Greek Sculpture and Modern Art CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS HonlJOn: FETTER LANE, E.G. C. F. CLAY, MANAGER 100, PRINCES STREET Berlin: A. ASHER AND CO. leipjifl : F. A. BROCKHAUS $tto fork: G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS anfc Calcutta: MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD. Toronto: J. M. DENT AND SONS, LTD. ffokgo: THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA All rights reserved Greek Sculpture and Modern Art Two lectures delivered to the students of the Royal Academy of London by CHARLES WALDSTEIN, Litt.D., Ph.D., L.H.D. Fellow and Lecturer of King's College, Cambridge Sometime Slade Professor of Fine Art, Reader in Classical Archaeology Director of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, and Director of the American School of Archaeology, Athens with an appendix Cambridge : at the University Press 1914 CTamhr ifcgr : PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A, AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS TO MY FRIEND GEORGE LEVESON GOWER PREFACE IT has been suggested to me that the two lectures on Sculpture which I delivered in February of this year to the students of the Royal Academy Art School should be published in a more permanent form. It was held that they might prove useful, not only to students of art, but also to the general public, as an introduction into the study of sculpture. My own aim was a more definite one. The domain and the aims of Art have for many centuries extended far beyond the mere expression of Formal Beauty. They have encroached in all times, even the earliest, down into the regions of the Useful, they have blended and united in effort and purpose with the wide and high spheres and objects of Truth and Goodness. The artist may primarily and ultimately, in many cases when great works were produced, have conveyed deep thoughts in his own peculiar mode of expression, have re- corded the True, the leading and essential features of things of the outer world in nature and of the inner world in man, have lifted high the standard of Goodness, of human love and happiness, even have viii Preface approached in expression the Divine in religious fervour. He may be, and is often, spurred on and inspired in his creation to express his own emotions and those of mankind, as evoked or affected by things that can be realised through the senses, felt or heard or seen. Or he may set himself the equally arduous and worthy task of merely con- veying the truth of the things themselves in the clearest and most convincing methods of artistic expression. And this is true of Art. Still the fundamental truth of Art is that it has arisen out of man's need for harmony and beauty, prevalent, if not dominant, in the earliest stages of his life of sense. As art, the satisfaction of this fundamental instinct in its highest forms will always remain its essential characteristic, if not its ultimate aim. The direct expression and realisation of Formal Beauty will always be one of the leading purposes and aims of art, even though it is far from being the only aim of the artist. But it must, to some extent and in some form, enter into the mani- festation of the artist's work, however far removed his ultimate purpose may be from this primary and elementary aspect of his effort. His truth in the rendering of things things of nature and life, or of his own inner emotional experience, must be ex- pressed through the " harmony" of that truth the comic, the tragic, even the grotesque, must be the harmony of the comic, the tragic and the grotesque. He must combine in its expression those aesthetic features which produce a " harmony," in which every Preface ix element and every atom of expression are united and fused into a living, an organic, whole, which is the most perfect exposition of the thing conveyed through an artistic vehicle. This being so, the artist must have the natural predisposition and bias in his mentality and character and imagination towards the beauty-side of life. At some phase or other of his education and in his development he must cultivate and encourage this side of his artistic nature. Without it, he may be a most skilful and painstaking craftsman and may produce works, which, because of the technique and the honesty of labour, are interesting and valuable. We must be grateful for their production and receive them with sympathetic appreciation ; but they will not be works of art and he will not be an artist. He may also prove himself a most acute and accurate observer, but he is not therefore an artist. He may manifest a highly developed emotional nature which he endeavours to analyse and present. We may be interested in his psychology (if we can always be sure of having realised it aesthetically and accurately which is by no means always the case), but he is therefore not yet an artist. It is his primary sense of Beauty, his natural and acquired sense of re- garding all things and expressing all his feelings in the light of "harmony," that makes him an artist. This apparent truism is denied by many artists and those practising artistic work, especially in their theories, when they write and talk ; and is repeated by a number of acute and sincere critics. We can x Preface understand and forgive this aberration on the part of the theorising artist. For he has realised rightly in his arduous training all the difficulties of technique, so that it is natural for him to exaggerate its im- portance and forget the elements of his nature, his origin ; as people are likely to forget or ignore the childhood training which made them men. But we ought not to forget this. I wish to acknowledge the kind help of Mr A. D. Knox, Fellow of King's College, Cambridge, in revising the proofs, and also to thank M. Rodin for his kindness in authorising me to reproduce several of his works. C. W. NEWTON HALL, NEWTON, CAMBRIDGE. November i, 1913. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (at end) PLATE I. Artemis from Delos, Athens. II. Hera of Samos, Louvre. III. Apollo of Tenea, Munich. IV. Archaic figure from the Acropolis of Athens. V. Similar statue from the Acropolis. VI. Back view of statue from the Acropolis. VII. Archaic Apollo from the Acropolis. VIII. Female figure from the Acropolis. IX. Bronze head from Herculaneum, Naples. X. Marble figure from pediment of Aeginetan temple, Munich. XI. Head of bronze charioteer from Delphi. XII. Bronze head of Polycleitan Doryphoros from Herculaneum, Naples. XIII. The Polycleitan Diadumenos, Dresden. XIV. Head of the so-called Lemnian Athene, Bologna. XV. Bronze head from Benevento in the Louvre. XVI. Bronze statue from Cerigo, Athens. XVII. Bronze head from Herculaneum, Naples. XVIII. Bronze head of boxer, Olympia. XIX. Centaur in the Capitoline Museum, Rome. XX. Head of Apollo, Western Pediment, Olympia. Head from Eastern Pediment of Olympia. XXI. Head from Eastern Pediment of Olympia. XXII. Lapith Woman, Western Pediment, Olympia. Head of River-god, Eastern Pediment, Olympia. XXIII. Heads from the Frieze of the Parthenon. XXIV. Heads from the Frieze of the Parthenon. XXV. Heads from the Frieze of the Parthenon. Head from the Metopes of the Parthenon. XXVI. Heads from the Metopes of the Parthenon. XXVII. Scopasian head from Acropolis, Athens. XXVIII. Head of Cnidian Aphrodite, Vatican, Rome. XXIX. The Kaufmann Aphrodite, Berlin. XXX. Head of the Hermes of Praxiteles, Olympia. XXXI. Head of Eros of Centocelli, Vatican. XXXII. Marble head in Dresden. XXXIII. The Petworth Aphrodite. XXXIV. Head from Chios, Boston. XXXV. Head formerly in possession of M. Palli, Athens, now in Museum of Boston. XXXVI. Head of Giant from the Frieze of the Altar at Pergamon, Berlin. XXXVII. Head of Giant from the Frieze of the Altar at Pergamon, Berlin. Xll List of Illustrations PLATE XXXVIII. Head of Laokoon, Vatican, Rome. XXXIX. Marble head in the Louvre Museum. XL. Tomb of the Medici by Michelangelo, Florence. Photo Anderson. XLI. Tomb of the Medici by Michelangelo, Florence. Photo Anderson. XLII. Portrait of Octave Mirbeau by Rodin. XLIII. Portrait of Puvis de Chavannes by Rodin. XLIV. Portrait of Balzac by Rodin. XLV. Portrait of a lady by Rodin. XLVI. Le Baiser by Rodin. XLVII. Le Penseur by Rodin. XLVIII. Le Penseur by Rodin. XLIX. The Iron Age by Rodin. L. Danaide by Rodin. LI. Horsemen from the Frieze of the Parthenon. LII. Attic Sepulchral Slab (Hegeso Proxeno), Athens. LIII. Choiseul-Gouffier statue of an athlete, British Museum. LIV. Standing Figure, Westmacott Youth, British Museum. LV. Doryphoros of Polycleitos. LVI. The Angelus by J. F. Millet. Photo Mansell & Co. LVII. A Miner by Meunier. LVI II. A Docker by Meunier. LIX. La Vieille Heaulmiere by Rodin, in the Luxembourg Museum, Paris. LX. Theseus (? Olympos), Eastern Pediment of the Parthenon. LXI. The Three Fates (? Hestia, Gaia and Thalassa) from the Eastern Pediment of the Parthenon. LXII. Niobide Chiaramonti. LXIII. Charioteer from a Frieze of the Mausoleum of Halicarnassos. LXIV. Dresden Statue, possibly reproduction of a Scopasian type. LXV. Victory of Samothrace in the Louvre Museum. LXVI. Two heads from the Tegean Pediment by Scopas. LXVII. Hermes carrying the infant Dionysos, Olympia. LXVIII. Statuette of Aphrodite or a maiden, Antiquarium, Munich. LXIX. Marble copy of the bronze statue of the athlete Agias by Lysippus from Delphi. LXX. Apoxyomenos, marble copy of bronze typical athlete statue by Lysippus. LXXI. Portrait of Demosthenes. LXXII. So-called Seneca. Bronze from Herculaneum, Naples. LXXIII. So-called Scipio. Bronze from Herculaneum, Naples. LXXIV. Laokoon, Vatican, Rome. LXXV. Frieze from the Altar of Pergamon. LXX VI. Toro Farnese, Naples. LXXVII. Boy with the Goose. Greek genre sculpture. LXXVIII. Man wasting away. Bronze statuette. GREEK SCULPTURE AND MODERN ART The practice and study of art are at this moment passing through a critical phase. New standards of art-work and of art-theory are being established. They imply a distinct opposition to the current methods, the technique of art-work; and an opposition to the general aim which the artist previously held before him, which, to use one wide, though vague and often misleading, term, may be called the realisation of beauty. What I hope to show in these two lectures is, that, whatever justification there be in the new aspirations, in the new methods, and in the new outlook, the study of Greek sculpture still remains, and will always remain, as far as its fundamental principles and its main achievements are concerned, a subject which you can study with profit and at some stage you must study. Now let us examine a little more closely the nature of the present crisis in art, both as regards technique and as regards subject-matter, the "how" and the "what" of art, and let us, if possible, determine the " wherefore " in these two questions. w. i * .:'-'": /" f l . ' f ' Greek Sculpture I. THE TECHNIQUE. As to the question of technique : Each period in the whole history of art invents, or rather evolves, certain modes of dealing with the artistic material in fact each individual artist finds his peculiar mode of expression, which we call his "style." I shall hope to show you how the history of Greek sculpture is to a great extent the history of this process of evolving, modifying, and advancing the mode of plastic expression, the technique, in order to express more truthfully and adequately what the artist desired to realise. It is soon found (in the history of every art) that certain materials ex- press more adequately than others the subject-matter and the feelings of the artist. Each new material requires, and consequently finds or evolves, a new technical treatment, new drawing, new design, and new modelling. In ancient Greece wood, clay, bronze, marble (tinted or untinted), above all gold and ivory, will be found to have had this effect. This I shall illustrate to you. There is thus, on the one hand, a natural advancement of technique in the course of time, the successive artists and generations of artists profiting by the labour and the skill of their predecessors in the manipulation of their tools and the elaboration of the material with greater facility and skill, and again modifying their technique by the acquisition or adoption of new materials and new tools. But, on the other hand, we have also to and Modern Art 3 count with a tendency to stereotype and retard this natural progress. There is a natural tendency on the part of the artists and the public (whose taste the artists influence and direct) to stereotype the technique, which gradually becomes fixed as a con- vention, until it may become removed, and even divorced, from nature. There then follows a revolt against the tyranny of the established powers and the ruling techniques, and there comes a period of revolution in which new needs are advanced and new experiments made in every direction. The new ana the old clash and struggle, and it is a question which will survive. This is a most natural process and one that constantly repeats itself in history. Let me illustrate what I have just been main- taining by definite instances from extant remains of Greek sculpture. There can be no doubt that in the earliest period of Greek sculpture wood was the dominant material for statues in the round, which they called Xoana. Now let me show you in a series of early Greek statues this process of change in technique, as affected by change in material, and illustrate this process especially in the rendering of texture in hair. The instances I shall give will manifestly show the influence upon the technique of the dif- ferent materials and tools used for wood-carving, modelling in clay and metal work. The three statues here shown are the Artemis from Delos (Plate I), the Hera from Samos (PL II), and the Apollo of Tenea (PL 1 1 1). Though of early I 2 4 Greek Sculpture dates themselves, they are transcriptions into stone of originals far older, which were evidently in wood. It will readily be seen how the Artemis from Delos, ending in the lower part in an oblong, with the feet shown in the front, reminds one, especially in the lower part, of a simple board. It is the /3/>eras or aavCs board shape, which we learn existed in the earlier idols, and thus maintains itself even in the early renderings of such figures in stone. The Samian Hera, on the other hand, is composed exactly within the compass of a round tree-stem, reminding us almost of some of the early wooden Nlirenberg toys rudely carved out of wood, though, in compari- son with the Delian Artemis, it shows considerable advance in the modelling of the female figure and greater roundness of form. It will be seen how the indication of texture in the folding of the thicker upper and the thinner under-garment is attained by the cutting of parallel grooves in the manner of wood- carving. The statue of the nude youth, called the Apollo of Tenea, though showing a marked advance in the art of modelling, is still reminiscent of the early wood technique. The general composition still reminds us of the circumscribed space of a tree-stem, which primarily necessitated the close position of the hands to either thigh, as well as the square blocking-out of the thighs behind, like the chopping of wood. But, for our purpose in the short time before us, it is perhaps most instructive to consider only one special feature in the art of modelling, namely, and Modern Art 5 the hair. If you take, as regards this treatment of hair, merely the long curls that hang down from the back of the head over the shoulders and breast in two of these female figures (Pis. IV and V), you will see how the rough texture of the hair is here in- dicated by means of a dog-tooth pattern, a zig-zag notching of long strips of material, corresponding to the rudimentary process of cutting wood with a knife, although the statues are later reproductions of the type in stone in which the technique of the earlier wood-carving survived. The same applies markedly to the mass of hair on the back of one of these figures (PI. VI). Now, when these curls pre- sent a succession of round balls, as in the long curls of the Apollo carrying a young bull (PL VII), the technique corresponds more to that of working in clay, in which successive pinches of the soft clay produce these balls. On the other hand, when these curls represent a continuously twisted spiral, you have in the marble copy (PL VIII) a reproduc- tion of the peculiar early bronze technique. For in the earlier bronze sculpture curls or ringlets are pro- duced by actually inserting bronze wire, which is twisted in spiral fashion, as will be seen from the bronze head from Herculaneum (PL IX) which is a good instance of ripe Archaism in which these twisted wire curls are actually inserted above the forehead and below the braid. The snail-like series of ringlets surmounting the forehead of many heads in marble belonging to the Archaic period are really marble copies of this peculiar early bronze technique. 6 Greek Sculpture One of the most authentic instances of this is the head from the nude figure of the Aeginetan temple (PI. X). All the statues from the pediment of this temple are of marble ; but the Aeginetan school of sculpture of that period was especially famed for its bronze work, and these marble statues show very clearly the predominance of the peculiar bronze style of that school and period. A most important landmark in the development of bronze style during^ the period of transition from Archaic sculpture to perfect freedom and naturalism in the great art of the 5th century B.C. is furnished by the famous Charioteer of Delphi (PI. XI), a work that can be accurately dated about the year 470 B.C. It will here be seen how the hair follows the outline of the scalp and skull in one smooth and compara- tively thin layer, distinctly maintaining the shape of the bony structure beneath the hair. The locks of hair themselves are thus indicated, not so much by pronounced modelling in the strong rise and fall of these locks, but rather by the surface work in metal corresponding to engraving resembling rather a metal-worker's chiselling than the actual work of the modeller in wax or clay. Higher relief and greater freedom are shown by the sculptor in dealing with the locks of hair round the ear and in the delicate indication of the nascent whiskers in front of the ears. Here he has displayed much greater free- dom and naturalism, as we should expect from an artist standing on the very threshold of a period of complete freedom. The bronze copy of the head of and Modern Art j the Doryphoros of Polycleitos from Herculaneum (PL XII) in the Museum at Naples (which belongs to the great period about the middle of the 5th century B.C.) shows this same bronze treatment which is flatly incised or closely massed following the shape of the head ; but in the head of the Diadumenos (PL XIII) by the same sculptor, where the band which the athlete is tying round his head becomes so im- portant a part in the meaning of the whole figure, there naturally followed a bulging out of the locks above and below the band. Thus the sculptor was led to advance beyond the flat incised treatment of locks of the Doryphoros and to model in strong relief with greater variety and sinuosity each lock as it projects and intersects the neighbouring curl. In the same way the head of the so-called Lemnian Athene (PL XIV), which has been attributed to Pheidias, and if not by him belongs to one of the prominent artists about the middle of the 5th cen- tury B.C., shows a similar advance and refinement in the rippling elaboration of the strands and locks of hair which, however, are still restrained from the bolder and deeper incision of modelling of later periods by the traditions of the earlier bronze tech- nique. A further step is made in the bronze bust in the Louvre Museum (PL XV) (supposed to have been found at Benevento) which has been ascribed to the second half of the 5th century B.C., in which greater variety and depth of modelling are introduced into the treatment of the hair. In the next century, owing especially to the great advance made in the 8 Greek Sculpture indication of texture in the sister art of painting and more especially in marble technique, the bronze treatment of hair still further emancipates itself. But at first it remains more conservative than the treatment given in marble, and the indication of small ringlets with a crisp rise in each separate lock is maintained, especially in the head of athletic figures, as we find it, for instance, in the beautiful bronze from Cerigo (PL XVI). It was owing chiefly to the vigorous naturalism of the greatest sculptor in bronze of that age (perhaps of the whole of Greek art) Lysippos that the treatment of hair in bronze makes the greatest advance in freedom and in boldness of modelling ; and we thus find that in the head from Herculaneum (PL XVII) in the Museum at Naples (which probably belongs to a period suc- ceeding Lysippos, though the type of head belongs rather to the period immediately preceding him), the locks which we notecl in the Cerigo head are each one of them modelled with a height and variety of relief which favours the sinuosity of the metallic treatment in bronze. This combination of natural- ism, if not realism, with the accentuation of the dis- tinctive qualities of the metallic material in bronze, is well illustrated in the head of the Olympian Boxer (PL XVIII), where, both in the hair and in the beard, the single locks intertwine and cross each other and each single lock is actually modelled and cast in strong relief. The sculptor revels still more in this achievement of his art, in the delight of displaying a sinuosity of line and form which the and Modern Art g material itself suggests, in the period succeeding the 4th century B.C., when, as in the Centaurs (PI. XIX) of black marble (basalte nero\ which endeavour in stone to imitate as closely as possible a bronze statue, his modelling of the hair and his indication of the sinuous quality of bronze reach their highest point. I may say, by the way, that no people have realised so thoroughly this artistic quality of bronze and all metal work as did the Chinese and Japanese in their masterly casting of the most delicate spirals and curves of their best bronzes. The last phase in the development of the bronze technique in Classical Art and the styles to which it led in the later Hellenistic periods in the schools of Asia Minor, had its influence on the marble work of that period. We saw before that, even in the Archaic period, the bronze-worker influenced the treatment of the marble sculptor in dealing with hair. If now we turn to marble sculpture we shall find a similar development, as regards the innovations introduced, as art advances ; and these are directly produced or modified by the material used and its manipulation. But it is well for us to remember in dealing with Greek sculpture that, even in the earlier periods and still more in the flourishing period of marble sculpture during the 4th century B.C., poly- chromy and tinting were freely applied to marble and stone sculpture. In the pedimental figures from the temple of Zeus at Olympia we see a period of uncertainty as regards the evolution of a tectonic style appropriate to the material used. This may be io Greek Sculpture seen in all the modelling, and especially in the hair. The hair is indicated by conventional grooving or by equally conventional modelling of curves and ringlets (Pis. XX and XXI); but it is quite manifest that the sculptor or sculptors relied to a considerable extent on the intervention of, or assistance to be derived from, colour. Thus in the head of one of the river- gods (PL XXII) the hair as we now see it is repre- sented by a smooth cap-like covering ; but un- doubtedly its texture was indicated throughout by means of colour which has entirely disappeared. The head of one of the Lapith women from the Western Pediment (PL XXII) is covered by a cap- like arrangement of bands which were no doubt pro- fusely ornamented with colour. The mass of hair jutting forth below the' band around the forehead and the side of the head is now only indicated by a projection with a roughened surface. There can be no doubt that this roughened surface served as a ground for the colour which was applied. The extant heads from the Parthenon Frieze(Pls. XXIII, XXIV and XXV) show a variety of actual modelling in strands and locks in which the sculptor worked with free chisel and mallet. But we must always remember, in dealing with these works, not only that they served as architectural ornaments and were, therefore, not so carefully and highly finished, and that colour was to some degree added ; but, especially, that they were meant to be seen at a considerable distance at which these details could only act as masses. In the earlier Metopes from the Parthenon (PL XXVI) and Modern Art n we find a variety of treatment in the heads of Cen- taurs and Lapiths corresponding to what has just been said about the sculptures from Olympia. It is especially in the 4th century, however, notably through Scopas and Praxiteles, that marble as a material for the highest form of sculpture really comes in, and that its inherent artistic quality is recognised and developed. The ancient authors directly tell us that these two artists did thus raise marble to the height to rank with the noblest materials for artistic purposes. The Aphrodite head from the south slope of the Acropolis (PI. XXVII) maybe attributed to Scopas. It will readily be perceived how, in the treatment of the eye especially in the softer treatment of the parts surrounding the eyeball, and in the softer modelling of the whole face the actual quality of the marble, its peculiar power of absorbing and re- flecting light, thus accentuating the softness of texture in the human skin, are here felt by the sculptor and directly utilised to produce his -artistic effect. Especially is this the case with the hair, where a certain superficial vagueness and roughness of texture (in contradistinction to the sharp marking and engraving of the bronze treatment) are intro- duced to absorb the light and, by contrast to the smoother modelling of the face itself, bring out the true quality of marble as they accentuate the differ- ences of texture in the parts of the human head. But it must again be remembered that in the time of Scopas, especially by Praxiteles, colour was called in 12 Greek Sculpture to assist the sculptor in this indication of texture by means of tinting and even by some form of encaustic painting or enamelling. Thus in the head of the Cnidian Aphrodite (PI. XXVIII), which unfortu- nately we only have in an inferior copy of the Roman period, there can be no doubt that the hair was tinted and colour was even added to the other parts of the face. There are two other copies of the head of the Cnidian Aphrodite among many inferior ones which come nearer to the famous original in artistic quality than does the head of the Vatican statue. The one was found at Martres Tolosane in France, the other to my mind the best of all is the so-called Kaufmann head at Berlin (PL XXIX). The famous Hermes of Praxiteles at Olympia (PL XXX) definitely preserves traces of colour and of gilding of the sandals. But being an original work by that great artist though far from one of his famous works it more adequately re- presents his marble technique. The softness and delicacy in the modelling of the features, especially in the deep-sunk eyes, present a strong contrast to the rough blocking-out of the hair, which on its part again presents a most marked contrast to the treat- ment of the locks of the hair in bronze sculptures in the instances we have examined above. This bold blocking-out with rough surfaces was so new a feature to archaeologists when the statue was dis- covered, that they at first thought the work was an unfinished one. But it merely illustrates the main thesis I am now supporting, that the Greeks boldly and Modern Art \^ introduced innovations in technique corresponding to the nature of the materials they used. Compared with the treatment of hair in the Archaic period, this work shows the introduction of innovation as bold as is, in some respects, the work of M. Rodin by contrast with that of his predecessors and some of his contemporaries. But Praxiteles adapted his technique to his subjects and did not establish a convention of giving to all the hair he dealt with this unfinished appearance. In the case of his Aphrodite, the general arrangement of the hair differs essentially from that of the Hermes. In the famous Eros of Centocelli (PI. XXXI), which is a poor and late copy, I see an underlying original of Praxitelean type. It will be seen how the hair is worked in a mechanical manner by the late copyist with mechanically drilled grooves manifesting hasty and mechanical workmanship. But the general scheme of the hair shows Praxitelean innovation, and no doubt the roughnesses of the surface in the original produced the wonderful refractory effect in the marble. The sons and successors of Praxiteles, as we know from ancient authors, carried this innovation of texture by the surface treatment of the marble still further than did the artists of the Praxitelean and Scopasian periods. We must never forget that Lysippos intervened between them, and that in his bronze works .the sculptor carried the actual refine- ments of modelling^ without the aid of colour to a higher pitch v A transition from the Praxitelean 14 Greek Sculpture style in the indication of texture in bringing out the intrinsic quality of the material and in indicating the softness of the human skin is furnished by a head in Dresden (PL XXXII), which to me still seems Praxitelean, but which leads over to the schools immediately succeeding Praxiteles. These are repre- sented by the well-known head of Aphrodite at Petworth (PL XXXIII), and still more perfectly by the beautiful head from Chios in the Boston Museum (PL XXXIV). It has been suggested by Mr Marshall, supported by M. Rodin, that this head belongs to the period of Praxiteles ; but I venture to hold, and believe that I can prove, that from the greater in- dividuality given to the type, the still softer model- ling of features and skin, and the further accentuation of the qualities of marble, it belongs to the next stage, in that school identified with the sons and successors of Praxiteles. A still further step in this direction is marked by the Aphrodite head (PL XXXV) formerly in private possession at Athens and now in the Museum at Boston. In the Pergamene and Rhodian periods which follow, boldness, if not sensationalism, of technique is carried still further, and the vigorous modelling in bronze, as introduced by Lysippos, is blended with supreme virtuosity in the indication of texture in marble. This is best illustrated by the heads of giants from the Pergamenean Frieze (Pis. XXXVI and X XX VI I) and the head of Laokoon (PL XXX VII I). The high-water mark in this rendering of texture in marble sculpture seems to me to be attained by a and Modern Art 15 head, as yet but little noted, in the Louvre Museum (PL XXXIX), which shows the individualism in the modelling of each feature eyes, cheek, mouth and neck contrasted with the rougher texture of the hair, which well illustrates the development of Greek sculpture in technique. If now, with an abrupt stride, we turn to modern times, it will be most instructive to examine a few of the works of M. Rodin. I have singled him out among all contemporary sculptors, not only because of his great achievement and emi- nence, but because he has himself directly, or in- directly, undertaken to express by word and criticism the theories on which his art is based (or he supposes it to be based) from many of which I venture to differ. What is most important, however, is that his work does mark a new departure in the applica- tion of the sculptor's technique, especially in this indication of texture. Great artists of the past, especially Michelangelo, already ventured to vary the scale of finish in their work in order thereby to create different values in the co-ordination of parts, to express an artistic idea and to widen the range of possible emphasis. In the Tomb of the Medici (Pis. XL and XLI) Michelangelo no doubt designedly left some parts unfinished in order to accentuate all the more strongly those that were completed in modelling. M. Rodin carries this still further in that, by this relative contrast, with various gradations from the elaborately model- led to the rough block of material, he could also 1 6 Greek Sculpture bring out the artistic quality of the material he juses, whether marble or bronze. Take his portrait of Octave Mirbeau (PI. XLII) and you will realise how in the highly finished and delicate modelling of the whole face the eyebrow, the upper and lower eyelid with the intervening orb, the peculiar quality of the flesh on the cheek of the man no longer in the height of youth, contrasted with the almost metallic accuracy in the modelling of the ear ; the lines and curves of the nose and chin, contrasted again with the rudely blocked-out moustache [I might be permitted to question whether a slightly greater elaboration of the moustache would not have helped to convey its form and texture, while harmonising in tone with the general scale of finish of the rest of the head] and again, in the wonderful indication of the structure of the skull and the gentle nodosities of the bald skin covering it, with the delicately modelled thin hair on the side of the head there is manifested the greatest mastery in the art of model- ling and especially in the indication of texture through the qualities of the marble material. But these qualities are still further emphasised by the mass of drapery placed round the greater portion of the head in bold folds, which powerfully suggests its own texture and which is again varied in the degree of finish in the upper portions, as contrasted with the lower portions, until, round the neck and at the back of the head, the marble is left in its crude and un- finished state. There is thus created a wide scale of values in light and shade, approaching to the very and Modern Art ^ indication of colour, which can hardly be separated from form and chiaroscuro. But the drapery and the unhewn marble surrounding the head itself help to accentuate all the refinements of modelling in the in- dication of texture in the head itself. By their com- parative want of elaboration they, moreover, force the eye to concentrate on what in fact in real life and in art was to the sculptor the one important element of his artistic effort, namely, the portrait itself, the man's head. Negatively put, the attention of the spec- tator is thus not deflected to any other less essential details ; and positively it increases I was almost going to say idealises the presentation of individual character in the portrait of a human head. The same boldness of modelling is to be noted in his portrait of the great painter, Puvis de Chavannes (PI. XLIII), where the breadth and boldness of modelling lead the sculptor to avoid some of the re- finements in the previous head, in order to accentuate the sterner and more serious nature of the character of the man whom he is presenting. A still bolder step is made in the elimination of minor details in his monument of Balzac (PI. XLIV). This is an outdoor monument and is thus meant to be seen from a distance. I regret to say that I have never seen the original and have, therefore, not the right to pass a final judgment. But I venture to doubt whether the same effect of vigour could not have been produced by a slight degree of more detailed drawing and higher finish. That Rodin is able to produce this highest finish when he thinks it w. 1 8 Greek Sculpture appropriate can be realised in contrast by his Tte de femme (PL XLV) in the Luxembourg, in which, in order to render the peculiarly charming and typical qualities of French finesse, he models face, neck and hair with consummate finish. I cannot leave the work of this great sculptor without pointing to a few of his ideal statues. His famous large work called Le Baiser (PL XLVI) is one of the great masterpieces of the age. The depth and purity of meaning in this group of the strong man and the strong and yielding beautiful woman are here again powerfully expressed by the supreme and legitimate means of the sculptor's art, in the general com- position, in the movement and rhythm of the figures, in every aspect and in every part of the body, from whatever side the group is viewed. But though it is called Le Baiser the eye of the spectator is not meant to dwell upon the heads and still less the lips. They are left comparatively unfinished and thus the work does not illustrate a casual embrace, but becomes almost cosmical in its significance. The same largeness of meaning and of treatment applies to his two masterpieces, the two renderings of Le Penseur (here given in two renderings, Pis. X L V 1 1 and X L V 1 1 1 ). The powerful unintellectual working man, whose vigorous development of bodily strength has been devoted to labour, is seen in one moment of concentrated rest, when the muscles (though in repose) are still in active tension. He stops to think and rest his chin on his powerful hand, he seems to ponder over his own strength, his and Modern Art i^ own claims, his potential power and his present weakness in human society. These two statues remain among the greatest works of sculpture of modern times. The same applies to his nude figure to which he gives the title of The Iron Age (PL XLIX). The arrested and complex, though har- monious, movement of the figure rising to its erect position, as if the consciousness of strength were just born in it, is a most perfect rendering in every respect of movement in sculpture. The sense of form and beauty is carried out in the whole and in every detail and satisfies the spectator by the har- mony between life and its meaning and beauty of form. Let me finally, among the few works of the great sculptor that I have singled out, draw at- tention to his marble statue of the Danaide in the Luxembourg Museum (PL L), in which the gradation between the supremely finished treatment of the nude in the modelling is accentuated by the comparative absence of finish in the treatment of the hair, which merges into the suggestive indication of waves, roughly blocked out, but thoroughly sug- gestive of the swish and movement of water. It is in this work that the actual quality of the marble itself is again brought out through the art of model- ling and becomes an element of aesthetic delight ; as in similar compositions in bronze he has used that material to produce aesthetic pleasure in bring- ing out its intrinsic metallic qualities by means of his modelling. In this rapid survey of sculpture, past and 2 2 2O Greek Sciilpture present, I have endeavoured to indicate how in- novations of artistic technique constantly introduced have tended to supersede the older established techniques, and I especially desire to remind you that such a struggle between old and new, the pre- sent traditions and the aspirations of the future, is nothing new. But I must now remind you, in limitation of my remarks about the technical innova- tions of M. Rodin, which we have seen are artistically justified, that there is danger lest such peculiarities of technique as, for instance, the occasional rough- ness of the marble left in almost its natural unhewn condition should become themselves a convention to be followed, a trick of craft arrogating to itself the quality of a "style." Young disciples and even apprentices make a positive quality of this negative neglect of work, leaving their compositions un- finished and rough ; and then the public, who merely take a superficial view of things, associate these eccentricities with the well-known work of a great master and actually demand what is only the absence of finished work. Such practice on the part of novices reminds me of the quaint remark of a shrewd Quaker who, while listening to the exaggerated rhetorical display of a young lawyer at the Philadelphia Bar, said to his neighbour, " How very much our young friend reminds him- self of Daniel Webster." Every artist would do well to remember the dictum reported of the great Greek sculptor Polycleitos the real difficulty of the sculptor's work only begins when the clay and Modern Art 21 adheres to the finger-nails. You must be able to reach the high state of finish in the honest tech- nique of drawing and modelling before you can allow yourselves the occasional divergences in vary- ing this degree of finish in order to produce definite and individual effects. There is one further point I should like to impress upon you that, justifiable as all these developments of technique are in their approach to the rendering of texture in various objects of nature, we must not forget, that art may thus suggest, but must not imitate. If Rodin, in his marble group of the Danaide, produces so striking an effect of contrast in the modelling of the nude female figure and the composition of its lines with the system of lines running in horizontal curves along the pedestal on which the figure itself is posed, he not only emphasises the quality of texture in the nude Danaide, but he also sug- gests to the eye of the spectator, in accordance with his subject, the swish of water over which the figure is bending. Yet this water and its swirl are only suggested and are not imitated. We never forget, and we are never meant to forget, that it is modelled marble and not flowing water ; and in thus bringing out the quality of the marble itself, the play of light and shade, the various refractions and absorptions of light which, owing to his model- ling and to the wavy treatment of the marble, he presents to the eye, he has produced in itself a source of artistic pleasure which is essential to the sculptor's art, belongs to him and to no other artist, 22 Greek Sculpture which he alone can do and certainly can do best in presenting his subject of the Danaide as a sculptor not as a painter, a poet or a musician. The poet and the musician, and even the painter and draughts- man, would treat the subject in quite a different way to produce their own artistic effects. None of them should ever attempt actually to imitate water. If they were foolish enough to do so, they would (as I shall have occasion to repeat to you from another point of view later) challenge a comparison between nature herself and art, much to the detriment of art. The consideration of this one point brings me to the last question of technique with which I mean to deal to-day, the question : " Where is the limit to this naturalism of technique ? " My answer is : The limit after all must be sought for, and will be found, in the nature of the material itself. As we have just recognised that M. Rodin has manifested a high artistic quality in his sculpture by bringing out to the full the nature of the marble and, in other cases, the nature of the bronze, or whatever material he may have used in his works, so the whole history of sculpture shows that the limit to the attempt at producing natural illusion by means of technique is to be found in the essential nature of the material which the artist uses. The sculptor after all uses stone, metal, and other similar materials ; he does not reproduce the actual living flesh, and bone, and muscle, and skin ; nor water, nor trees ; nor can it be his object ever to deceive the spectator into believing that he is viewing the actual objects of and Modern Art 23 nature when he contemplates the work of sculpture. Though in the treatment of your material, in your composition, and in your modelling you may use every means, however new they may be, however unaccustomed the public may be to such artistic treatment, if they honestly tend to express the artistic forms you wish to put into your work ; yet you can only afford to do this after you have genuinely learnt modelling as such, as the ancient Greeks practised it and have carried it to the highest point of finish in their work. You may be still further encouraged in your attempt to adopt new methods of manipulation when you recognise that even the ancient Greeks were not as limited in their material and in their technique as we are. They used wood, stone, clay, wax, bronze. But one of the most important vehicles of plastic art in the greatest periods was what they called chryselephan- tine sculpture. These huge structures, representing colossal statues and compositions, with the core of wood and other materials, were overlaid with model- led sheets of gold and delicately adjusted ivory to which were added enamels, covering and accentua- ting the raised designs and ornamentations and contributing the beauty and harmony of colour to design and modelling. Their marble statues, more- over, were tinted and coloured, and they never hesitated to call in the aid of another process or any addition of materials which would contribute to the legitimate artistic effect which their work was to produce. But this boldness and fearlessness in 24 Greek Sculpture enlarging technical possibilities were always regu- lated in the sculptors by the most complete power of composition and modelling in its normal and central form, by the rise and fall of light and shade which the treatment of the surface of their material pro- duced, giving the correct drawing in line and in mass of the subject they wished to convey to the spectator, and thus telling the whole story by means of composition and modelling completely and convincingly. This modelling, moreover, was in conformity with the essential spirit of sculpture as a monumental art ; the statue fixing and fascinating the eye of the spectator upon itself and in itself, where the artistic harmony was to be found irrespec- tive of surroundings or accidental conditions. When you are able to produce such a work by these essential means of the sculptor's craft, then you may adapt your work to further pictorial or decorative effects, and you may consider surroundings and modify your technique in accordance with it. You may be bold when you are masters of your craft, and courage will be a virtue ; but be sure that you have mastered your craft. You may find that the earliest childish attempts of a great master, his hasty sketch in a few lines, are valued by a subsequent genera- tion, treasured and studied, because he was the great master who presented the world with his completed works. But do not think that you as students or apprentices may directly aim at pro- ducing works corresponding to these childish en- deavours or mere sketches, when you have not and Modern Art 25 proved your power in finished work. So too a definite or peculiar subject or situation may call for, and justify, a new and peculiar technical treatment and innovation. This may be right ; but beware lest you make an exclusive habit or a general method of such an exceptional treatment. In the Parthenon Frieze, which, as you may know, rises to 2\ inches from the background and frequently presents two or three layers of figures, riders and horsemen one above another (PI. LI) on this shallow rise from the background, and was moreover seen under peculiar conditions of light by the spectator standing 39 feet below the Frieze, in this Parthenon Frieze, I say, you may find, for instance, that in the bellies of the horses and other portions the outline is enforced by a groove running parallel with it and that the outline runs straight at right angles to the background of the relief. This peculiar treatment was adopted by Pheidias in order clearly to define the complicated outline-drawing of the figures in the Frieze under the peculiar conditions of lighting. It has accentuated this outline, made it clear. Some of his immediate followers or contemporaries, minor artists or satellites, reproduced these peculiarities of technique, justified by the peculiar conditions of the work, in works in which these peculiar conditions : """""^ "*. _. ..-. ,,,._. _. did not prevail. So, for instance, in some of the sepulchral reliefs (PL LI I), which were meant to be seen on the eyeline, the edge of the relief runs at right angles straight to the background and thus produces a disturbing and ugly surface when seen f 26 Greek Sculpture on the eyeline. This is an instance of the intro- duction of what might have been called an inno- vation, and of the slavish reproduction of tricks of technique evolved by a great master with a de- finite purpose but not meant to become a normal part of the sculptor's technique. But let us turn to modern times, our own im- mediate days. I have, for instance, seen the intro- duction of a dark brownish line surrounding the contour of face and figure, or of objects in landscapes, to heighten the relief and to assist in the indication of aerial perspective. This may sometimes be justi- fiable and add 'a desired effect. But to see, as I have recently seen, a whole technique as it were made of this one peculiar experiment, and to see nearly all faces and all outlines of clouds cumbered and coarsened by the introduction of such a dark edging, is an aberration of pictorial technique and only shows the vicious exaggeration of a tendency which may have sprung from qualities that point to a virtue, I mean courage and the desire for originality in this extension of technical possibilities. Thus the reformers who revolt against what is established and scorn the idea of following slavishly in the footsteps of their predecessors really fall into the same vice in a more acute and exaggerated form. They follow slavishly, not the established rules nor the achievements of the great masters, but the momentary peculiarities or eccentricities of one con- temporary master. The technique established gene- rally for real drawing or modelling is then forsaken. and Modern Art 27 The roughnesses in Rodin's work without his finish are to be met with in every exhibition. In their revolt against classicism artists slavishly follow a new method that has not been tried by ages, simply because it is new and not established. I would beg you to remember an important distinction ; the distinction between fashion and tradition. While recognising that the attempt to widen the possi- bilities of artistic technique in new and untried directions is justifiable and even desirable, you must remember that each innovation jnust win recognition. Like the processes in nature, those of history, of man's work and achievement, point to the survival of the fittest. Each innovation must prove that it is the fittest for the purposes for which it is introduced. If it is not, it may become a fashion, but soon dies away. If it is, it establishes what we may call an artistic and technical tradition. You may endeavour to produce a fashion in art which may ultimately become a tradition ; but you must not follow a fashion, though you may and ought to follow a tradition while you are learning. 28 Greek Sculpture II. THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF ART. I have limited my remarks hitherto to the first part of the subject with which we are dealing, namely, the sculptor's technique. We now come to the second part, the subject-matter, the conception of the artist, the spirit in which he approaches nature and chooses his subject. Here again we are in a great crisis. There is strife everywhere, both within the public and among the mass of artists, between the new and the old, between the adopted and prevalent conception of art and its domain and a revolt against these conceptions on the part of a group of artists, many of them, I may say most of them, sincere and ardent enthusiasts in the cause of art. They revolt against the restrictions in the choice of their subject, as well as in its presentation. They wish to widen out the domain of art to com- prise the whole of nature and of life. If this domain of artistic subject and of its treatment has been fixed by convention, then the revolt against such a con- vention is normal and natural and is a sign of vitality and sincerity. And the process of such a struggle is the normal process in the evolution of all human effort and achievement. As an old Greek philosopher said: " Strife is the essence of life"; and such strife may mean advance when it leads to positive results. But let me add that, when it merely means the opposition to what has been painfully evolved by logical, reasonable effort on the part of and Modern Art 29 previous ages, and the destruction of this highest result of human effort in the past, it means retro- gression from civilisation to savagery, from cosmos to chaos. In the history of art this process of struggle has been a normal process in all times. The history of Greek art is the history of a succession of such struggles towards expansion and intensification and purification ; and, taking Greek art as a whole, we have had throughout the ages a succession of revolts against its dominance, when its laws and standards have been so far fixed and stereotyped as to have destroyed its essential spirit into what is called Classicism, which is a wholly different thing from true Hellenism. The history of Greek art and thought, as we shall see, belies all the tenets of the stereotyped classicist. Nevertheless its essential principles and its main achievement, as I hope to convince you in these two lectures, though lost sight of in the heat of the battle, always re-assert them- selves and ultimately hold their sway over the artistic world as they always will. We can thus distinguish in the history of Greek art such periods of struggle ending in the victory and re-instatement of its essential spirit. This pro- cess we might call renaissance. We can distinguish in all periods and climes such re-births of the es- sential spirit of Greek art. When the realists and sensationalists in the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C. in ancient Greece ran riot in the domain of sculpture, there was such a renaissance in the classical world 30 Greek Sculpture even before the Christian era. You all know the Italian Renaissance, from which event I have bor- rowed this word. Remember that the cry of the Renaissance was : "back to nature," which to them always meant back to beauty. This Renaissance was carried on to France and spread over the whole of Europe. It passed through, we might say, de- generated into, the dominant barocco of the period of Louis XIV and the chinoiserie of Louis XV, until again it led to the revival under Louis XVI and was fixed and made academic and lifeless among the Davidian classicists, against whom again arose the romantic movement in the early iQth century. In England the Jacobean Renaissance, with ad- mixtures from the art of France, from Holland, and from China, led through Queen Anne's reign to the efflorescence of the period in which the brothers Adam set a key-note of decorative principles and the great i8th century painters imbibed much of the sense of classical beauty. In sculpture the good work of Canova and Thorwaldsen lost its spirit in the contemplation of late Greek or Roman types of art and imposed the narrow tyranny of classicism, until true Hellenism was brought before the eyes of the world with the Elgin marbles and the later discoveries of other purely Greek works in more modern times, including those interesting specimens of Archaic sculpture which illustrated the vital pro- cesses of the art of the Greeks, until we come to our own days when the strife is . raging anew. But the victory of the principles embodied in the and Modern Art 3! Renaissance, of Greek naturalistic idealism, is con- stantly manifested before our eyes. Let me just point to one significant instance that the students could have witnessed in a definite locality. In the United States about 40 years ago there began a revolt against the sham of Victorian classicism in architecture. Great vitality, if not genius, was shown in the revival there headed by Richardson ; but it soon degenerated (owing to its mere opposi- tion to the main principles of harmony and line and form as established by the Greeks) to an eccentric restless anarchistic form of architecture, in which the picturesque was wantonly introduced in defiance of essential architectural principles, and the result was again the return to pure Hellenic principles. Each one of these periods when you study them thoroughly and dispassionately, as true historians and critics of art (who, by the way, have their function and right of existence as well as the pro- ducing artists, though essentially differing from them), shows evidence of a vital process and develop- ment, of adaptation of new needs in the history of man and of human society. But let me add, that each confirms certain broad and essential principles of art which must be adhered to. I may say that these principles were first laid down by the Greeks and are illustrated in their works. The drawing-up in battle array of the opposing forces in the struggle of art in every domain is not exceptional, but is the normal process in all times of artistic vitality. Look at the opposing movements when the French drama 32 Greek Sculpture of the 1 7th and i8th centuries was tied down to the formalism (let us say classicism) of the gods appearing with wigs and red heels. Remember the powerful attack which Lessing made upon this restriction of subject and treatment, and how the whole sphere of actual life was widened out by such writers as Richardson. Remember how in more recent times Balzac and Flaubert and their followers wrote long prefaces to justify the principles on which they produced their art. Remember the strife be- tween the English poets and the Scotch reviewers, between the upholders of Lamartine's lyrics and those who realised the power and courageous vitality of Victor Hugo. Many of you will recall the in- sistence with which .the admirers of Tennyson's finished lyrical form opposed the rugged vitality with which Browning deals with life and thought. Turn to music and remember that almost the same words that were used by the opponents of Wagner against his conception of harmony and orchestration were before hurled at Beethoven and are now used (I do not say rightly or wrongly) against Strauss, De Bussy and other living composers. I am saying all this merely to show you that such strife and struggle is not exceptional to our own days, but clearly marks the usual process of artistic develop- ment. The desire to expand, to extend and to intensify the practice of art, as regards its technique and as regards its choice of subjects, is natural and is right. But the protagonist must remember always to retain his sincerity and to keep his eye fixed on and Modern Art 33 the positive goal of extending and intensifying his art and must not be conscious of, or even dwell and insist upon, the fact of its novelty, still less its eccen- tricity. Nor must he be absorbed by the negative impulse of opposing that which has established its right of existence through ages of sincere and de- finite effort ; until, in endeavouring merely to be different from him whom he imagines to stand in his way, he loses sight of the real positive goal towards which he is struggling. He must expect from the nature of things to be unrecognised until his individual effort has at last passed through the stage of a fashion into a justly established tradition. Please remember that in the instances I have just mentioned, the struggle between two great directions and schools of art, the new school won the day, passing through the stage of fashion into that of tradition. But there were hundreds, nay thousands, of individuals and schools who endeavoured to im- pose their innovations upon the body of art of whom you have never heard and whose efforts have flowed by in the course of time like evanescent ripples in a rushing stream. This is especially the case with those movements that are essentially negative, simply opposed to what is or what has been universally re- cognised, without any positive justification of their own, which ought to form the moving power of every effort. What I object to in the work, and still more in the written and spoken theories of many of the innovators of our day, is not their positive achievement when they have really produced 34 Greek Sculpture something that tells a new story ; but their opposi- tion to what they call beauty. Their work becomes often a puerile or, at all events, an exaggerated protest against that which has hitherto been considered worthy of artistic effort. In painting a head (they seem to enjoin) choose the fattest and coarsest peasant face, without a harmonious line of refinement in it, without even what we call decided character as indicating a marked and individual soul, avoid all grace and refinement and distinction, and you can then claim to give nature. Van Dyck, and even Rubens and Rembrandt (they seem to imply), did not present human nature, because they generally rendered superior types of strength and refinement. If you wish to represent a nude female figure, choose a model with the thinnest legs, the most exaggerated hips, the evident signs of want or excess, if not disease, and call her a Venus ; but by all means avoid what, through countless generations and through the actual laws of human vision itself, has been estab- lished to be the normal development of the body and the realisation of the sense of proportion and beauty of line and form. If you wish to present attitudes or movements, avoid all that is really ex- pressive of repose or motion, especially if it also satis- fies the sense of proportion which the normal human eye craves for in lines and forms ; do not choose this attitude of men standing at rest (Pis. LI 1 1 and LI V), as the Greeks have presented it with the convincing suggestion to the eye of the spectator of stability and repose, but twist the one hip round and turn the and Modern Art 35 one toe in and the figure will almost appear bow- legged ! At all events you will have succeeded in avoiding the charge of having satisfied the sense for beauty which the Greeks established, and you can then claim (without a particle of justice to your claim) to have "followed nature," which you main- tain is the only object of the artist. But I tell you that you will be emphatically and absurdly wrong in attributing to nature your own vagaries. For re- member that if nature produces the individual, she also produces the type ; in fact that she is chiefly concerned in producing the type, or the genus and species, in the whole history of her noble struggle. If nature presents to you movement, she does so not only in the individual ! Remember that every individual varies in the manner of carrying out such movement. No two horses, not to speak of men, walk or move rapidly or jump alike. Which are you to copy, if, in accordance with nature whom you profess to worship, you wish by means of your art convincingly to present us with the act of walking or of jumping ? Well I will tell you whom you are to follow : Nature, who has established the type of such movement of walking or jumping from the point of view of the movement itself, and the dis- covery and establishment of these types, is, as I shall endeavour to show you, the achievement of Greek art of which you saw a few specimens a moment ago. There is a certain right way to move, adapted to the organism of man or animal, and used for different purposes of their lives. This is the right way and it 32