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Notes on 
 ew Testament Grammar 
 
 BURTON 
 
DATE SLIP 
 
 Notes on New Testament Grammar 
 

Notes on 
 New Testament Grammar 
 
 BY ERNEST D E WITT BURTON 
 
 PROFESSOR OF NEW TESTAMENT LITERATURE AND INTERPRETATION 
 IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 
 
 REVISED EDITION 
 
 WITHDRAWN FROM 
 UNIVERSITY OF REDLANDS LIBRARY 
 
 CHICAGO 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS 
 1904 
 
 8- 
 
COPYRIGHT 1904 
 By THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 
 
 
 
PREFATORY NOTE 
 
 The following pages have been prepared and printed for 
 the use of classes entering, with a knowledge of classical 
 Greek, upon the study of the Greek of the New Testament. 
 They are not intended to enable the student to dispense with 
 the published Grammars, but aim simply to emphasize, by 
 thus singling them out, certain points to which experience has 
 shown it is desirable for the student to give special attention 
 at the beginning of his study of New Testament Greek. The 
 only proportion observed is that suggested by practical needs. 
 The relatively full treatment of the article, for example, finds 
 its occasion in the unsatisfactory treatment of this subject in 
 the Grammars and the necessity of some knowledge of it as 
 a basis for New Testament interpretation. Under the syntax 
 of the verb only Voice is treated of, with the thought that 
 those who use this pamphlet will probably have access to the 
 author's work on the Moods and Tenses in New Testament 
 Greek. 
 

CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 A. HISTORICAL RELATION OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK 
 
 TO CLASSICAL GREEK - - n 
 
 B. NEW TESTAMENT FORMS 17 
 
 C. NEW TESTAMENT SYNTAX - 22 
 
LIST OF WORKS AND AUTHORS REFERRED TO 
 BY ABBREVIATION 
 
 B, = Alexander Buttmann, A Grammar of -the New Testament Greek. 
 
 Translated by J. H. Thayer. Andover, 1873. 
 j?.MT.= Ernest DeWitt Burton, Syntax of the Moods and Tenses in 
 
 New Testament Greek. Chicago, 1893. 
 BL= F. Blass, Grammar of New Testament Greek. Translated by Henry 
 
 St. John Thackeray. Macmillan & Co., 1898. 
 
 G.= W. W. Goodwin, A Greek Grammar. Revised edition. Boston, 1892. 
 HA. James Hadley, A Greek Grammar for Schoolsand Colleges. Revised 
 
 by F. D. Allen. New York, 1884. 
 WM. G. B. Winer, A Treatise on the Grammar of New Testament Greek. 
 
 Translated by W. F. Moulton. Third edition. Edinburgh, 1882. 
 IVS.= G, B. Winer, Grammatik des neutestamentlichen Sprachidioms. 
 
 Achte Auflage, neubearbeitet von Paul Wilh. Schmiedel. Gottingen, 
 
 1894 (in process of publication). 
 
 W.= Winer, the above-named work in various editions. 
 WH. Westcott & Hort, The New Testament in the Original Greek, the 
 
 text revised by B. F. Westcott and F. J. A. Hort. Two volumes. 
 
 Cambridge and New York, 1881. 
 Ttsc/i.= Constantius Tischendorf, Novum Testamentum Graece. Eighth 
 
 edition. Two volumes. Leipzig, 1869-72. 
 Greg.= Caspar Rene Gregory, Prolegomena to the above. Three parts. 
 
 Leipzig, 188494. 
 T/i.=J. H. Thayer, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament. 
 
 Being Grimm's Wilke's Clavis Novi Testament}, translated, revised, 
 
 and enlarged. New York, 1886. 
 
A. HISTORICAL RELATION OF NEW TESTAMENT 
 GREEK TO CLASSICAL GREEK 
 
 1. THE PRE-ARISTOTELIAN DIALECTS. The classical stu- 
 dent is familiar with the fact that between the eighth and the 
 fourth century B. C. the Greek language was written and 
 spoken in various dialects usually distinguished as ^Eolic 
 (Alcceus and Sappho, 600 B. C.), Doric (Pindar, 470 B. C. ; 
 Theocritus, 270 B. C.), Old Ionic or Epic (Homer and Hesiod, 
 before 700 B. C.), New Ionic (Herodotus and Hippocrates, 
 fifth century B. C.), and Attic (Xenophon, Plato, etal.). See 
 Introduction to HA. and to G. For a different classification 
 see Brvgmann, Griechische Grammatik, pp. 16-21 ; Jannans, 
 Historical Greek Grammar, pp. i, 2. 
 
 In the days of Alexander the Great the Attic had become 
 the prevalent dialect, though the others had not wholly ceased 
 to be used. From this point we may conveniently trace the 
 rise of the later Greek dialects and idioms, as distinguished 
 from the earlier classical dialects mentioned above. 
 
 2. THE COMMON DIALECT. As the Attic Dialect became, 
 partly as the result of the conquest made by Alexander, more 
 widely prevalent, it suffered a consequent modification by the 
 introduction of elements from the other dialects and of pro- 
 vincialisms. This modified form of the Attic, dating from 
 about the time of Aristotle (384-321 B. C.; cf. Alexander's 
 date, 356-323), is known as 17 KOLVTJ SiaAeK-ros, the Common Dia- 
 lect. It is also sometimes spoken of as Hellenic Greek; also 
 Later, or Post-Aristotelian, Greek ; see Th., Appendix ; and by 
 Deissmann, Thumb, and Blass is called Hellenistic Greek; see 
 4, Remark. Aristotle marks the transition from Attic to 
 Common Greek. Polybius, 140 B. C.; Strabo, i A. D.; 
 Plutarch, TOO A. D., are writers of the Common Dialect, as 
 
 ii 
 
iz NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR 
 
 also Arrian, Dio Cassius, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and 
 Lucian. 
 
 REMARK. Some writers apply the term "Common Dialect" and 
 KOiv-f] only to the common literary language of the Post-Aristotelian period, 
 excluding, on the one side, the colloquial speech and, on the other, the 
 language of those writers who endeavored to reproduce the Attic of the 
 classic period. So, for example, Winer-Schmiedel and Kennedy. Accord- 
 ing to this usage, Arrian, JDionysius of Halicarnassus, Lucian, and perhaps 
 Dio Cassius should be called "Atticists" rather than writers of the KOIVT?/. 
 The term is employed in these pages, however, in its broader sense, as 
 denoting the Greek of the post-Aristotelian period, whether written or 
 spoken, and whether used with or without effort to conserve the niceties of 
 the Attic speech. See Deissmann in Hmick, Kealencyclopadie, Vol. VII, 
 p. 630. 
 
 3. THE ALEXANDRIAN DIALECT. Of the more or less dis- 
 tinct types of the Koivrj used in various parts of the Greek- 
 speaking world, none is of more importance for the student of 
 the Greek of the New Testament than that used in Alexandria. 
 Of this dialect in its colloquial form there have been preserved 
 to us various fragmentary remains, such as the Rosetta Stone, 
 and the Egyptian Papyri, of which so many have been discov- 
 ered in recent years. (See WS., 3, i, f.n. 5.) Of the Alex- 
 andrian literary style, as it was written by cultured Hellenists, 
 2, 3, 4 Maccabees, though of Jewish authorship, are said by 
 Swete (Int. to O. T. in Greek, p. 312) to be pure examples. 
 
 REMARK. Winer, Swete, and Kennedy, use the term "Alexandrian 
 Dialect "of the colloquial Greek of Alexandria. Deissmann uses the term 
 " Egypto- Alexandrian " or " Egyptian" of the Greek written or spoken in 
 Alexandria and other parts of Egypt. The fact of local peculiarities of the 
 language is sometimes ignored and the name '* Alexandrian " given to the 
 entire language which is here called the Common Dialect. So, <?. g., by 
 Schaff. The term "Alexandrian," as used above, includes both the literary 
 and spoken language. 
 
 4. THE GREEK USED BY GREEK-SPEAKING JEWS IN NEW 
 TESTAMENT TIMES. Broadly speaking, this was the KOLVYJ. Yet, 
 
NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR 13 
 
 since the Jews learned Greek chiefly as a spoken language, 
 those who made use of it for purposes of writing probably 
 employed for the most part the colloquial rather than the liter- 
 ary language. And as they learned it in various places, each 
 doubtless represents the particular type or dialect current in 
 the community from which he came. How greatly the various 
 colloquial forms of the Common Dialect differed from one 
 another, the evidence is insufficient fully to indicate. The 
 Alexandrian influence is that which through the Septuagint 
 (cf. 5) was of most importance and of which we know 
 most. 
 
 Writers like Josephus and Philo, who wrote a literary 
 Greek nearly or quite as free from colloquial influence as 
 their non-Jewish contemporaries, were enabled to do so by 
 a knowledge of Greek literature probably quite exceptional 
 among Jews. 
 
 REMARK. Because Greek-speaking Jews were called Hellenists, it 
 has been common to speak of their language as Hellenistic Greek. So IV., 
 WS., Kennedy et al. Deissmann, however, maintains that alike the general 
 similarity of the language of Jewish and non-Jewish writers of the same 
 region and the variation of the Jewish writers among themselves forbid the 
 predication of a Jewish-Greek idiom at once somewhat homogeneous and 
 distinct from the Greek of other contemporary writers. Thumb, while 
 recognizing that the verb eXXyvifav originally referred to the Greek of 
 foreigners, and the noun 'E\\rjvi<TTris to the Greek-speaking Jews, yet regards 
 all Late Greek as so far homogeneous that he includes under the one word 
 " Hellenism " all the literary activity of that period in which the culture of 
 the world was becoming or was Greek, and employs " Hellenistic " as 
 synonymous with KOLV-T). Deissmann and Blass also use the term in the same 
 sense. Amid this diversity in the usage of terms the facts to be noted are, 
 on the one side, that the present tendency of investigation is to show that 
 some usages once regarded as Hebraisms are in reality idioms of the Koivr/, 
 and that the erection of Jewish-Greek into a distinct idiom probably exag- 
 gerates the differentiation of the Greek written by Jews from that of their 
 contemporaries; and, on the other hand, that most Jewish writers were 
 affected by influences that did not to the same extent affect non-Jewish 
 writers. 
 
i 4 NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR 
 
 5. THE GREEK OF THE SEPTUAGINT. The Greek transla- 
 tion of the Old Testament commonly known as the Septuagint 
 was made at Alexandria, the translators employing the Alex- 
 andrian dialect, but carrying over from the Hebrew many 
 peculiarities of that language which would not have appeared 
 in a work composed originally in Greek. This version, though 
 not truly representing a living language or dialect, yet 
 undoubtedly exercised in turn an influence, especially in the 
 use of religious terms, upon the Greek used by subsequent 
 Jewish writers. 
 
 REMARK. The difference between the Greek of a translation from the 
 Hebrew and the Greek used by one writing at first hand in Greek is illus- 
 trated by comparing I and 2 Maccabees the former a translation of a 
 Hebrew work, the latter composed in Greek ; and still more strikingly by 
 comparing the Prologue to the Book of Sirach with the body of the work, 
 since in this case the same writer who translates the body of the book writes 
 the Prologue in .Greek of his own composing. 
 
 6. THE GREEK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT WRITERS. This 
 again is, broadly speaking, the Koivrj. Yet respecting it four 
 facts should be borne in mind. First, like the Greek of Greek- 
 speaking Jews, it represents for the most part the colloquial 
 rather than the literary language. Secondly, the various 
 writers of the New Testament, acquiring their knowledge of 
 Greek in different lands, and subject in varying degrees to the 
 influences tending to modify the Common Dialect, differ not a 
 little from one another. Thirdly, all the books of the New 
 Testament are affected by the Old Testament, predominantly 
 through the Septuagint, though some at least of the New 
 Testament writers also knew Hebrew. The Semitic influence 
 thus affecting the New Testament books is manifest in different 
 degrees and forms in the different writers. Fourthly, the 
 vocabulary of all New Testament writers is affected to some 
 extent by the distinctly Christian ideas which they held and 
 
NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR 15 
 
 sought to express, this influence appearing chiefly in the 
 meaning which certain religious terms bear. 
 
 7. The Latinisms of the New Testament writers are not due to the special 
 influences to which these writers were subject either as Jews or as Christians, 
 nor, probably, to the KO(.VT\ in its literary form, being rather a reflection of 
 the influence of the Roman dominion upon the colloquial speech of the 
 empire. Of the nearly thirty Latin words that occur in the New Testament, 
 none occur in the Septuagint, and but two have been pointed out in Polyb- 
 ius. Plutarch uses Latin words more frequently than Polybius, but for the 
 most part not those employed in the New Testament. 
 
 8. A comparison of the Epistle to the Hebrews and the Synoptic Gos- 
 pels will illustrate the extent and character of the differences that exist 
 among New Testament writers, all of whom are subject in some way to 
 Semitic influence. The former, though affirmed by tradition to have been 
 written originally in Aramaic and afterward translated into Greek, in fact 
 gives clear evidence of having been written originally in Greek by an author 
 who possessed a cpmmand of literary Greek exceptional among New Testa- 
 ment writers, and who evinces both by his vocabulary and by his quotations 
 a familiar acquaintance with the Septuagint, but little or no influence of the 
 Aramaic or Hebrew. Wherever written, the book evidently in no small 
 measure reflects Alexandrian influence. The Synoptic Gospels, on the other 
 hand, show a considerable Aramaic influence, which is suggestive of con- 
 nection with Palestine ; the precise nature of this connection does not call 
 for discussion at this point. 
 
 9. If the Greek of the New Testament writers is compared with the 
 Attic Greek of Plato or Xenophon, for example, it is possible theoretically to 
 classify the varying elements by which the former is differentiated from the 
 latter as (a) Common, this term covering the characteristics which distinguish 
 Later Greek in general from that of the pre-Aristotelian period ; (b] Alex- 
 andrian, to which might perhaps be added other local idioms, if we 
 possessed the means of identifying them; (c] Semitic, including Hebrew 
 and Aramaic; (d] Septuagint, which is itself a compound of Hebrew and 
 Alexandrian ; (e) Latin. 
 
 In practice, however, it is impossible perfectly to carry out such an 
 analysis. A grammar of the Alexandrian Dialect, as distinguished from the 
 Common, has not been produced and is perhaps impossible for lack of 
 sufficient data. Even of the Common Dialect no complete Grammar has 
 been published. Upon the usages of the Septuagint much work has been 
 done, but no complete treatise as yet exists. The work of distinguishing 
 
1 6 NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR 
 
 the Semitic elements of the New Testament language from those which are 
 Common or Alexandrian is still in progress. 
 
 LITERATURE. See j9/., 2; .,p. i; W.,II-IV (*FS., 2-4); HA., 
 Introd.; G., Introd. ; Simcox, The Language of the New Testament ; 
 Sophocles, Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzantine Periods, Introd.; Ken- 
 nedy, Sources of New Testament Greek ; Immer, Hermeneutics of the New 
 Testament (Eng. Tr.), pp. 124 ff . ; Westcott, art. "New Testament," IV, in 
 Smith, Diet. Bib. ; Donaldson, art. " Greek Language," in Kitto, Cyclo- 
 pedia of Biblical Literature ; Schaff, Companion to the Greek Testament 
 and Revised Version, pp. 19-80; Thayer, art. "Language of the New Tes- 
 tament," in Hastings, Diet. Bib. ; Thumb, Die griechische Sprache im 
 Zeitalterdes Hellenismus, especially chap. 5; Za/m,"Die griechische Sprache 
 unter den Juden" in Einleitung in das Neue Testament, 2d ed., I, pp. 24-51; 
 Viteau, Syntaxe des Propositions : Le Verbe, pp. iii-lxi ; Deisstnann, Bible 
 Studies (Eng. tr.),pp. 63-85 ; Deissmann, Art. " Hellenistisches Griechisch," 
 in Hauck, Realencyclopadie, 3d ed., Vol. VII; Ramsay, "Greek of the 
 Early Church and Pagan Ritual," Expository Times, Vol. X ; /. H. Moid- 
 ton, "New Lights on Biblical Greek," in Biblical World, Vol. XIX, pp. 
 190-96 ; Jannaris, Historical Greek Grammar, pp. 1-20. 
 
B. NEW TESTAMENT FORMS 
 
 10. The following sections do not undertake even an 
 approximately complete presentation of the facts respecting 
 the peculiarities of New Testament forms, but aim only to call 
 attention in a general way to some of the more important 
 facts. For fuller information the student should consult the 
 lexicons and grammars, especially WS., 5-16, pp. 31-44, 
 and Th. under particular words. 
 
 WRITING AND SOUND (B., pp. 5-11 ; W., V-VIl; BL, 3-6) 
 
 11. In all the matters pertaining to the alphabet, contrac- 
 tion, elision, accent, etc., the rules given in the classical gram 
 mars hold also in general respecting the Greek of the New 
 Testament. The MSS. of the New Testament, however, like 
 those of Greek authors, exhibit no little variation, and the 
 editor of the New Testament text must often make choice 
 among conflicting authorities. The following points may be 
 mentioned : 
 
 12. Through the influence of Itacism, /. e. t the practice of 
 giving the sound of iota (i) to rj and v and to the diphthongs 
 ei, y, 01 and vt, the MSS. of the New Testament exhibit various 
 interchanges of vowels, of which one of the most frequent is 
 that of ei and t. See, e. g., ctSea for tSe'a, Matt. 28 : 3. 
 
 13. Respecting terminal letters the usual Greek rules hold 
 except in the case of foreign names introduced without assimi- 
 lation. Cf. 22. 
 
 14. MSS. and editors vary greatly respecting the addition 
 of v movable. Tisch., following the usual practice of the 
 
 MSS., generally retains it before both vowels and consonants, 
 but occasionally omits it before a consonant on MS. authority, 
 in nearly all the latter cases following the reading of a group 
 
 17 
 
1 8 NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR 
 
 including J$- See Greg., Part I, pp. 97 /. WH. omit it 
 wherever the omission is vouched for by either Codex Sinaiti- 
 cus (Jfc) or Vaticanus (B), supported by either Codex Alexan- 
 drinus (A) or Codex Ephraemi Syri rescriptus (C). 
 
 Nearly the same statement may be made respecting the s 
 of OUTCDS. Mexpts and a^pis, on the other hand, generally con- 
 form to the usual rule. 
 
 15. *EvKa occurs before a consonant only : CI/CKO/ and tiveKtv 
 stand before either a vowel or a consonant. See B., p. 10, and 
 ff. BL, p. 20. 
 
 1 6. Most words which in earlier Attic were written with o-<r, 
 in later Attic with TT, have in the New Testament era-. 
 
 The combination pp is used interchangeably with pa: 
 
 17. Rough mutes are found standing before words which, 
 in classical Greek at least, usually had a smooth breathing. 
 See e. g., Rom. 8 : 20, e< cA.7ri8i, which Tisch. writes e<' Airi'St, 
 but WH., <' cAirt'Si; Phil. 2 : 23, d<ioV See B., p. 7; BL p. 15. 
 
 The MSS. frequently give 00 instead of r6 which the gram- 
 marians prescribe. Later editors incline to follow the MSS. 
 
 1 8. The rule that "v before a labial becomes /x, before a 
 palatal becomes y-nasal, before A, p is assimilated, before or is 
 dropped," is not followed at all uniformly in MSS. of the New 
 Testament in words compounded with o-w and h. Such forms 
 as (rvvoT/xxTiw'nygj crvvKaXeu), etc., are found in the MSS. and 
 adopted by recent editors. Cases of assimilation, however, as 
 in o-vXXa/x/?avw, also occur. 
 
 19. Crasis and elision occur in the New Testament, but 
 much less frequently than in the MSS. of classical writers. 
 
 20. The whole matter of punctuation, breathing, and 
 accentuation, including accent of enclitics and proclitics, is 
 one of editorship rather than of manuscript authority, since 
 the oldest MSS. are written without accents. Modern critics 
 follow in general the rules of the ancient grammarians. See 
 detailed discussion in W., VI, VII ; BL, pp. 13-17. 
 
NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR 19 
 
 DECLENSION OF NOUNS (A, pp. 11-25; W., VIII, IX ; Bl., 7-10) 
 
 21. There is no dual number in the New Testament. 
 
 22. Foreign proper names which on being transferred into 
 Greek undergo no change of form are not declined, e. g., 
 'lept^w (Matt. 20:29; Mark 10:46), Bcvta/xiV (Acts 13:21). 
 See other examples, B., pp. 15-19. Those which on being 
 transferred into Greek change their form are declined accord- 
 ing to Greek analogy, e. g., 2tS<ov, SiSwvos ; ^At^, S^AIKOS. 
 Some nouns have both a declinable and indeclinable form : 
 thus Mapia/x, or Mapt'a, Mapt'as. The declension of Mcovcn/s is 
 as follows : N. Mwucnjs, G. Mtouo-etoSj D. Mcovtret or M<ou<ny, A. 
 Mtovcrea or Mcovtri/v. See Bl., p. 29. 
 
 23. Some foreign names ending in -as, -T/S, -cos, -ovs are 
 declined according to a special declension called the weak or 
 mixed declension. The following is the table of terminations 
 as given by B., p. 19 : 
 
 N. 
 
 as 
 
 775 
 
 cos 
 
 ovs 
 
 G. 
 
 a 
 
 77 
 
 (0 
 
 ov 
 
 D. 
 
 a 
 
 V 
 
 <i> 
 
 ov 
 
 A. 
 
 ov 
 
 r)V 
 
 cov 
 
 ovv 
 
 V. 
 
 a 
 
 V 
 
 CO 
 
 ov 
 
 Examples in as are especially numerous, 'l^o-ovs is the only 
 instance in ous. See also BL, p. 31. 
 
 24. Jewish names of festivals usually have the plural form ; 
 e.g., TO. avfj.a (Mark 14 : i). The word crdpfiaTov is used in 
 both numbers with the sense of the singular. The usual dative 
 plural is o-a^acrtv, as if from the third declension. B., pp. 
 23, 24. 
 
 25. Some words fluctuate between the masculine and neuter 
 genders or between different declensions. This is called meta- 
 plasm. See BL, p. 28, and WS., 8: 12. 
 
20 NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR 
 
 DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS (B., pp. 31, 32 ; ^/.,I3) 
 
 26. The simple personal pronoun of the third person singu- 
 lar and plural, ov, ol, etc., does not occur in the New Testament. 
 
 27. The interrogative pronoun Trorepos does not occur in 
 the New Testament, n's being used instead. 
 
 CONJUGATION OF VERBS (B. t pp. 32-53; W., XII-XV; 
 Bl. t 14-23) 
 
 28. The syllabic augment of the pluperfect is usually 
 omitted. Thus, TreTrotTJ/ceio-ai/, Mark 15:7; cf. 15 : 10. 
 
 29. Double augmentation in compound verbs occurs in the 
 New Testament as in other Greek writers. Thus, aTreKareoTatfr;, 
 Mark 3:5; ^vew'x^o-av, John 9:10 (cf. Luke i : 64). 
 
 30. McAAa> and Swa/xat frequently have the augment rj as in 
 late Attic writers. See Mark 6 : 19 ; John 4 : 47. 
 
 31. Instances of a second aorist with a are not infrequent; 
 e.g., ijAtfa/xei/ (Acts 21:8), efSav (Matt. 13 : 17), evpa/xo/og (Heb. 
 9:12), etc. These forms are sometimes called Alexandrian 
 aorists. They are, however, entirely similar to the forms yjveyKa 
 and el? used by Attic writers. Regular second aorist forms 
 from the same stems occur side by side with the " Alexandrian " 
 forms. WS.j 13: 13. 
 
 A similarly formed imperfect of the verb *x<a> (^x av ) occurs 
 in a few passages. See Mark 8:7. See JBL, p. 46 ; WS., 13:13. 
 
 32. The termination -o-av instead of -v for the third person 
 plural, which occurs frequently in the Septuagint in second 
 aorist forms, occurs in the New Testament very rarely. See 
 2 Thess. 3:6, WH., marg. In John 15:22, 24, occurs the 
 imperfect form et'xoo-ai/, these two instances being quite without 
 parallel elsewhere. 
 
 33. The third person plural of the perfect indicative active 
 sometimes ends in -av instead of -ao-t. See John 17:7, eyvw/cav. 
 
 34. Several verbs which in classical Greek are of the 
 
NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR 21 
 
 /mi-inflection have forms of the w-inflection in use in the New 
 Testament side by side with the regular /u-forms. In some 
 instances the stem is at the same time modified, in others it 
 remains unchanged. Hence arise such forms as UTTCU/W, Sei/o/uets, 
 o/xfueiv, 81801, Sot (the two latter not opt., but subj., as if from 
 8iS6a>), and yvol (subj.). Peculiarly complex are the various 
 forms of ?7/zi. See B., pp. 45-51 ; BL, pp. 48-52. 
 
C. NEW TESTAMENT SYNTAX 
 THE GENERAL CHARACTER OF NEW TESTAMENT SYNTAX 
 
 35. What has already been said in general about the 
 language of the New Testament writers applies also to the 
 Syntax. Broadly speaking, the writers of the New Testament 
 follow the syntactical usages of the Koivrj, but in syntax as in 
 other respects are affected to a certain extent by those special 
 influences already named to which they were in varying 
 degrees subject. Cf. 6-9. The divergence of their lan- 
 guage from that of classical writers in respect to syntax is 
 greater than in reference to forms of words, and less than in 
 respect to the meanings of words, both the Jewish and the 
 Christian influence affecting more deeply the meanings of 
 words than either their form or their syntactical employment. 
 As respects the variations of New Testament writers among 
 themselves, this is probably greater in syntax than in any 
 other respect. Yet in the great majority of syntactical usages 
 they agree, and the student of syntax finds no difficulty in 
 framing statements of New Testament usage in general, which 
 only occasionally require qualifying statements covering the 
 usage of particular writers. 
 
 REMARK. It should be clearly recognized that departure from clas- 
 sical standards does not imply capriciousness or lack of established usage. 
 Late Greek is not classical Greek, as the Greek of Plato is not that of 
 Homer. But Late Greek in general, and New Testament Greek in particu- 
 lar, have recognized usages which are as reducible to definite statement as 
 those of Plato or Homer. 
 
NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR 23 
 
 SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE 
 GENERAL RULES 
 
 36. The use of the article and the effect of its omission are 
 substantially the same in the New Testament as in classical 
 Greek. 
 
 a) The article is in general either (i) Restrictive (demon- 
 strative), or (2) Generic. 
 
 b} Nouns without the article are either (i) Indefinite, or (2) 
 Qualitative (adjectival). 
 
 COMMON NOUNS 
 
 37. With common and class nouns the restrictive article 
 may designate the object which it denotes, as 
 
 a) Identified by the context (Mark 2 : 5), or 
 I)) The well-known bearer of the name, the one to whom 
 it belongs by pre-eminence (John 15 : 26). 
 
 REMARK. It should be distinctly observed that the article does not 
 itself identify the object referred to, but only indicates that the noun refers to 
 a person or thing which is identified by the context or otherwise. A noun 
 which, even with the article, itself identifies its object is virtually a proper 
 noun. 
 
 38. With common and class nouns the generic article may 
 designate, 
 
 a) The whole class conceived of as a unity (Mark 2 127), or 
 
 b) Any member whatever of the class (Acts 10 : 35). 
 
 39. Common nouns without the article are either 
 
 a) Indefinite, when the word designates the object as 
 belonging to the class indicated (i Cor. 9: i, aTrooroXos ) , or 
 
 b) Qualitative, when it characterizes the object as possessing 
 the attributes denoted by the noun (Eph. 5 : 23). 
 
 REMARK i. The indefinite force always involves the qualitative more 
 or less distinctly, since to assign an object to a class is to attribute to it the 
 qualities which are the mark of the class. The qualitative force, on the 
 
24 NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR 
 
 other hand, does not necessarily involve the indefinite, since the qualities 
 denoted by a noun may be attributed to an object without thought of any 
 other members of the class, or even when there are no other members. 
 
 REMARK 2. A noun in the predicate, since in the nature of the case 
 it is commonly indefinite or qualitative, is most frequently without the 
 article. This is probably all the truth there is in the rule that predicate 
 nouns do not take the article. A noun in the predicate referring specifically 
 to an individual as such takes the article. Mark 8:29; John 3 : 10; 9:20. 
 
 PROPER NAMES 
 
 40. With proper names the article is always restrictive, the 
 generic use being in the nature of the case impossible. 
 
 41. With names of persons the article designates the per- 
 son as 
 
 a) The person of this name indicated in the context, espe- 
 cially if previously named (Gal. 3:8; cf. vs. 7), or 
 
 I)} The well-known person of this name (John 9 : 28). 
 
 42. In general, a personal name without the article simply 
 names the person as one bearing that name. Yet since a per- 
 sonal name is itself relatively definite, the article is much more 
 easily omitted than in the case of a common noun. Whether 
 it shall be used or omitted is often a matter of choice on grounds 
 slight in themselves and difficult to detect. In case of inde- 
 clinable names the necessity of marking the case is sometimes 
 influential. 
 
 43. Names of countries, islands, and rivers, being in most 
 cases originally adjective in character, commonly have the 
 article. Names of cities usually omit it. Yet individual terms 
 have to some extent their own usage. 
 
 APPELLATIVES 
 
 44. The article with appellatives approximating to proper 
 names, such as 0cos, *upios, xpto-rog, etc., is usually restrictive, 
 designating the well-known bearer of the title. The title is 
 
NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR 25 
 
 used either in a purely official sense, not conveying in itself 
 any implication as to the personal identity of the bearer of the 
 name (Matt. 2:4; 22 : 42); or with tacit implication respecting 
 personal identity (Matt. 11:2); or finally almost as a personal 
 name, the appellative force being lost sight of or receding into 
 the background (i Cor. 1:13). 
 
 45. Appellatives without the article are 
 
 a) Indefinite, marking the person as belonging to the class 
 denoted by the noun (i Cor. 8 15), or 
 
 ^) Qualitative, attributing to the person referred to the 
 attributes, relations, etc., which the name expresses (Rom. 
 10:9), or 
 
 c] Definite, after the analogy of true proper names. Thus 
 Ku'ptos, standing as the equivalent of the Old Testament 
 Jehovah, is usually without the article in all constructions ; 
 and X/OKTTOS often occurs without the article as a name for 
 Jesus. But in this matter the usage of every such word must 
 be determined for itself. 
 
 REMARK. In compound appellatives, i. <?., appellatives consisting of a 
 noun limited by another noun, it is usually the case that both nouns have 
 the article or both omit it (Mark 2 : 28 ; John 5 : 27 ; Rom.i : 4 ; Mark 3:11). 
 
 ABSTRACT AND VERBAL NOUNS 
 
 46. With abstract and verbal nouns the restrictive article 
 may be used to designate the quality or action, as 
 
 a] The instance identified by the context (Gal. 5 : 13), or 
 
 b) The pre-eminent and well-known instance (Rom. 9:4). 
 
 47. With abstract and verbal nouns the generic article 
 makes the noun refer to the quality or action as such (i Cor. 
 13:4; Rom. 5 : 12). 
 
 48. Abstract and verbal nouns without the article may be 
 a) Indefinite, when the word designates the act or quality 
 
 referred to as belonging to the class of acts or qualities 
 denoted by the noun (i John 5:16, afJLapriav, a/xaprta; Rom. 
 
2 6 NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR 
 
 8:240). Verbal nouns in the plural without the article are 
 always indefinite. 
 
 <) Qualitative, when they merely characterize that which is 
 referred to as having the quality denoted by the noun (Matt. 
 21:32; Rom. 8: 24^). 
 
 NOUNS IN FIXED PHRASES 
 
 49. In general phrases and standing formulas, especially 
 in those consisting of a preposition and its object, the article 
 is frequently omitted, even when the noun is quite definite in 
 its reference, and in many other cases where fhe noun, though 
 in reality indefinite, requires the definite article in English. 
 The usage of each word and phrase, however, requires to be 
 separately determined. (Luke 13:29; Matt. 27:45; Luke 
 11:50; Acts 5:41-) 
 
 POSITION 
 
 50. The classical rule that when the article and an attribu- 
 tive belong together to a substantive, the attributive always 
 stands in attributive position, /. e., between the article and 
 noun, or after the article following the noun, holds good in 
 the New Testament when the attributive is an adjective or par- 
 ticiple. Thus TO ayioi/ Trvev/xa, or TO Trvev/xa TO aytov. 
 
 But when the attributive is a preposition and its object, or 
 an adverb, it may stand either in attributive or (as occasionally 
 in classical writers) in predicative position. Thus 6 Seoyuos ei/ 
 
 When the attributive is a genitive, it may, as in classical 
 writers, stand in either position. Cf. 54, e), and B. MT. 427. 
 
 THE ARTICLE AS DEMONSTRATIVE 
 
 51. The article is used as a demonstrative in the New 
 Testament only in the phrases 6 fteV, 6 8e, and in these only in 
 the four forms 6, 17, oi, at. Elsewhere, /. e., in the neuter nomi- 
 
NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR 27 
 
 native and in all the oblique cases, the forms of the relative 
 take the place of the article. Thus we have o> 8e, oV 8e, ov? 8c, 
 instead of roJ Se, rov Se, TOVS 8e. Even in the nominative os 
 sometimes appears. This use of the relative pronoun is found 
 as early as Demosthenes, but only in oblique cases. HA., 654, d. 
 
 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS (#., pp. 103-21; W., XXI-XXV) 
 
 52. The pronoun euro's is of very frequent occurrence in 
 the New Testament. It has four uses: 
 
 a) As in classical Greek, preceded by the article and mean- 
 ing "the same": 6 airros Kv'pios, the same Lord. 
 
 b) As in classical Greek, in predicative position, as an in- 
 tensive, meaning "self": cdrros 6 /cvptos, the Lord himself. 
 
 In pnrases of time Luke uses avro? before the article with 
 nearly the force of a slightly emphatic eVetvo? or OVTOS. Luke 
 2:38, avrfj rfj a>pa, at that very hour. See also Luke 10:21; 
 Acts 16:18; cf. Th., s. v. I. 2, c. 
 
 f) As a simple personal pronoun. This also is classical 
 usage, but is extended in the New Testament in two directions. 
 First, it occurs not only in oblique cases, as in classical writers, 
 but also in the nominative, where classical Greek would use 
 OUTOS or o8e, or would omit the pronoun altogether (Mark 8: 29; 
 Luke 1:22; ., p. 107. Contra, IV., XXII, 4 (), Rem.). 
 Secondly, the redundant use of the pronoun, repeating what 
 has already been expressed by a noun, pronoun, or phrase, is 
 more common than in classical writers, doubtless under the 
 influence of the Hebrew idiom (Matt. 8:23; 25:29; Mark 1:7; 
 Rev. 2:7; cf. W., XXII, 4). 
 
 d) As equivalent to the reflexive. In the New Testament 
 this usage is more frequent than in classical Greek (Matt. 1:21; 
 Mark 3:9; Luke 9:24, and very often). 
 
 53. Reflexive Pronouns. 
 
 a] Reflexive pronouns, when used, conform to classical 
 usage. But simple personal pronouns are often used instead 
 
28 NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR 
 
 of the reflexives. This occurs in classical Greek, but not so 
 frequently as in the New Testament. Cf. 52, d], above, and 
 see HA., 684. 
 
 b] Respecting the forms avrov, avrw, etc. (without breath- 
 ings in the older MSS.; hence ambiguous) there is still differ- 
 ence of opinion. The Textus Receptus gave many of them the 
 rough breathing, thus making them shortened reflexives avrov, 
 etc. Most of the more recent editors and text critics have given 
 them all, or very nearly all, the smooth breathing, making them 
 simple personal pronouns avrov, etc. though falling in 
 many cases under the preceding rule of personal pronouns 
 used for the reflexive. See the reasons for this course, B., 
 p. in. The result of this, of course, is to make the reflexive 
 appear in the New Testament only in the longer form 
 kavrov, eavro), etc. WH. have in about twenty instances 
 given these forms avrov, avrw, etc. the rough breathing, 
 thus returning in part to the usage of the Textus Receptus. 
 See WH., Vol. II, Appendix, pp. 143, 144; and cf. Luke 
 12:17, 21; John 2:24, 13:32; Rom. 1:27; 2 Cor. 3:5; Eph. 
 2:15; i John 5:10, in Tisch. and WH. See also W., XXII, 
 
 5,* 
 
 c] The form tavrov is generally, but not always, in the New 
 Testament an emphatic reflexive. Emphatic, Matt. 16:24; 
 18:4; i Cor. 13:5, etc.; unemphatic, Mark 8:14; Luke 
 19: 13; Rev. 10:3, etc. 
 
 d] The reflexive of the third person plural, ecumov, is 
 regularly used in the New Testament for all three persons. 
 About seventy instances of its use for the first or second per- 
 son occur. See, e. g., Matt. 3:9; 23:31; Luke 12:57; Rom. 
 8:23; 15:1; i Cor. 11:31; etc. When so used it is almost 
 always emphatic. 
 
 54. Possessive Pronouns and Possessive Genitives. 
 a) Possessive limitations are much more frequent in the 
 New Testament than in classical Greek. 
 
NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR 29 
 
 b) Possessive pronouns are used less frequently than in 
 classical Greek, the genitive of the personal pronoun being 
 used instead. 
 
 c) "iSios is used as an emphatic possessive instead of eoumn) 
 or the possessive with avrds (John 4 : 44). 
 
 d) The article is sometimes omitted with possessive limita- 
 tions where classical Greek would require it (Luke 2:32; 
 James i : 26, etc.). 
 
 e) When the article occurs, the position of the pronoun is 
 in general regular, viz., the personal pronoun stands in predi- 
 cative position (yet occasionally, mostly in the epistles, it 
 stands in attributive position); reflexives usually stand in 
 attributive position (Luke 11:21; 13:34; Matt. 8:22: contra, 
 Matt. 18:31; 25:1); possessives invariably so. 
 
 SYNTAX OF THE CASES 
 
 55. The use of the cases is nearly the same in New Testa- 
 ment as in classical Greek. The following matters require to 
 be specially noted in the study of New Testament Greek : 
 
 56. The Nominative is frequently used as the case of 
 address in the New Testament, usually with the article (Matt. 
 1 1 : 26 ; James 5:1; i Cor. 15 : 36 ; cf. B., p. 140). 
 
 57. The Genitive of Designation, denoting the same object 
 as that which is denoted by the noun it limits, chiefly poetic 
 in classical writers, is not uncommon in the New Testament 
 (John 2:21; Acts 1 6 : 14; Heb. 12:11). 
 
 58. The Genitive of Characteristic (sometimes called quali- 
 tative), which scarcely occurs at all in classical authors, is not 
 infrequent in the New Testament (Matt. 21:32; Luke 16:8). 
 It is probably of Hebraistic origin, though a nearly similar 
 idiom is found also in Latin. 
 
 59. The Genitive limiting a noun is often used in the New 
 Testament to indicate a relationship between the two objects 
 of so general a character that it cannot be assigned to any of 
 
3 o NOTES ON NEW TESTAMENT GRAMMAR 
 
 the usual genitive relations. Such instances may be classed 
 under the general head of Genitive of Connection (Matt. 1:17; 
 Mark 1 : 4, /xeravotas ; John 7:35). 
 
 60. The Dative of Time is sometimes used in the New Tes- 
 tament to denote, not point of time, but duration (Luke 8:27; 
 Acts 8 : 1 1 ; Acts 13 : 20). 
 
 61. Prepositional constructions are very frequent in the 
 New Testament, often occurring when classical Greek would 
 employ a case only. Some of the most common constructions 
 are illustrated in the following examples : Acts 13:22; Matt. 
 21 : 46 ; Acts 2:16; John 2:11; 16 : 8. 
 
 THE VOICE OF THE VERB 
 
 62. The Aorist Passive is sometimes used in the sense of 
 the Middle. This occurs in the New Testament much more 
 frequently than in classical writers (Mark 5:21; Matt. 2:21; 
 James 4 : 7). 
 
 63. Certain tenses of deponent verbs are sometimes used 
 in a passive sense (Matt. 6 : i ; Mark 5 : 29; Rom. 4 : 4, 5 ; cf. 
 vss. 6, 8). See B., p. 52.. 
 
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