially to be noted is sib! velle, to vmriU to mean : Quid tibi vis, insane, C, 6>r.. II. 67, 269 ; what do yoti want, madman 9 Quid volt sibi haec oratiol Ter., Heaiit., 615 ; what does all this holding fvrth mean ? Dative of Reference. 352. This indicates the person in whose eyes the state- ment of the predicate holds good {Dativus ludicantis). Ut mihi deformis, sic tibi magnificus, Tac. , H. , xii. 37 ; to me a monster, to yourself a prodigy of splendor. Quintia formosa est multis, Cat. , 86, 1 ; Quintia is a beauty in the eyes of many. 15 226 DATIVE. NoTE.—This Dative is characteristic of the Augustan poets, but it is also common enough in Cicero and the prose authors. 363. N'oteworthy is the use of this Dative in combination with par- ticiples, which shows two varieties, one giving the local point of view, the other the mental, both post-Ciceronian and rare. Caesar gives the first local usage, Livy the first mental; [Hoc] est oppidum primum Thessaliae venientibus ab Epiro, Caes., B.C., III. 80 ; this is the first town of Thessaly to those coming {as you come) from Epirus. Vgr6 aestimanti, L., xxxvii. 58, 8 ; to one whose judg- ment was true. NoT.ES.— 1. This construction is probably drawn from the Greek, although Vitru- VI us shows several examples. 2. Certainly Greek is the Dat. of the person with volenti, cupienti, invito (est), etc., which is found first in Sallust, once in Livy, and sporadically in Tacitus, and later. Dative of the Agent. 364. The Dative is used with Passive Verbs, in prose chiefly with the Perfect Passive, to show the interest vviiich the agent takes in the result. That the person interested is the agent is only an inference. (See 215.) Mihi rgs tota provisa est, C, Verr., iv. 42, 91 ; / have had the ivhole matter provided for. Cui non sunt auditae Dgmosthenis vigiliael C, Tusc, IV. 19, 44 ; to whom are not Demosthenes' long ivatchings a famil- iar hearsay ? Notes.— 1. Instances of this Dat. with the Tenses of Continuance are poetical, or admit of a different explanation : Barbarus hie ego sum qui non intellegor ulli, Ov., TV., v. 10, 37 ; I am a bar- barian here because I can't make myself intelligible to any one. Whenever an adj. or an equivalent is used, the Dat. PI. may be an Ablative : Sic dissimillimis bgstiolis communiter cibus quaeritur, c, iV.Z)., n. 48, 123 ; «o, though these little creatures are so very unlike, their food is sought in common. Car- mina quae scribuntur aquae potoribus, H., Ep., i. iq, 3 ; poems tvMch are ivritteu xvhen people are ivater-drinkers. Cena ministratur puerls tribus, H., S., i. 6, 116 ; Dinner is served, {the waiters being) the tvaiters are (but) three. 2. This Dat. is rare in early Latin, rare, if ever, in Caesar, not uncommon in Cicero. But it is much liked by the poets and by some prose writers, notably by Tacitus. 355. The agent of the Gerund and Gerundive is put in the Dative, at all periods. Dlligentia praecipuS colenda est nSbIs, C, Or., 11. 35, 148 ; carefulness is to be cultivated by us first and foremost. DgspSranda tibi salva Con- cordia socru, Juv., VI. 231 ; you must despair of harmony while Mother- in-law's alive. DATIVE. 227 Remark. — To avoid ambiguity, especially when the verb itself takes the Dat., the Abl. with ab (a) is employed : Civibus a vobis consulendum, C, Imp., 2, 6 ; the interest of the citi- zens must he consulted by you. Supplicatio ab eo decernenda non fuit, C, Ph., XIV. 4, 11. Where there is no ambiguity there is no need of ab : Linguae moderandum est mihi, Pl., Cure, 486 ; I must put hounds to my tongue. Note.— Poets are free in their use of this Dative ; so with verbals in bills ; as, multisille bonis flebilisocciditjll., 0.,i. 24,9; nulli exorabilis, 8il. Ital, Y.131. Dative of the Object For Which. 356. Certain verbs take the Dative of the Object For Which (to what end), and often at the same time a Dative of the Personal Object For Whom, or To Whom. Ngmini mens adventus labor! aut sumptui fuit, C, Verr., i. 6, 16 ; to 710 one ivas my arrival a burden or an expense. Virtus sola neque datur d5nS neque accipitur, S., lug., 85, 38 ; virtue alone is neither given nor taken as a present. Habere quaestui rem publicam turpe est, C, Off., 11., 22, 77 ; it is base to have the state for one's exchequer. RexMARKS. — I. Noteworthy is the legal phrase cui bono? to whom is it for an advantage ? = who is advantaged ? 2. In the classical times the principal verbs in this construction are esse, dare, ducere, habere, vertere, and a few others which occur less fre- quently. Later Latin extends the usage to many other verbs, and especially to Gerundive constructions. Dare is used principally in the phrase dono dare. 3. The Double Dative is found principally with esse, but occasion- ally with other verbs. Here there seems to have been a tendency, mainly post-Ciceronian, to use the predicative Nom. instead of the Dative. Interesting sometimes is the shift in usage ; thus, Cicero says est turpitudo, Nepos, fuit turpitudinl. Notes.— 1. In the same category, but with the idea of finality more clearly indi- cated, are the agricultural usages, alimentO serere, condltui legere ; the medical, remedio adhibSre ; the military terms, praesidi5, auxiliS, mittere, esse, etc. 2. With LiVY we notice the great extension of this Dat. with verbs of seeking, choos- ing, etc., where classical Latin would prefer some other construction. So locum insi- diis (insidiarum is classical) circumspectare Poenus coepit, L-, xxi. 53, 11. Taci- tus goes furthest in such usages. Caesar, however, shows a few instances {B. G., i. 30,3). 3. The Final Dative with intrans. verbs is military and rare. So receptui canere, to sound a retreat, is found first in Caes., B. G., vii. 47. Sallust shows a few exam- ples.. The Dat., with similar substantives, is an extension, and is very rare. Cicero, Ph., XIII. 7, 15, says receptui signum. 228 DATIVE. 4. The origin of this usage may have been mercantile (Key). In English we treat Profit and Loss as persons : Quem fors difirum cmnque dabit lucro appone, H., 0., I. 9, 14 ; " Every day that Fate shall give, set down to Profit..''^ On the Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive in a similar sense, see 429. Dative with Derivative Substantives. 357. A few derivative substantives take the Dative of their primitives : Itistitia est obtemperatio legibus, C, Leg., i. 15, 42 ; justice is obedi- ence to the laws. Note.— We find a few examples in Plautus, several in Cicero, and only sporadi- cally elsewhere. Usually the verbal force is very prominent in the substantives ; as, insidias consul! maturare, S., C, 32, 2. Local Dative. 358. The Dative is used in poetry to denote the 7J?«ce whither. Kartbagini iam non ego niintios mittam superbos, H., 0., iv. 4, C9; (to) Carthage 710 more shall I send haughty tidings. Iam satis terris nivis atque dirae grandinis misit pater, H., 0., i. 2, 1 ; full, full etiough ofsnoiv and dire hail the Sire hath sent the Land. Notes.— 1. This construction begins with Accius, and is not uncommon in the Augustan poets. No examples are cited from Plautus or Terence, hence the infer- ence is fair that it was not a colloquialism. As a poetical construction it seems to have sprung from personification. 2. Occasionally the substantive is also thus construed ; as in the facilis dSscSnsns AvernS of Vergil (^4., vi. 126). The extreme is reached when the Dative follows ire and the like : It caelO clamorque vinim clangorque tubarum, V.,^., xi. 192 ; mmints to High Heaven warrioj's'' shout and truinpets'' blare. 3. Tendere rnanlis has a few times, even in Cicero and Caesar, the Dat. of the person, which is sometimes referred to this head. But the usual construction is ad. Matrgs familiae Romanis d6 murS manus tendebant, Caes., B. G., \n. 48, Dative with Adjectives. 359. Adjectives of Likeness, Fitness., FriendHness, Near- ness, and the like, with their opposites, take the Dative : Canis similis lupO est, C.,N.D., i. 35, 97 ; the dog is like unto the wolf. Castrls idOneus locus, Caes., B. G., vi. 10, 2 ; a place suitable for a camp. Utile est rei publicae nObilBs homines esse dIgnOs maiOribus suls, C, Sest., 9, 21 ; it is to the advantage of the state that men of rank should be worthy of their ancestors. Vir mihi amlcissimus, Q,. Fabricius, C, Sest.. 35, 75 ; my very great friend, Q. Fabricius. Proxumus sum egomet mihi, Ter., And., 636 ; myself am nearest to me. Omni aetati mors est com- DATIVE. 229 mtinis, Cf. C, Cat. 31., 19, 68 ; death is common to every time of life. (Testis) id dicit quod illi causae maximS est aliSnum, C, Caec, g, 24 ; the tvitness says what is especially damaging to that case {side). Remarks. — i. Many adjectives which belong to this class are used also as substantives, and as such are construed with the Genitive : amicus, friend ; affinis, cotmection ; aequalis, co7itemporary ; alignus (rare), foreign, strange ; cognatus, Uinsman ; commlmis, common ; con- trarius, opposite ; par, match ; proprius, peculiaris, own, peculiar ; similis, like ("we ne'er shall look upon his like again "), especially of gods and men, and regularly with personal pronouns, and in early Latin ; sacer, set apart, sacred ; superstes (rare), survivor. Comparatives have regu- larly the Dative ; Superlatives vary. [Ille], cuius paucSs pares haec civitas tulit, C, Pis., 4, 8 ; {he was) a man few of whose peers the state hath home. XJtinam t5 non solum vitae, sed etiam dignitatis meae superstitem reliquissem, C, ^.i^., i. 3, 1 ; would that I had left thee survivor not only of my life hut also of my position. 2. The ohject toivard which is expressed by the Ace. with in, erga, adversus : Manlius (fuit) sev6rus in filium, C, Off., iii. 31, 112 ; Manlius was severe toward his son. M6 esse scit s5sS erga benivolum, Pl., Capt., 350 ; he knows that I am kindly disposed toward him. Vir adversus merita Caesaris ingratissimus, Cf. Vell., ii. 69, 1 ; a man most ungrateful tow- ards Caesa?''s services (to him). 3. The ohject for which may be expressed by the Ace. with ad, to : Hom8 ad ntillam rem utilis, C, 0^., in. 6, 29 ; a good-for-nothing fellow. This is the more common construction with adjectives of Fitness. Notes.— 1. Propior, neare7\ proximus, next, are also construed (like prope, riear) occasionally with the Ace. (principally by Caesak, Sallust, Livy), the adverbial forms also with the Abl. with ab, off : Crassus proximus mare Oceanum hiemarat, Caes., b. g., hi. 7, 2 ; Crassus had wintered next the ocean. Id propius fidem est, L., 11. 41, 11 ; that is nearer belief, i.e., more likely. 2. AliSnus, foreign, strange, is also construed with the Abl., with or without ab(a); so commonly- absonus. Homo sum, bumanl nil a mS aliSnum putd, Ter., /reaw^., 77; I am a man, and nothing that pertains to man do I consider foreign to me. 3. lunctus, cdniunctus, joined, are also construed frequently with cum and the Abl.; sometimes with the Abl. only : improbitas scelere iuncta, C, Or., 11. 58,237. 4. Similis is said to be used with the Gen. when the likeness is general and com- prehensive ; with the Dat. when it is conditional or partial ; hence, in classical prose, always vSrl simile, Livy being the first to say vSro simile. 5. Adversus, opponent, seems to be construed with the Gen. once in Sallust (C, 52, 7) and once in Quintilian (xii. i,2). Invidus, envious, is cited with the Gen. once in Cicero {Flac, i, 2), then not till late Latin ; with the Dat. it is poetical ; other- wise the possessive pronoun is used, as tul invidi (C, Fam., i. 4, 2). Pr5nus, inclined, with the Dat., occurs in Sallust {lug., 114,2), then not till Tacitus ; the usual construction is ad. Intentus, intent upon, has Abl. in Sallust (C, 2, 9, «:<:.) ; 230 GENITIVE. otherwise Dat., or ad (in) with Ace. Notice the use of aversus with Dat. in Tag., Ann., 1. 66, 2 ; some other examples are doubtful. 6. In poetrj', idem, ihemme, is often construed after Greek analogy, with the Dative. Invitum qui servat idem facit occidenti, H., A.P, 467 ; he who saves a manCs life) agamst his will does the same thing as one who kills him («.s if he had killed Mm). 7. Adverbs of similar meaning sometimes take the Dative : Congruenter naturae convenienterque vivere, c, Fin., m. 7, 26. II. Internal Change. Genitive. 360. I. The Genitive Case is the Case of the Complement, and is akin to the Adjective^ with which it is often parallel. It is the substantive form of the Specific Characteristic. The chief English representatives of the Genitive are : (a) The Possessive case : Domus regis, the king's f)ci^ace. (b) The Objective case with of : Domus rggis, the palace of the king. (c) Substantives used as adjectives or in composition : Arbor abietis, fir-tree. Remarks. — i. Other prepositions than of are not unfrequently used, especially with tlic Objective Genitive. (3G^, 11. i.) Patriae quis exsul se quoque fugit "i 11., 0., 11. 16, 19 ; ivhat exile from his country ever fled himself as ivell ? Boiorum triumphi spem coUegae reliquit, L., xxxiii. 37, 10 ; he left the hope of a triumph over the Boii to his colleague. Via mortis may be considered the umy {mode) of death or the death- path, instead of via ad mortem (L., xliv. 4. 14). 2. An abstract substantive with the Gen. is often to be translated as an attribute : Verni temporis suavitas, C, Cat.M., 19, 70 ; the sweet spring-time. Fontium gelidae perennitat6s, C, N.D., 11. 39, 98 ; cool springs that never fail. Compare S., C, 8, 3. And, on the other hand, the predicative attribute is often to be translated as an abstract substantive with of : Ante Romam conditam, before the founding of Rome. (825, r. 3.) Notice also hie metus, this fear = fear of this, and kindred expres- sions : Quam similitudinem = cuius rei similitudinem, C, N.D., 11. 10, 27. 2. The Genitive is employed : I. and 11. Chiefly as the complement of Substantives and Adjectives. III. Occasionally as the complement of Verbs. NoTK.— As the Accusative forms a complex with the verb, so the Genitive forms a complex with the Substantive or equivalent. No logical distribution can be wholly satisfactory, and the following arrangement has regard to convenience. GENITIVE. 231 I. GENITIVE WITH SUBSTANTIVES. Adnominal Genitive. Appositive Genitive, or Genitive of Specification. 361. The Genitive is sometimes used to specify the con- tents of generic words instead of Apposition in the same case ; there are two varieties : 1. Appositiorml Genitive, — Genitive after such words as, vox, expres- sion ; nomen, iiame, noun ; verbum, ivord, verb ; rSs, thing, etc. Nomen amlcitiae, C, Fin., 11. 24, 78 ; the name friendship. 2. Epexegetical Genitive. — Genitive after such words as genns, class ; vitium, vice ; culpa, fault, etc. [Virtutes] continentiae, gravitatis, iustitiae, fidel, C, Mur., 10, 23 ; the virtues of self-control, earnestness, justice, honor. Notes.— 1. The former variety is very rare in Cicero, the latter much more com- mon. A special variety is tlie use of the Gen. after such words as urbs, oppidum, flumen, etc. This is not found in Plautus and Tehence, occurs perhaps but once in CicEuo, and seems to be confined to a few cases in poetry and later prose. Often personification is at work ; thus, in fons Tlmavl (V., A., i. 244), Timavus is a river god, and fonS is not equal to Tlmavus. Clf. V., A., viii. 72. 2. Examples like arbor abietis (L., xxiv. 3, A), fir-tree ; arbor fici {Cf. C, Flac., ij, 41), fig-tree, etc., occur only here and there. 3. Colloquial, and probably belonging here, arc: scelus viri (Pl., 3/. (?., 1434), a scoundrel of a man ; flagitium hominis (Pl-, ^*in.,473), '' scamp of a fellow, and the like. Quaedam p§st6s hominum^ C, Fam., v. 8, 2 ; certain liestilentfelloxvs. Possessive Genitive, or Genitive of Property. 362. The Possessive Genitive is the substantive form of an adjective attribute with which it is often parallel ; it is used only of the Third Person, Domus rSgis — domus regia, the palace of the king, the king's palace — the royal pcdace. Remarks. — i. The Possession in the First and Second Person (and in the Reflexive) is indicated by the Possessive Pronouns (until after Livy): amicus meus, a friend of mine ; gladius tuus, a sword of thine. But when omnium is added, vestrum and nostrum are used ; axis et focis omnium nostrum inimicus, C, Ph., xi. 4, 10. Sometimes the adjective form is preferred also in the Third Person: canis alienus, a strange dog, another man's dog ; fllius erflis, master's son^ 2. The attention of the student is called to the variety of forms which possession may take. Statua Mjrronis, 3Iyron's statue, may mean: I. A statue which Myron owns; 2. Which Myron has made; 3. Which represents Myron. 3. Sometimes the governing word i^ omitted, where it can be easily 232 GENITIVE. supplied, so especially aedes or templum, after ad, and less often after other prepositions : Pecunia utinam ad Opis mangret, C, Ph., i. 7, 17 ; would that the money were still at Ops's (temple). Notes.— 1. The Family Genitive, as Hasdrubal Gisgonis (L.,xxviii., 12, 13), Gisgo's Hasdrubal, llasdi^bal, Gisgo's son (as it were, Hasdrubal O' Gisgo), Hectoris AndromacliS {v., A. ,111.319), Hector's (wife) Andrmjiache, is found twice onlj^ in Cicero, otlierwise it is poetical and post-Ciceronian. ServOS, however, is regularly omitted ; Flaccus Claudi, Flaco/s, Claudius'' slave. 2. The C/ur/wgrajMc {geographic) Genitive is rare and post-Ciceronian : R6x Chalcidem Euboeae vgnit, L., xxvii. 30, 7; the king came to Chalcis of (in) Euboea. The Chorographic Genitive is not found with persons. Here an adjective or a prep- ositional phrase is necessary : Thales Mllesius, or ex MilStS, Thales of Miletm. Active and Passive Genitive. 363. When the substantive on which the Genitive depends contains the idea of an action (nomen actionis), the possession may be active ov passive. Hence the division into 1. The Active or Subjective Genitive : amor Dei, the love of God, the love ivhich God feels (God loves) ; patriae beneficia, the benefits of (conferred hy) one's country (376, r. 2). 2. Passive or Objective Genitive : amor Dei, love of Gody love toivard God (God is loved). Remarks. — i. The English form in o/is used either actively or pas- sively : the love of women. Hence, to avoid ambiguity, other preposi- tions than of are often substituted for the Passive Genitive, such as for, toward, and the like. So, also, sometimes in Latin, especially in Livy, and later Historians generally: Voluntas Servflii erga Caesarem, Cf. C, Q.F., iii. i. 6, 26 ; the good- will of Servilius toward Caesar. Odium in bonos inveteratum, C, Vat.y 3, G ; deep-seated hate toward the conservatives. 2. Both Genitives may be connected with the same substantive : VeterSs HelvSti5rum iniuriae populi ESmani, Cf. Caes., B.G., i. 30, 2 ; the ancient injuries of the Roman people hy the Helvetians. NoTK.— The use of the Genitive with substantives whose corresponding verbs take other cases than the Accusative, gradually increases in Latin, beginning with the earliest times, but it is not very common in the classical language. 364. The Subjective Genitive, like the Possessive, is used only of the Third Person. In the First and Second Persons the possessive pronoun is used, thus showing the close rela- tionship of Agent and Possessor. Amor mens, my love (the love which I feel). D6siderium tuum, your longing {the longing which you feel). GEIS^ITIVE. 233 Additional attributives are put in the Genitive (321, r. 2): Itiraivi hanc urbem mea unius opera salvam esse, C, Pis., 3, 6 ; I swore that this city owed its salvation to my exertions alone. Remark. — Nostrum and vestrum are used as Partitive Genitives: Magna pars nostrum, a great part of us ; uterque vestrum, eitJier (both) of you. Nostri melior pars means the better part of our being, our better part. With omnium, the forms nostrum and vestrum must be used (362, r. i). Notes.— 1. Occasionally, however, in Latin, as in English, the Gen. is nsed instead of the possessive pronoun; so Cicero says splendor vestrum (Att., vii. 13 a, 3), and cSnsSnsus vestrum (P/i-, v. i, 2), and one or two others ; but other examples are very rare until after Tacitus, when the Singular forms, after the example of Ovid {31., i. 30), become not uncommon. See 304, 3, n. 1. " For the life of me " = " for my life." 2. On the other hand the Genitives of the personal pronouns are used regularly as the Objective Genitive : Amor mei, love to me. Desiderium tui, longi7ig for thee. Memoria nostri, memory of us (our memory). Occasionally the possessive pronoun is used even here ; see 304, 2, n. 2, and compare "The deep damnation of his taking off." Genitive of Quality. 365. The Genitive of Quality must always have an adjec- tive or its equivalent. Vir magnae auctoritatis, Caes., B.G., v. 35, 6; a man of great influ- ence. Hom8 nihili (= nullius pretil), Pl., B., 1188 ; a fellow of no ac- count. Tridui via, Caes., E.G., i. 38, 1; a three days' journey. N5n multi cibi hospitem accipigs, multi ioci, C, Fam., ix. 26, 4; you will receive a guest ivho is a small eater but a great joker. Remarks. — i. The Genitive of Quality, like the adjective, is not used with a proper name. Exceptions are very rare in classical Latin (Caes. , B.G., v. 35, 6, Quintus Lflcanius, giusdem ordinis). But later they are more common. 2. The Genitive of Quality is less common than the Ablative, being used chiefly of the essentials. The Genitive always of Number, Meas- ure, Time, Space ; the Ablative always of externals, so of parts of the body. Often the use seems indifferent. (400.) Note.— The omission of the adjective is not found before Apuleius, in whom, as in English, a man of influence may be for a man of great influence. Genitive as a Predicate. 366. The Genitives of Possession and Quality may be used as Predicates. Hie versus Plauti n6n est, hie est, C, Fam., ix. 16, 4; this verse is not 234 GENITIVE. hy Plautus, this is. Omnia quae mulieris fuSrunt, viri fiunt d5tis nomine, C, Top., IV. 23; everything that was the woman^s becomes the husband's under the title of dowry. Virtus tantarum virium est ut sg ipsa tueatur, C. , Tusc, V. I, 2; virtue is of such strength as to be her own protector. Eemarks. — I. The Possession appears in a variety of forms, and takes a variety of translations : Huius ero vivus, mortuus huius er5, Prop., ii. 15, 35; hers I shall be, living; dead, hers I shall be. Nolae senatus Romanorum, plebs Hanni- balis erat, L., ixiii, 39, 7; at Nola the senate was (on the side) of the lionums, the common folk (on) Ilannibcd's. Damnatio est iudicum, poena iSgis, C, Sull., 22, 63; condemning is the judges' (business), punishment the law's. Est animi ingenui cui multum dgbeas eidem plurimum velle debgre, C, Fam., 11. 6, 2 ; it shoivs the feeling of a gentleman to be will- ing to owe very much to him to ivhom you already owe much. Pau- peris est numerare pecus, Ov., 31., xiii. 823 ; 'tis only the poor man that counts his flock {'tis the mark of a poor man to count the flock). Observe the special variety, Oenitlvus Auctoris : Is [Herculgs] dlcg- baturesse Myronis, C, Verr., iv. 3, 5; that (statue of) Hercules was said to be Myron's (work), by Ifyron. So also with facere, to make (cause to be), which is common in Livy especially : Romanae dicionis facere, L., xxi. 60, 3 ; to bring under the Roman sway. Summum imperium in orbe terrarum Macedonum fecerant, L. , xlv. 7, 3 ; the paramount authority of the world they had brought {into the hands) of the Macedonians. 2. For the personal representative of a quality, the quality itself may be used sometimes with but little difference, as : stultitiae est, it is the part of folly ; stulti est, it is the part of a fool. So, too, stultum est, it is foolish. But when the adj. is of the Third Declension, the neuter should not be used, except in combination with an adj. of the Second. Temporl cgdere semper sapientis est habitum, C, Fam., iv. 9, 2 ; ^0 yield to the pressure of the times has always been held ivise. Pigrum et iners vidgtur sudSre adquirere quod possis sanguine parare, Tac, O., 14, 17 ; it is thought slow and spiritless to acquire by sweat what you cari get hy blood. Some combinations become phraseological, as : consugtudinis, mOris est (the latter post-classical), it is the custom. 3. The same methods of translation apply to the Possessive Pro- noun in the Predicate ("Vengeance is mine") : meum est, it is my property, busiriess, way. N5n est mentiri meum, Ter., Ileaut., 549 ; lying is not my way (I do not lie). His tantis in rfibus est tuura vidgre, quid agatur, C, Mur., 38, 83 ; in this important crisis it is your business to see what is to be done. GEXITIYE. 235 Partitive Genitive. 367. The Partitive Genitive stands for the Whole to which a Part belongs. It is therefore but an extension of the Pos- sessive Genitive. It may be used with any word that involves partition, and has the following varieties (368-372) : 368. The Partitive' Genitive is used with substantives of Quantity, Number, Weight. Maximus vini numerus fuit, permagnum pondus argenti, C, Ph., 11. 27, 6G ; there ivas a large amount of wine, an enormous mass of silver. In iugerS Leontlni agri medimnum tritici seritur, C. Verr., in. 47, 112 ; on a jnger of the Leontine territory a medimnus of wheat is sown. Campano- mm alam, quingentos ferS equitSs excgdere acig iubet, L., x. 29, 2 ; he or- ders a squadron of Campanians, about 500 horsemen, to leave the line. Remark. — This is sometimes called the Oenitlvus Generis, Whether the conception be partitive or not, depends on circumstances. Medimnus tritici, a medimnus of wheat, may be a medimnus of WHEAT {Genitivus Generis) or a medimnus of wheat {Partitive). Note.— The reversed construction is occasionally found. Sex dies ad- earn rem conficiendam spatii postulant, Caes., B. 6'., i. 3, 6, instead of spatium sex dierum. 369. The Partitive Genitive is used with the Neuter Sing- ular of the following and kindred words, but only in the Nominative or Accusative. tantum, so much, quantum, as {how much), aliquantum, somewhat, multum, much, plus, 7nore, plurimum, most, paulum, little, minus, less, minimum, least, satis, enough, parum, too little, nihil, nothing, hoc, this, id, illud, istud, that, idem, the same, quod and quid, which and what ? with their compounds. Quod in rSbus honestis operae curaeque ponetur, id itire laudabitur, C. , Off., I. 6, 19 ; ivhat {of) effort and pains shall he bestowed on reputable deeds, will receive a just recompense of p'aise. Is locus ab omni turba id temporis (336, n. 2) vacuus [erat], C, Fin., v. i, 1 ; that place was at that {point of) time free from anything like a crowd. Satis Sloquentiae, sapientiae parum, S., C, 5, 4 ; enough {of) eloquence, of ivisdom too little. Remarks. — i. Neuter adjectives of the Second Declension can be treated as substantives in the Gen. ; not so adjectives of the Third, except in combination with adjectives of the Second, but here usually ,the Second Declension adjective is attracted : aliquid bonum, or boni, something good ; aliquid memorabile, something memorable ; aliquid bonI 236 • GENITIVE. et memorabilis, something good and memorable (better aliquid bonnm et memorabile). Quid habet ista res aut laetabile aut gloriosum? C, 2'usc., 1. 21, 49 (204, N. 3). 2. A familiar phrase is : Nihil reliqui facere. i. To leave nothing {not a thing). 2. (Occasionally), to leave nothing undone. Notes.— 1. The conception is often not so much partitive as characteristic. So Quodcumque hoc rggni, Y .., A.,\. ^% \ this realm, tvhat (little) there is of it {what little realm I have). Perhaps, too, such combinations as flagitium hominis may be classed under this head. See 361, n. 3. 2. The partitive construction, with a preposition, is not found in Cicero or Caesar, but begins with Sallust : Ad id loci, S., C, 45, 3 ; ad id locorum, S., lug., 63, 6. 370. The Partitive Genitive is used with numerals, both general and special. Special : Centum militum, a hundred (of the) soldiers, a hundred (of) soldiers, (Centum militSs, a, the hundred soldiers.) Quintus rggum, the fifth (of the) ki?ig{s). (Quintus rgx, the fifth king.) Oerieral : Multi militum, many of the soldiers, many soldiers. (Multi militgs, many soldiers.) K-EMARKS. — I. The English language commonly omits the partition, unless it is especially emphatic : Multi civium adsunt, many citizens are present. Multi clv6s adsunt, MANY are the citizens present. 2. When all are embraced, there is no partition in Latin : (N5s) trecenti coniuravimus, L., 11. 12, 15 ; three hundred of us have hound ourselves hy an oath. Volnera quae circum plurima muros accSpit patrios, V., A., 11. 277 ; wounds which he received in great numbers before his country's walls. Qui omngs, all of whom. Quot estis ? how many are {there of) you ? So always quot, tot, totidem. Here the English language familiarly employs the partition. Ex- ceptions are very rare. 3. On mille and milia, see 293. On prepositions with numerals, see 372, R. 2. 371. The Partitive Genitive is used Avith Pronouns. li militum, those (of the) soldiers. li militgs, those soldiers. lUi GraecOrum, those (of the) Greeks. Fidgnatium qui supersunt, ad urbem Fidgnas tendunt, L., iv. 33, 10 ; the' surviving Fidenates take their way to the city of Fidenae. GENITIVE. 237 Remarks. — i. TTterque, either {both), is commonly used as an adjec- tive with substantives : uterque consul, either consul = both consuls; as a substantive with pronouns, unless a substantive is also used: uterque horum, both of these ; but uterque ille dux. So, too, with relatives in the neuter, and with Plural forms of uterque, concord is the rule. Com- pare uterque nostrum, C, Sull., 4, 13, with utrique nos, C, Fam., xi. 20, 3. See 292. 2. On the use of prepositions instead of the Genitive, see 372, r. 2. Note.— The use of the relative with the Genitive is cliaracteristic of Livy. 372. The Partitive Genitive is used with Comparatives and Superlatives : Prior horum in proelio cecidit, Nep., xxi. i, 2 ; the former of these fell in an engagement. Indus est omnium fluminum maximus, C, N.D., 11. 52, 130 (211, R. 2). Remarks. — i. When there are only two, the comparative exhausts the degrees of comparison (300). 2. Instead of the Partitive Genitive with Numerals, Pronouns, Com- paratives, and Superlatives, the Abl. may be employed witli ex, out of dg, from (especially with proper names and singulars), in, among (rare), or the Ace. with inter, am,ong, apud : Gallus provocat unum ex Komanis, the Oaul challenges one of the Romans ; unus dS multis, one of the many (the masses) ; Croesus inter rgges opulentissimus, Croesus, wealthiest of Icings. With unus, ex or dS is the more common construction, except that when unus is first in a series, the Gen. is common. 3. On the concord of the Superlative see 211, r. 2. Notes.— 1. The Partitive Genitive with positives is occasional in poetry ; in prose it begins with Livy and becomes more common later. Sequimur t6, sancte deorum, v., A., iv. 576 ; we follow thee, holy deity. Canum dggeneres (caudam) sub alvom flectunt, PLiN.,iV.zr.,xi., 50,266; currish dogs ciirl the tail up under the belly. 2. Substantival neuters, with no idea of quantity, were rarely followed by the Gen. in early Latin. Cicero shows a few cases of Plurals of superlatives, and one case of a Plural of a comparative in this construction : in interiora aedium SuUae {A.tt. iv., 3, 3). Caesar shows one case of a positive : in occultis So reconditis templi {B. C, III. 105, 5). Sallust shows the first case of the Singular : in praerupti montis ex- trSmo {lug., 37, 4). Then the usage extends and becomes common, especially in Taci- tus. In the poets it begins with Lucretius. Ardua dum metuunt amittunt vSra viai (29, n. 2), Lucr., i. 660 ; the tohile they fear the steeper road, they miss the true. So amara curarum, n., 0., iv. 12, 19 ; hitter elements of cares. Utter cares ; strata viarum, V., A., i. 422 = stratae viae, the paved streets. 3. The Partitive Genitive is also used with Adverbs of Quantity, Place, Extent : ar- morum adfatim, L., xxvn. 17, 7 ; oMndance of arms • ubi terrarum, gentium? where in the world ? (Very late Latin, tum temporis, at that time.) The usage with hue, eo, as hue, eS arrogantiae procSssit, tie got to this, that pitch of presumption^ is a colloquialism, which begins with Sallust, but is not found in Cicero or Caesar. 238 GEKITIVE. Notice especially the phrase : quod (or quoad) eius (facere) possum, as far as I can do so: C, Fain., iii. 2, 2 ; Att., xi. 12, 4 ; Inv., 11., 6, 20. 4. The Partitive Genitive with proper names is rare, and mostly confined to LiVY : Gonsulum Sulpicius in dextro Poetelius in laevo cornu consistunt, L., ix. 27, 8. 5. The Partitive Genitive as a Predicate is Greekish : Fi§S nobilium tu quoque fontium, H., 0., m., 13, 13 ; tlum, too shall count among the famous fountains. Genitive with Prepositional Substantives. 373. Causa, gratia, ergo, and instar are construed with the Genitive. [SopMstae] quaesttis causa pMlosopMbantur, C, Ac, 11. 23, 72 ; the pro- fessors of ivisdom dealt in philosophy for the sake of gain. Tu me amoris magis quam honoris servavisti gratia, Enn., F., 287 (m.); thou didst save me more for lovers (sake) than (thou didst) for honors sake. Virtiitis ergo, C, Opt. Gen., 7, 19; on account of valor, instar montis equus, V., ^.,11. 15 ; a horse the bigness of a mountain. Plato mihi tinus instar est omnium, C, Br., 51, 191 ; Plato by himself is in my eyes worth them all. Remarks. — i. Causa and gratia, for the sake, commonly follow the Gen. in classical Latin and also in the Jurists. In Livy and later they often precede. Ergo, on account, belongs especially to early Latin, except in formulae and laws, and follows its Genitive. It is rare in the poets. Instar is probably a fossilized Infinitive (Instare), meaning •' the equivalent, ^^ whether of size or value. 2. Except for special reasons causa takes the possessive pronoun in agreement, rather than the personal pronoun in the Genitive ; more rarely gratia : Vestra reique publicae causa, C, Verr., v. 68, 173 ; for your sake and that of the commonwealth. But in antithesis, multa quae nostri causa numquam faceremus, facimus causa amIcSrum! C, Lael., 16, 57 (disputed). II. GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES. 374. Adjectives of Fulness, of Participation, and of Power, of Knowledge and Ignorance, of Desire and Disgust, take the Genitive. Plgnus rimarum, Ter., Eun., 105 ; full of chinks ("a leaky vessel"). Particeps consilii, C, Sidl., 4, 12 ; a sharer in the plan. Mentis compos, C. , Ph. , II. 38, 97; in possession of (one's) mind. Multarum rgrum peritus, C, -Fow^., II, 25 ; versed in many things. Cupidus pecuniae, (/. C.. Verr. , i. 3, 8 ; grasping after money. FastidiOsus LatlnSrum (litterarum), C, Br., 70, 247 ; too dainty for Latin. Omnium rerum Inscius, C, Br., 85, 292 ; a universal igfwramus. COr n5n ut plSnus vitae conviva recSdis 1 Lucii., III. 938 (273). Sitque memor nostri necne, referte mihl, Ov., TV., iv. GEN^ITIVE. 239 3, 10 (204, N. 7). C5nsciamens recti Famae mendacia risit, Ov., i^., iv. 31T (330, R.). Agricolam laudat iuris Iggumque peritus, H., S.,i. i, 9; the hus- bandman's lot) is praised by the counsel learned in the law. OnmSs im- memorem benelicii oderunt, C, Off., 11. 18, 63 ; all hate a man loho has no memory for kindness. (Bestiae) sunt rationis et orationis expertes, C, Off. , I. 16, 50; beasts are devoid of reason and speech {lack discourse of reason). Omnia plgna consiliorum, inania verbSrum videmus, C, Or.,i. g, 37; ive see a ivorld that is full of wise measures, void of eloquence. Gallia frugum fertilis fuit, L,, v. 34, 2; Gaul was productive of grain. Notes.— 1. Of adjectives of Fulness, with the Gen., only plenus, repletus, inops, and inanis are classical and common ; single instances are found of liberalis, pro- fusus, in Sallust (C, 7, G ; 5, 4), and ieiunus occurs once in Cicero. Plautus also uses onustus and prodigus. Poets and later prose writers are frce. Plenus occurs very rarely with the Abl. in Cicero and Caesar, more often in Livy. Refertus is used by Cicero usually with the Abl. of the Thing and with the Gen. of the Person. 2. Participation : Classical are particeps, expers, consors, with some adjectives expressing guilt, as manif 6stus (archaic), afiSnis, reus. Of these particeps takes also the Dat. in post-classical Latin, and expers has also the Abl. (not classical) from Plautus on. (See S., 6'., 33, 1.) Aifinis has the Dat. in Livv, in local sense also ia Cicero ; reus takes Abl. or dS. 3. Pcnver : Compos alone is classical, and is occasionally found with Abl. in Sal- lust, Vergil, Livy. Pot6ns is found in Plautus, the poets, and post-classical prose ; impos in Plautus, and then not until Seneca. 4. Knoidedge and Ignorance : Classical are some eighteen. Of these peritus has also Abl., and rarely ad ; insuetus takes also Dat. as well as dS ; prudens has also ad ; rudis has Abl. with in more often than the Gen. in Cicero, but also ad. Ante- classical Latin shows a few more adjectives. 5. JJesire and Disgust : Classical are avidus, cupidus, fastidiosus, studiosus. Of these avidus has also in with Ace. and with Abl. ; studiosus has Dat. in Plautus {M. G., 801) ; single examples are cited with ad and in. Fastidiosus occurs but once in Cicero (see above) ; see H., (?., iii. i, 37. 6. In later Latin and in the poets almost all adjectives that denote an affection of the mind take a Gen. of the Thing to which the affection refers, where model prose requires the Abl. or a preposition: consilii ambiguus, Tac, //., iv. 21 ; daublful of purpose. Ingratus salutis, V., A., x. 665. The analogy of these adjectives is followed by others, so that the Gen. becomes a complement to the adjective, just as it is to the corresponding substantive. Integer vitae, H., 0., 1. 22, l ; spotless of life ; like integritas vitae. (Compare l^ma et fortunis integer, S., //., 11. 41, 5 D ; in fame and fortunes intact.) 7. The seat of the feeling is also put in the Gen., chiefly with animi and ingenii (which were probably Locatives originally). Aeger animi, L., i. 58, 9 ; sick at heart, heartsick. Audax ingenii, Stat.,/?.,!!!. 2, 64 ; daring of disposition. The PI. is animls. 8. The Gen. with adjectives involving /S'epa/'a^zon instead of the Abl. (390, 3) begins with the Augustan poets ; though Sallust shows nudus and vacuus (Tug., 79, G ; 90, 1); liber labonim, H., A. P., 212. 9. Classical Latin uses certus with Gen. only in the phrase certiorem facere, to inform, which has also d§ (always in Caesar). 10. Dignus, worthy, and indignus, unworthy, with Gen. are poetical and rare. 11. On alienus, strange, see 359, n. 2. On aequalis, communis, cdnscius, con- trarius, par, proprius, similis, superstes, and the like, see 359, r. i. 240 GENITIVE. Genitive with Verbals. 375. Some Present Participles take the Genitive when they lose their verbal nature ; and so occasionally do verbals in -ax in poetry and later prose. (Epaminondas) erat adeo veritatis dUigens ut ng ioco quidem mentiretur, Nep. , XV. 3, 1 ; Epaminondas ivas so careful {such a lover) of the truth as not to tell lies even in jest. Omnium consgnsu capax imperii nisi im- perasset, Tag., IT., i. 49 ; by general consent capable of empire, had he not become emperor. Notes.— 1. The participle is transient; the adjective permanent. The simple test is the substitution of the relative and the verb : amans (participle), loving (ivho is loving); amans (adjective), /or^t^, (substantive), lovei\- patiens (participle), bearing (w/io is bea?'ing) ; patiens (adjective), enduring., (substantive), a sufferer. 2. Ante-classical Latin shows only amans, cupiens, concupiens, fugitans, gergns, persequens, scigns, temperans. Cicero carries the usage very far, and it is characteristic of his style. Caesar, on the other hand, has very few cases (/?. C, i. 69, 3). Cicero also shows the first case of a Gen. after a compared participle. Sumus nattlra appetentissimi honestatis, C, Tusc, 11. 24, 58. These participles can also revert to the verbal constructions. 3. Of verbals with the Gen., Plautus shows one example : mendax {Asin., 855) ; Cicero perhaps one : rapax {Lael., 14, 50). The usage in later Latin and the poets is confined at most to about one dozen verbals. III. GENITIVE WITH VERBS. Genitive with Verbs of Memory. 376. Verbs of Reminding, Remembering, and Forgetting, take the Genitive. Tg veteris amicitiae commonefScit, [C] ad Her., iv. 24, 33 ; he reminded you of your old friendship. Est proprium stultitiae aliSrum vitia cernere, oblivisci suSrum, C, Tusc, iir. 30, 73; the fact is, it shows a fool to have keen eyes for the faults of others, to forget one's own. Ipse iubet mortis tg meminisse deus, Mart., ii. 59; a god himself bids you remember death. Remarks. — i. Verbs of Reminding take more often the Abl. with d6 (so regularly in Cicero), and the Ace. neut. of a pronoun or Nu- meral adjective. Tacitus alone uses mongre with the Gen. (Ann., i. 67,_1)- Oro ut Terentiam moneatis dg tgstamento, C, Alt., xi. 16, 5; I beg you to put Terentia in mind of the will. Discipulos id unum moneo. Quint., II. 9, 1 (333, I). 2. Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting also take the Ace, espe- cially of Things : GENITIVE. 241 Haec olim meminisse iuvabit, Y., A.,i. 203 ; to remember these things one day will give us pleasure. Qui sunt boni civ6s, nisi qui patriae bene- ficia meminSrunt ? C, Plane, 33, 80 ; wJw are good citizens except those who remember the benefits conferred by their country ? Oblivisci nihil soles nisi iniurias, C, Lig., 12, 35 ; you are ivont to forget nothing except injuries. Eecordor (literally = / bring to heart, to mind) is construed with the Ace. of the Thing, except in three passages from Cicero ; d6 is found with Persons. Et v5cem Anchisae magni voltumque recorder, Y., A., viii. 156 ; and I recall (call to mind) the voice and countenance of Anchises the Great. Memini, I bear in mind, I (am old enough to) remember, takes the Accusative : [Antipatrum] tti prob6 meministi, C, Or., iii. 50, 194 ; you remember Antipater very well. 3. Venit mihi in mentem, it comes into (up to) my mind, may be con- strued impersonally with the Gen., or personally with a subject ; the latter by Cicero only when the subject is a neuter pronoun. Venit mihi PlatSnis in mentem, C, Fin., v. i, 2 ; Plato rises before my mind's eye. Genitive with Verbs of Emotion. 377. Misereor, / pity, takes the Genitive, and miseret, it moves to pity, paenitet, it repents, piget, it irks, pudet, it wahes ashamed, taedet and pertaesum est, it tires, take the Accusative of the Person Who Feels, and the Genitive of the Exciting Cause. MisergminI sociorum, C, Verr., i. 28, 72 ; pity your allies ! Suae quem- que forttinae paenitet, C, Fam., vi. i, 1 ; each man is discontented with his lot. M@ non solum piget stultitiae meae, sed etiam pudet, C, Bom., II, 29 ; I am not only fretted at my folly, but actually ashamed of it. Remarks. — i. Pudet is also used with the Gen. of the Person whose Presence excites the shame : Pudet deorum hominumque, L., in. 19, 7 ; it is a shame in the sight of gods and men. 2. These Impersonals can also have a subject, chiefly a Demon- strative or Relative pronoun : Non t5 haec pudent? Ter., Ad., 754 ;" do not these things put you to the blush ? 3. Other constructions follow from general rules. So the Inf. (422) and quod (542). Non mS vixisse paenitet, C, Cat.M., 23, 84 (540). Quintum paenitet quod animum tuum offendit, Cf. C, Att.^ xi. 13, 2; Quintus is sorry that he has wounded your feelings. 16 242 GEKITIVE. Notes.— 1. With the same construction are found misereo (early Latin), miseresco (poetical), dispudet (early Latin), distaedet (early Latin), vereor (mosDy in early Latin), and a few others. 2. Miserari and commiserari, io pity, commiserate, take Ace. until very late Latin. Genitive with Judicial Verbs. The Genitive with Judicial Verbs belongs to the same category as the Genitive with Verbs of Rating, both being extensions of the Genitive of Quality, 378. Verbs of Accusing, Convicting, Condemning, and Acquitting take the Genitive of the Charge. (Miltiadgs) acclisatus est proditionis, Xep.,i. 7, 5; Militiades was accused of treason. [Fannius] C. Verrem insimulat avaritiae, (1, Verr., I. 49, 128 ; Fannius charges Oaius Verres with avarice. Video non t§ absoliitum esse improbitatis sed illos damnatos esse caedis, C, Verr., i. 28, 72 ; / see not that you are acquitted of dishonor, but that they are con- victed of murder. Remarks. — i. Judicial Verbs inchide a number of expressions and usages. So capi, teneri, dSprehendi, sg adstringere, s6 adligare, se obligare (ante-classical), and others, mean to he found guilty ; increpare, increpi- tare, urggre, dgferre, arguere, etc., mean charge. So also kindred expressions : reum facere, {to make a party) to indict, to bring an action against ; nomen deferre de, to bring an action against ; sacrilegil compertum esse, to be found {guilty) of sacrilege. 2. For thie Gen. of the Charge may be substituted nomine or crimine with the Gen., or the Abl. with de: nomine (crimine) coniurationis damnare, to find guilty of conspiracy ; accusare de vi, of violence (Gen. vis rare) ; dg veneficio, of poiso7iing ; de rebus repetundis, of extortion. Postulare always has dg in Cicero. We find sometimes in with Abl. ; convictus in crimine, on the charge ; or, inter : inter sicarios damnatus est, convicted of homicide (C, Cluent., 7, 21 ; Cf. Ph., 11, 4, 8). 3. Verbs of Condemning and Acquitting take the Abl. as well as the Gen. of the Charge and the Punishment, and always the Abl. of the definite Pine ; the indefinite Fine, quanti, dupli, quadrupll, etc., is in the Genitive. Accusare capitis, or capite, to bring a capital charge. Damnare capitis, or capite, to condemn to death. Damnari decem milibus, to be fined ten thousand. MultSre, to mulct, is always construed with the Ablative : Multare pecunia, to midct in (of) money. Manlius virtutem filil morte multavit. Quint., v. ii, 7 ; Ilanlius puri' ished the valor of his son with death. 4. Destination and Enforced Labor are expressed by ad or in, but all examples are post-classical : damnari ad bgstias, to be condemned (to be GENITIVE. 243 thrown) to wild beasts ; ad (in) metalla, to the mities ; ad (in) opus pub- licum, to hard labor. Voti damnari, to be boiind to fulfil a vow, is Livian (except Nep., xx. 5, 8, where it has a different sense). 5. Verbs of Accusing- may have also the Ace. of the Thing and the Gen. of the Person : inertiam accusas adulescentium, C, Or., i. 58, 340. Genitive with Verbs of Rating and Buying. 379. Verbs of Eating and Buying are construed with the Genitive of the general value or cost, and the Ablative of the particular value or cost. (404.) Verbs of Rating are : aestimare, existimare (rare), to value ; putare, to reckon ; ducere (rare in Cicero), to take ; habgre, to hold ; pendere (mostly in Comedy), to weigh ; facere, to make, put ; esse, to be (worth) ; fieri, to be considered. Verbs of Buying are : emere, to buy ; vendere, to sell ; vgnire, to be for sale ; stare and constare, to cost, to come to ; prostare, licgre, to be exposed, left (for sale) ; condticere, to hire ; locare, to let. 380. I. Verbs of Eating take : Magni, much, pluris, more, pltirimi, maximi, most, Parvi, little, minoris, less, minimi, least, Tanti, tantidem, so quanti (and compounds), nibili, naught, mucli, how much. Equivalents of nihili, nothing, are flocci, a lock of wool, nauci, a triflCf assis, a copper, pili (both in Catullus, mainly), and the like, and so akjo huius, that (a snap of the finger), all usually with the negative. Dum n6 ob malefacta, peream ; parvi existumo, Pl., Capt., 6S2, ; so long as it be not for misdeeds, let me die ; little do I care. [Voluptatemj virtus minimi facit, C, Fin., 11. 13, 42 ; virtue makes very little account of the pleasure of the senses. [ludices] rem publicam flocci non faciunt, Cf. C, Att.,\v.iC),4: ', the judges do not care a fig for tlie State. Non habeo nauci Marsum augurem, C, Div., i. 58, 132 ; / do not value a Ifarsian augur a baubee. Remark. — Tanti is often used in the sense of operae pretium est = *V is ivorth ivhile. Est mihi tanti huius invidiae tempestatem subire, C, Cat., n, 7, 15 ; it is worth while {the cost), in my eyes, to bear this storm of odium. Notes.— 1. Aestim5 is found with the Abl. as well as with the Genitive. So aestimare magno and magni, to value highly. Cicero prefers the Ablative. 2. Observe the phrases : boni (aequi bonique) faciS (a colloquialism), boni con- suls (an old formula), I jmt vp with, take in good part. Non pSnsi habgre (ducere), to consider not worth the_whUe, is post- Augustan and rare. 244 GENITIVE. 2. Verbs of Buying take tanti, quanti, pluris, and minoris, The rest are put in the Ablative. Vendo meum (frumentum) non pluris quam ceteri, fortasse etiam minoris, C, Off., III. 12, 51 ; I sell my corn not dearer than everybody else, per- haps even cheaper. Magis ilia iuvant quae pluris emuntur, Juv., xi. 16 ; things give more pleasure ivhich are bought for more. Emit (Canius hor- tos) tanti quanti Pythius voluit, C, Off., in. 14, 59 ; Canius bought the gardens at the price Pythius waiited. Quanti cenas ? Wliat do you give for your dinner f Quanti habitas % ^Vhat is the rent of your lodgings 9 But: Parvo famgs constat, magno ^stidium. Sen., E.3I., 17, 4 ; hunger costs little, daintiness much. An instructive shift: Emit? peril hercle: quanti? — Viginti minis, Ti:r,, ^mw., 984 ; he bought her 9 Tm undone. For how much ? — Twenty minae. Kejiark. — Bene emere, to buy cheap ; bene vgndere, to sell dear ; male emere, to buy dear ; male vgndere, to sell cheap. So, too, other adverbs: melius, optimS, peius, pessime. Genitive with Interest and Refert. 381. Interest and Refert take a Genitive of the Person, seldom of the Thing, concerned. Interest omnium rgctS facere, C, Fin., it. 22, 72 ; it is to the interest of all to do right. Refert compositionis quae quibus anteponas. Quint., IX. 4, 44 ; it is of importance for the arrangement of words, which you put before which. Instead of the Genitive of the personal pronouns, the Ablative Singular feminine of the possessives is employed. Mea interest, mea rgfert, / am concerned. Notes.— 1. Rgfert is commonly used absolutely, occasionally with mea, etc., sel- dom with the Gen., in the classical language. 2. Instead of Apposition use the Relative : Vehementer intererat vestra, qui patrgs estis, liber5s vestros hie potissi- mum discere, Plin., Ep., iv. 13, 4 ; a wei^e vastly to the interest of you parents, that your children, if possible, were taught at home. 3. The Nom. as a subject is rare, except in PLiNy''s Natural IRstory : Usque adeo magni rgfert studium atque voluptas, Lucr., iv. 984. Occasionally the Nom. of a neuter pronoun is found : Quid (Ace.) tua id (Nom.) rgfert ? Teb., Ph., 723 ; what business is that of yours? 4. Rgfert is the more ancient, and is employed by the poets (interest is excluded from Dactylic poetry by its ordinary forms) to the end of the classical period. Inter- est is peculiar to prose, employed exclneively by Caesar, and preferred by Cicero V hen ii complement is added. GENITIVE. 245 5. No satisfactory explanation has been given of this construction. One view is that mea rgfert was originally [ex] mea r6 fert (like ex mea re est), it is to my ad- tantage, and that the ex was lost. Interest having much the same force, but being later in development, took the constructions of rSfert by false analogy. The Gen. would be but parallel to the possessive. 382. T. The Degree of Concern is expressed by an Adverb, Adverbial Accusative, or a Genitive of Value. Id mea minume rgfert, Ter., Ad., 881 ; that makes no diffei'ence at all to me. Theodori nihil interest, C, Tusc, i. 43, 102 ; It is no concei-n of Theodorus. Magni interest mea una nos esse, C, Att,, xiii. 4 ; it is of great importance to me that we he together. 2. The Object of Concern is commonly put in the Infini- tive, Accusative and Infinitive, ut or ne with the Subjunc- tive, or an Interrogative Sentence. Quid Milonis intererat interfici ClSdium ? C, 3Iil., 13.84 ; ivhat interest had 3Iilo in Clodins' being killed 9 [Caesar dicere solebat] n6n tarn sua quamrel publicae interesse uti salvus esset. Suet., lul., 86 ; Caesar used to say that it was not of so much importance to him{self) as to the State that his life should he spared. Vestra interest n6 imperatorem pessimi faciant, Tag., //., i. 30 ; it is to your interest that the dregs of creation do not make the emperor. Quid rgfert tales versus qua voce legantur 1 Juv.,xi. 182; what matters it what voice such verses are recited with f 3. The Thing Involved is put in the Accusative with ad : Magni ad honorera nostrum interest quam primum m6 ad urbem venire, C, Fam., xvr. I, 1 ; it makes a great difference touching our honor that J should come to the city as soon as possihle. Occasional Uses. 383. I- The Genitive is found occasionally with certain Verbs of Fulness : in classical Latin principally implgre, complgre, eggre, indiggre. Piso multos codicgs implgvit earum rerum, C, Verr. i. 46, 119 ; Piso fdled many books full of those things. Virtus plurimae commentationis et exercitationis indiget, Cf. C, Fin., in. 15, 50; virtue stands in need of much {very much) study and practice. Notes.— 1. Classical Latin shows in all cases the Abl. much more frequently than the Gen., except in the case of indiggre, where Ciceko prefers the Genitive. Livy Ukevvise prefers the Gen. with implere. 2. Ante-classical and poetic are explgre (Verg.), abundare (Luc), scatere (LucR.), saturare (Plaut.), obsaturare (Ter.), cargre (Ter.). Cargre and eggre have the Ace. occasionally in early Latin. 3. other Grecisms are laborum dgcipitur, H., 6>.,ii. 13. 38 (reading doubtful). 246 ABLATIVE. Regnavit popul5ruin, H., 0., in. 30, 12. Also mirari with Gen. in Vergil (A., XL 126). Noteworthy is the occasional use of crSdere with Gen. in Plautus ; so once falli. 2. A Genitive of Separation, after the analogy of the Greek, is found in a few cases in tiie poets. Tit mg omnium iam labOrum levas, Pl., Rud. 247 ; how you relieve me at last of all my toils and- troubles. DSsine mollium tandem querellarnm, H., 0., II. 9, 17 ; cease at last from womanish complainings. 3. The Genitive in Exclamations occurs in a very few instances in the poets. Cat., ix. 5 ; Prop., iv. (v.) 7, 21 ; compare Pl., Most., 912 ; LucAN, II. 45. On the Genitive after comparatives, see 296, n. 3. ABLATIVE. 384. The Ablative is the Adverbial, as the Genitive is the Adjective case. It contains three elements : A. Where ? B. Whence ? C. Wherewith ? In a literal sense, the Ablative is commonly used with prepositions ; in a figurative sense, it is commonly used without prepositions. A. The xVblative of the Place Where appears in a figurative sense as the Ablative of the Time When. B. The Ablative of the Place Whence appears as : I. The Ablative of Origin. 2. The Ablative of Measure. C. The Ablative of the Thing Wherewith appears in a figurative sense, as : I. The Ablative of Manner. 2. The Ablative of Quality. 3. The Ablative of Means. Remark. — It is impossible to draw the line of demarcation with absolute exactness. So the Ablative of Cause may be derived from any of the three fundamental significations of the case, which is evidently a composite one. To these we add : D. The Ablative of Cause, E. The Ablative Absolute. I. The Literal Meanings of the Ablative, A. ABLATIVE OF THE PLACE WHERE. AbiatTvus Localis. 385. The Ablative answers the question Where 9 and takes as a rule the preposition in. In porta navig5, Ter., And., 480 ; lam sailing in harbor. Pons in HibgrO prope effectus (erat), Caes., ^.C, i. 62, 3 ; the bridge over the ABLATIVE. 247 Ebro was nearly finished. Histrio in scaena [est], Pl., Poen., 20 ; the actor is on the stage. Haeret in equo senex, Cf. C, Dei., 10, 28 ; the old man sticks to his horse. Remarks. — i. Verbs of Placing and kindred significations take the Abl. with in, to designate the result of the motion : classical are ponere, io place, and compounds ; locare, collocare, to put ; statuere, constituere, to set ; considere, to settle ; defigere, to plant ; demergere, to plunge ; imprimere, to press upon ; insculpere, to engrave (figurative) ; inscribere, to write upon ; incidere, io carve upon ; includere, to shut into, Plato rationem in capite posuit, iram in pectore locavit, C, Tusc, i. 10, 20 ; Plato has put reaso?i in the head, has placed anger in the breast, (Lucretia) cultrum in corde dSflgit, L., i. 58, 11 ; Lucretia plants a knife in {thrusts a knife down into) her heart. Philosophl in lis libris ipsis qu5s scrlbunt dS contemnenda gloria sua nomina inscribunt, C, Tusc, i. 15, 34 ; philosophers ivrite their oivn names on (the titles of) the very books which they write about contempt of glory. (Foedus) in columna agnea inclsum, C, Balb., 23, 53 ; a treaty cut upoii a brazen colunm. The same observation applies to sub : Pone sub curru nimium propinqui solis in terra domibus negata, H., 0., I. 22, 21 ; put (me) under the chariot of the ail-too neighboring sun, in a land denied to dwellings. 2. Verbs of Hanging and Fastening take ex, ab, or d§. Culspgs omnis pendet exfortuna, huic nihil potest esse certi, C, Par., 11. 17 ; to him who has all his hojyes suspended on fortune, nothing can be certain. 3. Here and there in is often rendered by per : C.,Fam., i. 7, 6, per provlncias, here and there in the provinces ; V., A., iii. 236. Notes.— 1. In classical pro^e the use of the Abl. without in is confined to a few M'ords, mostly phraseological. So terra, on land ; marl, Ay f