UC-NRLF $B 3D? TMfl OF ISH COMPOSITION GOYEN 0UCAS1OS U8R« REEF POINT GARDENS LIBRARY 1H* The Gift of Beatrix Farrand to the General Library University of California, Berkeley PRINCIPLES ENGLISH COMPOSITION PEINCIPLE.S OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS A TEXT-BOOK FOR THE SENIOR CLASSES OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS AND FOR PUPIL-TEACHERS BY P. GOYEN INSPECTOR OF SCHOOLS Hontrott MACMILLAN AND CO. AND NEW YORK 1894 All rights r KDHCATION LIBH; Farrcnd Gift EAc Library PREFACE As a means of teaching composition and the principles that govern sentence structure, analysis of sentences has completely broken down and become, outside the teaching profession, entirely discredited. Pupils parse and parse, analyse and analyse, for years of their school life, and in the end are ignorant of what constitutes a good sentence and wholly without ability to write one. The cause of this unsatisfactory result is not, I think, difficult to dis- cover. The parsing of single words, however well done, can be made to bear only on the syntax of single words — quite a trifle in sentence structure. Analysis, however, includes single words, phrases, and clauses — the whole mechanism of the sentence however complex, and, of course, ought to bear on the syntax of the whole mechanism ; but un- fortunately it has been made by the books to concern itself only with breaking down and classifying. Its sole aim has been to dismember the sentence and to place the disjecta membra under their appropriate headings. This is all very well from the point of view that decomposition and classification are the sole end of grammar ; but ought they to be so regarded ? Is not synthesis as important as analysis ? Is it not necessary that the young student should be trained not only to decompose and classify, but also to compose, that is, to arrange words, phrases, and clauses in their most effective setting ? Analysis is purely destructive ; it destroys beauty of thought and beauty of 717 vi ENGLISH COMPOSITION form ; synthesis restores both ; it is the complement of analysis. This fact has been ignored by the text-books, and therefore analysis has become discredited. Analysis is useful chiefly for purposes of synthesis. From analysis the student learns to discern the parts and the function of the parts of the sentence ; from synthesis and the rules of placement he learns to build up the sentence by placing the parts in their most effective setting. In this little book analysis is treated only as a means to an end — the synthesis of sentences and the principles of sentence structure. No distinction is made between ' indirect object ' and ' extension ' ; for whatever helps the predicate to express its meaning is an adjunct to the pre- dicate, and it is not of the least consequence whether we call it an 'object' or an 'extension.' The important thing is to recognise its function and to know its place in the sentence. It will be allowed by all competent judges that the foundation of composition lies in the sentence, that no one can compose well who cannot write a good sentence, and that no one can consciously write a good sentence who does not understand the principles that govern sentence struc- ture. To the exposition and exemplification of these principles a large part of this book is devoted ; accordingly a prominent place is assigned to synthesis, to the place- ment of qualifying adjuncts — a most difficult part of com- position — and to the devices usually adopted to bring emphatic words into positions of emphasis and related words into proximity. I have endeavoured so to present this part of the sub- ject as to induce in the young student a critical attitude of mind — critical, that is, as to his choice of modes of expression and as to the merits or the defects of this or of that mode. In his excellent Companion to his Higher English Grammar, Professor Bain says : ' In teaching English the most effective course seems to me to be this : having selected an exemplary passage, first to assign its peculiar excellence and its deficiency, and next to point PREFACE vii out what things contribute to the one and what to the other, and what are indifferent to both. The pupils are thus accustomed to weigh every expression that comes before them, and this I take to be the beginning of the art of composition' The spirit of this passage and of Bain's teaching is the governing spirit of this little manual, which, however, does not pretend to go beyond the elements of composition. It deals with the structure of sentences of many forms and of several degrees of complexity, but not with the paragraph and the connectives that give movement to the paragraph and the larger divisions of the paragraph. For a full and masterly treatment of the whole subject the teacher is referred to Bain's books on English. In connection with the pronoun and the complex sentence of two clauses I have introduced the subject of equivalent modes of expression. This part of composition is of great interest and importance, and is deserving of much fuller treatment than it has received in this book. For a very full and able treatment of it the teacher is referred to Mr. A. F. Murison's First Work in English, published, like Professor Bain's books, by Messrs. Long- mans and Co. The exemplary passages, and the passages for analysis and synthesis, are, with a few unimportant exceptions, selected by myself from our most idiomatic prose writers. They are, with one or two exceptions, selected from prose writings, for the obvious reason that prose composition can be taught only from prose models. The language of the examples and exercises, though not more difficult than that of the reading- books of the classes for which this book is intended, is yet sufficiently difficult to make the pupils respect it. It is my experience that many of the prose examples in most text-books of analysis are so unlike the sentences of the reading-books, so simple (not to say child- ish) that boys and girls of average ability despise them. They do not see what good can come from a study of them. The analysed sentences furnish the pupils with a large viii ENGLISH COMPOSITION amount of good material for putting into practice the principles of composition expounded in the text. The synthesising of these examples should prove one of the most profitable as well as one of the most interesting exercises in the book. For the assistance and convenience of teachers a key to the synthesis is published separately. Another very useful exercise is the correction of errors in grammar and arrangement. Examples of such errors are inserted here and there in the book. Some of these are of my own selecting, but most of them are taken from the fine collection of the late Dr. Hodgson, whose book, Errors in the Use of English, should be in the library of every teacher. On every page of his pupils' reading-books, the teacher will find passages exemplifying some of the principles ex- plained and exemplified in this book. Such passages should be used as supplementary exercises. Besides word-parsing for concord and government, the teacher should give his pupils a considerable amount of phrase- and clause-parsing for position. For this exercise the reading-books furnish abundance of fine material. It is a good exercise to set the pupils to search their reading lessons for examples of this or of that construction. The reading-books also furnish examples of paragraph structure, of the elements of style, including figures of speech, and of the phrases and connectives that are usually employed to mark transitions of thought and to give movement to paragraphs and the larger divisions of the paragraph (see Bain's Rhetoric and Composition, Pt. I.) In the same books is to be found plenty of good material for exemplifying the difference between the diction of prose and that of poetry. It is unquestionable that, in the hands of a competent teacher, the reading -books can be made a most powerful instrument for teaching the essentials of good form in prose composition. Even their errors can be turned to account in teaching what to avoid. ' In composition, as in grammar, we need two courses of instruction, running side by side. The first is, a PREFACE IX systematic course of principles, with appropriate examples ; the second, a critical examination of texts, passages, or writings, as they occur in some of the good English authors. The two methods support and confirm each other, while either by itself is unsatisfactory. If there are principles of composition, they ought to be set forth in systematic array, and not left to irregular and random presentation. On the other hand, unless we grapple with some continuous text, we can neither find adequate exemplification, nor give any assurance of the completeness of our theories' (Bain, On Teaching English, p. 23). In this little book I have attempted to supply 'a systematic course of principles, with appropriate examples ' ; the school reading-books supply the other essential — 'passages for critical examination.' Suggestions for the improvement of the book and correc- tions of misprints and other errors will be gratefully received by the publishers or by myself. To Mr. J. Wetherell, M.A., Head-master of Towcester Grammar School, who has kindly performed for me the disagreeable task of seeing the book through the press, I gladly tender my sincere thanks. P. GO YEN. CONTENTS PART I The Simple Sentence 1. Logical Analysis . 2. Grammatical Analysis : Subject, Predicate, Object 3. Concord of Subject and Predicate . 4. The Function of the Adjective 5. Kinds of Adjuncts to the Noun 6. Placement of Adjuncts to the Noun 7. Pronouns and Pronominal Couples . 8. Adverbial Adjuncts .... 9. Placement of Adverbial Adjuncts . 10. Order and Distribution of Adverbial Adjuncts 11. Usual Placement of Subject, Predicate, and Object 12. Departure from the usual Order for the sake of Emphasis and Energy .... 13. Analysis . . 14. Synthesis ..... PAGE 1 2 4 8 10 11 12 18 19 21 26 27 28 28 PART II The Complex Sentence of Two Clauses 1. The Noun Clause : its Place and its Equivalents . . 39 2. The Adjective (Relative) Clause and its Equivalents . 43 Xll ENGLISH COMPOSITION 3. The Adverbial Clause and its Equivalents . 4. Interchange of Adverb with Adverbial Phrase 5. Placement of the Relative Clause 6. Note on the Relative Clause 7. Syntax of the Relative Pronouns 8. Placement of the Adverbial Clause 9. Note on ' Do ' and ' So ' 10. Note on the Comparisons . 11. Analysis 12. Synthesis 13. An Important Participial Construction : its Place and its Equivalents 14. Absolute Phrases : their Place and their Equivalents PART III The Compound Sentence 1. The Copulative or Cumulative Relation 2. The Disjunctive Relation 3. The Compound Subordinate Clause . 4. Mixed Sentences 92 93 101 106 PART IV The Complex Sentence of more than Two Clauses 1. Analysis of Complex Sentences of more than two Clauses . 109 2. Synthesis of Complex Sentences of more than two Clauses . 112 PART I THE SIMPLE SENTENCE Logical Analysis A simple sentence is a group of words by which : I. A statement is made, as : ' Birds fly.' * The fire burns.' ' The boy has learnt his lessons.' II. A question is asked, as : 1 Why do you run so fast 1 ' ' Who bought these articles ? ' III. A command or a wish is expressed, as : 1 Go (thou).' Speak (you).' ' May you be happy.' Every simple sentence contains at least two parts, the subject and the predicate. The subject is the word (or words) denoting the person about whom or the thing about which something is asserted. The predicate is the word (or words) by means of which something is asserted of the subject. These parts, the subject and the predicate, are the essential parts of every sentence ; all other parts of the sentence group themselves to the one or the other of these. Hence a sentence, however long, may be regarded as consisting only of subject and predicate. , A sentence broken up into these two parts is said to be analysed. IE B ENGLISH COMPOSITION Examples Subject. Predicate. Our old house I He This state of mind A plain stone The state of the city The fighting men of the garrison Several of them was vacant. played some old tunes, ordered his dinner, could not last long, was placed over his grave, was becoming frightful, were much exhausted, fell down from exhaustion. This is called the logical analysis of the sentences. In grammar we take note of more minute divisions of the sentence. These you will learn as you proceed. Exercise I 1. Give the logical analysis of the following sentences : Alfred was taught at home. He had a strong liking for books. His mother was a kind-hearted woman. The two lads grew up together. The noise was a false alarm. The poet spoke of his own songs. His health seemed to have mended. I shall not easily forget you. He lives eight miles from his post town. They retired into the library. The friends of that day were few in number. 2. Write down the logical analysis of ten sentences of your own construction. 3. Give the logical analysis of twenty sentences selected from your reading-book. Grammatical Analysis : Subject, Predicate, Object The grammatical subject may be : 1. A noun, as : ' Birds fly.' 2. A pronoun, as : ' Tliey fly. ' 3. An adjective, as : ' The good are happy.' I THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 3 4. An infinitive, as : 'To lie is disgraceful.' 5. A verbal noun, as : 'Riding is good exercise.' 6. A sentence, as : 'I declare you are wrong. ' The grammatical predicate may be : I. An intransitive verb, as ; ' Birds fly.' ' The ship sailed.' ' The child cried. ' ' Our friends have departed.' 'The children had been playing.' Notice here that, without the assistance of other words, each verb expresses complete sense. Such verbs are called verbs of complete predication. II. The verbs ' be,' l seem,' * grow,' ' appear,' * become,' and some others, with an adjective, a noun, a pronoun, an adverb, or other words, as : 1. 'The man is (seems, appears, becomes) happy.' 2. ' These men are giants.' 3. ' Mary is here (there, yonder).' 4. ' She is of unsound mind. ' 5. ' The verdict was that he was guilty. ' Observe that these verbs cannot, without the assistance of other words, express complete sense. They are therefore called verbs of incomplete predication. They are also called copulative verbs, because their function is to join the real predicate to the subject. III. A transitive verb, as : ' The wind broke the tree. ' ' James struck John.' Transitive verbs also are verbs of incomplete predication ; for, without an object, they are generally unable to express complete sense. Hence the object of a transitive verb is sometimes called the completion of the predicate. For the purposes of analysis it is called the object of the sentence. Like the subject, the object may be a noun, a pronoun, an adjective, an infinitive, a verbal noun (with or without qualifying words), and a noun sentence. The subject of the sentence is said to be in the nominative case, and the object is said to be in the objective case. ENGLISH COMPOSITION Concord of Subject and Predicate Rule. — The subject and predicate {verb) must agree in number and person. Of whatever number and person the subject is, of the same number and person must the predicate (verb) be. Examples 1. ' The hounds chase the hare.' The subject c hounds ' is plural and of the 3rd person. The predicate ' chase ' is plural and of the 3rd person. Hence there is the proper agreement between the subject and the predicate of the sentence. 2. ' Some birds eats insects.' The subject 'birds' is plural and of the 3rd person. The predicate ' eats ' is singular and of the 3rd person. The subject and predicate, therefore, agree in person, but not in number. The sentence should be written : ' Some birds eat insects.' Exercise II 1. Parse in the same way the subject and the predicate (verb) of each of the following sentences : We continue our course. They discovers an island. He enters upon the scene. We enters upon the scene. You des- cried the eastern range. He give me a suitable present. We was all there together. The natives hit upon a mode of treat- ment. The two boys was fond of each other. Peacocks has long tails. The birds in the tree is singing. The children living at the end of this street goes to school. Nothing but dreary dykes occur to break the monotony of the landscape. The existence of these differences do not justify the quarrel. A sojourn of five years in the hospitals have strengthened these opinions. The loss of Wilkie and Chantrey seem not likely to be soon supplied. His knowledge of French and Italian litera- ture were far beyond the common. Exactly opposite each other stands a church and a gin-palace. 2. Place a suitable subject to each of the following predi- cates : Sings, have sung, fly, has flown, shines, fall, springs, I THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 5 blow, sparkles, has spoken, have spoken, hadst slept, singest, hast sung, nearest, hast heard. 3. Place a predicate to each of the following subjects : Fire, horses, water, stars, winds, snow, the cat, men, we, thou, he, they, you, I. 4. Write ten sentences consisting of subject, predicate, and object. Rule. — Two or more singular subjects connected by * and ' require a plural verb, as : ' James and John have gone to town.' ' He and his sister are in the next room.' < He and I \ were th begt f friends# » ' You and I J ' Peter, James, and John were the chief apostles. ' ' Peter and James and John were the chief apostles. ' When there are more than two subjects the conjunction 'and ' is sometimes omitted ; even with the omission of ' and,' however, the verb must be plural, as : (a) ' Health, youth, beauty are the gifts of nature. ' (b) l Pride, conscience, party spirit were on the side of the Tories.' The omission of the conjunction adds energy to the sentence. Note that ; James and John =they. He and his sister = they. He and I =we. You and I =we. They and I = we. You and they =you. Exercise III Correct the following and give reasons for the changes you make : John and I was present. Quietness and peace is to be had here. Scott and Dickens has written excellent novels. The duke and his servants has just departed. She and I has just arrived. Diligence and industry counts for more than talent. Where justice and reason governs, there peace and happiness flourishes. My sister and I am going to see the play. Faith and hope is in their prime. Honour, justice, religion was involved. (a) 6 ENGLISH COMPOSITION part Rule. — Two or more singular subjects connected by ' or,' * nor,' * either,' ' neither,' require a singular verb, as : f ' My sister or my brother has written to you.' Either my sister or my brother has written to you. ' James, his sister, or his brother has written to you. ' ^ ' Either James, or his sister, or his brother has written to you. ' Note the repetition of ' or' in the last sentence. (b) ' Neither James nor John is willing to go. ' (c) 'Neither wind, nor rain, nor anything else is able to cool our affections.' Note the repetition of ' nor ' in the last sentence. Rule. — If one of the subjects connected by these conjunctions is plural the verb must be plural, and the plural subject should be placed next to the verb, as : (a) * Either John or his sisters have called to see you.' (6) ' Neither John nor his sisters have called to see you. ' Rule. — When two or more pronouns of different persons are used as subjects and connected by l or' or ' nor,' the verb should agree with the pronoun next to it, as : (a) ' Neither he nor I am at fault.' (b) ' Neither I nor he is at fault.' (c) ' Either you or he is at fault. ' (d) • Either he or you are at fault. ' This arrangement has the sanction of good authority. It is, however, a very awkward one, and should be avoided except in cases in which the verb has the same form for the persons and numbers of the pronouns used, as : (a) * Neither -f J e nor , X X can be at fault.' v ' {I nor he ) (b) ' Either i Z° n or he \ must be at fault. ' v ' i ne or you J When each of the pronouns requires a different form of the verb, the following construction should be adopted : (a) ' He is not at fault, nor am I.' (b) ' I am not at fault, nor is he.' (c) ' Either you are at fault, or he is.' (d) ' Either he is at fault, or you are. ' Rule. — Two singular nouns connected by ' as well as ' require a singular verb, as : (a) 'Caesar, as well as Cicero, was a great man.' i THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 7 (6) 'The tone of the act, as well as the substance of it, indicates the direction in which the tide was setting.' ' As well as ' indicates comparison, not combination. Rule. — Subjects individualised by the distributive 'each,' 'every,' 'either,' 'neither,' require a singular verb and a singular pronoun, as : (a) ' Each of the men works in his own way.' (b) ' Each of us knows best where his own difficulties lie. ' (c) ' Meantime the two brothers were each wrapped up in his own reflec- tions.' (d) ' Each party tries to serve those for whom it is interested ; but neither party consents to grant favourable terms to its enemies. ' (e) 'Every man and every nation Jias its own characteristic vices.' (/) ' Every smith, every carpenter, every cutler was at constant work on the guns and blades assigned to him.' 'Many a' is joined to a singular subject, as : (a) ' Many a flower is born to blush unseen. ' (6) ' So inviting was the conception that many an English adventurer was willing to try his hand to convert it into reality.' The following constructions should be noted : (a) ' Fort after fort was taken. ' (6) ' Noble after noble was hurried to the block. ' (c) 'Fitzgerald with his uncles was committed to the Tower.' (d) 'The young lord with three of his uncles was on the spot by day- break. ' (e) ' Much beef, brandy, and harness was found in the magazines ' ( = much of beef, etc. ) ' None ' means * not one,' or ' no one,' and ought, therefore, to take a singular verb. Even the best writers, however, assign to it sometimes a singular and sometimes a plural verb. Examples («) ' None but members of the Church of Rome were thought worthy of any mark of royal favour ' (Macaulay). (6) ' None of the modes by which a magistrate is appointed affords much security for his being wiser than any of his neighbours ' (Macaulay). (c) ' None of them was deficient in abilities, and four of tnem were men of high intellectual eminence ' (Macaulay). ENGLISH COMPOSITION Exercise IV Correct the following, and give reasons for the changes you make : Either my brother or my sister are willing to do the work. His peace or his fortune are at stake. Neither the lawyer nor the judge were able to understand the case. James, as well as John, have taken a good position in their class. Neither you nor I are to blame. Either I or you am to blame. The king or his ministers is to be present at the ceremony. Each of them owe a debt of gratitude to their deliverer. Every sailor and every soldier are expected to do their duty. Venus, as well as the earth, revolve round the sun. Neither of your plans satisfy me. Neither of the chief authorities appear to have participated in the general feeling. The gain to the French seem not to have been great. One of his papers were found in the box. Homer as well as Virgil were studied on the banks of the Rhine. Are neither of these your friend ? Ten months' interest are due. Too great a variety of studies distract the mind. Fortress after fortress were taken. James with his sister were at the play. Concession after concession were made in this way. More than one principle has been contended for at ofte time (more than one = at least two principles). Much butter, sugar, and salt were sold. The two great parties of the Christian world have each their own standard of truth. Each of these topics need a lecture for their development. Catholic communities have, since that time, become infidel and become Catholic again ; but none have become Protestant. The Function op the Adjective Nouns, whatever position in the sentence they occupy, may have adjectives, or words equivalent to adjectives, attached to them. Examples (a) ' Horses draw loads. ' (6) ' Our horses draw your loads.' . (c) ' Our draught horses draw your heavy loads. ' (d) ' Our black draught horses draw your heavy loads of wood.' The subject and the object of (6), (c), and (d) are said to be i THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 9 qualified, limited, or enlarged ; and the qualifying words are some- times called enlargements. They are so called, not because they make the sentence larger, but because they specify the attri- butes, qualities, or relations possessed by the things denoted by the nouns to which they are joined, and in this way enlarge our hnov)ledge of the things. In (a) all horses that draw loads and all loads that are drawn by horses are included. The terms ' horses ' and ' loads,' therefore, include a large number of individuals. In (6) are included only the horses that belong to us and the loads that belong to you ; all other horses and loads are (by implication) excluded. Hence fewer individuals are denoted by the nouns in (b) than by the same nouns in (a). In (c) are included only the draught horses that belong to us and the heavy loads that belong to you ; all our other horses and all your other loads are (by implication) excluded. Fewer individuals are, therefore, denoted by the nouns in (c) than by the same nouns in (6), and therefore than by the same nouns in (a) ; and it is obvious that still fewer are denoted by the same nouns in (d), for this sentence excludes all our draught horses that are not black and all your heavy loads that do not consist of wood. And always, as the qualifying words are increased, the number of individuals denoted by the noun to which the qualifying words are added is decreased. Each qualifying word adds to the meaning of the noun, but narrows its range or limits its application. 1 Adjuncts ' means something added : all words added to nouns to define their meaning in the sentence we shall call qualifying adjuncts, or limiting adjuncts. Some adjuncts specify quantity only, as : (a) ' Some things. ' ' Much sugar. ' (b) 'Ten men.' ' Twenty pounds. ' Such adjuncts limit the quantity of the thing, or the number of things, denoted by the noun. In (a) the limitation is indefinite, or inexact. In (6) the limitation is definite, or exact. Note. — The adjective as predicate does not limit ; it simply specifies a quality of the subject. 10 ENGLISH COMPOSITION Kinds of Adjuncts to Nouns Qualifying or limiting adjuncts to the noun may consist of: (a) Adjectives (examples have been given). (6) A preposition with a noun, as : 1. ' The pleasures of the country. ' 2. ' A glance at a map.' 3. • A space in the centre of a large city.' 4. * The whole period between October and March.' 5. ' A present for James. ' 6. ' A present from his father.' 7. ' A boy with curly hair. ' 8. ' Courtesy towards our companions.' 9. ' The road along the shore. ' 10. ' The bird's right to life and freedom' 11. ' The food on the table.' 12. ' The bird in the cage.' Such phrases are called prepositional phrases. (c) A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, as : ' The boy's hat.' ' John's brother.' ' Their home.' 1 My lessons. ' His book. ' (d) A noun in apposition, as : (1) 'John, the fisherman.' (2) 'Cromwell, the Protector.' (e) A verb in the infinitive mood, as : (1) 'A house to let.' (2) 'Bread to eat.' (3) ' Water to drink. ' (4) ' Lessons to be learnt. ' The participial adjunct we shall deal with later on. Exercise V 1. From the following sentences select the qualifying or limiting adjuncts, and state of what they consist and what they qualify or limit : Inner sunshine warms the heart. There was no time for smiles. There was mighty work to be done. Amid the grinding tear of the shot through the rigging, the sailors did noble duty. He made many important improvements in machinery. The woods showed all the colours of the rainbow. Puss had no great zeal for the fine arts. The village in the i THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 11 valley was swept away. Obedience is the key to every door. The difference between the brothers was great. Slight drizzling showers were falling. This part of Africa was the scene of Living- stone's labours. In the fold on the hill there are twenty fat sheep. Puss is the only other article to be considered here. Mary, Queen of Scots, was executed in the reign of Elizabeth. Mr. Gladstone, the great English statesman, is a man of wonderful ability. There was water everywhere, but not a drop to drink. The thunder from the guns on the right showed that the English were gaining a mastery over the enemy. The tricks to be performed to-night are very amusing. Walpole had eminent talents for government and debate. 2. Add as many limiting adjuncts as you can to the follow- ing nouns : Sugar, plain, elephant, paper, cracks, oysters, prisoner, hat, soldiers, wine, nation, thief, servants. Place of Adjuncts to the Noun The general rule is : That qualifying adjuncts must be placed as near as possible to what they are intended to qualify. This position is either immediately before or immediately after the word intended to be qualified. Kead again the sentences in the last exercise, and observe that the adjective and the possessive case precede, and that the noun in apposition, the prepositional phrase, and the infinitive follow the noun to which they are adjuncts. In prose this is their usual placement. The adjective as predicate usually follows the subject, as : (a) 'The answer was short, clear, and decisive. 1 (b) ' The natives of wine-countries are generally sober.' Two or more adjectives of quality sometimes follow the noun to which they are adjuncts, as : (a) ' All their disputes, internal and external, were decided by foreign influence. ' (b) 'The native troops, regular and irregular, broke away.' An adjective qualified by a phrase is generally placed after the noun to which it is an adjunct, as : (a) 'Laws hostile to the people were passed by the parliament.' (b) * The historians the most partial to the minister admit the truth of these stories.' 12 ENGLISH COMPOSITION part To sum up we may say that, as a rule, short simple adjuncts precede and long complex adjuncts follow the noun. Exercise VI Parse the phrasal limiting adjuncts contained in one or more of your reading lessons. Note. — The prepositional phrase is the chief phrasal adjunct. Pronouns and Pronominal Couples The demonstrative pronouns ' he,' * she,' ' it,' ' they,' like the relative pronouns ' who,' * which,' * that,' all look backward, and the function of each of them is to represent an antecedent noun with all its limiting adjuncts. With this noun (called its ante- cedent or subject of reference) the pronoun must agree in number, person, and gender. These little words, simple as they look, are very troublesome to manage, and the young student cannot be too careful in his use of them. He must be especially careful to see : 1. That the pronoun has a subject of reference, and that the subject is sufficiently prominent and sufficiently near to the pronoun to make the reference easy to the reader. 2. That there are not two or more different subjects to any one of which the pronoun may reasonably be referred. (This is a fruit- ful source of error.) The following examples, selected from the works of ex- perienced writers, show how easy it is to misuse the demonstra- tive pronouns : (a) ' No one as yet had exhibited the structure of the human kidneys, Vesalius having only examined them in dogs.' The antecedent of ' them ' is, not i kidneys,' but I human kidneys'; hence the writer represents Vesalius as having ex- amined human kidneys in dogs ! (b) ' The pedant assured his (1) patron that although he (2) could not divest the boy of the knowledge he (3) had already imbibed, unless he (4) would empower him (5) to disable his (6) fingers, he (7) should endeavour, with God's help, to prevent his (8) future improvement. ' Here his (1), he (2), him (5), he (7) refer to pedant ; he (3), i THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 13 his (6), and his (8) refer to boy ; and he (4) refers to patron. This cross-fire of pronouns is most perplexing. (c) ' In Spain freedom of thought, or, at least, the free expression of it, has been so closely fettered, that science in its strictest sense has made little progress in that unhappy country.' 1 It ' ought to be referred to ' freedom of thought,' the most prominent subject of reference in the antecedent phrase ; the writer does not, however, intend the pronoun to refer to the principal noun ' freedom,' but to the subordinate noun ' thought' ; he should, therefore, have written : ' In Spain freedom of thought, or, at least, the free expression of thought,' etc. In all cases it is better to repeat the noun than to cause obscurity by the misuse of the pronoun. (d) * Her own story was that she had a quarrel with the deceased, first about her wages, and secondly about the soup, and that she seized the deceased by the throat, and she fell, and when she got up she was looking for something to strike her with, and upon this she struck the deceased a blow on the throat, and she fell, and died almost instantaneously.' I leave, as a puzzle for the pupil, the discovery of the sub- jects of reference in this and the next example : (e) ' Two other words occur to me which are very commonly mangled by our clergy. One of these is "covetous" and its substantive " covetousness. " I hope some who read these lines will be in- duced to leave off pronouncing them " covetious " and " covetious- ness. " I can assure them that when they do thus call them, one, at least, of their hearers has his appreciation of their teaching disturbed. ' (/) ' My resolution is to spare no expense on education ; it is a bad calculation, because it is the only advantage over which circumstances have no power. ' The first ' it' has no subject of reference, and some thought is required to determine the subject of the second 'it.' The meaning intended is : ' The sparing of expense on education is a bad calculation, because education is the only,' etc. (g) * A statute inflicting death may be, and ought to be, repealed, if it be in any degree expedient.' • It ' ought to be referred to ' a statute inflicting death.' This, however, would make nonsense. The author intended 'it' to refer to a subject implied in the predicate of the antecedent sentence, viz. ' the repeal,' ' such repeal,' ' the repeal of such a 14 ENGLISH COMPOSITION part statute.' In this sentence the implied reference gives too much trouble to the reader. In the following the implied reference is, in each case, easy and therefore allowable. (h) * He expected to be condemned to death ; be even desired it ' (it=to be condemned to death). (i) 'He broke the rules and was punished for it' (it = breaking the rules). The pronoun ' it ' often has a forward or anticipative refer- ence, as : 1 It is good that I was afflicted, ' where ' it ' represents ' that 1 was afflicted.' THIS and THAT as Pronouns Examples (a) This is good, but that is better.' When ' this ' and ' that ' are so used, ' this ' refers to the nearer and ' that ' to the more remote thing spoken of. Their plural forms these and those are used in the same way, as : 1 These are yours and those are mine.' (b) ' Some place the bliss in action, some in ease, Those call it pleasure, and contentment these.' 1 Those ' refers to the more remote ' some,' the people that place the bliss in action ; ' these ' refers to the nearer ' some,' the people that place the bliss in ease. In prose other pronominal couples, as they are called, might be substituted for ' those ' and ' these,' as : 1. ' TJie former find their pleasure in action, and the latter theirs in ease. ' 2. ' The first find their pleasure in action, and the second (or the last) theirs in ease.' (c) ' Virtue and vice are before you ; this leads to misery, that to peace' (this = vice, that = virtue). Variations of (c) 1. 'Virtue and vice are before you ; the one (=the first named, virtue) leads to peace, the other ( = vice) to misery.' 2. ' Virtue and vice are before you ; the former leads to peace, the latter to misery. ' 3. 'Virtue and vice are before you ; the first leads to peace, the (or the last) to misery.' r THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 15 (d) ' Both international and municipal law were in favour of Charles ; he was a prisoner of war by the former, a king by the latter ' ( ' the former ' = international law, ' the latter ' = municipal law). Variations of (d) 1. ' ... he was a prisoner of war by the one, a king by the other.' 2. ' ... he was a prisoner of war by that, a king by this. ' 3. ' ... he was a prisoner of war by the first, a king by tlie second ' (or the last).' 1 That ' with its plural ' those ' followed by 'of is often substituted for a noun : ' that of,' ' those of.' Examples (a) ' The influence of Becket rivalled the influence of the king. ' = The influence of Becket rivalled that of the king. = Becket's influence rivalled the king's. (b) ' The poetry of Milton differs from the poetry of Dante.' =The poetry of Milton differs from that of Dante. = Milton's poetry differs from Dante's. (c) ' The preface is the preface of a man firm in his own religious opinions and tolerant towards the religious opinions of others. ' = The preface is that of a man firm in his own religious opinions and tolerant towards those of others (those = not opinions, but religious opinions). Before writing ' that ' or ' those ' in this construction, mentally substitute the noun (or the noun with its adjunct) for which it is intended to stand ; if you cannot do so readily, do not use the pronoun. Had the writer of the following sentence tried this mental substitution of the noun for the pronoun, he would have adopted another construction : 1 Another mode of spending the leisure time is that of books. ' The only possible subject of reference is ' mode ' ; substituting ' mode ' for ' that ' we have : ' Another mode of spending the leisure time is the mode of books,' which is nonsense. The following sentence exemplifies three of the foregoing constructions : 'Every kind of affectation is to be found on the other side of the Channel — the soldier's and the sportsman's, that of the dandy and that of the man who is " used up," the affectation of fashion and the affectation of Liberty Hall.' 16 ENGLISH COMPOSITION part ONE as a Pronoun Examples (a) ' One should control one's feelings.' Be careful not to write : ' One should control his feelings. ' (b) ' These are trifles that one gets used to, and in fact one would hardly think oneself in the tropics without them. ' Anticipatory Use op Pronouns Examples (a) 'As soon as they had finished their repast, the young people rose from the table.' Here ' they ' looks forward to ' young people.' The usual construction is : ' As soon as the young people had finished their repast, they rose from the table. ' (6) When he saw his error, the boy at once corrected it.' = When the boy saw his error, he at once corrected it. Exercise VII 1. Refer to their antecedents the demonstrative pronouns used in one or more of your reading lessons. 2. Point out the faults of pronominal reference in the following : (1) Metissa brought with her an old maid recommended by her mother, who taught her all the arts of domestic management. They soon invented one reason or another to quarrel with all my servants, and either prevailed on me to turn them away or treated them so ill that they left me of themselves, and they always supplied their places with some brought from my wife's family. (2) Adversity gives wisdom ; it ought to be greatly prized. (3) The wind blew down the wall ; it was very high. (4) The Emperor Alexander presented to the Emperor William a portrait of himself. (5) He allowed his brother to take his place for a short time, and for that short time he was a constant source of annoyance. (6) Mr. A. presents his compliments to Mr. B. I have got a i THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 17 hat which is not his ; if he have got a hat which is not yours, no doubt they are the missing ones. (7) The lad cannot leave his father, for if he should leave him he would die. (8) And it came to pass that night that the angel of the Lord went out and smote in the camp of the Assyrians one hundred fourscore and five thousand ; and, when they arose early in the morning, behold they were all dead corpses. (9) At the lower end of the hall is a large otter's skin stuffed with hay, which Sir Eogers mother ordered to be hung up in that manner, and the knight looks upon it with great satisfac- tion, because it seems he was but nine years old when his dog killed him. (10) The grand jury found true bills against the agitators ; and, although they threw every obstacle in the way of the pro- ceedings, they were successfully carried through. 3. Substitute other pronominal couples for those used in the following sentences : It is open to us to fight or to retreat ; this is a disgrace, that is madness. Two treaties were drawn up ; one on white paper, the other on red, the former real, the latter fictitious. I have always preferred cheerfulness to mirth ; the one I consider as an act, the other as a habit of the mind. I admit discussion on every matter except dinner and debts ; I hold that the first must be eaten and the second must be paid. He knew both Francis and Hastings ; the former he mistrusted, the latter he hated. I will not barter English commerce for Irish slavery ; that is not the price I would pay, nor is this the thing I would purchase. 4. In each of the following sentences substitute the noun for the pronoun that or those : His claim was no better founded than that of Catherine or that of the Bonaparte family in Spain. The style of Frances bears a strong resemblance to that of Junius. It was safer to take the part of Hastings in a minority than that of Francis in a majority. The poems of Tennyson are more widely read than those of Wordsworth. The manners of the Britons differed from those of the Komans. The men and the horses were more powerful than those of the Carnatic. Sir John Malcolm com- C 18 ENGLISH COMPOSITION part pares the conduct of Clive with that of the Duke of Wellington. His power far surpassed that which Dupleix had attained. 5. Write the following sentences in as many equivalent forms as you can : The eloquence of Cicero was superior to the eloquence of Caesar. The poems of Dryden differ from the poems of Tenny- son. The conduct of Hastings was more manly than the con- duct of his rival. The writings of Macaulay are more brilliant than the writings of Alison. Less is known of the life of Shakespeare than of the life of Milton. The conduct of Impey was more disgraceful than the conduct of Hastings. The influence of the king outweighed the influence of his minister. The light of the sun is more brilliant than the light of the moon. The career of Wellington was more honourable than the career of Napoleon. ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS The assertion made by the predicate is generally qualified by circumstances of time, of place, of manner, or of cause. The words added to the predicate to specify these circumstances are called qualifying, or limiting, or modifying adjuncts to the predi- cate. They are also called extensions of the predicate. These adjuncts consist more frequently of prepositional phrases than of single words, and no small part of the art of composition lies in the setting of such phrases in the sentence. I. Adjuncts of Time (a) ' My father came yesterday.* \ Point of time> (o) ' I started at sunrise. j (c) ' The lecture lasted three hours. ' \ T) ura +; on f +; me (d) ' I was present during the whole day. ' J (e) * The postman conies twice a day. ' Repetition of time. II. Adjuncts of Place (a) ; He was born in London: \ Regt . _ (6) • He remains there. J r (c) ' We are bound for England. ' Motion to a place. (d) 'We are returning from America: Motion from a place. ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS 19 III. Adjuncts of Manner (a) ' Some birds fly quickly. ' Manner strictly. (b) ' The army was quite exhausted. ' Degree. (c) ' He cut the apple with his knife.' Instrument. (d) ' He was ruined by a friend.' Agent. («) « I performed the journey with my brother.' j c ^™gS™f IV. Adjuncts of Cause (a) 'We eat to live.' "I , T .. , "/ , TT v V - . , . , h Motive, ground, reason. (&) ' He acted /rom prejudice. J (c) ' FP#A industry he will succeed. ' Condition. (d) 'The ear was made for hearing.' Purpose. Causal adjuncts express many shades of meaning that are very difficult to classify. Adverbs, it may be added, are used to modify adjectives and other adverbs. Rules for Place of the Adverbial Adjunct The simple adverb is placed : — I. Before the adjective or the adverb it is intended to qualify, as : (a) ' The girl is extremely unhappy. ' (b) ' The speaker spoke very rapidly.' II. Between the auxiliary and the participle, as : (a) ' He had long considered his life a burden. ' (6) ' In this battle the king was completely vanquished. ' (c) ' His plan should be greatly modified.' III. Between the auxiliary and the active infinitive, as : (a) ' We should never speak ill of the dead. ' (b) ' You should gently reprove him for his fault. ' IV. Sometimes before and sometimes after the simple verb, as : (a) 'The king openly opposed the proposal.' (b) 'The king opposed the proposal openly.' (c) ' He savagely flung himself upon his enemy. ' (d) ' He flung himself savagely upon his enemy.' Rule I. is almost constant, but Rules II. and III. are fre- quently departed from. With respect to all qualifying words 20 ENGLISH COMPOSITION part the general rule is to place them so as to make it impossible to doubt as to what word or words they are intended to affect ; and in applying this rule it is necessary to bear constantly in mind the general principle that, in English, qualifying words look forwards rather than backwards. Examples (a) ' The new party expected greatly to influence politics. ' (b) 'The new party greatly expected to influence politics.' In each of these cases the adverb ' greatly ' affects only the words that follow it. The remark that ' qualifying words look forwards rather than backwards' applies especially to only, merely, not, and some other single-word adverbs. Examples of ONLY, MERELY, NOT (a) 'We are determined to move only in the beaten path.' ('Only' here affects 'in the beaten path.') (&) 'We are determined only to move in the beaten path.' ('Only' here affects 'to move in the beaten path.') (c) ' We are only determined to move in the beaten path. ' (' Only ' here affects 'determined to move,' etc. 'We are nothing but determined,' etc.) Placed between a noun (or a pronoun) and a compound verb, or after a noun (or a pronoun) at the end of the sentence, only should be referred to the noun or the pronoun immediately preceding it, as : 1. ' We only are determined to move in the beaten path.' (Only we, no others. Here ' only ' does the work of an adjective. ' We alone are,' etc.) If we write : ' We only determined to move,' etc., then ' only ' bears on ' determined,' etc. ' Only ' seems unable to operate across an auxiliary verb. 2. ' We are determined to move in the beaten path only. ' ( ' Only ' should here be referred to ' beaten path,' and is equivalent to an adjective. ) If ' only ' is intended to qualify a clause, it should be placed at the head of it, as : I ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS 21 (d) ' Work is done well only when it is done seriously.' (e) ' A peasant would kill a cow merely to get a pair of brogues. ' (' Merely ' bears on 'to get,' etc.) (/) ' William snowed that he was determined not to allow others to get the better of him. ' ( ' Not ' bears on ' to allow,' etc.) Try ' merely ' and ' not ' in other situations, and observe the effect of their placement. Exercise VIII In the following sentences the adverbs ' only,' ' merely,' 1 even,' ' not,' are so placed as not to express the meaning of the writers. 1. Say what is the meaning of each sentence as it stands. 2. So place these adverbs as to express what you consider to be the meaning intended by the writers : The walrus only lived a few days. The muscle has only contracted for an instant. This is a question that we can only settle by experiment. Our history only afforded one precedent which was at all in point. The internal government of England could only be carried on by the advice of English ministers. This kind of work only shows the externals of the fashionable world. In this way success can only be achieved in a limited degree. I merely came to inform you of the fact. There was even no ditch before the gates of the city. Some zealous Whigs were unwilling even to grant this indulgence. Fools and fanatics only believe that they cannot be mistaken. Oppor- tunity only exists for us so far as we are able to make use of it. The queen was not entreated to deceive herself. The com- mander had only yielded when to persist would have exposed the unfortunate city once more to sack and butchery. Order and Distribution of Adverbial Adjuncts . When two or more adverbial adjuncts are used in the same sentence, great care should be exercised in placing them, for upon their placement will depend, in no small degree, the clear- ness and poise of the sentence. As a general rule, adverbial adjuncts of time precede those of place, and those of place precede those of manner and of cause. 22 ENGLISH COMPOSITION Examples (a) ' In the following September the king was murdered in Berkeley Castle.' (Time phrase at the beginning and place phrase at the end of the sentence.) (b) 'At the opening of the battle the English archers were thrown forward to rake the Scottish squares.' (Time phrase at the beginning and place adverb and purpose phrase at the end of the sentence. ) (c) ' In the English fleet disease had appeared in a deadly form. ' (Place phrase at the beginning and manner phrase at the end of the sentence. ) (d) ' For the first time the king had been opposed by some of the peers. ' (Time phrase at the beginning and agency phrase at the end of the sentence.) This order is, however, frequently departed from. 'The mere fact that the adverbial qualifications of a sentence are numerous is a sufficient reason for placing at the commence- ment the one that most sweepingly qualifies the whole sentence ' (Bain). Hence the position of an adverbial adjunct is fixed partly by its importance ; and its importance is determined partly by its length. The fact, too, that the beginning and the end of the sentence are the positions of greatest emphasis has much to do with the placing of emphatic words and phrases. For emphatic adverbial adjuncts the head of the sentence is usually the position of greatest emphasis. Examples (a) l To avoid every appearance of pressure from England, these con- ditions were first laid before the Scotch Parliament.' (b) ' In spite of all their efforts to hold the post, our men were driven from it with the loss of half their number.' In each sentence there are three adverbial adjuncts, and in each the most important adjunct is placed at the head of the sentence, that is, where it can most 'sweepingly qualify the whole sentence.' Without other change, place at the end of each sentence the adjunct now at its head, and observe how the sentence is weak- ened and how the sense 'draggles.' As each sentence now stands the sense is suspended until the end is reached. The writer has observed what is known as the principle of sus- pense. This is a principle of great importance in composition. I ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS 23 'Write your sentence in such a way that, until he has come to the full stop, the reader may feel the sentence to be incom- plete ' (Abbott). As a rule, a sentence should not end with an unimportant word or phrase ; hence, if two adverbial adjuncts are placed after the predicate, the shorter should generally precede the longer, as : (a) "They forced their -way successfully through the dangerous pass.' (b) 'The king looked with pleasure on these hideous spectacles.' Invert the order of the adjuncts and note the effect. When the object of a verb is loaded with adjuncts, a short adverbial phrase is properly placed between it and the verb, (a) 'Such a defeat would now carry with it the resignation of the ministry. ' (6) ' The members had in their minds all their former serious grievances.' (c) ' The people were ready to place at the mercy of their sovereign all their most ancient and precious rights. ' Exercise IX 1. Pick out and classify the adverbial adjuncts contained in one or more of your reading lessons, and note the position each occupies with respect to the word or words it qualifies. 2. Re-write the following sentences, placing the adverbial adjuncts according to the general rules given above : The general acted with vigour at last. The supplies fell into the hands of the enemy in a few days. The wretched army marched out of the cantonments at length with much confusion. The army entered the defiles in bitter cold snow and without proper clothing. ' His bolder counsel prevailed after long and stormy discussion, and almost in spite of the general's wish. They forced their way successfully through the dangerous pass on the 16th of April. Matters continued in a dangerous state for many years. The king had the great council of the nobles around him. I had often received an invitation from my friend Sir Roger to pass away a month with him in the country. Johnson had received an uncouth figure and an irritable temper from nature. He would carry a sick and starving girl home on his shoulders from the streets. Johnson 24 ENGLISH COMPOSITION was in the habit of sifting the evidence for all such stories with extreme severity. He could discern the folly and meanness of all bigotry except his own clearly enough. Sydney received a strange communication from him a short time after his dis- appearance. The English had forced their way into Connaught in a few minutes with the loss of twelve men. They took another matter of high importance into consideration on the same day. The traveller listens for the bark of a dog or the bleat of a lamb mile after mile in vain. William proceeded to the Hague after reposing some hours in the hut of a peasant. The exile had set foot again on his native soil after passing two years in a strange land. He became a classical master in a school after leaving Eton. We ought to place ourselves in our fathers' situation in order to form a correct estimate of their merits. The English people could not be long in recovering from the intoxication of loyalty under the government of such a man. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES Example Analyse : • To check this influence the representatives of the Liberals yearly produced a motion in favour of ballot at elections.' Subject. Limiting Adjuncts to Subject. Predi- cate. Object. Limiting Adjuncts to Object. Limiting Adjuncts to Predicate. Repre- senta- tives 1. the 2. of the Liberals pro- duced motion 1. a 2. in favour of ballot at elec- tions to check this influence (purpose) yearly (time). Exercise X Analyse the following sentences, and note with great care the placement of the qualifying adjuncts : Henceforward the Queen could repose her confidence in the I ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 25 leader of either party. Ever since 1836 the trade of the country had been depressed. Warning is the principal end of punishment. To remove the offender is often one of the ends. To admire the book is to admire the author. To be a gentle- man does not depend upon the tailor. The little child in the cradle slumbered peacefully. No thought of trouble entered the minds of the birds. To approach the well was almost certain death. He instantly gave the signal to start. He gave the signal to start instantly. The general feeling in favour of affording assistance in some shape was very strong. In the towns other general causes of suffering were at work. In the House the feeling in favour of continuing the work was repre- sented by the Radicals. None the less did the leaders find in the new arrangements a ready means of exciting the anger of the people. In the competition for the trade the hand-worker was driven to ruin. With the want of an abundant supply of work wages began to fall. In nearly every manufacturing town trades unions made their appearance. At a time of depression of trade these unions offered a fresh difficulty to the employ- ment of capital. In December 1837 Lord Brougham suggested a plan for national education. For the supply of teachers a normal school was to be established. The indignant clergy at first refused to accept any share of the grant. In the summer of 1838 the discontent began to assume dangerous proportions. The rejection of the petition was followed by a still worse riot. The revenue had been largely decreased by the somewhat reckless adoption of a very excellent reform. In spite of the threatened diminution of revenue the government boldly deter- mined to risk the change. At such a range the artillery of that period could produce no important result upon the strong masonry of the forts. To secure Balaclava Sir Colin Campbell was stationed there with the Highland regiment. General Scarlett charged with his three hundred horsemen full in the face of the massive column. With perfect and unswerving gallantry Lord Cardigan galloped against the guns. The effort was from the first entirely a hopeless one. During many months the trade with the Mediterranean Sea had been almost entirely interrupted by the war. From the field of battle the king made his way through the multitude of fugitives to the neighbourhood of Louvain. Plots against the lives of obnoxious persons ever throve in the soil of the Scottish nature. From one point of 26 ENGLISH COMPOSITION part view the attack upon Inkerman had been successful. This officer had ransacked the Mediterranean to procure wood to build huts for his troops. The misfortunes of the Crimean winter had produced a most powerful effect upon the English mind. On the 12th of December, at an unusually early time, Parliament was again assembled to enable ministers to bring in measures for the further continuation of the war. For the instant the nation was satisfied with the change. Under Miss Nightingale the defective arrangements for nursing had been rapidly improved. The concerted plan was ruined by an un- fortunate error of one of the French generals. For some time hostility to the English had been visible at the Persian court. No coloured man was allowed under any circumstance to command Europeans. What does a man learn by travelling ? The real use of travelling to distant countries and of studying the annals of past time is to preserve men from contraction of mind. Exercise XI Correct the following, and give reasons for your corrections : One of the men sustained a wound in the arm of no im- portance. A piano for sale by a lady about to cross the Channel in an oak case with carved legs. The man blew out his brains after- bidding his wife good-bye with a gun. The Moor seizing a bolster, full of rage and jealousy, smothers his wife. Paid to a woman whose husband was drowned by order of the vestry under London Bridge, £l : Is. Erected to the memory of John Phillips accidentally shot as a mark of affection by his brother. People ceased to wonder by degrees. Perry saw a red flag hoisted in the harbour with a smile of contempt. The House affirmed the proposal to abolish university tests with enthusiasm. The Board of Education has resolved to erect a building large enough to accommodate five hundred students three stories high. I earnestly pressed his coming to us in my letter. They followed the advance of the party, step by step, through tele- scopes. The Place of the Subject, the Predicate, and the Object In prose the subject is usually placed before the predicate, and the predicate before the object ; but, as words placed in I ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 27 unusual positions gain emphasis thereby, this order is, either for the sake of emphasis and vigour or for the purpose of bringing related words into proximity, sometimes departed from. Departure from the usual order for the sake of emphasis and vigour. I. Adjective and noun predicate first : (a) ' Wide is the gate and broad is the way.' (b) * Great and marvellous are thy works.' (c) ' A high-minded man Clarendon certainly was not, but an able man he undoubtedly was. ' Place the parts of these and of the following sentences in their usual order, and observe how the sentences are weakened thereby. II. Adverbial adjunct and verb first : (a) ' With many such parables spake he ; but witlvout a, parable spake he not unto them.' (b) ' Into blood turned he their waters.' (c) ' Beyond all the political difficulties lay the differences of religion. ' (d) ' So passed the strong heroic soul away.' (e) ' There goes the father and here stands the son. ' (/) ' Now began the revolt against the crown. ' Notice that the presence of the adverbial adjuncts renders easy the inversions in II. In prose, though not in poetry, it is both rare and difficult (except in the case of the imperative mood) to begin a sentence with a verb. III. The object placed before the subject : (a) ' Burghley she did not venture to touch. ' (6) ' His passion for trifles he dignified by the name of philosophy. ' (c) • All these qualities Pitt possessed in the highest degree.' (d) ' The only real objection to the story Croker has missed. ' (e) ' Marvellous things did he in the sight of their fathers. ' (/) ' Him the Almighty hurled headlong to bottomless perdition.' (g) ' Me he restored to my office, and him he hanged. ' Unless the subject or the object is a pronoun, this inversion is apt to lead to ambiguity. For example, in sentence (a), substituting ' the queen ' for ' she,' we have : • Burghley the queen did not venture to touch,' which might mean either that Burghley did not venture to touch the queen, or that the 28 ENGLISH COMPOSITION part queen did not venture to touch Burghley. Consider also sentences (c) and (d). IV. Phrase placed at the head, that is, an adjunct to a word in the body or at the end of the sentence : (a) ' Of all confessors Boswell is the most candid.' (b) ' Of all generals William was the best qualified to repair a defeat. ' (c) ' To his skill, energy, and presence of mind his country owed some glorious days.' (d) ' To this advice William returned a dry answer. ' (e) ' On the secret motives of the emperor s conduct it is dangerous to speculate. ' (/) ' On all political questions the minister was the oracle of his own circle. ' (g) * With this answer the House was satisfied.' The case of inversions to bring related words into proximity will be dealt with in connection with the complex sentence. SYNTHESIS Synthesis is the converse of analysis. In analysis we resolve the sentence into its elements ; in synthesis we build up the sentence out of the elements ; in analysis we dismember the sentence and thereby deprive it of symmetry and life ; in synthesis we so dispose the members as to restore this symmetry and life. Synthesis is, therefore, the nobler as well as the more useful exercise. Example Analysis : Subject : Presbyterians Adjunct to subject : the Predicate : threw Object : freedom Adjunct to object : their f 1. down . Adjuncts to predicate : -! 2. without casting one glance on the past \3. at the feet of the most heartless tyrant This is the order in which the elements of the sentence are placed in analysis, and in this form they are not only unsightly, but devoid of meaning. The analysis gives us the elements classified according to function, but nothing more. I SYNTHESIS 29 Synthesis of the sentence : Putting the elements together in the order of subject, predi- cate, object, etc., we have : 'The Presbyterians threw their freedom down without casting one glance on the past at the feet of the most heartless tyrant. ' In this form the synthesis is manifestly very faulty, for no regard is paid to the proper placement of the three qualifying adjuncts to the predicate. The writer obviously intends to lay stress on the manner in which the freedom was thrown down ; the phrase without casting one glance on the past should therefore occupy the position of emphasis at the head of the sentence, and the single- word adjunct down should be placed nearer the predicate, thus : • Without casting one glance on the past, the Presbyterians threw down their freedom at the feet of the most heartless tyrant.' Here we have every element placed in its most effective set- ting ; the synthesis is therefore complete. Observe that a comma is inserted after the adverbial adjunct placed at the head of the sentence. Punctuation is, in great measure, a matter of taste ; as a rule, however, long adverbial adjuncts placed at the head or in the body of the sentence are shut off by commas. The adjunct placed in the body of the sentence : (a) ' The public, without knowing anything whatever about the trans- actions of Byron's family, flew into a passion with him. ' (b) 'William could not, without staining his own honour, refuse to protect Sunderland.' 30 ENGLISH COMPOSITION PART X I— I O H II ^ ® 51 » | 1 s -^ s a> .2 •• * d ^.2 I eg d 1 d i i g Si 3 c8 1 I T3 3 •d o E d 05 .2 gOQ •g «CJ ' 03 T3 eS ej c« £ nd rd ft rd . 3 a GO ,d 5 5 2 d B • 5« 3 I-H o £ 4) O d 1 I §> 3 bo ° d. 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by degrees (and) owing to alt 03 E u a a 2 a o 9 o o 3 l{ .2 § d 1§ o 1 p a* 8 73 d 1 with slow ste anxious cou towards th pavilion £ > 03 -d a H3 B 1 a 03 '5b cl 9 03 05 P O I .8 cj 1 •a 03 .a ,d £ O F ti 03 2* g 02 _o . CO O I 2 '5° 03 £ e o bo"£ O c3 s S i the earlie y a famous the Great gainst arb prisonmen 03 .3 ,Q a •a °r3 £3 3% ENGLISH COMPOSITION PART fl u efore d (an nder c 1 1 i .£> p) O K rt 5 1 • o a o •2* d ia each case by small and bodies of p 4* J< o .2 "S a as ^ a> E a* 8 2 ? 1 i >> bed m -*s a a> 'd °o 2 8 £ 5 £ © f oo | m S a 2 Jj B m 8 • 1 § 9 e« O gtf I 4) a r-i 3 3 A o IB 0Q >> a a "3 o > a p (3 a i o 0) s 00 u be <« °. jj o ,_, a u« | |&.S O <2 'C! « ° a ® § f I a 5 k fl i-H CN CO "* § rH co a w H 1 *| 2 Ph o g < 1. clause (a) 2. in a manner at once strange and striking 5 11 I? co S 03 : N «3 rS 73 1 iff o 03 feX) r* .a 03 CO ^ 7^ o .2 1 8 1 32 50 03 03 S It r« .2 o jp a CO CO o C 03 CO 73 03 «4H .2 " ° 5 l-J CN • O 03 O ^5 3 £* 03 1 1 03 _> 1 s § o O * X 6 o n a M < rt M p* ° £ 5 73^ Ph ii ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES 71 Exercise VII 1. Analyse the following : (N.B. — Carefully note the position of the subordinate clause ; and, where possible, invert the order of the clauses and observe the effect of the inversion.) Such is the ground on which our author takes his stand. Which of us has any notion of the intellectual activity that occupies his neighbours ? As soon as Sterne had graduated, he was provided with a benefice. When the poor woman left York to join him, he could not find time to look at her. If we keep the sense of the work, we must give up its form. In such straits does the critic find himself when he tries to interpret between two languages. This writer has attempted nothing in which he has not excelled. The intelligence demands novelty as the body demands action. I think your pathos better than your fun. We are as happy as princes. Would not her genius desert her when she left the scenes of rustic life in England ? We are most anxious that you should stay here for the night. No sooner did Maximus appear in the street than he was destroyed by the populace. The more we read of the history of past ages, the more we observe the signs of our own times. If I were a nightingale, I would discharge the office of a nightin- gale. Slow as the progress seemed, the colonies were really growing fast in numbers and in wealth. His nature was as brave as it was tender. Keen as was his love of power, no man ever refused office so often. • We are the more inclined to credit this story, because Mr. Gleig does not contradict it. Although it was a week-day night, yet the fame of the preacher drew a very fair congregation. Whatever he was, he was not a hypocrite. Were I to die to-morrow, my daughter would in all probability have absolutely nothing. If you have quite decided, I congratulate you, my dear. Have you seen the arch- deacon since you left us ? By three o'clock we were assembled in the minster, the nave of which was crowded from end to end. Whether he slept at all that night I cannot say. How he passed the next two or three days, the rector could hardly have told. Whether he acted wisely or not, it would be difficult to decide. The excitement in a place where excitements were so rare became almost intense. The emperor was at the head of a body, the members of which were seldom in harmony. Not a few of the authors in vogue had the honour of having attri- 72 ENGLISH COMPOSITION part buted to them a book which certainly none of them was capable of writing. The reader is carried along by the rapidity with which one event follows another. Nor was Shakespeare one of those whose merit is unrecognised till long after their own day. Not a play of his but shows some intention of high teaching. Sterne tries to be odd, which is the worst way of attaining oddity. So frightened was Burleigh at the exhibition of feeling, that he despaired of Elizabeth's surviving the storm. The coming of the Armada was the last act of which the divorce of Queen Catherine was the first. Hardly any seat against which a petition is brought can be considered perfectly safe. The welfare of the country required an act of severity with which the queen would herself have gladly dispensed. The terms of the resolution implied that the queen should be troubled no further. The thicker they were crowded, the less easy would they find it to move. Teachers of divinity differ more among themselves than teachers of any other subject. There is nothing more inspiring to the mind of man than religious enthusiasm. Although he slay me, yet will I trust him. This is the kind of thing we meet with in this wondrous forest. We are bound to give our children the best we have. Wages, Mr. Harrison declares, have gone up 1 per cent. How far each country has solved its educational problem is a matter for interesting discussion. Whether the professor's results will be generally accepted is perhaps a matter of doubt. Every one will recognise the skill and ability with which he handles his subject. Where had I seen eyes of which these reminded me ? Only one thing would I urge, that he be allowed a free hand. This is the favour that I came to ask. Down from the beetling crag to which he clung, tumbled the tawny rascal. 2. Re-write the foregoing sentences, changing the present tense of the verb for the past, or the past for the present, as : Present Such is the ground on which our author takes his stand. Past Such was the ground on which our author took his stand. Past (perfect) This writer had attempted nothing in which she had not excelled. Present (perfect) This writer has attempted nothing in which she has not excelled. SYNTHESIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES 73 1> 1 -^ bo 2 a f S I" 1 5 cp SO o CO o 5 ^? . «a CO O P> O > eS ■H -s S 8 a o si I w +3 .2 1 1 1 > CD d d o O : •§ ! | +3 5 o ■g d M ft - o < 74 ENGLISH COMPOSITION part Synthesis of these three Analysed Sentences No. I. Principal clause : The two circumstances suddenly took a new turn, to the great dismay of the Jacobites Relative clause : they had been so fondly counting on which. The clauses combined : The relative must be as near as possible to its antecedent 1 circumstances ' ; hence we may write : 'The two circumstances on which they had been so fondly counting suddenly took a new turn, to the great dismay of the Jacobites.' Notice (1) that in its present position the long adverbial phrase • to the great dismay of the Jacobites ' makes the sentence ' draggle/ and (2) that this phrase is intended to bring into pro- minence the effect produced by the altered circumstances. It should therefore be placed at the head thus : 1 To the great dismay of the Jacobites, the two circumstances on which they had been so fondly counting suddenly took a new turn.' No. II. Principal clause : He felt Noun clause : that he might give much offence to his powerful neighbour by refusing help to the king. The noun clause is, as it now stands, badly balanced ; it has one word before and twelve words after the predicate, and it has at the end the adverbial phrase ' by refusing help to the king,' which is intended sweepingly to qualify the whole clause. Placing this phrase in the position in which it can discharge its function most effectively, we have : ' He felt that, by refusing help to the king, he might give much offence to his powerful neighbour. ' No. III. Principal clause : Something might be expected from his exhaustion Adverbial clause : though little confidence could be placed in the king's good faith. The concessive clause is usually placed before the clause it modifies ; hence we should combine the clauses thus : ii SYNTHESIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES 75 ' Though little confidence could be placed in the king's good faith, some- thing might be expected from his exhaustion.' Or, transposing ' king's ' and ' his,' we may write : ' Something might be expected from the king's exhaustion, though little confidence could be placed in his good faith.' In the first combination the sense is suspended until the close of the sentence. The mind is not satisfied until the last word is reached. Sentences in which the sense is thus suspended are called periodic sentences, and the construction by which the suspense is produced is called the periodic construction. The periodic sentence is obviously produced by placing the qualifying clause before the clause that it qualifies. In the second combination there is no suspension of the sense. The mind is satisfied at 'exhaustion.' A sentence of this type is called a loose sentence. ENGLISH COMPOSITION PART t & w a CO a; — i — o 09 M 3 w 3 9 3 o O 6 a S w I o ~ o .s Q I W £ 5 I < 6 o5 1 1 >> o © 1 § JS o on the ramparts in the siege 3 11 03 13 CD 1 S-c CO g 1 E ft O S fee 1 r M | 1 I s 1 Je CO i p % «6 -(J r^3 "O r4 e4 co O CD 02 "bO 03 CO ^ GO +3 CC § a o O J2 ,4 * D o 3 M o — i Q ft eJ S3 -ij 3-'" ANALYSED COMPLEX SENTENCES 77 » a « ° «2 o3 o ENGLISH COMPOSITION CO 1 03 O | 1. hardly 2. for a time through many generations from the experience of several generations at home and abroad how foremost in the list of benefits, clause (a) to the Revolution o r CO 0) o CD CO So .2 1 .2 1 CO ,r> * ■— I « :~,2 a ^ » 2 ^ -^ « u ge«^odo I s ! m 2 3 * a « CO „- 2 « ft o o OJ ',£? . 3 02 O en d 3 < g oj co -t-» 4* o H(NM r=5 o O s CO •+* +3 o 3 . . O r-t > a % I cd o d S O ,4 o 1 ; 1 <0 en 3 c4 5 O 3 CD .a o- ^ 8 g 3* cd B > 8 1 1 ^5 ^3 m CD O 1 CD I : S 3 4) 3 02 S 1 c f CD C3 »- — 3 CD 9 S Ph o j tt-1 p 03 ° s ri d "3* CO r-J CM* CO 1 CD m £ CD 9 r-* CN CO -* 13 i CD 02 r*3 2 S CO r£ CD O s > 1 1 o 1 a5 CO p 43 O o •d 5 a < a j § 1 ANALYSED COMPLEX SENTENCES si 1. now and then 2. on these hills 1. with which 2. in the lower grounds 3. seldom 1. not 2. to men from political power J 3 kg O 2 •B o 1. the 2. of the opposi- tion 1. a 2. favour- ite chiefs minister may be seen meet is a source of morti- fication are excluded threw impeached 1. a 2. few 3. clause (a) (J) CO 1 ^ the the birds we CD sovereign Commons % (15) A Principal (a) Rel. to ' birds ' in A (16) A Principal (interrogative) (a) Noun real subj. of A (17) A Principal (a) Adv. to predicate of A 82 ENGLISH COMPOSITION «5 1 s ! f 9 o © ; to .2 1o .O O O ?£ not to deface so fine a Torso © to a O so *5 ."£ "5 a © ^5- © rt tn © r2 O -r-» © to © i a © 1 ^ ^ § -s ^ a & a « a p 1 cu co -o -2 05 © 3 59 2 co" .2 g £, 3 8 © £ o a ^ I f f © eS co eS ' © B 02 | +3 «2 2 * £ O % 1 J 1 © > o © a § o o ,a © I © to a 8 v< o H3 bo •a Js o a — o o ^ a 2 O S3 Ch © a © .2 a. g s ^ I 1° II ANALYSED COMPLEX SENTENCES 83 THe same exercise continued in a slightly different form. The pupil is required to combine the clauses, and to place the parts of each in their most telling setting. General Analysis : or Sentence Parsing for Relation (.Principal clause : The chief influences were such 21. -I Relative clause to ' influences ' : the national type of virtue had (_ been formed by which f Principal clause : I have named a number of celebrated poets 22. -I Relative clause to ' poets ' : Wordsworth deserves to be placed (_ above all of whom in my opinion f Principal clause: Leeds gave all the opposition to this arrange 23.4 ment in public ^ Relative clause to ' opposition ' : he could give that with decency C Principal clause : A vaunting inscription had been placed over one 24 J gate " J Relative clause to ' inscription ' : which defied the allies to wrench \_ from the grasp of France the prize / Principal clause : Discontent and disaffection succeeded to the 9 - J fervid loyalty ' J Relative clause to ' loyalty ' : Charles had been welcomed back to \_ Dover with which ( Principal clause : No abstract can give a just notion of the deep 26. -! and painful interest ^ Relative clause to ' interest ' : this book excites which ! Principal clause : William Mountford was the most graceful of all the actors Relative clause to ' actors ' : who were on the English stage then 98 f Principal clause : The number of cases was small ' \ Relative clause to ' cases ' : bribery was fully made out in which C Principal clause : Russell remembered the reprimand still with ~q J bitterness ' J Relative clause to ' reprimand ' : his extreme caution had drawn ^ which upon him alter the fight of Beachy Head C Principal clause : The season sufficed for a short inroad and a „ J battle ' J Relative clause to ' season ': the field did not require the presence \_ of the cultivator during which We have given a large number of sentences containing a relative clause, because this kind of clause is one of the most difficult to place. 84 ENGLISH COMPOSITION part Exercise IX Correct the errors in the following, and give reasons for your corrections : Few have a good word for poor Aphra, who valued qualities not usually associated with scholarship very highly. The cap- tain took the good things which the gods provided with thank- ful good -humour. This lady was able to meet the man who had dared to approach her with his love without the slightest nervousness. I wrote that cruel letter to my wife, which turned her from her home, at Mrs. Gerrarde's house. He was driving away from the church where he had been married in a coach and six. The woman begged that she might have out the four shillings she had paid in bacon. Mr. Carlyle has taught us that silence is golden in thirty volumes. These twenty words translate those five which Caesar uses, perhaps with fair accuracy. The majority of families depend on the libraries for the whole of their reading, and expect to have all the new books the moment they are published for a few guineas a year. The carriage stopped at the small gate which led by a short gravel walk to the house amidst the nods and smiles of the whole party. He always read Lord Byron's writings as soon as they were published, with great avidity. Nor, indeed, can those habits be formed with certainty which are to continue during life in a shorter space. If the Westminster Eeviewer will read over what we have written twice or thrice with patience and attention, some glimpse of our meaning will break in even on his mind. An Important Participial Construction : its Place and its Equivalents The following examples exemplify some important uses of the participial phrase, when the participle and the finite verb have the same subject : (a) ' Weakened by the anxieties of the time, Anson fell an easy prey to cholera. ' = (1) Because he was weakened by tlie anxieties of the time, Anson fell an easy prey to cholera. ii ANALYSED COMPLEX SENTENCES 85 Or: = (2) Anson was weakened by the anxieties of the time, and there- fore he fell an easy prey to cholera. (b) ' Old, broken, and wounded, some five hundred Sepoys came to offer their services.' = (1) Though tliey were old, broken, and wounded, some five hundred Sepoys came to offer their services. Or: = (2) Notwithstanding that they were old, broken, and wounded, some five hundred Sepoys came to offer their services. (c) ' Respecting ourselves, we shall be respected by others. ' =b If we respect ourselves, we shall be respected by others. (d) 'Reaching the top of the hill, we saw the enemy in the valley below. ' = When we reached the top of the hill, we saw the enemy in the valley below. (e) ' Scattered over the fields, they had already begun the work of pillage. ' = They were scattered over the fields, and had already begun the work of pillage. From our examples we should learn : 1 . That the participial phrase is a means of condensation ; it enables us to dispense with conjunctions and subjects. 2. That it imparts energy and animation to the sentence of which it forms a part. Notice in particular the fine suspensive effect of the phrase in its original position. The same sentences with the participial phrases placed in other positions : (a) 1. 'Anson, weakened by the anxieties of the time, fell an easy prey to cholera.' 2. ' Anson fell an easy prey to cholera, weakened by the anxieties of the time. ' (b) 1. 'Some five hundred Sepoys, old, broken, and wounded, came to offer their services.' 2. ' Some five hundred Sepoys came to offer their services, old, broken, and wounded.' (c) 1. 'We, respecting ourselves, shall be respected by others.' 2. ' We shall be respected by others, respecting ourselves. ' (d) 1. ' We, reaching the top of the hill, saw the enemy in the valley below.' 2. ' We saw the enemy in the valley below, reaching the top of the hill.' 86 ENGLISH COMPOSITION part (e) 1. 'They, scattered over the fields, had already begun the work of pillage.' 2. * They had already begun the work of pillage, scattered over the fields. ' It is obvious that two effects follow from the placing of the phrase immediately after the subject : 1. Greater prominence is given to the subject. 2. The suspensive power of the phrase is lessened. Notice how flat and ambiguous are the sentences in which the participial phrase is placed at the end. The following sentences are virtually of the same type as those we have just been considering : (a) * Unable to reply to this argument, the English Government yielded. ' = Because it was unable to reply to this argument, the English Government yielded. Or: = The English Government was unable to reply to this argument, and therefore it yielded. (6) ' Habitually a hard drinker, Walpole never became a sot. ' = Though he was habitually a hard drinker, Walpole never became a sot. Or: = Walpole was habitually a hard drinker, but he never became a sot. The following is a good example of the condensed force of this participial construction : 'Betrayed, deserted, disorganised, unprovided with resources, begirt with enemies, the noble city was still no easy conquest. ' = Though betrayed, etc. Though the species of participial phrase we are now con- sidering is, in its function, adverbial rather than adjectival, most grammarians parse it as an adjunct to the subject. In using this construction the young student should be care- ful to see that the participle has a subject of reference. In each of the following examples the participle is in search of a subject : (a) * Writing at the close of December, it is not possible to obtain com- plete statistical information for the whole year. ' (b) ' Turning then to the table of wages, it will be easy to ascertain the labourer's position.' (c) ' Looking out for a theme, several crossed his mind.' ii ANALYSED COMPLEX SENTENCES 87 Who was writing ? Who was turning 1 Who was looking 1 The subjects of the sentences are 'it' and * several ' (themes). It is plain that ' writing ' and ' turning ' cannot be referred to 1 it/ and that ' looking ' cannot be referred to ' several ' (themes) ; and the sentences contain no other subjects to which the parti- ciples can be referred. Still greater violence is done to the sentence when the participial phrase without a subject of refer- ence is placed at the end, as : ' My farm consisted of about twenty acres of excellent land, having given a hundred pounds for my predecessor's good-will. ' The use of the verbal noun also requires care. The sentence should contain the subject to which the action expressed by the verbal noun is intended to refer. The following example does not comply with this condition : ' On reaching the river it was found that the bridge had been carried away by the flood.' Who or what reached the river ? The sentence contains no word that properly answers to the question. Write : ' On reaching the river we (I, they) found that the bridge had been carried away by the flood. ' Exercise X 1. Condense into phrases the italicised clauses in the following : The leaders withdrew to Trafalgar Square, and there held an orderly meeting. The government was conscious of the necessity of settling the question, and intended to lift it above the level of party discussion. The Irishman was filled with a new sense of his importance, and formed the hope of employing his influence to force hostility to England upon the American Government. The United States Government refused to allow hostile operations against a friendly Poiver to be carried on along its frontier, and took vigorous measures to suppress the outbreak. The workmen were aware that no political change was at that time possible, and were devoting all their attention to the tyranny of capital. The Treaty had been made during the recess, and therefore wanted Parliamentary ratification. The income-tax was originally im- posed as a temporary tax, but it might now be regarded as a 88 ENGLISH COMPOSITION part fixed source of income. He ignored the successes of his opponeyits, and narrated only their failures. The 'prince was full of the best German traditions, and held that the possession of the crown brought with it corresponding duties of the severest kind. The commissioner carefully avoided the points at issue, and declared the proceedings null and void. Lord Raglan lost patience at the sight, and despatched Captain Nolan with a second written order. With perfect and unswerving gallantry Lord Cardigan, when he had placed himself at the head of the first line, galloped against the guns. The army had been originally despatched and equipped for a short expedition, and had been furnished only with what was necessary for that purpose. Lord Canning was eager to complete the suppression of the mutiny, and urged the com- mander-in-chief to advance immediately into Rohilcund. 2. Expand into clauses the italicised phrases in the follow- ing, and try each phrase in another position : Master of the road to Russia, the general had been receiving constant reinforcements. Full of suspicion, the Sepoys mis- construed everything. Rudely awakened to the terrible extent of the danger, the government exhibited the greatest energy. Keenly alive to the advantages of direct English rule, Lord Dal- housie lost no opportunity of asserting the power claimed by the English. Postponed for a while by the difficulties in the Pun- jab, the question of annexation came up again in 1855. Sir Henry Barnard, weakened by his incessant exertions, before long fell a victim to disease. Leaving Neill to support authority in the re-occupied city, Havelock speedily moved across the river into Oude. Perfectly aware of the danger, Sir Henry Lawrence used every effort to postpone the threatened outbreak. A very gallant and energetic man, Gubbins was wanting in breadth of view. Afraid of any divided authority, Lawrence insisted upon keeping the appointment of commissioner vacant. Discovering his mistake, the emperor cast about for means of withdrawing from his difficult position. Absorbed in the great events going on around it, and satisfied with its own growth in material prosperity, the nation was for a time willing to let well alone. A self-made man, Lincoln had forced his way, step by step, up the social scale. Another charge brought against Walpole is that, jealous of rivals, he surrounded himself with mediocrities. 3. Point out and correct the errors in the following : ii ANALYSED COMPLEX SENTENCES 89 Being early killed, I sent a party in search of his body. Gliding along the passage, many a word was uttered. Looking back, the happiness of my young life is associated with study. His career was cut short in the youth of his popularity, having been killed in a duel. Fancying that every man in office was a great man, their especial contempt was reserved for a public writer. Speaking more generally, condensation may be gained by allusions instead of expanded statements. You know that we are natur- ally gifted with such qualities that once placed in our right position, it is our own wilful fault if we do not maintain and improve it. Looking back upon the wonderful outcome of the idea, it seems surprising that others should not have followed up his work. Though unable to comprehend the emperor's answer, this method of escaping from his uncertainty did not occur to him. After observing the most severe caution, it is impossible to conceive a satisfactory explanation of Charles's conduct. Having perceived the weakness of his poems, they now appear to us under new titles. After fording the stream, the weather cleared. After keeping the book a month, it was returned unread. In fording the river it was found that its bed was very uneven. Weeks and months may be passed with- out observing a single flowering plant. ABSOLUTE PHRASES: their Place and their Equivalents , I. The nominative absolute, with its accompanying parti- ciple or participial phrase. Examples (a) ' The weather being fine, the ship set sail. ' The phrase ' the weather being fine ' expresses a circum- stance of cause. Because (since, as) the weather was fine, etc. (b) ' Our honeymoon over (i.e. being over), we settled down to earnest work.' The phrase ' our honeymoon over ' expresses a circumstance of time. When (after) our honeymoon was over, etc. (c) ' They crept and crept, the hem of Iter dress just touching his gaiter. ' 90 ENGLISH COMPOSITION pakt The absolute phrase here expresses the circumstances that accompanied their creeping. It vaguely denotes the manner of their creeping. (d) * Given fair weather ( = fair weather being given), we shall reach home to-morrow.' = If fair weather be given, etc. The absolute phrase here denotes condition. From these examples it is obvious that this species of ab- solute phrase is adverbial in function. Its position is some- times before and sometimes after what it qualifies. See the examples in the exercises below. II. The absolute infinitive, sometimes called the Paren- thetical Infinitive. Examples (a) ' To confess the truth, this man is a rascal. ' = The truth being confessed, etc. If the truth must be con- fessed, etc. (b) ' Not to mince matters, the boy is a thief. ' This kind of absolute phrase denotes purpose, time, etc. The position of this phrase is at the head of the sentence. III. Except, with the noun, phrase, or sentence governed by it. Examples (a) ' All the passengers were saved except five ' ( =Jive being excepted, or if we except five). (b) ' There was nothing to be done except to proceed with the attainder ' ( = to proceed with the attainder being excepted, or if we except to proceed, etc.) (c) ' Of Livingstone's early boyhood there is little to be said except that lie was a favourite at home ' ( = that lie was a favourite being excepted, or if we except that he was, etc. ) (d) 'There was nothing left but (except) to meet defiance by defiance' ( = to meet defiance by defiance being excepted, or if we except, etc.) This phrase is usually placed at the end of the sentence. (Note. — Bid is frequently used for except.) We have treated the construction with ' except ' and ' but ' as adverbial. It is, however, by some regarded as adjectival. In this case the phrases should be regarded as limiting ' pass- ii ANALYSED COMPLEX SENTENCES 91 engers ' (a), ' nothing ' (b), ' little ' (c), and ' nothing ' (d) respect- ively. But whether we regard this construction as adverbial or as adjectival, its place in the "sentence is the same. Exercise XI 1. Notice the position of, and parse the italicised phrases in the following : Thus reasoned they in the emperor's cabinet, their eyes on the map and compass in hand. The effort to recall the dream having failed, make an experiment. The rain having completely passed and the sky cleared, I expressed a wish for some fresh air. The woman speaks and the men listen to her, no need for concealing or enslaving her. The marriage being once decided on, Mary could think of nothing else. Tess and the other three were dressing themselves rapidly, the whole bevy having agreed to go to church. The facts once classified, once understood, the judgment based upon them ought to be independent of the individual mind which examines them. Searching for the plant was a most tedious business, not more than half a dozen shoots of it being discernible in the whole field. (Transpose ' it ' and ' plant/ and place the absolute phrase at the head of the sentence.) The rain having passed, the uplands were dry. Meanwhile his com- panions, who were left behind in the tavern, the second flight coming so close upon the first, looked blankly in each other's faces. England sustained a great loss this week, Tennyson having passed away on the morning of Thursday. Every window of the house being open, Clare could hear across the yard each trivial sound of the retiring household. None but the brave deserves the fair. Do we find here nothing but fairyland ? Nothing remained to be done except to sign the agreement. This poem is full of delicate loves, noble sorrows, lofty ideas, where no voice is heard except that of thinkers and poets. Tennyson has succeeded in seizing beauty in its fulness, because he cared for nothing but beauty. In the nineteen propositions we see little to blame except the articles against the Catholics. 2. Expand into their equivalent clauses the italicised phrases in the foregoing exercise. 3. Compose a dozen sentences of the type of those in 1 above. PART III THE COMPOUND. SENTENCE A sentence consisting of two or more clauses that are gram- matically independent of each other is called a compound sentence. In the compound sentence independent clauses are placed side by side either for the purpose of adding, or for the purpose of opposing or contrasting what the clauses express. Clauses so placed are called co-ordinate clauses or co-ordinate sentences ; that is, they are considered as of equal rank. I. The addition of what the clauses express : the copulative or cumulative relation. Examples (a) ' The minister was waylaid by a gang of bullies, and his nose was cut to the bone.' The clauses are here connected by the conjunction ' and,' the chief of the copulative or cumulative conjunctions. (6) 'The king then read the letters, divided them into packets, and signified his pleasure by two or three words. ' In a compound sentence of three members the ' and ' is usually omitted from the second member. This is a favourite type of sentence. (c) ' Without valour none could then be eminent, few could be secure.' (d) ' I came, I saw, I conquered.' (e) ' Life passes, riches fly away, popularity is fickle, the senses decay, the world changes, friends die.' Clauses placed side by side without the copulative conjunc- part in THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 93 tion, as in (c), (d), (e), are called collateral clauses. The relation is cumulative. Notice the fine effect of the ellipsis of the conjunction. (/) ' The troops had never fought so well, nor had the genius of their chief ever heen so conspicuous. ' Here ' nor ' = ' and not,' and the relation is cumulative. Notice how ' nor ' attracts the verb. (g) ' He was diligent, therefore he succeeded. ' The word ' therefore ' is strictly an adverb and does not join the clauses, which may be regarded as collateral, the conjunction ' and ' being understood. When the second clause states a result or consequence of the first clause, it is sometimes said to be in illative (inferential) relation to the first. The relation is really cumulative, like that of the other examples. (h) 1. ' Man is man and master of his fate.' 2. ' The water is nought and the ground harren. ' Here ' and ' = ' and therefore,' ' and consequently.' {%) 'lama true Englishman ; I felt to the quick for the disgrace of England. ' = I am a true Englishman, and therefore I felt, etc. The second clause states a consequence of the first, and the ellipsis of • and therefore ' makes the statement specially energetic. II. The opposition or contrast of what the clauses express : the disjunctive relation. Examples («) 'Either you must get another watch, or I must get another secretary. ' The one statement is opposed to the other. This is some- times called the alternative relation, because there is a choice between two statements. (b) ' John was brave, but James was a coward. ' Here the character of John is contrasted with that of James. 94 ENGLISH COMPOSITION tart The sense of the one clause is contrasted with that of the other. Such clauses are sometimes said to be in adversative relation. (c) ' Elizabeth's aversion to the Puritans was political ; James's was personal.' = Elizabeth's aversion to the Puritans was political, but James's was personal. The ellipsis of the conjunction adds energy to the contrast. (d) ' The triumph of the navy added nothing to Cromwell's fame, its increase nothing to his means of overawing his enemies, its leader was not his friend ; yet he took a peculiar pleasure in encouraging that noble service.' The first three clauses are in cumulative relation, and seem to point to the consequence that Cromwell took no pleasure in the naval service of England. From this conclusion the mind of the reader is arrested by ' yet,' which is followed by the statement of a consequence wholly opposed to the natural in- ference from the three preceding clauses. 'But/ 'still/ 'but still,' 'but then,' 'nevertheless,' have a similar arrestive force. Find examples in your reading-book. The clauses of the compound sentence frequently have parts in common. Examples (a) ' The two men shook hands and departed.' = The two men shook hands and the two men (they) departed. The subject ' the two men ' is common to the two clauses. This community of subject may be shown thus : {shook hands and departed. (b) ' We neither adopt nor condemn the language which the great orator employs. ' = We do not adopt the language which the great orator employs, and we do not condemn the language which the great orator employs . The subject ' we ' and also the object ' the language,' etc., are common to the two statements. The community of subject and object may be shown thus : in THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 95 We j nei ier ? 0p I the language which the great orator employs. (c) ' Danby knew the English people and the House of Commons. ' = Danby knew the English people and Danby (he) knew the House of Commons. The subject ' Danby ' and the predicate ' knew ' are common to the. two statements. The community of subject and predicate may be exhibited thus : ( \ the English people Danby -J knew V- and ( J the House of Commons. (d) * The soldiers advanced and retired in good order. ' = The soldiers advanced in good order and the soldiers (they) retired in good order. The subject ' the soldiers ' and the adverbial adjunct ' in good order ' are common to the two statements. This community may be exhibited thus : {advanced^ and J- in good order, retired J (e) * The Popish Plot, the murder of Godfrey, the infamous inventions of Oates, the discovery of Colman's letters, had excited the nation to madness.' This is a simple sentence with a compound subject. The Popish Plot "j m , . f . ,. ->/->, Vhad excited the nation to madness. The infamous inventions of Oates j The discovery of Colman's letters J (/) ' Spain and the Empire were in arms. ' Here the form of the verb shows that 'Spain' and 'the Empire ' together form the subject of the sentence. The sentence is simple and the subject compound. If we resolve the sentence we must change the verb, thus : Spain %oas in arms and the Empire was in arms. This is, of course, quite unnecessary. We must recognise 96 ENGLISH COMPOSITION part the fact that the co-ordinating conjunctions sometimes join parts of sentences. Other Examples (a) ' A tyrant trampled on the liberties and religion of the realm.' ( liberties ^ A tyrant trampled on the-! and Vof the realm. ( religion J ' And ' here joins two nouns. (6) ' Essex added a yet sadder and more painful story to tlie bloody chronicles of the Tower.' Essex added a vet-! and I story to the bloody chronicles of ImorepainfnlJ the Tower. • And ' here joins two adjectives. (c) • I will vex you with none of these well-meant but wearisome little falsehoods.' ( well-meant ^j I will vex you with none of these-! but J- little falsehoods. ^ wearisome J 1 But ' here contrasts two adjuncts. (d) ' Temple resolved to be safe, to enjoy himself, and to let the world take its course. ' f to be safe (and) Temple resolved J to *°i°J h ™* eU \^to let the world take its course. The object is compound, its members being joined by 'and.' (e) ' We know nothing either of the diseases or of the remedies of the Druids. ' „, . .,. f either of the diseases! „ , , t, •-, We know nothing j Qr of ^ remedies ) of the Druids. The double conjunction 'either — or' joins alternatively the phrases ' of the diseases (of the Druids) ' and ' of the remedies (of the Druids).' We may, of course, resolve the sentence thus : A. We know nothing of the diseases (of the Druids), B. and we know nothing of the remedies of the Druids. in THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 97 But such a resolution is hardly more necessary than is the resolution of ' He was promoted deservedly ' into ' He was pro- moted and deserved it.' (/) ' Halifax wanted neither arguments nor eloquence.' Halifax wanted ( neith f r ar ^ me ^ s ^ nor eloquence. Here the function of the double conjunction 'neither — nor' is to exclude both ' arguments ' and ' eloquence.' We may resolve the sentence thus : A. Halifax did not. want arguments, B. and Halifax did not want eloquence. The resolution may help us to understand, but it does not help us to construct the sentence. (g) ' The choice lay, not between Cromwell and liberty, but between Cromwell and the Stuarts.' 'Not — but' may be regarded as a double conjunction, the function of which is to exclude one thing to bring another into prominence. In the example 'not' excludes the adverbial adjunct ' between Cromwell and liberty,' and in this way assists 'but' to bring into prominence the adverbial adjunct ' between Cromwell and the Stuarts.' We may resolve the sentence thus : A. The choice lay not between Cromwell and liberty, B. but the choice lay between Cromwell and the Stuarts. This sentence shows that ' and ' may join two nouns j it also shows the proper use of the preposition ' between.' (h) ' He thought himself necessary both to the Parliament and to the army.' 'Both — and' is a double conjunction, the function of which is to put special emphasis on the combination of the phrases ' to the Parliament ' and ' to the army.' The sentence is simple. xt xt i j. -L- \j> f both to the Parliament He thought himself necessary 1 ,. .? ° J { and to the army. (i) ' Tennyson's ideal of spiritual life included not only the individual, but the nation. ' Tennyson's ideal of spiritual life included / not only the individual, \ but the nation. 98 ENGLISH COMPOSITION part The function of the couple (or double conjunction) * not only — but' is to emphasise the second of two circumstances by- calling attention to the fact that the first does not stand alone. ' Not only — but also ' makes the second circumstance still more emphatic. It is important to note that each member of the couples ' either — or,' ' neither — nor,' ' not — but,' ' both — and,' ' not only — but,' 'not only — but also,' should be followed by the same part of speech. See examples (d), (e), (/), (g), (h). Examples op Errors in the Use of these Couples (a) ' He has been either educated at home or at a private school.' 1 Either — or ' is intended to oppose alternatively the phrases 'at home' and 'at a private school.' The sentence should read : 1 He has been educated either at home or at a private school. ' (6) • He has been neither educated at home nor at a private school.' 1 Neither — nor ' is intended to exclude both alternatives ' at home ' and ' at a private school.' The sentence should therefore read : ' He has been educated neither at home nor at a private school.' (c) ' He was not honoured with this reward, but with the approbation of the people.' The circumstance intended to be excluded is, not ' honoured,' but ' with this reward.' The sentence should therefore read : 1 He was honoured, not with this reward, but with the approbation of the people. ' (d) ' The man of good birth may not only lack money, but good health. ' 'Good health' is intended to be emphatically connected with 'money.' The writer has connected it with 'lack.' The sentence should read : 'The man of good birth may lack not only money, but good health.' Froude has the following construction of this couple : in THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 99 ' Traces, not of her participation only, but of her own originating hand, were visible in every trouble which had distracted Scotland.' Note the position of ' only ' in this sentence. The following fine sentence is from the pen of the same writer : • The petition claims especial notice not only because it was the first movement towards a separation from Kome, but because it origi- nated, not with the king, not with the Parliament, not with the people, but with a section of the clergy themselves.' Notice the setting of the couples and the fine suspensive effect of the repetition of the exclusive ' not.' When ' neither — nor ' is intended to exclude more than two things or circumstances, ' nor ' must be repeated, as : ' She shall rule neither my thoughts, nor my words, nor my actions. ' The couple ' either — or ' may indicate a choice of one of several things or circumstances. In this case ' or ' must be repeated, as : 1 William required Harold either to resign the kingdom, or to hold it of him in fealty, or to submit their cause to the arbitration of the pope, or to fight him in single combat. ' Examples of Common Errors in the Contracted Compound Sentence (a) 'His diet was simple, and his prayers long and fervent.' The contraction is in the predicate. The sentence resolved : A. His diet was simple and B. his prayers ivas long and fervent. The copula verb 'was' agrees in number with the subject of the first clause, but not with that of the second. The con- traction therefore involves a violation of the rule : that a plural subject requires a plural verb. The sentence should read : ' His diet was simple, and Lis prayers were long and fervent. ' 100 ENGLISH COMPOSITION part (b) ' My intentions were good, but my perseverance faulty.' The common part is ' were.' Resolve the sentence : A. My intentions were good but B. my perseverance were faulty. The resolution makes the error obvious : the singular sub- ject has a plural verb. The subjects of the compound sentence differ in number, and therefore cannot stand in the same relation to the common part. Exercise I Correct the following, and give reasons for your corrections : The authorities should not blame the system, but their own want of judgment. The real danger to the discipline of the army does not lie within, but without the service. A punish- ment not inflicted by a general rule but by an arbitrary dis- cretion, cannot serve the purpose of a warning. It is not the business of such a body to check, but to act. Whatever of political freedom either exists in Europe or in America, has sprung from those institutions. I neither spoka to him nor to his brother. This does not mean either security for the ministers or their policy. We are not much in the habit of either idolis- ing the living or the dead. Johnson had not studied the genus man, but the genus Londoner. I am neither an ascetic in theory or practice. He is neither disposed to sanction bloodshed nor deceit. We cannot admit that either in qualities of heart or head, his women are inferior to the women we generally meet. These tales will not merely interest children, but grown-up persons. Homer was not only the maker of a nation, but of a language. Every composition is fairly liable to criticism, both in regard to its design and to its execution. Great was the generalship and various the contrivances. His brow was wrinkled, his lip compressed, his eyes full of a strong calm. His kindness of heart was great, and his acquirements consider- able. The country was divided into counties, and the counties placed under magistrates. He belongs to one class, and the hewers of wood and the drawers of water to another. We may not suffer from work itself, but from want of work. There was neither time for remonstrance, nor remedy. in THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 101 The COMPOUND SUBORDINATE CLAUSE I. The Noun Clause. Examples (a) ' Hastings and his counsel desired that the managers should open all the charges and produce all the evidence.' ( the managers should open all the charges Hastings and his counsel \ , , , J and desired / j the managers should produce all the \ evidence. The clauses following ' that ' form a compound noun clause. The contractions in the compound clause may be exhibited thus : f open all the charges That the managers should-! and \ produce all the evidence. There is entire community of conjunction and subject, and partial community of predicate. (b) ' Hastings knew that the favour of his employers depended chiefly on their dividends, and that their dividends depended chiefly on the investment.' Hastings knew that the favour of his employers depended chiefly on their dividends and that their dividends depended chiefly on the invest- ment. The noun clause is compound and uncontracted. When, as here, the verbs of all the clauses are in the same mood and tense, the ellipsis of the second 'that' is apt to cause ambiguity, an ambiguity often met with. ' Hastings knew that the favour of his employers depended chiefly on their dividends, and their dividends depended chiefly on the investment.' With the ellipsis of ' that ' the last clause might be taken by the reader to be co-ordinate, not with the noun clause, but with the principal. 102 ENGLISH COMPOSITION part II. The Relative Clause. (c) ' The reappearance of a man who had been among the most dis- tinguished of a generation that had passed away, who now belonged to history, and who seemed to have risen from the dead, could not but produce a solemn and pathetic effect.' who had been among the most^ distinguished of a generation I , , , . . +i, + if a i ~ could not but that had passed away, , , lne reappearance , , f ■,,■,-, I produce a solemn ~e «. tl i wno now belonged to history, V^ , ,, ulcm " of a man °, *» /and pathetic who seemed to have risen from I e ec • the dead, * The relative clause is compound and uncontracted. As a rule, the relative should be repeated when it is the subject of several verbs. It may, however, be omitted if its omission does not produce ambiguity, as : (1) 'We find in the existing schools an education for our children which meets our wants and is not beyond our means.' (2) ' Many devices which now mitigate the heat of the climate, pre- serve health, and prolong life, were then unknown. ' In each of the sentences the relative clause is compound and contracted. We may exhibit the clauses thus : {meets our wants and is not beyond our means. ( mitigate the heat of the climate, (2) which now i P»Berro health, ^prolong life. Examples of Errors in the Compound Relative Clause (1) ' He lives in the upper part of the house, of which I know nothing and have never seen.' As the compound relative clause stands, l of which I ' is the common part. Resolve the clause thus : A. of which I know nothing and B. of which I have never seen. The resolution shows that in the second clause ' which ' should be governed, not by 'of, 5 but by 'have seen.' The sentence should read : in THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 103 ' He lives iu the upper part of the house, of which I know nothing and which I have never seen.' (2) ' I do not know out of Cambridge any one with whom I can con- verse more pleasantly or would prefer as my companion. ' As the compound relative clause stands, the common part is 'with whom I.' Resolve the clause : A. with whom I can converse more pleasantly, or B. with whom I would prefer as my companion. The resolution discloses the error : the relative in the second clause requires to be under the government, not of ' with,' but of 'would prefer.' The sentence should read : ' I do not know out of Cambridge any one with whom I can converse more pleasantly, or whom I would prefer as a companion. ' III. The Adverbial Clause. (d) ' When Hastings had passed many years in retirement, and had long outlived the common age of men, he again became for a short time an object of general attention. ' The common part of the compound adverbial clause may be exhibited thus : {had passed many years in retirement and had long outlived the common age of men. Or thus (further contracted) : {passed many years in retirement and long outlived the common age of men. (e) ' Even to the present day Cromwell's character, though constantly attacked and scarcely ever defended, is popular with the great body of our countrymen. ' The following expansion of the compound adverbial clause exhibits the common part : it is -J V constantly attacked Though it is -{ and scarcely ever defended. The resolution of the clause 104 ENGLISH COMPOSITION part A. Though it is constantly attacked and B. though it is scarcely ever defended. The following examples exemplify types of errors that are not uncommon : (a) ' The journey must remain fixed for the latter end of April, unless any very bad weather should set in, or that you can arrange with agreeable travelling company.' The clauses of the compound adverbial clause should be introduced by the same conjunction either expressed or under- stood. ' That ' should therefore be ' unless.' (b) ' I never have, and never will, attack a man for his opinions. ' f have attack} I never -{ and a man for his .will attack J °P imons - The auxiliary ' have ' should be followed by the past parti- ciple and the auxiliary ' will ' by the infinitive, of the principal verb : when the clauses of a compound sentence contain auxiliaries that take after them different forms of the principal verb, the ellipsis of the principal verb is not justifiable. The sentence should read : ' I never have attacked, and never will attack, a man for his opinions.' (c) ' I have no more to add, and believe me to remain yours, etc. ' The parts joined by a co-ordinating conjunction must stand in the same relation to the common part (Bain). The form of this sentence makes ' I ' the common part. A. I have no more to add and B. (I) believe me to remain yours, etc. It is obvious from the resolution that the two clauses have not the same subject. The error involved in the sentence may be shown in another way. The verb of the first clause is in the indicative mood, that of the second clause is in the imperative mood ; the co- ordinating conjunctions, as a rule, join the same moods as well in THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 105 as the same tenses of verbs ; hence ' and ' is here improperly employed. The sentence may be amended thus : ' I have no more to add, and desire you to believe me to remain yours, etc' (d) ' Did ever man put God to the proof on that promise, and found it broken ? ' In each clause the mood of the verb is indicative and the tense past ; but in the first clause we have the interrogative form and in the second the affirmative form, of the past indica- tive. The constructions are mixed. The sentence is compound, and the common part is ' Did ever man.' proof on that promise Did ever man-! and ( put God to the \ ^ find it broken ? Exercise II Correct the following, and give reasons for your corrections : Originality in politics consists in the use and application of the ideas which we get or are given to us. One of the last of his speeches was delivered in defence of "Warren Hastings, with whom he was on terms of intimate friendship, and regarded as the saviour of India. If I do not speak of them, it is because they do not come within my subject, and not that they are lightly esteemed by me. If you had a niece engaged to be married, and that you thought the match a good one, how would you like to see it broken off ? Far distant be the day when the measured walk takes the place of the manly exercise of the cricket ground, or that lectures multiply while sports decrease. I tell him that if you were to hear him speak English, that you could not refrain from kissing him. We are apt to imagine that what is, always has, and always will be. You will bear this as you have so many things. I am anxious for the time when he will talk as much nonsense to me as I have to him. He ridicules the notion that truth will prevail ; it never has and it never will. Blake wrote and drew with marvellous genius, but I doubt whether any one has or would care to follow in his steps. My own impression about it was that the Reformation was both a good thing and that in Eng- 106 ENGLISH COMPOSITION part land it had been accomplished with peculiar skill and success. We may not only fairly assume that Shelley learnt much from Godwin, but also that his whole course of thought was guided by this. Mixed Sentences The typical English sentence is neither simply compound nor simply complex ; it is both compound and complex. Examples (a) 'The old subjects of contention had vanished, and those which were to succeed had not yet appeared.' Analysis (Note : The principal clauses are denoted by the capitals) : A. The old subject of contention had vanished . . simple and B. those had not yet appeared 1 | >• complex Rel. cl. : which were to succeed J The sentence is compound, its first member being simple and its second member complex. (&) ' The boats plied busily ; company after company was quickly landed ; and, as soon as the men touched the shore, they swarmed up the steep ascent with great alacrity. ' Analysis : A. The boats plied busily .... simple B. company after company was quickly landed simple and C. they swarmed up the steep ascent with great alacrity complex Ad. cl. of time : as soon as the men touched the shore The sentence consists of two simple members ' A ' and ' B ' and one complex member ' C The compound sentence having its last member complex is a very common cast of sentence. (c) ' Not fifteen minutes had elapsed since Montcalm had first moved on his line of battle, and already all was lost. ' in THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 107 Analysis : A. Not fifteen minutes had elapsed complex Ad. cl of time : since Montcalm had moved on his line of battle ) and B. already all was lost simple Here the first member of the compound sentence is complex and the last simple. (d) ' The postman who brings my letters walks eight thousand miles a year, and enjoys the most perfect regularity of health.' This sentence is of the same cast as (c). (e) ' We have done those things which we ought not to have done ; we have left undone those things which we ought to have done, and there is no health in us. ' Analysis : A. We have done those things J \ complex Rel. cl. : which we ought not to have done B. we have left undone those things | \ complex Rel. cl. : which we ought to have done and C. there is no health in us . •. . . . simple The first two members of the compound sentence are com- plex, and the last is simple. (/) ' The pigeons began to move off in a direction quite different from that in which they had arrived the evening before, and at sun- rise all that were able to fly had disappeared.' Analysis : A. The pigeons began to move off in a direction^ quite different from that , * h . complex Rel. cl. : in which they had arrived the evening before J and B. at sunrise all had disappeared ) > . . complex Rel. cl. : that were able to fly ) 108 ENGLISH COMPOSITION part hi The sentence is compound, and each of its members is complex. The compound sentence is sometimes both complex and con- tracted, as : (g) ' The soldier claims, and is granted, the consideration which accrues to members of an honourable service, and the respect which men of character are never slow to render.' The sentence resolved : A. The soldier claims the consideration which accrues to members of an honourable service, and the respect which men of character are never slow to render (complex), and B. (The soldier) is granted the consideration which accrues to members of an honourable service, and the respect which men of character are never slow to render (complex). The resolution shows that the sentence is much contracted in subject and object. The community of subject and object may- be shown thus : ( claims "^ The soldier-! and J- the consideration and the respect [is granted J Rel. cl. : which accrues to members of an honour- able service Rel. ch : which men of character are never slow to render Exercise III Select from your reading-book sentences of the same cast as those given above, and give their general analysis. (Note. — Uncontracted principal clauses not joined by 'and/ and principal clauses in adversative relation are generally separ- ated by a semicolon.) PART IV ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES OF MORE THAN TWO CLAUSES Examples (a) 'What these reflections were, and whether they were reflections of which he had a right to complain, we have now no means of deciding.' Analysis (or sentence parsing for relation and position) : Principal clause : We have now no means of deciding C what these reflections were Compound noun clause to ' deciding ' -J and ^ whether they were reflections Relative clause to ' reflections ' in the second noun clause : of which he had no right to complain. Or, denoting the principal clause by A, we may show the relation of the clauses thus : A. We have now ( what these reflections were ^j ~ , no means of 4 and I °™f°™ deciding ^ whether they were reflections J noun Rel. cl. : of which he had no right to complain The sentence is skilfully constructed. The writer wishes to direct special attention to the noun clauses ; he therefore places them before their governing clause. This arrangement also makes the suspense of the sentence perfect. 110 ENGLISH COMPOSITION part Variation : ' We have now no means of deciding what these reflections were, and whether they were reflections of which he had a right to complain. ' Decidedly inferior to the original arrangement. (ft) ' Those legal checks which, while the sovereign remained dependent on his subjects, had been adequate to the purpose for which they were designed, were now found wanting.' Analysis : Principal clause : Those legal checks were now found wanting Relative clause to ' checks ' : which had been adequate to the purpose Relative clause to ' purpose ' : for which they were designed Adverbial clause of time to the first relative clause : while the sovereign remained dependent on his subjects. Notice how all the subordinate clauses are dovetailed into the principal clause, and how the time clause is dovetailed into the clause it qualifies. The sentence is a model of clause set- ting, and its suspense is perfect. Variations : 1. 'Those legal checks which had, while the sovereign remained de- pendent on his subjects, been adequate to the purpose for which they were designed, were now found wanting. ' The adverbial clause is placed within the predicate instead of immediately after the connective of the clause it is intended to qualify. This is an effective variation. 2. ' Those legal checks which had been adequate to the purpose for which they were designed while the sovereign remained dependent on his subjects, were now found wanting.' In its present situation the time clause bears, not on ' which had been adequate to the purpose,' but on ' for which they were designed.' This variation does not give the sense intended by the writer ; it is, therefore, inadmissible. Exercise I 1. Analyse the following sentences, and point out their merits or their defects ; also give what variations you think worth giving, and point out the merits or the defects of such variations : iv ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES 111 (1) If the admiral and his officers had perceived that they were marked men, they might in self-defence have become traitors. (2) The alliance against Holland, formidable as it was, was yet of such a nature that it could not succeed at all unless it succeeded at once. (3) The Triple Alliance only compelled Lewis to make peace on the terms on which, before the alliance was formed, he had offered to make peace. (4) When at last the constancy of the lovers had triumphed over all the obstacles which kinsmen and rivals could oppose to their union, a yet more serious difficulty befell them. (5) Poor Mistress Osborne fell ill of small-pox, and, though she escaped with life, lost all her beauty. (6) We know on the best evidence that, before Byron pub- lished these lines, he was greatly elated by the compliments paid to his maiden speech in the House of Lords. (7) Those who disliked the Master of Stair did him the justice to own that, where his schemes of policy were not con- cerned, he was a very good-natured man. (8) Hastings argued that, if the English force was with- drawn, Oude would certainly become a prey to anarchy, and would probably be overrun by a Mahratta army. (9) If men are to wait for liberty till they become wise and good in slavery, they may indeed wait for ever. (10) Till he had a wife he could do nothing; and, when he had a wife, he did whatever she chose. (11) The only party against whom nothing could be pro- duced was the party who, in respect of blood, had the weakest claim of all. (12) 'I have become French,' said the queen, ' but I will show my enemies that I can be Spanish when occasion de- mands it.' (13) Fitzgerald, as soon as the army was landed, retired into the interior ; but, finding that the deputy lay idle within the walls, he recovered heart. (14) Davison might have taken a terrible revenge upon the queen if he had explained the meaning of these words ; but what he told the privy council he concealed from the world. (15) So eager was the queen that her story should be be- lieved, that nothing so much pleased her as an indication that credit was attached to it. 112 ENGLISH COMPOSITION part 2. Treat in the same manner the sentences selected by the teacher from your reading-book. Synthesis of Complex Sentences of more than Two Clauses Examples Analysis : (a) Principal clause : A river lay before Clive Relative clause to ' river ' : not one of his little band would ever return over which Adverbial clause of condition : if things went ill. Synthesis : ' Before Clive lay a river over which, if things went ill, not one of his little band would ever return.' Notice (1) the inversion of the principal clause and the pur- pose of it, viz. to bring into proximity the relative and its antecedent, and (2) the position of the adverbial clause. The conditional clause is usually placed before the clause it qualifies ; but, as no clause may be placed between the relative and its antecedent, it is clear that an adverbial clause that qualifies a relative clause cannot precede the relative pronoun ; in this case its usual placement is immediately after the relative. In its present form the sentence is periodic ; in the following form it is loose. ' Before Clive lay a river over which not one of his little band would ever return, if things went ill. ' Analysis : (b) Principal clause : They came on manfully Adverbial clause of concession to ' came ' : though the assailants had lost all the advantage Relative clause to ' advantage ' : which belongs to a surprise. Synthesis : ' Though the assailants had lost all the advantage which belongs to a surprise, they came on manfully.' iv ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES 113 The concessive clause is, in accordance with the general rule, placed before the clause it qualifies, the relative clause falls naturally into its proper place immediately after the antecedent noun, and the principal clause is placed at the end. In this form the sentence is periodic ; in the following form it is loose : 'The assailants came on manfully, though they had lost all the advantage which belongs to a surprise.' In the loose sentence notice the transposition of the noun and pronoun and the purpose of it. Analysis : (c) Principal clause : After tea my aunt suggested Noun clause to ' suggested ' : that we should take a little walk up the village Adverbial clause of cause to ' should take ' : as ( = since) the evening was perfectly fine. Synthesis : ' After tea my aunt suggested that, as the evening was perfectly fine, we should take a little walk up the village.' In accordance with the general rule, the conjunction intro- ducing the noun clause follows the governing clause ; then comes the adverbial clause, and after it the noun clause which it qualifies. This is the usual order in sentences of this type. An adverbial clause that is intended to qualify a noun clause should not be placed before the introductory conjunction of the noun clause. As the sentence now stands it is periodic ; if we place the adverbial clause after the clause it qualifies we cast the sentence loose, thus : ' After tea my aunt suggested that we should take a little walk up the village, as the evening was perfectly fine.' In the following sentence the conditional clause is faultily placed : { If Faulkland had lived through the scenes that followed, we have little doubt that he would have condemned himself to share the exile and beggary of the royal family. ' The conditional clause is intended to qualify the noun I 114 ENGLISH COMPOSITION part clause. In its present position it ought to be regarded as bearing on the principal clause. Read : ' We have little doubt that, if Faulkland had lived through the scenes that followed, he would have condemned himself to share the exile and beggary of the royal family. ' Or: We have little doubt that Faulkland, if he had lived through the scenes that followed, would have condemned himself,' etc. Other Examples op the same Type as (c) (1) ' The Queen of Scots determined that, if die she must, she would give her death the character of a martyrdom. ' Notice the very effective partial inversion in the conditional clause. The same sentence cast loose and without the inversion : * The Queen of Scots determined that she would give her death the character of a martyrdom, if she must die. ' (2) 'It is a curious fact that, when I return from Switzerland, I am unable to discover in our English midlands anything but a dead level of fertile plains. ' (3) ' Mr. Welldon pointed out that, unless a boy understood something of English grammar, the difficulty of translating correctly into Latin must be greatly increased. ' The points to be noted in these three sentences are the place- ment of the adverbial clause and how this placement affects the sentences. Cast Nos. 2 and 3 loose and observe the effect. In all the preceding sentences compare the 'draggle' of the loose with the sprightly energy of the periodic structure. Owing to the ambiguity lurking in the pronoun 'it,' the following sentence is better in the loose than in the periodic form : ' Her hand was so severely injured that, unless she had the forefinger amputated, she would entirely lose the use of it. ' The pronoun ' it ' is intended to refer to ' hand ' ; owing to its placement, however, it ought to be referred to 'forefinger.' This reference would obviously make nonsense. ' Hand ' should be repeated or the sentence cast loose thus : iv ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 115 1 Her baud was so severely injured that she would entirely lose the use of it, unless she had the forefinger amputated.' Analysis : id) Principal clause : The French admiral would have been in Leith Adverbial clause of condition to pred. of prin. cl. : had the weather been fair Adverbial clause of time to pred. of prin. cl. : before the English fleet had cleared the Thames. Synthesis : • Had the weather been fair, the French admiral would have been in Leith before the English fleet had cleared the Thames.' The principal clause is qualified by two adverbial clauses, one of which is placed before and the other after it. This is in accordance with the general rule of distribution of such adjuncts. The conditional clause naturally occupies the posi- tion of emphasis at the head of the sentence. The sentence cast loose : ' The French admiral would have been in Leith before the English fleet had cleared the Thames, had the weather been fair ' (or, if the weather had been fair). Compare the following variations with the original form of the sentence : (1) 'Before the English fleet had cleared the Thames, the French admiral, had the weather been fair, would have been in Leith.' (2) ' The French admiral, had the weather been fair, would have been in Leith before the English fleet had cleared the Thames. ' Analysis : («) Principal clause : The angry passions had fixed themselves in the form of deep and lasting hatred Relative clause to ' passions ' : which would have died away almost as soon Adverbial clause of degree to ' soon ' : as they appeared Adverbial clause of condition to pred. of rel. cl. : if the contest had been short. 116 ENGLISH COMPOSITION part Synthesis.: ' The angry passions which, if the contest had been short, would have died away almost as soon as they appeared, had fixed themselves in the form of deep and lasting hatred. ' If we regard ' as soon as ' as a compound conjunction, the clause introduced by it is a time clause, and the adverb ' almost ' qualifies the time clause. For the position of the conditional clause see the note on sentence (a). Analysis : (/) Principal clause : We doubt greatly } Noun clause to 'doubt': whether Mr. Southey's poems J- Complex will be read fifty years hence J Principal clause : we nave no doubt wnatever Noun clause in apposition to ' doubt ' : that they will be I ,-, , admired ' ^Complex Adverbial clause of condition to noun cl. : if they are read. J The sentence is compound and each of its members is com- plex. Synthesis : \ We doubt greatly whether Mr. Southey's poems will be read fifty years hence ; but we have no doubt whatever that, if they are read, they will be admired.' Variations : (1) ' We greatly doubt whether Mr. Southey's poems will be read fifty years hence ; but that, if they are read, they will be admired, we have no doubt whatever. ' (2) ' Whether Mr. Southey's poems will be read fifty years hence, we greatly doubt ; but that, if they are read, they will be admired, we have no doubt whatever.' (3) ' We greatly doubt whether Mr. Southey's poems will be read fifty years hence ; but we have no doubt whatever that they will be admired if they are read. ' In its last form the sentence is loose ; in its other forms it is periodic. Notice the inversion in (1) and the two inversions in (2). ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES 117 Exercise II Synthesise the following analysed sentences : (Note. — The parts of each clause are to be placed in their most effective setting, and the words in brackets to be omitted.) 1. Principal clause : Elizabeth had often told Philip Noun clause to pred. of prin. cl. : that she would be forced to interfere Adverbial clause of condition to pred. of noun cl. : unless he would take a reasonable course. 2. Principal clause : The envoy told the queen Noun clause to ' told ' : t that peace was out of the question Adverbial clause of time to pred. of noun cl. : so long as religious liberty was made a condition. (Note. — ' So long ' may be taken as an adverbial adjunct to the predicate of the noun clause, and the adverbial clause as one of degree. So far as composition is concerned, this is of trifling importance. ) 3. Principal clause : Bengal was still governed according to the system Relative clause to ' system ' : Clive had devised which Adverbial clause of time to pred. of prin. cl. : when Hastings took his seat at the head of the council board. 4. Principal clause : The marquis threw the whole charge of defending it on England and Holland Adverbial clause of concession to pred. of prin. cl. : as the country was fertile and rich Relative clause to ' country ' : he ruled which. 5. Principal clause : He took all the liberties of an insolent servant with the government Relative clause to ' servant ' : who believes himself to be necessary Relative clause to ' government ' : he had saved which. 6. Principal clause : Thousands of busy men found every Christmas Noun clause to pred. of prin. cl. : that a surplus remained Adverbial clause of time to pred. of noun cl. : after the expenses of the year's housekeeping had been defrayed out of the year's income. 7. Principal clause : I have found an occupation in the peaceful study of birds Relative clause to ' occupation ' : which exactly falls in with the habit Relative clause to ' habit ' : I had formed (which). 118 ENGLISH COMPOSITION part 8. Principal clause : A critic will undoubtedly call Temple's sentences long Relative clause to ' critic ' : who considers everything as one sentence Relative clause to ' everything ' : that lies between two full stops. 9. Principal clause : They do not express Cecil's opinions Adverbial clause of concession to pred. of prin. cl. : though the hand is Cecil's Relative clause to ' hand ' : these advices are written in which. 10. Principal clause : Nothing is so daintily sweet to people Relative clause to ' people ' : who are unacquainted with real calamity Adverbial clause of comparison to prin. cl. : as an agreeable excite- ment (is daintily sweet). 11. Principal clause : We saw in the last lecture Noun clause to pred. of prin. cl. : that the muscle changes its form Adverbial clause of time to pred. of noun cl. : when the nerve . connected with a muscle is irritated. 12. Principal clause : The times are not always those Relative clause to ' times ' : which shine with the greatest splendour in literary history Relative clause to ' those ' : the human mind is most indebted to which. 13. Principal clause : Ben Jonson has described Bacon's eloquence in words Relative clause to ' words ' : which will bear to be quoted again Adverbial clause to pred. of rel. cl. : though (they have) often (been) quoted. 14. Principal clause : The council represented Noun clause to pred. of prin. cl. : that he would destroy her friends one by one v Adverbial clause of condition to pred. of noun cl. : if Lennox were suffered to continue in his greatness. 15. Principal clause : Those round the queen foresaw Relative clause to ' those ' : who understood better the depth and power of religious passion Noun clause to pred. of prin. cl. : that the storm would sooner or later fall on England Adverbial clause of concession to pred. of noun cl. : however it might fare with herself. 16. Principal clause : Mr. Mill eagerly culls every expression from old despatches and minutes ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES 119 Relative clause to ' expression ' : lie can discern in which the im- perfect germ of any great truth Relative clause to ' germ ' in the first rel. cl. : which has been fully developed since. 17. Principal clause : Mr. Mill never fails to bestow praise on those Relative clause to ' those ' : who yet rose in a small degree above the common level of their contemporaries • Adverbial clause of concession to pred. of the rel. cl. : though (they are) far from coming up %o his standard of perfection. 18. Principal clause : Every man is entitled to our gratitude and respect Relative clause to ' man ' : who distinguished himself on the right side in the contest Relative clause to ' contest ' in the last clause : which divided our country in his time. 19. Principal clause : All London crowded to shout and laugh round the gibbet Relative clause to ' gibbet ' : where ( = on which) hung the rotting remains of a prince Relative clause to ' prince ' in the last clause : who had made England the dread of the world. 20. Principal clause : The love and awe were undiminished Relative clause to ' love and awe ' : the office was regarded with which Adverbial clause to pred. of prin. cl. : though the person of the sovereign was changed. 21. Principal clause : He at least violated it for one of the noblest ends Relative clause to ' ends ' : any statesman ever had in view that Adverbial clause of condition to pred. of prin. cl. : if James violated the constitution. 22. Principal clause : The authors of these improvements sometimes continued to recognise the principle Adverbial clause of time to pred. of prin. cl. : while they removed a great practical evil Relative clause to ' principle ' in prin. cl. : that evil had sprung from which. 23. Principal clause : Sometimes they shrank from following it to all the conclusions Adverbial clause of time to pred. of prin. cl. : when they had adopted a sound principle Relative clause to ' conclusions ' in prin. cl. : it would have led to which. 120 ENGLISH COMPOSITION part 24. Principal clause : We do not see Noun clause to pred. of prin. cl. : why suppositions should be admitted into history Relative clause to ' suppositions ' in the noun cl. : no rational man would act on which in ordinary life. 25. Principal clause : Coke was an exception to a maxim Relative clause to ' maxim ' : we believe which to be generally true Noun clause in apposition to ' maxim ' : that those are disposed to cringe to the powerful Relative clause to ' those ' in the noun cl. : who trample on the helpless. 26. Principal clause : There is not the smallest reason to believe Noun clause to ' believe ' : that they would have prevented him from making it Adverbial clause of condition to pred. of noun clause to ' believe ' : if James and Buckingham had thought Noun clause to pred. of the adverbial cl. : that Bacon had a good defence. 27. Principal clause : A man must be a monster of servility and impudence Relative clause to ' man ' : who solemnly declares himself guilty of corruption to please a powerful patron Adverbial clause of time to pred. of rel. cl. : when he knows himself to be innocent. 28. Principal clause : It is no excuse for him Adverbial clause of condition to prin. cl. : if a man does that Relative clause to 'that' in adv. cl. : which he and all arouud him know to be bad Noun clause in apposition to ' it ' in prin. cl. : that many others have done the same thing. 29. Principal clause : We firmly believe Noun clause to pred. of prin. cl. : that Mr. Montagu would tell us Adverbial clause to pred. of noun cl. : if papers were discovered Relative clause to ' papers ' in adv. cl. : which would irresistibly prove Noun clause to pred. of rel. cl. : that Bacon was concerned in the poisoning of Sir Thomas Overbury Noun clause to ' tell ' in first noun clause : that it was not thought improper in a man to put arsenic in the broth of his friend at the beginning of the seventeenth century. 30. Principal clause : We find Noun clause to pred. of prin. cl. : that it is also the single case Relative clause to ' case ' in the noun cl. above : there was no gross impropriety in his receiving a present in which ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES 121 Adverbial clause of time to pred. of prin. cl. : when we examine the single case Relative clause to ' case ' in adverbial cl. : Bacon alleges in which Noun clause to • alleges ' : that he received a present publicly. 01 -p, . . , ,. , , ( A. The dinner was pleasant 31. Principal co-ordinate clauses 1 , L • \ f nd B n iU e ^ la f ve \ B. the king "talked freely relation ; C in adversative | h t relation to A and B. [ c he made a U nttle speech Adverbial clause of time to pred. of C : as it ended c Relative clause to ' speech ' in C : he thanked the regents in which for their devotion Relative clause to ' speech ' in C : (he) announced (in which) Noun clause to ' announced ' : that they must resign at once Adverbial clause of cause to ' must resign ' : as he was now competent to reign. 'tamper recklessly with the best^ feelings of human nature 32. The Elizabethan] and dramatists \ [ not only gross in expression but base and impure in suggestion i' are-! too often Relative clause to ' are gross in expression ' : which can be tolerated. Principal clause : The petting and the patience do little to prepare them for the sharp discipline Relative clause to ' discipline ' : which comes later Relative clause to ' petting ' : the little puppies receive which Relative clause to ' patience ' : their early whims are endured With which. .' The Duke had done something 34. Principal clauses in • (Th (he alternative relation ^ h&d affected something Relative clause to ' something ' : which would provide him a resource Adverbial clause of concession to pred. of rel. cl. : however events might turn Adverbial clause of condition to pred. of rel. cl. : he should be driven to shift his colours. 122 ENGLISH COMPOSITION part 35. Principal clause A : They were again in turn to exhort the laity in all the churches and cathedrals to accept the grace Kelative clause to ' grace ' : which was offered to them Adverbial clause of time to pred. of prin. cl. A : when the clergy had been reconciled and Principal clause B in cumula- 1 ,. , tive relation with A } a tirae was assi ^ ed Relative clause to ' tirae ' in B : their submissions must all be completed within which Adverbial clause of purpose to ' was assigned ' in cl. B : that they might understand Noun clause to ' might understand ' : that they were not at liberty to refuse the invitation. 36. Principal clause : He sent orders - Adverbial clause of time to pred. of prin. cl. : when the poor results of the session became known to Philip Noun clause in apposition with ' orders ' : that such of his Spanish suite should no longer afflict themselves with remaining in a country Relative clause to ' country ' : they abhorred which Relative clause to ' such ' in the noun cl. : he had left as behind him. 37. Principal clause : The ministry seem to have felt t Noun clause to pred. ) that it was necessary of prin. clause \ for them to abandon and to win the confidence of the nation by some splendid and popular measure Noun clause to ' abandon ' : what was supposed to be Clarendon's system Adverbial clause of condition to 'it was necessary, etc' : if they wished to derive any advantage from Clarendon's downfall. 38. Principal clause : We infer from the great advances Relative clause to ' advances ' : European society has made which in every species of knowledge, during the last four centuries {not that there is no more room for improve- ment but that immense improvements may be confidently expected in every science Relative clause to 'science' : which deserves the name. ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES 123 39. Principal clause : The kindness of a venerable country gentleman was amongst the favourable influences of my early life 'seen a great deal of the world and passed many years in the practice of a la- borious profession Compound relative clause to \ , , , ' gentleman ' J Adverbial clause of time to pred. in compound rel. cl. : before he inherited his estates. 40. In cumulative f A - Principal clause : I shared the prevailing views . , . -! of the character of Henry VIII. [B. Principal clause : and it was plain. Adverbial clause of concession to prin. cl. B : though I considered Noun clause to ' considered ' : that there might be found much to modify our censure on Cranmer's behaviour Adverbial clause of condition to the last noun clause : if all -the circumstances were known Noun clause in apposition to 'it,' the subject of principal clause B : that he had gone along with the king in the most question- able actions of his reign. THE END Printed by R. & R Clark, Edinburgh. BY THE SAME AUTHOR HIGHER ARITHMETIC AND ELEMENTARY MENSURATION. Crown 8vo. 5s. "It is an ably written treatise, eminently practical in its method and' lucid in its expositions." — Scotsman. "We can warmly recommend the book to our readers." — School- master. ' ' The whole is a vast storehouse of well-put matter, which should render a reader quite independent of any other text-book, and, we might say, of a teacher. " — Nature. "... The examples worked out are models of clearness. 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